A Reference Guide to Medicinal Plants: Herbal Medicine Past and Present [1 ed.] 9780822379690, 9780822308799

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A Reference Guide to Medicinal Plants

A Reference Guide to Medicinal Plants Herbal Medicine Past and Present

John K. Crellin and Jane Philpott

DUKE UNIVERSITY PRESS

Durham and London, 1990

This work is not intended as a field guide or formulary. The information from Bass and from the historical record is to be read in the context of traditional wisdom and practices and is not a recommendation for using herbs in the changed conditions of today's health care. Herbs can be toxic or interfere with other medications. © 1989 Duke University Press Second printing, 1997 All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper I§ This volume was previously published under the title Herbal Medicine Past and Present, Volume 2: A Reference Guide to Medicinal Plants. The companion volume, Trying to Give Ease: Tommie Bass and the Story of Herbal Medicine, was previously published under the title Herbal Medicine Past and Present, Volume 1: Trying to Give Ease.

Contents

Preface (1997) vii Introduction 1

Glossary of Chemical, Pharmacological, and Pharmaceutical Terms 31 Monographs 41 Annotated Bibliography 469 Index 530

Preface

A. 1. Tommie Bass died in August 1996, about eight years after the original manuscript of this volume was completed. Since that first publication date, there has been a heightened interest in herbal medicine and a corresponding diversity of approaches. This diversity, along with limited legislative controls, has allowed questionable practices to emerge; some, in fact, appear to be downright fraudulent. There is, we believe, a greater need now than in 1988 to investigate many of the current recommendations. Because society only has limited scientific resources for such studies, we must judiciously use other means to assess herbal medicine. The experience and knowledge of "old-timers," like Mr. Bass, is one. New uses, or those unknown to Bass, are not necessarily invalid; however, if they have no scientific basis, and if they are absent from the historical record (and here we include Bass) or if they have not been generally mainstream in the past when herbs were in everyday use, we must be extracautious before accepting them. With more and more claims being made nowadays suggesting that the use of an herb in times past justifies current usage, a careful examination of the historical record is needed. For instance, textbooks written by critically minded authors who do not slavishly copy from others should be used. We believe that the texts we have employed fit into this category. Additionally, for practic-

ing herbalists in particular, it is not enough to know that a continuity of reputation exists; it is also important to know the nature of the preparation and the dosage recommendation for particular uses, as well as to consider the roles of patients' expectations and placebo responses in the past. The corrections to this printing have concentrated on current knowledge of chemical constituents and related studies. This presented a challenge, if only because of the rapidly expanding database on many herbs, which provides contradictions as well as clarification. A recasting of the text was not possible, and hence small corrections and updates have been undertaken without references. However, information sources can be readily tracked through some recently published reference books and increasingly accessible computerized databases such as Current Contents and MedUne. Key references include N. G. Bisset (ed.), Max Wichtle, Herbal Drugs, and Phytopharmaceuticals (Stuttgart; Medpharm, 1994); A. Y. Leung and S. Foster, Encyclopedia of Natural Ingredients Used in Food, Drugs, and Cosmetics (New York: Wiley, 1995); and C. A. Newall, 1. A. Anderson, and J. D. Phillipson, Herbal Medicines: A Guide for Health-Care Professionals (London: Pharmaceutical Press, 1996). We have also consulted such specialist serial publications as Adverse Effects of Herbal Drugs (vols. 1-3, 1992-96). In addition, more popular, but not necessarily advocacy, books have been used such as V. Tyler, The Honest Herbal (New York: Pharmaceutical Products Press, 1993); and Herbs of Choice (New York: Pharmaceutical Products Press, 1994). John K. Crellin Jane Philpott 1997

Introduction I guess all plants give ease in some way.

T

hiS guide centers on plants known to Appalachian herbalist A. L. Tommie Bass (whose practice is considered fully in volume 1*), but by additionally referring to analogous speciesindigenous, naturalized, domesticated, and sometimes foreign to the United States-it has a broad coverage of herbs known worldwide. Many of these have had a prominent place in Western medicine. Relatively few are restricted to the United States; two hundred or so extend to the flora of Canada and Central and South America, and many more are found in Europe and elsewhere. Two purposes of this guide are to record in detail the knowledge of herbalist Bass and to assess that knowledge in the context of historical usage and scientific, chemical, and pharmacological knowledge. In fact, the principal practical role of the guide arises because a large number of the herbs mentioned are now widely available through mail order and in health food stores, pharmacies, flea markets, and other outlets; further, they are very often recommended merely on the basis of their inclusion in a long list of undocumented uses in advocatory literature.1 The present account gives a sense of consensus usage in the past, evaluated by current knowledge and medical concepts that were once, but are no longer, fashionable. As such, * Volume 1 is Trying to Give Ease: Tommie Bass and the Story of Herbal Medicine, which was previously published under the title Herbal Medicine Past and Present Volume 1: Trying to Give Ease.

the guide provides the potential user of an herb-as well as health care practitioners who may be called upon to give advice-an impartial framework to assess effectiveness and safety. Unlike a number of recent publications, our outright criticisms of an herb's reputation are rare, for while the weight of scientific evidence may suggest ineffectiveness, data are too often incomplete-especially current knowledge of chemical constituents, physiological effects, and ethnobotanical considerations-to allow definitive conclusions. One value of the documented historical approach taken in the monographs is that in many cases it becomes clear which uses, out of a shopping list of suggestions still being published, have been the most popular. The monographs also sometimes provide corrections to the misuse of history found in recent writings, where the reputation of an herb is justified by historical "data" that cannot be validated. When we commenced the project, we hoped that particular clues might emerge for chemical and pharmacological investigations into potential new drugs. However, while some clear suggestions for research topics can be found, the tenor of many accounts merely indicates some justification for usage as mild treatments (which does not suggest the presence of significant pharmacologically active constituents), or a sense that the reputations of some herbs are overstated, or at least beset with mixed messages about efficacy. The monographs collectively provide not only an understanding of herbal medicineits practical and conceptual features-but also insights into the more general story of fashions and fads that are significant parts of therapy. As facets ofthe story of therapyprofessional and domestic-are unfolded, along with many botanical complexities, it becomes clear that treatment has long been an art.

2

Introduction

SCOPE OF THE MONOGRAPHS

Ethnohotany and EthnopharmacoIogy Volumes 1 and 2 reflect studies in ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology that focus on relationships between plants and man, and investigate and evaluate the use of drugs in their cultural settings.' However, there is some debate over what to document about current usage of traditional drugs in order to make a record that will satisfy a range of interests. Many past accounts are of uncertain value because they give long lists of uses for each plant without attempting to indicate whether the data are hearsay, commonplace, or firmly based. This is perhaps unavoidable when information is taken from published reports, but many recent field studies are equallyelusive. 3 It has been suggested that an ideal account, or "monograph," of a medicinal plant should include (1) the plant (common and scientific names, infraspecific variation, habitat, availability of voucher specimen); (2) preparation of the medicine (plant part, collection, storage, preparation); (3) therapy (general and adjunct, disorder treated, kinds of practitioners, dosage regimen, route of administration, response to therapy, status of use); and (4) the patient (medical beliefs, community attitudes) .' The monographs in this guide generally cover, first, Mr. Bass's verbatim information, compiled from many meetings with him; and, second, commentaries focusing, where relevant, on plant taxonomy, past uses and whether Bass's knowledge has historical precedence, occasional comparisons with uses elsewhere and with related plants, and assessments of Bass's know ledge in the light of phytochemistry, pharmacology, and the historical record. Where the monographs do not directly address such points as patients' attitudes and the role of the placebo, relevant information has been summarized in the introductory sections or in volume 1.

Unfortunately, space does not allow comparisons with usages elsewhere, even though it is generally felt that detailed comparisons-induding of dosely related plantsin different locations would reveal activities based on pharmacological actions rather than on cultural factors.' There is much to be said for this view, but careful and detailed attention has to be given to transmission of information and to theoretical ideas which are common to more than one culture. Limited space also allows only occasional references to nonmedical uses. However, we hope enough is said-in the context of Bass's intimate knowledge of nature-'-to emphasize that medicinal uses of plants are commonly just one aspect of a plant's economic value to man, and hence man's attitude to the plant. As seen in various monographs on "medicinal" plants used as foods, Bass appreciates that many plants, particularly vegetables, can serve as both food and medicine. His recollections suggest how he developed sympathy with the view that "while a garden feeds people, it also heals them."'; The close association of foods and medicines merits comment not only because it contributed to Bass's recent enthusiasm for selling some herbs as "foods," but also because it illustrates scientific and cultural forces affecting the ways plants are used, and why some people believe that foods and medicines are inseparable. The opinion that many foods have real therapeutic value (curing as well as preventing disease) was a conspicuous feature of regular medicine until the early twentieth century. Until around 1800, a physician's armamentarium for treatment was always viewed as diet, medicine, and surgery? The reputations of various plants we consider -like chamomile, chicory, five-finger, and plantain-at times rested partly on usage as a medicine or beverage, including as "diet drinks" to accompany medicines. During the nineteenth century, attitudes

Introduction

toward food plants changed, at least among the educated. Developments in chemistry that captured public imagination characterized food in terms of fats, carbohydrates, and proteins. This, with public sanction, tended to move consideration of food more and more into the realm of science: out of materia medica and clinical medicine and into physiological chemistry (especially the topic of digestion). By the early twentieth century, nutrition had become a specialist's area of knowledge outside the mainline interest of physicians." Knowledge of the importance of vitamins in health and disease only partly returned the subject of nutrition and varied diets into the arena of clinical medicine, a return-which has accelerated in recent years-to what people often say is "common sense"; namely, that food and health go together. The story of the common ground between food and medicine embraces theoretical concepts and empirically based knowledge that are often difficult to disentangle. Considerations, for instance, of "aliments," or "nutrients," have long been embodied in health advice and rules for maintaining health. While explanations for the rules sometimes embraced theories that foods alter blood in the same ways that many medicines do, it is often thought that the rules arose from empirical observations undertaken over a long period of time. Deciding on the respective roles of empiricism and theory is not easy; for instance, it is difficult to say whether sensory properties-once considered important in ascertaining therapeutic actions (see volume 1, chapter i)-helped to determine that only the young shoots of poke should be eaten as a vegetable and the root taken as a medicine, or whether this was merely the result of experience with toxic effects. Bass knows, too, that the reputation of a plant as a food can depend on the mode of preparation; he considers that lightly cooked cabbage produces too much stomach acid or flatulence.

3

Although Bass has a hind of information and ideas on the healthfulness of vegetables and fruits-apart from their specific value for certain medical complaints-he has only recently begun to emphasize nutrition to his visitors; earlier, he had assumed that most had a good diet as long as they did not overcook greens. Nowadays, he wishes to share his knowledge-what he calls common sense-because of what he has heard about "junk food" and because he believes that his knowledge contains much Indian lore. He is attracted to Indian concepts that "medicine" or treatment, as a pervasive power, can be mediated in different ways which avoid absolute distinctions between food and medicine. 9 Throughout the monographs, whose main sections we next outline, many other illustrations of man's attitudes toward and relationships with plants can be found. The herbalist's verbatim comments. Most studies on traditional medicine comprise information assembled, often indiscriminately, from diverse informants. A single source like Bass, with his unusually acute memory, is therefore of special interest. In many ways he has garnered and synthesized an entire community's knowledgecertainly that of the "old-timers"-and he has subjected much of that knowledge to the experiences of himself and his visitors. Folks, he says, "often get things wrong." While he has read a weat deal about herbs, he tends to assimilate only the information which is compatible with or reinforces his existing knowledge. When he reads about a new plant or a new use for a plant for the first time, Bass generally "checks" it with his own experience before recommending it widely. Special weight can therefore be given to the credibility of his accounts, in contrast to much of the recent advocatory literature, which often indiscriminately pulls together information from the past, sometimes from the "panacea" phase of a medicinal plant's history. It is, in

4

Introduction

fact, of special interest that many past reputations have not reached him, which suggests that sometimes they may have little validity!O Verbatim accounts (rather than summaries] offer the student of herbal medicine valuable data for various reasons. First, they provide original terminology so that readers do not wonder whether such terms as blood clots, high blood pressure, or hypertension are the words of informants or the interpretations of observers. Second, a context is often given for a particular reputation, such as strong local testimonials. A third reason is that verbatim accounts allow ready comparison of present practices with past reputations, which often raises questions about transmission of knowledge: why some persists and some does not. Yet another reason for our often extensive accounts is to record Mr. Bass's knowledge; it is clear to us that much of it will disappear with him unless it is preserved here. It is true that he has had some "apprentices," but we believe that through them and their use of the health advocacy literature, the character of his herbal knowledge and practicewith its identifiable roots into the past and his own baseline of experience with natureis unlikely to survive. Authors' commentaries. The commentaries include botanical names and selected, commonly used synonyms, historical perspectives on usage, chemical constituents, physiological effects, and comments on Bass's remarks. They are designed not onl y to provide an understanding of Bass's knowledge and perceptions of a plant and why he uses or recommends it, but also to give a reasonably full account of the plant so that the information can have practical value for those using herbs or those in a position to advise on their use and how they may interfere with prescription or over-thecounter medication. The plants. All plants tagged by asterisks

have been collected on numerous field trips with Mr. Bass, Plants were gathered during the growing seasons of four consecutive years from favorite habitats near his home. Some were obtained within short rides into the mountains and valley, mostly within Cherokee County. A few collections were made just over the northwestern county line in Dekalb County. The plants are listed alphabetically according to the best-known or a very well-known vernacular name. This seems preferable to using scientific names for headings, because it readily allows bringing together a "medical" group of plants; those that, as many herbalists say, "all act the same." Although vernacular names commonly apply to more than one species, the custom in many publications on medicinal plants is to use the name in singular form to cover a "group" of plants where close botanical and medical associations exist. On the other hand, when the plants are less closely related (that is, from different genera or possessing different medical reputations], the vernacular name in the plural is employed. The singleplural distinctions are, in some instances, subjective and open to debate, and they raise questions about the development of folk classification of plants, a topic considered in volume 1, where it was noted how Mr. Bass sees "families" of useful herbs. Singular and plural names provide an appreciation of different degrees of analogy at play. When, as in the case of many "brooklimes," habit and habitat are the only common factors, it is not surprising that folk and scientific classifications are often at variance. The innumerable synonyms for many plants not only raise thoughts about folk classification in general but also pose a question: Why do some names become more popular than others? It is often said that plants with many vernacular names have been widely known, but some of the best-known plants (e.g., angelica] have very few popular names.

Introduction

The many cultural facets of the vernacular names listed cannot be explored, although the topic of plant names is of special interest to many people. Much of this interest lies in continuity and change, and for naturalized plants we start with English names used in the Herball of John Gerard, who took particular interest in vernacular names; italics indicate that the names are known to Mr. BassY Additional names listed are those common in modern floras and older medical texts, and others with a medical connotation or known by Mr. Bass. The names given first for indigenous plants are frequently taken from B. S. Barton's Collections toward a Materia Medica (1798), with those known to Bass italicized; others are well known in floras and medical texts, and some are little known but locally popular. One feature of vernacular names is that whereas many are used very loosely by laypeople for a group of plants (e.g., bindweeds), botanists commonly employ them in a more restricted sense. This lack of consistency contributes to difficulties in evaluating past discussions on many plants. A characteristic of most herbal practices is that herbs are gathered locally. There has been a great deal of discussion on differences, both small and large, in traditional practices from one region to another, and unquestionably a relevant factor is simply the availability of plants. The richness of medicinal plants in the Appalachian flora accounts for the description "crude drug capital ofthe world" and the long history of the commercial collection of Appalachian herbs. While Bass knows innumerable plants from the Appalachians, he has collected only about sixty regularly. The others he knows as alternatives or "facsimiles" to be used if the favorite medicines are unavailable. If one medicine does not "work" he is always ready to substitute another. Echoes exist of past attitudes toward the importance of being able to select from a large materia medica." 2

5

Historical perspective. The historical perspective in the commentaries not only documents many antecedents of Bass's knowledge but also indicates the extent of long-term interest in a particular plant. This often suggests reasons for the depth of Bass's knowledge on specific paints. As we discussed earlier, professional medicine has been an important factor in sustaining lay knowledge; time and time again one sees a very close relationship between Bass's knowledge and that recorded in onetime standard medical textbooks. In contrast, much information given in recent herbal literature, despite claims to historical authenticity, has never been widely accepted. In fact, scientists who use the "historical approach" to identify potentially effective medicinal plants sometimes employ the historical record without sufficient discrimination. As the monographs make clear, the medical literature is full of sharp disagreements between one "authority" and another, and many uses were listed at the whim of a particular practitioner or author. By consulting a wide range of sources beyond the specific citations, we have tried to determine consensus opinion where it exists or existed regarding the popularity of the plants within regular and domestic medicine. Aside from printed textbooks, efforts were made to examine medical and popular journals as well as manuscripts such as medical student lecture notes. Many plants employed by Bass are naturalized and commonly have uses extending back to classical times. To save space each account generally begins with information from Gerard's famous Herball. Gerard provided much information from earlier writings on materia medica, such as those by Dioscorides, data from the oral tradition, and fresh observations. The influence of Gerard's tome, widely used as a source for other studies and probably well known in the American colonies, was considerable. It, and the enlarged

6

Introduction

second edition (1633) edited by William Johnson, helped spread Renaissance knowledge about medicinal plants and pointed the way to a more critical approach to drugs. 13 Certainly, much revision of the medical use of plants took place after Gerard's work, particularly during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. In endeavoring to indicate the popularity of a plant in nineteenthcentury America, we have relied on a series of generally critical authors, including B. S. Barton, W. P. C. Barton, E. Eberle, R. E. Griffith, L. Johnson, and R. Bartholow, as well as the U.S. Dispensatories. We indicate, where appropriate, whether or not indigenous remedies were promoted primarily by regular or by other practitioners. Indigenous plants with uses similar to related European plants highlight questions about whether knowledge was acquired from American Indians, transmitted from the Old World, discovered independently by colonists, or a combination of these. Tentative answers will sometimes be given, although in most cases firm conclusions can never be reached. Indigenous plants without obvious European analogies raise questions about how medical uses were discerned by Indians, blacks, or whites, and whether new uses were developed from analogy with other plants. When a plant has been widely used in regular medicine, it is generally recorded in the principal botanic/domestic medical literature. In the interest of saving space. reference to the latter is generally omitted unless additional pertinent information is recorded there. The thrust of much of the data is evidence of the dynamic relationship between herbal and regular medicine already considered. Retrospective identification and its problems. Any comparison of medical uses recorded in the past with current practices raises vexing issues about the correct iden-

tification of plants. Recent remarks-made in the context of relations between academic botany and horticulture-raise relevant issues: "I am astonished by the fact that natural selection has not left a murkier trail of intermediate, connecting, divergent, illdefined and misbegotten species, genera and families." 14 It is. in fact, the apparent discreteness and orderliness of the vegetable kingdom that has enticed historians, botanists, and others to take up the challenge of identifying plants described in the literature prior to the general acceptance of the modern binomial nomenclature introduced by Linnaeus in 1753. Identification problems-especially for plants described in writings from ancient Egyptian and classical times to the late medieval period-are readily apparent, if only because of the commonplace use of vernacular names for more than one plant, the general lack of adequate plant and habitat descriptions and illustrations, and the need among commentators for an extensive knowledge of the flora of regions from which plants are described, as well as knowledge of evolutionary trends. Retrospective identification, a difficult interdisciplinary area, relies much on earlier attempts and scholarship. These have to be used cautiously not because of inaccuracies when published (though some exist) but because of a host of revisions in nomenclature during recent decades. Whereas, even now, a new species may be named on the basis of a description and the deposition of a single herbarium specimen, more accurate descriptions of species in terms of variations within populations and geographical distribution follow the work of monographers using the current methodology of studying innumerable herbarium specimens supplemented by living specimens from the field, as well as chromosome counts and experimental studies.15 While recent developments from this approach indicate a greater awareness

Introduction

of ecological variation and that immutability among generations of plants is not nearly so rigid as once thought, historians-employing archaeological and linguistic data and oral and written testimony-often infer that there is a considerable degree of constancy among plants employed in medicine. A recent discussion on medicinal plants in the writings of Theophrastus (c. 370-288 B.C.) seems to imply this: "Specific plants had names recognized throughout the Greek world, and where there is doubt, modern Greek sometimes preserves an essential work or core that helps key modern nomenclature." 16 Certainly there are strong elements of constancy among generations of plants, and the average life span of a species is considered to be several million years. On the other hand, through an appreciation of geographical effects, mutations, polyploidy, and hybridization (sometimes perpetuated by apomixisa specialized form of vegetative, that is, nonsexual reproduction), a new understanding of microevolution and the rapidity with which it can occur under certain circumstances has emerged. Variation within many species is reHeeted in much current terminology: chemical races, sibling species, microspecies, agamospecies, and aggregate species. Not all these terms have gained widespread acceptance-even though genetically determined variation is not disputed-in part because circumscribing and defining a species is, in some sense, a philosophical issue and hence open to interpretation in different ways. Consequences of variation, of special importance for anyone considering the historical record, not only open questions about past identifications but also questions about the extent to which hybridization and infraspecific variation exist nowadays (and existed in the past) and how they affect constituents. Current knowledge-or rather the lac.k of it-generally makes it difficult to answer these questions with any precision. However,

7

many of the monographs in this volume indicate whether or not varieties, subspecies, or cultivars exist, which may be relevant to understanding inconsistencies in the medical reputation of a plant, even though the specific effects of polyploidy, hybridization, and backcrossing in altering chemical constituents are far from clear in many cases. In part this is because gene changes affect enzymes, which, in turn, affect the formation of, for example, one alkaloid from another.17 Valerian, for example, occurs across Europe in a variety of polyploids-2n, 4n, and 8n-and this is considered to account for the recorded differences in medicinal value from one batch of roots to another. On the other hand, in the case of oaks, changes in tannin content as a result of hybridization-where an additive effect of the c.onstituents from the two parents is postulated-may be inconsequential in the context of the imprecise methods of preparing such medicines as teas. Nevertheless, in general, possible effects of polyploidy and hybridization should be borne in mind where discrepancies exist in the stated activities or reputations of a plant. While it is still correct to view a species as possessing a clear lineage from the earliest records to the present, the lineage should be viewed as a descending population (or gene pool) through a long, tortuous cylinder rather than a line of descent. For outbreeding species we can visualize occasional breaks between criss-crossing cylinders through which genes are exchanged by hybridization and backcrossing. An observer of species in the Roman world of Dioscorides transported in a time machine to, say, the British Isles of John Gerard (c. 1600) may well have found it easy to identify many plants described by Dioscorides: but equally he would have been bemused by portions of and occasionally all of a species population having unexpected sensory, morphological, or medicinal properties. Certainly this c.ould have been the

8

Introduction

case with plants cultivated or known to hybridize readily; examples of the latter with medical interest occur in the genera Amelanchier, Crataegus, Rubus, Oenothera, and Taraxacum. The botanical nomenclature in the preLinnaean literature we consulted needs special comment, as do the botanical synonyms listed. Each entry in John Gerard's Herball (1597) included a list of names-Greek, some from European languages, and Englishwhich implies a certainty of identification. On the other hand, Gerard generally discussed plants in groups of two, three, four, or more, and thus the names can often be seen as group names, even though there are often specific descriptive details (see, for example, the couch grass monograph). With the help of sometimes extensive botanical revisions to Gerard's Herball by Thomas Johnson (Herball. 1633). later commentators writing on plants from either botanical or medical standpoints often felt confident in giving the plants described in the Herball a revised preLinnaean name or a post-Linnaean binomial name. We have used influential writings by Ray, Linnaeus, Woodville, Withering, and Lindley to help identify the Gerard-Johnson plants. This is supplemented by, for instance, the studies of Jackson (1876). Gilmour (1972). and Dandy (in Ray, 1973), and independent assessments of Gerard's descriptions. Since the late eighteenth-century writings of Woodville and Withering, new fieldwork 'and new and revised taxonomy have led to many scientific name changes, not all of which have been generally accepted. Some botanists, too, in ignorance of earlier work, have given plants new names. Efforts since the 19305 have led to the establishment of the International Rules of Botanical Nomenclature, which are designed to reduce confusion and contradiction.!8 Nevertheless, many plants are still commonly known by more than one name not only in regional botanical

manuals and floras but also in the medical and the horticultural literature. Synonyms in much of the current world medical literature have been conveniently compiled by G. Penso, and some of the most widely used are repeated in the synonyms given for each plant considered in the monographs; they follow what is felt to be the commonly preferred botanical name. Other selected synonyms appear commonly in the older medical literature or in recent medical and botanical writings.!9 Assessments of clinical value. Determining the clinical value of a plant is difficult because of the many variables and uncertainties at play. Not the least of these is the different standards employed to assess efficacy, which range from eradication of underlying problems to temporary relief of symptoms. The latter includes "just feeling better," which may also be due to psychological or nutritional benefits. A complicating factor in understanding efficacy is, of course, the placebo effect, not only with respect to physiologically inert herbs but also in those which possess some pharmacological action. Any understanding of placebo action (discussed in volume 1, chapter 8) must assess data derived from the methods of Western science and medicine, even though many herbal medicines are still employed within cultural frameworks alien to Western scientific medicine. Simply to provide a point of reference, it is necessary to know if an herb possesses pharmacological activity. Many of the monographs clearly state that current knowledge of chemical constituents offers sparse explanation for numerous past reputations. Even when chemists record constituents, rarely is the clinical significance (or lack of significance) assessed?O Sometimes lists of constituents are mindboggling (as the 350 components in the volatile fraction of banana).2! On the other hand, we are almost certainly

Introduction

ignorant of much potentially significant information, such as what might emerge from the growing interest in groups of chemicals once considered to have little significant effect (e.g., flavonoids and coumarins). Perhaps the way sesquiterpene lactones affect prostaglandins may be pertinent to feverfew's reputation for treating migraine headaches. Other examples of physiological processes which may ultimately provide some explanation of reputations of certain medicinal plants, but where information is currently limited, include nonspecific stimulation of immune systems (possibly relevant to infections and rheumatism), stimulant actions on the mucosal linings of the stomach and duodenum to control ulcers, and various roles for endorphins. An additional problem hardly considered in the monographs is the issue of synergism or other possible interactions among the constituents in a plant. While laboratory evidence supports synergistic action between certain active constituents in a limited number of plants, this is a far cry from the opinions of many herbalists-based on their experience-implying that it is a widespread phenomenon. In fact, this is part of the view (noted in volume 1) that the effectiveness of many herbs rests on the combined actions of several constituents. It is hard to overestimate the importance of such an idea among herbalists. Since the 1830s, arguments can be found in the regular medical literature that whole-plant extracts are better medicines than the isolated active constituents used alone. 22 This notion has generally disappeared from twentieth-century medical literature, though its pervasiveness in herbal medicine is indicated in remarks made in 1986: "Many herbs contain pharmacologically active constituents which when isolated have apparently contrary properties and that often makes the whole plant safer (and more efficacious) than might be

9

concluded if merely judging the herb by one isolated active ingredient." 23 Another difficulty in assessing herbal efficacy is that some scientific papers are too readily interpreted-in the absence of critical attention-as satisfactory explanations of clinical reputations. People sometimes overlook the fact that chemical and pharmacological data must always be assessed in the context of dosage, pharmacokinetics, and clinical practice. A good illustration of this is Gran's (1973) finding that uterine activity increases on taking decoctions of Oldenlandia affinis, which is traditionally used by the Lulua population in Zaire to accelerate childbirth. He isolated serotonin from the plant but found that the usual decoction from about one hundred grams of dried plant would not give a higher yield than about two milligrams of serotonin. Since serotonin is rapidly destroyed when taken orally, it could have no action. Gran's in vitro experiments with isolated organs showed that the increased uterine contractions produced by the water extract persisted after treatment with methysergide. The logical assumption that one or several other active compounds were present led to the isolation of an oxytocic peptide. 24 If the lack of detailed chemical information on many of Mr. Bass's plants means that definitive pharmacological assessments, or even informed hypotheses, cannot be made at present, we should appreciate that for a long time usage of herbs for symptomatic relief has rested on the nonspecific properties of the major groups of constituents. As F. P. Porcher stated in 1863: "Each [plant] is distinguished by the composition of its principal constituents; these are generally astringent principles, narcotics, stimulating vegetable oils, cooling, refrigerant acids, bitter tonics, cathartics." 25 It is still customary to make such generalizations; for instance, a "standard" use

10

Introduction

of essential-oil-bearing plants (e.g., basil, melissa, sweet marjoram, and various spices) is as carminatives; and tannin-rich plants are used for diarrhea, hemorrhages, sore throat, hemorrhoids, and skin diseases. In summary, while the monographs frequently suggest that once-popular reputations are no longer valid, before dismissing outright the positive testimony of Mr. Bass and many earlier writers, we should remember that a wide range of other factors-medical and social-may ultimately be shown to be relevant. Unquestionably, much research is needed. The history of therapy. The growing interest in the history of therapeutics was noted in volume 1. Collectively the monographs provide a great deal of data for the story of treatment. We refrain from making interpretations of overall trends in terms of attitudes and directions in professional and lay medicine, but much of what is said illuminates why considerable differences of opinion over the value of a remedy often exist, although more so before recent decades. The monographs often reveal sharp differences of opinion, which were certainly translated into practice on occasion. Such differences, too, sometimes reflected subtle attitudes and sometimes the resurrection of faded ideashence sustaining them as cultural threads. These include the almost patriotic regard for indigenous remedies, the notion that exotic remedies are powerful, faith in personal observation and testimony (even if based on only a few cases), a sense of tradition, a readiness to argue from analogy (encouraging faith in long-standing notions such as the doctrine of signatures), an intuitive belief in any concept embracing the notion of balance, and a readiness to accept new scientific and clinical knowledge, especially if it adds support to established practices.

THE QUALITY OF HERBS AND HERBAL REMEDIES

The Plants Even if knowledge of constituents and pharmacological action contributes to explaining past reputations of medicinal plants, difficulty in assessing their effectiveness can still arise from many factors-additional to genetic variations associated with varietiesthat may affect the types and the amounts of constituents present. Soil conditions and inappropriate collecting, drying, and storage, as well as the manner of making plants into medicines, are all relevant. Before marketing or being prepared into medicines, herbs are rarely assayed for concentrations of active principles. Quality, therefore, is generally a subjective assessment, even though based on various factors. some discussed below. The considerable variation that can occur may account for some of the contradictions in the older literature on the activity of medicinal plants. We cannot consider these factors for each plant, but the following comments on collecting and preparing herbs serve as an introduction to some relevant literature and, largely through Mr. Bass's verbatim remarks, indicate knowledge and perceptions still widely held in the Appalachians. In fact, the extensive quotations from Bass underscore that while he knows of many special habitats and the whereabouts of good-quality plants, he collects where it is most convenient. One reason we include extensive quotations is because similar habitats, such as roadsides, are available to everyone. Finding plants: habitats. "Tame" and "wild" plants. Bass appreciates long-standing opinions that localities can affect the "strength" of a plant. The taste of wild blackberries, for instance, is "superior" to that of cultivated brambles.'6 Bass holds that wild plants generally grow in ideal con-

Introduction 11

ditions (where "nature intended"), but he knows that "soil is not everything." Thus, he says: On the north side of mountains is where the strongest medicine grows. It's on account of keeping out of the hot sun. In West Virginia and up in the northern part of North Carolina and north Georgia, that's the reason the ginseng brings more money. You see, the hot sun has the tendency to take out the strength. It's kinda like keeping anything in the refrigerator, you know. The colder the country is, the more the ginseng brings. The furs is the same. You take a fur skin here in Alabama, it brings a little over half what one'll bring in West Virginia. We don't have here in the valley plants like ginseng, goldenseal, black cohosh. We don't have too much of anything in the way of strong medicine. The strongest things we have are pokeroot, and devil's shoestring, and the Indian hemp. The rest of it is more mild like yellow dock, boneset, queen-ofthe-meadow, and redroot. We are not certain whether Bass's generalization about a difference between the north and south sides of mountains is always valid, or his view that mountains anywhere, with their cooler climates, are good for herbs, though both ideas are long-standing ones.21 While Bass talks about the sun "weakening" plants, he intimates that this happens because of drier soil; certainly the possibility exists that differences in humus content are at play. It is well known that a variety of environmental factors can affect medicinally active constituents in general. While data on this has been growing in recent years-much of it conflicting-there is a paucity of information on most medicinal plants, particularly the indigenous ones used by Bass. Although studies necessarily focus on determining the effects of isolated environmental factors, in

practice the production of "secondary" plant constituents (many being physiologically active) is affected by a complex combination of factors (for example, the size of the root) which can also influence the plant as a whole and hence the concentrations of constituents. 2• Despite the difficulty in sorting out the impact of each variable, well-known examples of soil effects include (1) an increase in content of mucilage in Althaea officinalis when grown in sandy rather than clay soils; (2) higher yields of alkaloid in Atropa belladonna, Hyoscyamus niger, Datura stramonium, Datura inoxia, and Nicotiana species by increasing either inorganic or stable manure nitrogen (in contrast, nitrogen has been shown to lower the total alkaloid content in Lobelia species); (3) phosphorus, potassium, and trace elements can all affect alkaloids, glycosides, and essential oils;29 and (4) tannin concentrations can vary considerably in quantity according to general soil conditions. Other well-studied effects include the action of sunlight (shaded plants have been shown to have lower alkaloid and tannin contents), while temperature and rainfall can affect amounts of alkaloids, glycosides, and volatile oils. Continuous rain can lead to loss of water-soluble substances from leaves and roots by leaching."o All of these problems lend weight to arguments that, ideally, medicinal plants should be cultivated to improve standardization. One example attracting recent attention is feverfew, which has become relatively popular for the treatment of migraine. 31 Guidelines for collecting. Bass sees the area in which he lives as one big garden with some especially favorable spots. Some of these have associations, beyond the availability of particular plants, which seem to add an indefinable ethos and pedigree to a plant. Examples include the yellowroot and angelico from along the sandy creeks of Moonshine Hollow. ("So many people

12

Introduction

made whiskey here. The Wolf Creek Sand Company got sand out of the creek-just anywhere along it.") The road entrance to Wolf Creek is the site of a long-vanished homestead. Mr. Bass is not especially interested in the remnants of past domestication, like lilies, yucca, prickly pear, black walnut trees, catnip, and an occasional beauty bush, but he has many memories of the old hog pen. "Everyone used to have a hog pen, and lots of plants grew around them: The dirt is rich from the slop and you could find Jerusalem oak, dog fennel, careless weed, Spanish needle, cocklebur, pursley, and knotweed." Another site of past domestication-an old gin yard-affords another instance of "good-quality" plants, this time calamus and brooklime, along with an ethos of tradition. "It was an old-time gin back in 1924; you had to throw cotton into the press and press it with your feet. They also had a sawmill and a gristmill. The ground-we call it gumbo-became so rich here because they put the sawdust pile out there. This was before my day, but I've hauled off sawdust from the sawmill." Notwithstanding special sites, Bass collects the majority of plants he uses or recommends from his yard and "the roadsides, railroad right-of-ways, old wood roads, what we call old logging roads, and out in the fields-what we call the terraces, which is in the roIling country like where I live." We quote Bass's detailed account of such sites largely because many herbs are widely distributed weeds or ruderals, but also bpcause it illustrates how man alters plant habitats. The consequences of some of these changes on the active constituents of many plants can only be conjectured. (All the plants mentioned below are considered in the monographs.) Around here you have to build what we call terraces, which is a ditch that collects the water. We generally have them about

anywhere from an acre to two acres apart and they run around the hills and it catches the water to keep it from washing away. The dirt is mounded up, you know, and a lot of the rich dirt is there; it has a tendpncy to grow all kinds of weeds, which are actually the herb plants. You find pokeroot, and bearsfoot, elephant's foot, mullein, five-finger grass, and spiderwort, and sometimes you find jewelweed. Also you find ragweed, plenty of it, and hyssop. And also in any of the low places along the right-of-ways, the highways, you find boneset, queen-of-the-meadow, and JoePye-weed. The highways were good ways for seeds to travel. Of course, if the rightof-way is along the water course, you're liable to find yellowroot, too. Elderberries are along the right-of-way, too. You'll find the tulip tree and the bald elder in the low places on the right-of-ways and also the tag-alder and in some areas, why, you're sure to find the black-haw and things like that. Of course, right in our area I only know of one. It is growing along the highway, County Road 15, right down below me here. Just old fields and country roads is an awfully good place to look, and on ditch banks, a fine place for sassafras and wild cherry and herbs like that. Also five-finger grass or wild strawberry. An old field that's laid out for a number of years, be sure and go along the ditches and ditch banks and check them for different kinds of herbs. The railroad is a good place. I've walked the railroad lots of times when I was selling enlarged pictures. I tried to sell fruit trees, but I never did so good with that. You find mullein, yellow dock, sassafras, the clover blooms, the red clover and the brown-top clover. And then we've got what they call the sweet clover, which grows way up high, kind of like alfalfa. You'll find that along the railroad right-of-way.

Introduction

The reason that's such a good place to collect, especiaU y along the railroad tracks, is because back in the olden times when everything was transported by rail, why when they unloaded hay at a depot or switch track, they'd leave the boxcar door open. You see, the seed that was collected in the hay-there's no telling how many different kinds of herbs was in it-the seeds would blowout along the right-ofway. That was how we got quite a number of all kinds of obnoxious [noxious] weeds. We've got the Johnson grass and the Bermuda grass and many, many more weeds that we didn't have here in the South, but they came in from the West and East and other places. Of course there's things in our area that went the other way. If you're collecting herbs in woods, find old log roads, where the timber has been cut and where they hauled out the logs. And also a snaking trail. Most people, city people, don't know what it is, but it's a place where you snaked logs, or dragged, you might call it. I don't know why they called it snaking, but that's the way the loggers called it. You take a log chain or a large chain and put it around the logs, looped it around one end of a log, and then you hook a tractor-we used to hook mules or horses-and drag that log down to where they want it, to the sawmill or where they're going to load it. Well, that makes a kind of a ditch or a furrow, and the more of them you'd snake, you know, the deeper it gets. Well, now, that has a tendency to pull seedpods and things along and you'll find lots of herbs growing along the snaking trails. And then in hunting herbs in the woods, like ginseng, goldenseal, star-root and bloodroot, black cohosh, angelica, and all those kinds of roots, why, you can find old logs, old rotten logs where a tree has fallen or the tree tops, and that's where you find the most generous amount of differ-

13

ent kinds of herbs. The birds gathers the seed from these plants and some of them pass through their system and they'll germinate, you know, and come up. You see when that tree is cut down or fallen down, why, these seeds comes up around them, and that's a good place to collect all kinds of roots and herbs. And then if you're in the woods or along the right-of-ways and we'll say you find a plant that you're hunting, say, yellow dock, or mullein, and it's on a grade or a hill, why, you follow that all the way down and you're more than apt to find this same kind of plant down below because, you see, the seed will wash downgrade. You'll maybe find a pretty good area where you'll find the same kind of plants like smartweed, ragweed, and plantain. Of course now, if there's a branch or a creek or a river going under a bridge or anything, you can look along there for the skullcap and bugleweed and yarrow and things like that. But we highly recommend when you're hunting herbs to be sure to study the right-of-ways, especially the railroad right-of-ways. But, of course, now they're not as prolific as they used to be because they poison the vegetation and a lot of it is killed and don't never come back up. Harvesting in season.

Dried herbs supplied by Bass invariably appear to be of good quality-dry, no obvious mold or insect infestation, recently collected (or, at most, a couple of years old). and unadulterated by other plants. However, as with the purchase of all herbs, it is generally not known whether they have been collected at optimum times and from favorable habitats, dried carefully, and stored under adequate conditions. Of the several factors which can unfavorably affect active constituents, collection has perhaps received most attention. Guidelines for gathering medicinal plants from John Quincy's Dispensatory (1719), one

14

Introduction

of the best-known medical books in colonial America, reflect notions extending back to classical times and still accepted today: "Herbs are at [their] best beginning to flower, and should be gather'd when there is no rain or dew upon them ... they ought to be dry'd in the shade .... Flowers and seeds should be gather'd likewise with the same caution, dry. ... Fruits are best at their full ripeness .... Roots are best taken up in the beginning of the Spring, for Reasons obvious to all. Barks are best for being fresh dry'd. The same will also hold true in woods of all kinds." 32 There is general agreement nowadays that most roots, whether gathered for the entire root or the root bark, are best dug in the fall or early in the spring, but roots of annual plants can be collected just before flowering. 33 In essence, this reflects the notion that roots ~hould be collected when growth has ceased; if harvested during the growing season, shrinkage and loss of weight is greatest, which is thought to correlate with reduced concentrations of constituents. Many specific directions for individual plants have appeared in the drug literature, but, unfortunately, it is often unclear whether they are based on empirical evidence about the strength of a root or given to aid in collection when aerial parts can be identified. For instance, it has been specifically stated that the perennial couch grass (Elymus repens) should be collected in the spring, not the fall; Mr. Bass knows of this but attaches little importance to it." Other examples appear in the correspondence of Appalachian root and herb dealer C. J. Cowie in the 1850s and 1860s. He once wrote to a dealer that "the cotton root is important to collect before the cotton is fully ripe." 35 Spring is usually recommended as the time for gathering bark from branches of trees and shrubs, because rising sap makes separation of the bark easier. Again, there are exceptions: wild cherry bark, for example, is said to be best collected in the autumn, when it

contains the greatest concentration of cyanogenic glycoside. 36 Similarly, black alder (prinos) and sweet birch are known as "autumn" barks on the presumed basis of maximum activity at that time. 37 Such exceptions are easy to forget in the face of the "authoritative" generalization that "bark should be collected when it slips most easily, during the dormant or in early spring." 38 The suggested optimal time for gathering leaves is when they have "attained full development," generally under&tood to be just before the plant blossoms. Opinions that drugs of inferior strength are marketed "because they are not collected in the proper season" or at the plant's proper age are generally based more on empirical than laboratory data. 39 Even so, sufficient information is available to indicate that seasonable variations can be significant. Examples include: Mentha piperata (relatively high proportion of pulegone in young plants, replaced by menthone and menthol as leaves mature); M. spicata (change from the predominance of carvone in young plants to dihydrocarvone in older ones); Digitalis purpurea (glycoside content varies with age; purpurea glycoside A is formed last but eventually reaches a constant maximum of 50 percent of the total glycoside); Agave spp. (steroidal sapogenins isolated from young, mature, old, and flowering plants have successively fewer hydroxyl groups); and Datura stramonium (the hyoscine/hyoscyamine ratio falls from about 80 percent in young seedlings to about 30 percent in mature fruiting plants).4o Mr. Bass's verbatim remarks. Bass's knowledge summarizes much that has been published in scores of textbooks on materia medica and guides for herb collectors, but his inimitable style, detailed knowledge, and occasional departures from published advice justify the lengthy excerpts that follow. Bass's information on prices (as of January 1984) and suggestions for marketing have been retained; these provide not only insights

Introduction

into ways of "making money" out of herbs, still commonplace in the Appalachians, but also further insights into his skills as a backwoodsman and herbalist. Barks from aerial parts: Spring is the time for barks. Early in the spring, as soon as the buds start putting out, you need to make arrangements with loggers and landowners, if you don't own land yourself, to peel the bark off of little saplings. You can peel black-haw bark off the tree; it don't get to be large, and they grow in thickets-kind of like sassafras. The bark runs about seventy-five cents to a dollar a pound. For a dollar a pound you'd have to take the outside bark off (ross it) and get the inside-just use the inside bark. Now the bark of the root'll bring twice as much as the tree, but you have to dig the roots up and you can't hardly make any money at that. Wild cherry bark'll run you about twenty to thirty-five cents a pound; that is, the young tree; the bark of an old tree is a little cheaper. It weights real heavy. For your own use in the spring of the year, peel something like a half-gallon bucket full of wild cherry bark and some sweet gum bark. It'll do you for the whole season. The young bark, you don't have to ross it. you just sell the whole thing. But if it's a big tree bark, which if you follow the loggers and get them big trees, why Lord, a lot of times you'll get a hundred pounds off of one tree and you can make pretty goodit's hard work. White oak bark will run you about ten, fifteen cents a pound, but it weighs heavy. In the summertime you can make money at that. You can go around to where they're logging and make a deal with the loggers to peel their logs; makes them pretty and clean. You scrape the outside bark off and just peel off the inner bark. Red oak bark runs about the same.

15

If you happen to be in an area where there's slippery elm, why it'll run you about a dollar a pound rossed-that means just taking the outside bark off. And then sassafras tree bark will run you about ten or twenty cents a pound. And you can peel it pretty well. But I'd recommend that if you're going into the herb business to make a living and make money, don't sell no sassafras roots to the herb buyers. Sell that direct to the people to make their own tea. You can go on Saturday to the curb market or the flea market or the trade day. Just put your sassafras in bags. Dry it real good-bone dry, and then put it in pint or quart plastic bags, and tie the top. If you fill a quart bag, just full enough to tie it real good, you can sell it for a dollar easy. That makes a gallon of tea. And there's no telling how many dollars worth you can dig in a day. And you'll just sell the hound out of it. And you can make so much more than you can selling it on the market. Some companies can't sell the barks as much as you can in the spring of the year, up till about the first of July. The sap runs real good, and it peels off easy. Some companies buys dogwood bark, but there's not a regular market for dogwood bark, like sassafras and wild cherry and slippery elm.

Root barks: Root bark often fetches more than tree barks.41 Sumac root bark runs anywhere from seventy-five cents to a dollar a pound -dry. And it's easy to skin, and it's pretty heavy, and the roots stay right on top of the ground. I actually believe that a feller could take a rototiller or some kind of a plow, and he could just get them up real good. I've never dug any of them for the market because it used to be just three cents a pound, but now it's running anywhere from sixtyfive to a dollar. And if you want to dig and peel sumac root bark, you can peel that

16

Introduction

most any time of the year. It's a good idea to wear rubber gloves or something because there's a gum on that stuff. and it'll get on your hands. Just takes kerosene or gasoline to get it off. It's just like tar. It's a messy root to handle. Whole roots: You can gather every kind of root along in June, and gather on up as long as you can see the dead tops and tell what you're hunting. When the tops die down is the best time to gather the roots, because the sap goes down and makes them weigh heavier. Hydrangea root: You can dig it anytime, spring, summer, winter, or fall. Cut the roots in about six-inch pieces. One buyer is giving fifty cents a pound; sometimes you'll get a stump that'll weigh five or six pounds. You can use a power saw and cut it up in pieces. And then you take a garden hose and just hose the dirt off it, and pile it up and let it drain for two or three days. It don't have to be plumb bone dry. And then get you a bunch of sacks. Go to a feed store where they grind feed for cattle and get you a bunch of burlap sacks, and just put your hydrangea roots in that. But be sure before you dig a bunch of it that you make a deal with the houses that buys this stuff and be sure you get a contract, because hydrangea is not a regular used medical herb. Yellow dock, you can sell it anytime. It runs anywhere from seventy-five cents to a dollar a pound. And you can dig it in fields and along roads, most everywhere, anytime. Of course it'll weigh heavier if you dig it after the seed turns brown. When you get the large roots, be sure you split them. Cut all the tops off, but split the roots. If you don't they'll mold on you and won't dry. Now pokeroot, it's best to let it die down to where the leaves are kind of turning yellow-like or red and it'll weigh heavier.

You can get a carload, and it'll run you anywhere from twenty-five to fifty cents a pound. But be sure you get a contract with a company to sell pokeroot because sometimes they get an overstock of it. When you got the pokeroot you've got to cut it up real fine. We recommend you get you a machete knife-or whatever you call it-and be sure and don't cut yourself. Or you can take a hatchet with the pokeroot, because a lot of times you can get roots weighing eight to ten pounds, and you just shave them up kind of like cutting up cheese. Wash them real good, and dry them. And star-root, you can dig it anytime. You can make money if you can find it. Find any old-timers that'll tell you what it is. Some calls it grub-root, and some calls it unicorn root, but anyway we call it starroot. Has leaves on it looks kind of like a spoon. Stays green all winter, pretty green leaves and has a seedpod and blooms like a tassel, kind of like a corn tassel. And smells so good in May and June, when it's in bloom. Beautiful plant. And it'll run you anywhere from three to five dollars a pound, if you can find it. Then yellowroot, what we call actual yellowroot. you can make big money agathering that anytime and selling it direct to the people. Now it won't bring you but fifteen or twenty cents a pound if you sell it to the herb handlers. You can pull the whole plant up, and break it up or cut it up into pieces as big as a match. A plastic bag full will fetch you a dollar a pound at curb markets or trade days. We don't have burdock right here, but it's a big old coarse root and it really weighs heavy. You make good money if you can find it-price is running anywhere from forty to fifty cents a pound. Of course, ginseng, everyone knows it's the most valuable herb that we have. And we don't talk about it too much because it's too hard to find and hard for anyone

Introduction

that don't know what they're doing to get it. If you find it, the law is you're supposed to dig it not earlier than July and plant the berries back. Goldenseal is another valuable one you dig in July or August. It'll bring in eight dollars a pound now. And dandelion, it's bringing about seventy-five cents a pound, and queen-of-the-meadow's running about forty-five to fifty cents a pound. Black cohosh will run you anywhere from seventyfive cents to a dollar. Blue cohosh will run, will bring a little less. And these now, and mayapple, sassafras, bloodroot, and wild alum is all medical plants that there's a market for most of the time. Entire herbs, leaves, and flowers: Any kind of herbs, that's the whole plants, you gather them in July, August, September, when the bloom starts. We're talking about gathering the medical leaves, the herb part of the bushes. We'll start off with sassafras. It's better to start gathering the sassafras leaves in early June and continue on to sometime in August. They start to turning yellow, and you don't want to gather them then. You want them a good green, dark green color. And goldenseal, if you happen to be in an area where there's goldenseal, why, you save the tops. It's bringing three dollars a pound, the tops of the goldenseal. And I notice now they buy the ginseng tops. You can gather bone set, something like a big armful of the whole plant, or you can take the leaves off. You can tie a string around a bunch of the whole green plant and hang it up in the dry, in the shed, and that's for your coughs and colds. Boneset generally runs you thirty-five or forty cents a pound. If you put you out a little catnip or a patch of catnip and a patch of garden sage, why you can sell it all the time, direct to the public. Of course, now, catnip will

17

bring you a dollar a pound dry; that is, the leaves. And sage will run you about two dollars on the market, but you can get four dollars easy selling it on trade days and flea markets and direct to the people. It's easy growing, just a little bed will make you a whole heap. I have a lady friend now, and I buy, I guess, fifteen or twenty or twentyfive or thirty dollars worth from her, and she's only got one patch. And I don't buy all she has, she sells some to other people. And so that's a good way to make money on the side. There's not much to say on flowers. The main one marketable is elder flower. If you have a contract to gather them, why, you want to get them in full bloom. Queen Anne's lace you also get in full bloom. Drying and storage. Appropriate drying of medicinal plants is another factor critical to their quality. After ensuring removal of soil, Bass dries many plants in the sunshine to minimize mold growth, but recognizes traditional advice that herbs, leaves, and flowers are best dried in the shade to avoid loss of color. (The latter, correctly or otherwise, has always been associated with reduced activity.) Large roots, he says, need to be cut to ensure rapid drying. For quick drying of herbs, Bass recommends a building with a metal or tar roof, such as a barn or smokehouse. An alternative is to spread out material "real thin on wire or poultry netting." If dried on the floor or on paper, the herbs need to be "stirred" at times. In practice, Bass uses a porch or shack or, sometimes, stove heat for roots and barks collected in winter. Bass's storage of dried herbs-commonly in burlap or large brown paper bags hung throughout his many shacks-appears haphazard, though most bags are off the ground, out of the reach of vermin, and air freely circulates around them, His turnover of material is such that few items are stored for

18

Introduction

very long. Items that store badly (like calamus and aromatic herbs) are collected only in amounts for immediate needs and sold in jars rather than in plastic bags. Bass considers that most plants, if stored under conditions of dry atmosphere and lowish temperatures, will remain active for many years. Bass's detailed recommendations on drying plants include: Wild cherry bark is easy to dry if you keep it spread out thin. It'll soon dry where you can break it up with your hand easy. But if you pile it up like piling up wood or something, she'll mold on you and just rot. And watercress'll do the same thing. Of course, most of the herbs are the same, excepting one herb that's mighty near dry when you dig it, and that's star-root. And you may make more money digging it than any other root we know of, if you can find it. It's just a dry, hard root. It's just about as heavy when it's dryas it is when you dig it out of the ground when it's green. Adulteration, misidentification, substitution. Bass is conscientious in gathering plants. Although we have found few instances of his herbs admixed with other plants, adulteration-accidental and deliberate-has always characterized herb collecting. Appalachian root and herb dealer C. J. CowIe, for example, wrote to Henry Taylor (30 December 1857): "Your liverwort turns out to be wild ginger root and top-All your roots are in bad order-very much mixed."42 Although little adulteration occurs in Bass's herbs, he does collect-as noted in the monographssome plants different from those generally accepted for the vernacular name he uses. Plant parts collected. A further consideration affecting herbal medicines is whether or not the "correct" plant part is used for a particular purpose. While a consensus can generally be found as

to whether, say, tree or root bark is the most effective part employed, any part of a plant has probably been used on various occasions. Bass recommends leaves of sweet gum, apple, and sourwood rather than the barks, at least in the summer. Occasionally he advocates the tops of goldenseal and ginseng instead of the roots. No published support for these particular substitutions has been found, but Bass believes them to be effective substitutes so long as they are fresh and an extra-strength tea is made, because, generally, barks and roots are "stronger." Herb collecting: Some realities and concerns. Despite Bass's conscientiousness in following most traditional practices, he illustrates the typical realities of herb collecting, especially with respect to correct identification and quality. Sometimes this relates to ignorance or deliberate fraud, but more often to local situations. Like many herbalists, Bass commonly collects outside the "correct season" in order to fulfill orders on demand. Thus some items are gathered throughout the summer (e.g., leaves of peach or sweet gum), and others, such as bay leaves, throughout the year, "since it is always green." A few plants he collects whenever he finds a convenient source of supply, like squawvine in the winter. Furthermore, visitors occasionally bring substantial amounts of material (e.g., yellowroot) from undetermined places.43 Bass's knowledge, conscientiousness, and integrity are admirable, yet it is clear that scientific doubts about the quality of some of his herbs can be raised, particularly where he uses "substitutes." He has no theoretical knowledge of collection, drying, and storage of herbs in relation to constituents, only traditional knowledge. Admittedly this appears to have a strong empirical basis, but, without a knowledge of constituents and the factors

Introduction

affecting them, he is not constantly thinking of ways to ensure top quality. If words of caution are in order about herbs, they are even more applicable to those gathered by less-experienced collectors. The longtime tendency to blame the problems of the botanical drug trade on "ignorant herbalists," "unlearned pharmacists," and "worst of all" on women, cannot be fully denied. 44 Yet this fails to recognize the genuine problems of collecting on a commercial scale and filling orders throughout the year:' While c6ncerns over miscollecting and potential variation due to ecological factors are appropriate, to what extent do variations in constituents between batches of herbs affect treatment? To answer this, each plant species has to be considered separately, as do the purposes for which it is used and the conditions under which it is employed. Unfortunately, precise information on the effects of the many variables is lacking for most plants, but it can be said that differences in quality-as long as they are not extrememay be inconsequential for some plants, such as those used as inhalants or for bitter and astringent medicines. On the other hand. many plants, like Indian hemp and poke, need to be treated with considerable caution. 46 From a public health standpoint, more attention needs to be paid to the quality of such plants, and where appropriate standards do not exist (e.g., macroscopical and microscopical descriptions and ash values), they should be established. 47 Yet even in an ideal world of adherence to established standards for herbs, many other variables that can affect activity have to be considered, such as the manner in which a plant is extracted, compounded into medicines, and administered.

19

Herbal Medicines: Preparation and Doses The modes of preparing and administering plants or extracts to ensure maximum efficacv-and maintaining consistency from one bat~h to another-have always been central to the practice of pharmacy. Extraction procedures-for instance, whether water or alcohol is used, and how much heat is employed-have long been known to produce variations in quality. Such considerations are especially important when determining whether plants have been extracted in a manner that ensures that properties demonstrated in the laboratory are having a clinical effect. Many of the monographs in this volume include quotations which suggest that one type of preparation is superior to another. For instance, eyebright juice was once recommended as superior to the distilled water, and was sometimes considered more effective than the tincture or infusion. Undoubtedly, differences in preparation sometimes accounted for discrepancies in reputation. A. Clapp reported in 1852, with only some exaggeration, that the "discrepancy of opinion, of competent and honest observers of the medical virtues of the same plant, is difficult to explain in any other way than that the article employed differs in strength of age, the place of growth, time of collections, mode of preservation, fresh or dried, &C."48 Another significant variable is the method of administration. Time and time again it has been emphasized that the form in which a medicine is given must not only be adapted to the nature of the remedy but also to the "caprice of the patient."·" Unquestionably, whether a medicine is applied externally or administered orally affects activity. This is sometimes overlooked, as when it is said that statements in the older literature indicating that cabbage applied externally helps skin "cancers" support the view that cabbage may protect against certain internal tumors. 50

20

Introduction

For the most part, before Bass started promoting capsulated herbs he preferred selling dried herbs, or that visitors gather their own for preparation into medicines. This was not only because it was less trouble but also because he has never used alcohol, and fermentation develops quickly in aqueous medicines unless they are refrigerated. Mr. Bass makes clear that in the past, whiskeywhite whiskey or moonshine-was the usual menstruum for herbs. Such medicines were "stronger than when made with water. Of course, for some of them, it was an excuse to take whiskey." Ratsvein, sarsaparilla, and mayapple were favorites in whiskey. Other factors are also considered significant to the strength of the tea, or at least its action. One, according to Bass, is that teas act differently if taken hot rather than cold. Hot teas, for instance, always promote a sweat and tend to produce a laxative action. Bass's general advice for preparing a small quantity of medicinal tea is two teaspoons of herb to a teacup of water. Like most herbalists, Bass puts considerable faith in compounded preparations. This follows long-standing practices; indeed, some would say it is at the heart of herbal medicine. Bass first learned about making medicines such as the Bass Salve and a "vinegar stew" from his mother. He is always ready to point out that over-the-counter and prescription medicines used to be quite complicated and included one ingredient for each symptom. Bass's formulation of medicines embraces two approaches that mirror aspects of medicines of the past. One approach reflects "polypharmacy" (sometimes called Galenic medicine); that is, combining many items in a preparation on the basis that two or more substances act better than one, or that a particular medical consideration often needs medicines for both specific action and general constitutional treatment. For instance, a woman with rheumatism may require "in

addition to rheumatism medicines, a female medicine and a tonic." Bass occasionally suggests polypharmaceutical preparations with as many as twelve or more items; he frequently says that in such mixtures the ingredients work together "like a team." Bass is also aware of an alternative approach to formulation which graduallv became commonplace within regular medicine during the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, replacing the blunderbuss polypharmaceutical approach. The new approach included fewer items, often only four; perhaps just the principal ingredient, one other to augment its action ("to work together" or enhance its action synergistically), another to counteract side or unwanted effects of the main ingredient, and a fourth serving as a vehicle for the other items.51 The reference to synergism is a reminder of the importance of the concept to herbalists that the whole plant serves as a better medicine than the isolated constituents, a notion discussed earlier. Whatever the number of ingredients in a preparation, Bass often says that botanicals act in a much gentler fashion than chemicals. In practice, Bass prepares his medicines in his yard on a small, wood-fired heating plate, in a shack made for "cooking" medicines, and, sometimes, inside on his kitchen stove. Ingredients are not always measured carefully. "Teacupfuls" and "ounces" of the washed fresh or dried herbs are commonly "measured" by hand, though his long experience in assessing quantities must not be forgotten. In fact, one sees Bass going back to times before the nineteenth century, when measurement of herbs by handfuls was commonplace. In general, if he is preparing a gallon of medicine, a teacup of plant part is used. It is boiled for a few minutes and then simmen~d for a further fifteen to twenty minutes. A "flavoring" agent like wild cherry is frequently added ("it's also a good blood purifier and tonic"). After simmering, four

Introduction

pounds of sugar or honey or six pounds of corn syrup are added for each gallon, followed by a short reheating. The liberal supply of sweetening merits comment. Some think it is a reflection of Bass's sweet tooth; but in fact, despite current concerns about taking too much sugar, he holds a once-common view that sugar is medically valuable. It was once a major ingredient in many pharmaceutical preparations, not only for preservative action but also because it was considered to have particular physiological actions. Bass believes it has blood-purifying properties-an opinion held in the past-though he views honey as more effective. 52 His faith in herbs is such that, although he disguises bitter medicines with sugar, he believes the medical value associated with bitterness is unimpaired. A "standard" dose for most medicines is one tablespoonful three times a day, though for something like his "reducing" chickweed he recommends six ounces three times a day. It seems fairly clear that many visitors do not measure the doses precisely; some say they just take "swigs." Precision, in terms of accurate weighing and measuring in both making and administering medicines, is not a feature of the herbal practice of Mr. Bass and his visitors, adding to the variables associated with collection, habitats, drying, and storage. 53 Considerable variation from batch to batch has been seen in Bass's cough medicine and in teas made by him and visitors. Yet a belief in the efficacy of herbs is so strong that an almost cavalier attitude to the survival of potency exists. Even if molds develop in a medicine, Bass says it just needs to be reheated. A complication exists, too, when Bass recognizes that on occasion he collects "weak" medicines. He explains: Well, now, if we was making medicinewe'll say now that we were going to make a tonic-and we had black cohosh, which

21

loves to grow in damp ground. Well, if we could get the black cohosh growing in that good soil, we would use but about half of what we would if it was growing in dry soil, where it hadn't got the moisture. And then say we was going to use wild yam with the black cohosh. Well, if we couldn't find the yam in the low place where it was well nourished, why, we would have to use a double portion. And it works that way on the plants of any kind. Of course, you people that works in the laboratories, you've got microscopes and you've got all them things to check this out, but you just take a common person, why, you've got to use some other system. And, therefore, my way in testing, many years ago-of course I don't use that system now, because I can look at the plant and tell whether it's full of medicine or vitality or vim or whatever you might want to call it. I can tell by looking at it because I've seen so many, all of the different plants, but to start off with, we taste and smell them. Testimony from visitors suggests that variations in the strength of medicines are commonly not noticed. On the other hand, numerous visitors say that if the medicine wasn't working well, they would just take more or consult with Mr. Bass. In fact, there is a clear sense that dosage is monitored according to how it relieves symptoms. Issues and questions about dosage of herbal remedies are complex, in part because of differing attitudes. Outside the herbal world of Mr. Bass and others of his generation, traditional wisdom about herbs is disappearing fast. Nowadays, most people using herbs have little knowledge about their quality and need guidance in making medicines. Some guidance follows past approaches of recommending specific doses, but, unfortunately, there is much contradiction in recently published literature. Even the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia (1983),

22

Introduction

one of the most authoritative recent publications, often does not follow earlier "standard" doses, and for no clear reason. However, it does make efforts to standardize preparations, as reflected in the following instructions: for infusions, 500 ml (approximately 1 pint) of boiling water is to be poured over 30 g (about 1 ounce) of finely cut material in a previously warmed vessel and allowed to stand for fifteen minutes before straining. A decoction, on the other hand, is prepared by boiling 1 ounce of material in 500 ml of water until the volume is reduced by one quarter.54 The dosage issue in modern herbalism is complicated by the growing commercialization and availability of herbs-sometimes freeze-dried (assumed to be as potent as the fresh herb, and perhaps having differing properties from dried material) in capsules as well as in the form of alcoholic tinctures and other extracts. Correlating the relative doses of these preparations is full of pitfalls and often impossible without a detailed knowledge of the extraction process. Many herbalists, however, say that what is important is self-monitoring (perhaps with the aid of the herbalist) of the effects of a particular preparation. One argument is that precise dosage is not necessary (as it is with potent prescription drugs) because the effects of many herbs are more constitutional than specific. Whatever the merits of such general comments, some herbs are potent, and safe usage requires knowledge and understanding. HEALTH CONCERNS AND HERBAL MEDICINES

Although cautionary remarks appear in many of the monographs, some general comments are appropriate to underscore the fact that care and thoughtfulness are necessary in taking any herb or herbal medicine. Concerns are growing as more and more people take herbs-often purchased from health food stores-without the benefit of traditional

wisdom or the knowledge of modern science. Bass is correct in saying that too many people go "cadillacking" along with herbs and take large doses.55 Many "feel" that herbs are safe because they have been used for hundreds of years or because some of them have "magical powers." That large numbers of plants are poisonous-some in small doses -is either unknown or forgotten, while little or no appreciation exists that apparently innocuous plant remedies may have serious long-term health implications.56 Certainly among recent converts to herbs, who are altering patterns of usage, traditional wisdom and caution are generally nonexistent. This is compounded by the lack of caution expressed in many advocacy books, pamphlets, and leaflets sold in health food stores. It is unfortunate, too, that herbs are commonly sold as foods or nutrition products, which encourages tendencies to take large doses ("the more the better"), for this contributes to casual attitudes. The abuse of herbs by some advocates, and the ready availability of a few dangerous herbs among large numbers commonly considered "worthless," add to long-standing concerns that patients taking herbs commonly delay seeking regular medical advice. The latter opinion, probably overstated, is part of a growing literature on health concerns over herb use; some of it is scientifically based, but more of it is scare literature. Yet, even if concerns are overstated and the crusading approach of much of the scare literature can be justified on the basis of safeguarding the public, scare tactics are probably not the most effective educational approach. 57 They generally fail to consider culturally complex clusters of ideas, which frequently include innate opposition to many legislated public health measures and general suspicion of the establishment. The credibility of the FDA ("the establishment") is certainly low in many people's minds, and FDA statements like the following ignore the deep

Introduction

public concern over side effects of drugs, even aspirin: "Given the availability of modern medicines with proven effectiveness and safety when used as directed, treating ailments with herbs is both unnecessary and risky," While health education is certainly a difficult task, those involved have to be very knowledgeable about herbs, nonjudgmental, and able to work with and mold existing attitudes. 58 As we briefly consider health concerns under three broad headings-direct toxic or side effects (including hallucinogenic), the quality of herbs, and interactions with other medicines taken along with herbs-an appreciation that no medication is totally safe for all people in all doses has to be kept in mind, as well as the possibility of special risk factors. In fact, some general considerations need to be constantly borne in mind. Any assessment of the use of herbal remedies must recognize the patient; indeed, physiological differences among individuals are some of the most difficult factors to assess in connection with herbal medicines. Just as doses of powerful prescription drugs have to be tailored to the needs of individual patients, similar considerations apply to herbal medicines. These range from biological differences in an individual's serum proteins (which affect the binding of certain active principles) 59 to general effects of age and illness. Older patients, for instance, with reduced kidney function, eliminate some medicines relatively slowly: liver ailments, too, can be important because the liver plays a major role in the metabolism of many drugs. A wealth of information on rates of drug metabolism has been obtained in recent decades. In fact, a new discipline, pharmacokinetics, has emerged, which focuses on appropriate dose regimens for particular patients and illnesses. Unfortunately, herbal remedies have been ignored; there is a general sense that all herbs have the same dose (two teaspoons per teacup for medicinal strength).

23

Bass, from experience, knows when this is too strong, but even he does not tailor dosage for the elderly as was once recommended. This may be all the more significant if they are taking prescription medications or if dietary irregularities exist. Another general consideration is that a preparation with a high risk of adverse side effects is unacceptable for relatively minor complaints, especially where alternative, safer preparations are available. On the other hand, life-threatening problems may justify the use of drugs with a high possibility of side effects. Any herbal preparation with potentially harmful effects is generally unacceptable unless it is safer and more effective than other treatments employed for the same purpose. Direct Toxic Actions Toxic effects can be usefully considered under three headings: (1) toxic or narcotic actions in small doses; (2) plants with harmful actions readily overlooked; and (3) plants often believed to be safe, but with recently recognized "hidden" or silent dangers, which only become apparent after a long time. Toxic or narcotic actions in small doses. Many of the best-known poisonous medicinal plants (for instance, Strophanthus spp. and Strychnos nux vomica) are not considered in this volume because they are overseas drugs generally unavailable on the American market. Even so, many dangerous plants are readily collected in North America; examples include the celebrated solanaceous plants Atropa belladonna (deadly nightshade), Datura stramonium (jimsonweed), and Hyoscyamus niger (henbane). Of these, jimsonweed, still well known for the treatment of asthma (used often as stramonium cigarettes), has acquired a particular reputation for producing "highs" or hallucinations characterized by "seeing" small people or

24

Introduction

animals. Hyoscyamus niger and Atropa belladonna have been used less often for their hallucinogenic properties. The worldwide use of hallucinogenic plants is an intriguing topic. While it does not impinge much on Bass's practice, the sixty or so hallucinogenic plants found in the New World, as well as those commonly available in U.S. health food stores (excluding plants classified as euphoriants, stimulants, and hypnotics), have aroused frequent interest. The latter include yohimbe, catnip, juniper, kavakava, mandrake (Mandragora officinarum). nutmeg, periwinkle (Catharanthus roscus), and stramonium. 50 Catnip, juniper, periwinkle, and stramonium are all known to Bass, although only stramonium can produce hallucinogenic effects in the doses generally recommended. Plants with harmful oct ions usually overlooked. Allergies. Countless plants have been listed as occasional culprits in allergies. Mitchell and Rook's invaluable reference book, Botanical Dermatology (1979), notes and analyzes reports of skin injuries caused by 248 families of plants, comprising some 1,405 genera and thousands of species. While most of the plants listed are not used medically-or at least only rarely-allergies to medicinal herbs may be more widespread than appreciated, and potential problems have been reported in recent years for a growing number. One is the popular chamomile. While most people can drink chamomile tea without fear of untoward effects, it has been implicated in allergic reactions among those sensitive to compositous pollen, and at least one case of anaphylactic shock has been reported.51 Anyone with known allergies should also avoid such teas as goldenrod, marigold, and yarrow. Particular interest has also focused on ragweed, alfalfa, and bee pollen. Bass has discussed ragweed and other "allergy treat-

ments" as follows: "You can make a tea from ragweed (or anything else you are allergic to, like pine tops) and drink two or three cupfuls while you have an allergy. People have told me they have been helped." The popularity of this notion, at least in Bass's region, suggests that it is widely practiced, and it is not surprising that allergic reactions have been reported. 52 Alfalfa, although not as popular and without ragweed's strong traditional reputation, has been promoted vigorously in recent years by the herbal advocacy literature. According to some reports, it has exacerbated allergic symptoms in sensitive individuals. 53 Examples of unanticipated allergic responses have arisen from the increasingly popular use of seaweed (kelp) as a slimming aid. Kelp contains large quantities of potassium iodide, and it has been estimated that up to 3 percent of the population may be oversensitive to iodine. 54 Just how many allergies go unrecognized is, of course, open to speculation, just as is the extent of food sensitivity in genera!.55 Foods. This heading is included not only because many people use herbs as foods, or at least food supplements, but also because of a growing interest in using many plants as greens. Dangers are direct and indirect. A potentially serious problem involves poke. Most people know that only the young shoots should be eaten (collected in the early spring or purchased in cans) but are unaware of the considerable toxicity of the plant in general. It is sometimes forgotten, too, that recommendations for cooking include parboiling twice and discarding the water on both occasions (see Poke). Allergenic effects of foods are less obvious. A good example is alfalfa (mentioned above), a popular low-calorie vegetable. Other concerns are growing over possible estrogenic effects. Compounded herbal preparations. Compounding herbs is basic to herbal practice, but unanticipated results can occur. The

Introduction

phenomenon of synergism (or just additive effects) can become a serious issue if the remedy is taken with other drugs. An interesting example was reported in 1983 in a twenty-five-year-old woman who developed abnormal menstrual bleeding. She had been taking large quantities of a "seasonal tonic" herbal tea for two months, containing, among other ingredients, ground tonca beans, melilot, and woodruff, all of which contain coumarins well known for their anticoagulant effect. Other medications she was taking included acetaminophen, vitamin A, and bromalain, which may well have further potentiated the anticoagulant effect of the herbs. 66 Hidden dangers. In recent years some well-known medicinal plants that have been widely used for centuries have been found to have potentially toxic effects, perhaps related to use over a long period of time or in particularly large quantities, or due to individual physiological idiosyncracies. Examples include sassafras, comfrey, and ginseng. Sassafras is a particularly good example. Although it has been used as a tea for countless generations, and particularly as a spring tonic, studies in the early 19608 reported that safrole, the major chemical constitutent of the oil, is hepatotoxic in rats. Other studies have confirmed this. While the FDA has prohibited the use of safrole as a flavoring agent,57 many people question the relevance of studies on rats, particularly in view of the many testimonials from lifelong sassafras drinkers that the plant does no harm!;8 On the other hand, it has been estimated that one cup of sassafras tea may contain as much as 200 mg of safrole-more than four times tlIP minimal amount believed hazardous to man if consumed on a regular basis. Without question drinking sassafras tea is unwise. In the past, when sassafras was generally taken as a spring tonic, there may have been few untoward effects, but patterns of

25

usage have changed, and many people now drink it frequently. An old saying known to Bass is of interest here; it warns about bad luck if sassafras wood is burned indoors, but whether or not this has any link to toxic effects is unclear. 69 The major concerns over comfrey are discussed in the monograph, but the constituents causing alarm-pyrrolizidine alkaloids -are also distributed throughout a wide range of plants. In fact, epidemiological investigations suggest that a number of plants with the alkaloids may be implicated not only in acute epidemics of disease but also in chronic public health problems associated with insidious liver damage.'o Implicit faith in herbs sometimes leads to inappropriate usage. The administration of peppermint and chamomile teas to a tenweek-old Mexican-American child for a cold is perhaps a good example. The teas were continued while the child deteriorated, unfortunately to a state of hyponatremia. 71 Another issue pinpointed by epidemiological studies is whether high doses of tannin may be associated with unusual incidences of cancer. It has been suggested, for instance, that in the Sea Islands, South Carolina, high intake of tannin in "bush tea" made from red oak bark, wax myrtle (bayberry). marsh rosemary, sweet pond lilly, blackberry root, and sweet gum is possibly related to an unusual incidence of esophageal cancers. The possibility that milk in tea binds tannins and hence protects against carcinogenic activity, if it exists, has been raised.72 The Quality of Commercial Herbs In the context of the many factors affecting growing conditions and activity of plants, it is relevant to ask whether batches of a particular plant may have an unexpectedly high, and hence toxic, concentration of certain constituents. There is no evidence to suggest that this has happened. On the other

26

Introduction

hand, "external" contaminants-deliberate, accidental, or incidental-have occasioned considerable concern, particularly in recent years. Greatest interest lies in "fortification" of herbal medicines with opiates, amidopyrines, phenylbutazone, and corticosteroids. A well-documented case is an antirheumatic remedy, Chuifong Toukuwan, an "exclusively herbal" preparation produced in Hong Kong. At various times batches of the remedy have been found to contain dexamethasone, phenylbutazone, indomethacin, phenacetin, amidopyrine, mercuric sulfide. hydrochlorothiozide, and diazepam. Several cases of agranulocytosis (some fatal), cushinoid complications, and acute psychosis have been described following the use of these tablets. 73 Less dramatic but more perplexing cases have been reported. One example, from North Carolina, noted arsenic intoxication following the ingestion of an herbal tea made from yellowroot (Xanthorhiza simplicissima). The arsenic was thought to have come from accidental contamination of the soil and streams of the plant's natural habitats. 74 A more anticipated type of contamination is fungal, especially in badly stored products. Mycotoxins are discussed in the Glossary. Interactions with Food and with Other Drugs We have mentioned one case of drug interaction, or at least untoward effects from combining ingredients in a compounded preparation, and we noted that interactions are a potentially serious problem among the elderly. Unfortunately, despite the widespread use of herbs and herbal products, little information is available on interactions with either medicines (prescribed or over-thecounter) or foods, and our remarks are thus very general. An issue pertinent to the use of many herbs is the effects of tannins, which are widely

distributed in barks and roots and undoubtedly in substantial concentrations in many herbal teas. Tannins are known to form complexes with iron and with certain large organic molecules like alkaloids. It has been said that tannins in tea slow down the absorption of iron; whether this could contribute to iron deficiency, especially in women, has not been studied in detail. 75 Another situation affecting absorption is the repeated and excessive use of laxatives, known to be widespread. Particular problems may arise among those who believe that the gastrointestinal canal should be "cleaned" after each meal. A comparable problem is the excessive use of ipecacuanha to produce vomiting among those with eating disorders. Myopathies have been reported as a result of toxic effects of the constituent alkaloids.'6 Incompatibilities with prescription products are generally an unknown quantity but, undeniably, potential difficulties can arise if an herb is given along with a prescription drug, especially if both possess the same pharmacological action. Concerns over the administration of hypoglycemic herbs to diabetics taking insulin were noted in volume 1. Innumerable other problems may occur within the categories of diuretics (perhaps exacerbating the loss of needed potassium), cardiac drugs (hawthorn is known to be used along with prescribed digoxin), and anticoagulant therapy (coumarin-containing herbs can add to the action of prescribed anticoagulants). Sassafras has been reported to inhibit liver microsomal enzymes, thereby prolonging the actions of drugs that are normally inactivated by the physiological system. In the absence of detailed knowledge it is inadvisable to take any herbal preparation along with a prescription product. 77

Introduction 27

Notes 1. Many wholesale and retail catalogs list available herbs. A few lists have been published in the academic literature; for example. Sullivan (1981. pp. 179-96). Trease and Evans (1983. pp. 668-79; Asian medicines in Britain).

2. For reasons of space. a comprehensive approach to ethnobotany-"concerned with the totality of the place of plants in a culture" (Ford. 1978)-is not developed. See also comments in Alcorn (1984. pp. 2-8). who underscored the importance of understanding the pervasive interactions b"tween man and plants in a particular culture. For COmm"nts on one aspect of ethnobotany. see Holmstedt and Bruhn (1983). 3. Two studies serve as examples; Bolyard (1981) included much recently recorded information but no details about informants apart from names. Bass finds some of the listed uses "unusual"; information on th" backgrounds of the K"ntucky informants might help assess whether recorded uses are mainline or hearsay. Lewis and ElvinLewis (1977) is a popular textbook. and sources of information can often be gathered from the bibliography. However. the sections on "herbology" (e.g .. for nervous system. heart. and circulation). which tend to stress Indian uses. are in line with textbook format and without documentation or other means of evaluation. 4. Croom (1983). For other suggestions on the data for an ideal monograph. se" Penso (1980). Noteworthy too are recent discussions on establishing parameters for th" study of ethnopharmacology. For example. Malone (1983) stressed some of the common problems in natural product research. many of which are indicated in our account; Farnsworth and Loub (1983) highlighted the difficulty of handling a larg" amount of diverse information. 5. For examples of papers that spotlight this view. see Stevenson (1979). Bye (1986). 6. The well-known dictum attributed to Cato is quoted by Riddle (1984). who provided late Roman examples not only of the close association of vegetables and medicines but also the value of having readily available items as household rem'ldies. 7. Salmon. io his preface. felt constrained to say: "It may probably be demanded, how I being a

physician should be induced to write a book of cookery? But such as ask this question know little of the art of physick" (1710). 8. See such textbooks as Friedenwald and Ruhrah (190919. See Vogel (1976). 10. Comment on a methodology paper by Trotter and Logan (1986. pp. 91-112) is relevant. The authors suggested that intra- and intergroup similarities in the use of medicinal plants have arisen and persist because particular remedies produce reactions that are both predictable and considered to be desirable. While they argue for the need for a sufficiently large data base to offset variation. the extent of this is considerable. as indicated below. 11. For an introduction to Gerard and vernacular names. see Ryden (197B). For consistency within the text (and justified on the basis of inconsistency in the past literature). hyphens have sometimes been added to older names or two words are written as one. 12. The celebrated Herman Boerhaave (1741) reflected a persistent thread in herbal practice when writing that no medicin" can be proven of service in every disease; on the contrary. what has cured on6 disease under particular circumstances has. in different constitutions and stages of the very same disease. proved to have pernicious consequences. 13. For background to Gerard, see Jeffers (1967). For some testimony to contemporary usage of Gerard. se" comments written on 15 September 1653 by a student. Henry Power. to his mentor. Dr. Thomas Browne (Browne, 1964). 14. Meikle (1973. pp. 114-23). 15. For some background focusing on wild plants see Stace. "Wild Hybrids" (1975. pp. 111-25). also Stace (ed.) (1975). 16. Scarborough (1978). For his reference to modern Greek. see Dawkins (1936). However. it should be appreciated that much r"search on Greek flora is still needed; d. Greuter (1975. pp. 18-37); for consistency of vernacular names indicating linearity in descent. see Ryden (1984). 17. For introduction see Bohm (1985. pp. 25-75)' Tetenyi (1970). General background is surveyed in Briggs and Walters (1984). 18. There are many accounts of the development of

28

Introduction

binomial nomenclature and modern rules. Of interest, because of emphasis on the latter, is Gledhill (1985). 19. Pens a (1983). For naturalized and native European plants we used Tutin et al. (1964-80). For preferred binomial names and synonyms of North American plants we used a checklist (because there is no single manual for North American flora): Kartesz and Kartesz (1980). The lack of synonyms is the main reason we did not use Shetler and Skog (1978), and the USDA Nationol List of Scientific Plant Names (1982). For review of publications. see Thieret (1983-84). For cultivated plants, useful publications are Bailey and Bailey (1976), and the Royal Horticultural Society's dictionary (1956). Still useful is de Candolle's Origin of Cultivated Plants (in numerous editions and languages) . 20. For instance, papers such as Oliver-Bever (1(83) list manv details of chemical constituents, but it is not clear, even on close reading, whether or not they explain the alleged reputation.

tively: "Laymen, drug producers and even scientists often believe that special types of climate, e.g., the alpine one, would produce medicinal plants with the highest therapeutic value." The literature on the diverse issues associated with secondary products is vast, but for introductory discussions pertinent to the present account, see Bell and Chari wood (1980), Stuhr (1947), and especially Bernath (1986). 2H.

29. For review see Flilck (1954]. 30. Flilck (1955) mad" clear that much contradiction of information exists in the literature. 31. See Groenewegen and Heptinstall (1(86).

32. Quincy (1719, p. 66). Recommendations are clear in Theophrastlls of Eresos (c. 370-288 B.C.); see Scarborough {1978]. 33. Henkel (1907, p. 10). Similar directions are in

Krochmal et al. {1971]. General information for this account also from Trease and Evans (1978, chap. 14).

24. Quoted in Holmstedt and Bruhn (1983).

34. Henkel {1907. p. 13]. Other examples include Indian turnip (Arisaema triphyllum) (in fact a corm) to be collected in the summer, and crawleyroot (Corallorhiza odontorhiza) in July or August. Interestingly, older literature, e,g., W. Lewis (1769, 1 :16) noted that "roots of biennial plants should be collected in the autuIlln of the first year."

25. Porcher (1863, p. vi].

35. CowIe Papers.

21. Reported in Robinson (1983, p. 127). 22. For some backgrnund see Battley {1838]. 23. Mcintyre (1(86). Other comments have been made in volume 1, chapter 8.

26. On 22 October 1852 C. J. Cowie wrote to a customer: "You do not have to be told that a root from its native bed is stronger & better than the same kind from a garden." For a published reference, W. Lewis (1769) wrote: "Vegetables should be gathered chiefly from those soils in which they naturally delight, or in which they are found most commonly to rise spontaneous." 27. Much detail-unfortunately not scientifically evaluated-has been recorded. Dioscorides, for instance, in his influential materia medica (c. A.D. 50] wrote that "herbs should be gathered when the weather is excellent, for it makes a great difference if the collection is done after recent droughts or heavy rains. Similarly, sites an, important, whether they are in the mountains, high up, windswept. cold and acrid, for the properties of such plants are stronger" (translation by Scarborough and Nutton, 1(82). In the 1950s Flilck (1955) wrote authorita-

36. Henkel (1909, p. 31). 37. Ibid" pp. 17, 34. 38. Krochmal et al. (1971, p. 4). 39. Henkel {1907, p. 10]. 40. From Trease and Evans (1978, p. 178). 41. An example is wahoo root bark and tree bark, the former often worth a dollar more than the latter (in 1983). 42. Cowie Letter Books. Despite his concerns, Cowie bought sizable quantities from Henry Taylor: 200 lbs. wild ginger root; 167 Ibs. spikenard: 48 lbs. yellow dock, 67 Ibs. golden slipper; 17 lbs. sarsaparilla: 22 lbs. mandrake; 18 Ibs. Solomon's seal; 17 lbs. butterfly root; 7 lbs. Indian [word unclear]: 6 lbs. calamus root. 43. Various facets of the story of the botanical drug trade have appeared, but no overall account. Issues

Introduction

still current are found in Nutton (1985). 44. Criticisms of herbalists and old women have

often arisen in connection with the separation of domestic from regular medicine. Early instances are given in Palmer (1985). 45. A few authors have highlighted the realities.

Porcher wrote: "The roots of medicinal plants, although more advantageously gathered at Gertain periods do not lose their medicinal virtues in consequence of being dug in midsummer. It is probable that most of those imported are thus collected by savages or ignorant persons, when the plant is in full leaf, it being the more easily recognized"

29

worldwide literature on toxic plants is considered and can be relevant to the U.S. scene, some more than others; d. Contreras and Zolla (1982). Brief reviews of poisonous plants are commonplace and tend to be repetitive. See. however, the series "Drugs Used in Non-orthodox Medicine," in Dukes (ed.). Side Effects of Drugs. nos. 1-11 (1977-87): Vulto and Buurma. ibid .. no. 6. stressed that the efficacy and toxicity of nonorthodox (including herbal) remedies is poorly documented (p. 416). 57. Scare tactics can be subtle, insofar as the v

47. This includes attention to the effects of cultivation. Such recent reports as in issues of Acta Horticuiturae, no. 144 (June 1984), and no. 132 (April 1983), give a sense of the growing importance of this development.

warn about dangers of herbs without providing a sense of dosage. One instance is noted in Tyler et aJ. (1981). where among manv cautionary comments there is reference to the fact that senna tea can result in diarrhea. dehydration. and related complications (p. 498). While this is trne, it is a view hardly accepted by those who have taken a senna pod or a few leaves in a cup of water from time to time over the years. For the comment about physicians needing to consider herbs, see Vulto and Buurma (1984).

48. Clapp (1852, p. 5).

58. There is growing discussion about whether or

49. Numerous writers could be quoted. Of spe-

not herbs should be "controlled" primarily through regulation or via education. Opinions range from attitudes such as those reflected in Goldfrank et a1. (1982), which tend to produce hostility among users of herbs. to the view that the best approach to control is through education. as expressed by Gold and Gates (1980).

(1863, p. 5]. 46. See respective monographs for issues of tox-

icity.

cial interest is J. A. Paris; his many editions of Pharmacologia (1820 onward) endeavored to place prescribing on a more scientific footing. 50. Albert-Puleo (1983) thinks otherwise. 51. For background see Crellin and Scott (1970). 52. For some background, see Mintz (1985, pp. 96ff.).

53. The lack of precision has been noted by P. Singer (1976). His "defense," that the dosage of modern psychotropic drugs is variable. is perhaps not really addressing the issue. 54. British Herbal Pharmacopoeia (1983, p. 6). 55. Bass bemoans the fact that people are no longer cautious. 56. For a general review of poisonous plants on humans, see Hardin and Arena (1974). Poisonous

plants appeared third (behind cosmetics and saIicylates) in "The 'Big Tens' of Poisoning in the U.S.A.," Clin. Tax. 10 (1977): 383-84. Subsequent hospitalizations, however. are low. For general lit erature on poisonous plants (often highlighting dangers to animal stock), see Muenscher (1951), Kingsbury (1964), Lampe and McCann (1985). The

59. For a thought-provoking paper on serum proteins. see Raichelson (1979). 60. The literature on hallucinogens is vast. but for some introduction see Schultes (1969). Of special interest is the difference in the number of known hallucinogens in the New World compared to the Old World. For some discussion see LaBarre (1975), who argued that the difference between the Old and New World IIses has not been resolved on rational botanical grounds and suggested that given their ancient vision quest and universal shamanism. perhaps Indians arc culturally programmed to value. seek for. remember. and use any available psychotropic plants because these provided a manifest experience of the supernatural world (p. 39). 61. Isaac (1980) showed low toxicity in animals.

For further comments, see "The Chamomiles"

30

Introduction

(1983), "Toxic Reactions to Plant Products Sold in Health Food Stores" (1979), Casterline (1980). 62. The added danger of mistakenly collecting the

poisonous tansy ragwort (Senecio jacobea) was also pointed out. 63. Polk (1982). 64. For brief discussion see Vulto and Buurma (in Dukes. ed., 1984, pp. 895-907). Potential side

effects also exist. 65. Concerns have arisen, for example, over the

widespread distribution of salicylates in two hundred edible plants; South (1979). 66. Hogan (1983). Bromalain is a proteolytic en-

zyme derived from pineapple. It was taken in this case as part of a weight-reduction regime to remove fatty deposits from hips. 67. For a review see Segel man et al. (1976). 68. We should add that sassafras is still widely available in health food stores (Tyler. Honest Herbal, 1982, pp. 201-3). 69. The need for further studies is clear from the review by Enomoto (1987). 70. For pertinent discussion of the public health concerns, see Schoental (1972), Furuya et al. (1987). There is also much concern over aflatoxin, which has been shown to relate to the incidence of primary liver cancer in parts of Africa and Asia. perhaps in association with hepatitis B antigen. There is less concern in the United States. where levels of aflatoxin in crops are carefully monitored. 71. Lipsitz (1984).

72. Cf. Morton (1978, 1979). Among other discussions, Kapadia et al. (1976) noted items of concern such as southern bayberry, cherry bark, oak, and persimmon because of tannin content. Morton (1979) suggested that the British habit of adding milk to tea effectively binds tannins. Many factors are, of course, at play, including natural variations. One aspect is indicated in Goldstein and Swain (1963). 73. Reported in Dukes (ed.), Meyler's Side Effects (1984. p. 889). Other examples include Laughammer et al. (1972), Tay and Seah (1975). 74.

J. S. Parsons (1981).

75. Disler et al. (1975). It is also relevant to note Daly and Cooney (1978), who concluded that

"although tannic acid does precipitate most alkaloids. it does not necessarily prevent their gradual absorption through the walls of the gastrointestinal tract into the blood stream." They recommended activated charcoal alone. Many drugs interact with tannin,. See Lasswell et a!. (1984). 76. For discussion see de Smet and Vulto (in Dukes, ed., 1987, pp. 422-24). 77. For some general comments, see Griffin and D'Arcy (1984. pp. :J63-68).

Glossary of Chemical, Pharmacological, and Pharmaceutical Terms

This glossary is intended primarily for readers unfamiliar or out-of-date with phytochemistry and pharmacology. In addition to chemical constituents, some pharmaceutical terms describing types of medicines [for example, demulcents and emollients) are noted. One purpose of the glossary is to list certain properties associated with classes of constituents. The herbal literature, by commonly implying that such information rationalizes past and present reputations, all too frequently ignores questions about concentration, active and inactive forms of the constituents, and whether the herb is employed in a manner that will elicit pharmacological activity, either in the short or the long term. Adaptogen. The term adaptogen-popularized recently, but with echoes of the oncefamiliar concept of alteratives (see Alteratives)-describes substances considered to help symptoms like tiredness and irritability by building up "resistance to stress." This concept, promoted by the Russian scientist 1. 1. Brekhman and others, has been associated with the ideas of Hans Selye on the pervasiveness of stress as a factor in health and illness. A well-known adaptogen is ginseng. A tendency exists for the ttrm adaptogen to be employed loosely to legitImize herbs with doubtful reputations, as was once the case with alteratives. On the other

hand, many theories of action suggest that locally acting biochemical substances such as autocoids might ultimately explain actions counteracting stress. Alexipharmics (AlexipharmicksJ. Substances with reputed antipoison (anti-infection) activity. Effectiveness was generally considered to be due to a diaphoretic action. Alkaloids. Unfortunately, the five thousand or so known alkaloids are not a concise group of substances in terms of source, chemical structure, or biological properties. Most, however, fit the generally accepted definition of alkaloids as plant products which are basic, contain one or more nitrogen atoms per molecule, usually in a heterocyclic ring system, and possess pharmacological action. Many plants contain a wide range of alkaloids, others perhaps only one; concentrations are sometimes high. sometimes in trace amounts. Distribution is frequently throughout the plant, but higher concentrations usually occur in food-storage organs. Environmental factors can contribute to differences in concentration from one plant to another within the same species. Variation in morphine content amid the total opium alkaloids of Papaver somniferum is a well-known example. Among the various ways of classifying alkaloids, grouping according to chemical structure is helpful to understand or postulate similar pharmacological activities. Among the chemical classes with many physiologically active compounds, the indoles, isoquinolines, pyrrolizidines, and tropanes are noted briefly as representative examples. Indole alkaloids, of which over 1,200 are known, have long attracted attention, partly because most are found in only three major plant families: Apocyanaceae, Loganiaceae, and Rubiaceae. Generalizations about the pharmacological activities of the indoles are

32

Glossary

difficult because of the diversity of action among many structural types. as illustrated by those occurring in the drug plants ergot. rauwolfia. and the Madagascar periwinkle. Apart from the alkaloids. basic indoles are widely distributed and include substances such as tryptophan (an essential amino acid) and serotonin. Isoquinoline alkaloids. a large and diverse group of compounds with numerous properties. are apparently all synthesized from the amino acid precursors phenylalanine and tyrosine. Medically. the best-known are morphine alkaloids. but of special interest for the herbs discussed in the monographs is berberine. a yellow alkaloid with diverse pharmacological actions. Pyrrolizidine alkaloids. found in the form of esters of amino alcohols and carbolic acids. comprise a group of over one hundred different types. The group is of special interest because of public health concerns over toxic effects on livestock and humans. Tropane alkaloids are characterized as derivatives of the bicyclic amine tropane. Most are esters formed from tropane and various acids such as tropic. tiglic. and acetic. These alkaloids occur chiefly in the family Solanaceae. which includes such well-known medicinal plants as Atropa belladonna. Datura stramonium. Hyoscyamus niger. and Mandragora officinalis. Other well-known tropane alkaloid-containing plants that are not solanaceous are species of Erythroxylum. which produce cocaine and related alkaloids. One fascinating aspect of tropane alkaloids is the numerous pharmacological effects they produce. many arising from actions on the central nervous system.

Alteratives. The concept of alterative herbs (and other substances) has occasioned much debate and disagreement. In 1908 they were described as "agents which alter the course of morbid conditions modifying the nutritive

processes while promoting waste. and thus indirectly curing many chronic diseases .... Those who denounce the term alterative as 'a cloak for ignorance' have never been able to replace it by any more definite designation for a group of agents whose effects upon disease are facts of clinical medicine." Despite widespread denunciation at the time. the term persisted within the framework of regular medicine until around the 1940s for such drugs as mercury. iodine, arsenic. antimony, colchicum. sulfur. and stillingia. Although these drugs and the concept of alteratives faded from regular practice. the notion of nonspecific beneficial effects persists in herbal medicine. though confusion exists when distinguishing between adaptogens and tonics. Amino Acids. The health food movement and the needs of vegetarians have encouraged recent interest in amino acids (the basic building blocks of proteins) in herbs, as part of "nutritional herbology." This applies particularly to the essential amino acids-that is, those not synthesized in the body (isoleucine, leucine. lysine. methionine. phenylalanine. tryptophan. and valine). Little information is available on the presence of these in herbs. except for plants known primarily as foods. See such books as Leveille et al. (1983) and S. Bingham (1987). Anodynes. Substances used to relieve pain. In the past many herbs or herbal preparations had reputations as pain killers. Some. like opium. were used generally, whereas others were employed for specific problems. such as abdominal pain. Herbs often listed as anodynes. aside from opium (from opium poppy), include Indian hemp (cannabis). belladonna. and hemlock. Clearly. it is unwise to try such potent products. The reputation of milder substances is nowadays suspect, at least on pharmacological grounds.

Glossary

Anthelmintics. Medicines that kill or expel intestinal worms. Innumerable herbal products have been used. including drastic purgatives. One reason for a variable reputation of the efficacy of many of them is that some are selective~for example. for tapeworms or roundworms. Antibiotics (Antimicrobials). Antibiotics from fungi, like penicillin, have had a dramatic impact on the practice of regular medicine. The search for improved antimicrobial agents~a major area of activity in plant research~continues apace. However, the clinical value of most herbs shown to possess antibiotic activity under laboratory conditions is not yet clear. Questions, for instance, about appropriate doses for internal use are difficult to answer. While it is generally assumed that body (in vivo) concentrations of constituents need to be comparable to those which produce positive results in the laboratory (in vitro), studies with essential oils have indicated significant effects with lower in vivo concentrations. The value of the plants for external applications (e.g., to help wounds heal) prompts such questions as whether or not the rep utation~if it can be confirmed~rests on stimulating wound repair, possessing antibiotic action (which may be weakened by body fluids, including blood), or merely acting as protection. Many of the newer reports of antibiotic action do not correlate with past uses of plants, at least in Western medicine. For instance, extracts of Magnolia officinalis (containing magnolol and honokiol) possess antibacterial action against an organism linked to dental caries, Steptococcus maltous. In this case, while activity was reported to be stronger than that of berberine (an alkaloid with well-known antibacterial properties), the plant has no conspicuous reputation in Western medicine as, say, a tooth stick.

33

Astringent. Astringent is a generic term for a locally acting substance that precipitates surface proteins on the skin and mucous membranes. Tannins, the best-known group of astringent substances in the plant kingdom, are widely distributed (see Tannins). Bitters. A large number of drugs containing bitter constituents have long been regarded as tonics. Although claims for their effectiveness diminished within regular medicine during the early twentieth century, laboratory studies showing that bitters stimulate gastric juice have concluded that the oncewidespread reputation for promoting appetite, if not a general improvement in bodily functions, was justified. Regular physicians who feel their responsibility lies in making their patients "feel better" at the same time they treat a disease may believe that there is still a role for bitter "tonics." Even so, the complex physiological responses need to be appreciated. An increase in stomach secretions is considered to be due to reflex nervous activity, although the release of gastrin causes a specific increase in stomach acidity. The action of the intestine, as well as the bile and pancreatic secretions are, in consequence, also increased. Carbohydrates. Carbohydrates~mono-, tri-, tetra-, and polysaccharides~are widely distributed in the plant kingdom. They impinge on medical use and interest in herbs in countless ways, ranging from the caloric value of starch to the apparent immunostimulant activity of various polysaccharides, of which lentinan is the best studied. (See the monographs on Kansas Snakeroot and BoneseL) Carminatives. Carminatives are described as substances that expel "wind," or flatus, from the stomach and also relieve griping. A wide range of herbs have been recommended, but undoubtedly the most popular have been those with essential oils.

34

Glossary

Carotene. Carotenoids belong to the large chemical group of terpenoids; most are tetraterpenes. They give red color to such fruits as tomatoes and oranges. Most, if not all, have vitamin A activity. Herbalists sometimes use this as a justification of the value of an herb.

Cholagogues. Cholagogues have been variously defined. Nowadays, they are considered to be substances that promote the flow of bile, but in the past they have also been considered to reduce the amount of bile in the blood. Hence substances used to treat biliousness (when thought to be due to bile in the blood) have been called cholagogues. Some of the best known are intensely bitter or purgative. Coumarins. Among coumarins (chemically lactones) widely distributed in medicinal herbs and foods, the best known is coumarin, which is found in fresh plant tissues in bound form. When the tissue is damaged, enzyme action releases coumarin, which has the odor of new-mown hay. The richest concentration in a plant is generally in fruits, followed by roots, stems, and leaves, though marked seasonal variation occurs. Coumarins are often described according to their chemical nature: simple furanocoumarins (common constituents in the Umbelliferae and Rutaceae), pyranocoumarins, and coumarins substituted in the pyrone ring. Coumarins first attracted biological attention in the late 1940s when the anticoagulant property of coumarin was recognized. It has become clear that, biosynthetically, cinnamic acid, coumarins, and flavonoids are closely related, and co-occurrence of these three kinds of secondary metabolites is not surprising. Coumarins have been shown to possess a variety of biological actions apart from their anticoagulant activity. Much interest rests on anti-inflammatory properties; however, clinical significance is generally difficult to assess

for various reasons, such as coumarins being present with flavonoids, as well as diversity of physiological effects. Cyanogens. Cyanide can be found widelyat least in trace amounts-in the plant kingdom, mainly in the form of cyanogenic glycosides, though cyanolipids are not uncommon. Relatively high concentrations of cyanide are found in grasses, pulses, root crops, and fruit kernels. Of the latter, apricot and peach seeds have attracted much recent medical interest (as Laetrile), though in times past other cyanogenic plants such as wild cherry have been popular, especially for use as an expectorant and sedative. Decoction. A plant extract produced by boiling the plant in water; often known as tea, but see Infusion. Demulcents (Emulcents). Demulcents include a variety of substances applied locally to alleviate irritation of abraded surfaces of mucous membranes. By common usage the term is generally reserved for substances of a mucilaginous nature. Widely known demulcents employed in regular medicine are the gums acacia and tragacanth, and glycerine. Demulcents do not loom large in Mr. Bass's practice, apart from the mucilaginous slippery elm (for sore throats) and marshmallow.

Deobstruents. Often defined-at least until the early nineteenth century, when the term went out of favor-as medicines to remove presumed "obstructions" of, for example, the lungs or bladder. Diaphoretics. Diaphoretics are generally defined as substances that promote sweating. Usage is generally in the context of reducing fevers or to help purify the blood. Numerous herbs have been or are listed as diaphoretics. Many are said to be peripheral vasodilators,

Glossary

but evidence for this is meager. Bass says that most have to be given in the form of a hot tea to be effective. Emmenagogues. Emmenagogues are nowadays defined as remedies that promote menstruation, but in the past the term has also been used for substances intended to restore monthly regularity to the menstrual cycle. A wide array of substances have been described as emmenagogues, some (e.g., iron) were regarded as "body strengtheners," while others (e.g., ergot[ have a marked pharmacological action on the uterus. Some emmenagogues are also known, in appropriate dosage, as abortifacients. Emollients. Emollients are fats or oils applied to the skin to soften or protect it. They are also used as vehicles for other medicines. Bass often stresses the importance of emollient action and says all oils are good for the skin. While the best-known animal fat is lanolin (obtained from the wool of sheep), herbalists like Bass have the firmest conviction in hog lard ("it is from a scavenger that is never poisoned"). Expectorants. Expectorants are substances used to aid the removal of "secretions" (phlegm, sputum) from the respiratory passages. A wide range of substances have been classified as expectorants. The use of some, such as mucilage-containing herbs, may be based more on the doctrine of signatures or other concepts than on physiological action. The reputation of others may be due partly to the way in which they are administered, such as the contributing benefits of moisture when they are used in an inhaler. Fatty Acids, Fats, Fixed Oils. Free fatty acids are not found as commonly in the plant kingdom as their glycerol esters-fixed oils and fats. Fixed oils such as olive, arachis, and cottonseed that are used as emollients have

35

probably been more conspicuous in regular than in domestic medicine, where popular emollients have been animal fats (e.g., hog lard). Herb sellers and users have shown recent interest in the essential fatty acid arachidonic acid. Although it is not synthesized in the human body, arachidonic acid can be replaced by linolenic and gamma-linolenic acids, which are found naturally in various oils. Certain ingredients in fixed oils prompt health concerns. The best-known example is ricin, found in castor beans (see Lectins).

Flavonoids. Flavonoids, a group of constituents based on a skeleton of 2-phenylbenzogamma-pyrone, are ubiquitous and play an essential role in photosynthesizing cells. About five hundred flavonoids are known. The subgroups flavonols and flavones differ in the presence of a hydroxyl group in the 3 position and a C2-C3 double bond, while a flavanone is a dihydroflavone. Preparations with flavonoids as the apparent principal active constituents have been used for centuries. This implies a major therapeutic role for flavonoids which cannot be justified at present, even though recent studies do indicate marked biological activity. Particular interest has been focused on anti-inflammatory, antiallergic, and antihemorrhagic properties. Some compoundsaccording to chemical structure-are inhibitors of prostaglandins, which may ultimately account for many physiological actions. At the same time caution is necessary because certain flavonoids are mutagenic and potentially carcinogenic. Glucosinolates; Goitrogens. The glycosides in black and white mustards, horseradish, and many other plants in the families Cruciferae, Capparidaceae, and Resedaceae are known as glucosinolates. Not only do they contribute to the pungency and rubefacient properties of many plants, but some also have antithyroid

36

Glossary

and goiter-inducing effects in man through blockage of iodine uptake. It is tempting to speculate that goitrogens were a contributory factor (additional to low iodine in the environment) behind the frequency of goiter up to the 1930s remembered by Bass, who was among many in his area who ate considerable quantities of collards and other greens.

Glycosides. Glycosides are a large, often physiologically active group of chemicals. Each glycoside molecule comprises a sugar moiety and an aglycone part. The sugar is usually linked through an alcoholic or phenolic group, hence the designation 0glycosides. Other designations-S-glycosides, N-glycosides, C-glycosides-reflect linkage through sulfur, nitrogen, and carbon, respectively. Other terminology indicates the nature of the sugar. Thus, a glucoside is a glycoside having glucose as its sole sugar component, while a pentoside, such as arabinose, has a sugar with a backbone of five carbon atoms. The aglycone part generally accounts for the pharmacological action, though the sugar contributes to the solubility of the glycoside and thus the strength of certain herbal medicines. Aglycones include cyanogenic (aglycones forming hydrocyanic acid) and phenolic (aglycones with phenolic groups). The glycosides of foxglove are perhaps the best known. Hormonal Activity. Recent studies have established the presence of hormonal and antihormonal constituents in many plants that act on a variety of vertebrates and invertebrates. Much recent interest has focused on estrogenic effects, significant not only in terms of human consumption but also in animal forages. Activity has been associated with isoflavone constituents. Immunostimulants. There is growing interest in the possibility that a number of plant

constituents (especially polysaccharides) possess general immunostimulant activity that could be used as a protective measure against disease (e.g., see Kansas snakeroot). Herbalists are suggesting that this is a rationale for long-standing advice that certain herbal remedies should be taken over a long period of time or that their effect is primarily "constitutional," that is, strengthening the resistance of the body. Infusion. An extract of an herb made by adding boiling water and letting it stand for a prescribed period of time. Teas made by infusion may well be physiologically different from those made by decoction. Iridoids. Iridoids-relatively unstable cyclopentane monoterpenes (sometimes present as glycosides)-are attracting more and more attention as constituents that may have significant pharmacological activities. They account for a variety of actions: sedative (e.g., valepotriates in valerian), gastric acid stimulation (bogbean, Menyanthes trifoliata, and gentian, Gentiana lutea), and antirheumatic and sedative (devil's claw, Harpagophytum procumbens). Lectins: Phythemaglutinins. Lectins are proteins (mostly glycoproteins) known from plants of the Leguminosae that are characterized by their property of agglutinating red blood cells. Although not widespread in herbal medicines, they occur in Ricinis communis (e.g., ricin), Viscum album, Phytolacca americana, and Datura stramonium. Most lectins are found in seeds. The extent of the health hazards is uncertain, but is significant with castor oil from Ricinus communis (see Castor Beans monograph). Lignans. Lignans are C18 compounds derived biosynthetically by dimerization of two C6-C3 units (e.g., coniferyl alcohol) at the beta-carbon of the side chains. A well-known

Glossary

37

herbal plant containing active lignans is mayapple (see monograph), which has stimulated general interest, extending to potential antiinflammatory and antiallergic activity.

mold spores. If such drugs are consumed in crude form (rather than being employed for extraction). they must be free from mycotoxins.

Minerals. Recent promotion of herbs as health foods commonly includes reference to th'eir mineral content. Unfortunately, little consideration is generally given to the fact that only five mineral elements are considered essential for human metabolism in substantial amounts (calcium, magnesium, potassium, phosphorus, and sodium), while ten others (chromium, cobalt, copper, fluorine, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, selenium, and zinc) are important in trace amounts only. Of these, probably only selenium, molybdenum, manganese, chromium, and fluorine are essential. Controversy exists over nutritional need versus optimal intake. Toxic levels are often very near the required dosages for normal metabolism, dosages generally considered to be met from "normal diets." There has been some speculation that mild deficiencies may be beneficial. Dietary deficiencies are common with iron, calcium, iodine, and fluorine.

OrgClnic Acids. Many plants said to have a "cooling action" in fevers have a distinctly acid taste due to such dibasic and tribasic acids as malic, citric, tartaric, and oxalic acids. These common plant constituents are known to accumulate in fruits (e.g., lemon [citric acid), apples [malic acid), and blackberries [isocitric acid]). The leaves of Oxalis species contain oxalic acid. The reputed "cooling" action-in the nineteenth century commonly called refrigerant-seems to rest on sensory perceptions rather than physiological responses, at least in the doses employed. Additionally, the taste can be comforting. While many common plant acids participate in the familiar citric acid cycle, their administration has little positive pharmaco. logical action. On the other hand, the toxic action of oxalic acid and the oxalates often causes concern. These occur widely, but especially in plants in the families Chenopodiaceae, Geraniaceae, and Polygonaceae. Toxicity is more of a problem with livestock, but herbs containing large amounts include Rumex spp. and Oxalis spp. Oxalates, and especially tartaric acid and its salts, are reported to act in certain cases as mild laxatives. Alkaline salts are said to cause diuresis by breaking down into alkaline carbonates. The sensory properties of a number of other medicinal plants and their products rest in part on acids with a benzene ring skeleton such as the aromatic benzoic and cinnamic acids.

Molluscicides. Natural plant products that kill snails have aroused recent interest owing to the increased incidence of schistosomiasis, which has been linked to water management and the construction of dams and irrigation systems. The discovery of active saponins in the berries of Phytolacca dodecandra has been a big stimulus to such studies.

Mycotoxins. Mycotoxins, metabolites of microscopic fungi, are known contaminants of herbal products and foodstuffs in general. Aflatoxins-coumarin derivatives mainly from Aspergillus spp.-have attracted most attention, and serious cases of poisoning have been reported. Crude drugs, unless sterilized, are often grossly contaminated with

Resins. A resin is a solid, amorphous substance, sometimes associated with volatile oils [oleoresins), gums (gum resins), or with oil and gum (oleo-gum-resin). Apart from some common physical properties, resins as

38

Glossary

a group do not lend themselves to summary statements because of their diverse pharmacological actions. For examples. see Asafetida and Mayapple. Rotenoids. Rotenoids-closely related to isoflavones, which are probably the biogenetic precursors-are well known as insecticides and are widely distributed in plants. Studies on biological activity have established an inhibitory action on key enzyme actions. Rotenoids are not found in many herbal remedies, but see goat's rue (in Devil's Shoestring monograph). Rubefacients. Substances which, when applied to the skin, produce reddening or, if used in certain ways, blisters. The past popularity of such rubefacients as mustard and capsicum was partly due to the theory of counterirritation-the idea that skin irritation could diminish, counteract, or remove certain morbid processes found "in remote parts of the body." Saponins. Saponins-glycosides which produce frothing when shaken with water-are widely distributed in over five hundred plant genera. The aglycone portion of the glycoside (sapogenin) is generally a steroid (common in monocotyledon families such as Liliaceaee.g., Yucca and Trillium-and Dioscoriaceae -e.g., Dioscorca) or a triterpene. However, some saponins, called basic steroid saponins, contain nitrogen analogues of steroid sapogenins. Well-known features include bitterness and the abilities to hemolyze red blood cells and poison fish. Saponins have received relatively little detailed pharmacological attention. Uses recorded in textbooks tend to give little detail and often imp Iy that the saponins explain fully the medical reputations; for example, in horse chestnut (Aesculus hippocasfanum) for the treatment of varicose veins and hemorrhoids, in licorice (Glycyrrihiza spp.) for

rheumatoid arthritis, in primrose (Primula spp.) for bronchial catarrh, and in senega (Polygala spp.) for expectorant action. These statements (except perhaps expectorant action) have not been clinically confirmed, and studies are needed to assess whether the saponins are active and solely responsible for the reputation or whether other factors are at play. Despite uncertainties, steroid saponins have aroused interest not only for their range of pharmacological actions (including antiinflammatory, cardioactive, antibacterial, and antifungal, and effects on plasma cholesterol levels) but also because of their relationship with such compounds as sex hormones, cortisone, diuretic steroids, vitamin D, and cardiac glycosides. Some, too, have a role as precursors for the partial synthesis of commercially marketed steroids. Triterpenoid saponins are abundant in certain dicotyledenous families such as Araliaceae, Rhamnaceae, Apiaceae, Fabiaceae, and Hippocastanaceae. They show a more diverse range of actions than steroid saponins, though some common properties can be found (e.g., anti-inflammatory action of licorice). Recently, much interest has developed in the relationship between many saponins and cholesterol metabolism. Much conflicting evidence has emerged, but there is some optimism that drugs to reduce cholesterol levels may emerge. Sesquiterpene Lactones. Of over seven hundred known sesquiterpene lactones-colorless C15 terpenoids or their derivatives-the vast majority are in the family Compositae. They are best known as the bitter principles in various plants and for being irritating to the mucous membranes of the eyes, nose, and throat (e.g., in plants popularly known as sneezeweeds). One compound, santonin, is especially well known as an anthelmintic. Particular interest in sesquiterpene lac-

Glossary

tones emerged when it was found that many are cytotoxic and possess tumor-inhibiting activity. This is possibly linked to enzymeinhibiting actions, which perhaps account for other biological activities. Owing to the widespread distribution of sesquiterpene lac tones in such genera as Artemesia, Eupa· torium, Achillea, Helenium, Veronica, and Petasites (with highest concentrations in the leaves and flowers), their clinical roles in herbal remedies may be greater than has been appreciated. At present, apart from explaining t!i.e bitter taste of some "tonics ," anti-inflammatory, antibiotic, and antipyretic actions are attracting interest, as is their role as allergens in producing contact dermatitis.

Sialogogues. These are remedies to improve the flow of saliva. Reputed sialogogues from plants are rarely recommended nowadays, although a dry mouth is not an uncommon side effect with some modern drugs. The lack of current interest partly reflects the fact that many past reputations were ill-founded. Steroids. Steroidal compounds, widely distributed in nature, are characterized by the cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene nucleus. They resemble the alkaloids in their wide di· versityand in lacking clear demarcation from certain other groups of constituents. In the past they have, for instance, been discussed with alkaloids, and sometimes as glycosides or plant pigments. Some of the best known are sterols, especially cholesterol, but the most common in plants~and often listed in the herballiterature~is beta-sitosterol. The closely related stigmasterol is also frequently reported. Tannins. It is abundantly clear that plants with large amounts of tannins have long been commonplace in regular ami domestic medicine. Tannins~water-soluble phenolic compounds, some of commercial importance ~are commonly defined as substances that

39

turn animal hide into leather by reacting with proteins. Interaction with proteins also accounts for the well-known astringent taste of tannins, as well as their actions of hardening the skin, easing hemorrhoids, and acting as a hemostatic. For the latter, tannins have been employed both internally and externally, as they have for checking exudative secretions. Substantial oral doses of tannins are better known for their constipating action, hence their use for diarrhea. In this century tannins (tannic acid) have been widely used for treatment of burns. Two main groups of tannins are commonly recognized: hydrolyzable and condensed (also called proanthocyanidins). The former, hydrolyzed by acids, bases, or enzymes such as tannase, comprise several molecules of acids such as gallic and ellagic esterified with glucose (forming gallotannins and ellagitannins). Condensed tannins, which are hydrolyzable with acids, are mostly confined to plants with a woody growth habit. Renewed interest in tannins suggests that more wide-ranging pharmacological effects can be attributed to tannins than hitherto supposed. Some of this interest is because condensed tannins, at least. are potentially carcinogenic. It is also noteworthy that, in view of many plants with high tannin contents known to Bass, tannins may be associated with anti-inflammatory action, which may contribute to the reputations of some plants for treating skin ailments and antiviral activity. Terpenes. A range of terpenoid compounds are found in higher plants. Most are built from isoprene units. This basic five-carbon unit also accounts for monoterpenoids (C10) and sesquiterpenoids (C15), which are often discussed as maior components of volatile oils. Many biological activities have been attributed to individual terpenoids, including antibiotic, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, hypotensive, and sedative. Diterpenes also

40

Glossary

possess a wide range of activity, from irritant to antiprotozoal. Tincture. Extract of a plant made with alcohol. Differences in strength and physiological activity compared with infusions and decoctions can be anticipated. Vitamins. Vitamins, like minerals, have occasioned unending discussion in recent years. Bass has long considered vitamins to work in the manner of his "old-time" tonics. Increasingly, however, he advocates many herbs (for instance, alfalfa) for their specific vitamin content. To some extent he follows health food promotions-that herbs contain "natural" vitamins and hence are "a better way" of achieving the recommended daily allowances. Controversy over vitamin supplementation is intense. Medical opinion generally considers that few "normal" adult people in Western countries require vitamin supplements, but that modest amounts taken once or twice a week provide insurance against deficiencies, including at subclinical levels. Concerns exist also over megavitamin doses (at least ten times the recommended daily allowance) because of potential side effects. Volatile (Essential) Oils. Volatile, or essential, oils-as spices and ingredients in perfumes -are more conspicuous in everyday life than most other plant constituents. At the same time, many spices and condiments have had a long history in medicine. Largely because of the role of the essential oils (containing in particular terpenoid compounds) as flavoring agents and perfumes, much study has been undertaken in recent years on antioxidant, bacteriostatic, and bactericidal properties in the hope of developing improved methods for reducing food spoilage. Various oils have been employed, but concerns that many studies on antimicrobial activity of essential

oils are of uncertain value must be considered when assessing the literature. While the best-known medical property of essential oils is carminative, many oils are generally classified as flavors for medicines (e.g., anise), irritant and emmenagogue (e.g., capsicum and mustard), and sedative (e.g., asafetida). Many oils have properties that fall into more than one group, and some have a specific reputation, such as stimulating salivary flow, diuretic, anthelmintic, and expectorant. Vulnerary. A term, rarely employed nowadays, for remedies that encourage the healing of wounds. The older literature includes a wide range of reputedly effective herbs. These range from markedly astringent ones applied externally to alleged blood purifiers taken internally.

Monographs

AGRIMONY. See Cocklebur ALDERS (bark, leaves) The Herbalist's Account There are two alders. The one we have around here grows in a damp place along branches. creeks, and rivers. It blooms in January or February. It has a little tassel hanging down. Makes you think spring is coming, but don't you put no confidence in it because you'll have more cold weather. The black alder don't have no tag hanging down. According to old-timers, tag-alder is used for a blood purifier. The tags [catkins] remind you it's time in the spring to take a spring tonic. You just take a teacupful of the bark off the little tree and boil it something like you would a good strong cup of coffee. and then strain it and take something like three tablespoons of it a day, and it purifies your blood and all that kind of thing. You can use the wash for skin conditions like eczema and swellings. It·s good for sore throats and colds in general. I don't generally use it, but it was official medicine. Several people wanted me to peel bark for them to build up their system, but I can't get much and so many things will take the place of it. I would recommend sarsaparilla or goldenrod leaves, or maple, white oak bark, or yellowroot would beat that bark the way I look at it, but you couldn't tell anyone who had been using it, you know.

I have found several people who use it. A certain person has me get it every once in a while, and I'll say, "You know what it is, don't you'?" And they'd say, "Well, I don't know, but granddaddy or grandma-she used to make tea to purify her blood." Some people put it in whiskey. You know a lot of old-timers used to think you couldn't make a medicine without whiskey. I would use it more for bean poles than anything else. There's another alder, a black alder, but we don't have it here. I've never used it. I guess it acts the same. Commentary Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn. [syn. Betula alnus L.]: alder, aller, black alder. A. serrulata (Ait.) Willd. * [syns. Betula serrulata Ait.; Alnus rubra Desfontaines ex Spach; A. rubra Tuckerman; A. rugosa (DuRoil Spreng]: alder, smooth alder, tag alder, red alder. Corylaceae (Betulaceae) Ilex verticillata (L.) Gray [syns. Prinos verticillata L.; P. gronovii Michx.; I. bronxensis Britt.; 1. fastigiata]: black alder, prinos, alder, winterberry. Aquifoliaceae The tag-alder Mr. Bass knows is the indigenous shrub or small tree with smooth, grayish, aromatic bark, Alnus serrulata. He finds it occasionally along the banks of streams flowing from Lookout Mountain. Early medical accounts of alder generally refer to the naturalized Eurasian alder, Alnus glutinosa. 1 John Gerard (1597) described the leaves and bark of alder as "cold, drie, and astringent," highlighting the astringency that is the basis of uses that continued to be mentioned down to the twentieth century: for "hot swellings, ulcers and all inward inflammations."2 Later, a reputation for treating wounds and skin ailments came to the fore, though from the end of the eighteenth cen-

42

Monographs

tury, like many plants with bitter and astringent properties, it was also recommended for treating intermittent (malarial) fevers, sore throats (as a gargle), and diarrhea. Nevertheless, it never became popular and in 1791 was said to be little employed in "modern practice." 3 While references to A. glutinosa (black alder) occur in much nineteenth- and earlytwentieth-century medicalliterature-ineluding a tantalizing suggestion, found for many botanicals, that it has a positive therapeutic effect on cancer 4 -American authors showed greater interest in the indigenous, more widely distributed A. serrulata, often referred to by the synonyms A. rubra or A. rugosa. 5 Interest in A. serrulata (tag-alder) undoubtedly owed something to analogy with the European A. glutinosa, though in common with many bitter and astringent medicines, tag-alder acquired a particular reputation during the nineteenth century as a blood purifier, probably more so among laypeople than physicians. 6 In 1884 authoritative American author Laurence Johnson wrote that A. serrulata was "alterative and astringent ... said to have been used in diarrhoea and haematuria, [also) in some sections of the country [is] largely employed in domestic practice as a purifier of the blood, both for the human subject and domestic animals." 7 The alterative property-a beneficial action inexplicable on physiological grounds-was linked in many minds with a blood-purifying action." Apart from domestic practice-including use of the catkins for their astringency, as mentioned by some authors-threads of interest can be found among Eclectic and a few regular phvsicians. Some nationally known pharmaceutical companies, like Parke-Davis and Eli Lilly, were marketing the bark around the turn of the century as an alterative with

specific recommendations for skin conditions." Bass knows little about another "black alder" that he has read about-almost certainly the indigenous, highly variable species Ilex verticillata rather than the European black alder, Alnus glutinosa, already discussed. I. vertic illata , not a true alder but a holly, has been better known as a medicinal plant among American physicians and laypeople than the tag-alder; Griffith in 1847 said it was known to the Indians and some early writers, and added that it was much used in domestic practice. lO Although it seems to have been employed like tag-alder as an astringent and tonic, Rafinesque (1828-30) said. "The Prinos, also called Alder with us, has different properties, and bears red berries." He merely noted, however, that Canadian Indians used the bark in poultices for swellings and strains." While interest in the bark rested on its astringency-e.g., for diarrhea and as a tonic -the berries were recognized as cathartic and used, along with cedar apples, as a mild anthelmintic for children,12 Tag-alder was among the trees Bass first learned about, although it was not especially popular in Appalachia. Alabama beliefs include use of "alder" for chills, as a blood purifier (with associated uses as a spring tonic and for boils), and for thrush. '3 Mr. Bass's reference to its use for swellings is not surprising because of the long pedigree of this recommendation.14 The constituents of tag-alder have not been reported in detail, but an abundance of tannins is clear. Any careful assessment needs to consider possible hybridization with A. incana ssp. rugosa where the two shrubs overlap in distribution. A. glutinosa bark is said to contain 20 percent tannin, along with a range of other constituents; some, such as a flavone glycoside and beta-sitosterol, have at

Monographs

least potential pharmacological action. 15 Ilex verticillata contains tannins and a bitter principle. 16 The purgative action of the berries is not widely discussed and may not reflect any specific pharmacological action. Undoubtedly. many of the widely recorded uses for these plants-e.g .. as a gargle and for skin problems (sores. itching. poison ivy. abrasions) are explained by the tannins present. Uses as an alterative and blood purifier appear to be rationalizations of the astringency property and the bitterness. The discussion on blood purifiers (volume 1. chapter 7) indicates no justification for their use in terms of current physiological knowledge. and no evidence supports a specific role for alder in feverish conditions. Bass 's comment that "I would use it [tag-alder) more for bean poles than anything else." summarizes the fact that alders have not aroused a great deal of interest. even for skin problems. Nevertheless. he knows tagalder well and has told many people about it. thus helping to sustain a dwindling popular Alder (Alnus glutinosa)

43

tradition. Other herbalists promote the bark and leaves of alder-at least A. glutinosaas a tonic and for rheumatism. perhaps justified as an extension of the notion of a blood purifier. Notes 1. Harlow and Harrar (1968. p. 274) noted that A. glutinosa was introduced into the northeastern United States for charcoal manufacture.

2. Gerard (1597. p. 1294). 3. W. Lewis (1791. p. 122). confirmed. for instance. by Parr (1819.1 :80). Even so. in places interest

persisted at a domestic level; e.g .. Dictionnoire Encyclopedique des Sciences Medicales (1867 . 7:254). The bark was noted as an item of commerce in 1890: see F. P. Foster (1890-94. 1 :162) . 4. T. U. Gray (1907). Decoctions were given for a

variety of cancers. 5. Many nineteenth-century references (and earlier) to black alder could refer to A. glutinoso. Hex verticillata (see below). or Rhamnus fran· quia (see Buckthorn). For example, Stearns (1801. p. 39). where "Alnus nigrus " probably indicates R. franqula; while Capron and Slack (1848 , p. 20) almost certainly described 1. vertic illata. Rafinesque (1828-30, 2 :188-89) said that A. undulato (possibly A. serrulata [Ait.] Willd.). A. glutinasa, A. glauca (possibly A. incana [L.] Moench. speckled alder). etc .. found in mountains and in Canada. are equivalent. A. rubra (various authorities) as a' synonym for A. serrulata appears in many medical writings ranging from textbooks and popular writings such as Health from Field and Forest (1917) to more recent works. The synonym is not to be confused with A. rubra Bong. which is generally accepted for A. oregana Nutt., a species of the west coast of the United States. The other synonym, A. rugosa (Ou Roi) Spreng .. is generally accepted as a closely allied species to A. serrulata. although j. K. Small (1933 . pp. 418-19). recognized it as a polymorphic species that included the southern representatives of the A. serrulata of other authors. Ferna ld . in "Eastern North American Representation of Alnus incana "

44

Monographs

(1945), argued for the distinctiveness of the two species, showing that the name rugosa belongs to a population extending throughout much of eastern North America from Quebec to Nova Scotia, southwest to Ohio, Indiana, Missouri, and eastern Oklahoma, and south to the Gulf of Mexico and across to northern Florida. For a recent treatment of the systematics of Alnus, see Furlow (1979, esp. p. 190) for a concise summary of the confusion between A. serrulata and A. rugosa.

Other species mentioned from time to time in the medical literature include the green, or mountain, alder, A. crispa (Ait.) Pursh, the closely related alnohetulo, and the speckled alder A. rugosa (lJu Roi) Spreng and varieties, including the related Eurasian A. incona (L.) Moench. American references are often in connection with Indian usage; d. Brooks (1979-, 2:80-84). 6. G. B. Wood and Bache (1847, p. 1226) and

States. Rafinesque was perhaps drawing on the enthusiasm of Barton (1804, pI. 2, pp. 5-6). 12. See Cedar. 13. For Alabama see R. B. Browne (1958, pp. 20, 27,35,47,120) for alder, red alder, and tag-alder, including leaves. Also kidney trouble (p. 75),

which Bass says is related to blood in the urine, F. C. Brown, North Carolina Folklore (1957-64, 6:145), notes the use of alder tags for colds. Printed sources such as J, E, Meyer (1934, p. 15), who mentions the European alder, may have influenced Bass, 14. E.g" Grieve (1971, 1:18) notes use for scrofula and as an alterative, tonic, astringent, and emetic. Also see Le Strange (1977, p. 116). Duke (1985, p.30), 15. Duke (1985, p, 30). 16. Claus (1956, p. 236).

others noted analogous properties between the two species. 7. L. Johnson (1884, p. 253). For another reference to domestic practice, see Mohr (1901, p. 467), who confirmed use in Alabama without stating how employed. For more recent references to Alabama beliefs see n. 13 below. Stille and Maisch (1879, pp. 182-83) also noted that the inner bark is said to be emetic. 8. Shoemaker (1893, 2:423). for example,linked

alterative properties with the treatment of scrofula, syphilis, and some cutaneous disorders, and noted use for soru mouth and gums. 9. For companies, see Parke-Davis (11l90, p. 177). Lilly (1919, p. 68). Le Strange (1977, p. 16) appears to overestimate the popularity. It is appropriate to add that Porcher (18£)3, pp. 266-68)' quoting

earlier comments, said that tag-alder had for a long time been neglected, but it was a good alterative and astringent for scrofula. Some Eclectic physicians were probably enthusiastic about it. According to Ellingwood (1915, p. 274), Dr. Ramey of Lincoln, Nebraska, suggested the use of Alnus in the treatment of syphilis when given with echinacea and stillingia. 10. R. E. Griffith (1847, pp. 434-35). 11. Rafinesque (11l28-30, 2 :189). IIex verticillota

is common in Canada and the northern United

ALFALFA (tops) The Herbalist's Account Everyone knows of alfalfa for cattle, but it's one of the most wonderful safe herbs we know, The Indians recommended it highly. They called it buffalo grass because it made the buffaloes fat. It's famous for a root that goes right down in the ground. It's one of the herbs that's coming up, It contains many different minerals and vitamins and I've started to sell the whole tops. It's recommended for all sorts of things, especially as a tonic for the blood, It is a good spring tonic and can be used for rheumatism. I've recommended it for a long time, but there's not much around here. I've learned more about it recently from Prevention and the health food people. They're on to a good thing. Commentary Medicago sativa 1. * , including varieties: trefoile, Burgundy trefoile, lucerne, alfalfa, buffalo grass (local name).

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Fabaceae (Leguminosae) An important perennial, cloverlike forage plant-considered to be native to the Middle East and first planted in the United States (Georgia) in 1736-alfalfa attracted relatively little medical interest until recent times.1 John Gerard (1597), however, was one early writer to indicate that the plant had the same medical value as clover when applied to inflammations and used for gastric upsets. 2 Mr. Bass has long recommended alfalfa to visitors, although between the late 1960s and 1970s it was not readily available to him. The considerable usage alfalfa acquired in the southeastern states during the first half of the century was undermined by a destructive alfalfa weevil; resistant cultivated forms are now being grown. 3 The story of alfalfa is especially interesting for Mr. Bass and many of his visitors because the plant's recent popularity vindicates many years of advocating it. Its present reputation is such that at least one of Bass's visitors talks of "substituting" for it another forage crop, LespedezQ spp., known locally as "seresa," (rather than the more common name sericea) and considered, by a few people at least, to be as good a medicine as alfalfa.4 Bass's enthusiasm for alfalfa as a tonic rests partly on its recent promotion as a rich source of "minerals, vitamins, and protein"-contributing to the reputation as a forage crop.5 The clinical relevance of other constituents, including amino acids, fats, pigments, saponins, flavones, isoflavones, and triterpenes, is unclear. The view that alfalfa is a tonic reflects the fact that vitamins have generally superseded tonics of the past, particularly the once-popular bitters, which remain a conspicuous feature of Bass's practice. His enthusiasm for alfalfa does not extend to recent recommendations for conditions such as allergies and high cholesterol levels because, he says, he has no experience. He is nevertheless ready to believe its value

for rheumatism and arthritis-widely discussed in advocacy literature-because of the reputed tonic property.6 Alfalfa, at least the whole tops, is generally recognized as safe. 7 However, some studies have shown alfalfa saponins-like all saponins-to be hemolytic. One case has been reported of a probable link between pancytopenia and eating large doses of alfalfa seeds over a period of time.8 It has also been noted that alfalfa may intensify or exacerbate symptoms caused by sensitivity to various pollens, making its use for treating allergies potentially hazardous. 9 Flatulence and diarrhea are other side effects. Questions about physiological effects remain, because it has been stated that alfalfa saponins are not absorbed in mammals. This property is perhaps linked to the lowering of blood cholesterol levels through the formation of insoluble complexes in the intestine.1o Even so, advocacy literature stating that alfalfa is of proven value for high cholesterol levels ignores the lack of sound clinical data and information on appropriate dosages. Alfalfa seeds-sometimes recommended as a health food-contain canavanine, a cytotoxic compound. The concentration of canavanine decreases rapidly as alfalfa seeds germinate, hence the relative safety of mature alfalfa.H This has led to suggestions that alfalfa sprouts, a popular salad food, are safe, though this has been questioned. A seemingly innocuous plant, alfalfa perhaps should be used cautiously, and excessive enthusiasm for the product as a health food has moderated. The effects of polyploidy and considerable hybridization on constituents remains uncertain. Notes 1. For a review of the long history of alfalfa, see Hendry (1923); also helpful are F. P. Griffiths (1949), Janick et a1. (1974, pp. 445-47). Alfalfa is rarely mentioned in medically oriented writings.

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Monographs

Porcher noted only that "Medicago lupulina (yellow clover, lucern, nonesuch) had been planted extensively as a clover. but is not so valuable as other species~the M. sativa. for example" (1863.

10. For reference to this and other properties of alfalfa saponins, see Birk and Peri (1980); MalinO\\' (1984) discusses alfalfa meal. 11. E. A. Bell (1960) discusses alfalfa meal.

p.176). 2. Gerard (1597, p. 1022); we believe that Gerard's Trifolium burgundiacum is probably Medicago salivo. Other species of Medicago were discussed under "Medick Fodder, or Snaile Clover" (pp. 1029-30). While rarely mentioned in later medical books. Tull's Horse-hoeing Husbandry (1733) stated "La Lucerne is that Herba Medica so much Extoll'd by the Ancients" (though see Oxford English Dictionory, 1933,6:484). 3. Ball (1984). Nowadays, cultivars. effective insecticides for weevil control, and high costs for importing the bulky alfalfa from western statcs have led to renewed cultivation in Bass's region and other parts of the southeast.

4. The origin of local medical interest in sericea is

uncertain. Lespedeza cunea10 (Dumont) G. Don. (syn. L. scricco [Thunda.] Miq.) was promoted all over the southeast for forage as well as soil erosion and development. See "Sericeo lespedeza. Its Use and Management." USDA Formers' Bull., no. 2245 (November 1970), and reprints that followed. This species has attracted medical interest elsewhere; e.g., Perry (1980. pp. 218-19). 5. It is of some interest that amid the early enthusiasm for vitamins, the vitalnin content of alfalfa

led to its inclusion in the formula of Pablum, the famed infant food introduced in 1931. For constituents. see Leung (ln80, pp. 15-17)' the British Herbal Pharmacopneio (1983. p. 140), Duke (1985. pp. 2B!l-300). 6. Promoted, for example, by L. Griffin (1979, pp. 25-28). See Tyler, Honest Herbal (1982. pp. 21-22],

and der Marderosian (1977), A point of interest is an occasional reference in the literature to the use of alfalfa for stomachache; e.g .. F. C. Brown. North Carolina Folklore (1961. 6:220). Bass has not heard of this and considers it may I", due to the tonic action. 7. See Leung (1980) for status. 8. Malinow et al. (1981). 9. Polk (1982).

ALOES, OR ALOE (dried juice or exudate from leaves and mucilaginous pulp from leaf parenchyma); AGAVE (leaves and juice)

The Herbalist's Ac(;ount They used to use aloe as a purge for cattle. Now aloe vera liquid in the past three or four years is everywhere. It's good for burns. stomach ulcers. and almost everything. Oldtimers used it for the kidneys. I started to sell it in 1983, I don't try to buck the other sellers. but when somebody comes along and wants to buy it. I sell it. A friend of mine in Cloudland [Georgia] sells it in streamlined tablets all over the mountains. They're so good~ they have a nutty flavor~he brought hundreds of dollars worth to sell. People put aloe plants in pots in the kitchen and break the leaves off to put on burns. We used to use house leek instead of aloes for burns and things. Now there's lots of things llew to our stores. So many people of different nationalities are here now. and so. therefore. new things like snails and rattlesnake meat and artichokes has come to our stores, too. Commentary Aloe \'era (L.) Burm f. [syns. Aloe barbadensis Mill.; A. vera (L.) Webb and Berth.; A. elon6ata Murf.; A. humilus Blanco; A. indica Royle; A. littoral is Koen.; A. perfoliata vera; A. vulgaris Lam.l: aloe. sea houseleeke. sea aigrene. Cape and other types of aloes. burn plant. A. varieg(]ta L.: aloe. dwarf aloe. burn plant. Liliaceae Recent widespread enthusiasm for "aloe vera" is signal evidence for Mr. Bass that a new era for herbs is dawning. He first learned

Monographs

Agave about solid aloes-the inspissated (evaporated) juice or exudate from the widely distributed Aloe vera and other Aloe species (notably A . ferax)-during the 1920s as a purgative for cattle . General stores sold it "by the pound" and it was given to cattle with the feed. Bass has a distant memory, too, of its use in certain proprietary medicines, but he does not remember which ones.' Solid aloes, long associated commercially with arid regions in, for instance, Curacao, Socotra, South Africa, and Zanzibar, have a history extending back to classical times.' John Gerard (1597) considered two aloe plants-one probably A. vera-noting purgative and, when mixed with cinnamon, ginger, and mace, healing properties. 3 No indication is given of knowledge of the value of the mucilaginous pulp. Despite the popularity of aloes-it has been one of the best-known laxatives-it has a reputation fO! producing unpleasant griping. Not surprisingly, even while it was generally used in compounded

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preparations, other purgatives have often been preferred, including the well-known cascara and senna, which contain similar active constituents to those in aloes-the well-studied anthraquinone glycosides. Nowadays, aloe is best known for the unevaporated, often diluted gel (sometimes mixed with pulp), which is promoted intensively as a cleanser, antiseptic, vasodilator, and moisturizer for treating burns, ulcers, and many other problems. Commercial production (mostly of A . vera) occurs in Florida, Texas, and elsewhere. Bass, in his eclectic manner, now promotes this product. Interest in aloe vera gel in North America can be traced back to the 1920s and 1930s -in part through treating X-ray and radium burns-and the current boom back to the early 1960s.4 While testimony is considerable that the gel is a helpful first -aid dressing for minor burns and wounds, claims of promoters have gone far beyond this. The nationwide success of salesmanship during recent years, reflected in Bass's comments, is hard to underestimate; aloe vera gel has reached all corners of urban and rural America, including the Mackey-Leesburg area, where it is frequently marketed as a health product or in the form of cosmetics by dealers working from their homes. Many homes, too, have an "aloe" plant-often the dwarf A. variegataon a window ledge in case the need arises to break a leaf and apply the juice to cuts and burns. Scientific opinion that the effectiveness of the gel is exaggerated is no match for the fervent testimony we have heard about wonderful cures and its use as a veritable panacea. 5 Scientific studies suggest only limited value, and perhaps even that is unproven. Recent and ongoing studies for use on burns and injuries (including frostbite) may be valuable. An action encouraging certain biochemical aspects of trauma repair is postulated .6 The purgative action of solid aloes is due to

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the presence of a complex of anthraquinone glycosides, notably barbaloin? The gel contains variable concentrations of a variety of compounds, including anthraquinones (depending on the method of preparation). tannins, organic acids, enzymes, vitamins, minerals, saponins, steroids, and various carbohydrate polymers, notably glucomannans or pectic acid. Some believe that glucomannan is the active constituent, but evidence is not convincing; others postulate the presence of specific "biogenic stimulators," woundhealing hormones, or possible synergism.B Bass's mention of aloe for the kidney is an unusual comment. He perhaps picked up the information from Joseph Meyer's Herbalist, which, under "aloe," describes agave, listing it as a diuretic. 9 Agave (Agave spp. [American agave, American aloes, century plant]). Agave americana L. and other species have strong affinities with species of Aloe. although the anatomy and cytology are distinct. Lay confusion between the plants is frequent, especially when agave is used as a houseplant. Little medical interest has been aroused in agave plants - important as a source of fiber and for the production of fermented and distilled liquors-at least up to the present century and outside the regions where they grow. On the other hand, uses similar to aloes-as a laxative, diuretic, emmenagogue, and application for skin ailments-were reported in a few nineteenth-century writings from Europe, America, and elsewhere.1O American authors, however, in 1894 implied that testimony to its value was uncertain,u Employment for skin ailments-even though it is difficult to break the fibrous leaves-still attracts some interest as an alternative to aloe gel. Studies have been reported on the presence of saponins, but apart from use in skin ailments it is unclear that saponins account for other clinical uses such as treating colic,12

Notes 1. Carter's Little Liver Pills and Beecham's Pillsmore common in Britain-are well-known examples.

2. Many forms of aloes have been sold commercially. For an account written when the use of aloes was considerable, see Pereira (1842, 2:965-74). Socotrine aloe (A. perryi), widely discussed in the older literature. is apparently no longer available (see letters in Pharm. f. 177 [1956]: 372, 398,41314.431.499.486). Among accounts of early usage of aloes is Scarborough (1982). 3. Gerard (1597, pp. 409-11). Gerard/Johnson (1636. pp. 507-9), gives a significantly modified

account. A number of authors believe that Gerard described A. vulgaris Lam. and, despite references to whitish rather than yellow flowers. have equated this with A. barbadensis Mill. (e.g .• Fluckiger and Hanbury, 1879, p. 679). 4. For review up to 1961 see J. F. Morton (1961). more recently. Grindlay and Reynolds (1986).

5. Medical opinion includes contradictory views. Some literature merely suggests that Aloe vera is a benign. if overpriced, concept. For a selection of opinions. see Ship (1977). Hecht (1981). For reviews: "Aloe Update." Lawrence Rev. Nat. Prod. 3 (1982): 81-84; and Felts (1983). 6. Interest stemmed from use in regular medicine for radiation burns. etc .. e.g .. Rowe (1940). Recent papers encouraging further interest include El Zawahry et al. (1973), McCauley et al. (1983), Grindlay and Reynolds (1986). 7. For detailed review of the chemistry. see T. Reynolds, "Compounds in Aloe Leaf Exudates" (1985). 8. Leung (1980. pp. 24-25). 9. J. E. Meyer (1934. p. 16). Later described as Aloe vera.

10. For instance. ranging from Dictionnaire Encyclopedique des Sciences Medicales (1865, 2:13435) to Asian writings listed in L. M. Perry (1980. p.12). 11. Stille and Maisch (1894. p. 145). 12. Various references to its use in colic appear in the nineteenth-century literature; e.g .. G. B. Wood and Bache (1883. p. 1563). Many other miscellaneous uses have been recorded-although perhaps little used-e.g .• for treating snakebites. (The name rattlesnake master has been recorded.)

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49

ALUMROOTS (rhizomes); ALUM The Herbalist's Account There are two alumroots. The one I get is also called wild geranium. It's been used ever since time . It grows in low, damp, wooded areas from four inches to a foot tall . Has a light purple bloom. The seedpod is open-like. It dies down but comes back from the root. It is best to dig in May and June. They claim it is good when everything else fails to stop bleeding, inside and outside, too. I use it some, and I can highly recommend it. It works in the same place as the chemical alum. It's a high-power astringent, but it's not harsh. It is easy to use. One tablespoon of broke-up roots boiled in a pint of water makes a tea in which cuts and wounds can be soaked to stop bleeding and speed healing. Anyone's got anything wrong with their stomach-like bleeding ulcers and hemorrhages, you can boil the fleshy roots in sweet milk and drink as often as needed to stop internal bleeding. The sweet milk gives it a tendency to be a little thicker. You can tell the bleeding if they pass blood when the bowels move, or if they spit it. The only place I know where the other alumroot grows is near Rock City, near here. It's like alum, it has a lot of astringency-it's high power-and good for stopping bleeding and for sore throats. Commentary Geranium maculalum L. *: cranesbi/1. doves foot, pigeon's foot, storkes bill, wild geranium, spotted cranesbill, alumroot. G. robertianum L. [syn. Robertiel1a robertianum (L.) Hanks] : herb robert. Geraniaceae Heuchera americana L. *, including varieties: alumroot, American sanicle, wild alumroot (local name). Saxifragaceae The well-known indigenous plants G. macu-

Alumroot (Geranium maculatum)

latum and H. americana are commonly called alumroot, though G. maculatum is just as frequently known as wild alum or cranesbill. Mr. Bass is familiar with both plants but more so with G. maculatum, a perennial readily available to him; with its pretty purple flowers, it is one of the most attractive species of Geranium . John Gerard (1597) considered many cranes bills, all said to possess cold and dry qualities and binding properties. They were noted for treating wounds and inflammations and as styptics.' Eighteenth-century British authors like William Lewis recorded similar properties for some species of Geranium, of which G. robertianum, naturalized in the United States, was then probably the best known? On the American side of the Atlantic, early colonists may well have known of alum's reputation for agues (malarial fevers).' Later, Pursh, in one of the few medical notes in his influential Flora Americanae (1814) , wrote that G. maculatum-which was to become medically the best-known cranesbill, even

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in Britain-was "successfully employed in curing the flux among children, which is a disease very prevalent."· A short while afterward, Rafinesque wrote that the root "is a pure, pleasant and valuable astringent equal to kino and catechu and deserving not only the name of American kino, but to be introduced into the materia medica as a superior equivalent" (1828-30); another author noted its employment for "cholera in children."5 Although knowledge of G. moculatum owed something to analogy with the European cranesbills (Rafinesque said that Geranium robertianum is a weak equivalent of G. maculotum), other factors, such as its Indian reputation, may have contributed to the growing popularity.6 Unlike many medicinal plants, G. maculatum remained well known throughout the century for treating hemorrhages, both internal and external, and as a tonic. Stille (1874) made the pertinent point that it was "the most agreeable astringent that we possess, on account of not being associated with bitterness or any other unpleasant taste." He added that this accounted for its use as a domestic remedy and by physicians for bowel complaints in children? In 1880 two British authors remarked that geranium was rarely used beyond the United States, but in that country was extensively employed and regarded as applicable in all cases where astringent medicines were required." Bass's comments are entirely in line with nineteenth-century uses of G. maculotum based on astringency. Interest arises as to whether this plant is more effective than "the other alumroot," Heuchera americona, a highly polymorphic plant with small, relatively inconspicuous greenish or purplish flowers in a loose terminal cluster, commonly on a long stalk. Bass knows this plant but rarely finds it: "The only place it grows is near Rock City." Heuchera americana was apparently well known in the nineteenth century, but it is not

easy to assess its popularity compared with wild geranium, especially as information on habitats suggests that it was less widely available. Some credit was given to Indians during the nineteenth century for using Heuchera as a styptic. and suggestions were made that it was an appropriate substitute for betterknown astringents like rhatany and catechu.9 In the 1850s it was said to be seldom used internally,lO while Laurence Johnson (1884) wrote that though formerly official it was "now seldom employed except as a domestic remedy." He said it was chiefly used as a topical astringent in the form of a decoction, for sore throat, leukorrhea, menorrhagia, and the like. Other species of Heuchera, he added, possess similar properties!' Despite the rather negative opinions, Parke-Davis in the 1890s marketed a fluid extract of Heuchera americana for its astringent properties." With the high tannin content, its astringent properties are self-evident and it is unnecessary to suppose that interest among regular physicians stemmed from Indian usage, as is sometimes stated." Despite the high tannin content, Bass, from traditional wisdom rather than experience, believes that wild geranium is more effective as an astringent than Heuchera. Bass's recommendations-following those once found in regular medicineare rationalized on the basis of astringency. Usage for internal bleeding is, however, questionable, although it is often noted in the popular tradition H Alum. The vernacular name aluffiIoot is used on the basis of analogy with the wellknown mineral substance alum, which has been used as an astringent since at least classical times. It appears to have been widely used in the eighteenth century. In 1785 British author George Motherby said that it was used as a powerful astringent for sore gums, to restrain uterine hemorrhages, and to check the fluor albus. He added, "though in these sorts of fluxes it is highly com-

Monographs

mended, it is rarely and with great caution to be admitted in diarrhoeas and dysenteries." " This information was substantially repeated in many nineteenth-century writings, along with a few other uses; for example, as an emetic. Many people seemed to consider alum a panacea, especially in domestic usage.'fi Innumerable Alabama beliefs refer to the employment of alum: for thrush (often with other ingredients; e.g .. honey. persimmon]. as a styptic, for boils. in cough medicines. for sore eyes, sore gums. hemorrhoids. "proud flesh." ulcers of the lips, sore mouth. and sore throat.17 Mr. Bass is familiar with all these uses.

51

delicate stomach." An earlier article by Bentley (1863-64) apparently did not encourage the British

interest that he hoped. 9. E.g., see B. S. Barton (1798. p. 8) for one of many

references to Indian usage. 10. Clapp (1852, p. 774). 11. L. johnson (1884, p. 144). 12. Parke-Davis (1890, p. 8). 13. L. johnson (1884) noted 18-28 percent tannin. Duke (1985, p. 209) on G. maculalum lists 10-28

percent tannin, resin, starch. sngar, and calcium oxalate. 14. Popular beliefs (see, e.g., F. C. Brown, North Carolina Folklore, 1961, 6:220) do not distinguish the various alumroots. Mention of use for the liver is unknown to Bass. 15. Motherby (1785, under alumen) noted many

Notes

preparations of the drug.

1. Gerard (1597, p. 793). Qualities are those listed

16. Capron and Slack (1848, p. 21). A long account appears in Stille (1874, 1:171-83).

for the first cranesbill described by Gerard, which cannot be identified with certainty. His uses, however, apply to all cranesbills. Various vernacular synonyms for cranesbills have been employed indiscriminately. Gerard's cranesbill, "Geranium maculatum sine Fascum," is not the Geranium maculatum indigenous to America. 2. W. Lewis (1769, 1:390-91). Earlier, Gerard (1597, p. 794). on herb robert. Le Strange (1977, PI'. 129-30) provides perspective on some of the 150

or so species of geraniums. 3. Josselyn (18Il5; p. 45 of 1672 ed.) described

raven's-claw as "admirable for agues." This was believed to be G. maculntum by the editor and by Felter (1927). However, for caution, see Crow'sfoot. 4. Pursh (1814, p. 419). 5. Rafinesque (1828-30. 1:215-19). Species of Heuchera noted as substitute. Don (1831, 1: 714): Porcher (1863, pp. 138-39) gives a sense of American entbusiasm.

6. For a note stressing the "meaning" of a plant, see Moerman (1982, pp. 7-8). 7. Stille (1874, 1:234-35). 8. Bentley and Trimen (1880, vol. 1, plant 42,

unpaginated). The authors added that it was "peculiarly serviceable for infants and persons of very

17. See R. B. Browne (1958, pp. 27, 28, 34, 36, 55, 69,74,77,84,98). These include "burnt alum" (p. 74) for proud flesh. Bass comments: "That's an

old belief. Put the alum in a spoon; put a match to it, it will dissolve to give you burnt alum."

ANEMONE; PASQUEFLOWER (leaves, tops) The Herbalist's Account Anemone is a folk medicine. I don't use itwe don't have it much around here. It's reckoned to be good for the nerves. Aunt Molly Kirby used it a lot for women. I've put it in a salve when someone has asked for it. The health food folks tell me it's another one on the up. Commentary Ancmone nemorosa L., including varieties and cultivars: anemone. wood anemone, European wood anemone, windflower. Pulsati1l(] vulgaris Mill. [syn. Anemone pulsatilla L.]: pasqueflower. windflower, pulsatilla. P. pratensis (L.) Mill. [syns. P. nigricans Stoerck; Anemone pratcnsis L.]: meadow

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anemone, windflower, pulsatilla, p, patens (1.) MilL subspecies multifida (G, A, Pritzel) Zamels [syns, Anemone nuttalliana Dc'; A, patens vaL nutalliana Gray; A. patens var. wolfgangiana (Bess) K. Koch.]: pasqueflower, American pasqueflower, windflower, pulsatilla. Anemone quinquefolia 1. * lsyns. A. Hemorosa var. quinquefolia Gray; A. nemorosa auct.]: anemone, windflower. Ranunculaceae With the exception of those listed above, most anemones have had a relatively small place in therapy. This is seemingly reflected in Mr. Bass's limited knowledge (he calls anemone a folk medicine), although it must be said that anemones are not common in his collecting areas. John Gerard (1597) under "wind-floures" (also called anemones) described various species, all noted to possess "hot and biting facultie," and with a reputation in the form of an eyewash for treating certain eye conditions, including inflammations. The juice was also noted as useful for ulcers and for certain deobstruent actions (e.g., as an emmenagogue ).1 Although interest persisted through the early eighteenth century, nineteenth-century writers generally gave credit to eighteenthcentury Vienna physician Anton Stoerck for encouraging the use of anemones; certainly Stoerck was instrumental in helping to popularize many potent plant remedies.' American writers in the 1800s frequently noted the reputation of anemones for treating blindness and other eye complaints and various skin conditions. 3 By the end of the century, however, many doubts had accumulated. Laurence Johnson (1884) discussed the American pasqueflower ("Anemone patens L. var. Nuttaliana Gray")' seemingly as the representative of all anemones, and was critical of authors who praised it as a "remedy in diseases of the eye, in rheumatism, amen-

orrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, etc." He indicated that his experiences and those of others raised many uncertainties. "As a remedy in rheumatism, dropsy, paralysis, etc., pulsatilla does not require serious attention. That its acrid and irritating properties might be made available in stimulating excretion is possible, but our knowledge is at present too limited to establish the point.'" Other physicians remained more positive. Nevertheless, present-day knowledge of constituents of, say, Pulsatilla vulgaris (despite an understanding of the role of the glycoside ranunculin and the formation of the lactone protoanemonin) still offers little understanding of clinical action (except for skin irritation). Twentieth-century authors have often encouraged interest in its use as an alterative, especially in the context of its long-standing reputation for treating syphilis, for the treatment of amenorrhea and dysmenorrhea, and for warts. Bass is correct in indicating that anemone (at least pulsatilla) is another herb on the way up. The current herbal literature draws attention to reputed-but without a strong historical pedigree-sedative, analgesic, spasmolytic, and bactericidal properties. 5 Bass's own lack of acquaintance with anemone is largely because it is uncommon in his area, but also because he did not learn much about female complaints from Aunt Molly Kirby. His recommendation of anemone in salves is rationalized on the basis of acrid properties. Whether or not A. quinquefolia, which he has collected, is as acrid as other anemones has not been determined. Notes 1. Gerard/Johnson (1633, pp. 374-84). At one time all anemones and pulsatillas were classified within the Linnacan genus Anemone. On the basis of differences, mostly as styles, some argue for them to be under separate genera Anemone L. and Pulsatilla P. Mill.; e.g., see Tutin et al. (1964-80), and Kartesz and Kartesz (1980).

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2. Crellin (1974). 3. G. B. Wood and Bache (1847. pp. 1227-28). 4. L. Johnson (1884. pp. 59-61). The American pasqueflower, according to Lloyd and Lloyd (188487, pp. 25-37). attracted little attention until around the mid-1BOOs. Lloyd stated: "We must admit that our Anemone patens var. Nuttalinna is so nearly like the foreign allied species that there is no reason that the future supply of 'pulsatilla' should not be derived from our native plant." In fact, amid many differences in taxonomy, some authorities list Pulsntilla patens ssp. multifida as occurring on both sides of the Atlantic. 5. E.g .. Youngken (1936, pp. 301-2), British Herbal Pharmacopoeia (1983, p. 174).

ANGELICA (root)

The Herbalist's Account I don't use it much, though sometimes people ask me for it. It doesn't grow around me, but there are substitutes. I buy the root ground up for them. It's really used as a flavoring and it's good for the stomach. In a way it's the same, a substitute for angelico [see monographJ-You can use it as a tonic-hut people don't want it as much. Some people have told me it's called wild licorice, but I don't know how many people uses that name. Commentary Angelica archangelica L., and subspecies [syns. A. officina/is Hoffm.; A. sativa Bess; Archangelica officinalis (Moench) Hoffm.]: ange lica, wild licorice, archangel. A. atropurpurea L. * [syn. Archangelica atropurpurea Hoffm.]: angelica, wild licorice, archangel, masterwort, purple angelica, wild angelica. Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) Although unimportant in Mr. Bass's practice, the aromatic Angelica archangelica has long been popular. Still cultivated in places and naturalized in North America, it provides interesting examples of both a decline in the

53

use of aromatic botanicals and confusion over names: angelica and angelico. John Gerard's 1597 description of angelica, reflecting a history extending back to classical times, indicated deobstruent actions. As he summarized: "hot and drie in the third degree, therefore it openeth, attentuateth, or maketh thinne, digesteth and procureth sweate." 1 Among the many associated uses (including for fevers and as an alexipharmic), stomach ailments were most commonly mentioned by later authors. John Quincy, for example, in 1719, after noting a variety of reputed uses, said it was considered little more than a carminative. Certainly its heyday may have been in the seventeenth century as an ingredient in aromatic remedies to combat the plague. 2 While it remained a perfume material, angelica declined in medical popularity during the eighteenth century but perhaps persisted as a domestic medicine. William Lewis (1791) said that although one of the "most elegant aromatics of European growth, it is little regarded in the present practice." 3 In the American colonies Angelica archangelica was probably well known: Later, James Ewell's popular home medicine book, The Medical Companion (1817), indicated its use as an ingredient in various formulas for colic, malarial fevers, and other ailments. 5 Although it achieved some "official" medical recognition (e.g., in the secondary list of the U.S. Pharmacopoeia), it was probably little used as a prescription medicine. 6 R. E. Griffith (1847) wrote that "angelica is an aromatic, stimulant and gentle tonic, but very seldom used as a therapeutic agent, its principal employment being as a sweetener, for which purpose the root and stalk are candied." 7 Even so, it continued to be noted in the literature-European as well as American-on materia medica until well into the twentieth century, especially for expectorant action (a reputation which emerged in

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the nineteenth century), though the tonic (stimulant) property was also commonly mentioned ." Modern writings on herbs often refer to the use of angelica to ward off contagious diseases, especially by chewing on the root. Certainly chewing on angelica was mentioned in the European literature (especially from the seventeenth century) on the plague, but almost always along with other aromatic botanicals; its reputation is not so strong as often implied," just as the oft-mentioned expectorant action was not well established. Americans possibly employed just as much the indigenous Angelica atropurpurca (with characteristic purple or partly purple stems; sometimes called wild angelica).'u It is often thought that Indian interest in this plant existed before white settlement, but there may be confusion with other plants such as Ligusticum canadense (see Angelico)Y L. Johnson (1884) described A. atropurpurea as aromatic, stimulant, diaphoretic, and-in large doses-emetic; he listed uses consistent with these properties and the concepts of the times: "It has been employed with benefit in chronic bronchitis, chronic rheumatism and gout, intermittent fever, etc. Like many other remedies of similar properties it is used in domestic medicine to promote the menstrual discharge." l2 Gerard's comment that the root of A. archangelica "is available against witchcraft and inchantments, i~ a man carrie the same about him as Fuchsius saith" is noteworthy.13 Although the persistence of this idea for angelica is not strong, angelico is popular as a good-luck charm among blacks who visit Bass, Angelica archongelico fruits and roots are rich in volatile oil (0.3-1 percent); also present are coumarins; other constituents reported in the root include plant acids, resin, and starch. The essential oil accounts for the carminative property-perhaps through

a relaxant action on the smooth musclethe only property recognized by Mr. Bass.14 Other uses are seemingly associated with the aroma. On the other hand, the reputation as a stimulant tonic seems to be linked in part with an earlier presumed action on the heart (a cordial). Mr. Bass is asked about angelica from time to time, and if it were readily available to him, he would recommend it more frequently. It has been used in the Appalachians for stomach problems.'s Coumarins, some of which are phototoxic, are pharmacologically interesting; the root (but not seed) oil has been reported to cause photo dermatitis under laboratory comlitions." It has been said that the drug should oat be given to diabetic patients because it produces an increase in urinary sugar concentrations.17 Recent findings indicate that coumarins inhibit insulin-stimulated lip 0genesis while enhancing actions of other hormones, including ACTH and adrenaline.'B Just how closely A. atropurpurea correlates chemically with A, archangelica is not recorded; differences and uses of uther Angelica species need to be considered in assessing past reputations, as does the view that much of the reputation has been based on the association of "hot" qualities in the herbs with deobstruent action. For comparative purposes, dong quai, the increasingly popular root of the Chinese plant Angelico polymorpha, attracts interest for the many coumarins present and the view that they may constitute a health hazard, at least for those on anticoagulant therapy. Notes 1. Gerard (1597, p. 847).

2. Quincy (1719, pp. 87-88); for examples of plague remedies, see The Queen's Closet Opened (1664).

3. Lewis (1791, p. 129). It should perhaps be added that Motherby (1785) described garden angelica

Monographs

(under Angelica sylvestris major) and noted it as an alexipharmic (i.e., acting against poisons). 4. William Byrd, for instance, wrote on 8 October 1729: "The Root of this Plant, being very warm and aromatick, is coveted by woodsmen extremely as a dry Dram, that is, when Rum, that cordial for all distresses, is wanting" (History of the Dividing Line, 1:99). 5. Ewell (1817, p. 496). 6. See G. B. Wood and Bache (1868, p. 115). 7. Griffith (1847, p. 322). 8. E.g., Briti~h Pharmaceutical Codex (1923, p.130).

9. For examples of recent reference, see Reader's Digest (1986, p. 86). 10. Many nineteenth-century books, especially

on domestic mp,dicine, listed "angelica" without indicating species; some (e.g., Cobb, 1846) described Angelica syl"estris. Thacher (1813, p. 141) called this wild angelica. Rishel (1828, p. 8) noted two kinds of angelica, indicating no diffef8nce in qualities. Authoritative Jacob Bigelow (1822. p. 69) wrote that an American species of angelica was substituted for the European one of the Edinburgh Pharmacapoeia. The taste and smell of this plant are highly agreeahle, resembling those of the European angelicas. 11. V. J. Vogel (1970, pp. ences.

272~73)

gives many refer-

12. L. Johnson (1884, p. 153). 13. Gerard (1597, p. 848). 14. See Leung [1980, pp. (1984, p. 3).

28~29),

Simon et al.

15. Notes for "gastric ulcers" in O. L. Jones (1967, p.49). 16. Opdyke (1974, 1975). 17. Grieve (1971, originally 1931, 1:38). Angelica, however, ha£ Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) regulatory status (Leung, 19BO. p. 29).

lB. Kimura et al. (H182).

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ANGELICO; LOVAGE (roots, fruit, leaves) The Herbalist's Account I first heard of angelica in 1925, but I never did know it by any other name until the early 1960s when a fellow asked me for boarhog root. He had been going all the way to Bogan Mountain to get it for his wife to make a tea. I didn't know what it was. The fellow said, "Bass, you're a hell of an herb man if you don't know what boarhog root is." I looked in my dictionary and herb books, and not a place could I find boarhog root. It rocked on and on until one day when old Doc Nelson from Gadsden came over and we was a-going over what we knowed-checking off. Some things I knew and he didn't. I said, "Doc, what is the other name for boarhog rooF" "Bass. don't you know what it is? That's the Alabama nigger name for angelico." It smells like celery, but it does have the aroma of a wet hog. The root grows way down to China in the ground. It can be harvested anytime between July and September. I can't find more than a little of it now and then. It started to really go in 1970. Gosh, I could sell a carload of it in just a few minutes. They just come to me for it in droves. They come and say, "I'll just give you any kind of money to get it." One time a colored fellow from Detroit saw I had a peanut-butter jar half full of the stuff; said that he could get a hundred dollars for that much in Detroit. The doggone dealers want to buy every bit. On the market it brings just seventy-five cents a pound. The Campbell Fur and Root Company told me Wilcox would furnish all you want. I wrote Wilcox and sent a selfaddressed envelope and never did hear from him. I presume that he didn't have it. To my way of thinking, it is one of the most simple tonics that you can get. In fact, it's right up there with ginseng. The roots are used as a stimulant for the heart and for rheumatism. and it's good for the entire system. In fact, it's a paint job all throwed in one, you

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know. It works on your liver, your kidney, and your heart. It works on the blood stream, too. There is no aftereffect about it. Course, doctors don't talk about tonics any more. If you have a run-down system, they give you a shot or a blood transfusion. But it used to be that for a run-down system or for a blood condition the old-time doctors and Indians and grandmas would give you something like angelico, or yellow dock, or mayapple, or black cohosh or cherry bark, and it would work on your blood and improve your whole body. That's what angelica does. It digests your food and it thins the blood. But just by itself it's not as good as with wild cherry bark or the bark of tag-alder to back it up. Angelico, or boarhog root, is an ingredient in my famous BH tonic. The Indians used it for quite a number of different things-almost anything that was wrong with a person. The colored people claim it makes a young man out of an old man. I think it's praised a little too high as far as being a sex stimulant, but of course if a person wants to try it for that there's no harm in it. You can't take an overdose of it. It's like that with the ginseng. The leaves are used as a licorice to flavor candy or cakes or to flavor other medicines. Commentary Ligusticum canadense (L.) Britt. * [syns. 1. actaeifolium Michx.; Angelica lucida aut. not L.; 1. actaeifolium aut. not Michx.): nondo, angelico, boar hog root. Levisticum officinale Koch [syns. Levisticum vulgare Reichb.; Ligusticum levisticum L.]: lovage, maggi plant. Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) Although rarely mentioned in the medical literature, the indigenous perennial angelica is a major feature of Mr. Bass's practice, especially for blacks, who view it as a tonic, aphrodisiac, and good-luck charm. ' A. Clapp may have been describing an-

gelico in 1852 when he called Ligusticum actaeifolium either angelica nondo or white root and said it was "held in high esteem among the Southern indians as a medicine, and is used in cookery." He indicated that some earlier references to Angelica lucido in fact described Ligusticum actoeifolium, but it is unclear whether he was correct in every case cited.2 Later, Charles Mohr, in "Plant Life of Alabama" (1901), wrote that Ligusticum conadense was called "white root" and used in domestic medicine.' Angelico is a good example of a plant that has apparently survived in domestic medicine largely via oral rather than printed information; however, interest may also have been sustained by analogy-based on botanical relationships and sensory properties-with either angelica or with the European lovage (see below), which is occasionally adventive. Of course, an independent assessment of the sensory properties of angelica may have been at play, or perhaps knowledge transmitted by Indians. (Apart from Clapp's remark about Indian usage, William Bartram in 1773 noted that the "carminative Angelica lucida" was called by "Creek and Cherokee traders, white rooL")4 Lovage. At times placed in the same genus as angelico, lovage has a long but modest medical history. John Gerard described it under the heading Levisticum vulgore, although he said relatively little about the medical properties of the "hot and drie" plant, merely that the roots are "good for inward diseases, driving away ventosities or windynesse, especially of tb.e stomach." The use of the seeds and a distilled water was also noted.s Eighteenth-century authors spoke well of it but generally indicated it to be somewhat inferior to angelica. This attitude persists in the twentieth century, though stimulant, diaphoretic, and carminative properties are still recognized. 6 Lovage was commonly described in nineteenth-century American literature as

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57

possessing carminative, diaphoretic, and carminative properties said to be "analogous to those of angelica."7 Bass's comments on angelico go beyond any published account. He views it as a general tonic; the root is not intensely bitter, but at least he follows past opinions that aromatic substances stimulate the blood and the entire "system," and hence can be viewed as tonics. (The employment of tonics for rheumatism is discussed in volume 1, chapter 7.) Whether a physiological factor lies behind angelico's popularity-mostly among blacks-as an aphrodisiac is unclear. It is interesting that the popular herbal remedy dong quai (the Chinese plant Angelica polymorpha Maxim var. sinensis Oliv.) is widely recommended for gynecological complaints. No recent chemical analysis of angelico has been found. Ligusticum officinale contains a volatile oil. some of whose constituents are phthalides. These have sedative actions and, if present in sufficient concentration, might be contributory to the reputation as a carminative.

of the plant in early references to A. lucida and Ligusticum actaeifolium (see, for example, Fernald, 1919). Torrey (1838-40, 1 :618) indicated that the southern L. actaeifolium is "possibly distinct from that of Canada, but the two agree minutely in the fruit."

Notes

ANISE (fruit, oil)

1. It has

The Herbalist's Account

been suggested that the common name "angelica" is a local one. but it has been fairly widely reported; e.g.. in various editions of Gray's Manual of Botany, and in Nickell (c. 1904, p. 81). 2. See Clapp (1852, p. 778). Although the name A. lucida-now a synonym for Coelopleurum

lucidum (L.) Fern.-is still used by some authorities (e.g., Scoggan, 1978-79,4:1159) for a northeastern plant, it was listed by some eighteenth- and nineteenth-century authors as found in the South. Porcher (1863, p. 46) followed Elliott's (1821-24, 1:353) account in discussing A. lucida, but also noted that some considered it to be A. archangelica. Porcher stressed the fragrance of the root. In Porcher's copy of Elliott's Sketch (Trent Collection, Duke University Medical Center), the phrase "very aromatic" is underlined. Porcher also appears to have added a North Carolina habitat for the plant. Undoubtedly there is uncertainty over the identity

3. Mohr (1901, p. 643) gave L. actaeifolium Michx. as a synonym. 4. See Bartram (1958, p. 29). Ligusticum species

have been noted in twentieth-century literature as employed by Indians, but without indication of widespread usage (d. Moerman, 1986, 1:260-61). 5. Gerard (1597, p. 855). 6. See W. Lewis (1769, 2:22-23). Motherby (1785,

under Levisticum) summarized its reputation succinctly: "All the parts of this plant are aromatic, and strongly resemble angelica, but not so agreeable. The seeds are warm and pungent, and most agreeably flavored." The plant has been chiefly recommended as an antihysteric. For twentiethcentury information see Dispensatory of the United States (1926, p. 1363). Bass, perhaps surprisingly, has not heard of lovage, which is cultivated and occasionally adventive in the United States. 7. E.g., G. B. Wood and Bache (1847, p. 1273).

We could talk a long time about anise. I've always known about it. I took a dose (five drops of oil in some sugar) before I left home this morning. I keep a little bottle in the kitchen. It's one of the finest things for the stomach and it's good for the sore throat. You can use it for flavoring candy in the place of licorice, and it's used in lots of drinks. I've got it growing from seed I bought from the Shumway Seed Company about eight years ago. It's supposed to winter kill, but it comes up every year from the roots. It is waist high now. Everybody that comes along likes to have a sprig of that; it's nearly sprigged out. The Indians would boil it and skim the oil off the top. I use the oil that I buy, but when

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I run out of the oil, I use the seeds. I make a tea from the seeds and add it to medicine for a pleasant flavor. And it is good for fish bait or animal bait. It's the odor that draws their attention. Angelico and asafetida is good for bait, too, because they have got a loud odor. It's against the law now. Lord, I used it for bee hunting to attract bees. You put the oil on corncobs or something like that. After the bee gathers a bunch of that oil, it starts back for the tree or hole in the ground. You watch it tlv. Then you follow, as straight as you can walk. Commentary Pimpinella anisum L. * [syns. Anisum vulgare Gaertn.; A. aromatyica Bieb.]: anise, anise seed. Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) Mr. Bass's comment, "We could talk a long time about anise," reflects the long medical history of this plant. One of many umbelliferous plants that have been employed in medicine, it was probably naturalized in early colonial times. Bass finds it easy to grow in his yard because it readily reseeds. John Gerard (1597). summarizing long usage, reported anise as "hot and dry in the third degree," or "according to some in the second degree." 1 Like all hot and dry medicines, it was considered to have deobstruent properties. While some uses noted by Gerard (e.g., "provoketh urine, maketh abundance milk, and stirreth up bodily lust") gradually disappeared from the medical literature. recommendations for carminative action ("good against belchings and upbraidings of the stomach, alaieth gripings of the belly") and, to a lesser extent, for coughs remained commonplace. The widespread use of aromatic substances as stimulants has been considered under tonics (volume 1, chapter 7). These include many plants of the family Apiaceae. Often the stimulant action was considered an un-

welcome characteristic of an aromatic used as a carminative, particularly for children. but anise, like dill, was valued by some for its mildness. William Cullen made an interesting assessment in 1775: "The seeds of the Umbellatae seem peculiarly adapted in the case of children. These, from the acescency of their milk, are liable to cholic pains. Spirits, and weak punch, are often very improperly employed by the nurses. Anise seeds are very effectual for the purpose, as they act in an inconsiderable small dose, and therefore are safe, [and] they are not in hazard of inducing bad habits, or stimulating too much. These are their real virtues." 2 Although anise probably declined in general popularity in the eighteenth century, it was considered by most American writers on materia medica during the nineteenth. Carminative properties were emphasized, but its value as a "flavoring ingredient in medicines for children" was often noted along with its similarity to licorice. Expectorant action received less attention. 3 Despite the comments of Cullen and others, anise has been continually referred to as an "aromatic stimulant," including in the current herbal advocacy literature. 4 Bass's use of the oil for indigestion-based on the long-recognized carminative action -is a treatment still acceptable to modern medicine, even if not widely used. The recommendation for sore throat, presumably palliative rather than curing. say, an infection, is perhaps linked to anise's long reputation as an expectorant in coughs and colds, a doubtful property not appreciated by Bass. 5 Bass has not heard that anise increases the amount of milk during lactation, as he has for fennel and other substances (volume 1, chapter 7). In fact, anise's reputation in this respect appears to be less well established than that of fennel. In 1879 C. D. F. Phillips. in line with many authors generally questioning galactogogue reputations, wrote: "Anise is

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unquestionably eliminated both in the urine and the milk, has therefore been credited with the power of increasing the excretions, but there is no good evidence of this."6 The volatile oil present (1-4 percent) is credited with the carminative action. The constituent anethole is found in up to 8090 percent concentration, which may be relevant to a galactogogue action if it really exists? Other constituents include physiologically active coumarins and flavonoids, but there is no clear indication that they contribute to the therapeutic action." Whether or not an irritant effect lies behind the reputation as a diuretic is uncertain. Notes 1. See Gerard (1597, p. 879). In one of countless examples of discrepancies over degrees of hotness and dryness, W. Turner wrote: "The anise whiche we use nowe adayes is not so hot as Galen sayeth that his anise is, for he sayeth that anise is hote and dry in the third degree" (1548; 1965 ed., p. 155).

2. Cullen (1775, p. 255). Despite Cullen's positive views, J. Hill indicated that the strong taste of anise seed contributed to lack of popularity "though perhaps to the disadvantage of the patient" (1751, p.516). 3. E.g., Stille and Maisch (1879, p. 177). Griffith (1847, pp. 319-20), Farquharson and Woodbury (1882, p. 149). 4. Occasionally this is mentioned in the more balanced herbal literature, e.g., Spoerke (1980, p. 25). 5. It is (1980,

still reported as an expectorant; see Leung p. 32). J. E. F. Reynolds (1982, p. 671) noted it as a mild expectorant. Apart from Bass, we have found no other Appalachian support for the expectorant action. 6.

Phillips (1879, p. 222).

7.

Albert-Puleo (1980).

For constituents, see Leung (1980, p. 31), Simon et al. (1984, p. 6). For reference to phytosterols, etc., see Karknig et al. (1975) study on tissue culture of root (not fruit). 8.

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APPLE TREE: CULTIVATED AND CRAB APPLE (bark, leaves, fruit, juice, vinegar)

The Herbalist's Account Apples are a real nutritious food. I dry lots of apples for use in the winter. Apples are good for constipation, but if you eat them dried, they are good for diarrhea. I use apple tree bark in my BH tonic and in most all medicines that I put up because it is safe. I peel off the bark from branches when I prune the trees. Since I've been using apple bark, my medicines have greatly improvedpeople tell me. Of course, I took it first before I gave it to others. I had arthritis myself, and by jingo it done me good. A lady took one bottle and came back for four more, and it sharpened her appetite. The bark has more tonic in it than the leaves, but fresh leaves can be used. A red man said apple tree bark is better for you than the apple. The old saying is, "An apple a day keeps the doctor away, and an onion a day keeps everybody away." Make a tea or syrup from the bark (or leaves in the summer) for a sour stomach or if the stomach burns. It settles your stomach. There is no aftereffect and it don't burn your stomach. The bark is an old remedy in the South, but not too many people know about it. Of course, the wood is a good one for lumber. Handsaw handles used always to be made of apple wood. We have tame and wild crab apples. Crab apples, especially the wild, are too sour for most people, but if you can stand them they're good for the stomach. Folks used to use the bark when they didn't want to hurt their own tree. Cider and vinegar. Lots of folks say that apple juice is the best thing for you. I guess it's always been used. Vinegar is another one used for many different things, as far back as time, I guess. It's been used by all kinds of people. The Indians used it a lot. In the old days a bootlegger made brandy from apples.

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It's just like whiskey. I guess it was a good medicine. Vinegar is made from lots of things-herbs, elderberries, and poke berries-but, medically speaking, apple vinegar is best. Natural vinegar is used as a stimulant and cooling drink. Add some water to it and take it internally to stimulate the appetite. Vinegar and sugar is a good sweetener for the mouth; now they use chlorophyll. Some old-timers used vinegar in the room of a sick person. They'd sprinkle it on the floor. I've recommended vinegar to put on diaper rash and prickly heat. It'll do for poison ivy. I've got a formula for using two cupfuls of the inner bark of white oak, a quart of vinegar, and a quart of water. The oak is given a good, slow boil in the vinegar and water for about twenty-five minutes. Strain and soak it up hot in a towel and give three or four applications to the veins. The apple vinegar is said to be used for rheumatism, but I've not tried it. Commentary

Malus xdomestica Borkh. *, cultivated and naturalized forms [syns. Pyrus malus 1.; Malus pumila Mill.; M. communis Pair.; Pyrus pumila (Mill.) C. Koch.]: apple tree. Malus sylvestris (L.) Mill [syns. Pyrus sylvestris 1.; M. malus (L.) Britt.; P. malus L.]: crab apple, wilding. M. angustifolia Raf. *, and other species: crab apple, tame crab apple, wild crab apple. Rosaceae The annual sight of trays of sliced apples drying on the roof of Mr. Bass's storm cellar is a nostalgic reminder of times past for many visitors. Bass advises that apples must be dried very carefully and stored in glass jars, not plastic bags.1 His comment that dried apple helps to control diarrhea reflects occasional twentieth-century writings,2 but the bark of the apple tree, one of Bass's favorite medicines, is seldom mentioned in the popu-

lar or regular medical literature. Bass says that the bark is used when people can't get apples in the winter. Early writers often classified apples and their medical properties according to taste, although John Gerard (1597) described apples ("tame" and "wild," or crab apple) as possessing "cold and moist" qualities (varying according to the type of apple) and "good for an hot stomach" (d. Bass's remarks on bark), an ingredient in other medicines, and useful for all inflammations and hot swellings. Leaves were also believed to be helpful for early stages of inflammation. Mentioned, too, was the use of pulp, in the form of "pome-water," for difficult urination and for making pomatum, a well-known ointment "to beautify the face." 3 Belief in the value of apples for upset stomach has persisted to the present, despite words of caution over the years. In 1617 it was said that they "engender ventosities in the second digestion wherefore they can be unwholesome for sicke folks"; and later (1812), influential William Cullen said that they might contribute to an excess of acidity in the stomach. Cullen's doubts about their value in cardiac and pectoral problems were not always heeded by later writers.4 Just when apple bark came into general use is not clear, but certainly by the eighteenth century its ready availability, the overall reputation of the apple, and the bark's mild bitterness encouraged interest. By 1828 American author C. S. Rafinesque compared it favorably with the well-known cherry bark, noting similarities in taste and smell and that it was a "fine tonic, antiseptic, contains prussic [hydrocyanic] acid, used in fevers and other diseases like cinchona."5 This reputation persisted for the rest of the century, seemingly without reinforcement from printed accounts. In the 1850s to 1870s a few Shaker communities marketed the bark, and in the 1890s the pharmaceutical company

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Parke-Davis sold a fluid extract as a "tonic and febrifuge used with advantage in intermittent, remittent and bilious fevers."6 Some regular medical interest also existed in fresh apple juice as a laxative and, when cold, for "refrigerant properties." Such reputations were carried through into some popular twentieth-century herbals. Bass was encouraged to use the bark by neighbors and by reading about it in Kloss's Back to Eden. 7 Gerard's reference to apple in compounded medicines is noteworthy because that is the principal way it is used by Mr. Bass and many others.s Bass's other recommendation, as a stomach medicine, is equally longstanding, while his reference to arthritis may be merely another example of using tonics for "rheumatism" complaints. Crab apple is rarely mentioned in the eighteenth- and nineteenth-century literature, but John Hill, as usual. was an exception. His Family Herbal implied that crab tree ("Malus sylvestris") was far from unknown: "verjuce [fermented crab juice 1is made from the crab: and it is a remedy from the falling down of the uvula, better than most other applications; it is also good against sore throats and all disorders of the mouth."g Bass's reference to crab apple bark-he has often collected southern crab apple (M. angustifolia) -indicates usage when domestic apple bark was not readily available. Various constituents have been reported, including amygdalin (a glycoside yielding hydrocyanic acid) in the seeds and possibly in the bark, malic acid, tannin, sugar, and pectin in the fruit and juice, phloretin in the leaf, and phlorizin in the root.10 Because of the countless varieties of apples and the differences in chemical constituents among species-in the past the medical reputation of apple seems to have been associated with acid and tannin content-it is perhaps hazardous to assume constancy of properties. For instance, the "pome water" apple referred to in Gerard's Herball with a specific reputa-

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tion for making pomatum has disappeared. ll Some think the nutrition value is due to vitamin C, but most apple varieties are not a particularly rich source. Cider and vinegar. Bass refers to the long medical history of apple juice and vinegar but has nothing to say about hard or alcoholic cider. Perhaps this reflects his lack of interest in alcoholic beverages. On the other hand, relatively few discussions on medicinal uses of cider have appeared in the medical literature. F. P. Porcher, in a long account in his well-known Resources of the Southern Fields and Forests (1863), merely said that "strong astringent ciders have been found to produce nearly the same effect in cases of putrid fever as Port wine." 12 Much of the lengthy story of vinegar concerns its reputation-an uneven one-as an air purifier. Its heyday was in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, when many nineteenth-century writers mentioned its value for sprinkling on the floor and in the air of sickrooms. It was also an ingredient in the once-popular vinaigrette. As Bass indicates, the use of vinegar in the sickroom persisted into this century, surviving the establishment of the germ theory and indications that it was not an effective disinfectant. In addition to the reputation as a purifier, the astringency of many vinegars is the basis for their use in various preparations; for instance. for sore throats. In recent years the use of apple cider vinegar (along with honey) has been promoted widely as a "folk" remedy by D. C. Jarvis and others.!3 Not surprisingly, this has reached Bass, but much of his knowledge came from the oral rather than the printed tradition. Generally speaking. vinegar has now disappeared from medical care within the framework of regular medicine except as an occasional home remedy and in certain commercial vaginal douches.14

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Notes

6. For Shakers: A. B. Miller (1976, p. 128; refer-

1. For bleaching apples, well known to Bass, see

ences suggest it was not particularly popular), Parke-Davis (1890, p. 12).

Wigginton (1977, pp. 452-54). For background see Haughton (1978, pp. 4-11). 2. E.g., Merck Index (1983, no. 774). 3. Elyot (1539, p. 26). Gerard (1597, pp. 127278). See also Parkinson (1629, p, 589). Identifying

apples described by early writers is problematic because of numerous varieties and confusion in botanical nomenclature. Gerard's apples, cultivated and wild, have often been identified since Linnaeus as Pyrus malus L., or P. or Malus sylvestris, respectively (see, e.g., Withering (1796, 2 :462) for names still recognized for wild crab apple). However, for a convincing argument for Malus xdomestica Borkh. as the preferred binomial for apple, see Korban and Skirvin (1984). Bailey and Bailey (1976, p. 89) point out that the taxonomy of apples (and hence such qualities as taste) is affected by centuries of breeding, hybridization, and selection: "The large fruited apples are [either] descendants of M. pumila and M. sylvestris of Europe and southwestern Asia ... or they may be hybrids of M. pumila and M. sylvestris of Europe and southwestern Asia." Most varieties of apples arc self-sterile and require cross-pollination to set fruit, meaning that crab apples enter into tbe gene pool. 4. Regimen Sunilutis Sulemii (1617, p. 21). For Cullen's remarks see Cullen (1812. pp. 151-52). A. Thomson wrote that "apples are a wholesome vegetable aliment. and in many cases medicinal, particularly in diseases of the breast and complaints arising from phlegm. But, in general they agree best with the stomach when eaten roasted or boiled. The more aromatic kinds of apples are the fittest for eating raw" (1802, p. 54). 5. Rafinesque (quoted in Griffith, 1847, p. 293). Apple was rarely mentioned in nineteenth-century medical writings. One interesting reference appears in S. Thomson's New Guide to Heolth (1835, p. 20). which describes the use of an infusion of apple tree bark for washing a serious wound. No improvement occurred. Some influential authors (e.g., Porcher, 1863. pp. 149-57) fully discussed the cultivated apple. including apple vinegar and cider, but made no reference to medical properties of the apple.

7. Other popular sources may have been influential. A booklet, Heolth from Field and Forest (1917), recommends: "For intermittent, remittent and bilious fevers; also for gravel; gives tone and strength to the system" (p. 10). Recorded beliefs in the popular tradition are fewer than might be anticipated. Browne (1958) includes baked apple for constipation (p. 39). rotten apple for the eye (p. 61) and for gout (p. 69).

8. Personal interviews and, for example, Bolyard (1981, pp. 19, 79-80). F. C. Brown (1957-64. 6:135. 189) records use in preparations recommended for

Bright's disease and fevers. 9. See) Hill (1812, p. 96). 10. For some information on constituents, see Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk (1962, p. 894). S. Bingham (1987, pp. 13-14). Differences between species noted. 11. H. V. Taylor (1948, p. 13). 12. Porcher (1863, p. 151). Ciders varied considerably in astringency according to the apples (cultivated or crab) used. 13. Jarvis (1958). 14. FDA Consumer (February 1984): 32.

ARROWWOODS (root, leaves)

The Herbalist's Account Arrowwood is a folk medicine. It grows around here-small shrubs three or four feet tall. I've known about it all my life, but I don't know it well. It has a medicinal odor. It's good for mange on dogs. Use the root or leaves. It would be good for any skin diseases or for dandruff, for animal or human. It's good for the kidney; it would do as a blood purifier, but there are better things. Commentary Viburnum acerifolium 1. *, and varieties: dockmockie, arrow-wood, maple-leaved arrowwood.

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V. dentatum L.. and varieties: arrow-wood. southern arrow-wood. mealy-tree. V. lantanoides Michx. [syns. V. alnifolium Marsh; V. grandifolium AiL]: hobble-bush. Caprifoliaceae Hydrangea arborescens L. *, and subspecies: arrow-wood (local name). Saxafragaceae The vernacular name arrowwood (said to be derived from the suitability of young. straight shoots for arrows) is used for many species of Viburnum. the genus of attractive snowballs. The viburnums that have prompted most medical interest are V. prunifolium and V. opulus (see Black-haw). The species collected by Mr. Bass. V. acerifolium. has received little attention in the medical literature. C. S. Rafinesque (182830) was one of the few American authors to consider it. saying that the Indians used the leaves for inflamed tumors.' No documentation (apart from Rafinesque) has been found for Bass's information on the use of arrowwood for mange or skin conditions. but the astringent properties justify the suggestion. V. acerifolium. called by Bass a folk medicine. is an example of a plant which persists in herbal medicine despite little published information. 2 This is true also of two other species of Viburnum rarely mentioned in the literature. One is V. dentatum (southern arrowwood), described as diuretic and detergent. and. in the nineteenth century by an Eclectic medical author as "an internal and external agent in cancer"; this was perhaps associated with the aromatic nature of the bark. 3 The second is V. lantanoides (hobble-bush), mentioned as diuretic and antiperiodic.' V. dentatum has been noted as a substitute for V. prunifolia. though it is unclear on what grounds besides similarity.5 No detailed information on the chemical constituents of V. acerifolium has been

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found. but the tannin content has contributed to the reputation. Bass calls Hydrangea arborescens an arrowwood. Interestingly. he does not recognize it as the generally well-known sevenbark (see monograph), which has a reputation for kidney complaints. This illustrates the confusion that can arise from local vernacular names. Notes 1. Rafinesque (1828-30. 2:274).

2. The few published references to Viburnum acerifolium may reflect some uncertainty about the species described in the past; d. Erichsen-Brown (1979, p. 149). also King (1878, p. 627). It is appropriate to note that V. dentatum hybridizes with V. acerifolium. 3. E.g., King (1878, p. 627). This is perhaps an instance of overenthusiastic promotion of a botanical remedy, though King elsewhere recognized cancer remedies as inconsistently helpful; see Felter (1912. pp. 13-14), who reprints an article published in the Eclectic Medical/ournal (1865): "Cancer Remedies (So-Called)." A plaster applied to "the ulcer" was made as follows: "Take extract of arrowwood [Viburnum dentatum). extract uf marygold flowers and leaves, extract of red clover (Trifolium pratense), and extract of wild indigo leaves and bark of roots." For other references, including usage by Shakers. see Rafinesque (1828-30, 2:274). 4. E.g .. Coon (1963. p. 257). 5. Dispens(ltory of the United Stntes (1926 ee\.. p. 1160).

ARTICHOKES: JERUSALEM (tuber, leaves) AND GLOBE (leaves) The Herbalist's Account Jerusalem artichoke looks kind of like a potato. It's actually a sunflower with potatoes on the bottom. I grow them down there at the house and eat them sometimes. They taste like a potato. You wash them and boil them

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in a little salt water. Anybody who's got teeth can eat them raw-good to put in a salad. They also make a good pickle. Old-timers said they were nutritious and highly recommended as a tonic, and good for the kidney, too. Good for anyone who's got diabetes; they don't have any starch in them. They have a vegetable insulin which is good for people with diabetes. I used to grow them by the bushel and sell them all round the country by mail order. I don't know anything about the globe artichoke, though I've read it's another kidney medicine. Commentary Helianthus tuberosus L.' [syn. H. tomentosus Michx.l: Jerusalem artichoke, wild sunflower. Cynara scolymus 1.: artichoke, globe artichoke. Asteraceae (Compositae) The earliest references in England to use of the native North American Jerusalem artichoke as a vegetable indicate that it quickly became popular after its introduction in the early 1600s.1 Subsequent British authors, at least until the nineteenth century, described many ways of preparing it, but it became neither a generally popular food nor a medicine. 2 In America, while cultivation by American Indians was well established, the extent of medical usage is not clear.3 In 1849 F. P. Porcher mentioned some medical uses of "Jerusalem artichoke" on South Carolina plantations as a tonic, a diuretic in dropsy, and for jaundice. According to Porcher, the leaves, steeped in rum, were frequently employed among Negroes "with advantage."4 However, Porcher may have confused this with the reputation of the globe artichoke, Cynara scolymus, to which he referred. Mr. Bass's reference to artichoke's actions as a tonic and a diuretic is in line with Porcher's statement. The value for diabetes reflects its reputation as a diabetic food. The

Jerusalem Artichoke

carbohydrate present is inulin, not starch. Present in many plants of the Compo sitae family (for example, dandelion, chicory, and burdock), inulin is a polymer of fructose which does not raise blood sugar levels; it has been erroneously referred to as "vegetable insulin." Because it is not digested it is useless as a source of energy.s The tuberous Jerusalem artichoke is not to be confused with the globe artichoke. The large flower buds of the latter are a popular vegetable with past medical reputations as stimulant, choleretic (stimulating bile), and diuretic; it is possible that some of this reputation may have carried over to Jerusalem artichoke. Inulin is present in globe artichoke, but of the constituents, cynarin (l,5-0-dicaffeoyl-quinic acid) is considered to be primarily responsible for the action on stimulating bile. 6 Notes 1. For background see Heiser (1976. pp. 171-84). Hawkes (1983 , p. 50), and Oxford English Dictionary (1:470). for comments on name. The comments of Parkinson (1629) are noteworthy: "We in England from some ignorant and idle head, have

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called them artichokes of jerusalem, only because the roote, being boyled, is in taste like the bottom of an artichoke head: but they may be most fitly called, potatoes of Canada, because their rootes are in forme, color and taste like unto the potatoes of Virginia, but greater, and the French brought them first from Canada" (p. 516). For background see Heiser (1976), M. T. Wilson (in A. Simmons, 1984, p. xii).

2.

3. For some references see Hedrick. Sturtevant's Notes (1972, pp. 299-300).

See Porcher (1849, pp. 798-99). In his Resources of the Southern Fields (1863, pp. 420-22) Porcher devoted much space to it as a vegetable but a mere passing statement on medical properties: "The leaves yield an extract which may be substituted for quinine." 4.

5.

See Sollmann (1957, p. 63).

6.

Leung (1980, p. 36).

ASAFETIDA (oleo-resin-gum from roots) The Herbalist's Account Asafetida was used one way or the other in almost all homes. We had it in our home, but I never did take any myself. Sometimes when they had a cold, they'd take a ball of it. The doctors recommended it, and some grandmas and grandpas would wear it in a poke around their necks and it kept the colds off. Some people used it as a good-luck charm. I talked to a teacher not long ago who said when she used to teach, they'd just run her crazy coming in with "asfetidee" round their necks, smelling so bad. Finally, she got to wearing it herself and so she smelled it all the time. It really worked that way, It's obnoxious. It was like a black wax. It come in a little round wooden box. I've got one somewhere here. The box is like the one with the Blue Mass, which wasn't anything in the world but calomel or mercury made into a medicine. It would make your stomach cramp awful bad, and it would salivate you when you took it if you eat anything sour. The real asafetida wouldn't do that, but it really tasted

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bad. They put it in whiskey, Folks have told me that asafetida is a nerve remedy, but I've not used it. It was also used for nervous headaches and to help you sleep. Some folks used to take it for sour or upset stomachs. I don't know why-it tastes awful, a kind of turpentine taste and astringent. A few people claimed it was good for the heart. I guess you might say it's a cure-all. Commentary Feruia assafoetida 1., and other species: asafoetida, ferula, panax asclepium, devil's dirt, devil's dung. Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) Not surprisingly, the intensely strong and unpleasant-smelling asafetida-irregularly shaped, hard masses of oleo-gum-resinwhich has been called the "stinking healer," has a long history.1 Yet, while it was established in European medicine by the Middle Ages, it is not easy to assess the extent of its popularity prior to the eighteenth century.2 In 1719 John Quincy noted its reputation for some "uterine emotions," but indicated that its "extreme offensiveness" made it unpopular.3 On the other hand, it was r:ommanly administered in pills to disguise the odor, and William Lewis (1791) said it was in frequent use for hysteria and different kinds of nervous complaints, as well as for flatulence. (The latter was often associated with or viewed as a nervous disorder.)' The same uses, commonly said to be due to antispasmodic action, were recorded in nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century European and American medical books, some for lay readers, These included such Eclectic medical publications as John King's American Family Physician (1878), Generally following uses recommended by regular physicians, King catalogued many linked to "stimulant, antispasmodic, and expectorant" properties, including "hypochondria, hysterics, spasmodic nervous disorders,"

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respiratory ailments, and other problems.' Later writings tended to mention only an antispasmodic property and action as a sedative for nerves. Some were enthusiastic about sedative action in higher doses. 6 Just when asafetida became such a conspicuous feature of southern life (and elsewhere)-sold in little round wooden boxes, and the pieces hung around the neck, usually in a little bag, to ward off disease-is not clear, but it was used widely in the early decades of this century, perhaps more so among blacks? The unpleasantness of the smell, underscored by Bass, has been graphically related many times: And she wore around her neck a bag of "assafeddity." Its rank garlicky smell was perhaps what first drew me to her. It had a bitterness to it, rather rancid, and when I discussed this casually with my mother, she laughed in a vague remembering way and said to see if my new friend did not wear a little cloth bag hanging under her dress around her neck. And so she did. During recess we went down to the dim toilets together, and quietly she showed it to me .. , gray gray ... even her skin in that light was the color of her woolen dress, her underwear, the soft little bag like a dead field mouse on a string. The smell was stifling, but I sniffed deeply of it, so foreign to everything I had been taught to accept as Only." With its strong regular medical reputation, it is not surprising that the popular tradition is equally clear, Bass has heard of all the popular sayings and beliefs recorded for Alabama, such as tying asafetida around the necks of babies to "keep off diseases," for colic in babies (given sometimes in whiskey). for hives (small bag around the neck or in whiskey with castor oil), for heart troubles, and for worms." References to value in inducing sleep are infrequent, and that reputation is perhaps not well established. lO

Asafetida has many constituents. The characteristic odor is due to the presence of sulfur compounds, notably the disulfide 2butyl propenyl disulfide." However, no clear understanding of the wide-ranging reputation can be derived from present knowledge of chemical constituents, though the volatile oil is generally recognized as a carminative. No modern clinical studies have been found, One senses that much of the reputation rests solely on the odor. Asafetida is not generally considered toxic, though a case of methemoglobinemia was reported in a five-week-old infant after it was given an undetermined amount of glycerated asafetida solution." Present interest in asafetida rests largely on its use as a spice. As with many spices, investigations have been undertaken on antimicrobial activity. While asafetida has no bacteriostatic effect on some of the common intestinal microorganisms, it is claimed to alter hydrogen and carbon dioxide concentrations formed in the intestines." Notes 1. Motherby (1785), under Asa Foetida, for reference to stinking healer (and devil's dung). The history of asafetida is complicated by the many species of Feruia and not knowing if all past references refer to the gum resin. For pertinent background see Fliickiger and Hanbury (1879, pp. 314-20).

2. Gerard did not include asafetida in his Herball of 1597. Some consider that Johnson, in 1633, was perhaps referring to it when he added Panax aselepium to the section on "Herbe Ferula" (p. 1057). 3. Quincy (1719, p. 91).

4. W. Lewis (1791, p. 137); Motherby (1785) indicated that it was held in high esteem. S. King (1878, p. 628). 6. Solis-Cohen and Githens (1928, p. 850). For earlier reference to higher dose, see G. B. Wood (1838, p. 24v), with added student note (copy in

Trent Collection, Duke University Medical Center). 7. Puckett (1926. pp. 391-92).

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8. From M. F. K. Fisher (1981. pp. 8-9). 9. R. B. Browne (1958. pp. 15, 16, 20, 21, 24, 30,

71). For a similar list, with emphasis on warding off infectious diseases, see F. C. Brown (1957-64, 6:108,109,149,170,225,232,275,351,354). 10. See, however, Capron and Slack (1848, p. 40). 11. Leung (1980, p. 37). 12. K.

J. Kelly et al.

(1984).

13. Quoted in Pruthi (1980, p. 34).

AVOCADO (fruit, bark) The Herbalist's Account I've never used avocado. But folks have started to ask me about it; it's good for nutrition. The fruit is on the up and good for skin outbreaks. The bark is tonic and highly recommended for bowel problems. Commentary Persea americana Mill., and varieties [syns. Laurus persea (1.) Cockerell; Persea persea 1.; Persea gratis sima Gaert. f.; Persea edulus Raf.]: avocato, avocado. Lauraceae Avocado from tropical America and its commercial varieties are grown in subtropical parts of the United States. It has attracted relatively little medical interest in North America until, like aloes, it has become increasingly popular in recent decades for skin ailments! The reputation for skin complaints is considered to rest on the pulp oil (avocado oil), which consists mainly of glycerides of oleic acid with variable amounts of unsaponifiable matter consisting of sterols, hydrocarbons, acids (fatty and amino), and vitamin D. The emollient action can be beneficial for some skin conditions, if not for "sclerosis of the skin, pyorrhea, [and] arthritis.'" Bass has heard of the reputation of the bark (he does not remember where) as a tonic and for diarrhea. The latter use is recorded

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from the West Indies. 3 Employment as an emmenagogue or an abortifacient-noted in several areas of the world, including Africa, central Mexico, and Yucatan-is not known to him. The presence of serotonin and tyramine, which can stimulate uterine tissue, may account for this usage" Extracts of fresh and dried avocado seeds have been shown to be toxic and the leaves to inhibit lactation, but such properties are currently only of veterinary interest. 5 The current reputation of the pulp for skin ailments deserves study to determine if it rests on physiological grounds or is merely a fashion without therapeutic justification. Some consider that Bass's comment about the nutritious nature of avocado has to be treated cautiously because, for a fruit, there is an unusual amount of fat, more saturated than unsaturated. When fully ripe, avocado can be spread as an alternative to butter.

Notes 1. For background see Kopp (1966), Hodson (1950), and Bergh, "Avocado" (in Simmonds, 1976, pp. 149-51). Avocado was rarely recorded in the eighteenth-century medical literature, though generally well known at the time. The reputation for skin diseases is not well documented in traditional medical literature. See, however. Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk (1962. pp. 532-33). 2. Leung (1980. pp. 42-43). Information also given for seeds and leaves. 3. E.g., Wong (1976). 4.

References in Browner and Ortiz de Montellano

(1986). 5. See Lawrence Rev. Nat. Prod. 6 (1985): 4.

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BALMS: LEMON BALM (leaves), BALM OF GILEAD (buds); COTTONWOOD (bark, leaves, green fruit) The Herbalist's Account Lemon balm grows a little around here, near Rock City. It's kind of like bee balm. I have used it, but I can't get enough to make any medicine to let anybody have. It makes a good flavor and a good-tasting tea like lemonade, you know. It helps a bad stomach. It's good for colds, too. Some folks use the tea, a strong tea, to put on stings. I don't know anything about balm of Gilead. Lots of folks have asked me about it, but we don't have it around here. It's highly recommended for coughs. Some old-timers used the buds to make a poultice for chests. There are substitutes. The cottonwood tree is one. I don't use the cottonwood tree, and I don't have any calls for it, but I understand the Indians used it. It's a folk medicine. It has gum in the leaves, bark, and the berries. The berries hang down and look like cotton balls. They're sticky. Indians would take the leaves or the bark or the berries and boil them in a pot, let them sit overnight, and skim the grease off the next morning and make salve out of it for sores and colds. For rheumatism you put it in liniment with turpentine. Commentary Melissa officinalis L. *: baume, balrne, common baume, lemon balm, dropsy wort. Lamiaceae (Labiatae) Populus balsamifera L., including varieties and subspecies [syns. Populus candicans Ait.; P. tacamahaca P. Mil!.]: balsam poplar, tacmahac, balm of Gilead. x Populus gileadensis Rouleau; i.e., P. balsamifera x P. deltoides, var. missouriensis [syns. P. candicans sensu Michx. non Aiton; P. balsamifera var. candicans Gray]: balm of Gilead.

Populus deltoides Bartr. ex Marsh, and subspecies: cottonwood. Saliaceae

Paulonia tomentosa (Thunb) Sieb. and Zucco ex Steud. *: princess tree, cottonwood. Scrophulariaceae (Bignoniaceae) The various balms (see also Bee Balm) generally have long pedigrees of medical usage. but sometimes confused with references to balsams. 1 John Gerard (1597) identified a number of balms as melissa (one probably lemon balm). He described them as hot and dry in the second degree and possessing some deobstruent and alexipharmic (poison antidote) activity.2 Uses (stimulant, diaphoretic, and to aid menstrual irregularities) of lemon balm-considered a necessary plant in the Elizabethan garden-were widely noted in British medical literature until the nineteenth century.3 Melissa, nevertheless, has probably always been used more as a domestic remedy, apart from usage by regular physicians as an ingredient in compounded medicines, at least until around the mid-1700s. John Hill (1751) said it was generally esteemed among the common people as "good for disorders of the head and stomach."4 He added that it was less regarded in the shops (although numerous handsome ceramic pharmacy jars were labeled for preparations of melissa) and indicated this might be because the taste was less pleasant than anticipated from the smel!. One particular use mentioned on occasion was for infant teething, a problem that aroused much health concern in the eighteenth century.5 In America various writers also indicated that lemon balm (as a garden plant or escapee from cultivation) remained primarily a domestic remedy for easing the stomach, though it was included in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia (1840-90).6 Bass's brief comments capture the rather ambivalent position lemon balm has had: not mainline but alway,

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attracting some interest because of its distinctive odor. Specific refp-rencp-s to colds, linked to diaphoretic properties, are not common, but this reputation has reached Bass. Employment for stings (noted by Bass) is long-standing, although not commonly recorded. Gerard noted: "Dioscorides writeth that the leaves drunke with wine, or applied outwardly, are good against the stingings of venomous beasts." 7 The volatile oil that provides the distinctive odor also accounts for the carminative action, which has been shown to be relatively weak." Constituents of the oil have been reported as antibacterial, antiviral, and antihistamine under laboratory conditions. Tannin and flavonoid constituents are probably contributory, though caffeic acid and at least one other component have been implicated in antiviral activity.9 Stille, in 1874, wrote that the "balm tea is [a] popular and most refreshing drink." '0 This, as much as the mild diaphoretic and carminative actions, has perhaps been a major reason for its persistent reputation. The uncommon vernacular name dropsy wort does not reflect any documented reputation for treating dropsy. Balm of Gilead. Although Mr. Bass is little acquainted with balm of Gilead, it is the most celebrated "balm" of the higher Appalachians and has been long recommended for many conditions. In 1870 an Appalachian root and herb dealer told a friend that balm of Gilead was one of the few "certain roots, seeds &c you cannot get too many of" for resale." The story of balm of Gilead (in fact, sometimes considered a balsam) is complex because so many different plants have been considered its source 12 In 1847 American authors G. B. Wood and F. Bache wrote that, "in western Europe, and in this country, balm-of-Gilead is seldom found in a state of purity," and added, probably incorrectly, "its use has been entirely abandoned."" In

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America, however, various plants continued to be reported (and used) as balm of Gilead, notably "Populus canclicans Ail." and the cultivated hybrid (now generally called x P. gileadensis), which escapes from cultivation by sprouts and cuttings.14 Balm of Gilead has been widely recommended for qualities as expectorant, diuretic, mild stimulant, and tonic." Its main use was for coughs and colds, for which it was popular in the Appalachians.'6 It was also a wellknown ingredient in salves. In fact, a recent account of home remedies in the Kentucky Appalachians lists only "to aid in healing sores. scrapes, and burns: make a salve by frying the buds or leaves in mutton tallow or grease." 17 The leaf buds, when collected in the spring before they open, contain volatile oil, resin, and a variety of constituents, including salicin. Whether the latter is present in sufficient quantity for physiological action is unclear. Cottonwood. Bass's suggestion that cottonwood is a substitute for balm of Gilead is especially interesting. The vernacular name cottonwood is generally used for various species of poplar, but mostly P. balsamifera. 18 However, the cottonwood known to Bass is the Asiatic Paulownia tomentosa, most generally known as princess tree.'9 We have found no recorded information on medical uses of Paulownia tomentosa, nor, unfortunately, on the chemical constituents. Whether or not usage emerged from analogy to Populus balsamifera is not known but certainly possible.

Notes 1. It is generally considered that the word "balm"

(baulm or bawm) is a contraction of "balsam." The word has a soothing connotation. 2. Gerard (1597, pp. 558-61); fig. 1 probably represents M. officinalis. For another illustration see Gerard/Johnson (1633, p. 689).

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3. Moore (1564, f. xvliii v) suggested its importance in Elizabethan medicine.

17. Bolyard (1981, p. 130). The author in fact refers to P. balsamifera and P. candicans.

4. J. Hill (1751, p. 360). Treatments for the stomach at that time might include "comfort bags" containing various aromatic ingredients. For one formula see The Queen's Closet Opened (1664, p. 30).

18. Moerman (1977, p. 492) noted specifically

5. E.g., Denison (c. 1795, p. 43).

6. Noted, too, by such Eclectic physicians as John King, and a few books written for physicians; e.g., Shoemaker (1893,2:744). 7. Gerard (1597, p. 560). 8. Forster et al. (1980), Leung (1980, p. 44). For list of constituents see Morelli (1977).

Populus deltoides and P. balsamifera. 19. Bass says that the local name reflects the cottonlike appearance of the seeds. It is a reminder of a statement once made about the name cottontree for Viburnum lantana: "I inquired of a country man in Essex, if he know any name for this; he answered it was called the cotton-tree, by reason of the softness of the leaves" (Britten and Holland, 1878-86, p. 120, quoting Johnson's edition of Gerard's Herball, p. 1490).

9. Chlabicz and Galasinski (1986). It should, per-

haps, be added that the study was apparently undertaken on commercial samples without botanical authentification. 10. Stille (1874,1:605-6). 11. Cowie Papers, letter, 21 August 1870. 12. Howes (1974, p. 17). Much discussion on

origins occurs in the nineteenth-century literature; for example, Fliickiger and Hanbury (1879, p. 613). The name balm of Gilead was current by the seventeenth century, but not so far as we know for Populus species employed in North America. 13. G. B. Wood and Bache (1847, pp. 1230-31). 14. Noted by such authoritative sources as L. Johnson (1884, p. 255). Parke-Davis (1890, p. 16). The

literature. relating directly or indirectly to balm of Gilead is somewhat confusing. For instance, P. candicans Ait. has been called solely a horticultural plant with little claim to specific rank (see Gleason, 1958, 2:4, and Rouleau, 1948). Balm of Gilead has also been commonly described as a single female clone derived from cuttings from a form of balsam poplar with heart-shaped leaves, P. balsamifera var. subcordata Hylander (Barnes and Wagner, 1981, p. 122). For a different interpretation see Rouleau (1948). who proposed the name x P. gileadensis; i.e., P. balsamifera x P. deltoides var. missouriensis. Not all authorities follow this. 15. Gunn (1869, p. 796).

BALSAMS AND BALSAM APPLES (fruits) The Herbalist's Account A lot of folks used to use balsam for sores and cuts and things, but we don't have the tree around here. We recommend turpentine and washes, or a salve. Balsam-we generally bought it from the store-was used internally for bad chests, but some folks used it with mustard plaster on the outside. It was good for sores, too. Aunt Molly Kirby used to recommend balsam apples, but I've not found them around here. She swore by them for coughs and for salves. It acts the same as balsam.

Commentary Abies balsamea (1.) Mill. [syn. Pinus balsamea 1.]: balsam fir, fir balsam. Other species of Abies and of other genera: balsams. Pinaceae Momordica balsamina 1.: balsam apple. Echinocystis lobata (Michx.) Torr. and Gray: balsam apple, wild balsam apple, wild cucumber (local name). Cucurbitaceae

16. Evidence from many informants. The same

reputation is recorded in Alabama oral tradition: R. B. Browne (1958, p. 53).

The aromatic and resinous balsam from Abies species, especially the balsam fir, A. balsamea, has been widely used in North

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American domestic medicine. Abies species, however, do not grow in Bass's immediate area, which accounts for his minimal information and experience. Nevertheless, he recognizes that many other "balsams" locally gathered or available commercially have long been used within domestic and regular medicine. Those well-known commercially include balsam of Peru, balsam of Tolu, balsam of copaiba, balsam storax, balsam oppoponox-all of which are liquid, sticky, unctious substances-and benzoin, dragon's blood, and storax, which are solids . The records of home medicine include positive local testimony for products from, for example, bald cypress and cedar.' All balsams have been prominent in wound treatment, and popular-especially in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuriesfor the management of chest ailments. They were often classified as expectorants. Mr. Bass remembers that "some folks swore by" over-the-counter cough and cold medicines based on balsam, which they purchased from local stores. Balsam Fir (Abies balsamea)

)

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Other uses were promoted for balsams, some rather specific to one product. Benzoin from "Sumatra" and "Siam"-once commonly known as benjamin-was a frequent ingredient in perfumed powders and waters (especially lac virginis), at least from the sixteenth until the eighteenth centuries. It was also employed in pomanders (as were balsam of Peru and balsam of Tolu), and, in the form of pastilles, for burning and fumigating. The latter substances also were viewed as mild stimulants and diuretics. Balsam of copaiba (or copaiba or oil of copaiba), on the other hand, was more specifically regarded for diuretic action, or at least for urinary ailments and for gonorrhea. Bass's comments on balsam apple are of special interest, if only because they raise issues of plant identification. Various herbal writings list balsam apple as Momordica balsam ina (Cucurbitaceae), a Far Eastern plant. Parke-Davis marketed a preparation of it around 1890: "Its use has been favorably reported upon in colic, and also as an expectorant in coughs, locally it may be found serviceable in sprains , bruises, etc .'" Yet, at the same time, a physician in Fayetteville, North Carolina, was reporting to the company about "local people cutting up balsam apples into small pieces and [putting] brandy on them. They use the liquor for colic, coughs, bruises or cuts or pains in chest. ... I thought perhaps it was the liquor that did the work. But recently have decided that there is very good virtue in the apple. What everybody says must be true ." 3 So far as we can ascertain, the writer was referring to Echinocystis lobata, commonly known as balsam apple or wild balsam apple. Its spiny fruit corresponds to what Bass remembers was used by Molly Kirby. Further, Momordica lobata (another balsam apple) is only naturalized in southern Texas, Louisiana, and Florida, and the related M. charantia is adventive when it escapes cultivation.

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Notes For some background see Moerman (1982, pp. 22-24]. Capron and Slack (1848 , pp. 45-56] gave

1.

a sense of domestic medical interest in balsams. Specific information on balsams of Peru, Tolu , and copaiba can be found in any nineteenth-century textbook on materia medica. 2. Parke-Davis (1890, p. 274).

Letters from J. W . McNeill, M.D. , April, July, December 1887 . H. H . Rusby file, Kremers Collection.

3.

BARBERRY (bark, root bark, fruit, leaves)

The Herbalist's Account It's a shrub, but it doesn 't grow around here. I wish we had it. It's a fine medicine. It stands in between yellow root and goldenseal. It's bitter and good for the liver. Most folks say it's a good tonic, good for the stomach and ulcers. Some have told me it's good for mouth ulcers, but I recommend the yellow root. Commentary Berberis vulgaris L.: barberies, jaundice berry, barberry, berberry. B. canadensis Mill.: barberry, American barberry. Mahonia aquifolium (Pursh) Nutt. [syn. Berberis aquifolium Pursh): mountain grape, Oregon grape, barberry. Berberidaceae The vernacular name barberry (or berberry) has been commonly used in the medical literature for two distinct plants having similar medical properties: the naturalized Eurasian barberry, Berberis vulgaris, a prickly shrub, and the indigenous mountain, or Oregon, grape, Mahonia aquifolium. 1 Little medical interest is recorded for the indigenous Berberis canadensis. 2 B. vulgaris, with a medical history extending back to classical times and recommended as a medicinal plant for Elizabethan gardens, was widely considered in seventeenth- and

Barberry (Berberis vulgaris] eighteenth-century texts.3 John Gerard (1597) described medical properties for only the leaves and berries (noted as possessing cold and dry qualities) . A decoction of the leaves was, for example, said to be "good against burning the cholericke agues: it alaieth the heate of the bloud and tempereth the overmuch heate of the liver."4 Eighteenth-century writers generally described the fruits and leaves as helpful to the stomach, and the inner bark as bitter and purgative.' Nineteenth-century American writings on materia medica usually included B. vulgaris and emphasized the bitter-tasting bark, which colors saliva yellow. Although barberry acquired many medical uses, its principal reputation was as a tonic and for stomach ailments, uses known to Mr. Bass. 6 Laurence Johnson was, however, somewhat doubtful

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about its value. He wrote noncommittally: "Whatever therapeutic effect may be produced by barberry is undoubtedly due to its most active principle, berberina. As this is present in but small proportion, the bark cannot be a very active agent. [It) has been used to some extent as a tonic, chiefly in domestic practice." 7 In contrast, the Eclectic text by King, The American Dispensatory (1882), indicated that barberry was "used extensively by practitioners in the New England States, in all cases where tonics are indicated, also in chronic diarrhoea and dysentery."s King was probably referring to usage by Eclectic practitioners, who continued the enthusiasm found among Thomsonians. Later Eclectic physicians employed it for many constitutional effects.9 Berberis vulgaris contains isoquinoline alkaloids, of which berberine, a widely distributed alkaloid, is the most significant. tO There is considerable variation in berberine concentrations in different parts of the shrub, with the highest being in the root." The popular basis of berberine's past reputation as a tonic and a cholagogue (for gall bladder and liver problems) almost certainly rests on its bitterness, an association no longer considered valid. Modern employment of berberine for the treatment of cholera and cutaneous leishmaniasis has no historical pedigree; studies on possible ulcer-healing properties have apparently not been undertaken.'2 The medical story of barberry in America covers two other plants, although one, Berberis canadensis, has not been generally popular. While its availability in parts of the South probably contributed to its use in domestic medicine, Laurence Johnson in 1884 said it was not much esteemed.13 Much more enthusiasm was aroused by the western North American Mahonia aquifolium, particularly through the activities of Eclectic practitioner Dr. James Bundy in the 1880s and the pharmaceutical company

Parke-Davis, which was then expanding. The plant's principal reputation was for digestive disorders.'4 The major constituent in these two plants is, as in Berberis vulgaris, the alkaloid berberine, although only small concentrations have been reported in Mahonia.'5

Notes 1. Some taxonomists consider the Oregon grape to be a member of the Mahonia section of Berberis. Barberry is not to be confused with bearberry, Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, known primarily as a diuretic. 2. Interest was not encouraged by attempts to exterminate the widely naturalized B. vulgaris, an alternate host to the black rust disease of wheat. 3. Moore (1564, f. 42v). 4. Gerard (1597, pp. 1144-45); treatment of the

liver implies treatment for jaundice. The vernacular name jaundice berry-not a common one but known to Bass-also reflects this use. For some comments, see Britten and Holland (1878-86, p. 278). Gerard's 1597 description almost certainly applies to Berberis vulgaris. For European background see Le Strange (1977, pp. 53-54). 5. E.g., W. Lewis (1769, 1:197-99). 6. For examples see Rishel (1828, p. 6). Rafinesque (1828-30,1:82-84) said that Berberis vulgaris var.

canadensis is antiseptic, acid, subastringent, refrigerant, and so on; used in putrid fevers, dysentery, bilious diarrhea, summer flux, and all kinds of acute inflammations. 7. L. Johnson (1884, p. 78). Interestingly, popular beliefs in Alabama and the Appalachians about barberry are far fewer than for the more popular yellowroot. R. B. Browne (1958) recorded barberry (along with goldenseal and borax) for catarrh (p. 46). No references in F. C. Brown, North Carolina Folklore (1957-64). 8. King (1882, p. 160). 9. Ellingwood (1915, p. 379). 10. E.g., Manske and Ashford, "The Protoberberine Alkaloids" (1954, pp. 84-87). 11. For-reference, Frohne and Pfander (1984, pp. 70-71).

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12 . J. E. F. Reynolds (1982, p. 317) for references . 13. L. Johnson (1884 , p. 78). 14. Berman (1980) ; d. Stuart (1979, p. 162). 15. Frohne and Pfander (1984, p. 72).

BAYS (bark, leaves, fruit)

The Herbalist's Account It's a magnolia. There are lots of them. The bark is good for fevers, a tonic, a stimulant, and a blood purifier. It's also good for rheumatism and you can use it instead of cucumber tree bark. If you're nervous or fighting or something, you can make a good-tasting tea of the dried leaves and drink it. It will calm your nerves and help you sleep. I have made several gallons of bay-leaf tea for some men who say it's the finest thing they can get for the nerves; they drink it like drinking water. It settles their nerves and it does their stomach good . A double handful of the dried leaves makes a half gallon of tea. Boil about thirty minutes and strain it. It's safe-a baby could drink it. Old-timers sometimes mashed the wood and used it for poultices. It's used in lots of soups. Mr. Butler, a native of North Carolina, used it in his own cooking and put some kind of herb in all his cooking. If you haven't got wild bay, you go to the supermarket and buy a package of bay leaves. It acts the same. Everybody should keep some. I do not use the grocery store bay, but I would if I could not get the wild , If I was a young man, I'd have a bay tree in my yard. Commentary Magnolia virginiana 1. *, including varieties [syn. M. glauco 1.J: beavertree , swamp sassafras , white bay, sweet bay, bay tree.

Magnoliaceae Laurus nobilis L.: baye tree, laurel tree, sweet bay. Laureaceae

Among species of Magnolia that have attracted medical interest in America, the bay is probably better known than the cucumber tree (see monograph) or other species.! It attracted interest throughout colonial times, at least in the southeast and along the east coast, where it was common in "low and swamp ground," as described by John Brickell (1737), who also stated: "virtues are doubtful, yet it is said to provoke vomit and bring down the menses." Benjamin Smith Barton, in his influential 1798 essay encouraging interest in indigenous American medicinal plants, singled out as best known to him, "glauca, commonly called magnolia, beaver-tree, and swamp-sassafras," though he felt that all magnolias probably had similar medical properties. Possibly drawing on earlier comments by Schoepf (1787), Barton classed bay with tonics and noted that the emanation of the flowers "must be considered as a potent stimulant." Uses included for fevers and rheumatism.' The popularity of bay grew slowly, despite some positive observations on the medical Bay (Magnolia virginiana)

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value by students at the University of Pennsylvania and inclusion in the secondary list of the 1830 U.S. Pharmacopoeia (along with M. acuminata and M. tripetala)3 By 1847 R. E. Griffith merely remarked on the popularity of bay in domestic medicine and its use by regular practitioners for "remittents having a typhoid character." 1 While most authors toward the end of the 1800s tended to consider magnolias as medically the same, sweet bay was often viewed as the most useful, with a long-standing reputation as a diaphoretic for use in rheumatism.' Earlier, in 1838, for instance, British author John Lindley said that it was "particularly useful in chronic rheumatism"; while American writer F. P. Porcher (1847) singled out the berries for this purpose,6 and mentioned also that the growth of trees in stagnant water purified it-a reputation already well established and possibly linked with belief in the value of redUcing the incidence of malaria.' At the end of the nineteenth century, as at the beginning, the popularity of magnolia rarely extended beyond domestic medicine to regular practice. "None of the species of Magnolia," it was written in 1893, "is in use at present by the medical profession of America, and they have not been employed for a generation."B The specific reputation for rheumatism was seemingly linked to aromatic, diaphoretic, and astringent properties. The strength of the reputation, according to Mr. Bass and some of his visitors, coupled with much published testimony in the past, suggests the possibility of some specific anti-inflammatory action at play; or perhaps its reputation has been sustained by special factors like analogy to other plants (see below).9 Mr. Bass learned about bay for rheumatism through the popular tradition, including recommendations for nervous disorders not mentioned in published accounts:O Whether this use arose from loose analogy with the

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botanically unrelated European bay laurel, Laurus nobilis, which he freely substitutes, is uncertain but possible. The leaves and berries of the latter have been reported in the past as useful for uterine problems and some hysteric disorders; the leaves were a key ingredient in a popular seventeenth- and eighteenth-century preparation called soldiers' ointment, used for aches and pains and perhaps skin ailments, which helped sustain popular interest." (Nowadays laurel oil is still well known for skin ailments.) Bass assumes that the leaves of the magnolia bay are the same as the commercially available bay (L. nobilis), and does not consider that differences might exist between the therapeutic value of magnolia bark (described in the literature) and that of magnolia leaves. Bass does not mention the nineteenthcentury recommendation of magnolia for malarial fever, which is probably related to its reputation as a diaphoretic and analogy of the bitter-tasting bark to cinchona bark. On the other hand, some authors, while recognizing the fallibility of analogy, suggested it was valuable if given in sufficiently large doses. 12 Recent chemical investigations have been undertaken on magnolias, but mostly on M. grondifloro, which is rarely mentioned in the medical literature," The leaves of Laurus nobilis contain 1-3 percent of volatile oil. Apart from a carminative action, the constituents of the oil offer little specific explanation for past uses. l4 The possibility exists that diaphoretic action may account for the view that bay laurel can.be useful for rheumatism, though it should be added that the latter does not have a gtrong pedigree.

Notes 1. The well-known M. grandiflora has received little mention, though J. F. Morton (1981. p. 220) noted uses based OIl astringent properties. For botanical backgound see Treseder (1978).

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2. Brickell (1737, p. 73), B. S. Barton (1798, p. 14; for rheumatism: 1804, pt. 2, p. 20). Clayton, in his account of Indian usages (1687, p. 12). seemingly noted its value for fevers, apparently using Indian information. 3. Often quoted are student studies by T. D. Price on Magnolia virginiana and J. Floyd on M. umbellata and M. acuminata. Coxe (1827. pp. 389-90) noted that M. glauca (M. virginiana) was used to relieve remittent, intermittent, and typhoid fevers. 4. Griffith (1847, pp. 96-98). 5. L. Johnson (1884, pp. 71-73), Millspaugh (1974, originally 1892, p. 12-2). In fact, bark from younger branches was considered warm and spicy; older bark, more astringent and bitter.

6. Lindley (HU8, p. 23). Porcher (1847, p. 274). Some confusion exists in distinguishing between bay berries (the berries of the bay tree) and bayberry, the shrub. The former has been listed as Laurus nobiJis (Hill, 1751, p. 485; and Stearns, 1801, p. 59). 7. Also noted by Porcher (1863, pp. 36-37). An earlier citation is in Treseder (1978, p. 43). 8. Shoemaker (1893, p. 41). For reference to its long

history as a domestic medicine, see King (1882, p.508).

9. Even the skeptical L. Johnson wrote that "it [bay] has been used with asserted benefit in both acute and chronic rheumatism" (1884. p. 73). Other factors we have considered include interest in habitat and belief in purifying stagnant water. However, we have not found evidence that this is significant. 10. R. B. Browne (1958. pp. 36,46,99) listed only

uses for poultices. 11. For representative references: Gerard (1597, pp. 1223-24), who noted that the berries were no longer used for diseases of lungs, Quincy (1719, p. 456). Motherby (1785, under Laurus vulgaris). Attractive pharmacy jars of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries are sometimes labeled "U. Martiatum" (soldiers' ointment). Other jars are labeled for electuary of the laurel berries. 12. Various factors encouraged interest in usage for malarial fevers, including Indian usage (ef. Griffith, 1847, p. 97). It grew in swampland and was presumed to have been placed there by God to be available for the disease. For questions about

dosage see Don (1831,1:82). The use of bay, however. appears to be either a clear example of the use being derived from white medicine, or Indian usage paralleling it independently. 13. But see Morton (1981, p. 220), who notes uses resting on astringent properties. The bark contains four glycosides: magnolidin, syringin, the monoglucoside of syringaresinol 2 (acanthoside B), and magnolenin C (Rao and Wu, 1978); alkaloids and phenols have been found. but the clinical relevance is unclear. See also Rao and Davis (1982). 14. For constituents see Simon et a!. (1984, p. 9).

BAYBERRY (leaves, root bark) The Herbalist's Account The only bayberry I've known is the berries of the bay tree. It's like the rest of the plant, good for rheumatism. It's good in salves. There is another bayberry that gives a lot of wax. Folks boiled up the berries to get the wax and make candles from it. Some folks made plasters from them. The bark is astringent; old-timers used it as a tonic. Commentary Myrico cerifem L. [syns. Cerothamnus cerifem (L.) Small; C. pumilus (Michx.) Small; M. pusi1lo Raf.): candleberry myrtle, wax myrtle, southern bayberry, bayberry. Myricaceae Mr. Bass refers to two bayberries: the fruit of the bay tree (see Bays) and the "true" bayberry considered here, Myrico ceritem, which is not readily available to Mm. ' Myrico species have long been known for the wax they produce, prepared, as Bass indicates, by boiling the small berries in water and collecting the wax that rises to the surface. In addition to many general uses for the wax (especially candles). some medical interest emerged in colonial times. It was probably the bayberry referred to by Thomas Palmer (c. 1696) when he wrote that the "roots boyled in water & drunk helps flux

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tho never so bad. Probat. est and [is an) Indian medicine." 2 John Brickell (1737) noted uses for the wax ("useful in chirurgery"). the leaves ("bitter astringent, grateful to the stomach and resists vomiting"), the root bark ("provokes urine and opens obstructions"), and the berries ("expel wind"). Bayberry was considered in detail by Peter Kalm (1748), who noted that the wax was used by doctors and surgeons as exceedingly good for plasters upon wounds, a use also suggested by Bass." Influential Benjamin Smith Barton helped disseminate knowledge in the early nineteenth century when he described M. cerifera in 1804 as a powerful astringent used by "country-practitioners of the United States," who gave it sometimes in combination with persimmon root bark or black alder barka formula still in use toward the end of the century. Employment was also noted for "dropsical affections, succeeding to intermittents, particularly in the peninsula of Delaware where dropsies, in various shapes are perhaps more common than in any part of North-America within the same latitude." It was also listed as used for uterine hemorrhage and as a gentle purgative.' A boost in popularity came with Thomsonian botanical practice, which promoted it as an astringent and general panacea. ("Bayberry is a very important article in the Thom~onian practice," was one comment.)' Later American authors, medical and otherwise, also listed many uses, but primarily for stomach complaints and as a tonic. However, by 1884 regular physician Laurence Johnson indicated that interest in the acrid, stimulant, and astringent properties was declining: "It has been employed to some extent in a great variety of diseased conditions, but without acquiring a reputation in any. Bigelow stated, sixty years ago ... that it is 'more interesting in a chemical than a medical point of view,' and his statement in the present state of our knowledge, scarcely requires comment or revision."" Nevertheless, while never

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attracting much interest in the twentiethcentury literature, references to bayberry's astringent and emetic properties and its use in skin preparations (usually combined with other ingredients) have helped maintain its popular tradition. Constituents of M. cerifera include a volatile oil, tannins, a resin, and myricitrin (a flavonoid glycoside). The latter has been reported to possess choleretic, bactericidal, spermicidal, and paramecidal activity, but this information does not explain past uses.' The tannin content perhaps rationalizes the past reputation as a tonic mentioned by Bass. The employment of the wax (containing palmitic, myristic, and lauric acid esters) in plasters perhaps rested on availability and pleasant aroma.s Bass's lack of experience with bayberry and his consequent confusion with the bay tree is another cautionary reminder of collecting and recognition problems in herbal practice. Further, the hybridization of M. cerifera should be borne in mind when assessing the past reputation. Notes 1. Most authors probably felt that all species of Myrica were medically the same: see Griffith (1847, p.583).

2. T. Forbes (1984, p. 141). 3. Brickell (1737, p. 102), Kalm (1747-51: 1972 ed., p.103). 4. B. S. Barton (1804, pI. 2, p. 4). For end-ofcentury usage see Hatts MS. 5. Comfort (1853, p. 517). Emphasis was placed on the problems of obtaining good-quality bayberry. 6. L. Johnson (1884, p. 251). 7. Through Leung (1980, p. 57), see also Tyler (1982, pp. 34-35). 8. Merck Index (1983, no. 1014).

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BEARSFOOT (root, leaves) The Herbalist's Account I've not used it much, but I've gathered it for other people and they says it's real good. The fall of the year is the best time to gather its big, pithy root. All the strength is in the root then, you know, and gone out of the top. But vou can gather it any time you need it. . It's highly recommended as good for rheumatism and for pain. I still don't know much about it. I learned about it a long time ago. A traveling fellow came by selling insurance or something and he asked me about it. He said one of his kinspeople had a kind of arthritis. I think he said some Indian person told him to make a salve with bears foot. Three applications got her going. I checked around-it's got an awful, stinking odor. You can use the leaves or the root. The Indians boiled them in water and skimmed off the grease and used it for sores. I've recommended it in a liniment, but it's another powerful one and I don't fool with it too much. I'd use it for myself, but not for nobody else. Bearsfoot grows around gravel pits, but it may grow elsewhere. There's a whole pasture of it over by Spring Creek Church and that's low land. It has come here in the last twenty years. Conunentary Polymnia uvedalia L. *: bearsfoot. Asteraceae (Compositae)

Polymnia is another plant that has had little recorded use but is well known to Bass. Although it was almost totally ignored by nineteenth-century writers on domestic and regular medicine, spotty interest can be found. C. J. CowIe noted on 28 August 1851 that "bear's foot" (probably Polymnio) was "good for rheumatism" and should be analyzed. 2 As with a number of relatively littleused plants, interest was sustained to some extent through such pharmaceutical companies as Parke-Davis and Eli Lilly. Around 1890 Parke-Davis marketed Polymnia uvedalia extracts and an ointment as a "laxative, stimulant. tonic and secernant. Externally it seems to combine valuable discutient and anodyne properties particularly in glandular enlargement." 3 Some time later (1919), Eli Lilly described it as a tonic and alterative and good for rheumatism. 4 Another thread of interest-among Eclectir: physicians, who "lauded the remedy as of much importance in rheumatism"-probably fostered use within domestic medicine. s Bearsfoot is listed among Alabama folk beliefs. employed in the form of a salve-a use known to Bass. though he recommends it in the form of a liniment. 6 No modern chemical analysis of Polymnia llvedalia has been found; the natures of the volatile oil and other constituents merit investigation. Any studies on this minor medical plant should also consider the debate on the occurrence of varieties?

Helleborus foetidus L.: bearsfoot, stinking hellebore. Ranunculaceae Bearsfoot is a well-known name for the European Helleborus foetidus, often described in American texts on materia medica primarily as an anthelmintic, emetic, and cathartic. 1 The bearsfoot collected by Mr. Bass is Polymnia uvedalia. He perhaps overstates the strong odor; possibly there is some confusion with the renowned rank smell of H. foetidus.

Notes 1. E.g., Stearns (1801. p. 62), Bigelow (1822,

p. 202). Bearsloot continues to be included in twentieth-century writings; e.g., J. E. Meyer (1979. p. 13). Early references to bearloot or bearsfoot sometimes refer to Helleboflls niger. Whether another bears foot. a species of Alchemilla. has been a factor behind the reputation of Poiymnia is unc!"ar. 2. CowIe Papers.

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3. Parke-Davis (1890, p. 18). 4. Lilly (1919, p. 52). 5. E.g., Ellingwood (1915, pp. 327-28). A popular British publication known in the United States, Wren, Potter's Cyclopaedia of Botanical Drugs and Preparations (1932, p. 28). indicated the plant was of considerable value and summarized its praperties as stimulant, laxative, and anodyne: "has been used with good effect in congestive states of liver and spleen; also in inflamed glands and dyspepsia from these causes. Used externally as a hair tonic or in form of an ointment." 6. R. B. Browne (1958, p. 96) noted the employment of "barefoot" root in a salve for sores. We assume, as does Mr. Bass, that this refers to bearsfoot root. For domestic usage see also Mohr (1901, p.792). 7. For discussion see J. R. Wells (1969).

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ted from the influential writings of Griffith, Johnson, and others. Indians apparently used it for diaphoretic and febrifuge actions.' Mr. Bass thinks he may have heard about the plant from some Cherokee Indians. No information has been found on constituents. However, the astringency of the bark may lie behind the reputation as a diaphoretic, though Mr. Bass has suggested that, in this case, it may be due merely to the hotness of the tea in which it is administered. It is probable that knowledge of the medical reputation of this plant would disappear if it were not for herbalists like Mr. Bass. Disjunct Callicarpa species in the Far East with reputations for treating arthritis and as an anodyne have aroused recent interest. 3 Notes

BEAUTY·BERRY (bark) The Herbalist's Account I don't know anything about beauty bush, it's just a pretty bush. Old-timers said it was good for fevers. I had a woman from Germany who lives up near Cedar Bluff or somewhere and she wanted one to set out. She came down here and I dug up my whole bush for her. But she wanted it only for her garden. rommentary Callicarpa americana 1. * , including varieties; beauty-berry, Bermudian mulberry, French mulberry, beauty bush (popular local name). Verbenaceae Little medical information has been recorded about the indigenous beauty-berry, but its attractiveness has brought many questions to Mr. Bass. American author Charles Rafinesque, who encouraged interest in indigenous plants, recorded that decoctions of the leaves had been used for dropsies.' Subsequently the plant was rarely mentioned, and it was omit-

1. Rafinesque (1828-30, 2: 202).

2. Quoted in Moerman (1977, p. 42). It has also been noted in an infusion with blackberry for dysentery. See L. A. Taylor (1940, p. 29). 3. See S. Foster (1986, p. 10).

BEE BALM (leaves, flowers) The Herbalist's Account Bee balm is kind of like horsemint but its flowers are more pink. It grows wild or in the garden. There is another wild one; it has a purple flower. Until right lately we didn't have none except on Lookout Mountain. But a while back I went down in some woods here hunting squawvine where they had cut the timber. Somebody had thrown out some garbage that had seed in it. I've never used it, but it's good for making tea and I understand it soothes the nerves and it can be used to flavor other teas. Store the leaves like any mint. Use a handful for a cup of tea.

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Commentary Monarda didyma L.: red mint, oswego-tea, beebalm. M. fistulosa 1. *: beebalm, mountain mint (local name). Lamiaceae (Labiatae) The name bee balm generally refers to the indigenous, scarlet-flowered M. didyma. Although the plant is known to Mr. Bass, he is unaware of the long-standing popular name, oswego tea. M. didyma is rarely found in his area, and he collects the similar indigenous M. fistulosa, also commonly called bee balm.' Bee balm (M. didyma) is not widely discussed in the medical literature, but occasional enthusiastic comments can be found for its carminative action. A reputation for nerves is rarely emphasized, though references to nervine properties do exist. 2 In fact, a reputation for soothing nerves is common to most mints (see monograph). M. fistulosa (gathered by Bass) has been specifically recorded for its febrifuge properties, but this, too, has been considered as due to its being taken as a hot tea.' Both Monarda species can be viewed as mints to be used if more favored ones are unavailable.

Notes 1. Monarda didyma is widely recorded in the herbal and botanical literature as bee balm (e.g., Grieve, 1971, 1:95; Radford et al., 1968, p. 913). The plant is similar to M. fistulosa (ibid., p. 914), more often called wild bergamot (see monograph). Determining the historical medical use of the plant is further complicated by the vernacular name, American bee balm, which can refer to other species of Monarda (e.g., Moerman, 1982, p. 29). M. punctata is generally called horsemint. Radford et al. (p. 913, under M. didyma) noted that "the purple flowered M. media does not warrant recognition since numerous intermediate forms occur in the mts." One can speculate that the name bee balm is derived somehow from the name balme

mint. for "horsemint or watermint, said to be good against the stinging of bees and waspes if the place be rubbed therewith" (Gerard, 1597. pp. 555-56). 2. Rafinesque (1828-30, 2:37). However, under "Monarda coccinea (oswega tea, red balm, and other common names)," he noted it to be "resolvent, tonic, febrifuge, nervine, sudorific, diuretic, antiseptic, carminative, anti-emetic, &c." 3.

Wakeman (1911).

BEE PRODUCTS The Herbalist's Account Bees are wonderful things. I never did keep bees, but I hunted wild honey. It was a big sideline. I've used honey in the cough remedy and I'd recommend it highly for sores, burns, and anything you can think of. Honey has become more and more popular in recent years; the nectar the bees get is a main part of vegetation. Folks ask me if some honeys are more beneficial than others. Just off the cuff, I guess they are most all the same; but we would think that the alfalfa and the clover would be real beneficial. They've got so much nutrition in them. Of course, sourwood honey is good, but it's not what it used to be with all the insecticides and things. Another thing which has become popular is bee pollen. We used to call it bee bread. The bees collect the pollen, add honey to it, and use it for feeding the bees. I used to sell it years ago, but I didn't know it was such a good medicine until I learned about it from the vitamin people. It's wonderful for allergy. The nutrition people sell something else; it's in the catalogs as propolis. It's what we called bee glue, but I hadn't heard of it being used until recently. There is royal jelly, too, it's a famous tonic, but people don't ask about it any more. Commentary As Mr. Bass implies, bee products have had many uses in medicine. The only item he uses consistently is honey, long considered both a food and a medicine. He says his

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mother always stressed the nutritional value. A typical account from a nineteenth-century popular medical text states that it is "opening to the bowels and promotes the secretion of phlegm or mucus, in coughs.'" Bass, in following a well-established popular tradition,' uses honey in his cough medicines, not only because of a specific reputation for easing coughs, but also because it is a "good sweetening agent." In fact, some of his preparations follow formulas-sometimes called mels-once popular within regular medicine in the past. Mr. Bass's attitude toward alfalfa and clover honey is not commonplace, but sourwood is credited with healthful properties by many Appalachian people. 3 Reference to the use of honey for sores has conspicuous historical roots. Some modern scientific interest continues, though more attention is directed to sugar for wound healing.' Some people see honey-a natural product-as superior to "processed white sugar" -one of the banes of many people who feel insufficient attention is given to nutrition problems as the cause of ill health. Furthermore, honey is considered to possess its own health-promoting properties. The chemical constituents-invert sugar, water, small quantities of sucrose, dextrin, formic acid, volatile oil, wax, and pollen grains-offer little explanation for special properties, but that hardly undermines the widespread belief, "supported on empirical grounds" that honey is "good for yoU."5 Bee pollen, or bee bread, a brownish pollen-honey product on which young drone bees are fed and long regarded as a nutritious product, has recently become popular through health food promotion. Various recommendations in the health food literature state that it gives a youthful feeling, builds resistance to allergy and disease, helps boost healing powers, and provides the body with energy.6 Certainly bee pollen is nutritious (up to 35 percent protein, 10-15 percent simple

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carbohydrate, significant amounts of minerals and trace vitamins), but study of the therapeutic claims has not yielded positive results. 7 Bee pollen perhaps offers nothing to people with adequate diets. Furthermore, the view of Mr. Bass and others that bee pollen is good for allergy has not been substantiated; allergic responses have been reported in sensitive persons. 8 Propolis, a brown, resinous material sometimes confused with bee pollen, is collected by bees from the buds of various poplar and conifer trees and used as a cement and to fill cracks in hives. Like bee pollen, it is recommended as a health food product, with attributed antibacterial, antiviral, fungicidal, anti-inflammatory, and other properties. A wide range of constituents has been isolated: phenolic acids and their esters, aromatic aldehydes, alcohols, sesquiterpenes, naphthalene, stilbene compounds, and a large number of flavonoids, considered to be the principal explanation for activity." Constituents undoubtedly show much variation according to the source of the propolis. Most medical commentators view the claims for the effectiveness of propolis as excessive.'o Another product that has attracted much recent interest as a health product is royal jelly, a nitrogenous, creamy substance produced by glands in the heads of worker bees. The jelly is fed to the queen bee and also to the young larvae. All larvae are fed royal jelly for the first two and a half days. Those destined to become queens are fed the same diet for another two and a half days, while those that are to become workers are fed a less nutritious diet of pollen and honey. Changes that occur during the development of the queen bee are one basis for royal jelly's reputation as a tonic and panacea." Conflicting claims exist for the value of all bee products. Yet for Bass and many other people, the bee is the epitome of the goodness of natural products. ("The bee is such a wonderful creature.")

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Notes

Fagaceae

1. Capron and Slack (1848, p. 285).

Mr. Bass's comment that the leaves and bark of the beech are folk medicines reflects the few references found in writings in materia medica, regular or botanic/domestic. John Gerard (1597) stated that the leaves of the beech tree (the European F. sylvatica, naturalized in parts of the United States) "do coole" and are "profitably applied unto hot swellings, blisters and excoriations; and being chilled are good for chapped lips and paine of the gums." Similar uses were listed by a few later European writers.' American medical authors have usually described the indigenous F. grandifolia, but the uses they listed may well have been established by analogy to the European beech. John Carver (Travels, 1774) was one of the first writers to focus attention on the American beech and its use in decoctions for burns and scalds.2 Some time later, Samuel Stearns (1801) was among the few nineteenth-century authors to describe it (as "beech tree"), saying that the dried leaves were desiccative and employed to "dry ulcers in the legs." A decoction was said to cure burns and scalds, and the oil from the nuts to be anthelmintic.' Despite only an occasional later reference, and F. P. Porcher's dismissive comment in 1863 ("the bark is astringent and has been used, according to Dr. Farnham, in intermittent fever; but it is not possessed of any decided powers"),4 some pharmaceutical companies marketed the leaves and bark in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. 5 Although well known to Bass, evidence of any general usage of beech in domestic medicine is scanty. It is reported from the Kentucky Appalachians as an ingredient in a medicine for consumption." Bass has never heard of it being used in any chest or cold medicine, but agrees this would not be amiss because of its astringent property, which justifies his use for skin complaints.

2. See, for example, many references in F. C. Brown (1957-64, vol. 6). Representative is "to cure a cough, take cough syrup of mullein tea, honey and brandy." 3. Wigginton, "Sourwood Honey," (1973, pp. 2931). 4. E.g., Middleton and Seal (1985).

5. For chemical constituents, Trease and Evans (1983, p. 346). 6. See, for instance, Tenney (1982, p. 26).

7. For manufacture's information, see WorthingtonRoberts and Brekin (1983). 8. For references, "Buyer Bee-ware," Lawrence Rev. Nat. Prod. 4 (1983): 50-52. 9. Bankova et al. (1983). 10. For example, Tyler (1982, pp. 179-80).

11. See, for example, Gojmerac (1980, p. 33).

BEECH (leaves, bark) The Herbalist's Account I call it American beech because I think it's a native of this country. There's only one kind of beech tree around here. It's a folk medicine; old-timers used the leaves and bark as a tonic. It has a lot of tannic acid that's good for rheumatism. I have used the bark at times for a tonic or for a wash for breaking out of the face, or mouth sores. But the fact of the business is I've stopped using it; it's scarce now around my place. There's only one beech tree within two or three miles of me that I know of, and I would not be skinning that tree. There are many other things I can use in place of it. Commentary Fagus sylvatica L., and varieties: beech tree. F. grandifolia Ehrh. * [syns. F. americana Small f.; F. sylvestris Michx.; F. grandifolia var. caroliniana (Loud.) Fern. and Rehd.]; F. grandifolia var. heterophylla]: American beech tree, beech.

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Constituents of F. sylvatica apart from tannins include fagin, sometimes described as an alkaloid. Available evidence suggests that past reputations have been justified on the basis of astringency from tannins. This includes its use in intermittent fevers. It is probably of no importance that Bass's experience rests on using a southern representative of the polymorphic F. grandifolia. Such assumptions about similar properties among varieties must, however, always be treated cautiously.'

Notes 1. Gerard (1597, p. 1255). Most later authors omitted beech, but see R. James (1747. p. 316).

2. Through Erichsen-Brown (1979. p. 59). 3. Stearns (1601. p. 64. no species mentioned); Rafinesque (1626-30. 2:220) made essentially the

same comments. without reference to anthelmintic action. 4. Porcher (1663. p. 235) referring to Fagus sylva-

tica and the variety americana. Porcher concentrated on economic, not medical uses; for instance, the use of young leaves by the "common people" as a potherb, and the leaves collected in the autumn to form an admirable filling for mattresses. "The smell is grateful and wholesome; they do not harbor vermin, are very elastic, and may be replenished without cost." 5. Parke-Davis (1690, p. 16).

6. Bolyard (1961, p. 75). F. C. Brown (1957-64. 6:302) mentioned a nonnatural belief involving a beech tree. 7. Fagus grandifolia var. caroliniana is commonly reported as a distinct entity in the South, but some systematists consider F. grandifolia to be polymorphic; i.e., a "mixed population resulting from the intermingling of three or four forms that may have been distinct species back at least to the Cretaceous." See J. Little (1964), referring to field studies of Camp supporting the latter idea (see Amer. J. Bot. 30. supp. [1940J: 22). Kartesz and Karlesz (1960) gave previously named varieties as synonyms of F. grandifolia.

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BEECHDROPS (roots, stems, whole plant); INDIAN PIPE (whole plant)

The Herbalist's Account Beechdrops are not from nuts of beech. It hasn't anything to do with beechnuts. It is a parasite that grows on beech roots, and it's kind of like Indian pipes. It's a little old plant; and it takes an herb hunter to find them. In fact, I was in the woods many years before I spotted any of them. They are scarce as hen's teeth around here. Doc Rich Porter has found a few but he won't touch it. He wants it to stay right there. There's not much to collect but the little stems. I've never used beechdrops, but they are used for a general tonic and for the kidney and liver. I understand that the Indians hunted beechdrops diligently to use for a tonic. You can also put them in salves. It's good for sores. Commentary Epifagus virginiana (L.) Bart. * [syns. Orobanche virginiana L.; Leptamium virginianum Raf.): cancer root, beech drops. Orobanchaceae The parasitic beechdrops, commonly found under beech trees, have attracted more medical interest than the beech itself. Most nineteenth-century writers indicated that interest in "cancer root," once a very popular name, followed the belief that it was the main ingredient in Martin's Cancer Powder, a well-known remedy in the early years of the nineteenth century. (Some reports, however, indicate that arsenious acid was the "active" ingredient!) 1 Long after it was generally accepted by professional medicine that beechdrops's reputation as a cancer cure was unfounded, interest persisted, at least in employing the astringent properties (mainly of the "root") for sores, "open cancer," indolent ulcer, and for diarrhea.2 In 1884 authoritative Laurence Johnson provided a useful summary: "Beech-

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drops has a disagreeable bitter and astringent taste, which is much more pronounced in the recent than in the dried specimen. It has been employed both topically and internally as an astringent. Doubtless its effect when applied to ill-conditioned ulcers led to the absurd notion that it is curative of cancer."3 Although interest was declining at the time, some pharmaceutical companies were marketing packages of beechdrops and a fluid extract. 4 No reference has been found to the nature of the constituents. but tannin is undoubtedly present. Bass's comments are in line with past recommendations. The bitterish astringent taste accounts for the opinion that it is a tonic.' Indian pipe. Mr. Bass compares beechdrops with the saprophytic Indian pipes (Monotropa unifJora L.) and the saprophytic squawroot, also called cancer root (Conopholis americana [L.l Wallroth; see Squawroot), which he refers to as "kinfolk." Bass does not know the alternative name "eyebright" for Indian pipe (or fit-root), though these names have been used in the Appalachians." At least one writer has reported use as an eyewash.' Bass says this is because it is astringent, the same reason it acts as a tonic. Notes For accounts see Rush (1786), Ewell (1817. p. 503), and G. B. Wood and Bache (1847, p. 1282, for comment on arsenious acid).

1.

2.

Wood and Bache (1847), Comfort (1853, p. xx).

3. L. 4.

Johnson (1884, pp. 202-3).

Parke-Davis (1890, p. 18),

Beechdrops has been listed in such popular twentieth-centurv medical writings as J. E. Meyer (1979, p. 14; for minor cuts, wounds, and bruises), a book well known to Bass. 5.

6.

Cowles Catalogue (1850s).

7.

Moerman (1982, p. 95).

BEET, RED (roots, leaves) The Herbalist's Account Beets make one of the best pickles. They have become more popular in recent times. I notice a vitamin company says they are good for the blood. We used to raise them every year and make dozens and dozens of cans of pickles. We didn't know they were so good for you, but they are bound to be a good blood medicine since they look like blood. The leaves make a good poultice.

Commentary Beta vulgaris L. ssp. vulgaris var. crassa (Alef.) J. Helm [syns. B. vulgaris (L.) var. rubra L.: R. vulgaris L. ssp. maritima (L.) Arcangel.; B. maritima L.J: red beet. beetroot, sugar beet, garden beet. R. vulgaris L. ssp. vulgaris var. cicIa Isyn. B. vulgaris ssp. cicIa var. alba]: white beet, spinach beet, seakale beet, chard Chenopodiaceae Although Mr. Bass's remarks suggest he has only recently appreciated the nutritional value of the red garden beet as a vegetable, he has long held a belief in its medical value. Even so, few past medical uses have filtered down to him, partly a reflection of the infrequent references in medical writings, regular or botanic/ domestic. By the sixteenth century, white beet (leaves or juice) was apparently preferred for its "cleansing" action on the liver and spleen; later medical references to beet-certainly not common-generally refer to white, not red varieties. John Hill gave uses (apart from the errhine property) not easy to confirm elsewhere in the literature: that the juice is an "excellent remedy for the head-ach, and tooth-ach when the whole jaw is affected," and that "the red beet-root is good for the same purpose, but it is not so strong as the white."1 In fact, John Gerard (1597), who earlier

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noted the biennial red beet (which is harvested during the first year of growth), left the impression that it was only an "excellent and delicate sallade," a comment reinforced a century or so later when Joseph Miller said that the root was "more frequently imployed to garnish dishes than to any medicinal uses." 2 Later authors, like George Motherby (1785), mentioned that red beet was difficult to digest and that if "eaten freely" was laxative and emollient. The juice was also said to be a powerful errhine, without causing sneezing." Nineteenth-century American botanic physician D. J. Cobb (1846) listed medicinal properties for the decoction of red beets, made into a salve, as an application for inflamed and indolent ulcers.· Even at this time the limited reputation was fading further, at least in the United States. In 1881 it was reported that the root and leaves of red beet were formerly used as emollient applications and were still employed as a dressing for blisters in France. 5 Interestingly, however, an occasional, apparently authoritative statement about the value of beet for making "fresh, new blood" continued to be made.6 Bass's comment that red beets "are bound to be a good blood medicine" is not surprising. This view is well known to many of his visitors and persists, at least in part, from confidence in the doctrine of signatures (discussed in volume 1). Also not surprising is his reference to poultices, which have been recorded in the twentieth century as American traditional medicine.' A recent report indicating usage for external cancers is perhaps derived in part from the earlier reputation for treating indolent ulcers.8 There is no evidence that changes in the cultivated varieties might account for the declining reputation, but the possibility remains. The coloring principles present, quaternary ammonium amino acids, are known as betalains.9 It is not clear that they account for the

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past reputation as laxative and errhine. External use suggests merely a physical, poulticelike action, analogous to that of potato. Notes 1. For early references, see Bullein (1562, f. ix v), P. Moore (1564, f. xxviii), and j. Hill (1812, p. 32). There are always problems concerning retrospective identification when assessing early reputations. Gerard's account in his 1597 Herball is skimpy; Johnson, in his 1633 edited version, added three illustrations, perhaps based on the discussion in Parkinson (1629, pp. 489-90): "white beet." leafy beet, and two others, perhaps forms of red beet, though the roots are not shown developed. For background to the difficult question of the origin of cultivated beets, see Ford-Lloyd and Williams (1975).

2. Gerard (1597, p. 252), j. Miller (1722, p. 85). 3. Motherby (1785), under "Beta sylvestris: beets." Motherby referred to red and white beet. 4. Cobb (1846, pp. 11, 8). 5. Power and Sedgwick (1881-99), under "Beta vulgaris." 6. H. D. Lewis (1913, p. 81). 7. F. C. Brown (1957-64, 6:25), Tyler (1985, p. 8). 8. Tyler (1985, p. 8); for some references from the 1950s and 1960s. see Hartwell (1982. p. 106). 9. Leung (1980, pp. 59-60).

BEGGAR'S-LICE (roots); SPANISH NEEDLES (tops) The Herbalist's Account Beggar's-lice used to be recommended for colds; I didn't know too much about it. I have a friend from Hoaksbluff that I first teached about herbs. He took a course by mail from Canada. The teacher was a full-blooded Indian. Well, anyway, the man recommended it for hardening of the arteries or the mind. We began to look in the woods for it. Glen tried it on his mother. It really helped her. It has an obnoxious odor. The root is kind

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of like shoe polish, like devil's shoestring. I guess it acts like gotu kola. There's a beggar's-tick which some folks call Spanish needles. I haven't found much around here and haven't used it, but it's good to put into cold medicines. It·s a tonic like boneset. It's a folk medicine. I think Dr. Pierce has it in his book, but you don't find it on the lists now.

Commentary Desmodium nuttcI11ii (Schindler) Schubert* [syn. Meibomia nuttallii (1.) Schindler]: beggar's-lice, beggar's-ticks, beggar weed. D. nudiflorum (1.) DC. * [syn. Meibornia nudiflorum (L.) Kuntze]: beggar's-lice, beggar'sticks, beggarweed. Fabaceae Bidens bipinnati L., including varieties: Spanish needles, beggar ticks (locally used for all B idens species).

Bass to suggest to an elderly visitor that he make a "trial" of the plant. Mr. Bass is correct in indicating that beggar's-ticks (a species of Bidens) have a reputation for colds. One of the best known medically, the naturalized B. tripartita (water agrimony), has had a long history as an astringent, emmenagogue, and expectorant. 4 The indigenous B. bipinnata 1., commonly known as Spanish needles, is reported to have the same properties. s Commercial interest developed in this plant toward the end of the nineteenth century; Parke-Davis, for instance, marketed a fluid extract on the basis of emmenagogue and expectorant actions." In fact, the modest popularity acquired by Spanish needles may, by analogy, have enhanced the reputation of all the beggar's-lice. No chemical analysis of species of Desmodiurn or Bidens has been located, but the limited reputation in the past makes it unlikely that constituents with marked pharmacological actions will be found.

Asteraceae (Composi tae) Desmadiurn species are another example of a byway of herbal medicine-plants little known but with a lingering past reputation which is resurrected at times.' No information on beggar's-lice has been found in regular nineteenth-century medical writings, though uses by American Indians have been' recorded in twentieth-century ethnobotanical studies. For example, Desrnodiurn panicul(]tum is used as an emetic and for chest ailments, bad colds? arid, in whiskey, for weakness and cramps." Of the numerous Desrnodium species in North America, Mr. Bass generally collects D. nutallii and D. nudiflorum. Whether or not the reputation for cramps led by analogy to modern treatment for hardening of the arteries (see Bass's comments) is speculative, but may have been the rationale -given the pattern of Bass's practice and the empiricism at play in herbal medicine-for

Notes 1. There is littl" concurrence OV"f which species an, commonly known as beggar's-lice. beggar's-

ticks. and beggarweed. According to the Oxford English Dictionary (1933,1:766), beggar's-lice is a name fOf boraginaceous plants whose prickly fruit or seeds stick to the clothes. Early usage of vernacular names is not documented. Howes (1974, p. 25) gave Bidens spp., Desmodiul1l tortllosllm, and Cynoglossum spp. Radford el al. (HJ68, p. 604), however, referred to all members of the genus Desmodiurn as "beggar-lice, beggars'-ticks," as does Mr. Hass. j. E. Meyer (1979, pp, 62 and 123) referred to Cynoglossum morrisonio as beggar's-lice and Bidens connuto as beggar's-tick. Hor;k1io virginiano has also been referred to as beggar's-lice (Radford el aI., p. 880). Cynoglossllm and Hor;klia are boraginaceolls genera, while Desmodium is leguminous. 2. Moerman (1977, p. 63), Other species of Desl1lodium are listed as lick-trefoils by Moerman,

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3. Ibid., quoting Speck (1941). 4. For an outline see Le Strange (1977, pp. 56-57). 5. King (1872, p. 161). Other species of Bidens (e.g., pilosa) are reported as Spanish needles. See, for instance, Asprey and Thornton (1953, p. 241). 6. Parke-Davis (1890, p. 166]: also noted in Gattinger (1894, p. 39).

BERGAMOT (fruit, oil); WILD BERGAMOT (whole plant) The Herbalist's Account What we call bergamot is another scarce one. In fact, I don't imagine I could get enough of it to make a gallon of medicine around me. I pick it up now and then. I've used it when I caught myself short on lemon balm; it makes a good-tasting tea like lemonade. It could be used for nerves and sick stomach like peppermint. It's a mint. Any mint tea will settle your stomach. Commentary Citrus bergamia Risso and Poiteau, including cultivars: bergamot. Rutaceae Monarda fistulosa L. *: wild bergamot, bergamot. M. didyma L.: mountain mint, bergamot. M. ado rata Solve.: bergamot. Mentha citrata (Ehrh.) Boivin [syn. M. xpiperata L.]: bergamot. Lamiaceae (Labiatae) The vernacular name bergamot has been used for various members of the mint family,' presumably from analogy to the odor of Citrus bergamia. The oil from the latter, obtained from the fruit peel, is best known as a perfume material; occasional references to past medical uses can be found, but in Western medicine these are largely to its role as a flavoring agent in medicines. Nowadays, bergamot oil is being promoted within a facet of herbal medicine hardly

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mentioned in volume 1, aroma therapy. This involves use, either internally or externally, of the "healing and beautifying properties of the essential oils of flowers and herbs." Although there has been much criticism of aromatherapy because there is no scientific evidence to support many of its claims, it has acquired a considerable following in recent years. Bergamot oil is said, for instance, to be of value "used in douches and hip baths" for "gonococcal infections, leucorrhoea, and vaginal pruritis." 2 No specific information from either the regular or botanic/domestic medical literature has been found on M. fistulosa (sometimes collected by Bass as bee balm), but Bass's comments on its value for nerves and sick stomach are in line with the reputations of many members of the mint family (see Mints). The essential oil has attracted some interest from the perfume industry;3 in general it can be said that Bass is one of the few helping to sustain minimal medical interest. Notes 1. For example, Grieve (1971, originally 1931, 1:95), called M. didyma bergamot: and J. F. Morton (1981. p. 769), referred to M. citrata as bergamot mint. Scoggan (1978-79, p. 1312) and Fernald (1950, p. 1237), among others, referred to Monarda

fistulosa as wild bergamot. 2. For bergamot fruit, see H,~drir.k (1972, p. 174). For aromatherapy, see Tisserand (1977, pp. 18789).

3. E.g., Sawyer (1894, pp. 221-22).

BETHROOT (rhizome) The Herbalist's Account It is beautiful in early spring with one bloom on the top, shaped like a trumpet. It likes the shade; it's about four inches to one foot tall. The root is kind of like a grub. I've known it all my life, but have not sold it for thirty years. I don't make a habit of using it be-

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cause it's scarce here, but I've furnished it to a number of women. It stores easily after drying. There's always a market for it. It's an all-round tonic. According to the Indians, it's highly recommended for women; all womenfolk should have some bethroot around when they have bad spells, flashes, feeling a headache. The Indians also used it for rheumatism. To make a tea, use one teaspoon of beatup roots. Pour a cup of boiling water over the roots and let sit for fifteen minutes and drink a swallow now and then. Commentary Trillium erectum L. * , including varieties [syn. T. rhomboideum var. airopurpureum Michx.]: American herb Paris, birthwort, squawroot, bethroot, nosebleed. T. grandiflorum (Michx.) Salisb. *: American herb Paris, birth wort, squawroot, bethroot, white trillium. Other Trillium species. Liliaceae Bethroot (usually referring to T. erectum) follows the pattern of a number of indigenous remedies possessing marked odor and bitter taste that emerged into general popularity around the mid-nineteenth century backed by an Indian reputation and encouraged by the interest of Eclectic practitioners. Some interest, however, was generated in the first half of the nineteenth century. Charles Rafinesque (1828-30), who claimed to have introduced bethroot into medical practice, drew attention to white-blossomed trilliums (called female, he said, by Indians) as best for female complaints.' Whether this reputation was widespread at the time is unclear. Griffith's authoritative Medical Botany (1847) stated that nothing was known of the exact medicinal powers of species of Trillium, although it was used by Indians and in "empirical practice, it is said with some success." He implied indiscriminate use of various species.' Shortly afterward it was

said to have been only recently introduced, and Appalachian herb and root dealer C. J. Cowie was purchasing the root in large quantities from collectors. In 1870 Cowie wrote to a customer and friend recommending an interesting use of bethroot: "I infer you are suffering from your old affection heart disease and asthma. The latter not so old and probably a sort of attachment of the former. I advise that you carry a ps of bethroot in your pocket to chew for relief of the muscles of the thorax.'" Growth of interest in bethroot during the second half of the century was erratic, as reflected in Laurence Johnson's remarks in 1884: "It has been employed to check hemorrhages, as epistaxis, haemoptysis, and menorrhagia, and as an astringent and stimulating application to ulcers, etc. It is little used except by Eclectic practitioners.'" As implied, uses, including for female complaints, were usually rationalized on the basis of astringent properties.s Bethroot's reputation, even among Eclectic practitioners, appears to have been declining by the end of the nineteenth century, particularly for female complaints. The popular herbal by Joseph Meyer (1934) did not mention employment for gynecological disorders.6 The historical record provides little confidence in specific uterine activity, though muscle relaxant activity was appreciated, as seen in Cowie's remarks quoted above. 7 Reported constituents of T. erectum and other species include tannins, a volatile oil, and saponin glycosides. 8 The sapogenins diosgenin and kryptogenin have also been found, and they may contribute to the reputation for the management of certain menstrual difficulties and rheumatism. However, this is purely speculative and pharmacological and clinical studies on the plant are needed. Mr. Bass believes that all trilliums possess the same properties. Whether this applies to T. grandiflorum, which he occasionally collects (and less frequently T. cuneatum Raf.),

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remains uncertain, at least until it becomes clear why, out of all the Trillium species, T. erectum has been singled out as being of special medicinal value. Of course, it may be merely that it is common in the eastern United States. Notes 1. Rafinesque (1828-30. 2 :102-3). referred to by Millspaugh (1974. p. 175-4). The best-known

white-flowered trillium is probably T. grondifJorum. 2. Cumulative evidence that bethroot was introduced as a medicinal plant on the basis of Indian knowledge appears strong. Griffith (1847, p. 647) mentioned that it was esteemed by the Indians for conditions peculiar to the female sex. Mohr (1901, p. 443) noted that the rhizomes of bethroot -T. erectum. T. sessile L., and T. cernuum L.were indiscriminately collected for medicinal use under the name of birthroot ("Used by the aborigines, and now in Eclectic practice"). Interestingly. L. Johnson (1884. p. 273) said it was little used except by Eclectic practitioners.

3. See Kost (1859, p. 543) for reference to recent

introduction. especially for hemorrhages and pectoral diseases. See circulated lists of requirements, 1854-55, in Cowie Papers, with notations asking for one thousand pounds (letter dated 21 August 1870). Cowie also pointed out that bethroot was one of those "certain roots, seeds, &c you cannot get too much of rfor trading]." 4. Johnson (1884, p. 272). Other references, such as Beach's influential American Practice Condensed (1848, p. 679), indicated a botanical-domestic thrust in describing Trillium latifolium. 5. Gunn (1869, p. 801) indicated bethroot was of value only for excessive uterine bleeding, owing ta astringent properties. For typical reference to menorrhagia see Hyams {1898, p. 331}. 6. Meyer (1934, p. 14).

7. Interestingly, in view of Bass's reference to Indian use, Banks (1953) made no reference to the Cherokee Indians employing species of Trillium for female complaints. 8. See Marker et al. (1947).

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BETONY; WOOD BETONY (leaves) The Herbalist's Account Wood betony kind of looks like a fern. It may have yellow, pink, or red flowers in May. There are several varieties. Gather it in the summer or fall before the frost kills the leaves. I don't know much about it. We don't have much around. It's highly recommended as a tonic. It can be used like boneset for fevers and it's good for colds and breaking outs. The leaves are good in cough syrups, Mr. Butler, in the early 1960s, believed it was good. Oh boy, he banked on that stuff until it made him constipated. It's another one on the way up, Commentary Stochys officinalis (1.) Trevison [syns. Stachys betonica Benth; Betonica officinalis L.): betony, wood betony. Lamiaceae (Labiatae)

Pedicularis canodensis 1. *: lousewort, betony, wood betony. Scrophulariaceae Mr. Bass's wood betony, which he frequently calls lousewort, has rarely been found in his various collecting sites during the past four years; however, it is undoubtedly Pediculoris conadensis. This-not the well-known garden betony from Europe, Stachys officinalis-is another plant that has aroused little medical interest. Jane Colden, during the.1750s, wrote in her botanical notebook that "Pedicularis tuberoso" was called betony by country people, who made a tea of the leaves and used it for fever, ague, and sickness of the stomach. ' Indian uses for Pedicularis species have also been noted in twentieth-century reports: as a poultice of the root for external swellings, abortifacient, aphrodisiac, and cathartic" No information has been found in the regular or domestic medicine literature, but it possibly

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featured in some medical botany practices in the nineteenth century.3 The well-known betony (occasionally called wood betony), a European plant, is generally identified in the older medical literature as Betonica officinalis.4 It has a long history of many uses, although, in common with many plants, it declined in popularity in the eighteenth century.s William Woodville, in 1794, said that it "like many other plants formerly in great medical estimation, is at this time, almost entirely disregarded."6 The remarks of William Withering, however, made at around the same time, give a sense of how often positive comments about a plant can help to sustain at least some reputation: "This plant was formerly much used in medicine, but it is discarded from the modern practice. However, it is not destitute of virtues, for when fresh it intoxicates and the dried leaves excite sneezing." 7 Perhaps not surprisingly, betony-hardly established outside cultivation in North America -attracted little attention in the nineteenthcentury American medical literature. Wood and Bache's Dispensatory gave it brief mention, indicating it was once much esteemed, but in "warming and corroborant" properties is "inferior to other plants in the same family."8 It was mentioned in some popular writings. Cobb, for instance, in his Medical Botanist (1846) said that the leaves and roots possess "antacid, detergent, diaphoretic, and nervine properties." 9 There are occasional references to more powerful pharmacological properties of the root, such as emetic and cathartic.'o In spite of its lack of popularity and its mild properties, some use of betony persisted through the early decades of the twentieth century as a beverage in the form of a tea or tisane; recently, interest has been reawakened, but as a "health food."11 Uses are justified mainly on its bitter-astringent character, accounting for the reputation as a tonic or corroborant noted above. Betony contains

about 15 percent tannin. Other constituents such as glycosides are present, and there are suggestions that pharmacological action might account for its past reputation as a nervine. 12 Bass's account, with references to a tonic action and indicating that it can be used as an alternative to boneset, generally follows past information for betony as well as for Pedicularis, his betony. Bass is correct in indicating that betony is becoming more popular as a tonic, though its astringency hardly makes it pleasant and, as his friend Butler found, induces constipation. Bearing in mind the reputation of betony, it seems that the name betony (or wood betony) for Pedicularis canadensis-or rather Pedicularis spp.-may well have been derived by analogy to the true betony on the basis of sensory properties as well as some similar morphological features.

Notes 1. Colden (1963, p. 46J. At about the same time, John Bartram indicated vernacular nomenclatural problems. "Betony grows here well in gardens: but that which is called here wood-betony is really cock's comb, or rattle grass, very different from betony; there is another herb planted in gardens by the name of betony, which is a small species of clary" (in T. Short, 1751, p. 27J.

2. Moerman (1977, p. 131J. 3. Batts MS. 4. Whether or not Bass could recognize the European betony of our gardens or any of the indigenous species of Stachys is uncertain. Stachys tennifolia has been found in the river bottoms in his area, and S. clingmanii in the hills. (Private communication, Professor Robert Kraal.J 5. For some early history see Le Strange (1977, pp. 56-57J. 6. Woodville (1790-94, supplement, pp. 68-69J. 7. Withering (1796, 3:530J. 8. G. B. Wood and Bache (1855, p. 1303J.

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9. Cobb (1846, p. 9). Wood and Bache (1870. p. 1545) said it "was little used." 10. E.g., Beach (1848, p. 688). Wood and Bache (1870, p. 1545) stated it "has been considered

emetic and purgative." 11. For

some discussion see Tyler (1982, I'p. 36-

37).

12.

Ibid.

BILBERRY, BLUEBERRY, HUCKLEBERRY, WHORTLEBERRY (fruits, leaves, and root bark); CRANBERRY (fruit) The Herbalist's Account There's several varieties of huckleberry, or blueberry, bushes. The huckleberry that we eat is actually a blueberry, but we call it a huckleberry. The bear huckleberry or winterberry or mountain huckleberry is a tall shrub. They'll grow as high as ten or twelve feet. They have black berries that get ripe in the winter. You have to be hungry to eat them. They're kind of dry, but after the frost falls on them they're pretty good eating. My brother and I used to trap together, traveling through the woods in the winter, and eat huckleberries. The bush stays green way into the winter. I've helped p''''ple decorate their church for weddings with the bear huckleberry. I like the natural blueberries better than the bearberry, but the leaves of them all works to make a medical tea. Our woods used to be loaded with huckleberries. but now thpy're putting out these insecticides and I reckon it must keep them bushes from bearing. There's not enough berries on the ridge to make a pie. [ started to recommend huckleberry in the 1960s. The leaves are used for sugar in the blood and for high blood. Indians used it quite a bit for things of that sort. Pull the leaves, dry them in the shade. Two handfuls of dried leaves make a gallon of tea. And two or three cupfuls of tea a day are recommended for diabetics or for anyone that's got gall bladder trouble. No harm in it. Tea drink-

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ers tell me it's one of the best-tasting teas, which I believe it would be because I am just crazy about huckleberries. You can use the berries, but they've got sugar in them. People can get dried huckleberry leaves from health food stores. It won't cure sugar diabetes, but a lot of people go back to the doctor and they can cut down on their insulin shots or tablets. Diabetes is a blood condition, and the huckleberry tea purifies the kidneys. and the kidneys filter the blood. If people would take these teas, they wouldn't be as many people on these kidney machines today. The trouble of it is we murder our kidneys with these soft drinks and things. Roots of bear huckleberry make a fine tea for swollen joints. scurvy [sore mouth], and for sore gums that result from wearing false teeth. Takes the swelling out of the gums, heals them, and makes them tough. You've seen people with a swollen iaw from a bad tooth. You can just feel the bear huckleberry root tea drawing the swelling out. It is also good for athlete's foot, cuts, and bruises. We have lots of calls for it. Some people ask me about cranberry, but we don't have it around here. I don't recommend the fruits, but magazines like Prevention say it's good for the bladder and kidney. Commentary Vaccinium myrtillus L.: dwarf bilberry, blaeberry, whortleberry. V. crassifolium Andr. [syn. Herpothamnus crassifolium (Andr.) Small]: blueberry. V. pallidum Ait. * [syns. V. vacillans Torr.; Cyanococcus pallidum [Ait.) Small]: blueberry, hillside blueberry. V. arboreum Marsh. *: bear huckleberry, winter huckleberry, mountain huckleberry, sparkleberry. V. corymbosum L. * fsyns. V. elliottii Chapman; Cyanococcum elliottii (Chapman) Small]: bear huckleberry, winter huckleberry, highbush blueberry. V. rnacrocarpon Ail. [syn. Oxycoccus macro-

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carpus (Ait.) Pursh]: large cranberry. V. oxycoccus L. [syn. O. microcarpus Turcz; O. quadriptales Br.-Bl.; O. palustris Pers.]: small cranberry. Ericaceae Partir:ular vernacular names are associated with particular Vaccinium species, as indicated above, but the names are frequently used interchangeably. Most people just use blueberry (bilberry is preferred in Britain), although Mr. Bass and others in his region prefer the name huckleberry. In far:t, "true" huckleberries are classified in the genus Gaylussacia rather than Vaccinium. Bass believes that all huckleberries are medically the same, but this has not been proven scientifically.' John Gerard (1597) described a number of species of Vaccinium (one almost certainly V. myrtillus) under the heading "wortle berries" as "cold and dry," and binding; he indicated that they were useful for stomach complaints and diarrhea.2 Relatively little medical interest in Vaccinium was expressed in later European literature, except for some attention to V. myrtillus, a species found native in the North American Rockies as well as in Europe.' In America, probably because of the many indigenous species, more interest emerged during the nineteenth century. Although R. E. Griffith did not include a special entry in his authoritative materia medica text (1847), he stated: "V. arboreum affords an astringent fruit but of good flavour; the bark of the root is very astringent, and has proved useful in bowel complaints. The leaves of all [species] are astringent and have been used to tan leather, and also as a remedy in sore mouth and diarrhea in form of a strong tea."4 Astringency remained the best-known property, especially among botanic practitioners, but Rafinesque (1828-30) mentioned diuretic action, which was later emphasized. John Gunn (1869) said that "whortleberry" root and berries, bruised and tinctured in gin

"are a good diuretic."5 Occasional references continued, and in 1894 Thomas Hill was enthusiastic about V. crassifolium "unlocking secretions," including diuretic action." Interest in this property of the fruit. root bark, and leaves persisted, and some thought it as effective as the better-known Arctostaphylos uva-ursi.' A new impetus emerged in this century following a 1927 report that a study of blueberry leaf extract showed it possessed hypoglycemic action. The study was initiated by reports that blueberry leaf tea was used for "diabetes among the Alpine peasantry." Subsequently, according to the author, "within the last few months I have received letters in(lieating that blueberry leaf tea has had some repute as a diabetic remedy in some rural regions of the United States, and three diabetic patients assert that they were benefited by it." " Constituents (e.g., neomyrtillin) said to possess hypoglycemic action have been isolated from Vaccinium species, but the biological activity is not well characterized, nor is it known whether, as Bass implies, it applies to all species, some of which present taxonomic difficulties. 9 Some of Bass's diabetic visitors have reported a lowering of blood sugar after taking his huckleberry tea. Whether a connection exists between the reputed diuretic action-still commonly mentioned in herbals along with the astringency-and the hypoglycemic property is unclear. The astringency of the root (and root bark) has long been used to rationalize many recommendations, some noted by Bass. The Vaccinium story provides an example of national differences in plant usage. While it is viewed in the United States as a folk medicine, and some recommend it as a beverage, V. myrtillus can be found in the pharmacopoeias of Austria, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Switzerland. Uses there are linked to a belief in its value for treating capillary fragility and degenerative retinal conditions-

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supported in part by clinical investigations on anthocyanosides from V. myrtillus-a concept not accepted in professional medicine in the United States.lO Cranberries. Medical interest in cranberries. with their fascinating cultural history, especially after they were presented to early Pilgrims by Indians as goodwill gifts, has been spotty on both sides of the Atlantic from the seventeenth century onward." Some authors (e.g., authoritative eighteenthcentury writers such as William Cullen) focused on the role of the acid content; an occasional writer has been especially enthusiastic. 12 H. D. Lewis (1913) stated that cranberries were "now regarded as one of the best remedies for malaria and erysipelas. The best way to take them medicinally is raw; the chemical properties of the contained acid are then complete, whereas in cooking they are somewhat weakened." 13 It is unlikely that many physicians agreed with Lewis on the value for malaria and erysipelas. Interest at the time was focusing on the acidifying action on the urine as part of much discussion on the management of bladder infections.'· In fact, local reputations for the efficacy of cranberry apparently existed. In 1959 it was reported that "cranberry juice has been widely used in the Cape Cod area of Massachusetts in the treatmerit of infections." 15 Other reports soon appeared, which contributed to a developing fashion-much of it in the area of self-treatment-of using cranberry juice prophylactically and therapeutically for bladder infections.'6 Mr. Bass has seen popular articles to this effect. The value of cranberry juice for urinary tract infections, though widely accepted, has been challenged. In part this is because of uncertainty of action. It has been suggested that an increase in the concentration of hippuric acid is a significant factor. However, it has also been stated that this is not a consistent effect, and it cannot reliably decrease urinary pH to a level that would permit urinary tract

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bacteriostasis. Antibacterial properties have been attributed to the anthocyanins, flavonol glycosides, catechins, aromatic volatiles, and benzoic and quinic acids, though it has not been established that these compounds-or malic and citric acids-are clinically important." More recently it has been argued that cranberry juice inhibits bacterial adherence to mucosal surfaces, an important characteristic of urinary infections. '8 Disagreements over the value of cranberry may also reflect dosage and length of usage. Notes 1. For comments similar to those of Bass, see King

(1872, p. 845). Bailey and Bailey (1976. p. 1142) suggested that there may be as many as 150 species

of Vaccinium native to the Northern Hemisphere. with the greatest number in North America and eastern Asia. 2. Gerard (1597, pp. 1228-32); fig. 1 is considered to be V. myrtillus (ef. Withering. 1796, 2:370, referring to Johnson's [1633] improved illustration). Included under wortle berries was uva-ursi (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, then called a Vacciniumj; it became one of the best-known botanical diuretics. 3. For some references see Motherby (1785): oxycoccus (probably V. palustrisj, recognized as cooling and astringent. Camp (1942) considered the North American and Eurasian populations of V. myrtillus to be conspecific. not amphiatlantic. 4. Griffith (1847. p. 431). 5. Gunn (1869, pp.

930~31).

6. T. Hill (1894).

7. See Dispensatory of the United States (1960. p. 1922). 8. F. M. Allen (1927). See also other domestic uses in Harris (1968, p. 49). McLean (1972) reported

a conjure doctor cure for sugar diabetes: "Take the red oak bark off the north side of the tree. You take it like this because the sap starts rising on the North side. You then take huckleberry bush or sassafras. You take a gallon of water, the roots, boil to one half of water, pour out and strain. You then take one half teaspoon sulfur, one half teaspoon of salt, a tablespoon of sugar. You stir until it's thick

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then add the bark for seasoning. Take one swallow twice a day before you eat." This is one of many tantalizing recipes in which it is unclear whether huckleberry was considered an active ingredient. Sassafras is not recognized as hypoglycemic. 9. Dispensatory of the United States (1960, p. 1922).

10. J. E. F. Reynolds (1982, p. 1730). 11. Gerard (1597, pp. 1367-68) was seemingly describing Vaccinium oxycoccus, noting its value in fevers and pestilent diseases. Josselyn (1672, p. 65) reported seeing cranberry, or bearberry. in ;-.Jew England. A "sower astringent taste" was noted. 12. E.g., Cullen (1812, 1:154), with added note by

Barton: "The cranberry of the United States is not essentially different from that of the old continent, though its fruit is considerably larger." 13. H. D. Lewis (1913. p. 79). 14. E.g .. Blatherwick (1914). 15. Bodel et al. (1959). 16. Selected references of interest: Moen (1952). a

single clinical case of using cranberry in chronic pyelonephritis; Kahn et al. (1967). 17. "Cranberries and Their Juice" (1983J.

18. Sobota (1984).

BIRCH (bark, leaves, juice)

The Herbalist's Account Birch is an old family remedy. Sweet birch is similar to cinnamon bark, and Mother used it in pumpkin pies if she didn't have the cinnamon. She'd say back in Tennessee they had birch bark and chewed on that. Dad used it sometimes for sweats. He made a strong tea with the twigs. It can be used in rheumatism. You can also use it for the stomach for digestion. Old-timers said it was a tonic; I guess it is a tonic, but I don't use it. I don't know where to get it. We don't have the sweet birch in our area. It's up on the mountains. There was one, they say, up on top of Yellow Creek Falls, but people peeled it until they killed it. I guess it must have washed in there from somewhere because it's not a native of our part of the country. There's another birch, river birch, which

is not sweet. It's astringent and you can use it for sores and things, but there are better things. Commentary Betula pubescens Ehrh. ssp. pubescens [syn. Betula alba L.j; birch, white birch. B. lenta L.: sweet birch, birch. B. nigra L. *: red birch; river birch. Corylaceae Birch is an example of an apparently littleused remedy that has probably filtered down to Bass through the oral tradition, because few references to medicinal use exist in either the regular or the botanic/domestic medical literature. John Gerard (1597) stated that there was "nothing extant in either the old or new writers." 1 Nevertheless, some positive comments can be found in later writings. In 1785 British author G. Motherby, writing on B. alba, noted the sweet juice as an antiscorbutic, diuretic, and laxative. He added that the leaves and bark are antiseptic and that "the bark is burnt to correct bad air, and for this purpose it is the next in goodness to juniper." 2 Birches attracted some interest in colonial times, possibly hecause Indians used them for numerous purposes.' References in the nineteenth-century regular medical literature, however, do not suggest that birch had any more popularity in America than in Europe, except perhaps for sweet birch, B. lenta. F. P. Porcher (1863) noted that it was aromatic and made an "agreeable, gently stimulant and diaphoretic drink." Red birch (B. nigra). he reported, had been used for "cases of putrid sore throat." 4 Laurence Johnson, a short while later, noted that the sweet birch (like the white birch of Europe, B. alb(]) was considered a blood purifier and was used in domestic medicine for "rheumatism, gout, cutaneous afflictions &c." 5 It is not clear whether this use was internal or external. At that time birch oil was obtained on a large scale, and much of it was marketed as "wintergreen oil."6

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Mr. Bass has long been aware of the "tonic" properties of birch and the particular interest in sweet birch and its use for stomach complaints. The mention of his father's use of birch for sweats is associated with the alleged diaphoretic properties.' Bass's enthusiasm has been reinforced by mention of sweet birch in J. E. Meyer's Herbalist and its reputation as a substitute for oil of wintergreen." Sweet birch bark contains methyl salicylate-recorded as over 99 percent in the oil -known for rubefacient properties, which accounts for its reputation for treating rheumatism. This is much better established than usage for stomach complaints. There is little doubt that Mr. Bass considers B. lenta to be sweet birch, but the term is also used generically to cover other, less aromatic Betula species which do not possess the same properties. Although he knows the river birch-sometimes noted in the medical literature-he has little interest in it because it is hardly available to him. 9 His remarks indicate a reputation based on the presence of tannin. Notes 1. Gerard (1597, p. 1295). Species identification of Gerard's birch is uncertain. According to Tutin et al. (1964-80, 1:57), the taxonomy of Betula is disputed. It is particularly difficult to assign a species to the "white birch" of the early American botanical literature because both introduced and hybridizing native birches are classified as white birches in the series Albae (see Fernald, 1950, pp. 934-35; and a significant earlier report by Fernald, 1945). We have listed Betula pubescens as the most likely European "white birch" introduced in North America; and the two hybridizing species Betula papyrifera Marsh., a tree or coarse shrub with exfoliating bark, and B. populifolio Marsh., a bushy tree sprouting at the base, as the most likely native white birches.

2. Motherby (1785), under Betula, birch tree. 3. Vogel (1970, pp. 280-81) noted much Indian usage. Josselyn (1865, originally 1672, p. 51) wrote

that the "bark of birch is used by the Indians for

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bruised wounds and cuts,-boyled very tender and stamped betwixt two stones to a plaister, and the decoction thereof poured into the wound." 4. Porcher (1863, pp. 265-66). Stearns (1801, p. 68)

provides another example of testimonials promoting interest: "Dr. Thomas Green of Providence, in Rhode Island, informed me that a strong decoction of this bark, cured a putrid sore throat [possibly diphtheria), and that it is supposed to be good in the pleurisy." 5. L. Johnson (1884, pp. 252). 6. Sawyer (1894, pp. 326-46) for wintergreen,

birch, and related oils. 7. R. B. Browne (1958, p. 105) noted the use of inner bark of birch for night sweats. Also listed is the employment of birch-bark tea for kidney trouble. 8. J. E. Meyer (1979, p. 15).

9. Another birch sometimes noted in the medical literature is Betula pendula (silver birch), which is not found in Bass's area. It is reported as a diuretic with mild antiseptic action; see Stuart (1979, p.162).

BLACK-EYED SUSAN (flowers, root, leaves) The Herbalist's Account I've always known about it. The Indians and old-timers used it as a tonic, but there's lots of better ones. It makes a bitterish tea and is good for the kidney. For a beverage you'd use the leaves, not the root. Commentary Rudbeckia laciniata L., including varieties: coneflower, thimble-weed, black-eyed Susan. R. heliopsidis T. and G. *: coneflower, thimbleweed, black-eyed Susan. R. hirta L. * , including varieties: coneflower, thimble-weed, black-eyed Susan. Asteraceae (Compo sitae ) Little medical information has been found on the well-known black-eyed Susan, a common vernacular name for species of Rudbeckia with dark disc flowers, mostly indigenous. Some interest emerged during colonial times

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in the astringency (e.g., for treating saddle sores of horses).' Most subsequent medical interest-never enthusiastic-has focused on R. laciniata, commonly known as coneflower, which has greenish-yellow, rather than purplish-black, disc flowers on the cone. The reputation of coneflower as a kidney medicine may have contributed to what Mr. Bass knows about other black-eyed Susans. Toward the end of the nineteenth century Parke-Davis, among other pharmaceutical companies, marketed R. laciniata (as coneflower) in "ounce packages for retailing purposes and as a fluid extract," mainly as a diuretic, tonic, and balsamic: "It is especially recommended in chronic catarrhal inflammation of the urinary tract." 2 This reputation for urinary problems, promoted in particular by Eclectic physicians, carried over to other Rudbeckia species, though there are few recorded uses for R. hirta (best known to Bass) apart from a cold remedy among Potawotomi Indians.' Bass has seemingly heard about black-eyed Susan through the oral rather than the oral/written popular tradi tion; his own observations of the bitter-astringent taste reinforce the reputation for tonic properties. No recent information on constituents has been found. It has been said that Helenium species have sometimes been collected as a substitute. Since these species have similar sensory properties, substitution is perhaps of no significance when the plant is used as a tonic. Notes 1. Berkeley and Berkeley (1963, p. 143).

2. Parke-Davis (1890, p. 180). See also Warren and Small (1903. p. 882). Moerman (1977, p. 166) noted some Indian usage of flowers and of roots for burns. indigestion, and venereal aid. 3. Moerman (1977, p. 166).

BLACK GUM (bark, twigs) The Herbalist's Account I don't know much about the black gum. I haven't tried to check it out. I reckon the Indians used the bark for a tonic, but there are better things. It's a good tooth stick. All the old-timers used it as snuff dippers. They'd chew a twig until it become fibers, and then they'd dip it in a can of snuff and run it across their teeth. And they'd take three or four more dips and put it in their lip and kept it there and spit over everywhere. Then, after a while, when they wanted to get rid of it, they'd take the brush and put water on it and rinse their mouth out. Miss Conner over here still does that. Anybody who uses snuff does. After many years it would get their lip plum out of shape. One boy, one feller, he's dead now, his upper lip just hanged out, and wouldn't even close down, but he wouldn't turn it loose, Commentary Nyssa sylvatic(J Marsh. *, including varieties; tupelo, sourgum, black gum, cotton gum (local name). Nyssaceae Few published comments on medical uses for black gum have appeared. Even F. P. Porcher, when advocating southern crops and medicines for use during the Civil War (Resources of the Southern Fields and Forests, 1863). omitted any reference when he gave a long account of Nyssa aquatica (as "black gum; tupelo; sour gum"). Mr. Bass recognizes that these vernacular names (and cotton gum) are used indiscriminately for Nyssa species that are "kinfolks," but believes that tupelo and sour gum really refer to N. aquatico. Bass also agrees with Porcher that black gum wood has many uses: wheel hubs, trays, bowls. dippers. mortars, and shoes.' In the absence of any popular literature. knowledge of black gum-as a tonic and for

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kidney ailments-almost certainly reached Bass through the oral tradition.' The tonic action, he says, is typical of many barks. Bass has not heard of employment for small bladder stones (gravel) nor of use by Indians for tuberculosis and as an anthelmintic, though he does know of the Indian reputation of applying a preparation of black gum to wounds. It is noteworthy that diverse Indian usesreported from different tribes-have been taken to indicate little transfer of information between tribes, but the differences are more apparent than real when one appreciates that symptoms rather than disease entities were being treated. 3 The best-known use of black gum in Bass's area, is-as he describes-as a tooth stick.' This seems to be due more to the fibrous nature of the twigs than to reported antibiotic activity, which may be merely the properties of tannins and not a constituent specific to the tree. 5

Notes 1. Porcher (1863, pp. 347-49). Rafinesque (182830,2:247) noted only that fruits of Nyssa species are "bitler and acid." The vernacular name sour gum was sometimes restricted to N. villosa.

2. Bolyard (1981, p. 99). 3. Moerman (1977, p. 123). 4. The use of black gum twigs is well known in the

South, certainly among Lumbee Indians and South Carolinians-blacks and whites; see, e.g., Croom (1982, pp. 97-98). 5. Elvin-Lewis (1979) mentions antibiotic activity (p.444).

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BLACK·HAW; CRAMP BARK (bark) The Herbalist's Account Black-haw and blue-haw are the same to me. Black-haw is a little tree with black or blue berries on it, which are good to eat. The bark of the root or of the tree is used as a tea. It's wonderful ladies' medicine. It's good for men, but there is something in it that ladies need. It's one of the finest remedies for a lady's monthly troubles and hot flashes. It is also good for the rheumatism. The Indians combined black-haw with squawvine and bethroot, three genuine Indian squaws' medicines. They are official medicines, too. Dr. Pierce used hlack-haw bark in his medicine and it is in Lydia Pinkham's Vegetable Compound with squawvine and Solomon's seal. Don't make no difference what is wrong, it's good for you. I use the bark of the root or the bark of the tree. Commentary Viburnum lantana 1.: wayfaring tree. V. prunifolium 1.: black-haw. V. rufidulum Raf. * [syn. V. prunifolium 1. var. ferrugineum Torr. and Gray]: southern black-haw, blue-haw. V. opulus 1.: cramp bark, guelder rose. Caprifoliaceae Various species of Viburnum have been used in medical practice, but especially V. lanhma, V. prunifolium, and V. opulus. The V. rufidulum collected by Mr. Bass is similar to V. prunifolium. Gerard's account (1597) of the "Wayfaring Tree" almost certainly describes V. lantana. The leaves and berries were said to be "cold and dry" and to possess a binding, astringent quality, which has long been considered to justify the plant's reputation as a gargle for swellings, inflammations, "scurvy" (perhaps referring to gum lesions) and "diseases of the gums."1 Apart from Gerard and a few other authors,

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comparatively little was written on the medica! uses of Viburnum species until around the middle of the nineteenth century, when American interest developed in the indigenous black-haw (V. prunifolium), especially its astringent properties and reputation for such uterine problems as menorrhagia.' It has been said that a Dr. D. L. Phares of Atlanta contributed to its use in the 1860s as "particularly valuable in preventing abortion and miscarriage; whether threatened from accidental cause or criminal drugging. It tones up the system, preventing or removing those harassing nervous symptoms which so often torment, wear down, and disqualify the pregnant woman for the parturient effect." 3 The possibility exists that the growing interest in the plant rested in part on analogy with European knowledge of V. lantana, though usage by blacks and Indians was possibly an influence.' It is probable that black-haw has attracted most interest within domestic medicine. Certainly books such as John King's American Family Physician (1878) mentioned specifically its value as a uterine tonic,S while Gunn's popular New Family Physician (e.g., 1869) gave considerable space to blackhaw and made clear that its uterine activity ("female tonic") was of value in preventing abortions and miscarriages.6 Lloyd credited Atlanta physician L. J. M. Goss with helping to popularize the plant within regular medicine (which led to its inclusion in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia of 1882), although other priority claims have been made.' Many regular-if not Eclectic-practitioners maintained a skeptical attitude toward the plant. In 1883 Wood and Bache wrote in the Dispensatory of the United States that we "have no exact knowledge of the action of the remedy and its value must be considered at present apocryphal." H This view, echoed in many later accounts, seemingly suggests a lack of specific action. Nevertheless, certain textbooks continued

to indicate uses for female problems without reservation. R. B. Wilcox in 1911 listed actions as "tonic; antispasmodic; diuretic" and valued for "nervous diseases of pregnancy; to prevent miscarriage; after pains, menorrhagia; spasmodic dysmenorrhoea."g Furthermore, it remained in the National Formulary until 1960. Amid this background, with frequent testimonials to its effectiveness for menstrual discomfort and its inclusion in many proprietary medicines, it is not surprising that Bass thinks so highly of black-haw. Reported constituents of Viburnum prunifolium root bark include uterine-active constituents like scopoletin (7-hydroxy-6-methoxy coumarin), plant acids, tannin, and resin.'° Uterine activity has been demonstrated on estrogen-primed uteruses under laboratory conditions; it is unclear whether or not this can account for its use in menorrhagia, but it undermines the suggestion that the reputation for female complaints rests on astringent properties." Not all Viburnum species have been shown to possess activity in laboratory experiments, and it is possible that V. rufidulum, the species collected by Bass, has no activity; certainly the use of black-haw by herbalists-increasingly popular for female complaints, at least premenstrual tension-must be treated circumspectly, especially in view of the uneven historical record. V. opulus, a European shrub or small tree, merits separate mention because, as "cramp bark," it acquired a reputation similar to black-haw's, at least with respect to antispasmodic action. Eclectic writings encouraged this, and John King (1871) summarized much of the reputation that survived into the twentieth century: ,. A decoction or wine of the bark used during pregnancy, will, it is said, prevent any attacks of cramp, hysteria, etc., and also render the female less disposed to puerperal convulsions or irregular uterine contractions during labor." 12 Bass's lack of knowledge about cramp bark is almost cer-

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tainly because the shrub does not grow in his region unless cultivated.

Notes 1.

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herbal literature implying that modern research has proven black-haw's efficacy for menstrual cramps are premature. though past testimonials cannot be ignored. 12. King (1871, p. 743).

Gerard (1597, p. 1305).

2. James (1747. p. 466) represents an occasional eighteenth-century reference to Viburnum lantana for astringent properties. In America. Stearns (1801, p. 72) noted black-haw but gave no details about species or uses. Significantly, Rafinesque (1828-30,2:274) did not indicate astringency or use for female complaints.

3. Quoted from Rusby (1891). 4. Rusby (1891), Vogel (1970, p. 315). Moerman (1977, p. 202) noted one native American useas a gynecological aid-for V. prunifolium. quoting Tantaquidgeon (1972). Vogel and Moerman gave uses for other species. Whethm or not the recently recorded Indian uses are long-standing is unknown. 5. Lloyd (1921, p. 353) said that King's account was the earliest American reference he could find. 6. Gunn (1869, p. 805). Erichsen-Brown (1979, p. 150) quoted the Canadian Pharmaceutical Journol (1882): 275. which stressed value for preventing abortion and miscarriage. The reference indicated black-haw was introduced to the profession in 1866 by Dr. E. W. Jenks of Detroi t. 7. See Lloyd (1921, p. 353). Interest also developed through such publications as "Medical Botany." Trans. Amer. Med. Assoc. 3 (1850): 317, Clapp (1852). G. B. Wood and Bache (1870, p. 1719). King (1872, p. 634). 8. G. B. Wood and Bache (1883. p. 1522). The authors were responding to a paper by D. L. Phares in the Atlantic Medical and Surgic(1] Journal, with comment and further testimony to the effectiveness of black-haw outlined in Boston Med. Surg. J. 77 (1867): 212-13. See Rusby (1891). 9. Wilcox (1911, p. 330). Viburnum opulus is generally viewed as possessing different properties; Foster (1896-97. 2 :356). 10. Leung (1980. p. 67). Trease and Evans (1983, p.374). 11. Jarboe et a!. (1966, 1967). Statements in modern

BLACK SNAKEROOT (root)

The Herbalist's Account There are many roots they call snakeroot. This one, another black snakeroot, is eighteen inches to three feet tall with a burr that sticks to clothing in the fall. The roots are coarse and just under the soil. The leaves have oil in them. It's got a disagreeable odor. It·s a rheumatism medicine-you can mix it with bone set-and a tonic to give you strength when you're run-down. Before quinine, they used it for malarial fever. An old family country doctor, Dr. Mathews, near here, used it for malaria, chills. and rheumatism. It was one of his main medicines. He put it in whiskey. Some people highly recommended it for high blood. It's a blood purifier. I don't use it much, only in my special formula, 'cause I can't get enough of it. but it's another one on the way up. Conunentary Sanicula europeo L.: sanicle, wood sanicle. S. marilandica L. *: sanicle, American sanicle, black snakeroot (preferred local name). S. canadensis L. *: black snakeroot, American sanicle. S. trifoliata Bicknell *: black snakeroot, sanicle. S. smallii Bicknell*: black snakeroot, sanicle. Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) A number of sanicles have attracted medical interest. European sanicle (Sanicula europea) had a reputation as a vulnerary (for treating infected wounds) and as a general blood cleanser before John Gerard (1597) described

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it as hot and dry and noted its use in "vulnerarie potions, or wounde drinkes." 1 However. its reputation hardly survived the critical appraisals of the eighteenth century; in 1791 it was said that the effects of Sanicula europea "are not considerable enough to gain them a place in the present practice.'" No general enthusiasm resurfaced, nor was there much early interest for American sanicle, of which S. marilandica has attracted the most attention. It became known to the colonists either by analogy to the European plant or from Indians. 3 Peter Smith appears to have described a sanicle under "Black Snake root" in 1813, noting its use for fevers by whites and Indians. ("The Indians cure the ague by sweating with this root.") Rafinesque (1828-30)' on the other hand, described S. marilandica as "sub-tonic, astringent, antisyphilitic, useful for leucorrhea, gonorrhea and syphilis, hemorrhagy, dysentery &C."4 Clapp (1852) noted circumspectly that it and S. canadensis were employed indiscriminately as domestic medicines. "They are reputed stimulant, diaphoretic, and stomachic." 5 Clapp also noted the testimony of a Dr. Zabriskie that it was highly beneficial in chorea. If a sense was emerging that sanicle might come to be viewed as a panacea, it did not become widespread. The ever-skeptical Laurence Johnson, for instance, wrote of S. marilandica in 1884:

The reputation-such as it was-continued to decline, although references persisted in domestic medical books and it was seemingly used by Eclectic physicians? Mr. Bass still knows black snakeroot well as a blood purifier (analogous to John Gerard's view on vulnerary properties)." The reputation as blood purifier is used by Bass to rationalize its employment in rheumatism and to justify a past reputation for treating snakebites. However, as noted elsewhere, the diaphoretic action is probably more significant to the snakebite reputation, and perhaps that for rheumatism as well. Bass has not heard of usage as a nervine, but suggests that the rather unpleasant odor might account for that reputation. Bass is liable to collect any of four indigenous species of Sanicula. No medical references to S. trifoliata and S. smallii were found, and no detailed chemical information on the species is available. Despite Bass's comment that they all act the same, it is unclear whether species differences are significant. All in all, in the absence of a strong historical record, the current renewed interest merits careful evaluation.

Perhaps it would be well to state that the medical properties of sanicle, if it have any, are, like its constituents, unknown, though various and contradictory properties have been ascribed to it; as, for instance, that it is nervine, anodyne, and astringent, and that it has been used with advantage in intermittent fever, sore throat, cynanche trachealis, erysipelas, some skin diseases, chorea, gonorrhoea, dysentery, passive hemorrhages and leucorrhoea. Until further evidence be adduced in its favor one may reasonably remain skeptical regarding its virtues. 6

3. Black sanicle is difficult to interpret in the early literature because the vernacular name was also used for al umroot.

Notes 1. Gerard (1597, pp. B01-2). 2. Lewis (1791, p. 175).

4. P. Smith (1B13, p. 33), Rafinesque (lB2B-30, 2:261). 5. Clapp (lB52, p. 776). 6. L. Johnson (1884, p. 150). 7. E.g., J. E. Meyer (1979, pp. 111-12), and Kloss (1972, pp. 309-10). For Eclectic and Indian use see H. H. Smith (1932). 8. See Gunn (lB69, p. BI0).

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BLAZING STAR (roots) The Herbalist's Account Star-root has a spoon-shaped leaf and it grows flat on the ground on the south side of hills. In May and June it has a cattail-shaped flower on a single stem. It has a wonderful odor. I have grown it in pots just for the flower. The root keeps well when stored. Some people gets confused that it's the same plant as stargrass, but it isn't. Stargrass [see monograph] has a fine root and this here has a solid root. Star-root's another one of those bitter tonics that builds up the system. It's a good female medicine. Some says it tends to strengthen the heart. You use one teaspoon of cut-up root in a cup of water. Take one teaspoon three times a day and one at bedtime. Now, I've never used star-root, but oldtimers recommended it as a tonic. It is really a wonderful plant. It's bringing five dollars a pound. It must be being used quite a bit. It used to run between seventy-five and eighty cents and I've dug many a pound for a dollar and I thought I was getting rich, back in them days. But now, I really would get rich if I could find it. I know where there is about eight or ten pounds, but that would be all. Commentary Chamaelirium luteum (L.) Gray* [syns. Veratrum luteum L., Helonias diocia Pursh): blazing star. devil's bit, star-root (local name).

Liliaceae Mr. Bass cautions about confusing the indigenous star-root, his preferred name for Chamaelirium luteum, with star grass, or star-root (Aletris spp.). Difficulty in assessing the past medical popularity of blazing star is compounded by the widespread employment of the vernacular name star-root for button snakeroot (Liatris spp., see monograph) as well as for Aletris species, plus the common use of various botanical synonyms for Chamaelirium luteum.!

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John Bartram was apparently describing blazing star (Chamaelirium) in his "Description of Sundry Plants of These Northern Parts of America" (1751) when he said: "This precious root is a great risister of fermenting poisons, and the grevious pains of bowels, taken in powder, or the root bruised and steeped in rum, of which take a spoonful at once, and as often as need requires until the pain remits." 2 However, it was Benjamin Smith Barton, in his influential Collections (1804) (describing blazing star under Veratrum luteum). who categorized it as a tonic employed "in some parts of the United-States," and "deemed an excellent anthelmintic." 3 In 1849 physician l. G. Braman described Helonius dioica after nine years' experience treating affections "such as have their origin in atony of the generative organs of both sexes, but particularly those of the female."4 However, he blamed many diverse symptoms onleukorrhea and menstrual irregularity, and no evidence exists that blazing star was becoming popular. In 1884 the ever-critical Laurence Johnson wrote cautiously about "Chamaelirium luteum Gray": "said to be tonic and anthelmintic; it is probably little more than a simple bitter."5 He did not mention employment for female complaints, although this use persisted in other texts.6 Most interest in blazing star was probably engendered among practitioners of botanical medicine. Braman (1849) said it was "employed by the disciples of the botanical school as a curative agent," while, much later (1915), Eclectic physician Finlay Ellingwood remarked that homeopaths believed it to be particularly suitable for female disorders, "where there is feeble constitution, where the nervous system is weakened and the patient is easily fatigued. It is restorative, promotes nutrition, promotes secretion of healthy fluids. It is peculiarly tonic." 7 Although blazing star's reputation was dwindling quickly at the time, references persisted in a variety of publications, particu-

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larly with respect to its reputation for female complaints." This has reached Bass, who rationalizes its use as a tonic as due to the bitter taste. The possibility exists of confusion with, for example, the superficially similar Aletris farinosa, also known for activity for female complaints. On the other hand, until the pharmacology of such constituents as the bitter glycoside chamaelirin is investigated,9 pharmacological actions common to both plants cannot be ruled out.

Notes 1. Clapp (1852, pp. 890-91) gives synonyms. A western plant called blazing star that we do not discuss is Mentzelio loeviculus.

2. Short (1751, appendix, p. 4). 3. B. S. Barton (1804, pI. 2. p. 52). 4. Braman (1849). 5. L. Johnson (1884, p. 275).

6. E.g., Parke-Davis (1890, p. 93). 7. Ellingwood (1915, p. 477).

8. E.g., Dispensatory of the United States (l9()O, 25th

ed .. p. 1712).

9. Claus (1956, p. 157).

BLOODROOT [root)

The Herbalist's Account Bloodroot is a herb we don't find right around here, but it does grow in Alabama, I use it in a salve for outside sores. It's thicker than my Bass Salve, like a paste, You put the paste on. Then a piece of sticking plaster, a little larger than the "cancer," and let it stay for twentyfour hours. When you take the plaster off, it takes the sore out. Old-timers recommended it for many things. It's right down the alley for coughs. I recommend it to people to gargle their throat. It's a tonic and stimulant. I was raised up thinking, and still do, that bloodroot is as

good a medicine we have for what it's made for-for the blood-because it's like blood itself. The black people call it coonroot and rely on it for "building a nature." They put it in whiskey and take it that way. They praise it to high heaven, It also makes a pretty brown dye-starts out red but it turns out brown. There's still a market for it, but it's doggone scarce. Now and then I buy it from the Campbell Fur and Root Company. Commentary Sanguinaria canadensis L, *, including varieties: bloodroot, blood-wort, puccoon, coonroot, red-root. Papaveraceae Bloodroot, with its attractive early spring flowers and root characterized by red secretion cells, has been one of the best-known indigenous remedies in the United States. The earliest record, by John Smith in 1656, noted its use as a dye by Virginia Indians to paint their "mattes, targets and other things." 1 All the early well-known writers on American materia medica (for instance, Cutler, Schoepf, Barton, Thacher, and Bigelow) mentioned medical uses of the root as stimulant, tonic, and emetic, although some disagreement existed over the latter, William Downey's detailed study in 1803 also helped to establish bloodroot in general medical practice.' It is commonly implied that the use of bloodroot in white medicine is due to Indian influence, but this may be overstated. British author Robert Bentley, when endeavoring to promote interest in it as a "new American remedy" in 1862, indicated that it was the isolation of the alkaloid sanguinarine (1824) that led to bloodroot's employment in regular medicine. 3 Bloodroot's reputation was maintained and extended by references from almost the entire range of nineteenth-century writers

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on American materia medica, from Jones Rishel's Indian Physician (1828) to R. E. Griffith's influential Medical Botany (1847).4 By 1852, Clapp, a physician, spoke of the "high estimation in which it is held as a remedial agent," and provided a brief summary of its properties. He added his own personal testimony, the type of testimony which supported the reputation of many indigenous remedies: "I have used it more or less upwards of thirty years-generally in the form of tincture. It certainly is not purgative in an ordinary dose, nor is it expectorant; on the contrary, it frequently cures or relieves pneumonic inflammation, while it checks or suppresses expectoration. I have employed it with much advantage in incipient phthisis, pneumonia, vesicular emphysema and spasmodic asthma."" In addition to internal uses, although not specifically noted by Clapp, bloodroot had a reputation as a wash or application for ulcerous sores, warts, or polyps." Undoubtedly it acquired something of a reputation as a panacea,? but despite Clapp's doubts about its expectorant propertiesrationalizing usage for many chest ailments -that was the principal reputation to emerge and persist throughout the nineteenth century and into the present." Some of its popularity rested on the enthusiasm of Eclectic practitioners," Bass's knowledge of the plant-and his principal use of it for coughs and skin ailments-reflects many uses just described, which are also part of the popular tradition in Alabama, Appalachia, and elsewhere. HI Bass uses the word cancer, though it is clear he refers only to bad sores. In recent years the antitumor properties of bloodroot have aroused much interest. This has been supported by a "pedigree" from the historical record, although the fact that Lloodroot's past reputation was primarily for warts, nasal polyps, and ulcerous sores is generally overlooked. On the other hand, a wave of interest

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in using it for "common forms of the cancer" of the breast and skin did emerge in the 1850s. This arose primarily through the efforts in London of a Dr. J. Weldon Fell. He was described by an 1857 American medical journal, in slighting terms, as someone "of the University of New York [who] has within a year or two acquired considerable notoriety in London as a curer of cancer by a secret method." 11 Fell agreed to disclose the formula if a trial was undertaken at the Middlesex Hospital. This trial employed essentially a regimen of two daily pills consisting of bloodroot. hemlock, and arsenic iodide, and local treatment of the ulcerated or unbroken skin with a glutinous paste prepared from strong decoction of bloodroot, zinc chloride, and flour colored by cochineal. To the latter, ingredients such as stramonium were added for "ulcerated cancers." The report from the hospital was essentially favorable, though when read today. with hindsight of the many variables at play, it is not convincing. 12 Even at the time, doubts were raised, and an 1879 publication stated: "Sanguinaria, though little employed in England, is much esteemed by American physicians: the disuse of it here is due probably, in part, to the discredit thrown on it, some years back, by an absurd attempt to ascribe to the drug the power of curing cancer." 13 The reputation nevertheless lingered on, and some justification has been found through "chemosurgical techniques" which have created pockets of interest since the 1940s.14 After removal of, for example, basal and squamous cell carcinomas from the face, a paste containing bloodroot (and other ingredients) is applied to the site.'" A further point among Bass's remarks meriting notice is the reference to "helping nature." At first sight this reflects the stimulant or tonic properties. However, bloodroot has long had a specific reputation as an aphrodisiac. Roberts Bartholow, in his influential Practical Treatise (1882). said it "has

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decided aphrodisiac properties,"16 a reputation still well established among many of Bass's visitors. Whether any relevant physiological action exists, such as on the central nervous system, the urogenital system, vasodilation, or hormonal action, is not known. It is appropriate that bloodroot has been used as an Indian "love charm ... a bachelor would rub some of the root on his palm and would contrive to shake hands with the girl he desired; if successful in this, after five or six days she would be found willing to marry him." 17 Despite the weight of bloodroot's established reputation for coughs, its value as an expectorant is rarely accepted nowadays. A considerable number of constituents have been isolated. Ofthe alkaloids present, sanguinarine has captured most interest and is said to account for diuretic and diaphoretic actions. Activity on the central nervous system is reported. Of particular interest is the demonstrated antineoplastic activity of sanguinarine and the related alkaloid chelerythrine, though confirmation is needed and may be irrelevant to the nineteenth-century usage for cancer. Mutagenic activity is also reported,18 Toxic actions-including dropsy, glaucoma, and carcinogenic effects (linked to sodium-potassium ATPase enzyme activitylcause concern. Indeed, some plants containing sanguinarine and related alkaloids have been implicated in outbreaks of dropsy and glaucoma.19 An interesting recent development in the story of bloodroot, indicative of many unanticipated directions in the stories of drugs, is belief that it is a useful rinse for counteracting dental plaque. Data from early studies indicate that sanguinaria extract or the active sanguinarine possesses anti plaque activity.20 Oral toxicity is considered low. Current interest in finding potential antitumor compounds from sanguinarine remains high, just as bloodroot continues to be popular in traditional practice.

Notes 1. Quoted in Erichsen-Brown (1979. p. 318). Uncertainty exists about identification in many later references to Indian usage because of the use of the name sanguinaria for other plants. Motherby (1785), for instance. under the name Gramen polygonum. indicated it was the well-known common knotgrass. 2. B. S. Barton (1804. pt. 2, p. 40) reported that Sanguinaria "has been but little employed by the regular practitioners." 3. Bentley (1862-63), on Sanguinaria canadensis. is a useful article for background information. 4. Rishel (1828, reprint. p. 5); Griffith (1847. p. 128). For another enthusiastic account at the time see Leonard (1845). 5. Clapp (1852. p. 735). 6. E.g., Schoepf (1787, p. 86) and many later authors. 7. Some interest was aroused among physicians. particularly those working in lunatic asylums, by its reputation as a "narcotic." but this does not seem to have become general; see S. H. Woodward (1850). 8. Many nineteenth-century writers (e.g .• Capron and Slack. 1848, pp. 74-75) underscored its value for chest ailments. For a detailed twentieth-century account. see Solis-Cohen and Githens (1928, pp. 1376-79): "Summary of actions: sanguinaria depresses the respiratory as well as other nerve centers. It stimulates the secretion of bronchial mucus. and is used as a sedative expectorant." 9. Statement by Millspaugh (1974, p. 22-2). 10. For Alabama. R. B. Browne (1958. pp. 46, 75). an ingredient in a catarrh medicine and for winter itch. Its long history as a major commercial item in the Appalachians is also relevant: see advertising lists for 1850s in C. J. Cowie Papers; Scroggs (1871). 11. "Dr. Fells Cure for Cancer" (1857).

12. Report of the Surgical Staff of the Middlesex Hospital to the Weekly Board and Governors. upon the Treatment of Cancerous Diseases in the Hospitalon the Plan Introduced by Dr. Fell (1857). reported in Boston Med. Surg. f. 56 (1857): 482-85. In the same journal (59 [1858]: 63-64). "Treatment of Cancer by Bloodroot" included a formula for an external application containing bloodroot written

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down in 1811 under the heading "this recipe is a sure and long experienced antidote to expel all sorts of cancers." For some account see Lewis and Elvin-Lewis (1977, pp. 123-24). 13. C. D. F. Phillips (1879, 1:80). 14. See Shoemaker (1893, pp. 881-83). Recent

studies that note earlier uses for "cancer" include Tin-Wa et al. (1970). The authors noted the earlier uses for warts and polyps. The information is derived from Hartwell (1967, pp. 328-29). 15. E.g., Phelan et al. (1962), Mohs (1970). 16. Bartholow (1882, p. 291). 17. Corlett (1935, p. 318). 18. Trease and Evans (1983, p. 574). 19. T. Robinson (1983, p. 196), Hakim (1968), Serfen et al. (1979). For a recent review of some aspects, see Bisset (1985, pp. 1-22). For older

warnings on toxicity, including death in man, see Solis-Cohen and Githens (1928, p. 1377). 20. Southard et al. (1984).

BLUE-EYED GRASS (roots) The Herbalist's Account Bluegrass-we often call it chill-grass-has got a pretty yellow root and pretty little blue bloom like a star; some has a yellow bloom. The stem is inside the grass. I've got a plant growing for people to look at. Used to be able to get sackfuls where the lake is now. It's a folk medicine; I stock things like this for oldtimers that asks. Recommendations put it right up to the top. Bluegrass is the laxative for poor white people and black people, and they use it for chills and fever, too. A lot of people calls it chill-grass. It was used on the old plantations by the gallon for a purgative. I don't monkey with herbs for laxatives much because they're tricky. People don't pay enough attention to directions. I keep laxative tablets put up by registered pharmacal companies. It's bitter, but not so bitter as yellowroot; it's a good bitter tonic.

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Commentary

Sisyrinchium atlanticum Bicknell' Isyn. S. mucronatum Michx. var. atlanticum (Bicknell) Ahles]: blue-eyed grass, bluegrass, chill grass, physick grass, blue stargrass (local name). Iridaceae Mr. Bass's statement that blue-eyed grassa vernacular name applied to all Sisyrinchium species-is an "actual folk medicine" reflects little usage by regular physicians. In fact, 5isyrinchium species have rarely been included in texts on domestic medicine. Perhaps the first American text to mention "blue grass" was Samuel Stearns's American Materia Medica (1801), but no medical properties were listed. ' Almost inevitably, C. S. Rafinesque, a promoter of indigenous remedies, considered the acrid yellow root of Sisyrinchium (no species mentioned), although recommendations by Thomsonian practitioners probably did more than anything else to encourage general interest in its purgative action. 2 A few subsequent references make clear that blue-eyed grass was known not only as a purgative but, like many grasses and grasslike plants, was also considered to possess the property of opening "obstructions." Additionally, the plant was viewed as antiscorbutic and tonic. 3 While we have not found specific reference in the medical literature to the species collected by Bass (5. atlanticum), it is clear that all species were considered to have similar properties. Information on chemical constituents has not been found, but the bitter constituents certainly contribute to its reputation as a tonic.

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Notes 1. Stearns (1801, p. 75), listed as Alopicurus genieultis.

2. Rafinesque (1828-30, 2:264), under Sisyrinehium, "lily grass, seurvy grass"; Clapp (1852, p. 884) indicated Thomsonian usage. See also Griffith (1847, p. 624). 3. E.g., Barratt (1850, p. 317) noted "5. aneeps" and "5. mueronatum."

BONESET (leaves, roots) The Herbalist's Account It's a well-known herb, easy to find. It grows mostly in low places and blooms from July till frost. You gather it when it blooms and use mostly the leaves and flowers. I tie it in bundles and hang it up in the shade for two or three days. If not completely dry, it may mold. Store it in sacks or burlap. I use boneset in most everything I make; that is, in the liquid type of medicine. I recommend it because it is one of the most common and safer plants. It is a tonic and it gives you strength. It's good for fever, rheumatism, and headache. The roots are a good kidney medicine and a laxative. It is just as bitter as all get-out, but when you sweeten it down, it's all right, and so we think it is as good a one as the Lord put out there. The Indians, when they broke a bone, they would soak the part in bone set tea. All the old-timers had it hanging around in the smokehouse and other places, you know, it and rabbit-tobacco. They just had it hanging around for coughs and colds, chills, fever, and rheumatism. If they sprained a joint, they'd soak it in boneset tea. If it didn't help them, it sure had them fooled. And to use the boneset you just take a half a teacupful of herb to a quart of water and boil it for about twenty minutes and then strain it. And you try it to start when you think you're taking a cold, or you're nervous

or got rheumatism, why, you just make the tea and drink it as hot as you can bear it. But now, some people can't do that, it'll make them sick; if it does, drink it cold with ice water or any way you want. And it'll do the same thing, but not work as fast. Take a glass or two a day. I make my cough syrup out of equal parts of boneset, wild cherry bark, sweet gum, mullein, and rabbit-tobacco. I put a quart of the mixed herbs in a gallon of water and steep it forty minutes to an hour, strain it, and add honey or syrup or any kind of sweetening. My mother made a cough syrup very much like this. I had a neighbor who was chilled and had a high fever. His wife came to see me about something to do. It was late at night. I decided to fix him something that might help him. I got some boneset, catnip, and horsemint, and told his wife to make him a quart of warm tea. The next day when I saw the man, he said he had taken a teacup of the tea when his fever was 104 degrees. Then it went down to 101 and he took another cup of tea and he went to sleep. He slept like a baby and woke up wet with sweat. Now he was so hungry he could hardly wait to eat. The herbs had given him an appetite. This was his testimonial. The boneset would have done the job itself, but the others made it taste better. The catnip helped him to sweat and to go to sleep. Boneset is a mainline treatment for colds and fevers and can be used in other ways. Old-time people would put it in a tub, soak their feet in it, and steam themselves. So the boneset-we give it a good bill of sale. It takes the place of aspirin. But I think they're pushing aspirin too far. They give it more benefits than it has. Commentary Eupatorium perfoliatum L.: thorough wort, boneset, Indian sage, feverwort, ague weed. Asteraceae (Compositae)

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Mr. Bass's encomium reflects the once-widespread popularity of this bitter plant, particularly in domestic medicine. It is widely accepted that knowledge of the indigenous boneset passed from American Indians to colonists (note the vernacular name Indian sage). Its popularity is reflected in the enthusiasm with which it was discussed by almost all writers on medicinal plants. John Bartram (1751), in his short account of "Sundry Plants of these Northern Parts of America," said that it was "commended for a vomit in intermitting fevers', and used as a fomentation for pains in the limbs.'" Whatever the Indian influence, bonesefs bitterness contributed to the enthusiasm noticeable in the wide range of uses recorded in the nineteenth-century literature, mostly linked to tonic actions (to improve the strength and tone of the system), diaphoresis (when given as a hot tea), and laxative in moderate and emetic in large doses. The intensity of the advocacy of boneset was such that W. P. C. Barton (1818) warned against overzealous attributions or exaggerations.2 The widespread interest was reflected in boneset's inclusion in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia from 1820 to 1916 and promotion by Eclectic practitioners, including in the form of concentrated "resin" (eupatorine).3 Favorable comparisons were made to chamomile" Boneset was apparently popular in all walks of life and in various parts of the country. While in 1847 it was said to be used "very extensively ... among the negroes on the plantations as a tonic and febrifuge," other remarks indicate that, unlike many botanicals, it remained popular with regular physicians throughout the nineteenth century.' F. P. Porcher (Hl63) said that as a "tonic and antiperiodic, [itl is thought by many physicians to be even superior to the dogwood, willow or poplar, as a substitute for quinine."" The origin of the name boneset-often debated -is said to be derived from the plant's use for curing "break-bone" fever associated

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with dengue, once prevalent in the southern states. In 1884 Johnson remarked: "of domestic remedies few are better known or more largely used than boneset."7 Charles Millspaugh commented more graphically in 1892: "How many children have winced when the maternal edict: 'drink this bone set; it'll do you good' has been issued: and how many old men have craned their necks to allow the nauseous draught to the quicker pass the palate!" 8 Boneset's eclipse in the early decades of this century was comparatively rapid, at least in medical texts. The 1937 edition of the Dispensatory of the United States stated that "it is practically never prescribed by the medical profession and there is no reason for its official recognition." Boneset, however, dearly lived on in the popular tradition.9 Boneset's constituents include a glycoside (eupatorin), polysaccharides, volatile oil, tannin, sterols, and sesquiterpene lactones. It has been said recently that compounds with pronounced therapeutic activities apparently are absent, and it is unbelievable that this "outdated, bad-tasting, worthless fraud" is enjoying a current revival, but the possibility exists that at least some of the past reputation may have a physiological basis. H ) Studies on anti-inflammatory activity of sesquiterpene lactones and sterols, for instance, may help with an understanding of antipyretic activity." On the other hand, testimony is strong that warm tea of baneset, especially if taken before bedtime, produces a sweatY Even though most people might prefer a hot toddy for a cold, testimony indicates that boneset works as well. It is possible that the plant possesses immunostimulant activity (due to the polysaccharides present) that enhances phagocytosis. However, whether this is a factor in the oral treatment of colds or other infections, including with very small doses (said to have an activity comparable to aspirin), is still unknown." Additionally, the bitter taste may

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have an appetite-stimulating effect. The intriguing story of the long list of snakebite remedies includes boneset, though this reputation is patchy, and the properties of the plant are not in line with most of those reported in the treatment of snakebite (see Snakeroots). Although the evidence about boneset hardly allows an advocacy position, modern assessments should take traditional experience into account when using the plant. For instance, in 1820 it was written that:

W. Zollickoffer. 1823) focused attention on certain skin diseases, interest soon faded.

by different preparation and management, boneset herb may be made to produce a variety of effects. A strong tea prepared by long steeping, or by boiling, taken freely while warm, may, according to the quantity, be made either to produce perspiration and assist in raising phlegm from the lungs, or to purge, or to vomit. Taken cold and in more moderate quantity, it gives strength. In one or other of these methods, it may be useful in common cold, influenza, malignant pleurisy, low fever, agues, indigestion and weakness in general. being managed as above directed, according to the effect desired.14

8. Millspaugh (1974). For another noteworthy account, not from a materia medica textbook. see C. B. johnson (1926, pp. 223-24). Enthusiasm continued in textbooks; for example, Dunglison (1857.1:339) stressed its virtues as a "diaphoretic esteemed by some to be very powerful," and "to succeed when other excitant diaphoretics have failed."

Those who view boneset positively should be cautious about constant use, since pyrrolizidine alkaloids have been reported in some Eupatorium species.15 Mr. Bass says that "some folks" use weak boneset tea as a beverage, but it is too bitter for most people.

Notes 1. T. Short (1751, appendix, p. 7). Bartram called it Eupatorium Folium Perifoliatum and did not give a common name. For reference to some other early American authors, see j. U. Lloyd (1921, 1:137-38). 2. W. P. C. Barton (1817-18, 2:140). Many examples can be listed of the types of claims that concerned Barton; skin diseases may have fallen into this category because. although a number of authors (e.g., Waterhouse [Hawes, 1974] and

3. Summary in Millspaugh (1974. originally 1892, p. 79-2). 4. Barton (1817-18. p. 140). 5. Porcher (1847, p. 269). 6. Porcher (1863, p. 9) said it was widely used by plantation Negroes as a tonic and diaphoretic in colds and fevers and in "the typhoid pneumonia prevalent among them." See also Porcher (1849, pp.790-91). 7. L. johnson (1884. p. 173).

9. Cf. R. B. Browne (1958, pp. 48, 53, 67. 68, 70, 103). leaves and roots (sometimes with other ingredients) for coughs. colds. headache, sick stomach, and gallstones. Mention of its use for gallstones is uncommon but known to Bass, and perhaps reflects the almost panacea reputation of boneset. See F. C. Brown (1957-64. 6:145, 150, 221). For another part of the country, see many references in Davenport (1914). 10. Tyler (1982, p. 42). Baker (1983) provides a more balanced account, but for reasons that are not clear considers aspirin and quinine "more effective and safer treatment." 11. E.g., I. H. Hall et a!. (1979). 12. Additionally, Bass is apparently correct in stating that hot, rather than cold boneset tea prompts vomiting. 13. See Wagner and Proksch (1985). 14. Hand (1820; quoted in C. Meyer, 1973, p. 11). Clapp (1852, p. 792) noted: "Dr. Eberle does not entertain a high opinion of its remedial powers in intermittents; but the doses he recommends are too small to be effective." 15. Locock et a!. (1966). Tsuda and Marrion (1963).

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BORAGE. See Comfrey BOWMAN'S ROOT (root) The Herbalist's Account Some folks call this Indian physic; some call it ipecac, but I like to call it Bowman's root. I never used it, but sometimes I have calls for it. It runs along with black cohosh, black snakeroot. and things like that. but it's a little on the weak order. I would call it a folk medicine. It's bitterish and good for those who know it. It's quite a famous root with the Indians. Some folks take it as a tonic for rheumatism or low blood, or hot flashes. I have calls for it once in a while for rheumatism or some female conditions like hot flashes, but we recommend squawvine or Solomon's seal and black-haw, combined or by themselves, or maple bark. I know an old-timer who used to use it in whiskey. All the old-timers used to put things in whiskey. Commentary Cillenia trifoIiatus (L.) Moench [syns. 1'orteranthus trifoliatus (L.) Britt.; Spiraea trifoliat(J L.]: Indi(]n physic, ipecac, Bowman's root. C. stipu/CItus (Muh!.) Bail!. * [syns. 1'orteranthus stipulatus Muh!. ex Willd.} Britt.; C. stipu/(Jce(J Nutt.]: American ipecacuanha, Bowman's root. Rosaceae The vernacular name Bowman's root generally refers to the indigenous Ci/Jenia trifoJiatus rather than the C. stipulatus collected by Mr. Bass. Although the latter is often called American ipecacuanha (a name also used for Euphorbia species), common usage of the various vernacular names is flexible.' C. trifoliatus emerged into general medical consciousness through the American writings of Schoepf, Barton, Eberle, Bigelow, and others in the late eighteenth and early

Bowman's Root (Gillenia trifoliatusj

nineteenth centuries. It was promoted as an emetic and, in smaller doses, as a tonic.' Its reputation as an Indian medicine may have encouraged interest, but its popularity was very uneven, despite the inclusion of both species of Cillenin in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia from 1820 to 1882 (on the secondary list after 1842). C. J. Cowie, the proprietor of a root and herb business in the North Carolina Appalachians, did his best to promote Bowman's root in 1855 after the appearance of a favorable article in the American Journal of Phmmncy; even so, by 1884 Laurence Johnson indicated that "C. trifoliata" was little used, even in domestic practice-a comment also applying to G. stipul(Jtus. 3 The latter was, in fact, the only species of Cillenia mentioned

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by Mohr in his Plant Life of Alabama (1901) to possess medicinal properties! Mr. Bass's remarks are of special interest with respect to persistence of information on medicinal plants. His lack of experience with Bowman's root-he is even unaware of its main reputation as an emetic-seemingly reflects a weak popular tradition. Nevertheless, because he recognizes it as bitter and thereby rationalizes a tonic action and consequent uses, he is comfortable recommending it until he should hear adverse comment. A visitor once told him it was good for low blood. Detailed chemical studies have not been found. It is unclear whether the nineteenthcentury decline of interest reflected lack of physiological activity or the popularity of other emetics, particularly the South American ipecacuanha, one of the best known of all plant emetics in both recent regular and domestic medicine.

man's root (Griffith. 1847, p. 282), but reference has not been found in his Treatise of the Materia Medica and Therapeutics (1824). See also J. de la Motta's On the Properties and Effects of Gillenia (Spirea) trifoliata (Philadelphia, 1810) (according to Bigelow, 1817-21, 3:15). 3. For CowIe, see Letter Press Book E (1854-55) (various letters in October). The article referred to was "On Gillenia trifoliata-American Ipecacuanha (Review of Theses)," Arr.er. f. Pharm. 26 (1854): 490-93. The salient passage reads: "On the whole, conclusive testimony is furnished by the foregoing analyses of the intrinsic value of Gillenia trifoliata, and of the facility of making concentrated and active preparations from it, that would compare. perhaps, not very unfavorably, in mildness and certainty of aperation with those of the South American (ipecacuanha)." Also see L. Johnson (1884, pp. 138-39), Shoemaker (1893, 2:642). 4. Mohr (1901, p. 539] recorded it as "wild ipecac."

Notes

BOX (leaves, wood)

1. The vernacular name Bowman's root has also

The Herbalist's Account

been used for Leptandra virginica (now Veronicastrum virginicum). which is better known as Culver's root (e.g., listed in Gunn, 1869, p. 807). and Euphorbia corollata (e.g., Griffith, 1847 p. 592). The common vernacular name Indian physic refers to species of Gillenia and Apocynum androsaemifolium (see Cobb, 1846, p. 300).

The leaves are a substitute for senna. Make a tea out of the leaves or grind it up and take it in powder form. I've used it in time, but I don't at the present time 'cause I don't make any laxatives. I buy them in tablet form. It's a tonic and a laxative. You can use it in place of senna. You make a tea out of the green leaves. I understand it has the same ingredients as senna has.

2. Earlier references to ipecacuanha are clouded by uncertain identification. Vogel (1970, pp. 31920), on the description by William Byrd, inclines to Gillenia. Brickell (1737) and Tennent (1734) may be describing the same plant. like Peter Smith (1813, pp. 23-24)' under the names ipecacuanha and Indian physic, as a very bitter root: "an emetic, but commonly operates also as a purge." Smith was enthusiastic: "What a pity this should be neglected-as it has been sufficiently proved to be fully equal if not superior to the imported Ipecacuanha of South America." These early accounts contain no botanical description and could refer to species of Euphorbia. Eberle is credited with positive testimony for Bow-

Commentary

Buxus sempervirens L. * , including varieties [syn. B. wallichiana Baill.]: boxe, boxetree, boxwood. Buxaceae This naturalized shrub, once quite popular in American gardens, has long had a modest medical reputation. John Gerard (1597) wrote that the leaves are "hot, drie, astringent" and of "an evil and lothsome smell," 1 and went

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on to say that they were not used in medicine, although the wood was employed by "foolish empirickes and women leeches, who do minister it against the apoplexie and such diseases." Although considered in a number of materia medica books during the next two centuries or so, box clearly did not achieve much popularity. William Lewis (1791) noted that it was a purgative and sudorific, but not "at present employed for any medicinal purposes in Britain." On the other hand, he added that' it deserved some attention and "may perhaps be advantageously substituted for expensive articles imported from abroad." Box was introduced into America by seventeenth-century colonists, but it is uncertain how popular it became as a medicine. 2 At least some nineteenth-century American texts considered it; Griffith (1847) mentioned bitter and nauseous characteristics and sudorific and purgative properties of the leaves, though he did not indicate widespread usage." The shrub continues to be recommended in some twentieth-century texts. Even so, Bass's account of once using box but replacing it with other laxatives summarizes the box story as one of a little-known substitute for more popular plants. Its lack of popularity is in keeping with llS reputedly poisonous nature. Steroidal alkaloids present in all parts of the plant, particularly in the leaves and bark, account for stomach pains, vomiting, and diarrhea. Large amounts may cause convulsions and death" Notes 1. Gerard (1597, p. 1225).

2. For background see Haughton (1978, pp. 47-51). 3.

Griffith (1847. p. 602).

4. Hardin and Arena (1974, p. 78). For a briAr re-

view of the alkaloids, see Bell and Charlwood (1980,

pp.

179-80).

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BRAMBLES: BLACKBERRY, DEWBERRY, BLACK RASPBERRY (root, root bark, berries, leaves) The Herbalist's Account Blackberry. It's one of the oldest medicines in the world for diarrhea. I came into the world knowing this one. You use the roots or bark of roots, generally speaking, but the leaf's got more iron than anything. It's used for the bowels and running off, and for dysenterywhat we used to call the bloody flux-and for a tore-up stomach. The leaves is good for a run-down system; it gives you energy. We'd pick a lot of berries in the old days. Mother had a crock that would hold almost a gallon. She'd make that full of blackberry jam when she could not get the dewberry. That was for medicine. Nobody got the jam until we got sick. There are lots of formulas for using blackberry. People still make blackberry wine. I recommend a tea with a few roots and take a teacupful regularly. Dried roots and leaves will keep. Roots of any berry vine are good for diarrhea, colitis, the lungs, or any internal bleeding. Dewberry. When you gather blackberries you will collect dewberries. They are running blackberries on the ground. The dewberries come in about a week or ten days earlier than the blackberry. They're all used the samedewberry, blackberry, loganberry, and the melvisberry, but some favors dewberry. Black raspberry. Tea from black raspberry leaves, or from the berries, makes the finest tonic of all, for anything there is. It has a heap of iron and vitamins that gives you energy like brewer's yeast. Raspberries have more iron than blackberries and makes a better tonic. Tea can be used as a stimulant for a run-down system and for a bad appetite. Also good for the nerves. One fellow wanted red raspberry, and I said, "Partner, I don't have that, but this one I have here is black." But he wanted red. Well now, he had some book, or somebody told

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him, but there isn't no difference. It's a good medicine. Mix it with strawberries and you got something good! Commentary Rubus betulifolius Small', and other species [syn. R. villosus Ait.; R. villosus, nomen inertum but synonym for various species]: blackberry. R. trivialis Michx.', and other species: dewberry. R. idaeus auct., including varieties (e.g., strigosus): red raspberry. R. occidentalis L. ': black raspberry, thimbleberry, blackcap raspberry.

Rosaceae Brambles-blackberries, dewberries, and raspberries-are thorny shrubs with biennial canes (stems). Blackberry and dewberry fruits, borne on second-year canes, remain attached to their juicy edible cores (receptacles), while raspberries are thimble-shaped or hollow because the fruits separate from their cores. Dewberry, sometimes called running, or low, blackberry, can usually be distinguished from blackberry by its trailing or low-growing rather than upright habit. There are both cultivated and wild species of brambles, and the opinion that they all act the same must be interpreted cautiously because of the great variation known among species, especially among blackberries. There are hundreds of variants, much hybridization, and some age modifications, as well as some polyploidy and apomixis. It has been said that the genus Rubus "tempts the species maker."! Blackberry and dewberry. As edible fruit and, perhaps as a medicine, blackberry has long been the best-known bramble. The blackberry collected by Mr. Bass is R. betulifolius, not the popular and extremely variable European species, R. fructicosus

L., nor the species most widely reported in the nineteenth-century medical literature, R. villosus Ait. (The latter is a taxon not generally accepted nowadays.) 2 R. betulifolius, a southern species, is the most common one available to Mr. Bass; its characteristic habitat (like all blackberries) is abandoned fields and unkempt roadsides. Bass recognizes that many people confuse one bramble with another; he says that medically this does not matter, though he favors dewberry. Much of his knowledge, noticeably that relating to astringent properties, is long-standing. John Gerard (1597) described five plants under the general heading "bramble or blackeberry bush," each with the same "temperature and vertues." The young buds or tender tops, flowers, leaves, and unripe fruits were all noted as "dry and binding" (astringent). They were employed for "heate and inflammations of the mouth, almonds of the throat, for bloody flux, all manner of bleedings." Ripe fruits were considered less astringent. Gerard added that such classical authors as Galen and Pliny had indicated that the roots were not only astringent but also good for kidney stones, and that the berries and flowers were diuretic. 3 British colonists, who brought this knowledge with them, may have found Indians also using the plant.' While blackberry was not popular in regular medicine in England toward the end of the eighteenth century -William Lewis (1791) said it was not in pharmacopoeial preparations, rarely prescribed, and hence had no place in the pharmacopoeias-the shrub was nevertheless commonly viewed positively in nineteenthcentury American domestic medicine books and continued to be noted in some regular medical texts." W. P. C. Barton, in 1817, wrote of R. villosus ("common blackberry-bush"): "Few native articles possess a greater share of the favouritism of domestic practitioners;

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and in many sections of our country, blackberry tea [generally made from the root] is resorted to as a general corrective of all vitiated humours, a strengthener of the stomach and bowels, in short as a perfect panacea." Barton nevertheless added that "like most other favourite articles in family use," it was overrated, although he felt that there was sufficient creditable testimony to suggest its value for disorders needing astringent medicines. 6 Later, in 1847, Griffith further recognized the reputation of blackberry as an astringent medicine, a reputation which has persisted into this century: "Blackberry root is an efficient astringent, though not of great power and has been found exceedingly useful in bowel complaints, especially in the cholera of children. No article of the materia medica is more relied upon in domestic practice in the country." 7 This extended to blackberry syrup, blackberry cordial, and blackberry wine.8 Bass's remarks on the uses of blackberries for diarrhea and other things, which are related to the tannin content, reflect widespread knowledge still current among elderly people in the Appalachians and elsewhere.9 As with many tonics, the reputation for the run-down feeling is probably based on the astringency. We have found no reference to significant quantities of iron in the leaves, but the fruits are a relatively rich source; other constituents in the fruits include vitamins C and E, and in the leaves, tannins. ' ° How R. betulifolius compares in strength (notably as an astringent, best known for treating diarrhea) with the once widely discussed R. villosus is unknown and, in the light of the botanical complexity, will probably remain so. Likewise, the once-held view held that R. trivialis (southern dewberry) was more efficacious than R. villosus cannot be assessedY As long as the astringency is the only property utilized (e.g., in the form of a tea made from boiling the smaller roots or the bark of larger roots), Bass is almost certainly

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correct in saying that differences, if any, are inconsequential. Red and black raspberry. Red raspberry is the variable Rubus idaeus, at times regarded more highly than blackberry as a medicine. Lewis [1791) indicated that the fruits "moderately quench thirst, abate heat, strengthen the viscera, and promote the natural excretions." He added: "an agreeable syrup, prepared from the juice, is directed to be kept in the shops." 12 Raspberry attracted some attention in nineteenth-century America, at least among botanic practitioners like the Thomsonians. Ostensibly this was due to astringent activity and the alleged tonic action of the leaves. Its reputation for easing parturition may have emerged from this usage, but a specific effect on uterine muscle has since been shown." Neither the European raspberry (R. idaeus) nor the American red raspberry R. idaeus var. strigosus is available to Bass-the American variety grows in northern states and Canada. His black raspberry (Rubus occidentalis)-found in the rocky, open woods on nearby Lookout Mountain-has long been a recognized "substitute" for the red. 14 Black raspberry leaves are said to have a greater effect on uterine muscle than those of red raspberry.15 Even so, no precise comparison between black and red raspberry has been undertaken, and Bass's statement that there "is no difference"-at least as a tonic-may be justified. Reported constituents are tannins, a smooth muscle stimulant, an anticholinesterase, organic acids, and glycosides. 16 Iron has not been reported, and Bass's opinion of greater tonic action than blackberries may not be justified. Statements have appeared in the literature indicating that babies born of mothers who have used Rubus teas have a higher-thannormal incidence of hyperbilirubinemia, but the validity and relevance of this is unclear.17 Despite frequent references to raspberry leaf

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tea as a traditional drink for the last few weeks of pregnancy because it does much to lessen the duration and pain of childbirth, many advise against it on the basis that it may act as an abortifacient. 18 Little acceptance of this concern has been found in the Appalachians, where the feeling is that it can be helpful; there is little appreciation that some women may be particularly sensitive or take overstrong doses. It is certainly prudent not to take raspberry leaf tea regularly. Commercial teas containing raspberry fruit are no cause for worry. Notes 1. Bailey (1929-32, 3:3021). The taxonomy of the

manv species of Rubus is so complex that students of the genus are called batologists. 2. Bailev (1941-45, p. 340) reported from the authority of much study that "Blanchard thought R. villosus Ail. might be R. plicatifolius [a statement we cannot confirm] and this view is adopted by Rydberg [1913]." Bailey added: "I am not convinced of this identification and I let Aiton's R. villosus lie as a nomen inertum." Amidst the taxonomic tangle Jies the fact that nineteenth-century medical authors generally viewed R. villosus as an upright bush, whereas early-twentieth-century botanists indicated it was viewed as a dewberry; e.g., Gray's Manual (1908, p. 492). The name R. villosus and its varieties can be found as synonyms for many species listed in such sources as the Gray Herbarium card index and Kartesz and Kartesz (1980). 3. Gerard (1597, p. 1036). 4. Cf. Vogel (1970, p. 282), who, however, included an 1857 reference and later ones. 5. W. Lewis (1791, p. 267). 6. W. P. C. Barton (1817-18, 2:155). 7. Griffith (1847, p. 276), referring to R. villosus. An instance of the enthusiasm in the domestic literature is found in Mrs. Child (1836, p. 25): "Blackberries are extremely useful in cases of dysentery. To eat the berries is very healthy, tea made from the roots and berries is beneficial, and a syrup made of the berries is still better. Blackberries

have sometimes effected a cure when physicians despaired. " 8. Napheys (1875, p. 728). 9. Personal observations, but many sayings have been reported for the region. R. B. Browne (1958, pp, 38,40,52,92,103,107) recorded a number of uses of blackberry root and juice for gastrointestinal problems and also for rupture (along with oak applied externally) and tonsillitis (along with persimmon). Many publications over the years have continued to mention its use (as well as that of dewberry) and document their employment in domestic practice, e.g., Farquharson and Woodbury (1882, p. 399). 10. Bingham (1987, pp. 30-31), Stuart (1979, p.255). 11, Griffith (1847, pp. 276-77). R. trivialis was also identified as R. canadensis (ef, Griffith). 12. W. Lewis (1791, p. 267). 13, Interestingly, Samuel Thomson claimed to have "discovered" the value of raspberry (1835, p. 58): "This is an excellent article, and I believe was never made use of as medicine, till discovered by me," While he mentioned its role in pertruction, he did not say his "discovery" was specifically for this. 14. Clapp (1852, p. 769; quoting French authors) noted that the powdered fruit and roots were considered as specifics in dysentery. 15. Quoted in Beckett et al. (1954) from a report by a member of Oxford Medicinal Plants Scheme upon Medicinal Plant Research in the United States. Black raspberry was, in fact, permitted as a substitute for R. idaeus and R. strigosus (e.g., U.S. Pharmacopoeia, 1926). 16. The latter in Nyborn (1968). 17. For one reference see Huxtable (1983). 18. E.g., Ceres (1982, p. 10).

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BROOKLIMES (whole plants) The Herbalist's Account There are several kinds of brooklime. I have never used it, but I sold it to Dr. Sanders. It grows in the water. you know. I've seen it in damp places like the leak of a house. It's not like watercress that grows only in clear running water. It'll have a pinkish color if the water is a little stagnant. It grows best where there's lime. That's why it's a good kidney medicine-a person needs lime. I haven't used it; I've got other things. It's mild like corn silk, which is one of the best kidney medicines we have. It is not officially on the medical list, but it's in Meyer's and all the other herb books. Almost all the herbalists highly recommend it as a kidney medicine (for gravel, kidney stone) and as a blood purifier. Commentary Veronica beccabunga L.: brookelime, water pimpernell, becabunga, water chickweede. V. americana (Raf.) Schwein. ex Benth.: American brooklime. Scrophulariaceae Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk. * [syn. E. prostrata (L.) L.]: brooklime (local name). Asteraceae (Compositae) Lindernia dubia [L.) Pennell*: brooklime (local name). Scrophulariaceae Ludwigia pal ustris (L.) Ell. *: brooklime (local name), water purslane Onagraceae Mecardonia acuminata (Walt.) Small *: brooklime (local name). Scrophulariaceae The vernacular name brooklime is generally used in the medical literature for the naturalized European perennial. Veronica beccabunga, but occasional American authors also

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use the name for the indigenous V. americana.' It is likely that, over the years, many other small broadleaf aquatic plants have been collected for brooklime, just as Mr. Bass does. Brooklime has a long-standing reputation as a diuretic. John Gerard (1597), under the heading "brookelyme or water pimpernell," said that there were several "sorts of water herbes comprehended under the name."2 Nevertheless, he indicated that only some were used in "physicke and chirurgerie," and focused attention on "becabunga" as brooklime, indicating that it was hot and dry "like water cresses, yet not so much." Apart from noting its employment in salads, uses listed included some deobstruent actions, but not for dropsy. Subsequently, many authors indicated diuretic action and an associated reputation for urinary and bladder problems, though doubts arose as part of the eighteenthcentury reform of the materia medica. John Hill (1751) said that "authors talk of brooklime as a powerful diuretic, and promoter of the menses, and some recommend it greatly for the expulsion of a dead foetus; but this is talking much at random." 3 The only positive feature Hill gave was for scurvy, especially in people with hot and dry constitutions. Forty years or so later, influential William Woodville (1790-94) said that the plant was "formerly considered of much use in several diseases, and was applied externally to wounds and ulcers: but if it had any peculiar efficacy, it is to be derived from its antiscorbutic virtue."4 Withering (17%) pointed out that the leaves are eaten as spring salads. 5 Nineteenth-century American authors likewise were hardly enthusiastic. Griffith (1847) said merely that V. beccabunga "was much praised by the earlier writers as a depurative and antiscorbutic, and is still employed in Europe," and, following Rafinesque and others, seemingly gave it panacea properties." Clapp (1852) said V. americana had the

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same properties but indicated both species were little used.' As with so many plants. the Eclectic medical literature of the second half of the nineteenth century was one route by which knowledge of this relatively little-used medical plant persisted. King's American Dispensatory (1882) stated, seemingly extravagantly, that it "is antiscorbutic, diuretic, febrifuge, and emmenagogue, and said to be beneficial in cases of obstructed menstruation, scurvy, fevers and coughs."" Bass refers to brooklime's diuretic reputation and its action as a blood purifier. The latter is linked to its depurative reputation and Bass's view that all substances acting on the kidney serve as blood purifiers. Although much of his herbal practice rests on firsthand experience, he has none on the diuretic action of brooklime. One certainly suspects that, for much of its history, this weak reputation has been sustained by the theory associated with hot and dry properties. The brooklime collected by Bass during 1983 is neither of the two recognized Veronica species, which do not grow as far south as the southern Appalachians in Alabama.9 He views almost any small-leafed aquatic plant as a brooklime. ' ° The several collections made with him at different times during growing seasons came from a single habitat. a wet meadow not far from his shack. The species collected~similar to brooklime in habit and habitat~represented three families. One of the species, Lindernia dubia, is known as false pimpernel (ef. the vernacular name water pimpernell for brooklime). The fact that Bass probably did not supply the generally accepted brooklime to Sanders during the 1960s is a good reminder of the problems of quality control in commercial samples. In this particular case the significance is unclear, if only because of the doubtful reputation of brooklime. No chemical information has been been found to aid in the assessment of brooklime.

Notes 1. For other species of Veronico that have attracted medical interest, V. virginiono and V. officinolis (speedwell): V. peregrinn. 2. Gerard (1597, PI'. 495-97). Johnson revised the entry in his 1633 edition, highlighting difficulties in identification. Following Withering (1796. 2:5), we believe that Gerard's fig. 1 represents V. beccobunga. 3. j. Hill (1751, p. 386). Hill's reference to the value of brooklime for hot and dry constitutions is not in keeping with current ideas, but reflects some still familiar in Chinese medicine. 4. Woodville (1790-94,1:21). 5. Withering (1796,2:15). Other authors around the same time indicated it was of little value. at least in small doses: eg, Parr (1819,1:239).

6. Griffith (1847. p. 517), Rafinesque (1828-30. 2:108-11). 7. Clapp (1852, Pl'. 827-28). 8. King (1882, p. 858). 9. J. K. Small (1933, p. 1212) indicated that the southern limit of American brooklime is North Carolina. Mohr (1901) did not include either species in Pirmt Life of Alobama. 10. Much confusion has obviously existed over the collection of aquatic plants, as noted by various authors in the past; e.g., Manasseh Cutler.

BROOM-SAGE (tops, roots) The Herbalist's Account This was in everyone's home at one time. Most people made brooms out of it, but it was always around and people used it for lots of things. I've recommended it as a kidney medicine. Mother once said it could be used for a sick stomach, but I've never tried it. It's gone out now; people buy their own brooms! Commentary Andropogon virginicus L. *; beard-grass, broom-sage, broom-straw, broom-sedge. A. scoparius Michx.*; beard-grass, broomsage, broom-straw, broom-sedge.

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Poaceae (Gramineae)

Notes

Omnipresent in much of the southern landscape, Mr. Bass recollects that tussock grasses -of which he generally collects two-were employed in many homes until the 1930s, bound together and used as brooms; the ready availability of the grasses also contributed to their long-standing employment in domestic medicine. ' Although rarely mentioned in medical books-regular or domestic-the warm, bitterish taste of some grasses was occasionally noted. 2 The taste, along with the recommendations for stomach disorders and colds, may account for the vernacular name broom-sage (preferred by Bass and his visitors), rather than it being a mispronunciation of broom-sedge, another vernacular name for A. virginicus, though it is not a sedge. In referring to the employment of broomsage for stomach ailments, Bass is in line with recorded usage in Alabama domestic medicine. His use of it as a kidney medicine is part of a widespread reputation of all grasses and sedges for that purpose. 3 Bass has not learned of the past reputation for colds, though that may apply to other species. Magical associations for broom-sage have been recorded, but Bass says he has not heard these repeated for a long time. 4 . No chemical basis for the medical reputation has been found; broom-sage is an interesting example of one of relative Iy few plants well established in oral tradition but unsupported by any substantial interest in medical writings.

1. For making brooms, see Wigginton, Foxfire 3 (1975, pp. 446, 448-49); for a sense of broom-sage on the southern landscape, see B. W. Wells (1967. pp. 151-53).

2. E.g., R. Hooper (1826), under Andropogon. A. virginicus is a variable species; Fernald and Griscom (1935). 3. See R. B. Browne (1958, p. 16) for use (without roots) in bilious colic. Not mentioned in F. C. Brown, North Carolina Folklore. Vogel (1970, p. 213) reported that syphilitic sores were treated with ashes from the stems of A. scoparius. Knowledge about its reputation for kidneys is often remembered by Bass's visitors. In part this seems to be linked to employment for backache. Mentioned with promegranate hull tea in C. S. Johnson (1934. p.196). 4. For magical associations see H. M. Hyatt (1970, 1:429-21).

BUCKEYES (seeds, bark) The Herbalist's Account It's an old, traditional standby. In fact, it's got a lot of superstition with it. We have reports of many people who had hemorrhoids or rheumatism and who carried the buckeye and didn't have them no more. Now to tell you the truth, I don't know what made buckeyes tick, but it's superstition. I've sold them all over the country. More white people than black people came to me for them. Some say you have to give them away to give good luck to another person. Now I don't claim nothing for them. I used to advertise them, two for twenty-five cents or twelve for a dollar. They have been used in salves for rheumatism-I've made it for some folks. Now one side is good eating, but we don't know which side. One side is poison and the other side isn't. Now the squirrel knows that. It'll eat one side and not the other. You can see lots of halves in the woods. They were used to help

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catch fish. If you can't get the buckeyes, you can use the bark. Commentary

Aesculus hippocastanum L.: horse chestnut. A. glabra Willd.: horse chestnut, buckeye, fetid buckeye, Ohio buckeye. A. flava Soland [syn. A. octandra Marsh.): horse chestnut, sweet buckeye. A. pavia L:, including varieties [syns. A. austrina Small; A. discolor Pursh): scarletflowering horse chestnut, horse chestnut, red buckeye. Hippocastanaceae Buckeyes, commonly carried around for good luck, are the seeds of various species of Aesculus; well known are fetid, or Ohio, buckeye and sweet buckeye, distinctions rarely observed in popular usage. 1 In addition to magical and superstitious uses, medical properties have been attributed to various Aesculus species. Most attention has focused on the Middle Eastern A. hippocastanum (horse chestnut), now widespread in Europe and commonly planted in the United States but not naturalized. The bark has long had a modest reputation. John Gerard (1597) described it, along with the "chestnut tree." He indicated it was then uncommon in England but nevertheless implied it was like chestnut -that is, dry and binding and "good against the cough and spitting of blood." 2 He said that the name horse chestnut reflected its employment for treating coughs in horses. Subsequently, confidence in horse chestnut was seemingly spotty in Europe and America. In 1798 American author B. S. Barton said that "Aesculus hippocastanum, or common horsechestnut," thrived well in the open ground of Pennsylvania and had been recommended as a substitute for cinchona bark. 3 However, at the time this may not have been appreciated. In 1802 Alexander Thomson summarized a use that was better established-as an errhine: "A small portion of

the powder, snuffed up the nostrils, readily excites sneezing: even the infusion or decoction of the fruit produces this effect. It has, therefore been recommended for the purpose of producing a discharge from the nose, which, in some complaints of the head and eyes, is found to be of considerable benefit." 4 This reputation persisted through the century, even while general useage of errhines declined; thus Shoemaker (1893) merely stated that the bark of horse chestnut was astringent, antiseptic, and administered as a cinchona substitute in malaria, and in "neuralgic affections." Dose of the fluid extract was given as twenty minims to one dram. s Such recommendations persisted into the twentieth century for extracts marketed by pharmaceutical companies like Eli Lilly. Subsequently, other uses were promoted, such as employment in sunscreen ointments and treatment of venous stasis, but evidence does not suggest this became popular,6 nor did usage in France as a "folk medicine" for hemorrhoids? Horse chestnut is mentioned rarely in folk beliefs, but of interest is a report from the Kentucky Appalachians that "for blood poisoning or swelling and broken vessels under the skin, scrape the bark into water, boil it down to a strong solution, and soak the affected area." 8 Bass is not familiar with this, but he considers it akin to his salve. Chemical studies, particularly on the seeds (said to be more narcotic than the bark) have revealed a wide range of constituents, including coumarins, flavonoids, and saponin glycosides (aescin).9 Much interest has focused on the anti-inflammatory action of the seed extract for use in hemorrhoids, skin conditions, and (by injection) for varicose veins. In light of the past modest reputation of both the bark and seeds, and concerns over toxicity, horse chestnut can hardly be recommended for internal use. 'O There is some confirmation for Bass's remark that horse chestnut-at least buckeye-has been employed to stupefy fish."

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We were unable to find studies on the indigenous Aesculus species. In the past these have commonly been thought to possess properties similar to horse chestnut's. Bass's remark that superstition makes the buckeye tick seems to explain much of the persistent interest, although the antiinflammatory action (and astringency) justifies usage in preparations for hemorrhoids. No interest exists nowadays in an errhine action. Notes 1. The vernacular names buckeye and horse chestnut are used interchangeably, though the latter more often refers to the naturalized A. hippocastanum. Buckeyes have been used for cattle feed. 2. Gerard (1597, p. 1253). 3. B. S. Barton (1798, p. 13). 4. A. Thomson (1802, p. 397). 5. Shoemaker (1893, 2:402).

6. Dispensatory of the United States, 25th ed. (1960, p. 1533). 7. Shibata (1981). 8. Bolyard (1981, pp. 80-81). 9. Gabor (1979, pp. 698-739), Duke (1985, p. 20). 10. For concerns over poisoning, see Nagy (1973);

and on the possibility of coumarinlike action, J. P. Griffin and D'Arcy (1984, p. 365). 11. Clapp (1852, pp. 756-57), Porcher (1847, p. 259). Barton (1798) said that he did not know whether or not A. pavia 1. or A. flava Ait. had the same properties as A. hippocastanum, but see L. Johnson (1884, p. 128), who also noted use for stupefying fish.

BUCKTHORN (berries); FRANGULA (bark) The Herbalist's Account It's one of the finest liver regulators and a fine laxative. It doesn't grow around here, but I bought and sold it in the past. It was also in my Bass's Brand Herb Compound. It contained: "Active laxative ingredients: Aloe, Senna, Cascara Sagrada, and Buckthorn. Inactive ingredients: Gentian, Quassia, Ginger, Licorice, Wild Cherry, Cassia, Yellow Dock, Stillingia, Sassafras, Anise, Colombo, Salicylic and Benzoic Acid" [formula on packet]. Commentary Rhamnus cathartica 1.: buckthorn, rheinberries. R. frangula 1. [syn. Frangula alnus Mill.]: frangula, black alder, buckthorn. Rhamnaceae Various species of Rhamnus are called buckthorns. It is unclear whether the buckthorn Mr. Bass sold or included in his Bass Herb Compound was Rhamnus catharticus (berries) or R. frangula (bark), usually referred to in the medical literature as frangula. 1 Both have long histories and modest use nowadays. The berries of R. cathartica, a shrub or small tree sparingly naturalized in the United States, were described by John Gerard (1597) as a purge and used to "voide by the stoole thick flegme, and also cholerike humours." 2 Almost every subsequent writer mentioned the purgative action, but the extent of buckthorn's popularity is not entirely clear, although many attractive pharmacy jars labeled for preparations of the berries survive from the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. John Quincy (1719) said buckthorn was the only cathartic to be depended upon, but indicated that spices were often omitted from the preparations, causing a side effect-gripping. Perhaps because of this problem, in 1792 William Woodville said that few patients were able to bear frequent repetition of this

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medicine. 3 Almost certainly it became more widely used for animals than man.' American authors never became enthusiastic. M. Paine (1857) said it was "irritating, griping, rarely used," 5 and in 1884 Laurence Johnson commented that it "never found much favor in this country, and even in Europe [is] commonly administered with aromatics and correctives in order to diminish the violence of action."6 Frangula bark has had a similar reputation. Gerard, who described frangula under "blacke aller tree" (for another black alder, see Alders). indicated that it was largely a domestic remedy: the inner bark "is used of divers countrimen who drinke the infusion thereof when they would be purged." He added that its use was "not without great trouble and paine to the stomack: it is therefore a medicine for clownes, than for civil! people, and rather those that feede grossly than for daintie people." 7 He also said, probably correctly, that the dried bark caused less griping and vomiting. In view of such comments, it is not altogether surprising that many later writers on materia medica -on both sides of the Atlantic-made no reference to the drug, although its purgative action is undoubted. Like R. cathartica, it contains anthraquinone glycosides known for laxative properties. The mixed herb preparation containing buckthorn that Bass once sold is a fascinating polypharmaceutical preparation which includes three other laxatives: aloe, senna, and cascara sagrada. The preparation was unquestionably effective; like buckthorn, aloe, senna, and cascara also contain anthraquinone compounds possessing laxative actions. Unfortunately, the ingredients tended to be unevenly distributed in the package (the finely ground aloe, for instance, fell to the bottom) and it is unclear whether a consistent action was attained from one dose to the next.

Notes 1. Others occasionally listed as buckthorn are R. purshiana (see Cascara) and R. caroliana (see Radford et aI., 1968, p. 694).

2. Gerard (1597, pp. 1154-55). 3. Quincy (1719, p. 381). Woodville (1790-94, 2:312-13). Withering (1796, 2:256) indicated that a purgative syrup prepared from the berries was kept in the shops. 4. Fliickiger and Hanbury (1879, p. 159). 5. Paine (1857, p. 62). 6. L. Johnson (1884, p. 123). Griffith (1847, p. 217) also said it was seldom used, as did King (1882, p. 698), who added that it "formerly enjoyed much reputation as a hydragogue in gout, rheumatism and dropsy." 7. Gerard (1597, pp. 1281-87).

BUGLEWEED (whole plant) The Herbalist's Account I learned to know it about in 1965. After they backed up the water and the lake came down here, bugleweed began to grow. I guess the seed washed down from somewhere else. Now I even grow it in my yard. It's easy to grow, it just needs a little moisture. It gets up waist high and one plant makes a lot of medicine. You can tell it with the flowers along the stem where the leaves are attached. I started using it when I found a good supply. It's used for many things and is a real McCoy for a nerve tonic. I use it sometimes in my cough and cold remedy, too, in the same place as boneset. Some calls it March boneset. It's good for diarrhea too. Commentary Lycopus virginicus 1. *: water-horehound, bugleweed, March-boneset. 1. europaeus 1., including subspecies: waterhorehound, bitter bugleweed. 1. rubellus Moench * , including varieties: water-horehound, bugleweed (local name). Ajuga reptans 1.: bugle, bugleweed.

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Lamiaceae (Labiatae) Echium vulgare L.: viper's bugloss, bugleweed. Boraginaceae The common name bugleweed is used for various species of Lycopus, but the naturalized 1. europaeus is commonly known as bitter bugleweed. ' Although the latter attracted little enthusiasm in seventeenth- and eighteenth-century medical literature, it perhaps promoted interest in the indigenous 1. virginicus. which is often collected by Mr. Bass. 1. virginicus was noted by such early authors on American materia medica as J. Schoepf, B. S. Barton, W. P. C. Barton, and C. S. Rafinesque, but it was an article by J. Smyth Rogers and James M. Pendleton, "Observations on the Lycopus Virginicus, or Buglewecd," published in 1822, that sparked enthusiasm.' The authors indicated that bugleweed had prompted recent interest for the treatment of "various pulmonary complaints." Their own case histories supported its effectiveness: "If it deserves one half the credit given it, [bugleweedl will rank among the most valuable of our remedies in the treatment of a common, and most fatal class of diseases." The article stressed that 1. virginicus was not to be confused with 1. europaeus, which differed in being "purely and intensely bitter." 3 Available commercial bugleweed, they said, was often a mixture of the two species, probably accounting for unfavorable results. Much other nineteenth-century testimony underscored the plant's astringent property and its value for hemorrhages as well as its tonic actions. 4 In 1837 one Shaker community promoted it by stating: "In spitting of blood and similar disease, it is perhaps, the best remedy known."5 N. S. Davis wrote in 1848: "With all this authority in its favor, we were surprised to find it so little used

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by practitioners generally." 6 Its reputation never picked up, however, although pharmaceutical companies such as Sharp and Dohme were marketing a preparation by the 1870s.' (They indicated that it was sometimes employed for diabetes, which was hardly well established.) In 1884 Laurence Johnson echoed common opinion when he wrote about both Lycopus virginicus and 1. europueus as if there was no difference in quality: "Bugleweed is said to be sedative, tonic, astringent, and narcotic," and, in characteristic acerbic style added, "but on what authority it is difficult to determine."B Mr. Bass's reference to bugleweed for coughs and colds is in part a reflection of past usage, though the latter was more for hemorrhages of the lungs. His strong testimony for nerve tonics is reminiscent of the praise of Rafinesque (1828-30)' who said 1. virginicus was an excellent "sedative, subtonic and subastringent." 0 He compared its property of slowing the pulse with that of digitalis: "a rank poison, and this excellent substitute is hardly noticed." The astringent property may account for its reputation for diarrhea. One of the four voucher specimens of bugleweed collected with Bass was 1. rubelIus, which is very similar to 1. virginicus.lO Even careful collectors can gather" adulterated" batches of well-known plants. In this case confusion is understandable because the two plants not only look similar but possess similar sensory properties. No information on chemical constituents has been found, but past reputations were undoubtedly rationalized on the basis of astringency. Other plants sometimes called bugleweed include Ajuga species, notably A. reptans, best known as bugle. It is a naturalized plant with a long history, though not conspicuous in American materia medica literature. It has had a particular reputation as an astringent for healing wounds." Also sometimes confused with bugleweed, although very

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different in appearance, are viper's bugloss (Echium vulgare) and other buglosses. For a long time viper's bugloss had a reputation for the treatment of poisonous bites. As Gerard wrote: "The root drunke with wine is good for those that be bitten with serpents. . . . Nicander in his book of Treacles makes Vipers Buglosse to be one of those plants which cure the biting of serpents, and especially of the Viper, and that drive serpents away."" It may be coincidence or tall-tale telling that local stories were told to Mr. Bass describing separate events in which a dog and a nonpoisonous snake ate bugleweed to counteract snake venom.13 Whatever the case, such accounts reinforce and sustain tenuous reputations.

of the medicinal plants of this country, and whose authority we consider inferior to none." 5. A. B. Miller (1976, p. 14). 6. N. S. Davis (1848, p. 348). 7. Sharp and Dohme (1870, p. 11). 8. L. Johnson (1884, p. 209) . 9. Rafinesque (1828-30, 2 :29). 10. Radford et al. (1968, p. 921) pointed out the similarity. See also Scoggan (1978-79, p. 1307). 11. Duke (1985, p. 26) gives a catalog of uses for Ajuga reptans which includes ulcers and sores. Astringency may account for these and other uses, including for "cancer." 12. Gerard (1597, p. 803). For recent discussions of Nicander's book, see Scarborough (1979). 13. "Lycopus virginicus for the bite and sting of reptiles and insects" (Trans. Texas Med. Assoc. 11886]: 163-65).

Notes 1. L. europaeus, sold as "bitter bugleweed" on occasion, see Parke-Davis (1890, p. 23).

2. J. S. Rogers and Pendleton (1822). For an indication of early interest, see Thacher (1826, pp. 765-66). 3. Rogers and Pendleton (1822, p. 179). Millspaugh (1974, p. 117) held the view that the "medical history of this species seems to hang upon the laurels of L. vulgaris of Europe." In noting the many uses, Millspaugh reported King's opinion (American Dispensatory, 1870, p. 494)-which has not reached Bass-that it is valuable for diabetes. Despite Millspaugh, L. europueus has probably never attracted much medical attention. Gerard (1597, p. 566) stated "there is little use of these water horehounds in physicke." 4. A. B. Miller (1976, p. 14). Cobb (1846, p. 33), for instance, discussing Lycopus virginicus, said it was astringent, styptic, and tonic. The sedative property was not mentioned here, as it was by other writers; e.g., Capron and Slack (1848, p. 98), who provided another clear example of the power of medical testimony: "this was a favorite remedy Ifor pthisis and hemorrhage] with the latter Dr. Solomon Drown, of this state, deservedly celebrated for his scientific and practical knowledge

BURDOCK (roots, seeds)

The Herbalist's Account We don't have burdock growing here, but Doc Porter's growing it. It has real big roots. It's a most important blood purifier and tonic. A number of folks have asked me about it. Some people tell me it's highly recommended for skin diseases and for the kidneys. Commentary Arctium lappa L. [syns. Lappa officinalis Allioni; Lappa major L.]: great burre, burre dock, clot burre, great burdock, common burdock. A. minus (Hill) Bernh, [syn. Lappa minor DC.]: lesser burre docke.

Asteraceae (Compositae) The burdock described in the medical literature is generally the great burdock, Arctium lappa, a Eurasian weed naturalized along roadsides and in thickets, fields, and waste places. It is another example of a plant with a long medical history based more on domestic than professional usage.' The naturalized A. minus, generally considered to possess the

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same properties, has almost certainly been substituted freely.2 John Gerard (1597) described the two "burre dockes," or "clot burres," as possessing "moderately drie and wasting" leaves, and a root "something hot." Uses explained by these properties included treating "them that spit bloud and corrupt matter," "windie and colde stomacke," kidney problems, and "whites in woman."3 Burdock's apparent popularity at the time continued; in 1719 John Quincy wrote: "This is common in everyone's knowledge, and some parts of the plant are much in use among the countrypeople; as the leaves for burns and inflammatory tumours. The seeds are ... esteem'd extremely diuretick and some reckon them effectual in carrying off by those discharges, what is very much the occasion of arthritick pains when 'tis once deposited upon the joints."4 Later in the century, George Motherby (1785) also implied popularity when he said that extracts of burdock were "chiefly commended as diuretic and antiscorbutic; but are also used against rheumatisms, the lues venerea, and in all cases in which China and sarsaparilla roots are used, for it resemble them in all their sensible qualities." 5 The notion of blood-purifying properties was clearly well established, and burdock remained well known for this during the nineteenth century. Burdock's reputation in America during the first half of the nineteenth century was apparently quite modest, despite the possibility ofIndian influence. 6 Clapp (1852), when summarizing many previous writings, added that while long employed as an alterative and as a mild diaphoretic and deobstruent useful in scrofulous cutaneous diseases, Lappa major was "now much neglected." 7 In 1870 a major dealer in herbs and roots in the Appalachians purchased burdock only if he had a customer for it. 8 Laurence Johnson (1884) wrote some favorable comments, in contrast to his critical re-

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marks on so many other botanical medicines: "Burdock ['L. officinalis']' though chiefly used by the laity, is highly esteemed by some of the profession as a diuretic and alterative." He added that it probably was most commonly used in rheumatism but was also recommended in chronic cutaneous disease. 9 Some authors saw the latter as scrofulous [tuberculous glands] conditions of the system: "In obstinate skin diseases, this will sometimes bring about a cure when all other means fail." 10 Eclectic physicians also wrote enthusiastically of burdock, while undoubtedly some of its popular reputation rested on the marketing of Burdock Blood Bitters." Burdock continued to be mentioned in later herbal literature (regular and domestic medicine). With a strong popular traditionreinforced by many over-the-counter remedies containing burdock, which underscored its value as a blood purifier; the alexipharmic action mentioned by Gerard; and alterative properties indicated by later authors-it is not surprising that Mr. Bass knows the herb well,12 His recommendations, as he readily admits, are not based on his own experience. However, in this case he passes on longestablished information and is doubtful over uses he has not heard about. He is skeptical of a recorded use from the Kentucky Appalachians that the leaves can be smoked for asthma. 13 Chemical studies on A. Jappa have revealed a wide range of constituents. The root includes a fixed and a volatile oil, polyacetylenes, acids, aldehydes, tannins, and a large quantity of inulin.14 The tannins may account for the reputation for treating skin complaints, and they are, at least in Bass's mind, a factor in the reputation as a blood purifier. This, in turn, has been related to employment in rheumatism, as is the diaphoretic action, if it exists. Whether other factors are at play is unknown and justifies further study. Recent interest has focused on bac-

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tericidal and fungicidal activities of the polyacetylenes present, which may contribute to the management of certain skin conditions. The frequently stated opinion that inulin is a strong diuretic because of its use in kidney function tests is erroneous. Nevertheless, testimony to burdock's diuretic action is strong and merits investigation. There has been concern over atropine poisoning associated with commercial burdock roOt.15 This is generally felt to be due to contamination, but the reports are somewhat equivocal. Unfortunately, no modern chemical analysis of A. minus was found.

Notes 1. The pattern of usage in Asia follows that in Western medicine; for Asia. see Perry (1980, pp. 83-84).

2. An occasional author mentioned a specific use for Arctium minus; Motherby (1785). under "Bardana minor." said that the "juice is commended against scrophulous complaints." :l. Gerard (1597. pp. 664-67). The great Burrc Dock described is generally considered to be Arctinum Joppa L. (e.g .. Withering, 1796, vol. 3.). 4. Quincy (1719. p. 156). 5. Motherby (1785), under "BardclI1a major." The same information was repeated in Parr (1809, 1;231). 6. Vogel (1970, Pl'. 286-87). However, since the reports contained well-established comments by white men on naturalized species, Indian influence remains an open question. 7. Clapp (1852, p. 804). 8. C. J. Cowie Papers, Letter Press Book, 19 March 1870. 9. L. Johnson (1884, p. 186). 10. Napheys (1875. p. 728). 11. King (1882, p. 126). 12. A typical over-the-counter remedy still popular during in the 19305 and 1940s was "Burdock Blood Bitters," manufactured by the Foster-Milburn Company, which had Eclectic persuasions. The label

stated that it contained "burdock root, yellow dock, dandelion, senna, cascara bark, golden seal and other well-known roots, herbs, and barks." See also F. C. Brown (1957-64, vol. 6) for uses for bad blood (p. 127), boils (p. 131), and worms (p. 354); except for the latter, the uses underscore the reputation of burdock for blood purifying; Tyler (1985, p.19). 13. E.g., R. B. Wilcox (1911, p. 421) gave the same information as Johnson. More pertinent as a direct influence on Mr. Bass is J. E. Meyer (1979, p. 27). For reflection of popular tradition, see Bolyard (1981, p. 58). Interestingly, Mr. Bass says that almost any leaf is good for asthma, but particularly mullein, pine sawdust, sumac, jimsonweed, comfrey, and fig. 14. Reported in Tyler (1982, pp. 53-54). See also Leung (1980, pp. 80-81), Duke (1985, pp. 53-54). 15. Rhoads et al. (1984-85), with reference to earlier articles.

BUTTERFLY WEED (root); OTHER MILKWEEDS

The Herbalist's Account Butterfly weed is another Indian remedy we could tell a lot about. Some call it chiggerweed because they think it has more chiggers on it than any other plant. It grows on limey land and blooms from June till frost. The root is fleshy like a small sweet potato, and it grows way down deep in the ground. You wash and slice the root, if it's large, then dry and store it. It dries up just as white as flour. Butterfly weed is for side pleurisy-a hurting in your side similar to pneumonia or getting over pneumonia-or anything bothering your chest. It'll make you sweat. It's also good for rheumatism. If Adam and Eve had medidne, they used it, because it is one of the Illost useful plants that we know of. You make a tea of a handful of roots and take a tablespoon as often as needed. If I had SOIlle tea made right now, it would help this here hoarseness. Some old-timers used to put it in whiskey. We can highly recommend the

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root of butterfly weed and it would be backed up by Dr. Pierce and other doctors. It's official medicine and a favorite. Ever since I can remember, back seventy years, there's always been a market for butterfly weed, but it never did bring much. It's bringing more right now than I ever knew of -seventy-five or ninety cents a pound. Red milkweed. There are lots of milkweeds, but I don't use them, only butterfly root. The Indians used them to make cloth, like Indian hemp. They have a white milk which will cure warts. I don't know anything about them being used internally. but the old-timers used them as a blood purifier, and they are good for the bowels. They can easily make you sick. Commentary Asclepias syriw;a L. [syn. A. corn uti DecaisneJ; silkweed, common silkweed. A. tuberosa L.* [syn. A. decumbens L.J; silkgrass, butterfly-weed, pleurisy-root, chiggerweed. A. rubra L.*; red milkweed. Asclepiadaceae As Mr. Bass says, there are many milkweeds with similar medical reputations; some of them have been economically important for their fibers, especially A. syriaca.' Bass is also correct about usage of butterfly weed and other milkweeds by American Indians, but much colonial knowledge was derived from Europe.' Gerard's Herball (1597) described two "swallow-woorts" that grew in his English garden (white and black) as well as a "kind of Asclepias, or swallow-woort [from Virginia], which the savages called Wisanck" (almost certainly j\sclepias syriaca). Gerard evidently learned about the plants from the explorer John White, though he called it Wisanke, not Wysauke, as White did. This is just one example of a New World plant that fit easily into an existing framework of medical knowledge. Surprisingly,

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however, Gerard did not mention its reputation to cure wounds from poison arrows, though this was in line with uses for other AseJepias species. 3 The European milkweeds ("hot and dry" in quality) were noted for treating gripings of the belly and for stings and poisons, some uses commonly rationalized by the deobstruent actions associated with hot and dry qualities. Suggested uses of A. syria co (employed in poultices and as a purgative) in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries may well have been based on analogy with other milkweeds. Though it never achieved the same medical importance as butterfly weed (A. tuberosa). the roots continued to be mentioned into the early twentieth century as "diuretic, alterative, emmenagogue and anodyne; and is sometimes used in dropsy, retention of urine, suppressed menstruation, scrofula and rheumatism." 4 Butterfly weed, with its attractive orange flowers, is perhaps medically the best-known milkweed, at least where it is indigenous (in the eastern United States) and abundant (in the South). However, it is not easy to say just bow popular it was in the eighteenth century. Although little published information appeared until Schoepf (1787) noted its diaphoretic properties and employment in pleurisy, Indians probably used it. Benjamin Smith Barton's remark that it had many vulgar names "such as pleurisy-root, flux-root, butterfly-root" suggests that it had become widely known and employed.' In the early nineteenth century Bigelow (lf117-21) noted that it had long been employed by practitioners in the" Southern States in pulmonary complaints, particularly in catarrh, pneumonia and pleurisy; and has acquired much confidence of the relief of these maladies."6 Around the same time, however, S. Elliott recorded with confidence that "notwithstanding the celebrity of the root of this plant as a remedy for pleurisie, it can only be considered an auxiliary. A decoc-

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tion taken warm, promotes perspiration and acts very slightly on the bowels and urinary discharge." 7 Subsequently, the diaphoretic action was often noted. So far as we can judge, butterfly weed did not become a mainstream medicine, although much advocacy continued. Rafinesque described it as a valuable popular remedy and a mild sudorific, acting safely without stimulating the body," and Griffith noted that it "has been employed with much benefit in [ailments] of the respiratory organs, and there is much ample testimony of its curative powers when judiciously administered for respiratory ailments."9 He also mentioned tonic properties and value for rheumatism. ("From all that can be gathered on the subject, it may be deemed one of the most useful of our native articles, and deserves a full and unbiased trial.") Capron and Slack said that every family should be acquainted with this plant. It could be given to children in the form of a "strong tea, in the dose of a tea-cupful down to a tea-spoonful or great spoonful." 10 As with so many indigenous remedies, enthusiam for pleurisy-root dissipated toward the end of the nineteenth century. Whether this was associated with the introduction of new expectorants such as ammonium chlo~ ride is not clear. Johnson (1884) noted that butterfly weed's reputation in specific diseases was based on insufficient grounds ,11 and by 1899 it was said that it found but little employment.12 Others, on the other hand, indicated usage in domestic practice in the southern statesY Threads of interest on the part of some regular medical writers persisted into the twentieth century; H. C. Fuller (1920) noted that it was found in stomach tonics and used for affections of the lungs to promote expectoration. 14 In the popular herbal literature, Clarence Meyer (1977) indicated it was gentle without the "heating tendency of some sudorifics."15 Perhaps, too, interest

was encouraged for a while by its medical name, pleurisy-root, and its inclusion in the formula of the famed Lydia Pinkham's Vegetable Compound for females. Interestingly, this may have been for its reputation for dyspepsia rather than as a specific female medicine. 16 Despite Bass's wide acquaintance with female medicines, he has not heard of pleurisy-root being used for this purpose, although it is still known elsewhere as an oxytocic and abortifacient. 17 Among the range of constituents isolated from species of Asclepias, including A. tuberosa and A. syriaca, cardioactive glycosides (cardenolides) are prominent. l " The basis of the strong tradition of the former species for chest ailments is uncertain. Improvement in cardiac function can, in certain circumstances, improve respiratory activity and perhaps promote diuresis. On the other hand, a possibility exists of reflex stimulation arising from irritation of the stomach.19 The possible role of other constituents like flavonoids is unclear. In view of the pharmacological activity of cardenolides, studies on the long-standing reputation of A. tube rosa as an expectorant would be helpful to determine if it can be safely used for all patients. Many other Asclepias species are reported to have similar properties; indeed, A. syriaca is listed as a virtual panacea, which is hardly justified. It has been suggested that the diaphoretic action, perhaps due in part to the use of hot infusions, may account for the reputation for rheumatism and for chest conditions.

Notes 1. For some background see Berkman (1949], who

discussed wartime production of milkweed floss. 2. See, for instance, Moerman (1977, pp. 31-31J. Some background appears in Le Strange (1977, pp. 45-46J. 3. Gerard (pp. 750-52J.

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4. Warren and Small (1903. p. 832), Gaertner (1979). For reference to analogy, see Griffith (1847, p. 455), Millspaugh (1974, originally 1892, p. 1342). 5. For Indian usage see B. S. Barton (1804, pI. 1, p. 30; pI. 2, pp. 41-43), which indicates widespread Indian usage. For vernacular see p. 30, though this was said of A. decumbens, which he considered (p. 48) a variety of A. tuberosa. A. tuberosa remained medically the best-known species of Asclepias (compared with A. syriaca [best known for the down it produces] and A. incarnata). The latter, hpwever, had something of a reputation independent of A. tuberosa. J. Bigelow included it in his influential Treatise on the Materia Medico (1822, p. 89), noting the testimony of Dr. Tully of Connecticu t about expectorant, diaphoretic. and diuretic, and, in large doses, laxative actions.

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BUTTONBUSH (leaves, bark) The Herbalist's Account Buttonbush is a shrub hard to get. It's like calamus root and skullcap; it doesn't always grow where you would expect it to. I've known about it since I was a boy, but I've never used it. Of course, I've recommended it when folks has asked. It's an old-timer. I know where some is about two or three miles from me-just a few bushes. It's a bitter, a tonic. A wonderful kidney and liver medicine and it's good to dissolve kidney and gallstones.

6. Bigelow (1817-21. 2:63).

Commentary Cephalanthus occidentalis L. *: button wood, globe flower, pond dogwood, buttonbush, bald elder (local name).

7. Elliott (1821-24. 1:77).

Rubiaceae

8. Rafinesque (1828-30, 1 :77). 9. Griffith (1847, p. 455).

10. Capron and Slack (1848, p. 442). 11. L. Johnson (1884, p. 321), Burgon (1820). 12. F. P. Foster (1896, 1:148) 13. Shoemaker (1893, p. 459) singled out uses in the South, as had Bigelow seventy years earlier. 14. Fuller (1920, p. 437). 15. C. Meyer (1977, p. :J). 16. Stage (1979, pp. 27. 32). 17. Conway and Slocumb (1979-80, p. 246) give references to laboratory studies. 18. E.g" Keeler and Tu (1983), Duke (1985. pp. 7172). 19. Goth (1981, pp. 513-14) repeats a long-standing

view that a number of substances can prompt expectoration as a result of irritation of the stomach.

This indigenous. handsome shrub has attracted comparatively little interest among regular physicians or in domestic medicine, even though the many vernacular names suggest that it was well known. There was some enthusiasm. Elliott, in his 1821 account of the flora of South Carolina and Georgia, confidently asserted that the "inner bark of the root is an agreeable bitter and frequently used as a remedy in obstinant coughs"; and James Thacher's American Modern Practice (1826) drew attention to its "very considerable diuretic powers." Griffith (1847), on the other hand, clearly repeating some of Rafinesque's earlier comments, merely stated that it was used by "southern aborigines and in domestic medicine in Louisiana for intermittents." The latter reputation. seemingly rationalized by the bitter taste, suggested to Griffith that the plant "deserves a trial as to its real powers.'" Forty years or so later, Johnson (1884) remarked that, despite asserted success in fevers, buttonbush had not "attained an established reputation, and its medicinal

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virtues are altogether problematical." 2 Nevertheless, such pharmaceutical companies as Parke-Davis marketed a fluid extract in the 1890s as a "tonic, febrifuge, aperient and diuretic"; and Eclectic publications were positive about the plant. 3 While Griffith mentioned domestic medical use, it was rarely listed in domestic medicine manuals. Mr. Bass learned about it orally, though confirmation of its reputation came from such writings as Joseph Meyer's popular Herbalist (1934). Meyer echoed Griffith in suggesting that buttonbush should receive more notice, but this was rarely heeded.' Nevertheless. the plant has persisted in popular medical tradition, not only in Bass's area but also, for example. in the South Carolina low country. where the fruits and leafy branchlets are known for treating asthma. 5 Clearly there is some historical pedigree for Bass's view that it is a "wonderful liver and kidney medicine." Apart from the reputation as a diuretic, he also considers "bitter substances are good for the liver and the gall hladder, and anything that helps the liver is good for the kidney." The glycosides present, cephalanthin and cephalin, are known to be hemolytic and to cause vomiting, cOllvulsions, and paralysis, but present knowledge of their activity offers no explanation for the past uses of buttonbush. 6 Notes

4. j. M"ym (1934, p. 53). 5. j. F. Morton (1974, p. 41), Reference to its use

elsewhere in the Appalachians has not been found. fi. Ibid.

BUTTON SNAKEROOT

The Herbalist's Account Button snakeroot-lots of people also call it blazing star-has a root like an onion. It has a hot, bitterish taste. It blooms from July to September. It can be gathered any time of the year. It is not used as much as other snakeroots. It's a blood purifier and good for the kidney. Old-timers used it as a tonic. It can be used for rheumatism. I don't use it regularly as a medicine because I have other things that are better, I think black cohosh. black snakeroot. or sarsaparilla are better. but I would use it if I had to, It's an old, hard root. Black folks sometimes get it for a good-luck charm. Commentary Linlris spicntn (L.) Willd.: button-snakeroot, blazing-star. devil's bit. backache-root. L. sqU(Jfrosa [L.) Michx.*: rattlesnake's master, button-snakeroot. blazing-star. L. microcephClia (Small) K. S. *: buttonsnakeroot. blazing-star. L. graminifolin Willd. *: button-snakeroot. blazing-star. Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)

1. Elliott (1821, p. 187); Thacher (1825. p. 763).

under "recently introduced medicines" (not in 1817 edition), Griffith (1847. p. 357). Griffith's comment was taken from Rafinesque (1828-30. 1:102).

2. L. johnson (Hla ... p. 168). johnson was one author who made clear that "like nearly all vegetable substances possessing bitterness, it had been employed in intermittent and remittent fevers." 3. Parke-Davis (1890, p. 37): for example of an Eclectic publication. see King (1882, p. 205).

Button snakeroot is generally recognized as Liatris spicata, though other species such as L. squarrosa. collected by Mr, Bass. have been called by the same name in the medical literature.! Various authors have described button snakeroot as EryngiuIn yuccifoliuIn (see Rattlesnake Master). Evidently there was not much interest in the bitterish, spherical roots during colonial times.' In the early decades of the nineteenth

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century, however, the reputation as a diuretic (particularly for L. spicata) was undoubtedly well established, a reputation seemingly reflected in the vernacular name backache-root, which may be indicative of kidney problems. 3 In 1837 at least one Shaker community was promoting the root as a powerful diuretic.' Employment for rattlesnake bites was also generally known. Griffith, in 1847, wrote that belief in the power to cure the bites of venomous snakes was "very general" and quoted Pursh's testimony on L. squarrosa that the plant was used both externally on the bite and taken internally. He summarized the properties as stimulant, carminative, and diaphoretic, and said the plant deserved a fair trial.' No widespread enthusiasm developed, however, despite promotion by Eclectic practitioners and the marketing of a preparation by, for example, the pharmaceutical company Parke-Davis in the 1890s as a "diuretic, with tonic, stimulant and emmenagogue properties."" Laurence Johnson (1884), who did not even mention diuretic action, cast doubt on the use for snakebites and noted that this was undoubtedly associated with a diaphoretic action. 7 He did devote more space to 1. odoratissima (see Deerstongue). Probably just as important in establishing button snakeroot's usage is that, along with other roots like angelica and Sampson snakeroot, it acquired a reputation as a charm, for good luck in general and specifically against such medical problems as snakebite and rheumatism. Bass rationalizes his belief in the tonic properties of button snakeroot on the basis of the diuretic and diaphoretic actions, which also explain the reputation for rheumatism. He collects three species indiscriminately; they not especially easy to distinguish in the field. He says they all act the same. Unfortunately, no information has been found for constituents.

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Noles 1. E.g., Griffith (1847, p. 389); Croom (1982, p. 84) described L. regimentis as white bloodroot, blazing star, button snakeroot. Known to Lumbee Indians for pain. Used as a decoction with red root (Ceanothus americanus) to bathe painful areas. Le Strange (1977, p. 160) described it under "blazing star." 2. Griffith (1847) mentioned that Schoepf said it

was used by Indians as a diuretic, but we have not located the reference. See also W. P. C. Barton (1818, 2:225. under Liatris dubio), who said it was used in the same manner as Prenanthes serpentaria, also reputedly useful for snakebites (see Snakeroots). 3. For vernacular name see Gunn (1869. p. 840),

who employed it only for L. spicala. An earlier reference indicating general reputation as a diuretic is Nuttall (1818, 2:133). He suggested the action is due to the presence of "turpentine." 4. A. B. Miller (H176, p. 15).

5. Griffith (1847, p. 389). Pursh (1814, pp. 509-10) implied considerable popularity. 6. Parke-Davis (1890. p. 37). 7. L. Johnson (1884. p. 171).

CABBAGE AND COLLARDS (tops) The Herbalist's Account Cabbage is real good for you all-round, even doctors say so. A man told me a story about a fellow who went to the doctor. The doctor wasn't sure what was the matter and said to him. "Get the biggest cabbage head you can find and take the outside off and eat the inside, every bit you can." And by jingo he got sound and well. They was used at one time here in the South for people suffering from drinking too much whiskey or alcohol. A lot of times they would take the juice and rub their forehead and it would stop the alcohol headache. The cabbage absorbs something about the alcohol. I don't know what it is, but that's the old saying. Now, kraut juice is better. A feller said he

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had an ulcer and thought he would die. He took cans of kraut juice and swore it made him better. Mother always had some juice around. I've drunk a lot of kraut juice for a sick stomach or a sore throat. We used to grow a lot of cabbage. We'd generally make six to ten gallons of kraut. The cabbage would be chopped up real good. (You could use a can with a jagged top.) A layer of the cabbage was put in the bottom of the container and salt sprinkled on it. Then another layer of cabbage and salt and so on until the container was full. A muslin cloth was put over it and it was squashed down with a weight. It was left for six weeks and could be eaten any time. It's good for stomach and herniary. They say the red cabbage is especially good for you, but I don't really know about that. Some of the health food people say cabbage is a good thing. Prevention has had things about it being good against cancer. Collards. Collards are a very nutritious vegetable. Black people eat more collard greens than all the white people put together. It's one of the most nutritious vegetables there are. They're best eaten after a frost. Most people who eat them don't have much trouble with their teeth. Commentary Brassica oleracea var. capitata L., including cultivars: cabbage. B. oleracca var. acephala DC., including culli vars: collards. Brassicaeae (Cruciferae) Mr. Bass's enthusiasm for cabbage reflects a strong popular reputation and much past interest within regular medicine. John Gerard (1597). who described various cabbages under "coleworts," indicated drying and binding characteristics.' Linked to those were a variety of uses; for instance "against all inflammations," "hot swells," and "cankers in the eies," called "in Greek carcinomata,

which cannot be healed by any other means, if they be washed therewith." Possibly related to this was the view that cabbage was useful for "dim eies." Gerard clearly drew on knowledge extending back to classical times, when cabbage was possibly equally well known as medicine and vegetable. When Cato the elder (234-149 B.C.) gave a lengthy account in his celebrated work on agriculture, he noted usage in poultices, for which particular cabbages (e.g., "parsley cabbage") were considered to be of special value.' It is tempting to suggest that the emergence over the next few centuries of cultivated head cabbages, said to possess smaller amounts of pungent oil, led to a decline in interest in the medical reputation associated with sensory properties. In 1796 it was said that all the varieties of "cabbage, colliflowers and broccoli" contain "naturally a stimulating oil, and a bitter astringent juice, so as not to be fit for use; but we find this only in wild cabbages, &c. By cultivation, this oil and bitter juice are destroyed and such as grow in our gardens consist of little more than mucilage and sugar. and, of course, are fit for food.'" Certainly a decline in medical interest occurred during the 1800s. In 1744 Robert James wrote that "it would require a long time to speak of all that has been said in praise of cabbage," including for inflammations and edematous swellings and tumors, but within a few years William Cullen, an influential authority on materia medica, merely indicated that it was an important source of nourishment. 4 He also stressed the problem of flatulence caused by eating cabbage. This, he said. could be reduced by "extricating the air of the cabbage" by boiling or subjecting it to "i fermentation as in the preparation of SAUER KRAUT: a preparation so named in Germany, where for many ages it has been a common part of diet." 5 Interest in sauerkraut was encouraged by the experience of Captain

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Cook, who used it to combat scurvy.6 In America Samuel Stearns (1801), while noting some medical usages, stated flatly that "all the various species are more used as food than physic." 7 Even so, the reputation of red cabbage became somewhat stronger during the first half of the nineteenth century. Stearns indicated its reputation for hoarseness and disorder of the breast. Toward the end of the century, however, it was only listed in an occasional medical reference work, generally negatively: "It has had some reputation as a 'pectoral,' but has no medicinal value and is obsolete everywhere, excepting possibly France."· Bass is correct in remembering that the magazine Prevention has discussed the health benefits of cabbage," which is noted for rich concentrations of fiber, minerals, and vitamins C, E, and A.tO Interestingly, collards, although viewed as healthful, do not have the same medical reputation as cabbage. Apart from occasional references to collard stalk broth, this also applies to southern states, where the vegetable has long been popular. Collards are thought to have evolved from the wild Brassica oleracea, with a concurrent loss of mustard oils and an increase in the number, size, and tenderness of the leaves." Unfortunately, the undoubtedly complex evolution of cabbage, collards, and related cultivated crops remains debatable, and correlations between the presumed medical reputation and the oil and such constituents as glucosinolates have to be tentative. 12 Much current interest in vegetables as medicinal agents reflects both past concepts and contemporary interest in nutrition. Cabbage and other Brassica species are good sources of fiber, minerals (particularly potassium), and vitamins, but new facets of interest are emerging. These include the view that certain vegetables can help to inhibit the action of carcinogens. For instance, it has been suggested that cabbage enhances

the hydroxylase microsomal enzyme system, thus increasing the rate of metabolism of carcinogens and, in consequence, affecting chemically induced tumor formation. Confirmation of the antitumor activity may exist in the older medicalliteratllre,13 for example, Gerard's comment regarding "cankers in the eies," quoted above.14 Early references to "cancer," however, refer to external use and may well have rested on the reputation for a "drying and binding facultie" considered potentially effective for inflammations and hot swellings. 15 As noted elsewhere, clear differentiation of inflammatory from malignant tumors was not made until the nineteenth century. Older references to employment for cancer are likely to be purely coincidental with present-day interest. One of the strongest recollections known to Mr. Bass is cabbage's use to relieve hangovers. This is far from merely local custom and has been widely recorded in European literature. Philip Moore, for instance, in The Hope of Health (1564) wrote: "The juice of the cabbage purge the head, being put into the nostules. Being taken after much drinking, it withstandeth drunkenness." 16 In 1729 the author of The Family Companion for Health offered an explanation that serves as an example of the ephemeral, descriptive nature of much theory in medical therapy: "Cabbages are a loosening plant, but they disturb and puff up the stomach: they are said to be useful in broth after a debauch, because they contain a good deal of watery and slimy juice which is also a little fetid and bitter, and this helps to prove laxative and diuretick."17 The flavor of cabbage is due to the breakdown of glucosinolates to allylisothiocyanate and other compounds, which may vary in concentration between the leaf and the remainder of the cabbage. l • Goitrogenic activity has been linked to some of the compounds. Bass says cabbage is "good for you allround"; certainly it presents all-around interest that merits further study.

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Notes

CALAMUS (root)

1. Gerard (1597, pp. 243-50). It is noteworthy that Gerard did not describe cabbage as "hot and dry," as did such sixteenth-century writers as Moore (1564, f. xxix). The polymorphic Brassico oleraceo includes the well-known cauliflower, broccoli, kohlrabi, and brussels sprouts, which have been treated in various ways taxonomically.

The Herbalist's Account Calamus grows around ponds like cattails. Folks used to carry a piece of calamus root in their mouths and swallow the juice, instead of Rolaids or Turns. Folks with good teeth could chew it. It tastes bad, but if you eat too much or have a sour or burning stomach, it makes you feel good. To make a tea, take one average-size root, cut it up fine, and boil it thirty minutes in a pint of water. Strain it and take a swallow as needed. Don't take too much on account of it being a laxative. To store calamus root, cut it up and dry it, heat it in the stove, and put it right in cans because the blessed worms will eat it up overnight if you don't take precautions. It's another old-timer and a good medicine, but hard to get. It's been used ever since time. It's fine for the stomach and it's a mild laxative. Hawk Littlejohn, an Indian, told me that it was for coughs and colds, and gosh, I put it in my cough and cold medicine after I was talking with him. And everybody who takes it told me that there's something in this that makes it better, and I said, well, that's an Indian remedy. It really does help it and gives it a better flavor and they could tell the difference. But, of course, I didn't have what's in the medicine on a label so I wasn't tricking anybody.

2. Cato (1934, pp. 141-49, 145). 3. Trusler (1796, p. 23). Early references to cabbage (e.g., by Dioscorides) suggest high concentrations of pungent oil; see Riddle (1985, pp. 65) and others. 4. James (1743-45, vol. 1), under "Brassico, cabbage." 5. Cullen (1812. 1:161). Other writers at the time stressed the production of flatulence; e.g., Motherby (1785), under "Bmssico, cabbage." 6. See, for example, Carpenter (1986. pp. 77 et seq.). 7. Stearns (1801, pp. 86-87). 8. Buck (1886-93,1:731). 9. E.g., Prevention 29, no. 8 (1977): 158. 10. Bingham (1987, pp. 43-44). 11. Schwanitz (1966, pp. 53-55): also Nieuwolf (1969). 12. There is much discussion on the problems and issues of evaluation; for a still-helpful introduction, at least to the types of problems involved, see L. H. Bailey (1930). 13. Albert-Puleo (1983). 14. Gerard (1597, p. 263) for quote. Some references in Hartwell (1982). For other early references, for instance, behind the summary comment by James (1743, pp. 161-62) in the eighteenth century quoted above, see Albert-Puleo (1983). who indicated a lack of consistency in the literature, though his examples are not well chosen. 15. Gerard/Johnson (1636, p. 317). Bullein (1579, f. 10v) wrote that "the leaves, sodden with honey, heale ulcers and cankers, and kil wormes in the bellie." 16. Moore (1564, f. xxix). 17. Family Companion for Health (1729, p. 73).

Commentary Acarus calamus 1., including varieties [syns. A. belangert Schott.; A. casia Betol; A. griffithii Schott.; A. odoratus Lam.; A. spurius Schott.; A. terrestris Spreng.; Oronthium cochinchinensis Lour.]: sweet garden flag, sweet flag, calamus. A. americanus (Raf.l Raf. [syns. A. calamus sensu auct., not 1.; A. calamus var. americanus (Raf.) H. Wulff]: sweet flag, calamus. Araceae

18. Josefsson (1967j, A. J. Macleod (1976, pp. 30730).

Calamus has a long history of usage in Asia

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and, to a lesser extent, in Europe (where it was probably introduced in the sixteenth century)-reflected in part in its many botanical synonyms. There is much debate on whether or not A. calamus is indigenous to North America, but it is probably naturalized, whereas A. americanus, morphologically very similar, is indigenous .' John Gerard (1597) told his readers of calamus's pedigree: "Dioscorides saith, the roots hath an healing facultie; Galen and Plini affirme that they have thin and subtill parts, both hot and drie." Uses listed in line with this were deobstruent; for example, provoking urine, helping pain in the side, liver, spleen, breast, promoting menstruation, and easing stomach discomfort.' Also noted was use as an antidote to poisons, a recommendation occasionally emphasized in later accounts. 3 Seemingly, calamus-infertile in Europe-was sometimes cultivated

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for medicinal purposes (as Bass does) . Until well into the twentieth century, all writers on materia medica discussed calamus, although general enthusiasm had waned by about 1800.

The nineteenth century witnessed uneven interest. Some authors were enthusiastic, like W. P. C. Barton (1817-18)' who said that it merited the marked attention of physicians.Around the same time, E. G. Ludlow (1824) made some interesting remarks when promoting calamus. He commented (correctly) that a nebulous element of "fashion" plays a part in a drug's popularity: "Fashion sways medicine as it does everything else, and such is the ardour of the present age, that the discovery of new remedies appears to be only commensurate with that of new diseases. If in the exercise of this laudable zeal for progressive improvement, the practical results of the past were always retained, and its crudities alone rejected, we should not daily have to rescue from unmerited oblivion many medicines whose virtues have been tested by the experience of centuries." 5 Ludlow added that calamus was hardly noted in "any of our recent works on the materia medica." After relating its long history and his own experiences of using it for dyspepsia, diarrhea, and cholera, he concluded that "for the removal of pain and flatulence in the bowels, which may be enumerated among the most frequent and disturbing symptoms of the first stage of indigestion, calamus is superior to any other carminative." Despite such encomiums, a general lack of enthusiasm continued, though it was reported widely in the nineteenth century as an "aromatic, stimulant and stomachic esteemed as a stimulating tonic in atonic conditions of the stomach and bowels." 6 Lengthy lists of uses in many earlier writings-which included for nervous conditions like "headaches" and neuralgia-had been revised and often discounted, indicative of calamus's general decline in popularity.

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European authors Fhlckiger and Hanbury noted in 1874 that calamus was no longer gathered in former quantities and was rarely used in regular medicine, but "is sold by the herbalists for flavouring beer, and for masticating to clear the voice. It is also said to be used by snuff manufacturers." 7 It was additionally employed as an adjunct with other medicines for stomach complaints, while twentieth-century writings on American Indians suggest it has been a popular species among many tribes. 8 Bass's information that it is a carminative (either chewed or in the form of a tea) and good for coughs is in line with past testimony. He has not heard of its employment for urinary troubles, described recently from the South Carolina low country." Likewise, suggestions that it is useful in circulatory problems do not rest on strong testimony.1O Worldwide interest in calamus, including many nonmedical uses (such as for insecticides), has prompted many chemical studies. Principal components include volatile oil, at least up to 5 percent, bitter principles acorin and acretin, resin, and tannin. Many constituents in the volatile oil have been characterized. Some possess antibacterial actions under laboratory conditions, but no clinical relevance has been established. Spasmolytic activity, which has been demonstrated under laboratory conditions, supports the well-known carminative action, while depressant and anticonvulsant activities have also been shownY References to an abortifacient action, common in recent literature, do not appear to be well founded from the experience of Western medicine. Perhaps they are based more on the theory of deobstruent action, though the laxative and tonic actions may be at play.'2 Calamus continues in use despite warnings that oil of calamus can contain a carcinogen (beta-asarone),'3 However, the concentration of this phenylpropanoid compound varies according to the genetic makeup of the plant.

It has been said that the native A. americanus (a diploid)-generally found in the northern United States-does not contain significant amounts, in contrast to the infertile triploid, A. C(])(]IIlUS. in Europe. A tetraploid variety is found in Asia, and a hexaploid variety in the Kashmir area of India. Unfortunately, distinguishing the native American diploid from the naturalized triploid is difficult. Published information on the two taxa presently indicate that they can only be distinguished by fertility and examination of the pollen, but other criteria are being studied.14 Although spasmolytic activity has been demonstrated in the laboratory, only calamus without beta-asarone (difficult to determine outside the laboratory) should be used for stomach cOIIlplaints, at least if preparations of the plant are taken regularly. IS How much the spasmolytic activity rationalizes other uses is not dear, but the belief that treating the alimentary canal aids in the treatment of certain nervous disorders cannot be discounted.

Notes 1. Whether or not calamus is indigenous to North America has often heen debated. Interpretations are baseu all early descriptions; for example. those noted ill Erichsen-Brown (1979, p. 230). Barton wrot" that Acarus calamus "is truly indigenous to our states and though not specifically, is slightly different from the foreign vegetable" (1817-18, 2:66). For modern discussion on its indigenous character, see Packer and Ringius (1984), who indicate that the fertile diploid, A. americanus, is widespread in Canada, whereas the sterile triploid, A. co1amus. widely introduced into North America, is more limited geographically. Unfortunately, detailed distribution studies are not a\'ailable for the United States. Helpful comments are in Love and Love (1957). For some references to Asian uses. see 1. M. Perry (1980).

2. Gerard (1597, p. 57). 3. Authoritative early-eighteenth-century writer Joseph Miller (1722, p. 3) stressed its value against

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pestilential and corrupt noxious air. Calamus is said not to have been introduced into Europe until around 1557, and it was not naturalized in England until a century later. by which time it was one of many "sweet aromatic plants" strewn on floors. For some comments, see Ryden, "Shakespearean Plant Names" (1978); also Crellin and Nowell-Smith (in preparation). 4. Barton (1817-18, 2:72). 5. Ludlow (1824).

6. E.g., Porcher (1863. p. 546). Few references to the use of calamus in perfumed powders are to be found, though at one time it was recommended for "sweet bags and perfumes" (J. Miller, 1722, p. 3). Interestingly, William Withering (1796, 2:344) suggested it might have value as a spice: "the root powdered might supply the place of our foreign spices." 7. FlOckiger and Hanbury (1874, p. 616). Chewing the root has been mentioned specifically by a number of American authors: e.g., Shoemaker (1893,2:495): "calamus is sometimes useful in overcoming a tendency to flatulence, by chewing it slowly and swallowing the saliva." 8. Moerman (1986, Lxiv); see also Locock (1987).

9. This does not appear to be well established. For reference to use see J. F. Morton (1974, p. 21). It is of interest that references to usage for dropsy occasionally occur in modern advocatory herhal literature. 10. Croom (1982, p. 31). 11. For lists of constituents see Duke (1985, pp. 14-15). 12. Reference in Leung (1980, p. 84). 13. Federal Register, 9 May 1968. For concern

over beta-asarone, see Goggelmann and Schimmer (1983).

14. For background see Stahl and Keller (1981), Keller and Stahl (1983), Love and Love (1957). For other references to polyploidy. rtc., see Locock (1987). 15. Keller et a!. (1985).

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CARROT (root); WILD CARROT (tops, seeds) The Herbalist's Account Cultivated. I could tell you much about the garden carrot. Of course, I've read about them but we never grew them. It'll be a nutritional vegetable. It's recommended for the eyes. Now I can tell you a lot about the wild carrot. We call it Queen Anne's lace. Wild carrot. Queen Anne's lace grows as high as four to five feet. It is called birdsnest because the tops with the flowers, or seedpods, favor a bird's nest. The tops should be gathered from the last of May through the first of July, before it blooms. Make a tea out of the tops like cooking turnip greens. A big handful makes a quart of tea. The roots can be eaten like carrots. The tea is used as a bitter tonic. It's wonderful medicine if you get too much fluid in your body or when you need something for gout or rheumatism. You can't go wrong by using it. It's an old-timer, but we've only started recommending it about 1980. We have experimented with it and we've had more results with it for reducing than anything. I think I read about it in Prevention magazine. Some lose fifteen to twenty pounds. It's interchangeable with chickweed and goosegrass. A case that improved so fast was about this man who couldn't pull up his pantlegs, along about the time when you couldn't get no gas. His legs was swollen so and his stomach was way out here. I said, "Partner, I'm going to put you on wild carrot tea." So he carried a gallon home. He came back and he could pull up his britches. He wasn't well yet. He drunk about two gallons of it and he was getting back to normal. His stomach went down. He was a beer drinker. He went to church regular and worked at two jobs. When he got off one job he went on another. He got down to normal. But before he got down, I said, "Partner, gas is short. You have to drive all the way

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from West Gadsden. I want to show you what you're drinking." I showed him the plant, and he said he got a whole garden full of that. Well, he got to where he was all right and one day he came up to show me how he was getting along, and he brought me a load of the stuff. From then on I helped other people -like the man I helped get out of the penitentiary. He was nearly as bad as that. His rheumatism was bad, too. They used to call it dropsy. They don't call it that anymore. It's fluid or water in your body. They talk about heart dropsy but not this other kind. Some folks use it for blood sugar, but we prefer huckleberry and others. Commentary Daucus carat a L. * , including subspecies: wild carrot, birdnest, birdsnest, Queen Anne's lace (popular American name). D. cawla L. ssp. sativus (Hoffman) Arcangelo [syn. D. SCltiVUS (Hoffm.) Roehe], including cultivars: cultivated carrot. Apiaceae The cultivated carrot introduced into America by the first settlers has generally been viewed as of less medicinal value than the wild carrot. It is a good example of a "hot and dry" plant, with reputed deobstruent and stimulant actions, which suffered from a decline in interest during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. John Gerard (1597) wrote glowingly of wild carrot: The seed and root doth with-all open [obstructions]. The root boiled and eaten, or boiled with wine, and the decoction drunke provoketh urine, expelleth the stone, bringeth foorth the birth, and procureth bodily lust. The seed drunke bringeth downe the desired sicknes, it is good for them that can hardly make water, it breakieth and dissolveth winde, it remedieth the dropsie, it cureth the collick and stone, being drunke in wine. It is also good

for the passion of the mother, and helpeth conception: it is good against the bitings of all manner of venemous beasts: it is reported saith Dioscorides that such as have first taken of it are not hurt by them. 1 The long catalog of uses persisted into the early eighteenth century, when John Floyer rationalized many of them on the basis of sensory properties.' Yet, by the end of the century, William Lewis (1791) and others were indicating little popularity.' A useful summary of the American perspective was given by A. Clapp in 1852: "The seeds of the wild carrot are more active and efficient than those of the cultivated variety. An infusion of the seeds or the roots and leaves is an excellent diuretic. Thacher, Chapman, Eberle speak very favorably of its efficacy. The uses of the root of the Garden carrot either raw or boiled as a poultice are well-known." " Like many diuretics, carrot's reputation perhaps had a new lease on life by the end of the nineteenth century; the generally critical Laurence Johnson (1884) reported it to be "stimulant, diuretic, and somewhat aromatic. Like many other remedies of similar properties, it has been used to stimulate menstruation and for the relief of strangury," 5 Also noted was its value as a poultice. Some disagreement over effectiveness is perhaps linked to the question about which part of the plant is the most active: root, flowering top, or seeds. Most authors preferred the seeds, unlike Bass, who always recommends the flowering topS.b The diuretic properties-often used to justify the treatment of kidney problems and gout-have been the most conspicuous part of wild carrot's reputation. Enthusiasm declined in this century, but Mr. Bass has done much to popularize it in his region for treating obesity (see volume 1, chapter 7).' Whether or not its reputation for diabetesin Bass's mind of less value than blueberry -is linked to its diuretic action is unclear. 8

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Twentieth-century knowledge of vitamins has enhanced the reputation of wild carrot, particularly as a tonic. This extends to the advocacy of carrot juice three times a day for eczema and psoriasis. 9 Many constituents have been isolated. The diuretic action of the herb is believed to be due to the alkaloid daucine, although constituents in the essential oil and even organic acids may be contributory, perhaps through an irritant action. The clinical roles, if any, of such constituents as peucedanin, umbelliferone, 8-methoxypsoralen, coumarins, myristicin, and carrot oil (prepared by solvent extraction) have not been adequately studied. ' ° Carrot's long-standing reputation as a nutritious vegetable is usually justified on the basis of vitamin A content-at least carotene-in the root, although other vitamins and minerals are present." It is unclear whether significant chemical differences exist between plants in this "extremely polymorphic species"; studies are undoubtedly necessary on the Daucus carota complex.12 Notes Gerard (1597, pp. 873-74). 2. Floyer (1687-91, p. 120).

1.

3. 4.

E.g., W. Lewis (1791, p. 182). Clapp (1852, p. 777).

L. Johnson (1884, p. 152). 6. E.g., Motherby (1785), under "Daucus." He noted that the seeds should be gathered in August. Beach (1848, p. 654) mentioned the use of a strong decoction of the root. 5.

7. Knowledge is extant among Lumbee Indians in North Carolina. Croom (1982, pp. 56-57) noted its employment for colds and pneumonia in children-uses unknown to Bass. The idea may well be linked to the characteristic bitterness and an analogy with quinine, even though the decoction was applied to the chest. Surprisingly, perhaps, Croom recorded no knowledge of diuretic properties.

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Farnsworth and Segelman (1971) were unable to confirm the results from laboratory studies.

8.

9. Morton (1981, p. 646). 10. For carrot oil from (1980, pp. 95-96).

fruit and root, see Leung

11. For some review of constituents, see Bingham (1987), Duke (1985, pp. 163-64), Kerminov (1983). 12.

E. Small (1978).

CASCARA (bark) The Herbalist's Account It's one of the most-used laxatives in the world. It does not grow around here. I used to use it in my herb mixture, Bass's Brand Herb Compound, which was a popular laxative. It contained "Senna leaves, Aloe, Cascara Sagrada" and "in addition, but not in active amounts, Stillingia, Yellow Dock, Alfalfa, Uva Ursi leaves, Licorice Root, Gentian, Dandelion, Anise Seed, Mandrake, Fennel Seed, Buckthorn, Calamus Root, Sarsaparilla, Cinnamon, Peppermint Leaves, Carpenter Square Herbs, Boneset, and Juniper Berries" [from labell. Commentary Rhamnus purshiana DC.: sacred bark, cascara, cascara sagrada. Rhamnaceae The cascara tree, which is native to the northwest coast region of North America, is not found in Mr. Bass's area. Even so, he has used and sold a lot of cascara bark over the years, although he now prefers another well-known laxative, senna, which he sells in tablet form. The genus Rhamnus includes other wellknown species possessing laxative properties, particularly the European R. frangula and R. cathartica (see Buckthorn). Rhamnus purshiana, which has been called the western buckthorn, is generally thought to have been first used by native Americans. ' It attracted little general interest until the late

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1870s, partly because of its limited distribution.2 In 1877 Eclectic physician j. H. Bundy recommended it for treating constipation. Its subsequent rapid acceptance owed much to the commercial promotion by Parke-Davis. The company gathered many interesting testimonials about its efficacy, some of which reflect the overenthusiastic response that often greets a new drug. One correspondent saw it of great value for sick headache, a reputation that was not sustained: Having for some time been satisfied with the effects of your Cascara Sagrada, I wish to enlighten the profession still farther in regard to its wonderful effects on sick headache. Having been troubled with it at intervals of three weeks for several years, I discovered, a few years ago, that Cascara was a specific in that complaint, and I have not suffered from it since I began using that remedy. Whenever I feel the symptoms, I take a teaspoonful of your Cascara, and in an hour I am relieved .... I would add that Cascara Sagrada is valuable in any case of headache resulting from a deranged stomach. I believe it also valuable in rheumatism, but have not yet tried it sufficientl y.

Notes 1. It was often called the western buckthorn; e.g., by J. G. Cooper (1857). For Indian usage recorded in the twentieth r.entury, see Moerman (1986,

1:399-400).

2. For background see C. W. Johnson and Hindman (1914).

Vogel (1970, p. 289).

3. Rusby Papers.

4. For recent discussion, Trease and Evans (1983, pp. 394-98).

CASTOR BEAN (seeds) The Herbalist's Account Everyone around here used to grow the castor oil plant. The beans were used to keep moles away. You put them in the runs. Some folks sold the beans for the oil. Castor oil was one of the most popular laxatives until some years ago. Some folks pressed their own oil, but I don't think anyone did around here. The general store always had it. Commentary Ricinus communis 1. [syns. R. speciosus Burm.; R. viridis Willd.]: castor bean, castor, palma christi.

Dr. S. E. Morgan

Euphorbiaceae

24 August 1889 3

Although there is some debate over the original home of the castor oil plant, it is generally thought that it was native to the Old World tropics and brought to the Americas shortly after the voyage of Columbus. 1 Since classical times castor oil has played a conspicuous place in the treatment of constipation, "gripes," and a striking range of other ailments. 2 Nevertheless, there has been much unevenness in the extent of its usage. In Britain it appears to have become more widely employed toward the end of the eighteenth century, perhaps because of increased availability from the West Indies. It is clear that castor oil was administered in enormous

Cascara has remained a well-known laxative through the twentieth century, and Bass remembers that it was the ingredient of many over-the-counter medicines. The drug is well understood chemically; anthraquinone glycosides account for the laxative action. It is not absolutely clear how Mr. Bass came to prefer senna over cascara; however, one factor is his awareness that cascara is best when stored for at least a year to reduce the bitter taste. Reputedly, the bark also improves in medicinal value when stored correctly for up to four years.·

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quantities on both sides of the Atlantic during the next century, when innumerable ways were devised to disguise its taste. Bass recognizes how popular it remained during the first half or so of the twentieth century. His recollections lend support to the view that considerable quantities of castor oil have been produced domestically in the southern states since the early nineteenth century, although nowadays 90 percent of the world's supply is from Brazil and India." Apart from its laxative property, Bass knows of the use of castor oil as an abortifacient. Although it might act from stimulant action on the intestines-in turn promoting uterine contraction-quinine, generally employed with the 0 ii, is considered the principal abortifacient.' The safety of home preparations of castor oil raises questions. After the fixed oil is expressed (present as 46 to 53 percent and containing primarily glycerides of ricinoleic., isoricinoleic, stearic, and dihydroxystearic acids), the cake contains toxic lectins called ricins. Residual amounts of these in the oil are thought to contribute to laxative action (along with lubricating action), but there is always concern with the presence of toxic amounts. Chewing castor beans has occasioned cases of poisoning, some fatal. when the seed coat has been ruptured. Ornamental use of the seeds increases the likelihood of poisonings because the seeds usually have been drilled. Like many plant constituents, the ricins are currently employed in ways different to past uses of the plant and oil; namely, as antitumor agents known as immunotoxins.' Notes 1. It has often been said that many uses of the plant are common to the Old and New Worlds: however. transmission of ideas must be treated cautiously because the use of purgatives is universal. For discussion see McClure (1982).

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2. For overview see J. F. Morton (1981, pp. 46466). 3. Carson (1847. 2:36). For background, Weibel (1948), Scarpa and Guerci (1982). 4. See also Mathieu (1927)' who indicated a valued combination treatment. 5. For review see Vitetta et al. (1987).

CATNIP (whole plant) The Herbalist's Account Catnip has a loud odor and white, violet, or blue flowers. It grows in the garden or around old home places where it has gone wild. Some people is fortunate to be where there's catnip that grows wild, if you don't grow it yourself. There is big money in growing catnip. A quarter of an acre of catnip will bring you several hundred dollars during the season. Gather it in the light of the moon and dry it in the shade. ["Under the light of the moon," means in the period of the month when the moon is full.) A small handful makes a cup of tea. It's an old home remedy which everybody knows. It's been an official medicine, too. It's good for the nerves. Mixed with maypop, sage. skullcap, and peach tree leaves, it creates one of the finest nerve tonics you can use. It's used for headache and for sleep and pacifying. It's one of the oldest there's been for babies. A tea for the baby is one of the most wonderful things. It'll pacify them and help them sleep. It will do away with the hives and if the stomach don't digest its food, why, it'll just start that to digesting. And it will do the same thing for grown people, too, but we've got to take more of it. Yes, sir, it's a real good one. Commentary Nepeta cataria L. *: catmint, catnep, catnip. Lamiaceae (Labiatae)

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Catnip, a naturalized perennial herb from Eurasia undoubtedly best known for its peculiar attractiveness to cats, is renowned, like all mints, for possessing carminative properties. But it has other specific usesconspicuous in the popular tradition of the Appalachians-such as treating hives and colic in children.! The early English medical literature lists many uses. Gerard (1597)-who mentioned three types of catmint (all "hot and dry"): nep, catmint, and small catmint-included deobstruent uses for treating such ailments as "grow out of flegme, and rawe humors, and of winde." An emmenagogue action was also noted. 2 Eighteenth-century writers, if they mentioned it at all, generally noted relatively few uses. William Lewis (1791) indicated its possible value in "weaknesses of the stomach," and more particularly in uterine disorders.3 On the other hand, catnip's reputation as a nerve medicine emerged during the century, although possibly more so within domestic treatment.' In America, while catnip was commonly mentioned in nineteenth-century materia medica books, the Dispensatory of the United States of 1836 noted that "it is probably employed more in domestic practice" and added that it was rarely known in regular medicine. 5 Specific uses for children's ailments were not widely recorded until the 1840s and after. On the other hand, Porcher, when noting in 1847 that it was universal for infant colic, was apparently reflecting a long tradition of domestic practice.6 The plant was also popularized by sales from Shaker communities from the 1830s onward? Catnip persisted in some medical texts well into this century but was hardly used within regular medicine; it remains, as implied by Mr. Bass, one of the best-known domestic medicines, especially for children. In the Appalachians employment for hives is

still widespread, and Bass commonly recommends it for teething." Its properties are generally considered to depend on an essential oil (0.3-1.0 percent); pharmacologically active constituents include nepetalactone (present up to 99 percent).9 This is chemically similar to such iridoids as the valepotriates, which are sedative principles in other plants (e.g., valerian; see monograph). Some chemical explanation thus exists for catnip's reputation as a sedative and for calming nerves. 'O Tannin is also present. Aqueous extracts of the leaves have been reported to inhibit E. coli, but suggestions that infusions would be useful oral replacement therapy in infant diarrhea are very speculative." Special interest has been aroused in the possible hallucinogenic effects of catnip, especially following a 1969 article, "Catnip and the Alteration of Consciousness," which included case histories suggesting that smoking catnip could produce responses analogous to those produced by marijuana. Unfortunately, confusion resulted because the illustrations of catnip and marijuana in the article were mislabeledY Later reports have nevertheless mentioned catnip as a possible consciousness-altering substance." Studies in 1978 confirmed an effect on sleep time and behavioral responses in laboratory animals, but concluded that abuse potential is probably low owing to the large doses required to produce an effect. '4 On the other hand, differing opinions about catnip may reflect different modes of extraction. Hot water extraction, for instance, is more effective than cold,15 but whether this extracts the essential oil constituents is unclear.'6 Apart from considerations of extraction, other Nereta species commonly called catnip are becoming more widely available as a result of horticulturalists' participation in the growing interest in herbs. The story of catnip is noteworthy for the particularly strong reputation

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141

as a domestic remedy, a somewhat unusual one in that it received little reinforcement from thp. medical profession.

13. For instance, in the textbook by W. H. Lewis and Elvin-Lewis (1977); also Emboden (1979, p. 20), Gjerstad (1972). For statement on confusion see Sherry et al. (1981).

Notes

14. Harvey et al. (1978).

1. For long lists of uses, see R. B. Browne (1958). and F. C. Brown (1957-64, 6:150. 156, 233). 2. Gerard (1597. p. 554). It is likely that Gerard described Nepeta cataria. Early nomenclature for catmint indicates a number of similar species and the popularity of mint.

3. W. Lewis (1791, p. 235).

J. Hill (1751, p. 344) stated that "the people in the country still used it frequently in the form of an infusion as an uterine and nervous medicine." 4.

5. G. B. Wood and Bache (1836, p. 1089). Pursh (1814, p. 4(0) said it was well known as a domestic

medicine. 6. Porcher (1849, p. 809; and other writings by Porcher). Dunglison had already noted that it was

a common domestic remedy in cases of colic in infants, and that "some nurses are in the habit of feeding them upon it for the first day or two" (1843. 1:491). See also Griffith (1847, p. 512), Gunn (1869, pp. 823-24). Cobb wrote "there is not. probably. a mother in our country so ignorant of vegetation as not to know this valuable plant; yet few know its worth" (1846. p. 17). Rafinesque gave relatively little space to the plant, but noted reputation for "hysterics, some fevers. a specific in chlorosis" (1828-30.2:245).

, . A. B. Miller (1976). 8. Interestingly, there is widespread knowledge in the Appalachians and elsewhere of its usage to "bring out hives"; e.g., Schedler (1971). 9. J. W. Harvey et al. (1978) referred to well-known

earlier work by McElvain and colleagues. 10. Reported in Tyler (1982, p. 65). For constituents, see Simon et al. (1984, pp. 18-19). 11. B. Jackson and Reed (1969).

f. Amer. Med. Assoc. 208 (1969): 360, included many letters pointing out the mistake. which, however. was not acknowledged by the authors. None of the general discussions on New World hallucinogens mentions catmint. 12.

15. Sherry et al. (1981). 16. Sherry and Mitchell (1982), however, show activity in lactone-free extracts.

CATTAIL (young shoots, roots) The Herbalist's Account Someone said it's used for coughs, but I don't know about that. The hearts of the young shoots make good eating. In the spring they taste like cehHY. Mother used to get them at times, and now the "Eat the Freeway" people get it. If anyone was to ask me about medical use, I'd guess it would be good for the kidney. Grasses and plants that grow in water generally are. Commentary Typha Jatifolia L. *: cats-taile, reed-mace, common cattail. Other Typha species. Typhaceae The naturalized cattail is common in Mr. Bass's area, and he is often asked about possible medical uses. Comparatively little information is available in the medical literature, though persistent threads of interest can be discerned. John Gerard (1597) noted only the usP. of the "down" in various pharmaceutical preparations for skin conditions.' Although cattail was rarely mentioned in the eighteenth century, it was sometimes included in accounts of grasses with the implication-as noted by Bass-of value for kidney ailments. In America few medical authors considered it, although Rafinesque, in drawing attention to four species (including T. Jatifolia), noted all to be equally useful and

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the "roots subastringent, febrifuge, esculent." Other economic uses were listed, and Rafinesque concluded: "ought to be cult. in swamps.'" This had no impact, but Porcher later drew attention to French references that mentioned value in gonorrhea and chronic dysentery.' Eclectic medical writings in the nineteenth century stressed astringent and emollient properties of the root, which seemingly justified references to its employment for gonorrhea and chronic dysentery.' Bass has learned about cattail through the popular tradition, but nut the use of the root for such purposes as a chew fur coughs. This has been recorded recently in the Kentucky Appalachians, although there may be confusion between cattail and calamus. 5 Bass has heard of cattail being used for stuffing mattresses, as reported in the past." As a springtime vegetable, cattail has attracted recent interest. Young shoots are often compared to asparagus or celery; immature spikes can be eaten like corn-on-the-cob, while the proteinrich pollen can be used to supplement wheat flour.' Specific physiological properties are doubtful. but constituents and variation among cattails have not been adequately studied.8 Past uses were seemingly based on astringency. Bass categorizes cattail as a grass and points out-correctly-that all grasses (and aquatic grasslike plants) have long been regarded as diuretics. Notes 1. Gerard (1597. pp. 42-43). 2. Rafinesque (1828-30. 2:250-51). 3. Porcher (1863. pp. 544-45). 4. Kg .. King (1882. p. 840). 5. Bolyard [1981, pp. 28-29). 6. Porcher (1863) listed this. 7. E.g .. L. Peterson (1978. p. 158). 8. A general review with references is Hegi [1980. 2:269-317).

CAYENNE PEPPER (powdered fruit) The Herbalist's Account Lots of folks use red pepper in the South. Pepper sauce-or peppers in vinegar-is a favorite. Old-timers, and many still do, use it on collards and other greens. Of course people buys Tabasco Sauce these days. I generally buy hot peppers from the supermarket, but I've bought cayenne pepper by the pound -it's easier to use that way, but some fulks want Tabasco. It can be used for almost anything, medically speaking, but the biggest thing is as a stimulant; it's one of the greatest. It will go around your body as quick as anything, and it runs other medicines with it. Now take the Mexican people. it makes no difference what they eat. they've got the cayenne pepper and they're as tough as a whalebone. You can use it in teas. I put it in my BH Tonic. Folks prefer it a little hot. You used to be able to buy it in a plaster for the chest. but I don't think you can get them anymore. Commentary Capsicum annuum var. annuum (Miller) Heiser, including such cultivars as cayenne: ginnie pepper. cayenne pepper. capsicum, red pepper. chilies. C. frutescens L. var. tabasco: ginnie pepper, tabasco, capsicum, red pepper. chilies. Solanaceae Capsicum annuum (as well as C. frutescens). native to the New World and widely used as a spice, has a long history. A reference in the 1552 Aztec herbal (the Badanius Manuscript) indicates uses for toothache and scabies. Cayenne pepper was introduced early into Europe, and John Gerard (1597) described the capsicum lunder "ginnie or Indian pepper") as hot and dry. and specifically noted a deobstruent action for dissolving the swellings of king's evil l Subsequent eighteenthand nineteenth-century writers on materia medica invariably considered capsicum primarily as a stimulant. 2

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Capsicum, or rather cayenne peppernowadays prepared from a number of cultivars of Capsicum annuum, not necessarily cayenne-is often called red pepper, although this usually identifies a less pungent product. It has a special niche in American medicine because of its association with the Thomsonian botanical practice of medicine. It was the principal stimulant used in treating many general ailments, often in substantial doses, to restore "internal heat." J. W. Comfort, for instance, in The Practice of Medicine on Thomsonian Principles (1853), noted that it was used to treat dropsy, rheumatism, and other cases where it was necessary to stimulate blood flow and induce warmth on the surface of the body.3 Numerous formulas containing red pepper were published and used throughout the nineteenth century; some were recorded around 1890 by, for example, a North Carolina botanic physician who still practiced Thomsonianism.4 One Thomsonian capsicum preparation was included for a while in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia as Compound Tincture of Capsicum and Myrrh.5 Some of cayenne pepper's reputation as a medical stimulant is seemingly reinforcedat least in parts of the southern United States -by its widespread use as a condiment in pepper sauce, as noted by Bass. He has even started to use Tabasco Sauce in some of his medicines because it is stronger. The fruit of C. frutescens var. tabasco has been described as not merely hot but explosive. The concept that capiscum makes the blood go around, firmly held by Bass, is described in regular medical textbooks of the early twentieth century as a stimulant action on the circulatory and nervous systems. This was used to justify many uses, such as employment for treating alcohol and opium addiction (it was said to increase the rate by which the blood became purified) and as an aphrodisiac. 6 Apart from internal usage, cayenne pepper found widespread use in

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plasters (though less popular than mustard), at least until around the 1940s, as a counterirritant for treating chest ailments. In recent years cayenne pepper has acquired new medical popularity, primarily as a "stimulant," in certain approaches toward herbal medicine, some associated with the health food movement.? Perhaps in part this is associated with the intriguing popularity of peppers (e.g., jalapeiio).B The principal constituent is capsaicin, which, with other principles is responsible for cayenne's irritation and pungent effects. Since the nineteenth century capsicum's physiological properties have been the subject of much study in experimental pharmacology, particularly recently.g Topical application of capsaicin produces an inflammatory irritation followed by long-lasting insensitivity to chemical irritants. This provides a rationale for use in relieving neuralgia. A fall in body temperature has been shown in animal experiments on oral and parenteral administration, but generalizations cannot yet be made about such effects on humans. Reported side effects after eating capsicum include proctitis, or anal irritation.1o Handling the small seeds produces intense skin irritation. It seems likely, at least from the evidence of many of Bass's visitors, that as a medicine cayenne pepper attracts staunch followers. If this reflects confidence beyond physiological effects, it perhaps points to powerful cultural forces or placebo effects among those who have faith in "strong" medicines. Notes 1. Gerard (1597, pp. 292-93). Gerard/Johnson (1633, pp. 364-66) provided a more detailed account. For general background, J. Andrews (1984)

includes much on complex taxonomy. 2. E.g .. W. Lewis (1769. 2:155): "one ofthe highest

stimulants."

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3. Comfort (1853, pp. 510-14). 4. Batts MS.

5. Lloyd (1921, p. 48). 6. E.g .. Potter (1917 ed., pp. 199-200). 7. We consider that Christopher (1980)-albeit an unwieldly compilation-has been of major influence. 8. See Rozin and Schiller (1980), who concluded that there is a thrill component among the multiple factors involved in developing a liking for chili peppers. 9. For recent reviews see S. H. Buck and Burks (1983), Hori (1984). 10. Diehl and Bauer (1978).

CEDAR (oil, tops, "apples") The Herbalist's Account The cedar oil was used by old-timers. I still get the oil and put it in salves for a few folks. The oil has been used for many different things. It's good for the kidney. Some have used it for colds and coughs, as a tonic, and for rheumatism. It's powerful and I don't recommend it to those who don't know it. The crushed leaves can be used like mullein to take swellings out. It's an old Indian remedy. Lots of folks have told me about it. A tea of the berries (a few berries for a teacup) is a refreshing drink. Folks ask me about the cedar apples, the orange balls with tentacles that come out in the rain, but I haven't heard of any medical uses. Commentary Juniperus virginiana L. *: red cedar, cedar. J. communis L., including varieties: common juniper. /. sabina L.: savin. Cupressaceae Of over sixty juniper species, Juniperus communis (especially the berries) and Juniperus sabina are widely known for medical usage.

The employment of the indigenous red cedar Uuniperus virginiana) known to Mr. Bass has been generally restricted to North America.' Junipers (the prickly cedar and two kinds of tall cedar) were described by Gerard (1597) as hot and dry and having such deobstruent properties as diuretic action. 2 Savin, also described as hot and dry, had a specific reputation as an emmenagogue and abortifacient and, more generally, as an external remedy for certain skin disorders. While these uses have been noted frequently in all types of medical books from Gerard until relatively recently, emphasis has tended to focus on the use of savin in ointments.3 Modern herbal literature probably overemphasizes the strength of the long-standing reputation of J. communis as a diuretic; at least there is little evidence it was widely employed. In fact, Juniperus communis is probably best known for the employment of its berries to flavor nonalcoholic and alcoholic beverages; a well-known example is gin. Many other uses exist, especially in the food and cosmetics industries. /. virginiana, a medium-sized indigenous tree, was recognized as medically useful in colonial times, perhaps in part based on European knowledge of other juniper species. Considered in many early American texts, including the U.S. Pharmacopoeia (1820-94), it was regarded as a substitute for savin but milder in character.' A summary published in 1847 stated that it is much less energetic [than savin]; and "though advantage may, as has been asserted, have accrued from its use in amenorrhoea, chronic rheumatism, and dropsy, it has not acquired the confidence of the profession generally. Externally applied it acts as an irritant." 5 Its use in the form of an ointment was noted. A question sometimes asked is whether American Indians employed red cedar in ways independent of colonists' influence. The "Legend of Winabojo and the Cedar Tree" perhaps suggests this, by reflecting a

Monographs

strong cultural role among certain Indians.6 Bass rationalizes use of red cedar for skin and other ailments on the basis of the alleged diaphoretic property. He also considers relevant a tonic action which is occasionally recorded for various Juniperus species. These properties additionally explain his reference to the value for colds and coughs. The reputation as a diuretic, not especially well established judging from the literature, also contributes to Bass's view that it is "good for rheumatism ... The juniper species discussed here all contain volatile oil; laboratory studies have demonstrated a diuretic action, which in J. communis is linked to the terpene compound terpinen-4-0J.7 Another noteworthy constituent in some species (e.g., J. virginiana and sabina) is podophyllotoxin. Juniper oil and fruits (mostly J. communis) are currently used by many people in the Appalachians and elsewhere, especially for kidney complaints, without knowledge of the reported injurious effects on the kidney.8 This (especially long-term usage) and employment for premenstrual tension, sometimes justified as a benefit of diuretic action, are hardly prudent in the light of the availabilty of less toxic products. The reputation for skin complaints has some association with skin irritation, while the reputed abortifacient property is linked to irritant action on the uterus. Bass says he has not heard of any medical uses for cedar apples. Certainly few references exist in the medical literature, but anthelmintic properties have been reported when given in a dose of from ten to twenty grains three times a day." Notes

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2. Gerard (1597. p. 1190); p. 1194 for savin.

3. Many writers also refer more specifically to abortifacient action for savin. References are sometimes circumspect in earlier writings. J. Hill (1751, p. 341) implied this when saying that it will promote the menses "more forcibly than safely if not under very careful management" and "forwards delivery." For other early references see Hatfield (1984). 4. Bigelow (1817-21, 3:52) said it was regarded

as a substitute for savin but milder in character. Bigelow also discussed its use as a salve. See also Clapp (1852. p. 876), who did not mention employment for coughs. Dispensatory of the United States (1883, p. 1254) failed to mention its use for coughs. 5. G. B. Wood and Bache (1847, pp. 413-414). See also Griffith (1847, p. 609) for references to use in rheumatism.

6. Winabojo was a mythical forefather of the Indians who wandered the earth before their time performing a variety of magical feats. Following his disappearance from the earth, he lived on an island toward the sunrise. In the legend a man's only daughter had died. The father felt he could not go on living without her and was told by the Grand Medicine Man that Winabojo was the only one who could direct him to the spirit land to retrieve his daughter. The father eventually found Winabojo, who was described in the legend as "too old to travel, and on his head was a beautiful cedar tree, whose roots were all around him." Winabojo supposedly wore the tree as an ornament because the cedar is so beautiful. The legend concludes with Winabojo helping the father to retrieve his daughter from the spirit land. See Densmore (1974, p. 386). For Indian uses see Vogel (1970. pp. 289-91). 7. Janku et al. (1957).

8. The herbalists include naturopathic physicians perhaps influenced by Eclectic practitioners. who often stressed its value for chronic kidney conditions in the elderly; e.g., Ellingwood (1915, p. 440). For review of concern over toxicity. see Chandler

1. The taxonomy of the genus Juniperus is com-

(1986).

plex. and there is debate about the number of species. Variation and hybridization may be relevant to medical properties. For background see M. F. Hall (1952).

9. E.g .. Wood and Bache (1847, p. 413).

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CELERY; SMALLAGE (fruits , root, tops)

The Herbalist's Account Now celery seed [fruit), or the old-time celery phosphate they used to sell in medicines, is real good. It was recommended for many things: as a tonic for stomach troubles and for nerves. Some recommend it for circulation . Bill Jones's wife can tell you. She always had cold feet and someone told her to take a teaspoon of celery seed, and now her feet are not cold at all. Warmed up her whole body. I've not used it, but I've told people they can make a tea from the seed they buy from the store. Of course everyone knows it's a tame plant, and the stems make a good salad . The leaves are said to be good in poultices, but I haven't tried them. Commentary Apium graveolens L. [syns. A. lusitanicum Mill.; Seseli graveolens Svopp. ; Sium apium Roth.]' including varieties: cultivated = celery; wild = smallage, water parsley, marsh parsley. Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) Medical interest in the Eurasian celery plant (rarely escaping cultivation in the United States) , has a long history, at least in its wild form, smallage. It has often been compared with parsley. As a "hot and dry" medicine, John Gerard (1597) noted that the juice of smallage is "good for many things, it clenseth, openeth , attenuateth, or maketh think; it remooveth obstructions, and provoketh urine.'" Seventeenth- and eighteenthcentury authors often spoke highly of smallage, both tops and roots. Of the latter, John Quincy (1719) wrote that it is one of the five opening roots. Deobstruent actions were noted: "It helps to attenuate and dislodge viscid humors, and suit them to pass off by urine and transpiration." 2 The popularity of celery apparently declined quickly, and neither wild nor culti-

Celery, Smallage

vated plants commanded much attention among nineteenth-century medical writers on regular or domestic medicine. Some interest-perhaps in part entrepreneurial -emerged toward the end of the century. Parke-Davis, for example, marketed preparations of celery seed in the 1890s and advertised it as "carminative, stimulant and slightly aperient. Used successfully, combined with guarana, in the treatment of sick-headache (migraine) and nervous irritability." 3 At times celery appeared to be a panacea . Potter's Cyclopaedia of Botanical Drugs and Preparations (1932), written for the public and practitioners, described the seeds as "carminative, diuretic, tonic and aphrodisiac. Used as a flavor and a tonic in combination with other drugs such as coca, kola, damiana, &c.'" Emerging from the enthusiasm was a recommendation for rheumatism. This is hardly mentioned in earlier literature, and whether a pharmacological basis exists is unclear. It is noteworthy that usage for rheumatism (if not sedative properties) remains the

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best-known (and promoted) property, often given an exaggerated historical pedigree.s Mr. Bass is not convinced of celery's reputation for rheumatism, though he accepts that "anything good for the nerves is good for rheumatism." Another facet of the past history that has not reached him is its reputed emmenagogue property; this (reported worldwide) is commonly associated with many umbelliferous fruits. It may be based largely on theoretical (deobstruent) grounds, and therefore caution must be exercised in accepting the concept. On the other hand, the positive reputation in Kuwait, Argentina, Brazil, the Philippines, India, and elsewhere at least suggests that careful study is merited. Bass first learned about celery because it was an ingredient in a number of over-thecounter medicines (often as "celery phosphate") in the late nineteenth and early years of this century. He has special confidence in celery because his father sold one of these preparations. Celery seeds contain volatile oil and a wide range of other constituents, including fixed oil, furocoumarin, and flavonoids. The volatile oil, which accounts for the reputation as a carminative and aromatic stimulantand perhaps diuretic-contains 60 percent d-limonene and other constituents, including phthalidesY Experimental studies indicate that the latter are sedative to mice. 7 Perhaps this accounts for the reputation as a sedative, although, like the reputation for rheumatism, it is not a strong one. Mannitol and phytosterol have been reported as other constituents and are implicated in antiinflammatory activity. This may be relevant to the "rheumatism" reputation, but the uncertainty of this (and the absence of detailed phytochemical knowledge) indicates that any such conclusions must be tentative." The effects of cultivation and differing varieties on constituents, and hence on the medical reputation, are also unclear. We found no explanation for why the root

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once was highly regarded as a laxative, a use unknown to Bass. Skin reactions from handling celery are considered to be due to exposure to the furocoumarin and subsequent exposure to sunlight. Notes 1. Gerard (1597, p. 862); see Hedrick (1919, pp. 55-57) for earlier references. For additional information, see Schery (1972, p. 512), Simmonds (1976, pp. 322-23). Vallisneria spiralis L.. some-

times called wild celery, is not to be confused with smallage. 2. Quincy (1719, p. 128). 3. Parke-Davis (1890, p. 48). Other companies

marketed it as well. 4. R. C. Wren (1932, p. 78). 5. Phillipson and Anderson (1984), British Herbal Pharmacopoeia (1983, p. 29), D. A. Lewis et al. (1985).

6. For list of constituents of oil, see Simon et al. (1984, p. 20], Duke (1985, pp. 45-46), and Phillipson and Anderson (1984). 7. Bjeldanes and Kim (1977). 8. D. A. Lewis et al. (1985).

CHAMOMILE (flowers)

The Herbalist's Account It looks like an aster, a little aster, like fleabane. All them little asters is medicine. I've often recommended it, but never used it in any medicine. It doesn't grow around me, but I sell tablets that's already made up. Chamomile makes an awful good tea. It seems that people drink it like regular tea. It's good for the stomach; it settles it. Chamomile gives you strength and appetite, and it's a good all-round tonic. It's good for colds and flu. Some old-timers say it's good for the nerves, but I can't back it up.

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Commentary Chamaemelum nobile (1.) All. [syn. Anthemis nobilis 1.): Roman cammomill. common cammomiIl, chamomile. camomile. Matricaria recutita 1. * . including varieties [syn. Matricaria chamomilIa aut.): chamomile. German chamomile. Asteraceae (Compositae) Chamomile is not collected by Mr. Bass. but in response to many requests he has long sold chamomile tablets. He knows that two different types of chamomile-each cultivated and wild-exist. In Europe and the United States German chamomile is generally employed, but Bass, like other herbalists, believes that Roman chamomile is stronger1 John Gerard (1597) described various kinds of chamomile-a plant which had been listed earlier as one of the important medicinal plants of the Elizabethan garden-as hot and dry in the first degree. No differences among the chamomiles were noted in Gerard's description of such deobstruent or thinning actions as "good against collick and stone." and "provoketh urine.'" Like many authors. he singled out the oil of chamomile as useful for aches, pains, bruises, etc. By the eighteenth century, chamomile. like most bitter or bitterish substances, was recommended primarily for stomach complaints and as a cheap substitute for cinchona bark, which was then often expensive and used for fevers. But much of chamomile's popularity rested on its use as a tea for supportive therapy in the sickroom. 3 Some of the usage rested on a growing reputation as a "tonic." Nevertheless, its popularity. at least in Britain, apparently declined in the nineteenth century. In 1882 it was said that "chamomile has usually been considered a substance of no special therapeutic interest, being principally used by country people in the form of infusion as a remedy for dyspepsia." 4 No clear evidence suggests that chamo-

mile remained any more popular in America, although it was widely mentioned. S. Stearns included it in his 1801 American Herbal but indicated that, although cultivated in gardens. it "rarely comes to maturity in the northern climates, unless it is raised in hot beds." Bigelow in 1822 wrote that. on account of its great consumption in England, it "would reward cultivation on a large scale in the United States.'" Capron and Slack (1848). who listed its value as a bitter and tonic for stomach complaints and in chronic diarrhea, also said "it is much used in nervous diseases and the complaints of women." The latter use may have reflected employment by botanic practitioners.6 Later authors like Johnson (1884) and Griffin (1896) indicated only its value as a tonic, stimulant, and diaphoretic. and for employment in digestive disorders and feverish conditions. 7 Chamomile has been widely used as a domestic remedy and as a vehicle for other medicines, but Lloyd (1921). a careful observer of the medical botany scene. suggested only some ethnic interest: "It has been so long in domestic use as to have made it familiar to all German housewives. and considerable demand has been created for it in sections of America where Germans have settled."8 This was probably Matricaria. which, according to Bolles (1886). "is seldom employed in this country excepting among the German or other European immigrants."9 Twentieth-century regular medicine textbooks continued to ascribe medicinal properties to chamomile (both types). but clearly it remained primarily a domestic medicine. In summary. much of the story of chamomile is one of moderate use as a mild tonic and for dyspepsia. uses still noted by Bass. 10 The occasional reference to its use for female complaints is not well established in the Western medical literature, nor is its reputation for rheumatism, although the diaphoretic action was considered helpful. Al ternative herbs were noted from time to time.

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Griffith, for instance, indicated that Achillea millefolium (see Yarrow) was just as efficient, but that its extremely disagreeable taste would "always prevent it coming into general use." 11 Bass has sold many tablets of chamomile in the past ten years. The growing popularity he mentions does not match recent European enthusiasm, said to be akin to the Chinese enthusiasm for ginseng.!2 Chemical investigations justify some of chamomile's past reputations, just as the complexity of the constituents and variations between the two species also suggest some reasons for disagreements over the value of chamomile. Most study has been undertaken on M. recutita, particularly attention to constituents in the volatile oil; for example, terpenoid chamazulene and bisabol compounds, which vary in concentration according to the variety." These are considered to account (with flavone glycosides) for anti-inflammatory-used either internally or externally-and antispasmodic action. The latter probably accounts for its use in dyspepsia. Fewer investigations have been conducted on Chamaemelum nobile, but they reveal many constituents in common with Matricaria; for instance, chamazulene, a bisabol compound, and some flavonoids. 14 Certain features are noteworthy, including that chamazulene-the best-known constituentis an artifact formed during the preparation of extracts, that certain bisabol compounds are more active than others, and that spasmolytic activity is also associated with flavone glycosides. Hence various factors involved in preparing medicines (e.g., alcohol or water) can determine clinical effectiveness. Some standardized preparations are available. Chamomile's reputation as a mild sedative is not a strong one and might, in part, be associated with the antispasmodic activity or the weak reputation for female complaints, specifically as an emmenagogue.!S In connec-

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tion with the latter, while at least one recent paper indicates an action on the uterus, the clinical relevance is unclear, if onl y because of issues of dosage. 1s Bass has not heard of chamomile's reputation for "female problems." Despite the reported pharmacological effects, the possibility exists that this reputation may have emerged in part from the theory of deobstruent action associated with Galenic "hot and dry" properties. Bass also believes that tonics can help regulate menstrual periods. The concept of tonic action on the heart prompted an interesting scientific study to determine whether any cardiac action could be demonstrated. Results were negative.!? Present-day recommendations for using chamomile for the nerves are not backed by a strong historical record, and Bass again suggests this reputation is due to the tonic action. While chamomile tea is considered a safe herbal remedy, at least one report has described a patient who developed a severe reaction within twenty minutes of taking a cup of chamomile tea together with two aspirin tablets (no prior history was found of adverse reactions to aspirin).18 Other allergic responses have been reported.!9 Suggestions have been made that the antispasmodic action may reduce the absorption of prescription drugs. Additional problems arising from time to time in assessing the clinical value of chamomile are due to adulteration with, for instance, Anthemis cotula and other species, including Chamomile suaveolens, Chrysanthemum leucanthemum, and Matricaria perforata.'o A frequent comment about chamomile -but applied to many other herbs-is that the constituents are present in insufficient amounts to account for pharmacological actions. Certainly, aqueous extracts are probably weaker than the alcoholic ones on which most studies have been done. However, many herbalists suggest that the effects of many

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herbal remedies occur only after they have been taken for a long time; in other words, a cumulative effect is needed. Clearly, demonstrating long-term effects is not easy.2I Notes

diuretic persisted in regular texts until the end of the nineteenth century (Bolles. in Buck. 1886-93. p.57).

11. Griffith (1847. p. 402). Tyler (1982, p. 66) still discusses chamomiles and yarrow together. 12. Tyler (1982. p. 67). For other comments on current usage, see Isaac and Kristen (1980).

1. The cultivated double variety of Chamaemelum nobile is commonly used in Britain and is considered superior to Matricaria. Other plants have also been used as chamomile. at least within the framework of domestic medicine: dog fennel (Anthemis cotula) has been called German chamomile. and pyrethrum or pellitory. the Spanish chamomile. Rafinesque (1828-30.1:44) described Anthemis cotula (with vernacular names mayweed. dog'sfennel. dilly-dilweed. fieldweed; see Dog Fennel) as wild chamomile. indicating it was a substitute for Matricaria recutita. Rafinesque said it was the same but weaker and less pleasant to the taste. His long list of uses suggested a reputation as a panacea. Lloyd (1921. p. 213) reported that "recently (1917) the flowers of the common 'dog fennel' have appeared under the name 'German chamomile.' " Other plants have been sold in recent times as "chamomile"; e.g .• species of Aplopappus noted in Huxtable (1983). Adulteration with feverfew has been recorded; see "Feverfew." Lawrence Rev. Nat. Prod. 4 (1983): 3.

13. Reviewed in detail in Mann and Staba (1986). A list of constituents is given in Duke (1985, p. 298). See also "The Chamomiles," Lawrence Rev. Nat. Prod. 4 (1983): 1-2. Also Garbo, "Antiinflammatory Substances of Plant Origin" (in Vane and Ferreira, 1979, pp. 698-739), Jakovlev et al. (1979). Forster et al. (1980), Tubaro et al. (1984).

2. Gerard (1597. p. 616). Moore (1569. f. xxxv).

20. Mann and Staba (1986, pp. 235-80).

3. Cf. Motherby (1785). under chamomile; for one

21. Farnsworth and Morgan (1972).

14. Duke (1985, p. 111) gives a list of constituents, although it is possible that confusion has arisen between Chamaemelum and Matricaria; but see Mann and Staba (1986). 15. Not mentioned in the regular medical literature; but see, for instance, Appelt (1985). Mann and Staba (1986) noted that the suggestion that tryptophan accounts for the sedative action has not been validated. 16. Schipochliev (1981). 17. Gould et al. (1973). 18. Dukes (1984, p. 892). 19. Casterline (1980).

of many references to use as an invalid tea: Hanbury (1828. pp. 379-80). 4. Farquharson and Woodbury (1882. p. 149). A good indication of spread of information within self-treatment is in countless nineteenth-century "companions" to home medicine chests; e.g .. Cox's Companion. 5. Stearns (1801. p. 89). Bigelow (1822. p. 70). 6. Capron and Slack (1848. p. 123). 7. L. Johnson (1884. p. 181). Griffin (in Foster. 1896. 1:230-31). 8. Lloyd (1921. p. 213). 9. Buck (1886-93.2:58). 10. The usually skeptical Laurence Johnson (1884) indicated its value as a mild stimulant and tonic. It should perhaps be added that its reputation as a

CHAPARRAL (leaves) The Herbalist's Account I don't know about the creosote bush. It doesn't grow around here. Folks used to ask me about it, and they've told me a tea is good for colds. It's one on the up-it's called chaparral in the health food stores; folks reckon it's a tonic. Commentary Larrea tridentata (DC.) Coville. and other species [syn. L. divaricata sensu auct. non Cav.l: creosote bush, chaparral.

Zygophyllaceae

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Mr. Bass first heard of the creosote bush, or chaparral, through Alabama popular beliefs for treating colds, even though the plant is common only in the arid regions ofthe southwestern United States, Mexico, and South America.' In fact, until recently it was medically popular only in the Southwest, where it acquired some general reputation during the second half of the nineteenth century. Published accounts indicate it became something of a panacea as a tonic, expectorant, emetic, and diuretic, and was used to treat colds, rheumatism, and venereal disease. 2 Just how much of this reputation was due to Indian usage is not entirely clear. Credit for bringing chaparral to the attention of the medical profession is generally given to J. M. Bigelow, a surgeon of the United States-Mexico Boundary Commission. He announced in 1848 that preparations of the leaves and branches were useful for rheumatism when applied externally and for venereal disease when taken internally.3 In recent years widespread medical interest in chaparral has emerged because of reports of antitumor properties, and it has again become a veritable panacea to some.4 In particular, a single case history of a malignant melanoma on the cheek of an eighty-fiveyear-old man has encouraged much interest. 5 However, studies on the alleged active constituents-nordihydroguaiaretic acid and related lignans-have not demonstrated any in vivo clinical value, although much general interest has been aroused by the antioxidant properties of nordihydroguaiaretic acid. 6 Any detailed evaluation of clinical value may need to consider such issues as hybridization among Larrea species and the role of other, more commonplace, constituents such as flavonoids and saponins. Contact dermatitis from chaparral has been reported, and nordihydroguaiaretic acid is known to induce mesenteric lymph node and renal lesions in rats. More recently, reports of toxic hepatitis have caused much concern.

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Despite warnings against the use of chaparral, the enthusiasm of many people is hardly dampened. This goes beyond its reputation for cancer and as a tonic-for which countless herbs are better known-and it seems that for some the herb carries some pedigree as an exotic from the desert. Notes 1. R. B. Browne (1958, p. 49). For general background, see Mabry et al. (1977).

2. Few references, if any, exist in standard medical texts. For outline of medical uses see Duisberg (1952). For recent reviews, with documentation, see "Chaparral," Lawrence Rev. Nat. Prod. 5 (1984): 29-30, and Tyler (1982, p. 69).

3. Vogel (1970, pp. 296-97). 4. Winkleman (1986). 5. Smart et al. (1969). References to other clinical papers can be found in "Chaparral." (n. 2, above). 6. Smart et al. (1970). An earlier paper. C. W. Waller and Gisvold (1945), contains some useful information 011 nordihydroguaiaretic acid. See Gisvold and Thaker (1974).

CHERRY, WILD (bark, fruit)

The Herbalist's Account It's a medicine from way back yonder. We can't praise it high enough-from over a number of years, myself and other people's experience. It is something every home should have. If they don't make it up into tea, they ought to have it laying around where they can get ahold of it. It's wonderfulno joke. The bark makes the finest cough syrup, but even better when mixed with mullein and boneset. My dealers carry my cough medicine that has wild cherry, mullein, yellow-root, redshank, sweet gum bark, rabbit-tobacco, sumac leaves, honey, sugar, and sometimes oil. Wild cherry is also wonderful for fevers, yellow jaundice, cirrhosis of

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the liver, or hepatitis. And it is good for the heart. I use wild cherry with blueberry, redroot, and yellowroot for blood pressue and for sugar condition. I've recommended it to many people. I know it saved a little girl's life. Her aunt told me the little girl has said: "That man saved my life." She was eleven or twelve years old when she had hepatitis. It didn 't take much over six weeks with the wild cherry. The wood makes the finest furniture. It used to be used for coffins and gun stocks. Commentary Prunus serafina Erhart', including varieties : wild cherry, black cherry. P. virginiana L. , including varieties: wild cherry, choke cherry.

Rosaceae Wild cherry, sometimes confused with choke cherry (P. virginiana). is a widely distributed indigenous tree. Apart from many uses for the fruits, the bark has undoubtedly been one of the most popular indigenous remedies. "No more popular bark of a native tree, excepting sassafras, is known to home medication." 1 In addition, it was popular with many regular physicians . The bark-sometimes P. virginiana-was mentioned by most early writers on American materia medica.2 It was included in the first U.S. Pharmacopoeia, and, unlike some indigenous remedies, there was a consensus regarding its role: "wild cherry is doubtless a valuable medicine" frequently prescribed for "hectic fever and debilitated states of the system, with a frequent pulse."3 Within a few years Robert Bentley was urging an extended trial in British medicine.' Many later writers described it-seemingly contradictorily-as either a tonic or a sedative tonic ; but the latter was meant to improve health and tone through calming anxiety. Laurence Johnson (1884). a critical writer on the materia medica, was positive

Wild Cherry (Prunus seratina)

about it and indicated that it was widely employed in cough syrups for tuberculosis. s In fact, it had become best known for respiratory ailments, although textbooks indicated it was something of a panacea, as is still reflected in Mr. Bass's remarks. It continued to be sold widely up to the 1940s, mostly in over-the-counter cough medicines .6 No published support has been found for Bass's belief-firmly held on the basis of experiences from at least three cases-that the wild cherry bark is of value for such liver problems as cirrhosis. As we discussed in volume 1, Bass has only a few specific recommendations for cirrhosis. Wild cherry'S reputation for chest conditions is often linked to the cyanogenic glycoside prunasin, which is broken down by a plant enzyme, prunase, to hydrocyanic acid and benzaldehyde. In fact, activity is cred-

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ited to the hydrocyanic acid. Use in cough medicines was often rationalized on the basis of hydrocyanic acid's "sedative influence on the circulatory and nervous systems" but, as noted in the discussion on Bass's cough medicines in volume 1, the hydrocyanic acid may be lost during preparation? Furthermore, apart from the possibility of varietal variation, it is generally recognized that for greatest activity the bark should be collected in the autumn. Other constituents may also contribute to the plant's reputation; certainly the astringent properties, due to tannins, can be helpful for sore throats and such. The choke cherry has been recommended for similar uses,8 but it never lived up to the hopes of Benjamin Smith Barton, who wrote in 1804 that as "a durable tonic, there is little to doubt, independently on actual observations, that it is deserving of attention in intermittent fevers." 9 If no chemical evidence exists to justify the reputation of wild cherry, the story of the herb is all the more striking because of the strong testimonials for its efficacy for coughs, at least from the second half of the nineteenth century. Notes 1. Lloyd (1921. p. 257); K. L. Brooks (1979, pt. 4

[2]. pp. 101-5) outlines the economic history. 2. Lloyd (1921). 3. Clapp (1852. p. 764). 4. R. Bentley (1863-64). 5. L. Johnson (1884, p. 137); also Farquharson and Woodbury (1882, p. 394). 6. Fuller (1920. p. 341). 7. Griffith (1847. p. 288), who nevertheless did not apply the reasoning specifically to cough medicine. For sedative action on coughs. F. P. Foster (1897, 2:105). 8. Brooks (1979, pp. 105-9). 9. B. S. Barton (1804, pt. 2. p. 21).

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CHESTNUT (leaves, fruit, root) The Herbalist's Account I can't use chestnut because the blight got it around 1925; it killed all the chestnut trees. A few are mainly in the mountains and there are still some of those big logs around from when the blight got them. They decay very slow. Some sprout from roots, but they don't last long. It's not here anymore, just a few scattered around. Oh boy, the nuts was eating out of this world. We just had bushels of them when we was kids. I used to climb the tree, and my brothers and sisters would be underneath to collect them. I used to sell chestnuts to drivers when they was building a road. I had a sack of them on one shoulder and a sack of peanuts on the other. They could carryon working without stopping. We lost one of the most valuable nuts in America. It made me cry to see them go. The leaves were used in cough medicines; they're astringent and safe. They are highly recommended too for what they used to call dropsy, they call it "fluid" now. It would sometimes bust you, they didn't have a way of draining it. The first corpse that I ever seen going out in a hearse, the woman suffered so bad that her limbs had just busted open and you could see the bone. We don't have the small chestnut, with small, roundish nuts, or chinquapin around here. It went out with the chestnut. You could use it for the same, for coughs and dropsy. Commentary Castanea sativa Mill. [syns. C. vulgaris Lam.; C. vesca Willd.): sweet chestnut, Spanish vesca. C. pumila (L.) Mill., and varieties: chinquapin, small chestnut. C. dentata (Marsh.) Borkh., including varieties [syns. Fagus castanea sensu Wagenheim; Fagus-castanea dentata Marsh.; Castanea americana Michx.; C. americana Raf.): chestnut, American chestnut.

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Fagaceae When John Gerard (1597) wrote about "chestnuts," he considered both Castanea and the horse chestnut (see Buckeyes), and indicated that uses for the astringent, "dry and binding" properties included cough and diarrhea. Johnson, in his revision of the Herball (1633). added an "American chestnut," probably a species of Bertolletia, not Castanea.! Gerard's account apparently did not reflect widespread enthusiasm for chestnuts . Certainly they attracted little interest in the eighteenth century; in fact, in 1719 John Quincy said that "chestnuts" were not used medicinally as much as for food. 2 Although claims were subsequently made for febrifuge activity, British author B. Parr reported in 1819 that only the coat between the kernel and shell was astringent. "The kernal is indigestible and supposed to be astringent, but if roasted and mixed with honey it is commended for coughs and spitting of blood.'" In America threads of interest existed from colonial times to the present but never generated medical enthusiasm for chestnuts.· S. Stearns mentioned the "scarlet flowered chestnut" (he called it Fagus aesculus) and gave the same information as Parr (above).5 C. pumila (chinquapin) was included in the secondary list of the first U.S. Pharmacopoeia (1820) because its bark was viewed as tonic and astringent and was used in intermittent fevers, but before long (1847) it was described as without "peculiar virtues to recommend it."6 Some confidence was aroused among botanic if not regular physicians. W. J. Batts, for instance, in North Carolina during the 1880s, compounded the root in his recipe for an "Indian Remedy for Seated Pains." 7 When this was discussed with Bass, he justified it on the basis of the astringency. Throughout the nineteenth century some American authors continued to describe the European Castanea sativa (planted, but not escaping cultivation), although in most cases

they were probably referring to C. dentata, which was well known during the second half of the century. In 1884 Laurence Johnson expressed the opinion of many when he said that "there is much doubt regarding the medicinal activity of chestnut leaves. Introduced as a remedy for whooping cough, the drug was considerably lauded for a time, but its slight popularity seems already waning."8 Even most Eclectic physicians were unenthusiastic. On the other hand, Shoemaker (1893). when summarizing the properties of C. dentata, gave an appropriate reminder that reputations were sometimes linked to the type of medical preparation used : "A recent infusion has been employed with success in whooping cough and might be used for diarrhoea, but for the latter purpose the fluid extract would be better."9 In 1919 the Eli Lilly company was still promoting an extract of Castanea dentata leaves as tonic, astringent, and antispasmodic. JO No reference has been found for treating dropsy as mentioned by Bass. Chinquapin, small chestnut

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While the American chestnut is occasionally mentioned in twentieth-century European literature, discussions generally focus on the leaves of C. sativa, whose value for chest complaints is stilliisted,u This, not clinically proven, is associated with its saponins, which are not well characterized, Bass does not use the American chestnut because the blight virtually wiped it out during the early decades of the twentieth century.» While medical interest was never high, nostalgia, as evidenced by Bass's remarks, still exists in the Appalachians, largely because of its once-widespread economic importance and the fame of the edibility of the kernels, Chinquapin kernels are less renowned but not unpopular,

Notes 1.

Gerard (1597, pp. 1253-54).

2. Quincy (1719, p. 114).

3. Parr (1819, vol. 1), under "Costanea." For earlier

claims to febrifuge activity, see the review article in Med. Comm. 17 (1792): 125-30. 4. References in the colonial literature generally

leave doubt as to which chestnut is under consideration. Josselyn (1672, p. 184) gives the impression that he was describing the European tree, but since he said that the Indians sold the chestnuts to the "English for twelve pence the bushel," an indige· nous species was apparently being noted, possibly C. dentata. Whether or not John Brickell was refer· ring to this or to the chinquapin when he remarked in 1737 that an indigenous chestnut has "much the same virtues with those of the [sweetl chestnut, but more binding and are excellent to stop fluxes," is uncertain, but he probably was because he referred to chinquapin elsewhere (pp. 69-70: p, 75 for "chickapin," "a kind of chestnut"). 5, Stearns (1801, p. 103), Stearns also mentioned dwarf chestnut ("Fagus castanea") as the "smallest kind of chestnut" (p. 102) but gave no properties. 6. G. B. Wood and Bache (1847, p. 189). 7. Batts MS. 8. L. Johnson (1884, p. 250).

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9, Shoemaker (1893, 2:520-21). 10, Lilly (1919, p. 55), 11. British Herbal Pharmacopoeia (pp. 52-53). 12. Various accounts discuss the demise: e.g., Hepting (1974)' "Memories of the American Chestnut" (Foxfire 6, 1980, pp. 397-421). The blight, due to Endothia parasitica, was first recognized in 1904. By 1937 it was estimated that as many as 99 percent of the chestnut trees in the United States had been killed: see Scoggan (1978-79, p, 597).

CHICKWEEDS (whole tops) The Herbalist's Account We have several varieties of chickweed. The common form is what lots of folks look over, and we all get mad at it in the garden. It grows flat on the ground and doesn't seem to have a root system. It stays green, It can be gathered most of the winter, It's as fine a medicine as you can have around the house. It's official medicine, too, I used to sell it to Dr. Sanders. I guess that's when I first learned about it-twenty years ago. We can highly recommend it for reducing. It takes off weight; kills calories, Other reducing herbs are goosegrass and Queen Anne's lace, U's also good for ulcerated starn· achs and for the kidney, too. The Indians claimed it would cure cancers of the stomach. To make a tea, boil it in a gallon of water for twenty to twenty-five minutes, Strain it and sweeten in any way you want. Drink one to three cups a day, or drink more for faster weight loss. It makes you feel good. It's a good vegetable, too. It's got a world of iron and minerals, Just cut it up with onion and lettuce, and put the hot grease over it. It's real eating. Watercress put with it makes it even better. You got many different flavors there, you see. You can also beat it in the blender with orange juice or tomato juice. Folks say Indian chickweed is stronger, but I reckon it's much the same as the common

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chickweed. There's a giant chickweed, but we don't have much of it around here. It acts about the same as the others. Commentary Stellnrin me din (L.) Cyrillo* [syns. Alsine medin L.; Spergulnria medin Pres!.): chickweed, alsine, common chickweed. S. pubera Michx.: star chickweed, giant chickweed. Caryophy llaceae Mollugo verticillata L. *: Indian chickweed, carpetweed.

Aizoaceae Of the various chickweeds, the common Stellarin medin (naturalized from Europe) is most often considered in the medicalliterature. Chickweed was noted in volume 1 as an example of a plant whose medical reputation declined during the eighteenth century, partly because of its lack of sensory properties. Chickweed was probably never very popular, even within domestic medicine, where it was well known. Bullein's Bulwnrke of Defense Agninst All Sickness (1579) remarked: "Almost every ignoraunt woman doth know this herb .... Very good to keep wounds and draw corruptions.'" John Gerard's more influential herbal (1597) described a number of "chickweedes" (including S. medin). No differences between them were noted, and they were described as some of the relatively few "colde and moist" plants with the property of cooling "without astriction or binding.'" Gerard focused on the use of chickweed in poultices (compounded with such other ingredients as linseed and marshmallows). Interestingly, he noted the use of hog grease as a basis for a poultice, also a favorite item with Mr. Bass for applying to the skin. Seventeenth- and early-eighteenth-century writers generally followed Gerard; they did not mention weight reduction, Bass's princi-

pal use. 3 By 1751. however, John Hill was at least indicating a diuretic action: "Common chickweed has the credit of being cooling and diuretik, but little notice is taken of it. Outwardly it is cooling, but neither way demands much notice." Cullen's unenthusiastic comments a short while later also suggested limited use.' That chickweed was rarely considered in nineteenth-century American literature reflected its lack of popularity.s Its nutritive value was sometimes noted; F. P. Porcher, in his celebrated Resources of the Southern Fields and Forests (1863) said it "is greedily devoured by hogs. and is said to be nutritive, and suitable for being boiled and eaten in the manner of spinach." 6 He did indicate a bloodcleansing property (perhaps still linked to the concept of cooling action): "It has the reputation, when boiled in vinegar and salt, of possessing virtue to cleanse eruptions of the hands and limbs." At least some market existed during the nineteenth century. In the 1860s and 1870s three Shaker communities included it in their herb catalogs, noting its use in poultices for ulcers and its value for ophthalmia, erysipelas, and cutaneous diseases. By the 1890s Parke-Davis was also selling Stellaria media "compressed in one ounce packages for retailing purposes," and describing it similarly as demulcent and emollient to be used externally in the form of a poultice for ophthalmia, bruises, inflammations. and so on.' Threads of interest have persisted in this century, sustained largely by domestic medicine literature. Dr. Goodenough's Home Cures nnd Herbal Remedies (e.g., 1907) called it Cerastium vulgatum and listed it primarily for external preparations, while a small herbal published in 1917 considered both Stellaria media and Mollugo verticillata, giving slightly different properties for each." Stellaria was noted as an excellent blood purifier and a poultice for "old and indolent ulcers" and other skin ailments. Only the

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Indian chickweed, Mollugo, was noted as "an excellent and harmless remedy for superfluous flesh," a reference to the presumed slimming action. It is noteworthy that chickweed has become very popular in the last few years, mostly as a "nutrition supplement." Certainly it can be made into an attrar:tive vegetable dish or soup, but some modern herbalists bolster the reputation unduly by implying that it had a panacea reputation in the past. There is no clinical basis for employing it for lowering cholesterol, which appears to rest on an extension of the notion that it is a blood purifier. Solid dinical evidence confirming diuretic action-a long-standing reputation known to Bass-is also lacking. Nevertheless, in the light of past reputations -at least of Indian chickweed-and the strong testimony from many of Bass's visitors, some investigation is merited, at least to see if there are differences between the two chickweeds. Bass uses mostly Stellaria. It appears that he employs Mollugo to stretch the collecting season, since Stellaria does not survive the heat of the summer. While there is no scientific basis for Bass's comment that all the chickweeds act the same, he is following earlier judgments. Unfortunately, neither Stellaria nor Mollugo has been well investigated. Phylloquinone and a protein virus inhibitor," as well as vitamin C and mineral salts, have been reported in Stellario media.Hl Notes 1.

Bullein (1579, p. 3).

Gerard (1597, pp. 487-91). Gerard's chickweeds (including Stellaria medica), from a number of genera, provide a good example of plants brought together primarily on morphological grounds. 2.

3. 4.

E.g., J. Miller (1722, p. 27). J. Hill (1751. p. 182), Cullen (1775, p.

231).

Stearns (1801, p. 103) indicated that it was cooling, but "little used in medicine." 5.

6.

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Porcher (1863, p. 136).

For Shakers, A. B. Miller (1976, p. 152); ParkeDavis, (1890, p. 51). So far as we can tell, Eclectic practitioners and authors did little to promote interest. 7.

8. Goodenough (1907. p. 556), Health from Field and Forest (p. 19).

O. Jansson (1974). It is interesting that Asian uses-e.g., as galactogogue and emmenagogue -imply more physiological action than Western medical traditions. See L. M. Perry (1980, p. 74). 9.

10. Bogojevski and Mickovic (1962), G. G. Tsotsoriyo (1977).

CHICORY (root, stems, leaves) The Herbalist's Account It's been used ever since time in the old homes. Folks cooked the stems like asparagus, and the leaves like dandelion, or you can eat them in salads. Chicory root has been used to adulterate coffee; it cuts down the caffeine. I've recommended the stems for sick stomachs and for kidney conditions. It's a good tonic. Commentary Cichorium intybus L.*: succorie (succory), cieoreo, chicory. Asteraceae (Compositae) Gerard (1597) described various plants as chicory (including garden and wild succorie) and their properties as cold and dry and somewhat "binding and because [chicory] be something bitter they do also clense and open." A wide range of uses was given for chicory, which was recommended as a medicinal plant for Elizabethan gardens: "to coole the hot burning of the liver, to helpe the stopping of the gall, yellow jaundice.'>! Seventeenth-century authors occasionally mentioned it (mostly the roots) as a cooling ingredient in plasters and poultices, but perhaps it was more often used as an alternative to dandelion. 2

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Interest in chicory was sustained for a while on both sides of the Atlantic and elsewhere.3 British author William Lewis (1769) discussed it favorably, particularly on account of the roots and leaves of wild chicory being "very useful aperients," though it was probably used more in cooling diet drinks.' In colonial Pennsylvania, where the plant was naturalized , Christopher Sauer described chicory in his almanac and reminded readers of the strength or weakness of plants according to growing conditions: "The succory or chicory is of two kinds: the field or wild chicory is stronger as a medicine, while the garden chicory serves better in the kitchen because through cultivation it loses its inherent bitterness and becomes milder." 5 Relatively few references to chicory appeared in the nineteenth-century AngloAmerican medical literature, either regular or botanic/domestic. In 1884 Laurence Johnson wrote that Cichorium intybus is "said to increase the appetite and aid digestion. Though formerly used medicinally, it is of importance now merely as an adulterant of coffee."" Mr. Bass similarly indicates its value for sick stomachs, or at least as an aid to indigestion, though he refers to the stems, not the roots. Constituents of the root include inulin, flavonoids, catechol tannins, glycosides, sterols or triterpenoids , saponins , lactucin, and lactucopicrin.' Differences in constituents exist between root and aerial parts. Some herbal literature argues that antimicrobial activity demonstrated in the laboratory may account for usage in liver and gall bladder complaints,8 but there is no more evidence for this view than for the long-standing suggestion that it is the reputation for bitterness that is at play. Consideration in interpreting past uses must also take into account the value placed on the milky juice. Whether or not it is relevant to the weak reputation for female com-

plaints is not known. 9 The reputation as a tonic (known to Bass) is justified on the presence of bitter principles and on analogy to dandelion.lO On the other hand, a slowing action on the heart has been shown in laboratory animal studies. Slowing of the heart has been assumed to be sedative in the past, but it is unclear whether this has been observed in humans. The doubtful role of inulin as a diuretic is considered elsewhere, and the justification for chicory's reputation as a diuretic is unclear. Undoubtedly more pharmacological studies on chicory are merited. One difficulty in tracing the EuropeanAmerican story of chicory is caused by regional differences in the use of the vernacular name chicory. For instance, in America (more so than in Britain) the name is sometimes applied to Cichorium endiva L. (endives) as much as to C. intybus. Notes 1. Gerard (1597, p. 222). P. Moore (1564, f. 31).

2. E.g. , A. Read (1635, p. 39). 3. For background to European story and usage of pharmaceutical jars, which underscore the popu-

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larity of the plant, see Wittop Koning and Leroux (1972). 4. W. Lewis [1769, 1:292).

5. Translation of quotation in C. M. M. Wells [1980, p. 261). Differences between wild and cul-

tivated chicory have been noted by many authors. Probably introduced into America by Governor Winthrop; see Leighton [1970, p. 190), which contains Robert Hill's bill for seeds ordered by John Winthrop, Jr., 26 July 1631. 6. L. Johnson [1884, p. 186). 7. Balbaa et.a!. (1973). 8. Vuilleumier (1973). 9. Hatfield [1984, p. 90) notes "frequent men-

tion for various female conditions in eighteenthcentury [Scottish] manuscripts."No published sources have been found. 10. According to Wittop Koning and Leroux (1972), twentieth-century studies indicate a stimulant activity, but this has not been carefully assessed.

CHINABERRY (bark of root or trunk, leaves) The Herbalist's Account It's a folk remedy. It's highly recommended for worms. I still have people ask me about it. It makes a good fish bait. The fish get dizzy. I haven't used the chinnaberry myself. Old Doc Nelson, he made an eyewash, a weak tea, out of the bark or leaves, either one. He sold it by the gallon. It's a good idea to add a little boric acid. People who used it said it beat anything they got in the drugstore for making your eyes feel good. The bark is bitter and tonic, but I prefer other tonics. You can use chinnaberry for earache. Fry in grease and put a drop in the ear. Commentary Melia azedarach L. * (syn. M. toosendam Sieb. and Zucc.): pride of India, pride of China, chinaberry, azedarach, chinnaberry (local name).

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The name pride of India for this naturalized plant reflects its Asian origin.! In the southern United States the tree became popular both for its shade and its use as an anthelmintic; it is not known whether its longstanding Old World reputation for treating many problems, including worms, encouraged its general planting in the New World, but it is unlikely. In 1798 Benjamin Smith Barton described the·root bark as an "excellent anthelmintic" employed in South Carolina. 2 Later, in 1847, R. E. Griffith wrote of reputed tonic properties, almost certainly on the basis of the sweetish-bitter taste of the bark. 3 However, any real popularity was eclipsed by concern over toxic effects. In 1885 W. P. Bolles wrote that in deference to a slight reputation in the southern states, "it has been admitted to the Pharmacol}oeia, but was now, except in contemporary country medicine, entirely obsolete and not to be found in any market North and South.'" Nevertheless, some standard medical books continued to note its use, "chiefly in domestic practice," for roundworms.' Bass knows well this reputation and has been asked for chinaberry many times, as recently as 1982 by an Atlanta mother for her child. However, he considers pinkroot a better worm medicine (see monograph) and extolls the value of chinaberry (including the leaves) for an eyewash. This reputation seems to have come entirely from Doc Nelson; at least no published references within either regular medicine or the popular domestic medicine tradition have been found. It reportedly has been used for skin rashes, but not in the United States. Worldwide, all parts of the plant have recorded uses, often for such nonmedical purposes as fish poison and insecticide.6 References to febrifuge activity do not reflect a consistent reputation. Some uncertainty exists over the pharmacological role of the toxic principles. In recent years triterpenoids, steroids, and aro-

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matic compounds have been reported and, from M. azedarach var. australasica, toxic tetraterpenoids in the fruit.' Whether or not these account for the anthelmintic action of the root bark is uncertain; studies are needed on other constituents and properties, including the alleged anti-inflammatory action and the role of the sterols present. Much debate exists about the poisonous nature of the fruits. Variations in toxicity exist, but certainly caution is appropriate, especially if chinaberry is eaten by children. Notes

For comments on distribution. see Oelrichs et al. (1983). The tree is not to be confused with the Indian azadirach. Azadirachte indica A. Juss. (syn. Melia azadirachte L.), which long has been known as a tonic. insecticide. and treatment for skin diseases and is attracting current research efforts; e.g .. Nat et al. (1987). 1.

2. B. S. Barton (1798. p. 42). Later (1801 edition. pp. 61-62), he added personal testimony: "When I published the first edition of my Collections. I had not any experience in the use of this vegetable. Since that period. however. I have used it in several cases of worms and always with advantage. Indeed. I am inclined to think that the character of this new anthelmintic has not been too highly drawn." 3. Griffith (1847. p. 179). 4. Buck (1886-93. 1:457). See also Porcher (1863. p. 106), and Shoemaker (1893. 2:464) for references to use in the South. 5. Solis-Cohen and Githens (1928, p. 456). 6. "The Meliaceous Twins." Pharm. f. 285 (1985): 68. for some general comments; J. F. Morton (1981. p.403). 7. K. E. Schulte et al. (1979), Oelrichs et al. (1983).

CLOVER; SWEET CLOVER (blooms) The Herbalist's Account Red clover is easy to get, it's everywhere. Gather the blooms. dry in the shade. and store in paper bags. It's a fine all-around tonic and blood purifier. It gives you strength. It makes a good tea to settle your stomach and your nerves. I use the clover in my cough remedy and in most of my tonics. For the lady that the doctor okayed it for. I put it heavy in that. Some folks say it·s highly recommended for cancer. but I've not much experience with that. Lots of folks ask me about the white clover. I tell them it's not so strong. In the old days we used to have more of the brown. or wild. clover around. It·s stronger than the red; wild plants are generally stronger than the tame. White sweet clover is the same as the red, but not so good for cancer. They say it's better in salves for rashes. but I haven't used it for a long time. They used to grow it a lot around here for hay. but I can't find it anymore. Commentary Trifolium pratense L. *: meadow trefoile, red clover. T. repens L. *: meadow trefoile. white clover. T. incarnatum L. *: crimson clover. T. reflexum L. *: brown clover (local name). MeJilotus officinalis (L.) Pallas*: melilot. plaister claver. common melilot. yellow sweet clover. M. alba Desr.: melilot. plaister claver. white sweet clover.

Fabaceae (Leguminosae) Many "clovers" have attracted medical attention from time to time. John Gerard (1597), who described clovers and melilots among many trefoils (which included alfalfa and species of Psoralea and Lotus), indicated frequent disagreement on whether the nature of the plant was hot or cold, but said that all the trefoils had some similarity in medical properties. Red and white clovers were

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considered cold and dry and to be used in clysters for "frettings and paines of the guts" and in poultices for swellings and inflammations. Other potential uses were implied from analogy to other trefoils.' For a while, at least, clover was mentioned in various textbooks, especially surgical, but it may have been less popular than the melilots (see below).' Red clover was introduced into America in the seventeenth century and was apparently cultivated as a forage crop by 1747.3 Nevertheless, its medical popularity was not high at the time, nor did it receive much attention in the regular and domestic medical books of the nineteenth century.4 Some Thomsonians, neo-Thomsonians, and Eclectics, however, thought it valuable. Morris Mattson wrote in the American Vegetable Practice (1841): "The blossoms boiled in water ... and the liquid simmered over a slow fire until it becomes about the consistence of tar, forms the cancer plaster of Dr. Thomson, which has gained so much reputation in the cure of cancers, burns, and various ill conditioned sores.'" The dried flowers and extracts of clover were marketed by various Shaker communities from the 1840s to the 1880s ("an extract of the blossoms is an excellent remedy for cancerous ulcers, corns and burns").6 ParkeDavis also marketed red clover in the 1890s, not as a treatment for cancerous conditions but as a "deobstruent and sedative." The company stated that "the blossoms of this plant have long been used in the form of an infusion in whooping-cough which they are said to relieve promptly. It has been used with success in the treatment of scrofula and externally as a wash of ill-conditioned ulcers." 7 The use of plasters continued to be reported in the twentieth century, often as a general treatment for ulcers.B Clover acquired some publicity as an ingredient in the controversial "Hoxsey Treatment" for internal cancer, which some say was the biggest health hoax of the 1950s.9

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Additionally, some physicians continued to use clover as adjunct treatment in venereal disease. Today's advocacy literature frequently implies that it is a specific remedy for this,'O but past physicians often thought it beneficial solely for syphilitic chancre. Recent literature sometimes resurrects earlier references to clover's reputation for treating cancers and cankers, and it is not altogether surprising that Bass and some of his visitors consider that clover tea, even taken internally, is "good for cancer." Bass's confidence is also supported by the view that clover is a blood purifier, a notion linked to the reputed alterative properties. Bass's view that yellow and white sweet clover are not as effective for cancer as red clover is in line with past reputations. On the other hand, at least by the seventeenth century Melilotus was well known as a constituent in plasters employed as an emollient for soothing skin conditions." Along with many botanicals, however, its value was questioned during the eighteenth century. Influential William Cullen (1781) said that because of bad effects from its acrimony and frequent adulteration (e.g., with borage), melilot was often rejected as an emollient in plasters. 12 Later, British author John Lindley (1838) said that a "decoction [of M. officinalis] is emollient and occasionally employed on the continent in lotions and enemas," while in America, Shaker herb catalogs described white sweet clover as used internally, not externally, for chest complaintsY Interestingly, Laurence Johnson (1884) said that the medical properties of Melilotus were "yet to be determined." 14 The constituents reported for red clover include a volatile oil, carbohydrates, amino acids, flavonoids, minerals, and vitamins. Flavonoids, at least, can conceivably contribute to the reputation for skin ailments. Estrogenic activity, of special concern in connection with animal forage, has been linked to isoflavones. Whether or not it has any rele-

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vance to the reputation as an emmenagogue is unclear. Vitamins and minerals might contribute to reputed tonic action. at least if clover is taken regularly. Because of their economic importance and toxicity, white and yellow sweet clovers have been subjected to a number of studies. The major constituents are coumarin, flavonoids, and saponins. Anti-inflammatory activity has been reported, and the current marketing of a standardized preparation seems to support the somewhat greater reputation of white and yellow clovers (compared with red clover) and Bass's comment about Melilotus's superiority for treating skin rashes 13 An interesting feature of Bass's remarks is his view that the white clover (T. repens) is weaker than the red, in contrast to the "wild" (hence strong) "brown clover," which is the indigenous buffalo clover (T. reflexum). Such observations, along with the occasional confusion between red and crimson clover (T. incarnatum), are a reminder of the need for careful identification of the many species of clovers in any detailed correlation of the historical record with current studies on chemical constituents. Notes 1. Gerard (1597), pp. 1025-26 for red and white clover; p. 1023 (under "great trefoiles or winged clovers") for sense of common properties for trefoiles. For another view on temperatures see Salmon (1710, p. 107). 2. Clover and melilot are mentioned in many surgically oriented texts; e.g., Banister (1622, chap. 5). 3. See D. A. Miller (1984, pp. 296-305). 4. Not mentioned, for example, by Buchan (1772), N. Chapman (1822), Comfort (1853), Griffith (1847), L. Johnson (1884). Lindley (1838) included only T. alpinum L., noting that the roots "possess the same properties as liquorice" (p. 241). 5. Mattson (1841, pp. 282-83); see also S. Thomson (1832, p. 101) for cancer plaster. 6. A. B. Miller (1976, p. 155).

7. Parke-Davis (1890, p. 149). 8. E.g., Wren, Potter's Cyclopaedia (1932, p. 288). 9. W. F. Janssen (1979). 10. Dr. I. H. Lutterloh, personal communication. 11. E.g., Banister (1622, sig. p. 3v and other pages). See also Gerard (1597, pp. 1033-35); fig. 4 is considered Melilotus officinalis by Withering (1796, 3:645). 12. Cullen, 1781, p. 194. 13. For white sweet clover, see Lindley (1838, p. 240), A. B. Miller (1976, p. 155). 14. L. Johnson (1884, p. 131). 15. Nicollier and Thompson (1983). Melilotus extract has been shown to suppress thermal edema of rats under experimental conditions: Nichikawa et a!. (1983). Gabor (1979, pp. 698-739).

CLUB MOSS; MOSS (tops) The Herbalist's Account We don't know too much about running cedar. It runs along the ground with branches like cedar. I've always known about it, but didn't find it until three to four years ago. Old-timers used the entire plant for a kidney medicine. It's a tonic and makes a good wash for skin complaints. Even if I had more of it, so many other things work better. I've read that the spores are good in salves. I haven't used other mosses, but they are recommended for poultices. Commentary Lycopodium clavatum L. *, including varieties: club-mosse, woolfe claw-masse, running club-moss, running cedar (local name). Lycopodiaceae Sphagnum spp.: Irish moss, moss. Sphagnaceae Mr. Bass's lack of enthusiasm for club moss reflects its secondary status in both regular and domestic medicine and, in consequence, little popular tradition. Gerard (1597)

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was considered diuretic but has fallen into disuse in this age of laboratory products.'" Bass also knows of Irish moss for poultices. Club moss contains alkaloids. triterpenes, and other constituents, but which (if any) account for the reputation as a diuretic is unclear. Diuretic action has also been attributed to the spores, which contain a large amount of fixed oi!.6 Notes 1. Gerard (1597. p. 1374).

2. Griffith (1847. p. 671). He toned down a much more enthusiastic Rafinesque (1828-30 . 2:240):

Club Moss

grouped club moss with various mosses as possessing similar "drie and astringent" and "binding qualities" useful for stopping "the spitting of bloude, the tearmes and bloudie fluxe ,'" Among American authors who mentioned it in the nineteenth century-and many did not-Griffith (1847) said L c1avaturn had been given in the form of a decoction for a variety of diseases , as a diuretic. antispasmodic. and so on. and "has been praised as serviceable in hydrophobia." 2 Skin conditions were also mentioned. Some accounts notice only the use of Lycopodium spores as a dusting powder. Laurence Johnson (1884) mentioned that this was employed for "irritated and excoriated surfaces and by apothecaries to prevent newly made pills from adhering together." 3 Somewhat greater enthusiasm emerged among some Eclectic practitioners; uses listed in their writings included for dyspepsia, rheumatism, and problems considered to be linked to high uric acid concentrations.' Bass thinks he probably learned about the use of club moss for kidneys from Joseph Meyer's Herbalist (1934). which is hardly an enthusiastic account: "The moss formerly

"Diuretic, menagogue. drastic. nervine. attenuant, aperient and corroborant. Used in dropsy. gout. scurvy. diarrhea. suppressions. Externally for ulcers in infants. serpigo. tinea. plica. &c. They kill lice and insects. dye various colors. mend bad wines. Inflammable pollen much used in pyrotechny." 3. E.g.• L. Johnson (1884 . p. 283). Butler (1900, p. 797) and others also pointed out that the spores

make an excellent dusting powder. 4. Ellingwood (1915. pp. 270-71). 5. J. E. Meyer (1934 . p. 157). 6. Fluck (1973 . p. 27). For consideration of alkaloids. see Pelletier (1985. 3:212) .

COCKLEBUR; AGRIMONY (leaves, fruit, root) The Herbalist's Account Cocklebur grows in cornfields and old gardens. I don't use it. but it's recommended as a tonic. It's a blood purifier. too. and an outside wash for sores and for snakebite. Some says it's the same as agrimony, and the health food people say they're good for toxins . Folks have been known to beat the juice out of the leaves theirself and drink it and vomit up the venom of the snake, and they would get wei!. A man told me his bird dog got snakebit with a copperhead (not telling what the bird dog was worth) and this man just knew he was going to lose the dog. He

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had a black man with him, and so the black man said, "Hey, let's get out here and get some cockleburs and we'll keep that dog." So he got a hammer and commenced to beat them cockleburs up and put them in sweet milk, and drenched that dog. Next morning the dog got to vomiting green stuff and got all right. I've since read that it's been used for rabies.

Commentary Agrimonia eupatoria 1.: Dutch agrimony, agrimony, cockleburr, sticklewort. Roseaceae Xanthium spinosum 1. * [syn. Acanthoxanthium spinosum (1.) Fourreau): cocklebur, clot bur, agrimony, sticklewort. X. strumarium 1. *, including varieties: cocklebur, clotbur, agrimony, sticklewort. Asteraceae (Composi tae) The story of "cocklebur" is somewhat confusing because the name has been used for so many different plants, but the best known medically is Agrimonia eupatoria, naturalized in the northern states and usually known as agrimony. Agrimony has long attracted attention for its astringency and employment for such problems as hemorrhage and diarrhea, and as a general vulnerary. John Gerard (1597) stated that Dioscorides said it was "a remedie for them that have bad livers, and for such as are bitten with serpents," and later, in 1719, John Quincy said much the same and added, "the country people use the herb bruis'd or its juice in contusions and fresh wounds.'" In 1769 William Lewis gave a better sense of the rationale behind much of the usage: "Agrimony is one of the milder corroborants, and in this intention is sometimes employed, especially among the common people, against habitual diarrhoeas, and cathectic, and in other indisposition from a lax state of the solids."2 As with so many plants, the general popu-

larity of agrimony had faded by the end of the nineteenth century. One author in 1899 said it "was formerly much used as an astringent and tonic, but it is now little used except for the preparation of domestic mouth washes and lotions." 3 The cockleburs known best to Mr. Bass are the naturalized or adventive Xanthium strumarium and X. spinosum, both of which are documented in cocklebur's medical history.' However, just how popular they were in America is far from clear because of the meager documentation. Shoemaker (1896) did note that Xanthium strumarium was reputed to be of value for menorrhagia, postpartum and other bleeding situations, and dysentery, all properties that were felt to be associated with the astringency. Some interest undoubtedly came from Eclectic practitioners, but even that was declining by the early years of the twentieth century. Ellingwood (1915) wrote, after noting diuretic, diaphoretic, and sialogogue activities, that X. spinosum "was mentioned as a remedy influencing the blood in material conditions, tending to overcome periodicity. Some writers give it high rank as an alterative, even claiming that it will cure hydrophobia." 5 Use as an astringent, as mentioned by Mr. Bass, was also noted. It is probable that Xanthium cocklebur has been better known in domestic medicine. Similar to Bass's story about its use for treating a dog bitten by a snake is an account from the Kentucky Appalachians of administering cocklebur leaves for snakebite." The genesis of this reputation is unclear, but it may rest largely on theoretical grounds.' Gerard (1597) described Xanthium strumarium (as lesser burredocke), along with burredocke, as hot and dry; as noted elsewhere, many alexipharmic medicines, which were considered appropriate for the treatment of snakebites, had this quality.8 There is also the question of analogy with the better-known agrimony. Whether the alexipharmic action was generally considered to extend to the binding of

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cocklebur leaves over the area of snakebite, as recorded in Alabama, is uncertain.9 An Alabama belief not known to Bass is the employment of the juice of cocklebur and cream for ringworm. 'o The chemical constituents of cocklebur have not been well characterized. A glycoside that can be poisonous to livestock is present in X. strumarium, as are sesquiterpene lactones l l The latter are increasingly being shown to have numerous physiological actions, though it is currently difficult to see a chemical explanation for cocklebur's wideranging reputations, which have been neither strong nor consistent. Recent interest by some of Bass's visitors who have heard of agrimony for toxins appears to be an extension of the notion of blood purification. This is just one instance of many herbs for which notions of blood purification persist, albeit under different guises. Notes 1. Gerard (1597, p. 576) described Agrimonia eupatoria. Johnson, in his revision, under "water hemp or water agrimony," also discussed Eupatorium connobinnum as Dutch agrimonia because "it is commonly used for agrimonies in the shape of that country" (1633, p. 711). Quincy (1719, pp. 121-22).

2. W. Lewis (1769, 1:66). 3. F. P. Foster (1896, 1:18). For some earlier references see Porcher (1863, p. 145). Porcher noted its strong reputation as a deobstruent in obstructions of the spleen and in diseases arising from the torpor of the liver, as in hydrops, icterus, etc. For some general account of agrimony and cockleburs see Le Strange (1977, pp. 11-12).

4. Xanthium strumarium, unlike X. spinosum, does not have spines on the stems. 5. Ellingwood (1915, p. 446). Grieve (1971, 1:210) continued the enthusiasm and described it as a sure specific in the treatment of hydrophobia. 6. Bolyard (1981, p. 63).

7. See discussion in Snakeroots monograph.

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8. Gerard (p. 664) said it possessed the same properties as burdock. We follow Withering's identification (1796, 2:283). 9. R. B. Browne (1958, p. 94) noted the binding of

leaves over the site of the snakebite crush. Bass has heard of this. 10.

Ibid., p. 91.

11. McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia Technology (1960, 5:912).

of Science and

COFFEE. See Tea COHOSHES (rhizome, roots) The Herbalist's Account Well, I could sit here and talk all day about black cohosh. I've known it since I was a child. It's at the top of the list but it's scarce. It grows eight to ten miles away from us in the woods in low, dark places, one or two feet high. It has a black, woody root. Black cohosh is a favorite Indian medicine-a tonic for blood and nerves and heart, and for rheumatism. It's a good female medicine. It stimulates circulation. It's been a beneficial medicine forever. You make a tea of the beat-up root. It has the flavor of a carrot. I don't use it much because it is hard to get. I did buy it from the companies, but it got where I couldn't get it. I keep a little of it there because somebody will want it. There is blue and white cohosh, too. All three are old-timers and act about the same. The blue and white cohosh are weaker and more for women than for men, but Dr. Pierce used all three of them in his favorite prescriptions. Blue cohosh has been used by the Indians. The white is not used too much. The black cohosh brings more money on the mar· ket than the other two. It don't bring much money. It is worth about seventy-five cents on the market now. It did bring as high as a dollar, but it is off a little.

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Black cohosh

Commentary Cimicifuga racemosa (L.) Nutt. * [syns. Macrotys racemosa Eaton; Actaea racemosa L.): black snakeroot, black cohosh, squawweed . Ranunculaceae Caulophyllum thalictroides (L.) Michx. * [syn. Leontice thalictroides L.J: cohosh, blue cohosh, squaw root, blueberry cohosh. Berberidaceae

Actaea alba (L.) Mill.: white cohosh. Ran unculaceae Of three botanically unrelated indigenous cohoshes-black, blue, and white-all of which have been discussed frequently, black cohosh is the best known, followed by blue. White has received little attention. Although he has rarely used the cohoshes, Mr. Bass has often recommended them . Black cohosh. In 1852 cimicifuga was said to be unquestionably one of the most valuable of our indigenous medicinal plants.!

Although perhaps an overenthusiastic statement for the time, the plant had attracted interest from at least the time of J. Schoepf (1787) onward; in 1848 N. S. Davis noted "it has been used to a limited extent by the profession for many years." 2 Various nineteenth-century writers noted that S. Garden's 1823 publication had encouraged its employment in pulmonary disease, though its use for rheumatism (ef. Mr. Bass's comments) was perhaps better known for a while. Griffith (1847) remarked that "it has long been used in domestic practice in this country and was one of the medical agents of the aborigines, being in high repute among them in the treatment of rheumatism." 3 In fact, the reputation of the plant-which owed something to its bitterness-subsequently developed to the level of a veritable panacea. A 1912 survey of physicians revealed it to be one of the most popular prescribed drugs.' This seems to have reflected a wide range of uses-resting on both tonic and sedative properties-ranging from rheumatism to fevers, including smallpox. s The sedative action was linked with slowing the pulse, the ability to sooth pain and allay irritability," and effects on the uterus, the basis of black cohosh's reputation in "women's disorders." Many medical textbooks discussed the latter, comparing the action with the well-known ergot. There seems to have been a ready extension to all female problems - some, such as ovarian neuralgia, hardly recognized today as valid diagnoses? Among specific factors that encouraged black cohosh's popularity were an association with Indians and promotion by Eclectic practitioners. Barton (1801) helped cement its Indian pedigree ("our Indians set a high value on it") . He also noted its astringency and gave examples of uses associated with this property: a gargle for putrid sore throat, a cure for the itch, and a drench for murrain in cattle. He added that it was called "squaw root," recognizing Indian usage for

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women's diseases;8 no mention was made of the employment for snakebites noted by other authors. 9 Writings by John Uri Lloyd have clarified the enthusiasm for black cohosh by Eclectic practitioners, especially for treating women's diseases. It was used under the name Macrotys racemosa, hence "macrotys" for commercial cimicifuga preparations, until well into this century.'0 Other factors which fostered general interest were its use for chorea (Sydenham's chorea), which prompted Robley Dunglison to include it in his influential New Remedies (1843), as well as authoritative statements by such prominent physicians as Britain's Sir J. Y. Simpson, who promoted it for chronic rheumatism, lumbago, and hypochondriacal depression.n Even so, the plant did not take hold among British physicians. Such differences in popularity between Britain and America provide one example of many small instances of nationalist factors at play in the history of drugs; in this case it did not extend to the management of chorea, a condition possibly of higher incidence in the nineteenth century than now. The ready availability of black cohosh from many Shaker communities from the 18405 to the 1880s perhaps contributed to its American popularity.12 The overall reputation of black cohosh within regular medicine was probably declining by the early years of the present century. Around 1891 one author commented that it was "now employed chiefly in the treatment of rheumatism and chorea," and another said: "I know a number of physicians who use tincture cimicifuga in a certain class of painful affections of muscles (of which lumbago is a good illustration) and there is one doctor of this city (N.Y.) who has used it with such success that he pretty well monopolized this class of casesP Sajous (1908) gave an interesting explanation for the general decline in reputation: "As may be

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surmised from its physiological properties, cimicifuga has been recommended in almost every disease, but, being superior to very few drugs which possess special properties of a more restricted kind, it has gradually been replaced by these."14 Black cohosh has nevertheless retained a conspicuous place in herbal medicine. ("Well," says Mr. Bass, "I could sit here and talk all day about black cohosh.") Books such as the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia discuss current uses; many (as in the past) fall into the area of rheumatism and menstrual disorders.'S It is promoted at times as a "hormone" herb, especially for menopause. '6 A wide range of constituents has been reported. Interest has focused on the triterpene glycosides actein and cimigosideP Actein lowers blood pressure in rabbits and cats, but not in dogs. Additionally, a water-insoluble, chloroform-soluble resinous fraction has been reported to induce hypotension in animals and peripheral vasodilatory effects in man.'8 Tannins are present. Hypoglycemic and anti-inflammatory activities have been reported in animals, but they are not linked to these or other known constituents. '9 In the past the tannin content rationalized the alleged tonic action. The latter, in turn, was considered beneficial for fevers and rheumatism, but, clearly, assuming the clinical reputation is valid, other chemical factors may be at play in the possible anti-inflammatory activity.20 Recent studies suggest that a chemical basis-perhaps linked to isoflavones-may account for the reputation as a female medicine through actions on female hormones. Tyler's recent comment that "there appears to be no reason to utilize black cohosh-or any preparations containing it-for therapeutic purposes" may be appropriate, but it seems premature and does not rest on a thorough assessment of either the nineteenth-century testimony or the chemical constituents. 21 Even so, toxic effects may be severe (brady-

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cardia, tremors, and vertigo), and cohosh should be used with caution and certainly not with the lack of discrimination mirrored in its promotion as a health food. 22 Blue cohosh has not been such a prominent medical plant as the black. Apparently entering white medicine from Indian usage, interest in blue cohosh was generated by the authoritative writer on indigenous American plants C. S. Rafinesque, who noted that it was used by the Indians and their imitators ("Indian doctors") for rheumatism, dropsy, colic, sore throat, cramp, hiccough, epilepsy, hysterics, inflammation of the uterus, and so on. 23 However, it was essentially as a female medicine, especially an emmenagogue, that it developed a general reputation. Peter Smith, another influential source, asserted that Indian women owe the "facility of their parturition" to a constant use of the root for two or three weeks before their time. 24 When British author Robert Bentley (1862) tried to encourage interest in it as a "new American remedy," he mentioned not only its promotion by Eclectic practitioners but also its particular reputation for female complaints and as an "antispasmodic, alterative, tonic, diaphoretic and diuretic." 25 Blue cohosh received attention during the second half of the nineteenth century in most medical writings on plants, regular and botanic/domestic. 2fi In 1871 Appalachian physician A. A. Scroggs included it in his account of the most important plants available from North Carolina, noting its value for uterine diseases and rheumatism and saying that it was "gaining upon public esteem." 27 On the other hand, in 1884 Laurence Johnson was one physician casting doubt: "antispasmodic, demulcent, diaphoretic, diuretic, emmenagogue, and parturient properties have been attributed to this plant, but upon what evidence is difficult to decide." 28 He added the remark (appropriate not only for blue cohosh): "It would seem that many authors, in writing upon this plant since the time of Rafi-

nesque, have repeated his assertions in one form or another, not without question but generally without credit also." Any doubts expressed by regular physicians had no effect on the Bass family and countless others who purchased medicines containing blue cohosh. It remains a wellknown "female" medicine today. Blue cohosh contains alkaloids, including N-methylcytisine (caulophylline), anagyrine, baptifoline, and magnoflorine. 29 Nmethylcytisine has properties similar to nicotine, though its relevance to the medical reputation of such pharmacological properties as increasing blood pressure, stimulation of the small intestine, and hyperglycemia is unclear. The toxicity of the alkaloids makes caution necessary in using the plant. Triterpenoid glycosides also have been reported in Caulophyllum. Of these, caulosaponin and caulopyllosaponin apparently act on the uterus. 3D Whether this accounts for the admittedly weak reputation as a female medicine awaits study and an assessment of early laboratory reports of Caulophyllum's activity on the uterus.31 Although this reputation is weak, constituents are toxic and care should be taken when using the plant. White cohosh is generally identified as the indigenous Actea alba.32 Compared with the other coho shes it has not attracted much interest, even though Actea spicata L. was well known in Europe. 33 Griffith (1847) said that white cohosh was seldom used "except in mistake for the Cimicifuga," with which it had been confounded by many writers.34 On the other hand, in 1859, John Kost (like others) said that the properties of white cohosh, especially as regards emmenagogue activity, were very similar to black cohosh: "both articles [stand] in the first rank of this class."" Shaker communities selling the herb, however, considered it useful for the itch and "for rheumatism, flatulence and nervous irritability."36 Lloyd and Lloyd indicated that the lack of popularity of white (and

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red) cohosh was due to the relative scarcity compared with Cimicifuga. 37 Mr. Bass. when asked. agreed with this view. The active constituents of Actea alba have not been well established apart from an essential oil. an irritant compound. and glycosides. Doubts on the value for female complaints have been expressed. This opinion may be justified but presently rests more on limited knowledge than on experience and evidence. Large doses of the rhizome have been reported to produce toxic symptoms. 38

Notes 1. Clapp (1852. p. 724).

2. N. S. Davis (1848. p. 352). Fliickiger and Hanbury (1879. p. 16) noted seventeenth- and eighteenth-century references to it.

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13. F. P. Foster (1890-94. 2:1021), 14. Sajous (1908, 2:192). Even so, some influential regular medical textbooks extolled its virtues at the time. Thus, R. A. Hare (1909. p. 173) said that "excepting arsenic" it is the "best remedy we have for chorea." He also noted its value for neuralgia "particularly of the ovaries." 15. British Herbal Pharmacopoeia (1983. p. 66). 16. L. Griffin (1979, pp. 29-30). 17. Radics et al. (1975), Leung (1980, p. 66). 18. Genazzini and Sorrentino (1962; through Leung. 1980, pp. 66-67), Farnsworth and Segelman (1971)' Benoit et al. (1976). A list is given in Duke (1985, p. 181). 19. E.g., H. Jarry et al. (1985). 20. Tyler (1982, pp. 38-39) pointed out that the

long-suspected estrogenic effects, based on its use to stimulate menstruation, could not be verified in comprehensive experiments on mice (quoting Siess and Seybold, 1960).

6. Ibid .. p. 62 (quoting 1848 committee of American Medical Association).

21. Tyler (1982). Much of the testimony is apparently authoritative. Cf. Clapp (1852, p. 725): "I have for some years been in the habit of giving and prescribing the cimicifuga in bronchitis. phthisis, chorea and other nervous affections and generally with very satisfactory results."

7. E.g .• Bartholow (1882. p. 347).

22. Tyler et al. (1981).

8. For another squawroot sec Bethroot monograph.

23. Rafinesque (1828-30, 1:97-99). See also comments by Clapp (1852, p. 729). Early documentation of Indian usage is sparse. Vogel (1970, p. 291) noted that cohosh is an Algonquian name. It is not clear whether this points to early use of all cohoshes.

3. Griffith (1847. p. 923). 4. Lloyd (1912). 5. For smallpox see Lloyd (1921. p. 60).

9. B. S. Barton (1798. p. 9). For story of snakeroots. see monograph. Rafineseque (1828-30. 1:88)

noted that the plant was one of numerous Indian cures for snakebite. "They use the root chewed and applied to the wound; but they consider the Eryngium aquaticum and E. yuccefolium (corn snakeroot or rattlesnake flag) as by far more powerful and efficient." 10. For Eclectic preparations. see Lloyd Brothers (1921, p. 199). They were noted as especially

24. Quoted in Clapp (1852). 25. R. Bentley (1862-63, "Cimicifuga"), 26. E.g" Gunn (1869, pp. 813-14). An extract, caulophyllin, was marketed. 27. Scroggs (1871).

useful for rheumatism and rheumatic neuralgia, and for menstrual pain. For full discussion including the botanical history, see Lloyd and Lloyd (1884-87, pp. 244-91). Also see Lloyd (1921, pp. 54-62). Also useful is Phillips (1879, pp, 244-91).

29. Leung (1980. p. 69), Duke (1985, p. 108), "The Cohoshes," Lawrence Rev. Nat. Prod. 6 (1985): 1719.

11. Dunglison (1843, pp. 163-64), Farquharson and Woodbury (1882, p. 226).

31. Pilcher et al. (1916). Claims for its value in

12. A. B. Miller (1976. p, 517).

rheumatism are weak despite suggestions to the

28. L. Johnson (1884, p. 79).

30. Reported with references in Tyler (1982, p. 41).

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contrary (J. D. Phillipson and Anderson, 1984). On the other hand, the diaphoretic action may be at play, or even the association with black cohosh. 32. Lloyd and Lloyd (1884-85, pp. 232-243) gave a comprehensive account. See also Gattinger (1894, p.8).

33. Linnaeus called the indigenous species Actaea

spicoto var. rubrum. This has been called red cohosh and sometimes considered to possess the same activity as white. Nineteenth-century Shaker information on herbs (A. B. Miller. 1976) mentions only red. not white, as being useful in uterine diseases. 34. Griffith (1847, p. 94). 35. Kost (1859, p. 451); also F. P. Foster (1890, 1:70). 36. A. B. Miller (1976). R. E. Griffith (1847, p. 94)

noted the use of a decoction to cure itch when applied externally and also to destroy lice with as much certainty as the stavesacre. 37. Lloyd and Lloyd (1884-85. p. 243). 38. "Cohoshes," Lawrence Rev. Not. Prod. 6 (1985): 17-19.

COLTSFOOT [leaves, flowers) The Herbalist's Account It looks a little like a dandelion. It's a good medicine for coughs and colds. You make a tea out of the leaves. The fresh ones are the best, but you can use the dry. I've had some folks highly recommend it, They've asked me for it, but we don't have it around here. Commentary Tussilago farfam 1.; coltsfoot, cough wort. Asteraceae (Compositae) The common name coltsfoot also refers to plants other than Tussilago farfara (e.g., Petasites and Galax species), but Tussilago is far and away the best known medically. The medical history of this naturalized plant can be traced back to classical times, and its innumerable vernacular names-many of which refer to the hooflike shape of the leaves

-suggest that it has been widely known. Over the years Bass has often been asked about its medicinal value. More than most plants, coltsfoot has long had a specific reputation for one class of ailments-respiratory and chest problems such as coughs, colds, asthma, and general wheeziness. The genus name Tussilago is derived from tussis, in allusion to its pectoral powers. The popularity of coltsfoot has survived better than most botanicals. This has been partly because of testimonials from influential physicians, although by the end of the eighteenth century many were ambivalent. For instance, British writer William Woodville wrote (1790): "The sensible qualities of Tussilago are very inconsiderable; it has rough mucilaginous taste, but no remarkable smelL The leaves have always been of great fame as possessing demulcent and pectoral virtues .... It is esteemed useful in pulmonary consumptions, coughs, asthmas, and in various catarrhal symptoms." 1 William Withering noted essentially the same thing in 1796, indicating that it had formerly been much used in coughs and colds and adding that William Cullen had found it useful in scrophulous complaints.' Coltsfoot apparently retained some popularity in nineteenth-century America, although American author Griffith (1847) was constrained to say that the decoction "answers very well to allay tickling coughs, but it is not superior to flaxseed tea or the other common demulcent drinks.'" Laurence Johnson (1884) expressed no enthusiasm, merely noting that it "had been employed chiefly in chronic pulmonary diseases."· Chemical constituents include mucilage, pectins, volatile oil, tannin, resin, a bitter glycoside, and saponin.' The long-standing reputation as an expectorant may be due to a composite action of the constituents, of which the actions of saponin and mucilage (and some say pectin) are significant. Recent studies have shown the presence of

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small quantities-but only from some sources -of pyrrolizidine-type alkaloids. 6 Although in the past coltsfoot was probably not taken in substantial quantities , the presence of any pyrrolizidine alkaloid is cause for concern because of hepatotoxic effects, at least if taken regularly. Less questionable cough and cold remedies exist. Notes 1. Woodville (1790-94, 1:38). 2. Withering (1796, 3:719). 3. Griffith (1847, p. 394). 4. L. Johnson (1884 , p. 174) .

5. Merck Index (1983, no. 2455). 6. Roder et al. (1981). See also Tyler (1982, pp. 76-77).

COMFREY AND HOUND'S-TONGUE (roots, leaves); BORAGE

The Herbalist's Account Most all herbists will tell you that comfrey can be used for almost any ailment, and it's safe. I used to buy comfrey from Dr. Sanders. He grew his own. There are a number of comfreys , which look very much the same. I have a dark green and yellow-green one in the yard. It's highly recommended for coughs and colds, and for asthma. I use it in my cough and cold remedy and in my tonics. When I've got it, I tell folks to chew the leaves for asthma. The leaves can also be used in an eyewash. It's said the roots will get rid of worms, but there are many better things known. One woman told me that she read it could be poison; it couldn't be poisonous the way I use it because I put it in with other medicine. Some say it's good for sores and sprains, but I've not tried it. You use it as a poultice, or wash the place with tea. You can use it as a tonic, too.

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Good Lord, anybody would be crazy who did not use comfrey. Commentary

Symphytum officinale 1. [syns. S. consolida Gueld.; S. patens Sibthorpl: comfrey, comfrey confound, knit backe, blacke woort. S. asperum Lepech. x S. officinale L. [syn. S. x uplandicum Nyman, S. peregrinuml: Russian comfrey (also other hybrids not S. x uplandicum). Cynoglossum officinale L:: hound's-tongue, houndstooth, comfrey (local name). C. virginianum L:: wild comfrey. Boraginaceae Comfrey had a well-established history before John Gerard (1597) described its roots and large, succulent leaves. The root, with Borage

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"a colde qualitie" and a clammie and gluing nature. was preferred medically over the leaves. Treating wounds and clearing mucus from the respiratory tract were conspicuous among many uses mentioned. some linked to the astringent property: A particular reputation also existed for healing fractured bones. about which J. B. van Helmont (Oriatrike or Physick Refined. 1662). a major seventeenth-century critic of polypharmacy. or Galenic treatment. commented: "Paracelsus rightly writeth to Chyrurgions: to what end do ye over adde unto Symphytum or the root of greater comfrey. vinegar. bole and such like wan additaments? When as God hath composed this simple as altogether sufficient against the ruptures of bones?" 2 The extent of the influence of this viewpoint on therapeutic reform is not easy to measure. but it and other aspects of Paracelsian chemistry contributed to the critical reappraisal of many botanicals that took place during the eighteenth century. a reappraisal that had some impact on comfrey. at least within regular medicine. Almost certainly comfrey has long been used more as a domestic remedy in both Britain and America. 3 W. Lewis (1791) was highly critical ("many ridiculous histories of the consolidating virtues of this plant are related by authors [and] at present it is too little employed in practice in Britain. as to have no place in our pharmacopoeias").' but Manasseh Cutler wrote from America (1785) that "the roots are much used by the common people for sprains. They are glutinous and mucilaginous."s Later. New England authors Capron and Slack (1848) stated in a brief account that "the root is much esteemed among many people for coughs and catarrhs. It contains a mucilage and promotes expectoration." 6 The commonest recommendation in the nineteenth century was as a cough medicine. a use still promoted by Bass. On the other hand, the specific recommendation he

gives for asthma is not so well established. Bass does recognize comfrey's reputation for the treatment of sprains and sores. This use was given a new lease on life by C. J. Macalister's discovery in 1912 of the presence of allantoin. Macalister. impressed by the long history of comfrey as a vulnerary and dressing for sores, and bemoaning its decline to a mere "domestic herbaceous simple." argued that allantoin explained much of its activity in wound repair.' William Bramwell. in the same journal, reported his favorable experience treating wounds with a "simple extract from the root applied on lint to saturation."" Despite the enthusiasm for allantoin (still extant), the role of tannins in wound healing cannot be excluded. The reputation for treating wounds seems to have encouraged, by analogy. twentieth-century usage (often in combined preparations) for stomach ulcers. Many agree with Bass that a "sore" is the same inside and outside. Tonic properties. also mentioned by Bass, are not generally indicated in the medical literature; however. he says he has the testimony of many people who take it regularly as a beverage. a trend that emerged in this century. The issue of whether comfrey is poisonous has attracted recent attention through the growing concern over the "silent" toxicity of the constituent pyrrolizidine alkaloids. which are apparently irrelevant to uses linked in the past with allantoin and astringent activity or the expectorant reputation generally associated with the mucilage present.9 Although comfrey has long been recognized as toxic to domestic animals, it has been used as an animal feed without any untoward consequences;'U but this does not take into account real concern over long-term effects. A particular difficulty in assessing the health hazards of comfrey-aside from the very active promotion of comfrey as a foodlies in the reported differences between Sym-

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phytum species and interspecific hybrids, all known as comfrey. For instance, the amount of alkaloid present in comfrey sold in Britain is said to be small and toxicity has not been proven," but it does not indicate which comfrey. Russian comfrey, said to be widely available commercially in Britain and elsewhere. contains various pyrrolizidine alkaloidsincluding symphytine and echimidine, two of the most toxic-and causes chronic hepatotoxicity in rats." S. officinale does not contain the mutagen echimidine but nevertheless has been shown to be carcinogenic in rats. Toxicity has also been indicated for S. asperum (prickly comfrey),13 and for S. tuberosum (tuberous comfrey). but perhaps less SO.14 The opinion is often expressed that it is safe to take comfrey because no liver damage caused by comfrey has been reported in man (but see one 1985 report). This ignores widespread concern over health hazards linked to many other plants containing pyrrolizidine alkaloids.15 Teas of Senecio species have caused particular concern.'6 It has been suggested that people who insist that the benefits of comfrey as a beverage outweigh the risks should avoid the roots and use large, mature leaves rather than small, young ones early in the season because the young leaves contain more alkaloid,17 but prudence dictates avoiding ingestion of any preparation of comfrey over a long period of time. External application causes no worry at present, though preparations of allantoin are more popular. Despite the current enthusiasm for comfrey as a virtual panacea, its uneven reputation in the past should be borne in mind. Hound's-tonguc. The "comfrey" grown by Bass in his yard includes Cynoglossum officinale, commonly known as hound's-tongue, and C. virginianum, commonly known as wild comfrey. Although very similar in appearance to comfrey. hound's-tongue has attracted medical interest in its own right. John Gerard (1597) described the plant, especially the root, as possessing cold and dry proper-

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ties similar to those of comfrey. IS Surviving English pharmacy jars labeled for preparations of hound's-tongue suggest that it was probably fairly well known as an ingredient in chest remedies. A number of authors noted "sedative qualities" employed for coughs, hemoptysis, diarrhea, dysentery, and in plasters for strumous and scrophulous cases.'9 The notion that it is "good against the biting of mad dogs" (hence the name "hound'stongue") is not well established.'o In America Manasseh Cutler (1785) noted that William Withering suspected the roots and leaves to have narcotic properties, but others disagreed." Some while later, William Withering's An Arrangement of British Plants (1796) still said the same thing, and also said that the plant was "discarded from the present practice." 22 Hound's-tongue has probably never been a popular medicine in North America, where it is naturalized. In 1847 Griffith said that it was unjustly neglected in the United States. 23 On the other hand, periodic enthusiasm has emerged among some physicians. For instance, the early decades of the twentieth century witnessed Greek interest in the use of Cynoglossum powder for malignant ulcers." Allantoin and pyrrolizidine alkaloids have been reported, but no comparison in terms of relative amounts of constituents has been made with species of Symphytum. Whether Cynoglossum is any more toxic than Symphytum is not known, but interesting comments appeared in 1794 suggesting that it should not be substituted for comfrey: "Cynoglossum is reported to be deleterious, and the dingy lurid appearance of its leaves peculiar to poisonous herbs of the narcotic kind, seems to favour the opinion nor are facts wanting to confirm it. A relation is given of a whole family at Oxford, who, by mistake, ate the boiled leaves of the plant for those of comfrey: soon afterwards they were all seized with vomiting, stupor, sleepiness. &c.,

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which symptoms continued alternately for almost forty hours. and with such severity, that one person died." 25 Barage (Baraga afficinalis 1. [BoraginaceaeJ). At times borage has been considered analogous to comfrey, at least in terms of medical properties. 26 Its early history. however, is confusing because of an alternative name, buglosse, also used for other plants of the family Boraginaceae. Furthermore, it has been more a culinary, or potherb, than a medicinal plant, although John Gerard (1597) wrote that "those of our time do use the flowers in sallads. to exhilarate, and make the minde glad." 27 Other authors at the time described both "borage" and "buglosse" for "melancholy." Much later, William Woodville (1790-94) dismissed the flowers as valueless but said that "the leaves of borage manifest nothing remarkable either to the smell or to the taste; but they abound with a juice, which in its expressed state. is said to be saltish, and which, on being boiled a sufficient time, forms crystals of nitre ... and hence it may be inferred, that this plant has a peculiar claim to the possession of refrigerating and aperient virtues." 28 Woodville's doubting opinion has been echoed a number of times since, but the view still prevails that the mucilage present may account for a reputation, albeit not well established, that borage acts as an expectorant and that the mineral salts present account for a reputed diuretic action. 29 Pyrrolizidine alkaloids have been reported, but their presence in oil is uncertain.

Notes 1. Gerard (1597, p. 661). The expectorant action was described: "the rootes boiled and drunke, doth cleanse the brest from flegme, and cure the greeses of the lungs." Some early accounts listed comfrey as hot and dry; e.g., P. Moore (1564, f. 38v). 2. Helmont (1662. p. 457). 3. It was listed in medical texts such as Motherby (1785).

4. W. Lewis (1791, p. 176). 5.

Cutler (1785, p. 415).

6. Capron and Slack (1848, p. 142). A year earlier Griffith (1847, p. 500) implied greater popularity in America for diseases of the lungs and for diarrhea. 7. Macalister (1912). 8. Bramwell (1912); cf. Joy (1912). For an evaluation of allantoin, see Anon., "Allantoin," Brit. Med. f. 4 (1967): 535; used as a commercial preparation for skin ailments. including psoriasis. 9. E.g., in Japan; see Furuya and Arabi (1968). 10. See Hills (1976), who highlighted the agricultural aspects of comfrey; also Binding (1974), Harris (1982). 11.

Phillipson (1983), but see Awang (1987).

12. Stace (1975, pp. 4, 353-54). Culvenor et al. (1980), "The Alkaloids"; and Culvenor et al. (1980), "Structure and Toxicity." For toxicity of comfrey available in Japan, see Hirono et al. (1978). 13. Roitman (1981). 14. A. I. Gray et al. (1983). Like "normal" comfrey, the plant contains two alkaloids, echimidine and anadoline-the latter as the N-oxide. Also present is symlandine, another pyrrolizidine alkaloid. The allan to in content is higher than in S. officinale. 15. Cf. Huxtable (1980-81), Arseculeratne et al. (1981). L. O. Smith and Culvenor (1981) gave a table of 243 plants known to contain alkaloids with demonstrated hepatotoxicity. According to Mohabbat et al. (1976), over long periods of time, 7,200 people consumed small amounts of pyrrolizidine alkaloids from Heliotrapium species (Boraginaceae) contaminating wheat flour; within two to three years, 23 percent had severe liver impairment believed to be linked to the ingestion of alkaloid. 16. Some years ago it was said that East Africa had more than two hundred species of Crataloria and large numbers of species of the genera Senecio, Heliotrapium, Cynoglossum, Tichodesma, etc. More than one hundred pyrrolizidine alkaloids have been identified in plants ofthese genera. Not all are toxic, but their biological effects cannot be recognized until the plants are studied in detail. Schoental (1972, p. 196) thinks that incurable cases of marasmus and liver cirrhosis are probably of toxic origin, children having been exposed to hepatotoxins taken by their mothers during pregnancy

Monographs

or lactation, or given to the babies as remedies for childhood disorders. Also see Stillman et al. (1977). 17. Mattocks (1980). For roots of Symphytum aspermum, see Roitman (1981). 18. Gerard (1597. pp. 659-60). An important distinction is the difference in the trichomes. 19. J. Miller (1722, p. 170); see also Hill (1751, p. 641), Woodville (1790-94, supplement, pp. 10-13), Withering (1796,2:227). 20. For mad dog quote see Britten and Holland (1878, p. 171). 21. Cutler (1785, p. 414). 22. Withering (1796, 2:227). 23. Griffith (1847, p. 500) added: "C. omphaloides

[now known as Omphaloides sp.) has much the same qualities, and our native C. amplexicaule is stated to afford a root which may be used on a substitute for comfrey." 24. E.g., "Cynoglossum," Lancet 2 (1923): 117; Poulopoulos (1936), who noted results since 1898. 25. Woodville (1790-94, supplement, pp. 12-14). 26. See Binding (1974, pp. 119-21), who noted it as a "poison expeller" and for beneficial action on the adrenal gland, 27. Gerard (1597, p. 654). 28. Woodville (1790-94, supplement, p. 16). Withering (1796, 2: 231) added: "By the experiments of Mr. Margraff ... it apprears that the juice affords a true nitre.-It is now seldom used inv'ardly but as an ingredient in cool tankards for summer drinkling, though the young and tender leaves are good in sallads, or as a pot-herb." 29. Tyler (1982).

CORN SILK (styles, stigmas) The Herbalist's Account Corn silk is one of the best kidney medicines we have. It has been used ever since the Indians discovered corn. Oh Lord, it's one of the old remedies among blacks, sharecroppers, and the rich. When you shuck roasting ears, dry the silks in the shade, and when it's dry you can crush it with your fingers, put it in a jar, and seal it.

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I've known about it all my life, Dr. Cross in Gadsden used to recommend it highly. He made a tincture of it and saved my brother's life when he had a bad kidney, If your kidneys gives you trouble, if they don't act enough for what you'd like them to, or too much, take two tablespoons of the silks in a cup and run hot water over it, and let it set a while, and drink a good swallow of it all during the day. U's mild, U's all right for young children, old people, middle age, or any age, but actually it's a medicine, The silks bring a dollar a pound. Most people using corn could collect enough silks to do them good for a long time. Commentary Zea mays L., including cultivars: corn, Indian maize. Poaceae (Gramineae) The association of Indians with corn is a reminder that the plant is intimately woven into the tapestry of Indian society. Following the discovery of the New World, many European comments on corn appeared, including occasional references to action on the kidney, which became the principal medical reputation, albeit mostly for the corn silk. The Inca writer Garcilasco de la Vega (1539-1610)' for instance, remarked that the Spanish were particularly impressed with the properties of corn and its value in the treatment of affections of the kidney and bladder,' Relatively few seventeenth- and eighteenth-century writers mentioned medical properties. Although it has been said that in 1712 Nicolas Lemery discovered the diuretic activity of the "silk" (the long styles and stigma),2 no evidence suggests that it became widely known in eighteenth-century Europe." Likewise, corn silk received little mention in the nineteenth-century American medical literature, either regular or botanic/ domestic, at least before the last decades of the century. Then, pharmaceutical compa-

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nies like Parke-Davis helped popularize the remedy in the 1880s following a flurry of enthusiasm in France.4 Physician W. P. Bolles, writing in 1886, said: "Corn silk is a recent addition to the already long list of mildish substance, employed to relieve the pain and spasm of chronic and subacute cystitis, and called, not always correctly, diuretics; vesical sedatives would be a more appropriate name. It is also commended in gonorrhoea, gravel, nephritic colic, rheumatism, gout, etc."5 A few textbooks gave full accounts, noting uses for a wide variety of urinary problems.6 Mr. Bass says he has known about corn silk all his life, undoubtedly reflecting popular tradition. His enthusiasm for its diuretic properties arises from many sources, including Dr. Cross's tincture, his own experience, and references in herbal literature such as books by Meyer and Kloss? The latter is as enthusiastic as Bass: "Corn silk is one of the best remedies for kidney and bladder troubles. Where there is trouble with the prostate gland in urinating, also for painful urination. Useful to prevent bedwetting." 8 Corn silk's reputation, extending to the cob itself, exists in countries other than the United States. 9 A dialyzed methanolinsoluble fraction of the aqueous extract has been demonstrated to be a strong diuretic in humans and rabbits.lO Whether this only applies if the silk is collected when the corn is milky and then used green for the manufacture of medicinal preparations is unclear;!! certainly Bass and others use the well-dried corn silk. The mechanism of the diuretic action and the specific clinical effects of the wide range of constituents in corn (which include fixed and volatile oils, alkaloids, steroids, triterpenes, and acids) are not yet clear.

Notes 1. Gheerbraut (1962. p. 53; quoted in Vogel. 1976,

pp. 125-41). 2. j. F. Morton (1981. p. 43). Not documented, and we have not been able to confirm. 3. At least not considered in W. Lewis (1769). B. S. Barton (1812, pp. 173-74) made no mention of corn silk, nor did Barton's appended note 1. 4. See descriptive circulars on new drugs and spe-

cialties introduced by Parke-Davis, Detroit (c. 1883. pp.6-9). 5. In A. H. Buck (1886-93,2:301). Bolles also noted a formula published in the American Journal of Pharmacy for Tincture of Corn Silk. Allied plants noted were couch grass (see monograph) and Ustilago maidis. corn smut. 6. For example. Shoemaker (1896, p. 562). 7.

J. E. Meyer (1979. p. 147), Kloss (1972, p. 236).

8. It is still used as a popular remedy in Central America and Mexico; A. J. Morton (1981). 9. E.g., J. F. Morton (1981), W. Wong (1976). H. H. Hirschhorn (1983). 10. Leung (1980, p. 146). 11. Recommendations for use in National Formupp. 559-60).

Imy(1946,

COTTON (seed, root bark) The Herbalist's Account The sharecroppers back in the plantation days made a wash out of the root bark for sores, risings, poison ivy, pellagra, cracks in the hands. I had a letter last week from a lady on Sand Mountain who had pellagra recently. First time I've heard of it in years. And then womenfolks and quack doctors used it for those who didn't want to have their babies, who wanted abortions. You peel the bark of the root before the frost; take half a teacupful four times a day. Sometimes it's had very dangerous reactions. A tea from the seeds is said to be a tonic. The oil from the seeds was sometimes used in salves, but I've never tried it.

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177

which it was boiled. Without advancing any opinion in reference to its exhibition, whether for or against, I present it to the notice of the profession as a remedial agent, becoming popular in domestic practice in the section of the country mentioned [South Carolina) and, therefore claiming investigation on the part of the medical profession.!

Commentary

Gossypium hirsutum L. [syn. G. herbaceum L.): American upland cotton. G. barbadense L.: Sea Island cotton. Other species. Malvaceae In many ways Mr. Bass's knowledge of the past uses of the cotton plant is less than expected considering the widespread cultivation and ginning in the areas around his home. For instance, he has no knowledge of using a tea made from the seeds for various feverish conditions. On the other hand, this may reflect negative experiences in the past due to inconsistencies of action arising from different modes of administration. The following comments (made in 1850) are a reminder of the various factors that can affect a plant's reputation: Whilst most of us ... adhere to the old way, in intermittents, of relying upon quinine, still it would be interesting to know if the virtues of the cotton-seed tea in stopping intermittent fevers depend upon any principles in the seed, or upon accidental causes, as the warmth of the water in

No reports of such investigations have been found; in fact, principal interest in the cotton plant has focused on the root bark. Although, as indicated by Bass's remarks, a wash has been widely used for skin complaints, root bark has been and remains best known as an abortifacient. Lloyd said that it was for this reason-and as an emmenagogue-that it was introduced into white medicine, first among southern physicians and then by the Lloyd Pharmaceutical Company.2 In 1841 it was reported to have a marked action on the uterus for which it was "valued by the female slaves," 3 and within a relatively short time Appalachian root and herb dealer C. J. Cowie was promoting it. On 8 January 1857 he wrote to a customer, "we would also call your attention to cotton root bark-price 50ft per lb. This ... is a new thing to the profession and you may want a few pounds to experiment with.'" It was included in the secondary list of the U.S. Pharmacopoeia from 1860 to 1880 and had a considerable reputation as "parturifacient" throughout the South.' Nineteenthcentury promotional herbal literature of at least one Shaker community indicated that it promoted uterine contractions as efficiently as ergot, and in the early twentieth century pharmaceutical companies like Eli Lilly marketed it as an oxytocic and emmenagogue, although there seems to have been little general enthusiasm. 6 Even domestic medical literature of this century has shown little enthusiasm. Joseph Meyer (1934) wrote of cotton root: "the preparation gossypiin has been compared by

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some to ergot, but it hardly is worthy of such comparison, because of its inferior power. At all events, it should not be employed by the unskilled."7 Yet undoubtedly it was, if only in commercially sold "female pills."" It is difficult to say how much cotton root bark is used as an abortifacient today, but it is said to have been one of the most frequently used agents among Spanish New Mexicans in recent years.9 Among constituents reported in the root bark are a phenolic acid, phytosterols, betain, resin, and gossypol. The latter, also present in the seed, has attracted recent interest as a male contraceptive,lO originating from an observation of a high incidence of infertile couples in Jiangsu province in eastern China." No evidence is presently available to suggest that cottonseed oil contaminated with gossypol has ever been used in sufficient quantities in the South to have been a factor in infertility, but nineteenth-century discussions on barrenness merit study," Assessments of past actions need to take into account that the fresh, "green" bark has long been considered to be more active than the dried material. l l Clearly, too, the effects of cultivation may be relevant.

Notes 1.

Barratt (1850. p. 320).

2. For background see Lloyd (1921, p. 155). Vogel (1970, p. 295) disputed this in suggesting that

information came from Indians. 3.

Bouchelle and Shaw (1841).

4.

Cowie Papers.

5. E.g., Wood et al. (1883, p. 722). See also Phillips (1879, p. 94), Farquharson and Woodbury (1882, p. Z89). 6.

A. B. Miller (1976, p. 161), Lilly (1919, p. 56).

7.

J. E. Meyer (1934, p.

69).

Fuller (1920, p. 436); he also gave an interesting list of other items in combination female medicines, a range of tonics, oxytocins, and purgatives;

8.

e.g., cimicifuga, aloes, and ferrous sulphate. 9,

Conway and Slocumb (1979-80).

10. Oliver-Bever (1983, p. 32), See also Berardi and Goldblatt (1980), and D. P. Waller et al. (1985). 11.

For an interesting perspective see Max (1984).

12. The subject was raised in Swados (1941), Dr. Barratt (1850) noted that cottonseed tea was used freely among Negroes in fevers and "uniformly with success." Without doubt its abortifacient action was well known. 13.

E.g., Lilly (1919, p. 56).

COUCH GRASS (roots and rhizomes)

The Herbalist's Account Couch grass is a wild wheat, similar to nut grass. It grows six inches to two feet tall along streams and in swamps and wet places everywhere in Alabama, It is plentiful and easy to find, There are several kinds, but they work the same. You just dig the roots, which are very fine, and wash them, and cut the tops off, The dried roots can be stored in paper bags, The health food store people sell it in pieces about a half inch long. A handful of roots, green or dry, are boiled in one-half gallon of water for thirty minutes to one hour. Strain and refrigerate and use as needed. It looks like corn silk. It works like it and tastes like it-kind of like leather. It makes a wonderful spring tonic, It's a mild laxative and the best kidney medicine in the world. It is good for gravel and good for kidneys when they act too much or not enough, It is good for back trouble and for swollen joints. You can use other grasses, too, Commentary Elymus repens (L.) Gould *, including varieties [syns. Agropyron repens (L.) Beauvais; Triticum repens L.; Elytrigia repens (L.) Nevski]; couch grass, dog's grass, quick-grass, witch-grass, horsetail (local name), Poaceae (Gramineae)

Monographs

Carex crinata Lam. *, including varieties: couch-grass, crouch-grass, nut-grass, horsetail (local names). Scirpus atrovirens Willd. *: couchgrass, crouchgrass, nut-grass, horsetail (local names). Cyperaceae Couch grass is generally recognized to be Agropyron repens l The long, slender, manyjointed rhizome has a well-established history as a diuretic. John Gerard (1597) described tWQ couch grasses, one knotty, which he indicated was thought to be more active than the "common" couch grass. Use for the kidneys and bladder was noted, as was the long history as an application for wounds.z A solid reputation for couch grass as a tonic and diuretic persisted through the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. James's Medicinal Dictionary (1743-45) gave many uses, including as a lithotriptic for dissolving bladder stones, a common ailment during the eighteenth century.3 Later, in 1836, American authors Wood and Bache said that "it is used in some parts of Europe, in the form of a decoction, as a slightly aperient and nutritive drink. Great quantities of it are said to be consumed in the hospitals of Paris.'" By the end of the 1800s, however, many writers in America and elsewhere were not totally enthusiastic. W. P. Bolles (1886) provided one characteristic summary: "There is nothing notable in its composition or medical qualities, still it has some reputation in chronic inflammation of the bladder and kindred disorders." 5 Bolles added that it was a bland substance helpful for chronic cystitis and irritable bladder. Certainly it continued to be mentioned until well into the present century. In 1920 H. C. Fuller noted its use in kidney troubles. He added an interesting comment indicating the persistence of complex compounded preparations: "Its presence may be suspected in any mixture recommended for cystitis and irritable conditions

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of the bladder. It is usually combined with one or more of the following: buchu, Hydrangea, corn silk, pichi, Viburnum prunifolium, atropin, borates, potassium bicarbonate and benzoic acid."" Other grasses, notably Triticum aestivum L. (wheat), have had similar reputations (see Broom-sage). In fact, the name couch grass is used generically by many herbalists to cover plants similar in general appearance (even without the long rhizomes) or name (e.g., nut grasses). Most "couch grasses" gathered by Mr. Bass-really sedges, not grasseshave not specifically been reported to have diuretic properties, but he and many others believe that all grasses "act the same." Limited reports are available on the medical properties of the sedges. Some indicate that Scirpus species (collected by Bass) have been employed in diarrhea and hemorrhage, suggesting an astringent property.7 Couch grass has, as Bass says, "come up" recently and is readily purchased from health food stores. Constituents reported include triticin (a carbohydrate resembling inulin), inositol, and mannitol. fixed and volatile oils, and glycosides, but their role (if any) in diuretic action is uncertain. Malates have also been reported and are said to act as saline purgatives, but this seems doubtful. 8 The presence of mucilage appears well established from the early literature, though it is often omitted from recent accounts? Demulcent preparations made from the root and rhizome are credited with benefiting urinary tract disorders, though the role of the reputed diuretic activity is unclear. In 1928 a wellknown book on pharmacotherapeutics stated, under "demulcents," that couch grass "is employed as a soothing remedy in cases of irritable bladder and of cystitis with strangury and painful micturition .... It acts well in conjunction with the fluid extract of corn silk, of each 1 fluid dram (4 cc) with % fluid dram (2 cc) of tincture of hyoscyamus four times a day." 10

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Couch grass and other such remedies for cystitis were generally replaced during the 1920s and 1930s by more powerful urinary antiseptics. Even so, cystitis is a chronic problem for large numbers of people, and this has encouraged recent interest in the recommendations of Bass and many others. Although testimony suggests that couch grass is helpful to some people, general applicability is uncertain. A recent study indicates no antibacterial activityY We have indicated elsewhere that the current advocacy of herbs often differs sharply from past reputations. Couch grass is a case in point, apart from some references to diuretic action. Nutrients are said to be especially important in the herb's role in normalizing and producing a supportive action on organs and tissues." Bass's gathering of plants other than Elymus rep ens (the genera Elymus and Agropyron create much taxonomic debate) as couch grass is, at least, in line with reported adulterations in the past; for instance, with Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers," This Bermuda grass has a well-established reputation as a diuretic.

Notes 1. Gould's paper (1947) has been accepted by various authorities (e.g., Flora Europaea), but not all. For pertinent discussions see Melderis (1978), Dewey (1982). 2. Gerard (1597, pp. 22-23). We are not concerned with the long history of "Agropyron" as a weed and food; see Grieve (1971, p. 370), Roshevits (1980). 3. James (1743-45, vol. 1), under "Agrostis." He also gave the common names quick-grass, or couch grass. The presence of "sulphur" is noted. For some background to the stone, see Ellis (1969). 4. G. B. Wood and Bache (1836, p. 1109). 5. Buck (1886-93, 2:312). Some writers (e.g., Stearns, 1801, p. 163) reported its aperient and urinary properties without comment. Stearns added that "several pints of the fresh juice of the roots are

to be drank in a day," suggesting the mild nature of the plant. 6. Fuller (1920, p. 415) indicated that no examination of the constituents had been made. Its reputation, however, was well known; Henkel [1907, p. 13) implied that it was perhaps better known in Europe. The 1923 British Pharmaceutical Codex (p. 80) described it as a "demulcent diuretic, employed in catarrhal diseases of the genito-urinary tract. It is given in the form of a decoction and a liquid extract." 7. Porcher (1849, p. 851). A number of grasses still in use and generally recommended for diuretic and sudorific properties are noted in J. F. Morton (1981). 8. See Leung (1980, pp. 158-59, with references); for other relevant information, see Solis-Cohen and Githens (1928, p. 991), Sollmann (1957, p. 1186). 9. Fluck (1973, p. 31). 10. Solis-Cohen and Githens (1928, p. 995). 11. Moskalenke (1986). 12. E.g., Fulder (1984, p. 174). 13. Reported in Youngken (1936, p. 106).

CROSSVINE (leaves) The Herbalist's Account It grows up trees and has a flower like trumpet vine. The leaves make a good tonic; good for stock horses, mules, cows, etc. In the old days everyone fed it to mules and horses. It purifies the blood, works on kidneys and livers. Helps them to shed hair and build up the system. I gathered wagonloads of it for the cows, and for ladies who want it for Christmas decoration. I haven't known it used for humans, but people are using everything nowadays. Commentary Bignonia capreolata L. * [syn. Anisostichus capreolata (L.) Bureau]: crossvine, trumpet flower. Bignoniaceae

Monographs

Mr. Bass learned about cross vine when he was a child looking after the family's mules. The plant is not mentioned in the regular medical literature and only rarely in the popular literature on medicinal plants. According to one recent description, it is substituted for sarsaparilla in patent medicines and the decoction has been used as a detergent, alterative, aperient, and diuretic.! This is in line with Bass's views on its blood-purifying (by acting on the kidneys) and tonic properties. It is noteworthy that his knowledge of the plant is derived solely from his experience with giving it to animals, but, as he says, all medicines "can be used for humans, if nothing else is available." Just how much the popular medical tradition has been bolstered by experiences with animals is impossible to say, but it may be considerable. The fact that, in his area, the plant remains green throughout most of the winterit is semievergreen-reinforces the notion of tonic action. No chemical analysis has been found; its reputation does not suggest marked physiological action and the presence of pharmacologically active substances.

Notes 1. Coon (196:3. p. 228).

CROW'S-FOOT (tops,leaves)

The Herbalist's Account I haven't used it, but folks have asked me about it. It's got a good reputation for stomach complaints and diarrhea. It's good for children. Just make a tea. One or two leaves to a cup. Commentary Geranium carolinianum L. *: crow's-foot. Geraniaceae

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Mr. Bass's crow's-foot is G. carolinianum, not one of various plants in the family Ranunculaceae commonly known by that name. No recorded medical references to the use of this plant or information on its constituents have been found. Bass distinguishes it from G. maculatum (see Alumroot) on the basis that it is milder, or at least less astringent.! This is the principal reason he says it is suitable for children. He has undoubtedly done much to sustain the local use of this little-known herb. Notes 1. See. however. the remarks of Griffith (1847.

p. 211) on the use of several species of Geranium.

CUCUMBER TREE (bark)

The Herbalist's Account Cucumber tree doesn't grow everywhere, but it grows in the mountains and in Little River Canyon. The fruit looks like a cucumber when it's green. The bark is used. It is a magnolia tree. There are many magnolias, too many to count. I can't get the cucumber tree often, but I've used the bay instead, or any magnolia. A lot of people who want cucumber bark, I tell them if they have a friend, to let them to cut a limb off their magnolia. It's a wonderful rheumatism medicinethe best-but you won't find it in the medical list. I've known about it since 1925. I discovered it from a neighbor of ours who was a moonshiner, but he was a good feller. He came and visited Daddy; we didn't buy the whiskey, didn't even use it. His name was Jack Croker. Now, Daddy had rheumatism some, and he said, "Bass I'm going to go up to Little River pretty soon and I'm going to bring you cucumber tree bark." I started to handle it in 1965. I do know what it will do for rheumatism and it's highly recommended. More people call for the wild cucumber

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bark to treat rheumatism and arthritis than any other bark or herb I know of. It can be put in drinking alcohol or made as a tea. Take a teaspoon of it three times a day and a tablespoonful at night if it's not too much of a laxative. We've had people that had to walk on canes or crutches that's laid them down after using the cucumber bark. Of course. there are some kinds of arthritis and rheumatism that it don't help, but it doesn't do them any harm. If you can't get cucumber bark, the bark of magnolia or bay is good. Now, we had a man some time ago that come here to us and had the rheumatism so bad that his feet, legs, and hands were swollen. He had to wear a shoe two or three sizes larger than he was supposed to wear. He was almost crying. He said his doctor told him. "You'll just have to take aspirin or Bufferin or something like that to lose the pain. I can't do nothing for you." He wasn't an old man, he was between forty-five and fifty. He had to quit work. He said, "Now Bass, do you think you can do me any good?" "Pardner, I'm no doctor. I don't claim to be. But I think if you try some cucumber barkthat's cucumber tree bark. It's a beautiful tree that grows in the woods in parts of the country. It don't grow right here where I live. and I buy the bark. It's kin to the magnolia tree and you can make the tea out of the magnolia bark or you can use the cucumber tree bark." Anyway, he took enough of the bark to make half a gallon of tea. That was on Saturday. On the next Sunday after that he come back and was so much better. He brought his sister-in-law with him. This gentleman lived in Gadsden, but it seemed his sister-inlaw lived in Huntsville, Alabama. She was a fine-looking lady but she had rheumatism. She said, "That there bark has done my brother-in-law so much good I want to try it myself." So she got enough to make a half gallon and he got another half-a-gallon pack. And I

haven't seen either one of them since. That's been around a month or six weeks. So we know that the good Lord put these barks and berries and herbs here for our benefit if we just use them right. Cucumber bark has taken off around here in the last years. Lots of people ask me about it. One man told me it was amazing how it worked on a man with a stroke. After taking it for a month, he can now swing his arm and leg. But I haven't had a chance to check this out yet. Commentary Magnolia acuminata Michx. *: cucumber-tree. Magnoliaceae All the magnolias wei'e fairly well known medically in the nineteenth century as tonics and diaphoretics, uses associated with the warm, pungent. and rather bitter flavor of the bark.' Although a sense exists that magnolias were used interchangeably. cucumber bark has been less popular medically than bay (see monograph), except perhaps in Mr. Bass's region-a reflection, perhaps, of local interest in a recent testimonial (July 1985) describing cucumber bark's role in helping a man recover quickly from a stroke. Bass recognizes that this may be a coincidence, but, as an example of the dynamic nature of his herbal practice. he hopes to "try it out'· again. Despite the currently strong reputation for rheumatism (it was singled out by Benjamin Smith Barton as early as 1798 as having been "used, and we are told very advantageously, in rheumatic complaints"). the historical record is not particularly strong. 2 Around 1800 Andrew Duncan's clinical "trial" with the plant in Edinburgh Infirmary was evidently not successful,3 while in 1814 F. Pursh, in one of the few economic botany notes in his Flora Americanae, said that the "fruits of this cucumber-tree were used as a wholesome bitter among the inhabitants.'" Later authors merely noted it as little different from other magnolias.

Monographs

No detailed information on the chemical constituents is available to suggest pharmacological actions different from other Magnolia species. Constituents include choline, D(-)magnocurarine, magnoflorine, and salicifoline. 5 Confusion between M. acuminata and other plants with the same or similar vernacular names must be avoided. Examples include Magnolia tripetala (syn. M. umbrella) and M. macrophylla Michx., both generally known as umbrella tree, and Medeola virginiana, ari herbaceous biennial commonly called Indian cucumber root. 6 The strength of local testimony for using M. acuminata to treat rheumatism may well justify further study?

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mended. All the high-powered herbists praise it as a purgative medicine, but it's got to be used very cautiously. If you don't you'l! have a serious reaction with it. It's kind of kinfolks in a way to the mayapple, but it's a more powerful purgative. It works on the bowels and the Ii ver. It's a harsh medicine but used a lot by oldtimers. They put it in whiskey. An old man -he's dead now-somebody told him to get the black root or Culver's root for his constipation, and to boil a pound of prunes with a half teacup of the roots, and then just eat two prunes at night. He said it didn't cramp and it was the best thing that he ever tried for constipation. It's not a folk medicine; it's recognized as official medicine.

2. B. S. Barton (179B, p. 14).

Commentary Veronicastrum virginicum (L.)* Farw. [syns. Leptandra virginica (L.) Nutt.; Veronica virginiana L.]: Culver's root, black root, Culver's physic. Veronica officinalis L.: common speedwell.

3. Risse (19B6, pp. 60, 353, 357, 37B). Identification

Scrophulariaceae

Notes 1. E.g .. Paine (1B48, p. 149), Phillips (1B79, pp. 5556).

of "magnolia" as M. ar-uminata is unclear in the volume, but see Barton, n. 2 above, who quoted Duncan's Medical Commentaries for 1793 (1B:445). 4. Pursh (1B14, pp. 381-B2).

5. See Willaman and Li (1970). 6. The plant Bass calls wild cucumber is Cardamine conc(]tenata. 7. Surprisingly, Bolvard's account in Medicinal Plants and Home Remedies of Appalachia (1981) makes no reference to use for rheumatism.

CULVER'S ROOT (root) The Herbalist's Account Culver's root has four leaves beginning at the bottom of the stem going opposite from one another, and toward the top it has more leaves; the bloom is white in a spike. sometimes yellow. It grows in gumbo land or limey land. I've never used it, but it's highly recom-

Culver's root, often discussed under its botanical synonyms, is one of a number of well-known black roots.! The reputation of Culver's root developed slowly in the nineteenth century, though patchy interest was expressed prior to the writings of Rafinesque. 2 Whether some interest developed among colonists by analogy with the related European plant, common speedwell (well known as an expectorant. blood purifier, antiscorbutic. and tonic, but less bitter), has been suggested but seems unlikely.3 Certainly. the markedly bitter taste of Culver's root could well have accounted independently for its nineteenth-century reputation as a cholagogue (stimulating the flow of bile). Clapp, in 1852, mentioned that the late Dr. Pendergrass of Louisville considered it one of the best cholagogues "that we possess, and an excellent substitute for mercurial cathartics." 4 Pendergrass, so far as we know, was not an

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Eclectic practitioner, like many who encouraged use of the plant (instead of mercury) during the second half of the nineteenth century. John Uri Lloyd (1921) reported that "Professor W. Byrd Powell, a Cincinnati physician of exceptional education," valued Leptandra very highly, and it was upon his strong recommendation to Professor John King that it was included in King's American Dispensatory.' It was also introduced into the U.S. Pharmacopoeia, though writers such as Laurence Johnson (1884) were not especially enthusiastic about its value: "when fresh, leptandra acts as a violent emetocathartic, too violent, indeed, to be used with safety. When dried, its drastic properties are much modified, and in this condition it is said to be laxative and cholagogue. It is used in disorders of the digestive system, especially when accompanied by hepatic torpor."6 This contributed to suggested usage for such complaints as malaria and jaundice.' Unlike many botanicals, interest in Culver's root persisted among regular physicians-in America and elsewhere-until well into this century. In 1923, for instance, the British Pharmaceutical Codex underscored its reputation as a cholagogue.8 Bass's remarks and cautions are in line with the nineteenth-century medical textbooks, which contributed to the popular tradition from which he learned about the plant. No recent analysis of the constituents was found, but the older literature reports a bitter principle, acids, a phytosterol (verosterol), and tannin." Notes 1. Other species of Veronica, e.g .. V. officinalis (common speedwell), have been recorded under Culver's root or Leptandra. Culver's root has also been called bowman root by many authors.

2. Rafinesque (1828-30,2:20-23)' under Leptandra purpurea; but Vogel (1970, pp. 297-98) has noted

that Cotton Mather wrote in 1716 about Culver's root for consumption. For speedwell see Quincy (1719, p. 133). 3. V. officinalis did not attract a great deal of interest. G. B. Wood and Bache (1847. p. 1304) said it was out of use. Various plants have the British vernacular names culverfoot. culverkeys, and culverwort (Britten and Holland, 1878-86, pp. 136-37)' but no association has been noted. 4. Clapp (1852. p. 847). 5. Lloyd (1921, pp. 180-81). Introduced into the 1860 U.S. Pharmacopoeia; dropped from the 1910

edition. The Eclectics used the term Leptandra widely. 6. L. johnson (1884, p. 206). 7. Ellingwood (1915, p. 312). 8. British Pharmaceutical Codex (1923, p. 609).

9. E.g., notes 7 and 8 above.

DAMIANA (leaves) The Herbalist's Account I only heard about this one recently. Some young people came by and asked me for it. I said I didn't know it. I looked it up in the herb book and it's a tonic or something. Commentary Turnera diffusa Willd. var. aphrodisiaca (Ward) Urban: damiana, Turneraceae Damiana, generally known as a Mexican shrub, is included here because it has attracted widening interest in recent years and is commonly available in health food stores. It is clear that some people who ask Mr. Bass about it are interested in the alleged aphrodisiac properties. North American and European use of damiana is relatively recent. It was in the 1870s that an American pharmaceutical firm, Helmick and Company, of Washington, D.C., introduced the plant as "a powerful aphrodisiac, to improve the sexual ability of the

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enfeebled and aged, and apparently to have a specific effect upon all the organs of the pelvis, giving increased tone and activity to all the secretions in that vicinity." 1 Doubts about its effectiveness surfaced quickly. In 1884 the National Dispensatory noted that damiana had been widely and boldly advertised as a remedy for sexual impotence, "but there is not the slightest reason for confiding in this statement ofits virtues." Damiana's reputation as an aphrodisiac persisted, perhaps primarily through considerable advertising and the marketing of preparations combining damiana with other physiologically active ingredients like cocaine. General interest faded slowly from the 1920s onward, in part because of pressures against fraudulent medicines. Nevertheless, if only because of persistent interest in aphrodisiacs, interest rekindled and then mushroomed in the 1960s, partly as a result of the hippie movement seeking vegetable materials that provided intoxicating or narcotic effects. Constituents include a phenolic glycoside (arbutin), cyanogenetic glycosides, bitter principles, and a volatile oil. The possibility exists that the oil, as in other plants, contains active principles which are irritating to the urethral mucosa and hence are the basis of the alleged aphrodisiac reputation. 2 Notes 1. Quoted in Tyler (1983). This reference provides other details on damiana; the article has a markedly critical tone. 2. Sollman (1957, p. 137).

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DANDELION (roots and leaves) The Herbalist's Account Dandelion is another old-time home remedy. Everyone knows about it. It's been an official medicine. I've known about it all my life; sometimes Mother would give it to us cooked with other greens or raw as a salad. It's a tonic. Take a tablespoonful of a teahalf a dozen roots in a gallon of water-three times a day for the stomach, the liver for hepatitis, or for the kidney or bladder. It's also good for blood sugar. It makes a mild laxative. I use dandelion in my BH Tonic and things like that. The milk of dandelion leaves can be used to remove warts, corns, or moles. Put the milk on the wart every day for several weeks, and the wart will disappear. It is rich in vitamin A. They claim that an ounce of the leaves of dandelion has got four times as much vitamin A and some other vitamins than that much lettuce. The root can be roasted for coffee.

Commentary Taraxacum officinale Weber -, and subspecies [syns. T. officinale Weber in Wiggers; Leontodon taraxacum L.; Taraxacum densleon is Desf.; T. taraxacum Karst.; T. vulgare Schrank.]: dandelion, pisseabed, wild chicory, blowball, common dandelion. Tragopagon pratensis L.: goat's beard. T. dubius Scopoli -, including subspecies [syn. T. major Jacq.J: goat's beard, tall dandelion (local name). Pyrrhopappus carolinian us var. georgianius (Shinners) Ahles -: false dandelion, tall dandelion (local name). Asteraceae (Compositae) The naturalized common dandelion - Taraxacum officinale, now recognized as a complex oflargely apomictic plants-has been one of the best-known medicinal plants, although it probably never became widely popular at any one time,1 Indeed, it may be better known as

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Dandelion an early spring salad, a long-established use familiar to Bass and others . William Cullen, the eighteenth-century authority on materia medica, made some interesting remarks: "It can only be employed as a part of aliment when deprived of [its] medicinal qualities. It is in this state only as it first arises out of the earth, and more especially when its first shoots are become of some length, by their rising out of molehills or other loose earth." 2 Bass prefers young leaves to young shoots . Writing on dandelion 's medicinal properties, John Gerard (1597) summarized the nature as cold and dry and it "doth withall clense and open by reason of the bitterness. " It was specifically noted as used for the same purposes as chicory, including for "hot burning of the liver," "hot burning feavers," as well as to "helpe the stopping of the gall, yellow jaunders, lacke of sleepe, stopping of urine." A purgative action and use for inflammation of the eyes were also indicated. 3 Johnson's edition of the Herball (1633) gave a slightly different version of uses, omitting references to the liver.' Of the multitude of uses accumulated

for dandelion, employment for kidney and urinary problems has probably been best known, as suggested by such common names as urinaria and piss-a-bed. 5 Influential eighteenth-century authors often stressed the diuretic action serving as a deobstruent to resolve "very obstinate coagulations and obstructions of the viscera." 6 Seventeenth- and eighteenth-century accounts occasionally noted employment of the "cooling" properties in poultices, sometimes in connection with the management of cancer? This is unrelated to occasional later reports that dandelion may have some value in the treatment of "cancer."B Mention of dandelion for hypochondriasis in the eighteenth century perhaps ceflected no more than growing interest in the condition and the difficulty of treating it. 9 Nineteenth-century writings on the materia medica are generally positive in promoting the plant as a laxative, diuretic, and tonic. At the same time its reputation was encouraged for "liver complaints" and as a "spring medicine," probably more within domestic than regular medicine.lO Griffith (1847) wrote that, "like many other remedies, it appeared to be wholly forgotten for a long time, but is again employed both in Europe and this country to some extent, especially in a deranged condition of the digestive organs connected with an abnormal state of the liver and in dropsical effusions arising from the same cause." 11 Comments of many authors often questioned the quality of some dandelion medicines; for example, Griffith (1847) and Clapp (1852), who noted that the extract was often "inert from age or preparation," something which may have contributed to dandelion's decline in popularity.12 Later, Bolles said that wild dandelion roots grown on poor land were conceded to be the best; that is, the most bitter.t' For much of the twentieth century dandelion has been included in regular textbooks of

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materia medica primarily as a bitter for stomach complaints. This follows its employment in many popular "bitter" medicines with high alcohol content which were in vogue in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. In 1944 it was said that "Taraxacum is often employed by country people as a domestic remedy for dyspepsia, but the need for using the fresh root is a disadvantage and since there are many alternative bitter drugs from which to choose, it may now be regarded as of minor importance." 14 Bass's comments are in line with past uses. As was often the case, Eclectic practitioners elaborated on and extended previous uses in ways unacceptable to regular physicians. It was, for example, recommended for auto-intoxication, a concept still found in naturopath and other forms of herbal medicine.'5 A number of constituents have been recorded; European dandelion root contains up to 25 percent inulin, which is a characteristic constituent in the Compositae. Other constituents include latex, resin, triterpenoids, and bitter principles, which include taraxacin, taraxerin, taraxerol, and taraxasterol. One of the bitter principles is probably identical to the lactucopicrin found in chicory.is Taraxacin is said to stimulate gastric secretions, but the reputation rests on the bitter taste of these compounds and the presumed associated tonic properties. But, as Bass indicates, the reputation as a tonic has been reinforced in this century by an appreciation of the high content of vitamins (A, C, niacin) and potassiumY The reputation as a diuretic is strong, but there is no clear chemical explanation for it. The suggestion that high doses of inulin produce an osmotic diuretic effect hardly seems to be relevant to the quantities generally taken. As indicated earlier, an association between diuretic action and a reputation for treating diabetes may be at play in dandelion and other plants. Testimony to the value as a

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liver remedy, still reported in parts of the world, is not so strong; perhaps it rests only on an association with bitterness. 18 The various true-breeding apomictic plants classified under T. afficinale may contribute to different reputations and contradictions in the story of dandelion; while the dandelion is cosmopolitan in distribution, the various apomicts are not. 19 Noteworthy, too, is the plasticity of the plant; that is to say, the capability of one genotype to exhibit different phenotypes with age or as a result of environmental modifications. Another consideration in assessing the reputation of dandelion is that on occasion similar-looking plants are collected as substitutes or in error. Bass recognizes that Tragapagan dubius, which he and others in his community call tall dandelion, is different from the common dandelion, but he believes that it has the same properties. This has not been proven. Tragapagan species have attracted little medical interest in the past, though T. pratensis root was occasionally noted for "coughs and stragury." 20 Another "tall dandelion" recognized by Mr. Bass is Pyrrhapappus carolinian us var. georgian us. Notes 1. For view that dandelion was naturalized in North America in the seventeenth century, see Haughton (1976, p. 105).

2. Cullen (1812, 1:162). Woodville (1790-94, 1:16) was even more enthusiastic: "The young leaves of this plant in a blanched state have the taste of endive and make an excellent addition to these plants eaten early in the Spring." 3. Gerard (1597, pp. 229, 222); Gerard/Johnson (1633, p. 291) wrote "Boiled, it strengthens the weake stomach, and eaten raw it stops the bellie, and helpes the dysentery, especially being boy led with lentiles: the juice drunke is good against the unvoluntary effusion of seed; boyled in vinegar, it is good against the paine that trouble some in making of water; a decoction of the whole plant helpes the yellow jaundice."

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4. Gerard/Johnson (1633, p. 291). This is presumably an error of omission rather than disagreement.

5. Listed in Motherby (1785), under "Dens Leonis." 6. E.g., Motherby (1785). Quoted from W. Lewis (1769,1:340). 7. E.g., Read (1635, p. 39). 8. Robson (1912). No general interest emerged. 9. For example, Linnaeus (1829, p. 393). 10. Buck (1886-93,2:356).

11. Griffith (1847, p. 415). 12. Griffith (1847, p. 415), Clapp (1852, p. 806). Later. Potter (1917, p. 473) stated: "as found in the shops it is usually inert."

13. See note 10 above. 14. Allport (1944, p. 170). 15. Ellingwood (1915, p. 326). 16. For details see Simon et al. (1984, p. 32). 17. Bianchini and CorbeUa (1977, p. 187). 18. For Yucatan, Mexico, and elsewhere, see J. F. Morton (1981, pp. 972-73). 19. For some background see Richards (1973, pp. 172-78). 20. E.g. Linnaeus (1829, p. 147).

DEERSTONGUE (leaves, roots) The Herbalist's Account It's highly recommended as a kidney medicine. Use the leaves to take the swelling out of you. I've not found it around here, but it grows further south. People used to ask me about it. Someone told me it was used a lot by the poor blacks and whites. Commentary Carphephorus odoratissimus (J. F. Gmel.) Herbert [syns. Trilisa odoratissima (Water ex J. F. Gmel.) Cass.; Liatris odoratissima Michx.J: deerstongue, vanilla plant, hound's tongue, Carolina vanilla. Asteraceae (Compositae) Few references to this plant, which grows

in the coastal plains of the southern United States and has characteristic tonguelike leaves, appear in the regular medical literature. 1 As with a number of botanicals, some interest was aroused among Eclectic authors. King (1854) noted the use of the root as a diuretic with tonic, stimulant, and emmenagogue properties. 2 Toward the end of the nineteenth century such pharmaceutical companies as Parke-Davis considered it worthwhile to market "compressed in one ounce packages for retailing purposes" and as a fluid extract. They described it as "aromatic, stimulant, tonic, diaphoretic. An agreeable addition to nauseating or griping mixtures." It remained available for some time, but no evidence exists that it ever became a popular remedy.4 Hints of interest in the twentieth century persist in the lay herbal literature, which sometimes lists the reputation~a weak one ~as a diuretic. 5 The leaves are still sold as an aromatic herb, sometimes as a substitute for vanilla, a reminder of a long-standing use for perfuming cigars'" Deerstongue can be used to make an agreeable-smelling poultice; Bass's reference to action on the kidney follows earlier references and evidence from some of Bass's visitors of an oral tradition of use-sometimes in conjunction with mullein-for swollen limbs. Among constituents recorded are an oleoresin (contributing to its use as a fixative in perfumery), a high concentration of coumarin (well known as a blood anticoagulant), triterpenes, and, in the fresh leaves, a "high" concentration of cis- and trans-ohydroxycinnamic acids.' Whether the latter contributes to the reputation as a diuretic is unclear. Deerstongue falls into the category of remedies that have generally only been used in the absence of more popular remedies. j

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Notes 1. Tracing popularity is difficult due to other "deertongues" such as Swertia radiata.

2. R. B. Browne (1958, p. 77). Perhaps it was included for the aromatic properties, a suggestion made by Mr. Bass. 3. For some Eclectic interest see King (1854, pp. 598-99); Parke-Davis (1890, p. 71). 4. Parke-Davis (1909, p. 284).

5. E.g., Wren's Polter's Cyclopedia (1932, p. 114); a later edition (1975, p. 107) described it only as diaphoretic, demulcent, and febrifuge. 6. E.g., Rafinesque (1828-30, 2 :237). 7. Duke (1985, p. 491).

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tablespoon three times a day. Some put it in alcohol. Across the waters, in places, that's what they put in to spray their plants and things. I don't use it for an insecticide, but it's highly recommended. When I do use poisons, I use Sevin dust from the seed store, but I could go out in the woods and dig devil's shoestring or pokeweed, either one, and make my own, but I'm just too lazy to do it. Commentary Galega officinalis L.: goat's rue. Tpphrosia virginiana (L.) Pers. *: goat's rue. devil's shoestring. Fabaceae (Leguminosae)

OEVIL'S SHOESTRING (root); GOAT'S RUE The Herbalist's Account The root of devil's shoestring is like a shoestring, It just keeps running in the ground. The plant grows in bunches six inches to two feet tall. It has a pealike bloom and seedpods similar to flat English peas. You can tell it's a medicine: it has a dismal smell. The first time I heard about it was in the 1920s, but I started to sell it in the 1940s. We had a man who was helping us cut crossties on the side of Lookout Mountain. We got into a whole field full of something that looked like peas: it had pretty little flowers on it. It had a kind of a strange odor so I asked Mr. Webb, "Do you know what this is?" "Why yes, that's devil's shoestring. It's one of the best rheumatism medicines there is." He was not a doctor, just a family man. He had used it in his family. Then he said, "Make a tea out of it and put the tea on potato plants and it will kill the bugs." You can't beat it for rheumatism. And it makes a wonderful eyewash. The old-timers used it in whiskey. It takes the place of wild cucumber tree bark and magnolia. It smells the same, but people that use wild cucumber bark can't be convinced. Two ounces of the roots make a half gallon of tea. Take one

The vernacular name goat's rue applies to two plants, the Old World Galega officinalis and the New World Tephrosia virginiana. Galega has a long medical history, but it has never been a prominent remedy. John Gerard (1597) described it as of "a meane temperature between hot and cold. The first use is as a singular herbe against all venome and poyson, and against wormes, to kill and drive them forth. if the juice be givpn to little children to drinke." 1 Gerard also recommended it as a general protection against poisons and "pestilence," a recommendation probably linked to the alleged diaphoretic property, believed to remove poisons. The same properties were recorded over the next two hundred years or so. Robert James (1743-45), for instance, described goat's rue as cordial, sudorific, and alexipharmic, and good against "pestilential distempers expelling the venom through the pores of the skin." 2 However, its reputation was probably declining at the time. John Hill in 1751 indicated that despite its reputation as a great "alexipharmic and sudorific it is not, at present, in any esteem; it is only kept in the shops as an ingredient in some compositions." 3 Galega apparently acquired a new lease on life toward the end of the nineteenth cen-

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tury on the basis of reports that it possessed galactogogue properties (encouraged the flow of milk).4 This is not mentioned in the early medical literature, but it is reflected in the generic name Galega, said to refer to the property of increasing the flow of milk in domestic animals, especially the goat.' Around 1900 the reputations of galactogogues-which included anise, vanilla, dill, fennel, beer or ale, the leaves of the castor oil plant, calabar bean, jaborandi, and strychnine-were seriously questioned. These, one medical textbook reported, "are of little or no practical value for the purpose. Very few of them exert any appreciable influence upon the mammary function, and these only for a time."6 Recently, chemical explanations have been put forward suggesting that some plants do have galactogogue properties (see Fennel). but not Gnlegn officinalis (or Tephrosin virginiana). Current herbal literature often highlights hypoglycemic activity for goat's rue, but confirmatory laboratory evidence is not available? The indigenous Tcphrosia virginiana is well known to Mr. Bass. The long, slender, tough, woody roots of the perennial herb justify "shoestring" as the vernacular name. The genesis of the adjective "devil's" is perhaps linked with its magical reputation. B T. virgininna is closely related to Galega officinnlis. Linnaeus, in fact, after initially naming it Crocca virgininna (1753). merged it with Gnlegn officinolis in 1759. In 1807 Persoon proposed the new genus Tephrosin as a segregate of Galegn, hence the name T. virgininnn (1.) Pers. Thus, for a time in the colonial period and afterward, European and American goat's rue were considered one and the same plant. 9 It is logical to assume that uses for Tephrosia were based on European knowledge, even though nineteenthcentury writers (like Griffith and Johnson) noted that the plant had been used as a vermifuge before the settlement of the country by whites. Analogy was made to Spigelin (see

Pinkroot).'o Griffith (1847) added that Tephrosin was probably not employed in regular practice 11 No evidence points toward real popularity in the United States, except perhaps in domestic practice and among botanic practitioners. This extended beyond use as a vermifuge, to "gonorrhoea and clap," at least in the Appalachians during the 1850s,12 and spotty interest, at least, in a belief that it was yet another remedy for snakebiteY Some magical associations have been reported. 14 Interestingly, Bass has not heard of the anthelmintic properties or the uses for venereal disease, but the latter falls within his understanding of the use of devil's shoestring for rheumatism on the basis of diaphoretic and alleged blood-purifying properties." No recorded usage for rheumatism was found, although it is included in recipes seemingly recommended for rheumaticky complaints. 16 The insecticidal property of the root is almost certainly due to rotenone, which is also present in large quantities in the wellknown commercial sources Derris elliptica and D. maloccensis.17 These and other plants containing rotenone are well known for poisoning fish and for use in external preparations for human and cattle parasites. Some concerns have been expressed about the toxicity of rotenone. According to Bass, devil's shoestring is not nearly so dangerous as poke or nightshade, but it should be taken in moderate doses-not more than a tablespoon a day.

Notes 1. Gerard (1597, p. 1069).

2. James (1743-45, vol. 2), under "Galega." James implied that this was the basis of its use in all kinds of fever, smallpox, and measles. 3.

J.

Hill (1751, p. 397).

4. F. P. Foster (1896, 1:432). 5. Clute (1939. p. 93).

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6. See n. 4 above. 7. See British Herbal Pharmacopoeia (1983, p. 96, with reference.) 8.

E.g., Hyatt (1970-73,1:244).

9.

For nomenclature, C. E. Wood (1949).

10. L. Johnson (1884. p. 133). Griffith (1847. p. 238). Vogel (1970, p. 299) called it an "old Indian remedy which recently came into prominence following the discovery of its insecticidal properties and the isolation of volenone and tephrosia from it." This is an oversimplification of a complex matrix of information.

11. This statement was echoed by Clapp (1852, p. 761). Porcher (1863, p. 187) said it was used

only as a vermifuge in popular practice. 12. Cowie Papers, 25 June 1855. The collection of formulas compiled around 1880 by North Carolina botanic physician W. j. Batts (Batts MS) included devil-root tops. 13.

Macintosh (1981).

14.

Quoted in P. S. McLean (1972).

R. B. Browne (1958, pp. 57, 76) noted uses for "sugar diabetes" and "kidney trouble." Mr. Bass believes he has heard of these, but such knowledge is far from widespread.

15.

16.

Batts MS.

For rotenone see Ginsburg et al. (1942J. It should be noted that other constituents contributed to activity in T. hildebrandtii; see Hassanil and Bentley (1985). 17.

DILL (fruits, leaves) The Herbalist's Account I generally have some growing in the garden. Lots of folks thinks it's anise. Everyone knows it's used to make pickles. But it's a good medicine, too, good for the stomach. I've never used it; always had anise, but I tell people it's a good facsimile. Commentary Anethum graveolens L.: dill, anethum. Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)

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Dill, a cultivated and occasionally adventive plant in North America, joins anise, coriander, cumin, fennel, parsley, and other umbelliferous plants with histories traceable to classical times as both potherbs and medicines. John Gerard (1597) summarized much of its early reputation, describing it as hot and dry ("as Galen saith") and listing a number of deobstruent properties; these included increasing the flow of milk in nursing mothers, allaying gripings and wind, and increasing urine.' Although it is difficult to say which uses were most widely employed prior to the seventeenth century, the carminative action certainly became the best known. Nevertheless, dill did not become the most popular of the umbelliferous fruits for this purpose, at least in regular medicine. In 1751 John Hill wrote that "it is at present rather a medicine among the ladies than in the shops; where unless it were an ingredient in some of the old compositions, it would not be known, for the present practice takes no notice of it." 2 Nineteenth-century American writers on materia medica, certainly until mid-century, generally mentioned dill. R. E. Griffith (1847) wrote that it was principally employed in Europe to relieve flatulence and colic in infants, "but is seldom or never prescribed in this country." 3 In fact, dill, which remained fairly popular in Europe, never achieved the popularity of anise as a carminative in America. Mr. Bass's remarks-that visitors identify the dill growing in his garden as anise-is a reflection of this. The principal constituent of the essential oil from the fruit of dill is carvone, present from 40 to 60 percent. Oil from the entire herb contains about 20 percent carvone. and the most abundant constituent is d-alphaphellandrene. The pharmacological activity of carvone has not been well studied, and it is interesting to question whether it (or dill as a whole) possesses any galactogogue or estrogenic activity. Admittedly, the histori-

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cal pedigree for these properties is not strong and is unknown to Bass. Notes 1. Gerard (1597. p. 878).

2. J. Hill (1751. p. 523). References to usage by women may suggest use not only as a carminative but also as a galactogogue. Also see Blankaart (1708. p. 12). 3. Griffith (1847. p. 335).

DITTANY. See Pennyroyal DOCK (roots) The Herbalist's Account Yellow dock is easy to get and it's well known. It grows one to two feet tall in fields. roadsides, and pastures. Of course, there's many varieties of dock. There's broad dock and narrow dock-a whole bunch of different kinds, but this one has yellow roots and leaves that make wonderful greens. To my way of thinking. it has spinach beat a country mile. You pick the tender leaves in early spring or late fall. In summer it has a brown stalk with seeds on top. It dies down and comes back up from the roots. The roots of yellow dock can be dug up anytime. Yellow dock is an official medical herb. There's always been a market for it. Sharecroppers used it a lot. It's a laxative and tonic with lots of vegetable iron. It was used in all fine kidney medicines and stomach medicines. It's good for the skin if taken internally and will heal sores if used in powder form or as a salve. The dry root stores well if heated in the stove and packed in jars. To prepare a medicinal tea-a weak one-wash the fresh or dry roots and slice the large roots. Use one or two ounces of root and boil in a quart of water for thirty minutes. Then strain it. Take one tablespoon of the tea three times a day.

You can take the cut-up roots (green or dry) and fry them in grease, we recommend sunflower oil. Fry until they start popping; you need to put a lid on it. It gives you a wonderful healing oil or salve. I've had lots of experience with yellow dock root, and I know one man who came here all bent over last year; he had such a pain in his side. And I said, "Mr. Turner, what's the doctor say about it?" He said, "He thought it was some kind of rheumatism. What do you think?" I said, "It sounds to me like you got a bad trouble with your kidney." "What would you tell me to do?" I said, "I've got something I'd like you to try-yellow dock root." I gave him enough to make a half gallon of tea. He went home and didn't come back here for two or three months. When he came back, he didn't have any more trouble. He said, "Have you got any more of that yellow dock root?" I just had one pound left and I gave that to him. He said, "I went home and my wife made me that cup of tea like you said and I drunk it and in fifteen minutes that pain went away and I haven't had another one." The leaves make a good vegetable. Down in this part of the country you can get them through the winter. If the frost gets them, they'll come back again. Other docks. The broad dock, or bitter dock, can be used instead of yellow dock, but I don't have any calls to use it. Commentary Rumex x acutus L. (R. crispus L. x R. obtusifolius L.) [syns. R. acutus L.; R. pratensis Mert. and Koch.): dock, sharp-pointed dock. R. hydrolapathum Hudson: great water dock. R. aquaticus L.: water dock, red dock. R. obtusifolius L. *, including varieties and subspecies [syn. Lepathum crispum Lam.): dock, round leaved dock, broad leaved dock, common dock, broad dock.

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R. crisp us L.: small water dock, curled dock,

yellow dock. Polygonaceae Medical use of docks, various species of Rumex, has a long, well-established history. John Gerard, in describing "docks" and "water docks," wrote: "These herbs are of a mixture betweene colde and heate, and almost drie in the thirde degree, especially the seede which is very astringent." 1 Suggested uses for the bloody flux and skin ailments (e.g., "itch and all scurvie scabs") were apparently based on its astringency. Laxative action was listed only for monk's rhubarb, probably R. alpinus, and then only in combination with, for instance, senna. However, the possibility exists that a laxative action from other docks lay behind this recommendation. It is not easy to assess how much interest in docks persisted into the eighteenth century. However, the sharp-pointed dock often found favor. John Quincy (1719) said that its root was sometimes employed in prescriptions for the "jaundice and scorbutick cases," but said that "its most celebrated virtues appear in external compositions for cleansing the skin from scabs and testers." 2 In 1756 Hill viewed it as "excellent against the scurvy, much preferable to the great water dock." Lewis (1769) also focused attention on the sharp-pointed dock, but said that the roots of the "other common wild docks are nearly of the same quality.'" Some authors placed most confidence on the great water dock, at least for purgative action and astringent properties. For reasons that are unclear-though it is one of the most widely distributed Rumex species in the world-the yellow dock (R. crisp us) seems to have been medically the most valued in the nineteenth century. This was certainly so in America (although R. obtusifolius was often mentioned), where some authorities erroneously believed it to

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be indigenous. Nevertheless, enthusiasm was uneven, and in medical practice there was a tendency to lump all the docks together.4 Highly respected physician N. S. Davis suggested in 1848 that docks (including R. crispus) are one of our most valuable indigenous remedies, "being fully equal to the far-famed sarsaparilla as an alterative, and on account of its laxative qualities possessing in most cases a decided advantage over it."s Davis also emphasized the long-standing value for treating skin ailments. Thomsonian botanical practice seems to have encouraged interest in docks in general for a smorgasbord of uses but tended to emphasize value in skin diseases: leprosy, venereal disease, and glandular tumors.s Yellow dock's popularity was also sustained through the nineteenth century by a few regular physicians and by Eclectic practice, perhaps part of the reason why large quantities of the plant were collected in the Appalachians.' Laurence Johnson, generally critical of much of the materia medica, was positive in his 1884 summary: "Yellow dock is tonic, astringent, and slightly laxative. These properties render it useful in a variety of chronic affections, such as scrofula, obstinate cutaneous diseases, dyspepsia, syphilis, etc., in which an alterative and depurative effect may be desired for a long time."· Despite these views, interest soon declined further-partly as a result of alterative medicines' loss of favor around 1900 -although some Eclectic practitioners continued to be enthusiastic: "The alterative properties of this agent are underestimated. It is a renal depurant and general alterative of much value when ulceration of mucus surface or disease of the skin result from impure blood."g Today, these concepts are still found in naturopathic medicine. Mr. Bass, however, was probably influenced more through home medical practices. Such books as Joseph Meyer's Herbalist have continued to proclaim that "for some conditions it has

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no equal." 10 Bass's know ledge of yellow dock clearly follows past reputations. The well-known laxative action is explained by the presence of anthraquinone glycosides. A toxic substance, rumicin, along with chrysarobin, oxalic acid, and its potassium salt have also been reportedY Tannins contribute to a distinctive astringent character, in part the basis of Bass's comments that it is a good tonic. Additionally, he puts considerable emphasis on the presence of iron. Confirmation of iron in significant concentrations has not been found, but Eclectic practitioners once stressed the ability of the plant to absorb iron from the soil. Much of yellow dock's past reputation for various skin ailments was rationalized on "alterative" properties. It is possible that the anthraquinone constituents may act directly on skin conditions, though an irritant action of oxalate has been postulated. It has also been suggested that antibacterial and other properties of anthraquinone derivatives may be at play.'" Whether or not hybridization (common among Rumex) and differences in chemical constituents explain variations in past reputations between species is not known. l4 On the other hand, dock provides an interesting example of a plant which, as a laxative, alterative, and blood purifier, has been viewed as a general "cleaner" and has been included in regimens for various conditions rather than being viewed as a specific therapy.

Notes 1. Among the several docks mentioned and illustrated by Gerard (1597, pp. 310-14) are the sharppointed dock, water dock, and patience (or "munkes rubarb"). Many docks are known to hybridize freely, and the sharp-pointed dock is probably a hybrid of R. crispus and R. oiJtusij()jius. See Kartesz and Kartesz (1980, p. 374). R. acutus is often listed in current medical literature without

an indication of its hybrid nature. See also Cavers and Harper (1964). 2.

Quincy (1719, p. 142).

3.

J. Hill (1756, p. 485), W. Lewis (1769, 2:12).

Some general interest persisted in great water dock during the nineteenth century, though Pereira (1842,2:1190-91) said it was scarcely employed.

4.

5. Davis (1848. p. 345). Davis's remarks contrast with those of the less enthusiastic Griffith (1847). who merely remarked that "it is said to be useful in decoction or ointment in the treatment of the itch." 6.

S. Thomson (1841, pp. 648-49).

7.

Cowie Papers.

8. L. 9.

Johnson (1884, p. 238),

Ellingwood (1915, p. 378).

10.

J. E. Meyer (1979, p.

145).

Claus (1956, p. 139) (uncertainty has arisen over the presence of rumicin). J. F. Morton (1981, p. 174), "Yellow Dock," Lawrence Rev. Nat. Prod., monograph (May 1986). 11.

12.

Ellingwood (1915).

13.

Anton and Haag-Berrurier (1980).

14. For some details on hybridization, see Stace (1975, pp. 278-92), Cavers and Harper (1964).

DODDER (whole plant)

The Herbalist's Account I don't know much about it. U's an orange creeper. My folks called it love vine. It crawls around on the plants and clings to them if you turn it loose. It'll just "eat" anything, you know, smother it to death. I remember some old lady, I think it was Aunt Maggie Harden, she said she made poultices out of it for swelling joints and things. But I'm not sure because I haven't heard of it much over the years. Commentary Cuscuto curopeo L.: epithymum, dodder, love vine, strangle weed. C. cpithymum L. [syn. C. epithymum Murray): epithymum, dodder, love vine, strangle weed.

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C. gronovii Willd. * , and other species: dodder, love vine, strangle weed. Convolvulaceae Although dodder, "a strange herbe," according to John Gerard (1597), "altogether without leaves or roote," has attracted some medical interest, it has not been a widely used remedy, at least from the eighteenth ceniury onward. Gerard and other early writers thought that the medical value of dodder, possibly referring to C. europea and C. epithyrrium, depended on the plant it parasitized. For instance, dodder that grew on such "hot and dry" plants as thyme and savory (when it was commonly called epithymum) possessed hot and dry qualities, while dodder that grew on broom "provoketh urine more forcibly.'" Whatever the source, dodder's medical value was generally characterized by early writers as due to deobstruent properties. Additionally, in 1751 John Hill pointed out that, despite earlier opinions, dodder was a weak purgative; he considered it noteworthy for "obstructions of the viscera and in jaundices, dropsies, and other chronic diseases," but added that it was little used. 2 General medical interest in dodder never reemerged, at least within regular practice; it was rarely mentioned in nineteenth-century writings on materia medica, American or European. It seems that knowledge of dodder reached Mr. Bass through the oral tradition, though, as always, printed sources may have been at play. Dodder was certainly described in various editions of Joseph Meyer's Herbalist as "antiscrofulous, laxative and hydragogue."3 Bass is not aware of this reputation, nor that for treating the liver, associated with laxative action. No one, obvious reason accounts for dodder's reappearance in the twentiethcentury literature, but the persistence of reputations based on hot and dry properties is seemingly at play. Bass collects C. gronovii, the commonest

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and most abundant of the North American Cuseuta species. It is generally believed to have the same properties as the other species, but the historical record is not convincing on this. The constituents in dodder are complex, in part because they relate to the host organism (e.g., through taking in photosynthate-products of photosynthesis); further, the relevance of known constituents (e.g., sterols and fatty acids) to the medical reputation is unclear.' Notes 1. Gerard (1597, pp. 462-63). Withering (1796, 2:208-9) indicated that Gerard was describing

C. europoea. A number of seventeenth-century writers (e.g., Burton, 1628) made various references to dodder growing on thyme. For general taxonomic details see Yuncker (1932), Feinbrun (1970). The possibility of dodder acquiring the properties of the host organism, so far as we can tell, has received little attention. Studies, however, show transfer of at least amino acids, sterols, and fatty acids, and phloem-mobile mineral elements, which may account for differences in physiological actions. 2. J. Hill (1751, p. 394). Motherby (1785), under "Cuscuta," said it was hardly known in practice, but was recommended as a resolvent, detersive, and diuretic. 3. E.g., Meyer (1979, p. 75). The hydragogue prop-

erties are out of keeping with the historical record, even if in line with deobstruent action. 4. E.g., Stanley and Patterson (1977], Wolswinkel (1984).

DOGBANE. See Indian Hemps

DOG FENNELS (tops) The Herbalist's Account Eupatorium capillifolium. [Known to Bass as cedar-weed, not dog fennel.] Just a folk medicine, but I think some of the herb books mention it. It's a tonic, an old, traditional

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southern medicine used by the old black and poor white people. The last man I talked with had used the roots, and in no time the chills and fever were knocked right out. It's bitter like quinine. Anthemis cotula. A folk medicine, like a big daisy, the tops were used in general by the southern people. Wasn't used too much. It was some sort of tonic and good for the kidney. It has a loud, disagreeable odor and is bitter and not good to take. I haven't seen any in years. Last time it was around a hogpen. Helenium amarum. It's a bitter tonic just as white fennel. There's plenty around here. You can't drink it much-it's too unpleasant. Commentary

Eupatorium capillifolium (Lam.) Small *: dog-fennel, cedar-weed (local name). Anthemis cotula L. [syn. Maruta cotula DC.): mayweed, sneezeweed, wild chamomile, dog-fennel. Helenium amarum (Raf.) H. Rock* [syn. H. tenuifolium Nutt.): sneezewort, bitterweed (local name). dog-fennel (local name). Asteraceae (Compositae) The confusion (fully appreciated by Mr. Bass) arising from the use of the vernacular name dog (or dog's) fennel for various plants is perhaps of little medical consequence since they all have limited reputations and usage as tonics and diaphoretics.' Other Eupatorium species (e.g., boneset, see monograph) have similar reputations, but in popular tradition, according to Bass, the plants are not viewed as "kinfolks." He has not heard of the leaves of E. capillifolium being used for bites and stings, as recorded among rural inhabitants of South Carolina.' Bass has "always known" Anthemis cotula as dog-fennel. As with Eupatorium capillifolium, the bitter taste of the naturalized Anthemis cotula accounts for its reputation as a tonic. Laurence Johnson (1884) said that "therapeutically it acts like chamomile but is much less agreeable." He indicated, too

(as did others). its employment primarily as a domestic medicine, even though in 1871 Appalachian physician A. A. Scroggs felt that it was one of the more important medical plants available from North Carolina. 3 In fact, toward the end of the century Eli Lilly marketed a fluid extract of the herb, but this seems to have had little impact on overall popularity.' Helenium autumnale L. (rather than H. amarum collected by Bass), generally known as sneezewort or sneezeweed-names Bass does not know-is another plant that slowly developed a reputation during the first half of the nineteenth century. As with many indigenous plants, Rafinesque (1828-30) helped to encourage interest. He noted earlier references by Clayton and Schoepf and indicated its usefulness in malarial fevers, but said it was not much used apart from the flowers (better than whole plants), which were employed all over the country as a valuable errhine (i.e., to produce sneezing). This latter reputation persisted until errhines went out of fashion in the second half of the nineteenth century.5 Helenium autumnale and H. amarum contain bitter sesquiterpene lactones, compounds very commonly found in plants in the Compositae family.6 The specific lactones include tanulin and heleniamarin.' They impart a bitter taste to milk if cattle have foraged on plants containing them. Whether the lactones offer an explanation for the reputation as a sternutatory remains uncertain.

Notes 1. It is noteworthy that the commonplace prefix

dog is generally considered to be derived from the idea of "secondary" or "substitute." While this appears to be relevant to dog fennels, none of them have the aroma of fennel. 2. Moerman (1982, p. 111). Croom (1982, pp. 5961) identified Lumbee dog fennel as E. capillifolium. He noted the Lumbee reputation for fever,

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a property often reported in the literature. Though dog fennel does not look like the well-known boneset, there are similarities (same genus), and analogy may be at play. Croom noted that use was limited by its nauseating properties (p. 60). 3. L. Johnson (1884, p. 180), Scroggs (1871). Gunn (1869, p. 882) discussed Anthemis at length. Grieve (1971, 2:523) indicated a strong reputation for the

flowers as an antispasmodic and emmenagogne in hysteria and as a safe vesicant when applied fresh and bruised to the skin. 4. Reported in Gattinger (1894, p. 40), indicating

the plant was better known as dog fennel than mayweed. 5. Rafinesque (1828-30, 1:235-37) added that the "shocks of sneezing are often useful in those cases where other remedies can hardly avail, especially for diseases of the head, deafness, anavrosis, headache, hemicrania, rheumatism, or congestion in the head and jaws, &c."

6. Rodriguez et al. (1976). 7. Elsohly et al. (1979), Elsohly et al. (1981). When the authors say it is commonly known as bitterweed or sneezeweed, they are not making clear that these names are also employed for H. autumnale.

DOGWOOD (bark, root bark)

The Herbalist's Account Most folks use the common dogwood we have in yards and woods, with its beautiful flowers in the spring and beautiful berries in the fall and winter. It grows everywhere in the South. The bark can be gathered any time of the year. Peel the rough bark off the tree and dry the inner bark in the shade. Store it to keep out worms. Dogwood is a little medicine tree in itself, but I haven't used it much. The bark is used as a quinine substitute. It will do the same thing as quinine, but it is safer. It don't have the aftereffect. Quinine will make your head roar and make your heart beat real fast. People took it for fever, but since aspirin has come out and things like that, most people don't go to the trouble to make dogwood tea. You take a teaspoon

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three times a day for coughs and colds and grippe. We recommend it to prevent cramps in bed, but I haven't put it in any medicines. For cramps it is a groundhog case. I told a woman from Florida to peel some bark and make a tea and take it before she goes to bed. Several have told me it has done a lot of good. I haven't took any of it, because the good Lord has kept me from having cramps for the last few years. One morning when I was a boy I couldn't turn over or get up. Dad grabbed the handsaw and he was going to whip me with that, but I hollered out, "Dad, I can't get up; there's someting the matter with me." He should have known better, but he was the kind of feller that just got mad and it was getting-up time and, heck, I couldn't get up. Mother come and helped me up, and they had to rub me a long time to get the circulation going. Well, quinine will do away with that. It's the only thing a doctor can for you. An operation won't even help you. Commentary Comus florida L. *: dogwood, flowering dogwood. C. umonum Mill. *: dogwood, swamp dogwood, red willow. Cornaceae The well-known flowering dogwood tree, with its striking springtime flowers, has been one of the more popular indigenous remedies. It attracted much attention in colonial times. In 1748 Peter Kalm, then traveling in America, noted that the root bark helped some people recover from malaria "who could not be cured by the Jesuit's bark [cinchona, or Peruvian bark]." 1 Almost all the early writers on American materia medica considered it and noted it as a substitute for cinchona bark, which contains quinine. 2 A clear sense exists that dogwood has been "the ague tree that never was," for it has always been overshadowed by cinchona and such other plants as sassafras for treating fevers. 3

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Amos Greg of Bristol. Pennsylvania, summarized something of dogwood's role as a substitute: "About the year 1778 during the American Revolution, the great scarcity and high price of the Peruvian bark and the embarrassment from the want of it, induced me to search for a substitute, , .. The common dogwood was the next which I selected . . . . During which practice, I have found its virtues, such as to convince me that it was not inferior to the Peruvian Bark in curing intermittents, nor inferior as a corroborant in all cases of debility." 4 As a cinchona substitute for fevers and a bitter or tonic stomachic (linked to its astringent and somewhat aromatic taste), its inclusion in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia (1820) indicated interest within regular medicine. s By the 1840s Griffith could comment: "from the testimony of numerous practitioners, who have given it an extended trial. [itl is the best native substitute for the Cinchona; and in some cases has succeeded where this substance was found ineffectual in preventing the return of paroxysmal fevers."" Clapp also underscored the attention dogwood had received from the medical profession. 7 A further impetus to dogwood's popularity came with the Civil War. In 1863 F. P. Porcher wrote in his account of resources to be found in the South: "Since the war, the bark has been employed with great advantage in place of quinine in fevers-particularly in cases of low forms of fever, and in dysentery, on the river courses of a typhoid character."8 Testimony to the value of dogwood suggests that it was simply eclipsed by the ready availability of quinine and improved dosage regimens. 9 Possibly, too, northern physicians were less enthusiastic than southern practitioners. In 1849 it was said that "had the various forms of periodical fever composed so large a share of the Northern physicians' practice, the far-off Quito alone yielding him the sheet-anchor of his hopes, as it is with Southern practitioners, the opinion is unhesi-

tatingly expressed that the dogwood bark, and its preparations, would have been among our most popular remedies." 10 As with so many botanicals, interest was declining toward the end of the nineteenth century, in this case because quinine and a growing number of chemical febrifuges (including aspirin) were readily available. Laurence Johnson (1884) said it was believed "to be the best indigenous substitute for cinchona bark, and in early days was used with considerable success in the treatment of miasmatic fevers." 11 Bass echoes this." Mr. Bass has not used any substitutes, but has occasionally recommended "swamp dogwood," which was well established in the older literature as Comus sericea." However, he collects C. amonum. Another substitute has been C. circinata; around 1850 it was said that one hundred times the amount of this was used compared with C. f1orida, but some of this was possibly more for chronic diarrhea.14 Dogwood does not, as was once thought, contain alkaloids, but rather terpenes (e.g., comin), saponin glycosides, flavonoids. and fatty acids.15 The bark has been shown under laboratory conditions to possess specific activity against certain Plasmodium species causing malaria.'6 Recent studies revealing molluscicidal activity do not help to explain past reputations. The intriguingly strong and persistent testimony for dogwood's value in malarial fevers certainly merits closer examination.

Notes 1.

Kalm (1972, p. 190).

2. Vogel (1970, pp. 299-301) provided some

eighteenth-century references, including its lise for patients with malaria. Though Vogel noted usage by American Indians, he did not indicate whether or not these were learned from whites. Erichsen-Brown (1979. p. 141) noted 1745 and 1779 references to the employment of dogwood bark

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in place of cinchona bark. We find no evidence to indicate that European dogwoods stimulated enthusiasm for American species, though interest had long existed in the European common dogwood or dogberry (Comus mas L.); noted, for instance, in Gerard's Herball (1597, pp. 1283-84) for bitter and drying properties. However, Mark Catesby included Comus mas virginiana in his Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and Bahama Islands. 3. Phrase used by Doug Peterson in unpublished paper. 4. J. Walker.(1803). For other early testimony from Pennsylvania (c. 1800), see Brendle and Unger (1935, p. 91). 5. See Bigelow (1817-21, 2:75, 80). 6. Griffith (1847, p. 349). 7. Clapp (1852, p. 783). 8. Porcher (1863, p. 9). 9. Quinine, the active principle of cinchona bark, is mentioned rather than the crude drug, for quinine generally superceded the use of most preparations of cinchona bark. Rafinesque (1828-30, 1:133) noted that the bark of the root of dogwood is stronger and more soluble in water than cinchona bark. The fresh bark frequently disagrees with the stomach and is improved by keeping at least one year. 10.

O'Keeffe (1849).

11. L. Johnson (1884, p. 161). 12. He has not heard of other uses such as that by the Lumbee Indians as a strong laxative (Croom, 1982, p. 53). The high tannin content, however, would seem to mitigate against a laxative action. 13. Another swamp dogwood, C. amomun Mill. For some references see Erichsen-Brown (1979, pp. 143-45). 14. Ives (1850). but see G. B. Wood and Bache (1868, pp. 328-29), indicating the same properties (p. 330 for swamp dogwood). Perhaps a betterknown alternative was C. amomun, also described as dogwood.

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ELDER (flowers, berries, bark, leaves, root) The Herbalist's Account The whole elder plant is valuable. In the old days, why, a lot of people would dip the elderberry flower, when they was in full bloom, in batter, like a pancake batter, and fry them. They had a taste almost like fish. Now, all the parts can be used as a medicine. The berries and the bark are the best. I don't use anything now but the berries; I boil them and save the juice. The juice makes a wonderful blood purifier, and it's good for the kidney and liver. Take a teaspoon of elderberry juice in water four times a day. I had elderberry juice in a blood tonic for a lady with cancer. Her doctor, who came from India, was a little, short fellow with black hair and beady eyes. The doctor told the lady that my tonic was the best blood medicine that could be found. He said you needn't go looking nowhere else. Said you couldn't have something better than that. U's helping her. The lady goes to the doctor for shots and gets her blood tonic from me. They say that elderberry wine is a wonderful tonic and body strengthener. Of course, fermenting it into wine might have something to do with making it keep. A good tonic can be made from the roots, too. Old-timers know that elderberry flowers could improve salves, and I've made some for them. A tea made from the leaves and sprayed will kill the bugs in the garden-like cutworms and potato bugs. When we used to have chickens, they would get out and eat maggots and it would kill them. We'd drench them chickens with the elderberry tea and it would kill the maggots in their craw.

15. The substance cornine was initially identified as an alkaloid; see Millspaugh (1974. p. 293). Duke (1985, p. 145). Cornin is often called a glucoside.

Commentary Sambucus nigra L. [syns. S. vulgaris Neck.; S. laciniata Mill.]: elder, elderberry. S. canadensis 1. *, including varieties: elder, elderberry.

16. See Spencer et al. (1947).

Caprifoliaceae

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Elder, or elderberry, at least the naturalized European Sambucus nigra, has a long history, perhaps reflected in Millspaugh's remark (1892) that in domestic medicine the indigenous S. canadensis "forms almost a pharmacy in itself." I Early accounts , such as by John Gerard (1597), described S. nigra and other elders: Galen "saith that it is of a drying quality, gluing and moderately digesting: & it hath not only these faculties, but others also for the barkes, leaves, the first buds, flowers and fruit of elder, do not only drie, but also heat, and have withall a purging qualitie."2 Gerard might well have mentioned superstitious uses, because elder is a plant with a particularly rich history of magical associations: "if the place betwixt two knots be hung about the patient's neck it is much commended. Some cut it in little pieces and sew it in a piece of man's shirt." 3 The reputation of elderberry (5. nigra) in the eighteenth century was variable. Influential John Quincy (1719) spoke favorably of the bark for many conditions presumed to require deobstruent action, while Thomas Short in his Medicina Brittanica (1751) called it "useful and [yet] despised."4 The flowers were also widely recommended in ointments, which is reflected by surviving seventeenth- and eighteenth-century pharmacy jars labeled for ointment of elder, which reinforced popular interest. In colonial America Sauer promoted it by recommending to the German readers of his almanac that they plant elderberry bushes. 5 In fact, American authors of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries generally discussed S. nigra with enthusiasm. G. Capron and D. Slack said all good nurses in the country knew the virtues of elder.6 Much attention was given to use for skin conditions and the purgative properties of the inner bark. In fact, Clapp (1852) said it was a hydragogue cathartic.' Diuretic properties were also noted on occasion.a Despite the many recommendations for elderberry, Grif-

fith in 1847 obviously felt its popularity was declining and stated that S. nigra was seldom employed by physicians, though still used in domestic practice in England. 9 He indicated, too, that the use of flowers as a diaphoretic had fallen into disuse; these were employed only for elder-flower water and to make elder ointment. The principal usage for elderberry was in the preparation of a wine, which, "when well made, is an excellent cordial." Despite Millspaugh's encomium quoted above, the reputation of the indigenous S. canadensis has been modest and secondary to that of S. nigra. 1O Griffith (1847) made only brief reference to it, noting that the berries were included in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia and "they are used for the same purposes as those of the S. nigra, and the other parts of the plant are employed in domestic practice in the same way as those of the foreign article." 11 Various parts of the tree (apart from the flowers) were indicated to have mild Elder (Sambucus canadensis)

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laxative or strong cathartic activity useful in dropsy." Mr. Bass's knowledge of elderberryhe does not recognize two species, though S. nigra is not available to him-clearly falls in line with past uses. He tends to emphasize that elderberry is a blood purifier, which accounts for action on the liver and kidney, but is uncertain about its action as a diaphoretic." Chemical studies on Sambucus species suggest that Millspaugh's comment that elderberry is a pharmacy in itself was not inappropriate. Among the many constituents in S. nigra, particular attention has been focused on a cyanogenic glycoside (sambunigrin), an alkaloid thought to account for the reputation as a cathartic, and triterpenoids present in the bark.14 The flowers, which are used for preparing elder-flower water-a vehicle for skin lotions-and are an ingredient in ointments, contain volatile oil, flavonoid glycosides, and sambunigrin.15 Whether or not suggested antiphlogistic and antiallergic properties are at play when elderberry flowers are used in salves has not been determined. Concern has been expressed over the cyanogenic glycoside present, but no cases of poisoning have been reported. The same constituents probably occur in S. canadensis, though confirmation has not been found. It is particularly unfortunate that specific reports have not been found on the juice, because this is considered of special value by Bass and others.'6 How much this may be linked to the notion that it is a good blood purifier because of the red color is unclear.

Notes 1. Millspaugh (1974, originally 1892, p. 297).

2. Gerard (1597, p. 1233-35). Some of the early history is in Grieve (1982,1:265). 3. E.g., Black (1883, p. 192).

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4. Quincy (1719, p. 139), Short (1751, pp. 83-86); see also Wells (1981, p. 361). 5. C. M. M. Wells (1980, p. 360). 6. Capron and Slack (1848, p. 218), possibly also referring to Sambucus canadensis (see below). 7. Clapp (1852, p. 785). Some authors such as Manasseh Cutler also noted that the leaves are purgative like the bark (p. 430). 8. Stearns (1801, p. 135). 9. Griffith (1847, p. 354).

10. Some writers considered them to be the same; e.g., Stille (1864, 1:526). 11. Vogel (1970, pp. 301-2) noted Indian uses for S. canadensis as early as the eighteenth century, but no evidence indicates that this was the route into white medicine. 12. Hyams (1898, p. 361). 13. The blood-purifying properties are recognized in Alabama oral traditions. R. B. Browne (1958. p. 79) noted its use to make a person break out

with measles. a belief known to Bass. 14. Lawrie et al. (1964); Inoue and Sato (1975) give a table of distribution of triterpenoids. 15. Reynolds (1982. p. 287), Wagner (1985). 16. Stille (1864,1:526).

ELEPHANT'S FOOT (leaves, tops)

The Herbalist's Account Wild tobacco-some call it elephant's foot -grows in the same place as star-root, in Wood Creek Hollow. It's got fuzzy leaves like mullein. I haven't used or recommended it, but I remember some of the old-timers used it. I've heard that Mr. Mackey told about some of his people had erysipelas. A tea was made out of it and it was used as a poultice. Some folks told me a fellow had syphilis and he was recommended to make a tea of the wild tobacco and to bathe the sore area and to drink it. It healed. It's a blood purifier. I might try it, but there are other things. Commentary EJephantopus tomentosus 1. * [syns. E. caro-

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linianus Raeusch. var. simplex Nutt.; E. nudicaulis Poir.]: wild tobacco, elephant's foot, wood mullein. Asteraceae (Compositae) Elephantopus tomentosus has rarely been mentioned in the medical literature. regular or domestic. Griffith (1847) merely noted that some foreign species of Elephantopus were used in intermittent fevers.' Even so, interest emerged among pharmaceutical companies toward the end of the nineteenth century as part of an empirical search for new remedies, indigenous and foreign. When Parke-Davis marketed a fluid extract of the herb in the 1890s, its properties were said to be diaphoretic, expectorant, and, in large doses, emetic. The plant was apparently "introduced to medicine on the authority of a Dr. Newlon of Kansas, who reports excellent results from its use as an expectorant." 2 It is noteworthy that Mr. Bass makes some analogy with mullein, but not to the extent of knowing that elephant's foot has been known for similar expectorant properties. Some knowledge among Indians about its value for respiratory disorders has been reported, though more in the form of a poultice than by smoking it, as implied by the name wild tobacco. 3 Bass has heard of the use of a "poultice" for skin ailments (e.g., "erysipelas"), but, in reality, perhaps fomentations were used. Whether chemical constituents account for the expectorant action is unknown, but it is clear that elephant's foot has never had much of a reputation. On the other hand, the velvety leaves are of an appropriate size and texture for poultices. The clinical relevance of reported antibiotic activity of Elephantopus scarber L. (which, perhaps incorrectly and without sound reason, has been extrapolated to E. tomentosus) against staphylococcus is unclear.4 Bass's remarks give the sense of a remedy that has essentially disappeared from

herbal medicine, perhaps to be tried out of curiosity when available. Noles Griffith (1847, p. 387). Earlier, Rafincsque (1828merely said it was one of the Indian tobaccos. 1.

30,2:217)

2. Parke-Davis (1890, p. 74). Elephantopus Carolinianus, considered to be medically the same as E. tomentosus, was marketed toward the end of the nineteenth century by Eli Lilly and Company (mentioned by A. Gattinger, 1894, p. 31). 3. Croom (1982, pp. 57-58) noted Lumbee information about "Elephantopus spp" being used as a poultice "from the roots for pneumonia." 4.

For references see Perry (19aO, p. 92).

ELM; SLIPPERY ELM (inner bark) The Herbalist's Account I gathered slippery elm when I was a boy along Willis Creek. It don't grow around here any more. When they backed the water up with the dam, the lowlands were flooded and the slippery elm trees around here died. Now I buy the bark from the Campbell Fur Company in Gurley, Alabama. I've always known it as a cough and stomach medicine. It's wonderful for the stomach because it is so mild. It's best chewed for coughs and colds, and for the stomach. I also have the powder from the health food store. Sometimes I put a spoonful in my cereal because it's so good for the stomach. For a cough medicine I generally use it with other things. I take half a cup of the bark, a half a cup of wild cherry bark, a half a cup of sweet gum leaves, and a half cup of mullein in a gallon of water. After boiling for fifteen minutes or so, four pounds of sugar or honey are added. It's also used to dress wounds and open sores. I use it along with other herbs in my salve when I have it. I like to chew it like chewing gum. It's got a good flavor.

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Commentary Ulmus procera Salisb. [syn. U. campestris L. pro parte]: e1me tree, common elm. U. rubra Muhl. [syn. U. fu1va Michx.]: slippery elm, red elm. Ulmaceae While European elms, at least the common elm, received due attention in early medical literature, the slippery elm has since become the best known medically. John Gerard (1597) considered "the elm" to be moderately hot, with ah evident "cleansing facultie." He noted-in addition to the well-known "chewing" quality-its value (in the form of poultices or fomentations) for wounds and broken bones! Elm bark was subsequently mentioned in most seventeenth- and eighteenthcentury British books on materia medica, with emphasis often placed on the value of astringent and mucilaginous properties for sore throats. 2 Although known in the American colonies, the popularity of common elm or other species (slippery elm apart) is unclear. In 1775 Hugh Mercer, a highly regarded physician, seemed to be promoting it in the following letter (dated 15 January 1775): The method of preparing the Decoction of Elm Bark, as used by many of the faculty in England, is by boiling four ounces of the Bark next the wood, in two Quarts Water to 10 oun., of which when strained the Patient Drinks half a Pint morning and Evening and sometimes thrice a day-It has no terrible operation-The body is sometimes rendered Costive by it-and then gentle purges are given once a Week, such as Salts-Cream of Tarter or the like. In the spring and Summer the Bark is taken from the small cut, not the smalest Branchesand in Autumn or Winter from the Branching Roots-It will at first sometimes seem to increase the Eruption, but it soon "fterwards disappears-in some obstinate cases

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it has been found necessary to repeat the Course of this Decoction several times but generally it has affected a cure in a few Weeks. 3 Slippery elm was certainly known in colonial times; in 1709 John Lawson reported Indian usage of a preparation "as a sovereign remedy to heal a cut or green wound, or any thing that is not corrupted.'" While such employment was similar to that in white medical practices, independent "discovery" cannot be ruled out, especially with a plant possessing such a distinctive mucilaginous taste. Nineteenth-century regular and botanic/ domestic medical accounts of slippery elm generally followed earlier uses for elm; repeating, for instance, information in Gerard and highlighting the value for urinary problems. General medical interest in slippery elm is reflected in its inclusion in most nineteenth-century texts on materia medica. However, it is unclear how popular it became. In 1848 Capron and Slack described it as a "new article" of medicine, while in 1882 Farquharson and Woodbury said that the "bark is probably tonic and astringent, but is rarely if ever used except as an emollient application in external inflammations, such as erysipelas." 5 Some uses to which slippery elm has been put reflect therapeutic fashions of the day. In the light of the belief-particularly in the second half of the nineteenth century-that gynecological problems were the root cause of general chronic complaints, its use in the manufacture of "tents" for dilating the neck of the uterus" in cases of disease within that organ" is of some interest.!; Given the once-widespread use of slippery elm, it is not surprising that much popular tradition has reached Bass, especially as the mucilaginous nature of the bark (which produces a distinct frothiness in the mouth and acts as a demulcent) has remained well known for much of this century? In view of a

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recent authoritative opinion that insufficient data exists to determine its effectiveness for over-the-counter use as an anticough medicine, the particular recommendation by Bass to chew on the bark for maximum effect of the mucilage is noteworthy.s It is available in commercially prepared lozenges, sometimes with vitamin C added, to relieve sore throats and attendant coughs.9 Bass says this is another good remedy "coming back." The reputation is due to the presence of a mucilage. Notes 1. Gerard (1597, pp. 1296-97). 2. E.g., James (1747, p. 470), who also noted that

the bark was said to have an "agglutinating virtue to mitigate arthritic and ischiadic pains." 3. Courtesy Hugh Mercer Apothecary Shop, Fredericksburg, Virginia. Mercer was undoubtedly referring to enthusiasm occasioned by a Bath physician, Daniel Lysons, about the use of decoctions of elm in the treatment of skin conditions. See Lysons (1771, pp. 79-93). 4. Lawson (1957, originally 1709, p. 100). Vogel (1970, pp. 302-4) noted many uses by Indians.

Seventeenth- and eighteenth-century references in Erichsen-Brown (1979, pp. 48--50) indicate usage for huilding canoes. 5. Capron and Slack (1848, p. 221). Farquharson

and Woodbury (p. 433). 6. Considered in Stille (1874, 1 :124).

7. See, for example, Solis-Cohen and Githens (1928, p. 997). Bolyard (1981, p. 141) indicates that

it is well known in the Kentucky Appalachians for skin complaints and coughs. Mention is made of its use as a laxative, but Bass says he has heard it is not effective.

8. Federal Register, 9 September 1976, 38346-47. 9. Marketed, for example, by Thayer's Company.

EYEBRIGHTS (leaves, flowering tops, juice) The Herbalist's Account I can't find the genuine eyebright. The real eyebright has a different seedpod. I use a substitute. It grows tall, sometimes two feet. The leaves grow out from the stem. It looks like henbit and grows on roadsides. Gather the leaves in the spring or early summer. Dry in the sun or shade and store in paper bags. It's used for an eyewash or hair tonic. When eyes burn and smart, take a handful of leaves and boil in water. That's the way old Doc Nelson recommended. He made the stuff by the gallon. I never used it and I don't recommend it too highly, but I shipped it to Doc Sanders in the 1960s, who used it in place of the real eyebright. He got me fifty cents a pound for it. I don't believe I ever had anybody else ask me for the stuff. They wear glasses but they don't ask me much about their eyes. For an eyewash I recommend peach tree leaves, chinaberry, redroot, goldenseal, and yellowroot. Commentary Euphrasia officinalis L. agg.: eiebright, eyewort, red eyebright. Scrophulariaceae Triodanis perfoliata (L.) Nieuwl. *, including varieties [syn. Specularia perfoliata (L.) A. DC.): eyebright (local name). Campanulaceae Of various low-growing, annual plants called eyebright, Euphrasia officinalis, now recognized as an aggregate of species, has probably been the best known for treating impaired vision.' It is generally assumed to have become well accepted in late medieval times; however, it is not clear whether it was popular for its actions or whether it was promoted by followers of Paracelsus (1493-1541) on the basis of the doctrine of signatures. The signature, "a small black figure within the flower," was

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said to indicate an eyebalJ.2 John Gerard (1597) described two eyebrights (only one a Euphrasia, possibly nemorosa) as hot and dry and '''much commended [if collected while flowering] for the eies, being taken it selfe alone, or any waie else, it preserveth the sight, increaseth it, and being feeble and lost it restoreth the same."3 The juice was also recommended. More specialist books, like R. Banister's Treatise of One Hundred and Thirteene Diseases of the Eye and Eye-Liddes (1622), mentioned it in a number of regimens, used internally or applied externally. Positive opinions can be frequently found until the end of the eighteenth century, when an interesting range of comments reflect doubts, uncertainties, and a decline in popularity during the century. W. Rowley (1790) represented outright criticism when he noted the absurdity of various remedies for ophthalmia: "blood of a pigeon, oil of linen, infusion of eyebright, boring the ears and wearing earrings, urine, etc."4 On the other hand, William Woodville (1790-94), after stating that eyebright could not possibly be a "general remedy for all diseases ofthe eyes" and "must receive but little credit from those who practice medicine on rational principles," added that because of its past reputation it might help "eyes weakened by a long continued exertion, and those that are dim and watery, as in a senile state."5 Another authoritative physician, William Withering, merely implied that it was not used, at least in regular medicine. 6 In the American colonies Euphrasia species -some introduced-were not available to everyone, probably the reason for John Josselyn's comment (1672) that the "stichwort," growing in New England, was taken by "ignorant people for eye-bright." 7 Later (1751) John Bartram said that several plants in "this country, are so called [eyebright], but erroniously"; and in 1764 Christopher Sauer, commenting on medicinal plants available to the Pennsylvania Germans, said: "If this

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little herb Eyebright grows in this country one has not been able to find out as yet. If it is not here, one hopes that some people will have its seeds sent from Germany, and so will spread it around here as well." 8 Despite the obvious uncertainties about the quality of eyebright, E. officinalis was mentioned fairly frequently in American regular medicine textbooks (evidently several Euphrasia species were included as E. officinalis) even after R. E. Griffith's comment that it was not "now employed."9 British writer J. H. Curtis made a revealing comment that herbs like "garden angelica, betony, land caltrop, centaury, charlock, eyebright, garden fennel, scented flag, garden flox, germander, goutwort, wild barley, hemlock, and herb frankincense were once fashionable, our forefathers considering the eye as a more delicate organ than their descendents appear to do, for having abandoned herbs, we took to minerals, and now nothing is in vogue but the knife." 10 Unquestionably, eyebright's reputation for eyes remained stronger in domestic practice. However, this seems to have ridden partly on the coattails of a new interest emerging toward the end of the nineteenth century (within and outside regular medicine) as a mild astringent for "incipient catarrhal affections, hay fever."l1 Eclectic medical practice may have helped sustain the popular tradition, as did marketing of the leaves by such pharmaceutical companies as Parke-Davis and Eli Lilly, with specific references to catarrhal conjunctivitis and chronic coughs,12 Constituents include a glycoside (aucubin), caffeic and ferulic acids, sterols, choline and possibly other alkaloids, a volatile and a fixed oil, and tanninsY Clinical studies are not available, but Euphrasia's persistent reputation, despite its link with the doctrine of signatures and the latent interest for runny noses, suggests further study may be justified, though perhaps in terms of antimicrobial action rather than treating blindness. The

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possibility exists that immunostimulatory effects are present.14 Interest also lies in toxic symptoms reported in nineteenth-century homeopathic provings.15 It is possible that the constituents make for a comfortable eyewash; however, warnings about using nonsterile solutions in the eye must be heeded.'6 The tannin content may explain its reputation for drying runny noses. Whether the above applies to Triodanis peIjoliata collected by Mr. Bass is unknown; certainly this plant has not been generally recognized as an eyebright, though clearly, from Bass's remarks, it has been a commercial item. Any phytochemical studies on Euphrasia and attempts to explain past usage are complicated by the use of substitutes, the taxonomic problems with the genus, and, perhaps, the disappearance of ancient speciesY

Notes 1. Other eyebrights include clary sage (Salvia

selarea), lobelia (Lobelia inflata), bugloss. (Echium lycopsis). Euphorbia hypericifolia, and Monotropa uniflora. The number of species considered to constitute the aggregate E. officinalis varies among authorities. The Flora Europea states: "E. officinale is variously used by modern authors as a collective species to comprise many (or even nearly all of) of (46) species." Those mentioned in the medicalor chemical literature include E. rostkoviana Hayne, E. stricta D. Wolff, E. nemorosa (Pers.) WalIr., E. confusa Pugsley, and E. pseudokerneri Pugsley. Differences in chemical constituents may exist. The name "red eyebright" for E. officinal is is unexpectedly employed in a number of twentiethcentury herbals; this may be a carryover from its use for the naturalized Euphrasia odontities L. (now Odontites verna [Bellardi) Dumort). See, for example, Withering (1796, 3 :543-44). Further descriptions of E. officinalis appeared in the nineteenth century, which, by mentioning the presence of red flowers (e.g., King, American Dispensatory, 1882, p. 358) were at variance with authoritative accounts. 2. James (1743-45, l:lxxxv). Some later accounts

considered the yellow blotch on the flower as the mark (Stille and Maisch, 1894, p. 635). 3. Gerard (1597, p. 537) may be referring to Euphrasia nemorosa (Pers.) Waller. Thomas Johnson (1633) identified Gerard's "blewe eyebright" as scorpion grass (p. 663). 4. Rowley (1790. p. xl). 5. Woodville (1790-94, supplement, pp. 22-23). 6. Withering (1796.3:543). For an example of earlier positive comments. see Quincy (1719. p.79). 7. Josselyn (1865. originally 1672, p. 41). Scoggan (1978-79. p. 1350) repeated views that E. americana and E. canadensis are possibly derivatives of E. nemerosa (perhaps the species described by Gerard) and of other species introduced into eastern Canada and eastern Maine by the earliest colonists in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Being annuals. the plants have departed sufficiently from their ancestors now to stand as true American species. Until the present century E. officinalis had been described in both the British and American medical literature. 8. Bartram's comment in Short (1751. p. 91); for Sauer. see C. M. M. Wells (1980. p. 265). For other background. Fernald and Wiegand (1915. 181-201). 9. Griffith (1847. p. 517). 10. Curtis (1833. p. 202], who added that he had no experience of the herbs. 11. See Phillips (1879. p. 156). It is appropriate to note that Phillips referred to the use of a tincture rather than an infusion: "We have used with satisfaction the imported tincture from the fresh plant" (dose five minums in a wineglass of water). Shoemaker (1896. p. 419). See also Boston Med. Surg. J. (November 1889): 453. 12. Parke-Davis (1890. p. 77], Eli Lilly (1919. p. 58). 13. For chemistry see Harkiss and Timmins (1973); the authors suggested differences in chemistry between the species they studied as E. rostkoviana. 14. Mentioned in H. Wagner and Proksch (1985); effects on oral administration are unclear. 15. E.g .• Millspaugh (1974. originally 1892. p. 450). 16. Tyler (1982. p. 93). 17. For review see Yeo (1978], Sell and Yeo (1970). Helpful bibliography in Hegi. 2d ed. (1965-74. pp. 335ff.).

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FENNEL (fruits) The Herbalist's Account Fennel's another one that's good for the stomach. Mother used to grow the sweet fennel, and I have a little in the yard. It makes a good fish bait. Just rub it on the bait you normally use. Some people say it can be used for lots of things, but I don't know about most of them. Some women used it to get more milk when they nurse children. Commentary Foeniculu'm vulgare Mill., including varieties [syns. F. officinale All.; F. foeniculum (L.) Karsten]: fennell, fenkell. F. vulgare var. dulce Batt. and Trab.: sweet fennel. Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) Fennel, a well-known umbelliferous fruit, has a history as both a medicine and a potherb traceable back to classical tim!(s. John Gerard (1597) summarized previous interest, describing it as hot and dry and mentioning such deobstruent actions as for pain in the kidneys, dropsies, and to aid lactation. "The greene leaves of fennel! eaten, or the seede drunken made into a ptisane, filleth women's brests with milke." 1 Fennel

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Eighteenth-century British writers generally spoke favorably of fennel, with some preference for sweet fennel, though an overall decline in the popularity of many recommended uses can be discerned. William Lewis, in his Experimental History of the Materia Medica (1769), made it clear that the reputation of sweet fennel seeds was as "an useful stomachic and carminative; of an agreeable aromatic smel! and a moderately warm sweetish taste." 2 Occasionally, other authors mentioned reputations for helping eyesight and as a galactogogue and diuretic.3 The same pattern of discussions on fennel has continued into the present century; that is, primarily as a carminative with an occasional reference to other uses. The latter uses, however, are commonly mentioned in recent advocacy literature. On occasion, interest in galactogogue properties seems to have been secondary only to carminative properties, although by the end of the nineteenth century strong doubts were being expressed .' In recent years the galactogogue action has been linked to alleged estrogenic effects. 5 Investigations into this began in the 1930s,6 but it is still far from clear that estrogenic effects exist, and, if they do, can explain past reputations according to doses generally given. Assuming that a galactogogue action occurs, estrogenic effects are only known to lead to duct development in expectant mothers' breasts . Estrogen or progesterone administered alone has little or no effect on lactogenesis or lactation. Much speculation exists on the possible action of fennel on milk production. It has been suggested recently that constituents of fennel may inhibit dopamine's normal inhibitory effect on prolactin? However, this is just as speculative as the view noted more than once in the nineteenth century that an increase in the amount of breast milk arises because the fennel flavors the milk and thus encourages the infant to suckle. Much study is necessary

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on the complex chemistry of the volatile oils present, as well as the causes of estrogenic (thought to be due to polymers of anethole) and other effects such as allergic reactions, including dermatitis'"

Commentary Dryopteris felix-mas (L.) Schott.: male fern. D. marginalis L.: male fern (local name). Adiantum capillus-veneris L.: maidenhair fern.

Polypodiaceae Notes 1. Gerard (1597, p. 877).

2. W. Lewis (1769, 1;370-72). Lewis added that the seeds of Foeniculum vulgare "are warmer and more pungent, but less sweet, and of a less grateful flavour." The roots were ranked among the aperient roots. 3. E.g., Motherby (1785), under "foeniculum," for eyesight. 4. It is appropriate to note many references in the popular medical advice literature; e.g., Queen's Closet Open'd (1664, p. 30). Spiegeberg (1387. 2:323) indicated that beer and a diet high in meat can help, but the "so-called galactogogues are not to be relied upon." References were not consistent during the century. 5. Albert-Puleo (1980). 6. Dodds et al. (1938).

7. Albert-Puleo [19!lO). 8. For additional background. see "Fennel," Lawrence Rev. Nat. Prod .. monograph (March 1988).

FERNS (rhizome) The Herbalist's Account I have never studied the fern family; they are not easy to tell apart. Male fern is highly recommended for getting rid of tapeworm in children. I've never fooled with it, it's too powerful. Some of the old-timers used it when other worm medicines didn't work, but there isn't much around here. Indians have often asked me about the ferns. They used them as tonics as well, but I haven't used any of them.

Mr. Bass, like many people, has difficulty distinguishing and identifying ferns; he is not even confident about identifying male fern, Dryopteris felix-mas, which remains one of the best-known plant remedies worldwide. However, it is outside his geographic range of plants, and the "male fern" once collected in his region (and elsewhere) is D. marginalis, which possesses a rhizome similar to D. felix-mas.' The principal reputation of male fern, extending back to classical times and well known to Bass, is as an effective tapeworm remedy, although other uses have been recorded from time to time. John Gerard (1597), apart from noting its teniafuge property (action on flatworms), indicated an abortifacient action and topical use for skin ulcers.' Almost all subsequent authors of materia medica have singled out its actions on worms, though its popularity apparently grew in the second half of the eighteenth century following the publication of the formula of a well-known French proprietary medicine.' Worldwide interest in male fern is said to illustrate independent discoveries of the effectiveness of herbal remedies, but more study is required on transmission of information" The anthelmintic property is due to the presence of phloroglucinol derivatives in the oleoresin (1;.5-15 percent). The main acti vity has been linked to flavaspidic acid and traces of desaspidin. 5 Bass's remark that it is "too powerful" reflects not only this activity but also his belief that male fern does not give consistent results. On close questioning, it became clear that few people of Bass's generation used it with a purgative, as gen-

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erally is recommended. Male fern certainly has dangerous toxic effects, which include blindness." It is noteworthy that Bass mentions Indian interest in the ferns. Certainly, Cherokee Indians were acquainted with a considerable number.' He has heard of their use of maidenhair fern for rheumatism, but says he has no experience with its use. s Bass is uncertain of the properties of other ferns and assumes that they all act on worms. Some, like the Osmunda cinnamonea common in his area, have been employed as tonics and in external applications for skin problems because of their tannin content. Notes 1. See, for example. Thornton (1911, p. 134).

2. Gerard (1597, p. 970). 3. See comments in a review in Med. Phil. Comm. 6 (1779): 307-10. 4. See Xiao (1982). 5. E.g .. Calderwood et al. (1969, pp. 55S-56S). 6. Trease and Evans (1983, p. 371), Duke (1985, p. 170), Frohne and Pfander (1984, pp. 168-69). 7. Banks (1953, pp. 2-5). See also Gunther (1973, pp. 13-15), including the commun polypody, Polypodium vulgare. 8. Maidenhair fern has been included in a rheumatism salve; see L. A. Taylor (1940, p. 3). The rationale may involve the astringency.

FEVERFEW (leaves, tops) The Herbalist's Account I haven't heard much about feverfew, but it's another one coming back [1985]. We don't have it in our area, but it's well known for fevers and is a tonic. It's like chamomile, and you can use that. Commentary Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Schultz Bip. [syns. Chrysanthemum parthenium (L.)

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Bernh.; Leucanthemum parthenium (L.) Gren. and Godron; Matricaria parthenium L.; Pyrethrum parthenium (L.) Sm.]: feverfewe, fethererfewe, feverfew. Asteraceae (Compositae) The resemblance of feverfew to tansy and chamomile, the use of the name matricaria for feverfew, and the innumerable binomial names have led to some contradictions in the medical literature, which may partly explain certain inconsistencies and doubtful medical claims in its history.! John Gerard (1597) described feverfew as hot and dry and noted deobstruent actions: "it cleanseth, purgeth or scoureth, openeth and fully performeth all that bitter things can do." Singled out were a reputed emmenagogue action and value of the flowers and leaves as a poultice or fomentation for "St. Anthonie fire and all inflammations and swellings." Also listed was its value "for them that are giddie in the head, or which have the turning called vertigo, that is a swimming and turning in the head. Also it is good for such as be melancholike, sad, pensive, and without speech." 2 The reputation for various actions, including on fevers, giddiness, and pains in the head, continued to be mentioned in many seventeenth- and eighteenth-century books. In 1719 John Quincy classified "Matricariae [or] feverfew" under "hystericks" ("perhaps more properly styled uterines; for we shall here include, not only all that are called hystericks by the writers of physick, but also such simples as are accounted serviceable in menstrual obstructions").3 In fact, Quincy was not particularly enthused about its reputation for uterine complaints. He focused on its diuretic properties and value in fevers. Employment for giddiness was again mentioned, but almost in passing. Feverfew failed to attract much attention during the rest of the century. John Hill helped to promote it ("excellent against hysteric disorders; it promotes the menses"), but author William

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Cullen admitted he had no experience with the plant. 4 In 1794 William Woodville (describing Matricaria parthenium) was somewhat positive: "This plant is evidently the Parthenium of Dioscorides, since whose time it has been very generally employed for medicinal purposes. In natural affinity it ranks with camomile and tansy, and its sensible quality shows it to be nearly allied to them in medicinal action." 5 It is difficult to say how popular feverfew was in nineteenth-century America, especially as it is not widely distributed. Many authors on materia medica ignored it or only gave brief mention of its tonic properties." On the other hand, the medical botany literature and many Shaker communities recommended it for recent colds, worms, irregular menstruation, hysterics, suppression of urine, dizziness, and unpleasant sensations in the head; while in 1896 a North Carolina physician wrote that, cultivated as a garden herb, it was a "common remedy for irregular menstruation." 7 Directions sometimes referred to hot or cold infusions, differences, perhaps, of some significance. During the twentieth century, at least until recently, it has generally been mentioned only in popular herbal literature. In view of the recent scientific interest in the use of feverfew for migraine-emerging in 1975, as implied by Bass's remarks that "it is another one coming back"-it is of interest that the historical record for this is not strong. Few early writers have been as explicit as Nicolas Culpeper ("it is very effectual for all pains in the head") or William Salmon (cures hemicrania).B However, one problem in delineating the early history (apart from the fact that Salmon, for instance, applied feverfew to the head) is that a clear appreciation of migraine was not established until after the accurate description by John Fothergill in 1778 ("Remarks on that Complaint Commonly Known under the Name of the Sick Headache")' who blamed it primar-

ily on "inattention to diet, either in respect to kind or quantity." 9 Fothergill made no reference to treatment with feverfew or any other plant. Despite a somewhat ambivalent historical record-exaggerated in many recent articles-feverfew is apparently a good example of a plant for which such theories as deobstruent action may well have been based on sound empirical data. It has been said that the reputed febrifuge action and ability to relieve menstrual pain and migraine, along with a comparison with aspirin, led to the testing of extracts of feverfew. Of various mechanisms of action postulated, interest has focused on the inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis, inhibition of platelet aggregation, and serotonin antagonist. Sesquiterpene lactones (notably parthenolide) are implicated. Despite disagreements over theories of mechanisms of action, positive clinical value for treating migraine (possibly linked to action on serotonin) is widely recognized and based, in part, on recent double-blind clinical trials.lO Claims for benefits in arthritis are less well established, though sesquiterpene lactones have been implicated. The relevance of other actions (e.g., inhibition of histamine release from mast cells) is not yet fully understood. An important issue is the quality of feverfew preparations on the market. Wide variations have been noted. Some of this is possibly due to varieties including plants with double flowers, but problems with adulteration also exist. l1 German chamomile and tansy have been reported adulterants, while in America the bitter, aromatic Parthenium hysterophorus 1., known as American feverfew, has been confused with and occasionally used instead of Tanacetum,12 Additionally, differences in constituents may be relevant; parthenolide has not been detected in Mexican-grown T. parthenium, while the presence of other sesquiterpene lactones may be importantP While no serious toxic actions are known,

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irritation of the mouth and contact dermatitis have been recorded. 14 One issue in assessing side effects is the dosage. Ways of taking it are variable and include a leaf a day, capsules or tablets with doses from 25 mg to 200 mg, and a tea made from above-ground parts.15 Notes 1. For list of vernacular names and suggestions that the name is a corruption of febrifuga, see Britten and Holland (1878-86, p. 176). 2. Gerard (1597, p. 527). 3. Quincy (1719), pp. 88-90 for account of hystericks; p. 90 for matricariae. 4.

J. Hill (1751, p.

344), Cullen (1812, 2:257).

5. Woodville (1790-94, supplement, p. 98).

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FIG (leaves, bark, latex) The Herbalist's Account I've always knowed about figs. There's a lot of fig trees in the South. It's just a little drugstore within itself. The milky juice in the leaves will take off warts and age spots and I bet it'll take off corns, now I don't know. Any kind of milky sap will do that (dandelion, milkweed. wild lettuce). Most people took the fruit as a laxative. It's in syrup of figs; tastes good, too. Old-timers smoked the leaves in a pipe for sinus or bad chests. Commentary Ficus carica L., including cultivars [syn. F. carica Willd.J: figge.

6. E.g., G. B. Wood and Bache (1868, p. 1589).

Moraceae

7. Mattson (1841, p. 267), A. B. Miller (1976, p. 173). It was often discussed in home medicine books of that time; see T. Hill (1896), Warren and Small (1903, p. 836).

Even when the medical value of figs was appreciated, it was generally secondary to the reputation as a nutritious food. The medical reputation, at least up to the eighteenth century-and perhaps colored at times with a belief that sitting under fig trees was unhealthy-was based largely on deobstruent actions, such as for disorders of the breast and lungs and, when applied externally, for tumors." Interestingly, the reputation that later came to the fore-laxative action-was hardly mentioned. William Cullen (1775) said only that "these are the most nourishing of the dried fruits .... They are also from their sugar and mucilage, used as demulcents as their juice is most fit for covering acrimony." He added that fig is also nephritic because ofits "demulcent quality."z The tenor of these comments-especially dietetic value-continued in the nineteenth century but with a growing tendency to stress laxative properties. American author R. E. Griffith (1847) echoed many other comments when he wrote that dried figs are "laxative, demulcent, and nutritious, and are mainly employed in medicine to act gently on the bowels in habitual constipation, but also

8. Culpeper (1826, p. 58), Salmon, Family Dictionary (1710, p. 14). This contrasts to dizziness

noted by Gerard (above) and singled out in the seventeenth-century recipe book by Endecott (1914, p. 16). 9. Fothergill (1777-84). 10. For discussions and background see Lawrence Rev. Nat. Prod. 4 (1983): 3, Berry (1984), E. S. Johnson (1984). For theoretical considerations: Heptinstall et a1. (1985 and 1987), Hayes and Foreman (1987). For chemistry and clinical trials: Bohlmann and Zdero (1982), E. S. Johnson et a1. (1985); but see P. C. Waller and Ramsay (1985) for critical com-

ments on trial. Note that freeze-dried preparations were used, not the normal commercially available drug, and the trial was performed with patients who used raw feverfew leaves for three months. Later trials encourage use. 11. Groenewegen and Heptinstall (1986). 12. Sources in n. 10 above and personal observation on Parthenium. 13. Awang (1987) gives references. 14. H. R. Vickers (1985), Baldwin et a1. (1987). 15. Collier et a1. (1980), and personal observations.

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to enter into the composition of some confections and electuraries." Employment as a poultice was also noted. 3 It was often mentioned that when eaten freely figs can produce flatulence, pain in the bowel, and diarrhea. 4 During the nineteenth century figs were probably used mostly in proprietary medicines, as they have been in the present century. Usage for warts by employing the latex (one of many latiferous plants so used) is well known, more so than inhaling smoke from burning leaves for respiratory problems. Some uses listed recently (e.g., for diabetes and intestinal obstruction) are not in line with traditional recommendations s It is not possible at present to justify the reported uses on the basis of constituents present, which include a concentrated source of sugar (figs have long been used as sweeteners) and minerals. A tenderizing protein, ficin, is present, as is an amylytic enzyme which shows tumor inhibition, but this seems not to be clinically relevant. b

FIVE-FINGER (root) The Herbalist's Account It's easy to recognize. It's like a vine and has leaves in fives. Some call it wild strawberry, but that's a mistake for the real wild strawberry. It's astringent and a tonic. If I couldn't get yellowroot, goldenseal. or persimmon bark, I would use five-finger for a sore mouth. Some people who are superstitious believe it's good luck to carry it with you on account they claim the leaves are always five and that brings good luck. Commentary Potentilla reptans L.: cinkefoil, five-fingergrass, five-leafed grasse, sinkfield. P. erecta (L.) Rausch. [syns. P. tormentilla Stokes; Tormentilla officinalis Curtis]: cinkfoile, tormentill. setfoile. P. canadensis L., including varieties [syn. P. pumila Poir.]: five-finger grass. P. simplex Michx. *, including varieties [syn. P. caroliniana Poir]: five-finger-grass, fivefinger, wild strawberry (popular local name). Rosaceae

Notes For unhealthiness of fig trees, see Regimen Sanitatis Salernii (e.g., edition by P. H., 1649, p. 53), but differing opinions can be found. References to unhealthiness should be viewed in the context of many beliefs; for introduction, see Condit (1947), also Condit and Enderup (1957). For properties see Gerard (1597, p. 1511), J. Hill (1751, p. 484). 1.

2.

Cullen (1775, p. 61).

Griffith (1847, p. 576). Griffith's remarks can be contrasted with those of Rafinesque (1828-30. 2:220), whose brief account implies a reputation as a panacea. It is noteworthy that toasted figs were said to be a well-known remedy for gum boils. 3.

4.

G. B. Wood and Bache (1868, pp. 395-96).

5.

Morton (1974, p. 61).

6.

E.g., Morton (1981, pp. 148-49).

Of the numerous species of Potentilla, only a few have aroused medical interest, although indiscriminate use of "five-finger" species has probably been commonplace. John Gerard (1597) wrote on a number of "cinkefoil, or five finger grasses" (including the "common cinquefoil," almost certainly P. reptans, which has probably been the most widely discussed, at least in the British medical Iiterature). He stated that the roots of some cinkefoil "do vehemently drie, and that in the third degree, but without biting, for they have very little apparent he ate or sharpness." 1 The dryness or astringency accounted for employment for hemorrhages and sores, uses mentioned time and time again by later authors. Interest in the plant was generally positive during the eighteenth century. James described "five-finger" as "vulnerary, and

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astringent, good for all kinds of fluxes and haemorrages.'" A short while later the celebrated William Cullen underscored the employment of the astringent and bitter properties for the treatment of fevers, a concept that became popular in the eighteenth century: "Quinquefolium has a bitterness with its astringency which is perhaps necessary in the case of intermittents, as the bark [i.e., cinchona bark) possess it too much." Cullen also used torment ilia compounded with gentian and other bitters.3 Its popularity was fading by the end of the century, reflected in Lewis's comment (1791) that cinquefoil (which he designated P. reptans) was but little used.' Five-finger has had a reputation as both beverage and medicinal tea, and at least one eighteenth-century colonial writer (John Tennent, 1734) mentioned cinquefoil tea as part of the" diet" in treating sore throat and fever. 5 Nineteenth-century American authors drew attention to both the naturalized Eurasian "P. tormentilla" and the indigenous P. canadensis." Toward the end of the century (1884), Laurence Johnson discussed specifically only P. canadensis but noted that it and "several other species of the genus possess mild astringent properties and have been used, chiefly in domestic practice, in diarrhoea, dysentery, leucorrhoea, etc." 7 Its reputation as a febrifuge persisted through the nineteenth century, one of the uses for which Parke-Davis marketed packages of the herb in the 1890s." Mr. Bass recognizes the astringent properites of P. simplex and the tonic action associated with astringency. The plant is common in the Appalachians (along with other Potentilla species), and it is perhaps surprising that five-finger grass is not currently well known as a medicine there. 9 Whether P. simplex is as astringent as P. canadensis is not clear. Little has been published on constituents, but tannins were reported in the early literature.

213

Notes 1. Gerard (1597, p. 839).

2. James (1747, p. 398). 3. Cullen (1775. p. 98). Gerard (1597, p. 840) had

indicated similar but stronger action for P. reptans. 4. Lewis (1791, p, 249); Woodville (1790-94, 1;161)

indicated the same. 5. Every Man His Own Doctor (1734, pp. 12, 28, 30). It is unclear what species was being employed, hut it may have been P. canadensis (see n, 6 below).

6. Nomenclatural problems over Potentilla candens is and P, simplex are reflected in the North American literature after the first decade of the present century. Rydberg (1908, pp. 302-3) described P. canadensis under P. simplex, an error often perpetuated (see Fernald, 1931). Furthermore, while some authors have considered P. simplex a variety of P. canadensis, most authorities view them as distinct species. 7. L. Johnson (1884, pp. 140-41), At this time some authorities considered P. canadensis and P. sim· plex the same plant. See Fernald (1931, p. 185), 8. Parke·Davis (1890, p. 79). 9. Gupton and Swope (1979, p, 90). Not mentioned in Bolyard (1981),

FLAX (seed [whole and ground), oil)

The Herbalist's Account Every home should have it. Mother told me what it would do, The tea was widely recommended for ulcers, bleeding, and skin conditions, Most of the old-timers used the oil, linseed oiL It's a good burn remedy and for poison ivy. You wrap someone in a cloth with the crushed linseed or oiL The crushed linseed. they call it linseed meal, made a good poultice. The seed is highly recommended for removing cinders from the eye. You just pull the eyelid down and drop a seed in the eye. It'll just slide around, At the same time the oil in the seed will lubricate where the eye's scratched,

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Commentary

Linum usitatissimum 1., including cultivars: j1axe, flaxseed, linseed. Linaceae The European flax-grown chiefly for fibers to make linen and for oil from the seedhas a long history of commercial and medicinal uses. Different cultivars and agricultural methods have been developed for various uses. John Gerard (1597) described medical uses for garden and wild flaxes (often employed in poultices with other constituents), notably for inflammations, chest complaints, and swellings.1 Interestingly, he indicatecl that although the wild flaxes had similar properties to the "manured flaxe," the latter was seldom used, a view shared by Mr. Bass, who generally considers wild plants better than "tame" ones. British textbooks on materia medica and home remedies throughout the nineteenth century referred to infusions or decoctions of the seeds as demulcents or emollients for hoarseness, coughs, and chest pains. 2 An 1847 book described the "well-known" linseed, or flaxseed, tea as "a mucilaginous emollient drink [best made as a tea), and is much used in cases of clap, strangury, and in chest complaints." 3 Linseed was just as commonly used as a poultice, both in domestic care and on the specific recommendations of physicians. "A linseed poultice is a very soothing and effectual application in all affections ofthe lungs," stated one text.4 All these uses, linked to the mucilage content, were widely employed in America, where the plant was early naturalized. s For instance, John Tennent (1734) noted linseed or ground-ivy tea as part of the diet for fevers, and an apprentice medical student in North Carolina in 1853 wrote in his diary that "a patient fell on her knee about a week ago which caused erysipelas. Her legs were swollen very much. [Physician] Uncle D. ap-

Flax plied flax seed poultice to her leg, gave a dose of calomel." 6 Like Mr. Bass , many people have learned about its varied uses through family traditions.7 Linseed contains 30-40 percent fixed oil, 6 percent mucilage, 25 percent protein, and small quantities of the cyanogenetic glycoside linamarin.8 The oil contains considerable quantities of glycerides of unsaturated acids . Omega-3-fatty acids and lignans present suggest an explanation for use in skin complaints. Recent studies on flax have suggested a new property, topical antibacterial action of the hydrolyzed oil, but this seems to offer no additional understanding of past uses. 9 That long-standing uses as an emollient and demulcent are no longer fashionable does not detract from flax's considerable medical value in the past.

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Notes 1. Gerard (1597, pp. 444-47). 2.

E.g., Woodville (1790-94, 2:303-5).

3.

Andrew (1847, p. 637).

4.

Farquharson and Woodbury (1882, p. 322).

Listed in Favretti and DeWolf (1972, p. 78). For full account, see Griffith (1847, pp. 206-8). 5.

Tennent (1734, p. 11), and j. M. Richardson Diary, under Nov. 1-2, 1853 (Richardson Papers). Richardson used Eberle's Therapeutics: "I commend [it] ... the style is superior to any medicinal work I have read yet. It is graphic and fascinating."

6.

7. Often referred to in collections of popular beliefs. E.g., R. B. Browne (1958, p. 44) noted its use

for treating burns. 8.

Trease and Evans (1983, p. 334).

9.

M. I. McDonald et al. (1981).

FLEABANE (leaves, tops, whole plant); HORSEWEED (leaves, tops)

The Herbalist's Account j've never used fleabane. It's an old medicine, but I haven't heard it mentioned for a long time. Use the flowers or tops. It's a mild tonic, a little astringent and bitter. It's good for dysentery and diarrhea, also for fever. It's more for children, it's so mild. But I think other things do more good. I recommend blackberry or Jersey tea or alumroot for diarrhea. I usually say blackberry root 'cause the biggest part of people know what blackberry is. Fleabane has nothing to do with fleas. I don't know where it got the name. I didn't know horseweed is kinfolks to fleabane until you told me. Horseweed-we generally calls it hogweed around here-is an old folk medicine, a tonic and good to stop bleeding. I don't get calls for it anymore. Commentary Pulicaria dysenteric a (L.) Bernh. [syn. Inula dysenterica L.]: fleabane. Erigeron acer L., including varieties and subspecies: fleabane.

215

E. annuus (L.) Pers. * [syn. E. heterophylus Muh!.]: fleabane. Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronq.* [syns. E. canadensis L.; Leptilon canadensis (L.) Britton]: horseweed, Canadian fleabane, hogweed, careless weed, prideweed. Erigeron philadelphicus L., including varieties [syn. Stenactis philadelphica (L.) Hayek]: erigeron, Philadelphia fleabane, fleabane. E. strigosus Muh!. ex Willd. *: fleabane. Asteraceae (Compositae) Of various plants called fleabane, species of Erigeron and Pulicaria have often been viewed as possessing the same properties. At least Johnson, in his edition of Gerard's Herball (1633), added a species of Erigeron (probably E. acer) to Gerard's descriptions of fleabane, which included P. dysenterica. Gerard (1597) characterized fleabanes (at least Pulicaria spp.) as hot and dry, with uses for urinary difficulties, jaundice, and stomach upsets. Apart from deobstruent actions, fleabane, when burned, was said to "drive away flies, gnats, fleas or any venemous thing.'" Eighteenth-century writers either did not mention it or were not enthusiastic.' In America, early writers on materia medica considered a number of species of Erigeron, emphasizing diuretic properties. J. Eberle (1824) pointed out that the reputation-in Philadelphia-of E. heterophylus as a diuretic useful in "gravelly affections" owed much to the enthusiasm of Philip Syng Physick, one of the most influential surgeons in America.' Griffith (1847) helped to cement the reputation, quoting a number of earlier authors. He focused on E. heterophyllum but indicated that the properties of E. strigosus were identical, while E. canadensis was more tonic, a reputation associated with pungency, bitterness, and astringency.Some authors provided practical details about diuretic properties. Rafinesque, for in-

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stance, reminded readers of an issue often forgotten in herbal literature; namely, that activity could vary according to the way extracts are prepared: "as diuretic, the infusion, decoction and tincture are preferable and more active, they have increased the daily evacuation of urine from 34 to 67 ounces. A pint or two of the former may be taken daily; they agree well with the stomach, even when squill and digitalis are intolerable." 5 Whether this early interest on the part of American authors reflected knowledge obtained from Indians or was derived from European knowledge is unclear," Comments in 1875 implied that E. canadensis (now more commonly known as Conyza canadensis) was reasonably popular, perhaps more among botanic practitioners. "for dropsy and diarrhoea as a stimulant, tonic, diuretic and astringent." 7 A short while later, Laurence Johnson (1884), in contrast to many authors, indicated that there was probably little difference in the activity produced by the different species but added that some thought that E. canadensis was "more active" as a tonic and astringent.8 Much of the reputation of erigeron (a popular medical name) rested on the use of the distilled oil of E. canadensis, which, apart from diuretic and general hemostatic actions, was promoted particularly for controlling heavy menstrual periods ("flooding").9 Whether or not irritant substances (e.g., terpenes) are contributory has not been established. Because fleabane is so common in his region-at least two of the species-it is perhaps surprising that Mr. Bass has not used it or heard much about it, including the widely discussed diuretic properties. lO Furthermore, his information on tonic and astringent properties is perhaps more in keeping with the reputation of E. canadensis (horseweed), though past reports-some of which rest on the use of the oil-are not consistent. The type of Galenic preparation employed also

has to be considered. Infusions, for example, were recommended for dropsy and genitourinary ailments. Fleabane is bitter as well as astringent. The bitterness probably lies behind Bass's comment that it is "good for fever." He has not heard of past uses for skin ailments but says it would probably be valuable because of the astringency. Bass and others have associated effectiveness for skin conditions with action on the kidneys (diuretic) and consequent blood purification. The specific reference to its value for children probably rests on information Bass acquired through the oral tradition. Bass's comment that the plant has nothing to do with fleas certainly reflects the paucity of relevant references in the literature about any fleabane. Gerard is one of the few to mention its value for warding off insects and the like, although American author Samuel Stearns (1801) said that "the chief use of the' flea banes is for destroying fleas and gnats, by burning the herbs so as to waste away in smoke." 11 Few nineteenth- and twentiethcentury textbooks on materia medica mentioned the property, though the oil, applied externally, was sometimes said "to prevent insects from injuring the skin." 12 It is interesting that Bass apparently reflects popular tradition in considering horseweed an entirely distinct plant from fleabane, even beyond the morphological differences. He believes it to be much milder and more of a tonic. Unfortunately, knowledge of constituents is unavailable to determine what, if any, differences exist.

Notes 1. Gerard (1597. pp. 390-91), under "fleabane mullet." It is not easy to identify Gerard's fleabanes. Withering (1796, 3 :452) identified one in johnson's edition of Gerard as Sedum acre L.

2. Quincy (1719. p. 174), at least. described erigeri as groundsel. It was mentioned as used by "the

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common people for a vomit. They infuse or boil it in whey or posset-drink, and then strain the liquor. It is a good and safe vomit; but it is not used in the shops, nor, as I even met with, prescribd in extemporoneous practice." 3.

Eberle (1824, 2:261).

Griffith (1847, p. 396). Bigelow (1822, p. 173) noted that a Dr. De Puy had drawn attention to the high tannin content. 4.

5.

Rafinesque (1828-30, 1:166).

6. For references p.305). 7.

to Indian usage see Vogel (1970,

J. R. Jackson (1875-76).

8. L.

Johnson (1884, p. 176).

E.g., Shoemaker (1893, 2 :608-9), Farquharson and Woodbury (1882, p. 269).

217

when you have colds. It gives you an appetite and it's the best thing in the world for sugar diabetes. I'm using the root bark now in the BH Tonic. And it's the tonic I gave to Carol, because it is so good for the stomach. It's one of the best antiseptic teas to wash sores or burns, and the tea can be drank for eczema or acne. I'm not sure if it's on the medical lists or not, but it's been used ever since time. Commentary Chionanthus virginicus 1. *, including varieties: fringe tree, granddad's beard, oldman's beard, white ash.

9.

Oleaceae

10. On the other hand, prideweed is included in J. E. Meyers (1979, p. 101). No diuretic properties were noted, and it may be that Bass has read this and does not distinguish the various fleabanes. Hogweed is noted in R. B. Browne (1958, p. 70) to "stop a hemorrhage."

Fringe tree, often called white ash in Mr. Bass's region, is a small, indigenous tree with striking white flowers. It was not especially popular in nineteenth-century medicine, even during the period of enthusiasm for native American remedies. A number of early writers mentioned the use of the root bark for wounds. Thus Marshall (1785) stated that the "bark of the root of this shrub, bruised and applied to fresh wounds, is accounted by the natives a specific, in healing them without suppuration." 1 Additional uses continued to emerge until well into the nineteenth century, while the reputation for treating wounds and ulcers (often used in the form of a poultice) was reinforced. 2 S. Elliott, in discussing the flora of South Carolina and Georgia in 1821, wrote confidently of the root as a remedy for "long standing intermittents and other chronic diseases," while R. E. Griffith's authoritative Medical Botany (1847), which gave it only passing mention, stated that the root bark "is tonic and febrifuge with some aero-narcotic properties, when it is called poison ash." 3 Although ignored in many materia medica texts during the second half of the nineteenth century, the reputation of fringe tree persisted, at least for a while, in domestic

11.

Stearns (1801, p. 148).

12.

Wilcox (1911, p. 392).

FRINGE TREE (root, root bark) The Herbalist's Account A little tree, or shrub, you might call it. When I was a boy, we used to gather the roots from the mountain near Leesburg and ship it to dealers in carload lots. You use the bark off the roots. I think they used it back then in medicines for horses and mules. They also put it in their feed to fatten them and make their coats look slick. But the market has gone down as the number of horses and mules has gone down. The inner bark is best. It's a good idea to peel the bark off the root and cut it up fine and toast it in the oven. A tablespoon of bark to a pint of water boiled for fifteen to thirty minutes makes tea for any kind of liver complaint or gall bladder trouble. It's an old-time tonic-good to take in the spring of the year

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medicine.' Before the end of the century, preparations were being marketed by such pharmaceutical companies as Parke-Davis for aperient, alterative, diuretic, and some narcotic properties; in addition, "it has been found efficacious in bilious remittent fevers, as well as in obstinate intermittents, and an excellent tonic after convalescence from exhausting diseases." Fringe tree also had some reputation as a cholagogue, perhaps mostly among Eclectic practitioners.' In 1912 it was recorded as one of the better-known botanicals among physicians 6 and, belatedly, it acquired some reputation in regular medicine as an expectorant.' Interest persisted until the 1940s-at least two pharmacognosists felt it important to revise the pharmacognostical standards.8 Twentieth-century domestic medical books helped to sustain interest. Health from Field and Forest (1917), for instance, described it as a blood purifier and general tonic: "abates fever and acts as a good cathartic, is good for kidneys and an excellent alterative."" Interestingly, Bass probably first learned about the tree as a treatment for animals, an instance where an oral tradition may have been independent of a popular tradition for human medicine. Chemical constituents include a saponin glycoside, but a 1946 study indicated that medicinal preparations were probably poor expectorants. 10 The tannin content accounts for the clinical reputation for sore throat and dysentery, and probably its popular reputation as a tonic. Whether differences exist between the varieties is unknown. Bass is positive about the value of fringe tree, although from the range of past uses he knows it only as a tonic and for skin ailments. We are not sure where he acquired the idea of its value for diabetes, or how widespread this notion is. Interestingly, a southern European true ash (manna or ash manna, Fraxinus ornus L.) has been widely known as a sweetener for dia-

beties." Whether analogy has been at play is unknown but possible. Notes 1.

Marshall (1785, p. 32).

2. E.g., Griffith (1847, 2:208).

p. 441). Rafinesque (1828-30,

3. Elliott (1821-24.1:6). Griffith (1847, p. 441). Rafinesque (1828-30, 2:208) also said that the root bark was a febrifuge. The vernacular name white ash, commonly employed for Fraxinum americana, arises from a slight resemblance between this and the fringe tree. 4.

Clapp (1852, p. 849).

5.

Parke-Davis (1890, p. 82).

For insight into Eclectic interest see A Treatise on Chionanthus virginica (1904).

6.

7. Lloyd (1912). It was perhaps seen as something of a panacea; see also F. P. Foster (1896,1:234). 8.

Youngken and Feldman (1942).

9.

Health from Field and Forest (1917, p. 28).

10. See Duke (1985, p. 116) for note on constituents; also see Boyd and Palmer (1946). 11. Trease and Evans (1983, p. 322).

GALAX (rhizome and leaves) The Herbalist's Account It's an evergreen. It's best known for flower arrangements for Christmas and funerals. I used to collect it, but there's not much around here any more. I only know two places where it grows, and that's Shades Holler and Wolf Creek Holler. You can use the leaves for skin problems. The smell is not too good when you walk on the plants. It was used as a nerve tonic. But it's a general tonic, like any evergreen. Some say it's got a lot of iron in it. Conunentary Galax urceolata (Poir.) Brummitt* [syns. C. aphylla 1.; C. rotundifolia (Michx.) PurshJ: wandflower, galax, coltsfoot, beetleweed.

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Diapensiaceae

GALL-OF-THE-EARTH (root, latex)

Widespread throughout the southern Appalachians and now widely cultivated in North America and Europe, the indigenous galax has been and remains of interest to florists. Despite commercial and botanical interest, little has been written on medical usage, and reports are also rare within the popular tradition.' Pursh, however, in one of the few medical annotations in his Flora Americanae, stated that it was known as "Carpenter's leaf, blling used in healing all kinds of wounds and cutS."2 Rafinesque reaffirmed this, describing it as a vulnerary "used for all kinds of wounds, bruises and stones."3 A few other authors (e.g., Clapp, 1852) made the same point, and this information has reached Mr. Bass, who says that the leaves are less astringent than the roots.· In contrast, the reputation of galax as a nerve tonic does not appear to have been recorded. This may be a view derived solely from the rather fetid smell, allegedly characteristic of nerve medicines (see volume 1, chapter 1).5 The view that evergreens are tonics is, according to Mr. Bass, an old tradition. "Everything that can survive the winter must be good for you." No report of chemical constituents has been found. The vernacular name coltsfoot has led to some confusion with the medically used coltsfoot, Tussilago farfara (see Coltsfoot).

The Herbalist's Account There are a number of gall-of-the-earths. It's highly recommended as a strong rheumatism medicine, but I don't use it. It's really scarce in my area. Some people will say it's the only thing that's done their rheumatism some good, but I wouldn't want to recommend it too high. It's like Indian hemp; it's dangerous. It's a narcotic, you know. It'll make you walk on a trip. I don't recommend anything like that. It can be used for warts. It has a milky juice. You make a tea out of the root and wash the warty area with the tea. Or cut up a bunch of stems and put them in rubbing alcohol and let them sit four or five days, and use that. It'll really get off warts, but I'd generally recommend wild lettuce or fig leaves. I gather it sometimes for people, but not for my own use.

Notes For botanical background to the complex nomenclature see Brummitt (1972), Ingram (1974). Difficulty has arisen because the original Galax aphylla included two quite distinct plants. 1.

2. Pursh (1814, p. 446). 3. Rafinesque (1828-30, 2:222). 4. Clapp (1852. p. 816). Another use which has not

reached Bass is Cherokee employment for "kidney trouble" (Banks, 1953, p. 102). 5. E.

F. Andrews (1915).

Commentary Prenanthes serpentaria Pursh * [syns. Nabalus integrifolius Cass.; N. serpentaria (Pursh) Hook.; N. fraseri DC.]: rattlesnake root, lionsfoot, gall-of-the-earth. P. altissima L. [syns. Nabalus altissimus (L.) Hook.; P. deltoides Ell.]: snakeweed, gall-ofthe-earth. P. alba L. [syn. Nabalus alba (L.) Hook.]: white-lettuce, rattlesnake-root, gall-of-theearth. Asteraceae (Compositae) Of various species of Prcnanthcs that have been called gall-of-the-earth, Mr. Bass generally collects P. serpentaria. Despite his enthusiasm for the plant, and its bitter taste (hence the name gall-of-the-earth), it was largely ignored by writers on materia medica, at least until the end of the nineteenth century.' However, F. Pursh, in his influential Flora Americanae, commented on the reputation of P. serpentaria for snakebite: "During my travels through the mountains of Virginia,

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I had an opportunity of being a witness of the efficacy of this remedy. A man living in Covemountains. near the Sweet-springs. was bit in the foot by a mocassin snake, a species considered the most dangerous. An inflammation and swelling of the whole leg took place immediately; but by taking the milky juice of the plant boiled in milk, inwardly, and applying to the wound the steeped leaves, which were very frequently changed, he was cured in a few days."z Much of gall-of-the-earth's reputation continued to be linked to the persistent belief that it was an antidote for rattlesnake bites; surprisingly, this use is not known to Bass. In 1826 J. Hubble focused on another species, saying that in "certain sections of our country" Prenanthes altissima, "called by the common people snakeweed," is believed to possess the "power of eliminating or counteracting" a rattlesnake bite when administered internally and applied externally" Later in the century, Gattinger (1894) repeated this reputation, while C. Mohr (1901) pronounced P. serpentaria "one of the reputed remedies for snakebites."· The persistence of the notion of the effectiveness of snakeroots is noted in the monograph on snakeroots. For reasons that are not clear (though certainly the general enthusiasm of some pharmaceutical companies for finding new remedies and the opinion that it possessed narcotic properties are relevant), particular interest emerged for P. alba, commonly called white lettuce, but also gall-of-theearth.' In addition to the uses noted above, P. alba seems to have been especially valued for treating diarrhea and dysentery. The reputation of gall-of-the-earth has filtered into some relatively recent literature. N. Coon (1963) mentioned P. alba in a list of "less well-known species" with the comment: "The root of this perennial leafy plant is a bitter tonic; used for dysentery. Reputed antidote for snake and insect bites." 6 Recent reports on the chemical constituents have

not been found, though the bitter taste is possibly due to sesquiterpene lactones common in the family Compositae. Undoubtedly the bitterness has accounted for much of the past interest. This appears to be the basis of Bass's belief in its tonic action and its value for rheumatism, though it should be noted that testimony for its value is stronger than for many other rheumatism remedies. Bass's reference to treating warts is in line with the popular tradition of applying a milky latex. Detailed evaluations of the reputation of gall-of-the-earth may need to consider that the taxonomy of Prenanthes is complicated by frequent hybridization.

Notes 1. The derivation of the name is mentioned by Elliott (1824,2:260). 2. Pursh (1814, 2 :499). 3. Hubble (1826). Like many writers on plants,

Hubble extolled empiricism: "Empiricism, though pregnant with many evils, has nevertheless been productive of some benefits to the science of medicine. It is by this that the medicinal powers of many remediate agents have been brought under the control of this ennobling science." 4. Gattinger (1894, p. 44). Mohr (1901, p. 755). 5. Gattinger (1894, pp. 44-45): "Eli Lilly & Co.

prepares a fluid extract of the herb." 6. Coon (1963. p. 235) lists the vernacular name

gall-of-the-earth.

GARLIC (bulb, "juice")

The Herbalist's Account I've not used it. It stinks too bad for me. It was a favorite with old-timers, though onion was more popular. They often used the wild garlic that is stronger. Old-timers-black people and white-used it for pOUltices on chests. You can also eat it with onions for colds. Fry them in grease, some just poaches them, some takes them raw. You could also

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use the poultice for sores and ulcers. A lot of people asks me about garlic nowadays. I tell them it's a blood purifier and thins the blood. It acts on the kidneys. The tame garlic is now put in capsules and used in high blood pressure. It's good for blood sugar too. Commentary Allium sativum L., including subspecies and cultivars: garlick, cultivated garlic, poore mens treacle. A. vineale L. * , including subspecies: garlick, wilde garlick, field garlick, crow garlick, snake's garlick.

Liliaceae Of the innumerable plants in the genus Allium, onions and garlics-often difficult to distinguish botanically-have long been employed in medicine.' Mr. Bass's remarks apply to wild and cultivated garlic, though he believes the former is stronger. 2 Garlic has always been considered therapeutically stronger than onion, A. cepa. Even the casual observer can appreciate John Gerard's 1597 description of garlic as a hot (and dry) medicine. Appropriately for this concept, deobstruent actions-diuresis, diaphoresis, and expectoration-were emphasized. 3 While innumerable uses linked to these actions have reached panacea levels at times, some recommendations are little more than hearsay, and garlic's popularity has not been consistent.4 Joseph Miller (1722), while noting that it was called "countryman's treacle" (indicating its role as a cheap alternative to the expensive polypharmaceutical preparations mithridatium and theriacs), said it was used less in England than in foreign parts. s Of the many recommended uses, home remedies for chest conditions-applied externally as a poultice or taken internallyhave probably been most prominent, at least since the nineteenth century (although onion has been more popular in this respect). In 1880 British authors Bentley and Trimen

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stated that garlic was "formerly much used in modern practice, but in this country it is now rarely used by the regular practitioner, although it is still employed to some extent in the United States." 6 Garlic poultices were commonly mentioned in regular medical textbooks: "In persistent colds, where the bronchial tubes are particularly affected, a garlic poultice made by pounding the bulbs in a mortar, is a very efficient though disagreeable remedy." 7 Much interest has been aroused by a possible anti-infective (or antiputrefactive) action in garlic. Gerard (1597) said that it was a preventative against the "contagious and pestilent aire," an obvious association with the use of many different aromatic substances to purify the air at that time." Subsequent authors often noted garlic's value as an external remedy, for example, for "indolent tumours," as well as its anti-infective properties (rather than earlier views about a stimulant action). The alleged antibiotic action has, in recent years, been considered to account for a beneficial action in certain gastrointestinal disorders.9 Anti-inflammatory action cannot be ruled out. 1D Garlic's value for treating colds is said to be due to an expectorant action arising from the irritant properties of allicin (responsible for the characteristic pungent odor) and sulfides in the volatile oil present, although some believe an antiinfective action is at work. Interestingly, Bass indicates garlic was used more in poultices, indicative of employing the concept of counterirritation. Allicin (diallyl disulphideS-oxide), which is formed by enzyme action on alliin when the bulbs are ground, is considered to be responsible for much of the pharmacological activity, though anticoagulant action is associated more specifically with the degradation product, ajoene, and other constituents with antihepatotoxic properties (see below). Around 1980 Mr. Bass became caught up in the widespread promotion of garlic (mostly in health food stores and by mail order) for

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atherosclerosis and high blood pressure, on the basis of its "blood-purifying properties." While such interest began in the 1940s, recent widespread belief that lipid abnormalities are a primary cardiovascular risk factor has encouraged garlic's popularity!' Certainly evidence is strong that preparations of garlic can lower cholesterol. triglyceride, and low-density lipoprotein in laboratory and clinical situations." High-density lipoprotein, which may protect against cardiovascular disease, is unaffected or raised. Some of the earlier studies have been questioned in recent years, particularly those indicating benefits for atherosclerosis." The precise clinical activity is complicated-and made more interesting-by anticoagulant properties (caused by fibrinolytic and platelet -aggregation-inhibiting effects). at least in high doses. 14 Recent laboratory studies have also shown an anti hepatotoxic action. 's It is especially interesting that the information Bass and his visitors have acquired about the studies on cholesterol has reinforced garlic's reputation as a blood purifier-a property, he feels, that contributes to its effect on lowering blood pressure. A number of studies suggest garlic may lower blood pressure if given in larger doses than those recommended by Bass. It is unfortunate that a number of scientists state uncritically that garlic's folklore reputation-for instance, as an antihypertensive-supports new pharmacological findings, for this seemingly introduces bias, just as Bass employs the notion of blood purification to accept any alleged action on the vascular tree.'6 His note that garlic is "good" for blood sugar is also rationalized by him on the basis of the link between blood sugar and "high blood," although garlic has been shown to reduce blood sugar.17 Owing to the overpowering odor, garlic is not popular in North America and many other countries in doses considered appro-

priate for medical effects. In the past this has been on the order of one to two drams (4-8 g) or more of fresh cloves. Such doses, taken more than once daily, have been recommended for cholesterol-lowering effects, but it is not clear on what basis. Doses in commercially available preparations are much smaller. Many questions, too, arise over deodorized or odor-modified preparations, although some studies suggest that certain of these preparations marketed for cholesterollowering action are effective. 's Nevertheless, fresh garlic has long been considered the most efficacious. Bass's belief that wild garlic is much stronger is consistent with views that all wild plants are medically stronger than cultivated forms. This was specifically mentioned by Gerard in his discussion of wild garlic.'9 Bass collects one of a number of so-called wild garlics, A. vineale, rather than A. canadense or A. oleraceum. Notes 1. Some early history is included in Blackwood and Fulder (1986). 2. The view that wild garlic is stronger than cultivated is still widespread. Croom (1982. p. 34) noted that "because Allium vineale used by the Lumbees is more pungent than the onion and garlic of commerce, it warrants investigation for irritant, toxic, and pharmacological effects." 3. Gerard (1597, pp. 140-41). It is probable that the powerful sensory properties have been particularly important in the development of its reputation, including folklore. 4. It is appropriate to note that the many versions of the Regimen Scultatus Salernitium (e.g., 1557, ff. xlii-xliiii) persistently provided strong advocacy into the eighteenth century. 5. ). Miller (1722. pp. 23-24). Although commonly called "countryman's treacle," various well-known physicians prescribed it throughout the eighteenth century. 6. Bentley and Trimen (1880). 7. Hare (1909, p. 72). 8. Gerard (1597, p. 141).

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9. For notions of stimulant action see Pereira (1842,

p. 985 J, and discussion on antibiotic action in Cavallito and Bailey (1944). Among recent reviews of garlic that include accounts of microbiological effects are Adetumbi and Lau (1983). V. Petkov (1986). 10. Wagner et al. (1987). 11. A paper by Piotrowski (1948) is often noted as having stimulated interest. 12. Many references on "Garlic" in Lawrence Rev. Nat. Prod. 5 (1984): 21-24; also Ernst et al. (1985).

Much of the interest following studies on onions sterns from Bardia et al. (1975). who reported that healthy adult males fed 100 g butter and garlic juice (extracted from 50 g material given in one dose) showed a decrease in serum cholesterol by 10 percent and increased fibrinolvtic activity by 15 percent. 13. E.g., Ahara (1981). 14. Block (1986, pp. 125-37). 15. Hikino (1986) includes Chinese reference to

use of garlic in infectious jaundice. 16. Banerjee (1976), Foushee et al. (1982), Ruffin and Hunter (1983). 17. See Oliver-Bever and Zahnd (1979-80)' Jain et al. (1973), Chang and Johnson (1980). 18. Lau et al. (1987). 19. Gerard (1597, p. 142).

GENTIAN (rhizome and root) The Herbalist's Account

There are several gentians. We have the blue gentian with the star-shaped bloom around here. Be sure the roots are bone dry before you put them in a jar. Keep tightly sealed. All the gentians are supposed to be the best tonic for giving appetite. It's one of the finest stomach medicines we have. Most all fine stomach compounds contain gentian, Gentian root will numb the gums, but it's a tonic and good for rheumatisum, Use a handful of roots or tops boiled in a quart of water. I don't find enough to use it, but I've got a package from the health food store and I've taken some of it. It is bitter as everything,

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which is why it's so highly recommended. Gosh, it's one of the best things in the world for the stomach. Of course, I generally recommend yellowroot. But a lot of time it is just handy to take a little shot of this. If I eat something I am not supposed to, it will ease it. Gentian is an appetizer, but it helps digest something that doesn't agree with me. Commentary Gentiana lutea 1.: gentian, felwort, bitterwoort, baldmoyne. G. catesbaei Walt. * [syns. G. saponaria 1.; Dasystephana parvifolia (Chapman) Small; G. elliottii Chapman; G. parvifolia (Chapman) Britt.): gentian, blue gentian. Gentianella quinquefolia (1.) Small ssp. quinquefolia* [syn. Gentiana quinquefolia 1.): gentian, ague-weed, gall-of-the-earth. Gentianaceae Ruellia carolinensis 0. F. G. mel.) Steudel*: blue gentian (local name). Acanthaceae Many bitter plants have been loosely called gentians. Of the true gentians, the intensely bitter European Gentian lutea has probably been the most widely used. It is this (or a closely related plant) that Mr. Bass purchases. Its history extends back to classical times. John Gerard (1597) described a number of "gentians," or "felworts" (almost certainly including G. luteal, with characteristics of hotness and bitterness. They were considered useful for cleansing or scouring and when there was need of attenuating, purging, cleansing, and removing obstructions. Specifically, gentian was noted for cramps and convulsions, "evilllivers and bad stomackes." 1 Since Gerard's account, gentian has been mentioned in almost every book on medicinal plants. While it came to be seen less as a panacea-references to hot and alexipharmic properties (albeit often in conjunction with

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other aromatic substances) disappearedit remained well known as a stomachic and tonic. In North America a number of indigenous gentian species have attracted interest. American authors Rafinesque (1828-30) and Griffith (1847), for example, mentioned several indigenous gentians used in domestic practice and apparently "equal to the foreign." These included the "blue gentian," G. catesbaei, and G. quinquefolia, as the "best known and esteemed." The latter has often been called ague-weed, a reference to the use of bitters for fevers of the malarial type. Many of the American gentians have been called Sampson snakeroots (see monograph). Gentiana iutea contains the bitter glycosides gentiin and gentiamarin, which are produced from gentiopicrin during the drying process. The blue gentian (G. catesbaei), about which Mr. Bass often passes on information, was apparently "much used in the southern states in hectic and nervous fevers, pneumonia, &c. acting as a sudorific tonic." 2 The sudorific action lies behind Bass's reference to usage for rheumatism. Bass also refers to an unrelated "facsimile of the real one" -the acanthaceaous Ruellia carolinensis, which, according to him, is not very bitter; however, he believes old-timers used it. Only a few references to the medical use of Ruellia can be found, and none speak in terms oftonic actions. 3 While Bass believes he is substituting a mild bitter for a strong one, R. carolinensis is polymorphic, and discussions on its taxonomic complexity need to be taken into account when assesssing its bitterness. Gentiana iutea contains bitter glycosides, alkaloids, volatile oil, and flavonoids. The glycosides' chemistry and pharmacology merit further study.4 It is presumed that other gentians contain the same or similar constituents. Studies on the chemistry of Ruellia have not been found.

Notes 1. Gerard (1597, pp. 350-54). 2. Rafinesque (1828-30, 1:206-14), who added that they were seldom employed in regular practice because the foreign root was readily procurable. See Griffith (1847, pp. 460-61). For an enthusiastic account of G. catesbaei ("I have found the root of this plant in a variety of instances in which I have used it, to resemble very nearly the imported Gentian in its properties, being but little inferior to it in strength or efficacy") see Bigelow (1817-21, vol. 2, pt. 2, pp. 137-41). It is likely that other well-known "substitutes," such as bu~kbean (Menyanthes trifoliata), were in the same category; see Buck (1886-93,1:716). 3. Grime (1976, p. 174) has found references to two species of Ruellia, one as a "traumatic drink," the other for fevers. 4. For a brief review see Trease and Evans (1983, p.519).

GINGER (rhizome) The Herbalist's Account Ginger's a wonderful stimulant. Most homes had the root and were making ginger tea; nowadays you usually have to use the powder. It was used a lot for medicine in the old days. My daddy had a vinegar stew-put the ginger in vinegar with sugar and cayenne pepper for a good cough medicine. You take a teaspoonful in water. Some folks said it was a liver medicine, but we always preferred mayapple. Commentary Zingiber officinalis Roscoe, including varieties, and other species: ginger. Zingerberaceae Ginger, generally obtained from Asia, Africa, and the West Indies, has a long history as both a spice and a medicine. John Gerard (1597) noted it to be hot and dry in the third degree and, "as Dioscorides reporteth, is right good with meate in sauces, or otherwise in

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conditures: for it is of an heating and digesting quality.'" However, it is not entirely clear how popular it was or became in Western as compared to Asian medicine. In the Orient it is now prescribed in about half of all multi-item prescriptions. 2 The English translation of Pomet's Compleat History of Druggs (1712) stated: "Ginger is very little us'd in Physicke, but instead of that great quantities of it are us'd by the hawkes and chandlers in the Country, who mix it with pepper, they reduce it to powder, and then call it white spice, which in France serves for several uses." 3 Doubtful practices did not affect the reputation of ginger for easing the stomach-particularly as self-medication-though usage as a diaphoretic for colds was perhaps more widespread. Virtually every account of the materia medica-European and American, regular and botanic/domestic-up to the twentieth century considered ginger: frequent mention was made of its stimulant, rubefacient, errhine, and sialogogue properties.' As with many drugs, it became fashionable for a while. In 1836 a well-known British domestic medical book said that in the form of powdered ginger (rather than as a weak tea) it had "lately been much extolled as a remedy for gout, indigestion and flatulance," while in America at the time it was generally popular with Thomsonian botanic practitioners, many of whom saw it as "a very good substitute for cayenne as a stimulanl." 5 Mr. Bass's recollection of a mixture ("vinegar stew") of ginger and cayenne pepper is in line with other memories of ginger and red pepper for colds.6 Additional lay uses recorded in Alabama include for flu, fevers, headache, and to break out measles; these uses are related to a diaphoretic action, which is encouraged by drinking the ginger as hot tea or in whiskey? The aroma and pungency of ginger are due to a group of principles known as gingerols (arylalkanol derivatives). It is commonly

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assumed that the reputation for easing the stomach rests on a carminative action of the volatile oil, but other factors may be at play. Recently it has been shown that gingerols promote the action of bile, once an approach for the management of many gastrointestinai disorders.8 It is of some interest that Bass has heard of usage for liver problems, though it is not well recorded in the medical literature. Suggestions that the "stimulant" action of ginger is due to a positive effect on the heart (due to the gingerols present) have not been justified clinically. Recent work has demonstrated the presence of other constituents besides gingerols -some found to be potent inhibitors of prostaglandin biosynthesis. Many biological activities have also been shown-larvicidal, antihypercholesterolemic, narcotic antagonist, cytotoxic, antibacterial, anticonvulsant, analgesic, antiulcer, gastric anti secretor, antitumor, molluscicidal, antifungal, antispasmodic, and antiallergenic-but the clinical relevance of most of these actions is unclear.9 One double-blind study has been undertaken 011 the effects of ginger all motioll sickness using the powdered whole root rather than fluid extracts. The results indicate superiority over an antihistamine, at least for a short period of time.'o Various preparations are currently marketed. Bass's reference-following past concepts -to a stimulant action is no longer accepted in scientific medicine. The possibility that it might be linked to a specific effect on the cardiovascular system has been noted, but it is just as likely that it is associated with a subjective and physiological response to spices.

Notes 1. Gerard (1597, p. 55).

2. Hikino et a1. (1985). 3. Pomet (1712, p. 33).

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4. See King (1882 , pp. 881-82). 5. Savory (1836, p. 38), Mattson (1841, 1:194). 6. For example, Page and Wigginton (1984 , p . 128). 7. See R. B. Browne (1958, pp. 41, 50, 65, 67, 70, 79, 103), referring to ginger tea and Jamaica ginger. Its aura as a panacea extended to employment for menstrual problems; e.g., C. S. Johnson (1934 , p.201). 8. Yamahara et al. (1985). 9. For references and review see "Ginger," Lawrence Rev. Nat. Prod., monograph (April 1986); Tuntiwachwuttikul et al. (in Steiner, 1986, pp. 191-204). 11. Mowrey and Clayson (1982) . The use of chickweed in the study, with its markedly different sensory properties, seems inappropriate.

American Ginseng

GINSENG (root) The Herbalist's Account Ginseng is valuable but hard to find. I woke up knowing it. It grows in the woody shade on the north side of hills. Father used to buy it and sell it to collectors who shipped it across the waters. I don 't use it in my medicines since there isn't any I can find around here. Forty years ago I could find a little. They're tight on it now. I believe the law is you start gathering the ginseng in September and gather on up to frost. And the law is you put the seed, the berries you get off the sang, in the ground. I sell ginseng tablets, but they're not made out of wild ginseng. Some of it is from overseas, Siberian ginseng. A lot of people take it all the time. It's a tonic. I put some of the bought ginseng in my BH Tonic. When people ask me what effect ginseng has, I tell them to ask their doctor and he will say the same thing: "I don't know!" But I'll tell you one thing. I believe it is a good medicine. I don't think it could have fooled the Indians for a thousand years and those people across the water if it hadn't been a good medicine.

I know that the Indians used it for everything that could be wrong with you. The root looks so much like the human body that they figured the Lord made it to do you good. I knew a man that swore by it. He told me that once when he was in the hospital with rheumatism, and the doctors wasn't doing him any good, he got somebody to slip him a half-gallon of whiskey with a handful of ginseng in it. He took it and swore that it run the rheumatism out of him. But I don't know about that. I believe that if a person knew how the Indians used it, it would be a great benefit now. A lot of people still collect it; it's not too strong from around here. If a person uses the ginseng from North America, the further south it grows, the more you have to take. If it grows here in Alabama or Georgia, you want to take, say, two capsules, but if it comes from cold places like Minnesota, you'd take half as much. Some folks on the mountain use the dwarf ginseng. It's a tonic, but not so strong, more a folk medicine.

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Commentary

Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer [syns. Aralia ginseng H. Bn.; P. quinquefolium L. var. coreene Sieb.; P. shin-seng Nees]: ginseng, Chinese ginseng, Korean ginseng, sang. P. quinquefolius L. [syns. Aralia quinquefolium Decne. and Planchon; Aureliana canadensis Lampteau]: sang, ginseng, American ginseng. P. trifolius L.: dwarf ginseng. Acanthopanax senticosus (Rupr. and Maxim.) Harms. [syn. Eleutheroccocus senticosus Maxim.]: Siberian ginseng, sang. Araliaceae The medical story of ginseng species, particularly the extraordinarily celebrated Chinese Panax ginseng, has been outlined a number of times.' American ginseng (P. quinquefolius) first attracted attention in the early eighteenth century after the Jesuit Father Jartoux helped familiarize the Chinese plant in 1711.2 He stated that it was a remedy for all weaknesses occasioned by excessive fatigue of body or mind, for weaknesses of the lungs or the pleurisy, for short and weak breatbing, and so on. In the New World at least two people were early promoters of P. quinquefolius after hearing of Jartoux's account-Jesuit missionary Joseph Lafitau and William Byrd. The latter, who became a great advocate of ginseng, wrote that its root "is of wonderful vertue in many cases, particularly to raise the spirits and promote perspiration, which makes it a specifick in colds and coughs .... I carry'd home this Treasure, with as much Joy, as if every root had been the graft of the Tree of Life, and washt and dry'd it carefully." 3 With the growing interest in both Chinese and American ginseng, it is not surprising that the drug (mostly the Chinese plant) was mentioned in many standard eighteenthcentury medical texts. Most were more enthusiastic than John Quincy (1733): "It is a root ... by some passed for cephallic and

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a promoter of venery; but modern practice takes little notice of it." 4 Despite some early encomiums, neither Chinese nor American ginseng became well established in professional Western medicine. An ambivalence still seen today was reflected in the 1792 remarks of William Woodville: "We know of no proofs of the efficacy of ginseng in Europe, and from its sensible qualities we judge it to possess very little power as a medicine." 5 In spite of the persistence of doubts and perhaps declining usage amid professional medicine, "sanging" (collecting ginseng) remained part of life for many people in the Appalachians and elsewhere throughout the nineteenth century.6 Demand was such that cultivation was started around 1830 (later in Wisconsin and Ohio), though just how much was grown for the American domestic market rather than for export to the Far East is unclear.' At least Eclectic medical interest may have been widespread. s In the twentieth century cultivation has developed in more southerly parts of the United States, including in southern Appalachia. Even so, collecting wild ginseng-mostly for export to the Far East-remains a major business, although American ginseng is considered medically inferior to P. ginseng." Ginseng's lay reputation in America and Europe is generally that of a veritable panacea, but "strengthening" (to repair weakened viscera) and "tonic" actions, often reported as aphrodisiac, are most conspicuous. Clearly, though, in the Appalachians and elsewhere, uses of ginseng often rest on local testimonies; for instance, to stop "guts growling" when "old-timers used to go a'courting." 10 In China the roots are the most highly regarded part, but dried leaves taken as a tea are said to have a cooling property, to promote the flow of saliva, and to help digestion. The flower buds are used as a stimulant. ll Assessment of the many reputed uses is complicated by the need to take into account the

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numerous combination preparations (often with vitamins) in which ginseng appears. 12 Much ginseng on the American and European market today is Siberian (usually described as Eleutherococcus senticosus rather than Acanthopanax senticosus). Generally considered to exhibit adaptogenic and other actions similar to P. ginseng, it has long been used in Chinese medicine; in recent years it has attracted much interest in Russia, and certain preparations of Eleutherococcus have been "officially" approved for a wide range of uses in the Soviet Union. Questions about quality raise uncertainties about many preparations marketed elsewhere.13 Chemical and pharmacological studies on P. ginseng have demonstrated numerous constituents and actions. It is generally thought that the triterpene saponins present (ginsenosides, also called panaxosides), of which more than a dozen have been identified, are the active constituents, rather than other components (steroidal compounds, volatile oil, vitamins Band C, amino acids, fatty acids, and trace elements).14 On the other hand, the saponins are said to be poorly absorbed, and questions arise about whether they can account for alleged activities and whether laboratory studies demonstrating effects on. for example. anemia and hypertension. have clinical relevance. American ginseng (P. quinquefolius) possesses a range of compounds, though differences in the gins enos ides may account for the differing medical reputations of P. ginseng and quinquefolius.15 Similarly, differences exist in the chemistry of Eleutherococcus. Among the many attributed uses, tonic action has been the most persistent; it is now often described as "toning up the cerebral cortex" and good to "relieve stress" (an "adaptogen" activity). Some positive results have been shown in experimental endurance tests on animals and humans reacting to heat, cold, swimming, and radiation. Various theories have been put forward to justify

adaptogen and other activities, such as facilitating the passage of phenylamine across the blood-brain barrier, increasing serum protein synthesis. inhibiting metabolic pathways in the liver. and antioxidant action.16 On the other hand, some studies specifically question whether ginseng has a positive effect on stress, and the topic remains controversial (as does the phenomenon of stress itself), just as does the issue of whether ginseng has aphrodisiac propertiesP Much debate has arisen over the lack of constituents with overt physiological activity, despite the wonderful reputation over so many centuries. Long-standing skepticism persists among Western physicians about ginseng's biological activity, though some admit that it appears to justify its reputation within the cultural context of use in China and the Far East. Undeniably, ginseng is one of the best examples of an herbal remedy in which physiological and cultural factors that contribute to a medical reputation are difficult to disentangle. It is generally assumed that ginseng is nontoxic, but the extensive doses taken by some people led to reported side effectsviewed as estrogenic-as mastalgia with diffuse nodularity in the breasts and, particularly, enlargement of the nipples in both younger and older women. Hypertension, edema, morning diarrhea, skin eruptions, sleeplessness, nervousness. and euphoria have been described as a "ginseng abuse syndrome."18 This has been challenged, but long-term use is contraindicated where such symptoms are present. Eleutherococcus is also considered nontoxic, though the same contraindications exist. Mr. Bass's reference to dwarf ginseng (P. trifolium) is of some interest because the plant is rarely mentioned in the literature. Chemical studies have shown the presence of ginsenosides. but whether the constituents justify Bass's opinion that it is a weak tonic is not known. 19

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Because of the wide usage of ginseng, it is appropriate to stress one issue relevant to all herbal medicines-quality. This involves many considerations, but adulteration of ginseng with Rauwolfia serpentina, Cola species, and many other items has been reported. 2o Obviously, this adds to the difficult task of clinically evaluating ginseng.

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10. Wigginton. "Planting a Ginseng Patch" (1977. pp. 445-48). 11. Shiu-Ying Hu (1977. p. 13). 12. A point stressed by Hu (ibid .. pp. 13-22). 13. Baronov(1982). 14. Interestingly. the total activity of the saponins is reported to show no hemolytic activity. 15. For comment and reference. Ng and Yeung (1986. pp. 139-51).

Notes 1. E.g., Dixon (1976) is a helpful account, but unfortunately with inadequate documentation. Particularly helpful for the early story is Appleby (1982-83). Also. for P. ginseng, see Shiu-Ying Hu (1977). Other relevant background can be found in Phillipson and Anderson (1984), Baldwin et al. (1986), Hon (1978), Mellinger (1975). 2. "The Description of a Tartarian Plant Call'd Ginseng; with an Account of Its Virtues," in a letter from Father Jartoux to the procurator general of the Missions of India and China. Taken from the tenth volume of the Letters of the Missionary Jesuits (in Phil. Trans. 28 11713]: 237-47). 3. Quoted in Vogel (1970, p. 309). 4. Quincy (1733, p. 79). 5. Woodville (1790-94, 2:272-73). Earlier. J. Hill (1751. p. 591) had given it favorable mention. 6. See L. Johnson (1884. p. 137) for typical doubtful orthodox view. It may not have been particularly popular early in the century; at least Pursh (1814. p. 191) stated: "it formerly was an article of exportation in America. but at present there is little demand for it." See. however. figures indicating considerable quantities exported in the early nineteenth century. in A. W. Carlson (1986). 7. Ginseng was listed in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia from 1842 to 1882. but its overall use in America appears to have been mostly in patent medicine from the eighteenth century. Some information appears in Appleby (1986). 8. Millspaugh (1974. no. 70-2. p. 277). 9. Hemmerly (1977) outlines trends with references. For an account of semicultivation commonplace in parts of the Appalachians, see Persons (1986).

16. For one view that it possesses enzyme-inhibiting properties see Medon et al. (1984). Antioxidant action reviewed by Ng and Yeung (1986). 17. For references see Staba (1985). For discussion of sex-stimulant activities. at least in animals. Tabemer (1985. pp. 70-72). 18. A brief review and references are included in Vulto and Buurma (1984. pp. 886-907). 19. Lee and der Marderosian (1981). 20. Siegal (1976).

GOLDENROD (leaves, flowers, roots)

The Herbalist's Account There are lots and lots of goldenrods, but the sweet goldenrod is most used. It can grow as tall as six feet. You use the flowers and leaves; gather in July or August. Strip the leaves from the stalk and dry them in the shade. It will keep for years in paper bags. I've known about it for a long time, but Hawk Littlejohn-he's a Cherokee-told me how good it is a few years ago. It's a good tonic. Littlejohn says it is one of the best blood tonics. It's also good for the skin and gives a better flavor to other medicines. It brings down the bitterness of other medicines. The roots can be used for chronic diarrhea. I've recommended goldenrod for people who have sugar. They could tell the effect after taking the tea. One tablespoon of crushed leaves per cup of water makes a good tea. Drink a couple of cups a day for diabetes and high blood pressure. It is not a cure. but

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it is a great benefit. especially when combined with blueberry or yellowroot. I think a person could ward off diabetes if they would eat and take the right kind of things. Goldenrod makes a good dye. and it makes a good tea-Mormon tea.

Commentary Solidago virgaurea L.• including subspecies: goldenrod. S. odora Ait.. including varieties: goldenrod. sweet goldenrod. S. canadensis L. var. scabra (Muh!.) Torr. and Grey. * [syn. S. altissima L.]: goldenrod. S. juncea Ait. *. including varieties: goldenrod. Asteraceae (Compositae) Goldenrods in North America are primarily indigenous. but a few are native to Europe. John Gerard (1597) discussed two kinds (one probably S. virgaurca) and described them as hot and dry in the second degree. Associated with these were such deobstruent actions as diuresis and to "wasteth away the stones in the kidneys and expelleth them." Styptic action was also highlighted. In addition. Gerard made an interesting comment on the then-current enthusiasm for exotic drugs. He said that imported goldenrod had attracted a high price until it had been found locally. in consequence of which "no man will give halfe a crowne for an hundred weight of it." While some practitioners tended to place greater faith in indigenous remedies. Gerard aptly remarked. "this verifieth our English proverbe. far fetcht and deere bought. is best for ladies." 1 By 1719 little enthusiasm for the plant survived. John Quincy said that it was little used as a restorative. vulnerary, and diuretic. or for diarrhea. 2 Even so. a low level of European interest persisted through the eighteenth centuryand into the nineteenth. An astringentbitter taste of the leaves was generally noted. In America during the early decades of the nineteenth century. however. one species, the

aromatic American Solidago odora. aroused particular interest among writers on materia medica. 3 Interesting encouragement for its use. in view of the remarks about exotic species noted above. appeared in 1817: "We import and consume many foreign drugs which possess no virtue beyond that of being aromatic. pleasant to the taste. gently stimulating. diaphoretic and carminative. All these properties [So odora] seems fully to possess.'" At the time (c. 1820) the latter was probably used mostly as a beverage and domestic remedy. a "popular diaphoretic in many parts of the country where the plant growS."5 Its employment within regular medicine was small. In 1857 the William S. Merrill Company of Cincinnati was buying relatively small quantities from an Appalachian root and herb dealer. Merrill pointed out that they also wasted a lot of it: "It is perishable and we have no doubt that nine tenths of it will be thrown away." 6 Later (1893). a textbook reported that "this drug is scarcely used by the profession. but possesses some, though not very decided. medicinal value." 7 Even so. Parke-Davis marketed a fluid extract during the 1890s.8 The astringent-tonic properties characterizing other goldenrod species. and often recommended for wounds. were mentioned less by nineteenth-century American authors. though more so in Eclectic publications.9 S. virgaurea and other species still attract interest in the European literature for "mildly diuretic, antidiarroeal and anti-inflammatory actions" associated with the volatile oil. tannin. and saponins. ' ° Bass thinks that the roots of any goldenrod are sufficiently astringent to use. It is quite possible that uncertainties about the reputation of goldenrod were linked to miscollection. C. J. Cowie wrote to an herb collector on 18 September 1856: "of the goldenrod. be sure to get the sweet scented. The common or spurious is a common weed here." 11

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It is difficult, if not impossible, to determine whether native American or European influences were primarily at play in establishing interest in Solidago odora within regular medicine. Moerman's survey of Indian usage lists thirty-eight uses and many species but does not refer to S. odora. With some exceptions, all the uses listed can be explained in terms of concepts employed in Western medicine: use of astringent, "febrifuge," and "deobstruent properties." Of course, similarities in use can be explained in a number of ways: a common interpretation of sensory properties, real efficacy for treating the symptoms, a transfer of Western information, or biased Western interpretations of Indian practices. During this century, at least, goldenrod has been used in the Appalachians as "blue mountain tea": the "leaves make a pleasing tea for exhaustion and fatigue." 12 A volatile oil (0.5-2 percent) in S. odora provides the typical aroma, but none of the constituents recorded (e.g., methyl chavicol, d-limonene, I-alpha-pinene, I-borneo!, and esters) is known specifically for diaphoretic and diuretic properties. l l On the other hand, irritant properties of volatile oils have been implicated in diuretic action. The reputation as an antipyretic and diaphoretic possibly rests on the slight bitterness and analogy with quinine. More generally, investigations on Solidago species have shown the widespread presence of acetylenic compounds. Alicyclic diterpenes have also been reported. 14 Constituents present in goldenrods may have immunostimulant action.15 The clinical relevance of this is uncertain, but speculation suggests that it may be relevant to wound healing and tonic action. The basis of Bass's confidence in goldenrod is not entirely clear, because he does not collect S. adora, but rather S. canadensis, S. juneea, and possibly other species. The first has some aroma, but most of Bass's remarks can be linked to astringent action. No

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published report has been found on hypoglycemic activity, although Bass's testimony is firm.'6

Noles 1. Gerard (1597, p. 349).

2. Quincy (1719, p. 116). Mentioned also, for example, in Salmon (1682, p. 15), and James (174345, vol. 3), under "Virgo aurea." James. as he so often did, waxed enthusiastic: "It is a mostcelebrated vulnerary, both for internal and external use." 3. Stearns (1801, p. 160), but nat in such other authoritative writers of the time as Thacher, Chapman, and Eberle. 4. Bigelow (1817-22, val. 1, pt. 2, p. 189). 5. Bigelow (1822, p. 346). Pursh (1814, p. 539)

wrote: "The flowers, gathered when fully expanded, and carefully dried, give a most agreeable substitute for tea, which for some time has been an article of exportation to China, where it fetches a high price." Later, L. Johnson stated succinctly, "other species of Solidago have been employed medicinally, but none of them are as agreeable as this (Solidago odora)" (1884, pp. 175-76). 6. Cowie Papers, 20 February 1857. 7. Shoemaker (1896, p. 911)~ In 1882 it was omitted from the U.S. Pharrnacopoei(l, where it had been on the secondary list since 1820. 8. Parke-Davis (1890, p. 87). 9.

J. King

(1882, p. 799).

10. E.g., Fluck (1973, p. 154). Banchini and Corbette (1977. p. 136) indicated that S. virgaurea

has been a favorite with herbalists for many centuries. Diuretic action was mentioned (p. 215), justification for which is unclear. 11. Cowie Papers, 20 February 1857. 12. Mellinger (1977). Unfortunately, no information is given on sources of information. 13. Listed in Simon et al. (1984, p. 45). Saponins have been reported in some species. 14. Bohlmann et al. (1985). 15. Cited in Wagner and Proksch (1985). 16. Not listed in Farnsworth and Segel man (1971).

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GOLDENSEAL; HYDRASTIS (roots, tops) The Herbalist's Account Goldenseal is the king and queen of the herbs that the good Lord put in the ground. It grows in patches on the north side of hills, but it's become hard to find in this part of the country and it don't grow around me. It is gathered in July, August, and September. It can be grown in the garden but it is tedious. The roots and tops are used to make a tea. Take an ounce of ground-up root to make a pint of tea. Use one teaspoon three times a day and one at bedtime. It's used with laxatives; mix with mayapple, black snakeroot, and dandelion root to balance it. If you can't get goldenseal, yellowroot can take the place of it. It can be used for anything that ails you. It is a tonic, a blood purifier, and it's good for ulcers, sores, and skin problems. You can use it for hemorrhoids. Use a wash: no more than quarter of a teaspoonful of powder in a teacupful of water. You use less for a tonic to tone up the appetite and purify the blood. It has a tendency to be powerful and to have an aftereffect. I bought two pounds out of West Virginia about a year ago, and that will last a lifetime the way I use it. It also makes a wonderful dye, but few people make it anymore. Commentary HydrastiS canadensis 1.: hydrastis, yellow puccoon, yellowroot, goldenseal. Ranunculaceae Hydrastis, or goldenseal, has undoubtedly been one of the more popular American indigenous remedies.! Although its use by native Indians as a dye and possibly for the treatment of sores and other external complaints was early appreciated! and such American authors as W. P. C. Barton drew attention to its "somewhat narcotic smell" and "exceedingly bitter" taste and tonic properties, the plant attracted little general

medical interest until the 1840s.3 Although Thomsonian practitioners contributed to the growing interest in the first half of the nineteenth century, John Lloyd felt that the main surge of popularity came from Eclectic practitioners.- It is certainly doubtful that hydrastis acquired as much popularity among regular physicians, although its introduction into the secondary list of the U.S. Pharmacopoeia in 1860 reflected some establishment interest,S as did the comments of Robert Bentley in England that it "is now on trial as a remedial agent in this country" as a tonic and for the treatment of mucous membranes." Later, Charles Phillips's Materia Medica (1879) noted that it had a reputation in Europe for disorders of the stomach and liver, and also added other uses, including for inflammations, ulcers, cracks in the nipples, and hemorrhoids? Even the generally criti~ cal Laurence Johnson (1884) was not overly judgmental; he felt the varied reputation was probably due to its best-known property, a tonic action: "Numerous and diverse properties have been attributed to hydrastis, so much so, indeed, that there is little agreement among different authors upon the subject. That it is a powerful tonic all admit, and it is probable that to the tonic action alone are due the many widely different effects, observed by those who have written upon the drug."" Hydrastis declined less quickly in popu .. larity than other botanicals. It persisted into this century as one of the better-known tonics, and, within regular medicine, was reportedly used in the treatment of menorrhagia and metrorrhagia because of "slight power to increase the normal contractions of the uterus."" Some physicians included it in their choices for treating urinary tract problems.1O Although hydrastis no longer has a place in regular medicine, its reputation-a particularly pervasive one as a panacea-is reflected in much of the herballiteratureY

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In part this is derived from the onetime enthusiasm of Eclectic practitioners and their literature for many "stimulant" actions, some of which have been incorporated into current naturopathic herbal practice. Other factors enGouraging interest at times include the erroneous belief that it can prevent morphine addiction. '2 It is of some interest that hydrastis has been noted from time to time for curing cancer, although John Lindley (1838), among others, expressed doubt over this." The suggested value for cancer treatment perhaps rests primarily on its well-established reputation for aiding ulcers, canker sores, and other skin ailments. The constituent isoquinoline alkaloidshydrastine and berberine-possess similar properties and account for the reputation as a bitter tonic and stomach medicine. It seems likely that goldenseal's reputation as a blood purifier (noted by Bass) is associated with the tonic property, for diaphoretic activity is not well substantiated. Modern laboratory studies showing effects of berberine on blood pressure and the uterus are linked to activity on smooth muscle; 14 however, the relevance of this to acceptable doses of the plant are unclear. The use of hydrastis for treating wounds and skin ailments has been rationalized by the antibiotic action of berberine, but this' property has not been tested in controlled clinical situations employing hydrastis extracts. Likewise, the reported effects of berberine on amoebic infections, cholera, tuberculosis, and Giardia have not been subjected to close scrutiny, although naturopathic and other physicians often give strong testimony to the use of hydrastis preparations for Giardia infections. 15 Bass's views are generally in line with late-nineteenth-century recommendations. However, his statement that hydrastis is the king and queen of herbs seems an overstatement in light of its principal uses as a bitter

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tonic and for treating skin ailments. Other reported uses are much less well established, although the many pharmacological properties of berberine need study in a clinical context. Bass's caution over dosage is justified, and he prefers another yellowroot (see Yellowroot) for that reason and not merely because it is more readily available.

Notes 1. For a comprehensive review, still valuable, see Lloyd and Lloyd (1884-87, pp. 76-184). The popularity of hydrastis emerged quickly, despite limited geographical distribution. Extensive cultivation developed in Oregon, Washington, North Carolina, Tennessee. Michigan, and Wisconsin.

2. Rafinesque (1828-30, 1:253-54). For later references see Moerman (1986, 1:228). 3. W. P. C. Barton (1817-18, 2:21). 4. For Thomsonian use, see, for example, The Thomsonian Manual (1845, l:xvi). According to Clapp (1852, pp. 722-23): "The root is a very bitter tonic, which is much employed by the Thompsonians [sic] under the name of Golden Seal." 5. It had been included in the 1830 Pharmacopoeia of the United States, but it was omitted from the next two editions. 6. Bentley (1861-62; hydrastis). 7. Phillips (1879, p. 18). 8. L. Johnson (1884, pp. 65-66J. 9. Bastedo (1947, p. 743). 10. Dispensatory p.576).

of the

United States (1967,

11. Veninga and Zaricor (1976). Many claims are made. Much interest in the reputation for diabetes has been found in the southern Appalachians; see also L. Griffin (1979, p. 36). For a list of plants, including hydrastis, which possess experimental hypoglycemic activity, see Farnsworth and Segel man (1971). 12. Tyler (1987, p. 117). 13. Lindley (1838, p. 103); these uses have been accredited to American Indian medicine, but documentation is uncertain.

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14. References in Leung (1980, pp. 189-90)' and Sollmann (1957, p. 311). 15. References in Mowrey (1986, pp. 158-59)' a somewhat uncritical report.

GOOSEBERRIES (fruit, root, leaves) The Herbalist's Account Gooseberry is used the same as huckleberry or blueberry. The roots are stronger than the leaves, but in summer we just strip the leaves off. Some folks want to know if the leaves are best dry or green, and I say, "Well, it's better if all of it is green." One woman suggested putting it in the deep freeze, but I reckon it's best to dry them. It's a wonderful tonic and good for the blood and sugar. Commentary Ribes uva-crispa, including varieties, hybrids, and cultivars [syns. R. grossularia L.; R. reclinatum L.]: gooseberry, English gooseberry, feaberrie bush, garden gooseberry. Grossulariaceae (Saxifragaceae) Vacdnium staminium L. var. melanocarpum C. Mohr*: gooseberry, southern gooseberry, wild gooseberry, deerberry, squaw huckleberry. Ericaceae Bass's advocacy of "gooseberry" occasionally causes confusion because he is not referring to the well-known European gooseberry, Ribes uva-crispa (spread from cultivation in the United States). In fact, his account places the Vaccinium staminium (often known as southern gooseberry) that he collects in the context of blueberries and huckleberries (see Bilberry). The gooseberry has never been viewed as mainline medicine, though for a long time it fell into the category of combination foodmedicine. John Gerard's Herball (1597) described the unripe fruits as cold and dry and binding.' Associated uses included for diar-

rhea, heavy menstrual periods, and inflammations. Interest in the medical properties of gooseberries declined during the eighteenth century, and influential Edinburgh physician William Cullen noted only their sweetness and nourishing properties. 2 In America, Manasseh Cutler, in his 1785 account of some "vegetable productions," echoed Cullen in mentioning only the agreeable nature of the fruit "either as nature presents it, or made into a jelly. It is much used in tarts." 3 Very few references appear in the nineteenth-century medical literature. Hyams (1898). describing medicinal plants in North Carolina, said that the fruits of garden gooseberry, along with "wild gooseberry" (R. cynosbati L.) and "Eastern wild gooseberry" (R. rotundifolium Michx.), are "acidulous, diuretic, refrigerant, and febrifuge. The roots are diuretic, and the bark is said to be lithotriptic." 4 Unquestionably these uses were employed more in domestic medicine, though there is no evidence of a strong tradition and it certainly has not reached Mr. Bass.s He, in fact, knows only the southern gooseberry, partly because no species of Ribes grows as far south as his area." His opinion that gooseberry is "good for sugar" is in line with the reputations of other Vacciniums rather than true gooseberries. Notes 1.

Gerard (1597, pp. 1143-44).

2.

Cullen (1775. p. 58).

3.

Cutler (1785, p. 422).

4.

Hyams (1898, p. 356).

5. Some Indian usage has been noted; Gunther (1973, p. 32) listed Ribes divaricatum as "common

gooseberry," noting uses as food and medicine (e.g .. for sore throat. tuberculosis, and venereal disease). See Simmonds (1976, p. 309) for discussion of cultivated Ribes spp.

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GOOSEGRASS (whole plant) The Herbalist's Account Goosegrass is a little, short-lived plant that runs up on things. Can't get it very often. I've always known about the plant, but didn't use it as a medicine until Doc Sanders told me about it in the 1960s. I collected many pounds for him. It's official medicine like corn silk. I use goosegrass the same as chickweed or Queen Anne's lace, as a reducing medicine. The tea is a kidney medicine and that's why it makes you lose weight. I have a hundred pounds stored away, and it'll go in a few months. One fellow had gout real bad and swore by it.

Commentary Galium aparine L.': goosegrass, devers, clivers, cleavers, bedstraw. Rubiaceae This naturalized plant is of special interest to Mr. Bass's practice because of its considerable popularity for weight reducing, a popularity all the more intriguing because of spotty information in the American literature on materia medica. Prominent textbooks by R. E. Griffith (1847) and L. Johnson (1884) ignored goosegrass, though a few nineteenthcentury discussions-European and American-directed the attention ofregular physicians toward its diuretic property as "highly useful in suppression of urine, and nephritic complaints." A cold infusion drunk freely was recommended." While publications on domestic medicine were no more consistent than regular medical textbooks in covering the plant, mention of diuretic properties can be found, as well as use for bladder stones and for fever.2 There was occasional enthusiasm, as when Appalachian physician A. A. Scroggs, talking about medicinal plants from North Carolina, said that "it was a valuable refrigerant diuretic much used in skin diseases, supposed to enter largely into freckle washes." 3 Some

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Eclectic publications also recommended it for kidney and skin ailments. 4 Despite uneven interest during the nineteenth century, the reputation of goosegrass for the treatment of obesity-Bass's primary use-extends back a long time. John Gerard (1597) described aparine (goosegrass or clevers): "Women do usually make pottage of clevers with a little mutton and otemeale, to cause lankness and keepe them from fatnesse."5 Uses mentioned by Gerard persisted into the eighteenth-century literature. Joseph Miller (1722), for example, stated succinctly that the whole plant is moderately cooling and drying and "commended as a sweetener of the blood, a good vulnerary, and of service in the Kings Evel ... it is likewise a diuretick, and helpful against the stone." Its use "by the vulgar" in "spring porridge" was also noted. 6 As with so many other plants, interest had waned by the end of the eighteenth century. William Woodville indicated this in 1792, saying that its reputation of late had been chiefly as an antiscorbutic. 7 Gerard distinguished goosegrass from "ladies-bedstraws" (other Galium spp., including G. verum L., most frequently called lady's-bedstraw). It is unclear whether Gerard considered the latter to be diuretic. Certainly, like many authors prior to around 1800, he gave no specific indication of diuretic properties, in contrast to the influential herbal of Nicholas Culpeper." Bass's current promotion of goosegrass can be seen as a good example of recent renewed enthusiasm for a plant in which interest has waxed and waned over the years. Limited chemical information presently offers no explanations for usage. Despite unevenness in the reputation as a diuretic, this property accounts for Bass's belief in its reducing property (see volume 1, chapter 7), as well as the reports that it is a blood purifier. 9 He has not heard of the reputation for skin diseases, but considers this could be a benefit of the blood purification associated with astringency.

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Notes 1. E.g .• Clapp (1852. p. 787). Woodville (1790-94. 2:149).

2. E.g .• Cobb (1846. pp. 18-19) listed diuretic. lithotriptic. and nephritic properties; much later. J. E. Meyer (1934. p. 112) said it was refrigerant and diuretic. 3. Scroggs (1871). 4. King (1878. p. 643). and King (1882. p. 374). 5. Gerard (1597. pp. 963-64). 6. Miller (1722. pp. 43-44). 7. Woodville (see note 1 above). 8. Culpeper (1826. p. 20) described lady's bedstraw as provoking urine. Rough bedstraw (G. ospreJlum) and small bedstraw (G. trifidum) have been said to have the same properties as G. aparine. Since the time of Linnaeus. aparine has been considered a species of Galium rather than a distinct genus. Aparine. 9. F. C. Brown (1961-62. 6:112).

GOTU KOLA (leaves, whole herb) The Herbalist's Account I learned about gotu kola about two years ago [1983] through the vitamin people. It's a good stimulant and good for the nerves; it improves your brain. It grows where the elephants are. Nobody has found a dead elephant unless it's been killed. They never forget nothing, you know. A guy said he went down to Disneyland last year and gave the elephant peanuts; another guy gave rocks, and the elephant just knocked the fire out of him. And, by the way, they went down this year and the elephant didn't wait for him to give him rocks, just knocked him down. Now the feller said "What the devil did it do that for?" Mr. Miller said, "Now you darn fool. don't you know an elephant never forgets?" Commentary Centella asiatica (L.) Urban [syn. Hydrocotyl asiatica L.]: water pennywort, Indian penny-

wort, thick-leaved pennywort, gotu kola. gota kola. C. erecta (L. f.) Fernald [syns. C. asiatica (L.) Urban; C. repanda (Pers.) Small]: pennywort, marsh pennywort, intelligence plant. Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) Gotu kola is a recent addition to Mr. Bass's armamentarium as a result of his involvement with health foods. Its popularity is partly sustained by the exotic associations of its Oriental origin. Little indigenous interest has arisen in the closely related and morphologically similar Centella erecta (sometimes referred to as C. asiatica), which grows in the United States.' Some references can be found in nineteenth-century literature, which perhaps draws on the plant's reputation in India. C. W. Hyams, when writing on North Carolina medicinal plants in 1898, said that "this plant is said to be aromatic. narcotic and diuretic," and used in leprosy, "though this claim has been both affirmed and denied by several celebrated authorities." Most authors emphasized the diuretic properties.2 Only spotty interest in gotu kola-mostly in the "special influences on the genitourinary tract"-can be discerned outside Asia until the recent promotion as a health food. A current story-known to Mr. Basssays that in Sri Lanka it was observed that elephants, renowned for long life, fed extensively on the plant, giving rise to the herb's reputation as a promoter of longevity.3 Bass knows gotu kola primarily for nervous conditions and for "the brain"; a sedative action on animals has been associated with the presence of triterpenes, brahmoside, and brahminoside.4 A wide range of other uses has been recorded; for example, for leprosy (particularly leprous ulcers), various skin diseases, high blood pressure, rheumatism, and as an aphrodisiac. Other constituents, such as the essen-

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tial oil, triterpene saponins, polysaccharides, triterpenes, flavonoids, and, in particular, the saponin asiaticoside as a wound-healing promoter, may ultimately explain at least some ofthe panacealike reputation; presently in Western countries this seems to owe much to the exotic associations ofthe plant. 5 Reports on immunostimulant activity investigated by intravenous injection on mice are not conclusive and do not yet suggest clinical relevance. 6 Studies on gotu kola-and an assessment of preparations in the market-should take into account the effects of edaphic factors on the plants and the taxonomic difficulties with species associated with polyploidy, such as whether or not the triploid, C. erecta, is more active than the diploid, C. asiatica. It is noteworthy that alleged allergic reactions from preparations of gotu kola used in Korea for wound healing and the prevention of cicatrization have been attributed to the presence of propylene glycol? The marked physiological properties implied by past and present usage indicate that the plant should be employed cautiously, and certainly not as a health food. Notes 1. There is disagreement in the botanical literature over the botanical species present in North America. Radford et al. (1968, p. 765) listed the pantropic C. asiatica (L.) Urban, indicating that it is the same as C. erecta (L. f.) Fernald. Other authorities follow the opinion that the latter, distinct from C. asiatica, is the only species present in North America; e.g., Fernald (1950. p. 1088). For general account, Labadie and de Silva (1987). 2. Hyams (1898. p. 359). Other relevant references include G. B. Wood and Bache (1870. pp. 161112], Ainslie (1826. 2:473-74), under Hydrocotyle asiatica Thunb.; also Dymock (1890-93. 2:1078), Hyams (1898. p. 359], describing C. asiatica. Hyams did not mention the blood-purifying properties commented on elsewhere. For recent review of much of the Asian reputation ("the plant repre-

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sents a whole apothecary shop"), see Perry (1980. pp.413-14). 3. Tyler (1982. p. 113). 4. Ramaswamy et al. (1970), Singh and Rastogi (1969). 5. List and Horhammer (1972, pp. 792-93), Labadie and de Silva (1987). 6. Cited in Wagner and Proksch (1985), quoting the original paper (Di Carlo et al.. "Reticuloendothelial System Stimulants of Botanical Origin," ,. Retriculoendothelial Soc. 1 [1964J: 224-32), which, however, did not give statistically significant figures for Hydrocotyle asiatica. 7. Cited in Dukes (1987. p. 425).

GRAPEVINE (fruit, leaves, sap) The Herbalist's Account It's a good idea to have grapevine aroundwild or tame. Around here old-timers only had the muscadine; now the scuppernong has come-it's really cultivated muscadine. Grapevine is not used much now for medicine. It was highly recommended by the Indians. They burned the vine and used the ashes internally for cancers. Folks around here used the leaves, sometimes the fruit, as a tonic-good for the blood. It's recommended for high blood. The sap makes a fine hair tonic. You collect it in the spring. Cut the vine off about a foot from the ground and gather the sap from the part still in the ground into a jar. At the fiddler's meeting in Athens, Georgia, a feller told me that's all he still uses for the hair. It's recommended for the skin, too. Commentary

Vitis rotundifolia Michx., including cultivars [syns. Muscadinia munsoniana (Simpson ex Munson) Small; M. rotundifolia (Michx.) Small]: muscadine grape, bullace, Southern foxgrape. Other Vitis spp., notably V. vinifera L., including cultivars and hybrids. Vitaceae

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The role of grapes within medical treatment primarily involves employing wine as a vehicle for other medicines or for its alleged stimulant properties, a subject we do not consider here. Otherwise, the grape has generally been viewed as a vegetable aliment. Most European medical references to grapes probably refer to V. vinifera. In the 1700s William Cullen held the opinion that grapes, which contain a large proportion of sugar, are-if taken without their husks-the safest and most nutritive of summer fruits . Benjamin Smith Barton in 1812 was not so sure: "The grape is, unquestionably, a noble fruit: but I suspect that a majority of any given number of persons would prefer the strawberry to it." On the other hand, grapes have become somewhat fashionable as a food for invalids, at least in the present century.! Mr. Bass refers to both the ashes of the vine and the sap. Published references to any of his recommended uses have not been found and, so far as we can tell, they constitute some of the few examples-amid his wide repertoire of knowledge-of plant usages which have reached him solely through the oral tradition. The tonic reputation of the sap may be linked with the aura of "life-giving" properties associated with the vine and wine. At least no chemical explanation for the reputation has been put forward. Bass believes that the leaves (or grapes) of the muscadine he collects (a species native to the southeastern states) are "better" as a medicine (primarily as a tonic) than the scuppernong, which he correctly says is the cultivated variety. In fact, it is impossible to tell whether wild vines that produce silvery, amber-green grapes characteristic of scuppernang are natural variations or escapees from cultivation.2 Notes 1. Cullen (1812, p. 154).

2. L. H. Bailey (1933-35), Brizicky (1965).

GROUND-IVY (leaves) The Herbalist's Account Ground-ivy was brought to this country hundreds of years ago to make beer out of it before hops. It's a good all-around tonic and it's not dangerous. The green or dry leaves makes a good tea for a headache. It's got a high reputation for colds. You can use it like aspirin. I have lots of calls for it. Some folks make a weak tea; it's refreshing. A Canadian chemist says it has iodine in it, and vitamin C, and iron, and he recommends it for weakness from cancer. It will pick up or slow down the blood. It's good for people with goiters or vitamin deficiencies.

Commentary G1echoma hederacea L. * , including varieties [syns. Nepeta glechoma Benth; Nepetag1echoma hederacea Trev.]: ground-ivy, a1ehoofe, gill-creepe-by-ground, tunehoofe, catsfoote, ale's-hoof, ground-clover, creeping Jenny. Ground-Ivy

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Lamiaceae (Labiatae) Ground-ivy, a mint with sensory properties similar to catmint, has a medical reputation that is both worldwide and ancient Its many vernacular names suggest widespread employment for both nonmedical and medical purposes;l its use as a clarifier in the preparation of gill ale was once well known, and it seems to have been fairly popular as a beverage,2 John Gerard (1597) described ground-ivy as hot and dry, and listed various uses associated with presumed deobstruent actions; mixed in honey it was employed for sore throat While seventeenth- and eighteenthcentury authors listed many uses-so many that ground-ivy seems to have been a veritable panacea-some agreement about its principal value in chest ailments, including for tuberculosis, was clear. 3 By the second half of the eighteenth century, however, many uses were being questioned. William Cullen (1781) indicated that ground-ivy had been much talked about: "Some tell us it will alone cure diseases of the breast, and, what to me seems impossible but by the surgeon's instrument, empyema."4 Shortly afterward (1790), William Woodville, an influential writer on medical botany, commented that "it is one of those plants which was formerly in considerable estimation and supposed to possess great medicinal power, but which later experience has been unable to discover."5 Somewhat later, however, Hooper (1826) said that "in obstinate coughs, it is a favorite remedy with the poor." 6 In America, in the face of a dwindling European reputation, ground-ivy was perhaps used mostly as a domestic remedy. Manasseh Cutler said in 1785 that a decoction of the leaves was esteemed by the common people as a remedy for jaundice? American authors in the nineteenth century continued to list many uses and, as in the English literature, a consensus about its value

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in chest conditions and headaches was clear.8 Some Shaker communities sold it between the 1830s and 1880s as a stimulant, tonic, and pectoral. Its use in lead colic (associated with lead poisoning) was also singled out, though the basis for this is unclear.9 The reputation of ground-ivy had declined by the end of the century. In 1884 criticalminded American author Laurence Johnson said that usage in catarrhal affections and in pulmonary consumption (tuberculosis) was "without substantial foundation," for "there is no evidence to support the idea that it possesses properties essentially different from those of the Labiatae generally."lo Most of the deobstruent actions reported in the past (e.g., diuresis and emmenagogueonce associated with hot and dry medicines) have not reached Bass even though they are reported in the recent herbal literature, suggesting that the empirical basis is not strong. Likewise, he has little sympathy for modern advocacy of its use in dyspepsia, despite the aromatic nature of the plant Its strong odor is more appropriate, he says, for headaches, particularly nervous headaches. Like many botanicals, ground-ivy acquired an additional reputation in the twentieth century as a valuable source of vitamins. Neverthel~ss, the tonic property noted by Bass has long been associated with the bitter taste. Chemical studies have focused on the essential oil and flavonoids, terpenoids, amino acids, steroids, and bitter principles. However, pharmacological studies have not shown marked activity. Apart from the alleged carminative action associated with the volatile oil, an antiulcer-perhaps an anti-inflammatory-action has been linked to the presence of ursolic acid-related compoundsY A diaphoretic action may account for the reputation for rheumatism and colds. The latter has been the principal usagealbeit as a domestic remedy-and other physiological factors may well be at play.

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Notes 1. Apart from vernacular names listed, others

include gill-go-by-the-ground, gill-go-over-theground, Jack-in-the-hedge, hedgemaids, haymaids, Robin-run-in-the-hedge, field balm, run-away Robin, cat's-foot, tun-hoof, turnhoof, and creeping Charlie. For an indication of Asian usage, see Perry (1980, p. 186). 2. Cf. Motherby (1785), under "Hedera terrestis." Most earlier eighteenth-century authors indicated widespread usage. It appeared in many pharmacopoeias; see Schneider (1968-75, vol. 5, pt. 2, pp. 133-34). 3. Gerard (1597, pp. 705-6), J. Hill (1751, p. 361). Motherby (1785) indicated that much of this reputation rested on information from Dr. Pitcairn. 4. Cullen (1781, p. 212). 5. Woodville (1790-94,1:85). 6. R. Hooper (1826), under "Glechoma." 7. Cutler (1785, p. 461). It had been mentioned earlier by Cotton Mather; see Leighton (1970, p.234). 8. Appalachian physician A. A. Scroggs, in his 1871 account of major medicinal plants from North Carolina, noted it was used largely in domestic practice as a stimulant, tonic, and expectorant. 9. A. B. Miller (1976, p. 189); but see below on carminative action. 10. 1. Johnson (1884, p. 213). 11. Okuyama et al. (1983).

GUARANA (seeds) The Herbalist's Account An advertisement placed by Mr. Bass in the Cherokee County Herald, 18 January 1984, runs: "Bass has Guarana. Friends I will have the famous Natural Energizing Herb Guarana, from Brazil. Guarana is the famous natural food supplement used to fight fatigue and give us pep and vim and makes one trim and slim, in easy to take tablets. Mfg. by Vitamin Power Co. See more next week."

Commentary Paullinia cupana Kunth. ex H. B. K. [syn. Paullinia sorbilis Mart.]. Sapindaceae Mr. Bass's recent advocacy of guarana illustrates the transition in his practice from old-time herbalism to handling "health food supplements," although he has generally had little or no firsthand experience with many of them. Nevertheless, he has such confidence in the present commercial promotion of most herbal products that he feels justified in encouraging their use while he gathers experience. Furthermore, he knows that guaranaa dried paste made chiefly from the crushed seed-is not a brand-new product, but "it's another one on the up." Guarana is generally considered to have been introduced from South America into France around 1817, but only seems to have attracted the interest of regular and Eclec- . tic physicians in North America toward the end of the nineteenth century as a "tonic and mild nerve stimulant." Farquharson and Woodbury summarized its uses in 1882: "In gramme doses has been found a useful remedy for migraine or sick headache." 1 This reputation persisted, and Eclectic writers such as F. Ellingwood mentioned its value for a "sick headache.'" (Still used as an "ethnomedical" diagnosis, this generally refers to a headache associated with stomach upsets.) The high tannin content also attracted interest and was the basis of the reputation for treating diarrhea and leukorrhea, but, it was said: "we have more prompt and efficacious articles for these affections."" Guarana was included in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia and has continued to appear in the literature on materia medica for much of the twentieth century. Present-day interest in guarana rests not only on its new role as a "health food" item (primarily in diet aids) but also its wide-

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spread usage in such countries as Brazil. 4 It is generally accepted that the stimulant properties (an "energizing" principle) are due to a high content of caffeine (2.5-5 percent) and related alkaloids. 5 The appetitedepressant action is also attributed to the caffeine content. It has been suggestedperhaps with undue optimism-that future research may show that various saponins also playa part in the drug's pharmacology, particularly with regard to its long-term influence as a general tonic and prophylactic.6 Notes 1.

Farquharson and Woodbury (1882, p. 189).

2.

Ellingwood (1915, p. 129).

3.

King (1882, appendix, p. 102).

4.

See Henman (1982), Erickson et al. (1984).

5.

Tyler (1982, p. 56).

6.

Henman (1982),

HAWTHORN (flowers, berries) The Herbalist's Account I haven't used hawthorn much. We used to recommend the haws as a tonic, I've heard a lot about hawthorn recently in Prevention magazine and other places. It's an old-timer coming back. It's good for the heart and the blood, I've started to recommend it to people to take capsules of it, and I take a preparation of it when I feel run-down. Commentary Crataegus monogyna Jacq., including subspecies [syn. C. oxyacantha 1. nom, ambig.]: hawthorn, may bush. C. laevigata (Poiret) DC., including subspecies [syns. C. oxyacanthoides Thuill.; C. oxyacantha auct.]: white-thorne, hawthorne, may bush, C. calpodendron (Ehrh,) Medic, * including

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varieties [syn. C, fomenfosa auct.]: red haw (local name). Rosaceae Mr. Bass says hawthorn is an old-timer coming back, but, in fact, hawthorn has aroused little medical interest throughout most of its history. Its early story embraces much nonmedical lore, including the view that it was the Glastonbury thorn that sprouted from the staff of Joseph of Arimathea at Glastonbury.1 When John Gerard wrote on hawthorn in 1597 he stated merely that the berries are "verie astringent" and gave such uses linked to this property as "staying the menses, and all other fluxes of blood," 2 In eighteenth-century Britain hawthorn received little formal attention, although George Motherby (1785) noted that the flowers have an agreeable fragrance and are useful in a tea or infusion in strengthening weak stomachs.' Various editions of Culpeper's Herbal, however, indicated that the berries or the seed "are a singular remedy for the stone, and not less effectual for the dropsy." 4 American authors on materia medica were hardly more enthusiastic than British writers. John Lawson, in his New Voyage to Carolino (1709), made some interesting comments but no reference to medical properties: "The hawthorn grows plentifully in some parts of this country. The haws are quite different from those in England, being four times as big and of a very pleasant agreeable taste. We make no use of this plant, nor any other, for hedges because timber is too plentiful at present." 5 Hawthorn did not capture the medical imagination during most of the nineteenth century, and virtually every American author ignored it.6 At the end of the century, however, some general interest emerged, partly through homeopathic and Eclectic practitioners,7 Pharmaceutical companies like Parke-Davis marketed an extract of "erataegus oxyacan-

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tha" said to "possess remarkable properties as a cardiac tonic."s This reputation, appropriately prefaced by "said to," was perhaps beyond available evidence at the time. Certainly, later comments that crude extracts of hawthorn have been used as a curative agent for cardiac disease, hypertension, and morbid conditions of the chest since the Middle Ages are very much overstatements and can only refer to an occasional reference to a diuretic action, mostly in the many versions of Culpeper's HerbaP Nevertheless, laboratory studies have demonstrated lowering of high blood pressure (without slowing of the heart or diuresis), and preparations of hawthorn were used by some physicians for the treatment of high blood pressure in the 1940s. That the reputation of hawthorn has only recently reached Mr. Bass seemingly reflects the limited interest and recent promotion. He has heard that chiropractors use it and that it has become popular within much naturopathic herbal practice.10 Evidence for the reputation (hardly a strong one) of the berries in "cardiac failure, or earlier myocardial weakness, hypertension, arterio-sclerosis, Buerger's disease, paroxysmal tachycardia" is weakY More clinical studies on standardized preparations are needed to substantiate such effects as dilatation of the coronary vessels and decrease in permeability of the vascular walp2 Activity is considered to be linked to flavonoids and dihydrocatechinsP Certainly, indiscriminate use as a tonic, as suggested by Bass, is unwise. The fruits contain saponins, glycosides (including flavonids), and various acids, including ascorbic. 14 Cyanogenetic glycosides are reported from the seeds.15 Bass recommends the haws from the locally available Crataegus calpodendron, which he calls red haw. This is undoubtedly just one example of the frequent use of an alternative species for the widely discussed C. laevi-

gata in a genus which provides numerous taxonomic difficulties because of sterile hybrids and apomictic segregates.16 Nearly all the glabrous or slightly pubescent species in Europe have been called C. oxyacantha by regional authors, and references in the literature can be very confusingY Notes 1. Porteous (1928, pp. 224-25).

2. Gerard (1597, p. 1147), under "white thorne" and "hawthorne tree." There is uncertainty about precise identification, in part due to considerable variation among the species. 3. Motherby (1785), under "Spina alba." 4. E.g., Sibley (1805, p. 200). Gerard (1597, p. 1147) was circumspect about the remedy for stones: "some authors write that the stones beaten to powder and given to drinke, are good against the stone." 5. Lawson (1709. p. 112).

6. Few European authors described it. Even little space was devoted to it in the mammoth Dictionnaire Encyclopedique des Sciences Medicales (1865. 2:244), which noted only properties linked to astringency. American Indians may have used species of Crataegus. See Moerman (1986, 1:13940) and Erichsen-Brown (1979. pp. 153-55) for reference to a number of species. 7. E.g., Reilley (1910). 8. Parke-Davis (1909, p. 335). 9. Comments by J. D. P. Graham (1939). 10. Including the widely read Rodale, The Haw-

thorn Berry for the Heart (1971). 11. See British Herbal Pharmacopoeia (1983, p. 75), J. E. F. Reynolds (1982, p. 540). 12. For reference see V. Petkov (1986). 13. For some introductory references see Tyler (1987, pp. 120-21), E. B. Thompson et al. (1974), Ficarra et al. (1984).

14. See references in note 11 above. 15. Duke (1985, p. 146). 16. See, for instance, Stace (1975, p. 150). 17. For some discussion see K. R. Robertson (1974).

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HICKORY (bark, leaves)

The Herbalist's Account I don't use hickory much, but some oldtimers recommend it. It's kin to the walnut. I've used it if I had nothing else to use. It's astringent. The inner bark is good for sore mouths, ulcerated stomach. It's a tonic and highly recommended for coughs and colds. It makes one of the best-flavored syrups. You take the bark, cook it in water, and sweeten it with brown sugar. When you burned hic;kory in the fireplace, the sap came out and you could lick it. It's as sweet as can be. It's better known as a valuable wood. It makes good handles for tools.

Commentary Carya ovata (Mill.) K. Koch. *: hickory, shagbark, shellbark. C. ovalis Sarg. *, including varieties: hickory, red hickory. C. glabra (Mill.) Sweet*, including varieties: hickory, pignut hickory, red hickory (local name). Other Carya species. Juglandaceae Little attention has been given to the indigenous hickories in the medical literature, regular or domestic. Hickory has been overshadowed by walnut, although it was always widely available and there was much early interest in its economic uses l Eighteenthcentury authors noted Indian "hiccory milk" made from ground nuts, a sugar from the bark, and the use of the wood for axe handles.' Charles Rafinesque (1828-30) was perhaps the first American author to record medical uses for hickory, indicating that, according to the species, the nuts are as good as walnuts, the bark is styptic, and the inner bark is cathartic.' He did not note that his renowned contemporary, Dr. Philip Syng Physick of Philadelphia, had a well-known remedy for

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dyspepsia comprising hickory ashes and soot in water.· This, at least the use of hickory ashes, was mentioned from time to time, and there was perhaps some regional popularity in chewing the astringent and somewhat bitter bark of C. ovata in Michigan around the 1850s.5 Whether or not any Indian influence was at play is unclear, though Indian uses (diuretic, laxative, dermatological, gynecological, and tonic) have been recorded in the twentieth century.6 A few references suggesting that there might be general interest in hickory as a domestic medicine lingered on into this century. R. V. Pierce's People's Common Sense Medical Advisor (1917) mentioned that the "white ashes of hickory or maple wood dissolved in water make an excellent alkaline drink in fevers, or whenever the system seems surcharged with acidity." 7 The popular tradition through which Mr. Bass learned about hickory possibly embraces uses-some with magical associations -recorded among the Cherokee Indians.8 In many ways it is surprising that hickories, long conspicuous in the southern United States, have not had a stronger medical tradition, although, as we said above, this is perhaps due to the prominence originally accorded to walnut by the New England colonists. 9 Bass's knowledge is in keeping with the high tannin content of many barks. He has not heard of a Kentucky use (species unspecified) for consumption, but he believes it is reasonable because "consumption comprises sores in the lungs, and what is good for one sore is good for another." '0 The employment of hickory as a cathartic or for fevers is also unknown to him, though one of his favorite sources of information, Joseph Meyer's Herbalist, mentions cathartic properties for shagbark hickory." Bass says that most hickories act the same medically, though he admits only to experience with shagbark and "red" hickories, the only ones he knows in his area.

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In fact, he gathers two hickories as "red" hickory, C. ovalis (generally known as red hickory) and C. glabra, which, apart from the barks, have a number of close similarities. Modern information on constituents has not been found . At least some of the past reputation depends on tannins . Studies on constituents may illuminate why hickory has been overshadowed by walnut.

Notes 1. There is also a scarcity of medical information about hickories in Europe, but this North American plant was introduced there mainly for timber. See Tutin et al. (1964-80, 1 :67) . Such works as Shelford (1963) give an indication of its early distribution. 2.

~\ American Holly

E.g. , Bartram (1958 , p. 25), Carver (1774, p. 502).

3.

Rafinesque (1828-30, 2 :228).

4.

Comfort (1853 , p. 559).

5.

G. B. Wood and Bache (1868, p. 1488) .

6.

Moerman (1977. p. 44).

7.

Pierce (1917 , p. 335).

Bolyard (1981. p. 81); for oral tradition among Cherokees, see Banks (1953. pp. 24-25). 8.

A sense of the greater interest in walnut-at least in the fruit- is seen in Marshall (1785. pp.

9.

66ff.). 10.

Bolyard (1981) .

Meyer (1979 . p. 114) . Kloss (1972 , p. 178), used by Mr. Bass, claims that the inner bark and leaves are laxative and possess astringent properties. 11.

HOLLY (root bark, leaves, berries) The Herbalist's Account Holly is an old-timer. I've never used it, but I've recommended it in the past. The berries are said to be poisonous, but some of the books says they will clear out the stomach. You have to take them cautiously. The root bark is a tonic and is good for coughs and pleurisy. I believe it's another old Indian remedy.

Commentary IIex opaca Ait.: holly, American holly. I. aquifolium 1. : holly, hulver, holme, English holly. 1. vomitoria Ait. : yaupon. Aquifoliaceae Although Mr. Bass's comments on holly are brief, he aptly says that it is an old-timer. John Gerard (1597), when describing the European 1. aquifolium, indicated that the berries are hot and dry. Interestingly, only deobstruent actions for gastrointestinal ailments were noted : to treat "winde" and "colicke" ("ten or twelve berries inwardly taken bring away by the stoole thick flegmaticke humors, as we have learned of them, who often times made triall thereof").' Also, "holly beaten to powder and drunke, is an experimented medicine against all the fluxes of the belly, as the dysenterie and such like." Little enthusiasm seems to have arisen for holly (aside from the preparation of a viscid birdlime employed to trap small birds), although eighteenth-century medical writings often repeated that ten or twelve berries would discharge wind and slime by stOO!.2

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Colonial American interest is evident, almost certainly in the indigenous species, 1, opaea, rather than the English holly, which occasionally escapes cultivation. Kalm said that the Swedish colonists "dry its leaves, crush them in a mortar, boil them in small beer, and take them to cure pleurisy or pains in the side." 3 In the nineteenth century C. S. Rafinesque (1828-30) said that the properties of both holly species appeared to be the same.· He said that the root, bark, leaves, and berries are reckoned "resolvent, pectoral. demulcent, and laxative." Listed uses included for coughs, pleurisy, and constipation. Some time later, F. P. Porcher singled out holly as a useful medicine for the South during the economic (and other) difficulties of the Civil War: "The bark of the holly root chewed, or a tea made with it, yields an excellent demulcent, very useful in coughs, colds, etc. The bitter principle is also tonic." 5 Eclectic practitioners additionally stressed febrifuge properties, but this was perhaps more on the basis of analogy with other bitter plants employed in fevers. 6 Certainly, while holly was known-particularly in the form of holly tea-as a tonic, its role in feverish conditions was not well established. 7 Past uses, particularly for chest complaints, have remained in the popular tradition, as evidenced by Bass's remarks and other reports.8 Various constituents have been isolated from I. aquifolium, including tannic acid, flavonoids, terpenoids, fatty acids, and the alkaloids ilicin and theobromine. 9 However, close correlation of constituents with the clinical reputation is not yet possible. It may be that the principal reputation as an expectorant to remove mucus and catarrh arose in part through an association with the preparation of birdlime. Chemical differences between I. aquifolium and I. opaca have been reported; for instance, xanthine alkaloids (which might account for a diuretic and other actions) are absent from I. opaea. Bass's con-

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cern over the poisonous nature of the berries is appropriate. 1O An Ilex species that has attracted much interest is I. vomitoria, or yaupon. Surprisingly, perhaps, Bass has not heard of its use as a tonic or emetic. Other medical properties and uses reported include as diaphoretic, diuretic, and for diabetes, gout, and smallpox. In the form of Black Draught, yaupon was an important part of the life of many southeastern Indians, including those in Alabama. On the other hand, the plant is not common in Mr. Bass's area and his lack of knowledge reflects both regional elements in herbal practice and the fact that yaupon is relatively unpopular among caffeine-containing plants."

Notes 1. Gerard (1597, pp. 1155-56). 2. E.g., James (1743-45, vol. 1), under "agrifolium,"

and Motherby (1788), under "aquifolium." 3. Kalm (1747-51, p. 185). 4. Rafinesque (1828-30, 2 :8). 5. Porcher (1863, p. 10).

6. King (1870, p. 443). 7. It was employed in cold medicines. See J. F. Morton (1974, p. 79). Croom (1982, p. 77) recorded Lumbee Indians' knowledge of it for colds and, combined with pine and rabbit-tobacco, for flu, pneumonia, itching, diarrhea, and dropsy.

8. Duke (1985. p. 244). 9. Duke (1985); for uncertainty over constituents, see "Holly," Lawrence Rev. Nat. Prod. (November 1981). For poisoning from berries of 1. aquifolium, see Frohne and Pfander (1984, pp. 49-50), and Lampe and McCann (1985, p. 97).

10. Alkiridis (1987). 11. For review of many aspects of yaupon, see Hudson (1979).

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HONEYSUCKLE (roots, leaves, seeds) The Herbalist's Account I don't know much about honeysuckle. The leaves are good to clear colds, the chest, and headaches, and things like that, and for insect bites. Some folks say the red honeysuckle is stronger, but there are better things to use. Commentary Lonicera periclymenum 1.: woodbinde, common woodbinde, honeysuckle, caprifoly. L. caprifolium 1.: Italian woodbinde, honeysuckle, caprifoly. L. japonica Thunb. * , including varieties [syns. Caprifolium japonicum Dum.; Lonicera brachypoda DC.; L. chinensis Wats.; L. cochinensis Don.; Nintooa japonica (Thunb.) Sweet): honeysuckle, Japanese honeysuckle. L. sempervirens 1. * [syn. Phenianthus sempervirens (1.) Raf.): honeysuckle, woodbind, red honeysuckle.

Caprifoliaceae In view of Mr. Bass's wide-ranging knowledge of past uses of so many plants, it is unexpected that so little information has reached him about the ubiquitous honeysuckle, of which about two hundred species exist in the Northern Hemisphere. This is all the more surprising because, even though honeysuckle has not aroused much medical interest in regular Western medicine, Lonicera japonica has a panacea medical reputation in its native East Asia.' John Gerard (1597) noted, under "woodbinde or honisuckle," the seeds of 1. periclymenum and 1. caprifolium (naturalized or escaped from cultivation in North America) as hot and attentuating, and described such deobstruent properties as treating a hard spleen and clearing the lungs. Hastening the delivery of a baby was also noted. 2 Many subsequent writers ignored the plants. Nicholas Culpeper and John Hill, as

so often in Britain, were exceptions. Hill reported that the "fresh leaves of honey-suckle given in decoction, are good against obstructions of the liver and spleen; they work by urine, and they are also a good gargle for a sore throat." 3 Identifying "woodbinde" in early colonial literature is difficult. John Brickell (1737) considered New World honeysuckles, "or woodbind," to act in the same way as European ones and implied panacealike properties: "The leaves and flowers are pectoral and diuretick, and cure asthmas and coughs, outwardly they are cosmetick, and take away scabs and pimples in the face. The juice is vulnerary, eases wounds in the head, strengthens the nerves, and makes an excellent gargle for sore and dry mouths.'" Much later, in 1828, C. S. Rafinesque, one of the relatively few nineteenth-century writers to discuss honeysuckle at length, described briefly the leaves and flowers of Lonicera species as bitterish, mucilaginous, astringent, and detersive. "A syrup," he indicated, was useful "for sore throat, irritation Red Honeysuckle

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of the lungs." 5 A trickle of subsequent references helped sustain a popular tradition, including for treating insect bites (mentioned by Bass). A recent reference from outside the current advocacy literature, Coon's American Herbal (1963), stated that it was employed in asthma and lung troubles and for the relief of bee stings.6 Occasional references to use for gout do not reflect a strong tradition. Bass's comment that "there are better things to use" suggests that although he has occasionally heard about the medical value of honeysuckle, he has never felt it any more efficacious than other readily available plants. It is noteworthy that the reputation for chest conditions (with a fairly strong historical pedigree) is the principal one to have reached him, in contrast to the general panacea reputation still recorded in modern herbals. Matching Bass's limited knowledge about honeysuckle, which certainly falls within the popular tradition, is the generally poor characterization of constituents in the bark, roots, and leaves of the various species, especially in the roots and leaves. The fruits of many species have been implicated in reports of poisoning.' Saponins are thought to be the poisonous principles, and perhaps these contribute to an expectorant action useful in certain chest complaints. Chinese uses of Lonicera japonica-which has become a pernicious weed in eastern North America-generally in combination medicines and usually for inflammatory conditions, have been widely reported. No clear correlation can be made at present with usage and constituents, except perhaps the role of linalool as an anti-inflammatory agent.8 Nor is it clear whether significant physiological differences exist between the species. The native L. sempervirens, well known to Bass, is distinctive in its slender, trumpet-shaped, bright red corolla, and, as he indicates, has a popular aura of being a stronger medicine than other honeysuckles.

Notes 1. For some Asian usage see Perry (1980, p. 71).

2. Gerard (1597, pp. 743-44). 3.

J.

Hill (1812, p. 169).

4. Brickell (1737, p. 91); see also Josselyn (1672, p. 45), who noted woodbine, "good for hot swell-

ings of the legs, fomenting with the decoction, and applying the feces in the form of a cataplasme." Identification is uncertain. Felter (1927, p. 21) noted the possibility of either the five-leaved woodbine or Virginia creeper. 5. Rafinesque (1828-30, 2:240). 6. Coon (1963, p. 233). An earlier reference to bee stings refers to the use of juice; see Hyams (1898, p. 360). Morton (1974, p. 93) noted use for bathing skin irritations and for stomach trouble and diarrhea. 7. Frohne and Pfander (1984, pp. 77-80). Some berries (e.g., of L. involucrata) are nonpoisonous.

8. American Herbal Pharmacology Delegation (1975), under Lonicera japonica, Pei-Gen and Shau-Lin (1987).

HOP (leaves and flowers) The Herbalist's Account Hops is one of the finest tonics there is. It's bitter, and it's highly recommended for the nerves. There are lots of calls for it nowadays with so many nerves about. I've never used it, but lots of folks have told me it's done them a power of good. Old-timers said it was good for the kidney. Commentary Humulus lupulus L. *, including varieties [syns. H. american us Nutt., specifically for variety lupuloides E. Small; Lupulus communis Gaert.]: hop, hops. Cannabaceae Hops, best known for contributing to the flavor of beer, have a long, if modest, medical history for many other uses, punctuated by occasional enthusiasm, especially in re-

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cent advocacy literature on herbs. Since the nineteenth century, "lupulin"-a reddishbrown powder of glandular hairs from the hop flowers said to possess all the medical activity of the plant-has often attracted more interest than the flowers . John Gerard (1597) does not appear to have been enthusiastic when he described the bitterish hop-leaves and flowers-as possessing hot and dry qualities and deobstruent actions. "Standard" uses included to remove "stoppings out of the liver and spleene, purge the urine, help the spleene, clense the bloud, and be profitable against long lingering agues, scabs, and such like filth of the skin, if they be boiled in whaie."l Robert Burton (1624) expressed more enthusiasm when indicating a role that became prominent; namely, in nervous disorders (at least for Burton "melancholy"). He indicated that hops was a sovereign remedy and noted previous testimony from such renowned physicians as Fuchs and ~athiolus.z By the eighteenth century relatively little enthusiasm for hops existed, at least in Britain, partly as a result of the critical reevaluation of botanical remedies that was then under way. John Hill reported in 1751 that, while hops was an esteemed attenuant and diuretic, it was little used except in a conserve employed to disguise the taste of nasty medicines. 3 Some interest was apparently rekindled among regular physicians around 1800 as a result of using hop pillows to bring sleep in the treatment of George III's madness; before then, use of such pillows was probably mostly within the popular tradition.' Although there were doubts about the effectiveness of the pillows (e.g., by American author N. Chapman in 1819), J. Eberle wrote that "everyone knows the effects of hop pillow in procuring sleep," and references to its value persisted throughout the nineteenth century.5 Occasional enthusiasm over other uses

for hops is noticeable in nineteenth-century American literature. The plant had long been introduced from Europe and cultivated, and much debate has arisen over the taxonomic standing of what some presume to be a native American hop, H. american us Nutt.6 Chapman (1819) said that "of the bitters there is scarcely one more agreeable to the enfeebled stomach."7 Influential Rafinesque was particularly fulsome about usage for many purposes. 8 The reputation for "nerves"-highlighted in ~r. Bass's remarks-was often underscored in nineteenth-century literature, although with increasingly less conviction. R. E. Griffith (1847) described hops as slightly narcotic and given "internally to induce sleep, to relieve restlessness, and to alleviate pain; but frequently fail in fulfilling these indications."· Critical-minded Laurence Johnson (1884) was hardly more convincing, but he said that narcotic and sedative effects seemed most pronounced in irritable con-

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ditions of the genitourinary tract. He added that a pillow of hops was often an effective remedy against sleeplessness. 1o Farquharson and Woodbury (1882) were more positive: "Hops are tonic and probably narcotic, more especially in the form of an old-fashioned hop pillow. They may be used as an anodyne cataplasm, either alone or with Indian meal. The preparations of lupulin are sometimes administered in delirium tremens as a sedative tonic." 11 Lupulin had been attracting attention for some time among many physicians, including those working within lunatic asylums. In 1850 it was written that "lupuline is less of a narcotic than [camphor or hyoscyamus], but with an influence quite favorable on the nervous system, it possesses a tonic power that is beneficial in some forms of insanity."12 Within a few years-possibly because of sedative action-it was also reported (though hardly with much enthusiasm) as an anaphrodisiac and specifically for treating spermatorrhea. Among regular physicians interest in hops fell away quickly in the early years of the twentieth century, though a popular tradition has remained, as exemplified by Bass's remarks. If anything, greater interest persisted in lupulin. An authoritative 1928 textbook listed its value for gastroenteric affections, particularly in the chronic form of dyspepsia, irritability of the bladder, gonorrhea, and other affections of the genitourinary tract. The doubtful reputation for spermatorrhea was also mentioned. '3 Many constituents have been characterized.14 The dried female flowers contain 0.3-1 percent volatile oil; its constituents are mostly humulene, myrcene, beta-caryophyllene, and farnesene. The bitterness (often linked to tonic action) is associated with acidic substances (e.g., humulone and lupulone). Flavonoids and tannins are also present. The alleged sedative effect needs further study, though the 2-methyl-3-buten-2-01

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present in stored hops is said to be comparable to methylpentynol.'5 While it is possible that such constituents explain long-known actions on the gastrointestinal and urinary tracts (possibly due to antimicrobial action), as well as the sedative action, marked infraspecific chemical differences have been noted, especially between European and American varieties, which may contribute to the mixed reputation of hops. It has been said that harmonious flavor and a few amaroids characterize the European varieties, in contrast to American varieties, which are rich in amaroids and have a strong, intrusive flavor. '6

Notes 1. Gerard (1597, p. 738). 2. R. Burton {1624, p. 566). 3 J. Hill (1751, p. 511).

4. For references to the use of the hop pillow, see Macalpine and Hunter (1969, pp. 118, 146). 5. Chapman (1817-19, 2:430), Eberle {1824, 1:226). 6. For some background see E. 1. Davis (1957). 7. Chapman (1817-19, p. 430). 8. Rafinesque (1828-30, 1:248-50). 9. Griffith (1847, p. 575). Lindley (1838, p. 297) also wrote that Mr. Pereira doubted the existence of the narcotic effects. 10. 1. Johnson (1884, p. 248). 11. Farquharson and Woodbury (1882, p. 292). 12. S. W. Woodward (1850). 13. Solis-Cohen and Githens (1928, p. 852). 14. Listed in Duke (1985, p. 234). See also Trease and Evans (1983, p. 525). 15. Wohlfart (1983; quoted in Phillipson and Anderson, 1984). 16. For references see Tetenyi (1986). For background see Neve, "Hops" (in Simmonds, 1976, pp. 208-10), W. G. Miller (1970, pp. 196-203). The antibiotic action has attracted much interest in the brewing industry; e.g., 1. R. Bishop (1949). For other general background see Edwardson (1952).

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HOREHOUND (leaves) The Herbalist's Account It's one of the real old-timers. It's got a high reputation for coughs and colds; I have lots of calls for it. I don't find much around here anymore, so I don't use it. If I had it. I'd put it in my cough medicine. for it's also a good tonic. Commentary Marrubium vulgare 1. *: horehound. white horehound.

Lamiaceae (Labiatae) Well known for its aromatic. bitter character. the adventive horehound. in common with many other aromatic plants, has a long. wellestablished medical history. Although its popularity has dwindled in recent decades. it remains one of the better-known herbs. John Gerard (1597) described various horehounds: white. snow white. Spanish. candy. and wild. All were said to be hot and dry and bitter. A range of such deobstruent and binding (astringent) actions was noted as "openeth the liver and spleene. clean seth the brest and lungs. and prevaileths greatly against an old cough. and paine of the side. spitting of bloud, and ptisicke, and ulcerations of the lungs.'" Other comments suggest a specific reputation for coughs and wheezing, a reputation which certainly became the principal one. John Hill (1751). who described horehound as attenuant and resolvent. said: "It is famous for the relief it gives in moist asthmas. and in all diseases of the breasts and lungs. in which a thick and viscous matter is the cause."2 That is not to say that other uses did not continue to be mentioned; according to William Lewis (1791): "Besides the virtues which they possess in common with other strong bitters, [horehound] is supposed to be peculiarly serviceable in humoural asthmas and coughs, the yellow jaundice proceeding from a viscidity of the bile, and other

chronical disorders. [The virtues are] doubtless an useful aperient and deobstruent, they promote the fluid secretions in general. and liberally taken loosen the belly." 3 Horehound was well naturalized during colonial times, and American authors like Thacher, writing in the early nineteenth century. noted its widespread availability.' However, as with many botanicals, the popularity of horehound in regular practice soon declined, even though it was included in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia.' R. E. Griffith wrote: "It was at one time in much repute in asthma, jaundice, and visceral and uterine obstructions. It is seldom employed at the present day in regular practice, but is a favourite domestic remedy in diseases of the pulmonary organs and some cases of obstinate catarrhs have been much benefited by the expressed juice taken in milk."" Forty years or so later. its employment in American domestic medicine was still being emphasized.' Twentieth-century literature often mentions stimulant and tonic properties and. in large doses, diuretic and diaphoretic actions.s despite its principal reputation for treating chest ailments. 9 It is noteworthy that the disappearance of references to female complaints may reflect an appreciation-at least among regular physicians-that many aromatic substances with such a reputation had no specific action on menstrual disorders. An authoritative 1976 study of over-thecounter medicines stated that there were no data to evaluate the effectiveness of horehound as an anticough medicine.lO In point of fact, the story of horehound is of special interest because the reputation for chest complaints has been generally dominant. Furthermore. horehound's overall decline in medical popularity may be partly linked to the variable results of the different preparations then in use. It is certainly possible that the expressed juice of the fresh plant is the most effective preparation. The bitter principle, which provides a dis-

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251

Notes

It is good or a tea to warm you up if you have a chill, But we found out it can be inhaled for a breathing problem or allergy to some other plant. I believe it would help to drink the tea, but it's not too good for bad stomachs. Horsemint is a folk medicine, but it's a good idea to have some on hand. It's more valuable than people think. It should be used more.

1. Gerard (1597, p. 563). Other "horehounds" noted in the literature include Balota hirsuta, which Claus (1956, p. 220) said has been substituted from Marrubium. Croom (1982, p. 61) described Eupatorium rotundifolium as a "horehound" used by Lumbee Indians for "colds, flu, grippe." It is not clear whether the uses of this plant reflect those of various species of Eupatorium rather than Marrubium.

Commentary Mentha longifolia (1.) Huds. [syn. M. sylvestris l.J: horsemint. Monarda punctata 1., including varieties: horse mint. Pycnanthemum incanum (1.) Michx.: mountain mint, hoary mountain mint, horsemint (local name).

tinctive taste and prompts the reputation as a tonic, is marrubiin (sometimes described as marubin), a hydroxyditerpenoid lactone whose precise pharmacological action is uncertain but apparently cardioactive, Other constituents include tannins, resins, waxes, and a volatile oil, some of which may conceivably playa role in the expectorant action,11

2.

J.

Hill (1751, p. 363).

3. W. Lewis (1791, p. 226). 4. Thacher (1813, p. 266). 5. It was in the secondary list until 1860. when

it was included in the primary list; it was finally omitted in 1910. 6. Griffith (1847, p. 513), emphasis added. See also G. B. Wood and Bache (1847, p. 402). 7. E.g., G. B. Wood (1868.1:312), Farquharson and Woodbury (1882, p. 329). 8. E.g., Claus (1956, p. 220).

9. British Pharmaceutical Codex (1923, p. 657). 10. Federal Register, 9 September 1976, p. 38319. 11. Simon et a1. (1984, p. 48),

HORSEMINT The Herbalist's Account Horsemint is plentiful and used commonly, It grows two to four feet tall and blooms in July to August. It gives off a minty smell. The whole plant can be hung in the clothes closet for its perfume, and it may run out moths. It keeps easily. The leaves are gathered in the fall.

Lamiaceae (Labiatae) Horsemint, a widely used common name for the indigenous Monarda punctata. has also been used for other plants. Pycnanthemum incanum, collected by Mr. Bass as horsemint, is generally listed by writers on medicinal plants as mountain mint. English authors usually describe the Eurasian Mentha longifolia as horse mint. Thomas Johnson'S revision of Gerard's Herball (1633) described what is probably M. longifolia as horsemint. Johnson indicated similar properties to the garden mint, and, following Gerard (1597), added it has "no use hereof in physicke, whilest we may have the garden mint, which is sweeter, and more agreeing to the nature of man." 1 Horsemint continued to aUract at least some attention; eighteenth-century British authors occasionally noted such assumed deobstruent effects, in line with other mints, as carmintive, diuretic, and emmenagogue, Whether American colonists viewed Monarda punctata as analogous to European horsemint (Mentha longifolia) is uncertain. By 1847, however, R. E. Griffith summarized

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the then apparently well-known properties of M. punctata as stimulant and carminative, and noted its reputation in domestic practice as an emmenagogue. He added that a Dr. E. A. Atlee (said to have brought M. punctata to the attention of the medical profession in 1819) and others showed it to be useful for low forms of fever, and (as a liniment) for rheumatism and neuralgic pains.' Its role as a domestic remedy was indicated by various authors. 3 Stille repeated essentially the same information in 1874, noting its reputation as an emmenagogue and for colic and nausea.' The value of the strongly rubefacient properties of the oil was also stressed. One property-diuretic action-was still occasionally reported in the late nineteenth century.5 However, this was seemingly not viewed as well established and perhaps was more a theoretical notion associated with presumed deobstruent action. Interestingly, Bass only records horsemint's use as an inhalant for chest complaints. He thinks that it is not as good for the stomach as peppermint because of what he considers a rather unpleasant taste, despite the long history as a carminative. He actually collects Pycnanthemum incanum, which has been "incorrectly called horsemint" in the past and has a more pleasant taste than Monarda. 6 The carminative and inhalant properties of horsemint are linked to the presence of a volatile oil rich in thymol. Inhaling horsemint in steam vapor has a mild expectorant action. Even those who say this is due more to the steam admit that the horsemint makes the therapy far more pleasant.

Notes 1. Gerard/Johnson (1633, p. 686).

2. Griffith (1847, p. 511). Atlee (1819, pp. 496-501) indicated that the name horsemint was used in New Jersey. 3. E.g., G. B. Wood and Bache (1847, p. 462).

4. Stille (1874, 1:416-17). 5. E.g., Parke-Davis (1890, p. 97). 6. Dispensatory of the United States (1909, p. 886).

HORSERADISH (root and leaves); SCURVY GRASS The Herbalist's Account Horseradish is highly recommended for the kidney. Folks used to grow it for that. A lot of people have told me it works well, but it's too hot for a lot of them. It's also good for rheumatism. Soak the leaves in vinegar and apply to the place. Give a little horseradish tea at the same time. The tea will also settle the stomach. You can use it for a sore throat. Boil up a little root, strain, and add sugar to make a syrup. Commentary Armoracia rusticana (Lam.) Gaertn., May. and Scherb. [syns. Cochlearia armoracia; A. lapathifolia Gilib.; Rorippa armoracia (1.) A. S. Hitchc.]: mountain radish, great raisefort, horse radish, horseradish. Brassicaceae (Cruciferae) The cultivated and naturalized horseradish has a long, well-established history. John Gerard (1597) described it as hot and dry, possessing "drying and cleansing qualities, and somewhat digesting." Apart from reference to its use as a sauce with fish and meat, deobstruent uses listed included for colic swellings and expulsion of the placenta.' A variety of other uses covered employment as an emetic and for sciatica. Horseradish was mentioned in most materia medica textbooks and, judging by the substantial quantities purchased by the apothecary of Guy's Hospital, London, it was quite popular in the 1720s and 1730s.' In 1769 William Lewis said that it was "principally used in paralytic and rheumatic complaints, in scurvies and scorbutic impurities of the humors, in cachetic disorder, and in dropsies,

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Horseradish particularly in those which follow intermitting fevers." 3 Of all these uses, the diuretic action came to the fore. In America, influential author R. E. Griffith (1847) stated that as a remedial agent it acted very much like mustard, "but promotes the secretions, especially that of urine, in more marked manner. When taken into the stomach in any quantity, it excites that organ powerfully, and also operates as a sudorific and diuretic." 4 In connection with its association with mustard, Beard (1875) noted that it was sometimes applied to the soles of the feet, mixed with mustard, as a revulsive, to draw out disease. 5 Like mustard, it was frequently used as a counterirritant in rheumatism and other conditions. 6 In view of the reputation as a diuretic, mention of horseradish in domestic medicine manuals, and Mr. Bass's encomium (his reference to usage for sore throats can be found elsewhere). the caution offered by Laurence Johnson is noteworthy: "In one case that came under the author's observation the individual though in perfect health so far as the genito-urinary tract was concerned, suffered extremely from vesical pain and irritation for hours after using horseradish as a condi-

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ment."7 According to an Eclectic authority, it was used to produce abortion, especially when other internal agents had failed. 8 Despite the increasingly limited reputation in the nineteenth century, many popular twentieth-century writings suggest a panacea reputation along the lines of the earlier literature. For instance, a 1917 booklet, Health from Field and Forest, stated that it was "much used as a remedy for colic and bladder troubles; also in case of rheumatism, paralysis, dropsy and scurvy; the leaves as a stomach stimulant, and in bowel and liver disorders."g On the other hand, a standard medical textbook of 1928 summarized it only as a rubefacient and counterirritant when applied to the skin, but seldom so used except perhaps occasionally in domestic practice. ' ° A principal constituent is sinigrin, which yields the vesicant allyl isothiocyanate on hydrolysis. Urinary antiseptic properties have been attributed to this, though the reputation as a diuretic probably owed much to irritant properties, perhaps with reinforcement from the theory of deobstruent action. Rubefacient action undoubtedly contributed to the reputation for rheumatism and analogous complaints. Scurvy grass (Cochlearia officinalis L.) . Bass, like many herbalists, has often heard about scurvy grass without being certain of its exact identity. He considers that there are a number of scurvy grasses, including peppergrass (see monograph). Scurvy grass, however, is generally identified as Cochlearia officinaIis L. Related to horseradish, the pungency of this plant once made it popular, at least during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Writers like John Quincy (1719) noted that it was popular in compounded remedies and indicated that its reputation rested on success in "chronical distempers," its "medical" name, and usage in medicinal ales in victualling houses. Of particular interest is that garden (rather than wild) scurvy grass was often recommended, which

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perhaps reflects that the plant has limited maritime habitats. Like many remedies, its popularity was largely in domestic medicine, but at one time this was sustained by some usage by the medical profession; numerous pharmacy jars survive from the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries bearing labels for preparations of scurvy grass.

Commentary Equisetum arvense L.: horsetail, shave-grass, quick-grass, bottlebrush. E. hyemale L., and varieties: horsetail, quickgrass, scour-grass, scouring rush. Equisetaceae Cyperus strigosus L. *: horsetail (local name). Cyperaceae

Notes 1. Gerard (1597, pp. 186-88).

2. From invoices; see especially November 1707, Guy's Hospital Archives. 3. Lewis (1769, 2 :180). 4. Griffith (1847, p. 132). 5. Beard (1875, p. 665). 6. F. P. Foster (1896, 1 :472). 7. L. Johnson (1884, p. 95). For popular literature see Beard (1875), who emphasized its diuretic properties. The reputation as a diuretic is also recorded in the twentieth century; e.g., R. B. Browne (1958. p. 76).

8. King (1882, p. 271). 9. Health from Field and Forest (p. 32). 10. Solis-Cohen and Githens (1928, p. 1021).

HORSETAIL (hollow stems) The Herbalist's Account I've always known about horsetail-you can call it quick-grass-it's like a small bottlebrush. Old-timers sometimes used it for the kidney, but I've never used it. There's better things. I didn't know it was famous until lately. It's another one coming up. Anytime you read a herb book you read about it. A lot of people use it for the fingernails and improving the complexion. The horsetail grass I showed you may not be the real one. It's just like the two Solomon's seal-one is real and the other one is false but they do the same thing.

Of the many horsetails, Equisetum arvense, with worldwide distribution, is possibly the best known medically, although other species, notably E. hyemale, have been considered in medical writings. Perhaps, too, substitutes such as the indigenous Cyperus strigosus, a sedge identified as "horsetail" by Mr. Bass, have been employed. Adulteration of the commercially sold herb is not uncommon.' John Gerard (1597) under the heading of "horse-taile or shave-grasse" noted a number of Equisetum species, all with the same properties: a "binding facultie with some bitternesse, therefore it mightily drieth, and that without biting." Treating wounds with horsetail was a well-established practice, and Gerard, who noted specifically "woundes of the bladder and other bowels, and helpeth ruptures or burstings," added that "horse-tail with his roots boiled in wine is very profitable for the ulcers of the kidnies and bladder, the cough and difficultie of breathing." 2 Horsetail has probably never been a major medical plant, and its popularity declined further during the eighteenth century. W. Lewis (1769) indicated that it could be ranked among the milder astringents and strengtheners, and in 1785 Motherby noted that it was not of sufficient efficacy to obtain a place in practice. 3 However, as with many drugs, regional enthusiasm occurred at times. In Pennsylvania around 1770 Christopher Sauer seemingly referred to one such episode: "In New England they have discovered if you drink this herb like a tea and continue doing

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Horsetail (Equisetum orvense) so, it is supposed to give service for the stone and gravel of bladder and kidneys.'" Medical use of horsetail in the nineteenth century, albeit modest, rested largely on its continued reputation for kidney problems. Equisetum hyemole (commonly called scouring rush) and some other equisetums were better known for use in polishes. In the 1890s Millspaugh wrote: "It is gathered into bundles by many housewives and used to brighten tins, floors and woodenware, and in the arts of polishing woods and metals. "s This action is due to the silica present. Mr. Bass's comments on horsetail follow the long-standing reputation as a diuretic used for various complaints, especially of the kidney and bladder. Use for fingernails is often rationalized on the basis of the silica content. 6 Bass read about this in advocacy herbal literature; no historical pedigree has been found, nor any solid pharmacological evidence to support it. A recent writer criticized the medical reputation of E. orvense because the constituents -characterized as silica compounds, a saponin (equisetonin), several flavonp. glycosides (isoquercitrin, galuteolin, and equisetrin) , and small quantities of alkaloids-presently offer no support for the alleged healing prop-

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erties of horsetail, except that the flavone glycosides and saponin may account for weak diuretic action. Assessments of medical effects need to bear in mind the possibility of gathering mixed Equisetum species and the existence of hybrids.' Some concern exists over toxicity, not so much over the presence of the vitamin Bdegrading enzyme thiaminase, but because such species as E. polustre contain toxic concentrations of the alkaloid palustrine.8 Species of Equisetum have caused fatal poisoning in horses, although it is apparently grazed safely by sheep .9 Bass says he employs "false" horsetail. Insofar as almost all grasses and sedges have a reputation for diuretic action, his "substitution," Cyperus strigosus, is not unjustified. When in full bloom, with crowded floral spikes and spikelets, the sedge reminds him of a "bottlebrush" or "horsetail," which are vernacular names for Equisetum. No specific references to C. strigosus have been found, though various sedges (including Cyperus spp.) appear in the American medical botany literature. Porcher (1849) noted uses in overseas publications: C. orticulotus (for worms) and C. odoratus (a stomachic).10 Notes Other species of Equisetum noted in the medical literature include E. palustre L. ; for others, see j. F. Morton (1981 , pp. 3-5). The property most commonly mentioned is diuresis. See also Frohne and Pfander (1984, pp. 103-4). 1.

2. Gerard (1597, pp. 955-58) . For opinion on identification, E. arvense, see p. 957, fig. 5; but see revised illustration in johnson edition (1633, p. 1114, fig. 5). Cf. Withering (1796, 3 :753). 3. W. Lewis (1769, 1:355). Motherby, under "cauda equina." In 1722 joseph Miller (p. 125) was positive about its drying and binding properties and use for ulcerations in the kidneys and bladder.

Quoted from translation in C. M. M. Wells (1980, p. 289). Some books listed it as very astringent; e.g., Blankaart (1708, p. 123). 4.

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5. Millspaugh (1974, originally 1892. p. 179). Rafinesque, earlier in the century, made similar comments (1828-30, 2:217-18). 6. Silicic acid has been reported to strengthen the

lungs. but the basis of this is uncertain. See the reputable herbal by Fluck (1973. p. 26). 7. Tyler (1982. pp. 124-25). See der Marderosian (1980). For questions of hybridization. see Stace (1975. pp. 99-103). 8. Williamson and Schubert (1961), Frohne and Pfiinder (1984. pp. 103-4). For nicotine see Phillipson and Melville (1960). 9. Morton (1981. p. 3). 10. Porcher (1849. pp. 850-51).

HOUND'S-TONGUE. See Comfrey HOUSELEEKj STONECROP (leaves)

The Herbalist's Account It's an old folk medicine. Old-timers always had it. Beat up the leaves and put it on as a poultice for burns and sprains and strains. The mucilage in it draws risings to a head. It takes away the burn and bee stings. The juice has been recommended for warts. It makes a good salve, but aloe vera has taken over. Children mash the leaves and blow them up like balloons, and you hit them and they go off like a pistol. Commentary Sedum telephium 1.: stone crop, little houseleeke, houseleek. live-forever. S. telephium var. purpureum L. *: stone crop. little houseleek, houseleek. Sempervivum tectorum 1. *: house leek. common houseleek. sengrene, hens-andchickens.

Crassulaceae

Sempervivum (houseleeks) and Sedum (stonecrops), both succulent members of the family Crassulaceae, are in many ways lookalikes and have had much common usage. The houseleek collected by Mr. Bass is a com-

man stonecrop, Sedum telephium var. purpureum. Houseleeks and stonecrops have a long history but have never aroused much medical enthusiasm. John Gerard (1597) discussed many species-including S. telephium-and stated that they were cold and dry. This justified many uses, which included external application for burns, scalds, and other skin conditions. The "dryness" was linked with astringency, associated with the reputation of decoctions of the plants for treating bloody flux. Gerard, reflecting the sixteenth-century spirit of inquiry in his Herball, also provided interesting testimony from his "good friend M. Nicholas Belson, a man painful and curious in searching forth the secrets of nature," who noted that the houseleek was useful for corns.' Many eighteenth- and nineteenth-century authors ignored the plants, although others felt they merited attention. Joseph Miller (1722), in describing "Sedum majus" as houseleek, followed much of Gerard's account, including mention of external application for "burns and scalds, st. Anthony's Fire and the shingles." 2 William Withering (1796) wrote that Sedum telephium was a diuretic. and S. acre possessed acrid properties and produced blisters on the skin and vomiting when taken internally.3 Stonecrops continued to attract a little more interest than house leeks in the nineteenth century, but both were generally noted for skin conditions. Eclectic physician John King. for instance, in his American Family Physiei(]n (1878). described the bruised leaves of Sempervivum teetorum as a cooling application for burns, insect stings, ulcers, erysipelas, and other external inflammations. "They are said to remove warts, when applied twice a day. The bruised leaves, or their juice, applied locally, have cured ringworm, shingles and other diseases of the skin." 4 At the time, S. telephium-a wide-ranging Eurasian species collected by Bass-had declined in popularity. In 1868 the Dispen-

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satory of the United States indicated that it was formerly employed for wounds, and, internally, as an astringent in dysentery and hemoptysis, and was "still esteemed by the common people in France as a vulnerary." 5 Interesting testimony to effects on warts appeared in a 1913 article entitled "A Preliminary Note on the Effect of Sempervivum tectorum in Cancer."· The author, impressed with its effect on warts, tried it for breast cancer, using it as an injection, application in an ointment, and administered orally. Improvement was recorded. Reference to astringent properties and employment for skin conditions continued in the twentieth-century popular tradition.' Mr. Bass's information is generally in line with past reputations, although he says he has not heard of it used for ringworm or shingles. He adds: "There are better things." The constituents of stonecrops and houseleeks are not well characterized, but some stonecrops contain resin and alkaloids (possibly including nicotine) presumed to account for pharmacological and toxic actions.8 Irritant action is considered to explain usage both in skin conditions and as a diuretic; it cannot be said whether the irritant action lies behind one report of abortifacient action." Variations in activity undoubtedly exist. Some sed urns are used to add variety to salads.

8. Dispensatory of the United States (1950, p. 1581). 9. Vickery (1985). Correct identification is assumed.

HYSSOP AND HEDGE HYSSOP (leaves, tops) The Herbalist's Account Hyssop. There are three or four different kinds of hyssops, but they all work the same. I don't have the biblical hyssop, but I've recommended it. It's a wonderful plant. This is the plant David, in the Fifty-first Psalm, tells the Lord to wash him and purge him, and he'll be as white as snow. It's a household remedy all around, a laxative and good for swellings. Hedge hyssop. It's a good substitute for hyssop. You distinguish it by its broader leaves. I've used a lot of it. I use it in my cough remedy. It is about the same as boneset. If you have swollen joints, you can bathe in the tea. Old Doc Nelson would sell a bunch for people if they had a swelling in the feet. It's a laxative, too. This is the one I recommend more than any other. Leaves-long and short-are narrow, a bit like pine needles, sometimes up to two inches in rich ground. When you take them between the fingers, they're gummy and bitter. Commentary Hyssopus officinalis L.: hyssope, hyssop.

Notes Lamiaceae (Labiatae) 1. Gerard (1597, pp. 412-13).

2. Miller (1722, p. 407). 3. Withering (1796, 2:426-27).

Gratiola officinalis L.: hedge hyssope, hedge hyssop.

4. King (1878, p. 660).

Scrophulariaceae

5. G. B. Wood and Bache (1868, p. 1295).

Eupatorium hyssopifolium L. *, and varieties: hyssop-leaved thoroughwort, hyssop (local name), wild hyssop (local name). E. altissimum L. *: hedge hyssop (local name). E. rotundifolium L.*: round-leaved thoroughwort, hedge hyssop (local name).

6. B. F. P. McDonald (1913). 7. F. C. Brown (1957-64, 6:269, 327, 354); similar concepts in medical texts such as Millspaugh (1974, no. 57), Shoemaker (1893, 2:896-97), and domestic medicine texts.

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E. pilosum Walt.*: hedge hyssop (local name). Asteraceae (Compositae) The long history of "biblical hyssop," as Mr. Bass calls it, is confused by the many plants named hyssop or hedge hyssop. The best known, however, is IIyssopus officinalis, an aromatic plant with a bitterish taste once recommended as a medicinal plant for Elizabethan gardens.' John Gerard (1597) considered "divers sortes of hyssope," and, associated with hot and dry qualities, listed deobstruent actions. These included for chest conditions, which, along with a purgative action, have been the principal basis of hyssop's reputation. A decoction of hyssop "made with figs, water, honie and rue and drunken, helpeth the inflammation of the lungs, the olde cough, and shortness of breath, and the obstructions or sloppings of the breast." 2 Unlike many botanicals, the reputation of hyssop did not diminish during the eighteenth century. According to Motherby (1785), it was esteemed as an attenuant, corroborant, and expectorant for humoral asthma. 3 Yet, in North America, where the plant has long been naturalized, it did not attract much attention from nineteenthcentury authors. In fact, medical interest declined, although the plant has remained generally well known, and pharmaceutical companies like Parke-Davis were marketing preparations of hyssop around 1900 with the statement that hyssop was "principally used in quinsy and other sore throats as a gargle, combined with sage and alum and sweetened with honey."4 Hedge hyssop is commonly identified as Gratiola officinalis. Gerard described it as Gratiola, with square stems and leaves broader then "true" hyssops. Its hot and dry qualities give it essentially the same characteristics as hyssop, although Gerard noted it specifically for "purging mightily." The value for dropsy was noted and, "with powder of cinnamon and a little juice of calamint," for

"tertian and quotiden fevers." 5 Its reputation, especially in liver ailments, persisted, even if not arousing much enthusiasm. Joseph Miller (1722) wrote that it was but rarely used in England, "tho' commended by some writers as a good purger of serous and choleric tumours, and serviceable against the dropsy and jaundice." An added comment-that it is of a ragged, churlish nature-suggests reasons why it was not popular." Even so, British and European authors continued to note it. In 1836 a popular British medical book indicated that the reputation as an expectorant was attracting interest: oxymel of hedge hyssop was much commended "for pulmonary consumption, asthma, and catarrhal affections." 7 Little enthusiasm emerged among nineteenth-century American writers. In 1852 Clapp did report that some alternatives, G. virginic(1 1. and G. (1urea Muhl.-especially the latter-"are supposed to possess the same properties as the G. officinalis of Europe, which is a drastic purgative, emetic and diuretic; contains veratria, and is thought to be the active ingredient in the celebrated Eau Medicinale."B Occasional references continued to appear, but it is clear that hedge hyssop was considered inferior to hyssop. Mr. Bass's "hyssop" is Eupatorium hyssopifolium, which is similar in general appearance to Hyssopus officinalis; no printed confirmation of Bass's local name "hyssop" has been found, and, interestingly, in the South Carolina low country it is known as "horehound."" Its use for colds is recorded. E. rotundifolium. with leaves rhombic-ovate to ovate, and other species are known to Bass as hedge hyssop. No study has been found on the constituents of either Eupatorium species employed by Bass, for which he gives uses generally described for the hyssops. Many Eupatoriums (e.g., E. perjoliatum [boneset], see monograph) have similar properties, although they do not have the sensory characteristics of Hyssopus officinalis. That

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Bass's hyssops are different from those generally described in the medical literature is an excellent example of the care necessary in collecting medicinal plants and the errors that can arise in interpreting practices. Notes 1. Moore (1564, f. 33). There has been no definitive revision of the view expressed by Johnson (Herball. 1633, pp. 576, 580) and others that a savory ("Satureia cretico") is the hyssop of the ancients. Johnson fel~ (p. 580) that Hyssopus species were popularized as "hyssop" by Arab physicians. 2. Gerard (1597, p. 463). 3. Motherby (1785), under "Hyssopus," noted lIyssopus austrica and lIyssopus capiJata (wild thyme). 4. Parke-Davis (1890, p. 98). Eclectic writers (e.g., King, 1878, p. 662) implied some interest because

of the pleasant odor and a warm, slightly bitter taste. 5. Gerard (1597, p. 467). 6. J. Miller (1722, p. 220). 7. Savory (1836, p. 67). 8. Clapp (1852, pp. 826-27). 9. J. F. Morton (1974. p. 59). We have not found any

references to any Eupatoriums as hyssops. Griffith (1847, p. 392) noted E. purpureum as gravel root and E. tancrifolium as wild horehound.

INDIAN HEMPS (roots); DOGBANE The Herbalist's Account There are two hemps; the black one is more powerful. Since they are narcotics I do not recommend them. They are different in looks, but it's all milkweed. They are two to five feet tall with whitish-looking flowers. The seedpod of the true Indian hemp is kind of like a trumpet vine seedpod. When the seedpod bursts open, a cottonlike substance with little black needles hanging down comes away from it. It carries the seeds and scatters them. The black Indian hemp has berries. The roots

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of both are black on the outside and they are as much as two feet in the ground. The roots are full of milk and stick to your pants like sumac roots. Black Indian hemp tea is a powerful purgative; it's made much like with any other root-about an ounce to a pint of water, but be careful never to take over one teaspoon per dose, three times a day. It's a wonderful medicine, but it has to be used with caution. It can be used for high blood, rheumatism, pneumonia, and typhoid fever. High blood is its best use. And it's lots better if you mix it with something like yellowroot or some other root that's not as harsh. Makes it less dangerous to use. For instance, mix it with equal parts of dandelion or goldenseal root. You can use a little more of the Indian hemp if you mix other roots with it, modify it down. If you mix mayapple, dandelion, and yellow dock with it and put the four together, all four work together but each one of them is good for high blood. It's just like you got hot pepper tea and you have water in it. You still have the same amount of pepper in your system but you've got the water there to keep it from burning you. A gentleman came here the other day and wanted to know if I knew what Indian hemp was. I told him, "Yes." He read in a book where it was fine for high blood. He asked me about it and I told him, "Yes, sir, it is. But it's powerful. You better be careful with it." He said, "Do you know where there's any at'?"

I said, "Yes, sir, right down here on the old highway." "Would you go down there and show it to me?" I got in the car with him and showed it to him. He dug some of the roots and carried them home with him. He got to thinking about it and called me. "Hey, Bass, how much should I take of this? It tells me here in this book, but I want you to tell me."

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I said, "Don't you take over a teaspoon of it, three times a day, and maybe a dose at bedtime, but no more than that." He said he told his son, "I don't believe he knows what he is talking about. I'm going to take me a good dose of that." He sat right here and told me, "Bass, I never went off on such a trip in my life. I looked up at my boy and he was fifteen feet tall. That bed got up and went this-a-way. I was reeling and rocking. The ceiling was going that-a-way. I'm telling you right now, when you tell me from now on how to take medicine, by God, I'm going to stick with you." But it had got his blood down and was doing him so much good. The women will do pretty much as I caution them. That's the thing about women. That's the reason they're so affectionate in an office. They listen. A man, generally speaking, will say, "Aw shucks, that's all right, I'll do so and so." But a woman, she just takes all the pains in the world to help you. They've got more pains than a man. That's why this old man said, "Why shucks, I'll take as much of that Indian hemp as I want." I would rather people wouldn't use it. I've only given it-it was the black Indian hemp -to this one man. I don't use the hemps. The milk of the hemps, though, can be used for warts. Commentary Apocynum cannabinum 1. *, including varieties: Indian hemp, black Indian hemp, Canadian hemp. A. androsaemifolium 1., including varieties: dogbane, dog's bane, bitter-root, wandering milkweed. Apocynaceae Asclepias variegata 1. * [syn. Biventraria variegata (1.) Small]: Indian hemp (local name). A. amplexicaul us Smith *: Indian hemp (local name).

Asclepiadaceae Confusion exists over the vernacular name hemp because [as Lloyd noted), the name American Indian hemp has been given to "possibly a score of closely related plants, many of which have been misidentified as Apocynum cannabinum." 1 This indigenous plant-not to be confused with the Indian hemp, Cannabis indica, as it has been in the past-is widely recorded as a powerful emetic and cathartic.' It was well established as an active medicine by the first half of the nineteenth century; R. E. Griffith gave a fair summary: "Indian hemp is an emeto-cathartic, diuretic and diaphoretic. Its first operation, in a full dose, is to cause much nausea, diminishing the frequency of the pulse, and occasioning a tendency to sleep independent of the exhaustion usually consequent on vomiting; this latter soon ensues, and is copious, followed by large and feculent watery alvine evacuations. A general perspiration almost invariably succeeds." 3 Griffith also noted that it was useful in dropsy and that the bark provided commercially useful fibers resembling hemp (i.e., Cannabis indica). An example of the type of personal testimony encouraging the use of remedies is found in The American Practice Condensed (1848), by Eclectic physician Wooster Beach, who said that a preparation "cured Alderman Scott, of this city of dropsy, and several others.'" The powerful diuretic action led to A. cannabinum being called the "vegetable trocar," and it was "extensively used in dropsy." 5 It remained well known during the early decades of the twentieth century in America and Europe as a diuretic with an action considered to be similar to that of digitalis. 6 Mr. Bass clearly recognizes two "hemps"; he calls Apocynum cannabinum black Indian hemp (a vernacular name rarely recorded) and says it is the stronger.' He uses the ver-

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nacular "Indian hemp" for such milkweeds as Asc1epius variegata and A. amplexicaulis, but not for A. tuberosa (butterfly weed; see monograph). We do not know whether all the "milkweeds" he collects as Indian hemp have similar pharmacological action to A. cannabinum. In connection with Bass's story of a hallucinatory experience, it is of interest that neither Apocynum nor Asclepius species are considered New World hallucinogens. It has been said that one of the mysteries in the study of narcotics employed in primitive societies is why the Apocynaceae, probably the family richest in alkaloids, should be so sparingly represented in the list of species valued and utilized for mind-altering properties. B Vogel, however, noted that the Pillager Ojibwas ate the "sacred root" of this plant in the medicine-lodge ceremony and used it for throat trouble and headache." It is noteworthy that the strength of the tea of black Indian hemp suggested by Bass is probably about the same as at least one nineteenthcentury recommendation for dropsy: one to two teaspoonfuls, two to three times a day, of an extract of half an ounce of root to one and a half pints of water boiled down to one pint. 'o Constituents of A. cannabinum include cardenolides (steroid glycosides, some cardioactive): cymarin, apocannoside, and strophanthin K." Tannins, resin, saponins, and other compounds are also present. The effect of the cardioactive glycosides may explain the diuretic action on the basis of strengthening heart action, though it is not clear that the reputation for diuresis is limited to certain medical conditions. The emetic and cathartic actions often reported result from toxic doses. Dogbane (Apocynum androsaemifolium L.). Mr. Bass knows about dogbane; he says it is a "cousin of Indian hemp," but he has very little around him and is as wary of it as he is of Indian hempY

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Dogbane attracted interest during the seventeenth century in Europe as well as in the colonies. By the nineteenth century it was discussed in the medical literature as an emetic and laxative, and to some extent as a tonic. It attracted some interest among Thomsonians and botanic practitioners, and in 1868 was said to be "sometimes employed by practitioners in the country."" No evidence has been found to suggest thut it wus especially popular, except, perhaps, for use among Indians and maybe some domestic practice. 14 Its potency may account for its lack of popularity. Notes 1. Lloyd (1921, p. 17). See also Gaertner (1979). 2. Confusion commenced when Cannabis was being popularized in Europe and America, e.g., Woodward (1850). 3. Griffith (1847, p. 450). 4. Beach (1848, p. 646). 5. Sharp and Dohme (1870, p. 5). Hare (1909, p.100). 6. Sajous (1908. 1:450). For a representative European account, see British Pharmaceutical Codex (1923. p. 141). 7. The vernacular name black Indian hemp was used by J. E. Meyer (1934, p. 42); Bass possibly learned it from Meyer. but see Le Strange (1977, p.30). 8. Quoted in Schultes and Hoffman (1980. pp. 23335). See also Schleiffer (1973). LaBarre {1975. pp. 9-52}. 9. Vogel (1970, p. 319). 10. Biddle (1873, p. 261). 11. Kupchan et al. (1964)-the tumor-inhibiting action shown does not illuminate past uses; Duke (1985. pp. 49-50). 12. For background. see Le Strange (1977, p, 29), 13, C, I:l, Wood and Bache (1868, p. 125), 14, Ibid,. who said it was among the remedies employed by Indians in lues venerea; Warren and Small (1903, pp. 819-20),

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INDIAN PIPE. See Beechdrops INDIAN TURNIP (corn) The Herbalist's Account Indian turnip grows in dark, shady places; the roots have a real fiery hot taste. I've never used it since I can't get much of it around here. It has a good reputation from the Indians. They made a tea out of it and used it as a stimulant when you was feeling low. It's especially good for coughs and colds . I recommend a strong tea, but it's powerful, just a small teaspoonful for a teacup. The southern Indians used to cook it with molasses, and you could take that for colds. The Indians also used it as a poultice, like mustard plaster; you can put it on the chest. Commentary Arum maculatum 1.: cuckoo-pint, wakerobin, priests-pintle, aron, arum, calfes-foot, rampe, starchwort, lords-and-Iadies. Arisarum vulgare 1.: friar's cowie. Arisaema triphyllum (1.) Schott * , including subspecies [syn. Arum triphyllum 1.]: Indian turnip, dragon root, starchwort , three-leaved arum, pepper turnip, jack-in-the-pulpit, priests-pintle . Araceae Arum plants have attracted medical interest since at least classical times . Well known in Britain as cuckoo pint and by countless other names , Gerard (1597) described arum as hot and dry and specifically useful for "thicke and tough humours in the chest and lung." 1 This remained the principal reputation, although other " opening" actions were mentioned by various authors: to promote urine and the menses , and to relieve flatulence.> Although arum attracted interest in the eighteenth century, many nineteenthcentury authors ignored it. Gerard also considered species of Arisarum (another aroid genus) as "like in power and facultie to the Cuckow pint" but "more

Indian Turnip (Arisaema triphyllum)

biting." He did indicate that these were Mediterranean plants. Neither Arum maculatum nor Arisarum species are found in North America, but interest in the indigenous Arisaema triphyllum (Indian turnip) was apparently aroused during colonial times. The use of various names, however, makes it unclear how many recognized that the New World plant was different. John Bartram, in the American edition of Thomas Short's Medicina Britannica (1751), noted, under "Arum (wake robin, or cuckoo pint)": "our people call the kind we have, Indian Turnip, and though differing in its form of growth from the European, yet it is like in virtue." 3 Usage was well established by the time of the first crescendo of publications on indigenous remedies in the early nineteenth century. In 1801 Stearns, however, described "Arum maculatum" as stimulant, attenuant, diuretic, and diaphoretic.· By 1820 another author enthusiastically described "Arum triphyllum" as long "celebrated for its efficacy in certain diseases and I am persuaded not without reason. I have never prescribed it

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where the lancet was indicated, as I believe such a practice would be highly prejudicial; but in chronic cases of asthmas, catarrhs, &c" I place unlimited confidence in its medicinal virtues." 5 Employment by native Americans was noted by a number of authors, especially for colic." A veritable cornucopia of uses came to be suggested, linked with "powerfully acrid, expectorant and diaphoretic properties." Some uses perhaps still reflected the concept of an opening medicine, as described by Gerard: coughs. ca'nker, pains in the breast. colic. low typhus fever? Indian turnip, like A. maculaturn, was also mentioned on occasion for poultices and ointments, linked to its rubefacient property. F. P. Porcher wrote that he had produced vesication merely by placing a small portion of the stem of Arum walteria in contact with unbroken skin." Just how much Indian turnip was used in the nineteenth century is difficult to say, but in 1871 Appalachian physician A. A. Scroggs, discussing important medicinal plants available in North Carolina, expressed some ecological concerns: "The root [acrid, expectorant, and diaphoretic] is mostly obtained in the Mountains, where it grows abundantly and to great maturity. The supplies will soon begin to be limited unless care and discretion are exercised."g Nevertheless, so far as we can judge, medical interest was not sustained even at the level of domestic medicine.lO Mr. Bass's reference to use for colds is in line with past uses; much of the rest of Indian turnip's reputation has not reached him, suggesting that other uses are not so well established. Arum maculatum contains amines, saponins, and cyanogenetic compounds, the latter two groups of constituents perhaps accounting for the reputation as an expectorant. Rubefacient properties-rationalizing usage as a poultice-have been linked to the presence of calcium oxalate. At times, starch from

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the tuber has been employed as a nourishing food for infants and invalids. Arisaema triphyllum contains an acrid principle (perhaps calcium oxalate), starch, and gum. l1 Whether or not the attention given to Arum maculatum and Arisaema triphyllum in English-language literature reflects that they are the most cornman of the aroid plants in Britain and North America, respectively, is a frequent but unanswered question. In fact, in America Arisaema pusillum is common and is often confused with A. triphyllumY

Notes 1. Gerard (1597. p. 685); johnson's revised illustration (1633, p. 834, fig. 1) is more generally accepted as Arum maculatum; for other background see Prime (1960), Le Strange (1977, pp. 39-43).

2. james (1743-45, vol. 1], under "Arum." j. Hill 1751, p. 595) gave an encomium of its value in

attenuating and resolving tough humors in the gastrointestinal tract. It is appropriate to add that differences among species were recognized, and that special attention was given to the freshness of the root. Hill made a plea for employing the British medicine: "We seem to imagine medicines acquire their virtues in long voyages, and are extravagantly fond of drugs of very little purpose brought from the East-Indies. while we neglect them and hundreds of others greatly more valuable that grow under our own hedges." 3. Short (1751. p. 18). Some other early references are in Erichsen-Brown (1979, p. 236). 4. Stearns (1801, p. 339). Caution should be used

in identifying the vernacular name Indian turnip, which is also used for Psoralia esculenta Pursh. See Gray, Manual of Botany (1857, p. 94). 5. Burgon (1820] indicated that A. triphyllum and A. maculatum were nearly allied in medical properties.

6. Pursh (1814, p. 400). 7. E.g., Beach (1848, p. 645), Christison (1848, p.254J. 8. Porcher (1849, p. 844).

9. Scroggs (1871).

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10. This is in spite of references to Indian usage. 11 . Trease and Evans (1983 , p . 236); see Duke (1985 , p. 62) for Arisoema. 12. Fernald (1940).

IRIS (rhizome) The Herbalist's Account There are lots of irises, but they act mostly the same. We don't have many around here. There is the dwarf iris. It has a beautiful blue bloom with a yellow throat. It blooms in May and June with a lily-shaped flower. I don't use it because other things are easier to get. But I gathered it in Crayfish Holler where we used to go through when we hauled crossties. The most it's used for is a blood purifier and it's also recommended for dropsy-too much water in the body. Blue flag is another iris. It's a strong medicine, a powerful laxative like mayapple. I wouldn't use it, though the dwarf iris is milder. It also gets rid of water. Indians and some old-time doctors would give you a tea made out of the roots for heart dropsy. Commentary Iris x germanica L. var. florentina Dykes [syn. 1. florentina auct., vix L.J: flower de luce, orris. 1. x germanica L.: flower de luce, orris. 1. pallida Lam. , including subspecies: flower de luce, orris. 1. versicolor L., and varieties: flower de luce, blue flag, wild iris. I. cristata Ait. *, including varieties: dwarf iris, crested dwarf iris. I. verna L. *, including varieties: violet iris, dwarf iris. Iridaceae Mr. Bass's failure to distinguish medically one iris from the other is commonplace among herb gatherers. Even so, the irises (cultivated and adventive) generally considered in medical textbooks-some with histories

Iris (Iris x germanicoj

extending back to classical times-are the three which yield "orris root" after removal of cork from the rhizome. Orris's reputation as a purgative and diuretic is an old one. John Gerard (1597). who described many iris plants, indicated hot and dry qualities and various deobstruent effects linked to diuretic, purgative, emmenagogue, and attenuating actions.' It is difficult to assess the popularity of the various irises, but by 1719 John Quincy said that the juice was "hardly ever used" for purgative or errhine properties. Further, he indicated only the popularity of the "Florentine sort," and its usage in chest conditions, as a carminative for stomach ailments, and as a "cosmetick."z In 1769 William Lewis was more fulsome over the purgative properties and indicated differences between fresh and dried roots-many authors had stressed the value of fresh root -and difficulties in administering suitable doses? American writers were more conservative. In 1847 R. E. Griffith commented that it was better known as a perfume product. With its fragrant, violetlike odor, it has commonly been used in dusting-sometimes called violet-powders. Irone, present in the volatile oil, accounts for the characteristic odor.'

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The indigenous blue flag (1. versicolor). which has little odor but an acrid and nauseous taste (and is rarely found growing wild by Mr. Bass). has been mentioned in most American herbals and materia medica textbooks. 5 An interesting early American observation appears in Elliott's account of South Carolina and Georgia plants (1821-24), which states that a decoction of the astringent root is not only decidedly diuretic but was at that time an ingredient in a successful remedy for dropsy that also included Eryngium yuccaefolium (see Rattlesnake Master)'" The reputation persisted, although the rhizome attracted relatively little interest among regular physicians. Johnson (1884) said it was used largely by Eclectic physicians "as hydragogue cathartic. and alterative. sialagogue, vermifuge and diuretic.'" Some Eclectic physicians believed it possessed properties similar to podophyllum but without that plant's disagreeable taste. Finlay Ellingwood's Eclectic text. American Maleria Medica (1915), was certainly enthusiastic about iris's purgative, diuretic, and cholagogue properties, and its use for stimulating the entire glandular system. Ellingwood also made a general comment which remains typical of frequent references to toxins in loday's herbal litera lure: "It promotes waste and elimination of effete material from the blood."" Mr. Bass's comments are in line with the reputation of iris as a potent cathartic and diuretic; he is rightly cautious in its use (though his tea is perhaps overly strong), if only because of iris's reputation for erratic action. However, he collects two irises that he considers comparatively mild: 1. cristata and I. verna. Little specific information has been found on these species, but Griffith (1847) indicated that the properties were much the same as those of I. versicolor; Hyams (1898) wrote that I. verna and other species were collected and sold in North Carolina as 1. versicolor ("They are cathartic, emetic, di-

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uretic and purgative").9 On 16 January 1855 herb dealer C. J. Cowie wrote that "blue flag from the hills" has the mark of the genuine article.1O Essential oil is present in all irises. The root of I. versicolor also contains the glycoside iridin, which acts as a diuretic and cathartic." The diuretic action has a strong historical pedigree, and Bass believes this justifies the reputation as a blood purifier. Notes 1. Gerard (1597, pp. 45-53). 2. Quincy (1719, p. 120). 3. W. Lewis (1769,1;429). 4. Trease and Evans (1983. p. 526).

5. For the one native iris found by colonists-blue flag-see Haughton (1978, pp. 182-83). 6. Elliott (1821-24, 1:45), See also Rafinesque (1828-30,2;232)' under "Iris." 7.1. Johnson (1884, pp. 271-72). 8. Ellingwood (1915, p. 313). 9. Griffith (1847, p. 625), Hyams (1898. p. 394). 10. Cowie Papers, 16 January 1855. 11. Duke (1985, p. 252).

IRONWEED (roots) The Herbalist's Account There are about four ironweeds, but we don't have them all around here. They are bitler, make a fine tonic and blood purifier. I've heard it's good for women's problems. I haven't used it, but I'll try it in the next blood medicine I make. It'll make a good wash or gargle, but it's not much used, Commentary Ve, lOnia fasciculata Michx., including subspecies: ironweed. V. gigantea (Walt.) Tre!. ex Branner and Coville * , including subspecies: ironweed. blue vervain, Indian-hyssop (local names). V. flaccidifolia Small*: ironweed, bluevervain, Indian-hyssop (local names),

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Asteraceae (Compositae) Ironweeds (Vernonia species) have attracted little interest within the medical literature, although, because of the bitter taste and presumed tonic action, a few references do exist. C. S, Rafinesque (1828-30)' one of the first to mention ironweed in any substantial American publication, stated that the roots are "bitterish, used for fevers in Kentucky [as] spiritous bitters," 1 He considered all Vernonia species equal in value. In 1847 R. E. Griffith merely indicated that the roots of Vernonia species were used in bitter tonics employed in western states for fevers.2 Relatively few references appeared in later publications on materia medica. There was some interest in Eclectic writings ("it appears to exert a tonic influence on the uterus"). while F. P. Foster's Reference Book of Practical Therapeutics (1896-97) noted a few worldwide uses of Vernonia species, and concluded: "Vernonia has not come sufficiently into use to justify positive statements as to its medicinal value." I Mr. Bass cannot remember when he first heard about ironweed, but points out that one (V. fasciculata) is listed in his favorite herbal. Joseph Meyer's Herbalist.' It is interesting that the rather weak reputation as a female remedy has reached him. He rationalizes this on the basis of the reputed tonic action and blood-purifying properties. The bitterness of Vernoni(] species is associated with sesquiterpene lactones, though tannins are a contributory factor in the overall taste. No specific information on the species gathered by Mr. Bass (V. gigantea and V. fJaccidifoliaj, both of which are mildly bitter, has been found. It is noteworthy that variation in taste is discernible and may be associated with hybridization.' Bass's preferred vernacular name (blue vervain) should not be confused with vervain (see monograph).

Notes 1. Rafinesque (1828-30, 2:274), under "Vernonia."

2. Griffith (1847, p. 387); see also Clapp (Hl52, p.789). 3. F. P. Foster (1896-97,2:356). For a reference to Eclectic interest see King (l871, p. 743). 4. J. E. Meyer {1979 ed., p. 66}. 5. For background and note on other constituents, see S. B. Jones {1982}. Other "ironweeds" are reported in the Iiteratuf!'. Croom (1982, p. 131) described Sida rhombifolia L., stating that it is known for treating weak back, pimples, and sores, and as a tonic for livestock. "For a weak back three plants of this weed about two feet tall are combined with six to eight pieces of the root of devil's-shoestring (Tephrosia virgilliana) and boiled in a pint of water for four hours. Three swallows are taken three times a day."

IRONWOOD (bark, wood, leaves) The Herbalist's Account I don't know much about ironwood, a real hardwood. Folks haven't asked me about it for a long time. The bark is used something like oak bark. It's astringent and a good tonic for the stomach, and I'd recommend it for that. It's got quite a lot of iron in it. Commentary Carpinus betuIus L.: hornbeame, hardbeame, yolk elme, witch hazel. C. caroliniana Walt. *: American hazel, hornbeam. Ostrya virginiana (P. Mill.) K. Koch. [syn. O. virginica Willd.]: hop, hornebeam, leverwood. Betulaceae The vernacular name ironwood covers both the indigenous hop hornbeam, Ostrya virginiana (most commonly), and the hornbeam, Carpinus caroIiniana. No significant medical enthusiasm has been found for either tree, and ironwood falls into the category of herbal remedies used only when better-known and more popular tonics are unavailable.

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John Gerard (1597). when describing "betuIus or the hornbeame tree," pointed out that it was not used in medicine: "the vertues are not expressed of the ancients, neither have we any certaine experiments of our own knowledge more than hath been said for the use of husband vine." J Much later, G. Motherby (1785) said virtually the same thing: "It is not noted for any medical use." 2 Attitudes were similar in America. S. Elliott in 1824 noted only that because the wood of "()straya virginica" is "close and so compact and ha'rd, it has acquired the popular name iron wood. It is well adapted for cogs in mill wheels, and for many other uses where a strong fine-grained wood is required." 3 Toward the end of the nineteenth century, it was said that the leaves of C. americana and C. betulus were formerly used as an astringent mouthwash and gargle! While the indigenous hop hornbeam (0. virginiallu) was seldom mentioned in American medical texts, at least the popular New Family Physician drew attention to it; the heartwood "is said to be a powerful antiperiodic tonic and alterative, and by some regarded as an infallable remedy for ague [malarial." Its uses for scrofula and dyspepsia were also noted.' Similar information was provided by Millspaugh in 1892; he indicated its employment as a domestic medicine.6 Twentieth-century references have noted Indian usage in preparations for coughs, hemorrhages, kidney problems, and rheumatism, but how widespread is unclear.' Mr. Bass first heard about ironwood (at least C. caroliniallu, the one he might recommend) sometime in the 1920s; he acquired similar information to that recorded by Millspaugh; namely, that it was a good tonic and helpful to the stomach. As mentioned elsewhere, Bass does not generally associate tonic action or bi tterish taste with the treatment of fevers, as was once the case with ironwood. His favorite book, Meyer's Herbalist, considers only hop hornbeam (under leverwood); the inner bark and wood are

267

noted as tonic and alterative, essentially the same uses mentioned by Bass.s No chemical analysis of either tree has been found, but we suggest that the presence of tannins and the bitterish taste account for the reputation as a tonic; however, it has probably been used only when more popular tonics were unavailable. Notes 1. Gerard (1597. pp. 1295-96).

2. Motherby (1785], under "Ostrya." 3. Elliott (1821-24, 2:619). 4. F. P. Foster (1891, 2:839). 5. Gunn (1869 ed., p. 865), under "Iron wood." See also King (1878, p. 666). 6. Millspaugh (1974, originally 1892, p. 159-2). 7. For some documentation and for economic uses, see Brooks (1979, 3:110-12).

8. ). E. Meyer (1979 ed., p. 72).

JESSAMINE (rhizome and root) The Herbalist's Account Yellow jessamine is highly recommended for several troubles of the blood and for colds. Folks used to ask me about it for women's troubles. I'd try it, but I haven't found it around here. Commentary Gelsernium sernpervirens (L.) St. Hi!. [syns. G. sempervirens (L.) Ait.; G. nitidurn Michx.; Bignonia sempervirens L.J: gelsemium, jessamine, yellow jessamine, Carolina jessamine, evening-trumpet-flower. Loganiaceae Substantial interest in this indigenous plant -often referred to as gelsemiurn-emerged during the 1850s. From the records of C. J. CowIe and others it seems likely that demand followed an accidental discovery when gelsemium was collected by mistake to treat a Mississippi planter with a bilious fever and

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was found to have dramatic physiological effects, including muscular paralysis.! Eclectic practitioners soon encouraged its employment as a veritable panacea with uses for nervous and gynecological disorders.2 It was incorporated into regular medical practice more cautiously. In 1884 American author Laurence Johnson described gelsemium in his popular medical botany text as a very powerful drug whose therapeutic value had not been accurately defined. He said that "in toxic doses-and unfortunately these have only been too frequently administered-it produces paralysis of both motion and sensation." He did suggest that it was a helpful sedative in febrile and inflammatory disorders." 3 Caution was underscored by Farquharson and Woodbury (1882), who indicated patient idiosyncracies: "It is only safe to begin with two or three drop doses" of tincture.' Nevertheless, the reputation of gelsemium expanded. Many uses were listed, especially to allay nervous irritability, as in neuralgia, ovalgia, tic douloureux, and in some cases of myalgia. s UsagA or potential value for bilious colic, asthma, and other disorders was also noted. By around 1900 gelsemium had seemingly become a fashionable medicine. It was a remedy of its time for nervous disorders, real and imagined, encouraged partly by uncertainties over the management of these conditions.6 As with many powerful remedies, differences of opinion and usage abounded, and two British authors (1897) discussed the plant at length and implied that one of its most useful roles was in the treatment of coughs.' That reputation survived well into the present century, or at least until the 1920s, when regular physicians started to appreciate that it had been overpromoted. Usage persisted for a while for trigeminal neuralgia and a few othAr conditions," and Eclectic writings attached special importance to its alleged value in fevers." While the mAdical profession was early

ascertaining the role of a relatively toxic plant, it may well have had to contend with demands from the public. One influential domestic medical book, G. M. Beard's Home Physician (1875 edition), possibly helped to popularize it: "This is one of our new remedies, and has not yet come into very general use. It is given in fevers, in seminal emissions, in epilepsy, in convulsions, and to expel worms. It is a remedy of some power, and should be used with caution." 10 The principal chemical constituents, indole alkaloids, have been well investigated. One, gelsemine, is reported to be quantitatively the most important, but the structurally similar gelsemicine excAeds it in toxicity,'l Central nervous stimulant action Axplains some past usage, but fresh studies are justified, if only to understand the emergence in the nineteenth century of such a wide range of uses. Bass's opinion that it is "good for blood and colds" is not well founded. although this reputation has been recorded elsewhere. 12 Employment for colds is perhaps linked to the reputation for controlling coughs. The suggestion that gelsemium may have immunostimulatory properties needs investigation. 13 Bass's comment that he would try it must not be taken to sanction indiscriminate use; caution is necessary with this toxic plant,14 Notes 1. E.g .. Cowie Papers, 26 June 1856. For an account

of the discovery of gelsemium see Proctor (1852). 2. See King (1871. pp. 716-17).

:3. L. Johnson (1884. p. 227). We do not see the influence of homeopathic practice in the acceptance of gelsemium within regular medicine as suggested by Coulter (1973. p. 27). 4. Farquharson and Woodbury (1882, p. 285). 5. Shoemaker (1893. 2:638-39).

6. For a long twentieth-century list of uses, headed by neuralgia. see R. B. Wilcox (1911. p. 240]. 7. Ringer and Sainsbury (1897. pp. 513-23).

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8. See Bastedo (1947, p. 573), Soil mann (1957, pp. 468-69). 9. Ellingwood (1915, pp. 72-79).

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dise, wormseed, American wormseed, Mexican tea, pigweed, American oak. Chenopodiaceae

10. Beard (1875, p. 620). 11. See Bisset (1980, pp. 26-61). 12. Croom (1982, pp. 67-69) noted Lumbee recommendations for jaundice. 13. Wagner and Proksch (1985). 14. Most intoxications result from taking herbal

preparations, but children have been poisoned from sucking the flowers. See Lampe and McCann (1985, pp. 84-85), Duke (1985, p. 205) surprisingly gave Grieve's outdated directions for management of poisoning.

JERUSALEM OAK (tops, leaves)

The Herbalist's Account Jerusalem oak grows everywhere around old buildings and chicken pens. It has an unfavorable odor-it's kind of like raw mintthat you don't like to be around. You use the tops, the whole stuff. If you have plenty of it you can use just the leaves. I have a sackful now. It's a worm medicine, One teaspoon of a strong tea, three times a day, but it has a horrible taste. My mother would put it in honey or molasses. She cooked it up and made a syrup, Then us children would have to take a round of that every spring. It kept the hookworm and other worms away. She'd give us some castor oil and we'd be sick for a while, but that'd really move the worms right on out. They thought everybody was wormy, and I [a small, slightly built man] guess I still am, It's also good as a tonic or cough medicine, but there are better things I use. Commentary Chenopodium botrys L.: oak of Jerusalem, oak of paradise, wormseed, American wormseed, Mexican tea, pigweed. C. ambrosioides var. anthelminticum (L.) Gray* [syns, C. ambrosioides L.; C. anthelminticum L.]: oak of Jerusalem, oak of para-

The vernacular name Jerusalem oak has been used for various Chenopodium species, notably C. botrys, naturalized in North America from Eurasia, and C. ambrosioides, naturalized from South America, The genus Chenopodium poses many taxonomic problems, which arise in part from hybridization and the plastici ty of various morphological characters.l Most North American writers on materia medica until the second half of the nineteenth century followed Linnaeus in distinguishing C. onthelminticum and C. ambrosioides as separate species. In 1817-18 W. P. C. Barton described the latter as "much less subtle, pungent and disagreeable," and not retaining its effectiveness when dried, a view echoed by R. E. Griffith in 1847.2 Clapp (1852) underscored that C. ombrosioides was frequently mistaken for C. anthelminticum, but Gray (1857) classified C. onthelminticum as a variety of C. ambrosioides (c. ombrosiaides var. anthelminticum).3 Early interest in Europe focused on C. botrys. John Gerard (1597) noted it not as an anthelmintic but as a "hot and dry" plant for chest ailments, those that are "short winded und cannot easily draw their breath.'" Although John Quincy indicated that by 1719 it was not much used, it continued to be mentioned for respiratory problems." It is not generally clear which species of Chenopodium is meant when Jerusalem oak is mentioned in the literature from colonial times. William Byrd in the early eighteenth century indicated that the native plant was well known for treating worms; but other authors-stressing usage more for "coughs and humoral asthmas" and as antispasmodics-indicated a species not easy to identify now'" Jerusalem oak is included in one colonial recipe for "pains in the head" (along with horehound and an unidentified plant),

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which does not seem to be linked with constitutional effects of worms. 7 By the early nineteenth century Jerusalem oak-a name we prefer to wormseedwas well established as "an excellent vermifuge." 6 A firm reputation persisted during the century, partly encouraged by usage among blacks. In 1847 F. P. Porcher wrote that it was "well-known as one of the most efficient indigenous anthelmintics, adapted to the expulsion of lumbrici in children. It is employed on plantations to a considerable extent." " An Appalachian physician, A . A. Scroggs, commented in 1871 that it "boiled with sage and sweet milk and sweetened was formerly largely used among the negroes as a vermifuge." 10 Jerusalem oak's reputation in the southern states was perhaps enhanced in the early years of the twentieth century as a treatment for the scourge of hookworms, even though it became best known for controlling roundworms." Despite its reputation, doubts have been cast on its effectiveness in the form of a tea and the dosages used in a study in Mexico." Mr. Bass's regimen is more frequent than the one reported there, while differences in activity between varieties have been recognized. Concerns have been expressed in recent years about its safety; according to one author, this has led to its general abandonment in the United States in favor of safer vermifuges. 13 In fact , for some time its use has been generally restricted to animals. While knowledge of the employment of Jerusalem oak for colds has reached Bassthough not with a strong reputation-he is unacquainted with other reputed uses for the treatment of chorea and as an emmenagogue.14 Oil of chenopodium-reported to vary in concentration between 1 and 6 percent- contains ascaridol. an unsaturated terpene peroxide responsible for the anthelmintic action. The many other constituents have not been shown to have specific properties but might contribute to such mild reactions to the oil

Jerusalem Oak (Chenopodium ambrosioides var. anthelminticum)

as headache, dizziness, and nausea, and ultimately more severe and serious effects.15 Numerous other Chenopodium species have attracted special interest from time to time. Chenopodium album (lambs-quarter). long known as a nutritious food, is still popular with Bass as an occasional vegetable. ' 6 Notes 1.

For discussion see Stace (1975, pp. 179-84).

2. W. P. C. Barton (1817-18 , 2:186). C. ambrosi-

oides was also considered more fragrant; indeed , it was called fragrant Jerusalem oak; see Rafinesque (1828-30,1:106). Griffith (1847 , p. 537). 3 . Clapp (1852 , p. 852), Gray (1857, p. 364).

4. Gerard (1597, pp. 950-51). Interestingly, an association was apparently not made with such other species of Chenopodium as C. bonus-henricus (common English mercury) (Gerard , p. 259), though the latter was long known as a gentle laxa~ive (e.g., Gerard, 1597 ; Withering, 1796, 2:270). 5 . Quincy (1719, p . 129).

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6. For Byrd see Blanton (1931, p. 184). Motherby (1785) for example, under "Botrys mexicana." 7. Jacob Blount Memorandum Book. 8. Interestingly, Stearns (1801, p. 240), in his list of uses, did not mention anthelmintic action, but Thacher (1813, 2d ed., pp. 179-80), described the plant as an excellent vermifuge. Confusion often arises because the name wormseed is most commonly employed for flowers of santonica species of Artemesia, especially A. cina. 9. Porcher (1847, p. 265). Christison (1848, pp. 362-63) indicat8d earlier enthusiasm. 10. Scroggs (1871). 11. It was often used as combination therapy. Among many discussions see W. H. Y. Smith et al. (1937). 12. Kliks (1985). 13. Morton (1981, pp. 176-78). Earlier worries related to acute toxicity due to overdose, particularly in ill patients. Recent worry has arisen owing to the fact that C. ambrosioides has been shown to be carcinogenic when injected subcutaneously in rats; the clinical relevance of this to single-dose administration as an anthelmintic is unclear. See Kapadia et al. (1978). 14. Croom (1982, p. 46) noted that among the Lumbees, seeds were commonly used-half a teaspoon to a tablespoon, depending on the age of the child. "A honey or syrup sweetener may be added to improve the taste." Although not as popular, the root may also be used instead of the seeds. Other early reputations included use in Europe for hemopty- . sis and to help parturition (Rafinesque, 1828-30, 2:206). It appears to be well known as an emmenagogue in Central America. See Conway and Slocumb (1979-80). 15. For an account see Morton (1981, pp. 176-78), with a full discussion on uses. 16. E.g., Heiser (1985, pp. 82-89).

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JEWELWEED (leaves)

The Herbalist's Account I don't know much about it; we don't have it right around here. I found some over near Wolf Creek. Some folks have said that it is good for the skin-that it's good for ulcers. It works on poison ivy, too, but better ones are available. It's said to be a kidney medicine, but I've never tried it. It's another one you have to be cautious over. Commentary Impatiens noli-tangere 1. [syn. I. occidentalis Rydb.]; codded-arsmart, touch-me-not, jewelweed, snapweed. I. pallida Nutt.; touch-me-not, jewelweed. 1. capensis Meerb.* [syns. I. biflora Walt.; 1. fulva Nutt.; I. nortonii Rydb.]: spotted touch-me-not, jewelweed, snapweed. 1. balsamina 1.; garden balsam, jewelweed. Balsaminaceae Mr. Bass's secondhand acquaintance with jewelweed as a remedy is another illustration of the persistence of medical information about a plant which has rarely aroused much enthusiasm. Johnson, in his edition of Gerard's Herball (1633), included at least two kinds of Impatiens, but they are not classified together; one (probably I. nolitangere) is listed with polygonums, called "arsmarts"; the other, an unidentified species, is listed with a curcubit referred to as "balsam apples." Johnson indicated that the properties of the "codded arsmart" (said to possess hot and dry qualities) were deobstruent. The reputation, he said, did not reflect anything "of certaintie, but rather by he are say." He had more to say about the balsam apple, but listed similar astringent properties.1 No discernable enthusiasm emerged later for any of the Impatiens, even in America amid the nineteenth-century interest in indigenous remedies. Some interest was noticeable in American writings on 1. pallida and 1. capensis (the latter is collected by Mr.

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Bass). C. S. Rafinesque. influential promoter of botanical remedies. said jewelweed (two species: I. fu/va and I. pallida) was in common use for jaundice and asthma if drunk as a tea. Emetic, eccoprotic, and diuretic properties and the employment of leaves for hemorrhoids and in the form of a wash for wounds were also mentioned.' Later authors generally ignored the remedy. In 1848 one exception, M. Paine, indicated that various species of Impatiens were "nearly obsolete as cathartics";' however, some uses for skin conditions-from warts to ulcers-continued to be noted. Jewelweed was almost certainly best known as a domestic remedy and among Eclectic practitioners: Parke-Davis marketed packets of dried leaves of 1. pallida in the 1890s with the statement that they were alterative and diuretic-"useful in scrofula and chronic rheumatism in the form of an infusion."4 Mr. Bass's comments are, in general, in line with the earlier literature. His reference to caution in employing jewelweed is perhaps linked to emetic action in large doses. The reputation for treatment of poison ivy has been widely mentioned in "traditional" medical literature, including usage by the Cherokees. 5 A 1980 account-admittedly based on a very limited trialsuggested that the sap from Impatiens biflora did not prevent poison ivy dermatitis, although it allowed that it might be helpful in solution because water and soap alone is thought to degrade the offending oleoresin. 6 Certainly, strong testimony for the value of tea made from species of Impatiens can be found? The tannin content probably accounts for any relief from poison ivy rash, but other constituents (poorly characterized) may be relevant. The substance 2-methoxynaphthaquinone is reported in I. balsamina, a plant often applied to poison ivy rash because of its wide availability as a garden plant and reported to have other usages in

Middle America. 8 Whether or not differences in constituents and biological activity exist among the species is unclear, and we could find no basis for the reputation as a diuretic. Notes 1. GerardlJohnson (1633).

2. Rafinesque (1828-30, 2:231), under "Impatiens." 3. Paine (1857 ed., p. 73). For other uses see Clapp (1852, p. 752); Gunn (1869, p. 826) discussed it

under "celandine." 4. Parke-Davis (1890, p. 107). For Eclectic reference, King (1882, p. 444). 5. Also mentioned in a number of ff~cent works; e.g., Coon (1963, p. 142). For the positive view and other references, see Lipton (1958). 6. Guin and Reynolds (1980). The suggestion that

water and soap decompose the oleoresin is mentioned in Fisher (1977. esp. p. 571). 7. Christopher Myrick has used it frequently, with ahout a "sixty percent success rate." in the form of a wash on soldiers affected hy poison ivy during survival training (personal communication. October 1985). 8.

J.

F. Morton (1981).

JIMSONWEED (leaves, fruits, flowers)

The Herbalist's Account Jimsonweed grows in barnyards and rich soils. It has a deep blue trumpet flower and a real sticky seedpod. It has an obnoxious scent for most people. With hogpens gone, you can't hardly find it around here anymore. It is deadly poison. Herbists don't use it much internally; you need to shy away from it. It does make a good salve for skin diseases. We dry the leaves in the shade and boil a handful of green or dry leaves in a pint of water. Then add a cup of some kind of grease -we recommend hog lard. Fry out the extra water and store the salve in a jar. I have other things in my salve. It's also good to smoke for asthma, but I recommend fig leaves or mullein.

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273

Conunentary

Datura stramonium L. [syn. D. tatula L.] : jimsonweed, Jamestownweed, apple of Peru, thornapple, stramonium. D. stramonium var. tatula (L.) Torrey* [syn. D. tatula L.) : jimsonweed, purple jimsonweed, stramonium. Solanaceae Mr. Bass's comment that the widely distributed jimsonweed is a deadly poison and that herbalists do not use it internally belies its long history as a narcotic and poison. Although known as jimsonweed (from the colonial settlement Jamestown), Datura stramonium (and possibly the variety tatula) is one of the relatively few Old World narcotics. It is not clear whether this species is indigenous to North America, but other species of Datura have a long precolonial history there.' John Gerard (1597) described two thornapples and stated that the whole plant is cold in the fourth degree, and that the juice "boiled with hogges grease to the form of an unguent or salve cureth all inflammations." 2 It was mentioned by most subsequent writers on materia medica and remained in wide use in external preparations for skin conditions until this century.3 Jimsonweed has probably been better known as an inhalant for treating asthma, a use established in the early nineteenth century by various practitioners.' "Stramonium" cigarettes, still available in some parts of the world, are criticized from time to time on the basis that they provide an inadequate dose of active principles while yielding substantial "tar." On the other hand, there is considerable testimony from many patients who are satisfied with them .5 For a short time during the eighteenth century, interest in internal use of stramonium (e.g., for cancer) developed-another example of the many short-lived fashions in therapy. Of particular interest, too, is jimsonweed's reputation as a "narcotic," which was pro-

Jimsonweed

moted in the eighteenth century by Anton Storck and others: 6 in 1791 it was said to be used chiefly for treating maniacs.' Debate ensued as to which was the most useful of the three closely related plants in the family Solanaceae: Datura stramonium, Hyoscyamus niger, or Atropa belladonna. All have similar constituents. Many practitioners in the early decades of the nineteenth century preferred stramonium as a narcotic or sedative;8 others favored hyoscyamus, at least around the 1850s." In recent years jimsonweed has become a well-known substance of drug abuse in the United States.1O Constituents include the well-studied tropane alkaloids, hyoscyamine and hyoscine (and perhaps a little atropine formed from the hyoscyamine). These alkaloids are considered to account for the therapeutic effects. In recent years withanolides (steroidallactones that are believed to possess sedative and hypnotic activity) have been found in some Datura plants; however, it is far from clear that this is relevant to Datura stramonium, for which there is conflicting evidence." Bass 's references to employment in salves and as an inhalant for asthma are well estab-

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lished, and, compared with internal usage, reasonably safe. Among many herbal remedies noted for asthma, stramonium is probably the best known, more so than the fig or mullein suggested by Bass. Notes 1. For background see Schultes (in Hawkes et a!., 1979, pp. 137-160). Litzinger (1981), and Avery (1959). The status of D. totulo is unclear. Tutin et a!. (1964-80,3:200) gave it as a synonym of D. stromonium; Kartesz and Kartesz (1980, p. 456) assigned it as a variety. 2. Gerard (1597, p. 278). 3. Authors include Rafinesque (1828-30. 1:151),

who noted its external use for burns, tumors. gout, ulcers, inflammations. and some cutaneous eruptions. Croom (1982) indicated knowledge of its use for external cancers and tick bites by Lumbee Indians. Although the use of belladonna plaster (the most abundant active constituent in belladonna is hyoscyamine. as in D. stmmonium) for pain and muscular rheumatism has been questioned, strong testimony suggests an analgesic effect when applied locally. 4. We have not sorted out the priority claims of Richard Reece and others who deserve particular credit for popularizing the use of stramonium. 5. For instance, A. J. Green and Lockwood (19114). 6. For some background, J. K. Crellin (1974). 7. W. Lewis (1791, p. 289). 8. E.g., S. W. Woodward (1850). 9. Ibid., Parr (1819. 1:790): d. 2:389, on stramonium. 10. For recent comment, Lowrence Rev. Not. Prod. 5 (1984): 12. Jimsonweed is sometimes confused

with other naturalized solanaceous plants-hyoscyamus and belladonna. For background see Hocking (1947). 11. W. C. Evans et a!. (1984).

JOE-PYE-WEEDj QUEEN-OF-THE-MEADOW (roots, leaves) The Herbalist's Account Joe-pye-weed grows along creeks and streams. It has rough leaves on it similar to a cocklebur. The flowers are not real beautiful, but it's a pale purple and blooms in August and September. This is a form of queen-ofthe-meadow and it is used the same way. I understand it to be named for an English herb doctor who used so much of it. I first learned about it around 1960, but I don't use it; I use queen-of-the-meadow. We use Joe-Pye-weed when we can't get queenof-the-meadow for diabetes, rheumatism, and Bright's disease. You use the root to make a tea. A tea made of the leaves is a mild laxative. Queen-of-the-meadow grows in loose ground from sixteen inches to six feet tall. It blooms in July through September. It has a purple, lousy-looking bloom, but a very sweet smell, similar to rose fragrance. An Indian name is meadow-sweet. You use the roots to make a tea. The roots are sometimes as large as a mixing bowl. It doesn't take many plants to make a lot of medicine. One quart of roots makes a half gallon of medicine. The roots can be dried in the sun and stored in paper sacks. Boil one hour and strain it and keep it in the refrigerator or it will sour. Take one to three cups a day for diabetes and prostate gland trouble. If it don't turn your stomach, it is simple and safe. It don't cure you but it gives you ease of diabetes. It's also good for rheumatism or gravel. I have been knowing about this plant for, I'll say, thirty-five, forty years. We used to recommend it for sugar diabetes. That's before we found out about blueberry being good for sugar. But the roots of queen-ofthe-meadow for making tea have had great results. When I make a liquid medicine for sugar, I take equal parts of queen-of-themeadow root, blueberry, and the redroot and the goldenrod, and I'd make up a compound.

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And I actually believe that if young people would stay with it, I believe it would cure it. I never heard of diabetes when I was a kid. Well, about the time people got to talking about it, you know, queen-of-the-meadow was recommended for it. I got to keeping it because people wanted it and it helped them. I don't stock it much now 'cause I recommend the others. A man came to me about 1951 or 1952, he was down in the back. He anyway found out later he ha.d sugar diabetes, and I told him queen-of-the-meadow had been longtime recommended. It was in "swamp root" that was put in bottles and sold in drugstores. I knew it was good for the back 'cause it worked un the kidneys, and that's why it's good for diabetes. I told the man to come down in the pasture and I'd get him some queen-of-themeadow. Several years later, I was doing a carpenter job in Leesburg, and the man that was helping me had on tennis shoes, and it was so hot he had to put newspaper down on top of the roof to keep from blistering his feet, but this man come up and he said, "I need some more of that queen-of-the-meadow. I found out I had the sugar and for several years it kept it down. You know three or four teacups of that would ease my back, but I tell you, Tommie, I'm afraid I don't know what it is." I told my boss to check his watch and knock me out, I said, "till I go over to the hog pen and get a bunch of queen-of-themeadow." So I got down the ladder and got the feller a load and he went on back to Gadsden. His name was Ashley. Well, sometime later a feller pulled up in the yard-a great big feller in a Cadillac. He said, "I'm looking for that little wormy feller called Tommie Bass, the herbist." I looked at him and said, "Partner, I'm the son-of-a-gun you're looking for." And he commenced to apologize and .,aid, "Wait a minute here, now, I didn't mean that like it sounded." But he said, "Did you know that feller Ashley who you cured of sugar dia-

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betes and a backache?" I didn't know I cured him. He said, "You sure did, and you cured me too. I had prostate gland trouble and saw Bradley down there, the gland doctor. He told me I had to be operated on. I told him, 'Heck, I don't want to be operated on,' and Ashley heard about it and said, 'Hey, partner, come out down in the field and there's a little wormy feller, Tommie Bass, down at Leesburg, and he put me on this queenof-the-meadow. I didn't have prostate gland trouble but,' he says, 'I believe it'll do you good.' " And the feller went to drinking it and when he went back to the doctor, the doctor said, "Shucks, your gland is better than mine." He said, "I don't know what you have been doing, but keep doing it." I had another man who worked for the county, I mean the state. He lived in Gadsden. He found out he had sugar, but he just had to take the tablets. Well, I fixed him up a half a gallon. He was a night watchman and he bought a lot of vegetables from me and a lot of blackberries, and so I fixed him a half gallon and told him to take a good swallow three times a day. WelL he went to drinking it and in something like a week, he came back and said, "You know, Tommie, the doctor took me off them tablets," and he said the last cup made him kinda sick. He went back to the doctor, and he said he didn't have sugar diabetes anymore. You see, nature told him. It's just an insulin in a way, taking it through the mouth instead of taking it through your veins, you know. We have another case that sounds unreasonable. In fact it sounds like it couldn't have never happened. Three or four months ago a man and a woman came up to my place and introduced themselves. "We was here four or five years ago and we wanted to come back and thank you for what you have dune for us." I'd forgotten them. They said, "We talked to you about our son. At that time the doctor thought he was a diabetic and we wanted to know if you could

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tell us anything that would benefit our son. You put him on queen-of-the-meadow root tea and told us to let the boy drink two or three cupfuls of the tea a day. We went home and followed the directions as near as we could. We took the boy back to the doctor after he had drank the tea for a while. and they found that instead of being a diabetic, he had Bright's disease." I thought the next thing they would say was that the boy had passed away. But, thank the Lord, instead of that they said he had finished school and had been cured. Of course, I never charged the folks a thing in the world when I gave them the roots and showed them the tops. They didn't live around here-I think they were from another state-come several hundred miles to see me. Commentary Filipendula ulmaria (1.) Maxim. [Spiraea ulmaria 1.], and subspecies': mede-sweet, queen-of-the-meadow. Rosaceae Eupatorium purpureum 1.': Joe-Pye-weed, green-stemmed Joe-Pye-weed: gravel weed , queen-of-the-meadow. E. fistulosum Barratt' [syn. E. maculatum 1.]: Joe-Pye-weed, queen-of-the-meadow. E. serotinum Michx.': queen-of-the-meadow (local name). Pluchea camphorata (1.) DC.': camphorweed, stinkweed, Joe-Pye-weed (local name), sweet Joe-Pye-weed (local name). P. odorata (1.) Cass.', including varieties [syn. P. purpurascens (Schwartz) DC.]: Joepye-weed (local name). Asteraceae (Compositae) These plants provide another example of confusion arising from vernacular names. Queen-of-the-meadow and Joe-Pye-weed are names commonly used indiscriminately for E. purpureum, E. fistulosum, and E. maculaturn, but Mr. Bass consistently uses the name queen-of-the-meadow for E. serotinum. '

Another queen-of-the-meadow. Filipendula ulmaria, is naturalized in the United States. Superficially, but not on close examination, the plant looks like certain Eupatorium species and once had a reputation (noted by Gerard in 1597) as an astringent. Later authors indicated that Filipendula was stronger than the Eupatoriums. 2 The Joe-Pye-weed Mr. Bass generally collects is E. purpureum or E. fistulosum. E. serotinum, with smaller leaves and brown stems, is, he says, almost identical but milder in action. In making a distinction, Bass is perhaps following Appalachian tradition. A customer of an Appalachian root and herb dealer wrote to a collector in 1856 that "we supposed that by gravel plant named in a former letter you meant gravel root or Eupatorium purpureum, but we now see you name queen of meadow as a separate package."3 It is unclear whether this New World tradition owed anything to analogy with the European Filipendula ulmaria or to Eupatorium cannabinum L., known variously as water hemp or Dutch agrimony, and described by Gerard and others as an astringent with a reputation compatible with accounts of native Eupatorium species.' The best known of the Joe-Pye-weeds medically has been the indigenous E. purpureum, a common plant growing in old fields in Bass's area. The bitter-aromatic root (and leaves) slowly gained some reputation in the first half of the nineteenth century and was listed for a short while in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia (1820-30). Griffith (1847) noted that it had obtained some celebrity as a diuretic in diseases of the kidneys and bladder.s Later. however, it was Eclectic practitioners who came to the fore in encouraging its use. In 1869 it was mentioned that the concentrated extract, eupurpurin, could be generally had at "the Eclectic Drug Stores, and perhaps at others." 6 The reputation of Joe-Pye-weed did not survive the century among most regular physicians. In 1884 Laurence Johnson. a

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critical writer on materia medica, stated that E. purpureum was "said to be a diuretic and to have been employed in urinary affections, but it has not attained an established reputation and is seldom used."? Recent herbal literature, on the other hand, commonly lists many uses. While many of these are associated with the urinogenital system (e.g., for inflamed bladder and burning urine), the plant has become almost a panacea and is listed for rheumatic complaints, all ills of joints, all strains, sprains, and pulled ligaments, soothing nerves, headaches, diabetes, and gout. 8 It is interesting that Mr. Bass did not learn about the medical value of Joe-Pye-weed until 1960. He does note its value for Bright's disease-an old term for some kidney diseases. It is not clear just how the reputation for diabetes emerged, but is has been shown to have hypoglycemic activity.9 The reason for the well-documented diuretic activity is not entirely clear. It has been suggested that it is due to an irritant property of the oleoresin. In the nineteenth century an extract of the plant was sold under the name eupurpurin; it was, in fact, the oleoresin precipitated from a tincture of the root. 10 No accounts of the medical usage of E. fistulosum and E. seratinum have been found, but it is clear from Bass's testimony that they have been employed in domestic medicine. Some concern should be raised over any continued use of both plants, which have been shown to contain toxic pyrralizidine alkaloids." Of particular interest is Bass's confidence in the value of E. serotinum (his queen-of-the-meadow) for diabetes, more so than E. purpureum or E. fistulosum; the strength of the testimony merits investigation. On occasion Bass gathers two species of Pluchea also known as Joe-Pye-weed or sweet Joe-Pye-weed that are morphologically similar to the Eupatoriums. In particular he recognizes the aromatic P. camphorata, which acts more or less the same, as a substitute.

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Notes 1. E.g., 1. Johnson (1884, p. 173): E. purpureum; Radford et al. (1968. p. 1056): E. fistulosum and E. maculatum. 2.

Gerard/Johnson (1633. pp. 1042-44).

3.

Cowie Papers.

For Dutch agrimony and the origin of the name. see Gerard/Johnson (1633. p. 711). The water hempe discussed in the same chapter is not a Eupatorium species. 4.

5.

Griffith (1847, p. 392).

6.

Gunn (1869. p. 898).

7.

Johnson (1884, p. 173).

8.

Quoted from Levy (1974. p. 271).

9.

Lewis and Elvin-Lewis (1977, pp. 217-18).

10.

Millspaugh (1974, p. 143).

11.

Tsuda and Marrion (1963). Locock et al. (1966).

KANSAS SNAKEROOT (rhizome and root) The Herbalist's Account We don't have Kansas snakeroot right around here. It's gone from this area, but you can get it over in Ballplay. It was called niggerhead by old-timers. Indians used it as a snakeroot. It's got a big reputation as a blood purifier. I would have used it a long time ago if I had it. But it's another herb that's coming up, and I now get it in capsules, Commentary Echinacea angustifolia DC.. and varieties: [syn. Brauneria angustifolia (DC.) Heller]: coneflower, black-sampson. Kansas snakeroot. E. pallida Nutt. * [syns. Brauneria pallida (Nutt.) Britt.; Rudbeckia pallida Nutt.]: coneflower, black sampson, Kansas snakeroot. E. purpurea (L.) Moench* [syns. Brauneria purpurea (L.) Britt.; Rudbeckia purpureo L.]: coneflower, black-sampson, Kansas snakeroot. Asteraceae (Compositae) Anemone coroliniana Walt. *: Kansas snakeroot (local name).

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Ranunculaceae Mr. Bass's limited knowledge of the indigenous Kansas snakeroot, generally known as echinacea and obtained from various Echinacea species, reflects its local scarcity. He heard about it from friends and visitors, although it has been only rarely recorded in popular sayings; additionally, he has read about it in Joseph Meyer's Herbalist, under "wild niggerhead." 1 Judging from limited published references, the plant attracted little interest until the last decades of the nineteenth century, despite the sweetish taste and numbing action of the root on the tongue. This followed a Nebraska practitioner's testimony (used in connection with promoting his own proprietary medicine, Meyer's Blood Purifier), which stated that it (probably E. angustifolia) was valuable for the "bites of serpents," insect stings, and alterative effects upon the blood, all reputations known to Bass.' The popularity of echinacea blossomed into a veritable fashion in the first decade of the present century following marketing by pharmaceutical companies and various entrepreneurs, promotion by Eclectic and some regular practitioners, and, after the general acceptance of the germ theory, the view that it was an antiseptic suitable for treating many infectious diseases. 3 By 1912 echinacea was a popularly prescribed remedy, although it was not then included in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia and there were critical statements in the medical press. For example, in 1909: "Echinacea is deemed unworthy of further consideration until more evidence is presented in its favor.'" Its popularity underscored the difficulties confronting pharmacopoeial revision committees trying to decide what to include in standard reference books. Unfortunately, the specific conditions for which physicians prescribed echinacea during its heyday are not clear, although it became almost a panacea: "Its properties

are anesthetic., antiseptic and alterative," wrote S. O. L. Potter in 1913. "It improves the appetite and digestion, is stimulant and nutritive to the nervous system, and seems to be specificall y antagonistic to all organic infections of the blood." 5 It was also said, particularly by Eclectic practitioners, that the root enhanced phagocytosis and thereby aided the body's defenses against bacteria. "It is the remedy for blood poisoning, if there is one in the materia medica. Its field covers auto-infections, slow progressive blood taint, faults of the blood from imperfect elimination of all possible character, and from the development of disease germs within the blood.'" Even in 1915 this was a generally unacceptable view; it seems to imply the outdated notion of spontaneous generation of organisms within the blood. Echinacea's reputation-seemingly a short-lived fashion-apparently fell quickly. In 1928 it was said that among medical men in general Echinacea was without use or repute, even though Eclectic physicians, albeit declining in numbers, still attributed remarkable remedial virtues to it? Threads of interest persisted until new enthusiasm emerged in the 1960s. This has now spread into various areas of herbal practice. Mr. Bass knows the plant primarily as a blood purifier, while the naturopathic medical literature refers to such long-standing concepts as alterative, tonic, and stimulant." Current herbal literature, however, also stresses stimulation of the "immune response, increasing the body's ability to resist infections," and as "antiseptic and antiviral." " While the latter is reminiscent of the unsubstantiated theories of action that emerged in the early twentieth century, recent laboratory studies on E. purplIrea have indicated that some of its constituents do have immunostimulatory properties. Although clinical studies are not available, this is a possible reason for echinacea's use in German-speaking countries in nonspecific

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stimulatory therapy for "returning the organism."lo Chemical and pharmacological studies have been undertaken on E. angustifolia and E. purpurea. Much attention has been given to complex polysaccharides reported in both species and linked to the immunostimulant action such as stimulating phagocytosis and promoting lymphocyte activity. Other constituents include about 0.1 percent of a caffeic acid glycoside (echinacoside) with bacteriostatic properties, while antiviral activity has also been recorded,u No evidence is available to indicate clinical value. An essential oil and other compounds have also been reported, as well as traces of the pyrrolizidine alkaloids tussilagine and isotussilagine, which are not considered carcinogenic.12 It is especially interesting that recent research suggests there may be some physiological justification for long-standing notions of "blood purifying" and antiseptic actions; ifthis is so-and more studies are neededsuch questions as the relative importance of the roles of theory and empiricism in sustaining the reputation of a particular medicinal plant will be sharpened.13 Bass's lack of experience with the plant is the reason he has collected the totally different-looking Anemone caroliniana as Kansas snakeroot. Because of Bass's overall knowledge of plants, this is a salutary reminder of mistakes that can occur in collecting herbs. It is relevant to note that much of the "E. angustifolia" on the American herb market is almost certainly E. pallida, the plant growing in the Ballplay area mentioned in Mr. Bass's comments above. In fact, distinguishing the various Echinacea species in the field requires considerable experience, even though they show much geographical distinctiveness. In addition, Parthenium integrifolium L. (five varieties are known) is reportedly being dug and marketed as E. purpurea, which raises further questions about the validity of some chemical studies.14

Notes 1. J. E. Meyer (1979 ed., p. 137); see also R. B. Browne (1958).

2. The early history has been related many times; see, for example, J. N. White (1898-99), R. L. McGregor (1968). Evidence of some usage exists; e.g., A. Gray (1857, p. 214), who indicated it was a popular medicine known as Black Sampson; also Clapp (1852, p. 798; with other references). 3. See Shoemaker (1896, p. 402); also Parke-Davis (1890, p. 275), Ellingwood (1905). 4. For popularity see Lloyd (1912), and critical comments in "Echinacea Considered Valueless," ,. Amer. Med. Assoc. 53 (1909): 1836. Unfortunately, though not surprisingly, bias was evident in the article; Meyer was called "an evidently ignorant man." 5. Potter (1913, p. 270). 6. E.g., Ellingwood (1915, pp. 358-67). 7. Solis-Cohen and Githens (1928, pp. 917-18). 8. Personal communication.

9. E.g., Tenney (1982, p. 57), British Herbal Pharmacopoeia (1983, pp. 80-81). 10. Discussed in Wagner and Proksch (1985). 11. Stoll et al. (1950), Wacker and Hilbeg (1975). See also Tyler (1982, pp. 91-92)' Merck Index (1983, no. 3473).

12. Roder et al. (1984). 13. Any consideration of past and existing repu-

tations may need to take into account the matter of hybridization; see Stace (1975, pp. 99-103), McGregor (1968). 14. Information in S. Foster (1985), which contains

much background and a full bibliography.

KNOTWEED (tops) The Herbalist's Account

Knotweed grows in rich fields or gardens. There are many types. The leaves are small and narrow. It doesn't want to be in poor soil. One kind around here grows flat down on the ground like Bermuda grass, and another grows upright. The last few years I can't find it, but I saw some a little while ago-the first

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I'd seen in a number of years. The insecticide put out on cotton must've killed it out. It's a real astringent medicine and a tonic. I've recommended it for sore mouths. It's a blood purifier and a liver and kidney medicine. A lot of old-timers used it. Make a tea with a handful of the plant and take two or three cupfuls a day. Commentary Polygonum aviculare L. *, and varieties: [syns. P. aviculare agg.; P. heterophyllum Lindman]: knotgrass, knotweed, running knotweed (local name). P. erect urn L. *: knotgrass, knotweed, upright knotweed (local name). Polygonaceae Of the polygonums used in medicine and generally known as knotweed, Polygonum aviculare has been the best known; other species, however, such as Polygonum bistort (bistort) and smartweeds (see monograph) have generally had stronger medical reputations. In John Gerard's 1597 account of "knotgrasse" (almost certainly the European P. aviculare) and "sundry sortes of knot grasses" (which, in covering more than polygonums, focuses on a morphological group of plants with the common feature of many nodes), the principal quality listed was "binding." This was noted for use in hemorrhages like "spitting of blood, the pissing of blood, and all other issues or fluxes of blood." Other uses listed (e.g., for ulcers and inflammations) were also commonly rationalized on the basis of an astringent property.' Knotweed's reputation as an astringent persisted through the eighteenth century, although European writers did not show much enthusiasm.2 American authors gave a little more attention to it. Griffith, in 1847, mentioned briefly that Polygonum aviculare was "said to be astringent, and was at one time much esteemed as a vulnerary. The seeds are emetocathartic; this property,

so unusual in the genus, is thought by De Candolle to reside in the testa [seed coat].'" A range of twentieth-century publications helped to sustain a modest reputation based on astringency. These include Joseph Meyer's popular Herbalist (Polygonum erectum was listed as a "mild astringent, vulnerary, styptic and febrifuge") and the u.s. Dispensatory (1960).' Specific references to knotweed acting as a kidney and liver medicine, as noted by Bass, are uncommon. He is uncertain where he learned about the diuretic properties, although it is almost certainly from the oral tradition. Gerard noted that Dioscorides "saith it provoketh urine, and helpeth such as do pass drop after drop, when the urine is hot and sharpe." Whether or not this is linked to the reputation of all grasses (although botanically, knotweed, or knotgrass, is not a grass) is unclear, though possible, just as is confusion with other polygonums (see Smartweed). The alleged tonic property is generally justified on the basis of astringency, just as Bass rationalizes the blood-purifying reputation in the same manner. Tannic and other acids (which account for astringency), a glycoside, and other constituents have been reported. 5 Any effort at precise correlation of chemical constituents with past reputations must consider that P. aviculare is a polymorphic complex, or aggregate, which may contribute to chemical variation from population to population. 6 Some varieties are reported to be indigenous to North America, though the species as a whole is native to Europe. Knotweed is rarely employed nowadays and, in fact, Bass suggests only one use for the astringent property: for sore mouths. When questioned closely, he also says it makes a good gargle for sore throats, a use noted in Joseph Meyer's Herbalist.

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Notes 1. Gerard (1597, p. 452).

2. James (1743-45, vol. 2), for instance, gave Polygonum latifolium brief mention, describing it as "drying, astringent and vulnerary; and is esteem'd lithontriptic by some." 3. Griffith (1847, p. 546). 4. j. E. Meyer (1979 ed., p. 40), Dispensatory of the United States (1960, p. 1605). 5. Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk (1962, p. 85), FlUck (1973, p. 49), Dispensatory of the United States (1960). Hybridization has been reported but may not be commonplace; see Stace (1975, p. 273). 6. Styles (1962) gives insights into a complex

issue. Hybridization has been reported (Stace, 1975, p. 273). Variations in the aggregate exist, and not all species found in Europe are common in North America. It has been noted, too, that in North America P. aviculare and P. arenastrum are commonly confused; see Mertens and Raven (1965).

KUDZU (root) The Herbalist's Account Some say it's a vegetable; the health food people are selling it for cooking and a food, but all I know it's a pest. It roams everywhere. I've never dug a kudzu root, but I've seen the stumps bulldozed out of the ground. They're huge. They say the Chinese use it for medicine. Oh boy, if there was a good medical use I'd make a fortune. Commentary Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi * [syn. P. thunbergiana (Siebold and Zucc.) Benth.]; kudzu. Fabaceae (Leguminosae) The perennial vine kudzu is native to East Asia, possibly China. When it was planted systematir:ally in the southern United States during the second quarter of this century to stop soil erosion, enrich worn-out soil, provide fodder for Ii vestock, and serve as a

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source for honey bees, it thrived only too well in the long growing season and warm, humid climate. With no natural enemies in North America to keep it in check, it has become "the green menace," a conspicuous part of the southern landscape. It was declared a common weed in 1970.' Kudzu powder, mostly imported from Japan and available in health food stores, is essentially root starch. It is used like arrowroot or cornstarch as a colloidal thickener in sauces and soups, as a coating for deepdried foods, and as a jelling agent. The root is also diced and fried and used in East Asian medicinal teas. The Chinese also value the diced root and drink a kudzu root tea. Fibers extracted from the stems can be used for basket weaving. Medicinal properties employed for a variety of conditions in Asia include diaphoretic, antispasmodic, and antiemetic. Uses also are recorded for the flowers, seeds, leaves, and shoots. The roots contain a number of flavonoid compounds that may contribute to the medical reputation.' Notes 1. See Shurtleff and Aoyagi (1977, esp. pp. 8-18) for the introduction and history of kudzu in the South. Also, Sasek (1985).

2. For references see Wagner, "New Plant Phenolics" (1985, p. 411).

LADY'S-MANTLE (leaves, roots) The Herbalist's Account I've never used lady's-mantle, but people have asked me about it. I've never seen it quoted in market lists, but it may be another one coming back. It's praised for putting on skin eczemas and for female problems. But if a lady asks me about hot flashes or something, I generally suggest squawvine or black cohosh.

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Commentary Alchemilla vulgaris agg. [including A. glabra Neyg., A. xanthochlora Rothm., and A. filicaul is Buser spp. vestita (Buser) Raunk]: lyon's-foot, lady's-mantle.

Rosaceae Ranunculus abortivus L. *: lady's-mantle (local name) Ranunculaceae The adventive or naturalized lady's-mantle, now considered an aggregate of many species and apogenous races, has long had a minor medical reputation linked to its astringency.! With frequent references in modern herbals for such complaints as enteritis, diarrhea, and menstrual disorders, it appears to be gaining a new lease on life.' John Gerard (1597) provided a fairly full account and indicated that lady's-mantle had drying and binding properties, was applied to wounds, and was used for the "overmuch flowing of the natural sickness" (menorrhagia). Mentioned too was use to "keepeth downe maidens paps or dugs, and when they be too great and saggie, it maketh them lesser and harder," 3 a use rarely mentioned in other works. There is little evidence to suggest that the plant was or became popular, except, according to N. Culpeper, in Germany. Linnaeus (1749) did say the root and herb were used for dysentery in Sweden; but British author George Motherby (1785) wrote that the "leaves are gently astringent, the root is of the same quality, but this plant is not in any repute as a medicine." 5 American authors in the nineteenth century were no more enthusiastic. In 1847 M. Paine said it was "more or less obsolete" as an internal astringent. 6 In the absence of many later references in all types of medical literature, it may be that Bass's knowledge of the plant has reached him through the oral rather than the popular tradition. His suggestion that it is a general female medicine ap-

Lady's Mantle

pears to be an extension of earlier references to its use in menorrhagia along the lines of a number of astringent remedies for female disorders . Astringency also rationalized its employment for skin ailments. Constituents have not been characterized, apart from the presence of tannins. Bass's unfamiliarity with the plant is largely because it does not grow in his area. He has collected Ranunculus abortivus as "lady's-mantle." This has probably resulted from his comparison of the small-flowered (almost apetalous) buttercup with a picture of the apetalous lady's-mantle. Even the basal leaves of the two plants are not unlike in outline and palmate venation. Mistaking R. abortivus for A. vulgaris suggests an element of hazard. While the species name, abortivus, is said to refer to the much-reduced petals and styles rather than an abortifacient property, buttercups are believed to be somewhat poisonous .

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Notes 1. For pertinent discussion see Walters (1973, pp. 48-50)' and Briggs and Walters (1984, pp. 125-27, 143,164-65, and 254). 2. Mills (1985, pp. 134-35), British Herbal Pharmacopoeia (1983, pp. 18-19).

3. Gerard (1597, p. 803). We believe that the lady'smantle described falls within the A. vulgaris group. 4. Hamilton, Culpeper's (1792,1:374), Linnaeus (1749; 1829 translation, p. 21). 5. Motherby (1785), under "alchimilla." 6. Paine (1848, p. 334); F. P. Foster (1890-94, 1:136) noted it had been used as an astringent.

diuretic, and vulnerary.

LADY'S SLIPPER (roots) The Herbalist's Account It's a real old-timer and I've always known about it. You make a tea for a nerve tonic and for ladies' troubles. That gives it its name. I don't have it around here and have not used it much. Some people use it as a house plant. It has a beautiful yellow flower, but the roots are funny-looking things. Commentary Cypripedium calceolus 1., including varieties: yellow lady's-slipper. C. calccolus var. pubescens (Willd.) Correll [syns. C. pubescens Willd.; C. parvijJorum Salisb.]: yellow lady's-slipper, nerve-weed, nerveroot, American valerian, yellow mocassin flower, Noah's-ark. Orchidaceae Of the Cypripedium species mentioned in medical writings, particular attention has focused on the Eurasian C. calceolus and the indigenous variety pubescens, though in everyday usage other species have probably been substituted at times l Medical interest was slow to develop. John Gerard (1597) wrote: "Touching the faculties

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of our Ladies Shoo we have nothing to write, it being not sufficiently known to the old writers, nor to the new." 2 Most eighteenthcentury writers ignored it, and it was only during the first half of the nineteenth century that interest, mostly American, emerged in the nauseous-smelling, indigenous orchid. Based on the odor, the roots were considered a substitute for European valerian and recommended as a nervine and antispasmodic. (The vernacular name American valerian clearly reflects analogy at play.) Rafinesque may have contributed to the establishment of the medical reputation; he claimed to be the first to draw general attention to it ("Cypripediumluteum") after long usage by Indians and Thomsonians. 3 Although lady's slipper received attention from regular physicians and "standard" medical textbooks, it seems likely that it was probably employed mostly in domestic medicine and by Thomsonian and Eclectic practitioners! Griffith (1847) said the roots were "employed by the Indians and have been held in high esteem, in domestic practice, in many parts of the country," while the Thomsonians did much to popularize it as an ingredient in nervine preparations.s Well-known domestic medical books (e.g., Gunn's New Family Physician, 1869) noted that it was often combined with skullcap to treat severe nervous afflictions. ("The compound being more powerfully nervine.") 6 Appalachian physician A. A. Scroggs (1871) described it among the important medicinal plants available in North Carolina. ("The large demand would indicate that the remedy is gaining in public estimation. The root is obtained in great profusion from the Blue Ridge.")' As with so many botanical drugs, the publication by physicians of successful therapeutic case histories-often as single cases -was probably at play in encouraging its popularity. An example was published in 1850:

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A lady, from close application to very delicate painting, became so much affected in her eyes that she could not fix them on any object without excruciating pain. The whole nervous system was at the same time morbidly sensitive. She took the various narcotics, as strychnos, stramonium, and hyoscyamus, without any material benefit, but was very much relieved by taking fifteen grains of this cypripedium three times a day. The remedy was continued for months. The health of this patient was restored after a period of two years by the use ofthis remedy and a voyage across the Atlantic. 8 Eclectic preparations of cypripedium were marketed until well into the present century. The 1931 trade catalog of Lloyd Brothers stated that the drug had long been a favorite nerve stimulant with Eclectic physicians. Innumerable uses, mostly for nervous (or supposedly nervous) disorders were given, many related to the view that "it is adapted to atonic cases, in which it improves both the circulation and the nutrition of the nerve centers."9 Some interest persisted in the regular medical literature during the early decades of the present century, perhaps because it was considered a substitute for the popular valerian.10 Part of Bass's enthusiasm rests on its local reputation for nervousness and headaches.u While he has not used it much over the years because it is not readily available, he is delighted that it can be purchased through health food stores. He sees it as a ladies' medicine because it is good for the nerves. Interestingly, Bass does not call it a sedative, a description found in modern regular medicalliteratureP Constituents include tannins, volatile oil, resin, and quinonoid compounds. One ofthe latter, cypripedin, is considered the agent responsible for cases of contact dermatitis.13 The significance of these and other compounds in explaining past reputations,

including laboratory studies which indicate physiological action on the uterus, is, however, presently unclear. 14 In view of the fairly strong record, further study is justified. Notes 1. For an example of the opinion that other species have essentially the same action as Cypripedium calceolus, generally considered more powerful. see Ives (1850, pp. 317-21). 2. Gerard (1597, p. 359). 3. Rafinesque (1828-30, 1:143). Elsewhere he added that in western counties of New York, several physicians relied upon a decoction of the roots of C. spectabile as a valuable antispasmodic, which proved an effectual remedy in many cases when the common medicines failed. It was certainly not discussed widely in the early American literature. Lloyd (1921, p. 124) suggested that the association with valerian caused it to creep into domestic practice. 4. Various editions of G. B. Wood and Bache's Dispensatory give a good sense of interest within regular medicine. Growth of interest was slow even among Eclectics. It is noteworthy that a principal architect of Eclectic medicine, Beach, stated: "I think that the foreign valerian is better; as a nervine I seldom or never use American" (1848, p.654). 5. Griffith (1847, p. 640). Griffith discussed C. pubescens but noted that other native species, including C. accule and C. spectabile, "are said to possess the same property." 6. Gunn (1869, p. 869). 7. Scroggs (1871). 8. Ives (1850, p. 312). 9. Lloyd Brothers (1921, p. 135). It continued to be mentioned in textbooks for students of regular medicine; see Thornton (1911, pp. 198-99). 10. See British Pharmaceutical Codex (1923, p.385). 11. O. L. Jones (1967, p. 66); R. B. Browne (1958) also noted that it was chewed for shortness of breath (p. 42). in a combination preparation for st. Vitus dance (p. 92). and employed for upset stomach (p. 103); he suggested almost a panacea reputation.

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12. Merck Index (1983, no. 2765). 13. Schmalle and Hausen (1979); Benezra et al. (1985,pp.252-53). 14. Pilcher e\ al. (1916). Duke (1985, p. 154) described cypripedin as a "complex resinoid subslance obtained from the rhizome."

LEMON (fruit, peel, volatile oil) The Herbalist's Account The lemon is a wonderful medicine. Good for coughs and colds; it's got a lot of vitamin C. The juice is good for washing the face to improve the complexion. A lot of people use it for the skin-like age spots. It's good for sores and scurvy, for bone felons or runarounds-sore ends of fingers. Cut a hole in a lemon and let the finger stay in it overnight. Nowadays it's recommended for gall bladder trouble. Take a half cup of lemon juice and a cup of olive oil. Drink the olive oil first and then the lemon juice. Lie down on the right side and elevate the hip. Stay there for two or three hours, and you'll pass stones. Also, for kidney stones, take twelve lemons. Squeeze one lemon at a time and drink it. And then one after the other. each one. Commentary Citrus limon (L.) Burm. f., and varieties and hybrids [syn. C. limonum Risso]; lemon, C. medica L.: citron. Rutaceae Native to India but long cultivated in many parts of Europe and subtropical regions of the United States, lemon (with numerous varieties and hybrids) has a long history as both fruit and medicine. John Gerard (1597), describing lemon along with the "Citron ... Orange and Assyrian Apple Trees," noted differences in usage between such parts as the rind ("hot and dry") and the flesh and juice ("cold and dry, with thinnesse of parts"). A long list of uses was given; interest was evident in a syrup of the juice for cooling fevers and to "cutteth, divideth, and maketh thin,

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grosse, tough and slimy humours." 1 John Quincy, in 1719, reflected the tone of much eighteenth-century comment when he said that the "juices are wonderfully grateful to the stomach, and very proper to allay drought in fevers." 2 Subsequently, the medical reputation of lemon was enhanced by usage as an antiscorbutic. Even so, its popularity declined during the nineteenth century, although it outlasted the citron, which in eighteenth-century writings was noted to have affinity with lemons in its medicinal qualities. On the other hand, the citron was less bitter than lemon, perhaps accounting for less medical interest. A few authors remained enthusiastic over lemon during the nineteenth century, though most regarded it as a refrigerant-as cooling medicines were commonly called"to diminish the morbid heat of the body." Some, however, gave lemon an almost panacea status. The 1850s saw some enthusiasm for the use of the juice in treating rheumatism. Around the turn of the century, one encomium went: "lemons have been appreciated medicinally more than other fruits and for fevers, rheumatism, liver troubles, sore throats, low fever, biliousness and colds. They have been used for years. They are of great value, and should always be in the household and partaken of freely." 3 During the twentieth century such accolades have been rare, although some attention has accrued to lemon oil as a carminative and flavoring agent.' In contrast, Mr. Bass and many promotors of health foods are again promoting the use of lemon juice with fervor. This is encouraged by the high concentration of vitamin C rather than the citric acid content, which attracted most interest in the past. Lemon peel contains a volatile oil, a small quantity of hesperidin and other flavonoid glycosides, flavonones, bitter principles, and calcium oxalate. The oil contains about 90 percent sesquiterpenes, aldehydes (citral is the major contributor to its flavor), and esters.

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Lemon oil with a terebinthinate odor indicates decomposed terpenes or the addition of turpentine as an adulterant. 5 Particular interest has emerged during recent years in the citroflavonoids (extracted from the peel), sometimes known as vitamin P because of their role in increasing the resistance of capillaries. Studies have also been undertaken on anti-inflammatory. antihistamine, and diuretic actions of citroflavonoids, but it is unclear whether such properties might account for past reputations -say, for rheumatism, associated with employing the juice.6 Similarly, there seems to be no physiological explanation for the longstanding reputation as a cooling agent, save that the sensory action of the acid was often comforting and that lemonade was a pleasant way of taking a large volume of fluid. Noteworthy is Bass's recommendation for treating a run-around. Seven other informants-visitors to Bass-testified to its value. Notes 1. Gerard (1597, pp. 1278-82).

2. Quincy (1719, p. 209). 3. "Medicinal Constituents of the Lemon," Amer. J. Pharm. 26 (1854): 552-54; H. D. Lewis (1913, p.79). 4. For a discussion on oil and peel see Bethea (1926, p. 209). 5. Tyler et al. (1981, pp. 124-26). 6. For rheumatism, etc., see Kloss (1972, pp. 65861).

LETTUCE, WILD AND CULTIVATED (leaves) The Herbalist's Account Wild lettuce is a narcotic and a heart stimulant. It's called opium weed. I never fool with it. It is used by people who know how to use stuff like that, but I never use it except for a skin salve. I wouldn't recommend the

common person using wild lettuce to make a medicine. It's too powerful to take internally. The milk can be used for warts. If you use wild lettuce or jimsonweed or pokeweed, you've got to get right down to nickety pickety. You got to get your scales just right and be right on the money. The things I use I don't have to be too particular. You won't kill nobody with wild lettuce, but you can make somebody sick. Some people gathers it early in the spring and puts it in a salad. Mother mixed it sometimes in with spring greens. The leaves contain lots of vitamins, but they can be bitter. Prickly lettuce works the same. Folks say the garden lettuce is narcotic, too. IJ?- the old days the lettuces didn't head up the way they do now. What I have grown in the last years doesn't have the amount of milky juice they used to have. Commentary Lactuca virosa 1.: wild lettuce, prickly lettuce, opium-weed. L. sativa 1., and varieties: garden lettuce. L. canadensis 1. * [syn. L. elongata Muh!.]: wild lettuce, milkweed (local name). L. serriola 1. * [syn. L. scariola 1.]: prickly lettuce, milkweed (local name). Asteraceae (Compositae) Lettuce had a long history as both vegetable and medicine even before garden lettuce was recommended as a medicinal plant for Elizabethan gardens.! John Gerard (1597) seemed to doubt earlier distinctions between "tame" and wild lettuces, but not so Thomas Johnson, editor of the second edition of the Herball (1033), who added "three sorts of wild lettuce," including L. serriola and L. virasa, the latter said to have a very "strong and grievous smell of opium." 2 All lettuces were said to be cold in quality, but the wild was clearly stronger. Of many properties listed for the latter, Johnson said it "procures sleepe, asswages paine, moves the courses in women, and is drunke against the scorpions, and bitings of spiders." How strong the analogy

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with opium was in these recommendations is uncertain, but the presence of latex, common to both, is relevant, along with the hint of opium smell in certain lettuces. Of particular interest because of similar descriptions for cabbage (see monograph), lettuce was also said to "clenseth the little ulcer in the eie called Ar,gemon in Greeke, as also the mystinese or darknesse of sight." Interest in the medicinal properties of lettuce (cultivated and wild), although not overwhelming in the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, persisted into the nineteenth. 3 R. E. Griffith, considering Lactuca sativa (garden lettuce), said: "The part now employed is the inspissated juice or lactucarium. This was employed by the ancients, but its use was generally forgotten until about the close of the last century. Dr. J. R. Coxe again called the attention of the public to it."4 The juice was further promoted by Andrew Duncan in Edinburgh in 1810 and soon became popular as a narcotic, though some viewed it more as a sedative and anodyne. Just when the development of the cultivated L. sativa (presumed to have emergedbut not in the head-forming variety-in classical times from L. serriola) and its numerous varieties seemingly led to a reduction in the amount of latex (something noted by Mr. Bass as happening during his lifetime) is uncertain. Griffith (1847) said the Lactuca virosa, the wild lettuce of Europe, contained nearly three times as much lactucarium as the cultivated species, and added that no experiments had been undertaken on American wild lettuce (L. canadensis), which was worthy of attention because it abounded in a "bitter milky juice." 5 Interest had diminished by the end of the 1800s, although lactucarium was still being marketed as a mild narcotic.6 Specific uses listed included for "slight irritation of the larynx, to allay nervous irritability, and, in cases where there is an idiosyncracy against opium."7 References to wild lettuce and lactuca

rium continued in regular medical textbooks for some time. Like many others, the British Pharmaceutical Codex (1923) made a distinction, indicating that, in addition to lactucarium, lettuce "contains traces of hyoscyamine, to which the sedative action of the drug is probably due" (but see below).8 No suggestion was made of any morphine content in either drug. Interestingly, dried garden lettuce was marketed for many years ("in ounce packages for retailing purposes") for "faintly medicinal actions: used popularly to allay nervous irritability, and excitement from mental worry." 9 Mr. Bass and many of his visitors believe the "wild lettuce" contains some morphine. In fact, the literature is full of confusion over this topic. V. E. Tyler's recent Honest Herbal quotes doubtful opinion and recent evidence that "hay and lettuce" contain two to ten nanograms of morphine per gram, insufficient amounts to exert any physiological effect.tO Unfortunately, the species of lettuce examined was not recorded, and many statements in the literature indicate variation in activity from one species to another. Grieve's widely quoted Herbal states: "All lettuces possess some of this narcotic juice, Lactuca virosa having the most, and the others in the following order: L. scariola, or prickly lettuce, L. altissima, L. canadensis, or wild lettuce of America, and L. sativa, or garden lettuce. "11 In fact, the complexity of the taxonomy of lettuce (including hybridization) suggests that this may be an oversimplification. t2 The constituents present-even apart from the presence of morphine - have aroused disagreement. The occurrence of hyoscyamine has been disputed, as has the presence of phenethylamines and xanthine base. Well established is the presence of such bitter terpenoids as lactucin and its p-hydroxyphenylacetic ester, lactupicrin,l3 Uncertainties over the constituents and the past usage oflettuce, wild and cultivatedwhich includes the reputation to produce "highs"-may reflect indiscriminate

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use of various species of Lactuca and wide variations in growing conditions in the wild. L. canadensis, for instance, is a highly variable species. 14 Mr. Bass's remarks indicate that changes in cultivars may account for some differences. 15 Also relevant is the time of collection, because the greatest amount of juice is present when the plant is flowering. Additionally, errors in collecting have occurred; on one occasion Bass suggested a young rosette, probably Campanula sp., as possibly wild lettuce. Although employment for skin conditions (see Bass's comments) has been only rarely recorded, an occasional reference exists. The contradictory features of the intriguing story of lettuce merit study. Notes 1. Moore (1564, f. 29v). 2. Gerard (1597, pp. 238-42), Gerard/Johnson (1633, pp. 306-11). For aid in identification see Ray, Synopsis (1973 ed., p. 57). and Linnaeus's Flora Anglica. 3. One authoritative eighteenth-century account (W. Lewis, 1769, 2:10-11) stated that in some cases cultivated and wild lettuces tend to procure sleep; not as being possessed of any strictly hypnotic power, but by virtue of their refrigerating and demulcent qualities. Lewis considered wild lettuce (indented leaves and with stalks and ribs prickly) and strong-scented lettuce. "This species differs greatly in quality form the two [others) .... It smells strongly of opium and appears to partake, in no small degree, of the virtues of that narcotic drug." 4. Griffith (1847, p. 416). 5. Clapp (1852, p. 907) noted that Lactuca elongata was placed on the secondary list of the U.S. Pharmacopoeia as a substitute for the European 1. virosa, "but it is seldom used, and, according to Aubergiers, is destitute of lactucarium, the active principle of 1. virosa and sativa." 6. Shoemaker (1893,2:721) gave space to it, indicating it might be of special value for children and elderly people. In contrast, Johnson's influential Medical Botany (1884) did not include it.

7. Sajous (1908, 4:121). 8. British Pharmaceutical Codex (1923, p. 602). 9. Parke-Davis (1890, p. 83). 10. Tyler (1982, p. 137; quoting Hazum et aI., 1981). 11. Grieve (1971, 2:476). 12. Lindqvist (1960). 13. Frohne and Pfiinder (1984, pp. 67-68). See also Huang et al. (1982). 14. For reference to use for "highs" see Tyler (1987,

pp. 141-42). For list of lettuce preparations, see "Lettuce Opium," Lawrence Rev. Nat. Prod. (March 1986). 15. See Lindqvist (1960).

LICORICE (rhizome, roots) The Herbalist's Account I haven't had too much experience with this one. Of course, it doesn't grow around here, but it used to be in a lot of cough medicines. Some folks swore by it. It's a wonderful medicine, real good seller in capsules. Lots of people have told me it's done them a power of good. It's as good as the yellowroot for ulcers and the stomach. Commentary Glycyrrhiza glabra 1., including varieties [syn. G. glandulifera Waldst. and Kit.l; licorice. Fabaceae (Leguminosae) Although possessing a long medical history, licorice is a relatively new addition to Mr. Bass's armamentarium and is fast becoming a panacea for him and some of his visitors, at least for every conceivable gastrointestinal problem. Licorice's medical history, particularly for digesti ve disorders (including as a laxative) and for respiratory and urinary problems, extends back to classical times. John Gerard (1597) noted it as generally possessing warm and moist qualities, justifying such uses as opening the "pipes of the lungs" and for other chest problems. Specific mention was also

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Licorice made of its value for the stomach, for ulcers of the mouth, and for kidneys and bladder that are "exulcerated." 1 Of particular interest (because different interpretations have been made) is Gerard's statement that with "the juice of licorice, ginger and other spices, there is made a certaine bread or cake, called ginger bread, which is verie good against the cough, and all the infirmities of the lungs and brest: which is cast into mouldes, some of one fashion, and some another, according to the fancie of the apothecaries." This had been thought to be the well-known gingerbread, but is in fact a candy rather than a cake. Uses mentioned by Gerard are generally found in all later accounts; although, as the revision of the materia medica took place during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, licorice's reputation for coughs and chest complaints came to the fore .2 Many nineteenth-century medical texts-European and American-indicated that the plant made a pleasant demulcent and safe expectorant. 3 Even so, by the end of the 1800s licorice was probably used more as a flavoring agent in compounded medicines" Renewed interest in licorice emerged in

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this century, or rather interest in the chief constituent, the sweet-tasting glycyrrhizin, a saponin glycoside which hydrolyzes to a triterpene (glycyrrhetic acid) and sugars, and which has been found to give relief from gastric ulcer pain . Studies of this led to the introduction of a synthetic derivative, carbenoxalone, which has had extensive use in the treatment of gastric ulcers.' Preparations of licorice with glycyrrhizin mostly removed (to reduce side effects) are also considered effective for active ulcers, if not for preventing a recurrence. It has been suggested that anti-inflammatory action of glycyrrhizin might be effective against rheumatism and also explain the reputation for treating eye conditions and wounds. On the other hand, the many flavonoids present may playa contributory role.6 Licorice's current reputation for treating gastric ulcers is another vindication for Mr. Bass and many of his visitors of the value of herbal remedies. The principal reputation of licorice-for coughs and colds-is the most solid one to reach Bass. It has been stated that the value for sore throats is due to the glycyrrhizin accelerating mucous secretion, as well as an anticough action. Most of the licorice reaching the commercial market in recent years is not taken as a medicine but used as a sweetener and candy. It surprises most people to hear that toxic side effects have been reported for such an apparently innocuous substance; however, the regular consumption of large amounts (more than about 20 g per day) may produce pseudo (hyper) aldosteronism with an expansion of extracellular fluid volume, hypertension hypokalemia, and depression of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. 7 Another effect is the rise in concentration of progesterone and other steroids in the blood, due to competition for liver metabolism. This may result in amenorrhea and hyperprolactinemia with infertility in females. Various cases of toxicity have been reported."

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The constituents of licorice possess a range of other physiological effects, and the possibility remains that additional uses (outside of traditional reputations like the treatment of gastric ulcer), may be justified on a chemical basis. Notes 1. Gerard (1597, pp. 1119-21).

2. J. Hill (1751, p. 621), for instance, wrote that licorice is an excellent medicine for coughs and all disorders of the breast and lungs. 3. For example. Capron and Slack (1848, p. 354). 4. E.g., Potter (1913, p. 293). 5. For licorice see Shibata (1981), Merck Index (1983, no. 4369). 6. See Gibson (1978) for some information. 7. Bennister et al. (1977).

8. Dukes, Side Effects of Drugs (1984, pp. 444-45).

LILIES, LAND AND WATER (roots, flowers) The Herbalist's Account There are lots of lilies. I reckon they're nearly all the same, medically speaking. Herbists haggle over them; some say they're safe, others don't. It's a bit like poke. Lily of the valley is a heart stimulant, but I haven't used or recommended it. I've used the leaves of water lilies for skin ailments, but that's a long time ago. You use them like a poultice; some say you can also take it as a blood purifier. The water lily is said to be good for cancer and the heart; I read about it in Prevention magazine. But the common herbist don't use it. Commentary Lilium spp. Liliaceae Nymphaea odorata Ait., including varieties [syn. Castalia odorata Sol.]: pond lily, water lily, American white pond lily.

N. alba L. [syn. Castalia alba L.]: white water lily. Nuphar luteurn (L.) Sibth. and Sm., including subspecies [syn. Nymphea luteum L.]: yellow water lily. Nymphaeaceae Nelurnbo nucifera Gaetn.: Indian lotus, yellow lotus, great yellow lily. N. lutea (Willd.) Pers. [syns. N. pentapetala (Walt.) Fern.; Nelurnbium pentapetalurn Walt.]: American lotus, lotus lily, water chincquapin. Nelumbonaceae Among lilies with only a modest medical reputation, the white, or madonna, lily has attracted a certain amount of attention. John Gerard (1597). who considered "sundry sorts of lilies," stated that white lily was recommended (in combination preparations) for certain ulcers of the head and "tumors and apostumes of the privy members." Red lily, considered less hot-indeed of a "mixt ternperature"-was recommended for burns, green wounds, and ulcers.' Relatively little enthusiasm seems to have been mustered for these lilies and their astringency, at least compared with water lilies, which since antiquity have generally attracted more interest. 2 Under "water lillie" (species of Nymphaea and Nuphar), Gerard described both the root and seed lily as possessing "a drying force without biting" and included uses for menorrhagia, wet dreams, and "bloudie flux." 3 Eighteenth-century European authors generally showed a moderate interest in water lily, reflecting a decline in its popularity, although it is impossible to say how much it was used as a domestic remedy.4 William Lewis (1769) wrote that the roots and flowers of "Nymphaea alba" and "Nymphaeo luteo" had been employed "both internally and externally, as demulcent, anti-inflammatory and, in some degree, anodyne," but added

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that the virtues do "not appear to be very great." 5 Nineteenth-century American medical authors were hardly any more encouraging. Some positive opinions were held by Thomsonian practitioners, who believed the astringency and slight bitterness of the root to be useful, for instance, in managing diarrhea; however, by the 1850s it was "almost abandoned" by them "except in making poultices."6 On the other hand, Appalachian physician A. A. Scroggs included it in his 1871 account of important medicinal plants available in North Carolina with the comment that both white and yellow lily ("reported to be astringent, demulcent, and antiscorbutic-highly efficacious as gargles, infections and as an alterative") were in such demand as to "imply that the remedy is valuable and growing in public favor." 7 By this time particular interest was being focused on the indigenous Nymphaea odorata ("the most important medicinally"); the root of Nuphar luteum was considered similar, but not "quite so efficient."B Few authors referred to medical usage of the lotus lily Nelumbo-either the native N. lutea (the American lotus) or the introduced N. nucifera-but there is an impression that many herbalists, like Bass, considered all water lilies to have generally the same actions associated with astringent-bitter characteristics. It is not easy to agree with Scroggs's belief in the growing popularity of water lily, except, perhaps. among some Eclectic physicians. Mr. Bass says he has heard about lilies from other people rather than having read about them. although there is little evidence of a strong oral tradition." A number of lilies are known within Cherokee medical practices. but a principal use-for rheumatismis unknown to Bass. 'o Neither has he heard of their employment for wet dreams or spermatorrhea. Both of these latter uses are mentioned in recent herbal literature. along with employ-

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ment, often in the form of a poultice, for skin ailments and sore mouths. It is noteworthy that the reputation for spermatorrhea (seemingly rationalized by the astringency) does not have a strong historical pedigree. despite early references (e.g., John Gerard's Herball l· During the nineteenth century. when concern over spermatorrhea as a serious medical problem was at its height, it was often said or implied that medicines were "of little or no value." Those tried. or at least those most often mentioned in the medical literature. included camphor. potassium bromide. and lupulin (see Hops). J. W. Howe (1884) said these might be given as placebos. l1 No references to use of water lily (even as an anaphrodisiac) have been found in the relevant literature on sexual problems. Despite the negative reputation of water lily (which perhaps should be seen in the context of most nineteenth-century writings on sexual problems-which indicated that the best treatment was moral and upright living), the reported presence of such constitutents in Nymphaea species as alkaloids, a cardenolide, and tannins suggests that conclusions about past reputations should remain open; this includes the opinion that the reputation for skin ailments rests on the tannin content. Notes 1. Gerard (1597, Pl'. 146-51).

2. Moore (1564, p. xl) nevertheless indicated that

lilies should be in Elizabethan gardens for medicinal purposes. 3. Gerard/Johnson (1636, p. 820). 4. Its use for menorrhagia was at least listed in

Palmer (1696, 1'.161). 5. W. Lewis (1769, 1:100-101). 6. Comfort (1853, p. 522).

7. Scroggs (1871). 8.1. Johnson (1884, p. 83), Mattson (1841.1:201).

9. E.g .. no references in R. B. Browne (1958). 10. See Banks (1953, p. 15).

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11. Howe (1884. p. 272). Another influential book, by Kellogg (1974, p. 411), states: "the whole materia medica affords no root, herb, extract or compound that alone will cure a person suffering from emissions."

LINDEN (flowers, leaves, bark) The Herbalist's Account Some of the old-timers who've come by have told me it's a tonic. A tea of the bark or flowers is also good for coughs and cold. I don't have much around here, and haven't much experience with it. The health food people are excited about the flowers. Commentary Tilia x vulgaris Hayne [syns. T. x europaea 1. pro parte; (T. cordata x T. platyphyllos); T. intermedia DC.]: linden, lime, common lime, basswood. T. americana 1. [many syns., including T. glabra Vent.]: basswood, whitewood, American linden, whitewood. T. heterophylla Vent. * [syns. include T. motecola Nutt.]: basswood, linden, whitewood. Tiliaceae Linden, notably the European Tilia x vulgaris (spread from cultivation in North America) and the indigenous T. americana, has aroused modest medical interest, at least for the last few hundred years.! John Gerard (1597) noted that the bark and leaves are of "temperate heat" and "somewhat drying and astringent." 2 He mentioned uses justified by these qualities, mainly for such external complaints as sores and swellings. The flowers were singled out as valuable for headache. Later, among brief references by eighteenthcentury authors, George Motherby (1785) wrote that "the flowers have an anodyne and antispasmodic virtue; when fresh thay have a moderately strong smell, and in this their virtue consists; but it is soon lost in keeping; they have been much esteemed, but are now neglected in practice." 3

Little interest in the flowers can be discerned in nineteenth-century British and American literature, although John Lindley (1838) wrote that "flowers, separated from the large leafy bracts, are used as an infusion in Austria with much success in vertigo and spasms; they promote perspiration and alleviate coughs. But if the bracts and fruits are mixed with the flowers, the infusion becomes astringent and confines the bowels.'" Sizable interest in the mucilaginous nature of the bark did emerge among Shaker communities selling herbs between the 18505 and 1870s. In the 1890s pharmaceutical companies like Parke-Davis were marketing T. americana "compressed in pound packages for retailing purposes"; it was described as "emollient, mucilaginous, vulnerary." 5 By the 1930s, linden (mostly referring to the flowers) was stated to be in "limited demand only," although pockets of popularity continued for the reputed cephalic, stimulant, and sedative properties.6 Bass heard about linden-he knows it best as basswood-through the oral tradition, though this was probably reinforced by such lay writings as Meyer's Herbalist, which reports that flowers and leaves can be used as stomachics, diaphoretics, and to quiet coughs and relieve hoarseness? Recommendations recorded in Alabama include for breaking up colds and for lung trouble,8 while use of the inner bark for poultices to treat boils, bruises, and carbuncles-in line with mucilaginous properties-has been reported in the Kentucky Appalachians. 9 The low level of interest in the bark, both in regular and (so far as we can tell) domestic medicine, may be linked with the considerable popularity of slippery elm (see monograph), which was recommended for similar purposes and is more generally available in some areas. Linden is, according to Bass and others, "another one that's come back." Most interest apparently lies in the use of the flowers as a mild carminative and antispasmodic. A 1962 study indicated that extracts of the sapwood

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and flowers are effective. 1O Sedative action has also been reported for the essential oil in the flowers. Flavonoids and a coumaric acid, said to account for diaphoretic properties, are also present and may lie behind Bass's reference to use for colds." It has been said that "T. europaea" should be taken sparingly because it produces nausea. 12 Whether or not this concern should extend to T. americana and T. heterophylla (the latter occasionally collected by Bass in the past) is unknown in the absence of detailed knowledge of their constituents and marketing. Variation in flavonoid constituents has been plotted in a study on geographical variation in the tree.13 Notes 1. For some interesting comments with perspective on the onetime enthusiasm for distilled waters, see Duquenois (1977). 2. Gerard (1597, p. 1299). 3. Motherby (1785). under "Tilia." 4. Lindley (1838, p. 147). 5. A. B. Miller (1976, p. 133). Parke-Davis (1890, p. 17). Generally speaking, few writings on materia

medica mentioned linden. 6. U.S. Department of Agriculture, American Medicinal Plants of Commercial Importance (1930, p.6). 7. J. E. Meyer (1979 ed., pp. 73-74). 8. R. B. Browne (1958, pp. 48, 78). Mellinger (1977)

is an undocumented article with no indication of whether the information reflects the oral tradition; linden (Tilia americana) flowers are listed as "used in tea for cramps, stomach ailments, or to induce sleep." However, Hyams (1898, p. 345) wrote of Tilia spp.: "the bark of these trees is emollient, mucilaginous and vulnerary. The flowers are cephalic, stimulant and sedative. Locally these plants are used quite exclusively by the mountain people and said to be of special advantage in diseases calling for such treatment as they can afford." 9. Bolyard (1981, p. 138). 10. Cima and Fassina (1961).

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11. For additional note as sedative, see Lecoq (1963). 12. Stuart (1979, p. 273). 13. Hickok and Anway (1972). Other pertinent background is in G. N. Jones (1968). Variation in

medicinal qualities may also reflect some confusion about species reported in the literature; e.g., Tyler (1982, pp. 143-44).

LIVERWORT (leaves, roots) The Herbalist's Account I've never used liverwort. It's pretty hard for me to get. It's got pretty flowers and smells so good. I know where there's a little of it, but it's not enough for me to stock unless someone comes along and asks for it. I say, "If you don't mind walking a mile, we'll get you some." I've got a bunch growing at the house just to show people. If I could get it, I'd certainly use it in my cough medicine. And it's actually good for the liver; that's where it got the liverwort part. The leaves is kind of shaped like the liver. It's right up at the top with all the popular medicines. Commentary Hepatica nobilis Mill. [syns. Anemone nobilis 1.; H. triloba Gilib. or Chaix.; Anemone triloba Stokes]: liverleaf, hepatica, nobile liverwort, golden trefoil. H. nobilis var. acuta (Pursh) Steyermark* [syns. H. acuta (Pursh) Britt.; H. acutiloba DC.]: liverleaf, hepatica. H. nobilis var. obtusa (Pursh) Steyermark [syns. H. americana (DC.) Ker-Gawl.; H. hepatica (1.) Karst.; Anemone hepatica L.; H. triloba Chaix.]: liverleaf, hepatica. Ranunculaceae The vernacular name liverwort has been used for various plants with three-lobed leaves roughly shaped like the lobes of the liver. (In fact, leaves of the hepaticas are more kidneyor heart-shaped.) The taxonomy presents un-

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certainties, and what are still commonly described as two indigenous American species (Hepatica americana and H. triloba) are, according to some authorities, varieties of the European H. nobilis. 1 Whatever medical popularity hepatica had in the seventeenth century and earlier, in 1751 British author John Hill-after noting that it was once considered a great medicine for treating obstructions of the liver and curing almost all chronic diseases-stated that it was "little regarded in present practice and would not be known in the shops were it not an ingredient in some of the compositions kept there."z Hill implied that one of the reasons for the decline in popularity was that the old idea of it being good for the liver because of the shape of the leaves (the doctrine of signatures) was no longer valid. Liverwort is a good example of the many botanicals that created flurries of interest in nineteenth-century America. Rafinesque, in 1828, noted that the American liverwort, Hepatica triloba, had "lately been brought to notice in America for hemoptysis and coughs, it has been used in Virginia in the form of a strong infusion drunk cold. It may be serviceable in hepatisis and hepatic phthisis."3 Around the same time, one Shaker community was marketing Syrup of Liverwort as "a safe and valuable medicine for coughs, spitting of blood and consumption." 4 R. E. Griffith, however, and a number of later authors, were doubtful about the efficacy of "H. acutiloba." Griffith wrote that the plants had been "long esteemed as pectoral and deobstruent, but probably possess very slight powers." 5 In 1884 Laurence Johnson wrote tersely: "As a medicine hepatica is wholly inert, and unworthy a place in the materia medica."6 Other evidence indicates that until about 1880 it was little used; but all of a sudden, some popularity emerged.' It is not entirely clear whether this was solely for chest complaints, but liverwort was included in many

proprietary cough medicines. How long liverwort remained noticeably popular in regular medicine is unclear, but it was at least the early twentieth century before it became solely a domestic medicine. In the 1930s Joseph Meyer, in his much-used Herbalist, noted that two species possessed the same medicinal properties "freely used in infusion in such conditions as coughs due to colds."" Mr. Bass remains enthusiastic over this. One facet of its reputation that has not reached him is employment for "bleeding of the lungs," even though he is aware that various plants were once used in the treatment of tuberculosis. His reference to use for liver complaints illustrates the persistence of the notion of the doctrine of signatures. Little chemical analysis has been undertaken, but the older literature records mucilage, tannins, and sugar; the mucilage and tannins are thought to account for its reputation for respiratory ailments. 9 The few extant references to a diuretic action do not suggest marked activity. Whether or not some of the variation in past reputations reflects usage of different varieties is unknown. Notes 1. Steyermark and Steyermark (1960).

2.

J.

Hill (1751, p. 399).

3. Rafinesque (1828-30,1:240). 4. A. B. Miller (1976, p. 78).

5. Griffith (1847, p. 81). 6. L. Johnson (1884, p. 61). See also Millspaugh (1974, pp. 2-22). 7. Discussed in Lloyd and Lloyd (1884-87, 1:3754). 8. Meyer (1979 ed., p. 68). 9. Grieve (1971, pp. 493-94).

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LOBELIA (leaves, flowering tops, seeds, roots)

L. spicata Lam., including varieties: wild

The Herbalist's Account Blue lobelia is a plant that quite a few people don't pay too much attention to. It blooms from July until frost. It's a tall plant. It grows anywhere from a foot and a half to three or four feet tall. It is found in old broom-sage fields and along roadsides. You see the tall stalks with not too much of a leaf, but it has small, beautiful blue blooms. The one we have is not the actual Indian tobacco. The whole plant can be dried in the sun or the shade and stored in paper bags. Put a handful in one gallon of water and boil thirty minutes. Strain it and add honey to make a cough and cold syrup. I don't use blue lobelia; it doesn't grow near me. But I've gathered it for the herb market. It's a little tricky with me. Kloss, boy, in Back to Eden, he puts it right out in front, but Meyer says be careful with it. My mother from east Tennessee had bronchitis all her life. Her doctor (they made their medicine then) put her on lobelia syrup. Kloss goes on to tell them how to make an enema out of it. Some have recommended it as a hair tonic, but others, like sage and black walnut. are better. I don't know nothing about red lobelia. It has beautiful red flowers. I've I'.ever used it, but it would be a substitute. It can also be used for worms, but it can make you sick. Jerusalem oak and pinkroot are better. It's another one that's come back. It's a tonic and stimulant.

Campanulaceae

Commentary Lobelia inflata L.: wild tobacco, Indian tobacco, emetic weed, puke weed. L. puberuia Michx. *: wild tobacco, Indian tobacco, blue lobelia. L. cardinaiis L. *: wild tobacco, Indian tobacco, cardinal flower, red lobelia. L. siphilitica L.: wild tobacco, Indian tobacco, bl ue lobelia.

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tobacco, Indian tobacco, pale spike lobelia.

The indigenous Lobelia inflata has a special place in American medicine because of its central role in the well-known Thomsonian botanical practice during the nineteenth century. Earlier, in colonial times, lobelias attracted interest for various uses, including as an emetic and, especially, the use of the roots against the "pox" or venereal disease. John Bartram (1751) listed lobelia-seemingly one of the few clear-cut indications of white man's knowledge of a plant being derived from Indians-for managing venereal disease, particularly as an application to the sores.' He may have been referring to Lobelia siphilitica, which long retained that reputation; but other species cannot be ruled out. The recognition that lobelia was a "powerful" medicine became established during the eighteenth century. According to Manasseh Cutler (1785): "If the leaves are held in the mouth for some time, they produce giddiness and pain in the head, with a trembling agitation of the whole body; at length they bring an extreme nausea and vomiting.' The founder of Thomsonian medicine, Samuel Thomson (1769-1843), said that he learned about lobelia (L. inflata) from a neighbor, Mrs. Benton. Thereafter, along with cayenne pepper, a few other herbs, and steam baths, it became central to his practice. Eventually lobelia gained a place in regular medicine, especially in the treatment of asthma.' J. Eberle (1824) wrote of his own "experience" in using it for asthmatic affections as an emetic, while R. E. Griffith (1847) testified that the "principal employment of lobelia, in the hands of regular practitioners, is as an antispasmodic, especially in asthma, the attacks of which it often relieves, or even removes, even in doses not sufficient to cause vomiting.'"

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Clapp (1852) summarized it as expectorant, sedative, diaphoretic, and, in large doses, generally emetic, though uncertain in its operation! While the leaves and tops were generally discussed in the literature, the powdered seed was often employed by Thomsonians as brown lobelia (in contrast to green lobelia, the fresh-dried herb). A considerable market for brown lobelia (reported to contain high concentrations of the alkaloid lobeline) still existed in the 1860s and 1870s. In 1870 an Appalachian root and herb dealer told a friend that lobelia seeds were one of a small number of roots and seeds that could not be gathered in quantities too large for resale." A few years later, Roberts Bartholow, like many regular practitioners, saw much of the use of lobelia as pseudomedicine or quackery: "Lobelia is much employed by the selfstyled physio-medical practitioners as a 'sanative agent.' The great quantity of mucus discharged from the stomach under its emetic action is considered by them a proof of its power as an eliminating agent." 7 During the first half of the twentieth century, interest in lobelia persisted within regular medicine for the management of asthma; while the 1930s in particular saw it acquiring a new reputation for "breaking the tobacco habit." 8 Nevertheless, many laboratory and clinical studies not only questioned existing ideas but underscored the toxicity of the plant. This, along with the demise of Eclectic practice, which had done much to encourage its hypodermic injection, contributed to a general loss of favor by the 1940s.9 Though Bass recognizes Indian tobacco, he collects 1. puberula, one of two plants commonly known as blue 10belia.1O It is especially interesting that, like other Appalachian informants, Bass does not consider the beautiful cardinal flower (L. cardinalis) as a substitute for the best-known medicinal species. This is in line with minimal medical interest in L. cardinal is in the past. W. P. C. Barton, while noting anthelmintic properties

(still known to Bass), did state that owing to "its sensible properties, its reputed powers and the well-known activity of the genus to which it belongs, fully entitle it to further notice." Yet interest has never been really aroused, and it seems to have been generally considered a poor substitute for 1. inflata, although Clapp (1852) noted that its medical virtues were considered analogous to those of 1. inflata, albeit much weaker. He also said it was seldom employed." Interestingly, recent analysis of lobeline content indicates that the two species have similar concentrations. 12 While lobeline is generally viewed as the principal alkaloid, the role of many other constituents and the variability of their concentrations may be significant. L. inflata, for instance, does not contain lobinaline, which is present in other species.13 Comparison of yields of lobeline from mature plants of Lobelia species of Appalachia (dry weight basis) are as follows: 1. puberula, 10.02 mg/g; 1. inflata, 7.60 mg/g; 1. cardinalis, 7.09 mg/g; and L. siphilitica, 4.90 mg/g. The basis of the reputation as a hair tonic is uncertain, but Bass says that many folks have told him that a weak tea of lobelia tints the hair. Information has not been found on the activity of 1. spicata, a species meriting notice if only because it is known to the Cherokee Indians for many uses, including the treatment of trembling arm (the nature of this ailment is unclear).'· Bass in recent years has joined others in a renewed interest in employing lobelia along Thomsonian principles, namely as a stimulant. In fact, the apparent success of nineteenth-century Thomsonian practice is used as a pedigree for its effectiveness, a point of view using information out of context. Notes 1. Short (1751, appendix, pp. 5-7). 1. siphilitica's reputation (and as an alterative for cancer and

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scrofula; see, for example, Gunn, 1869, p. 376) continued despite such views as those of B. S. Barton, and Elliott. Barton (1801-4, p. 34) wrote: "This plant was purchased from the northern Indians by the late Sir William Johnson as a remedy in the venereal disease; hence its name siphilitica. I do not believe, after paying some attention to the subject that this plant has cured confirmed syphilis." Elliott (1821, p. 267) wrote: "This plant has been considered as the Indian remedy for lues veneres but the regular practitioners who have tried it consider it deserving no attention in this point of view." Some confusion exists in the literature over L. siphilitica because Griffith described it as the "red lobelia" (with red flowers), whereas L. siphilitica has blue flowers. 2. M. Cutler (1785, p. 484). Later remarks by Griffith (1847, p. 420) suggest this was probably L. siphiJitica. 3. For review of American interest from the British perspective, see "Asthma," Med. Gaz. Health 10 (1825): 12-14. Bartram's account indicated that knowledge of it was learned from the Indians. The vernacular name has been said to indicate that Indians smoked lobelia, though Lloyd (1921, p. 184) cast some doubt on this. Lloyd included a comprehensive list of early publications on lobelia (pp.186-90). 4. Eberle (1824, p. 47) provided many earlier references to the use of lobelia in asthma. Griffith (1847, p. 419) gave credit to Manasseh Cutler for the introduction of lobelia for treating asthma. 5. Clapp llH52, p. 809). 6. CowIe Papers, 21 August 1870. 7. Bartholow (1881, p. 482). 8. See Bastedo (1947, pp. 573-74). 9. E.g., Ellingwood (1915, p. 236). 10. L. siphilitica is sometimes referred to as blue lobelia, also blue cardinal flower; see references in note 1 above. 11. Clapp (1852, p. 807). 12. Krochmal et al. (1972) and a related article, Krochmal et al. (1970). 13. For some general comments on differences of chemistry (with references), see Rosatti (1986). 14. Hamel and Chiltoskey (1975, p. 43).

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LOVAGE. See Angelico MARSHMALLOW (root, leaves); ROSE MALLOW (whole plant) The Herbalist's Account Mallow's an awful good plant-you use the leaves in the summer and the roots in the winter-and it is a pity we don't have any around here. It's good for the stomach and a mild laxative. I used to put it in my cough medicine. Old-timers said it was good in salves for erysipelas. It's on the up and up. The capsule people have it and are on to a good thing. Rose mallow is a folk medicine. There's only one or two folks I've heard used it. They swore a tea of it was good for the stomach, but I guess there are better things. It's not half as good as marshmallow. Conunentary Althaea officinalis 1.: marshmallow. Hibiscus moscheutos 1. * [syns. H. incanus Wend!. f.; H. palustris 1.]: swamp rosemallow, rose mallow, wild-cotton. Malvaceae Medical interest in the Eurasian marshmallow-one of a number of mallows to attract such interest-extends back to classical times. John Gerard (1597) stated that it was "moderately hot, but drier than the other mallowes," but did not mention deobstruent actions, as he generally did for hot and dry plants. Attention focused on the mucilage content, linked to usage for pain from bladder stones and in poultices,! although some authors listed it in preparations for presumed deobstruent action to treat tumors.2 During the eighteenth century most authors focused on uses justified by or associated with the mucilaginous nature of the leaves and roots. Thus John Quincy (1719) said that "the leaves are of great service in dysenteries. where the mucus of the guts is raked off, and in many kinds of cholicks. It also greatly

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assists in obstruction of the reins and urinary passages, from sandy concretions, by lubricating the parts." 3 Ample evidence suggests that syrup of marshmallow was a widely used preparation during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, although some uses may well have been fading.' In 1819 B. Parr criticized the custom of sitting over an infusion of leaves to cure piles as "useless, for nothing of the mucilage arises from the watery vapours."s Marshmallow is said to have been one of the herbs grown in America by Cotton Mather (1662-1727)' the New England Puritan and colonial magistrate. It became well naturalized in the eastern United States and was mentioned in most nineteenth-century American textbooks on materia medica. Griffith (1847) indicated that it was more widely used in Europe than in America for the mucilaginous properties. 6 Laurence Johnson (1884) gave one of his typical succinct summaries: "It is emollient and demulcent and may be used freely in inflammatory affections, either internally or topically as occasion requires. Being nutritious also it is, in certain cases, superior to many demulcents in common use. As a topical application it has a wide range of usefulness." 7 Interest in the demulcent and emollient properties persisted until well into the present century. It was perhaps most popular for chest ailments, but an authoritative 1928 textbook said it was sometimes used internally in solution for "inflammatory conditions of the respiratory and gastroenteric mucous membranes; as an enema or vaginal douche in decoction to allay irritation of the vagina and rectum; and as an ointment in certain diseases of the skin, e.g., herpes." Its value in compounding medicines was also mentioned.8 Mr. Bass's comments are in line with past reputations, though his reference to erysipelas perhaps rests on emollient action rather than any specific reputation. The remark that the "capsule people" (health food companies)

have started to market it reflects a resurgence in the long history of this plant. Mucilage is present in concentrations of about 25-35 percent, though amounts vary according to season . It is considered highest in the roots in winter." No constituentspolyuronides or otherwise-of the mucilage have been shown to have specific healing properties, and a role may exist for tannins or other constituents present in the plant. Bass 's remark that wild cotton-as he prefers to call Hibiscus moscheutos-is a folk medicine certainly reflects minimal interest among regular physicians. One of the few American accounts appeared in 1852 when Clapp discussed it with other malvaceous plants-including mallow (Malva sylvestris, well known medically) and marshmallownoting it as demulcent and emollient.'o The most recent reference we found is Hyams (1898), who only referred to the seeds as "cordial. stomachic and nervine." 11 The latter

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property was hardly widely known, and it is reasonable to suggest that the information came from just a few sources. As Bass says, there is always someone somewhere enthusiastic about a particular plant. Notes 1. Gerard (1597, pp. 789-90). Gerard/Johnson (1633, p. 933, fig. 1) provides an improved figure. 2. Eg., Bonham (1630, p. 34) and other pages. 3. Quincy (1719, p. 112).

4. Many pharmaceutical jars, for example, were so labeled; manuscripts, rather than textbooks, also suggest it was widely prescribed; e.g., see R. Perceval (1777-78. vol. 2), "Dr. Homes's Table of Effects of Medicines," where althaea is mentioned for nephritis. Copy in Wellcome Institute Library. 5. Parr (1819, 1;83). 6. Griffith (1847, p. 162). G. B. Wood and Bache (1868, p. 91) indicated greater popularity overseas. 7. L. Johnson (1884, p. 106).

B. See Solis-Cohen and Githens (1928, p. 995), British Pharmaceutical Codex (1923, p. 97). 9. Leung (1980, p. 26; quoting Franz. 19f16). See

Leung for other constituents.

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August, when the leaves fall off. If you dig it in the spring it will be too full of sap and will dry up to nothing. There's always been a good market for it. Mayapple is a powerful purgative medicine. It's good for the liver and it helps with the kidney. It makes a good salve too. It's healing. One of the basic medicines in my boyhood days was mayapple. People used it in the spring to clean out their systems. They would put the mayapple in whiskey or make a tea out of it and modify it with ginger so it would not be so harsh. It was better than the calomel or white powder. They gave you six doses, one every hour, and with a teacupful of castor oil. But you have to be kind of careful with mayapple and use it with caution. It'll make you awful sick if you don't take it according to direction. It has a strong laxative effect. If you take too much, it's a purgative. I recommend one tablespoon of cut-up roots to make a pint of medicine. Take one teaspoon three times a day. It's better to use it with senna leaves or wild ginger or dandelion root to weaken it, so it won't cramp. Externally it's good for ringworm and tetter on the hands; also makes a good tonic, too.

10. Clapp (1852, p. 747). 11. Hyams (1898, p. 345).

MAYAPPLE (rhizome) The Herbalist's Account Mayapple is one of the first plants to come up in the spring. I have seen it in February. It grows with just one or two leaves on each stalk in low places in the woods. It has a disagreeable odor, but has a beautiful little apple that looks something similar to a small maypop, and it has a banana navor. The apple gets ripe from the first of June until July. Sometimes a half dozen or more tops will come up from the same root. In fact. you can dig the roots and count how old the plant is. The roots will have a scar from each top it puts on. We dig the roots in late July or

Commentary Podophyllum peltatum L.: mayapple, devil's apple, hog-apple, wild-jalap, umbrella plant, mandrake. Berberidaceae The many vernacular names for this indigenous plant-in 1818 listed as mayapple, devil's apple, hog-apple, wild lemon, citron, wild-jalap, duck's fuud, umbrella plant, and mandrake-suggest early widespread interest in the medical value of the plant and its bitter-acrid taste.' It has been suggested that this is one plant introduced directly into regular medical practice from the Indians' and certainly there is no comparable European plant. From at least the eighteenth century the principal reputation has been as a cathartic, and more recently for the treat-

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ment of warts. Interest in antitumor activity has also emerged. Mayapple was discussed by all the early American writers on materia medica, and it was well established in 1817 when Jacob Bigelow described the dried rhizome as a "sure and active cathartic." He added that the Shakers at Lebanon, New York, prepared a much-esteemed extract. 2 At a time when cathartics were a noticeable part of treating many ailments, mayapple was often compared favorably with others. Physician Stephen Burgan, for instance, said in 1820 that "the powdered root is extensively employed as a cathartic in bilious complaints; and I am persuaded with as much success as the jalap.'" Later, mayapple was widely used in the form of a resin, a type of preparation promoted by Eclectic practitioners.' Mr. Bass refers specifically to the value of mayapple for the liver. During the nineteenth century most physicians and lay people thought it had a specific action as a cholagogue (a substance used to increase the flow of bile).5 A favorite prescription among many nineteenth-century physicians was a combination of the mercury preparation calomel and mayapple. To a degree the reputation for liver ailments lies behind its use (also noted by Bass) as a spring tonic. Mayapple has also become well known as an escharotic-noted at least as early as 1816 by Peter Smith fi_a property that became popular in this century for the treatment of venereal warts. The active constituents of mayapple have been widely investigated and explain many of the uses mentioned by Bass. The principal constituents in the resin (podophyllin) are lignans, which possess laxative action and account for the effects on venereal warts. Crude extracts of the plant have been shown to have a direct effect on herpes simplex type II, influenza A, and vaccinia viruses. Cytotoxic action is present and investigations have been undertaken on antitumor

actions? A few laboratory studies have investigated the possible activity on the liver -at least cholagogue or choleretic activitymayapple's principal reputation, and some positive results have been published B Some herbalists may consider Bass's suggestion of a teaspoon three times a day excessive. A more conventional dose is the amount you can "dip up on the tip of a pocket knife."g Most medical discussions on mayapple include reference to the Asian plant, P. hexandrum, which has similar properties, although some differences exist in chemical constituents. Notes 1. Vernacular names from W. P. C. Barton (181718,2:9). Meijer (1974) maps mayapple's presentday wide distribution.

2. Bigelow (1817-18, vol. 2, pI. 1, pp. 34-40). The early history is unfortunately unclear, but Schoepf (1787, p. 86) noted it as an emetic; some early authors (e.g., Griffith, 1847, p. 115) were convinced of early Indian usage. 3. Burgon (1820). 4. See

J. U. Lloyd (1910).

5. For discussions See Phillips (1879, p. 16), Ringer and Sainsbury (18B7, pp. 458-62). 6. See Ringer and Sainsbury (1897). For view of homeopathic influence. see Coulter (1973, p. 26). 7. Lewis and Elvin-Lewis (1977, p. 124) indicated that its reputation as a remedy for cancerous tumors, polyps, and unhealthy granulations was known by the 1870s. See Bedows and Hatfield (1982). Lignans can act as depressants ami antidepressants. Podophyllum emodi, Indian podophyllum from the Himalayas, is another important commercial source of the resin. 8. Petrovskii (1946). 9. Secrest (1964, pp. 481-82).

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MAYPOP. See Passionflower MAYWEED. See Dog Fennels MILKWEEDS. See Butterfly Weed MINTS: PEPPERMINT, SPEARMINT, AND CALAMI NT (leaves) The Herbalist's Account Peppermint can have pink, red, or violet-blue flowers. It's easy to grow around the home. Both the green leaves and dry leaves can be used. To store the leaves, dry them in the shade , then heat them in the oven and put them in jars or cans. You have to be careful about keeping the leaves dry 'cause the worms seem to like it as much as humans . But when stored properly it will keep well for years . I have some packed ten years ago and it's just as good as the day I packed it. We use a handful of leaves for a pint of water. Of the mints , peppermint is used most. It's more mellow-not too strong. All the mints are somewhat stimulating. Peppermint tea is used for indigestion and sick stomach, sleep inducing, pacifying, and headache. It is also used to flavor foods and medicines. Spearmint is like peppermint- easily grown in the garden. It should be picked in the light of the moon so it will be juicier. It's used like peppermint for headache and drowsiness. It gives you relief in just a little while. I had lots of it up to 1970, until a man plowed it under. Curly mint [calamint] hasn't been around here very long. It came when they were building the lake. I don't use it. I don't like the odor, and it doesn't have a good taste. It smells rather like catnip, and folks confuse them, but there's more catnip around. Curly mint will settle the stomach and satisfy the nerves. Commentary Mentha x piperita 1. *, including varieties: peppermint.

Peppermint

M. spicata 1. *, and varieties: spearmint. M. crispa 1.: curled mint. Calamintha nepeta (L.) Savi ssp. nepeta* [syns . Clinpodium nepeta (1.) Kuntze; Calamintha nepetoides Jord.; C. thessala Hausskn.; Satureja calamintha ssp . nepetoides (Jord.) Br.-BI; C. officinale Moench; C. ascendens Jord.; Melissa calamintha 1.]: calamint, savory, curly mint (local name) .' Lamiaceae (Labiatae) Innumerable plants of the mint family have found a place in medicine at one time or another. Many, naturalized or indigenous to the United States, are known to Mr. Bass, as seen from the monographs on bee balm, bergamot, bugleweed, catnip, ground-ivy, horsemint, .hyssop, lemon balm, pennyroyal, and sage. The similarity of the odors of plants in the mint family is well known. John Gerard (1597) described mints as having hot and dry qualities to the third degree, associated with deobstruent actions. 2 Prominent among these actions for "medical" members of the mint family, from classical times to the present, were relief of flatulence (carminative action),

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encouraging menstruation and urination, and "cleansing the lungs." Additionally, from the eighteenth century onward, mints have been generally viewed as "stimulant" (or rather, "aromatic stimulant"). in line with most aromatic plants. 3 Some mints were also regarded for a sedative action, a reputation sometimes extrapolated to all mints. Peppermint, as suggested by Bass, has long been the most popular "medicinal mint," followed by spearmint. Many authors have waxed enthusiastic about them. John Gerard (1597). for instance, said that "mint is marvelous wholesome for the stomacke"; he added many other uses, such as for watering eyes and, with "honied water," for the ears.' Virtually every subsequent writer on materia medica until the present time has mentioned peppermint and spearmint, which were introduced into North America by early colonists. Such preparations as Essence of Peppermint did much to sustain usage. s Comments by Farquharson and Woodbury in 1882 summarize much of the nineteenth-century discussion: "Peppermint and spearmint are favorite stimulant stomachics, and are much used as vehicles in [medicinal] mixtures. The troches [lozenges] of peppermint are a popular carminative. The oil of peppermint is used sometimes as a counterirritant in neuralgia, following the Chinese practice."" Bass also notes that peppermint and spearmint have a sedative action, which is rarely (if ever) stated explicitly in the literature. Perhaps Bass's belief in this is based on analogy with other plants of the mint family such as bugleweed (see monograph), which is widely known as a sedative. Perhaps, too, the sedative reputation encourages belief in the value of peppermint for menstrual problems as part of the long-standing association of hysteria and nervous problems with disorders of the uterus. While the use of peppermint for headaches has been recorded only infrequently in the literature, it seems to be well known within the oral tradition. 7 In general, pepper-

mint appears to be widely used for colic and insomnia in many parts of the United States." In additioIl, it remains aIle of the best-known fla voring agents. Peppermint oil contains primarily menthol, menthyl acetate, and isovalerate, along with menthone, cineol, pinene, limmonene, and minor constituents; while spearmint contains 45-60 percent carvone as the primary constituent." An interesting, if somewhat confusing, series of studies has appeared on the carminative action. In 1916 stimulant actions of dilute concentrations of the oil were shown to be followed by relaxation in higher doses; a little later, in 1921, J. W. C. Gunn, in "The Carminative Action of Volatile Oils," demonstrated a relaxant effect (up to paralysis) in a wide range of doses.'" Other studies have confirmed this, but questions about peppermint oil's value as a carminative have been raised by a recent investigation showing that it relaxes the lower esophageal sphincter; while this is said to encourage eructation, it is also reported to allow reflux and attendant discomfort." On the other hand, peppermint is generally taken as a tea, and the study does not indicate what dosage is significant in affecting the sphincter. Calamint (Bass's curly mint). Bass does not attach a great deal of importance to curly mint and sees it more as a substitute when peppermint or spearmint are unavailable. In fact, he does not collect the generally accepted curled (he says curly) mint, M. crispa, but calamint. In line with many past observations, he indicates that the latter is similar in odor to catnip (see monograph). Though the history of some of the mints is difficult to trace-owing to various vernacular names and uncertainty about their retrospective identification-calamint appears to be one that has attracted much medical attention in the past. It is said to have been popular in the Middle Ages, while John Gerard (1597) noted a range of deobstruent uses. But by the eighteenth century its popularity was in marked

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decline compared to peppermint and spearmintY In 1719 John Quincy listed various uses for calamint (e.g., hepatick, pectoral, uterine, diuretic), but said it was "seldome prescribed in these intentions." 13 Curled, or crisped, mint, M. crispa, is mentioned in several recent books on herbs (e.g., Meyers's Herbal, a popular book with Mr. Bass, in which it is described as stimulant, stomachic, and carminative).14 Notes 1. The nomenclature and taxonomy of the mints is somewhat confusing; see De Wolf (1954); for calamint, see Tutin et al. (1964-80, 3:167).

2. Gerard (1597, pp. 551-53), under heading "of mints."

3. As noted elsewhere, the term "stimulant" was popular in the nineteenth century, but such earlier expressions as "producing a warming sensation" usually imply the same action. Nomenclature for calamint is somewhat confusing. See Tutin et al. (1964-80,3:167). 4. Gerard (1597, p. 553). Although the history of

mints extends back to the beginning of recorded history (e.g., Perry, 1969, p. 13), difficulties exist in specific identification. 5. O. R. Jones (1981).

6. Farquharson and Woodbury (1882, p. 331). 7. F. C. Brown (1961, vol. 6), and R. B. Browne (1958).

8. For example, it is one of the most popular remedies among Mexican-Americans; see Leunhoff et al. (1981. pp. 238-58). 9. Handa et al. (1964).

10. J. W. C. Gunn (1920-21) references the earlier work. 11. Creamer (1955), Sigmund and McNally (1969). 12. Gerard (1597, pp. 556-58). The specific identitv of Gerard's calamint is uncertain. Withering (1796, 3 :538) identified Gerard's red garden mint as calamint. This is almost certainly an error, for he refers -seemingly following Ray-to common calamint (Calarnintha vulgaris ojficinarum) in johnson's revisions (1633, p. 687, fig. 3).

13. Quincy (1719, p. 162). 14. J. E. Meyer (1979, p. 36).

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MISTLETOE (whole plant) The Herbalist's Account Mistletoe is a parasite that grows on hardwood trees. The plant must be dried quickly and heated in the oven and then put in paper bags, or the worms will eat it. It's a heart remedy and it is a good medicine for womenfolks, but it shouldn't be taken by women before childbirth. It's a dangerous abortion plant. It will do the same as pennyroyal tea. It should be used with caution, for it is powerful. I've collected it mostly for Christmas. I used to climb the trees for it or shoot it down with a shotgun. Commentary Viscum album L.: missel, mistletoe. Phoradendron serotinum (Raf.) N. C. Johnson* [syn. P. flavescens (Pursh) Nutt.]: mistletoe. Loranthaceae Mistletoe-at least the European Viscum album still imported into the United States and adventive in places-has a long medical history, often as a panacea. There is still much disagreement over its activity and toxicity, while an aura of legend, symbolism, and magic remains pervasive.' Much debate, too, exists over the best recipes for preparing birdlime (used to snare small birds) from the viscid tissue of the berries. John Gerard (1597) described the leaves and berries of three mistletoes as hot and dry; associated "deobstruent" properties were employed (in compounded preparations with, for example, rosin and wax) for treating swellings (e.g., in the groin) and hardness of the spleen. Gerard also noted a poisonous quality.2 Eighteenth-century texts tended to stress mistletoe's value in the treatment of epilepsy and convulsions in general, a frequent recommendation until generally discounted toward the end of the nineteenth century.' A sense exists that mistletoe had become a panacea by the eighteenth century,

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but, as with so many medicinal plants, it was then coming under critical scrutiny by physicians, In 1769 W, Lewis cast doubt on its use in convulsions by pointing out tbat there were no other disorders in which medicines operate more precariously and in which the observer is more liable to self-deception,4 American writers in the nineteenth century often discussed V album, not the indigenous Phoradendron (represented by two species, of which P. serotinum is widespread). It has been said that the superficial likeness of P. serotinum to V album made a transfer of European folklore to America easy.5 Even so, little medical entbusiasm can be found. Nathaniel Chapman in 1819, for example, hinted that it was not widely used: "being so abundant in the United States it is wortby of a trial in several diseases and especially in nephritis."6 Clapp (1852) said tbat V album was entirely neglected? It was in the second half of the nineteenth century that interest apparently picked up, after the appearance of publications on mistletoe's emmenagogue and oxytocic properties, which previously had not attracted much attention. W. H. Long and others argued, from a comparative trial of ergot and mistletoe, tbat the latter was superior in managing labor and menorrhagia. B These uses have not entered much of the twentieth-century herbal literature, and Mr. Bass learned of its female medicine reputation from neighbors-through the oral rather than the popular tradition. In the present century mistletoe-mostly V album-has attracted much interest for a wide range of new uses: hypotensive vasodilator, cardiac depressant, sedative, antispasmodic, and antineoplastic. 9 It has become a key herb in the health food movement and such practices as anthroposophic medicine.10 For reasons that are unclear, American mistletoe is said to possess opposite pharmacological effects; that is, it raises blood pressure and stimulates smooth muscle. A wide range of constituents of different

structural types have been identified-many common to botb plants-including polypeptides, lectins, polysaccharides, phenolcarboxylic acids, flavonoids, amines, amino acids, sugar alcohols, and triterpenoids. So far, innumerable laboratory studies have not provided definitive explanations for past or existing reputations. This includes the interest aroused during recent decades in possible anticancer activity; tumor inhibition has been demonstrated in mice inoculated with Sarcoma 180 and He La cells. Significant clinical value is still debated and belief in the effects of mistletoe on tumors may rest more on theoretical considerations. Another uncertain issue is the toxicity of tbe mistletoes. While apparently safe in modest doses, concern over poisoning has led to calls for restricting its sale, and, although few suspected cases of poisoning have been noted, hepatitis has been recordedY Certainly, caution is necessary if mistletoe is taken regularly, such as for hypertension. Variable toxicity may indicate that activity depends on the metabolism oftbe host plant. It has been reported that highest hypotensive activity is shown in mistletoe parasitizing willow and gathered in January.12

Notes 1. Innumerable reviews have appeared. A helpful bibliography is Gill and Hawksworth (1961); also Kanner (1939). Earlier accounts helpfully illuminate widespread interest, especially in terms of folk beliefs. See Knott (1908).

2. Gerard (1597, pp. 1168-70). The poisonous quality is noted for "birdlime," sometimes said to be made from the berries, but Johnson's edition of Gerard (1636) disputed the poisonous nature. Confusion arises because birdlime was not always made from mistletoe; see James (1743-45, vol. 3). under "viscum." 3. E.g., Quincy (1719, pp. 124-25), Colbatch (1720), James (1743-45, vol. 3), under "viscum." 4. Lewis (1769, 2:323-24).

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5. Chapman (1817-19, 2:471-72).

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6. Clapp (1852, p. 859) referred to V. f1avescens,

Mr. Bass is correct in implying that bindweeds have had little or no place in regular medicine, although some related plants (e.g., jalap and scammony) have been very popular. Few seventeenth- and eighteenth-century authors said any more than Gerard (1597), who dismissed the common bindweed as unfit for medicine; or Motherby (1785), who merely indicated that the great white and the small bindweed possess a milky juice that is strongly cathartic.' In America the few relevant nineteenthcentury accounts of a "bindweed" focused on the wild potato vine, which Bass says is generally known in his area as wild sweet potato. 2 Some writers in the early part of the century drew attention to it, though generally without enthusiasm. Thus Jacob Bigelow (1822) wrote: "The affinity of this plant to jalap, in its botanical character, has caused a medicinal quality to be ascribed to it, which it does not possess. It is one of the weakest of our indigenous cathartics, and requires too large a dose to be of much use in that character. It is said to mitigate stranguary and gravel, and to operate as diuretic.'" Later accounts conveyed the same information without indicating any general employment by regular physicians.- Even domestic usage was, so far as we can tell, limited.' Bass's caution over morning glories-he sees them as all the same apart from wild potato-is prompted, in part, by accounts of the hallucinatory properties of seeds of "morning glory" that appeared during the 1960s. In fact, the hall ucinogenic activity has been well established only for the seeds of Ipomoea violacea (1.) and varieties. The hallucinatory indole alkaloids do not occur in I. purpurea. Even when present in Convolvulus seeds, the seeds must be pulverized to obtain a physiological effect, otherwise their hard, impervious coats allow them to pass through the alimentary tract intact."

saying its properties are "supposed to be identical" with V. album. 7. W. H. Long (1878) said that the only mention made in "any medical work that I have seen, as regard its effect on the uterus, is in King's Eclectic Dispensatory, where caution is given (when administering it for other diseases), not to give to excess, as 'irritation' of the uterus may result." Note also H. P. Howard (1892), Hobbs (1878). 8. For overviews see Anderson and Phillipson (1982). Gill and Hawksworth (1961, p. 40) said that Phoradendron has been unimportant in the materia medica. 9. Some references and documentation are in British Herbal Pharmacopoeia (1983, p. 236). 10. For background, Becker and Schwarz (1972). 11. Harvey and Colin-Jones (1981); this has been repudiated by Farnsworth and Loub (1981).

12, Petkov (1979, p. 211). MORNING GLORY; WILD POTATO (tops, roots)

The Herbalist's Account I've never used the bindweeds; some folks call them morning glories. They're folk medicines; you can use them as a laxative and for the kidney, I tell folks they're too strong, except for the sweet potato, or wild potato. This is safe, but folks don't generally remember it's got white, not colored flowers. Commentary Ipomoea pandurata (1.) Meyer* [syn. Convolvulus panduratus 1.]: wild potato, wild rhubarb, wild potato vine, man root, wild sweet potato (local name). I. purpurea (L.) Roth. * [syn. Convolvulus purpureus 1.), and ornamental races and cultivars: common morning glory. I. violacea L. [syn. I. tricolor Cav,]: morning glory. Convolvulus sepium 1. * [syns. C. repens L.; Calystegia sepium (1.) R. B.]: bindweed, hedge bindweed.

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Notes 1. Gerard (1597. p. 714). Motherby (1785). under "Convolvulus." 2. Cf. sweet potato: Ipomoea batatas (L.) Pair. The sweet potato is a prominent part of southern diets. The variety with the deep orange. tuberous root has been developed within Bass's lifetime. and it is often marketed as a "yam" to distinguish it from varieties with whitish or light yellowish tubers. This "yam" is not to be confused with species of Dioscorea (see Wild Yam). 3. Bigelow (1822, p. 145). As we have indicated. some strong testimonies can generally be found for most drugs. See B. S. Barton (1804, pI. 2, p. 49). 4. E.g., Clapp (1852, pp. 838-39). 5. A letter by G. M. Maclean (1848) said the plant had not recci ved much attention but was used" in some parts of New Jersey as a domestic remedy" for its "diuretic effects." 6. Der Marderosian (1967).

MOSS. See Club Moss MOUNTAIN LAUREL (leaves) The Herbalist's Account I don't fool with this one. I stay away from it because it's poisonous, but I've heard of people putting it in salves, and now and again I'm asked about it. Commentary Kalmia latifolia L. *, including cultivars: mountain laurel, sheep laurel (local name). K. hirsuta Walt. [syn. Kalmiella hirsuta (Walt.) Small]: mountain laurel. K. angustifolia L., including cultivars: sheep laurel. mountain laurel. Ericaceae The poisonous nature of the indigenous evergreen mountain laurel has long attracted some concern in eastern North America where it grows. Even honey from bees that visit certain species is known to be poisonous.' Although since the second half of the eighteenth century many physicians have

considered that poisonous plants offer potentially valuable drugs, little enthusiasm seems to have been aroused by mountain laurel,2 Rafinesque (1828-30) probably gave the first detailed account, noting (for various species) narcotic, errhine, antisyphilitic, and antiherpetic properties. He quoted Elliott's observation that the "negroes of Carolina" used K. angustifolia and K. hirsuta "in a strong wash to cure the itch of men and dogs."3 Knowledge of all the above uses was spread by a few Shaker communities that sold herbs from the 1830s to the 1870s.' Clapp (1852) devoted some attention to K. latifolia (and four other species considered to possess the same medicinal virtues) but said that there was some "uncertainty to the properties of the Kalmia," referring to reputed narcotic effects and value in skin ailments.' Few later authors mentioned mountain laurel, at least until some renewed interest toward the end of the century. Millspaugh (1892) indicated that previous uses for tinea capitis, psora, herpes, secondary syphilis, inflammatory fevers, and diarrhea had not been encouraging," but entrepreneurial ParkeDavis was advertising a fluid extract in the 1890s as an "antisyphilitic, sedative to the heart and somewhat astringent. Efficacious in primary and secondary syphilis, febrile and inflammatory diseases, allaying all febrile and inflammatory action and lessening the action of the heart. It is also useful in obstinate diarrhoea." 7 Despite such claims and the attention of Eclectic practitioners-Finley Ellingwood's Eclectic textbook (1915) spoke fairly highly of K. laUfolia, indicating that it acted somewhat like veratrum (see monograph)-mountainlaurel failed to become popular. Ellingwood himself was skeptical about the enthusiasm expressed for treating syphilis but recommended the plant for inflammatory and a number of other disorders.8 Mr. Bass has not heard of these uses. Like many herbalists, he generally ignores all markedly poisonous plants, which is wise,

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bearing in mind the openness of his practice. Kalmia species contain grayanotoxins, the cause of the toxic honey mentioned above. Notes 1. E.g., Tyler et al. (1981, p. 455).

2. It nevertheless was mentioned in some early nineteenth-century nonmedical books; e.g., Bigelow (1814, p. 103). 3. Rafinesque (1828-30, 2:16-18). We have not found this reference. Elliott (1821-24,1:481) noted K. latifolia as a remedy for "itch and other cutaneous diseases." 4. A. B. Miller (1976, pp. 194-481). 5. Clapp (1852, pp. 813-15). 6. Millspaugh (1974, p. 103-2). 7. Parke-Davis (1890, pp. 123-24). 8. Ellingwood (1915, p. 382).

MULBERY (root, bark, leaves, fruits) The Herbalist's Account I have never recommended it much. It's a folk medicine, good for worms, but there are better things. I've told people the root is good for dogs and cats. A tea can be made from the leaves, but it is not as strong. Folks have asked about it for warts. It's got a sap just like a fig tree. That's good for warts. I think that any tree that has a milky sap is actually a valuable medical plant. The fruits are refreshing but generally there are few around. Commentary Morus alba L.: mulberry, white mulberry, silkworm tree. M. nigra L.: mulberry, black mulberry. M. rubra L. *, including varieties: red mulberry, mulberry. Moraceae The indigenous Morus rubra and other mulberry species, mostly naturalized frum Asia, attracted much medical interest in the past. John Gerard (1597) described the root bark of "common" mulberry (probably M. nigra)

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and "white" mulberry tree (M. alba) as bitter, hot, and dry, and possessing purging and anthelmintic properties; the fruits, on the other hand, were considered binding, cold, and dry, and were used for hemorrhages and swellings.' Subsequently, European medical accounts focused solely on M. nigra, while M. alba was of special interest for silkworm production. John Hill (1751) mentioned the fruit, saying that when unripe it is very astringent but after ripening "rather purgative, cooling and very pleasant quenching thirst." He added that "the principal use now made of it is in the shops, [aJ syrup which is made of the juice of the ripe fruit and sugar, and is very pleasant and cooling." 2 Later in the 1700s, influential William Woodville (1790-94) spotlighted attention on the bark and echoed Gerard: "It has an acrid bitter taste and possesses a cathartic power. It has been successfully used as an anthelmintic, particularly in cases of Taenia." 3 Relatively little interest in mulberry was expressed in the nineteenth-century British literature aside from its use as a flavoring and coloring agent, though some references continued to mention its value as supportive therapy in fevers.' The American species, M. rubra, has never been popular, reflected perhaps in Bass's remarks that it is a folk medicine. Laxative and anthelmintic properties for fruit and especially bark were recorded, for example, by R. E. Griffith (1847)." Johnson (1884), however, noted only the fruit, indicating it to be slightly laxative and cooling and refreshing. 6 Even at this time such usage was going out of fashion: "The great use of milk in fevers, etc., makes the sour vegetable drinks (like mulberry juice) less available than they used to be."7 Mr. Bass, whose knowledge follows past uses, also implies that mulberry'S reputation declined because of more pleasant alternative laxatives and anthelmintics, which is why "it is only used for animals." No chemical justification was found for past uses.

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Notes 1. Gerard (1597. pp. 1324-26); johnson's revised edition (1633) provided improved illustrations (pp. 1507-8).

2. j. Hill (1751. p. 152). English ceramic jars of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries labeled "syrup of mulberry" still survive. 3. Woodville (1790-94. 2:352-53). 4. Pereira (1842.2:1091). 5. Griffith (1847. p. 579). See also j. Bell (1841. p.319). 6. L. johnson (1884. p. 244). 7. Bolles (quoted in Buck. 1886-93 . 5:34). MULLEIN (root, leaves)

The Herbalist's Account Mullein grows with several large, fuzzy leaves laying flat on the ground, and in June it starts to make a tall stalk that can be three to ten feet high. The stalk has more of the velvety leaves and yellow flowers. The leaves have a loud odor, a vegetable sulfur smell. They stay green until July or August and then die. There are thousands of little seedsfiner than mustard seeds. Mullein grows on highway banks and on poor hills. Mullein is an old-timer. I don't think there is any ailment that mullein wouldn't give some relief. Everyone should have dried mullein leaves or roots in their medicine cabinet at all times. To make a tea you take a quart of leaves or roots and boil in a gallon of water for an hour. Don't boil it in aluminum because the chemical in mullein will corrode the vessel. It's not good to make any herb tea in aluminum. Mullein has vegetable sulfur in it. We all know that there is not anything any better internally or externally than sulfur, but the trouble of it is, the chemical sulfur smells so doggone bad. And if you take an overdose of the chemical sulfur and get out in the rain, it opens your pores and you sweat and get cold and stiff. But the vegetable sulfur in mullein don't do this.

Mullein To start with, mullein is good for coughs and colds . To turn the tea into a cough syrup or cold medicine, add sugar or honey. With wild cherry bark and life-everlasting mixed together, it makes one of the finest cough syrups you can get anywhere. It's good for the kidneys and the bladder, too. A merchant in Gadsden by the name of Smith has a seventy-year-old mother and she had a bladder complaint. He said the doctors just turned her out-said there was nothing they could do. He got to giving her mullein tea, and shucks, it straightened her out. Mullein tea will also ratify rheumatism, and it's good for the liver and the blood. For swollen joints, swollen feet, and a swollen jaw, mullein will draw the soreness out in just a little while. Take some of the green leaves; put them in water just as hot as you

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can bear it, and put the wet, hot leaves over the swollen part. There is always a market for mullein; I believe it brings about thirty-five or forty cents a pound, dry. Some folk-medical people use the root, but the leaves is what the people buys. Commentary Verbascum thapsus L. *. including subspecies: mullein. Scrophulariaceae Verbascum thapsus, a Eurasian biennial herb common in England and naturalized from colonial gardens, is a common tall, stout roadside weed.! The well-known stalk, with sessile, woolly, gray-white leaves and yellow flowers, forms during the second growing season. It is common throughout the Appalachians and elsewhere. John Josselyn. on his second visit to New England (1676), listed mullein among plants that had escaped from gardens to fields, and by the eighteenth century it was apparently already a commonplace weed. 2 Not only did mullein become quickly established in North America, but it also came with a substantial reputation. John Gerard (1597) described it as dry, with the leaves having a "digesting and cleansing quality." Among listed uses (which included superstitious ones) were the leaves in a poultice for "swellings and inflammation," and the root (boiled in wine or water) for the bloody flux, internal injuries, and an "old cough," as well as the "cough of cattle, wherefore a popular name bullock's lungwort." 3 The principal use of mullein (leaves and flowers) in Europe and then in America was undoubtedly for coughs, though references to its value for poultices, hemorrhages, and bladder problems persisted long after Gerard. Its widespread popularity reflects multiple uses. Peter Kahn, in his 1748 travels in America, indicated something of this: "The Swedes here call it the tobacco of the savages,

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but owned that they did not know whether the Indians really used this plant instead of tobacco. The Swedes are used to tie the leaves round their feet and arms, when they have the ague. Some of them prepare a tea from the leaves, for the dysentery." 4 Most nineteenth-century books on materia medica, both regular and botanic/domestic medicine, mention mullein. 5 Clearly Mr. Bass's enthusiasm for the plant is derived from the popular tradition, which is strong and widespread, particularly for chest complaints.6 The value placed on mullein rested not only on astringent and, according to some, anodyne properties, but also on the demulcent action of the mucilage present, especially in the leaves. In fact, the mucilaginous nature continued to attract regular medical interest for topical application during the first half of the twentieth century. There is some disagreement in the literature over whether the mucilage or other constituents account for the expectorant action? Bass's concept of "vegetable sulfur" is in line with notions about plant constituents that extend back to the sixteenth century, though in part he links the idea with the apparent sulfur smell. Utilizing the concept of vegetable sulfur to justify the internal use of mullein for rheumatism and for liver and blood ailments echoes a onetime enthusiasm within the regular medical profession. During the 19205 and 1930s sulfur was employed (orally, intramuscularly, or intravenously) for treating rheumatism on the basis of detoxifying putrefactive poisons in the alimentary cana!.8 This fashion was over by the 1940s. Bass rationalizes the value for the liver on the basis that anything that helps the blood helps the liver. The value of "natural" over "chemical" sulfur is part of the common belief that all natural materials are better than "synthetic." In turn, according to Bass, an improvement in the liver helps the kidneys. Mullein has attracted increasing attention in recent years from health food stores, de-

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spite criticism that it is without therapeutic virtues." This is perhaps an overstrong statement, although unquestionably more powerful remedies exist for treating coughs and colds. Bass uses it in combination with other remedies in an inexpensive cough medicine, which at least is regarded for soothing properties. That other species of Verbascum have been employed on occasion is seemingly of little consequence.

Notes 1. For some background see Haughton (1978, pp. 228-29). 2. Josselyn (1672). By 1814 Pursh reported that "it appears in great abundance in fields newly cleared and burnt in the most remote part of the country, where sometimes not a plant of it is found within the compass of more than a hundred miles. How the seed is brought there I cannot imagine" (1:142). Mullein's many vernacular names (e.g., velvet dock, Aaron's rod, cow's lungwort) are noteworthy. 3. Gerard (1597, p. 774). 4. Kalm (1972, originally 1747-51, p. 71). 5. References to mullein abound in the literature. For some outline see Millspaugh (1974, pp. 110-1110-4). 6. R. B. Browne (1958, pp. 30,42, 46, 48, 49, 50, 53,57,58,60,67,79) recorded many references to

use for chest ailments, chills, and fevers, including (often in preparations), diphtheria, whooping cough, and malaria. One reference to heart dropsy, in the context of its reputation, suggests more a belief that it can help with breathing. Uses for skin problems were also noted. Bolyard (1981, p. 133) indicated employment in poultices, direct application of the leaves for hemorroids and arthritis, and a tea for coughs. Moerman (1982, p. 15) noted its widespread use among Indian tribes. 7. E.g., L. Johnson (1884, p. 204), Solis-Cohen and Githens (1928, pp. 987 and 990). The mucilage is said to be present in the roots as well as in the leaves (E. V. Miller, 1957, p. 111). 8. Bastedo (1947, p. 189). 9. E.g., Tyler (1982, p. 156) states that except for soothing mucilage, the drug lacks therapeutic virtues, without specifying whether "therapy" covers relieving symptoms or cures.

MUSTARDS (seeds, leaves, oil) The Herbalist's Account Mustard's a famous green we eat. There are a number of varieties. If you want something out of this world, cook the mustard tops with turnip greens, about one-third mustard and two-thirds turnips. Now some has a little trouble with eating mustard; it seems as though it kind of hurts some people, but I think it's the grease they put in it. Now, I used to love to eat mustard when I had some teeth. I used to take me a piece of corn bread and get the good, tender mustard, wash it real good, and put a little salt on it, and eat that with the corn bread and, boy, I'm telling you, that's real good. Medically it's a tonic. The mustard seed is a wonderful medicine. Everyone knows it was used in plasters for colds and pleurisy and the like. I've put it in my liniment sometimes. A little mustard is good to calm the stomach, but a lot will make you sick. We used to have hedge mustard around here, but I haven't seen it for a long time. You could eat it as a green, and it's a tonic. Commentary Sinapsis alba L. *, including subspecies [syns. Brassica hirta Moench; B. alba Broissier): white mustard, yellow mustard. Brassica nigra (L.) Koch. [syns. B. sinapsioides Roth; Sinapsis cernus Thunb.; S. nigra L.): black mustard. B. juncea (L.) Czern. *, and cultivars [syns. B. juncea Hook. and Thw.; Sinapsis chinensis Lour.; S. juncea L.): brown mustard, Chinese mustard, mustard greens. Sisymbrium officinale (L.) Scopoli, including varieties: hedge mustard. Brassicaceae (Cruciferae) Three naturalized species of Brassica are the main sources of the mustard seed long used in medicine. John Gerard (1597) described a number of mustards-garden, field, white, and small white-as possessing hot and dry qualities, which accounted for heating and

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Black mustard

thinning medical properties . Uses listed for seeds include those well known today, but seeds mainly were an ingredient in "drawing" respiratory ailments. "Sauce" was mentioned too, made from pounding mustard seed and vinegar: "good to be eaten, with any grosse meates, either fish or flesh, because it doth helpe digestion, warmeth the stomacke, and provoketh appetite ." 1 Since Gerard's account (and before) mustard seed has been mentioned in almost every book on medicinal plants . In 1884 Laurence Johnson said that the medical properties and uses were too well known to require more than mere mention, though he might have indicated that black mustard was considered stronger than white. By 1884 mustard's employment for colds and for aches and painsin the form of plasters-was the most prominent use, in part because of the enthusiasm for external stimulation, or counterirritation, that arose during the nineteenth century.2

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Johnson did mention the popularity of mustard in domestic medicine "as an aid to digestion." In fact, he could have elaborated on the complex ,nanagement of "dyspepsia." At the time this diagnosis often covered a complex symptomatology, which, according to some authors, needed complex management. One writer said the mustard "should be taken everyday for three or four weeks." 3 This was obviously different from the use of mustard as a "prompt and an efficient emetic" for emergencies. Interest in mustard as a counterirritantthat is, a remedy which by irritating the skin was intended to counter or check deeperlying affections-remained generally popular until new drugs replaced it in the 1940s and 1950s. A 1947 textbook on pharmacology and therapeutics provided some physiological justification for the use of mustard paste, which usually reddens the skin sufficiently in ten to thirty minutes.' Mr. Bass has "always known about mustard as a condiment, medicine, and vegetable."s He remembers well people soaking their feet in mustard baths to treat colds and using mustard plasters everywhere from the soles of their feet (for colds) to behind the ear (for earache) . His use of mustard in liniments follows formulas of some once-popular patent medicines. Bass has long purchased black mustard for medicinal purposes. He recognizes that there are varieties-as with mustard greens -which may mean that he has sometimes bought seeds of B. juncea, since the 1950s the major mustard crop. This has been the principal source of mustard greens, though "in his early days," his family grew white mustard for seeds and greens .6 There seems little doubt that some of the local faith in the medical value of mustard is reinforced by the reputation of mustard greens for healthfulness. Certain varieties are preferred, perhaps a reflection of variations in the chemical constituents? Bass believes that one mustard is as good

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as another medically, which does not coincide with past opinions about differences in "strength," Chemical differences exist, though that is not to say they are physiologically relevant. White mustard contains a glucoside, sinalbin, which breaks down to give, among other compounds, isothiocyanate, with a pungent taste and rubefacient properties but little odor. On the other hand, black and brown mustards-but perhaps not all cultivars of the latter, especially those grown for the mustard oil-contain sinigrin, which yields allylisothiocyanate, which has a pungent odor and taste and rubefacient action. 8 In mentioning hedge mustard, Bass is probably referring to Sisymbrium officinale. Seemingly popular in seventeenth- and eighteenth-century England, particularly in the form of a syrup for coughs, interest has since been scant and primarily in sensory properties. Notes 1. Gerard (1597, pp. 169-90); in the 1636 edition

(pp. 243-45) Johnson revised the illustrations. 2. L. Johnson (1664, p. 96).

NIGHTSHADES (leaves, tops, roots) The Herbalist's Account There are a number of nightshades, but we don't have them all around here. A lot of people confuses them. We have ground cherry [Physalis pubescens]. You can eat the ripe berries; they're yellow, they're good in pies, but the rest of the plant is poisonous. I've never used it, but it would be good in salves. There's a nightshade, black nightshade [Solanum nigrum] that looks the same but has black berries. The woody nightshade [Solanum dulcamara] is a woody vine, has red berries on it, and some of the old-time formulas for salves had it in. There's also another nightshade. I believe the herb books call it deadly nightshade [Atropa belladonna], that has a small berry on it, kind of like a huckleberry. It has been used to brighten the eyes, but I haven't seen it around here for a long time. The nightshades are narcotics, you know. Common herbists don't fool with them. I've used them in salves, and it makes good healing, some says for cancer, but I don't recommend it. I don't recommend the ordinary person gather it.

3. Capron and Slack (1646. p. 396). 4. Bastedo (1947, p. 69).

5. The story of mustard as a condiment is multifaceted. For just one pertinent insight see Goldblith and Clark (1974). 6. Mohr (1901, p. 626) listed it as a plant under cultivation at the turn of the century. For commercial ascendency of brown mustard, see Crisp (1976). 7. Some further background is in Court (1966). 6. Al-Shehbaz (1965).

NETTLES. See Thistles

Commentary Solanum nigrum L. *, including subspecies and varieties [syns. S. fistolosum Rich.; S. incertum Dun; S. nodiflorum Jacq. var. macrophyllum Dunal; S. rubrum Mill.; S. triangulare Lam.; S. uliginosum Bl.]: black nightshade, garden nightshade. S. dulcamara 1. * [syns. Dulcamara flexuosa Moench; S. laxum Royle; S. lyratum Thunb.]: bittersweet, woody nightshade. Physalis pubescens L. * [syn. P. peruviana L.]: ground "herry. Atropa belladonna 1. [syn. Belladonna baccifera Lam.]: deadly nightshade, belladonna. Withania somnifera (L.) Panquy: sleepie nightshade. Solanaceae

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Mr. Bass's remarks show why confusion often exists over the many nightshades, in particular many species of Solanum, some of which have long-standing medical reputations.' John Gerard (1597) considered "Solanum Hortense" (probably S. nigrum), "Solanum somniferum" (probably Withania somnifera), and "Solanum lethale" (Atropa belladonna), indicating their toxicity; because of this he recommended them only for external application.' Of the nightshades, Solanum dulcamara (with conspicuous scarlet berries and known as bittersweet because of the initial taste of bitterness followed by sweetness) has been and reJ;nains one of the best known medically, although its reputation for rheumatic or cutaneous conditions declined during the eighteenth century. Lewis, in 1791, said that "the dulcamara was formerly much esteemed as a powerful medicine," notably as a discutient and resolvent medicine. 3 Interest in bittersweet nevertheless continued. In America, where it is widely naturalized, it was discussed by many authors as a narcotic, diuretic, and diaphoretic-the latter being associated with the continuing reputation for rheumatism. Griffith (1847) added that its powers are not very great.' It was, however, included in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia of 1880 because of its reputation for treating various conditions (of which only its value in cutaneous disorders was seemingly well established).' Bass's recommendation of its use for salves is seemingly a legacy. His suggestion that ground cherry could be used in salves is perhaps an analogy to this. Comparatively little medical interest has been expressed in ground cherry. Johnson (1884) did note the use of the berries in urinary disorders and gout, but wrote: "considering their constituents, one would not naturally expect them to be very active," a view held by others." Griffith (1847) discussed many species of Solanum, notably S. nigrum (black or com-

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mon nightshade, similar to S. dulcamara "except stronger"). Amidst the considerable discussion on Solanum species, little mention has been made of S. carolinense (see Thistles), suggesting that it attracted little medical interest, at least among regular physicians. Solanum species contain toxic glycoalkaloids. The deadly nightshade referred to by Mr. Bass is Atropa belladonna, which, as far as we know, is not cultivated or adventive in North America, although it can be used as a garden ornamental. One of the best known of all medicinal plants, it contains (as do other medically well-known solanaceous plants [see Jimsonweed]) hyoscyamus and mandragora, which are pharmacologically active tropane alkaloids. Belladonna leaves and roots contain 0.3-0.5 percent alkaloid by weight, comprising I-hyoscyamine (95-98 percent), traces of I-scopolamine (hyoscine), and other alkaloids.' The well-known atropine (dlhyoscyamine) is believed to be formed during extraction of the alkaloids. Much variation in alkaloid concentration and relative amounts of each constituent has been reported; this is linked to the age of the plant. The variety of physiological actions of the alkaloids, which are mediated through the central and peripheral nervous systems, partly explains the long, fascinating history of the use of these solanaceous plants. Although in the past viewed as sedative (sometimes narcotic) for melancholia, mania, and epilepsy, the plants have been employed mostly in salves either in "magical" contexts or empirically derived practices like those that have reached Bass. Strong recommendations have appeared in the past for use on skin cancers.8 Bass generally avoids the plants, except for jimsonweed and, occasionally, deadly nightshade as a "substitute" for use in his salve." How many herbalists are as cautious as Mr. Bass in this respect is uncertain. Unquestionably, caution is justified for many reasons; one stressed by Bass is that nightshades can be confused with ground

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cherry, which is still occasionally collected as a food. Notes 1. For background see Heiser (1969). Bodenmann

(1968). 2. Gerard (1597, pp. 267-70).

3. W. Lewis (1791, p. 184). 4. Griffith (1847, p. 481). 5. Phillips (1879, pp. 45-48). 6. L. Johnson (1884, p. 218). 7. Leung (1980. p. 61). "The Solanaceous Plants" (1985). 8. E.g., Gendron (1701. pp. 118-19). Among many

references to use in nervous diseases is the opinion that belladonna is a milder sedative than stramonium and, especially, hyoscyamus. 9. Whether the poisonous reputation of belladonna has at times limited its popularity is unclear but probable; e.g., see W. Lewis (1791, p. 145).

OAKS (bark, leaves, acorns) The Herbalist's Account Red oaks and white oaks grow to be huge trees; the red oak has little acorns. There might be a slight difference, medically speaking, but most people use either one. The white oak makes a yellowish tea-I reckon it has more medical value-and the red makes a reddish tea. You use the inner bark. You ross it, or peel off the outer bark. It can be stored in the open because the worms won't bother it. If you're in a hurry throw the whole bark in, but it takes longer to cook it. Put the bark in water, boil until it thickens some. The leaves and acorns can be used the same as the bark. They're astringent. The acorn was used by Indians. Like some oldtimers, they made meal of them. The acorn of the chestnut oak is the best-it's a real large acorn, a little like pecans. I've used the oak bark from time to time.

I've recommended it for varicose veins. You make an ooze, or tea. An ooze is a name we generally use only for teas of oak bark and red sumac. It's got tannic acid, and I believe it would be good for rheumatism. It has some other uses, too. I cured my smelly feet by dipping the feet in it every day for about a week. Mr. McClusky, down here in the bend, I laughed at him several years ago. Course he's dead now-died with a heart attack. But anyway, he was a diabetic and he had heart dropsy. And he was awful bad to curse. He came over to the trade barn one day and said, "Have you got any boots that are size twelve or fourteen?" "Yes, sir, I've got some big ones, Mr. McCluskey." He cursed his boots. He had some cattle and he had to wear boots. He said, "Well, I want to buy a pair. My feet, hands, and legs are swelled. Just look what shape I'm in." And he was in a terrible bad shape. He came back in a few days and said, "Bass, the insurance man came by and he told me what I could do to get rid of that swelling." Course I know there wasn't no way of curing that dropsy. He said, "This insurance man told me to get some red oak bark and make a tea, or an ooze. He said he knows seven cases like mine, and the people told him that after soaking their joints in red oak tea for a week or two, that swelling went completely away, and hadn't come back. The insurance man said, 'McCluskey, now I don't know if it will help do you any good or not, but I know that these people don't have no more swelling because I've got them insured.' " McCluskey said he didn't know a red oak tree from no other tree, and I don't know why he didn't because he used to be a logger, a saw-miller, but anyway, he said, "By God, I know where there is a fellow who does." I said, "McCluskey, I'm awful busy. The lady over there where I stay is in a bad shape

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and I'm trying to help the family out there. But a man in the condition you're in, I'm going to see if I can't get the time. Just anybody don't want you to skin their trees. I don't own no land." But as it happened we had had a storm, and I was over in the woods and I found a tree that the storm had blown down. It had been laying there for several days, but the bark was all right. I peeled a bunch of bark, brought it and put it in a wash pot, filled the pot up with water, built a big fire around it, and boiled it up. I fixed up two gallons. Pete Pacem, the peddlar, comes by every Wednesday. So he came by and I said, "What about McCluskey down here? Do you work him?" He said, "Yes, sir." "I've got a couple of jugs of tea here for him. The insurance man told him it would take the swelling out." "Well I do hope it does. He's in bad shape, just drinking himself to death." Two or three weeks after that, McCluskey come up wearing his number seven shoes and his hands weren't swollen no more than mine, and he said, ''I'll tell you right now, that's a miracle. I don't know what was in that, but look what's happened to me. I threw them boots away and I'm well. Bass, what do lowe you? I just used one jug of that." "You don't owe me nothing; I'm proud that it done you good." "Now, I want to pay you something. But do you know what this here man Flintstone over in Georgia gets? He gets sixteen dollars a gallon for that red oak tea up there. I just can't pay that." I never told him, but it wasn't worth sixteen dollars to get him well! White oak's an old remedy. I heard something about it about two weeks ago, that I didn't know before. Of course I knew that it would relieve varicose veins, but the man told me that his veins were hurting him so bad that he decided to boil some white oak bark in vinegar, and then just as hot as he

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could put a cloth in it. He said it was in no time-well, his veins are as smooth as mine. It's astringent and it got the fever out or something. He recommended taking it internally, too, and so he took it, boiled it in water, and drank it. Commentary Quercus robur 1., including subspecies [syn. Q. pedunculata Ehrh.; Q. racemosa Lam.]: oak, English oak. Q. falcata Michx. and varieties, including fa1cata*: oak, southern red oak, black oak. Q. alba 1. *, including varieties: white oak. Q. prinus 1.* [syn. Q. montana Willd.]: chestnut oak, rock chestnut oak, white oak. Q. pagoda Raf. * [syn. Q. pagodifolia (Ell.) Ashe]: swamp red oak, black oak. Q. velutina Lam. [syn. Q. tinctoria Michx.]: black oak; and many other Quercus species. Fagaceae Oaks have a long history of medical usage, but hybridization between species makes precise correlation between a particular oak and its medical reputation somewhat uncertain. John Gerard (1597), who mentioned various species (under the heading "of the oak"), said the "leaves, bark, acorne cups, and the acornes themselves, do mightily binde and drie in the thirde degree being somewhat colde withall." 1 He noted many uses for cond i tions requiring "binding" activity, such as "women's" diseases. Unexpectedly, perhaps, three uses linked to astringent properties and mentioned commonly by later authors were not listed: for diarrhea, swellings, and skin problems. Another use commonly noted in the eighteenth century was as an alternative to cinchona bark for intermittent fevers. John Quincy wrote that because of "affinity with the Peruvian [cinchona] bark, some imagine it will prevail against intermittents," but that no "tryal" had been undertaken. It was not long before astringent-bitter medicines were generally substituted for cinchona bark.2

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It is difficult to say how popular oak bark has been, especially because of the many legends associated with the tree. 3 Quincy (1719) nevertheless indicated that it was commonly used, and William Cullen later said that he had frequently employed the decoction with advantage in "slight tumfactions of the mucous."4 As with many plants, periodic enthusiasms arose. Jonathan Pereira (1842) noted that interest had been aroused in the inhalation of finely powdered bark of Q. robur for "supposed cases of pulmonary consumption," one of a number of astringent powders tried at the time. 5 Oaks attracted much medical interest in America. Two of the forty or so native species -Quercus alba (white oak) and Quercus velutina (black oak)-were certainly established as the most useful by the early nineteenth century. Bigelow noted that white oak was the most esteemed American species and that its chief uses were as an external astringent and antiseptic: "A strong decoction is employed with advantage as a gargle in cynanche, and as a lotion in gangrenous ulcers and offensive discharges of different kinds."6 However, while many agreed with the superior value of white oak ("one of the best astringents in use") some thought black oak was more effective externally, though inferior to the white oak as an internal remedy in consequence of its tendency to gripe and even purge the bowels; white was considered milder and less acrid? Griffith's Medical Botany (1847) provided much detail on the oaks, noting that many species were substituted for the white oak (e.g., Q. prinus, Q. palustris, Q. bicolor, and Q. montana) and that Q. falcata (southern red oak) and Q. rubra (red oak) were indiscriminately used for black oak'" Oak bark continued to be included in regular and domestic medical texts, often with references to the value of the tannin content for sore throat, skin ailments, leukorrhea (as a vaginal douche). and diarrhea. Bathing in tannin solutions was also recommended for smelly

feet (ef. Mr. Bass's remarks) and excessive sweating." References to acorns are uncommon in the medical literature, but Bass is correct in saying that they have been used as an alternative to the bark and leaves. He has heard of acorn coffee (acorns roasted and prepared like coffee). which, taken with cream and sugar, was considered to be a remedy for scrofula (at least for the early stages). one example of many recommended astringents for this complaint.lO The use of acorn meal in cooking is also well known to Bass. It is little wonder that he has confidence in this "all-round" oak. Notes 1. Gerard (1597, pp. 1156ff.). Gerard's descriptions are generally considered inadequate for precise identifications, especially bearing in mind the many hybrids. For the latter, see Gardiner (1974). However, Withering (1796, 2:387) considered the common oak to be Quercus robur, and identified it in Gerard. 2. Quincy (1719. p. 102). Later, W. Lewis (1791, p. 262) noted that several fair trials had been

undertaken with oak but had not proven its value. 3. For review see Hadfield (1974, pp. 123-29). 4. Cullen (1812, 2:33). 5. Pereira (1842, 2 :1077). 6. Bigelow (1822, p. 311). 7. G. B. Wood and Bache (1836, p. 531). Clapp (1852, p. 867). Capron and Slack (1848, p. 411). 8. Griffith (1847, pp. 585-88). Napheys (1875, p.730). 9. Solis-Cohen and Githens (1928, p. 1073). 10. Napheys (1875, p. 730).

OKRA (fruit, flowers, leaves)

The Herbalist's Account Everyone knows it's a big vegetable in the South, bigger than in the North. Oh boy, I've eaten lots of fried okra. It's recommended for the vitamins and things.

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Folks used to make a poultice with the fruit. You cooked it up. It's got a mucilage; has a healing action. It can be taken for sore throats. You can also use the blooms or leaves for a poultice. Commentary Abelmoschus esculentus Med., including cultivars [syn. Hibiscus esculentus L.]: okra, gumbo. Malvaceae Despite some disagreement, okra is generally considered to have originated in tropical Africa and been brought to the New World, some say by slaves, during in the 1600s. ' It has long been a popular vegetable in the South, and, like many plants, a combination food and medicine. F. P. Porcher (1863), in his account of resources of the South, based partly on his experience in South Carolina, wrote that "the fruit and pods afford the wellknown valuable vegetable, so largely used in the Southern states in combination with tomatoes for making soup. It is very mucilaginous, and infused in water, forms a suitable vehicle for medicines, prescribed in diseases of the mucous passages, for enemata, etc."2 No evidence has been found that okra was generally used by regular physicians. Eclectic texts sometimes mentioned it as an emollient and demulcent, and valuable in poultices,' but most likely it was used largely within domestic medicine for poultices and sore throats. Recent reports from the South Carolina Sea Islands (well known to Porcher) indicate knowledge of its use for "sores that don't heal-(1) place the blossoms alone on the sores, or (2) mix the new blossoms with Octagon soap and sugar, and place this mixture on the sore.'" Bass has heard of the use of okra flowers in poultices but believes they are inferior to the fruit and to other vegetable poultices such as potato and onion. 5 Any detailed investigation of the medical reputation of okra should consider that "okra" is probably not a single

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species but a polytypic complex which exhibits both high polyploidy and hybridity.6 No secondary chemical constituents have been reported, but chemical variability due to polyploidy and hybridity may not be relevant to the suggestion that mucilaginous preparations from the pod can be used as a plasma replacement or blood-volume expander.' In terms of usage as a vegetable, it is nutritionally comparable to most green vegetables." Notes 1. Schery (1972, p. 527), Grime (1976, p. 19).

2. Porcher (1863, p. 91; 1849, p. 721). 3. King (1882, p. 13). 4. F. Mitchell (1978, p. 72). 5. Also, R. B. Browne (1958, p. 92) noted the use of okra blooms for risings, a use known to Bass. 6. Joshi and Hardas, "Okra" (in Simmonds, 1976, pp. 194-95). 7. Purseglove (1968, pp. 368-70). 8. S. Bingham (1987, p. 205).

ONION: CULTIVATED AND WILD (bulb) The Herbalist's Account Wild onion was a real old-timer among the black people and the poor white people in the sharecropper days in the South. It was gathered in the spring to cook with highland cress and other greens. A lot of the formulas with onions comes from the Indians. One was to take a common onion-a tame or cultivated onionand roast it in the stove, then put red pepper on it and eat it. I guess it would help. It was also used in poultices and put on sores and breaking out. Some of the old doctors used it, too. It's good for coughs and colds. A lady from Dallas, Texas, told me her father was a doctor and he used the formula that calls for onions for coughs and colds, and he never did have a cold that run into pneumonia.

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Commentary

Allium canadense L. *, including varieties: wild onion, onion, wild garlic, meadow garlic, field garlic. A. cepa L., including varieties and cultivars [syn. A. cumaria Ham .): onion (cultivated), shallot. Liliaceae With its obvious hot (and dry) properties ("but not so extreme hot as garlicke") and cultivation since classical times, onion's long medical history is not surprising.! John Gerard (1597) gave a range of deobstruent uses, which included promoting urination and, in certain cases, menstruation. Antivenom properties and employment in external medicines were also noted. Interestingly, onion was one of the few items that Gerard indicated had side effects, though he did not give any idea of the dosage necessary to cause them: "The onion being eaten, yea though it be boiled, causeth head-ache, hurteth the eyes, and maketh a man dim sighted, dulleth the sense, ingendreth windinesse, and provoketh overmuch sleep, especially being eaten raw."2 Eighteenth-century authors wrote positively about onion. John Hill (1751) said that they "are much eaten, and it would be well if they were yet more so; they attentuate tough and viscous humours, and cleanse the stomach, and excite an appetite; they are very powerfully diuretic and, in some degree promote the menses."3 Influential William Cullen (1775), who discussed onion along with leek and garlic, was somewhat more circumspect but noted that its demulcent and pectoral qualities made it good for coughs and colds.' Another authoritative writer, George Motherby (1785), said that onions were useful in cold, sluggish, and phlegmatic temperaments, and specifically mentioned diuretic and expectorant actions. He added that while the active matter is much more volatile than garlic, in other respects they agree. 5

Cultivated Multiplier Onion

References to onion in British and American regular medical textbooks declined during the nineteenth century, but it is clear that it was by then more a domestic medicine. Onion's popularity undoubtedly owed much to its ready availability, though its magical reputation for absorbing poisons may have been significant. 6 Mr. Bass knows about most of the uses that have been recorded in Alabama as popular beliefs, ranging from the ubiquitous use in poultices to the less common internal use for epilepsy and placing drops of the onion juice in the ears for deafness and buzzing.7 He is unfamiliar with its use as a diuretic, sometimes mentioned in nineteenth-century formulas for the treatment of bladder stone. Some of the beliefs relate as much to wild onion as to the cultivated forms. Bass says the wild form was often used, and, medicinally, he believes that it is stronger-"generally it has not got the sweet flavor of the garden onion." The "wild onion" he knows best, Allium canadense, is perhaps most commonly known as wild garlic. Many chemical and pharmacological studies have been undertaken on onion and its juice. Some parallels to garlic have been found, though the latter has attracted far more medical interest and is considered to

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be more active. The allicin (diallylsulfide oxide) present in onion has a mild stimulating action that lies behind the reputation as a counterirritant. Antimicrobial activity also has been reported. B A richness of other chemical constituents includes sulfur compounds. an essential oil, steroids, triterpenes, flavonoids, prostaglandin, prostaglandinlike substances, and diphenylamine. Laboratory studies suggest-assuming appropriate concentrations-possible uses not established in the past (at least not in Western medicine), such as hypoglycemic action, effects on the cardiovascular system and smooth muscle (including the uterus), and antibiotic effects. In fact, hypoglycemic activity has been recorded in the folk medical literature, perhaps correlated to the presence of diphenylamine, an antihyperglycemic agent present in crude onion juice.9

Notes 1. For some background see McCollum, "Onion and Allies" (in Simmonds, 1976, pp. 186-90, and references given). Hedrick (1919, pp. 32ff.) provides notes on culinary varieties. 2. Gerard (1597, pp. 133-34). Other examples for which cautions were given include cow-wheat, meadow saffron, leekes, treacle, mustard, mad apples. 3.

J.

Hill (1751, p. 380).

4. Cullen (1775, p. 70). 5. Motherby (1785), under "Cepa." 6. See, for example, comments in Hand (1968). 7. R. B. Browne (1958). For reference to current uses see J. F. Morton (1981, p. 75). 8. See Oliver-Bever (1983).

9. Some reports of hypoglycemic activity in folk practices outside Alabama have appeared. See Massa (1985), Karawaya et al. (1984).

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OXEYE DAISY (flowers)

The Herbalist's Account Oxeye daisy is a little flower that grows in fields and meadows. A tea is a tonic like chamomile, but I don't recommend it. It's a fine insecticide. You dry the flowers and break them up (grind them if you want) and make a powder. You sprinkle it around and it runs off flies, fleas, and other insects. It's safe for humans. Conunentary Leucanthemum vulgare Lam. *, including subspecies [syn. Chrysanthemum leucanthemum L.]: whiteweed, daisy, goldens, oxeye daisy. Asteraceae (Compositae) The widely naturalized oxeye daisy has a long medical history, though it has never aroused much interest. John Gerard (1597) noted that the flowers could be applied externally for cold, hard swellings, a use apparently linked to the slightly bitter-astringent character that apparently lies behind most uses recommended.' American authors of materia medica texts generally ignored oxeye daisy. C. S. Rafinesque (1828-30)' so often an exception, said it was "sometimes eaten in sallad, decoction pungent, diuretic; used for wounds, asthma, phthisis, and tinea"; and R. E. Griffith said (ef. Bass's remarks) that it can be employed as a substitute for chamomile. A. Clapp, nevertheless, correctly noted that it was "not used in this country."z Bass considers oxeye daisy's greatest value to be its insecticidal properties, which he bases on his experiences using it in the 1920s and 1930s. There are few published references to this property. F. P. Porcher (1863) quoted an earlier author who said that it is a "certain safeguard against fleas, destroying or driving them off in a short time."3 That, of course, does not indicate that insects are killed, as they are with the well-known pyrethrins, active constitutents found in pyreth-

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rum flowers (Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium Visiana) and certain other species.

Notes 1. Gerard (1597 , pp. 606-9).

2. Rafinesque (1828- 30, 2:208), Griffith {1847 , p . 387}. Clapp (1852, p. 800) . 3. Porcher (1863, p. 426).

PANSY. See Violet PARSLEY (leaf, fruits, root); SMALLAGE The Herbalist's Account It's an old-timer that's coming back in the health food stores. I've never used it; it doesn't grow here, except around some people's homes . It's a good kidney medicine, and for the stomach. The wild parsley acts something like wild carrot. Old-timers said it's a female medicine, but that's the tame plant, not the wild. I've had no experience with the wild, and there are better ones. It's also good to keep insects away. You use it like the pennyroyal, but it 's not as valuable. Commentary Petroselinum crispum (P. Mill .) Nyman ex A. W. Hill. *, including varieties [syns. P. crispum Nym. ; P. crispum (Mill.) Mansfield; P. sativum Hoffm.; P. hortense auct.; Apium petroselinum L.; Carum petrosilinum (Benth.) Hooker f.] : parsley. Apium graveolens L., including varieties: smallage, wild celery, wild parsley. Chaerophyllum tainturiei Hooker*: wild chervil, wild parsley (local name). Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) Parsley, which occasionally escapes cultivation in America, has-like anise, dill , fennel, and other umbelliferous plants-a long, conspicuous history extending back to classical times as both a culinary herb and a medicine. It was considered an important medicinal

Parsley

plant for Elizabethan gardens when John Gerard (1597) described it and other parsleys (particularly the seeds) as hot and dry and possessing deobstruent actions. These actions included diuresis (and dissolving stones and treating dropsy), breaking wind, and "[drawing) downe menses.'" Additionally, an antipoison action was noted. Parsley seems to have been fairly popular in the eighteenth century and, like celery (see monograph), was often noted as one of the five greater opening roots. John Hill (1751) described it as attenuant, aperient, detergent, and diuretic: "It is given in dietdrinks in chronic cases arising from obstructions of the viscera, and is in any form a powerful diuretic." 2 It was the diuretic action (sometimes said to be mild)-discussed widely in eighteenth- , nineteenth-, and earlytwentieth-century materia medica and domestic medicine texts from both Europe and America-that came to the fore rather than the carminative action, a well-known characteristic of many umbelliferous fruits.' Occasionally an author gives a sense that parsley root also relieves "nephritic pains,

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and obstructions of urine" without a marked diuretic effect.' Another aspect of parsley's reputationmentioned particularly in the literature of the eighteenth century and earlier (albeit sometimes with elements of uncertainty)is galactogogue action (increasing the flow of breast milk). The English Midwife (1682), in fact, said it (and small age) not only could increase the flow of milk but also lust. 5 Reported actions on the uterus (for example, parsley juice was said to cause delivery of a dead child and hasten labor) suggest that a specific physiological effect might be at play rather than a reputation owing much to a theory of deobstruent action." By the mid-nineteenth century, medical interest in parsley was declining. Dunglison, in 1843, reported on aperient and diuretic properties, but remarked: "It is hardly ever used, and is not much worthy of the attention of the practitioner." 7 Toward the end of the century, however, renewed enthusiasm in parsley emerged through interest in apiol (dimethoxysafrole) isolated from the volatile oil. Apiol was originally introduced to treat malaria because of a "fancied resemblance in its toxic action to quinine," but was soon considered to act on uterine muscle and to be useful for amenorrhoea.a It was also recommended for neuralgia. 9 Published information on the action of apiol on menstrual disorders is confusing, perhaps reflecting variable concentrations of a related constituent, myristicin, in the more than thirty varieties of parsley. The evidence certainly suggests specific uterine action, though most rationalizations reflect the comments in the authoritative British Pharmaceutical Codex: apiol is "chiefly used in dysmenorrhoea and no doubt. acts by local reflex irritation during excretion by the urinary tract." 10 Apiol and myristicin have been said to be responsible for the diuretic reputation of the seeds and oil. 11 Mr. Bass has confidence in parsley's value

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for some menstrual disorders. He has not heard of its use for skin complaints but suggests that, as a diuretic, it can purify the blood and thus improve the skin. Psoralens (furocoumarins) are associated with photodermatitis, an occupational hazard among parsley gatherers. 12 Whether the psoralens contribute to the reputation for skin problems is unclear but possible. Smallage. Bass calls Chaerophyllum tainturiei "wild parsley" (rather than wild chervil, the common vernacular for the plant) and considers it similar to parsley. In fact, the vernacular name wild parsley is more generally used for Apium graveolens (also known as smallage or wild celery), the seeds, herb, and root of which have a long-standing reputation as a tonic, carminative, and sedative, and were once associated with deobstruent activity.13 All the "wild" plants of the family Apiaceae have similar medical reputations. Notes 1. Gerard (1597, pp. 861-62]' Moore (1564, f. xxx). 2.

J.

Hill (1751, p. 645).

3. Griffith (1847, p. 318). Gunn (1869, p. 889). 4. See Woodville (1790-94, 2:206). 5. English Midwife (1682, pp. 274-75). 6. R. Carter, a botanic physician (18:~0, pp. 100101). 7. Dunglison (1843, 1:885).

8. For references to analogy to quinine, see Joret and Homolle (1855. p. 368), Stille and Maisch (1879, p. 1045); also Hare (1900, p. 83), and "Apiol," Pharm. f. Trans. 4 (1862-63): 269-71. 9. Farquharson and Woodbury (1882, p. 466). 10. British Pharmaceutical Codex (1923, p. 140). 11. For references to apiol-for instance, that it is especially valuable when amenorrhea is related to anemia and to concentrations of apiol and myristicin, etc.-see Cerna (1893, p. 30], Shoemaker (1893,2:804]' British Pharmaceutical Codex (1923, p. 140), and "The Medicinal Uses of Parsley." Lawrence Rev. Nat. Prod. 5 (1984): 37-38. For some reference to usage elsewhere, see Browner and Ortiz de Montellano (1986, pp. 32-47).

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12. "Medicinal Uses of Parsley." note 11 above; D. M. Smith (1985). 13. Gerard (1597, pp. 862-63) discussed it as water parsley, or smallage, and noted deobstruent actions as well as external usage in the management of ulcers.

PASSIONFLOWER (leaves) The Herbalist's Account Maypop, or passionflower-it·s a beautiful vine-is the finest nerve medicine. The fruit is yellow when it's ripe in June or July and smells good. Gather the vine and pick off the leaves, dry in shade, and pack in jars or paper bags. The Campbell Fur and Root Company buys passionflower by the carload [1985]. They can't get as much as they want. They ship bales of it to France, where they make heart medicine out of it. The tea is safe for the nerves, but I don't use it for heart medicine. It's the most wonderful sleep and pacifying plant, valuable for a nerve medicine. You can use it in many ways. They say it brings people together. After you have lived with someone for many years the little things they do start to bother you. So you take some passionflower leaves and make you a tea. Pretty soon you start to relax and the little things don't bother you so much and you get along just fine. Any good sleeping medicine has passionflower in it. Use a handful of crushed leaves in a teacup of boiling water and sweeten to taste. You can drink as much as three or four cups a day. In the nerve tonic I fix, it'll cause you to sleep like a baby most every time. I mix maypop with skullcap, peach tree leaves, sage, and sometimes catnip. I have two people who use it. One man I let make his own. A lady in Centre, with shaking palsy, is taking the tea, and her hand don't shake anymore. The tea is hard to keep. Commentary

Passiflora incarnata L. * [syns. Grandilla incarnata Medic.; P. edulis var. kerii DC.]:

passionflower, maypop. P. edulis Sims: passionflower. Passifloraceae Among the passionflowers, renowned for their beauty, P. incarnata, probably indigenous to the United States, has attracted modest medical interest, at least until recently. It is closely related to P. edulis, one of the species widely cultivated for the pulp and seeds, which are eaten alone, in fruit salads, or as jams.' Other species have also been recorded to possess medicinal properties. Thomas Johnson included a passionflower in his revised edition of Gerard's Herball (1633) but without suggesting any medical uses. 2 Despite much fascination over religious associations with the flower, medical interest emerged slowly, even in the nineteenth-century regular and domestic medical literature, which focused on indigenous plants.3 In 1836 the lack of curiosity and of any medical trials were noted; though around the same time C. S. Rafinesque (1828-30) reported that a syrup made from the fruits was cooling in fevers, the leaves were used topically, and the juice was given to dogs to cure the staggers, or epilepsy. S. F. Gray indicated (1836) that the roots were "sudorific" and that "Passiflora marucuja" possessed narcotic properties.' Nevertheless, by 1863 F. P. Porcher merely stated that P. incarnata was employed in medicine but had received no attention. 6 New pockets of interest, however, were almost certainly developing. In 1896 Thomas Hill, writing on materia medica indigenous to North Carolina, noted that a Dr. J. L. Phares of Newtonia, Mississippi, said he had used the remedy (P. incarnatCl) for "years in the treatment of tetanus, also syphilis and erysipelas."7 For reasons not altogether clear-but in part through promotion by pharmaceutical companies-general interest emerged in the early years of the twentieth century among regular and Eclectic physicians." F. Elling-

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wood's Eclectic textbook (1915) noted various medical uses (some with testimonials); for example, for convulsions in children, general tetanus, hysteria, and as a stomach and general sedative. 9 The chemistry of Fassiflora species is complex, and differences between species almost certainly exist. P. incarnata and P. edulis contain alkaloids, chiefly harman, harmine, harmol, and harmalol, and the sedative action is attributed to these (though stimulant action is also recorded). The precise roles of flavonoids and various other compounds (e.g., the pyrone maltol) are unclear.1° Much debate exists over the presence of cyanogenic glycosides, but these have not been reported in P. incarnata or P. edulis. Passionflower-whether always P. incarnata is uncertain but unlikely-has become increasingly popular in recent years (reflected in Bass's encomium) as part of the neoherbal movement. Many favorable testimonies, despite variable dosage suggestions, indicate that further detailed pharmacological and clinical studies are needed.

Notes 1. Some authors have considered Passifiora incarnata and P. edulis to be varieties of a single species; e.g., Martin and Nakasone (1970). 2. Gerard/Johnson (1633, pp. 1591-92). Johnson appears to be describing P. incarnata.

3. For some background on religious associations see Hoch (1934). Schoepf (1787, p. 131) noted its association with" staggers" in Carolina. 4. "Medico-Botanical Notices No. 10," Amer. J. Pharm. 8 (1836): 101-2, under "passion flower." 5. Rafinesque (1828-30, 2:250); S. F. Gray (1836, p. 116) referred to its use as a nerve tonic and for seizures. 6. Porcher (1863, p. 77). Other species had been mentioned in American writings; e.g., Passifiora laurifolia, but it is not clear that they were used; see Dunglison (1848, p. 632). 7. T. Hill (1896, p. 94).

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8. Advertisements in, for example, various issues of The Medical Brief (1896). 9. Ellingwood (1915, p. 108). Lloyd (1912) indicates knowledge among regular and Eclectic physicians. 10. For introductions and lead references, see MacDougal (1983), Tyler (1987, pp. 174-75), Lutomski and Malik (1974).

PAWPAW (leaves) The Herbalist's Account

There's two different kinds. Some grow high and another is dwarf. What I have around the place is the tall type that grows in the swamp. They have long pawpaws on them. The dwarf grows on poor land on hillsides, on limey land. It's another Indian remedy. I've never used them. Some folks said they was good for worms, but they are powerful, a bit like a narcotic when not ripe, and I would never recommend them. Commentary

Asimina triloba (1.) Dunal', including hybrids [syn. Annona triloba 1.1: pawpaw, custard-apple, Michigan banana. A. parviflora (Michx.) Dunal' [syn. Annona triloba 1.1: pawpaw, custard apple, Michigan banana, dwarf pawpaw. Annonaceae

Asimina triloba-an indigenous shrub or small tree- is the best-known species of the pulpy pawpaw, which has the shape of a short, thickset banana and is often considered a delicacy. The name pawpaw sometimes refers to Carica papaya, a tropical fruit tree more commonly known as papaya and a well-known source of papain, the digestive enzyme employed as a meat tenderizer. The name custard apple for pawpaw arises from its similarity to the tropical custard apple, Annona reticulata, which once had a reputation for treating diarrhea, dysentery, and worms. 1 While well known (reflected in the refrain, "What are you doing? Picking up paw-

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paws?"), pawpaw has attracted little interest among medical writers. Schoepf (1787), in summarizing colonial knowledge, noted that the fruit is useful for children's sore mouths. 2 Nineteenth-century authors rarely mentioned pawpaw, but C. S. Rafinesque said: "fruit with a bad smell, but when ripe after frost, the pulp is sweet, luscious, yellow, similar to custards. It is sedative, laxative and healthy." 3 Nevertheless, as he indicated elsewhere, it was "relished by few except negroes."4 Modest interest emerged subsequently, mostly among Eclectic practitioners. ParkeDavis marketed a fluid extract of Asimina triloba with the statement: "said to be useful in asthma, and also employed as an emetic." 5 Anthelmintic properties were also recorded and are known to Mr. Bass, but his concern over the powerful action of the remedy perhaps reflects the reputation of Asimina parviflora rather than A. triloba'" Mr. Bass says that he heard from neighbors about eating the fruit for treating worms. Other uses listed from the Appalachians include application of the leaves to boils or sores to bring them to a head? Bass has not heard of this but says that most leaves will work as a sort of poultice. Knowledge of medical usage of pawpawnot readily explained on a chemical basishas probably always been more within the oral rather than the written tradition, and Bass, albeit unenthusiastically, continues the tradition. Inconsistent testimony over its medical value may reflect the presence of hybrids." Notes 1. There was not a widespread reputation in the West, though there were calls for its use; e.g., Curtis's Botanical Magazine 3 (1829): 289.

2. For some colonial references see Lloyd and Lloyd (1886-87, 2:49-60). 3.

Rafinesque (1828-30, 2:197).

4.

See also Hedrick (1919, p. 71).

5. Parke-Davis (1890, p. 135).

6.

See Hyams (1898, p. 335).

Bolyard (1981, p. 32); see also Krochmal and Krochmal (1973, p. 51). 8. C. E. Wood (1958, pp. 311-13). 7.

PEACH (leaves, flowers, bark, kernels) The Herbalist's Account It is best to gather the leaves in July, August, or September. Dry them in the shade, store in paper bags or jars. The bark of the tree is good, too, but nobody wants to skin a peach tree unless they are pruning it. It's like a drugstore on its own. All the folks used it. The leaves are one of the finest things in the world for a sick stomach. If you get up in the morning feeling sick, make yourself some peach leaves tea, a handful of leaves to a cup of boiling water and let it sit for fifteen minutes. It will keep things down. It's good for morning sickness in expectant mothers. It's mild and can be used for children, but a double dose is a laxative. It makes a good nerve medicine, for calming nerves. It's also wonderful to wash your hair in. And if you warm some oil with peach pits, it's good to use for earache. The leaves make a refreshing tea, not a medicine. The wood was used a lot for furniture. Commentary Prunus persica (1.) Batsch., including varieties' [syns. P. amygdalus persica 1.; P. vulgaris Mill.; P. persica Stoles; Pygeum persica Batsch.]: peach. Rosaceae Although the peach tree-a native of China, where it is a well-known medicine-has not attracted much interest among physicians (at least compared with other plants containing cyanogenic glycosides). Mr. Bass's enthusiasm mirrors a well-established tradition. 1 John Gerard indicated that peach was a virtual panacea. He described the fruits as cold and moist and the kernels as hot and dry. Uses for fruit, kernels, leaves, and flowers

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included to loosen the belly, open stoppings of the liver, and to treat worms, wounds, and skin diseases? Eighteenth-century British writers like John Hill and William Lewis were less comprehensive in their listings but did note purgative properties of flowers, leaves, and fruits as well as anthelmintic action,3 Although influential Scottish physician William Cullen, after discussing black cherry and the bitter almond, thought it unnecessary to consider the peach ("I do not think it necessary to speak of substances which I have not been acquainted with in practice"), one contributor to the growing literature on pediatrics said that a syrup made of peach flowers is the best, mildest, and safest emetic for infants and also for gently opening the belly.' Uneven coverage continued for some time; some British writers, like Jonathan Pereira, did discuss it at some length, but without indicating a major therapeutic role. 5 In colonial America some authors placed considerable emphasis on peach blossoms (as part of the treatment of fever and pains), but such later influential materia medica texts as Griffith's (1847) and Johnson's (1884) ignored peach altogether.6 Yet some references persisted. Rafinesque (1828-30) said that the blossoms are bitter, anodyne, and carminative (like the leaves, which, however, "are weaker, more bitter and less agreeable"), while accounts in U.S. dispensatories drew attention to the laxative, anthelmintic, and sedative actions of the leaves, the sedative actions of the flowers, and the use of the kernels for sedative effects and other properties attributed to the hydrocyanic acid present.' While some may have preferred the kernels, it is probable that peach leaves (mostly from cultivated plants) have been more widely used in domestic medicine as "tonic, diuretic, hepatic, alterative, sedative and somewhat laxative"-uses generally known to Mr. Bass.8 During the twentieth century, domestic employment for fevers, headache, earache, toothache, and crick in the neck

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have been recorded. 9 A recently reported use in traditional practice-as an aid in parturition-is explained by Bass as due to a sedative action.'o Despite the popular reputation, many Eclectic practitioners apparently had little enthusiasm for peach by the early years of the present century. Finley Ellingwood's Materia Medica and Therapeutics (1915) noted that "the older physicians suggested this remedy as specific, to irritation in the stomach, with persistent nausea and vomiting," but, like many "younger" physicians, he was skeptical. "It has invariably disappointed the author, but other physicians use it with confidence." 11 One issue, perhaps, in the variable reputation has been variation in cyanogenic and other compounds in the various parts of the tree used. 12 If peach's reputation has been somewhat uneven in the past, Bass's enthusiasm rests on frequent testimonials from visitors, especially for settling the stomach and relieving morning sickness. No wonder he believes that more commercial attention should be given to peach.

Notes 1. For references to Asian usage see Perry (1980, p.345).

2. Gerard (1597, pp. 1251-61). 3. J. Hill (1751, p. 441], W. Lewis (1769,2:129). 4. Cooke (1769. p. 6], Cullen (1812, 2:206). 5. Pereira (1842. 2:1538-39). 6. For example. Tennent (1734) made many references to the use of peach blossom. 7. Rafineseque (1828-30,2:191). G. B. Wood and Bache (1868. p. 93). 8. Quotation from Gunn (1869. p. 489). See Batts MS (receipt for "bowell diseases on little children"). 9. F. C. Brown (1957-64. 6:114. 176. 209. 237. 283. 304.308). 10. Bolyard (1981. p. 123). The sedative action

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may be linked to the treatment of amenorrhea. For reference see Kong (1976). 11. Ellingwood (1915 . p. 282). 12. Perry, 1980.

PEANUT (seeds) The Herbalist's Account Back in the old days everybody had peanuts; they'd eat them raw, roasted, or boiled . In the southern part of Alabama they still have peanut festivals and peanut queens. Some people say that peanut butter is really healthy. It's got a lot of nutrition . The butter became popular after the First World War. People used to make their own. The peanuts would be roasted, peeled, and ground, and oil (generally cottonseed or sunflower oil) would be added. They're a real good household food for young and old. If you eat a handful of raw ones every day, they are a mild laxative. We used to give them to a cow when she was ready to give birth to a calf, something like a gallon and a half of raw peanuts. The oil in there would take care of the cow. I've seen several of them that would have died if it hadn 't been for that. Commentary Arachis hypogaea L.. including subspecies and varieties [syns. A. americana Tenore; A. africana Lour.; A. asiatica Lour.]: ground peas, goobers, groundnut, peanut. Fabaceae (Leguminosae) Mr. Bass's remark "back in the old days everybody had peanuts," reflects the postCivil War boom of growing peanuts (underground fruits) in the South.' In 1863 Francis Porcher wrote that "the ground-nut is cultivated to some extent in South Carolina. and great use is made of it on the plantations as an article of food, and for various domestic purposes.'" However. it was not until the 1930s that it was boosted as an alternative

crop to cotton, which was being destroyed by the boll weevil. Medical interest in this small annual plant, cultivated in many warm parts of the world apart from the southern United States, lies in the expressed fixed oil, known as arachis oil. This, consisting of glycerides of oleic, linoleic. palmitic, arachidic, stearic, lignoceric, and other acids, has been used pharmaceutically as a substitute for olive oil in the preparation of various ointments, liniments, and plasters, as well as for many other commercial uses. 3 An estrogenic action has been reported. Peanuts contain oil (43-55 percent) . protein (25-28 percent). phytosterols, minerals, and B vitamins.' Bass's remark that they have "got a lot of nutrition" is widely held, though 70 percent of the vitamin B is lost in roasting, and the phytic acid reduces the absorption of minerals present (e.g., zinc and iron). An occasional worrying issue is the development

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of aflatoxin contamination in groundnut meal that has not received sufficient care in harvesting and storage; this has led to cases of poisoning. No clear reference has been found to a laxative property, other than Bass's testimony. In fact, he sees the mild laxative action as part of the aura of wholesomeness of that distinctly southern food, peanuts. Notes 1. For some early history on the origin of the peanut, see Gregory and Gregory, "Ground nut" (in Simmonds, 1976, pp. 151-54).

2.

Porcher (1863, p. 195).

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interest away from areas where it is commonplace. Interest in growing pecans commercially developed largely in the early 1900s. Medically, the pecan has generally taken third rank to the walnut and hickories for usage (of the bark) as a tonic, laxative, and salve. Like many other plants, specific uses are occasionally reported, as in south Texas and northern Mexico for the blood, cold sores, and blenorrhea.' Published confirmation of hypoglycemic action has not been found, nor has information on secondary chemical constituents. The seeds are high in caloric value and have large amounts of fixed oil, protein, and carbohydrates.

3. Trease and Evans (1983, p. 329). 4. See Nutritive Value of American Foods in Cornman Units (1975, p. 110).

Notes 1. Porcher (1863, p. 333).

2. T. Smith (1981, pp. 197-212).

PECAN (bark, leaves, fruit)

The Herbalist's Account We haven't had too many pecans around here until the last twenty years. I've not used them much. The blue jays generally get my nuts. The nuts can be used in salves; I've used them but they're not so good as walnuts. A wash is good for the hair and skin diseases. ah boy, down in Mississippi and Louisiana they just swear that the leaves is the finest thing in the world for sugar diabetes. I don't use them because there are other things I know will work. Commentary Carya illinoensis (Wang.) K. Koch*, wild and cultivars [syns. C. oliviformis (Michx. f.) Nutl.; C. pecan (Marsh.) Eng!. and Graebn.J: pecan. Juglandaceae Pecan nuts, whether from wild or cultivated trees, have long been appreciated as a rich and nutritious food.' Nevertheless, like the closely related hickories, the tree (at least the bark and leaves) has attracted little medical

PENNYROYAL (tops); DITTANY The Herbalist's Account Pennyroyal is found wild or it can be grown in the garden. Plants run from four to twelve inches tall depending upon the soil. It should be grown in every garden. It must be dried in the shade and stored in jars tightly after drying to keep in the strength. It is actually official medicine but I don't recommend it for a tea because somebody might use it the wrong way. If a woman is about to be a mother, if she drinks it, there's likely to be an abortion. We don't want to be the one that spreads it. But it's used for colds and headaches, A man from West Virginia, his mother kept pennyroyal in the smokehouse and just as soon as he had the sniffles, here come the pennyroyal tea. He said it wasn't bad the way she fixed it, and in just no time the sniffles was gone. The tops of the plant is used to make a stimulant and a cold and fever medicine. r just generally tell folks that pennyroyal

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is an insecticide. If the plant is rubbed on your hands, feet, or other parts of the body, it will keep off the mosquitoes, mites, and fleas. Old-timers put it in doghouses and chicken houses to keep away mites and fleas. The man we saw the other night said the dog slept in it and the flies wouldn't ever come around it. Someone wrote to me recently and said, "We put pennyroyal and horse mint around the house to keep fleas away." Commentary Mentha pulegium L., including varieties [syn. M. vulgare Mill.]: pennyroyal. Hedeoma pulegiodes (1.) Pers.': American pennyroyal, mock pennyroyal. Cunila origanoides (1.) Britt.' [syns. C. mariana 1.; Mappia origanoides (L.) House]: dittany. Lamiaceae (Labiatae) European pennyroyal, Mentha pulegium, has a long medical history. John Gerard (1597) described how common this "hot and dry" plant was, with "poore women [bringing] plentie to sell in London markets." 1 In line with a well-established reputation, Gerard opened his remarks on "vertues" by stating: "Pennie Royall boiled in wine and drunken, provoketh the monthly terms, bringeth forth the secondine, the deade childe and unnaturaIl birth: it provoketh urine, and breaketh the stone, especially of the kidnies." Other deobstruent actions (such as clearing the lungs and indigestion) were noted. This panacea reputation persisted in almost all eighteenth- and nineteenth-century European writings on materia medica. Cultivated and naturalized in parts of the United States, Mentha pulegium is the only pennyroyal discussed in many American writings on materia medica. 2 Usages listed were essentially the same as in European accounts. American pennyroyal, Hedeoma pulegiodes, in popular use by the early nineteenth century, is said to have been introduced to settlers by Indians; however, European pennyroyal was undoubtedly well

known, and the American plant was an obvious substitute. 3 W. P. C. Barton (1817) said that "great quantities of the herb [were] brought to the Philadelphia market, and vended at a trifling price, for medical purposes," evidence of the extensive use in domestic practice. Rafinesque (1828-30), while also indicating widespread usage, was just one writer to emphasize many uses other than for menstrual problems; he noted specifically that some herbalists in the North employed it extensively for colds, colic in children, and to remove obstructions, warm the stomach, and promote perspiration. 4 On 16 January 1855 Appalachian herb and root dealer C. J. CowIe urged a customer to "do the best you can for pennyroyalwinter is the time to sell it if ever. Make it hot, it hasn't even walked yet." 5 Even so, it seems clear that its principal reputation was self-treatment of "recent suppression of the menses." 6 The widely known use as an insecticide has been questioned at times. According to one author in 1847, "it is said that the plant or its oil is an effectual remedy against the attacks of ticks, fleas and mosquitoes, but, from many trials made with it, it does not appear to possess any more effect than the other aromatics." 7 Other medical writers, including Laurence Johnson (1884), didn't even mention insect-repelling properties. Johnson did consider that effects on menstrual problems were due to its general stimulant properties and not to any specific action on the uterus. B By this time (the 1880s) American pennyroyal had become less popular. In 1890 British physician A. D. Leith Napier reported on Mentha pulegium and indicated that among many classes it was recognized as a tolerably certain abortifacient and esteemed as less hurtful than aloes, savin, cantharides, ergot, elaterium, croton oil, black hellebore, squiBs, and borax. At the same time he said it was very questionable that any of these drugs could be regarded as absolutely certain to interrupt gestation. 9

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American Pennyroyal Relatively few studies have been undertaken specifically to test if pennyroyal has oxytocic properties. Some investigations on the "oil" (0.05 percent solution), in fact, indicated a relaxant rather than stimulant action on the uterus. This led to the conclusion that abortions sometimes produced by the drug result from a systemic poisoning action. 'O A general toxic action can explain, at least in part, inconsistent effects with pennyroyal. Even if pennyroyal's reputation has not been as consistent as sometimes assumed, it remains one of the best-known reputed abortifacients, and fatalities have been reported in recent years." Mr. Bass's remarks make clear that he worries over this reputation; in fact he does not generally talk about it to visitors as a women's medicine. The well-established reputation for relieving colds and flatulence is generally associated with the presence of the essential oil. Despite Bass's enthusiasm over insecticide properties, published testimony is not strong. Dittany. Dittany has long had a medical reputation similar to pennyroyal: "stimulat-

329

ing, carminative and aromatic," and perhaps as an emmenagogue. 12 Some uncertainty exists in the story of dittany in the European literature because various plants were known by that name, but principally Origanum dictamnus (dittany of Crete) and Dictamnus a/bus (white dittany). Both were thought to possess similar activities. In America the story is even more complicated. By early colonial times the name dittany was possibly already in use for Cunila origanoides. Clayton (1687) wrote: "There are strange storys told in favour of an herb called dittany, which however is not of the dittany kind but it is only a mountain calaminth. This they say will not only cure the bite of a rattlesnake, but that the smell thereof will kill the snake." 13 Later, in the Appalachians at least, dittany came to be viewed as an alternative to pennyroyal and other mints. In 1860 C. J. Cowie wrote to a customer: "It occurs to us that you might sell a bale or two of our dittany-those who use pennyroyal could substitute this particularly in baths, etc." ,. There is no clear evidence that dittany became popular even as a domestic medicine, and certainly not for treating snakebites. The plant is uncommon in Bass's area, but he has collected it occasionall y in the past for a commercial dealer. Notes 1. Gerard's (1597, p. 546) accounts and illustrations of a number of "pennyroyal" plants make their identification difficult. In Johnson's revised illustration (1633, p. 671) it is generally considered to be M. pulegium (see Withering, 1796, 3:525).

2. W. P. C. Barton (1817-18, 2:165-69). 3. Lloyd (1921, p. 163). Hedeoma is likely to have been generally used in colonial times. In Josselyn (1865, originally 1672-p. 44 of original) the upright pennyroyal is generally considered to be Hedeoma pulegiodes. 4. Rafinesque (1828-30, 1:233-34). 5. E.g., Farquharson and Woodbury (1882, p. 291). 6. CowIe Papers.

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7. Griffith (1847, p. 509). 8. L. Johnson (1884, p. 211). 9. Napier (1890). 10. Cf. Macht (1913). Similar conclusions were ar-

rived at for savin oil, tansy oil, rue oil, thyme oil, turpentine, and apia!. 11. Conway and Slocumb (1979-80) noted that among individuals of Spanish and Mexican descent in New Mexico, Hedeoma pulegiodes is considered "too strong" and potentially dangerous as an abortifacient. Hedeoma oblongifolia is preferred. 12. Griffith (1847, p. 510). 13. B. G. Hoffman (1964, p. 13). 14. Cowie Papers, 6 December 1860.

PEONY (roots, flowers)

The Herbalist's Account It's a garden plant. Miss Mackey always had some. People have asked me about it, but I've never used it. I tell them the root is good for the nerves, but that they may want to try maypop first. Commentary Poeonio officinolis L., including several subspecies and cultivars [syns. P. !oemino Mill.; P. mosculo (L.) Mill.]: peony. Paeoniaceae Peony's long medical history, which extends from classical times to the twentieth century, is generally forgotten nowadays, though the handsome plant-the subject of much horticultural endeavor-is still a garden favorite. It was regarded as an important medicinal plant for Elizabethan gardens, and John Gerard (1597) considered the root, flower, fruit, and seed. The root, he wrote, quoting Galen, "doth gently binde with a kinde of sweetness: and hath also joined with it a certaine bitterish sharpnesse: it is in temperature not very hot, little more than meanly hot, but it is drie and of subtile partes." 1 This apparent diversity of qualities might suggest that theory rather than empirical data

contributed to some of peony's reputation, especially for deobstruent actions. The story of the plant is further complicated by a recognition of male and female peonies, with preference given to male peony for many conditions (for example, according to Gerard, "diseases of the mind"). Linnaeus listed male and female peonies as varieties of Peonio officinajis; some later authorities viewed them as different species, a distinction no longer accepted. 2 The plant has been particularly well known for the treatment of epilepsy and diseases of the mind. In fact, for long periods peony was the principal remedy for epilepsy, although sometimes this has been in the context of magical or nonnatural treatment. 3 Employment for nervous disorders remained generally accepted until at least the first half of the eighteenth century. John Quincy (1719) described the flowers as "much in esteem for convulsions in children and accounted good in all nervous distempers," and the roots, apart from some magical properties, as "aperient and upon the account reckon'd amongst diuretics and detergents as likewise alexipharmick." 4 The efficacy of peony was being questioned by the second half of the eighteenth century, when a revision of the materia medica was well under way. William Cullen (1781). with much authority, wrote that it had "long stood in our lists, but I can find no writer or practitioner who can give testimony of its virtues from particular experience." 5 Mixed opinions continued into the nineteenth century, some perhaps due to differences in the quality of the drug used. American author R. E. Griffith (1847) classified it as a powerful antispasmodic and said that "modern experience [has] shown that although this root is possessed of some power in a recent state, still it is far from inferior to many other articles of the class, and that when dried, it is almost inert."" Peony continued to have an ambivalent reputation, even when some pharmaceuti-

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cal companies marketed preparations of it at the end of the 1800s and in the early 1900s. Parke-Davis's Manual of Therapeutics (1909) stated: "Formerly possessed of considerable reputation in epilepsy, and from its astringency, in diarrhea. Very little information of a modern nature is available, but occasionally it is used as an antispasmodic and nerve sedative, as in chorea and whooping cough.'" It is not altogether surprising that Eclectic medical author F. Ellingwood (1915) was more posit~ve, and, following what is still a commonplace notion in much herbal medicine, stressed that peony has to be used persistently to be of value in epilepsy." Although little information has reached Mr. Bass, references to peony have persisted in some popular herbal literature such as J. Meyer's Herbalist, various editions of which have stated that the plant has been "credited by some with antispasmodic powers, while others refer to it as purgative and emetic."9 Among a variety of constituents, tannins, volatile oil, organic acids, and alkaloids have been reported.'o Clinical and pharmacological evaluation of these is needed, but especially for antispasmodic, analgesic, and other actions in line with species of Paeonia employed in Oriental medicine.ll Paeoniflorin, a monoterpine glycoside, has marked pharmacological activity, including action on the central nervous system. Perhaps the minimal enthusiam shown by Bass reflects the fact that peony is a "tame," not a wild plant. Notes 1. Gerard (1597, pp. 829-33). For Elizabethan interest see Moore (1564, f. xlii v). 2. Temkin (1971, p. 25). Temkin (p. 27) made an interesting point about the management of epilepsy by Greek physicians after the time of Hippocrates. He suggested that it illustrates one of many compromises that can be found in Western therapy. Although the majority of the physicians wem hostile to the belief in demoniacal etiology of epilepsy and did not use incantations. they nevertheless generally admitted the effectiveness of amulets

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and miraculous remedies, as well as the influence of the moon. Even today it can be said that the art of medicine rests on judiciously linking together biomedical and ethnomedical ideas. 3. For some background see Stern (1946). 4. Quincy (1719. pp. 82 and 86). 5. Cullen (1781. p. 327); see also Temkin (1971, pp. 237-39). 6. Griffith (1847, p. 92). 7. Parke-Davis (1909. p. 490). 8. Ellingwood (1915. pp. 129-30). 9. E.g.,

J. Meyer (19:)4, p.

183).

10. Duke (1985. p. 336).

11. Hikino (1985, 1:52-85).

PEPPER (fruit)

The Herbalist's Account Black pepper was a highly recommended medicine. It was always there in the kitchen when you wanted to make a weak tea of it for the colic. My daddy often used it. Some folks took it dry or mixed with sugar. It was used for cough medicines: you added it to vinegar with red pepper and it was a sort of stimulant. Commentary Piper nigrum L., including cultivars [syns. P. album VahI.; P. glabrispicum DC.]: black pepper and white pepper. Piperaceae That pepper has been in "constant use [since ancient times] both in food and medicine" was John Hill's opening remark in 1751 when he discussed three kinds of pepper: black, white, and long. He went on to describe the properties John Gerard (1597) and others in an earlier age had linked to the concept of hot and dry qualities and deobstruent actions: "We mix pepper in our food principally to assist digestion. The common people of the East Indies think it a great stomachic, and drink a strong infusion of it in water by way of giving them an appetite." 1

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Throughout its long history of medical usage, black pepper has been the most commonly employed, though white (long recognized as from the same plant, differences being due to methods of preparation) was often considered "milder and better," Long pepper (probably mostly P. longum L., not P. retrofactum) has frequently been mentioned as an alternative. Although pepper was mentioned in almost all books on materia medica until the twentieth century, its medical reputation had declined even by around 1850. In 1847 R. E. Griffith said it was employed principally as a condiment, but was also used in medicine, chiefly "to correct the flatulent or griping qualities of certain articles of diet." 2 Stimulant action continued to be mentioned occasionally, along with employment for colds, but medical usage continued to fade and was minimal by 1900, except as self-treatment. Mr. Bass's remarks reflect not only knowledge of a long-standing reputation for settling the stomach, but also his belief that, like cayenne pepper (see monograph). it is a stimulant. 3 Black pepper contains a volatile oil, which is the basis of the aroma. Alkaloids (piperine and piperidine) and a resin (chavicine) are present. The latter, contributing to the pungency, is most abundant in the mesocarp, which is removed in the preparation of white pepper.' Domestic usage of pepper for colic is one of many of Bass's minor suggestions which have been pushed aside and forgotten in the face of commercial, over-the-counter medicines. Notes 1.

J. Hill (1751, pp.

2.

Griffith (1847. p. 565).

462-65).

Stimulant action and various uses mentioned by Pereira (1842, 2:1099-1104). 3.

For background see Trease and Evans (1983, p. 570), and Purseglove (1968. pp. 441-50).

4.

PEPPERGRASS (whole plant) The Herbalist's Account It's good to eat for greens when it's small. It's a tonic, a stimulant, you know, like pepper itself. Some old-timers made it into poultices for skin conditions. I've recommended it for a hair tonic. You make a tea out of it and use it with a shampoo. Commentary Lepidium latifolium L., including varieties: dittander, dittany, pepperwort, peppergrass, tonguegrass, broad-leaved pepperwort. L. virginicum L. *, including varieties: poorman's pepper, tonguegrass, scurvy grass (local name). L. graminifolium 1., including subspecies [syn. L. iberis L.]: sciatica cress. Brassicaceae (Cruciferae) Lepidium species have a worldwide distribution and have had a modest but long-standing place in medical treatment, at least up to the nineteenth century. John Gerard (1597) considered more than one species. L. latifolium (leaves and roots) was described as hot and dry, and employed for various skin conditions. Sciatica cress (possibly L. graminifoHum) was noted to be employed in a plaster for those "tormented with the sciatica.'" Among eighteenth-century authors who considered Lepidium, William Lewis referred to both poor-man's pepper and sciatica cress. He indicated that the pungency-an important characteristic-is largely destroyed by drying, and said that the herbs were "recommended as antiseptics, stomachics, attenuants; and appear to be of the same general nature with the cochleariae, nasturtium and other acrid antiscorbutics." He also noted that applying sciatica cress externally to the area of sciatic pain was helpful.2 British interest-at least among regular physicians-hardly lasted into the nineteenth century. In 1796 William Withering said that as an antiscorbutic it was formerly

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used in place of horseradish. His comment that "an infusion of it vomits" implied one reason for little usage. 3 L. latifolium, naturalized in North America, probably attracted some interest in colonial times. Stearns discussed it and sciatica cress in his American Herbal (1801), but it was the indigenous 1. virginicum that generally gained the attention of most American authors.' Clapp (1852) indicated that it was one of a number of cruciferous plants (the best known being shepherd's purse [see monograph]) that had a reputation for antiscorbutic, stimulant, expectorant, diuretic, and deobstruent properties. The plants were employed in scurvy, chronic coughs, dropsies, and diseases of the skin. Use as a vegetable for salads was also noted. 5 Peppergrass was rarely mentioned thereafter, but it did appear in Joseph Meyer's Herbalist (1934). There it was "recommended as a hair tonic used in combination with sage, henna leaves, and cinchona bark," a clear indication of the decline of interest even in domestic medicine.6 Nevertheless, occasional uses have been noted since that time. 1. virginicum has been used by Lumbee Indians for restoring sex drive.' Mr. Bass says this is in line with the reputation as a stimulant. The marked sensory properties of Lepidium species (including the well-known garden cress, 1. sativum) are due to glucosinolate compounds. (Garden cress has been well investigated, particularly for the production of benzyl cyanide and other compounds.) Such compounds are known for rubefacient properties. Their long-standing role in the management of skin conditions is fully appreciated by Bass. Problems about standardized effects due, for example, to confusion between 1. densiflorum Schrader and 1. virginicum, and differences in glucosinolates among Lepidium species, are perhaps of little consequence if only the rubefacient properties are utilized. B

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Notes 1. Gerard (1597, p. 187); Withering (1796, 3:567) suggested Lepidium latifo/ium for fig. 2. Other Lepidiums mentioned include sciatica cress. Interestingly, Gerard did not repeat the uses listed in the celebrated Regimen Sanitatis Salernii, which appeared in hundreds of versions between 1100 and the nineteenth century. The "juice of the pepperwort stops falling hair, rather it prevents their falling; it cures toothache, and when mixed with honey it cures scaly skin." 2. Lewis (1769, 2:22). 3. Gerard (1597, p. 567). 4. Stearns (1801, p. 253). 5. Clapp (1852, p. 739) actually called it wild

peppergrass. 6. ). E. Meyer (1934, p. 190). 7. Croom (1982, pp. 83-84). 8. Al-Shehbaz (1986).

PERIWINKLE (leaves) The Herbalist's Account Periwinkle is an old-timer, a tonic, but not used much. It's harsh; I've never used it. It's got a reputation in cancer-use it internally or outside. I've thought of putting it in my salve. Commentary Vinca minor 1.: small periwinkle, common periwinkle. V. major 1.: large periwinkle. Catharanthus roseus (1.) G. Don [syns. Ammocallis rosea Small; Lochnera rosea Riech. f.; V. rosea 1.]: Madagascar periwinkle. Apocynaceae Mr. Bass's remark about periwinkle's reputation for cancer treatment illustrates the often rapid incorporation of new information (in this case misinformation) into herbal medicine. The periwinkle now well known for antitumor constituents is the Madagascar periwinkle (an annual commonly sold as a garden plant), not the perennials V. minor

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or V. major. Interestingly, knowledge of the anticancer activity of Catharanthus emerged from an incidental finding in the 1950s during investigations into the plant's reputation as an antidiabetic agent.' Bass follows some earlier reputations of V. major and V. minor when he refers to a tonic action, which was associated with the mild astringency. It was certainly the latter that rationalized its use for menorrhagia. John Gerard (1597). who discussed vincas as hot and dry and astringent, said they were used to "stoppeth inordinate course of the monthly sickness." 2 Other uses, such as for bloody flux, were noted as well. In fact, some authors implied a reasonably strong astringency. George Motherby summarized: "An infusion of the leaves is commended against the fluor albus, haemoptoe, hemorroids, and excessive menses." 3 The extent of perwinkle's popularity in nineteenth-century America is unclear. It was omitted from many texts, and certainly by the end of the century was not looked upon favorably by most physicians. Uncertainty about its actions was indicated among writers on materia medica. W. P. Bolles wrote in 1887 that both species were "about obsolete as medicines. They have been considered of benefit in menorrhagia, and in drying the milk of nursing women. Their value is probably infinitesimal.'" On the other hand, F. P. Foster (1897) described both as "mildly purgative, diuretic and diaphoretic."5 Modern herbals often state that V. major is generally preferred and give a range of uses (e.g., "to stop bleeding, both externally and internally, as in metrorrhagia and menorrhagia. Also used in nervous conditions such as anxiety states and subsequent hypertension ... reduces blood pressure and dilates both coronary and peripheral blood vessels").6 Much of this information is derived-somewhat uncritically-from older literature, and it ignores uneven reputations. One interesting facet of periwinkle's reputation is its use for diabetes. Bass has not

heard of this, although it has been mentioned in herbal literature since at least the 1920s. One company noted in 1929 that "a South African doctor has been treating diabetes for a long time with the common 'periwinkle' or Vinca, and there is reliable evidence that if this herb is taken for a long time, it is a cure for the complaint. Unlike 'insulin,' it does not supply the substance that is lacking for perfect digestion; but it stimulates the pancreas, which is encouraged to produce its ordinary secretions." 7 Unfortunately, it is not clear just what, if any, chemical basis exists for the reputations of V. major and V. minor, although many chemicals have been isolated, including tannins, alkaloids (pubescene and vinine), and flavonoids." Constituents of Catharanthus roseus include well-studied alkaloids.9 Notes 1. The initial clue to its tumor activity came from effects on the blood, notably a reduction in the white cell count. The results have been farreaching; two indole alkaloids (vinblastine and vincristine) have become well known in leukemia therapy. For a full discussion see Noble et al.

(1958).

Gerard (1597, p. 747). Motherby (1785), under "Periwinkle." Earlier, emphasis appears to have been placed on its antivulnerary properties; e.g. Ray, Stripium Britannicarum (1724, p. 268); James (1743-45, val. 3), under "Pervinca," said that it was a "good vulnerary plant, and of frequent use in wound drinks, for bruises, contusions, inward bleeding and wasting, spitting of blood, excess of catamenia, and the fluor albus." 2.

3.

4.

In Buck (1886-93, 5 :611).

5.

F. P. Foster (1896-97,2:358).

6.

Stuart (1979, p. 281).

Heath and Heather, Ltd. Herbal Almanac, St. Albans, 1929, p. 26. 7.

Stuart (1979). For discussion on V. minor see Duke (1985, pp. 509-10).

8.

9. For 43).

outline see Trease and Evans (1983, pp. 641-

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PERSIMMON (fruit and bark)

The Herbalist's Account Now, the bark of the tree has been used ever since time. It's an old southern medicine. It's real astringent, a real good medicine. A tea from the bark is good for sore mouth, to stop blood, diarrhea, thrash; and good to soak one's feet in if you have athletic foot. It's a tonic and used in colds and fevers . The fruit when it is unripe is as good as the bark. The fruit is wonderful to eat after frost falls . Lots of people make jelly out of it. It's more of a food in a way. After reading up on them, I find they got a huge amount of vitamin C and many other vitamins we need. A lot of moonshiners used to make persimmon brandy, but that's gone now. The wood of persimmon is a valuable lumber; it doesn't have any splinters. Commentary Diospyros virginiana L. * , inel uding varieties [syn. D. mosieri Small] : persimmon. Ebenaceae The employment of the fruit and bark of the indigenous persimmon tree, long known to Pers immon

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Indians as a food and medicine, was established among settlers in colonial times.! In 1737 John Brickell said that the ripe fruits were used to cleanse foul wounds, but caused "exquisite pain." He noted too that planters made beer from it. Spirits were also produced from persimmon during the eighteenth century, and it is not surprising that Mr. Bass remembers moonshiners in his area making persimmon brandy.2 As interest in indigenous North America remedies mushroomed, B. S. Barton, in his 1812 edition of William Cullen's celebrated Treatise, added persimmon to Cullen's list of vegetable aliments and said that "when its astringency has been considerably subdued by the influence of the frosts , [it] is a nutritious fruit. In the more southern parts of the United States, it has much less astringency in its composition, and here it is made into bread by many Indian tribes." 3 A few years later, C. S. Rafinesque (1828) extolled persimmon's medicinal virtues (bark, especially inner bark, and unripe fruit) as astringent, tonic, and used for fevers; he (like Bass) indicated that it had a particular reputation in the South: "It is much used in Carolina and Tennessee for intermittent fevers. It is a powerful antiseptic, and equal to the Cinchona.'" Other nineteenth-century medical authors followed Rafinesque's comments , especially regarding the reputation of the unripe fruit as an astringent for bowel disorders and hemorrhages.s In 1871 Appalachian physician A. A. Scroggs spoke of the "much neglected and abused persimmon." "From the half-ripe persimmon fruit may be prepared a fluid extract or syrup that in point of astringency is not equalled by the imported Rhatany Root coming from Peru or the Aleppo Gall imported from far-off Syria." Scroggs added that he knew of no more efficient remedy for diarrhea or hemorrhage. 6 Persimmon was probably best known as a domestic remedy, though it was included in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia up to 1880. Certainly

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Mr. Bass's knowledge is recorded among the popular beliefs and practices of Alabama: for instance, for teething, thrush (thrash), diphtheria, earache (the sap), tonsillitis. and flu. It was also noted as an "amulet." in the form of a necklace of persimmon seeds, to ward off disease.' The basis of the reputation is undoubtedly the high tannin content; unripe persimmons may contain as much as 18 percent on a dryweight basis. 8 The ripe fruit is also reported to contain malic acid, but this does not. so far as we know, contribute to the medical reputation, a reputation perhaps tinged in the South by the aura of "southernness."

worm. but I pay $3.98 for a can of Raid or Hotshot or other household and garden spray and press the button. Devil's shoestring and pokeroot tea are good insect killers, and so is elder.

Notes

Asteraceae (Compositae)

1. Spongberg (1979).

Pestweed (Cacalia atriplicifolia) is another indigenous plant for which few medical uses have been recorded. Rafinesque (1828-30), who may have been the first to report on Cacalia, noted the existence of many species, "all more or less emollient like mallow." 1 A low level of interest followed, though Torrey (1843) stated that "the leaves are sometimes used as an application to wounds," and Hyams (1898) reported that a number of Cacalia species "are all emollient. like the mallow, and may be substituted for it whenever convenient or desirable." 2 In addition, Indians, such as the Cherokees. almost certainly used it as a poultice. 3 Mr. Bass agrees that the leaves are suitable for this because of the sap. No references have been found recording the use of Cacalia as an insecticide, as discussed by Bass, but the possibility arises of confusion-perhaps through inappropriate analogy-with the European pestroot (Petasites hybridus). naturalized in North America, which has similar leaves. Petasites has a long history, which includes a reputation as an alexipharmic, for ulcers, and deobstruent actions such as diaphoresis and diuresis.' This may account, too, for usage in chest ailments and alimentary disorders. The latter includes worms. noted in recent

2. Brickell (1737. p. 745); Lawson (1709. p. 109)

made the same point about treatment of wounds. For reference to "spirits." see Marshall (1785. p.41). 3. Cullen (1812, 1:155). Vogel's comments (1976)

on persimmon suggest that usage by Indians was widespread. 4. Rafinesque (1828-30, 1 :153-57). 5. E.g .. Griffith (1847. p. 436); Christison (1848, p. 449) singled out the work of Meltauer for promoting it. Also Carson (1851. p. 42 and accompa-

nying notes). 6. Scroggs (1871). 7. R. B. Browne (1958. pp. 25. 28. 57. 29. 67. 107. 120). See also Bolyard (1981. p. 66). who noted

some similar uses. 8. See Claus (1956. p. 234).

PEST WEED (leaves); PEST ROOT (roots and leaves) The Herbalist's Account The big leaf comes up like rhubarb; it's like a weed. It's got some kind of a sap in it and has been used as a poultice. It's good for coughs and colds. The tea of it will do away with any kind of insect. You have to hit the bug or the

Commentary Cacalia atriplicifolia L. * [syns. C. rotundifolia (Raf.) House: Mesadenia atriplicifolia (L.) Raf.]: Indian pl(JntClin, pale Indian plantain, wild caraway, pestweed (local name). Petasites hybrid us (L.) Gaert., Mey., and Scherb. lsyns. Tussilago officinalis L.; P. officinalis Moench; P. vulgaris Hill]: butter-bur, pestilence root, pestilence wort, pestroot, flea dock. poison rhubarb.

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herballiterature,5 which has been linked with spasmolytic activity associated with sesquiterpene constitutents. 6 Even this plant is not well established as insecticidal; in fact, the name pestroot appears to be an abbreviated form of "pestilence root," derived from the alexipharmic or antipoison reputation. Notes 1. Rafinesque (1828-30, 2:202), Torrey (1843, 1:401).

2. Hyams (1898, p. 366). 3. Banks (1953, p. 127). 4. E.g., Gerard (1597, p. 668), under "butter burre." 5. Described, for example, in a book well known to Bass, Meyer's Herbalist (1934 ed., p. 193). 6. For constituents see Wagner (1977).

PINE (tops, bark, sap, tar, turpentine, rosin) The Herbalist's Account Pine tops. Everyone knows there's lots of different pines. You can use anyone. The tops are used in cough syrups. Another way is to take pine tops and pour scalding water over them and breathe the steam to relieve the chest. The bark is not so good. The country people used to drink pine top tea every spring and fall to prevent colds. It's a spring tonic. I haven't used the tops much. I use turpentine from the store instead. There are too many other things I can use which are easier. Turpentine and kerosene. Turpentine is right down the alley. [The oil] is made from the pine rosin. It's highly recommended for lots of things. It's good for the kidneys. For coughs and colds and aches and pains you use it in a rub, and for coughs take a little in a cough medicine. It's an old remedy for worms, too, but there are better things, like Jerusalem oak. The turpentine you buy now is not like the old turpentine from pine trees. It says not to drink it, but some people do. I've always known about it, but I never made it from pines; but I did collect the natu-

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ral rosin-the dried sap. You could take a little ball for sore throat and chew it like chewing gum. (It's like the sap out the sweet gum that makes a fine chewing gum.) The rosin also makes a fine kidney medicine and you could put it in a salve. Kerosene was an old favorite like turpentine. Back in the old days it was used for anything that happened to you, a cut, a sore throat, a bee sting, insect bite, worms, a sore chest. You put it straight on or in a poultice. Some say we couldn't have lived without it. People don't use it so much now since we don't have it around for lamps and things. Also. people don't like the smell for a rub. Pine tar. Pine tar was used a great deal in poultices for chest colds and in all sorts of salves. I've made it a number of times. You'd split up rich, or fat, pine into pieces about six inches by one inch, and you'd pack them into the big iron wash pot which everybody had in my day to boil clothes in or make hominy or render hog fat. The pot with the pine would be turned over a trough. Then you make a fire over the pot. with clay around the bottom. The tar would run out of the pine into the trough. People used tar for all-purpose things like repairing roofs and greasing axles. Commentary Pinus palustris Mill., and other species. Pinaceae As Mr. Bass implies, Pinus species, especially the tops and pine products, have often been employed in medicine without any attention given to the particular species used.! John Gerard (1597), who described a number of pines. noted that the cones and bark had many uses, including for chest complaints (for example. tuberculosis) and urinary and skin problems. 2 He also mentioned rosin and, under a separate entry, the turpentine tree, but gave the properties of rosin as appropriate for turpentine.] Subsequent medical articles have given

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little attention to the bark. cones. or pine tops. in contrast to turpentine. However. Bass's reference to pine top tea being drunk in the spring and autumn-suggesting a blood-purifying reputation-and usage for colds is in keeping with the general use of pine products. especially turpentine. Turpentine and kerosene. Bass's enthusiasm for turpentine-from the oleoresin or natural rosin of pine trees-unquestionably reflects a long history of medical and other usage. including the celebrated naval stores industry.' In fact. the specific product which has had the greatest use in medicine has been the commercial oil of turpentine obtained from the oleoresin. Bass, like most people. calls this "turpentine." Oil of turpentine is recorded in almost all textbooks on materia medica-regular and domestic medicine-at least attention was focused on it toward the end of the seventeenth century and the early eighteenth century. A significant publication was apparently James Yonge's Currus Triumphalis (1679). In promoting the product for dressing and treating wounds. Yonge noted its past .. astringing" reputation and the use in applications for the treatment of "pleurizy and peripneumonia." 5 Uses subsequently mentioned frequently are those reported by Bass: for coughs. colds. genitourinary problems. and aches and pains. One major use that has not reached him was for fevers. though this may not have been so popular as promotional publications suggest. 6 The innumerable references to turpentine among the popular beliefs recorded in Alabama and elsewhere illustrate how easy it was for Bass to learn about it through the popular tradition; this was clearly reinforced by widespread use within regular medicine and in the very popular over-the-counter medicine Haarlem Oil. The extensive domestic usage suggests that turpentine was a panacea: for bed-wetting. worms. wounds. bloody flux. chapped hands. colds. coughs. corns. fever. bleeding from the lungs. pneu-

monia. rheumatism. ringworm. risings. "runaround" (paronychia). snakebite, chronic sores. spasms. and stomachache.' Bass has heard of all these. but says other things often work better. Employment for worms was certainly well known. though it was not popular owing to gastric irritation." Justification of many uses rested on the rubefacient property and the concept of counterirritation. Bass is particularly positive-just as many regular physicians were in the past-about its value for chest complaints: coughs. colds. and removing phlegm. He says that by rubbing it on the chest it is also inhaled. Although recent medical opinion considers that there are insufficient data to assess effectiveness for topical or inhalant use as an anticough medicine. it is hard. in this instance. to dismiss the welter of testimony from the popular tradition." On the other hand. the view that it is unsafe for oral use as an expectorant is justified owing to its irritant action and the view that generally accepted doses are not established.'o In the past. internal usage (e.g .• as a vermifuge for tapeworms) was treated cautiously. Kerosene (a petroleum distillate). if judged by popular beliefs. was another veritable panacea for bunions. colds. corns. cuts. diphtheria. earache. hoarseness. lockjaw. pleurisy. pneumonia. snakebite. sore throat, sprains. to ward off chiggers. and tonsil trouble. ll Bass's remark. "some say we couldn't have lived without it." seems apt; on the other hand. kerosene poisoning among children was common at the time," Pine tar. Pine tar is general! y defined as a product obtained by the destructive distillation of pine. It has a long medical history of use in poultices for the chest and in sal ves for skin ailments. Mr. Bass provides the necessary perspective that the bulk of pine tar made in his area and elsewhere was employed for caulking leaking roofs and so on. Its use as axle grease was so widespread that making small batches of pine tar was a relatively common event in

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the Appalachians prior to the 1930s.13 The application to the chest (as with all the pine products) is linked to rubefacient properties associated with the presence of terpenes and phenolic constituents. Antimicrobial and antiseptic action, said to account in particular for the treatment of wounds, is also attributed to these constituents. Pine oil is obtained by extraction and fractionation, or by steam distillation; it is best known as a disinfectant and deodorant. Notes 1. Interest. however, has focused particularly on Pinus echinoto (short leaf pine), P. po/ustris (longleaf pine), and P. virginiono. Worldwide, P. polustris is an important source of turpentine. The extract from the inner bark of white pine (P. strobus) is still used in cough syrups.

2. Gerard (1597, pp. 1173-78). 3. Ibid. (pp. 1244-46). 4. The importance of the industry is highlighted in Snow (1949). In the South turpentining spread when it was recognized that the longleaf pine (P. po/ustris) could produce abundant quantities of gum. 5. Yonge (1679). 6. For review see j. S. Haller (1984). 7. R. B. Browne (1958, pp. 30, 31, 35, 40, 46, 48, 49,55,66,88,91,91,95,100,104). Haarlem Oil was available in almost every drugstore until at least the 1940s. Recommended primarily as a "kidney diuretic," the oil, distributed by the Holland Drug Company of New York, contained "oil of turpentine, and sulphuretted linseed oil" and was recommended primarily as a "kidney diuretic." 8. Solis-Cohen and Githens (1928, pp. 470). O. Federa/ Register, 9 September 1976, p. 38353.

10. Ibid. (p. 38358). 11. R. B. Browne (1958, pp. 43. 50, 51, 53, 56. 57, 77,85,95,101,107). 12. At least, poisoning has been repurted in North Carolina (personal r.ommunication from Dr. j. Arena, Durham, North Carolina). 13. For some account see "Making Tar," Foxfire 4

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(1977, pp. 252-56). See also Browne (1958) for various references to employment of axle grease.

PINKROOT (roots) The Herbalist's Account Pinkroot is a beautiful plant that comes up as early as April. It grows to eighteen inches tall with a bugle-type bloom of pink with a touch of yellow. It has one to three blooms. Use the roots only. Gather them in June through August. Boy, sometimes there'll be ten or fifteen shoots come up from one root, and you can tell how old the roots are by counting them shoots. Wash and dry the roots in the shade and then heat in the oven and pack tightly in jars. Well, I haven't never used it except for special cases. It's another plant you have to use kind of careful. It's powerful. You use a laxative with it. I've known it as a worm medicine and a cough remedy. You use an ounce of roots to a pint of water and take a tablespoon as needed. I dug many a pound and sold it for thirtyfive cents a pound. It brings good money. It's about two or three dollars a pound now. Commentary Spigelia murilandica L. *: worm-grass, pinkroot, spigelia, Indian-pink. S. antholmia L.: wormgrass, West-Indian pinkroot. Loganiaceae Pinkroot, with its beautiful carmine flowers, attracted interest among colonists, as reflected in its many vernacular names.' It is said to have been one of the plants introduced directly into regular medicine (as an anthelmintic) from Indian practice, but credit is generally given to Alexander Garden, a Scottish-trained physician practicing in Charleston, South Carolina, for popularizing the drug from 1753 onward.' Garden contributed much to determining appropri-

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ate doses of this southern plant, and it was probably a popular remedy by late colonial times. English writer George Motherby (1785) was just one late-eighteenth-century author to mention it. Apart from anthelmintic activity, he noted that it produced sleep: "In many after taking a full dose, their eyes are observed to sparkle, and also to be distended after the sleep is over." 3 Despite subsequent favorable statements about central nervous system action, pinkroot became best known as an efficient anthelmintic against roundworms, although in 1922 Lloyd thought it was more a domestic remedy, having never been used extensively by the American schools of medicine -botanic or Eclectic.- It was customary "half a century ago" to give children with worms a mixture of pinkroot and senna, to which was added a few pieces of manna. Pinkroot was relatively unpopular because it was unpleasant to take and it was not easy to get the correct dosage. It was always recommended that it be administered with a laxative, something noted by Mr. Bass. N . L. Allport wrote in 1944 that "spigelia is inclined to give rise to unpleasant toxic symptoms and it is now of minor importance."5 Bass's remarks reflect much of the recorded knowledge of the past, or at least a recognition that pinkroot is an effective anthelmintic, albeit one requiring caution with respect to dosage. No exhaustive study appears to have been undertaken on the indigenous S . marilandiea or on S. anthelmia L., the latter reportedly used by the Creek Indians of southeastern North America and popular as an anthelmintic in tropical America.6 The anthelmintic property is due to the alkaloid spigeline, which possesses considerable toxicity. Whether or not the alkaloid accounts for the past reputation of pinkroot as a narcotic is uncertain. Some investigators regard the plant as highly poisonous in the fresh state, but others are uncertain.7

Pinkroot Notes 1. See names listed in W . P. C. Barton (1817-18, 2 :76).

2 . For an account see Berkeley and Berkeley (1969, pp. 29-31) . Others helped to establish its repu-

tation quickly. For introduction by Indians see Cowen (1984). It is interesting that Moerman (1977) did not list the plant. 3. Motherby (1785), under "Anthe/mio spigelia." For another reference to effects on the central nervous system, see Carson (1847 , 2:9), who listed effects upon the brain and spinal marrow as producing vertigo, dimness of vision, dilation of the pupils, and spasms or convulsions. 4. For indication of popularity see Elliott (182124,2:236-37) : "it is now in common use"; Clapp (1852 , p. 189). Phillips (1879 , p. 130) stated: "In the

United States, spigelia ranks as probably the best of the anthelmintics, especially for round worm; and it is in general and constant use as a vermifuge." Also see Lloyd (1921 , p. 321). 5. Allport (1944 , p. 223). Over the years much advice was given about modes of administra-

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tion. Millspaugh (1974, originally 1892, p. 524) wrote: "Many physicians have lauded the effects of the root upon [worms] but all agree that its efficacy was only certain when sufficient fresh root was taken to cause purgation, therefore, if such an effect did not take place calomel or rhubarb were given to gain such action. This caused many others, who failed with the drug, to demean it" (emphasis added). 6. j. F. Morton (1981, p. 665); also L. A. Taylor (1940, p. 51). 7. See Bisset (1980, pp. 27-61).

PIPSISSEWA (leaves, roots, whole plant) The Herbalist's Account My daddy called it ratsvein, They say it will kill rats, It's never more than three or four inches tall and it grows in piney woods. It stays green winter and summer. In May, June, and July it has a beautiful white bloom. In the later part of the season it has a dark brown seedpod with four to six little seeds in it. In gathering it, just pull up the plant, root and all. It doesn't need much drying; it's dry already, It is easy to find and easy to keep. It can be stored in jars or in paper bags, This little plant has been used ever since time as a blood purifier for rheumatism and for the kidney and liver. It may be made into a tea or chewed and the juice swallowed. A handful of leaves makes a cup of tea. Drink several cups a day. Some old-timers made bitters with it in whiskey or "white lightning." Old-timers used it when the children wet the bed. They'd give it with mullein in it and it would stop that. If Adam had to use medicine, he and Eve in the Garden of Eden, they would have used it. Of course, some folks don't think Adam was in the Garden of Eden, like some people don't think they went to the moon, Anyway, it's a real old-timer. Commentary Chirnaphilla urnbellata (L.) Bart., including varieties [syns. Pyrola umbellnta L.; C. cor-

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ymbosa Pursh): wintergreen, pipsissewa, spotted wintergreen. C. rnaculata (L.) Pursh * [syn. Pyrola maculata L.): wintergreen, pipsissewa, princesspine, spotted wintergreen, ratsvein. Pyrolaceae Chirnaphila urnbellata, a Eurasian plant represented in North America by several varieties, first attracted considerable interest through Americans J. Schoepf, B. S. Barton, J. S. Mitchell. and W. Somerville. Some early authors indicated a North American distribution throughout the northern and southern states, but only the indigenous C. rnaculatum is found in the South. Later, R. E. Griffith, giving particular credit to Somerville for popularizing pipsissewa's use in Europe and America for dropsy, said it (C. urnbellata) was also beneficial in the same "disordered states of the urinary organs" and preferable to uva-ursi, as being less disagreeable to the stomach.' The publication by Somerville, deputy inspector of British military hospitals, is essentially a lengthy case history of the illness of Sir James Craig, a governor of Canada. A strong infusion of an Indian "remedy" (Pyrola urnbeIlata), said to have diuretic activity, was found to be effective.' Within a few years various authors were less fulsome in their support, seeing its value as merely linked to the "pleasantly bitter and astringent" character. George Wood (1838) stated that it had properties "of a gentle astringent and tonic, with a direction to the urinary organs upon which it sometimes acts as a diuretic." 3 In fact, the "tonic" action had been recorded long before, Marshall (1785) said that a decoction or infusion "has been used with considerable success as a substitute for the Peruvian bark. The roots are said to give ease in the tooth ach." J, Bigelow's influential American Medical Botany (181721) also indicated pipsissewa's reputation as a diuretic and for fever and rheumatism.' The lack of complicating effects on the heart and circulation was sometimes valued.'

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The reputation for rheumatism, if not widespread, embraced at least local pockets of enthusiasm. In 1871 Scroggs said that it was mainly used for rheumatism and nephritic diseases and was in large demand." The plant received a boost in popularity from Thomsonian practitioners and, later, from Eclectics and the sale of "concentrated" medicines under the names Chimaphilin and Chimaphila? New theories that came along to explain its action, such as its alleged ability to affect the excretion of lithic acid, may also have helped to sustain interest during the latter part of the nineteenth century." A low level of interest persisted during the first half of the twentieth century. In 1928 it was said to be "more or less diuretic and faintly antiseptic, increasing the flow of urine, and retarding putrefactive changes in it. A disadvantage is that it is somewhat astringent and tends to restrain the bowel movements." The astringency was also associated with a recommendation for "disease of the prostate, loss in tone in the bladder leading to retention and later incontinence of urine, and irritability of the bladder causing frequent desire to urinate."· The indigenous C. maculata collected by Mr. Bass has attracted some interest, though much less then C. umbellata. It received an early influential testimonial, although not in a medical publication: F. Pursh, in one of the few medical notes in his Flora Americanae (1814) stated: "This plant is in high esteem for its medical qualities among the natives, they call it sip-si-sewa. I have myself been witness of a successful cure made by a decoction of this plant, in a very severe case of hysterics. It is a plant eminently deserving the attention of physicians.·' III In 1847 Griffith said there was popular prejudice against it and that it was called "poison pipsissewa." 11 It was included in the 1831 U.S. Pharmacopoejo but omitted from the next edition. Generally considered to have the same properties as C. maculato, it has been employed mostly as a domestic remedy in the Appalachians

and elsewhereY Alabama popular medical lore embraces uses as a tonic and blood purifier for skin and kidney problems." Usage by many twentieth-century Indians is reported. Most chemical studies have focused on c. umbelloto. Arbutin and chimaphilin are regarded as the most pharmacologically active constituents. Arbutin-found in other plants with diuretic activity-has long been considered the diuretic, while chimaphilin has antiseptic activity. Tannins are also present. 14 C. maculota has not, so far as we know, been investigated. Mr. Bass knows well the established diuretic property.I' From this he rationalizes the reputation as a blood purifier, although the latter is also associated with the bitterastringent taste, as is the reputation as a tonic. An 1818 publication of two case histories suggesting that an infusion of "pipsessaway (Pyrola umbellata)" was helpful in cancer raised little or no interest until the plant was shown to cause mitotic cell arrest in 1952.16 However, antitumor activity was not demonstrated. Any future investigations may need to assess the relevance of plant varieties.17

Notes 1. Griffith (1847, p. 422). For an interesting account of the early story see Dunglison (1843, pp. 143-46).

2. Somerville (1814). 3. G. B. Wood (1838, p. 9). See also Carson (1851, p. 40 and accompanying notes). 4. Marshall (1785, p. 117), Bigelow (1817-21, 2:20). 5. E.g., Shoemaker (1896, p. 300).

6. Scroggs (1871). Other uses were noted; for example. Bigelow (n. 4 above) mentioned its use as an external application for "cancers," but indicated it was really for ulcerous affections rather than cancer. 7. Keith (1882). 8. See Phillips (1879. p. 229). Shoemaker (n. 5 above). 9. Solis-Cohen and Githens (1928. p. 1516). Dis-

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pensatory of the United States (1960, pp. 1625-26). 10. Pursh (1814, p. 300). 11. Griffith (1847, p. 423). adding, "Mitchell, however, thinks Chimaphilla maculata is wholly inert, but this is not likely ... for the close correspondence of its sensible qualities with wintergreen." 12. See Bolyard (1981, p. 69) for Kentucky Appalachians. Mr. Bass does not believe it is good for colds and lung diseases as reported. He says it is confused with wintergreen. 13. R. B. Browne (1958, pp. 28, 29, 35, 36, 52, 56, 60, 76, 82), listed it as ratsbane and pipsissewa. 14. Some textbooks implied action was due to astringency; e.g., W. H. White (1900, p. 602).

Sheth et al. (1967) noted isolation of chimaphilin, taraxerol, beta-sitosterol, ursa lie acid, quercitin, and other compounds. Surprisingly, arbutin was not confirmed. See also Steffan and Peschel 15.

(1975). 16.

Mossell (noted in Belkin et aI., 1952).

Variants of C. umbellata have been treated in several ways. See S. F. Blake (1917). who, after noting various treatments, assigned the European C. umbellata to a single variety, genuina, and the eastern North American variant to cisntiantica, the one referred to by nineteenth-century AmP.fican medical writers. Many later authorities have not followed Blake. Also pertinent is Haber and Cruise 17.

(1974).

PLANTAINS (leaves) The Herbalist's Account The several kinds are used alike. Common broadleaf is preferred. I've never used the white plantain, but I've gathered it for others. It looks like rabbit-tobacco. I generally use whatever is available. The plantains lay flat on the ground, and the seed tassel comes up straight. Mother and Dad called the narrow-leaf one English plantain. Around here some people calls it bugbane. Mother used to cook the leaves for greens in the spring. The only way I use plantain is for stings, sunburn, poison ivy, and poison oak. A man, he was a beekeeper, told me some children

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slipped in and them bees stung them so bad. He grabbed plantain that was there and rubbed it on, and it just killed the stings. You can also use it for swollen joints, sprains, and strains. Lay wet, hot leaves on the spot. As the steam goes out, it draws the misery out. It's so handy to get. It's in most everybody'S yard and good to have around. The white plantain acts the same. It's also a female medicine, good for the monthlies. The Indians chewed plantain for snakebites. It makes you vomit up. I don't know about the rattlesnake plantain-some calls it striped wintergreen. I've never heard it used for snakebites. Doc Nelson of Gadsden used it as a mainstay in cough medicines with pine tops and sweet gum. He used bootleg whiskey for a base. It's also used like ratsvein (see Pipsissewa) as a kidney medicine. Commentary Plantago major L., including varieties and subspecies: common plantain, whiteman'sfoot, greater broad-leaf plantain. P. lanceolata (L.) Rich. *, including varieties: lanceolate-Ieaf plantain, rib-grass, English plantain, ribwort plantain. P. rugelii Dcne*, including varieties: broadleaf plantain, rattlesnake plantain (local name). P. psyllium L.: branched plantain, fleawort, fleaseed, psillium. Plantaginaceae Antennaria plantaginifolia (L.) Rich. *: white plantain, rattlesnakes' plantain. Asteraceae (Compositae) Goodyera pubescens (Willd.) R. Brown*: [syn. Peramium pubescens (Willd.) MacM.): net-leaf plantain, rattlesnake-plantain, rattlesnake orchid, scrofula weed. Orchidaceae

Plantago is an almost cosmopolitan genus with some species indigenous to North

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America (e.g., P. rugelii). The naturalized P. major and P. lanceolata have prompted most medical interest (extending back to classical times) in Europe and America. John Gerard (1597) described plantains as possessing a "mixt temperature"; namely, "dry without biting, and cold without benumming." 1 Reputed uses for the bitterish leaf, juice, and sweetish-salty root included for bloody flux, ulcers, sores, and other skin problems, all associated with the drying, astringent property. Plantain was commonly mentioned in seventeenth- and eighteenth-century British texts dealing with the management of skin conditions and other ailments where astringent properties were desired for treatment. One writer, John Quincy (1719), noted that the "broader sort is most in esteem. It is reckon'd a great cooler, and stopper of fluxes, particularly of the blood, whether from the nose, mouth, or privities. It is likewise, as most others of this tribe, a great healer of fresh wounds." 2 Critical-minded William Cullen later expressed doubts about its value because oflack of "sensible qualities," but noted persuasive medical testimony of its effects in hemorrhages if used in large doses. 3 Plantain was often mentioned in the context of treating cancers, but in reality this seems to have been for precancerous conditions or palliation. 4 Early American colonists almost certainly employed plantains in home remedies for cuts, sore feet, and so on. 5 It was a commonplace plant by the eighteenth century, and toward the end of the century American Manasseh Cutler (1785) wrote: "The leaves are applied by the common people to inflamed sores and swellings. The bruised leaves they apply to fresh cutS."fi Apart from a persistent reputation for skin complaints in general, plantains, at least P. major, were also regarded as a "powerful antidote for poison." 7 This included use for snakebites (considered below, under rattlesnake plantain). Several physicians' personal testimonies to

the value of the plantains encouraged some continuing interest in the nineteenth century. A Dr. Chipley, for example, felt in 1849 that P. major was neglected by "modern practitioners," but he found that an old recipe of Heister was valuable for sore nipples: one fluid ounce of plantain water with two grains of vitriolic acid. 8 Nevertheless, plantain's popularity continued to decline. In 1887 W. P. Bolles noted that three plantains, P. major, media, and lanceolata, were almost obsolete medicines, "but have been formerly much esteemed as astringents, hemostatics, and even antispasmodics, and were used locally in leucorrhea, haemorrhoids, conjunctivitis, and scrofulous eruptions." 9 Mr. Bass recommends plantains primarily for skin ailments. This was also the principal historical use, as reflected in Shakespeare's oft-quoted line, "no salve, sir, but a plantain" (Love's Labour Lost, act 3, scene 1). An interesting testimonial to the use of P. lanceolata for poison ivy rash appeared in the New England Journal of Medicine in 1980, when a physician reported that ten people (family and friends of the author) found relief after using it.10 Chemical studies on the plantains have been undertaken mostly on P. major and P. lanceolata and, as with psyllium (see below), the greatest interest lies in the seeds, which contain a large amount of mucilage. Bass's remarks generally echo past interest in the leaves. Leaf constituents of P. major (at least P. majorvar. asiatica) include mucilage, tannin, various flavonoids, iridoids, and hydroxycinnamic acidsY P. lanceolata contains mucilage, iridoids, flavonoids, and, undoubtedly, tannins,12 Although the employment of plantain for skin conditions traditionally rests on the mucilage and tannin content, certain other constituents (e.g., iridoids and flavonoids) may encourage wound healing through antibacterial action (shown for P. major), or perhaps anti-inflammatory properties may be at work,13 A little-considered facet of the story of

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Plantago major is the Burmese reputation for hypotensive action. One might speculate that this is a theoretical concept associated with the Western notion of blood-purifying properties, which in turn is linked with astringency, but preliminary laboratory studies indicate a possible pharmacological basis.14 Psyllium. Mr. Bass has recently taken to recommending psyllium seeds, which he purchases commercially. The plants from which the seeds are obtained-(Plantago psyllium, and possibly P. arenaria and P. ovata)-are European and unavailable to him. It is not necessary to consider here the long history of these and their demulcent and laxative properties, but it is appropriate to note that, despite the belief that psyllium is harmless, untoward allergic effects have been reported .15 Other unrelated plants known in the vernacular as plantains (all having rosettes of leaves flat against the ground, such as those of the acaulescent plantagos) have aroused interest from time to time. White plantain (Antennaria plantaginifoJia) is hardly mentioned in the medical literature. Griffith (1847) described "A. plantagineum and dioicum" as "popularly supposed to be beneficial in snake-bites, and are among articles said to have been used by the Indians for this purpose; they are both pectoral and somewhat demulcent." 16 No reference has been found to its use for female complaints (mentioned by Mr. Bass). At least it can be said that the astringency is in line with many other remedies for menstrual problems. Rattlesnake plantain. Nowadays, the vernacular name rattlesnake plantain generally refers to species of the orchid Goodyera, usually G. pubescens (but note also Bass's use of it for P. rugelii). However, eighteenthcentury references to "rattlesnake plantains" may have also referred to species of Plantago, Erigeron, and even Hiemcium venosum L. (more commonly known as rattlesnake weed). Manasseh Cutler penned some interesting remarks about one of the rattlesnake

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plantains in 1785: "It is said to cure the bite of rattlesnake, by applying the chewed leaves to the wound and swallowing a quantity of the juice. It grows plentifully near dens. Wherever these dangerous serpents haunt, nature seems to have provided an effectual antidote against the venom." 17 The view that some plants acquired the name "rattlesnake" because they flourish where snakes abound persists to the present day, but whether this contributed to the reputation of the plant is unclear. Analogy to other plants and misidentification were probably also at play, as was a resemblance of the plant or its flower to a rattlesnake tail. "Regular" plantain (e.g., P. major) acquired a reputation for snakebites that may have been well enough known for analogy to be a factor. One reader of William Woodville's Medical Botany (1790) wrote in his copy: "Plantago major has been found to be an antidote to the bite of poisonous reptiles and insects. The fresh juice is used in doses of half ounce to one ounce." 18 Interestingly, a remedy for rattlesnake bites was purchased in 1750 by the South Carolina legislature from a Negro slave named Caesar.19 It quickly became well known; a hand-written account in a medical text of 1781 states: "Take the roots of plantaine & wild hoarehound fresh or dried, three ounces; boil them together in two quarts of water to one quart and strain [off] this decoction. Let the patient take one third part three mornings fasting successively from which if no [relief] it must be continued till he is recovered." In addition to the medicine, a drink containing goldenrod, hoarhound, and sassafras was recommended, along with attention to diet. 20 The name rattlesnake plantain for Goodyem pubescens may reflect the similarity of the flower to the rattlesnake, but the possibility exists of some association with the reputation as an anti scrofulous agent and the notion of blood purification, even though the leaves or extracts were applied externally.21

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According to Banks (1953), Cherokee Indians had specific uses for for Goodyera pubescens, but Mr. Bass sees no medical difference between it and species of Plantago. 22

16. Griffith (1847, p. 407). 17. Cutler (1785), in part quoting Carver (1774). 18. Vol. 1, p. 40; copy in Trent Collection, Duke University Medical Center. 19. See J. 1. Waring (1964, p. 33).

Notes 1. Gerard (1597, p. 340). The astringent properties perhaps lay behind the occasional references to use in fevers not mentioned specifically by Gerard. Bullein (1579, f. 8v) discussed its use in wine with burrage water for tertian or quartan fever.

20. Cullen, Lectures on the Materia Medica (Dublin, 1781]; copy in Trent Collection, Duke University Medical Center. 21. King (1882, p. 400). 22. Banks (1953, p. 22).

2. Quincy (1719, p. 96). 3. Cullen (1781, p. 75). 4. E.g., Gendron (1701, p. 126). 5. Haughton (1978, pp. 283-84). 6. Cutler (1785, p. 410). Interesting remarks were made about plantain in 1748 by Peter Kalm (1937, p. 64), discussing a visit to John Bartram. He wrote: "Mr. Bartram had found this plant in many places on his travels, but he did not know whether it was on original American plant or whether the Europeans had brought it over. This doubt has its rise from the savages (who always had an extensive knowledge of the plants of this country) pretending that this plant never grew here before the arrival of the White Men. They therefore gave it a name which signified the (Englishman's) foot, for they say that where ever a European had walked, this plant grew in his footsteps." White man's foot has been interpreted as white clover (Trifolium repens), see Claypole (1879-80. pp. 172-79). 7. Cobb (1846, pp. 42-43), Beach (1848, p. 668). 8. Western Lancet (1849; in Clapp, 1852, p. 820). 9. Buck (1886-93, 5:702). Shoemaker (1893, 2:827) noted its absence from Johnson's celebrated Medical Botany and added that plantain probably has little therapeutic value. 10. Duckett (1980). 11. E.g., Lebdov-Koso et al. (1978, p. 223]; other references can be found in Simon et al. (1984). 12. Braiitigam and Franz (1985). Tannins apparently not reported. 13. Nikol'skaya (1955), Quadry (1963). Antibacterial action not reported for P. lanceolata. 14. Kyi et al. (1971). 15. Bernton (1970), Greenbaum (1981).

PLUM: "TAME" AND "WILD" (fruit, bark) The Herbalist's Account I don't use wild plums much. You eat the fruit, but they don't taste too good. Folks ask me about them. I tell them they're good for the bowels; act nice and gentle. They make a good jelly, but a little sour. Of course you can buy prunes, they're dried plums. The bark, now, is one of the best things for asthma. It-you make it into a tea-just cuts the mucus out. The wild is better than the tame. Commentary Prunus domestica L., including varieties: plum, tame plum (local name), prune (dried). P. angustifolia Marsh*: wild plum, Chickasaw plum. P. americana Marsh., including varieties: wild plum. Rosaceae Plums not only have a long history as a nutritious fruit, but the dried fruits (prunes) from P. domestica have long been known as a laxative. Among many authors to mention plums from John Gerard onward, William Woodville (1792) provided a succinct summary: "All our garden plums are eaten at table and when sufficiently ripe, and taken in a moderate quantity, prove a pleasant and wholesome food. Considered medically, they are emollient, cooling and laxative .... Particularly useful in costive habits and fre-

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quently ordered in decoction with senna and other purgatives." I When not ignored altogether, prunes merited similar remarks in nineteenth-century American publications.' Although Bass's recommendation for gentle laxative activity is well established (though more so for the prune; see below), printed references to the use of the bark for asthma have not been found. Nevertheless, he has "always known about it," seemingly through the oral tradition. The strength of this tradition for treating asthma is uncertain, but perhaps analogy to wild cherry and other Prunus species may be at play. That, of course, hardly offers confidence that the reputation is justified (see Cherry). As is so often the case with Bass's remedies, he prefers wild trees to a cultivated variety; he has often gathered P. angustifolia (in his early years primarily to make the jelly). but recognizes other wild plums as well. Botanists commonly describe P. americana as the wild plum of the southeastern United States. The literature on traditional medicine mentions a few uses not known to Bass. For instance, Lumbee Indians in North Carolina have been reported to use the wild plum for fevers and dandruff: In southern Texas and northern Mexico, where there is much appreciation of the association between foods and medicines, the use of the flower to make teas for laxative, diuretic, and antitoxic properties has been recorded.4 Some herbalists recommend plum leaves, but no strong historical justification exists. No secondary chemical constituents have been recorded to rationalize the medical reputation. Action as a laxative, especially by the dried prune, is generally attributed to a bulk effect, although a role for other constituents cannot be ruled out. Prunes have long been viewed as more digestible than plums, and hence "an agreeable ,md light article of diet for convalesence and in r.hronic diseases."5 As Bass implies, they are now sometimes viewed as part of the health food movement.

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Notes 1.

Woodville (1790-94, 2: 236).

2. E.g., j. Bell (1841, p. 389), who indicated that it was an ingredient in the well-known laxative

preparation Confection of Senna. 3. Croom (1982, p. 110), describing another "wild plum," Prunus angustifolia Marsh, (chickasaw plum, sand plum). 4. T. Smith (1981, pp. 197-212).

5. Christison (1848, p. 780).

POISON IVY; POISON OAK (leaves) The Herbalist's Account There is the poison ivy and the poison oak. Poison oak has leaves more like those of oak and tends to climb trees more than the poison ivy, Some poison ivy is stronger than others, I'm not bothered with poison ivy myself, but I'm always being called upon to treat it. Old-timers said poison ivy itself could be given for the poison ivy outbreak and rheumatism, but I've never thought of using it. I reckon it'd be too dangerous, Commentary Rhus radicans L. * [syn. Toxicodendron radicans (L.) Kuntze]: poison ivy. R. toxicodendron L. [syn, Toxicodendron toxicodendron (L.) Britt.]: poison oak. Anacardiaceae Mr. Bass's distinction between poison ivy and poison oak is classic for leaf characterization, but not for climbing habit. Poison ivy, with its adventitiolls aerial roots, is the climbing one; poison oak, without aerial roots, does not climb. The difference between poison "ivy" and "oak" may be varietal or even ecotypic rather than a species difference. 1 Although the indigenous poison ivy attracted early attention, potential medical uses-for skin diseases and as a stimulantprompted little study until after a general interest in lIsing poisonous plants for medical

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purposes emerged during the second half of the eighteenth century.2 Following European and American studies, Jacob Bigelow, in his influential American Medical Botany (181721), could report that European and American practitioners had administered poison ivy internally in certain diseases such as consumption, apparently as a stimulant. He also noted French use for obstinate herpetic eruptions, apparently an example of treating like with like. Bigelow, however, concluded that poison ivy was "too uncertain and hazardous to be employed in medicine, or kept in apothecaries shops." 3 Continuing interest encouraged many episodes of self-treatment, sometimes with unfortunate consequences. In the 1840s a medical student named Wilkes took a gill of a strong decoction of the leaves and vine after supper. The next morning his swollen face continued to worsen until his eyes were completely closed. "A wash of mercury bichloride and ammonium chloride eased the swelling in thirty-six hours ." Much of the use of poison ivy at the time appears to have been for rheumatism, something Mr. Bass has heard about.' In contrast, many other early uses have not reached him. One Shaker community listed the plant in an 1873 herb catalog, indicating it had been used in chronic paralysis, chronic rheumatism, cutaneous diseases, and paralysis of the bladder, a catalog of uses lengthened by the pharmaceutical company Parke-Davis, which marketed preparations of poison oak in the 1890s. 5 Physiological actions were described as "stimulant, narcotic, producing, when swallowed, more or less irritation of the stomach and bowels, and promoting the secretory functions of the skin and kidneys, and producing a stupefying effect on the nervous system." Positive benefits were described for "obstinate cutaneous disorders, dropsy, nocturnal incontinence ... and some diseases of the eye," as well as chronic paralysis and chronic rheumatism. For many years Mr. Bass has been asked

about treatment for poison ivy dermatitis rather than its medical uses (see volume 1, chapter 7) . He is asked frequently whether resistance to the notorious poison ivy rash can be built up by taking, internally, small doses of an extract or eating the leaves. He believes it can but would not recommend it. This is undoubtedly sage advice. While the mucous membranes do not react to the poison ivy, those who eat it can develop perioral or perianal reactions." Bass recognizes the variable responses of individuals to poison ivy. His view that some poison ivy or oak is "stronger" than that from even nearby habitats may reflect differences in the poisonous constituents. The allergenic compounds in the phenolic oily resin, which is called toxicodendol (lobinol), are generically referred to as urushiol. Individual components include mixtures of 3-n-alk-enyl calechols with zero, one, two, and three double bonds in the C15 side chain of poison ivy and the C17 side chain of poison oak. Allergenic or antigenic potential is said to increase with increased un saturation of side chains?

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The past reputation of poison ivy for a variety of complaints is intriguing. How much is due to physiological action rather than to such factors as the confidence in "strong" remedies that emerged toward the end of the eighteenth century is not yet clear. Notes 1. See Radford et al. (1968, pp. 676-77). For a review see "Poison Ivy and Related Plants." Lawrence Rev. Nat. Prod. 4 (1983): 5-8. which discusses Toxicodendron diversilobum (western poison oak). T. quercifolium (eastern poison oak). T. radicans, and T. vernix (poison sumac).

2. For some references and general review see Parish and Haviland (1974; utilizing McNair, 1923, pp.1ff.]. 3. Bigelow (1817-21, 3 :19-31), under "R. radicons." Bigelow referred to the writings of the Frenchman Dufresnoy, Alderson in England. and others. For other notes on background see Phillips (1879, pp. 158-62). 4. Wilkes story reported by Clapp (1852, p. 755). See also Phillips (1879, p. 160). Shoemaker (1893, 2:865). 5. A. B. Miller (1976, p. 218). Parke-Davis (1890, p.143). 6. Heald et al. (1983). 7. For documentation, Elsohly et al. (1982). R. A. Johnson et al. (1972).

POKE (roots, leaves, berries) The Herbalist's Account The greens can be eaten freshly boiled if you pour off the first water. The stalk can be fried as if it was okra; the grease kills the poison in the stalk. The roots, leaves, and berries are all good medicine, but I seldom use poke. Dry the roots thoroughly before storing them or they will mold. Slice the roots if they are large. One or two berries a day, when ripe, purifies the blood. Poke berry used inside or outside is good for rheumatism. Use poke wine or tea. Make a tea with one teaspoon of cut-

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up roots to a pint of water. It's also a good blood purifier for high blood pressure. Use with caution, for it is a deadly poison if you take an overdose. Taken in moderate doses it is a wonderful medicine. It is best to use poke tea for a week, stop for a week, then take for another week. For a poke liniment, put a good-sized root in a quart jar of kerosene; add a few drops of turpentine. Seal and let sit for two or three weeks. Rub on the sore, swollen, or stiff joints. Poke root will kill insects. All the oldtimers know it was a good medicine. It was harsh. Now, one of the main remedies for itch was to make a tea and bathe in it. Oldtimers commonly recommend poke root in whiskey and taking some tablespoonfuls a day. It just straightened you out. Now, I've got an Indian woman who told me about a poke preparation in kerosene with a little turpentine. Which after a few months the poke dissolved and it all made an excellent rub. But it was a little greasy. It was called snake oil on the reservation. (For full account of this, see volume 1, chapter 5.) Commentary Phytalacco americana L. [syn. P. decandra 1.]: poke, sallet, cancer-jalap, pigeonberry, pokeweed, poke root, red weed. Phytolaccaceae Poke's reputation as one of the best known of indigenous remedies has been sustained partly by the familiarity of the springtime custom of eating the young shoots (parboiled) as salad, or "sallet." As a medicinal plant poke was certainly well known by the eighteenth century, and it was considered by almost all the early writers on American plants.' Significant was George Heywood's detailed account (1817) of the plant in the New England Journal of Medicine, which helped to establish its reputation as an emetic and cathartic in appropriate doses.' The employment of roots and berries (the latter perhaps slightly more popular) in rheumatism, cutaneous diseases and "itch," and syphilis

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also seems to have been well established by mid-century.3 A sense exists that poke became a veritable panacea during the nineteenth century. raising doubts in the minds of some commentators about whether it could really be as effective as stated. Roberts Bartholow's opinion (1882) extended to many other plants in use at the time: "Alterative powers have been ascribed to it [poke) and cases supposed to be malignant have been cured; but these results were probably instances of the post rather than the propter hoc.'" Some of the manifold reputed uses mentioned in textbooks apparently lay outside consensus opinion. some perhaps reflecting the power of advertising by pharmaceutical companies. Thus R. W. Wilcox, in his Materia Medica and Pharmacy (1911). gave only one use: "as a laxative; to reduce adipose tissue.'" Yet, all in all, poke was one of the more popular botanical remedies with physicians, regular and Eclectic, according to a survey undertaken in 1912." Without daubt, poke's principal reputation for the treatment of rheumatism (not as a laxative or even for skin ailments or syphilis, as sometimes mentioned) remains well known today in the Appalachians and elsewhere.' Regular and especially domestic medical literature has long been generally confident about its value for this ailment. 8 It is not clear if the vernacular name cancerjalap has been used widely, but the basis appears to be external usage for skin "cancer." Mr. Bass explains that most uses he knows -all noted at one time or another in the regular medical literature-are linked to the basic action of "purifying" the blood. This applies to the employment for skin ailments such as the "itch," a long-standing reputation supported by Bass's own experience. Constituents found in the root and berries include triterpene saponins (phytolaccosides). esculin, pokeberrygenin, tannin, and resin. In addition, there is much interest in mitogens (proteins associated with carbo-

hydrates, some of which are also known as lectins). Pokeweed mitogens (PWM) have been implicated in various blood-cell changes." Antiviral proteins are also present. While poke (including the root) is sometimes dismissed nowadays as of no medical value, the reputation for aiding rheumatism (especially using tinctures of the root) is a strong one. The possibility of a contributory anti-inflammatory factor from the triterpene saponins and/or some effect on the immune system linked to the activity of other constituents such as the mitogens must be considered.1O On the other hand, poke's undoubted toxicity suggests that regular use is imprudent. Most cases of poisoning arise from eating leaves and young shoots (poke sallet) which have not been adequately parboiled. The mature fruits are considered relatively nontoxic, a noteworthy point, because the juice from the berries is possibly more widely used nowadays in the Appalachians than the root. However, the PWM may still be present. It has been said that toxic effects have been reported after ingesting "properly cooked young shoots" (i.e., parboiled twice).'! In fact. in this case leaves picked on 11 July 1980 were cooked and eaten, which is contrary to the traditional wisdom that only young shoots-picked in early spring-can be eaten. A postscript to the story of poke in the southern states is the existence of southern poke, P. rigidn Small. While debate exists over its taxonomy-it has been suggested that it is best recognized as a variety of P. americann-its existence may signal chemical differences to be taken into account in assessing poke's reputation.'2

Notes 1. Early interest apparently reflected comparison with species of Solanum: for example. B. G. Hoffman (1964, p. 9). Estes [1980, p. 344) indicated use by colonial physicians. For background, mostly

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additional to the present account, see J. D. Sauer (1950), and Byrd (1966), which is mostly about eating poke as a vegetable. 2. G. Heywood, "On the Medical Properties of the Phytolacca Decandra," New Eng. J. Med. 6 (1817): 315-21. 3. Clapp (1852, p. 853). See also Griffith (1847, p. 535). Donnelly (1844). Hale (1867, pp. 753ff., with provings). 4. Bartholow (1882, p. 5(7). 5. Wilcox (1911, p. 295). "Phytoline," for instance, was advertised for fatty degeneration of the heart and fatty tuinors. The reputation for treating edema, despite flimsy historical evidence, is perpetuated in such publications as Kang and Woo (1980). 6. Lloyd (1912, p. 1229). 7. Many informants have mentioned personal use for rheumatism. See Bolyard (1981, pp. 109-12). Many uses are noted in the popular literature, reflecting the panacea reputation noted above. For Alabama: R. B. Browne (1958), for thrash (p. 28). itch (p. 74), rheumatism (p. 89], to purify blood (p. 38, "eat poke salad and turnip greens. Fry poke salad like okra")' as a laxative (p. 42, with turnip greens). as a poultice for sores (p. 98). Tyler (1985, p. 10) noted that poke berries (not the root) are widely known in Indiana. Poke's value for syphilis was still being mentioned in the [(J20s as an ingredient in some combination remedies, although more effective chemotherapeutic drugs had been introduced. Fuller (1920, p. 426) prescribed poke along with stillingia. Smilax pseudo-chinCl. xanthoxylum, and lappa (burdock root); or with red clover blossoms, Berberis aquij()Jjum, Cascara sagrada, lappa, and potassium iodide. sometimes with Iris versicolor. 8. Exceptions can be found to almost all generalizations about medicinal plants; Heywood (1817), for instance, remarked: "The Phytolacca is said to be the basis of a patent medicine for rheumatism which has obtained some celebrity in this section of the country. I have administered it in the chronic form of this disease, in substance and in tincture, and have found little or no benefit frGm it." Much later, Bartholow (1882, p. 507) gave an ambivalent comment: "It has long been known that phytolacca is a serviceable remedy in chronic rheumatism. But the therapeutical application of this remedy most

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deserving of consideration is inflamed breasts." 9. Recent references, though without a clear sense of distribution of constituents, are given in "Pokeweed," Lawrence Rev. Nat. Prod. 6 (1985): 31-32. For action on blood cells see B. E. Barker et al. (1966); see also Kang and Woo (1980). Waxdal (1974). 10. For some discussion. Wagner and Proksch (1985. pp. 113-53). 11. Lawrence Rev. Nat. Prod. (see n. 9 above). quoting Morbiditr and Mortality Weekly Report 30 (1981): 65. 12. For background see Hardin (1964). G. K. Rogers (1985).

POPLARS (bark, root bark, buds)

The Herbalist's Account We don't have the real white and black poplar around here. They're tonics; the black is strongest. Of course, we have white or yellow poplar, or the tulip tree. It's called that because it has blooms and leaves that look like a tulip. It's one of my favorites for a tonic. What we call white poplar is from small yellow poplar trees; the yellow is strongest-like yellow and white corn. White corn makes a gallon of whiskey to the bushel; yellow corn makes a gallon and a half. There's that much more alcohol in the yellow. I'm not a distiller, but that's what a man who used to run a still told my daddy. He wasn't a moonshiner, but he said that is the reason they use yellow corn when they can. But some people didn't want yellow-corn whiskey; they wanted white-corn whiskey. It's the bark off the roots that's most used by the drug trade and by the common herb people. You need to dig the roots, peel the bark off, dry it, and make a tea out of a teaspoon of bark to a teacup of water. Drink a few swallows a day. It's a good tonic and good for rheumatism-makes you sweat. The bark of the tree is also good, but we recommend that you use the bark of the roots. By the way, the tea makes you want to eat

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up a storm. It's recommended for an appetite. Lot of people don't need an appetizer, but I use it for special cases. Some come along and say, "I can't eat, and when I do I belch it up or spit it up." If you eat anything you don't digest, it'll make you digest, too. Yellow poplar or tulip tree, whatever you want to call it, works kind of like yellowroot. It will do the same. They all smell the same and taste alike. I've sometimes used the buds in my salve, but there are better things. Several tells me that yellow poplar is good for "sugar." I am going to do some research on it. I told them to mix it with blueberry to make it better because poplar is bad-tasting medicine. Commentary Populus tremuJoides Michx.: quaking aspen. American aspen. Other Populus species. Salicaceae Liriodendron tulipifera L. *, including cultivars: yellow poplar, white wood, white poplar, tulip tree, poplar. Magnoliaceae Various species of Populus, in addition to those yielding balm of Gilead (see Balms), have attracted medical interest from time to time, as indicated by Mr. Bass. Populus tremuloides has probably attracted most attention in North America, but the species used-at least for domestic medicinehas depended on local availability. Medical recommendations for all species have commonly focused on tonic and stomachic properties ("a very pleasant bitter"). In North America the yellow poplar, or tulip tree (in another family), which is considered to possess similar properties, has attracted more attention than the true poplars. It was one of the indigenous trees to arouse appreciable interest throughout colonial times. In 1709, for instance, English traveler John Lawson wrote that the buds,

made into an ointment, cure scalds, inflammations, and burns.! Some time later, in 1751, William Bartram said that the bitter bark of the root steeped in rum "is much commended for the cure of the fever and ague; and to the Northward, for the gout and rheumatism."2 Such other early writers as P. Kalm (1748), J. Schoepf (1787), J. T. Young (1792), B. Rush (1793), and B. S. Barton (1801) all indicated that it was used in intermittent, or malarial-type, fevers. Like many bitterastringent medicines, it was considered an alternative to the medically well-established South American cinchona bark (the source of quinine), which was often expensive and difficult to obtain. Almost without exception all nineteenthcentury writers who mentioned tulip tree stressed its tonic properties, although enthusiasm was rare.' While F. P. Porcher (1847) related positive firsthand experience with the bark and root, used as an anti-intermittent among slaves, A. Clapp in 1852 implied that the bark was less popular than magnolia (e.g., Magnolia virginiana and M. acuminata) and that its reputation was declining: "It had at one time a high reputation for intermittents, chronic rheumatism, hysteria, &c. As a warm sudorific, Dr. Bigelow thinks it well adapted to the treatment of chronic rheumatism, but his personal experience was only as a stomachic."4 Some favorable attitudes did persist, however, and it was included in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia. An 1892 account noted that in infusion and decoction. but more efficiently in powder, the bark. especially from the root, was employed in dyspepsia, dysentery. and other diseases requiring a mild stimulant.' Around the same time Charles Mohr wrote that Liriodendron was very successful in the treatment of remittent and intermittent fevers in Alabama. Recorded more recently in the state is the reputation not only for fevers (with wild cherry), coughs (with whiskey), and rheumatism. but also for worms. 6 Herbalists still say the bitter taste rationalizes the

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Yellow Poplar

tonic action and contributes to the reputation for treating rheumatism, though a sudorific action is also appreciated as valuable. While the historical record indicates a considerable number of uses, Mr. Bass's emphasis on employment as a tonic and for rheumatism falls within the tradition of principal usage. Like him, few herbalists promote the use of tulip tree for fevers , a decline in reputation common to a number of plant febrifuge remedies in the face of aspirin and antibiotics. Other uses too, apart from the use of buds in salves, have generally fallen by the wayside. Various chemical studies were undertaken on the tulip tree in the nineteenth century. More recent investigations have reported alkaloids (e.g., dihydroglaucine and liriodenine) , sesquiterpene lactones, flavonoids, and other constituents in various parts of the tree. No recent pharmacological or clinical studies confirm the somewhat extravagant statement summarizing some nineteenthcentury pharmacological studies : "This study of tulipiferine [an alkaloid] serves to explain the former empirical uses of Liriodendron." 7 Although the historical record suggests that laboratory evaluation of this herb could be fruitful. it may be that the distinction Bass makes between yellow and white poplar should be considered. This is a long-standing

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one, especially among lumbermen, but confusion exists in the literature over whether the distinction reflects actual varieties or just age of the tree. In 1785 Marshall reported that "we have two kinds of tulip trees, viz. yellow and white, their difference easily distinguishable by the wood or timber, but perhaps not otherwise. The yellow is soft and brittle, and much used for boards , heels for shoes &c. also turned into bowls, trenchers &c. The white is heavy, tough, and hard, and likewise sawed into joists, boards, &c for building."· Names have been given to varieties since 1785, but these are no longer considered valid, and lumbermen generally state that yellow poplars are merely older trees than white poplars, and with yellow heartwood.9 Liriodendron provides one of the betterknown disjuncts between eastern Asia and eastern North America. Liriodendron chinense (Hems!.) Sargent is the Chinese counterpart to L. tulipifera, and it is perhaps significant that it is reported as a febrifuge. to Notes 1. Lawson (1709, pp. 100-101).

2. Appendix to Thomas Short's Medicina Britannica (1751, p. 4). 3. The lack of enthusiasm is reflected in its inclusion in the secondary list only of the U.S. Pharmacopoeia from 1830 to 1880. Nor was it promoted by the Thomsonian botanical movement. 4. Porcher (1847, p. 697). Clapp (1852, p. 727). 5. F. P. Foster (1890-94, 3:2186). 6. Lloyd and Lloyd (1886-87 , 2:11). R. B. Browne (1958, pp. 31 , 55, 65, 90): references are only to

"poplar," assumed to be Liriodendron tuJipifera. Many uses by Amerindians have been recorded; most recently, Croom (1982, p. 86) listed usage for "sores, fever, kidney problems, Bright's disease, bladder problems, and shin pellagra," some of which are outside traditional usage; see below. 7. Lloyd and Lloyd (1886-87, 2 :3-21). For recent

investigation listing constituents , see Hufford et al. (1975). 8. Marshall (1785, p. 79).

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9. Various factors may need to be considered~

intraspecific hybrids and variations in flavonoid constituents-that possibly affect activity; see, e.g., Parks et al. (1983). 10. For some comments see Parks et al. (1983). S. Foster (1986. pp. 18-19).

PRICKLY ASHES (bark, berries) The Herbalist's Account Prickly ash is just a shrub with thorns from the ground up. It has white blooms and purple berries. It's found in almost all woods around me. There are two prickly ashes, but we have mostly one around here [Aralia spinosa]; it's not so strong as the other [Zanthoxylum clava-herculis]. Use the bark off the tree, not the root. Chew the bark or make a tea out of it or the berries. It's an old-fashioned remedy, good for rheumatism and for toothaches. You can also put a drop in the ear for earache. There is always a market for prickly ash bark. When I was a boy, the bark brought five or ten cents a pound. Now, it brings eighty or ninety cents a pound. Commentary Aralia spinosa 1. *: angelica-tree, toothachetree, devil's walking-stick, Hercules' club. Araliaceae Zanthoxylum americanum Mill. [syns. Z. fraxineum Willd.; Z. fraxinifolium Marsh.]: angelica-tree, toothache-tree, devil's walkingstick, Hercules' club, northern prickly ash. Z. clava-herculis 1. [syns. Z. macrophyllum Nutt.; Z. fraxinifolium Walt.]: toothachetree, devil's walking-stick, Hercules' club, southern prickly ash. Rutaceae Aralia spinosa, a shrub often recommended by Mr. Bass, is one of three well-known prickly ashes! The other two, species of Zanthoxylum, have been medically better known.

Like the Zanthoxylums, Aralia spinosa has a bitter-aromatic property, and it acquired a strong reputation as a tonic and for treating rheumatism-Bass's principal recommendation. The shrub aroused some interest in colonial times. In the 1740s and 1750s Jane Colden wrote of "aralia shrub, Aralia spinosa, called here Prickly Ash. The Indians make a Decoction of the Bark of this Shrub & use it for long continued Coughs, & Likewise for the Dropsy." 2 Interest continued and the shrub was commonly mentioned in all types of nineteenthcentury writings on American materia medica. F. Pursh (1814) said that "the berries used in an infusion of wine or spirits are a remarkable medicine for relieving rheumatic pains." 3 The shrub appears to have been more a remedy in domestic than in regular medicine. Porcher, in 1847, provided some information about its popularity among blacks: " ... their vernacular name 'Hercules Club' and use in lues venerea. The rattlesnake's master, par excellence of the negroes; they rely upon it almost exclusively as a remedy for the bite of serpents."· By the end of the century little enthusiasm remained for Aralia spinosa, at least among most regular medical practitioners. Seemingly on the basis of experience, Laurence Johnson remarked (1884) that "the alterative properties formerly attributed to [it] have little foundation in fact." 5 A strong reputation for the two species of Zanthoxylum (sometimes spelled Xanthoxylum) developed during the nineteenth century as tonics and for promoting secretions, although some interest had existed in colonial times. In 1814 Pursh, one of a number of early writers to mention Z. americanum, said that "a tincture of the bark and capsules is recommended in rheumatism and toothache, from which the name tooth-achtree."" Although the more widely distributed Z. american urn became most commonly promoted, interest in both species persisted? An 1884 textbook described them as stimu-

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lant and diaphoretic: prickly ash "powerfully stimulates secretion from mucous surfaces, causes a sensation of warmth in the stomach, and undoubtedly exerts an eliminant influence." These properties often provided the rationale for the reputation in treating rheumatism, "constitutional syphilis," jaundice, chronic pharyngitis, and toothache." Many of these uses remained widely known until well into the twentieth century. An authoritative 1928 text noted the bark was employed as a masticatory, or a mouthwash, to promote 'the flow of saliva, which it does effectively both when used locally and when taken internally. "It is of use also as a temporary expedient for the relief of toothache." 9 Its sialogogue action was compared with that produced by the well-known drug pilocarpine. Whether or not a local anesthetic action is present is uncertain: the numbing action sometimes reported is not found consistently. The "secondary" status of Aralia compared with species of Zanthoxylum is reflected in J. U. Lloyd's survey (1912) on the use of plants by physicians, which showed Zanthoxylum used by 2,565 physicians and Aralia by only 725.10 Bass agrees with a summary statement by Rafinesque: "The bark has an aromatic taste, very useful in chronic rheumatism; equivalent of Xanthoxylum, but milder." 11 He was not surprised to hear that prickly ash has been recommended for rattlesnake bi tes (see Snakeroots) because of its diaphoretic action. No detailed chemical studies have been found on Aralia, but a number of physiologically active compounds have been reported for species of Zanthoxylum. Fagaramide has been shown to have anti-int1ammatory activity in laboratory tests and perhaps also to inhibit prostaglandin synthesis. 12 An oil from a related species possesses some local anesthetic action," Differences between the two species of Zanthoxylum considered here apparently exist; for example, coumarins are reported from Z. american urn only. Undoubtedly many more studies are needed before it

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will be clear whether a correlation exists between past usage and chemical constituents.

Notes 1. An association with angelica is suggested by the vernacular name angelica tree. The sensory properties of the two plants are not dissimilar. See Stearns (1801. p. 45), who did not list a species; and Griffith (1847, p. 346).

2. Colden (1963, p. 20). That Indian use of prickly ashes could still derive from European contact cannot be ruled out, if only because the use of aromatic substances for coughs was commonplace in European medicine. It is of interest that other reports from the first half of the eighteenth century listed prickly ash as "cathartic and emetic, used in cachexis," which is not in line with later reputations; e.g., see Lawson (1709, p. 107).

3. Pursh (1814, p. 209). 4. Porcher (1847, pp. 261-62)' under "Aralia

spinosa." 5. L. Johnson (1884. p. 157). 6. Pursh (1814, p. 210).

7. Many references to the use of Zanthoxylum americanum were published. One example appeared in Burgon (1820, p. 333), who said that "a tincture of the bark [of Z. fraxinifoliuml is a domestic remedy for chronic rheumatism. A lady in Buckingham who had taken a considerable quantity of the tincture for rheumatism was completely salivated by it, and challenged her physician with having given her mercury. I have heard much of its salivating but have never witnessed this effecl from its administration." See also G. B. Wood and Bache (1847, p. 745). 8. L. Johnson (1884, p. 116). A sense of the popu-

larity of Zanthoxylum americanum is also indicated by its widespread marketing by Shaker communities during the nineteenth century; see A. B. Miller (1976, p. 129). One catalog called it "a valuable tonic in low typhoid fevers; used in colic, rheumatism, scrofula, etc. The berries are a most valuable agent in Asiatic cholera. They contain a volatile oil and are aromatic. The bark is used for flatulance and diarrhoea." See also Bartholow (1881). 9. Solis-Cohen and Githens (1928, p. 1104).

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10. Lloyd (1912). 11. Rafinesque (1828-30, 2:194-95). 12. For summary of chemistry see Leung (1980, p. 38), Oriowa (1982). 13. Abraham and Agshikar (1972).

PRICKLY PEAR (fruit, fleshy leaves) The Herbalist's Account Prickly pear belongs to the cactus family. I don't fool with it and don't know much about it. U's another combination food and medicine, You can cook the fruit, but I haven't eaten none, Mother cooked the leaves, but we didn't eat them regularly, The Indians also used it like pineapple juice, I heard that it has been used as a tonic and for coughs. Indians sliced the leaves and used it as a poultice for burns, or drawing a risin' to a head, They used lots of prickly things for skin problems, Commentary Opuntia humifusa (Raf.) Raf. *, including varieties [syn. O. compressa (Salis.) Macbride]: prickly pear. 0, vulgaris MilL [syn. Opuntia tuna MilL]: prickly pear, Cereus grandiflorus (L.) Mill., including varieties [syn, Cactus grandiflorus L.]: prickly

The fruit and succulent leaves of numerous prickly pear cacti have long been used as food, especially in the American Southwest, Mexico, and Central America,' Undoubtedly the species of Opuntia employed generally reflected local availability, Opuntia humifusa, known to Mr. Bass, is common in his area. Interest in medical properties extends back to colonial times, but apparently prickly pear attracted no general notice until the nineteenth century, In 1830 Charles Rafinesque described the fruit juice of Opuntia as a diuretic and the split leaves as a good emollient application for acute rheumatism and, when

baked, for chronic ulcers, gout, and recent wounds. The juice and gum were also noted for the treatment of urinary gravel,2 Influential authors such as R. E. Griffith ignored prickly pear, though F, P, Porcher, in his Resources of the Southern Fields and Forests (1863). said that mucilaginous decoctions of 0, vulgaris were much used in Alabama in "pulmonic and pleuritic affections,"3 They were also applied to "tumors as a discutient." Commercially, species of Opuntia have been substituted for, or mixed with, succulent stems of Cereus grandiflorus, The latter attracted some interest toward the end of the nineteenth century as a "stimulant" in heart diseases. Eclectic practitioners generally valued it more highly than did regular physicians. Some accounts imply a reputation as a panacea, but it was best known in the early twentieth century for treating various heart disorders, Yet, while it was still spoken of for heart arrythmias in a standard medical text in 1928, reservations about its value had developed by the 1930s.4 Some interest has persisted in prickly pear, almost certainly encouraged by its combination food/medicine reputation, The mucilaginous extracts from the fruit continue to be noted for chest complaints (a use known to Bass), seemingly on the basis of a presumed expectorant action, The mucilaginous nature lies behind the employment of the leaves for poultices, This is not widely recorded, and Mr, Bass says "other things like potato are easier to use," All in all, accounts of C. grandiflorus are contradictory, which might make further study of the plant challenging, Notes 1. Hedrick (1919, pp. 395-96), Rusby (1912). 2. Rafinesque (1828-30, 2:247-48), 3. Porcher (1863, p, 66). See also his 1847 publication, p. 712. 4. Cerna (1893, p. 44), Potter (1917, p, 181). Solis-

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Cohen and Githens (1928, pp. 1304-5), Gathercoal and Wirth (1936, p. 181).

PRIMROSE; EVENING PRIMROSE (leaves, roots) The Herbalist's Account Primrose is an old-timer. There are three or four different kinds of it. A little bush one with yellow blooms, and the giant primrose with great big roots that look kinda like a radish. It used to be used for hogs and cows. It gets them so fat you can't see their eyes. Some people used it for a tonic, but I've never recommended it. There's always better things. We don't use it too much here in America, but over in England they get oil out of it to build up the body. I don't know too much about the primroses, but in reading Prevention magazine, I notice that the vitamin people across the waters in England claim it's one of the finest things of all. The king of Babylon in biblical days-it was the main herb he'd use-was the most famous medical king in history. His doctors used primrose, and he was severe with his doctor. If the doctor operated on someone and he died, the king would cut his hand off. Some old-timers used it in salve for sores. Conunentary Primula vulgaris Huds., including subspecies: primrose, cowslip. Primulaceae Oenothera biennis L. *, including subspecies: evening primrose, hogweed. O. speciosa Nutt. *: evening primrose, hogweed. O. fruticosa L. *, including subspecies [syn. O. mollissima Walt.]: evening primrose. Onagraceae Mr. Bass, like many people, is incorrect in seeing no medical difference between the in-

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digenous evening primrose (Oenothera spp.) and the true European primrose (Primula vulgaris), which is occasionally grown in gardens in his area. The latter has a long history (but often intertwined confusingly with Primula veris, the cowslip), and Bass repeats an apocryphal story of usage by the king of Babylon. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries primrose root had a reputation for treating gout, rheumatism, and melancholy and phlegmatic humors. l It was also employed as an errhine for treating headaches and related conditions. William Withering's authoritative account of British plants (1796), which indicated that it was a potent drug, still drew on Gerard's Herball: "Gerard reports that a dram and a half of the dried roots taken up in the autumn operates as a strong, but safe emetic."z Uses for skin conditions were also noted, but this was perhaps more for cowslip, P. veris. No evidence exists to indicate much medical interest among the colonists in Primula species. This may be because neither the European primrose nor cowslip are well established outside cultivation; furthermore, such plants as Oenothera biennis and O. fruticosa were employed in domestic practice in many parts of the country-perhaps reflecting Indian influence, perhaps not. 3 On the other hand, the reputation of evening primrose apparently developed slowly during the nineteenth century. Some encouragement came from influential author R. E. Griffith (1847). who gave personal testimony to its use in skin complaints: "Some years since, hearing of the efficacy of a decoction of the plant [0. biennis] in infantile eruptions, I made a trial of it in several cases of an obstinate character, which had resisted other modes of treatment and became satisfied that it was highly beneficial; and this opinion has been confirmed by subsequent experience. The evening primrose is a favorite emollient in ulcers." 4 An ambivalence over its reputation

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emerged, at least among such critical-minded physicians as Laurence Johnson, who, while noting Griffith's recommendations, said that "its virtues, if it have any, are yet to be ascertained." 5 Nevertheless, it (mostly the leaves) continued to be mentioned for skin complaints. 6 Bass's limited knowledge of evening primrose ("I've never recommended it") reflects its relatively low level of popularity, certainly until the recent mushrooming interest as a health food product. Bass does not appreciate that this interest lies only in the evening primrose fixed oil, which is obtained from the seeds (not known as medicinal in the past). The oil, sold generally without advice and from countless outlets, is a seeming panacea for a variety of ailments: alcoholism, nervous coughs, high blood pressure, whooping cough, and female disorders (mostly premenstrual syndrome).7 Yet, unlike many plants, recent studies suggest that a chemical basis may exist for at least part of this new reputation, due to the presence in the oil of gamma-linolenic acid, which is an essential fatty acid and an intermediate in the synthesis of prostaglandins. 8 Many studies have indicated favorable therapeutic value on the presumed basis of increasing (or altering) prostaglandin levels. Findings include relief of depression and irritability, breast pain and fluid retention associated with premenstrual syndrome,9 mastalgia,lO experimentally induced arthritis,11 and other conditions. Whatever the eventual outcome of the current interest in evening primrose oil-and obviously more studies are needed-it provides one more example of many new uses that are unrelated to past reputationsY Pharmacological justification exists for the long-established role for skin complaints, at least atopic eczema.13 Other less expensive sources of gammalinolenic acid, such as blackcurrant oil, are becoming popular. However, the interesting view has been put forward that, although blackcurrant seeds contain higher levels of

gamma-linolenic acid than evening primrose oil, the clinical efficacy is less, suggesting that some kind of synergism occurs between the acid and other constituents in evening primrose oil.14 It is noteworthy that Bass collects three species of evening primrose, which prompts the question whether or not O. biennis has been employed as much as indicated by the literature, or if other species are involved as well. Chemical comparisons between species would be particularly helpful.

Notes 1. Gerard (1636, p. 783); see also James (1743-45),

under "Primula veris." 2. Withering (1796, 2:233). 3. Kalm (1972, p. 506; dated 21 October 1749): "The

biennial oenothera grows in abundance on open woody hills and fallow fields. An old Frenchman who accompanied me as I was collecting its seeds, could not sufficiently praise its property of healing wounds. The leaves of the plant must be crushed and then laid on the wound." Schoepf (through Griffith, 1847, p. 304). References in twentiethcentury publications on Indian medicine mention, for instance, tea for obesity and the leaves for poultices. Other references are inconsistent except perhaps premenstrual fluid retention: see below. 4. Griffith (1847, p. 304), Clapp (1852, p. 771); Porcher (1863, p. 55), noted the vernacular name

scabish. 5. L. Johnson (1884, p. 149). 6. Gattinger (1894, p. 24). 7. E.g., Tenney (1982, pp. 60-61), to mention just one advocacy book.

8. Hybridization should be considered in its evaluation; e.g., see Stace (1975, pp. 265-66). 9. Horrobin (1983); for background see "Evening Primrose Oil," Lawrence Rev. Nat. Prod. 4 (1983): 40-42; for a note on bad-quality oil, see "Oil of Evening Primrose-Or Is It?" ibid., 5 (1984), 11. 10. Pashby et al. (1981); also Pye (1985). 11. Kunkel et al. (1981). 12. Among reviews, a book written for laypeople

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by J. Graham, Evening Primrose Oil (1984), provides a referenced and generally balanced review. See also Barber (1988). 13. For report of new product, see "Epogam 'Exciting' Says Nobel Prize Winner," Pharm. J. 241 (1988): 572. 14. See "Plant Drugs Move into the 20th Century" (1987).

PRUNUS SPECIES Various species of Prunus-domestic and wild plums (see monograph), bitter almond, apricot, cherry laurel, and peach (see monograph)-have had a conspicuous place in medical therapy in the past. Except for plum, all have a glycoside (in various plant parts) which yields hydrogen cyanide. Recently, apricot, in the form of the drug Laetrile, has become a medical cause celebre. Some general comments on these plants and on Laetrile are appropriate, if only because a few of Bass's visitors believe that the drug was attacked unfairly by the FDA. At one time cherry laurel (Prunus jourocef(]SUS 1.) was medically the best known of the Prunus species and was used to make cherry laurel water. The cyanide content (from the glycoside prulaurasin) of the young leaves of this evergreen shrub, common in Europe, is reputed to be 5 percent, dropping rapidly to about 0.4-1.0 percent as leaf size increases 1 This high concentration of cyanide has led to fatalities.' Second in popularity, at least in the eighteenth century, was the bitter almond (P. communis Frisch. var. omof(]). It is often pointed out that the pit (stone, or kernel) of the fruit (used for making bitter almond oil) is shorter and broader than that of the sweet almond (P. communis Frisch. var. dulcis). In America wild cherry bark became the principally used cyanogenic drug (see monograph), though peach was widely employed within domestic medicine, Laetrile, the principal cyanogenic prepa-

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ration to attract recent interest, contains the glycoside amygdalin, which is present in peaches, apricots, bitter almonds, and other plant materials. The originators of Laetrile treatment were Ernest T, Krebs and his son, E. T. Krebs, Jr. The elder Krebs tried apricot pits as a cancer treatment in 1920, but the extract was considered too toxic. His son claimed in 1952 that Laetrile (later called vitamin B17), which he developed, was safe for injection. Since that time a tremendous controversy has arisen over its safety and effectiveness. The controversy is of special interest in highlighting many social and cultural factors relevant to therapy.3 Notes 1. Trease and Evans (1983, p. 528-30). For general background, see Vennesland et al. (1982).

E.g., Motherby (1785), under "Lourocerasus," included in the warning for preparations of bitter almonds, and the kernels of peaches and apricots. More recently, Lampe and McCann (1985, pp. 13839). 2.

3. Various reviews of this story are available, but see especially Markle and Petersen (1980).

PUFFBALL The Herbalist's Account When the devil's snuffbox dries up, why it has a powder in it like ground tobacco or snuff. You just kick the puffball and the powder'll fly everywhere. You mix the powder with lard or some kind of grease and use it for a salve. It was used for what we called piles back in the old days, I never heard of the word "hemorrhoids" till years later. It was an old-time pile remedy. It's just as black as all get-out. Anyway, people didn't pay much attention in them days to what they used. They didn't work as close to one another as they do these days. No one would use it now. Anyways, you don't find it too often. It's a folk remedy; I don't guess it'll come back.

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Commentary Lycoperdon species: puffball, devil's-snuffbox. Calvatia gigantea (Batsch ex Pers.) Lloyd [syns. Langermannia gigantea (Batsch ex Pers.) Rostk.; Lycoperdon giganteum Batsch ex Pers.; Lasiosphaera gigantea (Batsch ex Pers.) Smarda]: giant puffball, brain puffball. Lycoperdaceae Mr. Bass calls puffball a folk remedy, appropriately insofar as the spores, though not ignored, have never been popular in regular medicine. John Gerard (1597) included "fussebals," or "puckfists," in his discussion on "mushrums, or toadstooles" (probably Lycoperdon species, though the illustration may be of truffles), described as cold and moist and "therefore do approach unto a venemous and murthering facultie." Few uses were given for the drying "without biting" property of the powder (spores), but applications to "merigals, kibed heels and such like" were noted.' The styptic action of the spores of Lycoperdon species-some with worldwide distribution-has remained the best-known property, but only an occasional author, European or American, mentioned it during the nineteenth century or more recently.' One standard medical text, S. O. 1. Potter's Therapeutics, Materia Medica, and Pharmacy (1906), described the spores of the giant puffball (Lycoperdon giganteum) as a "valuable hemostatic, and dusted over bleeding surfaces acts promptly in arresting hemorrhage." However, the disadvantage of its fetor was underscored.' Knowledge of puffball's use as a styptic and for hemorrhoids reached Bass through the popular tradition. Employment for hemorrhoids is recorded from the Kentucky Appalachians, though Bass's suggestion to use it in the form of a salve-despite its unpleasant nature-is more practical than merely applying the spores.' Reinforcement of the popular tradition may have occurred from time to

time in view of the considerable usage, including as a styptic, among North American Indians, even apart from religious and magical associations. A number of species have a reputation for edibility.' Limited knowledge of the constituents, which have been shown to possess hallucinatory properties, offers no explanation for past reputations. 6 The hemostatic action, however, is considered a physical action. Although rarely a problem, inhalation of the spores (e.g., to staunch nosebleeeds) may lead to a pulmonary disorder called lycoperdonosis.' Notes 1. Gerard (1597, pp. 1386-87).

2. Even enthusiastic Rafinesque (1828-30, 2:240) merely said that puffballs were edible when young. 3. Potter. e.g., 1913 ed. (p. 329). 4. Bolyard (1981, p. 15), F. C. Brown, North Carolina Folklore (6:239), noted styptic action. 5. Burk (1983). 6. Trease and Evans (1983, p. 685). 7. E.g., Strand et aI., "Lycoperdonosis" (1967).

PUMPKIN; SQUASH (fruit, seed) The Herbalist's Account The pumpkin was favorite food for the sharecroppers. They'd boil or stew them and make custards or pies, or fry them with grease in a skillet; you'd add sugar or sorghum as a sweetener and eat them with biscuit or corn bread. They are good for bad digestion and I still recommend them. Pumpkin seed is good medicine. I've known them all my life. They can be eaten in many ways, raw, roasted, or toasted. They're a good medicine, an old-time remedy for worms. It's also the finest thing in the world for prostate gland trouble and for the kidney. Just eat the seeds, about a handful. The flesh of pumpkin will make you a good poultice. Squash is another nutritious vegetable. We ate a lot of squash, summer and win-

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ter squash, when we was growing up. The blooms of the squash are good, too. If you fry them they taste like fish. They're real good like a tonic. The seed is like the pumpkin and watermelon seed but not so strong; it's good for the kidney and the prostate. Commentary Cucurbita pepo 1., including subspecies and cultivars: pumpkin and summer squash. C. mixta Pang., C. moschata (Duchesne) Duchesne ex Poir; C. maxima Duchesne, including cultivars and hybrids: winter squash, pumpkin.

Cucurbitaceae Although pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo)-most probably indigenous to Central and North America and cultivated early-has attracted some interest among regular physicians, its medical reputation has been largely as a domestic remedy. This was especially so in the southern United States, where, as Mr. Bass's remarks indicate, pumpkin has been a favorite food.! Little medical interest in pumpkin can be found in the European literature. In 1722 English writer Joseph Miller noted that it -at least its cultivars-was rarely used in physic, though the seed was "cooling," and "of the nature of the melon" (that is, used in "inflammatory distempers" and for the "stone, strangury, and heat of urine").2 In North America early-nineteenth-century authors such as Rafinesque (1828-30) noted the medical value of the seeds as cooling agents for fevers and for kidney and related ailments; later, pumpkin seed was included in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia.' Bass says that he has known about pumpkin seed "ever since he can remember." Certainly it is well established in the popular medical tradition in Alabama for such problems as bed-wetting, relieving bloody flux and vomiting, and tapeworms, and is also used as a poultice.· Popular usage was fostered by growing

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regular medical interest around 1900, but it is not altogether clear which usage was the most popular. In particular, some enthusiasm developed for treating worms ("beaten into a paste with sugar or milk, given in the morning fasting, followed, in an hour or two, by a dose of castor oil").5 One 1928 medical text waxed enthusiastic over pumpkin seed: "Scientific medicine haS been rather neglectful of this excellent remedy, which is harmless in almost any dose, and is, therefore, particularly peculiarly applicable in the treatment of children, pregnant women, old people, and weak individuals" for roundworms and tapeworms." The other principal reputation, as with watermelon (see monograph), is as a diuretic and for the kidney and the prostate gland. Cunn's New Family Physician (1869 edition) summarized the uses succinctly: "an excellent mucilaginous diuretic .... Good in retention of urine, inflammation of the bladder." 7 The constituent responsible for the anthelmintic property is cucurbitin, an amino acid. Variable concentrations in the seeds and uncertain dosages probably lie behind its uneven reputation. Plants in the Cucurbitaceae (the gourd family) are associated with toxic, bitter principles called cucurbitacins. Ripe seeds are free from these compounds, which are formed on germination. The reputation for treating prostate gland enlargement may rest on the well-established reputation as a diuretic; this is implied in Gunn's comment quoted above.s Bass points out that the seeds are used, not teas, which suggests that studies on the diuretic agent are merited because action cannot be based merely on increased liquid intake. Most summer squashes (eaten when the fruits are immature) are varieties or cultivars of Cucurbita pepo, as is the generally available pumpkin, although since the seventeenth century they have been considered to be distinct from pumpkin. 9 Unlike pumpkin, neither summer nor winter squashes

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(eaten when the fruit is mature after the rind has hardened) have attracted the attention of medical authors. Bass, however, considers squash to be one of a number of vegetables with medical or tonic value, and he believes that the seeds have a diuretic action like pumpkin, "but not as strong." While this is in line with properties of Cucurbita, the oral tradition of the medical use of squash as a whole suggests that Mr. Bass is correct in indicating that pumpkin is physiologically more active. The nutritive value of pumpkin flesh, with 94 percent water, is not high (except for vitamin A). Bitter principles-cucurbitacinsare widely distributed, but it is not clear that they are present in sufficient amounts to have a physiological effect. Pumpkin seeds are rich in fat and protein; no justification has been found for the reputation of the seeds as a diuretic.1O Notes 1. Porcher (1863, pp. 64-65) made this point and

indicated growing interest without specifying particular uses. For biological background to species. see Decker (1988). 2. Miller (1722. p. 337). 3. Rafinesque (1828-30. 2:214). 4. R. B. Browne (1958, pp. 29,40.74.76,111,117).

References can be found to teas made from seeds for stomachache. Bass believes this really means the pumpkin flesh. or perhaps treating stomachache caused by worms. 5. For interesting reflections. see Buck (1886-93. 6:99). who noted that the use of pumpkin seeds

as a taenicide was recent. Also Farquharson and Woodbury (1882, p. 359). 6. Solis-Cohen and Githens (1928, pp. 470-71). 7. Gunn (1869, p. 896).

8. The possibility that diuretic action accounts for the reputation was noted by Tyler (1982. p. 82). who also referred to other explanations for the reputation. 9. For outline of the complicated story of squashes

and pumpkin. see Schery (1972, pp. 529-30). Bailey and Bailey (1976, p. 928). 10. Bingham (1987. pp. 245-46).

PURSLANE (whole plant) The Herbalist's Account Pursley's an obnoxious weed with red and green leaves. It's worse than chickweed to take your garden. It's a vegetable; cook it for greens or eat it raw. Some say you can live on it without anything else. Perhaps more people should eat it. We fed pursley along with careless weed and burweed and primrose to the hogs to fatten them. I don't use pursley, but it's been recommended for the skin. I imagine you can call it a blood purifier. It acts on the kidney. Commentary Portulaca oleracea L. * , including cultivars: pursley, pusley, purslane, pigweed, hogweed. Portulacaceae Mr. Bass has imbibed much of the longstanding European belief in the nutritive value of the naturalized purslane. Larger and improved upright strains from France are now cultivated as potherbs.' Its use for fattening hogs seems to lie behind the widely used names pigweed and hogweed. John Gerard (1597) described two purslanes (garden and wild) as cold and moist. Although he did not feel that purslane in salads offered much nourishment, Gerard indicated it was valuable for cooling hot stomachs and encouraging appetite. Usesapparently related to astringent propertieswere also listed for "the bloody flux, the flux of the hemorrhoides, monthly terms, spitting of blood, and all other fluxes whatsoever," and the bladder and kidneys.2 Subsequent literature up to around 1750 suggested that purslane was one of a number of well-known "secondary" medicines em-

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ployed in such skin medications as plasters. Apart from its astringency, Herman Boerhaave noted that it consisted of a "soft and mealy substance." 3 In the context of Gerard's remarks, the view that seventeenth-century Puritans used it against scurvy is probably justified. In the American colonies Sauer continued to recommend it for that condition (at least the pressed-out juice), though he preferred the traditional watercress, scurvy grass, and other plants. 4 George Motherby, in Britain, wrote in his authoritative New Medical Dictionary (1785) that purslane was "chiefly used in the kitchen: the leaves are cooling antiscorbutic and moderately astringent." 5 We have found little indication that purslane was valued medicinally in nineteenthcentury America. In 1847 F. P. Porcher said "it is anti-scorbutic, diuretic, and anthelmintic, and vaunted as an antidote for poisoning from cantharides"; but added: "American Dispensatories do not vouchsafe it the same notice that it has received in various parts of Europe." 6 It was certainly omitted from many standard textbooks on materia medica, though a reputation as a diuretic and for kidney and bladder ailments seems to have been fairly well established. In the 1890s ParkeDavis marketed a fluid extract, described as refrigerant and diuretic and indicated for "chronic catarrhal affections of the genitourinary tract." 7 It is possible that both the legacy of the reputation of purslane for scurvy and its astringency lie behind Bass's reference to its value for skin ailments. No scientific evidence has been found to suggest a specific action on the skin. When Mr. Bass heard that there was also no generally accepted evidence to support the concept of blood purification, his rejoinder was that good nutrition leads to "good skin," a reference to the value of purslane as a vegetable. The fairly strong reputation as a diuretic (which has been linked to high oxalate and

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nitrate content) merits study, as do the chemical constituents, which include dopa, dopamine, and noradrenaline. Skeletal muscle relaxant properties have been recorded. a The latter study leaves an impression that this is associated with a reputation in West Africa for treating swellings, bruises, abscesses, and other conditions, but this seems unlikely unless it is linked to, say, the role of tannins. This and current interest in cardiovascular effects deserve attention. Notes 1. Bailey (1930, p. 2767), Hedrick (1972, p. 451). For other comments see Yamaguchi (1983, pp. 370-71). 2. Gerard (1597, pp. 418-19). 3. Boerhaave (1741, pp. 10-11). See also Quincy (1719, p. 208). 4. C. M. M. Wells (1980, p. 262). For earlier references see Roca-Garcia (1970). Many commentators

have noted how widespread purslane became as a naturalized plant: e.g., Claypole (1879-80). 5. Under "PortuJacca." 6. Porcher (1847). 7. Parke-Davis (1890, p. 147). Interestingly, F. P. Foster (1890-94, 4:2624) included it without indicating current usage in America. 8. Okwusaba et al. (1987).

QUEEN'S-ROOT (root)

The Herbalist's Account I wish we had it; I've never found out what it is. It doesn't grow around here. People used to ask me about it when they used it as a spring tonic. It's highly recommended as a blood purifier. Commentary Stillingia sylvatica Gard. ex L., including subspecies [syn. Sapium sylvaticum Torr.]: queen's-root, queen's-delight, yawroot.

Euphorbiaceae

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Although Mr. Bass has had no experience with the indigenous queen's-root, its once considerable reputation in domestic, regular, and Eclectic medical practice, particularly in the southern states, has reached him. Stillingia emerged in the eighteenth century as a treatment for yaws, an ailment common among slaves.' Benjamin Smith Barton wrote in his influential Collections (1798): "A species of Croton, or perhaps of Stillingia, is used in the southern states, as a cathartic. It enters into the composition of a medicine which has acquired much celebrity in the cure of that hideous disease the Frambeesia, or Yaws. The Stillingia sylvatica, perhaps the very plant, I have been speaking of, is said to be a specific in the venereal disease." 2 The plant attracted little attention in the regular medical literature of the first half of the nineteenth century, reflecting, in part, declining interest in yaws. Griffith (1847). for instance, wrote only that "it is stated to be purgative, alterative, and antisyphilitic, and is employed in distinct cutaneous affections and lues venerea."3 Nevertheless, some enthusiasm still existed. Physician H. R. Frost, who wanted to bring Stillingia out of the realm of regular practitioners into selfcare in general, concurred with a view-long conspicuous in the employment of all plant remedies-that it was best used in compounded preparations. Sarsaparilla-another blood purifer/alterative-was a commonly recommended addition. 4 Interest in Stillingia perhaps became more widespread during the second half of the nineteenth century, particularly for syphilis, skin complaints, and as a general blood purifier. Laurence Johnson (1884) correctly noted that it was employed by botanic and Eclectic practitioners "who reject mercury in the treatment of syphilis" and that "stillingia is very largely employed as a substitute. In scrofula, chronic cutaneous and hepatic disorders, it is also said to act beneficially." "In general terms," the usually critical Johnson added, "it may be said to have earned its

present reputation and standing as a remedy in those cases which, in former time, were considered most amenable to sarsaparilla." 5 Roberts Bartholow, in his popular Practical Treatise on Materia Medica (1882) noted: "It has long had a local reputation in the Southern Atlantic States as an alterative." 6 Stillingia's reputation persisted in regular medical textbooks until well into this century. R. W. Wilcox wrote in 1911 that it was used for syphilis and cutaneous and hepatic disorders, while others gave it an almost panacea status, an unwarranted extension -even for the time-of the reputation as an alterative: "Its taste is acid and pungent, it increases the activity of the heart, skin, kidneys, and bronchial mucous membrane, also the gastric, hepatic, intestinal and salivary secretions." 7 The drug also remained a popular alterative in proprietary medicines, at least those of the polypharmaceutical type. H. C. Fuller (1920) commented: "Stillingia will be found in elixirs, syrups, extracts, pills, and tablets combined with one or several of the following drugs: Bicuculla canadensis, chimaphilla, Iris versicolor, sambucus, xanthoxylum, Arctium lappa, phytolacca, Trifolium pratense, and potassium iodide."B No modern chemical analysis has been found, but the older literature attaches importance to an alkaloid (stillingine). an acrid resin, and a volatile oil. It is noteworthy that preparations of dried root are almost inactive. 9 Although the plant does not grow in his area, Bass has imbibed a strong popular tradition and is comfortable encouraging it (without the benefit of personal experience) because of the testimonies he has heard to its value as a blood purifier.'o Notes 1. For some pertinent background describing other cures, including mercury but not Stillingia. see Parramore (1970).

2. B. S. Barton (1798, pp. 33-34).

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3.

Griffith (1847, p. 595).

Frost (1846) noted the influence of renowned eighteenth-century British physician George Fownes.

4.

5. L. 6.

Johnson (1884, pp. 242-43).

Bartholow (1882, pp. 287-88).

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Commentary Gnaphalium obtusifolium 1. *, including varieties [syn. G. polycephalum Michx.]: cudweed, common life-everlasting, rabbittobacco. G. purpureum L. *, including varieties: lifeeverlasting, rabbit-tobacco.

7.

Wilcox (1911, p. 420), Potter (1917, p. 460).

8.

Fuller (1920, pp. 432-33).

Asteraceae (Compositae)

9.

Potter (1917, p. 460).

The life-everlasting, or rabbit-tobacco, plant that is best known medically (more so in domestic than regular medicine) is the indigenous Gnaphalium obtusifolium. John Gerard (1597). under the heading "cottonweede or cudweede," discussed the astringent and drying qualities of Gnaphalium species. Uses included as an anthelmintic, for "bitings and stinging" of venomous beasts, and smoking it in a pipe for coughs.' The astringent quality was the basis for most uses mentioned by eighteenth-century authors. 2 Nineteenth-century American writers on materia medica such as Clapp, Porcher, and Johnson also stressed astringent action. Related uses, more in domestic practice, included for hemorrhagic disorders, dysentery, and catarrhal affections.' Usage "by country people" continued to be reported. Its use for colds and sinus problems is the basis of Bass's enthusiasm, although doubts about its effectiveness have been raised.' Recorded popular remedies in Alabama include for asthma, colds (including "head colds"). hay fever, "raw sore throat," and, in the form of a poultice, for sores. 5 Lifeeverlasting tea is said to be the most popular native cold remedy in South Carolina. 6 Bass believes that the astringent and aromatic properties both contribute to its popularity for chest ailments. Some unevenness in its reputation among visitors may reflect Bass's frequent collection of G. purpureum rather than G. obtusifolium, while other Gnaphalium species are used elsewhere? Constituents of the small amount of essential oil present have been determined, but other chemical information is meager. The oil

F. C. Brown (1957-64, 6:190) noted its reputation for spring fever. Its use for worms in the blood was also noted. 10.

RABBIT-TOBACCO (whole plant) The Herbalist's Account Rabbit-tobacco grows everywhere and everybody knows it. It looks the same dead or alive. I don't know why it's called rabbittobacco; the rabbits don't eat it. It's best to gather it before frost, but it can be gathered in the winter. It keeps about as good out in the field as it does stored inside. People used to smoke it. Oh Lord, I've used it all my life. It's wonderful what it will do. You can't find rabbit-tobacco in most herb books, and I don't guess a doctor would recognize it, but for people who have asthma and sinus trouble, inhaling it from hot water is wonderful. Put the plants in the sink and run hot water over it and inhale the fumes. One man and his wife put it in a stewer and set it on a heater in the room, and they slept so good they almost didn't get up the next morning! It helps migraine headache, too. It's awful simple but it's one of the most valuable plants for making cough syrup and a cold remedy. Unlike commercial cough remedies, it won't upset the stomach. In fact, it aids the appetite. Take a handful of the plant-stem and all; boil, strain, and add sweetener. Take as needed. For a more powerful remedy, use with equal parts of wild cherry bark, sweet gum.

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may account for some expectorant action, but this author's experience with G. obtusifolium and G. purpureum has not been impressive. Preference must be given to the fresh plant on the basis of its greater aroma.

Notes 1. Gerard (1597, p. 519J.

2. Among European accounts we mention only James (1743-45, vol. 2, under "Gnaphalium"J, who quoted Nicholas Lemery when describing "detersive, desicative and very restringent" properties. 3. Clapp (1852, p. 802J described it as a mild astringent: "an infusion or decoction is sometimes employed in domestic practice in diarrhoea, dysentery, and in some pulmonary affections." Porcher (1849, p. 797J described Gnaphalium polycephalum as a popular remedy in hemorrhagic affections and as a "fomentation in bruises and languid tumors."

4. E.g., G. B. Wood and Bache (1883, p. 1655]. and Hyams (1898, p. 366J, who noted its occasional use in the form of tea by the country people, but it doubtless possesses little medicinal virtue. 5. R. B. Browne (1954, pp. 33, 51, 53, 70, 97, 99J. 6. Morton (1974, p. 65J. 7. Winkelman (1986J.

RAGWEED (leaves and tops); RAGWORT (leaves and tops); LIFEROOT

The Herbalist's Account For ragweed, we use the whole plant but cut the roots off. It's bitter. It's an old-time tonic and kidney medicine, more a folk medicine, and I had several people tell me that it is a wonderful one for anybody who's got the crampy kind of diarrhea, or dysentery. Preacher Satterfield said he grabbed the top of ragweed and chewed it, and it settled his stomach. The old-time farmers used to always put up a load of it to feed the mules and horses on account of their kidney troubles. I haven't used it because I have some things I think is better. I prefer yellow dock

or goosegrass, chickweed, peach tree leaves, corn silk, queen-of-the-meadow or bone set, couch grass, wild cherry, sassafras-it's all kidney medicine, then you turn right around and it's a liver medicine. Now, if you're allergic to ragweed, then just make a tea out of it, by jingo. I can't guarantee you'll never sneeze no more, but it'll help. After all, doctors make shots out of the pollen. I don't know much about ragwort. I think old Molly Kirby used it in some of her medicines, but I've never used it.

Commentary Ambrosia trifida L., including varieties: giant ragweed, tall ragweed, carrot-weed, buffaloweed (local name). A. artemisiifolia L. * , including varieties: common ragweed, hogweed, bitter-weed. Senecio aureus L., and other species: ragwort, lifewort, liferoot, squaw-weed, groundsel. Asteraceae (Compositae) Although ragweeds and ragworts are readily distinguishable, the similarity of vernacular names leads to confusion over correct identity, even among herbalists. Relatively little medical enthusiasm was aroused by species of Ambrosia before the 1870s, when they were implicated as a cause of hay fever. Some earlier attention was given to the indigenous A. trifida for many purposes associated with astringent, stimulant, and tonic properties. Arresting excessive salivation (a side effect of administering large doses of mercury) was sometimes specifically noted.' In 1884 Laurence Johnson said both of the Ambrosia species listed above were used "chiefly in domestic practice, as a topical astringent in chronic catarrhal affections." 2 Leukorrhea, gonorrhea, and hemorrhages were mentioned by other authors. Physician Thomas Hill, endeavoring in 1894 to encourage usage of botanical remedies among young physicians, singled out A. artemisiifolia as an all-purpose hemostatic. 3 Some interest, too, developed at the time

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among the growing pharmaceutical companies. Parke-Davis, for instance, marketed a fluid extract and other preparations of A. artemisiifolia with goldenrod; the company's literature called ragweed "tonic and astringent. Employed in local treatment ofrecent inflammations from wounds or injuries of any kind. Useful in hemorrhoidal tumors and ulcers. It has also been recommended as an internal remedy for hay fever, and in the treatment of dysmenorrhoea." 4 Regular medical interest did not persist long into this century. Bass says he has always known about ragweed, though few recorded folk beliefs exist. 5 Bass's remarks, like past accounts, highlight astringent properties (for example, controlling diarrhea), apart from the idea of using it for hay fever, which was established soon after the link between hay fever and ragweed pollen was established. 6 No independent testimony or chemical evidence has been found to support an action on the kidneys, though use for "diabetes" has been recorded recently among the North Carolina Lumbee Indians.7 Bass does not believe that any differences exist among various ragweeds. We have found no explanation for the view that A. trifida was particularly effective in inhibiting salivation, apart from its astringent action. Ragwort. Ragwort is sometimes described erroneously as ragweed; this could have unfortunate consequences, not so much because species of Ambrosia and Senecio have different medical reputations but because some Senecio species (e.g., S. jacobaea, common ragwort) are poisonous. Of the various species of Senecio, only S. aureus, commonly known as life-root, has attracted much medical attention. During the nineteenth century it emerged with a reputation as a "female regulator," on account of its "efficiency in uterine difficulties." 8 Recommendations for use included employing it with raspberry leaves, which also possess uterine activity. Life-root has become rela-

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tively popular in recent years-seemingly as a "female remedy" and tonic-just as it has become known that small quantities of a toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids (e.g., senecionine) are present. 9 Notes 1. Griffith (1847, p. 387); see also a paper by Robertson (1846) on Ambrosia trifida for excessive salivation; and Clapp (1852, p. 798). 2. L. Johnson (1884. p. 179). See also Millspaugh (1974. p. 82-2). 3. T. Hill (1894. p. 91). Testimony by other physi-

cians follows the paper. 4. See Parke-Davis (1890, p. 149; 1909, p. 121). 5. R. B. Browne (1958, p. 65) noted only its use for "painful menses." F. C. Brown (1957-64, voL 6) noted styptic action for nosebleed (p. 240); also dropsy (p. 173). an unfounded use.

6. Millspaugh, note 2 above. 7. Croom (1982, p. 39), describing Ambrosia artemisiifolia. 8.

King (1878, p. 669).

9. Tyler (1982, p. 141).

RATSVEIN. See Pipsissewa RATTLESNAKE MASTER (rhizome) The Herbalist's Account A lot of plants is called rattlesnake master. The one we have is like black cohosh (between black and blue cohosh). It's a folk medicine but mighty weak; you could call it a tonic. A lot of folks think it's a good-luck charm and carry it in their pockets, some to keep the snakes away. Commentary Eryngium yuccifolium Michx:, including varieties [syns. E. aquaticum L. in part; E. yuccaefolium Michx.J; rattlesnake's master, rattlesnake-master, corn snakeroot, button snakeroot, rattlesnake-flag. E. aquaticum L., including varieties [syn.

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E. virginianum Lam.]: water eryngo, button snakeroot, marsh button snakeroot, rattlesnake's master, rattlesnake master, cornsnakeroot. Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) Species of Eryngium and Liairis are commonly known as rattlesnake master and button snakeroot. However, most references to rattlesnake master in the popular medical literature probably refer to Eryngium species.' These indigenous, bitter, aromatic plantsusually E. yuccifolium and E. aquaticumattracted some attention in the nineteenth century without arousing a great deal of enthusiasm. S. Elliott wrote confidently in 1821 that the root-pungent, bitter, and aromatic -excites saliva (a sialogogue) when chewed. Noting that a decoction is diaphoretic, expectorant, and sometimes emetic, he said that it was "preferred by some physicians to the seneka snake-root which it resembles in its effects."2 In 1847 Griffith's authoritative Medical Botany, after discussing European species, underscored successful use of "E. aquaticum" as a diaphoretic and expectorant, with emetic action in large dosesinformation repeated in many subsequent materia medica publications.' In the light of these properties, some unexpected uses are listed in the literature. For instance, during the 1890s Parke-Davis marketed E. yuccifolium (which they also called E. aquaticum) "in pound packages for retailing purposes," remarking: "It is said to exert an influence on the reproductive organs, lessening erectile power, and proving effectual in cases of seminal losses with urethral irritation, pain in the testes and irritation of the bladder."4 E. yuccifolium continued to be mentioned occasionally in the twentieth century, particularly in the literature of the Eclectic school of medical practices Its popularity declined along with the fading of Eclectic medicine. No recent account of the chemical con-

stituents elucidates the nature of the volatile oil and the bitter principle. The latter seemingly contributes to the reputation-not a strong one-as a tonic, but it is noteworthy that the reputation for sexual problems implies a sedative action. The aromatic properties are in line with many plants that have once been associated with treating rattlesnake bites, but clearly the diversity of the medical reputation of rattlesnake master merits chemical study. It may be that the reputation as a good-luck charm (noted by Bass) is significant in sustaining interest in the plant.6 Notes 1. From discussions with Bass and such references as Hyatt (1970-73. 1:469). Rattlesnake-master is the only vernacular name given by Gattinger (1894, p. 25) for Eryngium yuccaefolium. The name rattlesnake master seems to be the most widely used, although various botanical writings prefer button snakeroot for Eryngium species; e.g., Rodgers (1950). 2. Elliott (1821-24,1:342-43), under "Eryngium aquaticum, Button snake root." Fairbanks (1979, pp. 120-49) noted that one of the major medicinal teas of the Creek Indians was "pasa, made from the pounded roots of button snakeroot (Eryngium yuccaefolium Michx.) often called 'war physic' by Europeans." 3. Griffith (1847, p. 315). Rafinesque (1828-30, 2:213) indicated that "E. yucefolium" was mostly

used. 4. Parke-Davis (1890, p. 188). See also Millspaugh (1974, p. 62-5) for what appears to be a homeo-

pathic proving indicating sensory activity on the genital system. 5. Ellingwood (1915, pp. 432-33).

6. For an account of magical properties see Hyatt (1970).

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369

REDBUD (bark, flowers) The Herbalist's Account People have asked me about redbud. I don't know it has many uses. The Indians used to eat the flowers. You can eat the beans on the tree raw; they're not so good cooked, or nutritious. The bark, some folks say, is a nourishing tonic and good for the stomach. Conunentary Cercis canadensis L. *, including varieties: redbud, judas-tree. Fabaceae (Leguminosae) Mr. Bass's vagueness about the medical properties of the redbud tree mirrors little published information and weak popular and oral traditions, medical and otherwise.' Some uncertainty exists over early references. In his American Herbal (1801) Samuel Stearns listed the "Carolina Red Bud tree" but as "Andromeda nitida" (probably Lyonia lucida [Lam.] Koch, the fetter bush) rather than Cercis canadensis, and without saying anything about properties. 2 C. S. Rafinesque (1828-30), an influential writer on American medical botany, merely stated that the blossoms of redbud were "eaten by Indians .. . in sallad or pickled" ; these uses were also known to Cherokeesat least when recorded in the twentieth century-perhaps a route by which information reached Mr. Bass, although he has not heard of Cherokee use for whooping cough .3 During the second half of the nineteenth century some interest emerged in the use of the bark of C. canadensis (possibly C. occidentalis in western states) as an astringent, though many publications on materia medica made no reference to this whatsoever.' One factor that encouraged usage was the marketing of a fluid extract by Parke-Davis, "said to be useful in the treatment of diarrhoea and dysentery, especially where it becomes chronic . . .. It also makes an excellent injection for leucorrhoea and gleet where there

is an atonic condition of the mucous membrane."5 A second impetus behind growing interest -from Eclectic practitioners-was reflected in the comments of the well-known authors J. U. Lloyd and C. G. Lloyd: "In all cases where an astringent is indicated it will give satisfaction, and it has the advantage over all other articles of that class, that it can be given when the stomach is irritable, without increasing the trouble, making it very valuable in the treatment of diarrhoeas peculiar to infancy." 6 Medical knowledge of redbud during the twentieth century has been sustained primarily by the oral tradition and occasional references in domestic medical literature, some Indian usage, and word of mouth.7 It is notewothy that in addition to use for stomach upsets and as a tonic, Bass mentions employment for fevers, for this is not a wellestablished concept. No chemical analysis has been found, but past reputations, including perhaps for fevers, apparently rest on the astringency of the tannins present. The absence of a well-established reputation as a febrifuge suggests a lack of specific pharmacological action . Notes 1. In certain regions other species of Cercis are em-

ployed as redbud. Gerard (1597, p. 1240), under the heading "Judas tree," said that the temperature and virtues of this shrub were unknown. John Lawson

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(1709; 1967 ed., p. 106) merely noted the redbud without mentioning any medical properties. The name Judas reflects a tradition that this is the tree on which Judas hanged himself. 2.

Stearns (1801, p. 92).

Rafinesque (1828-30, 2:206); Banks (1953, p. 70) repeated an observation that "children are fond of eating the blossom." 3.

4. For some account of botany, induding varieties, see Hopkins (1942), K. R. Robertson and Lee (1976). 5.

Parke-Davis (1890, p. 107).

6. Lloyd and Lloyd (1886-87, 2:122-25), (1882, p. 186). 7.

King

See, however, Tantaquidgeon (1972, p. 30).

REDROOT (root, root bark, leaves, twigs) The Herbalist's Account Redroot's a most valuable herb. It's usually called redshank around here. It grows in the woods on the south sides of hills or mountains. It is best to gather it in June or July, but it can be gathered any time. I found out about Jersey tea in the 1920s from a fellow called Bowman who came from Georgia. I'd notice the bees in the beautiful blooms. I'd cut down a tree and boy that honey was just as fresh, you talk about flavor. I said, "Mr. Bowman what kind of a little herb is that?" "Tommie, that's redshank. You know that there is one of the finest things for pyorrhea or sore gums; make a strong tea. Also used for diarrhea." When I went to use it, I found out it worked. It will actually cure, I'll say the word on that, sore mouth, sore throat, tonsil trouble, coughs, bleeding ulcers, internal bleeding, dysentery, bloody flux. Folks swear by it for prostate gland condition. I think that it should be recognized as a wonderful medicine, and I think it's coming to the front because these herb handlers is gone to wanting it, you know. On the experience we've had the last ten years, we've had more results on cases that looked like they

couldn't be remedied any way at all. Now, all of them hasn't got well, but they're getting along pretty good. This lady that's got cancer, she's improving. Even her doctor says she is, but we don't know what it is that's doing it, and we don't know how long it will last, but still that's good news. Make a tea with a few cut-up roots in a cup of hot water. Drink a cupful a day. For an external wash for swollen joints and sprains and insect stings, use as much as needed. It's wonderful to wash your hair in. We use the whole root. If you boil it a lot longer you get more strength out of it than you would the bark. Oh boy, I could put up a dandruff medicine and get rich. I'd take red sage and garden sage and redroot and walnut leaves or pecan leaves and mullein, but just the redroot is good. A man on the mountain came down about his psoriasis trouble. I gave him a bag of the root. It done him so much good he comes back all the time. I took him in the woods (in the wintertime) and showed it to him. You can use the leaves, but you need to make a strong tea. Doc Sanders gave me an order one time for ten pounds of Jersey teahe called it that-leaves. That was the hardest order I ever tried to get because it takes lots of Jersey tea to make ten pounds. I got about eight pounds of it real good and clean, but the darn stuff went to seed, and, like a fool, I just stripped off the leaves, and them seeds got in there. Sanders wrote me, "Bass, I had a real time with that, I had to hire some extra help to get them leaves picked out." So he deducted, you know. Commentary Ceanothus americanus L. *, including varieties: New Jersey tea, redroot, redshank, snowball, Jersey-tea. Rhamnaceae Some medical interest in this indigenous, attractive plant was established in the eigh-

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teenth century for the treatment of syphilis. H. Marshall (1785) stated that "a decoction of the roots of this shrub is esteemed a certain cure, not only in slight gonorrheas, which it stops in two or three days, without any bad consequences, but also in the most inveterate venereal complaints. The leaves are dried and used by some as a substitute for Bohea tea, from which it acquired its name." 1 Despite this, D. H. Hubbard, writing in 1835, said that he could not remember seeing any reference to the medicinal use of the plant except for Bigelow's mention that the leaves were used as a substitute for tea during the American Revolution. 2 Hubbard started to use the leaves and seeds (because of the astringency) for a severe thrush in a seventyyear-old lady. All treatments-borax, alum, silver nitrate, vegetable astringents, and tonics such as gold thread, crane's bill, hard back, oak bark, and sumac-failed, except New Jersey tea. He then tried it as a gargle in many other ailments. Within a year its domestic reputation as a "valuable styptic ... for restraining haemorrage from wounds" was accepted.' At the same time New Jersey tea was also a part-though not a principal one-of the armamentarium of Thomsonian practitioners, used for sores and "syphilitic complaints." 4 Griffith, after noting Indian usage as an astringent and febrifuge, underscored that it was very much employed as a remedy in gonorrhea and syphilis. 5 New Jersey tea was noted in many works of materia medica through the second half of the nineteenth century, with most attention focused on the root. 6 Personal testimonies encouraged interest. In 1862 Appalachian root and herb dealer C. J. CowIe wrote to a customer that a good vegetable astringent was the "bark of the root of the Ceanothus." It "affords one well suited to the treatment of sore throat accompanying scarlet fever, diphtheria, &c. It is good in dysentery."7 Around the same time, F. P. Porcher wrote that great use was made of it in domestic practice in

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Chesterfield District, South Carolina, as an astringent in gonorrheal discharge." During the Civil War, Porcher encouraged its use as a substitute tea. Although he made the point that it was no longer considered of value as an antisyphilitic-possibly some recognition that treatment of genital organs might alleviate local discharge but not alter the overall course of the disease-he continued to advocate its value for venereal disease in general. Like many bitter-astringent medicines, New Jersey tea remained well known as a tonic until well into the twentieth century. It also attracted occasional episodes of interest, such as in the treatment of hemorrhage and as a hypotensive agent. At one time a preparation called ceanothyn was "widely used clinically." 9 Mr. Bass's recommendations, in line with past ones, rest on the plant's astringency, which also seemingly lies behind an Appalachian belief-unknown to Bass-that redroot is appropriate to take following a miscarriage. lO His high regard for its use for prostate enlargement has apparently not been specifically recorded elsewhere. The root has been reported to have a high concentration of tannins (10 percent], justifying at least some uses based on astringency, such as for sores and as a hemostatic agent. l l However, as a reminder of the need for caution in interpreting well-established notions, it is noteworthy that the alkaloids present, which reduce clotting time, may contribute to the effectY Unfortunately, detailed actions of the peptide alkaloids and other constituents have not been evaluated, making it difficult to assess past recommendations other than those clearly associated with the astringency of the tannins. Owing to the strength of the historical record and conflicting studies in the literature, redroot merits further investigation. It is certainly interesting to wonder if a correlation exists between the early reputation for gonorrhea and Bass's strong recommendation of its use for prostate trouble.

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Perhaps treating infection might help relieve urinary difficulties associated with prostatic enlargement. Notes 1. Marshall (1785, pp. 27-28).

2. Hubbard (1835). He did not note the reference by Linnaeus (1749; 1829 English translation, p. 37) for use in syphilis, nor the one by Rafinesque (182830.2:205) as an excellent antisyphilitic and antiscrofulant. A reference in Bigelow (1822) has not been found. 3. "Ceanothus american us," Boston Med. Surg. 15 (1836): 42-43.

J.

4. E.g., S. Thomson (1841, pp. 606-7). This was one of the "no. 3's" to scour the stomach and bowels and remove the canker. Not mentioned in S. Thomson (1832, 1835). 5. Griffith (1847, p. 218); see also Lindley (1838, p.166). 6. Clapp (1852, p. 759). Croom (1982, p. 45) noted that the root is used as a tonic to .. increase the potency of herbal mixtures." 7. Cowie Papers. 16 July 1862. 8. Porcher (1847, p. 264). 9. See Groll (1927); see also Dispensatory of the United States (1960, p. 1620). 10. Irwin (1985, p. 147). 11. Youngken (1936, p. 506). 12. See, for example, Servis et al. (1969). Koppany (1928).

ROSINWEED; GUM PLANT (leaves, tops, occasionally roots) The Herbalist's Account There are a number of gum plants. I haven't used rosinweed. It doesn't grow around here. but I've been asked about it. We have a gum plant. It looks like a wild sunflower or an artichoke. It's pale yellow but no dark center. It has fuzzy leaves and it's gummy. It grows all around my place. You can chew the hardened sap from the stem after the plant has been dried. U's used in-

ternal but it's got to be used with caution. It works heavy on the heart. It's good for coughs. We recommend using it just for a salve. Some old-timers said it was a good remedy for poison ivy. Commentary Grindelia robusta Nutt.: gum plant, rosin weed. G. squarrosa (Pursh) Dunal, including varieties: gum plant, rosin weed. Silphium asteriscus 1. *, including subspecies: rosin weed. S. laciniatum 1., including varieties [syn. S. gummeriferum Elliot]: rosin weed, compass plant. Asteraceae (Compositae) The two vernacular names rosinweed and gum plant have been used for many plants producing gum or resin, but mostly for species of Grindelia and Silphium. The latter, however, are more commonly called rosinweed, in contrast to gum plant, the name used by Mr. Bass for the Silphium asteriscus he collects. Medically, the best known of the Grindelia and Silphium species is Grindelia robusta, which is used primarily as an expectorant. Grindelia is a western plant which does not grow in Bass's region. If, as we suspect, it is the "rosinweed" he has been asked about, that reflects its once-considerable popularity.' Grindelia is said to have been used by Indians long before it attracted general medical interest in the second half of the nineteenth century? Authoritative writer on medicinal plants John Uri Lloyd recorded that, in 1863, Dr. C. A. Canfield of Monterey, California, called attention to Grindelia as a remedy for a rash caused by Rhus toxicodendron. 3 In fact, Eclectic practitioners were often enthusiastic, and different recommendations emerged -partly from such pharmaceutical companies as Parke-Davis-for G. robusta (mainly asthma) and G. squarrosa (as an antimalarial and for headaches)!

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The constituents of Grindelia species include about 20 percent resins, which contain unsaturated cyclic acids. s Which of these account for the clinical action is not clear. Concern exists that high doses of Grindelia can cause renal disturbances. 6 Silphium is found in eastern North America. Medically, the best known is probably S. lacinatum, also called compass plant. 7 Only occasionally was it mentioned in general accounts of the materia medica. Griffith wrote in his encyclopedic Medical Botany: "Some species of Silphium afford a fragrant bitter gum, which is stimulant and antispasmodic." B Despite spotty interest, ParkeDavis advertised in the 1890s both a fluid extract and packets of the herb and the root; S. lacinatum was described as "tonic, diaphoretic, alterative and emetic. Very beneficial in dry, obstinate coughs and intermittent fevers. Its action is analogous to that of Grindelia robusta, and it is said to cure the heaves (asthma) in horses."9 Another species of Silphium mentioned from time to time for medical properties is S. perfoliatum L., sometimes called cup plant.tO Medical references to the species collected by Mr. Bass, S. asteriscus, have not been found. Likewise, no chemical information on the resin or other constituents has been located. No published account has been found describing the use of Silphium species to treat skin irritations. Bass, however, believes that all gum plants act the same." To some extent this seems to rest on similar morphology. Notes 1. Other species have attracted nonmedical interest; see. e.g .. Hoffman and McLaughlin (1986). 2. Vogel (1970. p. 313) stressed this point. 3. See Lloyd (1921, pp. 158-59). 4. Parke-Davis (1890, p. 90). Bolles (in Buck, 1886, 3:387) indicated that the employment of both

species for poison ivy, burns, and so on, was much less than for chests.

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5. For a note on constituents and uses for poison ivy dermatitis, see Trease and Evans (1983, p. 472).

J. E. F. Reynolds (1982, p. 689). In the past Grindelia has been recommended as a diuretic; see

6.

Wilcox (1911, p. 362). 7. E.g., Peterson (1977, p. 88). 8. Griffith (1847, p. 387). 9. Parke-Davis (1890, p. 155). 10. E.g.,

J. E. Meyer (1934, p.

211).

11. Moerman (1977, p. 178) did record an Indian

use for S. perfoliatum as a "dermatological aid."

RUE (tops) The Herbalist's Account I don't know much about rue, but it's in all the herb books. It doesn't grow around here, but folks have it in their garden and ask me about it. It's a female medicine, but it's strong and I wouldn't recommend it. There are plenty of others to use. Commentary Ruta graveolens 1. *, including varieties: rue, herbe-grace, countryman's treacle. Rutaceae Although Mr. Bass knows little about the plant, which is native to the Mediterranean region and naturalized in the eastern United States, he recognizes its toxicity, a sufficient reason for including a monograph on a plant that is rarely recommended by herbalists nowadays. John Gerard (1597) described various rue plants-including Ruta graveolens, with its unusual blue-gray foliage and characteristic but rather indefinable odor-as hot and dry. Such deobstruent actions were noted as "provoketh urine, brings downe the sicknes [menstruation], expelleth the dead childe and afterbirth," and relief of flatulence.' Action against poisons (when taken internally) was also noted, reflecting the then-current interest in remedies for the plague. The enthusiasm with which it had been held previously

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is reflected in the unusually long list of quotations given by Gerard. The vernacular name herb of grace is said to reflect its "many good properties." 2 Many uses given by Gerard were repeated in eighteenth-century medical writings, when rue's reputation for nervous disorders came to the fore. John Hill (1751), at a time when active revision of the materia medica was under way, said that it "has been of great esteem as an alexipharmic and cephalic; it is good in all nervous diseases, and in fevers, the smallpox and measles; and eminently so in hysteric cases." 3 A short while later, authoritative William Cullen indicated many properties but said it had particularly "been recommended in epilepsies and hysteric complaints, and wherever in such cases the complaints can be better'd by stimulants, rue may be employed." 4 Despite the favorable comments by Cullen, rue's reputation appears to have soon declined, at least within regular medicine. In 1847 American author R. E. Griffith wrote that rue "is but little employed by regular practitioners, but is in much repute among empirics and in domestic practice as an antispasmodic and emmenagogue.'" Griffith added, however, that rue deserved more attention from the profession and that it "has proved highly useful in flatulent colic and in some nervous complaints, as hysteric, and even in epilepsy." Its employment to procure abortion was also noted. Rue never reestablished a place in general practice. Laurence Johnson did not mention rue in his influential Medical Botany of North America (1884), and it has received only occasional references in regular medical texts since that time. 6 Although some of Bass's visitors know about rue, their knowledge is slight.' The irritant volatile oil present contains chiefly methyl nonyl ketone, with small amounts of other ketones, esters, and phenols. Other constituents include alkaloids,

coumarins, and the flavonoid rutin.s The irritant property of the oil is considered to be a major factor behind the abortifacientemmenagogue action. Interest has focused on rutin for rationalizing past reputations. Although suggestions-including the notion that rutin is useful clinically for capillary fragility-remain speculative, its property as an antispasmolytic has gained widespread acceptance.

Notes 1. Gerard (1597, pp. 1070-76). 2. For comments see Britten and Holland (1880. p. 258). The name countrymen's treacle (p. 474)

was also employed for garlic and valerian. Rue has been discussed many times, but for a brief sense of its long history "against all evil." see Stannard (1985, pp. 267-72). 3.

J. Hill

(1751, p. 340).

4. Cullen (1781. p. 312). 5. Griffith [1847, p. 190).

6. Other medical textbooks at the time noted its stimulant and emmenagogue properties; e.g .. Farquharson and Woodbury (1882. p. 399]. 7. The abortifacient properties were not recorded for Alabama and North Carolina by R. B. Brown" and F. C. Brown. but for elsewhere. see Browner and Ortiz de Montellano (1986, pp. 32-47). The authors in fact discuss Hula chalepens. 8. ). E. F. Reynolds (1982, p. 683), Leung (19S(),

p. 286), Trease and Evans (1983. p. 79).

SAGE (whole plant. leaves)

The Herbalist's Account Old-timers always had a bunch of sage growing around. Garden sage is a perennial. You can plant the seed and it comes up year after year. The leaves or whole plant are best collected in the fall. They can be dried in the shade and packed in jars; the dried plant keeps indefinitely, Supermarket sage can be used, too. Garden sage is used more for seasoning than for medicine. The leaves make a

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good, brisk-tasting tea. It don't have no caffeine, but it'll pick you up. Across the waters where they raise tea, they drink sage tea and send us the black tea, and laugh at us. That's what they tell me. Red sage-it doesn't grow wild-is a real good tonic. It builds up the system when you're run-down. The garden sage is not so powerful, it's more for calming you. The tea is good for a headache, and it makes you sleep like a baby. Sage is not a narcotic. Mixed with maypop it will calm the nerves. It's also'a wonderful hair tonic. It has a tendency to bring back the actual color to your hair. It makes the hair glisten. If you mix walnut leaves and mullein leaves with the garden sage, it makes the best hair tonic of all. I mean by a hair tonic, something to get away with the dandruff. It makes your hair feel good and grow better. Commentary Salvia officinalis 1. *, including subspecies [syn. S. grandiflora Tenore]: garden sage. S. coccinea Juss. ex J. Murr. *: red sage. Lamiaceae (Labiatae) Sage's medical history is as old as its culinary history, reflected in the saying-found in countless versions of the famed Regimen Salernitum (c. 1100) and widely quoted in the nineteenth century-"why should a man die whilst sage grows in his garden?" 1 Only a few of the more than seven hundred species of Salvia are discussed in the medicalliterature. John Gerard (1597) described sage, then well established as an appropriate medicinal plant for Elizabethan gardens, as hot and dry to the third degree. 2 Its deobstruent actions included to expel wind, for dropsy, and "singular good for the head and braine." Employment to prevent premature labor was also noted. Of the many reputed uses, the role as a cephalic (and for soothing nerves) was generally to the fore. This was often mentioned specifically in the eighteenth century, even

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among those who wrote critically of much of the existing materia medica. Many recipes existed for sage water-mostly recommending red sage-to be used for "all kinds" of melancholy.' Later, the comments from renowned authority William Cullen, that sage was useful in promoting sweat when given with warm water but did not expel "morbific matter of contagion, or of fever," were typical of attitudes that were then bringing about revision of excessive claims for many plants.' This and his additional warning that "from the use of sage tea I have several times observed a stiffness of the eyes ensue, the palpebrae not moving on the ball of the eye, and the eye liable to suffusion and inflammation," were salutary reminders of the dangers of excessive use. s Such views hardly dented sage's European reputation within domestic medicine as a specific for feverish conditions, a reputation that persisted into this century. W. Nisbet's opinion that sage leaf infusions used as a stimulant were less valuable than peppermint and spearmint, and as a diaphoretic were less useful than saffron and sarsaparilla was generally accepted." The extent of sage's popularity in the American colonies is uncertain. Most nineteenth-century American materia medica books considered sage (generally S. officinalis) a diaphoretic and a gargle for sore throats. Various recipes for treating sore throats were suggested, such as mixing it with lemon juice for fevers and sweetening a sage tea with honey and borax.' However, Laurence Johnson did not mention it in his influential textbook on materia medica (1884), confirming that interest had declined among regular physicians. Bass's recommendations for using sage as a tonic or stimulant and for headaches, particularly the latter, are in line with past reputations, as is his belief that the strongest sage is red sage. These recommendations are more modest than others recorded recently

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for traditional practices elsewhere;8 surprisingly, he has not heard of its reputation for fevers and colds, or for stomach ailments. Commercially available sage is either S. officinalis (known as Dalmatian sage) or a mixture of S. triloba (Greek sage) and S. officinalis. Of special interest is the considerable variation found in the principal ingredients of the oil: 1,8-cineole, thujone, and camphor." It has been said that for the best-quality sage oil the leaves should be harvested in October (appreciated by Bass), when the content of thujone is highest.tO Attention has been given to antimicrobial activity of the essential oil, but this apparently has no relevance to past uses, although reports of its value in bacillary dysentery are of interest." Some central nervous system depressant activity has been reported in fish, but whether this is relevant to the reputation as a cephalic and is related to the odor "clearing the head" is unclear.'2 Discussions in the literature on an anti sweating property are not backed by a strong historical record." Sage oil is "generally recognized as safe" by the Food and Drug Administration, but concerns arise over long-term use owing to the toxicity of thujone, an issue recognized in the eighteenth century-at least by William Cullen.14 Notes 1. For a recent accessible edition, see Parente (1967).

2. Gerard (1597, pp. 622-25; 1636). Moore (1564, f. 30) mentioned its importance for Elizabethan

gardens, but not its value for the head. 3. For relevant printed comments see J. Hill (1751, p. 372). See also Quincy (1719, pp. 80-81). 4. Cullen (1781, p. 214).

5. Information on side effects is inconsistent. 6. Nisbet (1800, p. 73). 7. Capron and Slack (1848, p. 495). 8. E.g.,

J. F. Morton (1981, p.

9. Cf. Tucker et al. (1980).

782).

10. Pitarevic et al. (1984).

11. Tyler (1982, pp. 194-96). 12. Wesley-Hadzija and Baking (1956). 13. Snajder (1951). 14. Tyler (1982, pp. 194-96).

ST. JOHN'S-WORT (flowering tops) The Herbalist's Account There are a number of st. John's-worts. The facsimiles act the same as the real one. It grows six inches to two feet tall, with a small yellow bloom in July and August; it has a brown seedpod. You find it in low and damp places. The whole top of the plant-it has a medical odor-is used. It stores well when kept dry in paper bags or jars with tight lids. I never have used it in a medicine. We didn't have it till the dam came here. It's a real famous medicine, highly recommended. It's real good to put in a salve. It's also supposed to be fine for the kidney and an allaround tonic. You can use it to cleanse the system, getting the poison out, and good for that run-down condition. It's safe. You can use one tablespoon of the plant to a cupful of hot water, and drink as needed. Commentary Hypericum perforatum L. * [syn. H. vulgare Lamk.l: St. John's-wort. H. mutilum L. *, including varieties and hybrids: St. John'S-Wort. Clusiaceae (Guttiferae) St. John's-wort (invariably referring to H. perforatum) has a long, uneven medical reputation, sometimes interwoven with the plant's many magical and religious associations. Half of its thirty-nine or so English names have biblical associations.! John Gerard's Herball (1597) described a number of uses for this "hot and dry" plant, including as a "diuretic.'" The value for treating wounds was also mentioned. Almost all subsequent writers on materia medica considered St.

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St. John's-Wort (Hypericum perforatum) John's-wort, though as with so many botanicals, doubts about its efficacy had cropped up by the eighteenth century. In contrast to encomiums by, for example, John Hill, William Cullen was somewhat uncertain about the plant ("it is scarce at all regarded at present"). On the other hand, as a believer in sensory properties as indicators of medical activity, he gave it the benefit of the doubt on the basis of astringency and bitterness and implied that constituents such as the essential oil merited testing. 3 St. John's-wort is said to have reached North America with Rosicrucian pilgrims who landed in Philadelphia in 1696, and to have been valued highly by the Pennsylvania Dutch. 4 By 1847 Griffith was not overly positive, saying it was "held in high estimation by early writers but [only used

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in America] to make a salve or ointment." 5 Clapp also revealed ambivalence, while still recognizing the long testimony of usefulness. He mentioned G. B. Wood's view that it was "somewhat analogous in medicinal power to the turpentines" and indicated its reputation in salves. 6 A few years later (1884), Laurence Johnson was critical of medical usage of St. John's-wort and noted only its alleged value in bruises.' Nevertheless, its use in self-treatment was correctly indicated: "The flowering tops, digested with olive or linseed oil, yield a yellowish red product, termed oleum hyperici, or red oil, which is a preparation considerably used in domestic practice." In modern herbal medicine some of the older, panacealike reputation has returned, although Mr. Bass highlights a mainstream use for skin ailments. s The reputation as a diuretic has been questioned, as it has for enuresis in children; many suggested remedies are rationalized on the basis of an irritant action. Particular interest exists in an antidepressant action, unexpected in view of the few past references to its use for mental problems. As Bass indicates, there are a number of species of Hypericum , but whether they all possess similar medical properties is doubtful.9 Also, it is said that variation of constituents in H. perforatum may occur from apomixis, as reported in European plants.1o Constituents in the aerial parts of H. perforatum include a red pigment, hypericin, an essential oil, tannins, bisanthrones, flavonoids, and coumarins. Separately or together they can rationalize the reputation for skin complaints. Hypericin has been suggested as the cause of the antidepressant action, but other constituents are probably relevant.

Notes Britten and Holland (1878-86). A number of stories link Saint John the Baptist with St. John's-

1.

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5.

Griffith (1847. p. 159).

Commentary Gentiana catesbaei Walter, including varieties [syns.G. elliottii Chapman; Dasystephana parvifolia (Chapman) Small): Sampson snakeroot. C. villosa L. [syns. C. ochroleuca Froel.; C. deloarchii (Lemmon) Shinners; Dasystephana villosa (L.) Small): Sampson snakeroot. C. saponaria L. *

6.

Clapp (1852. p. 743).

Gentianaceae

wort. and many pagan associations exist; see Vickery (1981). 2. Gerard (1597. p. 433). Hill (1751. pp. 445-46). Cullen (1775. pp. 206Withering (1796.3:664) also expressed uncertainty.

3.

7).

Haughton (1978. p. 347); but for an implication that it was introduced later. see C. E. Wood and Adams (1976).

4.

7. L.

Johnson (1884. p. 103).

8. Some interest exists in related species. Croom (1982. p. 73) noted "St.-John-the-Worker" as Hyper-

icum hype rico ides (L.) Crantz. with a reputation for kidney and bladder problems and skin conditions; also given with sage for babies' "sick stomach." Hyams (1898. p. 342) listed numerous species of Hypericum and noted that they were "collected and sold in the shops for one and the same thing. but they do not all possess similar medicinal properties."

9.

10. Uncertainty is compounded if activity owes much to constituents in the essential oil. the concentration of which varies from species to species. The taxonomy of Hypericum has produced much debate.

SAMPSON SNAKEROOT (root) The Herbalist's Account Sampson's snakeroot is about two feet tall and it grows in low, limey places. It's a little plant that kinda favors alfalfa, but it has a huge root. It can be dug anytime and it keeps easily. It's a tonic and rheumatism medicine. The tea is made with two or three roots per quart of water and boiled for thirty minutes. Take a tablespoonful three times a day. I've never used it; I can't find much of it, but I have calls for it from a lot of colored people and white people. They think it's a good-luck charm. Some say it protects them from snakes. But it's a medical plant and I know people that has used it.

Psoralea psoralioides (Walt.) Cory*, including varieties [syns. P. pedunculata (Mill.) Vail!; Hedysarum pedunculatum Mill.; Trifolium psoraloides Walt.; P. melilotoides Michx.; P. eglandulosa Ell.; Orbexilum pedunculatum (Mill.) Rydb.): Sampson snakeroot. P. esculenta Pursh: Sampson snakeroot. Fabaceae (Leguminosae)

Aristolochia serpentaria L.. including varieties [syns A. convolvulacea Small; A. hastata Nutt.; A. nashii Kearney): Virginia snakeroot, Sampson snakeroot. Aristolochiaceae Echinacea angustifolia Heller. including varieties [syn. Brauneria angustifolia (DC.) Heller): Sampson snakeroot. Asteraceae (Compositae) Of the many and various plants described as Sampson (Sampson's or Samson) snakeroot. such American species of Gentiana as catesbaei and villosa are the best known. Psoralea psoraloides, Aristolochia serpentaria (see Virginia snakeroot). and Echinacea angustifolia (see Kansas snakeroot) are occasionally called Sampson snakeroot.' Many references to "Sampson snakeroot" are thus difficult to interpret. although references to use of the root for female complaints are likely to refer to Virginia snakeroot. The gentian Sampson snakeroots are generally regarded as tonics and often are rec-

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ommended for stomach conditions. In 1847 Porcher commented that G. catesbaei was a popular remedy on the plantations;2 and in the 1890s Parke-Davis was marketing small packages of "G. ochroleuca" root. Their advertising-directed toward the medical profession-included remarks on littlediscussed specific uses. where there was a lack of consensus among regular physicians: "useful in all cases of enfeebled mucous tissue attended with discharges as in chronic catarrhal affections. Especially applicable to subacute irritations of the alimentary canal. where the mesenteric glands are somewhat involved and attended with diarrhoea."] Tonic properties remained the best known" Psoralea psoraloides (collected by Bass) and other Psoroleo species have been noted only rarely in the medicobotanicalliterature. and then generally not as Sampson snakeroot. Laurence Johnson (1884) commented appropriately that P. esculenta and P. melito ides had been used "to a limited extent ... but not sufficiently to establish their character. All of them have a pungent, bitter and somewhat aromatic taste. and are doubtless entitled to a place among the feebler bitter tonics." 5 Mr. Bass has little experience with Psoralea psoroloides. even though he collects it. but his reference to its use for rheumatism is in line with what he knows about bitteraromatic substances. He has not heard of it for colic, as mentioned in one account from the Appalachians. but says it would be good'" Details of chemical constituents of Psoralea species have not been found. The reputation for rheumatism. however. does not suggest any specific anti-inflammatory action. merely a mild diaphoretic action reinforced by tradition as a good-luck charm. Gentian species contain bitter principles. Sampson snakeroots. a contrasting variety of plants. can be divided into two sensory categories (discussed in the general monograph on snakeroots); namely, aromatic and bitter-astringent. While most Sampson snake-

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roots have nothing to do with the snakebite remedy associated with the eighteenthcentury South Carolina slave named Sampson. many are well established in black folk tradition and are believed to have magical properties; a root is often carried about to ward off dangers such as snakebites.' At least one account. with a suggested identification of Psoralea pedunculata, notes its use in conjuration. 8 One of Bass's visitors carries it to bring good luck at bingo and to help ease rheumatism. Notes 1. For examples of diverse plants discussed as Sampson snakeroot, see Porcher (1847. p. 270), Porcher (1849. p. 823; Gentiana cateshoei). Fernald (1950. p. 897), Radford et al. (1968. p. 600; P. psoralioides), Mohr (1901. p. 672). and ParkeDavis (1890. p. 156). Croom (1982. pp. 40-42) noted Lumbee use of A. serpentaria: j. E. Meyer (1978, p. 137). a book well known to Mr. Bass, lists

Branneria (also Echinacea). 2. Porcher (1847. p. 270). 3. Parke-Davis (18YO. p. 156).

4. Recorded differences are noted for various species: Gentiono is a large. polymorphic, and taxonomically difficult genus. and hence identification problems also exist. See C. E. Wood and Weaver (1982). 5. L. johnson (1884. p. 132). 6. Mentioned by O. L. jones (1967. p. 66); R. B. Browne (1958. p. 121) noted its use as a tonic. 7. j. I. Waring (1964. pp. 69, 84). 8.

Hyatt (1970-73. 1:481).

SARSAPARILLA (rhizome. roots)

The Herbalist's Account They used to make sarsaparilla drinks at the soda fountain. All the movie stars like Roy Rogers would go in and order it instead of whiskey. They used sarsaparilla and sassafras to make it. Most older people know it from its use in root beer. Sarsaparilla is a vine; actually there are two varieties around here. In either case. it's

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the root that is used. Worms will eat it if it is not stored well. The American sarsaparilla is what we generally use. It grows on hillsides and in swamps and along roadsides, and it runs up trees. It has long, brown roots right on top of the ground, and large leaves in the shade. In the fall and winter, until Christmas, beautiful red berries hang on the branches. It reseeds itself. This is the variety we generally use the roots of; they are right on top of the ground. It smells like ginseng; it's not got a bad odor. The Indians praised it to high heaven. They claimed it would build up an old man or an old woman, or young man or young woman. They used it in most of their medicine. It's a blood tonic or blood purifier, and it's wonderful for rheumatism and for social diseases. Drink a cup or two of the tea a day. It don't take but one or two roots to make enough tea for a common family. Everything I make that I want to be a blood tonic, I always throw tbe American sarsaparilla in. I don't think there is anything else that will beat it for a blood purifier. It's been there so long, and it's been backed up so long. Dr. Sanders said the American sarsaparilla is best of all of them. But he said the trouble of it was the pharmacal companies order it from across the waters because they get it so much cheaper. The other sarsaparilla is what some call bamboo-brier. It has woody roots, a green stem with briers, and heart-shaped leaves. It is a substitute for the other sarsaparilla and used the same. This one has a black berry on it which hangs on all winter. I haven't had to use the bamboo-brier. In the northern part of North Carolina, they tell me that there's another sarsaparilla that I've never seen. It stands straight up with a stem. At this time sarsaparilla is not used by herb people as it once was. Commentary Smilax officinalis Kunth., and other species: commercially marketed sarsaparilla; e.g.,

Mexican, Honduran, Equadorian. S. bona-nox L. *, including varieties [syn. S. pseudo-china L.): bamboo-brier, greenbrier, wild sarsaparilla, sarsaparilla. S. glauco Walter * , including varieties: sarsaparilla. Liliaceae Aralia nudicaulis L.: American sarsaparilla, false sarsaparilla, spikenard. Araliaceae Menispernum canadense L.: yellow parilla, yellow sarsaparilla, Texan sarsaparilla, American sarsaparilla, moonseed. Cocculus carolinus (L.) DC. * [syns. Epibaterium carolinus (L.) Britt.; Menispernum carolin urn L.): American sarsaparilla (popular local name), red-berried moonseed, coralbeads. Menispermaceae The sources of commercially available sarsaparilla have occasioned much confusion but generally are various species of Smilax from Central America and the West Indies.' Sarsaparilla was among the New World drugs introduced into European medicine in the sixteenth century. Monardes (1577) gave a long account of sarsaparilla from New Spain (the southeastern United States) and indicated that usage had changed from that initially learned from Indians. 2 Gerard (1597) reported that he had acquired information on one plant from an explorer of the New World, John White, who may have been describing Smilax bona-nox] That sarsaparilla (as various species) quickly achieved a widespread reputation for the treatment of syphilis and many other disorders was probably helped by analogy to European species of Smilax known as alexipharmics (antipoison remedies).' The reputation for syphilis persisted well into this century, but it declined after the introduction of the celebrated arsenical drug Salvarsan in 1910 radically changed the management of syphilis.'

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Over the years the reputation of sarsaparilla changed, and enthusiasm for it tended to wax and wane. John Hill (1751) provided a helpful perspective: "It is sudorific and attenuant: it has been esteemed a great medicine in the use of the venereal disease, but the use of mercury has of late made everything else of this intention be neglected. It is still however found to do great things in many chronic cases where obstructions of the viscera are at the bottom and attenuants are proper."6 In the nineteenth century, at least in the United States, sarsaparilla preparations were marketed commonly as blood purifiers (a concept popular at the time) in enormous numbers. N. S. Davis (1848) noted the reputation of sarsaparilla for many chronic constitutional diseases, and added that as "regards the thousand and one compounds which flood the country, bearing the name of Extract or Syrup of Sarsaparilla, they are less reliable than the root." 7 The commercial marketing of sarsaparilla preparations continued well into this century, although sarsaparilla was equally well known as the main ingredient in root beer. The value placed on imported sarsaparilla explains, in part, the many substitute sarsaparillas described by American authors. Probably always used more in domestic rather than regular medicine, they included two species of Smilax-So bona-nax and S. glauco (both collected by Mr. Bass). Of these, S. bona-nox (bamboo-brier) attracted the most interest. According to Griffith, it was "said to be an excellent alterative, and used by the negroes in South Carolina, with molasses, sassafras, and Indian corn in the manufacture of a very pleasant beer."" Later, ParkeDavis marketed preparations of S. bana-nax as an "alterative and tonic," adding "by many physicians it is preferred to the imported sarsaparillas in constitutional syphilis."g S. glauco, although "highly prized in Brazil as a specific in syphilis," and considered "beneficial in gout and chronic cutaneous eruptions," attracted merely passing interest

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among North American writers, though its abundance in parts of the country suggest that it has been used in domestic medicine.lO Apart from species of Smilax, other substitutes have been used, notably Aralia nudicaulis. While probably the best-known North American sarsaparilla and widely reported as mild, stimulating, diaphoretic, and alterative, its reputation was somewhat uneven (see Spikenard)}, The story of sarsaparilla is striking because of the strength of the historical record in the apparent absence of a chemical explanation. Bass frequently collects yet another substitute, Cacculus carolinus (he and others call it American sarsaparilla). It is a vine with similar morphological characteristics to Menispermum canadense, once fairly well known-more so in domestic practice-as a "tonic, laxative, alterative, and diuretic" and, according to some, superior to the imported sarsaparilla. 12 In fact, species of Cocculus and Menispermum have been confused in the pastY All are bitter and are recommended primarily as tonics: it is therefore not clear that they are appropriate medical substitutes for the Mexican and Central American species of Smilax. Clearly, Bass has learned about "sarsaparilla" as a blood purifier and tonic through the popular tradition, which does not specify a particular sarsaparilla. 14 Species of Smilax that have been investigated possess steroidal saponins.15 In 1957 it was said with authority that sarsaparilla owes "its activity entirely to the sapotoxin or saponin. [The drug] formerly enjoyed considerable reputation as an alterative. This is no longer accepted; if it possesses any action at all it is simply that of a mild nauseant and cathartic." 16 No evidence exists that the constituents have anti-inflammatory activities that might account for the occasional references to the use of sarsaparilla for rheumatism. We were unable to find information on the constituents of Cocculus carolinus.

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Notes 1. Trease and Evans (1983, p. 484). 2. Monardes (1577 [1925 ed.J, pp. 38-44). See also Fliickiger and Hanbury (1874, p. 641). 3. Gerard (1597, p. 710). 4. Ibid. (pp. 709-12). 5. Shoemaker (1893,2 :891) discussed its use in syphilis as an adjunct to mercury treatment. In fact, some physicians continued to prescribe it with arsenicals, and laypeople used it to medicate themselves. 6. j.

Hill (1751, p. 616).

7. Davis (1848, p. 346). 8. Griffith (1847, p. 658). 9. Parke-Davis (1890, p. 16). One suspects that

other species of Smilax were used at times. For some introduction see C. V. Morton (1962). 10. Griffith (1847, p. 658). For other references see Gattinger (1894, p. 89), who referred to it as wild

sarsaparilla. Other species of Smilax have been recorded as used in the Appalachians, but the extent of usage is unclear. See Hamel and Chiltoskey (1975, p. 37). 11. Mease (1806, pp. 161-62) doubted the value of the more expensive imported sarsaparilla. See Griffith (1847, p. 345). Preparations of Aralia nudicaulis were marketed by Parke-Davis (1890, p. 10) as American sarsaparilla. 12. King (1872, p. 522). Moonseed is now best known as a "toxic" plant rather than an herbal remedy; Doskotch and Knapp (1971). 13. See Griffith (1847, p. 104). 14. For documentation on oral tradition see R. B. Browne (1958, pp. 16-121). Also noted is sarsaparilla for gravel (p. 69), which Mr. Bass says he has heard of but would never recommend. 15. Trease and Evans (1983, p. 485). 16. Sollman (1957, p. 668).

SASSAFRAS (root bark, wood, pith, leaves) The Herbalist's Account Sassafras grows everywhere around here. There's four different varieties: red, yellow, white, and black. The yellow is not in Ala-

bama. The best way to find out which kind is to dig the roots and note the color. If it is the red variety, the bark will turn red. The red sassafras has berries; the other varieties do noL Here in Alabama the sassafras does not make as good tea as that from north Georgia. Use dry or green bark. Dig as needed. I've often dug it in January. A double handful of roots makes a half gallon of tea. Wash the roots, cut up in small pieces, and dry in the sun. It keeps well, but watch out for worms. You can also use leaves gathered after AugusL Most everybody knows what the sassafras tree is. It's mighty good to have some around. The red sassafras is used for a root tea to thin and purify the blood in the spring, as a spring tonic. It makes a tasty tea. People used to use it, too, in the spring, when cows ran out of milk. It has been used for venereal disease. Some herbists claim it's a good nerve tonic. The sassafras pith, if you mash it in some water, is good for sore eyes. Some of the oldtimers added it to lye soap and said it was good for skin conditions. Some people, like Mother, used sassafras leaves as a flavoring in sausage and cooking. You collect the leaves, dry them, and keep them in bottles until you want them. I don't use too much of it right now, but I've sold carloads of root bark over time. I can't keep it in stock, it goes so fast. After you've made the tea you can use the sassafras to put around the tomatoes. Commentary Sassafras albidum (NutL) Nees* [syns. S. variifolium (Salisb.) Kuntze; S. variifolium var. albidum (NutL) Fernald; Laurus sassafras L.]: sassafras, ague tree, white sassafras. S. albidum var. molle (Raf.) Fernald* [syn. S. officinale Nees and Eberm.]: sassafras, ague tree, red sassafras.

Lauraceae Sassafras, a small tree known for its variously shaped leaves-always a botanical

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Sassafras

fascination-was first described at length by Nicholas Monardes in his celebrated Joyfull Newes out of the Newe Found Worlde (1577). He indicated its ready availability in Florida and such uses as for fevers, liver and stomach ailments, and syphilis .' Monardes and others were interested in Indian usage. Thomas Hariot (1588) wrote that the inhabitants of what is now Roanoke Island, North Carolina, called it winauk. His comment that it was "found by experience to be farre better and of more uses than the wood which is called Guaiacum" encouraged its use for syphilis.' Enthusiasm for the plant developed quickly, and a short time afterward the early Jamestown colony was seemingly endangered as settlers became obsessed with collecting sassafras rather than developing the colony.3 John Gerard (1597) also helped to assimilate the new plant into the framework of regular medicine, even to describing it as "hot and dry" and listing deobstruent actions of the wood and root (for example, for liver and dropsy) and its value for fevers . (He called it the ague tree.)4 A comparison with cinnamon also encouraged interest. Later, particularly from the 1700s onward, sassafras's reputation in the context of treating fevers was

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rationalized on the grounds that it acted as a blood purifier and diaphoretic. Such colonial writers as John Lawson (1709) and John Brickell (1737) noted the use, as a spring tonic, of the "small white flower [not root bark, etc.] which is cleansing of the blood, if eaten in the spring with other salating.'" While sassafras's reputation remained generally undiminished in the eighteenth century, some elements of doubt crept into regular texts during the early nineteenth century. Jacob Bigelow, for example, wrote in 1819 that "the bark and wood of the sassafras were formerly much celebrated in the cure of various complaints, particularly syphilis, rheumatism, and dropsy. Its reputation, however, as a specific in those diseases, particularly the first, generally fell into oblivion, and became recognized only with regard to its general properties, which are those of a warm stimulant and diaphoretic."" No enthusiasm reappeared among writers on materia medica, but sassafras remained in regular medical texts as a flavoring agent and as an adjunct treatment in feverish conditions.' Despite the fading interest among physicians, lay use of sassafras remained widespread. It was employed in countless proprietary medicines, certainly up to the 19405, and retained an established place as a spring tonic until recent times. This practice has by no means disappeared , and sassafras tea remains one of the best-known drinks not only in the Appalachians but throughout the United States." Bass's reference to use in cooking may not be as widespread as he implies. but it certainly follows a long tradition ." Accounts of sassafras generally refer to the root bark and, occasionally. the wood. tO As implied by Bass, interest has also focused on the pith. C. J. Cowie. a dealer in roots and herbs. wrote to one of his customers on 24 November 1854: "How goes the sassafras pith? It ought to sell well in cholera times, for the mucilage given out by it surpasses if possible that of the elm if such substances

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must be good for lacerated bowels." 11 Made into a mucilage by macerating in water, sassafras pith attracted some interest in regular medicine. A 1900 medical textbook said that "mucilage of sassafras pith is an agreeable demulcent and a mild local stimulant, and may be used for the same purposes as slippery elm, tragacanth, acacia, etc." 12 The use of pith for the eyes, popular with Mr. Bass. is probably still known in other parts of the Appalachians as well. The plant contains alkaloids, Iignans. sterols, tannins, resins. and an essential oil (marketed as sassafras oil) that gives an aromatic property to all parts of the plant. The main ingredient is safrole (4-allyl-l.2methylenedioxybenzene), present in concentrations of up to 80 percent. It has been said that phenolic constituents are present in sufficient quantity to provide an antiseptic action. Concerns over the potential carcinogenic action of safrole (in the form of sassafras tea, though less so than in sassafras oil) are considered elsewhere. Few Appalachian inhabitants accept its danger. though many appreciate the fact that the wood should not be burned on an open fire in a closed roomY The antiseptic property of sassafras mayor may not be significant for, say, the widely recorded treatment of sore eyes, but this action does not explain much of its past reputation. Perhaps the action as a blood purifier is linked to the alleged diaphoretic property. It is interesting that the pharmacological actions of constituents other than the volatile oil are not understood. No discussion on the red. white, yellow, and black roots described by Bass has been found. although the distinction between red and white has long been known. However, it has bRen noted recently that Lumbee Indians in North Carolina generally use red root and that one person thought that "white root would run you blind." 14 Bass says that the descriptions rRfRr to the color of the root upon drying. and adds that the red is best. This sassafras is not always the red variety

(S. albidum var. molle). The nomenclatural history is complex, an indication of the plant's variability and a caution that chemical differences may exist between red and white sassafrases. '5 Notes 1. See Monardes (1577 [1925 ed.]. pp. 99-120). For a sense of botanical interest see Coy (1928).

2. Quoted from Erichsen-Brown (1979. p. 103). 3. Cowen (1966). 4. Gerard (1597. p. 1340). Gerard wrote about

the name: "the Spaniards and French men have named this tree. sassafras: the Indians in their toong Puane: for want of an English name we are contented to call it the Ague tree. of his vertue in healing the Ague." 5. Brickell (1737 [1968 ed.]. p. 76). Lawson (1709 [1967 ed.]. p. 101).

6. Bigelow (1817-21, vol. 2. pI. 2. p. 145). 7. L. Johnson (1884. p. 240) failed to be critical of these uses. 8. Some sense of the popularity of sassafras in

the Appalachians can be obtained from countless references in writings on the Appalachians. For example. "Sassafras Tea" (in Foxfire 4,1977. pp. 442-44). 9. See. for example. Verstille (1866, p. 237). indicating employment in gumbo, just one of many uses. Pieces of root are also inserted into meat. 10. Occasionally. different properties have been given to the wood and the herb; for instance. diaphoretic properties for the wood alone; e.g .. Wallis (1960. pp. 59, 81).

11. Cowie Papers. Letter Press Book E. 12. G. F. Butler (1900. p. 796). 13. Known to Bass and other informants. Listed as black superstition in Carmer (1934, p. 289): "It is

bad luck to burn sassafras wood in the house; it may be burned in the yard under the wash-kettle." 14. Croom (1982, p. 128), 15. For some introduction see Fernald (1936). It is

appropriate to note that the variety molle is similar to S. albidum but has soft. pubescent leaves.

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SAW PALMETTO (berries) The Herbalist's Account

Saw palmetto is a wonderful medicine, a tonic. I've always known about it. I wish we had it around here, but it's coming on up with the health food people. You can get it in capsules. Commentary

Serenoa repens (Bartr.) Small [syns. Serenoa serrulata (Michx.) Hook. f.; S. serrulata (Roem. and Schultes) Hook. f.; Sabal serrulata Schultes and Schultes]: saw palmetto, sabal. Sabal minor Pers. [syn. Sabal pumila Ell.]: bush palmetto, saw palmetto. Arecaceae Saw palmetto-a name reserved by botanists for Serenoa repens but also popularly used for sabal palmettoes, notably Sabal minoraroused some interest in colonial times for making brooms.1 No early record has been found for medical uses, nor was there any real interest during the first half of the nineteenth century, despite the widespread enthusiasm for indigenous remedies. In 1849 F. P. Porcher, however, quoted one source that drew attention to the "purgative property [of the pulp of Serenoa repens] often producing a copious evacuation." 2 It was not until after the 1870s that saw palmetto acquired some popularity, this following a series of publications suggesting diuretic, sedative, and anticatarrhal properties. 3 It gained a clinical reputation (some physicians were very enthusiastic) for a beneficial action on mucous membranes and as an expectorant (in cough remedies), a mild diuretic, and a treatment for chronic cystitis, especially in the early decades of this century.4 Some practitioners in America and Europe singled out its use in gonorrhea, and a number at least employed it extensively until the early 1940s. 5 The medical "fashion" generated by saw palmetto embraced the marketing of palmetto wine. 6 The reputa-

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tion it acquired for prostatic enlargement has been linked to controlling infection (which can be helpful), but specific antiandrogenic effects are now a favored explanation. Recent interest in the astringent fruit of saw palmetto is mostly linked with the finding of sitosterols and a presumed estrogenic action, possibly linked to breast developmenU While the reputation as a diuretic and for cystitis has been associated with irritant action of a volatile oil (but no comprehensive recent studies have been undertaken), the astringency may be a contributory factor; certainly the latter has been used in the past to rationalize usage. Mr. Bass's comment that it is a tonic bears little relation to past reputations. It is one of the few instances where he interprets fashionable enthusiasm (in this case incorrectly) rather than relying on his own experience. Notes 1. Vogel (1970, pp. 365-66) also noted uses for making hats and baskets in Bermuda. For pertinent botanical discussion see L. H. Bailey (1942-45). 2. Porcher (1849, p. 836). 3. Publications considered in Lloyd (1921, pp. 277-78). 4. E.g., Shoemaker (1896, p. 724) described Sabal serrulata for these conditions; E. M. Hale (1898) dealt primarily with homeopathic preparations.

5. British Pharmaceutical Codex (1923, p. 959), describing Serenoa serrulata (Roem. and Schultes) Hook. f. The Lutterloh prescriptions in the Country Doctor Museum in Bailey, North Carolina, indicate usage until the 1940s. Comments on the prescriptions by Dr. H. Lutterloh in 1986 indicate that he and other physicians employed saw palmetto for gonorrhea and as a diuretic. 6. F. P. Foster (1897, 2:58). 7. Tyler (1982, pp. 206-7) pointed out the fallacy of this reputation.

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SCURVY GRASS. See Horseradish SELF·HEAL (tops, leaves) The Herbalist's Account It's a folk medicine. There's not much around here, but I have calls for it for nerves and I have collected it for some. Mr. Butler helped me with it. He gathered a lot in Shade's Holler (four or five miles from my place). and used it in his nerve medicine. Some of the people who come to me, they're like a rabbit. The first thing he bites, that's all he'll eat, etc. That's the way a lot of people are about these tonics and teas. They get it in their mind and wants just that. It's good for cuts and bites. Use the leaves or the juice. Commentary Prunella vulgaris L. *, including varieties: self-heal. heal-all. Lamiaceae (Labiatae) There is some confusion about self-heal, or more generally heal-all or all-heal, because of the various plants known by these vernacular names.' Prunella \'ulgaris, however, a widespread weed naturalized from Europe, is probably the best known. John Gerard (1597) mentioned three Prunellas (one unquestionably Prunella vulgaris) as "self heale"; he described them as hot and dry and somewhat binding, said to be good for treating wounds; "in the world there are not two better wound herbs" than Prunella and bugle.' Despite Gerard's apparently firm recommendation and general appreciation of Prunella's reputation as a "wound herb," it was given relatively little notice in eighteenthand nineteenth-century British texts on materia medica, though that may not have been the case elsewhere. In 1769 William Lewis said merely: "The herb is recommended as a mild astringent and vulnerary, in spittings of blood, and other hemorrhages and fluxes; and in gargarismas against aph-

thae and inflammations of the fauces. Its virtues do not appear to be very great." 3 Although without any real popularity in Britain or America, threads of interest persisted into twentieth-century popular herbal literature. Whether some of this was due to Indian usage, possibly an example of Indians acquiring information from whites, is uncertain. Nelson Coon's well-known Using Plants for Healing (1963) noted carminative, diuretic, anthelmintic, and astringent actions.' Few references have appeared indicating an action on "nerves," a reputation well known to Mr. Bass.s Prunella vulgaris has received relatively little chemical attention, though tannins, volatile oi!' steroids, and triterpene compounds have been reported. The volatile oil may account for the reputation as carminative and diuretic.6 Bass's comment that self-heal is a "folk medicine" certainly reflects the fact that the plant has been primarily a domestic medicine. Notes 1. Other plants called heal-all include Collinsonia canadensis; e.g .. see Griffith (1847, p. 513). Pursh mentioned Viola clandestina: "The inhabitants know it by the name of heal-all, being used by them in curing all kinds of wounds or sores" (1814,

p.173). 2. Gerard (1597. pp. 507-8); interest worldwide has continued: e.g .. Perry (1980, p. 141). 3. Lewis (1769. 2 :169). 4. Coon (1963, p. 180).

5. Some references indicate a reputation of the juice for headaches, which has often been extrapolated to nervous conditions. For headache see Culpeper (1826. p. 147). 6. Stuart (1879, p. 247).

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SENEGA (root)

The Herbalist's Account Senega is also called black snakeroot, that's what it's called mostly here in Alabama. It's highly recommended for many different things, but I don 't use it, there's not much around here. I have a little behind the shack. It's used for coughs and colds, and a stimulant. Also it's good for rheumatism, sore throat-it's one of the most wonderful ingredients to use for many poisons. It's a good blood purifier. It's one that's coming back. One herb book says it is useful in second stage of acute bronchitis. It's used for asthma, blood poisoning, chronic catarrh, chronic croup, dropsy, drug side effects, lung congestion, mucous in the tissues, pleurisy, pneumonia, rhematism, smallpox, snakebites, whooping cough. @

Commentary Polygala senega L. , including varieties: seneca snakeroot , senega snakeroot, black snakeroot. Polygalaceae The early history of senega, intimately linked with its promotion within regular medicine from the 1730s onward by Virginia physician John Tennent, is of special interest because it provides a good example of argument from analogy. On learning that the Seneca Indians used the remedy for rattlesnake bite, Tennent considered that the same treatment would be effective for diseases with similar symptoms; for example, pleurisies .' Initial interest was apparently high. Robert James, writing in 1744 on "serpentaria virginiana" stated : "There is another species of snake root, called the Seneka Rattle SnakeRoot which is said to cure effectively the bite of a rattle snake, if taken immediately after it. The bite of this snake is sudden death for the most part." It was perhaps at the same time or not long afterward that Jane Colden, near New York, wrote: "S 'eneca snake root is

Senega much used by some physicians in America, principally Long Island, in the pleurisy ... they give it either in powder or a decoction. The usual size of the powder is thirty grains." 2 Despite some early uncertainties senega's reputation became well established. 3 By the early nineteenth century, while physicians were making it clear that the usage for rattlesnake bite had "long since lost all credit,"4 senega was established as a diuretic, emmenagogue, and expectorant.' Stimulant and diaphoretic properties were also mentioned by many nineteenth-century authors. 6 Its popularity is suggested by the remark of C. J. Cowie in 1870, who told a friend that senega was "one of a few certain roots, seeds, &c. you cannot get too many of [for resale] ." 7 The principal use continued to be as an expectorant for chest problems, though even Laurence Johnson noted that its emetic and purgative properties were helpful in treating rheumatism and dropsy.8 In the present century the expectorant action has generally

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been the only property discussed, though the drug has rarely been rated highly. A 1928 summary stated: "Senega is employed as a stimulant expectorant in subacute and chronic bronchitis. It is not often given alone, but usually is a vehicle for other expectorants; for this purpose the syrup is the best preparation, exhibited in teaspoonful doses." 9 Bass believes he first heard of the plant when he was a boy living on Lookout Mountain. Interestingly, in 1871 Appalachian physician A. A. Scroggs indicated its commercial importance to the region: "The remedy has long been before the medical profession and has always been highly esteemed. The demand much exceeds the supply. It grows sparsely, but more plentifully in western North Carolina than almost anywhere." 10 Senega is sometimes confused with other black snakeroots, Sanicula species. In fact, Bass has collected S. marilandica and confused it with senega. Bass's remarks include a reference to an unidentified herb book, and his account, unusual for him, includes a long list of uses reflecting recent reading. Most, however, are for chest conditions. Senega contains triterpenoid saponins. These are generally considered to account for the well-established expectorant action, which is associated with irritant effects on the lining of the gastrointestinal tract producing a reflex response in the bronchial tree." Whether the saponins or other constituents present have any relevance to other properties (e.g., diaphoretic) recorded in the past is not known. Although Bass knows senega best for chest ailments, his remarks are a reminder that the overall reputation is reinforced by the popular concept of blood purification properties. This provides a sense that senega is both a general and a specific remedy, a view that has helped create its reputation. Bass correctly indicates that it is becoming more popular. On the other hand, it is not pleasant to take

and it should be remembered that usage in the past was commonly in a combination remedy that masked the unpleasant taste. 12 Notes 1. It may have been known earlier and confused

with Virginia snakeroot. Salmon (1693, p. 801) noted that there were "four kinds of Virginiasnakeroot and of these the smaller one only is that which is sold in our shops." For background on Tennent, see Jellison (1963). 2. James (1743-45, vol. 3), Colden (1963, p. 53).

3. J. Hill nevertheless stated: "This is a drug lately introduced into the materia medica, and which seemed at one time getting into use apace, but is somewhat neglected again already" (1751, p. 630). 4. Chapman (1819, 2 :16). Pursh noted: "this is the

famous Seneca Snake-root, formerly so celebrated for the bite of rattle-snakes; but other more efficacious remedies have supplanted it. Vid. Prenanthes and Liatris" (1814, p. 465). 5. W. P. C. Barton (1817-18, 2:112-24) gave a long account of senega, noting the physicians who initially promoted usage for croup and as an emmenagogue. 6. E.g., Griffith (1847, p. 226). 7. Cowie Papers, 21 August 1870. 8. L. Johnson (1884, p. 129). 9. Solis-Cohen and Githens (1928, pp. 1382-83).

to. Scroggs (1871). 11. Brieshorn and Serg (1977). For a later discussion indicating similarities with P. tenuifolia used in Chinese medicine as a sedative agent as well as to strengthen the nervous system, see Shibata (1981, pp. 183-84). For some discussion on experiments designed to demonstrate expectorant action, see Boyd and Palmer (1946). 12. In the context of growing interest, a question arises about the possibility of other Polygala species being used. Many references have noted American plants regarded as medicinal on the basis of analogy with European plants. Sometimes analogies were made the other way. William Withering, for instance, reported that Linnaeus found Polygala vulgaris to possess the properties of senega, "but in an inferior degree" (1796, 3:623).

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SENNA (leaves, fruits) The Herbalist's Account I get it in the drugstore. It's a mild laxative. Black Draught is senna, ginger, and a small amount of sugar. Put a bottle of Black Draught with a pound of prunes and you've got a good laxative! Or you can use the following formula: an ounce of senna and a pound of prunes. Put the prunes in water and boil. Then boil senna leaves like you would store-bought tea, four or five minutes . Strain it and put the senna tea with the prunes and boil until done. Take with a couple of prunes at night and that's all you have to do. There 's no cramp about it. It's pleasing to take. Or you can use figs, but they 're more expensive. There is an American senna or wild senna; I've used it once, but it doesn't grow much around my place. Back in my days one oldtimer said the leaves were good for skin conditions. Commentary Cassia senna L. [syns. C. acutifolia Delile; C. lanceolata Coll.] : Alexandrian senna. C. angustifolia Vahl [syns. Senna angustifolia (Vahl) Batka; C. senna (L.) Brenan; C. elongata Lam.; C. lanceolata Wight and Am.] : Tinnevelly senna. American Senna

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C. marilandica L. * [syns. C. medsgeri Shafer; Ditremexa marilandica (L.) Britt. and Rose; D. medsgeri (Shafer) Britt. and Rose]: wild senna, American senna. Fabaceae (Leguminosae) Senna, of which the Alexandrian and Tinnevelly sennas have generally been the bestknown commercial varieties, has been one of the more popular laxatives since the Arabian influence on Western medicine in the Middle Ages. John Gerard (1597) described two sennas (and some "bastard" sennas) , indicating that the best source of "Italian sena" was Alexandria. Senna, he said, was neither hot nor cold, but of a "purging facultie, and that by the stoole, in such sort, as it is not much troublesome to mans nature, having withall a certaine binding quality, which it leaveth after the purging." He went on to say, "it purgeth without violence or hurt, expecially if it be tempered with Anise seed or other like sweet smelling thing added."1 Gerard's comment about the mildness of senna has been the basis of its reputation, at least when the tendency to gripe was offset with spices and carminatives. 2 Senna appears to have been well known in the eighteenth century, but it probably gained greater popularity-along with many other laxatives-in the nineteenth. To some extent this was due to its use as a blood purifier, a belief still to be found today. Other Cassia species with laxative properties, particularly the indigenous Cassia marilandica referred to by Mr. Bass, have also aroused professional medical interest. N. Chapman (1817) said that it "is very abundant in different parts of the United States, and possesses nearly the same virtues as the foreign senna ... . As a substitute for it, I am informed, that it is much used by country practitioners." 3 Similar comments made around mid-century suggested that it was used as a substitute and considered equal to "foreign sennas." Its cultivation by Shakers seems to confirm this.4 Nevertheless,

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although various writers indicated that it had the "same medicinal properties as the exotic drug," within regular medicine it did not gain the same reputation as imported senna. In 1882 Farquharson and Woodbury wrote that while it was a competent substitute, it had to be administered in larger doses. 5 Nationalist sentiments helped maintain some interest in C. marilandica within domestic medical literature. Nevertheless, Mr. Bass makes no effort to find it (he has always used the commercially available senna), nor has he any interest in other "wild sennas" found in the South such as C. occidentalis L. and C. hebccarpa Fernald. 6 He does, however, make an interesting reference to use of C. marilandica for skin conditions. Although this does not appear to be generally recorded for this species, other Cassi(] species have been listed as valuable for skin conditions (e.g., C. obtusifolia 1. and C. tora 1.). In this century one of Bass's favorite sources of information, Joseph Meyer's Herbalist, claimed C. marilandica to be one of the most important herbal cathartics furnished by America and as valuable as and less expensive than the foreign senna of the drugstores.' Even so, a general sense existed that it was not as effective or pleasant to take as imported senna. The active constituents of sennas are anthraquinone glycosides. Their laxative role has been well characterized, though debate continues over the manner in which the many glycosides interact to effect a laxative action." In recent years more and more attention has been given to nonlaxative properties, some of which are relevant to skin conditions, including psoriasis. 9 Differences of opinion have existed over the relative strength of leaves and fruits of the sennas. This adds interest to the debates over taxonomy and whether or not Alexandrian and Tinnevelly are commercial varieties of C. senna.lO

Notes 1.

Gerard (1597. p. 1113).

2. Currently available commercial preparations

such as Senokot are said to provide a more gentle action than other laxatives. Bacterial glucosidases gradually release an active anthrone in the colon. which provides a controlled stimulus of Meissner's submucosal plexus; see Godding (1984). 3.

N. Chapman (1817, 1:209).

4. Griffith (1847, p.193). 5.

p. 261). See also King (1878.

Farquharson and Woodbury (1882).

For discussion of Cassia species see Robertson and Lee (1976).

6.

7. j. E.

8.

Meyer (1934. p. 21).

For a recent paper see Nakajima et al. (1985).

9. Anton (1980). 10. For (1967).

and Haag-Berrurier (1980), Friedman

relevant discussion. Fairbairn and Shrestha

SENSITIVE BRIER (root) The Herbalist's Account It's called shame brier because when you touch it it folds up. If you touch it the thorns tears you all to pieces. It has pretty rose blooms on it. Smells so good. All we got is somebody else's word for it. Some old-timers swore that if you drinked the tea and soaked the place in the tea, it would keep the snakebite from killing you. Some have asked me for the root, they carry it in the pocket as protection against snakebite. A tea makes you sick so you vomit up the poison-same as cocklebur does or rattlesnake plantain. Commentary Schrankia rnicrophylla (Dryand.) Macbride* [syn. Morangi(] angustata (Torr. and Gray) Britt.]: sensitive brier, shame brier. Fabiaceae (Leguminosae) No mention of sensitive brier, an indigenous perennial, has been found in the medical literature-regular, domestic, or Amerindian.'

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This includes the extensive literature on the various remedies for snakebite. Sensitive brier is one of the few plants that have apparently reached Mr. Bass solely through the oral tradition; in this case it is particularly strong among blacks. Blacks, according to Bass, still carry it as protection against snakes-especially when they go fishing-but it is not as favored as Solomon's seal and five-finger. No information has been found on constituents, and any studies performed will need to assess uDcertainties over taxonomy.2 Sensitive brier is not to be confused with wild sensitive plant, Cassia nictitans L. This is sometimes viewed, somewhat erroneously, as a wild senna (see Senna). but no recorded medical properties have been found, and none are known to Bass. Notes 1. Not included in Moerman (1986).

2. Isely (1971).

SERVICE TREE AND SERVICEBERRY (fruit, leaves, bark) The Herbalist's Account The bark of the serviceberry tree can be used the same way as peach, apple. or wild cherry. It makes a good medicine for the stomach and for coughs and colds. I hate to peel such a pretty tree, but I would if I had to. The berries are the first to get ripe in the spring. They make the best eating and the finest pie. Commentary Sorbus torminalis (L.) Crantz: wild service tree. S. americana Marsh. [syn. Pyrus americanus (Marsh.) DC.]: service tree, quickbeam, American mountain ash. Amelanchier canadensis (L.) Medic. * [syns. A. oblongifolia (T. and G.) Roemer; A. lucida Fern.]: juneberry, serviceberry, shadberry.

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Rosaceae The European service tree (usually identified as Sorbus torminalis) attracted modest medical interest in the past. John Gerard (1597) described the berries of S. torminalis as cold and binding, especially when unripe: "They do stay all manner of fluxes of the belly, and likewise the bloudy fluxe; as also vomiting: they staunch bleeding if they be cut and dried in the sunne before they be ripe." 1 Such uses were essentially reiterated by eighteenthcentury writers, but evidence showing any popularity is lacking. 2 Few medical references have been found to American Sorbus species. Millspaugh (1892) did consider "Pyrus americana" and the naturalized P. acuparia as substitutes for wild cherry bark and for use as a tonic in fevers of "supposed malarial types."3 Much earlier, John Brickell (1737) may have been describing S. torminalis as "service tree," known for astringent properties and used to treat fluxes. Similar properties extended to the fruit ("especially when they are hard, and not altogether ripe"). Apart from stopping fluxes, the fruit was specifically noted to strengthen the stomach, to control vomiting, and to "outwardly heal wounds, being dry'd and made into powder." 4 Likewise. the related indigenous serviceberry tree, Amelanchicr canadensis, has aroused little, if any, medical enthusiasm, though it was early known by colonists, perhaps because of its botanical affinity to the European and native Sorbus rather than European Amelanchier species, which are not common, especially in England. 5 Most interest, however, has rested on eating the pleasant-tasting berries. The astringent property of Sorbus, inclicated by Brickell but not by, for example, Millspaugh, probably accounts for the reputation among Cherokee Indians for treating diarrhea (a use not known to Bass)" Cyanogenic glycosides, if present in sufficient concentrations, could account for the repu lation for coughs and colds, like the better-known

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wild cherry bark. Studies on this are needed (including its distribution within the plant) as well as on parasorbic acid, which has irritant properties. Despite or perhaps because of the paucity of medical information on serviceberry, it serves as another example of persistence of information more within the oral than the popular tradition, a persistence seemingly entwined with the service tree. .

Notes 1. Gerard (1597. p. 1288). The two kinds of service tree described and figured in Gerard (" Sorb us, The Service Tree" and "Sorbus torminolis. Common Service Tree") can be interpreted. respectively. as Sorbus apucaria L. and S. torminalis (L.) Crantz.

2. J. Miller (1722. p. 419) did include it in his list of items found in apothecaries' shops. The unripe fruits were "reckoned to be very restringent and useful for all kinds of fluxes."

3. Millspaugh (1974. originally 1892, p. 56-2). 4. Brickell (1737, p. 72).

5. For some background see G. N. Jones (194fi). The only indigenous European Amelanchier (A. ovaIis Medic.) apparently has no medical reputation. nor is it recorded as a "service tree." Both genera (Sorbus and Amelonchier) are in the large and taxonomically difficult family Rosaceae; both have similar flower and fruit types (pomes). though the flowers of Sorb us are in corymbs and those of Amelanchier are in racemes. The foliage. however, is quite different. 6. Banks (1953, p. 60).

SEVENBARK (leaves, roots, bark) The Herbalist's Account Sevenbark is the Indian name for this shrub. It is five to eight feet tall. The bark is said to have seven layers. It has beautiful white blooms from June till frost. I know one place up on a bank that the blooms turn a purple color. It's official medicine. It's recommended for kidney and gall-bladder trouble, kidney

stones, and gallstones, and it's also a rheumatism medicine and it's good for high blood. You can use the root, bark, and leaves, but the roots are best. They make a good gall-bladder medicine. A handful of cut-up roots in a half gallon of water will dissolve gallstones. Boil the tea thirty minutes and then strain it. Keep the tea refrigerated. Take one tablespoon three times a day, or more if needed. I've known this one all my life because it is an Indian remedy. I used to use it but generally not so much these days. I have people coming who want to make their own tea, but they don't know what it is, but it's growing in their own yard, maybe. The tame will work just the same as the wild. Addendum recorded March 1984. We found in working with a herb company that they have it in a capsule with other ingredients and it's working wonders. You see, it has a vegetable cortisone and that cortisone seems to be used quite often in many different kinds of diseases, especially in pain, like rheumatism and gout and things like that. The vegetable cortisone don't harm anyone and they can take it right on, you know. The hydrangea is a remarkable herb-it contains principals second to none in nature. It contains alkaloids, acid like cocaine, and has the same cleansing power as sarsaparilla. It's known as a remedy for gravel and helps relieve the pain when the gravel passes through the urine from the kidney to the bladder. Hydrangea contains calcium, potassium, sodium, salt, sulfur, phosphate, iron, and magnesium. And it's highly recommended for arthritis, backache, bladder infection, gastric stones, gallstones, gonorrhea, gout, kidney problems, kidney stones, pain, relief of irritation, rheumatism, and urinary problems. So it's really a wonderful plant to have and it's so easy to obtain. Commentary Hydrange(] arboresccns 1., including subspecies: sevenbark, hen-and-chickens, gravelweed,

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H. quercifolia Bartr:: oak-leaved hydrangea, sevenbark (local name). Saxifragaceae

Hydrangea arborescens is the sevenbark generally used in medicine, though it has not been widely popular. The vernacular name arises from the successive layers of exfoliating bark present on old stems. General acceptance of its principal reputation-for treating calculous complaintsemerged slowly during the nineteenth century. In 1830 Rafinesque was instrumental in drawing attention to it ("several species of hydrangea") as he did for so many indigenous plants. 1 Perhaps, too, the 1850 publication by S. W. Butler, "Hydrangea arborescens, a New Remedy in Lithiasis," was significant. 2 Butler considered the observations of his father, Dr. E. Butler, who, when working as a missionary among the Cherokee Indians, used it for "gravelly" complaints. Specific case reports were noted, and Butler concluded: "If I judge correctly the above cases, though imperfect, are sufficient to induce a trial of the remedy." Reported symptoms of overdosage-dizziness and "oppression of the chest" -certainly suggest that it is pharmacologically active. Hydrangea continued to attract calls for further study, but without any real enthusiasm emerging. Appalachian physician A. A. Scroggs, in his account of important medicinal plants available in North Carolina, said that it had gained some reputation for dissolving urinary calculi. He added: "Owing to the intractible character of this class of disease, and the suffering attendant on them, any remedy that can afford even relief becomes important and demands a fair trial." 3 References to dissolving stones took a back seat for a while, but Parke-Davis, one pharmaceutical company that marketed Hydrangea arborescens in the 1890s, listed it as cathartic, diuretic, diaphoretic, and a solvent of gravelly deposits in the bladder.4 In 1920 H. C. Fuller summarized its use in mixtures for cystitis, combined with boric or benzoic

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acid, potassium bicarbonate, buchu, triticum, corn silk, Viburnum prunifoiium, and atropine. "It will be found in combination with lithium salts, and with uva ursi and matico in elixirs." 5 Mr. Bass has gone beyond the recommendations of regular medicine in suggesting the value of sevenbark for dissolving kidney and gallstones. Uncharacteristically for him, he has no good testimony of "cures" or relief for these conditions. Constituents of H. arborescens include hydrangin, a cyanogenetic glycoside, saponin, resin, rutin, flavonoids, fixed and volatile oils. The hydrangin-not well characterized-is physiologically active and toxic, but it is unclear whether it contributes to past reputations. 6 Chemical differences between various species of hydrangea are known, and it appears well established that the root is more effective than other parts, such as the bark and leaves occasionally employed by Bass. Whether this affects the quality of treatment is unclear. Complicating the story, as it relates to Bass, is that he generally collects H. quercifolia as sevenbark. He knows H. arborescens as arrowwood (see Arrowwood). The addendum to Bass's initial account, recorded on tape in 1984, reflects accounts in recent advocacy literature on herbal remedies. It indicates the generally uncritical approach of the latter, as well as the dynamic nature of much herbal medicine. Notes 1. Rafinesque (1828-30,2:229).

2. S. W. Butler (1850). 3. Scroggs (1871). The reputation was perhaps strongest in the South; see Shoemaker (1893, 2:662). For an earlier call for study see Laidley (1852).

4. Parke-Davis (1890, p. 98). 5. Fuller (1920, p. 427). Another twentieth-century source, Harding (1908, p. 364), noted that it had diuretic properties.

6. Leung (1980, p. 201).

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SHEEP SORREL (leaves, roots) The Herbalist's Account There are a number of sorrels. The sheep sorrel is the one most people talk about. They've got leaves like docks. People used to use them more for salads, but it's a folk medicine. You make a strong tea for gargling sore throats. I understand it's a very good plant to make a salve out of to doctor cancer or any other sores, but I've never used it. Commentary Rumex acetosella 1. *: sheep-sorrel. common sorrel. R. acetoso L. *: garden-sorrel, sheep-sorrel (local name). Polygonaceae Many sorrels (species of Rumex) have been reported in the medical literature. The best known is the naturalized sheep sorrel, R. acetosello, though Oxalis stricto (see Wood Sorrel) and other Rumex species have also been called sheep sorrel. Mr. Bass remembers at least one kind of oxalis being called sheep sorrel by his parents. Owing to the same acid taste, the garden sorrel (Rumex acetoso L.) -known primarily as a vegetable-has been used medically for similar purposes to those described by Bass. John Gerard (1597) described a number of sorrels, including R. ocetosello, as having cold and dry properties and employed in treating fevers 1 Many later authors drew attention to sorrels for "cooling" properties, though the plants were certainly not popular within regular medicine. John Quincy (1719) said that it (presumably R. acetosa) was "little taken notice of in medicinal prescriptions." 2 Toward the end of the eighteenth century, references were still common to the leaves (as cooling and diuretic). roots (cooling and deobstruent). and seeds (for diarrhea and dysentery). but there is no indication that the plant was much used.' Although nineteenth-century European

and American publications often referred to sorrels (including R. acetosello, the one discussed by Bass) and mentioned them having cooling, aperient, and diuretic properties, no evidence exists of any general usage, except perhaps regionally as a spring tonic. 4 Bass's comments are in line with past uses, which include popular traditions that sorrel cures colds and external cancers. On close questioning, he is unsure whether the reputation for cancers-hardly a strong one-refers to sheep sorrel or wood sorrel. s Apart from the presence of oxalic acid and its salts, the constituents have not been well studied. Concern over the poisonous nature of oxalic acid makes it appropriate that the plant is seldom used. Notes 1. Gerard (1597, pp. 318-21). We agree with Withering (1796, vol. 2) that fig. 3 (p. 320) represents R. acetosella.

2. Quincy (1719, p. 207). 3. W. Lewis (1791, p. 116). 4. For some general reference see Griffith (1847, pp.545-4fi).

5. For cancer, F. C. Brown (1957-fi4, 6:139-83). Tyler (1985, p. 35) noted sheep sorrel in Mrs. Brown's Cancer Salve, though he suggested that the plant is Oxalis stricto. Tyler (p. 46) also identified the "sheep sorrel" for colds as O. stricto.

SHEPHERD'S PURSE (tops) The Herbalist's Account Shepherd's purse grows four inches to one foot tall. The seedpods in the shape of a purse gives the plant its name. The young rosette leaves make one of the finest salads you could eat, got a wonderful flavor. Back in Tennessee, my mother used to get it and make a fine greens. The only way to save it is to gather it in the spring, dry it in the shade, heat it in the stove, and put it in a tight container.

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It's a wonderful medicine, but I've just got a few little plants because it doesn't grow nowhere around me. It's highly recommended. It's been used ever since time for different things. It's a tonic. It's supposed to be a good heart medicine for any internal trouble -stomach, liver, and kidney. It's good for bleeding. Commentary Capsella bursa-pastoris (1.) Medic. *, including varieties [syn. Thapsi bursa-pastoris 1.]: shepherd's purse, shepherd's pouch, pick purse. Brassicaceae (Cruciferae) Mr. Bass's comments reflect that this naturalized plant, everywhere a weed, has probably never been widely used for medicinal purposes. ' John Gerard (1597) described confusion over whether the qualities were hot and dry or cold and dry but, in recording hemostatic properties and uses for diarrhea and for wounds, he apparently favored the latter.' Interestingly, while astringent properties remained the best known, deobstruent actions associated with hot and dry qualities, particularly emmenagogue properties, have been reported from time to time. Few positive references have been found in the eighteenth-century literature, at least after William Lewis's critical approach in An Experimental History of the Materia Medica (1769). He wrote: "There does not appear ... to be any foundation for the strong styptic virtues, for which this herb has been generally recommended ... or for the acrid inflammatory power which some (misled probably by its botanic affinity with mustard and some other acrid vegetables) have ascribed to it." 3 A short while later, G. Motherby (1785) noted the mucilaginous nature of extracts, but also that the plant was not used. 4 Despite constant doubts over the medical value of the plant, references to it persisted, and nineteenth-century American writers

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often noted it. Clapp made no critical comments when saying that it-along with fifteen other cruciferous plants-was "antiscorbutic, stimulant, expectorant, diuretic, and deobstruent; have been employed in scurvy, chronic coughs, dropsies, and diseases of the skin." 5 Nevertheless, within a few decades many physicians must have agreed with the ever-critical Laurence Johnson (1884), who wrote that "there is perhaps more testimony in support of its efficacy as an astringent in hemorrhages from the lungs, kidneys, bladder, uterus, etc. than for any other purpose, but even this testimony is incomplete and unsatisfactory. Once highly esteemed, it has fallen into entire-and probably merited -neglect." 6 Eclectic practitioners, on the other hand, often viewed it, like corn silk (see monograph), as a useful mild diuretic.' For a short period around 1920 it "obtained a brief popularity as an ergot substitute, only to relapse into oblivion." 8 Mr. Bass's encomium is generally in line with past suggestions, though references to action on the heart seem to be an unacceptable extrapolation from alleged tonic properties. His reference to styptic action is one widely mentioned in current herbal literature despite all the past doubts. Shepherd's purse has been generally well studied chemically; many components have been characterized in the seed and fixed oil present, including allylglucosinolates (which produce isothiocyanates). There is interest, too, in amines, flavonoids, organic acids, and tannins. 9 A wide range of pharmacological activities have been demonstrated in laboratory animals; some are attributed to the amines present. While the clinical relevance is unclear, an anticoagulant action mediated through vasoconstriction might help to explain the reputation as a hemostatic commonly attributed solely to tannins. ' ° Likewise, the uterine activity demonstrated in the laboratory might explain the reputation as an emmenagogue." Tannins, flavonoids, and

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constituents in the volatile oil may account for uses in skin diseases. Isothiocyanates have been suggested to have antimicrobial actions, but the clinical significance of this is unclear. Notes 1. We say this in terms of Western medicine. For some references to Asian usage see Perry (1980, p.111).

2. Gerard (1597, p. 215). Gerard's comments on shepherd's purse are of interest because they imply that he organized his herbal on more than botanical considerations: "They are of temperature colde and drie, and very much binding after the opinion of Ruellius, Mathiolus. and Dodonaeus. but l'Obel and Pena hold them to be hot and dry. judging the same by their sharp taste. Which hath caused me to insert them heere among the kinds of Thaspi. considering the fashion of the leaves, cods, seede, & taste thereof. but rather willing to content others that have written before, than to please myself, I have followed their order in marshalling them in this place, where they may stande for eosin Germaine." 3. W. Lewis (1769, 1:226). 4. Motherby (1785). under "Bursa pastoris." 5. Clapp (1852. p. 739). 6. L. Johnson (1884. p. 97). 7. King (1882. appendix, p. 54). 8. Sollmann (1957. p. 537). 9. For some listing see Perry (1980), Fluck (1973. p.60). 10. McGavach (1941), Kuroda and Kako (1969). 11. See also Kuroda and Takasi (1969). Use for menorrhagia has been reported in traditional Chinese medicine; see American Herbal Pharmacology Delegation (1976). under "Capsella bursa-pastoris."

SKULLCAP (whole plant) The Herbalist's Account There's a number of skullcaps. The one I usually collect is called mad-dog skullcap. They all act the same. Most of the time we find it where you find watercress because it likes streams that have limewater. It grows from six inches to two and a half to three feet tall. It has a small, blue, pea-shaped bloom. The stems and leaves can be dried and stored in paper or burlap bags. You use the whole stalk for making a tea. One tablespoon of leaves and stems makes a cup of tea. To make a salve for the skin, boil down the tea and add grease. There's not anything better for the nerves than skullcap, but catnip and maypop is more powerful. Skullcap is highly recommended for rheumatism 'cause rheumatism is kind of a nervous condition, especially the kind that pains you awful bad. The old sore type may not be the nerves, but the pain would make you nervous if you're not. It's also good for rheumatism 'cause it's good for the kidney and liver. I don't know how many formulas calls for skullcap for rheumatism. Dr. Sanders bought hundreds of pounds from me-the whole thing. He processed it and shipped most of it to Germany. Commentary Scutellaria lateriflora L., including varieties; skullcap.

Lamiaceae (Labiatae) Mimulus ringens L. *, including varieties: monkey-flower, skullcap (local name). M. alatus Ail. *: monkey-flower, skullcap (local name). Scrophulariaceae Mr. Bass usually collects Mimulus ringens (occasionally M. alatus) for skullcap rather than Scutellaria lateriflora.' His comments, however, read as if he employs the latter. Among European and American species

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of Scutellaria that have attracted medical interest, the indigenous S. laterij10ra is the best known. Eighteenth-century references to European species were hardly enthusiastic. R. James (1744), for instance, recorded uses associated with a bitter property, but said it "is hardly of any use in physic," a comment echoed by Motherby (1785), who did mention that it had been used for fevers.2 Subsequently more interest emerged, though slowly. In the early nineteenth century skullcap attracted general notice as a remedy for mad dog bites. Influential L. Spalding (1819) helped disseminate this with his History of the Introduction and Use of Scutellaria laterij1ora. 3 He acknowledged the eighteenth-century studies of New Jersey physician Lawrence Van Derveer and calculated that of 850 bitten patients given Scutellaria, only three had died. Rafinesque (1830) confirmed that skullcap had "lately become famous as a cure and prophylactic against hydrophobia."4 Enthusiasm was uneven. A short while later, Griffith, in his comprehensive Medical Botany (1847), mentioned it only to suggest that it had an undue reputation for treating rabies, a comment in line with the doubtful nineteenth-century reputations of dozens of plants, minerals, and other treatments tried for rabies on the basis of theory, empiricism, or clutching at straws. 5 If the popularity of skullcap for rabies had declined by mid-century, collecting it was still an important source of income in the Appalachians. 6 In 1871 Appalachian physician A. A. Scroggs saw it as an important plant available in North Carolina ("this plant is very largely demanded and its medicinal value is gaining")? Other uses, however, were coming to the fore, though in 1884 Laurence Johnson made a characteristically trenchant comment: This and several unofficial species of skullcap have at various times been esteemed of medicinal value, but on what would appear

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to be doubtful testimony. They are almost or quite destitute of aromatic properties so common in labiates .... Again, the dis~ eases in which scutellaria has been found most efficient, namely hysteria and hydrophobia, add not a little to one's scepticism. Hysteria we know is quite as often amenable to moral treatment as to drugs; and much of the hydrophobia which has been cured has been undoubtedly of a purely imaginary character.8 Notwithstanding Johnson'S statement, a limited reputation for skullcap persisted for neuralgia, nervous exhastion, and a general nerve tonic.9 Stille and Maisch, in the 1896 edition of the National Dispensatory, indicated that it had some repute in intermittent fever and as a nervine-that is, in diseases presenting a "depressed and disordered condition of the nervous functions." 10 Threads of interest persisted into this century, aided, perhaps, by occasional medical references. A short letter by William Bramwell (1915), a frequent correspondent on herbs to the British Medical Journal, drew attention to scutellaria for epilepsy. His comments provide another example of how changing theory can sustain a drug that many view as of doubtful value: "Its efficacy appears to be partly due to its stimulating the kidneys not only in increasing the flow of water, but also the output of urea and uric acid as shown by the increased specific gravity of the urine, the retention of toxins as a cause in many cases of epilepsy being too frequently overlooked." 11 Notwithstanding the popularity of toxins at the time, interest in skullcap continued to decline, except for the persistence of some testimony for sedative activity. We have found no published reports in which Mimulus spp. (collected by Mr. Bass) is called skullcap, though some similarities in appearance exist. If one accepts the doubts of Johnson and others about the effectiveness of Scutellaria and the weak historical record,

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even for "nervine" activity, commonly mentioned in the twentieth-century herbal literature-plus the fact that only minor activity has been recorded on the guinea pig uterus under laboratory conditions-Bass's use of Mimulus spp. may be immaterial. 12 Substitution of other plants for S. laterifolia appears to be well documented, ranging from references in 1882 to the use of other Scutellaria species to use of species of Teucrium reported in 1983." S. lateriflora contains iridoids and flavonoids; whether a physiological explanation accounts for a reputed sedative property remains undetermined. Some inconsistencies in its reputation might be the consequences of adulteration and substitution.14 Furthermore, it must be appreciated that some of the past reputation may have come from the use of extracts prepared in a particular way.

Notes 1. Interestingly, Bass has collected Scutellaria

under the name vervain (see monograph), also recognized as a "nerve tonic." 2. James (1743-45, vol. 2), under "cassida"; Motherby (1785), under "cassida" (and "also called scuttelaria, tertianaria, lysimachia, galericulate. hooded loose-stripe"); Withering (1796. 3:540) made no comment. 3. See also Lloyd (1921, pp. 301-17). 4. Rafinesque (1828-30, 2:82). 5. Griffith (1847, p. 515). Enthusiasm for skullcap

in the treatment of rabies is an example of just one of countless remedies for the disease; see K. C. Carter (1982). Despite Griffith's comments. skullcap continued to be promoted, sometimes in combination remedies, for example, with belladonna. See, e.g., Lancet 1 (1852): 453-54. 6. Cowie Papers. 7. Scroggs (1871). C. J. Cowie (21 August 1870) indicated it was one of the "certain roots, seeds &c you cannot get too many of" for resale. It was included in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia's secondary list in 1860, and dropped from the 1910 edition.

8. L. Johnson (1884. p. 214). 9. Cobb (1846. p. 12) included it under nervine and tonic medicines; also see G. B. Wood and Bache (1870, p. 784).

10. Stille and Maisch (1896. p. 1434). 11. Bramwell (1915). 12. Omitted from the generalizations here are problems with no obvious neurological associations. such as rickets (e.g .. Bolyard, 1981, p. 91). a use rarely recorded and perhaps an idiosyncracy. See Pilcher et al. (1916). 13. King (1882. p. 139), and British Herbal Pharmacopoeia (1983. p. 194). 14. Phillipson and Anderson (1984).

SKUNK CABBAGE (root, leaves) The Herbalist's Account It used to be one of the old favorites, but you don't hear much about it now. It's got a loud odor and was good for the nerves. You can also say it's a tonic. The leaves make a good poultice. Commentary SympJocarpus foetidus (1.) Nutt. [syns. Spathyema foetidus (1.) Raf.; Dracontium foetidus 1.; Ictodes foetidus Bigel.): skunk cabbage, polecat cabbage. Araceae Not surprisingly, the indigenous skunk cabbage, one of the earliest plants to flower in the spring and having a distinctive, rather unpleasant odor, attracted early attention.! Nevertheless, clear medical interest did not become evident until the early nineteenth century, when the writings of James Thacher helped to establish it. In 1824, when J. Eberle described it as possessing antispasmodic properties and, in consequence of this (in the context of current theory), an action on the nerves, he wrote: "Dr. Thacher of Boston states ... that two teaspoonfuls of the powdered root of this vegetable, gave very prompt and effectual relief in a case of hyste-

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ria, after the ordinary remedies for such cases had been used without benefit."z Eberle's own experience and reputation possibly contributed to skunk cabbage's developing reputation as a panacea: "1 was ... in the habit of prescribing this plant, while practicing in the country, in cases of chronic catarrhal and asthmatic affections and very generally with evident advantage." R. E. Griffith's 1847 book on materia medica indicated that the plant (roots and seeds) had become popular for many uses associated with stimulant, antispasmodic, and narcotic properties. He also noted the use of the leaves to dress blisters and, when bruised, to apply to ulcers and wounds, uses akin to Mr. Bass's reference to the employment of the leaves as a poultice. 3 The activities of many Shaker communities and of root and herb dealer C. J. Cowie in marketing the plant suggest that it was in considerable demand around the middle of the nineteenth century.4 Evidence suggests that the decline in popularity of skunk cabbage was fairly rapid, perhaps because of the revision then being given to theoretical concepts about the pharmacological effects of antispasmodics, and even to the notion-alluded to by Bass-that fetidsmelling plants were helpful in nervous disorders. Laurence Johnson wrote that it "has been used chiefly in spasmodic affections, its disgusting odor having probably first afforded the suggestion." Johnson added that in hysteria "it probably acts quite as strongly upon the mind as upon the body of the patient, probably more so." 5 It is noteworthy that the constantly critical Johnson did not dismiss skunk cabbage entirely; he also implied that some negative results might result from using preparations not sufficiently fresh. Bass remembers the use of skunk cabbage up to the early 1940s, largely through Aunt Molly Kirby. That he has heard little about it since provides little confidence in skunk cabbage's efficacy. Furthermore, its decline in popularity within domestic medicine sug-

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gests that, as with many plants, input from regular medicine had helped to sustain a popular tradition. Interestingly, skunk cabbage, which contains a volatile oil, alkaloids, glycosides, resin, and acrid principle, is still commercially sold as a remedy for coughs and colds; the historical record, however, provides little support for this. 6 Notes Josselyn described it in 1672 (p. 219); see Boivin p. 240) for possible reference. 2. Eberle (1824, p. 118). See also Thacher (1817, pp.

1.

(1708,

692-93). 3. Griffith (1847, p. 620); see also Clapp (1852, p. 378); for some further background see Turner (1836). 4. For Shaker communities, A. B. Miller (1976. p. 232). CowIe wrote, for instance, in a letter dated 9 April 1855: "all the roots before bought are wanted now at old prices. Pole cat cabbage, especially & now is the time to dig it." 5. 1. Johnson (1884, p. 264). 6. Phillipson and Anderson (1984). For some general background see K. A. Williams (1919).

SMALLAGE. See Celery; Parsley SMARTWEED (whole plant) The Herbalist's Account There are several varieties of smartweed. One variety has a pink bloom kind of like a lady finger that hangs over. It's hot. If you chew it, it burns your mouth kind of like pepper. It used to grow a lot around chicken houses when we had them, and if you had dogs and cats, why, the fleas wouldn't stir around them at all. But it's a nuisance to gardeners and farmers. It'll take your crop if you give it a chance. Smartweed's real good for the kidney and was in a lot of the old kidney medicines like Dr. Pierce's. I've known about it all my life, but I don't think it's known much around

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these parts. It's also on the rheumatism deal on account of it's good for the kidney and liver. It's not as good a liver medicine as a lot of other plants, but it's used because it's easy to find. You use the whole stalk for making a tea. Old-timers used it in salves. You can boil down the tea and add greens, and mix it with hog lard or something. Doc Sanders bought hundreds of pounds from me-the whole thing. He processed it and shipped most of it to Germany. Those people over there are glad to get these here plants. Commentary Polygonum hydropiper L.' [syns. P. flaccidum Meissn.; P. gracile Meissn.; P. oryzeto rum Meissn.; Persicaria hydropiper (L.) Opiz]: water-pepper, cui rage , arse-mart, smartweed. P. persicaria L., including varieties [syn. P. hydropiperoides Michx.]: water-pepper, ladies' thumb. P. caespitosurn Blume var. longiseturn (DeBruyn) Stewart': smartweed, long-bristled smartweed. P. punctaturn Ell. *, including varieties [syns. P. acre H. B. K.; P. alaturn Ham.; Persicaria punctaturn (Ell.) Small]: smartweed, water smartweed, dotted water smartweed. P. lapathifolillm L. *, including varieties [syns. Persicaria lapathifolia S. F. Gray; P. incarnaturn EIl.]: dock-leaved smartweed, smartweed with lady finger (local name). P. pensylanicllrn (L.) Small*, including highly variable varieties: pinkweed, smartweed with pink flowers (local name). Polygonaceae Of the various species of Polygonurn employed in medicine, smartweeds have certainly attracted their share of interest. The smartweed commonly described in the medical literature is the naturalized Polygonllm hydropiper. The distinctive acid taste has contributed to its long medical history,

though it has probably never been really popular.' John Gerard (1597), in describing various plants under "arsmart or water pepper," said smartweed was hot and dry.2 Unexpectedly, perhaps. he listed only a few deobstruent actions (such as wasting and consuming cold swellings). It was not until the eighteenth century that a wider range of uses was generally noted, including as a diuretic, for which smartweed became best known. On the other hand, British author George Motherby said that "it is not used in present practice.'" How popular it was in home medicine at the time is unclear. Smartweed (at least Polygonurn spp., if not the naturalized P. hydropiper) was almost certainly known to American colonists! It probably did not become widely used, and in the early nineteenth century American authors generally mentioned it only briefly. In 1847 R. E. Griffith said that, despite some recent enthusiastic statements that P. hydropiper and especially P. persicaria were admirable astringents, vulneraries, febrifuges, and "specific in diseases of the kidney," they were "now seldom prescribed in regular practice.'" Some physicians remained enthusiastic following accolades by, for example, Eberle on its use for amenorrhoea. 6 Later (1884), Laurence Johnson indicated the use of P. hydropiper and "P. acre" in domestic practice due to slight vesicant propertiesemployed externally as a counterirritant and "internally to promote the menstrual flow, to induce diaphoresis in acute inflammatory affections, etc., in the same manner as other acrid and stimulating drugs are used." 7 In fact, interest in counterirritant remedies (see Thistles) perhaps gave smartweed a new lease on life. While the diuretic action underscored by Bass is well documented, twentieth-century Eclectic practitioners like Finley Ellingwood tended to emphasize its value as an emmenagogue." While interest in this was hardly

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widespread at the time, references have persisted. Bass's confidence in smartweed undoubtedly rests on its widespread use during the years when he was growing up. Furthermore, he remembers considerable usage in the 19605, though not for many disorders (e.g., chest conditions) mentioned in various modern herbals, some of which imply that smartweed is a panacea, a reputation not justified by the historical record. The astringent action is very well known to Bass's visitors." Many constituents have been reported. These include polygonic acid (having irritant properties), a glycoside, and tannins. lO Vesicant rather than astringent properties account for the use in salves. Irritant action probably accounts for the diuretic reputation. Various plants are collected by Bass as smartweed. All belong to the persicaria or smartweed section of the family Polygonaceae. On one occasion P. hydropiper was gathered as a knotweed, highlighting both the similarities between the two and longstanding problems in distinguishing the plants. The opinion that P. hydropiper is adventive or naturalized in North America has been questioned on the basis that early medical writers confused P. hydropiper with the indigenous P. punctatum."

Notes 1. Some background on Polygonum species can be found in Brooks (1979, 2:182ff.).

2. Gerard (1597, pp. 360-62). It is not clear that

P. hydropiper is actually discussed. 3. Motherby (1785). under "Persicariu"; W. Lewis (1769,2:130). 4. Stanford (1927) thought that P. hydropiper was

indigenous to some portion of its American range but that it was often confused with P. punctatum; Erichsen-Brown (1979, p. 219) suggested this with a reference to Clayton. 5. Griffith (1847, p. 546).

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6. Clapp (1852, p. 854). 7. L. Johnson (p. 237). Millspaugh [1974, p. 141) also made clear extensive lay usage, as did Shoemaker (1896, p. 685). 8. Ellingwood [1915, pp. 482-83); Dispensatory of the United States [1960. p. 1605). 9. Data collected from sixteen visitors. Tyler (1985. p. 70) records a recommendation for smartweed

(listed as Polygon urn punctaturn) for diarrhea. 10. Dispens(Jtory of the United States (1960). 11. Stanford (1927) argued that P. hydropiper is

less widespread in America than is sometimes stated.

SNAKEROOTS

Some specific comments on plants once regarded as valuable snakebite remedies serve to summarize many plants discussed individually in monographs (Virginia snakeroot, Sampson snakeroot, senega snakeroot, button snakeroot, Kansas snakeroot, black snakeroot, cocklebur. and so on). Bass recognizes the existence of others (e.g., white snakeroot Eupatorium rugosum or E. aromaticum) which do not grow in his area. Various reasons can be suggested why so many plants-as well as nonplant materialacquired a reputation long since discarded by professional medicine. It has often been said that the doctrine of signatures was important; for example, in the context of a flower spike resembling a rattlesnake [or at least its tail). especially if the plant grows where rattlesnakes abound. The latter evokes the view that God provided a remedy in the vicinity of a medical problem. Another popular explanation for so many snakeroots is that at least some were introduced on the basis of observations (or belief) that animals employed them to treat bites. As relevant as these rationalizations may have been on occasion, theoretical concepts were probably just as pervasive, if not more so, in sustaining reputations, at least until

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around 1800. Mur:h of this rested on sensory properties, particularly aromatic or astringent. A well-known snakeroot, Aristolochia serpentaria (Virginia snakeroot)-perhaps the first to attrar:! widespread interest among Europeans-was early described (1633) as "strong and aromaticke" and a "much used antidote against the bite of the rattle-snake or rather adder or viper, whose bite is very deadly." At the same time the plant was also considered useful against the plague and contagious diseases. This was associated with a "hot" quality (in Galenic terms), a property associated with other alexipharmics, or antipoison remedies. Some snakebite remedies were also considered antifever in consequence of their diaphoretic properties. In contrast to "hot" aromatic snakeroots, others were astringent (e.g., species of Plantago, Erigeron, and Goodyera). Cutler, in 1785, penned some remarks on one of the rattlesnake plantains, reflecting that the external application of many astringent substances to bites was commonplace: "It is said to cure the bite of a rattlesnake by applying the chewed leaves to the wound and swallowing a quantity of the juice. It commonly grows plentifully near the dens wherever these dangerous serpents haunt, nature appears to have provided an effectual antidote against the venom." Unquestionably a matrix of factors helped sustain some belief in the value (or possible value) of many snakeroots, at least until the early nineteenth century, when the lack of strong empirical evidence for the effectiveness of rattlesnake remedies, coupled with changing theoretical concepts, undermined their reputations-at least within professional medicine. Even so, bearing in mind some persistence of belief in sensory characters and the doctrine of signatures, and beliefs that snake toxins can be treated by blood purifiers (and all snakeroots have been so classified), it is not altogether surprising that, nowadays, button snakeroot and Samp-

son snakeroot are sometimes carried around for protection against snakebite. Bass knows of some visitors who hang rattlesnake roots around the neck as amulets.

SOAPWORTS (roots, tops) The Herbalist's Account It grows in pastures, but cows eat it all up. It has a star-shaped bloom as big as a quarter. They are different colors acr:ording to the soil in which they grow. It was highly recommended as a tonic. Some of the old-timers used it to make a hair tonic and shampoo. It makes its own lather. But the people got to buying the herbal shampoo from the stores, like I sell. I don't guess anyone uses the actual herb anymore. Commentary Saponaria officinalis 1.: soapwort, bouncingbet, hedge pink. Caryophyllaceae Sabatia capitata (Raf.) Blake* [syns. Lapithea capitata (Raf.) Small; L. boykinii (Gray) Small; S. boykinii Gray; Pleinta capitata Raf.]: sabatia, Boykin's sabatia, soapwort (local name). S. anguloris (1.) Pursh* [syn. Chironio onguloris]: rose pink, bitter-bloom, American centaury, soapwort (local name). Gentianaceae Saponaria officinolis, naturalized from Europe, has long been known for its ability to produce a lather when shaken with water. John Gerard (1597) noted that it was "hot and drie, and not a little scowring withal having no use in physicke set downe by any author of credit." 1 Johnson, however, in the second edition of the herbal added: "some have commended it to be very good [when) applied to greene wounds to hinder inflammation and speedily to heale them."z This reputation for treating wounds and for chronic skin

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ailments persisted until relatively recently.3 Whether the value for skin conditions was associated with a cleansing action on the skin or a reputed tonic or blood-purification action is unclear. Griffith (1847) implied a blood-purifying action when he pointed out that plants containing sap on ins had obtained some notice as substitutes for sarsaparilla in the treatment of syphilis, chronic cutaneous affections, jaundice, and so on.' Additionally, its mild bitter taste gave it some reputation as a tonic, which, in turn, perhaps suggested its employment for rheumatism. 5 The latter reputation persisted well into this century, but often with the warning that the plant has poisonous qualities and should not be used unless prescribed by a reputable physician. Mr. Bass knows the European soapwort, but it is uncommon in his area. He gathers as "soapwort" two species of Sabatia which froth a little on shaking with water and are bitter. They also have star-shaped flowers that are superficially caryophyllaceous like Saponaria officinalis; hence some Sabatias are called "pinks," the general vernacular name for plants in the family Caryophyllaceae. Sabatia angularis, one plant collected by Bass and commonly called American centaury, has been well known as a domestic remedy. Its principal reputation was as a tonic and fever remedy, a reputation related to its bitterness.6 This substitution is a good example of the types of confusion and errors that can occur in herbal medicine. Saponins account for the frothiness produced with Saponaria. Studies are needed on the constituents of the two Sabatia species. Constituents of soapwort include saponins. Notes 1.

Gerard (1597, p. 360).

2. Gerard/Johnson (1633. p. 445). 3. E.g., Griffith (1847, p. 158), Shoemaker (1893. 2:889).

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4. Griffith (1847). 5. Shoemaker (see n. 3 above). 6. Griffith (1847).

SOLOMON'S SEAL AND FALSE SOLOMON'S SEAL (leaves)

The Herbalist's Account Solomon's seal and false Solomon's seal grow in the woods in many different places. They have long, white roots with spurs, one for each year. The white or yellow depends on the soil or the season. They act about the same. Solomon's seal can be used in salves for sores and for poison ivy. And it's good for female complaints, but I haven't ever used it in the medicines I make. When I talk to the ladies, I generally always give them the things to make it and let them do it theirself. And I've had a few calls from fellows who want to use it for the same thing they use angelico for. Mostly black people, they call it John-the-conquerorroot, or high-John-the-conqueror-root. I don't know whether it works or don't work, but I could sell a carload if I had it. I had three big black women in the winter. They wanted John-the-conqueror-root to bring them luck at bingo. Some carries it in little bags, but most have it in their pockets. If I don't have any, I give them buckeyes. A tablespoon of the root of Solomon's seal makes a cup of medicinal tea. Conunentary Polygonatum biflorum (Walt.) Ell.*: Solomon's seal, John-the-conqueror-root, highJohn-the-conqueror-root. Smilacina racemosa (L.) Desf. *: false Solomon's seal, treacle berries. Liliaceae The vernacular Solomon's seal has been used for various species of Polygonatum indigenous to either the Old or the New World. John Gerard (1597) described a number of

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Solomon's seal plants as having a binding (astringent) property and a loathsome bitterness. Like many markedly astringent plants, the roots were listed for the treatment of green wounds, broken bones, and inflammations l Solomon's seal did not attract a great deal of interest during the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and opinions over its value were mixed, although it was included in, for instance, the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia. John Hill said that it was a "vulnerary of the very first rank," and noted it as famous for bruises ("our country also uses it internally in cases of bruises from blows"). 2 A short while later (1769). Lewis noted that its slight bitterness and acrimony led to the view that its virtues were not very great,' Even so, it was this bitterish taste and mucilaginous property that probably contributed to the continuing reputation as an anti poison remedy and, in the form of a poultice, for various kinds of tumors and bruises. 4 Criticalminded William Cullen (1781) approved of its use for hemorrhoids.' Although Solomon's seal, "of which there are three kinds," was noted as "medicinal" by John Josselyn in 1672, its popularity in colonial times is unclear. 6 Nineteenth-century American authors on materia medica generally devoted little space to the plant. Griffith, for instance, stated only that the "roots of many species of Polygonatum have been popularly employed both in Europe and this country as demulcents and vulneraries .... Schoepf says the bruised root forms a good cataplasm in ophthalmia, and Clayton is of opinion that the berries are useful stimulants to the stomach in sick headache." 7 Griffith made no reference to a reputation coming to the fore at that time for such female complaints as "fluor albus, leuchnrrhea and immoderate flow of menses."8 The astringency of Solomon's seal, which rationalized the use for female complaints, also accounted for its employment in skin ailments, probably the most widely men-

tioned use. In fact. in 1884 Laurence Johnson mentioned only this property: "In decoction, [Solomon's seal] is employed as a domestic remedy to allay irritation of mucous surface. and in rhus poisoning where it acts by protecting the inflamed parts from the air." 9 Mr. Bass's comments are in line with past reputations. though he says his conviction in its value for female complaints-at least for "hot flashes"-rests on his own experience. Additionally, he notes that the root. when called John-the-conqueror-root, is employed as an amulet or charm, mostly by blacks. This use has been and remains popular, primarily for bringing the bearer his wishes, particularly the love of women and success in gambling.lO Bass's reference to carrying it in a bag is a reminder of the "toby"-a good-luck charm in the form of a bag that commonly contained John-the-conquerorroot, five-finger grass, and a four-leaf clover -sold by many a medicine peddler during Bass's youth." Nowadays, say Bass, some blacks take Solomon's seal with them into the woods to keep away snakes. Some confusion exists, perhaps. in the folk-life literature between this plant and Adam-and-Eve roO!.12 The similar-looking SmiIClcina fClcemosCl has attracted little medical interest; however, it was probably the treacle berries, wholesome and "medicinable." described by Josselyn. l3 Later, it was regarded as "a mild alterative, diuretic and diaphoretic." 14 It is clear that it has been used at times as Solomon's seal. if only because of the resemblance of the two plants. Notes 1.

Gerard (1597. pp. 755-59).

2. Hill (1751.

p. 654).

3. W. Lewis (1769. 2:259).

4. Interestingly, Solomon's seal was described by Lewis (1791) under the botanical name Conv(]Unrin po/ygonntum and was said to contain a sweetish mucilage used in the form of a poultice in inflam-

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mations (p. 176). For poultices, also see Woodville (1790-94,1:124). 5, Cullen (1781, p, 176). 6. Josselyn (1672, p. 176). 7. Griffith (1847, p. 655). 8. Rafinesque (1828-30, 2 :85), discussed under "Sigillaria multiflora, the use with comfrey." Publications such as Gunn (1869, p. 912) encouraged

this reputation by describing it as very useful in "female weakness and diseases, as in leucorrhea or whites, and excessive and painful menstruation." Banks (1953), who recorded Appalachian Cherokee uses, made no mention of uses for female problems but did note uses for poultices and stomach troubles and for "spoiled saliva" (p. 16). 9. L. Johnson (1884. p. 276). 10. For some pertinent comments see L. F. Snow (1983, pp. 52-54). One magical reference is in Banks (1953, p. 16). Confusion exists in the litera-

ture over the identity of John-the-conqueror-root. Taberner (1985. pp. 47-49) described it as "St. John's Wort (Hypericum elodes)." His explanation of the action by the Law of Similarity is not a sufficiently comprehensive explanation. 11. For an example of this, see A. Banks (1980, pp. 184-87). 12. See Hyatt (1970-73, 1 :243-44). 13. Josselyn (1672, p. 22).

14. Clapp (1852. p. 887).

SORGHUM MOLASSES

The Herbalist's Account The molasses you buy in the stores is not the same as the old molasses. It's generally got a bitter taste from the fodder, the leaves. being left on the stems, and because they don't take any morning glory out. A few people still makes it the old way, Molasses makes a good tonic and medicine. We call it a folk medicine, It was used as a spring tonic with sulfur, The Indians had a few formulas. One way is boil a turnip in sorghum molasses until it is real tender. Then eat the turnip and drink the juice and

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it would do away with coughs and cold. You can gargle with molasses and vinegar. It is used to sweeten teas made of boneset and ragweed. It improves them, It can be used for burns too. We understand now that it has a lot of iron in it. Old-timers said the seeds of sorghum were good for the kidney. Commentary Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench ssp. bicolor, including cuitivars, Graminae Mr. Bass is correct in saying that sorghum molasses is a folk medicine insofar as it has not had an established place in regular practice. Despite this, the use of "sulfur and molasses" was once a ubiquitous remedy recommended by physicians and laypeople alike, Cultivated sorghums have a long history. and selection of the variable species for sweet stems was probably an early development.' Bass learned of most uses of molasses through the oral tradition, much of which is documented among popular beliefs recorded in Alabama and elsewhere.' A great deal of local testimony still exists about the medical value of sorghum, though this faded as molasses was generally replaced by white sugar as a domestic sweetener. In part, lingering reputations are sustained by continued production in Bass's area of small quantities of molasses made by traditional methods. 3 A diuretic activity of sorghum seeds has been reported, though not widely.' Bass says the action is in line with that of all grasses. Record of a chemical constituent that would account for the diuretic reputation of sorghum seeds has not been found. Notes 1. For background on sorghum in general, see Doggett, "Sorghum" (in Simmonds, 1976, pp. 11217).

2. R. B. Browne (1958. pp. 44. 48, 59. 103) included the well-known sulfur and molasses. Bass has

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heard of putting molasses in the ear for earache. 3. For an account of traditional practice in Tennessee, see Hemmerly (1983). 4. R. C. Wren (1932, p. 46) noted it as a diuretic and demulcent used by blacks for bladder and kidney complaints.

SOURWOOD (bark, leaves)

The Herbalist's Account The sourwood tree has a bloom in midsummer that is shaped kind of like bunches of grapes. It makes the finest honey. It's an old-time folk medicine. The bark is used for sour stomach, sick stomach, or to ease ulcers. If you're out in the woods or working and eat your lunch or something and has a sour stomach, just cut off some bark and chew it. You don't have to ross it. Use the bark green or dry. You can use a tablespoonful of bark to a teacupful of water. Take a tablespoon of tea as often as needed. It can make you belch. If you don't want to use the bark, the leaves will do. It's like sumac; it's highly recommended as a cooling drink in fevers. I heard about it in the 1930s. I had a friend named Higginbottom, and he almost made it to one hundred years old. He was a professional carpenter. He came to me and said, "Tommie, do you know where I could get some sourwood barkT' And I said, "Yes sir. anywhere in the woods." "You know my stomach gets sour, and if I take baking soda it just ruins me. I don't like taking Rolaids and those things. I used to get the tincture in the drugstore, but they don't sell it no more. A little of that and boy you'll belch and then get better, but I find out now I can make a tea or chew the bark, and it does the same thing." Now, I went and got him a sackful, and he had part of it when he passed away. I once tried it for a sour stomach and, boy, it sure worked.

Sourwood has vegetable iron, which we all need. Mr. Butler had it analyzed. Now I can vouch for what he says because he don't say much. He was a newspaper reporter, but he didn't ask you no questions much, but anyhow, he had it researched and the chemist, a friend, told him, George, it's just eat up with iron. If you make a tea out of it, it will turn the pot just kind of blue-there's so much iron in it. Use the leaves in the summer, the bark in the winter. Commentary Oxydendrum arborcum (L.) DC. * [syn. Andromeda arborea L.]: sorrel tree. sourwood. Ericaceae The indigenous sourwood, very well known for sourwood honey, has not been a mainline medicinal plant, though the sour taste attracted early interest, in part by analogy to sorrel. John Lawson, in A New Voyage to Carolina (1709), wrote that "the sorrel or sour-wood tree is so call'd because the leaves taste like sorrel." He added, "I am unacquainted with its virtues at present." 1 Perhaps, too, the doctrine of signatures was at play, for this is hinted at in Bass's comments. Few nineteenth-century authors considered it, but growing interest seems to have emerged in the second half of the century. Laurence Johnson (1884) did include it in his Medical Botany of North America, giving a characteristically apt summary: "The leaves of this tree have a pleasant acidulous taste, and are said to be tonic, refrigerant, and diuretic. They are used in domestic practice in the form of infusion or decoction, as a refrigerant drink in fevers." 2 Some of the growing interest was perhaps encouraged by pharmaceutical companies such as Parke-Davis, who marketed two extracts as a tonic, refrigerant, and diuretic, emphasizing the latter property." Interest has petered out in the present

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century, though it is not forgotten in the lay medicalliterature. 4 Mr. Bass has not heard of the diuretic property, although it is recorded among Appalachian popular beliefs; for instance, "sour wood bark tea thickened with flour and made into pills were used in the treatment of dropsy." 5 The suggested use for stomach complaints is not established in the regular medical literature, and Bass's enthusiasm almost seems to be based on treating like with like. One recorded Alabama popular belief indicates its value as a tea "to relieve gas 'on the stomach."e The organic acid present in sourwood accounts for the reputation as a tonic and refrigerant, a reputation hardly acceptable within the framework of modern physiology. Notes 1. Lawson (1709, p. 104); Brickell (1737, p. 81) said the same. 2. L. 3.

Johnson (1884, p. 194).

Parke-Davis (1890. p. 167).

4. E.g., Coon (1963, p. 235), as a "less well-known" species.

5. O. L. Jones (1967, p. 66). 6. R. B,

Browne (1958,

p. 68).

SPANISH NEEDLES. See Beggar's-Lice SPICEBUSH (bark, leaves, fruits) The Herbalist's Account I don't know much about it. We don't have it around here, but Mother used to tell me about making spicebush tea. It will make you sweat and it works like aspirin. Good for fevers, you know. It's good for the stomach. Make a tea with the bark or the leaves. Some folks dried the berries and used them for flavoring. Commentary Lindera benzoin (L.) Blume, including vari-

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eties [syn. Benzoin aestivale sensu Nees]: spicebush, fever-bush, wild allspice. Lauraceae Comparatively little regular medical interest has been aroused by this indigenous shrub despite its aromatic properties, although there have been occasional references to its use as a substitute for allspice in the Revolutionary War and, during the nineteenth century, to a reputation as a tonic, stimulant, and carminative, as well as for the treatment of intermittent fevers.' A few Shaker communities sold it between the 1830s and the 1870s for fever, ague, colds, coughs, and as an anthelmintic. 2 In 1887 it was said that the "plant is so little used in medicine that it has no commercial history. There is a limited demand for a fluid extract." Even so, by 1890 ParkeDavis was marketing a number of preparations on the basis that all "parts of the shrub ure diaphoretic (in hot infusion), aromatic, stimulant and tonic," Uses for "intermittent and typhoid forms of fever as an exhilarant and refrigerant" were specifically mentioned, based on the reputed stimulant and diaphoretic properties.' While spicebush's reputation persisted into this century, it lacked popularity, partly because of well-established, readily available alternatives. Sassafras, for example, was a popular preference as a diaphoretic. and cinchona bark (or its active principle, quinine) was the treatment of choice for intermittent fevers. However, spicebush remained known as a beverage (reflected in Mr. Bass's remarks) and for a "spice" prepared from the attractive red fruits. Its reputation as a vermifuge faded, although it is occasionally recorded in the twentieth-century herballiterature. 4 Bass has not heard of this use, but spicebush does not grow in his area, and there is little knowledge of it generally in the community. The aromatic properties are due to the presence of a volatile oil.

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Notes 1. See, for instance, Griffith (1847, p. 553), who quoted the influential writings of Barton. See also Porcher (1849, p. 272).

2. A. B. Miller (1976, p. 172). For other references in the nineteenth-century literature, see Lloyd and Lloyd (1886-87, 2:117-19).

3. Parke-Davis (1890, p. 168). 4. For other uses recorded see, e.g., Tyler (1985, p. 81) (to cool a fever).

female ailments, kidney trouble, and stomach ailments. 3 No modern chemical analysis has been found, but astringency-almost certainly due to tannins-lies behind spiderwort's reputation. Whether the early alexipharmic reputation contributed to the more recent reputation for treating cancer and certain skin conditions is unknown but possible. No specific reports have been found on T. ohiensis, and it is not known whether all Tradescantio species are equally astringent.

SPIDERWORT (leaves) The Herbalist's Account I don't know much about it, but one or two folks have asked for it. I think I've read the Indians used it for external cancer. When you break it, it has a sticky substance; anything like that is good for external use, like houseleek for burns. Commentary Tradescantia ohiensis Raf., including varieties: spiderwort. Commelinaceae Spiderwort is another plant that has attracted relatively little medical interest. To Gerard's 1597 account of various spiderworts, Johnson, in his 1633 revision, added remarks on one of the best known, Tradescantia virginiano. All spiderworts were assumed to possess" drying" or astringent qualities. Administered in wine, spiderwort leaves were considered useful for bites of scorpions and other creatures, and, if drunk in ale for a month, "expelleth poyson, yea although it has universally spred it selfe through the body.'" This alexipharmic reputation hardly persisted past the seventeenth century; later references to spiderworts (generally T. virginiana) are very spotty and mostly to Indian usage, which included as a diuretic. 2 Bass may have heard of the alleged reputation for cancer from the Cherokees, though he is unaware of other recorded Cherokee uses: for

Notes 1. Gerard/Johnson (1633, p. 49). T. virginiana is of special interest in the history of botany because of its associatiun with the seventeenth-century Tradescants (botanists and horticulturalists). For general background see Amherst (1896), Allan

(1964). 2. E.g., see Moerman (1977, p. 193), who also noted usage of T. occidentalis. 3. Banks (1953, pp. 12-13).

SPIKENARD (tops) The Herbalist's Account I haven't ever used it medically, but I've recommended it. I never had enough to make a medicine. They say it is about the same as angelica, or boarhog root. It's close to ginseng, a tonic and a blood purifier. You can use it for rheumatism. It's scarce stuff to get, but back when I was a boy we would find a little of it and we would put it in the stove, roast it, and feed it to the mules. It's a good stock feed. Boy, it would just make a new mule. Commentary Valeriano wallichii DC. [syn. V. jatarnansi Jones): spikenard, Indian valerian. Valerianaceae Aralia racemosa 1.: American spikenard, spignet, spikenard, petty morrel. A. nudicaulis 1.: wild sarsaparilla, spikenard.

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Araliaceae

Angelica venenosa (Greenaway) Fern. *: spignet, spikenard (local names). Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) "Spikenard" has a long history in Western medicine, though uncertainty over precise botanical identification in many accounts complicates the story. The spikenard renowned as a perfume and stimulant and employed as far back as classical times is commonly reported as "Valeriana jatamansi" (V. walIichii).! Seventeenth- and eighteenthcentury European authors spoke highly of spikenard and European substitutes, generally Valerian species. All were esteemed as alexipharmics and diaphoretics.' The American colonists found substitutes. J. Carver, in his Travels, wrote: "Spikenard. vulgarly called in the colonies Petty-Morrell [appears] to be exactly the same as the asiatick spikenard so much valued by the ancients." 3 Carver probably referred to Aralia mcemosa, though A. nudicaulis (see Sarsaparilla) cannot be discounted. Like many aromatic diaphoretics, Aralia species acquired a particular reputation in the nineteenth century as blood purifiers, a concept still appreciated by Mr. Bass. By considering spikenard analogous to ginseng or boar hog root, he follows many similar analogies made in the nineteenth century. such as substituting species of Amlia-at least Aralia nudicaulis for sarsaparilla.' Interest in the aromatic and stimulant A. racemosCl persisted throughout the nineteenth century, but. as with so many other plants, Laurence Johnson (1884) implied its impending demise among regular physicians. He observed that the manner in which A. racemosa (spikenard) and A. nudicaulis were administered doubtless had "quite as much to do with the effect produced as any other medicinal property of the drug itself. Hence the alterative properties formerly attributed to these plants have little founda-

409

tion in fact." 5 However, the Eclectic literature at the time stated that A. racemosa "is much used in pulmonary affections and enters into the Compound Syrup of Spikenard."" Some interest-but hardly enthusiasmhas persisted during much of the twentieth century. even within the framework of regular medicine. The 1955 Dispensatory of the United States stated that Aralia racemosa "has been used especially in domestic practice. as an 'alterative' similar to sarsaparilla . . . . its therapeutic value is extremely questionable and it is official only because it is an ingredient of the compound white pine syrup.'" Bass does not collect any of the recognized "spikenards." but the umbellifer Angelica venenosa instead. This plant is rarely mentioned in the medical botany literature. and its sensory properties are probably slightly less pleasant than A. racemosa. Insofar as past reputations of spikenard depend on aromatic properties and presumed bloodpurifying actions (Bass's justification for his suggestion that it can be used for rheumatism), his substitution is perhaps of little consequence. Unfortunately. however. although Aralia racemosa is known to contain diterpenes. detailed chemical investigations on all species are insufficient to make adequate comparisons.a Noles 1. Pereira (1842. p. 1369). Others have viewed this as misidentification of Nardostachys species. notably N. jatamansi; e.g .. see Hooker (1880-82, 3:213). 2. E.g., Quincy (1719, p. 169). 3. Carver (1774. pp. 511-12). 4. Mease (1806. pp. 161-62). 5. L. Johnson (1884. p. 157). 6. King (1882. p. 125). 7. Dispensatory

of the

United States (1955, p. 104).

8. Hanson and White (1970). This contribution employed commercially provided material whose purity was not demonstrated.

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SPURGE (root, latex) The Herbalist's Account Some call it milkweed. I don't have any calls for it, but the milk is good for warts. The root is also a laxative, but I wouldn't use it, it's too powerful. Commentary Euphorbia corollata L:, including varieties: flowering spurge, Bowman's root. E. ipecacuanhae 1. [syns. E. gracilis Ell.; Tithymalopsis ipecacuanhae (1.) Small; Tithymalopsis gracilis (Ell.) Small]: flowering spurge, Bowman's root, milkweed. E. hirta L. [syn. E. pilulifera 1.]: pillbearing spurge, spurge. Euphorbiaceae Mr. Bass, like others have in the past, views the spurges as a type of milkweed, although botanists reserve the vernacular name milkweed for plants in the milkweed family, Asclepiadaceae. E. corollata (frequently called flowering spurge), an indigenous perennial common in the eastern United States, became a fairly well-known medicinal plant during the first half of the nineteenth century. It was considered similar to, but "more active" as an emetic and cathartic than the ipecac spurge, E. ipecacuanhae (another indigenous perennial), which had been employed as an emetic by "some country people" in the eighteenth century.1 Although neither Euphorbia species became particularly popular, Laurence Johnson (1884) pointed out that they were more pleasant to take than the better-known ipecacuanha from the South American Cephaelis ipecacuanha, one ofthe best-known medicinal plants of all time. 2 Johnson added that the roots can be substituted where emesis is desired and cathartic action is not objectionable. 3 By around 1900 some authorities had elaborated on the therapeutic uses of these physiological actions. Parke-Davis, who marketed a preparation of E. corollata, stated: "In

large doses it produces irritation of the stomach and bowels, with hypercatharsis. It has been used with success in chronic bronchitis, laryngitis and vesical catarrh. In obstinate bilious dysentery it has proved effectual, and in dropsical diseases, especially hydrothorax and ascites, it will sometimes evacuate the water when other agents prove useless."4 Despite these opinions spurge acquired little popularity over other laxatives, except, as implied by the quotation above, when other treatments failed. This lack of popularity reflects, in part, Mr. Bass's remarks on its powerful nature. In fact, Euphorbia hirta 1., introduced into medicine toward the end of the nineteenth century from Australia, emerged as the bestknown spurge, with a basic reputation as an expectorant for the treatment of coughs and asthma. However, it was probably never popular, at least as a prescribed rather than an over-the-counter medicine. An antispasmodic action was also promoted but never gained popularity.5 Chemical studies have been undertaken on a number of Euphorbia species, especially those considered to be potential sources of petroleum or possible cancer cures. Various constituents, including flavonoids, tannins, and sterols, have been reported, but studies are needed to determine if clear correlations with therapeutic activity exist. Bass's belief in the efficacy of the "milk" for warts is in line with his view that any milky plant latex is effective for warts when applied repeatedly over a few weeks. E. corollata is known to the Appalachian Cherokees for this purpose and for treating sores and pimples. 6

Notes 1. Griffith (1847, pp. 592-93). Like many other authors, Griffith noted comparisons with other Euphorbia species possessing similar pharmacological properties. Additionally, E. macuJata L.

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(syn. E. hypericifolia [L.] Small) was recommended more for astringent properties. See Millspaugh (1974, pp. 589-92)' who did not mention the distinction; also Le Strange (1977, p. 120), Grieve (1971, originally 1931, p. 764). Croton tiglium also attracted much interest for its drastic purgative action. Mr. Bass remembers this as an ingredient in some over-the-counter medicines sold in the 1920s. B. S. Barton (1798, p. 26) noted early use. We consider Euphorbia, perhaps E. ipecacuanhae, to be the "ipecacuanha" referred to by colonial authors (see Bowman's Root). 2. For review on C. ipecacuanha see Fliickiger and Hanbury (11174, pp. 331-33), where other substitute ipecacuanhas are listed.

3. L. Johnson (1884, p. 241). 4. Parke-Davis (1890, p. 80). 5. See Shoemaker (1893, 2:620); and remarks of Solis-Cohen and Githens (1928, p. 1391), who noted that it was mainly employed as a constituent in cough mixtures containing more active drugs and was rarely employed as a cathartic. Commercial companies such as H. K. Mulford marketed it as Syrup Euphorbia Compound, "for the physician who wishes to prescribe an effective cough syrup that is different in appearance, taste and effect from the old pine tar remedies" (advertising leaflet, c. 1920, author's collection).

411

Little has been recorded on the medical properties of squawroot, an interesting root parasite. It was ignored by many prominent American writers during the nineteenth century, 1 and there is little evidence of popularity among Indians, despite the Indian association in the name. 2 Nevertheless, the references that do exist show persistent threads of interest, and indicate that it was considered an alternative to beechdrops (Epifagus virginiana), also known as cancer root. 3 Reputed uses (e.g., for diarrhea and skin ailments) rested on astringent properties. Laurence Johnson (1884) said: "Doubtless its effect when applied to ill-conditioned ulcers led to the absurd notion that it is curative of cancer."4 There is no evidence for a physiological action on the female reproductive system, but the astringent property had a reputation for controlling excessive menstrual bleeding and vaginal discharges. No report has been found on constituents of the fleshy root or other parts, which are an important food for bears. In the absence of a strong historical record, squawroot's reputation, either for cancer or for female complaints, must be treated very cautiously.

6. Banks (1953, pp. 77-78).

Notes 1. Some difficulty exists in ascertaining the history

SQUAWROOT (underground organ) The Herbalist's Account I don't know much about it; I can't get it easily. The Indians praise it high. You can tell it's a lady's medicine because it goes by the name squaw. It's a tonic, but other things are better. We suggest bethroot, black cohosh, and others. Commentary Conopholis americana (L.) Wallroth [syn. Orobanche americana (1.) Gray]: cancer root, broomrape, squawroot. Orobanchaceae

because of other squawroots described in the literature; for example: Cimicifuga racemosa, Trillium erectum, Caulophylum thalictroides, Orobanche uniflora. 2. Moerman (1977) did not include any references. 3. E.g., G. B. Wood and Bache (1847, pp. 1281-82). 4. L. Johnson (1884, p. 203).

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SQUAWVINE (tops)

The Herbalist's Account It grows as a little vine with tiny red berries in small patches along streams in piney woods. It is tedious to collect but worth it. Dry it in the shade for a few days; the worms won't bother it. The root and herb companies buy it, but it hardly pays, it weighs so little. You would work yourself to death. It will work on the kidney, but there are better things. Indian women used it for their troubles. It's been here so long. There couldn't be nothing better for the ladies than squawvine. It don't make no difference what ails them. Now I'm not going to tell you it would cure them, but anyway it will give you ease and make you feel lots better. There's just something about it. I don't know what's in it. One lady said, "Well, what does it do for you?" I said, "Well, lady, it wouldn't do the same things for me as it would for you. Of course, I understand that some folks claim that men and women are just the same, but I've got news for you. There's a difference in us." But anyway, that squawvine, we can't say too much for it. I gave squawvine to a little eleven-year-old girl who could not hold her water. The doctor could not do anything for her, but this put her back in school. It's a strong medicine. Take one teaspoon of vine to one cup of water. Take a teaspoonful two or three times a day for women's complaints, kidney trouble, and for babies to keep them from wetting the bed. It's in Dr. Pierce's, "Liddie" Pinkham's pink compound with Solomon's seal. Dr. Pierce's favorite prescription saved my mother's life a couple of times. It had squawvine, black cohosh, black-haw bark, and Solomon's seal. Commentary Mitchella repens L. *: partridge berry, squawberry, squawvine, one berry, nerve vine. Rubiaceae The name squawvine (generally used by

Mr. Bass) for this indigenous creeping evergreen plant reminds him of past Indian uses.' These were often mentioned by such early writers on American materia medica as C. S. Rafinesque, who did so much to promote indigenous remedies. 2 Since the plant is the only species in the genus and there are no European counterparts to account for usage by analogy, it is probable that squawvine entered white medicine, at least domestic practice, directly from Indians. Rafinesque listed it as a mild diuretic used in New England for dropsy and gout. The red berries, regarded as mildly astringent, were a popular remedy in the North for diarrhea, and in the Carolinas for painful urination. The plant remained primarily a domestic remedy and achieved little reputation among regular physicians. Clapp (1852) reiterated its property as a mild diuretic, adding that it was seldom "if at all, used at present."3 Despite limited interest squawvine continued to be mentioned in regular medical textbooks as a female medicine. In 1884 Laurence Johnson said that squaws employed a decoction of it for some weeks prior to parturition to render safe and easy deliveries; "white women," he added, "sometimes use slippery elm for the same purpose, and probably with about the same amount of benefit.'" Johnson's doubts were not universally held. Some Eclectic practitioners promoted it vigorously, as did homeopaths and pharmaceutical companies. 5 Extractum Mitchellae was available until well into this century." Bass's comments focus on squawvine's long-standing reputation as a medicine for females and for kidney and urinary problems. However, he has not been asked about it for a long time, and it is now little known even within the popular tradition. Early chemical analyses (no recent ones were found) indicate the presence of resin, wax, mucilage, saponins, and tannins, none of which offer a ready physiological explanation for past reputations? Likewise, labora-

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tory studies have not indicated marked action on isolated uterine muscle. B Overall, the historical reputation-which, if strong at times, was sometimes colored by the opinion that evergreen plants are rejuvenating-hardly offers much confidence that new chemical and pharmacological studies will explain the reputation as a female medicine. The diuretic action is apparently not marked. 9

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STARGRASS (root) The Herbalist's Account It's an old-time bitter tonic, and good for the stomach. It grows around here, but there's not enough to pick and I don't use it. There's plenty of other things. Commentary Aletris aurea Walt. *; star-wort, stargrass, star-root. Liliaceae

Notes 1. The vernacular names for the plant have cre-

ated confusion; in particular, the name partridge berry is also used for gaultheria, or wintergreen, a source of the widely used oil of wintergreen. The name nerve vine (e.g., Cowie Papers, 4 February 1860) is possibly linked to the reputation for female disorders. References to many "squaw" plants are often misinterpreted. The following list is from Fuller (1920, p. 445): squawhish (Viburnum opuJus), squaw-flower (Trillium erectum). squawmint (Hedeoma puJegioides), squawroot (CauJophyllum thalictroides and Cimicifuga racemosa), squaw-weed (Eupatorium ageratoides and several species of Senecio). swamp squaw-weed (Senecio aureus), Robbins squaw-weed (S. robbinsii), northern squaw-weed (S. discoideus). round-leaf squaw-weed (S. obovatus). Crawford's squaw-weed (S. crawfordii). 2. Rafinesque (1828-30, 2:243). 3. Clapp (1852, p. 788). 4. L. Johnson (1884, p. 169). A number of wellknown books did not mention it; e.g., Griffith (1847). 5. Hale (1867, p. 713) said that it had long been

used as a domestic remedy for uterine diseases and menstrual irregularities. 6. King (1871, p. 728). Parke-Davis was marketing a number of squawvine preparations in the 1890s; see, e.g., Parke-Davis (1890, p. 169). 7. Fuller (1920, p. 445). 8. Pilcher et al. (1916), Pilcher and Mauer (1918). 9. Belkin et al. (1952).

Hypoxis hirsuta L. *; yellow stargrass, stargrass. Amary llidaceae Stargrass (various Aletris species) has received relatively little mention in the literature on medicinal plants-regular, domestic, or Indian.' The best-known species is A. farinosa, considered in the monograph on star-root, its most common vernacular name. Aletris aurea, collected by Mr. Bass, is bitter and has been reported as a tonic and stomachic.' It has probably been used only rarely-when readily available-and as an alternative to other bitters. On the other hand, since it can be readily mistaken for A. farinoso, it may well have been used as a substitute for star-root. No information has been found on constituents. Bass on occasion also collects Hypoxis species (generally H. hirsuta rather than H. rigida, sometimes found in his area) as yellow stargrass. This (the entire plant) is, he says, a folk remedy and a tonic. The little published information to be found refers to mild bitterness of the root. Employment of H. hirsuta as "tea for heart" has been recorded, but this could well be a reference to tonic properties, or at least a presumed stimulant action linked to such properties. 3

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Notes 1. This includes references in Moerman (1977).

2. See Hyams (1898, p. 395). 3. Hamel and Chiltoskey (1975, p. 57).

STAR-ROOT (root) The Herbalist's Account This is another stargrass. They're all difficult to distinguish. It's a bitter tonic, good for the stomach. Some folks have told me it's good for female complaints, but I've not tried it. It was a favorite with the old-timers. Commentary Aletris farinosa 1. *: star-wort, stargrass, colic-root, unicorn-root, star-root, aletris. Liliaceae Of various plants commonly known as stargrass or star-root, the indigenous perennial Aletris farinosa has attracted substantial medical interest, at least during the nineteenth century. (For others, see Stargrass and Blazing Star.) Aletris's intense bitterness was often noted: "Neither aloes, gentian, nor quassia exceed it." 1 Authoritative author R. E. Griffith (1847) provided a useful summary of earlier reports: "In small doses [star-root] acts as a tonic and stomachic, but in larger quantities operates as an emetic and purgative and also displays some narcotic properties ... it has not attracted much attention by the profession, and its real powers are not understood." References to usage for chronic rheumatism and dropsical affections were also noted.2 It is not clear how firmly the above uses became established, at least beyond domestic medicine, even though around 1890 it was estimated that fifteen thousand poundsconsidered a large amount-were employed in prescriptions.' In 1884 Laurence Johnson said it probably "possesses no medicinal properties other than those of simple bitters

generally, though others have been ascribed to it." He referred to other uses as probably dependent upon "the manner of administration, so this may be employed as a tonic, diaphoretic, emetic, etc.'" Such comments are a pertinent reminder that doses and modes of administration are significant in determining therapeutic outcomes. Despite many doubts over Aletris farinosa, positive comments continued to appear in the regular medical literature. Around the turn of the century, companies such as Merck were marketing Aletris Cordial as a "uterine tonic and restorative." 5 The Rio Chemical Company of New York promoted Aletris Cordial Rio as "perhaps, the most remedial agent yet known. It is THE remedy for the wrongs of menstruation by restoring normal functional activity to the uterine apparatus, Prolapsis, Menorrhagia, Leucorrhea, Amenorrhea, Dysmenorrhea, Subinvolution, Metritis, Ovarian Neuralgia, etc., all yield to its beneficial influence."6 The drug attracted interest abroad and was included in the influential British Phannacautical Codex. The 1923 edition described it as a "so-called uterine tonic." Its reputation for chronic rheumatism and dropsy was also noted.' While it continued to be mentioned in regular medical textbooks for many years, so far as we can tell Aletris was primarily a domestic remedy employed as a tonic to promote digestion-as noted by Bass-and as an over-the-counter medicine for uterine problems. 8 Studies have indicated the presence of a saponin glycoside which yields diosgenin, a volatile oil, and resinous material. Some estrogenic activity has been shown; however, this has not been well characterized and at present only hints that the reputation for uterine problems may be justified chemically. Aletris's general tonic action, on the other hand, has always been rationalized on the basis of its bitterness. 9 It is noteworthy,

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the properties of the two plants, A. farinosa and Chamaelirium, have been considered the same, but "Aletris is now regarded of value chiefly in digestive troubles." 9. For information and reference to chemistry see Leung (1980, pp. 14-15). Dispensatory of the United States (1960 , p. 1535). 10. Shoemaker (1896, p. 165).

STONECROP. See Houseleek STRAWBERRY (leaves, root)

Star-Root

however, that past experiences suggest that fresh root is more "narcotic, with emetic and cathartic properties. When dried it becomes a valuable bitter tonic. " 10 Notes 1.

Bigelow (1817-21, vol. 3, pt. 1. p. 92) .

2. Griffith (1847 , p. 624). 3. United States Pharmacopoeial Convention circular (1890-93). 4. L. Johnson (1884 , p . 270). 5. F. P. Foster (1890-94 , 1:145)' Merck (1899 , p. 7). 6. Undated leaflet, author's personal collection. 7. British Pharmaceutical Codex (1923, p . 86).

8. The bitter property attracted interest. Capron and Slack (1848, p. 529) noted "that it is a popular medicine for weak stomach." A useful perspective is also found in G. B. Wood (1868, 1:225). The reputation for treating digestive troubles was also highlighted by Harding in 1908, who wrote that

The Herbalist's Account Wild strawberry is the most wonderful of all for making a tea to quiet nerves and give you vitality. The leaves have iron in them and are recommended to give you an appetite. Oldtimers used the tea in skin conditions. Crush a small handful of dried leaves in a teacup and fill with boiling water. Let set ten or fifteen minutes. The dried leaves will keep one year to the next. They mustn't be confused with five-finger grass. The fruits were sometimes used as a spring tonic. Folks ask about cultivated strawberry, but it is not so strong. Commentary Fragaria x ananassa Duchesne: cultivated strawberry. F. virginiana Duchesne' , including subspecies: wild strawberry.

Rosaceae Strawberry, both cultivated and the wild plants found in woodland borders and old fields, once had a wide-ranging medical reputation. Prior to John Gerard's herbal (1597) it had attracted much attention and was considered a useful medicinal plant for Elizabethan gardens. By around 1600 all three European species-Fragaria vesca , F. moschata, and F. viridis-were recognized for medicinal properties. Gerard described the leaves and roots of various strawberries as "coole and

416

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drie, with an astriction or binding quality." 1 Certainly the many uses he listed (e.g., as poultices for wounds, for sore mouths , and for diarrhea) were linked to an astringent activity described in many later recommendations. The "cold and moist" fruits, said to quench thirst and to allay the inflammation and heat of the stomach, were perhaps not widely employed medically, at least by the eighteenth century. In 1722 Joseph Miller, although mentioning actions on the gastrointestinal tract, said the fruit was more "used at table than in the shops." He did add that the leaves were frequently made use of in lotions and gargles for sore mouths and throats, and ulcers in the gums. 2 Strawberries were well known in early colonial times; indeed, early travelers were enthusiastic over nati ve strawberries and noted their use by Indians as a food. 3 Most early accounts referred to Fragaria virginiana which, through hybridization, has contributed to the development of the modern cultivated strawberry.4 John Brickell, in his Natural History of North Carolina (1737) , echoed Europeans in saying that strawberries "quench thirst, help inflammation of the stomach, comfort the heart, and revive the spirits, help diseases of the spleen and veins, provoke urine, are good against the stone and gravel and are useful in fevers, by cooling and comforting the inward parts." 5 Influential American author C. S. Rafinesque (1828-30) also implied that strawberry was something of a panacea: as diluent, refrigerant, subastringent, analeptic, diaphoretic, pectoral, eccoprotic, and so on. Uses included for fevers, gravel, gout, scurvy, and phthisis." On the other hand, interest apparently was never high among regular physicians . R. E. Griffith (1847), after reminding readers that the fruit (he considered cultivated strawberry) was a dessert, was hardly enthusiastic over medical properties. He said the leaves were recommended in bowel complaints, but "are much inferior to the blackberry root."

Strawberry

Strawberry root was noted to be employed in Europe as a diuretic, and some of the uses for the fruit listed by Rafinesque were repeated? The publications of Eclectic physicians throughout the century considered both leaves and fruit and listed both established and relatively little-mentioned uses; John King's American Medical Dispensatory (1882), for example, remarked on usage linked to diuretic action: "The fruit has been highly spoken of in calculous disorders, used very freely, likewise in goUt."8 Apart from his reference to nerves and his failure to note the once widely discussed diuretic property, Mr. Bass's remarks are in line with the oral tradition, for which no chemical or physiological justification is known. The high vitamin C content offers no explanation of past reputations, many of which rest on tannin content. Whether or not relevant differences exist between wild and cultivated plants, as implied by Bass, is not known. Notes 1. For background see Darrow (1966). Moore (1564. f. 34v). Gerard (1597. p. 845). under "strawberries."

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2. Miller (1737. p. 203). Motherby (1785), under

"fraga." noted the fruit, saying that it is apt to putrefy in the stomach, hence the custom of eating it with sugar and wine. He added that a decoction of the whole plant was used against jaundice. 3. Suggested by Leighton (1970, p. 252).

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dition~a

folk medicine. Various uses have been reported for skin conditions (sores, freckles, and warts) and for sore eyes. 3 They are all known to Bass. If stump water has any physiological effect, it probably rests on mild astringency.

4. The story of cultivated strawberries is complex.

For indication and references see J. K. Jones (in Simmonds. 1976, pp. 237-42), Darrow (1966), and Wilhelm (1974).

Notes

5. Brickell (1737, pp. 91ff.).

2. Olbrechts (1932, p. 57).

6. Rafinesque (1828-30,1:194).

:1. For oral tradition see R. B. Browne (1958): sore eyes (I" 63), freckles (p. 67), head sores (p. 71). For employment on warts in the Alabama mountains see Carmer (1934, p. 282).

7. Griffith (1847, p. 277). 8. King (1882, p. 366).

STUMP WATER

The Herbalist's Account It was really highly recommended for any skin troubles; it's also good for washing eyes, washing hair with dandruff. It's good for dogs for mange. It's really sap and rain water. I've collected it for lots of people. I got it for girls with tetter, that's a cracking of the skin. I've used it on myself for chapped hands. Any stump will do. It's really a natural tea. It works. Commentary Little has been written on stump water; that is, rain water collected from hoHows and stumps of trees, though it was well enough known in the nineteenth century for Tom Sawyer to recommend it, albeit according to a magical formula.! Little mention has been found in regular or domestic medical literature, but James Mooney noted it in his studies on Cherokee medicine, saying it was "rarely referred to, and its use, together with the belief in its marvelous properties, may have been borrowed from the whites.'" (Mooney was less ready with such interpretations on many other borrowings.) Mr. Bass calls stump water~knowledge of which reached him through the oral tra-

1. Twain (1954, pp. 50-52).

SUMAC (berries, root bark, leaves) The Herbalist's Account Red sumac is a shrub that grows four to five feet tall. It has flowers in July and August, along blackberry-picking time, and red berries in the fall. The berries stay on all winter and can be gathered any time. Some people collect the leaves. To preserve them, heat them on a stove. Pack in jars after drying to keep away from worms. Some people think it's poisonous, but it isn't~that's poison oak, some folks call sumac. A handful of berries in boiling water makes a quart of tea. Use berry tea to gargle your throat. It's like a cough syrup just by itself. I use it in all cough medicines and recommend it highly. It's a good kidney medicine, too. People ask about wintergreen and sumac more than any other herb. The leaves were used by the Indians externally for sores and swellings. They also put it with tobacco for flavoring and used it as a dye. Lord goodness, the berries has four times as much vitamin C as lemons and it makes a good imitation lemonade. Just put it in a blender and strain it and add water and sugar. It's just about like commercial, but it's not

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like what Mother used to make. Mother's was sour, but it had that old back-to-Eden taste and it was good for colds. Everything that Mother made was better than we get! Commentary Rhus coriaria L.: common sumach. R. glabra L. *: common sumach, smooth sumac, scarlet sumac, red sumac. R. copollina L.*: dwarf sumac, winged sumac, red sumac, black sumac. R. typhino L.: staghorn sumac, white sumac. Cotinus coggygrio Scop.: smoke tree, Venetian smoke tree. Anacardiaceae Rhus species, at least R. corimia (and the related Cotinus coggygria), have a medical history extending back to classical times. John Gerard (1597) described them (under "coriar sumach" and "red sumach") as "much binding, cold and drie." Uses listed for R. coriaria were primarily for "fluxes of the belly" and diarrhea.' There is every reason to suppose that similar medicinal properties were soon recognized in the indigenous American species (e.g., R. glabra and R. copallina).2 Even so, there is no indication that any sumac became particularly popular, although eighteenthcentury authors often noted cooling properties (associated with the acid content) for employment in fevers. George Motherby (1785) noted the acid, austere taste and cooling, restringent qualities of sumac berries, but indicated that the plant was "chiefly used by dyers." 3 Early writers on American materia medica -for instance, Cutler, Stearns, Barton, and Thacher-all stressed the astringent properties of the leaves, root, and berries.4 .Associated uses often listed included for sore throats and mouths, dysentery and diarrhea, burns, and hemorrhoids. Sumac's reputation for coughs is similarly linked to its astringency, while the distinctive acid taste of the

fruits-hence the use as "lemonade"-accounts for the long-standing reputation, like that of lemon, as a cooling medicine. Some writers have implied that sumac's introduction into professional medicinelimited as it was-came from its popularity among Indians and domestic medical usage, but no convincing evidence for this has been found. 5 Bass has heard that Indian usage contiI1Ues, and notes the vernacular name, Indian sumac, which encourages his enthusiasm for employing it in his cough medicine. 6 The tannin content of the leaves and berries is high, so much so that in the nineteenth century sumac was recommended as a substitute for galls in dyeing, the manufacture of ink, and tanning. Nowadays, it continues to be recommended as an antidote for poisons. 7 The lemon taste is associated with the presence of malic acid-largely in the form of salts-which is thought to be in higher concentration in R. typhina than in R. glabra. Staghorn sumac (R. typhina) has been recorded recently in the Appalachians as an ingredient in a salve for burns and stone bruises. 8 Bass has not heard of this and does not think that it would act any better than the red sumac, Rhus glabro, which he generally collects. Ingestion of the fruits and leaves has been reported to cause gastrointestinal upset, but Bass says for most people "it only helps." Notes 1. Gerard (1597, p. 1292).

2. Barkley and Barkley (1938). Erichsen-Brown (1979, pp. 115-20) implied that fragrant sumac, R. (1[omatica Ail., has been widely discussed, but

that is not the case, at least in the medical literature. 3. Motherby (1785), under Rhus. 4. Cutler (1785. p. 427), for instance, noted that an infusion of berries sweetened with honey was sometimes used for a gargle for sore throats and for cleansing the mouth in putrid fevers. Stearns (1801, p. 318) described common sumac (Rhus

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coriaria). noting its astringency and attendant uses. 5.

E.g .. Lloyd (1921. p. 272).

Indian usage continues. Croom (1982. p. 118) discussed both Rhus copallina and R. glabra. Interestingly, of all the uses for which the astringent sumac has been mentioned. Croom indicated that urinary uses have been best known to the Lumbees.

6.

7. Merck Index (1968. p. 1012). discussing tannic acid; also Merck Index (1983 . no. 8932).

Bolyard (1981 . p. 31). Bass considers that references to white sumac are really to staghorn sumac. but confirmation is needed.

8.

SWEET GUM (inner bark, leaves, resin); STORAX (resin)

The Herbalist's Account The sweet gum tree is awful beautiful. It's got a gum in it. It's kind of like turpentine but it don't taste like that. It's got a good flavor. I used to chew it when I was a kid . We tapped it in the winter and it would collect when the sap come up . And it would dry. And boy. it had a good flavor, a whole lot better than chewing gum. It would last longer. Back then, they made chewing gum out of it. Sweet Gum

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It is used for several different things, but what I use it for is in my cough remedy. It's wonderful for coughs and colds. I use the leaves in the summertime and the bark in the winter. The inner bark is best. Take a big double handful of sweet gum bark and the same amount of wild cherry bark, rabbittobacco, and boneset. Put this in a gallon of water. Boil it slowly for about an hour in a container with a lid on it. Strain. Add brown sugar and honey to taste. It makes a thick syrup. Take as often as needed for coughs and colds. Some old-timers used it for diarrhea. The bark alst'J makes a good tonic, good to settle your stomach. You can make a syrup out of it for a sick stomach, easing ulcers. It's good for healing, and the tea is good to wash your hair. The old-timers used sweet gum resin in whiskey for consumption. The gum can be used as a mouthwash with sodium bicarbonate. Back in the depression it brought $22 a gallon, the gum did, but I don't know if they even collect it now or not. It makes a valuable wood.

Commentary Liquidamber styraciflua 1. [syn. L. styraciflus Gray): sweetgum, scarlet gum. L. orientalis Mill: storax, styrax. Hamamelidaceae The well-known, semiliquid, medicinal storax (variously called styrax, prepared storax, and Levant storax) is generally obtained from Liquidamber oriental is. The related sweet gum tree (L. styraciflua), with easily recognized star-shaped (generally fivepointed) leaves, produces solid (after exposure to air) "American" storax, which is less popular than Levant storax.' Storax's medical history extends back to classical times. Gerard (1597) noted that its temperature was of a "heating, mollifying and concocting quality."z Properties described were understood as deobstruent: "It helpeth the cough; the falling downe of rheumes and

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humours into the chest, and hoarseness of the voice; it also helpeth the noise and sounding in the eares; prevaileth against strumes, or the kings evill; nodes on the nerves, and harde swellings proceeding of a cold cause; it prevaileth also against all colde poisons, as hemlockes and such like." The use of the gum in perfumes was also noted. Most subsequent authors on materia medica mentioned storax; perhaps its most widespread use has been (and is) in Compound Tincture of Benzoin (known earlier as Friar's Balsam and Turlington's Balsam).3 Just when American storax entered the European market is not altogether clear, but it was considered by Monardes (1577). Eighteenth-century writers generally commented on it. For instance, Neuman, in 1759, noted the maple-leaved storax tree as a native of Virginia, Mexico, and some other parts of America, but it is not clear that it was popular.' Early American writers on the indigenous materia medica (for instance, John Brickell [1737] and Benjamin Smith Barton [1798]) often noted American storax, but nineteenthcentury American physicians were ambivalent. 5 Griffith was only really interested in non-American storax; in fact, he noted that L. styraciflua produces hardly any balsam except in "the most southern parts of the country."" On the other hand, John King, in his American Family Physician (1878), described briefly the preparation of the American gum and its properties, stressing its value as an ointment for piles, itch, ringworm, catarrh, and other chest ailments.' C. J. CowIe, who was enthusiastic over so many herbs, promoted it in 1855. Writing to a customer, he said, "I intend to send you a sample of the gum of the sweetgum Liquidamber styraciflua to show you what a superior mastic nature has provided for US."8 F. P. Porcher, in his well-known account of resources of the South during the Civil War, also found some positive features: "A decoction of the

inner bark of the gum [tree] in a quart of milk, or a tea made with boiling water is one of the most valuable and useful mucilaginous astringents that we possess .... It can be employed with advantage in cases of diarrhoea and dysentery. I have considered that the leaves ... are exceedingly rich in tannin, and would advise them to be used while green as a substitute for oak bark." 9 Mr. Bass's knowledge is in accord with the published information, but he acquired it through the popular tradition. This is apparently strong in the South, encouraged perhaps by the value placed on the tree for ornament and the desirable qualities of the wood known as satin walnut.1O Main constituents in the resin of both Levant and American storax-associated with the agreeable odor-include 5-15 percent free cinnamic acid and various esters of cinnamic acid." Although Bass's recommendations are very much in line with past uses, he uses leaves and bark, not gum. These, in fact, have minimal aromatic properties, on which much of the reputation of the resin is based. Notes 1. The affinity of the two species is close. Robert Wilbur (personal communication) believes the two trees were at one time the same species but became geographically isolated, with some becoming subspecies or varieties. It is appropriate to note that the botanical origin of liquid storax was a puzzle until well into the nineteenth century; see Fliickiger and Hanbury (1874, p. 272).

2. Gerard (1597, p. 1342). Unchanged in 1636, but

with woodcut for quince-leaved storax. 3. Compound Tincture of Benzoin commonly contained benzoin, storax, balsam of Tolu, powdered aloes, and caledol. 4. Neuman (1759, p. 291). Confusion over source existed. Earlier, James (1743-45, vol. 3, under "stryax") had noted factitious preparations on the market but offered no suggestion that an American product was involved. Cf. Quincy (1719, p. 119),

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W. Lewis (1769, 2:277), W. Lewis (1791, p. 290). 5. Brickell (1737, p. 70) implied it was well known. See also B. S. Barton (1798, p. 77). 6. Griffith (1847, p. 438, also p. 581). American storax was not mentioned by many authors; Gunn (1869, pp. 919-20) included only inner bark. 7. King (1878, pt. 1, p. 702). 8. Cowie Papers,

11

January 1855.

9. Porcher (1863, p. 345). 10. R. B. Browne (1954, pp. 30,40, 41,44,52,54, 55) listed uses generally in compounded preparations. See also uses listed by J. F. Morton (1977, p.130). 11 . Youngken (1936, p. 359).

SWEET SHRUB (bark, roots, fruit)

The Herbalist's Account I don't know much about it. It has got a nice smell. The tea makes a tonic. It's been recommended as a female medicine. I've never used it, but I've gathered it for bouquets. The wild and tame are just the same. A Cherokee lady praises it high and says it makes a good tea. It's good to chew like a toothbrush, like peppermint. Commentary Calycanthus fJoridus 1. *: Carolina allspice, sweet shrub, spicebush. Cal ycanthaceae Sweet shrub, with its attractive, maroonpurple flowers and sweet scent, is another indigenous plant which has acquired a modicum of medical interest. Early influential writers like J. Schoepf (1787) mentioned its cinnamonlike aromatic properties ,' and Rafinesque (1828-30) said that the root had emetic properties.' F. P. Porcher (1847) noted firsthand testimony of the root bark and seed as an "antispasmodic tonic for ague," but few other references exist in the nineteenthcentury literature, regular or botanic/domestic, at least until the last decades. 3

Sweet Shrub The lack of interest in a plant whose odor might predict it to be an antispasmodic is somewhat surprising. At least some promotion can be found in the Eclectic literature. An 1882 publication stated: "This plant has recently been suggested for use in medicine as a stimulant and aromatic; its virtues, in these respects are, very probably, in no way superior to many agents already named in our Materia Medicas, possessing similar properties." 4 A few publications were positive, perhaps colored by preferences for indigenous remedies. The use of the bark as a bitter tonic in fevers was noted, while Gattinger (1894) indicated that it was preferred for some medicinal preparations.s It has been regarded as a substitute for cinnamon. 6 By the early decades of the twentieth century, interest was minimal; few books mentioned it, even such Eclectic publications as Ellingwood's Eclec-

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tic textbook (1915), although Grieve's Herbal (1931) listed it as an antiperiodic.' Much of the reputation of the plant is associated with the volatile oil found in the bark, leaves, and sepals. Concentrations are reported to vary; flowers in particular can differ considerably in fragrance (some have a spicy, strawberrylike odor when crushed). The medical literature does not mention the opinion that the wood and roots smell strongly of camphor, reflected in the name camphor wood used by some Appalachian herbalists. 8 An alkaloid present, calycanthine, characterized as "highly toxic," can cause violent convulsions, paralysis, cardiac depression. 9 Apparently only the seeds are poisonous; no human poisonings have been reported.'o Notes 1. Schoepf (1787, p. 84).

2. Rafinesque (1828-30, 2:203). 3. Porcher (1847, p. 745). 4. King (1882, p. 186). 5. Gattinger (1894, p. 22), F. P. Foster (1890-94. 2:779). 6. Hedrick (1919, p. 127). 7. Grieve (1971. originally 1931). We have not been able to confirm her statement that the plant had a reputation as an antiperiodic. 8. Sawyer (1894, pp. 405-505). 9. Merck Index (1983, no. 1702). 10. Lampe and McCann (1985, p. 47).

SYCAMORE; MAPLE (bark) The Herbalist's Account Sycamore. We have quite a few sycamore trees. It's a folk medicine. I don't reckon doctors ever used it. It's a good tonic and makes a wash for sores and eyes. Maple. Red maple bark is a real good tonic. I've known about it all my life, but I've got acquainted with it in the last year [1982].

Some womenfolks stopped me and asked me to get them some for hot flashes. They said they had heard about it. I believe it has a tendency for women and even men to help them with the change of life. It makes a good tea. It's got minerals in it. Commentary Acer pseudoplatanus L.: sycamore (common name in Britain). A. rubrum L. *: maple, red maple. Aceraceae Platanus occidentalis L. *: sycamore (common name in America). Plantanaceae Mr. Bass is correct in implying that the sycamore he collects (Platanus occidentalis) has had a relatively modest place within regular medicine. Maples (Acer spp.) are similar in this respect, and in fact some confusion exists over the early histories of sycamore and maple. Thomas Johnson, who included "the maple tree" in his revised edition of Gerard's Herball (1633), almost certainly considered Acer pseudoplatanus, then becoming generally well known in Britain as sycamore.' No current medical interest was indicated and only an ancient reputation for pain in the liver or side was mentioned. Eighteenthcentury medical authors continued to show little enthusiasm, though some interest was being aroused by sugar maple, which, according to James in 1743, was "very rare in Europe."2 In 1785 Motherby wrote again of sycamore: "It is not much in use as a medicine, though its juice, if drunk whilst fresh is said to be a good antiscorbutic." 3 In America neither the sycamore (Platanus occidentalis-the American, not the British sycamore) nor the maple received much attention from nineteenth-century medical authors. In fact, one of the few references to sycamore appeared in an 1898 catalogue of North Carolina plants which noted a reputation as an "ophthalmicum" for eyes and

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as an antiscorbutic.' The references to eyes also reflect the story of maples, especially Acer rubrum and A. saccharum. Rafinesque, as reported by A. Clapp (1852), said that a decoction of Acer rubrum was used by the Cherokees for sore eyes. s F. P. Porcher (1849) similarly noted that "country people consider a strong decoction of the bark, with white sugar, used as a wash, a safe and certain cure for ordinary ophthalmia."6 Knowledge about maple, which has persisted much more widely than knowledge about sycamore, is limited to domestic usage. Apart from treatment for eyes, other uses recorded are linked to its astringency: for fever (used in the form of a tea made from the ashes, something unknown to Mr. Bassr and for diarrhea." Bass has passed on to visitors Kloss's recommendation in Back to Eden (1939) of using the inner bark and leaves of maple for both the liver and spleen, as a tonic for the whole body, and as a sedative." The only recorded testimony we found that suggests the use of A. rubrum as a female medicine is from Cherokee sources, where it is part of a steep of the barks of four trees for "monthly female trouble": red maple, Quercus alba, Q. nigra, and Castanea dentata. 'o Also of interest is the 1928 report that Viburnum opulus bark "had long been replaced [for female complaints] by that of Acer spicatum [mountain maple], which is without effect but that the users of it never noticed the difference in action." 11 Perhaps Acer spicatum is active. Suspicion exists, however, thai the information given to Bass about maple's use for hot flashes is hearsay, an instance of a local enthusiasm. Bass justifies its use as a female medicine through the "tonic" properties linked to the mild astringency. No chemical evidence exists to suggest a more modern pharmacological explanation.

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Notes 1. Gerard/Johnson (1633, pp. 1484-85). Excluded from 1597 edition. According to Withering (1796, 2:368), the species are probably Acer pseudoplatanus and A. compestre. For some pertinent comments see Ryden (1978). 2.

James (1743-45, vol. 1), under "Acer."

Motherby (1785), under "Acer," describing Acer pseudoplatanus.

3.

4.

Hyams (1898, p. 386).

5.

Clapp (1852, p. 756).

6.

Porcher (1849, p. 717).

R. B. Browne (1958, p. 66) noted ashes of maple tree, unknown to Mr. Bass. 7.

In fact, Indian usage of other Acer species, recorded by Moerman, has been noted. Also Indian employment as an eyewash, and a number of uses for sycamore, but not for eyes.

8.

9.

Kloss (1939 [1982 ed.), p. 181).

10.

Banks (1953, pp. 81-82).

Solis-Cohen and Githens (1928, p. 1547); also Pilcher et al. (1916). 11.

TANSY (leaves, flowering tops) The Herbalist's Account Tansly, or tansy, is another of the old-time ones. It's a sedative. It's not praised too high, but if you have the nerves, a cup of tansy tea will do you more good than a cup of coffee. It has a tendency to pacify. It's also used as a tonic on account of its taste. I don't use it in my regular medicine since I don't have much of it. It slipped down, but it's coming back. It was used in some old formulas for ladies' medicines but it can be a dangerous medicine for them. A wash of the leaves is recommended for skin, freckles, and the like, but there are better things. It's a good flavor. Lots of cooks use it. I believe some old-timers around here made tansy cakes, Other folks used it as a flavoring. Commentary Tanacetum vulgare 1. *, including varieties

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[syns. Chrysanthemum vulgare (L.) Bernh., not (Lam.) Gaterau; C. tanacetum Karsch not Vis.] : tansy, golden-buttons, tansly (local name). Asteraceae (Compositae) This naturalized, strong-scented plantgathered by Mr. Bass when he can find it on roadsides or waste places-has attracted variable interest since classical times. John Gerard (1597). who implied that "tansies" varied in their hot and dry qualities according to their odor, did not suggest that tansy was a major medicine at the time. He saw it, perhaps, more as a pleasant springtime food or salad to cleanse the body of bad humors , although the concept of spring tonics was less formalized at that time than it was to become later.' The seed was specifically noted to be effective against worms and, in certain preparations, for bladder problems and as a liniment. Tansy had a place in a number of pharmacopoeias, and was evidently looked upon with some favor around the middle of the eighteenth century as a "warm deobstruent bitter, in weakness of the stomach and in cachectic and hysteric disorders; and likewise as an anthelmintic." 2 John Hill, on the other hand, seems to have been rather ambivalent. While noting that tansy had been "greatly celebrated as an uterine, a vulnerary and diuretic ," he wrote that "at present [it] is more used at table than in shops ." 3 A possible reason for this is that the compounded preparations were felt to retain few of the medicinal properties of the plant. A little while later, William Cullen also noted that it had almost gone out of use, although it had been brought back to treat gout.' Cullen thought this of doubtful value, but the reputation persisted. William Withering (1796) merely said it was a warm, deobstruent bitter and its flavor not ungratefuL 5 John Josselyn's (1672) remark that tansy was a flourishing garden herb in the colonies

Tansy

suggests early interest in the United States." Most nineteenth-century American authors mentioned the plant, often listing an emmenagogue property seemingly justified by "hot" aromatic qualities. Clapp, in noting this and other properties, provided another example of testimony based on personal experience, which has been so significant in the continued use of many plants: "Tansy is an aromatic tonic, emmenagogue, and anthelmintic. It has also narcotic or calminative properties. I have, in some instances, succeeded in soothing nervous restlessness, and producing quiet sleep with it when other means have failed." Clapp mentioned too some fatalities as a result of taking the tansy oil as an abortifacient.' One particular use-based on alleged preservative action-was the custom of rubbing the plant on corpses to discourage infestation. For instance: "On July 1, 1846, an old grave was opening in the ancient 'God's Acre' near the halls of Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachussetts [sic] .... When the

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coffin was opened. the skeleton was found entirely surrounded with common tansy. in seed. a portion of which had been pulled up by the roots .... The tansy found in the coffin, placed there more than two centuries ago, still retained its shape and scent." 8 The second half of the nineteenth century witnessed declining interest in tansy. By 1941 Bailey claimed that tansy was almost obsolete as a flavoring and that other medicines were more popularly used to treat hysteria and dropsy and as tonics and stimulants.9 Bass's comments on its tonic and sedative properties follow past reputations. His reference to it as a dangerous medicine for women refers to its reputation as an abortifacient, a property about which he is always reluctant to elaborate. The culinary uses he mentioned, such as tansy cakes. have a long history but are rarely made nowadays. As Bass indicates. interest in tansy is apparently growing again. but there is no historical basis for current suggestions that it is a heart stimulant. Considerable information is available on the chemical constituents. The characteristic odor of tansy is due to a pungent. yellowgreen volatile oil. A major component is betathujone (also called isothujone). sometimes present in concentrations up to 80 percent, but considerable variations are reported, due primarily to genetic factors. These variations are regarded as significant owing to the toxicity of thujone. lII Special attention has been given to sterol and triterpene constituents because it is felt that their wide range of pharmacological activity under laboratory conditions may contribute to explaining past uses." On the other hand. the tannins reported in the early literature do not appear to have received recent consideration. Their astringency. with a contribution from the essential oil. may account for tansy's reputation as a skin 10tionY Bass's statement about the danger of tansy for women recognizes toxic effects; these

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have frequently been noted as a result of large quantities being taken to procure abortion." At the same time. general concern has been expressed about the variable toxicity of tansy. The amount recommended as a flavoring in cooking is safe. Notes 1. Gerard (1597, p. 526). For other early references and some background. see Le Strange (1977, pp.

75-77). 2. W. Lewis (1769. 2:290). 3. J. Hill (1751, p. 350). The use at "table" perhaps

refers to such items as tansy cakes. made from tansy juice and eggs, used at times to purify the body after the limited fare of Lent. It was also used in sweet tansy desserts and as a flavoring similar to cinnamon and nutmeg. 4. Cullen (1812, 2:57). 5. Withering (1796, 3:708). 6. Josselyn (1672). 7. Clapp (1852, pp. 800-801) noted references to

toxic effects. such as in Boston Med. Surg.

J.

44

(1851): 306, which recorded a case of taking two

ounces of oil to produce abortion: "the apothecary did wrong to sell that quantity, and especially to a child of 10 or 12 years of age, without a prescription from a physician." 8. Bianchini and Corbetta (1977, p. 146; quoted in Durant. 1976, p. 192). 9. Bailey (1941, p. 3310). 10. Banthorpe and Wirz-Justice (1972)' Holopainen et al. (1987). 11. Chandler et aI., "Herbal Remedies" (1982). 12. Biddle (1873, p. 148). 13. Millspaugh (1974). See also note 7 above.

TEA (leaves); COFFEE (berries or "beans") The Herbalist's Account Black tea from the stores was used for washing tired eyes. I've read somewhere it's good for breaking out. Coffee was used more by old-timers for the

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kidney. Green coffee was used. Back when we had green coffee-you had to roast your own. Of course, if you took too much, or it was too strong, it made you vomit. You could use it for food poison. Or if a child took too much paregoric or something. Black coffee was also used for poison ivy and breaking out, though other things are better. Of course, it's also a kidney stimulant, but the green is better. We know now that the caffeine in it helps with headaches. Some old-timers say coffee is good for morning sickness if nothing else is available. Folks ask me these days about caffeine, but I don't know what to tell them. If you take too much of anything it's not good. Commentary Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze, including varieties and cultivars [syn. Thea sinensis L.J: tea (for green, oolong, and black tea). Camelliaceae Coffea arabica L., C. canephora Pierre ex Froehn., including varieties and cultivars: coffee. Rubiaceae The medical histories of these culture-bound beverages include countless uses, many linked to stimulant and diuretic properties. However, doubts about value and warnings about deleterious side effects have also long been commonplace. In 1751 John Hill provided a summary of many attitudes at the time: "The orientals extol tea as the greatest of all medicines and make it a remedy for almost all disorders. We do not find such wonderful effects from it here, and some have attributed this to our intemperate way of living, or to our not taking the tea in sufficient strength and quantity. It is more probable, however, that the Chinese and Japanese, in the manner of the East in all other things, cry up what is of any value, much higher than it deserves. Tea, moderately and properly

taken, acts as a gentle stimulant and corrobative." 1 The ambivalent attitude has persisted, and concern over excessive tea drinking and its stimulant action has long been appreciated. An 1893 textbook referred to "tea drinkers' dypepsia in sewing-women," resulting from drinking tea with every meal accompanied by little food "except bread or hot biscuit." 2 Up to the turn of this century coffee had probably attracted more medical interest than tea. Hill again provides a helpful summary: "Coffee is rather used as food than as a medicine, but it has too many medical virtues to let it be omitted in a history of the Materia Medica." He catalogued a long list of uses: "It is found to assist digestion, good against fluxes, and against suppressions of the menses , and against sleepy disorders of many kinds, it attenuates and dissolves the inspissated humors, and always proves diuretic and sometimes gently cathartic."3 Mr. Bass's comments include one littlerecorded piece of information, the preference for unroasted green coffee as a diuretic.4 This raises the possibility of higher caffeine con-

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tent, though other constituents have also been found to differ. Diphenylamine, an antihyperglycemic agent, is reported in higher concentrations in green than black tea. 5 No recorded information suggests that any consistent emetic effect can be attributed to green coffee. For much of the twentieth century tea and coffee have attracted relatively little medical interest. Beginning in the late 1970s, however, interest in and concern over caffeine developed quickly among both the general public and·the scientific community, a concern initiated in large measure by the FDA'S testing of food additives. Much uncertainty about long-term effects on health remains, despite or because of the results of many studies undertaken. Typical too of the rather confusing mix of pro and con information about many plants is a recent study indicating that tea is effective in reducing cholesterollevels in experimentally induced hypercholesterolemia. 6 Whether this has any ciinical relevance is not known. Assessments may well need to consider genetic variation and differing views on classification.' Bass's comments, on the other hand, refer primarily to external application. Notes 1.

J.

Hill (1751, p. 421).

2. Shoemaker (1893, 2:502-:1). :1.

J.

Hill (1751, p. 477).

4. Noted in at least one nineteenth-century textbook of materia medica: Phillips (1879, p. 265). 5. For some review see Dews (1984). 6. Matsuda et a!. (1,)86). 7. Visser (1976, IIp. 18-20). Similar considerations apply to coffee; see Ferwerda, "Coffees" (in Simmonds. 1976, pp. 257-60).

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THISTLES; NETTLES The Herbalist's Account The Indians claim that anything that pricks you or sticks, made into a salve, would be healing and ease the stinging, which it does. The stinging nettles and thistles go along the same line. They are highly recommended for many things in salves~good for ulcers, hemorrhoids, and many other things. Horse nettle. Horse nettle~it's the same as bull nettle and threadsalve~has a little berry, or seedpod, that looks like a tomato. It grows back from the root each year. There's plenty of it, but it's powerful~a little dangerous. The berries are used, and it's a real old-time medicine. It is official, on the buyer's lists. There's been a market ever since I can remember. I've had to get it for several people that knew what it would do. If you use it like the Indians said, it's all right, but if you overdo it. it's kind of rough. It's a kind of blood purifier. One recipe, actually from an Indian, you put an inch of it in a pint bottle, and fill the bottle full of whiskev or fire water. And let it set twenty-four ho~rs and take a tablespoon of it three times a day. They claim that for any kind of a social disease a pint is supposed to get you back where you're supposed to be, but I'll tell you the truth, I don't know. The Indians didn't have venereal disease until people brought it over here to them, but they figured out something to doctor it with. It also gets the boils, risings, carbuncles out of your system. Thistles. I haven't used other thistles. Sometimes I've recommended the sow thistle ~the tops~and others in sal ves and for a bitter and tonic. Old-timers used sow thistle instead of carduus, which is in all the books. Stinging nettle. I've never found the genuine stinging nettle, but I think I know where some is. Miss Hale, the postmaster, asked me about it. At Turkey Town, where she used to live, it nearly ate them up, but they ate it as

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a vegetable. I don't know too much about it and have not used it. One of the ones I call stinging nettle is similar to wild lettuce in a way, but when you touch it, it's just full of stickers and makes you tingle. It's like a thistle. Pick it with gloves. The Indians used it to make a salve for skin trouble. Commentary Solanum carolinense L. *, including varieties: horse nettle, bull nettle, threadsalve. Solanaceae Sonchus asper (L.) Hill *: sow thistle, milk thistle, wild lettuce. Cnicus benedict us L. [syns. Carduus bcnedictus auth. ex Steud.; Carbenia benedicta Adans.; Centaurea benedicta (L.) L.]: blessed thistle, carduus. Cirsium altissimum (L.) Spreng. *, including varieties [syn. Carduus altissimus L.]: tall thistle, stinging nettle (local name). Asteraceae (Compositae)

Urfica dioica L., including subspecies and varieties: stinging nettle. Urticaceae Mr. Bass considers nettles and thistles indiscriminately as one herbal "family." He usually calls them "nettles," though true thistles belong to the tribe Cynareae of the family Asteraceae, and nettles are members of the family Urticaceae. Of the "prickly nettles," Bass knows best the indigenous horse nettle (Solanum carolincnsc), which has attracted relatively little medical attention, certainly compared with many other Solanum species. It was rarely mentioned in nineteenth-century works on materia medica, although there are occasional references to the use of the juice for tetanus. ' A modest reputation as an antispasmodic persisted, but by 1930 the plant (berries) was said to be "in limited demand only."z

Modern herbals sometimes mention usage for menstrual problems; this perhaps is a misinterpretation of Grieve's statement (1931) that it had long been used by the southern Negroes for the treatment of epilepsy; it was a useful remedy in infantile convulsions and "menstrual hysteria ... but its usefulness is said to be limited unless given with bromides." 3 The need for the latter suggests little or no narcotic effect from horse nettle. Caution in using the plant is part of Mr. Bass's general concern over the toxicity of solanaceous plants. While he recognizes that some of them are foods (e.g., the potato, S. tuberosum, also employed for poultices, and the tomato, S. pycoermum or S. esculentum), he also knows that many Solanum species are poisonous (see Nightshades). Of all the thistles, Cnicus benedictus, a Mediterranean weed named after Saint Benedict, has been most highly regarded. In 1751 John Hill said it had been "celebrated by the writers of earlier ages as one of the greatest medicines of the vegetable worlel. It has been recommended as an alexipharmical, sudorific, and cordial.'" By Hill's time, too, bitter qualities rationalized usage for stomach complaints, and, somewhat later, as a tonic. Despite the reputation it is unclear just how popular Cnicus benedictus has been in America since its introduction by early colonists.' Griffith (1847) noted it as tonic. diaphoretic, or emetic, according to the mode of administration, though "now seldom used, but might be advantageously employed." 6 Later, Shoemaker (1896) stated that as a bitter tonic it was used "in Germany in digestive weakness and chronic hepatic complaints."7 The European reputation has always been strong. and it is not surprising that knowledge of tonic action has reached Mr. Bass. This reputation is based on the presence of cricin, a bitter sesquiterpene dihydroxylactone thought to stimulate stomach secretion

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with various sequelae noted elsewhere. The reputation as a bitter contributes to use in disorders of the liver, but it is another thistle that has caused increasing interest in recent years in connection with liver ailments. The constituents (e.g., flavonoids, silybin, silydianin, and silychristin) of the milk thistle Silybum marianum-native to the Mediterranean region and rare in the southern United States-have a positive effect in studies on experimental liver damage and in clinical investigations. 8 In recommending sow and other thistles, Bass is thinking not only of Cirsium altissimum, commonly found near him, but also the star thistle (Centaurea maculosa Lam. and related species) and the bull thistle (Cirsium vulgare [Savij Tenore). Star thistle tops have attracted some interest from their uses as a diuretic and as an ingredient in salves, as has bull thistle. The reputations have not been strong, and both plants have been less popular medically than Sonchus species (sow thistles), which, in turn, have been less popular than carduus. John Gerard (1597), considering "sowthistle," indicated that interest existed in its cooling properties to treat "inflammations or hot swellings." Also noted was the reputation for treating gnawings of the stomach (if from a "hot cause") and as a galactogogue.9 These uses did not become well established and have not reached Mr. Bass, but his reference to the use of Sonchus in salves, while not well established in the medical literature, has some precedence. Bass has had little acquaintance with nettles, though they can be found in his area. His sparse information is surprising because the naturalized U. dioica has a long history of medical usages widely recorded in European and American writings. Many uses for leaves and roots (e.g., for diarrhea, dysentery, and hemorrhage) are linked to an astringent quality. Unlike many botanicals, knowledge about stinging nettle remained within regu-

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lar medicine until well into the twentieth century. For example, a popular medical textbook published in 1928 not only noted employment in domestic practice for the relief of joint sprains, arthritis, and so on, but also Eclectic medical usage "in chronic cystitis with dysuria, and also as a diuretic." 10 Current medical literature indicates value for dressing wounds and benign prostatic hypertrophy. Modern herbalists recommend freeze-dried preparations of U. dioica, which does not have a strong historical pedigree, for allergies, including hay fever. It is not clear how such constituents of the hairs as histamine, serotonin, acetylcholine, and formic acid might be contributory to relieving allergies. Likewise, it is unclear how the constituents contribute to the long-standing domestic usage in salves, though this was once viewed as counterirritation. Notes 1. E.g .. Clapp (1852. p. 842). 2. Sievers (1930, p. 37). 3. Grieve (1971. originally 1931. p. 417). We have not been able to confirm Grieve's undocumented account. 4.

J. Hill (1751. p.

356).

5. Massey (1960). 6. Griffith (1847. p. 410). 7. Shoemaker (1896, p. 290). 8. For review see "The Milk Thistles" (1985). 9. Gerard (1597, p. 232). 10. Solis-Cohen and Githens (1928. p. 1027).

TOBACCO: SMOKING AND SNUFF (leaves)

The Herbalist's Account Now, smoking tobacco and snuff were old family remedies years ago, but tobacco smokers used what they had; and snuff-takers used their snuff. They were especially used for bites and stings of insects-like bees, yellow

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jackets, and chiggers. You made a salve of the leaves or you put the leaves directly on. It's good for breaking outs and risings. The tobacco was used for horses and mules, if they had lampers, or sore mouth. You put the tobacco leaf over the sore and lip so they have to chew on it. Commentary Nicotiana tabacum 1., including varieties: tobacco. Other Nicotiana species used as tobacco.

Solanaceae The medical history of indigenous American tobacco has been well recorded since its introduction and establishment in European medicine during the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries. It soon became something of a panacea, with suggested uses ranging from treating abdominal pains to a variety of wounds. Numerous methods of administering it, from decoctions to smoke enemas, were employed.' Controversy has frequently surrounded the use of tobacco, used for either medical or pleasurable purposes. While recommendations by regular physicians were perhaps declining toward the end of the eighteenth century, tobacco was discussed in almost every text on materia medic'.! during the next 150 years or SO.2 Roberts Bartholow, in one of the more popular textbooks of the last decades of the nineteenth century, included a long list of uses but indicated some dangers. For instance, while tobacco enemas were valued for "impaction of the caecum, colica pictonum, sometimes intussusception, and strangulated hernia ... it must be borne in mind that this is an expedient not free from danger. Numerous deaths have been caused by it." Of local uses of tobacco Bartholow also wrote: "So many unfortunate accidents have resulted from the external application of tobacco that its use in this way is rarely justifiable." 3 Despite the varied concerns expressed by

regular physicians and others-which intensified in the early twentieth centurytobacco (though not the strong oil of tobacco) has been widely employed in the North Carolina Appalachians during this century in the form of poultices and for cuts, stings, bites, bruises, and so on, as reflected in Mr. Bass's comments. Tobacco smoke as a meuicinal treatment has a varied history there; blowing tobacco smoke into the ears for earache or headache has been recorded.4 Uses found in the popular tradition in Alabama have all been heard by Bass and, apart from tobacco smoke in the ear for earache, are wellestablished external uses: for erysipelas, seven-year itch, nettle sting, in an application for pleurisy, for sprains, and ant bites. 5 Whether nicotine's pharmacological action (e.g., dilation of blood vessels) has a physiological effect in most of these conditions is uncertain. It is often said that family remedies in the past were safe. This was not true in every case. Lay recognition of this (in the case of tobacco due to the presence of the pharmacologically active nicotine) prompts different responses. One report concerns using a snuff poultice on a child. The grandmother said, "Ever since I put that on him he's like he was dying. If you take it off, he'll die for sure."6 Notes 1. See Stewart (1967. especially pp. 253-55J.

2. Ibid., p. 244. 3. Bartholow (1882, pp. 479-81).

4. O. L. Jones (1967, p. 71J. 5. R. B. Browne (1958, pp. 62, 63, 75, 82, 85, 101). 6. Harris (1968, pp. 15-18).

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TREE OF HEAVEN (bark, root bark) The Herbalist's Account The tree of heaven is a medical tree, though I've never used it. The bark's got an obnoxious odor and a bitter taste. It has a reputation as a tonic for the nerves; it's good for diarrhea and you can use it for worms. The wood has oil in it, and it gets very hard after it dries. It makes good firewood. Commentary Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle* [syns. A. cacodendron Schiwz. and Theil.; A. glandulosa Desf.; A. sutchuennensis Dode.): tree of heaven. Simaroubaceae Western medical interest in tree of heaven apparently gathered momentum as the tree became more widely introduced into Europe during the eighteenth century and then into the United States. It came from Asia, where many medical uses have been recorded! During the second half of the nineteenth century some textbooks, European and American, indicated that the inner bark had some popularity in the treatment of tapeworm.' When Parke-Davis marketed a preparation of the bark of tree of heaven in the 1890s, it was listed as a powerful nervous depressant, purgative, anthelmintic, and narcotic, but it is far from clear whether these uses were established, or even well known. 3 Action as a nervous depressant was partly linked to an antispasmodic property; in contrast, Bass recalls an older notion that the nervousdepressant property is associated with the often strong odor of the tree. Some interest, if not much usage, persisted during the early decades of the twentieth century. This was in part because the leaves were used to adulterate, say, the widely used medicinal plant belladonna, but more significantly because of continuing interest in tonics and narcotics. Western medicine, despite the bitterness, did not generally see tree

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of heaven as a febrifuge, though some Eclectic physicians indicated it was of value for treating scarlet fever and typhoid.' Recent enthusiasm for the plant has arisen-at least at a research level-because the quassinoid constituents with anti protozoal activity are potentially valuable antimalarial drugs. 5 Tree of heaven provides a good example of how herbalists like Bass still employ sensory characteristics to suggest the presence of medicinal properties. Notes 1. For Asian uses see Perry (1980, pp. 387-88): for introduction into the West see Swingle (1916).

2. The Dictionnaire Encyclopedique des Sciences Medicales (1865, 2:22-27) attributes at least some of the reputation to the efforts of a Frenchman. Bartholow (1882, p. 508), Shoemaker (1893, 2:41213). 3. Parke-Davis (1890, p. 5). 4. Dispensatory of the United States (1943, p. 1247). 5. E.g., Spencer et al. (1947), Ohmoto and Koike (1984). It is of interest that Perry's account (see n.

above) of usage in East and Southeast Asia does not inel ude reference to fevers.

TURKEY CORN (rhizome)

The Herbalist's Account I don't know much about this one. Folks call it turkey pea or turkey corn. We used to have some but I haven't seen it for a long time. I've heard it's in North Carolina and Tennessee. Old-timers made a tea as a tonic and for the kidney, but I reckon there are better things. Commentary Dicentra canadensis (Goldie) Walp. [syn. Corydalis formosa PurshJ: squirrel corn, turkey corn, turkey pea, wild turkey pea. Fumariaceae Turkey corn is generally described in the medical literature as Dicentra canadensis; the vernacular names "turkey corn" and

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"squirrel corn" are, however, also used for D. eximia. Some medical interest emerged among regular physicians around the midnineteenth century. In 1847 R. E. Griffith's Medical Botany reported that various plants of the Fumariaceae (including Corydalis spp.) had "attained some celebrity as medicinal agents, but are seldom employed in regular practice in this country." 1 In fact, growing enthusiasm for the plant was largely among Eclectic practitioners, though the entrepreneurship of such root and herb dealers as C. J. CowIe in the Appalachians cannot be discounted. 2 In the mid-1850s CowIe actively encouraged its use, and on 27 December 1856 he wrote to a customer: "Turkey pea 'Corydalis formosa' is said to very useful in all glandular affections & in the hands of the Eclectics it is working wonders in syphilis. See Journal Pharmacy Philad., May 1855." Two weeks or so later, he wrote another customer that "we would call your attention particularly to our Turkey pea ... a new and valuable remedy in all cases where an alterative is indicated." 3 In the article referred to by CowIe, which was primarily an attempt at analysis of the "beautiful little plant," the author said: "c. corydalis is considered tonic, diuretic and alterative. In syphilitic affections it is thought by Eclectic practitioners to be the best remedy they possess for that peculiar disease."4 It is difficult to say how popular turkey pea became, although pharmaceutical companies were marketing preparations by 1870 with emphasis on the value for secondary syphilis. In 1884 Laurence Johnson indicated that while "Dicentra canadensis DC." was considered primarily in Eclectic sources, "it is worthy of more careful examination than it has hitherto received." 5 As far as we know, no "careful examination" was undertaken after Johnson'S remarks; furthermore, the decline in turkey corn's reputation paralleled that of Eclectic practice and alteratives in general. In 1915

Finley Ellingwood wrote that it was in great repute among very many older physicians as an alterative of special value." If it was mentioned in twentieth-century regular medical textbooks at all, it was described as an alimentary stimulant associated with bitter taste. The latter, recognized by Bass and seen as justification for its reputation as a tonic, is attributed to alkaloids such as corydaline. 7 Although Bass's comments are noncommittal, the plant has not been entirely forgotten. In 1985 two North Carolina informants said they made a tea from it along with yellowroot and employed it as a tonic. Notes 1. Griffith (1847, p. 118).

2. For some pertinent background see Bentley (1862-63). 3. Cowie Papers, 9 January 1857. 4. Wenzel! (1855). 5. Sharpe and Dohme (1870, p. 28). L. Johnson (1884, p. 90). 6. Ellingwood (1915. pp. 376-77). 7. Solis-Cohen and Githens (1928, p. 1114).

TURNIP (roots, tops, "greens") The Herbalist's Account It's a fine vegetable, the roots and the tops. When I had teeth I used to like being out possum hunting or coon hunting or rabbit hunting in the daytime and come across a turnip patch; you just peel one and eat it like an apple. And boy, it's good for your stomach. The turnip juice is good. The greens make a good salad and are wonderful when cooked. I always gather turnip tops and bring them right out of the field and not let them sit around. I wash them real good-generally about three or four times. And then ring them up, or cut them with a knife-kinda fine-like. To cook them with the old-time flavor, you

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need a piece of fat meat or ham hock or hog lard. Throw it in the pot with your greens, salt, and cook them until they get good and tender. The Indians used turnip for coughs and colds. Take sorghum molasses and a turnip and put them in a pot and boil it until the turnip is good and tender. Then eat the turnip and drink the juice and it would do away with a cough or cold. Commentary Brassica campestris L. ssp. rapifera [syns. B. rapa L.; B. rapa var. rapa; B. rapa var. campestris (L.) W. D. Koch]: turnip. B. campestris ssp. eucampestris L. * [syns. B. campestris L.; B. rapa L.]: field mustard.

Brassicaceae (Cruciferae) The turnip, known for its edible storage organ, is (somewhat confusingly) referred to by various botanical names in horticultural and botanical literature; in part this reflects variability in the plant, including that arising from differentiation among escapees from cultivation. The cultivated form is presumed to be native to the cooler parts of northern Europe, having evolved from oil-seed forms of B. rapa. (In contrast, Oriental subspecies are considered to have evolved in China from oil-seed forms by selection for leafiness, not root.) The cultivated form was introduced early into middle and eastern Asia. It was introduced early into the colonies and said to be cultivated in Virginia in 1609 and in Massachusetts in 1629, and it was quickly spread by colonists and Indians.' At the time, John Gerard's Herball (1597) described "sundry sorts of turnips, some wilde; some of the garden; some with round roots globe fashion; other ova II or peare fashion; some great; and some of the smaller sorte." 2 Numerous medical uses for the root -prepared in various ways-included as galactogogue, diuretic, and for coughs and hoarseness. Additionally, the seed was said to possess anti vulnerary properties, and the

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young shoots, "boiled and eaten as a sallade," had diuretic action. 3 Few subsequent writers were enthusiastic about turnip's medical properties. William Cullen, for instance, noted in 1775 that it was a watery, weak nutrient, very flatulent, and purgative in consequence of its acescency, i.e., turning sour taste. The few American authors who mentioned it in the nineteenth century were not especially enthusiastic, and John King's popular American Family Physician (1878) indicated that "among dyspeptics and those of weak stomachs, it is apt to cause flatulance, more especially when not thoroughly boiled.'" Interestingly, this is in line with Mr. Bass's accolade that it is "good" for the stomach. Bass gives credit to Amerindians for its use, which may be justified, but it is clear from information in Gerard's and other early works that use for coughs and so on was well established before the turnip was introduced into the New World. 5 No chemical constituent is known to account for the reputation for coughs; whether or not the development of cultivars has altered physiological properties is unclear but possible. 6 Bass certainly believes-though not on empirical grounds-that field mustard, considered the originator of cultivated forms, is stronger and healthier than turnip greens ("wild plants are always stronger").

Notes 1. Hedrick (1919, pp. 100-104) gives early background. See also McNaughton (1976, pp. 45-48).

2. Gerard (1597, pp. 177-78). 3. Cullen (1775, p. 69). 4. King (1878, p. 61).

5. One of a number of examples of a formula for syrup of turnips published in the seventeenth century-part of the common stock of knowledge at the time and still reflective of Mr. Bass's knowledge-is: "First bake the turnips in a pot with household-bread, then press out the liquor be-

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tween two platters, put a pint of this liquor to haIfa-pint of hyssop water, and as much sugar candy as will sweeten it, and boil it to a consistency of a syrup. It is good for cold or consumption" (Queen's Closet Open'd, 1664, p. 8). 6.

For some background see McNaughton (1976).

VALERIAN (rhizome, roots) The Herbalist's Account Folks have asked me about valerian. It's mentioned in all the old herb books, but I don't have it around here. I've bought it from the dealers for some people. It has a powerful odor. It's good for the nerves. Some swears by it. I would get it if we didn't have passionflower and skullcap. It's safer than doctors' medicines. Commentary Valeriana officinalis L., including varieties: valerian.

Valerianaceae The naturalized valerian, with its characteristically unpleasant odor, has a history extending back to classical times, though difficulties identifying the plant in many accounts make much of the early history uncertain. It was established as a medicinal plant for Elizabethan gardens. John Gerard, who described various valerians, listed a number of deobstruent actions for this "hot" medicine, such as "provoketh urine," and "bringeth downe the desired sickness." Uses for "crampe and other convulsions," cuts, ulcers, and soreness of the mouth were also listed.! It is noteworthy that specific references for nervous diseases, on which valerian's later reputation largely rested, were not consistent until the nineteenth century, although menstrual problems and convulsions (for which it was recommended by Gerard and other early authors) were viewed at the time as part of the complex of nervous disorders.2 The fetid smell, characteristic of many

plants employed for nervous disorders, encouraged usage for such complaints until the early nineteenth century, as did belief in its antispasmodic action. 3 By 1769 William Lewis could say that it was commonly looked upon as one of the principal antispasmodics (and hence used for nervous disorders).4 Formulas for "hysterick" medicines in the eighteenth century (and later) often included it. But there were pharmaceutical problems. In 1785 George Motherby wrote: "The strength of smell and taste are the only mark of their genuineness and goodness. These roots have often a disagreeable smell from the urine of cats; and sometimes there are a mixture of the roots of a species of crowfoot amongst them, but on chewing them they are somewhat caustic, and thus they are discovered." 5 Motherby reaffirmed it as an antispasmodic for nervous disorders. While valerian was discussed and prescribed widely in the 1700s, it almost certainly became more popular in the nineteenth century, when every author on materia medica was positive about its value-often for nervous disorders.6 Griffith commented that it produces a "remarkable effect in quieting the nervous agitation which prevents sleep in delicate and irritable females." 7 His comments, however, were tempered with remarks on inconsistent effectiveness and variable national enthusiasm or fashion: "Valerian acts with some energy on the cerebro-spinal system, but its effects are not constant, as in some constitutions, it operates as a powerful stimulant and antispasmodic, whilst the same doses in others scarcely make any impression. It is, however, in very general use as a nervous excitant and antispasmodic, though in much more repute formerly than at the present day, except in Germany where it is deemed one of the most powerful ofthe nervous stimulants." 8 Valerian was widely used during the second half of the nineteenth century-including for epilepsy and chorea-in the form of

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preparations of "valerianates." 9 Gradually, while the belief in an association between antispasmodic action and value for nervous disorders declined, valerian's use became limited to "quiet nervous females and to relieve nervousness and insomnia," a reputation which has persisted to the present, but more so in European than in American medicine.lO Renewed interest (manifested in clinical trials) in recent years has suggested some favorable comparisons with benzodiazapines and barbiturates,11 A sedative action has been explained chemically by the relatively recent (1966) finding of valepotriates (classed as iridoids and in highest concentrations in the root), some of which - e.g., valtrate and dihydrovaltrate-have also been shown to possess cytotoxic activity,12 Because the valepotriates are unstable (and hence are in minimal concentrations in extracts), attention has focused on other compounds,13 Standardized preparations of valepotriates are commercially available. The essential oil-albeit present in variable quantities-may also be physiologically significant, although variations in concentrations lead to much uncertainty. Not only does the oil provide the characteristic smell, but it also contains compounds such as valerenic acid and valeranone that possess sedative and muscle-relaxant properties." 4 This muscle-relaxant action might justifyat least in part and given adequate concentration-the long-standing reputation as an antispasmodic (also associated with valepotriates) not only for nervous dis'eases but also for cramps. It has been suggested that valerian preparations prescribed for emotional tension may act-at least in part-through relaxant activity on gastrointestinal smooth muscle. It is noteworthy that valerian was replaced to a considerable degree by barbiturates, and later by minor tranquilizers. In view of many

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worries over the use of these substances, many consider that valerian should still play a part in regular medical care. Alcoholic extracts are undoubtedly sedative, and such preparations cause less concern to some herbalists than the standardized preparations of valepotriates. A number of issues arise connected with the manner of administering valerian in diverse preparations (it is commonly taken in the form of powdered herb in capsules), and while there is no evidence of habituation - although the older literature does indicate that long usage induces a condition of melancholia-close monitoring of effects is desirable." 5 Notes 1. Moore (1564, p. 43), Gerard (1597, p. 919).

2. E.g., T. Willis (1681, p. 89). 3. Temkin (1971, p. 239 and references), 4. W. Lewis (1769, 2:315). 5. Motherby (1785), under "valerian"; Withering (1796,2:66). 6. For usage by eighteenth-century American physicians, see Estes (1980, table 12). 7. Bigelow (1822, p. 387), 8. Griffith (1847, p. 385). 9. Hare (1900, p. 400). Prescriptions records for the 1860s, such as those of well-known Washington physician R. K. Stone, suggest that the use of valerian in one form or another was commonplace. 10. It was low on the list of botanicals prescribed by American physicians surveyed by Lloyd (1912, p. 12). There is no evidence that American species of valerian have been employed to complicate the story; see F. G. Meyer (1951). 11. Leathwood and Chauffard (1985). 12. Foester et al. (1984) give references to earlier work extending back to 1966. 13. Leathwood and Chauffard (1985). The valepotriates are hydrolyzable; see Phillipson and Anderson (1984, p. 82). 14. H. Hendriks et al. (1981), Hazelhoff et al. (1982).

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15. For comments and other details, see "Valerian," Lowrence Rev. Nat. Prod. (February 1986); Corsi et al. (1984) indicate possible relevance to therapeutic usage. For reference to inducing melancholy see Potter (1917, p. 482).

VERATRUM (rhizome, roots) The Herbalist's Account I've not used it, as we don't have it around here, or only a little. Lots of people used to ask me about it, but it's a dangerous plant. Some told me it is good for making you sneeze to clear the head. I tell folks not to fool with it. Some herbists put it in salve and that's OK. Commentary Veratrum album L.: white hellebore. V. viride Ait.*: green hellebore, Indian poke, itch weed. Liliaceae The name hellebore refers to at least four plants-black hellebore (Helleborus niger L.), false hellebore (Adonis autumnale L.J, white hellebore (Veratrum album). and green (occasionally called false) hellebore (Veratrum viride). Some uncertainty exists in identifying which "hellebore" is described in early (even up to the nineteenth century) literature. In particular there is much debate on the identification of the white hellebore of antiquity. V. album is generally favored, but other identifications have not been ruled out. ' The best-known hellebore, certainly in European literature, is black hellebore, which was employed as a purgative and emetic. Requests to Mr. Bass for information on "hellebore," or veratrum, seemingly refer to the indigenous V. viride. Nevertheless, the European veratrum (V. album). with its long history of medical uses, has been widely known. John Gerard described the "hot and dry" root as a strong emetic, so much so that it "ought not to be given inwardly unto

delicate bodies." He added that it could be administered to "country people which feed grossely." 2 Most subsequent authors expressed similar warnings about dosage, tending to reserve it for skin complaints or "desperate cases."3 Veratrum's uncertain action was cause for some concern. Jonathan Pereira said "it is but rarely employed, principally on account of the alleged uncertainty of its operation." However, he felt this was due to varying periods of storage, for, "like colchicum, it deteriorates by keeping.'" The similar-looking American plant, V. viride, probably attracted attention in early colonial times, if only because of Indian usage. s However, it was not until the first half of the nineteenth century that it acquired a general reputation as a deobstruent or alterative, an acrid narcotic, an epispastic, and an errhine. It was also regarded as valuable for gout, rheumatism, diseases of the lungs, some complaints of the bowels, and skin complaints.6 In some respects Vemtrum viride's popularity exceeded that of V. album for some decades following the 1850s, as its reputation emerged as a sedative and an alternative treatment to the then-declining practice of blood-letting. Certainly its reputation in much of the southeastern United States was high, though there were reports of substitution with other plants such as hellebore and pokeroot. A Virginia physician noted in 1852 that: "Physicians in this section of the country seldom use the lancet, and I suspect it will be entirely discarded in a year or two hence, and the Veratrum viride substituted [for the treatment of inflammatory disorders]."7 A little while later, in 1871, Appalachian physician A. A. Scroggs confirmed that it had "risen to a high position in the last few years," though at the time its popularity was uneven, and some physicians felt it was overused." Favorable attitudes nevertheless continued, undoubtedly due in part to enthusiasm among Eclectic practition-

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has felt no urge to try it. His advice. "I tell folks not to fool with it." is sound; instances of poisoning with Veratrum species are recorded . It is noteworthy that despite his limited knowledge. Bass has heard of the errhine property to promote sneezing or running of the nose; this. although not consistently mentioned in the literature. is long-standing and reflected in veratrum's employment in various sneezing powders. Notes 1. E.g.. Riddle (1985. pp. 111-14). Other identifications have not been ruled out; e.g.. Pereira (1842. 2 :951-52). Whether the black hellebore of the ancients is HeJleborus nigra or H. officinalis is likewise unsettled; ibid. (p. 1797). 2. Gerard /Johnson (1633. p. 441) . 3. See. for example. Woodville (1790-94 . 2 :27377). who included a discussion on the difficulties

of identifying the hellebores in early medical literature. 4. Pereira (1842. p. 955). 5. Josselyn (through Leighton. 1970) . 6. Uses listed by Griffith (1847. p. 644).

Veratrum (Veratrum viride)

ers.9 The powerful nature of the plant kept it more within regular than domestic medicine. though some over-the-counter remedies were probably popular.lO In this century veratrum has attracted considerable interest as an antihypertensive agent. In 1947 it was said that its chief employment had been in eclampsia; thereafter it became more generally employed for hypertensive conditions until superceded by safer and more effective drugsY Much attention has been given to the many alkaloids present and their role in musclerelaxant and antihypertensive actionsY Some justification exists for the earlier reputation as a sedati ve. if not for other actions. Because of the toxicity of veratrum. Bass

7. Hines (1853). and Branch (1853). who high-

lighted substitution. Much of the promotion of V. viride was undertaken by W. C. Norwood of Cokesbury. South Carolina; see King (1882. p. 853). Rhame (1957). 8. Scroggs (1871). For some suggestions of a decline in interest. see Warner (1986. p. 231). 9. See. for example. Felter (1912. p . 157). 10. E.g.. Rhame (1957); Lloyd's 1912 survey of botanicals popular with physicians put veratrum near the top of the list (p. 1229). 11. For discussion of eclampsia . Bastedo (1947. p.324) . 12. For some references. list of alkaloids. and background. see J. F. Morton (1977. pp. 58-64).

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VERVAIN (roots, leaves) The Herbalist's Account I don't know much about vervain. It has a deep blue bloom. It's not too much like the other vervain [see Ironweed]. It's found along watercourses and roadsides. It can be used on colds, and it's also a good nerve tonic. I haven't used it, there are better things, like queen-of-the-meadow or boneset. Commentary Verbena officinalis L. * [syn. V. sororia D. Don]: vervain. V. hastata L. [syn. V. paniculata Lam.]: vervain, American blue vervain, blue vervain, ironweed. V. brasiliensis Vellozo *: vervain, ironweed (local name). blue vervain. Verbenaceae Among indigenous Verbena species arousing some medical interest, V. hastata, sometimes viewed as analogous to the naturalized European V. officinalis, is the best known. It has a long history. John Gerard (1597) described "common" vervain as cool and dry, and "do meanely binde," which accounted, at least in part, for employment to treat wounds and ulcers. (An ointment base of hog grease was recommended.)! No emetic or expectorant properties were noted (but see below). but an implied warning over excessive dosage was given. "It is reported to be of singular force against the tertian and quartan fevers: but you must observe mother Bunbies rules, to take just so many knots or sprigs, and no more, lest it fall out so that you do no good if you catch no harm by it." Gerard added: "Many odde olde wives fables are written of vervaine tending to witchcraft and sorcerie, which you may reade else where, for I am not willing to trouble your eares with reporting such trifles as honest eares abbhore to heare." Old wives' tales were also referred to by later authors. William Woodville, for instance, in commenting on the decline in

popularity of Verbena officinalis (certainly for "obstructions of the liver, spleen," etc.). said that notwithstanding strong testimonies in its favor, much of its reputation rested on superstition, and it had deservedly fallen into disuse in Britain.' Perhaps not surprisingly, in view of this trend of declining popularity, the indigenous V. hastata attracted comparatively little interest in nineteenth-century America, although Cutler, in 1785, suggested that surgeons of the American army substituted a species of Verbena for an emetic and expectorant and found its operation kind and beneficial. 3 Rafinesque added that it was a tonic and a good substitute for "Eupatorium" (boneset).4 Its bitterness and astringency encouraged this analogy and perhaps interest among some botanic medical practitioners. ("A strong tea of vervain, sweetened with molasses and administered in the dose of a tablespoonful, every hour, is an excellent remedy in cough. ") 5 Threads of interest persisted in such twentieth-century books as Joseph Meyer's Herbalist (influenced by Eclectic medicine and well known to Bass), where it was recorded as a tonic and expectorant." The diaphoretic action sometimes noted does not appear to be well established. Indiscriminate use of other species (e.g., V. urticifolia) may have contributed to the uneven reputation.' V. brasiliensis, an adventive plant from southern Brazil collected by Mr. Bass, while not reported as a substitute for V. hastata, is a very similar plant. Bass shows some confusion over this plant, for he has also collected Scutellaria lateriflora on occasion (see Skullcap), and he uses the vernacular name blue vervain for ironweeds (see Ironweed). Little detailed chemical and pharmacological information on the chemical constituents of Verbena species exists. Constituents of V. officinalis include (in addition to mucilage, essential oil, and tannins) saponins and glycosides (e.g., verbenatine and verbeneine). These cannot at present explain the many

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uses still listed in the modern herbal literature, such as for nervous complaints, a use known to Bass.s As indicated, the historical pedigree for this is slight. Suggestions that the vervain acts on the uterus may be linked to its reputation for nervous disorders. Whatever further investigations are undertaken on vervain, it seems likely that within the framework of herbal medicine, Mr. Bass's comment, "there are better things," will remain an appropriate summary. Notes 1. Gerard (1597, pp. 718-19).

2. Woodville (1790-94 , supplement, pp . 17-19). 3. Cutler (1785 , p. 405). 4. Rafinesque (1828-30, 2:274). 5. Mattson (1841, pp. 174-75). 6.

J.

Meyer (1979 ed., p. 22).

7. Mattson (1841) noted that V. urticifolia was sometimes used indiscriminately with the blue. 8. Stuart (1979 , p. 279) .

Violet (Viola odorata)

V. soraria Willd.' [syns. V. palmata var. soraria (Willd.) Pollard; V. papilionaceae Pursh; V. rasacea Brainerd): violet, downy violet. V. tricolor L.: wild pansy, heart's ease, ladies' delight, Johnny-jump-up. Violaceae

VIOLETS; PANSIES (leaves, flowers) The Herbalist's Account

Any violet is used. You can use pansies, too . I've never used violets, but I've stocked them for some people. They say it's good for cancer. It's something folks have heard about. It's used for inside and outside cancers, but I tell people to check with their doctor. I've had more calls for it recently. Some old-timers say the flowers and leaves in honey are highly recommended for coughs and colds. Some say it's a spring tonic, but I don't recommend it. Commentary Viola odorata L.: violet, sweet violet. V. pedata L.': violet, bird's-foot violet. V. affinis Le Conte' [syns. V. latiscula Greene; V. floridana Brainerd; V. langloisii Greene): violet, downy violet.

Although violets have probably never been considered a major remedy, they were recommended as a suitable medicinal plant for Elizabethan gardens and were widely used in the seventeenth century as syrup of violets, a popular laxative.' V. odorata (sweet violet). naturalized in North America, has been most widely recommended , but other violets often have been substituted. In 1847 American author R. E. Griffith said that the indigenous American species, V. pedata, "may be considered an equivalent to the V. odorata of Europe."2 John Gerard (1597) reported on several kinds of violets, including sweet violet and pansies. Like other authors before him, he described the flowers and leaves as possessing "cold and moist qualities." Among a number of uses, violet was listed as an internal medicine for "all inflammations, especially

440

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of the sides and lungs." J The use of the leaves in "cooling plasters" was also noted, while other authors at the time mentioned specifically its value in suppurative plasters for certain "hot" tumors: Later British writers generally underscored mild laxative properties (excluding the root, which was reputed to have emetic action). In 1751 John Hill said that although recommended for fevers, headaches, pleurisies, and peripneumonias, "common violets" were "at present" only regarded as a gentle purgative. 5 At the time, domestic recipes for syrup of violets for such purposes were still readily available. Surviving seventeenth- and eighteenth-century pharmacy jars for syrup of violets and the well-known Lenitive Electuary (which contained violets) helped to reinforce popular interest even while regular medical interest in violets declined." Manasseh Cutler, writing on plants in America, mentioned several violets but singled out the flowers and seeds of the sweet violet-a plant not always distinguished in the earlier literature-as a mild laxative. Cutler added that Indians applied the bruised leaves of "yellow violet" to boils and painful swellings for the purpose of easing pain and producing suppuration, possibly a use independent of any European knowledge.' During the nineteenth century, violets were mentioned in most of the comprehensive writings on materia medica but without a great deal of enthusiasm. Emetic and cathartic properties of the root, and emollient, expectorant, and laxative actions of the leaves. blossoms, and seeds were commonly noted.8 Of the many reputed uses, employment for coughs and colds has probably been greatest, reflected in Mr. Bass's remark that it is highly recommended. 9 By the mid-nineteenth century a sense exists of widening interest in the pansy (V. tricolor). Much earlier, James (1743-45) had said that the leaves of this plant "accounted mucilaginous and vulnernary" were

used "though but seldom," while British author John Lindley (1838) described the leaves as "once esteemed efficaceous in the cure of cutaneous disorders, and are still employed in Italy in tinea capitis." 10 American author R. E. Griffith (1847). however, stated that, "from the strong proofs brought forward in the efficacy of these plants in the treatment of chronic diseases of the skin, they well deserve a further trial. and as V. tricolor is to be found in every garden, the fresh herb can always be procured." 11 In 1884 Laurence Johnson indicated that little use was made of violets as an emetic, cathartic, or expectorant, but he noted renewed interest in the value of V. tricolor for crusta lactea (eczema in children)." Around the same time, ParkeDavis was marketing V. tricolor as a blood purifier and for eczema, though no evidence exists that this use became generally established in regular medicine." Bass's reference to the value of violets for cancer merits special comment. A possibility exists that this is a legacy of past use of violets as an external remedy to treat "hot" tumerous conditions. However. the principal explanation almost certainly arises from claims made during the first decade of the twentieth century that infusions of violet leaves have anticancer properties. By 1901, following some reportedly favorable cases, the British Medical Journal raised skepticism in a leader article entitled "The Latest 'Cure' for Cancer." " Nevertheless, reports from regular practitioners about the possible success of infusions sustained interest for a few years.15 While claims continued to be made in the semipopular and popular medical literature for many years, "official" medicine was highly skeptical by the 1920s. 16 Recent screening has indicated that a crude extract of V. striata has an antitumor effect on mice under experimental conditions, but it is far from clear that this offers any explanation for past reports based on different species." V. odorata is reported to contain a gl yco-

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side (violarutin), methyl salicylate, and saponins; and V. tricolor an alkaloid, saponins, flavonoids, and salicylic acid derivatives. Apart from contributing to laxative and emetic actions, saponins and salicylates might contribute to the reputation for skin ailments (mild rubefacient properties have been noted).'· Whether or not the saponins are present in sufficient amounts to produce an expectorant action is another question meriting study (especially as violets were generally employed in combination with oil of almonds in the form as a syrup), as does the greater reputation of V. tricolor. The historical record offers little testimony for the diuretic action often mentioned in the recent herbal literature. On the other hand, various species have been used-just as Bass says, "any violet." Of the indigenous species gathered by Bass, V. pedata has been more frequently noted in the medicalliterature. '9 Significant amounts of vitamins A and C have been found in the basal leaves of V. sororia, but the laxative properties-sometimes linked to the mucilage content-make it an inappropriate vegetable. 20 We cannot say whether the vitamin content contributes to the weak reputation as a spring tonic.

441

8. E.g., see Elliott (1821-24, 1:300) for bruised

leaves and use of V. palmata in soups by Negroes; and Rafinesque (1828-30, 2:275). Lindley (1838, p. 97) said of V. odorata, "by some the flowers are considered anodyne they certainly produce faintness and giddiness in some constituents as I have witnessed." 9. See Phillips (1879, pp. 87-88, Viola odorata). 10. James (1743-45, 3:97), Lindley (1838). 11. Griffith (1847, p. 141). Interestingly, Phillips (1879, p. 88) stated that the cultivated plant is

not to be relied upon and that the imported drug should be used. 12. L. Johnson (1884, p. 99). 13. Parke-Davis (1890, p. 59). 14. "The Latest 'Cure' for Cancer," Brit. Med. (1901): 1552-53.

J.

2

15. E.g., Gordon (1905). 16. For semipopular views see Porter (p. 352); and for skepticism, British Pharmaceutical Codex (1923, p. 1152). 17. Farnsworth et al. (1968). 18. British Herbal Pharmacopoeia (1983, pp. 23334). See also Selezhinski (1979), who noted sapo-

nins and flavonids.

19. National Standard Dispensatory (1909, p. 1715). 20. Zennie and Ogzewalla (1977).

Notes

VIRGINIA CREEPER (bark, twigs, leaves)

1. Moore (1564).

The Herbalist's Account It's a vine, common in the woods around here, with leaves akin to ginseng. The bark and twigs are used, but the leaves may be used instead. I've never used it. It's got an acid taste and it'll make you a tonic. I don't think it's highly valuable, but some of the herb books say it is.

2. Griffith (1847, p. 140). Rafinesque (1828-30, 2:775) noted V. canadensis and V. blanda as sub-

stitutes. 3. Gerard (1597, pp. 698-705), Gerard/Johnson (1636, p. 852). Viola nigra sive purpurea is generally identified as sweet violet. See, for example, Linnaeus (1753, 2:934), and later authors such as Withering (1793). 4. E.g., Read (1635, p. 39). 5. J. Hill (1751, p. 440). See also James (1743-45,

vol. 3), under "viola," discussing the ordinary purple violet, and Lewis (1769, p. 320). 6. E.g., C. Carter (1732, p. 191). 7. Cutler (1785, p. 485).

Commentary Parthenocissus quinquefolia (1.) Planchon * , including varieties [syn. Ampelopsis quinquefolia 1.]: Virginia creeper, woodbine, wild wood, American ivy. Vitaceae

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~r. Bass is correct in implying that little has been written on this indigenous plant in either the regular or lay medical literature; however, sparks of interest can be documented from time to time from the seventeenth century onward. Thomas Johnson (1633). for example, included it in his revision of Gerard's account of ivy, saying that there was kept for "novelties sake in divers gardens a Virginian [ivy]. by some (though unjustly) termed a vine, being indeed an ivy." 1 He impled that, like ivy, it had binding qualities said to be useful in various preparations for ulcers, burns, scalds, and other uses. Relatively few later authors mentioned it, even in the nineteenth century when it did aUract some attention. 2 For instance, a Dr. J. McCall in the 1850s recommended the bark, collected late in the fall, for dropsy: Later, some writers on home medicine as well as Eclectic practitioners drew attention to it or promoted it. John King, in The American Family Physician, wrote that it "possesses alterative, tonic astringent and expectorant properties, and is used in scrofula, syphilis, and wherever an alterative is required. It has also been recommended in bronchitis and other pulmonary complaints.'" Even bearing in mind Eclectic enthusiams for botanicals, this encomium was extravagant, particularly in view of ~iIIspaugh's comment (1892) that "little is known of the action of this drug on

man.1J5

Threads of interest are noticeable in this century, as reflected in occasional references in domestic herbal literature. ~r. Bass says he may first have come across Virginia creeper in Joseph Meyer's Herbalist, which describes it as tonic, astringent, and expectorant.6 Bass justifies the tonic action from the taste. No chemical evaluation has been found, but from the limited reputationand Bass's view that he doesn't think it very valuable-the presence of pharmacologically

useful constituents is unlikely. Past recommendations for scrofula (tuberculous glands) and syphilis were probably related to the astringent properties. Notes 1. Gerard/Johnson (1633, p. 857).

2. It was not included in standard medical botany texts by writers such as Griffith or Johnson, popular writings (e.g., Gunn), or Eclectic publications (e.g., Beach, 1848). 3. Noted in G. B. Wood and Bache (1868, p. 1460). 4. King (1878. p. 625). See also King (1882, p. 160). Warren and Small (1903, p. 815). 5. Millspaugh (1974. originally 1892. p. 40-2) noted two Eclectic preparations: decoctum ampelopsis and infusum ampelopsis. He gave no uses, though some toxic effects were noted.

6. J. Meyer (1934. p. 20). It is included in the wellknown R. W. Wren. Potter's New Cyclopaedia of Botanical Drugs and Preparations (1975. p. 165); a catalog of uses is still given.

VIRGINIA SNAKEROOT (rhizome. roots)

The Herbalist's Account Virginia snakeroot is hard to find but one of the most valuable, next to goldenseal and yellowroot. It grows in pine woods. The golden yellow roots smell like turpentine. It's another old-timer-a famous rheumatism medicine. And it's a famous tonic and stimulant. It can also be used for arthritis. skin diseases. and blood conditions. It's a body builder and a female remedy. Put one teaspoon of roots in a pint of water and boil thirty minutes. Strain it and keep in the refrigerator. Take one teaspoon three times a day. once at bedtime. It can be taken in wine or whiskey, but instead of boiling it, let it set two weeks before using. Snakeroot is the most expensive common plant we have. It's bringing about eighteen dollars a pound [1982J. But in Alabama you

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Virginia Snakeroot

could go a lifetime and never get a pound, but they tell me in the north in West Virginia and the north part of North Carolina there's a great big bunch of roots, and it don't take long to get a pound. Commentary

Aristolochia serpentaria L. * [syns . A . convolvulacea Small; A. hastata Nutt.; A. nashii Kearney]: Virginia snakeroot, serpentaria, black snakeroot, Sampson snakeroot, snakeroot, birthwort. Aristolochiaceae Serpentaria is one New World plant that attracted early interest in Europe . William Johnson included it in his revised edition of Gerard's Herball (1633) and, by placing it in the context of established concepts-hot and dry like other well-known species of the same family-helped to arouse interest in the new plant.' While it was commonly said that Indians introduced it into white medicine for use in treating snakebites, it quickly estab-

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lished a place in medicine not only because of the existing reputation of related European birthworts (Aristolochia spp.) for aiding labor but also on the basis of a presumed alexipharmic action. The particular value for bites of rattlesnakes and other venomous snakes was apparently rationalized on the grounds of deobstruent and expelling properties associated with hot and dry qualities . The plant remained quite popular among eighteenth-century writers on materia medica. Robert James's comments in 1744 suggest that it was viewed virtually as a panacea: "Snake root is cordial, alexipharmic and sudorific; good in all kinds of fevers, particularly malignant and contagious ones, and the plague itself. It is carminative, expelling wind, strengthening the stomach, and helping the colic. It cures the bite of a mad dog, and other venomous bites, particularly that of the Rattle-snake." 2 Enthusiasm waned over the next hundred years or so. Even in the eighteenth century doubts were expressed about its value for snakebites.3 In 1775 influential William Cullen commented favorably but added: "Tho' I have often seen good effects from this medicine, yet, as they are always very doubtful as malignancy seldom occurs here, and as I can obtain its good effects from medicines of a less inflammatory nature, and which I can exhibit with greater safety, I have now laid it entirely aside." 4 American interest during colonial times was probably considerable,s and later American authors were more enthusiastic than Cullen-for its diaphoretic, stimulant, carminative, and tonic properties, not its reputation for snakebites. 6 Bigelow (1820) recorded one regime that employed blood-letting and Virginia snakeroot: "Snakeroot [Chapman in his Therapeutics informs us] is much resorted to as a popular remedy in the management of the secondary stages of pleurisy. After bleeding, it is the ordinary practice, in many parts of our country, to resort to a

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strong infusion of this article with a view of exciting perspiration. Catarrhs, rheumatisms and other winter complaints, incident to rustic life, are managed in the same way." 7 ~ost nineteenth-century authors continued to consider snakeroot a stimulant and tonic, and a diuretic, diaphoretic. and carminative, according to the mode of administration." Its use for menstrual difficulties ("suppressed to painful menstruation") was occasionally noted. Toward the end of the century, however, Laurence Johnson suggested a lack of popularity, at least among regular physicians: it was "now little used except in bronchial and pulmonary affections of a dynamic character," though other texts at the time still indicated wider usage? Knowledge and use of snakeroot persist today in the Appalachians and elsewhere for a variety of ailments, including heart trouble, and in a salve for burns and stone bruises. but ~r. Bass is doubtful of these uses.lO ~any past uses of snakeroot have not reached Bass, either because they have not survived the experience of everyday use or -more likely-because the plant is not very well known in his neighborhood. He is unaware, for instance. of diaphoretic or diuretic properties, despite recognizing it as a blood purifier. from which the long-standing reputation for rheumatism is rationalized l l He believes the reputation for female complaints-not a strong one-is due to stimulant and tonic action. However, the vernacular name "birthworts" for Aristolochia species reflects a long-standing reputation for action on the uterus. Gerard's revised Herball (1636) stated: "Dioscorides writeth, that a dram weight of long Birthwoort drunke with wine and also applied. is good against serpents and deadly things: and that being drunke with myrrhe and pepper, it expels whatsoever is left in the matrix after the child is delivered, the floures also, and dead children, and that it being put up in a pessarie it performeth the same." 12 Testimony

seems sufficiently strong to suggest that specific uterine, rather than merely tonic, action exists. ~any species of Aristolochia contain aristolochic acid, one of a small group of naturally occurring nitro compounds that have been shown to possess tumor-inhibiting (and tumor-promoting) properties under laboratory conditions." The former property is not considered to have any clinical relevance and almost certainly is not linked to occasional references in the past to treating lumps or "tumors." This reputation appears to rest more on the concept of deobstruent, anti venom actions of the aromatic ("hot and dry") plant. Aristolochic acid also has irritant properties believed to account for diuretic action.!4 Gastrointestinal irritation also occurs with large doses. A suggestion that aristolochic acid has immunostimulant properties that may account for the use in snakebites is pure speculation at present. Because of the activity of aristolochic acid, especially its carcinogenic potential, it is generally considered inadvisable to use Virginia snakeroot. In some countries drugs containing aristolochic acid have been removed from the market. '5 Notes 1. Gerard (1597, p. 894). For notes on other birthworts-Aristolochia spp. other than serpentariasee Le Strange (1977, pp. 31-33).

2. James (1743-45). 3. E.g., j. Hill (1751, p. 612). 4. Cullen (1775, pp. 274-75). 5. C. M. M. Wells [1980, pp. 302-4) made the interesting point that the German Palatinates in Pennsylvania knew Aristolochia clematitis very well frum German vineyards. 6. W. P. C. Barton (1817-18. 2:48) said that the snakeroot "which is so deservedly esteemed as a medicine, has no reputation among regular practitioners as a remedy for those affections for which it was first brought into notice."

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7. Bigelow (1820, vol. 3, pt. 1, pp. 88-89). Powerful testimony also came from Barton for its use in fevers. It is of special interest that he made specific reference to sensory properties: "It is probable that this root, like many other arbites now used in medicine was indebted to its sensible qualities for its first introduction into use" (1817-18, 2 :48-51). For evidence of use by physicians see Estes (1980. table 12). 8. E.g., Griffith (1847, p. 532), quoting earlier

authors. Various interesting regimens were published; e.g., taking it with sage tea, in P. Smith (1813, p. 55). Also King (1878, pp. 705-6). 9. L. Johnson (1884, p. 233); see also F. P. Foster (1890-94,1:384). 10. Bolyard (1981, p. 42). Croom (1982, pp. 41-42). for "snakebite, kidney problems, including Bright's disease, women with tube stopped (menstrual irregularity?), men with gland trouble (prostate), weak back." When asked about these, Bass said that a lot of people think Virginia snakeroot is a good kidney medicine. Kidney medicines are often used for weak backs. "Menstrual problems can be helped by kidney medicines since fluid has to be got rid 01." 11. It has been implied that aristoloc:hine (aristolochic acid) might cause kidney irritation; see Croom

445

WAHOO (bark, roots, root bark, seeds) The Herbalist's Account Wahoo is a bush with green stems. The roots are kind of a yellow color. It has white flowers and berries that burst open in the fall of the year, and has four or five seeds. The one that grows here is not the genuine wahoo. You use the bark of the root or the whole root or the bark of the tree. I've never used wahoo, but I've heard of it all my life. Now, I know where I could get enough to make a right smart tonic, but I've plenty of other things that does the same thing. It's also good for the bowels and good for the li ver. Commentary Euonymus europaeus 1.: spindle tree, prick wood. E. atropurpureus Jacq. *, including varieties: burning bush, wahoo, spindle tree, Indian arrow wood. E. arnericanus L. [syn. E. vulgaris Mill.]: burning bush, wahoo, strawberry bush, bursting heart.

(1982, p. 42).

Celastraceae

12. Gerard/Johnson (1636, p. 849). Others focused attention on its use to quicken childbirth; e.g., Bullein (1562, Book of Simples, I. 52).

Euonyrnus species have long attracted medical interest. John Gerard, for example, described European species under "spindletree or prickewood" and noted the potency of purging and emetic qualities of the fruit and leaves.' Eighteenth-century writers generally mentioned that all parts provoke vomiting and purging: "The whole plant is noxious, and taken inwardly not without danger."2 E. europaeus, although naturalized in northern states of the United States, has attracted little interest among American writers. On the other hand, the indigenous Euonymus atropurpureus and E. americanus-both widely known as burning bush or wahoo-came into noticeable medicinal use during the first half of the nineteenth century. E. atropurpureus is the best known, but

13. Trease and Evans (1983, p. 585). Mix et al. (1982). 14. Documentation for diuretic action can be found in various editions of the Dispensatory of the United States. 15. For example, in Germany. See Dukes (1984, p.917).

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c. S. Rafinesque reported that leaves of both species "make a fine pectoral tea. much used for colds, coughs, catarrh, influenza." 3 Subsequent writers emphasized purgative action and special value for liver ailments. Clapp (1852), in summarizing other publications (e.g., Griffith, 1847), noted that "the bark of the root of the Indian arrow-wood or wahoo is laxative, diuretic, and probably somewhat tonic ... it has been used with advantage in dropsy and affections of the liver." 4 It is unclear to what extent wahoo was used by regular physicians. Laurence Johnson (1884). after stating that Euonymus atropurpureus is "a mild and somewhat uncertain purgative, having probably some cholagogue action," added that it was "chiefly employed in empirical practice, [though] well thought of by many regular practitioners." 5 Johnson was not one of these, but regular medical interest persisted well into the twentieth century. Lloyd, who described some of the history of the drug, indicated that it had been reported widely in the botanic/domestic medicine literature and promoted as an Eclectic medicine. He related an interesting episode in the story of wahoo illustrative of the many fashions that beset therapy. Around the 18005 "a peculiar craze for Euonymin struck England in part through the enthusiasm of the celebrated Dr. Richardson of London. As abruptly as it began did the English fad (for concentrated remedies) terminate, leaving but a few energetic resinoids such as King's Resin of Podophyllum (representative of the class), still used in England."6 In addition, proprietary medicines such as Fleury's WAHOO tonic helped establish the plant, as, perhaps, did its rather exotic name, associated by some with Indians. The constituents of E. atropurpureus include amines, pyridine and purine alkaloids, saponins, cardenolides, and terpenoids, but which of these account for emetic and purgative properties and other (if any) past repu-

tations (e.g., diuretic action) is unclear. The euonymin mentioned above-widely used by Eclectic practitioners-was an "impure resinous body, prepared by precipitating the alcoholic tincture by the addition of water." Bass seems to underestimate the activity of wahoo, unless it is indeed as mild as implied by Johnson.' Bass's view that it is a tonic reflects its onetime promotion as a proprietary medicine. But prudence is necessary in dosage and there are safer, if more prosaically named medicines. Notes 1. Gerard (1597. pp. 1284-86).

2. E.g., James (1743-45, 3:315). 3. Rafinesque (1828-30, 1:195). 4. Clapp [Hl52, p. 758). Griffith (1847, p. 220) also described the seeds as "nauseous, purgative and emetic and are used in some places to destroy vermin in the hair." 5. L. Johnson (1884. p. 125). 6. Lloyd (1921, p. 136). 7. For concerns over toxicity, see Hardin and Arena (1974, p. 96).

WALNUT (inner bark, root, leaves, kernel, shell, husk) The Herbalist's Account There are lots of black walnuts around. A lot of people used it in salves, and it's the only way I use it. If I can't get hulls, I use the leaves or bark. It cures ringworm, psoriasis, and skin diseases. It can be used for syphilis sores. I take a double handful of hulls in boiling water to make a tea. Then I add hog lard and boil again to reduce it to a salve. I don't use it all the time because I can't get it. A tea is supposed to be a good tonic, though I always use others. It tones up the appetite. It was also used in high-priced hair tonics. It is also used to expel worms and as a laxative. Folks say it has lots of iodine in it

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and it keeps you from having goiter. It could be good for the brain and nervous diseaseit has an obnoxious odor. It's a blood purifier, too. When I feel funny and can't think, I generally take a dose of spirits of ammonia or camphor or some of the oils. The wood makes a fine timber and the hulls a black dye. Commentary Juglans cinerea L.: butternut, butternut walnut, white walnut, walnut. J. regia L.: English walnut, walnut. f. nigra L. *: black walnut, walnut. Juglandaceae Of three species of Juglans once well known in the medical literature (regular and botanic I domestic), Mr. Bass uses only the indigenous black walnut, medically the least popular. He knows little about the other indigenous species-the butternut, or white walnut, f. cinerea-and its well-established reputation as a laxative; this is perhaps because it does not grow in his area, although it has never been widely popular. Early American writers often spoke highly of it. Benjamin Smith Barton noted that an extract of the inner bark had "long been used as a purgative in the United States. It is a valuable medicine. As it is often, however, very carelessly prepared by the country-people, it has gone into some kind of neglect." Barton also thought it had an anodyne property.' Peter Smith, in The Indian Doctor's Dispensatory (1813), was especially enthusiastic about the laxative action: "the purge is preferable to any that I know, in a weak and debilitated state of the bowels." 2 Interestingly, the reputation as a laxativediscussed in most nineteenth-century writings on materia medica and commonly indicated to be mild-was often bolstered with stories about positive experiences using the indigenous remedy during the Revolutionary War.

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As with butternut, Bass has not had experience with the English walnut (Juglans regia), almost certainly the tree described by Gerard as cold and a little moist (the kernels), hot and dry (the "drie nuts")' or binding ("outward green huske and leaves"j,3 Early recorded uses, resting on these qualities, were for the treatment of wounds, ailments relating to poisonous qualities, and gastrointestinal upsets. Gerard's 1597 account also implies that the oil of walnuts was similar to almond oil. Eighteenth-century discussions generally suggest that all parts of the English walnut tree were used, though Lewis stated in 1791 that both kernel shells and nuts were not "at present much employed in medicine among British practitioners, although it still retains a place in most of the foreign pharmacopoeias, as well as that of the London college."4 British interest did not revive in the nineteenth century, nor was it aroused in America. Black walnut (J. nigra) likewise failed to attract much medical enthusiasm in America compared with butternut, even though it is not uncommon and, as Bass implies, has a long history of many economic uses. 5 R. E. Griffith (1847) included it under "butternut," and implied, without making a specific statement, that it was a harsh purgative, unpleasant to take. In contrast, Gunn (1869) wrote in a popular domestic medicine book: "The medical properties of this tree are not very generally known, but by those who have tested them they are very highly prized in certain cases." 6 He noted uses for washes and salves (as employed by Bass) relating to astringent properties. Despite Gunn's enthusiasm, walnut's popularity apparently did not increase. Nevertheless, Bass notes some employment by "old-timers"; at least walnut remained much more popular than the closely related hickories and pecan (see monographs). Bass rationalizes the alleged tonic proper-

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ties on the basis of astringency (in all parts of the plant). Suggestions that it is "good" for the brain rest partly on the doctrine of signatures. This remains pervasive, and Bass finds it a reinforcement of other concepts, notably the notion that the odor indicates use for nervous disorders. Many accounts of the doctrine of signatures have been given. Widely quoted is William Coles (1657): Wall-nuts have the perfect signature of the head: The outer husk or green Covering, represent the Periazanium, or outward skin of the skull, whereon the hair groweth, and therefore salt made of these husks or barks, are exceedingly good for wounds in the head. The inner woody shell hath the signature of the skull, and the little yellow skin, or Peel, that covereth the Kernail of the hard Meninga and Pia-mater, which are the thin scarfes that envelope the brain. The Kernel hath the very figure of the Brain, and therefore it is very profitable for the Brain, and resists poysons; For if the Kernel be bruised, and moystned with the quintessence of Wine, and laid upon the Crown of the Head, it comforts the brain and head mightily? Bass's reference to usage for syphilis is in line with the employment of astringent washes for discharges and chancre sores. Most chemical studies have been performed on J. regia. Actions on the skin by the bark of all walnut species are thought to be due to tannin, although the naphthaquinone juglone (active in fungal infections) and the volatile oil may be contributory." Recent interest in walnut as an anti-infective agent (e.g., for Giardia) generally employs an alcoholic tincture. A constituent related to tannins (ellagic acid) has been isolated from the hulls of /uglans nigra. Intraperitoneal and intravenous injections of ellagic acid in animals have demonstrated various physiological effects (including sedative). but the clinical value of using extracts of walnut

hulls is far from clear.9 Additional interest in walnut lies in the fixed oil from the nuts, which is used as an edible oil and contains a high concentration of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Notes 1. B. S. Barton (1798, p. 32).

2. P. Smith (1813, p. 29). 3. Gerard (1597, pp. 1252-53). 4. W. Lewis (1791, p. 214). Other discussions in James (1743-45, under "Nux Juglens"). Motherby (1785). Woodville (1790-94, 2:347-49). Cullen (1775, p. 83; noting only the oil). W. P. C. Barton (1819): vol. 2 and note on patent medicines, Chamberlain's Bilious Cordial. Motherby gave a particularly useful summary of the various parts of kernel as the same as that of almonds: the shells are astringent; the kernals for oil; the ointment from leaves bark, an emetic; juice or foot, purgative. 5. For a useful account of economic uses see Brooks (1979, 3: 72-77). 6. Griffith (1847, p. 808). This echoes Griffith's view that it was little used. Also see Gunn (1869, p.808). 7. Quoted in Arber, Herbals, Their Origin and Evolution (1953, pp. 252-53). 8. Fluck (1973, p. 41). 9. Bhargava et al. (1968).

WATERCRESS (tops); HIGHLAND CRESS The Herbalist's Account It dates back a long time in Alabama. We had a senator (the watercress man) who had a Watercress Day in Washington. Every time he went back to Washington, he carried some watercress back with him and they served it in the fancy restaurants. It saved many a poor person's life. It came up in January or February to go with the corn bread. It can be gathered nine months of the year. It is easily kept in paper bags. It thrives in fresh, limey water; don't do any good in

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frees\one water or stagnant water. A lot of people cooked it, but I preferred to eat it raw. You can eat it in a salad. It's good for you, especially raw; it's bogged down with iron, it's also got iodine and it's full of minerals and vitamins. It's got lots of vitamins. To rectify gall-bladder trouble or diabetes, boil the tops and drink two or three cups a day. It's good for the kidneys, too. Now, highland cress is also good for you and grows in the wintertime. We often collect it wild and cook it with meat. It's another poor man's food, at least it was back in them days. We used to cook it with mustard tops, turnip tops, and sometimes beet. All this was real nutritious.

Commentary Nasturtium officinalis R. Br. * [syns. Sisymbrium nasturtium 1.; Nasturtium aquatieum 1.; Roripe nasturtium (1.) Rusby]: watercress. Cardamine rotundifolia Michx.: mountain watercress. Barbarea verna (Miller) Ascherson *: Belle Isle cress, wintercress, highland cress, upland cress. Brassicaceae (Cruciferae) Watercress-almost certainly naturalized, though this is still debated-has a long history. John Gerard (1597) noted three kinds of "water cresses" from different habitats. All were described as hot and dry, with some deobstruent actions such as promoting urine and dissolving stones, and emmenagogue for "young maidens." Also mentioned was boiling the plant in wine or milk for "scurvie or scorbute." 1 The latter reputation came to the fore and was emphasized frequently in the eighteenth century. John Quincy, in 1719, explained the deobstruent action of "nasturtii aquatiea" in terms of sensory properties: "It has a sharp penetrating taste, and is reckon'd very detersive. 'Tis us'd therefore in all chronical diseases which arise from glandulous obstructions, and particularly the scurvy." 2 John Hill

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(1751) was very positive: "The young leaves of this plant are frequently eaten in the spring as a sallad. They are not, however, without very considerable virtues in medicine ... the whole plant is of very acrid taste, and is a powerful attenuant and resolvent. It is recommended as a kind of specific in the scurvy, and is eaten in great quantities by many with that intent and that with very good success." 3 While there was a tendency to see it as a blood purifier, nineteenth-century American writers on materia medica, if they gave space to watercress (and, like their European counterparts, they rarely did), mentioned antiscorbutic properties.4 Mr. Bass's reference to high vitamin content is in line with this reputation. It is rich in vitamins A, C, folic acid, and riboflavin.' Bass is just one of many in his generation living in rural areas who often think of highland cress when talking about watercress. For highland cress he generally collects Barbarea verna, most commonly known as Bell Isle cress. However, the name "highland cress" is a generic one for various species of Barbarea, especially B. vulgaris R. Br., which was commonly discussed in seventeenth-century European medical literature for properties similar to watercress. Water and highland cresses are viewed by Bass as medically one and the same. As combination food-medicine-tonics, they are well entrenched in the minds of many of his generation; this reputation has been "modernized" by the knowledge of vitamins. Concerns have been expressed over possible kidney toxicity from Barbarea verna, but few eat it in large enough quantities to cause toxic effects.

Noles 1. Gerard (1597, p. 201); identification is uncertain, but fig. 3 is probably Nasturtium afficinale (ef. johnson's revised edition, 1633, p. 257). Withering (1796,3:580) listed it as Sisymbrium nasturtium.

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2. Quincy (1719, p. 131). It is necessary to be cautious when assuming that "scurvy" always referred to vitamin deficiency. 3. Hill (1751, p. 387).

4. For reputation of purifying "the blood and humors and to opfm visceral obstructions," see Woodville (1790-94.1 :135). 5. Bingham (1987). Relative to many other fruits and vegetables, vitamin C content is significant but not unduly high. See Leveille et al. (1983).

WATERMELON; MELON (fruit, seed) The Herbalist's Account Watermelon seed is a fine kidney medicine. Some old-timers used it a lot. It's another one that's come back. They have the seed in boxes in the food store. Old ladies and old men buy them by the pound. It's really a facsimile for the pumpkin seed. The pumpkin seed is easy to eat. Watermelon seed has a hard coat and you have to make a tea. Commentary Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsumura and Nakai [syns. C. lanatus (Thunb.) Mansfield; C. edulis Spach.; C. vulgaris Schrader; Colocynthis citrullus (1.) O. Kuntze; Cucumis citrullus Ser.; Cucurbita anquria Duch.]: watermelon. Cucumis melo 1.: melon, musk melon. Cucurbitaceae Watermelons and such melons as the cantaloupe and honeydew have a long medical history but have never attracted much interest among regular physicians. 1 When John Gerard (1597) wrote on melons, the "cold and moist" qualities were well established. The value of the cooling properties for fevers was noted (though an unfavorable comparison was made with cucumber), along with a diuretic action of the seeds." Whatever interest existed almost certainly declined during the first half of the eighteenth century.

John Hill (1751) spoke of cooling and diuretic properties of melons and their use in emulsions and in some of the "compositions prescribed in our old dispensatories. " l A short while later, William Cullen did not think the supposed diuretic action was any more than for other "aqueous" foods. He stated, though apparently not referring to the seed, that "all our watery vegetables may be considered as diuretics. Cucumbers and melons have been reckoned remarkably, so much as to bring on bloody urine. But this seems to be without foundation. To me, indeed, they would appear to have a contrary effect, by increasing the watery part of the urine." 4 American B. S. Barton tended to disagree on the basis of testimonies he had heard. 5 Few nineteenth-century writers on materia medica mentioned melon or watermelon specifically; nevertheless, watermelon probably aroused greater interest than other melons. R. E. Griffith's influential Medical Botany (1847) noted diuretic properties, but little subsequent interest can be found in regular medical textbooks. 6 Eclectic practitioners helped to sustain interest, and Finley Ellingwood's American Motoriu Medico (1915) reported, in the context of much concern over bladder infections: "The juice of the [watermelon] fruit is a diuretic with many individuals, producing a cooling sense of relief from heat or aching across the kidneys, or throughout the urinary apparatus. The seeds in the form of an infusion act promptly with children, relieving pain in the passage of urine and stimulating the flow of water. ... [Seeds are] also very useful during the active stage of cystitis." 7 Mr. Bass's knowledge of watermelon seed may be derived more from the oral than the popular tradition-he refers to old-timersand there is a sparsity of published information. Recorded folk beliefs indicate the use of watermelon seeds for "kidney stones" and "kidneys that do not act." " The numerous cultivars of watermelon and

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melon and limited amount of chemical investigation make generalizations uncertain. For instance, bitter cucurbitacins in watermelon are normally broken down to nontoxic substances in most cultivars.9 At present it is not clear whether a chemical explanation exists for the reputation as a diuretic. Notes 1. The nomenclature of watermelon has been repeatedly discussed during the last forty years or so. For recen"t comment see Hara (1969). CitruJJus vulgaris is still used in some horticultural and agricultural literature, and there are efforts to conserve the name because watermelon is an economically important plant. 2. Gerard (1597, pp.

771~72).

3. j. Hill (1751, p. 532); earlier, j. Miller (1722) indicated it was well-known. 4. Cullen (1781. p. 52). Cullen also employed the term watery vegetables (Lectures, 1775, p. 62). 5. Cullen (1812, 1:158).

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said to take a quart of heart leaf and put it in a gallon of water and boil it twenty-five or thirty minutes, and then strain and bottle it. She said the time that boy took half of that, he didn't cough no more. It tasted so good. Commentary Asarum europeaum L., including varieties: asarabacca, asarum, wild ginger, coltsfoot. A. canadense L., including varieties: Canada snakeroot, Indian ginger, heart leaf, little pigs. Hexastylis heterophylla (Ashe) Small [syns. Asarum heterophylla Ashe in part; Asarum virginicum L.]: wild ginger, heart leaf, little pigs. H. arifolia (Michx.) Small *, including varieties [syns. Asarum virginicum Walt.; A. arifolium Michx.]: southern wild ginger, heart leaf, little pigs. H. shuttleworthii (B. and B.) Small* [syn, Asarum macranthum Shuttlew]: wild ginger, heart leaf, little pigs.

6. Griffith (1847, p. 305).

Aristolochiaceae

7. Ellingwood (1915, p. 439).

While the vernacular names (especially heart leaf) tend to be used indiscriminately for the plants listed above (and related species), in America the name wild ginger is most commonly associated with the indigenous Asarum canadense, one of a number of Asarum species that have attracted medical interest. ' The role of analogy behind the introduction of many American plants into medicine has been noted, and certainly comparison between A. canadense and A. europaeum was probably at play in this case. However, while the latter (naturalized in North America) was known by Gerard for hot and dry qualities and deobstruent properties, it developed a reputation-some were enthusiastic about it-for emetic, cathartic, and errhine actions rarely described for A. canadense.' William Withering (1796) pointed out that the powdered leaves of A. europeaum were the basis of cephalic snuffs, "which occasion a considerable discharge of mu-

8. R. B. Browne (1958, p. 76). 9. Yamaguchi (1983, p. 329).

WILD GINGER (leaves, rhizome) The Herbalist's Account Indians called it heart leaf because of its shape. They used it for a heart remedy. It stays green all winter and makes a good pot plant. It may be gathered anytime. I learned about it from the St. Louis Commission Company. They sent me a sample of the genuine plant. Sometimes I use the leaves for a cough syrup, but mostly I use the roots to flavor other medicines. It's good for the stomach, too. About twenty years ago, a woman came to me. She said wild ginger makes one of the best cough medicines in the world. Her grandson had whooping cough, and someone

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cous from the nostrils without much sneezing." 3 Interest in errhine properties declined in the nineteenth century (see volume 1, chapter 7) ; similarly, nineteenth-century American authors found little favor with other uses of the European plant. Martyn Paine described it in 1857 as "an acrid violent emetico-cathartic; once in considerable favor, now almost obsolete .'" Irrespective of analogy, the sensory properties of "A. virginicum" and A. canadense, particularly the latter, aroused curiosity.' Writers like Schoepf, B. S. Barton, Bigelow, W. P. C. Barton , and Rafinesque all mentioned A. canadense, recognized its value as an aromatic stimulant and diaphoretic, and sometimes made analogies with such plants as the aromatic Virginia snakeroot, Aristolochia serpentaria. 6 At one time A. canadense had some reputation as an emetic, but influential authors like Bigelow and Barton said that any emetic property was attributable more to the quantity administered than to any "inherent emetic quality of the leaves themselves.'" Porcher (1847) provided some testimony for this view, saying that it was "used among the people as a substitute for ginger. A friend, who employed it to some extent on his plantation, informs me that in large doses it is a fever emetic ." 8 It is difficult to say how much popularity wild ginger achieved among physicians, even as an ingredient in cough or fever medicines, for its reputation was uneven 9 Appalachian physician A. A. Scroggs (1871) said it was in large demand for its diaphoretic, expectorant, and carminative properties. Perhaps the demand was largely domestic,lO for Laurence Johnson (1884) was hardly enthusiastic: "Wild ginger [Asarum canooensej has a peculiar, pungent, aromatic taste and is an aromatic stimulant. In hot infusion it produces diaphoresis, and may relieve the pains of colic. It is, however, less agreeable to most persons than many other drugs of its class,

and scarcely deserves to rank as a medicinal agent." 11 Nevertheless, some interest persisted until well into the present century as a feebly aromatic carminative used as the powdered rhizome (two to four grams) or the volatile oil (one to three minims)." Asarum canadense is not available to Mr. Bass, and he collects two species in the cogenus Hexastylis. H. arifolia, the evergreen perennial he mostly gathers, and other species have almost certainly been widely used in the past as wild ginger. In fact, the cogenus was only established from Asarum in the early twentieth century, though the distinction has not always been agreed uponY Certainly, differentiating the variable species without careful evaluation of the "hidden" flowers is not easy. No detailed chemical studies have been found on Hexastylis, but the strong aromatic properties clearly depend on the presence of a volatile oil. An aristolochic acid common to many plants of the Aristolochiaceae is found in the volatile oil of A. canadense;14 interest in this arose because of antitumor Wild Ginger (Asarum canadense)

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activity.15 Which constituent accounts for the emetic properties is not reported; a comparative study on the constituents of the various species would be interesting, especially because marked differences in aroma can be found. These may be relevant to wild ginger's past uneven reputation. The reputation of "wild ginger" (covering all species) as a carminative is linked to the volatile oil. Employment for coughs, highly regarded by Mr. Bass, is not generally recorded, although the possibility exists that this reputation has been linked to diaphoretic and errhine properties. On the other hand, the gingery flavor may also be at play. The flavor certainly adds to the attractiveness of any medicine made from the root. Concerns have been expressed about overdosage.

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and added, "Schoepf informs us that the Asarum virginicum (which is closely allied to the A. canadense) was formerly sold in England for Aristolochia serpentaria; and that the inhabitants of Carolina call it Heart snake-root." 7. Griffith (1847, p. 528). 8. Porcher (1847. p. 262). 9. At least the notable Washington physician R. K. Stone was using it in his compounded cough medicine, which he prescribed commonly during the 1860s (case records, R. K. Stone Papers). 10. Scroggs, C. 1870. Christison (1848. p. 256) said "in all respects it deserves more attention from the profession than has been awarded to it." On 5 February 1855 an Appalachian root and herb dealer was purchasing all the wild ginger he could acquire (see Cowie Papers). However, G. B. Wood (1868,1:354-55) indicated it was not widely used. 11. L. Johnson (1884, p. 233).

Notes 1. For a general discussion on species of Asarum,

see Le Strange (1977, pp. 43-45). 2. Gerard (1597. pp. 688-89). For enthusiasm see Burton (1628. p. 574). Gerard is certainly describing A. europaeum in fig. 1. though Withering (1796, 2 :440) drew attention only to the improved figure in johnson's revised edition. For emphasis on the differences. attributed to different chemical constituents, see Proctor (1841). Some disagreements with the viewpoint were noted. 3. Withering (1796. 2:440); Quincy, much earlier (1719. p. 195). had highlighted its use in snuff; for a nineteenth-century account see King (1882. p.140). 4. Paine (1857. p. 87). Differences in extraction methods. long known. may have affected the reputation of Asarum. See van Helmont (1662. p. 465). 5. Motherby (1785. under "Asarum")' after describing A. europeum. noted "Asarum virginianum also called serpentaria nigra. Asarum cyc1amina. black snakeweed." He said "the roots were brought fram Virginia mixed with the rad. serpent. Virgo and are used as being the same." 6. W. P. C. Barton (1817-18. 2:88) said Asarum (wild ginger) is nearly allied in its medical properties to A. serpentaria (see Motherby. n. 5 above)

12. E.g .. Solis-Cohen and Githens (1928. p. 821). 13. Rafinesque (1825) suggested the segregation of wild ginger on the basis of six separate styles of Hexastylus, but his work was disregarded until J. K. Small adopted the classification, which was first followed in Nathaniel Lord Britton. Manual of the Flora of the Northern States and Canada (1901, p. 347). See Blomquist (1957). Gonzalez [1972)' Harper (1936).

14. For oil see Claus [1956. p. 327). Doskotch and Vanevenhoven (1967). Gonzalez did note that in H. arifolia the highest concentration of soluble sugar was found during the winter season and the highest starch concentration at the end of July (1972. pp. 4-5). 15. See Kupchan and Doskotch (1962). Mix et al. (1982) characterized aristolochic acids and indicated plant distribution.

WILLOW (bark) The Herbalist's Account Willow grows in low places by streams. The Indians used it for all kinds of fever, even yellow fever. I just use the inner bark to make a tea. It·s the same as aspirin. brings down fevers, but you sometimes have to make a

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strong tea. It's good to put in cough and cold medicine. Some old-timers used it in a poultice for risings and as a tonic.

Commentary Salix alba L. [syn. S. vitcllina L.J: white willow. S. nigra March. *: black willow, red willow (local name). Salicaceae John Gerard (1597) described willows as "cold and dry in the second degree, and astringent," and mentioned associated uses: "spitting of bloud, and all other fluxes of bloud whatsoever in men or women." 1 A well-known preparation of the bark ("burnt to ashes and steeped in vinegar") for "comes and other like risirrgs in the feet and toes" was also noted, as was the long-standing reputation that "green boughes with the leaves may very well be brought into chambers, and set about the beds of those that be sicke of agues: for they do mightily coole the heats of the aire, which thing is a wonderful refreshing to the sicke patients." 2 This had nothing to do with a febrifuge action of willows-at least of S. (llba-appreciated in the second half of the eighteenth century." A key person behind the popularization of this property was the Reverend E. Stone, who reported in 1763 a trial of S. alba bark on about fifty subjects. The bitterness, Stone said, gave him "a suspicion of its having the same properties of the Peruvian bark," and he observed that the tree grew in moist conditions "where agues chiefly abound." About the latter he said that because "many natural maladies carry their cures along with them, or that their remedies live not far from their causes, was so very apposite to this particular case, that I could not help applying it: and that this might be the intention of providence here." 4 Perhaps, however, Stone was rationalizing a popular belief based on empirical observation. Later,

around the end of the 1800s when cinchona bark was in short supply, various reports established the general use of willow bark. 5 There is no evidence that willow ever became widely popular. American author Robley Dunglison (1839) noted a decline in popularity until developments in plant chemistry in the nineteenth century led to the isolation of the glycoside salicin in 1828." The antipyretic action of the aglycone salicylic acid was well established by the 1870s, and the synthetic derivative aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) from around 1900 onward. Salicin, despite the overwhelming "competition" from aspirin, retained a modest place in medicine during the first half of the twentieth century, often for" mild rheumatic pains in doses of 1 to 3 gram." 7 Most of the interest in willow has focused on Salix (lllJa. Black willow (collected by Mr. Bass) has rarely received specific mention, but Gunn's Family Physician (1869) listed it as an "excellent tonic, as well as a powerful antiseptic."" While nineteenth-century Eclectic medical literature generally followed regular medical recommendations, it often promoted some specific uses. In the case of black willow, John King, in his American Family Physician (1847), stated that a decoction of the buds "is a powerful antaphrodisiac, suppressing sexual desires for a long time, and is highly recommended in the treatment of spermatorrhea." 9 The basis of this recommendation (repeated by others) is unclear. It was not generally noted, and, amidst a great deal of skepticism over medical recommendations for the treatment of spermatorrhea, sedatives-not tonics-were suggested. Some interest in the value of black willow as a febrifuge persisted well into the twentieth century among all shades of medical opinion. One regular medical textbook said in 1947 that the "bark is used to some extent in this country." 10 Salicin is the principal constituent, though

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hybridization and a variety found in some southern states may account for Mr. Bass's opinion that the activity is inconsistent.

Notes 1. Gerard (1597 , pp. 1205- 6). Of the "divers sorts of willow," S. alba is considered his "common willow."

2. At face value this is analogous to the use of salicylic acid on corns, noted elsewhere, but the burning of the bark would destroy the constituents. It has been said that this utilized antiseptic properties; see Rainsford (1984, p. 1).

Other willows include Salix babylonica (weeping willow), long used in China (Rainsford, 1984, p. 2), S. purpurea (in Burma for rheumatism) , S. cinerea (gray willow), S. sericea (silky willow), and S. carolinea (swamp willow). Mr. Bass supplies "red willow tree bark" in rossed pieces one to three centimeters in size, red-brown on the outside, paler on the inside, mildly bitter, and astringent. 3.

4. E.

Stone (1763).

Withering (1796 , 2:56) noted that white, or common, willow was used for treating fevers; see also W. White (1798), Wilkinson (1803).

5.

6.

Dunglison (1839, p. 333).

7.

Bastedo (1947, p. 512) .

8.

Gunn (1869, p. 809).

King (1847 , p. 634). Gathercoal and Wirth (1947, p. 202). In Alabama, Harper (1928, p. 101) noted febrifuge properties. 9.

to.

WINTERGREEN (leaves, oil) The Herbalist's Account The oil of wintergreen is highly recommended in rubs . The tea was used by oldtimers for the stomach and the bowels. I haven't used it since I can't find it around here, but old-timers made a tea from the leaves to settle the stomach and the bowels. The oil-you get it from the drugstorecan be used; you take one or two drops. The oil is best employed in rubs for colds.

Wintergreen

Commentary Gaultheria procumbens L., and other species: partridge berry, checkerberry, wintergreen, teaberry, mountain tea. Ericaceae Confusion sometimes exists over "wintergreen" because the name is also used widely for Chimaphilla umbellata, a similar plant commonly known as pipsissewa (see monograph).' Although the pleasant, aromatic odor of the indigenous Gaultheria procumbens has attracted much attention, the plant apparently aroused little interest within regular medicine until the second half of the nineteenth century. Charles Rafinesque (182830), however, noted that the whole plant had long been known among country people and was used as a pleasant drink called mountain tea? He added that it was "stimulant, anodyne, astringent, emmenagogue, antispasmodic. and diaphoretic ." Shortly after. Griffith (1847) made essentially the same points . summarizing succinctly its uses for bowel complaints, as an emmenagogue. and

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a restorative in debility.3 In addition, oil of wintergreen was probably a constituent in the once-famed Swaim's Panacea. Of the various uses, carminative action came to the fore, though a period of popularity existed in the last decades of the nineteenth century for the treatment of rheumatism. As Laurence Johnson wrote in 1884: "Since the introduction of salicylic acid as a remedy for rheumatism," the oil (containing salicylic acid) has been used. He noted, however, the difficulty of persisting with the highly flavored remedy, hence the pure acid was generally preferable.' In the twentieth century interest in wintergreen has been sustained largely by the use of the oil for, as Mr. Bass suggests, "rubs," or liniments. Some current herbals list diuretic action. This has a very weak historical pedigree, and there is a possibility of confusion with pipsissewa. The principal constituent in the oil is methyl salicylate, which is formed during the extraction of the oil. At present, knowledge of chemical constituents only partly explains the extensive past reputation, some of which was dependent on rubefacient action. The carminative action is associated with the volatile oil: it is noteworthy that methyl salicylate is toxic and cases of poisoning from using the oil have been recorded.

Notes 1. The name "wintergreen" has been used for various plants: Chimaphilla umbellata (L.) (e.g. Wood. 1838, p. 9); Trientalis europaea (in fact. chickweed wintergreen; e.g., Withering, 1796,2:363): squawvine (e.g., Griffith, 1847. pp. 421-23; see Squawvine). 2. Rafinesque (1828-30. 1: 204), under "Gaultheria

r"pens"; Marshall said the leaves were used as a substitute for Bohea tea, whence the name mountain tea (1785. p. 53). 3. Griffith (1847, pp. 422). Interestingly, it seems

to have been becoming something of a panacea.

Shaker herb sellers also noted its use for dropsy; see A. B. Miller (1976, p. 128). 4. L. Johnson (1884, p. 193).

WITCH HAZEL (twigs, bark, leaves) The Herbalist's Account I don't gather witch hazel because I've never had enough to get. I don't know too much about it. It's used for the skin. Old-timers used a tea for cuts and bruises. It was used in salves, too, A man here the other day said he'd go every spring and gather a whole bunch of it -the leaves and bark. I use witch hazel from the drugstore as a liniment. A lot of people used it for a shaving lotion. It's astringent. It's good for blackheads-it pulls the fatty stuff out of the pores. Commentary Hamamelis virginiana L. * [syn. H. macrophylla PurshJ: witch hazel, hamamelis, spotted alder. Hamamelidaceae Witch hazel, a small shrub or small tree well known for flowers appearing in the fall, has been one of the better-known indigenous remedies, at least in the form of witch hazel "water." Gerard's Herball (1633) referred to a "witch hazell," but this and other early references apply to wych elm (possibly Ulmus glabra).' Whether the astringent properties of the North American witch hazel were determined by analogy with the wych elm, from Indians, or from a combination of factors is uncertain. In 1744 Cadwallader Colden, writing to the Dutch botanist Gronovius, suggested Indian influence-that is, if he was referring to Hamamelis virginiana and it was not being employed solely in the context of religious or magical properties: "As you seem to be pleased with my communicating the use of any plants discovered in this country, 1 shall tell you what I learned of the use of

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the Hamamelis from a minister of the Church of England who officiates among the Mohawk Indians. He had almost total blindness, occasioned by a blow, cured by receiving the warm stearn of a decoction of the bark of this plant through a funnel upon the place. This was done by direction of a Mohawk Indian, after other means had for a considerable time proved ineffectual." 2 Widespread interest in witch hazel did not emerge until well into the nineteenth century, and Rafinesque (1828-30) may have been overstating its popularity when he indicated that it was much used in the North by herbalists and listed uses in topical application for tumors and hemorrhoids, and internally for bowel complaints and many other purposes. 3 Clapp, in 1852, reported the then-recent view of Dr. James Fountain of Peekskill, New York, who used it for more than thirty years with success in hemorrhages of the lungs, stomach, and bowels; he also reported that country people used it in all kinds of hemorrhages.' About the middle of the nineteenth century, witch hazel was on the verge of con-

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siderable popularity because Theron T. Pond and others were marketing extracts (including distilled extracts) of hamamelis. s This, perhaps more than anything else, contributed to witch hazel's usage in the second half of the nineteenth century. Laurence Johnson (1884). in fact, said that "until recently it has been little used except by homeopathic practitioners and by the laity."6 A short while later, Shoemaker's account (1893) included a long list of uses, especially for skin complaints? At least one recent commentator, remarking on the "grandiose claims" for Pond's extract, considered that the claims were based on belief in a single underlying disturbance, but all the properties could be rationalized as due to astringency.s Countless gallons of distilled hamamelis extract have been marketed, and it has remained widely known through most of the twentieth century. In 1920 H. C. Fuller underscored its widespread employment in ointments for hemorrhoids.9 Its use in pills was noted for disorders of the "female genitourinary tract, and may be combined with hydrastin, hyoscyamus, opium, senecio, tannin, thymol, chamalerium luteum, salicylic acid , boric acid, alum, and eucalyptol." Also popular was the distilled extract combined with glycerin, boric acid, and Irish moss in lotions and jellies for sunburn, freckles, and inflammatory conditions of the skin. Alone, the distilled extract was best known for bruises and sprains. The basis of witch hazel's reputation has long rested on the astringency due to hydrolyzable tannins.lO Distilled witch hazel contains no tannins but a small amount of volatile oil. Alcohol is usually added, which provides a sense of astringency when applied to the skin; this, plus a characteristically pleasant taste and odor, probably accounts for the considerable reputation of distilled witch hazel for bruises and other skin ailments. Certainly, doubts have long been expressed about the value of the tannin content.

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In 1905 it was said that "witch hazel owes its virtue largely to the tannic acid it contains. ... Given internally it has enjoyed, perhaps, an undeserved reputation as a hemostatic in uterine oozing, hemoptysis and hematuria." 11 Recent concern has been expressed over the presence of safrole, but this is irrelevent because of the small quantity present. Furthermore, preparations of witch hazel are employed externally, including for hemorrhoids. Notes 1. Gerard (1597, p. 1296). in fact. mentioned the name for the hornbeame tree (Carpinus sp.) and for some species of elm (Ulmus). Also see Britton and Holland (187R-R6. p. 247). Hornbeam is also noted as witch hazel. The name "witch hazel" is said to come from its use as a divining rod and analogy to European use of hazel for this (ibid.). For a comprehensive review see Fulling (1953). who considered other analogies.

2. Quoted by Fulling. It is perhaps more significant that Cutler reported in 1785 (see 1902 ed., p. 412) that Indians considered the tree a valuable article in their materia medica. "They applied the bark, which is sedative and discutient, to painful tumors and external int1ammation." 3. Rafinesque (1828-30. 1: 229-30). 4. Clapp (1852. p. 775). For Fountain see also Phillips (1879. p. 211). Phillips noted the popu-

larity of hamamelis among homeopathic physicians. Other influential authors such as N. S. Davis (1848, pp. 349-51) drew attention to it. 5. Lloyd (1921, p. 162). Fulling (1953) gave a full

account. 6. L. Johnson (1884, p. 146). 7. Shoemaker (1893,2:653-55). 8. Estes (1988).

9. Fuller (1920, p. 428). 10. Often classified under astringent drugs; e.g. Solis-Cohen and Githens (1928, pp. 1065-66). Friedrich and Kruger (1974).

11. National St(lIldard Dispensatory (1905, p. 757).

WOOD SORREL (leaves, roots) The Herbalist's Account There are several varieties. We generally use the one with a pinkish bloom. It has three leaves, a little like clover; all called sour grass, Wood sorrel is a medical plant on account of it's being sour. There's plenty of it, but there are many other things and it takes a lot of it to go somewhere. A few leaves are good for the stomach. The tops are used to make an ointment. Though I haven't used it for external cancer, it has been known to be beneficial. Mother used to make pie of it because it is imitation rhubarb, you know. Some people calls it wild rhubarb. There's no fruit in it, but the juice would make a wonderful pie when you don't have nothing else to make a pie of. Commentary OxaIis acetosel1u 1. [syn. O. corniculata Miq.): wood sorrel. wood sour, wood shamrock. O. stricta 1. * [syn. Xanthoxalis stricta (L.) Small]: wood sorrel, sheep sorrel, sourgrass. O. corniculata L. * [syn. Xanthoxalis corniculata (L.) Small/: creeping lady sorrel. wood sorrel. Oxalidaceae The root of the naturalized, delicate little wood sorrel. O. acetosella, has long been employed in Europe. Gerard (1597) noted two wood sorrels, indicating that they were cold and dry and used for such conditions as "sicke & feeble stomache," "ulcers of the mouth," and "pestilential fevers." 1 The latter use, a "refrigerant," or cooling, action on fevers linked to the acid taste, remained the most popular, though wood sorrel's role in stimulating appetite as a spring tonic ("aperient and detergent") was well known.' Like many botanicals, a decline in popularity was almost certainly under way by the

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Wood Sorrel (Oxalis acetosella) end of the eighteenth century. Interestingly, this was linked to a decline in the use of the expressed juice, which, like many juices, was often thought to be more active than the plant. 3 Although in 1848 Scottish author Robert Christison said that the plant was little used in regular medicine, it still had a place in self-care, and conserves containing wood sorrel (as a substitute for lemons) were still being recommended as an invalid food in home medical care.' In America there was a similar lack of enthusiasm for wood sorrel. Influential R. E. Griffith (1847) said that the plant was "now seldom used in medicine," but was nevertheless a good antiscorbutic, useful as an external application to scrofulous ulcers, and employed sometimes as a cooling drink in fevers. s Gunn's New Family Physician (1869) was just one book providing similar information (and indicating that O. stricta was easier to obtain); Gunn indicated that it was best known for application in the form of a

459

plaster to "cancers."6 Wood sorrel seemed to disappear from the literature, perhaps partly because of a reason given by Laurence Johnson (1884) : O. acetosella and O. stricta were "reputed to be useful in scurvy and scorbutic affections generally. As, however, binoxalate of potash has been shown to act more efficiently and certainly than the plant, the latter may be considered obsolete."7 He noted, nevertheless, that Oxalis might be used as a cooling drink in fevers. Bass's comments do not mention the longstanding reputation for fevers. His reference to Oxalis's use for stomach ailments follows past reputations and, in his mind, is based on the sensory properties. External use is well established, though most reports mention employing the fresh juice, not the tops in a salve as mentioned by Bass, which clearly is a much weaker preparation.s Worry is often expressed about wood sorrel's reputation as a poison (due to the presence of oxalic acid) but, as Rafinesque said in 1830, danger only exists when eaten in excess-a dose greater than the few leaves recommended by Mr. Bass.9 He thinks that the O. corniculata he sometimes collects is not as strong. No detailed discussion on the chemical constituents, apart from oxalic acid, was found . Notes 1. Gerard (1597 , p. 1031); O. acetosella is thought to be the wh ite wood sorrel. For other sorrels see pp.318-23 .

2. For "cooling" recipe, typical of much domestic medical literature: "use clear posset drink poured on wood-sorrel"; e.g.. Kittilby (1734 , p. 131), Blankaart (1708 , p. 3). W. Lewis (1791. p. 116) referred to Boerhaave's recommendation as a spring tonic. 3. Parr (1809 , 1 :22). 4. Christison (1848, p. 99); also Child (1837). 5. Griffith (1847 . pp. 208-9). 6. Gunn (1869. p. 909) .

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7. L. Johnson (1884, p. 115). This is an interesting facet of the complex story of treating scurvy. 8. F. C. Brown (1957-64, 6:139, 183). 9. Rafinesque (1828-30, 2:48).

YAM, WILD (root); SWEET POTATO The Herbalist's Account I've known about wild yam for some time; it's highly regarded for the colic. I sold a lot to Doc Sanders, back in the 1960s. Of course, it's not the same as sweet potato -some calls them yams. In the old days folks didn't reckon the sweet potato was as healthy as Irish potato, but we don't go along with that now. Now, these two boys that's worked with me have read up on wild yam, and they say, gosh, it's right up there along with the rest of them; we use it in the same place as yellowroot, and for black snakeroot in rheumatism. I didn't know until lately how powerful the stuff is, but I'm stocking it now. The two boys are Rich and Glenn; Glenn is highly educated. Rich has been to high school but he is like me, just a middle-of-theroad fellow, but Glenn uses the names here that the doctor put down, and he just confuses me and poor Rich. We get after him and say, hey there, break that down here where we can remember. But I teached him all he knows about the medical plants. He's got all kind of books and he reads the encyclopedia and everything like that. I'd think the boy would leave home. but his daddy is nearly ninety years. He and his mother has got hardening of the arteries, and he's the only one at home. It come on him to watch over his mother and dad. Before Glenn's mother got so bad, he came down here and visited me a whole lot. He's a good boy. He don't drink, but he smokes a little, and chews tobacco. He is a quiet fellow. Where he gets his money, I don't know. I wouldn't ask him. It is none of my business, but I think he used to be a

carpenter. But he really knows the herbs. And he runs research on them. He takes a course at the university from a mean Indian, the kind who shoots and asks questions later, a friendly fellow, but a Mohawk won't fool with you, but he's his teacher. He told Glenn it was best to use the plants fresh when you can get them, but you can dry them or freeze them. I can't afford to freeze them. Commentary Dioscorea villosa L. * , including varieties: wild yam, yam, colic root. D. quaternata (Walt.) J. F. Gme!. [syn. D. glauca Muh!.]: wild yam, yam, colic root. D. alata L.: yam, sweet potato. Ipomoea batatas: sweet potato, yam (often a local name). Dioscoreaceae While Mr. Bass has only recently become enthusiastic-due to much advocacy literature-over D. villosa (an indigenous vine), a "sweet potato" (possibly D. a/ata) attracted modest interest in North America as a food in colonial times, as did Ipomoea batatas. ' In fact, uncertainty exists over the early history of sweet potato, a name now generally used for I. balatas, whereas "yam"-among botanists, if not the general public-is reserved for Dioscorea species. Both plants were apparently known to early colonists. How widespread has been the notion that sweet potato is less healthful than Irish potato is unclear. Certainly, sweet potato has long been appreciated as a nourishing food" Distinct medical interest in D. villosa is only apparent since the first half of the nineteenth century. Credit for initiating much interest has been given to John Riddell, in his Synopsis of the Flora of the Western States (1835). He described "D. villosa" (probably D. quaternata, see below) as "unquestionably a valuable remedy in bilious colic," a use that became well established, as reflected in the vernacular name "colic root." Riddell

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Yam (Dioscorea alata)

added : "I have been informed that Dr. Miller of Neville, Ohio, values the tincture highly as an expectorant. He says it is also diaphoretic, and in large doses emetic."3 R. E. Griffith, in his standard textbook Medical Botany (1847). drew attention to a number of species of Dioscorea, including D. villosa, and helped to reinforce its reputation, which rested primarily on diaphoretic and expectorant properties.' In 1871 Appalachian physician A. A. Scroggs said that it was in large demand and held in high repute in North Carolina for allaying sympathetic nausea (antispasmodic) and as a specific in biliary colic.' Eclectic practitioners and the marketing of an Eclectic "concentrated" remedy for nausea and vomiting in pregnancy contributed to the popularity of wild yam. 6 In 1880 C. G. Lloyd wrote : "The rhizome of Dioscorea villosa is a favorite therapeutical agent among our Eclectic physicians, who have advantageously used it for more than forty years. ... The virtues appear to reside in an acrid resin." 7 It is noteworthy that wild yam's reputation

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for rheumatism appears to have emerged only toward the end of the nineteenth century and was apparently associated with diaphoretic properties rather than any perceived specific action. One of the earliest books to mention its employment for rheumatism was Pocket Materia Medica and Therapeutics, by C. H. Leonard; he called it rheumatism root. s Despite some enthusiasm, the decline in wild yam's popularity was conspicuous during the early decades of this century. The 1930 edition of the Dispensatory of the United States stated bluntly that it "is improbable ... that it possesses any real therapeutic virtues and its infrequent use scarcely justifies official recognition." 9 Further interest in Dioscorea villosa as a source of chemical precursors to cortisone did not materialize.'o The question of whether or not D. villosa has any effect on rheumatism has not been entirely settled. While the alleged diaphoretic action can account for some of the reputation, it is often assumed that the presence of steroidal saponins, notably diosgenin (reported in many species of Dioscorea) confers anti-inflammatory activity. However, clinical evidence for effectiveness is lacking. Studies on diosgenin have focused on its effects on cholesterol (inhibiting absorption in rats and reducing hypercholesterolemia) and atherosclerosis." There is evidence that Dioscorea possesses expectorant action." It is interesting that "official" organizations (e.g., the North Carolina Yam Commission) promote the yellow yam partly on the reputation of beta carotene for helping to prevent cancer.13 A significant footnote to the story is the opinion that nineteenth-century accounts of D. villosa in fact referred to other species such as D. glauca Muhl. (now D. quaternata). Various debates have occurred about the number of species that have been grouped as D. villosa .14

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Notes

YARROW (tops)

1. The advocacy literature includes many surprising claims for D. villoSQ, including those in Shaffer

The Herbalist's Account

(1986). 2. Cf. Gerard/Johnson (1633, p. 926), probably describing I. batatas. Much uncertainty exists over the early history of sweet potato in the New World; Rea (1975) made comments and included suggeslions that Dioscorea alata and Ipomoea batatus were known to seventeenth-century colonists. For general background see Coursey, "Yams" (in Simmonds, 1976, pp. 70-74); and Yen, "Sweet Potato" (ibid" pp 42-45), It is generally agreed that the sweet potato is of American origin. Bass, like most people, does not distinguish between sweet potato and "yam" in local markets, and he considers them to be cultivated forms of wild yam, Dioscoreo vilj()SQ, rather than a species of ipomoea. Various reasons have been put forward to account for the name yam being used for sweet potato. In part it has been used fur marketing purposes, to distinguish the moist, orange-colored varieties from the white-colored varieties (personal communication, North Carolina Yam Commission).

That's another old home plant-like a fern -that's easily grown in the garden and it's popular like garden sage. It has a minty odor. You can use the wild plant. It's recommended for so many things I don't know what it's good for; it's good for cuts and all-around tonic, and also a cold remedy, makes you sweat like aspirin. A handful of tops boiled in a quart of water makes a tea. Take a cupful during the day. It's as safe as they come, or use it as a wash. Some folks say it's too bitter to take, and I recommend yellowroot. You can eat it as a vegetable, but parboil it first.

Commentary Achillea millefolium L. *, including vari-

4. Griffith (1847, p. (59).

eties [syns. A. asplenifolia Vent.; A. lanulosa Nutt.; A. occidentalis Raf.; Santolina millefolia BN.]: milfoil, yarrow, nosebleed, staunchweed, blood wort, common yarrow. A. lanulosa Nutt. [syn. 1\. millefolium var. lanulosa (Nutt.) Piper]: milfoil, yarrow, nosebleed, staunchweed, blood wort, common yarrow.

5. Scroggs (1871). See also Hyams (1898, p. 394).

Asterceae (Compositae)

3. Riddell (1835, p. 26. no. 1501). Hooper (1826,

under "Dioscoreo") noted only that yam was nutritious and easily digested,

6. King (1871, p. 705).

Supplement to the eighth edition of King's Dispensutory (1880, pp. 81-83).

7.

8. Leonard (1891, p. 106). The name appears tu

have become well established. Henkel, for instance, in 1907 (p. 21) called it rheumatism root and said that it was employed by Negroes in the South for the treatment of muscular rheumatism. 9. Dispensatory of the United States (1930, p. 401). 10. Correll et al. (1955). 11. E.g.,

Laguna et al. (1962).

12. Boyd and Palmer (1946). 13. Anon., "We Also Stand Number One in Sweet Potato Business," North Carolina (June 1985): 2021.

14. Bartlet! (1910), and, for example, Ward (1977).

Pycnanthemum tenuifolium Schrades* [syn. Koellia fJexuosCl (Walter) Max M.l: mountain mint, yarrow (local name). Lamiaceae (Labiatae) The widely distributed, readily hybridizable yarrow-generally 30-36 em tall with conspicuous, highly disected, gray-green, aromatic leaves-has a long medical history but has probably never been widely popular, at least within regular medicine. Although yarrow was naturalized early in the Colonies, the commoner yarrow of eastern Canada and New England may be the native A. lanulosa, practically identical to A. millefolium but distinguishable by chromosome numbers.' John Gerard (1597) described a number

Monographs

Yarrow (Achillea millefolium)

of yarrows (including A. millefolium) and noted a medically appropriate vernacular name, nosebleed. 2 He invoked the authority of Galen in saying that yarrow was like iron worte, "clensing and meanely cold, but it most of all bindeth." As Gerard underscored yarrow's reputation for treating wounds and sores, he provided an interesting glimpse of sixteenth-century student life. After mentioning its value in curing the "inward excoriations of the yarde of a man," he described "a certaine friend ... sometimes a Fellow of King's Colledge in Cambridge, who lightly bruised the leaves of common yarrowe with hogs-grease, and applied it warm unto the privie parts, and thereby did divers times helpe himself, and other of his fellowes when he was a student, and a single man living in Cambridge." 3 The plant was often spoken of positively during the eighteenth century when astrin-

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gent and tonic properties were commonly emphasized. Thus Lewis (1769) noted its use as a mild corroborant for diarrhea and as an antispasmodic, a remedy for hemorrhage, a vulnerary, and for hypochondria and other disorders.' Yet by the early nineteenth century the British Medical Dictionary, by R. Hooper, was stating that although included in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, yarrow was generally neglected in medical practice. 5 Yarrow does not appear to have become especially popular in America, and it received little attention until the writings of C. S. Rafinesque in 1830.6 R. E. Griffith (1847) made the interesting statement that the American plant was more active than the European; however, this was merely a subjective assessment of the bitter-astringent properties, which he felt were not agreeable and would "always prevent it coming into general use."7 Griffith added that its oncestrong reputation for treating wounds was no longer current. Laurence Johnson (1884), who was often very critical of the medicinal plants in current use, hardly wrote enthusiastically: "yarrow is said to be stimulant, tonic and astringent, and to exert a special influence upon the pelvic organs. It has been employed in digestive disorders, in menstrual irregularities, in hemorrhages due to relaxed conditions of mucous membranes, in catarrhal affections, etc."B Other physicians were also doubtful of some of the many alleged properties.9 As with so many botanicals, yarrow's virtual demise in regular medicine was clearly under way by the end of the century, though it had some place in domestic medicine in such areas as treating fevers 10 and continued to be mentioned for its irritant action into the twentieth century" It has been extensively known to and used by twentieth-century Indians in the United States and CanadaY Current literature generally lists it as a diaphoretic, although the historical record gives little credence to this.' 3 Bass's mention

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of its employment for cuts. as a tonic. and for colds is in line with past uses long associated with the astringent and bitter properties. Over 120 constituents in yarrow have been characterized. Much study has focused on the volatile oil and sesquiterpene lactones. Anti-inflammatory activity has been associated with the oil and azulene and chamazulene, but some chemical races are azul enefree. Along with the anti-inflammatory activity. to which a glycoprotein may also contribute. the astringent action lies behind the long-standing reputation for treating wounds. However. a constituent alkaloid. achilleine. is reported to have hemostatic properties. 14 Sesquiterpene lactones have a wide variety of biological activities, but their clinical relevance and dosage need study. It is clear, however. that their bitter taste has been especially important in encouraging the notion of tonic action. Yarrow's reputation for digestive disorders is usually explained on the basis of the volatile oil or the mild astringency. but flavonoids that possess spasmolytic activity may be contributory. The role of other constituents in contributing to pharmacological activity is also unclear. though certain sterols. triterpenoids. and such salicylic acid derivatives as eugenol and menthol may be significant 10 Yarrow is regarded as nontoxic. though potential uses for it nowadays-mild antispasmodic and where "tonics" may be helpful-are limited by tbe unpleasant taste. as noted long ago by Griffith. and by Bass. Bass adds that there are many better herbs for skin ailments. while usage for fevers (a diaphoretic) has little historical pedigree. Recent accounts of the use of yarrow. especially in the advocacy literature. give no sense of its uncertain popularity at times and recommended alternatives. and often overstate the extent of magical uses. 16 Allergic responses may be of concern to some people. Furthermore. Bass has on one

occasion at least collected Pycnanthemum tenuifolium as yarrow. This is only superficially similar and reflects collecting errors that can occur even with experienced herbalists. Notes 1. Chandler et al. (1982) noted that the Achillea

millefolium complex is a group of scarcely separable species. See also Scoggan (1978~79. p. 145B). where A. lanulnsn is classified as A. millefolium var. lanulosa (Nutt.) Piper. Other approaches have been made to a difficult nomenclatural prohlem; somp, emphasizing ecotype differentiation. A question arises as to the comparability of the millefolium complex found in North America with that found elsewhere. For indication of some of the issues see Hiesey and Nabs (1970). 913~15). It is generally thought that fig. 1, p. 914, represents A. millefolium. Other relevant names are staunch weed and bloodwort. Interestingly. a related plant. A. ptarmica, is known as sneezewort. For some early history see Le Strange (1977. pp. 4~6).

2. Gp,rard (1597, pp.

:1. Gerard (1597, p. 915).

4. W. L'Mis (1769. 2:64). 5. Hooper (1826). under "Achillea." 6. Rafinesque (1B2B~30. 2:125) indicated the

American plant to be pharmacologically stronger than the Europr;an. It is not clear whether much Indian usage existed at the time. but given later reparts it is likely. Cf. Chandler et al. (1982). 7. Griffith (1847, pp.

402~4).

8. L. Johnson (1884, p. 182; italics added). Some

references to nineteenth-century publications advocating yarrow for various purposes can be found in C. B. Wood and Bache (lB6B, p. 7). 9. Stille (1864. 1: 48fi-88J, as so often with botani-

cals. gave a judicious account. 10. E.g., Brendle and Ungp,r (1935. p. 91). who noted administering sap at the onset of a fever.

11. Solis-Cohen and Githens (1928. p. 839). 12. Shemluck (1982). 13. E.g., Ivlerc:k Index (19B3, no. 106). 14. For discussion on constituents and the signifi-

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465

cance of some of them, see Chandler et al. (1982). Duke (1985, p. 10) gives an incomplete list. See also Kelley et al. (1988). 15. Chandler et al. (1982). Obviously some of

the constituents are present in small quantities. Whether or not synergistic action may be at play is unknown. 16. E.g., Kelley et al. (1988).

YELLOWROOT (rhizome, roots)

The Herbalist's Account Yellowroot grows along streams. It likes sandy soil best. The bloom of the plant has nothing to brag on. It favors what we call cow-itch vine, but the leaf looks like a carrot top. It's one of the finest remedies we have. It's been used ever since time for sore mouth, sore eyes, and stomach trouble. Another name for it is scurvy root. More people is taking it now for ulcers than for any other thing we know of. It's absolutely real stuff. We've got so many people smiling after taking that, now, that ain't no joke. Every day around the place we find somebody that yellow root has done good. One woman told me, "Mr. Bass, you know I came to you twenty years ago and you put me on yellowroot. I raised my family. I'm fifty years old. I went through my change and everything. I never took a thing in the world but yellowroot. Didn't make no difference how I felt, I took a dose of yellowroot. I am passing it on to my children." I generally put a handful of yellowroot in half a gallon of water. Boil it for twenty-five or thirty minutes and strain it. You can boil it more than once. As long as it's bitter, it's good. Commentary Xanthorhiza simplicissima Marsh. * [syn. Zanthorhiza simplicissima; X. or Z. apiifolia L. Her.): yellowroot, parsley-leaved yellowroot, yellow wort, scurvyroot (local name).

"" * ji- . \

Yellowroot

Ranunculaceae Of various plants commonly known as yellowroot, goldenseal (see monograph) is probably the best known . However, in the Appalachians the indigenous Xanthorhiza simplicissima is the most popular yellowroot. The plant attracted a fair amount of interest during the nineteenth century. W. P. C. Barton (1817-18)' in his important book on American materia medica, followed the enthusiasm of a Dr. Woodhouse in indicating its value as "a very pure tonic bitter" and useful for stomach complaints.' Within the next few decades other uses were occasionally listed, such as in ointment "for the dispersion of inflammatory swellings, particularly of the breasts." 2 By the mid-1800s ambivalence can be dis-

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cerned. Clapp's comment in 1852 suggests a lack of enthusiasm: "formerly held in high estimation, by Dr. Woodhouse and others, as a tonic." 3 Ten years later British author Robert Bentley, in drawing attention to "new American remedies," noted that it had never been in much repute with regular or Eclectic practitioners, despite its well-marked tonic properties, but was "worthy of a trial in this country.'" Within a few years, Laurence Johnson (1884) suggested reasons for its relative unpopularity: "Like hydrastis [goldenseal] and coptis, both of which it resembles in respect to constituents. Xanthorhiza possesses simple bitter tonic properties. It has, however, much smaller percentage of berberina than either of them, and so far as this alkaloid goes, should therefore be less efficient when administered in like doses. It has been employed chiefly as a domestic remedy, but some competent observers esteem it more highly than either gentian or calumba."5 Little physiological evidence exists to suggest any specific activity on ulcers from the presence of the bitter berberine (see Coldenseal) or from other alkaloids present." While berberine is said to relax intestinal smooth muscle, it is suggested that an irritant effect might produce mucosal changes valuab!t~ in the healing of an ulcer. The bitterness of yellowroot has long been associated with the reputation as a tonic. Whatever the past views of regular physicians. yellowroot remains a premier domestic medicine in Bass's region.' He says that it is milder than goldenseal, which he sees as an asset. There seems little doubt that yellowroot will long remain a popular remedy among his visitors for stomach disorders and as a tonic.

Notes 1. W. P. C. 2.

Barton (1817-11l. 2:205).

E.g .. Capron and Slack (1848, p. 626).

3. Clapp added that Woodhouse used a dose of two scruples and that decoctions and tinctures were also employed (1852, p. 722).

Bentley, "Xunthorrhizo opiifolio" (1862-63). Stille (1864, p. 460) wrote positively, indicating that alcoholic extracts were preferred to aqueous.

4.

5. L.

6.

Johnson (1884. p. 67).

Hussein et al. (1963).

7. Not all regular medical textbooks in the last decades of the nineteenth century were negative. Stille (1874,1:5'10) nnted it to be a simple tonic applicable to the same disorders as other members of its class.

YERBA SANTA (leaves)

The Herbalist's Account I don't reckon it grows around here, but it used to be in some of the store medicines. Folks have asked me about it in the last few years. It's highly recommended as a tonic and good for coughs. It's another one on the up. The capsules are big sellers. Commentary Eriodictyon californicum (Hook. and Am.) Torrey [syns. E. californicum Green; E. glutinosum Benth.]: yerba santa, eriodictyon. Hydrophyllaceae This bitter indigenous plant attracted general medical interest in the second half of the nineteenth century. as did other species in the genus, all growing in the southwestern United States and adjacent Mexico. The early promotion of E. californicum has been well documented. An Eclectic physician, J. H. Bundy of Colusa, California, drew attention to the plant in 1877; next, the pharmaceutical company Parke-Davis marketed it, and its subsequent growth in popularity led to its inclusion in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia.' Its reputation rested partly on being a tonic -seemingly associated with astringencybut it was also viewed as an expectorant. In advertising their many yerba santa prepa-

Monographs

rations, Parke-Davis (quoting Napheys's Therapeutics) described the plant as a "tonic expectorant, agreeable to the palate and without nauseating properties." It was especially indicated in "chronic subar:ute inflammation of the bronchial mucous membrane, and in cases of paralysis of the bronchial muscles." 2 During the early decades of the twentieth century, it appears to have sustained modest popularity among regular physicians in America and overseas. In 1923 the authoritive British Pharmaceutical Codex described it as a "bitter tonic and as a stimulating expectorant. It has been given in chronic: bronchitis, and chronic inflammation of the genitourinary tract." 3 For some years after these uses generally went out of favor, a syrup of yerba santa remained popular for masking tbe flavor of some bitter medicines, especially the commonly used bitter quinine 4 With widespread interest in the early decades of this century, it is not altogether surprising that yerba santa became part of a popular tradition which reached Mr. Bass. He enthuses that it is another herb, once forgotten, now "on the up." While it is still generally recommended for colds and chest complaints, many other uses have emerged; some-perhaps related to the notion that it is a blood purfier-are not supported by the historical record.' Flavonoids and glycosides have been isolated, but no clinical correlation has been made. Detailed assessments of yerba santa perhaps have to consider that other Eriodictyon species are also commonly known as yerba santa, though similar constituents are certainly present in some instances. 6 Notes 1. Some details are in Lloyd (1921, pp. 132-34). Bundy was instrumental in introducing three medicinal plants, Mahonia aquifolium, Rhamnus purshiana, and Yerba santa. For background see Berman (1980).

467

2. Parke-Davis (1890, p. 200). 3. British Pharmaceutical Codex (1923, pp. 41314). 4. Potter (1917, p. 264); Dispensutory of the United States, 26th ed. (1967, p. 472). 5. See, for example, Tenney (1982, pp. 137-38). 6.

Bacon et al. (1986).

YUCCA (roots) The Herbalist's Account I don't know much about it; it's not common around here and I've not used it. A lot of folks calls it beargrass. It was used as a poultice for sores and burns. A tea is a good tonic. Folks have asked me about it, but no one likes to dig the roots up. However, it's another one r:oming up; health food stores have it, and you can get it by mail order. It's said to be good for arthritis. Commentary Yucca filamentosa L. *, and hybrids: beargrass, silk-grass, soapweed, yucca. Agavaceae Yucca-a name that can refer to more than forty species in the genus-has been occasionally recorded in Western medical literature since at least the eighteenth century but without ever arousing much enthusiasm. It is a predominantly coastal plains plant that has escaped cultivation in the United States, and Mr. Bass's lack of interest in Yucca filamentosa is partly due to its rarity in his area. However, he has long absorbed information from popular tradition. It is almost certainly the "bear's grass" recorded in Alabama traditional beliefs as possessing a reputation for burns and, in poultices, for sores. It is also mentioned for earache and for the complexion, although general economic uses (e.g. as "soap" and for "ropes") were better known.! Seventeenth- and eighteenth-century accounts of medical uses are sparse. John Ger-

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ard described "yucca" in 1597 as "hot and drie" without indicating any medical uses, but he seems to have been referring to manioc (Manihot spp.J, the source of cassava.2 A certain amount of confusion persisted for some time between the starchy tropical food plant cassava (also called yucca) and yucca proper.' Johann Schoepf (1787), in his influential account of American materia medica, listed "Yucca filamentosa," but without mentioning specific medical properties for the soaplike qualities.' While generally ignored by other early writers on American medicinal plants, occasional references can be found. An 1850 report on indigenous plants in the Abbreville District. South Carolina, noted that the plant (Y. filamentosa) had some reputation for the cure of gonorrhea when given in the form of a tincture-eight ounces of the dried root steeped in a gallon of whiskey, with a wine-glass full as the dose. 5 Subsequently, at least until recently, yucca almost disappeared from the medical literature, though clearly knowledge persisted at a domestic level," and almost certainly among some Indian tribes, for twentieth-century studies list a range of uses from dermatological aid to laxative, but without specific references to Y. filamentosa. 7 Utilizing certain yucca species as "soap" (hence the name soapweed) has also been recorded, as have such economic uses as making "rope." The reputation for treating skin complaints, commonplace in recent herbal advocacy literature, has been associated with cleansing and anti-inflammatory properties." Interest also has arisen from claims that the soaplike saponin extract of yucca is of value in the treatment of arthritis, a use seemingly not recorded in the past. Such claims have been declared unproven, and it is not at all certain that yucca and its steroidal saponins have anti-inflammatory action for skin ailments. 9 A relevant issue is that the nature and amount of the saponins in yucca vary markedly with the part of the plant, the geo-

graphical locality, and the season collected.!O For instance, southwestern yuccas growing in arid areas produce only sarsapogenin, while those growing in moist southeastern areas make a variety of sapogeninsY Much uncertainty exists over the medical role of yucca, though at least Bass's remarks about using it for certain skin conditions reflect a strong historical pedigree. Notes 1. R. B. Browne (1958. pp. 43, 52, 58, 74. 96).

2. Gerard (1597, p. 1359); Johnson, in his revised edition of the Herball (1633. p. 1543), stressed

that Gerard described manioc. The cassava plant generally employed is Manihot esculenta Crantz. 3. This is suggested by Motherby (1785). under "yucca." He stressed the difference. Gerard gave no medical uses for yucca. 4. Schoepf (1787. p. 48). 5. Barratt (1850. p. 317).

6. Interestingly Grieve (1971, 2:770) listed it as a stimulant, erroneously attributing this quality to saponin content.

7. Moerman (1977. p. 205). 8. E.g .. B. C. Harris (1972, pp. 197-98); an advocacy position was taken by L. Griffin (1979. pp. 53-56). It is argued that saponin of yucca helps to

cleanse the colon and thus to overcome chronic diseases such as arthritis and cancer. 9. See Bingham et a!. (1975). For some background comments see Tyler (1982. pp. 235-36); for con-

stituents of Y. schidigero and Y. brevifolia see Leung (1980, pp. 330-31). Also see "Yucca," Lawrence Rev. Nat. Prod. (January 1988). 10. See references in note 9 above.

11. Wall et a!. (1954).

Annotated Bibliography

Those Articles Which Are Employed by the Hindoos, and Other Eastern Nations in Their Medicine, Arts, and Agriculture. 2 vols. London: Longman, 1826.

Albert-Puleo. M. "Fennel and Anise as Estrogenic Agents." J. Ethnopharmacol. 2 (1980): 337-44. - - - . "Physiological Effects of Cabbage with Reference to Its Potential as a Dietary Cancer-Inhibitor and Its Use in Ancient Medicine." /. Ethnopharmacol. 9 (1983): 261-72. Alcorn, j. B. Huostec Mayan Ethnobotany. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1984. Abraham, G. J., and N. V. Agshikar. "Anti-Inflammatory Activity of an Essential Oil from Lan· thoxylum budrunga." Pharmacology 7 (1972): 109-14.

Ackerknecht, E. H. Medicine and Ethnology, Selected Essays. Ed. H. H. Walser and H. M. Koelbing. Bern: Huber, 1971. - - - . Therapeutics from the Primitives to the 20th Century. New York: Hafner, 1973. - - - . A Short History of Medicine. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982.

Alexander, A. L. "Menstrual Disorders." Trans. Med. Soc. North Carolina 44 (1897): 83-88. Alikaridis, F. "Natural Constituents of !lex Species." J. Ethnopharmacol. 20 (1987): 121-34. Allan, M. The Tradescants. Their Plants, Gardens, and Museum 1570-1662. London: Joseph, 1964. Allen, F. M. "Blueberry Leaf Extract, Physiologic and Clinical Properties in Relation to Carbohydrate Metabolism." T. Amer. Med. Assoc. 89 (1927): 1577-81.

Allen, I. C. B. Mrs. Allen's Book of Wheat Substitutes. Boston: Small, Maynard, 1918.

Adams, C. F. Nutritive Value of American Food in Common Units. Washington, D.C.: Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Allport, N. L. The Chemistry and Pharm(!cy of Vegetable Drugs. Brooklyn: Chemical Publishing,

1975.

1944.

Adetumbi, M. A., and B. H. S. Lau. "Allium sativum (Garlic)-A Natural Antibiotic." Med. Hypotheses 12 (1983): 227-37.

81-84.

Ahara, R. C. "Comparative Effect of Clofibrate, Garlic, and Onion on Alimentary Hyperlipemia." Atherosclerosis 39 (1981): 447-52. Ahrendt, L. W. A. "Berberis and Mahonia: A Taxonomic Revision." T. Linn. Soc. (Bot.) 57 (1961): 1-410.

Aikman, L. Nature's Healing Arts. From Folk Medicine to Modern Drugs. Washington, D.C.: National Geographical Society, 1977.

"Aloe Update." Lawrence Rev. Nat. Prod. 3 (1982): AI-Shehbaz, I. A. "The Genera 01 Brassiceae (Cmcilerae Brassicaceae) in the Southeastern United States." J. Arnold Arboretum 66 (1985): 279-351. - - . "The Genera of Lepidieae (Cruciferae Brassicaceae) in the Southeastern United States." 1- Arnold Arboretum 67 (1986): 265-311. Altschule, S. R. Drugs and Foods from LittleKnown Plants; Notes in Harvard University Herbaria. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1973.

Aimer's Manuscript Formula Hook. Charleston, South Carolina: Aimer and Company, Druggists and Apothecaries, c. HlOO. Copy in Country Doctor Museum, Bailey, North Carolina. Illustrates formulas-an eclectic mix, including domestic practice -many in use in domestic medicine.

American Herbal Pharmacology Delegation. Herbal Pharmacology in the People's Republic of China. Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, 1975. Evaluates 248 plant and animal drugs. Includes many plants closely related to those known to Bass, but a detailed comparison has not been attempted.

Ainslie, W. Materia Indica, or Some Account of

"American Medical Writers." Boston Med. Surg. 6(1832-33): 142-44.

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Learning, edited by M. F. Ashley-Montagu, 22133. New York: Schuman, 1944.

Anderson, F. J. An Illustrated History of the Herbals. New York: Columbia University Press. 1977.

- - - . "From Medieval Herbalism to the Birth of Modern Botany." In Science, Medicine (md Historv. Essays in 1lonor of Charles Singer, edited bv E. A. Underwood, 317-36. London: Oxford UnivArsity Press, 1953.

Anderson, L. A., and j. D. Phillipson. "MistletoeThe Magic Herb." Pharm. J. 229 (1982): 437-39.

- - - . Herbals, Their Origin and Evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1953.

- - - . "Herbal Medicine, Education, and the Pharmacist." Pharm. J. 236 (1986): 303-5, 311.

Aronson, J. K. An Account of the Foxglove and Its Medical Uses, 1785-1985. London: Oxford University Press, 1985.

Amherst, A. A History of Curdening in England. London: Quaritch, 1896.

Andrew, T. A Cyclopedia of Domestic Medicine and Surgery. Glasgow: Blackie, 1847. Andrews, E. F. "The Galax Odor." Torreya 15 (1915): 16-18.

Andrews, J. Peppers. The Domesticated Capsicums. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1984. Andrews, T., with W. L. Corya and D. A. Stickel, Jr. A Bibliography on Herbs, Herbal Medicine, "Natural" Foods, and Unconventional Medical Treatment. Littleton: Libraries Unlimited, 1982. Angier, B. Field Guide to Medicinal Wild Plants. Harrisburg: Stackpole Books, 1974. Anonymous. The English Midwife. Enlarged. London: Rowland Reynolds, 1682. Anton, R., and M. Haag-Berrurier. "Therapeutic Use of Natural Anthraquinone for Other than Laxative Actions." Pharmacology 20, supplement 1

Arseculeratne, S. N., et al. "Studies on Medidnal Plants of Sri Lanka: Occurrence of Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids and Hepatotoxic Properties in Some Traditional Medicinal Herbs." J. EthnopilOrmocol. 4 (1981): 159-77.

Asprey, G. F., and P. Thornton. "Medicinal Plants of Jamaica." West Indies Med. J. 2 (1953): 241-52. "Asthma." Med. Gaz. Heolth 10 (1825): 12-14. Atkinson, P. "From Honey to Vinegar: Levi-Strauss in Vermont." In Culture and Curing. Anthropological Perspectives in Traditional Medical Beliefs and Practices, edited by P. Morley and L. Wallis, 168-88. London: Owen, 1978. Atlee, E. A. "On the Medicinal Properties of Monarcic, punetata." Amer. Med. Rec. 2 (1819): 496-501.

(1980): 104-12.

Aurand, A. M .. fr. The "Pow-Wow" Book. Harrisburg: Aurand Press, 1929.

Aoyagi, N., et al. "Studies on Passiflora incarnata Dry Extract. 1. [solation of Maltol and Pharmacological Action of Maltol and Ethyl Maltol." Chern. Pharm. Bull. 22 (1974): 1008-13.

Avery, A. C. "Historical Review." In Blokeslee: The Cenus Datura, edited by A. G. Avery et al. New York: Ronald Press, 1959.

Appelt, G. D. "Pharmacological Aspects of Selected Herbs Employed in Hispanic Folk Medicine in the San Luis Valley of Colorado USA. 1. Ligustic urn porteri (Osha) and Matricaria chamomilla (Manzanilla)." J. Ethnopharmacol. 13 (1985): 5155.

Appleby, j. H. "Ginseng and the Royal Society." Notes Rec. Roy. Soc. 37 (1982-83): 121-45. - - - . "Humphrey Jackson, F.R.S. 1717-1801: A Pioneering Chemist." Notes Rec. Roy. Soc. 40

Awang, D. V. C. "Comfrey." Can. Pharm.

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Bacon, J. D., et al. "Chemosystematics of the Hydrophyllaceae: Flavonoids of Three Species of Eriodictyon." Biochem. Syst. Eco1. 14 (1986): 591-95.

Bailey, L. H. "The Blackberries of North America." Centes Herborum 2 (1929-32): 271-420.

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Arber, A. "Analogy in the History of Science." In Studies and Essays in the History of Science and

- - - . How Plants Get Their Names. New York: Macmillan, 1933.

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"The Species of Grapes Peculiar to North America." Gentes Herbarum 3 (1933-35): 151-244.

Banchini, F., and F. Corbetta. Health Plants of the World. New York: Newsweek Books, 1977.

~~-.

Banerjee, A. K. "Effect of Aqueous Extract of Garlic on Arterial Blood Pressure of Normotensive and Hypertensive Rats." Artery 2 (1976): 369-73.

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Banister, R. A Treatise on One Hundred and Thirteen Diseases of the Eyes and Eye-Liddes. London: Kyngston, 1622.

The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture. New York: Macmillan, 1941 and 1953.

Bankova, V. S., et al. "A Study on Flavonoids of Propolis." J. Nat. Prod. 46 (1983): 471-74.

Bailey, L. H., and E. Z. Bailey. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan, 1976. (See also L. H. Bailey, Standard Cyclopedia, which provides more general information beyond taxonomy.)

Banks, A., ed. First-Person Americo. New York: Knopf, 1980.

~~-.

Baillon, H. "Botanique Medicale." Dictionnaire Encyclopedique des Sciences Medicales. Paris: Asselin, 1869, 10:109-62. A helpful review with historical perspective. Baker, D. M. "Boneset-An Old Indian Remedy Still in Use." Lawrence Rev. Nat. Prod. 4 (1983): 21-23.

Balachandra, A. T., et al. "Chronic Arsenic Poisoning in Opium Addicts in Sri Lanka." Ceylon Med. J.

Banks, W. H. "Ethnobotany of the Cherokee Indians." Master's thesis, University of Tennessee, 1953. Valuable for firsthand data collected. Banthorpe, D. V., and A. Wirz-Justice. "Monotropenes and Carotenoids from Tissue Cultures of Tanacetum vulgare." Perkins Trans. 1 (1972): 1768-72.

Barbee, E. L. "Biomedical Resistance to Ethnomedicine in Botswana." Soc. Sci. Med. 22 (1986): 75-80. A discussion on how ethnomedical practitioners can be incorporated into existing biomedical systems.

28 (1983): 29-39.

Barber, A. J. "Evening Primrose Oil: A Panacea?" Pharm. J. 240 (1988): 723-25.

Balandrin, M. F., et al. "Natural Plant Chemicals: Sources of Industrial and Medicinal Materials." Science 228 (1985): 1154-60.

A Barefoot Doctor's Manual. Revised and enlarged edition. Seattle: Revolutionary Health Community of Hunan Province, 1977.

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Barker, B. E., et al. "Peripheral Blood Plasmacytosis Following Systemic Exposure to Phytolacca americana (Pokeweed)." Pediatrics 38 (1966):

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Ball, D. "Grow Alfalfa in the Southeast? You Better Believe We Can." Auburn: Alabama Cooperative Extension Service, 1984. Balon, A. D. J. "Response to Symptoms." Pharm. J. 234 (1985): 532-36, 235:752-55. Reflects trends within modern pharmacy toward a more clinical practice. Raises questions about errors in interpreting symptoms without tests, a key problem for herbal practitioners.

490-93.

Barna, P. "Food or Drug? The Case of Ginseng." Lancet 2 (1985): 548. See subsequent letter from E. J. Staba, Lancet 2 (1985): 1309-10, highlighting problem of controversy over scientific studies. Barnes, B. V., and W. H. Wagner. Michigan Trees. A Guide to the Trees of Michigan and the Great Lakes Region. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1981. Baronov, A. L. "Medicinal Uses of Ginseng and Related Plants in the Soviet Union: Recent Trends

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Beach, W. The American Practice Condensed, Or the Family Physician: Being the Scientific System of Medicine: On Vegetable Principles, Designed for All Classes. New York: M'Allister, 1848. Int1uential in the development of Eclectic botanical medicine.

Bartholow, R. A Proctical Treatise on Materia Medica and Therapeutics. 1876. Reprint. New York: Appleton, 1881, 1882, 1885. A standard text that reached many American and British editions.

Beard, G. M. Our Home Physician. Art of Preserving Health and Treating Disease. New York: Trect, 1875. Gives a sense of keeping lay public up-to-date on medical developments.

Bartlett, H. H. The Source of the Drug Dioscorea, with a Consideration of the Dioscoreae Found in the United States. U.S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin no. 189. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1910.

Becci, P. j., et al. "The Toxicology of Dental Products Containing Sanguinarine and Sanguinaria Extract." Toxicologist 5 (1985): 176.

Barton, B. S. Collections for an Essay towards a Materia Medico of the United-States. Philadelphia: 1798. 2d ed., 1801-4. Reprint. Bull. Lloyd Library, no. 1, series no. 1. Cincinnati: Lloyd, 1900. - - - , ed. Professor Cullen's Treatise of the Moteria Medica. Philadelphia: Parker, 1812. Contains annotations to Treatise, see Cullen.

Becker, H., and C. Schwarz. "Die Mistel (Viscum album L.) als Krcbstherapeutikum. Ein Uberlick liber die Geschichte und neuere Forshung." Deut. Apoth-Ztg. 112 (1972): 1462-65. Beckett, A. H., et al. "The Active Constituents of Raspberry Leaves." J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 6 (1954): 785-96.

Barton, W. P. C. Vegetable Materia Medica of the United States, or, Medical Botany. 2 vols. Philadelphia: Cary, 1817-18.

Beckett, S. Herbs for Rheumatism and Arthritis and Herbs for Prostate and Bladder Troubles. Boulder: Shambhala, 1980. One of many advocacy books, widely known but with little historical or scientific basis for most of the claims made.

Bartram, W. The Travels of William Bartram. Edited by F. Harper. Naturalist's edition. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1958.

- - - . Herbs to Soothe Your Nerves. Boulder: Shambhala, 1981. An advocacy book uncritically employing historical sources.

Bastedo; W. A. Pharmacology, Theropeutics, and Prescription Writing for Students and Practitioners. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders, 1947. Owing to Bastedo's special interest in botany, it is of significance that relatively few botanicals were included.

Bedows. E., and C. M. Hatfield. "An Investigation of the Antiviral Activity of Podophyllum peltatum." J. Nat. Prod. 45 (1982): 725-2'1.

Bastien, j. W. "Pharmacopoeia of Qollahuaya Andeans." f. Ethnopharmacol. 8 (1983): 97-111

Beecher, C. E., and H. B. Stowe. The Americon Womon's Home. or Principles of Domestic Science. 1869. Reprint. Hartford: Stowe-Day Foundation, 1975. Covers topics such as healthful food and drink.

Battley, R. Observations on the Preparation of Yellow Bark and Other Medicines. London: N.p., 1838. Battley was influential in promoting the concepts that extracts should maintain the "combinations" of constituents formed by nature and that cold distilled water was often a preferred solvent to hot water (i.e., decoctions or teas).

Belkin, M., et al. "Tumor-Damaging Capacity of Plant Materials. II. Plants Used as Diuretics." J. Nat. Cancer Inst. 13 (1952): 741-44.

Batts, W. j. Manuscript of Formulas. Wilson County Public Library. Photocopy. Edited version available from Country Doctor Museum. Bailey, N.C.

Bell, E. A. "Canavanine in the Leguminoseae." Biochem. f. 75 (1960): 618-20.

Batty, R. j. Enuresis or Bed-Wetting. London: Staples Press, 1948.

Belkin, M., et al. "Swelling and Vacuolization Induced in Ascites Tumor Cells by Polysaccharides from Higher Plants." Cancer Res. 19 (1959): 1050-62.

Bell, E. A., and B. V. Charlwood, eds. Secondory Plant Products. Vol. 8 of Encyclopoedin of Plant

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Physiology. New Series. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. 1980.

Bell. j. A Practical Dictionary of Materia Medica. Philadelphia: Haswell. 1841. Adds articles on indigenous plants to English edition.

- - - . ed. Animal and Plant Lore. Boston: American Folk-Lore Society. 1899. A list of beliefs "collected from the oral tradition of English speaking folk." Most are known to Bass.

Benet. L. Z .. et al. Pharmacokinetic Basis for Drug Treatment. New York: Raven. 1984.

Berkeley. E., and D. S. Berkeley. John Clayton: Pioneer of Americon Botany. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. 1963.

Benezra. C. et al. Plant Contact Dermatitis. Toronto: Decker. 1985.

- - - . Dr. Alexander Garden of Charles Town. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.

Bennion. M. "Food Preparation in Colonial America." f. Amer. Diet Assoc. 69 (1976): 16-23. Bennister. B.. et al. "Cardiac Arrest Due to Liquorice Induced Hypokalaemia." Brit. Med. f. 2 (1977): 738-39.

Benoit. P. S .. et al. "Biological and Phytochemical Evaluation of Plants. 14. Antiinflammatory Evaluation of 163 Species of Plants." L10ydia 39 (1976): 160-71.

Benson. A. B.. ed. Peter Kalrn's Travels in North America. The English Version of 1770. New York: Wilson-Erickson. 1937. Bentley. R. "New Amp-rican Remedies. Hydrastis canadensis." Pharrn. f. &- Trans. 3 (1861-62): 54046.

- - - . "New American Remedies. Podophyllum peItatum." Pharm. f. &- Trans. 3 (1861-62): 456-64. - - - - . "New American Remedies. Blue Cohosh." Pharm. J. &- Trans. 4 (1862-63): 52-56. - - - . "New American Remedies. Xanthorrhizu apiifolia Willd.: Yellow Roo!." Phmrn. f. &- Trans. 4 (1862-63): 12-14.

- - - . "New American Remedies. Sanguinaria canadensis. Linn.: Blood-root. Puccoon." Pharm. f. &- Trans. 4 (1862-63): 263-69.

1969.

Berkman. B. "Milkweed-A War Strategic Material and a Potential Industrial Crop for Sub-marginal Lands in the United States." Econ. Bot. 3 (1949): 223-39.

Berman. A. "The Eclectic 'Concentrations' and American Pharmacy (1847-1861)." Pharm. Hist. 22 (1980): 91-103.

Bernath, J. "Production Ecology of Secondary Plant Products." In Herbs. Spices. and Medicinal Plants: Recent Advances in Botany. Horticulture, and Pharmacology. edited by L. E. Craker and j. E. Simon, 1:185-234. Phoenix: Oryx Press, 1986. Bernton. H. S. "The Allergenicity of Psyllium Seed." Medical Annals District Columbia 39 (1970): 313. 317.

Berry. M. l. "Feverfew Faces the Future." Pharm.]. 232 (1984): 611-14.

Bethea. O. W. Practical Materia Medica and Prescription Writing. Philadelphia: Davis, 1926. Discusses only "standard" botanicals. Betts. L. "Folk Medicine in North Carolina." North Carolina Med. J. 35 (1974): 156-58. Bianchini. F .• and F. Corbetta. Health Plants of the World. Atlas of Medicinal Plants. New York: Newsweek Books. 1977.

- - - . "New American Remedies. XI. Geranium maculutum Linn.-Spotted Cranesbill. Alum-rooL" Pharm f. &- Trans. 5 (1863-64): 20-25.

Bickers. D. R .. et al. Clinical Pharmacology of Skin Disease. New York: Churchill Livingstone. 1984.

Bentley. R .• and H. Trimen. Medicinal Plants. London: Churchill. 1880.

Biddle. j. W. Materia Medica for the Use of Students. Philadelphia: Lindsay and Blakiston. 1873. Helpful synopsis.

Berardi. L. C. and L. A. Goldblatt. "Gossypol." In Toxic Constituents in Plant Foodstuffs. edited by I. E. Liener. 184-237. New York: Academic Press. 1980.

Bergen. F. D. "Popular American Plant Names." f. Amer. Folk-Lore 6 (1893): 135-42, 7 (1894): 89104,8 (1896): 179-93. 10(1897):49-54.

Bigelow, J. Florula Bostoniensis. A Collection of Plants of Boston and Its Environs. Boston: Cummings and Hilliard. 1814. Relatively few notes on medical uses. - - - . American Medical Botany. 3 vols. Boston: Cummings and Hilliard. 1817-21. A milestone in

474

Annotated Bibliography

the publication of botanical books (also see R. J. Wolfe, 1979, below).

Blanton, W. B. Medicine in Virginia in the Eighteenth Century. Richmond: Garrett and Massie,

- - - . A Treatise on the Materia Medica Intended as a Sequel to the Pharmacopoeio of the United States. Baston: Ewer, 1822. Contains firsthand observations, including those of Dr. Tully.

Blathp,rwi .. k, N. R "The Specific Role of Foods in Relation to the Composition of Urine." Arch. Int. Med. 14 (1914): 409-50.

Binding, G. J. About Comfrey. Wellingborough: Thorsons, 1974. Bingham, R., et al. "Yucca Plant Saponin in the Management of Arthritis." J. App. Nut. 27, nos. 2-3 (1975): 45-51.

Bingham, S. The Everyman Companion to Food and Nutrition. London: Dent, 1987. Bird, H. A., et al. "Drowsinp,ss due to Haloperidol! Indomethacin in Combination." Lancet 1 (1983): 830-31.

Birk, Y., and I. Peri. "Saponins." III Toxic Constituents of Plant Foodstuffs, editp,d by I. E. Liener, 161-82. New York: Academic Press, 1980. Bishop, L. R. "The Resins of Hops as Antibiotics." In Selective Toxicity and Antibiotics. Symposia of the Society for Experimental Biology. New York: Academic Press, 1949. Pp. 101-4. Bisset, N. G. "Alkaloids of the Loganiaceae." In Indole and Biogenetically Related Alkaloids, edited by J. D. Phillipson and M. H. Zenk, 27-61. London: Academic Press, 1980. - - - . "Plants as a Sour.. " of Isoquinoline Alkaloids." In The Chemistry and Biology of Isoquinoline Alkaloids, edited by r. D. Phillipson, 1-22. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1985. Bjeldanes, L. F., and I. Kim. "Phthalide Components of Celery Essential Oils." J. Org. Chern. 42 (1977): 2333-35.

1931.

Blatherwick, N. R, and M. L. Long. "Studies in Urinary Acidity. II. The Increased Acidity Produced by Eating Prunes and Cranberries." f. BioI. Chern. 57 (1923): 815-18. Block, E. "Antithrombotic Agent of Garlic: A Lesson from 5000 Years of Folk Medicine." In Folk Medicine. The Art and Science, edited by R P. Steiner, 125-37. Washington, D.C.: American Chemical Suciety, 1986. Blomquist, H. L. "A Revision of Hexastylis of North America." Brittonia 8 (1957): 255-83. Blunt, W., and S. Raphael. The Illustrated Herbal. New York: Thames and Hudson, in association with the Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1979. Boatright, M. C., et al. Mesquite nnd Willow. Dallas: Southern Methodist University Press, 1957. Essays on Texas folklore, including medical practices. Bodel, P. T., et al. "Cranberry Juice and the Antibacterial Action of Hippuric Acid." J. Lab. Clin. Med. 54 (1959): 881-88. Bodenmann,). "Analgesia, Crime, and Sorcery." Cibo Symposium 10 (1968): 157-68. Boerhaave, H. Materia Medica; or, A Series of Prescriptions Adapted to the Sections of His Practical Aphorisms. London: Innys and Manby. 1741. Gne of a number of Boerhaave's writings influential in establishing various treatments. Includes lists of drugs in pharmacological classification.

1883.

Bogojevski, D., and M. Mickovic. "Amount of Vitamin C and Carotene in Some Wild Edible Vegetation." Archiv Vorm. 12 (1962): 525-28.

Blackwood, J., and S. Fulder. Garlic. Nature's Original Remedy. Poole: Javelin Books, 1986.

Bohlmann, F., et al. "Alicyclic Diterpenes from Solidago species." Planta Med. 51, no. 6 (1985):

Black, W. G. Folk-Medicine: A Chapter in the History of Culture. New York: Folk-Lore Society,

Blake, S. F. "The Varieties of ChimaphiJa umbellata." Rhodoro 19 (1917): 237-44. Blankaart, S. The Physical Dictionary. London: Crouch, 1708. - - - . Lexicon Medicum Renovo tum: In quo Totius Artis Medicae Termini. in Anatome, Chirurgia, Pharmacacia, Chymia, re Botonico, Etc. Leiden: Luchtman, 1717.

487-89.

Bohlmann, F., and C. Zdero. "Sesquiterpene Lactones and Other Constituents from Tanacetum portheniufll." Phytochemistry 21 (1982): 2543-49. Bohm. H. "The Biochemical Genetics of Alkaloids." In Biochemistry of Alkaloids, edited by K. Mothes et a!.. 25-75. Weinheim: VCH, 1985.

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Boivin, B. "La Flore du Canada en 1708. Etude d'un Manuscrit de Michel Sarrazin et Sebastien Vaillant." Etudes Littllraires 19 (1977): 223-97. For colonial background, occasional economic notes, and editor's identification of plants. Boland, R. L. "Plants as a Source of Vitamin D3 Metabolites." Nutr. Rev. 44 (1986): 1-8. Bolton, J. L. Alfalfa: Botany, Cultivation, and Utilization, World Crop Books. London: Leonard Hill, 1962. Bolton, S., et al. "The Medical Uses of Garlic-Fact and Fiction." Amer. Pharm. 22 (1982): 448-51. Bolyard, J. L. Medicinal Plants and Horne Remedies of Appalachia. Springfield: Thomas, 1981. Records similarities to Bass's practices. Differences due to many factors, including regional and probably idiosyncratic.

211 (1946): 602-10. Showed that when the compound is given by stomach tube to guinea pigs, an increase in output of respiratory tract fluid occurs. Brain, K. R., and T. D. Turner. The Practical Evaluation of Phytopharmaceuticals. Bristol: Wright-Scientechnica, 1975. Braman, I. G. "Helionas dioicia-Unicorn Plant." Boston Med. Surg.]. 40 (1849): 416. Bramwell, W. "Scutellaria in Epilepsy." Brit. Med. J. 2 (1915): 880. Branch, I. "Veratrum viride-Its Natural History and Therapeutic Application." Charleston Med. J. & Rev. 8 (1853): 166-69. Braiitigam, M., and G. Franz. "Structural Features of Plontago lanceolata Mucilage," Planta Med. 51, no. 4 (1985): 293-97.

Bonner, J., and J. E. Varner, eds. Plant Biochemistry. New York: Academic Press. 1976.

Brekhman, I. I. Man and Biologically Active Substances. The Effects of Drugs, Diet, and Pollution on Health. Translated by J. H. Appleby. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1980. The view of an influential Russian author on the wide range of biologically active substances on health.

Bordia, A., et al. "Effect of the Essential Oils of Garlic and Onion on Alimentary Hyperlipemia." Atherosclerosis 21 (1975): 15-19.

Brekhman,1. I., and 1. V. Dardymov. "New Substances of Plant Origin which Increase Nonspecific Resistance." Ann. Rev. Pharmocol. 9 (1969): 419-

Bordley, J., et al. Two Centuries of American Medicine, 1776-1976. Philadelphia: Saunders, 1976.

30.

Bonham, T. The Chyrurgeons Closet, or an Antidotarie ChyrurgicaI. 1630. Reprint. New York, Da Capo Press, 1968.

Bose, B. "Honey or Sugar in Treatment of Infected Wounds." Loncet 1 (1982): 953. Bouchard, C. Lectures on Auto-intoxication in Disease. Philadelphia: Davis, 1898. [Bouchardat[. "On the Use of Apiol as a Substitute for Quinine." Virginia Med. Surg. /. 5 (1855): 35777. Bouchelle, E. F. "Medicinal Properties of Cotton Plant." Amer. ]. Med. Sci. 1 (1841): 275. Bowman. 1. A., and M. J. Rand. Textbook of Pharmacology. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific, 1980. Boyd, E. M., and M. E. Palmer. "The Effect of Quillaia, Senega, Squill, Grindelia, Sanguinaria, Chionanthus, and Dioscorea upon the Output of Respiratory Tract Fluid." Acta Phormacol. 2 (1946): 235-46. Notes that little is knuwn about the expectorants, which still applies. Boyd, E. M., and G. L. Pearson. "On the Expectorant Action of Volatile Oils." Amer. J. Med. Sci.

- - - . "Pharmacological Investigation of Glycosides from Ginseng and Eleutherococcus." Lloydia 32 (1969): 46-51. Brekhman, I. I., and M. A. Grinevitch. "Oriental Medicine: A Computerized Study of Complex Recipes and Their Components: Analysis of Recipes Intended to Cure Certain Diseases." Amer. J. Chinese Med. 9 (1981): 34-38. Brekhman,1. I., et al. "Oriental Medicine. A Computerized Study of Complex Recipes and Their Components: Herbs Most Frequently Used in Traditional Japanese and Korean Medicine." Amer. J. Chinese Med. 9 (1981): 134-43. Brendle, T. R., and C. W. Unger. Folk Medicine of the Pennsylvania Germans. The Non-Occult Cures. Norristown: Pennsylvania German Society, 1935. Brickell, J. The Notural History of North-Carolina. Dublin: Carson, 1737. Reprint. New York: Johnson, 1968. Brickell's work is beset by criticisms of plagiarism, but does contain fresh observations.

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Brieger. G. H. "History of Medicine." In A Guide to the Culture of Science. Technology. and Medicine, edited by P. T. Durbin. 121-94. New York: Free Press. 1980. Helpful bibliographic essay. - - - . ed. Medical America in the Nineteenth Century: Readings from the Literature. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. 1972. Brieskorn. C. H .• and M. Sergo "Zur Gehaltsbestimmung der Saponine von Polygala senega." Planta Med. 32A (1977): 25-26. Briggs, D., and S. M. Walters. Plant Variation ond Evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1984.

British Herbal Phormacopoeio. Cowling: British Herbal Medicine Association. 1983. An effort to make readily available standards (including description of commercial herbs) for herbs in use. A mix of science-based and non-science-based information. British Nationol Formulory. London: British Medical Association and Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. 1983. British Phormoceutical Codex. London: Pharmaceutical Press. 1923. "Standard" text with much on herbal remedies. Britten, J.• and R. Holland. A Dictionary of English Plont Nmnes. London: English Dialect Society, 1878-86. Reprinted in 1965. A standard reference work on English plant names. Brizicky. G. K. "The Genera of Vitaceae in the Southeastern United States." ]. Arnold Arboretum 46 (1965): 48-67.

Brooks. K. L. A Catskill Flora and Economic Botany. Albany: University of the State of New York. 1979-, ongoing series. Brothen. L. Dose Book of Fine Medicinal Specialties. Their History, Characteristics. Qualities, Theropeutic Uses. and Connected Features of General Service to Physicians. Cincinnati: Lloyd Brothers. 1921.

Browne, R. R. Popular Beliefs and Practices from Alabama. Berkeley: University of California Press. 1958. Bass has heard of over 80 percent of the beliefs recorded. Most of those unfamiliar to him are. he believes. from black sources. Brawne, T. Enquiries into Vulgar and Common Errors, in the Works of the Learned Sir Thomas Browne. London: Bassett. 1686. - - - . The Works of Sir Thomas Browne. Vol. 4, Letters. Edited bv G. Keynes. London: Faher and Faber, 1964. Brawner. C. H., and B. R. Ortiz de Montellano. "Herbal Emmenagogues Used by Women in Colombia and Mexico." In Plonts in Indigenous Medicine and Diet, Biobehaviorul Approaches. edited by N. L. Etkin. Bedford Hills: Redgrave, 1986. Brummitt. R. K. "Nomenclatural and Historical Considerations Concerning the Genus Golax." Taxon 21 (1972): 303-17. Brune, K. "The Concept of Inflammatory Mediators." In Discoveries in Pharmacology, edited by M. J. Parnham and J. Bruinvels. Amsterdam: Elsevier. 1984. Buchan. W. Domestic Medicine. London: Stahon. 1772 and later editions. Buchman. D. D. Herb,,] Medicine. The Notural Way to Cet Well and Stay Well. New York: Gramercy. 1980. A popular work which has been widely recommended. Certainly of considerable interest for much personal testimony; the book has little critical content or historical sensitivity. Buck. A. H .• ed. A Reference Book of the Medical Science Embracing the Entire Range of Scientific and Practical Medicine (lnd Allied Sciences. New York: Wood. 1886-93. An invaluable resource; entries on botanical medicines by well-known authorities of the day. A new edition (1900-1908) includes many critical entries. Buck. S. H., and T. F. Burks. "Capsaicin: Hot New Pharmacological Tool." Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 4 (1983): 84-87.

Brown. F. C. The Fronk C. Brown Collection of North Carolina Folklore. 7 vols. Durham: Duke University Press. 1957-64. Vals. 6 and 7.

Buell, M. F. "Acorus calamus in America." Rhodora 35 (1935): 367-69.

Brown. J. K., and M. H. Malone. "'Legal Highs' ---Constituents. Activity, Toxicology, and Herbal Folklore." Clin. Tax. 12 (1978): 1-31. List of plants and activities.

Bulbaa, S. I., et al. "Preliminary Phytochemical and Pharmacological Investigations of the Roots of Different Varieties of Cichorum intybus." Planta Med. 24 (1973): 133-44.

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Bull, L. B., et al. The Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids: Their Chemistry, Pathogenicity and Other Biological Properties. Amsterdam: North Holland, 1968. Bullein, W. Bulwarke of Defense. London: Kyngston, 1562, 1579. Burch, G. E. "Experiments of Nature: Whole Leaf and Purified Alkaloids." Amer. Heart]. 83 (1972): 845. Discussion on merits of extracts and purified active principles. Burgon, S. "Observations on Certain Articles of the American Materia Medica." Amer. Med. Rec. 3 (1820): 331-36. Burk, W. R. "Puffball Usages among North American Indians." J. Ethnobial. 3 (1983): 55-62. Burns, J. J., and P. J. Tsuchitani, eds. United StatesChina Pharmacology Symposium Proceedings. Washington, D.C.: Committee on Scholarly Communications with the People's Republic of China, National Academy of Sciences, 1980. Papers presented by the delegation from the Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and the American participants. Burton, C. S. "Warts and All." North Carolina Med. ]. 45 (1984): 344. Burton, R. The Anatomy of Melancholy. Oxford: Lichfield and Short, 1624, 1628. Butler, G. F. A Text-book of Materia Medico. Therapeutics and Pharmacology. Philadelphia: Saunders, 1900. A "standard" textbook. Butler, S. W. "Hydrangea arbarescens, a New Remedy in Lithiasis." Boston Med. Surg. ]. 43 (1850): 314-16.

Calixto. J. B.• et al. "Pharmacological Actions of Tannic Acid. I. Effects on Isolated Smooth and Cardiac Muscles and on Blood." Planta Med. 52 (1986): 32-35. Suggests there may be pharmacological action due to tannins in tannin-rich herbs. Came, P. E., and B. A. Steinberg. "Natural Products." In Chemotherapy of Viral Infections, edited by P. E. Came and L. A. Caliguiri. 479-518. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. 1982. A wide-ranging survey indicating potential antiviral activity of many natural products, though it is far from clear that this offers any explanations of existing traditional reputations. Camp. W. H. "A Survey of the American Species of Vaccinium, Subgenus Euvaccinium." Brittonia 4 (1942): 205-47. Capron, G.. and D. B. Slack. New England Popular Medicine. Boston: Curtis. 1848. A medical dictionary written with some critical appraisal of therapeutic practices. Carlson, A. W. "Ginseng: America's Botanical Drug Connection to the Orient." Econ. Bot. 40 (1986): 233-49. Carmer, C. Stars Fell on Alabama. New York: Farrar and Rinehart. 1934. Carpenter, K. j. "Effects of Different Methods of Processing Maize on Its Pellagragenic Activity." Fed. Proc. 40 (1981): 1531-35.

, - - . The History of Scurvy and Vitamin C. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1986. Relevant to documentation of concepts about megavitamins.

"Buyer Bee-ware." Lawrence Rev. Nat. Prod. 4 (1983): 50-52.

._-, ed. Pellagra. Benchmark Popers in the History of Biochemistry. Stroudsbury: Hutchinson Ross, 1981.

Bye, R. A., Jr. "Medicinal Plants of the Sierra Madre: Comparative Study of Tarahumara and Mexican Market Plants." Econ. Bot. 40 (1986): 103-24.

Carroll. A., and E. de P. Vona. The Health Food Dictionary and Recipes. New York: Weathervane, 1973.

Byrd, J. W. "Poke Sallet from Tennessee to Texas." Tennessee Folklore Soc. Bull. 32 (1966): 48-54. Byrd. W. William Byrd's Histories of the Dividing Line. Introduction and Notes by W. K. Boyd. Raleigh: North Carolina Historical Commissionn, 1929. Calderwood, j. M., et al. "A Chromatographic Assay for Male Fern Extract." ]. Pharm. Pharmacal. 21 (1969): 55S-56S.

Carson, j. Illustrations of Medical Botany Consisting of Coloured Figures of the Plants. 2 vols. Philadelphia: Smith. 1847. Renowned for illustrations. Comparatively little on American plants. - - - . Synopsis of the Course of Lectures on Materia Medico and Pharmacy. Philadelphia: Blanchard and Lea, 1851. Carter, C. The Compleat City and Country Cook and Accomplish'd Housewife. London: Betsworth and Hitch, 1732.

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Carter, K. C. "Nineteenth-Century Treatments for Rabies as Reported in the Lancet." Med. Hist. 26

regularly coping chemically "on over-the-counter sleep inducers, stimulants. and tranquilizers."

(1982): 67-78.

Chambers. R. The Thomsonian Practice of Medicine. Bethania: Chambers. 1842, A succinct account; one of the many influences of Thomson.

Carter. R. Valuable Vegetable Medical Prescriptions for the Cure of All Nervous and Putrid Disorders. Cincinnati: Lewis. 1830. Popular publication of the medicobotanical movement. Cartwright, j. An Essay on the Virtues of Balm of Gilead. London: Kearsly, 1760. Carver. j. Travels through the Interior Part of North America in the Years 1766. 1767. and 1768. Toronto: Coles, 1774. Reprinted in Bull. Lloyd Library. no. 9. Reproduction Series, no. 5. 1907. Includes cumments on general economic uses and incidental medical references. Cassileth, B. R.. et aL "Contemporary Unorthodox Treatments in Cancer Medicine. A Study of Patients. Treatments. and Practitioners." Ann. Int. Med. 101 (1984): 105-12, Casterline, C. L. "Allergy to Chamomile Tea." J. Amer. Med. Assoc. 244 (1980): 330-31. Catesby, M. Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands, Privately published. London. 1731-43. Cato, M. P. On Agriculture. Translated by W. D. Hooper and H. B. Ash. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1934. - - - . On Farming. Translated by E. Brehaut. New York: Columbia University Press. 1933. Cavallito. C. J.. and j. H. Bailey. "Allicin, the Antibacterial Principle of Allium sativum." J. Amer. Chern. Soc. 66 (1944): 1950-54. Cavers. P. B., and j, L. Harper. "Rumex obtusifolius L. and R. crispus L." J. Eco!. 52 (1964): 737-66. "Ceanothus americanus." Boston Med. Surg. f. 15 (1836): 42-43.

Ceres. Herbal Teas for Health and Healing. Wellingborough: Thorsons. 1982. Cerna. D. Notes on the New Remedies. Philadelphia: Saunders. 1893. Considers mostly synthetic medicines. though indicates some developments in plant chemistry. Chambers. C. D .. j. A. Inciardi. and H. A. SiegaL Chemical Coping. A Report of Legal Drug Use in the United States. New York: Spectrum. 1975. Estimates nine million people are currently or

"The Chamomiles." Lawrence Rev. Nat. Prod. 4 (1983): 1-2.

Chandel. R. S., and R. P. Rastogi. "Triterpenoid Saponins and Sapogenins 1973-1978." Phytochem· istry 19 (1980): 1889-1908. Chandler. R. F. "Vindication of Maritime Indian Herbal Remedies." J. Ethnopharmacol. 9 (1983): 323-27.

- - - . "An Inconspicuous but Insidious Drug." Can. Pharm. J. 119 (1986): 563-66. Referring to juniper. Chandler. R. F .• et a!. "Herbal Remedies of the Maritime Indians." J. Ethnopharmacol. 1 (1979): 49-68.

Chandler, R. F .. et aL "Ethnobotany and Phytochemistry of Yarrow. Achillea millefolium. Compositae." Econ. Bot. 36 (1982): 203-23. Chandler. R. F .• et a!. "Herbal Remedies of the Maritime Indians: Sterols and Triterpenes of Tanacetum vulgare L. (Tansy)." Lipids 17 (1982): 102-6.

Chandler, R. F., et a!. "Controversial Laetrile." Pharm. J. 233 (1984): 330-32. Chang, M. W., and M. A. Johnson. "Effect of Garlic on Carbohydrate Metabolism and Lipid Synthesis in Rats." J. Nutrition 110 (1980): 323-27. "ChaparraL" Lawrence Rev. Nat. Prod. 5. no. 8 (1984): 29-30.

Chapman. A. R.. et aL Flora of the British Isles. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1962, Chapman. N. Discourses on the Elements of Therapeutics and Materia Medica. 2 vols. Philadelphia: Webster. 1817-19. A useful volume evidently containing many firsthand observations. One of a number of books that imply much Indian usage.

- - - . Elements of Therapeutics and Materia Medica. 2 vols. Philadelphia: Carey. 1821-22. and 1831. An edition of Chapman's Discourses which included further critical thoughts and an indication of differences between domestic and regular medicine.

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Chappelle. M. L. "The Language of Food." Amer. Nursing 72 (1972): 1294-95.

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Chaudhury. R. R. "Folklore Herbal Contraceptives and Remedies." Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 7 (1986): 121-23. Includes interesting suggestions for testing folklore remedies. Chen. T. S .. and P. S. Chen. Understanding the Liver. A History. Westport: Greenwood. 1984. Cheng. E. W.. and W. Burroughs. "Estrogenic Substances in Forages." Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci. Publ. 53 (1959): 195-202. Chichiricco. G .• et al. "Phytotherapy in the Subequana Valley; Abruzzo. Central Italy." J. Ethnopharmacal. 2 (1980): 247-57. Child. Mrs. The American Frugal Housewife. Dedicated to Those Who Are Not Ashamed of Economy. 16th ed .. revised and enlarged. Boston: Russell, Shattuck, 1836. Especially helpful for appreciating continuity of notions that have reached Mr. Bass. - - - . The Family Nurse. or Companion of the Frugal Housewife. London: Bentley. 1837. Chirife. J.. and L. Herszage. "Sugar for Infected Wounds." Lancet 2 (1982): 157. Chirife. J., et al. "Scientific Basis for Use of Granulated Sugar in Treatment of Infected Wounds." Lancet 1 (1982): 560-61. Chlabicz. J.. and W. Galasinski. "The Components of Melissa officinalis L. that Influence Protein Biosynthesis In-Vitro." J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 38 (1986): 791-94. Chowan College Creative Writing Group. Southern Home Remedies. Murfreesboro: Johnson Publishing. 1968. A useful collection reflecting commonplace and idiosyncratic remedies. Christison. R. A Dispensatory; or. Commentarv an the Pharmacopoeias of Great Britain (and the United States). Revised by R. E. Griffith. Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1848. Christopher. J. R. Capsicum. Springville: Christopher.1980. Cima. L.. and G. Fassina. "The Antispasmodic Component of the Sapwood of the Linden Tree." Arch. Ital. Sci. Formaci. 11 (1961): 288--98 (through Chern. Abs. 57 [1962]: 7852e). Claeys. M., et al. "Characterization of Prostaglandin E-like Activity Isolated from Plant Source (Allium cepa)." Prog. Lipid Res. 25 (1986): 53-58.

Clapp. A. "A Synopsis: Or Systematic Catalogue of the Indigenous and Naturalized. Flowering and Filicoid (Exogens. Endogens. and Acrogens), Medicinal Plants of the United States. Being a Report of the Committee on Indigenous Medical Botany and Materia Medica for 1850-51." Trans. Amer. Med. Assoc. 5 (1852): 689-906. A valuable. comprehensive. annotated list. Clark. J. D. "Folk Medicine in Colonial North Carolina as Found in Dr. John Brickell's Natural History." North Carolina Folklore J. 17 (1969): 100-124. - - - . "North Carolina Popular Beliefs and Superstitions." North Carolina Folklore J. 18 (1970): 1-37. Clarkson. R. E. The Golden Age of Herbs and Herbalists. (Formerly titled Green Enchantment.) New York: Dover. 1972. Claus, C. P. Gathercoal and Wirth, Pharmacognosy. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger. 1956. Claypole. "The Migration of Plants from Europe to America. with an Attempt to Explain Certain Phenomena Therewith." Can. Pharm. J. 13 (187980): 172-79. Clayton, J. Medical Practices of the Virginia Indians. 1687. (See B. G. Hoffman. 1964, below.) Cleland. R. E. Oenothera Cytogenetics and Evolution. London: Academic Press. 1972. Clowes. W. Treatise for the Artificioll Cure of Struma. London. 1602. Reprint. New York: Da Capo Press, 1970. Clune, F. J. "Witchcraft. the Shaman and Active Pharmacopoeia." In Medical Anthropology. edited by F. X. Grollig and H. B. Haley. The Hague: Mouton, 1976. Focus of attention on poisonous plants. Clute, W. N. A Dictionary of American Plant Names. Joliet: W. N. Clute. 1923. "Designed to bring together in a single list, all the vernacular names by which the plants of northeastern America are known." Invaluable list. though no indication of sources or commonest names. - - - . A Second Book of Plant Names and Their Meanings. Indianapolis: Clute and Company. 1939.

- - - . The Common Names of Plants and Their Meanings. Indianapolis: Clute and Company, 1942. Cobb. D. J. The Medical Botanist and Expositor of

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Colbatch. J. A Dissertation Concerning Mistletoe; a Most Wonderful Specifick Remedy for the Cure of Convulsive Distempers. London: Roberts. 1720. Colden, C. "Further Account of the Phytolacca." Gentleman's Magazine 22 (1752): 302. Colden,

J. Botanic Manuscript of Jane Colden

1724-1766. New York: Garden Club of Orange and Dutchess Counties, 1963.

Collier, H. D. J.. et a!. "Extract of Feverfew Inhibits Prostaglandin Biosynthesis." Lancet 2 (1980): 92223.

Comfort, J. W. The Practice of Medicine on Thomsonian Principles. Philadelphia: Lindsay and Blakiston. 1853. Popular medicobotanical publication. "Comfrey." Lawrence Rev. Nat. Prod. 3 (1982): 8991.

Condit, I. J. The Fig. Waltham: Chronica Botanica. 1947.

Condit, I. ).. and J. Enderup. "A Bibliography of the Fig." Hilgardia 25 (1957): 3-663. Contreras, A. A., and C. Zolla. Plantas Toxieas de Mexico. Instituto Mexicano del Segura Social. 1982.

Conway, G. A., and J. C. Slocumb. "Plants Used as Abortifacients and Emmenagogues by Spanish New Mexicans." f. Ethnopharmacol. 1 (1979-80): 241-61.

Cooke, J. A Plain Account of the Diseases Incident to Children; with an Easy Method of Curing Them. London: Dilly, 1769. Coon, N. An American Herbal Using Plants for Healing. Broderick: Hearthside Press, 1963. Reprint. Rodale Press. 1979. A comparatively cautious approach to herbal usage.

Cooper. H. North Carolina Mountain Folklore and Miscellany. Murfreesboro: Johnson, 1972. Cooper, J. G. "Report on the Medical Flora of Washington Territory." Trans. Amer. Med. Assoc. 10 (1857): 228.

Cooper. J. W. The Experienced Botanist or Indian Physician. Lancaster: Bear. 1840. Cooper. M. R .• and A. W. Johnson. Poisonous Plants in Britain and Their Effects an Animals and Man. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office. 1984. Copeman, W. S. C. A Short History of the Gout and the Rheumatic Diseases. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1964. Much information on specific treatments and moderate regimens. Cordell. G. A. Introduction to Alkaloids. A Biogenetic Approach. New York: Wiley-InterScience, 1981. A concise account. Core, E. L. "Ethnobotany of the Southern Appalachian Aborigines." Econ. Bot. 21 (1967): 199-214. Corlett. W. The Medicine Man of the American Indion and His Cultural Background. Springfield: Thomas, 1935. Cornut. J.-P. Canadensium Plantarum. 1635. Reprint. New York: Johnson, 1966. The first book devoted entirely to North American plants. J. Stann3rd's introduction to the reprint edition includes a list of probable modern identifications. Correll. D. S., et al. "The Search for Plant Precursors of Cortisone." Econ. Bot. 9 (1955): 307-75. Corsi, G., et al. "Biological and Phytochemical Aspects of Valeriano officinalis. Biochem. Syst. Eco!. 12 (1984): 51-62. Corsi, P., and P. Weindling. Information Sources in the History of Science and Medicine. London: Butterworth Scientific, 1983. Cosminsky, S .. and I. E. Harrison. Traditional Medicine: Implications for Ethnomedicine, Ethnopharmacology, Maternal and Child Health, Mental Health. and Public Health. An Annotated Bibliography of Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean. New York: Garland, 1976.

- - - . Traditional Medicine. Current Research with Implications for Ethnomedicine, Ethnopharmacology, Maternal ond Child Health, Mental Health. and Public Health. An Annotated Bibliogrnphy of Africa. Latin America, and the Caribbean. Vol. 2, 1976-81. New York: Garland, 1984.

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"Coste's Compendium Pharmaceuticum." Reprinted in the Badger Pharmacist, nos. 27-30, 1940. Coste's Compendium (1780) indicated a basis of European drugs. though many items (e.g., couch grass roots, yellow dock roots) could be obtained locally.

Creamer, B. "Oesophageal Reflux and the Action of Carminatives." Lancet 1 (1955): 590-92. Creasey. W. A. "Biochemical Effects of Berberine." Biochem. Pharmacal. 28 (1979): 1081-84. Crellin, j. K. "Anton Stoerck (1731-1803) and British Therapeutics." Clio. Med. 9 (1974): 103-8.

Coulter, H. L. "Divided Legacy: A History of the Schism in Medical Thought." In Science and Ethics in American Medicine. 1800-1914. Vol. 3. Washington, D.C.: McGrath, 1973.

- - - , ed. Plain Southern Eating from the Reminiscences of A. L. Tommie Bass, Herbalist. Durham: Duke University Press, 1988.

Court, W. E. "A History of Mustard in Pharmacy and Medicine." Pharm. His!. 6:9-11.

Crellin, j. K., and F. Nowell-Smith. "Popular Health Care. Historical Perspectives Based on the Drake Collection." In preparation.

Cowen. D. L. "The British North American Colonies as a Source of Drugs." Veroff Int. Gesell. Gesch. Pharm. 28 (1966): 47-59. - - - . "The Impact of the Materia Medica of the North American Indians on Professional Practice." Veroff Int. Gesell. Gesch. Phorm. 53 (1984): 51-63. Cowen, D. L., and L. D. King. "George Beringer and Fluid-Glycerites." J. Amer. Pharm. Assoc., n.s. 6 (1966): 435-40. Cowie. C. j. Papers. Manuscript Collections and North Carolina State Archives, Raleigh and Southern Collections, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.

- - - . Catalogue of Roots. Herbs. Seeds. &c. Leaflet. 1850s. Southern Collection, University of North Carolina. Chapel Hill. Coxe, j. R. American Dispensatory. Philadelphia: Dohson. 1806, and later editions (1814 and 1827). Based upon Duncan's Edinburgh New Dispensatory. It subsequently went through nine editions. The third edition (1814) included much of the influential dispensatory of james Thacher. - - - . The Philadelphia Medical Dictionary. Philadelphia: Dobson, 1817. Cox's Companion to the Medicine Chest. London: Cox. 1832 (15th and later editions). Coy. C. V. "Morphology of Sassafras in Relation to Phylogeny of Angiosperms." Bot. Gaz. 86 (1928): 149-70.

Crellin, j. K., and j. Philpott, eds. Medicinal Plants. A Vade-Mecum of 19th century Uses. Classification etc. Lists and Tables Reproduced from 19th and Early 20th Century Books. Durham: Medical History Program and Trent Collection, Duke University, 1983. A compilation of lists of uses and doses. Crellin, j. K., and j. R. Scott. "Pharmaceutical History and Its Sources in the Wellcome Collections. III. Fluid Medicines, Prescription Reform and Posology, 1700-1900." Med. Hist. 14 (1970): 132-53. Crellin, P. I., and j. K. Crellin. From Blackberries to Fishing Worms: Glimpses of Herbal Medicine toward the End of the Nineteenth Century. A Manuscript, Written by Willie Jordan Batts Around 1880, Illustrating the Persistence of Thomsonian Medicine. Bailey: Country Doctor Museum. 1987. - - - . By the Patient and Not by the Book. Constancy and Change in Small Town Doctoring. Durham: Acorn Press. 1988. Crisp, P. "Trends in the Breeding and Cultivation of Cruciferous Crops." In The Biology and Chemistry of the Cruciferae. edited by j. G. Vaughan et aI., 69-118. London: Academic Press, 1976. Cronquist, A. Vascular Flora of the Southeastern United States. Vol. 1. Asteraceae. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1980. Croom, E. M. "Medicinal Plants of the Lumbee Indians." Ph.D. diss., North Carolina State University, 1982.

Craker. L. E.. and J. E. Simon, eds. Herbs. Spices. and Medicinal Plants: Recent Advances in Botany. Horticulture. and Pharmacology. Phoenix: Oryx Press, 1986.

- - - . "Documenting and Evaluating Herbal Remedies." Econ. Bot. 37 (1983): 13-27.

"Cranberries and Their Juice." Lawrence Rev. Nat. Prod. 4 (1983): 46-48.

Cullen, W. Lectures on the Materia Medica. Philadelphia: Bell, 1775; Dublin: Whitestone, 1781. An

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influential publication, though unauthorized by the author. - - - . A Treatise of the Materia Medica. 2 vols. Edinburgh: Elliot, 1789. An elaborated version of the Lectures. - - - . Professor Cullen's Treatise of Materia Medica ... Including Many New Articles Wholly Omitted in the Original. 2 vols. Edited by B. S. Barton. Philadelphia: Parker, 1812. Culliton, B. J. "Sloan-Kettering: The Trials of an Apricot Pit-1973." Science 182 (1973): 10001003. Culpeper, N. Complete Herbal and English Physician. Manchester: Gleave, 1826. Culvenor, C. C. J., et al. "The Alkaloids of Symphytum x uplandicum (Russian Comfrey)." Australian J. Chern. 33 (1980): 1105-13. Culvenor, C. C. J., et al. "Structure and Toxicity of the Alkaloids of Russian Comfrey (Symphytum x uplandicum Nyman), a Medicinal Herb and Item of Human Diet." Experientia 36 (1980): 377-79. Cummings, R. O. The American and His Food, A History of Food Habits in the United States. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1945. Cunningham, J. J., and R. J. Cote. Common Plants, Botanical and Colloquial Nomenclature. New York: Garland, 1977. Curtin, L. S. M. Healing Herbs of the Upper Rio Grande. New York: Arno Press, 1976. Similarities and differences with Bass's knowledge to be explored. Curtis, J. H. A Treatise on the Physiology and Diseases of the Ear. London: Anderson, 1819. - - - . A Treatise on the Physiology and Diseases of the Eye. London: Longman, 1833.

Indicates difficulty in ascertaining ingredients in over-the-counter preparations. A number contain red pepper amid various nontoxic products. Daems, W. F. "Terminologische Probleme Mittelalterliche Pharmakobotanik." Berlin PhysicoMedica (Wiirzburg) 88 (1981-83): 97-110. Dagnall, J. C. "History of Corn Treatments." Brit. Chiropody 29 (1964): 249-52.

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Daly, J. S., and D. O. Cooney. "Tannic Acid and the Effectiveness of Activated Charcoal in 'Universal Antidote.''' Clin. Tox. 12 (1978): 515-21. D'Arcy, W. E., ed. Solanaceae Biology and Systematics. New York: Columbia University Press, 1986. Includes ethnobotanical and chemical data. Darling, Dr. "Indian Diseases and Remedies." Boston Med. Surg. J. 34 (1846): 9-10. Darrow, G. M. The Strawberry. History, Breeding, and Physiology. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1966. Davenport, E., compo "Plants, Other Remedies for Diseases, Superstitions and Signs of Early Illinois Settlers." MS. Illinois Historical Survey, University of Illinois, 1914. Davidson, J. R., and B. R. Ortiz de Montellano. "The Antibacterial Properties of an Aztec Wound Remedy." J. Ethnopharmacol. 8 (1983): 149-61. Davies, J. N. P. "The Decline of Pellagra in the Southern United States." Lancet 2 (1964): 195-96. Davis, E. L. "Morphological Camplexes in Hops (Humulus lupulus L.) with Special Reference to the American Race." Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 44 (1957): 271-94. Davis, N. S. "Report on the Committee on Indigenous Materia Medica." Trans. Amer. Med. Assoc. 1 (1848): 341-57.

Cutler, H. c., and T. W. Whitaker. "History and Distribution of the Cultivated Cucurbits in the Americas." Amer. Antiquity 26 (1961): 469-85.

Davis, P. Manual of Therapeutics. N.p., 1909.

Cutler, M. An Account of Some of the Vegetable Productions Naturally Growing in this Part of America, Botanically Arranged. 1785. Reprint. Bull. Lloyd Library, no. 7. Reproduction Series, 1903. A useful list of plants with annotations, medical and nonmedical.

Dawson, A. Health, Happiness, and the Pursuit of Herbs. Brattleboro: Stephen Greene Press, 1980. One of many advocacy books stressing "balance."

Czajka, P. et al. "Accidental Aphrodisiac Ingestion." J. Tennessee Med. Assoc. 10 (1978): 747-50.

Dawkins, R. M. "The Semantics of Greek Names for Plants." ]. Hellenic Stud. 56 (1936): 1-11.

de Bairacli Levy, J. The Illustrated Herbal Handbook. London: Faber, 1974. - - . The Complete Herbal Book for the Dog. Arco, 1983.

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Decker, D. D. "Origin(s). Evolution, and Systematics of Cucurbita pepa (Cucurbitaceae)." Econ. Bot. 42 (1988): 4-15. Deinzer, M. L. "Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids: Their Occurrence in Honey from Tansy Ragwort (Senecio jacobaea L.)." Science 195 (1977): 497-99. de Laszlo, H. G. Library of Medicinal Plants. Cambridge: Heffer and Son, 1958. A useful bibliography. Delaveau, P. "Evaluation of Traditional Pharmacopoeias." In Natural Products as Medicinal Agents, edited by J. L. Beal and E. Reinhard, 395-404. Stuttgart: Hippokrates Verlag, 1981. Denison, J. The Child's Physician or the Mother and Nurse. London: Boyle (1795). Densmore, F. How Indians Used Wild Plants for Food, Medicine, and Crafts. New York: Dover, 1974. der Marderosian, A. "Psychotomimetic Indoles in the Convolvulaceae." Amer. J. Pharm. 139 (1967): 19-26. - - - . "Medicinal Teas-Boon or Bane." Drug Ther. 1 (1977): 178. - - - . "Controversies Concerning Herbal Remedies." Amer. Druggist (August 1980): 35-39. der Nat, J. M., et a!. "Imrnunomodulatory Activity of an Aqueous Extract of Azadirachte indica Stem Bark." J. Ethnopharmacol. 19 (1987): 125-31. de Smet, P. A. G. M., and A. G. Vulto. "Drugs Used in Non-orthodox Medicine." In Side Effects of Drugs Annual. No. 11. edited by M. N. G. Dukes, 422-31. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1987.

89. Invaluable for comprehensiveness and indicating trends in therapy. Dictionnaire de Medecine au Repertoire General des Sciences Mfldicales. 2d ed. 30 vols. Paris, Bechet, 1832-46. Dictionnaire des Sciences Mfldicales par une SaciflM de M~dicins et de Chirurgiens. 60 vols. Paris: Panckoucke, 1812-22 (includes appendix). Diehl, A. K., and R. L. Bauer. "Jaloproctitis." New Eng. J. Med. 297 (1978): 1137-38. Disler, P. B., et al. "The Effect of Tea on Iron Absorption." Gut 16 (1975): 193-200. Dispensatory of the United States of America. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1926 and other editions. (See also G. B. Wood and Bache, and Osol et a!., 1967.) Dixon, P. Ginseng. London: Duckworth, 1976. A general review without precise documentation from primary resources. Doane, N. L. Indian Doctor Book. Privately published, Charlotte, N.C.. n.d. Grandmothers' recipes, the type of small book that encourages Bass's faith in Indian medicines. Dobell, H. On Winter Cough, Catarrh, Bronchitis, Emphysema, Asthma. Philadelphia: Lindsay and Blakiston, 1872. Dodds, E. C., et al. "Oestrogenic Activity of Certain Synthetic Compounds." Nature 141 (1938): 24748. Doering, J. F. "Folk Remedies for Diverse Allergies." J. Amer. Folklore 57 (1944): 140-41. Brief notes on chewing ivy leaves for poison ivy, etc.

Dewey, D. R. "Cyto Genetics of AgropyronFerganense and Its Hybrids with 6 Species of Agropyron, Elymus and Sitanion." Amer. J. Bot. 68 (1981): 216-25.

Don, G. A General System of Gardening and Botany. 4 vois. London: Rivington, 1831. Includes helpful medical annotations, often critical assessments.

Dews, P. B. Caffeine. Perspectives from Recent Research. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1984.

Donnelly, E. "On Phytolacca decandra." Amer. Pharm. 9 (1844): 165-70.

DiCarlo, F. J., et a!. "Reticuloendothelial System Stimulants of Botanical Origin." J. Reticuloendothelial Soc. 1 (1964): 224-32.

Doskotch, R., and J. Knapp. "Alkaloids from Menispermum canadense." Lloydia 34 (1971): 292-300.

Dictionary of a Practical and Scientific Encyclopaedia of Horticulture. The Royal Horticultural Society. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1956. Dictionnaire Encyc1op~dique des Sciences M~di­ cales. 100 vols. Paris: Asselin and Masson, 1864-

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Doskotch, R. W., and P. W. Vanevenhoven. "Isolation of Aristolochic Acid from Asarum canadense." Lloydia 30 (1967): 141-43. Dossie, R. Theory and Practice of Chirurgical Pharmacy Comprehending a Complete Dispensatory for the Use of Surgeons. London: J. Nourse, 1761.

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Notes a preposterous multiplicity of ingredients jumbled together in the manner of the ancients. Dowling, H. F. "Comparisons and Contrasts Between the Early Arsphenamine and Early Antibiotic Periods." Bull. Hist. Med. 47 (1974): 236-49. Issues about excessive unnecessary use. Downey, W. An Investigation of the Properties of the Sanguinaria canadensis; or Puccoon. Philadelphia: Eaken and Mecum, 1803. "Dr. E. Ives' Experience on the Virtues of Certain Plants." Trans. Amer. Med. Assoc. 3 (1850): 31721.

"Dr. Fells Cure for Cancer." Boston Med. Surg. f. 56 (1857): 482-85.

Draft Index of Author Abbreviations Compiled at the Herbarium Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Basildon: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1980.

~~-.

General Therapeutics and Materia Medica.

2 vols. Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1843 (also 1853 and 1857 eds.). ~~-.

A Dictionary of Medical Science. 7th ed. Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1848.

Duquenois, P. A. "Retrospective sur les Hydrolats de Tilleul, Narcisse, Bourrache et Primevere." Quart. J. Crude Drug. Res. 15 (1977): 203-11. Durant, M. Who Named the Daisy? Who Named the Rase? New York: Cogdon and Weed, 1976. More than a book on names; contains a potpourri of information. Dymock, W. Pharmacagraphia Indica. A History of the Principal Drugs of Vegetable Origin Met with in British India. 3 vols. London: Kegan Paul, 1890-93.

1898.

Eberle, J. A Treatise of the Materia Medica and Therapeutics. Baltimore: Meeteer, 1824. A book of special interest for American viewpoints, with firsthand observations.

Duckett, S. "Plantain Leaf for Poison Ivy." New Eng. ]. Med. 303 (1980): 583.

Edwardson, J. R. "Hops-Their Botany, History, Production, and Utilization." Econ. Bot. 6 (1952):

Dragendorff, G. Die Heilpflanzen. Stuttgart: Enhe,

Duisberg, P. C. "Desert Plant Utilization." Texas f. Sci. 4 (1952): 269. Duke, J. A. "Chemistry and Folk Medicine." In Recent Advances in Phytochemistry, edited by V. C. Runeckles. New York: Plenum Press, 1975. Endeavors to show some correlation between nutritional chemistry and folk medicine. ~~-.

CRC Handbook of Medicinal Herbs. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 1985. A compilation of data without evaluating sources.

Dukes, M. N. G., ed. Side Effects of Drugs. 11 vols. Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica, 1977-87. Each volume includes information on toxicity of nonorthodox remedies. ~~-,

ed. Meyler's Side Effects of Drugs. An Encyclopedia of Adverse Reactions and Interactions. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1984. Includes drugs used in nonorthodox medicine. Duncan, W. H. Woody Vines of the Southeastern United States. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1975.

Dunglison, R. New Remedies: The Method of Preparing and Administering Them; Their Effects on the Healthy and Diseased Economy. Philadelphia: Waldie, 1839 and 1843. Shows surge of interest in therapy following isolation of alkaloids.

160-75.

Ellingwood, F. "Echinac8n angustifolia." Therapeutic Gaz. 29 (1905): 298-300. ~~-.

American Materia Medica, Therapeutics, nnd Pharmacognosy. Evanston: Ellingwood's Therapeutist, 1915. Elliott, S. A Sketch of the Botany of South-Carolina and Georgia. 2 vols. Charleston: Schenck, Hoh, 1821-24.

Ellis, H. A History of the Bladder Stone. Oxford: Blackwell, 1969. El-Naggar, L. J., and J. L. Beal. "Iridoids: A Review." J. Nat. Prod. 43 (1980): 649-707. Elsohly, M. A., et al. "Constituents of Helenium amarum. II. Isolation and Characterization of Heleniamarin and Other Constituents." J. Nat. Prod. 42 (1979): 450-54. Elsohly, M. A .. et al. "Constituents of Helenium omarum. III. Isolation of Iso-heleniarmarin, a New Sesquiterpene Lactone." J. Nat. Prod. 44 (1981): 617-18. And other papers in the series. Elsohly, M. A., et al. "Separation and Characterization of Poison Ivy and Poison Oak Urushiol Components." J. Nat. Prod. 45 (1982): 532-37. Elvin-Lewis, M. "Empirical Rationale for Teeth

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Cleaning Plant Selection." Med. Anthropol. 3 (1979): 431-58.

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EI Zawahry, M., et al. "Use of Aloe in Treating Leg Ulcers and Dermatoses." Int. J. DermatoJ. 12 (1973): 68-73.

Emboden, W. A. Narcotic Plants, Hallucinogens, Stimulants, Lubricants, and Hypnotics, Their Origins and Uses. New York: Macmillan, 1979. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 1797. Sections on medicine and pharmacy. Endecott, Z. Synopsis Medicinae, or a Compendium of Galenical and Chymical Physick. Salem: N&G, 1914. Publication of collection of seventeenthcentury colonial recipes compiled by a practitioner. No clear int1uence of indigenous remedies. but at least references to readily available strawberry, plantain, sumac. and wild mallow. Enomoto, M. "Safrole." In Naturolly Occurring Carcinogens of Plant Origin. edited by I. Hirono, 139-59. Tokyo: Kodansha, 1987. Erichsen-Brown. C. Use of Plants for the Past 500 Years. Aurora: Breezy Creeks Press. 1979. Verbatim quotes from a wide variety of publications.

Evans, E. R., et al. That Was All We Ever Knew. Herbal Medicine: A Living Force in the Appalachians. Durham: Medical History Program and Trent Collection. Duke University Medical Center. 1982.

Evans. j. P. "Medicinal Plants of the Cherokees." Proc. Amer. Pharm. Assoc. 8 (1859): 390-97. "Evening Primrose OiL" Lawrence Rev. Nat. Prod. 4 (1983): 40-42.

Ewell. J. The Planter's and Mariner's Medical Companion. Philadelphia: Bioren, 1807 and 1817. Fairbairn. J. W .• and A. B. Shrestha. "The Taxonomic Validity of Cassia acutifolia and Cassia angustifolia." Lloydia 30 (1967): 67-72. Fairbanks. C. H. "The Function of Black Drink Among the Creeks." In Black Drink. A Native American Tea. edited by C. M. Hudson. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1979.

The Family Companion for Health; or Plain. Easy, and Certain Rules. which Being Practically Observed and Followed Will Infallibly Keep Families Free from Diseases, and Procure Them a Long Life. London: Fayram. 1729. Fantus. B. Useful Cathartics. Chicago: American Medical Association. 1920.

Erickson, T.. et al. "Guarana (Paullinia cupana) as a Commercial Crop in Brazilian Amazonia." Econ. Bo!. 38 (1984): 273-86.

Farnsworth, N. R. "Current Status of Sugar Substitutes." Cosmetics and Perfumery 88 (1973):

Ernst. E.. et a!. "Garlic and Blood Lipids." Brit. Med. J. 2 (1985): 139.

--~.

Estes, j. W. "Therapeutic Practice in Colonial New England." In Medicine in Colonial Massachusetts 1620-1820. Pp. 289-383. Boston: Publications of the Colonial Society of Massachusetts. 1980. Estes, J. W. "The Pharmacology of NineteenthCentury Patent Medicines." Pharm. in His!. 30 (1988): 3-18.

Etheridge, E. W. The Butterfly Caste: A Social History of Pellagra in the South. Westport: Greenwood. 1972. Etkin, N. L. "A Hausa Herbal Pharmacopoeia: Biomedical Evaluation of Commonly Used Plant Medicines." J. Ethnopharmacol. 4 (1981): 75-98. - - - . ed. Plants in Indigenous Medicine and Diet. Biobehavioral Approaches. Bedford Hills: Redgrave, 1986. A stimulating collection of papers.

27-35.

"The Development of Pharmacological and Chemical Research for Application to Traditional Medicine in Developing Countries." J. Ethnopharmacol. 2 (1980): 173-81. Notes how studies can contribute to safety.

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Feinbrun, N. "A Taxonomic Review of European Cuscutae." Israel f. Bot. 18 (1970): 16-29.

- - - . "Problems and Opportunities Associated with Drug Plant Information for Application to Phytotherapy." J. Holistic Med. 5 (1983): 66-73.

Feiz, j., and P. Moattar. "Formulation, Preparation and Eval uation of Medicinal Plants on Quantity and Quality of Human Milk." Paper presented to International Research Congress on Natural Products, July 1985, Chapel Hill, North Carolina.

Farnsworth, N. R., and B. M. Morgan. "Herb Drinks: Camomile Tea." J. Amer. Med. Assoc. 221

Fell, j. W. A Treatise on Cancer and Its Treatment. London: Churchill, 1857.

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Farnsworth, N. R., and A. B. Segelman. "Hypoglycemic Plants." Tile and Till 57 (1971): 52-56. Contains a list of plants with reputed hypoglycemic action. Farnsworth, N. R., and D. D. Soejarto. "Potential Consequence of Plant Extinction in the United States on the Current and Future Availability of Prescription Drugs." Econ. Bot. 39 (1985): 23140. Of special interest for lists of plants employed within the framework of regular medicine in the United States during 1980. At least nine useful drugs derived from higher plants were developed and/or discovered between 1950 and 1981. Farnsworth, N. R., et a!. "Potential Value of Plants as Sources of New Antifertility Agents." f. Pharm. Sci. 64 (1975): 535-98,717-54. Farnsworth, N. R., et al. "Oncogenic and TumorPromoting Spermatophytes and Pteridophytes and Their Active Principles." Cancer Treatment Rep. 60 (1976): 1171-1206. Draws attention to wide variety of compounds. Farnsworth, N. R., et a!. "Siberian Ginseng (Eleutherococcus senticosus): Current Status as an Adaptogen." In Economic ond Medicinal Plant Research, edited by H. Wagner et a!., 155-215. London: Academic Press, 1986. Farnsworth, N. R., et al. "Biological and Phytochemical Evaluation of Plants. II. Test Results from an Additional Two Hundred Accessions." Lloydia 31 (1968): 237-48.

Farquharson, R., and F. Woodbury. Guide to Therapeutics and Materia Medica. Philadelphia: Lea, 1877 and 1882. Compilation of generally accepted information. Favretti, R. F., and G. P. Dewolf. Colonial Gardens. Barre: Barre Publishers, 1972. Federal Register, 9 September 1976, pp. 38346-47.

- - - . "Genesis of American Materia Medica, Including a Biographical Sketch of John Josselyn and His Two Voyages." Bull. Lloyd Library, no. 26, 1927.

Felts, J. H. "Aloe vera, True or False." North Carolina Med. f. 44 (1983): 599. Fenneman, N. M. Physiography of the Eastern United States. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1938. Fernald, M. L. "The Identity of Angelica lucida." Rhodora 21 (1919): 144-47. - - - . "Potentilla canadensis and P. simplex." Rhodoro 33 (1931): 180-91. - - - . "The Nomenclature of Sassafras." Rhodora 38 (1936): 178-79.

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- - - . "Eastern North American Representation of Alnus incano." Rhodora 47 (1945): 333-61. - - - . "North American Corylaceae. l. Some Noles on Betula in Eastern North America." Rhodora 47 (1945): 303-29. - - - . Gray's Manual of Botany. BIh ed. New York: American Book Company, 1950. A standard work for central and northeastern United States and adjacent Canada. The indigenous as well as naturalized status of the North American flora are indicated. Many vernacular names included. Fernald, M. L., and L. Griscom. "A Review of Andropogon virginicus and A. glomeratus." Rhodora 37 (1935): 139-43. Fernald, M. L., and A. C. Kinsey. Edible Wild Plants of Eastern North America. Revised by R. C. Rollins. New York: Harper and Row, 195fl.

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Fernald, M. L., and K. M. Wiegand. "The Genus Euphrasia in North America." Rhodora 17 (1915): 181-201.

"Feverfew." Lawrence Rev. Nat. Prod. 4 (1983): 3. Ficarra, P., et a!. "High Performance Liquid Chromatography of Flavonoids in Crataegus oxyacantha," Farmaco 39 (1984): 148-57. Fielder, M. Fielder's Herbal Helper for Hunters, Trappers, and' Fishermen. Tulsa: Winchester Press, 1982.

Fisher, A. A. "The Notorious Poison Ivy Family of Anacardiac,!ae Plants." Cutis 20 (1977): 570-91. Fisher, M. F. K. A Cordiall Water. A Garland of Odd and Old Receipts to Assuage the Ills of Man and Beast. San Francisco: North Point Press, 1981. Fitzgerald, D. B., and M. D. Felix. "Tumor-Damaging Capacity of Plant Materials. II. Plants Used as Diuretics." f. Nat. Cancer Inst. 13 (1952): 741-44. Fleisher, A., and Z. Fleisher. "Identification of Biblical Hyssop and Origin of the Traditional Use of Oregano-Group Herbs in the Mediterranean Region." Econ. Bot. 42 (1988): 232-41. Floyer, J. Touchstone of Medicines. Discovering the Virtues of Vegetables, Minerals, and Animals by Their Tastes and Smells. London: Johnson, 168791.

Fluck, H. "The Influence of the Soil on the Content of Active Principles in Medicinal Plants." J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 6 (1954): 153-63. - - - . "The Influence of Climate on the Active Principles in Medicinal Properties." J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 7 (1955): 361-83. - - - . Medicinal Plants and Their Uses. Translated by J. M. Rowson. London: Foulsham, 1973. A generally impartial account. Fluckiger, F. A., and D. Hanbury. Pharmacogmphio: A History of the Principol Drugs of Vegetable Origin Met with in Great Britain ond British Indio. Landon: Macmillan, 1874 and 1879. Foester, W., et al. "HPLC Analysis of Valepotriales in the North American Genera Plectritis and Voleriano." Planta Med. 50 (1984): 7-9. Forbes, J., et al. The Cyclopaedia of Practical Medicine. Thoroughly Revised with Numerous Additions by R. Dunglison. Philadelphia: Blanchard and Lea, 1852. Useful for general information but not on sper.ific plants.

Forbes, T" ed. Thomas Palmers' The Admirable Secrets of Physick and Chyrurgery. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984. Reflects established Western medicine with very few references to Indian practice. Ford, R. I. Nature and Status of Ethnobotany. Museum of Anthropology, Anthropology Papers, no, 67. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1978. Ford-Lloyd, B. v., and J. T. Williams. "A Revision of Beta Section Vulgaris (Chenopodiaceae) with New Light on the Origin of Cultivated Beets." Bot. J. Linn. Soc. 71 (1975): 89-102. Forrest, R. D. "Sugar in the Wound." Lancet 1 (1982): 861.

Forster, H. B., et a!. "Antispasmodic Effects of Some Medicinal Plants." Plant a Med. 40 (1980): 309-19.

Foster, S. Echinacea Exolted. Brixey: Ozark Beneficial Plant Project, New Life Farm, Inc., 1985. - - - , ed. Reference-Book of Practical Therapeutics. 2 vols. New York: Appleton, 1896-97. Uneven in content but generally valuable. Foster, S. Echinacea Exalted. Brixey: Ozark Beneficial Plant Project, New Life Farm, Inc., 1985. - - - . East-West Botanicals: Comparisons of Medicinal Plants Adjunct between Eastern Asia and Eastern North America. Brixey: Ozark Beneficial Plant Project, 1986. Fothergill, J. "Remarks on that Complaint Commonly Known Under the Name of the Sick Headach." Med. Obs. &' lnquir. 6 (1777-84): 103-37. Fothergill, J. M. "On the Treatment of a Common Cold." Practitioner 15 (1875): 37-40. Foushee, D. B., et a!. "Garlic as a Natural Agent for the Treatment of Hypertension: A Preliminary Report." Cytobiosis :~4 (1982): 145-52. Fraken,). L., et a!. "Structure and Toxicity of the Alkaloids of Russian Comfrey." Experientia 36 (1980): 377-79.

Franz, G., and M. Grun. "Chemistry, Occurrence, and Biosynthesis of C-Glycosyl Compounds in Plants." Planta Med. 47 (1983): 131-40. A short review. French, D. H. "Ethnobotany of the Umbelliferae." In The Biology and Chemistry of the Umbel/iferae, edited by V. Heywood, 385-412. London: Academic Press, 1971.

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of Experimentol Pharmacology, edited by J. R. Vane and S. H. Ferreira, 698-739. Berlin: SpringerVerlag, 1979. Gaertner, E. E. "The History and Use of Milkweed (Asclepias syriaca L.)." Econ. Bot. 33 (1979): 11923.

Gantt, W. H. "A Few Remarks on Veratrum viride as a Therapeutical Agent." Stethoscope ond Virginia Med. Gaz. 4 (1854J: 69-74. Gardiner, A. S. "A History of the Taxonomy and Distribution of the Native Oak Species." In The British Oak, edited by M. G. Morris and F. H. Perring, 13-26. Faringdon: Botanical Society of the British Isles, 1974.

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Garlan, G. M. "Euphrasia officinalis." Boston Med. Surg. J. 121 (1898): 453-54.

Friedrich, H., and R. Engelshowe. "Tannin Producing Monomeric Substances in Juniperus communis L." Planta Med. 33 (1978): 251-57.

Garland, O. M. "Euphrasia officina lis." Boston Med. Surg. f. 121 (1889): 453-54.

Frohne, D., and H. j. Pfander. A Colour Atlas of Poisonous Plants. London: Wolfe, 1984. Frost, G., and Y. Frost. A Witch's Guide to Life. Jerome: Luminary Press, 1985. Frost, H. R. "Stillingia sylvatica, or Queens Delight." Southern J. Med. Pharm. 1 (1846): 617-34. Fulder, S. The Handbook of Complementary Medicine. London: Coronet Books, 1984. Fuller, H. C. The Chemistry and Analysis of Drugs and Medicines. New York: Wiley, 1920. Fuller, H. W. On Rheumatism, Rheumatic Gout, and Sciatica. New York: Wood, 1814. Fulling, E. H. "American Witch Hazel-History, Nomenclature, and Modern Utilization." Econ. Bot. 7 (1953): 359-81. Furlow, j. j. "The Systematics of the American Species of Alnus (Betulaceae)." Rhodora 81 (1979J: 1-121,161-231.

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"Ginger." Lawrence Rev. Nat. Prod. Monograph (April 1986). Ginsburg. J. M .. et al. "A Rotenone-bearing Variety of Tephrosia virginian a in New lersey." J. Econ. Entomol. 35 (1942): 276-80. Gisvold. 0 .. and E. Thaker. "Lignans from Larrea divaricata." J. Pharm. Sci. 63 (1974): 1905-7. Githens. T. S. Drug Plants of Africa. African Handbook. Philadelphia: University Museum. 1948. Gjerstad. G. "Naturally Occurring Hallucinogens." Quart. J. Crude Drug Res. 12 (1972): 1849-64. Glass. J. L. "Herbal Cures in the Fennell Diary." North Carolino Folklore J. 31 (1983): 38-42. Indian receipts said to have been given to an Englishman. but Indian influence not clear. Gleason. H. A. The New Britton (md Brown Illustrated Flora of the Northeastern United Stotes and Adjocent Canoda. 3 vals. New York: New York Botanical Garden. 1958. Gledhill. D. The Names of Plonts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1985. Glymour. C .. and D. Stalker. "Engineer. Cranks.

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- - - . Manual of the Botany of the Northern United States. 2d ed., revised and enlarged. New York: Ivison and Phinney, 1857. Helpful for vernacular names. Gray, A. I., et a!. "Hepatotoxic Alkaloids and Allantoin in SYIllphytum tuberosum." f. Pharm. Pharmacol. 35 (1983): 13P. Gray, S. F. A Supplement to the Pharmacopoeia Being a Complete Dispensotorv and Manual for Practitioners and Retail Druggists. London: Longman, 1836. Gray. T. U. "Some Notes of Cases Illustrating the Effect of the Alnus glutinosa on Cancerous Growths." Med. Mag. 16 (1907): 251-55. Green. A. j., and G. B. Lockwood. "Potters Asthma Cigarettes." Pharm. f. 233 (1984): 137. Green, j. R. A History of Botany 1860-1900; Being a Continuation of Sachs' History of Botany 15301860. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1909. - - - . A History of Botany in the United Kingdom. London: Dent, 1914. Green, P. S., ed. Plants, Wild and Cultivated. Hampton: Botanical Societv of the British Isles, 1973.

Greenbaum, D. S. "Psyllium and Irritable Bowel Syndrome." Ann. Int. Med. 95 (1981): 660. Greenblatt, R. B., et a!. "Aphrodisiacs." In Psychopharmacology: Recent Advances and Future Prospects, edited by S. D. Iversen, 289-302. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984. Greene, E. L. Landmarks of Botanical History. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1983. Greenish, H. G. The Microscopical Examination of Foods and Drugs. London: Churchill, 1923. Standard information; still helpful. Greuter, W. "Floristic Studies in Greece." In European Floristic and Taxonomic Studies, edited by S. M. Walters, 18-37. Faringdon: Botanical Societv . of the British Isles, 1975. Grew, N. The Anatomy of Plants. London: Rawlins, 1682. Grieve, M. A Modern Herbal: The Medicinal, Culinary, Cosmetic, and Economic Properties, Cultivation and Folk-lore of Herbs, Grasses, Fungi, Shrubs, and Trees with All Their Modern Scientific Uses, 2 vols. 1931. Reprint. New York: Dover, 1971. In 1982 a new index of scientific names was added to vol. 2. Griffin, j. P., and P. F. D'Arcy. A Manual of Adverse Drug Interactions. Bristol: Wright, 19B4. Contains section on herbal preparations. Griffin, L. Please Doctor, I'd Rather Do It Myself. with Herbs. Salt Lake City: Hawkes, 1979. One of a number of books by this author that were having considerable influence by 1986. Griffith, R. E. Medical Botany. Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847. An influential compilation with a critical approach. Griffiths, F. P. "Production and Utilization of Alfalfa." Econ. Bot. 3 (1949): 170-83. Griggs, B. Green Pharmacy: A History of Herbal Medicine. New York: Viking Press, 1981. A chronological account of episodes in the use of medicinal plants, but the development of herbal medicine within the area of self-care is not made clear. Grigson, G. The Englishman's Flora. London: Phoenix House, 1955. Of special interest because of comprehensive lists of vernacular names, though documentation sparse. Grime. W. E. Botany of the Black Americ(Jns. st.

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Hadfield, M. "The Oak and Its Legends." In The British Oak, edited by M. G. Morris and F. H. Perring. 123-29. Faringdon: Botanir.al Society of the British Isles, 1974.

Groenewegen, W. A., and S. Heptinstall. "Amounts of Feverfew in Commercial Preparations of the Herb." Lancet J (1986): 44-45. Wide variation noted.

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Gunn, J. C. Gunn's New Family Physician. New York: Moore, 1869, and other editions. Gunn. J. W. C. "Th" Carminative Action of Volatile Oils." f. Pharmacol. Exp. Therap. 16 (1920-21): 39-47.

Gunther, E. Ethnobotany of Western Washington. The Knowledge and Use of Indigenous Plants by Native Americans. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1973. Gupton. O. W., and F. C. Swope. Wild Flowers of the Shenandoah Valley and Blue Ridge Mountains. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1979. Haber, E., and J. E. Cruise. "Generic Limits of the

Hamilton, A. A Treatise on the Management of Female Complojnts ond of Children in Eody Infancy. New York: r.ampbell, 1792. Much emphasis on constitutional treatment. Hamilton, J. Culpeper's English Family Physician or !vIedical Herbal Enlarged. London: Locke, 1792. Hamuro, J., and G. Chihara. "Immunopotentiation the Antitumor Polysaccharide Lentinan. Its Immunopharmacology and Physiology." In The Reticoendothelial System. A Comprehensive Treatise. Vol. 8, Pharmacology, edited by J. W. Hadden and A. Szentivanyi. New York: Plenum Press, 1985.

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Harborne, J. B., and T. J. Mabry. "The Flavonoids: Advances in Research." Trends Pharnl(lcol. Sci. 5 (1984): 335-38.

Hardin. j. W. North Carolina Drug Plants of Commercial Value. Raleigh: Agricultural Experiment Station Bull., no. 418, 1962. Field descriptions of plants and when to collect. - - - . "A Comparison of Phytolacco omeriCClno and P. rigido." Caston eo 29 (1964): 155-64. Hardin, j. W., and J. M. Arena. Human Poisoning from Notive ond Cultivoted Plants. Durham: Duke University Press, 1974. Harding, A. R. Ginseng and Other Medicinol Plonts. st. Louis: Harding. 1908. Especially useful for practical information and description of crude drugs.

Hare, H. A., and W. Chrystie. A System of Practical Therapeutics. Philadelphia: Lea Brothers, 1891-92. Hare, R. A. A Text-book of Practicol Therapeutics with Especiol Reference to the Application 01' Remedial Meosures to Disease ond Their Employment upon a Rational Basis. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger, 1900, 1909. A popular textbook including firsthand observations. The "rational basis" indicates changing concepts through the incorporation of new ideas from physiology. Hariot, T. A Briefe and True Report of the New Found Land of Virginio. London, 1588. Reprint. Ann Arbor: Edwards. 1931. Harkiss, K. J., and P. Timmins. "Studies in the Scrophulariaceae. Part VIII. Phytochemical Investigations of Euphrasio officinalis." Plonta Med. 23 (1973): 342-47.

Harlow, W. M., and E. S. Harrar. Textbook of Dendrology. New York: McGraw-Hili, 1968. Harney, j. W., et al. "Behavioral and Toxicological Studies of Cyclopentanoid Monoterpenes from Nepeta catarin." Lloydio 41 (197B): 3!i7-74. Harper, R. M. Catologue of the Trees, Shrubs, and Vines of Alabomo, with Their Economic Properties ond Local Distribution. Part 2 of Economic Botony of AI(Jb(Jmo. University of Alabama, 1928. - _ .. "Asorum and Hexostylis in Alabama and Neighboring States." 1- Soc. App. Bo!. Club 1 (1936): 70-76.

- - . Preliminary Hepor! on the Weeds of Alabomo. Geological Survey of Alabama Bulletin, no. 53. University of Alabama, 1944. Helpful review including vernacular names. Harrington, H. D. Western Edible Wild Plants. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1n!i7.

Harris, B. C. The Compleot Herbal. Being with Description of the Origins, the Lore, the Choracteristics, the Tvpes. and the Prescribed Uses of Medicinal Herbs. Including an Alphobetical Guide to All Common Medicinol Plants. Barre: Barre Publishing, 1972. Reprint. New York: Bell Publishing, 1985. Notable for employing concept of doctrine of signatures. - - - . Comfrey. Whot You Need to Know. New Canaan: Keats Publishing, 1982. Harris, B. K., ed. Southern Home Hemedies.

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Murfreesboro: Johnson Publishing, 1968. A collection of family and herbal remedies. Harsteen, B. "Flavonoids. A Class of Natural Products of High Pharmacological Potency." Biochem. Pharmacal. 32 (1983): 1141-48. Hartwell, J. L. "Plants Used Against Cancer: A Survey." Lloydia 30 (1967): 379-436, 31 (1967): 71170, and others in a series. Reprinted in Hartwell, Plants Used Against Cancer, 1982. A compilation of plants used to treat cancer. - - - . Plants Used Against Cancer. A Survey. Lawrence: Quarterman Publications, 1982. Harvey, G. Family Physician and House Apothecary. London: T. R., 1676. Harvey, J., and D. G. Colin-Jones, "Mistletoe Hepatitis." Brit. Med. f. 282 (1981): 186-87. Haslam, E. Chemistry of Vegetable Tannins. London: Academic Press, 1966. - - - . "Vegetable Tannins." In The Biochemistry of Plants, edited by E. E. Conn, 527-56. New York: Academic Press, 1981. Hassanil, A., and M. D. Bentley. "Isolation and Identification of Constituents of the Roots of Tephrosia hildebrandtii W. Lwande." Poster delivered to International Research Congress on Natural Products, July 1985, Chapel Hill, North Carolina. Hatcher, R. A., and M. I. Wilbert. The Pharmacopoeia and the Physician. Chicago: American Medical Association, 1907. Helpful for elucidating changes in therapy. Hatfield, V. G. "Herbs in Pregnancy, Childbirth, and Breast-feeding." In Plant-Lore Studies, edited by R. Vickery, 84-93. London: Folklore Society, 1984. Haughton, C. S. Green Immigrants: The Plants that Transformed America. 1978. Reprint. New York: Jovanovich, 1980.

Hayes, N. A., and J. c. Foreman. "The Activity of Compounds Extracted from Feverfew on Histamine Release from Rat Mast Cells." f. Pharm. Pharmacal. 39 (1987): 466-70. Haywood, O. S., and E. H. Thomas, eds. The Journal of William Tully, Medical Student at Dartmouth, 1808-1809. New York: Science History Publications, 1977. Hazelhoff. B .• et al. "Antispasmodic Effects of Valeriana Compounds. An In-Vivo and In-Vitro Study on the Guinea-Pig Ileum." Arch. In!. Pharmacodyn. Ther. 257 (1982): 274-87. Hazum. E., et al. "Morphine in Cow and Human Milk: Could Dietary Morphine Constitute a Ligand for Specific Morphine (fL) Receptors?" Science 213 (1981): 1010-12. Heald. P .. et al. "On Eating Poison Ivy." North Carolina Med. J. 44 (1983): 437-38.

Health from Field and Forest. Boston: W. E. Servall. 1917. Hecht. A. "The Overselling of Aloe vera." FDA Consumer (July-August 1981): 27-29. - - - . "Some Medicine for Toothache. Drugs Take the Bite out of Toothache." FDA Consumer (September 1982): 10-15. Review of over-thecounter remedies. Hedrick. U. P., ed. Sturtevant's Notes on Edible Plants. Albany: Lyon. 1919. Reprint. New York: Dover, 1972. Hegi. C. Illustrierte Flora von Mittel-Europa. Berlin. 3 editions, 1906 to date. Heilbrun. L. K.. et al. "Black Tea Consumption and Cancer Risk: A Prospective Study." Brit. J. Cancer 54 (1986): 677-83. Heinerman. J. The Science of Herbal Medicine. Orem: Bi-World. 1980. An uncritical compilation. Heiser. C. B .. Jr. Nightshades: The Paradoxical Plants. San Francisco: Freeman. 1969.

Havsteen, B. "Flavonoids. A Class of Natural Products of High Pharmacological Potency." Biochem. Pharmacal. 32 (1983): 1141-48.

- - - . The Sunflower. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. 1976.

Hawes, L. E., "Benjamin Waterhouse, M.D." Boston Med. Library Stud., no. 1, 1974.

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Hawkes, J. G. The Diversity of Crop Plants. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1983.

Helfand. W. H .• and D. L. Cowen. "Evolution of a Revolutionary Oral Dosage Form." Pharm. Internat. 3 (1982): 393-95.

Hawkes, J. G., et aI., eds. The Biology and Taxonomy of the Solanaceae. London: Academic Press, 1979.

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Hemmerly, T. E. "A Ginseng Farm in Lawrence County, Tennessee." Econ. Bot. 31 (1977): 160-62. - - - . "Traditional Method of Making Sorghum Molasses." Econ. Bot. 37 {1983}: 406-9. Hendriks, H., et a!. "Pharmacological Screening of Valerenol and Some Other Components of Essential Oil of Valeriana officinalis." Planta Med. 42 (1981): 62-6B.

Hendry, G. W. "Alfalfa in History." J. Amer. Soc. Agron. 15 (1923): 171-76. Henkel, A. Wild Medicinal Plants of the United States. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1906. - - - . American Root Drugs. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1907. - - - . Plants Furnishing Root Drugs. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1907. - - - . Americon Medicinal Borks. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. 1909. - - - . American Medicinal Flowers, Fruits, and Seeds. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1913. Henman. A. R. "Guarana (PauIlinia cupana vaf. sorbiliss): Ecological and Sodal Perspectives on an Economic Plant of the Central Amazon Basin." J. Ethnopharmacol. 6 (1982): 311-78. Henry, S. Americon Medical Family Herbal. New York: Henry, 1814. Hepting, G. H. "Death of the American Chestnut." Forest His!. 18 (1974): 60-67.

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Heptinstall, S., et al. "Extracts of Feverfew May Inhibit Platelet Behaviour via Neutralization of Sulphydryl Groups." J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 39 (1987): 459-65.

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Heywood, V. H., ed. The Biology and Chemistry of the Urn;)elliferae. London: Linnaean Society and Academic Press, 1971. Heywood, V. H., et a!., eds. The Biology and Chemistry of the Compositae. 2 vols. London: Academic Press, 1977. Hickok, L. G., and j. C. Anway. "A Morphological and Chemical Analysis of Geographical Variation in Tilia L. of Eastern North America." Brittonia 24 (1972): 2-8.

Hiesey, W, M., and M. A. Nabs. "Genetic and Transplant Studies on Contrasting Species and Ecological Races of the Achillea millefolium Complex." Bot. Goz. 13 (1970): 245-59. Hikino, H. "Recent Research on Oriental Medicinal Plants." Ecan. Med. Plant Res. 1 (1985): 52-85. - - - . "Antihepatotoxic Actions of Allium sativum Bulbs." Plant a Med. no. 3 (1986): 163-68. Hikino, H., et a!. "Change of Alkaloid Composition and Acute Toxicity of Aconitum Roots During Processing." Yakugoku Zasshi 97 (1977): 359-66. Hikino, H., et al. .. Antihepatotoxic Actions of Ginscnosides from Panax ginseng Roots." Planta Med. 51, no. 1 (1985): 62-64. Hill, j. A History of the Materia Medica. London: Longman, 1751.

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(1984): 25-27.

Hills, L. D. Comfrey: Past, Present, ond Future. London: Faber and Faber, 1976.

Hernandez, F. Historia Natural de Nueva Espana. 3 vols. Mexico: Universitaria, 1942-46.

Hines, D. P. "Observations on Veratrum viride." Stdhoscope & Virginia Med. Gaz. 3 (1853): 26-30.

Herz, W. "Sesquiterpene Lactones in Compositae." In Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, edited by H. Wagner and L. Horhammer, 64-92. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1971.

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of

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Hoch. J. H. "The Legend and History of Passiflora." Amer. J. Pharm. 106 (1934): 166-70. Little on medical story.

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416.

Hocking. G. M. "Henbane-Healing Herb of Hercules and of Apollo." Econ. Bot. 1 (1947): 306-16. - - - . A Dictionary of Terms in Pharmacognosy and Other Divisions of Economic Botany. A Compilation of Words and Expressions Relating Principally to Natural Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Materials and the Plants and Animals from which They Are Derived. Their Chemical Composition. Applications and Uses. Springfield: Thomas. 1958.

Hodson. R. W. "The Avocado-A Gift from the Middle Americas." Econ. Bot. 4 (1950): 253-93. Hoffman. B. G. "John Clayton's 1687 Account of the Medicinal Practices of the Virginia Indians." Ethnohistory 11 (1964): 1-40. Hoffman. J. J.• and S. P. McLaughlin. "Grindelia camporum: Potential Cash Crop for the Arid Southwest." Econ. Bot. 40 (1986): 162-69. Hogan. R. P. "Hemorrhagic Diathesis Caused by Drinking an Herbal Tea." J. Amer. Med. Assoc. 249 (1983): 2679-80.

Hollick. F. A Popular Treatise on Venereal Disease. New York: Strong. 1852. Holmstedt. B.. and J. G. Bruhn. "Ethnopharmacology-A Challenge." J. Ethnopharmacol. 8 (1983): 251-56.

Hori. T. "Capsaicin and Central Control of Thermoregulation." Pharmacal. Therap. 26 (1984): 389Hornischfeger. H. J. G .. and E. Duker. "Studies on the Endocrine Effects of the Contents of Cimicifuga racemosa. 2. In Vitro Binding to Estrogen Receptors." Planta Med. 51. no. 4 (1985): 316-19. Horrobin. D. F. "The Importance of GammaLinolenic Acid and Prostaglandin E in Human Nutrition and Medicine." J. Holistic Med. 3 (1981): 118-39. One of a number of publications that have helped to popularize the general use of evening primrose.

- - - . "The Role of Essential Fatty Acids and Prostaglandins in the Premenstrual Syndrome." J. Repro. Med. 28 (1983): 465-68. Hort. J. A. "The Ethnobotany of the Northern Cheyenne Indians of Montana." J. Ethnopharmacol. 4 (1981): 1-55.

Hostettmann. K.. et al. "Molluscicidal Properties of Various Saponins." Planta Med. 44 (1982): 34-35. Houghton. P. J. "The Biological Activity of Valerian and Related Plants." J. Ethnopharmacol. 22 (1988): 121-42.

Howard. H. P. "Mistletoe as an Oxytocic." Medical News 60 (1892): 547-48. Howard. J. Practical Observations on Cancer. London: Hatchard. 1811. Howe. J. W. Excessive Venery Masturbation and Continence. New York: Bermingham. 1884. Inter-

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esting references to use of substances (e.g., lupulin) as placebo for treatment of spermatorrhoea.

Hyatt, H. M. Folk-lore from Adams County Illinois. New York: A. E. Hyatt Foundation, 1965.

Howes, F. N. A Dictionary of Useful and Everyday Plants and Their Common Names. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974.

- - - . Hoodoo-Conjuration-WitchcraftRootwork. 4 vols. Hannibal: Alma Egan Hyatt Foundation, 1970-73.

Hu, S.-Y. "A Contribution to Our Knowledge of Ginseng." Amer. J. Chinese Med. 5 (1977): 1-23.

Hyatt, R. Chinese Herbal Medicine. Ancient Art and Modern Science. New York: Schocken, 1978.

Huang, Z.-J., et al. "Studies on Herbal Remedies I: Analysis of Herbal Smoking Preparations Alleged to Contain Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) and Other Natural Products." J. Pharm. Sci. 71 (1982): 270-

Hyde, F. F. "Mistletoe." Pharm. J. 229 (1982): 574. Denies proven toxicity.

71.

Hubbard, D. H. "Remedial Powers of the Ceanothus americanus." Boston Med. Surg. J. 13 (1835): 12728.

Hubble, A. "Observations on Prenanthes altissima." New York Med. Phys. J. 4 (1826): 484-86. Hudson, C. M., ed. Black Drink. A Native American Tea. Athens: University of Georgia Press,

Inglenook Doctor Book. Choice Recipes. Elgin: Brethren Publishing House, 1903. Ingram, J. "Notes on the Genus Galax [Diaspensiaceae)." Baileya 19 (1974): 128-30. Inoue, T., and K. Sato. "Triterpenoids of Sambucus nigra and S. canadensis." Phytochemistry 14 (1975): 1871-72.

"Inventory of Medicinal Plants: Selection and Characterization." WHO Chronicle 33 (1979): 56.

1979.

Invoices for Drugs. Guy's Hospital Archives, London, eighteenth century.

Hufford, C. D., et al. "Two Antimicrobial Alkaloids from Heartwood of Liriodendon tulipifera." 1- Pharm. Sci. 64 (1975): 789-92.

Irwin, J. R. Alex Stewart, Portrait of a Pioneer. West Chester: Schiffer, 1985.

Hussein, F. T., et al. "An Investigation of the Quaternary Alkaloids of Rhizomes and Roots of Xanthorhiza simplicissimo." Lloydia 26 (1963): 254-57.

Hutchens, A. R. Indian Herbology of North America. Windsor: Merco, 1982. Widely quoted, but the electicism of the sources makes it difficult to have confidence in much of the work. Huxley, A., and P. Bach. Herbs for Better Body Beauty and Herbs for Cooking, Cleaning, Canning and Sundry Household Chores, the Two-in-One Herb Book. New Canaan: Keats, 1982. An advocacy book with no critical evaluation. Huxtable, R. J. "Herbal Teas and Toxins: Novel Aspects of Pyrrolizidine Poisoning in the United States." Perspect. BioI. Med. 24 (1980-81): 1-14. - - - . "Herbs Along the Western MexicanAmerican Border." Proc. West. Pharmacol. Soc. 26 (1983): 185-91.

Hyams, C. W. Medicinal Plants which Have Been Collected and Used in North Carolina. North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin, no. 150, 1898. Helpful for inclusion of plants not used in regular medicine or Mr. Bass's folk medicine.

Isaac, O. "Die Kamillentherapie Erfahrung und Bestatigung." Deutsch. Ztg. 120 (1980): 567. Shows low animal toxicity. Isaac, 0., and G. Kristen. "Alte und Neue Wege der Kamillentherapie. Die Kamille als Beispiel fur Moderne Arzneipflanzenforschung." Med. Welt. 31 (1980): 1145-49.

Isely, D. "Legumes of the United States. III. Shrankia." Sida 4 (1971): 232-45. Ives, E. "Experience of the Virtues of Certain Plants." Trans. Amer. Med. Assoc. 3 (1850): 311-16. Ivie, C. W., and D. A. Witzel. "Sesquiterpene Lactones: Structure, Biological Action, and Toxicological Significance." In Handbook of Natural Toxins. Vol. 1, Plant and Fungal Toxins, edited by R. F. Keeler and A. T. Tu, 543-84. New York: Dekker, 1983. Iyengar, M. A. Pharmacognosy of Powdered Crude Drugs. Karmatcha: College of Pharmacy, Kasturba Medical College, 1974. Izaddoost, M., and T. Robinson. "Synergism and Antagonism in the Pharmacology of Alkaloidal Plants." In Herbs, Spices, and Medicinal Plants: Recent Advances in Botany, Horticulture, and

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the lack of discrimination in some entries is to be attributed to him is unknown.

Jackson, B., and A. Reed. "Catnip and the Alteration of Consciousness." f. Amer. Med. Assoc. 207 (1969): 1349-50.

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Jackson, B. D. A Catalogue of Plants Cultivated in the Garden of John Gerard. London: N.p., 1876. Includes notes and references to Gerard's Herball and the addition of binomial names; many of the latter have since been revised.

Janick, J. "The Apple-Pear Pickle." Horticulture 54 (1976): 20-21.

Jackson, B. P., and D. W. Snowdon. Powdered Vegetable Drugs. New York: Elsevier, 1968. Jackson, J. R. "Notes on Some Medicinal Plants of the Compositae." Can. Pharm. f. 9 (1875-76): 231-36. Attempt to popularize some plants. Jackson, 0., and D. W. Snowdon. Powdered Vegetable Drugs, an Atlas of Microscopy for Use in Identification and Authentication of Some Plant Materials Employed as Medicinal Agents. New York: American Elsevier, 1969. Jacobs, M. L., and H. M. Burlage. Plants of North Carolina with Reputed Medicinal Uses. Privately published, Chapel Hill, 1958. The list does not include uses for the plants recorded in North Carolina or the sources for the list. Jain, R. c., et al. "Hypoglycaemic Action of Onion and Garlic." Lancet 2 (1973): 1491. Jain, S. K., et al. Bibliography of Ethnobotany. Delhi Botanical Survey of India: Department of Environment, 1894. Uneven but valuable bibliography. Jakovlev, V., et al. "Pharmacological Investigations with Compounds of Chamomile. II. New Investigations on the Anti-phlogistic Effects of (-)Alpha-Bisabolol and Bisabolol Oxides." Planta Med. 35 (1979): 125-40. James, R. A Medicinal Dictionary: Including Physic, Surgery, Anatomy, Chemistry, and Botany, in All Their Branches Relative to Medicine. Together with a History of Drugs ... and an Introductory Preface, Tracing the Progress of Physic. 3 vols. London: Osborne, 1743-45. Invaluable; some of the contents still entrenched in the framework of Galenic ideas. Medicines, James said, are "best used in that crude state, in which bountiful nature has imported them to us." James did not write all the entries in the dictionary, and whether

Janick, J., et al. Plant Science: Introduction to World Crops. San Francisco: Freeman, 1974. Janku, I., et al. "Ein Diuretisch Wirksamer Stoff aus Wacholder Uuniperus communis L.)." Experientia 13 (1957): 255-56. Janssen, A. M., et al. "Antimicrobial Activity of Essential Oils: A 1976-1986 Literature Review. Aspects of Test Methods." Planta Med. 53 (1987): 395-98. Underscores many nonreproducible results. Janssen, W. F. "Cancer Quackery-The Past in the Present." Seminars Oncology 6 (1979): 526-36. Jansson, O. "Phylloquinone (Vitamin K-1) Levels in Leaves of Plant Species Differing in Susceptibility to 2.4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic Acid." Physiol. Plant. 31 (1974): 323-25. Jarboe, C. H., et al. "Uterine Relaxant Properties of Viburnum." Nature 212 (1966): 837. Jarboe, c. H., et al. "Scopoletin, an Antispasmodic Component of Viburnum opulus and prunifolium." J. Med. Chern. 10 (1967): 488-91. Jarry, H., et al. "Studies on the Endocrine Effects of the Constituents of Cimicifuga racemosa. 2. In Vitro Bonding to Estrogen Receptors." Planta Med. (August 1985): 316-19. Jartoux, Father. "The Description of a Tartarian Plant Call'd Gin-seng: with an Account of Its Virtues." Letter to the procurator general of the Missions of India and China. In "Letters of the Missionary Jesuits." Phil. Trans. (1713): 237-47. Jarvis, D. C. Folk Medicine. Greenwich: Fawcett, 1958. Jayasinghe, K. S. A., et al. "Contaminated Opium as a Source of Chronic Arsenic Poisoning in Sri Lanka." Ceylon Med. J. 28 (1983): 22-27. Jeffers, R. H. The Friends of John Gerard (15451612) Surgeon and Botanist. Falls Village: Herb Grower Press, 1967. Different interpretation to the frequent criticisms of Gerard as a plagiarist.

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Jellison, B. M. "Dr. John Tennent and the Universal Specific." Bull. His!. Med. 37 (1963): 336-46.

Jones, G. N. American Species of Amelanchier. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1946.

Jick, H., et al. "Coffee and Myocardial Infarction." New Eng. J. Med. 289 (1973): 273, 63-67. A positive correlation between coffee consumption and acute myocardial infarction, since disputed.

Jones, G. N. Taxonomy of American Species of Linden (Tilia). Illinois Biological Monographs, no. 39. Champaign-Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1968.

Jochle, W. "Menses-Inducing Drugs: Their Role in Antique Medical and Renaissance Gynecology and Birth ControL" Contraception 10 (1972): 425-39.

Jones, O. L. Peculiarities of the Appalachian Mountaineers. Detroit: Harlo Press, 1967.

Johnson, C. S. Shadow of the Plantation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1934. Includes information from oral history, some on family remedies. Johnson, C. W., and E. Hindman. "Rhamnus purshiana: Its History, Growth, Methods of Collection, and Bibliography." Amer. J. Pharm. 86 (1914): 387-413.

Johnson, E. S. Feverfew, A Traditional Herbal Remedy for Migraine and Arthritis. London: Sheldon Press, 1984. Johnson, E. S., et al. "Efficacy of Feverfew as Prophylactic Treatment of Migraine." Brit. Med. J. 291 (1985): 569-73. (For follow-up comments, see Waller and Ramsay, 1985.) Johnson, J. The Influence of the Atmosphere .. on the Health and Functions of the Human Frame. London: Underwood, 1818. - - - . A Practical Treatise on Derangements of the Liver, Digestive Organs, and Nervous System. London: Woodward, 1818. - - - . A Treatise on Derangements of the Liver, Internal Organs, and Nervous System Pathological and Therapeutical. Philadelphia: Clark, 1826. Johnson, L. A Manual of the Medical Botany of North America. New York: Wood, 1884. A textbook reflecting the critical thinking toward plants among many regular physicians. Johnson, R. A., et al. "Comparison of the Contact Allergenicity of the Four Pentadecylcatechols Derived from Poison Ivy Urushiol in Human Subjects." J. All. Clin. Immun. 49 (1972): 27. Johnson, T., ed. The Herball, by J. Gerard. Revised and enlarged edition. 1633, 1636. Reprint. New York: Dover Press, 1975. Jones, F. A., and D. V. Parke, eds. Fourth Symposium on Carbenoxolone. London: Butterworth, 1974.

Jones, O. R. "Essence of Peppermint. A History of the Medicine and Its Bottle." Hist. Arch. 15 (1981): 1-57.

Jones, S. B. "The Genera of Vernonieae (Compos itae) in the Southeastern United States." J. Arnold Arboretum 63 (1982): 489-507. Joret and Homolle. "On the Use of Apiol as a Substitute for Quinine." Virginia Med. Surg. J. 5 (1855): 367-77. Reprinted from Annuaire de Therapeutique, 1853. /osefsson, E. "Distribution of Thioglycosides in Different Parts of Brassica Plants." Phytochemistry 6 (1967): 1617-27.

Josselyn, /. New-England's Rarities Discovered. London: Widdowes, 1672. Reprint. with introduction and notes by E. Tuckerman, Boston, 1865. "Josselyn's New England's Rarities, 1672." In The Genesis of the American Materia Medica Including a Biographical Sketch of Josselyn, edited by H. W. Felter. Bull. Lloyd. Library, no. 26, 1927. Joy, N. H. "Decoction of Comfrey." Brit. Med.

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1

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Juel, H. O. "The French Apothecary's Plants in Burser's Herbarium." Rhodora 33 (1931): 17779. An interesting early list of plants collected in Canada, many of medical interest. Justice, W. S., and C. R. Bell. Wild Flowers of North Carolina. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1979. Kadans, J. M. Encyclopedia of Medicinal Herbs with the Herb-O-Matic Index. New York: Arco Publishing, 1970. Advocacy publication. Kahn, H. D., et al. "Effect of Cranberry Juice on Urine." J. Amer. Diet Assoc. 51 (1967): 251-54. Kalm, P. Travels in North America. [1747-51]. Edited by A. B. Benson. New York: WilsonErickson, 1937. Reprint. Barre: Imprint Society, 1972.

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Kang, S, S., and S. S. Woo. "Triterpenes from the Berries of Phytolacca americana." J. Nat. Prod. 43 (1980): 510-13. Kanner, L. "Mistletoe, Magic and Medicine." Bull. Hist. Med. 7 (1939): 876. Kapadia, G. J., et al. "Carcinogenicity of Camellia sinensis (Tea) and Some Tannin-Containing Folk Medicinal Herbs Administered Subcutaneously in Rats." J. Na!. Cancer lnst. 57 (1976): 207-9.

Kelly, B., ed. Southern Home Remedies. Murfreesboro: Johnson Publishing, 1968. Kelly, K. j., et al. "Methemaglobinemia in an Infant Treated with the Folk Remedy Glycerited Asafoetida." Pediatrics 73 (1984): 717-19. Kemsey, W. The British Herbal. Bristol: Kemsey, 1838.

Kapadia, G. J., et al. "Carcinogenicity of Some Folk Medicinal Herbs in Rats." J. Nat. Cancer Ins!. 60 (1978): 683-86.

Kennedy, P. Ophthalmographis; or, a Treatise of the Eye ... to Which Is Added an Appendix of Some of the Diseases of the Ear; Wherein Is Observed the Communication between These Two Organs. London: Lintoff, 1713.

Karawya, M.S., et al. "Dephenylamine, an Antihyperglycemic Agent from Onion and Tea." J. Nat. Prod. 47 (1984): 775-80.

Kerminov, S. S. "Coumarins of Daucus carota." Chern. Nat. Compounds 19 (1983): 745. (Translated from Khim Prirodnykh Soedinenii 19 [1984]: 745.)

Karknig, T., et al. "The Occurrence of Cumarins and Sterols in Tissue-Cultures of Roots of Anethum grnveolens and Pimpirwllo anisum." Planta Mcd. 27 (1975): 1-4.

Kew, H. W., and H. E. Powell. TilOIIloS Johnson, Botanist and Royalist. London: Longmans, 1932. Much background on Johnson's editions of Gerard's Herball.

Kartesz. J. T., and R. Kartesz. A Synonymized Checklist of the Vasculor Floro of the United States, Canada. (Illd Greenland. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1980.

Kew Gardens. Draft Index of Authors' Abbreviations Compiled at the Herborium, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. London: Kew Gardens, 1980.

Keeler, R. F., and A. T. Tu, eds. Handbook of Natuml Toxins. Vol. 1, Plant and Fungo/ Toxins. New York: Dekker, 1983. Keith, B., et al. Revised and Enlarged JI,lanuol of the Active Principles of Indigenous and Foreign Medicinal Plants. Evening Journal Print, Jersey Print, 1882. Keller, K., and E. Stahl. "Composition of the Essential Oil from [3-Asarone-free Calamus." Planta Med. 47 (1983): 71-74. Studies on American diploid calamus. Keller, K., et al. "Spasmolytische Wirkung der Isoasaronfreien Kalamus." Planta Med. 49 (1985): 6-9. Kelley, B. D., et al. "Pharmacological Aspects of Selected Herbs Employed ill Hispanic Folk Medicine in the San Luis Valley of Colorado, U.S.A. II. Asclepius asperula (Inmortal) and Achillea lanuloso (Plumajillo)." J. Ethnophafmacol. 22 (1988): 1-9. Kellogg, j. H. Plain Facts for Old and t-oung. 1882. Reprint. Baltimore: Heritage Press, 1974. Helpful for attitudes toward spermatorrhea. etc.

Khory, L. N. The Bombay Materia Medica and Their Therapeutics. Bombay: Ranina's Union Press, 1887. An attempt to popularize the use of native drugs. Kimata, H .. et al. "Interaction of Saponin of Hupleuri radix with Ginseng Saponin: Solubilization of Saikosaponin-a with ChikusetslIsaponin V (=Ginsenoside-Ro)." Chem. Phnrlll. Bull. 33 (1985): 2849-53. Kimball. M. Thomas Jefferson's Cook Book. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1975. Killlura, Y., et a1. "Effects of Various Coumarins from Roots of Angelica dahurica on Actions of Adrenaline, ACTH, and Insulin in Fat Cells." Planta Med. 45 (1982): 183-87. King, J. "American Eclectic Dispensatory." Amer. Pharm., o.s. 26 (1854): 569-75. - - - . The American Dispensatory. 7th ed. Cincinnati: Wilstach, 1870 (also 1872, 1882). - - - . American Eclectic Obstetrics. Cincinnati: Wilstach, Baldwin, 1871. - - - . The American F(1mily Physicion. Indianapolis: Douglass, 1878. t\pparentlya popular book, albeit with an Eclectic orientation.

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Kingsbury. J. M. Poisonous Plants of the United States. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. 1964. An enlarged version of a widely used text by Meuncher. Kiso. Y.. et al. "Antihepatotoxic Principles of Artemesia capillaris Buds." Planta Med. 50 (1984): 81-85. One of a growing number of studies on anti hepatotoxic effects. Suggestions that positive effects explain past reputations must be treated cautiously. Kliks. M. M. "Studies on the Traditional Herbal Anthelmintic Chenopodium ambrosioides L.: Ethnopharmacological Evaluation and Clinical Field Trials." Soc. Sci. Med. 21 (1985): 879-86. Kloos. H. "Food and Medicinal Plants Used by Armenian-Americans in Fresno. California." Ethnomedicine 5 (1978-79): 127-40. On persisting beliefs. Kloos. H .. and F. S. McCullough. "Plant Molluscicides." Planta Med. 46 (1982): 195-209. Kloss.

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herbal medicine in many editions. Knott. J. "The Mistletoe (Viscum album. 'Allheale'); a Monster in Botany; a Dryad in Mythology; a Panacea in Therapeutics; a Perennial Yuletide Symbol of Seminal Survival and Reproductive Vitality." New York Med. J. 88 (1908): 1159-66. Kohle. H .. and H. Kauss. "Binding of Ricinus communis Agglutinin to the Mitochondrial Inner Membrane as an Artifact." Biochem. J. 184 (1979): 721-72.

Korban. S. S., and R. M. Skirvin. "Nomenclature of the Cultivated Apple." HortScience 19 (1984): 177-80.

Kosak, A. I., et al. "Peptide Alkaloids from Ceanothus americanus L. (Rhamnaceae)." J. Amer. Chern. Soc. 91 (1969): 5619-24. Kost, J. Domestic Medicine. A Treatise.on the Practice of Medicine. Cincinnati: Sewell. 1859. A popular book written with sensitivity toward botanical rather than chemical medicines. and with an educational orientation. Kramer, W. Nature and Treatment of Diseases of the Ear. Philadelphia: Waldie, 1838. Krane. B. D., and M. Shamma. "The Isoquinoline Alkaloids." J. Nat. Prod. 45 (1982): 377-84. Kreitmair. H. "Pharmacological Tricks with Some Domestic Plants." E. Merck's Jahresber. 50 (1936): 102-10 (through Chern. Abs. 55:7091). Krochmal. A .. and C. Krochmal. A Guide to the Medicinal Plants of the United States. New York: Quadrangle/New York Times Book Company. 1973.

Krochmal, A., et al. Lobeline Content of Lobelia inflata: Structural. Environmental and Developmental Effects. N.E. Forest Experimental Station. Upper Darby, Pennsylvania, 1970. Krochmal. A .. et al. A Guide to Medicinal Plants of Appalachia. Agriculture Handbook no. 400. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1971.

Kong. Y. C. "Potential Anti-fertility Plants from Chinese Medicine." Amer. J. Chinese Med. 4 (1976): 105-28.

Kong, Y. C., et al. "Fertility Regulating Agents from Traditional Chinese Medicines." J. Ethnopharmacol. 15 (1986): 1-44. Konturek. S. J. "Clinical Aspects of Gastric Protection." In Proceedings Iuphar 9th International Congress of Pharmacology. edited by S. S. Oja et al.. 341-44. London. 1984. A brief review indicating new concepts, perhaps relevant to facets of Mr. Bass's practice.

Krochmal. A., et al. "Lobeline Content of Four Appalachian Lobelias." Lloydia 35 (1972): 303-4. Kronenfeld, j. j .• and C. Wasner. "The Use of Unorthodox Therapies and Marginal Practitioners." Soc. Sci. Med. 16 (1982): 1119-25. Kuijt. J. The Biology of Parasitic Flowering Plants. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969. - - - . "The Viscaceae in the Southeastern United States." J. Arnold Arboretum 63 (1982): 401-2. Kumana. C. R., et al. "Herbal Tea Induced Hepatic Veno-occlusive Disease; Quantification of Toxic

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Lampe, K. F., and M. A. McCann. AMA Handbook of Poisonous and Injurious Plants. Chicago: American Medical Association, 1985. Langenhan, H. A. A Century of the U.S. Pharmacopoeia 1820-1920. Titles. Synonyms, and Abbreviations. Madison: University of Wisconsin Pharmaceutical Experiment Station, 1923. Larkin, T. "Herbs Are Often More Toxic than Medical." FDA Consumer (October 1983): 5-10. Lists herbs that, according to the FDA, should not be used in foods, beverages, or drugs. Lassak, E. V.. and T. McCarthy. Australian Medicinal Plants. North Ryde, Australia: Methuen. 1983. Lasswell, W. L., et al. "In Vitro Interactions of Selected Drugs with Coffee, Tea, and Gallotann in Acid." Drug-Nutrient Interactions 2 (1984): 235-41. Lau, B. H. S., et al. "Effect of an Odor-Modified Garlic Preparation on Blood Lipids." Nutrit. Res. 7 (1987): 139-49. Laughammer, L., et al. "Detection of Toxic Adulteration of Equisetum Herbs." Dellt. Apoth. Ztg. 112 (1972): 1749-51. Law, D. The Concise Herbal Encyclopedia. New York: st. Martin's Press. 1976.

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Labadie, R. P., and K. T. D. De Silva. "Centella asiatica (L.) Urban in Perspective: An Evaluative Account." In Studies on Indian Medical History. edited by C. j. Meulenbed and D. Wujastyk, 20723. Groningen: Forsten, 1987.

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LaBarre, W. "Anthropological Perspectives on Hallucination and Hallucinogens." In Hallucinations, Behavior, Experience. and Theory, edited by R. K. Siegel and L. j. West, 9-52. New York: Wiley, 1975. Lacy, V. J., and D. E. HarneIl, Jr. "Plantation Home Remedies: Medicinal Recipes from the Diaries of John Pope." Tennesee Hist. Quart. 22 (1953): 25965. "Laetrile: The Making of a Myth." FDA Consumer 10 (December 1975-January 1977): 5-9. Laguna, J.. et al. "Effect of Diosgenin on Cholesterol Metabolism." f. Atherosclerosis Res. 2 (1962): 549-70. Laidley, J. "On Hydrangea arborescens." Amer. f. Pharm., o.s. 18 (1852): 13-30.

Leathwood, P. D.. and F. Chauffard. "Aqueous Extract of Valerian Reduces Latency to Fall Asleep in Man." Planta Mud. 51, no. 2 (1985): 144-48. Lebdox-Koso. V. I., et al. "Flavonoids of Plantago major." Chem. Nflt. Prod. 14 (1978): 223. (English translation of Khim. Prid. Soedin, no. 2 [1978]: 266.) Lecoq. R. "Chronaximetric Experimental Study of the Action of Some Mineral or Vegetable Sedatives and the Associated Effects of Ethyl Alcohol with or without Disulfuram." Chem. Abs. 59 (1963): 15783d. Lee. T. M., and A. H. der Marderosian. "A TwoDimensional TLC/sc Analysis of Cinsenosides from Root of Dwarf Ginseng (Panox trifolius L. Araliaceae)." J. Pharm. Sr.i. 70 (1981): 89-91.

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Wiley and Sons. 1977. A wide-ranging textbook with sections on herbology.

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- - - . "Contributions of Herbology to Modern Medicine and Dentistry." In Handbook of Natural Toxins. Vol. 1. Plant and Fungal Toxins. edited by R. F. Keeler and A. T. Tu. New York: Dekker. 1983.

Leonard. C. H. Pocket l'vlateria Medica and Therapeutics. Detroit: Illustrated Medical Journal. 1891. Leonard. J. P. "On the Use of Sanguinarine." Boston Med. Surg. J. 32 (1845): 457-59. Le Strange. R. A History of Herbal Plants. ;\iew York: Arco. 1977. Leung. A. Y. Encyclopedia af Common Nntural Ingredients Used in Food. Drugs. and Cosmetics. New York: Wiley. 1980. Leunhoff. M .. et al. "Folk Healers' Herbarium: Commonly Prescribed Herbs." In Folk Medicine and Herhal Healing. edited by G. G. Meyer et al.. 238-58. Springfield: Thomas. 1981. Leveille. G. A .. et al. Nutrients in Foods. Cambridge: Nutrition Guild. 1983. Lewis. D. A .. et al. "The Anti-inflammatory Activity of Celery Apium graveolens L. (Fam. Umbelliferae)." Int. J. Crude Drug Res. 23 (19B5): 27-32. Lewis. H. D. Diet for the Sick. New York: American t\l"dical Publishing. 1913. Lewis. J. R. "Biological Activity of Some Rutaceous Compounds." In Chemistry ond Chemical Taxonomy of the Rutales. edited by P. G. Waterman and M. F. Grundon. 301-11l. London: Academic Press. 1983.

Leye!, C. F. Herbal Delights. 1938. Reprint. New York: Gramercy. 1986. One of iI number of publications by Mrs. Leyel illustrating sustained interest in Britain in the 1920s and 1930s. Li. H. "Floristic Relationships Between Eastern Asia and Eastern North America." Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc. 42. pt. 2 (1952): 371-429. Liener. l. E.. ed. Toxic Constituents of Plant Foodstuffs. New York: Academic Press. 1980. Lilly. E. Handbook of Pharmacy and Therapeutics. Indianapolis: Eli Lilly. 1919. A manufacturer's catalogue indicating persistent though declining interest in many herbal remedies. Linder. H. R. "Occurrence of Anabolic Agents in Plants and Their Importance." Environmental Quolity and Safety. pI. 5. supplement (1(76): 151-58. Lindley. j. Flora Medica: A Botanical Account of All the More Importoot Plants Used in Medicine. London: Longman. 1838. Descriptions of 1.350 species. Many useful comments on medical uses. though little sense of firsthand experience: more a compilation. Lindqvist. K. "On the Origin of Cultivated Lettuce." Hereditas 46 (1960): :119-49. Lintlaeus. C. Species Plantorum. 2 vols. 1753. Reprint. London: Ray Society. 1957.

Lewis. M. "The Antibiotic and Healing Potential of Plants Used for Teeth Cleaning." In The Anthropology of Medicine. edited by L. Romanucci-Ross et al.. 201-30. New York: Praeger, 1983

- - . Vegetable Materia Medico. 1829. (See Whitlaw. 1829. below.)

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Lipsitz. D. j. "Herbal Teas and Water Intoxication in a Young Child." f. Fum. Pract. 13 (1984): 933-37.

Lewis. W. An Experimental History of the Materio Medica. 2 vols. Dublin: Potts. 1769. An invaluable resource reflecting the critical attitudes of the eighteenth century.

Lipton. R. A. "The lJse of Impatiens biflora (Jewelweed) in the Treatment of Rhus Dermatitis." Ann. Allergy 16 (1958): 526-27.

- - . Edinburgh New Dispensatory. Philadel,phia: Dobson. 1791. A widely used book in many British and American editions. Lewis. W. H .• and M. P. F. Elvin-Lewis. Medical Botany. Plants Affecting Man's Health. New York:

List, P. H .. and L. Horhammer. eds. Hagers Hondbuch der P/wrmozeutischen Praxis. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. 1972. Little. E. L. Checklist of Native und Naturalized Trees of the U.S. (Including Alaska). Washington. D.C.: U.S. Forestry Service. U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1953.

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Lloyd. J. U. "The Eclectic Alkaloids. Resins. Resinoids. Oleo-resins and Concentrated Principles." Bull. Lloyd Library 12 (1910). - - - . "History of the Vegetable Drugs of the Pharmacopoeia of the United States." Bull. Lloyd Library. no. 18. Pharmacy Series. no. 4. 1911. - - - . "Vegetable Drugs Employed by American Physicians." J. Amer. Pharm. Assoc. 3 (1912): 1228-41. Useful assessment of popularity. - - - . Origin and History of All the Pharmacopoeial Vegetable Drugs. Cincinnati: Caxton Press. 1921.

Lloyd. J. U .. and C. G. Lloyd. Drugs and Medicines of North America. Cincinnati: Lloyd, 1884-87. Lloyd Brothers' Complete Dose Book of Fine Medical Specialties. Cincinnati: Lloyd Brothers. 1921. Locock. R. A. "Acorus calamus." Can. Pharm.

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Mabry. T. J.. et al.. eds. Creosote Bush: Biology and Chemistry of Larrea in New World Deserts. Stroudsburg: Dowden. Hutchinson and Ross. 1977. Macalister. C. J. "A New Cell Proliferant: A Note on the Symphytum officinale or Common Comfrey." Brit. Med. J. 1 (1912): 1275. Macalpine. I.. and R. Hunter. George III and the Med Business. London: Allen Lane. Penguin. 1969. McCallion, R. F .. et al. "Antibiotic Substances from New Zealand Plants. II. Polysodial. an AntiCandida Agent from Pseudowintera colorata." Planta Med. 44 (1982): 134-38. McCamm. A. W. Starving America. New York: Doran. 1912. Basically a plea for eating food in the natural state. McCauley. R .. et al. "Frost-bite Injuries: A Rational Approach Based on the Pathophysiology." J. Trauma 23 (1983): 143-47. McClure. S. A. "Parallel Usage of Medicinal Plants by Africans and Their Caribbean Descendents." Econ. Bot. 36 (1982): 291-301. McDonald. B. F. P. "A Preliminary Note on the Effects of Sempervivum teetorum in Cancer." Lancet 1 (1913): 128-29. Observation derived from action of juice of common house leek on warts. McDonald. M. I.. et al. "Antibacterial Activity of Hydrolysed Linseed Oil and Linolenic Acid Against Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus." Lancet 2 (1981): 1056. MacDougal. J. M. "Revision of Passiflora L. Section Pseudodysomin (Harms.) Killip emend J. MacDougal. The Hooked Trichome Group (Passifloraceae)." Ph.D. diss., Duke University. 1983.

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Macht. D. I. "The Action of So-Called Emmenagogue Oils on the Isolated Uterus; with a Report of a Case of Pennyroyal Poisoning." J. Amer. Med.

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MacKinney. L. C. "Oleum Savinum: An Early Medieval Synthesis of Medical Prescriptions." Bull. Hist. Med. 16 (1944): 276-88. McLaughlin. T. If You Like It. Don't Eat It. Dietary Fads and Fancies. New York: Universe Books. 1979. Useful popular account that points out various fads. Maclean. C. M. (Letter on 1. pandurata.) New York f. Med. 10 (1848): 357. McLean. P. S. "Conjure Doctors in Eastern North Carolina." North Carolina Folklore /. 29 (1972): 21-29.

Macleod. A. J. "Volatile Flavour Compounds of the Cruciferae." In The Biology and Chemistry of the Cruciferae. edited by J. C. Vaughan et aI., 307-:10. London: Academic Press. 1976. McNair. J. B. Rhus Dermatitis from Rhus toxicodendron. radeans. and diversiloba (Paison Ivy). Its Pathology and Chemotherapy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1923. Includes valuable bibliography. McNaughton. I. H. "Turnip and Relatives." In Evolution of Crop Plants. edited by N. W. Simmonds. 45-48. London: Longman. 1976.

McNeill. J. "Nomenclatural Problems in Polygonum." Taxonomy 30 (1981): 630-41. McPherson. A. "Pokeweed and Other Lymphocyte Mitogens." In Toxic Plants, edited by A. D. Kinghorn. 83-102. New York: Columbia University Press. 1979. Magendie. F. Formulary for the Preparation and

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CNRS Laboratoire d'Ethnobotanique. 1978. Helpful

Marshall. H. Arbustum Americanum: The American Grove. 1785. Reprint. New York: Hafner, 1967. Occasional medical reference and helpful for eighteenth-century vernacular names. Martin. F. W.. and H. Y. Nakasone. "The Edible Species of Passiflora." £con. Bot. 24 (1970): 33343.

Martinez. B.. and E. j. Staba. "The Physiological Effects of Aralia. Panax. and Eleutherococcus on Exercised Rats." Japan J. Pharmacal. 35 (1984): 79-85.

Marx. D. S .• and C. B. Dugdale. A Modern American Herbal. Useful Trees and Shrubs. Scarsdale, N.Y.: Barnes. 1973. Includes miscellaneous ecanODlir: uses.

Masefield. G. B.. et al. The Oxford Book of Food Plants. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971. Massey. A. B. "Medicinal Plants Native and Naturalized of Virginia which H&d Been Officially Used in the Preparation of Drugs." Bull. Virginia Polytechnic IllS!. 35 (1942): 1-52. No uses given. but provides sense of the drug market-not just for regular medicine-in 1941. - - - . "The Blessed Thistle in Virginia." Rhodora 62 (1960): 233-34.

- - - . Virginio Flora. Blacksburg: Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station, 1961. Mathieu, A. "Observations on the Use of Castor Oil. Quinine, and Pituitary Extract in the Induction of Labor." Amer. f. Obst. Gyn. 13 (1927): 223-27. Matsuda. H., et al. "Effects of Crude Drugs on Experimental Hypercholesterolemia.!. Tea and Its Active Principles." J. Ethnopharmacol. 17 (1986);

bibliography. Max. B. "Cafeteria Contraceptives in China; Some Pharmacological Novelties." Trends Pharmacal. Sci. 5 (1984): 362-63. Mease. j. "An Account of the Virtues of Some American Trees, Shrubs. and Plants." Philadelphia Med. Mus. 2 (1806): 157-63. "The Medicinal Uses of Parsley." Lawrence Rev. Nat. Prod. 5 (1984): 35-36. "Medico-Botanical Notices No. 10." Amer. J. Pharm .• o.s. 8 (1836): 101-2. Medon. P. J., et al. "Effects of Eleutherococcus senticosus Extract on Hexobarbital Metabolism in Vivo and in Vitro." J. Ethnopharmacol. 10 (1984): 235-41.

Meigs, D. Females and Their Diseases. Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard. 1848. Meijer. W. "Podophyllum peltatum-Mayapple. A Potential New Cash-Crop Plant of Eastern North America." Econ. Bot. 28 (1974): 68-72. Meikle. R. D. "The Development of Garden Plants from Wild Species." In Plants; Wild and Cultivated. edited by P. S. Green. 114-23. Hampton; Botanical Society of the British Isles. 1973. Melderis. A. "Taxonomic Notes on the Tribe Triticaceae (Graminae) with special Reference to the Genera Elymus L. sensu lata and Agropyron Gaertner sensu lata." Bot. f. Linn. Soc. 76 (1978): 369-84.

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Mellinger. M. "The Spirit is Strong in the Root." Appalachian f. 4 (1977): 242-53. Survey of Appalachian medicinal plants. Emphasis placed on Cherokee knowledge. No documentation and unclear how much information is firsthand. Support for the oral tradition of some of Bass's knowledge; e.g .. red sassafras is better than white.

Mattson, M. The Americ(ln Vegetable Practice. 2 vols. in 1. Boston; Hale. 1841.

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21:J-24.

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of the Materia Medica. Darmstadt:

Merrill, E. D. "In Defense of the Validity of William Bartram's Binomials." Bartonia 23 (1945): 10-35. - - - . Index Rafinesquianus. Th" Plant Names Published by C. S. Rafjnesque with Reductions. and a Consideration of His Methods, Objectives, and Attainments. Jamaica Plain: Arnold Arboretum, 1949. Helpful companion to Rafinesque's Medical Flora, which we have used extensively. Mertens. T. R., and P. H. Raven. "Taxonomy of Polygonum Section Polygonum (Avicularia) in North America." Medrono 18 (1965): 85-92.

Meyrich. W. New Family Herbal. Birmingham: Pearson. 1790. Middleton. E .. Jf. "The Flavonoids." Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 5 (1984): 335-38. Middleton. K. R.. and D. Seal. "Sugar as an Aid to Wound Healing." Pharm. J. 235 (1985): 757-58. "The Milk Thistles." Lawrence Rev. Nat. Prod. 6 (1985): 1-3. "Milkweeds and Wartworts." In A Second Hook of Plant Names and Their Meanings. by W. N. Clute. Indianapolis: Clute and Company. 1939. Miller. A. B. Shuker Herbs. A History ond 0 CompendiuIll. New York: Potter. 1976. Invaluable reference book that highlights variability: "Different parts of plants were used and different uses made of the herbs in the various [Shakerl communities." Miller. D. A. Forage Crops. New York: McGraw-Hill Booklet. 1984.

Mervin, L. "Standardized Feverfew Preparations." Lancet 1 (1986): 209.

Miller. E. V. The Chemistry of Plants. New York: Reinhold. 1957.

Metcalf. C. R. "Distribution of Latex in tl", Plant Kingdom." Econ. Bot. 21 (1967): 115-25.

Miller. J. BotanicUlll Officinale; or (J Compendious Herbal. London: Bell. 1722. Provides perspective on everyday usage.

Meyer, C. American Folk Medicine. New York: Crowell. 1973. Mostly an eclectic collection of recipes. but the discussion on early American practitioners highlights a sense of tradition; inevitably. much attention is given to Thomsonianism. - - - . 5 0 Years of the Herbalist Almanac. Glen-

wood: Meyerbooks. 1977. Meyer. D. C. Herbal Recipes for Hair, Salves and Liniments. Medicinal Wines and Vinegars. Plant Ash Uses. Glenwood: Meyerbooks, 1978. Highlights a tradition imbibed by Mr. Bass. but dwindling. We have generally excluded cosmetic uses from the monographs. Meyer. F. C. "Valeriana in North America and the West Indies." Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 38 (1951): 377-501. Meyer. G. G. "The Art of Healing: Folk Medicine. Religion. and Science." In Folk Medicine and Herbal Healing. edited by G. C. Meyer et al.. 5-12. Meyer. C. G .• et al .. eds. Folk Medicine ond Herbal Healing. Springfield: Thomas. 1981. A helpful collection of essays. Meyer. J. E. The Herbulist. 1918. Reprint. Glenwood. 1934; Meyerbooks Glenwood. 1979. An intluential herbal: includes Eclectic intluences.

Miller. W. A Dictionory of English Nomes of Plants. London: Murray. 1884. Miller. W. G. "The Genera of the Cannabaceae in the Southeastern United States." J. Arnold Arboretum 51 (1970): 185-203. Milligan. W.. and W. Wingrave. A Practical Handbook of the Diseases of the Ear. London; Macmillan. 1911. Mills. S. "Herbal Medicine-The Physiomedical Perspectives." J. Alt. Med. (August 1983): 8-10. Outline of various concepts. - - - . The Dictionary of Modern Herbalism. Wellingborough: Thorsons. 1985. Generally from an advocatory perspective. Millspaugh. C. F. Medicinal Plants: An Illustrated and Descriptive Guide to Plants Indigenous to ond Naturolized in the United States Which Are Used in Medicine; Their Description. History. Preparolion. Chemistry. and Physiological Effects Fully Described. Philadelphia: Yorston. 1892. Reprint. New York: Dover. 1974. Mintz. S. W. Sweetness and Power. Viking: Elizabelh Sifton. 1985.

Annotated Bibliography 507

Mitchell, F. Hoodoo Medicine, Sea Island, Herbal Remedies. Charleston: Reed, Cannon and Johnson, 1978. A helpful source, though difficult to distinguish present from past usages, or whether usage was primarily by blacks or whites.

for Truth Publications, 1980. An uncritical compilation of herbal information.

Mitchell, J., and A. Rook. Botanical Dermatology. Plants and Plant Products Injurious to the Skin. Vancouver: Greengrass, 1979.

Mooney, J. The Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees. Seventh Annual Report, B.A.E. Washington, D.C. Reprint. Nashville: Elder, 1982.

Mitcher, L. A., et al. "Antimicrobial Agents for Higher Plants. Introduction, Rationale, and Methodology." Lloydia 35 (1972): 157-66. One of many surveys.

Mooney, j., and F. M. Olbrechts. "The Swimmer Manuscript, Cherokee Sacred Formulas and Medicinal Prescriptions." Smithsonian Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 99 (1932).

Mix, D. B., et al. "The Aristolochic Acids and Aristolactans." J. Nat. Prod. 45 (1982): 657-66.

Moore. P. The Hope of I !eolth Wherein Is Contained a Goodlie Regimente of Life. London: Kyngston, 1564.

Moen, D. V. "Observations on the Effectiveness of Cranberry Juice in Urinary Infections." Wisconsin Med. J. 61 (1962): 282-83. Moerman, D. E. American Medical Ethnobotany, A Reference Dictionary. New York: Garland, 1977. - - - . "General Medical Effectiveness and Human Biology: Placebo Effects in the Treatment of Ulcer Disease." Med. Anthropol. Newsletter (August 1979): 5-6. Challenges many assumptions. ---. Geraniums for the Iroquois. A Field Giude to American Indian Medicinal Plants. Algonac: Reference Publications, 1982. Covers mainly Indian usage.

Montgomery, R. D. "Cyanogens." In Toxic Constituents of Plant Foodstuffs, edited by I. E. Liener, 143-59. New York: Academic Press, 1980.

Morelli, I. "Constituenti e usi della Melissa officinalis." Boll. Chim. Farm. 116 (1977): 334-40. Morley, A. "Treating Coughs." Pharm. f. 236 (1986): 17-18. Ammonium chloride (no herbal preparations) is the only long-standing remedy still in use. Morris, M. G., and F. H. Perring, eds. The British Oak. Its History and Natural History. Farringdon: Botanical Society of the British Isles, 1974. Morson. T. A Catalogue of Drugs, Pharmaceutical Preparations, Chemical Tests, Etc. London: Morson, 1825. A list of items sold by one company.

- - - . Medicinal Plants of Native America. 2 vols. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, Museum of Anthropology, 1986.

Morton, C. V. "A Reexamination of Mexican Smilax (Smilacaceae)." Brittonia 14 (1962): 299-

Mohabbat, 0., et al. "An Outbreak of Venoocclusive Disease in North-western Afghanistan." Lancet 2 (1976): 269-71.

Morton, j. F. "Folk Uses and Commercial Exploitation of Aloe Leaf Pulp." Econ. Bot. 15 (1961):

Mohr, C. "Plant Life of Alabama, Montgomery." In Contributions from the U.S. National Herbarium. Vol. 6. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1901. Occasional reference to medical usage is given.

- - - . "Spanish Needles (Bidens pilosa L.) as a Wild Food Resource." Econ. Bot. 16 (1962): 173-79.

Mohs, F. E. "Chemosurgery for the Microscopically Controlled Excision of Skin Cancer." In Sixth NatioIlol Cancer Conference Proceedings. Pp. 517-27. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1970. Monardes. Joyfull Newes out of the Newe Found Worlde. Translated from the Spanish by J. Frampton. 1577. Reprint. London: Constable, 1925. Montagna, F. J. PDR, or Peoples' Desk Reference Traditional Herbal Formulos. Lake Oswego: Quest

309.

311-19.

- - - . "Principal Wild Food Plants of the United States Excluding Alaska and Hawaii." Econ. Bat. 17 (1963): 319-30. Many listed are also medicinal plants (e.g., calamus, milkweed). _ .._-. Folk Remedies of the Low Country. Miami: Seemann. 1974. Information on present and past uses, but not whether employed primarily by blacks or whites.

- - - . Herbs and Spices. New York: Golden Press, 1976. - - - . Major Medicinol Plants: Botany, Culture, and Uses. Springfield, Ill.: Thomas, 1977.

508

Annotated Bibliography

- - - . "Economic Botany in Epidemiology." Econ. Bot. 32 (1978): 111-18.

Muenscher, W. C. Poisonous Plants of the United States. New York: Macmillan, 1951.

- - . "Tea with Milk." Science 204 (1979): 909.

Muir, A. D.. et al. "Antibiotic Compounds from New Zealand Plants. I. Falcarindol. an Antidermatophyte Agent from Schefj1era digitata." Planta Med. 44 (1982): 129-33.

- - - . "Caribbean and Latin American Folk Medicine and Its Influence in the United States." Quart. f. Crude lJrug Res. 18 (1980): 57-75. The article deals little with influence on the United States except for herbal use in the United States by Caribbean and Latin American residents and the use by some native Americans of. for instance Cassia reticulata for rheumatoid arthritis.

- - - . Atlas of Medicinal Plants of Middle America. Bahamas to Yucatan. Springfield: Thomas. 1981. Valued reference book.

Muller, H., and H. Reinwein. "Zur Pharmakologic des Galegins." Arch. Exptl. Path. Phurm. 125 (1927): 212-28. Murray, j. A System of Materia Medica and Pharmacy with Notes bv N. Chapman. Philadelphia: Dobson, 1815. A critical compilation. Murray, j. A. The Plants and Drugs of Sind. Delhi: Indian Book Gallery, 1881.

Moskalenke, S. A. "Preliminary Screening of FarEastern Ethnomedical Plants for Antibacterial Activity." f. Ethnopharmacol. 25 (1986).

Murray, R. D. H., et al. The Natural CourmarinsOccurrence, Chemistf)', Biochemistry. New York: Wiley, 1982.

Massa, j. S. "A Study on the Crude Antidiabetic Drugs Used in Arabian Folk Medicine." Int. f. Crude Drug Res. 23 (1985): 137-45.

Mushet, W. B. "A Glance at an Obsolete Materia Medica." Practitioner 4 (1870): 143-51. Notes "many trivial medicines which survive amongst the vulgar."

Mossell, j. A. "Practical Observations on the Efficacy of an American Plant, Called Pipsessaway. to Cure Cancer." Medical Repository 19 (1818): 298.

Nagy, M. "Human Poisoning from Horse Chestnuts." f. Amer. Med. Assoc. 226 (1973): 213.

Mota. M. L. R., et al. "Anti-inflammatory Actions of Tannins Isolated from the Bark of Anacardium occidentale L." f. Ethnopharmacol. 13 (1985): 289300. Raises questions about anti-inflammatory actions of tannins in general.

Nakajima, K., et al. "Isolation of a New Aloeemodin Dianthrone Diglucoside from Senna and Its Potentiating Effect on the Purgative Activity of Sennoside A in Mice." J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 37 (1985): 703-6.

Motherby, G. A New Medical Dictionary; or Gen· eral Repository of Physic. Containing an Explanation of the Terms, and a lJescription of the Various Particulars Relating to Anatomy, Physiology, Physic, Surgery, Materia Medica, Chemistry, &c. 2d ed. London: johnson, 1785. There are a number of editions. A more critical flavor toward medicinal herbs than found in james's earlier dictionary. This reflects a more conservative trend: "The Practice of Hippocrates, with regard to the materia medica, was very conformable to that of the present period."

Namba. T., et al. "Dental Caries Prevention by Traditional Chinese Medicines." Planta Med. 44 (1983): 100-106.

Mowrey, D. B. The Scientific Validation of Herbal Medicine. Cormorant Books, 1986.

National List of Scientific Plant Names. 2 vols. Washington, D.C.: Soil Conservation Service. U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1982.

Mowrey, D. B., and D. E. Clayson. "Motion Sickness, Ginger, and Psychophysics." Lancet 1 (1982): 655-57. Moyna, P .. and R. Tubio. "Mncilages in Succulent Plants." Plonta Med. 32 (1977): 201-5.

Napheys, G. H. The Prevention and Cure of Disease: A Practical Treatise on the Nursing and Home Treatment of the Sick. Springfield: Holland, 1875. Napier, A. D. L. "The Ecbolic Action of Pennyroyal." Brit. Med.'. 1 (1890): 661.

National Formulary. Washington, D.C.: American Pharmaceutical Association, 1946 (and other editions).

"Natural Aphrodisiacs." Lawrence Rev. Not. Prod. 3, no. 15 (1982): 57-59. Nees von Esenbeck, T. F. L.. and C. H. Ebermaier. Handbuch der Medicinisch Pharmaceutischen Botanik. Dusseldorf: Arnz and Company, 1830-32.

Annotated Bibliography

Neiderhofer, R. E. "Cowboys Ain't Milkhogs." ,. Amer. Med. Assoc. 255 (1986): 1440. Raises issues about botanical nomenclature. Neuberger, A., and T. H. jukes. Human Nutrition -Current Issues and Controversies. M.T.P. Press, 1982. Various threads of current interest explained including health quackery. Neumann, C. The Chemical Works of Caspar Neumann, M.D., edited by W. Lewis. London: johnston, 1759.

New York Botanical Garden Illustrated Encyclopedia of Horticulture. New York: Garland, 1980. Ng, T. B., and H. W. Yeung. "Scientific Basis of Therapeutic Effects of Ginseng." In Folk Medicine. The Art and the Science, edited by R. P. Steiner, 139-51. Washington, D.C.: American Chemical Society, 1986.

509

Nolen, W. A. Healing: A Doctor in Search of a Miracle. New York: Random House. 1974. Norris. j. "The 'Scurvy Disposition': Heavy Exertion as an Exacerbating Influence on Scurvy in Modern Times." Bull. His!. Med. 57 (1983): 325-38. Nottingham, j. C. Practical Physiological Philosophy. Bay City: Richardson, 1891.

Nutritional Value of Foods. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1977. Nutritive Value of American Foods in Common Units. Agriculture Handbook no. 456. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1975. Nuttall. T. The Genera of North American Plants. 2 vols. Philadelphia: Heartt, 1818. Nutton, V. "The Drug Trade in Antiquity." Soc. Med. 78 (1985): 138-45.

J.

Roy.

Nichikawa, M., et al. "The Suppressive Effect of Melilotus Extract on the Thermal Edema of Rats." Folio Pharmacol. Japan 81 (1983): 193-209.

Nyborn, N. "Cellulose Thin Layers for Anthocyanin Analysis with Special Reference to the Anthocyanins in Black Raspberries." J. Chromat. 38 (19fi8): 382.

Nickell, j. M. Botanical Ready Reference. 1904. Reprint. Beaumont: Trinity Center Press, n.d. Useful because it lists innumerable medicinal plants and their vp,rnacular names.

Oelrichs, P. B .• et al. "Toxic Tetranortriterpenes of the Fruit of Melia azadorach." Phytochemistry 22 (1983): 531-34.

Nicollier, G., and A. C. Thompson. "A New Triterpp,noid Saponin from the Flowers of Melilotus alba, White Sweet Clover." J. Nat. Prod. 46 (1983): 183-86. Niemann, G. J., et a!. "Flavonoids of Some Species of Sedum." Planta Med. 30 (1976): 384-87. Nieuwhof, M. Cole Crops. Botany, Cultiv(]tion, and Utilization. London: Leonard Hill, 19fi~1. Nikol'skaya, B. S. "The Blood-Clotting and WoundHealing Properties of Preparations of Plant Origin." Chern. Aus. 49 (1955): 8490. Nisbet, W. The Clinical Pharmacopoeia. London: Hamilton, 1800. Noble, R. L., et a!. "Role of Chance Observations in Chemotherapy: Vinca rosea." Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 76 (1958): 882-94. Noguchi, M. "Studies on the Pharmaceutical Quality Evaluation of Crude Drug Preparations in Orient Medicine 'Kampoo.' II. Precipitation Reaction of Berberine and Glycyrrhizin in Aqueous Solution." Chem. Pharm. Bull. 26 (1978): 2624-29. Cautionary note about interactions in compounded preparations.

"Of Cats, Catnip, and Cannabis." J. Amer. Med. Assoc. 208 (1969): 360. Various letters.

Ohmoto. T., and K. Koike. "Studies on the Constituents of Ailanthus oltissima Swingle. III. The Alkaloidal Constituents." Chem. Pharm. Bull. :~2 (1984): 170-73. O'Keeffe, D. C. "Experimental Researches on the Febrifuge Properties of the Extract of Dogwood Bark: Cornine Obtained-With Cases." South. Med. Surg. 1. 5 (1849): 1-28. Okuyama, E., et al. "Isolation and Identification of Ursolic Acid-Related Compounds as the Principles of Glechoma herderaceae Having an Antiulcerogenic Activity." Shoyakugoku Zasshi 37, no.1 (1983) 18-19. Okwuasaba, F., et a!. "Comparison of the Skeletal Muscle Relaxant Properties of Portulaca oleracea Extracts with Dantholene Sodium and Methoxyverampil." J. Ethnopharmacol. 20 (1987): 85-106. Okwuasaba, F., et a!. "Investigations into the Mechanism of Action of Extracts of Portulaca oleracea." /. Ethnopharmacol. 21 (1987): 91-97. Oliver-Bever, B. "Medicinal Plants in Tropical West

510

Annotated Bibliography

Africa. Ill. Anti-infection Therapy with Higher Plants." J. Ethnopharmacal. 9 (1983): 1-83. Oliver-Bever, B., and G. R. Zahnd. "Plants with Oral Hypoglycaemic Action." Quart. J. Crude Drug. Res. 17 (1979-80): 139-96. "On Gillenia trifaliata-American Ipecacuanha (Review of Theses)." Amer. J. Pharm. 26 (1854): 490-93. Opdyke. D. L. J. "Angelica Seed Oil." Food Cosmet. Toxicol. 12, supplement (1974): 821. - - - . "Angelica Root Oil." Food Cosmet. Toxicol. 13, supplement (1975): 713. Oriowa. M. A. "Anti-inflammatory Activity of Piperonyl-4-Acrylic Isobutyl Amide, an Extractive from Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides." Planta Med. 44 (1982): 54-56. Ortiz de Montellano, B. R. "Empirical Aztec Medicine. Aztec Medicinal Plants Seem to Be Effective if They Are Judged by Aztec Standards." Science 188 (1975): 215-20.

Palmer, T. The Admirable Secrets of Physick and Chyrurgery. Edited by T. R. Forbes. 1696. Reprint. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984. Few references to Indian practice. Parantainen, J., and H. Vapaatalo. "Prostaglandins and Migraine." Trends Pharmacal. Sci. 4 (1983): 379-81. Parente, P. P., ed. The Regimen of Health of the Medical School of Salerno. New York: Vantage Press, 1967. Paris, J. A. Pharmacologia.

Lo~don:

Phillips, 1820.

Parish, L. C., and T. N. Haviland. "The Saga of Poison Ivy." Trans. Stud. ColI. Phys. Philadelphia 42 (1974): 88-93. Parke-Davis and Company. Circulars. Descriptions of new drugs and specialties introduced by ParkeDavis, Detroit, 1883. Copies in Trent Collection, Duke University Medical Center Library. - - - . Organic Materia Medica. Detroit: ParkeDavis, 1890.

Osborne, O. T. The Principles of Therapeutics. Philadelphia: Saunders, 1921. A useful book illustrating a wide range of approaches to treatmenl, though relatively little on vegetable drugs.

- - - . Manual of Therapeutics. Detroit: ParkeDavis, 1909.

Osgood, E. S" ed. The Field Notes on Captain William Clark, 1803-1805. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1964.

Parks, C. R., et al. "Genelic Divergence within the Genus Liriodendron (Magnoliaceae)." Ann. Missouri Bot. Gurd. 70 (1983): 658-66.

Osal, A., et al. The United States Dispensatory and Physicians' Pharmacology. 26th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1967, and other editions. The various editions of this standard reference document many changes in therapeutics.

Parr, B. The London Medical Dictionory. 2 vols. London: Johnson, 1809; Philadelphia: Mitchell, 1819. An effort to be critical about the numerous remedies of the vegetable kingdom which are "of very unequal value, uncertain origin, or variously mixed and adulterated."

Packer, J. G., and G. S. Ringius. "The Distribution and Status of Acorus (Araceae) in Canada." Can. f. Bot. 62 (1984): 2248-52. Page, L. G., and E. Wigginton. Aunt Arie. A Foxfire Portrait. New York: Dutton, Foxfire Press, 1983. Page, L. G., and E. Wigginton. The Faxfire Book of Appalachian Cookery, Regional Memorabilia, and Recipes. New York: E. Dutton, Foxfire Press, 1984. Reflecls much that Bass knows. Paine, M. Materia Medica and Therapeutics. New York: Wood, 1848 and 1857. A useful compendium, especially for lists of nearly "obsolete" drugs. Palmer, R. "Medical Botany in Northern Italy in the Renaissance." J. Roy. Soc. Med. 78 (1985): 149-57.

Parkinson, J. Paradisi in Sale Paradisus Terrestris. 1629. Reprint. London: Methuen, 1904.

Parramore. T. C. "Non-venereal Treponematosis in Colonial North America." Bull. Hist. Med. 44 (1970): 571-81. Parsons, E. C. Folk-lore of the Sea Islands, South Carolina. Cambridge: American Folklore Society, 1923. Parsons. J. S. "Contaminated Herbal Tea as a Potential Source of Chronic Arsenic Poisoning." North Carolina Med. J. 42 (1981): 38-39. Pashby, N. L., et al. "A Clinical Trial of Evening Primrose Oil in Mastalgia." Brit. J. Surg. 68 (1981): 801. Peigen. S., and H. Liyi. "Ethnopharmacologic

Annotated Bibliography 511

Investigations on Tropane-Containing Drugs in Chinese Solanaceous Plants." J. Ethnopharmacol. 8 (1983): 1~18. Pei-Gen, X., and F. Shau-Lin. "Pharmacologically Active Substances of Chinese Traditional and Herbal Medicines." In Herbs. Spices, and Medicinal Plonts: Recent Advances in Botany, Horticulture, and Pharmacology, edited by L. E. Craker and J. E. Simon, 2:1~55. Phoenix: Oryx, 1987. Pelletier, S. W., ed. Alkaloids. Chemical and Biological Perspectives. 3 vols. New York: Wiley, 1985. Pennington, J. A. T., and H. N. Church, eds. Bowes and Church's Food Values of Portions Commonly Used. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1985. Penso, G. "The Role of WHO in the Selection and Characterization of Medicinal Plants (Vegetable Drugs)." J. Ethnophormacol. 2 (1980): 183~88. --~.

Index Plantarum Medicinalium Totius Mundi Euromque Synonymorum. Milan: O.E.M.F., 1983.

Perceval, R. "Clinical Notes at Edinburgh Infirmary." MS. 1777~78. Trent Collection. Duke University Medical Center Library. Pereira, J. The Elements of Materia Medica and Therapeutics. 2d ed. 2 vols. London: Longman, 1842. Perry, J. W. Spices. New York: Chemical Publishing, 1969. Perry, L. M. Medicinal Plants of East and Southeast Asia: Attributed Properties and Uses. Cambridge: MIT Press. 1980. A relevant volume because of similarity of flora of eastern North America and China, and Perry's review of the literature (unfortunately only up to 1961) for each plant. Persons, W. S. American Ginseng: Green Gold. Pompano Beach: Exposition Press of Florida, 1986. Peterson, J, E., and C. C. J. Culvenor. "Hepatotoxic Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids." In Handbook of Natural Toxins. Vol. 1, Plant and Fungal Toxins, edited by R. F. Keeler and A, T. Tu, 637~71. New York: Dekker, 1983. Peterson, L. Field Guide to Edible Plants of Eastern and Central North America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1978. Peterson, W. "On Eupatorium perfoliatum." Amer. J. Pharm. 17 (1851): 206~10. Generally used

by physicians, but of "very general employment in general practice." Peterson, W. L., et al. "Healing of Duodenal Ulcer with an Antacid Regimen." New Eng. J. Med. 297 (1977): 341~45. Petkov, E.. et al. "Inhibition of Rat Heart Phosphodiesterase by Some Rotenoids and Isoflavonoids." Plrmta Med. 47 (1983): 237~39. Petkov, V. "Plants with Hypotensive, Antiatheromatous, and Coronarodilatating Action." Amer. J. Chinese Med. 7 (1979): 197~236. --~.

"Bulgarian Traditional Medicine: A Source of Ideas for Phytopharmacological Investigations." J. Ethnopharmacol. 15 (1986): 121~32. Petrovskii, Y. A. "Studies on the Sources of Cholagog Activity in Plant Products." Farmakol. i. Toksikol. 9 (1946): 34~37. (Chern. Abs. 41: 6933g.) Phelon, j. T., et al. "The Use of Mohs' Chemosurgery Technique in the Management of Superficial Cancers." Surg. Gynecol. Obstet. 114 (1962): 25~30.

Phillips, C. D. F. Materia Medica ond Therapeutics. Vegetable Kingdom. Edited and adapted to the U.S. Pharmacopoeia by Henry G. Piffard. New York: Wood, 1879. Contains detailed accounts of many plants. --~. Materia Medica Inorganic Substances. Edited by H. G. Piffard. New York: Wood, 1879.

Phillipson. j. D. "The Pros and Cons of Herbal Remedies." Pharm. J. 227 (1981): 387~92. "British Poisonous Plants." Pharrn. J. 230 (1983): 461.

--~.

--~.

The Chemistry and Biology of Isoquinoline Alkaloids. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1984. "A Small Cog in a Big World." Pharm. J. 235 (1985): 334~40.

--~.

Phillipson, J. D., and L. A. Anderson. "Counter Prescribing of Herbal Remedies." Parts 1 and 2. Pharm. J. 233 (1984): 235~38, 272~74. Summarizes much information in British Herbal Pharmacopoeia. --~.

"Ginseng-Quality, Safety, and Efficacy."

Pharm.

J. 232 (1984):

161~65.

- - - . "Herbal Remedies Used in Sedative and Antirheumatic Preparations." Parts 1 and 2. Pharrn. J. 233 (1984): 80~82, 111~115.

512

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Polk, l. j. "Alfalfa Pill Treatment of Allergy May Be Hazardous." f. Amer. Med. Assoc. 247 (198Z): 1493. Pomet, P. A Compleat History of Drugs. London: Bonwicke, 1712. Porcher, F. P. "A Medico-botanical Catalogue of the Plants and Ferns of SI. johns, Berkeley, South Carolina." Southern f. Med. Pharm. 2 (1847): 25586,397-417.

Phillipson, j. D., and M. H. Zenk, eds. Indole and Biogenetically Related Alkaloids. London: Academic Press, 1980.

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Pickersgill, B. "Taxonomy and the Origin and Evolution of Cultivated Plants in the New World." Nature 268 {1977}: 591-95.

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Pierce, I. "Case of Cancer Cured by Repeated Excisions and a Diet of Indian Corn, Zea Mays, Linn." Amer. J. Med. Sci. 8 (1831): 49-55.

Porteous, A. Forest Folklore, Mythology and Romance. London: Allen and Unwin, 1928.

Pierce, R. V. The People's Common Sense Medical Adviser. Buffalo: Worlds Dispensory Print, 1883, 1917. Pilcher, j. D., and R. T. Mauer. "The Action of 'Female Remedies' on Intact Uteri of Animals." Surg. Gynecol. Obstet. 27 (1918): 97-99. Pilcher, j. D., et a1. "The Action of the So-Called Female Remedies on the Excised Uterus of the Guinea Pig." Arch. Int. Med. 18 (1916): 557-83. Pilcher, J. D., et a1. "The Action of Various 'Female' Remedies on the Excised Uterus of the GuineaPig." f. Amer. Med. Assoc. 67 (1916): 490-92. Piotrowski, G. "L' Ail en Therapeutique." Praxis, july 1, 1948. Pitarevic, /., et al. "Seasonal Variation of Essential Oil Yield and Composition of Dalmatian Sage, Salvia officinalis." f. Nat. Prod. 47 (1984): 409-12. "Plant Drugs Move into the 20th Century." Phorm.

J. 239 (1987): 99. "Plants and Oxalate Toxicity." Lawrence Rev. Nat. Prod. 3 (1982): 21-23. Plowden, C. C. A Manual of Plant Names. London: Allen and Unwin, 1970. Poethke, W., et al. "Uber die Inhaltstoffe von Passiflora bryonoides." Plnnta Med. 19 (1970-71): 177-88.

Postell. W. D. The Health of Slaves on Southern Plantations. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1951. PoUer, S. O. 1. A Compend of Materia Medica. Therapeutic and Prescription Products. Philadelphia: Blakiston, 1908. A "quiz-compend" for students. Contains basic information but none of the subtleties of thmapy. - - - . Therapeutics, Materia Medica, and Pharmacy. Philadelphia: Blakiston, 1913 (and 1917). PoUerton, D., ed. Culpeper's Color Herbal. New York: Sterling, 1983. The editor adds to seventeenth-century information published by Culpeper with modern herbal usage. Panacea reputations often persist, though not necessarily for the same ailments as in the seventeenth century. Bass's knowledge is generally more conservative. Poulopoulos. "The Treatment of Carcinoma by Cynoglossum Powder." Med. Press Cire. July 8 (1936): 36-37. Poulton. j. E. "Cyanogenic Compounds in Plants and Their Tuxic Effects." In Handbook of Natural Toxins. Vol. 1. Plant and Fungal Toxins, edited by R. F. Keeler and A. T. Tu, 117-57. New York: Dekker, 1983. Power, H., and 1. W. Sedgwick, eds. New Sydenhom Society's Lexicon of Medicine and the Allied

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Roca-Garcia, H. "Weeds: A Link with the Past, 2: Purslane." Arnoldia 30 (1970): 114-15.

Rosatti, T. J. "The Genera of Sphenocleaceae and Campanulaceae in the Southeastern United States." J. Arnold Arboretum 67 (1986): 1-64.

Rodale, J. l. The Hawthorn Berry for the Heart. Emmaus: Rodale, 1971.

Rose, J. Herbs and Things. New York: Grosset and Dunlap, 1972. An influential advocacy book.

Roder, E., et al. "Tussilago-a New Pyrrohzidine Alkaloid from Tussilago fartara." Planta Med. 43 (1981); 99-102.

Rosengarten. r., Jf. "A Neglected Mayan Galactogogue-Ixbut (Euphorbia lancifolia)." J. Ethnopharmacol. 5 (1982): 91-112.

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Ryden. M. "The English Plant Names in Gerard's Herbal (1597)." In Stockholm Studies in English Philology, Linguistics. and Literature. 1978. Pp. 142-50. Indicates value of Gerard's Herbal as source of English vernacular names (some noted as very local names) published for the first time, some coined by Gerard.

Rowe, T. "The Effect of Fresh Aloe "ero Gell in the Treatment of Third-Degree Roentgen Reactions on White Rats." J. Amer. Pharm. Assoc. 29 (1940): :148. Rowley, W. A Tre(]tisc on One Hundred and Eighteen Principol Diseases of the Eyes and Eyelids. Etc. London: Wingrave, 1790. Royle, J. F. A Monual of Moterio Medico and Theropeutics. London: Churchill, 1853. Synoptic account. but helpful for distinguishing popular medicines from others used less frequently. Rozin, P., and P. Schiller. "The Nature and Acquisition of a Preference for Chili Peppers by Humans." Moti"otion (]nd Em(]tion 4 (1980): 77101. Rudiger, H. "Phythemagglutinins." Plonto Med. 46 (1982): 3-9. Ruffin. J., and S. A. Hunter. "An Evaluation of the Side Effects of Garlic as a Hypertensive Agent." Cytobios 37 (1983): 85-8H. Ruggy. G. J., and C. S. Smith. "A Pharmacological Study of the Active Principle of Possijloro incarnata." J. Amer. Pharm. Assoc. Sci. Ed. 29 (1940): 245. Rusby, H. H. Papers. Kremers Files. American Institute of the History of Pharmacy. Madison, Wisconsin. - - - . "Viburnum (Viburnum prunifolium L.)." Bull. Phorm. (July 1891). Unpaginated reprint used. - . "Some Native Southern Remedies." Amer. f. Pharm. 55 (1885): 89-91. - - . "The Use of Cactuses." ]. New York Bot. Gard. 12 (1912): 195-204. Rush, H. "An Ar.r.ount of the Late Dr. Hugh Martin's Cancer Powder with Brief Observations on Cancer." Med. Comm. 1, 2d ser. (1786): 6-10.

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Schery, R. W. Plants for Man. 2d ed. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1972.

Sasek, T. W. "Implications of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Enrichment for the Physiological Ecology and Distribution of Two Introduced Woody Vines. Pueraria lobata Ohwi (Kudzu) and Lonicera japonica Thunb (Japanese Honeysuckle)." Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 1985.

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Schneider. W. Lexikon zur Arzneimittelgeschichte. 5 vols. Frankfurt-am-Main: Govi-Verlag, 196875. An invaluable encyclopedia on the history of drugs: plant drugs are .. overed in vol. 5, pts. 1-3. Heavy emphasis on German literature and much material complementary to the monographs in this volume. Schoent,,!. R. "Prevention or Cure? Use of Toxic Herbs and Geographic Pathology." Trop. Geog. Merl. 24 (1972]: 194-98. Schoepf. J. Materia Medica Americana. 1787. Reprint. Bull. Lloyd Library. Reproduction Series. 1903. Schulte. K. E.. et al. "Some Constituents of the Fruits and Root of Melio ozedarach L." Plantn Med. 35 (1979): 76-83. Schultes. R. E. "Hallucinogens of Plant Origin." Science 163 (1969): 245-54.

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Schwartz. R., et aJ. "The Acute Toxicological Profile of Sanguinarine and Sanguinaria Extract." Toxicologist 5 (1985): 176. Scoggan. H. J. The Flora of Conado. 4 vols. Ottawa: National Museum of Natural Sciences, 1978-79. An invaluable work which deals with much of the flora of the United States.

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of a separation between nutrition and clinical medicine during the first half of the nineteenth century, but Sherman was a professor of chemistry.

Secrest, A. j. "Contemporary Folk Medicine." North Carolino Med. J. 25 (1964): 481-82.

Sherman, j. A. The Complete Botonical Prescriber. Cornwallis: Cornwallis Naturopathic Clinic, 1979.

Segal, S. j. Gossypol. A Potential Contraceptive for Men. New York: Plenum Press, 1985. Includes historical introduction.

Sherry, C. J., and j. P. Mitchell. "The Behavioral Effects of the 'Lactone-free' Hot Water Extract of Catnip (Nepeta cateria) on the Young Chick." Int. Crude Drug Res. 21 (1982): 89-92.

Segelman, A. B., et al. "Sassafras and Herb Tea: Potential Health Hazards." J. Amer. Med. Assoc. 236 (1976): 477. Sell, P. D., and P. F. Yeo. "A Revision of the North American Species of Euphrasia L. (Scrophulariaceae)." Bot. J. Linn. Soc. 63 (1970): 189-234. Serfen, K, et al. "Sanguinarine: A Positive Inotropic Alkaloid which Inhihits Cardiac Na +, K+, -ATPase." Eur. ]. Pharm. 60 (1979): 373-77. Servis. R. E., et al. "Peptide Alkaloids from Ceanothus americanos L. (Rhamnaceae)." J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 91 (1969): 5619-24. Shaffer, W. All Natural Wild Yam Birth Control Without Fear. Provo: Woodland Books, 1986. Shanmugasundaram, K., et al. "Plasma Cholesterol and Lipoprotein Lowering Effect of Anna Pavala Sindhorrma." J. Ethnopharmacol. 8 (1983): 19-34. Sharma, P. V. Introduction to Dravyagunu (Indian Pharmacology). Varanesi, Chankhamba: Orientatia. 1976. Sharp and Dohme, Catalogue of Medicinal Fluid amd Solid Extracts, Elixirs, &c. Baltimore: Sharp and Dohme, 1870. Many botanicals listed in this trade catalog. Shelford, V. E. The Ecology of North America. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1963. Perspectives on past flora. Shemluck, M. "Medicinal and Other Uses of the Compositae by Indians in the United States and Canada." J. Ethnopharmacol. 5 (1982): 303-58. Sheridan, R. B. Doctors and Sh,ves. A Medical and Demographic History of Slavery in the British West Indies, 1680-1834. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985. Includes some information on relations between professional and folk medicine. Sherman, H. C. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition. New York: Macmillan, 1941. Sherman's many influential writings seem to contradict our assertion

J

Sherry, C. j .. et al. "Catnip (Nepeta cataria): An Evaluation of the Cold Water and Acetone Pretreated Hot Water Extracts." Quart. J. Crude Drug. Res. 19 (1981): 31-35. Sheth, K., et al. "Phytochemical Investigation of the Leaves of Chimaphila umbelJata var. occidentalis." Lloydia 30 (1967): 78-83. Shetler, S. G., and L. E. Skog. A Provisional Checklist of Species fOT Flora North America. St. Louis: Missouri Botanical Garden. 1978. Shibata, S. "Saponins with Biological and Pharmacological Activity." In New Natural Products and Plant Drugs with Pharmucological, Biological, or Therapeutical Activity, edited by H. Wagner and P. Wolff, 177-96. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1977. Shibata, S., et al. "Chemistry and Pharmacology of Panax." In Economic and Medicinal Plant Research, edited by H. Wagner et aI., 217-84. New York: Academic Press, 1985. Shillingsburg, M. j. "Virtue Enough to Cure so Venemous a Bite." North Carolina Folklore f. 31 (1983): 31-37. Survey of history of Aristolochia serpentaria and other plants. Ship. A. G. "Is Topical Aloe vera Plant Mucus Helpful in Burn Treatment?" 1. Amer. Med. Assoc. 238 (1977): 1770. Shoemaker, j. V. A Practical Treatise on Materia Medica and Therapeutics, with Especial Reference to the Clinical Application of Drugs. 2d ed. 2 vols. Philadelphia: Davis, 1893; 1896 (4th ed.). Useful for doses. - - - . "Cclandin, Its Pharmacology, Physiologic Action and Therapy." J. Amer. Med. Assoc. 29 (1897): 463-64. An interesting paper which encouraged a fashion in using juice of Chelidonium majus for treating nonmalignant hypertrophic lesions such as warts, corns. (For other references, see Hartwell. 1967, pp. 433-34.)

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Sturtevant, W. C. Bibliography on American Indian Medicine and Health. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology, 1962. Styles, B. T "The Taxonomy of Polygonum aviculare and Its Allies in Britain." Watsonia 5 (1962): 177-214. Suffness, M., and j. Douros. "Current Status of the NCI Plant and Animal Product Program." J. Nat. Prod. 45 (1982): 1-14. By january 1981 the National Cancer Institute had tested 114,045 plant extracts, of which 4.3 percent showed some activity. Sullivan, G. "Herbs Available to the Public." In Folk Medicine and Herbal Healing, edited by G. G. Meyer et aI., 179-96. Springfield: Thomas, 1981. "Summer and Fall Wild Food Plants." In Foxfire 3, edited by E. Wigginton, 274-353. Garden City: AnchorlDoubleday, 1975. Swados, F. "Negro Health on Antebellum Plantations." Bull. Hist. Med. 10 (1941): 460-72. Swain, T., ed. Plants in the Development of Modern Medicine. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972. A useful collection of papers for indicating interests in the early 1970s. Swain, T, and C. A. Williams. "HeliantheaeChemical Review." In The Biology and Chemistry of the Compositae, edited by V. H. Heywood et aI., 2:673-97. London: Academic Press, 1977. Swingle, W. T. "The Early European History and the Botanical Name of the Tree of Heaven, Ailanthus altissima." J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 6 (1916): 490-98.

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Thomas. D. L.. and L. B. T. Thomas. Kentucky Superstitions. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 1920. Thomas. G. A Practical Treatise of the Diseases of Women. Edited by P. F. Munde. Philadelphia: Lea Brothers. 1891. Thompson. E. B.. et al. "Preliminary Study of Potential Antiarrythmia Effects of Crataegus monogyna." ,. Pharm. Sci. 63 (1974): 1936-37. Thompson. R. C. "Whatever Happened to Camphorated Oil?" Consumer 17, no. 6 (1983): 4-5. Thomson. A. The Family Physician or Domestic Medical Friend. New York: Oram, 1802.

[Tennent, J.J Every Man His Own Doctor. Williamsburg: Parks, 1734.

Thomson. A. T. The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room. London: Longman. 1841.

Tenney, L. Today's Herbal Health. Provo: Woodland Books, 1982. A popular advocacy book with uncritical list of uses for herbs.

Thomson, S. New Guide to Health or Botanic Family Physician. Columbus: Pike. 1832 (and 1835).

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Thomson. W. A. R. Herbs that Heal. New York: Scribners. 1976. A widely quoted book because of the authority of the author. Useful but spotty in content.

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Thorndike. L .. ed. The Herbal of Rufinis. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1946.

Trotter, R. T. II, and M. H. Logan. "Informant Consensus: A New Approach for Identifying Potentially Effective Medicinal Plants." In Plants in Indigenous Medicine and Diet. Biobehavioral Approaches, edited by N. Etkin, 91-112. Bedford Hills: Redgrove. 1986.

Tharnton. E. Q: A Manual of Materia Medica for Medical Students. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger. 1911. Standard summaries for students.

[Trusler, 1.1 Medical Gentleman. an Easy Way to Prolong Life, by a Little Attention to What We Eat and Drink. Dover: Bragg, 1796.

Tiera. M. The Way of Herbs. Edited and supplemented by S: Dharmananda. Santa Cruz: Unity Press, 1980. A widely used advocacy book.

Truswell. A. S. "Food Sensitivity." Brit. Med. f. 291 (1985): 951-55. Some perspective on food allergies. often considered to be widespread by practitioners of alternative medicine (sometimes called pseudo food allergy).

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Tin-Wa. M .• et al. "Biological and Phytochemical Evaluation of Plants. VIII. Isolation of a New Alkaloid from Sanguinaria canadensis." Lloydia 33 (1970): 267-69.

Tisserand. R. B. The Art of Aromatherapy. New York: Destiny Books. 1977. Tobe. I. H. Proven Herbal Remedies. St. Catherines: Provok Press. 1969. The misleading title reflects an uncritical use of past writings. Torrey. I. A Flora of North America. 2 vols. New York: Wiley. 1843. Tournefort, I. Materia Medica or a Decriptian of Simple Medicines Generally Used in Physick. London: I. H .. 1708. "Toxic Reactions to Plant Products Sold in Health Food Stores." Medical Letter on Drugs and Therapeutics 21 (1979): 29-31. Train. P .. et al. Medicinal Uses of Plants by Indian Tribes of Nevada. Contributions to a Flora of Nevada. no. 3. Washington. D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1941. Trease. G. E.. and W. C. Evans. PharmClcognosy. London: Bailliere Tindall. 1978, 1983.

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Tschirch, A. Handbuch der Pharmacognosie. 4 vols. Leipzig: Tauchnitz, 1909-23. Indispensable. Tsotsoriya. G. G. "Study of Stellaria media for Its Content of Biologically Active Compounds." Kromatogrophia Metody Farm. (1977): 172-75. Tsuda, Y., and 1. Marrion. "The Alkaloids of Eupotorium maculatum 1." Can. J. Chenl. 41 (1963): 1919-23.

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van Helmont.]. B. Oriatrike or Physick Refined. The Common Errors Therein Refuted and the Whole Art Reformed & Rectified. London: Lodowick Loyd, 1662. Vaughan,]. G. "A Multidisciplinary Study of Taxonomy and Origins of Brassica Crops." BioScience 27 (1977): 35-40. Vaughan,]. G., et ai. The Biology and Chemistry of the Cruciferae. London: Academic Press, 1976. Veninga, L., and B. R. Zaricor. Goldenseal, etc. A Pharmacognosy of Wild Herbs. Santa Cruz: Ruka Publications, 1976. Despite the title and approach, this adds little to other advocacy literature. Vennesland, B., et aI., eds. Cyanide in Biology. London: Academic Press, 1982. Verpoort, R., et ai. "Medicinal Plants of Suriname. I. Antimicrobial Activity from Some Medicinal Plants." f. Ethnopharmacol. 5 (1982): 221-26. Verstille, E. J. Verstille's Southern Cookery. New York: Owens and Agar, 1866. Vickers, H. R. "Feverfew and Migraine." Brit. Med.]. 291 (1985): 827. Vickery, A. R. "Traditional Uses and Folklore of Hypericum in the British Isles." Econ. Bot. 35 (1981): 289-95. Vickery, R. Sempervivum tectorum as an Abortifacient." Folklore 96 (1985): 253. Visser, T. "Tea." In Evolution of Crop Plants, edited by N. W. Simmonds, 18-20. London: Longman, 1976. Vitetta, E. S., et ai. "Redesigning Nature's Poisons to Create Anti-tumor Reagents." Science 238 (1987): 1098-1104. Vogel, G. "Natural Substances with Effects on the Liver." In New Natural Products and Plant Drugs with Pharmacological, Biological, or Therapeutical Activity, edited by H. Wagner and P. Wolff, 24964. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1977. Vogel, V. ]. American Indian Medicine. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1970.

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--~.

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528

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Zennie, T. M., and C. D. Ogzewalla. "Ascorbic Acid and Vitamin A Content of Edible Wild Plants of Ohio and Kentucky." Econ. Bot. 31 (1977): 76-79.

Wynter, W. E. Minor Medicine. A Treatise on the Nature and Treatment of Common Ailments. New York: Appleton, 1908. Helpful for some perspectives on minor ailments and self-treatment.

Zollickoffer, W. "Observations on the Use of Eupatorium perfoliatum in Tianea Capitis." Amer. Med. Rec. 6 (1823J: 293-94. Focuses attention on certain skin diseases.

Xiao, P.-G. "Traditional Experience of Chinese Herb Medicine. Its Application in Drug Research and New Drug Searching." In Natural Products as Medicinal Agents, edited by j. L. Beal and F. Reinhard, 351-94. Stuttgart: Hippokrates Verlag, 1982. Yamaguchi, M. World Vegetables. Principles, Production, and Nutritive Values. Westport: Avi. 1983. Yamahara, j., et al. "Cholagogic Effect of Ginger and Its Active Constituents." J. Ethnophnrmorol. 13 (1985): 217-25. "Yellow Dock." Lawrence Rev. Nat. Prod. Monograph (May 1986). Yeo, P. F. "Euphrasia: A Taxonomically Critical Group with Normal Sexual Reproduction." In Essays in Plant Taxonomy, edited by H. E. Street, 143-62. London: Academic Press, 1978. Yonge, j. Currus Triumphalis e Terebintho. Or an Account of the Many Admiral Virtues of Oleum Terebinthoe. London: Martyn, 1679.

Addendum Since this volume first appeared in 1990, the number of publications on herbs has been almost overwhelming. Therefore, we are adding here only a small selection of references that offer both broad coverage and enlarge on patterns and ideas outlined in this volume. Readers with access to computerized databases will find it easy to pursue online more specific topics relative to their special interests. Borins, M., Englander, F., and O'Keefe, H. "Native Healing Traditions Must Be Protected and Preserved for Future Generations." Canadian Medical Association J. 153 (1995J: 1356-1357. Brito, A. "How to Study the Pharmacology of Medicinal Plants in Underdeveloped Countries." J. Ethnopharmacol. 54 (1996J: 131-38. Frate, D. A., et al. "Use of Plant-Derived Therapies in a Rural, Biracial Population in Mississippi."

Annotated Bibliography 529

f. Mississippi State Medical Association 37 (1996): 427-29.

Gessler, M. C., et al. "Traditional Healers in Tanzania-The Treatment of Malaria With Plant Remedies." f. Ethnopharmacology48 (1995): 131-144. Gruber, J. W., and Dermarderosian, A. "An Emerging Green Pharmacy-Modern Plant Medicines and Health." Laboratory Medicine 27 (1996): 100-

Moerman, D. E. "An Analysis of the Food Plants and Drug Plants of Native North America." f. EthnopharmacoJ. 52 (1995): 1-22. O'Connor, B. B. Healing Traditions: Alternative Medicine and the Health Professions. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995.

8,170-76.

Peterson, R. "Sanging in North Carolina: Zelotes Peterson, Ginseng Hunter." North Carolina Folklore 42 (1995): 53-61.

Kirkland, J., et al. Herbal and Magical Medicine: Traditional Healing Today. Durham: Duke University Press, 1992.

Phillipson, J. D. "Natural Products as Drugs." Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 88 (1994): 17-19.

Lewis, W. H., and M. P. Elvin Lewis, "Medicinal Plants as Sources of New Therapeutics." Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 82 (1995): 16-24.

Stalheim, O. V. "Medicinal Wild Plants of the Prairie-An Ethnobotanical Guide-Kindscher, K." J. Environmental Management 41 (1994): 283-92.

Lipp, E. J. "The Efficacy, History, and Politics of Medicinal Plants." Alternative Therapies Health Medicine 2 (1996): 36-41.

Wachtel, P. S. "Let's Stop Talking to Ourselves: The Need for Public Awareness." In The Conservation of Medicinal Plants, edited by O. Akerele, V. Heywood, and H. Synge, 273-80. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.

Martin, G. J. Ethnobotany, A Methods Manual. London: Chapman & Hall, 1995.

Index

Ailanthus altissima, 431; cacodendron, 431; glandulosa, 431; sutchuennensis, 431 Air purifier, 61 Ajuga reptans, 120 Alchemilla filical1lis, 282; glabm, 282; vulgaris, 282;xanthochlora, 282 Alcoholism, 358 Alders: black, red, tag, 12, 40-44, 56, 120 Aletris auren, 413; farinosa, 102,414; spp., 101 Alexipharmic activity, 31, 68, 123, 125, 132, 189. 336,374,380,402,408,409,428,443,447

Abelmoschus esculentus, 317 Abies balsamea, 70 Abortifacients, 67, 89, 99, 114, 126, 134, 139. 144, 145,176,177,178,208.253,303,327,328,329, 374,404,424,425 Abortion: prevention, 98, 99

Abscesses. See Swellings and abscesses Acanthopanox senticosus, 227 Acanthoxanthium spinosum, 164 Acer pseudoplatanus, 422; rubrum, 422; saccharum, 423; spicatum, 423 Aches and pains, 78, 148, 338. See also Rheumatism and arthritis Achillea asplenifolia, 462; lanulosa, 462; millefolium. 149,462 Acne, 217 Acorns, 316 Acarus americanus, 132; belangert, 132; colamus, 132; casia, 132; griffithii, 132; odoratus, 132; spurius, 132; terrestris, 132 Actaea alba, 166; racemosa, 166; spicata, 170 Adam-and-Eve root, 404 Adaptogen, 30, 228 Adiantum capillus-veneris, 208 Aesculus austrina, 118; discolor, 118; flava, 118; glabm, 118; hippocastanum, 118; octandm, 118; pavia, 118 Aflatoxin, 30 Agave, 46, 48 Agave americana, 48; spp .. 14 Age spots, 211 Agrimonia eupatoria, 164 Agrimony, 163-65 Agropyron repens, 178 Ague. See Malaria Ague-weed. See Bonese!; Gentian

Alfalfa, 44-46, 81, 137, 160 Alkaloids, 31 Allergies, 24,45,80,201,429 Allium canadense, 318; cepa, 318; cumaria, 318; sativum, 221; vineale, 221 Almond oil, 447 Alnus glauco, 43; glutinosa, 41; incana, 43; oregana, 43; rubm, 41; rugosa, 41; serru/ata, 41; l1ndulata, 43 Aloes, 46-48, 119, 120, 137, 178,256, 328,414, 420; aloe vera gel, 47 Aloe barbadensis, 46; elongata, 46; humilus, 46; indica, 46; littomlis, 46; peIjaliata vera, 46; variegata, 46; vera, 46; vulgaris, 46 Alsine media, 156 Alteratives, 32, 42,123,164,168,181,194,218, 265,278,291,325,364,373,381,386,404,432, 436 Althaea officinalis, 11, 297 Alum, 49, 50 Alumroots, 49-51, 215 Ambrosia artemisiifolia, 366; trifida, 366 Amelanchier canadensis, 391; lucida, 391; oblongifolia, 391; ovalis, 392 Amenorrhea, 52. 144, 321, 326, 400. See also

Female ailments American ipecacuanha. See Bowman's root American sanicle. See Alumroots; Black snakeroot Amerindian concepts, 3 Amino acids, 32 Amoebic infections. 233 Ampelopsis quinquefolia, 441 Amulets and charms, 368, 378, 379, 402, 404 Analeptic property, 416 Andromeda nitida, 369 Andropogon virginicus, 116 Anemia: treatment, 321 Anemone, 51-53

532

Index

Anemone caroliniana, 277; hepatica, 293; nemorosa, 51; nobilis, 293; nuttalliana, 52; patens, 52; pulsatilla, 51; quinquefolia, 52; triloba, 293 Anesthetic properties, 278 Anethum graveolens, 191 Angelica, 13, 53-55, 57, 205, 355,408 Angelica archangelica, 53; atropurpurea, 53; lucida, 56; officinalis, 53; polymorpha, 54; sativa, 53; sylvestris, 55; venenosa, 409 Angelico, 11, 53, 54, 55-57, 58, 129,408,409 Anise, 57-59, 119, 137, 190, 191 Anisostichus capreolata, 180 Anisum aromatyica, 58; vulgare, 58 Annona reticulata, 323; trilaba, 323 Anodynes, 32, 79, 100, 125,290,292, 309,447,455 Antacid properties, 90 Antennaria plantaginifolia, 343 Anthelmia spigelia, 340 Anthelmintics, vermifuges, 42, 66, 78,97,100, 124,145,159,160,191,208,209,210,255,265, 268,270,295,307.323,324,325,336,337,338, 339,340,341,352,360,361,362,363,365,386, 407,424,431,446 Anthemis cotula, 150, 196; nobilis, 148 Anthroposophic medicine, 304 Antibiotics, 33 Anticoagulant action, 221 Anticonvulsant action, 134. See also Epilepsy Antidepressants, 300. See also Stimulant action

Antidotes. See Alexipharmic activity Antiemetic action. 281 Antihistamine. 286 Anti-inflammatory action. See Inflammations Antimicrobial properties, 93, 205, 214, 221, 249, 318

Antiperiodics. See Malaria Antiphlogistic action, 201 Antiscorbutic action, 94, 105, 115, 123. 183, 285, 332,363,395,422,423,449,459

Antiscrofulous action, 195. 372. See also Tuberculosis Antiseptics. 60, 73,94,278,316.332,335,342, 394,454

Antispasmodic action, 65, 66, 149, 154, 163, 168, 197,281,283.284.292,295,304,330,331,374, 428,431,433,455,461,463

Aperients. See Laxatives Aphrodisiacs, 56, 57, 89, 143, 146, 184, 185, 227, 228. 236

Apiol, 321, 330

Apium graveolens, 146, 320; lusitanicum, 146; petroselinum, 320 Aplopappus spp., 150 Apocynum omplexicaulus, 260; androsaemifolium, 110, 260; cannabinum, 260 Apple, 59-62; apple juice, 59, 61 Apricot, 359 Aralin ginseng. 227; nudicoulis, 380,408; quinquefolium, 227; racemosa, 408; spinosn, 354 Archangel. See Angelica Archangelicn atropurpurea, 53; officinalis, 53 Arctium lappa, 122,364; minus, 122 Arctostnphylos uva-ursi, 73, 92 Arisaema pus ill urn, 263; triphyllum, 28, 262 Arisarum vulgare, 262 Aristolochia clematitis. 444; convolvulace~, 378, 443; hastata, 378, 443; noshii, 378, 443; serpentaria, 378,402, 443,452 Armoracia lapathifolia, 252; rusticana, 252 Aromatic properties and aromatic stimulants, 135, 136, 188, 329, 402, 407; aromatherapy, 87. See (llso Stimulant action Arrawwoods, 62-63, 393 Arsenic, 169; arsenic iodide, 103 Arthritis. See Rheumatism and arthritis Artichokes; Jerusalem and Globe, 63-65 Arum m(lculatum, 262; triphyllum, 262 Asafetida. 58, 65-66 Asarum arifoIium, 451; canadense, 451; cyclamina, 453; europeaum, 451; heterophylla, 451; macronthum, 451; serpentaria. 453; virginicum, 451

Asclepins cornuti. 125; decumbens, 125; rubrn, 125; syriaca, 125; tuberosa, 125; variegata, 260 Ash, white. See Fringe tree Asimina parviflora, 323; triloba, 323 Aspirin, 108,454, 462 Asthma, 106, 123, 124. 128,170, 171,247,250,258, 263,269,272,273,295,296,297,319,324,346. 347,365,372,373,387

Astringents and astringency, 33,42,49,50,60,73, 75.77,82,84,86.88,90,91,97,100,112,113, 121,122,142,152,164.172,193,203,205,212, 213.215,216.231,243,254,257,266,280,282, 306,309,316,335,341,344,357,365,366,367, 369,371,386,391,395,400,402,408,410,412, 416,420,442,454,455,456,463,464

Athlete's foot. 91, 335 Atropa belladonna, 11, 24, 273, 312. See also Belladonna

Index 533

Attenuant action, 163, 262, 320, 332 Aureliana canadensis, 227 Autointoxication, 187 Avocado, 67 Azadirachte indica, 160 Backache: treatment, 392 Backache-root. See Button snakeroot Bald elder, 12 Balm of Gilead, 68-70 Balms, 68-69 Balsams, 70-72: balsam apples, 70-72; balsam fir, 70-72; Balsam of copaiba, 71-72; balsam of Peru, 71; balsam of Tolu, 71,420 Bamboo-brier. See Sarsaparilla Barbarea verna, 449; vulgaris, 449 Barberry, 72-73 Bardana major, 124; minor, 124 Basil, 10 Bass, A. L. Tommie: Bass's Brand Herb Compound, 119,137; on verbatim accounts of herbs, 5 Bayberry, 76-77 Bays, 74-76, 182 Bearberry, 94. See also Arctostaphylos uva-ursi Beargrass. See Yucca Bearsfoot, 12, 78-79 Beauty-berry, 79 Becabunga. See Brooklimes Bedstraw. See Goosegrass Bed-wetting. See Enuresis Beech,82-83 Beecham's Pills, 48 Beechdrops,B3-84,411 Bees: balm, 68, 79-80, 301; bread, 80, 81; pollen, 80,81; products, 80-82; stings, 247, 337 (see also Insect bites) Beets: red, sugar, white, 84-85 Beggar's-lice, 85-87 Beggar's-ticks, 85-87 Beggar-weed, See Beggar's-lice Belladonna, 314, 398,431. See also Atropa belladonna Belladonna baccifera, 312 Benzoic acid, 119; benzoin, 71

Benzoin aestivale, 407 Berberis aquifolium, 72, 351; canadensis, 72; vulgaris, 72 Berberry. See Barberry Bergamot, 87, 301 Bermuda grass, 13, 180

Beta maritima, 84; vulgaris, 84 Bethroot, 87-89, 411 Betonica officinal is, 89 Betony, 89-90, 205 Betula alba, 94; alnus, 41; lento, 94; nigra, 94; papyrifera, 95; pendula, 95; populifolia, 95; pubescens, 94 BH tonic, 142, 217, 226 Bidens bipinnati, 86; pilasa, 87 Bignonia capreolata, 180; sempervirens, 267 Bilberry, 90-94 Biliousness, 285. See also Liver ailments Bindweeds. See Morning glory Birch: red, river, sweet, white, 94-95 Birtbwarts. See Bethroot: Virginia snakeroot Bites, 122, 196, 386, 397,408, 430, 443. See also Insect bites; Snakebite Bitter almond, 325, 359 Bitters (bitter tasting herbs), 33,45,73,105,110, 148,213. See also Tonics Biventraria variegata, 260 Blackberry, 111-14, 215 Black cohosh, 11, 13, 17, 56, 128, 165-70, 178, 281, 367,411,412 Blackcurrant oil, 358 Black Draught, 389 Black-eyed Susan, 95-96 Black gum, 96-97 Black-haw, 12, 15, 97-99, 412 Blackheads, 456 Black hellebore, 328 Black Indian hemp. See Indian hemps Black raspberry, 111-14 Black root. See Culver's root Black sampson. See Kansas snakeroot Black snakeroot, 99-100, 128, 166, 387, 401, 460 Bladder ailments: stones, 93, 96, 115, 179, 235, 253, 276,297,348,450 Blazing star, 101-2, 128-29 Bleeding, internal, 49, 111, 118. See also Hemostatic properties Blindness, 52, 205, 209, See also Eye ailments Blisters, 85 Blood pressure, 152, 222, 228, 242, 304, 334, 349, 358,371,437 Blood purifiers, 41, 42, 43, 63, 74, 85, 94, 99, 100, 115, 116, 122, 123, 128, 157, 160, 161, 163, 183, 190,194,199,200,201,216,218,221,222,232, 235,264,265,266,277,278,279,280,290,308, 321,338,341,342,345,349,351,362,363,364,

534

Index

Blood purifiers, (continued) 380,381,382,383,384,387,388,389,402,403, 408,409,427,444,447,449,467 Bloodroot, 13, 17, 102-5, 129 Blood sugar, See Diabetes Bloodworts, See Bloodroot; Yarrow Bloody flux, See Dysentery Blueberry, 90-94, 105, 136, 152, 234, 274 Blue cohosh, 17, 165-70, 367 Blue-eyed grass (bluegrass), 105-6 Blue-haw. See Black-haw Blue mass, 65 Boarhog root. See Angelico Boils and carbuncles, 51, 124, 292 Boneset, II, 12, 17,86,90, 106-8, 120, 137, 151, 196,197,366,419,438 Borage, 161, 171, 174-75 Borax, 73, 328 Bowel complaints, 67, 113,436,455,457. See also Laxatives; Stomach ailments Bowman's root, 109-10 Box, 110-11 Brambles, 111-14 Brassica alba, 310; campestris, 433; hirta, 310; juncea, 310; nigra, 310; oleracea, 130; rapa, 433; sinapsioides, 310 Brauneria angustifolia, 277, 378; pallida, 277 Breast, 131 Brewer's yeast, 111 Bright's disease; treatment, 62, 274, 276, 353. See also Kidney ailments Broccoli, 130, 132 Bromalain, 30 Bronchitis; treatment, 54, 169, 295, 387. 3BB, 410, 442.467. See also Colds and coughs Brooklimes, 12, 115-16 Broom, 195 Broom-sage. 116-17. 295 Broom-sedge. See Broom-sage Bruises, 71,91, 148, 156, 363.366, 377,404,418. 430,456,457 Brussels sprouts, 132 Buckbean, 224 Buckeyes. 117-18 Buckthorn, 119-20, 137 Buffalo grass. See Alfalfa Bugleweeds, 113, 120-22 Bugloss, 206. See also Bugleweeds; Borage Bundy, James, 73

Burdock, 16,64, 122-24 Burdock Blood Bitters. 123. 124 Burns, 46. 47, 69. 80, 82. 123, 256.274. 352,356, 373,393,405,408,418.442.444,467 Bush tea. 25 Butterfly weed (Butterfly root), 124-27 Buttonbush. 127-28 Button snakeroot. 128-29, 368, 401, 402 Buxus semper\"irens. 110; wallichiana, 110 Cabbage, 129-32 Cacalia atriplicifolia. 336; rotundifolia. 336 Caffeine, 241, 426 Calabar bean, 190 Calamint, 301-3 Calamintha ascendens, 301; nepeta, 301; nepetoides, 301; officinale, 301; thessala, 301 Calamus. 12.28, 132-35, 137, 142 Caledol.420 Callicarpa americana, 79 Calomel. 214. 300. 341 Calumba. 466 Calycanthus floridus, 421 Calystegia sepium, 305 Camellia sinensis. 426 Campanula spp., 288 Campbell Fur and Root Company. 55 Camphor, 249, 447 Cancer; treatment, 63, 83, 103, 104, 123, 130. 131. 151.173.233.237.238,257,274,290,297.300. 304.312.333.342,359,366,394,404,408.410. 411.439.440.444.452,457,458,459,461 Cancer root. See Beechdrops Cantharides. 328 Caprifolium japoniclIm, 246 Capsella bursa-pastoris. 395 Capsicum, 143 Capsicum annuum, 142; frutescens, 142 Carbohydrates, 33 Carcinogens, 131, 134 Cardamine concatenata. 183; rotundifolia. 449 Cardulls altissimus. 428; benedictus, 428 Careless weed. 12 Carex crinata. 179 Carica papaya. 323 Carminatives, 10. 33. 54, 56, 57, 58, 59, 69. BO. 129. 133.134.146.147,191,192,207,225,230.251. 252,264,292,301,302,303,320,321.325,329, 386,407,443,444,452,453

Index 535

Carolina allspice. See Sweet shrub Carotene. 34 Carpenter Square herb. 137 Carphephorus odoratissimus. 188 Carpinus betulus. 266; caroliniana. 266; spp .. 458 Carrot. 135-37 Carter's Little Liver Pills. 48 Carum petrosilinum. 320 Carya glabra. 243; illinoensis. 327; oliviformis. 327; ovalis. 243; ovata. 243; pecan. 327 Cascara sagrada (cascara). 47.119.120.124.13738.351.467

Cassia acutifolia. 389; angustifolia. 389; hebecarpa. 390; lanceolata. 389; marilandica. 389; medsgeri. 389; nictitans. 391; obtusifolia. 390; occidentalis. 390; senna. 389; spp .. 119; tora. 390 Castalia alba. 290; odorata. 290 Castanea americana. 153; dentata. 153. 423; pumila. 153; sativa. 153; vesca. 153; vulgaris. 153 Castor bean and castor oil. 138-39. 190 Catarrh. 73. 125. 205. 239. 263. 365. 379. 385. 387. 410.420.446.463

Catechu. 50 Catharanthus roseus. 333 Cathartics. See Laxatives Catmint. 239. See also Catnip Catnip. 17. 106. 139-41.301. 302. 322. 396 Cattail. 141-42 Cauliflower. 132 Caulophyllum thalictroides. 166.411.413 Cayenne pepper. 142-44. 224. 225. 295. 332 Ceanothus americanus. 370 Cedars. 144-45; cedar apples. 42. 145 Celery seed. 146-47. 320 Centaurea benedicta. 428; maculosa. 429 Centaury. 205 Centella asiatica. 236; erecta. 236 Century plant. See Agave Cephaelis ipecacuanha. 410 Cephalanthus occidentalis. 127 Cephalic snuffs. 451 Cercis canadensis. 369; occidentalis. 369 Cereus grandiflorus. 356 Cerothamnus cerifera. 76; pumilus. 76 Chaerophyllum tainturiei. 320 Chamaelirium luteum. 101 Chamaemelum nobile. 148 Chamomile. 2. 25.107.147-50.196.209.210.319 Chaparral. 150-51

Chard. 84 Charlock. 205 Chemical constituents; effects of botanical variation. 7; soil effects. 11; synergistic action. 9 Chenopodium album. 270; ambrosioides. 269; anthelminticum. 269; bonus-henricus. 270; botrys. 269

Cherry. See Wild cherry Cherry laurel. 359 Chest ailments; treatment. 66. 70. 71. 86. 103. 121. 125. 126. 143. 152. 155. 161. 166. 170. 172. 173. 202.211.212.221.239.242.245.246.250.252. 258.264.292.294.298.309.336.337.338.356.

365.366.387.388.401.409.420.442.467. See also Colds and coughs Chestnut. 153-55 Chickweeds. 135. 155-57. 235. 366 Chicory. 2. 64. 157-59 Chiggerweed. See Butterfly weed Chilies. See Cayenne pepper Chills. 106 Chimaphilla corymbosa. 341; maculata. 341; spp .• 364. umbellata. 341. 455 Chinaberry. 159-60. 204 Chinquapin. See Chestnut Chionanthus virginicus. 217 Chironia angularis. 402 Chiropractors. 242 Choke cherry. See Wild cherry Cholagogues. 34.64. 183. 184.265. 300 Cholera. 73. 133. 233. 355. 383 Chorea. 166. 169.270.331.434 Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium. 320; leucanthemum. 319; parthenium. 209; tanacetum. 424; vulgare. 424 Cider. 59. 61 Cimicifuga racemosa. 166.411.413 Cinchona. 60. 75. 118. 148. 197. 198. 199. 315.333. 335.352.407.454

Cinnamon. 137. 383. 425 Circulatory problems. 85. 134. 146 Cirrhosis. 151. 152. See also Liver ailments Cirsium altissimum. 428 Citron. 285. 299 Citrullus edulis. 450; lanatus. 450; vulgaris. 450 Citrus bergamia. 87; lemon. 285; limonum. 285; medica. 285 Clary sage. 206 Cleavers. See Goosegrass

536

Index

Clinpodium nepeta, 301 Clover: red and white, 12, 63, 81, 160-62, 346, 351, 404 Club moss, 162-63 Cnicus benedictus, 428 Coca, 146 Cocculus carolinus, 380 Cochlearia armoracia, 252; officinalis, 253 Cocklebur, 12, 163-65,390,401

Coelopleurum lucidum, 57 Coftea arabica, 426; canephora, 426 Coffee, 425-27 Cohoshes, 165-70. See also Black cohosh; Blue cohosh Cola spp., 229 Colds and coughs, 41, 50, 51, 65, 68, 69, 70, 71,80, 81,82,86,87,89,106,107,108,117,118,120, 121,127,132,137,141,144,145,147,150,152, 153,154,170,171,172,173,187,197,202,204, 205,210,220,221,224,225,227,238,239,243, 244,245,246,247,250,257,258,262,263,267, 268,269,270,285,289,292,293,294,297,306, 310,312,317,318,327,328,329,331,332,333, 335,336,337,338,339,352,354,355,356,365, 370,372,373,376,387,391,394,395,399,405, 407,411,417,418,419,433,439,440,446,454, 455,462,464,467. See also Chest ailments Colic: treatment, 48, 53, 66,71,140,168,191,252, 253,263,302,328,331,332,355,374,443,452, 460, 461. See also Digestive disorders Collards, 129-32, 142 "Colliflowers", 130

Colocynthis citrullus, 450 Colombo, 119 Coltsfoot, 170-71, 219 Comfrey, 25, 124, 171-75,405 Coneflower. See Black-eyed Susan; Kansas snakeroot Conjunctivitis. See Eye ailments Conopholis americana, 84, 411 Constipation. See Laxatives Consumption. See Tuberculosis Contagious diseases, 54, 402 Convallaria polygonatum, 404 Convolvulus panduratus, 305; purpureus, 305; repens,305;sepium, 305 Convulsions, 223, 268, 303, 304, 323, 330 Conyza canadensis, 215 Coonroot. See Bloodroot Corallorhiza odontorhiza, 28

Coriander, 191 Corns,211,256,338,455 Corn silk, 175-76, 235, 366, 393, 395 Corn smut, 176 Corn snakeroot, 169. See also Rattlesnake master Comus ammonum, 197; circinata, 198; florida, 197; mas, 199; sericea, 198 Corroborants, 163, 164 Corydalis formosa, 431 Cotinus coggygria, 418 Cotton, 14, 176-78 Cotton-tree, 70 Cottonwood, 68-70 Couch grass, 14, 176, 178-80, 366 Coughs. See Colds and coughs Coumarins, 34 Counterirritation, 143, 197, 221, 253, 311, 318, 400, 429 Cowie, C. J., 28, 109, 231 Cowslip, 357 Crab apple, 59-62 Cramp bark, 97-99 Cramps, 86, 168, 223 Cranberry, 90-94 Crane's bill, 371. See also Alumroots Crataegus calpodendron, 241; laevigata, 241; lllonogyna, 241;oxyacantha, 241;oxyacanthoides, 241; tomentosa, 241 Crawley-root, 28 Creosote bush, 150-51 Crossvine, 180-81 Croton oil, 328 Croton tiglium, 411 Croup, 387, 388 Crow's-foot, 181 Cucumber tree, 74, 181-83 Cuculllis citrullus, 450; melo, 450 Cucurbita onquria, 450; maxima, 361; mixta, 361; moschata, 361; pepo, 361 Culverfoot, 184 Culverkeys, 184 Culver's root, 183-84 Culverwort, 184 Cumin, 191 Cunila lllariana, 328; origanoides, 328 Curly mint, 302 Cuscuta epithYlllum, 194; europea, 194; gronovii, 195 Cutaneous leishmaniasis, 73 Cuts, 91, 337, 338,386,430,434,456,462,464

Index

Cyanogens,34 Cynara scolymus, 64 Cynodon dactylon, 180 Cynoglossum officinale, 171; omphaloides, 175; virginanum, 171 Cyperus articulatus, 255; odoratus, 255; strigosus, 254 Cypripedium calceolus, 283; parviflorum, 283; pubescens, 283 Cystitis, 176, 179, 180, 385, 393, 429. See also Urinary ailments

Damiana, 146, 184-85 Dandelion, 17, 64, 124, 137, 185-88, 211, 232,259, 299 Dandruff. 62, 347, 370, 375, 417 Dasystephana parvifolia, 223, 378; villosa, 378 Datura inoxia, 11; stramonium, 11, 14, 273; tatula, 273 Daucus carota, 136 Deadly nightshade. See Atropa belladonna Deerstongue, 129, 188-89 Delirium tremens, 249 Demulcents, 34, 156, 168, 170, 211. 214, 245, 290, 298,318,345,406 Dengue. 107 Dental plaque, 104 Deobstruent actions, 34, 54, 58, 68, 123, 132, 136, 140,142,191,195,200,209,211,221,231,239, 248,251,258,264,297,301,318,321,394,395, 400,419,424,436,451 Deodorants, 339 Depression, 339. See also Stimulant action Dermatitis, 151, 210. See also Skin ailments Derris elliptica, 190; malaccensis, 190 Desmodillm nlldiflorum, 86; nllttallii, 86; paniclllatum, 86 Detergent activity, 63, 90, 181, 320 Devil's dung. See Asafetida Devil's shoestring, 11, 86, 189-91, 336 Dewberry, 111-14 Diabetes, 64, 91, 92, 93,121,136,187,212,221, 229,245,274,276,277,327,334,367. See abo Blood sugar Diaper rash: treatment, 60 Diaphoretics, 34, 56, 68, 69, 75, 79,90, 100, 107, 110, 123, 125, 126, 129, 145, 148, 164, 168, 182, 188,189,190,201,202,221,225,230,260,262, 263,281,292,293,313,334,336,355,368,373,

537

375,379,381,383,384,387,393,400,402,404, 407,409,414,416,428,443,444,452,453,455, 461,463 Diarrhea; treatment, 10, 42, 59,60, 67, 73, 92, 111, 113,120,121,133,140,148,154,163,164,173, 174,181,198,212,213,215,220,225,229,230, 234,240,245,247,250,282,291,306,315,316, 323,331,335,355,366,367,369,370,379,394, 395,401,411,416,418,419,423,429,431,463 Dicentra canadensis, 431; eximia, 432 Dictamnus albus, 329 Digestive disorders: treatment, 68, 73, 94, 148, 184 288,360,414,426,463,464 Digitalis, 121, 216, 260; purpurea, 14 Dill, 190, 191-92 Dioscorea glauco, 460; quaternata, 460; spp., 306; villosa, 460 Diospyras mosieri, 335; virginiana, 335 Diphtheria, 310, 336, 338, 371 Disinfectants, 61, 339 Ditremexa marilandica, 389; medsgera, 389 Dittany. See Pennyroyal Diuretics, 49,59,63,64,94,112,115.116,123,127, 150,156,163,176,179,180,187.207,221,230, 231,235,236,239,242,245,250,251,252,253, 254,255,258,260,262,264,265,272,276,277, 280,286,305,306,313,318,319,320,325,334, 336,339,341,342,347,361,362,363,373,376, 377,381,385,386,387,393,394,395,400,401, 404,405,406,407,408,412,416,424,426,429, 432,433,444,446,450,451. See also Kidney ailments Dizziness and giddiness, 209, 210 Dock; yellow, 11, 12, 13, 16, 28, 56, 119, 123, 137, 192-94,259,366 Doctrine of signatures, 85, 204. 205, 294, 401, 402, 448 Dodder, 194-95 Dogbane, 258-61 Dog fennels, 12, 150, 195-97 Dogwood, 107, 197-99 Dong quai, 57 Dracontium foetidus, 398 Dropsy, 64,69, 77, 79, 104, 120, 125, 135, 136, 143, 144,153,154,163,168,207,216,245,252,258, 260,310,320,333,348,351,354,375,383,387, 395,407,410,412,414,425,442,446 Drug abuse, 273 Dryopteris felix-mas, 20B; marginalis, 208 Dulcamara flexuosa, 312

538

Index

Dysentery, 73, 111, 114, 142, 164, 173, 198, 213, 215,220,257,267,290,297,309,323,338,361, 365,366,369,370,371,394,410,418,420,429. See also Diarrhea Dysmenorrhea, 52, 321, 367. See also Female ailments Dyspepsia, 133, 148, 149, 163, 193,239,243,267, 311. See also Stomach ailments Earache, 159, 325,336, 338, 354,406,430,467 Eccoprotics. See Laxatives Echinacea angustifolia, 277, 378; pallida, 277; purpurea, 277 Echinocystis lobata, 70 Echium lycopsis, 206; vulgare, 121 Eclampsia, 437 Eclectic medical practice, 42,73, 78,88,89,96,98, 100, 103, 116, 118, 124, 128, 129, 145, 154, 157, 163,164,167,168,187,193,194,227,230,232, 235,240,241,245,265,296,300,306,317,322, 324,325,354,356,364,368,369,372,395,412, 416,432,436,442,446,450,466 Eclipta alba, 115; prostrata, 115 Eczema, 137, 217, 358. See also Skin ailments Elaterium, 328 Elder (elderberry], 12, 199-201 Elephantopus carolinianus, 201; nudicaulis, 202; scarber, 202; tomentosus, 201; Elephant's foot, 12, 201-2 Eleutheroccocus senlicosus, 227 Eli Lilly Company, 78, 154, 177, 205, 206 Elm, 202-4 Elymus repens, 14, 178 Elytrigia repens, 178 Emetics, 77, 78, 86, 90, 102, 109, 110, 151, 202, 245, 252,258,260,261,265,272,295,296,324,325, 331,349,355,357,368,373,387,410,414,415, 432,435,436,438,440,445,446,448,451,452, 461 Emmenagogues, 35,48,52,54,67,86,125,129, 133,140,144,147,149,157,163,168,177,188, 197,239,251,252,264,270,271,304,329, 374,387,388,395,400,424,449,455. See also Female ailments Emollients, 35, 142, 156, 203, 214, 298, 440 Empiricism, roles of, 3, 220 Enemas, 295, 298 Enuresis, 377, 412 Epibaterium carolinus, 380 Epifagus virginiana, 83

Epi~ps~

168,268,303, 313, 318,322, 330,331, 374, 397,434. See also Nervous disorders Epispastics, 436. See also Counterirritation Equisetum arvense, 254; hyemale, 254 Ergot, 166, 304, 328,395 Erigeron acer, 215; ann us, 215; canadensis, 215; heterophylus, 215; philadelphicus, 215; strigosus, 215; Eriodictyon californicum, 466; glutinosum, 466 Errhines,85, 118, 196, 225,436,437,451,452,453 Eryngium aquaticum, 169, 367; virginianum, 368; yuccifolium, 169, 367 Erysipelas, 93, 156, 201, 203, 214, 297, 306, 322, 430 Escharotics, 300 Estrogenic effects, 207, 326, 385 Euonymin, 446 Euonymus americanus, 445; atropurpureus, 445; europaeus, 445; vulgaris, 445 Eupatorium ageratoides, 413; a/tissimum, 257; aromalicum, 401; capillifolium, 196; fistulosum, 276; hyssopifolium, 257; maculatum, 276; perfoliatum, 106; pilosum, 258; purpureum, 276; rotundifolium, 251, 257; rugosum, 401; serolinum,276 Euphorbia confusa, 206; corollata, 110,410; gracilis, 410; hirta, 410; hypericifolia, 206, 411; ipecacuanhae, 410; maculata, 410; nemorosa, 206; pilulifera, 410; pseudokerneri, 206; rostkoviana, 206; spp., 109; stricta, 206 Euphrasia americana, 206; canadensis, 206; odonlities, 206; officinalis, 204; rostkoviana, 206 Eupurpurin, 277 Evening primrose, 357-59 Expectorants, 35, 59, 103, 126, 127, 151, 172, 174, 183,202,221,229,240,245,251,258,263,296, 309,318,356,368,372,385,387,388,395,416, 438,440,442,452,461,466 Eye ailments: treatment, 51, 52, 62, 84, 156, 186, 189,204-5,289,348,382,394,404,417,422, 423,425,465 Eyebrights, 204-6 Fagus aesculus, 154; castanea, 153; grandifolia, 82; sylvalica, 82 False Solomon's seal, 403-5 Fatty acids, 35 Female ailments, 88, 97, 101, 102, 126, 148, 149, 166,167,178,203,243,250,268,281,282,304, 320,343,345,358,367,373,378,403,404,405,

Index

408,411,412,423,442,444,457. See also Abortifacients; Menstrual disorders FenneI.58, 137, 190, 191,205,207-8 Ferns. 208-9 Femia assafoetida, 65 Feverfew, 9,11,150,209-11 Fevers: treatment (febrifuges). 53, 54, 60, 61, 62, 74,76,79,89,106,107,108,127,128,148,151, 153,154,159,167,197,198,209,210,213,214, 215,217,218,224,225,231,235,243,245,252, 258,266,267,268,285,306,307,310,315,322, 325,327,338,341,346,347,352,353,371,374, 375,376,383,397,400,403,406,407,416,418, 421,423,431,438,440,443,450,452,453.454, 455,458,459,463,464 Feverwort, 106 Ficus carica. 211 Fig, 124,211-12. 272, 274, 336 FiJipendula ulmaria, 276 Five-finger, 2, 12, 212-13, 391, 404, 415 Flatulence, 65,135,168,191,211,225,301,355, 373. See also Stomach ailments Flavonoids, 35 Flavoring agent, 87 Flax, 213-15 Fleabane, 215-17 Foeniculum foeniculum, 207; officinale, 207; vulgore, 207 Fomentations, 202 Foods as medicines, 3, 24 Fractured bones, 172 Fragaria x ananassa, 415: moschata, 415; vesco, 415; virginiana, 415; viridis, 415 Frangula, 119-20 Frangula alnus, 119 Frankincense, 205 Fraxinum americanum, 218 Freckles, 417, 457 French mulberry, 79 Friar's Balsam, 420 Fringe tree, 217-18 Galactogogues, 58, 59, 157, 190. 192,207,208,321, 429,433 Galax, 218-19 Galax aphylIo, 218; rotundifolia, 218; urceolata. 218 Galega afficinalis, 189, 190 Galium aparine, 235; aspellum, 236; trifidum, 236; vernum,235

539

Gall bladder and gall stones, 73, 128, 217, 285, 392, 393,449. See also Liver ailments Gall-of-the-earth, 219-20. See olso Gentian Garlic, 220-23, 318, 374 Gastrointestinal ailments. See Stomach ailments Goultherio procumbens, 455; repens, 456; spp., 413 Gelsemium. See Jessamine Gelsemium nitidum, 267; sempervirens, 267 Genitourinary ailments, 216, 338. See 0150 Urinary ailments Gentian, 119, 137, 213, 223-24, 414, 466 Gentiana cotesbaei, 223, 378; deloarchii, 378; elliattii, 223, 378; lutea, 223; achraleuca, 378; porvifalia, 223; quinquefolia, 223; saponaria, 223,378;villosa, 378 Gentianella quinquefalia, 223 Geranium carolinianum, 181; maculatum, 49,181; robertianum, 49 Germander, 205 Giardia, 233 Gillenia stipulacea, 109; stipulatus, 109; trifoliatus, 109 Ginger, 119,224-26,452 Ginseng, 11, 13, 16, 18,56, 149, 226-29,408,409 Glechoma hederacea, 238 Glucosinolates, 35 Glycosides, 36 Glycyrrhiza glabra, 288; glondulifera, 288 Gnophalium obtusifalium, 365; polycephalum, 365; purpureum, 365 Goat's rue, 189-91 Goiter, 238, 447 Goldenrod, 41, 229-31, 345,367 Goldenseal, 11, 13, 17, 18, 72, 73, 124, 204, 212, 232-34,259,442,446,465,466 Golden slipper, 28 Gold thread, 371 Gonorrhea, treatment, 71, 87, 100, 142, 176, 366, 371,385,392,468 Goodyera pubescens, 343 Gooseberries, 234 Goosegrass, 135, 155,235-36,366 Gossypium barbadense, 177; herbaceum, 177; hirsutum, 177 Gotu kola, 86, 236-37 Gout, 54,62,94, 120, 135, 163, 176,225,235, 245, 274,277,313,352,356,357,392,412,416,436 Goutwort, 205 Gramen polygonum. 104 Grandilla incornola, 322

540

Index

Grapevine, 237-38

Gratiola officinalis, 257 Grindelia robusta, 372; squarrosa, 372 Grippe: treatment, 197 Ground cherry, 312 Ground-ivy, 238-40, 301 Guarana, 146, 240-41 Gum plant, 372-73 Gums: boils, 212; treatment, 97 Gynecological ailments, See Female ailments Haarlem oil, 338, 339 Hair tonics, 204, 237, 295, 296, 332, 333, 375, 402, 446 Hallucinogens, 141, 261, 296 Hamamelis macrophylla, 456; virginiana, 456 Hangovers, 129, 131 Hard back, 371 Hawthorn, 241-42 Hay fever, 205, 365, 367 Headaches: treatment, 65, 84, 106, 108, 138, 139, 225,239,240,246,277,284,292,301,302,325, 327,357,372,375,404,426,430,440 Heal-alL See Self-heal Heart, 66, 152,222, 242, 290, 303, 356,395,444, 451 Heart leaf. See Wild ginger Hedeoma obJongifolia, 330; pulegiodes, 328, 413 Hedge hyssop, 257-59 Hedysarum pedunculatum, 378 Helenium amarum, 196; spp" 96; tenuifolium, 196 Helianthus tomentosus, 64; tuberosus, 64 Hellebores, 436-37 Helleborus foetidus, 78 Helonias diocia, 101 Hematuria, 458 Hemlock, 103, 205 Hemoptysis, 88, 173, 294, 338, 458 Hemorrhoids, 10, 51, 117, 118, 232, 272, 298, 310, 344,359,360,362,404,418,420,427,457,458 Hemostatic properties (styptics), 10, 49, 50, 51, 88, 100,111,121,122,123,164,212,213,217,271, 307,335,360,365,366,371,386,395,429,463, Sec also Bleeding, internal Henna, 333 Hepatica. See Liverwort Hepatica (Jlllericana, 293; hepatica, 293; nobi/is, 293; triloba, 293 Hepatitis. See Liver ailments Herbal medicines: administration, 19; capsulated,

20; compounded, 24; doses, 19-22; preparation, 19-22. See also Medicinal plants Herb of grace. See Rue Herb robert. See Alumroots Herpes, 306, 348 Heuchera americana, 49 Hexastylis arifolia, 451; heterophylla, 451; shuttleworthii,451 Hibiscus esculent us, 317; incanus, 297; moscheutos, 297; palustris, 297 Hiccoughs, 168 Hickory, 243-44, 327, 447 High blood, 259 Highland cress, 447-50 Hives, 66, 139, 140, 141 Hoarseness, 131, 214, 292,338 Hogweed,217 Holly, 244-45 Honey, 51, 80, 81 Honeysuckle, 246-47 Hop, 238, 247-49 Horehound, 122, 250-51 Hormonal activity, 36 Hornbeam, 458. See also Ironwood Horse chestnut. See Buckeyes Horsemint, 79, 80, 106, 251-52, 328 Horse nettle, 427 Horseradish, 252-54, 333 Horsetail, 254-56. See also Couch grass Horseweed,215-17 Hot flashes, 109, 404, 422, 423 Hound's tongue, 171,173 Houseleek, 46, 256-57, 408 Hoxsey treatment, 161 Huckleberry, 90-94, 136, 234 Humulus americanus, 247; lupulus, 247 Hydrangea, 16. See also Sevenbark Hydrangea arborescens, 63, 392; quercifolia, :)93 Hydrastis. See Goldenseal Hydrastis canadensis, 232 Hydrocotyl asiatica, 236 Hydrophobia, 164, 397 Hyoscyamus niger, 11, 24, 249, 273, 314 Hypericum elodes, 405: hypericoides, 378; mutilum, 376: perforatum, 376; vulgare, 376 Hypertension. Sec Blood pressure Hypochondria, 65, 463 Hypoglycemic action, 92, 190, 318 Hypoxis hirsuta, 413; rigido, 413 Hyssop, 12, 257-59, 301

Index

Hyssopus officina/is, 257 Hysteria, 65, 75, 168, 197, 210, 302, 323, 352, 374, 397,399,425

Ictodes foetidus, 398

Ilex aquifolium, 244; bronxensis, 41; fastigiata, 41; opaca, 244; verticillata, 41, 43; vomitoria, 244 Immunostimulant activity, 36, 107, 206, 228, 278 Impatiens ba/samina, 271; bifJora, 271; capensis, 271; fulva, 271; noli-tangere, 271; nortonii, 271; pal/ida, 271 Indian hemps, 11, 18, 259-61 Indian physic. See Bowman's root Indian pipe', 83-84, 262 Indian sage. See Boneset Indian tobacco, 295, 296 Indian turnip, 28, 262-64 Indigestion. See Stomach ailments Infectious diseases: warding off of, 67 Inflammations, 60, 73, 97, 118, 130, 131, 150, 162, 167,203,214,230,232,234,274,280,286,290, 298,352,404,429,439,467 Influenza, 147,225, 245, 336,446 Infusions, 36 Insect bites, 220, 247, 274, 337,429 Insecticide activity, 189, 190, 199, 215, 319, 328, 336,349 Insomnia, 435. See also Nervous disorders; Seda-

tive action Intermittent fevers. See Malaria Inula dysenterica, 215 Inulin, 64, 124, 187 Ipecacuanha, 26, 109, 110,410 Ipomoea botatas, 306,460; pandurata, 305; purpurea, 305; tricolor, 305; violacea, 305 Iridoids, 36 Iris, 264-65 Iris cristata, 264; fJorentina, 264; x germanica, 264; pal/ida, 264; verna, 264; versicolor, 264, 351, 364

Irish moss, 162-63, 457 Iron, 194,449 Ironweed, 265-66, 438 Ironwood, 266-67 Itch, 166, 170, 194,306,349,420 Jaborandi, 190 Jalap, 305 Jaundice, 64, 151, 157, 184, 187, 215, 223, 239, 250, 258,272,355,403,417

541

jersey tea, 215. See also Redroot jerusalem artichoke, 63-64 jerusalem oak, 12, 269-70, 295, 337 jessamine, 267-69 jewelweed, 12, 271-72 jimsonweed, 124, 272-74, 313. See also Stramonium joe-Pye-weed, 12, 274-77 johnson grass, 13 Juglans cinerea, 447; nigra, 447; regia, 447 juniper, 137, 144-45 Juniperus communis, 144; sabina, 144; virginiana, 144

Kalmia hirsuta, 306; latifolia, 306 Kalmiel/a angustifolia, 306; hirsuta, 306 Kansas snakeroot, 277-79, 378,401 Kelp, 24 Kerosene, 337, 338 Kidney ailments (nephritis): treatment, 46, 48, 63, 64,68,83,95,97,106,112,115,116,117,122, 128, 141, 145, 162, 175, 176, 178, 186, 188, 192, 207,221,230,235,252,255,267,276,280,285, 299,305,308,320,337,341,342,343,353,360, 361,363,366,378,392,393,399,400,406,408, 412,417,426,445,449,450. See also Urinary

ailments Kino, 50 Kirby, Molly, 52, 70, 366 Knotgrass, 104 Knotweed, 12, 279-81, 401 Koel/ia fJexuosa, 462 Kohlrabi, 132 Kola, 146 Kraut juice, 129, 130 Kudzu, 281

Labor, 304, 443; premature labor, 375 Lactation. See Galactogogues Lactuca canadensis, 286; elongata, 286; sativa, 286; scariola, 286; serriola, 286; virosa, 286 Lady's-mantle, 281-83 Lady's slipper, 283-85 Laetrile, 359 Lapithea boykinii, 402; capitata, 402 Lappa, 351 Lappa major, 122; minor, 122; officinalis, 122 Larrea divaricata, 150; tridentata, 150 Laryngitis, 410

542

Index

Laurel oil, 75 Laurel tree. See Bays Laurus nobilis, 74; persea, 67; sassafras, 382 Laxatives: aperients, cathartics, eccoprotics, and purgatives, 47,58,61,62,63,72,77,78, 79,85, 89,90,94,103, lOS, 106,107, 110,111,120,125, 127,128,132,137,138, 139, 146, 147, 163, 178, 180, 181, 182, 183, 136, 192, 193, 194, 195, 199, 200,201,204,211,218,243,245,257,258,259, 260,261,264,265,272,274,288,297,299,300, 305,320,324,325,326,327,331,334,345,347, 349,350,351,355,364,375,381,387,389,390, 393,410,411,415,416,439.440,441,446,447, 451,468 Lead colic, 239 Lectins, 36 Leek, 318 Lemon, 285 Lemon balm, 68-70, 301 Leontice thalictroides, 166 Leontodon toraxacum, 185 Lepathum crispum, 192 Lepidium densiflorum, 333; graminifolium, 332; iberis, 332; latifolium, 332; sativum, 333; virginicum, 332 Leprosy, 193,236 Leptamium virginianum, 83 Leptandra, 184 Leptandra purpurea, 184; virginica, 110, 183 Leptilon canadensis, 215 Lespedeza spp., 45, 46 Lettuce, 286-89 Leucanthemum parthenium, 209; vulgare, 319 Leukemia, 334 Leukorrhea, 50, 87, 100, 101, 213,240,316. 344, 366, 369. See also Female ailments Levisticum officinale, 56; vulgare, 56 Liatris dubia, 129; graminifolia, 128; microcephala, 128; odoratissima, 129, 188; regimentis, 129; spicata, 128; squarrosa, 128 Lice, 170 Licorice, 119, 137, 288-90 Life-everlasting. See Rabbit-tobacco Liferoot, 366-67 Lignans, 36 Ligusticum actaeijolium, 56, 57; canadense, 54,56; levisticum, 56; officinale, 57 Lilies, 290-92; lily of the valley, 290 Linden, 292-93 Lindera benzoin, 407

Lindernia dubia, 115 Liniments, 252, 455 Linseed. See Flax Linum usitatissimum, 214 Liquidamber orientalis, 419, styraciflua, 419; styraciflus, 419 Liriodendron chinense, 353; tulipifera, 352 Liver ailments: treatment, 72, 73, 83, 84, 152, 158, 186,217,222,225,246,253,258,280,285,293, 294,299,300,309,325,341,364,366,383,400, 429,446 Liverwort, 293-94 Lobelia, 11, 206, 295-97 Lobelia cardinalis. 295; inflota. 206, 295; puberula, 295; siphilitica, 295; spicata, 295 Lochnera rosea, 333 Loganberry, 111 Longevity, 236 Lonicera brachypoda, 246; caprifolium, 246; cochinensis, 246; japonica, 246; peric1ymenum, 246; sempervirens, 246 Lords-and-ladies. See Indian turnip Lotus, spp., 160 Lovage, 55-57, 297 Love vine. See Dodder Low blood, 109 Lucerne. See Alfalfa Ludwigia palustris, 115 Lumbago. 167 Lupulin, 248,249, 291 Lupulus communis, 247 Lycopodium clavatum, 162 Lycopus europaeus, 120; rubellus, 120; virginicus, 120 Lydia Pinkham's Medicine, 126,412 Lyonia pucida, 369 Macrotys racemosa. 166 Madagascar periwinkle, 333 Mad-dog skullcap, 396 Magnolia, 74, 75, 181, 182 Magnolia acuminata, 75, 182, 352; glauca, 74; grandiflora, 75; macrophyllfl, 183; tripetflla, 183; umbrella, 183; virginiana, 74, 352 Mahonia aquifolium, 72, 467 Maidenhair fern, 209 Malaria (ague, intermittent fevers, periodics), 49, 53,54,75,89,93,99,118,184,196,197,198, 258,310,321,372,431 Mallow, 336

Index 543

Malus angustifolia, 60; communis, 60; malus, 60; pumila, 60; sylvestris, 60; x domestica, 60 Malva sylvestris, 298 Mandrake, 137, See also Mayapple Mange, 62, 63,417 Manihot spp., 468 Manioc, 468 Manna, 340 Maple, 41, 422-23 Mappia origanoides, 328 Marijuana, 140 Marrubium vulgare, 250 Marshmallow, 297-99 Martin's Cancer Powder, 83 Maruta cotula, 196 Matricaria. See Feverfew Matricaria chamomilla, 148; recutita, 148 Mayapple, 17, 20,56, 183, 224, 232,259,264, 299300

Maypop, 139, 322, 330, 375, 396. See also Passionflower Mayweed. See Dog fennels Meadow anemone, 52 Meadow saffron, 318 Measles, 225, 374 Medeola virginiana, 183 Medicago lupulina, 46; sativa, 44 Medicinal plants: cultivation, 18-19; drying and storage, 17-18; effectiveness, 8-9, 10-22; gathering, 13-19; habitats, 10-13; harvesting bark and roots, 14-17; quality, 10-22. See also Herbal medicines Meibomia nudif/orum, 86; nuttallii, 86 Melia azedarach, 159; toosendam, 159 Melilots, 25, 160, 161, 162. See also Clover Melilotus alba, 160; officinalis, 160 Melissa, 10 Melissa calamintha, 301; officinalis, 68, 69 Melon, 450 Melvisberry, 111 Menispernum canadense, 380; caralinum, 380 Menstrual disorders, 50, 54, 68, 88, 89, 98, 101, 149,164,167,169,210,216,226,232,234,282, 290,302,304,318,321,328,334,373,445,463.

See also Female ailments Mentha crispa, 301; longifolia, 250; piperata, 14; x piperita, 301; pulegeum, 328; spicata, 14, 301; sylvestris, 251; vulgare, 328 Mentzelia laeviculus, 102 Menyanthes trifoliata, 224

Mercardonia acuminata, 115 Mercury, 184, 381, 382 Mesadenia atriplicifolia, 336 Methyl salicylate, 95 Migraine, 9, 146, 210, 240, 365 Milkweed, 124-27, 215, 211, 410; milkweed floss, 126. See also Butterfly weed Mimulus alatus, 396; ringens, 396 Minerals, 37 Mints, 87, 239, 301-3 Mistletoe, 303-5 Mitchel/a repens, 412 Molasses, 405-6 MoJlugo verticil/ata, 156 Molluscicides, 37, 198 Momordica balsamina, 70; charantia, 71; lobata, 71

Monarda didyma, 80; fistulosa, 80; odorata, 80; punctata, 80, 251 Monk's rhubarb, 193 Monotrapa unif/ora, 84, 206 Morangia angustata, 389 Mormon tea, 230 Morning glory, 305-6 Morning sickness, 324, 325, 461 Morus alba, 307; nigra, 307; rubra, 307 Moss, 162-63 Motion sickness, 225 Mountain grape. See Barberry Mountain laurel, 306-7 Mountain mint. See Bee balm; Bergamot; Horsemint Mountain tea. See Wintergreen Mouth sores (ulcers), 61, 72, 280, 291 Mouthwashes, 267, 355, 419 Mucilage, 204, 214, 298, 317, 344, 356, 384, 404, 441

Mulbery, 307-8 Mullein, 12, 13, 82, 106, 124, 144, 151, 188, 201, 202,272,274,308-10,341,370

Murrain, 166 Muscadinia munsoniana, 237; rotundifolia, 237 Mustard, 253, 310-12, 318 Mycotoxins, 37 Myrica cerifera, 76; pusilla, 76

Nabalus alba, 219; altissimus, 219; integrifolius, 219; serpentaria, 219 Narcotic properties, 121, 273, 306, 312, 313, 399, 414,415,431,436

544

Index

Nasturtium aquatic urn, 449; officinalis, 449 Naturopathic medicine, 145, 187, 193 Nausea, 252 Nelumbo lutea, 290; nucifera, 290; pentapetala, 290 Nepeta cataria, 139, 141; glechoma, 238, spp., 140 Nervous disorders (nerves, nerve medicines, nervines, stress), 51, 65, 66, 74, 79, 87, 90, 100, 111, 120,121,133,134,139,140,146,147,148,149, 163,165,168,228,236,240,246,248,268,283, 284,287,301,302,322,323,324,330,374,375, 386,396,397,398,399,415,416,423,424,431, 434,435,439,448 Nettles, 427 Neuralgia, 169, 252, 268, 302, 321 Nicotiana spp., 11, 430; tabacum, 430 Nightshades, 190, 312-14 Nosebleeds, 88, 360 Nuphar luteum, 290 Nutmeg, 425 Nymphaea alba, 290; luteum, 290; odorata, 290 Nyssa aquatica, 96; sylvatica, 96; villosa, 97

Oaks, 15,30,41,60, 314-16,371 Obesity, 135, 136, 155, 156, 235, 240, 358 Odontites verna, 206 Oenothera biennis, 357; fruticosa, 357; mollissima, 357; speciosa, 357 Oil of wintergreen, 413 Okra, 316-17 Oldenlandia affinis, 9 Onions,220,221,222,223,317-19 Opium addiction, 143 Opium weed. See Lettuce Opuntia compressa, 356; humifusa, 356; vulgaris, 356

Orbexilum pedunculatum, 378 Origanum dictamnus, 329 Oregon grape, 72 Organic acids, 37 Orobanche americana, 411; uniflora, 411; virgini-

ana,83 Oronthium cochinchinensis, 132 Orris. See Iris Ostrya virginiana, 266 Oswego-tea. See Bees: balm Oxalis acetosella, 458; corniculata, 458; stricto, 394,458

Oxeye daisy, 319-20 Oxycoccus macrocarpus, 91; microcarpus, 92; palustris, 92; quadriptales, 92 Oxydendrum aboreum, 406 Oxytocic activity, 126, 304 Paeonia foemina, 330; mascula, 330; officinalis, 330 Palmetto wine, 385 Panax asc1epium, 65; ginseng, 227; quinquefolium, 227; quinquefolius, 227; trifolius, 227 Pansies, 439-41 Papain, 323 Papaya, 323 Parke-Davis Company, 61, 73, 78, 128, 129, 176, 188,202,205,206,213,230,241,292,348,367, 369,372,406,410 Paronychia, 338 Parsley, 146, 191, 320-22 Parsley cabbage, 130 Parthenium hysterophorus, 210 Parthenocissus quinquefolia, 441 Partridgeberry, 413 Parturient action, 168. See also Emmenagogues Pasqueflower, 51-53 Passiflora edulis, 322; incarnata, 322; laurifolia, 323 Passionflower, 139, 322-23, 434 Paullinia cupana, 240; sorbilis, 240 Paulonia tomentosa, 68, 69 Pawpaw, 323-24 Peach, 139,204,322, 324-26, 359, 366 Peanut, 326-27 Pecan, 327,370,447 Pectoral action. See Expectorants Pedicularis canadensis, 89 Pellagra, 176, 353 Pennyroyal, 301,303, 320,327-30 Peony, 330-31 Pepper, 331-32 Peppergrass, 253, 332-33 Peppermint, 25, 137, 252, 301-3, 375, 421 Peramium pubescens, 343 Perfumes, 71, 87, 420 Periodics. See Malaria Peripneumonia, 440. See also Chest ailments Periwinkle, 333-34 Persea americana, 67; edulus, 67; gratissima, 67; persea,67

Index 545

Persicaria hydropiper, 400; lapathifolium, 400; punctatum, 400 Persimmon, 30, 51, 212, 335-36 Peruvian bark. See Cinchona Pestroot, 336-37 Pestweed, 336-37 Petasites hybridus, 336; officinalis, 336; vulgaris, 336 Petroselinum crisp urn, 320; hortense, 320; sativum, 320 Pharyngitis, 355 Phenianthus sempervirens, 246 Phoradendron flavescens, 303; seratinum, 303 Phthisis. Se~ Tuberculosis Physalis peruviana, 312; pubescens, 312 Phythemaglutinins, 36 Phytolacca americana, 349; decandra, 349; rigida, 350; spp., 364 Piles. See Hemorrhoids Pimpinella anisum, 58 Pine, 124,245, 337-39,411 Pinlaoot, 159, 295, 339-40 Pinus balsamea, 70; echinata, 339; palustris, 337; strobus, 339; virginiana, 339 Piper album, 331; glabrispicum, 331; longum, 332; nigrum, 331; retrofactum, 332 Pipsissewa, 20, 341-43, 455, 456 Placebo action, 2, 8 Plague,53,54,373,402,443 Plantago lanceolata, 343; major, 343; psyllium, 343; rugelii, 343 Plantains, 2, 13, 343-46 Plasters, 143, 161, 173, 326, 332, 363, 440, 459 Platanus occidentalis, 422

Pleinta capitata, 402 Pleurisy, 124, 125, 227, 244, 245, 338, 387, 430, 440,443. See also Chest ailments Pleurisy-root. See Butterfly weed Pluchea camphorata, 276; odorata, 276; purpurascens, 276 Plums, 346-47, 359 Pneumonia, 103, 125, 137,224,245,259,338,387. See also Chest ailments Podophyllum emodi, 300; peltatum, 299 Poison ivy, 60, 176,213, 271, 272,343,344, 34749,372,373,403,426 Poison oak, 343, 347-49, 417 Poisons. See Alexipharmic activity Pokeroot, 11, 12, 16, 18, 190, 289, 336,349-51,436

Polecat cabbage. See Skunk cabbage Polygala senega, 387 Polygonatum biflorum, 403 Polygonum alatum, 400; aviculare, 280; caespitosum, 400; erectum, 280; flaccidum, 400; gracile, 400; heterophyllum, 280; hydrapiper, 400; hydrapiperoides, 400; incarnatum, 400; lapathifolium, 400; oryzetorum, 400; pensylanicum, 400; persicaria, 400; punctatum, 400 Polymnia uvedalia, 78 Polypharmacy, 20 Polypodium vulgare, 209 Polyps, 103, 300 Pomanders, 71 Pomatum. See Salves and ointments Poplars, 107, 351-54 Populus balsamifera, 68; candicans, 68; deltoides, 68; gileadensis, 68; tacamahaca, 68; tremuloides, 352 Porteranthus stipulatus, 109; trifoliatus, 109 Portulaca oleracea, 362 Postpartum bleeding, 164 Potassium bromide, 291 Potato, 428 Potentilla canadensis, 212; caroliniana, 212; erecta, 212; pumila, 212; reptans, 212; simplex, 212; tormentilla, 212 Poultices, 42, 68, 74,85,125,130,136,156,161, 162,163,171,186,188,194,202,211,214,220, 221,262,263,290,291,297,317,318,324,332, 336,337,338,351,356,358,398,399,303,430, 467 Premenstrual tension, 145, 358 Prenanthes alba, 219; altissima, 219; deltoides, 219; serpentaria, 219 Prevention magazine, 130-31, 135, 290, 357 Prickly ash, 354-56 Prickly heat, 60 Prickly pear, 356-57 Prideweed, See Fleabane Primrose, 357-59 Primula vulgaris, 357 Princess tree, 68, 69-70 Prinas, 41, 42 Prinos gronovii, 41; verticillata, 41; Proctitis, 143 Propolis, 80, 81 Proprietary medicines: botanicals in, 97, 126,412 Prostate gland, 274, 360, 361, 370, 371

546

Index

Prunella vulgaris, 386 Prunes, 346, 347, 389 Prunus species. 359 Prunus americana, 346; amygdalus, 324; angustifolia, 346; domestica, 346; persica, 324; serotina, 152; virginiana, 152; vulgaris, 324 Psoralea eglandulosa. 378; esculenta, 378; melilotoides. 378; peduncu/ata, 378; psoralioides, 378; spp., 160 Psoriasis, 137, 174, 370, 390, 446 Psyllium, 344, 345 Puccoon. See Bloodroot Pueraria lobata, 281; thunbergiana, 281 Puffball, 359-60 Pulicaria dvsenterica, 215 Pulsatilla, 51-52 Pulsatilla nigricans, 51; patens, 52; pratensis. 51; vulgaris, 51 Pumpkin, 360-62,450 Purgatives. See Laxatives Purslane, 362-63 Pursley, 12 Pycnanthemum incanum, 251; tenuifolium, 462 Pyelonephritis. 94. See also Kidney ailments Pygeum persica, 324 Pyorrhea, 370 Pyrethrum parthenium, 209 Pyro/o moculata, 341; umbellata, 341 Pyrrhopappus carolinian us, 185 Pyrus americanus, 391; malus, 60; pumila, 60; sylvestris, 60 Quassia, 119, 414 Queen Anne's lace. See Wild carrot Queen-of-the-meadow, 11, 12, 17, 274-77, 366, 438 Queen's-root, 363-65 Quercus alba, 315,423; bicolor, 316; folcata, 315; montana, 315; nigra, 423; pagoda, 315; pagodifolia. 315; palustris, 316; pedunculata, 315; prinus, 315; racemosa, 315; robur, 315; tinctoria, 315; velutina, 315 Quinine, 65. 107, 108. 139, 197, 199, 321,407,467 Quinquefolium, 213 Rabbit-tobaccu, 106, 151. 245, 308, 343, 365-66, 419

Rabies, 164, 397, 398 Ragweed, 12, 13, 366-67 Ragwort, 336, 366-67 Raspberry, 111-14; raspberry leaf tea, 114

Ratsvein. See Pipsissewa Rattlesnake flag, 169, 367 Rattlesnake master, 367-68. See also Button snakeroot Rattlesnake plantain, 343. 345, 390 Rattlesnake root. See Gall-of-the-earth Rauwolfia serpentina, 229 Redbud, 369-70 Red cohosh, 170 Red haw, 242 Redroot, 11, 129. 152, 204, 370-72. See also Bloodroot Redshank, 151. See also Redroot Refrigerant properties, 406, 407,458 Resins, 37 Respiratory ailments. See Chest ailments Rhamnus caroliana, 120; cathartica. 119; frangula, 43,119; purshiana, 120, 137,467 . Rhatany, 50 Rheumatism and arthritis, 9, 44, 54, 55, 59, 60, 61, 68,74,75,76,78,82,88,94,97,99,106,109, 117, 120, 123, 124, 125, 126, 128, 129, 135, 136, 138,143.144,145,146,147,148,151,163,165, 166,167,168,169.176,181,182,183,189,190, 209,226,236,239.252,253,259,267,274,285, 286,289,308,309.310,313,314,338,341,342, 347,348,349,350,351.352,353,354.355,356, 357,378.379,380,381,383,387.392.396,400, 403,408,414,429,436,442,444,456,460,461, 467,468 Rhubarb, 341. 458 Rhus copallina, 418; coriaria, 418; glabra, 418; radicans, 347; toxicodendron, 347, 372; typhina, 418 Ribes cynosbati, 234; grossularia, 234; reelinatum. 234; rotundifolium, 234; uva-crispa, 234 Ricins, 139 Ricinus communis, 138; speciosus, 138; viridis, 138 Rickets, 398 Ringworm, 165, 256, 257, 299, 338. 420. 446 Risings, 176, 317, 338 Robertiella robertianum, 49 Root beer, 379, 381 Roripe nasturtium, 449 Rorippa armoracia, 252 Rose mallow, 297-99 Rosinweed, 372-73 Rotenoids, 38 Royal jelly, 80, 81 Rubefacients, 38, 225, 252, 333, 338, 339

Index 547

Rubs. See Liniments Rubus betulifolius, 112; canadensis, 114; fructicosus, 112; idaeus, 112; occidentalis, 112; plicatifolius, 114; strigosus, 114; trivialis, 112; villas us, 112 Rudbeckia heliopsidis, 95; hirta, 95; laciniata, 95; pallida, 277; purpurea, 277 Rue, 330, 373-74 Ruellia carolinensis, 223 Rumex acetosa, 394; acetosella, 394; acutus, 192; x acutus, 192; alpinus, 193; aquaticus, 192; crispus, 192; hydrolapathum, 192; obtusifolius, 193; pratensis, 192 Running cedar, 162 Ruptures, 114 Ruta graveolens, 373 Sabal minor, 385; pumila, 385; serrulata, 385 Sabatia angularis, 402; boykinii, 402; capitata, 402 Saffron, 375 Sage, 139, 295, 301, 322, 333, 370, 374-76 St. Anthony's fire, 256 St. John's-wort, 376 Salix alba, 454; babylonica, 455; carolinea, 455; cinerea, 455; nigra, 454; purpurea, 455; sericea, 455; vitellina, 454 Salvarsan, 380 Salves and ointments, 60, 61, 69, 78, 83, 162, 192, 202,299,312,313,327,338,352,357,359,360, 376,377,394,396,401,403,418,427,428,429, 435,444,446,447,456,458 Salvia coccinea, 375; grandiflora, 375; officinalis, 375; selarea, 206; triloba, 376 Sambucus canadensis, 199; laciniata, 199; nigra, 199; spp., 364; vulgaris, 199 Sampson snakeroots, 129, 224, 378-79, 401, 402 Sanguinaria canadensis, 102 Sanicle. See Black snakeroot Sanicula canadensis, 99; europea, 99; marilandica, 99, 388; smallii, 99; trifoliata, 99 Sapium sylvaticum, 363 Saponaria officinalis, 402 Saponins,38,403,438,441,461,468 Sarsaparilla, 20, 28,41,123,128,137,181,193, 364,375,379-82,403,409 Sassafras, 12, 15, 17, 25, 74, 94, 119, 152, 197, 366, 379,381,382-84,407 Sassafras albidum, 382; officinale, 382; variifolium, 382 Satureja calamintha, 301

Sauerkraut, 130 Savin, 328, 330. See also Cedars Savory, 195 Saw palmetto, 385 Scabies, 142 Scalds, 82, 352,442 Scammony, 305 Schrankia microphylla, 390 Sciatica, 252, 332, 333 Scirpus atrovirens, 179 Scorbutic affections, 459 Scrapes, 69 Scrofula, 123, 124, 125, 161, 193,267,316, 344, 355, 364, 442. See also Tuberculosis Scurvy, 91, 97, 115, 131, 163,252,285,333,363, 395,416,449,450,459,460,465 Scurvy grass, 252-54, 363 Scutellaria lateriflora, 396, '138 Seaweed, 24 Sedative action (sleep inducing, pacifying), 66, 121,139,140,149,152,236,249,292,293,296, 302,304,313,314,321,322,323,324,325,368, 385,388,398,423,425,435,437,448 Sedum acre, 216; telephium, 256 Self-heal, 386-88 Sempervivum tectorum, 256 Senecio aureus, 367,413; crawfordii, 413; discoideus, 413; jacobaea, 367; obovatus, 413; robinsii, 413 Senega, 387-88,401 Senna, 47, 110, 119, 120, 124, 137, 193,299, 340, 347,389-90 Senna angustifolia, 389 Sensitive brier, 390-91 Serenoa repens, 385; serrulata, 385 Sericea lespedeza, 46 Serpentaria, 443 Serpentaria nigra, 453 Serviceberry, 391-92 Service tree, 391-92 Sesili graveolens, 146 Sesquiterpene, 38 Sevenbark,63,392-93 Sexual problems, 185, 291, 368 Shakers, 63, 121, 129, 156, 161, 170,210,239, 292, 294,300,306,348,355,407 Shaking palsy, 322 Shampoo, 402 Sharp and Dohme Company, 121 Shaving lotion, 456

548

Index

Sheep sorrel, 394 Shepherd's purse, 333, 394-96 Shingles, 256, 257 Sialogogues, 39, 164, 225, 265 Sigillaria multiflora, 405 Silphium asteriscus, 372; gummeriferum, 372; laciniatum, 372; perjoliatum, 373 Sinapsis alba, 310; cernus, 310; chinensis, 310; juncea, 310; nigra, 310 Sinus trouble, 211, 365 Sisymbrium nasturtium, 449; officinale, 310 Sisyrinchium ot1onticum, 105; mucronatum, 105 Sium apium, 146 Skin ailments, 10, 41, 48, 52, 62, 63, 67, 69, 73, 75, 77,82,94,100,119,122,123,141,144,156,159, 162,163,174,177,193,194,200,201,204,208, 209,213,216,218,229,232,233,235,236,243, 247,256,272,273,274,280,282,289,291,292, 313,315,316,321,325,327,332,333,337,338, 342,344,347,348,349,350,356,357,358,364, 373,377,378,381,382,389,390,395,396,402, 403,404,408,411,415,417,425,428,436,440, 441,442,446,457,464,468 Skin ulcers. See Skin ailments Skullcap, 13, 139, 322, 396-98, 434, 438 Skunk cabbage, 398-99 Sleeping medicines. See Insomnia; Sedative action Slippery elm, 15, 202-4, 292, 384 Smallage, 146-47, 320 Smallpox, 166, 374, 387 Smartweed, 13, 399-401 Smi10cina racemoso, 403 Smilox bona-nox, 380; glauco, 380; officinalis, 380; pseudo-china, 351, 380 Snakebite, 129, 163, 164, 165,166,220,329,338, 343,344,345,354,355,379,387,388,390,391, 401,402,443,444 Snakeroots, 108, 129, 355,401-2 Sneezing powders, 437 Soapworts, 402 Solanum carolinense, 428; dulcamara, 312; esulentum, 428; fistolosum, 312; Hortense, 313; incertum, 312; laxum, 312; lethale, 313; lyratum, 312; nigrum, 312; nodinorum, 312; pycoermum, 428; rubrum, 312; somniferum, 313; triangulore, 312; tuberosum, 428; uliginosum, 312; Soldiers' ointment, 75 Solidaga altissima, 230; canadensis, 230; juncea, 230; odora, 230; virga urea, 230 Solomon's seal, 28, 391,403-5,412

Sonchus asper, 428 Sorbus americana, 391; apucaria, 392; torminalis, 391 Sore gums, 51, 91, 370 Sore mouth, 51, 92, 212, 243, 324, 335, 370, 416, 465 Sores, 69, 70,80,81,83,94, 102, 103, 122, 163, 176,212,221,232,285,292,317,327,338,344, 351,353,357,365,371,403,410,417,422,448, 463,467 Sore throat, 10, 41, 50, 51, 61, 94, 100, 166, 168, 213,234,239,246,252,253,267,280,285,289, 291,316,317,337,338,365,370,371,375,387, 394,418 Sorghum bicolor, 405 Sorghum molasses, 405-6 Sorrels, 394, 406 Sourgum. See Black gum Sourwood,18,406-7 Spanish needles, 12, 85-87, 407 Sparkleberry, 91 Spasmolytic activity, 134 Spathyema foetidus, 398 Spearmint, 301, 303, 375 Specularia perjoliata, 204 Speedwell, 183, 184 Spergularia media, 156; pubera, 156 Spermatorrhea, 249, 290, 291,454 Spicebush, 407-8 Spices, 10, 66 Spiderwort, 12, 408 Spigelio onthelmia, 339; marilondica, 339 Spikenard, 28,408-10 Spina albo, 242 Spiraeo trifoliata, 109; ulmaria, 276 Spirits of ammonia, 447 Spleen, 84, 246 Sprains, 71, 172,277,338, 343,429,430,457 Spurge, 410-11 Squash, 360-62 Squaw plants, 413 Squawroot, 84, 88, 411 Squawvine, 281, 412-13 Squill, 216, 328 Stochys betonica, 89; c1ingmanii, 90; officinalis, 89; tennifo1io, 90 Stargrass, 101,413-14 Star-root, 13, 16, 101-2,201,413,414-15 Star thistle, 429 Staunchweed,464

Index 549

Stellaria media, 156

Sycamore, 422-23

Stenactis philadelphica, 215

Symphytum asperum, 171; consolida, 171; officinale, 171; patens, 171; peregrinum, 171; uplandi-

Steroids, 39 Stillingia, 119, 137, 351, 364. See also Pinkroot Stillingia sylvatiea, 363 Stimulant action, 53, 55, 56, 64, 68,74,78, 102, 129,136,142,143,146,148,150,188,223,224, 225,227,230,231,239,240,250,252,262,278, 293,295,302,303,332,333,347,354,366,375, 383,387,395,399,407,409,426,432,442,443, 444,452,455 Stinging nettle, 427 Stings, 69, 122, 125, 196, 343,430. See olso Bees: stings Stinking healer. See Asafetida Stomach ailments, 46, 54, 58, 59, 60, 61, 68, 72, 77, 87,89,95,108,117,126,133,134,146,148,155, 172,181,187,192,207,212,215,221,223,224, 225,243,255,297,301,303,320,331,332,336, 338,352,362,369,376,378,383,391,407,408, 413,414,428,447,459,463,464,465,466. See also Aromatic properties and aromatic stimulants; Carminatives; Tonics Stonecrop, 256-57 Stones: kidney and hI adder, 127, 179. 242, 320, 416.449. See also Kidney ailments Storax, 71,419,420 Stramonium, 273, 314. See olso Jimsonweed Strawberry, 415-17 Stress. See Nervous disorders Stroke, 182 Stump water, 417 Styptics. See Hemostatics Sudorific properties. See Diaphoretics Sulfur and molasses, 405 Sumac, 15, 124, 151,371,417-19 Summer flux, 73 Sunburn, 343,457 Swaim's Panacea, 456 Sweating, excessive, 316 Sweet clover, 160-62 Sweeteners, 53 Sweet flag, 132. See Calamus Sweet gum, 18, 106, 151, 202,419-21 Sweet marjoram, 10 Sweet potato, 305, 460 Sweet shrub, 421-22 Swellings and abscesses, 42, 60, 97, 130, 214, 292, 307.315,344,363,465 Swollen joints, 91.344

cum, 171; x uplandicum Symploearpus foetidus, 398 Syphilis, 52, 100, 161, 193, 201, 297, 306, 322, 349, 350,351,355,364,371,372,380,381,382,383, 403,432,442,446,448 Tabasco sauce, 142, 143 Tacmahac, 68 Tonacetum parthenium, 209; vulgare, 423 Tansy,209,210, 330, 423-25 Taraxacum densleonis, 18; offieinale, 185; vulgare, 185 Tea, 425-27 Teething, 336 Tephrasia hildebrandtii, 191; virginiana, 189 Terpenes, 39 Tetanus, 322, 323,428 Thapsi bursa-pastoris, 395 Thea sinensis, 426 Theory, roles of in therapy, 3 Therapeutics, 10 Thimbleberry, 112 Thistles, 313, 427-29 Thomsonian medicine, 73, 105, 113, 143, 161, 193, 225,232,291,295 Thrush (thrash), 335, 336, 351 Thyme, 195, 330 Tic douloureax, 268 Tick bites, 274 Tilia cordata, 292; x eurapaea, 292; glabra, 292; heterophylla, 292; intermedia, 292; moteeola, 292; plotyphyllos, 292; x vulgaris, 292 Tincture, 40 Tinea, 163, 319 Tinea capitis, 440 Tiredness. See Stimulant action Tithymalopsis gracilis, 410; ipeeaeuanhae, 410 Tobacco, 429-30 Tonca beans, 25 Tonics, 42, 44, 45, 50, 53, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 64, 67,72,74,77,78,81,83,84,86,88,90,94,96, 97, 100, 101, 102, 105, 106-7, 109, 110, 121, 122, 127,128,129,135,136,137,138,144,146,148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 157, 158, 160, 161, 162,163,164, 165, 168, 171, 178, 180, 181, 182, 183, 185, 186, 188, 192, 193, 195, 196, 198, 199, 201,208,209,212,215,216,217,218,220,224,

550

Index

Tonics, (continued) 226,227,228,229,231,232,233,234,237,238, 239,240,241,243,244,245,247,249,250,251, 261,266,269,278,280,292,295,300,310,319, 321,325,327,332,333,334,341,342,351,352, 353,372,373,375,394,395,398,402,403,405, 406,407,408,411,413,414,415,419,421,422, 423,425,428,431,432,438,441,442,443,444, 445,446,447,454,458,462,463,464,465,467 Tonsillitis, 114, 336, 370 Toothache, 142,325,341,354,355;tree, 354 Tooth sticks, 96 Tormentilla officinalis, 212 Toxicodendron diversilobum, 349; quercifolium, 349; radicans, 347; toxicodendron, 347; vernix, 349 Tradescantia occidentalis, 408; ohiensis, 408; virginiana, 408 Tragopogon dubius, 185; major, 185; pratensis, 185 Tree of heaven, 431 Trientalis europaea, 456 Trifolium burgundiacum, 46; incarnatum, 160; pratense, 63, 160, 364; psoraloides, 378; refiexum, 160;repens, 160 Trigeminal neuralgia, 268 Trilisa odoratissima, 188 Trillium, 88 Trillium cernuum, 89; erectum, 88, 411, 413; grandifiorum, 88; latifolium, 89; rhomboideum, 88; sessile, 89 Triodanis perfoliata, 204 Triticum repens, 178; spp., 393 Trumpet flower. See Cross vine Tuberculosis (consumption, phthisis], 82, 96, 103, 152,169,233,234,239,243,294,316,319,337, 348,416,419 Tulip tree, 12, 351-54 Tumors. See Cancer Tupelo. See Black gum Turkey corn, 431-32 Turlington's Balsam, 420 Turnera diffusa, 184 Turnip, 432-34 Turpentine, 68, 330, 337, 338 Tussilago farfara, 170; officinalis, 336 Typha latifolia, 141 Typhoid, 259, 355,431 Typhus fever, 263 Ulcers: treatment, 9, 47, 51, 72, 85, 88, 115, 122,

130,156,161,163,213,217,221,232,256,271, 272,274,280,289,290,316,336,356,357,367, 399,416,419,427,434,438,442,458,459,465, 466 Ulmas glabra, 456 Ulmus campestris, 203; fulva, 203; procera, 203; rubra, 203 Urinary ailments, 71, 93, 96, 134, 210, 216, 232, 288, 313, 338, 356, 392, 393. See also Cystitis Urfica dioica, 428 Ustilago maidis, 176 Uterine ailments, 75, 77, 89, 98, 168, 170, 209, 250. See also Female ailments Uva-ursi, 137, 341. See also Arctostaphylos uva-ursi Vaccinium arboreum, 91; corymbosum, 91; crass ifolium, 91; elliottii, 91; macrocarpon, 91; myrtilIus, 91; pallidum, 91; staminium, 234; vacillans, 91 Vaginal douches, 61, 316 Vaginal pruritis, 87 Valerian, 140, 284, 374, 434-36 Valeriana jatamansi, 408; officinalis, 434; wallichii, 408 Vallisneria spiralis, 147 Vanilla, 190; vanilla plant, 188 Vegetable sulfur, 309 Venereal disease, 123, 151, 161, 193, 234, 295, 297, 364,371,380,381,427. See also Gonnorhea; Syphilis Veratrum, 436-38 Veratrum album, 436; luteum, 101; viride, 436 Verbascum thapsus, 309 Verbena brasiliensis, 438; hastata, 438; officinalis, 438; paniculata, 438; sororia, 438 Verjuce,61 Vermifuges. See Anthelmintics Veronica americana, 115; beccabunga, 115; officinalis, 116, 183; peregrina, 116; virginiana, 116 Veronicastrum virginicum, 183 Vertigo, 209, 292, 398 Vervain, 266, 438-39 Vesical sedatives, 176 Vesicants. See Counterirritation Vesicular emphysema, 103 Viburnum acerifolium, 62; alnifolium, 63; dentatum, 63; grandifolium, 63; lantana, 97; lantanoides, 63; opulus, 63, 97, 413; prunifolium, 63, 97, 179, 393; rufidulum, 97

Index 551

Vinaigrette, 61 Vinca major, 333; minor, 333; rosea, 333 Vinegar, 59-60,61 Viola affinis, 439; blanda, 441; canadensis, 441; c1andestina, 386; f1oridana, 439; langloisii, 439; latiscula, 439; odorata, 439; palmata, 439; papilionaceae, 439; pedata, 439; rosacea, 439; sororia, 439; tricolor, 439 Violets, 439-41 Virginia creeper, 441-42 Virginia snakeroot, 378, 401, 402, 442-45, 452 Viscum album, 303; f1avescens, 305 Vitamins, 3, 40, 137, 204, 449 Vilis rotundifolia, 237; vinifera, 237 Volatile oils, 40 Vulnerary action, 40, 230, 386, 400, 404, 424, 463. See also Wounds Wahoo, 445-46 Walnut,243,244,295,327,370, 375,446-48 Warts, 52, 103, 125, 211, 212, 220, 256, 260, 272, 300,307,410,417 Watercress, 363, 448-50 Watermelon, 450-51 Wax myrtle, 76 Weakness, 86. See also Stimulant action Western buckthorn. See Cascara sagrada Wet dreams. See Spermatorrhea White snakeroot, 401 Whooping cough, 154, 161, 310, 331, 358, 369, 387, 451 Whortleberry, 90-94 Wilcox County, 55 Wild alum. See Alumroots Wild barley, 205 Wild bergamot. See Bee balm; Bergamot Wild carrot, 17, 135-37, 155, 235 Wild cherry, 12, 15, 18, 30, 56, 60, 106, 119, 15153,202,308,347,352,366,392,419 Wild cotton. See Rose mallow Wild cucumber, 70, 183 Wild ginger, 28, 299, 451-53 Wild indigo, 63 Wild lettuce, 211 Wild licorice. See Angelica Wild potato, 305-6 Wild strawberry. See Five-finger

Wild tobacco. See Elephant's foot; Lobelia Wild yarn. See Yarn, wild Willow, 107,453-55 Windflower. See Anemone Wine, 200 Wintergreen, 94, 95, 342, 413, 455-56 Witch hazel, 456-58

Withania somnifera, 312 Wood anemone, 51 Wood betony, 89-90 Woodbind. See Honeysuckle Woodruff, 25 Wood sanicle. See Black snakeroot Wood sorrel, 394, 458-59 Woody nightshade, 312 Worms. See Anthelmintics Wounds: treatment, 62,76,81,96,115,121,125, 172,217,230,231,233,237,245,246,254,272, 289,290,319,325,334,335,336,338,339,356, 358,367,376,386,391,395,399,402,404,416, 429,430,438,447,463 Xanthium spinosum, 164; strumarium, 164 Xanthorhiza simplicissima, 465 Xanthoxalis corniculata, 458; stricta, 458 Xanthoxylum, 364 Yarn, wild, 460-62 Yarrow, 13, 150,462-65 Yaupon,245 Yaws, 364 Yellow fever, 453 Yellowroot, 11, 12, 16, 41, 72, 151, 152, 204, 212, 223,230,232,233,352,432,442,460,462,46566 Yerba santa, 466-67 Yucca, 467-68 Yucca brevifolia, 468; filamentosa, 467; schidigera, 468

Zanthorhiza apiifolia, 465; simplicissima, 465 Zanthoxylum american urn, 354; c1ava-herculis, 354; fraxineum, 354; fraxinifolium, 354; macrophyllum, 354 Zea mays, 175 Zingiber officinalis, 224

John K. Crellin, the John Clinch Professor of History of Medicine at

Memorial University of Newfoundland, is a physician, pharmacist, and historian. He is the author of many books including Medical Ceramics in the Wellcome Institute, Home Medicine: The Newfoundland Experience. and is coeditor of Alternative Health Care in Canada: Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Perspectives. He served as editor of Tommie Bass's Plain Southern Eating (Duke University Press, 1988) and has also published two children's books and numerous articles in pharmaceutical and medical journals, Jane Philpott was, until her death in 1997, Professor Emerita in the

Department of Botany and in the School of Forestry and Environmental Studies at Duke University. She also served as Dean and Marshall of the university, was a visiting botanist at Kew Gardens, and an adviser to Encyclopedia Britannica Films on Plants. She contributed to Botanical Gazette and McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Crellin, J. K. A reference guide to medicinal plants: herbal medicine past and present I John K. Crellin and Jane Philpott. p. cm. Previously published in 1990 by Duke University Press under the title: Herbal medicine past and present. Volume 2: A reference guide to medicinal plants. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8223-0879-7 (alk. paper). ISBN 0-8223-2068-1 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Materia medica, Vegetable-Appalachian Region. I. Philpott, Jane. II. Title. Rs164.c83 1997 615'.321'0974-dc21 97-17089 CIP