A Re-Examination of the Palaeolithic Archaeological Record of Northern Tamil Nadu, South India 9781841711980, 9781407323848

Citation preview

A Re-Examination of the Palaeolithic Archaeological Record of Northern Tamil Nadu, South India Shanti Pappu Sharma Centre for Heritage Education Pune/Chennai INDIA

BAR International Series 1003 2001

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 1003 A Re-Examination of the Palaeolithic Archaeological Record of Northern Tamil Nadu, South India © Shanti Pappu and the Publisher 2001 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781841711980 paperback ISBN 9781407323848 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841711980 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by John and Erica Hedges in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2001. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

BAR

PUBLISHING BAR titles are available from:

E MAIL P HONE F AX

BAR Publishing 122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK [email protected] +44 (0)1865 310431 +44 (0)1865 316916 www.barpublishing.com

D ed ica ted t o my f am i ly & t ot he memory o f Rober tB ruce F oo te . who b egan t h is work i n 1 863 . . .

F ORE WORD D e rek R oe I ti s ap l ea su r et oi n t roduce t h i sc on t r ibu t ion b yD rS han t iP appu t ot h eP a la eo l i th ic a r cha eo logy o fa na r ea o fg r ea ti mpo r tan ce ,t h eI nd ian S ub -Con t inen t ,w h ich h a ss u r e ly n o t y e ta ch ieved t h ep rom inence i td e se rve s . Mo s ts t uden t so fe a r ly P r eh is to ry k now t h a tt h e r e a r ea bundan tL owe rP a laeo l i th ic s i t e si nI nd ia ,a nd m any c ou ld s a yt h a tt wo i n du s t r ia lf a c ie s h ave t r ad i t iona l ly b een r e cogn i sed ,S oan a nd A cheu lean ,t h ef o rme rw i thou th andaxe sa nd t h el a t t e r ,o fc l a s s ic f o rm ,a ppa r en t ly b r oad ly c ompa rab le t oi t se qu iva len ti ne a s t e rn a nd s ou the rn A f r ica . B u th ow m any c ou ld a dd s ub s tan t ia l ly t ot h a tm eag r ea moun to fr a the r g ene ra li n fo rma t ion ,o re ven d ocum en ti tw i th ag ood q uo ta o fs i t en ame s?Y e tt h ep o t en t ia l i mpo r tance o ft h eS ub -Con t inen t ' sg eog r aph ica ll o ca t ion i so bv iou s ,e sp ec ia l ly a t at ime o f i n c r ea s ing i n t e r e s ti nt h ef i r s t movem en to u to fA f r ica b yh om in id so fw ha t( t o am e r e a r chaeo log is t )i ts e em ss a f e s tt oc a l lt h ee r ec tu s l erga s t e rg roup . I ti sa l v e ry w e l lt or e f e r b l i the ly t oa n' Ou to fA f r ica I 'm ig ra t ion ,b u tj u s tw ho w en te xa c t ly w he re ,a nd p r ec ise ly w hen d i dt h ey d os o? H ow ,i np r a c t ica lt e rm s ,d i di tc ome a bou tt h a t af l ou r i sh ing a nd w ide sp r ead L owe rP a la eo l i th ic d eve loped i nt h eF a rE a s t? B yw ha tr ou t eo rr ou t e sd i d p eop le t r ave lt h e r e ,a nd h ow e a r ly d i dt h ey b eg in t oa r r ive? Why i si tt h a tc l a s s ic h andaxe s a r es or a r ei nC h ina a nd S ou th -Ea s tA s ia : d i dt h eb ea r e r so ft h eu b iqu i tou sA cheu lean t r ad i t ion a c tua l ly g e tt h e r e ,o rn o t? O bv iou s ly ,s ome o ft h ea n swe r st os uch q ue s t ion sd epend o no u rg a in ing af u l le r u nde r s tand ing o ft h eC h ine se a nd I ndone s ian s i te sa nd t h e i rd a t ing b u t ,d ep end ing o nw ha t t h em ig r a t ion r ou t e sw e r e ,t h eI n d ian S ub -Con t inen tc ou ld c l ea r ly b e ah a lf -way h ou se b e tween A f r ica a nd E a s ter nA s ia a nd ,i fs o ,i ts hou ld h ave much i n fo rma t ion f o ru sa bou tt h e m ig ra t ion i t se lf . I ft h ee a r l ie s th uman m ig ran t sd i dn o tp a s st h i sw ay a st h ey t r ave l led e a s t , w es t i l ln eed t ok now j u s tw hen t h eI n d ian L owe rP a la eo l i th ic b egan ,a nd f r om w ha t d i r ec t ion o rd i r ec t ion si t so r ig ina to r sc am e . And q u i t ea pa r tf r om a l t h a t ,t h e r ea r ee qua l ly i n t e r e s t ing q ue s t ion sc oncer n ing t h eM idd le a nd U pp e rP a laeo l i th ic s t age si nI nd ia . T he r e a son w hy w ek now s ol i t t le a bou tt h eI n d ian e v idence i st h ep e r s i s t en t ly l ow q ua l i ty o ft h eb ackg round i n fo rma t ion w h ich t h eS ub -Con t inen t ' sP a laeo l i th ic a nd P l e i s tocene s i t e sh ave s of a ry i e lded ,d u r ing w e l lo ve r ah und r ed y ea r so fs t udy ,a nd t h i sh a s h a rd ly b een t h ef a u l to ft h er e sea r ch e r s . Wh i le s t one a r t e f a c t sa r ea bundan t ,p r e se rva t ion o f h om in id r ema in sa nd e ven o fa n ima lb one s ,a l ong w i th mo s tk i nd so fe nv i ronm en ta l e v idence ,h a sb een e x t r em e ly r a r ea tI n d ian s i t e sa nd m a t e r ia lf o rc h ronom e t r ic d a t ing h a s u sua l ly b een a b sen t . A cco rd ing ly ,i th a sp roved i mpo s s ib le t oc on s t ruc t ap rope r a r chaeo log ica l s e quence ,c r ed ib ly l i nked t oP l e is tocene s t age s ,f o rt h eS ub -Con t inen t ' s L owe ra nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic ,l e ta l one t ou nde r s tand h om in id b ehav iou r ,a nd t h et a sk o f e x t er na lc o r r e la t ion ,i nt ur n ,c anno tb es e r iou s ly a dd r e s sed . A l lt h e se t h ing sa r er e a l ly t h eu l t ima t e ,r a the rt h an t h ei mm ed ia t e ,c on t ex to fS han t i P appu ' sb ook ,a nd o fh e rd o c to ra lt h e s is o nw h ich ( w i th c on s ide r ab le u pda t ing )i ti sb a sed . I tw ou ld b ew onde r fu li fIc ou ld s a yi nt h i sF o r ewo rd t h a tD rP appu h ad s o lved a l o re ven s ome o ft h e se m a jo rp rob lem s ,b u to fc ou r se s he w a sn o ti n ap o s i t ion t od ot h a t . Wha ts h e h a sd on ei st os t udy ,w i th g r ea td e t e rm ina t ion a nd v i s ion , as i ng le r e g ion : t h eK o r ta l laya r R ive rb a s in i nT am i lN adu ,i nt h ee x t r em es ou th e a s to fI nd ia ,w h ich h a sb een k nown a sa c l a s s ic a r ea f o rt h eI nd ian P a la eo l i th ic s i nce t h ep i onee r ing w o rk o fR obe r tB ru ce F oo t ei nt h e t h i rd q ua r t e ro ft h e 1 9 th c en tu ry . Emp loy ing av a r ie ty o f moder na pp roach e s ,a nd u s ing c on t r ibu t ion sf r om v a r iou sQ ua ter na ry s c ien t i s t s , s h eh a sm ade r ema rkab le p rog r e s si n e s tab l i sh ing a na r cha eo log ica ls e quence f o rh e ra r ea ,a nd i n te rp r e t ing m any a spec t so fh uman b ehav iou ra nd s t ra t eg ic u se o fr e sou r ce st h e r e ,t h roughou tt h eP a laeo l i th ic p e r iod -t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic p ha se i sa si mpo r tan ti nt h is r e g ion a st h eL owe rP a laeo l i th ic ,a nd t r a ce s o fU ppe rP a laeo l i th ic ( o ra tl e a s t' p o s t -M idd le P a la eo l i th ic ' )i ndu s t r ie sa l so o ccu r . W i th p a t ience a nd b ys h ee rh a rd w o rk ,s h eh a se x t rac t ed v a luab le r e levan te v idence f r om h e rs t udy o ft h el o ca t ion sa nd n a tu r eo ft h es i t e s , a nd t h ev a r ia t ion si nt h el i th ic a s semb lage st h ey h ave

y i e lded . S h eh a sa l so m ade c au t iou sb u te f f ec t iv eu s eo fr e cen tl o ca le t hnog raph ic d a ta . A s r e ga rd st h eL owe rP a laeo l i th ic s e c t ion o fh e rs t udy ,i ti sv e ry p l ea s ing t on o t et h a t ,i nw o rk d on es i nce h e rd oc to ra lr e sea r ch a nd b r ief ly d e sc r ibed i nt h is b ook ,s h eh a sr e aped t h ew e l l d e se rved r ewa rd o fd i scove r ing a tt h ef amou ss i t eo fA t t i rampakk am a nu nd i s tu rbed A cheu lean h o r izon i nl am ina t ed c l ay ,r e p r e sen t ing af l ood -p la in c on t ex t ,w i th f a una lr ema in s a nd a n ima lf oo tp r in t sp r e se rved ,u n ique i nI nd ia . I ti ss u r e ly e fo r t so ft h ek i nd sd e sc r ibed i nt h i sb ook t h a tw i l le ven tua l ly l e ad t o s o lu t ion o ft h eb road p rob lem so ft h eI nd ian P a la eo l i th ic ,t ow h ich Ir e f e r r ed a bove . D r P appu ' si n nova t ive w o rk i s much i nl i ne w i th t h ee xce l len tr e sea r ch a ch ievemen t sa nd t h e w ho le a pp roach t oa r chaeo logy o fP ro f e s so rK . P addayya ,o ft h eD eccan C o l lege P o s tg r adua te a nd R e sea rch I n s t i tu t ea tP une ,n o tab ly i nt h eH un sg ia nd B a ichba lV a l ley s a nd s oi tm igh tw e l l b e ,f o rs he w a s as t uden to fh i s . Ih ave c o r r e sponded w i th P addayya a nd f o l lowed w i th g r ea ti n t e r e s th i sw o rk i nI nd ia f o rt h eb e s tp a r to f3 0y ea r s . If i r s tm ade c on tac tw i th S h an t iP appu w hen i n v i t ed t ob ea ne x t e rna le xam ine ro fh e rt h e s i s ,t hough s a d ly t h ee xam ina t ion p roce s sd i dn o ti n vo lv e av i s i tt oI nd ia . I nr e cen ty ea r st h e c on t r ibu t ion so fM .D .P e t rag l ia h ave a l so b een o fg r ea ti mpo r tance t oI nd ian L owe r P a laeo l i th ic s t ud ie s ,a nd t h e r ea r em any o t he rp roduc t iv eI nd ian r e sea r che r si nt h is f i e ld w hom ,s a d ly , Ih ave n os pa ce t om en t ion h e r e . I tc e r ta in ly s e em st om et h a tt h eI nd ian P a laeo l i th ic i sc u r r en t ly i ng ood h and s ,a nd t h a ti t ss c ho la r sa r eb ecom ing e ve r mo r e o u twa rd look ing ,a nd -p e rhap sn o tb efo r et ime - i n c r ea s ing ly w i l l ing t ob r ing t ob ea ro n I nd ian r e sea r ch p rob lem sm any o ft h em e thod sa nd t e chn iqu e sd eve loped i no t he rp a r t so ft h e w o r ld . T h i si sj u s ta si ts hou ld b e : i ft h ei mmed ia t er e sea r ch p r ob lem sa r el o ca l ,t h e i r s o lu t ion u ndoub ted ly h a sg l oba l s i gn if icance . Iw a rm ly c omm end S ha n t iP appu ' sb ook t o a l i t sr e ade r s ,a sa ni mpo r tan ts t ep a l ong t h i sp a th ,a nd Iw i sh h e ra nd h e rc o l league se ve ry s u cce s si nt h e i rf u tu r ew o rk . O xf ord , D ecember 2 001 .

P ref ace T he K o r ta l lay a r r i v e r b a s in , S ou th I nd ia , o ccup ie s au n ique p o s i t ion i n t h e h i s to ry o f I nd ian a r cha eo logy . T he d i scov e ry o ft h e f i r s t P a laeo l i th ic s t one t o o l i nt h e S ubcon t inen t w a s made i nt h i s r eg ion i n 1 863 . S ub sequen t ly , t h e r e g ion w i tne s sed mo re t h an a c en tu ry o fs po rad ic r e sea rch , t h e o u tcome o fw h ich w a s , h ow ev e r , l i m i ted t o af ew p ap e r s a nd b r ief n o te s . D e sp i te t h i s p au c i ty o f i n f o rma t ion , c oncep t sd ev e loped h e re , i np a r t icu la rt h o se r e la ted t ot h e' Mad ra sH andax et r ad i t ion ' o f t h eA cheu l ian , a nd t h a to ft h er e la t ion sh ip b e tw een c u l t u re s e quen ce s , r i v e rt e r ra ce s a nd P l e i s tocene e nv i ronmen t s , d e te rm ined t h e f u tu re c ou r se o f I nd ian p r eh i s to r ic a r chaeo logy . T he p au c i ty o f p ub l i shed l i t e ra tu re , t h e s po rad ic n a tu re o f r e sea r ch , a l ong w i th t h e c onf l ic t ing o b se rva t ion s o f p rev iou s s c ho la r s c a l led f o r ar e inv e s t iga t ion o ft h e p r eh i s to ry o ft h i s r eg ion , i nt h e l i gh t o fr e cen t t h eo re t ica la nd m e thodo log ica la dv ance si na r cha eo logy . T he p r e sen t w o rk a r o se o u t o f an eed t ot a ke u p t h e c ha l lenge o fr e -exam in ing t h is c l a s s ic a r ea i n I nd ian a r chaeo logy . T he b a s i s o f t h is b ook l i e s i n r e sea rch c ondu c ted a s p ar t o f my d o c to ra l d i s se r ta t ion a tt h e D e ccan C o l lege , P une , a nd s p an s ap e r iod r ang ing f r om 1 99 1 t o 1 996 . R e cen t e x cava t ion sa tt h es i te o fA t t i rampakkam ( 1999 -2000 )a r ea l so b r ief ly d i scu s sed ;a nd c on s t i tu te p a r to f ar e sea rch p ro jec ta r i s ing o u to ff o unda t ion se s tab l i shed e a r l ie r .T h i ss t udy a t temp t st oa s s ign m ean ing t ot h ev a r iab i l i ty s e en i nt h eP a la eo l i th ic a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd o ft h eK o r ta l lay a r r i v e r b a s in , a nd t o p u tf o rwa rd s ome a l te rna te mode l so fh om in id a dap t iv es t ra teg ie si nt h eM idd le t oL a te P l e is to cene , i n t h is p a r to fN o r the rn T am i lN adu .I n te re s ti nt h i sa r ea w a si n i t ia ted i nt h ec ou r se o f ac a sua lf i e ld t r ip t ot h es i te o fA t t i ramp akkam . T he r i chne s so ft h es i t e ,w i th l i t e ra l ly t h ou sand so fa r tef a c t se r od ing o u t o fl a te r i t ic d epo s i t s , l e f t ad eep i mp re s s ion ;a nd s e v e ra ly ea r sl a te r ,t h is r eg ion a ppe a red t ob ea ni d ea l o ne f o ri n ve s t iga t ing a s pec t so ft h eI n d ian L ow e ra nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic . T he b ook c on tr ibu te s i ns ev e ra l w ay s , t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t b e ing t h e r e -exam ina t ion o f ar e g ion i n I nd ian a r chaeo logy , w h ich w a s m o re s pok en o f t h an u nde r s tood . T ra c ing t h e h i s to ry o f a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch i n t h i s r e g ion , p a ra l le l s t h e d ev e lopmen t o fp r eh i s to r ic r e se a rch i n I nd ia ; r e f lec t ing b o th t r end s i n f luenced b yt h e We s t a nd i n d ig enou s d ev e lopmen t s . T h i s s t udy a l so f o l low s r e cen t t r end s i n S ou th A s ian a r cha eo lo g y , w h ich a im a tr e -a s se s s ing t h e a r chaeo logy o fr e g ion s , w h ich h av ew i tne s sed al o ng h i s to ry o fr e sea rch . A s a p re requ is i te f o r e x am in ing h om in id s e t t lemen t o r s ub s is tence s t ra teg ie s , P l e i s to cene e nv i ronmen ta l c hang e sr e qu i red i n v e s t iga t ion . Ow ing t ot h ep au c i ty o fp a la eo eco log ica l d a ta o n t h e P l e is toc ene i nT am i lN adu , i tw a sn ece s sa ry t oc omb in eb o th f i e ld s tud ie so fQ ua te rna ry s e c t ion sw i th p ub l i shed d a ta ; a nd t oe xam ine g eomo rph ic , b i og en ic a nd c l ima t ic f a c to r s o pe ra t ing i n t h e s t udy r eg ion . T h i s p r e l im ina ry s t udy r e su l ted i n ac r i t iqu e o ft h e t e r ra ce s e qu enc e s p ropo sed b y p r ev iou s w o rke r s ; a nd h igh l igh ted t h ec omp lex i ty o fv a r ied g eomo rph ic p roce s se s a nd e nv i ronmen ta l c hange s wh ich i n f lu enced t h ef o rma t ion o fa r cha eo log ica ls i te sa nd e a r ly h om in id l a nd -u se p a t te rn s . T he s e cond c on t r ibu t ion h as b een t h ee xam ina t ion o fs i t ef o rma t ion p ro ce s se so pe ra t ing i nt h er e g ion . S u ch s t ud ie s a r e ar e la t iv e ly r e c en t t r end i nI nd ian a r chaeo logy a nd i n c lud e aw ide r ang e o fo f ten , c onf l ic t ing a pp roa che s . I n t h i s w o rk , t h e p r ima ry a im w a s t oi d en t if y s i te s f r om w h ich m ax imum b ehav iou ra li n f o rma t ion c an b eo b ta ined . H ow ev e r , s u ch s i te s , w h i le i mpo r tan t , a r eg ene ra l ly r a r e i n P a laeo l i th ic c on tex t s a nd t h e s t udy a l so a t temp t s t oe xam ine s i te s w i th v a ry ing d eg ree s o fi n teg r i ty w h ich a r et h ough tt ob eo fe qua li mpo r tan ce f o r mode l l ing n a tu ra lf o rma t ion p ro ce s se so pe ra t ing o na r eg iona ll e v e l . Mode l sc on s t ru c ted h e re f o re xam in ing p ro ce s se si n f luenc ing a r tef ac ta s semb lag e si na l a te r i t ic l a nd scape , m ay b e o fu s e f o r s t ud ie s o fP a la eo l i th ic s i t e s i nP en in su la r a nd E a s te rn I nd ia , w h ich o c cu ri ns im i la rc on tex t s . T he r eg iona l s c a le o fa na ly s i sa dop ted , a i ded i nd o cumen ta t ion o fb o th h igh a nd l ow d en s i ty s u rf a ce a r tef a c ts c a t te r sa c ro s st h el a nd scape .A tt h is s t ag eo fr e s ea rch , at ho rough s u rf a c es u rv ey w a sd eemed e s sen t ia l p r io r t oe x cava t ion o fs e lec ted s i t e s . S tone t o o l a s semb lag e s w e re s t ud ied w i th t h e a im o f l o ok ing a t t h e c omp le te r educ t ion s e qu enc e . T he s amp le c omp r ised l a rg e ly I s / f idd le P a la eo l i th ic a r tef ac t s a nd t h i s p has ei ss ub sequ en t ly e xam ined i nr e la t ion t oi t ' s p o s i t ion w i th in t h ew ide r S ou th A s ian M idd le P a laeo l i th ic . T he s t udy s how s t h a t t h e K o r ta l lay a r b a s in , i sn o t o n ly n o tab le f o r t h e ' Mad ra s i n du s t r ie s ' o ft h e L ow e r P a la eo l i th ic b u t h a s ar i ch M idd le P a la eo l i th ic , p o s s ib i l i t ie s o fa n U ppe rP a la eo l i th ic ,a nd ad i s t inc t Me so l i th ic .

D e sp i te c r i t iqu e so ft h eu se o fe t hnog raph ic a na log ie s , ac on sc iou s d e c i s ion w a sm ade t oi n co rpo ra te g ene ra l o b se rva t ion s o n S ou th I nd ian a nd S r i L ankan h un te r -ga the re r s e t t lemen t a nd s ub s i s tenc e s t ra teg ie s a nd t h e i r a r cha eo log ica l c o r re la te s . S u ch a n a pp roa ch h a s b e en u sed c au t iou s ly a nd w i th c a r et a ken t oa vo id t h ep i tf a l l so ft r an sf e r r ing mode l sf r om t h ep r e sen tt ot h ep a s t . I n many w ay s ,t h i s s e rv ed o n as ub jec t ive l e v e lp rov id ing a ne xpe r ience o ft h eh un t ing -ga the r ing w ay o fl i f e , a sp r a c t i sed b yt h eh u la si n hab i t ing t h es t udy r e g ion . T h i ss t udy i s ab road b a sed a t temp ta te xam in ing t h ea r cha eo log ica lr e co rd o f ar e g ion . I th a ss e rved a sa ne f ec t iv eb a se u pon w h ich s ub s equ en tr e sea rch i sb e ing c onduc ted ,i nt h ef o rm o fe xcav a t ion sa t s e lec ted s i te s . S i nce , t h i s r e sea rch w a s c omp le ted a sp a r t o f aP h .D . d i s se r ta t ion , a nd a s av en tu re i n depend en t o fa ny l a rg e r p ro jec t , i ts u f f e r s f r om l im i ta t ion s c au sed b yt h e l a ck o ft ime , f u nd s a nd o t he r c on s t ra in t sw h ich a n I nd ian s t uden t i sf a c ed w i th . S ub sequ en t ly , Ih av e c on t inued my s t udy o f t h i s r eg ion , a nd a t temp ted t oi n te re s t s c ien t i s t s f r om v a r ied d i sc ip l ine s i no u r o ngo ing e xcava t ion s . T he se r e cen t s t ud ie s , w h ich r e sumed i n 1 999 , h av e l e d , i ns ome c a se s , t oc on t rad ic t ion s o fc e r ta in c onc lu s ion s ,a nd i no t he ri n s tanc e s ,t o ac onf i rma t ion o fw ha tw a sm e re ly s ugg e s ted d u r ing t h ec ou r se o f my e a r ly f i e ld w o rk . R e sea r ch i nt h e K o r ta l laya r r i v e r b a s in h a s c ome al o ng w ay s i nce t h e f i r s t o b se rva t ion sm ade b yR ob e r tB ru c eF oo te i n1 863 a nd i ti sh oped t h a tt h i sw o rk w i l l s e rv ea s as ma l l s t ep f o rwa rd i n i n c rea s ing o u r k now ledg e o f t h e I nd ian P a laeo l i th ic , i n a c co rdance w i th n ew d eve lopmen t si nt h ed i sc ip l ine o fp r eh is to r ic a r chaeo logy . A cknow ledgemen t s T h is w o rk w a s m ade p o s s ib le o w ing t ol o v ing e ncou ragemen t a nd e t e rna l o p t im ism o f my p a r en t s , M r s . R ukm in i P appu , a nd M r . V .R . P appu , w ho h id t h e i rw o r ry d u r ing m yf i e ld w o rk , a nd w ho a r e n ow a r den t a ma teu r p r eh is to r ian s . My l o ng suf f e r ing h u sband , A bh i j i t G ho sh , s uppo r ted m e t h roughou t ,k ep tm eg o ing i np e r iod so fd e spa i r ;a nd s p en ty ea r se vad ing b ook sa nd s t one t o o l sa r ound t h eh ou se .T he c r ed i tf o rt h i sw o rk a l so g o e st o my l o v ing a un t s , Ms . G i ta S ha rma w ho i n sp i red m et o s t udy a r cha eo logy ; Ms . S akun tha la S ha rma w ho b raved t h e h ea t t ov i s i t P oond i w i th s na ck s a nd w a te r ,a nd D r .K amak sh i Mu r ty ,w ho s p en td ay sa tX e rox mach ine si nl i b ra r ie si nt h eU n i ted S t a t e s . It h ank my s upe rv i so r , P rof e s so r , K . P addayya , J o in t -D i re c to r , D e ccan C o l leg e P o s t -g radua te a nd R e sea rch I n s t i tu te ,P une ,w ho g u ided m ei nt h is w o rk ,a nd w ho i n t rodu ced m et on ew d eve lopmen t si n a r cha eo log ic a l t h eo ry . P rof . S .N . R a jagu ru o f t h e D ec can C o l leg e , p rov ided i n va luab le h e lp i n u nd e r s tand ing t h eQ ua te rna ry g eomo rpho log yo ft h is r eg ion , a sa l so D r . H ema A chyu tan w ho a i d ed m eg r ea t ly i nt h e s t udy o ft h el a nd scape a r ound R ed H i l l s . D r s . A . K sh i r saga r a nd S .M i sh ra h e lp ed m e i n t h e a na ly s i s o fs o i ls a nd s e d imen t s . D r . V i jay S a the a na ly sed t h e f o s s i l b one f o und . Ia m g ra tef u l t ot h em any f r u i tf u l d i scu s s ion s Ih ad w i th P rof . V .N . M is ra , D i re c to r , D e ccan C o l leg e , a nd f o r h i s c on t inuou s e ncou rag em en t a nd a i d i nt h e s t udy o fI nd ian p r eh i s to ry . D r . Ma l t i N ag a r w as a lway ss uppo r t iv ea nd p rov ided aw ea l th o fi n f o rma t ion o nI nd ian t r ibe s . D r . P .K uma ragu ru ,D r . P .K . Mu ra l idha ran a nd Mr . A . P rabhaka ro ft h eG eo log ica l S urv ey o fI nd ia , Mad ra s C i rc le , p rov ided i n va luab le i n f o rma t ion o n t h e g eo logy o ft h e P a la r r i v e r b a s in . P rof K .V . R aman , k i nd ly g r an ted p e rm i s s ion t os t udy t h e ma te r ia l h ou sed a tt h e Mad ra s U n ive r s i ty . D r . A . S w am i v e ry k i nd ly p rov id ed m e w i th d a ta o n s i te s s t ud ied b y h im a nd a low ed m e t o e xam in e h i s s t one t o o l c o l lec t ion . S c ien t is t s o ft h e C en t re f o r R emo te S en s ing A nna U n iv e r s i ty a i ded m e i n p r epa ra t ion o f map s f r om s a te l l i te i mag e s . D r . V . M Mehe r -Hom j i , o f t h e F rench I n s t i tu te , P ond iche r ry , p rov ided m e w i th i n f o rma t ion o n mon soon p a t te rn s i n T am i l N adu . P rof . Madhav G adg i lo ft h eC en t re f o rE co log ica lS c ience s ,I nd ian I n s t i tu te o fS c ienc e ,B anga lo re , s anc t ioned f u nd s , w h ich e nab led m et ov i s i tt h ec e n t re a nd c on su l tw i th e xpe r t s . T he A n th ropo log ica l S urv ey o fI nd ia , My so re ,k ind ly p rov id ed m ew i th p ub l i shed a nd u npub l i shed d a ta o ns e v e ra l S ou th I nd ian t r ib e s . M r . D .T hu las i raman ,C u ra to r ,P reh is to ry mu seum ,P oond i ,i n sp i red m ew i th h i sk now ledge o ft h er e g ion . T he D i re c to r , I n s t i tu te o f H yd rau l ic s a nd H yd ro logy , P oond i , p r ov id ed i n f o rma t ion o n t h e S a thyamu r ty S aga rr e se rvo i ra nd k i nd ly a low ed m et os t ay i nt h e i ri n spe c t ion b unga low . C r i t ica l c ommen t s o n t h e o r ig ina l t h e s i s , b y P rof D e rek R oe a nd P rof . M .L .K . Mu r ty e nab led m e c o r r ec t t h e m any s ho r tcom ing s o ft h e o r ig ina l w o rk . O v e r t h e y e a r s , D r . M ichae l P e t rag l ia , h a s c ommen ted o n my p ub l ica t ion sa nd o u r l o ng -d i s tance d i scu s s ions h av e f o cu s sed my t h ink ing o n t h e I nd ian P a laeo l i th ic . T he C ha r le s Wa l la ce F e l low sh ip o ft h e A nc ien t I n d ia a nd I r an t r u s t , e n ab led

d i scu s s ion sw i th D r . B r idge tA l lch in a nd D r . F .R . A l lch in , a tC amb r idge , w ho s e d ep th o fk now ledge o ft h e I nd ian P a laeo l i th ic c l a r if i ed m any d oub t s . D i scu s s ion s w i th P rof . N aama G o ren Inb aa r a nd P rof . C l iv eG amb le a r eg r ea t ly v a lued . P rof . N .C .Gho sh ,M r s . Mana s iG ho sh ( my p a ren t s in law )a nd D r . S um i ta C hak raba r ty a lw ay s f o und t ime t oe ncou rag em e . My f r i end s , T imo thy K ap ing a nd A nup M i sh ra a i ded m e g r ea t ly i nt h e f i e ld . T ime s p en t w i th Mahmud Z aka rny , K u ru sh D a la l , R hea M i t ra , A shok K r i shnan , A tu sha B ha ru cha , Sw il G angu ly , V a san t i Aga r , S .K . A run i , a nd m any o t he r s made t h i s p e r iod o fw o rk e n joy ab le . R ecen t e x cava t ion s a nd a na ly s i s o fl i t h ic s a r e b e ing c ondu c ted w i th t h e i n va luab le h e lp o fK uma r A kh i le sh .W i thou tt h es uppo r ta nd h e lp o fM r s . P a tya la nd o t he rs t af fm embe r so ft h eD e cc an C o l lege l i b ra ry ,t h i sw o rk c ou ld n o th av eb e en a ch iev ed . T h is w o rk w a ss uppo r t ed b y af e l low sh ip f r om t h eU n iv e r s i ty G ran t sC omm i s s ion ,N ew D e lh i . It h ank t h eH om iB habha F e l low sh ip s C ounc i l , f o r s pon so r ing o ngo ing r e se a rch , w h ich i n vo lv e sp r epa ra t ion o ft h i sb ook f o rp ub l ica t ion . A bov ea l , It h ank t h ev i l lag e r so fP oond i a nd n e ighbou r ing v i l lage s , i np a r t icu la rM r . N a te sh an a nd t h eI r u la so fP oond i a nd P l a cepa layam . D e sp i te a b je c tp ov e r ty , t h e i r e n thu s ia sm a nd d e s i re t ol e a rn mo re a bou t t h e i r a nc i en t l a nd , i st h e u l t ima te t e s t imony t ot h e v a lue o fp r eh i s to r i c a r cha eo log ica l r e sea rch i nI nd ia .

S han t iP ap pu , P une , 1 5"1N ov ember ,2 001

p age

C on t en t s T ab le o fC on ten t s L i s to fT ab le s L i s to fF igu re s L i s to fP l a te s

1 1

T ab le O fC on ten t s CHAPTER 1

I NTRODUCT ION 1 . 1 :The R eg ion 1 . 2 : I -f i s to ry o fP a la eo l i th ic R e sea rch 1 . 3 : C oncep tua lF ramewo rk

1 1 4 1 3

CHAPTER I

THE QUATERNARY ENV IRON MENT 2 . 1 : G eomo rpho logy : S o i l sa nd S ed imen t s 2 . 1 .2 :Re su l t so fF i e ld S t ud ie s 2 . 13 : S umma ry o ft h eR e su l t so fF ie ldwo rk 2 . 2 :R iv e rD ynam ic s : C hang e si nt h ec ou r s e so ft h eK o r ta l lay a ra nd P a la r R iv e r s 2 . 3 :Qua te rna ry S ea L ev e lC hange sa nd N eo te c ton ic s 2 . 4 :P le i s tocene a nd H o loc ene G eomo rph ic P ro ce s s e s 2 . 5 :Qua te rna ryC l ima to logy 2 . 6 :B io log ica l E nv i ronmen t

1 9 1 9 1 9 3 7 4 5

THE ARCHAEOLOG ICAL RECORD 3 . 1 .1 :Su rv ey a nd S amp l ing S t ra teg ie s 3 . 1 .2 : S i te T aphonomy a nd P o s t -D epo s i t iona lP ro ce s se s 3 . 1 .3 :A r tef a c tC la s s if ica t ion 3 . 2 :R e su l t sO fF i e ld S tud ie s 3 . 3 .1 :D i s cu s s ion o f S i te -Taphonomy a nd P o s t P ro ce s se s 3 . 3 .2 : AD is cu s s ion o fS t one T oo l T e chno logy 3 . 3 .21 :T he A cheu l ian 3 . 3 .22 : T he M idd le P a la eo l i th ic 3 . 3 .23 :P o s t -M idd le P a la eo l i th ic

6 1 6 1 6 6 6 8 6 9 9 3

CHAPTER D I

CHAPTER I V

CHAPTER V B IBL IOGRAPHY APPEND IX I APPEND IX I APPENDIX I I APPENDIX I V APPEND IX V APPEND IX V I I NDEX

D epo s i t iona l

4 9 5 0 5 6 5 8

1 05 1 05 1 08 1 62

L IST OF TABLES

p age

T ab le l b

S equen ce o fc o r re spond ing c l ima t ic a nd c u l tu ra l c hang e s o ft h e S t one Ag e p ropo sed b yK r i shna swam i 1 938a ,p .59 ) P r inc ipa lc ha ra c te r i s t ic so fi n du s t r ie sa sp e rK r i shna s v v a rn i( 1938a )

9 1

T ab l e l c

S ca t ig japh ic a nd c u l tu ra ls e qu enc e sd e sc r ibed b yp rev iou ss cho la r s

1 2

T ab le 2

P a la eo l i th ic s i te si nt h eK o r ta l lay a rb a s in

6 3

T ab le 3 a ,3 b

R e su l t so fc hem ica la na ly s i so fs ed imen t s

3 0

T ab le 3 c

P a r t ic le s i ze a na ly s i s

3 1

T ab le 3 d

R o ck w ea the r ing r i nd s

3 2

T ab le 4 a

C la s tr o ck t y pe s

4 0

T ab l e l a

T ab le 4 b

A r tef a c tr aw ma te r ia lt y pe s

4 1

T ab le 5

A mode lo fp o s s ib le s i te t y pe sa nd c r i te r ia f o rr e cogn i t ion

6 7

T ab le 6 a

A cheu l ian a r tef a c tt y pe s

13

T ab le 6 b

M idd le P a la eo l i th ic a r tef a c tt y pe s

14

T ab le 6 c

P o s t -M idd le P a la eo l i th ic a r tef a c tt y pe s

16

T ab le 6 d

A t t i rampakkam : a r tef a c td imen s ion s

7 1

T ab le 6 e :

A ry a thu r :a r tef a c td imen s ion s

7 5

T ab le 6 f

N ambakkam : a r tef a c td imen s ion s

7 7

T ab le 6 g :

N eyv e l l i :a r tef a c td imen s ion s

8 0

T ab le 6 h :

Ma i lapu r : a r tef a c td imen s ions

8 4

T ab le 6 1 :

G un ipa lay am : a r tef a c td imen s ion s

8 6

T ab le 6 j :

P la cepa lay am :a r tef a c td imen s ion s

T ab l e7 :

S i te c on tex t s , mod e so fd epo s i t ion a nd d epo s i t iona le ne rgy

1 04

T ab le 8 :

P o s s ib le a c t iv i t ie sa td i f f e ren ts i te s

1 50

T ab le 9 :

P r inc ipa lc ha ra c te r i s t ic so fe a ch s i te

1 94

8 8

I i

L IST OF F IGURES

p ag e

F ig . l a :

T he K o r ta l lay a r r i v e r b a s in : c on tou r a nd d ra inag e map s how ing d i s t r ibu t ion o f

F ig .l b :

P a laeo l i th ic s i te s G eo log ica l map o ft h eP a la rr i v e rb a s in ( Cour te sy , G eo log ica lS u rv ey o fI nd ia )

F ig . l c :

S ed imen ta ry c on tex t so fa r cha eo log ica ls i te si nt h e Ko r ta l lay a rb a s in

F ig .2 :

L oca l i t ie s s amp led f o r g eomo rpho log ica l a nd a r chaeo log ica l s t ud ie s ( Ko r ta l laya r r i v e rb a s in ) S t ra t ig raph ic S equ en ce s

2 0

F ig .3 : 3 . 1 t o 3 . 6

Gud iy am , S r ik r i shnapu ram ,G un ipa lay am ,K an j ipad i ,N ambakkam

2 4

3 . 7a ,b ,c

A t t i rampakkam

2 5

A ry a thu r ,P a r iku lam ,K r i shna -cana lR angav e ram ,P oond i ,N eyv e l l i , Ma i lapu r

2 6

3 . 8 3 . 12 F ig .4 :

t o

2 3 9 5

C ompo s i te Q ua te rna ry s t ra t ig raph ic s e quence

3 8

F ig .5a :

V a r ia t ion i nc l a s ts i z er ange s

4 3

F ig .5b :

C la s ts i ze s : i n te r s i te v a r iab i l i ty

4 3

F ig .5c :

C la s to r ien ta t ion

4 4

F ig . 6 a :

4 4

F ig .7 .1 :

D i s tr ibu t ion o f P a la eochanne l s i n t h e P a la r r i v e r b a s in ( a f te r R ama samy e t a l . 1 992 ) Map o ft h eK o r ta l laya rb a s in f r om s a te l l i t ei mag eL ISS I ,1 90 3 8 9P a th 2 3 :Row 5 9 , B and 4 ) ' A t t i rampakkam s i te map ( f i e ld s e a son 1 993 )

F ig . 7 . 2 :

A ry a thu r : s i te map

1 02

F ig .6b :

4 7 7 4

F ig .8 :

A r tef a c ta b r as ion ( A cheu l ian )

8 2

F ig .9 :

C ompa r i son b e tw e en a r tef a c ta nd c l a s ts i ze s( A cheu l ian )

8 2

F ig .1 0a :

A r tef a c ts i ze s : I n te r s i te v a r iab i l i ty

1 0 1

F ig .1 0b :

A r tef a c ts i ze v a r ia t ion a tA t t i ramp akk am ( s u rf ace c o l lec t ion )

1 0 1

F ig . 1 0c :

A rya thu rg r id : s how ing d i s t r ibu t ion o fa r tef ac t sa nd c la s t s

1 00

F ig .11a :

A r tef a c tp a t ina t ion

1 03

F ig .11b :

A r tef a c ta b ra s ion

1 03

F ig .12 :

A r tef a c tb l ank t y pe s

10

F ig .13a :

C o re s ,D eb i tag ea nd F in i shed t o o l s : I n te r s i te v a r iab i l i ty

1 52

F ig .13b :

S imp l if i ed l i th ic r edu c t ion s e qu en ce

1 52

F ig .14 :

L i th ic I lu s tra t ion s

1 . 1 :

I r regu la rf l ak ec o re

1 . 2 :

I r regu la rf l ak ec o re

1 20

1 . 3 , 1 . 4 :

U n s t ru ck L eva l lo i sc o re s

1 2 1

1 . 5 , 1 . 6 :

L eva l lo i sc o re s

1 22

1 . 7 ,1 .8

I r regu la rd i sco ida lc o re s

1 23

1 . 9 , 1 . 10

P y ram ida lf l ak e -b lad ec o re s

1 24

2 . 1 :

C o re g rad ing i n to p ound ing t o o l

1 28

2 . 2 :

C o re g rad ing i n to b i f a ce

1 29

3 . 1 ,3 .2 , .3 .3 :

C o re s c rap e r s

1 44

4 . 1 -4 .3 :

F l ak e -b lad e s

1 32

4 . 4 -4 .8 :

F lak e -b lade sa nd b l ade s

1 33

4 . 9 -4 .13

F lak e -b lade s

1 34

19

1 1

L IST OF F IGURES

p age

2 . 1 :

C o re g rad ing i n to p ound ing t o o l

1 28

4 . 9 -4 .13 :

F lake -b lade sa nd b l ade s

1 34

5 . 1 -5 .8 :

P o in t s

1 54

5 . 9 -5 .11 :

P o in t s

1 55

5 . 12 :

F lak e -b lade

1 41

6 . 1 -6 .4 :

Kn iv e s

1 46

7 . 1 -7 .4 :

N o tche s

1 47

8 . 1 -9 .2

D en t icu la te s ,n o tched s c rape r s

1 48

1 0 .1 -10 .6 :

P i ece sw i th r e tou ch

1 57

1 .1 -11 .5 :

S c rape r s

1 38

1 .6 -11 .12

S c rape r s ,s c rape r -cum -bo re r

1 39

1 .13 -11 .16 :

S c rape r s

1 40

1 .17

S c rape r

1 41

1 2 .1 -12 .5 :

D eb i tag e

1 4 1

1 2 .6 -12 .8 :

C hopp e r -chopp ing t o o l s

1 59

1 11 :

P o s t -M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a r tef a c t s

1 6 1

F ig 1 5a :

D i s t r ibu t ion o fI r u la s e t t lemen t si nt h es t udy a r ea

1 66

F ig .15b :

Map o ft he I r u la s e t t lemen ta tP la cepa lay am

1 67

F ig . 1 6 :

D is tr ibu t ion o fi mpo r tan tI nd ian L owe ra nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic s i te s

1 98

F ig .17 :

C on tou r map o fA t t i rampakkam ( 1999 -2000 )

2 42

F ig .18 :

S t ra t ig raph ic s equence o ft e s t -p i tT 3 a tA t t i rampakkam

2 43

i v

P l a te 1 : P l a te 2 : P l a te 3 : P l a te 4 a : P l a te 4 b : P l a te 4 c : P l a te 5 : P l a te 6 a , 6 b : P l a te 7 : P l a te 8 : P l a te 9 : P l a te 1 0 : P l a te 1: P l a te P l a te P l a te P l a te P l a te P l a te P l a te P l a te P l a te P l a te P l a te P l a te P l a te P l a te P l a te P l a te P l a te P l a te P l a te P l a te P l a te P l a t e P l a te P l a te

1 2 : 1 3 : 1 4a : 1 4b : 1 5a ,b : 1 6 : 1 7a ,b : 1 8 : 1 9a : 1 9b : 2 0 : 2 1a : 2 1b : 2 1c : 2 1c : 2 1e : 2 1f : 2 1g : 2 1h : 2 1 i : 2 1 j : 2 2 : 2 3 : 2 4 :

L IST OF P LATES

p age

G ud iy am r o ck s he l te r G ud iy am v i l lag e , w e l ls e c t ion G un ipa la yam :w e l ls e c t ion A t t i ramp akkam :g ene ra lv i ew o ft h es i te s how ing g u l ly A t t i rampakk am :gene ra lv i ew o ft h es i te s how ing c a lc re te l a g E x cava t ion ( 2 000 ) :show ing a r tef a c t se mbedded i nc l ay d epo s i t P a r ik u lam q ua r ry s how ing a r tef ac t si ns e c t ion K r i shna c ana ls e c t ion a tR angav e ram P oond iq ua r ry s e c t ion Ma i lapu rq ua r ry s e c t ion K e ru ld camb akkam c ana ls e c t ion E rum a iv e t t ipa lay am T he K o r ta l lay a r b a s in a round P oond i f r om s a te l l i te i mag e L ISS I ,1 9 0 3 8 9 P a th 2 3 :Row 5 9 ,B and 4 ) ' H andax ef r om p re la te r i t ic d epo s i t s :A t t i rampa ld c am g u l ly D i sm an t l ing o fd u r ic ru s tw i th e mb edded a r tef a c t s :A t t i rampa ld cam A r tef a c ta b ra s ion p a t te rn s( A cheu l ian ) D if f e ren t ia la b r as ion o fa r tef a c to nt h ed o r s a la nd v en t ra lf a ce s A cheu l ian a r tef a c t s ' The rma lf r a c tu re f l ak e s ' M idd le P a la eo l i th ic a r tef a c t s S ub -f o s s i lb on eo fB o se l epha st r agocame lu s G ene ra lv i ew o ft h el a nd s cap es how ing t h eA l l iku l l ih i l l s T he K o r ta l lay a rr i v e ra si tw ind si t sw ay p a s tE ruma iv e t t ipa lay am R ef i t t ing a r t ef a c ta tE ruma iv e t t ipa lay am I r u la s e t t lemen ta tP lac epa lay am I r u la s e t t lemen ta tP la c epa lay am C on s t ru c t ion o f an igh th un t ing s he l te rb yt h eI r u la so fP la cepa lay am C on s t ru c t ion o f an igh th un t ing s he l te rb yt h eI r u la so fP la cepa lay am P r inc ipa lt o o l su s ed b yt h eI r u la s U se o f ab rok en p o tt os mok eo u tr a t s U se o fn e t st ot r ap r a t s: P la cepa lay am I r u la s h u la f l ak ing ah andaxe shaped n a tu ra lc obb le D is sec t ion o f ar a t T he h andax es haped n a tu ra lf l ak ea f te ru se T he N a n iK u rav a sa nd t h e i rn e tt r ap sa tP oond it own A r tef a c t sa nd n a tu ra lc l a s t si nA ry a thu rg r id Ma i lapu r :s how ing d e s t ruc t ion o ft h es i te b yq ua r ry ing

2 1 2 1 2 1 2 8 2 8 2 8 3 2 3 3 3 5 3 6 3 6 3 6

C ov er P l a t e : K r i shnan s e a rche sf o rt o o l si nt h eA t t i rampa l ckam g u l ly

4 8 5 1 9 6 9 4 9 7 1 07 11 12 2 24 6 2 6 2 9 9 1 68 1 69 1 70 1 71 1 73 1 74 1 75 1 75 1 76 1 76 1 78 1 02 1 02

Abbrev ia t ions f or s i te n ame s u sed i nf i gure s a nd t ab le s S i te

Code

G ud iyam G ud iyam v i l lage G un ipa layam S r ikr ishnapu ram

GD M GD M -V ILL GUN S KP

P enna lurpe t Ma i lapu r K un jaram A rya thu r A t t irampakkam

P ER MLP KN J ARY ATM

P oond i N eyve l l i R angave ram P a r iku lam N ambakkam K an j ipad i Me t tu rt o Me t tupa layam S en rayanpa layam K i r inaya t tam P l acepa layam

PND NEY KC -PND PAR NA M KANJ MET S EN KRN P LP

N aka lkona

NAK

CHAPTER 1 I t C ) 1 ) 1 3CT IO P 4 " T he d i scove ry t h a tc er ta in o ft h em ore r e cen tf orma t ions i nS ou thern I nd ia c on ta in S tone I mp lemen t so fu ndoub t ed ly h uman m anuf ac tur e . . .c anno tf a i lt oe xc i te s ome a t ten t ion a mong s t ud en t so fG eo logy , E thno logy a nd A rchaeo logy" ( Foo t e 1 866 ,p . 1 ) . " T oa ccoun tf or t h i si mmense ly n umerou sc o l lec t ion o fi mp lemen t si n as ma l ls pace i sa q ue s t ion m ore e a s i ly p ropo sed t h an s o lved" ( Foo te 1 869 ,p .234 ) . mode ls o fh om in id b ehav iou ra l s t ra teg ie s d u r ing t h e M idd le t oL a te P l e is tocene .

T hese o b serva t ion s m ade b y t h e B r i t ish g eo log is t , R ober t B ruce F oo te , o n q u e s t ion s r e la ted t o h om in id b ehav iou r a nd p roces se s l e ad ing t o t h e c r ea t ion o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd i nt h e K or ta l laya rr i ve rb a s in , S ou th I nd ia , r ema in a s r e levan t t oday a s t h ey w e re ac en tu ry a go . T h i s r e g ion o ccup ie s ap r e -em inen tp o s i t ion i n t h e h i s to ry o f I nd ian a r chaeo logy , o w ing t o t h e f a c tt h a tt h e f i r s ts t one t oo l i nS ou th A s ia w a s d i scove r ed h e r e i n1 863 ,b y R obe r t B ruce F oo te ' ( Foo te 1 866 ) .

1 . 1 : THE REGION T he s t udy r e g ion c ompr ise s a na r ea o f2 00 s q km ( 79 °40 ' : 7 9°56 ' Ea nd 1 3 ° 17 ' : 1 3° 10 'N ) , i n t h e K o r ta l laya r B a s in , w h ich f o rm s ap a r t o f t h e P a la r B a s in , T iruva l lu r d i s t r ic t , T am i l N adu ( F ig .1 a ) . I tc omp r ise s t h e S a tyavedu p l ana t ion s u rf ace c on s is t ing o f t h e n o r th -no r th -ea s t a nd s ou th sou th -we s t t r end ing A l l iku l l i h i l l r a nge s ( 200 -380 m AMSL ) , s u r rounded b y u ndu la t ing l ow land s . T he se h i l l s c ompr ise c obb le to b ou lde r s i ze f a ng lome ra te s o f e a r ly C re taceou s a ge ( Kuma ragu ru & T r iv ik rama R ao 1 994 ) . T he s u r round ing l ow land s c ompr ise t h e S r ipe rumbudu r f o rma t ion ( s and s tone s a nd s ha les ) , w h ich i n te rf inge r w i th t h e A vad i f o rma t ion o fa r g i l la ceou s s ha les ( Kuma ragu ru & T r iv ik rama R ao 1 994 ; Mu ra l idha ran e t a l . , 1 993 ) .

F o l low ing t h e w o rk o f F oo te , t h is r eg ion w i tnes sed mo re t h an a c en tu ry o f s po rad ic a r chaeo log ica l r e sea r ch , mo s t o fw h ich h oweve r , r ema ined u npub l ished . T hu s , d e sp i te e x ten s ive r e f er ence s i n I nd ian a r chaeo log ica l l i t e ra tu r e t o t h e K or ta l laya r i n du s tr ie s , b e t te r k nown a s t h e ' Mad ra s ian I ndu s t r ie s ' o r ' Mad ra s H andaxe T rad i t ion ' ,k now ledge o ft h ep r eh is tor ic r e co rd o f t h is r eg ion r ema ined i n adequa te . S tud ie s i nt h is r eg ion l e d t ot h e d eve lopm en t o fc oncep t s w h ich h ave g r ea t ly i nf lu enced I n d ian p r eh is to r ic a r chaeo logy .

T he r e g ion i sd ra ined b y t h e r i ve r K o r ta l laya r ( a f ou r th o rde r s t r eam ) a nd an e two rk o fe pheme ra l s t r eam s o f t h e f i r s t , s e cond a nd t h i rd o rde r s a r is ing i n t h e h i l ls o r f r om n a tu ra l t a nk s a nd s p r ing s . T he r i ve r i t se lf o r ig ina te s a s t h e K aver ipak r i ve r , t r ave ls 1 2 .8 km n o r thea s t o ft h e c i ty o fA rco t a nd i sj o ined b y t h e Mah ind ranad i , T appu r a nd o t he r s t r eam s . I td ebou che s i n t h e E nno r e b ackwa ter s n ea rt h e c i ty o fC henna i . T he r i ve r P a la r o r ig ina l ly f l owed a l ong t h e c ou r se o f t h e r i ve r K or ta l laya r , a nd s ub sequ en t ly s h if ted s ou th ( F ig .lb ) .

T he I nd ian P a laeo l i th ic i so f t en c ha rac te r ised a s s uf f e r ing f r om ap au c i ty o f w e l l -p r e se rved s i t e s w i th a s soc ia ted f o s s i l r ema in s a nd c h ronome t r ic d a te s . Wh i le t h ese v i ew s a r e b e ing i n c r ea s ing ly q ues t ioned b y r e cen t e xcava t ion s , o ne o f t h e g r ea tes t c ha l lenges o fa r chaeo log ica l s u rvey s i n I nd ia , h a s b een t oo ve r come t h e e x ig enc ie s o fa m eag r e d a taba se ; a nd t o b e a b le t o ' s queeze b lood f r om s t ones '( I saa c 1 989 ) . T h is s t udy t a ke s o n t h e c ha l lenge o fs u rvey ing a r eg ion i n a n a t temp t t o a s s ign m ean ing t o t h e v a r iab i l i ty s e en i nt h e P a laeo l i th ic a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd o f t h e K or ta l laya r r i ve r b a s in i n T am i l N adu , S ou th I nd ia ; a nd t o c on s t ruc t a l terna te

C r e taceou s f o rma t ion s a r e o ve r la in b y T er t ia ry f e r r ic r e te s a nd Qua terna ry f o rma t ion s i n c lud ing f e r r ic r i t ised g r ave ls a nd f e r r ic r e te s . W i th a w e t t r op ica l mode ra te b i oc l ima te a nd a n a nnua l r a inf a l l r ange o f 1 05 125 c m , N o r thern T am i l N adu i sc ha rac ter ised b y ad i s symme t r ic r a inf a l l r e g ime , m a rked b y c yc lon ic r a in s f r om S ep tembe rt oN ovembe r ,( Na t iona l C omm is s ion

T h i s w a sd i scove r ed a t ab a l la s tp i ta t P a l lave ram , w h ich t oday c on s t i tu te sp ar to ft h e a i rpo r ta tt h ec i ty o fC henna i ,T am i lN adu .

1

2

5

1 0

1 0 f n

K

P a laeo shore l i ne S trand l i ne s T ida l F la t P a laeochanne l F lood P la in

• •

P ed ip la in / 1\

/ I\

2 Z :3,

P ed imen t I n se lberg M inor L ineamen t s Ma jor L ineament s

1 .P recambr ian C uddapah G roup 2 .N agar i Q uar tz i te 3 .S a tyavedu F orma t ion U pper G ondwana 4 .S r iperumbudur F orma t ion 5 .F luv ia l ( Depo s i t iona l ) :Pa lar -Kor ta l layar F orma t ion

Qua ternary

6 . Mar ine P u l ica t F orma t ion

F ig .lb

G eo log ica l m ap o ft he P a lar r i ver b as in ( Cour te sy ,G eo log ica l S urvey o f I nd ia ) 3

o n A g r icu l tu r e 1 976 ) . T he c l ima te i s d ry s ubhum id w i th a n a t tenua ted d eg ree o f a r id i ty , a nd am ean t empe ra tu r e o f3 6 ° C( Sp rang e r s & B a la sub raman iyam 1 978 ) . V eg e ta t ion c ompr ise s t h e A lb i z z ia a mara a nd A cac ia s e r ie s o f s em i e ve rg r een s c rub w ood land , c l o sed a nd d i scon t inuou s t h orny t h icke t s a nd s c a t te r ed s h rub s( Gau s sen e ta l . 1 964 ) .

b yg eo log is t s i nI nd ia , w ho r ema ined u nawa re o f t h e ir s i gn if icance ; a nd t of i gu r e sp ub l i shed i nt h e j ou rna l ' T he G eo log i s t ' . F oo te a l so c onf e s sed t o h i s i n adequa t e a wa rene s s o f q ua r tz i t e f r a c tu re p a t tern s ( Foo te 1 866 , p p . 1 2 ) . T h i s s t r ik ing a dm is s ion m ay b e c on t ra s ted w i th h i s l a te r o b serva t ion t h a tt h ed i scove ry o f as t one t o o l w a s am a t te r o f s a t isf ac t ion , r a the r t h an s u rp r ise ( Foo te 1 9 16 , p . v i i ) . A t r ue r e a l iza t ion o f t h e s i gn if icance o f h i s f i nd s h ad t o w a i t t i l l S ep tember 1 863 , w hen h e d i scove red a bundan t t o o ls a t t h e v i l lage o f A t t i rampakkam 2 ( Foo te 1 866 ,p . 3 ) .

1 . 2 : H ISTORY OF PALAEOL ITHIC RESEARCH T he h i s to ry o f P a laeo l i th ic a r chaeo logy i n t h e K o r ta l laya r b a s in mu s t b e v i ewed w i th in t h e c on tex to fp r eva i l ing p a rad igm s i nt h e d i sc ip l ine , c omp r i s ing a c en tu ry o f r e sea r ch , b eg inn ing i n t h e l a te 1 9t h c en tu ry . T h r ee b road p ha se s o f r e sea r ch o r ien ta t ion sm ay b ei d en t if ied .

L and scape F orma t ion a nd A r tef ac t C on tex t s : A l though t h e f i r s t c omp le te r e por t o ft h e m a jo r g eo log ica l f o rma t ion s i nt h e Mad ra s P r e s id ency 3 w a sp ub l ished i n1 873 , ( Foo te 1 873a ) ,a se a r ly a s 1 866 , h e p u t f o rwa rd h i s v i ew s o n t h e s ed imen ta ry c on tex t o fP a laeo l i th ic a r t ef a c t s( s ee P appu , S . 1 99 11992 ) . I n 1 866 , i n h i s o p in ion , t h e i mmed ia t e s i gn if icance o f p a la eo l i th s w a s t h a t t h ey e nab led h im t o d a te a r tef a c t b ea r ing s ed imen t s t o t h e P l e i s tocene a nd ' R ecen t P er iod ' . T he l a t te r t e rm w a s u sed i nt h e s e n se o f t h a t p e r iod e mb rac ing a l l i v ing s pec ie s a nd w a s t hu s i na cco rdance w i th t h eg enera l a g r eem en t o f g eo log is t s o n t h e m ean ing o f wha t t h e ' modern e a r th ' c on s t i tu ted ( G ray son 1 983 , p . 203 ) . B y 1 866 ,h er e cogn ized t h a ta r tef ac t s o ccu r r ed i nt h e " t yp ica l u na l te red l a te nte s" o fu ncer ta in a g e a nd i n t h e y oung er " l a te r i t ic g r ave ls a nd s a nd s" ( Foo te 1 866 , p . 4 ) . B y 1 868 , h e c ou ld i d en t if y a r tef ac t s b u r ied i n s i tu i n t h e l a te r i te ; o n t h e s u rf ace o f t h e l a ter i te f r om w h ich t h ey e r oded o u t ; o n t h e s u rf ace o f u nde r ly ing r o ck s w he re l a ter i te d epo s i t s w e r e r emoved b y d enuda t ion ; a nd o n t h e s u rf ace e r od ing o u t o ff o rma t ions o f u nc lea r o r ig in . F oo te r e cogn ised t wo b a s ic a r tef ac t c on t ex t s : a ) t h e l ow l e ve l g r ave ls a nd c ong lome ra te s o ft h e c oa s ta l l a ter i te ; a nd ; b )t h e c oa r se b ou ld e r g rave ls o f t h e m idd le g r ound s i n c lud ing q ua r tz i te s h ing le , w h ich w e re d epos i ted o r r e a r ranged d u r ing t h e s ame p e r iod a nd w h ich i n h i s v i ew w ere a l m a r ine f o rma t ion s . T h is w a s f o l lowed b y e l eva t ion o f t h e l a nd t o 5 00 ' -600 ' ( 1 52 183 m ) AMSL , r i ve r d enuda t ion , s ub sequen t d ep r e s s ion o f t h e c oa s t w i th a ccumu la t ion o f a luv ium a nd a s l igh t e l eva t ion a ga in . T he se e a r th mov em en t s , h e

T he F ir s t P ha se : R ober t B ruce F oo te a nd t he E s tab l i shmen t o f Human A n t iqu i ty i n t he S ubcon t inen t( 1863 -1912 ) T h is p ha se i sd om ina ted b y t h e w o rk o fR ober t B ruce F oo te a nd h i s c o l leagu e W i l l iam K ing ( Foo te 1 866 , 1 868 , 1 869 , 1 870 , 1 873 , 1 880 , 1 881 , 1 9 16 ) . F oo te w a s ag eo log is t , w ho b egan h i s c a ree r i nt h e G eo log ica l S u rvey o f I n d ia i n 1 858 a nd w o rked f o rt h e mo s tp a r ti nS ou th I n d ia ( s ee C hak raba r t i 1 979 ) . H is p ioneer ing d i scove ry o fs t one t oo l s a tP a l lave ram , T am i l N adu i n May 1 863 , l e d t o t h e c onc lu s ive e s tab l ishmen t o f h uman a n t iqu i ty i nI nd ia . Among o ve r 4 50 s i te s d i scove red b y h im i n t h e n ex t t h ree d ecad es i n v ar iou s p a r t s o f P en insu la r I nd ia , 3 a r e i nt h e K or ta l laya r a nd A ran i b a s in s o f T am i l N adu ( Tab le 2 ) . T he i mpor tance o fh i s w o rk l i e s i nt h e f a c t t h a t i n a dd i t ion t o d i scover ing a nd d ocum en t ing s i te s , h e m ade ac on sc iou s a t temp t t oi n teg ra te d i ve r se k ind s o fe v idence t oa r r ive a t ac omp rehen s ive p i c tu r e o fp r eh is to r ic l i f eway s i nt h is r eg ion . D e sp i te t h e c on s t ra in t s o fw o rk ing w i th in t h e p rof i t -or ien ted G eo log ica l S u rvey , l a rge ly i nt h e f i e ld , d evo id o ft h e " . luxu ry o fa l i b ra ry . ." ( Foo te 1 881 , p . 326 ) ; a nd d i s tan t f r om t h e E u ropean a cadem ic m a in s t ream , h i s i n te rp r e ta t ion o f t h e p hy s ica l a nd c u l tu ra l l a nd scape s o ft h i s r eg ion , g ave an ew d im en s ion t o1 9t h c en tu ry a r chaeo log ica l t h ough t . F oo te w a s a wa r e o ft h e d eba te s o n t h e a n t iqu i ty o f s t one t oo l s i n 1 9t h c en tu ry E u rope , i n p a r t icu la r t h e w o rk o f C uv ie r , B u ck land , L ye l l , E vans a nd P r e s tw ich ( Dan ie l 1 975 , 1 98 1 ; F oo te 1 866 , 1 9 16 ; G ray son 1 983 , 1 986 ; L ev in e 1 986 ) . A t t h e t ime o f h i s d i scove ry o f a r tef a c t s a t P a l lave ram , h e a dm i t ted t h a t h i s k now ledge o f s t one t oo ls w a sl im i ted t o af ew f i nd sd i scove r ed

T he v i l lage o fA t t irampakkam ( s i te N o .10 , F ig .1) h a sa l so b een s pe l ta sA t t t irambakkam , A t t rambakkam . 3 M oder ns t a te so fT am i lN adu a nd A ndh r a P rade sh

2

4

v e ry g r ea t a n t iqu i ty o f m an ( G ray son 1 983 , p . 188 ) . L y e l l ' s r a te s o f u p l if t e nab led h im t o a r r ive a t ad a te o f1 4 ,700 y ea r sf o rt h el a ter i te st o r e ach t h e i r p r e sen t p o s i t ion a t ah i gh e l eva t ion a nd t hu s t h e f i r s t a ppea rance o ft h e h uman r a ce

t h ough t , a f f ec ted t h e e n t ir e P en in su la . A r tef a c t s a t e l eva t ion s g r ea te r t h an 5 00 ' ( 1 52 m ) w er e b e l ieved t od i f f e r i na ge f r om t h o se o fl ow ly ing a r ea s a nd w e r e t h ough t t o h ave e r oded o u t o f f r e sh w a te r d epo s i t s o f w h ich o n ly t h e s h ing ly g rave l r ema ined ( Foo te 1 868 , p . 493 ) . T hu s h e c ou ld s t a te t h a t t h e a r tef ac t h o r izons p o in ted t o " . g r ea tc hange si nt h ep hy s ica l g eog raphy o ft h e I nd ian P en in su la . s i nc e t h e t im e t h e i mp lemen t m ake r s f i r s t i n hab i ted t h e c oun t ry" ( Foo te 1 868 , p . 484 ) .

w a sa n te r io rt ot h is d a te ( Foo te 1 866 ,p . 30 ) . A N ew R e so lu t ion : B y t h e e nd o f t h e 1 9t h c en tu ry t h e se i d ea s u nde rw en t a p rof ound c hang e . B y 1 894 , Med l ico t t a nd B landf o rd ( 1994 , p . 388 ) p u t f o rwa rd a h ypo the s is o f P l e i s tocene p luv ia l s , a nd r e jec ted t h e m a r ine o r ig in o f l a ter i te s , o n t h e g r ound s t h a t t h e i r p rof i le s w e r e t o o t h in , a nd t h a t F oo te ' s h ypo thes is o f a r tef ac t s b e ing l o s t b y s e af a r ing p a laeo l i th ian s w a s u n tenab le A l t erna t ive ly , t h ey s ugg es ted t h a t t h e l a ter i te s w e r e s ubaer ia l d epo s i t s , d ue i nm any c a se st ot h e r e a r r angemen t o fm a r ine g r ave ls a nd s a nd sb yr a in sa nd s t ream s ( Med l ico t t a nd B landf o rd 1 994 ,p .389 ) . B y 1 909 , F oo te c onf e s sed h i s d i s sa t isf ac t ion w i th t h e m a r ine h ypo the s is a nd r e p laced i tw i th t h e i d ea t h a t t h ese s ed imen t s w e r e d epo s i ted b y p luv ia ls c o r r e spond ing t o P l e is tocene g l ac ia t ion s . T he r e su l t ing s h ee t f l ood s c a r r ied J u ra s s ic s h ing le a nd g r ave l e a s twa rd , a l ong w i th p a laeo l i th s , w ho se d eg r ee o fa b ra s ion p o in ted t ot h e d i s tance t h ey t r ave l led . H igh leve l l a ter i te s w e r e b e l ieved t o b e s ed imen ta ry l a cu s t r ine d epo s i t s , s ub sequen t ly d i s sec ted d u r ing p l uv ia ls ( Foo te 1 9 16 ,p . 18 1) .

` La ter i t ic S eas ' a nd ' Ear th Movemen t s ' : F rom 1 866 u n t i l a lmo s t t h e e nd o f h i s l i f e , F oo te s t rugg led w i th t h is t h eo ry o ft h e m a r ine o r ig in o f l a ter i t e s ( Foo te 1 866 , 1 868 , 1 869 , 1 870 , 1 873a , 1 873b , 1 880 , 1 9 16 ) . T he r oo t s o f t h e se i d ea s , w h ich g r ea t ly i n f lu enced h i s i n terp r e ta t ion o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd l i e i n 1 9t h c en tu ry g eo log ica l t hough t , i n p a r t icu la r , L ye l l ' s u n if orm i t ie s o f l aw , p roces se s a nd r a te ( Gou ld 1 987 ,p . 120 ) . T hu st h e f a c tt h a tt h e l a te r i te s w e r e u n if o rm ly d i s t r ibu ted a l ong t h e c oa s t a nd t h a t t h is s i tua t ion w a s a na logou s t o t h e u nde r ly ing m a r ine J u ra s s ic , C r e taceou s a nd P o s t -C re taceou s F orma t ion sa nd t h eo ve r ly ing c oa s ta l a luv ium o f m a r ine o r ig in ; p roved c onc lu s ive ly t h a t t h e l a ter i te st o ow e re m a r ine f o rma t ion s . F o rl a ter i tes t o r e ach a h e igh t o f 3 00 ' ( 9 1 m ) AMSL , a c on s tan t r a te o fu p l if t o f 2' A " ( 6c m ) p e r a nnum w a s i n voked , f o l low ing s c a le s d ev ised b y L ye l l f o r t h e S cand inav ian P en in su la ( Foo te 1 866 , p . 18 ) . T h is h ypo the s is , h e b e l ieved , p rov ided e xp lana t ion s " .w i thou t i n du c ing c a ta s t rophes a nd c a tac ly sm s o n t h e s c a le r e qu i r ed b y t h e c o smogon is t s o f t h e l a s t c en tu ry ( Foo te 1 866 , p . 19 ) . H e c ou ld e ven a tach a m ap g i v ing t h e a pp rox ima te c oa s t l ine " .wh ich w ou ld a ppea r i f t h e l a nd w e re a ga in d ep r e s sed t o ad ep th o f5 00" ( Foo te 1 868 , p . 494 ) ; a n i d ea , w h ich e choe s L ye l l ' se a r ly v i ew so f' t im es s t a te ly c yc le ' (Gou ld 1 987 ) . I n he r en td i s sa t isf a c t ion w i th t h e se i d ea si s h oweve r e v iden t i n h i s s t rugg le t o p rov ide a n e xp lana t ion f o r t h e c omp le te a b sence o fm a r ine f o s s i ls i n t h e l a ter i te s , ap o in t a l so r a i sed b y Mu rch ison ( Foo te 1 868 ,p .494 ) . F oo te a l so q uo ted P r es tw ich ( P r e s tw ich 1 864 q uo ted F oo te 1 866 , p . 31) ; w ho b e l ieved t h a t t h e a genc ies o pe ra t ing w e re " .so f a r e xceed ing i n p ow e r . ." t h an t h o se a c t ing a tp r e sen t t h a t i tw a s " .a lmos t i mpo s s ib le t o a pp ly t h e s ame r u le s t o t h e t wo p er iod s" ; a nd t h a tt h ese c hange s p rog re s sed w i th r a p id i ty . T h i s s t r e s s o n ag r ea te r r a p id i ty o f p roce s se s , i np a r t icu la r t h a t o fl a ter i te f o rma t ion ( Foo te 1 869 , p . 229 ) , c an b e u nde r s tood w hen o ne c on s ide r s P r es tw ich ' s r e luc tance t o a ccep t a

A r tef ac t C on tex t s a nd S i t e -Forma t ion P roce s se s : I nt h e h i s to ry o ft h e d ev e lopm en t o f t h e c oncep t o f s i t e f o rma t ion p roces se s t h e e a r l ie s t p ub l ished c on s ide ra t ion o f s i t e ' c on tex t ' w a s i n t h e c ommun iqu é s en t b y J ohn F r e r e ( 1740 1807 ) t o t h e A n t iqua r ian S oc ie ty o f L ondon i n1 797 ( Sch ick 1 986 ,p . 6 ) . I nt h e I nd ian c on tex t , i tw a s F oo te a nd K ing w ho a s e a r ly a s 1 866 , p o s tu la ted ac omp r ehen s ive m ode l o f s i te f o rma t ion s t ud ie s w i th s pec if ic r e f e r ence t o t h e K or ta l laya r b a s in ( Foo te 1 866 ; P appu , S . 1 99 19 2 , 1 999 ) . T he d i scove ry o fi ns i tu s t one t o o ls a t A t t i rampakkam , l e d F oo te t o r ema rk ; " T o a ccoun t f o r t h is i mmen se ly n ume rou s c o l lec t ion o f i mp lem en t s i n as ma l l s pa ce i s aq u es t ion mo r e e a s i ly p ropo sed t h an s o lved" ( Foo te 1 869 , p .2 34 ) . Two a spec t so ft h is d i scove ry i nf lu enced h im d eep ly , v i z , t h e o ccu r r ence o fi mp lem en t s a t d ep th s r ang ing f r om t h r ee t o t e n f e e t ( 1 -2 m ) b e low t h e s u rf a ce a nd o f t en f ound t i gh t ly e mbedded i n t h e l a te r i t ic g r ave l a nd , s e cond ly , t h e ir h i gh d en s i ty . B a ck ed b y ak now ledge o f s im i la r i mp lemen t s i n E u rope a nd b y h i s g round ing i n g eo logy , F oo te a pp roa ched t h e p rob lem f r om t wo p e r spec t ive s . H e i n i t ia l ly

5

p roce s se s i n vo lv ing s hee t f l ood s a nd p luv ia ls ( Foo te 1 9 16 , p . 18 1) . I n p a r t icu la r , t h e t r op ica l s t o rm s o ne e xper ience s i nI n d ia s t r eng thened h i s v i ew s o f t h e i r r o le i n t h e w ea the r ing a nd t r an spor ta t ion o f t h e q ua r tz i te r e go l i th ( Foo te 1 9 16 ,p . 183 ) .

b e l ieved t h a t t oo ls o ccu r r ing o n ' moun ta inou s i s land s ' ( Sa tyavedu , A l l iku l l i a nd N aga r i h i l ls ) , s u r rounded b y t h e s e a , w e r e l e f t b eh ind b y m en w ho v i s i ted t h ese i s land s( Foo te 1 866 ,p . 23 ) . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f t oo l s o ve r t h e r e s t o f t h e a r ea d epended m a in ly " .upon t h e d i r ec t ion o f t h e c u r r en t s o r w ha teve r e l se m igh t h ave b een t h e d i s t r ibu t ion a gency" ( Foo te 1 866 , p . 23 ) . A r tef a c t s w e re n o ted t o d ec rea se i n f r equency s ou th a nd s ou thea s t o f t h e A l l iku l l i a nd S a tyavedu h i l ls , w he r e p o s s ib ly t h e i nf luence o f t h e e a s te r ly f l ow ing c u r r en t w a s n o t f e l t . I n ten se w a te r a c t ion w a s a l so i n d ica ted b y a b ra s ion o f t oo ls w h ich i n s om e c a se s w e r e " .r econver ted i n to w a te r w o rn p ebb le s" ( Foo te 1 866 , p . 24 ) . T he p r e sence o f e x t r em e ly f r e sh t o o ls w a s a tr ibu ted t ot h e s ho r t d i s tances o ve r w h ich t h ey h ad d r if ted . H ow eve r t h is e xp lana t ion c l a shed w i th h i sb e l ief t h a tt h e ' t e r ra f i rma ' o ft h a tp e r iod w a s n owhe r e w he r e t h e t oo l s w e r e f ound ( Foo te 1 873a , p . 56 ) . T h is i n t u rn l e d h im t o w onde r w he the rt h e l a ter i te b ed s i nw h ich t h e t o o ls w e re f ound w e r e s ubme rged b enea th t h e s ea , o r w he the r t h ey f o rmed a p a r t o f t h e t i da l z one , p er iod ica l ly e xpo sed a nd c ove r ed . H e f u r the r b e l ieved t h a t m a r ine c ond i t ion s w ou ld n o t h ave a f f ec ted t o o ls a th e igh t s mo r e t h an 6 00 ' ( 183 m ) AMSL . T h is w ou ld i n t u rn d i r ec t a t ten t ion t o o t he ra genc ie s .

I ti sh ow eve ri nh i sr e spon se t oK ing o nt h et op ic o f' manuf ac tu r ing s i te s ' , t h a t w e f i nd o ne o ft h e e a r l ie s ta nd n o tewor thy d eba te so nt h ec oncep to f s i te f o rma t ion i nt h e h i s to ry o fa r chaeo logy . T he b e s t e xemp l i f ica t ion o f K ing ' s p roce s s o f r e a son ing i sp rov ided w h i le d ea l ing w i th t h e a r ea n ow f o rm ing n o r thea s t e rn T am i l N adu a nd p a r t s o f C h i t too r d i s t r ic t o f A ndh ra P rade sh . I n d e sc r ib ing L oca l i ty 3 i n t h e N a rnave ram A r ea ( modem A ran i ) , h e s ay s t h a t i t" . i s a mo s t i n te r es t ing o ne i ns o f a r a si ts e em s t ob e ap l a ce o f m anuf ac tu r e" ( Append ix b y K ing i n F oo te 1 866 , p . 37 ) . H is r e a son s f o r c i t ing t h is a r e t h e p r e sence o ff l ake s a nd an umbe r o ff i n ished a nd u nf in ished a nd b roken a nd i mpe rf ec t s p ec imen s" . T he s pec im en s r e f er red t o a s i mpe rf ec t s ugg e s t t h e i d ea t h a t t h ey h ad b een u nf in ished" . H e n o ted t h e p r e sence o ft h e mo r e f r equen td i s t r ibu t ion o fc h ip s a r ound s om e o ft h e l ow g ne is s h ummock s a nd c a l led t h es e a r ea s m anuf a c tu r ing s i te s ( Append ix b y K ing i nF oo te 1 866 , p . 38 ) . K ing f u r the r c on t rad ic ted F oo t e ' s b e l ief t h a t t h er e w e re n o o rgan ised c en t r es o f m anuf a c tu r e a nd t h a t m anuf a c tu r e o ft o o l s w a s l a rge ly e xp ed ien t ( Foo te 1 866 .p .40 ) . F oo te , h oweve r , b e l ieved t h a t t h e a b sence o f c h ips a t A t t i rampakkam i nd ica ted t h a t n o m anuf ac tu r ing a c t iv i t ie so ccu r r ed h e r e .

"W i th r ega rd t os uch i mp lemen t s i ta ppea r s mo r e r e a sonab le t o a s cr ibe t h e i r p r e sence t o o t he r a gen c ie s" ( Foo te 1 866 , p p .24 -25 ) . B y o t he r a genc ie sh e m ean th uman a c t ion . F oo te ( 1866 ,p . 25 )g oe so nt on o te t h a t" The n ex t s t ep i nt h e h ypo the s is i st o e xp la in h ow h uman a gency m ay r e a sonab ly b e s uppo sed t o h ave b een i n s t rumen ta l ." . A s sum ing t h a t modern d eep w a te r c ond i t ion s p r eva i led , h e e mp loyed e t hnog raph ic a na log ie sd rawn f r om n a t ive s a l ong t h e C o romande l C oa s t4 t o s t a te t h a t t h e ' p a laeo l i th ian s ' c ou ld u nde r t h ese c i rcum s tance s h ave f o raged w ide ly i n c a tama ran s a nd a s a r e su l tt h ei mp lemen t s d i scove red a r et ho se " .l o s t o r e mbedd ed i n t h e mud b ank s" ( Foo te 1 866 , p . 26 ) . F u r the r , h e b e l ieved t h a t a s t h e s e a s r e t rea ted t h e ' p a laeo l i th ian s ' w ou ld h ave r a nged o ve r t h e e xpo sed a r ea , f o l low ing t h e r e t r ea t ing w a te r s a nd w ou ld h ave n av iga ted t h em a s f a r a s t h ey c ou ld .

I fw e t a ke i n to c on s ide ra t ion t h e i d ea s t h a t F oo te w a s e mp loy ing h e r e o ne c ou ld d e tec t i nt h em t h e f i r s t s i nce r e e f f o r t s t owa rd s t h e i d en t if ica t ion o f w ha t S ch if f e r ( 1987 ) h a s c a l led n a tu ra l a nd c u l tu ra l f o rma t ion p roce s se s o f t h e a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd . I t i s o bv iou s t h a t h i s t r a in ing a s ag eo log is t a lowed h im t or e a l ize t h e p o s s ib i l i t ie s o f n a tu ra l f o r ce s a c t ing o n t h e a r tef ac t s a nd s ed imen t s f i r s t ; a nd f r om t h ese t o p roceed t o e s tab l ish w ha t h e c on s ide r ed t h e p a laeoenv i ronmen t t o b e a nd h ow m an h ad a dap ted t o t h e se c ond i t ion s . T hu s i n t h e e a r ly s t age s o fF oo te ' s r e sea rch , a r tef ac t s w e r e v i ew ed a s s ed im en ta ry p a r t ic les ( Schack ley 1 974 ) . J udg ing h i s v i ew s w i th in t h e f r amewo rk o f r e a son ing d r awn u p b y S ch ick , w e f i nd a l t h e s t ages o f i n f e rence r ep r e sen ted i n h i s w o rk the i n i t ia l r e cogn i t ion o f mu l t ip le r e a son s t h a t i n vo lve c u l tu ra l a nd n on -cu l tu ra l a genc ie s , t h e s epa ra t ion o ft h e se d i sc r e te p roce s se s ,t h e r e gu la r

W i th a s h if t i n h i s t hough t p roce sse s i n l a te r y ea r s , h e m od if ied h i s h ypo the s is t o i n c lude C o romande l C oa s tr e f e r st ot h ee x t reme s ou thea s tc oa s to fI nd ia ,i nt h e s t a te o fT am i l N adu .

4

6

s ub jec t t o t r op ica l s e a sona l i ty , d i sea se s a nd p r eda to r s . A t t h e s ame t ime t h ey w e r e o f c ompa rab le i n te l l igence w i th E u ropean h om in id s a nd n o t m e re ly d om ina ted b y c l ima t ic a l te ra t ion s ( Foo t e 1 868 ) .

p roce ss -p rodu c t r e la t ion s , a nd i n f er r ing p roces se sf r om t h ep rodu c t s( Sch ick 1 986 ,p . 4 ) . I mpac t o n t he We s t : T he i mpac t w h ich F oo te ' s i d ea s h ad o n t h e w es ter n w o r ld i sn o ted i nt h e r e spon se t oh i s p ape r a tN o rw ich i n1 868 , w h ich r e ce ived r e cogn i t ion b y E van s , P r e s tw ich , N i ls son , L ubbock , L ane -Fox , F l ow e r a nd Wya t t . I n p a r t icu la r F lowe r o b served t h a t F oo te ' s h ypo thes is s upp lemen ted t h ei d ea s o fL ubbock i n d eny ing t h a t a l a r tef ac t s a nd v a l ley g r ave ls w e r e c a r r ied d own v a l ley s b y t h e a c t ion o f r i ve r s a s s t a ted b y P r es tw ich a nd E van s . T he d i scove ry o f h i gh leve l i mp lemen t if e rou s f o rma t ion s b yF oo te i nI nd ia , w h ich c ou ld n o th ave b een d epo s i ted b y r i ver s , i mp l ied t h a t d r i f t i mp lemen t s o fN o rf o lk t o o , c ou ld h ave b een d epos i ted b y s ome o t he r a gency ( Foo te 1 869 ,p .2 39 ) .

W i th F oo te ' s d ea th i n1 9 12 ,t h e K or ta l laya rb a s in l a p sed i n to o b scu r i ty , f o l low ing ag ene ra l s h if ti n a ten t ion f r om p r eh i s to ry t ot h e m o r e s pec tacu la r f i nd s i n t h e I ndu s v a l ley ( Paddayya 1 990 , 1 995b ) . T he S econd P ha se : E s tab l i shmen t ' Grand S equence '( 1930 's 1960 's )

o f t he

T h is p ha se c ha rac ter i sed b y t h e w o rk o f T .T . P a te r son , V .D . K r ishna swam i a nd K .V . S ounda ra R a jan , i so ne w he r e t h e f ounda t ion s o f m oder n I nd ian p r eh is tory w e r e l a id , a nd w he r e d i scove r ies m ade d u r ing t h e 1 9t h c en tu ry w e r e c r i t ica l ly r e -exam ined . T he a g e o ft h e ' Ama teu r ' a r cha eo log is ty i e lded t ot h a to ft h e ' P rof e s s iona l ' ; a nd w h i le much w a s g a ined i n t e rm s o f n ew i n f o rma t ion , t h e b r ead th o fv i s ion i ni n te rp re t ing d a ta s o c ha rac te r is t ic o ft h e w o rk o fF oo te , w a s o f ten s a c r if iced i n t h e s e a r ch f o r h a rd f a c t s . I t w a s d u r ing t h is p ha se t h a t t h e I n d ian L owe r P a laeo l i th ic w a s d i v ided i n to t h e t wo ' c u l tu ra l t r ad i t ion s ' o f t h e S oan ian a nd t h e Mad ra s ian , c ha ra c te r ised r e spec t ive ly b y a c hoppe r c hopp ing a nd b i f ace f a c ie s . C oncep t s r e la ted t o t h e ' Mad ra s ian i n du s t r ie s ' a nd c u l tu r e sequence s e s tab l ished i n t h e K o r ta l laya r r i ve r b a s in , d om ina ted I nd ian p r eh is to ry f o r m o re t h an a c en tu ry .

A r tef ac tC las s if ica t ion : F o l low ing i nt h e F rench t r ad i t ion ( Dan ie l 1 975 ) , F oo te b e l ieved t h a t a r tef ac t s s hou ld b e " . t r ea ted h i s to r ica l ly . ." a nd p l aced w i th in t h e f ou r p ha se s o f " . man ' s p rog r es s . ." o fw h ich t h e P a laeo l i th ic c oncer n s u s h e re ( Foo te 1 9 16 , p . 1) . S tone t o o l a na ly s is i n vo lved a c on s ide ra t ion o f t h e s ou rce s a nd p roper t ie s o fr aw m a te r ia ls , t h e i r t r an spor t o ve r t h e l a nd scape , t h e ir f r ac tu r e m echan ic s a nd t h e p rob lem o f ' e o l i th s ' ( Foo te 1 866 , p . 14 ) ; a pa r t f r om a s t udy o f a r tef ac t t ypo logy ( Foo te 1 9 16 , p . 8 -9 ) . T he c l a s s if ica t ion s y s tem d ev i sed b y F oo te a nd l a te r mod if ied ( Foo t e 1 866 , 1 9 16 ) w a s i n f luenced b y t h a t o f J ohn E van s ( Foo te 1 866 , p . 17 ) . A t f i r s t a r tef ac t s w e r e d i v ided i n to t h r ee c l a sses b a sed p r inc ipa l ly o n t h e i r s hape a nd c u t t ing e dge s ( Foo te 1 866 , p . 17 ) f o l low ing E van s . H ow eve r C la s ses l b ( wedge s haped w eapon s ) a nd I c ( d isco ida l w eapon s ) w e r e u n ique t ot h e Mad ra s r e g ion ( Foo te 1 866 , p . 17 ) . B yt h e e nd o fh i s c a r ee r , F oo te c ou ld d i s t ingu ish 1 0 c l a s se s o f t oo l s ( Foo te 1 9 16 , p . 9 ) , n ow c l a s s if ied o n t h e b a s is o f s hape a nd p o s s ib le p u rpose . T he i mpor tance o f t h is s y s tem , h oweve r , l i e s i n h i s i n nova t ive u se o f e t hnog raph ic d a ta t oh igh l igh t a r tef ac t f unc t ion s ; i n p ar t icu la r , i n h i s d i scu s s ion o n t h e u se o f w ooden t oo ls , a nd b amboo h af t s ( Foo te 1 9 16 , p . 12 -13 ) .

L .A .Camm iade a nd M .C . B u rk i t t ' s ( 1 930 ) c l a s s ic s t udy l i nk ing s equence s o f p l uv ia ls a nd i n te rp luv ia ls w i th e vo lv ing a r chaeo log ica l ' c u l tu r es ' a l ong t h e e a s t c oa s t o f I n d ia ; c l o se ly f o l lowed b y t h e s e a rch f o r h om in id s i n t h e S ubcon t inen t , c u lm ina t ing i n t h e Y a le C amb r idge e xped i t ion u nde r d e T er ra a nd P a te r son ( 1939 ) , s t imu la ted r e sea rch i n t h e K o r ta l laya r b a s in . I nf lu enced b y c oncep t s o f ' E vo lu t ion p rog re s s ive ' a s e xemp l if ied i n t h e w o rk o fB ru e i l a nd p opu la r ised b y d e T e r ra a nd P a te r son , ( Denne l l 1 990 , p . 553 ) t h e K o r ta l laya r b a s in w a s c ho sen a s a n i d ea l e xamp le o f a c oa s ta l r i ve r s y s tem w he r e p r eva len t i d ea s o n s t ra t ig raphy , c h rono logy , c l ima te a nd i n du s t r ie s c ou ld b e t e s ted a nd f o rm a no the r l i nk i n t h e a t temp t t ob u i ld u p a' G rand S equ ence ' ( Denne l l 1 990 ) . T h is w a s a pp roached f r om a n e s sen t ia l ly g eo log ica l f r amewo rk b y t h e b u i ld ing u p o f t e r race s equ ence s h av ing at empo ra l s i gn if icance w h ich c ou ld b e c or r e la ted w i th r eg iona l s e quences a nd P l e is tocene p luv ia ls a nd

Man -Land R e la t ionsh ips : F oo te ' s s t ud ie s o n g eomo rpho logy a r e i n t ima te ly c onnec ted w i th c oncep t s o ft h e e nv ironmen t . I ti sh e re t h a t h i s f i e ld e xper iences " .expo sed t or i sk s f r om v i o len t s t o rm s a nd f r om w i ld b ea s t s i nj ung ly r e g ion s . ." ( Foo te 1 881 ,p .326 ) c ompounded b y t h e i nf luence o fD a rw in a nd H ux ley c ome si n to p l ay . I np ar t icu la r' p a laeo l i th ian s ' w e r et h ough tt oh ave b een s t rugg l ing i n t h e " .schoo l o f n eces s i ty . ."

7

i n terp luv ia ls ( Denne l l & R ende l l 1 99 1 , p p .9 19 2 ) a nd w i th in w h ich d i f f e r en t i ndu s tr ia l t r ad i t ion s c ou ld b e f i t ted . I n p a r t icu la r , v i ewed w i th in t h e c on tex t o f t h e g row ing n a t iona l is t m ovemen t i n t h e S ubcon t inen t , V .D . K r ishna swam i ' s w o rk r e f lec ted a d es i re t o e s tab l ish t h e c u l tu ra l h e r i tage o fI nd ia o n af i rm b a s is , t o p l ace i ti n t h e p e r spec t ive o f c hange s o ccu r r ing a l o ve r t h e w o r ld , t o e s tab l ish t h e g r ea t a n t iqu i ty o f m an i n I nd ia , a nd t o d r aw t o ge the rt h e S oan a nd t h e A cheu l ian i n to ap an I n d ian s equence ( 1938a , 1 938b , 1 940 , 1 947 , 1 953 ) . T he m a jo ri s su es c ha rac ter is ing t h is p ha se o fr e sea r ch a r e d i scu s sed b e low a nd h i gh l igh ted i nT ab le l a .

t h e i r u se a s m a rke r s f o r i n terp r e t ing c l ima t ic c hange s . D is t inc t ion s b e tween ' d e tr i ta l ' , ' s econda ry ' o r ' r ewo rked ' l a ter i tes , w e r e u nc lea r ; t h ec oncep t sw e re u ndef ined a nd l o o se ly u sed . T errace s : T he i d en t if ica t ion o f t h e f ou r K o r ta l laya r t e r races TD t o T 3 a t e l eva t ion s o f 1 00(30 m ) , 6 0 '( 18 m ) , 2 0 ' (6 m ) a nd 8 ' (2 m ) w a s al o g ica l e x ten s ion o f t h e f ou r -f o ld t e r race s o f t h e S oan . T e r ra ce s w e r e e i the r a gg rada t iona l o r e r o s iona l a nd w e re a s soc ia ted w i th a d ef in i te s t ra t ig raph ic s equence , c l ima t ic p ha se a nd w i th ' e vo lv ing c u l tu r e s equence ' r ang ing f r om t h e ' Abbev i l l io -Acheu l ian 't ot h e ' Uppe r P a laeo l i th ic ' ( d e T e rra & P a te r son 1 939 ; K r ishna swam i 1 938a ) . K r i shna swam i ( 1938a ) b e l ieved t h a t t h e t e r race sw e r ee v idence s uppor t ing s t rong p luv ia ls r e inf o r ced b y s e a l e ve l c hanges . T he f o l low ing t e r race sw e r ei d en t if ied .

I den t if ica t ion o f aB ou lder -Cong lomera te : T he i d en t if ica t ion o f aB ou lde r -Cong lome ra te l a y a t t h e r oo t o f t h e ir s t ra t ig raph ic s equence . A B ou lde r -Cong lome ra te h o r izon o ve r ly ing t h e b ed rock , w a s i d en t if ied a tV adamadu ra i ; b ea r ing t o o ls w h ich w e r e c or r e la ted w i th P a te r son 's ' p r e S oan ' p ha se c on s is t ing o fc oa r se f l akes o rf l aked p ebb le s i nt h e u pper l a ye r s o ft h e f a n a nd p ebb le g r ave ls i nt h e S oan . T he w h i te ' g r i t a tt h e s i te so f E ruma ive t t ipa layam a nd Man janka rana i o ccu r r ing b e low t h e l a te r i te w a s a l so c or r e la ted w i th t h e B ou lde r -Cong lome ra te a tV adamadu ra i . I tw a st h ough tt ob e o lde rt h an t h e d own -cu t t ing o ft h e K o r ta l laya r a nd t hu s i d en t ica l i na ge a nd m ode o f d epo s i t ion t o i t s c oun terpa r t s i n t h e S oan a nd N a rmada ( K r ishna swam i 1 938a , 1 940 ; d e T er ra & P a te r son 1 939 ) . P ebb le t o o ls o ccu r r ing h e r e w e re t h ough t b y K r ishna swam i ( 1938a ) a nd S ounda ra R a jan ( 1966 ) t ob e e a r l ie r t h an t h o se i nt h e S oan , t ob e a u toch thonou s a nd t of o rm p a r to ft h eA cheu l ian t r ad i t ion .

TD :100 ' : T h is l a ter i t ic p l a in , a d epo s i t iona l s u rf ace , w a s v i s ib le o n b o th s i de s o f t h e K o r ta l laya r e x tend ing f o r a S t ra t igraphy o fV adamadura i ( a f ter K r i shna swam i 1 938a ,p . 63 ) A l luv ium Wea the r ed a nd r ewa shed l a y e ro f l a te r i te ( M idd le t oL a te A cheu l ) Ma in d e t r i ta l l a te r i te ( Low e rt o M idd le A cheu l ) Wh i te B ou lde r -Cong lome ra te ( Abbev i l l ian ) d i s tan ce o f1 2 t / o 2m i le s ( 0 .8 -3 .2 k m ) a nd n o ted a tP oond i a nd K un ja ram , a sw e l l a s a t S i ten jer i a nd S i ta ramapu ram . I t c omp r i sed d e tached h i l lock s w he r e t h e B ou lde r -Cong lome ra te r e s ted o n t h e S r iperumbudu r s ha les . T he k ey s i te w a s c ons ide red t o b e V adamadu ra i . T he s t ra t ig raphy a t V adamadu ra i a nd e l sewhe r e , w a s p roof o f at r emendou s p luv ia l w h ich c au sed t h e s p read o f t h e w h i te c ong lome ra te a nd s ubsequ en t ly t h e f o rma t ion o f l a te r i te ( K r ishna swam i 1 938a , p . 67 ) . A l l t h r ee s t ra ta , i . e . t h e w h i te c ong lome ra te , t h e l a ter i te a nd t h e l a te r i t ic s and c on ta ined L ow e r P a laeo l i th ic t oo ls ( Abbev i l l io -Acheu l ian ) .

L a tente s : T he n ex t s t ep w a st h e c l a s s if ica t ion o f l a te r i te s i n to p r ima ry p r e -P le is tocene c ompac t l a te r i t e s a nd s e conda ry P l e is tocene l a ten tes . T he l a te r i t e s w e r e f o r P a te r son w ha t t h e l o e s s ic s i l t s w e r e t o d e T e r ra . T hu s a s t h e s i l t s i nt h e S oan w e re d i s sec ted t o f o rm t e r race s ( Rende l l e t a l . 1 989 ,p . 12 ) , s o t o o w e r e t h e l a ter i te s b e l ieved t o h ave b een c u t t h rough t o f o rm f ou r t e r race s ( d e T e r ra & P a te r son 1 939 ) . A l l t h e l a te r i tes w e r e c on s ide r ed t ob e d e t r i ta l a nd d e r ived b y s uba r ie l e r o s ion o f h i ghe r l e ve l o l de r l a te r i te s . T he i mpor tance o ft h e i mp lemen t if e rou s l a ter i tes l a y i n t h e m anne r i n w h ich t h ey c ou ld b e p l aced w i th in t h e b roade r f r amewo rk o ft e r races a nd i n

8

v i l lag e s t r eam

T I : 6 0 ' :Th is w a sn o ted o n ly a tt h e s i te so f E ruma ive t t ipa layam a nd A t tan t tanga l o n t h e b ank s o f ac hanne l c onnec t ing t h e C ho lave ram t a nk w i th t h e R ed H i l ls t a nk . I ti sd escr ibed a s ad eg rada t iona l t e r ra ce ma rk ing ap er iod o fe r o s ion o ft h e d e t r i ta l l a te r i t ic b ed o f TD . T he m an t le w a s at h in c ov e r o f s andy l o am u nde r w h ich n o g rave l w a s f ound . I tf o rm ed j u s t b e low TD a nd e x tended g r adua l ly s l op ing e a s t f r om P er ipa layam t oE ruma ive t t ipa la iyam w i th r o l led E a r ly a nd M idd le S tone A ge t oo l so nt h es u r f ace ( K r i shna swam i 1 947 ) . H e b e l ieved t h a t t o o ls o n t h e s u rf ace o f t h e l o am w e r e n o t i n s i tu o w ing t o t h e a b sence o fu nde r ly ing g r ave lb ed s .

a nd t h e p o in t e m e rge s t o

w he r e m ee t

t h e t h e

K or ta l laya r . T e r race f o rma t ion w a s f u r the r l i nk ed t oe u s ta t ic s e al e ve l c hange s a nd p ha se s i nt h e m ig ra t ion o f t h e K o r ta l laya r /O ld P a la r . Wh i le t h e f i r s t o b serva t ion s o n c hange s i n t h e c ou r se o f t h e T ab le l a : S equence o fC orre spond ing C l ima t ic a nd C u l tura lC hange so fT he S tone A ge P ropo sed b yK r i shna swam i 1 938a ,p .59 ) C l ima te

D epo s i t s

I ndu s t r ie s o fp e r iod 3 a nd 4

D ry p ha se s f o l lowed b y d enuda t ion l e ad ing u p t o t h e p r e sen t c ond i t ion s ( V I -V I I )

T 2 :20 ' : T h is i s d e sc r ibed a s a n a gg rada t iona l t e r ra ce w i th t h icke r g rave ls a nd c ove r ed b y s i l t s a nd s and s w e l l d eve loped 2 0 ' ( 6 m ) a bove t h e f l ood p l a in a nd a r ound t h e v i l lage o f A t t i rampakkam , N ambakkam , 8 m i le s ( 12 .8 km ) S tra t igraphy o fA t t irampakkam ( af t er K r i shna swam i 1 938a ,p .68 ) . S andy l o am P e l le ty l a ter i te Wh i te s andy c l ay w i th k unka ri n s t r ing s H a rd l a ter i t ic c ong lom e ra te ( imp lemen t sL ow e rt oM id A cheu l a nd L a te A cheu l ) S r ipe rumbudu rs ha le

n or thwes t o fT i ruva l lu r , o n t h e r i gh t b ank o ft h e A l l iku l l i g u l ly o ppo s i te K r i shnapu ram a nd a r ound P oond i a nd E ruma ive t t ipa layam . T he i n te rva l b e tw een T 1 a nd T 2 i s i n te rp r e ted a s ap er iod o f e r o s ion a nd a r id i ty f o l low ed b yd epo s i t ion o f c oa r se g rave l o n T 2 p o in t ing t o a d ef in i te r e sump t ion o f i n c r ea sed p luv ia l c ond i t ion s . T 3 :8 ' : T h is w a s a s ma l l a luv ia l t e r race 8 ' ( 2 m ) a bove t h e K or ta l laya r , a t t h e s i te o f E ruma ive t t ipa layam a nd w a s t h e r e su l t o f f u r the r e r o s ion a nd d epo s i t ion . L a te r A . S wam i ( 1976 ) i d en t if ied i t a l ong t h e A l l iku l l i c hanne l b e tw een N ambakkam

9

I ndus tr ie s

H um id P luv ia l P ha se n o t s o s t rong a s Ia nd I ( IV )

N o l a ter i te , a luv ium o f r i ve rd epo s i t s

F l ake i n du s t r ie s o fp er iod 2 o ccu r

A s e conda ry d ry p e r iod ( IV )

S e t t lemen t o n n ew ly f o rm ed g r ave ls a nd c l ay s

H andaxe s s u rv ive b u t f l ake i n du s t r ie s o fp er iod 2 c om ei n

A p e r iod o f v i o len t r a inf a l l ( II )

F l a t s h ee t s o f r i ve r g r ave ls f o rm ed

H andaxe s o f s e r ie s I c om e t o a n e nd .

D ry ( I )

p er iod

F o r e s t s o f t h e l a ter i te g ave r i se t o o pen p l a in s

H andaxes o f p er iod I n o ted o n t h e se p l a in s

A l o ng d amp p e r iod I

G ave r i se t o l a ter i te o n t h e e a s t c oa s t o f P en in su la r I nd ia b e tw een t h e r i ve r s K is tna ( K r ishna ) a nd G odava r i

N o h uman r e l ic s

P a la r a nd K or ta l laya r w e re m ade b y F oo te ( 1873a ) , S ounda ra R a jan ( 1966 ) e xpanded o n t h is t h eme . N o f u r the r a t ten t ion w a s p a id t ot h e q ue s t ion o f p a laeochanne ls t i l l r e cen t ly w hen s a te l l i te i mage s t ud ies c onf i rmed F oo te ' s o b se rva t ions ( Rama samy e ta l . 1 992 ) .

I ti si n te re s t ing t o n o te t h a t a t at im e w hen t h e p re sence o ft h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic w a s s t i l l i n d oub ti nI nd ia , K r ishna swam i ( 1938a )t e n ta t ive ly m en t ion s i t s e x i s tence . T he a s soc ia t ion o f e ach i ndu s t ry w i th ap a r t icu la r t e r race , i n va r iab ly l e d t o t h e p rob lem o f t h e e x is tence o f ' m ixed i n du s tr ie s ' w i th t oo ls o f s uppo sed ly d i f f e r ing t r ad i t ion s c oex is t ing t oge the r . I n s u ch c a ses , ' o lde r ' a r tef a c t s w e re t hough t t o b e d er ived o r r ewo rked .

T hu s ,t h e h i ghes tt e r race TD c on ta ined t h e o l de s t o r A bbev i l l ian i mp lemen t s a s w e l l a s mo re d eve loped A bbev i l l io -Acheu l ian t ype s , t h e 2 0 ' t e r race c on ta ined a l o l de rf o rm si ni t ' s g rave ls a s d er ived s pec imen s f r om h i ghe r t e r race s a nd a l so L a te A cheu l ian t o o ls a nd f l ake t oo ls . T he 6 0 ' t e r race w a s t oo i s o la ted b u t A cheu l ian t y pe s f ound i nt h e s andy l o am m e rge w i th t h e y oung e s t t e r race . T he 8 ' t e r race h ad p o s s ib le U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic t oo ls .

A na na ly s is o ft h e l a te r i t ic a nd n on la te r i t ic t oo ls f r om TD a nd T 2 , s how ed a g radua l c hange c ove r ing 4s t ages . S tage 1 :O va t es a r ev e ry c oa r se . S tage 2 : H andaxe s a r e b e t ter i n f o rm a nd w o rkman sh ip a nd a r e mo s t ly s qua re ended , f ew c l eave r s , f r ee p r ima ry f l ak ing , i n c r ea sed c on t ro l led f l ak ing , a nd a b sence o f s e conda ry r e tou ch .

T he A rchaeo log ica l R ecord : A r tef ac t s w e r e n o ted i nt h e B ou lde r C ong lome ra te a nd d e tr i ta l l a tente s ( Tab le l b ) . F o l low ing i nt h e t r ad i t ion o f F r ench P a laeo l i th ic a r chaeo logy , t o o l c l a s s if ica t ion w a s d om ina ted b y t h e c oncep t o f t h e a r tef ac t a s a' t ype f o s s i l '( Sacke t t 1 98 1 ,p . 87 ) , w i th t h e p rog r es s ive e vo lu t ion o ff o rm s t h rough t im e . P a te r son ' s c l a s s if ica t ion o f t oo ls f o l low ed t h e p a t te rn a dop ted f o r B a rnham S t . G r ego ry i n E ng land a nd f o r t h e S oan c omp lex ( d e T er ra & P a te r son 1 939 ; D enne l l & H u rcombe 1 992 ) . T hu s t h e d iv is ion o f a r tef ac t s i n to t h ree s e r ie s b a sed o n d eg r ee s o f p a t ina t ion , r o l l ing a nd r ef inemen t i n t e chno logy i n t h e K or ta l laya r b a s in , i s ac l ea r c on t inua t ion o fh i s s e r ies A , B a nd C , i nt h e S oan . Wh i le h e n o ted t h e e x is tence o f c o r e s a nd f l ake s i n a dd i t ion t o t h e h andaxe s a nd c l eave r s , i ti ss u rpr is ing t h a t t h e r e la t ion sh ip o fp ebb le a nd f l ake e l emen t s w i th b i f ace s i nt h is r e g ion a nd i t s r e la t ion sh ip w i th S oan i n du s t r ie s a r e n o t e xp lo r ed f u r the r a s w a s d one b y K r ishna swam i .

S tage 3 : H andaxe f o rm i s mo re v a r ied , f i ne r f l ak ing , s e conda ry w o rk o n e dges , f l a t te r f o rm s , o va te f o rm si n c r ea se ,v a r iou sc l eave rf o rm s . S tage 4 :O va t e sf l a t te r , h andaxes a nd c l eave r s o n f l ak es , f o rm sv a r ied a nd m o r e e vo lved . K r i shna swam i b e l ieved t h a t n ew m e thod s w e re t ob eu sed f o rs t udy ing t oo ls . T hu s h e r e cogn ised t h e w ide v a r ie ty o f h andaxe t ype s , a nd a l so s t ud ied c o r e s , n o t m e re ly a sr e jec t s , b u t a st oo ls , w h ich i n s om e c a se s g r aded i n to h andaxe s a nd c hoppe r s . H e i d en t if ied p o ss ib le c on tac t s b e tween t h is r e g ion a nd t h e L owe r P a la eo l i th ic o f A f r ica . H e n o ted t h a t t h e h andaxe a nd f l ake i n du s t r ie s o f S ou th I nd ia e xh ib i ted t h e V ic tor ia We s t , S t e l lenbo sch a nd F au re sm i th t e chn ique s a nd c or r e la ted t h e A t t irampakkam i n du s t ry w i th t h a t o f t h e N an juk ian a nd F au re sm i th c u l tu r es s how ing c on ta c t o f c o re a nd f l ake t r ad i t ion s . S im i la r ly , U ppe r S t e l lenbo sch t ypes , e . g . c o r es o ft h e V ic tor ia We s tt ype a nd t hose m ade b y t h e V aa l t e chn iqu e o ccu r r ed i n Mad ra s , t h e D eccan a nd B ombay r e g ion s a nd w e re a s soc ia ted w i th L a te A cheu l t y pe s . H e a l so s pecu la ted o n t h e e x ten t o ft h e i n f luence o ft h e S oan i nt h e s ou th . H e r e cogn ized t h e f l ake i n du s t ry a s b e ing a n e s sen t ia l p a r t o f t h e h andaxe s c o l lec ted a nd w onde r ed w he the r t h is f l ake i n du s t ry w a s i n d igenou s o r r e p re sen ted S oan ian i nf luence i n t h e s ou th . H e c onc luded t h a t t h e p ebb le t oo ls a ppea r e a r l ie r i n t h e s ou th t h an i n t h e P un jab , t h a t t h ey w e r e a s soc ia ted w i th b i f ace s a nd b e longed t o at r ad i t ion d i f f er ing f r om t h a t o ft h e S oan ,w h ich e xh ib i ted C lac ton ian i n f lu ence .

K r ishna swam i ' s c l a s s if ica t ion w a s ac on t inua t ion o f P a te r son ' s t r ad i t ion . H e b egan w i th t h e c l a s s if ica t ion o f a r tef ac t s i n to i n du s t r ie s o n t h e b a s is o f " . p hy s ique , p a t ina t ion a nd t y po logy" ( K r ishna swam i 1 938a , p . 7 1) . E ach i n du s t ry w a s a s soc ia ted w i th a p a r t icu la r s t ra tum i n t h e s e quence o ft e r race s ( Tab le 1b ) . Two p roce s se s o f t h ough t c an b e t r aced h e r e v i z , t h e i d en t if ica t ion o f a n i n du s t ry w i th a t e r race e . g . " . the l a te r i t ic a nd n on la ter i t ic i n du s t r ie s T O a nd T 2 "( K r ishna swam i 1 938a , p . 74 ) a nd t h e u se o ft h et e rm i ndu s t ry o nt h eb a s is o ft ypo logy e . g . A cheu l i n du s t ry . ' Type s i te s ' , n ame ly , V adamadu ra i , f o r TD ; A t t irampakkam f o r T 2 a nd E ruma ive t t ipa layam f o r T 3 w e re i d en t if ied . F ive i n du s t r ie s w e re s o i d en t if ied , t h e p r inc ip le c ha rac te r is t ics o fw h ich a r e l i s ted i nT ab le l b .

1 0

T ab le l b : P r inc ipa lC harac ter i s t ic so fI ndus tr ie sa sp er K r i shnaswam i( 1938a )

I ndus tr ie s

S t ra t igraph i cP o s i t ion

C or t ica lP a t ina t ion

C har a c te r i s t ic s

I

F rom t h e Wh i te B ou lde r -Cong lom e ra te , p re la te r i t ic .

D iv ided i n to 3s t ag e s b a sed o np a t ina t ion : 1 . D eep w h i te c or tex 2 . D eep c ru s t 3 . S l igh tc ru s t D iv ided i n to 4s t ag e s o n b a s is o f l a te r i t ic p a t ina t ion 1 . H igh 2 . P ronounced 3 . L igh t 4 . N i l

T oo ls a r e h ug e a nd o n l a rge r o l led p ebb le s , m o s t ly c oup -de -po ing w i th t h ick b lun t p ebb le b u t t s a nd v e ry s i nuou s e dge s , f ew r o s t roca r ina te s . B y s t age 3 A cheu l ian e l emen t s

T ype s i te : V adamadu ra i

I

O r ig ina te s f r om l a ter i te . T ype s i te s : V adamadu ra i , K oopedu , T homba rambedu .

a ppea r a s c l eave r s .

s e en

b y

c on t ro l led

f l ak ing ,

n o

V e ry f r e sh t oo ls , A cheu l ian , a dvanced f l ak ing b u t s t i l l o fc oa r se w o rkman sh ip , e dg e s a r e mo r e s t ra igh t , v a r ied f o rm s . T oo ls i n c lude c oup -de p o ing s , c o ro id s , c l eave r s . C leave r s p r edom ina te o n ly i n l a te s t age s o f 3a nd 4 . V e ry f ew s i de s c rape r s .

I I

F rom r ewa shed l a ter i te o f TD , d u et ot h e s uba r ie l d enuda t ion o f t h el a ter i te .

M ixed c ha ra c te r . C o r re spond s t o t h e n on l a t er i t ised i n du s t r ies o f T 2 . M idd le t o L a te A cheu l .

I V

F rom t h ea luv ium o f t h e6 0 't e r race .

C o r re spond t o t h e n on la te r i t ised i n du s t r ies o f T 2 . M idd le t oL a te A cheu l . _

F rom t h e2 0 't e r race .

D er ived s e r ie s : b o th r o l led A bbev i l l ian c oup d e -po ing s a nd t h e l a ter i t i sed t o o ls a r e e a r ly A cheu l

V

T ype s i te : A t t irampakkam

C on temporary s e r ie s : f r e sh f r om t h e l a ter i t ic c ong lome ra te u pwa rd s o f 1 2 a nd f r e sh o f l a te r i t ic p a t ina t ion . T he c oup -de p o ing s a nd c l eave r s p r edom ina te a nd c ompa r e w e l l w i th L a te A cheu l f o rm s f r om E u rope a nd A f r ica . V ic tor ia We s t h andaxe s a l so s e en a s a l so t h o se m ade o n t h e d oub le V aa l p r inc ip le . S ome h andaxe s s imu la te M icoqu e t y pes o ft h e S omme v a l ley . T owa rd s t h e e nd o f1 2 , L eva l lo is f l akes a ppea r .

T he T h ird P hase : E xcava t ion s

T hese i ndu s t r ies w e re t e rmed a sb e long ing t ot h e ' Mad ra sH andaxe T rad i t ion ' .

F rom 1 957 t o 1 979 ,e xcava t ion sw e re c onduc ted b y K .D . B ane r jee o ft h e A r cha eo log ica l S u rvey o f I n d ia ( I .A .R . 1 962 -63 , 1 963 -64 , 1 964 -65 , 1 966 -67 ) , a t G ud iyam , A t t irampakkam , V adamadu ra i , P oond i a nd N eyve l l i w ho se i mpo r tance i su nf o r tuna te ly m a r red b y t h e l a ck o fp ub l ished r e por t s . T he se e xcava t ion s l e d t oa c on t rad ic t ion o f t h e w o rk o f p r ev iou s s cho la r s . B ane r jee d en ied t h e e x is tence o ff l uv ia l t e r ra ce s a nd p u t f o rwa rd ah ypo the s i s o fm a r ine t e r ra ce s a te l eva t ion s o f 7 3 m , 4 5 m , 3 0 m , a nd 1 7 m AMSL ( Ag rawa l 1 982 , p . 53 ) . H e q u e s t ioned t h e e x i s tence o f a p r e la t er i t ic i n du s t ry , a nd

K r ishna swam i i d en t if ied t wo m a in p rob lem s t o b e t a ck led i n t h is r eg ion . T he f i r s t w a s t h e o r ig ins o ft h e ' Abbev i l l ian ' a ss e en a tt h eb a se o f t h e B ou lde r -Cong lom e ra te a tV adamadu ra i . T he s e cond w a s t h e a ge a nd n a tu r e o ft h e d i f f e r en t t y pe so fl a ter i te sn o ted i nt h er eg ion . I np a r t icu la r h eb e l ieved t h a tw h i le t h em a in l a te r i te f o rma t ion c o inc ided w i th h uman o ccupa t ion ,e v id ence f r om V adamadu ra i p roved t h e e x is tence o f ' man ' i n ' p re la te r i t ic t ime s ' .

1

T ab le l c : S tra t igraph ic a nd C u l tura l S equence s D e scr ibed b y P rev iou sS cho lar s

A t t irampakkam

R .B . F oo te ( 1866 -1912 )

V .D .Kr i shnaswam i ( 1938a )

K .D . B aner jee ( 1 961-67 )

L l 0 0 C D

3 0 O

S andy l o am P e l le ty l o am Wh i te s andy -c lay w i th k unka r

0

0

Hard l a ter i t ic

U

3

c ong lome ra te ( Lowe r t oM idd le A cheu l a nd L a te A cheu l ) S r ipe rumbudu rs ha le

3

0 L i

V adamadura i

V ege tab le S o i l L oamy S and L a ter i t ic G rave l C layey -sand w i th k unku ra nd af ew p ebb le so fk unku ra nd l a ter i te ( kunku r—ca lc r e te n odu les ) L a te r i t ic c ong lome ra te w i th i mp lemen t s P l an ts ha les w i th k unku r i nf i l t ra t ion s ( Gu l ly s e c t ion s ou th o f p agoda ) N o ti n ve s t iga ted

0

0

0

3

1 .

2 .

L a ten tes o fm a r ine o r ig in w i th h i l l s s t and ing o u ta s i s land si n al a ter i t ic s e a P luv ia l f o rces l e ad ing t o d epo s i t ion o f g rave ls b ys hee t f l ood s

U 0

0

G enera l

U

A l luv ium Wea the r ed a nd R ewa shed L aye ro f L a ter i te ( M idd le t o L a te A cheu l ) Ma in D e t r i ta l L a ter i te ( Lowe rt oM idd le A cheu l ) Wh i te B ou lde r C ong lome ra te ( Abbev i l l ian )

TD -100 'T er race ( Abbev i l l io -Acheu l ian ) T 1-60 ' T e r race ( Acheu l ian ) T 2 -20 ' T er race ( La te A cheu l ian M icoqu ian ) T 3 -8 ' T e r ra ce ( Uppe r P a laeo l i th ic ) I ndus try I :B ou lde r C ong lome ra te o ft h e L a ter i t ic P l a teau I ndus try I : L a ter i te I ndus try I I : R ewa shed L a ter i te I ndu s t ry I V : A l luv ium o f t h e6 0 t e r race I ndu s t ry V : 2 0 'T e r ra ce

1 2

T op s o i l ( m ic ro l i th s ) C ompac tb rown ish s o i l w i th l a ter i t ic p e l le t s( s te r i le ) R edepo s i ted d e t r i ta l l a ter i te ( po s t A cheu l ian ) R edepo s i ted S ha ly c l ay ( s ter i le ) D e tr i ta l l a ter i t e ( po s t -Acheu l ian ) S ha le

0

L a ter i t ic C lay ( Acheu l ian ) U L a ter i t ic G rav e l c on ta in ing d e t r i ta l l a ter i te a nd Q ua r tz i te b ou lde r s( Acheu l ian ) U B ou lde r sa nd G rave ls i n am a tr ix o fs and a nd c l ay c ompo sed o f b ou lde r sa nd g r ave ls o fS a tyav edu s and s tone ( f ew v e ry r o l led A cheu l ian t oo ls ) 0 S r iperumbudu rs ha le P enep la in s : 7 3 m ,4 5 m , 3 0m : E a r ly P a laeo l i th ic 1 7m : M idd le P a la eo l i th ic

s y s tem s w e r eu sed w i th e mpha s i so nt h e s t udy o f i d ea lt y pe s .

h ypo thes ised t h a t t o o ls o n t h e s u rf ace o f t h e s h a le c ou ld h ave b een d er ived f r om t h eo ve r ly ing h o r izon s a t A t t ir ampakkam ( I .A .R . 1 964 -65 , p p .20 -22 ) , a nd b e l ieved t h a t t h e l a ten tes , a tt h is s i t e , w e r e t h e h o r izon f o r ap o s t -Acheu l ian f l ake i n du s t ry . H e b e l ieved t h a tt h e e a r ly A cheu l ian i n t h e B ou lde r -Cong lome ra t e a tV adamadu ra i , w a s p o s s ib ly r ewo rked f r om e l sewhe r e ( I .A .R . 1 966 6 7 , p p .20 -21) . B ane r jee n o ted t h e d eve lopmen t f r om p o s t -Acheu l ian t o m ic ro l i th ic i n du s t r ies a t G ud iyam a nd f u r the rp u t f o rwa rd t h e h ypo the ses o f t h is b e ing a s e a sona l ly o ccup ied s i te . B ane r jee 's u se o ft h e t e rm s ' p o s t -Acheu l ian ' a nd M idd le S tone A ge w i thou t c l ea r ly d i f f e r en t ia t ing b e tween t h em c omp l ica te h i s s t r a t ig raph ic s e quence . I nt h e a b sence o fp ub l ished r e po r t s , n o f u r the r p u rpo se i s a ch iev ed b y d i scu ss ing t h i s p ha se o f w o rk . T ab le l c , i lu s t ra te s t h e c on t rad ic t ion si n he r en ti nt h ew o rk o ft h ese e a r ly s c ho la r s .

A l though a n a t temp t h a s b een m ade t o p rov ide s ome d a ta o n t h e c ha rac ter is t ic s o fe ach t ype , i n g ene ra l , af ew t y p ica l a r tef ac t s o fe ach t ype a r e d e sc r ibed , a s w a s t h e c ommon p rac t ice a t t h a t t ime . S tud ie s w e r e a l so c a r r ied o u tb y G up ta a nd D u t ta ( 196 1) a t Am r idhamanga lam . Mo r e t h an a c en tu ry o f r e sea r ch i nt h is r eg ion w a s t hu s d om ina ted b y a f ew i n d iv idua ls , w o rk ing w i th in e x is ten t p a r ad igm s i n t h e d i sc ip l ine . F oo te ' s o b se rva t ion s o n t h e r o le o f s h ee t f l ood s i n l a nd scape f o rma t ion ; s i te c on tex t s , s i t e f o rma t ion p roce s se s a nd m an land r e la t ion sh ip s w e r e v i r tua l ly i g no r ed b y l a te r s cho la r s . T he w o rk o f P a te r son a nd K r ishna swam i w a s q uo ted e x ten s ive ly i n a r chaeo log ica l l i t e ra tu r e , a nd l e d t o t h e s ub sequen t i d en t if ica t ion o f c o r r e spond ing t e r race s a nd c u l tu r e s equence s i n o t he r I nd ian r i ve r b a s in s . E xcava ted m a ter ia l r ema ined u npub l ished , a nd t hu s i n f luenced l a te r I nd ian p r eh is to r ic r e sea r ch t o al im i ted e x ten t .

T he f i r s t s y s tema t ic a r tef ac t a na ly s is c onduc ted f o r t h e s i tes o fV adamadu ra i a nd G ud iyam w a s b yV idu la J aya swa l( 1978 ) .J aya swa lp u tf o rwa rd aw e l l -def ined c l a s s if ica t ion s y s tem f o r s t one t o o l s . H e r a na ly s i s o f a r tef ac t s f r om V adamadu ra i , s uppor t t h e e x i s tence o f ap re l a te r i t ic E a r ly A cheu l ian p ha se , w i th a s ub sequen t A cheu l ian i n du s t ry i nt h e o ve r ly ing l a ter i te . S he i d en t if ied a nA cheu l ian a nd p o s s ib ly Mou s ter ian p ha se a tA t t i r ampakkam . I nt h e c a se o f G ud iyam s he n o ted t h a t B ane r jee c ou ld n o t c l ea r ly a s s ign t oo ls t oa ny p a r t icu la rs t ra t ig raph ic h o r izon .

T ak ing i n to c on s ide ra t ion t h e se d i sc r epanc ie s , i t w a s f ound n eces sa ry t o r e -exam ine t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd i nt h is r e g ion , i nt h e l i gh t o f n ew t h eo r e t ica l a nd m e thodo log ica l d eve lopmen t si nt h e d i sc ip l in e . 1 . 3 : CONCEPTUAL FRA ME WORK I n t h e p rev iou s s e c t ion , r e f e r ence w a s m ade t o c hang ing p a rad igm s i na r chaeo logy o ve r t h e l a s t c en tu ry w h ich i n f luen ced r e sea r ch i n t h e K or ta l laya r b a s in . T h is s e c t ion o u t l ine s t h e c oncep tua l b a s is f o r t h is w o rk a nd s i tua tes i t w i th in t h e c on tex t o ft h e c u r r en t s t a te o f I nd ian P a laeo l i th ic a r chaeo logy .

F u r the r w o rk w a s c onduc ted b y S wam i ( Swam i 1 976 ) who s yn thes ised t h e w o rk o f p r ev iou s s c ho la r s a nd d i scove red n ew s i te s . Swam i d i v ided t h e a s semb lage i n to t h e E a r ly , M idd le a nd L a te S tone A ge . T he E a r ly S tone A ge w a s f u r the r d i v ided i n to t h ree s t age s o f t h e A bbev i l l ian , t h e E a r ly A cheu l ian a nd t h e M idd le t oL a te A cheu l ian . T he se w e r e d i f f e r en t ia ted o n t h e b a s is o f t e chno logy u t i l ized . T he se w e r e d i f f e r en t ia ted o n t h e b a s is o f t h e t e chno logy u t i l ized . S t age Iw a s c ha r ac ter i sed b y t h e b lock o n -b lock t e chn ique , w i th t o o ls h av ing d eep i regu la r f l ake s c a r s , a n a symme t r ica l b ody , c r ude a nd s i nuou s w o rk ing e dge s a nd i r r egu la r p rof i le , o fl a rge s i ze a nd o nr o l led p ebb le s . S t age I w a s r ep r e sen ted b y t h e A cheu l ian c y l inde r h amme r t e chn ique a nd w a s s im i la r t oP a te r son 's S t age I . S t age I I w a s r e p r e sen ted b y t oo ls s uch a sp o in t s , b o re r sa nd b u r ina te l i ke t oo l s , s c rape r s , e t c . w h ich w e r e p ro to type so fM idd le S tone A ge t o o l s . P a te r son ' s a nd S anka l ia 's c l a s s if ica t ion

1 . 3 .1 :Recen tT rend si nI nd ian P a laeo l i th ic A rchaeo logy F o l low ing d eve lopmen t s a r is ing o u t o ft h e ' New A r chaeo logy ' i n t h e Wes t , I nd ian p reh is tory w i tnes sed as h if ti nr e sea rch a im s . I nt h e c a se o f P a laeo l i th ic s t ud ie s , t h is i n vo lved a n e mpha s is o n u nde r s tand ing m an land r e la t ion sh ip s , t h e a dop t ion o f ar e g iona l s c a le o fa na ly s is , i n c lu s ion o fg eo , b io - a nd m a thema t ica l s c ience s a nd t h e u se o f m idd le r ange r e sea r ch , i n p a r t icu la r e t hnoa rchaeo log ica l s t ud ies ( Paddayya 1 979 , 1 982 , 1 995a , 1 995b ) . T hese a pp roache s r e su l ted i n a n i n c r eased k now ledge o f Q ua terna ry p a laeoenv ironmen t s , t h e d ocumen ta t ion o f s i te s i n d i f f er ing s ed imen ta ry c on tex t si nd i f f e r en tr e g ion s , a

1 3

V a r iab i l i ty i n t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a l though d ocumen ted i n t e rm s o f d i f f e r ence s i n r aw m a ter ia ls u sed a nd v a r iab i l i ty i n t h e p e r cen tage o f h andaxe s , i s l e s s w e l l s t ud ied . T ran s i t ion s f r om t h e L ow e r t o t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic , i n t e rm so fs h if tt owa rd st h eu se o fd i f f e r en to rf i ner g ra ined r aw m a te r ia l s , c hange i nt oo l t y pe s w i th ad om ina t ion o ft h e s c rape r -bo r e r -po in t c omp lex a nd d ec r ea se i nt oo l s i ze , i n c r ea se i nt h e u se o f p repa red c o re a nd b l ade t e chn ique s i nt h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic i sd ocumen ted .

g r ea te rn umbe r o fr e la t ive a nd a b so lu te d a te s , a n i mp roved u nde r s tand ing o f l i t h ic t e chno logy , g r ea te r p rec is ion i n s u rvey a nd s amp l ing m e thod s , d ocum en ta t ion o f i n te r a nd i n t ra s i te s pa t ia l s t ru c tu r e , a l ong w i th t h e u se o f a n th ropo log ica l a na log ies i n mode l l ing h om in id b ehav iou r ( Ag rawa l 1 982 ; A l lch in e t a l 1 978 ; B ha t tacha rya 1 993 , 1 999 ; C hak raba r t i 1 993 , 1 998 ; C o rv inu s 1 983 ; J a cob sen 1 979 , 1 985 ; J aya swa l 1 978 ; M ish ra 1 994 ; M is ra 1 967 , 1 985b , 1 989 ; Mu r ty 1 966 , 1 98 1 ; N aga r 1 978 , 1983 ; P addayya 1 982 , 1 995a , 1 995b ; P an t & J aya swa l 1 99 1 ; P appu 1 974 ; P e t rag l ia e ta l . 1 999a , 1 99b ; R a jagu ru e t a l . 1 993 ; S anka l ia 1 974 ; S ha rma a nd C la rk 1 983 ; S ubba rao 1 958 ) . T h is w a s a ccompan ied b y ag row ing a wa r ene s s o fn a tu ra l /cu l tu ra l p roce s ses c on t r ibu t ing t o s i te f o rma t ion , w h ich c an b e t r a ced b ack t oF oo te i n t h e 1 9t h c en tu ry ( Pappu , S . 1 99 1-92 ) a nd t ot h e w o rk o f s ubsequen t s cho la r s ( J acob sen 1 979 ; M is ra e ta l . 1 990 ; P addayya & P e t rag l ia 1 993 , 1 995 ,P appu , S .1 999 ) .

I n r e cen t y ea r s t h e i d en t if ica t ion o f d eg r ee s o f i n teg r i ty o f s i te s a nd s t ud ie s o f f o rma t ion p roce s se s o f t h ese P a laeo l i th ic s i te s h ave r evea led t h e i mpor tance o f s t udy ing o pen a i r s i te s i np r ima ry t o s em i -p r ima ry c on tex t s r a the r t h an t h o se i ng r ave l b ed s . T h is l e d t oe xcava t ion o f s i te s i n l ow e ne rgy d epos i t s i n t h e H unsg i v a l ley , R a ja s than a nd a tS amnapu r ( M is ra e ta l . 1 990 ; P addayya & P e t rag l ia 1 993 ) . T he r e la t ion sh ip b e tw een c hang ing P l e i s tocene e nv i ronmen t s a nd s e t t lem en t p a t tern s h a s b een d ocum en ted i ns ome a r ea s ; e . g . R a ja s than ( M is ra 1 995 ; M is ra e t a l . 1 982 ) a nd t h e S on v a l ley ( Sha rma & C la rk 1 983 ) . Mode ls h ave b een c on s t ru c ted i d en t if y ing p o ss ib le s e t t lemen t p a t tern s i n vo lv ing p e r iod ic a gg r ega t ion a nd d i spe r sa l t o a nd f r om w a te r s ou r ce s , e . g . i n H un sg i ( Paddayya 1 981) , o ri nv a l ley f l oo r sn ea r w a te r a s i n P a is ra ( Pan t a nd J aya swa l 1 99 1) . S i te s h ave f u r the r b een c l a ss if ied i n to v a r iou s t y pe s s u ch a s f a c to ry o r w o rk shop s i t e s , b a se c amp s ,h ab i ta t ion s i te sa nd h un t ing c amp s .

1 . 3 .2 : Curren t S ta te o f Know ledge o f t he L ower a nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic A s ar e su l t o ft h ese s t ud ie s ac on s ide rab le b ody o f a dd i t iona l i n f o rma t ion i s a va i lab le o n t h e L owe r a nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic i n t h e S ubcon t inen t . T he p r e sen t s t a te o f k now ledge h a s b een s umma r ised b y s eve ra l s cho la r s ( M ish ra 1 994 , 1 995 ; M is ra 1 989 ; P addayya 1 984 , P e t rag l ia 1 998 , S anka l ia 1 974 ) . L ow e ra nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic s i te s h ave b een i d en t if ied i n aw ide r a nge o fg eog raph ic a nd e co log ica l z one s a nd s ed imen ta ry c on tex t s w i th a n i n c r ea se i nt h e t y pe s o f z one s e xp lo i ted d u r ing t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic . C h ronome t r ic d a te s h ave p u shed b ack t h ea ge o ft h e L owe rP a laeo l i th ic t o> 150 t o > 350 k y r a nd t h a t o ft h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t o a r ound 1 25 k y r ( Chaw la e t a l . 1 990 , M i sh ra 1 995 , P e t rag l ia 1 995 ) , w i th e v idence f r om e xcava t ion s p o in t ing t o t h e i nd igenou s d eve lopmen t o ft h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic f r om t h e A cheu l ian ( M is ra 1 967 , 1 972 , I9 85b , Mu r ty 1 966 , P addayya 1 982 ; S ha rma & C la rk 1 983 ) . T he U ppe rP a la eo l i th ic i sa s s igned t ob e tw een 3 0 k y r t o 1 0 k y r a nd t h e s u cceed ing Me so l i th ic r a nge s f r om a r ound 1 0 ,000 B .P . t oa r ound 3 000 B .P .

P o s s ib le h ab i ta t ion s t ruc tu res h ave b een i d en t if ied a t H un sg i ( Paddayya 1 982 ) , B h imbe tka ( Bedna r ik 1 993 :37 ) a nd P a is ra ( Pan t a nd J aya swa l 1 99 1) . R ecen t e xcava t ion s a t I s ampu r a nd L akhmapu r ( Pe t rag l ia e ta l . 1 999a , 1 999b ) , a nd A t t i rampakkam ( Append ix V I ) , h ave c hang ed p e r cep t ion s o f t h e I nd ian A cheu l ian . E v idence o f p o s s ib le s ymbo l ic a c t iv i ty d u r ing t h e A cheu l ian i s n o ted i n t h e p r e sen ce o f h aema t i te a t Hun sg i , a nd i mpo r ted q ua r tz c r y s ta ls i n t h e A cheu l ian a t S ing i T a lav ; e v idence o f c i r cu la r c ha lcedony a nd s and s tone d i sc s a t B h imbe tka a nd Ma iha r ( Bedna r ik 1 993 :37 ) a nd p o s s ib le p e t rog lyph s i n t h e A ud i to r ium C ave a tB h imbe tka ( Bedna r ik 1 993 ) .

C on t rove r s ie s r ega rd ing t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e S oan ian a nd t h e A cheu l ian h a s t a ken o n n ew d imens ion s w i th i d ea s o fg eog raph ica l ly d i s t inc t t r ad i t ion s b e ing r e p laced b y t e chno log ica l a nd f u nc t iona l e xp lana t ions ( Denne l l & R ende l l 1 99 1 ; G a i l la rd 1 995 ; Mohapa t ra 1 98 1) .

1 . 3 .3 :Cr i t ique o fP a laeo l i th ic R e sear ch P a laeo l i th ic a r chaeo logy i n I nd ia i sa t ac r uc ia l p ha se i nt h e d i sc ip l ine ' s h i s to ry . Ma jo r a dvance s i n P a la eo l i th ic r e sea r ch i n I nd ia l i e i n t h e a dop t ion o f s c ien t if ic m e thod s . H oweve r ,

1 4

1 . 3 .4 : C oncep tua l F ramework U sed i n t he P re sen tS tudy

a t temp t s t o i n teg ra te d a ta f r om d i ve r se s c ience s i nu nde r s tand ing p a s tl a nd u se p a t te rn sa r e f ew i n n umbe r . S ome n o tab le e xcep t ion s c oncer n w o rk i n R a ja s than ( A l lch in e t a l . 1 978 ; M is r a e t a l . 1 982 ) , H un sg i v a l ley ( Paddayya 1 982 ) , t h e S on v a l ley ( Sha rma & C la rk 1 983 ) , a nd P a is ra i n B iha r ( Pan t & J aya swa l 1 991) . S u rvey a nd s amp l ing s t ra teg ie s a r e o f t en i ld ef ined , w i th a n e mpha s i s l a id o n t h e d i scove ry o f h i gh -den s i ty a r tef ac t c oncen t ra t ion s o r' s i te s ' , t ot h e e xc lu s ion o fl ow -den s i ty s c a t te r s ( bu t s e e J a cob sen 1 970 , 1 979 ; P addayya 1 982 ; S inha 1 993 ) . A n i n adequa te a wa r enes s o fd eg r ee s o fs i t e in teg r i ty l e d i n m any c a se s t ot h e s t udy o fd er ived t oo l s f r om r i ve r g r ave ls a l ong w i th t h o se f r om mo r e p r ima ry c on tex t s l e ad ing t os ub sequen tp rob lem s i n i n te rp re ta t ion . S i te f o rma t ion s t ud ie s t e nd t o f o cu s o n s ed imen ta ry p roces se s t o ag r ea te r e x ten t t h an a r tef ac t mo rpho logy a nd d i s t r ibu t ion ( Ah san 1 993 , b u t s e e P addayya & P e t rag l ia 1 993 ) .

A n a t temp ti sm ade i nt h e p r e sen t w o rk t oa s s ign m ean ing t o t h e v a r iab i l i ty s e en i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd r i gh t f r om t h e l e v e l o f p r ima ry d a ta c o l lec t ion a nd t oe xam ine a l te rna te mode ls o f h om in id b ehav iou ra l s t ra teg ie s i n a p a r to ft h e K or ta l laya rb a s in d u r ing t h e M idd le t o L a te P l e is tocene . A h o l i s t ic , m u l t id isc ip l ina ry f r amewo rk i s a dop ted w i th in a b road ly e co log ica l a pp roach , w he r e in i n te r re la t ion sh ips b e tween e nv i ronmen ta l a nd b ehav iou ra l v a r iab le s c an b e c on s ide r ed ( Bu tze r 1 971 , 1 975 , 1 982 ; B enne t 1 976 ; E l len 1 982 ; H a rde s ty 1 980 ) . S uch a n a pp roach e nab le s o ne t ot h ink i nt e rm s o f h om in id a dap t ive s t ra teg ies . Wh i le t h e c oncep t o f a dap ta t ion h a s b een u sed i n v a ry ing w ay s b y a r chaeo log is t s ( A l land 1 975 ; K i r ch 1 980 ) , i t i s b road ly c once ived o f h e r e a s i n c lud ing a s e t o f s t ra teg ie s d eve loped t o s o lve p rob lem s , w h ich p e rm i t i n d iv idua ls t o s u rv ive w i th in t h e i r n a tu r a l a nd c u l tu ra l e nv i ronmen t s a nd r e sou r ce s pace s , r e cogn is ing h oweve r , t h a t a l b ehav iou r n eed n o t b e m ax ima l ly a dap t ive ( C la rk 1 994 , p p .186 187 ) . T h is t h es i s o pe r a tes l a rge ly w i th ' t heo r ie s o f l i m i ted s e t s ' ( op t im isa t ion a nd m idd le r a nge mode ls ) ( B inf o rd 1 979 , 1 982 ; B e t t inge r 1 99 1 ; W in te rha lde r & Sm i th 1 981) , w he r eby u n if o rm i ta r ian a s sump t ion s d r awn f r om s t ud ie s i n g eomo rpho logy , e co logy , e t hnog raphy , a nd e xper imen ta l r e sea r ch a r e u sed t o s t udy t h e m a te r ia l c on sequences o fh uman a nd n on -human a genc ies .

Wh i le l i th ic a na ly s is h a s w i tnes sed as h if t f r om d ocumen ta t ion o f f i n ished t oo l s t o as t udy o f c omp le te a s semb lages , a dd i t iona l a t temp t s i n d i f f e ren t r e g ion s a r e r e qu i red b ef o r e o ne c an a r r ive a t s ome p o s s ib le g ene r a l isa t ion s o n s e t t lemen t , s ub s i s tence o r c ogn i t ive s t ra teg ies . T he u se o f s t a t is t ics , w h i le i mp rov ing d a ta d ocumen ta t ion , o f t en t e nd s t o b e e mp loyed f o r i t s o wn s ake w i thou t a ny s i gn if ican t i n c rea se i n q ua l i ta t ive i n f orma t ion . O ne o ft h ew eakes ta spec t so fI nd ian P a laeo l i th ic s t ud ies c oncer n s t h e a t temp t t o o ve r come t h e e x igenc ies o f t h e m eag r e d a taba se , w i th i t ' s p auc i ty o f o rgan ic r ema in s ; b y p u t t ing f o rwa rd s ome g ene ra l h ypo thes i s o n h om in id b ehav iou r . Wh i le t h e g r ea t p o ten t ia l o fe t hnog r aph ic d a ta i n t h e S ubcon t inen t h a s b een e x ten s ive ly d ocumen ted ( Mu r ty 1 978 -79 , 1 98 1 , 1 985 ; N aga r 1 977 , 1 978 , 1 983 , N aga r a nd M is r a 1 989 , 1 990 , 1 993 ) , much s t i l l r ema in s t o b e d one i n e s tab l ish ing l i nkages b e tween m a te r ia l r e s idues o f h un te r -ga the re r l i f eway s a nd t h e i r a r chaeo log ica l c o r r e la tes .

I t c anno t b e o ve r empha s ized t h a t t a k ing i n to c on s ide ra t ion t h e n a tu r e o f t h e d a taba se a nd p r e l im ina ry s t age o f r e sea r ch i n t h is r e g ion , mode l s o fh om in id s oc io -econom ic o rgan i sa t ion mu s tr ema in a tt h e l e ve l o fg ene ra l isa t ion s . T he R econs truc t ion E nv ironmen t s

o f

P le i s tocene

T he e nv i ronmen t i s h e r e c once ived o f a s e ncompa ss ing b o th n a tu ra l e l emen t s ( phy s ica l g eog raphy , c l ima te , b i o ta ) a nd c u l tu ra l e l emen t s ( a r chaeo log ica l s i t es ) , w h ich i nf luence h om in id s e t t lemen t a nd s ub s is tence s t r a teg ies ( Benne t 1 976 ; B u tze r 1 982 ; G ladf e l te r 1 977 ) . U t i l iz ing d a ta f r om g eomo rpho logy , c l ima to logy , p a laeobo tany a nd p a laeon to logy , a n a t temp t i s m ade t or e con s truc t P l e is tocene e nv i ronmen t s a t r e g iona l a nd l o ca l l e ve l s . I nt h e a b sence o ff o s s i l r ema in s , r e con s t ruc t ion s o f b i o log ica l e nv ironmen t sa r ea tb e s tt e n ta t ive .

T he r e i sa l so a g r ea te r n eed f o r a wa rene s s o f p rob lem s i n u s ing s uch a na log ie s f o r s t udy ing t h e L owe r a nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic . A na log ies b a sed o n B inf o rd ' s ' f o rage r - c o l lec to r ' c on t inuum m ode l h ave o f t en b een u t i l ized f o rp i geon -ho l ing t h e g iven b ody o f d a ta ( bu t s e e C oope r 1 992 ) ; i n to b a se -camp s , w o rk shop s , e t c . o f t en i g nor ing o t he r p o s s ib i l i t ie s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e o ccupa t iona l h i s to ry o fp l aces .

1 5

i n vo lv ing a s t udy o f s t ra t ig raphy , a r tef ac t t y po logy a nd t e chno logy , a r tef ac t mo rpho logy ( w ea ther ing p a t ter n sa nd p a t ina t ion ) . O n am icro l e ve l t h e re i s an eed t ob e a b le t o i d en t if y f i ne g r a ined o ccupa t iona l d e ta i ls s uch a s p e r iod s o f o ccupa t ion a nd r eoccupa t ion o f s i te s a nd t h e i d en t if ica t ion o fd epo s i t s w h ich r ep r esen t s hor t t e rm o ccupa t ion s ( Ba i ley 1 983 ; J one s & B eck 1 992 ) . T erm s u sed , s u ch a s ' Acheu l ian ' a nd ' M idd le P a laeo l i th ic ' , a r e a t p resen t t a ken a s a r b i t ra ry d i v is ions , h av ing s ome c h rono log ica l r e a l i ty a nd a s soc ia ted t os om e e x ten t w i th c e r ta in t y pe so fs t one t oo ls a nd t e chn ique s . T he se p ha ses a r e n o t i n f a l l ib le , b u t mu s t s e rve I nd ian p r eh is to ry a tp r esen t .

R eg iona l S ca le so f Ana ly s i s A cknow ledg ing t h a t h om in id a dap ta t ion o ccu r s a t ar e g iona l s c a le , al a nd scape a pp roa ch w a s a dop ted i nt h is w o rk . I n t h e p r e sen t c a se , a pa r t f r om t h e A l l iku l l i h i l ls a nd t h e B ay o fB enga l , n o n a tu ra l g eog raph ic b ounda r ie s e x is t . T he r ef o r e t h e r e g ion b a s ica l ly e x is t s a s t h e a r chaeo log i s t ' s c on s t ruc ta nd e ncompa s ses ar a nge o fg eog raph ic f e a tu r e s a nd e co log ica l z one s , f a l l ing w e l l w i th in t h e a nnua l ' h ome r ang e ' o f modem I r u la h un te r g a the re r si nhab i t ing t h is a r ea . F o l low ing t h is , t h e f undamen ta l u n i t o fa na ly s is ( a r tef ac t o r s i te ) w a s t ob e d e term ined , w h ich i n t u rn i n f luenced t h e s e lec t ion o f s u rvey a nd s amp l ing m e thod s . H om in id l a nd -u se p a t te rn s l e ad t o t h e d i f f e r en t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o f a r tef ac t s a c ro s s t h e l a nd scape . I n r e cen t y ea r s t h e d ocumen ta t ion o f o n ly h igh -den s i ty a r tef ac t c l u s te r s o r ' s i te s ' h a s b een r e jec ted b y s ome s cho la r s i n f a vou r o f a ' n on -s i te ' o r ' d is t r ibu t iona l a pp roach ' ( Dunne 1 1 1 992 ; D unne 1 1 a nd D ancey 1 983 ; E ber t 1 986 ; F i sh a nd K owa lew sk i 1 990 ; T homa s 1 975 ) . I nt h i s w o rk , t h e r e a l i ty o f s uch h igh -den s i ty " s i tes" i s a ccep ted . A t t h e s ame t ime , w i th in t h e s amp led a r ea s , ad ocumen ta t ion o f l ow -den s i ty a r tef ac t s c a t te r s o rs i ng le a r tef ac t s ; ' o f f s i te s ' o r ' s ca t te r s b e tween t h e p a tche s ' ( I saac 1 98 1 ; F o ley 1 98 1) w a s a l so a dop ted . Mu l t ip le l e ve l s u rvey a nd s amp l ing s t ra teg ies w e re d e s igned ( B inf o rd 1 964 ) t o b e a b le t o p rov ide c on t ro l led d ocum en ta t ion a nd c o l lec t ion o f t h e se s ca t te r s a c ro s s t h e s amp led a r ea s , w i th a t ten t ion p a id t o t h e s ed imen ta ry c on tex t a nd g eog raph ic l o ca t ion o fa l a r tef ac t s .

S i te T aphonomy T he c on t rad ic t ion s n o t iced i n t h e w o rk o f p r ev iou ss cho la r sm ade i tn eces sa ry t or e exam ine t h e s t ra t ig raph ic s equ ence a t e ach l o ca l i ty a nd s t udy i t s d epo s i t iona l h i s to ry . C or r e la t ion o f d epo s i t s a c ros s t h e r eg ion i n o rde r t o b u i ld u p m ode ls o f p a laeo land scape s i s a l so a t temp ted h e r e . I n r e cen t y ea r s , i n te r a nd i n t ra s i te p a t ter n ing i n a s semb lage s t ru c tu r e , h a s b een r e cogn ised t o b e t h e r e su l t o f b o th h om in id b ehav iou ra l s t ra teg ie s a nd o f aw ide v a r ie ty o f n a tu r a lp roce s se s . I n p a r t icu la r t h e n eed t o u nde r s tand t h e d epo s i t iona l h i s to ry o f s i te s a s sume s p a r t icu la r i mpor tance w hen a t temp t ing t o i d en t if y o r ig ina l a c t iv i ty a r ea s . N a tu ra l a nd c u l tu ra l p roces se s a f f ec t ing a r tef ac t m orpho logy ,b u r ia l , m ov emen t , d e s t ru c t ion a nd e xposu re i n vo lve b o th g eomo rph ic a nd b iogen ic v a r iab le s a s w e l l a s s ub sequen t l a nd -u se p ra c t ice s ( Ba r -Yo sef 1 993 ; B inf o rd 1 983 ; G o ldbe rg e t a l . 1 993 ; N a sh & P e t rag l ia 1 987 ; S ch if f e r 1 983 ,1987 ) . A s s emb lage s t ru c tu r e i s f u r the r a f f ec ted b y t h e d eg r ee o f c on tempo rane i ty b e tw een r a te s o f a r tef ac t d i sca rd a nd r a tes o f g eomo rph ic p roce s se s l e ad ing t o t h e ir s ub sequ en t b u r ia l a nd r e expo su r e . T h is i nt u rn a f f ec t s t h e p o ten t ia l o fa s i t e f o rr e occupa t ion a nd i n f lu ence s t h e n a tu r e o f t h e s amp le a va i lab le f o r t h e a r chaeo log is t ( B inf o rd 1 982 ; C am i l l i 1 984 ; E be r t 1 986 ; S t er n 1 993 ; Wand sn ide r 1 989 ) .

C hrono log ica l R e so lu t ion a nd P er iod iza t ion T he a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd g i ve s u s a n o ppo r tun i ty t o v i ew mu l t ip le t empo ra l s c a le s ( Sm i th 1 992 ) ; b o th c omb in ing i n d iv idua l e p isod ic e ven t s a nd s c a le s w h ich " . l iv ing , b r ea th ing p eop le h ave n eve r e xper ienced . ." ( B inf o rd 1 986 , p p .473 -474 ) . T ak ing i n to c on s id e ra t ion c on t rad ic t ion s i n t h e w o rk o f p r ev iou s s cho la r s ,t h e f i r s ts t ep w a st oe s tab l ish a c u l tu r e sequence a nd d e l inea te d i f f e r en t a r chaeo log ica l p e r iod s . T he se p e r iod s a r e c on s ide r ed t o b e s ynch ron ic c on s t ruc t s , i n t h a t e ven t s a nd c ond i t ion s o ccu r r ing w i th in a g i ven p e r iod a r e t r ea ted a s a na ly t ica l ly c on tempo raneou s ( M iche ls 1 973 , p . 11) w h ich s hou ld b e " .am ended , e x tended o re ven r e p laced b y am o re s ens i t ive p er iod iza t ion . ." i f f ound i n adequa te ( Sm i th 1 992 , p . 29 ) . T h is i s t o b e a ch ieved b y a c omb ina t ion o f s t ra teg ie s

T he p r ima ry a im o f t h is t y pe o f w o rk i s t o i d en t if y s i te s f r om w h ich m ax imum b ehav iou ra l i n f orma t ion c an b e o b ta ined . S uch s i tes w h i le i mpo r tan t , a r e g ene ra l ly r a r e i n P a la eo l i th ic c on tex t s a nd s i tes w i th v a ry ing d eg r ees o f i n teg r i ty a r e o f e qua l i mpor tance i n u nde r s tand ing p roce s se so pe ra t ing o ve rt h ee n t ir e l a nd scape .

1 6

I n t h is w o rk , p r inc ip le s d r awn f r om t h e se a pp roache sr e la t ing t ot h eo rgan isa t ion o fh un te r g a the r e rs e t t lemen t a nd s ub s is tence s t ra teg ies a r e c on s ide r ed . E thnoa rcha eo log ica l s t ud ie s w i th t h e I r u la h un te r -ga the r e r s i n hab i t ing t h e s t udy a r ea a nd g ene ra l o b se rva t ion so n S ou th I nd ian a nd S r i L ankan f o rage r s o ccupy ing d i f f e r en t e nv i ronm en t s a r et a ken i n to c on s ide ra t ion . T he se a r e s upp lemen ted b y t h e u se o f s om e g ene ra l e co log ica l p r inc ip le s r e la t ing e nv ironmen ta l t y pes ( d ive r s i ty , p r ed ic tab i l i ty , d en s i ty , d i s t r ibu t ion a nd p a tch ine s s i n r e sou rce s ) a nd s e a sona l v a r iab i l i ty t oh un te r -ga the r e rs e t t lemen t , m ob i l i ty , s ub s is tence , t e r r i tor ia l i ty , d emog raphy a nd s o c ia l a nd t e chno log ica l o rgan isa t ion .

T he p r e sen ts t udy h ad t h e f o l low ing a im s : 1 .

I d en t if yt h e d epo s i t iona l h i s to ry o fs i tes a nd s ed imen ta ry c on tex t so fa r tef a c t s .

2 .

I d en t if y p a t te rn ing c r ea ted i n a s semb lag e s af ec t ing a r tef ac t d i s t r ibu t ion , mo rpho logy a nd d eg r ee s o fp r e se rva t ion a s ar e su l t o ft h e o pe ra t ion o fn a tu ra lp roce s se s .

3 .

A s se s s t h e d u ra t ion a nd i n ten s i ty o f t h ese p roce s se s .

4 .

S tudy t h e e f f ec t o fc u r r en tl a nd -u se p rac t ice s ( ag r icu l tu r e , w a t e r -manag emen t a nd c on s t ruc t ion a c t iv i t ie s )o ns i te s .

I n s p i te o ft h e c r i t ic ism o f u t i l iz ing d a ta d rawn f r om m oder n l a rge ly ' a ccu l tu ra ted ' h un te r g a the r e r s f o r u nde r s tand ing h om in id b ehav iou r ( Fo ley 1 984 , F r eeman 1 968 ) i ti sf e l t t h a t t h e l o ng c on t inua t ion o ft h is f o rag ing m ode o f l i f e d oes e nab le o ne t ou s e s ome g ene ra lp r inc ip les t o u nde r s tand p a s t l i f eway s . T he t r an sf e r o fm ode ls f r om t h e p r e sen t t o t h e p a s t i sa vo ided i n t h is w o rk , a nd t h e p o ten t ia l o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd i n i n f o rm ing o n c u r r en t ly n on -ex is ten t b ehav iou ra l s t ra teg ie s i st ob e e xam ined ( Mu r ray & Wa lke r 1 988 , Wy l ie 1 982 ) .

O n t h e b a s is o ft h ese s t ud ie s amode l o fn a tu ra l f o rma t ion p roces se s i nf e r r ic r e te l a nd scapes i st o b e c on s t ruc ted . Mode l l ing H om in id S et t lemen tS tra teg ie s

S ub s i s tence

a nd

H om in id s e t t lemen t a nd s ub s is tence s t ra teg ie s r e su l t i nt h e d i f f e ren t ia l u s e o fp l ace s a c ro s s t h e l a nd scape , w h ich c ond i t ion s t h e n a tu re o f s i t e s f ound . A s semb lag e s t ru c tu r e i st hu s d e term ined b yt he f u nc t ion s c a r r ied o u t a t ap a r t icu la rp l ace , d u ra t ion o fo ccupa t ion , a n t ic ipa ted a bandonm en t a nd r eoccupa t ion , a nd b y s o c ia l s t ruc tu r e a nd d e mog raphy . O ve r s ho r t o r l o ng t ime p er iod s , p l aces a r e r e occup ied f o r t h e s ame o r d i f f er ing p u rpose s a s p e r c hang ing r e sou rce s t ruc tu r e s o r v a r iab i l i ty i nt h e s oc io -econom ic s y s tem .

I ti sa cknow ledged t h a tt h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd r e p r esen t s o n ly af r ac t ion o fw ha t w a s o r ig ina l ly d i sca rded , t h a tt h e o pe ra t ion o fe t hnog raph ic a nd a r chaeo log ica l t ime sca le s a r e q u i te d i f f e ren t , a nd t h a t t h e s t udy o f s ub s is tence s y s tem s a nd p a laeoeco logy c an r ema in a tb e s t o n ly a t av e ry g ene ra l l e ve l . T he p r inc ip le m ean s o f s t udy ing e i the r s ub s is tence o r s e t t lemen t i s t h rough a s t udy o fa r tef a c t t y po logy , t e chno logy , a nd i n te r a nd i n t ra s i te p a t te rn ing .

T ak ing i n to c on s ide ra t ion c omp l ica t ion s a r is ing o u t o ft h e e f f ec t o fn a tu r a l p roces ses , d i f f e r ence s i n r a te s o f d i sca rd o f a r tef a c t s a nd r a te s o f s ed imen t d epo s i t ion o r s o i l f o rma t ion , l a ck o f s u i tab le d a ta f o r p a la eoan th ropo log ica l i n f orma t ion a nd c omp l ica t ion s a r is ing o u t o f l o ng te rm r eu se o f p l ace s , s ome s cho la r s d eny t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o f a r r iv ing a t a ny b ehav iou ra l i n terp r e ta t ion s( S tern 1 993 ) .

T echno log ica lO rgan i sa t ion A t t h e f i r s t l e ve l , t h e c l a s s if ica t ion s y s tem d ev ised f o r t h e s t udy o fs t one t oo ls i n vo lved t h e d ef in i t ion o f t o o l t y pes , f o l low ing w e l l -known p rocedu r es ( Bo rde s 1 96 1 ; C la rk a nd K le ind ien s t 1 974 , G o r en Inba r 1 985 , J aya swa l 1 978 ; K le ind ien s t 1 962 ; R oe 1 98 1 ; S anka l ia 1 964 ) e s tab l ished f o r p u rpo se s o f r e la t ive d a t ing o f s ed im en t s a nd f o r e nab l ing i n te r s i te a nd i n te r r e g iona lc ompa r ison s .

T h is w o rk , h ow eve r , f o l low s s cho la r s w ho d o b e l ieve t h a t s om e g ene ra l isa t ion s o n h om in id b ehav iou r c an b e p u t f o rwa rd ( Roe 1 98 1 ; G amb le 1 986 ) , I n r e cen t y ea r s , p r inc ip le s d e r ived f r om M idd le R ange r e sea rch o r O p t ima l F o rag ing mode ls a r e b e ing i n c rea s ing ly u sed t o a ch ieve t h ese a im s ( B inf o rd 1 982 , B e t t ing e r 1 991 ; B e t t inge r & B aumhof f 1 982 , C ha t te r s 1 987 ) , a sa l so ' c en t ra l -p la ce 'm ode l s ( I saac 1 972 , 1 977 , 1 984 ) a nd s t one c a che m ode ls ( Po t t s 1 988 ) a mong o t he r s( s ee D ibb le a nd Me l la r s 1 992 ) .

S econd ly , a n e mpha s is w a s l a id o n u nde r s tand ing l i t h ic r e duc t ion s equ ence , i nt e rm s o fc ho ice sm ade i nt h e s e lec t ion o fr aw m a te r ia ls a nd t h e u se , r e u se a nd d i sca rd o f s t one t o o l s , w h ich a r e b e l ieved t o r ef lec t t o s om e e x ten t

1 7

d en s i ty /un i t a r ea a nd v a r iab i l i ty w i th in a nd

s o c io -econom ic o rgan isa t ion a nd h om in id c ogn i t ion ( Ne lson 1 999 ;T o r rence 1 983 , 1 989 ) .

b e tween s i t e s .

I s su es a dd re s sed i ns t one t oo l a na ly s is i n c lude :

5 .

Mob i l i ty s t ra teg ies .

1 .

6 .

N a tu re o fT ran s i t ion s .

I nf luence o fr aw m a ter ia ls i nt e rm s o ft h e ir p hy s ica l p rope r t ie s a nd f r ac tu r e m echan ic s , d i s tance f r om s i tes , a cce s s ib i l i ty , e xp lo i ta t ion s t ra teg ies , t r an spor t , c or r e la t ion w i th t o o l t ype s .

2 .

R educ t ion ss t ra teg ies e mp loyed .

3 .

R e sha rpen ing a nd r e u se o ft o o ls a nd c au se s f o rd i sca rd .

4 .

O ccupa t iona l h i s to ry o f p l aces t h rough a s t udy o f a r tef ac t t ype s , d i ve r s i ty ,

Wh i le r e cogn is ing t r emendou s s hor tcom ing s b a sed o n am eag re d a taba se a nd a lmo s t c omp le te l a ck o fi n f orma t ion o n p a la eoeco logy , t h is w o rk a im s t or e exam ine t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd i na r eg ion w h ich h a s w i tne s sed mo re t h an ac en tu ry o f P a laeo l i th ic r e sea r ch . O bserva t ion s o n h om in id b ehav iou r i n t h e M idd le t o L a te P l e is tocene a r e p u t f o rwa rd a nd a n a t t emp t i s made t o e s tab l ish a b a se w h ich w i l l l e ad t o s y s tema t ic e xcava t ion s a nd s t ud ies i n ar e g ion c ruc ia l f o r t h e s t udy o ft h e I n d ian P a la eo l i th ic .

1 8

CHAPTER I THE QUATERNARY ENV IRON MENT T h is c hap te r s e ek s t o s t udy p o s s ib le Q ua te rna ry e nv i ronm en ta l c hanges i nt h e s t udy r eg ion a s a p re r equ is i te f o r u nde r s tand ing h om in id s e t t lemen t s t ra teg ies . F i e ld s t ud ies a r e e xam ined i nt h e l i gh t o fa va i lab le l i t e ra tu r e o n Q ua terna ry p a laeoc l ima te s i nT am i l N adu i np a r t icu la r ; a nd i nt h e S ubcon t inen ti ng ene ra l .

t e rm ino logy u s ed i nt h e p r esen t s t udy , t h e t e rm T e r r ic r e te s i su sed h e r e i nt h e s en s e d ef ined b y T a rdy ( Ta rdy & R oqu in 1 992 , p . 5 19 ) " . a s p roduc t s o f i n ten se w ea the r ing m ad e u p o f m ine ra l a s semb lage s t h a t m ay i n c lude i r on o r a l um inum o x ide s , o xyhyd rox ide s , k ao l in i te a nd q ua r tz a nd a r e c ha rac ter ized b y a r a t io o f S i02: ( A 1 203 + F e 203 )w h ich d oe s n o t e xceed t h e v a lu e r e qu i r ed t o c ha rac te r ize q ua r tz a nd k ao l in i te " .

2 . 1 : GEO MORPHOLOGY : SO ILS AND S ED I MENTS F ive s e a son s o ff i e ldwo rk w e r e c onduc ted f r om 1 99 1 t o 1 995 . S u rvey a nd s amp l ing m e thod s e mp loyed d u r ing t h ese f i e ld s t ud ie s i n vo lved , t o b eg in w i th , ad i v is ion o f t h e K or ta l laya r b a s in i n to t h r ee s e c to r si no rde rt oo b ta in a ni d ea o ft h e e n t i re r e g ion ( F ig .2 ) . T he t o ta l a r ea s u rveyed i n ten s ive ly ( A r ea I ) , m ea su red a r ound 2 00 s qk m ( 79 ° 4 0 'E t o 7 9° 5 6 'E : 1 3 ° 1 7 ' Nt o 1 3° 1 0 ' N ) . B e s ides , a r ea s o f 1 0 s q km e ach a r ound V adamadu ra i ( A r ea I ) a nd i n t h e R ed H i l l s ( A r ea I I )w e re a l so s u rveyed ( Append ix I V ) .

2 . 1 .2 :RESULTS OF F IELD S TUD IES A d e sc r ip t ion o ft h e Q ua terna ry s t ra t ig raphy a t t h el o ca l i t ie ss t ud ied f o l low s . LOCAL ITY 1 T h is c ompr ises a n a r ea o f 1 0 s q km l o ca ted a r ound t h e f oo th i l l z one o ft h e A l l iku l l i h i l ls . I t a l so i n c lude s t h e Man ichamman D ev i K ov i l b e t te r k nown a s G ud iyam r o ck s h e l te r o r A l l iku l l i c ave ( P la te 1 ) . G ud iyam c ave i sl o ca ted a ta n e l eva t ion o fa r ound 1 22 .5 m AMSL i nt h e A l l iku l l i h i l ls ( Dow ie 1 939 , p p .353 -358 ; F oo te 1 873a , 1 873b ; T h iruna ranan 1 952 ) . T he c ave f o rm s a n a mph i thea t r e w i th ah e igh t o f 1 5 m i n t h e o pen ing d ec r ea s ing t o 1 . 2 1 .3 m a tt h e r e a r w i th t h e f l oo r r i s ing i nt h e s ame d i r ec t ion . T he c ave i s c u t e n t i r e ly i n to c oa r se B ou lde r C ong lome ra te , s o t h a t t h e r oof , s i de s a nd f l oo r c on s is to fv e ry c oa r se q ua r tz i te b ou lde r s , c obb le s a nd p ebb le s ( Dow ie 1 939 :355 ) . C on s ider ab le e r o s ion i sc au sed b y w a te r p e r co la t ion f r om t h e r oof a nd b y t h e a c t ion o f s t r eam s n ea r t h e c ave ( Dow ie 1 939 :355 ; F oo te 1 873a ) . S o i l s amp le s w e r e c o l lec ted f r om ad ep th o f3 0 c m b e low t h e s u r f ace , r e su l t s o f w h ich a r e s umma r ized i n T ab le 3 c . C hem ica l a na ly s is ( Tab le s 3 a , 3 b ) i n d ica te s h igh p e r cen tage s o fS iO 2,d er ived f r om t h e f e rrug inou s / s i l iceou s m a tr ix o f t h e U ppe r G ondwana S a tyavedu f o rma t ion c on s t i tu t ing t h e A l l iku l l i h i l l r a nges . P ebb le s , c obb le s a nd b ou lde r s c on s t i tu t ing t h is f o rma t ion , a l ong w i th t h e f e r rug inou s s i l iceou s m a t r ix , h ave b een r ewo rked a nd t r an spor ted o ve r t h e e n t i r e s t udy r e g ion .

A r ea I w a s s ur veyed i n ten s ive ly , p r inc ipa l ly ow ing t o t h e r i chne s s o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd p r e served i n av a r ie ty o fd epo s i t iona l a nd e r os iona l c on tex t s , a way f r om t h e m a in r i ve r c ou r se . L oca l i t ies s t ud ied i n d e ta i l a r e l i s ted i n T ab le 2 . W i th in e ach l o ca l i ty , o ne t o f i ve s e c t ion s , p r ef e rab ly a s soc ia ted w i th a r chaeo log ica l ' s i tes ' w e re s t ud ied i n d e ta i l . Gu l ly , w e l l a nd q ua r ry s e c t ion s ; a nd t h o se e xpo sed b yt h e c ons tru c t ion o ft h e K r ishna C ana l ( pa r t o f t h e T e lugu -Ganga w a te r p ro jec t ) w e r e e xam ined . Ad e ta i led s t udy o fs ed imen t sw a s m ade i ns even l o ca l i t ie s ( Append ix I ) . S amp l ing o f t h e s ed imen t s f o r a na ly s is w i th in l o ca l i t ie s i n vo lved e i the r s t ra t if ied s amp l ing , w he re s o i l s amp le s w e re c o l lec ted b o th v er t ica l ly a nd l a te ra l ly ( A t t irampakkam , P a r iku lam , G un ipa layam ) , i n o rde rt ou nde r s tand v a r iab i l i ty i nv a r iou sp a r t s o f t h e s i te ; o r r andom s amp l ing . W i th r e spec t t o r ock t y pe s , q ua r tz i te s w e re f u r the rs ubd iv ided o n t h e b a s i s o fc o lou r a nd t e x tu r e . Wh i le t h is d oe s n o t s t r ic t ly f o l low g eo log ica l c a tegor ie s , i t p roved t o b e o f i mpo r tance i n r e con s t ruc t ing h om in id r aw m a ter ia l u t i l isa t ion s t ra teg ie s a nd a l so h e lped t o i d en t if y p a laeochanne l f l ow d i rec t ion s . S tud ies o f p a laeochanne ls a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o f s o i l t y pes w e r e u nder taken w i th t h eh e lp o fs a te l l i te i mage s . W i th r e spec tt ot h e

LOCAL ITY IA : T he t y pe s i te s t ud ied i nd e ta i l w a s G ud iyam v i l lage w e l l s e c t ion , l o ca ted a ta n e l eva t ion o f a r ound 13 m AMSL ( P la te 2 , F ig .3 .1) . S u r round ing a r ea s i n c lud e t h e r e g ion a r ound S r ik r ishnapu ram , L ingammana idupa l l i a nd V e l la t tuko t ta i( F ig .3 .2 ) . T he s t ra t ig raph ic

1 9

7 2 1 N 5

c e

•,

N

I )

•

—

b

x

x

X

X

X

x

x

x

X

x

x

x

x

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

xx

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

) .
< 0

« i. 4 0 W 4 X 4 . . 2 4 Z W ..

p p w . Z .. 4 . ,[ . .15 , Z CC E Z F. e . . C 4. 14 0 . 4 4 . ‹ . . . .. . ; . M U M O . W S K 4 4 . W . Z W z . w w 0. z e e e e e e e 0 . M

2 z . 4 Z

4 0 m 0 E. W 4 F F 4 W > 0 M . w -

M Z C O M

DE PO/ 31 TO

fte r m l

W W Z 4 F

17 7 , 7 4 , .t7

2 . 1 ,

4 7

4 . . Z Z 0 0 4 W O M 0 4

4 W Z

Z 4 4 0 0 . W W W W W O X U D CC -mi. 4 — Z 4 4

U M O W W K W 4 > 4 . IC C

F W X U 4 4 U

4 4 W F M 4 M

X 0 0 4 4 m Z 4 F 4 4 = W 4 . 0 M . Q W O = . >

7 C , 0 Z 4

1 . 2 .

3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 .

A l l iku l l i h i l ls P oond i r e servo ir ( Sa tyamur thy S agar ) P oond i R . K or ta l layar R . A ran i P a laeoehanne l n e twork C a lcre te l a g K r i shna c ana l

P l a te 1 : T he K or ta l layar b as in a round P oond i f r om s a te l l i te i mage L ISS I ,1 90 3 8 9 P a th 2 3 :Row 5 9 . B and 4 ) P a la r d epos i t s a nd t h e f e r r ic r e tes i su nc lea r . A t N eyve l l i , c oa r se s and s , s i l t sa nd c l ay s w e r en o ted o ccu r r ing b e low t h e f e r rug inou s g r ave l . N o a r tef a c t s w e re f ound h e re . A t P oond i s i l t s a nd s a nd s o ccu r b e low f e r r ic r i t ised g r ave l . I f w e c ompa r e t h is s t ra t ig raphy w i th t h e s e quence e s tab l ished b yt h e G .S . I s ou th o fV egava t i , t h e se s i l t s , s a nd s a nd c l ay s p o ss ib ly c or r espond t ot h e t e r ra ce 1 2 , o rt oc hanne l d epo s i t s . T he o ve r ly ing f e r r ic r i t ised g rave l c on ta ins A cheu l ian t oM idd le P a laeo l i th ic t oo ls . T hese t oo ls p o in t t o a m ax imum a ge o f a t l e a s t e a r ly M idd le P l e is tocene ( M ish ra 1 994 , 1 995 ) a nd t h u s t h is p a laeochanne l c ou ld p o s s ib ly d a te t o t h e E a r ly P l e is tocene . H ow ever t h e g r ave ls s e en a t t h e K r ishna c ana l s e c t ion -Rangave ram a nd a r ound P oond i c l ea r ly r e p re sen t r ewo rked h i gh l e ve l g r ave ls d er ived f r om w ea the r ed b ed rock . A na ly s is o f t h e se s ed imen t s a t R angave r am i n d ica te t h a t t h ey a r e p o s s ib ly o f g r ea te r a n t iqu i ty t h an t h e r ewo rked g r ave ls a t a nd a r ound N eyve l l i a t al owe r e l eva t ion . T he c l ea r e a s t -w e s t o r n o r th sou th o r ien ta t ion o f c l a s t s a t R angave ram c ou ld i n d ica te s ome a moun t o f r ewo rk ing b y t h e r i ve r , b u t i ti su nc lea r a s t o w hen t h is o ccu r r ed . T he g r ave l b ed s a tN eyve l l i e xh ib i tc l ea r -cu t a nd f i l l f e a tu res a nd s ou th -nor th o r ien ta t ion a nd a r e p os s ib ly c hanne l g r ave ls o f t h e O ld P a la r . T he s i l t s , s and s a nd c l ay s d epo s i ted o ve r t h e f e r r icre te s a s n o ted i n t h e

v i c in i ty o f A t t irampakkam c ou ld r e p r esen t y ounge r a luv ium . D epo s i ts s ub sequen t ly f e r r ic r i t ised o n e i the r b ank o f t h e K o r ta l laya r c ou ld r e p r esen tp a laeo -Pa la rd epo s i t sa sw e l l . F u r the r e a s t , t h e g enes is o f t h e h i gh t e r r ace a t E ruma ive t t ipa layam i s ac omp lex p roce s s w i th d epo s i t ion o f r i ve r g r ave ls f o l lowed b y n eo tec ton ics l e ad ing t oa n u p l if t o ft h e l a nd a nd d owncu t t ing o f t h e K o r ta l laya r ( Append ix I V ) . T hu s i ft h e o r ig in a nd g enes is o f t h ese t wo t e r ra ce s a r e i nd oub t , i ti sl o g ica l t h a t t h e f ou r f o ld t e r race s e qu ence b u i l t u p b y e a r ly w o rke r s ( K r ishna swam i 1 938a ) n eed s r e th ink ing . T ak ing i n to c on s ide ra t ion t h e e v idence o fs t one t o o ls , i t i s s e en t h a t b o th A cheu l ian t o M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t o o ls a r e n o ted a tP oond i , N eyve l l i a nd A t t irampakkam . T he re i st hu sn o e v idence o f c h rono log ica l d i f f e r en t ia t ion b e tween t h e c u l tu ra l m a te r ia ls i n t h ese r e g ions . W i th in t h e f e r r ic r e tes a tA t t i rampakkam , a nd o t he r s i t es , a c l ea r e vo lu t ion f r om A cheu l ian t o M idd le P a laeo l i th ic i s n o ted w i th L a te M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a r tef ac t s o ccu r r ing i n t h e u ppe r f e r r ic r e te l e ve ls o ve r ly ing s t e r i le c l ayey s i l t . T he s t ra t ig raphy a t V adamadu ra i c ou ld n o t b e c onf i rmed a sn oc l ea rs e c t ion sw e r e a va i lab le b u t i ti s h ypo the s ized t h a t t h is s i te , l o ca ted a s i s a lmo s t e qu id is tan t f r om t h e A ran i a nd K or ta l laya r , h a s b een s ub jec t t o d epos i t ion b y

4 8

d u r ing t h e max imum P l e is tocene g l ac ia t ion o f o ve r 6 0 m b e low s e a l e ve l w as r e por ted b y K r ishnan . T he r a ised p os i t ion o ft h e l a ter i tes w as d ue t o ad rop i n s ea l e ve l d ur ing t h e L a te

b o th t h ese r i ve r s a s b y a n e two rk o f p a laeochanne ls p r io rt ot h e ir d ebouch ing i n to t h e p a laeode l ta n ea r P u l ica t . T hus t h is a r ea n eeds t o b er e exam ined .

P l e is tocene wh ich l e f t t h e r i ver s w i th b a se l e ve ls n o t i n h armony w i th t h e l owe red s e a l e ve l . T he r i ve r i n c ised i t s own b ed , a s s e en a t E ruma ive t t ipa layam i n t h e K or ta l laya r r i ver s e c t ion . T he d i ssec t ion o ft h e l a ter i te o ccur red i n L a te P l e is tocene a nd t h e e n t ire a r ea w as a luv ia ted ( Mu ra l idha ran e ta l . 1993 ,p . 12 ) .

I ti st hu s p o ss ib le t h a t b y t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e M idd le P l e is tocene , t h e P a la r w as a l ready f l ow ing t o t h e s ou th o ft h e K or ta l laya r . M idd le t o L a te P l e is tocene n eo tec ton ic s c ou ld h ave c on tr ibu ted t of u r ther s ou thwa rd m ig ra t ion . T h is a l so l e d t ot h e d owncu t t ing o ft h e K o r ta l laya r o f i t s s ed imen t s w h ich c u lm ina ted i n 6 000 B .P a s i n d ica ted b y t h e d a te f r om d e l ta ic d epos i t s a t K osapu r ( Append ix I V ) . T he p rob lem o f t h e a ccu ra te d a t ing o f t e r races t hu s r ema ins a n i n te res t ing i s sue b u t i n t h e a bsence o f a bso lu te d a tes , n o f u r the r s pecu la t ion i sp os s ib le a t t h is p o in t o ft ime .

H o locene mar ine t r ansg re ss ion r e su l ted i n m eander ing a nd f l ood ing o f t h e r i ve r s a s e v idenced b y n ume rou s p a laeochanne ls a nd p a laeode l ta c ond i t ion s o ft h e P a la r . B lack c l ays w i th s andy a dm ix tu res w e r e d epo s i ted i n t h e a luv ia l p l a ins r e su l t ing i nt empo ra ry s t agna t ion a nd l a goon f o rma t ion n ea r t h e p a laeode l ta r e g ion s . Du r ing t h e L a te P l e is tocene -Ho locene , r e ac t iva t ion o ft h e e a s t -sou theas t l i neamen t b u i l t u pb each b a r r ie r sc l os ing t h e E nno re c r eek .

2 . 3 : QUATERNARY S EA LEVEL CHANGES AND NEOTECTON ICS T he s t udy r e g ion i sl o ca ted mo re t h an 1 00 k m i n land a nd t hu s a ny s imp l is t ic c or re la t ions b e tween r i ve r d ynam ics a nd s e a l e ve l c hange s a r e i mposs ib le . A b r ief s yn thes is o f a va i lab le d a ta o n s e a l e ve l c hanges i n t h e P a la r b a s in i s p r esen ted , w i th in t h e c on tex t o f c hanges a l ong t h e e as tc oa s to fI nd ia .

T he P a la r t ook a n ew c ou r se e a s twa rd n ea r t h e h i nge w he re t h e n or thea s t -sou thwes t a nd e a s t s ou theas t l i neamen t s i n te r sec ted a tO ccher i . T he s e a l e ve l d ropped f u r the r i n m id -Ho locene a nd c oa s ta l p rog rada t ion c on t inued a s s e en b y t h e d eve lopmen t o f s t rand l i nes a nd b eaches . T he p r esen t P a la r i s s t i l l i n ay ou thf u l s t age . T he p r esen t p ha se a ppea r s t o b e as t i l l s t and i n s e a l e ve l o sc i l la t ion ( Mu ra l idha ran e ta l . 1 993 , p . 13 ) .

P a lar B as in S t ud ies c onduc ted i n t h e P a la r b a s in ( Mu ra l idha ran e ta / .1993 ) , i n d ica te t h e p r esence o f a s ubsu rf ace r i dge a nd d ep re ss ion : t h e V a rada iyyapa layam -Du rgapa tnam r i dge t r end ing n or theas t -sou thwes t d e l im i t ing t h e P a la r b as in i n t h e n or th , s h a l low ing t owa rd s t h e s ou thwes t a nd e me rg ing w i th P recamb r ian c r ys ta l l ines . T he P u l ica t d ep re s s ion c ove r s t h e c en t ra l p a r t o ft h e b a s in b ounded b y n or theas t -sou thwes t l i neamen t s . An o r theas t -sou thwes t t r end ing f a u l t s e pa ra tes t h e d epres s ion f r om t h e r i dge ( F ig . 1b ) . T hese s cho la r s b e l ieve t h a t t h e Q ua terna ry g eo log ica l h i s tory o ft h is r eg ion r e f lec ts e us ta t ic s e a l e ve l c hanges a nd n eo tec ton ics . T he t h ick c over o f l a te r i tes 0 . 5 -5 m n o ted i n t h e b as in a r ound R ed H i l ls , A vad i a nd P oonama l lee i s t a ken a s t h e b ase o f t h e Q ua terna ry f o rma t ions o ve r w h ich f l uv ia l a nd m ar ine s ed imen ts h ave b een d epo s i ted s imu l taneou s ly i nt h e a luv ia l a nd

F i e ld i n ves t iga t ion s c onduc ted a t E ruma ive t t ipa layam ( w i th H . A chyu tan ) s uppo r t t h e e v idence o f n eo tec ton ics l e ad ing t o t h e d owncu t t ing o ft h e K or ta l laya r , t h e d epo s i t ion o f ar ubb le b ed a nd f e r r icre te l a g c u lm ina t ing w i th t h e f o rma t ion o f t h e p a laeo -Pa la r d e l ta a r ound 6 590 ± 120 B .P . As t udy o n t h e e r o s ion s u rf aces i n t h e g ne is s ic r e g ion s ou th o f Mad ras ( S i ta 1 954 ) i n d ica tes t h a t t h e r eg ion h as b een a f f ec ted b y s e a l e ve l c hanges w i th t wo Qua terna ry p enep la in s u rf aces a t4 5 .72 4 8 .77 m a nd 7 6 .2 m a nd o t he r l e ve l s t r e tches a t 1 5 .24 m , 3 0 .48 -33 .53 m , 3 8 .1 m , 5 3 .34 m a nd 6 0 .96 m . S he n o tes t h a t t h e s u rf ace o f A t t irampakkam c on ta in ing t oo ls a ta n e l eva t ion o f 5 1 .82 m AMSL f a l ls w i th in t h e f our th p enep la in o f4 5 .72 m -60 .96 m ( bu t s e e A ppend ix V I ) i n d ica t ing t h a t t h e o t he r s a r e e ven l a te r d u r ing t h e P l e is tocene ( S i ta 1 954 , p p .54 -55 ) .

c oa s ta l p l a ins . K r ishnan ( 1968 , q uo ted Mu ra l idha ran e t a l . 1 993 ) b e l ieved t h a t l a ter i t isa t ion t ook p l ace d ur ing u ppe rT e r t iary , o r e a r ly P l e is tocene t imes a nd c on t inued . H e b e l ieved t h a t f o r P l e is tocene l a te r i tes t of o rm , t h e u pper G ondwana s u rf ace h ad b een e xposed a dequa te ly a bove s e a l e ve l . A l ow s e a l e ve l

T ak ing i n to c ons ide ra t ion d a ta f r om o t he r p ar ts o ft h e e as t c oas t , R ama samy ( 1989 , p . 337 )p o in t s t oe v idence i nt h e f o rm o fb each r i dges c onf ined a l ong t h e Manga lo re -Mad ras a nd t h e C och in -

4 9

Madu ra i s t re tches , w h ich h e b e l ieve s i n d ica te s Q ua te rna ry m a r ine t r ansg res s ions t ot h e t u ne o f u p to 5 0 km a l ong t h ese w e l l d ef ined z one s a nd a tr ibu te s t h e se p roce s se s t o n eo tec ton ic s . O the r s c ho la r s ( Va idyana than a nd G ho sh 1 993 ) s t r e s s t h e i mpor tance o ft e c ton ics i ns hap ing t h ec oa s ta l b e l t . S tud ie s c onduc ted a l ong t h e S ou th C o romande l c oa s t ( Babu 1 985 ) , i n d ica te t h a t t h roughou t t h e p e r iod f r om t h e T er t ia ry t or e cen t t h e c oa s t h a s f o l lowed o l de r s t ruc tu ra l t r end s , i . e . i n n or thea s t sou thwes t d i rec t ion a nd t h e s e d imen t s h omoc l ina l ly d i p s ou thea s t . B abu ( 1 985 , p p .63 -64 ) s t a te s t h a t t h e p rog rada t ion o f t h e c oa s t a nd i t s r e cen t movemen t s a r e r ef lec ted i nt h e d i spo s i t ion o fc hen ie r -sand r i dg e s p e r ched o ve r s i l ty f l a t s d eve lop ing a l ong t h e s ho re l ine i n d ica t ing c hanges i n s e a l e ve ls a nd r e p re sen t f o rm e rs ho re l ines .

a st h e L a te P l e is tocene l ow s e a l e ve l a l o ve rt h e w o r ld h a sb een o ft h e o rde ro f— 120 t o— 150 m . D a ta f r om S r i L anka ( De ran iyaga la 1 993 , p . I6 7 ) p o in t s t ol ow s e a l e ve ls a nd l a nd l i nk s w i th I n d ia d u r ing t h e L a te Wü rm ( s ic ) , 2 5 ,000 B .P . , 1 25 ,000 -75 ,000 B .P . , > 45 ,000 B .P . a nd 7 , 000 B .P . F o r t h e L a te P l e is tocene t oH o locene p e r iod , t h e m o s t i mpo r tan t s t udy r e la t ing s e a l e ve l c hange s w i th t h e f o rma t ion o f t h e c oa s t l ine a nd a r chaeo log ica l s i tes i st h a to fR i ta G a rdne ro nt h e t e n is a nd d unes a l ong t h e s ou thea s t c oa s to fI n d ia ( Ga rdne r 1 986 ; G a rdne r a nd Ma r t inge l l 1 990 ) , w h ich c an b e c o r re la ted w i th s im i la r d epo s i t s i n S r i L anka . T he se s t ud ie s t r ace s e a l e ve l c hange s f r om 3 0 ,000 B .P . t oa r ound 4 000 B .P . 2 . 4 :PLE ISTOCENE AND HOLOCENE GEOMORPH IC PROCESSES

R ama samy ( 1989 ) p u t s f o rwa rd e v idence s o f E a r ly a nd M idd le P l e is tocene V o lcano -Tec ton ic d ef o rma t ions i nt h e K udangu lam a r ea , n ea r C ape C omo r in , T am i l N adu . A s p e r B rückne r ( quo ted Meh r 1 992 , p . 463) , t h e l a te Q ua terna ry ( Uppe r P l e is tocene ) t r an sg res s ion a l ong t h e T am i l N adu c oa s t l e d t o ar i se i n s e a l e ve l o f + 2 t o + 8 m d u r ing t h e L a s t I n te rg lac ia l . Me i je r ink ( quo ted M eh r 1 992 ) i n voked al ow s t rand l ine o f— 70 m a t t h e c ou r se o ft h e Wü rm ( s ic ) g l ac ia l s t ag e . O the r s ou r ce s o fe v idence f o r t h e i n ter re la t ion b e tween n eo tec ton ics , s e a l e ve ls a nd p l ana t ion s u rf ace s a r e n o ted i n t h e B havan i b a s in ( Ra ja ram a nd Mu ra l idha ran 1 989 ) a nd a l ong t h e T i ruchendu r c oa s t( Mu ra l idha ran e ta l . 1 993 ) .

T ak ing i n to c on s ide ra t ion e v idence f r om f i e ld i n ves t iga t ion s , l a bo ra to ry s t ud ie s , s a te l l i te i mage ry d a ta a nd c ur ren t r e sea r ch i n P en insu la r I n d ia a nd S r i L anka , t e n ta t ive h ypo these s a r e p u t f o rwa rd w i th r e spec t t o Q ua te rna ry g eomorph ic p roce s se si nt h e s t udy r eg ion . Wea the r ing o ft h e b ed rock c l a s t s , w innow ing o f t h e s i l iceou s a nd f e r rug inou s m a t r ix a s w e l l a s e r o s ion o fT er t ia ry f e r r ic re te s w e re t h e p r inc ipa l p roces se s w h ich c on t r ibu ted m a te r ia l i nt h e f o rm o f g r ave ls , s i l ts , s and s a nd c l ays c on s t i tu t ing P l e is tocene d epo s i t s i n t h is r eg ion . S ub sequ en t t r an spo r t a nd d epos i t ion b y c o l luv ia l p ro ce s se s , s t ream a nd s h ee t f l ood s a nd s t ream c hanne l p roce s ses f o l lowed b y w ea the r ing o ft h e p r of i le s h a s r e su l ted i nt h e f o rma t ion o ft h e P l e is tocene l a nd scape . F u r the r , d epo s i t s i n t h e l ow ly ing a r ea s o n e i the r s i de o f K or ta l laya r , f o rmed p ar t o ft h e f l ood p l a in o ft h e O ld P a la rw h i le t h e m o re n or ther n a r ea s w e r e u nde r t h e i n f luence o f t h e r i ve rA ran i .

I nA ndh ra P radesh , S ub rahmanyam a nd S i r ee sha ( 1990 ) n o te L a te A cheu l ian t o M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a r tef ac t s i nt h e 7m b each rock , a nd o n t h e s u rf ace o ft h e p i so l i t ic p acked h o r izon o f t h e 7 8 m l owe r t e r race . T he E a r ly A cheu l ian a r tef a c t s i n b ou lde r g r ave ls w e r e t h ough t t o b e long t o t h e f i r s t p ha se o f r eg re s s ion b e tween + 20 m a nd + 8 ms t ands o ft h e s e a ; t h e M idd le t o L a te A cheu l ian t o t h e t r ansg re s s ive p ha se b e tw een + 8 mt o+ 4 ma nd t h e L a te A cheu l ian t o ar e g r e s s ive p ha se b e tween + 8 m a nd + 4 m , w h i le M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t o Meso l i th ic t o o ls a r e d a ted t ot h e m a r ine t r ansg res s ion a s soc ia ted w i th t h e + 4 m h i gh s ea s t and . V a idyana than a nd P rudhv i R a ju , i n s t ud ie s o f ft h e V isakhapa tnam c oa s t , i n d ica te ah ighe r s e a l e ve l , 7m a bove t h e p r e sen t f o l lowed b y af a l l i ns e a l e ve l u p to 2 5 m , w ea the r ing a nd l a ter isa t ion o f i n s i tu r o ck s a nd t h en a r i se i n s e a l e ve l u p to t h e p r e sen t l e ve l ( quo ted Meh r 1 992 , p . 462 ; P rudhv i R a ju 1 994 ) . Meh r b e l ieve s t h a t p e rhap s t h e — 25 m f a l l d oe s n o t i n d ica te t h e u l t ima te d ep th o ft h e r e g r e s s ion

D epo s i t ion o f Q ua terna ry s e d imen t s i s c l ea r ly i nf luenced b y s t ruc tu r e a nd l i t ho logy o f p r e Q ua te rna ry d epo s i t s , w h ich a r e b r ief ly d i scu s s ed b e low . T he P a la rb a s in a s aw ho le i sr e p r esen ted b y f ou r m a jo re r o s iona l p l ana t ion s u rf ace s : i .

N aga r i Q ua r tz i te s u r f ace : 8 00 m S a tyavedu p l ana t ion s u rf ace : 2 00 -380 m S r ipe rumbudu rs u rf ace : 3 0 m

i v .

5 0

E ruma ive t t ipa layam s u rf ace : 3 0 m

T he m a r ine e qu iva len t o f t h e S r ipe rumbudu r s u rf ace c omp r ises t h e A vad i f o rma t ion ( Mu ra l idha ran e ta l . 1 993 ,p .2 )

P l e is tocene f e r r ic re te s c ou ld a l so p os s ib ly b e r e p r esen ted i nt h e s t udy a r ea a tK e rukambakam ( Mu ra l idha r an e t a l . 1 993 , p . 10 ) a nd P oond i u nde r ly ing t h e f e r r icr i t ised g r ave ls a nd a t G ud iyam v i l lag e , N eyve l l i a nd L ingammana idupa l l i o n s ha le s . H oweve r , a s n o s amp le s c ou ld b e c o l lec ted f r om w e l l s e c t ion s a t t h e l a s t f ou r l o ca l i t ie s , t h es e c onc lu s ions a r e t e n ta t ive .

T he s t udy a r ea c omp r ise s t h e S a tyavedu p l ana t ion s u rf ace c omp r is ing t h e A l l iku l l i h i l ls . T h is s u rf ace c on s is ts o fc ompac t c ong lome ra te s i n terbedded w i th p i nk s a nd s tone s a nd o cca s iona l ly r edd ish b rown s ha le s . T he c ong lome ra te s a nd c ong lome r i t ic s and s tones f o rm s t eep c l if f s a nd c on s is t m o s t ly o fb ou lde r s o fq ua r tz i te , q ua r tz i t ic s a nd s tone a nd o cca s iona l w ea the red g r an i te s i n ah a rd b rown s i l iceou s a nd f e r rug inou s ma t r ix . T he S r ipe rumbudu r s u rf ace ( d is sec ted p ed imen t ) , o ccupy ing t h e p l a in s , c on s is t s o f c yc l ic s e qu ences o f a r ko s ic t o s uba rko s ic f i ne t o c oa r se -g ra ined g r ey ish -wh i te s a nd s tone s , s i l ts tone a nd s ha le s w i th o cca s iona l p ebb les . T he A vad i f o rma t ion ( no ted a r ound O ddappe i ) c on s is ts o f p r edom inan t ly a r g i l laceou s r ock s l i ke d a rk g r ey s ha le s a nd s i l t s tone s w i th a s ubo rd ina te a moun t o f s a nd s tone s( Mu ra l idha ran e ta l . 1 993 , p . 8 -9 ) . T he s u r round ing c oun t ry i s u ndu la t ing w i th a n e two rk o f e pheme ra l s t ream s p r esen t ing a n a luv ia l f a n t ype o f d epos i t . Q ua terna ry f o rma t ion s i n c lude t h e E ruma ive t t ipa layam a nd P a la r -Kor ta l laya r s u rf a ce s d i scu s sed l a te r ( Mu ra l idh ran e ta l . 1 993 ,pp .4 -6 ) . T he f o rma t ion o f t h e T am i l N adu p l a in s i s a tr ibu ted b y B üde l ( 1975 ) t o t h e p roces s o f D oub le S u rf ace s o f L eve l ing ; f o rm ing R ump f lä sche i nt h e p roce s s o fa c t ive f o rma t ion . D emangeo t ( 1975 q uo ted V a idyana than 1 987 , p . 129 ) b e l ieves t h a t t h e t r op ica l p l ana t ion s u rf ace s o f T am i l N adu h ave a p o lygene t ic o r ig in . S euf f er t ( 1985 , 1 994 ) s t a te st h a t p l ana t ion s u rf ace s i n S ou th I n d ia i nt h e Q ua te rna ry m u s t h ave b een f o rmed b y p ed ip lana t ion u nde r m o r e a r id c ond i t ions .

P la te 1 2 : H andaxe f r om p re la ter i t ic d epo s i t s : A t t irampakkam g u l ly

T he e a r l ie s t p ha se o f d epo s i t ion c ons is t s o f t h e U ppe r G ondwana S a tyavedu a nd S r ipe rumbudu r f o rma t ion s r e p resen t ing d eb r is f l ow a nd f i l ls r e spec t ive ly ( Mu ra l idha ran e ta l . 1 993 ,p . 12 ) .

F o l low ing t h e f o rma t ion o f T e r t ia ry f e r r ic r e te s , t h e r e g ion w i tne s sed ap e r iod o f e r o s ion , w he r e m o s t o ft h e o l de r f e r r ic re te p rof i le s w e re e r oded . T h is i sm a rked b y ad i sconf o rm i ty b e tween t h e b ed rock a nd t h e o ve r ly ing Q ua te rna ry d epo s i t s i n m o s t o ft h e a r ea s s t ud ied . T he e x is tence o f ap r e l a te r i t ic B ou lde r -Cong lome ra te i sn o ted i nm any a r ea s . T h is i s o ve r la in b y f e r r ic r e te s o r f e r r icr i t ised g r ave ls . Wh i le V .D . K r ishna swam i r e po r ted t h e e x is tence o f ' Abbev i l l ian ' t o o ls i n t h is d epos i t ( K r ishna swam i 1 938a ) , K .D .Bane r jee n o ted o n ly a f ew r o l led a r tef ac t s ( I .A .R 1 964 -65 ) . F rom f i e ld i n ves t iga t ion s w he r e t h is b ed w a s c l ea r ly i d en t if ied n o a r tef ac t s w e r e

T he b a se o f t h e Q ua ter na ry f o rma t ions i s c ons ide red t o b e r e p r e sen ted b y t h e E ruma ive t t ipa layam f o rma t ion ( Mu ra l idha ran e t a l . 1 993 ) w h ich c on s is t so fl a ten te s . T he b ed rock i s c apped b y T e r t ia ry t o E a r ly P l e is tocene f e r r ic r e te s , t h e e v idence o fw h ich i sp re se rved i n t h e 4 m t h ick i n du ced f e r r ic r e te p rof i le a t E ruma ive t t ipa layam 3 m AMSL ( P la te 1 0 ) d eve loped o ve r U ppe r G ondwana s ha les a nd s ands tone s ( Achyu than 1 996 ; A nnadu ra i e t a l . 1 985 ; Mu ra l idha r an e ta l . 1993 ) . T er t ia ry t oE a r ly

5 1

l a te r i t ised g r ave l a t N eyve l l i w a s f o und t o c on ta in M idd le P a la eo l i th ic t oo ls w h i le t h a t u nde r ly ing t h e l a te r i te a t P oond i c on ta ined A cheu l ian a r tef ac t s . H owever , s h ee t g r ave l o ve r ly ing t h e l a ten te s w e r e f ound t o c on ta in M idd le P a la eo l i th ic a r tef ac t s ( I .A .R 1 965 1966 ) . F rom f i e ld i n ves t iga t ion s , i tw a s n o ted t h a t t h e u ppe r l a y e r s o f f e r r ic r i t ised g r ave ls a t N ambakkam c on ta ined L a te A cheu l ian t oM idd le P a laeo l i th ic a r tef ac t s , t h a t a t R angave r am , t h ey c on ta ined M idd le P a la eo l i th ic a r tef a c t s ; a t P oond i , L a te A cheu l ian w i th M idd le P a la eo l i th ic o n t h e s u rf ace a nd a t N eyve l l i , M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t o o ls w e r e f ound .

f ound . H oweve r , a t t h e s i te o f A t t i rampakkam s e ve ra l a r tef ac t s w e re n o ted i n t h e g u l ly b ed w h ich d i sp layed n one o f t h e c ha rac te r is t ic r e dd ish o r b rown ish p a t ina t ion c ommon t o a r tef a c t s i n t h e f e r r ic re tes , a nd w e r e i n s tead p a t ina ted w h i te a s ar e su l t o fc on ta c t w i th s ha le s ( P la te 1 2 ) . T h is c ou ld p o s s ib ly p o in t t o t h e o ccupa t ion o ft h e s u rf ace o ft h e s h a le s f o l low ing o r c on tempo ra ry w i th t h e e r os ion o fT e r t ia ry t o E a r ly P l e is tocene f e r r ic r e te s . O u r r e cen t e xcava t ion s ( Append ix V I ) f o cu s sed o n t h is i s su e . O ve r ly ing t h e b ed rock d i sconf o rmab ly , o r t h e T e r t ia ry t o E a r ly P l e is tocene f e r r ic r e te s , l i e f e r r ic r i t ised g r ave ls a nd Q ua te rna ry f e r r ic r e te s . T he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e se t wo f o rma t ion s i s u nc lea ro w ing t ot h e f a c t t h a t n o t a l f e r r ic r i t ised g r ave ls m ay b e c on tempo ra ry a nd t h a t c on s ide rab le r ewo rk ing o f t h e se g r ave ls h a s o ccu r r ed . I n t h e s e c t ions s e en a t K e rukambakkam , t h e f e r r ic r i t ised g r ave l b ed l i e s b e tween t wo f e r r ic re te d epo s i t s . I ti sb e l ieved t h a t t h e u nde r ly ing f e r r ic r e te s a r e T e r t ia ry t o E a r ly P l e is tocene i n a ge ( Mu ra l idha ran e t a l . 1 993 , p . 10 ) . F u r the r , a tP oond i , t h e f e r r ic r i t ised g r ave l b ed 2 0 c m t h ick r e s t s o n f e r r ic r e te s g r ad ing i n to s h a les . A s p e r B ane r jee ( I .A .R 1 965 -66 ) , a t P oond i , t h ese g r ave ls r e s t o n t h e e r oded s u rf ace o fl a ter i t ised s ha le a nd a r e c apped b y l a ten te s . A t N eyve l l i t h ey w e r e n o ted i nt h e B a lwad i ( c h i ld c a re c en t r e ) s e c t ion a nd r e s t o n c oa r se s a nd s a nd s i l t s w h i le i nt h e t a nk s e c t ion , t h ey r e s t o n f e r r ic r e te s , w h ich i nt u rn g r ade i n to s ha les . I n t h e e xcava ted s e c t ion a t N eyve l l i ( I .A .R 1 965 -66 )t h ese l a te r i t ised g r ave ls r e s to na s t e r i le p ebb le b ed , w h ich i n t u rn r e s t s o n t h e e r oded s u r f ace o ft h e s ha le s . I nt h e s e c t ion s e en o n t h e b ank o f t h e K or ta l laya r i n t h e K r ishna c u t t ing -Rangave ram , t h e se b ed s r e s t o n a n o l de r n on -f er rug inou s B ou lde r -Cong lome ra te , w h ich i nt ur no ve r l ie s s h a le s . A t N ambakkam , t h ey r e s t u nconf o r rnab ly o nt h e s ha le s a nd a tK an j ipad i o n s and s tone s . T he f en-u g inou s g r ave ls a tG ud iyam v i l lag e r e s t o n f e r r ic re te s w h ich o ve r ly a B ou lde r -Cong lome ra te w h ich i n t u rn r e s t s o n s h a les . T hu s s ome o f t h e se f e r r ic r i t i sed g r ave ls c an b e s a id t o c ons t i tu te t h e n ex t p ha se o f d epo s i t ion .

A r chaeo log ica l e v idence t hu s s ugge s t s t h a t a t l e a s t s ome o ft h e se g rave ls a r e o ft h e s am e a ge . H oweve r , e v idence o fw ea the r ing r i nd s a nd r aw m a te r ia l p o in t s t o ag r ea te r a ge f o r s om e o ft h e g r ave l b ed s . Wea ther ing r i nd s a s i n d ica to r s o f c l ima t ic c hange a nd f o r p rov id ing a r e la t ive c h rono logy ( Co lman 1 98 1 ; D orn 1 993 ) w e re u s ed e f f ec t ive ly i n a r chaeo logy i n I n d ia b y M ish ra ( 1985 ) . I n t h is r e g ion t h ey h ave b een u s ed t o p rov ide a r e la t ive c h rono logy o f t h e d epo s i t s a nd f o r u nde r s tand ing t h e r e la t ionsh ip b e tween p ha se so fd epo s i t ion a nd m anuf a c tu r eo f a r tef ac t s . T he m ax imum w ea ther ing o fq ua r tz i tes a nd q ua r tz i t ic s and s tone s n o ted a t K r ishna C ana l -Rangave ram , N ambakkam a nd N eyve l l i a l ong w i th t h e l ow p e rcen tage o f e a s i ly w ea the r ed s a nd s tones c ou ld a t t h e f o rm e r t wo l o ca l i t ie s , p o s s ib ly p o in t t o ag r ea te ra ge o ft h ese g r ave ls . A s t udy o f t h e w ea the r ing r i nd s o f q ua r tz i tes , q uar tz i t ic s a nd sone s a nd s a nd s tones ( Tab le 3 d ) c l ea r ly i n d ica tes t h a t , i ng ene ra l , t h e w ea the r ing o fq uar tz i tes i sg r ea te ri nt h e f e r r icre te d epo s i t a s c ompa r ed w i th t h e s u rf ace s hee t g r ave l , a ss e en a t A rya thu r . H oweve r , t h e e x is tence o f w ea ther ing r i nd s r a ng ing f r om 4mm t o 8mm i n t h e s u rf ace g r ave l s p r ead s p o in t s t o t h e ir d e r iva t ion f r om o l de r f o rma t ions . T he d ep th o f t h e q ua r tz i te w ea the r ing r i nd s d oes n o t v a ry s i gn if ican t ly b e tween t h e f e r r ic r i t ised g r av e l a nd f e r r ic re te d epo s i t s , i n d ica t ing t h a t t h ey a r e b road ly c on tempo ra ry . I t mu s t , h oweve r , b e r em embe r ed t h a t t h e f o rma t ion o f w ea the r ing r i nd s i s ac omp lex p henomenon a nd t h e g r ea t r a nge e xh ib i ted h e re c ou ld p o in t t o s e ve ra l p ha ses o f g r ave l d epo s i t ion a nd r ewo rk ing . T he o ccu r rence o f A cheu l ian t o M idd le P a la eo l i th ic a r tef ac t s i nt h e f e r r ic r e te s i n d ica te s t h a t a tl e a s t s ome g r ave l b ed s a r e c on tempo ra ry w i th f e r r ic re te s a nd t h a t l o ca l p roces se s h ave l e d t o

I nt h ea b sence o fa bso lu te d a te s ,o n ly t h e d eg r ee s o f w ea ther ing o f t h e q ua r tz i te s , q ua r tz i t ic s a nd s tone s a nd s a nd s tones ; t h e ir s t ra t ig raph ic p o s i t ion a nd s t one t oo ls w i th in m ay b e u s ed t o p rov ide a r e la t ive d a te f o r t h e se b ed s . T ak ing i n to c on s idera t ion e v idence f r om e xcava t ion s b y t h e A rchaeo log ica l S u rvey o f I n d ia , t h e

5 2

c ana l -Rangave ram , t h e h i gh c l ay p e rcen tage s a nd ap a r t ic le s i z e v s . b r ead th t h icknes s r a t io o f > 2 c ou ld p o in t t o t h e se b e ing r ewo rked o l de r s ub -a er ia lv i scou sd eb r is f l ow d epo s i t s .

d if e ren t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o f g r ave ls , s i l t s , s and s a nd c l ay s . F er r ic re tes o ve r ly t h e b ed rock i n m o s t o f t h e l o ca l i t ies s t ud ied . Two h o r izons o ff e r r ic re te s a r e n o ted . T he u nde r ly ing f e r r ic r e t e c on ta in s A cheu l ian t oM idd le P a laeo l i th ic a r tef ac t s a nd i s e xpo sed o n ly i ng u l ly s e c t ion s o r q ua r r ies . T h is i so ve r la in b y as t er i le c l ayey s i l t i ns ome a r ea s , w h ich i s i n t u rn c apped b y f e r r ic re te l a g c on ta in ing M idd le P a la eo l i th ic t o m ic ro l i th ic a r tef ac t s . T owa rd s t h e c oa s t a t t h e s i t e o f E ruma ive t t ipa layam , T er t ia ry f e r r ic r e te s a r e c apped b y ar ubb le w h ich i nt u rn i sc apped b y a f e r r ic re te l a g c on ta in ing M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t o o ls . A t Man janka ran i , P a te r son n o ted o ve r ly ing f e r r ic r e te s w i th A cheu l ian t o o ls a tt h ej unc t ion o f b o th h or izon s( Pa te r son 1 939 ) .

C o l luv ia l d epo s i t s c an b e t r aced f r om t h e h i l l s l ope s n ea r G ud iyam c ave ( I .A .R 1 962 -63 ) a nd S r ik r ishnapu ram , w he r e ap ebb ly f e r rug inou s g r ave l o ve r l ies t h e s ha le s , t o G ud iyam v i l lage w her e a1 . 5 mb ed c ap s t h e f e r r ic r e tes a nd m ay b e y ounge r i n a ge t h an t h e o t he r d epo s i t s . C o l luv ia l d epo s i t s a l ong t h e h i l l s l ope s a r e f e r rug inou s . A round S r ik r ishnapu ram , h oweve r , d u r ic ru s t b l ock s , f e r r ic re te s a nd g r ave l r a ng ing i n s i z e f r om p ebb les t ol a rge b ou lde r s , 1m i nd i ame te r , c ons t i tu te t h e c o l luv ia l d epo s i t s o ve r ly ing t h e b ed rock . T h is i s a l so n o ted a t L ingammana idupa l l i a nd r e p r esen t s a p ha se w he r e d i s in teg ra t ion o f t h e d u r ic ru s t w a s i n p roce s s . A r tef a c t s o n t h e s u rf ace o f t h e h i l l s l ope sa nd f oo th i l ls i nt h is a r ea c on s is t o fM idd le P a laeo l i th ic t oo ls w h i le t h e A cheu l ian a r tef ac t s a r e h eav i ly r o l led . T hu si nt h ei mmed ia te v i c in i ty o f t h e f o o th i l ls c o l luv ia l d epo s i t s a r e c h rono log ica l ly y oung e r r e p re sen t ing a c t ive h i l ls lope p roce s se s . E x tend ing f r om t h e o u t l ie r s o ft h e A l l iku l l i ' s t oN ambakkam a ta n e l eva t ion r a ng ing f r om 1 00 m t o 5 0 m AMSL a nd c ove r ing t h e a r ea b e tween T immabhupa lapu ram t o N ambakkam , f e r r ic r i t ised g r ave ls a ppea r t o h ave b een c on s ide rab ly r ewo rked p o s s ib ly a s a r e su l t o f s h ee t f l ood s . T h is p roces s h a s b een c ommon ly n o ted i n m any o f t h e h i gh l e ve l g r ave ls i nv a r iou s p a r t s o ft h e S ubcon t inen t . A t N ambakkam , e r o s ion o ft h e m a t r ix i sn o ted . T he N ambakkam g u l ly h a s e v iden t ly am a jo r r o le i n t h e t r anspor t a nd d epo s i t ion o f g r ave ls , s i l t s , s a nd s a nd c l ay s f r om t h e A l l iku l l i h i l ls a nd p rov ide s as ha rp b ounda ry b e tween t h e d epo s i t s t ot h e s ou th a nd n o r th o fi t .

T he t ime s p an f o r t h e d epo s i t ion o f t h e s t e r i le c l ayey -s i l t s , w i th o rw i thou t c a lc r e te , i ns ome o f t h el owe rl y ing a r ea sn eed st ob e d e t erm ined a si t m a rks ab r eak i nt h e o ccupa t ion o ft h ese r e g ion s . Wh i le t h e c l ayey s i l t i s a b sen t a t h i ghe r e l eva t ions , t h e e x is tence o f t o p s o i l o f af ew c en t ime t re s i n t h ickne s s f o l lowed b y c h rono log ica l ly y ounge ra r tef ac t s a l p o in t t ot h e e nd o ff e r r ic re te f o rma t ion . G eomorph ic P roce sse s G eomorph ic p roce s se s o pe ra t ing i n t h e r e g ion a r ed i scu s sed b e low : C o l luv ia l D epo s i t s : T he se a r e r e p r e sen ted i nt h e f o o th i l l z one o f t h e A l l iku l l i h i l l s a nd t h e ir o u t l ie r s . O lde r U ppe r G ondwana d eb r is f l ow s c on s t i tu t ing d epo s i t s i n t h e A l l iku l l i h i l ls a nd T er t ia ry f e r r ic re te s p rov ide t h e c l a s t s a nd m a t r ix f o r P l e is tocene c o l luv ia l d epo s i t s . T he se d epo s i t s h ave u nde rgone r ewo rk ing v i a s h ee t f l ood s a nd s t ream c hanne l p roce s ses . C o l luv ia l d epo s i t s r a nge i n t h ickne s s f r om 1 . 5 m a t S r ik r ishnapu ram a nd L i ngammana idupa l l i , t o 0 . 30 m a t N ambakkam , a nd 4 10 m a r ound R angave ram . T he c on ta c t w i th t h e u nde r ly ing b ed s i s s h a rp , 't h ey c an b e t r aced u p s lope . A s m en t ioned e a r l ie r i ti sd i ff icu l t t o e s t ima te t h e a ge o ft h e d epo s i t s a tK r ishna c ana l -Rangave ram a nd N ambakkam w h ich m ay b e c h rono log ica l ly o l de r . T hese d epo s i t sa r ec ha rac te r iz ed i ng ene ra l b y p oo r s o r t ing , o ccu r r ence o f o u t s ize c l a s t s , w i th a c l ayey m a t r ix a nd c l ay p e r cen tage o f 5 6 .36% a t R angave ram w h i le a t N ambakkam s a nd s a nd s i l t s c on s t i tu t e 4 . 19% w i th v ery l ow c l ay p e rcen tages o f0 . 42% . T he l a t te r v a lue s a r e e xp la ined d ue t o c on s ide rab le e r o s ion o f t h e m a t r ix b y t h e N ambakkam g u l ly . A t K r ishna

V a idyana than ( 1964 , q uo ted M ish ra 1 985 : 152 ) n o ted t h a t i nB e l la ry ( Ka rna taka ) , r unof fe ven i n t h e p r e sen t e nv ironmen t i s b y t h e p roces s o f s h ee t f l ow . T he m an t l ing o f p ed imen t s u rf ace s b y l o ca l s ma l l t r ibu tar ie s i s af e a tu r e o ft h e m o r e a r id p a r t s o f t h e I n d ian P en in su la e ven t o day ( M ish ra 1 985 : 152 ) . T he i mpo r tance o fc o l luv ia l a c t iv i ty i n f o rm ing t h e c oa r se d epo s i t s o f t h e Q ua terna ry i se mpha s ized b y McCown ( quo ted M ish r a 1 985 : 152 ) . T he se a r e e xp la ined a s m an t led p ed imen t s f o rmed b y l o ca l ized d own s lope m a s sf low o f h i l ls lope c o l luv ium a c ros s a n e xpo sed a nd e r oded b ed rock s u rf ace u nde r s em i -a r id c ond i t ion s ( M ish ra 1 985 : 152 ) .

5 3

S im i la r g r ave ls a r e n o ted i n , t h e N ima r r e g ion ( Madhya P r adesh ) , S amadh ia la , P a i than i n t h e G odava r i , w i th M idd le P a la eo l i th ic t o o ls , a t N eva sa w i th A cheu l ian a nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t o o ls , i n t h e K r ishna V a l ley a nd Mo ravakonda ( s ee M ish r a 1 985 :152 ) . I ti st h u s p o s s ib le t h a t s ome o ft h e f e r r icr i t ised g r ave ls w e re d epo s i ted b y s im i la r p roces se s a nd a r e o ft h e s ame a ge a s t h eh i gh l e ve l g r ave ls .

s a nd s a nd s i l t s p robab ly r e pre sen t ing O ld P a la r d epo s i t s , i n d ica te s t h a t t h is p ha se i nr i ve rg r ave l d epo s i t ion i s c on s ide rab ly y oung e r a nd c ou ld c o r r e spond t o t h e y ounges t p ha se o f r i ve r c hanne l m ig ra t ion . C oa r se s and s a nd c l ay s u nde r ly ing t h e f e r r ic r e te s o r f e r r ic r i t is ed g r ave ls a r e n o t s e en o n t h e n or ther n b ank o ft h e r i ver . E xcava t ion s r e vea led as t e r i le p ebb le d epos i t a t P oond i u nde r ly ing t h e f e r r icr i t ised g r ave l , w h ich c ou ld a l so r e p re sen t ap a laeochanne l o f t h e K o r ta l laya r( I .A .R 1 965 -66 ) .

R eworked C o l luv ia l D epo s i t s ( S tream C hanne l G rave l s ) : S t r eam l a id d epos i t s , p a r t icu la r ly c hanne l g r ave ls , a r e d epo s i ted b yt h e O ld P a la r a nd b y n ume rou s b r a ided c hanne ls i n t h e a r ea . T he s i l t s , s and s , c l ay s a nd g r ave ls a r e d er ived f r om t h e r ewo rk ing o fo l de r d eb r is f l ow a nd c o l luv ia l d epos i t s . I n p a r t icu la r t h e r e g ion l y ing a d jacen t t o t h e h i l l r a nge s r e p re sen t s a n a luv ia l f a n t y pe o fd epos i t ion ( Mu ra l idha ran e t a l . 1 993 :3 ; R a jagu ru , p e r sona l c ommun ica t ion ) . A t N eyve l l i a nd P oond i , f e r r ic r i t ised g r ave ls c u t t h rough t h e O ld P a la r d epo s i t s . S t ream c hanne l d epo s i t s a r e r e p r esen ted b y t h ose t h a t b a ckf i l l s t r eam c hanne ls . T he s a nd a nd s i l t p e r cen tag e s v a ry f r om 2 0 .03% a t K an j ipad i t o 1 0 .38% a t N eyve l l i . T he d i s t inc t o r ien ta t ion o f t h e c l a s t s ( n or th sou th a t K an j ipad i a nd s ou thwes t n o r thea s t a tN eyve l l i ) p o in ts t o f l ow d i rec t ion s v ery s im i la r t o t h a t o f t h e p r e sen t d ay g u l l ie s f l ow ing t h rough t h e se a r ea s .

S hee t a nd S t ream F lood D epos i t s : P a r t o ft h e s t udy r e g ion c omp r ise s t h e f l ood p l a in s o f t h e O ld P a la ra nd A ran i a nd w ha t i sc ha ra c te r ised a s t h e P a la r -Ko r ta l laya r s u rf ace ( Mu r a l idha ran e t a / . 1993 ) . T he se d epo s i t s a r e m a t r ix b a sed , mode ra te ly s o r ted w i th o cca s iona l o u t s ize c l a s ts a nd i ng ene ra l s a ndy -s i l ty . I nt h e c a se o fd epo s i ts a l ong t h e b ank s o ft h e r i ve r , t h e s a nd s a nd s i l ts a r e a r ound 8 . 44% w i th c l ay p e r cen tag es o f 7 . 14% a tA t t irampakkam . A round A rya thu r a nd N ambakkam , f e r r ic r e te s h ave s u f f e red c on s ide rab le e r o s ion , r ewo rk ing o f s h a les i s n o ted a nd s h ee t g r ave l o ccu r s o ve r t h e e n t ire s u rf ace . T h is r e g ion i sl o ca ted o n t h e n o r th b ank o f t h e N ambakkam g u l ly a nd d epo s i t s o f t h is c hanne l c ou ld p o s s ib ly c on tr ibu te t o t h e s i l ts , s a nd s a nd c l ay s h e re . T he o ccu r r ence o f t h ree o u t s iz e b ou lde r s r a ng ing i ns i ze f r om 1t o 2m i n t h e p r e sen t g u l ly i n t h is r e g ion a nd i n c l ined n or th sou th c ou ld r e p r e sen t r ewo rk ing o f o l de r d eb r is f l ow s . A t A rya thu rt h e h i gh p e r cen tage o f c l ay ( 2 0 .95% ) c ou ld b e a t t r ibu ted t o t h e c ons ide rab le r ewo rk ing o ft h e o ve r ly ing c l ayey s i l t s ,o ru nde r ly ing s h a le s .

G rave l b ed s n o t iced i n t h e a r ea a r ound R angave ram , P oond i a nd N eyve l l i , r e p resen t f l uv ia l c hanne l f i l l d epo s i ts , p robab ly o ft h e O ld P a la r . C la s t s a t K r ishna c ana l -Rangave ram e xh ib i t a n o r thea s t t o s ou thwe s t o r ien ta t ion ( 70% ) a nd e xh ib i t t wo c hanne l f i l l d epo s i t s . T he i mmen se t h ickness o f t h e se d epos i t s ( 4 -5 m t h ick ) , w h ich a r e d i ssec ted b y t h e K or ta l laya r c ou ld i n d ica te d epos i t s o f t h e O ld P a la r . A s n o ted e a r l ie r , a l t h e p a laeochanne ls o ft h e P a la r w i th in t h e s t udy a r ea l i e t o t h e s ou th o f t h e K or ta l laya r . T hu s t h e g rave l c u t a nd f i l l s t ruc tu r e sa tR angave ram n eed t ob e i n ves t iga ted f u r the ra st ot h e i rc or rec ta ge . I t ,h oweve r , c anno t b e d en ied t h a t t h e p a laeochanne l d epo s i t s a r e n o ted i nt h is a r ea a nd m ay r e p r e sen t o l de rt e r race a nd f l ood p l a in d epos i t s o f t h e r i ve r . G rave l d epo s i t s a r ound P oond i a nd N eyve l l i a r e c u r r en t ly a bou t 2m a bove t h e p r e sen t b ed o ft h e r i ve r a nd a t ad i s tance o f0 . 5 k m a way f r om i t , e xh ib i t as ou thwe s t -nor thea s t o r ien ta t ion d i pp ing s ou th ( 4 8 . 14% c l a s t s ) . T hese c ou ld r e p r e sen t p a laeochanne l d epos i t s w h i le t h e s ma l l c u t a nd f i l l s t ru c tu r e s p o in t t o t h e e x is tence o f s ma l le r b r a ided t r ibu ta r ie so ft h em a in r i ve r . T he f a c tt h a t t h e se f e r r icr i t ised g rave ls o ve r l ie 1 . 8 mo fc oa r se

S im i la r ly a tG un ipa layam , t h e l ow p e r cen tages o f c l ay s ( 2 .45% ) a nd h i gh p e rcen tage s o f s i l ts a nd s a nd s ( 1 1 .99% ) p o in t s t o p os s ib le s h ee t o r s t r eam f l ood d epo s i t s . I n t h is r e g ion , t h e o ccu r r ence o fl a rge r c l a s t s d i s t r ibu ted r a ndom ly t h rough t h e s e d imen tp o in t st ot h e r ewo rk ing a nd t r an spor t o f p r ev iou s ly w ea the red b ed rock a nd d eb r is o r c o l luv ia l f l ow s f r om t h e n ea rby h i l ls . A t Ma i lapu r c l ay p e rcen tage s o fu p to 1 2 .5% a r e n o ted . F rom G un ipa layam t o Ma i lapu r , s im i la r d epo s i t s a r e n o ted . A t a nd a r ound M a i lapu r , h oweve r , l o ca l s t ream sh ave p l ayed a n i mpor tan t p a r t a s n o ted b y t h e d i p a nd d i r ec t ion o f t h e g r ave ls . P o s s ib le a c t ion o ft h e r i ve r A r an i mu s t b ec on s ide red h e r e a sw e l l . T he c l ayey s i l t s a s soc ia ted w i th k anka r s e en c ove r ing a na r ea o f 4s q km o n t h e f i e ld a nd f r om s a te l l i te i mag e s a r e m o re c omp lex a nd p o s s ib ly r e p r e sen t a p a laeopond ( Ra jagu ru , S .N . ,

5 4

u nde r ly ing g r ave ls w i th A cheu l ian t o M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t o o ls . I n m o s t o f t h e r e g ion , h oweve r , f e r r ic r e te s a r e o b se rved a t e l eva t ion s r a ng ing f r om 3 0 -80 m AMSL a nd c ove r t h e p ed im en t s u rf aces a nd l ow ly ing i n te r f luve s . T he d i f f e r en t ia l e r o s ion o f t h es e f e r r ic r e te s i n m any l ow ly ing a r ea s i sa l so n o ted , b u t d i s t r ibu t ion o f f e r r ic re te s o n h i gh a nd l ow ly ing a r ea s w i th in t h is r e g ion a ppea r st ob e l a rge ly af unc t ion o ft h e p r e -f er r ic r e te l a nd scape a nd i sd e term ined b y t h e s t ruc tu re o f t h e b ed rock . E ro s ion o f f e r r ic r e te s f r om e l eva ted r e g ions i sn o ted a sw e l l .

P rof esso r a t D eccan C o l lege P o s tg radua te a nd R e sea r ch I n s t i tu te 1 993 , c onve r sa t ion w i th a u tho r ) . F oo te a t tr ibu ted t h e ir f o rma t ion t o t h e s andy p a laeo -Pa la r s ed im en t s , w h ich u nde r t h e i n f luence o fs t ream s r i s ing o n t h e h i ghe r l a te r i t ic p l a teau s h ave b ecom e c l ayey ( Foo te 1 873a ) . T hese e x tended t o am ax imum t h ickne s s o f 3t o 4m f u r the r e a s t o n t h e b ank s o ft h e K or ta l laya r . I nt h e A t t i rampakkam g u l ly , a r ound 5 0 m a way f r om i t s m ou th t h e se r e s t d i r ec t ly o n t h e s ha le s a nd a r e n o t m o r e t h an 5 0 c m t h ick . T he c l ayey s i l t s a r e c apped b y a f e r r ic r e te l a g . T he a s soc ia t ion o fs hee t g r ave l s p r ead s , w h ich o ccu r o ve r t h e e s tab l ished d u r ic ru s t , i s a tr ibu ted t o p roce s se s o f s hee t f l ood w h ich s t i l l o pe ra te t oday .

S ub raman iam a nd Man i ( 1 98 1 , p . 24 1) i d en t if ied l ow leve l l a te ntes i nt h e K or ta l laya r s e c t ion , i n r e s idua l p rof i le s o ve r T er t ia ry s a nd s tone s a nd w h ich h ad ah a rd t o p l a ye ro fm a te r ia l ( up t o 3m t h ick ) , u nde r la in b y ad i r ty w h i te c l ay g r ad ing i n to t h e s and s tone s . T he l a te r i te e xpo sed s u rf ace i s n odu la r i n t e x tu re ( 0 .5 -5 c m ) a nd b ound t o ge the r i n af e r rug inou s m a t r ix . S ome b roken n odu le s d i sp layed c oncen t r ic g row th r i ng s a r ound n uc le i o fq ua r tz i te p ebb le s o rc l ay p e l le t s a nd t h e n odu le s w e r e t h e r e su l t o f c oncen t r ic a cc r e t ion o f f e r rug inou s m a te r ia l . T hey b e l ieve t h a t t h e se a r e n o t s t r ic t ly l a te r i t ic b u t w e r e f o rmed t h rough ap roces s o fi r on e n r ichmen t i n t h e z one o f a f l uc tua t ing w a te r t a b le ( Sub raman iam & Man i 1 98 1 , p p .24 1-242 ) . T he l a te nte s s t ud ied b y t h em w e r e m a rked b y ah i gh i n c idence o f k ao l in i te , g oe th i t e , q uar tz a nd f e ld spa r , i n on tmo r i l l in i te a nd a na s ta se . T he a b sence o f g i bb s i te i n d ica tes t h a t t h ey a r e r e la t ive ly i mma tu re . I r on c on ten t i s l ow a nd o ccu r s a sh aema t i te o rg oe t i te . T he A 1 203c on ten t i sl ow a nd t o ta l s i l ica i sm uch m o re t h an i nt h e h i gh l e ve l l a te nte s ( Sub raman iam a nd Man i 1 98 1 , p . 242 ) . T hu s , t h ese a r e o ft h e s ame o r ig in a st h e f e r r ic re te sn o ted i nt h e s t udy r e g ion .

L i tho log ica l s t ud ies o f r o ck t ypes i n d ica te s t h a t s t ream c hanne l d epo s i t s a t K r ishna c ana l R angave ram a nd N eyve l l i h ave e i gh t t y pe s i n c ommon , w h ich c ou ld w h ich c ou ld p o s s ib ly p o in tt ot h ed epo s i t s a tR angave ram v i a ab r a ided s t r eam n e two rk t o N eyve l l i . S im i la r r o ck t y pe s n o ted a t Ma i lapu r a nd A rya thu r a nd A rya thu r a nd G un ipa layam c l ea r ly i n d ica te c ommon s ou rce s . T he h i gh p e r cen tage o f r o ck t y pes c ommon t o A t t irampakkam a nd A rya thu r i n d ica te s s ome s im i la r i ty i n s ou rce s o f d epo s i t ion . P roce s se s o f F err icr i t i sa t ion : T he f o rma t ion o f f e r r ic r e te s r e qu ire s ac on t ra s ted t r op ica l c l ima te w i th o f 1 500 mm p e r y ea r , at empe ra tu re o f2 5 3 0° C , f i ve m on ths o f d ry s e a son a nd r e la t ive h um id i ty o f 6 5% ( Reddy e t a l . 1 990 ; T a rdy 1 992 ) . B ane r jee ( 1993 , p . 922 ) a s soc ia te s t h e o ccu r rence o f f e r r ic re te s i n t h e t r op ic s w i th g l ac ia ls a nd i n te rg lac ia ls a nd r e la ted c hanges i n s ea l e ve ls , h um id i ty a nd v ege ta t ion s t ru c tu re . H ow eve r , i n t h e s t udy a r ea , t h e r ewo rk ing o f T er t ia ry f e r r ic r e tes , l o ca l a bundance o fi r on a nd t h e l ow d eg ree o f w ea the r ing w i th t h e r o le o f g roundwa te r b e ing p redom inan t c ou ld p o s s ib ly p o in t t o a l owe r d eg r ee o f p r ec ip i ta t ion . A cco rd ing t o B ane i jee ( 1 993 , p . 92 1) , i r on s tone o rf e r r ic re tes d evo id o ft h ep edogene t ic c a tena d o n o t c ome u nde rl a te ntes b u t m ay b e g roundwa te r l a te nte s a nd a r e b e l ieved t o b e a s soc ia ted w i th t h e f o rma t ion o f p l ana t ion s u rf aces s e en a l ong t h e c oa s ta l s t r e tch f r om M idnapu r i n B enga l t o C henna i . F er r ic re te l a nd scapes g ene ra l ly c on s is t o f ap a tchwo rk o f m ine ra log ica l a nd c hem ica l f a c ie s d i f f e r ing i nd eg r ee o fe vo lu t ion ( Ta rdy & R oqu in 1 992 , p . 4 10 ) . T h is p henomenon i s v i s ib le i n t h e s t udy a r ea w i th o l de r f e r r ic r e tes b e ing p r ese rved o n ly i np o s s ib le s e c t ion s s e en a t K e rukambakkam a nd p o s s ib ly P oond i a r ea

T he E ruma ive t t ipa layam f o rma t ion ( 30 m ) i nt h e P a la r b a s in c on s is t s o f0 . 5 t o 5m t h ick l a te nte s o ve r s ha les s how ing t wo p ha se s o fl a te r i t isa t ion ( s ee A ppend ix I V ) . A t E ruma ive t t ipa layam , Man janaka ran i a nd A lamad i s t ud ie s p o in t t o l a te r i t isa t ion o f s a nd s tone s o f M ioP l iocene a ge ( Mu ra l idha ran e t a l . 1 993 ) . B o reho le d a ta a r ound R ed H i l ls p o in t s t or e cen t a nd s ub r ecen t a luv ium o f a l te rna t ing s a nd s a nd c l ay s a t a nd n ea rt h e s u r f ace u nde r la in b y s a nd s tone s , k anka r , l a te r i te ; a nd o ccu r rence o fl a te r i t e a nd k anka r a t 1 2 -50 m b e low t h e s u rf ace p o in t s t os ub s idence o f t h e l a nd ( Annadu ra i e t a l . 1 985 ) . A t K andakka ra i ( 1 3° 4 0 ' 6 0 " Na nd 8 0 ° 1 6 ' 2 3 " E ) , s a nd a nd c l ay o ccu r a td ep th s o f 0t o5 0 mb e low t h e s u rf ace u nde r la in b y l a te r i te a nd s a nd a t5 0 5 9 mb e low t h e s u rf ace ( Annadu ra i e ta l . 1 985 ) .

5

I nt h e s t udy a r ea , t h e e l eva t ion o ft h e f e r r ic r e te s r a nge s f r om 3 0 -80 m AMSL . H ow eve r , t h e o ccu r rence o f L a te A cheu l ian t o M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a r tef ac t s i nt h em , w ou ld e nab le o ne t o t e n ta t ive ly c or re la te t h em w i th t h e L owe r t e r ra ce d epo s i t s i nc oa s ta l A ndh ra w h ich i sl a te r i na ge t h an t h e + 7 mh igh s e a l e ve l . A t p r e sen t , t h e d ep th o f t h e g roundwa te r a s n o ted i n w e l l s e c t ion s o ccu r s a pp rox ima te ly 2 t o 3m b e low t h e s u rf ace . I n mo s t l o ca l i t ies , t h e g roundwa te r l e ve l w a s b e low t h a t o ft h e f e r r ic r e tes o r l a y a t t h e b ounda ry b e tween t h e f e r r ic r e te s a nd b ed rock . A ssum ing t h a t t h e se p edogen ic f e r r ic re te s a r e f o rmed i n t h e p e rmanen t ly u n sa tu ra ted z one , i ti sp os s ib le t h a t t h e w a te r t a b le w a sl owe r , a sn o ted i nc oa s ta l A ndh ra .

Q ua te rna ry p a laeoc l ima te s c on s t ru c ted a t t h e g l oba l a nd S ubcon t inen ta l l e ve ls a r e p u t f o rwa rd . T he se a r e c on s ide red a l ong w i th g eomorpho log ica l e v idence o f c l ima t ic c h ange s i n r e g ion t o p rov ide a n i d ea o f Q ua ter na ry c l ima t ic f l uc tua t ions . P re sen t Monsoon D ynam ics A m a jo r f e a tu re o f I n d ia i st h a t t h e s ou thwes t m onsoon ( J une -Sep tembe r ) a ccoun t s f o r 7 0 -95% o f t h e a nnua l r a inf a l l t h roughou t t h e c oun t ry e xcep t i nt h e s ou thea s t P en in su la , K a shm i r a nd t h ea d jo in ing h i l l a r ea s( Na t iona l C omm is s ion o n A g r icu l tu r e 1 976 , p . 1) . T hu s , i nt h e c oa s ta l a r ea s o fC h ing lepu t , S ou th A rco t , T an jo re a nd t os ome e x ten t R ame shwa ram a nd K anyakuma r i , t h e n or thea s t m onsoon c ons t i tu te s mo re t h an h a lf o f t h et o ta l m o is tu re r e ce ived .

A s d i scu s sed e a r l ie r , t h e f e r r ic r e te s i nt h e s t udy a r ea c on s is tl a rge ly o fr ewo rked T er t ia ry t oE a r ly P l e is tocene f e r r ic re tes . T he s u b sequ en t d i sman t l ing o f t h e d u r ic ru s t m ay o ccu r d ue t o v a r iou s f a c to r s i n c lud ing b l ock g l id ing a nd d eb r is f l ow o r t h e rma l b reakdown d u e t o h i gh d i u rna l t empe ra tu r e r a nges c omb ined w i th r a in s howe r s o r h eavy d ew o r f i re ( Goud ie 1 973 ; T a rdy & R oqu in 1 992 ) .

A ppend ix I c on ta in s r a inf a l l v a r ia t ion s i n C h ing lepu t d i s t r ic t . T he l o nges t r e co rd s o f r a inf a l l a r e a va i lab le f o r t h is r eg ion ( Ben son 1 892 ) e nab l ing o ne t o u nde r s tand s ho r t te rm m onsoon d ynam ics . B la sco a nd L eg r is ( 1 973 ) b e l ieve t h a t s ou th o f 1 2 ° Nt h e m on soon r a ins , c on t r ibu t ing 7 0 -90% o f t h e a nnua l r a inf a l l o r ig ina te m a in ly f r om d ep r es s ions a nd c yc lones i nt h e B ay o fB enga l . T he s umme r r a ins e xpe r ienced d u r ing t h e s ou thwe s t m onsoon ( J une -Sep tembe r ) a r e d ue t o t h unde r s to rm s r e su l t ing i n h eavy l o ca l ised d ownpou r s . T hey c ons ide r o n ly t h e w e s ter n m a r i t ime c oa s t t o d i sp lay a t y p ica l m on soon c l ima te . M ehe r -Hom j i ( 1 975 ) f e e ls h oweve rt h a t a s t h e s e a son s a r e n o t w e l l m a rked i n t h e C o romande l C oa s t ( s ou thea s t c oa s t o f I n d ia , i n T am i l N adu ) , t h e s i ng le m ax imum o f r a in s i n O c tobe r -Novembe r m ay b e t a ken a s t h e c ha rac te r is t ic o f t h e m onsoon i n T am i l N adu ( Mehe r -Hom j i 1 975 , p . 25 ) .

G u l l ies r a nge f r om t h ird o rde r s t r eam s s u ch a s t h e A l l iku l l i c hanne l o rN ambakkam g u l ly w h ich a r ise s i n t h e A l l iku l l i h i l ls a nd t r ave r se s a d i s tance o f 1 5 km t od ebouch i nt h e K or ta l laya r w he r e i tt a kes ab end a nd b eg in s f l ow ing e a s t , t o s ma l l f i r s t a nd s e cond o rde r s t ream s . Mo s t g u l l ie s i n t h e s t udy a r ea a r e H o locene p henomena c u t t ing t h rough P l e is tocene d epo s i t s . A t K an j ipad i a nd A t t irampakkam t h e d i r ec t ion o f p a la eochanne ls r ough ly p a ra l le ls t h a t o fm odern g u l l ie s . T hu s , P l e is tocene g eomo rph ic p roce s se s a r e c omp lex . A l though t e r race s e x is t , t h ese d o n o t c or r espond t o t h e t e r races p ropo sed b y e a r l ie r w o rke r s ( K r ishna swam i 1 938a ) . A rchaeo log ica l e v idence d oe s n o t p o in t t o c h rono log ica l d i v is ions b e tween t h e P oond i a nd A t t i rampakkam t e r races ; a nd t h e t e r ra ce a t E ruma ive t t ipa layam i s l a rge ly a r e su l t o f n eo tec ton ic s . F u r the r i n ves t iga t ion s a nd c h ronome t r ic d a t ing o ft h e s ed imen t s t h em se lve s a r er e qu i r ed t or e so lve t h ese i s su es .

A s t udy i n co rpo ra t ing 8 2 y ea r s o f r a inf a l l d a ta ( 1 870 195 1) , i n C h ing lepu t d i s t r ic t ( Ba la sub raman iyam & V enka tana ra s inga 1 9 53 ) , s howed t h a tj u s t o ve r at h ird o ft h e p r ec ip i ta t ion i sr e ce ived i nt h e s ou thwes t monsoon p e r iod a nd 5 6% d u r ing t h e n o r thea s t m on soon p e r iod . I ft h e n o r thea s t m on soon f a i led i na ny y ea r t h e r e i sa 3 : 1 c hance o ft h a t y ea r b e ing d ef ic ien t i nt o ta l a nnua l p r ec ip i ta t ion . A v ery h i gh p o s i t ive a nd s i gn if ican t c o r re la t ion o f r= 0 .9 156 ± 0 . 450 e x is ted b e tween t h e n or thea s t m on soon s howe r s a nd t h e t o ta l a nnua l r a inf a l l a nd a n i n v e r s e c or r e la t ion i sn o ted b e tween t h e n or thea s t a nd s ou thwe s tm onsoon s .

2 . 5 : QUATERNARY CL I MATOLOGY I n f o rma t ion o n Qua terna ry p a laeoc l ima te s a l ong t h e s ou thea s t c oa s t o fI nd ia i sa tb e s t m eag r e . A s a f i r s t s t ep , t h e ref o re , p re sen t -day m on soon d ynam ic s i nt h e S ubcon t inen t a nd T am i l N adu i n p a r t icu la r a r e r e v iewed . S econd ly , m ode ls o f

5 6

a s n o ted a t t h e s i t e o f E ruma ive t t ipa layam ( Achyu tan , 1 996 ; Mu ra l idha ran e ta l . 1 993 ) .

T hese c onc lu s ions a r e s uppo r ted b y R amamu r thy ( 1 968 ) w ho s t ud ied t h e r a inf a l l d a ta f o r C henna i ( Mad ra s ) f o rt h e p e r iod 1 86 11960 . H e n o tes t h a t d u r ing t h e s ou thwe s t mon soon , r a ins a r e s ma l l i n a moun t a nd r e l iab le b u t d u r ing t h e r e t r ea t ing m onsoon t h e r e i s h i gh v a r iab i l i ty w i th h eavy f a l ls i n s ome y ea r s a nd h i gh r a inf a l l i n g ene ra l a nd a c omp le te f a i lu r e i n af ew y ea r s . T he i n ve r se r e la t ion sh ip b e tween p r ec ip i ta t ion d u r ing t h e s ou thwe s t a nd n or thea s t m onsoon s i s a l so c on f irmed b y D ha r a nd R adkecha ( 1 983 q uo ted H a s ten ra th 1 99 1 ,p . 30 1) .

E ar ly M idd le P l e i s tocene : G eomorpho log ica l e v idence i n d ica te s ad ry c l ima te a r ound 3 00 k y r . E v idence f r om t h e S ubcon t inen t h a s b een s umma r ized b y R a jagu ru ( Ra jagu ru e ta l . 1 993 ) . V ery l i t t le e v idence f o r t h is p e r iod i so b ta ined a l ong t h e s ou thea s t c oa s t . T he f e r r ic r e tes b ea r ing A cheu l ian a r tef ac t s r e p r e sen t a luv ia l f a n p roce s ses o pe ra t ing i n s em i -a r id t o s ubhum id c ond i t ion s . L a te M idd le P l e i s tocene : A round 2 00 k y r , t h e p r e sen t -day f o rm o fI n d ia w a s a cqu ir ed . W i th a n i n c r ea se i n e l eva t ion o f t h e H ima laya s a nd T ibe tan p l a teau a nd t h ick i c e c ove r a t h igh a l t i tude s , t h e S ubcon t inen t w i tnes sed ar e la t ive ly d ry c l ima te a nd t h e s e a d ropped b y s c o r es o f m e t r e s . T he s ou thwe s t m on soon s w e r e w eak d u r ing t h e P enu l t ima te G lac ia t ion ( Ra jagu ru e t . a l . 1 993 , p p .602 -603 ) . G eomorpho log ica l e v idence f o r t h is c ome s f r om v a r iou s s i t es i n R a ja s than , G u ja ra t a nd Maha ra sh t ra a mong o t he r r e g ion s . T he h ypo the s is o f aw eak s ou thwes t m onsoon i n w e s tern I n d ia d r awn f r om g eomorpho log ica l e v idence a g r ee s w e l l w i th t h e g ene ra l p i c tu r e f o r S ou th A s ia a s i n d ica ted b y d eep s e a c o re s a nd l o e s s s e quences . F auna l e v idence i n d ica te s t h a t t h e C en t ra l I n d ian r e g ion w a s av a s t s a vanna , w i th r i ve r s a nd s c a t te red f r esh w a te r l a ke s a nd s wamp s ( Ra jagu ru e t a l . 1 993 , p p . 182 -3 ) . T hu s w h i le g eomorpho log ica l e v idence p o in t s t o ad ry c l ima te , f a una l e v idence d oe sn o tf u l ly s uppo r tt h is .

T he n o r thea s t mon soon i se s sen t ia l ly ad ry w ind s y s tem b r ing ing l a rg e ly b r igh t w ea the r . H oweve r , d u r ing t h e n o r thea s t m onsoon , d ep res s ion s d eve lop i n t h e B ay o f B enga l a nd m ov ing w e s twa rd s t h ey p rov ide h eavy c yc lon ic r a inf a l l o n t h e e a s t ( Leg r is 1 972 ) . I mpor tan t t o n o te i st h a t P en insu la r I n d ia i sa l so s ub jec ted t o p e r iod ic d r ough t s ( Sub rahmanyam & S arma 1 975 ,p . 120 ) . R econs truc t ing Qua ternary P a laeoc l ima te s I n t h e a b sence o f s uff ic ien t d a ta , mode ls p r oposed h e r e mu s t r ema in t e n ta t ive . T he p ecu l ia r c ha rac te r o f t h e I n d ian m onsoon i s c on s ide red t o h ave b een e s tab l ished w i th t h e u p l if t o ft h e H i ma laya s d u r ing t h e L a te T er t ia r y ( P inx ian Wang , 1 988 , q uo ted R a jagu ru e t a l . 1 993 , p . 600 ) , w i th t h e p r e sen t d ay p a t ter nh av ing b een f u l ly e s tab l ished f r om t h e M idd le P l e is tocene w hen t h e H ima laya s a nd t h e T ibe tan p l a teau m o r e o r l e s s a t ta ined t h e i r p r esen t e l eva t ion . A long t h e s ou thea s tc oa s t i np a r t icu la r , t h e mon soon p a t tern i s c on s ide r ed t o b e a f u nc t ion o f t h e u p l if t o f t h e We s ter n G ha t s d ur ing t h e T e r t ia ry ( Mehe r -Hom j i 1 978 , p p .22 2 3 ) F u r the r ; monsoon v a r ia t ion s a r e b road ly l i nked t og l ac ia l / in te rg lac ia l f l uc tua t ion s . T ak ing i n to c on s ide ra t ion c l ima t ic v a r ia t ion s i n t h e S ubcon t inen t , a sw e l l a se v idence f r om t h e s t udy a r ea s ome p o ss ib le v a r ia t ion s a r e c on s ide red h e re .

O n t h e s ou thea s t c oa s t n ea r M ad ra s , a s aw ho le , p r ec ip i ta t ion w ou ld h ave b een l e s s . F u r the r , d u r ing t h e L a s t G lac ia l Max ima a s t rong n o r thea s t a nd w eak s ou thwe s t mon soon a r e n o ted . A s sum ing t h a t t h e p r e sen t p a t te rn o f i n ve r se c o r re la t ion b e tween t h e n o r thea s t a nd s ou thwe s t m on soon s i s a pp l icab le f o r t h e P enu l t ima te G lac ia l a s w e l l , w e c an p o s tu la te a s t ronge r n o r thea s t mon soon d ur ing t h is p e r iod . A s m a jo rr a inf a l l d u r ing t h i s p e r iod o ccu r s i nt h e f o rm o fd ep re s s ion s a nd c yc lones , t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o fl ow i n ten s i ty c yc lone sm ay b e c on s ide r ed .

E ar ly P l e i s tocene : T he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween c o ld c l ima te a nd s ou thw es t mon soon i sb e l ieved t oh ave b een e s tab l ished a f te r t h e m a jo r u p l if t o f t h e H ima laya s a nd t h e T ibe tan p l a teau i n t h e e a r ly M idd le P l e is tocene a r ound 4 00 -300 k y r . ( L i j ij un 1 99 1 q uo ted R a jaguru e t a l . 1 993 , p . 60 1) . I n t h e S ubcon t inen t , g eomorpho log ica l e v idence ( Ra jagu ru e ta l . 1 993 , p . 60 1) p o in t st oa d r ie r c l ima te d u r ing t h is p er iod . L i t t le t o n o e v idence o fc l i ma t ic c hange i sa va i lab le f o r t h is p er iod i nt h e s t udy a r ea , t h ough i ti sp o s s ib le t h a t f e r r icr e te f o rma t ion c on t inued d u r ing t h is p ha se

I nt h e s t udy r e g ion , M idd le P l e is tocene d epo s i t s r ef lec t p roces ses o fa l ter na t ing c o l luv ia l , s t ream a nd s hee t f l ood d epo s i t s w i th c l a s t s a nd m a t r ix d e r ived f r om t h e w ea the r ing o f b ed rock a nd T er t ia ry f e r r ic r e te s . T he o ngo ing p roce s s o f f e r r ic r i t isa t ion c ou ld p o in t t o p ronounced s e a sona l i ty . L a te A cheu l ian t o M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t o o ls a r e n o ted i nt h e f e r r ic r e te s .

5 7

d a ta i n d ica te s t h a t n o f e r r ic re t e o ccu r r ed . S hee t f l oods p r edom ina ted .

E ar ly L a te P l e is tocene : D u r ing t h e l a s t I n te rg la c ia l t h e r e w a s r ap id d eg lac ia t ion ( Te rm ina t ion I ) a t a r ound 1 30 k y r . S umme r p r ec ip i ta t ion i n t h e A f r ican a nd E a s t A s ian m onsoon s e c to r s w a s a ppa ren t ly h i ghe r . I n t h e I n d ian s e c to r , h oweve r , d a ta s ugges t as omewha t w eake r m onsoon . Al a rge p a r t o fE u ra s ia w a s 4 ° Cw a rme ra t1 25 k y r . T hese r e su l t s a r e c on s is ten t w i th g r ea te r monsoon i n ten s i ty . G eomorpho log ica l e v idence o f e a r ly L a te P l e is tocene d epo s i t s i n I n d ia ( Ra jagu ru e t a l . 1 993 ) a s soc ia ted w i th M idd le P a laeo l i th ic s t one t o o ls i n d ica tes t h a t i tw a s w e t te r . D e ran iyaga la b e l ieve s t h a t ow ing t o t h e i n t ima te r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e t r ade w ind s a nd t h e s ou thwe s t m onsoon o ne c ou ld p o s tu la te t h a t a5 0% i n c rea se i n t h e f o rme r m ean t ac or re spond ing , p e rhap s g r ea te r , i n c rea se i nt h e l a t te rw h ich i nt u r n w ou ld h ave r e su l ted i n p ropo r t iona te ly g r ea te r r a inf a l l i n t h e w e t z one o f S r i L anka a nd p ronounced s umme r d rough t i n t h e d ry z one ( Thamba iyap i l la i , q uo ted D e ran iyaga la 1 988 , p . 106 ) .

f o rma t ion

H o locene : T he e a r ly H o locene ( 9 ,000 t o 6 , 000 B .P ) w a s ap e r iod o fg ood r a inf a l l i ng ene ra l ( s ee R a jagu ru e ta l . 1 993 , p p .606-607 ) . D a ta f r om t h e P a la r b a s in p o in t s t o e x ten s ive a luv ia l d epo s i t s d u r ing t h is p e r iod a l ong w i th t h e d eve lopmen t o f b each d une c omp lexe s a nd f o rma t ion o f d e l ta s ( Mu ra l idha ran e ta l . 1 993 ) . T o s ummar ise , i ti ss e en t h a t i nt h e s t udy r e g ion t h ep r e sen t -day mon soon p a t ter n i sd om ina ted b y t h e n o r thea s t monsoon ; a nd t h a t t h is p a t ter n i s t h ough t t o h ave b een e s tab l ished d u r ing t h e T er t ia ry . S econd ly , t h e i n ve r se r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t h e n or thea s t a nd s ou thwes t m on soon a s n o ted o ve r t h e l a s t c en tu ry c ou ld p o s s ib ly b e e x tended t ot h e P l e is tocene . T h ird ly , i ft h is i ss o t h en t h e w eak s ou thwes t m onsoon n o ted d u r ing t h e P enu l t ima te G lac ia l c ou ld p o s s ib ly b e c or re la ted w i th as t ronge r n or thea s t m on soon i n t h is r e g ion , a l though w i th r educed i n tens i ty . G lac ia ls c ou ld a l so l e ad t o s t ronge r t r op ica l d ep res s ion sa sp e rs ome a u tho r s .

A m o r e p owerf u l s ou thwes t mon soon c ou ld i mp ly ad ec r ea se i nt h e i n ten s i ty o ft h e n or thea s t m onsoon . H oweve r , a st h e d ry z one o fS r i L anka i st h ough t t o b e c l ima t ica l ly s im i la r t on or the rn T am i l N adu , t h e s t udy r eg ion m igh t h ave w i tnes sed s umme r d rough t . H oweve r , a s t h e s ou thwe s t m onsoon w a s h ighe r i n t h e S ubcon t inen t , i ti sp os s ib le t h a t r a inf a l l i n tens i ty i n t h is r e g ion w a s a l so h i ghe r c oup led w i th a v e ry w eak n or thea s t monsoon . T he s t r eng then ing o f t h e s umme r m onsoon c ou ld a l so m ean a n i n c r ea se i nd ep res s ion s i nt h e B ay o fB enga l .

T he s t rong s ou thwes t m on soon i n t h e L a s t I n te rg lac ia l w ou ld n o d oub t h ave i n c r ea sed p r ec ip i ta t ion i nt h e s t udy a r ea , a nd t h e i n c idence o fd ep r e s s ion s i nt h e B ay ,b u tc ou ld b ec o r r e la ted w i th a w eak n o r thea s t m onsoon a nd t h u s l e ss m o is tu r e o nt h e w ho le a sc ompa red t oo t he rp ar ts o f I n d ia . T he L a s t G lac ia l i sa l so c ha rac te r ized b y as t rong e r n or thea s t m onsoon . T hough t h is p e r iod i sc ha rac te r ized b y g ene ra l a r id i ty i nt h e S ubcon t inen t , t h is r e g ion c ou ld h ave r e ce ived s u ff ic ien t p r ec ip i ta t ion t h rough d ep r e s s ions w h ich t o day c on s t i tu te t h e m a jo r s ou r ce o f m o is tu r e . G eomorpho log ica l e v idence i n t h e f o rm o fc o l luv ia l a nd s hee t f l ood d epo s i t s a l ong w i th e v idence o f b ra ided c hanne ls a nd s t r eam f l ood d epo s i t s c ou ld i n d ica te a d r ie r c l ima te d u r ing m o s t o f t h e P l e is tocene . F er r ic re te f o rma t ion a s d i scu s sed e a r l ie r p o in t s t o g r ea te r h um id i ty a nd p ronounced s e a sona l i ty t h roughou t t h e M idd le P l e is tocene . T he i mp l ica t ion s o f c l ima t ic c hange o n f l o ra a nd f a una i nt h e s t udy r e g ion i sc on s ide r ed n ex t .

L a te P le i s tocene : G eomo rpho log ica l e v idence p o in t st og r ea te ra r id i ty i nR a ja s than ( Ra jagu ru e t a l . 1 993 , p . 604 ) . I n t h e s t udy r eg ion , d u r ic ru s t f o rma t ion w a s c omp le ted b y t h e L a te P l e is tocene . T h is p e r iod i s m a rked b y t h e o ccu r rence o f ad epo s i t o fc l ayey s i l t s w h ich a r e a r chaeo log ica l ly s t e r i le a nd w h ich c ap t h e d u r ic ru s t . T erm ina l P l e is tocene : A l l e v idence p o in t s t o a g r ea te r a r id i ty a nd as t ronge r n or thea s t m onsoon d u r ing t h is p e r iod ( C row ley a nd N o r th 1 99 1 ; F on tugne & D up le s sy 1 986 ; L u the r e ta l . 1 990 q uo ted H a s ten ra th 1 99 , p . 434 ; R a jagu ru e t a l . 1 993 ; v an C ampo 1 986 ) . G eomorpho log ica l e v idence f r om I n d ia p o in t s t oe x t r eme a r id i ty i n m o s t p a r t s o f t h e S ubcon t inen t ( Ra jagu ru e ta l . 1 993 , p p .805 -606 ) . A n i n c r ea se i nt h e n or thea s t m onsoon w ou ld h ave h ad s i gn if ican t i mp l ica t ion s f o rt h e s ou thea s t c oa s t . G eomorph ic

2 . 6 :B IOLOG ICAL ENV IRON MENT E v idence f o r t h e r e con s t ruc t ion o f p a s t v ege ta t ion a l ong t h e s ou thea s t c oa s t o f I n d ia i s m eag re . A na log ies d r awn f r om p r e s en t d ay s t ud ie s o n ' c l imax v ege ta t ion ' (W icken s 1 982 , p . 3 1) a r e c on s ide red h e re . F u r the r , m ode ls p ropo sed b y s cho la r s b a sed o n g l oba l c l ima t ic

5 8

m ax imum r i se o f t h e We s tern G ha t s i n t h e P l iocene c on t r ibu ted t od r ie r c ond i t ion s , o n t h e C o romande l -Coa s t a nd ac hange f r om t h e w e t s em i -eve rg reen t o ad ec iduou s a nd u l t ima te ly t o a d ry e ve rg r een t y pe ( Mehe r -Hom j i 1 977 ,p .130 ) . T h is u p l if t a l so e s tab l ished t h e p r e sen t m on soon p a t tern a l ong t h e e a s t c oa s t b yc u t t ing o f ft h e s ou thwe s tm on soon .

c hanges a r e u sed t o u nde r s tand c hang ing v ege ta t ion p a t te rn s , a l though i ti sr e cogn ized t h a t i n g ene ra l c hange s i n v ege ta t ion l a g b eh ind a l te r a t ion si nc l ima te . V e ry l i t t le f a c tua l d a ta i s a va i lab le a nd a t b e s t t e n ta t ive h ypo these sc an b e s ugge s ted . T he v ege ta t ion a l ong t h e e a s t c oa s t o f S ou th I n d ia , f r om R amana thapu ram t o V ishakapa tnam , i s t e rmed a s t r op ica l d ry e ve rg reen f o re s t ( Gau sen e t a l . 1 964 ) . P hy s iognom ica l ly i ti si nt h e s hape o f s c rub w ood land o rt h icke t s , t h e l a t te r b e ing d en se o r d i scon t inuou s . F lo r is t ica l ly i ti sd i s t ingu ished b ys ome c ha rac ter is t ic a nd p r ef e r en t ia l s p ec ie s , e xc lus ive ly o r m o s t ly c onf ined t o t h is v ege ta t ion t ope . P hy s iognom ica l ly a nd f l o r is t ica l ly t h e re i s n o t m uch d i f f e rence b e tween t h e d ry e ve rg r een f o r es t a nd t h e t hor n f o r es t s o fs ou ther n I n d ia ( Mehe r -Hom j i 1 974 , p . 19 ) w h ich a r e t h u s m e rged b y h im i n to t h e A lb izz ia a mara c ommun i ty . I n t h e e co tone z one w he r e t h e d ry e ve rg reen f o res t i s i n c on tac t w i th t h e t r op ica l d ry d ec iduou s t y pe , s ome o ft h e t yp ica l s p ec ie s o f t h e l a t te r t y pe i n f i l t ra te i n t h e d ry e ve rg reen c ommun i ty ( Mehe r -Hom j i 1 974 , p . 20 ) . T he m a in d i s t ingu ish ing c l ima t ic f e a tu r e f o r t h i s v ege ta t ion t y pe i si t s p ecu l ia r r a inf a l l p a t ter n ; w i th a t r op ica l d i s symme t r ic r e g ime ( Mehe r H om j i 1 974 ) a nd w he r et h e w in te rr a in si n duce t h e e ve rg r een c ha rac te ro nt h e v ege ta t ion .

S ome o f t h e d ec iduou s f o r e s t s p ec ies c ou ld h ave s t aged ar e tu rn o n t h e C o romande l -C ir ca r c oa s t s i n t h e w ake o f t h e P l e is tocene g l ac ia t ion . I t i s g ene r a l ly a dm i t ted t h a t i n c r ea sed g l ac ia t ion l owe r ed t h e t empe ra tu r e b y 5 7 ° C . I r re spec t ive o fw he the r t h e r a inf a l l w a s h i ghe r o r n o t , Mehe r -Hom j i ( 1977 ) b e l ieves t h a t t h e l owe r t empe ra tu r e a nd e vapo ra t ion w ou ld i n c rea se i t s e ff icacy . S ome o ft h e f o r e s t s pec ie s s t i l l m anage t oh o ld t h e i r o wn i ne ve rg reen f o r e s t s ; t h e t y p ica l s p ec ie s o f t h is l a t te r t y pe m ay b e c on s ide r ed a st h e f i l le r s p ec ie st h a t i n t rude t of i l l t h e l a cuna c r ea ted b y t h e d i sappea rance o ft h e t y p ica l s pec ie s o ft h e d ec iduou s f o r e s t , t h e c hanged c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s a nd t h e s o i l b e ing n o l o nge r c onduc ive f o rt h e ir g row th . A b sence o fr a ins i n May June r e su l t s i nt h e d i sappea rance o fm o s t o f t h e s pec ies t y p ica l o f t h e d ry f o re s t s f r om t h e t r op ica l d ry e ve rg r een f o r es t o f t h e C o romande l -C ir ca rc oa s t . L egr is ( 1972 , p p . 2 4 -25 ) b e l ieve s t h a t w i th a d ec r ea se i n m ean t empe r a tu re o f t h e c o lde s t m on th b y 8 ° Ct h e " g raph ic a r ea " o fA lb i z z ia a mara i sb rough t t ot h e p r e sen t -day c ond i t ion s o ft h e d ry S a l t y pe a nd t h a t i ft h is c oo l ing i s a ccompan ied b y ar e duc t ion i nt h e i n ten s i ty o f t h e d ry s e a son , i n v i ew o f t h e d ec r ease i n t empe ra tu r e , b i oc l ima t ic c ond i t ion s o f t h e m o is t d ec iduou s S a l T ype o f O r is sa a nd e ven B enga l c ou ld s ub s t i tu te t h e p r esen t ly p r eva i l ing b i oc l ima te o f t h e A lb iz z ia a mara t y pe p erm i t t ing t h e p ene t ra t ion o f t h e I n do Ma layan e l emen t f r om B enga l t o C ape C omor in . T h is c ou ld o ccu r w i th a n i n c r ea se i n r a inf a l l t o 5 00 1000 mm /annum f o r e xamp le , d ur ing ap l uv ia l p e r iod .

T he d ry e ve rg reen f o r e s t u sua l ly o ccu r s o n r e d f e r rug inou s o r f e r r a l l t ic s a ndy l o am f o rm ing t h e C udda lo re s and s tones , m id -Ter t ia ry i na ge . I n p ar t icu la r , Memecyc lon u mbe l la tum i s u sua l ly a s soc ia ted w i th l a ter i t ic s o i ls w he re t h e m e la s tomaceae a r e r e po r ted t o b e a l um in ium a c cumu la to r s i nt h e s o i ls . T h is f o res t t y pe a l so o ccu r s o ve r s and s a t P u l ica t l a ke a nd P o in t C a l ime re a nd o n a luv ia l s o i ls ( Mehe r -Hom j i 1 974 ,p . 30 ) . Mehe r -Hom j i ( 1974 , 1978 ) b e l ieves t h a t t h e d ry e ve rg r een t hor n f o r es t , much a l ied t ot h e s ou thern t h or n f o r e s t a ppea r s t o h ave b een d er ived f r om t h e d ry d ec iduou s f o r es t b y t h e d i sappea r ance o f m any t y p ica l s pec ies o f t h e l a t te r t y pe a nd i n va s ion o f s ome e ndem ic S ou th I n d ian , I ndo -Ma layan , T rop ica l A f ro A s ian /Au s t ra l ian s p ec ies . T he d i s t ingu ish ing c l ima t ic f a c to r i st h e a b sence o fg ood , r e gu la r r a ins i n May June w h ich o t he rw ise d e te rm ine d ry d ec iduous o rm o is tf o r e s t s .

O n am ic ro leve l , s t ud ie s o n t h e d ry e ve rg r een s e r ie s a t Ma rakanam , P o in t C a l ime r e p o in t t o g r ea t l o ca l v ar ia t ion i n s p ec ies d i s tr ibu t ion ( Sp range r s a nd B a la sub r aman iam 1 978 , p . 288 ) . S ome s p ec ie s f r om t h e S ou th I nd ian h i l ls , p o s s ib ly m ig ra ted t h e r e f r om t h e H ima laya s d ur ing t h e g l ac ia t ion s , d u r ing w h ich p er iod , u nde r c oo le r c ond i t ion s , s pec ie s t y p ica l o f t r op ica l d ec iduou s f o re s t s c ou ld t h r ive i nt h e p l a in s a nd t h e m on tane f o r es t a nd d e scend t oa n e l eva t ion o fb e low t h e h e igh to f

I n t h e w ake o f t h e e qua tor ia l s i tua t ion a w e t s em i -eve rg r een f o r e s t t h r ived o n t h e C o romande l c oa s t i n t h e M iocene . T he s ub sequen t n o r ther n d r if t p robab ly a ccompan ied b y as l igh t s ou the rn s h if t o f t h e e qua to r , t h e u p l if t o f t h e H ima layas a nd t h e

5 9

1 500 m ( Mehe r -Hom j i 1 975 , p . 395 , q uo ted G up ta 1 989 ) . S o i l p rof i le s f r om t h e N i lg ir i h i l ls a l so p o in t t o v ege ta t ion c hange s d u r ing t h e l a s t 4 0 ,000 y ea r s . S ome o ft h e f l o ra c o l lec ted n o r th o f Mad ra s i n d ica te a t r op ica l c l ima te . I n t h e K or ta l laya r r i ve r b a s in , n ea r K ondaka r ra i ( 1 3° 1 4 ' 1 0 " N :80 ° 1 6 ' 3 0 "E ) , d i co t lydonou s p l an t s , c a rbon ised b a rk , s t em p i ece s , s e ed s , p ea t , s po r e s a nd p o l len s i n d ica te at r op ica l c l ima te . H oweve r n o d a te sa r e a va i lab le ( P ra sad e ta l . 1 989 , q uo ted V a idyana than a nd G ho sh 1 993 ,p . 8 15 ) .

t e c ton ics , a n e xam ina t ion o ft h ese s p ec ie s m igh t t h row s om e l i gh t o n p o s s ib le P le is tocene f a una i n T am i l N adu . P r esen t s t ud ie s i n g ame s a nc tua r ie so f Muduma la i a nd B and ipu r( Geo rge a nd V a rghe se 1 985 ; N a i r e ta l . 1 978 ; P r a sad e t a l . 1 984 , 1 9 86 ) , w h ich r e p r e sen t aw id e v a r ie ty o fe cozone s e a ch w i th c ha r ac te r is t ic f a una , m ay t h row s om e l i gh t o n p o s s ib le p a s t f a una l c hange s . I n t h e Muduma la i s a nc tua ry , t h r ee t y pes o f v ege ta t ion p r eva i l d ue t od i f f e rence s i nr a inf a l l ; v i z , t r op ica l m o is t d ec iduou s b ecau se o f h i gh r a inf a l l , t r op ica l d ry d ec iduou s w h ich m e rges g r adua l ly w i th t h e t h or n f o res t s w he r e t h e r a inf a l l i si n adequa te a nd s ou thern t r op ica l t h orn f o r es t s c rub j ung le d om ina ted b y A cac ia s pp . I t i sn o ted t h a t w hen a s em i -everg r een v eg e ta t ion s e r ie s p r eva i ls , o pen ing s a r e c r ea ted i n t h e c anopy f o r e s t ,p a la tab le h e rbage g row s a nd l a rge m amma l ian h e rb ivo r es c an b e s uppor ted ( P ra sad e ta l . 1 975 , p . 725 ) . S crub v ege ta t ion d om ina ted b y A cac ias a r e g ood f odde r f o r b r ow s ing h e rb ivo r e s( e .g . e l ephan t s )a nd c an s uppo r t ar i ch m amma l ian f a una ; n i lga i , b l ackbuck a nd g au r a l so f l ou r ish i na na r ea o fp e r iod ic w a te rs c a rc i ty b e ing m o r et o le ran to fw a te rd ef ic ienc ie s( P ra sad e ta l . 1 975 ,p . 725 -726 ) .

P l e is tocene f o ss i ls f r om T am i l N adu ( Badam a nd J ayaka ran 1 993 ) i n c lude H yp se lepha s H y sud r icu s f r om A yyan id ip i n P l io -P le is tocene s ed imen t s ( T irune lve l i d i s t r ic t ) , S t egodon i n s ign i s ,B o sn amad icu s , a nd C er vu sc f . u n ico lor f r om S ayama la i ( T irune lve l i d i s t r ic t ) , S t egodon s p . , w a s a l so c o l lec ted f r om a P l e is tocene c ong lome ra te h o r izon , s ou th o f V a ipua r r i ve r n ea r V ambäko t ta i i n K am ra ja r d i s t r ic t ( Anan tha raman 1 99 1 , p . 250 ) , a nd c ons is ted o f o ne mo la r a nd f ew f r agmen ts o f t u sk . B o s s p . a nd E quu s n amad icu s f r om A r iya lu r w e r e c o l lec ted f r om at h in l a ye r o f l a te r i t ic c l ay s o n t h e w ea the red s u rf ace o f a s i l iceou s b uf f l imes tone . T he se b ed s a r e i n terp re ted b yt h em a s r e p re sen t ing s ma l l i s o la ted p ond s f o rmed d u r ing t h e L a te P l e is tocene . B o s s p . a nd E quu ss p . a nd a n ew s p ec ie s o f B uba lus w e r e c o l lec ted f r om T i ruch irapa l l i ( Badam a nd J ayaka ran 1 993 ) . A n ew s p ec ies o f B uba lus m aruva t toorens i s w a s r e por ted f r om Ma ruva t too ra nd h a sb een d a ted t o t h e l a te P l e is tocene . R h inocero s u n icorn i s ( T irune lve l l i d i s t r ic t ) a nd b ov id t e e th a nd h o rnco r es f r om E lu r i n C o imba to re a r e a l so r e por ted .

T o w ha t e x ten tt h e se g ene ra l o b serva t ion sc an b e u s ed t o m ode l P l e is tocene f l o ra a nd f a una i s o pen t oc r i t ic ism . N ever the les s i nt h e a b sence o f a dequa te p a laeoeco log ica l d a ta o r o r gan ic r ema in s f r om a r chaeo log ica l s i tes , t h e se s t ud ies d op rov ide g u ide l ine s f o rf u tu re r e sea r ch . S U M MARY T he s t udy o f Q ua terna ry s t ra t ig raphy i n d ica ted t h a t t h e ' f ou r -f o ld ' t e r ra ce s e quence p u t f o rwa rd b y p r ev iou s s c ho la r s s t and s q ues t ioned . T he c omp lex i ty o fQ ua terna ry g eomorph ic p r oce s ses w a s h i gh l igh ted . P o s s ib le h ypo the s e s o f Q ua terna ry c l ima t ic c hange s a nd a s soc ia ted c hange s i nt h e b i o log ica l e nv ironmen t w e r e p u t f o rwa rd . A r chaeo log ica l d a ta w a s u sed t od a te f e r r ic re te s a nd f e r rug inou sg r ave ls i nt h is r e g ion . T he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e se p roce s se s a nd h om in id o ccupa t ion i nt h is r e g ion i sd i scu s sed i n C hap te rV .

B adam a nd J ayaka ran ( 1993 ) b e l ieve t h a t t h is e v idence i n d ica te s t h e p r esence o fw e l l -f o r es ted p a tche s w i th s wamp s s u r rounded b y t a l l g r a s se s , w h ich f o rm o ne o ft h e p rom inen t s upp lemen ta ry d i e t so fR h ino a nd B o s . T he e x is tence o fs avanna g r a s s land s i n te r spe r sed w i th a qua t ic s u r round ing s i si d ea l t o m a in ta in a b a lance o f c a t t le p opu la t ion . S o i l s amp le s c o l lec ted f r om t h e f o s s i l b ea r ing h or izon s a tE lu r w he r e B o s s p . w a s c o l lec ted , w e r e p oo r i n p o l len a nd h ad m a in ly g r a s s s p ec ie s ( 48 . 1% ) . T hese i n c luded C a ryophy l lacea ( 2 9 .24% ) , C henomaran ths ( 6 .6% ) a nd C ompo s i tae ( 6 .5% ) . T hey c onc lude t h a t t h e c l ima te a tS a thanku lam w a s m o is te r i n t h e P l e is tocene . G iven t h a t much o fS r i L anka ' s R a tnapu ra b ed f a una i sp o s s ib ly P l e is tocene i n a ge a nd t h a t t h e f a una n o ted i nt h e g em g r ave ls w e re i mm ig ran t s f r om I n d ia d u r ing l ow s e a l e ve l p ha se s o r l a nd l i nk s e s tab l ished t h rough

6 0

CHAPTER I I THE ARCHAEOLOG ICAL RECORD I nt h is c hap te rt h e r e su l ts o ff i ve s e a sons o ff i e ld i n ves t iga t ion s o ft h e P a laeo l i th ic a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd a r e p u t f o rwa rd . S ec t ion 3 . 1 . d ea ls w i th s u rvey / samp l ing m e thod s u sed a nd i s sues r e la ted t o n a tu ra l f o rma t ion p roces ses a nd a r tef ac t c l a s s if ica t ion . T h i s i sf o l lowed b y ad i scu s s ion o f t h e r e su l t s o f f i e ldwo rk a t e ach l o ca l i ty i n S ec t ion 3 . 2 . A d esc r ip t ion o f a r tef ac t a s semb lages i s p u t f o rwa rd h e re . S ec t ion 3 . 3 . d i scu sse s t h e r e su l t s o b ta ined a nd i n te r / in t ra s i te v a r iab i l i ty i nt e rms o f s i te l o ca t ion , t a phonomy a nd s t one t oo l t e chno logy .

I n t h is w o rk , a mu l t is tage s u rvey a nd s amp l ing s t ra tegy w a sa dop ted w h ich r e ta ins s ome b enef i t s o f ad i s t r ibu t iona l a pp roach w h i le c on se rv ing

3 . 1 . 1 : S URVEY AND SA MPL ING S TRATEGIES

I nt h e s e cond s t age , t h e s t udy a r ea ( 79 ° 4 0 ' : 7 9° 5 6 'E a nd 1 3° 1 7:13° 1 0 'N ) w a s d e l im i ted f o r t h e

A ny a t temp t t o s t udy p a s t l a nd -u se p a t ter n s r equ ires t h e a dop t ion o f ar e g iona l s c a le o f a na ly s is w he re r e la t ionsh ips b e tween n a tu ra l a nd c u l tu ra l e l emen t s o ve r t h e l a nd scape c an b e s t ud ied . T he d ef in i t ion o f t h e ' r eg ion ' , s u rvey m e thod s a dop ted a nd t h e n a tu re o f t h e s amp le u n i t s s e lec ted , i nf luence t h e t ype o f d a ta c o l lec ted , a nd i n ev i tab ly , i n terp re ta t ion s o f h om in id b ehav iou r ( Amme rman 1 98 1 ; Mue l le r 1 975 ; R ead 1 986 ; R edman & Wa t son 1 970 ; S ch if f e re ta l . 1 978 ) . T he a dop t ion o f ar eg iona l s c a le o fa na ly s is , h a s i nt u rn f o cu s sed o n t h e r e levance o fs u rf ace s i tes a s i mpo r tan t s ou rces o f i n f o rma t ion ( Dunne l & D ancey 1 983 ; E ber t 1 986 ; F o ley 1 98 1 ; L ewa rch & O 'B r ien 1 98 1) . T he s e cond i s sue t h a t a r ises f r om s u ch a n a pp roach i st h e u t i l i ty o ft h e ' s i te ' c oncep t i t se lf . S i tes a r e e i the r t r ea ted a sd i sc re te l o ca t ions o fh i gh d ens i ty a r tef ac t c oncen t ra t ions s epa ra ted f r om e ach o the r b y e mp ty s paces o r v i ewed a s h i gh d ens i ty a r ea s s epa ra ted b y ' o f f s i te s ' o r ' s ca t te r s b e tween t h e p a tches ' ( Ebe r t 1 986 ; F o ley 1 981; I s aac 1 98 1) . I n o t he r c a se s , ' s i tes ' a r e n o t r ega rded a s e l emen ta l a r chaeo log ica l u n i ts b u t a r e c r ea ted b y aw ide v a r ie ty o ft a phonom ic a nd c u l tu ra l f o r ces a nd a r e d ependen t o n t h e o b se rva t iona l t oo ls o f t h e a r chaeo log is t ( Amme rman 1 98 1; D unne l 1 992 ; Wand sn ide r 1 989 ) . T h is h a s l e d t oa n a n t i s i te o r d i s t r ibu t iona l a pp roach , w h ich i st hough tt ob e o f g r ea te r u t i l i ty i n s t udy ing mob i le h un te r g a the re r s . T he a r tef ac t i s t h e b a s ic u n i t o f a na ly s is a nd t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd i st r ea ted a s a mo re o r l e ss c on t inuou s d i s t r ibu t ion o f a r tef ac ts o ve r t h e l a nd scape . S uch a n a pp roach w h i le h av ing i mmense p o ten t ia l f o r r e cove r ing a l p os s ib le u n i ts o f i nf o rma t ion , r e qu ires b o th t ime a nd f u nd s . G iven t h e n eed , i n mos t c a ses t o c ove r av a s t a r ea , w i th l im i ted f und s a nd t ime , s amp l ing b ecomes e s sen t ia l .

6 1

f u nd sa nd t ime . Me thodo logy T he s u rvey s t ra tegy e mp loyed w a s amu l t i -s tage o ne ( B inf o rd 1 964 ) . I nt h e f i r s t s t age t h e e n t i re K o r ta l laya r b a s in w a s s ubd iv ided i n to t h ree z one s ( F ig .2 ) , w h ich w e r e r a ndom ly s u rveyed a nd s amp led i no rde rt oo b ta in ap r e l im ina ry i d ea o ft h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fv a r iou ss i te s .

f o l low ing r e a sons . T he d i ve r s i ty a nd r i chne ss o f P a laeo l i th ic s i te s a s r e vea led b y p rev iou s e xp lo ra t ions a nd t h e i r l o ca t ion i n v a r ied g eog raph ica l z one s w i th in w h ich d i f f e ren t m ic roenv i ronmen t s c an b e d i s t ingu ished w a s o ne f a c to r c ond i t ion ing t h e c ho ice o ft h e s t udy a r ea . F u r the r , i tw a s n o ted t h a t e ven i n t h e p resen t c ond i t ion o fd ep le ted n a tu ra l r e sou rce s , t h e s t udy a r ea f e l l w e l l w i th in t h e b ound s o f t h e a nnua l s ub s is tence r a nge o ft h ep r e sen t -day l r u la h un te r g a the re r s . T he t o ta l a r ea s u rveyed w a s 2 00 s q km . T he t h ird s t age i n vo lved t h e d i f f e ren t ia t ion o f z ones d e te rm ined b y g eog raph ic l o ca t ion a nd s ed imen ta ry c on tex t . W i th in t h e z ones d ef ined , t h e e n t ire a r ea w a s s u rveyed a nd a r tef ac t d i s t r ibu t ion p lo t ted ( F ig .2 ) . A t t h e f ou r th l e ve l , t h ez one w a s s ub jec tt or a ndom s amp l ing . W i th in t h e a r ea s s o d ema rca ted , w h ich c omp r ised b o th ' s i te s ' a nd ' o f f s i tes ' , d e ta i led m aps w e re p r epa red t os how a r tef ac t d i s t r ibu t ion i nr e la t ion t on a tu ra l f e a tu res . S i tes w e r e g r idded a nd m apped . G r id s o f 1x 1m ( s qua r e o rc i rcu la r w i th a 1m r ad iu s ) o r 2x2m w e re c ho sen a t r a ndom a nd a l l a r tef ac ts f r om w i th in w e r e c o l lec ted . I no rde r t o s t udy g eomo rph ic a nd o t he r v a r iab les a f f ec t ing a r tef ac t d i s t r ibu t ion , h o r izon ta l a nd v er t ica l s amp l ing o f s ed imen t s a c ro s s t h e e n t i re r eg ion w a s a dop ted . T h is l e d t o a n a pp rec ia t ion o f p o s s ib le n a tu ra l f o rce s i nf luenc ing t h e d epo s i t ion o f a r tef a c t b ea r ing s ed imen t s a nd s ubsequen t p o s t -depo s i t iona l p roce s se s . T ab le 2 g i ves a l i s t o f l o ca l i t ies s t ud ied . T h is i n c lude s s i tes i n t h e K o r ta l laya r , A ran i a nd C oom r i ve rb a s in s s t ud ied b y F oo te ( 19 16 ) a nd S wam i ( 1976 ) . T h is m e thod s uf f e r s f r om n ume rou s l im i ta t ion s , p r inc ipa l ly o w ing t os hor tage o ft ime a nd f und s . H oweve r , c on t ro l i sm a in ta ined o ve rt h e s i ze a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o f u n i t s s amp led , a r tef ac t d en s i t ies a nd d i s t r ibu t ion a r e d ocumen ted , d i f f e r ing

g eog raph ica l u n i t s a r e s amp led . A t ten t ion i sn o t f o cu s sed o n m e re ly h i gh d en s i ty a r tef ac t c oncen t ra t ion s o r ' s i tes ' , b u t w i th in t h e b roade r

s amp le u n i t s s ma l l s ca t te r s a nd e ven s i ng le t o o ls c ou ld b e d ocumen ted .

P la te 1 9a : G enera lv i ew o ft he l a nd scape s how ing t he A l l iku l l ih i l l s

P la te 1 9 1 3 : T he K or ta l layar r i ver a si tw inds i t sw ay p as t E ru ma ive t t ipa layam

6 2

T ab le 2 :Pa laeo l i th ic S i te si nt he K or ta l layar B as in ( a f ter a u thor ; F oo te 1 9 16 ; Swam i 1 976 ) S i te s I nve s t iga ted i nt h is work ( T iruva l lur T a luk ) * . S i te s s t ud ied f o r g eomo rpho log ic& p u rpo se s o n ly ( t he r ema in ing s i te s w e re s t ud ied f o r b o th g eomorpho log ica l a nd a r chaeo log ica l p u rpo se s ) ; L .P . : L owe rP a laeo l i th ic M .P . :M idd le P a laeo l i th ic p o s t -M .P . :po s t -M idd le P a laeo l i th ic •: Excava ted s i te s( A rchaeo log ica l S u rvey o fI nd ia ) ; A :S i te sd i scove red b yt h ea u tho r A l l e l eva t ions a bove m ean s ea l e ve l a r e a pp rox ima te a nd f r om t h e t opo shee t ( 50 ' c on tou r i n ter va l ) w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f t h a t o f A t t irampakkam . T he e l eva t ion f o r t h e l a t te r s i te w e r e t a ken w i th r e spec t t o t h e b enchma rk e s tab l ished a t t h e S a thyamur thy S aga rr e se rvo ir g a te s . S i te

L oca l i ty

L a t /Long

E leva t ion

P er iod

T o ta l A rea

( m AMSL ) 1 22

M .P ,p os t M .P .

R ock she l te r

7 0

L .P . , M .P .

1s q km

A verage D ens i ty

s iGud iyam

l a

1 3 ° 1 6 '0 5 " 7 9 ° 4 9 '2 0 "

* Gud iyam v i l lage

l b

G un ipa layam

l c

1 3 ° 7 9 ° 1 3 ° 7 9 °

V e l la t tuko t ta i

1

1 3 ° 1 5 ' 3 9 " 7 9 ° 4 6 '3 0 "

7 0

L .P . , M .P . , p o s t M .P .

F indspo t

.S r ik r ishnapu ram

1

1 3 ° 1 7 '0 3" 7 9 ° 0 0 ' 5 0 "

1 05

L .P . , M .P .

2s q km

3 -4 / sq km

* Kan j ipad i

2

1 3 ° 1 2 '0 0 " 7 9 °4 8 '0 0 "

7 0

L .P .

A Sen rayanpa layam

2

1 3 °4 0 ' 1 0 " 7 9 °4 9 ' 1 0 "

7 0

L .P (? ) , p o s t -M .P .

M .P . ,

5 0 s q m

2 -3 / sq m

2

1 3 ° 4 0 '0 6 " t o 1 3 °4 5 ' 0 8 " 7 9 ° 4 9 ' 0 0-79 ° 4 7 ' 0 0 " 1 3 °4 0 '0 6 " 7 9 ° 4 6 ' 1 0 "

7 0

L .P . , M .P . , p o s t M .P .

4s q km

2 -3 / sq km

7 0

L .P . , M .P .

F i ndspo t

1 3 ° 7 9 ° 1 3 ° 7 9 ° 1 3 ° 7 9 ° 1 3 ° 7 9 °

1 0 " 2 3" 5 0 " 2 0 " 1 0 " 2 3" 0 0 " 0 0 "

5 2

L .P . , M .P . , p o s t M .P .

4s q km

1 0 / sq m

3 3 .56

L .P . , M .P . , p o s t M .P .

5 0 ,000 s q m

2 8 s q /m

5 2

L .P , M .P . , p o s t M .P .

4s q k m

I7 / sq m .

8 7

L .P , M .P . , p o s t M .P . L .P , M .P . , p o s t M .P .

A cheu l ian s e c t ion )

AMe t tu r Me r tupa layam

t o

1 6 ' 0 5 ' 1 7 ' 5 1 '

0 5" 0 0 " 0 0 " 1 4 "

13 2 / sq km

AK ir inaya t tam

2

ANambakkam

3

i zA t t irampakkam

4 a

A rya thu r

4 b

P a r iku lam

5

R angave ram

6 a

1 3 ° 1 '0 0 " 7 9 ° 5 3 '0 0 "

7 0

i m

P oond i

6 a

1 3 ° 1 2 '4 0 " 7 9 ° 5 2 '4 5 "

7 0

L .P . , M .P .

0 . 5 s q km

5 / sq m .

a

N eyve l l i

6 c

1 3 ° 1 2 ' 2 0 " 7 9 ° 5 4 '0 0 "

5 2

L .P . , M .P . , p o s t -M .P .

1 500 s qm

4s qm

K un ja rum

7

1 3 ° 1 5 ' 3 3 " 7 9 ° 5 3 '0 7 "

6 9

M .P . , M .P .

2 , 500sq m

3 2 / sq m .

AMa i lapu r

7

1 3 ° 1 7 ' 0 0 " 7 9 ° 5 4 ' 0 0 "

7 7

L .P . , M .P . , p o s t -M .P .

6s q km

1 7 / sq m ( 1994 )

A P lacepa layam

8

1 3 ° 1 6 ' 2 0 " 7 9 °4 60 0

1 5 1

L .P . (? ) , M .P .

2 5 s qm

1 2 . 16 / sq m

ANaka lkona

8

1 3 ° 1 7 ' 1 0 " 7 9 ° 4 6 ' 0 0 "

1 93

L .P . , M .P . (? )

F i nd spo t

A Penna lu rpe t

8

1 3 ° 0 5 ' 0 8 " 7 9 ° 5 1 ' 1 0 "

> 65

M .P .

r ock she l te r

P u l la rambakkam

1 3 ° 1 0 '0 0 " 7 9 ° 5 3 '4 0 "

4 8

p o s t -M .P . ( s i te s ubme rged )

V adamadu ra i

1 3 ° 1 7 '0 5 " 8 0 ° 0 2 '3 0 "

3 5

L .P . , M .P . , p os t M .P .

a

1 4 ' 5 1 ' 1 3 ' 5 3 ' 1 4 ' 5 1 ' 1 ' 5 2 '

p o s t -

( i n

q ua r ry

T ab le 2 c on t inued . . .Pa laeo l i th ic s i te s i n t he K or ta l layar , C oom a nd A ran i R iver b as ins ( Foo te 1 9 16 , S wam i 1 976 ) L a t /Long

P er iod

Ammapakkam

1 3 ° 16 ' 1 0 " : 7 9 ° 5 9 '3 9 "

L .P

A rumbakkam

1 3 ° 1 2 '0 0 " : 7 9 ° 5 2 ' 0 0 "

L .P , p o s t -M .P .

D evadandavakkam

1 3 ° 1 4 '5 0 " ; 7 9 ° 5 '2 0 "

L .P , M .P .

Er nakuppam

1 3° 1 5 ' 5 2 " : 8 0 ° 0 1 '0 0 "

L .P , M .P .

G o l lapa layam

1 3 ° 1 5 ' 5 2 " :7 9 ° 0 1 '0 0 "

L .P , M .P .

K ammava r ipa lem

1 3 ° 1 5 '2 5" : 7 9 ° 5 9 '0 5 "

L .P , M .P .

K r ishnave ram

1 3 ° 1 3 '3 0 " : 7 9 ° 5 0 ' 0 0 "

L .P , M .P . ,p o s t -M .P .

N a rayanapu ram

1 3 ° 0 9 '5 5 " : 7 9 ° 4 9 ' 0 0 "

L .P , M .P

N e lvay

1 3 ° 1 5 '2 7 " : 7 9° 5 2 ' 1 2 "

L .P , M .P

O dappe i

1 3° 1 3 '4 7 " : 7 9° 5 4 ' 0 0 "

L .P , M .P .

R a japa layam

1 3 ° 1 6 '0 0 " : 7 9° 4 6 '0 0 "

L .P , M .P

S i tun je r i

1 3 ° 1 6 '4 3 " : 7 9 ° 5 3 ' 3 0 "

L .P . ,

S r iramapu ram

1 3 ° 1 7 '3 5 " : 7 9 ° 5 4 ' 1 5 "

L .P , M .P

T homma rambedu

1 3 ° 1 9 ' 5" : 7 9 ° 5 ' 0 0 "

L .P , M .P

T immabhupa lapu ram

1 3° 1 5 '0 8 " : 7 9 ° 4 8 '4 0 "

L .P , M .P

T omu r

1 3 ° 1 2 ' 1 5 " : 7 9 ° 4 8 ' 1 5 "

L .P , M .P

Ama rambedu

1 3 ° 2 3 ' 5 3 " : 8 0 ° 0 0 '4 0 "

L .P , M .P

A t tan tanga l

1 3 ° 1 2 ' 1 4 " : 8 0 ° 1 0 ' 0 5 "

L .P ,

B udu r

1 3 ° 2 5 '0 0 " : 7 9 ° 5 7 '4 0 "

L .P , M .P

K annambakkam

1 3 ° 2 9 ' 3" : 8 0 ° 0 2 ' 0 0 "

L .P , M .P

K a rad ipu t tu r

1 3 ° 2 3 ' 1 0 " : 7 9 ° 4 7 ' 4 7 "

L .P .

Mada rpakkam

1 3 ° 2 6 '4 7 " : 8 0 ° 0 2 '2 0 "

L .P .

Ma th ravedu

1 3 °2 4 '0 5 " : 7 9° 5 ' 5 0 "

L .P , M .P ,p o s t -M .P .

N aga lapu ram

1 3 ° 3 3 ' 1 0 " : 7 9° 4 7 '4 7 "

L .P , M .P

P e r ipu l iyu r

1 3 ° 2 3 '0 0 " : 8 0 ° 0 2 ' 1 0 "

L .P , M .P

P ondavakam

1 3 ° 2 8 '2 0 " : 7 9 ° 1 5 '4 7 "

L .P , M .P

R oshannaga ram

1 3 ° 2 6 ' 3 0 " : 7 9 ° 5 8 '4 0 "

L .P , M .P

S a tyavedu

1 3 ° 2 6 '0 7 " : 7 9° 5 7 ' 3 0 "

L .P . M .P

S u ru tapa l l i

1 3 ° 2 0 '0 0 " : 7 9 ° 5 2 ' 3"

L .P , M .P

T am rakuppam

1 3 ° 2 1 '4 7 " : 7 9 ° 5 8 '0 3 "

L .P , M .P

U t tuko t ta i

1 3 ° 2 0 '0 5 " : 7 9 ° 4 8 '0 5 "

L .P , M .P

Y igava r ipa layam

1 3 ° 2 6 ' 2 5" : 8 0 ° 0 3 ' 3 0 "

L .P , M .P

1 2 ° 5 8 '0 0 " : 7 9 ° 5 7 ' 0 0 "

L .P .

S i te T a luk T iruva l lur

T a luk P onner i

T a luk S r iperumbudur S r ipe rumbudu r

6 4

T ab le 2 c on t inued . . .Pa laeo l i th ic s i te s i nt he K or ta l layar , C oom a nd A ran i R iver b as ins ( Foo te 1 9 16 , Swam i 1 976 ) L a t /Long

P er iod

A kkapu ram

1 2 ° 5 8 '2 7 " 7 9 ° 4 6 '0 0 "

L .P , M .P

P a randu r

1 2 ° 5 6 ' 3" : 7 9 °4 4 '2 0 "

L .P ,p o s t -M .P

V e l iy u r

1 2 ° 5 5 ' 3 5 " : 7 9 °4 2 '0 0 "

L .P .

Wa la jabad

1 2 ° 4 7 ' 2 3 " : 7 9 °4 9 '2 7 "

S i te T a luk K anch ipura m

.

L .P .

T a luk S a idape t E ruma ive t t ipa layam

1 3 ° 1 4 '2 0 " : 8 0 °0 7 '2 3"

M .P . ,p o s t -M .P .

Man janka rana i

1 3° 1 6 ' 1 5 " : 8 0 ° 0 7 '0 0 "

L .P . , M .P .

O ra t tu r

1 2 ' 2 8 '4 3" : 7 9° 4 7 ' 5 3 "

L .P .

P a l lave ram

1 2 ° 5 8 ' 1 0 " : 8 0 °0 9 '4 5"

L .P .

P u t tu r

1 3 ° 0 9 '2 0 " 8 0 ° 0 9 ' 1 5 "

L .P .

R ed H i l ls

1 3 ' 1 ' 5 0 " : 8 0 °0 9 '0 5"

L .P . , M .P . ,p o s t -M .P .

T i rumu l lavaya l

1 3° 0 8 '0 7 " : 8 0 °0 8 '0 0 "

L .P .

A t t irampakka m : A r tef ac tC oun t s i nS a mp led G r id s G r id G r id G r id G r id G r id G r id

1( 2 2 ( 1 3( 1 4 ( 1 5 (1 6 ( 1

s q s q s q s q s q s q

m ) :24 m ) :22 m ) :3 m ) :5 m ) :52 m ) :15

G r id G r id G r id G r id G r id G r id

7 ( 1 s qm ) : 18 8 ( 1 s qm ) :4 9 ( 1 s qm ) :22 1 0( 1s qm ) :17 1 ( 1s qm ) :9 1 2( 1s qm ) :22

6 5

G r id G r id G r id G r id

1 3a ( 1s qm ) :20 1 3b ( 1s qm ) :50 1 4( 1s qm ) : 14 1 5 ( 1s qm ) :25

3 . 1 .2 : S ITE TAPHONO MY AND POST -DEPOS IT IONAL PROCESSES

f a l ls ) , a eo l ian a nd s o i l f o rma t ion p roce s ses a nd n eo tec ton ic s .

I n r e cen t y ea r s , a s semb lage s t ru c tu re h a s b een r e cogn ised t o b e t h e r e su l t o f b o th h om in id b ehav iou ra l s t ra teg ie s a s w e l l a s aw ide v a r ie ty o f n a tu ra l p roce s ses . I n P a laeo l i th ic s t ud ies i n p a r t icu la r , b a s ic p rob lem s e x is t i n i d en t if y ing o r ig ina l a r ea s o f h om in id a c t iv i ty o w ing t o t h e o pe ra t ion o f n a tu ra l f o rces a f f ec t ing a r tef ac t b u r ia l , movemen t , d es t ruc t ion a nd e xposu re ( B inf o rd 1 989 ; G o ldbe rg e t a l . 1 993 ; I s aac , B . 1 989 ; N a sh & P e t rag l ia 1 987 ; S ch ick 1 986 , S ch if f e r 1 983 , 1 987 ; S t e in 1 987 ; S t e in & F a r rand 1 985 ; S t ern 1 993 ) . T he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e s c a le a nd t empo o f a r tef ac t d i sca rd a nd t h a t o f n a tu ra l f o rce s a f f ec t st h e g r a in o ft h e a s semb lage i n t e rm s o f t h e o ccupa t ion t ime s pan s r e p resen ted , c ond i t ions r eoccupa t ion o f t h e s i te a nd a l so d e term ines t h e s amp le a va i lab le t o t h e a r chaeo log is t f o r s t udy ( B inf o rd 1 982 ; C am i l l i 1 984 ; C a r r 1 984 , p . 113 ; E be r t 1 986 ; S t e in & L in se 1 993 ) . O ne o ft h ep r ima ry a ims o fs i te f o rma t ion s t ud ies h a s b een t h e n eed t o r e cogn ise ' p r ima ry ' s i te s , f r om w h ich m ax imum b ehav iou ra l i n f o rma t ion c an b eo b ta ined . I nt h is w o rk i ti sa cknow ledged , t h a t w h i le s uch s i tes a r e i mpo r tan t , t h ey a r e g ene ra l ly r a re i nt h e P a laeo l i th ic r e co rd a nd s i te s w i th v a ry ing d eg rees o f i n teg r i ty a r e o f e qua l i mpor tance i nu nde r s tand ing p roce s se s o pe ra t ing o ve r t h e e n t i re l a ndscape . T he m e thodo logy a dop ted f o r s t udy ing s u ch p roces ses i sd i scu ssed b e low . Me thodo logy A st h e f i r s t s t ep , g eomorph ic p roces se so pe ra t ing o ve rt h e e n t ire r e g ion w e re s t ud ied i nd e ta i l ( s ee C hap te r I ) . S econd ly , t h e d epo s i t iona l h i s tory a nd m ic ro topog raphy o f e ach s i te w e re c on s ide red , i n o rde r t o i d en t if y p roce s ses o f d epo s i t ion o f e ach s ed imen ta ry u n i t , a nd c o r re la te t h is w i th p roces se s o ccu r r ing a t t h e l e ve l o ft h e r e g ion . S i tes w e re m apped s how ing a r tef ac t d i s t r ibu t ion . Whe reve r p o ss ib le , t h e v er t ica l p os i t ion o f a r tef ac ts i n s ed imen t s w a s a l so p lo t ted . A 5 x5m g r id w a s l a id o u t a tt h e s i t e o f A rya thu r t o i nves t iga te t h e r e la t ionsh ip b e tw een n a tu ra l c l a s ts a nd a r tef a c t s i nt e rm s o f o r ien ta t ion , s i ze a nd r aw ma te r ia l i n o rde r t o a s se s s t h e d eg ree o f f l uv ia l a nd o t he r d i s tu rbances . P roce s ses t a ken i n to c on s ide ra t ion i nt h is w o rk a r e a s f o l low s : ( Go ldbe rg 1 993 ; N a sh & P e t rag l ia 1 987 ; S ch ick 1 986 ; S ch if f e r 1 987 ) . 1 .

G eomorph ic p roce s se s : T hese i n c lude f l uv ia l ( c o l luv ia l /a l luv ia l ) , g rav i ta t iona l ( c o l luv ia l , d eb r is f l ow s , ma s s w a s t ing , r ock

6 6

2 .

B iogen ic P roce sse s : T he se i n c lude f a una l a nd f l o ra l t u rba t ion ( a n ima l b u r row ing , t r amp l ing , e f f ec t o f r oo t a c t ion , v ege ta t ion b a r r ie r s , c hem ica l a c t ion c au sed b y g r ow th o f mo ss / l ichens o n t o o l s u rf a ce s ) ( Wood & J ohnson 1 978 ) a nd i nf luence a r tef ac t v e r t ica l a nd h o r izon ta l d i s t r ibu t ion a nd morpho logy .

3 .

C urren t a nd H is tor ica l L anduse P a t tern s : T hese i n c lude c ur ren t a nd h i s to r ica l w a te r m anagemen t , c u l t iva t ion , d ef o res ta t ion a nd a f f o res ta t ion , a n ima l g r az ing , c on s t ru c t ion , q ua r ry ing ,e t c .

I no rde r t oa s se s s t h e i mpa c t o ft h ese p roces se s , s e ve ra l v a r iab les d rawn f r om a c tua l is t ic s t ud ies r e la ted t o s i te s t ruc tu re a nd a r tef a c t d i s t r ibu t ion a nd morpho logy h ave b een c on s ide red b y s c ho la r s . A r tef ac t s a r e t r ea ted a s s ed imen ta ry p a r t ic le s ( Pe t t i john 1 975 ) i nt h is w o rk . V a r iab le s s t ud ied a r ed i scu s sed b e low . S i te S ed imen tary C on tex t : T ex tu ra l a nd c hem ica l a na ly s is o fa r tef a c t -bea r ing s ed imen t s , t h e mode a nd i n tens i ty ( h igh , m ed ium o r l ow e ne rgy ) a nd d u ra t ion o fd epo s i t ion a nd e r o s ion a r e i mpor tan t i n a s se ss ing s i t e in teg r i ty a nd d e term ine t h e p e rcen tage o f t o o ls o f d i f f e r en t s i ze s , s hape s a nd w e igh t s w h ich a r e t r an spo r ted o r d epos i ted . F o r e xamp le , f i ne -g ra ined s ed imen t sa r eg ene ra l ly t hough tt ob e l ow e ne rgy d epo s i t s a s c on t ra s ted w i th c oa r se -g ra ined g r ave ls o r c ong lome ra tes r e p re sen t ing h i gh i n ten s i ty p roces se s . S im i la r ly a d i s t inc t ion c an b e m ade b e tween e p isod ic a nd l o ng -du ra t ion p roce s ses o rb e tween r e gu la r a nd c a ta s t roph ic p ro ce sse s a f f ec t ing s i t e s t ru c tu r e ( I saac 1 977 ; P addayya & P e t rag l ia 1 995 ; R app a nd G if f o rd 1 985 ; S chack ley 1 974 ; S ch ick 1 986 ) . S o i l t ype s a nd mode s o f p edogenes is a l so a f f ec t t o o l m orpho logy . T he d u ra t ion o ft h e p rocesses o fd epo s i t ion a f ec t ing t h e r ap id i ty o f b u r ia l a r e i mpo r tan t , a s r a p id b u r ia l m ay l e ad t ol e ss d i s tu rbance a sc ompa red t ol o nge r s u rf ace e xposu re w he re f l uv ia l a c t iv i ty m ay b e mo re ( Pe t rag l ia & P o t t s 1 994 ,p .2 30 ) . A r tef ac t S pa t ia l D is tr ibu t ion : H o r izon ta l a nd v er t ica l d i s t r ibu t ion o f t o o ls i n t e rm s o f c l u s te r ing o ft o o ls o fd i f f e ren t s i zes , s i ze s o r t ing o f t o o ls a nd n a tu ra l c l a s t s a nd v e r t ica l d i sp lacemen t w i th in s ed imen t s i s c on s ide red h e re . S pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion i s ar e su l t o ff l uv ia l a s w e l l a s b i ogen ic a c t ion , w h i le a eo l ian a c t iv i ty may l e ad t o t r anspo r t o fm ic rodeb i tage a s w e l l . S pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion i s a l so a f u nc t ion o f s i t e m ic ro topog raphy a nd l o ca l v ege ta t ion s t ruc tu r e .

T ab le 5 : A mode l o fp o s s ib le s i te t ype s a nd c r i ter ia f o rr e cogn i t ion S i te T ype

S ed imen tary C on tex t

A r tef ac t Morpho logy

T ype l a : S i te s a r e b u r ied i nl ow e ne rgy f e r r icr i t ised s e d imen t s . A r tef ac t s a r e e xpo sed o n ly r e cen t ly o w ing t o q ua r ry ing a nd c ons t ruc t ion .

L ow e ne rgy e p isod ic f l uv ia l p roce s se s ; f i ne g r a ined s e d imen t s ; p o s s ib le w ea the r ing i n d ica t ive o f s ub sequen t l a ndscape s t ab i l i ty .

T oo ls h ave u nab raded t o l i gh t ly a b raded f l ake f a ce t s ; m in ima l t o n o s i ze s o r t ing o rc l u s te r ing ; l i t t le t on o p a t ina t ion ( d epend ing o n t h e r a p id i ty o f b u r ia l , s o i l t y pe s , r aw m a ter ia l ) ; s ome c hem ica l w ea the r ing ; a l t y pe s o f t o o ls a r e p r e sen t f r om c h ips a nd m ic ro d eb i tage t o c o re s a nd h eavy -du ty t o o ls .

I n h i gh -ene rgy c o l luv ia l a nd d ebr is f l ow d epo s i t s , c hanne l c u t a nd f i l l g r ave ls , p o in t -ba r d epos i t s , a nd c hanne l g r ave ls ; c oa r se g r a ined s e d imen t s .

D is t inc t s i ze s o r t ing i sn o ted w i th w innow ing o f s ma l le r t o o ls a nd w i th a c oncen t ra t ion o f h eavy -du ty a nd l a rge r t o o ls ; s pa t ia l c l u s te r ing o f a r tef a c t s i sn o ted ; v a r iab i l ity i n a r tef ac t a b ra s ion a nd p a t ina t ion ; p o s s ib le l o ng -ax is o r ien ta t ion o f t o o ls .

L ow t o m ed ium e ne rgy e p isod ic f l uv ia l p r oce s se s ; e . g . S hee t a nd s t ream f l ood s ; f i ne t o m ed ium g r a ined s e d imen t s ; o cca s iona l o u t s ize c l a s t s ; s ub jec t t o r a in r i l ls , g u l ly e r os ion

T oo ls a r e l a rge ly u nab raded a nd u npa t ina ted ; m in imum s pa t ia l c l us te r ing ; s i ze s o r t ing m in ima l b u t p r e sen t ; a l t o o l t y pe s n o ted b u t p o s s ib ly f ewe r s ma l le r t o o ls a nd s ome t r anspor ted t o o ls

L oca ted o n t h e s u rf a ce o f b ed rock , o n f e r r ic r i t ised g r ave ls , o n o l de r s e d imen t s ; s ub jec t t o g u l ly e r os ion a nd s h ee tf l ood s .

T oo ls a r e l a rge ly a b raded a nd p a t ina ted ; s pa t ia l c l us te r ing n o ted ; S i ze s o r t ing p r e sen t w i th a c oncen t ra t ion o f l a rge r t o o ls ; a l t y pe s o ft o o ls a r e n o ted w i th f ewe r s ma l le r t o o ls a nd c h ip s ; m o re c o re s a nd b i f aces ; s ome t r anspo r ted t o o ls a r ea l so p r e sen t .

I n p o in t -ba r d epo s i t s , f l uv ia l g r ave ls

o r

D is t inc t s i ze s o r t ing , s pa t ia l c l us te r ing , r o und ing a nd a b ra s ion ; t o o ls a r e o r ien ted i n d i re c t ion o f w a te rf l ow .

O ne o r t wo t o o ls o n t h e s u rf a ce

U nc lea r o w ing t o t h e s ma l l s amp le s i ze

I n tegr i ty : H igh

T ype l b : S i te s b u r ied i n h i gh -ene rgy c o l luv ia l a nd f l uv ia l d epo s i t s a nd e xpo sed r e cen t ly o w ing t o e r os ion , q ua r ry ing a nd c ons t ruc t ion . I n tegr i ty : L ow T ype 2 a : S i te s o ccu r o n t h e s u rf a ce o f f e r r ic re te s o r c l ayey -s i l t s a nd a r e e xpo sed b y e r os ion , d e f la t ion a nd s hee twa sh . I n tegr i ty : H igh

T ype 2 b : S u rf a ce s i t e s o ccu r r ing o n t h e b ed rock , o n c o l luv ia l g r ave ls o r i n l a g c on tex t s a nd m ay r e p r e sen t b o th l a g a nd w innowed c omponen t s o f s i t e s . I n tegr i ty : Modera te T ype 2 c : s u rf a ce s i t e s

T ranspor ted

I n tegr i ty : N one T ype 3 :F i ndspo t s I n tegr i ty : U nc lear

A r tef ac t Morpho logy : T h is i n c lude s c on s ide ra t ions o f a r tef ac t s i ze , r ound ing , a b ras ion a nd p a t ina t ion ( Pe t t i john 1 975 ) . A r tef ac t m o rpho logy i si n f luenced b y f l uv ia l a nd a eo l ian a c t ion , a nd s o i l f o rma t ion . Mode ls o f f l uv ia l d i sp lacemen t o f t o o ls a r e i n g ene ra l , d e r ived f r om s t ud ies i n g eomorpho logy ( S chumm 1 976 ) . T he i n ten s i ty , d u ra t ion a nd n a tu re ( s a l ta t ion , r o l l ing , s u spen s ion ) o f w a te r f l ow s l e ad t o l o ng -ax is o r ien ta t ion , i mb r ica t ion a nd s i ze s o r t ing o ft o o ls , w innow ing o f s ma l le r d eb r is , c oncen t ra t ion o f l a rge r t o o ls , s hadow e f f ec t s a nd s p a t ia l c l us te r ing a c ro s s t h e s i t e ( Na sh & P e t rag l ia 1 987 ; P e t rag l ia a nd P o t t s 1 994 :230 ; S chack ley 1 978 ; S ch ick 1 986 ) . A r tef ac t s i ze m ay t h u sb e a n i n d ica to ro ft h e

6 7

d eg ree a nd i n ten s i ty o ff l ow ( I saa c 1 977 ; S ch ick 1 986 ; V i l la 1 982 ) . A r tef a c t p a t ina t ion i st h ough t t o b e ar e su l t o f s o i l c ond i t ion s , d eg ree o fe xpo su re t o l i gh t a nd p o s i t ion o f t h e a r tef ac t i n t h e s o i l ( Ba r -Yo sef 1 993 ; P addayya & P e t rag l ia 1 993 ) . T he d eg ree o f a b ra s ion a nd r ound ing o f a r tef ac t e dge s a nd a r i te s , i s t h ough t t o i n d ica te t h e d epos i t iona l e nv i ronmen t , a nd d i s tance a nd m e thod o f t r an spor t ( Pe t rag l ia & P o t t s 1 994 , p . 234 ; S chack ley 1 974 ; S ch ick 1 986 ) . A r tef ac t r aw m a te r ia l i s a l so r e cogn ised t o b e o f g r ea t i mpor tance i nd e te rm in ing d eg ree so fa b ra s ion . T ak ing i n to c on s ide ra t ion t h e se f a c to r s , s c ho la r s h ave a temp ted t o c l a s s if y s i t es i n to v a ry ing ' t ypes ' b a sed o n t h e i r d eg ree o f i n teg r i ty , o r

c ond i t ion s o f p r ese rva t ion o f t oo ls ( Ba r -Yo sef 1 993 ; K auf u lu 1 983 ; P e t rag l ia & P o t t s 1 994 ; S ch ick 1 986 ) . D raw ing o n t h e se s t ud ies , amode l o f p os s ib le s i te -con tex t s a l ong w i th t h e i r p o ten t ia l r e cogn i t ion c r i te r ia a nd d eg rees o f i n teg r i ty i sp u t f o rwa rd i n T ab le 5 .A pa r t f r om t h e s i tua t ions d e l inea ted h e re , s ome c a ses m ay r ep resen t c omb ina t ion s i tua t ions , w he re i n s i tu t oo ls a r e s upp lemen ted b y t hose r ewo rked f r om e l sewhe re . 3 . 13 :ARTEFACT CLASS IF ICAT ION T he a r tef ac t s amp le c ons is t s m a in ly o f t h e a u tho r ' s c o l lec t ions . H oweve r , s t one t oo l c o l lec t ion s i n t h e P reh is to ry Mu seum , P oond i , a nd t h a t o f A . Swam i i nt h e Mad ra s U n ive r s i ty w e re a l so s t ud ied . P ub l ished d a ta o n a r tef ac t s ( J aya swa l 1 978 ; S wam i 1 976 ) i sc ons ide red a s w e l l , t a k ing i n to c ons ide ra t ion d i f f e rences i nt h e a im s a nd t hu st ypo log ie s u sed b yt h ese s cho la r s . T he a ims o f t h e p resen t t ypo logy a r e mu l t ip le ( Adams & A dam s 1 99 1 , p . 167 ) . T he f i r s t a im o f c ons t ruc t ing a t ypo logy i n t h e a b sence o f c h ronome t r ic d a tes , w a s t h e u se o f l i t h ics a s ' i ndex f o s s i ls ' t od a te s ed imen ts a nd t op rov ide a r ough c u l tu re s equence . C onsequen t ly , i tw a s n eces sa ry t o u t i l ize e s tab l ished t oo l t ype s ( Bo rde s 1 96 1; C la rk & K le ind ien s t 1 974 ; J aya swa l 1 978 ; M is ra 1 967 ;Roe 1 98 1 ; S anka l ia 1 974 ; V i l la 1 983 ) i no rde r t op erm i t c ompa r ison w i th f i rm ly d a ted s i tes , i n s p i te o ft h e f a c t t h a t s upe rf ic ia l s im i la r i ty i nt oo l t ypes n eed n o t i mp ly c h rono log ica l c on tempo rane i ty . T he s e cond r e a son f o rr e ta in ing w e l l e s tab l ished t ype s w a s t o f a c i l i ta te c ompa r ison w i th o the r s i tes i n t h e S ubcon t inen t a nd w i th in t h e s t udy r e g ion . A no the r i mpo r tan t a im o fc l a ss if ica t ion w a s t h e n eed t oa s s ign m ean ing t oa r tef ac t v a r iab i l i ty a nd t o r e la te t e chno logy t o s oc io -econom ic a nd p o ss ib le i d eo log ica l f a c to r s a mong mob i le h un te r -ga the re r s . T echno log ica l o rgan isa t ion c an b e r ega rded a s r ef lec t ing t o s ome e x ten t , r e sponses t o e nv i ronmen ta l v a r iab i l i ty i n t e rm s o f t h e v a r iab i l i ty i n r e sou rce s t ruc tu r e i n t ime a nd s pace a nd h un te r -ga the re r r e spon ses a nd d ec is ion s m ade t o c ope w i th t h is v a r iab i l i ty . T he se r e sponse s may b e i n t e rm s o f t ime a nd e ne rgy c onse rva t ion , r i sk r educ t ion . s chedu l ing , mob i l i ty s t ra teg ies , o ccupa t iona l h i s to ry o f a p l ace , a nd s oc ia l a gg rega t ion ( B inf o rd 1 983 , 1 989 ; C ahen e ta l . 1 979 ; C am i l l i 1 984 ; C ha t te r s 1 987 ; I s aac 1 984 ; L emonn ie r 1 986 , 1 990 ; N e lson 1 999 ; P a r ry a nd K e l ly 1 987 ; S hor t 1 986 ) . T echno log ica l o rgan isa t ion i nt e rm s o ft h e l i t h ic r educ t ion s equence , t oo l -des ign a nd t h e ' g ra in ' o f a n a s semb lage ( Eber t 1 986 ) a r e t os ome e x ten t a r ef lec t ion o f t h ese s t ra teg ie s . O the r f a c to r s a f f ec t ing v a r iab i l i ty i nt oo l types a nd a s semb lage s t ruc tu r e c oncern r aw m a te r ia l a va i lab i l i ty a nd

6 8

p roper t ies a nd k napp ing t e chn iques ( And ref sky , 1 994a , 1 994b ; C la rk 1 980 ; C o t te r r e l & K amm inga 1 987 ; D ibb le 1 987 , 1 99 1 ; K uhn 1 99 1 ; Mon te t - Wh i te & H o len 1 99 1) . S t y l is t ic v a r iab i l i ty i nt oo l -des ign s m ay ,o nt h e o the rh and r ef lec t s oc ia l f a c to r s a nd c apac i t ie s f o r s ymbo l ism a s w e l l , a l though t h ese i s sue s i nt h e L owe r a nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a r e d eba tab le ( Cha se & D ibb le 1 987 ; Ma r sha ck 1 990 ) . T he r e a l iza t ion o f t h ese a ims r equ i r e s a n u nde r s tand ing o f t h e c omp le te l i th ic r e duc t ion s e quence o r ` c ha ine o pe ra to i r e ' ( Brad ley 1 973 ; D r iske l l 1 986 ; J e l inek 1 988 , 1 990 , R o l land , 1 98 1) a s o ppo sed t o al i s t ing o ft oo l t ypes . F o r t h is p u rpose e t hnog raph ic a nd e xper imen ta l d a ta h a s b een u sed , a nd w h ich a r e d i scu s sed i n C hap te r I V . T he f i na l f o rm o f a t o o l t h us d epend s o n al a rge n umbe r o ff a c to r s i n c lud ing r aw m a te r ia l t ypes , p a t ter n s o f r edu c t ion , m e thod s o f u se , r eu se , r e sharpen ing a nd r e juvena t ion , b reakage a nd d eg r ees o fe xhau s t ion a nd t h e ef ec t o f s ub sequen t n a tu ra l f a c to r s ( Ande r son -Ge rf aud 1 990 ; B ey r ies 1 988 ; H ayden 1 979 ; H e ide r 1 967 ; K amm inga 1 978 ; T o th 1 982 ) . A r tef ac t f o rm s , e xcep t ing i n t h e c a se o f l o s s , n o rma l ly r ep re sen t t h e f i na l d i s ca rded p rodu c t , w h ich i n many c a se s may b e t o ta l ly r educed o r r e sha rpened i n to f o rms a nd w h ich m ay b ea r f ew t r aces o ft h e o r ig ina l f o rm . O n t h e o t he r h and , s ome a r tef ac t f o rms d o h ave s i gn if icance a s c ogn i t ive e n t i t ies ( Adam s a nd A dam s 1 99 1 , p . 304 ; V i l la 1 983 ) a s i sp o s s ib ly r ef lec ted i nt h ec a se o fb i f ace sa nd p o in t s . T hu s i n c ons t ru c t ing t h e p r e sen t t ypo logy , a c on t inuou s d i a lec t ic w a s a dop ted i n c l a s s if y ing a nd s o r t ing , w i th s eve ra l v a r iab le s d ef ined o n t h e b a s is o fp rev iou s k now ledge a nd o the r a t t r ibu te s b e ing s ubsequen t ly f ound u nnecessa ry a nd d i sca rded . T he p u rpo ses o f s t udy ing s t one too l t e chno logy a r e l i s ted b e low : I .

T o e s tab l ish r e la t ive c h rono log ies o fa r tef ac t b ea r ing s ed imen t s .

2 .

T o s t udy t h e n a tu re o f r aw m a te r ia ls u s ed : t h e ir s hape , s i ze , l i tho logy , a va i lab i l i ty , l o ca t ion , d i s tance f r om s i te s , a cces s ib i l i ty , f r a c tu re p rope r t ies a nd r e la t ion sh ip w i th t e chn iques u sed a nd t oo l type s .

3 .

T o s t udy t e chn iques u sed i nt h e manuf ac tu re o f d i f f e ren t t oo ls b y a s t udy d eb i tage a nd f i n ished t oo ls .

4 .

T o u nde r s tand p o s s ib le r e sha rpen ing o ft oo ls .

5 .

T o p u t f o rwa rd d i f f e r ing t oo ls .

p os s ib le

o f c o re s ,

r euse f unc t ion s

a nd o f

6 .

T o s t udy v a r iab i l i ty i n s t ages o f r edu c t ion b e tween s i te s .

d en s i ty o fu nab raded a r tef ac t s p e r u n i t a r ea a nd t h ep re sence o fs ome s pa t ia l c l u s te r ing o ft oo ls .

7 .

T o s t udy v a r iab i l i ty i n t oo l types b e tween s i te s .

S i te S tra t igraphy a nd T aphonomy

8 .

T o p u t f o rwa rd p os s ib le i d ea s o n s i te f unc t ion sb a sed o na s semb lage v a r iab i l i ty .

F i g .3 .7 a . b ,c .

9 .

T o p u t f o rwa rd i d ea s o n c ause s o f a bandonmen t a nd p o ss ib le r eoccupa t ion o f s i te s .

1 0 . T o i d en t if y p oss ib le a c t iv i ty a r ea s w i th in s i te s . 1 . T oi d en t if yn on -f unc t iona l a spec t so ft oo ls . 1 2 . T o b e a b le t o p u t f o rwa rd s ome i d ea s o n s ub s is tence , s e t t lemen t a nd s oc ia l s t ra teg ies , o nt h eb a s is o ft h ese s t ud ies . Me thodo logy A t t r ibu tes c ho sen c ons is t o f b o th g ene ra l a t t r ibu te s a pp l icab le f o r a l a r tef ac t s a nd s pec ia l a t t r ibu te s a pp l icab le i n t h e c a se o f s epa ra te a r tef ac t t ypes . A r tef ac ts w e re d i v ided i n to c o re s , d eb i tage a nd f i n ished t oo ls ( s ee A ppend ix I f o r p a rame te r s u s ed ) . A l l m ea su remen ts w e re t a ken w i th t h e h e lp o fe l ec t ron ic c a l l ipe r s . C o lou r w a s r e co rded a s p e r t h e Munse l l C o lou r C har t . A l l a t t r ibu tes a nd v a r iab les w e re g i ven n ume r ica l c odes a nd a na ly sed u s ing M IN ITAB S t a t is t ica l P ackage ( The S tuden t E d i t ion o f M IN ITAB R e lea se 8 ) . T he t o o l t ypes d ef ined l a rge ly f o l low s y s tem s d ev ised f o r A f r ica , E u rope a nd I nd ia ( Bo rde s 1 96 1 ; C la rk a nd K le ind ien s t 1 974 ; R oe 1 983 ; S anka l ia 1 964 ; V i l la 1 983 ) . Af ew g ene ra l t y pe s h ave b een c ho sen a cknow ledg ing t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e i s c on s ide rab le g r ada t ion b e tween t y pes o w ing t o p rope r t ies o f r aw m a te r ia ls , m anuf ac tu r ing t e chn iques , s t ages i n r educ t ion r ep resen ted a nd o t he rn on -f unc t iona l c au se s . 3 . 2 :RESULTS OF F IELD S TUD IES 3 . 2 .1 : ATT 1RA MPAKKA M T he s i te ( 13° 1 3 ' 5 0 " N a nd 7 9 ° 5 3 ' 2 0 " E ) i s l o ca ted a t a n e l eva t ion o f 3 3 .65 m AMSL a nd l i e s o n t h e n o r the rn b ank o ft h e r i ve r K or ta l laya r a tt h e p o in t w he re t h e r i ve r t a kes a s ha rp b end a nd b eg ins t o f l ow e a s t t owa rd s t h e B ay o f B enga l ( F ig . 1a ) . T he a r ea i s d i s sec ted b y t h e A t t irampakkam g u l ly ( Bud ida m anu v enka ) , w h ich i s as t ream o ft h e 2 " o rde r a r is ing 2 km u ps t ream a tt h e t a nk a t A rya thu r . A r tef ac t s a r e d i s t r ibu ted o ve ra n a r ea o f5 0 ,000 s qm . T he s i te w a s g r idded ( F ig .7 .1) a nd s i x teen 1x 1m g r id s w e r e l a id o u t a t i n te rva ls a c ro s s t h e s i te f r om w i th in w h ich a l a r tef ac t s w e re c o l lec ted . T he m ean d ens i ty o ft oo ls i s2 8 / sq m ( Tab le 2 ) . T h is s i te o wes i t s i mpor tance t o t h e e x t reme ly h igh

T he b a s ic s t ra t ig raph ic s e quence i s n o ted i n F er r ic re tes r e s t ing o n s ha le s ( b ed rock ) c on ta in A cheu l ian t oM idd le P a laeo l i th ic t oo ls ( howeve r , s e e A ppend ix V I , f o r r e su l ts o f o ngo ing e xcava t ions ) . F e r r ic re te s a r e c apped b y 1m t h ick d epo s i to fc l ayey s i l t s w h ich a r ea r chaeo log ica l ly s t e r i le a nd a n o ve r ly ing f e r r ic r e te a nd c a lc r e te l a g a nd s hee t g rave l c on ta in ing L a te M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t oo ls t o m ic ro l i th s . C ons ide rab le e r o s ion h as o ccur red s u ch t h a t t h e f e r r ic re te h o r izon i sa lmos t n onex is ten t i nt h e n o r thwes tern a nd s ou thea s tern p a r t s o f t h e s i te w he re t h e c l ayey s i l t s a r e a tt h e i r t h ickes t . T he p roces ses o pe ra t ing i n t h is l o ca l i ty a ppea r t o b e a c omb ina t ion o fs t ream l a id d epo s i t sc ons is t ing o f c oa r se t o f i ne s and s , s i l t s , c l ay s a nd r ewo rked T er t ia ry f e r r ic re te s a l ong w i th e p isod ic s hee t f l ood d epos i t s a nd c hanne l b a r a nd p o in t b a r d epo s i t s . D isman t l ing o f t h e d u r ic ru s t i s w ide sp r ead . T he c l ayey s i l t h o r izon i s e v iden t f r om s a te l l i te i mages a s w e l l ( P la te 1 ; F ig . 6 ) a nd i si n terp re ted a s ap a laeopond d epos i t . T he t o ta l n umbe r o fa r tef ac t s c o l lec ted w a s 4 36 . T he t o ta l n umbe r o ft oo ls e xpo sed o n t h e s u rf ace c ou ld e a s i ly e xceed 8 , 000 a r tef a c t s a nd i st h e h i ghes ti nt h e s t udy a r ea . A r tef ac t Abras ion a nd P a t ina t ion : A r tef ac t s a r e i nv a r iou s c ond i t ion s o fp r e se rva t ion ; t o ta l ly f r esh ( 346 ) , u n if o rm ly a b raded ( 34 ) , w i th a b raded a r 8 tes a nd f r esh e dge s ( 53 ) a nd t o ta l ly a b raded ( 3 ) ( F ig .11b ) . Wea the r ing o f a r tef a c t s d ue t o e ncru s ta t ions o f i r on n odu les f r om t h e f e r r ic re te s i s a l so n o ted . T he d epo s i t ion o f a c a lc re te l a g l e d t o d i f f e ren t ia l p a t ina t ion o f a r tef ac t s w h ich m ay h ave a c h rono log ica l s i gn if icance . P i t t ing i ss e en o n af ew a r tef ac t s g ene ra l ly o n c oa r se -g ra ined b l ack q ua r tz i tes b u t i s al o ca l ised p henomenon . T h is i sn o ted o n o ne c o re g r ad ing i n to ac hopp ing t o o l i nG r id 8 a nd o nt wo c o re s c rape r si nG r id s 1 0a nd 1 . Wh i te p a t ina t ion o ccu r s i n t wo c on tex t s ( F ig 11 a ) : 1 .

A r tef ac t s w i th w h i te p a t ina t ion o n ly o n t h e c o r tex a nd u npa t ina ted f l aked s u rf ace s ; w h ich a r e c h rono log ica l ly y ounge r a nd i n d ica te manuf ac tu re o f a r tef ac t s o n o l de r c obb les /pebb le s( n= 107 ) .

2 .

A r tef ac t s w he re t h e f l aked s u rf ace i s a l so p a t ina ted w h i te c ou ld p o in tt o ag r ea te r t ime s pan l e ad ing t o s u ch s t a in ing a nd a r e c h rono log ica l ly o lde r( n= 19 ) .

I n t h e s e cond c a tego ry t h e max imum a r tef ac ts a r e i nG r id s 1 3 Aa nd 1 3 B . Mo s t a r tef ac t s w i th w h i te p a t ina t ion a r e i n G r id 1 3 Ao w ing t o t h e h i gh d ens i ty o fc a lc re te l a gh e re . A r tef ac t S i ze : T he m ean d imens ion o f a l a r tef a c t s i s6 2 x5 2 x2 0 mm . Mo s t t o o ls f a l l w i th in t h e s i ze r ange o f2 0 -40 mm ( 190 ) a nd 4 0 8 0 mm ( 19 1) . As ma l le r n umbe r o fa r tef ac t s f a l l w i th in t h e 8 0 -60 mm ( 28 ) a nd 1 60 -320 mm s i ze r anges ( 3 ) . O n ly 2 4 a r tef ac t s a r e l e s st h an 2 0 mm i ns i ze ( F ig . 10a ) . C ompa r ing a r tef ac t s i ze s w i th n a tu ra l c l a s t s i zes ( F ig .5a , 5 b ) i ti ss e en t h a t mos t o ft h e a r tef ac t s g r ea te r t h an 8 0 mm a nd a l t h e a r tef ac t s g r ea te r t h an 1 60 mm h ave u nde rgone p re l im ina ry o f f -s i te t r imm ing a s v e ry f ew c l as t s o f t h is s i ze a r e l o ca l ly a va i lab le . C la s t s g r ea te r t h an 1 60 mm c ou ld h ave b een o b ta ined f r om P oond i , N eyve l l i , N ambakkam a nd A rya thu r . S i ze d i s t r ibu t ion o fc l a s t s a c ros s t h e s i te i sw e l l m a rked ( F ig . 10b ) . G r id 5 h a s t h e s ma l les t a ve rage a r tef ac t s i ze o f 2 8 mm ; t h e l a rges t a r tef ac t s a r e s e en i n G r id s 1 4 , 1 5 a nd 9 , i . e . , g rea te r t h an 1 60 mm . T he m ax imum a ve rage a r tef ac t s i ze i si n G r id 1 2 a nd i s 1 00 mm . I n t h ree g r id s t h e a ve rage s i ze e xceed s 8 0 mm a nd i no ne c ase 6 0 mm i st h ea ve rage . N os i ze s o r t ing o ft oo ls i ss e en w i th in g r id s . T he L i th ic A ssemb lage A cheu l ian O n ly t h ree p o s s ib le A cheu l ian t o o ls w e re c o l lec ted . T he se w e re s t a ined w h i te o w ing t o c on tac t w i th t h e b ed rock ( s ha le ) a nd w e r e r o l led a nd a b raded . T hese c omp r ise t h e f o l low ing t ypes : ar o l led c onvex s ided s c rape r , o ne r o l led a r tef ac t a nd o ne h andaxe ( Tab le 6 a ) . T he l a t te r h a sd imens ions o f2 50 x3 00 x6 0 mm ( P la te 1 2 ) . T hese a r tef ac t s a r e d evo id o f l a te r i t ic s t a in ing a nd c ou ld p o in t t ot h e e x is tence o f ap r e la te r i t ic i n du s t ry h e r e . T h is w a s s ubsequen t ly c on f irmed i no u ro ngo ing e xcava t ion s( Append ix V I ) M idd le P a laeo l i th ic At o ta l o f4 10 a r tef ac t s w a r e n o ted ( Tab le 6 b ) . R aw Ma ter ia l : R aw m a te r ia ls c omp r ise c l a s ts d e r ived f r om r ewo rked b ed rock , d epo s i ted b y s hee t a nd s t ream f l ood d epos i t s . A r tef ac t s a r e l a rge ly o n f i ne t o m ed ium g ra ined q uar tz i te s ( Tab le 4 b ) . Q ua r tz i t ic s ands tone s c hosen w e re c ompac t a nd f i ne -g ra ined . L oca l ly a va i lab le r o ck t ypes h ave b een u t i l ized t o ag r ea te r e x ten t . A l though t y pes 7 / 8 a r e a va i lab le o n ly i n s ma l l n umbe r s l o ca l ly , t h ey h ave b een e x ten s ive ly u sed . Non loca l r o ck t y pes c ou ld h ave b een o b ta ined w i th in a r ad iu s o f 6 -8 km o f t h e s i te ( Poond i , R angave ram , A rya thu r , N ambakkam , Ma i lapu r , G un ipa layam , K an j ipad i ) . I n g ene ra l f i ne -g ra ined q ua r tz i tes h ave b een b rough t f r om

7 0

n e ighbou r ing a r ea s . N o c or r e spondence b e tween r o ck t y pes a nd a r tef ac tt ype sa r e s e en . Among t h e f i n ished t oo ls , aw ide r ange o fb l ank t yp e s w a s u t i l ized ( F ig . 1 2 ) . T he m ax imum n umbe r o f a r tef ac t s a r e o n f l ake s o f v a r iou s k ind s , f o l lowed b y t hose o n d eb i tage , c hunks , t h e rma l f r ac tu re f l akes 5,p ebb le s , c obb le s a nd f l ake -b lade . Ow ing t o s c a r c i ty o f s u i tab le p ebb le s /cobb les a tt h e s i te , v e ry f ew a r tef ac t s a r e o n t h ese b l ank t y pes ; a nd t h ese c omp r ise t wo h andaxes , t wo c o re s c rape r sa nd o ne c o re sc rape r o r c hopp ing t oo l . Among a r tef ac t s o n c o r t ica l f l ake s , t h e m ax imum n umbe r a r e o n f l ake s w i th n onco r t ica l s t r ik ing p l a tf o rm s a nd p ar t ly c o r t ica l d o r sa l s u rf aces . T hese a r e f o l lowed b y 1 4 a r tef ac t s w i th c or t ica l s t r ik ing p l a tf orm s a nd n on co r t ica l d o r sa l s u rf ace s a nd o n ly t h ree a r tef a c t s w i th c or t ica l d o r sa l a nd p a r t ly c or t ica l d o r sa l s u rf aces a nd n onco r t ica l s t r ik ing p l a tf o rms . C o r tex p e rcen tag e s a r e g ene ra l ly l e s s t h an 2 0% , o r b e tween 2 0 -50% w i th a s ma l l n umbe r o f t oo ls h av ing mo r e t h an 5 0% c or tex . Mean d imens ions a r e g iven i nT ab le 6 d . O ne m od if ied c obb le i sn o t ed . Among t h e c ore s ( 14 ) , L eva l lo is c o res ( 3 ) a r e o n d i sco ida l t o r ough ly g l obu la r c obb le s o f w h ich o ne i s n onco r t ica l a nd t h e o the r s h ave 5 0% o r m o re c o r tex . Two e xamp les a r e u n s t ru ck o ne o fw h ich h a s m o re t h an 5 0% c or tex . O ne c o re h a s t wo g ene ra t ion s o f f l ake s ca r s a l ong o ne f a ce . O ne f l a t f l ake s u rf ace ( 50 x3 0 mm ) i sp robab ly o l de r a nd u t i l ized a s ap l a tf o rm f o r t h e d e tachmen t o f t wo f l akes . Among t h e d i sco ida l c o res ( 2 ) o ne a ppea r s t o b e o n a n o lde r f l ake . N o a r tef ac t s c o r r espond ing t ot h ese f l ake s i ze s a r e s e en i nt h e a s semb lage . I ti sp os s ib le t h a t t h ese r e p resen t a g r ada t ion w i th L eva l lo is c o r e s , ap o in t d i scu ssed l a te r . F l ake c o re s( 8 ) i n c lude o ne g l obu la rc o r eo r mod if ied c obb le o n a n o ld e r c obb le w i th 2 0% c o r t ex . I r regu la r f l ake c o re s d i sp lay c ons ide rab le v a r iab i l i ty . T h r ee a r e o n c or t ica l p ebb les / cobb le s w i th i regu la r mu l t id irec t iona l f l ake s c a r s . O ne e xamp le o fa n i regu la r c o r e o n ac obb le w h ich g r ade s i n to ah eavy -du ty p ound ing t oo l i sn o ted . Two p rom inen t b u lbs n o ted a l ong o ne s i de a r e p o s s ib le i n d ica to r s o f u se a ga ins t s ome h a rd o b jec t . O ne e xamp le o f a n i regu la r c o r e o r p o lyhed ron i s n o ted a s w e l l . O n ly o ne f l ake b l ade c o re i sn o ted . T h is i sp y ram ida l i n s hape w i th t h ree f l ake -b lades d e tached u n id irec t iona l ly f r om a f a ce ted s t r ik ing p l a tf orm a nd f r om t wo f a ce s a t r i gh t a ng les t o e a ch o t he r . E x ten s ive e dg e d amage i s n o ted a l ong t h e s t r ik ing p l a tf o rm .

5 T hese a r en a tu ra l f l akes o ccu r r ing d ue t o e xf o l ia t ion o fc obb les ow ing t oh i gh t empe ra tu re

v a r iab i l i ty .

T ab le 6 d : A t t ira mpakkam : A r tef ac t D i mens ions A r tef ac tT ype

T h ickne s s ( mm ) 4 0

L eng th ( mm ) 9 8

B read th ( mm )

CORES L eva l lo is c o re s D isco ida l c o re s

17

1 07 8 5

5 1

1 00

G lobu la rf l ake c o re

11

1 05

5 0

I r regu la r c o res

9 5

8 5

3 5

P o lyhed ron

8 5

7 7

3 2

F l ake -b lade c o r e

9 0 9 0

5 7 0

2 5

2 20 5 7

1 30 5 2

6 0 2 0

1 50

1 00

8 0

4 6

4 0 3 1 3 6 4 7

2 0

4 8 3 7 6 0 4 5

3 0

2 5

9 0 4 0 3 0 7 5

5 9 2 5 4 0

2 1 2 0 2 0

1 0

2 0

3 0

2 0

1 0

3 0

8 0

1 4

4 8 5 5

5 0 4 7

1 4

c onvergen t d e je te

7 0

d oub l e s t ra igh t s i d ed a nd e nd

6 0

3 0 4 5

e nd S c rape rc um b o re r

5 8 6 5

4 7

1 5

4 5

3 0

C o re s c rape r s

6 3 5 0

6 3

2 9

P i ece sw i th r e touch N o t ches K n ive s

4 5 7 0

6 5 3 5

2 0

Mod if ied C obb le

f l ake

E xhau s ted / ir regu la r c o res C o re s g rad ing i n to b i f ace s C o res g rad ing i n to c hopp ing t o o ls DEB ITAGE C hunk s C or t ica l F l akes N onco r t ica l F l akes U t i l ized u n re touched f l akes U n re touched L eva l lo is F l ake s U n re tou ched F l ake -b lade sa ) b ) L eva l lo is P o in t s E dge r e sha rpen ing f l akes C o re r e juvena t ion f l akes F IN ISHED TOOLS S c rape r s s i ng le s t ra igh t s i d ed s i ng le c onvex s i d ed

H andaxes

_1 25

8 0

5 6

4 0

1 5 1 2 3 0

1 7 2 5 2 5

1 6

4 4

2 0

1 00

4 9

F ou r c ore s g rad ing i n to b i f ace s a r e p r e sen t a mong w h ich t wo g rade i n to p o s s ib le e l onga te h andaxes a nd t h e o t he r t wo g r ade i n to m in ia tu r e b i f ace s . T h ree c ore s g rade i n to c hopp ing t oo l s . T he s ma l l p e r cen tage o fc o re s s uppo r t s t h e f a c t t h a t l i t t le c o r e r educ t ion o ccu r red a t t h e s i te .

7 1

S ome c o re s a r e o n r aw m a te r ia l t y pes 8 a nd 1 4 w h ich a r e n o t a va i lab le l o ca l ly . I mpo r t ing o f c o re s w h ich w e re s ub jec ted t o s e condary t r imm ing a tt h e s i te , i so ne h ypo thes is t oe xp la in t h e i r s ma l l n umbe r . T h is i sa l so c or robo ra ted b y t h e l ow c o re t of i n ished t oo l r a t io o f1 4 :104 ; a nd c o re d eb i tage r a t io o f1 4 :284 . Among t h e p r epa red c o res , t wo a r e u ns t ruck a nd t h e p o s s ib i l i ty e x is t s t h a t d i sco ida l c o re s m ay b e u nf in ished p r epa red c o res a s n o ted i n t h e S on v a l ley ( Sha rma & C la rk 1 983 , p . 57 -58 ) a nd i n B ir T a rf aw i s i te E -89 1 ( C lo se & Wendo rf 1 993 , p . 481) . A s t h e n umbe r o f p r epa red c o re f l akes e xceed s t h e n umbe ro fs u i tab le c o re s , t h ese h ave e v iden t ly b een b rough t f r om e l sewhe re . A l te rna t ive ly t h e c o re s h ave b een r edu ced t o s u ch a n e x ten t t h a t t h ey a r e u n recogn isab le . S im i la r ly o n ly o ne f l ake -b lade c o re i sn o ted a s c ompa red t o 3 1 f l ake -b lades ( 1 2 a r e u n re touched ) . C o res g r ade i n to b i f a ces , c hopp ing /pound ing t o o ls a nd w e re a l so r e touched a nd u s ed a s c o re s c rape r s . I ti st h u s a l so p os s ib le t h a t s ome o f t h e l a rge r b i f aces c ou ld h ave b een u t i l ized a s s ou r ce s o f f l akes . T h is i s s uppor ted b y t h e p r e sence o f c o res g r ad ing i n to b i f aces a nd t h e f a c t t h a t b i f ace s a r e i d ea l t oo ls i n a r ea s w he re r aw m a te r ia ls a r e s c a rce ( J ones 1 994 ) . D eb i tage : Ac l ea r d i s t r ibu t ion o fd eb i tage t y pes ( t o ta l :284 ) a c ro s s t h e s i te i s n o ted . T he m ax imum a moun t o fd eb i tage i nn o ted i nG r id 5 ( 82 .26% o f t h e g r id ) , w h i le t h e m in imum n umbe ro fs pec imens a r e s e en i nG r id s 1 4a nd 1 5 ( 13 .34% a nd 1 6 .68% o ft h e g r id s r e spec t ive ly ) . D eb i tage i sl a rge ly c oncen t ra ted i n t h e m idd le , s ou thea s te rn a nd n or thea s tern p a r t s o f t h e s i te w h ich a r e a l so s i gn if i can t ly t h e mo s t e l eva ted p or t ions . C h ip s a r e c oncen t ra ted i nt h e s ou the rn p ar t o f t h e s i te ( G r id s 1t o 7 ) . T he m ax imum n umbe ro fc h ips a r e n o ted i nG r id 5a tt h e c en t re o f t h e s i te ( 16 ) f o l lowed b y G r id 7 , G r id 1 ( 3 e ach ) a nd G r id 4 ( 2 ) . C or t ica l a nd n oncor t ica l f l ake s , t r imm ing f l ake s a nd c hunks a r e a lmo s t u n if o rm ly d i s t r ibu ted o ve r t h e s i te w i th h i gh c oncen t ra t ions i ns eve ra l g r id s . T he m ax imum n umbe r o f f l ake s h ave l e s s t h an 2 5% c o r tex ( 43 ) f o l lowed b y t h ose w i th m o re t h an 5 0% o n t h e d o r sa l s u rf ace ( 18 ) a nd t h o se w i th 2 5 -50% c o r tex ( 4 ) . T hu s w h i le b o th p r ima ry a nd s e conda ry t r imm ing f l akes a r e n o ted , l a te rs t ages i nt r imm ing a r e r ep r e sen ted t o ag r ea te r e x ten t . C or t ica l f l ake s i n c lude t h ose w i th t o ta l ly c or t ica l d o r sa l s u rf a ces a nd s t r ik ing p l a tf orm s ( 3 ) , w i th c o r t ica l s t r ik ing p l a tf orms a nd p ar t ly c or t ica l d o r sa l s u rf ace s ( 5 ) , w i th c or t ica l s t r ik ing p l a tf o rm s n oncor t ica l d o r sa l s u rf ace s ( 1 1) , w i th n oncor t ica l s t r ik ing p l a tf orms a nd t o ta l ly c o r t ica l d o r sa l s u rf ace s ( 1 5 ) a nd f l ake s w i th n onco r t ica l s t r ik ing p l a tf orm s a nd

p ar t ly c o r t ica l d o r sa l s u rf aces ( 3 1) . O ne p o s s ib le K ombewa f l ake i sn o ted . O ne f l ake r e p resen t s a p o s s ib le a c c iden t i nf l ak ing a nd o ne h a s ad oub le b u lb o fp e rcu s s ion . U n re touched f l ake -b lades ( 12 ) w e re d e tached f r om s i ng le p l a tf orm c o re s , o pposed p l a tf o rm c o re s a nd p os s ib le L eva l lo is c o res . O ne e xamp le h a s at o ta l ly c or t ica l d o r sa l s u rf ace . A l l h ave e x tens ive e dge d amage . As ub -g roup c omp r i ses f l ake -b lade s g r ad ing t owa rd s t r ue b l ades ( 6 ) a nd a r e o n f i ne -g ra ined q uar tz i tes . T hese i n c lude b lade s s t ruck f r om s i ng le p l a tf o rm c o re s , w h i le t wo b l ade s s t ruck f r om o ppo sed p l a tf o rm c o res h ave p a r t ly p r epa red s t r ik ing p l a tf o rm s . Two L eva l lo is p o in t s a r e n o ted . O ne i s c o r t ica l ly b acked a l ong t h e r i gh t s i de . F ou r b roken a r tef a c t s w h ich i n c lude t h ree b roken f l ake b l ade s /b lades , a n e nd -s t ruck f l ake a nd a n i n de te rm ina te t o o l a r en o ted . D eb i tage l a rge ly c ons is ts o fb y -p roduc t s o fl a te r s t ages o fc o re t r imm ing a nd r e duc t ion . I n g r id s w he re t h e n umbe ro fr e touched a r tef ac t s o rc o re s a r e 8 2% a nd 4 4% r e spec t ive ly o ft h e g r id , c h ip s t e nd t o b e a bsen t . I n t h e r ema in ing g r id s , d eb i tage c ons t i tu tes 3 0% t o 6 0% o f t h e t o ta l n umbe r o f a r tef ac ts i n t h e g r id . T h r ee o f t h e l a rge r u n re touched f l ake -b lades c ome f r om G r id 1 4 i nt h e n o r thea s tern c o rne r o ft h e s i t e a nd t wo a r e f r om G r id 9 . O ne f l ake -b lade c omes f r om G r id 7 .N one w e re c o l lec ted f r om o the r p a r t s o f t h e s i t e . O f t h e s ma l le r f l ake -b lade s , t wo a r e f r om G r id 9 ;a nd o ne e ach f r om G r id s 1a nd 1 2 r e spec t ive ly . T hu s , i n s p i te o ft h e s ma l l s amp le s i ze , t h e re d oe s a ppea r t ob e s ome c l u s te r ing o f f l ake -b lades a nd b l ades i nt h e n o r thwes tern a nd n o r thea s tern p ar ts o f t h e s i te . S ign if i can t ly , t h e f l ake -b lade c o re a nd c o re s c rape r s o n f l ake -b lade c o re sa l so c ome f r om t h e n o r theas ter np a r t o ft h e s i t e( i . e . G r id s 1 3 Aa nd 1 3 B ) . T he i regu la r d i s t r ibu t ion o fd eb i tage a c ro s s t h e s i t e , a l ong w i th t h e l ow p e rcen tage o fc h ip s c an b e a t t r ibu ted t o s eve ra l f a c to r s . T he p r e sence o f d eb i tage l a rge r t h an 2 mm i n d ica tes t h a t c o re t r imm ing , r e sharpen ing a nd r e juvena t ion w e re c a r r ied o u t a tt h e s i te . T hu s w innow ing o fc h ip s b y w a te r o r w ind a c t ion i st h e mo s t l i ke ly f a c to r t o a c coun t f o r t h e a b sence o f s ma l le r c h ip s , c on s ide r ing t h ep r esence o fn ume rou sg u l l ies a nd r a in r i l ls . T he s ma l l n umbe r o f c h ip s w a s a l so n o ted b y F oo te ( 1866 ) . T he a b sence o fc h ip s i n G r id s 3 ,4 ,6 , 1 3 , 1 0 , 1 , 1 3 A , 1 4 a nd 1 6 c an t h u sb e e xp la ined t os ome e x ten t b yt h ep r e sence o fr a in r i l ls a nd e r os ion . D eb i tage c ons is t s l a rge ly o f n oncor t ica l f l akes . Among t h e c o r t ica l f l akes t h e m ax imum p e rcen tage r ep resen t l a te r s t age s i n r e du c t ion . H ow eve r t h e e x is tence o f c or t ica l c hunk s a nd f l ake s w i th t o ta l ly c o r t ica l s t r ik ing p l a tf orm s a nd

7 2

d or sa l s u rf aces o r t o ta l ly c o r t ica l s t r ik ing p l a tf o rm s a l one d o p o in t t o i n i t ia l d ecor t ica t ion o fc obb le s /pebb le s a tt h e s i t e . R e sha rpen ing a nd r e juvena t ion f l akes a ppea r t o b e m in imum a nd b i f a ce t r imm ing f l ake sa r e a b sen t . F in i shed T oo l s a r eo ft h e f o l low ing t y pes : S craper s ( 28 ) : S c rape r t y pes ( Tab le 6 b ) a nd d imens ion s ( Tab le 6 d ) d i sp lay c on s ide rab le v a r iab i l i ty a nd a r e i n g ene ra l i regu la r . O ne e xamp le i sp os s ib ly t a nged . S crape r s m ay g r ade i n to b o re r s . O ne s u ch t o o l i so n ac hunk w i th i regu la r c h ipp ing t oc r ea te ab o r e r l i ke w o rk ing e dg e , t h e s e cond e xamp le i so n ad eb i tage p i ece w i th s c a la r r e touch a l ong t h e d i s ta l e nd a nd a b o r e r l i ke t i p . C ore s c raper s ( 34 ) a r e o n v a r ied b l ank t y pes , i n c lud ing d i sco ida l c o res , af l ake c o r e , f l ake -b lade c o re s , b roken c o re sa nd t h e rma l f r a c tu re f l akes . I n o ne e xamp le , t h ree p o s s ib le l e ve ls o fp a t ina t ion a r e n o ted . C o re s c rape r s a r e a l so o n f l a t b a sed , e l onga ted t o l u na te s haped c hunk s . T hose o n f l akes a r e o n p os s ib le c o re t r imm ing f l akes a nd o ne i so n a n o l de r f l ake . A l l a r eh i gh b acked p a r t ly c or t ica l , w i th f l a tb a ses . N o tche s ( 2 ) a r e o n e nd s t ruck f l ake s w i th s i ng le b low u n re touched n o tches h av ing am ean n o tch d imens ion o f 5x5mm . O n ly t wo h andaxe s w e re c o l lec ted b y t h e a u tho r , a s al a rge n umbe rw e re a l ready s t ud ied i n t h e P oond i mu seum c o l lec t ion a nd i n t h e c o l lec t ion o f A . S wam i o f t h e Mad ra s U n ive r s i ty . T he se a r e d i scu s s ed s epa ra te ly i n A ppend ix I l . T he h andaxe s c o l lec ted a r e e l onga te o va te a nd M icoqu ian w i th a m ean d imens ion o f 1 25 x 1 00 x4 9 mm , a nd a r e o n a f l ake a nd c obb le r e spec t ive ly . I n o ne c a se t h e b u t t h a s b a t te r ing m a rks a sw e l l . C leaver s a r e i n t h e museum c o l lec t ions a nd a r e d e scr ibed i n A ppend ix I . Mos t o ft h e f i n ished t o o ls a r e o n s ma l le r l i gh te r f l ake b l anks w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f h andaxes , c l eave r s a nd c o re s c rape r s . F if t een t o o ls h ave m o re t h an o ne e dge r e touched . T en t o o ls h ave m o re t h an o ne t ype o f r e tou ch a l ong d i f f e ren t e dges . Two t oo ls h ave mo re t h an o ne t ype o rr ow o f r e touch a l ong o ne e dge . T he m os t c ommon r e touch n o ted i s s c a la r . O the r t y pes i n c lude n i bb l ing , a l terna te , i regu la r , d en t icu la ted , a b rup t a nd c omb ina t ions o ft h e a bove . I nt h e c a se o fs c rape r s i ti sn o ted t h a t t h e g r ea te r t h e n umbe r o fw o rk ing e dge s t h e mo re v a r ied i s t h e n a tu re o fr e touch . W i th r e spec t t ob i f aces , i t i ss e en t h a tb i f ac ia l s ymme t ry i n d ice s r a nge f r om 0( t o ta l ly s ymme t r ica l ) t o am ax imum o f4 6 .67 o f m ed ium s ymme t ry . i n g ene ra l mos t o f t h e h andaxe s a r e s ymme t r ica l . T he m ax imum n umbe ro fh andaxes a r e o nq ua r tz i te t y pe I .

o ft h e i r s i ze , s hape , r ound ing , a b ra s ion , o r ien ta t ion , w ea ther ing a nd r aw m a ter ia l c ompo s i t ion ( F ig .1 0c ) .

A w ide v ar ie ty o f w o rk ing e dge s h ape s a r e n o ted , a nd i n g ene ra l t o o ls w i th mu l t ip le w o rk ing e dge s a r e c ommon . E dge d amage i s n o ted i nt h e c a se o fu n r e touch ed f l akes , a lmo s t a l t h e c o r e s c rape r s , h eavy -du ty k n ives a nd i n t h e c a se o f t wo c o r es g r ad ing i n to b i f aces . C leave r s e xh ib i t i n ten se e dge d amage , w h i le t h e h andaxe s a r e a l v e ry f r e sh . O ne h andaxe h a s i n ten se b a t ter ing m a rk s a l ong t h e b u t t . S c rape r s d o n o t e xh ib i t much e dge d amage . P o s s ib le a c t iv i t ies c a r r ied o u t a t t h e s i t e a r e g i ven i n T ab le 8 .

A r tef ac t A bra s ion a nd P a t ina t ion : A r tef ac t s a r e l a rge ly u nab raded ( F ig . 1b ) . A s ma l l n umbe r o f a r tef ac t s h ave a b r aded a r 8 te s ( 1 5 ) . O the r s a r e u n if o rm ly a b raded ( 1 3 ) , t o ta l ly a b raded ( 4 ) a nd r o l led ( 3 ) . P a t ina t ion o f a r tef ac t s o w ing t o t h e p r e sence o f c a lc ium c a rbona te n odu le s i s a n i mpo r tan t f a c to r a t t h e s i t e . Two c l a s ses o f p a t ina t ion a r e n o ted .

P os t -M idd le P a laeo l i th ic T oo l s T he se c on s is t o f b l ade c o r e s ( 6 ) w i th a m ean d imen s ion o f 4 0 x4 5 x3 0 mm a nd a r e a l t o ta l ly e xhau s ted o r b roken . B lade c o re r e juvena t ion f l ake s ( 5 ) h ave am ean d imen s ion o f3 7 x4 0 x1 7 mm . O ne c o r e s c r ape r ( 60 x5 0 x2 0 mm ) o n a n e xhau s ted b l ade c o r e i sn o ted . O ne m ic ro l i th ic b l ade w i th d imen s ion s o f2 5 x 1 0 x5mm i sn o ted a sa l so 1 0b roken b l ade s .

1 .

A r tef ac t s w he r e t h e e n t i r e c o r t ica l a nd f l aked s u rf aces a r ep a t ina ted ( 6 1) .

2 .

A r tef ac t s w i th u npa t ina ted f l aked s u rf ace s a nd p a t ina ted c or tex ( 8 ) , w h ich p o in t t o t h e u t i l iza t ion o fo l de rp a t ina ted r aw m a ter ia l c l as t s a nd t hu s w h ich m igh t b e c h rono log ica l ly y ounge r t h an a r tef ac t s w he r e t h e e n t ir e f l aked s u rf ace i sp a t ina ted ( F ig .11a ) .

3 .

A r tef ac t s w i th p a t ina ted f l aked s u rf aces o n ly ( 42 ) .

I ti ss e en t h a t a l s a ve f ou r a r tef ac t s w h ich h ave m ed ium t o i n tense w h i te s t a in ing a r e o n q ua r tz i t ic s a nd s tone . P a t ina t ion a nd w h i te s t a in ing m ay t h u s b e g r ea t ly i nf luenced b y t h e p os i t ion o ft h e t o o l i n t h e s o i l a nd b y r aw m a te r ia l . Mo s t a r tef ac t s w i th p a t ina t ion o n b o th t h e c o r tex a nd f l aked s u rf ace c ome f r om t h e g r id .

3 . 2 .2 : ARYATHUR T he s i te ( 1 3° 1 4 ' 1 0 " N a nd 7 9 ° 5 3 ' 2 0 "E ) i s l o ca ted a ta ne l eva t ion o f5 2 m AMSL a nd 2k m u ps t r eam o fA t t i rampakkam , n ea rt h e t a nk f r om w he r e t h e A t t i rampakkam g u l ly o r ig ina tes ( F ig .1 a ) . T he a r ea i sd i s sec ted b y an o r th sou th f l ow ing g u l ly a nd n ume rou s r a in r i l ls . Wa te r i s a va i lab le s e asona l ly i n at a nk a tt h e s i t e .

A r tef ac t S i ze ( f rom c l us ter s ) : T he m ax imum n umbe r o f a r tef ac t s c o l lec ted a c ro s s t h e s i te f a l l w i th in s i ze r anges o f2 0 -40 mm ( 184 ) f o l lowed b y t h o se b e tween 4 0 -80 mm ( 1 32 ) a nd t h ose l e s s t h an 2 0 mm ( 96 ) . V e ry f ew a r tef ac t s ( 2 ) a r e g r ea te r t h an 8 0 mm ( F ig .10a ) . C ompa r ing t h e se r e su l t s w i th t h e s i ze r a nges o fn a tu ra l ly a va i lab le r o ck c l a s t s ( F ig .5a , 5 b ) i ti ss e en t h a t mo s t r o ck c l a s t s a r e 4 0 160 mm i n s i ze a nd t hu s a l a r tef ac t s f a l l w e l l w i th in t h is r a nge . N o s i ze s or t ing o f t h e a r tef ac ts a nd r o ck c l a s t s i s n o ted . I n g ene ra l , l a rge r a r tef ac t s a r e n o ted w i th in t h e g r id . T he m ax imum n umbe r o fc h ips (

g2 r . e 0 4

. : L J

Me

Et ä i « .— , . . i e . : :" I = l e9 :, ; : i t :

e u 1 . a

al Q • w o T r 4 0 0 .

74

T ab le 6 e : A rya thur : A r tef ac tD imen s ion s A r tef ac tT ype Mod if ied c obb le CORES L eva l lo is c o re s I r r egu la r f l ake c o re s I r regu la rf l ake b lade c o re s P y ram ida l b l ade c o re s DEB ITAGE C hunk s C or t ica l F l ake s N oncor t ica l F lake s U n re touched L eva l lo is F lake s U n r e touched L eva l lo is P o in t s U n r e touched F l ake -B lade s a :l a rge b .m ed ium c .t e nd ing t owa rds t r ue b l ade s F IN ISHED TOOLS S c rape r s S i ng le s t ra igh t s i ded S ing le c onvex s i ded D oub le s t ra igh ts i d ed C onvergen t D e le te C o re s c rape r s P i ece s w i th r e touch D en t icu la te s K n ives S c rape r s c um n o tche s N o tched p i ece w i th r e touch P o in t s R e touched L eva l lo is p o in t s C hopp ing t o o ls o n p ebb le s I r regu la r c hopp ing t o o ls

L eng th ( mm ) 12

B read th ( mm ) 8 1

T h ickne s s ( mm ) 5 3

10 1 26

6 2 8 0

4 5 5 1

6 0

5 0

2 0

7 0

6 5

4 5

3 4 3 6 3 1

3 5 3 7 3 2

1 4 1 3 1

5 1

5 4

1 9

5 8

5 4

2 0

s ou th ( 82 )o re a s t -we s t( 47 ) , w i th as ma l l n umbe r b e ing v e r t ica l ( 5 ) ,w h i le t h er e s th ad n op a r t icu la r o r ien ta t ion . Among t h e c l a s t st h em ax imum w e re o r ien ted e a s t -wes t ( 20 ) f o l lowed b y t h ose o r ien ted n or th sou th ( 1 5 )w i th o ne b e ing v er t ica l . T hese r e su l t s p o s s ib ly i n d ica te s ome d eg ree o f f l uv ia l r ewo rk ing . A lmos t a l a r tef ac t s a r e o n q ua r tz i te s . H oweve r , i nt h ec a se o fc l a s t s ,a lmos te qua ln umbe r sa r eo n q uar tz i te s( 1 3 ) a nd q ua r tz i t ic s a nd s tones ( 1 5 ) ,t h e r e s t b e ing o n u nc lea r r o ck t y pes . Wh i te p a t ina t ion i sn o ted o n mos t c l a s t s ( 34 ) , s ome o f w h ich a r e a l so a b raded / ro l led ( 2 8 ) . C ompa r ing t h is w i th t h e s t one t o o ls w e n o t e t h a t mos to ft h e t o o ls ( 1 11) a r e p a t ina ted e i the r w i th w h i te p a t ina t ion o nt h ec or tex ( 8 ) , o nt h ef l aked s u rf ace ( 4 2 ) o ro nt h e t o ta l s u rf ace ( 6 1) . A r tef ac t s w h ich a r e u n if orm ly a b raded o r t o ta l ly a b raded / ro l led a r e f i ve e ach i n n umbe r , t h o se w i th a b raded a r 8 tes a r e 1 8 w h i le t h er e s ta r eu nab raded . T he L i th ic A s semb lage At o ta l o f5 08 M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a r tef ac t s w e re s t ud ied f r om t h is s i t e .

1 35 5 8 3 7

7 0 3 1 1 9

2 8 1 8 1

8 1

5 0

1 9

4 8

5 4

2 1

5 0

4 5

2 5

4 8 4 5 6 3 4 4

1 4 5 0 7 0 4 0

1 6 1 5 3 1 3

6 0 6 1 5 1

4 6 5 8 5 1

1 8 6 1 2 2

5 1

3 5

2 3

2 0 5 6

6 0 5 2

2 0 1 9

8 0

5 3

2 8

10

13

4 8

R aw Ma ter ia l : T he p r inc ipa l r aw m a te r ia ls u t i l ized f o r t h e m anuf ac tu re o f a r tef ac t s w e re q ua r tz i te s , q uar tz i t ic s and s tone sa nd q ua r tz , a l l o f w h ich a r e l o ca l ly a va i lab le ( Tab le 4 b ) . Among t h e q uar tz i tes , t y pe 1 6 p r edom ina tes . C oa r se g r a ined q ua r tz i te s o f t y pes 1 , 1 3 a nd 1 6 a nd q ua r tz i t ic s and s tone s w h ich a r e l o ca l ly a bundan t a l so h ave mo re a r tef ac t s m ade o n t h em . I n g ene ra l , a r tef ac t s o n c obb les /pebb le s , i n c lud ing m od if i ed c obb le s , c hopp ing t o o ls a nd c o re s c rape r s a r e l a rge ly o n t h ese l o ca l ly a va i lab le r o ck t y pe s . I t i s p robab le t h a t e xped ien t m anuf ac tu r e o fa r t ef ac t s a tt h e s i t e t e nded t ob e o n l o ca l ly a va i lab le c oa r se -g ra ined r aw m a te r ia ls . Mos tt o o ls a r eo nf l akes ,e i the rc or t ica l o rn oncor t ica l w i th o n ly t wo o n L eva l lo is f l akes . O the r s a r e o n f l ake -b lade b l ank s , p ebb le s / cobb les w h i le o n ly o ne i so n at h erma l f r ac tu re f l ake ( F ig .12 ) . T oo ls o n c o r t ica l b l ank s h ave l e s s t h an 3 0% c or tex . Mo s t o ft h e c or t ica l b l ank s c omp r ise f l ake / f lake -b lade b l ank s w he r e t h e c or tex a c t s a s ab ack ing . U se o fd eb i tage ( 9 ) o r o l de r a r tef ac t s a nd b roken /exhau s ted c o res i s m in ima l . Mean d imens ions o fa l a r tef ac t s a r e i n T ab le 6 e . Mod if ied c obb le s /pebb le s ( 5 ) a r e a l f r om t h e g r id . O ne e xamp le a ppea r s t ob e b roken . C or tex c ove r 2 0 -50% o ft h e t o ta l s u rf a ce . O ne e xamp le c ou ld r e p re sen t ab roken h amme r s tones a s i t b ea r s t r aces o f s moo then ing a nd p i t m a rk s o n o ne e nd . C ore s ( 1 3 ) c omp r ise L eva l lo is c o re s ( 3 ) o f w h ich t wo a r e p o s s ib ly u n s t ruck . O ne a ppea r s t o b eo n a no l de r f l ake . T h is c o re h a sb een p os s ib ly

7 5

n o tched a l ong o ne e dge ( no tch d imen s ion s 4 5 x 1 5 mm ) a nd r eu sed . I r regu la r f l ake c o re s ( 6 ) i n c lude o pposed p l a tf orm c o r e s , mu l t ip le p l a tf orm c o res , a nd o ne w i th t wo p ha ses o ff l ake d e tachmen t i nd ica ted b y d i f f e rences i n p a t ina t ion . Two c o res g rade i n to c hopp ing t oo ls . F l ake -b lade c o res ( 2 ) i n c lude ap y ram ida l f l ake b l ade c o re w i th 1 0% c or tex p o s s ib ly t o a i d a s a h andho ld . Two f l ake -b lades h ave b een d e tached w i th am ean d imen s ion o f6 0 x4 0 mm f r om a f a ce ted p o lyhed ra l s t r ik ing p l a tf orm . I ti st o ta l ly e xp lo i ted a nd b roken . T he s e cond e xamp le c on s is t s o f a n i r regu la r f l ake -b lade c o re o n a t h ick s i de s t ru ck f l ake , 2 0% c or tex a nd w i th f i ve f l ake -b lades ( 50 x2 0 mm )d e tached . Mo s t c o re s h ave b een m in ima l ly u t i l ized . S ome b roken a nd e xhau s ted c o re s a ppea r t oh ave b een r e tou ched a nd r eu sed a s c o re s c rape r s /chopp ing t oo ls . T ak ing i n to c on s ide ra t ion t h e l ow r a t io o f c o res t od eb i tage ( 1 3 :345 ) o rt ot oo ls ( 1 3 :143 ) , i t a ppea r s t h a t p re l im ina ry t r imm ing o ccu r red o f f s i te o r t h a t c o res w e re r edu ced o r r e tou ched t i l l u nd is t ingu ishab le . T h is i ss uppo r ted b y t h e l ow p e rcen tage o f p r ima ry s t age c o re r educ t ion f l ake s , w i th m idd le t o l a te s t age d eb i tage b e ing p r edom inan t . C o r t ica l d eb i tage i s o n al im i ted r a nge o f r aw ma te r ia l t ypes a l l o f w h ich a r e p r edom inan t l o ca l ly , s uppo r t ing t h e h ypo thes is t h a t l o ca l b l ank d e tachmen t w a s c onf ined t o l o ca l ly p r edom inan t r aw ma te r ia l t y pe s a nd f o r t h e m anuf a c tu re o f h eavy -du ty t o o ls . A l l t h e c o res a r e f r om t h e g r id . F l ake d imen s ion s e xceed t h a t o f f l ake s c a r s o n c o res . No L eva l lo is p o in t c o re s a r e n o ted o r c o r es s u i tab le f o r t h e p roduc t ion o f n ume rou s a r tef ac t s o n p repa red c o re f l ake s . D eb i tage ( 345 ) : N oncor t ica l f l akes p r edom ina te . I nt h e c a se o fc o r t ica l f l ake s , c or tex p e rcen tages a r e l e s st h an 2 5% ( 8 ) , 5 0 -75% ( 7 ) a nd 2 5 -50% i n t h e r e s t . I n t h e c a se o fp o s s ib le u t i l ized f l akes , f l aked b ack ing i s n o ted i n t wo c a ses . O f t h e u n re tou ched L eva l lo is p o in t s t wo a r e c o r t ica l w i th l e s s t h an 1 0% c or tex a l ong t h e s t r ik ing p l a tf o rm . A l l h ave t h ree t o f ou r r ad ia l c onve rg ing d o r sa l f l ake s c a r s , w i th ap rom inen t c en t ra l r i dge . I no ne c a se t h e w o rk ing e dge i sa t r i gh ta ng le st ot h e a x is o fp e rcu ss ion . Among t h e u n re tou ched f l ake -b lades , o ne i s al a rge f l ake b l ade w i th d imen s ion s o f1 35 x7 0 x2 8 mm a nd i s o n q ua r tz i t ic s and s tone a nd s t a ined w h i te . Med ium s i zed f l ake -b lade s ( 6 ) h ave a m ean d imens ion o f5 8 x3 1 x1 8 a m a nd t e nd t owa rd s t r ue b l ade s . A l l a r e o n f i ne t o m ed ium -g ra ined q ua r tz i te s w i th l i t t le t o n o p a t ina t ion . F l ak e b l ade s t e nd ing t owa rd s t r ue b l ade s ( 6 ) h ave a m ean d imen s ion o f3 7 x1 9 x 1 mm . O n ly o ne u n re touched u t i l ized f l ake w as n o ted . E dge r e sha rpen ing f l akes a nd l o ng s ha rpen ing f l akes a r e a l so p r e sen t . B roken a r tef ac t s ( 1 1) i n c lude

7 6

b l ades , f l akes , p o in t s , u n iden t if iab le t o o l .

a n o t ch

a nd

a n

Among t h e f i n ished t o o l s ( 143 ) , s c rape r s p r edom ina te . Mos t o f t h e c o re s c rape r s a r e c oncen t ra ted i n t h e g r id . T hey a r e b o th h eavy a nd l i gh t d u ty a nd g rade i n to c hopp ing t o o ls . T hey a r e n o ted t o b e o n t h ick f l ak e s o f w h ich o ne i so n ah eavy -du ty f l ake w ho se b u lb h a s b een s ub sequen t ly t r immed t o p rov ide a h andg r ip . O ne e xamp le i so n a n o l de r f l ake o r b roken a r tef ac t . C o re s c rape r s a r e a l so o n e xhau s ted /b roken c o res , o ne o f w h ich d i sp lay s t wo l e ve ls o fp a t ina t ion . O ne a r tef a c t c on s is t s o f ac o r e s c rape ro n a n e xhau s t ed p o s s ib ly p r epa red c o re o n a n o lde r f l ake w he r e t h e b u lb h a s b een p ar t ly t r immed . O ne e dge a ppea r s t ob e n o tched ( n o tch d imen s ion s b e ing 4 5 x 15 mm ) . C o re s c rape r s a r e a l so o n p ebb le s a nd g r ade i n to c hopp ing t o o ls , o n c hunk s / therma l f r ac tu re f l ake s o f w h ich o ne a r tef a c t g r ade s i n to a p os s ib le p u shp lane . P i ece s w i th r e touch a r e o n i regu la r d eb i tage f l akes / chunk s . K n ives a r e o n b l ank s w i th p ar t ly c or t ica l d o r sa l s u rf aces a nd n oncor t ica l s t r ik ing p l a tf o rm s . I no ne e xamp le t h e w o rk ing e dge i sa t r i gh t a ng les t o t h e c or t ica l ly b acked e dge . S i x k n ives a r e o n f l ake -b lades . N o tche sh ave am ean n o tch d imens ion o f 1 9 x 5 mm . O ne n o t ch i s r e touched w i th a b rup t r e tou ch . S c rape r s g r ad ing i n to n o tches a r e n o tched a l ong t h e d i s ta l e nd i n t wo c a ses a nd a r e o n f l ake -b lade b l ank s w i th a m ean d imens ion o f 6 x 2 mm . T ho se o n f l ake b l ank s h ave am ean n o tch d imens ion o f 1 8 x9 mm . T h ree e xamp le s o f n o tches o n r e tou ched p i ece s a r e n o ted ( mean n o tch d imen s ion i s2 6 x 1 5 mm ) , a nd a r e o n i regu la r d eb i tag e f l ake s . O ne e xamp le i s ad oub le n o tch . Among t h e r e tou ched L eva l lo is p o in ts t wo a r e o n s i de s t ru ck f l ake s w he re t h e t oo l a x is i sa tr i gh ta ng le st ot h e a x is o f f l ak ing . O ne e xamp le o f ap o in t o n a s i de s t ru ck L eva l lo is f l ake w i th d imen s ion s o f2 0 x6 0 x2 0 mm i sn o ted . C hopp ing t oo ls a r e o n p ebb le s a nd a r e s i de c hoppe r so fw h ich o ne i s ap o in ted s i de -choppe r . Av a r ian t o ft h is t ype c omp r ise s c hopp ing t o o ls o n l u na t e o r c r escen t s haped s p l i t p ebb le s ( 3 ) . Two e xamp le s g rade i n to c o re s o f w h ich o ne a r tef a c t i s as i de -chopper a nd t h e o t he r i s a p o in ted e nd -chopp ing t oo l . Two i regu la r c hopp ing t o o ls a r e n o ted o f w h ich o ne i so n a f l ake a nd o ne g rade s i n to a n a w l o r b o r e r o n a c obb le . I n t h e c a se o f f i n ished t oo ls , n o s i gn if i can t d if e rence s a r e n o ted i nt h e l e ng th o ft h e b l ank s c ho sen f o r m anuf ac tu re o f d i f f e ren t s c rape r t y pe s , a l though c onvex -s ided s c rape r s a nd d oub le s t ra igh t s ided s c rape r st e nd t ob eo n

T ab le 6 f : N ambakkam : A r tef ac tD imens ion s A r tef ac t T ype

L eng th ( mm )

B read th ( mm )

Mod if ied P ebb le CORES L eva l lo is c o re s D isco ida l c o re s C o re g r ad ing i n to b i f ace

5 0

4 0

T h ick n e s s ( mm ) 4 0

8 0

4 3

4 0

1 00

9 0

5 5

1 60

1 30

6 0

5

3 0

1 8

3 5

2 0

1 0

6 0

4 9

2 4

6 1

5 60

1 9

6 7

5 3

1 8

4 1 .5

3 0

1 5 .5

DEB ITAGE C or t ica l F lake s N onco r t ica l F l ake s U t i l ized u n re touched f l ake s U n r e touched K n ive s U n re touched L eva l lo is F l ake s U n re touched F l ake -b lade s F IN ISHED TOOLS S c rape r s s i ng le s t ra igh t s i d ed s i ng l ec onvex s i ded d oub le s t ra igh t s i d ed a nd c onvex

s ma l le r a nd b roade r f l ake b l ank s , w i th s i ng le s t ra igh t s ided a nd c onve rgen t s c rape r s b e ing o n l o nge rf l ake b l ank s . Ac omb ina t ion o fd i f f e ren tr e tou ch t y pe si sn o ted i nt h e c a se o f d e je te s c rape r s w h i le c onve rgen t s c rape r s a nd s i ng le s ided s c rape r s t e nd t o h ave o n ly o ne r e touch t y pe a l ong t h e e dges . L ong t h ick b l ank s w e r e p r ef e r red f o r d en t icu la tes w here t h e c o r tex p rov ided a n a tu ra l b ack ing . T hese a r e l o nge r t h an n o tche s a s mo s t a r e o n f l ake -b lade b l ank s a nd i ne i gh t c a se s mo re t h an o ne e dge h a s d en t icu la ted r e tou ch . Aw ide r a nge o f w o rk ing e dge s h apes i s n o ted w i th t h e m ax imum b e ing s t ra igh ta nd p o in ted . E dge d amage i sn o ted i n t h e c a se o f u t i l ized f l akes , u n re touched L eva l lo is p o in t s , a l k n ives a nd o ne s t ra igh t s ided s c rape r . T h is s i t e h a s a l a rge n umbe r o fc hopp ing t o o ls . T h ir ty a r tef ac t s h ave mo re t h an o ne e dge r e touched w h i le 1 5 t o o ls h ave mo re t h an o ne t y pe o fr e touch a l ong d i f f e ren t e dge s a nd a n e qua l n umbe r h ave mo r e t h an o ne r e touch t y pe a l ong t h e s ame e dge . T he mos t c ommon r e tou ch n o ted a tt h is s i t e i ss c a la r f o l lowed b y a b rup t . O the r r e tou ch t y pes i n c lude n i bb l ing , s c a la r , i regu la r , p a ra l le l s i ded , a b rup t , s t epped a nd d en t icu la ted . P os t -M idd le P a laeo l i th ic T oo l s T hese c on s is t o ft wo c o re s c rape r s w i th am ean d imens ion o f4 5 x4 5 x2 2 mm , c o re r e juvena t ion f l akes ( 4 ) ,c h ip s( 9 )a nd o ne b l ade ( Tab le 6 c ) .

4 8

4 9

1 7

7 5

5 8

1 5

3 . 2 .3 : NA MBAKKA M

4 0

3 5

1 5

d oub le s t ra igh t s i ded a nd e nd

4 5

5 0

1 5

d oub le s t ra igh t s i ded

5 0

3 0

3 5

S c rape r c um n o tch

7 0

6 0

3 5

C o re s c rape r s P i ece s w i th r e touch D en t icu la te s B o re r -cum n o t ch P o in t s C hopp ing t o o ls C leave r

1 92

7 7

3 7

4 1

3 8

1

T he s i te ( 1 3° 1 4 '0 "N : 7 9 ° 5 1 '0 "E ) e x tend so ve r a n a r ea o f 4s q k m a t a n e l eva t ion o f 5 2 m AMSL a nd i sl o ca ted o n t h e 6 . 10 m t e r race o n t h e s ou th b ank o f t h e N ambakkam g u l ly ( A l l iku l l i c hanne l ) . T he r e g ion i sd i ssec ted b y n ume rou s r i l ls ( up to 2 m i n w id th a nd 1 m i n d ep th ) r unn ing i n to t h e g u l ly . T he n o r th o f t h e e l eva ted r e g ion i sh i gh ly e r oded w i th n ume rou s r i l ls a nd g u l l ies , w h i le t h e s ou th a nd w e s t a r e r e la t ive ly u ne roded . A l though w a te r f l ow s l a rge ly d u r ing t h e n or thea s t m on soons ; s t agnan t p oo ls a r e n o ted t h roughou t t h e y ea r . D u r ing t h e monsoon w a te r i nt h e N ambakkam g u l ly r i ses t o ah e igh to f 8m . T he s i te f a l ls w i th in t h er e se rved f o re s tz one a nd i sc ove red w i th d en se v ege ta t ion .

6 0 1 00

6 0 7 0

2 0

1 05 1 20

8 5 6 0

2 5 4 7

1 30 17

7 0 8 7

3 4

H andaxe s

S i te S tra t igraphy a nd T aphonomy

4 0

T he s t ra t ig raph ic s e quence i sn o ted i n F ig .3 .5 . M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t o o ls o ccu r i n t h e u ppe r l a ye r s o f t h e f e r r ic r i t ised g r ave l a nd o n t h e s u rf ace . T he se d epos i t s r e p resen t r ewo rked c o l luv ia l g r ave ls a nd e r oded b ed rock o f t h e S a tyavedu f o rma t ion . B lock w ea the r ing o f t h e f e r r ic re te s i s n o ted . A t p r e sen t c l ump s o f v ege ta t ion t r ap t o o ls a l ong t h e s l opes . T he a r ea i s u t i l ized f o r h un t ing b y t h e l r u la s a nd f o r

3 0

7 7

c o l lec t ion o f w ood a nd m ed ic ina l p l an t s b y v i l lage r s .

h e re . I n g ene ra l c or tex h a s b een r e ta ined a s a b ack ing .

A2 0 ml o ng b ench l i ne w a s l a id o u tn or th sou th , f r om w h ich a l d i s tances a nd m ea su remen t s w e re p l o t ted . S i x c l u s te r s ( r ad iu s o f 2m e a ch ) w e re m a rked o u t r andom ly o ve r t h e s i te a nd a l a r tef ac t s w e re c o l lec ted f r om w i th in . A r tef ac t d en s i ty i s 1 0 / sq m a t t h e t op o f t h e e l eva ted r e g ion a nd t h is i n c rea ses t o3 0 / sq m t owa rd s t h e e a s t er n l ow ly ing p a r t s ( Tab le 2 ) . Two v e ry r o l led s c rape r s a r e n o ted i nt h e s u r round ing l ow l y ing f i e ld s . A t o ta l o f 14 a r tef ac t s w e re c o l lec ted .

A r tef ac t d imens ions a r e l i s ted i n T ab le 6 f . O ne mod if ied p ebb le w i th 5 0% c o r tex i s n o ted . C ore s ( 2 ) c omp r ise o ne L eva l lo is c o r e o n a p ebb le w i th 2 0% c o r tex a nd w i th o ne f l ake ( 40 x 5 0 mm ) d e tached f r om ap a r t ly p repa red s t r ik ing p l a tf o rm . T he c o re h a s b een m in ima l ly e xp lo i ted . O ne d i sco ida l c o re i sn o ted w i th e x ten s ive e dge d amage a nd p o s s ib le i regu la r s c a la r r e tou ch a l ong o ne e dge a nd w h ich c ou ld p o ss ib ly h ave b een u s ed a s ac hopp ing t o o l a s w e l l . O ne c o re g r ad ing i n to ab i f ace i sa l so n o ted .

A r tef ac t A bras ion a nd P a t ina t ion : T he m a jo r i ty o fa r tef ac ts a r e u nab raded ( 7 2 ) , w i th a f ew t o o ls h av ing a b raded a f e tes a nd f r esh e dges ( 22 ) , b e ing u n if o rm ly a b raded ( 1 9 ) a nd t o ta l ly a b raded ( 1 )( F ig .11b ) . Mos tt oo ls a r e u npa t ina ted ( 6 3 ) , w i th a f ew b e ing i n tense ly p a t ina ted ( 36 ) a nd l i gh t ly p a t ina ted ( 1 5 )( F ig .11a ) .

T he l ow p e rcen tage o fc o res a nd d eb i tage c ou ld i n d ica te t h a t t h e s i te w i tne s sed l i t t le p r ima ry f l ak ing . T h is i s i n te re s t ing t a k ing i n to c on s ide ra t ion t h e f a c tt ha tr aw ma te r ia l i sl o ca l ly a bundan t . S ome c o res w e re c onve r ted i n to c o re s c rape r s o r i r regu la r c hopp ing t oo ls . R eu se o f o l de ra r tef ac t s i ss e en i no ne c a se , w i th ab i f ac ia l a r tef a c tb e ing s ub sequen t ly t r immed a nd u t i l ized a s ac o re a nd s c rape r a t al a te r p e r iod , a s i n d ica ted b yd i f f e ren t ia l p a t ina t ion . N o L eva l lo is , f l ake -b lade o rp o in tc o res w e r en o ted .

A r tef ac t S i ze : T he m ean d imen s ion o f a l a r tef a c t s i s6 1 x5 3 x2 1 mm . O n ly f ou r a r tef ac t s a r e l e s s t h an 2 0 mm i n l e ng th , 4 2 a r tef ac t s f a l l w i th in t h e 2 0 -40 mm a nd 4 0 -80 mm s i ze r a nge s r e spec t ive ly w h i le o n ly 1 9 a r tef ac t s f a l l w i th in t h e 8 0 160 mm r anges ( F ig . 10a ) . T hu s t h e ma jo r i ty o f a r tef ac t s f a l l w e l l w i th in t h e s i ze r a nge o f t h e n a tu ra l p ebb les a nd c obb le s o ccu r r ing a t t h e s i te ( F ig .5a , 5 b ) . F u r the r , t h e s ma l l p e rcen tage o f a r tef ac ts l e s s t h an 2 0 mm c ou ld b e p os s ib ly a t t r ibu ted t of l uv ia l a c t ion . N o s i ze s o r t ing o fc l a s t sa nd t oo ls a r en o ted . T he L i th ic A ssemb lage T he t o ta l n umbe ro fM idd le P a laeo l i th ic a r tef ac t s s t ud ied w a s 1 08 ( Tab le 6 ) . R aw Ma ter ia l : R aw ma te r ia l c omp r ises c l a s t s d e r ived f r om w ea the red b ed rock a nd c o l luv ia l d epo s i t s . Mo s to ft h e a r tef ac t s a r e o n af ew t ype s o f q ua r tz i te s ( Tab le 4 b ) , a l o f w h ich a r e a va i lab le l o ca l ly . T he max imum n umbe r o f a r tef ac t s a r e o n c o r t ica l f l ake s f o l lowed b y t h o se o n n onco r t ica l f l akes , t h erma l f r ac tu re f l akes , p r epa red c o re f l akes , f l ake -b lade b l ank s , c obb les /pebb le sa nd c o re s( F ig . 1 2 ) . R e tou ched t oo ls o n c or t ica l f l akes h ave n o t mo re t h an 2 0% c o r tex . I n o n ly t h ree c a ses ( a c o re s c rape r , an o tched s c rape r a nd ar o l led s c rape r ) d oe sc or tex c ove r 5 0% o ft h e e n t i re s u rf ace . T h is i s a l so t h e c a se a s r ega rd s t oo ls o n t h erma l f r ac tu r e f l akes a nd c obb les /pebb le s . I n mo s t c a se s t h e d o r sa l s u rf ace i sp ar t ly c or t ica l w i th a n onco r t ica l s t r ik ing p l a tf orm . I n o n ly o ne c a se ( po in t o n ap r epa red c o re f l ake ) i st h e s t r ik ing p l a tf o rm c o r t ica l . T hu s i n s p i te o f t h e l a rge r n umbe r o fc or t ica l b l ank s u t i l ized i ta ppea r s a s t h ough l a te r s t age s o fr educ t ion , a r e r ep re sen ted

7 8

D eb i tage ( 5 5 ) c ompr ises t wo c hunk s w h i le c h ip s a r e a b sen t . I n t h e c a se o f c o r t ica l f l ake s ( 1 5 ) c or tex p e rcen tage s r ange f r om 2 0 -30% i n mo s t c a ses . U n re touched f l ake -b lades c on s is t o f s ma l le r a r tef ac t s ( 2 ) w i th a m ean d imen s ion o f 4 0 x 3 0 x 1 6 mm d e ta ched f r om o ppo sed p l a tf o rm c o res a nd l a rge r t o o l s ( 4 3 x3 0 x1 5 mm ) s t ruck f r om s i ng le p l a tf o rm c o res . F in ished t oo l s ( 49 ) c on s is t m a in ly o f s c rape r s ( 1 8 ) . Two e xamp les o f v e ry r o l led s c rape r s a r e p o s s ib ly c h rono log ica l ly o l de r . Among c o re s c rape r s ( 6 ) o ne e xamp le i so fa n o l de r b i f a c ia l s c rape r s ubsequen t ly c h ipped a nd u t i l ized a s a c o re a nd t oo l . C o re s c rape r s a r e o n f l ake s w i th d if e ren t ia l p a t ina t ion o n t h e d o r sa l a nd v en t ra l f a ce s . O ne e xamp le i so n af l ake -b lade c o r e a nd t h ree a r e o n f l ake c o res . P i ece s w i th r e tou ch ( 7 ) a r eo nl o ng t h ick b l anks c omp r is ing i r regu la rf l a t f l ake s , p o s s ib ly n a tu ra l t h erma l f r ac tu re f l akes a nd o n e nd - o r s i de s t ruck f l ake s . P o in t s ( 2 ) a r e o n ap r epa red c o re f l ake a nd o n a n e nd s t ruck f l ake r e spec t ive ly . One a r tef a c t h a s a s p a l l d e tached f r om t h e v en t ra l s u rf a ce t o c r ea te a p o in ted a pex . Among t h e c hopp ing t oo ls ( 3 ) , t wo a r e o n e nd s t ruck f l akes , a nd o ne i s o n a p ebb le s ubsequ en t ly b roken . Two a r e s i d e c hoppe r s a nd o ne i sa n e nd c hoppe r . T he c hopp ing t oo l o n a p ebb le i sb roken p o ss ib ly a l ong an a tu ra l f r ac tu re p l ane o ft h e r ock . H andaxes ( 3 ) a nd c l eave r s ( 1 ) a r e i n tense ly p a t ina ted a nd r o l led . T he c l eave r h a s ap a r t ly c o r t ica l a nd p o in ted b u t t . T he c l eave r e dge ( 5 5 mm i n l e ng th ) i s r e tou ched . I n ten se e dge d amage o ccu r s a l ong t h e r i gh t e dge . Two

h andaxe s a r e o n e nd s t ruck f l ake s , w h i le t h e m in ia tu re b i f ace i so n ap repa red c o re s i des t ru ck f l ake w i th ap o in ted a pex a nd r ound b u t t . B o th l a rge r b i f aces a r e e l onga te o va te i n s hape w i th t ongue s haped a pexes a nd r ounded b u t t s . S c rape r s p r edom ina te a mong t h e f i n ished t oo ls . H eavy -du ty t o o ls ( c o re s c rape r s , c hopp ing t o o ls a nd b i f aces ) a r e a bundan t a s w e l l a sh eavy -du ty f l ake /b lades . R e touch i s m in ima l a nd l a rge ly i r r egu la r w i th mo re t h an o ne t ype o f r e tou ch o ccu r r ing o n t wo o r mo re e dge s o f t h e t o o l . R e touch t y pe s i n c lude i regu la r , s c a la r , a b rup t , n i bb l ing , a l terna te p a ra l le l s i ded a nd c omb ina t ion s o ft h e a bove . I r regu la r s c a la r a nd a l ter na te r e touch p r edom ina te . I n t h e c a se o f n o tched t oo l s , n o t ch d imen s ions f a l l i n to t wo g roup s o f2 0 x5mm a nd 3 0 x1 5 mm . A l though t h e s amp le i ss ma l l , i ti ss e en t h a t a r tef ac ts w i th n o tches a r e l o nge r a nd w ide r t h a t t ho se w i th d en t icu la ted e dge s , p os s ib ly s uppor t ing t h e i d ea o f ac on t inuum b e tween t h e se t ypes . A l though s t ra igh t w o rk ing e dges p r edom ina te , a w ide v a r ie ty o fe dge t y pes a r e n o ted . E x tens ive e dge d amage i sn o ted i nt h e c a se o fo ne u n re touched f l ake , au t i l ized c o re , a l b l ade s , a l k n ives a nd a f ew s c rape r s . P o s t -M idd le P a laeo l i th ic T oo l s i n c lude o ne m ic ro l i th ic b l ade ( 20 x 2 0 x 1 0 mm ) , o ne d i sco ida l c o r ea nd c hunk s( Tab le 6 c ) . 3 . 2 .4 : NEYVELL I T he s i te ( 1 3° 1 2 '20 " N : 7 9 ° 5 4 '0 " E ) c ove r s a n a r ea o f1 500 s qma ta n e l eva t ion o f5 2 m AMSL l o ca ted a t ad i s tance o f 0 . 5 km f r om t h e r i ve r K o r ta l laya ro nt h e s ou ther nb end o ft h e m eande r . T he a r ea i s b e ing s y s tema t ica l ly q ua r r ied . V ege ta t ion i s s pa r se a nd a r tef ac t v i s ib i l i ty i s h i gh . I tf o rm s ap ar t o ft h e c a t t le a nd s h eep /goa t g r az ing w a s te land s o f t h e v i l lage . Wa te r i s a va i lab le i no ne t a nk t h roughou t t h e y ea r . T he w a te r i nt wo o t he r t a nk s i sp resen t o n ly d u r ing t h e mon soon a nd i s ma in ly u sed f o r w a te r ing h e rd s a nd w a sh ing c l o thes . Wa te r i sa l so p r esen t s e a sona l ly i n as ma l l g u l ly . D u r ing t h e r a ins , t h e s i t e i sc ove r ed b y a r ound 1 0 c m o f w a te r . A P ashuramma ( l oca l g oddes s ) s h r ine i sn o ted a t t h e s i te . T r enche s w e re e xcava ted b y t h e A r chaeo log ica l S u rvey o fI nd ia n ea rt h e B a lwad i ( c h i ld -ca r e c en t re ) , 2 00 m t ot h e e a s t o ft h e a r ea s t ud ied . T h i sl o ca l i ty i sn ow u nde rc on s t ru c t ion . S i te S tra t igraphy a nd T aphonomy T he b a s ic s t ra t ig raph ic s equence i s g i ven i n F ig .3 .1 1 . F e r r ic re te s r e s t ing o n t h e b ed rock ( s ha le ) c on ta in A cheu l ian t o E a r ly M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t o o ls . T he o ve r ly ing f en-i c re te l a g a nd s h ee t g r ave l b ea r L a te M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t o o ls . T h i s r e g ion p resen t s t h e mos t c omp lex s t ra t ig raph ic v a r ia t ion s ow ing t o t h e c hanges i n

7 9

t h e c ou r se o f t h e P a la r r i ve r w h ich o r ig ina l ly f l owed a l ong t h e c ou r se o ft h e r i ve r K o r ta l laya r . S a te l l i te i mages a nd f i e ld e v idence ( s ee C hap te r I ) , p o in t t oa n e x ten s ive p a laeochanne l n e two rk i n t h is r e g ion . A l luv ium o f t h e P a la r o ccu r s b e low t h e f e r r icr i t ised g r ave ls a ts ome s e c t ion s a nd p o in t s t o av e ry e a r ly p ha se o f d epo s i t ion . T he se d epo s i t s h ave b een f a r the r d i s sec ted b y s ma l l s t ream s a sn o ted i nc u t a nd f i l l f e a tu res a t P oond i q ua r ry . A t N eyve l l i t h e f e r r icr i t ised g r ave ls p os s ib ly r ep resen t r i ve r c hanne l g rave ls w h i le t h e o ve r ly ing f e r r ic re te l a g a nd s h ee t g r ave l p o in t t o s hee t f l ood d epos i t s . A r tef ac t d en s i ty i s a r ound 4 / sq m . A r tef ac t s o ccu r i n c l u s te r sp o s s ib ly o w ing t on a tu ra l d ep re s s ion s . I n o ne c l u s te rt h e d en s i ty o fa r tef ac t s r e ached 1 9 / sq m . T o t h e n o r th o f t h e s i t e a r tef ac t s o ccu r a s a c on t inuou s s p read . I n a dd i t ion t o t o o ls , ar im s h e rd o f ac oa r se r ed w a re u rn w i th t humb i mp res sed d es igns ( Mega l i th ic ) w a s n o ted . A t o ta l o f8 3 t o o ls w e re c o l lec ted . A r tef ac t A bras ion a nd P a t ina t ion : S even ty f ou r a r tef ac t s a r e u nab raded , s e ven h ave a b raded a r 8 tes a nd f r esh e dge s , o ne i su n if orm ly a b raded a nd o ne i st o ta l ly a b raded ( F ig .11b ) . Mo s t o ft h e t o o ls a r e u npa t ina ted ( 5 8 ) . O the r s a r e m i ld ly p a t ina ted ( 1 5 ) , i n ten se ly p a t ina ted ( 8 ) , p a t ina ted o n ly a l ong o ne f a ce ( 1 ) a nd o ne h a s w h i te s t a in ing ( F ig .1 1a ) . A r tef ac t S i ze R ange s : T he m ax imum n umbe ro f t o o ls f a l l w i th in t h e s i ze r a nge so f4 0 -80 mm a nd 2 0 -40 mm w i th as ma l l n umbe rl e s s t h an 2 0 mm i ns i ze ( F ig .10a ) . A l l a r tef a c t s a r e o fr ough ly t h e s ame s i ze o r s ma l le r t h an l o ca l ly a va i lab le r o ck c l a s t s ( F ig .5a , 5 b ) . N o s pa t ia l c l u s ter ing o ft o o ls a c ro s st h es i te w a sn o ted . T he L i th ic A s semb lage E igh ty th ree t oo ls w e re c o l lec ted f r om t h e s i t e o f w h ich 5 7 a r eo ft h eM idd le P a laeo l i th ic p ha se . R aw Ma ter ia l : T he m ax imum n umbe r o f a r tef ac t sa r eo n f i ne -g ra ined q ua r tz i tes o fv a r iou s t y pe s w i th o n ly a f ew o n q ua r tz i t ic s and s tone s . ( Tab le 4 b ) . T h is i s n o tab le a s q ua r tz i t ic s a nd s tone c l a s t s p r edom ina te a t t h e s i te . N o s i gn if ican t r e la t ionsh ip b e tween a r tef ac t a nd r aw m a te r ia l t y pes i s n o ted a t t h is s i te . Q ua r tz i s n o ted o n ly i n t h e c a se o f o ne u n r e tou ched p o s s ib ly p r epa red c o r e f l ake . A l l r aw m a ter ia ls a r e l o ca l ly a va i lab le i nt h e f o rm o fp ebb le s a nd c obb les d epo s i ted a s ar e su l t o f s h ee t / s t ream f l ood s . F in ished t o o ls a r e n o t ed o n av a r ie ty o f b l ank t ypes o f w h ich t oo ls o n c or t ica l f l ake s , n onco r t ica l f l akes a nd L eva l lo is f l akes p r edom ina te . O the r t o o ls a r e o n t h erma l f r ac tu r e f l ake s , p ebb les /cobb le s , d eb i tage a nd f l ake b l ade s( F ig . 12 ) .

T ab le 6 g : N eyve l l i : A r tef ac tD imens ion s A r tef ac t T ype H amme r s tone

L eng th ( mm ) 5 0

B read th ( mm ) 5 0

T h ickne s s ( mm ) 4 0

CORES L eva l lo i s c o re s

9 0

6 0

3 5

9 0

1 20

4 5

6 6 3 9

5 6 4 4

3 2 1 2

3

3 9

1 2

3 5

3

1 0

7 7

5 1

2 1

8 5

4 5

1 7

4 9 8 9 1 00 8 0

5 6 8 4 4 5 7 0

1 3 4 0 3 0 3 5

4 2

4 0

1 8

8 5

4 0

2 0

C o re c hopp ing t o o l DEB ITAGE C hunk s C or t ica l F lake s N oncor t ica l F lake s U n re touched L eva l lo is F lake s U n re touched U t i l ized F lake s U nr e touched b l ade s / F lake -B lade s F IN ISHED TOOLS S c rape r s C o re s c rape r s K n ive s S crape r s b ore r n o tche s S crape r N o tche s B ore r

A cheu l ian O ne e xamp le o f a n A cheu l ian s c rape r -cum c hopp ing t o o l o n ac obb le , p a t ina ted d a rk b rown a nd v e ry r o l led m ea su r ing 1 29 x 8 9 x4 0 mm i s n o ted . M idd le P a laeo l i th ic C ore s i n c lude o ne L eva l lo is c o re o n ar ound p ebb le w i th 3 0% c or tex . O ne e xamp le o f ac o re g rad ing i n to ac hopp ing t oo l i sa l so n o ted w i th a r ound 3 0% c or tex . D eb i tage ( 30 ) c on s is t s o f o n ly s i x c h ip s . Ac hunk w i th d imen s ions o f8 9 x 7 0 x3 0 mm h a s n ume rou s s t ep f r a c tu r es a l ong t h e d i s ta l e nd o f t h e d o r sa l s u rf ace a nd c ou ld p o ss ib ly h ave b een u sed a s a n a nv i l . Among p os s ib ly u t i l ized u n re touched f l ake s a l e xcep t o ne a r e c or t ica l w i th 1 0 -20% c or tex p o s s ib ly a sa b ack ing . O ne e xamp le e x is t s o f a p os s ib le K ombewa t y pe f l ake m easu r ing 3 5 x5 x 1 5 mm . Among t h e u n re touched b l ade s /f lake b lades o ne i s s t ru ck f r om a n o ppo sed p l a tf orm c o re . T h is i s n o tched n ea r t h e s t r ik ing p l a tf orm p oss ib ly f o r h af t ing . A r tef ac t d imen s ions a r e l i s ted i nT ab le 6 g .

Among f i n ished t oo ls , s c rape rt y pe s a r e l i s ted i n T ab le 6 b . C o re s c raper s a r e o n f l ake b l ank s a nd o n c hunk s /na tu ra l t herma l f r ac tu re f l akes . Two e xamp les o fc ompos i te t oo ls o f an o tched s c rape r c um b o re r a r e p r e sen t . I no ne e xamp le t wo f l ake s c a r s h ave b een d e tached a l ong t h e d i s ta l e nd o f t h e r i gh t s i de t o c r ea te an o t ch w i th d imen s ion s o f 1 0 x4 0 mm . Ab o re r l i k e t i p i sa l so n o ted . Two l e ve ls o fp a t ina t ion a r e n o t ed i n t h is c a se . R e tou ch i sn o ted a l ong t h e d i s ta l e nd o ft h e l e f t s i de a nd t h e n o tch a ppea r s t ob e c ompa ra t ive ly l a t e r t h an t h e d e tachmen t o ft h e f l ake w h ich i s p a t ina ted a nd a b raded . Among n o tched s c rape r s ( 3 ) o ne t oo l h a s t wo n o tche s . O ne e xamp le o fa b o re r h a s t wo s t ages o f p a t ina t ion , o ne s u rf a ce b e ing u npa t ina ted a nd t h e s e cond s u rf ace i s l i gh t ly p a t ina ted a l ong t h e p rox ima l e nd o f t h e l e f t s i de . T he a pex h a s b een f l aked a t al a te r s t age t o c r ea te a p o in ted t i p . T he k n if e i s p o s s ib ly o n a n o l de r f l ake . O ne e xamp le o f a p o s s ib le b roken h amme r s tone s o n a c oa r se g r a ined q ua r tz i te c obb le w i th d imen s ions o f5 0 x 5 0 x4 0 mm i sn o ted . F lake s c a r s a nd p os s ib le p e r cu s s ion ma rk sa r en o ted a l ong o ne e nd . C o r tex i si ng ene ra l l e ss t h an 2 0% i nt h e c a se o f f i n i shed t o o ls , w i th o n ly t wo a r t ef a c t s h av ing 3 0 4 0% c o r tex . T he r e i sn o s i gn if i can td i f f e rence i n t h e s i ze o f a r tef ac ts o n n onco r t ica l a nd c or t ica l b l ank s , a l though t o o ls o n p r epa red c o re b l ank s a ppea r t o b e s hor te r a nd t h icke r . U n re touched L eva l lo is f l ake s a r e l o nge r a nd b roade r t h an r e tou ched L eva l lo is f l akes a nd u n r e touched b u t u t i l ized f l akes a r e s hor te r a nd t h icker t h an r e touched c o r t ica l /nonco r t ica l f l ake s . T he t o ta l n umbe r o fc h ipped t o o l s a nd d eb i tage i sa lmo s te qua l ( 2 5 :30 ) . T h ir teen t o o l sh ave mo re t h an o ne e dge r e touched . T h ree t o o ls h ave d i f f e ren t t y pes o fr e touch a l ong d i f f e ren t e dge s . T he m o s tc ommon r e touch a tt h is s i t e c ons is t s o f s t eep a b rup tr e touch , f o l lowed b yi regu la r s c a la r r e tou ch . R e tou ch i sm i ld a nd m ay c on s is t o f a f ew i r egu la r f l ake s ca r s . A l though t h e s amp le i s v e ry s ma l l , i ti ss e en t h a t s i ng le s id ed s c rape r s a r e o n s hor te r f l ake b l ank s t h an d oub le -s ided s c rape r s . S eve ra l t oo ls d i sp lay t wo l e ve ls o f p a t ina t ion . Mo s t w o rk ing e dge s a r e s t ra igh t . E dge d amage i sn o ted i nt h e c a se o fo ne u t i l ized f l ake , a l t h e b l ade s , o n t he c o r e -chopp ing t o o l a nd o n c o re sc rape r s . T he s i te s how s v e ry f ew h eavy -du ty t oo ls a nd n ume rou sc ompo s i te t oo ls . P o s t -M idd le P a laeo l i th ic T oo l s T he se c ompr ise b l ades ( 7 ) w i th a m ean d imen s ion o f2 5 x2 0 x5mm s t ru ck f r om s i ng le p l a tf o rm c o res . Two a r e r e touched ( Tab le 6 c ) . O the rt o o ls a r el i s ted i nT ab le 6 c .

POOND I T he s i te ( 13° 1 2 ' 4 0 "N : 7 9 ° 5 3 ' 0 8 " ) c ove r s a n a r ea o f 0 . 5 s q km a nd i se x ten s ive ly q ua r r ied . T he b a s ic s t ra t ig raph ic s equence i sg i ven i nF i g . 3 . 10 . R es t ing o n s h a les , i s af e r r ic r i t ised g r ave l c on ta in ing A cheu l ian t o M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t oo ls . T he a r ea i s ac on t inua t ion o fN eyve l l i ( s ee C hap te r I ) , a nd d i sp lays c omp lex s t ra t ig raphy . A l though a r tef ac t s a r e d i s t r ibu ted o ve rt h e e n t i re a r ea w i th a h i gh d ens i ty ( Tab le 2 ) , o n ly a f ew t oo ls w e re c o l lec ted a s t h e s i te h a s b een i n ten s ive ly d i s tu rbed ow ing t o q ua r ry ing a nd c on s t ruc t ion . T he L i th ic A s semb lage T en A cheu l ian a r tef ac ts w e re c on s is t o f f l akes ( 3 ) , h andaxe s ( 1 ) , c o re -cum -chopp ing t oo ls c l eave r ( 1 ) . T he s amp le i st oo d i scu ss ion .

c o l lec ted . T he se ( 2 ) , f l ake -b lade s ( 2 ) , p o in t ( 1 ) , s ma l l f o r f u r the r

MA ILAPUR T he s i te ( 1 3° 1 7 '0 "N : 7 9° 5 4 '0 5" E ) i sl o ca ted a t a n e l eva t ion o f 7 m AMSL a nd c on s is t s o ft wo m a jo r e l eva t ed a r ea s s epa ra ted b y a5 0 m w ide d ep ress ion . T he a r ea i sd i s sec ted b y n ume rou s r a in r i l ls a nd o ne r a in g u l ly r unn ing n or thwes t s ou thea s t a nd i sl o ca ted a t ad i s tance o f4 . 8 km f r om t h e r i ve r s K or ta l laya r a nd A ran i . T he s i t e h a s s uf f e red f r om i n tense q ua r ry ing o f t h e f e r r ic re te f o r t h e c ons t ruc t ion o f t h e K r ishna C ana l . S i te S tra t igraphy a nd T aphonomy T he s t ra t ig raph ic s equence i s g i ven i n F i g .3 .12a ,b ,c . O ve r ly ing t h e s ha le b ed rock a r e f e r r ic re te s w i th A cheu l ian t o E a r ly M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a r tef ac t s . T he o ve r ly ing f e r r ic r e te l a g a nd s h ee t g r ave l b ea r s M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a r tef ac t s . P roce s ses o pe ra t ing i n t h i s r e g ion i n c lude s h ee t a nd s t ream f l ood p roces ses , a n i n te res t ing f a c to r b e ing t h e h igh e l eva t ion o ft h e s i te . F er r ic re te s w e re f ound t o r e p r e sen t l ow e ne rgy s t r eam f l ood d epo s i t s , w i th i n c ip ien t p edogene s is a nd w he re t h e a ngu la r i ty o f t h e f e r r ic re te p i so l i ths a nd q ua r tz i te c h ips ( 2 50 m ic ron st o 8c m ) i nd ica tes m in imum t r an spor to f t h es ed imen t s . A cheu l ian A cheu l ian a r tef ac t s o ccu r w i th in t h e f e r r ic re tes . T he se a r t ef a c t s a r e s ub jec t t o s ome f l uv ia l e r o s ion o w ing t o t h e p resence o f r a in r i l ls a nd g u l l ies . A r tef ac t s r ange i ns i ze f r om l e s s t h an 1 0 mm t o 1 60 mm ( F ig . 9 ) . T he h i gh p e r cen tage o f a r tef ac t s o f v a ry ing s i zes a nd t h e l a ck o f s i gn if ican tc o r r e la t ion b e tween a r tef a c t sa nd c l a s t s i zes o r c l u s t er ing o f a r tef ac t s o f s im i la r s i ze s e xc ludes a ny m a jo r f l uv ia l r ewo rk ing o ft h e s i t e .

8 1

E x tens ive e r os ion o ft h e f e r r ic re te s a nd a r tef ac t s i nt h e l ow ly ing a r ea s i sn o ted . A na ly s i s o ft h e a b ra s ion o ft h ea r tef ac t sr e vea ls f ou rm a in t r end s : i n ten se ly a b raded ( 3 ) , a b raded a r 8 te s a nd f r esh e dge s ( 2 1) , u n if o rm ly a b raded ( 19 ) ; a nd u nab raded a r tef a c t s ( 3 7 ) ( F ig .8 , P l a te 1 4a ) . Q uar tz i te a r tef a c t s a r e i n g ene ra l u nab raded o r a b raded w i th r ound ing o f t h e f l ake s c a r a r 8 tes a nd m i ld ly f r esh e dges ; w h i le t h o se o n q uar tz i t ic s a nd s tone a r e i ng ene ra l u n if orm ly a b raded ( 19 ) o r t o ta l ly a b raded ( 3 ) . T he p r esence o f d i f f e ren t ia l ly a b raded a r 8 tes o n t h e d o r sa l a nd v en t ra l f a ce so ft h e s ame a r tef ac t ( P la te 1 4b ) a nd t h e e x is tence o f u nab raded e dge s i n d ica tes l o ca l ised p roce s se s , p robab ly d ue t o c hem ica l r e ac t ion s , t r an spor t b y w a te r o ve r a f i rm s ub s t ra te o r w a te r f l ow ing o ve r s t ab le o r p ar t ly b u r ied o b jec t s . I np a r t icu la r t h e p re sence o fi r on e ncru s ta t ion s a ppea r s t o b e a m a jo r f a c to r c on t r ibu t ing t o w ea the r ing o f t h e a r tef ac t s . Wea the r ing r i nd s o n a r tef ac t s o f q uar tz i t ic s a nd s tone a r e 1t o 2 mm t h ick , w he rea s n o w ea ther ing r i nd s w e re n o ted o n a r tef ac t s o f q ua r tz i te . A r tef a c t p a t ina t ion r a nges f r om d eep ly p a t ina ted t oc omp le te ly u npa t ina ted a r tef ac ts a nd i s r e la ted t o l o ca l s o i l c ond i t ion s a nd r aw m a te r ia l , w i th q uar tz i t ic s and s tone s b e ing mo re p a t ina ted . T he L i th ic A ssemb lage T he t o ta l n umbe r o f A cheu l ian c o l lec ted w a s 1 73 ( Tab le 6 a )

a r tef ac t s

R aw Ma ter ia l : Q ua r tz i t ic s a nd s tone w a s t h e p r inc ipa l r aw m a ter ia l u s ed a nd c omp r ised c l a s t s e r od ing o u t o ft h e b ed rock a nd t h o se d epo s i ted b y s t ream f l ood s . Q ua r tz i te t ypes 4 , 1 3 a nd 1 7 a nd m ed ium -g ra ined q uar tz i t ic s a nd s tone s a r e n o t f ound i nt h e i mmed ia te v i c in i ty a nd i n d ica te t r an spor t o fr aw m a te r ia l f r om ad i s tance o f 3t o 4km . O ne mod if ied c obb le w a s n o ted . C ore s ( 3 ) c omp r ise ap ro to type o f ab l ade c o r e , w h ich h a s 5 0% c o r tex a nd i so n as p l i tp ebb le . T he s t r ik ing p l a tf o rm i s p l a in . T h ree u n id i rec t iona l f l ake b l ade s c a r s w e r e d e tached w i th a m ean d imens ion o f4 7 x2 0 mm . Af l ake c o re a nd c o re g r ad ing i n to ac hopp ing t o o l a r e a l so n o ted . N o c o r es s u i tab le f o r t h e d e tachmen t o ft h e l a rges t a r tef ac t s o f g r ea te r t h an 1 60 mm h ave b een f ound . Mo s tt o o ls g r ea te rt h an 6 0 mm i ns i ze a r e n oncor t ica l o rh ave l e s s t h an 2 0% c or tex . Wh i le t h ec o re sm ay r e p r e sen te xhau s ted l a rge rc o r es , i t i s l i ke ly t h a t t h e i n i t ia l d e tachmen t o f l a rge f l ake s w a s d one e l sewhe re , f o l lowed b y s e conda ry t r imm ing a tt h es i te .

t o ta l ly a b raded

a b raded a r e tes

u n if o rm ly a b rade

u nab raded -

3

1: 4 ' ; t, t 1 4 ; 'e

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

1 00

1 20

Ma i lapur : q uar tz i te s

Ma i lapur : q uar tz it ic s ands tone s

P ar iku lam : q uar tz i te s

P ar iku lam : q uar tz i t ic s ands tone s

F ig .8 : A r tef ac ta bra s ion ( Acheu l ian )

Ma i lapu ra r tef ac t s

Ma i lapu rc l a s t s

P a r iku lam a r tef ac t s

a l i l i l i a n i n i t

P a r iku lam c l a s ts

0

t

1 00

5 0

1 50

H igh

r i

2 00

2 50

_1

3 00

3 50

L ow

• • •••

F ig .9 : C ompar i son b e tween a r tef ac ta nd c la s ts i ze s( Acheul ian )

8 2

D eb i tage ( 1 10 ) c on s is t s o f c h ip s ( 18 ) , c hunk s ( 6 ) , n onco r t ica l f l akes ( 45 ) , c o r t ica l f l akes ( 1 9 ) , b i f a ce t r imm ing f l akes ( 6 ) , u n re tou ched u t i l ized f l akes ( 20 ) . Among t h e f i n i shed t oo ls , h andaxe s ( 14 ) a r e o n c obb les ( 3 ) a nd o nf l akes ( 1 1) . T ho se o n c obb les h ave am ean d imen s ion o f 1 29 x 1 05 x 11 mm a nd a r e o n q ua r tz i t ic s and s tones . T he f i r s t t y pe a r ee l onga te o va te i ns hape w i th aw i th ap o in ted a pex a nd c or t ica l b u t t s , w i th t wo t o t h ree f l ake s c a r s( 53 x4 2 mm )d e tached f r om t h e d o r sa l a nd v en t ra l f a ce s f o rm ing ac en t ra l r i dge . S econda ry t r imm ing i s m in ima l a nd e dges a r e i r regu la r . E dge d amage i sn o ted a l ong t h e a pex a nd t h e e dge s . I no ne e xamp le t h e a pex i ss kewed t ot h e r i gh t b y t h e d e tachmen t o f o ne f l ake s c a r . H andaxes o n f l ak es h ave am ean d imen s ion 1 43 x8 7 x4 1 mm . T hey a r e i n g ene ra l e l onga te o va te i n s hape w i th o ne e xamp le o f a n o va te b i f a ce . T he a pex i si ng ene ra l t ongue s haped b u t i no ne c a se i ti sn o tched . B u t t s a r e t r immed i n o ne c a se a nd c o r t ica l i nt h e o t he r . I na l s ave o ne c a se , t h e s t r ik ing p l a tf orm s a nd b u lb s h ave b een t r immed . When p r esen t s t r ik ing p l a tf orm s h ave a n a ng le o fg r ea te r t h an 9 0 ° , am ean d imen s ion o f7 5 x3 0 ma nd a r ep r epa red b yt h e d e ta chmen t o ft wo t ot h r ee l a rge f l ake s c a r s . T he n umbe r o f d o r sa l a nd v en t ra l f l ake s ca r s v a ry g r ea t ly a nd i n g ene ra l h ave am ean d imen s ion o f3 4 x2 3 mm . I no ne c a se , c o r t ex i sp re sen t a l ong t h e b u t t a nd l e f ts i de p o s s ib ly a s ah andho ld . M in ia tu re h andaxes ( 3 ) h ave a m ean d imen s ion o f 7 2 x5 8 x2 7 mm a nd a r e o n q ua r tz i t ic s a nd s tone s . T he se a r e e l onga te o va te i n s h ape w i th > 10 d o r sa l a nd v en t ra l f l ake s c a r s a nd h ave s e conda ry t r imm ing . Wo rk ing e dges a r e s t ra igh t w i th e x ten s ive e dge d amage . A l l a r e n onco r t ica l . O ne e xamp le o f ab i f ac ia l c l eave r( 1 20 x9 1 x3 8 mm ) i s n o ted . T h i s i s o n af l ake a nd h a s a s t ra igh tb u t ta nd at r an sve r se a pex . H andaxe p r ef o rm s ( 3 ) h ave am ean d imens ion o f 1 24 x 1 07 x 3 2 mm a nd a r e a l n oncor t ica l . C au ses f o rd i sca rd v a ry a nd i n c lude c r ack si nt h e r aw ma ter ia l . C leave r s ( 3 ) a r e s p layed d i ve rgen t i ns hape . T hey a r e a l o n f l akes a nd h ave am ean d imen s ion o f1 40 x6 5 x3 8 mm . C hopp ing t o o ls ( 6 ) h ave am ean d imen s ion o f7 6 x9 5 x3 9 mm a nd c omp r ise a s i de c hoppe r a nd t wo c hoppe r c hopp ing t o o l s . O the r a r tef ac t s i n c lude o ne k n if e ( 80 x6 0 x3 0 mm ) , as ub sphe ro id ( 8 5 x4 6 x7 0 mm ) , t h ree d i sco id s ( 58 x 3 7 x2 1 mm ) a nd a n a nv i l ( 14 1 x13 x3 8 mm ) . M idd le P a laeo l i th ic A t o ta l o f 1 6 3 a r tef ac ts w e re c o l lec ted f r om a c ro s s t h e s u rf ace o f t h e e l eva ted a r ea s ( Tab le 6 b ) .

T ak ing i n to c on s ide ra t ion , n a tu ra l f o rma t ion p roce s se so pe ra t ing o nt h e s u r f a ce ,t h e f o l low ing p o in t sw e re n o ted . A r tef ac t A bras ion a nd P a t ina t ion : U nab raded t o o ls n umbe r 1 54 , o f w h ich 1 3 t o o ls h ave a b raded a r d te s a nd f r e sh e dge s , n i ne a r e u n if o rm ly a b raded a nd s e ven a r e i n ten se ly a b raded ( F ig .11b ) . P a t ina i s n o ted o n 2 9 a r tef a c t s , 2 8 a r e m i ld ly p a t ina ted a nd t h e r ema in ing a r eu npa t ina ted ( F ig .11a ) . A r tef ac t S i ze : T he m ax imum n umbe r o f a r tef ac t s f a l l w i th in t h e s i ze r a nge s o f4 0 -80 ( 6 9 ) a nd 2 0 -40 ( 68 ) mm f o l lowed b y 2 2 a r tef ac t s i n t h e 8 0 160 mm r a nge a nd 2 0 a r tef ac t s l e s s t h an 2 0 mm . O n ly o ne a r tef ac t i si nt h e 1 60 -320 mm s i ze r a nge ( F ig .10a ) . T he se f a l l w e l l w i th in t h e s i ze l i m i t s o fn a tu ra l ly o ccu r r ing c l a s t s a tt h e s i te ( F ig .5a ,5b ) . T he L i th ic A s semb lage R aw Ma ter ia l : T he p r inc ip le r aw m a ter ia ls u t i l ized w e re f i ne -g ra ined q ua r tz i tes , f o l lowed b y m ed ium t o c oa r se -g ra ined q ua r tz i tes a nd q ua r tz i t ic s a nd s tones a nd q uar tz ( Tab le 4 b ) . T he se a r e a l l o ca l ly a va i lab le . N o s i gn if ican t r e la t ion sh ip b e tw een a r tef ac t t y pe a nd r o ck t y pe i sn o ted . T he m ax imum n umbe r o fa r tef ac t s a r e o n f l ake s e i the r c or t ica l ( 10 ) o rn oncor t ica l ( 1 8 ) a nd L eva l lo is ( 3 ) , f o l lowed b y t h o se o n c hunk s /deb i tage f l ake s ( 6 ) o r n a tu ra l t h erma l f r ac tu r e f l akes ( 1 ) a nd w i th s ma l l n umbe r s o n p ebb les / cobb les ( 3 ) o r f l ake -b lade b l anks ( 2 ) ( F ig .12 ) . C ore s ( 19 ) i n c lude t wo L eva l lo is c o r e s o n a n e l onga ted c obb le a nd a f l ake r e spec t ive ly , w i th 3 0% c o r tex . I n b o th c o re s , o ne L eva l lo is f l ake h a s b een d e tached f r om a f a ce ted s t r ik ing p l a tf orm . D isco ida l c o re s h ave o ne p a r t ly t o t o ta l ly c o r t ica l c onvex f a ce a nd r ad ia l c onve rg ing d o r sa l f l ak e s c a r s a l ong t h e o ppos i te f a ce . A l l a r e o n p ebb le s o r s p l i t p ebb le s . O ne e xamp le m ay r e p resen t a n u n s t ruck p r epa red c o re . I n o ne c a se n ume rou s s t ep f r ac tu res a nd t e rm ina t ion s a r e n o ted a nd s eve ra l p ha ses o f f l ak ing a r e i nd ica ted . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t t h e c o res w e re e xp lo i ted t o ta l ly . I r regu la r mu l t ip le a nd o ppo sed p l a tf orm f l ake c o r es a r e g l obu la r i n s hape , w i th 3 0% c or tex . F l ake s c a r s r a nge f r om t h ree t oe i gh t i nn umbe r ( 4 6 x4 4 mm ) . A l l c o res a r e m in ima l ly e xp lo i ted . I no ne e xamp le , f u r the r f l ak ing c ou ld h ave l e d t o t h e c r ea t ion o f a c hopp ing t oo l . O n ly o ne f l ake -b lade c o re i s

T ab le 6 h : Ma i lapur : A r tef ac tD imens ions A r tef ac t T ype Mod if ied c obb le CORES L eva l lo is c o re s D isco ida l c o re s I r regu la r f l ake c o re s I r regu la r f l ake -b lade c o re s P y ram ida l b l ade c o r e s E xhau s ted / i ndef inab le c o re C o re g r ad ing i n to b i f a ce DEB ITAGE C hunk s C or t ica l F lake s N onco r t ica l F lake s U n re touched L eva l lo is F lake s F IN ISHED TOOLS S c rape r s S c rape r c um n o tch C o re s c rape r s P iece s w i th r e touch D en t icu la te s K n ive s B o re r N o tche s P o in t s C hopp ing t oo ls B if a c ia l t oo ls H andaxe

L eng th ( mm ) 7 8

B read th ( mm ) 5 2

T h ickne s s ( mm ) 4 3

8 0

6 0

2 5

7 6

5 7

2 4

1 33

13

7 3

7 0

5 0

3 5

8 0

7 5

3 0

4 2

4 5

1 8

1 90

1 30

1 60

4 3 3 8

3 6 3 9

2 0 1 3

3 2

2 7

1 0

4 5

3

1 3

5 1 4 2

5 7 4 0

1 6 1 5

8 6

7 9

4 3

4 2

4 4

1 3

6 0 7 2 5 0 6 0 4 5 9 5

8 8 6 7 3 5 4 5 2 5 7 7

2 0 2 6 1 0

6 0

5 0

3 0

1 02

7 5

2 7

a r en o t a va i lab le l o ca l ly . T he m ean d imen s ion o f c o r e s ( 1 10 x 6 7 x6 3 mm ) a ppea r s t o b e i n g ene ra l l a rge rt h an t h e s i ze o fn a tu ra l ly o ccu r r ing c l a s t s mos t o f w h ich f a l l w i th in t h e 4 0 -80 mm s i ze r a nge . I ti sp oss ib le t h a t c o r es w e re b rough t t ot h es i te f o rf u r the rr edu c t ion . Mos to ft h ec o re s w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f t h e i r egu la r f l ake c o res a ppea r t o b e e x tens ive ly u t i l ized . T he m ean d imens ion o f f l akes s t ru ck f r om i r regu la r f l ake c o re si s4 7 x4 5 mm , wh ich i si na cco rdance w i th t h e s i ze o fr e touched t oo ls o n f l akes . T h i s i sn o t s oi nt h e c ase o fo the r c o r e s . A n i mpor tan t p o in t i st h e o ccu r rence o fd i sco ida l c o r es , w h ich c ou ld p o s s ib ly h ave b een u t i l ized f u r the r a s p r epa red c o re s f o l low ing ac on t inuum o fr e duc t ion . Wh i le t h ree b l ade c o re s w e re n o ted , n o b lade s /f lake b l ade sw e re c o l lec ted f r om t h es i t e . D eb i tage ( 92 ) i n c ludes i r egu la r d eb i tage c hunk s , o f w h ich f ou r p o s s ib ly r e p re sen t e xhau s ted c o res . B roken a r t ef ac t s i n c lude a n e nd s t ruck f l ake , ab lade w i th b r oken p rox ima l a nd d i s ta l e nd s a nd a n e nd s t ru ck f l ake w i th a b roken d i s ta l e nd . D e sp i te t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s i te h a s b een m in ima l ly d i s tu rbed , c h ip s a r e f ew i nn umbe r . Among t h e c o r t ica l f l akes , t h e max imum n umbe r h ave c o r t ica l s t r ik ing p l a tf orms a nd p a r t ly c o r t ica l d o r sa l s u rf aces . C o r tex p e r cen tage s r ange f r om 3 0% a nd l e s s . E a r ly s t age s i nt h e t r imm ing o f c obb le s o r c o r t ica l f l ake b l ank s i s r ep re sen ted h e r e . F in i shed t oo l s ( 47 ) i n c lude s c rape r s , s ub type s o fw h ich a r el i s ted i nT ab le 6 b .O ne e xamp le o fa t humbna i l s c rape r ( 30 x 2 5 x1 0 mm ) w h ich c ou ld b ec h rono log ica l ly l a te ri sa l so n o ted . C o r e s c rape r s ( 10 ) o ccu r o n f l ake s , c hunk s , a nd c o re s o fw h ich o ne a ppea r s t ob e o n ap r epa red c o r e a nd t h e r e s t o n f l ake c o r e s . Among p i eces w i th r e tou ch ( 5 ) o ne i so n an on co r t ica l d eb i tage f l ake , t wo a r e o n i regu la r c hunk s , o ne i so n a c or t ex t r imm ing f l ake a nd o ne i so n an a tu ra l t h erma l f r ac tu re f l ake .

1 9 1 0 4 3

N o t ches ( 2 ) a r e a l a r e s i ng le b l ow n o tche s . C hopp ing t oo ls ( 2 ) i n c lude a n e nd a nd a s i de c hoppe rm ea su r ing 9 5 x7 7 x4 3 mm .

n o ted w i th s i x b id i rec t iona l f l ake -b lade s s t ruck f r om o pposed p l a tf orm s w i th am ean d imen s ion o f 7 0 x2 0 mm . T he c o re a ppea r s t o b e t o ta l ly e xhau s ted . O ne i regu la r f l ake a nd b l ade c o re i sa l so n o ted b ea r ing t wo b l ade a nd o ne f l ake s c a r . O ne e xamp le o f ac o re -cum -b if a ce m ea su r ing 1 90 x 1 30 x 1 60 mm i sn o ted . O ne b l ade c o re i sa l so p resen t . T h is s i t e e xh ib i t s t h e m ax imum n umbe r o fc o res i nt h e e n t i re r e g ion . R aw m a ter ia l t ypes 4a nd 1 9

8 4

H andaxe s ( 3 ) h ave am ean d imen s ion o f 1 02 x 7 5 x2 7 mm a nd a r e e l onga te o va t e i ns hape a nd a r e o n n oncor t ica l e nd s t ruck f l ak e s . T he a pex i s b rok en i n o ne c a se , a nd t ongu e s h aped i n t h e r e s t . B u t t s a r e b roken i n o ne c a se a nd w i th t r an sv e r se t e rm ina t ion s i n t h e r e s t . Wo rk ing e dge s a r e r ough ly s t ra igh t w i th m in ima l e dge d amage . N ine a r tef ac t s w e re c o l lec ted f r om v a r iou s d ep th sa l ong t h e e xpo sed s ec t ion f r om a n a r ea o f 1x 1m . T hese i n c lude an o tch , ad en t icu la te a nd

ak n if e . O ne e xamp le o f am ic ro l i th ic p y ram ida l b lade c o re p o in t st ov er t ica l movem en to ft oo l s . I ng ene ra l a r tef ac t so nL eva l lo is f l ake sa r e l o nge r t h an t h o se o n o the r f l ake s . R e touched f l akes a r e i n s ome c a se s s ho r te r a nd t h icke r t h an u n re tou ched b lank s . T he mo s tc ommon r e touch t y pe i ss c a la rr e tou ch . O the r t y pe s a r e n orma l i n ve r se , a b rup t , a nd i r regu la r . R e touch i sg ene ra l ly l i gh tc on s is t ing o f o ne r ow o fs ma l l s c a r sa nd i sg ene ra l ly a l ong o ne e dge a nd o ne f a ce o n ly . E leven a r tef ac t s h ave mo re t h an o ne e dge r e tou ched . F i ve a r tef ac t s h ave mo re t h an o ne r e tou ch t y pe a l ong d i f f e r en t e dge s . A r tef ac t s w i th mo re t h an o ne r e tou ch t y pe / row a l ong t h e s ame e dge a r e f ou r i n n umbe r . T ak ing i n to c on s ide ra t ion t h em ean d imen s ion o f a l l s c rape r s i ti ss e en t h a t s i ng le s t ra igh t s ided s c rape r s a ppea r t o b e l o nge r a nd t h icke r t h an t h ose w i th mo r e t h an o ne e dge r e touched . A l though t h e m ax imum n umbe r o f w o rk ing e dge s a r e s t ra igh t , ac omb ina t ion o f d i f f e r en t e dge t y pes i sa l so n o ted . E dge d amage i sn o ted i nt h e c a se o fo ne k n if e , a l t h e d en t icu la tes , o ne n o tch a nd o n t h r ee c o re s c rape r s . B roken t o o ls a r e f ew i n n umbe r . T he n umbe r o f h eavy -du ty t o o ls i s1 6a sc ompa red t o3 0l i gh td u ty t o o ls . P os t -M idd le P a laeo l i th ic T oo l s O ne m ic ro l i th ic b l ade c o re w a s n o ted i n t h e s e c t ion , f r om w h ich t h ree b l ades w e re d e tached f r om o ppo sed p l a tf o rm s . O the r t o o ls i n c lude 1 0 b l ades , 2 0c h ip sa nd t h ree c hunk s . 3 . 2 .7 : GUN IPALAYA M T he s i te ( 13° 17 ' 0 "N : 7 9 ° 5 1 ' 1 4 " E ) , c ove r s a n a r ea o f 5s q km a nd i sl o ca ted a ta n e l eva t ion o f 7 0 m AMSL a tt h e f oo th i l ls o ft h e A l l iku l l i 's . S i te T aphonomy a nd S tra t igraphy T he b a s ic s t ra t ig raph ic s equence i sg i ven i nF ig . 3 . 3a ,b . R e s t ing o n t h e s ha le b ed rock a r e f e r r ic re tes w i th A cheu l ian t oM idd le P a laeo l i th ic t o o ls . F e r r ic re tes a r e i mma tu re a nd t e x tu ra l a na ly s is i n d ica tes t h a t d epo s i t ion o f t h e s and s a nd s i l t s o ccu r red p robab ly a s ar e su l t o f s hee t w a sh a nd s t r eam f l ood s . D u r icru s t d i s in teg ra t ion i sw ide sp read . F er r ic re te l a g a nd s h ee t g rave l , o ve r ly ing t h is d epo s i t c on ta in L a te M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t o o l sa nd m ic ro l i th s . T he s i t e w a s m apped a nd 2 39 a r tef a c t s w e re c o l lec ted f r om o ve r a n a r ea o f 8 , 102 s q m . T he d en s i ty o ft o o ls w a s2 / sq m . A r tef ac t A bra s ion a nd P a t ina t ion : Mos t a r tef ac t s a r e u nab raded ( 1 51) , f o l low ed b y t h ose w i th a b raded a r 8 tes ( 64 ) , u n if o rm ly a b raded ( 20 )

a nd t o ta l ly a b raded ( 4 ) ( F ig .11b ) . Mo s t a r tef ac t s a r e u npa t ina ted ( 1 33 ) ( F ig .11a ) . I ti ss e en t h a ta l l a r tef a c t s o n q ua r tz i t ic s and s tone ( 3 1) a r e i n ten se ly p a t ina ted a nd i n g ene ra l h ave e i the r a b raded a f i te s o r f r esh e dge s o r a r e u n if o rm ly a b raded . I nc on t ra s t , a l q ua r tz i te a r tef ac t s a r e i n g ene ra lu npa t ina ted a nd f r e sh . A r tef ac t S i ze : A c ompa r ison b e tween a r tef ac t s i ze r a nges a nd t h a t o fn a tu ra l ly o ccu r r ing r o ck c l a s t s , r evea ls t h a t n o s i ze s o r t ing o r c o r re la t ion b e tween a r t ef ac t a nd n a tu ra l r o ck s i ze r anges i s n o ted . T he m a jo r i ty o fa r t ef ac t s f a l l w i th in 2 0 -40 mm a nd 4 0 -80 mm s i ze r a nge s , a l though a r tef ac t s l e s s t h an 2 0 mm a nd b e tween 8 0 160 mm a r e a l so n o ted ( F ig .10a ) . O n ly o ne t oo l i n t h e 1 60 -320 mm s i ze r a nge i sn o ted . S u i tab le c l a s t so fa l l s i zes w e re l o ca l ly a va i lab le . L oca l i ty 1h a s l a rge r a r tef ac t s w i th v e ry f ew c h ips . L oca l i ty 2h a sa r tef ac t sl e s st h an 1 60 mm i ns i ze . T he L i th ic A s semb lage T h is c on s is t so f2 00 a r t ef ac t s( Tab le 6 b ) . R aw Ma ter ia l : T he p r inc ipa l r aw m a ter ia l u t i l ized a r e q ua r tz i te s o f v a r iou s t ype s ( Tab le 4 b ) . R ock t y pes 1 , 9a nd 4 d o n o t a ppea r t ob e p r esen t l o ca l ly . A r tef ac t t y pes o n t h e se r aw m a te r ia ls i n c lude d en t icu la te s , i regu la r f l ake c o re s , n o tched s c rape r o n c o re , f l ake -b lades , t h umbna i l s c rape r , c hunk s , u n re tou ched u t i l ized f l ake , ab roken a r t ef ac t , c o re s c rape r , b l ade a nd f l ake -b lade c o re , s c rape r , n o tche s , k n if e , b i f ac ia l ly f l aked a r tef a c t a nd p o in ted a r tef ac t s . T h is s amp le d oe s n o t i n c lude a ny d eb i tage , s uppo r t ing t h e h ypo the s is t h a t a r tef ac t s o n t h ese r o ck t y pes w e r e p os s ib ly b rough t f r om e l sewhe re . H oweve r , a bundan t s ou rce s o fg r ave l i nc o l luv ia l d epo s i t s a r e a va i lab le 2km a way a t t h e f o o th i l ls a nd o n t h e h i l l s l ope s , w he re t h ese t y pes c ou ld h ave b een e a s i ly o b ta ined . B lank t y pes i n c lude p redom inan t ly n oncor t ica l a nd c o r t ica l f l ak es , f o l lowed b y L eva l lo is f l akes ( 6 ) , d eb i tage ( 26 ) , f l ake -b lade s ( 19 ) , t h e rma l f r ac tu re f l ake ( 1 )a nd p ebb les /cobb le s( 4 )( F ig 12 ) . O ne t r immed n odu le o n q ua r tz i sn o ted . Two mod i f ied c obb le s a r e n o t ed o f w h ich o ne e xamp le h a s b a t te r ing m a rk s o n o ne f a ce w h ich i sa l so v e ry s moo th a nd c ou ld i n d ica te p o s s ib le u se a s a h amme r s tone . C ore s ( 1 2 ) i n c lude L eva l lo i s c o res ( 6 ) . I n o ne e xamp le a f a ce ted s t r ik ing p l a tf orm w a sp r epa red b u tt h e f i na l f l ake w a s n o t d e tached . O ne f l ake ( 3 5 x3 0 mm ) w a s d e tached a l ong t h e v en t ra l s u rf ace a f t e r w h ich t h e c o r e w a s d i sca rded . T h ree u n s t ru ck L eva l lo is c o res a r e n o ted w i th o ne c onvex p a r t ly c o r t ica l f a ce w i th f l ake s c a r sd e ta ched a l ong t h e

T ab le 6 i : Gun ipa layam : A r tef ac tD imen s ions A r te f ac tT ype T r immed n odu le Mod if ied c obb le CORES L eva l lo is c o r e s D isco ida l c o re s I r regu la rf l ake c o re s I r regu la r f l ake -b lade c o r e s P y ram ida l b l ade c o re s DEB ITAGE C hunk s C or t ica l F l akes N oncor t ica l F l ake s B if a ce T r imm ing F l ake s E dge T r imm ing F lake s C o re R e juvena t ion F lake s U n re touched L eva l lo is F l ake s U n r e touched U t i l ized F lake s U nr e touched F lake B lade s U n r e touched K n ives F IN ISHED TOOLS S c rape r s S i ng le s t ra igh ts i ded : o nf l ake s o nf l ak e -b lad e s

L eng th ( mm ) 7 0 8 0

B read th ( mm )

T h ickne s s ( mm )

3 5 1 0

3 5 3 0

8 7

15 1 20 1 20 1 20

10 5 5 6 5

3 2 6 0 7 0 6 0

3 7

3 5

2 0

3 0 3 8 3 7 3 1

1 2 4 3 2 9 3 0

5 1 5 1 2 9

2 8

3 7

1 4

3 7

2 4

1

5 7

4 7

1 6

5 0

4 5

1 3

4 5

4 3

1 7

5 2

4 5

1 9

4 7 4 0 5 5

4 7 3 8 3 4

1 8 1 2 1 3

S ing le c onvex s i ded C onvergen t D oub l es t ra igh ts i ded D oub le s t ra igh t s i ded a nd e nd S i ng le s t ra igh t s i ded a nd e nd

4 0 3 5 4 5 5 5

3 5 3 0 3 5 7 0

2 2 1 0 1 2 1 0

5 0

4 0

4 0

E nd s c rape ro nf l ake b l ade s o nL eva l lo i sf l ake s

3 4

3 1

1

5 0 6 2 4 0 4 9

5 0

1 5

5 2 3 8 3 7 4 5

2 9 1 3 1 3 1 9 1 4 2 4 2 2 4 0 2 0

C o re s c rape r s P i ece sw i th r e touch D en t icu la te s K n ive s S crape r sc um n o tches N o tche s P o in t s C hoppe r B if a c ia l t o o ls

5 2 5 4 4 5 6 4 3 0 5 0

3 0 5 0 6 0 8 0 4 5

p e r iphery . T he o ppos i te f a ce h a s s i x t o s even r ough ly r a d ia l c onve rg ing f l ake s ca r s . S t r ik ing p l a tf o rm sa r ep r epa red b u tt h ef i na l f l ake w a sn o t d e tached . I nt h e c a se o ft h e i r regu la r f l ake c o re , o ne f a ce , w h ich i sr o l led a nd p a t ina ted h a s b een r ough ly c h ipped t o c r ea te a f a ce ted s t r ik ing p l a tf orm f r om w h ich o ne l a rge b l ade l ike f l ake h a s b een d e tached . A n i r regu la r f l ake -b lade c o re

8 6

o n ar o l led e l onga ted c obb le w i th 4 0% c or tex i s p r esen t . Af t e rp r e l im ina ry t r imm ing o ft h e c or tex o ne l a rge b l ade l i ke f l ake w a s d e ta ched f r om a p a r t ly p r epa red s t r ik ing p l a tf o rm , f o l low ing w h ich t h e c o re w a s d i sca rded . T h is w a s s ub sequen t ly r e touched a nd n o tched . A r tef ac t d imen s ion sa r el i s ted i nT ab le 6 i . I ng ene ra l c o re sh ave am ean d imen s ion o f 19 x 7 9 x5 6 mm w h ich f a l ls w e l l w i th in t h e s i ze r a nge o f n a tu ra l c l a s t s a tt h e s i te . F l ake -b lade c o re s h ave b een m in ima l ly e xp lo i ted a nd f l ake c o re s a ppea r t oh ave b een mode ra te ly e xp lo i t ed . A s e l sewhe re c o res w e re o f t en r e tou ched a nd u s ed w hen e xhau s ted /b roken . Among t h e d eb i tage ( 9 0 ) , c or t ica l f l ake s ( 7 ) h ave c o r tex p e r cen tages r a ng ing a r ound 2 0% ( 6 ) a nd u p t o5 0% ( 1 ) . Noncor t ica l f l akes a r e l o nge r a nd t h icke r t h an c or t ica l f l ak es . Among t h e c o re r e juvena t ion f l akes o ne i s a f l ake c o re r e juvena t ion f l ake a nd t h e r e s t a r e b l ade c o re r e juvena t ion f l ake s , t h ree o fw h ich w e re p o s s ib ly f r om o ppo sed p l a tf orm c o re s . A m ic rob lade m ea su r ing 2 0 x2 0 x1 0 mm a nd c ou ld p o s s ib ly r e p resen t d eb i tage a s a r e su l t o f b l ade p roduc t ion . U n re touched L eva l lo is f l ake s ( 9 ) a r e a l n oncor t ica l . O ne e xamp le m ay g rade i n to a L eva l lo is p o in t . A l l b u t o ne o ft h e u n r e touched k n ives i sc o r t ica l ly b acked . N onco r t ica l f l ake s p r edom ina te . C or t ica l d eb i tage h ave v e ry l ow p e r cen tages o fc or tex . I nt h ree c a ses o n ly a r e t h e s t r ik ing p l a tf orms p ar t ly c or t ica l , p o s s ib ly i n d ica t ing e a r ly s t age t r imm ing . A l l L eva l lo is f l ake s a r e n oncor t ica l . T he r e i s l i t t le s i ze v a r ia t ion b e tween c or t ica l /nonco r t ica l d eb i tage a nd u t i l ized f l ake sa nd p repa r ed c o re f l akes . F in i shed t oo ls ( 96 ) i n c lude m a in ly s c rape r s . T he se i n c lude s i ng le s t ra igh t s id ed s c rape r s ( 1 7 ) , o fw h ich 1 4 a r e o n f l ake -b lade s a nd t h r ee a r e o n f l ake s . S c rape r s o n f l ake s h ave a m ean d imens ion o f4 0 x8 3 x1 2 mm o f w h ich o n ly o ne h a s l e s st h an 1 0% c or tex . S c rape r s o n f l ake b l ade s h ave am ean d imen s ion o f 5 x3 4 x1 3 mm a nd a l s ave o ne w ere d e ta ched f r om s i ng le p l a tf orm c o re s . F l aked b ack ing i sn o ted i nt h ree c a se s , a nd i n o ne c a se b ack ing i sa ch ieved b y a brup t ly r e touch ing t h e r i gh t e dge o ppos i te t h e w o rk ing e dge . O ne e xamp le o f as i ng le c onvex s i ded s c rape ri sb acked a l ong t h e l e f te dge b yt h e d e tachmen to ft wo l o ng s pa l ls . C o r e S c rape r s ( 4 ) a r e o n f l ake s ( 3 ) a nd ab roken f l ake c o re ( 1 ) . P i eces w i th r e tou ch ( 2 5 ) h ave a m ean d imen s ion o f4 0 x3 8 x1 3 mm a nd a r e o n f l ake s ( 17 ) a nd c hunk s . I r regu la r n o tche s a nd d en t icu la ted e dges a r e n o ted i nf o u r c a ses e a ch . Among n o tches , o ne i so n af l ake -b lade , a nd t h e o t he ri so n a n e nd s t ruck n onco r t ica l f l ake w i th a m ean n o t ch d imen s ion o f 2 5 x1 2 mm . I n o ne

c a se t h e n o t ch ( 30 x 1 0 mm ) a i d s i nt h e c r ea t ion o f a' b eaked 'a pex . M i ld e dge d amage i sn o ted . P o in t s ( 7 ) a r e o n aL eva l lo is f l ake , as p l i t o r b roken p ebb le a nd o nf l akes . T he s p l i tp ebb le h a s b een i regu la r ly c h ipped t o c r ea te ap o in t . O ne e xamp le i so n a n o l de r t o o l . O ne e xamp le o fa n e nd choppe r i s n o ted o n a r o l led e l onga ted c obb le . Among t h e f i n ished t o o ls , a r tef ac t s o n f l ake b l ade b l ank s p r edom ina te ( 14 s c rape r s , 7 s c rape r s g r ad ing i n to n o tches , a nd o ne n o tch ) . T hese h ave m ean 1 / b a nd b / t r a t io s o f 1 . 74 a nd 2 . 55 r e spec t ive ly a nd a r e s l igh t ly l o nge r a nd t h inne r t h an u n re touched b l ades . T he s i te a l so h a s al a rge n umbe r o fd en t icu la te s a nd n o tche s . T ak ing i n to c on s ide ra t ion t h e s i ze so ft h ese t o o ls , i ti ss e en t h a t n o tched s c rape r s a nd n o tches a r e l o nge r a nd w ide r t h an d en t icu la tes , p o s s ib ly s uppo r t ing t h e h ypo thes is t h a t t h e se r ep resen t a c on t inuum i nr educ t ion . G rea t v a r ia t ions i n t h e t y pes o f w o rk ing e dge s a r e n o ted a tt h is s i te . A lmo s t a l l t h e a r tef ac t s a r e l i gh t d u ty t oo ls . E dge d amage i sn o ted i n t h e c a se o fa l t h e u n re touched b l ades ( i no ne c a se o n a l t h e e dges ) , o n a l l r e tou ched k n ives , o n s ome s c rape r s ( i n t h e c a se o f t wo s c rape r s , e dge d amage i s n o ted o n t h e e dge o ppos i te t h e r e tou ched e dge ) , o n o ne s c rape r -cum -no t ch , o n o ne n o tch a nd i nt h ec a se o fa l t h ec o re s c rape r s . Al a rge n umbe ro ft oo ls h ave mo re t h an o ne e dge r e tou ched ( 39 ) . S im i la r ly a l a rge n umbe r h ave mo re t h an o ne t y pe o f r e touch a l ong d i f f e ren t e dge s ( 2 8 ) . S i x t o o ls h ave m o re t h an o ne t y pe / row o f r e touch a l ong o ne e dge . S ca la r r e tou ch p r edom ina tes . O the r t y pes i n c lude a l te rna te , d en t icu la ted , i r regu la r , a b rup t , n i bb l ing , p a ra l le l s i ded , a nd c omb ina t ion s o ft h e s ame . N orma l i n ve r se r e touch i s n o ted i n t h e c a se o fo ne s c rape ra nd o ne n o tched s c rape r . O ne a r tef ac ta ppea r st oh ave t wo p ha ses o fr e tou ch a s i n d ica ted b y d i f f e ren t ia l p a t ina t ion . T h is s i t e e xh ib i t st h em ax imum n umbe ro fb roken t oo ls . P o s t -M idd le P a laeo l i th ic T he se i n c lude 1 0 b roken b l ade s , c h ip s a nd c hunk s ( 1 0 ) , t r imm ing a nd c o r e r e juvena t ion f l ake s ( 10 ) , u t i l ized f l ake s ( 4 ) a nd t h umbna i l s c rape r s( 5 ) . 3 . 2 .8 : S r ikr i shnapuram T he s i t e( 1 3° 1 7 '3 "N : 7 9° 0 '5 0 " E ) , i sl o ca ted i n t h e f o o th i l ls o ft h e A l l iku l l i ' s a ta n e l eva t ion o f 1 04 m AMSL . A r tef ac t s o ccu r o ve r a n a r ea o f2 s q km . S tra t igraphy T he s t ra t ig raph ic s equence i sg i ven i n F ig . 3 . 2 . F er r icr i t ised g r ave l o ve r l ie st h e b ed rock o fs ha le .

8 7

D u r ic ru s t e x tend s o ve r t h e e n t i re f oo th i l ls a nd c on ta in s e mbedded g r ave l ( s ee C hap te r I ) . A cheu l ian t o o ls e r ode o u t o ft h is a nd o ccu r o n t h e s u rf a ce a s w e l l , w h i le M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a r tef ac t s o ccu r o n t h e s u rf ace . B lock d i s in teg ra t ion o ft h ed u r ic ru s t si sn o ted . T he L i th ic A ssemb lage O n ly s e ven s t one t o o ls w e r e c o l lec ted f r om h e re , ow ing t o t h e f a c t t h a t mos t a r e d e r ived f r om c o l luv ia l c on tex t s a nd t h e s i te h a s l ow i n teg r i ty . O f t h e se f ou r a r e i n ten se ly p a t ina ted a nd u n if o rm ly . a b raded . O ne a r tef ac t i s p i t ted . A r tef ac tt y pes i n c lude h andaxe ( 1 ) , c o r e s c rape r s ( 3 ) , k n if e ( 1 ) a nd c o re -cum -chopp ing t oo ls ( 2 ) . T he s amp le i st o o s ma l l f o rf u r the rd i scu ss ion . 3 . 2 .9 : GUD IYA M T h is c on s is t so f ar ock s he l te r ( 1 3° 1 6 ' 0 6 'N : 7 9 ° 4 9 ' 2 0 E . ) l o ca ted a t a n e l eva t ion o f 1 22 m AMSL i nt h e A l l iku l l i h i l ls ( P la te 1 ) . T he c ave f o rm s a n a mph i thea t re w i th ah e igh t o f 1 5 mi n t h eo pen ing d ec rea s ing t o 1 . 2 1 .3 a tt h er e a r . I ti s c u t e n t ire ly i nt h e c oa r se B ou lde r -Cong lome ra te o ft h e S a tyavedu f o rma t ion ( s ee C hap te r I ) . T he c ave i sn o r th f a c ing , a nd i sp ro tec ted f r om w ind s b ys t eep c l if f s t ot h e n or th a nd w e s t . I to pen s o u t t o ar a in g u l ly i n t h e n o r th a nd a p e rmanen t s p r ing i s p r esen t 1 km t o t h e s ou thea s t . C on s ide rab le e r o s ion i sc au sed b y t h e a c t ion o f s t ream s n ea r t h e c ave . E xcava t ion s w e re c ondu c ted h e re b y t h e A rchaeo log ica l S u rvey o f I nd ia ( s ee C hap te r I ) , o f w h ich t h e re a r e n o p ub l ished r epor t s . T he a r tef ac t s w e re c o l lec ted e r od ing o u t o ft h e s ed imen t s a nd t hu st h e s amp le i s v e ry s ma l l . T he s t ra t ig raph ic s equence c omp r ise s w ea the red b ed rock a nd r oof f a l l . T he c ave i s a t p resen t u sed a s a s h r ine f o r Man ichamman D ev i ; amo the r -godde ss . T he L i th ic A ssemb lage N ine teen a r tef ac t s w e r e c o l lec ted f r om t h is s i t e o f w h ich 1 2 w e r e f r om t h e c ave a nd t h e r ema in ing f r om n ea r a s p r ing l o ca ted a t a d i s tance o f 1 km f r om t h e c ave . O n ly M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t o o ls w e re n o ted . A r tef a c t s a r e i n g ene ra l u nab raded a nd u npa t ina t ed . R aw m a ter ia ls ( Tab le 4 b ) a r e l o ca l ly a va i lab le a nd d e r ived f r om w ea the r ed b ed rock o f t h e S a tyavedu f o rma t ion . O n ly o ne p o s s ib le i regu la r f l ake c o re w a s n o ted m ea su r ing 1 20 x 9 0 x4 0 mm o n an a tu ra l t h erma l f r a c tu re f l ake . Among t h e d eb i tage ( 9 ) c h ip s a r e a b sen t p o s s ib ly ow ing t o e r o s ion , o r i n ab i l i ty t o d i s t ingu ish t h en f r om n ume rou s n a tu ra l t h erma l f r ac tu re f l akes a nd c h ip s . F in ished t oo l t y pes a r e l i s ted i nT ab le 6 b . C o r e s c rape r s a r e o n at h ick f l ake , ap a t ina ted a nd a b raded c obb le a nd o n as p l i t p ebb le . T he s o le e xamp le o f ac hoppe rh a s am ean d imen s ion o f 7 5 x6 0 x3 0 mm a nd i so n ar o l led s p l i t

T ab le 6 j : P lacepa layam : A r tef ac tD imen s ion s

p ebb le . B a t te r ing ma rk s o n t h e b u t t i n d ica te t h a t i t c ou ld r ep r esen t a b roken h amme r s tone c onver ted i n to ac hoppe r .

A r tef ac tT ype

L (mm )

B (mm )

T (mm )

Mod if i ed c obb le

6 20

5 22

1 60

L eva l lo i sc o r e s

1 40

1 00

3 5

I r r egu la r c o re s

2 30

1 40

7 0

6 3

5 4

1 5

N oncor t ica l F lake s

4 0

2 6

1

C o r e R e juvena t ion F lake s

7 0

6 1

3 0

U n re touched U t i l ized F lake s

9 9

5 3

'2 3

8 1

1 _6 19

2 0 1 9

5 5

3

_

CORES

3 . 2 .10 :PLACEPALAYA M P l acepa layam ( 13°15 ' 12"N :79 °45 ' 10 "E ) i s l o ca ted a t a n e l eva t ion o f 1 51 m AMSL a nd w i th in an a r row r av ine i nt h e A l l iku l l i h i l ls . A n a r ea o f 2 5 s q km i n t h e h i l ls s u r round ing t h e v i l lage w a s s u rveyed . T he m ax imum n umbe r o f a r tef ac t s w e r e n o ted a t ad i s tance o f 1k m f r om t h e v i l lage o n t h e n o r thwes t s l ope o ft h e h i l l . I t w a s n o ted t h a t t h e d en s i ty o f t oo l s w a s l ow ( 0 .02 / sq m ) , p o s s ib ly o w ing t o p oo r v i s ib i l i ty r e su l t ing f r om d en se v ege ta t ion a nd a r tef ac t s w e r e r a ndom ly d i spe r sed o ve r t h e r eg ion s u rveyed ( Tab le 2 ) . T he m ax imum a r tef ac t c oncen t r a t ion i sn ea r as ma l l s t r eam , a l ong w h ich t h e I r u la s e t t lemen t i sa l so l o ca ted . T he s i te i s 1 00 m f r om a n a tu ra l s p r ing , n ow d eepened t o f o rm aw e l l a nd 0 . 5 km f r om ap e r enn ia l j ung le s p r ing . H e r e , a r tef ac t s o ccu r i n c l u s te r s o n t h e s u rf ace o f w ea the r ed b ed rock c ompr is ing t h e S a tyavedu f o rma t ion ( 12 / sq m )

f l ake

DEB ITAGE C hunk s C o r t ica l F lake s

F IN ISHED TOOLS S c rape r s C o r es c rape r s P iece s r e tou ch

S i te T aphonomy T he t o ta l n umbe r o fa r tef ac t s c o l lec ted w a s 7 9 . T oo l s o ccu r o n t h e s u rf ace o fc o l luv ia l d epo s i t s , a nd h ave b een s ub jec ted t oe r o s ion .

w i th

1 50 7 6

K n ive s

35 .1

6 6

No t che s

9 7

8 0

4 7 2 0

C o r e c um C hopp ing t o o l s

1 85

1 07

7 2

H andaxe s

1 25

9 7

5 0

A nv i l

2 30

2 20

7 0

c o l luv ia l d epo s i t s a l ong t h e h i l ls lope s . T he m ax imum n umbe r o fa r tef ac t s a r e o n q u ar tz i tes , f o l lowed b y as ma l l n umbe ro nq ua r tz i t ic

A r tef ac t A bras ion a nd P a t ina t ion : F if ty -s ix a r tef ac t s a r e f r esh , e l even h ave a b raded a r 8 te s a nd f r e sh e dge s , 1 0 a r e t o ta l ly a b raded a nd t wo a r e u n if o rm ly a b raded ( F ig .11b ) . S ome t o o l s a r e p i t ted . A r tef ac t s a r e i n ten se ly p a t ina ted ( 39 ) , l i gh t ly p a t ina ted ( 14 ) w h i le t h e r e s t a r e u npa t ina ted .

s and s tone s ( 8 ) a nd q ua r tz ( 1 ) ( Tab le 4 b ) . I ns p i te o ft h e e a sy a va i lab i l i ty o f aw ide r a nge o fr o ck t y pe s , i ti ss e en t h a t i n g ene ra l o n ly f i ve t y pes h ave b een e x ten s ive ly u t i l ized o f wh ich t y pes 7 / 8 a nd 1p r edom ina te . N o s i gn if ican t c o r r e la t ion i s n o ted b e tween a r tef ac t t y pe s a nd r aw m a ter ia l t y pe s . I n g ene ra l l a rge b l ank s w e r e p r ef e r r ed . T he m ax imum n umbe ro fa r tef ac t s a r e o nn a tu ra l t h e rma l f r ac tu re f l akes /chunk s ( 8 ) f o l lowed b y t ho se o n f l akes ; a nd o n c obb les /pebb le s w i th t h o se o n d eb i tage a nd f l ake -b lades b e ing i ns ma l l n umbe r s o n ly ( F ig .12 ) . A r tef ac t s o n t h erma l f r ac tu r e b l ank s t end t o b e s l igh t ly l o nge r ( l /b = 1 . 9 a nd b / t =1 . 55 ) , t h an o t he r a r tef ac t s w i th t h e e xcep t ion o ft h ose o nf l ake -b lade b l ank s .

A r tef ac t S ize : T he m ax imum n umbe r o f a r tef ac t s( 4 1) f a l l w i th in t h e s i ze r ange o f8 0 160 mm . T h is i sf o l lowed b y t hose w i th in t h e s i ze r ange o f4 0 -80 mm ( 25 ) a nd t hose w i th in t h e s i ze r ange o f1 60 -320 mm ( 3 ) , 2 0 -40 mm ( 2 ) a nd l e s s t h an 2 0 mm ( 5 ) ( F ig .10a ) . H oweve r s ome l a rge ( > 160 mm ) mod if ied c obb le s w e r e a l so n o ted . T he s ma l l n umbe r o f c h ips i s e i the r d ue t o e r o s ion o r i n ab i l i ty t o d i f f e r en t ia te t h e se f r om n a tu ra l c h ips o ccu r r ing a s a r e su l t o f w ea ther ing /ab ra s ion o ft h eg r ave lb ed s .

A r tef ac t t y pes i n c lude mod if ied c obb le s w i th l e s s t h an 5 0% c or tex . On ly t wo t r ue c ore s w e re n o ted o f w h ich o ne i s aL eva l lo is c o r e o n a n o lde r f l ake a nd t h e o t he r a n i r r egu la r f l ake c o r e o n a n e l onga ted c obb le w i th o ne l a rge f l ake ( 230 x 7 0 mm ) d e tached f r om a p l a in s t r ik ing p l a tf orm . A r tef ac t d imen s ion s a r e l i s ted i nT ab le 6 j .

T he L i th ic A s semb lage T he t o ta l s amp le o f s t one t o o ls c ompr ised 7 8 s pec imen s( Tab le 6 b ) . R aw Ma ter ia l : R aw m a ter ia l c ompr ises l o ca l ly a va i lab le c obb le s , p ebb le s a nd n a tu ra l t h erma l f r ac tu r e f l akes d er ived f r om e r od ing b ed rock o r

8 8

,

D eb i tage ( 5 5 ) c on s is t s o f o n ly f i ve c h ip s a l though i ti su nc lea r a s t o w he the r t h ese a r e n a tu ra l ly p roduced o r b y -p rodu c t s o f t oo l manuf ac tu re . F in i shed t o o l s ( 1 5 ) : C o re s c rape r s a r e p r inc ipa l ly o n n a tu ra l t h erma l f r ac tu re f l akes /chunk s o r p ebb les , w i th o n ly t wo o n f l akes o rc o re s . Among k n ive s o ne i so n af l ake , t h e s e cond o n a n e l onga ted n odu le , a nd t h e t h i rd o n at a bu la rp i ece . O ne e xamp le i sn o tched a l ong t h e m es ia l p a r t o f t h e r i gh t e dge w i th a s i ng le b low n o tch . N o t che s a r e b o th s i ng le b l ow n o tches o n an onco r t ica l f l ake -b lade a nd f l ak e r e spec t ive ly . Ap os s ib le a nv i l m ea su r ing 2 30 x 2 20 x 7 0 mm o n c oa r se -g ra ined q ua r tz i te i sa l so p r e sen t . H andaxe s h ave a m ean d imens ion o f 1 25 x9 7 x5 0 mm a nd i n c lude a n e l onga te o va te b i f ace w i th ab roken a pex a nd t r immed b u lb a nd a no va te . B o th a r eo nf l akes . A r tef ac t s C o l lec ted A long t he l r u la R ound : O n ly f ou ra r tef a c t s w e re n o ted i nt h e s u r round ing h i l ls o ve r a n a r ea o f 1 00 s q km s u rveyed w h i le a c company ing t h e l r u la s . T he se i n c luded o ne c onvex s i ded s c rape r , o ne c o re s c rape r , o ne r o l led h andaxe a nd ap o s s ib le b l ade c o re . T he m ax imum n umbe r o f t oo ls a tt h is s i te a r e r e touched / shaped t oo ls o fw h ich m o s t a r e h eavy d u ty i n c lud ing u t i l ized f l ake s a nd k n ives . A l though n ume rou s f l ake -b lade b l ank sr e touched i n to v a r iou s t o o l t y pe s o ccu r , n o c o r re spond ing c o res w e re n o t ed . s im i la r ly n o L eva l lo is c o re s w e r e n o ted . E dge d amage i sn o ted i nt h e c a se o f o ne u t i l ized f l ake , o ne p o ss ib le p r epa red c o re , t h r ee c o re s c rape r s , o ne h andaxe , t h ree s c rape r s a nd t h ree p i ece s w i th r e touch . A l though t h e m ax imum n umbe r o fw o rk ing e dge s a r e s t ra igh t , c omb ina t ion so fd i f f e ren tt ypes o fw o rk ing e dges a r e n o ted i nt wo c a ses . I n t h e c a se o f n o tched t o o ls , t h e m ean n o tch d imen s ion i s2 0 x2 0 mm . T he i n ten s i ty o f r e tou ch i s l ow , a nd i n c lude s i regu la r c h ipp ing i n mos t c a ses , o r i regu la r s c a la rr e tou ch . I nt wo c a ses , r e tou ch o ccu r s o n ly a l ong t h e d i s ta l e nd . R e touch o ccu r s o n mo r e t h an o ne e dge o fa n a r tef ac t i nt wo c a ses . I no n ly t h ree c a se si st h e r e mo re t h an o ne t y pe o fr e tou ch a l ong d i f f e ren t e dges . Mo re t h an o ne t y pe o r mo re t h an o n e r ow o f r e tou ch i sn o ted i n o ne c a se . N orma l i n ve r se r e touch i sn o ted i nt h e c a se o fo ne k n if e . 3 . 2 .11 : NAKALKONA T he f i nd spo t o f N aka lkona ( 1 3°15 ' 18" N :79°45 ' 10 "E ) i sl o ca ted a ta n e l eva t ion o f 1 93 m AMSL , i nt h e A l l iku l l i h i l ls o n t h e s u rf ace o f c o l luv ia l d epo s i t s . O n ly t wo t oo ls w e re c o l lec ted o ve r a n a r ea o f 3s q km a nd c on s is t o f o ne u n if ace a nd o ne t r ansve r se s c rape r .

8 9

3 . 2 .12 :SENRAYANPALAYAM T he s i te ( 1 3°40 ' 1 0 "N :13° 0 '0 "E ) , i sl o ca ted a t a n e l eva t ion o f7 0 m AMSL t ot h e n o r thea s t o f t h e v i l lage . A t o ta l a r ea o f 0 . 50 s q km w a s s u rveyed . A r tef a c t s e x tend i n l ow d en s i ty s p read s o fl e s s t h an 5 / sq m o n t h e s u rf ace o ft h e b ed rock , c omp r is ing o u t l ie r s o f t h e A l l iku l l i h i l ls . T he L i th ic A s semb lage F o r ty -e igh t s t one t o o ls w e re c o l lec ted f r om t h is s i t e( Tab le 6 b ) . R aw Ma ter ia l : A l l r o ck t y pe s u t i l ized a r e l o ca l a nd c ompr ise c l a s t s d e r ived f r om w ea the red b ed rock a nd c o l luv ia l d epo s i t s . Qua r tz i te s p r edom ina te ( Tab le 4 b ) . B lank t y pe s c hosen ( F ig . 1 2 ) i n c lude t h e rma l f r ac tu re f l akes , c obb les a nd p ebb le s , c or t ica l f l akes , n oncor t ica l f l akes , L eva l lo is f l ake s a nd f l ake -b lades . Mo s t a r tef ac t s a r e b e tween 4 0 -80 mm ( 20 ) a nd 8 0 160 mm ( 2 1) i ns i ze , w i th o n ly o ne t o o l e a ch i nt h e 2 0 -40 mm a nd 1 60 -320 mm s i ze r anges ( F ig .10a ) . O n ly o ne i regu la r mu l t ip le p l a tf orm f l ake c o re w a s n o ted . T h is i so n af l ake ( p oss ib ly an a tu ra l t h e rma l f r ac tu re f l ake ) m ea su r ing 2 20 x 1 70 x 1 00 mm . T he s ma l l n umbe r o f d eb i tage p i ece s a nd a b sence o f c h ips c ou ld b e a t t r ibu ted t o e r o s ion . Among f i n ished t o o ls , c o re s c rape r s p r edom ina te , f o l lowed b y p i ece s w i th r e tou ch . T he l a t te r a r e o n i regu la r f l ake c hunk s p o s s ib le c o re re juvena t ion f l ake a nd b rok en c o res o rc o r e s c rape r s . O ne e xamp le o f ap o in t i sn o ted , w he r e t h e a x is o f t h e t o o l i s a t r i gh t a ng les t o t h e w o rk ing e dge . O the rm isce l laneou st oo ls c omp r ise av e ry r o l led s c rape r a nd a n a r tef ac t w i th s e ve ra l p ha ses o f r e touch i n d ica ted b y d i f f e rences i n p a t ina t ion . O ne e l onga te o va te h andaxe o n a c obb le m ea su r ing 1 40 x 1 00 x 3 0 mm i sp r e sen t . Two l e ve ls o fp a t ina t ion a r e n o ted . Al a te r p ha se o f r e touch i n c luded t h e d e tachmen t o f t wo u n id i rec t iona l f l akes a l ong t h e r i gh t s i de o ft h e v en t ra l s u rf ace a nd o ne f l ake a l ong t h e a pex t o f o rm a p o in t . Two l a rge f l ake s c a r s h ave a l so b een d e tached a l ong t h e d o r sa l s u rf ace t oc r ea te t wo n o tche s ( 30 x 6 0 mm ) . O ne s t ra igh t s ided c l eave r w i th at r an sve r se w o rk ing e dge i so n a n e nd s t ruck r o l led f l ake h av ing d imen s ion s o f 1 30 x8 0 x2 5 mm . Among t h e f i n ished t o o ls , w o rk ing e dge s a r e g ene ra l ly s t ra igh t . E x ten s ive e dge d amage i s n o ted i nt h ec a se o fu t i l ized f l akes , ac o re a nd t h e n o t ched c o re s c rape r ( i n p a r t icu la r a r ound t h e n o t ch ) . R e tou ch t ype s i n c lude s t eep , a b rup t , i regu la r , s c a la r a nd a l ter na te , w i th t h e p r edom inance o f t h e l a t te r t wo t y pes . H eavy -

d u ty t o o ls ( c o re sc rape r s , h andaxe , c l eave r , u t i l ized c o re ) n umbe r o n ly e i gh t a sc ompa red t o l i gh td u ty t o o ls . 3 .2 .13 :1V 1ETTUR -METTUPALAYAM T h is a r ea ( 1 3° 4 0 ' 1 6 "N t o 1 3 ° 4 5 ' 8 " N : 7 9 ° 4 9 ' 0 0 " t o7 9° 4 7 ' 0 0 " E ) i sl o ca ted a ta n e l eva t ion o f 7 0 m AMSL i nt h e o u t l ie r s o ft h e A l l iku l l i h i l ls . A r tef ac t s o ccu r o n t h e s u rf ace o f t h e b ed rock ( Sa tyavedu f o rma t ion ) o ve r a n a r ea o f 4s q km w i th a r tef a c t d en s i t ie s o f 4 5 / sq m . A r tef ac t s g ene ra l ly o ccu r i n c l u s te r s , w i th a f ew t oo ls s c a t te red b e tween c l u s te r s . T he a r ea i sd i s sec ted b y n ume rou s r a in r i l ls a nd g u l l ies . N a tu ra l t a nk s a r e a l so n o ted . Ap e renn ia l s p r ing i sl o ca ted 0 . 5 km f r om t h e s i te . T he L i th ic A s semb lage F o r ty -one s t one t o o ls w e re c o l lec ted f r om t h is s i t e ( Tab le 6 b ) . R aw Ma ter ia l : T h is c ompr ise s c l as t s d e r ived f r om w ea the red b ed rock . O n ly l o ca l r aw m a te r ia ls h ave b een u t i l ized . T he e a sy a va i lab i l i ty o f r aw m a ter ia l p robab ly a ccoun t s f o r a p r ef e rence f o r q ua r tz i tes o ve r q uar tz i t ic s a nd s tone s ( Tab le 4 b ) . A r tef ac t s a r e m a in ly o n t h erma l f r ac tu re f l ake s ( 2 ) a nd c obb les /pebb le s ( 3 ) , o n n onco r t ica l f l akes ( 3 ) a nd L eva l lo is f l ake ( 1 )( F ig .12 ) . Mod if ied c obb le s c on s is to fc obb les s ub jec ted t o e xf o l ia t ion a nd f r om w h ich f l akes h ave a l so b een d e tached . T he e a sy a va i lab i l i ty o f s u i tab le r aw m a te r ia l c l a s t s c ou ld p o s s ib ly e xp la in t h e a b sence o ff o rma lc o re s . D eb i tage a nd t o o l t y pe s a r e l i s ted i n T ab le 6 b . Wo rk ing e dges a r e g ene ra l ly s t ra igh t b u t c omb ina t ion s o fd i f f e ren t e dge s hape s a r e n o ted a s w e l l . T he n umbe r o f u n re tou ched u t i l ized f l ake s i s h i gh . R e tou ch i s i n g ene ra l m i ld , c on s is t ing o f n i bb l ing , a brup t o r i regu la r c omp r is ing l a rge s c a r s b e ing p r edom inan t . R e touch o ccu r s a l ong t h e e n t i re e dge i n mos t c a se s a nd o n ly p a r t o f t h e e dge i n o ne c a se . R eu se o f o lde r f l akes i sa l so n o ted . O n ly t wo h eavy -du ty t oo l s ( c o re s c rape r a nd c hopp ing t o o l )a r en o ted a sc ompa red t ol i gh td u ty t oo ls . P o s t -M idd le P a laeo l i th ic T oo l s i n c lude o n ly o ne b l ade . 3 . 3 .14 : K IR INAYATTA M T he s i te ( 13° 4 0 ' 0 6 " N :79 ° 4 6 ' 1 0 " E ) , i sl o ca ted a ta n e l eva t ion o f7 0 m AMSL o n t h e o u t l ie r s o f t h e A l l iku l l i h i l l r a nges . A r tef ac t s e x tend s po rad ica l ly c ove t ing t h e e n t i re a r ea b e tween K i r inaya t tam , Me t tu r t o Me t tupa layam S en rayanpa layam a nd K an j ipad i , o ccu r r ing o n t h e s u rf ace o f e r od ing b ed rock c omp r is ing t h e

S a tyavedu f o rma t ion ( Tab le 2 ) . T he a r ea i s d i s sec ted b yr a in g u l l ies a nd n a tu ra l t a nk s . T he L i th ic A s semb lage At o ta l o f 1 8 a r tef ac ts ( Tab le 6 b ) w e re s t ud ied f r om h e re . A r tef ac ts a r e i n g en e ra l r o l led a nd d eep ly p a t ina ted . R aw ma ter ia l u t i l ized w a s l o ca l a nd d er ived f r om w ea the red b ed rock ( Tab le 4 b ) . B lank t y pes i n c lude t h erma l f r ac tu re f l ake s , n oncor t ica l f l akes a nd o n e L eva l lo is f l ake ( F ig .12 ) . A r tef ac t s a r e i n g ene ra l o n v e ry l a rge b l ank s 8 0 160 mm ( 9 ) , 4 0 -90 mm ( 4 ) a nd 2 0 -40 mm ( 5 ) . A l though v a r ia t ion s i n t h e n umbe r a nd t ype s o f e dges i n t h e c o l lec t ion a r e s e en , t h e max imum n umbe r o f e dge s a r e s t ra igh t . C ompo s i te t o o ls a r e o n ly t wo i n n umbe r . R e touched t o o ls p r edom ina te . A l l t oo ls h ave o n ly o ne e dge r e touched , r e tou ch i n tens i ty a nd t o o l u se i sl ow a nd n ob roken a r tef ac t s a r en o t ed . 3 . 3 . 15 : P ENNALURPET T h is c on s is t s o f a r ock she l t e r l o ca ted a t a n e l eva t ion o f> 65 m AMSL ( 1 3° 5 '0 8 "N : 7 9 ° 5 1 ' 1 0 " E ) , i nt h e A l l iku l l i 's , a t ad i s tance o f 6 km f r om t h e t own o fP enna lu rpe t . T he s he l te r f a ces n or thea s t a nd i s1 0 m i n l e ng th d ec rea s ing t o a h e igh t o f 2t o 3m a tt h e r e a r . I ti sl o ca ted a tt h e t o po f ah i l l a nd a t ad i s tance o f1 2 km f r om t h e n ex t r o ck s he l te r ( un reachab le o w ing t o d en se f o re s t ) . A t p resen t t h e s he l t e r i su s ed b y I r u la s o cca s iona l ly a s an i gh tc amp w h i le h un t ing o rf o r s h e l t e r d u r ing r a in s . A s ma l l h ea r th a nd r e cen t j a cka l a nd s ma l l m amma l b one s w e r e n o ted . T he s h e l t e rh ad d en se v ege ta t ion a nd o n ly af ew t o o ls c ou ld b ec o l lec ted . T he L i th ic A ssemb lage R aw m a ter ia l w a sl o ca l ly a va i lab le i nt h e f o rm o f c l a s t s d e r ived f r om w ea the r ed b ed rock o f t h e S a tyavedu f o rma t ion . T he a r tef ac t s amp le c o l lec ted c omp r ised o ne A cheu l ian h andaxe a nd s i x M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t oo l s . A r t ef ac t s f r om w i th in t h e s he l te ra r e l i gh t ly s t a ined o w ing t ot h e f e r rug inou s ma t r ix o f t h e U ppe r G ondwana f o rma t ion s . A r tef ac tt ypes a r el i s ted i nT ab le 6 b . 3 . 3 .15 : PAR IKULA M T he s i t e o fP a r iku lam ( 13° 1 4 ' 1 0 " N : 7 9° 5 2 ' 0 " E ) i sl o ca ted a ta n e l eva t ion o f8 7 m AMSL . T he a r ea s u rveyed w a s 1 0 s q km . T he r e g ion l i es t o t h e s ou th o f t h e A l l iku l l i c hanne l a nd f o rm s a s ma l l d ep res s ion b ounded b y t h e o u t l ie r s o ft h e A l l iku l l i h i l ls r i s ing t o a n e l eva t ion o f 13 m AMSL . T he s i te w a sd i scove red b yt h ec u ra to ro f t h e P r eh is to ry Mu seum , P oond i ( D . T hu la s i raman ) o w ing t o q ua r ry ing o ff e r r ic re te s w h ich l e dt ot h ee xposu re o ft o o ls .

S i te S tra t igraphy a nd T aphonomy T he s t ra t ig raphy i sg i ven i nF ig . 3 . 8 a nd P l a te 5 . B ed rock c on s is t ing o f S a tyavedu s and s tones , i s c apped b y f e r r ic re tes c on ta in ing A cheu l ian t o M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t o o ls . T he s i t e i n i mpor tan t a s i tp r ese rves p o s s ib le o ccupa t ion h or izon s . L aye r s a r e d i s t inc t ly d if e ren t ia ted a nd p edogenes is h a s o ccu r red . E ro s ion o f t h e b ed s c an b e s e en . S hee t f l ood s w e re t h e m a in p roce s ses o pe ra t ing h e re . T he c l ayey s i l t i s s im i la r i n c ompo s i t ion t o t h a t a t A t t i rampakkam w i th t h e a bsence o f as u r f ic ia l c a lc re te l a g . T h is i n d ica tes ab r eak i nt h e p roce s s o f f e r r icr i t isa t ion a nd i s a l so a r chaeo log ica l ly s t e r i le . A na ly s is o fa r tef ac t s f r om f ou rs e c t ion s i n d ica tes t h a t t h e ma jo r i ty a r e h o r izon ta l ly i n c l ined a nd r andom ly o r ien ted . T he p au c i ty o f a r tef ac t s i n t h e s u r round ing h i l ls i sa t t r ibu ted t os l ope w a sh . G u l l ies a nd r a in r i l ls a r ea bsen ta tt h is s i t e . A r tef ac t Abras ion a nd P a t ina t ion : A r tef ac t s a r e i n tense ly a b raded , w i th a b raded a r 8 te s a nd f r e sh e dge s , u n if orm ly a b raded a nd u nab raded ( F ig .8 ) . Q ua r tz i te t o o ls a r e u nab raded o r l e s s a b raded w i th r ound ing o f a r 8 tes a nd u nab raded e dge s ; w h i le t h o se o nq ua r tz i t ic s a nd s tones a r e i n g ene ra l u n if orm ly a b raded . T he p r e sence o f d i f f e ren t ia l ly a b raded a r 8 tes o n t h e d o r sa l a nd v en t ra l f a ce s o f t h e s ame a r tef a c t a nd t h e e x is tence o fu nab raded e dges i n d ica tes l o ca l ised p roce s se s p o s s ib ly d ue t o c hem ica l r e ac t ion s , t r an spor t b y w a te r o ve r af i rm s ub s t ra te o rw a te r f l ow o ve r s t ab le o r p a r t ia l ly b u r ied o b jec t s . I n p a r t icu la r i r on e nc ru s ta t ions c on t r ibu tes t o t h e w ea the r ing o f a r tef ac t s . A r tef ac t p a t ina t ion r a nges f r om d eep ly p a t ina ted t o c omp le te ly u npa t ina ted . Two u npa t ina ted a nd u nab raded t o o ls w e re n o ted a td ep ths o f6 2 c ma nd a t4 7 c m b e low t h e s u rf ace a nd t h is p o in t s t o v er t ica l movemen t o f a r tef ac t s , p o s s ib ly o w ing t o d i sman t l ing o ft h ed u r ic ru s t . A r tef ac t S i ze : T h is r a nges f r om 1 3 mm t o a m ax imum o f 1 70 mm . C la s t s i n t h e s e c t ion g ene ra l ly f a l l w i th in t h e s ame r a nge ( F ig .1 0a ) . N o s i ze s o r t ing b e tween c l a s t s a nd a r tef ac t s i s n o ted a nd i n d ica tes m in ima l f l uv ia l d i s tu rbance h e re . T he L i th ic A s semb lage A cheu l ian : A t o ta l o f 1 38 A cheu l ian a r tef ac t s w e re c o l lec ted ( Tab le 6 a ) . R aw Ma ter ia l : A r tef ac t s a r e m a in ly o n q ua r tz i te s o f v a r iou s t ypes i n s p i te o f t h e a bundance o f q uar tz i t ic s and s tone s . O n ly t wo b i f a ce s , ak n if e a nd au t i l ized f l ake a r e o n f i ne g r a ined w h i t ish -p ink q ua r tz i t ic s a nd s tone . A l l r aw m a te r ia ls a r el o ca l ly a va i lab le .

9 1

C ore s i n c lude i regu la r f l ake c o re s ( 2 ) w i th a m ean d imen s ion o f1 40 x 1 35 x5 mm a nd w i th am ean f l ake s c a r d imen s ion o f 3 8 x4 5 mm . T hese a ppea r t o b e m in ima l ly e xp lo i ted a nd d i sca rded a f t e r p r e l im ina ry c or t ica l t r imm ing . D isco ida l c o res h ave am ean d imen s ion o f9 8 x 4 7 x3 0 mm w i th f l ake s c a r d imen s ion s o f3 0 x 5 0 mm . C o res g r ad ing i n to c hopp ing t o o l sh ave a m ean d imen s ion o f 4 8 x4 0 x3 5 mm . O ne e xamp le o f ap o s s ib le c o r e g r ad ing i n to ab i f a ce i sn o ted m ea su r ing 1 30 x7 6 x2 9 mm . D eb i tage t y pes a r e l i s ted i nT ab le 6 a . F in i shed t oo ls i n ch ide h andaxe s . T hese h ave a m ean d imen s ion o f 1 4 1 x9 5 x4 2 mm . F i ve a r e o n e nd s t ruck f l akes w h i le t h e r e s t a r e o n c obb le s . C or tex i sn o ted i ns even c a se s a nd i sa l ong t h e b u t t o rd i s ta l e nd s o ft h e e dge s . B u t t s a r e s qua re t o r ounded a nd c o r t ica l . T he a pex i sb roken i n o ne c a se , a nd i st o ngu e s haped , d ihed ra l ( 3 ) o r t r ihed ra l ( 2 ) i n t h e r e s t . Wo rk ing e dge s a r e s t ra igh t a nd s i nuou s . H andaxe s a r e e l onga te o va te o re l onga te p o in ted i ns hape . O ne h andaxe p r ef o rm i sn o ted m ea su r ing 1 53 x 8 9 x4 4 mm a nd i so va te i ns hape . H amme r s tones a r e t wo i nn umbe r w i th a m ean d imens ion o f6 5 x3 2 x2 0 mm a nd a r e o n f i ne g r a ined q ua r tz i te . K n ive sh ave am ean d imens ion o f1 70 x1 23 x3 6 mm . F l ak e -b lades h ave am ean d imen s ion o f4 6 x2 5 x 1 mm . S c rape r s i n c lude s i ng le s t ra igh t s ided s c rape r s ( 4 ) w i th a m ean d imen s ion o f 7 0 x8 5 x3 0 mm a nd o ne r ound s c rape r w h ich i sp o s s ib ly t a nged . O ne c hopp ing t o o l i sn o ted m ea su r ing 6 0 x4 0 x3 5 mm . 3 . 3 .17 : KUNJARAM T he s i t e ( 1 3° 1 5 ' 3"N :79 ° 5 3 ' 7 "E ) i sl o ca ted a t a n e l eva t ion o f6 9 m AMSL . I ti sd i s sec ted b y n ume rou s r a in r i l ls a nd g u l l ies . T h is r e g ion f o rm s ac on t inuum w i th Ma i lapu r , l o ca ted a ta d i s tance o f 2km t ot h ee a s t . T he t o ta l n umbe r o fa r tef ac t s c o l lec ted w a s 1 36 f r om t h e f oo t a nd s u rf ace o ft h e e l eva ted r e g ion . T he se a r e p os t -M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a nd h ave a m ean d imen s ion o f2 9 x2 4 x1 0 mm . A r tef ac t s a r e d i s t r ibu ted o ve ra n a r ea o f2 500 s qmw i th a n a ve rage d en s i ty o f3 2 / sq m ( Tab le 2 ) . A r tef ac t s a r e u nab rad ed ( 120 ) , w i th a b raded a r 8 te s ( 7 ) , u n if orm ly a b raded ( 9 ) a nd t o ta l ly a b raded ( 1 ) . T he p r inc ipa l r aw m a te r ia l u t i l ized i sq ua r tz i te ( 1 20 ) . E leven a r tef ac t s a r e o n q ua r tz i t ic s a nds tone s a nd f i ve a r e o n q ua r tz . Among t h e q ua r tz i te r o ck t y pe s u t i l ized t y pe 7 / 8 i s p r edom inan t . P a t ina t ion , w hen p r esen t r a nge s f r om i n tense ( 37 ) ,t om ed ium ( 1 1) a nd m i ld ( 7 ) . C ore sc omp r ise t wo m ic ro l i th ic b l ade c o re s w i th am ean d imens ion o f5 2 x2 0 x1 7 mm o n v e ry f i ne -g ra ined q ua r tz i te s . Wh i le o ne i s t o ta l ly n oncor t ica l , t h e o t he r h a s < 5% c or tex a l ong t h e

d o r sa l s u rf a ce d i s ta l e nd . O ne i sp y ram ida l i n s hape . B lade s a r e r emoved f r om o ne f a ce o ft h e c o re o n ly . T h ree b l ade s w e re d e tached u n id i r ec t iona l ly a nd a tr i gh t a ng les r e spec t ive ly f r om a f a ce ted s t r ik ing p l a tf orm . B lade s c a r s h ave a m ean d imen s ion o f 2 1 x 6 mm . Two i regu la r f l ake a nd b l ade c o re s w i th a m ean d imen s ion o f4 0 x4 2 x1 7 mm w i th t wo t o f i ve f l ake s c a r s a nd o ne b l ade s c a r ( 40 x 1 5 mm ) a r e n o ted . O ne e xamp le a ppea r s t o b e d i sca rded o w ing t o ac r ack i nt h e r aw ma te r ia l . D eb i tage ( 6 3 )c omp r ise sc o r t ica l f l ake s( 18 )o fw h ich t h ree t oo ls a r e p a t ina ted a nd a b raded a nd c ou ld b e p o s s ib ly o l de r . T hese i n c lude c hunk s o ne o f w h ich c ou ld p o ss ib ly r ep resen t a b roken h amme r s tone . T he r ema in ing a r tef ac t s a r e o n v e ry f i ne -g ra ined q ua r tz i tes . O n ly t wo c h ips a r e n o ted . N onco r t ica l f l ake s ( 1 5 ) h ave a m ean d imen s ion o f2 1 x 9 x 8 mm o fw h ich f ou r a r e b roken . R e juvena t ion f l akes ( 10 ) c on s is t o f p os s ib le e dge t r imm ing o r s t r ik ing p l a tf orm t r imm ing f l ake s a nd h ave am ean d imen s ion o f 1 5 x 1 0 x 5 mm . C o re r e juvena t ion f l ake s c omp r ise f l ake c o re r e juvena t ion f l ake s ( 1 ) w i th am ean d imen s ion o f3 0 x4 0 x1 0 mm a nd b l ade c o re r e juvena t ion f l akes ( 3 ) w i th a m ean d imen s ion o f 2 7 x 2 1 x 1 2 mm . U t i l ized u n re tou ched f l ake s( 4 )h ave am ean d imens ion o f 3 x2 1 x 1 mm . B roken t o o ls ( 4 ) i n c lude p os s ib le b roken p o in ted t o o ls ( 2 ) , c o re s c rape r ( 1 ) w h i le t h e r e s t a r e u nc lea r . F in i shed t oo l s c on s is t o f s c rape r s ( 16 ) h av ing a m ean d imen s ion o f 3 9 x3 5 x1 3 mm . T hese i n c lude s i ng le s t ra igh t s ided s c rape r s ( 6 ) , s i ng le c onvex s i ded s c rape r s ( 3 ) , c onve rgen t s c rape r ( 2 ) , s t ra igh t s ided a nd c oncave s c rape r ( 1 ) a nd e nd s c rape r s( 4 ) . C o re s c rape r s ( 4 ) h ave am ean d imens ions o f5 x 5 6 x 2 6 mm . A l l a ppea r t o b e o n e xhau s ted /b roken c o res a nd o ne g r ades i n to a b o re r /aw l . Two a r e o n o ld f l ake s , w h ich a r e h eav i ly p a t ina ted a nd r o l led . O ne a r tef ac t m ea su re s5 0 x5 x2 0 mm a nd c ou ld p o s s ib ly b e ar ewo rked o lde r c o re s c rape r . O ne e xamp le i s p o s s ib ly n o t ched . O ne s c rape r -bo re r -no tch ( 50 x3 5 x3 0 mm ) a nd . o ne s t ra igh t a i ded sc rape r -cum -bo r e r a r e n o ted . S c rape r -cum -no tches ( 5 ) h ave am ean d imen s ion o f4 1 x2 3 x2 2 mm . T he m ean n o t ch d imen s ion i s 4x1mm . O ne e xamp le i st a nged . P o in t s ( 2 ) h ave am ean d imens ion o f2 5 x1 5 x7mm . K n ives ( 2 )h ave a m ean d imen s ion o f5 0 x3 5 x2 5 mm . O ne o va te h andaxe w i th am ean d imen s ion o f9 0 x8 0 x4 0 mm , w i th a c o r t ica l b u t t a nd r ounded a pex i s n o ted . I ti so n a n e nd s t ruck f l ake w i th at r immed b u lb .

B lade s ( 1 3) c an b e d i v ided i n to s e ve ra l c a tegor ies . M ic ro l i th ic b l ade s ( 2 ) h ave a m ean d imen s ion o f 2 0 x 7 x 5 mm w i th p un c t if orm s t r ik ing p l a tf o rms . O ne b l ade h a s p o s s ib le n i bb l ing r e touch . T hey c o r r e spond i n s i ze t o b l ade s c a r s o n t h e c o r e s . T he s e cond g r oup c ompr ises b l ade s w i th am ean d imen s ion o f2 6 x 1 3 x6mm . T he se c an b e f u r the r s ubd iv ided i n to t y p ica l p a ra l le l s i ded b l ade s ( 5 ) a nd s l igh t ly c onve rg ing p o in ted b lade s ( 4 ) a nd a r e a l o n q ua r tz . F ive b l ades a r e b roken . T he t h i rd g roup c omp r ises o ne l a rge b l ade m ea su r ing 8 0 x3 0 x 1 5 mm . T h is s i t e d i f f e r s f r om o the r s i nt h e r eg ion o w ing t o t h e e xc lu s ive p resence o f a p o s t -M idd le P a laeo l i th ic i n du s t ry .

3 . 3 .1 :D ISCUSS ION OF NATURAL S ITE FOR MAT ION PROCESSES

e xpo sed ; a nd t h ee x ten tt ow h ich a r tef ac t s a r e d i sp laced . Wh i le o ne o ft h e m a in a im so ft h is s t udy w a s t h e i d en t if ica t ion o fs i te s h av ing a h i gh d eg ree o f i n teg r i ty a nd p o ten t ia l f o r b ehav iou ra l i n f orma t ion , i tw a s r e cogn ised t h a ts t udy ing l o ca l i t ies i nd if e r ing c on tex t si s e s sen t ia l f o r mode l l ing n a tu ra l f o rma t ion p roce s ses o pe ra t ing o n ar e g iona ll e ve l .

I n r e cen t y ea r s t h e re h a s b een a c on sc iou s a t temp tt os y s tema t ica l ly s t udy s i te f o rma t ion p rocesses a t I nd ian P a laeo l i th ic s i te s ( Paddayya 1 979 , 1 987 ; P addayya & P e t rag l ia 1 993 , 1 995 ; P e t rag l ia 1 995 , P appu , S . 1 999 ) . T he e a r l ies t a t temp t t o s t udy P a laeo l i th ic l o ca l i t ies i n t h e S ub con t inen t c an b e a t t r ibu ted t o t h e B r i t ish g eo log is t , R obe r t B ruce F oo t e ( s ee P appu , S . 1 99 1-92 , 1 999 ) . F o l low ing t h is d i scove ry , p r eh is to r ic s t ud ie s c oncen t ra ted l a rge ly o n d ocumen ta t ion o f s i t es , c ons t ruc t ion o f c u l tu ra l a nd c l ima t ic s e quences a nd c l a ss if ica t ion o f t oo l s . S ubsequen t ly , l a rge ly a s a r e su l t o f t h e i nf luence o f t h e ' New A rchaeo logy ' , t h e i mpor tance o f s y s tema t ic s i t e f o rma t ion s t ud ies w a s r e a l ised . A l though c onno ta t ion s o ft h e t e rm ' s i te f o rma t ion ' a su s ed b yI nd ian a r chaeo log is t s t e nd t of o l low g u ide l ines l a id d own b y Wes tern s c ho la r s ( B inf o rd 1 982 ; S ch if f e r 1 983 , 1 987 ) , c oncep tua l a nd m e thodo log ica l a pp roaches u t i l ised v a ry g r ea t ly . I r r espec t ive o fw he the rt h e t e rm ' s i te f o rma t ion ' i s u sed o r n o t , s uch s t ud ie s i n c lude t h ose w h ich i n vo lve ; i ) a c oncen t ra t ion o n s i t e l a nd scape c on tex t s , i n p a r t icu la r t h e g eomo rph ic h i s to ry o f i n d iv idua l s i tes o r r e g ion s ( Pappu 1 995 ; P appu & D eo 1 994 ; S anka l ia 1 974 ) ; ( i ) a c ons ide ra t ion o f g eomo rph ic p roces ses l e ad ing t o s i te f o rma t ion a nd o f a r tef ac t morpho logy w h ich i n d ica te n a tu ra l p roces ses ( Ahsan 1 993 ; C o rv inu s 1 983 ; J a cobsen 1 970 , 1 979 , 1 985 ; J ha ld iya l 1 997 ; M ish ra 1 982 , 1 985 , 1 994 ; M is ra & R a jagu ru 1 989 ; M is ra e ta l . 1 990 ; ) ; a nd ( i i ) s t ud ies w h ich a t temp t t o u n i te b o th n a tu ra l a nd c u l tu ra l p roce s se s l e ad ing t o t h e f o rma t ion o f s i tes a c ro ss a g eog raph ica l r eg ion ( A l lch in e t a l . 1 978 ; P addayya & P e t rag l ia , 1 993 , 1 995 ; P appu , S . 1 999 ; S ha rma & C la rk , 1 983 ) .

E f f ec t s o fP o s t -depo s i t iona l P roce s se s o n A r tef ac tV i s ib i l i ty Mo s t o f t h e A cheu l ian a nd e a r ly M idd le P a laeo l i th ic s i t e s o ccu r i n f e r r ic re tes o r f e r r ic r i t ised g r ave l s w h ich a r e a tp r e sen t b u r ied . T hu s e s t ima tes o ft h e n umbe r o ft h e se s i t es a nd a r tef ac t d en s i t ie s , a r e d e te rm ined b y t h e d i f f e ren t ia l e r os ion o f t h ese s ed imen t s b y g u l ly / r i l l e r o s ion , o rp resen td ay q ua r ry ing . Mo re c omp le te i n f o rma t ion w a s o b ta ined f r om s u rf ace s i t e s , w h ich a sd i scu s sed b e low , n eed n o t a lway s b e t h ough t t o b e i n ten s ive ly d i s tu rbed . T he g r ave l -cove red n a tu re o f p ed imen t s u rf aces , c o l luv ia l g r ave ls a nd h i l ls lope s l e ad s t o l ow a r tef ac t v i s ib i l i ty . T h is i s s o , i n p a r t icu la r , a s r e ga rd s t h e i d en t if i ca t ion o f s ma l le r c h ips a nd c hunk s w h ich i n m any c a se s a r e s im i la r t o t h e e f f ec t so fn a tu ra lt h erma l f l ak ing ( Na sh 1 993 ) . S i te S ed imen tary C on tex t s T he s i t es o ccu r i n aw ide v a r ie ty o fs ed imen ta ry c on tex ts w h ich h ave b een d i scu ssed i nd e ta i l i n C hap te r I . T he se i n c lude s i t e s i n c o l luv ia l d epo s i t s , s h ee t a nd s t ream f l ood d epos i t s , s t ream c hanne l g r ave ls , c u t a nd f i l l , c hanne l l a g , p o in t b a r a nd c hanne l f i l l d epo s i t s ( F ig .1c ) . T ab le 7 , p rov ides a n o u t l ine o f e ach s i t e w i th d e ta i ls a bou t t h e s t ra t ig raph ic u n i t , mode s o fd epo s i t ion a nd d epos i t iona l e ne rgy . T he e f ec t o f m ic ro topog raphy i si mpor tan t a t a lmo s t a l t h e s i t e s . S i tes l o ca ted i n a r ea s a t h i ghe r e l eva t ion s ( Ma i lapu r , N ambakkam , Me t tu r t o Me t tupa layam , S en rayanpa layam , K ir inaya t tam , P l acepa layam ) a r e a f f ec ted b y t h e a c t ion o f r a in r i l ls a nd g u l l ie s t o as omewha t g r ea te r e x ten t t h an t h e l ow ly ing s i t e s . T h is i s h oweve r n o t t h e n o rm , a s A t t i rampakkam f o l lowed b y A rya thu r h ave s uf f e r ed t h e g r ea tes t d eg ree o f d i s tu rbance d ue t o g u l ly / r i l l e r o s ion . G u l ly ing w a s p o s s ib ly aH o locene p henomenon . A t a lmo s t a l l s i t e s , a r tef ac t s e r ode o u t o f u nde r ly ing s ed imen t so n a ccoun t o ft h e a c t ion o f r a in r i l l s , w hose p a t ter n a nd d i rec t ion o f f l ow v a ry s e a sona l ly .

O ve r l a rge p a r t s o f P en in su la r I nd ia a nd a l ong t h e e a s t c oa s t , L owe r a nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic s i tes o ccu r e i the r o n t h e s u rf ace , o r b u r ied w i th in f e r r ic re tes a nd r ed s o i ls ( Ga rdne r 1 986 ; G a rdne r & Ma r t inge l l , 1 990 ; T h imma R eddy 1 994 ; S anka l ia 1 974 ; S ub rahmanyam & S i r ee sha 1 990 ; Z eune r & A l lch in 1 956 ) . T o d a te , s cho la r s h ave f o cu ssed o n t h e g eomo rph ic h i s to ry , c u l tu re s equence , a r tef ac t t e chno typo logy o r s e t t lemen t p a t tern s o f p r eh is to r ic s i tes i n t h ese r e g ion s . T h is w o rk , h oweve r , r e cogn ises t h a t f e r r ic r e te l a nd scapes p r esen t a u n ique p r ese rva t ion c on tex t . I n s u ch l a ndscapes t h e i n i t ia l p roces s o f f e r r ic re te f o rma t ion p l ay s a n i mpo r tan t r o le i n i n f luenc ing t h e b u r ia l o f a r tef ac t s a nd t h e i r morpho logy . I n a dd i t ion t o t h is , t h e s ubsequen t d i s in teg ra t ion o f t h e d u r ic ru s t ( Goud ie 1 973 ; T a rdy 1 992 ; T a rdy & R oqu in 1 992 ) , c ond i t ion s w ay s i n w h ich s i t es a r e

S cho la r s h ave a dop ted v a r ied c r i ter ia t o c l a s s if y s i te s i n to d i f f e ren tt y pe s b a sed o nt h e i rd eg ree o f i n teg r i ty ( Ba r -Yo sef 1 993 ; K auf u lu 1 983 ; P e t rag l ia & P o t t s 1 994 ) . D raw ing o n t h ese s t ud ies a nd t a k ing i n to c on s ide ra t ion t h e g eomo rph ic c on tex t o f s i tes w i th in t h e s t udy r e g ion , amode l o fs i te c on tex t s a l ong w i th t h e i r p o ten t ia l r e cogn i t ion c r i te r ia a nd d eg rees o f i n teg r i ty w a s e s tab l ished ( Tab le 5 ) . S i te s h ave b een d i v ided i n to s e ve ra lt ype s , b a sed o nt h e i r 9 3

P la te 1 4a : A r tef ac ta bras ion p at terns ( Acheu l ian ) ; f r om l e f tt or i gh t : T op r ow : f r e sh ,a braded a re te sa nd f r e sh e dge s ; c omp le te ly a braded , m odera te ly a braded ; B o t tom r ow : w i th i r on e ncrus ta t ions , d i f f eren t ia lp a t ina t ion S pa t ia l D i s tr ibu t ion o fA r tef ac t s

s ed imen ta ry c on tex t a nd d eg ree s o f i n teg r i ty . S i tes f a l l i n to a c on t inuum f r om ' i n s i tu s i tes ' , i n d ica t ing a r ea s o fh om in id a c t iv i ty p r ese rved i n v a ry ing d eg rees o f i n teg r i ty , t o ' r ewo rked s i te s ' w he re l i t t le t on o i n f orma t ion o n b ehav iou r c an b e o b ta ined ( Tab le 7 ) . T hese a r e a sf o l low s :

A t t h e se s i t e s , r a in r i l ls o fl e s s t h an 6 c m i n d ep th h ave c au sed s ome a r tef a c t d i sp lacemen t . N o o r ien ta t ion o f a r tef a c t s i s n o ted a nd s ome a r e h o r izon ta l ly p l a ced i nt h e s ed imen t s . T he v e r t ica l d i s t r ibu t ion o f a r tef a c t s w i th in t h e s e c t ion w a s p l o t ted . A t P a r iku lam , t wo u npa t ina ted a nd u nab raded a r tef ac t s w e re n o ted a td ep ths o f6 2 c m a nd 4 7 c m b e low t h e s u rf ace ; a nd a t Ma i lapu r a m ic ro l i th ic b l ade c o re w a s n o ted 3 4 c m b e low t h e s u rf ace . T h is c ou ld p o s s ib ly p o in t t o v e r t ica l m ovemen t o f a r tef ac t s w i th in t h e f e r r ic re te . D u r ic ru s t d i sman t l ing , a c t ion o f r oo t s a nd a n ima l b u r row ing a r e p o s s ib le f a c to r s r e spon s ib le f o r t h is movemen t ( V i l la 1 983 ) . D u r ic ru s t f o rma t ion h a s l e d t ov i r tua l i mmob i l isa t ion o f a r tef ac t s . H oweve r , s ubsequen t l o ca l ised b l ock w ea ther ing o ft h e d u r icru s t , p o s s ib ly d u r ing t h e H o locene , h a s l e d t oa r tef a c t s b e ing t r anspor ted a s ab l o ck , w i th in t h e c onf ines o f t h e s i te a nd r e lea sed a f te rd i s in teg ra t ion o ft h ed u r ic ru s t .

T ype l a T he se c on s is to fs i t es o fh i gh i n teg r i ty , w h ich w e re b u r ied a nd e xposed o n ly r e cen t ly , d ue t o q uar ry ing , c on s t ru c t ion a nd s e c t ion s c rap ing s ( Ma i lapu r , P a r iku lam , G un ipa layam , A t t irampakkam , A rya thu r , K un ja ram , P oond i -Town ) . T hese c on ta in A cheu l ian t oE a r ly M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t o o ls a nd a r e i nf e r r ic r i t ised l ow e ne rgy s t ream a nd s h ee t f l ood d epos i t s ( P la te s 5 , 8 ) . S ed imen t s a r e m a tr ix s uppo r ted a nd w e l l s o r ted ( a l though a f ew o u ts ize c l a s t s m ay o ccu r r a ndom ly ) . L oca l ly v a r iab le d epo s i t iona l c on tex t s , f o r e xamp le ,p ebb le len se s may o ccu r , a s a t A t t irampakkam . S ubsequen t t o t h e d epo s i t ion o f s ed imen t s , w ea ther ing a nd f e r r ic re te f o rma t ion o ccu r red p o in t ing t o r e la t ive s t ab i l i ty o f t h e l a nd scape . I t i s d i ff icu l t t oe s t ima te t h e t o ta l n umbe r o fs u ch s i tes a s mo s t r ema in b u r ied . T he s i tes o f Ma i lapu r a nd P a r iku lam , e xpo sed o w ing t o q uar ry ing a nd s e c t ion s c rap ing s ,w e r e s t ud ied i n d e ta i l a nd may b e c on s ide red r e p re sen ta t ive o fo t he rs i tes i nt h is c a tego ry .

A r tef ac t Morpho logy : T ak ing i n to c on s ide ra t ion t h e p r e sence o ft oo ls o fa l s i ze r anges , t h e a bundance o f c h ips l e s s t h an 2 c m ,t h e a b sence o fs i ze s o r t ing b e tween t o o ls , a nd b e tween t oo ls a nd n a tu ra l c l a s t s , a ny ma jo r f l uv ia l r ewo rk ing o f t h e s i te i s e xc luded ( F ig 9 ) . A na ly s is o ft h e a b ra s ion o f

9 4

: 3

c i

— J

z a . a

O < 5 L

2

>

z


O. I LI le fa . A CDuCED , IVEL 3 2 0 0 k i L 4 PS

N-

C ONTOUR SURVEY NEAR ATTIRA MPA KKA M

-1 40 CUL T IVA TED

( ATTIRA MPAKKA M)

LA N D

THIRUVALLUAR- D IST ,

T AM ILNADU GRID SCALE N-

4

-200

I I

M I

1S CALE

Si

7 00

SHEET NO

F ig .17 : C on tour map o fA t t irampakkam ( 1999 -2000 f i e ld s eason ) s how ing : a ) trenches e xcava ted b y t he A rchaeo log ica l S urvey o fI nd ia ( KDB 1 ,2 ,3 ) b )Treches e xcava ted i n( 1999 -2000 ) ( b lack b oxe s ) 2 42

N or th Wa l l ( Quadran t B I)

E as t Wa l l ( Quadran t s B 1 a nd B 2 )

S ou th Wa l l ( Quadrant B I) C- -CC.

• c.

c • -

s andy c la ) w i th c a lcr e te

l a

cr- c -

. • -l b

1b

2

2

.

.

.

.

.

.

s andy c lay

••

• . 3f e rr icr e te

•

•• :

1b

-:

•

•- • —•

3

-

3

3

0-

• .

, • . ,

— -

s andy -day w i th c a lcr e te

C

-

-

C -

4

C •« C

t e rr ierv te g r ave l

l am ina ted c lay la

- 7 7 -3m 6

=

"

....

' l am ina ted c l ay w i th c i dcrT te

6

,=

;CI

S

e =

:

ag e•E

=

•

. . . . •• • • • • • •• 1. a =

4m

M.

6

=

. 0E 6 .

•

•

la

l am ina ted c mv « e

a

•

a

_ a

-5m

a

••

a

. •

• / {

▪

••

.

=

e . ▪

••

• ▪

a

••

a

•• a a

a

la

a

a .

a

6m

„ t

"

a

-6 .40 m

a

e =

7m

0

7 4 0m

U nexcava ted

L

A vad i S er i e s ( L ower C ie taceous S ha les ) 0 M I M M M• 10

W

a al

»

In

F i g .18 : S t ra t igraph ic s equence o fT e s t -p i tT 3 a tA t t irampakkam ( 1999 )

2 43

B ane r jee , K .D . , 1 , 1 2 , 1 3 ,2 7 , 5 1 , 5 2 , 5 , 2 00 ,2 04 ,2 28 ,2 40 B a rnham S t . G r egory , 1 0 B a r -Yo sef , 0 . 1 6 , 6 7 , 6 8 , 9 3 , 17 ,2 04 ,2 16 B ehav iou r , B ehav iou ra l , 1 ,1 5 , 1 6 , 1 7 , 6 ,9 3 , 9 6 , 1 64 , 1 86 , 1 88 , 1 89 , 1 90 ,2 04 ,2 06 ,2 07 , 2 17 ,2 21 B e rach B a s in , 1 99 , 2 14 B h imbe tka , 1 4 , 1 99 ,2 00 ,2 03 ,2 14 ,2 15 B inf o rd , L .R . , 1 5 , 1 6 , 1 7 ,6 1 ,6 6 , 6 8 ,9 3 , 1 64 , 1 80 , 1 8 1 , 1 83 , 1 85 ,2 05 B i rT a rf aw i , 17 , 1 62 , 2 06 ,2 22 B i rd -Dav id ,N . , 164 , 1 85 , 1 86 , 1 87 ,2 05 B lade , 7 3 , 9 2 , 14 , 15 , 17 , 1 25 , 1 3 1 , 1 36 , 1 93 ,2 00 , 26 ,2 28 ,2 29 ,2 31 ,2 34 B o rdes , F . , 17 , 6 8 , 6 9 , 2 05 , 2 12 , 2 14 , 2 19 B üde l ,J . ,5 1 ,2 05 B u rk i t t , M .C . ,7 ,2 06 B u tche r ing P r ac t ice s , 1 86

I NDEX A cheu l ian , 8 ,1 0 , 1 , 1 2 , 1 3 , 1 4 , 1 6 ,2 2 ,2 3 , 2 9 , 3 4 , 3 5 ,3 7 ,3 9 ,4 8 , 5 0 , 5 2 , 5 3 , 5 4 , 5 , 5 6 , 5 7 , 6 3 , 6 9 , 7 0 , 7 3 ,7 9 , 8 0 , 8 1 , 8 5 , 8 7 , 9 0 , 9 1 , 9 3 , 9 4 , 1 04 , 1 05 , 1 06 , 1 07 , 1 08 , 13 , 1 62 , 1 88 , 1 90 , 1 96 , 1 99 , 2 00 ,2 0 1 , 2 07 ,2 09 ,211 ,2 12 ,2 14 , 2 16 , 2 17 ,2 20 , 2 26 ,2 40 ,2 4 1 A chyu tan , H . , 3 7 ,4 9 , 5 7 ,2 03 ,2 33 A c t iv i ty A rea s , 1 6 , 6 9 , 1 69 , 1 8 1 , 1 83 A damga rh , 1 99 ,2 00 ,2 12 A dap t ive S t ra teg ie s , 1 88 A g rawa l , D .P . , 1 , 1 4 ,2 03 , 2 13 A h san , S .M .K . , 1 5 , 9 3 ,2 03 A lam , S . , 199 , 2 03 ,2 30 A l lch in , B .& A l lch in , F .R . , 14 , 1 5 , 9 3 , 1 63 , 1 64 , 1 97 , 1 99 ,2 03 ,2 22 A l l iku l l i h i l ls , 1 ,6 ,9 ,1 6 , 1 9 , 2 2 ,2 3 ,2 9 ,3 4 , 3 9 , 5 1 , 5 3 , 5 6 ,7 7 , 8 5 , 8 7 , 8 , 8 9 ,9 0 , 1 08 , 1 09 , 1 51 , 1 65 , 1 79 , 1 89 , 1 9 1 , 1 96 , 2 35 ,2 40 A na logy , 6 ,1 4 , 1 5 , 1 64 , 1 87 , 1 89 A ndaman i s lande r s , 1 8 1 ,2 06 A nd r ef sky ,W .Jr . ,68 , 1 08 , 1 83 , 1 84 , 1 86 ,2 03 A n ima l F oo tp r in t s ,2 4 1 A ran ir i ve r ,4 ,6 ,3 7 ,4 5 ,4 6 ,4 8 , 5 0 , 5 4 , 6 1 , 6 4 , 6 5 , 8 1 , 1 63 , 1 88 ,2 23 A r tef ac t s A b ra s ion , 6 9 , 7 3 ,7 8 ,7 9 , 8 3 , 8 5 , 8 , 9 1 P a t ina t ion , 1 ,6 9 , 7 3 , 7 8 , 7 9 , 8 3 , 8 5 , 8 8 , 9 1 , 9 8 , 1 03 F unc t ion s , 1 5 1 Mo rpho logy , 6 7 , 9 4 , 9 7 S i ze R ange s , 7 9 C la s s if ica t ion , 7 ,2 03 ,2 18 ,2 29 T echno logy 1 7 , 6 8 , 1 5 1 , 1 62 , 1 90 , 2 05 , 2 06 ,2 10 ,2 11 ,2 18 R eu se , 7 8 , 9 0 , 1 84 , 1 92 s e ea l so R aw Ma ter ia l A rya thu r , 2 3 ,2 7 ,2 9 ,3 2 , 3 9 ,4 2 , 5 2 , 5 4 , 5 , 6 3 ,6 6 , 6 9 , 7 0 , 7 5 , 9 3 , 9 4 , 9 7 , 9 8 , 1 04 , 1 09 , 11 , 16 , 17 , 1 26 , 1 30 , 1 35 , 1 36 , 1 42 , 1 49 , 1 50 , 1 5 1 , 1 62 , 1 89 , 1 9 1 , 1 92 , 1 93 , 1 94 , 1 95 ,2 27 A ssemb lag eV a r iab i l i ty , 6 9 , 2 07 A t t i rampakkam ,4 ,5 ,6 ,9 ,1 0 , 1 , 1 2 , 1 3 , 1 4 , 1 9 ,2 3 ,2 7 , 2 9 ,3 2 ,3 5 ,3 9 ,4 2 ,4 8 ,4 9 , 5 2 , 5 4 , 5 , 5 6 , 6 3 , 6 5 ,6 9 , 7 1 , 7 3 , 9 1 , 9 3 ,9 4 , 9 7 , 9 8 , 9 , 1 02 , 1 04 , 1 08 , 1 09 , 10 , 11 , 16 , 17 , 1 25 , 1 26 , 1 30 , 1 35 , 1 36 , 1 42 , 1 49 , 1 50 , 1 5 1 , 1 62 , 1 88 , 1 89 , 1 9 1 , 1 92 , 1 93 , 1 95 ,2 17 ,2 26 ,2 27 ,2 40 , 2 4 1 A vad i F o rma t ion , 1 ,2 7 , 5 1

C amm iade , L .A . , 7 ,2 06 C hak raba r t i , D .K . ,4 , 1 4 ,2 06 C henchu s , 1 65 , 1 8 1 , 1 82 , 1 85 , 1 86 ,2 09 C h i t too r , 6 ,1 99 ,2 00 , 2 15 C ho lana icken , 1 82 , 1 83 , 1 84 , 2 03 C hopp ing T oo ls , 7 5 , 7 6 , 7 7 , 8 3 , 8 4 , 8 , 1 0 5 , 13 , 1 49 , 1 92 , 1 95 ,2 29 C h rono logy , 1 6 ,4 6 ,4 8 , 5 6 , 6 8 , 6 9 , 1 63 , 1 88 , 1 90 ,2 00 ,2 34 C lac ton ian , 1 0 ,2 07 C la rk ,J .D . , 1 4 , 1 5 , 6 8 , 6 9 ,7 1 , 9 3 , 1 08 , 17 , 1 62 , 1 97 , 1 99 ,2 00 ,2 06 ,2 20 C l ima te , 1 77 , 1 89 ,2 10 C oope r ,Z . ,15 ,2 06 C o r e S c rape r , 16 , 1 43 C orv inu s ,G . v on , 1 4 , 9 3 ,2 07 ,2 11 , 2 3 1 C r e taceou s , 1 ,5 ,2 40 , 2 4 1 C u l tu r e S equ ence , 8 ,6 8 , 9 3 ,2 40 ,2 4 1 C u ra t ion , 1 84 , 1 87 , 1 93 ,2 05 D an ie l , G . ,4 , 7 ,2 07 ,2 19 D eT er ra , H . ,7 , 8 ,1 0 ,2 07 , 2 17 , 2 33 D enne l l , R . , 7 ,1 0 , 1 4 ,2 07 ,2 19 D en t icu la te , 1 45 D e ran iyaga la ,S .U . ,50 , 5 8 , 1 8 1 , 1 82 , 1 85 , 1 87 , 2 07 D ibb le , H .L . , 17 , 6 8 , 17 , 1 50 , 1 62 , 2 04 , 2 06 , 2 07 ,2 11 ,2 19 ,221 D idwana ,s ee R a ja s than , S i ngh i T a lav , D isca rd , 1 7 1 , 1 84 ,2 31 E co log ica l , 1 4 , 1 5 , 1 6 , 1 7 , 1 72 , 1 97 ,2 00 ,2 0 1 , 2 03 ,2 05 ,2 08 ,2 10 ,2 14 ,2 15 , 2 22 ,2 40 ,2 4 1 E h r enf e ls , v on , 181 , 1 82 , 1 87 ,2 08 E ruma ive t t ipa layam , 8 ,9 ,1 0 ,3 6 , 3 7 ,4 8 ,4 9 , 5 0 , 5 1 , 5 3 , 5 , 5 6 , 5 7 , 6 5 , 9 8 , 1 63 ,2 03 , 2 33 ,2 34

2 44

1 90 , 1 96 , 1 97 , 1 99 ,2 0 1 ,2 17 ,2 23 ,2 24 , 2 33 ,2 40 K r ishna swam i ,V .D . ,7 ,8 ,9 ,1 0 , 1 , 1 2 , 1 3 , 2 7 ,48 ,51 ,56 ,162 ,196 ,212 ,2 13 ,233 ,240

E thnoa r chaeo logy 1 7 , 1 64 ,2 36 F er r ic r e te ,s e ea l so l a ter i t e , 1 7 , 1 9 ,2 2 ,2 3 ,2 7 , 2 9 ,3 4 ,3 5 ,3 7 , 3 9 ,4 2 ,4 8 ,4 9 , 5 1 , 5 2 , 5 3 , 5 , 5 7 , 5 8 , 6 9 , 7 3 ,7 9 , 8 1 ,9 3 , 9 4 , 9 7 ,9 9 , 1 04 , 1 08 , 1 90 ,2 33 ,2 34 , 2 40 ,2 4 1 F in ished T oo ls ,7 2 , 1 49 , 1 52 ,2 27 ,2 29 ,2 31 , 2 34 F l ak e -B lade , 7 0 , 7 1 ,7 2 , 7 5 , 7 6 , 7 7 , 7 8 , 8 1 , 8 3 , 8 4 , 8 5 , 8 6 , 8 7 , 8 , 8 9 , 17 , 18 , 1 3 1 , 1 35 , 1 36 , 1 37 , 1 42 , 1 45 , 1 50 , 1 88 , 1 9 1 , 1 93 , 1 94 , 1 95 , 1 96 ,2 00 ,2 3 1 F o ley , R .L . , 16 , 1 7 , 6 1 , 1 85 , 2 08 F oo te , R .B . , 1 ,4 ,5 ,6 ,7 ,1 0 , 1 2 , 1 3 , 1 4 , 1 9 , 2 7 , 2 9 ,4 2 ,4 5 , 5 5 , 6 1 , 6 3 ,6 4 , 6 5 ,7 2 , 9 3 , 1 64 , 2 02 ,2 06 ,2 08 , 2 09 ,2 17 ,2 33 ,2 40 F o rag ing , 1 7 , 1 77 , 1 8 1 , 1 82 , 1 83 , 1 84 , 1 85 , 1 86 , 1 87 , 1 9 1 , 22 F o s s i l , 1 ,1 0 , 1 5 ,2 7 , 6 0 , 9 9 , 1 99 ,2 06 ,2 17 , 2 24 ,2 4 1 G a i l la rd , C . 14 , 1 05 ,2 09 ,2 14 , 2 31 G a rdne r , P . , 1 64 ,2 09 , G a rdne r , R .A .M . , 5 0 ,93 ,2 09 G oud ie ,A . , 5 6 , 9 3 ,2 03 ,2 10 G ud iyam , 1 , 1 3 , 1 9 , 2 1 ,2 2 ,2 3 ,3 2 ,3 9 , 5 1 , 5 2 ,53 ,63 ,104 ,106 ,108 ,109 ,116 ,117 , 1 26 ,15 1 ,162 ,172 ,178 ,192 ,195 ,196 , 1 99 ,20 1 ,228 G un ipa layam , 1 9 ,2 2 ,3 2 ,3 9 ,4 2 , 5 4 ,5 5 ,6 3 , 7 0 , 8 6 ,9 4 , 9 7 , 9 8 , 1 04 , 1 09 , 10 , 11 , 16 , 17 , 1 25 , 1 26 , 1 30 , 1 35 , 1 36 , 1 42 , 1 50 , 1 5 1 , 1 62 , 1 9 1 , 1 92 , 1 93 , 1 95 G un jana V a l ley ,2 00

L akhmapu r , 1 4 , 1 9 1 ,2 17 L a ter i te ,s ee a l so f er r icre te , 4 ,5 ,6 ,8 ,1 , 1 2 , 1 3 ,4 9 , 5 2 , 5 5 , 9 9 ,2 08 ,2 09 ,2 12 ,2 23 ,2 28 L eva l lo i s , 1 , 7 0 , 7 1 , 7 2 , 7 5 , 7 6 , 7 7 , 7 8 , 7 9 , 8 0 , 8 3 , 8 4 , 8 5 , 8 6 , 8 7 , 8 , 8 9 , 9 0 , 1 06 , 1 1 , 12 , 14 , 15 , 17 , 18 , 1 25 , 1 26 , 1 30 , 1 42 , 1 49 , 1 50 , 1 53 , 1 62 , 1 84 , 1 88 , 1 9 1 , 1 93 , 1 94 , 1 95 , 1 96 , 1 99 ,2 00 ,2 07 ,2 22 , 2 29 ,2 31 ,2 34 ,2 35 L i th ic s , s ee A r tef ac t s L iv ing F loo r ,2 4 1 L og is t ica l ly O rgan ised S y s tem s , 1 82 , 1 83 , 1 85 L owe rP a laeo l i th ic , s ee A cheu l ian L un ir i ve r, 1 99 ,2 00 Mad ra sH andaxe T rad i t ion , 1 ,1 Ma i lapu r ,3 2 , 3 6 , 3 7 ,3 9 ,4 2 , 5 4 , 5 , 7 0 , 8 4 , 9 1 , 9 3 , 9 4 , 9 7 , 1 04 , 1 05 , 1 06 , 1 07 , 1 09 , 1 1 , 16 , 17 , 1 25 , 1 26 , 1 30 , 1 35 , 1 36 , 1 42 , 1 50 , 1 5 1 , 1 62 , 1 9 1 , 1 92 , 1 93 , 1 95 Ma lapanda ram„ 1 64 , 1 8 1 , 1 82 , 1 83 , 1 84 , 1 86 M idd le P a laeo l i th ic , 1 2 , 1 4 , 1 5 , 1 6 ,2 2 ,2 3 ,3 4 , 3 5 ,3 7 , 3 9 ,4 1 ,4 2 ,4 8 , 5 0 , 5 2 , 5 3 , 5 4 , 5 , 5 6 , 5 7 , 5 8 , 6 3 , 6 8 , 6 9 , 7 0 , 7 3 , 7 5 , 7 7 , 7 8 , 7 9 , 8 0 , 8 1 , 8 3 , 8 5 , 8 7 , 9 0 , 9 1 , 9 2 , 9 3 , 9 4 , 9 9 , 1 04 , 1 06 , 1 08 , 12 , 14 , 15 , 1 26 , 1 5 1 , 1 62 , 1 63 , 1 87 , 1 88 , 1 89 , 1 90 , 1 96 , 1 97 , 1 99 ,2 00 ,2 0 1 ,2 03 ,2 04 ,2 06 ,2 07 ,2 11 , 2 16 ,2 17 ,2 19 , 2 26 ,2 33 ,2 34 ,2 35 ,2 40 ,2 4 1 M idd le R ange r e sea rch , 1 5 M is ra ,V .N . , 1 4 , 1 5 , 6 8 , 9 3 , 1 64 , 1 86 , 1 97 , 1 99 ,2 00 ,2 0 1 ,2 06 ,2 09 ,2 11 ,2 14 ,2 15 Mob i l i ty , 1 7 , 6 8 , 1 08 , 1 72 , 1 73 , 1 80 , 1 8 1 , 1 82 , 1 83 , 1 84 , 1 85 , 1 86 , 1 9 1 , 1 92 , 1 93 , 2 0 1 ,2 12 ,2 20 Mor r is ,B . , 1 64 , 1 8 1 , 1 82 , 1 83 , 1 84 , 1 87 , 2 04 , 2 14 Mou s te r ian , 1 3 ,2 07 ,2 13 ,2 21 Mu r ty ,M .L .K . , 1 4 , 1 5 , 1 63 , 1 64 , 1 85 , 1 96 , 1 97 , 1 99 ,2 09 , 2 15

H andaxe , 1 0 , 7 1 , 7 , 7 8 , 8 3 , 8 4 , 8 8 , 8 9 , 9 1 , 1 06 ,107 ,113 ,114 ,116 ,149 ,192 ,226 , 2 29 ,231 ,232 H o locene ,2 7 , 3 4 ,3 5 , 3 7 ,4 2 ,4 6 ,4 9 , 5 0 , 5 6 , 5 8 , 9 3 , 9 4 , 2 17 ,2 24 ,2 34 H un sg i , 1 4 , 1 5 , 1 99 ,2 11 ,2 16 ,2 24 H un te r -Ga the r e r , 1 5 , 1 6 , 1 7 , 6 1 ,6 8 , 1 5 1 , 1 64 , 1 80 ,18 1 ,182 ,184 ,185 ,186 ,186 ,205 , 2 08 ,2 12 ,214 ,22 1 H un t ing , 1 4 , 7 7 , 9 0 , 1 50 , 1 64 , 1 65 , 1 72 , 1 74 , 1 78 , 1 79 , 1 80 , 1 82 , 1 85 , 1 86 , 1 87 ,2 05 , 2 15 ,2 39 h u la , 1 6 , 1 7 , 6 1 , 8 ,9 0 , 1 64 , 1 65 , 1 69 . I s aac ,G . , 1 ,1 6 , 1 7 , 6 1 ,6 6 , 6 7 ,2 11 I s ampu r , 1 4 , 1 9 1 J aya swa l ,V . , 1 3 , 1 4 , 1 5 , 1 7 , 6 8 , 1 06 , 11 , 1 5 1 , 1 96 , 1 97 , 1 99 , 2 00 ,2 11 ,2 16 ,2 28 K ada r s , 1 8 1 , 1 82 , 1 85 , 1 87 K or ta l laya rr i ve rb a s in , 1 ,4 ,5 ,7 ,8 ,9 ,1 0 , 1 3 , 1 5 , 1 9 ,2 3 ,2 7 ,3 4 , 3 5 , 3 7 ,4 2 ,4 5 ,4 6 ,4 8 , 4 9 , 5 0 ,5 1 , 5 2 , 5 4 , 5 , 5 6 , 6 0 , 6 1 , 6 3 , 6 4 , 6 5 , 6 9 ,7 9 , 8 1 , 1 62 , 1 63 , 1 87 , 1 88 , 1 89 ,

N aga r junakonda ,2 00 , 2 0 1 ,2 04 N ambakkam , 9 ,2 3 ,2 9 ,3 2 , 3 9 , 5 2 , 5 3 , 5 4 ,5 6 , 6 3 , 7 0 , 7 , 9 3 , 9 8 , 9 9 , 1 04 , 1 09 , 1 1 , 16 , 17 , 1 26 , 1 30 , 1 35 , 1 36 , 1 50 , 1 5 1 , 1 62 , 1 65 , 1 82 , 1 9 1 , 1 92 , 1 93 ,2 24 N a r i K u rava s , 1 64 , 1 65 ,2 15 ,2 39 N e l lo r e , 1 78 , 1 96 , 2 00 ,2 39 N eo tec ton ic s ,4 9 N i lg ir i , 1 80

2 45

N o tch , 1 45 , 2 31

1 89 , 1 90 , 1 95 , 1 96 , 1 97 ,2 00 ,2 0 1 ,2 02 , 2 15 ,2 20 ,2 23 ,2 33 ,2 39 ,2 40 ,2 4 1 R oe , D .A . , 17 , 6 8 ,6 9 ,2 12 ,2 13 , 2 19 ,2 30 ,2 31 R o l land ,N . ,68 , 17 , 1 50 , 1 62 ,2 07 ,2 19

P addayya , K . ,7 , 1 3 , 1 4 , 1 5 , 6 6 , 6 7 ,9 3 , 1 64 , 1 96 , 1 97 , 1 99 ,2 00 , 2 16 ,2 17 P a la rr i ve r , 1 ,9 ,3 5 ,4 2 ,4 5 ,4 6 ,4 8 ,4 9 , 5 0 ,5 1 , 5 4 , 5 , 5 8 , 7 9 , 1 88 , 1 90 ,2 09 ,2 13 ,2 14 , 2 2 1 ,2 40 P a l lave ram , 1 ,4 ,6 5 P appu , . S .4 , 5 ,1 4 , 9 3 , 1 5 1 , 1 97 , 1 99 ,2 00 , 2 03 , 2 17 ,2 24 , 2 33 ,2 40 P appu , R .S , 1 97 , 1 99 ,2 00 ,2 16 P a te r son , T .T . ,7 , 8 ,1 0 , 1 3 ,5 3 ,2 07 ,2 17 ,2 33 P e t rag l ia , M .D . ,14 , 1 5 , 1 6 ,6 6 , 6 7 , 6 8 ,9 3 ,9 6 , 1 9 1 ,204 ,2 10 , 2 15 ,2 16 ,2 17 ,2 4 1 P i ece sW i th R e tou ch , 1 49 , 2 29 P l acepa layam ,2 3 , 8 , 9 3 , 9 8 , 1 04 , 1 08 , 1 09 , 10 , 11 , 16 , 17 , 1 30 , 1 42 , 1 50 , 1 5 1 , 1 65 , 1 72 , 1 73 , 1 74 , 1 75 , 1 77 , 1 78 , 1 79 , 1 80 , 1 8 1 , 1 82 , 1 83 , 1 84 , 1 85 , 1 86 , 1 9 1 , 1 92 , 1 93 , 1 95 ,2 38 P l e is tocene , 1 ,4 ,5 ,7 ,8 ,1 4 , 1 5 , 1 8 ,2 2 ,3 7 , 3 9 ,4 2 ,4 5 , 4 6 ,4 8 ,4 9 , 5 0 ,5 1 , 5 2 , 5 3 ,5 6 , 5 7 , 5 8 , 5 9 , 6 0 , 9 9 , 1 08 , 1 5 1 , 1 88 , 1 89 , 1 90 , 1 95 , 1 97 ,2 04 , 2 11 ,2 16 , 2 17 ,2 19 ,2 20 , 2 2 1 ,2 22 ,2 29 , 2 33 ,2 34 , 2 40 ,2 4 1 P o in t s , 7 1 , 7 5 , 7 7 , 7 8 , 8 4 , 8 6 , 8 7 , 9 2 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 1 25 , 1 49 , 1 92 , 1 95 ,2 00 ,2 0 1 , 2 26 ,2 29 ,2 34 P oond i , 8 ,9 ,1 ,3 4 ,3 5 , 3 7 , 3 9 ,4 2 ,4 6 ,4 8 , 5 1 , 5 2 , 5 4 , 5 , 5 6 , 6 2 , 6 3 , 6 8 , 7 0 , 7 2 , 7 9 , 9 0 , 9 4 ,9 6 , 9 8 , 9 9 , 1 04 , 1 08 , 1 09 , 1 65 , 1 68 , 1 72 , 1 73 , 1 79 , 1 83 , 1 90 , 1 96 , 2 24 , 2 39 P o s t -M idd le P a laeo l i th ic , 7 3 , 7 7 , 7 9 , 8 0 , 8 5 , 8 7 ,9 0 , 16 , 1 60 , 1 62 , 1 97 ,2 26

S ag i le ru ,2 00 S amnapu r , 1 4 , 1 99 ,2 03 ,2 14 S anghao , 1 99 ,2 0 1 • S anka l ia , H .D . , 13 , 1 4 , 1 7 ,6 8 , 6 9 ,9 3 , 1 88 , 1 96 , 1 97 , 1 99 ,2 19 S ch ick , K . ,5 ,6 ,6 6 , 6 7 , 6 8 ,2 19 S ch if f e r , M .B . ,6 , 1 6 ,6 1 , 6 6 ,9 3 , 9 9 , 1 8 1 , 1 84 , 2 06 ,2 08 ,2 10 , 2 12 ,2 13 ,2 15 ,2 19 ,2 20 ,2 22 S c rape r s , 7 1 ,7 2 ,7 3 ,7 5 , 7 6 ,7 7 , 7 9. ,8 0 , 8 4 , 8 6 , 8 8 , 9 1 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 1 30 , 1 35 , 1 36 , 1 42 , 1 50 , 1 60 , 1 93 ,2 26 ,2 29 ,2 34 S ea L eve l , 8 ,9 ,2 9 , 3 9 , 4 2 ,4 6 ,4 9 , 5 0 , 5 6 , 6 0 , 6 3 , 2 13 ,2 33 S e t t lemen tp a t tern s , 1 4 , 1 5 , 1 7 , 1 9 , 6 9 , 8 , 9 3 , 1 64 , 1 65 , 1 68 , 1 69 , 1 70 , 1 7 1 , 1 72 , 1 73 , 1 74 , 1 76 , 1 78 , 1 80 , 1 81 , 1 83 , 1 85 , 1 87 , 1 89 , 1 90 , 1 97 ,2 00 ,2 20 ,2 39 S ha rma , G .R . , 14 , 1 5 , 7 1 ,9 3 , 17 , 1 62 , 1 97 , 1 99 ,2 00 ,2 20 S i ng iT a lav ,s e eR a jas than , 1 4 S i te s L oca t ion , 1 82 S t ra t ig raphy , 6 9 , 7 3 ,7 7 ,7 9 , 8 1 , 9 1 ,2 33 T ype s , 1 82 , 1 9 1 A bandonmen t , 1 84 R eoccupa t ion , 1 85 , 1 96 C amp s , 1 83 S oan , 8 ,1 0 ,2 02 ,2 07 ,2 09 ,2 19 S on V a l ley , 1 4 , 1 5 , 7 1 , 17 , 1 62 , 1 99 ,2 00 S ounda ra R a jan ,K .V . , 7 ,8 ,1 0 , 2 20 S r ipe rumbudu rf o rma t ion , 1 ,8 ,1 2 ,2 2 , 2 3 ,3 4 , 4 2 , 5 0 , 5 1 ,6 4 , 1 08 , 1 88 , 1 89 , 2 23 S ubcon t inen t , I nd ia , 1 97 S ub s is tence S t ra teg ie s , 1 73 , 1 95 S wam i , A . , 9 ,1 3 , 6 1 , 6 3 , 6 4 , 6 5 , 6 8 , 7 2 , 1 06 , 1 08 , 1 62 , 1 63 , 1 95 , 1 96 ,2 20 ,2 26 ,2 27 ,2 33

Q ua r tz i te ,4 ,6 ,1 9 ,2 2 , 2 3 , 2 7 ,4 2 , 5 1 , 5 2 ,5 5 , 7 2 , 8 0 , 8 1 , 8 5 , 8 9 , 9 1 , 9 6 ,9 8 , 1 05 , 1 06 , 1 09 , 1 30 , 1 3 1 , 1 53 , 1 60 , 2 08 , 2 25 ,2 27 ,2 34 Q ua te rna ry , 1 ,1 3 , 1 9 , 2 2 ,3 7 , 3 8 ,3 9 ,4 2 ,4 6 , 4 9 , 5 0 , 5 1 , 5 2 , 5 3 , 5 6 , 5 7 , 6 0 , 2 03 ,2 04 , 2 06 ,207 ,208 ,209 ,213 ,2 14 ,2 16 ,2 17 , 2 18 ,220 ,22 1 ,222

T am i lN adu , 1 ,4 ,6 ,1 9 , 5 0 , 5 1 , 5 6 , 5 8 , 6 0 , 1 63 , 1 65 , 1 89 ,2 03 ,2 04 ,2 13 ,2 15 ,2 17 , 2 18 ,2 20 , 21 , 2 23 ,2 24 ,2 39 ,2 40 T e r races , R ive r , 8 T h imma R eddy , K . ,93 , 2 00 , 2 2 1

R a jagu ru , S .N . 1 4 , 5 4 , 5 7 , 5 8 , 9 3 , 1 97 , 1 99 , 2 06 ,2 09 ,2 14 , 2 18 R ama samy , S .M . , 10 ,4 5 , 4 6 ,4 9 , 5 0 , 2 18 R aw Ma ter ia l ,s ee a l so a r tef ac t , 4 1 , 7 0 ,7 5 , 7 8 , 7 9 , 8 1 , 8 3 , 8 5 , 8 8 , 8 9 , 9 0 , 9 1 , 1 08 , 1 99 , 2 07 ,2 11 ,2 29 , 2 31 R ed H i l ls ,s ee E ruma ive t t ipa layam R efu se , 1 69 , 1 7 1 , 1 84 R eg ion , 1 ,4 ,7 ,1 0 , 1 , 1 3 , 1 5 , 1 6 , 1 8 , 1 9 ,2 3 , 2 7 ,2 9 , 3 4 , 3 5 , 3 7 , 3 9 ,4 6 ,4 9 , 5 0 , 5 1 , 5 2 , 5 3 ,5 4 , 5 , 5 6 , 5 7 , 5 8 , 6 0 , 6 1 , 6 6 , 6 8 , 7 7 , 7 8 , 7 9 , 8 1 , 8 4 , 8 8 , 9 0 , 9 1 , 9 2 , 9 3 , 9 7 , 9 , 1 06 , 1 08 , 1 5 1 , 1 62 , 1 63 , 1 73 , 1 85 , 1 88 ,

U n if o rm i ta r ian , 1 5 , 1 64 U ppe rP a laeo l i th ic , 8 ,1 0 , 1 2 , 1 4 , 1 62 , 1 63 , 1 86 , 1 88 , 1 96 , 1 97 ,2 0 1 ,2 15 ,2 19 ,2 40 ,2 4 1 V adamadu ra i , 8 ,1 0 , 1 , 1 2 , 1 3 , 1 9 ,4 2 ,4 8 , 6 3 , 1 96 ,2 26 ,2 28 V adda s , 1 8 1 , 1 82 , 1 83 , 1 84 , 1 85 , 1 86 , 1 87 V ic to r ia We s t , 1 0 , 1 Wendo rf , 7 1 , 17 , 1 62 , 2 06 ,2 11 ,2 22 ,2 30

2 46