A Norse Settlement in the Outer Hebrides: Excavations on Mounds 2 and 2A, Bornais, South Uist 9781789250466, 9781789250473, 1789250463

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A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides Excavations on Mounds 2 and 2A, Bornais, South Uist

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides Excavations on Mounds 2 and 2A, Bornais, South Uist edited by

Niall Sharples

With contributions by

J Best, J Bond, C Bronk Ramsey, D Challinor, A Clarke, G Cook, O Davis, I Dennis, A Forster, K Harding, C Ingrem, A Lane, J Light, P Marshall, K Milek, J Mulville, K Munro, A Pannett, A Powell, R Smith, J Summers, F Taylor and K Waddington

Cardiff Studies in Archaeology

Oxford & Philadelphia

Published in the United Kingdom in 2020 by OXBOW BOOKS The Old Music Hall, 106–108 Cowley Road, Oxford, OX4 1JE and in the United States by OXBOW BOOKS 1950 Lawrence Road, Havertown, PA 19083 © Oxbow Books, Niall Sharples and the individual authors 2020 Hardcover Edition: ISBN 978-1-78925-046-6 Digital Edition: ISBN 978-1-78925-047-3 (epub) A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Control Number:2019946962

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission from the publisher in writing. Printed in the United Kingdom by Severn Print For a complete list of Oxbow titles, please contact: United Kingdom Oxbow Books Telephone (01865) 241249 Email: [email protected] www.oxbowbooks.com United States of America Oxbow Books Telephone (610) 853-9131, Fax (610) 853-9146 Email: [email protected] www.casemateacademic.com/oxbow Oxbow Books is part of the Casemate Group Front cover: A view of House 2 during excavation in 2004 Back cover: Detail of the head of a Ringerike animal on an antler cylinder. Credit: Cardiff University

Contents

Illustrations.................................................................................................................................................................... xii Tables........................................................................................................................................................................... xxii List of Contributors..................................................................................................................................................... xxvi English–Gaelic glossary of place-names................................................................................................................... xxvii

1 Bornais and the Norse settlement of the North Atlantic......................................................................... 1

Introduction – N Sharples......................................................................................................................................... 1 The history of the excavations – N Sharples................................................................................................................ 1 A Norse settlement of Atlantic Scotland – N Sharples............................................................................................... 11 History.................................................................................................................................................................. 11 Problems............................................................................................................................................................... 13 Viking houses in Scotland.................................................................................................................................... 13 Viking houses in the North Atlantic..................................................................................................................... 14 Late Norse houses................................................................................................................................................ 16 Cille Pheadair – N Sharples........................................................................................................................................ 18 Vernacular architecture in the North Atlantic – N Sharples....................................................................................... 20 The research potential – N Sharples........................................................................................................................... 23 The stratigraphic sequence in mound 2 – O Davis and N Sharples............................................................................ 23 The stratigraphic sequence in mound 2A – K Waddington and N Sharples............................................................... 26 Site phasing – N Sharples........................................................................................................................................... 29 Excavation problems – N Sharples............................................................................................................................. 30 Acknowledgements – N Sharples............................................................................................................................... 33

2 The Late Iron Age and Early Norse activity on mound 2 – N Sharples and O Davis................ 35

The Late Iron Age occupation (BA)....................................................................................................................... 35 Early sand deposits (BAA)................................................................................................................................... 36 Floor layers (BAB)............................................................................................................................................... 37 Soil micromorphology – K Munro and K Milek.................................................................................................. 37 Infill layers (BAC)................................................................................................................................................ 42 Structural remains (BAD).................................................................................................................................... 42 Peripheral occupation layers (BAE)..................................................................................................................... 43 Layers and features under House 2 (BAF)........................................................................................................... 43 Cut and fill of hollow (BAG)............................................................................................................................... 44 Sampling data – N Sharples........................................................................................................................................ 45 Pottery – K Harding and N Sharples.......................................................................................................................... 48 Measurements – N Sharples....................................................................................................................................... 50 Artefacts – A Pannett, R Smith and N Sharples.......................................................................................................... 50 Carbonised plant remains – J Summers and J Bond................................................................................................... 53 Animal bone – A Powell, J Best, J Mulville and N Sharples...................................................................................... 53 Fish Bone – C Ingrem................................................................................................................................................. 56 Summary of the Late Iron Age activity – N Sharples................................................................................................. 57 The Early Norse occupation (BB).............................................................................................................................. 57 House 1 foundation pits (BBA)............................................................................................................................ 58. House 1 structure (BBB)...................................................................................................................................... 60 House 1 occupation (BBC).................................................................................................................................. 67 Soil micromorphology – K Munro and K Milek.................................................................................................. 68

vi

Contents

Spatial distributions – N Sharples........................................................................................................................ 75 Animal bone and pottery distributions – N Sharples........................................................................................... 75 Artefact distributions – N Sharples...................................................................................................................... 75 Carbonised plant distributions – J Summers and J Bond..................................................................................... 76 House 1 infilling (BBD)....................................................................................................................................... 77 Truncated remnants of Early Norse structures (BBE).......................................................................................... 78 Sampling data – N Sharples........................................................................................................................................ 78 Pottery – K Harding and N Sharples.......................................................................................................................... 81 Measurements – N Sharples....................................................................................................................................... 83 Artefacts – A Pannett, R Smith and N Sharples.......................................................................................................... 84 Carbonised plant remains – J Summers and J Bond................................................................................................... 90 Animal bone – A Powell, J Best, J Mulville and N Sharples...................................................................................... 90 Fish bone – C Ingrem................................................................................................................................................. 92 Summary of the Early Norse activity – N Sharples.................................................................................................... 94 3 The Early Norse activity on mound 2A – N Sharples and K Waddington..................................... 97

Introduction............................................................................................................................................................. 97 The cultivation soil (GAA) and hearth GAB)............................................................................................................ 97 Soil micromorphology – K Munro and K Milek................................................................................................ 104 The south hearth (GAC)........................................................................................................................................... 107 Soil micromorphology – K Munro and K Milek................................................................................................ 107 The grey sand accumulation (GAD)......................................................................................................................... 110 Sampling data – N Sharples...................................................................................................................................... 112 Pottery – K Harding and N Sharples........................................................................................................................ 115 Measurements – N Sharples..................................................................................................................................... 117 Artefacts – A Pannett, R Smith and N Sharples........................................................................................................ 118 Carbonised plant remains – J Summers, J Bond and N Sharples............................................................................. 124 Animal bone – J Best, A Powell, J Mulville and N Sharples.................................................................................... 127 Fish bone – C Ingrem............................................................................................................................................... 132 Conclusion – N Sharples...................................................................................................................................... 134

4 The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC) – N Sharples and O Davis....................................... 137

Introduction............................................................................................................................................................... 137 House 2 foundation pits (BCA).......................................................................................................................... 137 House 2 construction (BCB).............................................................................................................................. 145 House 2 occupation (BCC)................................................................................................................................ 148 Soil micromorphology – K Munro and K Milek...................................................................................................... 156 Pre-floor deposits................................................................................................................................................ 159 Hearth-rake deposits........................................................................................................................................... 160 Floor deposits..................................................................................................................................................... 163 In situ hearth deposits......................................................................................................................................... 164 Secondary occupation and abandonment deposits............................................................................................. 166 Sampling data – N Sharples...................................................................................................................................... 166 Pottery – K Harding and N Sharples........................................................................................................................ 181 Measurements – N Sharples..................................................................................................................................... 189 Artefacts – N Sharples, A Pannett, R Smith and F Taylor........................................................................................ 193 Artefacts from the foundation pits (BCA).......................................................................................................... 193 Artefacts from the construction layers (BCB).................................................................................................... 193 Artefacts from the floor layers and hearth/ash layers (BCC)............................................................................. 193 Distribution analysis........................................................................................................................................... 212 Distribution results............................................................................................................................................. 212 Carbonised plant remains – J Summers and J Bond................................................................................................. 221 Animal bone – A Powell, J Best, J Mulville and N Sharples.................................................................................... 226 Fish bone – C Ingrem............................................................................................................................................... 230 Discussion – N Sharples........................................................................................................................................... 232 General distributions.......................................................................................................................................... 235 Conclusion.......................................................................................................................................................... 239

Contents

vii

5 The Middle Norse transition phase on mound 2 (BD) – N Sharples and O Davis.................... 241



Introduction........................................................................................................................................................... 241 Initial structural modifications (BDA)............................................................................................................... 241 Occupation associated with the BDA (BDB)..................................................................................................... 243 Constructions within the BDA structure (BDC)................................................................................................ 243 Building a new structure (BDD)........................................................................................................................ 245 Occupation of structure BDD (BDE)................................................................................................................. 245 Infilling of the House 2 hollow (BDF)............................................................................................................... 247 Ephemeral structures (BDG).............................................................................................................................. 249 Final infilling of the House 2 hollow (BDH)..................................................................................................... 251 Activity below House 3 (BDI)........................................................................................................................... 251 Deposits around the edge of House 3 (BDJ)...................................................................................................... 253 Sampling data – N Sharples...................................................................................................................................... 256 Pottery – K Harding and N Sharples........................................................................................................................ 257 Measurements – N Sharples..................................................................................................................................... 259 Artefacts – A Pannett, R Smith and N Sharples........................................................................................................ 261 Carbonised plant remains – J Summers and J Bond................................................................................................. 267 Animal bone – A Powell, J Best, J Mulville and N Sharples.................................................................................... 267 Fish bone – C Ingrem............................................................................................................................................... 271 Conclusion – N Sharples.......................................................................................................................................... 271

6 The Middle Norse activity on mound 2A – N Sharples and K Waddington................................ 275



Introduction............................................................................................................................................................... 275 The central structure and early activity (GBA).................................................................................................. 275 The construction of the south kiln (GBB).......................................................................................................... 275 Deposition in the south kiln (GBC).................................................................................................................... 277 The construction of the north kiln (GBD).......................................................................................................... 277 Deposition in the north kiln (GBE).................................................................................................................... 277 Occupation associated with the kilns in the central area (GBF)........................................................................ 281 Deposition associated with the kilns on the edge of the mound (GBG)............................................................ 282 Sampling data – N Sharples...................................................................................................................................... 285 Pottery – K Harding and N Sharples........................................................................................................................ 289 Measurements – N Sharples..................................................................................................................................... 291 Artefacts – A Pannett, R Smith and N Sharples........................................................................................................ 291 Carbonised plant remains – J Summers, J Bond and N Sharples............................................................................. 296 Animal bone – A Powell, J Best, J Mulville and N Sharples .................................................................................. 297 Fish bone – C Ingrem............................................................................................................................................... 299 Conclusion – N Sharples.......................................................................................................................................... 301

7 The Late Norse activity on mound 2 – N Sharples and O Davis.................................................... 303 Introduction........................................................................................................................................................... 303 House 3 construction (BEA)..................................................................................................................................... 304 House 3 pre-floor features (BEB)............................................................................................................................. 307 Sampling data – N Sharples............................................................................................................................... 308 Soil micromorphology – K Milek and K Munro................................................................................................ 312 House 3 early occupation (BEC).............................................................................................................................. 313 Sampling data – N Sharples............................................................................................................................... 318 The distribution of artefacts – N Sharples.......................................................................................................... 326 The distribution of animal bone – N Sharples.................................................................................................... 326 The distribution of the carbonised plant remains – J Summers and J Bond...................................................... 327 House 3 reconstruction (BED).................................................................................................................................. 329 Sampling data – N Sharples............................................................................................................................... 329 House 3 secondary occupation (BEE)...................................................................................................................... 330 Sampling data – N Sharples............................................................................................................................... 332 The distribution of artefacts – N Sharples.......................................................................................................... 336 The distribution of animal bone – N Sharples.................................................................................................... 337 The distribution of the carbonised plant remains – J Summers and J Bond...................................................... 341

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Contents

House 3 abandonment (BEF).................................................................................................................................... 341 Sampling data – N Sharples............................................................................................................................... 342 House 3 soil micromorphology – K Milek and K Munro........................................................................................ 344 Deposits in the entrance passage (BEG)................................................................................................................... 353 Sampling – N Sharples....................................................................................................................................... 354 Soil micromorphology – K Milek and K Munro................................................................................................ 354 Deposits outside the entrance (BEH)........................................................................................................................ 358 Deposits associated with House 3 (BEI).................................................................................................................. 358 Sampling data – N Sharples...................................................................................................................................... 358 Pottery – K Harding and N Sharples........................................................................................................................ 362 Measurements – N Sharples..................................................................................................................................... 362 Artefacts – A Pannett, R Smith and N Sharples........................................................................................................ 363 Artefacts from BEA and BEB............................................................................................................................ 363 Artefacts from BEC............................................................................................................................................ 364 Artefacts from BED........................................................................................................................................... 366 Artefacts from BEE............................................................................................................................................ 366 Artefacts from BEF and BEG............................................................................................................................ 370 Artefacts from BEI............................................................................................................................................. 376 Carbonised plant remains – J Summers and J Bond................................................................................................. 376 Animal bone – A Powell, J Best, J Mulville and N Sharples.................................................................................... 377 Fish bone – C Ingrem............................................................................................................................................... 382 Conclusion – N Sharples.......................................................................................................................................... 383

8 The Late Norse activity on mound 2A – N Sharples and K Waddington..................................... 386



Introduction........................................................................................................................................................... 386 The southern houses (GE).................................................................................................................................... 387 The construction of House 12 (GEA)............................................................................................................. 387 The occupation of House 12 (GEB)............................................................................................................... 387 Post-occupation infilling of House 12 (GEC)................................................................................................ 387 The construction of House 13 (GED)............................................................................................................. 393 The occupation of House 13 (GEE)............................................................................................................... 394 Post-occupation infilling of House 13 (GEF)................................................................................................. 394 The construction of House 14 (GEG)............................................................................................................. 394 The occupation of House 14 (GEH)............................................................................................................... 396 The construction of ancillary building 3 (GEI).............................................................................................. 396 Sampling data – N Sharples........................................................................................................................... 396 Pottery – K Harding and N Sharples.............................................................................................................. 396 Artefacts – A Pannett, R Smith and N Sharples............................................................................................. 398 Carbonised plant remains – J Summers and J Bond...................................................................................... 401 Animal bone – A Powell, J Best, J Mulville and N Sharples......................................................................... 402 The ancillary structures (GC)............................................................................................................................... 402 The construction of ancillary building 5 (GCA)............................................................................................ 404 The occupation of ancillary building 5 (GCB)............................................................................................... 406 The construction of ancillary building 6 (GCC)............................................................................................ 406 The occupation of ancillary building 6 (GCD).............................................................................................. 408 Soil micromorphology – K Milek and K Munro........................................................................................... 410 The construction of House 15 (GCE)............................................................................................................. 412 The occupation of House 15 (GCF)............................................................................................................... 412 Sampling data – N Sharples........................................................................................................................... 414 Pottery – K Harding and N Sharples.............................................................................................................. 419 Artefacts – A Pannett, R Smith and N Sharples............................................................................................. 421 Carbonised plant remains – J Summers, J Bond and N Sharples.................................................................. 427 Animal bone – A Powell, J Best, J Mulville and N Sharples......................................................................... 427 Fish bone – C Ingrem..................................................................................................................................... 430 Midden accumulation (GD).................................................................................................................................. 433 Midden on the west side (GDA).................................................................................................................... 435 Midden on the north side (GDB).................................................................................................................... 438

Contents

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Midden on the east side (GDC)...................................................................................................................... 439 Sampling data – N Sharples........................................................................................................................... 444 Pottery – K Harding and N Sharples.............................................................................................................. 446 Artefacts – A Pannett, R Smith and N Sharples............................................................................................. 446 Carbonised plant remains – J Summers, J Bond and N Sharples.................................................................. 451 Animal bone – A Powell, J Best, J Mulville and N Sharples......................................................................... 459 Fish bone – C Ingrem..................................................................................................................................... 459 A structure in the eastern middens (GGA-GGC).................................................................................................. 462 Sampling data – N Sharples........................................................................................................................... 463 Pottery and artefacts – N Sharples, A Pannett and R Smith ......................................................................... 465 Carbonised plant remains – J Bond and J Summers...................................................................................... 465 Animal bone – C Ingrem, A Powell, J Best and J Mulville........................................................................... 465 Conclusion............................................................................................................................................................ 465 Sampling data – N Sharples........................................................................................................................... 466 Animal and fish bone – C Ingrem, A Powell, J Best and J Mulville............................................................. 468 Carbonised plant remains – J Summers and J Bond...................................................................................... 468 Measurements – N Sharples........................................................................................................................... 468 Artefacts – N Sharples.................................................................................................................................... 468

9 The peripheral stratigraphic sequences (Areas A, H, I and J) – N Sharples and O Davis. ..... 470

Introduction........................................................................................................................................................... 470 The south side of mound 2 (Area A).................................................................................................................... 470 Sampling data from Area A – N Sharples...................................................................................................... 472 Pottery from Area A – K Harding and N Sharples......................................................................................... 473 Artefacts from Area A – A Pannett, R Smith and N Sharples........................................................................ 476 Animal bone from Area A – A Powell, J Best, J Mulville and N Sharples................................................... 477 Carbonised plant remains from Area A – J Summers and J Bond................................................................. 478 The east side of mound 2 (Area H)...................................................................................................................... 478 Sampling data from Area H – N Sharples...................................................................................................... 480 Pottery from Area H – K Harding and N Sharples........................................................................................ 482 Measurements – N Sharples........................................................................................................................... 485 Artefacts from Area H – A Pannett, R Smith and N Sharples....................................................................... 485 Carbonised plant remains from Area H – J Summers and J Bond................................................................. 486 Animal bone from Area H – A Powell, J Best, J Mulville and N Sharples................................................... 488 Fish bone from Area H – C Ingrem................................................................................................................ 489 The northwest corner of mound 2 (Area I)........................................................................................................... 492 Sampling data from Area I – N Sharples....................................................................................................... 494 Artefacts and ecofacts from Area I – J Best, A Powell, C Ingrem and N Sharples....................................... 494 Area J ................................................................................................................................................................... 494 Conclusion – N Sharples...................................................................................................................................... 494

10 The final occupation of the settlement – N Sharples, O Davis and K Waddington................... 495 Introduction........................................................................................................................................................... 495 The final occupation of mound 2 (BF)................................................................................................................. 495 Construction of an ancillary structure (BFA)................................................................................................. 496 Use of the ancillary structure (BFB).............................................................................................................. 496 Rebuild and reuse of the ancillary structure (BFC)....................................................................................... 501 Abandonment of the ancillary structure (BFD).............................................................................................. 501 Contemporary activity in the north of House 3 (BFE)................................................................................... 501 Sampling data – N Sharples.................................................................................................................................. 502 Pottery – K Harding and N Sharples.................................................................................................................... 505 Artefacts – A Pannett, R Smith and N Sharples................................................................................................... 505 Soil micromorphology – K Milek and K Munro.................................................................................................. 506 Earliest occupation layer................................................................................................................................ 506 Occupation deposits........................................................................................................................................ 508 Later occupation deposits............................................................................................................................... 509

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Contents

Carbonised plant remains – J Summers and J Bond............................................................................................ 510 Animal bone – A Powell, J Best, J Mulville and N Sharples . ............................................................................ 510 The final occupation of mound 2A (GF)...............................................................................................................511 Miscellaneous late features (GFA)..................................................................................................................511 Sampling data – N Sharples.................................................................................................................................. 515 Artefacts – A Pannett, R Smith and N Sharples................................................................................................... 515 Animal bone – A Powell, J Best, C Ingrem, J Mulville and N Sharples ............................................................ 515 The recent activity on mound 2 and mound 2A (BG, BH, GFB)........................................................................ 515 The enclosure wall ........................................................................................................................................ 517 Unstratified objects – A Pannett, R Smith and N Sharples................................................................................... 519 Conclusion – N Sharples...................................................................................................................................... 520

11 The chronology................................................................................................................................................ 521 Radiocarbon dates – P Marshall, C Bronk Ramsey and G Cook......................................................................... 521 Methods.......................................................................................................................................................... 521 Sampling strategy........................................................................................................................................... 522 Results............................................................................................................................................................ 523 Methodological approach...................................................................................................................................... 524 Mound 2 – The sequence...................................................................................................................................... 526 The chronology of mound 2................................................................................................................................. 527 Mound 2A – The sequence................................................................................................................................... 529 The chronology of mound 2A............................................................................................................................... 532 The currency of Norse activity at Bornais............................................................................................................ 534 Key historical events – N Sharples....................................................................................................................... 535 Conclusion – N Sharples...................................................................................................................................... 537

12 Comparative analysis of the assemblages from mounds 2 and 2A................................................. 539 Introduction – N Sharples..................................................................................................................................... 539 Pottery – K Harding and N Sharples.................................................................................................................... 541 Distributions................................................................................................................................................... 541 Sherd size........................................................................................................................................................ 543 Sooting............................................................................................................................................................ 543 Typological considerations............................................................................................................................. 544 Steatite – A Forster............................................................................................................................................... 546 Flint – A Pannett................................................................................................................................................... 547 Artefacts – N Sharples, R Smith, A Clarke and I Dennis..................................................................................... 548 Material distributions...................................................................................................................................... 548 Functional categories...................................................................................................................................... 549 Object distributions......................................................................................................................................... 550 Archaeobotanical remains – J Summers and J Bond............................................................................................ 554 Results............................................................................................................................................................ 555 Charcoal – D Challinor......................................................................................................................................... 560 Results............................................................................................................................................................ 561 Notes on taxa.................................................................................................................................................. 561 Mammal bone – C Ingrem and A Powell............................................................................................................. 561 Major species: domestic resources................................................................................................................. 563 Minor species: domestic resources................................................................................................................. 566 Minor species: terrestrial wild resources........................................................................................................ 567 Minor species: marine wild resources............................................................................................................ 568 Small vertebrate fauna – A Powell....................................................................................................................... 568 Methods.......................................................................................................................................................... 568 Results............................................................................................................................................................ 568 Bird bone – J Best................................................................................................................................................. 569 Distribution..................................................................................................................................................... 570

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Fish bone – C Ingrem........................................................................................................................................... 573 Taphonomy..................................................................................................................................................... 574 Data – mound 2.............................................................................................................................................. 574 Data – mound 2A............................................................................................................................................ 577 Residue analysis – N Sharples.............................................................................................................................. 577 Above 10 mm data......................................................................................................................................... 583 2 to 10 mm data.............................................................................................................................................. 583 Conclusion – N Sharples...................................................................................................................................... 588

13 Discussion – N Sharples............................................................................................................................... 591 Introduction........................................................................................................................................................... 591 The size of the settlement..................................................................................................................................... 591 The early houses................................................................................................................................................... 600 The occupation of the early houses...................................................................................................................... 602 The later houses ................................................................................................................................................... 608 Resource requirements.......................................................................................................................................... 614 Sequences.............................................................................................................................................................. 616 The ancillary buildings......................................................................................................................................... 618 The shelters........................................................................................................................................................... 620 Conclusion............................................................................................................................................................ 622 Appendix 1: The context list from mound 2 – N Sharples.............................................................................................. 625 Appendix 2: The context list from mound 2A – N Sharples............................................................................................ 655 References ....................................................................................................................................................................... 669 Index................................................................................................................................................................................ 682

Illustrations

Chapter 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

18 19

20 21

A plan of the mounds at Bornais showing the areas excavated and the location of the site on the Western Isles A plan of the areas excavated on mound 2 from 1994 through to 2004 A view of the long exploratory trench across mound 2 in 1994 from the northwest; the walls of House 2 are clearly visible in the foreground A view of the mound 2 excavations in 1996 from the west A view of the excavation of House 2 mound 2 in 1997 from the east A view of the excavation of House 2 in 1999 from the northwest A plan of the areas excavated on mounds 2A in 1999, 2000, 2003 and 2004 The initial cleaning of House 15 on mound 2A in 1999 from the north A view from the west of House 2 during the excavation in 2000 A view across the excavated area of mound 2A from the southwest in 2000 The initial cleaning of House 3 on mound 2 in 2003 from the south A view from the east of the excavation of the west end of House 1 on mound 2 in 2003 A view looking south across mound 2A during the excavations in 2003 A view from the east looking across House 2 on mound 2 in 2004 A view of the excavation of the basal cultivation marks on mound 2A A map of Scotland showing the location of the principal Scandinavian settlements mentioned in the text Simplified plans of early Scandinavian houses in Atlantic Scotland. A Drimore, South Uist, Western Isles; B Underhoull, Unst, Shetland; C Jarlshof, Dunrossness, Shetland; D Brough of Birsay, Mainland Orkney; E Quoygrew, Westray, Orkney; F Skaill, Deerness, Orkney; G Hamar, Unst, Shetland; H Poole, Sanday, Orkney; I Pool, Sanday, Orkney Simplified plans of later Scandinavian houses in Atlantic Scotland. J Sandwick, Unst, Shetland; K Quoygrew, Westray, Orkney; L Pool, Sanday, Orkney The structural sequence at Cille Pheadair, South Uist showing only the main houses, and excluding phase 2 and phase 6 when no clearly observed domestic house was present. A sandbank, phase 1; B house 700, phase 3; C house 500, phase 4; D house 500 rebuilding, phase 5; E house 312, phase 7; F house 007. phase 8; G house 007 modified, phase 9 A recently abandoned croft at Iochdar, South Uist An outline plan of the excavated area on mound 2 showing

22 23 24 25 26 27

28 29 30 31

the three principal houses: pink House1, blue House 2 and brown House 3. The colour key used in this volume for the structures and contexts A diagram illustrating the stratigraphic relationships of the different blocks on mound 2 An outline plan of the different phases of activity on mound 2A A The Early Norse cultivation marks (GAA) B The Middle Norse structures (GBA, GBB, GBD) C Late Norse House 12 (GEA) D Late Norse House 13 (GED) and ancillary structure 5 (GCA) E Late Norse House 14 (GEG) and ancillary structure 6 (GCC) F Late Norse House 15 (GCE) and ancillary structure 3 (GEI) A plan of the different areas excavated on mound 2A A diagram illustrating the stratigraphic relationships of the different blocks on mound 2A A photograph of the southeast corner of House 2, showing the accumulation of fine grey wind-blown sand almost immediately after the dark brown floor had been cleaned to get a photograph of the antler pick The final group of students prepares for departure from Lochmaddy, 1999 The first group of students prepares for departure from Lochboisdale, 2000 The first group of students prepares for departure from Lochboisdale, 2003 A group of students who have just spent a rainy day finds washing in Cill Donnain (Kildonan) Museum, 2004

Chapter 2 32 A plan of the excavated area on mound 2 showing the projected plan of House 1 (see Figure 22 for a key to the colours used). The bulk of the Late Iron Age deposits were found below the floor at the west end of House 1 33 The location of the Late Iron Age pit (1533; BAA) identified in a test pit through the wind-blown sand layers surrounding House 1 34 A plan of the occupation deposits belonging to the Late Iron Age occupation (BAA) exposed at the west end of the excavated area 35 Three sections through the Late Iron Age deposits under the floor of House 1; their location is marked on Figure 34. A-B. The west-facing section through the Late Iron Age layers (BAB, BAC), the floor of House 1 (BBC) and a remnant of the overlying fill layer (BBD). The underlying photos show two detailed views of this west-facing section. C-D. The north-facing section of the southern edge of the area

Illustrations

36

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44

45 46 47

48 49

50 51 52

53 54 55 56

excavated beneath House 1. E-F. A north-facing section through the Late Iron Age layers (BAB), the overlying fills (BAC) and the Early Norse pits (BBA). The underlying photo shows the east end of this section Micromorphology samples from the Pictish deposits; see Figure 35 for the location of these samples. (a) Sample 10790; (b) Sample 10794; (c) and (d) aggregates of calcitic wood ash in 1921.2 showing remnants of cell structure; (e) amorphous organic matter and in situ phytoliths in 1917.2; (f) amorphous organic matter, diatoms [d], and iron nodules [Fe] in 1917.2, which support the identification of this layer as humified, uncharred peat A plan of the possible Late Iron Age deposits underlying House 2 (BAF) A plan of the Late Iron Age structure, 2638, exposed underneath the floor of House 2 A section through the deposits along the north edge of the trench on mound 2 (see Figure 37 for location) A histogram comparing the densities of the major finds categories in the above 10 mm residues from samples in BAB and BAF A histogram comparing the finds densities in the 2 to 10 mm residues from the Late Iron Age occupation A selection of the principal feature sherds from the Late Iron Age occupation (BAC, BAE, BAF, BAG) The size distribution of the pottery and bone from selected Late Iron Age contexts A selection of artefacts from the Late Iron Age occupation. All the objects are antler or bone except 3798, 5326, 5390 which are stone, 6636 which is copper alloy, 6474, which is iron and 3501 which is clay A largely complete short double sided comb (5469) from the Late Iron Age floor layers (BAB) Two hipped pins (5488 and 6643) from Late Iron Age deposits (BAB and BAF respectively) An overall plan of the Early Norse House 1 (BB), showing the two areas at either end of the structure that were explored. Note the two stones roughly in the middle of the north wall that mark the location where the later House 2 wall crosses the original House 1 wall. A plan of the pits below the floor at the west end of House 1 A view of House 1 from the east after the removal of the floor layers (BBC). The L-shaped area visible in the centre of the photograph was a trial trench excavated in 2000. Several post holes and stake holes (BBB) have been excavated and some of the underlying pits (BBA) are visible Sections through the pits pre-dating the house floors (BBA) A view of pit 1591 prior to excavation A view of pit 1591 during excavation when a cluster of large animal bones and stones was encountered on the south side of the pit. The similarity of the fill and the surrounding deposits is clearly visible A plan of the stake holes, post holes and deposits (BBB) recognised after the excavation of the House 1 floor Sections through the post holes and stake holes of block BBB Features below House 2 that could belong to House 1 The layer of paving that defines the east end of House 1. Walls 2632 and 2223 appear to be contemporary with the paving and define the east end of House 1, whereas wall 2633 sits above the paving and appears to be part of the entrance to House 2 (BCA)

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57 A plan of the occupation deposits (BBC) in House 1 showing the sampling grid used to excavate the floor layer. Marked in green is the cluster of steatite sherds in the southwest corner 58 A view of the floor of House 1. The L-shaped area indicates the location of the trial trench dug in 2000 59 Micromorphology samples from the hearth of House 1. (a) Sample 10705, showing lenses of peat ash (pa), peat ash and charred peat (pa/ch), calcareous shelly sand (ss), shelly sand mixed with peat ash (ss/pa), very course sand (vcs), clay (c), and eggshell (es); (b) Sample 10706, showing similar types of layers as 10705, with the addition of charred peat (ch); (c) phosphatic nodule in pit fill 1911 containing degraded bone and phytoliths, interpreted as omnivore excrement (PPL); (d) same as (c), shown autofluorescing under UV light; (e) close-up of lenses of eggshell (es) and peat ash (pa) and a charred seed (s) in the hearth deposit in sample 10705; (f) eggshell in sample 10706; (g) lens of charred peat (ch) and burnt bone (bb) in sample 10706; (h) charred seed in sample 10706 60 Micromorphology samples from the floors of House 1. (a) Sample 10706, showing compacted lenses (darker zones indicated by arrows) within 1525 and 1941, and a sand lens (s) in 1525; (b) burnt bone in 1941; (c) amorphous phosphatic aggregate containing a phytolith (p), interpreted as omnivore excrement; (d) aggregate of decomposed peat in 1514; (e) amorphous phosphatic aggregate in 1514 containing a rounded and weathered bone fragment (b) and a phytolith (p), interpreted as omnivore excrement. 61 The distribution of materials from the above 10 mm residues from the occupation of House 1 62 The distribution of materials recovered from the 2 to 10 mm residues from the occupation of House 1 63 The distribution of pottery and bone on the floor of House 1 64 The distribution of artefacts on the floor (BBC) of House 1 65 Large fragments of steatite vessels lying on the floor (BBC) of House 1 66 The distribution of the main categories of carbonised plant remains on the floor of House 1 67 The distribution of artefacts from the infilling of House 1 (BBD) 68 A comparison of the densities of the major finds categories from the above 10 mm residues in the deposits associated with the Early Norse occupation 69 A comparison of the densities of the major finds categories from the 2 to 10 mm residues in the deposits associated with the Early Norse occupation 70 Feature sherds associated with the occupation of House 1 71 The size distribution of the pottery and bone from the Early Norse blocks 72 A selection of artefacts associated with the occupation of House 1. All are antler or bone except for 5115, 5263 and 5292, which are stone; 5160 which is lead; and 5207 which is iron 73 A whale bone chopping board 5324, see Figure 52 for a view of it in situ in the fill of pit 1591 74 The lead cross, 5160, from the floor of House 1 75 A selection of artefacts from the infilling of House 1 (BBD). All are antler or bone except for 3049, 3208, 3952, 3966 and 4750, which are stone; 4363 and 4467 which are glass and 4993, 4997, 5003, 5050, which are iron 76 Histograms showing the relative significance of the main species of mammals from the Early Norse (BB) deposits

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Illustrations

Chapter 3 77 Excavating the basal soil horizon of mound 2A, viewed from the southeast 78 Plan of the cultivation marks showing as brown streaks in the underlying yellow windblown sand (see Figure 22 for a key to the colours used) 79 The ardmarks at the centre of the excavated area where the cross-ploughing showed most clearly. Note also the slight change in orientation of the east to west furrows and a couple of circular features 80 The west-facing section between squares 9 and 10 showing the midden, the grey sand, the underlying ploughsoil and the ardmarks at the base of cultivation soil. The location of three soil micromorphology samples is shown. The section is located on Figure 83 81 The base of the archaeological sequence in the west extension (square 11). The ardmarks are clearly defined at the top of the slide but become very unclear towards the bottom, the west end of the trench 82 A variety of sections through the stratigraphic sequence in mound 2A. C-D. A complete north to south section through the mound 2A occupation deposits, along the eastern edge of squares 1, 4, 7 and 12, the northern 2m on the west side of square 2 has been reversed. E-F. A section through the deposits on the east side of square 2. G-H. A section through the early deposits on the west side of square 14, showing in particular the deposits associated with the hearth GAC and the cut of GEA (see Figure 83 for the location of these sections) 83 A plan of hearths (GAB/C) and other features associated with the cultivation soils (GAA) 84 A detailed plan and section of the north hearth (GAB) 85 A view of the hearth GAB from the north during excavation 86 Soil micromorphology: A. Context 1125, peat ash granule (PPL and OIL) B. Context 1125, Articulated diatoms and other silica material present within a peat ash granule (PPL) 87 A view of the section through the south hearth (GAC) from the east; note the faint traces of ardmarks at the base of the cultivation soil 88 Soil micromorphology A. Context 1794.7, Non-metallurgic slag (PPL) B. Context 1794.6, (a) Yellow peat ash groundmass; (b) rubified fine material (OIL) 89 A section through the deposits on the west side of the mound. The complete sequence is clearly visible; at the base is the dark cultivation soil (GAA), above this is this the light grey sand (GAD) and this is sealed by a thick accumulation of midden layers (GDC) 90 A plan of the principal features identified in the grey sand (GAD) 91 Histograms of the above 10 mm sampling densities. The left histogram shows the densities per litre of soil in the four sub divisions of the cultivation soil (GAA). The right histogram compares the densities from the cultivation soil (GAA) and the grey sand (GAD) 92 Histograms of the 2 to 10 mm sampling densities. The upper histogram shows the densities per litre of soil in the three main sub divisions of the cultivation soil (GAA). The lower histogram compares the densities from the cultivation soil (GAA), the southern hearth (GAC) and the grey sand (GAD) 93 A selection of feature sherds from the cultivation soil (GAA) and the grey sand (GAD)

94 Histograms showing the size distribution of the measured mammal bone and pottery from the cultivation soil (GAA) and the grey sand (GAD) 95 Ring headed bone pins, 6385, 4832, 4892; the latter two are from the cultivation horizon (GAA) 96 A copper alloy ring (6330) possibly from a ring headed pin. Note the decorative diagonal lines around the sides 97 A selection of objects from the cultivation soil (GAA). These are all antler or bone except for 6277 and 6833, which are glass, and 6286 and 6330, which are copper alloys 98 Two whetstones from the cultivation soil (GAA). The upper stone is purple phyllite (6485) and the lower stone eidsborg schist (6297) 99 A selection of tools from the cultivation soil (GAA); 6485, 6297, 3939 are stone; 3276, 3486, 4876, 5466, 6253, 6410, 6763, 7524, 7565 and 8034 are antler or bone; 5317, 5857, 6209, 6336 and 6754 are iron and 5431 is a composite iron and lead object 100 A pair of comb side-plates (5398) from the grey sand (GAD) 101 A selection of objects from the grey sand (GAD). These are all antler or bone except 6007 and 6204, which are stone, and 2960, which is iron 102 A histogram showing the relative significance of the main categories of carbonised plant from the Early Norse deposits on mound 2A 103 Scatter plots comparing the relationship between different plant species recovered from individual samples in the Early Norse deposits on mound 2A 104 A histogram showing the relative significance of the main species of mammals from the Early Norse deposits on mound 2A

Chapter 4 105 A view of House 2 during the final planning at the end of the excavation in 2004, from the east 106 A plan of House 2 showing the division of the house interior into ‘quads’ (see Figure 22 for a key to the colour conventions used in this chapter) 107 The features excavated below the floor of House 2 (BCA) showing their relationship to the walls of both House 1 and House 2. The pits are colour coded to distinguish the groups described in Table 41; green features are the centre line of pits, grey are the pits in the southwest corner, light blue are the pits in the northwest corner, purple are the pits in the centre south, pink are the pits defining the inner wall of House 1, flesh are the pits of the outer wall of House 1, yellow are the pits in the northeast corner 108 A view of post hole 554 in quad 4 prior to excavation 109 A view of pit 937 after excavation, demonstrating it was a perfect fit for the author of this report who is 5ft 10in 110 Sections through the features in block BCA 111 Sections through the features in block BCA 112 Elevations of the walls of House 2 113 A view of the north wall of House 2 from the southwest 114 A view of the paving stones leading from the entrance into the interior of House 2 115 A view of the section through the deposits behind the north wall of House 2 116 North to south sections through the west half of the House 2 floor deposits 117 North to south sections through the east half of the House 2 floor deposits

Illustrations 118 The west to east section along the centre of House 2 119 A plan of the ash layers at the centre of the house 120 A view of the south-facing section through the House 2 hearth at the north end of quad 10 121 A view of the west-facing section through the hearth of House 2 at the east side of quads 7 and 8 122 A plan of the features contemporary with the occupation of House 2 123 A view of pit 521 which cuts through the floor of House 2 and bottoms out at the floor of House 1 in the west section of quad 4 124 Sections through the features in BCC 125 The location of the soil micromorphology samples 126 Micrographs illustrating features seen in micromorphology samples: a) sample 9647, context 528.1, in PPL, showing shell fragments (sh), an egg shell fragment (e), and a pale yellow ash lens containing charred organic matter (black), melted phytoliths (p), and a non-metallurgical slag globule (sl); b) as a), but in XPL, showing aggregates of micrite (silt-sized calcium carbonate) derived from wood ash (m); c) sample 9647, context 528.10, in PPL, showing egg shell fragments (e) and shell fragment (sh); d) sample 9680, context 558, in PPL, showing an aggregate of peat ash, including, on the right-hand side, a globule of nonmetallurgical slag (sl); e) as d), but in OIL, showing the orange and red fine material of the peat ash; f) sample 9680, context 558, in PPL, showing a shell fragment (sh), bone fragment (b), and charred plant (ch); g) sample 9648, context 552, in PPL, showing fish vertebra; h) sample 9681, context 986.2, in partial XPL, showing a gravel lens (centre) 127 Histograms of the above 10 mm sampling densities from the three blocks associated with House 2, top, and from the four different contexts that make up the floor of House 2, bottom 128 A plot showing the distribution of the samples taken and the sample size within House 2 129 The distribution of materials from the above 10 mm residues from the floor and abandonment layers within House 2 130 The distribution of materials from the above 10 mm residues from the hearth layers within House 2 131 The distribution of materials from the above 10 mm residues from the fills of features within House 2 132 Histograms of the 2 to 10 mm sampling densities from the three blocks associated with House 2, top, and from the four different contexts that make up the floor of House 2, bottom 133 A plot showing the distribution of the 2 to 10 mm residues examined and the sample size within House 2 134 The distribution of materials from the 2 to 10 mm material from the floor and abandonment layers within House 2 135 The distribution of materials from the 2 to 10 mm material from the hearth layers 136 Pottery from House 2 blocks BCA and BCB 137 Pottery from the floor, BCC, of House 2 138 Pottery from the floor, BCC, of House 2 139 Simplified distribution plots of the pottery from the floor of House 2 140 A view of pottery spreads in quad 2, House 2 141 The distribution of the better preserved pots on the floor of House 2 142 Histograms showing the size distribution of the measured bone and pot from the House 2 deposits 143 Artefacts from the pre-floor features (BCA) and the construction layers (BCB). They are all antler/bone except

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3009, 3949, 4013 and 6310 which are iron; 2118 and 3947 which are lead and 6306 which is a composite iron and copper alloy object 144 The distribution of artefacts in the pre-floor features (BCA). Red indicates antler/bone, green iron, purple Copper alloy and black lead. 145 The gold strip, 8060, found in an environmental sample 146 A selection of antler waste, bone points and antler pick from the House 2 floors. 147 Antler waste on the House 2 floor in front of the south wall in quad 6 148 A selection of needles and spindle whorls, (beads and weights) from the House 2 floors. 3714, 4439, 6185, 6937, 3792 are lead; 6160, 6133 are copper alloy; 2222, 3751 are stone; 2682, 6139, 6978 are ceramic. All the rest are bone. 149 A selection of stone hones and a weight, and iron knives, arrowheads and a horse fitting from the House 2 floor (BCC) 150 The silver coins 6514 and 6542 151 A selection of miscellaneous items; decorated tines (2410, 6113, 3715, 3720, 2328, 5991), a decorated antler cylinder (3756), casket mounts (3100, 3620, 6362), gaming piece (6503), an amber fragment (6163), porphyry fragment (6009), glass beads (4492, 6538, 7365, 7418, 7453, 7466, 7733, 8116), gold band (8060), copper alloy buckle pin (6685) and lead amulet (7732) from the House 2 floor (BCC) 152 The antler cylinder, 3756, decorated in the Ringerike style 153 Copper alloy stick pins from the House 2 floor (BCC) 154 Bone pins from the House 2 floor (BCC) 155 Composite comb fragments from the House 2 floor (BCC) 156 Comb 6002 157 Lead and iron fittings from the House 2 floor (BCC) 158 Bone plaques from the House 2 floor (BCC) 159 The overall distribution of finds from the floor of House 2 (BCC) 160 The distribution of A Bone and antler waste B Different categories of antler waste C All flint with accurate coordinates 161 The distribution of A Textile tools B Needles C Spindle whorls 162 The distribution of A Antler, bone and stone tools B Worked antler C Whetstones, knives and arrowheads 163 A quern fragment, 6557, from quad 20 164 The distribution of A Pins and combs B Pins by material C Pins broken and complete 165 The distribution of A Combs largely complete B Comb fragments C Other items of personal adornment 166 The distribution of A All iron finds B Iron structural fittings, nails, roves and holdfast C Iron sheet fragments and cauldron handles 167 The distribution of A Miscellaneous fragments of Copper alloy

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Illustrations

B Miscellaneous fragments of lead C Miscellaneous fragments of whale bone D Miscellaneous fragments of steatite 168 A histogram showing the density and quantity of the main groups of carbonised plant from the hearth and floor deposits in House 2 169 The distribution of carbonised plant remains from the floor and hearth of House 2 170 The distribution of rumex and chenopodiaceae seeds from the floor of House 2 171 The relative significance of the main species of mammals from the House 2 blocks and floor contexts 172 The distribution of the main species of animal bones from the floor of House 2. 173 A histogram showing the occurrence of the main taphonomic indicators for the animal bones from the floor of House 2 174 The representation of herring and saithe skeletal elements 175 The density of fish bones from samples from the floor layer. 176 The distribution of fish bone across the floor deposits in House 2 177 A view of the wall of House 2 showing the quality of the masonry 178 The distribution of the principal materials recovered from the above 10 mm residues, calculated by density and by quantity 179 The distribution of the principal materials recovered from the 2 to 10 mm residues, calculated by density and by quantity 180 The distribution of the main finds categories across the house floor 181 A view of House 2 during excavation in 2004

195 An antler pick 2002 that was placed on the blown sand infill (BDH) and then had a fire lit on top of it. 196 A plan of the pits at the south end of House 3 (BDI) 197 The earlier features to the south and east of House 3 (BDJ) 198 Histograms of the above 10 mm sampling densities from the House 2 infill layers 199 A selection of feature sherds from the House 2 infill layers (BDA to BDE) 200 A selection of feature sherds from the House 2 infill layers (BDF to BDH and BDJ) 201 A selection of feature sherds from the House 2 infill layers (BDI) 202 Histograms showing the size distribution of the measured bone and pot from the infill deposits 203 A selection of significant objects from the House 2 infill layers (BDA, BDB, BDC, BDD and BDE). 2753, 2978, 3195 are lead; 2816, 3186, 3389, 4138 are iron; 3008 is a bone object with an iron pin; 2772, 3020 are stone; 3259 is copper alloy; all the rest are bone or antler 204 The whale bone stake/socket 5929 205 A selection of significant objects from BDF. 1435, 1849, 1859, 1979, 2235, 2236, 2417, 5975 are iron; 1905 2304, 2313 are stone; all the rest are bone or antler. 206 A selection of significant objects from BDG, BDH and BDJ. 1874 5530 are iron; 2013, 6060 are copper alloy; 3041, 4432 are lead; 6222 is stone; 4429 is glass; all the rest are bone or antler. 207 The relative significance of the main species of mammals from the deposits infilling House 2 in the Middle Norse period

Chapter 5

Chapter 6

182 A plan of the initial structural modifications to House 2, BDA (see Figure 22 for a key to the colour conventions used in this chapter) 183 A view of the structural modifications during excavation, from the north. The internal and external wall faces (574 and 940; BDA) and the sand core (578) of the north-south wall are clearly visible on the right. Beyond these walls is the southern wall, 900, of House 2. In the centre of the picture, facing the camera, is BDC revetment wall 939 and on the left-hand side is the back of BDD revetment wall 566. 184 Sections across the BDA wall (940, 578, 574) (see Figure 185 for location) 185 A plan of the structural modifications (BDC) within the BDA structure 186 A view of the structural modification (BDC) from the south 187 The rebuilt structure inside BDA (BDD) 188 Sections and elevations of the BDC structure (see Figure 185 for location) 189 The occupation layer associated with the rebuilt structure (BDE) 190 An in situ view of the whale bone socket (5929) in front of wall 900 191 Miscellaneous sections through the deposits infilling the west half of House 2 192 Sections through some of the features found in the deposits infilling House 2 193 The various rubble walls, and occupation deposits in the final infilling layers of House 2 194 A view of occupation layer 121 and revetment wall 122 from the south

208 A plan of the Middle Norse structural features on mound 2A; the U-shaped wall and kiln (see Figure 22 for a key to the colours used) 209 A view of the front face (961) of the U-shaped structure and the deposits accumulating against it 210 A detailed record of the south and north kilns A A profile across the north kiln B A profile across the south kiln C A profile across the south kiln D A longitudinal section through the deposits in the south kiln E A plan of the south kiln F A plan of the north kiln G The elevation of the north kiln wall 1781 H The elevation of the north kiln wall 1780 211 A view of the south kiln when it was almost completely excavated 212 A view of the north kiln during excavation 213 A section through the ash deposits at the front of the north kiln, in the southwest corner of square 2 214 A section through the ash deposits in the mouth of the south kiln, these are truncated on the right side by the cut for House 12 215 A plan of the features in the centre of the excavated area (GBF) 216 Sections through features belonging to blocks GBF and GBG 217 Three sections running east west through the mound 2A deposits. Section A is the south facing section running from northwest corner of square 4 to the northeast corner of

Illustrations square 6. Section B is a north facing section running from the southeast corner of square 6 to the southwest corner of square 4. Section C is a south facing section that runs from the northwest corner of square 12 to roughly midway along the north section of square 15. The upper deposits in the centre of section C and to a lesser extent section B were removed before the section lines were established 218 A view of the south-facing section of square 15 on the east side of mound 2A, see Figure 217 section C 219 Histograms of the above 10 mm sampling densities 220 Histograms of the 2 to 10 mm sampling densities 221 The distribution of the pottery assemblage 222 A selection of pottery and bone or antler artefacts from GB 223 Histograms showing the size distribution of the measured bone and pot from the peripheral middens 224 A histogram showing the density per litre of the main groups of carbonised plant remains. (Note the density of oats in block GBG is capped) 225 Scatter diagrams showing the relationship of the different carbonised plant densities in the samples analysed 226 The relative significance of the main species of mammals from the Middle Norse deposits on mound 2A

Chapter 7 227 A plan of Late Norse House 3 in relation to House 2 (see Figure 22 for a key to the colours used). Note the line of stones to the west of the inner revetment wall of House 3 which marks the outer wall face of the turf wall surrounding this house 228 The early wall and gullies that define a possible preliminary phase of House 3 229 A plan of House 3 showing the elevations of the principal walls and the location of the main sections through the house floor deposits 230 A view of House 3 at the beginning of 2003 from the north. The covered area in the centre of the house was excavated in 2000 231 The entrance to House 3 from the inside of the house (west), showing the sill stones that separated the passage from the interior 232 A section through the deposits behind the west wall of House 3 from the south. A construction cut is visible immediately to the right of the vertical scale. 233 The features sealed by the primary floor deposits in House 3 234 Sections through the features below the primary floor of House 3 235 A section through the features (1202/2006, 1232, 1097) beneath the floor at the centre of House 3 from the east 236 Details of the soil micromorphology sections from the features at the centre of House 3; a) context 1213.2, a peat ash lens with near-vertical bedding angle, likely disturbed by earthworm bioturbation (OIL and XPL); b) context 1217, a horizontal planar void, possible pit cut (PPL) 237 A plan of the primary floor deposits in House 3 238 The east west sections through the floors of House 3 showing the locations of the soil micromorphology samples. See Figure 230 for the location. 239 The north-facing section through the House 3 hearth deposits 240 Sections through the features within the House 3 floors (BEC) 241 A view of the west-facing section through the house floors

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at the north end of House 3. On the right the floor layers clearly slump into pit 1454 242 The north south sections through the floors of House 3. See Figure 230 for the location. 243 Outline plans of the principal layers of peat ash that make up the south hearth (BEC) 244 The sampling grid for House 3, the red lines define the major division of the house used in the analysis of the sorting data 245 Histograms of the above 10 mm sampling densities from the primary occupation (BEC). The quantity of winkle from the winkle layer is capped at 4, the density was 16.5 winkles per litre 246 The density distributions for the above 10 mm material from the primary occupation (BEC) 247 Histograms of the 2 to 10 mm sampling densities from the primary occupation (BEC) 248 The density distributions for the 2 to 10 mm materials from the primary occupation (BEC) 249 The distribution of artefacts on the primary floor (BEC) A Items of personal adornment B Tools and waste material C Structural fittings 250 The distribution of the principal animal bone species in the primary floor of House 3 (BEC) 251 The distribution of carbonised plant remains on the primary floor of House 3 (BEC) 252 Pits pre-dating the secondary floors of House 3 (BED) 253 Sections of the pits pre-dating secondary floors of House 3 (BED) 254 An almost vertical view of pit 1398 showing the carbon rich layer on its base 255 The initial floor and hearth deposits of the secondary occupation (BEE).The pale areas are places where the floor was removed with other floor layers 256 The later floor and hearth deposits of the secondary occupation (BEE) 257 Sections through features within the secondary floor (BED and BEE) 258 Histograms of the above 10 mm sampling densities for the secondary occupation (BEE) 259 Density distributions for the above 10 mm material in the secondary floor deposits (BEE) 260 Histograms of the 2 to 10 mm sampling densities for the secondary occupation (BEE) 261 Density distributions for the 2 to 10 mm materials in the secondary floor deposits (BEE) 262 Distribution of the artefacts in the secondary occupation (BEE) A Items of personal adornment B Tools and waste material C Structural fittings 263 The distribution of the principal animal bone species in the secondary floor of House 3 (BEE) 264 The distribution of carbonised plant remains in the secondary floor of House 3 (BEE) 265 The northern half of House 3 from the east showing the final floor deposits prior to excavation 266 Cattle hoof impressions on the surface of the House 3 abandonment layer in the southeast corner of the secondary structure (BFA) 267 Features and deposits associated with the final abandonment of House 3 (BEF)

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Illustrations

268 The post abandonment pit 1386 from the north, showing the section through the windblown sand infill and basal layer of charcoal rich sand 269 The density distributions of the above 10 mm residues in the abandonment layer (BEF) 270 Soil micromorphology A a) charred amorphous organic material; (b) charred seed (PPL) B Context 599.1, a thin lens of red organic material displaying horizontal orientation (PPL) C Context 1048.4, a large lens of charred peat (PPL) D Context 1048.3, a fish bone fragment (PPL) E Context 1449.4, a dense horizontal occupation deposit comprised of charred and ashed remains (PPL) F Context 1427, a layer of quartzite sand grains, likely sourced from off-site (XPL) G Context 1069.1, a group of eggshell fragments (a), embedded in thin lens of wood ash (b) (XPL) H Context 948.4, a concentration of burnt shell fragments (PPL) 271 A plan of the deposits in the entrance passage (BEG) and in front of the entrance (BEH) 272 A section through the deposits in the entrance passage (BEF) and in front of the entrance (BEG) and a photo of the sections inside the entrance passage 273 Details of soil micromorphology features identified in the entrance passage, in sample 7927, context 1374: A. Charred peat, showing the lack of cell structure indicative of advanced decomposition of the plant matter prior to charring (PPL); B. Charred seed (PPL); C. Aggregate of clay adhering to a gravel-sized rock fragment (PPL); as C, but in XPL 274 Histograms showing the above 10 mm densities from the blocks associated with House 3 (BE) 275 Histograms showing the 2 to 10 mm densities from the blocks associated with House 3 (BE) 276 Histograms of the pottery from the blocks associated with House 3 (BE) 277 A selection of feature sherds from the blocks associated with House 3 (BE) 278 Histograms showing the size distribution of the measured bone and pot from the blocks associated with House 3 (BE) 279 Artefacts from blocks BEA and BEC. 4969 is lead; 3481, 5480, 6026, 6141 are iron; all the rest are bone or antler. 280 Artefacts from blocks BEE, BEF and BEG. 5267 is lead; 4483, 4984, 5123, 5137, 5256, 5392, 5504 and 5858 are iron; 5360, 5932 are copper alloy; 3314, 3673, 6837 are glass; 5406, 5453, 5489, are stone; all the rest are bone or antler 281 Artefacts from deposits to the west of House 3 (BEI). 1109, 1386, 1676, 5945 are iron; 1451 is copper alloy; all the rest are bone or antler 282 The fish tailed comb (1308) from deposits to the west of House 3 (BEI) 283 Histograms showing the density of the main groups of carbonised plant remains in the blocks associated with House 3 284 Histograms showing the distribution of the four main species of animals in the blocks associated with House 3

Chapter 8 285 An overall plan showing the relationship of the sequence of Late Norse houses (GE and GF) identified on mound 2A

286 A view across the excavated area on mound 2A in 2004 from the south. In the foreground is House 13 287 A detailed plan of House 12 showing the pit (1698) in the fill and the location of the house cut (1745) to the north (see Figure 22 for a key to the colours used) 288 A plan of the deposits in the fill of House 12 and the possible internal wall 289 Various sections through deposits at the south end of mound 2A A The north facing section on the south sides of squares 13 and 14 B The north facing section on the south side of square 16 C A north south section through the hollow underlying the south wall of House 15 (see Figure 288 for the location) D A north south section through the deposits infilling House 12 (see Figure 288 for the location) 290 A view of the north south section through the deposits infilling House 12. The wall of the southern entrance to House 15 is visible at the top of the section and it is notable that the south wall of House 15 directly overlies the north wall of House 12 291 A view of the east west section through the deposits infilling House 12, the holes indicate the location of OSL samples that were taken but never processed 292 A detailed plan of House 13 showing the various brown sand layers that defined the turf wall 293 A view of the west wall of House 13 294 A view of the north wall of House 13 showing subsidence presumably into an underlying pit. A limited amount of tumble from the collapse of this wall has been removed 295 A plan of the secondary deposits in House 13. This included tumble from the north wall and a small slab defined box constructed against the east wall which appears to be a secondary construction 296 A view of the charcoal rich occupation deposits inside House 13; note the slab defined box in the southeast 297 A detailed plan of House 14 (light green walls) and ancillary structure 3 (dark green walls) 298 A view of House 14 and edge of ancillary structure 3, from the west 299 Histograms of the above 10 mm sampling densities from the mound 2A house fills (GE) 300 A selection of feature sherds from the mound 2A house fills (GE) 301 A selection of artefacts from the mound 2A house fills (GE); 4914, 4920, 4965, 5061, 5094, 5181, 5183, 5220, 5244 are iron; 4921, 4924, 4925, 4929, 4942, 5019, 6394 are copper alloy; 5011 is silver; 5021 is stone; all the rest are bone or antler 302 The terminal of pennanular brooch, 4924, from the fill of House 12 303 A plan of the structural features of ancillary structure 5 304 A plan of the floor deposits in ancillary structure 5 305 A plan of the structural features of ancillary structure 6 306 A plan of the floor deposits of ancillary structure 6 307 Cleaning the floor of ancillary structure 6; note the possible stone seat in the centre of the structure and the east-facing revetment walls that define the major structures 308 Pit 1656 during excavation from the west 309 Soil micromorphology A Context 1618.1, large horizontally orientated shell fragment (PPL) B Context 1618.1, speckled green clay granules (PPL)

Illustrations 310 A plan of the structural features of House 15 311 A view of the north end of House 15. The undulating nature of the surface is due to rabbit burrowing 312 A plan of the badly rabbit damaged hearth deposits in House 15 313 The secondary occupation of House 15 314 Histograms of the above 10 mm sampling densities from the ancillary structures (GC) 315 Histograms of the 2 to 10 mm sampling densities from the ancillary structures (GC) 316 A selection of feature sherds from the ancillary structures (GC) 317 Artefacts from the deposits in the ancillary structure 6. 3340 and 3740 are iron, 2438 is copper alloy; all the rest are bone or antler 318 Antler debris from comb production on the floor of ancillary structure 6 (GCD) 319 A selection of artefacts from the later deposits in the ancillary structures. 3057 is copper alloy; 1819 and 3516 are iron; all the rest are bone or antler 320 The distribution of comb making debris in the Late Norse deposits on mound 2A 321 A photograph and plan of a concentration of antler comb making debris that probably represents a bag of material left on the floor of ancillary structure 6 322 A cluster of holdfasts and an axe fragment found in the wall of House 15 323 Histograms showing the density of the main crop species in the carbonised plant remains 324 Scatter plots showing the relationship between the main crop species 325 Sections through the peripheral middens (GD) A The south side of square 15 B The east side of square 3 C The south side of area 11 326 The various features and deposits on the west side of the mound (GDA) 327 A view of the west extension trench from the west during excavation in 2004 328 Histograms of the above 10 mm sampling densities from the peripheral middens (GD) 329 A detailed stratigraphic analysis of the above 10 mm residues in area 15, on the top, and area 6, on the bottom 330 Histograms of the 2 to 10 mm sampling densities from the peripheral middens (GD) 331 A detailed stratigraphic analysis of the 2 to10 mm residues in area 15 332 A detailed stratigraphic analysis of the 2 to10 mm residues in area 6 333 A detailed stratigraphic analysis of the 2 to10 mm residues in area 11 334 A selection of feature sherds from GDA, GDB and GDC 335 A selection of feature sherds from GDC 336 A selection of artefacts from the peripheral middens (GD). 7127 is glass; 5894 is copper alloy; 5940 is stone; all the rest are bone or antler 337 A selection of artefacts from the peripheral middens (GDC). 2795, 3120, 3038, 4848, 4852, 4962 are iron; 2929 is a composite of copper alloy and wood; all the rest are antler or bone. 338 Antler comb making debris and artefacts from the peripheral middens (GDC). 3011 is stone; all the rest are antler or bone

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339 Histograms showing the density of the main crop species in the Late Norse deposits from mound 2A 340 Scatter plots showing the relationship between the main crop species in the Late Norse deposits from mound 2A 341 A plan of the structure at the east end of area 6 (GG) 342 A comparison of the average densities for the over 10 mm residues from the ancillary structures (GC), the middens (GD) and the house infill layers (GE) 343 A comparison of the average densities for 2 to 10 mm residues from the ancillary structures (GC) and the middens (GD 344 The variation in the four main species of animals present in the different Late Norse assemblages from mound 2A 345 Histograms showing the size distribution of the measured bone and pot from the ancillary structures (GC), the middens (GD) and the house infill (GE)

Chapter 9 346 A plan of three houses on mound 2 showing the location of Areas A, H, I and J on mound 2 347 The earliest structure (AB) in Area A (see Figure 22 for a key to the colours used) 348 A view of the early structure (AB) in Area A from the west 349 The later structure (AE) in Area A. 350 Histograms of the above 10 mm sampling densities from Area A 351 A selection of the feature sherds from Area A 352 Artefacts from Area A. 1022, 1029 and 2808 are iron; 1003 and 1265 are stone; all the rest are bone or antler 353 Histograms showing the percentage of the main animal species from Area A 354 The north facing section through the deposits in Area H, on the eastern edge of mound 2 355 A plan of the earliest structure (HA) exposed in Area H, on the eastern edge of mound 2 356 A view of the early structure (HA), on the eastern edge of mound 2 357 A view of the charcoal rich scoop 1457 358 The later occupation activity (HG) in Area H, on the eastern edge of mound 2 359 Histograms of the above 10 mm sampling densities from Area H, on the eastern edge of mound 2 360 Histograms of the 2 to 10 mm sampling densities from Area H, on the eastern edge of mound 2 361 The size range of a sample of bones and potsherds from blocks HF and HH 362 A selection of artefacts from area H. 7344 is glass; 6423 and 6701 are stone; 6055 is copper alloy, 6347, 8743, and 8744 are ceramics; 5402 and 5953 are iron; all the rest are bone or antler 363 Histograms showing the percentage of the main animal species in Area H, on the eastern edge of mound 2 364 A plan of the house identified in Area I, on the northwest corner of mound 2 365 A view of the yellow hollows that define the outer edge of the house wall in Area I. The inner edge lies underneath the turf

Chapter 10 366 The final structure in the south half of House 3 (BFA) 367 The structure (BFA) built at the south end of House 3, viewed from the east

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Illustrations

368 The north end of the structure (BFA) when it was exposed in 2000, viewed from the east. The core of the wall has been removed and the back of the internal wall face is exposed 369 A section through the deposits in the structure in the south half of House 3 (BFA) 370 The occupation deposits associated with the structure in the south half of House 3 (BFB; see Figure 22 for a key to the colours used) 371 The reoccupation of the structure in the south half of House 3 (BFC) 372 The evidence for activity in the north half of House 3 (BFE), comprising structure (1349), rubble layer (1326), shell layers (930, 1317 and 1347) and sand layers (1321 and 1324) 373 The shelter (1349) abutting the slumped west wall of House 3, viewed from the east 374 Histograms of the above 10 mm sampling densities from the final occupation of House 3 (BF) 375 The distribution of the above 10 mm sampling densities on the floor of the shelter (BFB) 376 The distribution of the 2 to 10 mm sampling densities on the floor of the shelter (BFB) 377 The pottery assemblage from the final occupation of House 3 (BF) 378 A selection of artefacts from the final occupation of House 3 (BF). 4802, 4865, 4886, 4893 and 4930 are iron; 4835 and 4868 are ceramic; all the rest are bone or antler 379 Details of the soil micromorphology sections from the floors of the ancillary structure in House 3. A Context 928, concentration of faecal spherulites located below occupation deposit (context 925) (XPL). B Context 925, thin peat ash occupation deposit (PPL) 380 House 15 on mound 2A when it was first exposed, viewed from the northeast. Note the corner structure in the foreground and the whale vertebra (2171) adjacent to it 381 House 15 on mound 2A showing the corner shelter (721) and the late hearth (742) 382 A view of the late Norse hearth showing the U-shaped arc of stones (778) and the orange hearth deposits (742) 383 A view of the corner structure (721) and the adjacent whale vertebra 2171 384 Ceramics from the final activity on mound 2A 385 A view of the south-facing section of the western extension (trench 11) showing the modern plough damage to the top of the midden 386 The nineteenth century enclosure wall at the western edge of mound 2, viewed from the north 387 A plan of the nineteenth century enclosure wall on the west side of mound 2 388 A selection of unstratified finds. 1445 and 1838 are copper alloy, 1126, 2705, 3593 and 6125 are iron; 1074 and 5512 are stone; 1706, 1785, 3588, 3591, 3592 and 5980 are lead; all the rest are bone or antler

Chapter 11 389 Overall structure of the chronological model for Mound 2. The component sections of this model are shown in detail in Figures 390 and 391 390 Probability distributions of radiocarbon dates from Late Iron Age activity on Bornais Mound 2: each distribution represents the relative probability that an event occurs at a particular time. For each of the radiocarbon dates two distributions have been plotted, one in outline, which is the result of simple calibration, and a solid one, which is based

on the chronological model used. Distributions other than those relating to particular samples correspond to aspects of the model. For example, the distribution start_Pictish is the estimated date when Late Iron Age activity began. Figures in brackets after the laboratory numbers are the individual indices of agreement which provide an indication of the consistency of the radiocarbon dates with the prior information included in the model (Bronk Ramsey 1995). The large square brackets down the left hand side along with the OxCal keywords define the model exactly 391 Probability distributions of radiocarbon dates from Norse activity on Bornais Mound 2: each distribution represents the relative probability that an event occurs at a particular time. The format is identical to Figure 390 392 Probability distributions of the number of years of Late Iron Age and Norse activity on Mound 2. The distributions are derived from the models shown in Figures 389–391 393 Probability distributions of the number of years interval between phases of use on Mound 2. The distributions are derived from the model shown in Figures 389–391 394 Probability distributions of the number of years over which House 1–3 where in use on Mound 2. The distributions are derived from the model shown in Figures 389–391 395 Probability distributions of radiocarbon dates from Norse activity on Bornais Mound 2A: each distribution represents the relative probability that an event occurs at a particular time. The format is identical to Figure 390 396 Probability distributions of the number of years over which activities at Mound 2A took place. The distributions are derived from the model shown in Figure 395 397 Probability distributions of dates from the Mound 2A kilns plotted on the radiocarbon calibration curve (c 750-1350 AD; Reimer et al 2013). 398 Probability distributions for beginnings and endings of activity at Bornais. The format is identical to that of Figure 390, although the tails on some distributions have been shortened. The distributions are derived from the model shown in Figures 389–391 (Marshall, Bronk Ramsey and Cook, 2012, fig 137 and Marshall 2012, fig 2) 399 Schematic diagram showing the periods of use of dated structures and activity at Bornais 400 Schematic diagram showing the periods of dated activity at Bornais and Cille Pheadair

Chapter 12 401 A simplified phase plan of the activity on mound 2 and mound 2A in the Early, Middle and Late Norse periods (see Figure 22 for a key to the colours used) 402 The chronological distribution of the pottery assemblage from mounds 2 and 2A; by weight and numbers (in thousands) 403 The distribution and variation in sherd size for the two mounds. The upper diagram assembles the sherd numbers and weights for all the different stratigraphic blocks on each mound. The lower histogram shows the number of blocks for each average sherd weight for the two mounds 404 The percentage of sooted sherds in the stratigraphic blocks from mound 2 (top) and mound 2A (bottom). The red line indicates the average for each mound 405 The percentage of platter in the stratigraphic blocks from mounds 2 and 2A 406 A histogram showing the number of finds from the main material categories on the site, flint is excluded

Illustrations 407 The distribution of the finds assemblage across the stratigraphic blocks of mound 2 (top) and mound 2A (bottom) 408 The distribution of the main functional categories of artefact across the stratigraphic blocks of mound 2 (top) and mound 2A (bottom) 409 Some individual finds distributions A The relationship of nails, roves and holdfasts by strati­ graphic blocks B The relationship of antler combs and bone and metal pins by stratigraphic blocks C The distribution of whetstones, bone points and iron knives by stratigraphic blocks D Antler waste by stratigraphic block 410 Graph showing the ubiquity of the main crop taxa on mound 2 (top) and mound 2A (bottom) by phase 411 Overall proportions of cultivars, chaff and wild taxa in the mound 2 (left) and mound 2A (right) deposits by phase 412 The relative frequencies of the major food animals according to NISP, MNE and MNI in the stratigraphic blocks from mound 2A and mound 2 413 Pie charts of the species composition of the bird bones from mound 2A and mound 2 414 Histograms showing the volume of soil (litres) sieved and sorted from mound 2A (left) and mound 2 (right) 415 Histograms showing the density per litre of soil of the major finds categories from the 2 to 10 mm residues in the stratigraphic blocks from mound 2 (top) and mound 2A (bottom) 416 Histograms showing the density per litre of soil of the major finds categories from the 2 to 10 mm residues in the stratigraphic blocks from mound 2 (top) and mound 2A (bottom)

Chapter 13 417 Settlement mounds identified by Norse pottery (after Parker Pearson 2012a, fig. 2.15), Cille sites (after Raven 2005, fig 24) and some of the island dun sites mentioned in the text. Large settlement mounds are numbered following Parker Pearson 2012a 418 The Uists showing the location of sites mentioned in the text 419 Schematic plans of the settlements at Finlaggan, Islay; Bornais, South Uist; Brough of Birsay, Orkney; Ardtornish, Morvern and Jarlshof, Shetland. The plan of Bornais shows the houses revealed by the geophysical survey (see Hamilton, Sharples and Young in Sharples 2005b) 420 A schematic plan of the church and building complex at Cille Donnain, South Uist (Fleming and Woolf 1992) 421 The geophysical survey of mound 1 and the suggested interpretive plan (see Hamilton, Sharples and Young in Sharples 2005b) 422 A scatter plot of the bow walled longhouses from Iceland (largely after Milek 2006), the Faroes and Norway in comparison to the two bow-walled houses from Bornais 423 Comparative plans of the Norse houses at A Bornais House 1 B Bornais House 2 C Cille Pheadair House D Snjáleifartóttir, Iceland E Niðri á Toft, Faroes F Granastaðir 9, Iceland G Oma, Norway

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H Aðalstræti, Iceland I Hofstaðir, Iceland 424 A west facing section through the ash deposits in the central aisle of House 2, between quads 7/8 and 9/10 425 The Norse houses at Bornais A House 1 BBB Figure 47 B House 2 BCA Figure 106 C House 3 BEE Figure 255 D House 5 DC see Sharples 2005, fig 36 E House 5 DA see Sharples 2005,fig 30 F House 6 CD see Sharples 2012, fig 92 G House 7 BDA Figure 182 H House 8 BDD Figure 187 I House 10 IA Figure 364 J House 9 BDJ Figure 197 K House 11 AE Figure 349 L House 12 GEA Figure 287 M House 13 GED Figure 292 N House 14 GEG Figure 297 O House 15 GCE Figure 310 426 A conjectural reconstruction of House 3 on mound 2. 427 The entrance passage to House 3 viewed from the inside of the house 428 A selection of Late Medieval halls, castles and duns from the west coast of Scotland A Ardtornish, Morvern B Aros, Mull C Dun Raouill, South Uist D Borve Castle, Benbecula E House 3, Bornais F Dun an Sticir, North Uist G Dun Cueir, Barra H Dun Ban, Loch Carabhat, North Uist I Kisimul Castle, Barra 429 The south wall of House 2 viewed from the east 430 A turf walled house on Eriskay photographed by Werner Kissling in the early twentieth century 431 The location of the end wall of House 2 and the side wall of House 3 viewed from the west. In the background the students have just finished backfilling and returfing mound 2A at the end of the 2003 excavation season 432 Comparative plans of the six ancillary structures A Ancillary structure 1 (FC) B Ancillary structure 2 (AB) C Ancillary structure 3 (GEI) D Ancillary structure 4 (GGA) E Ancillary structure 5 (GCA) F Ancillary structure 6 (GCC) 433 A view from the north of the ancillary structure and corndrying kiln on mound 3 434 Comparative plans of the shelters A The shelter in the lower fill of House 2 (BDC) B Shelters belonging to the final occupation in House 3 (BFA, BFE) C Various shelters exposed in the infill of House 2 (BDG) D A shelter inside the corn drying kiln on mound 3 (FE) E A shelter inside House 15 (GFA) F Shelters inside the final house at Cille Pheadair 435 The shelter on mound 2A 436 A view of House 2 mound 2 during excavation, looking from the west end 437 A view of House 5 mound 3 during excavation, looking from the north across the hearth

Tables

Chapter 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

The soil micromorphology descriptions of samples 10790 and 10794 The material identified in sorting the greater than 10 mm residue from BA (note that 1869 and 1875 are ambiguously stratified in BAD/BBA) The material identified in sorting the 2 to 10 mm residue from BA (note that 1869 is ambiguously stratified in BAD/ BBA) The pottery from the Late Iron Age deposits (BA) The artefacts from the Late Iron Age deposits (BA) The carbonised plant remains from the Late Iron Age deposits, BAB and BAC Animal bone from the Late Iron Age deposits (BA) Animal bone taphonomy Bird bone from the Late Iron Age deposits (BA) Fish from the Late Iron Age deposits (BA) A summary description of the features under the floor of House 1 (BBA) A summary description of the structural features below the floor of House 1 (BBB) The soil micromorphology descriptions of samples 101705, 10706, 10707 and 10789 The material identified in sorting the greater than 10 mm residue from the Early Norse deposits (BB) The material identified in sorting the 2 to 10 mm residue from the Early Norse deposits (BB) The pottery from the Early Norse deposits (BB) The artefacts from the Early Norse deposits (BB) The carbonised plant remains from the Early Norse deposits (BB) Animal bone from the Early Norse deposits (BB) Animal bone taphonomy Bird bone from the Early Norse deposits (BB) The fish bone taxa form the Early Norse deposits (BB) Fish bone elements from the Early Norse deposits (BB) The estimated size of the fish from the Early Norse deposits

(BB)

Chapter 3 25 A summary description of the soil micromorphology of the cultivation soils (GAA) 26 A summary description of the soil micromorphology of the hearth (GAC) 27 The material identified in sorting the greater than 10 mm residue from the Early Norse deposits (GA) 28 The material identified in sorting the 2 to 10 mm residue from the Early Norse deposits (GA) 29 The pottery from the Early Norse deposits (GA)

30 The artefacts from the cultivation soil GAA showing there distribution in the different areas or squares 31 The artefacts from the grey sand GAD showing there distribution in the different areas or squares 32 The carbonised plant remains from the cultivation soils (GAA) 33 The carbonised plant remains from the hearth (GAB) and the grey sand (GAD) 34 The animal bone from the cultivation soils (GAA) 35 The animal bone from the hearths (GAB and GAC) and the grey sand (GAD) 36 The taphonomy of the animal bone from the Early Norse deposits (GA) 37 The bird bone from the Early Norse deposits (GA) 38 The fish bone from the Early Norse deposits (GA) 39 Fish bone elements from the Early Norse deposits (GA) 40 The estimated size of the fish from the Early Norse deposits (GA)

Chapter 4 41 A summary description of the features in the foundation deposits (BCA) 42 A summary description of the features in the House 2 floor (BCC) 43 The soil micromorphology descriptions of samples 9645. 9646, 9647, 9648 44 The soil micromorphology descriptions of samples 9676, 9677, 9680, 9681, 9682, 9688, 9689 45 The material identified in sorting the greater than 10 mm residue from the foundation deposits (BCA) 46 The material identified in sorting the greater than 10 mm residue from the construction deposits (BCB) 47 The material identified in sorting the greater than 10 mm residue from the House 2 floor deposits (BCC) 48 The material identified in sorting the 2 to 10 mm residue from the foundation deposits (BCA) 49 The material identified in sorting the 2 to 10 mm residue from the construction deposits (BCB) 50 The material identified in sorting the 2 to 10 mm residue from the House 2 floor deposits (BCC) 51 The pottery from the Middle Norse deposits (BC) 52 The artefacts from the foundation deposits (BCA); the upper line is the fill number, the lower the cut number 53 The artefacts from the construction deposits (BCB) 54 The artefacts from the House 2 floor deposits (BCC); the quads on the north side 55 The artefacts from the House 2 floor deposits (BCC); the quads on the south side 56 The carbonised plant remains from the House 2 floor deposits (BCC)

Tables 57 The animal bone from the foundation deposits (BCA) and the construction deposits (BCB) 58 The animal bone from the House 2 floor deposits (BCC) 59 The taphonomy of the animal bone from the Middle Norse deposits (BC) 60 The completeness of small mammal long bones from House 2 deposits. 61 The bird bone from the foundation deposits (BCA), the construction deposits (BCB) and the House 2 floor deposits (BCC) 62 The fish bone taxa from the Middle Norse deposits (BC) 63 Fish bone elements from the Middle Norse deposits (BC) 64 The estimated size of the fish from the Middle Norse deposits (BC)

Chapter 5 65 A summary description of the features below House 3 (BDI) 66 The material identified in sorting the greater than 10 mm residue from the Middle Norse infill of House 2 (BD) 67 The material identified in sorting the 2 to 10 mm residue from the Middle Norse infill of House 2 (BD) 68 The pottery from the Middle Norse infill of House 2 (BD) 69 The artefacts from the Middle Norse infill of House 2 (BD) 70 The carbonised plant from the Middle Norse infill of House 2 (BD) 71 The animal bone from the Middle Norse infill of House 2 (BD) 72 The taphonomy of the animal bone from the Middle Norse infill of House 2 (BD) 73 The bird bone from the Middle Norse infill of House 2 (BD) 74 The fish bone taxa from the Middle Norse infill of House 2 (BD) 75 Fish bone elements from the Middle Norse infill of House 2 (BD) 76 The estimated size of the fish from the Middle Norse infill of House 2 (BD)

Chapter 6 77 A summary description of the features in the Middle Norse deposits associated with the use of the kilns (GBF) 78 The material identified in sorting the greater than 10 mm residue from the Middle Norse deposits (GB) on mound 2A 79 The material identified in sorting the 2 to 10 mm residue from the Middle Norse deposits (GB) on mound 2A 80 The pottery from the Middle Norse deposits (GB) on mound 2A 81 The artefacts from the Middle Norse deposits (GBA-GBF) on mound 2A 82 The artefacts from the Middle Norse deposits (GBG) on mound 2A 83 The carbonised plant from the Middle Norse deposits (GB) on mound 2A 84 The animal bone from the Middle Norse deposits (GB) on mound 2A 85 The bone taphonomy of the Middle Norse deposits (GB) on mound 2A 86 The bird bone from the Middle Norse deposits (GB) on mound 2A 87 The fish bone taxa from the Middle Norse deposits (GB) on mound 2A 88 Fish bone elements from the Middle Norse deposits (GB) on mound 2A

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89 The estimated size of the fish bone from the Middle Norse deposits (GB) on mound 2A

Chapter 7 90 A summary description of the features below the house floor (BEB) 91 The material identified in sorting the greater than 10 mm residue in the pre-floor features (BEB) 92 The material identified in sorting the 2 to 10 mm residue in the pre-floor features (BEB) 93 The soil micromorphology descriptions of samples 9481, 9482 from the pre floor features 94 A summary description of the features in the early occupation of House 3 (BEC) 95 The material identified in sorting the greater than 10 mm residue in the early occupation of House 3 (BEC) 96 The material identified in sorting the 2 to 10 mm residue of the early occupation of House 3 (BEC) 97 A summary description of the features in the House 3 reconstruction (BED) and the secondary occupation of House 3 (BEE) 98 The material identified in sorting the greater than 10 mm residue in the features of the House 3 reconstruction (BED) 99 The material identified in sorting the greater than 10 mm residue in the secondary occupation of House 3 (BEE) 100 The material identified in sorting the 2 to 10 mm residue from the secondary occupation of House 3 (BEE) 101 The material identified in sorting the greater than 10 mm residue in the House 3 abandonment deposits (BEF) 102 The material identified in sorting the 2 to 10 mm residue from the House 3 abandonment deposits (BEF) 103 The soil micromorphology descriptions of the floor samples from the north-facing section across the middle of House 3 (9431, 9432, 9430, 9437, 9436) 104 The soil micromorphology descriptions of the floor samples from the south end of House 3 (10771, 10772, 10773, 10774) 105 The soil micromorphology descriptions of the samples from the central hearth in House 3 (9433, 9434, 9435) 106 The material identified in sorting the greater than 10 mm residue from the entrance (BEG), outside the entrance (BEH) and deposits to the west of the house (BEI) 107 The material identified in sorting the 2 to 10 mm residue from the entrance (BEG) 108 The soil micromorphology descriptions of samples from the entrance passage (7927, 7928) 109 The material identified in sorting the above 10 mm residue from all House 3 blocks (BE) 110 The material identified in sorting the 2 to 10 mm residue from all House 3 blocks (BE) 111 The pottery from all House 3 blocks (BE) 112 The artefacts from House 3 construction (BEA), pre floor features (BEB) and early occupation (BEC) 113 The artefacts from the secondary occupation of House 3 (BEE) 114 The artefacts from the House 3 abandonment (BEF) and the entrance deposits (BEG) 115 The artefacts from deposits to the west of House 3 (BEI) 116 The carbonised plant from the pre floor features (BEB) 117 The carbonised plant from the early occupation (BEC) 118 The carbonised plant from the secondary occupation of House 3 (BEE)

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Tables

119 The animal bone from House 3 construction (BEA), pre floor features (BEB) and early occupation (BEC) 120 The animal bone from the reconstruction of House 3 (BED) and its secondary occupation (BEE) 121 The animal bone from the House 3 abandonment (BEF), the entrance (BEG), outside the entrance (BEH) and the deposits to the west (BEI) 122 The taphonomy of the animal bone from all House 3 blocks (BE) 123 The bird bone from all House 3 blocks (BE) 124 The fish bone taxa from all House 3 blocks (BE) 125 Fish bone elements from all House 3 blocks (BE) 126 The estimated size of the fish from all House 3 blocks (BE)

Chapter 8 127 The material identified in sorting the greater than 10 mm residue from the southern houses (GE) on mound 2A 128 The pottery from the southern houses (GE) on mound 2A 129 The artefacts from the southern houses (GE) on mound 2A 130 The carbonised plant from the southern houses (GE) on mound 2A 131 The animal bone from the southern houses (GE) on mound 2A 132 The taphonomy of the bones from the southern houses (GE) on mound 2A 133 The bird bones from the southern houses (GE) on mound 2A 134 A summary description of the features in the ancillary structures (GC) 135 The soil micromorphology descriptions of samples taken from the floors of the ancillary structures (GC) 136 The material identified in sorting the greater than 10 mm residue from the ancillary structures (GC) 137 The material identified in sorting the 2 to 10 mm residue from the ancillary structures (GC) 138 The pottery from the ancillary structures (GC) 139 The artefacts from the construction and use of the first two ancillary structures (GCA to GCD) 140 The artefacts from the construction and use of House 15 (GCE and GCF) 141 The carbonised plant remains from the ancillary structures (GC) 142 The animal bone from the ancillary structures (GC) 143 The taphonomy of the bones from the ancillary structures (GC) 144 The bird bones from the ancillary structures (GC) 145 The fish bone taxa from the ancillary structures (GC) 146 Fish bone elements from the ancillary structures (GC) 147 The size of the fish in the ancillary structures (GC) 148 A summary description of the features in the midden accumulation (GD) 149 The material identified in sorting the greater than 10 mm residue from the midden accumulation (GD) 150 The material identified in sorting the 2 to 10 mm residue from the midden accumulation (GD) 151 The pottery from the midden accumulation (GD) 152 The artefacts from the midden accumulation on the west and north sides (GDA and GDB) of mound 2A 153 The artefacts from the midden accumulation on the west side (GDC) of mound 2A 154 The carbonised plant from the midden accumulation (GD) 155 The animal bone from the midden accumulation (GD)

156 The taphonomy of the bones from the midden accumulation (GD) 157 The bird bone from the midden accumulation (GD) 158 The fish bone from the midden accumulation (GD) 159 Fish bone elements from the midden accumulation (GD) 160 The size of the fish from the midden accumulation (GD) 161 The material identified in sorting the greater than 10 mm residue from the structure in the east midden (GG) 162 The material identified in sorting the 2 to 10 mm residue from the structure in the east midden (GG) 163 Animal bone from the structure in the east midden (GG) 164 Fish bone from the structure in the east midden (GG) 165 Fish bone elements from the structure in the east midden (GG)

Chapter 9 166 The material identified in sorting the residue from area A 167 The pottery from area A 168 The artefacts from area A 169 The animal bone from area A 170 The bird bone from area A 171 The material identified in sorting the residue from area H 172 The material identified in sorting the from area H 173 The pottery from area H 174 The artefacts from area H 175 The carbonised plant from area H 176 The animal bone from area H 177 The bird bones from area H 178 The fish bones from area H 179 Fish bone elements from area H 180 The size of the fish from area H 181 The material identified in sorting the residue from area I 182 The artefacts from area I 183 The bird bones from area I

greater than 10 mm

greater than 10 mm 2 to 10 mm residue

greater than 10 mm

Chapter 10 184 The material identified in sorting the greater than 10 mm residue from the final occupation of mound 2 (BF) 185 The material identified in sorting the 2 to 10 mm residue from the final occupation of mound 2 (BF) 186 The pottery from the final occupation of mound 2 (BF) 187 The artefacts from the final occupation of mound 2 (BF) 188 The soil micromorphology descriptions of the samples from the floors of the ancillary structure 189 Animal bones from the final occupation of mound 2 (BF) 190 Taphonomy of the bones from the final occupation of mound 2 (BF) 191 The bird bone from the final occupation of mound 2 (BF) 192 The material identified in sorting the greater than 10 mm residue from the final occupation of mound 2A (GF) 193 The artefacts from the final occupation of mound 2A (GF) 194 The unstratified artefacts from all the mounds

Chapter 11 195 Mound 2 radiocarbon results 196 Mound 2A radiocarbon results 197 Percentage probabilities of the relative order of the

Tables beginnings and endings of activities at Bornais. The cells show the probability of the distribution in the left-hand column being earlier than the distribution in the top row. For example, the probability that industrial activity started on Mound 1 before the start of construction of house 1 on Mound 2 is 68.2% 198 Percentage probabilities of the relative order of the beginnings of use of Mound 2, House 2 at Bornais, Cille Phadeair House 500 and King Magnus Barelegs expedition in AD 1098. The cells show the probability of the distribution in the left-hand column being earlier than the distribution in the top row. For example, the probability that Mound 2, House 2 at Bornish was built before House 500 at Cille Phadaeir is 49.6%

Chapter 12 199 The ceramic assemblage from mound 2 200 The ceramic assemblage from mound 2A 201 A summary of the steatite assemblage from mound 2 and mound 2A 202 A summary of the flint assemblage from mound 2 and mound 2A 203 The artefact assemblage from mound 2 204 The artefact assemblage from mound 2A 205 A summary of the carbonized plant remains recovered from mound 2 206 A summary of the carbonized plant remains recovered from mound 2A 207 The ubiquity scores for the main crop taxa in mound 2 and mound 2A by phase 208 A summary of the charcoal assemblage from mounds 2 and 2A organized by phase 209 A summary of the animal bones (NISP) from mound 2 210 A summary of the animal bones (NISP) from mound 2A 211 A chronological summary of the animal bone assemblage from mound 2 and mound 2A

xxv

212 The small mammal bones from mound 2 and mound 2A 213 Common and Latin names for the birds mentioned in the text 214 A summary of the bird bones from mounds 2 and 2A 215 The abundance of domestic fowl calculated as a percentage of assemblage NISP for each phase (the unstratified bones from GFB are excluded) 216 The incidence of taphonomy on the fish bone from mound 2 and mound 2A 217 The fish taxa present in the 2 to 10 mm samples (NISP) from mound 2 218 The fish taxa present in the 2 to 10 mm samples (NISP) from mound 2A 219 The fish taxa present in the greater than 10 mm samples (NISP) from mounds 2 and 2A 220 The projected quantity of fish bone in the 2 to 10 mm samples (NISP) from mounds 2 and 2A 221 The materials recovered from the greater than 10 mm residues from mound 2 222 The materials recovered from the greater than 10 mm residues from mound 2A 223 The materials recovered from the 2 to 10 mm residues from mound 2 224 The materials recovered from the 2 to 10 mm residues from mound 2A

Chapter 13 225 The dimensions and characteristics of the houses, shelters and ancillary structures identified at Bornais 226 The structural dichotomies used by Einarsson in his analysis of the house at Granastaðir in Iceland. Level A relates to the internal world of the house, whereas Level B relates to the external world (Einarsson 1995)

List of Contributors

J Best  SHARE, Cardiff University, Colum Drive, Cardiff, CF10 3EU J Bond  Division of Archaeological, Geographical and Environmental Sciences, University of Bradford, Bradford, West Yorkshire, BD7 1DP C Bronk Ramsey  Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of Art, Dyson Perrins Building, South Parks Rd, Oxford, OX1 3QY D Challinor  High Ellermire Farm, Stokesley, North Yorkshire, TS9 7JN A Clarke  Rockville Lodge, By Kingston, North Berwick, East Lothian G Cook  SUERC Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory, SUERC, Rankine Avenue, Scottish Enterprise Technology Park, East Kilbride, G75 0QF O Davis  SHARE, Cardiff University, Colum Drive, Cardiff, CF10 3EU A Forster  DigVentures Ltd. The Workshop, Victoria Yard, 26 Newgate, Barnard Castle, DL12 8NG K Harding  SHARE, Cardiff University, Colum Drive, Cardiff, CF10 3EU C Ingrem  Summerlands, Harcombe, Uplyme, DT7 3RN A Lane  SHARE, Cardiff University, Colum Drive, Cardiff, CF10 3EU J Light  88 Peperharow Road, Godalming, Surrey, GU7 2PN

R Madgwick  SHARE, Cardiff University, Colum Drive, Cardiff, CF10 3EU P Marshall  Chronologies, 25 Onslow Road, Sheffield, S11 7AF K Milek  Department of Archaeology, Durham University, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE J Mulville  SHARE, Cardiff University, Colum Drive, Cardiff, CF10 3EU K Munro  c/o Milek, Department of Archaeology, Durham University, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE A Pannett  Pen-y-Parc Cottage, Malthouse Lane, Llantarnam, Cwmbran, NP44 3EE A Powell  SHARE, Cardiff University, Colum Drive, Cardiff, CF10 3EU N Sharples  SHARE, Cardiff University, Colum Drive, Cardiff, CF10 3EU R Smith  c/o Sharples, SHARE, Cardiff University, Colum Drive, Cardiff, CF10 3EU J Summers  c/o Bond, Division of Archaeological, Geographical and Environmental Sciences, University of Bradford, Bradford, West Yorkshire, BD7 1DP F Taylor  c/o Sharples, SHARE, Cardiff University, Colum Drive, Cardiff, CF10 3EU K Waddington  School of History and Archaeology, Bangor University, Bangor, Gwynedd, LL57 2DG

English–Gaelic glossary of place-names

The spelling of place-names differs on all editions of the Ordnance Survey maps of all scales. Furthermore, different versions of some names are used by the presentday community on South Uist. To add to these difficulties, there are occasional typographical errors on the 2007 edition of the 1:25,000 Explorer map (sheet no. 453); this map cannot therefore be considered definitive beyond all question. CANMORE records alternative place-names; it too contains a few errors. Only place-names mentioned in this volume are listed here. We have attempted to record both the Gaelic name

as shown on the O.S. map and all the variants used in the archaeological literature but even so this list is probably not exhaustive. Accented letters are marked in this glossary as they are shown on the 2007 1:25,000 O.S. map but the map’s use of these accents does appear to be a little inconsistent. Accents are rarely reproduced in the archaeological literature (this volume included) or on CANMORE. Some place-names are Old Norse in derivation (e.g. Bornish, Bornais, the fort on the headland) but all names today have a Gaelic form.

English or Anglicized name Gaelic name Allasdale (Barra) Allathasdal Alt Chrysal (Barra) Allt Chrisal Ardivachar, Ardnivachar Àird a’ Mhachair Ardvule Rubha Àird a’ Mhuile Askernish Aisgernis, Aisgeirnis Baleshare (North Uist) Baile Sear Barpa Langass (North Uist) Barpa Langais Barra Barraigh Ben Mor Beinn Mhòr Berie (Lewis) Beirgh Boisdale Baghasdal, Baghasdail Bornish Bornais Cladh Hallan roundhouses Taighean Cruinn Cladh Halainn1 Clettraval (North Uist) Cleitreabhal Drimore Driomor, Druim Mor Dun Vulan Dùn Vùlan, Dùn Mhulan Eochar Iochdar Flora Macdonald’s birth-place Airigh Mhuillin, Airigh-mhuillin Gerinish Geirinis Glendale Gleann Dail Great Bernera Beàrnaraigh Mòr Grimsay Griomasaigh Hecla Thacla Heiskeir (or Monach islands) Heisgeir Hornish Point Rubha Hornais, Thoirnis Kildonan Cill Donnain Kilpheder Cille Pheadair Kneep (Lewis) Cnip Loch Aynort Loch Aoineart, Loch Aineort, Loch Ainort Loch Bee Loch Bì Lochboisdale, Loch Boisdale Loch Baghasdail / Baghasdal

xxviii

English–Gaelic glossary of place-names

Loch Bornish Loch Bhornais Locheynort, Loch Eynort Loch Aoineart, Loch Aineort, Loch Ainort Loch na Berie (Lewis) Beirgh, Loch na Beirgh Lower Bornish Bornais Iochdarach Monach islands (or Heiskeir) Heisgeir Ormaclate, Ormaclete, Ormiclate Ormacleit Rosinish (Benbecula) Ròisinis South Glendale Gleann Dail bho Dheas South Uist Uibhist a Deas Stornoway (Lewis) Steornabhaigh Trossary Trosaraidh, Trosairaidh Unival (North Uist) Uineabhal, Leacach an Tigh Cloiche Upper Bornish Bornais Uachdhrach Upper Loch Bornish Loch Bhornais Uarach Ushenish, Usinish Uisinis 1 This site is marked on the 2007 Ordnance Survey map where it has been described as ‘Wheelhouses’ in English. This is incorrect: the LBA/EIA houses excavated and reinstated here are not wheelhouses. The Gaelic translation is correct, however, as it reads ‘round houses’.

1  Bornais and the Norse settlement of the North Atlantic

Introduction – N Sharples The settlement at Bornais consists of a complex of mounds that protrude from the relatively flat machair plain in the township of Bornais on the island of South Uist in the Western Isles of Scotland (Figure 1). The machair plain forms the west coast of the island and comprises a sand deposit made up of shell and siliceous minerals, which provides a calcareous environment that is markedly different from the peat covered moorlands to the east of the coastal plain (Angus 1997; 2001). Ritchie (1979; 1985; Ritchie et al. 2001) has argued that the sand has formed since the last Ice Age as a result of the submergence of the extensive shallow coastal plain that lies off the west coast of the Uists. The sand is comprised of relic glacial material and large quantities of comminuted shell from the ancient storm-washed shoreline. It is assumed that there was a fairly rapid rise in sea level up until about 5000–7000 years ago, when sea level was probably only about a couple of metres below the current position (Ritchie 1979, Ritchie et al. 2001). There was then a massive influx of sand onto the land around 4050–3890 cal BC that created a coastal plain somewhat similar to that of today (Sharples 2009). This influx probably preceded the final rise in sea level that divided the islands of South Uist, Benbecula and North Uist. These geomorphological developments created a west­ ward extension to the solid geology of the island that proved an attractive settlement location from the Beaker period onwards and the machair appears to have been continuously and intensively occupied from the Late Bronze Age to the end of the Norse period (Sharples et al. 2004). In recent years, although the machair has not been occupied, it has proved a valuable and extensively exploited agricultural landscape; its attraction is that it provides a relatively well-drained area of flat land that is one of the few parts of the island where cereals can be cultivated. The relatively large area of machair present on the Uists has meant that these islands have been described as one of the most agriculturally productive regions of the west coast of Scotland (Dodgshon 1998, table 3.1). The reasons behind the excavations at Bornais have been described in detail in the first volume of the Bornais report (Sharples 2005b) and it is not intended to re-tell

the general history here. Some introduction is necessary, however, as the mounds described in this volume are different in significant ways to mound 3, described in volume 1 (Sharples 2005b) and mound 1, described in volume 2 (Sharples 2012).

The history of the excavations – N Sharples During the 1994 field season, the excavation of the broch at Dun Vulan (Parker Pearson and Sharples 1999) largely drew to a close and the SEARCH team were looking to develop further their understanding of the settlement sequence on the island of South Uist by broadening their research to encompass the early medieval, medieval and post-medieval settlement patterns up to the ‘Clearances’ of the early nineteenth century. A group of prominent mounds at the centre of the Bornais machair was targeted for investigation, as the discovery of distinctive platter wares dating to the Norse period (Lane 1990; Parker Pearson 2012a) suggested these mounds had been occupied sometime in the ninth to twelfth centuries AD.1 The mounds were only 1.6 km from Dun Vulan and the evidence recovered from Bornais could potentially provide a direct comparison to the evidence from this broch (Parker Pearson and Sharples 1999). The dateable pottery was originally recovered from the surface of mound 2, the most prominent mound at the centre of what then appeared to be a complex of three mounds (Parker Pearson and Webster 1994). This mound was targeted for excavation and a trench 20 m by 2 m was excavated across its highest point on an orientation of northwest to southeast (Figure 2). This orientation was deliberately chosen as it was expected that any Norse houses present would be oriented east–west and the trench would therefore cut diagonally across the houses and make them easier to identify. The excavations were directed in the field by Jane Webster and Mike Parker Pearson and Niall Sharples made a short visit. The aims of the excavation were outlined in the sub­ sequent interim report (Parker Pearson and Webster 1994, 3) and were identified as: •

to identify the latest structural phase from the Norse period;

2

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Figure 1. A plan of the mounds at Bornais showing the areas excavated and the location of the site on the Western Isles

to locate buildings within the mound; to establish the depth of the stratigraphic sequence and, as far as possible, to examine its formation; • to recover artefact assemblages that would allow us to characterise and date the sequence of occupation; • to find out if the apparent discontinuity of occupation noted at the Udal for the beginning of the Viking period was also identifiable here; • to recover bone and carbonised crop assemblages to enable comparisons with the earlier assemblages from Middle Iron Age Dun Vulan and from the Late Bronze settlement at Cladh Hallan (Parker Pearson et al. 2004a) • •

The excavations proved remarkably successful. After the removal of a nineteenth-century ‘field wall’, a sequence of Norse deposits was revealed that included thick midden layers and structural evidence for several buildings, including the corner of a large, well-built stone-walled house, later numbered as House 2 (Figure 3). Amongst the material recovered from this house was a number of significant finds: a complete comb and pin suggested a date in the tenth to eleventh century AD. An earlier structure was also identified, which it was suggested could be a figure-of-eight structure, possibly of Late Iron Age (Pictish) date. The 1994 excavations demonstrated that Bornais was an

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Bornais and the Norse settlement of the North Atlantic 3

4

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Figure 3. A view of the long exploratory trench across mound 2 in 1994 from the northwest; the walls of House 2 are clearly visible in the foreground

Figure 4. A view of the mound 2 excavations in 1996 from the west

important site that could answer many of the aims set out in the research design, i.e. to fill in the settlement sequence for the area and to provide comparable data to that acquired from Dun Vulan. Niall Sharples was per­suaded to direct the project and started work on the site in 1995, though supervision of the latter part of that season’s excavation was completed by Jane Webster (Sharples et al. 1995). In 1995 and 1996 the work on mound 2 was limited (Figure 2), as the main aim of those seasons was to char­

acterise the archaeological activity on mound 3 (Sharples 2005b) and mound 1 (Sharples 2012). In 1995 a trench approximately 4 m by 4 m was excavated at the east end of the original 1994 trench where the putative Pictish building had been identified. The evidence from 1995 indicated that this was in fact a rectangular building of Norse date. Work continued in this area in 1996 when a trench 5 m by 5.5 m was excavated (Figure 4). Another trench 2.8 m square, was opened in order to try to define the extent of

Bornais and the Norse settlement of the North Atlantic

Figure 5. A view of the excavation of House 2 mound 2 in 1997 from the east

5

the large eleventh-century house discovered in 1994. These excavations were supervised by Jerry Bond. Neither of these small trenches was particularly suc­ cessful in achieving their objectives and it was realised that small-scale trenching was not helping to clarify the complex structural remains present. The inadequacy of the trenching strategy was emphasised by the completion of a geophysical survey of the mounds, which revealed a wealth of additional data. It was now clear that the settle­ ment was much larger than had initially been thought, with two additional settlement foci, known as mounds 2A and 2B, as well as isolated structures scattered around the edge of the mounds (Hamilton et al. in Sharples 2005b). As a consequence of these discoveries, it was decided to increase the student labour force recruited from Cardiff University for the 1997 season, and this enabled us to increase the area excavated. In 1997 the main focus of the work continued to be mounds 1 and 3, where com­ plete buildings were exposed (Sharples 2005b; 2012). Nevertheless, a larger trench, 7.8 m by 5 m, was opened up over the west end of the original trench on mound 2, directed by Jerry Bond. This clarified the nature and extent of the large house, and emphasised the quality of the internal revetment wall and the likely status of the structure (Figures 2 and 5; Sharples 1997). It is striking that the area excavated in 1997 coincided precisely with the only part of House 2 that had not been ruthlessly robbed by later activity. The wall of the east half of the house seldom survived to more than one course in height and much of it had been completely removed! No excavation took place at Bornais in 1998 due to a

Figure 6. A view of the excavation of House 2 in 1999 from the northwest

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

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lack of financial support from Historic Scotland. Work recommenced in 1999, when the excavations ambitiously encompassed work on mounds 1, 2, 2A and 3 (Sharples 1999). The excavation season was expanded to eight weeks and an increased number of Cardiff University students were recruited. On mound 2 in 1999, a trench 14 m by 7 m was excav­ ated (Figure 2), with the continued principal objective of defining the extent of the large eleventh-century house (Figure 6), and excavating floor levels that would confirm its date. On mound 2A, a new trench approximately 9 m by 7 m was excavated (Figure 7); this was in response to continued ploughing of the mound, which appeared to be

damaging a structure indicated by the geophysical survey and eroding midden deposits. Supervision of the work on mound 2 was undertaken by Suzi Reeve and Katinka Stentoft, and that on mound 2A was undertaken by Joe Danks and Rachel Jackson. The excavation of mound 2 suggested we were dealing with a large bow-sided hall, at least 18 m long, and the material recovered from limited excavation of the floor confirmed that this contained a substantial and very signi­ ficant assemblage of material culture. The excavations on mound 2A revealed a house (Figure 8) comparable to the Late Norse houses on mound 3 and at Cille Pheadair (Brennand et al. 1998). This house had been very badly

Bornais and the Norse settlement of the North Atlantic

7

Figure 8. The initial cleaning of House 15 on mound 2A in 1999 from the north

Figure 9. A view from the west of House 2 during the excavation in 2000

damaged by recent ploughing and rabbit-burrowing, but it was clear that it sat on top of a settlement mound similar to the more prominent mounds 1 and 3. In 2000 the excavations were restricted to mounds 2 and 2A, as the excavation of mounds 1 and 3 had reached a satisfactory conclusion (Sharples 2000). The goal for the excavation of mound 2 was to examine the large eleventhcentury house (Figure 9), and an area 25 m by 7 m was

opened up (Figure 2). The complete excavation of this house would meet the principal objectives of the overall project, to identify and explore the use of domestic space throughout the occupation of the island of South Uist. The excavation of mound 2A was considerably expanded, to an area roughly 12 m by 9 m, which was designed to explore the deposits underlying the Late Norse house discovered in 1999, and to clarify the chronological span

8

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Figure 10. A view across the excavated area of mound 2A from the southwest in 2000

of these settlement mounds (Figures 7 and 10). Two trench extensions were excavated to the east (9 m by 2 m) and to the north (9.5 m by 2 m), to define the extent of the settlement on mound 2A and to explore the middens deposited around the edge. The excavations on mound 2 were supervised by Mark Brennand and Suzi Reeve and mound 2A was supervised by Katinka Stentoft. The 2000 season was very productive and, by the end of the excavation, it was possible to create a narrative for the development of the settlement at Bornais (Sharples 2000). It was clear that activity on mound 2 began in the Late Iron Age: a distinct shift in the location of settlement at Bornais occurred in the middle of the first millennium AD, with occupation moving from mound 1 to mound 2. The excavations in 2000 finally defined the full extent of the large eleventh-century house on mound 2, but also revealed that it was the second in a sequence of three large houses built at the centre of this mound, which will henceforth be referred to as Houses 1, 2 and 3. These houses were significantly larger and better built than the houses identified on the other mounds and suggested that mound 2 was a high-status focus for a settlement that had expanded considerably in the eleventh century AD (this interpretation proved to be wrong), when the subsidiary mounds were created. In the last fortnight of the excavation, the opportunity was taken to excavate two small trenches to the south and north of the east end of the main trench, in order to define the exact size of House 3, the last of the three houses constructed on mound 2. The excavation in 2000 of mound 2A began to identify better preserved structures and revealed a sequence of deposits, roughly 1 m deep, which included a thick cultivation soil beneath a sequence of occupation soils and midden layers. The structures on mound 2A appeared to

be associated with craft activity, including metalworking (wrong again) and composite comb-making. We originally intended to return and excavate in 2001, but unfortunately the outbreak of foot and mouth disease meant that permission for the excavations was not forthcoming and work in 2001 was thus focused on postexcavation processing of the large number of environ­ mental samples stored in Cardiff. The importance of this work was obvious and a second post-excavation season was organised for 2002; excavations only recommenced in 2003. This excavation schedule fortuitously corresponded with the agricultural cycle on the machair. In 2001 and 2002 the area around the settlement mounds was cultivated and this would have made access difficult. In 2003 and 2004 the area was fallow and the inconvenience of cattlegrazing could be remedied by the use of an electric fence. The 2003 work on mound 2 was designed to excavate the final house (House 3; Figure 11), which covered the east end of House 2, and to explore the west end of the first house (House 1; Figure 12), which extended beyond the end of House 2 (Sharples 2003a). Consequently two separate trenches were opened at either end of the area excavated in 2000 (Figure 2). The western trench, 12 m by 7.6 m, was designed to examine House 1 and to confirm the presence or absence of pre-Viking deposits cut by House 1. The eastern trench, 14.5 m by 7.5 m, was designed to complete the excavation of House 3, and a small extension to the east was designed to examine the entrance. The trench on mound 2A was extended in 2003 to the south, to try to define the extent of the mound in this area (Figures 7 and 13). This was done by excavating a series of three small trenches that demonstrated the existence of important structural remains some distance to the south of the previously excavated area. The trenches on mound 2

Bornais and the Norse settlement of the North Atlantic

9

Figure 11. The initial cleaning of House 3 on mound 2 in 2003 from the south

were supervised by Katherine Stronach, Suzi Reeve and Oliver Davis and on mound 2A by Katinka Stentoft with the help of Kate Waddington. The excavations were very successful. On mound 2, House 3 was almost completely excavated and the floor of House 2 was exposed ready for excavation in the following season. The excavation of the west end of House 1 recovered an important assemblage of pottery and steatite that was different to that in the later House 2 floors. Distinctive ceramics, combs and pins were recovered here and an earlier occupation, dating to the seventh to eighth century, was thus identified. The excavation of mound 2A began to make sense of the spatial arrangement of the settlement on that mound. It was apparent that the main structural focus of the mound lay to the south of the area that was being examined and that a sequence of at least three north– south oriented houses were present in this area. The poorly preserved and difficult to interpret structures that survived in the main excavated area were badly-built ancillary buildings. The 2004 season was designed to be the final season of excavation at Bornais. On mound 2, a large L-shaped trench, up to 30 m by 12.5 m, was opened up over Houses 2 and 3 (Figure 2). The principal goal was to complete the excavation of the floor of House 2 (Figure 14); any further information on the nature of House 1 would be a bonus. The trench outside the entrance to House 3 was extended by 2 m and its excavation exposed a deep stratigraphic sequence on the edge of the settlement mound. On mound 2A excavation was extended to the south, creating a main area roughly 15.75 m by 11.25 m (Figure 7). The principal goal was to excavate as much as possible of the basal deposits in the northern half of the mound.

It was realised that the basal cultivation soil (Figure 15) was rich in artefacts and animal bone that would provide important data to interpret the economy of the settlement in its earliest phase of occupation. The southern extension was designed to expose, but not excavate, a sequence of houses in this area. An 8 m by 2 m extension to the trench was also excavated to define the western extent of the settlement mound. Work on mound 2 was supervised by Suzi Reeve and Oliver Davis and on mound 2A by Kate Waddington. The 2004 excavations proved to be successful and it was possible to claim that we had taken the excavations to a satisfactory conclusion. On mound 2, a series of three substantial and prestigious houses had been identified. Houses 2 and 3 were completely excavated and House 1 was defined and partially explored. The presence of Late Iron Age settlement preceding the Norse occupation had been confirmed and a large assemblage of material culture had been recovered. On mound 2A, a sequence of deposits spanning the Norse occupation had been excavated, the domestic focus of the mound had been identified and a series of ancillary buildings, including a comb-makers’ workshop, had been excavated. Substantial assemblages of artefacts and ecofacts were recovered that provide important information on the economy of the Norse settlement and this included an important assemblage of Early Norse material.

The Norse settlement of Atlantic Scotland – N Sharples The Norse settlement of the North Atlantic is a topic of considerable interest to a wide range of scholars with

10

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides Figure 12. A view from the east of the excavation of the west end of House 1 on mound 2 in 2003

Figure 13. A view looking south across mound 2A during the excavations in 2003

Figure 14. A view from the east looking across House 2 on mound 2 in 2004

Bornais and the Norse settlement of the North Atlantic

11

Figure 15. A view of the excavation of the basal cultivation marks on mound 2A

interests in history, linguistics, literature, place-names and archaeology. Scholarly interest in this topic ranges across a number of countries and though research is dominated by scholars from the Scandinavian countries and from the separate nations of Britain and Ireland, important work is also carried out by scholars in Germany, France, Canada and the United States of America, amongst others. The international nature of the research was recognised by the creation of the Viking Congress in 1950. This meets every four years in Britain and Scandinavia and involves an intellectually diverse range of scholars from a number of countries (Smith 2016). The literature on the settlement of the North Atlantic is consequently vast and varied, and there are numerous strands and aspects of research that could be explored and debated, but not in this introduction. Instead I will limit myself to a short summary of the history of ‘Viking’ settlement exploration in Scotland, which identifies some of the problems with the archaeological record and discusses some of the key settlements in Atlantic Scotland.

History In the early twentieth century three sites were excavated

that transformed our understanding of the archaeological record (Figure 16): Freswick, Caithness (Curle 1939), Birsay, Orkney (Curle 1982) and Jarlshof, Shetland (Hamilton 1956). These sites are still of considerable significance today and reinterpretation of the remains at Freswick and Birsay (Morris 1989; 1996) was undertaken in the 1970s and 1980s. However, Jarlshof, perhaps the most important of these sites, has not been systematically reconsidered, though it is acknowledged that this needs to happen (Graham-Campbell and Batey 1998, 156). Excavations on Scandinavian settlements were limited in the period between the Second World War and the 1980s, comprising a couple of sites in the Western Isles, at Drimore (MacLaren 1974) and the Udal (Crawford 1975, 1981, 1986, 1988; Selkirk 1996); the settlements at Skaill, Deerness (Buteux 1997) and Buckquoy (Ritchie 1977) in Orkney; and the farm at Underhoull, Unst, Shetland (Small 1966).2 The most important of these excavations was at the Udal, where a large area with numerous structures and a wealth of artefactual and environmental material was examined. Unfortunately the Udal excavations have never been fully published (Ballin Smith 2018). At the end of the 1970s a new phase of interest in the

12

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Figure 16. A map of Scotland showing the location of the principal Scandinavian settlements mentioned in the text

Scandinavian archaeology of the Northern Isles began. This was pioneered by John Hunter and Chris Morris who were originally based at the University of Durham. The work began with their joint excavations on the Brough of Birsay (Morris 1989) and continued with a range of projects that included major excavations by Morris at Freswick, Caithness (Morris et al. 1995), Orphir, Orkney (Batey and Morris 1992) and Beachview, Birsay, Orkney

(Morris 1996) and by Hunter at Birsay (Hunter 1986) and Pool, Sanday, Orkney (Hunter 2007). Offshoots of this programme were ‘tapestry’ excavations at Tuquoy, Westray (Owen 1993) and St Boniface, Papa Westray (Lowe 1998). A separate but contemporary project was the excavation of a Late Norse settlement at Sandwick, Unst, Shetland (Bigelow 1985). In recent years the work on Orcadian settlements has

Bornais and the Norse settlement of the North Atlantic continued with the important excavations at Snusgar on the Bay of Skaill (Griffiths 2015; Griffiths and Harrison 2011) and Quoygrew in Westray (Barrett 2012). In Shet­ land a project on the island of Unst resulted in the excav­ ation of three houses, which were part of a large group of houses that survived as field monuments (Bond 2013; Larsen 2013). In the Western Isles the excavations at Bornais, reported here, and at the smaller settlement at Cille Pheadair (Parker Pearson et al. 2004b; 2018) transformed our under­standing of the western fringe of Atlantic Scotland. Small-scale rescue excavations have also occurred at Barvas, Lewis (Cowie and MacLeod 2015) and Bostadh, Lewis (Neighbour and Burgess 1997), which are directly relevant to the current report. Unfortunately there have been no excavations of Norse settlements on the Inner Hebrides, or the adjacent areas of mainland Scotland (Graham-Campbell and Batey 2017; Raven 2017), though these areas have important evidence for Viking settlement preserved in their place-names (MacNiven 2015).

Problems This long list of excavations appears to provide a compre­ hensive record of the archaeology, but closer examination reveals a very patchy understanding of the Norse settlement record in Atlantic Scotland. For example, a number of houses have been explored but various systemic problems have restricted our understanding of the occupation of these structures. The problems include: • • • •

poor preservation; complex building histories; incomplete excavation; inadequate publication.

The poor preservation of material is often due to the location of such houses on the acidic moorland soils that are so common in Atlantic Scotland. Many phases of activity and rebuilding are often represented by conflated stratigraphy that does not fully document the complex histories that occurred. This is a particular problem with the sites excavated in the Viking Unst project: even at a relatively straightforward site such as Hamar (Bond 2013), numerous phases of activity were present but only partially survived later activity and erosion. A complex site such as Belmont (Larsen 2013) is very difficult to interpret and it is impossible to fully understand the nature of the occupation at any one period of time. Similar problems are present in Orkney: at the western settlement on the Brough of Birsay, the stratigraphy is very shallow (Morris 1996). The lack of stratigraphy would not be a major problem if it were not for the nature of the settlement record: Norse settlements are characteristically long-lived. In Orkney it seems likely that most of the settlements established at the beginning of the Norse period continued to be occupied up to the recent past. Quoygrew (Barrett 2012) and Skaill (Buteux 1997) are examples of such Orcadian settlements

13

that arguably have complete sequences that ended only in the recent past. This is also the case at Jarlshof, Shetland (Hamilton 1956), though here the settlement sequence extends back to early prehistory. The sequences are made complex by the relatively short lifespan of the built structures. It seems to have been culturally important for houses to be systematically rebuilt every couple of generations. The nature of the rebuilding varies dramatically. Sometimes the earlier structure was demolished and rebuilt, with only an apparently ‘casual’ incorporation of older structural features in the new build (e.g. Birsay Building C; Morris 1996). In other instances, the building survives largely intact with additions and extensions added (e.g. Quoygrew; Barrett 2012). These rebuildings can result in a displacement of the settlement, and many excavations have only been successful in exploring sequences because the current farm lies to one side of the original settlement mound (e.g. Pool; Hunter 2007). The complex sequences of activity cause major prob­ lems to the archaeological investigation of these sites because unless there is a serious threat of destruction, archaeologists seldom feel justified in removing upstanding, well-preserved, stone-built house walls. Good examples of the problems caused by the preservation of structural features are Birsay Area II (Morris 1996) and Jarlshof (Hamilton 1956), where the confused agglomer­ ations of buildings makes it almost impossible to get a clear understanding of any phase of the settlement. Later structures cover and obscure the remains of the original settlement and make it impossible to appreciate fully the earliest phases of building. Finally a recurrent feature of the archaeological work on the Norse settlement of the Scottish islands is the poor record of publication. A detailed report on the work undertaken on the central area of the Brough of Birsay, Orkney in the 1930s was only published by Morris in 1996 and we still await reports on the work undertaken in the western settlement (Area III). The extensive and longlasting excavations at the Udal on North Uist have never been published and only a very partial understanding of the remains is accessible in the interim reports (Crawford 1975; 1981; 1986; Selkirk 1996). Complete excavation reports of substantial settlements with significant chronological sequences are restricted to Jarlshof (Hamilton 1956), Pool (Hunter 2007) and Quoygrew (Barrett 2012).3

Viking houses in Scotland As a result of these problems our understanding of the archaeology of Scandinavian settlement in Scotland is more limited than might first appear. Complete plans of houses dating to the ninth or tenth centuries are very rare and problematic. The most famous early house is that identified at Jarlshof (Figure 17 C), and this is frequently used to illustrate the nature of Norse settlement in the colonisation phase (i.e.

14

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Graham-Campbell 1980). However, this structure was substantially rebuilt in later periods and our understanding of the earliest occupation at Jarlshof is very problematic. Hamilton (1956) argues that the principal house was a rectangular structure approximately 21 m long by 6 m wide, oriented east–southeast and west–northwest. It had a pair of opposed entrances in the western half of the house and a subsidiary entrance in the east gable. The main entrances divide the interior into two; a living area, occupying approximately two-thirds of the house at the east end, and a kitchen in the remaining area at the west end. The living area was divided into three aisles indicated by two lines of post holes and the presence of small upright stones suggests the side areas had benches. No hearth was identified in the living room but a spread of red ash ran down the central aisle. The kitchen was slightly raised and had a fireplace and an oven, which was located in the centre of the room but ran up to and abutted the back wall. This house underwent considerable modification in later phases when a byre was created in the east end, but it is important to note that there was no evidence for cattlestalling in the original house. It was also not classically bow-walled: the south wall is very definitely straight. The evidence from Pool is very important and two major phases of relevant activity have been recognised. Neither phase is particularly well preserved from an Orcadian standpoint. The first phase (phase 7) spans the transition from a Pictish to Viking settlement. Hunter (2007, 138– 45) suggests that this was a period of cultural assimilation when a resident local population was transformed by contact with Scandinavia. Phase 7 is split in two, with the earlier part (7.1) comprising reuse of existing Late Iron Age buildings, the construction of a series of (badly preserved) curvilinear structures on the southern slopes, and an unusual rectangular building, Structure 25, on the northern half of the mound. Structure 25 is a rectangular building, 16 m by 5 m, with slightly bow-shaped walls (Figure 17 I). It is assumed to indicate Scandinavian influence, but its width, the presence of an axial line of posts, and an arrangement of upright packing stones that suggest a series of transverse partitions projecting from the side walls (Hunter 2007, 141), were not typical features in Norse houses. Rectangular buildings of Late Iron Age date were identified at the Howe (Ballin Smith 1994) and this appears to be a well-established tradition in Caithness, where the structures were known as wags. In phase 7.2A at Pool, Structure 27 is also a rectangular building, with a central stone-lined hearth and the entrance at the south end of the east wall (Figure 17 H). It is argued that this is a house, measuring 9.5 m by 3.5 m, but the plan of this structure is drawn from a composite of detached sections of badly preserved walls, including a curvilinear wall that belongs to an earlier Iron Age structure. Structure 27 is an unusually squat structure that has none of the normal drains and partitions that characterise Early Norse houses in the Northern Isles (see in particular the early

house at Quoygrew [Figure 17 E] and the structures at Snusgar [Griffiths 2015]). The hearth of Structure 27 certainly suggests the presence of a Norse house but it is unclear if the precise dimensions of the structure are accurate or whether it is indeed a house rather than an ancillary building with a specialist function. A relatively well-preserved bow-walled house identified at Skaill (Buteux 1997; Figure 17 F) was estimated to be 18.9 m long and 4.6 m wide. It was divided in two by an entrance in the centre of the west wall. The northern half of the house was identified as a living area; benches defined by edge-set slabs were identified on both sides of a central area. The south side was defined by a large rectangular hearth with stone paving and a kerb. A line of paving stones leading south from this might have led to an entrance through the south gable. This house was built over a sequence of two earlier rectangular structures. The primary structure was thought to be Pictish in date by Gelling but, in the final publication, it was argued that it could be Norse (Buteux 1997). Both the preceding structures were relatively small and do not appear to have been major domestic buildings. Three substantial houses were excavated on Unst (Turner et al. 2013): Belmont, Hamar and Underhoull (the latter two are illustrated in Figure 17 G and B). These were large bow-shaped halls; Belmont and Hamar had an internal space roughly 20 m long and 5 m wide and Underhoull was roughly 18.4 m long by 4.5 m wide. The construction of the latter two houses has been securely dated to the middle of the eleventh century. Belmont is argued to begin earlier, but the radiocarbon dates from secondary contexts cluster in the twelfth century AD. These houses are important in demonstrating the relatively late use of bow-walled longhouses and do not provide any secure evidence for an early date in the ninth or tenth centuries AD. The house at Underhoull had several distinct features worth noting (Figure 17 B). It had two entrances; the main entrance was at the east end of the south wall and there was a subsidiary entrance through the east gable. Several structures were built to abut the house walls, but none had direct access to the interior of the house. The interior was split into three rooms. At the west end was a room with a paved stone floor that was interpreted as a cold store, and contained fragments of steatite and ceramics. The central room was interpreted as a living area with a wooden floor. Although some ash deposits were found in this area, they are not sufficient to suggest an in situ hearth, and it was argued that this would have sat on the wooden floor. The east end of the building was tentatively interpreted as a barn (Bond 2013, 159). The evidence for use of the house interior at Hamar and Belmont is more difficult to interpret.

Viking houses in the North Atlantic This is a very imperfect understanding of the Early

Bornais and the Norse settlement of the North Atlantic A

F

15

G

B

C H

D

I

E

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10m

Figure 17. Simplified plans of early Scandinavian houses in Atlantic Scotland. A Drimore, South Uist, Western Isles; B Underhoull, Unst, Shetland; C Jarlshof, Dunrossness, Shetland; D Brough of Birsay, Mainland Orkney; E Quoygrew, Westray, Orkney; F Skaill, Deerness, Orkney; G Hamar, Unst, Shetland; H Pool, Sanday, Orkney; I Pool, Sanday, Orkney

16

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Norse settlement in Atlantic Scotland and to gain a more accurate picture of the character of substantial bow-walled longhouses, it is necessary to look to other areas of the North Atlantic where the archaeological record is more informative. Several houses have been excavated in the Faroes, notably Toftanes (Stummann Hansen 1991) and Kvívík (Dahl 1951; Matras 2005). After his excavations at Toftanes, Stummann Hansen went prospecting in Unst, Shetland, where he identified a number of Norse longhouses (including the example at Hamar discussed above) that exhibited distinctive architectural characteristics that he dates to the ninth to tenth centuries AD: the houses ‘... have curved walls of approximately one metre in thickness. The houses may have sunken floors with benches along the inner walls in the upper parts of the houses. The upper part of the structure has probably been the sleeping room, while the central part has been what might be termed the living room with the long-fire. The lower-lying end has been the byre with a drain running through an opening in the gable’ (Stummann Hansen 2000, 99). Such houses were typically aligned downslope to allow drainage out of the house. Stummann Hansen’s interpretation is based on the houses at Toftanes, Jarlshof and Birsay, but only Toftanes had a byre; evidence for byres was not definitely present at any of the other sites. The discussion also specifically excludes the evidence from Iceland, which is acknowledged to be different but dismissed as misleading and too late to be relevant. The recent work in Unst (Turner et al. 2013) does not support the argument that these houses were early and had an internal byre. In a recent synthesis of the evidence from Iceland, Milek (2006) has argued that Early Norse houses have a distinctive form and spatial organisation. Most of the Icelandic houses were classic bow-shaped longhouses, but there are examples that show little expansion in the central area, e.g. Snjáleifartóttir and Herjólfsdalur V can be compared to the early house at Jarlshof. The main entrance to the house was located close to the end of one of the long walls, but other subsidiary entrances were common, often on the same wall as the main entrance. There were attached annexes, small rooms built onto the sides or ends of the house that were accessed from the main house; annexes with direct access to the outside are much rarer. Separate ‘pit houses’ are also common. The interior of the Icelandic house was normally divided into three separate rooms: the living room, which was a large room at the centre of the house, and two gable rooms, which were much smaller spaces at either end of the house (Milek 2006, 98). These rooms were probably separated by partition walls made from timber but this is often difficult to identify. The living room was divided into three aisles; the middle aisle contained a large hearth, which had a stone kerb and paving. This aisle frequently accumulated ash that appears to have been deliberately spread to create a dry surface. The side aisles, in contrast, tend to have very thin insignificant deposits, which suggests they were protected by wooden floors; these could have been low benched areas.

A good example is the house at Aðalstræti, and the internal occupation of this house has been analysed in some detail by Milek (ibid, fig. 4.42). A similar pattern was identified by Myhre in his analysis of the distribution of artefacts at Oma in Norway (Myhre 1982, fig. 8), and by Einarsson in his report on the excavations at Granastaðir in Iceland (Einarsson 1995, fig. 43). The evidence from Scotland currently does not fully conform to this model. Most Norse-period Scottish houses had an asymmetrically located entrance, placed at one end of a side wall, but very few houses appear to have a threefold internal division, with a central living space dominated by a hearth. The nearest approximation is Underhoull (Bond 2013), where a threefold division has been suggested. However, the proportions of these rooms at Underhoull were not similar to the Icelandic model, the living room was not central and evidence for a major hearth was missing, arguably because the living room had a wooden floor. Most of the Scottish houses have been interpreted as having a twofold division of the internal space, with a benched living area located at one end of the house, e.g. Jarlshof and Skaill. These living areas seldom have evidence for a substantial hearth, which instead was located in a separate kitchen area. It is unclear why the Scottish evidence is not similar to that from Iceland. It could be a significant cultural difference possibly indicating the influence of native tradition, though this would raise some problems over what that tradition was. It is not impossible, however, that the difference simply reflects the incomplete archaeological record for the Scottish settlements.

Late Norse houses The later Norse settlement of the twelfth to fourteenth centuries has been much more thoroughly explored; a wide variety of structures has been investigated and a large quantity of material recovered. However, until recently these later structures were not central to the discussion of the Norse settlement, scholarly interest declining as the temporal distance from the conquest increased. Important excavations of later settlements include Quoygrew, Westray (Barrett 2012) and Sandwick, Unst (Bigelow 1985), and the reports on these sites focus on the intrinsic significance of the architecture and economy of these periods. Quoygrew in Orkney is one of the most informative recent excavations and has been fully published (Barrett 2012; Figures 17 E, 18 K). The site originated in the tenth century and an important eleventh-century house was discovered. The principal excavated structure was built on top of this around AD 1200, and comprised a welldefined rectangular house with narrow stone-built walls. The internal space was split into two large rooms by a wall, which appears to have been substantial though it was completely removed by later robbing. The main entrance lay in the south wall, slightly west of the central axis of the house and directly opposite the access to a small

Bornais and the Norse settlement of the North Atlantic

17

K

J

L

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10m

Figure 18. Simplified plans of later Scandinavian houses in Atlantic Scotland. J Sandwick, Unst, Shetland; K Quoygrew, Westray, Orkney; L Pool, Sanday, Orkney

subsidiary room that projected from the north wall. The two main rooms comprised a living room to the east of the main entrance and a smaller byre to the west; the gable wall in the byre had a subsidiary entrance. The living room had an ill-defined central hearth and a raised benched area around three sides defined by slots for upright stones. The western room was identified as a byre by the presence of edge-set stones defining stalls and a drain running down the centre of the room that exited through the gable door. This structure was maintained for an estimated 200 years before a major architectural change, the addition of a large additional room to the east that was accessed by an entrance leading from the interior of the main house into the additional room through the house’s eastern gable wall. This room might have served as a bedroom and there is evidence for a major reconfiguration of the main living room, with the removal of the side benches and the construction of a large central drain. There was much subsequent modification of the internal space before the house eventually went out of use in the sixteenth century (Barrett 2012, 94). Sandwick in Unst, Shetland is a single small farm (Bigelow 1987, 27; Figure 18 J) that started life in the twelfth century AD and was occupied through to the end of the fourteenth century. It comprised two spaces, the principal large longhouse and a subsidiary room attached

to the side of the building. The longhouse was 17.5 m by 4 m internally and was divided into four separate spaces by changes in the floor height. The southern half the building was the living room. This was bounded by a paved crosspassage that ran between the east-facing external door and an internal door to the subsidiary room on the house’s west side; the subsidiary room also had a west-facing external door. To the north of the cross-passage was a kitchen and to the north of this was a byre area with a drain that led through a door in the gable end to a separate external room. There is no clearly defined function for the subsidiary building on the west side but its floor was paved and a drain was present along its north wall. The presence of a byre in the house is identified as the major new feature of these Late Norse houses by Bigelow (1987, 31). Important changes made during the life of the Sandwick house include the transformation in the late twelfth or early thirteenth century of the long hearth at the centre of the living room into a box hearth placed in the corner of the room, and the reduction in size of the side benches in favour of a larger gable-end bench. Corner hearths are a feature of Scandinavian houses and may indicate continued contact with the homeland (Christie 2002). The spatial arrangement and relationship of these defined spaces within a house appear to be distinctive to the different island groups of Scotland. The excavation

18

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

of the structures at Quoygrew and Pool (Figure 18 K and L) demonstrated the importance of the linear arrangement of space in Orkney, and the evidence from Freswick suggests Caithness has a similar development. The excavation of Sandwick and Jarlshof in Shetland in contrast, demonstrated the increasing importance of buildings constructed parallel to each other. In both areas the fragmentation of the large domestic space of the Early Norse period and the appearance of well-defined and separated spaces seems to be a major motivating force (Crawford and Ballin Smith 1999). Similar trends can be observed in the development of domestic housing in Iceland and Greenland. In Iceland the trend is for the separate rooms to be arranged along a single passage, with the main living room placed at the very end of the passage, and for an arrangement of ancillary structures creating a facade (Ágústsson 1982; Stoklund 1980, 127). Similar trends occur in Greenland (Roussell 1941) though these houses have been argued to have a less formal plan and to be better described as clustered (Skaaning Høegsberg 2009, 96). From the inception of our research, understanding the evolution of comparable structures on the Western Isles was a significant goal of the Bornais excavations.

Cille Pheadair – N Sharples The settlement at Cille Pheadair on South Uist was excavated in three summers between 1996 and 1998 by Mike Parker Pearson, and the following synopsis is based on a draft text of the final report kindly provided by the director (Parker Pearson et al. 2018). The settlement comprised only a single house in each phase of occupation. The house underwent major structural modifications (Figure 19), or a complete rebuild, regularly over a period of between 160 and 220 years, from cal AD 980–1015 (68% probability) to cal AD 1175–1220 (68% probability) (Marshall et al. in Parker Pearson et al. 2018). The sequence was divided into nine phases. The first phase comprised a large rectangular enclosure of sand, which surrounded a complex of post-holes and pits. Parker Pearson et al. are currently reluctant to call this a house but that seems the most likely interpretation of the structure to the author of this report. It was approximately 24 m to 25 m long and was estimated to be 8 m to 10 m wide, though the west side had been destroyed by coastal erosion before excavation began. The enclosure had a stone-revetted entrance on the east side close to the southeast corner. The first stone longhouse, House 700, was built in phase 3 and occupied the southern half of the phase 1 structure. The internal area was 8.4 m long and 4.0 m wide, though neither the west nor the north wall was well-defined. The entrance used the phase 1 entrance but a narrower and longer passage was created, which was to be reused in the following phase. A well-preserved floor was present and it

merged into a large, undefined rectangular hearth area in the centre of the house. The house was constructed in the middle of the eleventh century AD. Phase 4 involved the construction of House 500, a substantial rebuilding of the first stone-revetted house, at the end of the eleventh century AD. The main internal room was 10.3 m by 4.9 m, and it had an ancillary room, 2.3 m by 2.8 m, attached to the north of the main house by a short passage just over a metre long. House 500 continued to use the entrance established in phase 1, but this was elaborated by the creation of walled forecourt area. The floor was particularly well preserved and there was evidence for raised benches on either side of the central hearth area, which was 7.4 m long and 2.3 m wide, and characterised by multi-coloured ash layers. A rich suite of finds was recovered from the occupation deposits in this house, indicating a range of activities mostly concentrated at the north end of the house. The north end of the house was the main cooking area. Phase 5 involved a major reconfiguration of House 500 at the beginning of the twelfth century AD. A wall was constructed across the middle of the house and along the east side, thus reducing the internal dimensions of the house to 7.3 m by 3.6 m. The northern room was now detached from the house and only accessible from outside. A new entrance was created in the northeast corner of the remodelled house, but the original entrance remained in use. The floor was not well preserved, and an ill-defined area of peat ash marked the hearth area in the centre of the house. In phase 6 there appears to be no major dwelling but activity continued with the construction of a number of small ancillary structures in the ruins of house 500, as it gradually filled with wind-blown sand and occupation debris. It is possible the site was only intermittently occupied, perhaps on a seasonal basis. Phase 7 was a major reconfiguration of the site in the middle of the twelfth century. A new house, 312, oriented east–west, was constructed across the southern end of House 500. The southwest corners of both houses were carefully juxtaposed. The walls of House 312 enclosed an area 8.4 m by 4 m, with an entrance in the north wall close to the northeast corner. The centre of the house was covered with a hearth area of peat ash lenses roughly 4.2 m by 2.1 m, and several floor layers were identified around the periphery. This dwelling was associated with a small ancillary building that lay behind the southwest corner of the house. Phase 8 involved the construction of a new house, 007, between c. AD 1160 and c. AD 1190, which was once again oriented north–south. It was carefully constructed so that its southeast corner directly overlaid the southeast corner of the preceding house. Uniquely for the Cille Pheadair houses, House 007 had two opposing entrances in the northern half of the house, and the west entrance was located to run along the outside of the north wall of the preceding House 312. The house was surrounded by a ditch, which encircled the whole house except the entrances and the area that overlaid

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10m

C

F

B

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D

Figure 19. The structural sequence at Cille Pheadair, South Uist showing only the main houses, and excluding phase 2 and phase 6 when no clearly observed domestic house was present. A sandbank, phase 1; B house 700, phase 3; C house 500, phase 4; D house 500 rebuilding, phase 5; E house 312, phase 7; F house 007. phase 8; G house 007 modified, phase 9

A

Bornais and the Norse settlement of the North Atlantic 19

20

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

House 312. It had an internal area 6.9 m long and 3.15 m wide, and the hearth, 2.86 m by 1.16 m, was partially defined by upright stones. The floors of the house had very few finds and the assemblage is impoverished compared to that from the previous houses. The ancillary structure built in phase 7 continued in use, though it was substantially reduced in size. Phase 9 was the final phase of occupation and the structural evidence is restricted to two ancillary buildings built into the northern and southern ends of House 007. These were temporary shelters, with thin floors and small hearths, and probably represent seasonal occupation of the location after the permanent settlement had been abandoned. The settlement was probably abandoned in the first two decades of the thirteenth century; although the ancillary structures were both rebuilt at least once, it is unlikely that they indicate a lengthy continuation of the occupation. The structures soon filled with wind-blown sand. The settlement at Cille Pheadair provides an immensely valuable record for Norse activity in the Hebrides. The sequence is roughly contemporary with the sequence at Bornais and though the Cille Pheadair houses exhibit some significant differences, there are also some surprising similarities that will be discussed in detail in the conclusion to this volume. Cille Pheadair has also provided a vast quantity of economic data from the large assemblages of material recovered using techniques directly comparable to those employed at Bornais. These assemblages provide important comparisons for the analysis to be presented in the final Bornais volume (Sharples forthcoming).

Vernacular architecture in the North Atlantic – N Sharples The vernacular architecture of the Hebrides, and the other Atlantic isles, has been a source of considerable interest to antiquarians and archaeologists as well as architectural historians. They have frequently used the character and technology of these settlements and buildings to interpret prehistoric and early historic architecture and to project backwards in time concomitant social structures and attitudes. The Danish prehistorian Worsaae visited the islands in 1846 and observed ‘... the houses are built with turf and hand-sized stones and with poor straw or heather roof held together by ropes laid over the ridge with stones at the end … Cattle and family live in the same room and the fire burns openly on the floor there, fills the house with dense smoke which only slowly makes it way out of the smoke hole in the roof. As usual, the sleeping places are holes in the side walls’ (quoted by Roussell 1934, 29). These observations raise issues concerning the evolution of and external influences on the culture of the islands (Stoklund 1980) that are significant to later discussions in this volume. One of the earliest of the British antiquarians to become interested in the buildings of the Hebrides was Captain F.W.L. Thomas who considered that ‘the dwellings are

so primitive as to reach backward to the Stone period almost at once’ (Thomas 1868, 154). Thomas described an idealised house that comprised three conjoined buildings arranged parallel to each other. The first building was the smallest and acted as a porch that contained the quern on one side and a space for lambs and calves on the other. Passing through this space one entered the central building (30 ft by 13 ft), which was split into a byre and a living area separated by no more than a kerb of stones. The latter room was furthest from the door and was structured around a central hearth where men sat on one side and women on the other. The very limited furniture that the inhabitants owned consisted of a bench, a stool, a crude bed and possibly a dresser. The final building was the barn, which Thomas noted could contain a chest of prized possessions and further beds if the occupants were a large family. Thomas examined in some detail the shielings of the region, as the corbelled roofs of these appeared to him to be a particular archaic feature that demonstrated their connections to the prehistoric past (Thomas 1860). Arthur Mitchell, an acquaintance of Thomas, devoted one of his Rhind lectures on The Past in the Present to the subject of ‘The black houses and beehive houses of the Hebrides’ (Mitchell 1880). In this lecture he provided an illustration of a house on Lewis with a simplified plan that mirrored that provided by Thomas. Mitchell argued that despite the apparent wretchedness and squalor of these structures, they exhibit a sophistication of design that indicated the presence of many people ‘... who have a potential though undeveloped greatness’ and he compared them very favourably to the dregs of society who lived in the slums of Edinburgh. He continued the discussion of the importance of the corbelled roofs of shielings and, unlike Thomas, regarded this constructional technique as a particularly skilful and enlightened demonstration of architectural sophistication, which again belied the apparently primitive nature of these buildings. The complex structures identified by Capt. Thomas were deemed to be earlier and Mitchell argued for an evolutionary sequence that started with simple forms which then developed sophistication and complexity before declining back to simplicity and their eventual extinction. In the 1930s a number of scholars visited the Western Isles, particularly Lewis, in order to examine the ancient customs and architecture of the islands (Fenton and Mulhern 2012, 9). This was part of a growing upsurge in the ethnology of contemporary society in the North Atlantic countries that was driven by Irish and Scandinavian scholars (Lysaght 1990). The first, and perhaps most influential, of these visitors was the Danish scholar Aage Roussell who visited the Scottish islands, including Shetland, Orkney and Lewis, in 1931 and published an important book on his travels, Norse Building Customs in the Scottish Isles (Roussell 1934). Gudmond Hatt, a Danish archaeologist, also visited Lewis, but in contrast to Roussell appears to have found the Scottish islands of little significance to his work on Early Iron Age settlement in Denmark.

Bornais and the Norse settlement of the North Atlantic In 1932 or 1933 Werner Kissling, a German amateur ethnologist, began a long relationship with the islands, which continued after the War. He published an important article on the Hebridean Black House (Kissling 1943) and assembled a large archive of excellent photographs and cine-film now held by the School of Scottish Studies (Russell 2002). Two Swedish scholars, Kjellberg and Hasslof, undertook a tour of the Western Isles in 1934, and the notes and sketches from this trip have only recently been published (Fenton and Mulhern 2012). At the end of the 1930s the islands were visited by Åke Campbell, a Swedish ethnologist (Lysaght 1990; Walker 1989b) and Cecil Curwen, an archaeologist famous for his work in Sussex (Curwen 1938). Campbell published his work in Swedish during the Second World War (Campbell 1944) and so it had much less influence on British scholars than the work of Roussell. Roussell (1934) provided detailed information on the dwellings of the Hebrides, Shetland and Orkney, which built on and synthesised the work of Thomas and Mitchell, and argued that there were distinct regional characteristics in the houses and farm compounds of each area. He was surprised to discover that archaeologists in Scotland held the misguided view that Norse dwellings would have been made in wood as stone dwellings were completely unknown in Scandinavia. Thomas thought the buildings in the Hebrides were devoid of any Norse inspiration, probably because he was invested in the idea that they showed continuity with prehistory (Thomas 1868). Roussell made a detailed comparison with the archaeological evidence for settlement in the Scandinavian homelands, and suggested that the Hebridean structures in particular demonstrated close similarities with the houses known in western Norway and Sweden. In contrast, the evidence from Orkney indicated this group of islands had evolved a distinctive local character quite different to most Scandinavian countries. He concluded that the Hebridean settlements in ‘plan and arrangements are the same [as Scandinavian houses] except for several details of construction especially in the roof’ and that ‘many a keen debate on building customs in the past may be settled in the Hebrides’ (Roussell 1934, 48). Perhaps the most influential paper on the architecture of the Hebrides was by Curwen (1938). This was published in the archaeological journal Antiquity which had a very wide circulation. He built on previous work, quoting extensively from Thomas, and forcefully argued that the Hebrides ‘did not emerge from the Iron Age until the end of the last century .... the culture of the Hebrides as late as the middle of the nineteenth century was more like that of the pre-Roman Iron Age in southern England than any succeeding phase’ (Curwen 1938, 261). His description repeated much of what was written by Thomas and Roussell and highlighted the different form of Orcadian and Shetland houses, and the links with Roman Iron Age houses in Jutland, which he thought were ‘an almost exact counterpart’ to houses in the Western Isles (Curwen 1938,

21

270). His observation of the Lewis blackhouse emphasised the co-presence of cattle and human habitation at either end of a long rectangular house and he was, like the others, intrigued by the corbelled vaults of the shielings. He concluded by noting that despite the primitive nature of the black houses, they produced ‘as fine a race of men as ever came from any kind of house in England’, echoing Mitchell’s earlier comments on the inhabitants of Lewis. Indigenous Scottish interest in the vernacular building of the Atlantic islands was limited in the first half of the twentieth century. There was, however, a lot of research on the language and folksongs of the islands, and South Uist was a significant source for many researchers in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century; Alexander Carmichael’s publication Carmina Gadelica, for example, was heavily influenced by his time on South Uist (Stiùbhart 2008). Important collections were made and published by Margaret Fay Shaw (1977) and John Lorne Campbell (MacCormick. 1969). Interest was enhanced and increased by the setting-up of the School of Scottish Studies in the University of Edinburgh in 1951 (MacAulay 2008; Chambers 2013). Study of the material culture of the Highlands and Islands was pioneered by Isabel Grant who established the Highland Folk Museum in Iona in 1930 (Grant 2007). This later moved to the central highlands and eventually Kingussie in 1944, where Grant pioneered the construction of replica buildings including a Lewis blackhouse. This pioneering work on the material culture were developed by Alexander Fenton at the National Museum of Antiquities of Scotland. Fenton almost singlehandedly created the folk life collections of the National Museum and was the most prolific and influential writer on the topic in the second half of the twentieth century. He wrote about almost every aspect and region of Scotland but, unfortunately for our purposes, most of his work on the Scottish islands concerned Orkney and Shetland. Fenton’s principal research in the Hebrides was published in the guide-book The Island Blackhouse (Fenton 1978b), a very influential publication on No. 42 Arnol, Isle of Lewis. This was written for the then Department of the Environment, who took the monument into care in 1962. This publication discussed in detail the architectural features and furnishings of the Lewis blackhouse as characterised by 42 Arnol, and provided an historical background and social context for the use of such structures on the island (a summary description of the characteristics of these houses is provided in Fenton 1978b, 36–7). Fenton emphasised the distinctive local and regional characteristics of the building, but the authority of the publication presented a more exclusive view of a generic Hebridean blackhouse. 42 Arnol further dominates perceptions because it was for a long time the only such house presented to the public by the State, and was consequently the centre of attention for future studies. Several publications emerged from Historic Scotland describing the architectural details of the building and

22

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Figure 20. A recently abandoned croft at Iochdar, South Uist

the characteristics of the settlement at Arnol (Walker and McGregor 1996) As a result of the long history of study of the blackhouses on the island of Lewis, it is often assumed ‘the Hebridean blackhouse’ is characterised by long rectangular houses with a substantial byre at one end and the living quarters at the other, with barns in attached buildings connected and lying parallel to the main house, as exemplified by the blackhouse at Arnol (Sinclair 1953). However, as Kissling had already realised (Kissling 1943, 91) this dominant narrative is misleading and significant regional diversity existed within the Western Isles. Walker (1989b) undertook a survey of the vernacular architecture of the Uists in the 1980s and demonstrated that the houses on these islands had their own distinct character: the houses of South Uist tended to be ‘super­ ficially symmetrical in plan and elevation with a central door leading into a short passageway with the kitchen to one side and the room to the other’ (Walker 1989a, 68; Figure 20). He believed they were ‘built to a plan form adopted for small lowland farmhouses, croft houses and cottar houses but with an external aesthetic more akin to the Hebrides’ (ibid. 67). He did not comment on the chronology of this process of adoption but noted that most of the houses observed were less than 100 years old. It was very rare to find houses with cattle in the same building on the Uists. The presence of several forms of architecture in the Hebrides has been highlighted by other scholars in recent years (Mackie 2002), and it is clear that houses

in the southern half of the islands generally do not have a byre as an integral part of the house and cannot be described as longhouses. This was noted by Kjellberg and Hasslof in the diary of their tour of the islands (Fenton and Mulhern 2012) and Branigan and Merrony (2000) discussed this pattern in their archaeological survey of the abandoned houses on Barra; they discovered that most of the abandoned houses were shorter than 12 m and would simply not have had enough space to include animals.4 It is also noticeable that the settlements in South Uist had quite a different spatial organisation to that of the settlements in Lewis. The short houses were accompanied by a number of outbuildings that included barns, kilns and byres, and these generally tended to be separate buildings arranged around a yard (Fenton and Mulhern 2012, figs 27, 41, 43; Branigan 2005, figs 3.21, 5.6). Sometimes the outbuildings were arranged axially in relationship to the house, but this was not a recurrent feature. The form of these scattered farmsteads was very different to the nucleated villages with attached outbuildings that survived at Arnol (Fenton 1978b). One aspect of the interpretation of the recent vernacular architecture of the islands has been the supposition that change reflects external contact that could be motivated by fashion and a desire for improvement and status (Tait 2012). The early assumption was that Hebridean houses were impoverished and unhealthy, that people were wedded to tradition and had to be forced through legislation to abandon their unsanitary habits. Similar views were

Bornais and the Norse settlement of the North Atlantic frequently expressed on the nature of Hebridean farming practices, such as the use of plough and the milling of corn. However, Dodgshon (1992), in a detailed assessment of these arguments concerning traditional agriculture, suggested that the criticisms were misguided and failed to take into consideration the requirements of the landscape, population dynamics and the social relationships that made the apparently primitive techniques a sensible and rational response. Similar arguments need to be applied to the architectural developments on the islands and it is important to consider the social and functional significance of the structures used by these communities. It is clear that the inhabitants found them to be eminently suitable to their purposes and it seems unlikely that they were ignorant of alternative approaches practised elsewhere in Scotland. Although these studies of Hebridean houses frequently made assumptions about the origin and development of the islands’ architecture on the islands, very little detailed consideration of this topic was attempted (Stoklund 1980). The archaeological exploration of ‘medieval or later rural settlement’ was a comparatively undeveloped aspect of archaeological practice in Scotland prior to the 1990s (Hingley 1993; Dalglish 2002), with a few notable exceptions (Fairhurst 1968, 1969). Since then the subject has become a major focus for research, with large surveys throughout the country, and excavations are now commonplace (i.e. Atkinson 2017). Nevertheless, complete sequences spanning the second millennium AD are rare and throughout most of Scotland the identification of medieval settlement is very difficult (Dixon 2002). The Hebrides are no exception to this upsurge in interest in the more recent past. As already noted, Branigan undertook a significant amount of archaeological and historical analysis of the recent Clearance settlements of the Isle of Barra (Branigan 2005). Symonds carried out a substantial project on recent crofting settlements of South Uist, with extensive excavations at Airigh Mhuillin (Symonds 1999; 2000) which included the complete examination of five houses. Moreland (2012) surveyed the area around Locheynort on the east coast of South Uist and excavated a nineteenth-century house. Parker Pearson discovered the sixteenth- and seventeenth-century settlement that appears to have replaced the settlement on the Bornais machair (Parker Pearson et al. 2012). Raven made a detailed survey of South Uist’s island duns and crannogs and the shielings (Raven 2012a; 2012b). On North Uist Armit undertook a variety of excavations in the Vallay landscape (Armit 1997) and there has been a considerable amount of work in Lewis (Campbell 2009). A major field project was undertaken on the important postmedieval power centre of Dun Eistean at the northern tip of the Isle of Lewis and this has made a major contribution to our understanding of the recent occupation of the islands (Barrowman 2015). Despite the upsurge in work in the last two decades it can be argued that archaeology have failed to maximise the information available and a critical and holistic

23

interpretation of society for the last millennium is still to be produced (Dalglish 2002). The Hebrides provide an important and possibly unique opportunity to explore the settlement of the second millennium AD and to understand the development of the recent traditions of vernacular architecture.

The research potential – N Sharples The site at Bornais provides an invaluable resource for exploring certain key topics of research. Some of these were incorporated into the research objectives for the excavation, but others have emerged as a result of subsequent work undertaken. The following topics dictated some of the approaches taken to both excavation and post-excavation: • The architectural characteristics of houses in the period from AD 800 to AD 1500. • The social construction of space in the domestic architecture of this period. • The landscape of the Norse settlement of South Uist. • Continuity and discontinuity in the settlement sequence in the first and second millennium AD – with particular relevance to the Viking conquest and to the political appropriation of the islands by Scotland in AD 1266. • An understanding of the taphonomic complexities of a deeply stratified settlement. • An understanding of material culture change in the period of the settlement’s occupation. • The relationship of the settlement with the outside world as evidenced in the artefactual record. • The use of the island’s resources and the importance of trading relations in the exploitation of these resources. • An understanding of the agricultural economy of the settlement. The former questions will be considered for discussion in this volume, whereas the latter questions are considered more appropriate to the discussion in a forthcoming volume.

The stratigraphic sequence in mound 2 – O Davis and N Sharples5 with J Bond, M Brennand, S Reeve, F Taylor and K Stronach At the conclusion to the excavation of mound 2, an irregular area approximately 35 m long by a maximum of 14.5 m wide, had been examined (Figure 21). No part of this mound can be said to have definitely been excavated to below the archaeological levels. Much of the western edge of the trench, excavated in 2003, had exposed wind-blown sand deposits that appeared to be archaeologically sterile, but small-scale test excavations suggest these deposits could

24

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Figure 21. An outline plan of the excavated area on mound 2 showing the three principal houses: pink House1, blue House 2 and brown House 3

be accumulations that overlay and concealed deposits of archaeological significance. The overwhelming bulk of the archaeological contexts excavated at the centre of the mound, Area B, can be placed in a stratigraphic sequence that has been divided into eight chronological units labelled BA to BH. These units are delimited, in various ways, by the construction of the three large houses that dominate the archaeology of this mound. The chronological units for mound 2 can be broken down further into blocks, which are listed below, and whose stratigraphic relationships are illustrated in Figure 23. BA BAA BAB BAC BAD BAE BAF BAG BB BBA BBB BBC BBD

The Late Iron Age phase Early sand deposits Floor layers Infill layers Structural remains Peripheral occupation layers Layers and features under House 2 Cut and fill of hollow, Late Iron Age The Early Norse phase House 1 foundation pits House 1 structure House 1 occupation House 1 infilling

BBE BC BCA BCB BCC BD BDA BDB BDC BDD BDE BDF BDG BDH BDI BDJ BE BEA BEB BEC BED BEE BEF BEG BEH

Truncated remains of Early Norse structure The Middle Norse phase House 2 foundation pits House 2 construction House 2 occupation The Middle Norse transitional phase Initial structural modifications Occupation associated with BDA Constructions within the BDA structure Abandonment of initial structure and building of new structure Occupation of structure BDD Infilling the House 2 hollow Ephemeral structures Final infilling of the House 2 hollow Activity preceding House 3 Deposits around the edge of House 3 The Late Norse phase House 3 construction House 3 pre-floor features House 3 early occupation House 3 reconstruction House 3 secondary occupation House 3 abandonment Deposits in the entrance passage Deposits outside the entrance

Bornais and the Norse settlement of the North Atlantic

25

STRUCTURES House 1 stones

Ancilliary structure 4 stones

House 2 stones

Ancilliary structure 3 stones

House 3 stones

Ancilliary structure 6 stones

House 12 stones

Central structure stones (GBA)

House 13 stones

South kiln stones (GBB)

House 14 stones

North kiln stones (GBD)

House 15 stones

Non-phased stones

CONTEXTS White sand

Burnt clay/sand

Light Ash

Yellow sand

Light brown sand

Dark ash

Pale yellow sand

Brown sand

Charcoal

Light yellow sand

Dark brown sand

Green clay-sand

Orange-brown sand

Grey-brown sand

Sample boxes

Pale orange sand

Pale grey-brown sand

Rabbits

Pale pink sand

Light grey sand

Non-phased stones

Red-brown sand

Dark grey sand

Figure 22. The colour key used in this volume for the structures and contexts

BEI BF BFA BFB BFC BFD BFE BG BH

Deposits associated with House 3 to the west The final phase of occupation of mound 2 Construction of ancillary structure Use of ancillary structure Rebuild and reuse of ancillary structure Abandonment of ancillary structure Activity contemporary with ancillary structure in north of House 3 Wind-blown sand and topsoil The enclosure wall

Four areas of the excavation were peripheral to the central sequence and stratigraphic relationships existed only at a superficial level (Figure 23): • Area A was the trench to the south excavated in 1995 and 1996; • Area H was a trench on the east side of the mound excavated in 2003 and 2004; • Area I was a poorly preserved structure in the north­ west corner of the main excavated area; • Area J was a small sondage excavated to the north of House 3 in 2004. The final layers in both Areas A and H can be linked to the central sequence in Area B, but the lower layers were unrelated. The stratigraphy in Area A can be broken down into eight stratigraphic units, which are arranged in a chron­ ological sequence. AA Early midden AB Ancillary structure

AC AD AE AF AG AH

Floor of structure AB Infilling of structure AB House construction Floor of house AE Infilling of house AE Recent activity

The contexts exposed in the extension trench to the east of the main area can be broken down into seven stratigraphic units, the last of which (HH) might have been contemporary with the deposits associated with the construction of House 3 (BEA), and the activity that occurred within it (BE–BF). HA HB HC HD HE HF HG HH

Early structure Remodelling of HA? Accumulation deposits Occupation deposits Sand accumulation Midden deposits Scatter of features indicating human activity Midden deposits

The activity in the northwest corner of the excavated area can be divided into two blocks, both of which were badly damaged by rabbits and ploughing: IA Late Norse house IB Late Norse features In 2004 a small sondage, 1.00 m by 2.00 m, was excavated to investigate the deposits behind, and earlier than, the north wall of House 3. A single stratigraphic unit was identified. JA North extension

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

26

BGA

AH

BFD

FINAL NORSE

BFC

BFE

BFB BFA BEF HH

BEE

LATE NORSE

BED

HG

BEC

BEI

BEG BEH

BEB

HF

BEA

AG

BDH

BDJ

BDG BDF

IA

BDE

AF

BDD

HE

AE

BDC

HD

BDI

BDB BDA

HC

IB

JA BCC

MIDDLE NORSE

BCB BCA EARLY NORSE

BBD

HB

AD AC AB AA

BBC

HA

BBB BBA BAG

BAE

BAF BAC

BAD

LATE IRON AGE BAB

BAA

Figure 23. A diagram illustrating the stratigraphic relationships of the different blocks on mound 2

The stratigraphic sequence in mound 2A – K Waddington and N Sharples with K Stentoft Any description of the archaeological stratigraphy of mound 2A is going to be complex and confusing for anyone not

closely connected with the excavation. The mound had up to 1.2 m of stratified deposits that included stone-revetted buildings, extensive layers (some relatively sterile, some full of cultural material), shallow pits and post-holes (Figure 24). These contexts had complex relationships that were often difficult to identify, delimit and describe. Ideally we would have preferred to undertake an open-area excav­

Bornais and the Norse settlement of the North Atlantic ation, carefully peeling back every layer in the reverse order of its deposition. However, this was not logistically possible because: •

• •

the excavations were carried out over several years and involved the opening of new areas each year as we tried to resolve the nature of the settlement on the mound; the depth of the deposits and the requirement to keep tight stratigraphic control using a relatively inexper­ ienced workforce limited the scale of work each year; a complex sequence of poorly preserved structures was present in the centre of the excavated area, sur­ rounded by relatively easily excavated midden layers on the periphery of the mound.

Instead of open-area excavation, therefore, and after the relatively superficial excavation in the 1999 season, the trench on mound 2A was divided into a series of areas (referred to as ‘squares’ in the text, though many are rectangular) that were shaped to take into consideration the archaeology present (Figure 25). The contexts in each square were normally assigned their own unique numbers (although some contexts that extended into more than one square, especially those excavated in 1999). This system – whilst restricting false equivalences between layers excavated in different areas, which can be quite frequent when such areas are excavated in different years – made the post-excavation analysis problematic, as the equivalent layers were seldom isolated and identified during the excavation itself. It is worth noting that layers which appeared homo­ geneous and relatively clearly defined in one area could either merge with adjacent, initially quite different, layers or split into many clearly different contexts. This reflected the different activities undertaken by people in the past and the complexity of the cultural and natural depositional processes. As a result, the general sequence is clear and easy to demonstrate, but there are numerous ambiguous relationships and minor problems that could not be resolved during the post-excavation process. To aid the production of a coherent narrative, the ‘squares’ have been numbered from 1 to 20 and these are illustrated in Figure 25. The sequence moves from the northwest corner of the trench from right to left down to the isolated trench in the south. Squares 1, 10 and 17 were de-turfed but none of the deposits were excavated and the excavation of the southern half of the trench (squares 18, 19, 20 and to a lesser extent 16) was limited and superficial. The rest of the trench was excavated to the level at which the basal ploughmarks became visible, except for square 13, which contained a kiln (see Chapter 6), a structure worth preserving, and a small area of square 8 because we ran out of time. The contexts have been assigned to seven stratigraphic units and 34 blocks. The blocks are essentially designed to group together layers that appear to have a similar

27

depositional history. The significance of the major units is more varied – some are short-lived events, such as the construction of a building, but others encompass long-lived processes such as the deposition of midden on the east side of the mound. The deposition of the midden spanned the period of six chronologically successive blocks related to building construction and use, but because there was no dramatic change in the depositional process in the midden area, these events cannot be correlated to specific contexts in the midden. The trench(es) excavated on mound 2A are collectively referred to as G. The seven chronological units and 34 blocks are: GA The Early Norse phase GAA Primary cultivation soils GAB Northern hearth and associated ash layers within GAA GAC Southern hearth and associated ash layers on top of GAA GAD Grey sand accumulation that covered these features GB The Middle Norse phase GBA The central structure and early activity GBB Construction of the southern kiln GBC Deposition in the southern kiln GBD Construction of the northern kiln GBE Deposition in the northern kiln GBF Occupation associated with the kilns in the central area GBG Deposition associated with the kilns on the edge of the mound GC The Late Norse phase: ancillary structures GCA Construction of ancillary building 5 GCB Occupation of ancillary building 5 GCC Construction of ancillary building 6 GCD Occupation of ancillary building 6 GCE Construction of House 15 GCF Occupation of House 15 GD The Late Norse phase: peripheral middens GDA Midden on the west side GDB Midden on the north side GDC Midden on the east side GE The Late Norse phase: houses GEA Construction of House 12 GEB Occupation of House 12 GEC Post-occupation infilling of House 12 GED Construction of House 13 GEE Occupation of House 13 GEF Post-occupation infilling of House 13 GEG Construction of House 14 GEH Occupation of House 14 GEI Construction of ancillary building 3 GG The Late Norse phase: an isolated structure GGA Structure in the eastern middens GGB Occupation of the structure in the eastern mid-­ dens

28

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Figure 24. An outline plan of the different phases of activity on mound 2A . A – The Early Norse cultivation marks (GAA); B – The Middle Norse structures (GBA, GBB, GBD); C – Late Norse House 12 (GEA); D – Late Norse House 13 (GED) and ancillary structure 5 (GCA); E – Late Norse House 14 (GEG) and ancillary structure 6 (GCC); F – Late Norse House 15 (GCE) and ancillary structure 3 (GEI)

Bornais and the Norse settlement of the North Atlantic

3 6

2 1

5 4

15

10

9

7 12

17

14

8 13

16 11 18

0

5m

19

20

Figure 25. A plan of the different areas excavated on mound 2A

GGC Post-occupation infilling of structure in the eastern middens GF The final phase of occupation of mound 2A GFA Miscellaneous late features GFB Post-occupation erosion and sand accumulation The stratigraphic relationships between these different blocks are illustrated in Figure 26. There are unfortunately very few relationships between the houses (GE) in the southern part of the mound and the ancillary structures in the northern area (GC). This is largely due to the limited amount of excavation that was undertaken in the south, but it is worth noting that the first house (House 12, GEA) cuts through a considerable thickness of deposits, which indicates that structures and deposits contemporary with the kilns, probably the grey sand and perhaps the ploughsoil, were present but unexplored in this area.

Site phasing – N Sharples The sequence exposed on mounds 2 and 2A has been divided into five chronological phases. The sequence begins with the Late Iron Age, which was identified on mound 2 but not on mound 2A. In some earlier papers on Bornais, these deposits were sometimes referred to as the ‘Pictish’ phase, but it has been decided that, for this definitive report, a more neutral terminology is required, even though the author has argued that the

29

Western Isles were incorporated into the Pictish sphere of interest in the middle of the first millennium AD (Parker Pearson et al. 2004a, 105–23; Sharples 2012, 349). The Late Iron Age materials recovered from mound 2 had very little similarity with the material from mound 1 (Sharples 2012) and represent a major disruption of the settlement in the middle of the first millennium AD. This was a widespread phenomenon that has been observed across northern Scotland, identified by Barrett and Foster (1991) as sufficiently important to require a division of the Late Iron Age into two periods, Late Iron Age I and Late Iron Age II. The following three phases are referred to as Norse. The term ‘Viking’ is not used as this author follows Craw­ford (1987, 2) in preferring to restrict the use of this term to the period of raiding that precedes settlements such as Bornais. This differs from the scheme proposed by Graham-Campbell and Batey (1998, 155) who use a broader definition of the Viking period that covers the first half of the eleventh century (and would thus encompass the Early Norse period as defined in this book). Archaeologically, the Viking period is largely represented by pagan graves in the west of Scotland, but it is possible that settlement dating to this period existed at the Udal. The author believes that there is a chronological gap between the end of the Late Iron Age occupation at Bornais and the beginning of the Norse settlement; the dating indicates that this period when Bornais was unoccupied is the period of the Viking arrival in the Outer Hebrides. The division of the Norse period into three phases – Early, Middle and Late – is done to simplify the analysis of the site’s archaeology and is not expected to have a wider utility outside of the Bornais mounds. The sequential construction of three large houses on mound 2 encouraged the creation of this three-phase division and the chronology of this division for mound 2 was found to correspond rather conveniently with the archaeological sequence uncovered on mound 2A. It might have been possible to split the Middle Norse into two sub-phases, as the mound 2 sequence clearly differentiates the occupation of House 2 from its infilling; but as the evidence for a corresponding phase on mound 2A was limited, this seemed unwarranted. It would also have been possible to refer to the Late Norse period as ‘Scottish’ as it occurs after the incorporation of the islands into the Kingdom of the Scots, in 1266, but this would be to pre-empt some of the arguments presented in this volume. The fifth and final phase of activity is described as the Late Norse abandonment phase, and it was created to distinguish the end of the main structural sequence of houses from the scrappy structures and possibly temporary occupation that were identified as belonging to the end of the settlement’s life. Dating of these structures is problematic but there is no material culture to suggest the temporary occupation continued into the late fifteenth or sixteenth century. The radiocarbon dates from mound 2 and 2A suggest the main

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

30

GFB

GFA GEI

FINAL NORSE

LATE NORSE

GCF

GEH

GCE

GEG

GGC

GCD

GDC

GEF GCC

GEC

GEE GCB

GEB

GCA

GEA

GGB

GDB

GDA

GGA

GED

GBF GBC GBB

GBE GBA

GBG MIDDLE NORSE

GBD

GAD

EARLY NORSE

GAC GAA = GAB

Figure 26. A diagram illustrating the stratigraphic relationships of the different blocks on mound 2A

settlement sequence on these mounds ended prior to the end of the mound 3 sequence but it is possible that these final undated structures were contemporary with the last house on mound 3 (Sharples 2005b).

Excavation problems – N Sharples Excavations on the machair have their own particular difficulties which should be flagged up from the beginning as they have a significant impact on the interpretations that are possible. The settlement mounds of the Atlantic zone are exceptional in British archaeology as they have deep and complicated stratigraphic sequences that span lengthy periods of time. In terms of the challenges presented by the stratigraphy, these prehistoric settlement mounds are perhaps most similar to urban excavations on mainland Britain, although occasionally some rural sites do produce pockets of comparably deep stratigraphy, such as the

quarries behind hillfort ramparts (Cunliffe 1984; Sharples 1991). The stratigraphy of the Atlantic settlements can be well preserved and clearly visible but this depends on the moisture present in the sandy soils. If the weather is hot and dry, then the subtle variations in colour can be completely imperceptible, and identifying layers is often dependent on very slight variations in texture. Unfortunately for the excavations at Bornais, the years from 1999 to 2004 were characterised by long hot summers and excavation in July was particularly problematic. This contrasted with the summers between 1991 and 1993 when the excavations at Dun Vulan coincided with a period of consistently cold and wet summers. The variations in soil colour are particularly important for the identification of pits. A distinctive characteristic of the settlements on the machair was the digging of pits and these are frequently found below house floors. Examples of such pits have been noted in Beaker settlements at

Bornais and the Norse settlement of the North Atlantic

31

Figure 27. A photograph of the southeast corner of House 2, showing the accumulation of fine grey wind-blown sand almost immediately after the dark brown floor had been cleaned to get a photograph of the antler pick

Dalmore (Sharples 1983), at the Late Bronze Age houses of Cladh Hallan (Parker Pearson et al. 2004a; 2011) and at the wheelhouse of Sollas (Campbell 1991). This phenomenon continues into the Norse period: important pits were a frequent discovery below the houses excavated on mounds 2 and 2A. Such pits can be very difficult to see when they have been dug into homogeneous sand and then backfilled almost immediately with the same material. This phenom­ enon was observed below the floors of House 1 on mound 2 where a complex sequence of pits with largely sterile fills was observed during a short period of damp conditions that coincided with their excavation. It is very unlikely that they would have been observed if the sun had been shining and the sand had dried as normal. The recognition of these pits is important, as these features can and often do have deposits placed at their base: if the pit cut is not identified, such deposits may be misleadingly assumed to date to the same period as the deposits that surround them. This problem arose during the excavation of mound 1, where what was initially recorded as a detached area of Late Iron Age floor turned out on careful consideration to be the base of a Norse pit that had not been recognised during excavation (Sharples 2012, 137). The hot dry summers also contributed to wind erosion of the exposed surface of the archaeology. I have a very clear memory of a particularly hot and windy day in 2000 when the presence of a BBC film crew meant that we had to go and dig the site when the conditions were problematic. I could only talk to the camera in one direction because if I turned the words were whipped away by the wind. After a brief conversation I had already accumulated a small sand drift behind my feet. In these conditions, thick deposits of wind-blown sand build up quickly against the exposed walls of structures and the sides of trenches (Figure 27). Archaeological deposits of soft unconsolidated sand can

be eroded to leave behind decontextualised artefacts and isolated deposits of compact sand. On one area of mound 2A, the wind erosion of an exposed midden surface resulted in the discovery of an important deposit of carbonised grain; the individual grains were too heavy to blow away and each grain stood proud of the surface on its own micro-plinth. In some areas of the site, even in the best weather conditions, it was impossible to clearly differentiate stratigraphy, which other evidence suggested must have been present. An example would be the centre of mound 2A, where the matrix for most of the occupation was a homogeneous brown sand. This material was found to surround revetment walls and it is logical to assume that these walls were placed in a construction pit dug into a deposit, that the upper courses of the wall were backed by a separate wall core, that the interior had a floor and that this was later covered by an infill layer when the house was abandoned. None of these stratigraphic distinctions were visible; the wall appeared to be completely surrounded by a single homogeneous layer. In these circumstances, arbitrary decision-making had to be applied, e.g. the level of a floor layer could be projected from the distinctive layers around the hearth, and sand at the back of a wall would be distinguished from sand in front of that wall. However, in structures where the walls had been robbed, identifying stratigraphic sequences became very problematic. The overall complexity of the stratigraphy also led to problems concerning the stratigraphic integrity of the assemblages excavated. The Norse occupants of Bornais routinely disturbed substantial quantities of material as part of the construction of every house and ancillary building. In the Early Norse period the houses were built in pits that were up to a metre deep and even the later houses, which were not subterranean, involved the digging-out of deposits to create a level floor. Such

32

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Figure 28. The final group of students prepares for departure from Lochmaddy, 1999

Figure 29. The first group of students prepares for departure from Lochboisdale, 2000

construction techniques almost invariably truncated deposits laid down during earlier periods of activity, and the material dug out during house construction must have then been deposited elsewhere on the settlement, though it could conceivably have been carried a greater distance to manure the surrounding fields. Clearly such activity would result in the presence of considerable residual material and indeed layers of displaced material could be present in some parts of the site. This could seriously undermine the search for chronological trends in the data-set. This problem was particularly significant on mound 2A because the area excavated was a messy working area in the Norse period. A good example of the problems is seen in the distinctive distribution of comb-making debris in the Late Norse phase (Sharples and Dennis 2016). Two substantial assemblages of such material were found in spatially distinct areas of the site. One of these was in situ deposition on the floor of an ancillary building; the second group, of very similar material, occurred in the midden sequence on the east side of the settlement mound. The latter deposit was originally interpreted as contemporary dumping of waste on the periphery of the settlement mound. However, it was later noted that the floors of the comb-making workshop had been truncated by the

construction of a later house. It is therefore possible that the debris on the middens derived from this later phase of construction. In this case the chronological difference is not likely to be significant, but in other circumstances much earlier deposits could have been redeposited. Identifying redeposited materials is not simple, as the removal of one dump of sand from one area of the site to another is not necessarily going to have had a substantial impact on the preservation of this material. Finally, rabbits were a serious problem. The machair mounds at Bornais are the preferred home for large colonies of rabbits, as the mounds’ elevated position raises the burrows above the water table of the machair, and the extensive area of flooding that occurs in the winter (see Sharples 2012, figs 139, 140). The serious damage rabbits can do has been illustrated in previous volumes; on mound 3, for example, several sections were completely destabilised (Sharples 2005b, fig. 78). On mounds 2 and 2A the burrowing appeared to be less significant, but it was clear that the problem was subtly different. Old burrows in brown sand were difficult to observe when they had collapsed. They were only clearly visible when a distinctive layer of white sand, or colourful ash layers, had slumped into the burrow. Rabbits also cause objects

Bornais and the Norse settlement of the North Atlantic

33

Figure 30. The first group of students prepares for departure from Lochboisdale, 2003

Figure 31. A group of students who have just spent a rainy day finds washing in Cill Donnain (Kildonan) Museum, 2004

to move up and down the stratigraphy; indeed, redeposited surface artefact spreads, created by rabbits, were a major source of important material that helped identify these mounds as Norse (Parker Pearson 2012a). The possibility of the presence of essentially invisible collapsed burrows suggests that intrusive material may exist in any part of the site. Despite these problems, the benefits of excavating on the machair are enormous. Stratigraphy exists and it is relatively easy to distinguish chronological phases as these are often separated by the accumulation of windblown sand. Structural elements are preserved by this wind-blown sand and most artefacts and ecofacts are well preserved. Digging through the soft sediments is physically relatively easy, particularly compared to clay, and the loose sand enables extensive sieving that enhances the recovery of small objects. Given the choice, I would rather dig on machair than any other landscape in Britain.

Acknowledgements – N Sharples The fieldwork undertaken at Bornais would not have been possible without the support of many people. Financial

support was provided by Cardiff University and Historic Scotland. R McCullagh, L Brown and Rebecca Jones of Historic Scotland have all provided considerable help and P Ashmore supported the extensive programme of radiocarbon dating. Permission to excavate was given by the Bornais Grazing Committee through Ewan Steele, South Uist Estates through Tim Atkinson, and Scottish Natural Heritage through Mary Harman. Throughout the project we have received much invaluable support from the members of Comann Eachdraidh Uibhist a Deas, Kathy Bruce, the late James MacDonald and the late Calum MacDonald, the late Alasdair MacIntyre, the late Gill MacLean, the late Neil Macmillan, the late Effie MacMillan and Robert Tye. Mrs K Frazer, Mrs M MacIsaac, Mr and Mrs A J MacKinnon, Mrs M K Morrison and Col H Massey kindly provided accommodation. J MacDonald Builders, Norman MacAskill, Laing Motors and Uist Builders Construction provided technical help. The excavation of Bornais took place over many years and involved large numbers of staff and students, who have not been listed in the previous volumes. This volume seems an appropriate place to record my thanks to all the people involved.

34

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

1996 staff: Mike Hamilton, Chris Swanson and Jerry Bond. 1996 students: Matthew Blythe, Esme Fletcher, Susan Freebury, Elizabeth Gawith, Craig Harding, Jenny Hubbard, Lucy Oldnall, Richard Powell, Steve Trick, Dave Wyatt and Helen Yearsley. 1997 staff: Mike Hamilton, Mary Davis, Jerry Bond and Dave Wyatt. 1997 students: Joe Alderslade, E Bradshaw, Hannah Briggs, Nicola Collins, Sam Crawt, Joe Curtis, Steve Dobson, Jenny Hesford, Rachel Jackson, S Jones, Jenny MacAdam, Catriona MacVicar, James Marshall, Holly Pembridge, J Powell, Matthew Rees, Suzi Reeve, N Trussler, and Greg. 1999 supervisors: Nigel Blackamore, Dave Brewer, Nicola Collins, Joe Danks, Sam Emmett, Rachel Jackson, Suzi Reeve, Katinka Stentoft and Helen Smith. 1999 students (Figure 28): John Atkinson, James Cale, Leanne Cashen, Anna Clarke, Peter Cox, Sally Crosthwaite, Oliver Davis, Gareth Evans, Peta Elmore, Nigel Fuller, Joanne Hodges, Gillian Hughes, Laura Hughes, Stephen Jenner, Darren Lavender, Catherine Loxton, Nancy McCafferty, Craig Parkinson, Leanne Perkins, Samantha Porter, Jennie Louise Preston, Elaine Rawlings, Esther Roberts, Anthony Scrivener, Helen Stoyles, Katherine Stronach, Miho Tezuka, Rhiannon Thomas, Aisling Tuohy, Samantha Walker, George Wilkins, Kate Waddington and Eleanor Williams. 2000 staff: Mark Brennand, Suzi Reeve, Katinka Stentoft, Mary Davis, Sam Emmett, Helen Smith, Rachel Ballantyne and Mark Ward. 2000 students (Figure 29): Katherine Adams, Nicholas Bendy, Kathryn Boddy, Katya Bowen, Scott Bradburn, Catherine Brown, James Cale, Peter Cox, Zoe Davies, Angela Deiana, Rob Dunning, Timothy Fenwick, Kate French, James Gordon, Sarah Hammond, Benjamin Hawes, Gareth Hawkins, Lee Jones, Manon Jones, Anne Kilgour, Victoria Kwiatkowska, Richard Lewis, William Mitchell, Jane Morgan, Imogen Mowday, Naomi Morrow, Aaron Paul, Emily Plunkett, Samantha Porter, Esther Roberts, Anthony Scrivener, Soultana Siopi, Helen Stoyles, Katherine Stronach, Gareth Thomas, Rhiannon Thomas, Ian Trigg, Rowena Tucker, Sam Walker, Charlotte White and Anne Yumi. 2003 staff: Katherine Adams, Oliver Davis, Kate Waddington, Sam Emmett, Katinka Stentoft, Katy Stronach, Kelly Reed, J Read, Ruaraidh McKay and Liz Walters. 2003 students (Figure 30): Rosanna Bird, Jamie Birkin, Jacqueline Blackham, Martin Briggs, Rowan Burrows, Claire Button, Abigail Carter, Natalie Claridge, Luke Cradock Bennett, Lydia Cytlaw, Charlotte Dando, Jodie Dubber, Alexander Evans, Alice Evans, Joseph Goodbrand, Jennifer Hancock, Richard Hastings, Edward Hull, Jenna Jordan, Arthur Laloe, David Marcus, Samuel Meadows, Tom Money, Fiona Morris, Samantha

Nicholson, Rachel O’Hara, Janina Parol, Stephen Porter, Caroline Pudney, Claire Riley, Lowri Robshaw, Alexandra Rowe, Helen Royal, Richard Samuels, Alexandra Smith, Rachel Smith, Frances Taylor, Nicholas Vaughan, James Watson, Natalie Kershaw and D A Whittaker. 2004 staff: Katherine Adams, Luke Craddock-Bennett, Oliver Davis, Sam Emmett, Suzi Reeve, Alex Rowe, Kate Waddington, Nick Wells, Ruaraidh McKay and Kelly Reed. 2004 students (Figure 31): Melanie Arnold, Rory Barclay, Catherine Barton-Jones, Rhian Beak, Gemma Bradley, Nicole Bray, Judi Brown, Rebecca Brown, Rowan Burrows, Holly Cross, Yvonne Cunningham, David Dewberry, Nicholas Edwards, Jonathan Dudley, Alexander Evans, Louis Fonseca, Rebecca Gould, Fanny Hall, Jennifer Hancock, Matt Hanford, Katherine Harper, Cheralynne Hyde, Rebecca Jones, Jenna Jordan, Arthur Laloe, Fiona Morris, Frances O’Brien, Andrew Osmond, Kristian Prosser, Claire Riley, Andrew Seaman, Paul Tasker, Jolene Twomey and Naomi Woodward. A large number of students were involved in the post excavation processing but unfortunately I don’t have the information available to record all their names. However, central to the process were Yvonne Cunningham, Sarah Housley, Fiona Morris, Rachel Smith, Frances Taylor and Rhiannon Thomas and I am tremendously grateful for all their hard work. Many thanks to Ian Dennis, Laura Hogg and Kirsty Harding for producing the publication drawings and to John Morgan and Rachel Roberts for the artefact photography.

Notes 1 The terms Viking and Norse are defined below page 29. 2 There were other important discoveries relevant to the period, such as the St Ninian’s Isle treasure (Small et al. 1973), but these did not illuminate the nature of the settlement record. 3 Arguably Skaill in Orkney should be included on this list as the excavations were extensive and there is a good sequence fully published (Buteux 1997). However, the sites were written up after the excavator had died and the records were problematic, resulting in a fairly summary description of a complex site. 4 This paper contains the mistaken assumption that the South Uist houses were normally longhouses. This assumption was based on a small number of houses excavated by the SEARCH project at Airigh Mhuillin (Symonds 2000) that appear to be atypical. 5 The descriptions of the archaeological sequence for mounds 2 and 2A are abbreviated and amended versions of the detailed description presented in the data structure reports. In these reports all the contexts for each block are listed and described. A concise summary of the contexts is presented in the appendix to this volume.

2  The Late Iron Age and Early Norse activity on mound 2 – N Sharples and O Davis with S Reeve and K Stronach

This chapter will consider two major stratigraphic units (BA and BB), which span the Norse colonisation of the islands. Material culture and radiocarbon dates (see Chapter 11) unambiguously indicate Late Iron Age settlement was present on mound 2, dating to the seventh to eighth, and possibly early ninth, centuries cal AD. This was succeeded by an Early Norse settlement that dates from the middle of the tenth century cal AD. The presence of a chronological gap between these two phases of occupation is significant and suggests a hiatus that may be of considerable importance to our understanding of the colonisation process. The stratigraphy has been split into two phases, BA: the Late Iron Age deposits, and BB: the Early Norse deposits; these are the primary divisions for the discussion of the excavation evidence in this chapter.

The Late Iron Age occupation (BA) The Norse activity on mound 2 clearly rested upon an earlier Late Iron Age phase of activity which was encountered in a variety of areas. Access to most of these deposits was restricted by the overlying Norse stratigraphy, and in some cases it was only during the post-excavation phase that the deposits were identified as Late Iron Age. The only Late Iron Age deposits that were excavated on any scale were at the west end of House 1 (Figure 32), where several distinct stratigraphic blocks (BAA, BAB, BAC, BAD, BAE) were identified. Material culture clearly dates these blocks to the Late Iron Age and they were relatively unencumbered by Norse deposits. However, these deposits had not only been badly damaged by the later Norse activity

Figure 32. A plan of the excavated area on mound 2 showing the projected plan of House 1 (see Figure 22 for a key to the colours used). The bulk of the Late Iron Age deposits were found below the floor at the west end of House 1

36

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Figure 33. The location of the Late Iron Age pit (1533; BAA) identified in a test pit through the wind-blown sand layers surrounding House 1

but had also been eroded by natural processes and recent agricultural activity. Two other groups of contexts were identified as Late Iron Age with varying degrees of conviction: a discontin­ uous series of layers underneath the floor of House 2 (BAF), and a sequence of layers exposed in the northern section of the main trench (BAG). Together these deposits do little more than provide a glimpse of the pre-Norse settlement activity, but they suggest that more extensive remains survive in other areas of mound 2.

Early sand deposits (BAA) The northwest corner of the main excavation area appeared to contain very little archaeology. Excavation ceased almost immediately after deturfing when an extensive deposit of sterile sand (1519, 1936) was exposed. A small test trench, 1.0 m by 1.5 m, was excavated to assess the potential for earlier deposits. At a depth of 0.60 m, a shallow sub-

rectangular feature (1533; Figure 33), 0.69 m long by 0.40 m wide, and 0.17 m deep, with a yellow-brown fill (1532) was exposed and excavated. A radiocarbon date (SUERC-2691) was obtained from a cattle phalanx found in this fill. This has a radiocarbon age of 1275±35 BP, which calibrates to a date of cal AD 660–860, roughly contemporary with the deposits to the east (BAB, see below). Beneath 1533 was another thick yellow sand (1534). This was augured and, at a depth of 0.60 m, a mid-brown/grey sand (1947) was identified, which may indicate a buried soil. These deposits of sterile sand are best interpreted as wind-blown sand accumulating against the western edge of the settlement mound. The presence of occasional features and layers indicates intermittent activity on this unstable surface. A similar phenomenon was documented on the west side of mounds 1 and 3, where trenches revealed interleaving occupation deposits, soil horizons and sterile wind-blown sand layers (Sharples 2012, fig. 76; 2005b, fig. 78).

The Late Iron Age and Early Norse activity on mound 2

37

Figure 34. A plan of the occupation deposits belonging to the Late Iron Age occupation (BAA) exposed at the west end of the excavated area

Floor layers (BAB) The earliest excavated occupation deposits were identified at the base of the cut in which House 1 was built (Figures 34 and 35). Essentially a sondage roughly 4.70 by 1.50 m was dug through a sequence of thin, dark brown sand layers with burnt peat ash occupation deposits separated by yellow sand lenses. The earliest deposit lay on top of a thick layer of sterile sand (1936) and was a brown sand layer with charcoal (1925/1929). A radiocarbon sample (SUERC-2690) was obtained from the distal femur of a deer in this layer. This has a radiocarbon age of 1270±35 BP, which calibrates to a date of cal AD 660–870. 1925/1929 was sealed by a light brown sand (1928/1926) and then a compact dark brown sand (1927/1921) which had on its southern edge a dump of charcoal-rich sand (1924). Three radiocarbon samples were obtained from layer 1927; SUERC-22887 was obtained from a deer tibia and SUERC-22879 and SUERC-22880 were obtained

from grains of carbonised barley. SUERC-22887 and SUERC-22879 have radiocarbon ages of 1245±30 BP, which calibrate to a date of cal AD 670–890; SUERC-22880 has a radiocarbon age of 1270±30 BP, which calibrates to a date of cal AD 660–810. These deposits all sloped from the west down to the east, and though the western edge was truncated by later features, it appeared relatively sharp and straight where it was exposed. The occupation deposits were extended to the west by an unexcavated mid-brown sand (1943). The character of these layers suggests they were floor layers but there was no obvious indication of a structure defining their boundary.

Soil micromorphology – K Munro and K Milek Two samples were taken for micromorphological analysis from the Late Iron Age deposits (Figure 35). These samples

38

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Figure 35. Three sections through the Late Iron Age deposits under the floor of House 1; their location is marked on Figure 34. A–B. The west-facing section through the Late Iron Age layers (BAB, BAC), the floor of House 1 (BBC) and a remnant of the overlying fill layer (BBD). The underlying photos show two detailed views of this west-facing section. C–D. The north-facing section of the southern edge of the area excavated beneath House 1. E–F. A north-facing section through the Late Iron Age layers (BAB), the overlying fills (BAC) and the Early Norse pits (BBA). The underlying photo shows the east end of this section

The Late Iron Age and Early Norse activity on mound 2 were extracted in close proximity to one another, 10790 adjacent to but slightly higher than 10794. Brown sand 1925 survived as a thin layer (11 mm) at the bottom of sample 10794 (Figure 36B). It was a layer of medium calcareous (shell sand) and fine quartzite sand, decomposed organic matter, and fine mineral material, the latter of which was identified as peat ash based on its microcrystallitic aspect between crossed polars, and on inclusions of small aggregates of rubified fine material, minute charcoal fragments, phytoliths, and diatoms (Table 1). The fine material was present in small quantities throughout the layer, in the form of coatings around sand grains and intergrain microaggregates. However, there were also a number of thin lenses in which fine material created small bridges between sand grains (in a convex gefuric coarse-fine related distribution) and partially or totally infilled the voids between them. Such lenses all possessed a horizontal orientation, suggesting some vertical compression of the layer, and giving it a trampled appearance. The only notable inclusions in this layer were charred amorphous organic matter (1.4%). Located above 1925 was light brown sand 1926, a sterile homogeneous layer of medium calcareous and fine quartzite sand that contained no inclusions or fine organomineral material. The sand grains were subrounded to rounded and smooth, and were perfectly sorted, indicating that they were beach sands redeposited by wind. The overlying compact dark brown sand, 1921, was present in both samples (Figures 36A and B). In 10794, it (1921.2) was a relatively thick (46 mm) light brown layer of peat ash and a mixture of medium calcareous and fine quartzite sand. The majority of the sand grains were linked by bridges of ash in a convex gefuric coarsefine related distribution, giving the layer a bridged grain microstructure. The layer contained a number of inclusions: charred plant (3.7%), charred amorphous organic matter (3.3%), charred wood (2%), and shell (0.7%). Although the majority of ash in 1921.2 was from peat, there were a small number of aggregates and lenses of charcoal and wood ash as well, including two remarkably preserved aggregates of wood ash, still showing internal cell structures (Figure 36C and D). The preservation of wood cell structure in the ash aggregates, which are composed of micritic (silt-sized) calcium carbonate and are highly friable (Canti 2003), indicates that they were buried very quickly and were not subject to mechanical disturbance. When viewed under oblique incident light (OIL), layer 1921.2 as a whole displayed an orange appearance resulting from the burning of iron-rich peat. Its bright appearance was further enhanced by the presence of small aggregates of rubified fine material, which were the result of the oxidisation of iron under high temperatures. This peat ash fabric possessed an undifferentiated appearance when viewed between crossed polars (XPL), as the b-fabric was masked by iron oxides. The layer was relatively compacted (12% porosity) and the presence of

39

fine horizontal lenses of peat ash, wood ash and charcoal gave it a distinctly trampled appearance. It appears to be a substantial occupation deposit resulting from a constant, rapid and relatively uniform deposition of peat ash and charred remains. Within sample 10790, context 1921.1 was present in the bottom 9 mm of the sample (Figure 36A). This layer was similar to 1921.2 in that it was composed of medium calcareous and fine quartzite sand and a moderate quantity of peat ash and charred amorphous organic matter (4%), much of which was concentrated in a distinct horizontal lens. Located above 1921, and present in both samples, was a brown sand, 1924. In sample 10794, 1924.2 was a light brown layer of sand embedded in a dense matrix of peat ash with a porosity of only 10%. Most of this sand was composed of quartzite grains, although a small quantity of calcium carbonate grains (shell sand) was also present. The layer contained charred amorphous organic material (4.3%) and charred plant (3%). 1924.1, in sample 10790, had a much more significant quantity of charred plant material (12.7%), highly decomposed prior to burning, and therefore likely to be charred peat. The charred material was concentrated in horizontal lenses. Also present were a small quantity of charred amorphous organic material fragments (1%), and some charred wood (0.5%). The thickness of this context (35 mm) suggests a substantial period of occupation during which peat ash and charred material were deposited. The layer was compact (9% porosity), and was probably an occupation deposit, possibly a floor layer where a high quantity of ash was dumped or perhaps raked from a nearby hearth feature. To summarise, the micromorphological analysis con­ firms that the occupation deposits in block BAB are likely to have been floor layers. The occupation layers were dominated by peat ash and/or decomposed organic material, indicating that a large quantity of peat was being burned and deposited on the floor. Located in the upper portion of sample 10790 were four layers associated with ‘brown sand’ 1917, which belonged to block BAC (discussed below). 1917.4, the lowermost of these layers, was a relatively sterile medium calcareous and fine quartzite sand, with only a small amount of fine organo-mineral material (c/f100µm ratio of 98/2) with the characteristics of peat ash, which formed thin coatings and occasionally bridges between sand grains, and therefore seems to have been mainly illuvial in origin (i.e. it percolated into this layer from overlaying layers). There was also a small amount of charred amorphous organic material in this layer (1%), but since it was in the form of sub-rounded aggregates, it might have been brought into this layer by bioturbation. 1917.3, above, was a thin (10 mm) layer of light brown sand dominated by fine quartzite sand embedded in fine organo-mineral material (c/f100µm ratio of 60/40). This organo-mineral material was highly rubified, containing abundant reddened iron nodules, and charred amorphous

40

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Figure 36. Micromorphology samples from the Pictish deposits; see Figure 35 for the location of these samples. (a) Sample 10790; (b) Sample 10794; (c) and (d) aggregates of calcitic wood ash in 1921.2 showing remnants of cell structure; (e) amorphous organic matter and in situ phytoliths in 1917.2; (f) amorphous organic matter, diatoms [d], and iron nodules [Fe] in 1917.2, which support the identification of this layer as humified, uncharred peat

Micromorphology sample

11

46

1921.2

1925

16

1924.2

17

9

1921.1

1926

35

1917.3

1924.1

10

1917.2

22

7

Layer and microstratographic unit

1917.4

31

Microstructure

BG & IM

SG

BG

V

BG & V

V

SG

V

V

SG

74



95

78





90



100

60





97

73





85



Porosity 95

Sorting (%)



C/F(100 µm) ratio 70/30

100/0

50/50

45/55

50/50

40/60

98/2

60/40

50/50

96/4

N/A DB, D

CG, some SSFE

B, D

LB, D

B, D

LB, D

B, D

LB, D

CM

CG

SSP

CP & CG

CP & SSP

CM

SSP & CG

B, D

DB, D

C/F(100 µm) related distribution SSP & CG

Nature of fine material (PPL)

CM, some SSCE

Colour of fine material under OIL O

N/A

O

O

O

O

O

O

B

O

Birefringence fabric of fine material (XPL) C

N/A

UD

UD

UD

UD

C

C

UD

C

Charred amorphous organic matter 





















Charred plant 







Shell 





Burnt bone 







Unburnt bone 

















+







Phytoliths 













 

 







 







Diatoms

 

 

 

 



 

 

 



 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



Nature and birefringence of fine material: B – Brown, DB – Dark Brown, LB – Light Brown, YB – Yellow Brown, GB – Grey Brown, R – Red, O – Orange, Y – Yellow, D – Dotted, U – Undifferentiated, C – Crystallitic

Excremental pedofeatures 

 







 

 



 

Pedofeatures

Coarse/fine related distribution: CFE – Close Fine Enaulic, SSFE – Single-spaced Fine Enaulic, SSEE – Single-spaced Equal Enaulic, SSCE – Single-spaced Coarse Enaulic, DSFE – Double-spaced Fine Enaulic, DSCE – Double-spaced Coarse Enaulic, CP – Close Porphyric, SSP – Single-spaced Porphyric, CG – Convex Gefuric, CH – Chitonic, CM – Coarse Monic

Microstructure: IM – Intergrain Microaggregate, V – Vughy, BG – Bridged Grain, C – Channel, M – Massive, SG – Single Grain

Values: + Present in trace amounts,  5-10%,  >10-20%,  >20-30%,  >30-40%,  >40-50% (of visible area)

10794

10790

Maximum thickness in thin section (mm)

1917.1

Plant tissue

Organic and anthropogenic components

Amorphous organic matter

Mineral components

Charred wood

Groundmass

Fe nodules

Microstructure and porosity Fe pseudomorphs of organic matter

Table 1. The soil micromorphology descriptions of samples 10790 and 10794

The Late Iron Age and Early Norse activity on mound 2 41

42

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Figure 37. A plan of the possible Late Iron Age deposits underlying House 2 (BAF)

organic material (2.4%), and, where not masked by oxidised iron, phytoliths and diatoms were visible (20-30%,  >30-40%,  >40-50% (of visible area)

10789

10707

10706

10705

Maximum thickness in thin section (mm)

18881894

Omnivore excrement

Organic and anthropogenic components

Plant tissue

Mineral components

Charred plant

Groundmass

Fe nodules

Microstructure and porosity









Excremental pedofeatures

Table 13. The soil micromorphology descriptions of samples 101705, 10706, 10707 and 10789

The Late Iron Age and Early Norse activity on mound 2 69

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

70 A

B E

C-D

C

D

E

F

G

H

Figure 59. Micromorphology samples from the hearth of House 1. (a) Sample 10705, showing lenses of peat ash (pa), peat ash and charred peat (pa/ch), calcareous shelly sand (ss), shelly sand mixed with peat ash (ss/pa), very course sand (vcs), clay (c), and eggshell (es); (b) Sample 10706, showing similar types of layers as 10705, with the addition of charred peat (ch); (c) phosphatic nodule in pit fill 1911 containing degraded bone and phytoliths, interpreted as omnivore excrement (PPL); (d) same as (c), shown autofluorescing under UV light; (e) close-up of lenses of eggshell (es) and peat ash (pa) and a charred seed (s) in the hearth deposit in sample 10705; (f) eggshell in sample 10706; (g) lens of charred peat (ch) and burnt bone (bb) in sample 10706; (h) charred seed in sample 10706

The Late Iron Age and Early Norse activity on mound 2 (Table 13). There was one elongated, thin aggregate (3 mm long) of amorphous phosphatic material containing degraded bone fragments and phytoliths, which exhibited autofluorescence under UV light (Figure 59C and D). This is probably an omnivore excrement and, since it was adhering to adjacent sand grains, it appears to be in situ. The upper portion of sample 10705 contained a thick layer of hearth deposits (1888, 1889, 1890, 1891, 1892, 1893, and 1894). This material consisted of numerous lenses of peat ash, calcareous (shelly) sand, and clay, many of which were discontinuous (Figure 59A). The lenses observed in thin section did not conform to the contexts identified during excavation, and the lenses in samples 10705 and 10706 also differed, even though the samples were taken only 0.50 m apart. For this reason, no attempt was made to attribute specific context numbers to the lensed hearth deposits observed in thin section (Table 13; Figure 59A and B). In sample 10705, the sand embedded in these ash deposits was a mixture of medium calcareous and fine quartzite sand, the ratios of which varied between lenses. The eleven lenses dominated by peat ash contained only fine quartzite sand, while the lenses between them contained higher quantities of medium-sized calcareous shelly sand. The colour of the lenses varied between light brown and orange under plane polarised light (PPL), but all displayed an undifferentiated groundmass between crossed polars (XPL), due to the abundance of iron oxides. Two thin, horizontal clay lenses were also present (c. 4% of the entire deposit). One, a medium sandy clay, was located at the very bottom of the hearth deposit, suggesting a clay base might have been created during the construction of the hearth (Figure 59A). A second clay lens, this one a medium to coarse sandy clay mixed with fine gravel, was present at a higher level (Figure 59A); this appears to have been a prepared surface within the ash layers. The hearth deposit as a whole contained charred amorphous organic material (charred peat; 3.8%), charred plant tissues (3.7%), shell (2.5%) and eggshell fragments (2%) which were concentrated in a horizontal lens near the top of the layer (Figure 59E). Charred wood (1%) and burnt bone were present (1.7%); some of the burnt bone was completely white/grey in appearance, indicating that these fragments were heated to over 550°C. Although relatively well preserved, the hearth deposit had experienced some disturbance by earthworm bioturbation (especially the lower half), resulting in the formation and presence of various channels, chambers, and small excremental pedofeatures (0.4%). Sample 10706, also from the central hearth, also consisted of numerous lenses of ash and charred material that varied slightly in colour between light brown and orange due to varying quantities of oxidised iron and different ratios of calcareous and quartzite sand grains. Under oblique incident light (OIL), layers were bright orange in colour due to the presence of high quantities

71

of rubified fine material. Like the previously described hearth layers in sample 10705, the groundmass was undifferentiated when viewed between crossed polars, as it was masked by high levels of iron oxide. The sample as a whole contained a large quantity of charred peat (10.5%), much of which was concentrated in a thick horizontal lens that spanned the whole sample (Figure 59B and G). Much of this plant material lacked internal cell structures, indicating that it was already moderately humified prior to burning. There was also an eggshell fragment (1%; Figure 59F), fragments of burnt bone (1.7%; Figure 59,G), a fragment of charred coniferous wood (1%), and a charred seed (Figure 59H). These thin ash layers, which all exhibited horizontal bedding and sharp boundaries, and which contained intact elongated, horizontal charred peat and wood fragments, appear to represent an undisturbed, in situ accumulation and confirm the presence of a hearth within House 1. The high quantities of peat ash indicate that peat was the primary fuel throughout the use of the hearth, although small quantities of charred wood were also observed. The lenses of medium-sized calcareous shelly sand that were interspersed between peat ash layers throughout the hearth deposit (Figure 59A and B) probably represent hearth-cleaning events, or the intentional use of sand to dampen the fire. Sample 10707 was extracted from the floor layer to the north of the hearth, and comprised three contexts. The lowermost layer contained sediment from pit fill 1909 (BBA), a medium calcareous and fine quartzite sand with a small quantity of fine organo-mineral material in the form of coatings and intergrain microaggregates. It was very sterile and porous (23%), and the only notable inclusions were a few fragments of charred amorphous organic material (Table 13). This was similar to pit fill 1911, below the hearth. Located above this pit fill was floor 1525, a substantial (39 mm) layer of brown peat ash that exhibited bright orange colours under OIL due to the rubification of iron oxides. Like the other peat ash layers, 1525 contained an abundance of fine quartzite sand and a lack of calcareous shell sand, indicating that the peat was taken from a location off the machair. The layer contained charred amorphous organic material (4%) that can be interpreted as charred peat, as well as charred plant tissues (1%) including a charred seed, shell inclusions (0.9%), and isolated examples of burnt and unburnt bone fragments (trace amounts). These deposits represented a thick buildup of ash, resulting from the continuous burning of peat. The deposit had a very compacted appearance: it contained thin discontinuous lenses of particularly compacted peat ash with a massive structure (Figure 60A) and a single lens dominated by fine quartzite sand. A number of the charred inclusions possessed a horizontal orientation, suggesting the deposit was dumped or spread from a hearth and trampled upon. Located at the top of the sample was a thick (56 mm)

72

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Figure 60. Micromorphology samples from the floors of House 1. (a) Sample 10706, showing compacted lenses (darker zones indicated by arrows) within 1525 and 1941, and a sand lens (s) in 1525; (b) burnt bone in 1941; (c) amorphous phosphatic aggregate containing a phytolith (p), interpreted as omnivore excrement; (d) aggregate of decomposed peat in 1514; (e) amorphous phosphatic aggregate in 1514 containing a rounded and weathered bone fragment (b) and a phytolith (p), interpreted as omnivore excrement.

dark brown layer (1524) of medium calcareous and fine quartzite sand, with a notable quantity of dark brown, fine organo-mineral material. It contained small quantities of charred amorphous organic material (2.1%), charred plant tissues including seeds, unburnt bone (2%), burnt bone (1.9%; Figure 60B), and amorphous phosphatic aggregates, one of which contained an embedded phytolith, which may be interpreted as omnivore excrement (Figure 60C). The layer appeared to have been reworked by earthworms and other soil fauna, which created a number of small channels and vughs, and deposited excrements (0.4%).

The microstructure was a mixture of bridged grain and intergrain microaggregate structures, the latter probably the result of post-depositional bioturbation. Some of the fine material was concentrated in short horizontal lenses, which appeared to be occupation surfaces formed by trampling (Figure 60A). Sample 10789 was taken from the floor to the south of the hearth and contained two contexts. The lower was floor layer 1514, a medium calcareous and fine quartzite sand with some fine organo-mineral material. This fine material was in the form of coatings and small bridges between

The Late Iron Age and Early Norse activity on mound 2

73

Mammal

Fish

Pottery

Litres

Limpet

Winkle

Litres

Density

1

0

2.1 - 2.5

2-5

0.1 - 0.5

2.51 - 3

6 - 12

0.51 - 1

3.1 - 3.5

13 - 17

1.1 - 1.5

3.51 - 4

18 - 20

1.51 - 2

4.1 - 5

Figure 61. The distribution of materials from the above 10 mm residues from the occupation of House 1

sand grains, but there were no compacted lenses to indicate vertical compression by trampling, as seen in sample 10707. The layer contained burnt bone (2%), unburnt bone (2%), charred amorphous organic matter (2.4%), a charred seed, shell (1.2%), and a rounded aggregate of decomposed peat (Figure 60D). It also contained small rounded aggregates of amorphous phosphatic material, one of which contained a phytolith and a rounded and weathered bone fragment, which resembled omnivore excrement (Figure 60E). Also observed were two rounded aggregates of sandy clay (4%), similar to the clay lenses observed within the hearth deposit in sample 10705. The rounded shape of many of the inclusions suggests that this material was transported (e.g. dumped or swept) to this location, and there was no evidence captured in this thin section that 1514 had been trampled. Located above this floor deposit was ‘grey sand’ 1523,

interpreted as a sand infilling the house (BBD). This was a thick (67 mm) grey-brown layer composed of medium calcareous and fine quartzite sand with some fine organomineral material. It contained fragments of charred amor­ phous organic material (2.4%), charred wood (1.5%), and burnt bone (1.3%). Such inclusions were located sporadically throughout the layer, with no particular orientation. As such they gave the layer a mixed appearance, and indicated the sand was probably dumped. This dumped layer was comparable to the pit fills (1909, 1911) which were also material probably deliberately dumped in these pits. In summary, the floor deposits captured north of the hearth in sample 10707 included a layer of redeposited peat ash, and this layer, together with the brown sandy floor above it, showed evidence of trampling. In contrast, the floor deposits captured south of the hearth in sample 10789 did not show any evidence of trampling, and this

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

74

Pottery

Unburnt bone

Fish

Charcoal

BOM

Slag

Spirorbis

Egg

Crab

Density 0

10.1 - 15

0

20.1 - 30

0.1 - 1

15.1 - 20

0.1 - 1

30.1 - 40

1.1 - 4

20.1 - 25

1.1 - 5

40.1 - 50

4.1 - 7

25.1 - 30

5.1 - 10

50.1 - 100

7.1 - 10

30.1 - 35

10.1 - 20

Figure 62. The distribution of materials recovered from the 2 to 10 mm residues from the occupation of House 1

The Late Iron Age and Early Norse activity on mound 2

Bone

75

1 fragment 5 fragments

10 fragments

Pot 1 sherd 5 sherds

10 sherds

0

2m

Figure 63. The distribution of pottery and bone on the floor of House 1

part of the floor appears to contain mainly redeposited material.

Spatial distributions – N Sharples The distribution of the material recovered from the greater than 10 mm residues from samples taken from the floor of House 1 are depicted in Figure 61. The coverage is fairly complete but an L-shaped gap exists where the floor was removed during the initial excavation in 2000. The mammal bones and limpets were concentrated in the floor to the north of the hearth, but winkles were largely absent from this area and were instead concentrated in the south side and west end of the house. Fish bone and pottery were also concentrated to the west and to the south of the hearth, though these distributions are based on limited numbers. The distribution of the material from the 2–10 mm residues from the floor of House 1 is shown in Figure 62. There are clear differences in the distribution of certain materials. High densities of charcoal, unburnt bone and fish were concentrated on the south side of the hearth, with fish more concentrated towards the west end of the house. Burnt bone and B.O.M. were, in contrast, concentrated on the north side of the house close to the hearth. Some of the highest concentrations of eggshell also came from this area, though there were concentrations in other areas. Pottery and Spirorbis have less distinctive distributions, but these seem to be more like the fish bone distribution, with a significant concentration of Spirorbis at the west end of the house.

Animal bone and pottery distributions – N Sharples The quantity of large sherds of pottery and animal bone recovered by hand from the floor layers 1514 and 1525 is very low, only 28 bones and 48 pot sherds. The bulk of the assemblages of both materials came from context 946, which was part of the House 1 floor found under the House 2 floors in quad 5. This suggests that the density of animal bones and pottery increased towards the centre of the house. The distribution of the bone and pot recovered from the west end of House 1 is depicted in Figure 63. Both materials were concentrated in the southwest corner of the floor where most of the steatite vessel fragments were also located. Very few bone fragments and no pottery were recovered from the floor to the north of the hearth, though bones were recovered from the hearth layer 1272. Whilst both materials came from generally the same area of the floor, it is clear that they were not deposited at the same time as their locations were subtly different; three dumps of potsherds were recorded and only one of these dumps produced a single fragment of bone.

Artefact distributions – N Sharples The location of most of the artefacts recovered from the floor of House 1 was recorded and Figure 64 depicts the distribution of the finds on the floor at the west end of House 1. The distribution reveals two clusters of objects, one in the southwest corner of the house and the other around the ashy trample in the centre of the house. There were also a few iron nails and roves scattered across the floor.

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

76

410/220

4110

1525 5096

4943

3975 5198

3881

1887 3974

1514

5113

5160 5109

5115

410/215 5066 7129 7135

7131 7132 7133 7134

5102

0

Iron

Nail

Rove

2m

Holdfast Lead cross Steatite Whetstone

Stone object Horn core

Figure 64. The distribution of artefacts on the floor (BBC) of House 1

The cluster in the southwest corner of the house com­ prised the smashed remains of several steatite vessels (Figures 64 and 65) and immediately to the north of these the cluster of pot sherds (Figure 63). Both the ceramics and the steatite vessels included large pieces and some of the vessels are represented by substantial quantities of sherds, though none are complete. It seems unlikely that these are simply the broken remains of vessels in use in the house. The clusters of steatite and ceramic fragments may instead represent the storage of raw materials that could be recycled for other purposes. This would be particularly true of the steatite as this became increasingly rare in later periods, when steatite vessel fragments were reused as weights, beads and spindle whorls. The cluster of finds around the hearth was diverse (Figure 64), and included steatite vessel fragments, a whetstone

(5115), a worked horn core (3881) and a small lead cross (5160). There is no obvious reason to assume these finds signify deliberate deposition, but nor should it be assumed that all small objects were accidental losses. The location of this cluster and the large quantities of material from the small areas of the House 1 floor excavated to the east, under House 2, suggest that the floor contained a large assemblage of artefacts similar in importance to the assemblage from House 2 (see Chapter 4).

Carbonised plant distributions – J Summers and J Bond Fifteen samples from 67 litres of soil were examined from the House 1 occupation; 13 came from the floor and two from the hearth. The hearth samples were relatively

The Late Iron Age and Early Norse activity on mound 2

77

unproductive. The samples were chosen to analyse the distribution of crop remains across the floor and in Figure 66 the data is presented in five categories; barley, oats, rye, flax and wild seeds. The major crop species – barley and oats – were concen­ trated on the north side of the house, with partic­ularly large concentrations in samples 7765 and 7785 (for sample locations, see Figure 57). Wild seeds were more evenly distributed across the house floor, with no substantial concentrations of particular species. Rye and flax occurred sporadically, with no significant obvious patterns.

House 1 infilling (BBD)

Figure 65. Large fragments of steatite vessels lying on the floor (BBC) of House 1

Hordeum

Overlying the floor at the west end of House 1 was a fine, dark grey-brown sand (Figure 35). Soil micromorphology (see above) suggests this was not a natural deposit, caused by the collapse and abandonment of the structure, but that the abandoned house was infilled with dumped sand. The fill was similar to the fills of the structural posts (1834, 1836, 1838, 1851, 1853 and 1855), which suggests the posts were removed at the end of the occupation and the resulting post holes filled in at the same time as the house. During excavation, the infilling at the west end of House 1 was given several different context numbers (1051, 1235, 1512, 1523, 1524) and the equivalent layer under House 2 included 1263 in quad 2, 1257 in quad 3, 587 in quad 5 and 1003 in quad 8. The infill layer produced

Avena Density Numbers 0

20.1 - 30

0.1 - 1

30.1 - 40

1.1 - 5

40.1 - 50

5.1 - 10

50.1 - 100

10.1 - 20

Secale

Linum

100.1 - 150

Wild

Figure 66. The distribution of the main categories of carbonised plant remains on the floor of House 1

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

78

405/220

410/220

2947 2944

3789 3788

5000

5091

3980

5001 4993 5004

3955

2903

2958

2959

2927

2928

3978

3966

5088

5003

4990

2268

3528

5013 4996

3785

3962

3952

4997

5089

2983 3786

2267 3868

4882

3847 1047 3725

4897

4992 3848 3869

4991 4947 4944 4959 4954 4948

405/213

0

4956

410/213

2m

Iron

Stone

Antler/Bone

Horn

Figure 67. The distribution of artefacts from the infilling of House 1 (BBD)

large quantities of finds and the distribution of artefacts within this infill layer is depicted in Figure 67. Most of these finds came from the northern half of the building and densities were high in the truncated layers to the east, beneath House 2.

Truncated remnants of an Early Norse structure (BBE) Above the Late Iron Age deposits (BAG) behind the House 2 north wall were some layers and features which the ceramic evidence suggests belonged to the Early Norse occupation of the mound (Figure 39). These layers began with a thick layer of brown sand (1067), which was covered by a grey-brown sand (1032) that surrounded a hearth. The hearth was defined by a large upright stone on the west side, which had been scorched, and a compact layer of reddish-brown sand (1068). It was truncated to the south and ran into the section to the north. The material from these layers was mixed, with a Late Iron Age flaring rim vessel coming from 1032 and a Norse vessel from 1067.

Sampling data – N Sharples One hundred and seventy-three samples, totalling 1943.9 litres of soil, were taken and processed from the Early Norse (BB) deposits (Table 14): • • • •

21 samples, 298 litres of soil, came from the found­ ation pits (BBA); 52 samples, 299 litres of soil, from the structural feat­ ures (BBB); 82 samples, 607.9 litres of soil, from the occupation layers (BBC); 18 samples, 739 litres of soil, from the infilling deposits (BBD).

The large number of samples from the structural features (BBB) indicates the presence of a large number of small volume samples from post holes and stake holes. The 2–10 mm residues were examined from 51 samples, 634.8 litres of soil (Table 15): • • •

11 sample, 125 litres of soil, from BBA; 28 samples, 198 litres of soil, from BBC; 12 samples, 311.8 litres of soil, from BBD.

2256

2 samples

9442

2 samples

3 samples

12119

Dark brown sand

Hearth layer

Hearth layer

Central area

Sub-total

2 samples

3 samples

18 samples

Quad 2

Grey sand

173 samples

1512/23/24

3 samples

Quad 3

Total

1263

1257

1003

6 samples

Quad 8

587

4 samples

Sub-total

1893/94

1272

46

1525

Quad 5

82 samples

2268

2775

25 samples

Floor north

1514

44 samples

Floor south

946

4 samples

Sub-total

Floor south

52 samples

11286

1884

2 samples

Stones

various

2 samples

Post hole central area

various

various

5 samples

9 samples

Stake hole N

various

various

1829

various

Stake hole S

9 samples

6 samples

Post hole misc

Stake hole H

5 samples

10320

Post hole blue line S

Light brown sand

various

various

4 samples

4 samples

Post hole end line

various

various

3 samples

2 samples

Post hole north line

Post hole south line

Post hole blue line N

various

Sub-total

5 samples

SW group pits

various

various

various

1849

Context

21 samples

7 samples

3 samples

East group pits

4 samples

Early pits

NW group pits

2 samples

Brown sand

Sample

BB

BBD

BBD

BBD

BBD

BBD

BBD

BBC

BBC

BBC

BBC

BBC

BBC

BBC

BBC

BBC

BBB

BBB

BBB

BBB

BBB

BBB

BBB

BBB

BBB

BBB

BBB

BBB

BBB

BBB

BBA

BBA

BBA

BBA

BBA

BBA

Block

1943.9

739.0

98.0

52.5

158.5

161.0

269.0

607.9

6.5

7.2

6.0

21.0

1.5

105.3

263.4

197.0

299.0

77.0

17.0

14.0

6.7

2.2

6.1

34.5

37.0

13.5

10.0

21.0

9.0

51.0

298.0

72.0

66.0

56.0

63.0

41.0

Litres

129

60

1

8

14

6

31

43

0

0

1

2

0

1

18

21

17

6

0

1

0

0

3

2

3

1

0

0

0

1

9

1

2

6

0

0

no.

0.07

0.08

0.01

0.15

0.09

0.04

0.12

0.07

0.00

0.00

0.17

0.10

0.00

0.01

0.07

0.11

0.06

0.08

0.00

0.07

0.00

0.00

0.49

0.06

0.08

0.07

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.02

0.03

0.05

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

density

Fish

845

370

32

13

71

100

154

312

7

11

3

0

0.0

20

95

176

78

11

7

8

2

0

3

12

4

6

1

6

5

13

85

30

14

22

12

7

no.

Unburnt bone

261

128

9

10

23

34

52

112

2

0

0

6

0.0

38

16

50

8

1

1

2

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

3

0

13

1

6

4

2

0

no.

Burnt bone

1106

498

41

23

94

134

206

424

9

11

3

6

0

58

111

226

86

12

8

10

2

0

3

13

4

6

1

6

8

13

98

31

20

26

14

7

no.

0.57

0.67

0.42

0.44

0.59

0.83

0.77

0.70

1.38

1.53

0.50

0.29

0.00

0.55

0.42

1.15

0.29

0.16

0.47

0.71

0.30

0.00

0.49

0.38

0.11

0.44

0.10

0.29

0.89

0.25

0.33

0.43

0.30

0.46

0.22

0.17

density

All mammal bone

314

112

15

6

27

10

54

111

5

0

0

0

0

4

32

70

32

6

4

2

1

0

0

3

7

0

2

3

0

4

59

17

2

20

6

14

no.

0.16

0.15

0.15

0.11

0.17

0.06

0.20

0.18

0.77

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.04

0.12

0.36

0.11

0.08

0.24

0.14

0.15

0.00

0.00

0.09

0.19

0.00

0.20

0.14

0.00

0.08

0.20

0.24

0.03

0.36

0.10

0.34

density

Pottery

16

10

0

0

6

3

1

4

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

3

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

no.

Slag

1190

519

30

14

124

101

250

481

7

3

1

4

0

29

40

397

149

85

2

13

2

0

4

12

4

1

7

3

2

14

41

3

3

18

14

3

no.

0.61

0.70

0.31

0.27

0.78

0.63

0.93

0.79

1.08

0.42

0.17

0.19

0.00

0.28

0.15

2.02

0.50

1.10

0.12

0.93

0.30

0.00

0.66

0.35

0.11

0.07

0.70

0.14

0.22

0.27

0.14

0.04

0.05

0.32

0.22

0.07

density

Limpet

1580

778

30

15

125

254

354

630

7

9

0

0

1

6

54

553

106

52

1

24

1

0

0

7

5

0

0

3

0

13

66

24

7

24

7

4

no.

0.81

1.05

0.31

0.29

0.79

1.58

1.32

1.04

1.08

1.25

0.00

0.00

0.67

0.06

0.21

2.81

0.35

0.68

0.06

1.71

0.15

0.00

0.00

0.20

0.14

0.00

0.00

0.14

0.00

0.25

0.22

0.33

0.11

0.43

0.11

0.10

density

Winkle

Table 14. The material identified in sorting the greater than 10 mm residue from the Early Norse deposits (BB)

1

21

14

0

0 0

0

5

2

7

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0 0

0

0

2

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

3

0

2

1

0

0

no.

Charcoal

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

no.

Egg

5

1

1

0

0

0

0

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

1

0

1

0

0

no.

Coprolite

26

10

1

1

6

0

2

5

0

0

0

0

0

2

3

0

3

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

8

2

1

5

0

0

no.

B.O.M.

The Late Iron Age and Early Norse activity on mound 2 79

10731

Sub-total

527

Total

1003

2 samples

8149

12 samples

587

51 samples

BBD

1257

9472

3 samples

BB

BBD

BBD/BCB

BBD

BBD

BBD

BBD

1524

1263

7256

2 samples

BBD

BBD

1512

BBC

BBC

1523

28 samples

7206

1525

Sub-total

9 samples

BBC

7228

946

1514

2 samples

BBC

BBA

BBA

1907

Sub-total

17 samples

11 samples

BBA

BBA

BBA

BBA

BBA

BBA

BBA

BBA

BBA

Block

1886/1896

1859

1873

10395

10403

2 samples

1856

1857

10391

10392

1846

1592

1580

10166

10334

1551

10128

10347

Context

Sample

959

501

21

57

246

26

52.5

31

32

35

333

59

92

182

125

2

20

19

37

2

2

23

13

4

3

Litres

634.8

311.8

21

43

106.5

13

30.25

31

32

35

198

49.5

88

60.5

125

2

20

19

37

2

2

23

13

4

3

Litres Sorted

1085

284

2

50

95

28

19

51

9

30

397

42

172

183

404

0

92

7

5

9

0

273

9

7

2

no.

1.71

0.91

0.10

1.16

0.89

2.15

0.63

1.65

0.28

0.86

2.01

0.85

1.95

3.02

3.23

0.00

4.60

0.37

0.14

4.50

0.00

11.87

0.69

1.75

0.67

density

Pottery

6788

4291

67

595

703

104

348

218

2083

173

1961

310

929

722

536

1

141

60

70

11

11

134

63

27

18

no.

10.69

13.76

3.19

13.84

6.60

8.00

11.50

7.03

65.09

4.94

9.90

6.26

10.56

11.93

4.29

0.50

7.05

3.16

1.89

5.50

5.50

5.83

4.85

6.75

6.00

density

Unburnt bone

2708

1199

25

214

400

54

269

92

108

37

1209

535

297

377

300

4

6

51

64

7

8

115

10

22

13

no.

4.27

3.85

1.19

4.98

3.76

4.15

8.89

2.97

3.38

1.06

6.11

10.81

3.38

6.23

2.40

2.00

0.30

2.68

1.73

3.50

4.00

5.00

0.77

5.50

4.33

density

Burnt bone

4878

1677

48

562

419

47

315

138

54

94

2259

115

1649

495

942

3

85

167

108

34

39

440

31

16

19

no.

7.68

5.38

2.29

13.07

3.93

3.62

10.41

4.45

1.69

2.69

11.41

2.32

18.74

8.18

7.54

1.50

4.25

8.79

2.92

17.00

19.50

19.13

2.38

4.00

6.33

density

Fish

2479

809

71

153

173

27

109

64

130

82

1108

119

900

89

562

0

55

114

168

13

30

96

43

7

36

no.

3.91

2.60

3.38

3.56

1.62

2.08

3.60

2.06

4.06

2.34

5.60

2.40

10.23

1.47

4.50

0.00

2.75

6.00

4.54

6.50

15.00

4.17

3.31

1.75

12.00

density

Charcoal

3886

1125

39

291

334

54

109

106

86

106

1819

787

594

438

942

4

116

32

298

16

10

326

30

64

46

no.

6.12

3.61

1.86

6.77

3.14

4.15

3.60

3.42

2.69

3.03

9.19

15.90

6.75

7.24

7.54

2.00

5.80

1.68

8.05

8.00

5.00

14.17

2.31

16.00

15.33

density

B.O.M.

180

88

6

18

11

1

5

44

3

0

79

8

45

26

13

1

0

2

5

0

0

0

0

0

5

no.

0.28

0.28

0.29

0.42

0.10

0.08

0.17

1.42

0.09

0.00

0.40

0.16

0.51

0.43

0.10

0.50

0.00

0.11

0.14

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

1.67

density

Slag

23

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

0

2

0

20

0

20

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

no.

0.04

0.00

0.00

0.02

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.01

0.00

0.02

0.00

0.16

0.00

1.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

density

Crab

Table 15. The material identified in sorting the 2 to 10 mm residue from the Early Norse deposits (BB)

1287

545

10

82

129

123

88

57

25

31

681

241

266

174

61

0

5

4

29

0

0

12

11

0

0

no.

2.03

1.75

0.48

1.91

1.21

9.46

2.91

1.84

0.78

0.89

3.44

4.87

3.02

2.88

0.49

0.00

0.25

0.21

0.78

0.00

0.00

0.52

0.85

0.00

0.00

density

Egg

density

0.26

3

241

9

0

0

3

0

1

2

0

0.38

0.03

0.00

0.00

0.03

0.00

0.03

0.06

0.00

0.09

0.82

13 162

1.69

0.00

0.56

0.00

0.20

0.79

0.19

0.00

0.00

0.61

2.31

0.00

0.00

149

0

70

0

4

15

7

0

0

14

30

0

0

no.

Spirorbis

33

15

0

0

6

0

3

0

6

0

18

1

15

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

no.

Coprolite

80

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

The Late Iron Age and Early Norse activity on mound 2 The average densities of material recovered from the above 10 mm residues are depicted in Figure 68. Winkles were the most common find (0.81 shells/litre) but limpets (0.61 shells/litre) and bone (0.57 frag/litre) were also frequent discoveries. The highest densities of limpets (0.79 and 0.70 shells/litre) and winkles (1.04 shells/litre and 1.05 shells/litre) came from the occupation layers (BBC) and the infilling deposits (BBD), whereas the foundation pits (BBA) and structural post holes had very low densities. Pot (0.16 frag/litre) and fish bone (0.07 frag/litre) were present, but in low quantities and the preponderance of material in the floor (BBC) and infill deposits (BBD) is less significant for these materials; the density of pot was highest (0.20 frag/litre) in the pre-construction pits (BBA). The average density of the material recovered from the 2–10 mm residues is depicted in Figure 69. The highest densities of finds from this phase clearly came from the house (BBC), with the exception of the pottery where the highest densities came from the foundation pits; the highest density came from the fill (1592) of pit 1591. The most common finds in BBC were fish bones (11.4 frag/ litre) with unburnt bone (9.9 frag/litre) and B.O.M. (9.2 frag/litre) the next most common. Burnt bone (6.1 frag/ litre) and charcoal (5.6 frag/litre) were present in most

2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0

fish

mammal BBA

pot BBB

limpet BBC

winkle

BBD

Figure 68. A comparison of the densities of the major finds categories from the above 10 mm residues in the deposits associated with the Early Norse occupation

81

samples, but pottery was rare in BBC (2.0 frag/litre) with a density less than that of eggshell (3.4 frag/litre).

Pottery – K Harding and N Sharples A total of 849 sherds, weighing 5,996g was recovered from the Early Norse deposits (Table 16). The highest number of sherds was recovered from the infill BBD (283 sherds, 2,156), though the foundation pits (BBA) produced a similar number of sherds (281 sherds, 1514g) these were much smaller fragments. The House 1 floors (BBC) yielded a significant assemblage (126 sherds, 1,414g); but quantities from the structural features (BBB) and the truncated remains (BBE) are small (49 and 109 sherds, 360g and 533g respectively). The highest average weight per sherd is seen in the assemblage from the floor layers (BBC), indicating that sherds from the floor are substantial and were not trampled during the occupation of the house. This is reminiscent of the House 2 floor assemblage (see Chapter 4), but contrasts with almost all the other house floors excavated on mounds 2 and 2A. The assemblages from the structural features (BBB) and the infill deposits (BBD) have similar average weights. Only four of the foundation pits (1858, 1591, 1872, 1908; BBA) produced large assemblages of pottery. These pits were located in three of the four different pit clusters. The largest assemblage from BBA came from the fill (1592) of the large cylindrical pit (1591). The ceramics from this pit include a couple of rim sherds made from a hard and fine vessel but the largest part of the pit assemblage appears to be the remains of a Late Iron Age vessel distinguished by a flaring rim with tongue and groove construction (not illustrated). This was probably residual as the pit was cut through Late Iron Age deposits and might have been immediately infilled with the excavated deposits. The assemblage from the structural features (BBB) was widely dispersed and all but one context produced fewer than six sherds; post hole fill 1549 produced an assemblage of 17 sherds, which includes an unusually fine 4

12 10

3

8

BBA

6

BBC

2

BBD

4

1

2 0

pot

unburnt bone

burnt bone

fish

charcoal

BOM

Slag

0

crab

spirorbis

egg

Figure 69. A comparison of the densities of the major finds categories from the 2 to 10 mm residues in the deposits associated with the Early Norse occupation

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

82

Table 16. The pottery from the Early Norse deposits (BB) Block

Context

Weight (g)

Sherds

Ave wght

BBA

1297

90

30

3.00

Rim

BBA

1535

44.1

6

7.35

BBA

1552

59.5

9

6.61

1

BBA

1588

5.9

1

5.90

1

BBA

1592

421.6

99

4.26

7

Base

Body

Misc.

1

3

26

1

2

3

2

6

Platter

Sooted

2 1

3

7

82

13

BBA

1596

22.7

1

22.70

1

BBA

1845

48.4

4

12.10

1

3

1

BBA

1846

218.9

14

15.64

1

12

7

BBA

1857

3.3

1

3.30

BBA

1859

5.3

1

5.30

BBA

1861

2.5

1

2.50

1

1 1

1 1

BBA

1863

8.8

2

4.40

2

1871

52.3

11

4.75

11

BBA

1872

23.8

13

1.83

1

BBA

1873

239

33

7.24

3

1

5

BBA

1877

9.7

1

9.70

1

BBA

1886

39.5

3

13.17

3

12

1

24

5

BBA

1902

19.9

3

6.63

1

1

BBA

1909

199.5

48

4.16

5

1

1

41

BBA

Sub-total

1514.7

281

5.39

20

7

29

224

BBB

1286

2.7

1

2.70

BBB

1313

7.1

1

7.10

1549

81.7

17

4.81

BBB

1593

43.2

3

14.40

BBB

1806

26.2

1

26.20

BBB

1813

20.1

3

6.70

BBB

1818

3.4

1

3.40

BBB

1820

3.5

1

3.50

BBB

1826

41.1

4

10.28

BBB

1828

19.1

1

19.10

1

1

BBA

BBB

Fine

4

1

1

1 4

1

41

2

1 1 2

1 1

14

3

2

1

2

2

1

1 1

1 1 1

1

2

1

1

BBB

1832

8

2

4.00

2

BBB

1834

13.9

5

2.78

5

BBB

1836

16.5

1

16.50

1

BBB

1838

19.6

3

6.53

1

BBB

1847

31.2

1

31.20

1 1

BBA/BBB

1849

18.4

1

18.40

BBB

1853

2.4

1

2.40

BBB

1855

2.6

2

1.30

1

BBB

Sub-total

360.7

49

7.36

6

BBC

946

146.4

66

BBC

1272

44.4

BBC

1319

9.5

1

1

1

1 1 2

9

32

2.22

2

1

63

8

5.55

1

1

3

3.17

1 0

10

0

2

6 3

BBC

1514

1205.2

48

25.11

BBC

1893

9.2

1

9.20

10

3

21

15

14

BBC

Sub-total

1414.7

126

11.23

10

6

23

87

0

17

BBD

43

327

61

5.36

7

4

3

46

1

10

1

BBD

44

37.1

4

9.28

1

BBD

46/47/48

8.3

1

8.30

1

BBD

527

18.9

3

6.30

1

3

1

2

1

BBD

587

70.9

32

2.22

2

2

28

2

917

41.4

13

3.18

1

1

0

11

1

5

11

30

BBD

1003

24.2

11

2.20

1051

882.8

49

18.02

3

BBD

1235

63.3

12

5.28

1

BBD

1257

132.7

14

9.48

1

BBD

1263

4.3

3

1.43

1

1

1

BBD BBD

1

1

11

1

1

11

11

1

11

2

2

1

BBD

1512/1523/1524

545.4

80

6.82

8

2

7

63

BBD

Sub-total

2156.3

283

7.62

27

13

24

218

BBE

1032

333.1

66

5.05

4

6

56

1

9 1

40

1

BBE

1067

200.7

43

4.67

4

6

33

4

1

BBE

Sub-total

533.8

109

4.90

8

0

12

89

0

4

1

71

28

98

650

2

113

BBD/BBE

524

15.6

1

15.60

BB

Total

5995.8

849

7.06

1

1 5

The Late Iron Age and Early Norse activity on mound 2 BBA

83

BBC

5253

8723

5073+5075

BBD

BBE

8725

5098

3445

8724 0

20cm

Figure 70. Feature sherds associated with the occupation of House 1

rounded rim of Norse character. A convex bowl rim came from the fill (1836) of a wall post (1835). Sherds with tongue and groove construction indicate residual material present in 1594, 1828 and 1847. The distribution of the pottery from the floor of House 1 has already been discussed (see above). The principal vessel from this floor was a large bowl with a rounded, slightly incurving rim, decorated with evenly spaced diagonal slash marks (Figure 70, 5073+5075). The rim decoration is unusual for a Norse vessel as is the wall thickness at the junction between the base and sides of the vessel. The most substantial assemblage from the abandon­ ment deposits (BBD) came from brown sand 1051. This particular context may have included material derived from the House 1 floor, and much of the ceramic assemblage could derive from the large vessel discussed above. The pottery from the truncated layers (BBE) includes several sherds from a Late Iron Age vessel in grey sand (1032), but a slightly inturned rim sherd (Figure 70, 3445) from the immediately preceding brown sand (1067) is more likely to be Norse in date.

Measurements – N Sharples Assemblages of animal bone and pottery from 13 of the foundation pits (BBA), five contexts from the house floor (BBC) and four contexts from infill deposits (BBD) were measured to provide some assessment of fragmentation. The assemblage from the structural features (BBB) was not large enough to justify examination. The assemblage from the foundation pits (BBA) is small and is dominated by material from three pits, 1858, 1872 and 1908. A feature of the assemblage from the foundation pits is the high proportions of pot to bone: this is 53% for the overall assemblage but in the fill from 1858 the pottery is 90% and in fill 1909 it is 74%. The size of the bone assemblage from the three pits is quite variable; fills 1297 and 1909 have modes between 20 and 30 mm but the curve drops sharply, whereas fill 1873 has a mode between 10 and 20 mm, but a less dramatic decline. The pottery assemblage in all three pits drops from a mode between 10 and 20 mm, and the fall in the 1909 curve is particularly sharp.

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

84 40

a small quantity of 17 objects came from the found­ ation pits (BBA); • 19 objects came from the structural features (BBB); • a more substantial assemblage of 79 objects came from the floor layers (BBC); • the largest assemblage of 145 objects came from the infill deposits (BBD); • there were three artefacts in BBE. •

Bone

35 30 % 25 20 15 10 5 0

0 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

BBA

8

9 10 11 12 13 14 15+

BBC

45

BBD

Pot

40 35 30 %

25 20 15 10 5 0

0 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9 10 11 12 13 14 15+

Figure 71. The size distribution of the pottery and bone from the Early Norse blocks

A comparison of the overall assemblage (Figure 71) from the foundation pits (BBA), the floor layers (BBC) and the infill deposits (BBD) indicates the unusual nature of the deposits from the foundation pits (BBA). The assemblages from BBC and BBD have much lower proportions of pottery (17% and 10%). The pottery from the floor layers (BBC) and the infill deposits (BBD is generally better preserved, and there are some large sherds in both assemblages. The animal bones have somewhat similar patterns, with those from the floor and infill layers being better preserved, though there are some large bones from the pits and the floor. These variations suggest that the foundation pits included a lot of derived deposits. The small size suggests fragmentation through redeposition and this is particularly likely as the Late Iron Age pottery is less robust than the Norse ceramics. However, the large bones suggest there were some placed deposits and this was observed during excavation (Figure 52).

Artefacts – A Pannett, R Smith and N Sharples A total of 263 artefacts were recovered from the Early Norse activity on mound 2 (Table 17):

The only context in the foundation pits (BBA) to produce an assemblage of finds (Figure 72) was the fill (1592) of a large cylindrical pit (1591). This produced cut bone (5367), a steatite bead (5292) and a steatite spindle whorl (5263), the head of an iron ring-headed pin (5207), fragments of a comb side-plate decorated with ring-and-dot motif (5269) and a whale bone chopping board (5324; Figure 73). The comb side-plate (5269) may be residual as it appears to be a Late Iron Age comb type, and fragments from a similar comb were found in the deposits truncated by this pit (see BAB, above). Other notable finds include a lead spindle whorl (5172) from pit 1553, and a bone plaque (5297; Figure 72) from pit 1858. The six pieces of flint recovered from BBA contexts comprise two flake fragments, one piece of microdebitage and three chunks; one chunk is burnt. One of the flake fragments has been roughly retouched along one edge; this is non-invasive and the result of friction. Four of these flints came from fill layer 1886. The objects from the structural features (BBB) were widely distributed and no feature contained more than two objects (Table 17). The assemblage is not distinctive and comprises iron holdfasts and a nail, and small fragments of iron and flint. The only object that may be regarded as significant is a complete bone pin (5114; Figure 72) which was found in the fill of stake hole 1815. The six struck flints comprise three flake fragments, an amorphous core and two chunks. Two flake fragments had been burnt and the unburnt fragment had been roughly retouched along one edge. The core had been worked from a small heavy flake from which subsequent flakes had been removed. The assemblage from the floor layers (BBC; Figure 72) is dominated by miscellaneous fragments of iron and steatite and there are also substantial quantities of steatite vessel fragments and flints. Tools include a whetstone (5115), several bone points (e.g. 3386, 3574) and a needle (4524). Items of personal adornment include a bone pin (3717), a highly polished perforated bone plaque (4085), a couple of comb fragments and a small lead cross (5160; Figure 74). The cross indicates that Christianity was important from the beginning of the occupation at Bornais. The 22 struck flints from BBC comprise 11 flakes, six flake fragments, three pieces of microdebitage, a flaked pebble and a chunk. One flake fragment is burnt. Where platforms survive, these are planar, and remaining terminations are both feathered and hinged. Complete pieces are, on average 13 mm in length, 13 mm wide and

1297 1535 1552 1588 1592 1859 1863 1873 1886 BBA sub-total 1286 1313 1547 1572 1590 1599 1806 1816 1818 1826 1828 1829 1834 1838 1853 1855 1885 BBB sub-total 920 946 1272 1284 1315 1514 1525 2775 BBC sub-total 43 44 527 587 917 1003 1051 1235 1257 1263 1524 BBD sub-total 1032 BBE sub-total Total

Context

0 7

0 71

0 6

2 4

1 3

2 36

1

1

1

1

1

1

6

7 1

1 19

1

1

1

0

1

1

1 1 1 6

2

1

1

1

10 1 1 1 7 2 1 23

tine/ segment

bone antler

worked

1 1

1

4 6

1

1

flint

cut

0 3

1 2

1

1

1

0

0

horn

point

spindle whorl

needle

0 2

1 1

1

1

0

0

0 6

4

4

0

0

2

1

1

0 6

3

2

1

3

3

0

0

bone various bone

awl/file 0 1

1

1

0

0

0

iron

ferrule 0 1

1 1

0

0

0

iron

knife 0 1

1

1

0

0

0

iron

cobble tool

weight

hone 0 1

0

1

1

0

0

0 1

1

1

0

0

0

2 2 2 5

1

1 1

1

0

0

stone steatite stone

candlestick 0 1

1 1

0

0

0

iron

horse bit 0 1

1 1

0

0

0

iron

comb 1 4 8 1 1 12

1

2

2

2

0

1

1

antler

cross 0 1

0

1

1

0

0

lead

plaque

bead 0 4

3

1

1 1

0

0

1

1

0 14

2 11

1

1 2 1 1 4

1 1

1

1

1

0 1

0

0

0

1

1

steatite various bone

pin

nail 0 23

6 1 8 21

3

2

1 1 1

1

1

0

iron

0 4

1 1 3

1

1

1

0

0

iron

0 12

6 7

2 1

1

1

2

1

1

1

iron 1

fitting 0 1

1

1

0

0

0

various

Structural fittings rove

Personal objects holdfast

Tools miscellaneous 0 34

4 20

1 3 3 5

4

2 1 1 9

4 1 3 1

1

1

1 1 1

1

iron

miscellaneous 0 3

0

3

1

2

0

0

lead

Miscellaneous

0 1

0

0

1

1

0

0 2

0

1

0 1

1

1

Cu alloy bone

miscellaneous

Working debris miscellaneous

BB

Vessel miscellaneous

miscellaneous 0 1

0

1

1

0

0

0 19

4

1

1

2

14

6 2

5 1

1

1

0

0 18

1 2 6

1 1

1

11

10 1

1

1

0

stone steatite steatite

sherds

Table 17. The artefacts from the Early Norse deposits (BB)

1 1 1 1 6 1 1 1 4 17 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 19 3 29 4 2 1 30 7 3 79 5 4 2 37 2 10 12 4 27 5 38 145 3 3 263

Total

The Late Iron Age and Early Norse activity on mound 2 85

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

86

BBB

BBA

5297

5269

5263

5207

5292 5114

BBC

5160 0

3574

3075

4085

3717

4524

2cm

5115

3386 0

10cm

Figure 72. A selection of artefacts associated with the occupation of House 1. All are antler or bone except for 5115, 5263 and 5292, which are stone; 5160 which is lead; and 5207 which is iron

Figure 73. A whale bone chopping board 5324, see Figure 52 for a view of it in situ in the fill of pit 1591

Figure 74. The lead cross, 5160, from the floor of House 1

The Late Iron Age and Early Norse activity on mound 2

87

BBD

4356 5814 4959

1047

1049

5564 3200

0

10cm

3966 1045 3789

5050

4997

5003

3952 3955

4750

3847 2958

4467

4944 4363

BBE

0

3049

3cm 4993

3734

3208

Figure 75. A selection of artefacts from the infilling of House 1 (BBD). All are antler or bone except for 3049, 3208, 3952, 3966 and 4750, which are stone; 4363 and 4467 which are glass and 4993, 4997, 5003, 5050, which are iron

2

2

2 16

2

52

2

cf Linum usitatissimum frags

10 3

Brassica/Sinapis spp mineralised frag

Brassicaceae

2

2 3

Carex sp. Type 3

Cyperaceae indet.

11 3

cf Fumaria sp.

4

5

Erica sp.

Crucifereae spp

Compositae Type 2 large

Compositae indet.

2

Chenopodiaceae/Caryophyllaceae

21

2

1

4

9

Chenopodiaceae

17

5

6

cf Cerastium sp.

1

3

3

11

1

10

6

6

4

4

17

2

6

24

1

4

2

34

1

2

3

3

7

14

100%

floor

floor 100%

4

BBC

1514

7550

4

BBC

1514

7548

Caryophyllaceae mineralised 1

100%

pit

7

BBA

1896

10579

Cyperaceae/Polygonaceae Type 1

1

1

Carex sp. Type 5

1 1

Carex sp. Type 2

1

10

1

3

13

2

Carex sp. Type 1

Buglossoides sp.

12

Brassica/Sinapis spp mineralised whole

Brassica/Sinapis spp

Weeds/Wild species

1

Linum usitatissimum

Other Crops

Cereal culm frags

3

Cereal rachis frags

1

1

Oat palea/lemma

1

2

Secale sp. rachis frags

cf Secale cereale embryo

3

36

2

59

4

cf Secale cereale apical

4

2

Avena sp. embryo

25

2

5

91

100%

pit

cf Secale cereale grains

2

Avena sp. apical

16

100%

pit

37

BBA

1859

10395

9

5

Avena sp. grains

1

2

1

56

100%

pit

2

BBA

1856

10391

Avena sp. indet. frag

1

Hordeum sp.

Hordeum sativum rachis frags

Hordeum vulgare indet. frags

Hordeum vulgare embryo

13

Hordeum vulgare apical

100%

pit

Context Type

Fraction

23

3

Litres

Hordeum vulgare grains

Cereals

BBA

BBA

Block

1592

1552

10347

10128

Sample

Context

1

2

100%

floor

0.5

BBC

1514

7567

1

2

1

2

1

1

100%

floor

1

BBC

1514

7569

4

1

1

4

1

7

100%

floor

7

BBC

1514

7583

5

1

1

100% 10-20%, nnnnn >20-30%, nnnnnn >30-40%, nnnnnnn >40-50% (of visible area)

11117

11116

11115

61

1125

Sample

61

Layer and microstratographic unit

990

Maximum thickness in thin section (mm)

9332

Burnt bone

Organic and anthropogenic components

Unburnt bone

Mineral components

Plant tissue

Groundmass

Amorphous organic matter

Microstructure and porosity

n

n

n

n

+

n

 

n

n

Excremental pedofeatures

Table 25. A summary description of the soil micromorphology of the cultivation soils (GAA)

The Early Norse activity on mound 2A 105

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

106 A

B

500 µm

50 µm

Figure 86. Soil micromorphology: A. Context 1125, peat ash granule (PPL and OIL); B. Context 1125, Articulated diatoms and other silica material present within a peat ash granule (PPL)

was located in small pores between sand grains giving a secondary intergrain microaggregate microstructure that indicated earthworm bioturbation. The layer contained granules of peat ash, charred amorphous organic material (1.8%), charred wood (1.2%), charred plant (0.5%) including a charred seed, and burnt bone (0.5%). Sample 11116, the lowest of the three samples at the edge of square 9, was taken where an ardmark cut through the underlying wind-blown sand. The basal wind-blown sand (numbered as 2414.2) was a well sorted (93%) layer of medium calcareous sand, with a small amount of peat ash and other such fine organo-mineral material (displaying a coarse–fine ratio of 95:5). This layer had undergone bioturbation, indicated by the presence of earthworm excrement (1%) and earthworm channels, which resulted in a mixing of fine material between both layers. The cultivation soil (2414.1) was a layer of medium calcareous sand and a moderate amount of peat ash and fine organo-mineral material. There was notably more ash and fine material present within this layer, and the ash had a bright orange appearance under OIL. This bright colour was the product of iron oxidisation during the burning of peat, and such colours were further enhanced by the presence of rubified fine material. Some of this ash was located in dense granules that boasted high concentrations of both phytoliths and diatoms, while the majority was present in small microaggregates located between coarse grains. Burnt bone fragments were present (3.2%), as were fragments of charred amorphous organic material (1.7%), and shell (1%). Bioturbation had reworked much of this layer, with various large channels present along with earthworm excrement (0.2%). The lower half of sample 11115 was composed of ‘redbrown sand’ 1789, a layer of medium calcareous sand with some peat ash and fine organo-mineral material. Although the majority of this ash and fine material was present in the form of small microaggregates located between coarse grains, there was also a small number of peat ash aggregates with sand grains embedded within. The layer contained charred amorphous organic material

(2.3%), charred peat (2%), and shell (1%). Trace levels of earthworm excrement were present, as were various channels and vughs, indicating a high level of disturbance and reworking of the layer by earthworms and other soil fauna. Two sub-contexts of 2405 were caught in the top half of sample 11115. 2405.2 was a layer of medium calcareous sand and a high quantity of peat ash and fine organo-mineral material. Much of the fine material was located in contact with sand, or in small pores. There were a number of dense peat ash granules with sand grains embedded within them. The layer contained charred amorphous organic material (5.8%), shell (2.1%), charred plant (1.6%), burnt bone (0.9%), unburnt bone (0.2%) and a charred seed. Earthworms and other soil fauna had disturbed and reworked the layer. Layer 2405.1, located at the top of the sample, was medium calcareous sand with a moderate amount of peat ash and fine organomineral material. This layer notably lacked the peat ash granules present throughout the layer below (2405.2). It contained charred amorphous organic material (1.7%), charred wood (1.5%), shell (1.2%) and small quantities of unburnt (0.5%) and burnt (0.2%) bone. Sample 11117 was the uppermost sample taken from the cultivation soil deposit. The lower half of the sample contained 2405 and this had the same characteristics as 2405.2 described above. The uppermost portion of sample 11117 contained grey sand 2381, belonging to block GAD (see below). This layer was relatively sterile, consisting of medium calcareous sand with a small amount of fine organo-mineral material. This ash and fine material was present in a notably smaller quantity than seen in the layer below. Only a small quantity of inclusions were observed, including a fragment of eggshell (1%) and some charred amorphous organic material (0.7%). The relative sterility of the layer suggests this was a sand that accumulated once ploughing and the dumping of peat ash had largely ceased. All the samples from the cultivation soil were comprised of medium-sized calcareous sand characteristic of the machair, with the addition of a moderate to high quantity

The Early Norse activity on mound 2A of peat ash. This is a notable contrast to the non-cultivation soil layers (grey sand 2381 and the underlying wind-blown sand numbered as 2414.2), which contained considerably less ash. In the majority of the cultivation soils, some peat ash was present in large granules. The cultivation soils were also found to contain greater quantities of inclusions (notably bone, shell, and charred amorphous organic material) than the two sand layers. The cultivation soils appear to have been intentionally modified by the addition of midden and hearth material, in an attempt to improve fertility and productivity. Such waste would have improved the sandy machair soils, which possess a low organic content. The high levels of bioturbation present are unfortunate because both microstructure and texture, important indicators of tilled soils, are very susceptible to damage and indeed destruction by biological activity (Courty et al. 1989).

The south hearth (GAC) Cutting the final brown cultivation soil layer (1791) in squares 13/14 was a stone-lined hearth feature (2469). This was a linear feature defined by two upright stones, which contained a series of brightly coloured ash deposits (Figure 87), much like the earlier hearth (2470; GAB), which cut the basal cultivation soils in square 5. This south hearth (2469) was exposed in the east-facing section of square 14 (Figure 82), and was preserved beneath the deposits in square 13. Only the ash deposit spreading from this feature to the east of this section was actually excavated. This was a dark brown-black sand (1794; Figure 83) containing

107

frequent charcoal flecks and ‘slag’-type material consisting of fused sand (derived from high-temperature burning). A radiocarbon date (SUERC-18824) was obtained from an oat grain in context 1794; this provided a radiocarbon age of 1030±30 BP which calibrates to a date of cal AD 900–1040 (95% confidence). The ash deposits contained within the hearth consisted of intensely coloured orange-red and yellow lenses. It was covered by a thick grey sand layer (1788), which formed the primary deposit of the succeeding stratigraphic group (GAD).

Soil micromorphology – K Munro and K Milek Two samples (11119, 11120) were taken from deposits in the south hearth (GAC; Figure 82). These samples examined ‘dark brown-black sand’ 1794, however this context exhibited considerable variations, and has been divided into seven sub-contexts (1794.1–1794.7; Table 26). The basal layer, 1794.7 from sample 11120, was a medium-sized calcareous sand and peat ash. Much of this layer appeared to have been bioturbated by earthworm activity, resulting in large areas being of a porous and vughy nature. There were some undisturbed areas within the layer that were relatively dense with a bridged grain microstructure. Non-metallurgical slag inclusions (Figure 88A) were present throughout the layer (3.3%). These possessed a porous and subrounded appearance, with a vesicular microstructure. Also present were shell frag­ments (2.5%) and charred amorphous organic material (1.5%). 1794.6 was a layer of fine sand and peat ash. The sand was not calcareous, but quartzite, indicating that

Figure 87. A view of the section through the south hearth (GAC) from the east; note the faint traces of ardmarks at the base of the cultivation soil

Sample

1794.2

44

46

1794.6

1794.7

7

4

1794.4

1794.5

28

19

Layer and microstratographic unit

1794.3

32

Microstructure

nnnn

V& BG

nnnn

nnnn

V& BG

73

82

76

76

nnnn

BG

BG

50

nnnn

55

76

Porosity

nnnn

Sorting (%)

nnnn

BG

IM

C

C/F(100 µm) ratio 55/45

45/55

55/45

45/55

55/45

45/55

40/60

CG

CG, some SSP

SSP & DSCE

CG

GB,D

BG,D

LB,D

GB, D

LB,D

GB,D

SSFE & CG CG, some SSP

D,D

C/F(100 µm) related distribution CFE & SSFE

Colour of B-fabric (OIL) LB

OR

LB

LB

OB

O

OB

Birefringence Fabric of Fine Material (XPL) C

C

C

C

C

C

C

Charred amorphous organic matter n

n

nn

nnnn

nn

nn

nn

Charred wood  

 

 

 

nn

 

n

Charred plant  

 

 

 

nn

 

n

Shell nn

 

 

 

 

 

n

Eggshell  

 

 

 

 

 

 

Burnt bone  

 

 

 

 

 

n

n

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

n

 

n

n

 

 

n

n

 

n

n

n

 

n

n

n

n

n

+

 

Diatoms  

n

 

 

n

n

 

nn

nn

n

nn

nn

nn

nn

Non-metallurgic slag

Clay  

 

 

 

 

 

 

Pedofeatures

Fe nodules  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fe Replaced organic matter

n

n

 

 

 

n

 

Nature and birefringence of fine material: B – Brown, DB – Dark Brown, LB – Light Brown, YB – Yellow Brown, GB – Grey Brown, R – Red, O – Orange, Y – Yellow, D – Dotted, U – Undifferentiated, C – Crystallitic

Coarse/Fine Related distribution: CFE – Close Fine Enaulic, SSFE – Single-spaced Fine Enaulic, SSEE – Single-spaced Equal Enaulic, DSFE – Double-spaced Fine Enaulic, DSCE – Double-spaced Coarse Enaulic, CP – Close Porphyric, SSP – Single-spaced Porphyric, CG – Convex Gefuric, CH – Chitonic, CM – Coarse Monic

Microstructure: IM – Intergrain Microaggregate, V – Vughy, BG – Bridged Grain, C – Channel, M – Massive, SG – Single Grain

Values: + Present in trace amounts, n 5-10%, nnnn >10-20%, nnnnn >20-30%, nnnnnn >30-40%, nnnnnnn >40-50% (of visible area)

11120

11119

Maximum thickness in thin section (mm)

1794.1

Unburnt bone

Organic and anthropogenic components

Plant tissue

Mineral components

Nature of fine material (PPL)

Groundmass

Amorphous organic matter

Microstructure and porosity

Excremental pedofeatures

Table 26. A summary description of the soil micromorphology of the hearth (GAC)

Phytoliths

108

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

The Early Norse activity on mound 2A A

109

B

b a

250 µm

500 µm

Figure 88. Soil micromorphology: A. Context 1794.7, Non-metallurgic slag (PPL); B. Context 1794.6, (a) Yellow peat ash ground­mass; (b) rubified fine material (OIL)

the peat burned within the hearth was from peat-diggings sufficiently distant from the machair to be unaffected by wind-blown sand. This layer had a sharp boundary with the calcareous sand below, indicating a sudden change in the source of the fuel. The upper portion of the layer possessed various channels and vughs, and a granular structure, which indicates high levels of earthworm activity. The lower part of the layer appeared to have avoided such reworking and was a dense matrix of horizontally-orientated sand embedded in peat ash. The layer contained various non-metallurgic slag inclusions (2.7%) and charred amorphous organic material (1.4%). Also present was a notable quantity of rubified fine material (Figure 88B), the result of the oxidisation at high temperatures of iron-rich mineral material present within the peat. Such features, along with the reddish aspect of the ash-dominated groundmass, gave the layer an orangered appearance under OIL (Figure 88B). Sample 11119 captured the later hearth deposits and was divided into five sub-contexts of 1794. At the bottom of the thin section, 1794.5 was an extremely thin, light brown layer of fine quartzite sand and peat ash. It contained a high quantity of charred amorphous organic material (4.4%), much of which was orientated in thin horizontal lenses, and some non-metallurgic slag (1.4%). 1794.4 was a grey layer of fine quartzite sand and grey-brown peat ash. The layer was also very thin (7 mm), representing a short-term accumulation of hearth material. Much of the layer was charred amorphous organic material (12%), which lacked any cell structure and so was probably in a decomposed state prior to burning. Some of this charred material was situated in a thin horizontal lens at the top of the layer. Also observed were a number of non-metallurgic slag inclusions (2%). 1794.3 was a yellow layer of sand and peat ash. The majority of the layer was comprised of fine quartzite sand, although a small lens of medium-sized calcareous sand was present. The layer contained a number of horizontal

lenses and aggregates of charred material, some of which were identifiable as charred plant (4%) and charred wood (2%), although the majority were unidentifiable charred amorphous organic material (4.5%). Non-metallurgic slag inclusions (3%) were also present throughout the layer. 1794.2 was a grey-brown layer of fine quartzitedominated sand with a small calcareous sand component, and peat ash. The layer was disturbed by earthworm bioturbation, creating channels and chambers, giving it a high porosity (15.5%), and creating a composition of small rounded crumbs. A considerable quantity of nonmetallurgic slag was present (4.7%), as was charred amorphous organic material (2.8%). 1794.1, the uppermost hearth deposit, was a dark brown layer of fine quartzite-dominated sand with a small quantity of calcium carbonate, and peat ash. The layer contained a high quantity of non-metallurgic slag (4.8%) and charred material, including charred amorphous organic material (4.8%), charred plant (1.5%), charred wood (1.4%) and a small quantity of burnt bone (0.4%). The ash layers in the south hearth (GAC) were differentiated by slight variations in the proportions of sand, fine organo-mineral material and pore space. Such variations dictated colour differences, with lighter layers generally containing more sand while darker layers contained more fine organo-mineral material. Under XPL, all the layers possessed an undifferentiated b-fabric, due to the groundmass being heavily masked by iron oxides. The sharp divisions between the sub-contexts indicated a relatively rapid and constant rate of sediment accumulation. The majority of the layers were composed of quartzite sand. This fine sand is likely to have been a component of the original peat, and indicates a source well away from the machair. It is also noteworthy that the only layer dominated by calcareous sand was the lowest (1794.7), suggesting that the initial peat was either taken from an area receiving high levels of wind-blown sand or that this deposit was mixed with the underlying wind-blown sand. The dominant organo-mineral material was always peat

110

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Figure 89. A section through the deposits on the west side of the mound. The complete sequence is clearly visible; at the base is the dark cultivation soil (GAA), above this is this the light grey sand (GAD) and this is sealed by a thick accumulation of midden layers (GDC)

ash, indicating that this was the primary fuel resource. A small number of charred wood fragments were also observed, but wood was never the primary fuel choice. All of the layers displayed some degree of disturbance and reworking by earthworm activity. Despite this post-depositional disturbance, all layers had areas of undisturbed dense and compact sediment. In such areas, coarse grains were located in contact with, and often within a matrix of, fine ash material, allowing for the original microstructure to be observed. A key interpretive problem is whether this hearth was located outside or within a building. The samples were therefore compared to hearths that clearly lay within structures on mound 2 and 2A. There are some differences between these hearths. The most significant is the presence of non-metallurgic slag inclusions in every layer of the GAC hearth. These slag inclusions indicate that this hearth burned at a relatively high temperature. No such slag inclusions were observed in any of the hearths in the houses on mound 2, and only a minute quantity was observed within the ash present in the ancillary structure (GC) on mound 2A. The higher temperatures may be a direct indication of external exposure and the presence of a strong wind. Another difference between this hearth and the hearths known to be located inside the houses was that notably fewer bone and shell inclusions were observed. This difference may suggest that the GAC hearth was not used for food preparation. It seems likely therefore that the early hearths (GAC and possibly GAB) are not an indication of ephemeral timber buildings, but represent open-air activities ̶ possibly not of a domestic nature.

The grey sand accumulation (GAD) Overlying the cultivation soils was a thick accumulation of grey sand, which covered the entire trench (Figures 82 and 89). A sequence was identified that comprised a series of slightly varied grey layers with moderate amounts of charcoal flecks, which contained limited numbers of stone constructs, small ash spreads and a few cut features (Figure 90). Distinct layers were more visible within the central areas of the trench, and were less well-defined towards the periphery. On the eastern, western and northern edges of the excav­­ation, the grey sand formed a thick, undistin­guished layer. This was numbered 871 at the northern end of square 3; 1625 in the eastern end of square 6; 2353/2309 in the western end of square 11; 954 in the eastern area of square 15, and 1762/1788 in square 14 (Figure 325). A radiocarbon date (SUERC-18253) was obtained from a rye grain in context 1625, square 6; this provided a radiocarbon age of 970±35 BP, which calibrates to a date of cal AD 990–1160 (95% confidence). In the middle of the trench the sequence of grey sand layers started with a relatively thick greyish/light brown sand; this was numbered 1106/1109 in square 2; 896 in square 3; 1611 in square 4 (which contained charcoal patch 1614); 2305/1747 in square 5; 2435/2437 in square 7; 2381/1714 in square 9; 1186 in square 12; and 1788 in square 15 (Figure 325). Two radiocarbon dates were obtained from these deposits. SUERC-2676 was a cattle metatarsal from context 1106 in square 2; this provided a radiocarbon age of 1040±35 BP which calibrates to a date of cal AD 890–1040 (95% confidence). SUERC-2680 was an

The Early Norse activity on mound 2A

111

1715

450/230

465/230

2386

2384

2385

2428

2378

450/220

465/220

0

5m

Figure 90. A plan of the principal features identified in the grey sand (GAD)

articulated cattle radius and ulna at the base of context 1714, in square 9, lying on the surface of the underlying cultivation soil. This provided a radiocarbon age of 1045±40 BP which calibrates to a date of cal AD 890–1040 (95% confidence). A feature of note in central squares 5 and 8 was a

rough wall (2428; Figure 90), 2.80 m in length, oriented north–south and facing east. At its south end, a 2m length of the wall consisted of a single course of large squarish boulders. This developed into two-to-three courses when the orientation of the structure changed slightly, taking

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

112

a more northwesterly direction. The feature ran into the south section of square 8, and so its full extent was unknown. The walling was later reused in the construction of one of the two kilns excavated in the later deposits on mound 2A (block GB), but it seems to have had no obvious function when the grey sand was deposited. In a variety of places within the centre of the trench, the grey sand was broken down into several different layers, which were characterised by slight variations in colour resulting from the presence of ash lenses. These included 996, 997, 999, 1100, 1108 on the southeast edge of square 2; and 1707, 1733, 1786/1746 in the adjacent area of square 6. There were also more extensive grey layers (2380/2370/2434 and 979/1729/891/967/895) on the west side of the trench (squares 5, 2, 4, 7, 12; Figure 325). There was an incomplete and enigmatic stone feature (2385, 2386) surrounded by orange clay (2384) and charcoal flecked orange sand (1715) in square 9 and a pit (2378) filled with grey sand (2373) in square 7 (Figure 90). The grey sand layer indicates a period of gradual windblown sand accumulation over several years when this part of the site was only occasionally occupied, and this was confirmed by soil micromorphology (see above, sample 11117). The variations in the colour and texture of the grey sand probably indicate periods of stability during which there might have been incipient soil development, different rates of sand accumulation and varied amounts of refuse deposited from the adjacent settlement mounds.

Sampling data ̶ N Sharples One hundred and seven samples, 2,068 litres of soil, were taken and processed from the Early Norse deposits on mound 2A (Table 27): 65 samples, 1,184.6 litres of soil, came from the cul­ tiv­ation soil (GAA);

•

five samples, 67.5 litres of soil, came from the north hearth (GAB); one sample, 42.0 litres of soil, came from the south hearth (GAC) 36 samples, 774.25 litres of soil, came from the grey sand (GAD).

• • •

The 2–10 mm residues were examined from 64 samples, 741 litres of soil (Table 28): 38 samples, 423 litres of soil, came from the cultiv­ ation soil (GAA); one sample, 21 litres of soil, came from the south hearth (GAC); 25 samples, 297 litres of soil, came from the grey sand (GAD);

• • •

The average densities of materials from the above 10 mm residues are depicted in Figure 91. The highest densities of the most common materials recovered came from the cultivation soil (GAA), with only the B.O.M. and pottery having higher densities in the grey sand GAD. The slag densities are noticeably higher in the hearth deposits (GAB, 1.45 frag/litre; GAC, 3.55 frag/ litre respectively); although these were relatively small samples, this is likely to be a representative count. The presence of slag in these hearths contrasts markedly with its absence in the ash layers of the domestic hearths on mound 2 and confirms previous suggestions (Sharples 2 2012, 308) that the fuel ash slag is associated with external hearths. A contrast with B.O.M. densities in the above 10 mm residues is also noticeable, as the hearths had relatively low densities of B.O.M. (GAB, 0.04 frag/litre; 1 GAC, 0.12 frag/litre,) with the highest densities coming from the grey sand (GAD, 0.69 frag/litre). Limpet and winkle densities were not particularly high, but it is noticeable that limpets were more frequent than 0 winkles in both the cultivation soil (GAA, 1.16 shells/litre) u bone fish b bone pottery BOM slag limpet winkle and the grey sand (GAD, 0.75 shells/litre), confirming 2481

2482

2483

2484

1.4 1.2

2

1.0

0.8 0.6

1

0.4 0.2 0

u bone

fish

b bone pottery BOM 2481

2482

2483

slag

limpet winkle

2484

0

u bone fish b bone pottery BOM slag limpet winkle GAA

GAD

Figure 91. Histograms of the above 10 mm sampling densities. The left histogram shows the densities per litre of soil in the four 1.4 sub divisions of the cultivation soil (GAA). The right histogram compares the densities from the cultivation soil (GAA) and the 1.2 sand (GAD) grey 1.0

0.8 0.6 0.4

2 samples 12 samples 9 samples 10 samples 7 samples 16 samples 7 samples 7016 7020 65 samples 11041 11100 11101 11102 11103 5 samples 1100 2 samples 9213 9221 9216 9228 9212 9238 9257 9265 9266 7009 7022 2 samples 7076 7155 7752 7760 2 samples 7926 10180 11028 3 samples 11017 11023 11024 11046 11066 11070 2 samples 7009 36 samples 107 samples

Sample

2481 2482 various 2483 various 2484 various 1191 1192 Sub-total 2345 2442 2443 2444 2445 Sub-total 1794 863 895 896 953 954 960 979 1100 1108 1109 1186 1193 1611 1614 1625 1707 1714 1715 1729 1733 1746 1747/2305 2321 2327 2328 2353 2373 2384 2435/2437 1186 Sub-total Total

Context

GAA GAA GAA GAA GAA GAA GAA GAA GAA GAA GAB GAB GAB GAB GAB GAB GAC GAD GAD GAD GAD GAD GAD GAD GAD GAD GAD GAD GAD GAD GAD GAD GAD GAD GAD GAD GAD GAD GAD GAD GAD GAD GAD GAD GAD GAD GAD GAD GA

Phase

45.00 252.00 105.10 216.00 37.40 386.00 74.10 28.00 41.00 1184.60 21.00 4.50 8.00 10.00 24.00 67.50 42.00 27 3.00 15.00 4.00 41.00 15.00 23.00 7.00 1.50 2.50 46.00 40.00 80.00 3.00 38.00 33.00 41.00 20.00 32.00 6.00 12.00 71.00 2.25 12.00 23.00 28.00 27.00 27.00 48.00 46.00 774.25 2068.35

Litres no. 0 69 19 16 1 12 3 0 0 120 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 18 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 3 1 3 38 159

density 0.00 0.27 0.18 0.07 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.33 0.00 0.00 0.44 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.19 0.11 0.02 0.07 0.05 0.08

Fish no. 19 200 78 125 19 243 17 4 10 715 0 0 0 0 3 3 19 8 2 2 0 29 2 4 0 0 2 0 4 17 0 7 7 10 1 10 0 3 9 0 2 4 3 11 5 14 8 164 901

density 0.42 0.79 0.74 0.58 0.51 0.63 0.23 0.14 0.24 0.60 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.13 0.04 0.45 0.30 0.67 0.13 0.00 0.71 0.13 0.17 0.00 0.00 0.80 0.00 0.10 0.21 0.00 0.18 0.21 0.24 0.05 0.31 0.00 0.25 0.13 0.00 0.17 0.17 0.11 0.41 0.19 0.29 0.17 0.21 0.44

Mammal no. 9 108 45 83 23 94 10 2 6 380 0 0 0 4 1 5 2 1 0 1 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 3 5 3 11 1 0 2 1 0 0 2 0 0 3 1 40 427

density 0.20 0.43 0.43 0.38 0.61 0.24 0.13 0.07 0.15 0.32 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.40 0.04 0.07 0.05 0.04 0.00 0.07 0.25 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.12 0.15 0.34 0.17 0.00 0.03 0.44 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.02 0.05 0.21

Burnt bone no. 0 3 13 3 0 5 0 2 1 27 2 0 0 0 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 4 0 1 0 0 0 0 3 2 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 1 1 0 20 49

density 0.00 0.01 0.12 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.07 0.02 0.02 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.03 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.15 0.04 0.02 0.00 0.03 0.02

Pottery no. 6 11 13 12 2 502 23 123 49 741 55 3 7 3 30 98 149 20 0 0 0 6 2 34 10 1 4 0 47 16 0 4 10 9 19 4 0 1 15 1 6 8 5 11 3 29 43 308 1296

density 0.13 0.04 0.12 0.06 0.05 1.30 0.31 4.39 1.20 0.63 2.62 0.67 0.88 0.30 1.25 1.45 3.55 0.74 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.15 0.13 1.48 1.43 0.67 1.60 0.00 1.18 0.20 0.00 0.11 0.30 0.22 0.95 0.13 0.00 0.08 0.21 0.44 0.50 0.35 0.18 0.41 0.11 0.60 0.93 0.40 0.63

Slag no. 37 129 45 239 17 846 23 19 21 1376 0 4 0 0 4 8 18 0 1 1 2 365 5 1 0 1 0 0 11 27 0 2 2 8 3 11 2 1 34 1 4 5 10 11 4 61 10 583 1985

density 0.82 0.51 0.43 1.11 0.45 2.19 0.31 0.68 0.51 1.16 0.00 0.89 0.00 0.00 0.17 0.12 0.43 0.00 0.33 0.07 0.50 8.90 0.33 0.04 0.00 0.67 0.00 0.00 0.28 0.34 0.00 0.05 0.06 0.20 0.15 0.34 0.33 0.08 0.48 0.44 0.33 0.22 0.36 0.41 0.15 1.27 0.22 0.75 0.96

Limpet no. 41 187 13 165 17 526 24 10 38 1021 2 0 0 0 8 10 20 187 1 2 0 44 2 1 1 0 0 0 7 27 0 14 20 27 3 19 6 2 19 3 1 10 10 44 11 48 41 550 1601

density 0.91 0.74 0.12 0.76 0.45 1.36 0.32 0.36 0.93 0.86 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.33 0.15 0.48 6.93 0.33 0.13 0.00 1.07 0.13 0.04 0.14 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.18 0.34 0.00 0.37 0.61 0.66 0.15 0.59 1.00 0.17 0.27 1.33 0.08 0.43 0.36 1.63 0.41 1.00 0.89 0.71 0.77

Winkle no. 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

Egg no. 4 19 2 7 0 9 0 0 0 41 0 0 1 0 3 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 46

no. 0 0 6 4 0 2 0 0 0 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 12

Charcoal Coprolite

Table 27. The material identified in sorting the greater than 10 mm residue from the Early Norse deposits (GA) density 0.07 0.15 0.26 0.21 0.24 0.09 0.22 0.07 0.00 0.15 0.00 0.67 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.12 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.50 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.69 0.09

B.O.M. no. 3 39 27 46 9 34 16 2 0 176 0 3 0 0 0 3 5 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 8 192

The Early Norse activity on mound 2A 113

2484

2431

sq 11

sq 11

sq 3

sq 8

sq 11

sq 11

sq 12

sq 12

sq 11

11 samples

11091

11090

9255

11042

11048

11049

7020

7026

11072

979

sq 2

sq 2

sq 2

sq 2

sq 3

sq 3

sq 3

sq 4

sq 5

sq 5

sq 5

sq 5

sq 5

sq 6

sq 6

sq 6

sq 7

sq 8

sq 8

sq 9

sq 11

sq 15

9238

9257

9265

9266

9213

9221

9212

2 samples

9216

7752

2 samples

11005

11024

7155

7760

7926

11066

11093

11095

11070

11046

9228

Sub-total

Total

25 samples

64 samples

954

2353

2384

2437

2435

2373

1729

1714

1625

2328

2305

1747

1707

953

1611

960

896

895

1109

1108

1100

1794

Sub-total

2390

1194

1192

2357

2356

2447

1102

11000

38 samples

2483

7 samples

2432

2482

10 samples

Context

2481

Square

1 samples

Sample

GA

GAD

GAD

GAD

GAD

GAD

GAD

GAD

GAD

GAD

GAD

GAD

GAD

GAD

GAD

GAD

GAD

GAD

GAD

GAD

GAD

GAD

GAD

GAD

GAC

GAA

GAA

GAA

GAA

GAA

GAA

GAA

GAA

GAA

GAA

GAA

GAA

GAA

GAA

Block

1425

560

41

28

27

22

26

27

32

41

38

23

14

57

33

4

80

15

15

3

2.5

1.5

7

23

42

823

3

5

41

24

25

2

10

13

14

287

180

197

22

Litres

740.5

297

20.5

14

13.5

11

13

13.5

16

20.5

19

23

7

28.5

16.5

2

40

7.5

7.5

1.5

2.5

1.5

7

11.5

21

422.5

3

2.5

20.5

12

12.5

2

5

6.5

7

137

90

113.5

11

Litres sorted

948

867

0

3

0

1

0

830

1

0

2

0

0

21

0

0

8

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

81

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

3

51

22

5

0

no.

1.28

2.92

0.00

0.21

0.00

0.09

0.00

61.48

0.06

0.00

0.11

0.00

0.00

0.74

0.00

0.00

0.20

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.09

0.00

0.19

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.43

0.37

0.24

0.04

0.00

density

Pottery

9662

2278

205

118

108

121

205

170

92

132

217

137

55

238

133

19

190

29

18

4

18

13

12

44

193

7191

0

19

188

104

53

14

74

178

116

2576

1691

2086

92

no.

13.05

7.67

10.00

8.43

8.00

11.00

15.77

12.59

5.75

6.44

11.42

5.96

7.86

8.35

8.06

9.50

4.75

3.87

2.40

2.67

7.20

8.67

1.71

3.83

9.19

17.02

0.00

7.60

9.17

8.67

4.24

7.00

14.80

27.38

16.57

18.80

18.79

18.38

8.36

density

Unburnt bone

6829

1286

68

33

18

79

113

20

322

99

15

81

9

118

80

18

141

29

7

3

7

3

11

12

37

5506

4

8

66

128

23

26

54

43

921

1275

1099

1765

94

no.

9.22

4.33

3.32

2.36

1.33

7.18

8.69

1.48

20.13

4.83

0.79

3.52

1.29

4.14

4.85

9.00

3.53

3.87

0.93

2.00

2.80

2.00

1.57

1.04

1.76

13.03

1.33

3.20

3.22

10.67

1.84

13.00

10.80

6.62

131.57

9.31

12.21

15.55

8.55

density

Burnt bone

11948

2732

533

98

170

101

99

79

464

216

192

113

41

257

300

39

324

72

87

30

11

7

61

69

41

9175

32

29

123

58

27

0

10

270

137

2252

2491

3366

16.14

9.20

26.00

7.00

12.59

9.18

7.62

5.85

29.00

10.54

10.11

4.91

5.86

9.02

18.18

19.50

8.10

9.60

11.60

20.00

4.40

4.67

8.71

6.00

1.95

21.72

10.67

11.60

6.00

4.83

2.16

0.00

2.00

41.54

19.57

16.44

27.68

29.66

34.55

density

Fish

380

no.

3565

656

23

7

38

48

35

4

77

40

16

31

33

101

51

13

97

18

4

1

4

3

3

9

5

2904

3

10

36

24

9

65

336

78

26

813

716

750

38

no.

4.81

2.21

1.12

0.50

2.81

4.36

2.69

0.30

4.81

1.95

0.84

1.35

4.71

3.54

3.09

6.50

2.43

2.40

0.53

0.67

1.60

2.00

0.43

0.78

0.24

6.87

1.00

4.00

1.76

2.00

0.72

32.50

67.20

12.00

3.71

5.93

7.96

6.61

3.45

density

Charcoal

14077

2481

49

102

101

97

214

55

114

95

81

109

128

316

116

15

294

23

18

6

31

14

73

430

158

11438

9

24

183

600

89

175

144

350

259

2684

2634

4053

234

no.

19.01

8.35

2.39

7.29

7.48

8.82

16.46

4.07

7.13

4.63

4.26

4.74

18.29

11.09

7.03

7.50

7.35

3.07

2.40

4.00

12.40

9.33

10.43

37.39

7.52

27.07

3.00

9.60

8.93

50.00

7.12

87.50

28.80

53.85

37.00

19.59

29.27

35.71

21.27

density

B.O.M.

883

58130

25652

316

800

600

420

2800

0

721

700

720

1200

1100

2510

1444

81

3150

217

77

54

422

560

3400

4360

3000

29478

13

580

4500

1500

1020

220

3

9

18

18588

2129

78.50

86.37

15.41

57.14

44.44

38.18

215.38

0.00

45.06

34.15

37.89

52.17

157.14

88.07

87.52

40.50

78.75

28.93

10.27

36.00

168.80

373.33

485.71

379.13

142.86

69.77

4.33

232.00

219.51

125.00

81.60

110.00

0.60

1.38

2.57

135.68

23.66

7.78

1.36

density

Slag

15

no.

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

no.

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.01

0.00

0.00

0.00

density

Crab

Table 28. The material identified in sorting the 2 to 10 mm residue from the Early Norse deposits (GA)

969

205

4

1

8

36

7

4

21

8

4

7

5

29

8

1

51

3

2

0

2

0

4

0

18

746

1

8

9

3

5

2

8

30

14

171

289

201

5

no.

1.31

0.69

0.20

0.07

0.59

3.27

0.54

0.30

1.31

0.39

0.21

0.30

0.71

1.02

0.48

0.50

1.28

0.40

0.27

0.00

0.80

0.00

0.57

0.00

0.86

1.77

0.33

3.20

0.44

0.25

0.40

1.00

1.60

4.62

2.00

1.25

3.21

1.77

0.45

density

Egg

16

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

16

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

7

5

4

0

0.02

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.04

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.05

0.06

0.04

0.00

density

Spirobis no.

724

71

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

21

12

0

15

0

0

13

0

0

0

9

0

0

0

0

653

94

0

0

45

0

0

76

0

0

212

101

120

5

0.98

0.24

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.07

0.00

0.00

1.11

0.52

0.00

0.53

0.00

0.00

0.33

0.00

0.00

0.00

3.60

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

1.55

31.33

0.00

0.00

3.75

0.00

0.00

15.20

0.00

0.00

1.55

1.12

1.06

0.45

density

Coprolite no.

114

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

The Early Norse activity on mound 2A

115

160

35

140

30

3

120

25

100

20

2

80

15

60

10

1

40

5

20

0

pot

unburnt bone

burnt bone

fish

0

charcoal

BOM

2482

25

2483

slag

crab

spirorbis

egg

coprolite

spirorbis

egg

coprolite

2484

2

160 140

20

120 100

15

80 10

1

60 40

5 0

0

20 pot

unburnt bone

burnt bone

fish

0

charcoal

GAA

BOM

GAC

slag

0

crab

GAD

Figure 92. Histograms of the 2 to 10 mm sampling densities. The upper histogram shows the densities per litre of soil in the three main sub divisions of the cultivation soil (GAA). The lower histogram compares the densities from the cultivation soil (GAA), the southern hearth (GAC) and the grey sand (GAD)

previous suggestions that limpets were preferred in the Late Iron Age and Early Norse periods (Sharples 2012, 201). Unburnt and burnt mammal bone were relatively common in GAA, followed by fish bone, but there were only very low densities of pottery in all GA deposits (average 0.02 frag/litre). The average densities of the material recovered from the 2–10 mm residues are depicted in Figure 92. The highest densities of material were generally recovered from the cultivation soil (GAA) and the exceptions were the slag and pottery. The slag was heavily concentrated in the southern hearth (GAC, 142.86 frag/litre) and was the most common find in this block. It was present in slightly higher quantities in the grey sand (GAD) than in the cultivation soil (GAA). The pottery densities were generally low in all the GA deposits (average 1.28 frag/ litre), comparable to the densities of eggshell (average 1.31 frag/litre) and coprolite (average 0.98 frag/litre). The high density of coprolites in the cultivation soil (GAA) is due to two unusually rich samples After slag, B.O.M. (average 19.01 frag/litre) is the next most common category, then fish bone (average 16.14 frag/ litre) followed by unburnt bone (average 13.05 frag/ litre), burnt bone (average 9.22 frag/litre) and charcoal (average 4.81 frag/litre).

The distribution of the high densities by context shows no obvious patterning. The material was not particularly concentrated in any part of the excavated area, though the west side of the trench does seem to have more highdensity samples.

Pottery ̶ K Harding and N Sharples The ceramic assemblage is summarised in Table 29 and a selection of feature sherds is illustrated in Figure 93. A small assemblage of pot sherds was recovered from both the grey sand and the cultivation soil. The grey sand (GAD) produced 127 sherds, weighing 722 g, and the assemblage from the cultivation soil (GAA) comprises 76 sherds, weighing 392 g; only a single sherd was recovered from the south hearth (GAC). In the cultivation soil the largest concentrations came from squares 8 and 9, and in the grey sand deposits, the largest concentrations came from squares 9 and 13, which suggests that an area specifically chosen for deposition lay at the centre of the area excavated. The lowest densities were from square 6 in both the grey sand and the cultivation soil. The average sherd weight from the cultivation soil is 5.16 g, whereas that from the grey sand is 5.69 g, just

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

116

Table 29. The pottery from the Early Norse deposits (GA) Block

Context

Layer

Location

Weight (g)

No.

Ave Wght

GAA

2430

2482

sq 11

8.7

1

8.70

Rim

Base

GAA

2452

2482

sq 14

1.3

1

1.30

1

GAA

1125

2482

sq 3

1.2

1

1.20

1

GAA

1790

2482

sq 6

3.1

1

3.10

GAA

2414

2482

sq 9

18.6

5

3.72

GAA

2407

2483

sq 11

11.6

4

2.90

GAA

2424

2483

sq 11

16.2

2

8.10

GAA

1199

2483

sq 12

11.5

2

5.75

GAA

2393

2483

sq 12

8.1

1

8.10

GAA

1795

2483

sq 2

2.8

2

1.40

GAA

990

2483

sq 3

8.2

2

4.10

GAA

1617

2483

sq 4

9.5

2

4.75

GAA

1649

2483

sq 5

23

1

23.00

GAA

2416

2483

sq 7

20.8

4

5.20

GAA

2449

2483

sq 8

101.9

19

17.6

GAA

2360

2484

sq 11

6

1

6.00

GAA

977

2484

sq 15

20.3

3

6.77

GAA

969

2484

sq 3

6.1

2

3.05

GAA

1649

2484

sq 5

34.2

6

5.70

3

GAA

2413

2484

sq 7

2.3

1

2.30

1

GAA

2439

2484

sq 8

7.2

3

2.40

GAA

2405

2484

sq 9

8

1

8.00

GAA

2405

2484

sq 9

61.6

11

5.60

1

2

5

3

GAA

Sub-total

392.2

76

5.16

6

6

18

40

6

36

6

GAC

2469

19.6

1

19.60

0

0

1

0

0

1

0

GAD

1106

sq 2

65.7

4

16.43

1

2

1

GAD

1109

sq 2

5.8

1

5.80

GAD

863

sq 2

23.1

6

3.85

1

GAD

979

sq 2

8.8

2

4.40

1

GAD

871

sq 3

65.3

8

8.16

GAD

1611

sq 4

11.5

2

5.75

GAD

1707

sq 5

8.9

3

2.97

3

3

GAD

1747

sq 5

6.9

2

3.45

2

1

GAD

1625

sq 6

4.8

1

4.80

1

1

GAD

1714

sq 6

1.7

1

1.70

1

1

GAD

2370

sq 7

3.9

2

1.95

2

1

GAD

1148

sq 8

17.8

8

2.23

GAD

2434

sq 8

24.2

3

8.07

Misc.

Platter

1

Sooted

Fine

1

1 1

4

3

4 1

1

1

2

1

1

1 2 1

1

1

1 1

2

1

1 2

1

1

1

1

3

2

4

12

10

1

1

1 2

1

1

1

1

1

3

1 2

1

1

1

2 1

8

4

1 3

5 1 1

5 1

1 1

GAD

2437

sq 8

4.9

1

4.90

GAD

2381

sq 8 & 9

4.2

2

2.10

GAD

2372

sq 9

176.9

34

5.20

GAD

2309

sq 11

13.6

2

6.80

GAD

2353

sq 11

1.6

1

1.60

1

GAD

1193

sq 13

180.1

27

6.67

3

9

GAD

1788

sq 14

13.1

3

4.37

1

1

GAD

954

sq 15

79.6

14

5.69

GAD

Sub-total

722.4

127

5.69

Total

1134.2

204

30.44

GA

Body

1 2

5

1

3 1

2

1 4

3 1

7

1

2

1 1

2

4

2

1

24

21

2

1 9

4

1 6

1

16

1

2

2

9

1

2

6

11

12

17

29

64

5

73

24

18

23

48

104

11

110

30

The Early Norse activity on mound 2A

117

GAA

5282

6197

40

GAD

6250

Bone

35 30 %

25 20 15 10

6487

4177

5 0

0

0

1

210cm 3 4

5

6

7 8 cms

9 10 11 12 13 14 15+

Figure 93. A selection of feature sherds from the cultivation soil (GAA) and the grey sand (GAD) GAA 40

40 60

Bone

35 30 %

25

%

20 15

Bone Pot

35 50 30 40 25 20 30 15 20 10 10 5

10 5 0

GAD

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7 8 cms

GAA

0 0

9 10 11 12 13 14 15+

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7 8 cms

GAA

GAD

9 10 11 12 13 14 15+

GAD

Figure 94. Histograms showing the size distribution of the measured60mammal bone and pottery from the cultivation soil (GAA) 60 and the grey sand (GAD) Pot Pot 50

40 % above 30

the average for all the mound 2A deposits. The slight difference between the averages may support the suggestion that human activity was more common when 20 the cultivation soil (GAA) rather than the grey sand (GAD) 10accumulating, but it is not a sizeable difference. The was cultivation soil produced some large sherds in square 5 0 (1649) are11comparable to 0 and 1 2square 3 48 (2449) 5 6 7but8 these 9 10 12 13 14 15+ cmssand in square 2 (1106). the large sherds from the grey Platter is present in both the cultivation soil (GAA) and the grey sand (GAD) but the overall numbers are low – only 11 sherds – and the GA assemblage compares poorly to the assemblage in the Middle Norse phases (GB; see Chapter 6). Three everted rims were recovered from GAA and one from GAD (Figure 93). These are unusual discoveries from the early period and could be contamination caused by rabbit-burrowing or poor recording.

50 40

Measurements ̶ N Sharples

%

30

The animal bone and pottery from 14 contexts in the cultivation soil (GAA) and eight contexts in the grey 20 sand (GAD) were measured to provide some assessment of10the fragmentation of the different materials (Figure 94). The quantities of pottery were substantially smaller 0 than0the1 quantities the 2 3 4 of 5 bone 6 7and8 the 9 assemblage 10 11 12 13from 14 15+ cultivation soil (GAA) was cmsroughly double the size of that from the grey sand (GAD). The assemblage from the cultivation soil (GAA) comprised 7,425 bones and 55 potsherds, and that from the grey sand (GAD) 4,488 bones and 22 potsherds. The animal bone from the cultivation soil (GAA) is slightly better preserved than that from the grey sand (GAD). There is a considerably higher percentage of bones between 10 and 20 mm (GAA, 25%; GAD, 35%)

118

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

and fewer large bones (GAA, 8.1% above 60 mm; GAD, 7.0% above 60 mm) in the grey sand. The pattern of the small pottery assemblage is a little bit different. The assemblage from the cultivation soil (GAA) includes a large number of small sherds, whereas the assemblage from the grey sand (GAD) contains a larger number of medium-sized sherds. There were no large sherds in either deposit.

Artefacts ̶ A Pannett, R Smith and N Sharples The deposits dating to the Early Norse period on mound 2A were artefact-rich and produced an assemblage that is substantial in quantity and important in quality (Figures 95–101). The cultivation soil (GAA) produced 409 objects and the grey sand (GAD) 122 objects (Tables 30 and 31). The hearths produced only isolated objects (one from GAB, two from GAC). The overall pattern is slightly different between the two main assemblages. The cultivation soil produced a high proportion of waste and personal objects, whereas the grey sand had a higher proportion of flint and structural items. Tools and vessels are much less common in both assemblages but there are differences; tools are more common in the assemblage from the grey sand, whereas vessel fragments are more common in the finds from the cultivation soil. The distribution of the assemblage across the excavated area shows some similarities between the two major blocks GAA and GAD. The density of artefacts per square metre was calculated for the different squares outlined in Figure 25. The highest density from the cultivation soil (GAA) came from square 7, whereas the highest density from the grey sand (GAD) came from square 4. The general pattern is that the centre and west of the mound produced the highest densities from the cultivation soil (GAA), whereas artefacts in the grey sand (GAD) were significantly fewer and occurred more towards the northwest corner of the area excavated. One of the more significant features of the assemblage is the quantity of worked bone and antler waste. This largely came from the north and west extension (squares 3 and 11) and seems to indicate dumping rather than a particular workshop. Nevertheless, the significance of craft activity on the mound at this early date is important, and it provides a precursor to the later comb-production activity (see below chapter 8). One bit of whale bone from the grey sand (GAD) appears to be a cut blank that could have been intended for use in a comb, but no other diagnostic pieces of comb-making debris were found in these early deposits. A lot of the bone-working debris in the cultivation soil (GAA) consists of splintered bone with score-marks and is likely to be waste from the preliminary stages of bone pin production. A total of 113 struck flints were recovered, 81 from the cultivation soil (GAA) and 32 from the grey sand (GAD);

four pieces are burnt. The assemblage is dominated by flakes (37 complete flakes and 15 flake fragments), but also contains six pieces of microdebitage, 19 chunks and three cores. Surviving platforms are cortical or planar and terminations feathered, hinged or plunging. Complete pieces are, on average, 21mm in length, 18mm wide and 6mm thick. Two of the three cores are amorphous, with flakes struck from multiple platforms across the surfaces with no evidence of preparation. The third is a small worked-out single platform bladelet core. It has a crushed distal end that suggests it was supported on a hard surface during bladelet removal. This core is characteristically prehistoric, and probably Early Neolithic in date. Eleven pieces were retouched. The assemblage of scrapers comprises four pieces with abrupt retouch along either the proximal or distal end and up both lateral edges; two of these are roughly pointed. There is one side scraper (which has additional retouch along the opposite edge and around the distal end, forming a piercer point), an end scraper and a scraper fragment of indeterminate form. Four flakes have been retouched to form simple edgeretouched tools. Two have abrupt retouch along one edge, one has abrupt retouch along one edge on the ventral side and one edge on the dorsal side, and one has abrupt retouch along both edges and around the distal end. The retouched pieces are probably prehistoric in date and perhaps contemporary with the bladelet core. The cultivation soil (GAA) produced an impressive collection of bone pins (52 pieces; a selection is illustrated in Figures 95 and 97). Many of these (c. 50) are broken fragments but there are some complete examples. The assemblage has roughly similar quantities of expanded head, nail-headed and non-headed pins, which are the most common types at Bornais; the nail-headed pin (4819) is a particularly fine example of this type. Pin 5403 is a rare rectangular-headed pin that has a heavily weathered and gnawed decorative panel. Possibly of chronological significance is the presence of three circular perforated pins (4832 and 4892 are illustrated in Figures 95 and 97); this type is largely restricted to the early deposits. Pin 6536 is a particularly fine pin-head, whose delicacy and size makes it similar to the small hipped pins (6469, 6643) found in Late Iron Age deposits on mound 2 (see Figures 44 and 46). Unfortunately there is not enough of the shaft to say whether it was hipped or not. The grey sand (GAD) had a much smaller assemblage of six pins that included a thistle-headed pin (2867) and another nail-headed pin (6137), decorated with three dots on the top of the head and a series of lines on the shaft (Figure 101). A small copper alloy ring (6330; Figures 96 and 97) was found in square 5 (GAA) and it seems likely that this came from a ring-headed pin, which is a find type often present on Early Norse settlements in the North Atlantic (Fanning 1994). A possible iron pin (5317; Figure 99) was recovered but this has a relatively thick cross-section and may be better interpreted as an awl.

The Early Norse activity on mound 2A

119

The comb assemblage is small (18 objects from GAA and eight objects from GAD) and heavily fragmented. The most significant finds are an almost complete pair of side plates (5398; Figures 100 and 101). Unfortunately these were discovered during the fairly vigorous removal of the grey sand (GAD) and it was not possible to observe them in situ. Nevertheless, it seems they were closely associated and came from the same area, within a couple of metres of each other. They were not associated with any toothplates and it is clear that the comb had been dismantled prior to deposition. This comb has a good parallel at Coppergate, York (MacGregor et al. 1999, fig. 884, 7554), which belonged to phase 4B and is dated there to the tenth century AD. Other comb fragments from mound 2A appear to exhibit early characteristics; there are several decorated side plates with complex incised designs, which are wide and have a semi-circular crosssection comparable to 5398 (e.g. 2946; Figure 101). One comb fragment from near the terminal of a side plate (6653; Figure 97) has a complex and precisely

incised interlace pattern directly comparable to the pattern on fragment 2968 from mound 2 (see Figure 155), though 6653 is a much smaller piece. Complex designs such as these were not common in the Middle and Later Norse periods. Other interesting personal objects include copper alloy tweezers (6286), a glass bead (6833) and a glass counter or playing piece (6277) (Figure 97). There is also a variety of incised bones that appear to be decorated rather than butchered. The most formally decorated piece is a goose ulna (6766; Figure 97) made into a needle case. The ulna has been carefully shaped and transversely perforated in the centre. The outer surface is decorated with fine incised lines separated into two bordered panels by a blank area around the central perforation. The two panels have a crude diamond-shaped grid pattern. Tools account for a relatively small proportion of the assemblage, particularly in the cultivation soil (GAA). Nevertheless, there are some interesting objects, which are worth noting here. From the cultivation soil (GAA) there are two purple phyllite whetstones, one of which, a particularly carefully made and delicate object (6485; Figures 98 and 99), had been perforated for suspension. It presumably acted as a dress accessory. There is also a fine Eidsborg schist whetstone (6297; Figures 98 and 99) from the cultivation soil and another (6007; Figure 101) from the grey sand. The presence of these imported objects clearly indicates important connections with Norway in this primary phase.

Figure 95. Ring headed bone pins, 6385, 4832, 4892; the latter two are from the cultivation horizon (GAA)

Figure 96. A copper alloy ring (6330) possibly from a ring headed pin. Note the decorative diagonal lines around the sides

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

120

GAA

6363

3198

3512

5420

6626

4832

4892

6506

5403

6536

6462

5419

4819

6330

6833

7564

6277

6765

6766

6286

0

5455

6684

6653

4830

6619

6654

10cm

Figure 97. A selection of objects from the cultivation soil (GAA). These are all antler or bone except for 6277 and 6833, which are glass, and 6286 and 6330, which are copper alloys

Figure 98. Two whetstones from the cultivation soil (GAA). The upper stone is purple phyllite (6485) and the lower stone eidsborg schist (6297).

The Early Norse activity on mound 2A

121

GAA

6485

6297

3939

7565

6253

5431

5857

6754

5317

8034+5466

6336

6209

7524

3276

3486

6410

4876

6763 0

10cm

Figure 99. A selection of tools from the cultivation soil (GAA); 6485, 6297, 3939 are stone; 3276, 3486, 4876, 5466, 6253, 6410, 6763, 7524, 7565 and 8034 are antler or bone; 5317, 5857, 6209, 6336 and 6754 are iron and 5431 is a composite iron and lead object

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

122

Figure 100. A pair of comb side-plates (5398) from the grey sand (GAD)

GAD

6204 4298

6776

5972

3224

7945

2867

6137

6270

5398

2960

0

6007

2946

10cm

Figure 101. A selection of objects from the grey sand (GAD). These are all antler or bone except 6007 and 6204, which are stone, and 2960, which is iron

The Early Norse activity on mound 2A

123

Tools

Personal objects

Miscellaneous

Structural fittings

Vessels Total

1

flint

1

12

2

977, 1791

4

712, 2452

bone

11

12

13

14

15

11

6

7

1

1

1

6

2

8

1

2

24

5

13

1

17

81

6

7

8

9

5

2

1

1 1

not excavated

pin manu waste

1

1192, 1195, 1199, 1605, 2387, 2401

bone

2356, 2360, 2391, 2407, 2424, 2430, 2431, 2438

working debris

10

2405, 2414,

antler

2449

5

waste

2413, 2416, 2421, 2423

1649, 1792, 2337, 2448, 2450, 2454

4

14

Material

1789, 1790

1617, 1626

3

3

1795, 2301, 2441 2

Object

not excavated

Working debris

969, 990, 1102, 1107, 1125, 1145, 1146

Table 30. The artefacts from the cultivation soil GAA showing there distribution in the different areas or squares

1 1

2

3

7

1

15

2

spindle whorl

steatite/bone

weaving tablet

whale bone

pin beater

whale bone

needle

iron

needle case

bone

point

bone

handle

antler

knife

iron

awl/punch

iron

fish hook

iron

whetstone

stone

cobble tool

stone

2

tweezers

Cu alloy

1

comb

antler

2

pin

bone

2

pinhead

iron/Cu alloy

1

disc

shell

counter

glass

bead/counter

glass/stone

nail

iron

rove

iron

holdfast

iron

1

rivet/fitting/ring

iron

1

1

bar/rod/strip/fragments

iron

3

6

sheet

iron

miscellaneous

iron

weight

lead

object

bone

fragment

Cu alloy/lead

worked

bone

worked

antler

unworked

horn core

cut

whale bone

2

unworked

whale bone

1

miscellaneous

steatite

sherd

steatite

5

2

2 1

1

1 1

1

1

1

2

2

1

4

1

1 1

1

1

1

1

5

1

2

2

2

2

1

1 2

9

2

1

1

2

3

6

1

16

5

18 2

4

1

1 1

1

2

13

7

1

2 1

1

6

1

7

5

1

1

1

1

3

40

4

2

15

1

2

6

7

41

1 3

1

5

3

10

1

2

2

3 1

4

1

5

1

1 1

1 2

1

1

1

1

2

1

1 1 2

1

1

5

2

6

1 2

13

38

Textile-working is indicated by the presence of two weaving tablets (3486, 3276; Figure 99) and a fine whale bone ‘pin beater’ (6410; Figure 99), which has been carefully smoothed to create a thin lens-shaped cross-

1 1

6

55

5 2

1

2

4 2

2 1

61

52 2

1

23

4 2

1

4

2 1

1

1

50

2

2

1

Total

7

21

0

97

26

0

1

1

7

11

51

409

section. However, it should be noted that spindle whorls (e.g. 3224, 6204; Figure 101) and needles (e.g. 6754; Figure 99) are not common in these assemblages, with only a small number of such objects present.

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

124

Material

871, 891, 895, 896, 953, 960, 966, 967

1611, 1614, 2434

1707, 1747, 2305, 2321, 2328

996, 1100, 1625, 1714, 1729, 1747

1611, 2345, 2370, 2373, 2437,

1148, 2434

2381

1714, 1715, 2372, 2384

not excavated

2309, 2357, 2353

1186, 2380

1193, 1197

1762, 1785, 1788

954, 1788

Working debris

Object

863, 979, 997, 999, 1100, 1106, 1108, 1109,

Table 31. The artefacts from the grey sand GAD showing there distribution in the different areas or squares

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

8&9

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

tine

antler

1

2

offcut

antler

1

1

comb making debris

whale bone

working debris

bone

spindle whorl

stone/bone

point

bone

3

cobble tool

stone

1

whetstone

stone

flint

Tools

Personal objects

Miscellaneous

Structural fittings

Vessels Total

1

7

2 1

1 3

2

1 1 2

1 1

pin

bone

1

bead

glass/stone/bone

1 3

2 1

holdfast

iron

2

Cu alloy

worked

bone

cut

whale bone

unworked

whale bone

miscellaneous

steatite

sherd

steatite

1

2

32

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

3

2

1

1

1

1

1

1

8

1

2

2

6

1 4

lead

3

2

1

iron

strip

4

1 2

iron

sheet

1

8

nail

iron

1

2

rove

miscellaneous

6

1

1

iron

iron

3

1

antler

iron

5 2

1

horse bit

rod/strip/fragments

16

1

1 1

comb

sheet

Total

1

2

1

1

15

1

7 2

2

1

1

1

1

2

1

13

1

2

1

1

1

1 1 1

1 1

1

1

1

3

1

1 1

1

2

1 17

13

20

11

From GAA contexts (Figure 99) there is a group of three, rather difficult to interpret perforated antler and bone objects (7524 and 5466/8034), which are not common in other blocks, and an antler tine handle (4876). Iron objects from GAA include a complete tanged knife (6336), an awl or punch (6209), a fish hook (5857) and an unusual composite lead and iron rod (5431). The grey sand (GAD) produced a fragment of possible horse harness (2960; Figure 101).

Carbonised plant remains ̶ J Summers, J Bond and N Sharples The Early Norse activity was explored through the analysis of 50 samples (1335.5 litres) from three blocks (Tables 32

10

10

5

5

10

0

6

7

1 1

3

4

0

122

and 33). The cultivation soil (GAA) produced 25 samples (682 litres of soil), the hearths (GAB/GAC) produced five samples (98.5 litres of soil), and the grey sand (GAD) 19 samples (5425 litres of soil). Considering the type of deposits present in GA, which included cultivated soils, the quantity of charred plant remains, including cereals, was high. Barley, oats and rye were all present, and interestingly, two wheat grains were recorded, one each in contexts 2414 and 2432 from the cultivation soil (GAA). Oat was the most common of the cereals, followed by barley and then rye. The significance of barley declined over time (Figure 102), initially observed as a result of the increasing importance of oat in the hearths (GAB/GAC) and then because of the importance of rye in the grey sand (GAD). Barley, oats and wild seeds were most frequent in the

The Early Norse activity on mound 2A samples from the hearth deposits (GAB/GAC); the next most productive deposit was the cultivation soil (GAA), and then the grey sand (GAD). Rye, which had an occasional presence in the hearths and the cultivation soil, was most frequent in the grey sand (GAD), where several samples produced over 100 grains. This is a similar range of plants to those recorded in House 1 (BB) and other mound 2 assemblages; the range of wild taxa is also comparable.

25 20 15 10 5 0

Barley

Oat

Rye

GAA

GAB/C

Flax

Wild

GAD

Figure 102. A histogram showing the relative significance of the

The distribution of the carbonised plant remains across the cultivation soil (GAA) is uninformative. The highest densities of oats, barley and rye tend to come from the central area, whereas the flax grains were more evenly spread. There is good conformity between the densities of oat and barley from the same excavated areas. A feature of square 12 is the presence of samples with very divergent densities; this seems to reflect the occurrence of several distinct ash layers in the cultivation soil in this area. The densities of rye show similarities between samples taken from the same area. The distribution of the carbonised plant remains from the grey sand (GAD) again shows high densities of oats and barley in the central area, and a much more dispersed distribution of high densities of rye and wild seeds. One sample (11022) from context 1747, in square 5, produced particularly high densities of barley and oat, but a duplicate sample from this layer had much lower densities. The sample with the highest density of rye also came from this square, but was from another sample (7752), from context 1707. Looking at the relationship between the different taxa highlights some interesting distinctions that may help us understand the processing of the crops and their deposition (Figure 103). There is a clear relationship between oats and barley; if a sample had a high density of

35

14

30

12

25

10 Secale

Hordeum

main categories of carbonised plant from the Early Norse deposits on mound 2A

20 15

6 4

5

2 0

10

20 30 Avena

40

0

50

0.7

10

0.6

10

20

30

40

50

0.5 Linum

6 4

0.4 0.3 0.2

2 0

0

Avena

12

8 Wild

8

10

0

125

0.1 0

10

20 30 Avena

40

0

50

GAA

GAD

0

2

4 6 Secale

8

10

12

GAB/C

Figure 103. Scatter plots comparing the relationship between different plant species recovered from individual samples in the Early Norse deposits on mound 2A

Cereals

5

250

1

1

21

153

1

2

126

sq 11

13

2482x

2432

11090

235

3

28

167

193

sq 3

26

2483

990

9263

7094

503

4

89

414

4

1

353

sq 4

32

2483

1617

673

1

27

291

2

1

497

sq 6

26

2483

1789

10704

738

23

56

495

5

1

462

sq 7

21

2483

2416

11085

214

8

20

129

2

1

60

sq 11

20

2483

2407

11082

18

93

678

5

1

600

sq 12

38

2483

1199

7038

1

1

1

9

Galium sp. Type 2

Galium sp. Type 1

cf Fumaria sp.

Euphorbia cf helioscopia

Erica sp.

Crucifereae Type 2

3

9

6

15

1 1

26

Compositae type

2

Crucifereae cf Raphanus sp.

Chenopodiaceae

cf Cerastium sp.

Cyperaceae/Polygonaceae

Cyperaceae indet.

1

4 8

5

1

2

6

6

1

2

2

2

6

13

8

4

18

8

2

6

1

8

1

9

2

24

2

4

6

4

20

26

2

2

1

7

6

7

3

4

2

1

7

10

1

1

7

6

3

2

2

2

1

7

1

3

1

1

9 2

Cyperaceae indet. Type 4

3

2

5

6

1

9

Cyperaceae indet. Type 5

Scirpus spp

Carex sp. Type 5

Carex sp. Type 4

Carex sp. Type 3

2

1

Carex sp. Type 1

2

Carex sp. Type 2

Buglossoides sp.

Brassica/Sinapis spp

cf Arctium spp

Weeds/Wild species

cf Large legume

cf Linum usitatissimum frags

Other Crops

1

2

1

5

2

3

10

1

2

1

1

4

1

1

1

3

3

4

2

1

5

1

2

5

1

3

24

2

3

2

1

2

3

8

1

1

9

5

1

12

2

1

1

4

2

1

1

2

82

9

1

1

1

7

4

5

2

10

6

543

5

23

351

415

sq 7

25

2482x

2423

11087

Linum usitatissimum

946

2

86

474

2

12

782

sq 12

51

2482

1605

7044

1379

300

2

19

143

123

sq 11

24

2482

2438

11097

288

476

1

2

50

323

1

1

196

sq 9

19

2482

2414

11055

Cereal grain frags

376

1

6

135

1

261

sq 6

10

2482

1790

10728

1 836

68

93

523

2

3

476

sq 4

34

2482

1626

7157

Cereal culm frags

Oat palea/lemma

Triticum sp.

cf Secale cereale indet. frag

265

3

16

cf Secale cereale grains

26

149

122

1

274

Avena sp. grains

153

Avena sp. indet. frag

Hordeum sativum rachis frags

Hordeum vulgare indet. frags

Hordeum vulgare grains

21

sq 3

2482

22

2481

Amalgamated context

1125

9275

sq 3

1146

Litres

9302

Sample

Context

1

1

1

8

2

2

2

1

660

1

11

95

500

2

10

612

sq 2

38

2483

1795

10803

Table 32. The carbonised plant remains from the cultivation soils (GAA)

3

4

1

1

1

1

1

197

2

21

77

2

64

sq 3

22

2484

969

9253

1

1

9

1

2

3

4

488

1

1

5

67

426

474

sq 5

22

2484

1649

11031

1

30

71

8

2

2

3

8

13

3

3

2

500

38

115

594

3

300

sq 8

23

2484

2439

11096

14

1

46

6

2

3

3

1

3

7

736

53

120

555

6

366

sq 9

23

2484

2405

11063

5

2

1

1

217

6

47

121

1

64

sq 11

24

2484

2391

11073

32

1

1

1

3

2

5

562

17

35

252

4

174

sq 12

40

2484

1195

7028

3

9

2

1

1

2

1

5

369

10

32

132

2

132

sq 12

26

2484

1196

7030

2

4

1

5

1

2

464

3

58

232

240

sq 15

41

2484

1791

10720

17

7

3

2

1

2

1

4

1

311

35

27

85

2

3

127

sq 12

41

1192

7020

126

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

X

X

X X

X

X X X X X X X X

X

X X X X

X

X X

X

X X

X X X X Indet.

Fungal spores/insect pellets

X

X

4 7 7

3 Heather frags

Poss ID

cf Viola sp.

Indet. Type 4

Amorphous material

2 2 cf Sisymbrium sp.

Urtica sp.

cf Ranunculus sp.

Rubus sp.

Ranunculus sp. small

Ranunculus sp. large

Rumex/Polygonum spp kernels

1

1

1 2

1 1

X

6 3

1

1 3

5 1

4

3 11 1

5 4 4

7

2

4

8

10

2

1

2

3

2

1

1

2

10

1 1 1 8 13 3 3 2 1

3 3 4 3 2 2 2 2 Polygonum sp. Type 4

Rumex/Polygonum sp. Type 5

Rumex/Polygonum sp. Type 2

Rumex/Polygonum sp. Type 3

X

1

1

4 2

2

1

2

2

3 9

1 3

1

2 1 6

10 3 4 1 5 10 4 2 1 1 1

4 1

2 5

14 6

4

4

Polygonaceae

1 Potentilla sp.

11 3

1

3

3 1

1

3 1

6 1

2

2

1

13

19 5

2 9

4 17

8 1

1 32

10 12

13 3

1 2

5 2

13

55 5

1 4

24 3 3

1 2

5 6

3 9 4 2

11

1 1 2

1 1 1 Papaver sp.

Plantago sp.

cf Liliaceae

53

2

3

1 1

2 1

3 2

1 3

1

2 3 2

3

1

6 4 10 2 10 5

Paniceae type grain

Rumex/Polygonum sp. Type 1

3 2

1

4

1 1

14 4 5 11 11 6 6 32

2

3 Bromus sp.

cf Hypericum sp.

20

1 1 3

4 7 22 1 8

2 4

22 4 3 6 6 11 5

1

10 7 9 4 8 2 2 Gramineae

Phleum sp.

9

6

19 4 5

1 3 6

2 1

2

24

1

1

6

1

16

The Early Norse activity on mound 2A

127 oats, it would have a high density of barley. This is particularly clear with the high–density samples in the grey sand (GAD). The relationship between rye and oats is very different, with high densities of both crops seldom present in the same samples. This is particularly clear in the grey sand (GAD) given the increased significance of rye in this block, but it is also visible in the cultivation soil (GAA). The relationship between oats and wild seeds is also different between the two deposits. This is mostly a result of the generally low densities of wild seeds in the grey sand. The hearth deposits generally seem to be more similar to the deposits in the cultivation soil (GAA) than to those in the grey sand (GAD). The close correlation between oats and barley suggests these taxa were generally processed together and it is possible they might have been grown as a mixed crop. Rye was clearly a very different crop that was largely kept separate from the basic staples. These patterns are most clear in the grey sand (GAD), but still present in the cultivation soil (GAA) which suggests, unsurprisingly, that the deposits in the cultivation soil were more mixed than those in the grey sand. This supports the general interpretation that the cultivation soil was attracting regular dumps of waste material and that these were then mixed by the effects of ploughing and occupation. In contrast, the grey sand accumulated slowly when the area was not a major focus for occupation and, when dumping occurred, it was relatively discrete and undisturbed.

Animal bone ̶ J Best, A Powell, J Mulville and N Sharples The Early Norse deposits on mound 2A produced the largest assemblage of animal bones (4,244 identifiable fragments) from any of the major

GAB

21.5

Block

Litres

6

6

3

4

12

3

Crucifereae cf Raphanus sp.

Galium sp. Type 2

3

1

Galium sp. Type 1

1

2

6

cf Fumaria sp.

1

Euphorbia cf helioscopia

Erica sp.

Crucifereae Type 2

4

18

4

Compositae type

2

29

Chenopodiaceae

5

4

1

5 1

1

1

17

5

Cyperaceae indet.

11

cf Cerastium sp.

5

Cyperaceae indet. Type 5

Cyperaceae/Polygonaceae

1

18

Cyperaceae indet. Type 4

4

1

2

1

4

2

Carex sp. Type 5

1

1

1

2

1056

Scirpus spp

1

Carex sp. Type 4

Carex sp. Type 3

4

Carex sp. Type 2

8

1

Carex sp. Type 1

Buglossoides sp.

Brassica/Sinapis spp

cf Arctium spp

Weeds/Wild species

cf Large legume

cf Linum usitatissimum frags

Linum usitatissimum

Other Crops

157

1

1

6

5

1

2

3

1

2

1

2

8

4

1

47

11

1

116

690

3

322

42

GAC

1794

11000

354

313

1

11

90

676

98

593

24

GAB

2445

11103

Cereal grain frags

3

14

57

9

1

57

5

GAB

2444

11102

Cereal culm frags

Oat palea/lemma

Triticum sp.

21

1

cf Secale cereale indet. frag

4

45

Avena sp. indet. frag

cf Secale cereale grains

1

43

Avena sp. grains

10

14

457

Hordeum sativum rachis frags

15

6

GAB

2443

11101

3

233

2345

Hordeum vulgare indet. frags

Hordeum vulgare grains

Cereals

11041

Sample

Context

3

195

5

21

87

1

50

3

1

2

1

208

4

13

73

48

41 sq 15

28

GAD

954

9228

sq 11

GAD

2353

11046

1

2

8

7

2

1

1

1

2

2

1

284

32

6

19

3

4

142

sq 2

23

GAD

979

9238

1

1

2

8

1

423

69

5

31

5

1

33

sq 3

15

GAD

960

9212

1

1

5

1

133

22

10

17

1

22

sq 3

15

GAD

896

9221

1

1

13

3

1

5

1

333

43

3

37

2

4

110

sq 4

38

GAD

1611

7072

1

2

1

28

2

1

1

3

2

1

896

44

90

416

4

266

sq 4

42

GAD

1611

11052

1

2

4

11

2

19

3

2

2

4

3

1

1692

380

14

129

9

45

sq 5

33

GAD

1707

7752

1

1

1

56

1

2

2

2

2

317

20

37

162

5

2

129

sq 5

35

GAD

1747

10223

1

3

18

2

1

2

188

54

11

29

6

1

63

sq 5

14

GAD

2305

11005

1

13

1

3

1

719

16

80

1010

1

473

sq 5

22

GAD

1747

11022

2

4

1

2

1

217

33

12

59

1

67

sq 5

23

GAD

2328

11024

1

2

8

1

3

1

1147

338

6

95

9

1

59

sq 6

38

GAD

1625

7155

Table 33. The carbonised plant remains from the hearth (GAB) and the grey sand (GAD)

1

1

2

15

3

1

1

1

2

1

1

1

6

4

493

111

20

135

3

2

151

sq 6

41

GAD

1714

7760

1

4

1

5

18

2

1

1

2

3

6

6

2

1

4

434

130

27

118

7

4

163

sq 6

32

GAD

1729

7926

19

2

3

1

1

145

8

5

32

1

52

sq 7

27

GAD

2373

11066

5

28

3

2

5

1

1

2

1

4

4

862

42

122

458

3

313

sq 8

26

GAD

2435

11093

5

6

3

21

5

1

1

3

1

2

543

19

83

481

3

286

sq 8

22

GAD

2437

11095

2

1

1

34

6

2

3

2

2

1

1

297

43

34

137

6

106

sq 9

27

GAD

2384

11070

128

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

X X

X X X X

X Fungal spores/insect pellets

X X X Indet.

X

1 Amorphous material

2

3 9 2

2

X

6

X X X

4 30 Poss ID

X X X

X X

X X

4 26 Heather frags

Indet. Type 4

cf Viola sp.

X

X

4 1 4 1 9

6

8

2 1 1 Urtica sp.

1 1 cf Sisymbrium sp.

Rubus sp.

1 cf Ranunculus sp.

Ranunculus sp. large

Rumex/Polygonum spp kernels

Ranunculus sp. small

Rumex/Polygonum sp. Type 5

X

X X X X X

3 3

1 1

3 9 4 2

3

2 3

1

4

1

2

X

5 2

5 5 1

2

2 1

26 35

1 1

4 19 2

35 19 13

1 1 Polygonum sp. Type 4

1 Papaver sp.

11

1 1 1 2 1

1 1 3 6 Rumex/Polygonum sp. Type 3

3

1 2 Rumex/Polygonum sp. Type 2

2 Paniceae type grain

cf Liliaceae

1

1 1 1

5 3

11

3 2 2 6

3

1 1

1 3 9

1 2 Rumex/Polygonum sp. Type 1

1 4 Polygonaceae

19 1 1 Potentilla sp.

4 2 Plantago sp.

10 1

2

1 7 17 15 8 8 81 cf Hypericum sp.

Bromus sp.

3

2

2 1

5 1 2 1 5 7

8

1 3 Phleum sp.

1 20 Gramineae

3

8

1 1 1

4 2

3 1 4 5

2 1

2 1

2 3

5 2

2

6

1

2

5

3 5 5 11 8

7

1 2 1

6

3

4 7

7 3 2

4 1

4

1

2

4 2 2

5

1

4

2

7

7 10

12

5 5 1

8 1 8 4 8 1 1

1

4 1 11

4

2 4

19

The Early Norse activity on mound 2A

129 blocks on mound 2 and 2A. The next largest assemblage came from BD deposits and is approximately twothirds the size of the GA assemblage. The bulk of the assemblage, 3,406 fragments, came from the cultivation soil (GAA); a large assemblage of 797 fragments, came from the grey sand (GAD), and small quantities, 41 fragments, were found in the hearth deposits (Tables 34 and 35). The highest density of bones from the cultivation soil (GAA) came from square 7, but squares 9, 11 and 12 (and possibly 5) also had high densities, whereas squares 6 and 15 had low densities. This suggests that deposition of animal bones favoured the centre and western squares. The densities from GAD were considerably lower and the highest density came from square 4; the next highest density was from square 2. The patterns suggest a slight shift in the focus for deposition to the north part of the area explored. The principal domestic species present is sheep/goat, which makes up 38% of the major mammal assemblage; cattle account for 35% of the assemblage and pig 18%. Deer make up 7% of the assemblage. The pig assemblage is unusually abundant, almost 20% in the cultivation soils (GAA), even higher than the 14% from the Early Norse deposits (BB) on mound 2. Red deer also has a greater significance in these deposits, which contrasts with its relative scarcity on mound 2 (BB; 2%). Chronological change can be assessed by a comparison of the large assemblages from GAA and GAD (Figure 104). The basic trend appears to be a decline in the significance of pig (20% to 14%) and red deer (8% to 4%), and a rise in the significance of cattle (34% to 39%) and sheep/goat (37% to 43%). The relative proportions of cattle and sheep/goat bones appear to remain roughly similar. The other species recovered from these deposits include horse, dog, cat, roe deer, otter, seal and

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

130

1125

2482

3

4

57

GAA

1626

2482

4

10

GAA

2450

2482

5

GAA

1790

2482

6

GAA

2421

2482

7

GAA

2414

2482

9

GAA

2430

2482

11

GAA

2438

2482

11

GAA

1605

2482

12

GAA

2404

2482

12

GAA

2452

2482

14

GAA

984

2482

15

GAA

1795

2483

2

GAA

990

2483

3

GAA

1102

2483

3

GAA

1617

2483

4

GAA

1622

2483

4

GAA

2448

2483

5

GAA

1789

2483

6

GAA

2416

2483

7

GAA

2449

2483

8

GAA

2407

2483

11

3

GAA

2424

2483

11

1

11

GAA

1199

2483

12

35

GAA

2393

2483

12

3

GAA

969

2484

3

2 1 1 2

11

5

1

18

38

46

19

1

12

9

1

18

4

4

Goat

11

4 4 2 1 1 3

3

1

37

4

2

64

11

8

166

39

12

2

50

7

47

34

5

3

9

16

50

9

33

44

21

1

3

13

10

56

5

30

22

29

1

1

11

12

7

12

2

2 1

1

36

7

1

3

3

4

28

14

42

6

19 6

4

1

6

1

26

11

1

3

1

5

16

11

4

1

3

8

2

1

10

6

1

1 2 3

4

26

8

5

21

4

27

7

1

1

12

6

6

1

59

23

2

17

11

11

12

9

2

4

2

1

36

6

44

16

10

4

9

2

1

3

1

7

105

2

2

18

9

7

119

6

7

3

3

58

2

1

18

2

27

2

7

70

3

3

7

77

2

12

1

62

7

10

157

5

2

7

56

3

6

9

85

4

11

134

6

9

179

1

3

33

7

10

111

1

4

49

2

2

61

1

2

20 126

10

2484

5

59

14

53

25

5

1

1

1

3

GAA

2413

2484

7

7

3

16

2

GAA

2405

2484

9

1

28

8

28

17

GAA

2360

2484

11

1

15

2

19

4

GAA

2391

2484

11

12

6

26

9

3

GAA

1195

2484

12

1

4

4

1

GAA

977

2484

15

1

GAA

1791

2484

15

GAA

1792

2484

16

GAA

2454

5

GAA

2455

5

GAA

2423

7

2

1

GAA

2431

11

1

1

GAA

2432

11

1

GAA

2447

8

1

GAA

2394

12

1

GAA

2356

11

1

GAA

2357

11

1

GAA

1191

12

1

GAA

1192

12

6

GAA

2441

2

15

GAA

712

14

1

1

996

177

1

12 2 1

1

2 1 10

1

1

2

1

44

3

42

14

10

1

65

19

63

52

14

17

1

13

8

7

1 1 1 2

9

1

4

5

1

11

25

4

7

253 1

1

19

60 1

1

29

125

1

2484

6

42

1

1649

1

170

12 1

17

1

177 184

1

5

5

11 7

1

1

13

40

10

2

1

2337

Sub-total

200

36

GAA

GAA

38

10

40

1

90

5

8

GAA

2

1

46

32

1

1

7

23

1

1

8

36

72

2

17

2 3

1

4

1

Total

10

22

16

Hare/fox-sized mammal

GAA

Sheep-sized mammal

17

Cattle-sized mammal

1

3

Cetacean

3

9

23

Seal

2482

1

3

Grey seal

1107

27

22

Pine Marten

GAA

2

3

Otter

2

20

3

Deer

2482

3

13

1

Roe deer

2301

1

2

3

Red deer

GAA

1

29

Cat

3

3

Dog

3

2481

Pig

2481

1146

Sheep/goat

Equid

1145

GAA

Sheep

Square

GAA

Cattle

Context

Horse

Block

Amalgamated context

Table 34. The animal bone from the cultivation soils (GAA)

1 3 2 2

3 1 1

1

2

4 1

2

1

15

1

37

1 1

4

2

1

13

3

2

2 1

909

3

1 575

1

6

234

2 3

1

20

1

2

21

14

159

233

7 5

3406

The Early Norse activity on mound 2A

131

1

Hare/fox-sized mammal

Sheep-sized mammal

Cattle-sized mammal

Cetacean

Seal

Rodent

Red deer

Cat

Dog

Sub total

Pig

GAB

Sheep/goat

2445

Goat

2444

GAB

Sheep

GAB

Area

Cattle

Context

Horse

Block

Equid

Table 35. The animal bone from the hearths (GAB and GAC) and the grey sand (GAD)

1

2

1 0

GAC

1794

2

GAC

Sub-total

2

GAD

863

0

0 11

3

0

11

3

5

2

38

6

2 2

0

GAD

871

3

GAD

891

3

GAD

895

3

GAD

896

3

1

2

GAD

954

15

1

28

3

GAD

960

3

GAD

979

2

6

1

GAD

996

6

3

0

1 12

7

0

12

7

2

2

15

10

1

1

1 0

0

1

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

1

0

0

3

0

0

38

2

38 11

2

5

4

7

1

4

87

1

9

1

1 8

1

25

7

1 1

1

1

1

2

16

1

4

72

1

1

15

1

10

1

1

9

62

2

40

2

15

9

97

1

GAD

997

2

GAD

1100

2

GAD

1106

2

GAD

1109

2

1

3

GAD

1186

12

1

16

GAD

1193

13

2

1 4

5

1

1 1

16

23

1

8

17

7

2

1

2

1

1 4

6 1

1 2

1

7

7

3

2

1

36

19

2

GAD

1611

4

GAD

1625

6

1

GAD

1707

5

8

1

6

3

GAD

1714

6

6

4

11

1

GAD

1715

9

GAD

1729

6

2

GAD

1746

6

2

GAD

1747

5

8 11

1 3 5

7

5

6 1

1 2

1

1

1

2

23

1

1

28

1

1

1 1

3

4

3

7

10

1

6

5

GAD

1788

14

GAD

2305

5

GAD

2309

11

19

11

GAD

2321

5

1

2

GAD

2328

5

GAD

2353

11

1 1

7

20 5

1

1

1

1

3

1

2

3

1

42 3

2

GAD

2370

7

5

6

6

1

2

GAD

2372

9

7

2

15

9

4

GAD

2373

7

3

1

1

GAD

2380

12

6

1

1

GAD

2381

8&9

7

2

10

GAD

2384

9

1

GAD

2434

8

14

GAD

2435

8

GAD

2381/2372

8&9

1

1

16

3

25

3

2

45

1

6 8

2

1

1

7

2

32

1

14 1

1

1 1 2

4 4

32

1

1 8

Total

1 1

6

2

35

1

1

3

4 2

1

GAD

Sub-total

5

4

263

53

2

235

91

3

4

26

2

5

6

40

54

4

797

6

GAD

Total

7

4

274

56

2

248

99

3

4

28

2

5

6

42

54

4

838

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

132

Table 36. The taphonomy of the animal bone from the Early Norse deposits (GA)

45 40

% carnivore gnawed

% rodent gnawed

% Butchered

Total Burnt

%

GAA

3406

1009

29

1

12

212

6

1

5

GAB

3

1

33

0

0

1

33

33

GAC

38

17

45

5

8

2

5

3

25 20 15

0

GAA Cattle

GAB/GAC Sheep/goat

GAD Pig

Red deer

Figure 104. A histogram showing the relative significance of the

% Calcined

Total gnawed

10

30

% Burnt

Block

Total ID

35

GAD

797

224

27

1

11

17

2

1

Total

4244

1251

29

1

12

232

5

1

main species of mammals from the Early Norse deposits on mound 2A

cetaceans. Horse and equid bones made up 1.6% of the assemblage but none of the other assemblages were greater than 1%. There were no concentrations with isolated bones scattered across the trench. The assemblage has an average number of carnivore gnawed bones, and an above average percentage of butchered and burnt bones. The proportions of gnawed and butchered bones are very similar between the different phases, but the hearth deposits have a higher proportion of gnawed bones and the grey sand has a much smaller percentage of burnt bones (Table 36). An assemblage of 154 identifiable bird bones was recovered from the Early Norse deposits (Table 37). The majority of the identifiable birds (72%) came from the cultivation soil (GAA) and only two bones came from the hearth (GAC). The assemblage is taxonomically diverse with a range of seabirds, waterfowl, waders, raptors and land birds present. A small number of domestic fowl are also represented, forming 6% of the identifiable birds. Large gulls, particularly the herring/lesser black-backed gull, form a major part of the assemblage, but cormorant is the most numerous individual species. Ground nesters such as the puffin and Manx shearwater form around 13% of the assemblage. Large grey geese were also regularly exploited. Raven is represented by five bones, four of which came from one context and may derive from a single individual. Of note is an ungual phalanx (talon) of a white-tailed eagle that has knife-cuts on the proximal articulation, comparable to an example from the Middle Norse activity (block BDI) on mound 2. Carnivore gnawing is present on approximately 5% of the identifiable assemblage. A high proportion of the bird remains display knife cut-marks (12%) but none display burning.

Fish bone – C Ingrem A total of 1,224 identifiable fish bones were recorded from the 2–10 mm residues taken from the cultivation soils

(GAA). The majority of the remains belong to herring, which represents 97% of the material, with the remaining taxa, which include pollock, saithe, salmonid, eel, and flatfish, generally comprising less than 1% each (Table 38). Twenty-three specimens came from the greater than 10 mm residues and most belong to cod/hake family, particularly cod and hake themselves. Cod, ling (Molva molva) and mackerel (Scomber scombrus) are the only taxa not present in the less than 10 mm material. Eight hundred and forty-four identifiable specimens were examined from the less than 10 mm environmental samples recovered from the grey sand (GAD) and almost all belong to herring (830 specimens). Salmonid, eel and saithe are present in small numbers (Table 38). The over 10 mm residues produced 19 identifiable specimens and all except three herring bones belong to large gadoid fish, mostly cod and hake (Table 38). Anatomical representation for herring (Table 39) indicates that both assemblages are dominated by vertebrae from both the abdominal and caudal regions of the body, whilst cranial bones are relatively under-represented. The calculation of percentage presence and the minimum number of individuals indicate that abdominal vertebra represent a minimum of 40 fish, and caudal vertebra only 26. Total length of the herring was estimated using modern comparative material of known size, which suggests that most fish were approximately 300 mm in length (Table 40). A few bones from the cranial region are present but with the exception of the basioccipital (which connects with the spine), heads are severely under-represented with a minimum of just two individual fish represented. Fifty-one herring bones were crushed in a manner suggestive of gnawing, probably by humans. Twenty-five came from the primary cultivation soils (GAA) and 26 from the grey sand accumulation (GAD; see Table 216). A smaller number (33 bones) had been burnt and most of those affected were brown with a few charred and/or calcined. The largest sample of fish bones examined from the cultivation soils (GAA) came from the basal layer context

The Early Norse activity on mound 2A

133

Whimbrel

White-Tailed Eagle

Wader, Small

Wader cf Snipe

Small Passerine

Shag

Shearwater sp. cf Manx

Puffin

Raven

Oystercatcher

Manx Shearwater

Gull sp.

Gull/Skua, Large

Gull, Great Black-Backed

Gull, Herring/Lesser Black-Backed

Guillemot

Goose sp.

Great Northern Diver

Gannet

Goose, Large Grey cf Greylag

Duck sp.

Galliform cf Domestic Fowl

Dove cf Rock/Stock

Square

Crow/Rook

Amalgamated context

Domestic Fowl

Context

Cormorant

Block

Anatidae, Goose/Swan

Table 37. The bird bone from the Early Norse deposits (GA)

GAA

712

GAA

2301

2482

sq 2

GAA

1107

2482

sq 3

GAA

1125

2482

sq 3

GAA

1626

2482

sq 4

GAA

1790

2482

sq 6

GAA

2421

2482

sq 7

1

GAA

2414

2482

sq 9

1

GAA

2430

2482

sq 11

GAA

2438

2482

sq 11

GAA

1605

2482

sq 12

GAA

2452

2482

sq 15

1

GAA

1795

2483

sq 2

1

GAA

990

2483

sq 3

1

GAA

1617

2483

sq 4

2

GAA

1622

2483

sq 4

GAA

2441

2483

sq 4

GAA

2448

2483

sq 5

GAA

2407

2483

sq 11

GAA

2424

2483

sq 11

GAA

1199

2483

sq 12

1

GAA

2393

2483

sq 12

1

GAA

1792

2484

sq 2/5

1

GAA

969

2484

sq 3

2

GAA

1192

2484

sq 3

1

GAA

1649

2484

sq 5

1

GAA

2413

2484

sq 7

GAA

2439

2484

sq 8

GAA

2405

2484

sq 9

GAA

2391

2484

sq 11

GAA

977

2484

sq 15

GAA

1791

2484

sq 15

GAA

2431

sq 11

1

GAA

2432

sq 11

1

GAC

1794

sq 14

GAD

863

sq 2

1

1

GAD

979

sq 2

4

4

GAD

1106

sq 2

GAD

871

sq 3

1

1

GAD

891

sq 3

1

1

GAD

2435

sq 4

GAD

1611

sq 5

1

GAD

1707

sq 5

1

GAD

1747

sq 5

GAD

1625

sq 6

GAD

1714

sq 6

GAD

2370

sq 7

GAD

2373

sq 7

GAD

2372

sq 9

GAD

2381

sq 9

GAD

2309

sq 11

GAD

1186

sq 12

GAD

954

sq 15

1

GAD

1788

sq 15

1

Total

2

Total

2 1

1 1

1

1 1

1

2

1

1

4

1

5 1

1

1

1

3 1

2

2

1

2 1

1

1

2

1

1

7

1

3

1

5

1

1

1

1 1

1

1

3

1

1

1

6

1

1

1

1

4

1

6

3 1

3

1

2

1

1 1 1 2

1

1

1

3

5

1

3

1

5 1

1

1

4

1

2 1

2

1

1

7 1 1

1

1 1

1 1 1 1

2

1

1

1

2

2

5

1

1

3

1

1

1

3

1

1

1

1

9 1 1

1

2

1

1

1

1 1

2 2

1

4

1

1

1

1

2

1 1

1

1

1

3

6

1

1

1

8

1

2

1

1 1

1 1

3

20

1

1

9

1

2

1

1

3 1

6

3

5

6

9

6

3

2

12

18

3

2

8

2

12

5

3

5

5

1

3

1

2 1

154

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

134

Table 38. The fish bone from the Early Norse deposits (GA) Species

10mm

GAA

GAA

GAD

GAD

GAA

GAD

Clupea harengus

1190

2894

830

1660

2

3

Salmonidae spp

2

6

2

4

Anguilla anguilla

2

4

1

2 4

1

6

12 8

7

Pollachius pollachius

3

8

Pollachius virens

18

51

Gadus morhua Merluccius merluccius

4

Molva molva Gadidae spp

7

19

5

10

Scomber scombrus cf Callionymus lyra Flatfish

1

1

7

1

1 1

4

1

4

Unidentifiable

1465

2990

994

1988

22

24

Total

2689

5980

1838

3676

45

41

Total identifiable

1224

2990

844

1688

23

17

46

50

46

46

51

41

% identifiable

projected quantities

1790. The calculation of density from projected NISP indicates that the richest contexts were 1790 (47 bones per litre) and 2416 (52 bones per litre), although contexts 1199 and 1125 were also quite rich. Most of the material examined from the grey sand (GAD) came from four layers: 1729, 954, 1714 and 1747. The highest density (35 bones per litre) of identified fish bones was recorded from the orange-brown sand (1729) in square 6.

Conclusion – N Sharples The excavation of mound 2A was of considerable importance as it provides a suite of evidence that is directly comparable in date to that from House 1 on mound 2, but clearly different in many other respects. The size of the excavated area and the richness of the deposits also provided large assemblages of materials from the Early Norse period that were not recovered from the more superficially excavated deposits of this date on mound 2. The differences between the two areas are important. There are good reasons for thinking mound 2 was the principal focus for the settlement (see below 000), whereas mound 2A appears to have been a peripheral area. Mound 2A was clearly part of the agricultural landscape surrounding mound 2 and this is demonstrated unequivocally by the cultivation marks at the base of the sequence. However, from the beginning of Norse settlement activity, large quantities of animal bone, carbonised plant remains and material culture were deposited on mound 2A. This may indicate just the extensive use of occupation debris as a

manure for the settlement infield, but there are suggestions that this is too simple an interpretation. The presence of stratified deposits and the density of the material deposited seem to suggest a focus at the centre of the excavated area that would distinguish this locale as a special place. The later creation of two well-defined hearth areas (GAB/GAC) solidify the significance of this location as a focus for occupation, or activity that eventually became manifest in substantial stone-built houses of the later periods (GB, GE). The evidence for high temperatures at these hearths is intriguing and suggests they were not located inside domestic buildings. This suggests either specialist activities, such as corn-drying, or simply that the hearths were exposed to high winds that encouraged high temperatures, though the latter does not explain why they were constructed in the open air. The chronology of the settlement is important. The radiocarbon dates suggest that the activity on mound 2A is contemporary with the Norse activity on mound 2 (see Chapter 11). The construction of House 1 on mound 2 appears to have occurred cal AD 815–975 (95% probability) and probably cal AD 870–960 (68% probability). The first phase of activity on mound 2A, represented by a thick sequence of brown ash-rich cultivation soils, is estimated to have started in cal AD 835–975 (95% probability) and probably cal AD 885–955 (68% probability). Any interpretation is problematic as both mounds have large unexcavated areas that might have been occupied earlier. An important point to note is the complete absence of Late Iron Age material on mound 2A. There is very little pottery that could be claimed to be Iron Age and

The Early Norse activity on mound 2A

135

Table 39. Fish bone elements from the Early Norse deposits (GA) Clupea harengus

Element Ethmoid

GAA

GAD

5

1

Pollachius virens GAA

Gadhus morhua

GAD

GAA

Vomer

GAD

Merluccius merluccius GAD

Molva molva GAA

GAD

Pollachius pollachius GAA

GAD

1

Basioccipital

7

9

Articular

2

2

Dentary

2

1

2

Maxilla

4

1

Palatine

1

Metapterygoid

1

2

Premaxilla

1

Quadrate

3

1

Ceratohyal

1

1

Epihyal

2

Hyomandibular

2

Opercular

1 1

1

1

Preopercular

1

1

Subopercular

1

1

Urohyal

1

2

Posttemporal

1

1

Supracleithra

1

1

Cleithra

Anterior abdominal vertebra

48

28

Posterior abdominal vertebra

503

324

6

1

Caudal vertebra

462

344

7

2

Hypural

13

6

Vertebra fragment

114

100

Scale

17

2

1189

829

3

2 3

2

1

2

2

2

1

1

4

1

2

Otolith

2

Total MNI *

40

18

6

8

2

9 1

4

1

1

1

1

7

1 1

Table 40. The estimated size of the fish from the Early Norse deposits (GA) Block

150300mm

c.300mm

Clupea harengus

GAA

29

1144

Clupea harengus

GAD

12

815

Pollachius virens

GAA

4

14

Pollachius virens

GAD

2

4

Gadus morhua

GAA

8

Gadus morhua

GAD

7

Merluccius merluccius

GAD

4

Species

the material culture includes only one anomalous bone pin, 6536, which may be Late Iron Age but is by no means definitely dated to this period. None of the comb fragments suggest Late Iron Age dates. One must assume that there is an old ground surface in this area dating to

300600mm

6001200mm

the Late Iron Age and it is possible that an area this close to the Late Iron Age settlement on mound 2 might have been cultivated during that period. If this was the case, then there was no evidence for manuring of the fields with cultural debris in the Middle to Late Iron Age.

136

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

On South Uist encultured cultivation soils are known from the Early Bronze Age (Sharples 2009) and the Early Iron Age (Parker Pearson and Sharples 1999) but the Middle to Late Iron Age is a period for which these soils are not so obvious. At Cille Pheadair (Parker Pearson et al. 2018), the vestigial remains of cultivation activity was observed below and cut by the earliest phases of the Norse settlement activity. Unfortunately no cultivation soil was present and, given the absence of any associated occupation soils, the event cannot be dated more precisely than Viking or earlier. However, the marks observed at Cille Pheadair clearly indicated that they were created by ploughing with a mould-board plough, which suggests a relatively late date. It is possible that this ploughing was associated with the Late Iron Age burial, which lay just to the south of the Norse settlement (Parker Pearson et al. 2018). Mould-board ploughing is also known to have occurred in the wind-blown sand landscapes at Freswick in Caithness before the Norse settlement activity (Morris et al. 1995). The character of the Bornais cultivation traces is, there­ fore, surprising as the inhabitants seem to have been using simple ards, which merely break up the surface rather than turn the soil. Scandinavian use of mould-board ploughs has been recorded at Lindholm Hoj in Denmark (Fowler 2002; Lerche 1981), but it might not have been so common in the irregular landscapes of western Norway). The use of simple ards by the Norse settlers at Bornais, when previously the inhabitants of South Uist had used mouldboard ploughs, could therefore be argued to indicate a major change in subsistence practices occurring at the time of the Norse settlement. A substantial finds assemblage was recovered from the cultivation soil, though the assemblages of pottery and steatite vessels are not as numerous as those recovered from House 1. Chronologically sensitive objects include the ring from a copper alloy ring-headed pin and the comb fragments, but most of the pins are very simple and are types that have been recovered from many different phases at Bornais. A major difference between the Early Norse deposits of mound 2 and those of mound 2A is the ratio of complete bone pins to fragments. Fragments are much more common on mound 2A, indicating the

different nature of the material deposited here and possibly the effects of the ard cultivation. The large quantities of worked bone, probably from the production of bone pins, indicate the occurrence of craft activities on this mound and that these activities continued through to the Late Norse period. The animal bone from the cultivation soil is the largest assemblage of animal bones from the site, and probably the largest securely stratified assemblage from the late ninth to tenth century AD in Scotland. Whilst sheep/ goat and cattle are the dominant species, this assemblage confirms the importance of pig in these early periods. In contrast to the Early Norse deposits on mound 2, deer is also reasonably common. The importance of deer and pig declined sharply in the assemblage from the grey sand (GAD), suggesting this dietary preference was a very short-lived phenomenon. The assemblage of fish bones confirms the pattern of herring as the dominant species, as noted in the mound 2 Early Norse deposits, and fully supports the idea that off-shore fishing was able to provide the inhabitants with herring from the beginning of the Norse settlement. The densities of barley, oats and flax were much higher in the cultivation soils than they were in the House 1 deposits on mound 2, and the density of barley grains was the highest for any block. Oats were also much more important than barley on mound 2A. The densities of barley and oats declined significantly in the grey sand; in contrast, the density for rye was the highest from the site in the grey sand (GAD) and the densities for oat were the highest from the site in the cultivation layers (GAA) and hearths. The densities of cereal grains confirm the observation, made in the conclusion to chapter 2, that crop production intensified and diversified in the Norse period. The very high densities in the Early Norse contexts on mound 2A suggest that crop-processing might have been undertaken in the fields and was possibly associated with the hearths (GAB/GAC).

Note 1 This context appears to be an amalgam of 2483 and 2484.

4  The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC) – N Sharples and O Davis with M Brennand and S Reeve

Introduction House 1 on mound 2 was substantially rebuilt to create House 2 in the latter part of the eleventh century AD, in cal AD 1055–1100 (68% probability). House 2 appears to have had a relatively short occupation of 1–50 years (68% probability), but the deposits associated with its occupation were substantial and exceptionally rich in finds. House 2 was a semi-subterranean bow-walled house, oriented east–west. It was almost 20 m long and up to 5.80 m wide (Figure 105) with quarried stone walls that survived to over a metre in height. The associated contexts can be stratigraphically subdivided into foundation pits (BCA), deposits associated with the construction of the house (BCB) and deposits associated with the occupation (BCC). The occupation deposits clearly divide the house into a hearth and access zone running longitudinally down the centre of the house with two peripheral zones, or aisles, adjacent to the north and south walls. The occupation deposits were excavated using a grid that divided the house into 20 two metre-wide ‘squares’, arranged with ten squares on either side of a centre line (Figure 106). The precise dimensions of each grid ‘square’ depended on the width of the house, with the squares in the centre being substantially larger than those at either end. The grid squares will be routinely referred to as a means of referencing a location within the house and they are known as ‘quads’ 1 to 20. Odd numbers lie to the north, even numbers to the south of the centre line. The material recovered from the occupation deposits of this house dominates our understanding of the Middle Norse archaeology at Bornais. It includes substantial assemblages of iron artefacts, bone tools and bone and antler ornaments; there are coins, glass beads and many unusual items, including a fragment of green porphyry from the Mediterranean, an enigmatic fragment of amber and an antler cylinder decorated with a Ringerike-style beast. The distribution of these artefacts provides a considerable amount of information about the occupation of House 2. In order to make this chapter a manageable length, the deposits infilling the house– a complex sequence of reoccupation and abandonment events – have been

assigned to a separate block (BD) and are described in chapter 5.

House 2 foundation pits (BCA) The excavation of the floor of House 2 exposed a large number of cut features (Figure 107), which pre-date the hearth and floor layers (BCC). The stratigraphic position of these features was often difficult to resolve, however, and in many cases it cannot be certain to which phase the features belonged. Some of these pits and post holes may be associated with the construction of House 2, while others may be associated with the construction and use of House 1. The dimensions and descriptions of all of these cut features and their fills are presented in Table 41 and Figures 110 and 111, and can be located in sections in Figures 116, 117 and 118. Their distribution within the area of House 2 and their stratigraphic relationships are discussed below.

Centre line of cut features (554, 937, 1016, 2073, 2102, 2104, 2106, 2100, 2108, 2117, 2098, 2077, 2084, 2088, 2090, 2723, 2725, 2604, 2747) Running along the central axis of House 2 were 18 cut features; some were clearly post holes, others clearly pits (Figures 107 and 108). They were all covered by the House 2 hearth deposits, which means that they must have pre-dated the main phase of occupation within the house. Their alignment suggests that they were associated with the construction of House 2. Some of the post holes may indicate the use of timbers (scaffolding) during the construction of the house that were removed before it was occupied. The pits were more significant features that appear to have been specially dug. Pit 937 (also numbered 1016, 2073) was a particularly substantial feature, located central to the western half of the house, a location that later became the main focus for the occupation of the house. Although pit 937 was ideally proportioned to fit an extended inhumation (Figure 109), no inhumation was present and the pit fills, though producing a substantial collection of artefacts, did not illuminate its function. Pit

138

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Figure 105. A view of House 2 during the final planning at the end of the excavation in 2004, from the east

2723 was a substantial pit located in the eastern half of the house. It contained a variety of fills, several of which were charcoal-rich. The cluster of small features in quad 11 may reflect particularly advantageous weather conditions on the days on which these features were recorded and excavated. This quite possibly allowed for the identification of fills that would normally have been indistinguishable from the surrounding brown sands. It is possible that a large number of features remained undetected; as noted for the evidence from below the House 1 floor (see Chapter 2), ephemeral features dug out and backfilled almost immediately in antiquity will only show up during excavation when the sandy soils are damp. House 2 was largely excavated in very dry, sunny weather.

Cut feature group in SW of House 2 (1245, 1258) Two oval pits were identified in the southwest corner of the house and were probably associated with the use of House 2. 1258 was a steep-sided oval pit and it was cut by 1245, a shallow scoop. The southern edge of pit 1245 appeared to have been deliberately aligned upon the same axis as the south wall of House 2 and can therefore be associated with the use of House 2.

Cut feature group in NW of House 2 (1279, 1229, 1238, 1248, 1240) Five features were clustered together in the northwest corner of House 2. Phasing these features is problematic,

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC)

139

Figure 106. A plan of House 2 showing the division of the house interior into ‘quads’ (see Figure 22 for a key to the colour conventions used in this chapter)

but they seem best placed with House 2. The earliest features were steep-sided pits 1229 and 1279. Post-pad 1248 was cut by shallow scoop 1240, which was in turn cut by post hole 1238.

Cut feature group on south side of House 2 (915, 922, 2265, 2270, 2261, 2272) Four pits (915, 922, 2270 and 2272), arranged in a rectangle, appeared to be aligned with the southern wall of House 2. These were all oval in shape, with steep sides and flat bottoms. All the pits contained material culture, which suggests an association with the use of House 2, and 2270 and 2272 were packed with stones that protruded through the floor. Two post holes (2261 and 2265) were also identified amongst this group though they did not seem to be closely associated.

Cut feature west of entrance (2749) A single pit (2749) with steep sides and a flat base was located about 2.00 m west of the House 2 entrance. The primary fill was a distinctive black sand with charcoal inclusions (2750).

Features possibly marking the inner wall of House 1 (2742, 2070, 2121, 2079, 2132, 2119, 2094, 2713, 2773, 2602, 2745, 2765, 2719, 2705, 2761 and 2628) A group of 18 features were arranged in a diagonal line that ran across House 2 and may define the wall line of House 1. The line of the inner wall of House 1 was marked by two sets of three post holes and a stone revetment (BBB) beyond the west end of House 2 (see Figure 53) and it seems likely that at least some of the pits, post holes and scoops identified beneath the House 2 floors could be similar structural elements. The line of the House 1 wall was not clearly defined, and so it is difficult to definitely assign features to it. However, a number of shallow scoops could have been post-pads, or the location of stones that were subsequently robbed out (2742, 2070, 2121, 2094, 2761 and 2713). There were also at least 10 post holes that might have been structural supports (2705, 2079, 2602, 2745, 2628, 2773, 2132 and 2119).

Features possibly defining the outer wall of House 1 (2739, 2203, 2206, 2278, 2639, 2763, 2767, 2756, 2754, 2752, 2758) The line of features that probably identified the inner

Figure 107. The features excavated below the floor of House 2 (BCA) showing their relationship to the walls of both House 1 and House 2. The pits are colour coded to distinguish the groups described in Table 41; green features are the centre line of pits, grey are the pits in the southwest corner, light blue are the pits in the northwest corner, purple are the pits in the centre south, pink are the pits defining the inner wall of House 1, flesh are the pits of the outer wall of House 1, yellow are the pits in the northeast corner

140

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC)

141

Figure 108. A view of post hole 554 in quad 4 prior to excavation

Figure 109. A view of pit 937 after excavation, demonstrating it was a perfect fit for the author of this report who is 5ft 10in

Post hole

Post hole

Post hole

Stake hole

Post hole

Post hole

Pit

Pit

Pit/post hole

Stake hole

Stake hole

Pit

Post hole

Post hole

Post hole?

Scoop

Pit

Pit

Post hole

Scoop

Post pad?

Pit

Pit

Pit

Post hole

Post pad

Pit

Pit

2104

2106

2100

2108

2117

2098

2077

2084

2090

2088

2723

2725

2604

2747

1245

1258

1229

1238

1240

1248

1279

915

922

2261

2265

2270

2272

Pit

Post hole

Feature type

2102

937/ 1016/2073

554

Context

oval

oval

10

10

oval

oval

oval

oval

oval

circular

oval

circular

oval

oval

oval

circular

oval

circular

oval

circular

circular

oval

oval

oval

circular

oval

circular

oval

circular

circular

oval

oval

Shape in plan

10

10

8

8

3

3

3

3

3

2

2

16

14

13

13

11

11

11

11

11

11

11

11

11

11

11

5, 6, 7

4

Quad

0.42 0.30 0.43

0.90 0.90

0.70 0.10 0.36 0.20

steep sloping sides to rounded base

shallow sloping sides to flat base

steep sides to flat base

shallow scoop

vertical sides to flat base

vertical and sloping sides

vertical sides to flat base

vertical and sloping sides

gradual sloping sides to rounded base

0.65

1.18

steep sides to flat base

gently sloping sides to flat base

0.07

steep sides to flat base

0.80

0.07

steep sides to flat base

vertical sides to flat base

0.40

steep sides to flat base

0.36

0.80

irregular plan and profile

0.30

0.64

steep sides to flat base

shallow sloping sides to flat base

0.12

steep sides to flat base

vertical sides to flat base

0.17

steep sides to flat base

0.29

0.07

steep sides to flat base

steep sides to flat base

0.18

steep sides to flat base

0.60

0.10

steep sides to flat base

steep sides to flat base

0.20

steep sides to flat base

0.50

1.45

steep sides

0.29

vertical sides to flat base

Length

steep sides to flat base

Profile

0.30

0.54

0.28

0.20

0.44

0.40

0.35

0.20

0.34

0.10

0.40

0.40

0.60

0.47

0.19

0.42

0.81

0.09

0.08

0.24

0.35

0.41

0.10

0.14

0.05

0.14

0.12

0.18

0.97

0.23

Width

0.20

0.40

0.05

0.10

0.18

0.15

0.20

0.10

0.10

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.10

0.28

0.10

0.15

0.24

0.06

0.04

?

0.09

?

0.08

0.10

0.03

0.02

0.04

0.10

0.30

0.10

Depth 553

2273

2271

2266

2262

923

916

1280

1249

1239

1237

1230

1259

1246

2748

2605

2726

2736

2089

2091

2085

2078

2114

2118

2109

2101

2107

2105

2103

2081/1295 /1017/938

mid-brown sand, charcoal flecks, fish bone

mid-brown sand, medium-sized stones in base of pit

greyish-brown sand with charcoal inclusions

white sand

light brown sand, some bone and iron

light brown sand.

Pit group centre south

brown sand, large stones

brown sand with charcoal flecks

orangey-brown sand with beach pebbles

dark brown sand with several large stones

mid-grey brown sand

Pit group north west

grey sand with peat ash flecks

grey sand

Pit group south west

reddy-brown sand, stone inclusion - postpacking?

pale brown with charcoal flecks

mid-brown sand, some charcoal

black charcoal deposit

mid-brown sand

mid-brown sand

orangey-black with some burnt bone and shell

dark brown/black sand, cut by 2084

mid-brown sand

dark brown sand

brown sand

brown clayey sand, cuts 2107, probably represents a postpipe

brown sand, 2100 is cut into this deposit

yellowy-orange sand, compact, cut by 2102

yellowy-orange sand

orangey-brown with charcoal

dark brown sand

Centre line of pits

Primary fill

light brown sand with charcoal flecks

2760 dark brown sand

2735 mid-brown sand

2099

2141 grey sand

Secondary fill

mid-brown sand with some large stones, burnt bone and charcoal

Tertiary fill

2728 black, charcoal-rich deposit

2157

Table 41. A summary description of the features in the foundation deposits (BCA)

2727

white sand

4th fill

2724

mid-brown sand

5th fill

142

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

15

13

Pit

Post hole

Pit

Post hole?

2752

2737

2710

Post hole?

2754

2758

Post hole

2756

17

17

20

20

20

20

17

Stake hole

2767

15

17

Pit

Post hole?

2639

2763

15

Scoop

15

Post hole?

2739

2203

18

Pit

Post hole?

2628

16

16

Stake hole

Scoop

2761

2206

Post hole?

2705

16

14

13

13

11

11

11

11

11

11

11

9

16

Quad

2278

Post hole?

Post hole?

2602

2745

Postpad?

Post hole?

2773

Pit

2713

Pit?

2092

2094

Post hole

Post hole

Post pad?

2121

2079

Post hole?

Scoop

2070

2132

Post pad?

2742

2119

Pit

Feature type

2749

Context

oval

oval

circular

oval

elliptical

circular

triangular

oval

oval

circular

sub-circular

oval

oval

circular

triangular

circular

oval

oval

circular

circular

sub-rectangular

sub-rectangular

circular

kidney

oval

sub-rounded

oval

kidney

sub-circular

Shape in plan

0.45

steep sided to flat base

0.12

0.79 0.25

steep sided to flat base

steep sided to flat base

0.90 0.22

gently sloping sides to flat base

steep sided to rounded base

0.44

0.24

steep sided

steep sided to rounded base

steep sided to flat base

0.70 0.25

gently sloping, rounded base

0.14

steep sided to flat base

vertical sided to sloping base

0.62

0.39

steep sided to flat base

steep sided to flat base

0.40

steep sided to flat base

0.92

0.30

steep sided to flat base

shallow-sided

0.49 0.45

steep sided to flat base

steep sided to flat base

0.38 0.15

steep sided to flat base

steep sided to flat base

0.27 0.46

gently sloping to rounded base

steep sided to flat base

0.40 0.28

steep sided to rounded base

0.42 0.38

shallow sided to flat base

steep sided to flat base

steep sided to flat base

0.50 0.72

gently sloping to flat base

0.90

Length

shallow sided to flat base

steep-sided, flat base

Profile

0.18

0.42

0.21

0.50

0.33

0.25

0.10

0.20

0.58

0.12

0.58

0.17

0.38

0.38

0.20

0.25

0.39

0.42

0.18

0.40

0.30

0.07

0.23

0.25

0.32

0.30

0.70

0.40

0.69

Width 2750

0.07

2743

2629

2762

2709

2746

2603

2774

2722

2095

2093

2120

2133

2080

2122

2069

light brown sand, possible post pad or shallow scoop for stone?

black sand with large stones (post packing)

dark brown/black sand, frequent charcoal, bones

black sand, charcoal inclusions

cut by 2747, mid-brown sand with charcoal flecks.

pale brown sand with flecks of orange and charcoal, several large stones

mid-brown firm sand, cut by 2723

black sand, charcoal inclusions

dark brown compact sand

dark brown sand

dark brown compacted sand

mid-brown sand, contains whalebone

brown sand with charcoal flecks and red sand

dark brown sand with charcoal

white sand

0.08

0.06

0.11

0.13

0.10

0.09

0.12

0.06

0.09

0.10

0.10

0.10

0.10

2711

2738

Pit group NE

2759

2753

2755

2757

2768

2764

2640

2279

2207

2202

2740

grey/brown sand, twolarge stones

dark brown sand with shell and fish bone

dark brown sand

dark brown sand, some pottery, bone

dark brown sand, small and large stones (post packing)

dark brown sand

grey-brown sand.

dark brown sand with small stones, cut by 2767

dark brown sand, some large stones

reddish-grey sand.

reddish-grey sand with charcoal flecks. Large stones in fill

grey-brown sand, some charcoal flecks

light brown sand with sticky charcoal inclusions at base

Outer wall of house

0.29

0.09

0.05

0.19

0.13

0.05

0.10

0.11

0.04

0.18

0.12

0.10

0.03

0.08

Primary fill brown sand, bone, charcoal flecks

Inner wall of House 1

0.19

Pit west of entrance

Depth

2704

2714

light brown sand

reddish brown clay, flecks of charcoal

Secondary fill

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC) 143

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

144

2718

2727 2724

2728

2723

2081

2774

2773

2735

2726

2725

2736

2089 2091 2088

2101

2090

2107 2105

2118 2109 2279

2100

2605

2106 2104

2117

2278

2102

2108

2604

2748 2746

2747

2273 2270

2262

2266

2760

2745

2757

2272

2759

2756

2271

2755

2207

2758

2740

2753

2739

2752

2754

2261

2265

2207 553

2711 2206

2206

2710

554

1259

1246 1258

1245

1237

1230

1240

1239

1279

2738 2737

1280

2711

2710

1238

1229

0

1m

Figure 110. Sections through the features in block BCA

revetment wall of House 1 can be interpreted in relation to another line of features roughly 2.00 m to the north of it, which may indicate the location of an outer wall. Several clear post holes were present (2739, 2203, 2278, 2763, 2756, 2754 and 2758) and amongst them were three large shallow features (2206, 2639 and 2752) that indicated the location of large stones subsequently removed when House 2 was

constructed. The features in the southeast corner of the house (2752, 2754, 2758) could also be connected to this wall.

Cut features in the northeast of House 2 (2737, 2710) Two features lay to the north of the features belonging

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC) 2704 2709

2750

145

2746

2743

2705

2742

2749

2745

2122 2079

2121

2714

2720

2603

2080

2719

2602

584

2713 2132

2722

586

916 915

0

581 595 1003

593

923

922

1m

Figure 111. Sections through the features in block BCA

to the House 1 outer wall. A shallow pit 2737 was cut by a substantial post hole (2710) with packing stones. It is possible that post hole 2710 lined up with post holes 2203 and 2739 of the northern wall line, an arrangement that would suggest these features in the northeast were following and are associated with the wall of House 2. However, the stratigraphy does not allow us to confirm this association.

House 2 construction (BCB) House 2 was a bow-walled rectangular structure (Figures 105 and 106) over 19.00 m long, with its width expanding from 3.80 m at the west end to approximately 5.80 m wide in the centre. The surviving remains of the north (902) and south (35/900) walls were well preserved at the west end, but had been almost totally removed from the east end (Figures 112 and 113). The western gable wall (5/901) survived, but had been considerably distorted by collapse, with most of the stones pitched inwards. The best preserved portion of the south wall stood 1.30 m high and had eight courses. Though there were minor areas of collapse in the western half of the house, large portions of the wall here had at least six courses and stood about 1.00 m high. Only a few isolated stones survived in the eastern half of the house. However, two courses of the eastern inner wall (1298) had been preserved directly underneath the western wall of House 3 (see Figure 107). This appears to be a deliberate attempt to make a connection between the two structures. The remains of a series of large stone blocks beyond the eastern gable suggest the existence of an outer wall (1311) faced to the west. This would indicate a wall approximately 1.50 m thick with a sand-filled core. Some

large stones (1299 and 1300) in the area of the wall core initially suggested the presence of a gable-end entrance similar to the entrance passage in House 1, but this could not be substantiated and seems unlikely. The entrance to House 2 was at the eastern end of its south wall and was defined by internal paving stones (2195) that formed a path leading into the interior of the house (Figure 114), and by modifications to structural elements of House 1. The east wall of the entrance passage for House 2 used the remains of the east gable wall of House 1 (2632; Figure 56 and 107), whereas the passage’s west wall was a new construction that survived as four slabs (2633) built on top of the internal paving (2631) of House 1. The entrance passage appears to have been at least 2.00 m long and just under 1.00 m wide. Possibly associated with the House 2 entrance was a small north-facing stone wall (2634), to the southwest of the entrance. Unfortunately, the exact nature of this stretch of masonry was not resolved as there was no time to undertake an extensive examination of the area south of House 2. A notable feature of the walls of House 2 was the use of very large building stones (Figure 112), quite different to the stones used for structures on mounds 2A and 3. The blocks used were rectangular and had a face roughly 0.20 to 0.30 m thick by 0.4 to 0.6 m long; the largest block, located in the middle of the surviving stretch of the south wall, was 1.20 m long. These stones were carefully selected and must have been brought onto the machair from some distance away. It is possible that they were originally quarried to build an Iron Age structure, such as the broch at Dun Vulan (Parker Pearson and Sharples 1999), or the wheelhouse on mound 1 (Sharples 2012). These monumental structures routinely used large stones

EAST

2m

Figure 112. Elevations of the walls of House 2

0

NORTH

SOUTH

WEST

146

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC)

Figure 113. A view of the north wall of House 2 from the southwest

Figure 114. A view of the paving stones leading from the entrance into the interior of House 2

147

148

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Figure 115. A view of the section through the deposits behind the north wall of House 2

and robbing of their stonework in the Norse period might have been an attempt to establish a relationship with ancestral structures to legitimate the Norse settlement of the island. Excavation of the west end of House 2 exposed sand layers above House 1 that were associated with the construction of House 2 (Figure 116). Overlying the abandonment deposits of House 1 was a thin, patchy layer of loose white sand, possibly deposited at the beginning of the construction of House 2. In some areas this was rather thin and thus may not have been fully identified in excavation. This layer was numbered 918 (quad 1), 1236 (quad 2), 1268 (quad 3), 525 and 527 (quad 4), 594 (quad 5), 1320 (quad 6), 2136 (quad 7), 944 (quad 8) and possibly reappears as 2205 (quad 15) and 2651 (quad 19). This white sand lay below a loose grey brown sand that in some quads was indistinguishable from the underlying white sand. This was numbered 1233 (quad 2), 1252 (quad 3), possibly 523 and 524 (quad 4), possibly 558a (quad 5), 1301 and possibly 13021 (quad 6), 595 (quad 8), 2744 (quad 16), 2294 and 2630 (quad 18), and 2607 (quad 19). Two radiocarbon dates were obtained from the loose grey sand layer 1252 in quad 3: SUERC-23145 was a pig metatarsal and SUERC-22868 was a carbonised rye grain. SUERC-23145 has a radiocarbon age of 1050±30 BP, which calibrates to a date of cal AD 980–1170 (95%

confidence); SUERC-22868 has a radiocarbon age of 920±25 BP, which calibrates to a date of cal AD 1020– 1190 (95% confidence) (see Chapter 11). Outside the house, behind the western gable wall (901), was a thick layer of fine, light brown sand (6/26/40/ 1040/1044/1089/549a) that surrounded and appeared to underlie the wall (Figure 118). This was probably a substantial dump of sand associated with the construction of the house. An area behind the west wall at the northwest corner of House 2 (Figure 115) was exposed to reveal a cut (904) filled with a mottled grey brown sand (1941). Outside House 2 to the south, excavation of sand layers (21, 26, 40, 163, 503, 541) south of the house wall was never more than a superficial scrape. Consequently, it is unclear whether these layers were middens deposited prior to the construction of House 2 or were dumped as part of the construction of the house.

House 2 occupation (BCC) One of the principal aims of the Bornais project was to excavate completely the floor layers of House 2. The full extent of the house was only finally revealed in 2004, but, given the complex and episodic nature of the excavations, its associated floor layers were examined in 1994, 1999, 2000 and 2004. The floor was excavated

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC)

Quad 4

522

Quad 1 528

533 532

182 524

149

523

523 592

534

182 917

549

921

548

527

531

525

1009 559 1007 182

929

529

Quad 4 9648

551

Quad 5 9646

552

522

182

546

552 528

524 525

531

557 558

523

9647

9676 182

182

587

946

Quad 8

9677 9680

594

9645 9675

550

Quad 5

182

550

595 1003

581 586 944

564 565

596

587 946

938

1017

0

5m

Figure 116. North to south sections through the west half of the House 2 floor deposits

in a 2 m grid (Figure 106). The layers identified within these quadrants were subsequently divided into the 1 m squares. All the layers and features identified were fully excavated and a policy of total sampling was practised. It was therefore theoretically possible to recover all the artefacts, bones and carbonised plant remains that survived on this floor. However, the amount of material recovered, and the thickness of the associated occupation deposits encountered, meant that sub-sampling had to be undertaken in the post-excavation analysis. Post-excavation analysis of the floor layers was made

extremely complicated by the excavation strategy. Each quadrant was assigned a unique set of context numbers, which produced a very large number of contexts. As contiguous quadrants were not excavated consecutively and the personnel involved in the excavation changed from year to year, and within each year, consistency proved difficult to achieve. It is almost impossible to provide a coherent, simplified stratigraphy that accounts for all the layers and features excavated. In some respects this indicates poor management but there were other circumstances that militated against

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

150

Quad 8 923

Quad 7

580

595 923

1003

922

598

581

586

916

1234

1278

2113

1003 595

Quad 12

1008

945

576

Quad 11 2031

2038

575 945

1314

2042 2045 2103

1091

2038

2035 2036 2039

2049 2048

2128

2102

2063 2058 2064 2070 2059 2128

2057 2056 2066

2069

2065

1012/1047 11428

2197 2200

Quad 14

Quad 11

2188 2264 2250 2263 2284

2257

2042

2281

2085

2299

2158

2249

2286

2253

2231? 2601

2284

2294

2194 2283 2618

2630

2243 2288 2295

2721

2219

2258

11426

2190

2219 2258 2616

2606

2217 11423

2190

2219

2182 2215

2258

2259 2763 2620

11421

Quad 18

2639

2606

11424

Quad 19

2199

2243 2252 2298 2283

0

Quad 15

Quad 15

2269 2185

2194

2093 2095

11422

Quad 18

11420

2128

11425

2246/2250 2601

2095 2094

2084

Quad 14 2231

2072

2043

2241

2260

11415

2285

2297

11416

2230

2607

5m

Figure 117. North to south sections through the east half of the House 2 floor deposits

2221

2067

2291

2222 2255 2289

2180

1310

1051

WEST

11427

Quad 15

2219

531

2258

2191

Quad 10

556

530

1308

2218

2232

0

2259

2219

527

546

2177 2180

528 523

182

Quad 4

1306

2128

2043

2038

2295

2217

2042

594

1051

2243 2283

11418

2077

2288 11419

Quad 12

938

565

2098

564

Quad 18

558 594

Quad 5

2084

2128

2043

2042

2038

938

920

1009

2728

2230

2724

2607 2267

2285

2220

Quad 19

2735 2736

2241 2283 2297

2252

2726

2260

2287

523 527

EAST 2254

2212 2246 2231 2253 2277

11417

2601

2250 2284

Quad 14

1009

592

9689 586

Quad 8

591

2299

9688

182

Quad 1

2257

11430

549

2280

11429 2601

1017

9682

9681 586

5m

581

901

Figure 118. The west to east section along the centre of House 2

1044

1047

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC) 151

152

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Figure 119. A plan of the ash layers at the centre of the house

a consistent record. As has been discussed above (see Chapter 1, 000), the ability to differentiate layers depended very much on the weather conditions: in sunny conditions the sand quickly dried out and colour variations were minimal, but on humid or damp days, very subtle distinctions could clearly be differentiated. Consequently one quadrant may have numerous layers, whereas the adjacent quadrant has very few because conditions were very different when they were excavated. There can also be legitimate differences in interpretation that have created variation. The central hearth area comprised a mass of fine ash layers that were distinctive in colour and texture, but which were impossible to excavate individually as they were sometimes less than a centimetre thick. Major distinctions could be observed in some places, but in others essentially arbitrary splits were made to try to observe depositional differences over time. It is also clear that some diggers had a tendency to split layers, whereas others grouped them into more loosely defined contexts. The stratigraphy within the house indicates an accumulation of layers up to 0.60 m thick, which created the ‘primary floor’ over a period of up to 80 years (see Chapter 11). The nature of the sequence forming the primary floor varied. In the centre it was a compact deposit comprised of multi-coloured ash layers, whereas towards the sides it was brown, less compacted sand with only occasional ash layers (Figures 116, 117 and 118). The ash layers in the central aisle of the house defined an area roughly 1.50 m wide and over 16.5 m long (Figure 119). The deposit was particularly thick within quads 9 to 15 in the centre of the house. The laminated nature of the

layers suggests the deposit was formed by the construction of fires in this central area and the subsequent spreading of the ash left by these fires to form a hard surface (Figures 120 and 121). Different intensities of burning could be identified within the deposit, indicating that certain locations along the centre of the house were favoured for hearths. The ash layers were compacted, presumably through repeated trampling, and suggest that this central area was the principal route through the house. The sand of the peripheral aisles was less compacted, probably the result of fewer footfalls, and this area could perhaps have had a timber floor. During the occupation of the house, some areas of the floor, perhaps those that were most heavily used, appear to have been filled in and levelled. This was characterised by alternating deposits of compacted sand and soft sand. The upper floor layers were thicker, darker in colour and more finds-rich towards the west end of the house, which may indicate this was an area of more intense occupation. There follows a detailed description of the deposits, which is best skipped by those who value their sanity. The section drawings in Figures 116, 117 and 118 identify the quad numbers and show the complexity of the numerous layers making up the hearth deposits, the trampled ashy layers and the peripheral floors.

North side – Hearth deposits The primary deposits that formed the base of the hearth were a number of small spreads of yellow ash located along the centre of the house. These were 2680 and 2668 (quad 9), 2043 (quad 11), and 2699 (quad 13). Deposit

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC)

153

Figure 120. A view of the south-facing section through the House 2 hearth at the north end of quad 10

Figure 121. A view of the west-facing section through the hearth of House 2 at the east side of quads 7 and 8

2699, in quad 13, lay above 2718, which was a red-brown lower hearth trample layer that might have formed as a result of interaction between the infilling deposits below and the hearth above. The main hearth deposit covered these spreads of ash and

constituted a sequence of numerous layers of multicoloured ash. It was visible in quad 1 as a thin trample layer, which then became thicker and more separated by ash lenses towards the centre of the house. This was divided into 549b2 (quad 1), 1209 (quad 3), 565 (quad 5), 1278 (quad 7), 2660

154

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

and 2635 (quad 9), 2042 (quad 11), and 2697 (quad 13). This thick section of hearth came to an end within quad 13 at this level and a layer of hearth trample 2258 (quad 15) surrounded it. The hearth continued into quad 15 where it became very thick once more; it was numbered 2259 (quad 15) and 2661 (quad 17). Overlying the main hearth material within some of the quads was a final hearth layer composed of pink/red sand. This was 564 (quad 5), 2038 (quad 11) and 2685 (quad 13). The absence of this layer in some quads may be because it was removed with the main hearth deposit. Within quads 11 and 13 these hearth deposits were covered by a thin layer of fine grey sand, 2036 (quad 11) and 2684 (quad 13), which appeared to form a stabilisation horizon that separated the lower hearth material and three brightly coloured burnt deposits located above. These were 2035, 2030 and 2031 in quad 13, 2677, 2674, 2672, 2667 and 2652 in quad 13, and were all removed as 2291 within quad 15. This spread into the corner of quad 15 where these burnt deposits ended abruptly and were surrounded by 2258, the trample from hearth area 2259. It is possible that 2258 was the fill of an unidentified pit or cut. Overlying the last of these deposits in quad 13 (2667) and quad 15 (2259) was a final orange hearth layer. This was 2652 (quad 13), 2217 and 2218 (quad 15), and 2656 (quad 17).

North side – Floor deposits The principal deposit associated with the primary use of House 2 within quad 5, was a dark brown sand (557) that accumulated against the north wall. A radiocarbon date was obtained from 557; OxA-15522 was a cattle bone and has a radiocarbon age of 985±26 BP, which calibrates to a date of cal AD 990–1160 (95% confidence). 557 appeared to be equivalent to 2113 (quad 7), and 2637 (quad 9), which are located on a similar level within the centre of their quads. Both consisted of dark brown, fairly compact material and contained a large number of small finds. Within quad 1 the occupation layer (549) was partially covered by an orange-yellow red ash layer (548), which formed a discrete deposit extending east–west across the centre of the quad. Within the west of the house, up to quad 7, this occupation deposit was overlain by a yellow sand numbered 1009 (quad 1), 1220 (quad 3), 550 (quad 5), and 1314 (quad 7). This was overlain by a final, dark brown, compact floor deposit (182) which will be discussed more below. Within the eastern half of the house were more floor layers, some of which appeared to underlie the main hearth deposit. These were 2707 and 2653 (quad 17) and 2260, 2267 and 2297 (quad 19). These were equivalent to 2712, 2715, 2716, 2717 and 2731 (quad 20), which constituted a mid-brown compact layer that covered the majority of that quad. It is possible that this layer was contemporary with the main hearth deposits in quad 15 (2258) and that it formed before this area was used as a

fireplace. A radiocarbon date was obtained from 2297 in quad 19; SUERC-22897 was a cattle radial and carpals and has a radiocarbon age of 975±25 BP, which calibrates to a date of cal AD 1010–1160 (95% confidence). Also within the eastern end of the house, underlying the final floor deposit, was a lighter grey-brown compact floor layer, primarily located within the northern half of each of the quads. This formed an occupation layer level with the main hearth deposits. It began in the eastern part of quad 9 at an equivalent level to 2637 (a darker, thicker, more compact deposit located within the western part of that quad) and continued into quad 19. This was numbered 2636 (quad 9), 2036 (quad 11), 2673 and 2657 (quad 13), 2221 (quad 15), 2648 (quad 17), and 2230 (quad 19). The final deposit associated with the occupation of the house was a dark brown, compact layer, which covered the majority of the interior of the house. This was darker in colour within the western part of the house up to quad 11 and it became gradually lighter towards the east, where there were significantly fewer small finds. Although this dark layer covered the central hearth (i.e. 130 and 132), in a number of quads highly coloured ash layers were observed, which suggests that the hearth area did not go completely out of use. An example was the red-orange hearth material (1056) contained within 1049 in quad 3. The final occupation layer in the west of the house was numbered as 182 (quad 1), 1049 (quad 3), 182 (quad 5), and 1234 (quad 7). This final occupation layer will be referred to as the abandonment layer when it comes to the soil micromorphology report and the analysis of the finds and residues. This is a short hand reference and should not prejudice the final interpretation. Two radiocarbon dates were obtained from the final occupation layer: SUERC-22894 from 1049 in quad 3 was a deer radial and carpals, OxA-15420 was a sheep/ goat bone from 182. SUERC-22894 has a radiocarbon age of 875±30 BP, which calibrates to a date of cal AD 1040– 1230 (95% confidence); OxA-15420 has a radiocarbon age of 903±27 BP, which calibrates to a date of cal AD 1030–1220 (95% confidence). In quad 9 the final deposit(s) appeared to become thicker and formed a number of layers, all of which were dark brown, compact sands containing a considerable number of small finds. The top two layers, 2627 and 2617, were very similar and together formed the final floor deposit. These dark brown, compact sand layers were not located within quads 11 or 13 (where the final occupation deposits were 2033 in quad 11 and 2673 and 2657 in quad 13), but a layer equivalent to this appeared in quad 15 as a firm, red-brown deposit containing fewer small finds than were found elsewhere in the final deposit. This was numbered 2190 (quad 15), 2646 (quad 17) and 2220 (quad 19). Within quads 9, 13 and 15 were layers of ash trample that connected the central hearth with the contemporary floor deposits and ran east to west through the house, adjacent to the hearth. These might have formed as a result

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC) of the occupants’ moving through the house between the hearth and the peripheral area against the north wall of the house. The first ash trample spread was a red-brown layer associated with the primary use of the hearth. This was numbered 2681 and 2669 (quad 9), 2708 (quad 13), and 2258 (quad 15). The trample overlying this formed a mottled red-brown layer located within quads 13 (2672) and 15 (2219). This was associated with the final hearth deposits and are counted as hearth layers in the tabulation of finds and residues. Within quad 11 the ash trample layers were truncated by the 2000 excavation and so were difficult to identify in that quad. Within quad 7 this trample was not present and the hearth and floor deposits were clearly separated by two large stones that were placed between the two.

South side – Hearth deposits As on the north side of the house, the main hearth layer on the south side constituted a thick multi-lensed, compact deposit (see north side deposits above for a detailed description). Within quad 2 this was recorded as a layer of trample within the floor deposit. As it continued to the east it became thicker and contained a larger number of lenses of compacted ash. This was numbered 528 (quad 4), 1267 (quad 6) and 586 (quad 8). In quad 10 it was recorded as four similar red-orange-brown layers (2289, 2255, 2222 and 2232) and in the quads further east it was numbered 1095 (quad 12), 2287 (quad 14) and 2682 (quad 16). Within quad 18 the main hearth deposit (2243) became thinner and in quad 20, the easternmost quad, it was present only as an associated layer of trample 2649. A radiocarbon date was obtained from hearth deposits in the south side of the house, from context 1267 in quad 6. SUERC-22890 was a pig metapodial with phalanges and has a radiocarbon age of 1035±30 BP, which calibrates to a date of cal AD 970–1040 (95% confidence). Within quad 14 the main hearth deposit (2287) was covered by a thin layer of loose ash (2284), which separated the hearth below from three distinct burnt deposits above (the same was observed in quad 13). The deposits above the loose ash were 2277, 2253 and 2250. Layer 2277 was a pink-orange deposit mainly located within the west of the quad and likely to be contemporary with the upper hearth deposit (1091) within quad 12; Within the east of quad 14 were 2253, a clayey yellow sand and 2250, a black charcoal-rich clayey sand. Within this quad these deposits were confined to its eastern corner and appeared to end suddenly (as also seen in quad 15). In section it looks as if these burnt deposits might have been truncated, perhaps by a cut for a second hearth area in the east of the quad. Within quad 16 the main hearth layers covered a discrete yellow-orange clay-like burnt deposit located within the northwest of the quad. This was likely to be equal to 2253 (quad 14) as it was surrounded by trample (2683) from the separate area of hearth (2682) within quad 16.

155

Overlying the main hearth layer within the east end of the house was a final red-orange hearth deposit; this was numbered 2671 (quad 16), 2269 (quad 18), and 2645 (quad 20). Within the west end of the house, this overlying layer constituted a dark brown-red deposit, numbered 545 and 546 (quad 4), 1231 (quad 6).

South side – Floor deposits The principal occupation deposit within quads 4 and 6 was a light grey-brown sand (552 and 1260), which occupied the east side of quad 4 and formed a strip adjacent to the upper hearth deposit (1231) in quad 6. It contained little evidence of trampled ash deposits from the main hearth and was possibly deliberately deposited in order to ‘clean’ the floor. The lowest floor in quad 6 was grey-brown sand (1302) and this was overlain by a dark brown-black sand, confined to quads 4 and 6 (551 and 1219). Restricted to the junction between the two quads, this is likely to have been a dump of hearth material that might have been used to fill a shallow dip in the floor. In the eastern part of the house, the primary floor layer within quads 12 to 20 was a dark brown sand, which contained a large amount of occupational debris (although this decreased in quantity towards the east); it was numbered 1005 and 1008 (quad 12), 2286 (quad 14), 2692 (quad 16), 2283 (quad 18) and 2701 (quad 20). This floor was below the hearth in quads 18 and 20, and appeared to be contemporary with the primary use of the thick hearth in quad 16. In quad 10 this primary floor deposit (2225) survived as a strip extending east–west adjacent to the primary hearth deposit and was contemporary with a red peat-ash dump (2226), located against the southern wall. Within most of the quads, apart from quads 10 and 14, the final, dark brown compact floor deposit (described below) directly overlay the primary occupation layer. In quad 10, however, the primary floor deposit (2225) underlay two successive dark brown compact sands (2192 and 2181). Deposit 2192 extended east–west adjacent to the hearth, while 2181 was located in the southern twothirds of quad 10. Quad 14 also contained deposits located between the primary and final floor layers. They consisted of two loose sands (2204 and 2200), adjacent to the southern wall in the west of the quad. These contained few inclusions and were not compact; they appear to have been a build-up of material in a hollow against the wall. These deposits were covered by a dark brown, compact sand that also overlay the hearth in most of the quads. It contained a substantial amount of burnt material, indicating that the hearth was not completely out of use, as noted for the equivalent floor deposits in the northern part of the house (see above). It is possible that this layer was transformed by post-depositional processes as it was the final layer in the house, which lay open to the elements for some time after abandonment. Soil formation processes might have caused the hearth and surrounding floor layers

156

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

to become more homogeneous. This final layer will be distinguished as the ‘abandonment deposit’ in the soil micromorphology report and the analysis of the residues and finds. This final occupation layer was numbered 1010 (quad 2), 182 (quad 4), 1057 (quad 6), 581 (quad 8), 2177 (quad 10), 945 (quad 12), 2188 (quad 14) and 2647 (quad 16). Two radiocarbon dates were obtained from layers 1010 in quad 2 and 1057 in quad 6. SUERC-2684 from 1010 was a cattle vertebra, and has a radiocarbon age of 925±35 BP, which calibrates to a date of cal AD 1020–1220 (95% confidence. SUERC-22896 from 1057 was a cattle radial and carpals and has a radiocarbon age of 970±30 BP, which calibrates to a date of cal AD 1010–1160 (95% confidence). Within quads 18 and 20, the last floor deposit, numbered 2194 (quad 18) and 2686 (quad 20), did not overlie the central hearth). This dark brown, compact sand filled the full depth of quad 18 within the southern part of that quad. It is likely that this deposit was contemporary with the main hearth deposits in the north of the quad, but it contained very few small finds. The final deposit in this area of the house was a red-brown sand restricted to the junction between quads 18 and 20. This was numbered 2199 (quad 18) and 2664 (quad 20) and represents a discrete deposit of occupational material.

Pits and post holes A notable feature of the floor of House 2 was the presence of several pits (in addition to those pits and post holes that predated the floor; see BCA features above). Some of these were large and deep pits cut through the centre of the house (Figures 122 and 124). These pits varied considerably in size and fill and their basic characteristics are summarised in Table 42. The earliest were shallow scoops that cut the earliest hearth layers. The later pits tended to be deeper, steep-sided features that were dug immediately prior to the accumulation of the final floor, after the house had been occupied for some time (Figure 123). Very few of these cut features had anything distinctive in their lower fills to indicate why they had been dug. Some pits had a thin layer of black, charcoal-rich sand covering the base of the pits, and this may represent a placed deposit of organic material. The more substantial pits were concentrated at the west end of the house (Figure 122; 521/1077, 540/1098/1200, 588, 589, 591, 929, 1080, 1087, 1093 and 1210; section drawings of the pit fills are in Figure 124, and pits 521, 540/1200, 591 and 929 appear in section in Figure 116).Together with some early pits belonging to the preconstruction activity (BCA), these pits distinguish the west end as being different from the rest of the house. Most of these pits had steeply sloping or vertical sides and flat bottoms, and could have been the cavities or basins in

which timber barrels or containers once stood. The only comparable pit in the central part of the house was pit 2612 in quad 9. In the central and eastern areas of the house, a number of post holes were identified: in quad 7, 2779, 2780; quad 9/10, 2612/2244; quad 11, 2044 and 2046; quad 14, 2263; quad 15, 2233, 2235 and 2237; quad 16, 2662 and 2693; quad 18, 2213 and quad 19, 2274. These could relate either to structural elements of the house, or to internal divisions, but no obvious pattern emerges. It is noticeable that the location of these post holes coincided with the concentration of earlier features (BCA; Figure 122), and some of the latter may indeed be contemporary with the occupation of the house.

Soil micromorphology – K Munro and K Milek Twenty-seven soil micromorphology samples were extracted from the floor and hearth of House 2; 11 of these were analysed. The horizontal locations of the samples within the house are shown on Figure 125 and further detailed locational information is visible in Figures 116, 117 and 118. There are essentially two groups of samples; in 2000, 11 samples were taken in the western half of the house; in 2004, 16 samples were taken in the eastern half of the house. The first group of samples was taken on the north–south section line between quads 3/4 and quads 5/6 and on the east–west section line between quads 7 and 8. Samples 9645, 9646, 9681, 9682, 9688 and 9689 explored the hearth deposits, whereas 9677, 9680, 9676, 9647 and 9648 examined the peripheral floor layers on the north and south sides of the hearth area. The samples in the eastern half of the house were more dispersed and were essentially taken in the sections of quads 14, 15, 18 and 19. Samples 11429, 11430, 11425, 11427, 11421, 11422, 11423 11418 and 11419 examined the hearth, whereas 11426, 11424, 11415, 11416, 11417, 11420 and 11428 examined the peripheral floor layers. These samples were not analysed for this report, but their location is recorded on Figures 116, 117 and 125.3 Micromorphology descriptions are summarised in Tables 43 and 44, and focus on characteristics and features considered to be most diagnostic, including microstructure, porosity, sorting, ratio and distrib­ution of coarse and fine materials, nature of fine material, pedofeatures, and organic and anthropogenic inclusions. Shell inclusions were distinguished from natural shell present within calcareous sand by their size (larger than 250 μm) and angular shape. The micromorphology samples provide information on the pre-floor deposits, the hearth and its associated rakeout deposits, the peripheral floors and the abandonment and secondary deposits. These different features will be examined separately.

Figure 122. A plan of the features contemporary with the occupation of House 2

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC) 157

2780

Stake hole

Post hole

Post hole

Post hole

Post hole

2662

2693

2213

2274

Stakehole

2233

Stake hole

Pit?

2235

Post hole

2046

2263

2237

Post hole

19

18

16

16

15

15

15

14

11

11

9/10

7

Pit

Post hole

2044

2612/2244

7

3/4

3

2

2

2/3

1/3

1

1/2/3

1

1

Quad

Post hole

Pit

540/1200 /1098

2779

Pit

Pit

521/1077

1093

Pit

1087

Gully

Pit

929

1210

Pit

591/562

Post hole

Pit

589

1080

Pit

Feature type

588

Context

Shape in plan

circular

irregular

circular

circular

circular

irregular

irregular

oval

circular

circular

oval

oval (truncated)

oval

oval

steep-sided

steep-sided

steep-sided

steep-sided

steep-sided

steep-sided

steep-sided

steep-sided, rounded base

steep-sided

steep-sided

E-W

0.23

0.34

0.21

0.16

0.12

0.15

0.24

0.30

0.28

0.32

0.37 0.56

shallow scoop

0.51

0.90

0.60

>1m

0.30

sloping sides, flat base

shallow scoop

N-S

vertical sided, flat-bottomed

steep-sided, flat-bottomed

E-W

steep-sided

Slot for south wall

sub-rectangular

E-W

steep-sided

0.60

steep-sided, u-profile

0.58 0.70

steep-sided, flat-bottomed E-W

0.60

steep-sided, u-profile

0.59

0.54

Length

vertical sided, flat-bottomed

E-W

Orientation

shallow scoop

steep-sided, flat-bottomed

Profile

circular

circular

circular

sub-rectangular

circular

irregular

sub-rectangular

0.22

0.22

0.17

0.16

0.10

0.10

0.10

0.32

0.25

0.30

0.33

0.30

0.29

0.70

0.60

0.06

0.51

0.38

0.39

Width

0.24

0.25

0.10

0.11

0.07

0.08

0.17

0.18

0.16

?

0.29

0.13

0.16

0.30

0.37

0.06

0.30

0.40

0.40

0.24

0.42

0.24

0.46

Depth

2275

2214

2694

2663

2238

2236

2234

2264

2047

2045

2613

2096

2082

556/1070

1092

1211

1081

534/1079

1088

921

592

590

585

mid red-brown sand

grey soft sand

red brown sand with stone packer

yellow/grey sand with flat stone at base

mid to dark brown sand

red brown sand

brown sand

light grey brown

red brown sand

mid-brown with red & black inclusions

orange sandy clay

dark brown sand

dark brown sand

mottled grey and orange sand

light brown friable

light brown sand

dark brown with burnt lenses

dark grey friable

light grey white

mid-brown sand

medium to dark brown

light brown sand

mid to dark brown sand

Primary fill

533

2611/2245

2075

538/1099

Table 42. A summary description of the features in the House 2 floor (BCC)

mottled mid-brown sand

mid-brown sand

white sand

light brown lense

Secondary fill

532

Black/orange ash

Tertiary fill

158

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC)

159

Figure 123. A view of pit 521 which cuts through the floor of House 2 and bottoms out at the floor of House 1 in the west section of quad 4

2263

2264

2082

2045

2047 2046

2044

2236 2235

2694

2663

2238

2662

2237

2693

2214 2213

2234 590 589

592

585

591

2233

2275 2274

588

0

1m

Figure 124. Sections through the features in BCC

Pre-floor deposits Captured in sample 9647 was a substantial amount of 523, a layer located directly below the main hearth deposit (528). It consisted of calcareous sand with a tiny amount of fine material (the layer boasting a coarse–fine ratio of

98:2). Although the majority of the layer was comprised only of calcareous sand, there was a notable quantity of anthropogenic inclusions, resulting in the layer possessing a well to moderate level of sorting (87%). Such inclusions were a piece of weathered bone (4%), a fragment of charred

160

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Figure 125. The location of the soil micromorphology samples

coniferous wood (2.5%) that was identifiable to the pine family, charred amorphous organic material (2.3%), charred plant (1%), and shell (1%). During excavation, this context was interpreted to be either dumped or windblown sand. Both the presence, and the relatively large and angular shape, of the anthropogenic inclusions indicate that this context represented sediment that was dumped prior to the occupation of House 2.

Hearth-rake deposits Two samples (9645 and 9647) caught a layer of ash and burnt material (528) that was described during excavation to be material spread from the central hearth across the floor. Sample 9645 was taken from the central hearth area whereas 9647 was located on the edge of the hearth deposit. Context 528 in sample 9647 comprised a heterogeneous layer which was divided into sub-contexts 528.1–528.9 (the former being located at the top of the sample and the latter at the bottom). All these layers were primarily composed of calcareous sand with peat ash, though the quantity of the latter varied significantly between layers. Layers 528.1, 528.2, 528.4, 528.5, 528.6, and 528.8 were all composed of calcareous sand with a high to moderate quantity of peat ash and fine material. The nature, colour and volume of such ash material varied between layers, as did the inclusions present in these layers. Some layers were slightly more compact and less porous, notably 528.2 and 528.4, in which coarse grains were embedded in fine material in a porphyric distribution. In other ash-dominated layers that possessed slightly less ash, sand grains were linked together by bridges of fine

material in a convex gefuric nature, and as a result such layers possessed a bridged grain microstructure. The variations in composition and colour between these layers can be attributed to different hearth rake-out events. The colour of the ash layers varied from dark brown to light brown in PPL, and light brown to yellow-orange under OIL. The bright colours shown under OIL are the result of the rubification of the iron nodules, indicating that iron-rich soil material (peat/turf) was oxidised by burning under high temperatures in the hearth. These ash layers varied substantially in colour, most likely resulting from the use of fuel from different sources with varying mineralogical compositions. Present in all these layers were inclusions, most notably charred amorphous organic material, observed in all six layers at a range of 4%–5.2%. Some of these layers also contained charred plant, charred wood, burnt bone and small lenses/granules of wood ash. In contrast to the peat-ash dominated layers, layers 528.3, 528.7, and 528.9 all contained little peat ash/fine material. These contexts were significantly more porous than the ash layers, whilst still displaying the appearance and traits of floor deposits. They contained fragments of charred material, including charred plant and charred amorphous organic material. In particular, 528.3 contained a notably high quantity of charred plant (4.8%), which displayed horizontal orientations throughout the layers. These layers were floors accumulating within the structure when peat ash was not being spread in this area. Layer 528.10, located in sample 9647, was a layer of calcareous sand with a notable quantity of ash material and humified peat. Interestingly this ash material was pale yellow in colour (Figure 126 A), and appeared to have a

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC)

161

Figure 126. Micrographs illustrating features seen in micromorphology samples: a) sample 9647, context 528.1, in PPL, showing shell fragments (sh), an egg shell fragment (e), and a pale yellow ash lens containing charred organic matter (black), melted phytoliths (p), and a non-metallurgical slag globule (sl); b) as a), but in XPL, showing aggregates of micrite (silt-sized calcium carbonate) derived from wood ash (m); c) sample 9647, context 528.10, in PPL, showing egg shell fragments (e) and shell fragment (sh); d) sample 9680, context 558, in PPL, showing an aggregate of peat ash, including, on the right-hand side, a globule of non-metallurgical slag (sl); e) as d), but in OIL, showing the orange and red fine material of the peat ash; f) sample 9680, context 558, in PPL, showing a shell fragment (sh), bone fragment (b), and charred plant (ch); g) sample 9648, context 552, in PPL, showing fish vertebra; h) sample 9681, context 986.2, in partial XPL, showing a gravel lens (centre).

Sample

64

44

523

552

12

528.10

13

525

5

528.9

64

2

528.8

546

4

528.7

528.4

2

16

528.3

528.6

17

528.2

13

12

Layer and microstratographic unit

528.5

16

Microstructure

IM

IM

IM

IM

IM

IM

BG

IM

BG

IM

V

IM

V

IM

Porosity

nnnn

nnnn

nnnn

nnnn

nnnn

nnnn

nnn

nnn

nnn

nnn

nn

nnn

nnnn

nnnn

Sorting (%)

77

87

50

98

80

80

80

80

80

70

60

80

60

65

C/F(100 µm) ratio

95/5

98/2

90/10

98/2

70/30

80/20

55/45

90/10

55/45

55/45

45/55

85/15

65/35

80/20 LB; D YB; D

SSP, some SSFE CFE, some SSP

B, DB; D Y, B; D

SSFE, some SSP

Y; D

B, DB; D

SSFE

SSFE

SSFE

B; D

B; D

SSFE

B; D

CG

DB; D

DB; D

DB; D

CFE, some SSP

CFE

CG

CFE, some SSP

DB; D

DB; D

C/F(100 µm) related distribution SSP

Nature of fine material (PPL)

CFE, some CG

Birefringence fabric of fine material (XPL) C

U, C

C

U, C

C

U, C

U, C

U, C

U

U

U, C

U, C

U, C

C

Charcoal n

nn

nn

nn

nn

n

nnn

n

nn

nnn

nn

nnn

nn

nn

Charred wood nn

nn

n

n

Charred plant n

n

n

nn

n

n

nn

n

Charred amorphous organic material n

nn

nn

nn

nn

n

nnn

n

nn

nnn

nn

n

nn

nn

Shell nn

n

n

n

nn

n

n

n

n

n

nn

nn

Eggshell nnn

Burnt bone n

n

n

nn

n

n

n

n

n

n

nnn

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

+

n

n

n

nn

n

n

Phytoliths n

n

n

+

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

+

n

n

n

n

n

Diatoms

Birefringence fabric of fine material: U – Undifferentiated, C – Crystallitic

Nature of fine material: B – Brown, DB – Dark Brown, LB – Light Brown, YB – Yellow Brown, Y – Yellow, D – Dotted

Coarse/Fine related distribution: CFE – Close Fine Enaulic, SSFE – Single-spaced Fine Enaulic, SSP – Single-spaced Porphyric, CG – Convex Gefuric

Microstructure: IM – Intergrain microaggregate, V – Vughy, BG – Bridged Grain

Values: + Present in trace amounts, n 2-5%, nnn >5-10%, nnnn >10-20%, nnnnn >20-30%, nnnnnn >30-40%, nnnnnnn >40-50% (of visible area)

9648

9647

9646

9645

Maximum thickness in thin section (mm)

528.1

Unburnt bone

Organic and anthropogenic components

Plant tissue

Mineral components Amorphous organic matter

Non-metallurgic slag n

n

+

Clay aggregate +

Pedofeatures

n

n

Fe nodules

Groundmass

n

Fe replaced organic matter

Microstructure and porosity

n

+

+

+

n

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

Excremental pedofeatures

Table 43. The soil micromorphology descriptions of samples 9645. 9646, 9647, 9648

162

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC) high phosphate content based on its autoflurescence under UV light. This material was composed of both peat and wood ash, and contained a number of inclusions in direct association, namely shell fragments (1.6%; Figure 126 A–C), charred plant (3.8%), charred amorphous organic material (2.1%), non-metallurgical slag and melted phytoliths (Figure 126 A–B). The layer also contained a concentration of eggshell fragments (6%; Figure 126 C), suggesting the consumption of eggs in the building and the discard of their shells in the hearth. At the top of sample 9647 was a layer of white sand 522, sediment interpreted during excavation to be sand that was either dumped or windblown. This homogeneous layer was composed of calcareous sand with little fine material present (with a coarse–fine ratio of 98:2). It was almost perfectly sorted (98%) but there were two relatively large charred amorphous organic inclusions at the bottom of the layer, probably moved there from the layer below. The high degree of sorting and the sterile nature of the layer suggested it is aeolian in nature, indicating a period of abandonment during the life of the structure. The boundary between this aeolian deposit and the anthropogenic ash-rake floor deposit below was very sharp, indicating an abrupt change in depositional activity from the anthropogenic floor accumulation to natural wind-deposited sand. The ash-rake did not appear in samples 9677 and 9680 extracted from the northern part of the house, probably because these samples were taken in close proximity to the north wall. Neither did it appear in sample 9648, located in a comparable position in the southern half of the structure. The majority of hearth-rake deposits appeared to be confined to the central aisle. Such ash material might have been spread in the interests of floor maintenance, in order to absorb moisture or odours, or even to deter insect pests (Hakbijl 2002). The various layers present within sample 9645 provide evidence of numerous episodes of ash material being raked over the floor from the central hearth. Such ash material was not continuous, however, being separated by some sand-dominated floor layers, indicating that the ash-rake activity was not continually practised. All the hearth layers were dominated by peat ash, indicating peat was the primary fuel source used in this structure. The boundaries between the ash layers were clear and sharp, indicating that the deposition of such layers occurred as sudden events, at moments when the hearth needed to be cleared of ash. All the ash-dominated layers were trampled into the floor by human traffic. Context 528 was found to decrease in depth from the central area (sample 9645), to the area further from the hearth (sample 9647). This variation in thickness is evidence that the hearth contents were not spread evenly across the central aisle. Instead, this reduction of ash-rake thickness indicates that the majority of ash from the hearth was deposited close to the hearth in the central aisle of the structure, with considerably less ash reaching outside this central aisle.

163

Floor deposits Floor deposits from the northern aisle of the structure were caught in thin sections 9677 and 9680, and from the southern aisle in 9648. Sample 9680 was the lower of the two samples taken from the outer aisle in the northern half of the structure. It contained sediment from 558, a layer of calcareous sand with a small amount of fine material (95:5 coarse–fine material ratio). Such material was located in small pore spaces between sand grains, giving the layer an intergrain microaggregate microstructure. There were, however, a few localised lenses and granules of peat ash (8%; Figure 126 E–F) in which sand grains were embedded in fine material in a porphyric coarse–fine distribution. Such lenses indicate that some peat ash was being deposited in this outer aisle, but only in irregular granules, as opposed to the continuous layers of peat ash spread observed in the central aisle. The peat ash lenses and granules also indicate that this layer experienced some vertical compression, probably in the form of trampling by human traffic. Another notable feature of this layer was the high concentration of shell fragments (6%; Figure 126 F), indicating that shellfish might have been processed and/or consumed here. Much of this layer was disturbed, and both earthworm channels and excrement (0.4%) were present, indicating that some of this layer had been reworked. Sample 9677, taken in close proximity to the northern wall at a slightly higher elevation than sample 9680, examined occupation layer 557. This was a layer of calcareous sand with a small amount of fine material (displaying a coarse–fine ratio of 95:5). The majority of this fine material was located in small pore spaces between sand grains in a single spaced fine enaulic coarse– fine related distribution, giving the layer an intergrain microaggregate microstructure. Some small localised lenses displayed a bridged grain microstructure, evidence of compaction and supporting the interpretation of this layer as a floor deposit. This sample also contained a high bone content (11.4%), mostly small fragments mixed throughout the fine material. Roughly half of the bone was unburnt (5.8%), with slightly less burnt (5.6%). Other inclusions included eggshell (2.5%), shell (1.1%), and charred amorphous organic material (0.9%). Sample 9648 examined an occupation deposit, 552, near the southern wall of the house. This was a calcareous sand with a small quantity of fine organic material. It was notably similar to the previously described floor (557 in sample 9677), with an intergrain microaggregate microstructure, single spaced fine enaulic coarse–fine related distribution, and a 95:5 coarse–fine ratio. Also present were small localised lenses of sand grains joined together by bridges of fine material, evidence that the layer was exposed to compression and was a floor. This layer contained a high concentration of bone fragments (7.8%), some of which were identifiable as fish bone (Figure 126 G). The majority were in an unburnt state (6.3%), although

164

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

burnt bone (1.5%) was also observed. Other inclusions were shell fragments (3.5%), a large fragment of charred wood (2%), and numerous small charred fragments of amorphous organic material (1.4%). This high quantity of anthropogenic inclusions, particularly bone, may indicate that this southern aisle was used for the processing and/ or the consumption of food (shellfish/meat/fish), with bone and shell debris readily accumulating in the floor sediment here. The similarities between the compositions of these floor deposits suggest the use of space in the north and south sides of the house was very similar. These outer floor areas received less ash and organic material and were also less subject to compaction from trampling, although localised compact lenses were present. Earthworm bioturbation was visible and much of the sediment was mixed; the original integrity of floor deposits in the outer aisles was destroyed.

In situ hearth deposits Four samples (9681, 9682, 9688, 9689) were examined from the hearth accumulation (586) in the centre of the west side of the house. This was a layer dominated by various sub-layers of peat and some wood ash, and some earlier pre-floor deposits. Sample 9682 was extracted from the bottom of the hearth, and caught the upper fill (1017) of pit 937/1016. This was a layer of calcareous sand with a small amount of ash and fine material. The majority of such ash/fine material was present in the form of microaggregates located between sand grains; however, there were a number of ash granules within which sand grains were embedded. The layer contained charred amorphous organic material (1.9%), charred plant (1.2%), shell (1%) and burnt bone (0.8%). Located above 1017 was 586, a context caught in all four samples taken from the hearth, and divided into six sub-contexts. The lowermost of these was 586.3, caught in sample 9682 directly above 1017. This was comprised of calcareous sand embedded in various layers of peat ash. Lenses of wood ash were also present, although in smaller quantities and size. Located at the bottom of the layer was a large lens of partially charred plant; a piece of charred peat that had begun to change to ash. Also present in this layer were charred amorphous organic material (4.5%), charred wood (2.7%), unburnt bone (2.5%) and shell (2.4%). Sample 9688 caught two sub-contexts from 586, the lowermost of which was 586.5. This was a layer of calcareous sand and fine material (with a coarse–fine ratio of 87:13). Some of the fine material was located as small bridges adjoining sand grains (displaying a convex gefuric coarse–fine related distribution and a bridged grain microstructure), while a considerable quantity was located in small pore spaces between coarse grains (displaying a close fine enaulic coarse–fine related distribution and an intergrain microaggregate microstructure). Few inclusions

were present, with only shell (0.8%) observed in a notable quantity. Located directly above 586.5, and separated by a sharp and clear boundary, was 586.4. This was a dense layer of sand embedded in various layers and lenses of peat ash. The layer contained considerably more ash than 586.5 (30:70 coarse–fine ratio). All the sand present in layer 586.4 was quartzite, not the calcareous sand of the machair that was present in 586.5. This layer did not contain any inclusions in great quantity, the most notable being burnt bone (0.6%) and charred amorphous organic material (0.4%). Sample 9681 caught a further two sub-contexts belonging to 586, the lower of these being 586.2. This was a thick layer (63 mm) of calcareous sand embedded within a dense matrix of peat ash (in a porphyric close fine related distribution). The peat ash was comprised of various horizontal lenses, varying slightly in colour and composition, representing different burning and hearth-use events. Present in this layer were various inclusions, most notably unburnt bone (2.2%), charred amorphous organic material (2.1%), eggshell (2.0%), shell (1.9%), burnt bone (1.5%), amorphous organic matter (0.7%), charred plant (0.4%) and charred wood (0.4%). Also present in this layer were two small clay aggregates (0.5%), found in close association with a small horizontal lens of gravel inclusions (Figure 126 H). This small horizontal feature may represent a prepared clay and gravel base constructed within the hearth. In the top 17 mm of this sample was 586.1, a layer of calcareous sand with a moderate quantity of peat ash. This layer had significantly less ash than the layer below it; instead coarse grains were linked by bridges of fine material (in a convex gefuric coarse–fine related distribution), as opposed to being embedded within an ash matrix (as in the layer below), giving this layer a bridged grain microstructure. The layer contained charred amorphous organic material (3.6%), shell (3.6%) of which much was burnt, amorphous organic matter (1.2%), burnt bone (0.7%), unburnt bone (0.3%) and charred plant (0.3%). Sub-context 586.6 in sample 9689 is arguably the latest deposit sampled in the hearth. It was a thick layer of sand, filling the entire sample (74 mm), and embedded within it were various ash lenses. Such lenses varied in colour and composition, notably in the type of ash and sand. Peat ash was at its most frequent within this sample; there were also various wood ash lenses present, however, indicating that wood was used as fuel. The majority of the sand present was calcareous although a lens located near the top of the sample was composed of quartzite sand. Also present were a number of inclusions, notably shell (6%), charred amorphous organic material (2.8%), burnt bone (2.5%) and charred plant (1%). To summarise, the hearth comprised numerous horizontal lenses of ash material, varying in colour and composition. The colours ranged from dark brown to light

Sample

586.6

74

21

56

586.4

586.5

25

1017

53

586.3

Microstructure

nnn

nnn

C& V

nnn

C& V

BG & IM

nnnnn

nnnn

C& V

IM

nnnn

nnnn

nnnn

nnnn

nnnn

nnnn

Porosity

V

IM

IM

IM

IM

IM,

Sorting (%)

45

97

88

90

70

65

40

80

80

98

99

C/F(100 µm) ratio 30/70

80/20

30/70

85/15

40/60

40/60

65/35

95/5

95/5

98/2

90/10

SSP & CP

CG, some CFE B, G, YB; D, S

B; D

Y, YB; D, S

B, DB; D

SSFE, some SSP SSP

B, DB, YB; D

B, YB; D

SSP & DSP

CFE & SSFE

B, DB; D

CFE, some SSP

nn

n

n

n

nnnn

nn

nnn

nn

n

B, Y, YB; D B, DB; D

nn

n

Charcoal

B, DB: D

B, DB; D

Birefringence fabric of fine material (XPL)

SSFE

SSFE

SSFE

CFE

Charred wood n

n

nn

n

Charred plant n

n

n

n

n

n

nn

n

Charred amorphous organic material nn

+

+

n

nnn

nn

nnn

nn

+

nn

+

Charred seaweed +

+

Shell nnn

n

n

nn

n

nn

nnn

n

n

n

Eggshell nn

nn

Burnt bone nn

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

nnn

n

n

n

n

nn

nn

n

n

nnn

n

n

n

n

Amorphous organic matter n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

Phytoliths +

+

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

+

n

n

n

+

+

n

+

Diatoms

Birefringence fabric of fine material: U - Undifferentiated, C - Crystallitic

Nature of fine material: B- Brown, DB - Dark Brown, G - Grey, LB - Light Brown, YB - Yellow Brown, Y - Yellow, D - Dotted, S - Speckled

Coarse/Fine related distribution: CFE – Close Fine Enaulic, CP – Close Porphyric, SSFE – Single-spaced Fine Enaulic, SSP – Single-spaced Porphyric, CG – Convex Gefuric

Microstructure: IM – Intergrain microaggregate, V – Vughy, C – Channel, BG – Bridged Grain

Values: + Present in trace amounts, n 2-5%, nnn >5-10%, nnnn >10-20%, nnnnn >20-30%, nnnnnn >30-40%, nnnnnnn >40-50% (of visible area)

9689

9688

9682

63

586.2

17

586.1

9681

63

558

550

9680

20

182

64

64

Layer and microstratographic unit

557

Maximum thickness in thin section (mm)

9677

9676

Unburnt bone

Organic and anthropogenic components

Plant tissue

Mineral components C/F(100 µm) related distribution

Groundmass

Non-metallurgical slag +

+

Aggregate of clayey loam +

Pedofeatures

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

Fe nodules

Microstructure and porosity

nnnn

+

+

n

+

n

n

n

+

+

Excremental pedofeatures

Table 44. The soil micromorphology descriptions of samples 9676, 9677, 9680, 9681, 9682, 9688, 9689

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC) 165

166

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

brown to orange-red under OIL. These bright colours are the result of the burning of turf/peat, and of the iron content within the soil material. This iron oxidises in the intense heat of a hearth, producing the bright colours observed. Differences in such colours may be due to variations in the hearth temperature, or to the peat fuel used being sourced from slightly different soils with varying mineral content. Variation in the source of the peat used is indicated by the varied sand content observed within the hearth. Some layers contained quartzite rather than calcareous sand. The variation between the two sand types suggests a possible variation in the locations from which peat was dug. A notable quantity of wood ash was also observed, indicating that although peat was the dominant fuel source, wood was an important fuel at various times,.

Secondary occupation and abandonment deposits Samples containing sediment from later occupation layers were caught in samples 9646 and 9676. Sample 9646 examined a homogeneous brown sand layer (546) located directly above the ash layers (528). This was a calcareous sand with a moderate amount of dark brown fine material. During excavation it was hypothesised that this might have been the remains of a turf roof that had collapsed within the structure postabandonment. The relatively high proportion of fine organic material (which provided a coarse–fine ratio of 70:30) may indicate that this layer was the remains of a poorly developed topsoil (A-horizon), possibly from a ranker (young, undeveloped) soil that had formed on the sands of the machair and therefore could be the remains of a turf roof. Anthropogenic inclusions included charred amorphous organic material (2.3%), unburnt bone (1.8%), charred plant (1.7%) of which some was likely Calluna vulgaris, shell (1.7%) and burnt bone (1.5%). These included a cluster of fish bones, displaying a linear and horizontal orientation. Some of the larger shell and burnt bone inclusions were also orientated horizontally. This orientation indicates that this sediment accumulated on a constantly flat surface and would therefore indicate that it was not a collapsed turf roof, which would have a more mixed appearance. Sample 9676 contained two layers, a small quantity (20 mm) of pale yellow sand (550), located at the bottom of the sample and a thick layer of brown sand (182) thought to be an abandonment layer that sealed the House 2 floor. The lower layer was a layer of calcareous sand with a small quantity of fine material located in the small pore spaces between the sand grains. The layer contained charred amorphous organic material (2.9%), most of which was a large granule, but small flecks were observed throughout the layer. Also present were a few small lenses of peat ash (0.7%). Although the majority of this layer was relatively sterile, the charred fragments and ash indicated that burning activities were occurring nearby and a small

quantity of material associated with such burning events was deposited here. Layer 182 consisted of calcareous sand and a relatively small amount of fine material (with a 90:10 coarse–fine ratio), located in the small pore spaces between sand grains (displaying a close fine enaulic coarse–fine distribution). The few inclusions present in the sample included charred amorphous organic material (0.6%), charred plant (0.5%) and charred seaweed (0.5%). The absence of evidence for any floor deposits, and the presence of some inclusions, may indicate that this was an abandonment horizon, and not a secondary occupation deposit.

Sampling data – N Sharples A total of 467 samples, totalling 11,610.4 litres of soil, were processed from the House 2 (BC) deposits (Table 45, 46 and 47): 64 samples, 1,103.8 litres of soil, came from the foundation pits (BCA); • 19 samples, 515 litres of soil, came from the construction layers (BCB); • 384 samples, 9,991.6 litres of soil, came from the occupation deposits (BCC). •

The 2–10 mm residues were sieved and sorted from 231 samples, 2,573.73 litres of residues (Tables 48, 49 and 50): • • •

39 samples, 289.3 litres of soil, were sorted from the foundation pits (BCA); 14 samples, 200 litres of soil, were processed from the construction layers (BCB); 178 samples, 2,084.43 litres of soil, were processed from the occupation deposits (BCC).

The average densities of material recovered from the above 10 mm residues are depicted in Figure 127. The highest densities of the major categories of material came from the foundation pits (BCA); winkle, 1.87 shells/litre; limpet, 1.07 shells/litre; and bone, 0.71 frag/litre. The highest average densities for fish, 0.3 frag/litre, and pottery, 0.29 frag/litre, were in the occupation deposits (BCC). The densities of the materials from the foundation pits (BCA) were very similar to those from the House 1 abandonment deposits (BBD; see Figure 68), which may be because the features in BCA cut through the BBD layers. It seems likely that the later features were filled with material from the earlier layers. The similarity of the material present in the floors of House 1 (BBC) and House 2 (BCC) is more likely to indicate similar depositional environments as there is little likelihood of significant residuality in these two deposits. The distribution of the above 10 mm material recovered from the House 2 floor layers (BCC) is depicted in Figures 128–131). As can be seen in Figure 128 (top), a relatively

2 samples 2 samples 9607 8147 9712 9479 9470 9448 9858 11560 11652 11653 3 samples 11669 11721 11520 11759 11800 11780 11645 11670 11801 11825 11830 2 samples 11961 11242 11243 11264 11321 11322 11374 11386 11400 12067 2 samples 12093 12097 12101 12100 12110 12112 12115 12117 12111 12106 12107 12109 12118 12120 12121 12113 12116 12125 12126 3 samples 64 samples

Sample

916 923 938 553 1017 1246 1259 1280 1295 2049 2078 2080 2081 2085 2095 2099 2103 2107 2109 2114 2120 2122 2133 2141 2157 2202 2271 2273 2279 2603 2605 2615 2629 2640 2704 2711 2714 2722 2724 2726 2727 2728 2735 2736 2740 2743 2746 2750 2753 2757 2759 2760 2762 2764 2774 2659 Total

Context

BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA/BCC BCA

Block

25.0 14.0 43.0 6.0 60.0 12.0 12.0 14.0 6.5 4.0 32.0 9.0 209.0 2.0 3.0 16.0 2.0 1.4 1.0 20.0 10.0 2.5 9.0 3.1 87.0 26.0 42.0 21.0 0.6 32.0 9.0 2.0 5.0 2.0 13.0 53.0 5.0 6.0 8.0 21.0 3.0 9.5 27.0 24.0 11.0 9.5 10.0 74.0 53.0 2.5 4.0 2.5 3.9 1.7 1.1 18.0 1103.8

Litres

1 2 10 0 8 5 2 1 4 1 0 0 27 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 1 1 9 3 18 22 0 2 0 0 1 1 0 6 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 8 8 0 0 0 10 0 0 2 161

0.04 0.14 0.23 0.00 0.13 0.42 0.17 0.07 0.62 0.25 0.00 0.00 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.40 0.00 0.11 0.32 0.10 0.12 0.43 1.05 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.20 0.50 0.00 0.11 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.14 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.11 0.15 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.56 0.00 0.00 0.11 0.15

no. density

Fish 11 4 23 1 28 8 2 1 39 2 6 3 81 0 1 13 0 5 0 4 3 0 7 0 34 14 30 26 0 24 15 2 6 2 0 22 1 0 11 3 1 2 8 6 6 4 8 30 16 1 1 2 47 0 0 7 571

no.

Unburnt bone 2 2 3 0 7 3 4 2 22 0 13 0 38 1 0 8 0 8 0 7 1 0 0 0 19 1 7 0 0 2 4 0 1 1 0 13 0 2 2 5 1 4 7 4 0 0 4 8 4 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 213

no.

Burnt bone 13 6 26 1 35 11 6 3 61 2 19 3 119 1 1 21 0 13 0 11 4 0 7 0 53 15 37 26 0 26 19 2 7 3 0 35 1 2 13 8 2 6 15 10 6 4 12 38 20 1 1 3 49 0 0 7 784

0.52 0.43 0.60 0.17 0.58 0.92 0.50 0.21 9.38 0.50 0.59 0.33 0.57 0.50 0.33 1.31 0.00 9.29 0.00 0.55 0.40 0.00 0.78 0.00 0.61 0.58 0.88 1.24 0.00 0.81 2.11 1.00 1.40 1.50 0.00 0.66 0.20 0.33 1.63 0.38 0.67 0.63 0.56 0.42 0.55 0.42 1.20 0.51 0.38 0.40 0.25 1.20 12.56 0.00 0.00 0.39 0.71

no. density

All mammal bone 0 6 3 0 10 1 2 12 6 2 7 1 29 1 2 5 1 0 0 12 2 0 0 0 19 2 7 5 0 22 4 2 0 0 0 16 1 3 2 7 0 0 5 1 2 1 13 32 17 1 0 2 2 0 0 0 268

0.00 0.43 0.07 0.00 0.17 0.08 0.17 0.86 0.92 0.50 0.22 0.11 0.14 0.50 0.67 0.31 0.50 0.00 0.00 0.60 0.20 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.22 0.08 0.17 0.24 0.00 0.69 0.44 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.30 0.20 0.50 0.25 0.33 0.00 0.00 0.19 0.04 0.18 0.11 1.30 0.43 0.32 0.40 0.00 0.80 0.51 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.24

no. density

Pottery 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 18

no.

Slag 9 18 58 1 88 4 2 10 59 2 5 4 276 3 2 15 0 2 0 9 3 1 4 0 138 25 89 16 1 23 8 9 0 7 5 58 7 1 24 8 6 6 15 9 18 5 32 41 30 2 5 6 2 3 0 12 1186

0.36 1.29 1.35 0.17 1.47 0.33 0.17 0.71 9.08 0.50 0.16 0.44 1.32 1.50 0.67 0.94 0.00 1.43 0.00 0.45 0.30 0.40 0.44 0.00 1.59 0.96 2.12 0.76 1.67 0.72 0.89 4.50 0.00 3.50 0.38 1.09 1.40 0.17 3.00 0.38 2.00 0.63 0.56 0.38 1.64 0.53 3.20 0.55 0.57 0.80 1.25 2.40 0.51 1.76 0.00 0.67 1.07

no. density

Limpet 19 145 47 0 101 5 0 33 120 8 13 11 241 2 4 33 3 0 0 27 12 2 21 3 98 30 247 76 0 35 25 2 29 4 16 81 14 7 22 25 0 13 38 46 17 3 102 156 84 5 1 22 2 0 2 11 2063

0.76 10.36 1.09 0.00 1.68 0.42 0.00 2.36 18.46 2.00 0.41 1.22 1.15 1.00 1.33 2.06 1.50 0.00 0.00 1.35 1.20 0.80 2.33 0.97 1.13 1.15 5.88 3.62 0.00 1.09 2.78 1.00 5.80 2.00 1.23 1.53 2.80 1.17 2.75 1.19 0.00 1.37 1.41 1.92 1.55 0.32 10.20 2.11 1.58 2.00 0.25 8.80 0.51 0.00 1.82 0.61 1.87

no. density

Winkle 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3

no.

Egg

Table 45. The material identified in sorting the greater than 10 mm residue from the foundation deposits (BCA)

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 1 0 2 0 8 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 25

no.

Charcoal 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3

no.

Coprolite 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 3 0 4 1 0 17 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 2 0 3 32 1 0 0 0 2 0 11 9 23 1 27 16 96 0 0 3 5 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 262

no.

B.O.M.

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC) 167

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

168

1

2

9

0

0

3 0

0

0

1 0

0 0

0

0

0 0

0 0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1 0

0

0 0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0 0

no. no.

0

B.O.M. Coprolite

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

0

6

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0 0

0

1 0

0

0 0

0

0 0

0

0

0 0

1

2 0

0

no. no.

0

Charcoal Egg

1

48 3.43

483 0.94

18 1.29

236 0.46

0

10 210 0.41 45 165 29 0.06 515 Total 19 samples

BCB

9 0.64 1 8 1 0.07 14 2651 11450

BCB

75 0.15

40 0.82 24 0.49 0

1 0.07

141 3.13 67 1.49 1

6 0.12 37 0.76

32 0.71 6

6 31

26 6 0.13

9 0.18 49

45

2607 11329

BCB 2607 11328

BCB

45 1.00

45 2.37 15 0.79 1 2294 11375

BCB

19

0 0.00

9

4

13 0.68

6 0.32

5 0.42

66 6.60

5 0.42

8 0.80

0

0 1 0.10

0 0.00 6 0.50

11 1.10 1

2 4

10 1 0.10

0 0.00 12 BCB

2136

BCC

1252 9479

11823

10

5 0.25 5 0.25 0 BCB 1252 9477

20

0 0.00

4

2

6 0.30

0 0.00

4 0.09

13 0.26

5 0.11

10 0.20

1

0

5 0.11

0 0.00 11 0.22

9 0.20 2

1 10

7 4 0.09

0 0.00 50

46 BCB

BCB

1236

1252

9857

9476

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.20

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00 0 0.00

1 0.20 0

0 0

1 0 0.00

0 0.00 2

5 BCB 944

1233

9608

9493

BCB

0

0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0 0 0.00 9 BCB 918 9556

0

1 0.07 2 0.13 0 0.00 3 0.20 1 2 2 0.13 15 917 9601

BCB

0

8 0.18 7 0.16

0

51 1.24 15 0.37 3

0

0 0.00

7 0.16 1

5 14

6 0 0.00

1 0.02 41

44 9569

BCB 595

595

9568

BCB

0 0.00

11 0.48

0 0.00

41 0.50

12 0.52

37 0.45 4 9 0.11

0 6 0.26

0 0.00 11

2 4

23 2 0.02

0 0.00 23

82

595 9567

BCB

595 9566

BCB

1 0.13 5 0.63 0 5 3 0.38 8 595 9465

BCB

0 0.00

1 0.13 6 0.75

0 1 0.05 0 1 0 0.00 21 527 8149

BCB

0

2 0.10 0 0.00

no.

1 0.05

Winkle

no. density

Limpet

no. density

Slag Pottery

no. density no.

no.

Unburnt bone Fish

Context

Block

Litres

no. density

Burnt bone

All mammal bone

no. density

0

Sample

Table 46. The material identified in sorting the greater than 10 mm residue from the construction deposits (BCB)

2

fish

mammal BCA

pot BCB

limpet

winkle

BCC

2

1

0

fish

mammal abandonment

pot

limpet

floor

hearth

winkle pit

Figure 127. Histograms of the above 10 mm sampling densities from the three blocks associated with House 2, top, and from the four different contexts that make up the floor of House 2, bottom

complete coverage of the floor of House 2 is available. The gaps in quad 4 and 5 indicate problems with sampling procedures in the early years of the excavation, whereas the gaps in quads 11 and 12 indicate later truncation of the floor. The increase in the number of samples towards the east end of the house indicates a desire to differentiate discrete layers. The information from the samples was divided into the floor and abandonment layers, the ash/hearth layers running down the centre of the house, and the feature fills. The distribution of these samples varies. Originally the floor and abandonment samples were quantified separately but this produced a very uneven coverage of the house and it is felt that amalgamating the two context groups has produced a more complete and informative distribution. Hearth/ash samples were relatively evenly distributed along the centre of the house. To produce the simplified plots in Figures 129–131, wherever multiple samples were taken from any one metre square, the data from such samples has been combined and averaged. The principal categories recovered from the sorted residues and plotted in these figures were pot, mammal bone, fish bone, limpets and winkles; only

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC)

Figure 128. A plot showing the distribution of the samples taken and the sample size within House 2

169

564, 565

1057

1219, 1260

1231, 1267

1234

2113

1278

2075, 2082, 2096

581

586

2617

2627, 2636, 2637, 2658

2609, 2610, 2635, 2660, 2668, 2669, 2680, 2681

2611, 2613

2177

2181, 2192, 2225

2180, 2191, 2222, 2224, 2226, 2251, 2255, 2289

2030, 2031, 2033, 2035, 2036

2039

2038, 2042, 2043

4 samples

4 samples

3 samples

4 samples

4 samples

4 samples

2 samples

3 samples

5 samples

3 samples

6 samples

14 samples

13 samples

2 samples

6 samples

14 samples

18 samples

6 samples

11550

6 samples

12

12

12

11

11

11

11

10

10

10

9

9

9

9

8

8

7

7

7

7

6

6

6

5

5

13

557, 558, 596

4 samples

4

2652, 2667, 2672, 2674, 2677, 2678, 2685, 2688, 2697, 2699, 2702, 2703, 2718

532, 533, 534, 556

4 samples

4

18 samples

530

8134

4

13

39, 522, 523, 524

4 samples

3

2657, 2673, 2691, 2708

1070, 1088, 1092, 1099

4 samples

3

6 samples

1209

3 samples

3

1091

1220

2 samples

3

9475

1049, 1056

5 samples

2

1008

1078, 1079, 1081, 1211

4 samples

2

3 samples

1023

2 samples

2

2045, 2047

1010, 1208

8 samples

1

945

585, 590, 592, 921

5 samples

1

2 samples

1006

9946

1

Quad

9480

548, 549

Context

2 samples

Sample

H

F

H

F

A

P

H

F

A

H

F

A

P

H

F

A

H

A

P

H

F

A

H

F

A

H

F

P

H

F

P

H

F

A

P

H?

F

P

H?

F

Layer

203.6

119.6

11.0

87.5

20.5

19.3

270.0

2.0

10.4

529.1

327.0

104.0

41.0

493.3

277.5

42.0

362.0

269.0

47.5

287.0

77.5

341.5

318.0

43.0

430.0

64.0

70.0

20.5

4.0

66.8

54.5

56.0

90.5

277.0

32.0

5.0

497.5

129.5

1.0

29.0

Litres

9 0.04

23 0.19

1 0.09

22 0.25

33 1.61

2 0.10

9 0.03

0 0.00

1 0.10

22 0.04

282 0.86

91 0.88

2 0.05

54 0.11

53 0.19

7 0.17

35 0.10

53 0.20

31 0.65

35 0.12

3 0.04

39 0.11

99 0.63

14 0.33

243 0.57

14 0.22

17 0.24

0 0.00

0 0.00

4 0.06

0 0.00

3 0.05

5 0.06

58 0.21

1 0.03

0 0.00

95 0.19

4 0.03

0 0.00

2 0.07

no. density

Fish

105

75

0

92

72

11

59

6

2

149

700

288

15

175

224

9

86

144

55

69

53

117

201

16

264

57

50

2

0

12

16

15

14

63

10

2

227

31

0

6

no.

Unburnt bone

40

5

0

13

0

0

61

0

1

36

32

10

0

25

26

3

51

35

8

12

16

40

8

3

52

3

17

2

37

0

6

4

5

23

1

2

55

17

0

1

no.

Burnt bone

145 0.71

80 0.67

0 0.00

105 1.20

72 3.51

11 0.57

120 0.44

6 3.00

3 0.29

185 0.35

732 2.24

298 2.87

15 0.37

200 0.41

250 0.90

12 0.29

137 0.38

179 0.67

63 1.33

81 0.28

69 0.89

157 0.46

209 1.28

19 0.44

316 0.73

60 0.94

67 0.96

4 0.20

37 9.25

12 0.18

22 0.40

19 0.34

19 0.21

86 0.31

11 0.34

4 0.80

282 0.57

48 0.37

0 0.00

7 0.24

no. density

All mammal bone

111 0.55

102 0.85

0 0.00

25 0.29

4 0.20

0 0.00

67 0.25

0 0.00

7 0.67

32 0.06

174 0.53

59.0 0.57

62 1.51

42 0.09

37 0.13

9 0.21

22 0.06

65 0.24

8 0.17

22 0.08

12 0.15

41 0.12

0

1

0

19

2

0

0

0

1

0

0

4

11

0

2

0

2

2

0

1

2

3

0

0

7 0.16 157 0.93

6

8

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

no.

Slag

362 0.84

32 0.50

12 0.17

9 0.44

2 0.50

17 0.25

14 0.26

28 0.50

13 0.14

79 0.29

16 0.50

12 2.40

181 0.36

38 0.29

0 0.00

14 0.48

no. density

Pottery

136 0.67

181 1.51

2 0.18

54 0.62

18 0.88

10 0.52

67 0.25

2 1.00

6 0.58

238 0.45

470 1.44

114 1.10

21 0.51

243 0.49

177 0.64

32 0.76

152 0.42

304 1.13

63 1.33

156 0.54

104 1.34

292 0.86

113 0.69

12 0.28

264 0.61

33 0.52

71 1.01

4 0.20

2 0.50

18 0.27

17 0.31

44 0.79

40 0.44

78 0.28

7 0.22

0 0.00

106 0.21

26 0.20

0 0.00

7 0.24

no. density

Limpet

82 0.40

287 2.40

1 0.09

81 0.93

0

0

0

0

0

0

26 1.35 98 4.78

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

2

1

0

2

0

0

0 0

1

3

1

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

no.

Charcoal

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

no.

Egg

72 0.27

5 2.50

8 0.77

272 0.51

1680 5.14

494 4.75

60 1.46

351 0.71

720 2.59

54 1.29

189 0.52

396 1.47

318 6.69

108 0.38

312 4.03

765 2.24

123 0.74

47 1.09

1105 2.57

41 0.64

116 1.66

3 0.15

2 0.50

70 1.05

12 0.22

15 0.27

45 0.50

433 1.56

7 0.22

8 1.60

198 0.40

13 0.10

0 0.00

6 0.21

no. density

Winkle

Table 47. The material identified in sorting the greater than 10 mm residue from the House 2 floor deposits (BCC)

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

3

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

15

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

1

1

0

18

1

0

0

no.

Coprolite

33

21

0

0

0

0

40

0

0

19

14

3

0

14

9

0

5

7

1

0

4

3

4

0

0

0

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

no.

B.O.M.

170

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

14

17

17

2197, 2200, 2211, 2212, 2231, 2246, 2248, 2249, 2250, 2286, 2601

2253, 2257, 2277, 2280, 2281, 2284, 2287, 299

2264

2182

2190, 2221, 2606

2620, 2216, 2217, 2218, 2219, 2258, 2259, 2291

2234

2647

2692

2671, 2676, 2682, 2683, 2695, 2696, 2700

2663, 2694

2643

2646, 2648, 2653, 2707

23 samples

12 samples

11240

11878

5 samples

13 samples

11996

5 samples

5 samples

11 samples

2 samples

2 samples

16 samples

2220, 2229, 2241, 2242, 2254, 2260, 2267, 2285, 2297

2230

2275

2645

2670, 2686, 2701, 2712, 2715, 2716, 2717, 2731,

2649, 2664, 2679, 2698

182

1228

28 samples

4 samples

11251

2 samples

21 samples

6 samples

8150

9499

Total

19

2214

11924

384 samples

18

2243, 2269

3 samples

various

various

20

20

20

19

19

18

18

2656, 2661

2194, 2199, 2283, 2298

4 samples

12 samples

17

16

16

16

16

15

15

15

15

14

14

14

2188

11892

F

A

H

F

A

P

H

F

P

H

F

H

F

A

P

H

F

A

P

H

F

A

P

H

F

A

9991.6

1.0

30.0

96.7

425.0

16.0

12.0

55.0

497.5

13.0

74.0

408.5

117.5

425.7

22.0

1.8

209.7

97.0

122.0

5.0

380.1

147.0

78.0

14.0

169.9

424.6

18.0

3020 0.30

3 3.00

9 0.30

24 0.25

99 0.23

2 0.13

6 0.50

35 0.64

956 1.92

5 0.38

13 0.18

128 0.31

4 0.03

148 0.35

2 0.09

0 0.00

55 0.26

18 0.19

20 0.16

0 0.00

30 0.08

40 0.27

6 0.08

5 0.36

10 0.06

35 0.08

1 0.06

5241

1

7

72

193

10

5

30

267

10

22

225

33

193

4

10

113

56

48

1

85

60

16

18

62

182

26

1045

0

0

10

35

0

0

0

46

0

3

40

10

71

0

0

9

7

0

0

41

7

2

1

58

53

2

6286 0.63

1 1.00

7 0.23

82 0.85

228 0.54

10 0.63

5 0.42

30 0.55

313 0.63

10 0.77

25 0.34

265 0.65

43 0.37

264 0.62

4 0.18

10 5.56

122 0.58

63 0.65

48 0.39

1 0.20

126 0.33

67 0.46

18 0.23

19 1.36

120 0.71

235 0.55

28 1.56

2935 0.29

0 0.00

2 0.07

30 0.31

130 0.31

23 1.44

0 0.00

23 0.42

159 0.32

1 0.08

16 0.22

105 0.26

4 0.03

138 0.32

0 0.00

0 0.00

112 0.53

39 0.40

17 0.14

2 0.40

71 0.19

31 0.21

10 0.13

16 1.14

12 0.07

99 0.23

1 0.06

105

0

0

2

2

0

0

2

8

0

0

3

1

7

0

0

1

2

1

0

5

0

1

0

1

2

1

6735 0.67

1 1.00

9 0.30

61 0.63

203 0.48

6 0.38

5 0.42

40 0.73

444 0.89

6 0.46

30 0.41

221 0.54

10 0.09

217 0.51

3 0.14

1.0 0.56

185 0.88

48 0.49

47 0.39

24 4.80

824 2.17

159 1.08

38 0.49

3 0.21

118 0.69

341 0.80

7 0.39

12109 1.21

3 3.00

12 0.40

62 0.64

364 0.86

7 0.44

10 0.83

105 1.91

356 0.72

17 1.31

33 0.45

506 1.24

45 0.38

403 0.95

4 0.18

1 0.56

240 1.14

123 1.27

95 0.78

1 0.20

452 1.19

195 1.33

31 0.40

7 0.50

61 0.36

345 0.81

8 0.44

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

35

0

0

0

2

0

0

0

9

0

0

1

0

1

0

0

1

0

0

0

2

0

0

0

0

3

0

42

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

444

0

0

0

48

0

0

1

39

0

0

28

0

28

0

0

7

3

1

1

12

12

1

0

53

29

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC) 171

172

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Figure 129. The distribution of materials from the above 10 mm residues from the floor and abandonment layers within House 2

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC)

Figure 130. The distribution of materials from the above 10 mm residues from the hearth layers within House 2

173

174

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Figure 131. The distribution of materials from the above 10 mm residues from the fills of features within House 2

923

923

938

1017

1230

1259

1280

1295

2049

2078

2080

2095

2099

2114

2122

2141

2207

2271

2273

2640

2704

2724

2726

2728

2735

2736

2738

2746

2748

2750

2755

2757

2759

2760

2762

2768

2774

2659

9560

9963

9607

9712

9498

9470

9448

9858

11560

11652

11653

11721

11520

11645

11801

11830

11961

11242

11243

11400

12067

12101

12100

12112

12115

12117

12114

12107

12108

12109

12119

12120

12121

12113

12116

12125

12126

11464

39 samples

916

Context

9973

Sample

Total

BCA/BCC

BCA

BCA

BCA

BCA

BCA

BCA

BCA

BCA

BCA

BCA

BCA

BCA

BCA

BCA

BCA

BCA

BCA

BCA

BCA

BCA

BCA

BCA

BCA

BCA

BCA

BCA

BCA

BCA

BCA

BCA

BCA

BCA

BCA

BCA

BCA

BCA

BCA

BCA

Block

588.8

6

1.1

1.7

3.9

2.5

4

2.5

6.5

74

8

10

13

24

27

9.5

21

8

13

2

21

42

26

3.1

2.5

20

16

3

9

32

4

6.5

14

12

13

60

43

12

2

10

Litres

289.30

3.00

1.10

1.70

3.90

1.25

4.00

2.50

3.25

37.00

4.00

5.00

6.50

6.00

6.75

2.38

5.25

4.00

6.50

2.00

10.50

10.50

13.00

3.10

2.50

10.00

8.00

3.00

9.00

8.00

4.00

1.63

7.00

12.00

13.00

30.00

21.50

12.00

2.00

2.50

Litres sorted

1152

8

1

0

2

1

0

25

4

235

5

22

5

13

48

3

29

36

2

11

17

16

31

2

2

43

27

30

14

114

36

34

45

30

60

39

65

90

1

6

no.

3.98

2.67

0.91

0.00

0.51

0.80

0.00

10.00

1.23

6.35

1.25

4.40

0.77

2.17

7.11

1.26

5.52

9.00

0.31

5.50

1.62

1.52

2.38

0.65

0.80

4.30

3.38

10.00

1.56

14.25

9.00

20.92

6.43

2.50

4.62

1.30

3.02

7.50

0.50

2.40

density

Pottery

4857

61

20

1

348

22

36

50

25

762

29

83

59

67

87

13

47

80

155

32

432

304

318

62

8

60

90

20

63

59

95

256

46

68

12

214

359

268

35

111

no.

16.79

20.33

18.18

0.59

89.23

17.60

9.00

20.00

7.69

20.59

7.25

16.60

9.08

11.17

12.89

5.47

8.95

20.00

23.85

16.00

41.14

28.95

24.46

20.00

3.20

6.00

11.25

6.67

7.00

7.38

23.75

157.54

6.57

5.67

0.92

7.13

16.70

22.33

17.50

44.40

density

Unburnt bone

2784

29

32

2

42

11

15

24

17

187

17

48

18

41

137

38

64

68

46

11

74

78

60

29

0

101

92

3

24

340

48

377

25

51

132

129

286

34

3

51

no.

9.62

9.67

29.09

1.18

10.77

8.80

3.75

9.60

5.23

5.05

4.25

9.60

2.77

6.83

20.30

16.00

12.19

17.00

7.08

5.50

7.05

7.43

4.62

9.35

0.00

10.10

11.50

1.00

2.67

42.50

12.00

232.00

3.57

4.25

10.15

4.30

13.30

2.83

1.50

20.40

density

Burnt bone

5170

167

17

3

66

23

70

45

124

627

28

91

61

40

539

27

27

100

158

96

421

228

221

111

2

36

51

32

82

11

20

394

24

68

259

46

437

269

24

125

no.

17.87

55.67

15.45

1.76

16.92

18.40

17.50

18.00

38.15

16.95

7.00

18.20

9.38

6.67

79.85

11.37

5.14

25.00

24.31

48.00

40.10

21.71

17.00

35.81

0.80

3.60

6.38

10.67

9.11

1.38

5.00

242.46

3.43

5.67

19.92

1.53

20.33

22.42

12.00

50.00

density

Fish

3402

11

5

0

58

46

28

35

69

430

23

327

27

128

148

85

747

71

65

7

32

42

59

33

8

121

250

18

100

12

34

99

2

17

40

55

111

34

8

17

no.

11.76

3.67

4.55

0.00

14.87

36.80

7.00

14.00

21.23

11.62

5.75

65.40

4.15

21.33

21.93

35.79

142.29

17.75

10.00

3.50

3.05

4.00

4.54

10.65

3.20

12.10

31.25

6.00

11.11

1.50

8.50

60.92

0.29

1.42

3.08

1.83

5.16

2.83

4.00

6.80

density

Charcoal

11822

67

83

4

84

55

92

65

68

483

87

555

88

3286

1075

1611

589

650

80

65

103

241

226

76

4

188

435

60

281

295

114

121

25

36

69

104

203

80

10

64

no.

40.86

22.33

75.45

2.35

21.54

44.00

23.00

26.00

20.92

13.05

21.75

111.00

13.54

547.67

159.26

678.32

112.19

162.50

12.31

32.50

9.81

22.95

17.38

24.52

1.60

18.80

54.38

20.00

31.22

36.88

28.50

74.46

3.57

3.00

5.31

3.47

9.44

6.67

5.00

25.60

density

B.O.M.

450

0

2

0

2

0

1

5

0

29

2

1

0

6

23

11

7

19

6

1

3

4

1

5

0

7

9

0

0

43

0

190

0

3

5

3

45

2

6

9

no.

1.56

0.00

1.82

0.00

0.51

0.00

0.25

2.00

0.00

0.78

0.50

0.20

0.00

1.00

3.41

4.63

1.33

4.75

0.92

0.50

0.29

0.38

0.08

1.61

0.00

0.70

1.13

0.00

0.00

5.38

0.00

116.92

0.00

0.25

0.38

0.10

2.09

0.17

3.00

3.60

density

Slag

739

6

2

0

1

10

9

3

8

76

5

27

12

3

22

0

5

7

9

3

66

42

17

10

0

3

15

0

0

11

3

74

11

28

0

73

129

15

0

34

no.

2.55

2.00

1.82

0.00

0.26

8.00

2.25

1.20

2.46

2.05

1.25

5.40

1.85

0.50

3.26

0.00

0.95

1.75

1.38

1.50

6.29

4.00

1.31

3.23

0.00

0.30

1.88

0.00

0.00

1.38

0.75

45.54

1.57

2.33

0.00

2.43

6.00

1.25

0.00

13.60

density

Egg

Table 48. The material identified in sorting the 2 to 10 mm residue from the foundation deposits (BCA)

41

0

0

0

1

2

2

3

0

3

0

6

0

2

7

0

5

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

0

0

4

0

0

0

0

2

0

0

0

no.

0.14

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.26

1.60

0.50

1.20

0.00

0.08

0.00

1.20

0.00

0.33

1.04

0.00

0.95

0.00

0.00

0.50

0.10

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.22

0.00

0.00

2.46

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.09

0.00

0.00

0.00

density

Crab

33

0

0

0

0

0

0

3

0

4

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

0

4

0

2

1

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

3

1

0

8

1

0

0

0.11

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

1.20

0.00

0.11

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.15

0.42

0.19

0.00

0.62

0.00

0.19

0.10

0.15

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.62

0.00

0.25

0.08

0.00

0.37

0.08

0.00

0.00

density

Spirorbis no.

17

0

0

0

0

3

0

0

0

2

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

1

0

7

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0.06

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

2.40

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.05

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.42

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.10

0.00

0.54

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.62

0.00

0.08

0.08

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

density

Coprolite no.

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC) 175

0.13

0.09 4

26 0.08

0.02 1

15 0.03

0.00 0

5 1.73

0.20 9

345 0.28

0.09 4

56 5.46

2.02 93

1091 2.45

0.59 27

490 9.87

2.43 112

1974 3.72

0.96 44

743 11.41

3.76 173

2282 2.04

0.48 22

407 200.0

46.0 46 BCB 11376

14 samples

Total 2620

363

0.04

0.00 0

1 0.00

0.00 0

0 0.13

0.00 0

3 0.58

0.00 0

13 0.31

0.20 2

7 1.07

16.00 160

24 5.91

0.30 8

133 17.82

6.60 66

401 3.87

0.60 6

87 19.16

12.20 122

431 9.64

0.80 8

217 22.5

10.0 10

BCB

2136

2607

11823

45

0.00

11328

BCB

0

0 0.00

0.40 2

0 0.00

0.40 2

0 1.00

28.80 144

25 0.32

1.60 8

8 4.00

81.40 407

100 0.44

9.00 45

11 4.08

63.20 316

102 3.40

35.80 179

85 7.96

69.2 346

199 0.60

13.80 69

15 25.0

5.0 10

50 BCB 1252

2294

9476

11375

BCB

0.35

0.00 0

8 0.30

0.00 0

7 0.00

0.00 0

0 3.78

0.50 1

87 0.13

0.00 0

3 4.13

1.50 3

95 2.13

0.50 1

49 12.74

2.50 5

293 3.17

2.00 4

73 11.04

1.5 3

254 1.00

0.00 0

23 23.0

2.0 2

46 BCB

1233

1236

9493

9857

BCB

0.87

0.00 0

13 0.13

0.00 0

2 0.00

0.00 0

0 1.53

0.80 4

23 0.13

0.20 1

2 2.40

3.60 18

36 4.13

0.80 4

62 12.53

5.40 27

188 2.13

1.60 8

32 3.8

6.2 31

57 0.67

0.00 0

10 15.0

5.0 5

15 BCB

BCB

917

944

9601

9608

0.00

0.00 0

0 0.05

0.05 1

1 0.00

0.00 0

0 0.49

0.68 15

10 0.78

0.05 1

16 2.98

1.50 33

61 3.56

2.41 53

73 11.37

4.36 96

233 6.29

1.91 42

129 18.78

6.409 141

385 1.61

0.23 5

33 20.5

22.0 44

82 BCB

BCB

595

595

9566

9569

density

0.00 0 0.25 1 0.00 0 3.50 14 1.00 4 15.25 61 6.00 24 33.75 135 13.50 54 35 140 1.25 5 4.0 8 BCB 595 9465

Coprolite

no. density

Spirorbis

no. density

Crab

no. density

Egg

no. density

Slag

no. density

B.O.M.

no. density

Charcoal

no. density

Fish

no. density

Burnt bone

no. density no.

Unburnt bone

density

Pottery

no.

Litres sorted Litres Block Context Sample

Table 49. The material identified in sorting the 2 to 10 mm residue from the construction deposits (BCB)

0.00

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

176

isolated fragments of eggshell, coprolite, charcoal, slag and burnt organic material (B.O.M.) were recovered from the above 10 mm residues and these have not been plotted. Most finds categories in the floor/abandonment layers (Figure 129) show enhanced quantities of material in the centre of the house, in particular in quad 10 on the south side of the central area. This concentration in quad 10 is visible in the plots of all the categories of material. There were also sporadic high densities of pottery elsewhere in the house and a significant concentration of fish bone in the northeast corner. Limpet and winkle shells were more evenly distributed but there were still higher numbers in the south-central area than elsewhere. The densities present in the hearth samples (Figure 130) were significantly lower and this is particularly true of the fish bone, though the concentration in the northeast corner is still striking. A consistent pattern is the presence of concentrations of material in quads 13, 15 and 16, with high densities also visible at the east end of the house (quads 19 and 20). Pottery was more erratically distributed; as well as the concentration in quads 13, 15 and 16, there were further isolated concentrations scattered along the length of the house. The distribution of the material from the feature fills (Figure 131) shows considerable variety in the fills of the different features. The cluster of features at the west end of the house produced consistently fairly low densities of most categories of material. The cut features in quad 7 had higher densities and post hole 2779 (fill 2082) contained a particularly high density of winkles. In contrast, towards the east end of the house there was a high density of limpets in post hole 2233 (fill 2234) in quad 15 and a high density of bone fragments in post hole 2693 (fill 2694) in quad 16. The average densities of the material recovered from the 2–10 mm residues are depicted in Figure 132 (top). The most prevalent material in all the samples was fish bone, which had an overall density of 21.75 frag/litre; this was most frequent in the occupation layers (23.44 frag/litre; BCC). B.O.M. was the next most common material, with an average density of 18.87 frag/litre; charcoal and slag were much less significant, with an average densities of 6.36 frag/litre and 0.87 frag/litre respectively. All these materials related to combustion were at their most frequent in the foundation pits (BCA), and the B.O.M. reached an average density of 40 frag/litre in this block. Unburnt bone was relatively common (average density 16.56 frag/litre) and the density was highest in the occupation layers (17.02 frag/litre; BCC) though the BCC density was only just above that from the foundation pits (BCA). Pottery was a much less common find, averaging only 2.89 frag/litre, and was most frequent in the foundation pits (BCA). Crab, eggshell and Spirorbis were all present and most commonly found in the occupation layers (BCC); the eggshell density (3.32 frag/litre) was the highest density from mound 2. A more detailed breakdown of the material from the different components of the occupation layers (BCC) is presented in Figure 132 (bottom). This shows that floor layers produced the highest densities of unburnt mammal bone (19.1 frag/litre) and of fish bone (27.2 frag/litre). The ash layers produced the highest densities of burnt bone (8.2 frag/litre) and B.O.M.

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC) 40

20

35

3

30

15

25

2

20

10

15

1

10

5 0

4

45

25

5 pot

unburnt bone

burnt bone

fish

0

charcoal

BOM

BCA

BCB

slag

0

25

6

25

20

5

20

crab

spirorbis

egg

coprolite

crab

spirorbis

egg

coprolite

BCC

30

4

15

15

3 10

10

2

5

5 0

177

pot

unburnt bone

burnt bone

fish

0

1 charcoal Abandon

BOM Ash

slag Fill

0

Floor

Figure 132. Histograms of the 2 to 10 mm sampling densities from the three blocks associated with House 2, top, and from the four different contexts that make up the floor of House 2, bottom

(23 frag/litre), though charcoal (7.0 frag/litre) and slag (1.2 frag/litre) were most common in the floor layers. Eggshell (5.1 frag/litre) and crab shell (0.6 frag/litre) were most frequent in the ash layers. Pot densities were low everywhere, with the highest density (4.8 frag/litre) from the abandonment layer, which also produced the highest density of Spirorbis (0.6 frag/litre). The distribution of the 2–10 mm residues on the floor of House 2 (BCC) is shown on Figures 133, 134 and 135. Figure 133 indicates the size of the samples examined and Figures 134 and 135 indicate the distributions from the floor/abandonment layers and from the hearth/ash deposits respectively. Data from multiple samples from each square has been combined and averaged. The samples from the floor/abandonment layers gave a fairly complete coverage of the house (Figure 134). The main categories of material were relatively evenly distributed, though with gaps in quads 4 and 12 caused by later disturbance. Pot was most common at the west end of the house, and there was a clear decline in densities in the east. Unburnt bone densities were similar in both halves of the house, but there were slightly enhanced densities in quad 3 (the most prolific sample here [9807] producing 46.4 frag/litre) and quad 5 (with sample 8154 producing 68 frag/litre). Fish bones had a higher average density in the east, but were unevenly distributed, with high densities

in western quads 5 (again sample 8154, 100 frag/litre) and 8 (sample 9509, 131.4 frag/litre) as well as in northeastern quad 19 (sample 11382, 87.8 frag/litre). The most common of the materials associated with burning was B.O.M., and this had a higher average density in the eastern half of the house, with a cluster of high density samples in quad 14; the highest density individual sample came from quad 11 (the most prolific sample being 11501, 189.5 frag/litre). Charcoal showed a similar pattern, but with no significantly high densities. Slag was only present in very low densities. Eggshell was the most important of the lesser materials, and samples had markedly higher densities in the western half of the house (sample 9509 in quad 8, 14.6 frag/litre). Crab was much less common than eggshell and, unlike the eggshell, the higher densities came from the east end of the house. Spirorbis was more erratically distributed, with areas of slightly higher density being scattered across the floor, and occurring particularly in the southwest corner. Samples from the hearth/ash layers were available from the full length of the hearth (Figure 135), but the samples in the centre of the house were much more prolific. The densities of the mammal and fish bone were slightly higher in the eastern half of the house, with the highest densities coming from quad 13 just to the east of the centre (mammal bone 50.96 frag/litre; fish bone 86.18

2181, 2192, 2225

2180, 2191, 2222, 2224, 2226, 2251, 2255

2030, 031, 2035, 2036

7 samples

10 samples

4 samples

1091

9475

13 samples

6 samples

2652, 2678, 2685, 2697, 2702, 2703 2197, 2200, 2211, 2212, 2231, 2246, 2248, 2249, 2250, 2286, 2601

2657, 2691, 2708

1008

3 samples

3 samples

945

2045, 2047

2 samples

9479

2038, 2042, 2043

3 samples

2039

10

2177

11550

10

2611, 2613

14

13

13

12

12

12

11

11

11

11

10

9

9

9

9

2 samples

2617

3 samples

8

2 samples

586

9516

8

2627, 2637, 2658

581

4 samples

7

2635, 2660, 2669, 2680

1278

9444

7

4 samples

2113

2 samples

7

6

6

6

5

5

4

3

3

3

3

2

2

2

2

1

1

Quad

4 samples

1234

530

8134

9490

1092

9960

1231

1209

2 samples

9496

1220

9992

1260

1049

2 samples

9468

1211

9975

1057

1023

9806

564, 565

1010

2 samples

2 samples

1208

2 samples

2 samples

585, 592

2 samples

557, 558, 596

548, 549

2 samples

3 samples

Context

Sample

F

H

F

H

F

A

P

H

F

A

H

F

A

P

H

F

A

H

A

H

F

A

H

F

A

H

F

H

P

H

F

A

P

H?

F

F

P

F

235

78.7

53

11

87.5

20.5

19.3

172

2

6.2

267.1

151

36

59

138

132

22

154

228

189.5

35

85

104

4

190

21

48

4

14

28

12

152

13

1

127

123

53

29

Layer Litres

126.50

27.20

20.00

11.00

43.38

20.50

19.30

55.75

2.00

6.20

121.60

78.50

18.00

29.50

51.00

43.50

22.00

19.25

76.50

47.38

24.00

10.63

52.00

4.00

68.75

13.50

24.00

2.00

14.00

16.50

6.00

53.50

13.00

1.00

63.50

61.50

39.00

14.50

Litres sorted

166 1.31

189 6.95

103 5.15

0 0.00

103 2.37

8 0.39

19 0.98

285 5.11

25 12.50

25 4.03

225 1.85

179 2.28

45 2.50

141 4.78

207 4.06

217 4.99

142 6.45

50 2.60

172 2.25

34 0.72

30 1.25

17 1.60

196 3.77

26 6.50

532 7.74

24 1.78

67 2.79

1 0.50

37 2.64

103 6.24

15 2.50

375 7.01

9 0.69

26 26.00

365 5.75

91 1.48

64 1.64

48 3.31

no. density

Pottery

1774 14.02

502 18.46

306 15.30

47 4.27

1174 27.07

124 6.05

151 7.82

584 10.48

62 31.00

95 15.32

2153 17.71

3091 39.38

801 44.50

315 10.68

1007 19.75

1255 28.85

487 22.14

169 8.78

1222 15.97

320 6.75

332 13.83

320 30.12

685 13.17

50 12.50

717 10.43

179 13.26

755 31.46

10 5.00

117 8.36

361 21.88

241 40.17

1405 26.26

76 5.85

11 11.00

1350 21.26

735 11.95

314 8.05

181 12.48

no. density

Unburnt bone

857 6.77

259 9.52

113 5.65

37 3.36

297 6.85

71 3.46

57 2.95

594 10.65

7 3.50

78 12.58

1175 9.66

422 5.38

193 10.72

93 3.15

414 8.12

243 5.59

96 4.36

200 10.39

485 6.34

167 3.53

123 5.13

79 7.44

231 4.44

21 5.25

198 2.88

72 5.33

142 5.92

262 131.00

98 7.00

95 5.76

38 6.33

169 3.16

55 4.23

7 7.00

173 2.72

349 5.67

118 3.03

126 8.69

no. density

Burnt bone

2035 16.09

871 32.02

282 14.10

150 13.64

926 21.35

140 6.83

206 10.67

576 10.33

101 50.50

87 14.03

2371 19.50

3778 48.13

747 41.50

220 7.46

1268 24.86

847 19.47

499 22.68

364 18.91

2023 26.44

556 11.74

316 13.17

874 82.26

1671 32.13

131 32.75

1236 17.98

199 14.74

917 38.21

3 1.50

89 6.36

378 22.91

221 36.83

1534 28.67

105 8.08

32 32.00

1281 20.17

1049 17.06

344 8.82

298 20.55

no. density

Fish

762 6.02

120 4.41

75 3.75

4 0.36

47 1.08

17 0.83

168 8.70

383 6.87

20 10.00

72 11.61

1229 10.11

372 4.74

66 3.67

112 3.80

303 5.94

191 4.39

37 1.68

94 4.88

318 4.16

59 1.25

117 4.88

62 5.84

110 2.12

0 0.00

196 2.85

52 3.85

75 3.13

10 5.00

79 5.64

67 4.06

4 0.67

139 2.60

13 1.00

10 10.00

131 2.06

335 5.45

168 4.31

114 7.86

no. density

Charcoal

2176 17.20

2426 89.19

488 24.40

58 5.27

616 14.20

48 2.34

372 19.27

1668 29.92

42 21.00

482 77.74

2787 22.92

1159 14.76

331 18.39

244 8.27

1118 21.92

790 18.16

189 8.59

167 8.68

664 8.68

429 9.06

270 11.25

163 15.34

596 11.46

47 11.75

525 7.64

387 28.67

163 6.79

300 150.00

73 5.21

241 14.61

29 4.83

529 9.89

34 2.62

39 39.00

286 4.50

267 4.34

280 7.18

175 12.07

no. density

B.O.M.

110 0.87

20 0.74

18 0.90

6 0.55

623 14.36

0 0.00

3 0.16

73 1.31

0 0.00

4 0.65

63 0.52

54 0.69

3 0.17

24 0.81

33 0.65

22 0.51

19 0.86

27 1.40

42 0.55

32 0.68

12 0.50

9 0.85

7 0.13

2 0.50

10 0.15

0 0.00

6 0.25

0 0.00

8 0.57

6 0.36

2 0.33

9 0.17

3 0.23

0 0.00

4 0.06

17 0.28

8 0.21

22 1.52

no. density

Slag

242 1.91

43 1.58

40 2.00

50 4.55

116 2.67

45 2.20

6 0.31

103 1.85

11 5.50

22 3.55

647 5.32

334 4.25

71 3.94

28 0.95

358 7.02

175 4.02

57 2.59

103 5.35

253 3.31

325 6.86

87 3.63

167 15.72

198 3.81

14 3.50

132 1.92

75 5.56

128 5.33

6 3.00

107 7.64

54 3.27

32 5.33

482 9.01

23 1.77

0 0.00

225 3.54

166 2.70

150 3.85

201 13.86

no. density

Egg

Table 50. The material identified in sorting the 2 to 10 mm residue from the House 2 floor deposits (BCC) Crab

Spirorbis

3 0.22

38 0.30

39 1.43

9 0.45

1 0.09

7 0.16

0 0.00

1 0.05

36 0.65

0 0.00

4 0.65

128 1.05

26 0.33

20 1.11

2 0.07

8 0.16

6 0.14

3 0.14

2 0.10

3 0.04

2 0.04

0 0.00

0 0.00

8 0.15

0 0.00

12 0.09

3 0.11

2 0.10

1 0.09

4 0.09

3 0.15

4 0.21

1 0.02

0 0.00

2 0.32

5 0.04

11 0.14

5 0.28

45 1.53

3 0.06

10 0.23

7 0.32

1 0.05

5 0.07

0 0.00

1 0.04

44 4.14

6 0.12

1 0.25

48 0.70

0 0.00 6 0.09

0 0.00

7 3.50

2 0.14

3 0.18

0 0.00

11 0.21

0 0.00

10 10.00

111 1.75

4 0.07

2 0.05

3 0.21

no. density

3 0.13

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.02

1 0.02

0 0.00

0 0.00

no. density

Coprolite

29 0.23

0 0.00

1 0.05

0 0.00

2 0.05

5 0.24

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.01

1 0.01

0 0.00

2 0.07

14 0.27

1 0.02

24 1.09

0 0.00

6 0.08

0 0.00

1 0.04

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.07

27 1.13

0 0.00

0 0.00

2 0.12

0 0.00

9 0.17

0 0.00

0 0.00

5 0.08

3 0.05

3 0.08

0 0.00

no. density

178

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

2671, 2676, 2682, 2683, 2695, 2696, 2700

7 samples

2645

2670, 2686, 2701, 2712, 2715, 2716, 2717

2649, 2679, 2698

11413

12 samples

3 samples

178 samples

Total

20

2275

11251

182

20

2230

2 samples

8150

19

2220, 2229, 2241, 2242, 2254, 2260, 2267, 2285, 2297

15 samples

Various

20

19

19

18

2252

11216

18

18

17

17

17

2214

2194, 2283

2656

2646, 2707

16

11924

4 samples

11456

3 samples

2643

16

2692

3 samples

11407

16

2647

11441

16

2647

15

2234

11439

15

2216, 2217, 2219, 2258, 2291, 2620

7 samples

11996

15

14

14

2190, 2221

2264

2253, 2257, 2280, 2281, 2287, 2299

2 samples

11240

7 samples

H

F

A

P

H

F

H

P

F

H

F

A

H

F

A

A

P

H

F

P

H

4642.1

30

63

201.5

14

12

27

278

5

13

166.5

27

64.5

16

99.7

72

18

22

5

197.1

43

14

149

2084.43

15.00

31.50

86.63

7.00

6.00

13.50

6056 2.91

12 0.80

39 1.24

142 1.64

50 7.14

22 3.67

19 1.41

260 1.82

0 0.00

2.50 142.50

4 0.62

235 2.82

1 0.07

86 3.20

0 0.00

417 8.07

59 1.51

5 0.56

24 2.18

2 0.40

145 1.43

15 0.70

67 9.57

91 1.20

6.50

83.25

13.50

26.88

8.00

51.70

39.00

9.00

11.00

5.00

101.05

21.50

7.00

76.00

35476 17.02

179 11.93

708 22.48

1670 19.28

154 22.00

23 3.83

176 13.04

1675 11.75

16 6.40

84 12.92

1435 17.24

170 12.59

401 14.92

66 8.25

1633 31.59

543 13.92

133 14.78

165 15.00

40 8.00

1329 13.15

464 21.58

125 17.86

809 10.64

13609 6.53

17 1.13

210 6.67

649 7.49

33 4.71

28 4.67

50 3.70

1233 8.65

4 1.60

10 1.54

506 6.08

36 2.67

165 6.14

7 0.88

463 8.96

95 2.44

16 1.78

25 2.27

5 1.00

895 8.86

100 4.65

33 4.71

815 10.72

48852 23.44

257 17.13

587 18.63

2084 24.06

112 16.00

165 27.50

475 35.19

7655 53.72

31 12.40

121 18.62

1774 21.31

121 8.96

798 29.69

132 16.50

1289 24.93

485 12.44

153 17.00

218 19.82

44 8.80

2297 22.73

299 13.91

105 15.00

925 12.17

12488 5.99

43 2.87

170 5.40

1019 11.76

13 1.86

60 10.00

93 6.89

1661 11.66

10 4.00

8 1.23

527 6.33

19 1.41

173 6.44

5 0.63

701 13.56

218 5.59

18 2.00

31 2.82

56 11.20

759 7.51

122 5.67

78 11.14

573 7.54

36207 17.37

97 6.47

723 22.95

2022 23.34

76 10.86

110 18.33

189 14.00

1536 10.78

18 7.20

71 10.92

1892 22.73

122 9.04

784 29.17

46 5.75

1525 29.50

436 11.18

67 7.44

91 8.27

135 27.00

2100 20.78

304 14.14

163 23.29

3042 40.03

1745 0.84

0 0.00

13 0.41

63 0.73

1 0.14

8 1.33

17 1.26

49 0.34

7 2.80

2 0.31

42 0.50

0 0.00

21 0.78

13 1.63

34 0.66

21 0.54

3 0.33

1 0.09

0 0.00

52 0.51

2 0.09

1 0.14

94 1.24

7468 3.58

26 1.73

69 2.19

171 1.97

23 3.29

6 1.00

25 1.85

111 0.78

2 0.80

5 0.77

61 0.73

6 0.44

23 0.86

12 1.50

441 8.53

29 0.74

7 0.78

28 2.55

7 1.40

938 9.28

21 0.98

14 2.00

167 2.20

635 0.30

1 0.07

10 0.32

11 0.13

1 0.14

0 0.00

7 0.52

11 0.08

0 0.00

0 0.00

9 0.11

6 0.44

6 0.22

0 0.00

31 0.60

3 0.08

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

149 1.47

0 0.00

1 0.14

35 0.46

405 0.19

3 0.20

0 0.00

5 0.06

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.01

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.01

0 0.00

2 0.07

0 0.00

3 0.06

3 0.08

0 0.00

1 0.09

0 0.00

2 0.02

0 0.00

0 0.00

4 0.05

404 0.19

14 0.93

0 0.00

34 0.39

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

20 0.14

0 0.00

1 0.15

6 0.07

3 0.22

11 0.41

0 0.00

3 0.06

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.09

0 0.00

163 1.61

0 0.00

2 0.29

9 0.12

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC) 179

180

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Figure 133. A plot showing the distribution of the 2 to 10 mm residues examined and the sample size within House 2

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC)

181

Table 51. The pottery from the Middle Norse deposits (BC) Block

Feature type

BCA BCB BCC

Abandonment

Weight (g)

No.

Ave wght

Rim

Base

Body

Misc.

Platter

Sooted

Fine

852.4

153

5.57

22

13

29

89

0

41

0

774.9

227

3.41

7

18

24

178

0

22

0

10012.4

964

10.38

90

117

146

589

22

235

12

BCC

Floor

9574.3

1577

6.07

123

133

144

1107

70

334

12

BCC

Hearth

2661.7

263

10.12

44

35

35

139

10

91

4

BCC

Feature fill

2108.1

149

14.14

29

9

26

84

1

50

3

BCC

Sub-total

24356.5

2953

8.25

286

294

351

1919

103

710

31

Total

25983.8

3333

7.79

315

325

404

2186

103

773

31

BC

frag/litre). The densities of burnt bone were much lower, and included a significant concentration (131 frag/litre) from quad 4 at the west end of the hearth. The pottery has a distribution similar to the mammal and fish bone, with the highest density (14.04 frag/litre) in quad 13. The B.O.M. and charcoal distributions were similar to, but not identical to, that of the burnt bone; the highest density of BOM (208.28 frag/litre) was again from quad 13, but the highest density of charcoal (16.00 frag/litre) came from quad 10. Slag densities were very low, with small concentrations at either end of the house (2.57 frag/litre and 2.80 frag/litre) and on the south side in the centre. The crab distribution was similar to that seen in the floor layers, with generally higher densities in the eastern half of the house, and with a noticeable concentration (4.33 frag/litre) in quad 10 close to the centre. The Spirorbis and coprolite densities were very low, with the only notable concentration of Spirorbis (3.50 frag/litre) occurring in quad 4 close to the west end of the hearth zone, and a concentration of coprolite fragments (4.71 frag/litre) coming from quad 15 in the eastern half of the house. Eggshell had generally much higher densities than the other minor materials, and concentrations were generally more frequent in the western half of the house; a sample from the west end of the hearth zone had the highest density (23.86 frag/litre).

Pottery – K Harding and N Sharples A total of 3,333 sherds, weighing approximately 25,984 g, was recovered from the contexts associated with the construction and use of House 2 (Table 51). The overwhelming bulk of the assemblage (89% of the sherds and 94% by weight) was recovered from the occupation deposits (BCC). Only 153 sherds, weighing 852 g, came from the foundation pits (BCA), and 227 sherds, weighing 775 g, came from the construction layers (BCB). The House 2 floor assemblage (BCC) is the largest ceramic assemblage from a single stratigraphic block on the site, and it represents a depositional event of some significance. The average sherd weight varies between 3.4 g in the construction layers (BCB) and 8.2 g in the floor layers

(BCC). Detailed analysis of the BCC assemblage reveals that the largest sherds come from the feature fills (14.1 g) whereas the smallest sherds came from the floor layers (6.1 g).The latter figure is comparable to the material from the House 1 and House 3 deposits (see Tables 16 and 111) and the overall assemblage from House 2 does not stand out as being particularly well preserved using these rough figures. This assessment is, however, misleading, since many of the floor sherds can be refitted with other sherds to create partially complete vessels (Figures 136, 137 and 138). At the west end of the house large spreads of pottery (Figures 139 and 140) were identified and careful excavation allowed the subsequent refitting of many vessels. The assemblage is dominated by simple bowls. Only a small quantity of sherds, less than 1% of the total, could be described as fine ware and much of this belongs to an imported vessel from western England (Figure 137; 2966/2980 from BCC). Platter is very rare, making up approximately 3% of the assemblage, a much smaller proportion than was recovered from the contemporary deposits on mound 2A (25% platter, GB) and the imme­ diately succeeding assemblage on mound 2 (6% platter, BD). The limited presence of platter in the House 2 deposits suggests that these baking plates were not closely associated with high-status dining. Nevertheless, 103 platter sherds were recovered, which clearly indicates that it was being used in this phase. The well-preserved nature of the vessels present in House 2 provides a clear illustration of the variation in the form of the simple bowls that are such a characteristic feature of the Middle Norse occupation, Many of the vessels have complete profiles from base to rim (Figure 137). The size range is considerable, ranging from small cups, such as 2272 (rim diameter 110 mm, height 75 mm) and 6471 (rim diameter 100 mm, height 62 mm) to large open bowls, such as 3359 (rim diameter 380 mm, height 190 mm) and 2458 (rim diameter 350 mm, height 180 mm). Most of the vessels are relatively straight-sided with a slight outward angle to the vessel walls (e.g. 2188, 2353; all examples given are illustrated in Figure 137), but there

182

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC)

183

Figure 134. The distribution of materials from the 2 to 10 mm material from the floor and abandonment layers within House 2

184

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC)

Figure 135. The distribution of materials from the 2 to 10 mm material from the hearth layers

185

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

186

BCA

6325

3050

6305

BCB

1664

2188

4115

8673 0

8674 20cm

Figure 136. Pottery from House 2 blocks BCA and BCB

are some more open bowls (e.g. 71) and one incurving convex bowl (4205). Bases vary from clearly sagging (e.g. 6312, 2188 [Figure 136]) to flat (e.g. 3063, 3526) and the angle between the base and wall of the vessel varies from a rounded almost imperceptible change in orientation (e.g. 71), through sharp angle (e.g. 2458) to footed forms (e.g. 3359). The great majority of the rims are rounded with no obvious complexity. However, some vessels have a slightly thickened rim and collar (e.g. 2906). An important discovery is a rather unprepossessing early eleventhcentury handmade cooking pot (Redknap pers. comm.); the rim is nearly vertical, and slightly thickened toward the edge (2980/2966/2422/2458). The fabric of this pot is similar in character to fabrics attributed by Alan Vince to Bristol and the west of England (Bristol fabrics A–C; Vince 1988, 256). The distribution of the assemblage is shown in Figure 139. The bulk of the assemblage was recovered from the six quads (1–6) at the west end of House 2. There

was a cluster of sherds at the east end of the house in quad 18, but this was not a substantial assemblage. The distribution of platter was different. Most of the platter was recovered from the east end of the house, but there were some sherds in the west end, notably in quads 1 and 4. Figure 141 shows the location of the illustrated feature sherds in the occupation layers of the house. The bulk of the well preserved vessels were recovered from the west end of the house, which conforms to the distribution pattern noted above. Complete profiles were recorded in quads 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 9, but not quad 1. There was also a vessel, 1664 (Figure 136), located on the top of the south wall. There seems no obvious pattern separating large and small vessels, and arguably the presence of both a large and small vessel in close juxtaposition is itself the pattern (e.g. 3359 and 3358; 2353 and 8682). The imported vessel (2980/2966/2422/2458) was recovered as a relatively dispersed scatter of sherds close to the north wall of the house in its west end.

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC)

187

BCC

4215

8682 8705

8676 2264

2906

3063

3760+3761+3764 4205

4195

6637

3359 3526

2272 6398

4263

4473

0

6471

20cm

Figure 137. Pottery from the floor, BCC, of House 2

188

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

BCC

3282

3358

3266

6312

6182

3522

2458

2188

2353

6390

2422+2458+2980+2966 0

20cm

Figure 138. Pottery from the floor, BCC, of House 2

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC) Weight

189 Weight (g) 50 - 250 250.1 - 500 500.1 - 1000 1000.1 - 2000 2000.1 - 3000 3000.1 - 4000 4000.1 - 5500

Sherds

No. of sherds 10 - 20 21 - 30 31 - 40 41 - 50 51 - 100 101 - 200 201 - 400 401 - 600

Average Weight Weight (g) 5.0 - 10 10.1 - 15 15.1 - 20 20.1 - 25 25.1 - 30

Platter No. of sherds 0 1-5 6 - 10 11 - 15 16 - 20 21 - 25

Figure 139. Simplified distribution plots of the pottery from the floor of House 2

Measurements – N Sharples The animal bone and pottery from a number of contexts in both the foundations pits (BCA) and the house floors (BCC) were measured to give some idea of the preservation of the assemblage of bone and pottery. The overall sizes of the assemblages are obviously considerably different in number, with only 442 bones and 105 potsherds measured from BCA, compared to 7,169 bones and 2,097 potsherds measured from BCC. Nevertheless, when the percentage distribution of the assemblage from the different size classes is examined (Figure 142) the two assemblages are remarkably similar, particularly the pottery, as both assemblages have 31% of sherds lying between 10 and 20 mm and 32% between 20

and 30 mm. The bone assemblage is slightly different; the house floors (BCC) have a slightly higher proportion of very small fragments measuring between 10 and 20 mm. The pottery assemblages gradually diverge: the house floors (BCC) have a higher proportion of large sherds (3%) and less than 1% of sherds above 7 mm. However, the bone assemblages become increasingly similar, with both BCA and BCC having 7.2% of the fragments above 7 mm. These observations document the presence of a large amount of well-preserved pottery in the house floors (BCC), though the analysis underestimates the significance of this material as the pottery fragments were measured. The assemblage from the house floors (BCC) has

190

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Figure 140. A view of pottery spreads in quad 2, House 2

Figure 141. The distribution of the better preserved pots on the floor of House 2

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC)

191

Figure 142. Histograms showing the size distribution of the measured bone and pot from the House 2 deposits

been divided into four units; the abandonment layers, the floor layers, the hearth/ash layers and the feature fills (Figure 142). The first two groups produced substantial assemblages of bone (2,668 and 2,960 fragments respectively) and pot (973 and 860 sherds respectively), a reasonable assemblage was measured from the hearth layers (1236 bones, 206 potsherds) but only 305 bones and 143 potsherds were measured from the pit fills. Note that these total numbers of bone fragments are significantly larger than the totals given in the animal bone report (see below): the animal bone report lists only those fragments identified to species, whereas for this fragmentation analysis, all hand-excavated bone above 10 mm was.

The fragmentation patterns are relatively consistent across the different context groups. The bone assemblages from the hearth/ash layers and the pit fills contain large quantities of small fragments and the largest fragments are more common in the abandonment and floor layers. The pottery assemblage is much less consistent: the floors and pit fills produced the largest number of small sherds (10–20 mm), and a large part of the assemblage in the abandonment layer lay between 20 and 30 mm. In contrast, the assemblage in the hearth/ash layers is most numerous between 30 and 40 mm. Large sherds (above 70 mm) are more frequent in the assemblages from floor layers and the pit fills. Pottery from both these context

Total

Misc.

Structural fittings

Personal objects

Weapons

Tools

Waste

BCA

iron

Cu alloy/lead

sheet

fragment

iron

iron

ring

strip/fragments

iron

iron

holdfast

staple

iron

iron

nail

rove

bone

stone

pin

antler

comb

bead

iron

crossbow bolt

whale bone

stone

perforated disc

cobble tool

lead/bone

bone

spindle whorl

point

23

4

1

1

1

2

1

1

1

2

1

flint 11

1

bone

lead

1

938, 1295, 2081 937

8

7

3

1

2

1

3

8

1

1

6

2114 2098

3

2078 2077

1

2157 2073 2

2724 2723

1

2746 2745

1

2748, 2760 2747

working debris

antler

antler

tine/segment

offcut

1259 1258

waste

Material

Object type

1246 1245 3

1

1

1

1

1280 1279 8

1 2

3

1

1

32

1

28

1

1

1

6

1

1

10

1

2

1

2

1

2

19

1

1

1

1

1

13

1

1

1

1230 1229

1

1237 1238 2

1239 1240

2

2

3

1

2

916 915

2

923 922

2

2271 2270

3

2273 2272

1

2753 2752

7

2202 2203

1

2207 2206

1

2738 2737

1

2711 2710

1

2750 2749 10

1

2

1

1

1

2709 2705

2

1

2

1

1

2628 2629 1

2069 2070

9

2603 2602

1

2728 2

2

2735 1

1

1

1

2762 2761

1

1

2133 2132

Table 52. The artefacts from the foundation deposits (BCA); the upper line is the fill number, the lower the cut number

165

3

1

37

1

1

2

3

9

1

4

8

1

1

1

3

2

79

2

3

2

1

Total

192

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC) groups is likely to have been buried relatively quickly and therefore might have been better protected from trampling during the use of the house. Such trampling would have damaged the material in the hearth/ash layers, and postabandonment decay would have affected the sherds in the abandonment layers. The preservation of sherds and bone fragments can also be examined spatially and for this exercise House 2 was split into four units: the west end (quads 1–4), the west middle (quads 5–10), the east middle (quads 11–12) and the east end (quads 17–20), though the assemblage from the east middle is very small and so not considered here (Figure 142). The bone graphs are remarkably consistent, the main difference being the smaller proportion of very small fragments (10–20 mm) in the west middle region; all three areas have similar percentages of large bones. The pot assemblages are more variable. The assemblage from the east end of the house is poorly preserved, with a very large part of the assemblage from this area comprising small sherds between 10 and 20 mm. The west central area, in contrast, produced only a small quantity of these small sherds and a much larger proportion of sherds between 20 and 30 mm. The assemblages even out around 60 mm, but the west end has by far the largest proportion of large sherds. This analysis confirms the on-site observation that the smashed pots were concentrated at the west end of the house.

Artefacts – N Sharples, A Pannett, R Smith and F Taylor Artefacts from the foundation pits (BCA) One hundred and sixty-five artefacts were recovered from the foundation pits (BCA; Table 52), and a selection of the most interesting objects is illustrated in Figure 143. The largest groups of material are flint and fragments of iron. There are reasonable collections of personal ornaments (combs and pins) and structural fittings, and small collections of waste material and tools. Individual finds of note amongst the personal ornaments are a largely complete comb (6321) and two comb side plates that show evidence of modification (6050), two complete bone pins (6010, 6304) and two broken pinheads (3946 not illustrated, 3747), and a stone bead (5977, not illustrated). Another possible ‘personal’ item is a crossbow bolt (6310). The flint assemblage comprises 20 complete flakes, eight flake fragments, 43 pieces of microdebitage and eight chunks. Nine pieces had been burnt. The retouched pieces consist of one edge retouch flake with abrupt retouch applied along part of one edge, a flake with a roughly denticulated distal end, a distal flake fragment where retouch has been used to create a piercing point, a heavy flake retouched to form an end and side scraper, and a double piercer and scraper tool. This tool has been manufactured on the distal end of a conical core, which

193

has been struck off and retouched to create two piercer points separated by scraper edges. Apart from the flint, the evidence for manufacturing activity is limited, comprising six pieces of bone and antler offcuts, and a couple of pieces of lead that may be discarded waste. It is possible that the large numbers of iron fragments may be waste for recycling, but none of these were large pieces. Similarly the tools do not seem very important, with only a couple of spindle whorls (4369 [bone], 3947 [lead]) and a bone point (4198) worthy of note. The finds were fairly widely distributed. Although many of the cut features contained one or two items (Figure 144), this is not sufficiently convincing evidence for deliberate deposition. However, the cluster of four pits in the centre of the south side of the house produced a large assemblage, and the large central pit (937) in the western part of the house also had a significant assemblage. Most of the iron came from pit 915, along with a comb. The largest assemblage of flints came from pit 2272, which also produced the crossbow bolt.

Artefacts from the construction layers (BCB) A small assemblage of sixty five artefacts was recovered from the construction deposits (Table 53), and a selection is illustrated in Figure 143. The most numerous artefacts are miscellaneous iron sheet/strips/fragments and flint, which is similar to most of the Norse assemblages from Bornais. Structural fittings (e.g. 3009) and miscellaneous items dominate the assemblage, largely due to the many iron finds. Waste material includes seven pieces of cut antler (e.g. 3763), some cut bone from the production of pins and some lumps of lead (e.g. 2118). Tools and personal equipment are very scarce, with one bone point (4015), an iron needle (4013), a needle case made from a bird bone (8645, not illustrated), three comb fragments (4343 not illustrated, 3575, 3213) and two pieces of broken pin (2268, 7670, not illustrated), the only objects of note. The flint assemblage comprises four complete flakes, one flake fragment, four pieces of microdebitage and three chunks, two of which were burnt. There are also two retouched pieces, a proximal end scraper and a simple edge-retouched tool. A third flake has damage along one edge that may indicate use. The assemblage was widely dispersed but the most productive layers lay behind the west wall of the house, where a large amount of sand was used to infill the west end of House 1. The grey sand that lay below the House 2 floor was also relatively productive, particularly compared to the underlying less productive white sand.

Artefacts from the floor layers and hearth/ash layers (BCC) The assemblage of finds from the occupation of House 2 is substantial, comprising 689 objects and 664 pieces of

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

194

BCA

3747

6321

6010

6304

4198

6050

6306

3771

3949

6310

3947 4369

BCB

3575

4016

3763

3213

4015

0

2118

4013

3009

10cm

Figure 143. Artefacts from the pre-floor features (BCA) and the construction layers (BCB). They are all antler/bone except 3009, 3949, 4013 and 6310 which are iron; 2118 and 3947 which are lead and 6306 which is a composite iron and copper alloy object

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC)

195

Waste

Personal objects

Structural fittings

Miscellaneous

Vessels

2607

2294

1301

1252

595

2651

1320

1236

527

541

524

2

1

Total 5

1

2

working debris

bone

waste

lead

1

point

bone

1

1

needle

iron

1

1

needle case

bone

comb

antler

pin

bone

1

rove

iron

1

holdfast

iron

sheet/strip/fragments

iron

fragment

whalebone

sherd

steatite

Total

2

1

2

2

2

4

5 1

2

1 1

1

13

1

1 1

antler

iron

1

2

1

iron

antler

1

1

decorated tine

fitting

2

1

1

nail

peg

1

1

flint

Tools

523

1

503

1 1

1089

1044

antler antler

Material

21

tine/segment offcut

Object type

6

BCB

1040

Table 53. The artefacts from the construction deposits (BCB)

1

1

1

2

7 1

1

1 1

1 1

6

2

1

1

1

2

1

1

6

13 1

1 2 8

1

7

3

4

2

2

1 1

4

1

2

1

1

8

4 7

3

2

4

65

2710 2203 2754

2752 2745

2132

2761

2602 2070

1229

1240

2073/937

2098

2077

2723

2749

2705

2270 915

1279

2272 922

1258 1245

0

5m

Waste Tool Personal adornment Structural fitting Miscellaneous

Figure 144. The distribution of artefacts in the pre-floor features (BCA). Red indicates antler/bone, green iron, purple Copper alloy and black lead.

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

196

Table 54. The artefacts from the House 2 floor deposits (BCC); the quads on the north side BCC

Working debris

Object type tine/segment

antler

offcut

antler

Currency Gaming pieces

Personal objects

Structural fittings

Miscellaneous

Vessels Total

Quad 1

3

5

7

9

1

1

11

13

15

bone/whale

1

1

lead

1

1

13

21 1

1

1

2

3

3

46

84

23

3

4

1

spindle whorl

various

needle

bone/Cu alloy

1

point

bone/antler

2

weight

whaleb one

1

perforated disc

whale bone

1

knife

iron

1

whetstone

stone stone

1

cobble tool

stone

1

coin

silver

4

3

1

1

1

1 18

3

274

1

11

1

2

2

7

1

3 1

5 3

1

2

2

2

13

5 2

bone

1

7

3

2

2

1

cross

lead

decorated tine

antler antler

10

1 3

Cu alloy

pearl

2

40

2

pin

cylinder

7 9

1

pin

pearl

10

1 8

2

1

1

1

1

41 14

2

7

1 2

1

1

2 1

Total

1

1

weight

antler

1

1 1

6

antler

??

2

horn flint

Gaming piece

19

1

working debris

comb

17

1

nodule worked

Tools

Material

1

2

4

1

1

1

1

ring

stone

bead

glass

1

nail

iron

3

2

14

rove

iron

3

2

6 5

1

2

1

1

3

10

3

1

5

2

2

1

3

1 4

1

1

1

1

39 21

holdfast

iron

fitting

iron

4

4

ring

iron

1

1

plaque

whale bone

strip/rod

iron

3

2

5

6

7

sheet

iron

1

2

4

3

4

1

3

object

iron

strip/sheet/rod

Cu alloy

strip/sheet/fragment

lead

fragment

iron

object

lead

polished slab

porphyry

object

bone/whale

uncut

whale bone

1

1

1

1 1 1

1

1

25

1

4 1

11

16 1

4

2

2

3

4

11

7

14

21

5

1

10 11

14

3

1

3

75

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

4

1

1

handle

iron

1

1

fragment

steatite

1

1

28

45

95

119

167

49

14

60

23

29

8

634

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC)

197

Table 55. The artefacts from the House 2 floor deposits (BCC); the quads on the south side BCC

Working debris

Object type

Material

tine/segment/burr

antler

plate blank

antler

offcut

antler

working debris

bone/whale

nodule

lead

Quad 2

4

2

6

8

10

12

14

3

1

5

1

16

18

20

1

1

1

1

1

1

3

3

45

48

1 1 1

1

1

36

133

1

1

15 1 4

1

10

1

3

flint

6

spindle whorl

various

1

needle

bone/Cu alloy

needle case

bone

point

bone

1

pick

antler

1

wedge

iron

1

knife/blade

iron

4

quern

stone

whetstone

stone

weight

stone

cobble tool

stone

Weapons

arrowhead

iron

Horse gear

bridle bit

iron

comb

antler

pin

bone

pin

Cu alloy

ring

iron

1

1

buckle piece

Cu alloy

1

1

decorated tine

antler

1

1

2

toggle/buzz bone

bone

1

1

ring

Cu alloy

1

1

bead

bone

1

bead

glass

nail

iron

rove

iron

holdfast

iron

cross inlay

amber

casket mount

bone

fitting

iron

staple

iron

strip

gold

ring

iron

plaque

bone/whale

strip/rod

iron

2

sheet

iron

1

object

iron

strip/sheet/rod

Cu alloy

strip/sheet/fragment

lead

fragment

iron

object

lead

object

antler

object

bone/whale

uncut

whale bone

handle

iron

fragment

steatite

Tools

Personal objects

Structural fittings

Miscellaneous

Vessels Total

54

Total

1

1 1

36

13

19

4 1

7

4

1

2

7

1

1

1

4 1 1

2

1

7 1

2

2

1

1

2

1

2 1

1

6

1

2

1

1

3

4

3

10

4

1

4

6

4

2

6

1

25 1

1

1

2

3

1

1

26 1

1 1

1

7

2

10

5

3

1

6

4

2

2

1

2 3

4 1

2

35

1

15 1

8

1 1

1 5

1

1

390

1

1

1

1

3

1

2

1

1

1

1 0

2

5

1

1

2

1

2

4

2

4

1

4

1 1

3

4

1

1

1

5

5

8

10

13

11

1

6 12

4

3

1

1

54

1

3

2

2 1

1

3

3

1

1 1

26

23

13 17

2

1

4

4

1

120

1 67

221

99

1 65

46

26

1

4

26

719

198

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Figure 145. The gold strip, 8060, found in an environmental sample

flint. The flint assemblage is probably disproportionately inflated by the quantity of soil sieved and sorted from these occupation layers. This also resulted in the retrieval of a number of very small objects, such as glass beads, and the recovery of a small, folded fragment of gold strip (8060; Figure 145). The artefact assemblage from the House 2 occupation deposits is exceptional in quantity and quality. It contains one of the most significant assemblages of Norse combs and pins from Britain and includes some unique objects that would have been of considerable significance to the inhabitants. Tables 54 and 55 provides a simplified list of the objects recovered and how they were distributed across the floor. Only a limited amount of working debris was ident­ ified, approximately 53 pieces. Most of this material is offcuts of antler tines and beams, and is indicative of general antler-working (3460, 6134; Figures 146 and 147). These items are comparable to the manufacturing debris and waste recovered from Anglo-Scandinavian and medieval York (MacGregor et al. 1999, 1905–12). Two possible comb plate blanks are present but these are not sufficiently numerous to indicate significant combmaking activities. A number of finds were also recorded as ‘antler shavings’ that are not quantified in the table, but this is a rather diverse assemblage of fragments that includes some very small and fine ‘rings’. The function or process for producing these rings is unknown. The bone waste is more specific and includes several long bone splinters (e.g. 4355, 7992, not illustrated) that suggest pin production might have been taking place in House 2. The assemblage also contains 12 lead nodules and a large number of fragments of lead strip and sheet, which are likely to be an indication of recycling and processing on the settlement, if not in the house itself. The flint assemblage from the House 2 occupation

deposits (BCC) comprises four blades, six cores, 83 chunks, 192 complete flakes, 80 flake fragments, 287 pieces of microdebitage, one flaked pebble, nine unworked pebbles and two unclassified pieces. Twenty-seven pieces were burnt. Around 20% of the complete flakes and blades retain a planar or cortical platform, 15% retain a feathered termination and 15% retain either a hinged, stepped or plunging termination. The cores comprise five amorphous cores and one single platform blade core. The amorphous cores are all rough, consisting of pebbles and chunks from which rough flakes have been struck. The single platform blade core is a small and finely worked core, the final removals from which were bladelets and flakelets. This piece is probably Early Neolithic in date and therefore residual. Two core rejuvenation flakes were also identified in the assemblage, both struck from the distal end of conical flake cores. These are also likely to be prehistoric in date. Thirty-seven pieces had been retouched; the majority are flakes but five chunks and a core have been altered. The retouched assemblage includes seven scrapers, three arrowheads, a piercer, one denticulated flake, three notched flakes, 14 edge-retouched flakes and a strike-a-light. The scrapers consist of two end scrapers, one end and double side scraper, one end scraper with piercer point, one side scraper, one thumbnail scraper and one scraper fragment. The side scraper and one of the end scrapers have been crudely manufactured, with rough retouch along the worked edge. The remainder of the scrapers are well made, even finely made in the case of the thumbnail scraper, and could be prehistoric in date. Two oblique and one petit tranchet arrowheads were found. They have been roughly manufactured, but are prehistoric in style. These styles of arrowhead are relatively simple to manufacture and could be later copies

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC)

199

BCC

6134

4236

0

3460

6102

6460

10cm

2132

3147

0

Figure 146. A selection of antler waste, bone points and antler pick from the House 2 floors.

20cm

200

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Figure 147. Antler waste on the House 2 floor in front of the south wall in quad 6

of prehistoric artefacts, but they are more likely to be residual. The edge-retouched flakes were all roughly manufactured and include notched, denticulated and abruptly retouched edges. The possible strike-a-light is a worked-out core that has been reused. This piece has evidence for repeated striking against another hard stone, not connected with its use as a core. The flint assemblage from the occupation deposits of House 2 is large and includes a significant quantity of knapping waste: cores, microdebitage and debitage. The presence of large quantities of microdebitage reflects the systematic sieving of the floor deposits but may also suggest knapping occurred within the house. It seems likely that simple tools were being manufactured, particularly edge retouch flakes and scrapers. The arrowheads might also have been manufactured in the house as, though their form is Neolithic, their manufacture is crude. Nevertheless, several pieces that are clearly prehistoric in date, including blades, a blade core, a finely manufactured thumbnail scraper and all but one of the end scrapers, were deposited in the house. These could have arrived in turves used for roofing, but it is also possible that they were deliberately collected as a raw material. Seventy-six tools were found. Functions are difficult to ascribe but the assemblage includes a substantial quantity of spindle whorls (17–18 objects) and needles (nine objects), which indicate textile-working was important

(all small finds mentioned by number are illustrated in Figure 148). The spindle whorls were made from bone (eight objects, including 2424, 3724, 6518), ceramic (three objects, including 6139, 6978), stone/steatite (e.g. 2222, 3751) and lead (3714, 3792, 6185). A couple of the ‘spindle whorls’ are on the small side (i.e. 6937) and it is possible these are beads rather than spindle whorls. There is also a large whale bone weight (1981), which could be a loom weight. There are six bone (2356, 3302, 3519, 6188) and three copper alloy (6133, 6160) needles. The bone needles include crude heavy examples, such as 3302 and 3519, that might have been used for fishing nets, as well as fine delicate tools (2356, 6188) that were probably for making clothing. There are nine iron knives (including 6030, 6167, 3405, 6148, 3120, 3524, 6359, 3540; Figure 149), one iron sickle blade (3578) and nine definite and one possible whetstones (2339, 2342, 3956, 6132, 6249, 6377, 7002, 8110, Figure 149; 3230 and 3462, not illustrated). The whetstones include three examples made from Eidsborg schist (2339, 6249, 6377) and three made from purple phyllite (3956, 6132, 7002), which must have been imported to the settlement. Eidsborg schist was sourced in Norway, whereas the source of the purple phyllite is currently unknown, though a Scandinavian source is often assumed. The worked stone assemblage includes eight cobble

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC)

201

BCC

6160

6133

6188

2356

3302

1981 3519

2424

3724

6518 2332

3714

2682

4439

6185

6978

6937

6139 0

3792

2222

3751

10cm

Figure 148. A selection of needles and spindle whorls, (beads and weights) from the House 2 floors. 3714, 4439, 6185, 6937, 3792 are lead; 6160, 6133 are copper alloy; 2222, 3751 are stone; 2682, 6139, 6978 are ceramic. All the rest are bone.

tools (four smoothers, two polishers, one hammerstone and one pounder or grinder) and three stone weights that morphologically appear to be fishing weights (e.g. 3300; Figure 149). Ten simple bone points were found, made from sheep and cattle long bones split and sharpened (including 4236, 6102, 6460; Figure 146). One point

(2132; Figure 146) has been classified as a pin, but its size and shape may indicate that it was a tool rather than a decorative item. These objects indicate that simple tools were important even in a high-status household. More specialised objects include two iron arrowheads (4094, 4398; Figure 149) and a side link from a horse bit (4083;

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

202 8110

3300

2342

6377

6249

6030

6167

2339

3405

6148

3956

3120

7002

6359

3524

3578

4094

6132

3540

4083

4398

0

10cm

Figure 149. A selection of stone hones and a weight, and iron knives, arrowheads and a horse fitting from the House 2 floor (BCC)

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC)

203

Figure 150. The silver coins 6514 and 6542

Figure 149). Two silver coins were recovered (6514, 6542; Figure 150), a cut farthing of Ǣthelrǣd II (reigned 978– 1016) and a fragment of a coin of Olaf Kyrre (reigned in Norway 1067–93). The assemblage of personal ornaments is substantial and there are large quantities of combs (66 fragments) and pins (48 complete and fragmentary items). Other ornaments, illustrated in Figure 151, include eight glass beads (4492, 6538, 7365, 7418, 7453, 7466, 7733, 8116), a copper-alloy ring (3674) an iron ring (2283), a stone ring (3820; rings not illustrated), a copper-alloy pin from a buckle (6685), a pearl (7647, not illustrated) and an axe-shaped lead pendant (7732). The lead pendant is similar to the pendant found in House 1 (5160; see Figure 72) but the shape of the House 2 pendant is more like an axe than a cross. There is also one gaming piece, a roughly cut section of antler (6503). The beads vary in size and include several very small examples that were only recovered because of the amount of fine sieving undertaken. The most elaborate was a grooved example (6538) found in quad 9. There are six antler tines, illustrated in Figure 151, that have been carefully finished and would have served as some form of handle or attachment. Two of these tines are relatively plain though carefully finished (2410, 3715), two have collars, one at the tip, one at the mouth (3720, 6113) and two are elaborately decorated (2328, 5991), though in very different ways: 5991 has a botched attempt at interlace, and 2328 is covered in very carefully executed geometrically incised bands. The diversity of these antler objects is noticeable and two distinct forms appear to have been made. Most have

had the core of the antler completely removed but 2328 has a conical hollow with a lateral perforation, which could be for a rivet to hold the handle in place. Similar elaborately decorated antler tines are known from York (MacGregor et al. 1999; 1994), Jarlshof (Hamilton 1956) and Freswick (Batey 1987). They are normally labelled handles but not with any clear indication of how they would have functioned in this capacity. The most elaborately decorated have small cone-shaped hollows that would not have provided an attachment secure enough to enable them to function as a serviceable handle, though they could possibly have been used as handles for spoons. An alternative explanation is that these artefacts were decorative attachments, possibly for drinking horns, or that they were amulets. One of the most important objects from the floor is an antler cylinder (3756; Figure 151 and 152), elaborately decorated with a Ringerike-style animal. This piece has been discussed in detail by Sharples (2004) and is interpreted as being the mouth of a drinking flask. The presence of a number of items possibly associated with drinking should not be surprising as alcoholic consumption is likely to have been one of the main activities in a highstatus hall. The comb and pin assemblages are amongst the largest recovered from Britain. The assemblage of stick pins includes eight copper alloy and 40 bone examples. The copper-alloy pins are depicted in Figure 153 and are classified using O’Rahilly’s typology (1998) as clubheaded (2778, 3594, 6981), round-headed (2336, 2841) and squared spatulate-headed (3042). The bone pins include a wide variety of types, illustrated in Figure 154.

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

204

BCC

6113

2410

3715

3720

2328

6503 5991

6163

6009

6362

3100

3620

3756 0

8116

10cm

7365

7418

8060

4492 6538

7466

7733

0

6685

7732

7453

6cm

Figure 151. A selection of miscellaneous items; decorated tines (2410, 6113, 3715, 3720, 2328, 5991), a decorated antler cylinder (3756), casket mounts (3100, 3620, 6362), gaming piece (6503), an amber fragment (6163), porphyry fragment (6009), glass beads (4492, 6538, 7365, 7418, 7453, 7466, 7733, 8116), gold band (8060), copper alloy buckle pin (6685) and lead amulet (7732) from the House 2 floor (BCC)

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC) A few pins are made of antler rather than bone (e.g. 3768). As well as common types such as expanded-head (e.g. 3666), nail-headed (e.g. 2297) and non-headed pins (e.g. 6147), there are also rare types such as mace-headed (e.g. 2266), beehive-headed (e.g. 6561) and rectangularheaded pins (2325). The number of complete pins with the potential for further use is substantial (56% of the assemblage), and would suggest that the assemblage was not formed from discarded rubbish. The best preserved comb fragments are depicted in Figure 155. Most of the large fragments (2074, 5988,

Figure 152. The antler cylinder, 3756, decorated in the Ringerike style

205

6012, 6235) are classified as type 8b combs in the classification created by Ashby (2006) and these are a common occurrence in eleventh- and twelfth-century Hebridean settlements (Parker Pearson et al. 2004a). There is one Ashby type 8c comb present (6002; Figure 156), but this type becomes more common in the infill deposits (BD; see Figure 205). There are also a variety of combs that appear to belong to earlier periods. The best preserved is a short comb with a plano-convex profile and side plates with steep plano-convex sections (1042), which is an Ashby type 6 (Ambrosiani 1981, class B; Dunlevy 1988, F2 short), normally dated to the tenth to eleventh centuries (Ashby 2006). There are three small side plate fragments that are possibly earlier types (2968, 6502, and 3771 from the BCA deposits). The most interesting is 2968, which is from the end of a large Ashby type 5 comb (Ambrosiani type A), which should date to the eighth and ninth centuries. This is an unusually substantial assemblage of combs and there is nothing like it from any of the other houses at Bornais. The nature of the objects and their location in the house provide some important clues as to how the objects were being used by the inhabitants of House 2. A distinctive feature of the Bornais assemblage is the variable condition of the material; one relatively complete comb (1042) typologically appears to be one of the oldest combs present and might have been kept as an heirloom. The teeth of this comb are relatively well preserved, and, though worn, most of the central plates survive intact; only the peripheral plates are broken. Comb 6155 is about half of a simple comb with all the teeth intact; this comb has been used and the central teeth show considerable evidence of wear. Most of the remaining pieces of comb are fragments, some of which could still have functioned as combs, but some of which had been transformed into other objects. Comb 6002 (Figure 156) is an interesting example of a comb that has been considerably altered, but which could still have been functional. It consists of a central segment

BCC

3794

6981

2336

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2778

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3042

10cm

Figure 153. Copper alloy stick pins from the House 2 floor (BCC)

3594

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

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Figure 154. Bone pins from the House 2 floor (BCC)

5992

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The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC)

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Figure 155. Composite comb fragments from the House 2 floor (BCC)

6435

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A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Figure 156. Comb 6002

of an Ashby class 8c, and one would expect this to have originally been a relatively long comb. One half of the surviving comb has a complete set of teeth, whereas the other half has none; it is possible that the original comb was deliberately modified to create a small handled comb, though this comb is heavily weathered. Some of the larger combs were clearly no longer functional when they were deposited. Comb 6235 is the largest surviving set of side plates, but it only has three tooth plates and few surviving teeth. The worst preserved comb is 6012, which has a heavily pitted and eroded surface, possibly indicating that it was left exposed to the elements for a considerable period of time. Most of the teeth in the centre of this comb have been eroded down to stubs: if this was through use, it must represent a considerable period of combing a particularly robust head of hair. It is difficult to imagine that this worn-out, weather-beaten comb had any further role to play and yet it had clearly been brought into the house for a purpose. The more fragmentary combs are just as interesting and perhaps tell us even more about what was taking place in the house. An important find was a pair of side plates (6050, Figure 143) recorded as coming from the underlying foundation deposits (BCA), but which may be associated with the house’s occupation. These side plates were found not attached to each other and not associated with any tooth plates. One end of each side plate appears to have been roughly cut across a rivet hole and immediately adjacent to this is a larger, off-centre hole cut through the decoration, which indicates a secondary modification. The other end of each side plate has been more unevenly broken. Comb 2116 (Figure 155) has a single, elaborately decorated side plate, with both ends carefully trimmed, that is still attached to a pair of toothplates. It has a large, freshly cut hole at one end, which does not appear to be in the right place for a rivet. Both comb 2116 and side plates 6050 appear to be comb segments with holes cut for suspension, possibly as ornaments.

Another possibly ornamental piece is 2968, the end of a large Ashby class 5 comb. This comb has been carefully trimmed to create a neat convex end (Figure 155). Unfortunately, the other end has been broken but it is possible that this broken end was perforated for suspending the fragment as a pendant. The well-executed interlace pattern would have made this an attractive ornament. The assemblage of fittings is dominated by a collection of 74 nails, 36 roves and 19 holdfasts. These could represent the decay of objects in the house, or of the house fabric itself after abandonment, but an alternative interpretation is that waste iron was being acquired and stored for recycling. Other fittings, illustrated in Figure 157, include an iron hook (3090), a hinge (2418) a pierced iron strip (1925) and two cauldron handles (e.g. 2211). Other finds in this category are three bone casket mounts (3100, 3620, 6362; Figure 151) and a folded-up strip of gold (8060; Figures 145 and 151) that is clearly a decorative element from a larger composite object. The strip is identical to a much longer strip of gold found at Cille Pheadair (Parker Pearson et al. 2004b). A flat, rectangular piece of amber (6163; Figure 151) is difficult to interpret; one end has been broken, suggesting it is part of a larger object, and the two sides are slightly concave. It could be the arm of a cross that was inlayed on the cover of a bible. Five bone plaques were also identified. One of these is a fragment of a carefully finished piece (2213; Figure 158) similar to that recovered from block AD/AE (see Figure 352). Two others are simpler, more functional objects, both made from perforated whale bone (Figure 158); 1034 appears heavily worn, whereas 3407 appears unfinished, with rough cut-marks on the surface. The assemblage of iron fragments and pieces of strip and sheet is substantial (129 and 71 fragments respectively, not including fragments below 10 mm). Unlike most of the assemblages of iron fragments found

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC)

209

BCC

6025

7280

6971

3121

6489

2418

1925

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2211

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Figure 157. Lead and iron fittings from the House 2 floor (BCC)

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

210

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3407

2213

1034

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Figure 158. Bone plaques from the House 2 floor (BCC)

on the site, this assemblage from the House 2 occupation deposits contains several large sheet fragments that suggest a sheet-iron vessel was systematically dismantled inside the house. Small fragments of lead (e.g. 6025, 7280, 6971, 3121, 6489; Figure 157) and

copper sheet are also present but these cannot be said to be significant compared to the iron. It seems most likely that the gold and the lead and much of the copper alloy were pieces collected for recycling. Finally, a fragment of green porphyry (6009; Figure 151) similar to that

5m

Figure 159. The overall distribution of finds from the floor of House 2 (BCC)

0

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC) 211

212

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

recovered from mound 1 (Sharples 2012, fig. 176) was recovered from the occupation deposits. This polished fragment ultimately derived from quarries in Laconia in Greece, and probably came to the Hebrides via Rome and possibly Ireland, and would have functioned as a relic symbolising Christian affiliations.

•

Distribution analysis

Distribution results

The majority of the finds from the floor were recovered during excavation and thus were accurately located in House 2 (Figure 159). However, large numbers were also recovered during post-excavation processing and these cannot be accurately mapped within the house interior. The percentage of the finds without co-ordinates varies between different categories of material. For example, over 80% of the pin assemblage has detailed coordinates, compared to only 50% of the iron nails and roves. Objects were only located during excavation if they were recognised by the excavator, and the most important factor in the recognition of these objects in the field is their shape, size and colour, which need to be sufficiently distinctive to distinguish them from more mundane materials. Their degree of transformation from the original raw material is crucial (Sharples 1991, 153). The problem of providing approximate locations for finds that do not have excavation co-ordinates has been overcome by allocating to such finds a co-ordinate at the centre of the sample square in which the find was recovered. In cases where the sample number was mis­ takenly not recorded, then a co-ordinate for the centre of the quad has been allocated. If an object was recovered from a pit or post hole, then a central sample square coordinate has been confidently attributed. This method was easily applied to finds that either had accurate co-ordinates or properly recorded quad, context and sample numbers. There are, however, a very small number of objects that were inaccurately recorded and cannot therefore be ascribed a square or quad co-ordinate. A brief description of these is given in bullet points below.

The overall distribution of finds from BCC is depicted in Figure 159 (see Figure 106 for the overlay plan showing the quad numbering). This shows a number of general patterns that are worth commenting on. First it is important to note that the paucity of finds recovered in the northern parts of quads 11 and 13 is due to the later disturbance of this area when the wall of House 2 was robbed and a later structure built (see chapter 5). Of more archaeological relevance is a general increase in the quantity of finds as one moves from east to west within the house. There is quite an abrupt drop in finds numbers on the north side at the eastern edge of quad 9, and this is also visible on the south side. However, quad 12 contained a concentration close to the house wall and, given the persistent pattern of clusters of similar artefacts occurring in opposing north–south quads (e.g. quads 9 and 10, see below), it is possible that quad 11 once contained a matching concentration, which was destroyed during the later stone-robbing. There is a linear area down the centre of the floor that produced very few finds; this coincides with the ash layers. In places this area must have been used as a hearth but in other areas the ash layers were raked flat and acted as a compacted floor. The absence of finds could represent either a lack of deposition onto the hearth, or the effect of trampling caused by the movement of people through the building. There are several locations that produced large quantities of finds. In the north half of the house there are clusters in quads 5 and 9, with clusters on the south half in the opposing quads 6 and 10. In places the edge of the ash layers is picked out by localised concentrations of finds; this is particularly clear in quad 7.

• One context (182) was given the same number in quads 1, 4, and 5. Any find recorded only by context number cannot be assigned to a quad, though there are fortunately only a few finds that have this problem. • Contexts 557 and 558, which covered quad 5, were not excavated in sample squares. The finds recovered from these two contexts during flotation were given co-ordinates for the centre of this quad. • Measurements taken when the EDM was incorrectly set up produced inaccurate co-ordinates for thirteen finds in context 1008, which covered quad 12. The incorrect co-ordinates recorded for the finds from this context have been replaced with co-ordinates for the centre of the sample square they occupied. Any finds without sample numbers have been given a coordinate in the centre of the quad.

The bulk of quad 4 was excavated in 1994 before the use of sample squares (see Figure 119). Any objects without co-ordinates recovered from this quad have been distributed between the three southwestern sample squares within this quad, since this was where the excavation took place.

Waste The distribution of the antler, bone and whale bone waste is depicted in Figure 160A. This was very widely dispersed across the floor, with very few obvious concentrations. The waste antler (Figure 160B) tended to be arranged in small clusters, such as a group of four tines on the south side of the house in quad 6, whereas we seldom find two pieces of worked bone or whale bone together. There are noticeable voids in the distribution at the west end and around the entrance. The distribution does not suggest much antleror bone-working took place inside the house. Most of the waste consists of tine fragments that could have been stored as raw material for tool production. The flint that could be

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC)

213

Figure 160. The distribution of : A) Bone and antler waste; B) Different categories of antler waste; C) All flint with accurate coordinates

accurately located (Figure 160C) was widely distributed, though there was a significant concentration in quad 10 on the west side of the central line, and the opposing quad 9 also had a small concentration..

Tools The distribution of tools associated with textile-manufacturing – spindle whorls and needles – is depicted in Figure 161 A, B and C. There is a clear pattern: spindle whorls were

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A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Figure 161. The distribution of : A) Textile tools; B) Needles; C) Spindle whorls

concentrated in quad 9 on the north side of the house, whereas needles were concentrated on the south side in quad 10. There was a scatter of objects over the other areas and it is noticeable that there were spindle whorls at the

extreme west end of the house, whereas the east end had a couple of needles. This suggests a division between wool production in the northern and western parts of the house and the stitching of fabric on the south side and at the east end.

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC)

215

Figure 162. The distribution of : A) Antler, bone and stone tools; B) Worked antler; C) Whetstones, knives and arrowheads

There is very little difference between the materials used to produce the spindle whorls, but it is noticeable that the metal needles were not closely associated with the bone needles. The more robust bone needles were not

separate from the finer needles. The bone spindle whorls have a much wider distribution than those made from stone and lead Figure 162A shows a miscellaneous selection of tools

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A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Figure 163. A quern fragment, 6557, from quad 20

and fittings, the most numerous of which are bone points. These were scattered fairly widely across the house, with a distinct cluster in quad 9 made up of three bone points and a hammerstone. The three casket mounts were widely distributed, with two of them at opposite ends of the house. The three stone weights were all in the principal area of deposition, in the west-central area. Most of the other types of tool or fitting are represented by individual objects. The quern or rubbing stone (6557; Figure 163) was placed in the southeast corner of the house, near the entrance. The distribution of whetstones and knives (Figure 162 C) shows a reasonably close association between these two types of artefact. In quads 6, 9 and 10 there were clusters of two whetstones and two knives. In quad 5 the pattern breaks down and there were only two knives. There was a dispersed scatter in the eastern half of the house and again none at the west end. The two arrowheads were located in the trampled ash layers close to the centre of the house.

Items of personal adornment and exotics The distribution of an unusual group of decorated tines, possibly associated with drinking or eating, is depicted in Figure 162 B. These were concentrated in quads 5 and 7 on the north side of the house, with only two of the seven pieces lying outside this concentration. The antler cylinder with the Ringerike decoration (3756) was at the centre of

this group of objects. If these items are correctly identified as the finials of drinking horns, then it is possible this was the seating place of an important individual, perhaps the head of the household. The distribution of the pins is depicted in Figure 164 B and C and is generally similar to the overall finds distribution though there is an inexplicable absence of pins from quad 3, and there are very few pins from the eastern half of the building. There is no obvious distinction between the location of the metal pins and that of the bone pins: it may be significant that these were scattered fairly evenly across the floor in the western half of the house. The bone pins clustered in quads 5, 6 and 12 are largely complete examples. The distribution of the combs (Figure 165 A and B) suggests three to four concentrations were present in the house. The largest concentration was on the north side of the house, in quad 7, and comprised three largely complete combs (6002, 6012, 5988) and nine fragments. The cluster extended into the western half of quad 9, where there were a further five fragments. On the south side of the house, ten fragments came from quad 10, and this cluster included the large comb 6235. The third cluster lay at the southwest corner of the ash/hearth zone, quad 4, where there was a group of five combs that included a largely complete early comb (1042), and a highly decorated segment of comb (2116). There was a general scatter of smaller fragments between this cluster and the northern cluster in quads 7 and 9. There was also a cluster of eight fragments in

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC)

217

Figure 164. The distribution of : A) Pins and combs; B) Pins by material; C) Pins broken and complete

quad 15, that included comb 6155; this stands out in the distribution patterns as there are generally few finds from the east end of the house. The composition of the comb assemblage and their location in clusters inside the house suggest that they

were collections brought into the house by individuals. Some of these combs might have been used by these individuals to comb their hair, but many appear to have outlived their role as combs. Some of these pieces were probably selected for their decorative qualities and were

218

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Figure 165. The distribution of: A) Combs largely complete; B) Comb fragments; C) Other items of personal adornment

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC)

219

Figure 166. The distribution of: A) All iron finds; B) Iron structural fittings, nails, roves and holdfast; C) Iron sheet fragments and cauldron handles

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A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Figure 167. The distribution of: A) Miscellaneous fragments of Copper alloy; B) Miscellaneous fragments of lead; C) Miscellaneous fragments of whale bone; D) Miscellaneous fragments of steatite

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC) 10

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Secale

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floor

Figure 168. A histogram showing the density and quantity of the main groups of carbonised plant from the hearth and floor deposits in House 2

in the process of being transformed into ornaments. Others might have been treated as raw material; perhaps wellpreserved tooth plates were being removed to repair other combs. The comb assemblage suggests that the occupants of the house had restricted access to new combs and limited access to good raw materials and therefore had to maximise the resources available to them. However, it is also possible that the comb fragments were symbolic capital, that they had a meaning and value that transcended their function as combs. This is certainly an argument that could be made for the fragment of a large early comb (2968). In its original form this comb might well have been associated with an ancestral figure, and it seems likely that it was passed through several generations before it was finally deposited in this house. The close association of combs and people is indicated by their deposition in pagan Viking graves (i.e. at Scar; Owen and Dalland 1999). Other objects with potential genealogical significance were recovered from the house, most noticeably the antler sleeve decorated with a Ringerike-style animal. This object was probably produced in Scandinavia at the beginning of the eleventh century and might have passed through a couple of generations before it was buried (Sharples 2004). The distribution of a further selection of exotic items is depicted in Figure 165C. There was a concentration in quads 9 and 10 that included the two coins, the amber cross fragment and the lead axe-shaped pendant, but the other items (including the gold strip and the green porphyry fragment) were widely distributed in the western half of the house.

Fittings and miscellaneous items The iron was concentrated in the west end of the house, with only a dispersed spread of material in the eastern half (Figure 166A). It is again noticeable that the concentration in the west continued right up to the west wall. Two concentrations are visible on the north side of the house in

quads 5 and 9; the opposing quads on the south side had only slightly lower quantities. The general iron distribution largely reflects the distribution of structural fittings (nails, roves and holdfasts; Figure 166B). There are a reasonable quantity of iron sheet fragments (Figure 166C), and these show a very similar general pattern, though with none of the obvious concentrations and very few pieces in the eastern half. The two cauldron handles were from the western edge of the house. Figure 167 depicts a selection of the remaining objects arranged by material category. The copper alloy and lead have very similar distributions, with concentrations in quads 7, 9 and 10; the latter concentrations are more significant. In contrast, the whale bone and steatite distributions are more dispersed and largely avoid these concentrations of copper alloy and lead. With one exception the steatite vessel fragments all came from south of the hearth and there were very few pieces from the far west end of the house, where the pottery was concentrated.

Carbonised plant remains – J Summers and J Bond The carbonised plant remains from 39 samples were analysed from the occupation deposits (BCC) and one from the construction layers (BCB). The samples were chosen to examine the distribution of carbonised plant across the interior of the house. Two samples were selected from each quad, in general, one came from the floor at the edge of the house and one from the hearth/ash layers in the centre of the house. All three cereals were present in these deposits (Table 56). The overall proportion of oat and rye was lower than in the previous phase, while the quantity of flax was very high, with 974 complete seeds recovered. Both the density and volume patterns are presented in Figure 168, as they indicate subtly different patterns. When comparing the densities of the different crops and wild seeds from the floor and hearth/ash deposits, it is

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

222

Table 56. The carbonised plant remains from the House 2 floor deposits (BCC) Sample 8145 Context 548 Block BCC Quad 1 Litres 14 Context Type floor Fraction 100% Cereals Hordeum vulgare grains Hordeum vulgare apical Hordeum vulgare embryo Hordeum vulgare indet. frags Hordeum sativum rachis frags Hordeum vulgare mineralised Hordeum sp. Avena sp. grains Avena sp. apical Avena sp. embryo Avena sp. indet. frag cf Secale cereale grains cf Secale cereale apical cf Secale cereale embryo cf Secale cereale indet. frag Secale sp. rachis frags Oat palea/lemma Cereal rachis frags Cereal culm frags Cereal grain frags Other Crops Linum usitatissimum cf Linum usitatissimum frags Weeds/Wild species cf Arctium spp Brassica/Sinapis spp Buglossoides sp. Carex sp. Type 1 Carex sp. Type 2 Carex sp. Type 3 Carex sp. Type 4 Carex sp. Type 5 Scirpus spp Cyperaceae indet. type 6 Cyperaceae indet. Cyperaceae/Polygonaceae Type Caryophyllaceae mineralised cf Cerastium sp. Chenopodiaceae Chenopodiaceae/Caryophyllaceae Compositae indet. Compositae Type 1 flat type Compositae Type 2 large Crucifereae spp Erica sp. Euphorbia cf helioscopia cf Fumaria sp. Galium sp. Type 1 Galium sp. Type 2 Gramineae Gramineae Type 1 Gramineae Type 2 small Phalaris sp. Phleum sp. Bromus sp. cf Hypericum sp. Hyoscymus niger cf Juncus sp. Leguminaceae cf Liliaceae Paniceae type grain Papaver sp. Plantago sp. Primulaceae Potamogeton sp. Potentilla sp. Polygonum sp. Rumex sp. Rumex/Polygonum spp Rumex sp. Type 1 Rumex/Polygonum sp. Type 2 Polygonum sp. Type 3 Polygonum sp. Type 4 Rumex/Polygonum sp. Type 5 Rumex/Polygonum spp kernels Ranunculus sp. small Ranunculus sp. large cf Raphanus sp. cf Raphanus sp. frag Rubus sp. cf Sisymbrium sp. Solanaceae Urtica urens Urtica dioica cf Viola sp. Indet. Type 1 Twigs/stalks cf Seaweed Heather frags Indet. small flower bud Poss ID Amorphous material Indet. Indet. mineralised Dung

43 2

8146 549 BCC 1 15 floor 100%

9684 1010 BCC 2 47 floor 100%

9806 1023 BCC 2 1 hearth 100%

25 2

49 2

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9972 9476 8134 1209 1252 530 BCC BCB BCC 3 3 4 23 50 4 hearth deposit hearth 100% 100% 100% 72 3

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96 11 32 6 136 13 6 21

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8154 557 BCC 5 16 floor 100%

9606 565 BCC 5 6 hearth 100%

9496 1231 BCC 6 104 hearth 100%

9468 1260 BCC 6 4 floor 100%

9490 1234 BCC 7 85 floor 100%

9444 1278 BCC 7 189.5 hearth 100%

9508 581 BCC 8 65 floor 100%

9516 586 BCC 8 154 hearth 100%

11396 2637 BCC 9 64 floor 100%

11479 2669 BCC 9 72 hearth 100%

11894 2191 BCC 10 73 hearth 100%

11943 2225 BCC 10 14 floor 100%

11530 2038 BCC 11 38 hearth 100%

11550 2039 BCC 11 2 floor 100%

19

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77 8

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35 18 23 5 86 2

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8 6 2 38 1

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The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC)

223

9449 1008 BCC 12 0 floor 100%

9475 1091 BCC 12 11 hearth 100%

11452 2657 BCC 13 17 floor 100%

12036 2691 BCC 13 26 floor 100%

12118 2253 BCC 14 53 hearth 100%

11300 2286 BCC 14 38 floor 100%

11910 2190 BCC 15 32 floor 100%

11232 2219 BCC 15 42 hearth 100%

11439 2647 BCC 16 22 floor 100%

12021 2683 BCC 16 37 hearth 100%

11434 2646 BCC 17 7 floor 100%

11456 2656 BCC 17 27 hearth 100%

11919 2194 BCC 18 71 floor 100%

11974 2243 BCC 18 26 hearth 100%

11927 2220 BCC 19 27 floor 100%

11221 2254 BCC 19 25 floor 100%

11446 2649 BCC 20 42 hearth 100%

11487 2670 BCC 20 11.5 floor 100%

272 28 14 4 11

52 3 6 1 1

19

47 6 2

124 4 5

72 5 1

40

200 21 5

59 1 3

47 4 3

3 2

35 7

96 9 3

52 3 3

38 2 1

28 1

60 3 3

15 3

3

1

1

4

1

5

74 14 26 4 162 12 13

12 26 2 18 1

2

26 3 6 1 11 1 3

19 4 8 1

10 1 1

11 1 5

19

6

6

8 1

1 4

25

33 2 11 91

14 4

2

3

1

6 3 2 9

1

1

40

48

126

250

172

84

284

1 1 1 127

23 5

29 7

2

8 7

12 9

8

10 2

13 4

1 1

6

1

1

1 2

1

1

1

7 2

8 7 2 1

4 3 1

5 13

1

1 1 2

4 2 3

8 1 6

1

6 2

7 8 6 1 1

4 1 1

3 3

11 3 5

4 1

3

1 1

2

1 1

145

55

4

1

1

1

1 1

2

1

18 6 922

5

1

8

6

1 1 1

3 6

3 120

15

63

213

77

1 35

45

7

10 2

3 4

4 1

1

3

1 2

2 1

1 4 1 2

1 3 1 1

1

4 1 1

1

1 87

1

19 17

1

4 1 1

2 26 96

1

1

2

16 66

17 23

4 40

6 1

1

3 1

4 9

2 9

5 5

1

8 7

2

5

14

5

1

1

12

12

1

4

21 4 3

1 2 3 3

8 4 1

8 7 2

1 9 6 4

1 1 2

6

19 2

5 1

4

1

3 7

1 18

1 1

1 3 4 19

2 18 8

1

2 10

5

1

2

11

12

2 4

3 9 3

4

1 15

2

3 + 3capsules full

2

2

1 2 12

2 5

6

1

1 10 (+1pod)

2

1

3

9 3 4

2

1

2 4

1 12

1 1 22 23 5 1 10 7

13 1

2

1

1 3 4 4 1 11

1 5

2

4

1 6 2

1

3

1

1

3

1

2 4 2

2 9

1 5

3

1 3 1 2 3 5 16 1

1 9

1

1

1

2 1 1

1 1

1

4

1

3

1

1 1 2 3 16

1

1

4

2 2 10

2 3

1

1

1 2 1 9

1

1 2

4 7

2 1

2

1

1 2

1

8

1 8

1 2 1

1 2 1

1

5 2 10

1 1 4

1

1 1

4

1

1 5 7 2 2 13 2 8 31

1

1 2 2

1

1 1

1

1 1

2

1 1

1 5

4

2 11

2 1

1

4

X

X

X

X

X

2 X X

1

5

1

3

1 1

1

1

1

1 1

X X 17 X X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

1 X X

5 X

X X

4 X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

2 X

X

X X

X

224

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides Barley

Oats

0

Rye

0.1 - 25 25.1 - 50 50.1 - 75 75.1 - 100 100.1 - 250 250.1 - 500 500.1 - 750 750.1 - 1000 1000.1 - 1250

Flax

1250.1 - 1500 1500.1 - 2000

Wild

Figure 169. The distribution of carbonised plant remains from the floor and hearth of House 2

shown that the hearth had higher densities of barley, flax and wild seeds whereas the oats and rye were more evenly distributed between the two context types. A notable feature of the hearth deposits was the large concentration of wild seeds, including over 4000 seeds from the goosefoot family (Chenopodiaceae) and over 2000 dock seeds (Rumex sp./Rumex/Polygonum spp). The majority of these came from hearth deposits.

The distribution of barley grains (Figures 169) again shows a concentration in the centre of the house from quads 7/8 to quads 11/12, though this is less clear in the density plot. There were two large concentrations of barley from hearth deposits, 1058 barley grains came from 2191 in quad 10 (sample 11894) and 1009 grains came from 2038 in quad 11 (sample 11530). The highest density (43.5 seeds/litre) came from 530 in quad

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC)

225

Rumex

Chenopodiaceae

0

250.1 - 500

0.1 - 25

500.1 - 750

25.1 - 50

750.1 - 1000

50.1 - 75

1000.1 - 1250

75.1 - 100

1250.1 - 1500

100.1 - 250

1500.1 - 2000

Figure 170. The distribution of rumex and chenopodiaceae seeds from the floor of House 2

4 (sample 8134), though at four litres this was a small sample. The distribution of oats repeats the same pattern as seen for the barley (Figure 169), highlighting the centre of the house where the substantial samples were located (e.g. 203 grains came from 586, quad 8, hearth sample 9516) and much more focus on the west end when the densities are presented. Flax has a very similar distribution, with the largest concentration coming from quad 8 (362 seeds from sample 9516). This is all the more striking when it is considered that flax seeds are not routinely dried before storage and the chance, therefore, of their preservation by charring is considerably less than for cereal grains. The rye distributions are different and their prevalence in peripheral floor contexts is clearly visible. Nevertheless, the largest sample of 215 grains again came from hearth sample 9516 in quad 8. Neither flax nor rye showed significant changes when the densities were plotted. In general the overall quantity of wild seeds is greater from quads 5/6 up to quads 11/12. However, when one considers the different wild species separately, then it is clear that the exceptional samples came from particular locations. Large concentrations of Chenopodiaceae seeds came from hearth contexts 2191 in quad 10 (11894) and 2038 in quad 11 (11530) (Figure 170), and a concentration of 784 Dock (Rumex sp.) seeds came from context 1231 in quad 6 (9496; (Figure 170). The high numbers of wild seeds, such as the Chenopodiaceae and the Rumex species, may well be a reflection of cultivation practices; both groups of weeds are more common where an ard is used to till the soil,

while weeds such as the bindweeds (Convolvulus) with adventitious roots become more of a problem with the use of a mouldboard plough. Bradbury (1925) lists the Dockens as weeds often associated with flax crops. Many of the hearth samples which contain large numbers of cereal grains also contain high concentrations of weed seeds such as the Dockens and the Chenopodiaceae but also large numbers of grass seeds. This might indicate that the material is the result of sieving after winnowing (Hillman 1981, 134–5). Another possible explanation is that these deposits represent a form of single–sheaf processing known in the Hebrides in later periods as ‘graddan’ (Shaw 1980, 104). Graddan allowed smaller amounts of grain to be dried and processed for day to day use, rather than large scale kiln drying and storage. Shaw says that although it was later considered a wasteful method, the meal produced this way had a very good flavour. Large numbers of weed seeds in other parts of the house must have been swept aside from the hearth, as with no evidence of other burning on the house, the hearth would be the only source of charred seeds. The large numbers of charred flax seeds are interesting, because storage and processing of flax for fibre does not require the plant to come into contact with fire (Bond and Hunter 1987). When flax seeds are used for food, it is possible that a few might become charred during the cooking process, but these large numbers suggest it may be necessary to consider the possibility that linseed oil might have been prepared from the seeds, the waste material then being burned. The clearest patterning visible in all of these samples is the small quantities of all species from the east end

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

226 60 50 40 % 30 20 10 0

BCA Cattle

BCB

BCC/F Sheep/goat

BCC/H Pig

BCC/P BCC/A Red deer

Figure 171. The relative significance of the main species of mam­ mals from the House 2 blocks and floor contexts

of the house. There was clearly very little deposition of carbonised plant remains in this area.

Animal bone – A Powell, J Best, J Mulville and N Sharples The animal bone assemblage from House 2 is substantial, comprising 2,334 identified bones (Table 57 and 58); 159 from the foundation pits (BCA, plus three bones from context phased BCA/BCC), 215 from the construction deposits (BCB) and 1,957 from the occupation deposits (BCC). The large assemblage from the occupation deposits can be examined spatially (see below) and also by separating the assemblage by context type into bones from the floor layers, hearth/ash deposits, feature fills and from the final occupation layer. The assemblage is dominated by sheep/goat (42%); less significant are cattle (39%), pig (14%) and red deer (4%). All these species display a similar frequency to that noted in the Early Norse phase at this mound; sheep are slightly more numerous and cattle rather less so than in the BB contexts. Other species are present: there were 17 probable horse bones, three dog and six cat bones and wild animals include six otter and 12 seal bones. The overall distribution of the major species from the different sub divisions of this block are depicted in Figure 171. This indicates that sheep/goat are numerically the most important domestic species in the foundation deposits (BCA), the construction phase (BCB) and in the hearth/ash layers (BCC/H), whereas cattle are numerically the most important species in the floor and abandonment layers (BCC/F and BCC/A). Pig are a fairly uniform presence in all the sub-divisions within the house occupation deposits (BCC) but in the foundation pits (BCA) they are less significant and in the construction deposits (BCB) more significant. Deer are most important in the construction layers (BCB) and feature fills (BCC/P). The distribution of the principal species in the

occupation of the house (BCC) is depicted in Figure 172. The distribution of the total number of bones indicates a concentration in the south-central area (quads 10 and 12) and in quads 5 and 6 and quads 17 and 19. The low numbers from the north-central area reflect the destruction in antiquity of the House 2 occupation deposits in this area. Cattle and sheep/goat bones follow this overall pattern and have very similar distributions. The reasonable numbers of bones from the eastern half of the house are important as this area did not produce many artefacts or any concentrations of carbonised plant remains. Pig and deer bones have a quite different distribution, with the bulk of the assemblage concentrated in the western half of the house. The highest concentrations of pig came from quad 4, whereas the deer were concentrated in quads 7, 10 and 12. The assemblage from all the House 2 deposits is close to the mound 2 averages for the three taphonomic indicators, gnawing, butchery and burning (Table 59, Figure 173). There is little variation between the blocks, though the bones in the construction layers (BCB) have less damage from gnawing and butchery than was recorded in the other two blocks. The occupation deposits produced the lowest quantities of burnt bone, which is rather surprising given the enormous hearth/ash layer that dominated the centre of the house. There is a very large assemblage (2,500 bones) of small mammal bones; bones identifiable to species came from Apodemus sylvaticus (n = 253), Mus musculus domesticus (n = 123), Microtus agrestis (n = 433) and Sorex minutus (n = 23); one reptile, Anguis fragilis, is also present. The densities of the samples from the different quads identify a significant concentration in quads 1, 2, 3 and 5 at the west end of the house. The completeness of the small mammal long bones from the House 2 contexts is shown in Table 60. A relatively low proportion of the bones are complete, and the femur and tibia are particularly fragmented. Such fragmentation is not comparable to natural assemblages produced by owls, and yet the presence of any complete bones is uncharacteristic of canids (Andrews 1990). Comparison of the proportions of proximal and distal ends with the proportions of shafts gives results suggestive of diurnal raptors and mammalian carnivores rather than owls (Andrews 1990). However, the influence of post-depositional factors, such as trampling or even fragmentation during sample processing, cannot be excluded from a role in the degree of bone breakage seen here. A close examination of the stratigraphic position of the samples that produced high densities of small mammal bones indicates that the assemblage was distributed throughout the floor layers, and that large concentrations were not restricted to the final floor layer. In quad 1 the highest density of 5.7 bones per litre came from context 549, which was the lowest layer. This observation suggests it was unlikely the bones represented bird or carnivore excreta on the floor of the abandoned structure. An assemblage of 344 identifiable bird bones was

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC)

227

Total 0 1 - 10 11 - 20 21 - 50 51 - 100 101 - 250

Cattle

Sheep/Goat

0 1 - 10

Pig

11 - 20 21 - 50 51 - 80 81 - 100

Deer

Figure 172. The distribution of the main species of animal bones from the floor of House 2.

recovered from the deposits associated with House 2 (Table 61), and the overwhelming majority of these (n = 299) came from the occupation deposits. The main concentration was in quad 5 (51 bones), but there were also reasonable quantities (20+ bones) in quads 2, 6 and 10, indicating a dispersed distribution. The assemblage is dominated by large gulls (such as the herring/lesser black-backed gull and the great black-backed gull), which account for nearly a quarter

of the identifiable bird remains. Waders, such as the oystercatcher and plovers, are well represented, and other wading birds not identifiable beyond the ‘small wader’ category comprise over 10% of the assemblage. Domestic fowl only account for just over 2% of this assemblage, although when the ‘galliform cf domestic fowl’ category is considered (which includes several young specimens), this total rises to over 5%. Aside from gulls, a range of other seabirds are

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

228

BCA

553

BCA

916

Hare/fox sized mammal

Sheep-sized mammal

Red deer/Cattle

Cattle-sized mammal

Otter

Red deer

Cat

Pig

Sheep/goat

Goat

Sheep

Context

Cattle

Block

Equid

Table 57. The animal bone from the foundation deposits (BCA) and the construction deposits (BCB)

1 1

Total

1

2

1

4

BCA

922

1

BCA

923

1

BCA

938

2

2

4

BCA

1017

1

1

BCA

1230

2

BCA

1246

BCA

1259

1

BCA

1295

2

BCA

2078

2

BCA

2080

BCA

2081

BCA

2107

BCA

2114

BCA

2133

BCA

2157

1 2

7

3

2629 2704

BCA

2709

1

BCA

2711

4

BCA

2724

BCA

2738

1

BCA

2740

2759 2762

2659

0

45

2

1

10

3

1

1

7 2 1

2

3

1

2 3

1

3 1

4 1

1

2 1

54

12

0

6

1

15

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

1

1

2

1

3

2

2

14

0

1

0

3

1

13 1

3

900

1

1040

8

BCB

1044

14

BCB

1089

1

BCB

1236

2

7

1

7

4

11

4

24

8

1

1

4 1

13

2

19

1

1

18

3

2

1

29

3

4

9

71

2

6

1

8

1

3 1

4

3

BCB

1252

1

1

3

4

BCB

1301

2

2

3

1

4

1

1 1

2

10

1

10

1 5 1

3

159

2

1

BCB

2651

1

1

1

0

BCB

sub-total

1

1

0

6

BCB

2

1

1

5

BCB

4 1

1

0

541

2294

28

1

2

595

2607

1 1

3

1

1

BCB

BCB

2 1

2

11

BCB

BCB

14

1

4

1

6 40

2

2

1

0

503

14

1

1

2768

BCB

1

1

1

sub-total

BCB

2

1

BCA

BCA/BCC

1

1

BCA

BCB

18

2

1

BCA

1

1

1

2726

BCA

1

1

2735

2750

1

1

BCA

2753

1

2

BCA

BCA

3

1

BCA

BCA

12

1

1

1

BCA

2743

1

2

1

2746

1

8

10

BCA

4

5

1

BCA

2

1

1

2605

1

1

4

BCA

2

2

2207

2273

1

1

2271

2603

1 1 5

BCA

BCA

4

2

1

BCA

BCA

1

49

3 2

1 15

0

69

2

14

1 27

2

12

0

12

3 1

24

1

215

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC)

229

1208

2

F

1

2

1078, 1079, 1211

2

P

2

1049

3

A

19

1220

3

F

1

1209

3

H

1

1070, 1092, 1099

3

P

130

4

A

3

39, 551, 552

4

F

32

528, 546

4

H

4

532

4

P

182

5

A

1 1

3

5

7

1

3

1

Hare/fox sized mammal

8

Sheep-sized mammal

10

Red deer/ Cattle

1

Cetacean

8

1

Cattle-sized mammal

A

Seal

2

Rodent

1010, 1023

Otter

3

Carnivore

5

6

Deer

6

1

Roe deer

4

6

Red deer

8

1

Cat

Pig

1

P

Dog

Sheep/goat

F

1

Goat

Cattle

1

585, 592, 921

Quad

Horse

549

Context

Equid

Sheep

Table 58. The animal bone from the House 2 floor deposits (BCC)

3

6

33

1

5

24

13

6

50

1 2

2

1

1

3

1

Total

4 1

1

2

1

8

3

39 1 1

3

1

2

7

7

42

1

1

3

1

1

17

3

10

7

1

31

2

20

12

2

4

4

15

18

2

2

3 1

4

7

21

119

1

18

4

69

3

84

3

19

1

78

5

1

18

2

2 1

6

1

18 12

550, 557, 558, 596

5

F

564, 565

5

H

5

1057

6

A

25

1260

6

F

1

1302

6

F

1231, 1267

6

H

1234

7

A

2113

7

F

3

1278

7

H

2082, 2096

7

P

581

8

A

586

8

H

2

2617

9

A

2

2627, 2636, 2637, 2658

9

F

14

2635, 2660, 2669, 2681

9

H

4

2613

9

P

1

2177

10

A

14

4

2181, 2192, 2225

10

F

44

8

2180, 2191, 2224, 2226, 2251, 2289

10

H

11

3

2039

11

F

2038, 2042, 2043

11

H

1

1

5

945

12

A

84

9

57

15

9

12

10

196

1005, 1008

12

F

11

7

12

3

1

5

9

49

1091, 1095

12

H

5

7

2

1

1

16

2657, 2673, 2691, 2708

13

F

5

3

9

1

2

3

26

2672, 2674, 2688, 2697, 2699, 2702, 2718

13

H

5

1

6

1

1

1

15

2188

14

A

4

2197, 2212, 2231, 2248, 2250, 2286, 2601

14

F

18

7

65

2277, 2280, 2281

14

H

2

2264

14

P

3

18

2182

15

A

2

2190, 2221, 2606

15

F

7

1

22

3 3

5

2

4

2

2

4

1

1

3

4

8

6

3

3

6

2

1

1

1

4 10

6

3

2

4

4

1

1

6

1

2

21

8

5

1

14

1

45

4

8

3

31

1

17

1

1

27

1

1

16

4 1

1

2 1

1

12

3

3

2

1

2

2

2

11

3

38

1

6

131

1

28

2

1

1 8

1

1

1

13 1

3

2

7

29

4

1

3

1

1

3

4

1

2

5

4

1

1

1

9

5

1

1

1

16

1

1

6

2

2692

16

F

4

1

4

2682, 2683, 2700

16

H

3

1

6

2694

16

P

2643

17

A

2646, 2648, 2653, 2707

17

F

2656, 2661

17

H

2194, 2199, 2283, 2298

18

F

2269

18

H

1

2214

18

P

2189

19

A

2

5

1

7

2

2220, 2241, 2242, 2254, 2260, 2285, 2297

19

F

1

49

3

20

4

2230

19

H

2275

19

P

2670, 2686, 2701, 2712, 2715, 2716, 2717, 2731

20

F

23 4

1

1

1

1

3

2

1

1

2

1

8

1

28

2

19

1

2

2

2

12 2

20

1 1 1

1

36

4

28

10

13

1

13

7

27

2

13

7

1 1 4

1

1

1

11

5

11

107

2

2

10

50

3

60

3

1 1

1 1

1

1 6

6

1

21

7

96

1

1

12

2

5

1

1

1

8

51 6

2 1

1

BCC sub-total

12

2

629

BCA sub-total

0

0

BCB sub-total

3

0

BC Total

15

2

56

7

14

H

13 1

1

9

20

71

1

9

2698

3

5

3

1

H

H

6

1

11

A

H

1

1

1

15

20

13

1

16

20

1

1

6

2219, 2258, 2291, 2620

2649

2

26

2647

2679

2

1

2

1

1

1

3

2

96

1

527 213

3

4

45

11

1

55

12

0

49

15

0

69

27

0

723 122

2

651 252

3

6

59

1

2

5

1

6

12

5

176

33

169

1

1957

0

7

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

15

0

15

0

162

2

12

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

12

1

24

1

215

6

78

1

2

6

1

6

12

5

203

34

208

2

2334

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

230

Table 59. The taphonomy of the animal bone from the Middle Norse deposits (BC)

Carnivore gnawed

60

Block

Total gnawed

% carnivore gnawed

% rodent gnawed

% butchered

Total burnt

% burnt

% calcined

%

Total ID

50

10

BCA

162

42

26

1

14

10

6

1

0

BCB

215

39

18

0

11

10

5

2

BCC

1957

562

28

1

14

39

2

0.3

Total

2334

643

27

1

14

59

3

1

40 30 20

%

20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

BCA

BCB

BCC

Butchered

Table 60. The completeness of small mammal long bones from House 2 deposits. Element

Humerus BCA

BCB

BCC

Burnt

12 10

%

Ulna

8 6 4

Femur

2 0

BCA

BCB

BCC

Figure 173. A histogram showing the occurrence of the main taph­ onomic indicators for the animal bones from the floor of House 2

represented, including cormorant, fulmar, puffin, guillemot and razorbill. Whilst some of these, such as the cormorant, are resident, the others suggest that some exploitation was focused on summer breeding birds. Large grey geese are less common in this block, accounting for only 3% of the remains. Species present in small numbers include large raptors such as the white-tailed eagle, gannet, great northern diver and ducks.. Only two of the identifiable bones display burning, but at least 5% of the assemblage has evidence of butchery, and a substantial 13% has been gnawed, largely by carnivores.

Fish bone – C Ingrem A total of 5,146 identifiable fish bones were examined from the 2–10 mm residues and a further 120 identifiable specimens came from the above 10 mm residues associated

Tibia

Number

%

Complete

41

37.6

Proximal

36

33

Shaft

2

1.8

Distal

30

27.5

Complete

7

50

Proximal

4

28.6

Shaft

3

21.4

Distal

0

0

Complete

25

15.7

Proximal

81

50.9

Shaft

5

3.1

Distal

48

30.2

Complete

21

25

Proximal

40

47.6

Shaft

6

7.1

Distal

17

20.2

with House 2 (Table 62). All of the greater than 10 mm material and most of the 2–10 mm material came from the occupation deposits (BCC), although a small amount came from the construction phase (BCB). Herring dominates the material from both phases, although they are slightly less numerous in occupation deposits (BCC; 87%) than in those associated with the construction of the house (BCB; 89%). Cod are slightly more numerous than herring in the above 10 mm residues, which clearly reflects the mesh size and illustrates the importance of employing a recovery strategy aimed at collecting the remains of both small and large fish. A wide range of taxa are present although only salmonid, conger eel, saithe and scad represent more than 1% of the assemblage. The herring assemblage is dominated by vertebrae, with basioccipital bones fairly well represented (Table 63). Bones from other areas of the cranium and appendicular region are

BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA BCA

916 938 1237 1239 2080 2081 2157 2271 2273 2640 2704 2711 2728 Sub-total 523 541 595 1044 1236 1252 2136 Sub-total 548, 549, 562, 585, 921 1010, 1081, 1208 1049, 1092 39, 528 550, 557, 558, 564, 565 1057, 1231, 1260, 1267, 1302 1234, 1278, 2082 581, 586 2613, 2617, 2627, 2637, 2669, 2681 2177, 2180, 2191, 2192, 2222, 2225, 2251 2043 945, 1005, 1008, 1091 2652, 2657, 2673 2188, 2204, 2248, 2286, 2601 2182, 2219 2683, 2692, 2700 2646, 2653, 2656, 2707 2194, 2269, 2283 2220, 2242, 2254, 2285, 2297 2664, 2698, 2701, 2712, 2715 182 Sub-total Total BC

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

10

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 various

BCC

BCC BCC BCC BCC BCC BCC BCC BCC BCC BCC BCC

Quad

BCC BCC BCC BCC BCC BCC BCC BCC BCC

BCB BCB BCB BCB BCB BCB BCB

Block

Context

Anatidae cf Duck

0 1

1

1

2 3

1

1

1

0

Auk sp. Large

1

0

Cormorant

Cormorant / Shag

0

0

1 1

5 8

2

3

2

1 1

1

4 2 15 18 3 3

2

0 1

0

Curlew

1

2 2

1 1

0

0

Domestic Fowl 1

Dove cf Woodpigeon

1

2

1

1

2 2

2

2

1

1

Duck sp Medium / Large 6 10

1

2 1 2

3

1 2

1

1

Fulmar 8 8

1

7

0

0

Galliform cf Domestic Fowl 9 12

1 1

1

1 1

3 1

1

1

2

1

1

Gannet 1 1

1

0

0

Goose, Large Grey cf Greylag 7 9

2

2

1

1

1

0

2

1

1

Goose sp. 6 9

1

2 2

1

1

2 1

1

1

Great Northern Diver 1 1

1

0

0

Guillemot 1 1 3 3

1

0

0

Gull, Great Black-Backed 38 38

1 2

1

7

2

2 1 16 1 1

0 4

0

Gull, Herring / Lesser Black-Backed 3 5 3 44 47

1

3 1 1

4

9 4 2 2 1

1

1 4

1

2

1

1

Gull sp. 10 10

1

1

1

4 2

1

0

0

Gull / Skua, Large 9 9

1

1

2 3

0 2

0

Gull / Wader 2 2

1

1

0

0

Manx Shearwater 4 5

2

1

1

0

1

1

Shearwater cf Manx 1 1

1

0

0

Oystercatcher 3 19 19

1 1

6

2

1 2 1

1 1

0

0

Plover cf Golden 4 6

1

2

1

1

1

1

1

Puffin 2 4

1

1

0

2

2

Razorbill 2 2

1

1

0

0

Red Grouse 1 1 1

0

0

Shag 1 1

1

0

0

Small Passerine 5 3 47 53

1

3

6

1 1

5

3 1

1 2

1 1 3 10 2

5

1 1

1 1 1

Swan sp. 1 2

1

0

1

1

Wader sp. 2 1 13 14

1

1

2

1 1 2 1 1

1

1

0

Wader, Small 1 1 1 1 1 29 37

1

2

1

8 5 1 3 3

4

2 1 1

1 4

1

1

1

Eagle sp. cf White-Tailed 0 1

1

1

0

White-Tailed Eagle 3 3

3

0

0

1 14 3 20 2 5 12 7 7 19 15 299 344

25

1 2 1 1 1 5 2 3 4 1 2 1 1 25 1 2 4 7 2 3 1 20 14 28 14 4 51 26 12 8 12

Total

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC) 231

Table 61. The bird bone from the foundation deposits (BCA), the construction deposits (BCB) and the House 2 floor deposits (BCC)

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

232

Table 62. The fish bone taxa from the Middle Norse deposits (BC) 10mm

Species BCB

BCC

BCC

BCC

Clupea Harengus

57

4507

14284

22

cf Clupeidae spp

2

193

488

Salmo trutta Salmo spp

1

1

2

56

158

cf Salmonidae

1

2

Anguilla anguilla

8

22

Conger conger

83

654

Merlangius merlangus

6

12

cf Merlangius merlangus

1

2

cf Trisopterus spp

1

2

Pollachius pollachius

8

24

66

241

Pollachius virens

1

Pollachius spp

3

5 1

Gadus morhua

10

24

Melanogrammus aeglefinus

3

6

Merluccius merluccius

2

6

Molva molva Large gadid

1

32

3 1

19

46

Medium gadid

1

2

Small gadid

24

76

11

32

5

2

4

1

Trachurus trachurus

55

204

2

Sparidae spp

3

10

Gadidae spp

1

1

cf Gadidae spp cf Zeus faber

33

1

Labrus bergylta

2

8

Labridae spp

4

20

cf Ammodytidae spp

1

2

Scomber scombrus

2

4

cf Scomber scombrus

5

2

4

Scad/Mackerel

1

cf Scombridae spp

2

Pholis gunnellus

2

4

Pleuronectes platessa

5

10

1

3

7

1

Flatfish

calculation of percentage presence for saithe indicates that, when the number of times that a bone occurs in the body is considered, bones from the head, appendicular, abdominal and caudal regions are equally represented (Figure 174). A minimum of two individual saithe are represented. The small cod assemblage is dominated by vertebrae but the calculation of percentage presence indicates that the posttemporal has the highest presence. A minimum of just one fish is represented. The majority (94%) of the herring remains from this phase belonged to fish approximately 300mm in length (Table 64). Most of the saithe bones (67%) are from small fish, although bones belonging to very small, large and very large individuals are also represented. In contrast most cod bones are from very large fish. One bone shows evidence for butchery – a cod posttemporal that was recovered from a floor layer (2190) – in the form of a transverse cut (see Table 216). Thirtyeight specimens were crushed in a manner suggestive of gnawing; most belonged to herring, with single bones from salmonid, mackerel and butterfish also affected (Table 216). The gnawed bones came from a variety of layers although a floor layer (557) produced nine specimens. In addition, 14 herring bones from a hearth deposit (2038) were burnt (Table 216). The quantity and density of fish bones recovered from individual samples was extremely variably (Figure 175). The largest assemblages examined came from contexts 1231 and 1234, both of which were occupation deposits, and consist of more than 800 specimens. The highest density of fish bones came from occupation deposits recovered from the north side of House 2, where in some cases floor deposits produced as many as 99 bones (context 557) per litre of soil excavated (Figure 176). Densities were also fairly high in some deposits from the south side of the house where the primary floor deposit (2225) produced an estimated 45 bones per litre.

1

Unidentifiable

39

5727

17432

146

Total

103

10809

33792

266

Total identifiable

64

5082

16360

120

% identifiable

62

47

48

45

projected quantities

present but the calculation of percentage presence indicates that they are relatively under-represented. Abdominal vertebrae have the highest presence, with a minimum of 65 individual herring represented. Sample sizes of the other taxa are much smaller although it is worth noting that saithe are represented by bones from most regions of the body. The

Discussion – N Sharples The architecture of House 2 is of considerable importance and worth extended discussion. The building was constructed using substantial, roughly squared stone blocks and slabs (Figure 177). These must have been carefully selected and were the best building stone in the area. The source of these stones is unclear but, to be present on the machair plain, they have to have been brought from either the rocky outcrops of the interior of the island or from the coast, where suitable rocks are currently exposed. However, the question remains as to whether the Norse occupants of Bornais brought the building stone here from its primary source, or whether the stone was acquired by cannibalising existing buildings already constructed on the machair. The source of the stones for House 2 could have been its immediate Norse predecessor, House 1, but it is possible that more ancient structures provided this building stone.

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC)

233

Table 63. Fish bone elements from the Middle Norse deposits (BC) Clupea harengus

Pollachius virens

BCB

BCB

Skeletal element

BCC

Vomer

BCC

Gadhus morhua

Merluccius merluccius

Molva molva

Pollachius pollachius

BCC

BCC

BCC

BCC

1

4

11

Prootic

1

8

Parasphenoid

1

Basioccipital

40

Articular

4

Dentary

4

Ectopterygoid

1

Maxilla

3

2

1

Palatine

1

Metapterygoid

22

Premaxilla

7

2

2

2

Ceratohyal

9

1

Epihyal

2

Hyomandibular

2

Quadrate

1

Parasphedoid

3

1

1

Symplectic

4

Opercular

7

Preopercular

2

Subopercular

9

Urohyal

1

18

Cleithra

1

28

1

Posttemporal

5

2

Supracleithra

32

2

1

2 1

Anterior abdominal vertebra

5

121

2

1

Posterior abdominal vertebra

12

1365

18

10

1

Caudal vertebra

22

1830

26

21

3

Hypural

2

48

Vertebra fragment

11

724

Scale

1

224

57

4529

1

Otolith Total MNI

4

0

65

6

2

71

42

5

1

8

1

1

1

1

2

Table 64. The estimated size of the fish from the Middle Norse deposits (BC) 150-300 mm

c.300 mm

BCB

4

344

Clupea harengus

BCC

10

495

Pollachius virens

BCB

Pollachius virens

BCC

46

12

5

Gadus morhua

BCC

7

6

29

Merluccius merluccius

BCC

1

Species

Block

Clupea harengus

0-150 mm

300-600 mm

600-1200 mm

1 5

3

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

234 100

% 50

ita l Ar tic ul ar D en ta ry M M a et x i ap lla te ry g o Pr em id ax illa C H era yo to h m an yal di bu la O r p Su erc bo ula r pe rc ul ar U ro hy C al le Ab Sup ith ra ra do c m in leith al ra v C au ert e da br a lv er te br a

ra l

ip cc

io

po m

Ba s

Po s

tte

Vo m

er

Herring 0

100

% 50

ry go em id ax illa C H era yo to h m an yal di bu la O r p Su erc bo ula r pe rc ul ar U ro hy C al le Ab Sup ith ra ra do c m in leith al ra v C au ert e da br a lv er te br a

te ap

et

Pr

ry

illa

ta

ax

M M

D

en

ul

l pi

Ar

tic

ta

l ra

ci

oc

Ba

si

m

po

m Vo

te st Po

ar

0 er

Saithe

Figure 174. The representation of herring and saithe skeletal elements

No. of samples

12 10 8 6 4 2 0

0-5

5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40 40-45 45-50 50-55 >55

Density Figure 175. The density of fish bones from samples from the floor layer.

Iron Age structures, such as the wheelhouse on mound 1 and the broch of Dun Vulan on Ardvule , required good quality building stone for their structural integrity and both these sites have evidence for systematic demolition (Sharples 2012, 324–7). In contrast most of the Norse

houses excavated at Bornais and Cille Pheadair were constructed from smaller, poor quality building material, which provided little structural integrity to the essentially timber-framed buildings. Nevertheless, be it Norse or Iron Age structures, the

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC)

235 Density 0 0.1 - 10 10.1 - 20 20.1 - 50 50.1 - 100 100.1 - 500

Figure 176. The distribution of fish bone across the floor deposits in House 2

Figure 177. A view of the wall of House 2 showing the quality of the masonry

cannibalistic act of demolition and reconstruction has both rational and symbolic significance. The presence of a nearby source of good quality building stone was obviously useful but the act of removal also created a specific relationship between the different generations of people involved. It was not always the case that preexisting structures were thoroughly and systematically cannibalised for their resources. Some of the houses at Bornais retain walls standing to their original height, but with sections completely removed. The west end of House 2 for example survives to close to its original height, whereas the east end was almost completely robbed-out. These patterns suggest complex relationships of respect were in play. Despite the excellent preservation of a large part of House 2, it is still difficult to understand the structure of the building. It seems likely that there was a timber frame to support the substantial turfed or thatched roof. A variety of post holes were found in the interior but these are neither sufficient in number nor located in an obvious pattern for us to interpret them as roof supports. Posts must have existed but the absence of post holes suggests either that these were placed on pads of stone, which were dispersed post-abandonment, or that the post holes existed but were not recognised during the excavation. Similarly, the precise nature of the internal furnishing of the house is difficult to understand as evidence for internal walls and timber benches along the sides of the house was missing. The evidence from houses in Iceland (Milek

2006) indicates these existed there, and were an essential feature of Norse architecture at this time. Understanding the use of space inside the house therefore focuses on the material recovered from the house’s occupation deposits, which is discussed below. The creation of House 2 was an important process that entailed both functional and symbolic activity. The deposition of a layer of relatively clean sand prior to the construction of the floor served to create a level surface that was important for the construction and occupation of a stable structure. However, the digging-out of several pits prior to the occupation of the house was an act that has little obvious functional significance. The most significant pit, 937, lay at the centre of the western half of the house, in an area where the deposition of most of the unusual and important artefacts took place during the occupation of the house. Pit 937 was rectangular, with vertical sides and a flat base; it would have made an excellent grave (see Figure 109) but no human remains were present. Other pits were dug along the centre line of the house and these include another large pit (2723) in the eastern half of the house.

General distributions One of the most significant features of the occupation of House 2 is the quantity of material recovered from the house floors and hearth/ash deposits These distributions have been summarised in the text above but it is important

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

236 2 1.8 1.60 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0

8000

Density

Quantity

7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000

fish

mammal

pot

limpet West end

winkle West central

0

litres

East central

fish mammal pot

limpet winkle

East end

Figure 178. The distribution of the principal materials recovered from the above 10 mm residues, calculated by density and by quantity

at this point in the site narrative to bring together the different datasets and to try to understand the deposits on the house floor. To aid in the discussion of the occupation deposits, the distribution of material can be divided into four areas (Figure 178); the east end (quads 17–20), east central (quad 11–16), west central (quads 5–10) and the west end (quads 1–4). These different areas have different depositional patterns, which suggests the use of each space was different, and it is possible these areas were partitioned by walls that left no trace. The presence of many large objects in the floors, and the substantial build-up of deposits in the central aisle, suggest that cleaning the floors was not a significant feature of the occupation of House 2, in contrast to the Late Norse House 3. Nevertheless, two activities affected the survival of the floor layers. In the east central area, a large proportion of the northern edge of the floor was removed by later robbing, and at the west end parts of the floor were removed by contemporaneous pit-digging. The accumulation of deposits in the house was significant and the central aisle in particular had a thick sequence of ash layers. The characteristics of these layers (see ’Soil micromorphology’ above) suggest that they represented the repeated burning of peat from a variety of sources; charcoal, turf and occasionally sand layers were also deposited. These deposits were allowed to accumulate in situ in some areas, but in other areas the ash was spread out to form deposits with multiple thin layers. These ash layers occasionally spread onto the peripheral aisles of the house, but these areas were characterised by thin, brown sand layers with significantly less ash that showed very little evidence for compaction by trampling and which had been bioturbated by worms. It remains possible that wooden flooring was present in these areas. Analyses of the distributions of different materials prior to this point have arranged and discussed the data in different forms. The analysis of the pottery, artefacts and animal bones relate to complete assemblages and therefore the different sizes of the areas examined are relevant, as

is the different volumes of soil removed from each area. In contrast, the comments on the carbonised plant, fish bone and residues are based on densities of material per litre of soil, and therefore the different size of each area is not relevant. These differences make cross-comparisons between different types of material problematic, but trends within material are indicative of different depositional patterns. Nevertheless, the detailed quantification of the floor deposits enables the data to be rectified so that total quantities and densities can be estimated for all the material classes. The difference in the data based on densities and that based on numbers is most clearly explored by a comparison of the data recovered from the above 10 mm residues (see Figure 127). The excavation strategy was designed to recover all of the finds in the floors and the hearth/ash deposits; the sediments from these were all washed as part of the flotation process and the material sorted in laboratory conditions. However, in practice some samples were lost, contaminated or not properly recorded, so the figures quoted are not a 100% recovery rate. The losses were quite a small proportion of the material processed, so the data recovered is a sufficiently accurate record of the volume of soil excavated and of the distribution of material from the occupation deposits. The largest number of finds of all categories come from the floor layers on either side of the central aisle even though the volume of the deposits excavated from these peripheral floors was no greater than that excavated from the hearth/ash layers in the centre of the house (Figure 127. The densities of winkles, pottery and fish bones were particularly low in the central hearth/ash layers. The volume of the abandonment deposits was roughly half that of the floor and hearth deposits, but these layers produced the highest densities of winkles and pot recovered from the house floor. The pit fills also had high densities of pot and winkle, but noticeably very low densities of fish. The number of fragments recovered and the density of

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC) Density

35

100000

25 pot unburnt bone fish

20 15 10

80000 60000 40000 20000

5 0

W end

W central

E central

0

E end

Density

30

50000

20

10

burnt bone 40000 charcoal 30000 BOM slag 20000

5

10000

15

W end

W central

E central

0

E end

Density

6 5 4

crab spirorbis egg coprolite

3 2 1 0

W end

W central

E central

W end

E end

20000 18000 16000 14000 12000 10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0

W central

E central

E end

Quantity

60000

25

0

Quantity

120000

30

237

W end

W central

E central

E end

Quantity

W end

W central

E central

E end

Figure 179. The distribution of the principal materials recovered from the 2 to 10 mm residues, calculated by density and by quantity

these by litre are presented in Figure 178. The quantity of material recovered generally reflects the numbers of litres of soil removed from each area (Figure 178). The west central area had the most substantial occupation deposits, and produced by far the highest quantity of winkles and higher quantities of bone and pot fragments. Only the distribution of fish bones differs from this pattern; the largest number of these came from the east end of the house. The east end of the house also produced the next highest volume of soil, and, with the exception of fish, produced the second highest quantities of most materials. The east central area was the next most significant and the west end produced the smallest volume of soil and the smallest quantities of all material. The low volume of soil at the west end of the house reflects the concentration of

pits in this area, as their fills have been excluded from this analysis of the house occupation deposits. If we look at the density of materials from each area (Figure 178), then the figures show much less variability, particularly of pot and bone. The west central area produced the highest densities of winkles and bone fragments, but the east end produced higher densities of limpets and fish. The west end produced generally lower densities of all the different categories, except for pottery. The differences between the two datasets are important and should be considered. The volume of soil in each part of the house indicates the accumulation of deposits through human action and potentially it could also have been affected by the removal of those deposits by human action during the occupation of the house.

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

238 250 200 150 100 50 0

w end flint tools/waste

w central

e central

ornaments iron fittings

e end

miscellaneous

Figure 180. The distribution of the main finds categories across the house floor

The relationship between the number of finds and the amount of soil suggests that in most cases it is the volume of soil that was allowed to accumulate that dictates the amount of material found. The quantities suggest that the west central area was the focus for much of the activity inside the house. The volume of soil that had accumulated in this area was much higher than for any other area, and the quantities of material found reflect this process of deposition. Nevertheless, the variation in the distribution of different types of material highlights differences in the nature of the deposition in these areas. Thus the density of limpets was low in the west central area, whereas the density of winkles was unusually high. Pottery has a fairly uniform presence throughout the house, whereas the deposition of fish bones was concentrated at the east end and was relatively low throughout the rest of the house. The quantity and density figures for the 2–10 mm material are displayed in Figure 179. The 2–10 mm figures have up to now been presented as density figures but the figures for the volume of soil collected as part of the over 10 mm data can be used to estimate an overall figure for the distribution of total numbers. The quantities of material shown in Figure 179 (righthand side) are projected quantities, extrapolated from the actual quantities retrieved when sorting only a fraction of each sample (Table 50 includes the data on the fractions actually sorted). The west central area produced the highest quantities of most categories of material. Only the burnt materials were present in comparable quantities in the eastern half of the house. The west end always has the lowest quantities, because of the damage caused to the floor layers by the digging of pits. The densities of 2–10 mm residues were fairly even between the areas for the main categories of pot, bone and fish. The burnt organic matter (but not the other burnt materials) had a much higher density in the east central area; the density of B.O.M. drops dramatically at the east

end but is still higher than in the western half of the house. The densities of most of the other materials in the west end of the house are comparable to the other areas. This area at the west end had the highest densities of burnt bone and pot, and very high densities of eggshell, which gradually becomes less significant as one moves from west to east in the house. The pattern for the carbonised plant remains is significantly different (Figure 169): the samples with the highest densities were generally not found in the west central area. The most important species, barley, had its highest densities in the east central area; the west central and west end had roughly similar densities and the east end was the least important. The samples with the highest densities of oats, rye and wild seeds were in the west end; the east central area produced the next highest densities, followed by the west central area. The only crop with its highest densities in the west central area is flax. The samples from the east end of the house were consistently poor. Similar patterns are visible in the animal bone assemblage (see Figure 172). The lowest quantities of bone for the main species, cattle and sheep, came from the west end; the next highest assemblage came from the east end then from the east central area. The west central area produced the largest assemblage, but the difference between the east and west central areas is not as great as it is for the finds assemblage (see below). Sheep/goat was the most numerous species in the central area (quads 10 and 12), which also produced large assemblages of cattle bone. At both ends of the house cattle were more significant than sheep. The smaller assemblages of pigs and deer exhibit slightly different patterns. Deer is the least numerous of the four main species, and more bones were found in the west end than the east end, but with concentrations in quads 10 and 12. Pig is the least numerous of the three domesticated species, but at the west end it is numerically equivalent to the sheep and there was a concentration in quad 4. Nevertheless, the largest assemblage of pig bones came from the west central area, and the eastern half of the house had the lowest numbers. The distribution of the different finds categories is depicted in Figure 180 and the detailed location plots of the material are shown in Figures 159–167. All five functional categories had their lowest quantities at the east end. Finds were slightly more common at the west end, the east central area had more again, and the west central area produced by far the most substantial assemblage. Flints follow this trend, but the west central area is not in this case as substantially different from the east central area as it is in other finds categories. The distribution of waste material shows very little variability: small clusters of antler debris were present in quads 6 and 10 and flint was concentrated in quad 10 and, to a lesser extent, quad 9. An interesting feature of the tool distribution is the opposition between spindle whorls,

The Middle Norse house on mound 2 (BC)

239

Figure 181. A view of House 2 during excavation in 2004

concentrated in quad 9, and needles, concentrated in quad 10. Whetstones and knives, in contrast, were often found together, and in quads 6, 9 and 10 two of each were found. There was a concentration of bone points in quad 9. A large fragment of quern was found in quad 20. The most common items of personal adornment from the House 2 occupation deposits are bone pins and composite antler combs. Concentrations of pins were noted in quads 5, 6 and 12; there were very few in the west end and almost none in the eastern half of the house. Combs were more widely distributed within the house. Some important examples were found in the eastern half, but the concentrations were once again in the west central area, in particular quads 4, 7 and 10. There was also an important concentration of decorated antler tines in quads 5 and 7, where the antler cylinder decorated in the Ringerike style was also located. Iron fittings and miscellaneous fragments were found across the house, extending as far as the west wall, and there were concentrations in quads 5 and 9. Copper alloy

and lead fragments were concentrated on the north side of the central aisle, particularly in quads 7 and 9, and the latter distribution extended into the top of quad 10. Whale bone artefacts and steatite, in contrast, avoided these locations and steatite was found exclusively in the southern half of the house.

Conclusion This analysis does not explain why these objects were left behind to be excavated by archaeologists (Figure 181). Previous papers discussing the significance of the material from House 2 (Sharples 2004; Sharples and Smith 2009) have suggested a couple of explanations. The first scenario is that the life of the house ended abruptly, perhaps because the family head was killed in an inauspicious manner and this meant the house could not be reoccupied, but had to be abandoned. This interpretation may be supported by the short length of the occupation of the house: the modelling of the radiocarbon dates suggests

240

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

this lasted for no more than 50 years (68% probability; see Chapter 11). In this scenario, the artefacts could indicate possessions put down casually for collection later but then abandoned rather than retrieved. It is also possible, however, that selected objects were deliberately placed in particular locations in the house, to mark out how people occupied the house when it was in use. There certainly was a period of disuse when the house was abandoned. However, this explanation does not really explain the vertical distribution of the objects. The house had several floor layers and some of the comb fragments come from early deposits, which indicates that the combs were not deposited as a single event. An alternative interpretation is that the number of arte­ facts present in this house relates to a period of conspicuous consumption in the eleventh to twelfth centuries when the occupants were sufficiently well equipped simply to dispose of artefacts in a casual and unthinking fashion. However, this explanation does not seem to fit the character of the comb assemblage, which I have argued indicates the exploitation of a resource that was not easily accessible to the inhabitants. These issues will need to be considered further when the detailed analysis of the material culture is presented in volume 2 of the Bornais mound 2 monographs.

Notes 1 558 and 1302 have been phased to BCC but they may amalgamate earlier deposits 2 This is a mixed layer which appears to include a lot of redeposited hearth ash but it will be treated as a floor layer in the analysis below, 3 Initially each sample was analyzed at a scale of 1/1 using a light table, at which time the general sample layers were distinguished. Microscopic studies were then conducted with a petrographic polarising microscope at magnifications ranging from ×40 – ×400. During microscopic analysis, the samples were viewed in plane-polarised light (PPL), crosspolarised light (XPL) and oblique-incident light (OIL). Such differing light conditions permitted the observation of all relevant sample contents. Micromorphological descriptions were conducted with reference to the internationally accepted terminology in Stoops (2003) and Bullock et al. (1985).   Micromorphological analysis was aimed at providing microscopic evidence on the nature of sediment formation prior to, during, and immediately after the occupation of House 2. In particular it was focused on studying sediment located under the structure to determine if there was a prolonged period of natural aeolian accumulation, or if sediment was dumped here prior to construction of the house. It was also focused on providing evidence on activities associated with the occupation deposits, both to investigate the use of space within the house, as well as the nature and composition of the hearth. The study also concentrated on sediment that had accumulated after the primary occupation of the building, in particular to determine whether these upper sediment layers were turf collapse, or secondary occupation deposits.

5  The Middle Norse transition phase on mound 2 (BD) – N Sharples and O Davis

Introduction The abandoned shell of House 2 contained a complicated sequence of deposits that appear to span 65–130 years; House 2 was abandoned around AD 1090–1130 and the occupation of House 3 began about AD 1250–1270 (68% probability). Interpretation of the deposits and architectural remains belonging to this period of activity is problematic, as most of the buildings were either ephemeral structures, possibly never finished, or more substantial structures that were subsequently demolished and robbed. Considerable quantities of finds were recovered from these deposits; some of the assemblages include a significant residual element, but there are changes that suggest this was an important period of transition. The deposits belonging to this phase comprise a sequence of eight blocks, BDA to BDH, which are arranged sequentially within the western half of House 2. The earlier blocks indicate the construction and occu­pation of a building inside House 2, which was subsequently modified and rebuilt. This structure was subsequently robbed and the later blocks indicate the infilling of the house with wind-blown sand. In these later blocks, human activity is represented by only sporadic occupation layers and occasional ephemeral structural remains. Two other blocks are also placed in this phase: BDI comprises the deposits in the eastern half of House 2, which were equivalent to the deposits in the western half but truncated and not closely related by stratigraphy; BDJ comprises a series of deposits surrounding House 3 that seem to precede the construction of that house. The sequence suggests a period when this mound, which had been the prestigious centre of the settlement, became much less important and might even have been largely abandoned.

Initial structural modifications (BDA) The first thing that happened after the abandonment of House 2 was the construction of a structure, identified as a house (House 7, see Chapter 13), which survived only in the eastern half of House 2 (Figure 182). The best evidence for this house was a western wall that ran north to south across the middle of House 2. The principal structural

elements of this wall can be divided into three features: the inner wall face, the wall core and the outer wall face. These elements were all contemporary and associated with occupation deposits that lay inside the house and which are discussed below (BDB). The inner wall survived as three disconnected areas of revetment wall: 567, the southern wall; 940, the western wall; and 903, the northern wall. Wall 567 ran for a length of 2.50 m and stood to a maximum height of 0.14 m. The basal course consisted of quite substantial stones (0.50 × 0.20 × 0.10 m), but the second course was constructed using smaller stones (0.10 × 0.25 × 0.25 m). The west end of the building was defined by a line of five stones (940), in a basal course) 1.50 m long. In contrast to wall 567, the stones of this basal course were smaller (0.30 × 0.25 × 0.05 m) than those of the second course (0.45 × 0.30 × 0.10 m). Wall 940 stood up to 0.22 m high. The northern wall (903) was a 2.00 m stretch of six basal stones that were arranged with a slight curve. Most of this northern revetment wall was only one course high but in a few places two courses survived. The outer wall face (574/103/143) was a substantial, well-preserved revetment wall. It was over 3.55 m long, and ran straight across the centre of House 2 from a position to the south of the original north wall of that house (Figure 183). As it approached the south wall of House 2 (900), it curved round and ran almost parallel to that wall before abutting it. Up to three courses of the BDA outer wall face survived and it stood to a height of 0.39 m. The space between the inner and outer wall faces was filled with a sequence of orangey-brown and dark brown sand layers (195, 505, 575, 578 and 1261), which were probably dumped to form a core to the wall (Figure 184). The area of the most extensive layer (578) is shown on Figure 182. Unfortunately this structure, like the succeeding modifi­ cations, was truncated by later robbing and its eastern half was completely destroyed by the construction of House 3. Nevertheless, the remains suggest the intention was to construct a smaller house inside the eastern half of House 2. If this structure reused the east wall of House 2, it would have had an internal length of just over 10 m and an estimated width of 4.50 m.

242

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Figure 182. A plan of the initial structural modifications to House 2, BDA (see Figure 22 for a key to the colour conventions used in this chapter)

Figure 183. A view of the structural modifications during excavation, from the north. The internal and external wall faces (574 and 940; BDA) and the sand core (578) of the north-south wall are clearly visible on the right. Beyond these walls is the southern wall, 900, of House 2. In the centre of the picture, facing the camera, is BDC revetment wall 939 and on the left-hand side is the back of BDD revetment wall 566.

The Middle Norse transition phase on mound 2 (BD) A

243

B S wall 939

E

W

912

503

574

1000 566

N

940

505

1041

1005

C

D S

N

S 900

1022 578

1022 = 1004 574

567 909

945

1004 505

578 1005

945

0

567

949

N

1050

1050

945

900

578

2m

Figure 184. Sections across the BDA wall (940, 578, 574) (see Figure 185 for location)

Occupation associated with BDA (BDB) The deposits associated with the BDA house were badly damaged by later activity and only two patches of thin, stratified layers appear to have been primary floors. The sequence began with a grey sand (1035, 1060/1085). This was overlaid with an orange peat ash layer (1042/1059) and a dark grey-brown sand (1034) with charcoal flecks and orange mottles. Overlying these was a compact greybrown sand (1025 and 1029) and a more restricted layer of orange peat ash (1024). These layers were related to another sequence of three layers that consisted of a charcoal-rich black layer (935), under brown sand (934) and charcoal layer (924) (Figure 188).

Constructions within the BDA structure (BDC) The BDA structure was subsequently modified by the construction of two walls that formed a small structure (Shelter 2, Chapter 13) in the southwest corner of the building (Figures 185 and 186). The construction sequence appears complicated but it could have been a relatively short-lived event The first component of this structure was a block of masonry consisting of three revetment walls surrounding a rubble and sand core (1058) projecting from the east side of wall 940. The southern wall face (1001) was 1.60 m long and consisted of three courses, standing 0.50 m high. The basal courses were square beach pebbles, 0.50 × 0.40 × 0.20 m, but the upper courses were slightly more irregular in size. The northern wall face (939) was 1.60 m long and consisted of three courses, standing 0.55 m high. The stones were relatively large square blocks, 0.40 × 0.30 × 0.20 m. This north face had a later extension when two stones (1041; in section Figure 188 G) were added to extend it 0.43 m to the east. This lay on a pale grey sand (912/1036;

Figure 184). The east end was faced with a revetment wall (1000) standing five courses, 0.50 m high. At the west end of wall 939, there was originally a gap between this block of masonry and the west wall of the BDA house (940), but this was blocked with two stones (943) that continued the line of wall face 1001. The other component of this structure was a wall projecting northwards from the south wall (567) of the BDA house. The east face of this wall (583) was 1.30 m long and 0.40 m high and reached to within 0.40 m of wall 1001. The gap between the two walls created an entrance passage, flanked on one side by wall 1001 and on the other side by a short stretch of masonry, 0.60 m long. An internal revetment wall (1002), west of wall 583, was four courses, 0.35 m high, and curved from the end of the entrance passage to the original southwest corner of the BDA house. The core of this wall was a light grey-brown sand (942). Possibly associated with this construction were two post holes (1242 and 1027) to the north (Figure 185). Inside the structure were two occupation layers (Figure 188 E). The lowest was an isolated, brown friable sand (933) and this was sealed by a more extensive layer of grey-brown sand (909) that produced most of the small finds from this block. When first exposed, this structure was thought to be possibly a corn-drying kiln, as its entrance was very narrow and the curving south wall of the structure was otherwise unusual. However, no ash deposits were found around the entrance, which makes this interpretation unlikely. The point of this small structure, with internal dimensions1.1 m wide by 1.4 m long, is therefore difficult to understand. It could be argued that it is comparable to the shelters in the corn-drying kiln on mound 3 (Sharples 2005b, 117) and in the southwest corner of House 3 (see Chapter 10), but the walls were more substantial than in these structures.

244

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Figure 185. A plan of the structural modifications (BDC) within the BDA structure

Figure 186. A view of the structural modification (BDC) from the south

The Middle Norse transition phase on mound 2 (BD)

245

Figure 187. The rebuilt structure inside BDA (BDD)

Building a new structure (BDD) This building phase (BDC) was followed by another major modification of the interior of House 2, when the BDA/ BDC structures were covered over and a new building constructed (Figure 187; House 8, Chapter 13). This structure was almost completely removed by the building of House 3 (BE). The entrance passage of the BDC corner structure was infilled with rubble (584) and grey-brown sand (597). This was faced with stones to the east, indicating that it was a deliberate blocking of the small structure, rather than simply collapse. The remains of the BDC corner structure, and much of the BDA house, were then covered by an extensive layer of brown sand (576; Figure 187). A radiocarbon sample (SUERC-22886) was obtained from a cattle bone in this layer. This has a radiocarbon age of 965±30 BP, which calibrates to a date of cal AD 1010– 1160 (95% confidence). The west side of a new building was defined by a revetment wall (566) east of brown sand 576, and an

east–west oriented cut (1066) defined the north side of this building (Figure 187). Wall 566 is estimated to have been 4.20 m long but the south end did not survive. It was seldom over one course high and the stones used in its construction were relatively flat, thin slabs. The stones were set in a cut (1045) filled with grey sand (1046) and mid-grey sand (1052) (Figure 188 G). The northern cut (1066) did not contain a wall in the excavated area, but two basal stones were visible in section (Figure 191 G–H). These structural remains probably indicate the west gable wall of another small east–west oriented house. There was no trace of any east wall below House 3, so this house presumably reused the east wall of House 2.

Occupation of structure BDD (BDE) A compact, red-brown sand (593) represented the floor of the BDD structure (Figure 189). This floor layer was not identified to the east of Figure 189 where it had been truncated by the construction of House 3. A radiocarbon

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

246 E

F S

S

N

939

1001

924

N 583

567

909

933

1000 584

1002

912

934

935

G E

W 1041 1052

566

1045

1036

939

1034 1042

1046

0

1035

1m

Figure 188. Sections and elevations of the BDC structure (see Figure 185 for location)

Figure 189. The occupation layer associated with the rebuilt structure (BDE)

1041

The Middle Norse transition phase on mound 2 (BD)

247

Figure 190. An in situ view of the whale bone socket (5929) in front of wall 900

sample (SUERC-22895) was obtained from the ulna of a pig in this layer. This has a radiocarbon age of 955±30 BP, which calibrates to a date of cal AD 1010–1170 (95% confidence). A small pit (1281) was found immediately adjacent to the eastern limit of the surviving deposits. The primary fill was a charcoal rich deposit (1283) and this was covered by a loose light brown sand (1282) (Figure 192). This pit was lined on its north side with large potsherds (small finds 3882 and 3992). The pit was covered by floor 593 and it is possible that it was associated with House 2. Possibly associated with the BDD structure was a large whale bone stake (5929; Figure 190). The excavation of this was not ideal as it was discovered during the removal of a baulk. It appears to have been placed in a feature, possibly cutting the BDA wall core 578, and was located immediately in front of the surviving eastern end of wall 900 (the south wall of House 2), in line with wall 567, though that wall had also been robbed away in this location. The object has a circular cross section with a socket carved in one end and a point at the other (see Figure 204). It is difficult to imagine how this could have served as a structural element but it is a very distinctive object and it is placed in a significant location close to the junction of House 2 and 3 (see the house plan overlay in Figure 227).

Infilling of the House 2 hollow (BDF) The deposits sealing these structural remains varied as

one moved from west to east across the interior of House 2. In the west end of House 2, the original House 2 floor (BCC) was covered by a thick deposit of pale light brown, yellow or white sand. However, as one moved across the partially dismantled structural remains discussed above, the deposits were more often brown silty layers, containing a lot more evidence for human occupation. In the western half of the house, the initial yellow sand was given various numbers depending on the year the deposits were excavated (16/29/37, 123/124/125/146/ 148/149, 180/181; Figure 191, A–B). Within 123 was a dump of limpets (126) and charcoal, which was associated with a group of slabs (129). Immediately adjacent to the northwest corner of House 2 was a lower layer of much darker brown sand (127, also numbered 7, 25, 38, 192) which contained some large slabs (128 and 141) that are interpreted as tumble from the House 2 wall. A couple of small ash and charcoal patches (153, 154) were noted on top of this fill layer. These deposits probably indicate wind-blown sand accumulation, with only occasional evidence for human deposition. They may be contemporary with the structural activity of blocks BDA–BDE, but it is possible that this area was kept clean during the construction and occupation of these structures. The sequence in the east, overlying the floor of BDE (Figure 191, G–H), began with a thin layer of windblown sand (2123) and a soft, dark brown sand (518). A radiocarbon sample (SUERC-22888) was obtained from

248

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Figure 191. Miscellaneous sections through the deposits infilling the west half of House 2

The Middle Norse transition phase on mound 2 (BD)

2171

2293

2156

2169

249

2292

2155

2170

2168

2144

2142

1024 1282 1283

2135

2134 1243

1281

0

1m

1242

Figure 192. Sections through some of the features found in the deposits infilling House 2

the metatarsal and navicular cuboid of a sheep/goat in 518. This has a radiocarbon age of 935±30 BP, which calibrates to a date of cal AD 1020–1170 (95% confidence). Layer 518 was relatively thin in the centre of House 2 but to the north and south it thickened, as it rose up to the south in front of wall 900 and to the north against the edge of cut 1066. Within this layer were two large angular slabs (542) that may represent the remnants of a wall running north–south. The thin central part of 518 was overlain by a compact, orange-brown sand (555/2037), which thinned out as it rose up to the north, a small patch of red clay (199) and a dark brown sand (501/507/198) that was full of shells. Further west, the south wall of House 2 (900) and part of the western BDA revetment wall (574) were covered by a pale grey-brown layer (1004/1022) with rubble (1050) (Figure 184). Both 555 and 507 were covered by a layer of red-brown sand (500/2034), which was very similar to 518 where the two layers were not separated by 555. This thick deposit was probably the same as layer 197 on the south side of the trench. It had abundant charcoal flecks and occasional lenses of white sand (504), which in turn contained orange sand (506).

Ephemeral structures (BDG) A series of ephemeral structures and patches of occupation debris comprised the next phase of activity in the western half of House 2 (Figure 193). The house was filled with roughly 0.20 m of sand by the time these structures were constructed. It is difficult to piece together a coherent narrative for these partial remains: the structures were never very substantial when originally built and were subsequently robbed. On top of the initial sand layers, at the west end of the house, was a temporary structure (Figure 193, 194; Shelter 3, Chapter 13). This was defined by an arc of large boulders (122) that faced to the west and enclosed a discrete patch

of dark brown sand with orange and charcoal flecks (121; Figure 191, A–B). The western edge of this occupation layer had a sharp boundary, which suggests the presence in this area too of large boulders that were subsequently removed. Around the surviving stones (122), and overlying them, was a patchy grey sand (118), which is interpreted as decayed turves that formed part of the wall and then collapsed into the structure when it was abandoned. It is clear that turf walls were a substantial structural element of many of these short-lived small buildings, and that the subsequent decay of the turf makes a full understanding of the structures very difficult. This structure at the west end of House 2 might have been contemporary with dumps of shell (120) and brown sand, including a patch of orange and black sand (179) and another patch of charcoal-rich sand (153).The latter lay immediately to the north of a very rough, curving arrangement of large stones (139; Shelter 4, Chapter 13), which was arranged in relation to a wall (151). This wall was one of two stone lines (151 and 502) that cut across House 2 in this phase (Figure 193). Neither stone line was more than two courses high. Wall 151 ran from the south wall of House 2 for approximately 3.00 m. As far as it can be said to face in any direction, this wall or stone line faced to the west. Stone line 502, made up of about five stones aligned northwest–southeast, continued to the southeast as a line of more obviously tumbled stones (508). Stones 502 and 508 were almost certainly tumble, derived from the earlier BDA revetment wall (574; Figure 185). However, the five stones of 502 had clearly been pulled forward and rearranged, as both this line and wall 151 overlay a darker brown sand (150/189/194/520; Figure 191, C–D). It is possible that wall 151 was part of a structure defined by the curving line of 139, and that the builders were attempting to construct a D-shaped structure. Roughly contemporary with these walls was another structural feature that is difficult to explain. A stone line

250

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Figure 193. The various rubble walls, and occupation deposits in the final infilling layers of House 2

(543) was found to the east, contained within a bank of compact, dark brown sand (99). This line was 1.70 m long and consisted, with the exception of one area with two courses, of a single line of stones facing west (Figure 193). The bank of soil (99) tailed off to the east (Figure 191, E–F) and west, and only just reached the northern edge of the trench. To the west it sloped down towards an arc of large boulders (105; Shelter 5, Chapter 13). Backing onto the boulders to the west was brown sand (189/194/520). Another arrangement of stones (104) lay to the south of this wall and may be related to it. On top of 189/194/520 were three discrete orange-brown patches (535, 537 and 539). The hollow created between the bank of soil (99) and the arc of boulders (105) was only 0.80 m in diameter

and though, in theory, it could have provided the basis of a shelter for an individual, in practice the presence of only one course of boulders would make this an unlikely explanation. The hollow was filled with a thick deposit of light brown sand (100), probably wind-blown sand captured in the sheltered area between stone line 543 and the boulders (Figure 191, E–F). The ephemeral structures of this block indicate a period of time when this part of the site was not densely occupied. Small shelters were created by robbing the walls of House 2 and the structures initially built inside House 2. Occupation was represented by darker brown sand layers that could have been deliberately dumped to consolidate the loose sand filling in House 2.

The Middle Norse transition phase on mound 2 (BD)

251

Figure 194. A view of occupation layer 121 and revetment wall 122 from the south

Final infilling of the House 2 hollow (BDH) The structures belonging to block BDG were sealed by light grey sands, similar to those of block BDF, that were probably blown into the hollow of House 2 (Figure 191). These layers were differentiated by slight changes in texture and were separated by thin layers of occupation debris, which again suggest sporadic human activity. At the west end, a simple sequence of two layers of pale wind-blown sand (112 and 137) was observed. In places this sand was split into an earlier (119) and later deposit (15/114, 20 and 22/115) by a small concentration of ash and shell layers (10, 108, 117 and 134). In the centre of the house (above the structural remains of BDA/BDC), layer 112 was split into two grey sand layers (101/177/519 and 174/98/2074/2055). These were covered by another loose grey sand (191). Layer 177 contained a patch of darker sand (178) that showed some evidence for burning. The thick layers were split by a patch of charcoal-rich sand (510), a brown sand (93) that contained a layer of shells (94), and a dark orange brown sand (176). The charcoal-rich sand (510) surrounded an antler pick (2002; Figure 195) that had clearly been burnt in situ and the isolated nature of this object suggests an act of ritual deposition. In the centre of the house the grey sand (98) changed character to the south, becoming a red-brown sand (196) that rose up over the wall of House 2. Grey sand 98 overlay a number of discrete patches of orange sand (511,

512, 513, 514, 515, 516, 517) and a dump of shells in a light grey sand (102).

Activity below House 3 (BDI) The eastern end of House 2 lay beneath House 3 (see Figure 227). Separating House 3 from the floor layers of House 2 was a 0.30 m thick homogeneous layer of loose brown sand (1213/1270/1474/2025, 2185; Figure 239). The upper part of this layer was numbered 1053/1090, and in places it was separated from the later floors by a soft grey-brown sand (1225). Underneath the hearths of House 3 (see Chapter 7), the brown sand appeared to be scorched (1494 and 1253). Prior to this thick accumulation there were a few lenses of loose grey sand on the south side of the house (quad 8/580, quad 16/2644) and it appears these indicate an accumulation of wind-blown sand, equivalent to 2123 (BDF infill further west), prior to the main infill layer. The southern part of the area excavated beneath House 3 had a considerably more complex stratigraphy than the main area. Immediately sealing the paving of the House 2 entrance was a wind-blown sand (2600) that appears to represent the beginning of the abandonment of House 2. Directly above this was a dark brown sand layer (2608) that contained a high proportion of stone rubble. Sealing these deposits was a reddish-brown sand deposit (2247), covered by the extensive mid-brown sand (1474) and finally a sterile white/light grey sand deposit (2296). These layers were cut by a series of pits (Figures 191 and 196; Table 65).

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

252

Figure 195. An antler pick 2002 that was placed on the blown sand infill (BDH) and then had a fire lit on top of it.

420/220

2142

2292

2168

2144

2170

2155 2201

2135

2156

2129 2134

2183

2130

0

5m

Figure 196. A plan of the pits at the south end of House 3 (BDI)

Pit 2201 was a large feature, although its entire extent was never exposed as it extended beyond the eastern and southern edges of the excavated area. Immediately to the west of this pit was the remains of a stone revetment wall (2129) that ran below the wall of House 3. The face consisted of four medium-sized stones, aligned in a northeast–southwest direction, and faced to the south. The

stones were associated with a compact, orange and black deposit with frequent charcoal inclusions (2130), which appeared to be the trample around a hearth. This deposit overlay the fill of pit 2201. Beneath the centre-south of House 3 was a sub-rectan­ gular pit (2168) that contained several stones. This pit was cut by a shallow scoop or pit (2170), which was in

The Middle Norse transition phase on mound 2 (BD)

2187

Tertiary fill

dump of c.20 stones

2156

Fourth fill

mid-brown sand

turn cut by 2155, a large pit oriented east–west. To the west and stratigraphically unrelated to these pits was a large shallow pit (2134). To the east were two stakeholes (2142) and (2144) and the truncated remnants of a small circular scoop (2292). Most of the latter pits and stake-holes were aligned on the edges of House 3 and it is possible that they were dug during the construction of House 3 (block BE). This cannot be the case for pit 2201, which extended below the south wall of House 3 and could be the construction pit of an earlier building. Beneath the northern part of House 3, on its west side, a roughly circular pit (2137) appeared to have been truncated by the west wall of the initial phase of House 3 (BEA wall 1273), suggesting it preceded its construction.

dark brown sand 2293 0.06

dark brown sand 2145 0.15

0.06

dark brown sand 2143 0.05

yellow-brown sand, patches of black clay at base 2135 0.08

0.30 shallow with rounded bottom Scoop 2292

circular

0.10 straight-sided, flat bottomed Stake hole 2144

oval

0.07 straight-sided, flat bottomed Stake hole 2142

circular

0.86 Pit 2134

sub- rectangular

shallow with gently sloping sides

1.38

sterile light brown sand 2186 0.70 0.98 Pit 2155

oval

steep sided with flat base

1.28

mid-brown sand with yellow flecks 2171 0.10 0.32 Scoop 2170

oval

gently sloping sides with flat base

0.23

mid-brown sand with medium-sized and large stones 2169 0.28 0.47 Pit 2168

sub-rectangular

badly truncated with flat base

0.38

dark brown sand with black and orange flecks 2138 0.13 0.43 Pit 2137

circular

steep-sided, flat bottomed

0.25

greyish-brown sand, flecks of charcoal and burnt clay 0.40 >0.80 >2.60 straight-sided, flat bottomed Pit 2201

unknown

Length

Width

Depth

2183

Primary fill

2184

Secondary fill

dark brown/black ash rich deposit

Deposits around the edge of House 3 (BDJ)

Profile Shape in plan Feature type Context

Table 65. A summary description of the features below House 3 (BDI)

253

The lowest deposit of this block, south of the south wall of House 3 (Figure 197) was a brown sand (1084) that contained a concentration of winkle shells (1293). A north-facing revetment wall (1288), 1.50 m long and consisting of a single course of stones, was constructed on this midden layer. This wall appeared to be coming to a corner within the trench and is interpreted as the remains of a small house (House 9, Chapter 13). The occupation of this house was represented by several patches of peat ash (1290, 1291 and 1292). An unexcavated post hole (1328) situated some distance to west may belong to this structure. This structure was similar to the final phase houses in mounds 1 and 3, also consisting of low revetment walls with patchy ash deposits in their interior (Sharples 2012, 157–8; Sharples 2005b, 53–55). The absence of any north wall to the structure suggests that this house was truncated by the construction of House 3. A surviving north wall running across the filling of House 2 would have subsided into the loose fill beneath House 3 and would have been relatively well preserved, but no such wall was present on excavation. Similar structures were recorded to the northwest of House 2 (IA; see Figure 364) and to the southwest of House 3 (AE; see Figure 349). These were probably contemporary with the BDJ house, occupied during the period between the abandonment of House 2 and the construction of House 3. To the northeast, east of House 3’s east wall, a series of discrete layers were exposed that also appear to indicate activity pre-dating House 3. There was a grey sand (1341), a band of white wind-blown sand (1344), a patch of golden-brown sand (1348) and a small, very dark brown sand patch (1346). Adjacent to the south edge of the 2003 trench was a dark brown sand (1345), which included orange (ash) patches and a lot more bone and shell than the other layers. There were also a number of large stones to the north, some of which were walls (1342) that suggest the presence of significant structures in this area.

199

8123

121

179

2 samples

8107

119

176

178

2 samples

8106

117

2 samples

174

116

5705

2 samples

115

5704

5707

98

Sub-total

535

8116

9 samples

8135

150, 189, 194

120

5708

3 samples

118

Sub-total

2123

555, 2037

506

5709

15 samples

11802

2 samples

8125

500, 2034

198

8122

2 samples

154

8132

123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 131

6 samples

2040

11531

Sub-total

1282

9439

44 samples

593

597

9523

42 samples

576

9501

Sub-total

912

2 samples

Sub-total

1 sample

925

7062

4 samples

1024

9760

2215

11966

924

1270

9454

2 samples

1261

9464

Sub-total

578

9559

4 samples

Context

Sample

BDH

BDH

BDH

BDH

BDH

BDH

BDH

BDH

BDG

BDG

BDG

BDG

BDG

BDG

BDG

BDF

BDF

BDF

BDF

BDF

BDF

BDF

BDF

BDF

BDE

BDE

BDE

BDE

BDD

BDD

BDD

BDC

18.5

26.0

35.0

30.0

18.5

1.5

23.0

24.0

108.0

9.0

25.5

2.5

22.0

20.0

29.0

284.9

20.0

72.0

0.4

61.0

13.0

18.0

7.0

93.5

428.3

36.0

3.0

389.3

74.0

34.0

40.0

20.0

45.5

0.5

BDB/ BFC

BDB

17.0

28.0

120.5

57.0

15.0

21.5

27.0

Litres

BDB

BDB

BDA

BDA

BDA

BDA

BDA

Block

10

3

1

3

0

1

0

2

5

0

2

0

1

2

0

52

4

20

0

21

3

0

0

4

63

7

0

56

10

3

7

5

3

0

3

0

38

5

1

14

18

no.

0.54

0.12

0.03

0.10

0.00

0.67

0.00

0.08

0.05

0.00

0.08

0.00

0.05

0.10

0.00

0.18

0.20

0.28

0.00

0.34

0.23

0.00

0.00

0.04

0.15

0.19

0.00

0.14

0.14

0.09

0.18

0.25

0.07

0.00

0.18

0.00

0.32

0.09

0.07

0.65

0.67

density

Fish

5

5

6

6

13

0

0

6

20

4

5

0

2

6

3

100

6

22

3

32

10

4

0

23

211

25

0

186

38

13

25

10

17

0

8

9

114

16

6

57

35

no.

Unburnt bone

3

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

3

0

3

0

0

0

0

10

2

4

0

1

1

2

0

0

23

3

0

20

1

0

1

1

71

0

46

25

6

1

0

2

3

no.

Burnt bone

0

0

0

6

13

0

0

0

23

0

0

0

2

6

3

110

8

26

3

33

11

6

0

23

234

28

0

206

39

13

26

11

88

0

54

34

120

17

6

59

38

no.

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.20

0.70

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.21

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.09

0.30

0.10

0.39

0.40

0.36

7.50

0.54

0.85

0.33

0.00

0.25

0.55

0.78

0.00

0.53

0.53

0.38

0.65

0.55

1.93

0.00

3.18

1.21

1.00

0.30

0.40

2.74

1.41

density

All mammal bones

6

2

1

1

5

0

15

0

6

0

6

1

2

66

2

17

0

25

10

5

0

7

147

8

1

138

19

5

14

2

21

0

15

6

23

11

6

1

5

no.

0.32

0.08

0.03

0.03

0.27

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.14

0.00

0.24

0.00

0.27

0.05

0.07

0.23

0.10

0.24

0.00

0.41

0.77

0.28

0.00

0.07

0.34

0.22

0.33

0.35

0.26

0.15

0.35

0.10

0.46

0.00

0.88

0.21

0.19

0.19

0.40

0.05

0.19

density

Pottery

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

4.0

0

2.0

0

2.0

0

0

0

0

2.0

0

0

2

0

0

0

0

1.0

0

1

0

6

0

0

6

0

no.

Slag

20

12

60

55

1

8

15

97

6

16

0

5

69

1

628

9

21

0

74

10

40

0

474

279

23

11

245

58

9

49

12

12

0

3

9

69

35

4

10

20

no.

1.08

0.46

1.71

0.00

2.97

0.67

0.35

0.63

0.90

0.67

0.63

0.00

0.23

3.45

0.03

2.20

0.45

0.29

0.00

1.21

0.77

2.22

0.00

5.07

0.65

0.64

3.67

0.63

0.78

0.26

1.23

0.60

0.26

0.00

0.18

0.32

0.57

0.61

0.27

0.47

0.74

density

Limpet

2

17

16

45

2

4

18

765

11

40

0

1

709

4

333

30

25

0

67

133

19

0

59

377

21

10

346

69

12

57

14

20

0

1

19

124

62

16

8

38

no.

0.11

0.65

0.46

0.00

2.43

1.33

0.17

0.75

7.08

1.22

1.57

0.00

0.05

35.45

0.14

1.17

1.50

0.35

0.00

1.10

10.23

1.06

0.00

0.63

0.88

0.58

3.33

0.89

0.93

0.35

1.43

0.70

0.44

0.00

0.06

0.68

1.03

1.09

1.07

0.37

1.41

density

Winkle

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

1

0

0

0

15

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0 0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

1

0

0

1

0

0

0

1

7

0

0

7

5

5

0

0

0

no.

Charcoal

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

no.

Egg

Table 66. The material identified in sorting the greater than 10 mm residue from the Middle Norse infill of House 2 (BD)

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

no.

Coprolite

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

5

0

1

4

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

3

2

1

1

0

0

0

0

2

2

0

0

0

no.

B.O.M.

254

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

2184

2186

2247

2293

2296

2600

2608

2644

Sub-total

11891

11893

11985

11310

11314

11330

11323

2 samples

43 samples

141 samples

3 samples

Total

Sub-total

1348

2183

11889

7087

2171

11856

1345

2169

11857

7082

2156

11841

1341

2138

11828

7066

2135

11824

1253, 1494

10 samples

2130

1090

5 samples

11834

1053, 1213, 1474, 2185

8 samples

2074

11647

580

2055

11657

4 samples

514

8131

Sub-total

511

8130

16 samples

510

8128

BD

BDJ

BDJ

BDJ

BDJ

BDI

BDI

BDI

BDI

BDI

BDI

BDI

BDI

BDI

BDI

BDI

BDI

BDI

BDI

BDI

BDI

BDI

BDI

BDI

BDI

BDH

BDH

BDH

BDH

BDH

BDH

2196.3

52.0

13.0

29.0

10.0

813.1

10.1

13.0

15.0

15.0

2.0

37.0

14.0

42.0

45.0

8.0

51.0

58.0

10.0

81.0

13.0

52.0

62.0

117.0

168.0

250.0

36.0

15.5

10.0

4.0

8.0

474

105

3

102

0

172

0

3

6

1

0

6

2

3

23

0

3

5

4

13

3

11

11

21

57

21

0

0

1

0

0

0.22

2.02

0.23

3.52

0.00

0.21

0.00

0.23

0.40

0.07

0.00

0.16

0.14

0.07

0.51

0.00

0.06

0.09

0.40

0.16

0.23

0.22

0.18

0.18

0.34

0.08

0.00

0.00

0.10

0.00

0.00

1021

55

0

53

2

394

1

9

10

7

0

18

2

15

29

3

23

33

4

41

1

32

25

56

85

62

12

4

3

0

2

202

15

0

15

0

63

0

1

0

0

0

1

0

0

13

0

3

3

0

3

5

2

3

14

15

9

2

0

1

0

2

1223

70

0

68

2

457

1

10

10

7

0

19

2

15

42

3

26

36

4

44

6

34

28

70

100

71

14

4

0

0

0

0.56

1.35

0.00

2.34

0.20

0.56

0.10

0.77

0.67

0.47

0.00

0.51

0.14

0.36

0.93

0.38

0.51

0.62

0.40

0.54

0.46

0.67

0.45

0.60

0.60

0.28

0.39

0.26

0.00

0.00

0.00

416

2

0

1

1

106

2

6

1

0

0

5

1

7

11

0

6

6

0

3

0

12

10

17

19

15

0

0

0

0

0

0.19

0.04

0.00

0.03

0.10

0.13

0.20

0.46

0.07

0.00

0.00

0.14

0.07

0.17

0.24

0.00

0.12

0.10

0.00

0.04

0.00

0.14

0.16

0.15

0.11

0.06

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

33

2

0

2

0

14

0

0

0

1

0

6

0

0

2

0

0

1

2

0

0

0

0

1

1

3

0

0

1

0

0

1845

21

5

15

1

474

3

33

11

3

1

45

5

8

82

1

15

11

7

29

7

27

17

85

84

195

9

5

3

4

3

0.84

0.40

0.38

0.52

0.10

0.58

0.30

2.54

0.73

0.20

0.50

1.22

0.36

0.19

1.82

0.13

0.29

0.19

0.70

0.36

0.54

0.45

0.27

0.73

0.50

0.78

0.25

0.32

0.30

1.00

0.38

2843

164

24

133

7

842

3

22

66

11

4

52

20

42

93

10

40

58

9

75

5

32

44

99

157

135

22

4

3

2

0

1.29

3.15

1.85

4.59

0.70

1.04

0.30

1.69

4.40

0.73

2.00

1.41

1.43

1.00

2.07

1.25

0.78

1.00

0.90

0.93

0.38

0.61

0.71

0.85

0.93

0.54

0.61

0.26

0.30

0.50

0.00

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

34

0

0

0

0

4

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

0

0

0

0

1

1

15

0

0

0

0

0

3

1

0

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

15

1

0

1

0

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

The Middle Norse transition phase on mound 2 (BD) 255

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

256

1342

1341 1344 425/220

1348

1346

1345

1084 1328

1290

1293

1291

1292

0

1288

5m

Figure 197. The earlier features to the south and east of House 3 (BDJ)

Sampling data – N Sharples A total of 141 samples, 2196.3 litres of soil, were taken and processed from the deposits belonging to the transition phase (BD). Most of the blocks produced fewer than 10 samples, but from the BDE occupation of structure BDD 44 samples, 428 litres of soil, were recovered, most from the total sampling of floor layer 593. The other large group of samples was taken from the fill layers below House 3 (BDI), and this comprised 43 samples, 813 litres of soil. (Table 66). The decision was taken to prioritise the recovery of material from the 2–10 mm residues from other phases and therefore only a limited number of samples were examined from the BD contexts; 12 samples, approximately 219 litres of soil, were washed, sieved and sorted. All but two of the 2–10 mm residues examined were from BDI contexts (Table 67).

The average densities of material recovered from the above 10 mm residues is depicted in Figure 198. The highest densities of the shellfish (winkle and limpet) were recovered from the infilling layers (BDF; 1.2 shells/ litre and 2.2 shells/litre) and the ephemeral structures (BDG, 7.1 shells/litre and 0.9 shells/litre) respectively. There were high densities of winkles and fish in the area to the southeast of House 3 (BDJ). Mammal bone was also present in these contexts but these had higher concentrations in the earlier blocks, in particular BDB (1.9 frag/litre). Pottery was also more frequent in these early blocks, particularly BDB (0.5 frag/litre). These patterns suggest that the earlier blocks BDA to BDE are representative of in situ occupation; they have relatively similar quantities of mammal bone and marine shell. In contrast, the thick infilling layers (BDF and BDG)

0.00

0.00

0.22

0

49

0

0

9.00

0.00

36

0.00

0.04

0

1

0.00

0.58

0

7

0.00

0.00

0

0

0.00

0.45

0

5

3

2

0.04 9 1.23 0.05

1

0

fish

mammal BDA

BDB

pot BDC

limpet BDD

winkle BDE

3

83 6.83

2

1

1495 2.84 622

12

40

BDE

1

0.38

10

270

0.11

0.15

1

1

0.67

0.62

6

4

0.00

0.15

0

1

0.11 1

0

3.89

14.31

35

winkle

6.15

1.33

93

0.00

0.00

0.04

0

1

3.50

1.73

14

39

0.00

0.22

0

5

0.00

0.93

0

21

16.75

25.38

67

571 12.09

1.25 5

272

0.10

0.00

4

0

2.52

1.02 26

102 0.00

0.00

0

0

0.05 2

5

7.23

5.02

293 1.98 80

limpet

BDD

61

2

2.39

128

0.20

0.00

0.00

0

0

0.90

0.58

9

7

0.00

0.25

0

3

0.80

9

0.42

8

5

5.90

0.75

59 3.70

BDC

0.17

pot

37

0.00

0.03

0

1

0.09

1.47

4

44

0.00

0.00

0

0

0.02

0.50

0.00

1

0

1.50

1.09

3

12

0.00

0.09

0

1

8.00

0.03

1

1

0.74

2.90

34

87 1.43

0.39 18

43

BDB

0

fish

mammal BDF

BDG

pot BDH

limpet BDI

winkle BDJ

13.32 2917 219.0 329

236

1.08

2038

9.31

492

2.25

16.44

21.54

148

140 4.77

2.22 20

31 23.38

8.89 80

152 4.92

0.00 0

32

9.0

6.5

18

13

12 samples

2185

2608

11905

11323

Total

BDI

2171

2183

11856

11889

2135

2169

11824

11857

1090

1494

9977

580

580

9502

9505

10712

593

149

from the House 2 infill layers

had much higher concentrations of marine shell, which indicates deliberate dumping of refuse. In the infilling blocks (BDG), isolated concentrations heavily skew the overall distributions; for example, sand layer 120 (BDG) had a density of over 35 winkles per litre. The densities of finds from the small number of 2–10 mm residues processed from BD contexts are much lower than those from the BC block, with the exception of coprolite fragments. With the exception of fish bone and coprolite, the BD densities are also lower than in the BB contexts. Fish bone was the most common discovery (13.3 frag/litre), with unburnt bone the next most common (9.3 frag/litre). With the exception of B.O.M., the other categories had densities of less than 3 frag/litre.

Pottery – K Harding and N Sharples

BDI

11.00

32.31

44

727 4.76

2.00 8

107 15.64

10.50 42

352 2.31

0.25 1

52

4.0

22.5

8

45

BDI

BDI

10.00

7.69

405

196

1.75

2.12 54

71 7.58

8.55 218

307 0.69

0.75 19

40.5

25.5

81 BDI

BDI

51

28

17.40

12.75

174

153 2.83

2.90 29

34 22.33

5.30 53

268 2.42

2.30 23

29

10.0

12.0

10

12

BDI

BDI

2.07

11.90

95

357

0.48

1.63 49

22 1.28

9.53 286

59 0.26

0.10 3

12 46.0

30.0

46

30

BDI

BDI

23.00

39.27

5.00

46

57

10 32.00

14.27 157

64 0.50

3.27 36

2.0

11.0

4 BDE

11

1

5.18

432

Figure 198. Histograms of the above 10 mm sampling densities

9852

Slag

2.09

16

23

15.00

8.09

30

89 4.55

1.00 2

50

BDA

10362

density

mammal

BDF

no. density

Egg

no. density

Crab

no. no. density

B.O.M. Context

Block

Litres

Litres sorted

no.

Pottery

density

no.

Unburnt bone

density

no.

Burnt bone

density

Fish

no.

Charcoal

fish

Sample

0

density

1

257

2

no.

density

2

no.

Table 67. The material identified in sorting the 2 to 10 mm residue from the Middle Norse infill of House 2 (BD)

Spirorbis

density

no.

Coprolite

density

The Middle Norse transition phase on mound 2 (BD)

A total of 3,215 sherds weighing approximately 26,080 g were recovered from the layers infilling House 2 (BD, Table 68). This is one of the most substantial assemblages from mound 2, greater in weight than the assemblage from House 3 (BC), and with only slightly fewer sherds. The largest proportion of the assemblage came from the lower infilling layers (BDF; 35% by weight, 28% of

0

fi

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

258

Figure 199. A selection of feature sherds from the House 2 infill layers (BDA to BDE) Table 68. The pottery from the Middle Norse infill of House 2 (BD) Block

Weight (g)

No.

Ave Wght

Rim

Base

Body

Misc.

Platter

Sooted

No. of fine

BDA

1544.4

192

8.04

22

16

32

121

1

52

0

BDB

525.9

82

6.41

10

5

17

50

0

10

0

BDC

878.7

122

7.20

17

9

16

80

0

24

0

BDD

2002.8

226

8.86

18

11

45

149

3

61

2

BDE

3755.8

474

7.92

27

76

35

311

25

89

0

BDF

9176.6

889

10.32

64

118

122

549

36

236

0

BDG

1826.0

192

9.51

14

24

34

116

4

74

0

BDH

1762.4

342

5.15

15

10

49

237

31

59

1

BDI

4350.2

656

6.63

47

42

82

374

111

138

22

BDJ

257.1

40

6.43

2

1

5

23

9

6

1

Total

26079.9

3215

8.11

236

312

437

2010

220

749

26

sherds). There is also a substantial assemblage from the deposits below House 3 (BDI; 17% by weight, 21% of sherds). The smallest assemblages came from occupation layers associated with the first structure built within the abandoned House 2 (BDB; 82 sherds) and the activities around House 3 (BDJ; 40 sherds).

The average sherd weight is the highest from any block at mound 2 (8.1 g per sherd). Within the block there is very little variation; the largest sherds came from the lower infilling layers (BDF; 10.3 g per sherd) and the smallest sherds came from the final infilling layers (BDH; 5.1 g per sherd). The poor preservation of the sherds from the latter

The Middle Norse transition phase on mound 2 (BD)

259

BDF 8729 8727

8728

2173 2895

8711 1888

2515

2450

2037 2190 8732

2905

BDG

87319

BDH

2020

2110

2217

2218

0

8730

1884

8719

BDJ

5954

3365

20cm

Figure 200. A selection of feature sherds from the House 2 infill layers (BDF to BDH and BDJ)

assemblage may reflect their location immediately below the turf, beneath only a thin layer of protective windblown sand. The relatively poor preservation in blocks BDI and BDJ may indicate, respectively, trampling during the construction of House 3 and the surface location of the layers. The bulk of the assemblage comprises simple, straightsided tub-shaped vessels (Figures 199, 200 and 201). Rims tend to be simple flat or slightly rounded. The one everted rim (3365; Figure 200) came from one of the layers surrounding House 3 and cannot be said to be securely located in this Middle to Late Norse transition block. Bases are similarly simple, with only a single footed vessel present (3104/3108). The only complete profile is a small vessel with a diameter of 135 mm (8711; Figure 200). The proportion of platter present in the assemblage (6%) is only slightly lower than the percentage from House 3 (BE, 7%) and considerably higher than that from House 2 (BC, 3%). The most productive block was the activity below House 3 (BDI), which produced 106 platter sherds. Amongst these platter sherds from BDI are conjoining fragments making up a substantial part of a large platter (3846; Figure 201); approximately one-third of a disc 42.5 mm in diameter survives. It is a relatively thick platter, with a heavily finger-impressed surface showing many stab-marks, most of which perforate the sherd. Many of the other platter sherds in this layer could also belong

to this disc, which would explain the high proportion of platter (16%) in this block. The proportion of sooting noted on the vessels from mound 2 is identical for blocks BB, BC and BD, with 23% of sherds being sooted in each of these assemblages. Sooting is significantly higher (39% of the assemblage) on sherds from the ephemeral structures (BDG) within the filling of House 2. In contrast, the BDB occupation deposits from within the initial house constructed inside the abandoned House 2 produced low proportions of sooted sherds (14%); the BDB assemblage is, however, very small numerically.

Measurements – N Sharples The assemblages of pot and bone from 15 contexts from the layers infilling House 2 (BD) were measured to provide some assessment of the preservation. The assemblages come from three distinctive groups of contexts: the early structures (BDA–BDD), the later infill layers (BDF–BDG) and the fill beneath House 3 (BDI). For the early structures, sherds and mammal bone fragments from four contexts were measured, a total of 2,057 bones and 303 potsherds. The bulk of the material measured came from 578, a dump of sand in the wall core of the initial building (BDA), and from 576, a dump of sand that provided backing for wall 566 (BDD). Both

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

260

BDI

8683

8733

8685

8686

8684

8687

3817

6053

4210

8701

3859

8734

8688

40

Bone

35 30 % 6254

6756

25 20 15

3846

10 0

20cm

5

0 the House 2 infill layers (BDI) Figure 201. A selection of feature sherds from 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

BDA-BDD 40

%

35

25

30

20

%

15

5 1

2

3

4

5

BDA-BDD

40 35 30 %

25 20 15 10 5

20 10

5

45

25 15

10 0

BDI

Pot

40

30

9 10 11 12 13 14 15+

BDF-BDG

45

Bone

35

8

6

7

8

9 10 11 12 13 14 15+

BDF-BDG

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9 10 11 12 13 14 15+

BDI

Figure 202. Histograms showing the size distribution of the measured bone and pot from the infill deposits

Pot

The Middle Norse transition phase on mound 2 (BD) assemblages were probably secondary deposits dug up and redeposited as part of the construction process. Pottery and bone were measured from six contexts from the sand layers infilling these structures and House 2 (BDF–BDG). Most of the material measured came from brown sand 518, which was an artefact-rich deposit with slightly better preserved assemblages than the other layers. The final assemblage to be measured came from five BDI contexts, all but one small group of material belonging to the homogeneous brown sand layer between the floor of House 2 and House 3. The size of the assemblages from these three different context groups is illustrated in Figure 202. The pottery in all three assemblages is very similar in size, though the sherds from the early group (BDA–BDD) are slightly more fragmented than those from the other two groups, and the deposits below House 3 (BDI) have a handful of larger sherds. In contrast, the most fragmented assemblage of bone came from the infill layers (BDF–BDG), and the assemblage associated with the initial construction (BDA– BDD) has the larger bones. The difference in preservation between the bone and the pottery assemblages is interesting and could suggest that the fragmentation of pottery is more directly related to secondary movement of the soil matrix. The bone is more robust and therefore its size may be less effected by redeposition and the assemblage may more directly reflect the original source.

Artefacts – A Pannett, R Smith and N Sharples An assemblage of 544 objects was recovered from the transitional phase (Table 69; Figures 203 to 206); 89 artefacts came from BDA, 20 from BDB, 18 from BDC, 42 from BDD, 33 from BDE, 131 from BDF, 28 from BDG, 67 from BDH, 106 from BDI and ten from BDJ. The largest assemblages came from the early infilling of the abandoned House 2 (BDF) and from the equivalent deposits under House 3 (BDI). Overall this is the second largest assemblage by block from mound 2 and indicates the dumping of substantial numbers of artefacts in the abandoned shell of House 2. The BDA assemblage (Figure 203) came from sand layers used to infill the wall core. The most common finds category is flint but there is also a reasonable quantity of nails, roves and holdfasts as well as miscellaneous fragments of iron. Personal adornments are reasonably common and include five comb fragments (e.g. 3003), two pins (3095, 3134), a steatite spindle whorl (2772), a buckle plate (3259) and a gaming piece (3008). A distinctive feature of the tool assemblage is the presence of six bone points (e.g. 8005), as these are not normally that common on mound 2.The quantities of bone and antler waste are not substantial and the largest category are five antler tines.

261

It seems likely that a large part of this assemblage was residual as the sand used for the wall core might have been dug up from deposits inside House 2, created during its occupation, which were bound to contain artefactual material. Nevertheless, the bone point assemblage is distinctive. The flint assemblage from BDA consists of 16 complete flakes, one flake fragment, one core and three chunks. One chunk has been burnt. Retained platforms are pre­ dominantly planar, with some cortical platforms, and terminations are feathered, hinged or stepped. The core consists of a split pebble from which irregular flakes have been struck. There was no platform preparation, instead the cortical edge was used as the striking platform. Three flakes have been retouched to form tools. One has been retouched around the distal end and both lateral edges, to form an end and double-side scraper. An irregular flake has abrupt retouch along both lateral edges, forming a simple edge tool. A roughly square flake has abrupt retouch along one edge and a shallow notch on the distal end, with a small point between, forming a small piercing tool. There is some gloss from use around the notch and the point. One flake has edge damage along one lateral edge and around the proximal end, indicative of its having been used as a tool. The artefact assemblages from BDB, BDC, BDD, and BDE are small and generally seem to be a collection of typical rubbish that was present as a residual backdrop in all deposits. The material illustrated in Figure 203 is indicative of the prosaic nature of the material. Twenty-eight flints were recovered from these deposits, consisting of 15 flakes, five flake fragments, a piece of microdebitage and seven chunks. One of the chunks could be the last vestiges of a rough core. One heavy flake has abrupt retouch along a lateral edge that created a simple edge tool. The assemblage from the early infilling of House 2 (BDF; Figure 205) is more substantial. The largest assemblage (41 objects) came from brown sand 518, but in general the material was relatively dispersed throughout the various fill layers. The assemblage is dominated by objects classed as ‘miscellaneous’, mostly iron waste. However, the second most prominent category is personal objects, which includes 17 comb fragments and 10 bone pins. The comb assemblage is different from the assemblage from the House 2 floors (BCC) as it is dominated by small, plain parallel-sided combs (e.g. 2877, 2878; Ashby class 8c). This suggests there had been a significant change in fashion by the time this material was deposited and that the quantity of residual material in BDF is limited. The pins are less diagnostic, but generally exclude the complex forms found on the House 2 floor. An ovateheaded copper-alloy pin (2215) was recovered from the brown sand (518). Flint, structural fittings (including the usual collection of nails, roves and holdfasts) and tools were also relatively frequent discoveries. The iron tools present include a good selection of knives (i.e. 1979, 2236, 5975, 2417),

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

262

Object type

Material

tine/beam/segment

antler

BDA 5

offcut

antler

1

offcut

whale bone

1

pin debris

bone/antler

horn core

bone

1

flint

21

BDB

BDC

BDD

BDE

BDF

BDG

BDH

BDI

6

3

6

1

1

4

1

2

5

3

6 11

1 1

1

BDJ

Total 26

Waste 1

4

12

needle

bone

1

3

bone/steatite

1

1

pin beater

bone bone

point

bone

6

bone

1

handle

antler

pick

antler

awl

iron

8

3

2

22

3

11

17

3

1

1

103 4

1

1

spatula

2

1 4

spindle whorl

cylinder

3

2

5

1

1

2

4

2

1

1

2

3

20 1

1

1 1

1

Table 69. The artefacts from the Middle Norse infill of House 2 (BD)

Tools

Gaming pieces

Personal objects

Structural fittings

1

knife

iron

axe

iron

1

fishing hook

iron

1

key

Cu alloy

whetstone

stone

weight

stone

cobble tool

stone

gaming piece

bone

1

1

1

antler

5

3

1

2

1

1

Cu alloy/iron

decorated tine

antler

toggle/buzz bone

bone

bead

glass

nail

iron

11

iron

5

iron

3

iron iron

plaque

antler

socket base

stone

1

2

2

3

1

1 1

17

4

11

2

10

1

2

3

1

1

46 1

21 2

2

1 1

1

2

4

4

9

1

4 3

2 2

4

1

1

14

58

7

5 4

8

26

4

1

2

3

16

1

1

4

1 2

3 2

1 1

rove

rivet

1 1

1

holdfast fitting

8 1

1

bone

Cu alloy

1

2 1

comb

pin

5

1

pin

buckle

1

2

1

1 7

1

1 1

fragments

iron

8

4

2

1

8

10

1

51

strip/rod

iron

4

1

1

3

10

1

5

5

2

32

1

1

5

2

5

4

1

20

1

1

1

1

sheet

iron

object

iron

sheet/strip/rod

Cu alloy

1

4

13

1

1

sheet/strip

lead

3

fragment

lead

1

1 4

2

5

Miscellaneous

Vessels

Total

object

bone/antler

worked

bone/antler

1 2

2

1

1

1

1

5

1

2

1

7

3

4

2

6

12

1

2

worked

whale bone

1

unworked

whale bone

2

fragment

steatite/stone

bucket binding

iron

sherd

steatite

fragment

glass

2

1 1

1 1

1

2 1

89

20

18

42

33

131

28

67

1 106

10

544

The Middle Norse transition phase on mound 2 (BD)

263

BDA

4317

3008

3134

3003

2760 8005

3259 3095

2753

2978

BDB

3195

2772

3020

BDD

4138 2912 2816 2821

3102

2869

2803

3186

BDC

BDE

4304

6691 3074

3919

3389 3453 6690 0

10cm

Figure 203. A selection of significant objects from the House 2 infill layers (BDA, BDB, BDC, BDD and BDE). 2753, 2978, 3195 are

lead; 2816, 3186, 3389, 4138 are iron; 3008 is a bone object with an iron pin; 2772, 3020 are stone; 3259 is copper alloy; all the rest are bone or antler

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

264

0

10cm

Figure 204. The whale bone stake/socket 5929

an axe (1849) and a fish hook (1859), which suggests the availability of a variety of tools to the community. The small assemblage of waste materials suggests production was not a significant activity in the locality. There is also an isolated fragment from a steatite vessel (1592) and an unfused epiphysis from a small whale (2172) that could be a gaming piece.

The flint assemblage from BDF consists of 14 complete flakes, two flake fragments, five chunks and a flaked pebble struck from grey and white flint. Two flakes have been burnt. One of the chunks could be a rough core, with irregular flakes struck from it. One heavy flake has been struck from a multiplatform core, probably as a trimming flake to remove hinge scars. Two flakes have been roughly

The Middle Norse transition phase on mound 2 (BD)

265

BDF

2215

1860

1895

2877

2878

2404

2301

2405

1576

2280

2446

6017

1859

2236 1797

1849

1435

2417 2444 2235

5975

1979

2304 2313 1905

0

10cm

Figure 205. A selection of significant objects from BDF. 1435, 1849, 1859, 1979, 2235, 2236, 2417, 5975 are iron; 1905 2304, 2313 are stone; all the rest are bone or antler.

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

266

BDG

BDH

2010

2166

1726

1414

2039

1874

1872

1821

1732

2013

BDH

BDI

1750

BDJ

4429

6222

6060 5530

3784

3041

7956 4432

3804

6721

2002 0

20cm

6131

0

3831

10cm

Figure 206. A selection of significant objects from BDG, BDH and BDJ. 1874 5530 are iron; 2013, 6060 are copper alloy; 3041, 4432 are lead; 6222 is stone; 4429 is glass; all the rest are bone or antler.

The Middle Norse transition phase on mound 2 (BD) retouched: one has abrupt retouch along both lateral edges, and the second has abrupt retouch along one lateral edge and around the distal end. The core trimming flake has edge damage along the distal end and appears to have been used for scraping or bashing, although the piece has not been deliberately retouched. A small dispersed assemblage of 28 artefacts was recovered from BDG (Figure 206). This includes a wellpreserved copper-alloy stick pin with a spiral-decorated head and a dagger-shaped motif on the collar (2013), which came from the bank of brown sand (99). The antler handle of a clasp knife (2039) was found in brown sand 520. The flint assemblage comprises two flake fragments and a chunk. One of the flake fragments has edge damage along one lateral edge, as does the chunk, which might have been used as a rough scraper. An assemblage of 67 objects was recovered from BDH (Figure 206), with most of the finds coming from one context (174, 98). The assemblage includes a fairly large quantity of iron fittings and fragments and a small but important collection of comb fragments, including a tooth plate from a double-sided comb (2166), and substantial segments of distinctively late combs (e.g. 1414, 2010; Ashby class 8c), one of which (1414) is decorated. In contrast to the number of comb fragments, only two pins (1726, 1750) were recovered. A notable find is a small shard of light green vessel glass (8117), but analysis suggests this is a modern intrusion. The flint assemblage from BDH comprises seven complete flakes, a rough core, two chunks and a pebble. Three flakes retain a planar platform, and surviving terminations are feathered, hinged, stepped and plunging. The core consists of a sizable chunk from which flakes have been struck from multiple platforms. Two flakes have been retouched, with one flake abruptly retouched to form an end and side scraper, and the second displaying non-invasive retouch along one lateral edge, forming a concave, notched, edge tool. Most of the artefacts from BDI come from the ex­ ten­­sive brown sand layer (1053, 1213, 1270, 1474, 2025, 2185), which reflects the volume of this layer (Figure 206). As usual the assemblage is dominated by miscellaneous items and structural fittings, with large quantities of iron nails and fragments. Tools are not as important numerically as they are in other blocks, but they include an unusual copper-alloy object (6060) referred to as a key, but which really has no known function even though it was very carefully made. An unusual feature of this block was the presence of two stone cobble tools and a socket stone. Coarse stone tools, other than weights, were common in the Late Iron Age but are unusual finds in the Norse deposits. Amongst the miscellaneous whale bone are two large pieces (5508 and 6391) which have large numbers of cut marks on the surface and which may have been used as chopping blocks. There were few personal items, only two comb fragments and three pins were present (6131, 6721), but

267

these included a glass bead (4429). 3831 is an unusual rectangular frame roughly cut from a section of antler beam. Objects similar to this are infrequent discoveries in the Scottish islands (Hallen 1994, 209, fig. 8) but there is no obvious interpretation of their function. The flint assemblage from BDI consists of eight complete flakes, two flake fragments, one piece of micro­ debitage, four chunks, and two pebbles. Two chunks have been burnt. Surviving platforms are planar and terminations are feathered, hinged, stepped and plunging. None of the pieces have been retouched.

Carbonised plant remains – J Summers and J Bond Only three samples were analysed from block BD, all coming from BDI contexts. The samples come from the brown sand 1090 (10 litres), the fill (2169, 51 litres) of pit 2168 and the fill (2135, 81 litres) of pit 2134. The latter samples produced a substantial assemblage of carbonised plant remains. A full range of cultivated taxa was present in the samples, along with a range of wild plants (Table 70). Pit fill 2169 (11857) contained a large number (239) of identifiable cereal grains, 94% of the identifiable cereal assemblage being barley and oat; this quantity of cereal indicates that the pit fill contained occupation debris. Only one rachis fragment was were identified in these samples. Likely arable weeds, as well as wild plants from nonarable habitats, were again present. The assemblages are a good indication of occupation activity in the vicinity of the abandoned House 2, but it is not possible to include this block in ubiquity calculations as the small number of samples examined would skew the results.

Animal bone – A Powell, J Best, J Mulville and N Sharples The Middle Norse transition phase (BD) produced the largest assemblage of mammal bones (2,812 identifiable fragments) from mound 2 (Table 71). The largest assemblage (787 bones) came from the deposits below House 3 (BDI); the next largest were from the infilling deposits (501 bones from BDF and 514 bones from BDH). The occupation of the structure inside the east end of House 2 (BDB) and its reconstruction (BDC) produced very few bones, as did the BDJ activity around the edge of House 3; each of these blocks produced fewer than 100 bones. The initial structural modifications (BDA) produced a significant assemblage (283 bones), but this is likely to include redeposited material from House 2 occupation deposits (BCC). Amongst the principal species (cattle, sheep, pig, horse, deer) sheep/goat, makes up 45% of the assemblage, cattle account for 38% of the assemblage and pig 10%. Figure

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

268 350 350 300 300 250 250 200 200 150 150 100 100 50 50

Table 70. The carbonised plant from the Middle Norse infill of House 2 (BD)

Numbers Numbers

Sample Context Block Litres Context Type Fraction

0 0

BDA BDB BDC BDD BDE BDF BDG BDH BDI BDJ BDA BDB BDC BDD BDE BDF BDG BDH BDI BDJ Cattle Cattle

Sheep/goat Sheep/goat

Pig Pig

Red deer Red deer

90 90 80 80 70 70 60 60 50 % 50 % 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 0 BDA BDB BDC BDD BDE BDF BDG BDH BDI BDJ BDA BDB BDC BDD BDE BDF BDG BDH BDI BDJ

Figure 207. The relative significance of the main species of mammals from the deposits infilling House 2 in the Middle Norse period

207 shows the distribution of the main species in the different blocks of this phase. The size of the assemblage from BDI means the pattern in this block dominates the overall percentages. Compared to the House 2 assemblage (BC), there is a decline in the significance of pig, which could relate to the importance of feasting in House 2, followed by a decline in the status of mound 2’s occupants after House 2 was aban­doned. Pig displays similar frequencies in most BD blocks, with the exception of BDB and BDC, where pig is scarce. There is some variation in the frequency of cattle across the blocks, most notably in BDB where they are much less significant. In BDA and BDH, cattle are more frequent than sheep. Deer are a significant presence at 6%, and their frequency in the assemblage is just above the average for mound 2. Other species are relatively rare. There are 28 equid or horse bones, eight dog and nine cat bones. Wild animals are represented by seven otter, four possible pine marten and 14 seal bones. Small mammals were present but in considerably smaller numbers (38 bones) than in the House 2 occupation. The percentage of bones gnawed by carnivores is relatively high and remarkably even throughout the different

Cereals Hordeum vulgare grains Hordeum vulgare apical Hordeum vulgare embryo Hordeum sativum rachis frags Avena sp. grains Avena sp. apical Avena sp. embryo Avena sp. indet. frag cf Secale cereale grains Oat palea/lemma Cereal grain frags Other Crops Linum usitatissimum cf Linum usitatissimum frags Weeds/Wild species Brassica/Sinapis spp Buglossoides sp. Carex sp. Type 1 Carex sp. Type 2 Carex sp. Type 3 cf Cerastium sp. Chenopodiaceae Compositae Indet. Crucifereae spp Erica sp. Euphorbia cf helioscopia cf Fumaria sp. Galium sp. Type 1 Gramineae Phleum sp. cf Juncus sp. Papaver sp. Primulaceae Potentilla sp. Rumex/Polgonum spp Rumex sp. Type 1 Rumex/Polygonum sp. Type 2 Rumex/Polygonum spp. kernels Ranunculus sp. small Ranunculus sp. large cf Raphanus sp. Urtica urens Urtica dioica Twigs/stalks Heather frags Indet.

9977 1090 BDI 10 floor 100%

11857 2169 BDI 51 fill 100%

11824 2135 BDI 81 fill 100%

8 3 1

88 1 1

65

1 1 1

13

95 13 27 2 14 4 145

2

7

2

1 1 2 2 3 3 28

5

1 2 2

3 1 26 5 10 3 9 1 134

3 1

2 1 1 7 7 1 1 1 2 1

4 5 1 1 1 1 3

4 16 1

2 1 11 1 1

X

2 2 3 1

1

X X

X

The Middle Norse transition phase on mound 2 (BD)

269

0

0 3

3

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

3 12 9 3 1 1 14 55 2 6 63 12 1 21 34 9 1 9 8 1 6 1 1 1 53 4 3 1 12 6 4 2 8 13 1 16 4

1

3 4

0 1

164 21 3 3 2 2 1

17

0

2 2 2 6

0 8 2 1 11 1

5 6

0

0

0

0

2 1 3 1 1

6 1

3 16 28 2 14 2 65 31 16 1 1 7 56 10 5 2 2 19 77 5 2 3 87 32 1 17 50 2 4 9 7 2 2 4 2

5 25 1 1 32

1

0

0

0

0

1

0

21

Hare/fox sized mammal

Sheep-sized mammal

Red deer/Cattle

Cattle-sized mammal

Cetacean

Seal

Rodent

Carnivore

Pine Marten

Cat

Otter

1

1

3 1

1 1 13 1 2 0

18

0

2 1

0

0

1 1

0

1 1

0

0

1 1

0 1

0

1 3 2

0

1

0

1

1 9 1

10 6

9 15 1 1 4 4 2 2

0

0

0

1 1

0

0

1 8 1 1 1 11

5 5 3

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2 2

0

0

0

0

4 3 3 3 3

6 7

4

14 3

1 2

0 1

2 13

0

2 1

1

2

1 1

1

0

14 4 1 4 9

0

0

4 1

2 3 2

2 2 4

2

2 2

1 10 1

0

1 17

1

2

3 2

1 12 7 1 5 13

0

0

1 3

4

1

1

0 1 1

1

3

4 3 1 8 7 7

127 21 1 2 2 1

1

1 3 28

2 4 13 1 1

2

16

0

0

1

1

9 15

1

35

35 5 1

Dog

Pig

Sheep/goat

1 4 9 3

Roe deer

1

9 29 45 7 7 1 98 1 2 2 4

Red deer

1

Goat

195 505 578 1019 1261 2215 Sub-total 924 1024 1025 1029 1034 1035 Sub-total 909 942 943 1036 1058 Sub-total 576 597 1046 1052 Sub-total 593 1282 1283 2040 Sub-total 37 38 123 124 125 127 146 148 149 180 181 197 198 199 500 507 518 544 555 598 1022 2034 2037 2123 Sub-total 99 100 118 120 121 138 142 150 153 189 194 508 520 535 537 Sub-total

Sheep

BDA BDA BDA BDA BDA BDA BDA BDB BDB BDB BDB BDB BDB BDB BDC BDC BDC BDC BDC BDC BDD BDD BDD BDD BDD BDE BDE BDE BDE BDE BDF BDF BDF BDF BDF BDF BDF BDF BDF BDF BDF BDF BDF BDF BDF BDF BDF BDF BDF BDF BDF BDF BDF BDF BDF BDG BDG BDG BDG BDG BDG BDG BDG BDG BDG BDG BDG BDG BDG BDG BDG

Cattle

Context

Horse

Block

Equid

Table 71. The animal bone from the Middle Norse infill of House 2 (BD) (continued over the page)

1

1

1 3 1 1

11

9

2 1

2 2

4

2 2

1

4

1

1

2 1 3

44 7

1 1 3

1

3

36 4

1 1 0

1

0

0

2 1

10

7

1 2

1

0

1 1 29 7 1

3 2 1

1

35 2 1 1 2

5

2

1

1 3

1 2 2

1

2

7

1

1 2

29

2

66

9

0

23 1 1 58

6 1 17

0

1

3

1

9

0

0

0

0

1

0

1

1 1 7

1

17

2 1 1 5

0

16

0

Total

17 69 150 15 26 6 283 1 36 21 10 1 15 84 24 9 2 1 4 40 187 11 6 12 216 63 3 1 69 136 15 9 31 25 16 20 10 13 2 153 1 13 9 2 36 22 15 2 18 30 3 40 15 1 501 72 7 8 8 3 4 1 3 1 6 6 2 79 1 2 203

Hare/fox sized mammal

Sheep-sized mammal

Red deer/Cattle

Cetacean

2

Total

BDH

10

BDH

20

BDH

22

12

2

3

BDH

98

55

9

49

BDH

102

1

BDH

108

1

2

BDH

112

2

3

BDH

114

4

1

1

1

BDH

115

9

1

7

3

BDH

117

12

1

BDH

119

3

1

BDH

134

9

BDH

137

4

BDH

174

34

BDH

176

BDH

177

BDH

191

1

BDH

196

4

BDH

510

2

BDH

512

BDH

514

BDH

516

BDH

519

BDH

2055

BDH

2074

BDH

Sub-total

BDI

580

4

BDI

1053

33

BDI

1090

BDI

1253

3

BDI

1270

3

2

BDI

1474

135

22

BDI

1494

6

1

BDI

2025

16

3

BDI

2130

1

BDI

2135

2

BDI

2138

BDI

2156

1

3

BDI

2183

1

11

BDI

2184

BDI

2185

2

BDI

2186

1

BDI

2247

28

4

21

BDI

2600

6

1

2

1

10

BDI

2608

4

4

1

9

BDI

2644

1

1

BDI

Sub-total

8

BDJ

1084

1

BDJ

1345

BDJ

1346

BDJ

Sub-total

Total

2

Cattle-sized mammal

Seal

Rodent

Carnivore

Pine Marten

Otter

Roe deer

Red deer

Cat

Dog

Pig

Sheep/goat

Sheep

Cattle

Horse

Context

Equid

Block

Goat

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

270

4

1

1

5

2

6

10

2

1

1

1

8

4

2

22

1

150

6

6

1

1

5

17

1

1

3

10

1

1

1

2

2

1

5

1

7

29

11

1

1

1

1

5

2

10 28

3

1

17

1

10 9

6 1

1

2 1

1

1

15

7

2

5 1

9

2

3

2

12 20 1

3

5 2

12 2

1

1

1

2

3

1 17

3

11

5

6

4

5

1

190

40

137

37

1

2

2

3

43

2

1

20

1 4

0

1

4 1

1

1 1 3

3

7 7

49

1

2

1

25

0

1

4

0

3

0

0

1 12

1

32

3

26

5

2

3

1

1

514 14

4

5

116 4

1

1

3

2

128

30

2

1

28

10

5 1 1

1

11

1

12

19

18

370

13

82

1 1

3

11

7

1 2

4 1

0

100

1

3 3

2

1

9

1

2

4

15

2

3

1

1

1

2

1

258

46

10

3

1

3

1 1

2

1

20

2

38

1

4 5

8

5

277

69

3

10

5

1

0

33

1

1

3

6

4

76

2 0

2

0

0

0

0

1

1

2

5

2

46

0

1

42

0

787

1

2

38

1

9

1

1

1

0

13

3

0

16

5

1

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

2

1

1

0

1

2

48

27

1

912

173

2

892

233

8

9

149

1

7

4

1

19

14

5

174

4

165

12

2812

phases (Table 72); the early blocks (BDA, BDB) produced the highest percentages. In contrast the percentage of butchered bone was at its lowest for this mound and varied quite widely between blocks. The two phases of occupation (BDB and BDE) had higher percentages, whereas the infilling layers had relatively low percentages. Burnt bone was also relatively uncommon and only the very small assemblages from BDJ and BDB had high percentages.

An assemblage of 172 identifiable bird bones were recovered from the infill deposits (BD, Table 73). The largest assemblage came from the deposits beneath House 3 (BDI, 27%), but there are also substantial assemblages from the infill layers BDH and BDF (17% in each). Large gulls dominate the BD contexts, as they did in House 2, particularly the herring/lesser black-backed gull. Geese, particularly large grey geese, occur next most

The Middle Norse transition phase on mound 2 (BD)

% calcined

1

% burnt

39

Total burnt

118

% butchered

295

% rodent gnawed

Total gnawed

BDA

% carnivore gnawed

Block

Total ID

Table 72. The taphonomy of the animal bone from the Middle Norse infill of House 2 (BD)

14

0

0

0

BDB

84

42

49

2

17

9

11

1

BDC

40

11

28

0

3

1

3

0

BDD

216

63

28

1

11

2

1

0

BDE

136

41

29

1

17

5

4

0

BDF

501

141

27

2

8

7

1

0

BDG

203

51

25

0

8

4

2

0

BDH

514

161

31

1

7

2

0.4

0 0.4

BDI

775

261

33

1

11

19

2

BDJ

48

12

25

0

10

4

8

2

Total

2812

901

31

1

10

53

2

0.2

commonly, accounting for 12% of the birds. Domestic fowl make up 10% of the identifiable assemblage (increasing to 13% when the “galliform cf domestic fowl” category is considered). The cormorant again plays an important role in the avian assemblage, with over 6% of the identifiable bones. Waders are less prominent in this assemblage than in the BC deposits. A range of duck species is present; there are two bones of gannet and one occurrence of the great northern diver. A juvenile crane tarsometatarsus came from the BDE deposits. Only two identifiable specimens of bird bone are burnt, 11 are butchered (6%) and 19 (11%) are gnawed, mainly by carnivores, but with three instances of rodent gnawing. The white-tailed eagle is represented by four bones, all of which exhibit knife-cuts, including an ungual phalanx (talon) which has knife-cuts on the proximal articulation.

Fish bone – C Ingrem A relatively small assemblage of fish bones from the sand fill in the eastern half of House 2 (BDI) was examined. It comprised 231 identifiable specimens from the 2–10 mm residues and seven from the above 10 mm residues (Table 74). A narrow range of taxa were represented which probably reflects the size of the sample. Herring were predominant with salmonid, common eel, conger eel and saithe, cod and hake also present. The herring assemblage was comprised mainly of vertebrae (Table 75) although the calculation of percentage presence indicates that basioccipital, ceratohyal and supracleithra were all relatively numerous. Caudal vertebra displayed the highest survival with a minimum of three individuals represented. Most herring bones were from fish

271

estimated at approximately 300 mm in length and a few were from small and medium size fish (Table 76). Two herring and one salmonid bone were crushed, probably as the result of human chewing (Table 216). Three herring bones were burnt (Table 216) Most of the fish bones came from the fill (2135) of pit 2134 and a smaller amount was derived from the fill (2169) of pit 2168. The density of fish bone was low in both these deposits with 11 and 9 bones recovered per litre of soil respectively.

Conclusion – N Sharples The re-occupation of House 2 is difficult to understand as it comprises a complex sequence of truncated and substantially robbed structures. The first phase of the reoccupation was a significant structure, probably just over 10 m long and around 4.50 m wide (Figure 182). This building was not well preserved but can be compared to other contemporary structures on Bornais mounds 1 (Sharples 2012) and 2A (see Chapter 8). It was a much less substantial and impressive building than either House 2 or House 3, and indicates a significant decline in the status of the household living on this mound after the abandonment of House 2. The house was significantly modified, probably after a short period of time, when a small room was created in its southwest corner (Figure 185). The west end of this structure was quickly covered over and infilled prior to the construction of another, smaller building (roughly 7.70 m long by 4.50 m wide) in the eastern half of the abandoned House 2 (Figures 189 and 227). This structure had a compacted floor layer but most of this was truncated by the construction of House 3. There then followed a period of minimal occupation of mound 2, when the hollow of House 2 gradually infilled with sand and dumps of midden, with only occasional small shelters being constructed (Figure 193). The chronology of this phase of occupation was not explored in detail but the dating of House 2 and House 3 brackets the period in which these small buildings were constructed and occupied. House 2 probably went out of use in cal AD 1080–1150 (95% probability) and probably cal AD 1090–1130 (68% probability) and the use of the ephemeral structures was completed by cal AD 1095–1210 (95% probability) and probably cal AD 1110–1165 (68% probability). The pre-construction pits of House 3 date to cal AD 1190–1270 (95% probability; start_house_3) and probably cal AD 1225–1260 (68% probability) mark the end of this phase of activity. The material recovered from this phase of activity was not deemed a priority in the post-excavation analysis of the mound. Very few of the 2–10 mm residues were examined in detail and fish bone recovery was therefore minimal. The carbonised plant remains recovered by flotation were similarly left largely unexamined, though

Block

BDA BDA BDA BDC BDD BDD BDD BDE BDE BDE BDF BDF BDF BDF BDF BDF BDF BDF BDF BDF BDF BDG BDG BDG BDG BDG BDH BDH BDH BDH BDH BDH BDH BDH BDH BDH BDH BDI BDI BDI BDI BDI BDI BDI BDI BDI BDI BDI BDJ BDJ

Context

505 578 1261 909 576 597 1052 593 1282 2040 38 146 180 181 507 518 555 598 1022 2037 2123 99 118 520 537 189 93 98 102 108 112 114 115 119 174 177 519 580 1053 1270 1474 2025 2135 2169 2183 2185 2247 2644 1345 1084 Total

Anatidae cf Duck

1

1

Common Crane

1

1

Cormorant

Cormorant / Shag

4

18

3

3 1

2 11

2 3

1 1 1

1

1

3

1

1 2

1

1

1

1

Crow / Rook

1

1

1

1

1

Domestic Fowl

1

1

2

1

1

1

1 1

Curlew

1

Dove cf Rock / Stock 3

1

1

1

Duck sp. 4

1

1

1

1

Fulmar 2

1

1

Gannet 2

1

1

Galliform cf Domestic Fowl 4

1 1

1

1

Goose cf. Branta Sp. 5 5

Goose, Large Grey cf Greylag 1 8

2

1

2

1

1

Goose sp. 7

1 1

1

1

1

1

1

Great Northern Diver 1 1

Guillemot 5

1

1

1 1

1

Gull, Great Black-Backed 6

1

1

1 1 1 1

Gull, Herring / Lesser Black-Backed 25

1

1

1

1

4

1

2

1 5

1

2

1 3 1

Gull sp. 3

1

1

1

Gull / Skua / Wader 5

1

1

1

1

1

Manx Shearwater 1

1

1

1

Oystercatcher

Table 73. The bird bone from the Middle Norse infill of House 2 (BD) Plover cf Golden 7

1

3

1

1

1

Procellariidae sp. 1

1

Puffin 6

1

1

2

1 1

Shag 3

1

1

1

Small Passerine 10

1

1

1

1

1

1

2

2

Swan sp. 1

1

Wader sp. 6

1

1

1

1

1

1

Wader, Small 10

2

1 1

1

1

1

2

1

White-Tailed Eagle 2 4

1

1

Woodcock 1

1

4 10 2 1 7 2 1 3 1 5 2 2 13 1 4 3 1 1 1 1 1 7 1 3 1 2 1 10 1 2 1 1 2 2 5 2 3 1 10 1 13 2 3 1 8 2 5 1 2 13 172

Total

272

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

The Middle Norse transition phase on mound 2 (BD) Table 74. The fish bone taxa from the Middle Norse infill of House 2 (BD) 10mm

BDI

BDI

BDI

Clupea Harengus

205

410

1

cf Clupeidae spp

15

30

Salmo spp

1

2

Anguilla anguilla

2

4

Conger conger

1

2

Pollachius virens

1

2

Gadus morhua

1

2

Pollachius pollachius

1 2

Merluccius merluccius

1

Large gadid

2

Small gadid

2

4

Gadidae spp

2

4

cf Zoarcidae spp

1

2

Unidentifiable

407

814

8

Total

638

1276

15

Total identifiable

231

462

7

% identifiable

36

36

47

projected quantities

273

two of the three samples examined did produce very high densities of cereal grains, which suggests crop processing in the vicinity. The quantity of cereals recovered may support the suggestion that the construction in the rebuilt house (BDC) was a corn-drying kiln. Another possibility is that this construction was a sauna. Curle (1939, 1954) suggests a small roughly square building constructed in the east end of Late Norse building 1 was a ‘bathhouse’ with a hearth in the southwest corner and a drain leading out. Graham-Campbell and Batey (1998, 198) have argued that the drain was unrelated to the structure and therefore this cannot be a ‘bathhouse’, but the evidence is not clear-cut and it is debatable how essential a drain would have been in a sauna dug into free-draining sand. It is likely that saunas were in use at this time and it would be interesting to locate them. However, the structure in BDC is even less convincing as a sauna than the Freswick structure. The activity in this phase suggests that after the abandonment of House 2, at the beginning of the twelfth century, there followed a period of much less prestigious occupation when the occupied house on mound 2 was no bigger or grander than the houses on other mounds. Even this house became redundant after a relatively short period of time and the location of House 2 became an essentially derelict zone of the settlement, where sand was able to

Table 75. Fish bone elements from the Middle Norse infill of House 2 (BD)

Element Prootic

Clupea harengus

Pollachius virens

Gadus morhua

Merluccius merluccius

Pollachius pollachius

BDI

BDI

BDI

BDI

BDI

2

Basioccipital

2

Dentary

1

Ectopterygoid

1

Maxilla

2

Metapterygoid

1

Quadrate

1

Ceratohyal

3

Opercular

1

Preopercular

1

Subopercular

1

Cleithra

2

Supracleithra

3

Anterior abdominal vertebra

6

Posterior abdominal vertebra

54

Caudal vertebra

82

Vertebra fragment

35

1

1

1

2

1

Scale

8

Total

206

1

3

1

1

3

1

1

1

1

MNI *

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

274

Table 76. The estimated size of the fish from the Middle Norse infill of House 2 (BD) Species

Block

0-150 mm

150-300 mm

c.300 mm

13

183

300600mm

6001200mm

>1200 mm

1

Clupea harengus

BDI

Pollachius virens

BDI

Gadus morhua

BDI

2

Merluccius merluccius

BDI

1

1

accumulate and rubbish was occasionally dumped. A few small structures were built, possibly acting to confirm lineage ownership of the site, but it was not until the end of the twelfth century or the beginning of the thirteenth century that it became possible to construct another highstatus house on this mound. This period of confused structural activity can be paralleled at Cille Pheadair (Parker Pearson et al. 2004; 2018). House 500 (phase 4) at Cille Pheadair was roughly contemporary with House 2 at Bornais mound 2 and, though not comparable in size and status, House 500 was

still a significant structure that contained a rich assemblage of finds. The house was substantially rebuilt at the very end of the eleventh century or the beginning of the twelfth century, (phase 5), with a smaller house built inside the original house. In phase 6 this house was replaced with a series of small, crudely built structures which suggests the site was only intermittently occupied. The evidence from both Cille Pheadair and Bornais indicates that the early twelfth century was a period of disruption, implying population decline and site abandonment, though only for a short period of time.

6  The Middle Norse activity on mound 2A – N Sharples and K Waddington with K Stentoft

Introduction The Middle Norse phases of occupation on mound 2A represent a major change in the nature of the activity in this part of the site. The construction of a series of structures, located in the centre of the excavated area, and the deposition of occupation-rich layers on the periphery of the mound (GB), contrast markedly with the intermittent occupation and sand accumulations of the Early Norse period (GA). The use of these structures appears to have been rel­ atively short-lived, occurring roughly between the mideleventh century AD and the mid-twelfth century AD (see Chapter 11). This period of occupation marks the beginning of the use of the area as a focus for activity that lasted several centuries. The archaeology belonging to this phase has been split into seven separate blocks: • •

• •

the central structure (GBA); the construction and use of two kilns, one facing south (GBB, GBC), the other north (GBD, GBE). The kilns were similar in construction, and the presence of comparable deposits in both indicates that they were contemporary and related to the same type of heat-intensive activity; a series of features in the immediately adjacent central area (GBF), associated with the use of the kilns; an accumulation of occupation-rich layers on the periphery of the excavated area (GBG), also associated with the use of the kilns.

The central structure and early activity (GBA) The earliest structure exposed in the excavation of this mound was a U-shaped wall built on the grey sand on the west side of the excavated area (Figure 208). Only the west side of this apparently substantial structure survived; it is presumed that the wall was robbed by later activity, but there is no evidence that the east side of the structure ever existed and it is possible that this was never a four-sided building. The west wall was a composite construction, with an irregular outer wall face, a sand core and a well-built but

badly preserved inner wall face (visible in sections in Figures 82 and 217). The outer wall face survived as two lengths of masonry: wall 1183, the northwest corner and wall 961, the southwest corner (Figure 208). The stones in both stretches of wall tipped down to the east and were roughly faced to the west, suggesting they formed an external face to a roughly oval structure. Four courses of very large, uneven boulders were identified, and the wall stood at least 0.60 m high (Figure 209). The inner wall face (772) only survived in the southwest corner and was a much more carefully built structure, comprising medium-sized rounded boulders. These faces defined a wall 1.00–1.10 m thick. The stones of the wall were surrounded by a couple of layers of grey-brown sand. These seemed to be the same inside the wall core and outside the wall, which is odd given that we would expect the stones of the wall to have surrounded a discrete core of deposits. It may be that the sandy nature of the material used for the wall core was quickly washed out and created the deposits that surround the wall. Associated with these walls were a variety of contexts that appeared to have been deposited as part of the con­ struction process (Figures 82 and 217). The basal deposit inside the arc of the wall in square 7 was a light brown sand (995) and this was overlain by a grey sand (998). In square 4 a layer of grey sand (1141) was present and this extended into squares 5 and 7. The east end of wall 772 terminated in an area consider­ ably disturbed by rabbits, and the lowest layers were indistinguishable dark brown sands (1158, 1168) in squares 13 and 14 (see Figure 25 for the arrangement of grid squares on mound 2A).

The construction of the south kiln (GBB) The south kiln was defined by two walls (1751, 1752), 1.70 m and 1.73 m long respectively, that created a structure 1.85 m long and up to 0.90 m wide (Figures 210 and 211). The kiln was aligned roughly north–south and the walls were of two to three courses, up to 0.67 m high. The stones used were irregular rounded boulders that were heavily heat-cracked (Figure 212). The walls were constructed within a cut (2471), which was not fully

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

276

1780

450/230

460/230

1781

1183 772 961

1752 1751

450/224

460/224

0

5m

Figure 208. A plan of the Middle Norse structural features on mound 2A; the U-shaped wall and kiln (see Figure 22 for a key to the colours used)

The Middle Norse activity on mound 2A

277

Figure 209. A view of the front face (961) of the U-shaped structure and the deposits accumulating against it

defined or excavated as the walls of the kiln were left in situ at the end of the excavation. This kiln was modified by an extension to the north. The original north end was marked by a few small stones of the basal course that indicated the initial structure was 1.20 m long and came to a point; the basal cut also rose sharply at this point (Figure 210). Most of this north wall was subsequently removed and additional side walls were constructed that extended the kiln a further 0.60 m to the north. The deposits infilling the rear of the kiln were in a cut that truncated the original fill of the kiln.

Deposition in the south kiln (GBC) This kiln was completely filled in with multiple layers of ash and slag-rich sand (Figures 210, 214 and 289 A). The lowest layer in the south kiln was an orange-yellow sand (1675); this was followed by relatively sterile dark brown sand (1674) and then a grey charcoal-rich sand containing slag-type material (1673). Over this was a red-brown sand (1669), again rich in slag and charcoal, a grey sand (1668) with charcoal and then a vividly coloured orange sand (1663) with charcoal and sparse quantities of slag. These thin, charcoal-rich layers were covered by a much thicker layer of brown ash-rich sand (1659) that extended outside, to the south of the kiln, where it merged with the more extensive slag-rich layers that covered the south end of the excavated area (GBG; 1198, 1603). The succeeding three layers were close to the top of the kiln walls and were much thinner, discrete patches; they were a yellow sand (1653) with charcoal, a grey sand (1650), and then a slightly more extensive layer of dark red sand (1651) with charcoal and slag. All of these layers were truncated to the north by a cut (1682), which removed the material in the interior of the kiln. The lowest fill in this cut was a dark brown sand (1662), which might have been a dump to raise the interior. Above this was a deposit of red-brown sand (1639), which

was sealed by a thick red-brown sand (1636) with patches of yellow ash and charcoal-rich sand and with lots of slag. One lens was sufficiently large to be identified as a separate context of charcoal-rich sand (1647) that had a high density of large slag fragments. Above layer 1636 the stratigraphy split. At the back of the kiln was a layer of dark brown sand (1635) with ash flecks and charcoal, which was in turn sealed by yellow sand (1630); towards the centre of the kiln was a charcoalrich brown sand (1643) sealed by a distinctive white ash layer (1641), which contained several very large pieces of slag. The south kiln layers were cut by a later house con­ struction pit (GEA; 1745) immediately in front of the kiln mouth (see Figure 287).

The construction of the north kiln (GBD) The north kiln was defined by two walls (1780, 1781; Figures 210 and 212), 1.63 m and 1.47 m long respectively, constructed in a narrow U-shaped cut (2302), aligned north–south. These walls created a structure 1.20 m long, up to 0.50 m wide, and just over 0.60 m deep. Both the east wall (1780) and the west wall (1781) were constructed using four courses of rounded, medium-sized boulders (Figures 210 and 212). These were heavily heatcracked through use, and were surrounded by a light grey sand (2319) that filled the U-shaped cut. A red-orange ash deposit (2310) sat within the cut, above the grey fill, and a bright orange ash (2303) extended from the upper level of the cut to the south. The west wall (1781) incorporated the north end of a pre-existing wall (2428; see Figure 90) contained within the underlying grey sand layers (GAD).

Deposition in the north kiln (GBE) The succession of activity in the north kiln (Figures 213 and 217 A) begins with two discrete patches of sand, one

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

278 A

B NE

C W

SW

E

E

W

1751

1751

1752 1752

1781

1780

D NW

SE

1635

1630 1641 1643 1647 1636

1639

1662

1650

1653

1682

1668 1674

1651 1659

1663

1669 1673

1675

E F

A

1780 1752

B

1781 1751

C

D

G

H SE

NW NW

1780

SE

1781

0

2m

Figure 210. A detailed record of the south and north kilns: A) A profile across the north kiln; B) A profile across the south kiln; C) A profile across the south kiln; D) A longitudinal section through the deposits in the south kiln; E) A plan of the south kiln; F) A plan of the north kiln; G) The elevation of the north kiln wall 1781; H) The elevation of the north kiln wall 1780

yellow-orange (1118) and the other charcoal-rich (1119). These were covered by an extensive grey-brown sand (994) that contained frequent fragments of slag and yellow and red ash lenses. This was overlain by a distinctive yellow

silt layer (992) and then an orange-brown sand (991), both thickest in the mouth of the structure (Figures 82 and 217 A). These were overlain by a more extensive grey-brown sand (993) and a restricted patch of orange silty sand (988).

The Middle Norse activity on mound 2A

Figure 211. A view of the south kiln when it was almost completely excavated

Figure 212. A view of the north kiln during excavation

279

280

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Figure 213. A section through the ash deposits at the front of the north kiln, in the southwest corner of square 2

Figure 214. A section through the ash deposits in the mouth of the south kiln, these are truncated on the right side by a cut for House 12

A radiocarbon date (SUERC-18254) was obtained from a barley grain from 988. This has a radiocarbon age of 1010±35 BP, which calibrates to a date of cal AD 970–1150. Over layer 988 was a grey sand (981/987) that produced

high densities of slag. This extensive grey sand covered the earlier arc of walling (772) and the associated outer walls (1183/961) of the GBA structure. Layer 981/987 was overlain by a red-brown sand (978) that contained patches

The Middle Norse activity on mound 2A

281

sand (1775) that was followed by an orange red sand (2324). It may be relevant that many of these deposits lay on the putative line of the core of wall 1183/772 as it curved to the northeast, and it is possible they were dumped as part of its construction. Four stake-holes and two pits were cut into the grey sand (1747; GAD) in the interior of the GBA structure (Figures 215 and 216). The largest was a sub-square pit (2312) and this was cut by a smaller circular pit (2306), situated on its southwest corner. The latter pit contained a large stone that appeared to have collapsed into the pit from the southeast and this could have served as a seat within the structure. Three of the stake-holes (2333, 2322, 2314) were in a roughly north–south line and the fourth stake-hole (2325) lay close to 2314. Stake-hole 2322 cut the fill (2313) of pit 2312. This spread of features continued to the east into square 9, which contained two roughly circular pits (2382 and 2363) and, to the north, a smaller circular pit (2376; Figure 217 B). Close to the latter was a circular post hole (2374) and an orange-yellow ash with charcoal flecks (2379). Another small patch of mottled orange-brown sand (2371) lay close to pit 2363. The fills of these features were often shell- and charcoal-rich. There is no obvious pattern to these features and it is difficult to understand their significance. They may be evidence for the occupation of the GBA structure, or they could, given the truncated nature of the stratigraphy in the middle of the trench, be pre-floor features for the later GCA structure (see Chapter 8), though the latter seems unlikely. A fairly extensive, thick layer of pink sand (1700) was present in the southern half of square 8. This layer contained many pale ashy lenses, coloured yellow, white

of orange silty sand. Above this was a layer of grey sand (974) that was indistinguishable from the other grey sand layers (e.g. 987), and a thick but discrete patch of yellow brown sand (972) that had multiple lenses of orange and black that were particularly prominent towards the base of the deposit. Slag-rich layers completely filled both this kiln and the south kiln, and clearly indicate numerous events of burning within the kilns. It seems surprisingly that the ash deposits produced by these events were not systematically cleared from the structures, as the filled kiln was surely less effective. Towards the end of its life the north kiln was used only intermittently: layers of grey sand eroded into the structure between episodes of intensive burning.

Occupation associated with the kilns in the central area (GBF) A series of discrete layers and features cut the grey sand layer (GAD) in the central part of the excavated area (Figure 215, Table 77). These represent an increased level of activity on the mound, activity that appears to have been roughly contemporary with the structure GBA, and which possibly preceded the use of the kilns. Immediately to the south and east of the north kiln (square 5) were a number of discrete dumps of distinctively coloured sand. A patch of dark grey/black sand (2311) sat above the grey layer on the southern edge of this square; to the east of the kiln, a compact, mottled yellow/black ash dump (2419) was followed by a secondary spread of reddish-black ash (2420). To the south, a small patch of yellow-orange sand (2317) sat on the wall core (GBA), and further east was a patch of charcoal-rich, dark brown

Table 77. A summary description of the features in the Middle Norse deposits associated with the use of the kilns (GBF) Cut

Block

Feature type

Shape

2306

GBF

Pit

circular

steep-sided rounded profile, flat base

Profile

Orientation

Primary fill

Length

Width

Depth

0.55

0.50

0.14

2304

dark brown sand, shell-rich

0.75

0.4

0.20

2318

mid brown/grey sand

2312

GBF

Pit

subsquare

2314

GBF

Stake hole

circular

wedge-shaped

0.07

0.05

0.19

2315

dark brown sand

2322

GBF

Stake hole

circular

rounded profile

0.05

0.05

0.02

2323

dark grey-black sand

2325

GBF

Stake hole

circular

wedge-shaped

0.05

0.05

0.08

2326

dark grey sand

2333

GBF

Stake hole

circular

rounded profile

0.05

0.05

0.03

2334

orange/mid-brown sand

2363

GBF

Pit

circular

steep-sided, rounded base

0.42

0.37

0.15

2364

dark brown sand

2374

GBF

Post hole

circular

vertical sides, irregular base

0.21

0.17

0.06

2375

dark brown sand around edge, mid-brown sand in centre

2376

GBF

Pit

circular

gently sloping sides

>0.24

0.21

0.15

2377

dark brown sand, shell-rich

0.60

0.35

0.20

2383

dark brown sand, shell-rich

0.82

0.74

0.19

1764

shell layer, dark brown sand matrix

2382

GBF

Pit

circular

one gentle sloping side, other sides steep

1763

GBG

Pit

circular

one side steep other shallow

N-S

N-S

Secondary fill

2313

dark brown/ black sand

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

282

1775

2379

2333 2420 2419 2312

450/230

1142

2322 2314

2376 2374

2363

2325 2306 2382 2317 1162

1183

460/230

2371

2368

1763

772

961

450/224

460/224

0

5m

Figure 215. A plan of the features in the centre of the excavated area (GBF)

and red. In square 4 a discontinuous layer of orange silty sand (1142), sealed by a more extensive layer of grey sand (1134), was identified. Overlying the features in square 9 was a grey sand (1708).

Deposition associated with the kilns on the edge of the mound (GBG) Contemporary with the use of the kilns were a series of deposits that accumulated on the east and west sides of the

The Middle Norse activity on mound 2A GBF

283

GBG

2375

2315

2326

2377 2325

2374

2314

1764

2376 1763

2313 2364

2318

2363

2312

0

50cm

Figure 216. Sections through features belonging to blocks GBF and GBG

mound, representing activity contemporary with the use of the kilns (Figures 217 and 218). This was a transitional phase that preceded the accumulation of the later midden deposits (GDA–GDC; see Chapter 8). The stratigraphic relationship between the deposits in the south kiln and the deposits to the east and west of the kilns was unfortunately largely destroyed by the excavation of a hollow for the south house (1745, GEA; see Figures 82, 287 and 289). The principal extensive layer was a red-brown sand (1784, equivalent to 766 and 769) and this contained considerable quantities of slag. On the east side of the mound the first substantial layer in this sequence was a medium-brown sand with dense concentrations of carbonised barley grains (1760 in squares 14 and 15; Figure 217 C). Two radiocarbon dates (SUERC-18255 and SUERC-18259) were obtained from carbonised oat grains in this layer. These had radiocarbon ages of 900±35 BP and 865±35 BP, which calibrate to cal AD 1020–1220 and cal AD 1040–1260 respectively. This carbonised plant layer either merged with, or partially overlay, the slag-rich red sand (1784) to the east of the south kiln in square 14. Overlying 1760 was a layer of light brown sand (1779 in squares 9, 14 and 15; Figure 325 A), which was comparable to red-brown sand (1606, 1620) in square 6 (Figure 217 B). Above layer 1779 in square 14 was a compact reddish-black ash deposit (2365). This layer was covered by a patch of dark brown sand (1748/750/2427) concentrated along the south side of the square, and another dark brown sand (1777) with charcoal and orange flecks (Figure 325 A). On top of this was a series of small deposits, orange sand (1778), charcoal-rich sand (1769) and orange sand (1770) in square 14 (see Figure 289 A), which are probably dumps of ash from a nearby hearth. At roughly the same level as these ash deposits, but further west and cut by the later GCA house, was a layer of red sand (1743) containing slag and B.O.M. This was immediately adjacent to the south kiln and clearly derived from the use of that structure. The most significant feature at this level was a small circular pit (1763), 0.82 m by 0.74 m and 0.19 m deep. It was filled with a dark brown sand (1764) that contained large quantities of limpets.

In the northwestern corner of the trench, in squares 2, 4, and 5, a pink sand with frequent slag and B.O.M. inclusions (799) spread over the grey sands that covered the outer wall of the primary structure (GBA). This may be equivalent to reddish-brown sand 1779/1606/1620 on the eastern side of the trench (squares 6, 9, 14 and 15), which also contained large quantities of B.O.M., ash and slag. This deposit (799) overlay the north kiln deposits (Figures 82 and 217), and extended over almost all of square 2 and along the east side of squares 4 and 7, thinning noticeably to the north and west. Sitting on the edge of this deposit was a pink sand (1144), which may be the result of the erosion of layer 799. Above this, and occurring only as a small patch on the west side of square 4, was a dark brown sand (956) overlain by an orange-red silty sand (955/957) belonging to GDA midden (see Chapter 8). Immediately outside the mouth of the south kiln, the deposits that filled the kiln were overlain by a thick, slagrich, orange-brown sand (1603, 708, 717) that contained a red-grey sand (1198, 771; Figure 289 A). This deposit possibly accumulated when the deposits at the back of the rebuilt kiln were being created, and they would therefore be contemporary with the reuse of the kiln. There was unfortunately no clear relationship between these deposits and the deposits on the west side of the main trench, in squares 4, 7 and 12. However, an equivalent series of deposits accumulated against the outside of walls 961/1183 of the U-shaped structure. These preceded the main phase of midden accumulation in this area, and lay on top of grey sand layers belonging to GAD. These began with a thick layer of grey brown sand (893; Figures 82 and 217 B and C) that covered a large extent of the western side of the trench. It was fairly light grey at the top but gradually darkened with depth. This layer was overlain, in squares 4 and 7, by a discrete layer of dark red, silty sand (989) and a patch of light grey sand (986). In square 12, layer 893 was overlain by another thick layer of grey sand (881), which was interleaved with a series of thin layers (Figures 82, 217 C and 325 C). The lowest was a green silty clay layer (892), above this was a

860

1186

893

lower fill of 1612

1114 1129 1135 1138 1140 1150

1613

1612

2393

2390

2421

777

1604

1157

Key Rabbit

2421

2368

2369 1147 2366

1707

1696

R

1708

R

R

1714

1700

0

1714=2381

1180

1747 = 1100

1707

1790

1729

1788/2381

1785

1791/2405

2384

1790 1733

1715

1708

2377 1694 1687

2376

2379

1685

1789 1649

1139

1790

1649 1790

2359/2429

1133

1620

1625

2440/1792

976

1707 = 979

1100 996 997 1789 1649

999 = 1746 777 1169 1106

1104

1606

1795

1184

988 991

1789

1611

772

1625

972

992

987

799

974 978 955 1781

1693

1760

1175

3m

1779

1691

1679 1680

2345

1104 2428

2451

1649/2405

887 884 1683 1700 7197 879 872

1790

1606

1602

1143

1625

1604

1695

2381 1789 1649 1790 = 2450 1789 = 2448

1747

885 1618 1616

1790

1708 1707 1714

1103

1161

R

2370

1619

1692

1633

1617

2441

1138

1110 1137

977

1637

1615

1608 796

1617

1611

964

1126

1149

1128

1127

959

1789

1602

2328 882 879 886 998 1183 1661

1649

1103

954

1188

1626

983 893

1185?

1114 1132 1136

790

984

Figure 217. Three sections running east west through the mound 2A deposits. Section A is the south facing section running from northwest corner of square 4 to the northeast corner of square 6. Section B is a north facing section running from the southeast corner of square 6 to the southwest corner of square 4. Section C is a south facing section that runs from the northwest corner of square 12 to roughly midway along the north section of square 15. The upper deposits in the centre of section C and to a lesser extent section B were removed before the section lines were established

1195

961

2399

1607

1124 1116

987 1106

927

2394

1141

1153 1115 1149

1142

799

876 881 888 961

1134

1192 1605 1199

C

B

A

284

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

The Middle Norse activity on mound 2A

285

Figure 218. A view of the south-facing section of square 15 on the east side of mound 2A, see Figure 217 section C

brown layer (888), then a light grey sand (876), a charcoalrich sand (875), a light brown sand (874) rich in slag, and finally a red sand (794) with significant quantities of winkles (Figure 325 C). Probably contemporary with these deposits were three layer in the western extension, square 11 (Figure 325 C). These lay between the grey sand (GAD) and the later midden (GDA). The lowest layer was a grey sand with charcoal flecks (2351), which contained a large number of winkles. Above this was a grey sand with a noticeably pink tinge (2350). These were sealed by another grey-brown sand layer (2340).

Sampling data – N Sharples One hundred samples, 1,552 litres of soil, were processed from the Middle Norse deposits on mound 2A (GB; Table 78): • • • • • •

three samples, 45.5 litres of soil, came from the central structure (GBA); 18 samples, 242.5 litres of soil, from the deposits in the south kiln (GBC); three samples, 34 litres of soil, from the construction of the north kiln (GBD); 17 samples, 309.5 litres of soil, from the deposits in the north kiln (GBE); 18 samples, 232 litres of soil, from occupation in the central area (GBF); 41 samples, 688.5 litres of soil, from deposits on the edge of the mound (GBG).

The 2–10 mm residues were sorted from 40 samples, 392.3 litres of soil (Table 79): • • • • •

two samples, 40 litres of soil, came from GBA; one sample, 7.5 litres of soil, from GBD; seven samples, 54.5 litres of soil, from GBE; nine samples, 84 litres of soil, from GBF; 21 samples, 206.3 litres of soil, from GBG.

The average densities of the materials above 10 mm recovered from the samples are depicted in Figure 219. These layers produced some of the highest densities of B.O.M., slag, limpets and winkles from mound 2A and these materials dominate the collections from this phase. Slag was the most important material in all the GB blocks, and the densities in the peripheral middens (GBG) were particularly high, with the samples from light brown sand layer 874 producing a density of 30.4 frag/litre. The occupation in the central area (GBF) had surprisingly low densities of slag (0.4 frag/litre), particularly compared to the very high densities in the deposits on the edge of the mound (GBG; 6.6 frag/litre). These two blocks, GBF and GBG, produced much higher densities of winkles and limpets than the other blocks. The fill (2383) of pit 2382 produced the highest density of winkles (37.7 shells/litre) and a high density of limpets (11.9 shells/litre), though the highest density of limpets (19.5 shells/litre) came from another pit fill (1764) in the peripheral middens (GBG). After slag and marine shell, unburnt mammal bone was the next most frequent material, followed by fish bone, B.O.M. and pottery, with burnt bone being the scarcest. Pottery density, though low on average (0.06

GBE

GBE

981

987

2 samples

10337

GBE

GBE

1134

1700

1708

1746

1785

2304

2311

9291

2 samples

7850

10221

10611

11003

11008

Sub-total

1119

17 samples

9269

GBE

992

1118

3 samples

9268

GBF

GBF

GBF

GBF

GBF

GBF

GBF

GBE

GBE

GBE

988

991

9249

3 samples

GBE

GBE

974

978

9236

2 samples

GBE

972

GBD

GBD

2 samples

2319

11015

GBD

GBD

Sub-total

2310

3 samples

2303

11009

17.0

2.0

21.0

33.0

3.0

32.0

34.0

15.0

309.5

2.5

4.0

74.0

60.0

23.0

28.0

23.0

31.0

13.0

51.0

34.0

11.0

8.0

15.0

242.5

GBC

GBC

1675

11.0

Sub-total

11002

18 samples

7502

1674

7501

GBC

13.0

31.0

27.0

12.0

26.0

3.0

13.0

2.0

3.0

5.00

2.0

19.0

32.5

15.0

4.0

45.5

13.5

16.0

16.0

Litres

7.0

1673

7497

GBC

GBC

GBC

GBC

GBC

GBC

GBC

GBC

GBC

GBC

GBC

GBC

GBC

GBC

GBC

GBA

GBA

GBA

GBA

Block

GBC

1668

1669

7277

1663

7264

7279

1659

1662

7258

7266

1651

1653

7236

7240

1647

1650

7224

7234

1641

1643

7204

7212

1636

1639

7194

7536

1630

1635

7178

7182

Sub-total

1158

9318

3 samples

998

1141

9258

Context

9297

Sample

0 0.00

7 0.33

3 0.09

0 0.00

6 0.19

3 0.09

3 0.20

25 0.08

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.01

2 0.03

3 0.13

4 0.14

8 0.35

3 0.10

3 0.23

1 0.02

13 0.38

3 0.27

8 1.00

2 0.13

28 0.12

15 0.88

3 0.43

0 0.00

1 0.08

1 0.03

0 0.00

2 0.17

3 0.12

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.05

1 0.03

1 0.07

0 0.00

7 0.15

2 0.15

2 0.13

3 0.19

no. density

Unburnt bone

Fish

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

15 0.05

0 0.00

0 0.00

2 1.00

15 0.71

0 0.00

0 0.00

2 0.06

0 0.00

1 0.07

5 0.02

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

5 0.07

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.04

0 0.00

1 0.03

1 0.08

2 0.04

3 0.09

0 0.00

0 0.00

3 0.20

4 0.02

2 0.12

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.04

0 0.00

1 0.08

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

6 0.13

2 0.15

3 0.19

1 0.06

no. density

1 0.02

4 0.14

0 0.00

3 0.10

0 0.00

2 0.04

7 0.21

0 0.00

7 0.88

0 0.00

15 0.06

5 0.29

1 0.14

0 0.00

2 0.15

3 0.10

0 0.00

1 0.08

3 0.12

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

3 0.07

3 0.22

0 0.00

0 0.00

no. density

Burnt bone

0 0.00

7 0.33

25 0.76

0 0.00

3 0.09

0 0.00

0 0.00

4 0.01

1 0.40

0 0.00

1 0.01

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

2 0.04

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

6 0.02

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.04

0 0.00

1 0.04

0 0.00

3 0.23

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.07

0 0.00

4 0.09

4 0.30

0 0.00

0 0.00

no. density

Pottery

0 0.00

19 0.90

8 0.24

0 0.00

6 0.19

1 0.03

3 0.20

755 2.44

2 0.80

7 1.75

146 1.97

91 1.52

53 2.30

30 1.07

120 5.22

118 3.81

36 2.77

152 2.98

50 1.47

8 0.73

15 1.88

27 1.80

641 2.64

44 2.59

28 4.00

0 0.00

36 2.77

120 3.87

98 3.63

28 2.33

47 1.81

9 3.00

34 2.62

4 2.00

34 11.33

19 3.80

22 11.00

34 1.79

54 1.66

13 0.87

17 4.25

52 1.14

18 1.33

26 1.63

8 0.50

no. density

Slag

0 0.00

14 0.67

3 0.09

0 0.00

6 0.19

2 0.06

0 0.00

30 0.10

4 1.60

4 1.00

8 0.11

1 0.02

4 0.17

2 0.07

1 0.04

5 0.16

0 0.00

1 0.02

13 0.38

3 0.27

5 0.63

5 0.33

37 0.15

14 0.82

2 0.29

0 0.00

1 0.08

1 0.03

1 0.04

3 0.25

5 0.19

0 0.00

1 0.08

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.20

0 0.00

3 0.16

4 0.12

1 0.07

0 0.00

14 0.31

7 0.52

2 0.13

5 0.31

no. density

Limpet

2 1.00

60 2.86

20 0.61

0 0.00

12 0.38

12 0.35

8 0.53

23 0.07

1 0.40

0 0.00

9 0.12

0 0.00

1 0.04

2 0.07

1 0.04

4 0.13

0 0.00

5 0.10

16 0.47

6 0.55

6 0.75

4 0.27

28 0.12

2 0.12

2 0.29

0 0.00

1 0.08

0 0.00

0 0.00

3 0.25

6 0.23

2 0.67

1 0.08

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

4 0.21

4 0.12

3 0.20

0 0.00

20 0.44

10 0.74

0 0.00

10 0.63

no. density

Winkle

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

no.

Egg

0

7

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

no.

Charcoal

Table 78. The material identified in sorting the greater than 10 mm residue from the Middle Norse deposits (GB) on mound 2A

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

no.

Coprolite

B.O.M.

0 0.00

2 0.10

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.03

0 0.00

0 0.00

55 0.18

1 0.40

1 0.25

8 0.11

12 0.20

9 0.39

0 0.00

8 0.35

11 0.35

2 0.15

3 0.06

6 0.18

0 0.00

2 0.25

4 0.27

38 0.16

1 0.06

1 0.14

0 0.00

1 0.08

10 0.32

14 0.52

0 0.00

2 0.08

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.50

0 0.00

3 0.60

0 0.00

5 0.26

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.02

0 0.00

1 0.06

0 0.00

no. density

286

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

2324

2371

2375

2377

2379

2383

2419

2420

11019

11064

11067

11068

11069

11054

11065

11036

875

876

881

888

986

989

1144

1198

1603

1606

1620

1643

1743

1748

1760

1764

1769

1770

1777

1779

1784

2340

2350

2351

2365

9205

9206

9207

9210

9247

9248

9301

7032

7040

7054

7118

7212

10212

10310

9 samples

10409

10416

10417

10557

10591

10665

11039

11044

11045

11060

Total

874

3 samples

100 samples

799

2 samples

Sub-total

794

2 samples

41 samples

750

892 6

Sub-total

2318

11018

18 samples

2313

11010

GB

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBF

GBF

GBF

GBF

GBF

GBF

GBF

GBF

GBF

GBF

GBF

8.0

1552.0

688.5

16.0

18.0

14.0

16.0

32.0

32.0

23.0

3.0

2.0

32.0

52.0

28.0

51.0

5.0

20.0

40.0

42.0

40.0

8.5

0.5

0.5

5.0

18.0

2.0

13.0

88.0

49.0

24.0

14.0

232.0

3.0

9.0

26.0

4.0

7.0

1.0

2.0

2.0

30.0

3 0.38

244 0.16

112 0.16

3 0.19

6 0.33

4 0.29

0 0.00

4 0.13

4 0.13

12 0.52

0 0.00

3 1.50

8 0.25

9 0.17

20 0.71

7 0.14

0 0.00

0 0.00

4 0.10

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.12

0 0.00

1 2.00

1 0.20

1 0.06

1 0.50

1 0.08

10 0.11

2 0.04

3 0.13

7 0.50

59 0.25

2 0.67

0 0.00

17 0.65

1 0.25

3 0.43

1 1.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

10 0.33

70 0.05

23 0.03

2 0.13

1 0.06

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

2 0.09

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.02

2 0.07

1 0.02

1 0.20

0 0.00

0 0.00

2 0.05

3 0.08

1 0.12

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

7 0.14

0 0.00

0 0.00

7 0.03

0 0.00

0 0.00

4 0.15

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

2 0.07

1 0.13

162 0.10

109 0.16

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

5 0.31

1 0.03

1 0.03

16 0.70

0 0.00

1 0.50

5 0.16

5 0.10

26 0.93

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.05

10 0.25

0 0.00

4 0.10

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

86 0.06

30 0.04

0 0.00

7 0.39

0 0.00

1 0.06

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.04

0 0.00

0 0.00

3 0.09

3 0.06

4 0.14

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.03

0 0.00

2 0.05

0 0.00

2 4.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.06

0 0.00 0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.08

2 0.02

2 0.04

0 0.00

0 0.00

42 0.18

0 0.00

0 0.00

2 0.08

0 0.00

1 0.14

0 0.00

3 1.50

0 0.00

1 0.03

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

3 0.03

2 0.04

9 0.38

20 1.43

35 0.15

0 0.00

0 0.00

8 0.31

1 0.25

2 0.29

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

3 0.10

1 0.13

9 1.13

6145 3.96

4565 6.63

10 0.63

21 1.17

13 0.93

6 0.38

226 7.06

99 3.09

25 1.09

8 2.67

0 0.00

11 0.34

70 1.35

23 0.82

280 5.49

19 3.80

48 2.40

63 1.58

286 6.81

349 8.73

4 0.47

2 4.00

0 0.00

2 0.40

19 1.06

1 0.50

17 1.31

2681 30.47

215 4.39

2 0.08

65 4.64

82 0.35

1 0.33

11 1.22

1 0.04

1 0.25

3 0.43

1 1.00

1 0.50

2 1.00

15 0.50

1297 0.84

806 1.17

3 0.19

4 0.22

2 0.14

6 0.38

0 0.00

4 0.13

20 0.87

2 0.67

0 0.00

623 19.47

4 0.08

18 0.64

4 0.08

1 0.20

1 0.05

26 0.65

19 0.45

22 0.55

0 0.00

4 8.00

0 0.00

1 0.20

4 0.22

1 0.50

3 0.23

7 0.08

2 0.04

24 1.00

1 0.07

397 1.71

3 1.00

7 0.78

310 11.92

1 0.25

36 5.14

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.50

9 0.30

5 0.63

4 0.50

2460 1.59

1167 1.69

1 0.06

275 15.28

5 0.36

33 2.06

2 0.06

18 0.56

154 6.70

1 0.33

1 0.50

271 8.47

11 0.21

138 4.93

9 0.18

0 0.00

1 0.05

9 0.23

4 0.10

8 0.20

0 0.00

13 26.00

0 0.00

3 0.60

12 0.67

0 0.00

8 0.62

22 0.25

6 0.12

154 6.42

8 0.57

1206 5.20

4 1.33

2 0.22

981 37.73

2 0.50

77 11.00

1 1.00

1 0.50

1 0.50

19 0.63

0

0

0

0

0

0

17

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0 0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

17

0

0

10

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

154 0.10

49 0.07

0 0.00

1 0.06

0 0.00

1 0.06

5 0.16

7 0.22

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

2 0.04

0 0.00

10 0.20

3 0.60

0 0.00

1 0.03

2 0.05

4 0.10

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.20

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

3 0.03

7 0.14

0 0.00

2 0.14

5 0.02

0 0.00

1 0.11

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.03

0 0.00

The Middle Norse activity on mound 2A 287

1141

11020

978

981

988

991

992

9237

9242

2 samples

9251

9252

1134

1785

2304

2377

2379

2383

2419

9291

10611

11003

11068

11069

11054

11065

875

881

888

989

1606

1620

1743

1748

1760

1764

1779

2340

2350

2351

2365

9205

9207

9210

9248

7054

7118

10212

10310

2 samples

10409

10591

11039

11044

11045

11060

Total

874

9250

40 samples

799

2 samples

Sub-total

794

9241

21 samples

766

8936

Sub-total

1708

7850

9 samples

1700

7687

Sub-total

972

9230

7 samples

2303

11002

Sub-total

998

9258

2 samples

Context

Sample

GB

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBF

GBF

GBF

GBF

GBF

GBF

GBF

GBF

GBF

GBF

GBE

GBE

GBE

GBE

GBE

GBE

GBE

GBD

GBA

GBA

GBA

Block

783.5

402.5

16

18

14

16

32

32

11

28

51

20

40

0.5

5

18

13

13

49

6

20

157

9

26

4

7

21

33

15

32

10

145

30

8

43

18

22

24

15

64

48

16

Litres

392.3

206.3

8.0

9.0

7.0

8.0

16.0

16.0

11

14.0

12.8

10.0

20.0

0.5

5.0

9.0

13.0

6.5

24.5

6.0

10.0

84.0

4.5

13.0

4.0

7.0

10.5

16.5

7.5

16.0

5.0

54.5

7.5

4.0

21.5

4.5

11.0

6.0

7.5

40.0

24.0

16.0

Litres sorted

402

73

0

7

8

1

0

8

0

14

0

1

6

6

2

3

6

0

6

4

1

325

0

83

72

3

51

109

5

2

0

2

0

0

2

0

0

0

0

2

2

0

no.

1.02

0.35

0.00

0.78

1.14

0.13

0.00

0.50

0.00

1.00

0.00

0.10

0.30

12.00

0.40

0.33

0.46

0.00

0.24

0.67

0.10

3.87

0.00

6.38

18.00

0.43

4.86

6.61

0.67

0.13

0.00

0.04

0.00

0.00

0.09

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.05

0.08

0.00

density

Pottery

3171

1963

60

75

121

124

235

93

63

192

69

90

190

6

56

118

143

27

103

46

152

720

44

113

36

32

91

209

71

99

25

115

11

1

37

7

30

29

68

305

189

116

no.

8.08

9.52

7.50

8.33

17.29

15.50

14.69

5.81

5.73

13.71

5.41

9.00

9.50

12.00

11.20

13.11

11.00

4.15

4.20

7.67

15.20

8.57

9.78

8.69

9.00

4.57

8.67

12.67

9.47

6.19

5.00

2.11

1.47

0.25

1.72

1.56

2.73

4.83

9.07

7.63

7.88

7.25

density

Unburnt bone

3.38

1.20

3.03

3.33

0.75

3.02

2.22

4.36

2.33

4.80

3.38

3.38

3.38

density

1447

833

49

173

22

26

35

22

14

193

28

10

36

6

12

38

30

10

50

20

59

278

13

37

21

10

53

67

3.69

4.04

6.13

19.22

3.14

3.25

2.19

1.38

1.27

13.79

2.20

1.00

1.80

12.00

2.40

4.22

2.31

1.54

2.04

3.33

5.90

3.31

2.89

2.85

5.25

1.43

5.05

4.06

17 2.27

54

6

165

25

3

65

10

48

14

36

135

81

54

no.

Burnt bone

4016

2259

15

51

36

104

155

153

166

448

78

92

134

45

30

111

168

34

104

169

166

1148

32

257

119

60

182

133

114

204

47

233

46

12

52

51

54

64

56

320

200

120

no.

10.24

10.95

1.88

5.67

5.14

13.00

9.69

9.56

15.09

32.00

6.12

9.20

6.70

90.00

6.00

12.33

12.92

5.23

4.24

28.17

16.60

13.67

7.11

19.77

29.75

8.57

17.33

8.06

15.20

12.75

9.40

4.28

6.13

3.00

2.42

11.33

4.91

10.67

7.47

8.00

8.33

7.50

density

Fish

1779

714

0

135

6

27

16

25

22

197

18

60

46

4

0

7

8

3

17

0

123

880

9

420

17

5

318

27

47

33

4

90

3

18

49

4

14

2

11

84

64

20

no.

4.54

3.46

0.00

15.00

0.86

3.38

1.00

1.56

2.00

14.07

1.41

6.00

2.30

8.00

0.00

0.78

0.62

0.46

0.69

0.00

12.30

10.48

2.00

32.31

4.25

0.71

30.29

1.64

6.27

2.06

0.80

1.65

0.40

4.50

2.28

0.89

1.27

0.33

1.47

2.10

2.67

1.25

density

Charcoal

6702

3467

154

130

90

73

194

56

88

230

692

49

170

18

80

114

69

8

1132

34

86

907

62

126

138

32

68

162

192

101

26

1870

105

300

512

241

474

238

86

372

271

101

no.

17.09

16.81

19.25

14.44

12.86

9.13

12.13

3.50

8.00

16.43

54.27

4.90

8.50

36.00

16.00

12.67

5.31

1.23

46.20

5.67

8.60

10.80

13.78

9.69

34.50

4.57

6.48

9.82

25.60

6.31

5.20

34.31

14.00

75.00

23.81

53.56

43.09

39.67

11.47

9.30

11.29

6.31

density

B.O.M.

111309

59235

1452

550

600

760

3700

672

1270

712

10945

6000

4175

80

433

1853

1552

3700

17093

293

3395

9245

1700

432

243

229

1900

2150

1295

916

380

34670

5200

1300

13700

3640

5730

5100

2400

5759

3900

1859

no.

283.77

287.20

181.50

61.11

85.71

95.00

231.25

42.00

115.45

50.86

858.43

600.00

208.75

160.00

86.60

205.89

119.38

569.23

697.67

48.83

339.50

110.06

377.78

33.23

60.75

32.71

180.95

130.30

172.67

57.25

76.00

636.15

693.33

325.00

637.21

808.89

520.91

850.00

320.00

143.98

162.50

116.19

density

Slag

31

25

0

0

0

1

0

16

0

3

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

2

0

1

6

0

5

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

no.

0.08

0.12

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.13

0.00

1.00

0.00

0.21

0.08

0.00

0.05

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.08

0.00

0.10

0.07

0.00

0.38

0.00

0.14

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

density

Crab

292

184

9

1

1

6

5

30

2

41

2

1

8

6

1

2

8

1

1

54

5

74

1

14

3

1

15

11

9

16

4

5

2

0

1

1

1

0

3

26

9

17

no.

0.74

0.89

1.13

0.11

0.14

0.75

0.31

1.88

0.18

2.93

0.16

0.10

0.40

12.00

0.20

0.22

0.62

0.15

0.04

9.00

0.50

0.88

0.22

1.08

0.75

0.14

1.43

0.67

1.20

1.00

0.80

0.09

0.27

0.00

0.05

0.22

0.09

0.00

0.40

0.65

0.38

1.06

density

Egg

Table 79. The material identified in sorting the 2 to 10 mm residue from the Middle Norse deposits (GB) on mound 2A

3

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0.01

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.17

0.00

0.02

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.27

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

density

Spirobis no.

240

94

0

0

0

0

9

0

0

0

18

0

14

0

0

12

10

0

31

0

0

82

0

14

0

10

0

0

48

5

5

41

15

0

26

0

0

0

19

4

4

0

0.61

0.46

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.56

0.00

0.00

0.00

1.41

0.00

0.70

0.00

0.00

1.33

0.77

0.00

1.27

0.00

0.00

0.98

0.00

1.08

0.00

1.43

0.00

0.00

6.40

0.31

1.00

0.75

2.00

0.00

1.21

0.00

0.00

0.00

2.53

0.10

0.17

0.00

density

Coprolite no.

288

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

The Middle Norse activity on mound 2A

289

16

0.3

14 12 0.2

10 8 6

0.1

4 2

0

0 unburnt bone

fish GBC

burnt bone GBE

pottery

GBF

BOM

GBG

unburnt bone

burnt bone

fish

700 600

7

500

6

400

5

300

4

200

3

100

2

0 charcoal

1 0

pot

BOM

slag

3 slag

limpet

winkle

Figure 219. Histograms of the above 10 mm sampling densities

frag/litre), was high in the central occupation area (GBF; 0.18 frag/litre). Most materials were present in quantities comparable to the other blocks in mound 2A, though the fish bone density (0.1 frag/litre) was low compared to the Late Norse phases (GC and GD). The average densities of the material recovered from the 2–10 mm residues are depicted in Figure 220. The assemblages were dominated by slag, which averaged over 100 frag/litre in every block and reached its highest density of 636 frag/litre in the deposits in the north kiln (GBE). The lowest slag density (110 frag/litre) came from the occupation in the central area (GBF). After slag, the highest densities overall were of B.O.M., fish bone and unburnt bone, with charcoal and burnt bone next and then pot, egg and coprolite. If one removes slag from the graphs, then it is noticeable that the deposits in the north kiln (GBE) produced low densities of most categories of material, with the exception of B.O.M. The occupation in the central area (GBF) stands out as unusual, as there were high densities of fish bone (13.7 frag/litre), charcoal (10.5 frag/litre) and pot (3.9 frag/litre). This block also produced the highest density of pottery in the 2–10mm residues of any block in mound 2A. The distinctive character of the residue assemblages from the occupation deposits in the central area (GBF) and, in particular, the very low quantities of slag from

2

1

0

crab GBA

spirobis GBD

egg GBE

coprolite GBF

GBG

Figure 220. Histograms of the 2 to 10 mm sampling densities

these deposits, suggest that the activity in this block preceded the use of the kilns. It is very unlikely that the occupation deposits could have been kept clear of slag when so much of it was deposited in the later contexts all over the mound.

Pottery – K Harding and N Sharples A total of 361 sherds, weighing approximately 2,243 g, were recovered from the Middle Norse kilns and associated middens on mound 2A (GB; Table 80). This is a relatively insignificant assemblage compared to the Middle Norse assemblage from mound 2, but fairly average for the different blocks on mound 2A. Over 50% of the sherds came from the occupation deposits in the central area (GBF), and

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

290

Table 80. The pottery from the Middle Norse deposits (GB) on mound 2A Block

Context

Weight (g)

No.

Ave wght

GBA

998

11.5

2

5.75

Rim

Base

Body

Misc.

Platter

2

GBA

1141

75.6

3

25.2

GBA

1158

5.4

1

5.4

1

GBA

Sub-total

92.5

6

15.42

GBC

1635

136.3

39

3.49

GBC

1636

0.4

1

0.4

GBC

Sub-total

136.7

40

3.42

0

GBD

1780

4.2

1

4.2

1

GBD

2303

2.2

1

2.2

1

1

1 1

0

2

3

0

Sooted

Fine

2

1

2

1

1

1

5

3

39 1 0

0

1

1 39

0

1

1 1

GBD

2319

2.3

1

2.3

GBD

Sub-total

8.7

3

2.9

1

0

0

1

1

1

0

GBE

972

11.3

3

3.77

0

0

2

1

0

2

0

GBF

1134

17.1

3

5.7

GBF

1601

1

1

1.00

GBF

1700

2

1

2.00

GBF

1708

42.6

11

3.87

GBF

1785

1180.5

169

6.99

1

1

2

2

1

1

1

1 11

4

2

113

74

17

16

4

36

4

40

127

4

GBF

2304

44.9

3

14.97

GBF

Sub-total

1288.1

188

6.85

16

3

81

20

GBG

717

174.3

22

7.92

2

2

1

17

6

2

GBG

750

84

16

5.25

2

3

4

7

4

GBG

766

33.8

7

4.83

4

1

2

1

GBG

799

63.2

12

5.27

3

GBG

874

18

3

6.00

1

1

GBG

875

44.8

8

5.60

1

2

5

GBG

881

2

1

2.00

1

GBG

893

89.2

22

4.05

2

GBG

1777

14.2

1

14.20

GBG

1778

12

5

GBG

1198

30.1

GBG

1606

GBG

1760

GBG

2340

1

3

8

2

5 1

1 2 1

1

11

2.40

1

3

4

7.53

4

67.7

7

9.67

17.4

4

4.35

1

52.2

8

6.53

2

8

6

1

3

3

1 1

2

3

4

1

2

1

2

2

6 2

2

1

6

2

GBG

2350

2.9

1

2.90

GBG

Sub-total

705.8

121

5.86

11

7

22

43

38

46

12

Total

2243.1

361

6.21

29

11

66

176

82

135

36

GB

just over 30% came from the peripheral middens (GBG). The deposits in the south kiln (GBC) were the only other layers that produced an assemblage of more than 10 sherds (Figure 221). The highest average sherd weight belongs to the small assemblage from GBA; GBF and GBG have an average weight of 6.8 g and 5.9 g respectively, which is close to the average for mound 2A. Several individual layers produced substantial assemblages. In square 14, a light brown sand (1785, GBF) produced over 150 sherds. This was a thick homogeneous layer not radically different from the underlying grey sands of GAD. All but one of the sherds from the fill of

1

1

the south kiln (GBC) came from 1635, a layer that was very late in the fill sequence and therefore possibly related to the Late Norse occupation (GC). The assemblage from GBG was more evenly dispersed through the various layers and the largest quantities came from square 14 adjacent to the south kiln. A comparison of rim and platter sherds (Figure 221) indicates that rims are most numerous in the assemblage from the central area (GBF), whereas platter is most numerous in the assemblage from the south kiln (GBC) and the peripheral middens (GBG). The latter two blocks produced some of the largest assemblages of platter sherds

The Middle Norse activity on mound 2A Weight

1400

10

1000

8

800

6

600

4

400

2

200 0

200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0

Ave Wght

12

1200

291

GBA

GBC

GBD

GBE

GBF

GBG

Sherds

0

45 40

GBA

Rim

GBC

GBD

GBE

GBF

GBG

GBD

GBE

GBF

GBG

Platter

35 30 25 20 15 10 5 GBA

GBC

GBD

GBE

GBF

GBG

0

GBA

GBC

Figure 221. The distribution of the pottery assemblage

from mound 2A. This suggests that platter was becoming more important during the Middle Norse period. There is one everted rim from layer 1785 (Figure 222), a large sherd with a tall everted rim, more reminiscent of the Late Iron Age material found on mound 1 than the later Norse everted rims. Two small rims (5998 and 6001; Figure 222) from the final grey-brown sand on the west side of the mound are distinctive. They are expanded rims with stab-marks on the upper surface, and are reminiscent of the post-medieval ceramics in the Hebrides (Campbell in Barrowman 2015).

Measurements – N Sharples The assemblages of pot and bone from 12 contexts from the layers associated with the Middle Norse kilns (GB) were measured to provide some assessment of the preservation. The assemblages came from four distinctive groups of contexts: the early occupation and building (GBA), the deposits in the north kiln (GBE), the central occupation deposits (GBF) and the deposits on the edge of the mound (GBG). The assemblages from GBA and GBE are limited in numbers, with very little pottery. The overwhelming bulk of the measured assemblage consists of 1,101 mammal bones from contexts 1134, 1708 and 1785 in the central occupation deposits (GBF) and 1,215 mammal bones

from contexts 717, 750, 799, 881, 893 and 1606 in the peripheral middens (GBG). The sizes of the assemblages from the occupation deposits (GBF) and the peripheral middens (GBG) are illustrated in Figure 223. The bone assemblage is not well preserved, with over 80% being under 40 mm. The bone assemblages from GBG contain more small fragments than the assemblages from GBF, and this may reflect their presence in the fills of features, but the differences are never substantial. The pottery assemblages from GBF and GBG demonstrate significant differences. The pot from GBG is generally better preserved than that from GBF, but the latter assemblage includes a small group of large sherds from context 1785.

Artefacts – A Pannett, R Smith and N Sharples An assemblage of 107 artefacts (Tables 81 and 82) was recovered from the kilns and their associated deposits (GB). The bulk of the assemblage came from the occupation deposits (GBF and GBG), with only 13 artefacts coming from the kilns themselves. The largest single category of finds is flint (34 pieces) and these were scattered across the different phases with no obvious concentrations. The assemblage comprised 16 flakes, 10 flake fragments, three pieces of microdebitage

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

292

GBA

GBF

GBC

5555 3649

0

4829

2cm

4833

5108

3492

GBG

GBF

8691

3103

8736

45

Bone

40 35 30 % 5998

6001

8735

2648

25

6608

20

4927

15 10

0

10cm

5

Figure 222. A selection of pottery and bone 0 or antler artefacts from GB 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9 10 11 12 13 14 15+

GBF 45

Bone

40 30

%

25 20 15

40 30 20

10

10

5 0

Pot

50

35

%

GBG

60

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9 10 11 12 13 14 15+

GBF

0

1

2

3

4 5

6

7

8

9 10 11 12 13 14 15+

GBG

60 Figure 223. Histograms showing the size distribution of the measured bone and pot from the peripheral middens

Pot

50

%

40 30 20

The Middle Norse activity on mound 2A

293

Table 81. The artefacts from the Middle Norse deposits (GBA–GBF) on mound 2A

plate blank

antler

offcut

antler

Total

2318

2

2304

2

1

1785

1708

1134

1601

GBF 994

981

978

GBE

2319

1780

GBD 1675

1669

1662

1168

antler

GBC

1158

tine/segment/beam/burr

1141

Material

998

GBA Object type

5

3 1

3

2

1

4

Working debris die blank

antler/ivory

pin manufacturing

bone

point

bone

1 1

flint

Tools

Personal objects Structural fittings

needle case

bone

knife

iron

comb

antler

nail

iron

holdfast

iron

rivet/fitting

iron

bar/rod/strip/fragments

iron

sheet

iron

sheet

Cu alloy

3

1

2

1

1

2

3

2

5

1

2

17

1

1

1

1

1

1 1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

3

7

1

5

1

1

2

1

1 1

1

1

1

4

1 1

1

1

2

Miscellaneous

Vessels

sheet

lead

1

1

worked

shale

1

1

1

1

3

10

9

worked

antler

vessel

steatite

Total

2

2

1 1

6

1

3

1

1

1

2

1

3

2

1

5

14

3

1

65

tine/segment/beam

antler

offcut

antler

2

2351

2340

1784

1760

1606

1603

1198

1144

989

893

881

876

875

874

799

794

Material

766

Object type

750

GBG

717

Table 82. The artefacts from the Middle Norse deposits (GBG) on mound 2A

1

Total 3

1

1

Working debris pin manufuring debris

bone flint

Tools

needle

bone

knife

iron

hammerstone

stone

comb

antler

1 1

6

1

1

2

1

1

1

1

1 2

17

1

1 1 1

1 1

2

1

3

Personal objects

Structural fitting

pin

bone

1

nail

iron

1

rove

iron

bar/rod/strip/fragments

iron

object

bone

cut

whale bone

unworked

whale bone

1 1

2 1

3

2

2 1

1

1

1

4

1

1

Miscellaneous

Total

1

1

1 1

3

1 6

1

and five chunks. Only two pieces are burnt. Surviving platforms are planar and terminations hinged or stepped. Two of the flakes have been roughly retouched to form simple edge retouch tools, and two have edge damage indicating use. A reasonable quantity of waste was found; there is

4

2

1

1

1

4

1

1

2

1

5

1

2

4

1

42

evidence for comb making, including a tooth plate blank (Figure 222, 4833), and ivory working, including a blank die (Figure 222, 4829) and pin-manufacturing (3492, 3649) in the central area (GBF). However, there is little evidence in the surrounding middens (GBG) for such craftworking. The waste present in GBF is very similar

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

294

Table 83. The carbonised plant from the Middle Norse deposits (GB) on mound 2A Sample

7194

7258

7264

7277

7536

9230

9237

9242

9251

10343

7850

10611

11003

11054

11065

Context

1636

1659

1663

1668

1639

972

978

981

991

988

1708

1785

2304

2383

2419

Block

GBC

GBC

GBC

GBC

GBC

GBE

GBE

GBE

GBE

GBE

GBF

GBF

GBF

GBF

GBF

Litres

32.5

26

27

31

19

24

22

18

8

20

32

33

21

26

9

65

126

202

111

114

128

47

13

11

12

5

1

97

21

Cereals Hordeum vulgare grains

60

57

24

24

30

59

56

48

Hordeum vulgare indet. frags

3

10

1

2

4

7

4

9

Hordeum sativum rachis frags

4

1

Avena sp. grains

97

22

3

Avena sp. indet. frag

13

2

1

cf Secale cereale grains

29

8

2

cf Secale cereale indet. frag

4

3

5

18

7

12

7

12

7

1

5

14

21

14

24

151 11

6

12

12

2

7

389

90

39

36

5

7

1

424

518

306

343

176

6

1

3

5

2

4

2 8

3

6

76

133

Oat palea/lemma Cereal culm frags Cereal grain frags

2

1

1

93

91

42

45

2

2

1

2

2 75

125

192

101

85

119

Other Crops Linum usitatissimum

1

cf Linum usitatissimum frags

1

1

Weeds/Wild species cf Arctium spp Brassica/Sinapis spp

1

Carex sp. Type 1

3

Carex sp. Type 2

3

1

Carex sp. Type 3

2

1

Carex sp. Type 5

4

1

Scirpus spp

1

2

1

1

1

1

1

9

6

1

7

3

3

3

16

2

6

2

3

5

2

1

3

11

1

5

1

2

6

2

2

1

3

1

5

1

2

7

1

4

3

1

1

Cyperaceae indet. Type 4

1

1

8

1

2

1

1 1

2

Cyperaceae/Polygonaceae

1

3

1 4

1

2 5

1

Cyperaceae indet. Type 5 Cyperaceae indet.

2

2

2

2 4

1

cf Cerastium sp.

3

6

1

Chenopodiaceae

9

2

4

2

13

2

1

Compositae Type Crucifereae cf Raphanus sp.

1

Crucifereae Type 2

1

7

4

7

1

2

7

11

2

7

2

7

30

30

21

14

26

14

7

1

3

2

13

1

1

2

2

2

2

2

1

2

1 6

4

2

2 1

Erica sp.

4

Euphorbia cf helioscopia cf Fumaria sp.

11

1

3

4

Galium sp. Type 1 Gramineae

2

7

3

23

2

3

Phleum sp.

7

3

13

11

6

2

Bromus sp.

2

1

4

cf Hypericum sp.

3

1

12

15

3

4

6

3

2

2

15

5

16

5

4

5

1

1

1

1

cf Liliaceae

1

1

Paniceae Type grain

1

Papaver sp.

4

Plantago sp.

1

3

Potentilla sp.

1

Polygonaceae

2

Rumex/Polygonum sp. Type 1

6

1

1

1

4

1

1 1

1

1

35

1

2

2

1 2

5

2

Rumex/Polygonum sp. Type 4

1

7

2 5

Rumex/Polygonum sp. Type 2 Rumex/Polygonum sp. Type 3

2

1 3

3

1

2

4

1

2

10

2

1

6

7 2

1

2

1

2

1

1

3

1 1 1

Rumex/Polygonum sp. Type 5 Ranunculus sp. small Ranunculus sp. large

1 1

1

1

1 1

1

Rubus sp.

1

3

3

13

6

2

1

2

cf Sisymbrium sp.

2

16

7

1

Urtica sp.

2

3

4

3

10

4

4

2

7

2

16

4

32

47

14

1 3

cf Viola sp.

1

Indet. Type 4 Heather frags

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

Poss ID

2

4

2

1

6

6

5

3

3

Indeterminate indet.

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Fungal spores/insect pellets

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Amorphous material

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

5

8

3

4

3

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

The Middle Norse activity on mound 2A

295

7054

7118

9205

9207

9223

9250

10212

10219

10583

10585

10587

10589

10590

10591

11039

11044

11045

1606

1620

875

881

799

874

1743

799

1760

1760

1760

1760

1760

1779

2340

2350

2351

2365

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

40

20

13

18

23

13

51

26

5

5

6

5

4

32

16

14

18

16

36

36

66

522

28

8

297

49

12

8

5

20

5

60

27

153

310

20

6 12

1

1

1

11060

2

218

4

1

2

1

6

9468

14100

136

16

34

36

45

45

7084

4440

528

1025

266

2128

28

349

482

101

3072

2480

8

6

3

11

11

7

3472

984

200

243

92

484

5

85

106

24

29

9

4

1

6

4

4

10

1

4

338

2

1 8

12

2

2636

2572

680

4 630

55

38

546

132

484

640

95

218

152

274

58

171

654

74

2 2

12 5

4 3

1 6

4

17 2

2

26

49

2

2

22

26

4

1

4

1

3

3

1 4

1

1 2 1

1

2

1

3

2

4

8

17

5

4

26

8

2

2

4

2 20 4

1

4

8

10

4

4

4 4

1 1

2

1

1

2

1

2

2

1

6 2

4

1

2

1

1 1

1 1 52

24

2

1

2

6

8

3

4

28

1

1

1

2

2

1

1 2

1

1 2 2

1 2

5

3

15

2

4

2

12

1 1

8

1

4

2

4

1

1

17

2

1

1

3

1 4

2

4

1 4

3 3 3

14

3

5

1 1

1

1

1

5

6

1

1

50

2

14

3

1

1 1

1

1

4

7

9

2 2

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1 2

1 X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

296

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

to that from a building identified as a workshop in a later phase (building 6 of GCD; see Chapter 8), and as most of the diagnostic material comes from one context (1601) directly below the workshop deposits, it may be better to assume this material is intrusive. Tools are rare, with only a couple of knives, a bone point and a copper-alloy needle (4927; Figure 222). Personal items (pins and comb fragments) are present but these are small and fragmented (5555, 6608; Figure 222). There is little to say about the collection of structural fittings and miscellaneous items, though the latter category includes a perforated astragalus (3103; Figure 222), which is an unusual find.

Carbonised plant remains – J Summers, J Bond and N Sharples The Middle Norse exploitation of plants was explored through the analysis of 33 samples (673.5 litres) from four separate blocks of stratigraphy (Table 83; Figure 224): • • • •

five samples (135.5 litres of soil) from the fill of the south kiln (GBC); five samples (92 litres of soil) from the fill of the north kiln (GBE); five samples (121 litres of soil) from contexts associ­ ated with the occupation of the central part of the excavated area (GBF); 18 samples (325 litres of soil) from occupation depos­ its on the periphery of the excavated area (GBG).

No samples were examined from blocks GBA, GBB and GBD as these blocks relate to periods of construction and were likely to include residual assemblages. The average densities of grains found in blocks GBC, GBE and GBF were low compared to the previous Early Norse deposits on mound 2A. However, the overall density for the phase was very high, particularly for oat, due to the substantial assemblage recovered from the deposits on the edge of the mound (GBG). During the excavation of area 14/15 it was noticed that a brown sand layer (1760) contained large quantities of carbonised grain; wind erosion of the layer made the grains stand out prominently. Eight samples were taken across this layer, and the plant remains from five of these were examined (10583, 10585, 10587, 10589, 10590). The densities of oats from these samples from layer 1760 ranged from 90 to 2111 grains per litre, and increased to the north and west. Three other samples from GBG contexts produced very large quantities of oats: sample 7054 from layer 1606 had a density of 314 grains per litre, sample 7118 from 1620 had a density of 829 grains per litre, and sample 10591 from 1779 had a density of 82 grains per litre. Layer 1779 overlies 1760 so it is perhaps no surprise that it has large quantities of oat grains. However, 1606 and 1620 were found in square 6 over 2 metres to the north and suggest

that this layer might have spread over a considerable area. None of these samples produced comparably large quantities of other crops; indeed, barley appears to have particularly low densities in these layers. It is possible to discuss the overall trends in this phase if one omits from the analysis the eight samples from the unusual event that produced the very large deposit of carbonised oat grains. Considering only the remaining samples, barley, oats, rye and flax were all present and barley rachis fragments were found in several samples, including 218 fragments in sample 9205, from context 875. Barley was the most common cereal in the two kiln fills (GBC, GBE) and in the central occupation deposits (GBF), and was particularly dominant in the fill of the north kiln. As already noted, oats dominated the deposits from the eastern edge (GBG) of the mound. Oats were the second most common crop after barley in the fill of the south kiln, but in both the north kiln fill (GBE) and the central deposits (GBF), rye was more common than oats. The density of barley grains was high in the north kiln (GBE), the central area (GBF) and on the eastern edge (GBG), but noticeably lower in the fill of the south kiln (GBC). Oats had high densities in the central area (GBF) and very high densities in the periphery (GBG; this column is capped in Figure 224), but low densities in the two kilns fills (GBC, GBE). Rye densities peaked in the central area (GBF), but were much lower in the other three blocks. Flax had only a limited presence in a few samples, with the highest densities being from sample 7850, from context 1708, and sample 11054 from pit fill 2383. The assemblage of wild seeds was dominated by sedges, goosefoot, grass and nettle. The highest densities of wild seeds came from the fill of the north kiln (GBE), and the lowest came from the fill of the south kiln (GBC). Excluding the unusually productive samples, there is some evidence for a relationship between oats, barley and rye (Figure 225), but it is not as clear as in the Early Norse deposits (GA; see Figure 103). There was a significant difference between the samples that produced large

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

GBC Barley

GBE Oat

GBF Rye

Flax

GBG Wild

Figure 224. A histogram showing the density per litre of the main groups of carbonised plant remains (Note the density of oats in block GBG is capped)

The Middle Norse activity on mound 2A 35

30

Wild

25

25

20

Secale

20 15

15

10

10

5

5

20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

0

5

10

15 20 Avena

25

30

0

35

0

5

10

15 20 Avena

25

30

35

0.2 Linum

Hordeum

30

0

297

0.1

0

5

10

15

20 Avena

25

30

0

35

GBC

GBE

0

GBF

5

10

15 Secale

20

25

30

GBG

Figure 225. Scatter diagrams showing the relationship of the different carbonised plant densities in the samples analysed

quantities of wild seeds and those that produced high quantities of oats and barley (though this is not illustrated), and there appears to be no relationship between high densities of rye and flax. It seems likely that the enormous quantities of grain dumped on the eastern edge of mound 2A indicate an event; probably the accidental destruction of a crop during drying, and it is possible that the adjacent kilns were the location of this accident. The massive quantities of oats and the low quantities of barley are very different to the pattern noted on mound 2 in the Middle Norse period, when oat, barley and rye seem to increase together. It suggests that in the Middle Norse period oat was grown, processed and dried as a separate crop, and that its amalgamation with the other crops occurred slightly later in the process.

Animal bone – A Powell, J Best, J Mulville and N Sharples The Middle Norse deposits on mound 2A produced a small assemblage of bones (505 identifiable fragments). The bulk of the assemblage came from the occupation layers associated with the kilns (GBF and GBG), and unsurprisingly the kilns themselves produced only very small assemblages (Table 84).

60 50 40 % 30 20 10 0

GBA-GBE Cattle

GBG

GBF Sheep/goat

Pig

Deer

Figure 226. The relative significance of the main species of mammals from the Middle Norse deposits on mound 2A

Cattle is the most common species present (45% of the large species), closely followed by sheep (37.5%). Pig (13%) and deer (4%) are present in much smaller proportions than in the Early Norse deposits on this mound, which indicates a decline in significance of these species over time. There is very little difference between the large assemblage from GBF and that from GBG (Figure 226): cattle and sheep are more important in the peripheral middens (GBG), pig and deer are slightly more

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

298

1141

GBA

1158

GBA

1168

GBA

Sub-total

GBC

1636

GBC

1651

GBC

Sub-total

GBD

2303

GBD

2310

GBD

2319

GBD

Sub-total

GBE

972

GBE

974

GBE

978

2

GBE

981

2

GBE

988

1

GBE

992

1

GBE

993

1

GBE

994

3

GBE

1118

GBE

Sub-total

1

Hare/fox-sized mammal

Sheep-sized mammal

Cattle-sized mammal

Seal

Rodent

Otter

Deer

Red deer

1

Cat

1

Dog

Goat

2

Pig

998

GBA

Sheep/goat

GBA

Sheep

Cattle

Context

Horse

Block

Equid

Table 84. The animal bone from the Middle Norse deposits (GB) on mound 2A

1

5

1

2

3

1

4

1 0

0

5

1

0

2

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1 2

0

0

1

0

1

0

0

2

1

1 0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

2 0

1

3 0

1

1

5

0

1

1

0

2

1 1

0

0

1

5 0

0

0

0

1 1

0

0

0

1

0

11

GBF

1134

10

GBF

1700

1

GBF

1708

7

GBF

1785

41

GBF

2313

GBF

2318

GBF

Sub-total

2 2

3

5 1

1

1

3 1

1

4

GBG

717

GBG

2

0

1

4

4

0

0

0

3

4

10

3

1

30

13

6

0

0

0

0

2

1

0

0

2

1

4

1 0

21 1

8

6

109 1

1 0

2

59

5

750

45

20

8

1

9

3

GBG

766

2

GBG

799

5

1

2

1

GBG

874

GBG

875

1

GBG

881

7

3

3

2

GBG

893

15

1

13

2

GBG

1144

7

1

5

GBG

1198

2

2

GBG

1606

GBG

1743

GBG

1748

GBG GBG GBG

1779

GBG

1784

2

GBG

2340

11

0

1

7

0

1

0

0

8

8

0

2

1

24

1

10

1

33

1

7

4

1 1

8

1

32

2

3

2

1

16

2

38

1

14 4

7

2

1

2

2

4

1760

3

3

2

1769

1

1

154 1

1

1

23 20

1

0

9 4

1

1 0

3 3

1

0

12 1

1 0

Total

2

1

1

4

5

2

1

97 4

18

2

29 8 1

1

1

2 1

2 2

3

1

4

5 21

GBG

2350

11

1

2

3

2

1

GBG

Sub-total

2

1

112

18

1

80

30

18

2

8

1

0

1

0

12

15

3

304

Total

2

1

193

26

1

134

56

18

3

16

1

1

1

1

24

24

3

505

GB

20

The Middle Norse activity on mound 2A important in the central occupation deposits (GBF).It should be noted that the assemblages from GBA–GBE are, as individual blocks, too small for any detailed analysis to be meaningful. A large quantity of dog bones (18 bones), which could all have derived from the same small animal, were recovered from a midden layer (1748, GBG). Other species are uncommon; only three equid/horse, three cat bones and one seal bone are present. The percentage of bones gnawed by carnivores is close to the average for mound 2A, whereas the percentage of bones butchered was the lowest for this mound (Table 85). The proportion of burnt bone is lower than average,

which is surprising given the presence of the kilns; these were clearly not associated with cooking meat. The central occupation deposits (GBF) have higher average percentages of gnawed and butchered bones than the peripheral middens (GBG), but the percentage of burnt bones is very low in both areas. A small assemblage of 40 identifiable bird bones was recovered from these deposits (Table 86). The majority of the assemblage (60%) came from midden layers on the east side of the mound (GBG), but there are also small quantities from the central structure (GBA) and the occupation associated with the kilns (GBF). The proportion of domestic fowl in the assemblage increases in this period to 8% of the identifiable birds. Although domestic fowl were presumably a valued resource, wild birds continue to form the majority of the assemblage. Great black-backed gull, herring/lesser black-backed gull, and cormorant continue to form a large proportion of the assemblage. Seabirds, such as gannet and puffin, and land birds such as doves and red grouse are also represented. Four fragments of raven were recovered; as these all came from one context, it is likely they represent one individual. Carnivore gnawing occurred on four specimens (10% of the assemblage); only two bones have been butchered and none are burnt.

% carnivore gnawed

13

3

23

GBC

3

0

0

GBD

9

2

22

GBE

23

3

13

GBF

154

50

GBG

307

90

Total

509

148

0

0

11

22

0

32 29 29

% calcined

15

% burnt

0

Total burnt

% butchered

Total gnawed

GBA

% rodent gnawed

Total ID

Table 85. The bone taphonomy of the Middle Norse deposits (GB) on mound 2A

Block

299

2

15

8.0

0

0

0.0

2

22

0.0

9

1

4

4.0

1

8

1

1

1.0

0

4

5

2

0.0

Fish bone – C Ingrem

0

6

11

2

0.6

A total of 200 identifiable specimens were examined from

Table 86. The bird bone from the Middle Norse deposits (GB) on mound 2A GBA

GBE

GBF

GBG

Cormorant/Shag

2350

1784

1778

1760

5 1

1

1

Dove cf Rock / Stock

1

Gannet

1

1

3 1

3

1

1

Goose, Large Grey cf Greylag

1

Goose sp.

1

1

1 1

Gull, Great Black-Backed

2

Gull, Herring/Lesser Black-Backed

1

1 1

Gull/Skua, Large

1

1

2

1

2

1

7

1

1

5

1

1

Puffin

1

1

4

4

Red Grouse

1

Small Passerine

1

1

Water Rail

1

1 4

3 1

Great Northern Diver

Total

1748

1606 3

1

Domestic Fowl

Raven

893

1

881

1

799

766

Cormorant

750

2304

1785

1708

1134

974

1168

1158

Total 1141

Species

2

1

1

1 1

2

4

1

3

1

3

1

4

6

2

1

1

1

1

40

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

300

Table 87. The fish bone taxa from the Middle Norse deposits (GB) on mound 2A 10mm

Species GBC

GBC

GBE

GBE

GBF

GBF

GBG

GBG

76

76

1

1

9

18

97

252

Salmonidae spp

1

2

Anguilla anguilla

4

8

Pollachius pollachius

1

2

Pollachius virens

5

10

Pollachius spp

2

4

1

2

GBC

GBG

Rajidae spp Elasmobranch Clupea harengus

1

Conger conger Merlangius merlangus 5

Gadus morhua

8

Merluccius merluccius

16

Molva molva

5

Gadidae spp

2

4

1

2

1

8

Labrus bergylta Labridae spp Scomber scombrus cf Callionymus lyra Pholis gunnellus Muglidae spp Pleuronectes platessa Flatfish Unidentifiable

107

107

2

2

11

22

700

1494

1

59

Total

183

183

3

3

20

40

814

1780

2

102

Total identifiable

76

76

1

1

9

18

114

286

1

43

% identifiable

42

42

33

33

45

45

14

16

50

42

projected quantities

the 2–10 mm residues and a further 44 came from the greater than 10 mm material (Table 87). Most derived from the peripheral middens (GBG) and from deposits infilling the south kiln (GBC). The 76 specimens examined from the 2–10 mm residues from contexts associated with the fill of the south kiln (GBC) all belong to herring, whilst the only identifiable specimen in the greater than 10 mm category from GBC is from a large gadoid fish. Only one identifiable bone came from the 2–10 mm residues from a context associated with the fill of the north kiln (GBE) and this was a herring caudal vertebra. The identifiable bones from the central occupation (GBF) consist of just two abdominal and seven caudal vertebrae belonging to herring, all of which came from the 2–10 mm residues. A larger assemblage came from the peripheral middens (GBG), consisting of 114 specimens from the 2–10 mm residues and 43 from the greater than 10 mm category. Herring dominates the 2–10 mm material, although odd

bones belonging to salmonid, eel and several species of gadoid fish are present. In contrast, apart from a single herring bone, all of the greater than 10 mm specimens from GBG belong to gadoid fish, particularly hake and cod. The herring assemblage is comprised entirely of vertebrae, with abdominal elements more numerous than those from the caudal region (Table 88). A minimum of five individuals are represented in this phase. The elements belonging to individual gadoid fish, although relatively few in number, are not dominated by vertebrae to the same extent. For example, of the 10 saithe bones, seven are vertebrae from the abdominal and caudal regions, cod are represented by six cranial bones and two abdominal vertebrae, and almost a third of the hake bones are from the head. The remains recovered from the peripheral middens (GBG) were recorded by Parks (see Ingrem in Sharples forthcoming) using methods that excluded vertebrae from the estimate of herring size and consequently no size data

The Middle Norse activity on mound 2A

301

Table 88. Fish bone elements from the Middle Norse deposits (GB) on mound 2A Clupea harengus

Element GBC

GBE

GBF

Pollachius virens

Gadhus morhua

Merluccius merluccius

Molva molva

Pollachius pollachius

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

GBG

Lachrimal

1

Parasphedoid

2

1

Articular Dentary

1

Maxilla

1

Premaxilla

1

2 1

Quadrate

1

Hyomandibular

1

Preopercular

1 1

Supracleithra

3

1

Anterior abdominal vertebra

4

2

2

2

3

Posterior abdominal vertebra Abdominal vertebra

37

Caudal vertebra

32

Vertebra fragment

3

Total

76

1

2

51

7

43

5

9

1

1

2 1

MNI

9

98

5

Table 89. The estimated size of the fish bone from the Middle Norse deposits (GB) on mound 2A Species

Block

150-300 mm

300-600 mm

600-1200 mm

Pollachius virens

GBG

1

1

2

Gadus morhua

GBG

1

6

Merluccius merluccius

GBG

8

is available from this part of the analysis of the mound 2A assemblage. A single herring vertebra from the samples recorded by Ingrem provides an indication of size and this belonged to a small (150 mm–300 mm) fish. A few bones belonging to gadoid fish provide estimates of size. Those belonging to saithe are from fish of varying sizes, whereas the cod and hake specimens are from large individuals (Table 89). One herring abdominal vertebra from the deposits filling the south kiln (GBC) was crushed. A considerable proportion (25 bones) had been burned and as a result were charred and/or calcined (see Table 216); all but one came from deposits filling the south kiln (GBC). The most productive samples came from the peripheral middens (GBG), especially contexts 1606, 1748 and 1764, although one sample from the fill of the south kiln (GBC) also produced a good-sized assemblage. The highest density of fish bones (30 per litre) occurred in context 1748.

10

8

17

5

1

1

1

1

1

1

Conclusion – N Sharples The Middle Norse activity on mound 2A provides a significant contrast to the occupation of the same period on mound 2. The two areas could not be more different: the substantial, prestigious house on mound 2 was contemporary with a small collection of ancillary structures and midden layers on mound 2A. Within the excavated area the main structure on mound 2A comprised an arc of walling (GBA) that was either unfinished, or part of a very ramshackle building. This structure was associated with ash spreads and small scoops (GBF), but these are not sufficient to suggest sustained occupation. Attached to this structure, but apparently inserted into it after its initial construction, were two kilns, one opening to the south (GBB), the other opening to the north (GBD). These structures were filled in (GBC and GBE) and surrounded by ash and slag layers (GBG) that cover the periphery of mound 2A. It is possible that these ancillary structures were associated with a house in the unexcavated southern half of the mound. This is the pattern visible in the Late Medieval occupation of mound 2A (see Chapter 8) but a similar pattern could not be confirmed for the Middle Norse period due to the limited area excavated. The precise status of the inhabitants on mound 2A is difficult to judge without further excavation but the relatively low quantities of finds recovered suggests this was not a high status family. It has been possible to obtain only a small number

302

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

of secure radiocarbon samples from this phase so the chronology is not as tight as it could be. Assuming that the two kilns were roughly contemporary, they appear to have been constructed prior to cal AD 1040–1150 (95% probability; start_kilns) or cal AD 1055–1125 (68% probability). The period of industrial activity appears to have been relatively short, 1–80 years (95% probability) and probably 1–40 years (68% probability). The kilns went out of use by cal AD 1070–1210 (95% probability; end_kilns) or cal AD 1115–1190 (68% probability). The function of the kilns is difficult to ascertain; the stones of the kiln walls were severely heat-cracked, which suggests high temperatures were reached during the use of these structures. The ash- and slag-rich fills of both kilns indicate they were not cleaned out after each firing episode, at least not towards the end of their life. Slag was largely absent from the hearths in the mound 2 houses and previous work on mound 1 (Young in Sharples 2012, 289) suggests that there it was produced in open hearths, where high temperatures were achieved. High temperatures could indicate the location of metal-working, but fragments of iron-slag and other metal-working debris were absent from the mound 2A deposits. It seems equally unlikely that the kilns were used for the firing of pottery, given the negligible quantities of potsherds, from the kilns and their associated middens. Although fishing was certainly an important activity from the beginning of the settlement at Bornais, the general absence of fish bone in these mound 2A deposits, and the high temperatures indicated by the slag, suggest that the kilns were not used for smoking fish. The kilns could have been used for the processing of seaweed – kelp-burning kilns were a feature of the recent historical landscape of the Atlantic islands. However, these kilns normally worked by the use of long burns at low temperatures, which suggests this interpretation is unlikely for the mound 2A kilns. We are also a long way inland to bring seaweed. The most relevant evidence for the function of the kilns comes from the midden layers (GBG) to the east. At roughly the same time as these kilns were in use, a large dump of carbonised oat grains was deposited on the east side of the mound. This deposit almost certainly came from the accidental burning of a crop that had already been

cleaned. It seems possible, therefore, that the kilns were associated with grain-processing and that the accident occurred in one of the adjacent kilns. An initial reluctance to interpret these kilns as corndrying kilns arose because they do not closely resemble the corn-drying kiln on mound 3 (Sharples 2005 fig. 61), and for corn-drying high temperatures are unnecessary and dangerous. Perhaps the accidental conflagration reflects the poor design of these structures. Structures that were not inside a building would have been prone to temperature fluctuations, depending on wind speed and direction. Perhaps the development of corn-drying buildings, such as that on mound 3, was a response to routine catastrophes involving the destruction of large quantities of grain on these exposed kilns. The nature of the plant assemblage from this destruc­ tion event is also interesting, as it consists of a relatively pure assemblage of oat grains, with little chaff. The interpretation of the mound 3 kilns is that the grain was dried on the ear (Colledge and Smith in Sharples 2005, 178), but if the mound 2A kilns were indeed used for corn-drying, then it is more likely that here the grain was dried after it had been threshed and cleaned. It is also important that the extensive deposit of burnt grain consisted almost entirely of oats, suggesting that the main crops were grown separately and that the characteristic mixed nature of the bulk of the assemblages of carbonised cereal remains from Bornais reflects mixing after cleaning and prior to consumption. The short-lived and specialised nature of this phase of activity explains the relatively low quantities of artefacts. Nevertheless, it is important to note that this phase does seem to be the period when platter was at its most dominant, perhaps linked to the importance of oats (cooked in the form of bannocks) as a food stuff. The presence of a comb toothplate blank suggests comb production started in this phase but the author thinks it more likely that this is contamination from the later, intensive comb-making that took place in a workshop on mound 2A (see Chapter 8). Rabbit burrows were common in these GB deposits and the stratigraphy in the centre of the excavated area was complicated and conflated, undermining the contextual security of individual objects.

7  The Late Norse activity on mound 2 (BE) – N Sharples and O Davis

Introduction The final large house on mound 2 (House 3) was constructed in the middle of the thirteenth century and, unlike the previous two houses, it was oriented north–south (Figure 227). It was straight-sided, 12 m long and 5.60 m wide, and only slightly subterranean, which contrasted significantly with the bow-shaped subterranean character of Houses 1 and 2. There was clearly significant cultural change in the 65–130 years between the abandonment of House 2 and the construction of House 3. House 3 had a relatively complex history of construc­ tion and occupation, which can be described in six blocks:

• • • • • • •

the construction (BEA), the pre-floor features (BEB), the early occupation (BEC), the reconstruction (BED), the secondary occupation (BEE) and the abandonment (BEF), associated and contemporary deposits in the entrance (BEG), outside the entrance (BEH) and in the area to the west (BEI).

The house appears to have been abandoned at the very end of the thirteenth century or in the early decades of the fourteenth century AD.

Figure 227. A plan of Late Norse House 3 in relation to House 2 (see Figure 22 for a key to the colours used). Note the line of stones to the west of the inner revetment wall of House 3 which marks the outer wall face of the turf wall surrounding this house

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

304

The quantities of finds from these deposits are much less than in the previous phases, but large quantities of animal bone were recovered, and the intensive sampling of the floor layers (BEC, BEE) produced important assemblages of carbonised plant remains and fish bones.

House 3 construction (BEA) The dimensions of the initial phase of House 3 (1371) are open to question as there is ambiguous evidence for an early house. This initial phase is suggested by an eastfacing stone revetment wall (1273), and what appears to be a robbed-out southern wall (Figure 228), which both lay within the much better defined later house. At various stages in the excavation and post-excavation process, these features were interpreted as, alternatively, an early house, or as a bench built along the west side of the house. The bench interpretation is not entirely satisfactory, because

wall 1273 did not run parallel with the west wall of House 3 (570). However, the earlier house interpretation is also prob­ lematic, because the primary features of this putative house appear to have been located centrally to the later house, and the first extensive floor layer extended south of the line of the robbed-out southern wall. The compromise interpretation is that wall 1273 represented an initial phase of construction that was abandoned prior to completion and/or occupation; the house was relocated slightly to the west and the earlier wall acted as a raised bench during the first phase of occupation. This initial western revetment wall (1273) was insub­ stantial (Figures 228 and 230). Only one course of stones survived, running south from the north wall for approxi­mately 6.0 m. These stones ranged in size from medium-sized stones, 0.20 m by 0.16 m by 0.20 m, to large boulders, 0.38 m by 0.35 m by 0.20 m. Beyond the southern extent of this wall was a shallow

420/230

430/230

1273

1400

1423 420/220

430/220

0

3m

Figure 228. The early wall and gullies that define a possible preliminary phase of House 3

The Late Norse activity on mound 2 (BE)

305

Figure 229. A plan of House 3 showing the elevations of the principal walls and the location of the main sections through the house floor deposits

linear scoop (1400) that lay on the line of the wall, and was presumably a robber trench. A very similar linear feature (1423) ran perpendicular to this (east–west) and appeared to be a robber trench for a short stretch of north-facing wall. Both these features, whilst crucial to the interpretation of the initial structure (BEA), belong to a later phase of activity (BED): they cut through the early occupation layers (BEC) and indicated the later removal of wall stones during the occupation of the House 3. House 3 was defined by a substantial revetment wall that enclosed a rectangular area 12.0 m by 5.60 m (Figures 229 and 230). The stones in the east wall (572) measured

on average 0.22 m by 0.20 m by 0.06 m, with the larger stones measuring 0.45 m by 0.33 m by 0.16 m. This wall was generally two courses high and had a constant height of 0.46 m. The west wall (570) had stones that were on average larger than those of the east wall (572). These stones varied in size from around 0.20 m by 0.16 m by 0.08 m, to larger stones measuring 0.66 m by 0.20 m by 0.40 m. The height of the west wall was approximately 0.47 m and remained fairly consistent along its full length of 12.0 m. However, the variation in stone size meant that at the southern end of the wall, there were five courses, and at the northern end there were only two courses.

306

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Figure 230. A view of House 3 at the beginning of 2003 from the north. The covered area in the centre of the house was excavated

in 2000

Figure 231. The entrance to House 3 from the inside of the

house (west), showing the sill stones that separated the passage from the interior

The north wall (1316) was two courses high and had a constant height of 0.40 m. The stones ranged in size from small stones, 0.22 m by 0.11 m by 0.15 m, to large stones, 0.34 m by 0.58 m by 0.20 m. The south wall (1277/1322) survived up to five courses high. The stones varied in size from small stones, 0.14 m by 0.06 m by 0.10 m, to large stones, 0.55 m by 0.26 m by 0.40 m. The height of the wall was approximately 0.60 m along its entire length. The entrance (1389) was located in the middle of

Figure 232. A section through the deposits behind the west

wall of House 3 from the south. A construction cut is visible immediately to the right of the vertical scale.

the northern half of the east wall and consisted of three revetment walls (1439, 1438 and 1440) that defined a passage 2.60 m long and 1.00 m wide (Figure 229). The passage was separated from the interior of the house by

The Late Norse activity on mound 2 (BE)

420/230

307

430/230

2023 2021

2146 2139

2174 2172

2148

2166 2163 2150

1499 2017

2160 2158

2137 1202 1232

1097

1221

420/220

430/220

0

3m

Figure 233. The features sealed by the primary floor deposits in House 3

two sill stones, 0.25 m high (Figure 231), which were supported by three stones, laid horizontally, in the interior of the house. To enter the house from the outside would have required a visitor to step down (c. 0.25 m) into the passage, to traverse this transitional space and then step over the high sill. A number of contexts were identified behind the House 3 wall that were associated with its construction. The excavation of the west wall (570) revealed it had been placed in a cut (2167) that was filled with loose, light brown sand (2032; Figure 232). Behind the north corner of this wall, a grey-brown sand (1318/2650) was identified. Behind the east wall was a widespread layer of compact, dark brown sand (573/1340), sealed by a brown sand (1337/1332), and to the north of these was a light brown sand (1339). The relatively consistent height of the walls, and the absence of substantial areas of collapse inside the house (below page 501), suggest that the surviving walls were an accurate indication of the original walls and that the walls

were never intended to be any higher than now. It seems likely therefore that the walls were the foundation for a timber framed house, which was backed by a turf wall that has now completely disappeared. An outer stone kerb to this turf wall was visible on the west side of the house (Figure 227) and this is discussed in more detail in block BEI (below page 358). House 3 was essentially a larger and more sophisticated version of the structure identified on mound 3 (Sharples 2005b, fig. 107).

House 3 pre-floor features (BEB) A number of pits and post holes were sealed by the primary floor layer (BEC) and were therefore filled prior to the first occupation of the structure, possibly during, or at the end of, the construction phase (Figures 233 and 234; Table 90). They were concentrated in the northern half of the house, around its central axis.

dark brown sand

dark brown sand 2173

2175 0.06

0.06

dark brown sand

0.08

0.08 steep-sided

steep-sided Stake hole 2174

circular

Stake hole 2172

circular

charcoal-rich sand 2162

2164 0.05

0.06

2163

NE-SW

0.16

0.57 steep-sided but shallow irregular Pit

Post hole

2160

Post hole 2158

0.23

0.31 steep-sided with flat base oval

0.62

0.31 bowl-shaped profile oval Post hole 2150

ENE-WSW

0.33 sloping sides oval Post hole 2148

gentle sloping sides

0.28 steep-sided with flat base Post hole 2146

oval

Scoop

Pit 2134

Post pad?

Post hole 2023

2139

Post hole 2021

2137

Post hole 2017

oval

2154 dark brown sand, orange and charcoal flecks

brown sand with orange flecks

mid-brown sand, orange and charcoal flecks

mid-brown sand 2159 0.15

2151 0.15

2149 0.11

dark brown sand, orange and charcoal flecks 0.25 shallow with gently sloping sides circular

0.43 steep-sided, flat base circular

E-W

1.38 gentle slope, flat base

0.38

2147 0.23

0.09

dark brown clayey sand 2138

2140 0.04

0.18

brown clayey sand

yellow brown sand 2135

dark brown sand with charcoal

rectangular

0.12 gentle slope, flat base circular

0.18

0.40 one side gentle slope, other vertical

one side vertical, other sides gentle

oval

circular

0.86

0.08

2024 0.04

2022

2018 0.20 0.34

0.09

dark brown sand, orange and charcoal flecks, one vertical packing stone

1205 dark brown sand with orange and charcoal flecks

charcoal-rich sand 1217

2000 0.15

0.28 0.84

0.49 0.83

0.72

N-S

N-S

Pit 1499

bowl shaped profile

shallow with gently sloping sides

rectangular

Pit 1232

oval

2161

grey/black sand

bown sand with charcoal flecks

charcoal-rich sand 1203/2010 brown sand charcoal flecks

red/orange clay with white sand intrusion 1222

1204/2007 0.07

0.15

0.70 1.00

0.33 circular

gentle sloping sides

N-S steep-sided, round base

rectangular Pit

Post hole

1202/2006

1221

Secondary fill

black and yellow ash payers 1206

Primary fill charcoal-rich sand 1094 0.09

Depth Width

0.95

Length Orientation

N-S V-shaped profile

Profile Shape

oval Pit

Feature type

1097

Context

Table 90. A summary description of the features below the house floor (BEB)

mid-brown sand

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

308

In the central area were three shallow scoops and a post hole (Figures 233, 234 and 235). The earliest scoop (1232) was cut by at least two later scoops (1097 to the south and 1202/2006 to the north). All three scoops had distinctive charcoal-rich fills; in scoops 1097 and 1232 these lay on the base (1094, 1217), whereas in scoop 1202 this charcoal-rich material was the final fill (1203). Two radiocarbon samples were obtained from these features. A sample (SUERC-22870) was obtained from Carex sp. in the fill (1094) of scoop 1097. This has a radiocarbon age of 855±30 BP, which calibrates to a date of cal AD 1050–1260. A carbonised barley grain (SUERC-22869) from the fill (1203) of scoop 1202 has a radiocarbon age of 770±30 BP, which calibrates to a date of cal AD 1210–1290. There was a post hole/stake-hole (1221) immediately to the south of this group of features. In the northern half of the house was a cluster of smaller features. Defining the west side of this group was a rectangular scoop (1499); the southern end of this scoop appeared to be a separate feature (2017). Immediately to its north was a shallow circular feature (2139). The shallow depth of this feature suggests that it might have been a post-pad. To the east of this was a cluster of three interlinked features (2160, 2150, and 2158). The earliest (2160), was sausage-shaped in plan and had two fills, the lower of which (2162) was a charcoal-rich sand. This pit was cut by 2150 at its north end and 2158 at its south end. The depth and diameter of these features suggest that they were both post holes. The remaining features in this group were strati­ graphically isolated. Feature 2148 might have been a post hole, but the adjacent feature (2146) was more convincing. In close proximity to this was a cluster of four stones (2166), each approximately 0.10 m by 0.10 m by 0.04 m. Their position suggests that they were a pad for the base of a post. To the east of this was a small shallow feature (2163) and two potential stake-holes (2172, 2174). Adjacent to the north wall of the house were two possible post holes (2021, 2023). This is a fairly random collection of features, which are difficult to interpret. The central complex of scoops were possibly dug out as foundation activity, serving a symbolic function in the creation of the house. The post holes and post-pads might have been connected with the construction of the house but they do not present a coherent structural pattern that can be readily interpreted.

Sampling data – N Sharples Twenty-four samples, 195.4 litres of soil, were taken and processed from the pre-floor pits (BEB; Table 91). The samples were widely distributed amongst the various pits and post holes and several features (1097, 1202, 1232, 2000, 2150, 2160) had more than one sample taken. The 2–10 mm residues from only five samples, 14.25 litres of soil, were washed, sieved and sorted (Table 92).

The Late Norse activity on mound 2 (BE) W

E

W

E

E

309 W

E

W 2140

2000

1499

2138

2018

2137 SE

2160

2151

2147

1250

1251

E

W 2159

2154

2158

2150 W

S

E

2162

W

2149

N

W

NW

E

2148

2139 2017

N

E

2164

S

2022

E

2023

N

1094

1203

1206

1097 1232

0

2172

2024

2021

1222 1221

W

2173

2174

2163

2146

S 2175

1204

1205 1217

9482

1202 9481

1m

Figure 234. Sections through the features below the primary floor of House 3

Figure 235. A section through the features (1202/2006, 1232, 1097) beneath the floor at the centre of House 3 from the east

The average densities from the above 10 mm residues were variable: fragments of mammal bone (0.64 frag/litre) were relative frequent discoveries whereas fish bone (0.49 frag/litre), pottery (0.05 frag/litre), limpet (0.3 shells/litre) and winkles (2.0 shells/litre) were close to the average for the House 3 blocks. The highest density of fish bone

(2.92 frag/litre) came from pit 1499, which also produced the highest densities of winkles (13.63 shell/litre). One of the highest densities of mammal bone (1.63 frag/litre) came from pit 1202/2006. These fills also produced large fragments of charcoal and B.O.M. which were not normally recovered from the over 10 mm residues elsewhere. The

1203

1203

1204

2007

2010

1205

1217

2000

2018

2022

2024

2140

2147

2149

2151

2154

2159

2161

2162

2004

2011

9486

9999

9974

10761

10762

9989

9485

10759

10775

10782

10783

11833

11837

11838

11839

11840

11844

11845

11846

10758

10763

2160

Total

2161

5 samples

11845

2158

2154

2159

11840

11844

2150

2150

2149

2151

11838

Cut

2148

Context

Total

layer

layer

2160

2160

2158

2150

2150

2148

2146

2139

2023

2021

2017

1499

1232

1232

1202/2006

1202/2006

1202/2006

1202/2006

1202/2006

1097

1097

1097

Cut

Context

11839

Sample

Fill

1206

9968

24 samples

1094

9998

Fill

1094

9487

Sample

BEB

BEB

BEB

BEB

BEB

BEB

Block

BEB

BEB

BEB

BEB

BEB

BEB

BEB

BEB

BEB

BEB

BEB

BEB

BEB

BEB

BEB

BEB

BEB

BEB

BEB

BEB

BEB

BEB

BEB

BEB

BEB

Block

95

2

5

0

0

1

0

0

2

1

0

0

0

0

70

0

3

0

4

5

0

0

2

0

0

no.

0.49

0.14

0.38

0.00

0.00

0.11

0.00

0.00

0.20

0.40

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

2.92

0.00

0.10

0.00

0.50

0.24

0.00

0.00

0.15

0.00

0.00

density

Fish

100

22

10

1

0

5

0

6

2

0

0

0

0

0

12

0

9

0

11

17

0

1

2

1

1

no.

Mammal

25

2

2

0

0

1

0

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

7

0

2

1

3

0

2

2

0

no.

Burnt bone

125

24

12

1

0

6

0

8

2

0

0

0

0

0

13

0

16

0

13

18

3

1

4

3

1

no.

0.64

1.71

0.92

0.20

0.00

0.67

0.00

1.33

0.20

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.54

0.00

0.55

0.00

1.63

0.86

0.60

0.20

0.30

0.55

0.20

density

All mammal

9

1

1

0

0

1

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

2

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

no.

0.05

0.07

0.08

0.00

0.00

0.11

0.00

0.00

0.10

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.04

0.25

0.07

0.00

0.00

0.05

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

density

Pottery

6

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

6

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Slag

61

12

3

1

1

3

0

2

1

1

0

1

0

0

1

2

15

0

2

5

0

1

7

2

1

no.

0.31

0.86

0.23

0.20

0.50

0.33

0.00

0.33

0.10

0.40

0.00

1.00

0.00

0.00

0.04

0.50

0.52

0.00

0.25

0.24

0.00

0.20

0.52

0.36

0.20

density

Limpet

406

7

4

0

1

8

0

2

0

1

0

0

0

0

327

0

16

0

9

19

1

0

8

1

2

no.

2.08

0.50

0.31

0.00

0.50

0.89

0.00

0.33

0.00

0.40

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

13.63

0.00

0.55

0.00

1.13

0.90

0.20

0.00

0.59

0.18

0.40

density

Winkle

28.5

2

9

1.5

6

10

Litres

14.25

1

4.5

0.75

3

5

Litres sorted

11

1

1

0

2

7

no.

0.77

1.00

0.22

0.00

0.67

1.40

density

Pottery

96

7

48

0

20

21

no.

6.74

7.00

10.67

0.00

6.67

4.20

density

Unburnt bone

98

1

18

3

42

34

no.

6.88

1.00

4.00

4.00

14.00

6.80

density

Burnt bone

206

10

82

0

45

69

no.

14.46

10.00

18.22

0.00

15.00

13.80

density

Fish

1235

32

64

682

421

36

no.

86.67

32.00

14.22

909.33

140.33

7.20

density

Charcoal

870

109

135

13

165

448

no.

61.05

109.00

30.00

17.33

55.00

89.60

density

B.O.M.

Table 92. The material identified in sorting the 2 to 10 mm residue in the pre-floor features (BEB)

195.4

14.0

13.0

5.0

2.0

9.0

1.5

6.0

10.0

2.5

1.4

1.0

3.0

6.0

24.0

4

29

1.0

8.0

21

5

5

13.5

5.5

5

Litres

Table 91. The material identified in sorting the greater than 10 mm residue in the pre-floor features (BEB)

4

0

2

0

0

2

no.

13

0

1

0

0

1

4

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

6

0

1

0

0

0

0

no.

0.28

0.00

0.44

0.00

0.00

0.40

density

Slag

0.07

0.00

0.08

0.00

0.00

0.11

2.67

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.75

0.00

0.20

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

density

Charcoal

15

3

6

0

0

6

no.

82

0

2

2

1

1

0

1

4

0

0

0

0

0

0

10

14

0

0

0

2

17

0

10

18

no.

1.05

3.00

1.33

0.00

0.00

1.20

density

Egg

0.42

0.00

0.15

0.40

0.50

0.11

0.00

0.17

0.40

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

2.50

0.48

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.40

3.40

0.00

1.82

3.60

density

B.O.M.

310

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Sample

1228

11

56

1213.2

1217

38

1213.1

11

17

Layer and microstratographic unit

1205

20

Microstructure

IM

IM

IM

IM

IM

IM 90 88 50

25

nnn

nnn

nnnn

nnnn 30

60

Porosity

nnnn

Sorting (%)

nnnn

C/F(100 µm) ratio 75/25

90/10

90/10

70/30

95/5

90/10 C C C

C

DB, D DB, D B, D DB, D B& DB, D

SSFE SSFE, some SSP

C/F(100 µm) related distribution SSFE

SSFE

SSFE

C

C

Nature of fine material (PPL) B, D

Birefringence fabric of fine material (XPL)

SSFE

Charred amorphous organic matter nn

nn

n

n

nnnn

Charred wood n

n

Charred plant n

nnnnnn

n

n

n

Shell nnn

n

n

nn

n

Burnt bone n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

nn

n

Amorphous organic matter n

n

n

n

Phytoliths n

n

n

n

+

n

n

n

n

Diatoms

Eggshell

Nature and birefringence of fine material: B – Brown, DB – Dark Brown, YB – Yellow Brown, GB – Grey Brown, D – Dotted, U – Undifferentiated, C - Crystallitic

Coarse/Fine related distribution: CFE – Close Fine Enaulic, SSFE – Single-spaced Fine Enaulic, SSEE – Single-spaced Equal Enaulic, DSFE – Double-spaced Fine Enaulic, DSCE – Double-spaced Course Enaulic, CP – Close Porphyric, SSP – Single-spaced Porphyric, CG – Convex Gefuric, CH – Chitonic, CM – Coarse Monic

Microstructure: IM – Intergrain Microaggregate, V – Vughy, BG – Bridged Grain, C – Channel, M – Massive, SG – Single Grain

Values: + Present in trace amounts, n 5-10%, nnnn >10-20%, nnnnn >20-30%, nnnnnn >30-40%, nnnnnnn >40-50% (of visible area)

9482

9482

9481

Maximum thickness in thin section (mm)

1204

Unburnt bone

Organic and anthropogenic components

Plant tissue

Mineral components

Pedofeatures

n

n

n

n

Fe nodules

Groundmass

+

+

+

nn

+

Fe replaced organic matter

Microstructure and porosity

+

+

+

+

Excremental pedofeatures

Table 93. The soil micromorphology descriptions of samples 9481, 9482 from the pre floor features

The Late Norse activity on mound 2 (BE) 311

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

312 A

B

500 µm

500 µm

Figure 236. Details of the soil micromorphology sections from the features at the centre of House 3; a) context 1213.2, a peat ash

lens with near-vertical bedding angle, likely disturbed by earthworm bioturbation (OIL and XPL); b) context 1217, a horizontal planar void, possible pit cut (PPL)

B.O.M. was concentrated in the fills of the pits and scoops (1202/2006, 1097, 1232) in the centre of the house that were recorded in the field as having ‘charcoal-rich’ fills. This is a recurrent feature, most ‘charcoal-rich’ contexts on the site have high densities of B.O.M. rather than charcoal. The charcoal, in contrast, was in fact rare from these fills and was instead most dense in post hole 2150; the high density of charcoal in this post hole is clearly visible in the albeit limited analysis of the 2–10 mm residues. The quantity of charcoal recovered from post hole 2150 produces an unusually high overall density of charcoal in the 2–10 mm residues for this block (86.67 frag/litre). The B.O.M. has a similarly high average density (61.05 frag/litre) in the 2–10 mm residues, but in this case it was concentrated in pit 2160 and post hole 2148. The densities of other 2–10 mm material are fairly low or average. The eggshell density, with an average density of 1.05 frag/litre, is amongst the lowest of the House 3 blocks. No coprolite, crab or Spirorbis were found. The highest concentrations of fish bone and mammal bone came from post hole 2158.

Soil micromorphology – K Milek and K Munro Two samples (9481, 9482) were taken from two of the three scoops discovered below the occupation deposits in the centre of House 3 (Figure 234). These samples captured sediment from within and below the scoops (Table 93). The first sample (9481) contained sediment from the northern scoop (1202). Context 1213.2, at its base, comprised sediment that pre-dated House 3 (block BDI; see Chapter 5). It was a calcareous sand with a high quantity of peat ash, much of which was arranged in lenses. Although some of the lenses possessed a horizontal orientation, notable quantities were orientated at irregular angles (Figure 236 A). The majority of these irregular lenses were associated with small earthworm channels, which were present throughout the layer. This suggests

the strange angle of bedding was a fabric pedofeature, resulting from disturbance and reworking of the layer by earthworm activity. When viewed under OIL, the layer has an orange-red appearance (Figure 236 A), which indicates the soil was burnt at a temperature high enough for the iron-rich soil to undergo oxidisation. Located above this layer, and directly below the fill of the scoop, was a thin porous layer (1213.1; BDI) that was comprised predominantly of calcareous sand with a little fine material. It contained fragments of charred amorphous organic material (1.8%), shell (1.6%) and unburnt bone (0.8%). This layer appears to be sediment deposited by anthropogenic activity, possibly a dump of waste that precedes the pit digging activity. The upper part of the sample, 1204, was sediment from within scoop 1202. This comprised calcareous sand with a large lens of charred amorphous organic matter (c. 20% of the layer). The high presence of charred and ashed peat indicates that burning activities occurred in the scoop. There was a small amount of burnt bone (0.5%), unburnt bone (0.2%), and shell (0.4%); some of the yellow bone fragments were rounded, with a highly weathered appearance; under XPL these were isotropic, indicating they have lost their collagen content. These fragments are likely to derive from carnivore/omnivore faeces. At the bottom of this fill, the cut of the scoop was identified as a thin planar void with a horizontal orientation. The second sample (9482) came from scoop 1232. The lower part of the sample contained a small portion (11 mm) of sediment (1228; BCC) from below the scoop. This was a calcareous sand with a considerable quantity of peat ash and fine material, with a coarse–fine ratio of 75:25. The inclusions included shell (5.4%) and charred amorphous organic matter (2.4%), as well as some partially ashed wood. This layer was comparable to 1213.2 in sample 9481. However, 1228 does not contain the clearly defined lenses of peat/turf present in 1213.2, nor is it as bright orange-red when viewed under OIL. Nevertheless, both layers indicated peat ash-rich deposits were dumped at

The Late Norse activity on mound 2 (BE)

420/230

313

430/230

1495

1486

1485/1383 2001

2019 2013

1054 1082

1076

charcoal layer ash layer 1489

pit 1449

1491

postholes

1428 2115

postpads floor

420/220

430/220

0

3m

Figure 237. A plan of the primary floor deposits in House 3

the eastern end of House 2 in its final stages, before the construction of House 3. Two different contexts were observed within scoop 1232. The lower fill (1217) was relatively thick (maximum 56 mm) and dominated by charred plant (30.5%); also noted were shell fragments (1.6%) and burnt bone (1.3%). The charred material indicates that the scoop was associated with burning, and the dominant fuel was probably peat. There was notably less charred material at the bottom of the layer, where sand was more plentiful. This may indicate that after the scoop was cut, it was initially subject to less concentrated and/or less frequent burning in comparison to its later use. The upper fill (1205) was a calcareous sand with a few shell fragments (1.4%) and a moderate quantity of charred amorphous organic matter (4.8%). The cut of scoop 1232 was indicated by a horizontal planar void at the base of fill 1217 (Figure 236 B). To summarise, in both scoops the fills contained a high

quantity of charred peat/turf within calcareous sand. These scoops also contained anthropogenic inclusions, such as bone and shell. Both samples indicated the preceding deposits, infilling House 2, had high quantities of peat ash and burned organic material.

House 3 early occupation (BEC) The deposits inside the house associated with the early occupation were characterised by dark brown, charcoalrich floor layers with discrete, brightly coloured ash layers that defined hearths, and associated pits and post holes (Figures 237, 238 and 239).

Floor deposits and hearths The principal floor layer was a dark brown, heavily compacted sand with inclusions of shell and bone (numbered

570

572

1298

599

1053

9436

1090

1474

9437

10773 1336

1076

0

9430 599

1395

1213

1053

599

1048

1449

1427

10774

1053

1206

579 577

1224

1069

1082

9434

1048

Section C

1225

1037

577 579

1387 1444

1054

1055

2m

1048

599

9432

1386

1380

930

1082

1053

948 9435 947 9433 1020

Section B

1474

1396

1336

Section A

1400

1076

599

1401

599

1474

1053

577

9431

1395

1270

W

E

572

570

W

Figure 238. The east west sections through the floors of House 3 showing the locations of the soil micromorphology samples. See Figure 230 for the location.

W

E

E

314

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

The Late Norse activity on mound 2 (BE)

315

Figure 239. The north-facing section through the House 3 hearth deposits

E

W 2116

E

NE

W

1495

S

N

S

1055

1496

1489

1490

2115 W

1054

0

E

W 1492

2020

2019

E

SW

2013

1491 N

2014

2015 2016

1m

Figure 240. Sections through the features within the House 3 floors (BEC)

Figure 241. A view of the west-facing section through the house floors at the north end of House 3. On the right the floor layers

clearly slump into pit 1454

1485/1383 in the north, 1076 in the centre and 1449 in the south; Figure 237). In the centre the floor was around 0.05 m thick, but it faded to barely 0.01 m towards the edge of the house. It extended up to the early revetment wall or

bench (1273) and the line of the robber trench (1400) to the west. There was a large area towards the northern end of the house where the floor layer was not present. The floor continued beyond the southern robber trench (1423)

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

316

Table 94. A summary description of the features in the early occupation of House 3 (BEC) Feature type

Shape in plan

Profile

2115

Pit

circular

2013

Pit

circular

1054

Post hole

1495

Post hole

2019

Context

Orientation

Primary fill

Length

Width

Depth

bowl-shaped

0.37

0.29

0.07

2116

White sand

steep-sided

0.40

0.35

2016

Charcoal layer

oval

vertical sides

0.13

0.16

0.30

1055

Loose brown sand

oval

bowl-shaped

0.27

0.22

0.05

1496

Dark brown, packing stones

Post hole

oval

steep-sided, one gently sloping side

N-S

0.26

0.20

0.13

2020

Dark brown, packing stones

1489

Post hole

oval

straight-sided, flat base

NE-SW

0.20

0.13

0.13

1490

Packing stones and brown sand

1491

Post hole

oval

sloping sides with flat base

N-S

0.25

0.19

0.09

1492

Brown sand

to House 3’s south wall (1277) though the floor in this area was much less compact than it was to the north. The entire floor was intensively sampled in 0.50 m by 0.50 m squares (Figure 244). Contemporary with the floor deposit were two hearth areas, defined by multiple spreads of peat ash. In the centre of the house was a truncated, rectangular-shaped ash spread with a rounded southern end, 1.25 m by 0.90 m. In the south-centre of the house was a more ill-defined area, approximately 2.00 m by 2.50 m, made up of a large number of thin ash spreads. The hearth in the centre of the house (1082; Figures 237 and 238) was bright orangey-yellow in the centre, but the quantity of charcoal present increased towards the outer edges, and the hearth culminated in a black ring of charcoal-rich sand. The hearth in the south-centre of the house was a thick, multi-layered deposit comprised of ash, charcoal and thermally altered sand and shells (Figures 237, 238, 242 and 243). The amorphous shape was probably the result of human activity moving ash, possibly accidentally, from the fire into the floor area. The primary deposits were contained within a scoop (1223/1250), 0.15 m deep, 1.20 m wide and at least 1.20 m long. The scoop had a relatively shallow slope to the east but a much sharper slope to the west. At the base of this south-central hearth was an orangepink sand (1493), up to 0.05 m thick. This was inter­ preted as an underlying sand layer altered by the high temperatures of the hearth. Above this was a thin layer of charcoal-rich sand (1224/1251) followed by a compact layer of orange sand (1488/1069; Figures 238 and 239), 0.07 m thick, which was sealed by some thin and more discrete layers of orange sand (1482, 1483, 1484); these were associated on the west side of the hearth with a charcoal-rich, dark brown sand (1487). They were sealed by a more extensive but thin spread of orange clayey sand (1478 and 1477). Above this were a number of discrete patches of orange and red sand (1467, 1468 and 1469), which were surrounded by the floor layer (1449).

Secondary fill

2015

Grey brown sand

Tertiary fill

2014

Green clay

Tertiary fill

2012

Brown sand

A radiocarbon sample (SUERC-22878) was obtained from a barley seed in the ash layer 1467. This has a radiocarbon age of 760±35 BP, which calibrates to a date of cal AD 1210–1290. In this area the floor and the hearth were sealed by a very distinctive layer of winkle shells (1426), burnt blue) and 0.03 m thick; this covered an area at the centre of the house much larger than the ash layer. The winkle layer was surrounded by compact brown sand (1427, treated as a subsidiary floor; Figure 238), and at the centre of this was a patch of grey-white sand with orange patches (1425). Above this deposit was a heavily compacted, black charcoal-rich deposit (2083) only 0.01 m in thick. Around 2.00 m northwest of the main hearth (1082) was a red ash deposit (2001). This was small, 0.38 m by 0.28 m and 0.06 m deep, and contained some burnt limpet shells. Directly opposite the entrance was another thin, circular, red ash deposit (1486; Figures 237, 242). This was quite small, 0.35 m in diameter, much smaller than the later hearth (BEE), which sealed it.

Cut features A number of pits, scoops and post holes were associated with the occupation of the early house (Table 94). The floor in the north part of the house (1485) was cut by three features. Two of these were small post holes (1495, 2019; Figures 237, 240 and 242), and both had fills (1496 and 2020) containing stones that could have been post-packing. These were both located in the northeast quadrant of the house. Post hole 1054 cut the northern hearth (1082), and was sealed by a floor layer of the later occupation (Figures 237 and 238). On the east side of the central baulk were the truncated rem­nants of a roughly circular pit (2013), which was filled with several distinct layers, including a thin basal layer of charcoal-rich sand (Figures 237, 240 and 242; Table 94). In the southeast, the house floor (1449) was cut by a circular pit (2115; Figure 237). This might have been the remains of a post hole, but no traces of post-packing

The Late Norse activity on mound 2 (BE)

317

S Section E 1427

1395

1449 2183

1426

2293

1336

2256

1426 1469

1449

1474

2247

2201

1395

1409

1426

1428

1474

1478

1484

Section F 1411 1419

1394 1378

2012

1410

1394

1418

N 1437

1394

1430

1429 1452

1485 2025

2020

2014 2015 2016

2013

1485

1486

1466

1485 1466

2019

Section G

N

1410 1433

1418

1453

1434

1455

2097

1454

S Section H 1414 1425 1468 1477 1482

1408

1409 1413

10771

1336

1395 1494

1488

1493

1395

1412

1467

1474

1483

1426

1423 1336

1396 1426

1474

1449

10772

0

2m

Figure 242. The north south sections through the floors of House 3. See Figure 230 for the location.

were revealed and the feature was filled by a potentially wind-blown sand (2116; Figure 240). It was located in line with the robber trenches in the south of the house, which suggests that it might have held a timber used to construct the putative south wall of a possible early house preceding the construction of House 3. It was completely sealed by the brown sand 1427 (the subsidiary floor). A radiocarbon sample (SUERC-22898) was obtained from a sheep/goat magnum and unciform from the fill (2116). This has a radiocarbon age of 680±30 BP, which calibrates to a date of cal AD 1260–1290. Also worthy of note were several small, flat stone slabs (Figure 237). Two of these were located in the southeast

quadrant of the house and, together with pit 2115, formed a line approximately 2 m long inside the east wall of House 3. If these stones represented post-pads for internal structural timbers, it could suggest an internal timber frame was present inside the house walls. These stones were visible through several floor layers. Another feature in the southeast quadrant of the house was a patch of charcoal-rich sand (1428; Figure 237) that sat in a pronounced hollow just north of the southern robber trenches. It was associated with a few pitched stones, which suggests it too might have been a post hole, but no obvious cut feature was identified. Two post holes were found at the base of the hearth in

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

318

1493

1484

1482

1488

1468

1478

1469

1477 1467

1483

425/220

425/220

425/220

425/220

425/220

Figure 243. Outline plans of the principal layers of peat ash that make up the south hearth (BEC)

420/230

02

03

04

05

07 06

08

09

10

11

13

12

14

15

16

43 42 41

430/230

40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20

420/220

02

03

04

0

05

07 06

08

09

10

11

12

14 13

15

16

3m

Figure 244. The sampling grid for House 3, the red lines define the major division of the house used in the analysis of the sorting data

the south–centre of the house (1489, 1491; Figures 237, 240). Both these post holes cut the basal hearth layer (1493) and were physically under hearth layer 1488.

Sampling data – N Sharples Three hundred and seventy-seven samples, 2714.4 litres of soil, were taken and processed from the early occupation of House 3 (BEC, Table 95):

Total

Winkle layer

Post hole fill

Pit fill

Hearth south-central

Ash layer north

Hearth centre

Floor

BEC

2116

377 samples

1426

1 sample

41 samples

1496

2020

1 sample

1 sample

1490

1492

1 sample

1 sample

2016

1055

1 sample

2015

2 samples

2 samples

2012

2014

1 sample

1 sample

1488

1493

10 samples

10 samples

1483

1484

5 samples

5 samples

4 samples

1478

1482

8 samples

BEC

BEC

BEC

BEC

BEC

BEC

BEC

BEC

BEC

BEC

BEC

BEC

BEC

BEC

BEC

BEC

BEC

BEC

BEC

BEC

BEC

BEC

BEC

BEC

BEC

1469

BEC

BEC

1477

3 samples

BEC

BEC

8 samples

1467

1468

5 samples

2 samples

1224

1425

1 sample

1 sample

2001

1069

1 sample

2 samples

1082

1486

5 samples

6 samples

1449

1485

71 samples

90 samples

BEC

BEC

2083

1076

9 samples

27 samples

BEC

BEC

1428

BEC

Block

1487

3 samples

3 samples

Charcoal layer

1427

45 samples

Brown sand

Context

Sample

Context type

2714.37

195.50

4.00

4.00

2.00

3.00

2.00

12.50

2.25

5.50

2.00

13.00

103.00

53.00

10.25

10.25

17.00

39.25

23.00

5.20

7.00

24.00

2.00

0.07

5.50

8.00

31.50

92.00

898.30

428.60

444.50

18.50

8.00

5.90

233.80

Litres no.

3183

230

0

4

1

2

0

0

0

0

1

17

0

2

2

0

0

27

10

13

0

10

0

0

0

0

97

3

2400

171

91

0

0

0

102

1.17

1.18

0.00

1.00

0.50

0.67

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.50

1.31

0.00

0.04

0.20

0.00

0.00

0.69

0.43

2.50

0.00

0.42

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

3.08

0.03

2.67

0.40

0.20

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.44

density

Fish

1384

83

3

1

0

0

0

2

0

4

3

1

91

3

2

0

0

9

6

2

2

5

1

0

1

0

16

24

533

214

253

1

0

3

121

no.

Unburnt bone

174

8

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

2

15

1

3

0

0

0

1

0

4

1

0

0

2

0

3

6

66

18

28

1

0

0

14

no.

Burnt bone

1558

91

3

1

0

0

0

2

0

4

4

3

106

4

5

0

0

9

7

2

6

6

1

0

3

0

19

30

599

232

281

2

0

3

135

no.

0.57

0.47

0.75

0.25

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.16

0.00

0.73

2.00

0.23

1.03

0.08

0.49

0.00

0.00

0.23

0.30

0.38

0.86

0.25

0.50

0.00

0.55

0.00

0.60

0.33

0.67

0.54

0.63

0.11

0.00

0.51

0.58

density

All mammal bone

330

29

0

1

0

0

1

0

0

1

0

0

18

3

2

0

1

3

0

0

0

3

0

0

0

1

1

6

82

74

56

1

0

0

47

no.

0.12

0.15

0.00

0.25

0.00

0.00

0.50

0.00

0.00

0.18

0.00

0.00

0.17

0.06

0.20

0.00

0.06

0.08

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.13

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.13

0.03

0.07

0.09

0.17

0.13

0.05

0.00

0.00

0.20

density

Pottery

47

21

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

3

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

9

6

3

0

0

0

4

no.

Slag

1441

588

0

0

2

1

1

9

1

3

4

1

26

9

2

0

0

6

4

0

53

0

1

0

4

1

7

14

234

178

138

7

1

4

142

no.

0.53

3.01

0.00

0.00

1.00

0.33

0.50

0.72

0.44

0.55

2.00

0.08

0.25

0.17

0.20

0.00

0.00

0.15

0.17

0.00

7.57

0.00

0.50

0.00

0.73

0.13

0.22

0.15

0.26

0.42

0.31

0.38

0.13

0.68

0.61

density

Limpet

10485

3240

2

7

3

3

31

24

1

2

12

6

19

1

18

0

1

17

17

1

37

70

26

0

3

0

82

8

5667

555

262

31

2

29

308

no.

3.86

16.57

0.50

1.75

1.50

1.00

15.50

1.92

0.44

0.36

6.00

0.46

0.18

0.02

1.76

0.00

0.06

0.43

0.74

0.19

5.29

2.92

13.00

0.00

0.55

0.00

2.60

0.09

6.31

1.29

0.59

1.68

0.25

4.92

1.32

density

Winkle

Table 95. The material identified in sorting the greater than 10 mm residue in the early occupation of House 3 (BEC)

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

no.

Egg

29

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

21

5

0

0

0

0

1

no.

Charcoal

6

3

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

187

14

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

2

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

7

1

0

2

1

0

0

1 0

0

28

0

101

17

3

6

0

2

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

1

1

0

no.

0

B.O.M.

no.

Coprolite

The Late Norse activity on mound 2 (BE) 319

1482

1483

1484

1488

1493

3 samples

1 sample

2 samples

1 sample

5 samples

Total

1426

159 samples

20 samples

1478

3 samples

Winkle layer

1477

4 samples

2016

BEC

1469

2 samples

1 sample

BEC

1467

3 samples

BEC

BEC

BEC

BEC

BEC

BEC

BEC

BEC

BEC

BEC

BEC

1069

1 sample

BEC

BEC

1082

1485

39 samples

BEC

BEC

BEC

BEC

BEC

BEC

Block

1 sample

1449

1076

13 samples

30 samples

2083

4 samples

Pit fill

Hearth south-central

Hearth centre

Floor

1487

1 sample

1428

2 samples

Charcoal layers

1427

23 samples

Brown sand

Context

No. of samples

Context type

1125.1

102.0

0.3

45.0

10.0

6.0

4.0

6.0

5.0

14.0

2.2

13.0

3.5

20.0

359.2

195.0

209.0

9.6

2.0

2.0

117.4

Litres

1036.85

86.25

0.25

45.00

10.00

6.00

4.00

6.00

5.00

14.00

2.20

13.00

3.50

20.00

337.70

165.00

188.00

9.55

2.00

2.00

117.40

Litres sorted

1199

81

0

111

11

4

1

1

16

10

3

14

0

3

246

294

146

0

0

1

257

no.

1.16

0.94

0.00

2.47

1.10

0.67

0.25

0.17

3.20

0.71

1.36

1.08

0.00

0.15

0.73

1.78

0.78

0.00

0.00

0.50

2.19

density

Pottery

8078

524

5

647

18

74

6

2

18

60

2

72

22

108

2071

1616

1606

71

11

9

1136

no.

7.79

6.08

20.00

14.38

1.80

12.33

1.50

0.33

3.60

4.29

0.91

5.54

6.29

5.40

6.13

9.79

8.54

7.43

5.50

4.50

9.68

density

Unburnt bone

7677

786

3

157

251

48

0

448

30

277

12

472

34

90

2796

700

907

45

34

5

582

no.

7.40

9.11

12.00

3.49

25.10

8.00

0.00

74.67

6.00

19.79

5.45

36.31

9.71

4.50

8.28

4.24

4.82

4.71

17.00

2.50

4.96

density

Burnt bone

32428

2626

4

484

33

81

3

16

45

338

150

571

91

126

18349

3416

3222

69

31.28

30.45

16.00

10.76

3.30

13.50

0.75

2.67

9.00

24.14

68.18

43.92

26.00

6.30

54.34

20.70

17.14

7.23

3.00

6.50

23.72

density

Fish

6

13

2785

no.

5340

374

0

5

4

11

0

11

28

63

13

117

5

20

1612

979

1273

97

5

11

712

no.

5.15

4.34

0.00

0.11

0.40

1.83

0.00

1.83

5.60

4.50

5.91

9.00

1.43

1.00

4.77

5.93

6.77

10.16

2.50

5.50

6.06

density

Charcoal

17506

1054

41

90

30

98

8

67

129

487

23

420

89

107

6177

1898

3912

1078

33

69

1696

no.

16.88

12.22

164.00

2.00

3.00

16.33

2.00

11.17

25.80

34.79

10.45

32.31

25.43

5.35

18.29

11.50

20.81

112.88

16.50

34.50

14.45

density

B.O.M.

1152

43

0

35

5

0

14

18

6

227

0

1

9

44

166

218

155

23

0

4

184

no.

1.11

0.50

0.00

0.78

0.50

0.00

3.50

3.00

1.20

16.21

0.00

0.08

2.57

2.20

0.49

1.32

0.82

2.41

0.00

2.00

1.57

density

Slag

66

3

0

2

0

0

0

2

0

1

0

7

0

1

10

13

19

1

0

0

7

no.

0.06

0.03

0.00

0.04

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.33

0.00

0.07

0.00

0.54

0.00

0.05

0.03

0.08

0.10

0.10

0.00

0.00

0.06

density

Crab

Table 96. The material identified in sorting the 2 to 10 mm residue of the early occupation of House 3 (BEC)

2425

335

0

47

11

29

3

47

35

231

2

115

4

5

517

362

246

67

0

6

363

no.

2.34

3.88

0.00

1.04

1.10

4.83

0.75

7.83

7.00

16.50

0.91

8.85

1.14

0.25

1.53

2.19

1.31

7.02

0.00

3.00

3.09

density

Egg

33

3

0

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

1

6

12

3

1

0

0

4

0.03

0.03

0.00

0.04

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.08

0.00

0.05

0.02

0.07

0.02

0.10

0.00

0.00

0.03

density

Spirorbis no.

276

48

0

2

17

8

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

115

71

6

0

0

2

6

0.27

0.56

0.00

0.04

1.70

1.33

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.45

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.34

0.43

0.03

0.00

0.00

1.00

0.05

density

Coprolite no.

320

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

The Late Norse activity on mound 2 (BE)

321

4 3 2 1 0

fish floor

pot

mammal brown sand

charcoal layers

limpet

winkle layers

hearth layers

winkle pit fills

post hole fills

Figure 245. Histograms of the above 10 mm sampling densities from the primary occupation (BEC). The quantity of winkle from

the winkle layer is capped at 4, the density was 16.5 winkles per litre

Figure 246. The density distributions for the above 10 mm material from the primary occupation (BEC)

• • •

188 samples, 1771 litres, came from the main floor level (1485/1383, 1076, 1449); 45 samples, 233.8 litres of soil, came from the subsidiary floor (1427); 15 samples, 32.4 litres of soil, came from several charcoal-rich layers;

• • • •

41 samples, 195 litres of soil, came from the burnt winkle layer (1426); 76 samples, 431 litres of soil, came from hearth and ash layers; 6 samples, 22.8 litres of soil, came from pit fills; 6 samples, 27.5 litres of soil, came from post hole fills.

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

322

•

40 35

• •

30 25 20 15 10 5 0

floor

brown sand pot

charcoal layers

unburnt bone

winkle layer

hearth layers

burnt bone

pit fills

fish

180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0

floor

brown sand

charcoal layers

charcoal

winkle layer BOM

hearth layers

pit fills

slag

6 5 4 3 2 1 0

floor

brown sand crab

charcoal layers

winkle layer

spirorbis

egg

hearth layers

pit fills

coprolite

Figure 247. Histograms of the 2 to 10 mm sampling densities from the primary occupation (BEC)

The 2–10 mm residues from 159 samples, 1,037 litres of soil, were washed, sieved and sorted (Table 96). • • •

82 samples, 690.7 litres of soil were from the floor layer; 23 samples, 117.4 litres, were from the subsidiary floor (brown sand 1427); seven samples, 13.6 litres, were from charcoal-rich layers;

20 samples, 86.3 litres, came from the winkle layer (1426); 26 samples, 128.7 litres, came from hearth layers; one sample, 0.25 litres, came from a pit fill.

All the samples were taken on the sampling grid depicted in Figure 244. The average densities of the material recovered from the above 10 mm residues are depicted in Figure 245. The differences are obscured by the very high densities of winkle (16.57 shells/litre) recovered from the burnt winkle layer (1426); this density has therefore been capped in the histogram to make the remaining patterns easier to see. The most common material after winkles were fish bones, which had an average density of 1.2 frag/litre, with the highest densities in the main floor layer and the winkle layer. Limpet and mammal bone had roughly similar average densities (0.5 and 0.6 frag/litre), but the limpets were heavily concentrated in the winkle layer whereas bone was evenly distributed through several context types, though scarce in the charcoal-rich layers and the post hole fills. Pottery was a rare discovery, with an average density of just 0.1 frag/litre. The distribution of the over 10 mm material from the principal floor layer is shown in Figure 246. There are several noticeable patterns. A comparison of limpets and winkles shows the limpets had a fairly even distribution across the floor, with occasional concentrations around the edge, whereas the winkles, though they had a comparable even distribution across the floor, had a significant concentration in the northwest corner of the house. Mammal bone had a fairly even distribution across the floor but with two significant concentrations, one just inside the entrance and the other adjacent to the southcentral hearth. This is similar to the fish bone distribution, which shows a significant concentration directly in front of the entrance, increased densities in the northern half of the house and a smaller concentration around the south-central hearth. The pottery had a largely peripheral distribution, with slightly higher densities in the south. The average densities of the material recovered in the 2–10 mm residues are depicted by context type in Figure 247. The densities from pit fill (2016) are anomalous due to the small volume of the sample; the results from the charcoal-rich layers also derive from a relatively small sample volume. The most common find was fish bone, which had a density of 31.28 frag/ litre. The highest densities came from the layers of the main floor, but the winkle layer and the brown sand subsidiary floor also had high densities. The next most frequent find was B.O.M., but the average density given in Table 96 is misleading as it is skewed by the very high density from the fill (2016) of pit 2013 (Figure 247). More interesting are the layers described as ‘charcoalrich’ during excavation; the high densities of B.O.M. in these layers (e.g. 112.8 frag/litre in 2083) may indicate the nature of the activities that formed these deposits.

The Late Norse activity on mound 2 (BE) Pottery

Unburnt bone

Fish

BOM

Slag

Burnt bone

Crab

Spirorbis

Egg

323 Charcoal

Density 0

0

0.1 - 1

0.1 - 0.5

1.1 - 5 5.1 - 10 10.1 - 20

0.51 - 1

20.1 - 30

7.1 - 10

30.1 - 40

10.1 - 15

40.1 - 50

15.1 - 20

50.1 - 100

20.1 - 25

100.1 - 200

25.1 - 300

1.1 - 4 4.1 - 7

Coprolite

Figure 248. The density distributions for the 2 to 10 mm materials from the primary occupation (BEC)

Bone, burnt and unburnt, had average densities of 7.4 and 7.8 frag/litre respectively. Burnt bone was most common in hearth layers, whereas unburnt bone was most common in the brown sand subsidiary floor (1427). Pottery was rarely found and its average density of 1.1 frag/litre was less than that for eggshell (2.34 frag/litre) and equivalent to the average density of slag (1.1 frag/ litre). In hearth layer 1477 the slag density was well above average (16.2 frag/litre). The highest density of eggshell came from the charcoal-rich layers, but the most prolific

contexts were various hearth layers, particularly 1477 again, which had an average density of 16.5 frag/litre. Spirorbis, crab and coprolite were rare. The distribution of material from the 2–10 mm residues in the principal floor layer (1076/1449/1485) is depicted in Figure 248. The fish bone was concentrated in the northern half of the house in front of the entrance, as it was in the above 10 mm residues, and this area also produced a concentration of burnt bone and charcoal. Unburnt bone was more evenly distributed, whereas pottery had a patchy

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

324

A

B

Toggle

Iron tool

Pin

Antler waste

Comb

Bone pin waste

Comb tooth

Whale bone waste

Coin

Whale bone comb

Glass bead

Bone point

C

Miscellaneous Nail Rove Copper alloy Fitting

0

5m

Figure 249. The distribution of artefacts on the primary floor (BEC): A) Items of personal adornment; B) Tools and waste

material; C) Structural fittings

The Late Norse activity on mound 2 (BE) All bones

Pig Horse Dog Deer Seal

Sheep

Cattle

325

6 5 4 3 2 1

Figure 250. The distribution of the principal animal bone species in the primary floor of House 3 (BEC) Hordeum

Secale

Avena

Linum

Wild Numbers 0

100.1 - 150

0.1 - 5

150.1 - 200

5.1 - 10

200.1 - 300

10.1 - 50

300.1 - 400

50.1 - 100

400.1 - 600

Figure 251. The distribution of carbonised plant remains on the primary floor of House 3 (BEC)

distribution, with very little material coming from the area in the north that produced the high densities of fish and burnt material. B.O.M. had a patchy distribution, with a high concen­

tration in the northwest corner and subsidiary concentrations in the centre and south. The slag concentrations were completely different, occurring in the southeast corner and on the west side of the house. Eggshell was found in

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

326

420/230

430/230

1400

1398 1402

1423

420/220

430/220

0

3m

Figure 252. Pits pre-dating the secondary floors of House 3 (BED)

most samples, with concentrations inside the entrance, comparable to the fish bone distribution, and on the west side of the southern hearth. Spirorbis was concentrated in the south and could indicate the presence of seaweed in this area; crab and coprolite were isolated occurrences widely dispersed within the house.

The distribution of artefacts – N Sharples For most of the artefacts found in House 3, the object’s location was recorded simply by sample square (Figure 244). The distributions of artefacts are depicted in Figures 249 A, B and C and the objects themselves are discussed below (see pages 364–366). There seems to be little obvious patterning to the distributions: all the different categories of material were found scattered across the floor of the house with little evidence for clustering of tools, waste and miscellaneous material. An interesting pair of tools– an iron awl (3481) and a whale bone comb or weft beater

(3510) – were found in front of the internal early wall in the centre of the house. There were some small groups of personal items (illustrated in Figure 279); three antler comb fragments (8111, 6736, 6871) and a toggle (6311) were found in the north end of the main hearth; a pin (6322) and a comb fragment (6914) against the south wall; pieces of two combs (6839, 4614) against the east wall and another pair opposite the entrance (5391, 6834). The absence of clustering may be significant, particularly the lack of any relationship between the different categories of material. The pottery distributions are not plotted, as over 50% of the sherds recovered have no detailed location. With the exception of just a couple of sherds, pottery was present only in contexts within the southern half of the house.

The distribution of animal bone – N Sharples A small assemblage of only 167 animal bones was

1453 grey sand with burnt material 1455 2097 0.43 1.40 1.20 E-W steep-sided oval BEE 1454

Pit

1385 0.12 0.35 0.44 sloping-sides, flat base oval BEE 1476

Post hole

orangey clayey sand

1442 white sand dark brown sand 1475 0.12 0.24 0.27 sloping sides, rounded base oval BEE 1441

Post hole

light brown sand

dark brown sand 1471

1465 0.18

0.06

0.24 0.12

0.33 -

steep-sided

steep-sided circular

circular Stake hole

BEE

BEE

1464

1470

Post hole

charcoal-rich, dark brown sand with packing stones

1479

brown sand

dark brown sand

light brown sand 1430 charcoal rich sand 1452/2060 grey-brown sand

compact brown sand 1456

1431 0.05

0.10 0.70

0.10 0.30

E-W

E-W oval

steep-sided, flat-bottomed Pit BEE

BEE

1429

1432

Feature

rectangular

steep-sided, flat-bottomed

0.88

dark brown clayey sand mid-dark brown sand with charcoal flecks 1443 dark brown sand, orange and black lenses N-S BEE 1434

Pit

rectangular

steep-sided, flat-bottomed

0.80

0.50

0.12

2002

mixed brown, orange, yellow sand 1039 1043 0.06 0.60 E-W BEE 1038

Scoop

rectangular

shallow with steep sides

0.83

light brown sand 1405 0.09 0.45 E-W BEE 1404

Pit

rectangular

shallow with sloping sides

0.90

light brown sand

yellow-brown sand 1407

1424 0.07

0.14 0.80

0.40 1.30

1.48

E-W

E-W

steep-sided, flat-bottomed

shallow with sloping sides rectangular BEE

Gully BED 1423

1406

Pit

charcoal-rich sand 1403 0.11 0.35 WNW-ESE BED 1402

Pit

sub-rectangular

flat-bottomed with steep sides on all but one side

0.43

light brown sand

charcoal-rich sand 1399

1401 0.07

0.10 0.56

0.30 0.70

1.01 N-S

N-S steep-sided, flat-bottomed

oval Pit BED

BED

1398

1400

Gully

charcoal-rich sand

1433

Tertiary fill Secondary fill Primary fill Depth Width Length Orientation Profile Shape Feature type Block Context

Table 97. A summary description of the features in the House 3 reconstruction (BED) and the secondary occupation of House 3 (BEE)

1458

Fill 4

black charcoal-rich sand

The Late Norse activity on mound 2 (BE)

327

recovered from the early occupation of House 3 and their distribution is depicted in Figure 250. The overall distribution of all bone of all species shows concentrations in the northeast corner, in front of the entrance, and in the central area around the main hearth, but there was a sporadic distribution of isolated bones across most of the interior of the house. Cattle and sheep were fairly evenly represented in the floor layers and there was a significant assemblage of pig bones. The bones of these three species of domestic animal were scattered throughout the interior, though sheep bone tended to be more common in the north, whereas cattle bone was more common in the centre and south. Pig bone was concentrated in the centre of the house. There is little obvious pattern to the distribution of the isolated bones from the other species, though the two dog bones were at the extreme western edge of the floor.

The distribution of carbonised plant remains – J Summers and J Bond The carbonised plant remains from 34 samples, 290 litres of soil, were examined from the early occupation of House 3. The samples from BEC contexts were chosen to explore the distribution of the carbonised plant remains across the floor. It is possible to assemble a reasonably complete distribution from the samples analysed and the distributions are depicted in Figure 251. The distribution of barley is consistent in both the density and numerical plot. The most prolific sample (10542) had a density of 60.2 fragments per litre and came from hearth layer (1467) in the southern hearth. There is a noticeable difference between the distribution of barley in the floor layers in the southern and northern halves of the house: the samples from the northern half of the floor produced consistently higher densities of barley. The distinction between the northern and southern halves of the house seems much less noticeable in the oat distribution. Two samples had large numbers of oat seeds (267 seeds from 11818/1449; 247 seeds from 9921/1076). Both these samples came from floor layers, one in the centre of the house (1076) and one close to the south wall (1449). The former sample had a high volume of soil and consequently a low density, but an adjacent smaller sample (10650 from 1485) had a much higher density (32 frag/litre). The distribution of rye grains is very similar to that of oats, though with numbers considerably reduced; the highest density was 6.8 frag/litre. The flax distribution is slightly different, as the concentrations (all relatively low) were restricted to samples close to the hearths; the highest density

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

328

Table 98. The material identified in sorting the greater than 10 mm residue in the features of the House 3 reconstruction (BED) Context

Fish

Sample

Block

Litres

Burnt bone

density

no.

Slag

density

no.

Limpet no.

density

Winkle no.

Charcoal

B.O.M.

Fill

Cut

no.

no.

no.

no.

1398

BED

25

1

0.04

3

1

4

0.16

1

0.04

0

0

0.00

9

0.36

0

40

10217

1403

1402

BED

11

1

0.09

6

0

6

0.55

1

0.09

0

6

0.55

11

1.00

0

4

10226

1403

1402

BED

18

0

0.00

10

2

12

0.67

0

0.00

0

9

0.50

9

0.50

12

2

10215

1424

1423

BED

54

13

0.24

17

0

17

0.31

4

0.07

0

27

0.50

140

2.59

0

3

BED

108

15

0.14

36

3

39

0.36

6

0.06

0

42

0.39

169

1.56

12

49

E

no.

Pottery

1399

Total

density

All mammal

10338

4 samples

no.

Mammal

density

W W

1401

1400

E

S

1399

1398

N 1403 1402

1398 E

W 1424 1423

0

1m

Figure 253. Sections of the pits pre-dating secondary floors of House 3 (BED)

Figure 254. An almost vertical view of pit 1398 showing the carbon rich layer on its base

The Late Norse activity on mound 2 (BE)

420/230

329

430/230

1454 1446 1422

1445 1466 1476

1441 1464 1470

1434 1432

1429

1435/1033

1038 1048 1037/ 1414 1415

1395 420/220

1406

1404

430/220

0

3m

Figure 255. The initial floor and hearth deposits of the secondary occupation (BEE).The pale areas are places where the floor

was removed with other floor layers

is 4.4 frag/litre. The largest quantities of wild seeds came from a sample from layer 1467 in the southern hearth and from sample 9921 (floor 1076), which also produced large quantities of barley. Another sample prolific in both barley and wild seeds was 11818 from layer 1449 against the south wall.

House 3 reconstruction (BED) The primary floor was cut by two gullies (1400, 1423) that are interpreted as robber trenches where stones were removed from the western and southern walls that appear to have preceded the construction of House 3 (see BEA, above; Figures 229, 252 and 253). These features were sealed by the BEE floor (see below) and must be assumed to be part of a remodelling period intermediate between the early and secondary occupation phases of House 3. Gully 1400 lay on

the line of the BEA east-facing wall (1273), and was filled with a mottled light brown sand (1401). Gully 1423 appeared to be a robber trench for the south end of the putative house to which wall 1273 may have belonged (preceding House 3); it was filled with a mottled light brown sand (1424). Two pits (1402, 1398: Table 97), with dense, charcoalpacked basal fills (Figure 254), lay adjacent to these robber trenches, but to the west of wall 1273 (Figures 253). They therefore had no relationship with the floor of House 3’s early occupation (BEC), but they were sealed by the floors of the later BEE occupation.

Sampling data – N Sharples Four samples, 108 litres of soil were taken and processed from these pits (BED; Table 98). There were two samples from the fills of pit 1402, one from pit 1398 and one from gully 1423. None of the 2–10 mm residues were examined.

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

330

420/230

430/230

1447 1410

1394 1378 1419

1377

1411

1020

948/1409 1408 1412

1396 420/220

430/220

1382

0

3m

Figure 256. The later floor and hearth deposits of the secondary occupation (BEE)

Pit 1402 produced several fragments of charcoal as well as high densities of mammal bone, limpets and winkles. Pit 1398, in contrast, had several pieces of B.O.M. and low densities of all the other materials. Gully 1423 had the highest densities of winkles and fish bones.

House 3 secondary occupation (BEE) The secondary occupation of House 3 was a significant period of activity. It consists of a sequence of floor layers, hearth deposits and pits that can be split into at least two periods, which will be referred to as the initial or primary floor and the later or second floor (Figures 255 and 256). The later floor only partially covered the interior of the building, and in some cases it is not possible to determine whether pits and post holes belonging to the secondary occupation are associated with the initial floor or with the later floor (Table 97). The floor layers associated with the secondary

occupation covered the early western wall (1273; BEA) and the western robber trench (1423). All the floor layers were intensively sampled in 0.5 m by 0.5 m squares (Figure 244).

Initial floor and hearth The initial floor layer of the reoccupied house was a thick layer (0.10 m) of relatively compacted, mottled dark and light brown sand (1466 in the north, 1048 in the centre and 1395 in the south; Figure 255). The hearth associated with the initial floor was located in the centre of the house (Figures 238 and 255). This was an oval-shaped deposit of bright orange and yellow sand (1037/1414), 0.06 m thick, surrounded by a black, charcoal-rich sand (1415), full of winkle shell. Above 1415 was a layer of burnt winkles (1413), which separated the early and second occupation, and this is presumed to represent a foundation deposit that distinguished the second use of this hearth

The Late Norse activity on mound 2 (BE) E

331 W

W

E

1470 1471 1465

1406

1407

1405

1464

1404 N

S

W

E

E

W

1433 1430

1385

1429

1443

1476 1475

1443 1452

1434

E

1038

N

W

1039

1441 S

1446

1043

1447

1422 1453

1445

1455

0

1m

1458 1454

Figure 257. Sections through features within the secondary floor (BED and BEE)

Cut features associated with the initial floor and hearth Three discrete clusters of pits were observed cutting the initial floor: a pair in the southwest corner, a group in the centre and a large single pit in the northwest corner. The two pits (1406, 1404) in the southwest corner overlapped: pit 1406 was cut by 1404 (Figure 255). These pits seem to have been dug in reference to the two earlier pits belonging to the previous phase (BED; 1402 and 1398 on Figure 252), and they are all similar in shape and size. In the centre of the house, the floor was cut by a complex of pits, scoops, post holes and stake-holes. Immediately north of the central hearth was a shallow scoop (1038). To the north of this was a roughly rectangular pit (1434), oriented north–south, which was cut by another roughly rectangular pit (1429), oriented east–west (Figures 242 and 255). This pit cut through a discrete patch of white sand (1435/1033); during excavation both pits were recorded as cut by a small feature (1432), though in plan it looks much more probable that this feature was truncated by these pits. Another three small features were found on the west side of the cluster: post hole 1464 was cut by stake-hole 1470 (Figure 255) and immediately to the north was post hole 1441. Further to the northeast was another, isolated post hole (1476). The largest pit (1454) was in the northwest corner of the house (Figure 255). This was a steep-sided, rec­ tangular pit (1454) that contained quantities of burnt deposits, par­ticularly shell and charcoal, within its four

fills (2097, 1455, 1453, 1458; Figures 242 and 257). A sheep tibia (SUERC-22889) from fill 1455 of this pit has a radiocarbon age of 735±30 BP, which calibrates to a date of cal AD 1250–1300. Over the fills of pit 1454 were several contexts that were assumed during excavation to be later pit fills, but which can now be interpreted as remnants of the later floor that slumped into the top of the pit (Figures 255 and 257) The main layer was a grey-brown sand (1447) that contained occasional shell, animal bone and frequent charcoal flecks and ash lenses; sitting within this were two red-orange ash spreads (1446, 1445) and one brown sand layer (1422).

Later floor and hearth deposits Above the initial floor (1466) in the north of the house were a sequence of layers (Figure 242). The sequence began with a patch of white sand (1384), that was sealed by a discontinuous layer of mottled charcoal rich orange sand (1393), which was in turn sealed by an extensive layer of compacted brown sand (1378, 1382, 1394). The latter layer covered the east side of the house and represented a significant floor layer in this part of the house (Figure 256). This layer was not identified on the west side of the house, where the initial floor layer (1466) must have continued to act as a stable surface. Associated with the second floor (1378, 1382, 1394) were two locations where hearth activity had resulted in the accumulation of thick ash deposits, one in the north and one in the centre of the house (Figure 256).

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

332

In the north of the house, opposite the entrance, was a hearth comprised of three layers, at the base a thin layer of charcoal-rich sand (1437), then a pink-orange sand (1418) which was sealed by an orange sand (1410; Figure 242). These were surrounded by a compact, dark brown sand (2062) and a charcoal-rich sand (1436), which were in turn sealed by an extensive charcoal-rich, dark brown sand (1378). A carbonised oat grain (SUERC-22875) from hearth layer 1418 has a radiocarbon age of 1110±30 BP, which calibrates to a date of cal AD 880–1020. This date appears to be too early and is unlikely to reflect the occupation of the house. To the south of this hearth was a smaller area of ash that again consisted of two layers. The lowest was dark red-brown sand (1419) and red-brown sand (1411). Within this layer was a small patch of charcoal-rich sand (1381). To the west of these deposits was a small circular area of orange and black, charcoal-rich sand (1377). In the centre of the house the original hearth of the initial floor continued to be used (Figures 242 and 256). Sitting on the burnt winkle shells (1413) was a subcircular, compact, red, orange and black sand (1408), surrounded by a brown-black compacted sand (1409/948). A carbonised flax grain (SUERC-22874) from hearth layer 948 has a radiocarbon age of 695±30 BP, which calibrates to a date of cal AD 1260–1390. To the south of these was another small area of burning, represented by compact, orange and black sand (1412). Further south, sitting on the primary floor deposit (1395), was a discrete patch of bright orange sand with charcoal flecks (1396; Figure 238), which probably indicated a dump from a hearth rather than in situ burning.

Other features Other features worthy of note were a number of small flat slabs (Figure 256). There were at least three lines of these in the south end of the house, which suggests that they could have been post-pads for internal structural timbers. Their presence in the north end was not so obvious, but examples were identified and can be related to the other

lines. These stones were visible through both the initial and second floor layers.

Sampling data – N Sharples Five hundred and nine samples, 3,713 litres of soil, were taken and processed from these floor layers (BEE; Table 99). • • • • • • •

246 samples, 1,368 litres of soil, came from the initial floor; 100 samples, 946.8 litres of soil, came from the later floor; 44 samples, 310.8 litres of soil, from various charcoal layers; 76 samples, 541.3 litres of soil, from hearth layers; 6 samples, 24 litres of soil, from the winkle layer; 30 samples, 474.5 litres of soil, from pit fills; 7 samples, 27 litres of soil, from post hole and other fills.

The 2–10 mm residues were processed from 189 samples, 1166.7 litres of soil (Table 100). • • • • • •

100 samples, 514.8 litres of soil, from the initial floor; 43 samples, 338.5 litres of soil, from the later floor; 14 samples, 103.3 litres of soil, from charcoal layers; 25 samples, 166.7 litres of soil, from hearth layers; 1 sample, 3 litres of soil, from the winkle layer; 6 samples, 40.5 litres of soil, from pit fills.

The average densities of the materials recovered from the above 10 mm residues are depicted in Figure 258. Winkles were the most common discovery and had an average density of 2.1 shells/litre of soil. These dominated the assemblages from all context types, being least frequent in the hearth deposits. Mammal bone was the second most common material present, with an average density of 0.5 frag/litre; the highest densities of mammal bone were in the charcoal layers, but there was no great variation between the context types.

4

3 2 1 0

fish charcoal layers

mammal floor 1

pot floor 2

hearths

limpet pit fills

post hole fills

winkle winkle layer

Figure 258. Histograms of the above 10 mm sampling densities for the secondary occupation (BEE)

Post hole fill

509 samples

1431

1385 1442 1465 1479

1 sample

1 sample 1 sample 1 sample 1 sample

Scoop fill

Fill

Total

1415

1039 1043

1 sample 1 sample

1378 1381 1413 1436 2062 1048 1395 1466 1020 1379 1382 1394 948 1037 1396 1410 1411 1414 1418 1419 1437 1393 1408 1409 1412 1422 1430 1433 1445 1446 1447 1452 1453 1455 1458 1475 2002 2060 2097 1456 1405 1407

32 samples 7940 6 samples 2 samples 3 samples 66 samples 99 samples 81 samples 20 samples 15 samples 25 samples 40 samples 16 samples 4 samples 5 samples 14 samples 4 samples 4 samples 13 samples 2 samples 3 samples 1 sample 2 sample 6 samples 2 samples 1 sample 3 samples 2 samples 1 sample 1 sample 1 sample 1 sample 4 samples 3 samples 1 sample 1 sample 4 samples 2 samples 2 samples 1 sample 1 sample 1 sample

6 samples

Context

Sample

Winkle layer

Pit fills

Hearth layer

Floor 2

Floor 1

Charcoal layer

Context type

3713.1

9.0 5.0 1.0 2.0

2.0

5.0 3.0

24.0

271.3 5.0 22.5 12.0 20.5 541.0 475.7 351.6 153.8 123.5 276.5 393.0 254.5 21.0 21.4 27.5 22.5 19.0 138.7 9.0 3.3 1.0 12.0 9.5 2.0 7.0 37.0 19.0 4.0 1.5 26.0 1.0 77.0 53.0 2.0 4.0 59.0 10.0 10.0 2.0 65.0 97.0

Litres density 0.89 0.00 0.36 1.58 0.49 0.17 0.35 0.46 0.05 0.37 0.13 0.34 0.12 0.00 0.23 0.11 0.22 0.32 0.08 0.00 0.92 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.21 0.00 0.00 0.12 0.00 0.18 0.06 0.00 0.00 59.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.04

0.11 2.40 0.00 0.00

1043 0.28

1 12 0 0

0 0.00

0 0.00 0 0.00

9 0.38

no. 242 0 8 19 10 91 166 160 8 46 36 132 31 0 5 3 5 6 11 0 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 3 0 14 3 0 0 7 0 0 0 3 4

Fish

1698

3 0 0 1

0

0 0

9

no. 215 2 5 2 21 140 227 154 55 61 126 320 100 0 18 11 16 3 14 5 0 0 2 2 2 0 19 7 0 0 25 0 29 7 0 0 30 0 8 0 17 42

Unburnt bone

252

1 0 2 1

0

0 0

5

no. 9 0 3 3 0 30 23 19 4 6 5 32 45 0 3 1 0 2 39 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 5 0 5 0 1 0 0 0 2 2

Burnt bone density 0.83 0.40 0.36 0.42 1.02 0.31 0.53 0.49 0.38 0.54 0.47 0.90 0.57 0.00 0.98 0.44 0.71 0.26 0.40 0.60 0.00 0.00 0.25 0.21 2.00 0.00 0.51 0.42 0.00 0.00 1.00 0.00 0.44 0.13 2.50 0.00 0.53 0.00 0.80 0.00 0.29 0.45

0.44 0.00 2.00 1.00 1950 0.53

4 0 2 2

0 0.00

0 0.00 0 0.00

14 0.58

no. 224 2 8 5 21 170 250 173 59 67 131 352 145 0 21 12 16 5 53 5 0 0 2 2 4 0 19 8 0 0 26 0 34 7 5 0 31 0 8 0 19 44

All mammal bone density 0.05 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.13 0.05 0.05 0.09 0.07 0.07 0.05 0.00 0.19 0.33 0.00 0.11 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.00 0.01 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.50 0.02 0.11

0.11 0.00 0.00 0.00 245 0.07

1 0 0 0

0 0.00

0 0.00 0 0.00

9 0.38

no. 13 0 1 0 0 20 64 18 8 11 20 27 12 0 4 9 0 2 7 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 11

Pottery

11

0 0 0 0

0

0 0

0

no. 0 0 0 0 0 2 4 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Slag density 0.23 0.00 2.18 0.92 0.63 0.21 0.46 0.38 0.23 0.39 0.39 0.42 0.49 0.14 0.37 0.29 0.22 0.16 0.25 0.20 0.00 1.00 0.25 1.05 0.50 0.29 0.19 0.26 0.25 0.00 1.08 0.00 0.45 0.21 0.50 0.00 0.14 0.20 0.20 0.00 0.35 0.47

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1340 0.36

0 0 0 0

0 0.00

0 0.00 0 0.00

8 0.33

no. 62 0 49 11 13 113 217 134 36 48 109 167 124 3 8 8 5 3 35 2 0 1 2 10 1 2 7 5 1 0 28 0 35 11 1 0 8 2 2 0 23 46

Limpet density 2.04 1.60 13.24 0.75 1.80 3.67 1.80 1.28 1.00 1.94 1.96 1.99 0.60 2.19 1.17 0.29 0.67 6.47 0.33 1.89 0.62 6.00 0.25 2.11 1.00 0.29 0.30 1.42 0.00 2.00 3.00 1.00 8.61 1.87 3.00 0.75 0.78 1.10 1.10 7.50 3.05 0.98

2.11 3.00 0.00 0.50 7777 2.09

19 15 0 1

0 0.00

0 0.00 1 0.33

96 4.00

no. 553 8 298 9 37 1984 856 449 154 239 542 783 152 46 25 8 15 123 46 17 2 6 2 20 2 2 11 27 0 3 78 1 663 99 6 3 46 11 11 15 198 95

Winkle

0

0

16

1 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 0

0

no. 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 2

Charcoal

0 0

0

no. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Egg

Table 99. The material identified in sorting the greater than 10 mm residue in the secondary occupation of House 3 (BEE)

7

0 0 0 0

0

0 0

0

no. 1 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Coprolite

302

0 0 0 0

0

0 0

2

no. 30 0 2 2 6 0 19 16 0 9 11 50 0 0 0 6 2 0 65 1 3 0 0 2 1 0 14 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 55 1 0 1 1

B.O.M.

The Late Norse activity on mound 2 (BE) 333

Total

Winkle layer

Pit fills

Hearth layer

Floor 2

Floor 1

Charcoal layer

Context type

1430

1433

1443

1452

2002

2060

1 sample

1 sample

1 sample

1 sample

1 sample

1 sample

189 samples

1415

2062

2 samples

1 sample

1437

1 sample

BEE

1411

1410

4 samples

1418

1409

2 samples

1 sample

1037

2 samples

6 samples

BEE

948

7 samples

BEE

BEE

BEE

BEE

BEE

BEE

BEE

BEE

BEE

BEE

BEE

BEE

BEE

BEE

1394

BEE

BEE

16 samples

1379

6 samples

BEE

1382

1020

9 samples

BEE

BEE

BEE

BEE

BEE

BEE

Block

12 samples

1466

29 samples

1048

31 samples

1395

1436

1 sample

40 samples

1413

1378

12 samples

1 sample

Context

Sample

1357.15

3.00

3.00

13.00

1.00

1.00

15.00

9.00

0.75

1.00

45.20

9.00

11.20

4.50

10.00

143.00

157.00

120.50

44.00

64.00

109.00

210.50

258.00

2.00

3.00

119.50

Litres

1166.65

3.00

1.50

13.00

1.00

1.00

15.00

9.00

0.75

0.50

45.20

4.50

8.70

4.50

10.00

92.50

125.50

114.00

39.00

60.00

97.50

177.75

239.50

2.00

3.00

98.25

Litres sorted

1500

4

0

16

0

2

8

8

0

0

8

0

2

2

1

26

102

173

28

78

115

327

542

0

2

56

no.

1.29

1.33

0.00

1.23

0.00

2.00

0.53

0.89

0.00

0.00

0.18

0.00

0.23

0.44

0.10

0.28

0.81

1.52

0.72

1.30

1.18

1.84

2.26

0.00

0.67

0.57

density

Pottery

10158

4

5

224

0

146

93

32

5

1

234

44

65

40

48

203

2152

1073

483

837

837

1526

1229

21

40

816

no.

8.71

1.33

3.33

17.23

0.00

146.00

6.20

3.56

6.67

2.00

5.18

9.78

7.47

8.89

4.80

2.19

17.15

9.41

12.38

13.95

8.58

8.59

5.13

10.50

13.33

8.31

density

Unburnt bone

5235

126

5

202

1

133

151

23

14

11

476

9

47

35

3

401

364

208

296

90

330

755

716

17

320

502

no.

4.49

42.00

3.33

15.54

1.00

133.00

10.07

2.56

18.67

22.00

10.53

2.00

5.40

7.78

0.30

4.34

2.90

1.82

7.59

1.50

3.38

4.25

2.99

8.50

106.67

5.11

density

Burnt bone

19940

152

7

277

4

139

265

95

6

1

166

49

29

23

19

295

3190

1294

933

543

2247

2941

3116

52

31

4066

no.

17.09

50.67

4.67

21.31

4.00

139.00

17.67

10.56

8.00

2.00

3.67

10.89

3.33

5.11

1.90

3.19

25.42

11.35

23.92

9.05

23.05

16.55

13.01

26.00

10.33

41.38

density

Fish

5752

127

12

702

3

208

365

33

3

11

526

13

62

29

0

434

532

352

250

64

313

941

305

8

52

407

no.

4.93

42.33

8.00

54.00

3.00

208.00

24.33

3.67

4.00

22.00

11.64

2.89

7.13

6.44

0.00

4.69

4.24

3.09

6.41

1.07

3.21

5.29

1.27

4.00

17.33

4.14

density

Charcoal

26284

337

1515

193

244

263

372

508

25

84

3363

191

581

241

1

1521

3557

1389

824

543

920

3649

1305

361

103

4194

no.

22.53

112.33

1010.00

14.85

244.00

263.00

24.80

56.44

33.33

168.00

74.40

42.44

66.78

53.56

0.10

16.44

28.34

12.18

21.13

9.05

9.44

20.53

5.45

180.50

34.33

42.69

density

B.O.M.

591

4

0

8

0

2

7

3

0

0

16

0

2

0

2

115

75

44

26

42

56

67

75

3

13

31

no.

0.51

1.33

0.00

0.62

0.00

2.00

0.47

0.33

0.00

0.00

0.35

0.00

0.23

0.00

0.20

1.24

0.60

0.39

0.67

0.70

0.57

0.38

0.31

1.50

4.33

0.32

density

Slag

2569

0

2

51

0

60

94

0

6

2

80

6

5

24

2

224

204

151

177

101

127

714

247

9

90

193

no.

2.20

0.00

1.33

3.92

0.00

60.00

6.27

0.00

8.00

4.00

1.77

1.33

0.57

5.33

0.20

2.42

1.63

1.32

4.54

1.68

1.30

4.02

1.03

4.50

30.00

1.96

density

Egg

109

0

0

7

0

11

23

2

0

0

11

0

0

0

0

6

20

9

2

0

3

8

7

0

0

0

no.

Table 100. The material identified in sorting the 2 to 10 mm residue from the secondary occupation of House 3 (BEE)

0.09

0.00

0.00

0.54

0.00

11.00

1.53

0.22

0.00

0.00

0.24

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.06

0.16

0.08

0.05

0.00

0.03

0.05

0.03

0.00

0.00

0.00

density

Crab

63

0

0

22

0

3

9

0

0

0

1

0

0

1

0

1

2

0

1

0

5

18

0

0

0

0

0.05

0.00

0.00

1.69

0.00

3.00

0.60

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.02

0.00

0.00

0.22

0.00

0.01

0.02

0.00

0.03

0.00

0.05

0.10

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

density

Spirorbis no.

56

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

32

0

0

0

1

0

0

15

2

3

0

0

2

0.048

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

1.33

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

7.11

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.01

0.00

0.00

0.15

0.01

0.01

0.00

0.00

0.02

density

Coprolite no.

334

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

The Late Norse activity on mound 2 (BE) Mammal

Fish

335

Pottery Density 0 0.1 - 0.5 0.51 - 1 1.1 - 1.5 1.51 - 2 2.1 - 3 3.1 - 5 5.1 - 10 10.1 - 30 30.1 - 60

Winkle

Limpet

Litres Litres 0 0.1 - 1 1.1 - 5 5.1 - 10 10.1 - 50 50.1 - 100 100.1 - 150 150.1 - 200 200.1 - 250 250.1 - 500

Figure 259. Density distributions for the above 10 mm material in the secondary floor deposits (BEE)

The next most common material was limpets, which had an average density of 0.4 shells/litre of soil; these were entirely absent from the post hole fills but were otherwise fairly evenly distributed. Fish bone had an average density of 0.3 frag/litre and was less evenly distributed: high densities came from the charcoal layers, fairly average densities from the winkle layer and floors, and low densities from the hearth layers and the pit and post hole fills. Pottery had a low average density (0.07 frag/litre), and the highest density came from the winkle layer, which is unlikely to be representative given the small volumes of soil examined. The distribution of the material recovered from the above 10 mm residues in the initial floor (1048, 1395, 1466) is depicted in Figure 259. The coverage of the floor was fairly uniform and most of the gaps in the distribution indicate the presence of later pits that cut through the initial floor. The rectangular gap in the area between squares 8/33 and 15/36 is an area where the floor was removed prior to sampling (see Figure 244 for grid square numbering). The distributions of the various materials show some variation: winkles were concentrated in the centre of the house, whereas limpets were more evenly distributed, with higher densities on the edge of the central area to the north

and south. Fish bone had two distinct concentrations, one in the northeast corner close to the entrance and another, lesser concentration in the southern half of the house. Mammal bone was more evenly distributed but there was a small concentration in the northeast corner similar to that for the fish bone. Pottery was more sporadically distributed, but largely came from the southern half and around the edge of the house. The average densities of material recovered from the 2–10 mm residues are depicted in Figure 260. Some of the samples from the pit fills were small and the sample from pit fill 1443 (pit 1434) has large numbers of bone fragments (burnt, unburnt and fish), charcoal and eggshell, which produce densities that are unusually high and atypical for these floor layers. The most commonly occurring material was B.O.M., which had very high densities in the pit fills (76 frag/litre) and the charcoal layers (45 frag/litre). The latter were noted during excavation to be ‘charcoalrich’, but only six samples were examined. B.O.M. was also common in the hearth layers. The contrast with the densities of charcoal present is noticeable: this was relatively common in the pit fills, but rare in the other context types, with an average density of only 4.9 frag/ litre. Fish bone was the second most common material

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

336 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

floor 1

floor 2

pot

charcoal layers

unburnt bone

hearth layers

burnt bone

pit fills fish

90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

floor 1

floor 2

charcoal layers

charcoal

BOM

hearth layers

pit fills

slag

was absent from most contexts, except one floor layer and one hearth layer. The distribution of the 2–10 mm material from the initial floor (1048, 1395, 1466) are depicted in Figure 261. The samples taken provide a fairly uniform coverage of the floor, though as noted above, there are gaps resulting from disturbance by later pits and from sampling errors. B.O.M. had a fairly even distribution across most of the floor, but with a noticeable concentration in the southwest corner. The higher densities of charcoal occurred generally in the southern half of the house, with a concentration in the centre of the south side. This concentration is also slightly visible in the distribution of burnt bone, which again was concentrated in the southern half of the house, though with some high densities in the north. Unburnt bone had a peripheral distribution, with con­ centrations in the centre of the south side and on both sides of the northern half of the house. Fish bone had a noticeable concentration in the northeast corner, adjacent to the entrance to the house. The remaining materials had much more erratic distrib­ utions due to the low quantities present. Slag was again significantly different to the other burnt materials and the higher densities largely came from the northern half of the house. Most of the high concentrations of pottery came from the periphery, as did the crab. Eggshell was found scattered across the interior; the highest concentrations were close to the south wall. Spirorbis was largely restricted to areas adjacent to the south wall.

6

The distribution of artefacts – N Sharples

5 4 3 2 1 0

floor 1 crab

floor 2

charcoal layers

spirorbis

egg

hearth layers

pit fills

coprolite

Figure 260. Histograms of the 2 to 10 mm sampling densities for the secondary occupation (BEE)

(average density 17.1 frag/litre). The highest density (39.9 frag/litre) came from the charcoal layers, whereas the lowest density came from the hearth layers. Burnt and unburnt bones were present in all context types, but not in large quantities; they had average densities of 4.5 and 8.7 frag/litre respectively. Crab and Spirorbis were present in small quantities, but absent from the charcoal layers. The highest densities were from the pit fills. Eggshell was more common (2.2 frag/litre) and it was a significant presence in all context categories. Coprolite

The distribution of the different objects is illustrated in Figure 262 A, B and C (the artefacts themselves are illustrated in Figure 280). The distributions of tools and structural fittings were very similar, with a concentration in a zone running up the centre of the house, essentially in and around the hearths. The structural fittings were clustered around the central hearth and in the fills of the large pit (1454) at the north end of the house, close to the northern hearth. There were more diffuse scatters along the southwest side of the house and near the entrance. Most of this material could have resulted from the use of broken timbers on the fire. There is no visible concentration of tools. They lay in a dispersed scatter down the centre of the house, with three outliers: a knife (5858) and an awl or possible cross bow bolt (5123) lay against the walls at the south end of the house and a bone point (8353) was found near the east wall. All three objects could have been stored in these locations and then forgotten or left behind when the house was abandoned. The items of personal adornment were more dis­ persed, with fewer items found around the hearths. Two con­c entrations were present: a concentration of pins, including a complete copper-alloy stick pin (5360), came from the floor layers above the northern pit, and a

The Late Norse activity on mound 2 (BE) Pottery

BOM

Unburnt bone

Slag

Fish

337 Charcoal

Burnt bone Density 0 0.1 - 1 1.1 - 5 5.1 - 10 10.1 - 20 20.1 - 30 30.1 - 40 40.1 - 50 50.1 - 100 100.1 - 200

Crab

Spirorbis

Egg Density 0 0.1 - 0.5 0.51 - 1 1.1 - 4 4.1 - 7 7.1 - 10 10.1 - 15 15.1 - 20 20.1 - 25 25.1 - 30

Figure 261. Density distributions for the 2 to 10 mm materials in the secondary floor deposits (BEE)

concentration of comb and pin fragments, and a toggle in the northeast corner of the house. It is important to note that the concentration of pins was separate from the concentration of nails and roves that lay in the fills of pit 1454. The small assemblage of pottery was concentrated in the northern half of the house and the larger concentrations

came from around the periphery of the interior (see Table 111).

The distribution of animal bone – N Sharples An assemblage of 313 animal bones (see Table 120) were recovered from the secondary occupation of House 3 and

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

338

A

B

Scabbard? Toggle Pin Comb tooth Comb Bead Chain mail

Iron tool Bone point Antler waste Bone pin waste Whetstone Spindle whorl

C

Tack Fitting Nail Rove

0

5m

Figure 262. Distribution of the artefacts in the secondary occupation (BEE): A) Items of personal adornment; B) Tools and waste material; C) Structural fittings

The Late Norse activity on mound 2 (BE)

339 Pig

All bones

Sheep

Cattle

Otter

Deer Pine Marten

6 5 4 3 2 1

Figure 263. The distribution of the principal animal bone species in the secondary floor of House 3 (BEE)

Hordeum

Secale

Avena

Linum

Wild Numbers 0

100.1 - 150

0.1 - 5

150.1 - 200

5.1 - 10

200.1 - 300

10.1 - 50

300.1 - 400

50.1 - 100

400.1 - 760

Figure 264. The distribution of carbonised plant remains in the secondary floor of House 3 (BEE)

their distribution is depicted in Figure 263. The overall distribution of bones shows a general scatter over the interior that seems to gradually increase towards the north end of the house. In the centre and south the bones were more common in the western half of the house but in the

north they were more common in the east, around the entrance to the house. There was a small but noticeable concentration of bones against the north wall. Sheep are much more common in this phase of occu­ pation than cattle (85 cattle bones compared to 148

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

340

Figure 265. The northern half of House 3 from the east showing the final floor deposits prior to excavation

Figure 266. Cattle hoof impressions on the surface of the House 3 abandonment layer in the southeast corner of the secondary

structure (BFA)

The Late Norse activity on mound 2 (BE)

420/220

341

430/220

1386 1380

2050

0

3m

Figure 267. Features and deposits associated with the final abandonment of House 3 (BEF)

ovicaprid). The cattle bone was fairly evenly distributed across the floor, whereas the sheep bone was much more fre­quent in the north; over 50% of the assemblage from the floor came from the north end of the house. Pig bone was much less frequent than it was in the floor belonging to the early occupation of the house, being numerically equivalent to the deer (18 bones compared to 17 bones). The pig and deer bones were scattered fairly evenly across the interior of the house. There are no dog, cat or horse bones from this phase of occupation and the only other species identified are four bones of otter and one bone of pine marten.

The distribution of carbonised plant remains – J Summers and J Bond The carbonised plant remains from 52 samples, 392 litres of soil, were examined from the secondary occupation of House 3 (see Table 118). These were chosen to understand the distribution of the carbonised plant remains across the floor and hearths of the house, and a reasonably complete distribution was analysed. The distributions are depicted in Figure 264. Two samples dominate the distributions: sample 9669 came from layer 948 in the central hearth, and 10104 from layer 1418 in the northern hearth. These samples had very large quantities of barley, oats, flax and wild seeds, in contrast to rye which was present in only extremely small quantities. These samples are particularly prominent in the barley and flax distributions. The distributions of oats and wild seeds had a more diffuse pattern, particularly in the southern half of the

house where there was a spread of moderately rich samples from the central hearth to the southwest corner of the house. In the north, high densities clustered around the northern hearth. There was no substantial concentration of rye in any area of house, and the sample with the highest density was adjacent to the northern wall of the house.

House 3 abandonment (BEF) The floor layers of House 3 were sealed by extensive, compact dark brown sand (599/947/1336/2041), (Figures 238 and 265). The layer was relatively homogeneous in colour and texture across the interior of the house and this differentiates it from the underlying floors discussed in blocks BEC and BEE. The homogeneous nature of the layer suggests natural processes, such as bioturbation by worms, have reduced the complexity of the deposits present, but the soil micromorphology (Milek and Munro below) indicates trampling horizons were present. It seems likely that 599/947/1336/2041 comprises floor layers inside the house that have been homogenised by weathering when the house was abandoned.1 There is no evidence for the accumulation of thick turf horizons that might indicate the collapse of a turf roof. This layer was covered by a thin layer of white sand (1352/579), which presumably indicated a wind-blown sand deposit. The presence of this layer made it possible to observe slight undulations in the surface of the sand that were the result of cattle trampling (1362). These showed up, when the sand blew away naturally during excavation,

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

342

Figure 268. The post abandonment pit 1386 from the north, showing the section through the windblown sand infill and basal layer of charcoal rich sand

as small reservoirs of white sand trapped in hoof prints (Figure 266). The white sand did not completely cover the house. It was missing from the area inside the west wall and thickened against the inner face of the east wall, a pattern of deposition presumably resulting from the prevailing wind direction. A cattle lumbar vertebra (SUERC-2683) from the abandonment layer 1336 has a radiocarbon age of 650±35 BP, which calibrates to a date of cal AD 1270–1400. At the south end of the house, the abandon­ment layer (1336) was cut by a pit (1386). The pit was substantial, 1.40 m long by over 0.70 m wide, and was 0.24 m deep (Figures 267 and 268). It had a basal layer of charcoal-rich sand, 0.05 m thick (1444), sealed by a thick layer of white sand (1387), which appeared to be wind-blown. It was partially sealed by a final, thin layer of charcoal-rich, dark brown sand (1380) which to the south of the pit overlay another thin wind-blow sand layer (2050).

Sampling data – N Sharples The abandonment layer was intensively sampled; 150 samples, 1,215 litres of soil, were taken and processed from the abandonment contexts of House 3 (BEF; Table 101). • •

135 samples, 1,136.3 litres of soil, came from the abandonment layer (599/1336/2041); 15 samples, 79 litres of soil, were associated with pit 1386.

The average densities were amongst the lowest for the

Late Norse deposits on mound 2; there were 0.78 winkles/ litre, 0.31 mammal bones/litre, 0.29 limpets/litre, 0.09 fish bones/litre and 0.06 pot/litre. The pit fill densities vary; fills 1387 and 1444 had very low densities of most material, but 1444 had 54 fragments of B.O.M. which confirms the observation during excavation that this was a distinctive black layer, though only one fragment of charcoal was present. The final charcoal rich layer (1380) was similar to the main abandonment layers (599, 1336, 1380) but produced a higher density of winkles and slightly higher densities of pottery and fish bones. The unusual densities in white sand 2050 are unlikely to be representative as this was a very small sample with very little material. The distribution of the material recovered from the above 10 mm residues is depicted in Figure 269. The distributions of limpets and winkles were very similar, with high densities on the east, central and southeast areas of the house. Mammal bone distribution was comparable but the fish bones were much more dispersed, with higher densities at the north and south ends of the house. Pottery was only an infrequent discovery in the samples and the distribution shows no real patterning. Only a small proportion of the 2–10 mm residues from these samples was examined (Table 102); six from the abandonment layer (599/2041) and five from the upper pit fill (1380). The pit fill samples had the highest densities of pottery, burnt bone, charcoal and B.O.M., which confirms the observation during excavation that this was a charcoalrich layer.

599

1380

2041

Total

9520

5 samples

5 samples

11 samples

Context

BEF

BEF

BEF

BEF

Block

Total

150 samples

Sample

2041

2050

13 samples

1444

2 samples

2 samples

1380

1387

10 samples

1 sample

599

1336

46 samples

Context

76 samples

Sample

123

15

21

87

Litres

1215.25

2.00

28.25

34.00

16.00

27.00

521.25

586.75

Litres

105

0

6

0

0

5

47

47

no.

0.09

0.00

0.21

0.00

0.00

0.19

0.09

0.08

density

Fish

353

1

10

5

1

10

181

145

no.

Unburnt bone

28

1

3

0

0

0

8

16

no.

Burnt bone

381

2

13

5

1

10

189

161

no.

0.31

1.00

0.46

0.15

0.06

0.37

0.36

0.27

density

All mammal bone

73

1

2

0

0

4

32

34

no.

0.06

0.50

0.07

0.00

0.00

0.15

0.06

0.06

density

Pottery

24

0

0

0

0

0

23

1

no.

Slag

355

2

16

4

0

5

153

175

no.

0.29

1.00

0.57

0.12

0.00

0.19

0.29

0.30

density

Limpet

947

0

37

12

1

43

434

420

no.

0.78

0.00

1.31

0.35

0.06

1.59

0.83

0.72

density

Winkle

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

no.

Egg

70.0

11.5

15.0

43.5

Litres sorted

68

6

25

37

0.97

0.52

1.67

0.85

density

Pottery

no.

472

159

97

216

no.

6.74

13.83

6.47

4.97

density

Unburnt bone

62

260

78

120

3.71

6.78

8.00

1.43

density

Burnt bone no.

388

201

89

98

no.

5.54

17.48

5.93

2.25

density

Fish

114

1021

165

742

14.59

14.35

49.47

2.62

density

Charcoal no.

93

887

327

467

12.67

28.43

31.13

2.14

density

B.O.M. no.

20

9

5

6

no.

0.29

0.78

0.33

0.14

density

Slag

3

1

0

2

no.

0.04

0.09

0.00

0.05

density

Crab

185

80

62

43

no.

2.64

6.96

4.13

0.99

density

Egg

10

0

0

1

0

1

1

7

no.

Charcoal

Table 102. The material identified in sorting the 2 to 10 mm residue from the House 3 abandonment deposits (BEF)

BEF

BEF

BEF

BEF

BEF

BEF

BEF

BEF

Block

Table 101. The material identified in sorting the greater than 10 mm residue in the House 3 abandonment deposits (BEF)

8

7

0

1

no.

0.11

0.61

0.00

0.02

density

Spirorbis

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

no.

Coprolite

30

25

5

0

no.

0.43

2.17

0.33

0.00

density

Coprolite

96

0

1

54

0

7

20

14

no.

B.O.M.

The Late Norse activity on mound 2 (BE) 343

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

344 Limpet

Winkle

Bone

Density 0 0.1 - 0.3 0.31 - 0.5 0.51 - 1.0 1.1 - 1.5 1.51 - 2 2.1 - 3 3.1 - 4 4.1 - 5 5.1 - 10 10.1 - 100

Fish

Pottery

Litres Litres 0-1 2-5 6 - 10 11 - 20 21 - 100

Figure 269. The density distributions of the above 10 mm residues in the abandonment layer (BEF)

House 3 soil micromorphology – K Milek and K Munro A total of 12 micromorphology samples were examined from House 3. •

•

•

Eight samples (9430, 9431, 9432, 9433, 9434, 9435, 9436, 9437) were extracted from the south side of the trench excavated across the centre of the house in 2000 (Figure 238); Four samples were taken from the southern part of the house during the 2003 field season; two (10771, 10772) came from the west side of the central baulk (Figure 242) and two (10773, 10774) from a northfacing section (Figure 238); A further two samples were taken from the entrance passage in the northeast corner of the structure (7927, 7928); these are discussed separately with the BEG deposits.

Floor layers and hearths Five samples from the north-facing section across the middle of House 3 examined the floor layers and the

hearths. These will be described from west to east; 9431, 9432, 9430, 9437 and 9436 (Table 103; Figure 238). Sample 9431 was located on the western edge of House 3, in close proximity to wall 570, where a single layer belonging to the BEF deposits (599.1) was identified. The layer was a calcareous sand with a small amount of fine material (coarse–fine ratio of 95:5); it contained various thin, horizontally orientated lenses, of red amorphous organic matter (Figure 270 B), peat ash and/or charred amorphous organic matter. The horizontal orientation of these lenses indicates that they were deposited on a flat surface and experienced vertical compression, which suggests this was a floor. These lenses are very thin, however, and sediment accumulation was minimal in this peripheral location. Charred amorphous organic matter (0.9%), charred plant (0.6%), burnt bone (0.2%), unburnt bone (0.6%) and few shell fragments (0.4%) were present, though not in concentrations, or associated with any of the horizontal lenses, which suggests they are waste debris that accumulated at the edge of the layer. Sample 9432 was taken from a location immediately to the west of the central hearth. It contained four layers belonging to two contexts later than that hearth; the

1053

9436

61

64

77

85

83

88

76

80

60

70

80

90

90

nnnn

nnnn

nnn

nnn

nnnn

nnn

nnn

nnnn

nnnn

nnnn

nnnnn

IM and BG

IM

V, some C

IM

IM

IM

C

C

IM

IM

IM

95

Porosity

nnnn

Microstructure and porosity

Sorting (%)

IM

C/F(100 µm) ratio 80/20

90/10

60/40

50/50

55/45

60/40

60/40

90/10

95/5

90/10

95/5

95/5

C/F(100 µm) related distribution SSFE

SSFE

CFE

CFE

CP

C C U, C C C

DB, D DB, D DB, D DB, D

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

Birefringence fabric of fine material (XPL)

B, D

YB, S

YB, D

SSEE, some CP CP

B, D

B, D

B, D

B, D

B, D

Nature of fine material (PPL)

SSFE

SSFE

SSFE

SSFE, some CH

DSFE

Charred amorphous organic matter n

n

nn

nn

nn

n

nn

nn

n

n

nnn

n

Charred wood nn

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

nnn

n

Shell n

nn

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

Eggshell n

n

n

Burnt bone n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

nn

n

n

n

Amorphous organic matter n

nn

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

+

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

+

Phytoliths +

+

+

n

n

n

n

+

n

+

+

+

Diatoms

n

n

n

nnn

nnn

nn

nn

+

Nature and birefringence of fine material: B – Brown, DB – Dark Brown, YB – Yellow Brown, GB – Grey Brown, D – Dotted, U – Undifferentiated, C - Crystallitic

n

n

n

n

+

n

+

+

+

+

n

Excremental pedofeatures nn

Pedofeatures

Coarse/Fine related distribution: CFE – Close Fine Enaulic, SSFE – Single-spaced Fine Enaulic, SSP – Single-spaced Porphyric, CG – Convex Gefuric, DSFE – Double-spaced Fine Enaulic, CP – Close Porphyric, CH – Chitonic,

Microstructure: IM – Intergrain microaggregate, V – Vughy, BG – Bridged Grain, C – Channel

Values: + Present in trace amounts, n 2-5%, nnn >5-10%, nnnn >10-20%, nnnnn >20-30%, nnnnnn >30-40%, nnnnnnn >40-50% (of visible area)

1090

9437

9430

13

12

1048.2

1076

6

1048.1

25

16

599.4

1048.4

19

599.3

25

18

599.2

1048.3

26

930

Sample

9432

61

Layer and microstratographic unit

599.1

Maximum thickness in thin section (mm)

9431

Unburnt bone

Organic and anthropogenic components

Plant tissue

Mineral components

Charred plant

Groundmass

Fe replaced organic matter

Microstructure and porosity

Fe nodules

Table 103. The soil micromorphology descriptions of the floor samples from the north-facing section across the middle of House 3 (9431, 9432, 9430, 9437, 9436)

The Late Norse activity on mound 2 (BE) 345

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

346 A

B

b a

500 µm

500 µm

C

D

500 µm

500 µm

E

F

500 µm

500 µm

G

H

b a

500 µm

500 µm

Figure 270. Soil micromorphology: A. a) charred amorphous organic material; (b) charred seed (PPL); B. Context 599.1, a thin lens of red organic material displaying horizontal orientation (PPL); C. Context 1048.4, a large lens of charred peat (PPL); D. Context 1048.3, a fish bone fragment (PPL); E. Context 1449.4, a dense horizontal occupation deposit comprised of charred and ashed remains (PPL); F. Context 1427, a layer of quartzite sand grains, likely sourced from off-site (XPL); G. Context 1069.1, a group of eggshell fragments (a), embedded in thin lens of wood ash (b) (XPL); H. Context 948.4, a concentration of burnt shell fragments (PPL)

The Late Norse activity on mound 2 (BE) lower three layers belonged to context 599 (BEF), and the upper layer was context 930, a context associated with the later ancillary structures above House 3, in block BF (see Figure 372). The soil micromorphological analysis divided context 599 in this sample into three: 599.2, 599.3, and 599.4. Context 599.4 was at the bottom of the sample, and was similar to both layers above it. However, it contained notably more fine material than 599.3, with a coarse– fine ratio of 90:10. Charred amorphous organic matter (3.4%), shell (0.9%), unburnt bone (0.5%) and a fragment of eggshell (0.3%) were present. Context 599.3 was comprised of calcareous sand, similar to 599.4, with a coarse–fine ratio of 95:5. This layer contained two aggregates of carnivore/omnivore excrement, displaying a horizontal orientation, within which small digested bone fragments were present. The layer also contained charred amorphous organic matter (1.1%), burnt bone (0.7%) charred plant (0.6%), shell (0.5%), and unburnt bone (0.2%). Context 599.2 was a calcareous sand with a coarse–fine ratio of 90:10. It had a notable quantity of unburnt bone (1%), as well as a small amount of burnt bone (0.2%) and shell fragments (0.2%). There were also a number of small charred amorphous organic matter fragments (0.8%), arranged as a lens at the bottom of the layer. The sub-divisions of 599 in sample 9432 all exhibit similar features and resemble 599.1 in sample 9431. These were all layers of calcareous sand that contained thin horizontal lenses that indicated trampling, and support the interpretation that this was a floor. The anthropogenic inclusions included bone, shell and eggshell, and the excrement suggests the presence of animals. Located at the top of sample 9432, was a calcareous sand, 930. This contained a large lens of charred amorphous organic matter (5.9%) that lacked any cell structure, indicating that it had decomposed prior to being burned, although a considerable quantity of the material was identifiable as charred plant (7.5%). The layer also contained a number of other inclusions, such as unburnt bone (2.7%), shell fragments (0.9%) and a small amount of burnt bone (0.2%). Two granules of carnivore/ omnivore excrement were observed (yellow under PPL), with small digested bone fragments (isotropic under XPL), suggesting that animals were present (and defecating) inside the structure. Sample 9430 was taken close to the east side of the central hearth and consists of five layers belonging to two different contexts belonging to the same stratigraphic blocks as the central hearth. The upper four layers were sub-divisions of 1048 (1048.1, 1048.2, 1048.3, 1048.4; BEE) while the lowermost layer belonged to 1076 (BEC). 1076 was a brown layer of calcareous sand with some peat ash present. The layer contained horizontal lenses of charred material and amorphous organic material. The horizontal orientation indicated the layer was exposed to vertical compression, which would confirm it was a floor.

347

The floor contained a number of inclusions, including charred amorphous organic matter (3.4%), burnt bone (0.8%), fragments of unburnt bone (0.5%) and shell (0.4%). The layers belonging to 1048 were all primarily of peat ash with a number of anthropogenic inclusions. The peat ash varied in colour, ranging from orange-brown to brown-grey. Layer 1048.4 was dark brown and dominated by a large horizontal lens of charred plant peat (18%) (Figure 270 C) with charred wood (0.7%), a small number of bones, both unburnt (1.1%) and burnt (0.4%). The majority of the latter appear to be fish bones (Figure 270 D). Layer 1048.3 was grey-orange, with charred amorphous organic matter (4.1%), and both unburnt (1.2%) and burnt (0.7%) bone that was concentrated at the top of the layer. Wood ash was present, indicating that hearth fuels were not exclusively peat; it was identified by microcrystalline calcium carbonate aggregates with elongated silica structures (Canti 2003). 1048.2 was a thin grey-brown layer, with burnt bone (1.7%) and shell (0.9%). Layer 1048.1 was orange-brown with numerous lenses of ashed plant material, and inclusions of charred amorphous organic matter (4.8%), shell (0.8%) and bone (0.2%), both burnt and unburnt. The floor layers 1076 and 1048 were dominated by peat ash and charred materials originating from the nearby hearth. Hearth debris, in particular ash, was deposited on the floor around the hearth, both accidentally during the use, maintenance and cleaning of the hearth, but probably also deliberately to help maintain the floor. These layers were predominately composed of peat ash with the occasional presence of wood ash; the majority also contained small amounts of bone and shell. Sample 9437 was taken from the middle of the east side of House 3. A fill layer, 1090, belonging to block BDI, was identified predating the construction of House 3 (Figure 239). This was a grey calcareous sand with a small amount of amorphous organic matter (coarse–fine ratio of 90:10). Some of this fine material was peat ash, but a notable quantity was earthworm excrement (1.8%), and most of the fabric of this layer appeared to be reworked by earthworms. There were voids in the form of channels and chambers, which provided further evidence of earthworm activity. The floor layers (1076 and 1048) contained thin, horizontally orientated lenses of amorphous organic material (2.5%), which indicated this was a horizontal surface subject to vertical compression, and support the interpretation that this was a floor. Shell fragments (4.6%), charred amorphous organic matter (1%), and a small amount of burnt (0.2%) and unburnt (0.2%) bone were present. To summarise, the horizontal lenses and anthropogenic inclusions indicate this was a floor, but the high levels of earthworm bioturbation have destroyed the majority of the microstratigraphy, and reduced the levels of compaction expected. Sample 9436 was taken from the east side of House 3,

348

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

close to the eastern wall, where a uniform brown sand, 1053 (ascribed to BDI), with no obvious floor layer was recorded. 1053 was a calcareous sand with some lenses and granules of fine material. However, like sample 9437, it had excrement and voids that indicated earthworm activity, and the high levels of bioturbation appear to have destroyed the microstructure. Anthropogenic inclusions were present throughout the layer, most notably charred wood (3%), shell (1.4%), and both unburnt (1.2%) and burnt (0.7%) bone. Other than these inclusions, there was little evidence for this sediment being a floor layer. This may be the result of high bioturbation, but this is a loose fill preceding the construction of House 3 so this layer probably never had significant levels of human activity. Another possible explanation is that furniture was located here, that restricted human traffic and the accumulation of a floor. A further four samples were taken from the southern part of the house (Table 104). Two samples, 10771 and 10772, were taken from a west-facing section (Figure 242 long section) and two samples, 10773 and 10774, were taken from a north-facing section (Figure 238). Context 1477, at the bottom of sample 10771, was a dense layer of calcareous sand embedded within peat ash and other fine material. The layer contained charred amorphous organic matter (6%), charred plant (3.3%), a single large fragment of charred wood (3%), shell (4.5%), eggshell (3.5%) and burnt bone (0.6%). This dense concentration of peat ash and anthropogenic inclusions (notably shell) confirms this was a hearth, where shell and bone were deposited. Context 1468, caught in sample 10771, was a relatively thin (13 mm) layer of peat ash and fine material with calcareous sand. It is compact and dense, with a low porosity (11%) and contained a high quantity of charred amorphous organic material (7%) and some identifiable charred plant (2%). A small number of wood ash lenses were also present. Context 1449 was a BEC floor layer examined in two samples, 10772 and 10773. In sample 10772, two sub-contexts, 1449.1 and 1449.2, were identified. At the bottom, 1449.2 was a thick (46 mm) layer of calcareous sand with some peat ash and fine material, the latter was present in greater quantities than the layer above (1449.1). 1449.2 contained small charred amorphous organic matter fragments (1.7%), larger charred plant fragments (2.5%), small granules of burnt bone and larger fragments of both unburnt (2%) and burnt bone (1.3%), and amorphous organic material (0.9%). Small grey granules of decomposed peat, rich in phytoliths and diatoms, were also noted. The layer contained few aggregates of fine organic matter adjoining grains, and some inclusions of amorphous organic material that had a horizontal orientation. These features suggest vertical compression from trampling, and confirm the interpretation that this was a floor layer. 1449.1 was a thick (35 mm) layer of calcareous sand

with some peat ash and fine material. It contained charred amorphous organic matter (1.5%) and burnt bone (1.8%). Also present were small granules of decomposed peat (packed with phytoliths and diatoms). Again, this layer appears to have been an occupation deposit, but there was little evidence of compaction, with 1449.2 being less heavily trampled than the preceding layer 1449.3 Context 1426, above hearth layer 1468 and floor layer 1449, was observed in both sample 10771 and in 10772, and was divided into three sub-contexts, two of which were located in 10771. Layer 1426.2, in sample 10771, was dark brown calcareous sand with a coarse–fine ratio of 55:45. It contained shell fragments (7.5%), burnt (1.1%) and unburnt (1.8%) bone, charred amorphous organic matter (3.3%) and charred plant (3.2%). Large channels and vughs were present, indicating earthworm bioturbation has disturbed and mixed a large portion of the layer. This layer was similar to the overlying layer (1426.1), but more fine material was present. Layer 1426.1 directly overlay 1426.2, and was dark brown calcareous sand with a coarse–fine ratio of 60:40. Some of the fine material was located in small aggregates and lenses. It contained a high quantity of shell (5%), both burnt (5.6%) and unburnt (3%) bone and a fragment of burnt clay (5%). This clay inclusion had a speckled appearance, with a mosaic b-fabric, and contained a small number of sponge spicules, that indicate it originated in a poorly drained or ponded environment (GutiérrezCastorena and Effland 2010). Layer 1426.3, in sample 10772, was a layer of calcar­ eous sand with some fine material. However, it contained less fine material than 1426.1 and 1426.2 in sample 10771, with a coarse–fine ration of 80:20. Like the previous two sub-contexts of 1426, it contained a notable quantity of shell (7%), charred amorphous organic matter (3.2%) and burnt bone (1.5%). During excavation, context 1426 (BEC) was recorded as a dense and extensive deposit of burnt winkle shells. It was certainly an occupation deposit, but the lack of compaction indicates that it was not heavily trampled. The slight difference between 1426 in samples 10771 and 10772 highlights the spatial variation within this context. Although inclusions were similar, the volume of fine material, and therefore the volume of organic material entering the layer, varied between the different locations. Context 1395 (BEE), at the top of sample 10771, was divided into two sub-contexts. 1395.2 was a thin brown layer (6 mm) that consisted of calcareous sand embedded in a porphyric distribution within peat ash. The layer contained charred amorphous organic matter (6%), burnt bone (2%) and charred plant (2%). It contained a high quantity of precipitated iron nodules, which gave it a bright orange-red appearance under OIL. These iron inclusions were the result of the burning of soil/peat and together with the high quantity of charred material, indicate the sample was located close to a hearth. Layer 1395.1 overlay 1395.2 and was dark brown cal­

Sample

27

40

11

16

1336

1395.3

1395.4

24

1474

1396

58

19

1427

1449.3

46

1449.2

43

1426.3

35

21

1477

1449.1

13

1468

31

1426.1

31

6

1426.2

7

Layer and microstratographic unit

1395.2

nnnn

BG, some IM

40

80 90 93

nnn

nnnnn

nnnnn

nnnnn

nnnnn

nnnnn

nnnn

V

BG, some IM

BG, some IM & C

BG, some IM & C

IM, some BG

IM

IM, some BG

BG

IM

IM

BG & V

78 32 80 93

nnnn

nnnn

nnnn

nnnn

77

87

40

80

nnnn

V, some IM

50

nnnn

BG

50

60 74

nnnn

Porosity

nnnn

Sorting (%)

V

Microstructure

BG

70/30

C/F(100 µm) ratio 92/8

96/4

65/35

88/12

85/15

95/5

90/10

80/20

90/10

80/20

40/60

40/60

55/45

60/40

35/65

CG

C/F(100 µm) related distribution SSFE

SSFE

CG & SSP

CG

SSFE, some CG

SSFE

SSFE, some CG

CG, some SSFE

CG, some SSFE

CD, some SSFE

B, D

B, D

LB, D

DB, D

B, D

B, D

DB, D

DB, D

DB, D

DB, D

LB, D

DB, D

SSP, some CG SSP

DB, D

DB, D

B, D

DB, D

Nature of fine material (PPL)

CG, some SSP

CG

SSP

C

Birefringence fabric of fine material (XPL) U

C

U

C

C

C

C

C

C

U

U

C

U

U

U

nn

Charred amorphous organic matter n

n

nn

nn

n

n

n

n

n

nn

nnn

nnn

nn

nn

nnn

Charred wood n

nn

nn

n

n

n

Charred plant n

nnnn

nn

n

nn

nn

nn

n

nn

Shell n

nn

n

n

n

nnn

nn

nnn

nn

n

Eggshell n

nn

Burnt bone nn

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

nn

n

nnn

nn

nnn

n

n

n

n

nn

n

nn

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

+

nnn

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

Amorphous organic matter Phytoliths n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

+

n

n

+

n

+

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

Diatoms

Pedofeatures

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

nn

n

n

n

n

n

Nature and birefringence of fine material: B – Brown, DB – Dark Brown, LB – Light Brown, YB – Yellow Brown, GB – Grey Brown, D – Dotted, U – Undifferentiated, C - Crystallitic

Coarse/Fine related distribution: CFE – Close Fine Enaulic, SSFE – Single-spaced Fine Enaulic, SSEE – Single-spaced Equal Enaulic, DSFE – Double-spaced Fine Enaulic, DSCE – Double-spaced Course Enaulic, CP – Close Porphyric, SSP – Single-spaced Porphyric, CG – Convex Gefuric, CH – Chitonic, CM – Coarse Monic

Microstructure: IM – Intergrain Microaggregate, V – Vughy, BG – Bridged Grain, C – Channel, M – Massive, SG – Single Grain

Values: + Present in trace amounts, n 5-10%, nnnn >10-20%, nnnnn >20-30%, nnnnn >30-40%, nnnnnnn >40-50% (of visible area)

10774

10773

10772

10771

Maximum thickness in thin section (mm)

1395.1

Unburnt bone

Organic and anthropogenic components

Plant tissue

Mineral components

Fe nodules

Groundmass

Fe replaced organic matter

Microstructure and porosity

Excremental pedofeatures

Table 104. The soil micromorphology descriptions of the floor samples from the south end of House 3 (10771, 10772, 10773, 10774)

The Late Norse activity on mound 2 (BE) 349

350

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

car­eous sand with a moderate quantity of fine material, the majority of which was peat ash. It contained less fine material than 1395.2. Within the layer were bone fragments, both burnt (5.4%) and unburnt (1.6%), and charred amorphous organic material (3.8%); some of the bones were fish bones. The layer was relatively compact and had a bridged grain microstructure that suggests vertical compression from trampling. This layer appears to be a floor layer, where ash and burnt material were deposited. Sample 10773 was the single sample taken from the southeast corner of House 3. At the base was context 1474, a layer belonging to the BDI deposits preceding the House 3 floor, which was composed of calcareous sand and a small amount of fine material. There were a few small localised lenses of fine material in contact with multiple sand grains that displayed a bridged grain structure, which indicated compaction. There were few inclusions: charred amorphous organic material (0.8%), and both unburnt (0.4%) and burnt (0.2%) bone. The mixed nature and small volume of anthropogenic inclusions support the inter­ pretation of this as a fill layer, but there was trampling. Above 1474 was 1449.4, a BEC context also observed in sample 10772. In 10773 it was a relatively thick (58 mm) calcareous sand with a small amount of fine material. The layer was relatively sterile, but inclusions included burnt bone (1.1%) and shell fragments (1%). Most of the layer displayed little evidence of the vertical compaction expected from a floor layer, but this is probably because of the high levels of earthworm bioturbation, indicated by its intergrain microaggregate microstructure. About 10% of the layer was a dense, compact, horizontal lens of peat, peat ash, and other charred remains (Figure 270 E). This lens had high levels of charred remains that were compressed on a horizontal surface, indicating it was an occupation deposit where burning events occurred. A small quantity of context 1427 was present in the top of sample 10773. This was a layer of quartzite rather than calcareous sand, with a small amount of fine material (Figure 270 F). Quartzite sand could not have originated locally and must have come from an off-site location. The layer contained fragments of charred amorphous organic material (1.8%), and both burnt (1%) and unburnt (1%) bone. There were small lenses of sand embedded in the fine material, which indicate compression from trampling. Sample 10774 was taken from the same section as sample 10773, but on the centre line of House 3 (Figure 238). Context 1395 (also present in sample 10771) was located at the bottom of the sample and divided into two sub-contexts (1395.3 and 1395.4). Layer 1395.4 was a calcareous sand with a small amount of fine material (a coarse–fine ratio of 92:8). The layer was reworked by earthworm bioturbation; it displayed an intergrain microaggregate structure, as well as channels and earthworm excrement (1.2%). It contained charred amorphous organic material (0.8%), amorphous organic matter (0.8%), charred plant (0.4%), unburnt bone (0.4%)

and a charred seed. Layer 1395.3 was a thin calcareous sand (11 mm) above 1395.4, with a minute amount of fine material (a coarse–fine ratio of 96:4). It contained fewer inclusions than were seen in 1395.4, only a small amount of charred amorphous organic matter (0.8%) and unburnt (fish) bone (0.2%). It experienced some degree of bioturbation, and had an intergrain microaggregate structure and a small channel. Context 1395 in sample 10774 was significantly differ­ ent from context 1395 in sample 10771, where dense horizontal lenses of charred and ashed material were visible. The layers present in sample 10774 were con­ siderably more sterile and porous. They were reworked by earthworm activity, which almost certainly jeopardised the integrity of the original microstructure. Above 1395 was context 1396 (BEE), a thick (40 mm) heterogeneous calcareous sand composed of horizontal lenses of charred and ashed material. The bottom half was a large horizontal lens of charred plant material and amorphous organic matter that was the remains of a layer of charred peat. Above this was a thick lens of peat ash and fragments of partially humified peat, with a small quantity of wood ash. On the top of the layer was a lens of charred plant and charred amorphous organic material associated with a high quantity of burnt bone. In total, the layer contained charred plant (11.5%), amorphous organic material (5.2%), charred amorphous organic material (4.7%), burnt bone (3.2%), shell (1.5%) and eggshell (1.5%). It was a thick dump of ash from a hearth in which peat was the dominant fuel, and within which bone, shell, and eggshell were discarded. The final layer in sample 10774 was 1336 (BEF), a layer of calcareous sand with some fine material. This contained evidence of bioturbation in the form of a large in-filled earthworm channel, which suggests the layer was reworked and mixed. The layer had a bridged grain microstructure, where the sand grains were linked by small bridges of fine organic material, which indicates that the layer experienced trampling. Anthropogenic inclusions included shell fragments (2.7%), charred amorphous organic material (2.5%) and burnt bone (1.6%). The layer appeared to be an abandonment horizon that had experienced some degree of trampling. To conclude, the samples containing floor and hearth layers from the occupation of House 3 vary in structure and composition. The majority of these layers contained anthropogenic inclusions, which indicated food processing and/or consumption in the house. The samples taken from the peripheral areas of the house were significantly less compacted than those near the centre, possibly because the outer areas were subjected to considerably less human traffic. They also contained significantly less ash, which is to be expected as ash would have originated in the centrally positioned hearths. Nevertheless, some ash was spread over a wide area of the floor. The samples taken in close proximity to the house walls, most notably sample 9436, contained

Sample

19

4

948.4

948.5

11

948.1

20

8

599.2

10

13

599.1

948.3

8

948.2

15

1053

48

1069.2

1224

49

1037.3

1069.1

5

1037.2

9

8

Layer and microstratographic unit

1037.4

8

Microstructure

C

C

C

C

15 98

nnn

70

n

M

nnnn

98

nnn

85

100

nnn

SG

IM, some BG

90

90

nnnn

nn

35

nnnn

IM

IM

nnnn

90

nnnn

IM

V and M

77

90

nnn

nnn

93

nnnn

80

90

Porosity

nnnn

Sorting (%)

nnnn

IM

IM

IM

IM

C/F(100 µm) Ratio 40/60

45/44

50/50

55/45

50/50

70/30

100/0

95/5

95/5

90/10

50/50

50/50

90/10

50/50

95/5

DSP

SSP

SSP

SSP

CP

SSFE, some CG

CM

CFE

SSFE

CFE

SSP

DSCE

SSFE

DSCE

SSFE

Nature of Fine Material (PPL) G, D

GB, D

GB, D

GB, D

YB, D

DB, D

N/A

B, D

B, D

C

C

C

C

C

C

N/A

C

C

C

C

GB & YB, D B, D

C

C

C

C

Birefringence Fabric of Fine Material (XPL)

YB & DB, D

B, D

YB, D

YB, D

Charred amorphous organic matter n

nn

n

nn

nn

n

+

n

n

n

nn

+

n

+

Charred plant n

nnnnn

n

Shell n

nnnnn

n

n

 

n

 

n

n

nn

n

 

n

n

n

Eggshell  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

nn

 

 

 

 

 

n

 

 

n

 

 

n

n

n

n

 

 

 

 

 

n

 

n

n

 

 

+

+

n

nn

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Amorphous organic matter  

 

n

 

 

n

n

n

 

nn

 

n

n

+

n

n

n

n

n

 

n

n

n

n

n

+

n

n

Phytoliths

Charred wood

Diatoms  

n

+

+

 

 

n

n

n

n

n

+

n

n

Fe nodules  

 

 

 

n

n

nn

n

n

n

+

+

n

nnnn

+

n

n

+

+

+

+

+

+

n

n

nn

n

+

+

n

nn

Pedofeatures

Excremental pedofeatures

Nature and birefringence of fine material: B – Brown, DB – Dark Brown, YB – Yellow Brown, GB – Grey Brown, D – Dotted, U – Undifferentiated, C - Crystallitic

Coarse/Fine related distribution: CFE – Close Fine Enaulic, SSFE – Single-spaced Fine Enaulic, SSEE – Single-spaced Equal Enaulic, DSFE – Double-spaced Fine Enaulic, DSCE – Double-spaced Course Enaulic, CP – Close Porphyric, SSP – Single-spaced Porphyric, CG – Convex Gefuric, CH – Chitonic, CM – Coarse Monic

Microstructure: IM – Intergrain Microaggregate, V – Vughy, BG – Bridged Grain, C – Channel, M – Massive, SG – Single Grain

Values: + Present in trace amounts, n 5-10%, nnnn >10-20%, nnnnn >20-30%, nnnnnn >30-40%, nnnnnnn >40-50% (of visible area)

9435

9434

9433

Maximum thickness in thin section (mm)

1037.1

Burnt bone

Organic and anthropogenic components

Unburnt bone

Mineral components C/F(100 µm) Related Distribution

Groundmass

Plant tissue

Microstructure and porosity

Fe replaced organic matter

Table 105. The soil micromorphology descriptions of the samples from the central hearth in House 3 (9433, 9434, 9435)

The Late Norse activity on mound 2 (BE) 351

352

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

little evidence of compaction. Earthworm bioturbation destroyed the microstratigraphy in many of the samples. The samples extracted from central locations, near the hearth, contained a better-preserved microstructure with well-defined individual layers that indicate different depositional events. These floor and hearth layers were predominantly composed of peat ash, with colour and composition variations that indicate episodic deposition.

In situ hearth deposits Three samples, 9433, 9434, and 9435, were taken from the south-central BEC hearth and the central BEE hearth (Table 105; Figures 238, 239 and 255). Sample 9434 was the lowest sample and the basal context, 1053, pre-dates the hearths, belonging to the BDI deposits. Context 1053 was also captured in sample 9436 (see above). It was a calcareous sand containing a small amount of fine material. It was relatively sterile, but there were small quantities of charred amorphous organic matter (1.2%), burnt bone (0.9%) and shell (0.4%). Above 1053 was context 1224, a relatively thin layer described as a ‘black charcoal layer’ during excavation. All the charred material was plant (20.6%), probably from the burning of peat/turf and the fragments were concentrated in a thin lens at the base of the hearth scoop. This material was not ashed, indicating the temperature of the fire was low. This was overlain by 1069.2, an in situ accumulation of hearth ash that was also identified at the base of sample 9433. This layer was badly bioturbated by earthworm activity (excrement accounted for 4.2% of the layer) and as a result was relatively porous (18%) with peat ash present as granules. This differs from 1069.1 in sample 9433, which had relatively undisturbed peat ash. Shell (2.3%) and unburnt bone (1.2%) were present. Sample 9433 was taken at a slightly higher elevation than sample 9434. In this sample, context 1069.1 had a massive and vughy microstructure, composed of dense, light brown-orange peat ash and relatively little pore-space (5%). There was little evidence of earthworm activity and only a few small channels contained earthworm excrement. The layer contained unburnt bone (2.6%), eggshell (2%), charred amorphous organic material (1.8%), shell (1%, approximately half of which was burnt), burnt bone (0.4%) and charred plant (0.2%). There were a number of peat ash lenses that varied marginally in colour and composition. Some of the lenses had distinctive anthropogenic inclusions. For example a lens near the top contained a concentration of eggshell (Figure 270 G) and charred bone. This particular lens was comprised of wood ash (Figure 270 G), as are a small number of other lenses, indicating that wood was used as a fuel. However, these wood ash lenses are limited in number and size; in general the layer was relatively consistent and indicates the prolonged use of a hearth fuelled with peat. The upper part of sample 9433 contained four sub-

divisions of peat ash accumulation 1037: 1037.1, 1037.2, 1037.3 and 1037.4. This context belongs to the initial stage of the BEE phase of occupation of House 3.There was a sharp boundary between the lowest of these layers (1037.4) and the context below (1069.1) that indicates a significant change in the use of the hearth. The lowest layer, 1037.4, was a thin red layer of well-humified, decomposed peat/turf, which contained oxidised iron that the orange colour observed in the field. This layer was not burned and indicated that the hearth was not in constant use, turf was appears to have been deposited and left to decompose. 1037.3 was a thin layer of calcareous sand with little ash and no notable anthropogenic inclusions. It supports the interpretation of a break in hearth use on this particular spot. 1037.2 was an orange layer composed of peat ash and iron sulphate, which gave it the orange colour described during excavation. This layer was relatively thin and represented a short period when the hearth was in use and ash was accumulating within it. A thin layer of 1037.1 (8 mm) was found at the top of the sample. This was a relatively sterile calcareous sand with only a minute amount of fine material, which indicates that this area of the hearth was used less intensely, or not at all. To summarise, there are large variations in both appear­ ance and composition of context 1037. Some of these deposits suggest a period when the hearth – or parts of it – was not in use, though deposition continued. Sample 9435 was the final sample extracted from the central BEE hearth, and included a layer of sediment overlying the hearth deposits. This sample contained seven layers from two contexts. The upper context, 599, belongs to the BEF final deposits in House 3, and to the west 599 was also captured in samples 9431 and 9432 (see above). In sample 9435, context 599 was sub-divided into layers 599.1 and 599.2; the lower context in the sample, 948, was subdivided into layers 948.1, 948.2, 948.3, 948.4, and 948.5. Context 948 was described during excavation as an orange-black deposit comprised of multiple lenses. 948.5 was a thin layer (4 mm) of calcareous sand grains embedded in ash. The ash was derived from both peat and wood sources, although the former was more prevalent. 948.4 was a layer of calcareous sand grains embedded in a grey ash matrix of almost equal proportions of wood and peat ash. This layer contained a high quantity of shell (26.7%), the majority of which was burnt (Figure 270 H). At the top of the layer it also contained a thin lens of dense calcium carbonate. This acicular calcite formed in the presence of stagnant water, and may indicate that the interior of the house experienced an episode of saturation. Layer 948.3 was a calcareous sand embedded in a matrix of light brown-orange ash. Although there was a substantial quantity of peat ash in this layer, the majority of the ash came from wood, and indicates this was the primary fuel at this moment of the hearth’s use. 948.2 was a layer of calcareous sand grains embedded in a grey ash matrix, comprised of an almost equal volume of peat and wood ash, similar to 948.4. The layer contained charred

The Late Norse activity on mound 2 (BE) amorphous organic matter (4.3%), a small amount of shell (0.4%) and unburnt bone (0.1%). 948.1 was a layer of calcareous sand grains embedded in a dense layer of light brown-orange ash. The vast majority of the ash was from peat, although there was some wood ash. This wood ash, along with various charred amorphous organic matter fragments (2.3%), indicated that wood was being burned, but peat was more important. This layer contained burnt (0.5%) and unburnt (0.2%) bone. 599.2 was a thin (8 mm) dark brown layer of calcareous sand grains in close proximity to, or joined by, dark fine material. The layer was compressed and had localised coarse–fine related distributions of a convex gefuric nature (although the dominant distribution was single spaced fine enaulic). This indicates vertical compression and suggests this layer was a floor deposit. However, much of this layer was bioturbated, indicated by the dominant intergrain microaggregate microstructure, and therefore the original floor structure might have been lost. 599.1 was a sterile layer of calcareous sand that con­ tained only a minute presence of fine material and no anthropogenic inclusions. This layer was perfectly sorted (100%), and appeared to be the base of the overlying windblown sand deposit. To conclude, the samples taken from the south-central (BEC) and central (BEE) hearths provide a wealth of detail on the hearth itself, on activity that preceded the

353

hearth and on activity after the hearth had gone out of use. The in situ hearth deposits provided information on the varying use of fuels during the use of the hearth throughout the occupation of House 3: it is clear that both peat and wood were burned, in different quantities at different times. In the lower samples, peat was the dominant source of fuel, but this appears to change in the later levels when wood ash was sometimes found in greater quantity. This temporal change in fuel use may represent personal choices made by the inhabitants, or may reflect the varying availability of wood. It is also worth noting that the presence of calcareous sand within all the peat ash layers indicates that the peat was cut from soil with a high presence of calcareous sand, most likely from near the machair. After the hearth had gone out of use, people were walking on top of the deposits and a thin floor layer formed (599.2). However, the insubstantial nature of this floor suggests the building went out of use relatively soon after the abandonment of the hearth. The aeolian deposit (599.1) above this floor suggests the structure became a roofless ruin, accumulating windblown sand.

Deposits in the entrance passage (BEG) The deposits in the entrance passage to House 3 (Figures

430/230

435/230

1391 1392 1472

0

5m

Figure 271. A plan of the deposits in the entrance passage (BEG) and in front of the entrance (BEH)

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

354

271 and 272) were completely disassociated from the internal stratigraphy of the house by the presence of two substantial sill stones (Figure 231). Nevertheless, the floor layers in the passage were almost certainly contemporary with the secondary occupation of House 3. The lowest deposit reached inside the entrance was a brown sand (1472) on which lay a few flat stones (1473). These were not a consistent layer of paving. Filling the passage above these stones was a layer of white sand (1376), which was mixed with rubble (1390) at the east end of the passage. A similar layer of white sand was found outside the entrance (1417) and it seems likely that these white sand deposits are the result of an episode of wind-blown sand deposition during the early occupation of the house. Overlying the wind-blown sand was a layer of grey sand (1375). This was sealed by a layer of rich dark brown sand (1374) that seemed to be a surface or floor layer. Above this was a mid-brown sand (1373) that was similar to other brown sands (599/1336/2041; BEF) covering the interior of the house after it was abandoned. A cattle rib (SUERC-2682) from the final layer of the passage (1373) has a radiocarbon age of 655±35 BP, which calibrates to a date of cal AD 1270–1400.

Sampling – N Sharples Thirty-two samples, 369 litres of soil, were taken and processed from the entrance passage (Table 106). The

average densities were generally amongst the lowest from the Late Norse deposits on mound 2 (BE) and are comparable to the assemblage from the abandonment layer (BEF). The exception was limpets, which were more frequent than was normal in the BE deposits overall, particularly in the passage floor (1374) and the grey sand (1375). These two contexts consistently produced the highest densities of material, with much lower densities in the final fill layer (1373), though this did contain the highest density of fish bones. The white sand (1376) was largely sterile, which is to be expected of a wind-blown sand layer. The 2–10 mm residues from eight samples, 99 litres of soil, were washed and sorted (Table 107). The densities were again the lowest of the Late Norse deposits on mound 2 (BE), with the exception of crab and Spirorbis, which had average or high densities in comparison to other BE deposits. The most productive contexts were again 1374 and 1375.

Soil micromorphology – K Milek and K Munro Two samples, 7927 and 7928, were taken from the entrance passage of House 3 (Figure 272; Table 108). Sample 7928 was taken from context 1376, located near the bottom of the entrance passageway deposits. This was a thick, homogeneous layer of calcareous sand. The layer was an extremely sterile, perfectly sorted (100%), aeolian deposit, that contained only sand grains. This

E W

W E 7927 1392

1373

1376

1375

1391

1374

7928 1417 0

1m

Figure 272. A section through the deposits in the entrance passage (BEF) and in front of the entrance (BEG) and a photo of the sections inside the entrance passage

110

111

113

113

135

162

162

170

184

2052

2053

2054

Total

5701

5703

5716

5723

8103

8109

8110

8114

11627

11644

11646

16 samples

Total

7 samples

5717

1417

10016

109

1417

10015

5718

1392

4 samples

107

1391

10303

5700

Total

32 samples

97

1376

5 samples

96

1375

7 samples

8113

1374

10 samples

8115

1373

Context

10 samples

Sample

BEI

BEI

BEI

BEI

BEI

BEI

BEI

BEI

BEI

BEI

BEI

BEI

BEI

BEI

BEI

BEI

BEI

BEH

BEH

BEH

BEH

BEH

BEG

BEG

BEG

BEG

BEG

Block

252.8

2.0

19.0

42.0

23.0

13.0

13.0

13.5

14.0

15.0

22.0

10.0

7.0

25.0

22.0

0.3

12.0

104.0

8.0

3.0

84.0

9.0

369.0

78.5

56.5

125.5

108.5

Litres

86

0

2

2

2

0

2

5

3

26

16

4

1

5

17

0

1

15

0

1

13

1

31

3

6

9

13

no.

0.34

0.00

0.11

0.05

0.09

0.00

0.15

0.37

0.21

1.73

0.73

0.40

0.14

0.20

0.77

0.00

0.08

0.14

0.00

0.33

0.15

0.11

0.08

0.04

0.11

0.07

0.12

density

Fish

117

0

2

12

1

1

1

8

11

8

0

36

3

14

19

0

1

89

5

2

74

8

73

10

14

28

21

no.

Unburnt bone

2

0

0

1

0

0

1

0

119

0

2

13

1

1

2

8

11

8

0 0

0

36

3

14

19

0

1

92

5

2

77

8

77

12

14

28

23

no.

0.47

0.00

0.11

0.31

0.04

0.08

0.15

0.59

0.79

0.53

0.00

3.60

0.43

0.56

0.86

0.00

0.08

0.88

0.63

0.67

0.92

0.89

0.21

0.15

0.25

0.22

0.21

density

All mammal bone

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

3

0

0

3

0

4

2

0

0

2

no.

Burnt bone

38

1

0

6

4

1

1

1

2

6

7

0

0

1

7

0

1

2

0

0

2

0

29

0

7

17

5

no.

0.15

0.50

0.00

0.14

0.17

0.08

0.08

0.07

0.14

0.40

0.32

0.00

0.00

0.04

0.32

0.00

0.08

0.02

0.00

0.00

0.02

0.00

0.08

0.00

0.12

0.14

0.05

density

Pottery

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0.0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

no.

Slag

387

1

3

19

11

9

76

52

18

14

81

20

1

22

54

0

6

33

9

2

21

1

153

0

46

80

27

no.

1.53

0.50

0.16

0.45

0.48

0.69

5.85

3.85

1.29

0.93

3.68

2.00

0.14

0.88

2.45

0.00

0.50

0.32

1.13

0.67

0.25

0.11

0.41

0.00

0.81

0.64

0.25

density

Limpet

359

3

7

36

14

9

32

21

13

46

73

11

6

21

58

0

9

237

78

11

148

0

246

12

58

144

32

no.

1.42

1.50

0.37

0.86

0.61

0.69

2.46

1.56

0.93

3.07

3.32

1.10

0.86

0.84

2.64

0.00

0.75

2.28

9.75

3.67

1.76

0.00

0.67

0.15

1.03

1.15

0.29

density

Winkle

0 0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

0 0

0

1

1

0

no.

Charcoal

0

0

0

0

no.

Egg

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

no.

Coprolite

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

11

0

0

7

4

3

0

2

1

0

no.

B.O.M.

Table 106. The material identified in sorting the greater than 10 mm residue from the entrance (BEG), outside the entrance (BEH) and deposits to the west of the house (BEI)

The Late Norse activity on mound 2 (BE) 355

78

42

1375

1376

35

1374

SG

IM

IM

SG, some IM

3.83 4.57

46 452

83

0

25

0.84

0.00

2.50

0.86

density 2.91 5.58 5.40 0.67 4.05

no. 99 240 54 8 401

265

6

87

134

38

no.

density

2.68

0.50

8.70

3.12

1.12

density 3.47 6.77 3.10 1.25 4.60

no. 118 291 31 15 455

0.12 0.00 0.00 0.05

5 0 0 5

density 0.00

0

no.

Slag

0.14 0.00 0.00 0.09

6 0 0 9

density 0.09

3

no.

Crab

90 93 100

nnnn

nnnn

nnnn

94

nnnnn

Mineral components

100/0

90/10

85/15

97/3

CM

SSFE

SSFE

CM

/

DB, D

DB, D

B, D

/

U

U

U

n

n

nn

n

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

nn

nn

n

 

 

 

 

 

 

n

 

 

nn

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

n

nn

n

+ n

0.00 0.00 0.00

0 0 0

 

 

+

n

n

Nature and birefringence of fine material: B – Brown, DB – Dark Brown, YB – Yellow Brown, GB – Grey Brown, D – Dotted, U – Undifferentiated, C - Crystallitic

Coarse/Fine related distribution: CFE – Close Fine Enaulic, SSFE – Single-spaced Fine Enaulic, SSEE – Single-spaced Equal Enaulic, DSFE – Double-spaced Fine Enaulic, DSCE – Double-spaced Course Enaulic, CP – Close Porphyric, SSP – Single-spaced Porphyric, CG – Convex Gefuric, CH – Chitonic, CM – Coarse Monic

Microstructure: IM – Intergrain Microaggregate, V – Vughy, BG – Bridged Grain, C – Channel, M – Massive, SG – Single Grain

0.00

0

density 0.00

0

no.

Coprolite

Pedofeatures

0.12

12

0.65

64

0.00

0

0.25

3

0.30

3

1.30

13

0.07

3

0.56

24

density 0.18

no.

Spirorbis

6

density 0.71

24

Egg no.

Organic and anthropogenic components

Groundmass

Table 108. The soil micromorphology descriptions of samples from the entrance passage (7927, 7928)

0.16

16

99

3.50

35

37

density 0.62

B.O.M.

Values: + Present in trace amounts, n 5-10%, nnnn >10-20%, nnnnn >20-30%, nnnnnn >30-40%, nnnnnnn >40-50% (of visible area)

7928

7927

23

1373

99

BEG

0.17

2

12

Microstructure and porosity

12

BEG

Porosity

Total

1376

0.20

2

10

Sorting (%)

7682

10

BEG

3.93

169

C/F(100 µm) ratio

1375

0.14

6

43

C/F(100 µm) related distribution

43

21

no.

Nature of fine material (PPL)

BEG

density 5.94

no. 202

Birefringence fabric of fine material (XPL)

1374

density 0.18

6

no.

34

Charred amorphous organic matter

34

Charcoal

Charred wood

BEG

Fish

Charred plant

7662

Sample

Burnt bone

Shell

3 samples

Layer and microstratographic unit

Unburnt bone

Eggshell

1373

Microstructure

Pottery

Burnt bone

3 samples

Maximum thickness in thin section (mm)

Litres sorted

Unburnt bone

Litres

Plant tissue

Block

Phytoliths

Context

Amorphous organic matter

Diatoms

Fe nodules

Sample

Fe replaced organic matter

Table 107. The material identified in sorting the 2 to 10 mm residue from the entrance (BEG)

Excremental pedofeatures

356

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

The Late Norse activity on mound 2 (BE) A

357

B

500µm

C

200µm

D

200µm

200µm

Figure 273. Details of soil micromorphology features identified in the entrance passage, in sample 7927, context 1374: A. Charred peat, showing the lack of cell structure indicative of advanced decomposition of the plant matter prior to charring (PPL); B. Charred seed (PPL); C. Aggregate of clay adhering to a gravel-sized rock fragment (PPL); as C, but in XPL.

context appears to have been a layer of wind-blown sand that accumulated in the entrance passage after the house was constructed. Context 1375, at the bottom of sample 7927, was a grey-brown layer of calcareous sand with a notable quantity of fine material. A number of shell inclusions were present (4.2%), as was a fragment of unburnt bone (2%), and a small amount of charred amorphous organic matter (0.8%). Context 1374 was the main occupation deposit in the entrance passage, and was caught in sample 7927. This was a dark brown layer of calcareous sand with a notable quantity of dark brown-black fine material. The layer contained a relatively high quantity of charred inclusions that lacked any cell structure (3.8%) (Figure 273 A and B). This lack of cell structure indicates this material had decomposed prior to being burnt. Other inclusions present were a charred seed (0.5%) (Figure 273 C and D), a shell fragment (1.5%), and a clay granule (0.5%). Context 1373 is the final entrance passage deposit, and was caught at the top of sample 7927. This was a grey layer composed primarily of calcareous sand with a small amount of fine material. The majority of the layer was

relatively sterile, with no inclusions, and a high porosity (27%), notably higher than the other two occupation deposits in the entrance. However, a localised portion of the layer contained a high concentration of amorphous organic material (2%), two shell inclusions (0.4%) and some charred amorphous organic matter (0.8%). This indicates that this context was an occupation deposit, but the sterility of the majority of the layer suggests it was not used intensively during the later period. At this time, a high quantity of undisturbed sand was able to accumulate in some areas of the layer. To summarise, samples analysed from the entrance passage provide information on material accumulating within the passage during its use. The occupation deposits showed variation between layers, which indicates slight differences in the sediment and inclusions that accumulated in this passage. However, all the occupation deposits were dominated by sand and possessed small quantities of charred material and some inclusions. The presence of natural wind-blown sand between the primary paved floor and the later floor layers suggests that the original, relatively clean passage was exposed to the elements during a major reconstruction.

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

358 4 3 2 1 0

fish

mammal

BEB

pottery

BEC

BEE

limpet

BEF

winkle

BEI

Figure 274. Histograms showing the above 10 mm densities from the blocks associated with House 3 (BE)

Deposits outside the entrance (BEH) In front of the entrance to House 3’s passageway were a couple of layers contemporary with the use of the house (Figures 271 and 272). A white sand (1417), presumably wind-blown, was the lowest layer excavated. This was covered with a red-brown charcoal-rich sand (1392), which in turn was sealed by a light red- brown sand (1391). The only artefact recovered from these layers was an iron strip, possibly a fitting. Only seven samples, 104 litres of soil, were processed from these contexts (Table 106). The densities for mammal bone (0.9 frag/litre) and winkles (2.3 shells/litre) were relatively high for the Late Norse deposits (BE) but the other materials had average densities. None of the 2–10 mm residues from these samples were examined.

Deposits associated with House 3 (BEI) Sealing the sand infill (BD) of the west end of House 2 were a series of layers with a significant level of occupation debris that thickened towards House 3 (Figure 191). Above the far west end of House 2 was a patch of compact, dark brown sand (111). In the centre of the western half of House 2 was an extensive spread of dark brown sand (9, 14, 107, 147) that was covered by a more restricted patch of less compact brown sand (8, 113 and 152). Layer 107 contained a distinctive charcoal and orange streaked sand layer (97) and appeared to be cut by a sub-rectangular pit (133/136). The primary fill of the pit was a brown sand (135) and there were two secondary fills of much paler, grey sands (109, 110). Further to the east was a compact, dark brown sand (190/96) that appeared to act as the foundation for the outer wall face (193) of House 3 (Figures 191 and 227). The wall face comprised a line of small to medium-sized stones, only occasionally with two courses, and was only recorded in the area above the interior of House 2. The wall face was surrounded by a dark brown sand (184/186/187),

which may be the decayed remains of the wall core. The distance between this outer wall and the inner wall (570, see Figure 227 and BEA, above) suggests a turf wall, over 1 m thick, surrounded the timber frame of House 3. Above the north side of House 2 was a dark brown layer (173) overlain by a shell-rich orange-brown sand (162) and three more compact, orange-brown sands (170, 158, 509). Layer 170 was overlain by a more extensive spread of dark brown sand (156). A total of 16 samples, 252.8 g of soil, were processed from these occupation deposits (Table 106). The average densities of fish bone, mammal bone and winkles were lower than the average for the House 3 deposits (BE) but those for pottery and limpets were higher. None of the 2–10 mm residues were examined.

Sampling data – N Sharples A total of 1,119 samples, 8,671.9 litres of soil were taken and processed from the House 3 deposits (BE). The samples were unevenly distributed across the various blocks (Table 109): • • • • • • • •

24 samples, 195 litres of soil, came from the pre-floor features (BEB); 377 samples, 2,714 litres of soil, came from the early occupation (BEC); four samples, 108 litres of soil, came from the recon­ struction features (BED), 509 samples, 3,713 litres of soil, came from the sec­ ondary occupation (BEE); 150 samples, 1,215 litres of soil, came from the aban­ donment deposits (BEF); 32 samples, 369 litres of soil, came from the entrance (BEG); seven samples, 104 litres of soil, came from deposits to the east of the entrance (BEH); 16 samples, 253 litres of soil, came from the deposits to the west of the house (BEI).

2714.4

108.0

BEC

BED

BEE

377 samples

4 samples

509 samples

BEF

Total

372 samples

BEE

BEG

BEC

159 samples

189 samples

8 samples

BEB

5 samples

11 samples

Block

2732.75

99.00

123.00

1357.15

1125.10

28.50

Litres

2386.75

99.00

70.00

1166.65

1036.85

14.25

Litres sorted

252.8

BEI

Total

16 samples

1119 samples

Sample

104.0

BEH

7 samples

2794

16

68

1500

1199

11

1.17

0.16

0.97

1.29

1.16

0.77

density

Pottery

no.

4573

86

15

31

105

1043

15

3183

95

no.

0.53

0.34

0.14

0.08

0.09

0.28

0.14

1.17

0.49

density

Fish

3850

117

89

73

353

1698

36

1384

100

no.

Unburnt bone

491

2

3

4

28

252

3

174

25

no.

Burnt bone

4341

119

92

77

381

1950

39

1558

125

no.

0.50

0.47

0.88

0.21

0.31

0.53

0.36

0.57

0.64

density

All mammal bone

732

38

2

29

73

245

6

330

9

no.

0.08

0.15

0.02

0.08

0.06

0.07

0.06

0.12

0.05

density

Pottery

89

1

0

0

24

11

0

47

6

no.

Slag

3812

387

33

153

355

1340

42

1441

61

no.

0.44

1.53

0.32

0.41

0.29

0.36

0.39

0.53

0.31

density

Limpet

20629

359

237

246

947

7777

172

10485

406

no.

2.38

1.42

2.28

0.67

0.78

2.09

1.59

3.86

2.08

density

Winkle

19256

452

472

10158

8078

96

no.

8.07

4.57

6.74

8.71

7.79

6.74

density

Unburnt bone

13353

83

260

5235

7677

98

no.

5.59

0.84

3.71

4.49

7.40

6.88

density

Burnt bone

53363

401

388

19940

32428

206

no.

22.36

4.05

5.54

17.09

31.28

14.46

density

Fish

13613

265

1021

5752

5340

1235

no.

5.70

2.68

14.59

4.93

5.15

86.67

density

Charcoal

46002

455

887

26284

17506

870

no.

19.27

4.60

12.67

22.53

16.88

61.05

density

B.O.M.

1772

5

20

591

1152

4

no.

0.74

0.05

0.29

0.51

1.11

0.28

density

Slag

187

9

3

109

66

0

no.

0.08

0.09

0.04

0.05

0.06

0.00

density

Crab

Table 110. The material identified in sorting the 2 to 10 mm residue from all House 3 blocks (BE)

8671.9

369.0

1215.3

BEF

BEG

150 samples

32 samples

3713.1

195.4

BEB

24 samples

Litres

Block

Sample

Table 109. The material identified in sorting the above 10 mm residue from all House 3 blocks (BE)

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

0

15

no.

5254

64

185

2565

2425

no.

Egg

2.20

0.65

2.64

2.20

2.34

1.05

density

Egg

82

0

0

2

10

16

12

29

13

no.

Charcoal

116

12

8

63

33

0

no.

730

0.05

0.12

0.11

0.09

0.03

0.00

0

11

3

96

302

49

187

82

no.

362

0

30

56

276

0

0.15

0.00

0.43

0.05

0.27

0.00

density

Coprolite no.

B.O.M.

density

Spirorbis

16

0

0

0

0

7

0

6

3

no.

Coprolite

The Late Norse activity on mound 2 (BE) 359

360

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

The 2–10 mm residues were examined from 372 samples; approximately 2,386 litres of soil were washed, sieved and sorted (Table 110). The samples processed were concentrated in blocks BEC (159 samples) and BEE (189 samples) but five samples from BEB, eleven samples from BEF and eight samples from BEG were also processed. The average densities of material recovered from the above 10 mm residues from blocks BEB, BEC, BEE, BEF and BEI are depicted in Figure 274. Winkles were the most numerous find in all the different blocks and the highest density of winkles came from the early occupation (BEC), where a density of 3.86 shells/litre of soil was reached. This is noticeably higher than the density (2.09 shells/ litre) from the secondary occupation (BEE). The density of limpets was generally much lower, below 0.5 shells/ litre, with the exception of BEI where a density of 1.53 shells/litre of soil was recorded. Fish bone had the next highest average density; and the early occupation layers (BEC) produced an average of 1.17 fish bones per litre of soil, again significantly higher than the density (0.28 frag/litre) from the secondary occupation (BEE). Mammal bone was more evenly distributed across the blocks, and thus had higher densities than fish bone in most blocks; its maximum density of 0.88 frag/litre was recorded in the deposits east of the entrance (BEH). Pottery was very rarely present and had an average density of only 0.08 frag/litre. The early occupation (BEC) had the highest density of fish, pottery and winkles and the second highest density of limpets. The lowest densities were generally in the abandonment deposits (BEF) and the layers within the entrance passage (BEG). The average densities of the material recovered from the 2–10 mm residues from BEB, BEC, BEE, BEF and BEG are depicted in Figure 275. The pre-floor pits (BEB) produced very high densities of charcoal (86.67 frag/ litre) and B.O.M. (61.05 frag/litre), which reflected the deliberate deposition of burnt material in some of the pits (see above page 312). There were also higher densities of B.O.M. in the floors of the secondary occupation (22.5 frag/litre; BEE) compared to the early occupation (16.88 frag/litre; BEC), which suggests a significant change in the use of the house hearths. Slag was present, but had an average of only 0.74 frag/ litre, which contrasts with the high densities recovered from the contemporary floors on mound 3 (Sharples 2005b; fig. 92). It suggests that high temperatures were not regularly required in the hearths of House 3. Large quantities of fish bones were recovered from most blocks. The highest density, 31.28 frag/litre, came from the early occupation (BEC), and this was much higher than the 17.09 frag/litre recovered from the secondary occupation (BEE). Bone and burnt bone were also relatively common discoveries, whereas pot was much rarer. The early occupation (BEC) had a slightly higher density of burnt bone (7.40 frag/litre) but the

35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

pot

unburnt bone

burnt bone

fish

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

charcoal

BOM

slag

3

2

1

0

crab

spirorbis BEB

BEC

egg BEE

BEF

coprolite BEG

Figure 275. Histograms showing the 2 to 10 mm densities

from the blocks associated with House 3 (BE)

secondary floors (BEE) had higher densities of unburnt bone (8.7 frag/litre) and pottery (1.29 frag/litre). The large number of samples processed also resulted in the recovery of large assemblages of crab shell, eggshell and Spirorbis. The densities of all these categories were low but it is noticeable that there are similarities between the early and the later floors (BEC and BEE). The deposits from both periods of occupation produced low densities of crab shell and Spirorbis, but high densities of eggshell. Coprolite varied: the early occupation (BEC) had a higher density than the secondary floor (BEE), but the highest density came from the abandonment layers (BEF; 0.43 frag/litre).

The Late Norse activity on mound 2 (BE)

361

Table 111. The pottery from all House 3 blocks (BE) Block

Context

Weight (g)

No.

Ave weight

Rim

Base

Body

Misc.

Platter

Sooted

Fine

BEA

573

538.30

55

9.79

4

8

6

34

3

15

1

BEA

1332

32.60

8

4.08

1

7

BEA

1339

8.30

2

4.15

1

1

BEA

2032

28.60

8

3.58

7

1

BEA

2650

76.70

6

12.78

2

1

2

1

2

1

BEA

Sub-total

684.50

79

8.66

4

10

8

51

6

17

2

0

0

1

0

0

1

1

0

0

2

1

BEA/BGA

1072

9.00

1

9.00

BEB

1203

2.20

1

2.20

1

BEB

1204

1.60

1

1.60

1

BEB

2011

4.90

1

4.90

1

BEB

Sub-total

8.70

3

2.90

BEC

1069

82.00

12

6.83

0

BEC

1082

2.40

2

1.20

2

BEC

1076

44.50

6

7.41

2

BEC

1427

6.20

1

6.20

1

BEC

1449

39.40

16

2.46

3

BEC

1484

1.20

1

1.20

BEC

1485

1.30

1

1.30

BEC

1496

3.70

1

3.70

BEC

Sub-total

180.70

40

4.52 34.30 34.30

0

BEE

1020

44.50

8

5.56

1

BEE

1048

33.30

10

3.33

1

1378

5.30

1

5.30

1

BEE

1382

13.80

2

6.90

1

BEE

1385

1.90

1

1.90

1

BEE

1394

129.60

28

4.63

6 1

1.40 3.90

BEE

1479

9.90

1

9.90

BEE

2112

160.20

31

5.17

BEE

Sub-total

473.40

91

5.20

BEF

579

12.10

1

12.10

12

599

9.30

2

4.65

1

513.30

40

12.83

5

BEF

1352

54.50

2

27.25

1

1380

65.90

2

32.95

655.10

47

13.94

BEG

1373

31.40

2

15.70

BEG

1374

211.60

13

16.28

BEG

1375

23.10

3

7.70

1

1

1

8

10

3

1

0

0

1

1

6

1

9

7

0

2 1

1

3

1

7

15

1

3

1

1

9

11

4

2

1

1

1

1

7

2

21

1

8

11

13

54

1

27

1

1336

Sub-total

6

15

1

BEF

BEF

1

1

BEF

BEF

10

1

BEE

8

2

0

1 1

1

1

6

34.30

3.90

1

3

34.30

71.00

3

8

1398

1395

0 6

1

Sub-total

1466

3 3

1

BED

BEE

0 3

1

BED

BEE

0

17

1 1

2

10

23

16

1 1

1

3

13

2 24

0

2 3

9

1

3 0

4

2

21

4

2

1

11

6

3

BEG

Sub-total

266.10

18

14.78

3

BEH

1392

199.30

22

9.06

3

BEH

Sub-total

199.30

22

9.06

3

0

10

9

0

12

0

BEI

9

739.44

95

7.78

15

9

12

39

20

22

2

5

120

5

10

1

2

1

BEI

96

9.60

1

9.60

1

BEI

107

634.10

139

4.56

3

6

BEI

109

79.30

2

39.65

1

1

1

4

BEI

111

39.30

1

39.30

BEI

113

532.80

26

20.49

BEI

135

32.00

8

4.00

BEI

147

20.80

4

5.20

BEI

162

72.00

17

4.24

BEI

170

57.50

4

14.38

BEI

184

251.10

56

4.48

BEI

190

70.00

7

10.00

14

1

10

9

0

16

7

12

1

1

1

2

18

1

5

1

6

1

1

1

1

7

5

5

1

2

1

5

50

1

1

5

1

4 3

1

2

BEI

2052

5.40

1

5.40

BEI

Sub-total

2543.34

361

7.05

25

23

30

251

1 32

49

5

BE

Total

5054.44

663

7.65

62

50

96

408

47

154

38

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

362 Weight (g)

3000

14

2500

12

2000

10 8

1500

6

1000

4

500 0

2 BEA

BEC

BEE

BEF

BEG

BEH

BEI

Sherds

400

0

35

350

30

300

25

250

BEA

BEC

BEE

BEF

BEG

BEH

BEI

BEE

BEF

BEG

BEH

BEI

Rim Platter

20

200

15

150

10

100

5

50 0

Ave weight

16

BEA

BEC

BEE

BEF

BEG

BEH

BEI

0

BEA

BEC

Figure 276. Histograms of the pottery from the blocks associated with House 3 (BE)

Pottery – K Harding and N Sharples A total of 663 sherds, weighing approximately 5054 g, was recovered from the Late Norse occupation of House 3 (BE; Table 111). The largest assemblage by weight, just over 50% of the total, came from the occupation layers to the west of the house (BEI). The assemblage from the secondary occupation (BEE) is reasonably substantial (91 sherds, 13%), but the assemblage from the early occupation (BEC) is small (40, sherds. 6%) The preconstruction features (BEB and BED) produced very little material. The average weight of the sherds is shown in Figure 276; this excludes small assemblages from blocks BEB and BED as these can be misleading. The best preserved sherds, with an average weight of over 14 g, are those from the entrance area (BEG), which is surprising as one would expect any material from the floor layers in the passage to have been heavily trampled. The occupation deposits (BEC and BEE) have low average weights, lower than for all other blocks, including the occupation deposits to the west of the house (BEI). In Figure 276 the distribution of platter sherds is compared to the distribution of rim sherds. In the early occupation deposits (BEC) the number of platter sherds (n = 8) is roughly equivalent to the number of rim sherds (n = 10), but in the secondary occupation (BEE) only one platter sherd was found but rims remain fairly frequent. The entrance deposits (BEG) similarly produced no platter sherds, whereas the occupation

deposits to the west (BEI) produced a large assemblage (n = 32) of platter. If this pattern reflects a difference in the chronology of these deposits, it suggests platter use came to an end during the life of House 3. The entrance deposits (BEG) would therefore relate to the later occupation (BEE), whereas the occupation layers to the west (BEI) included deposits contemporary with the early phase of occupation (BEC). Another chronological change was the introduction of everted rims. Several good examples of everted rim vessels (e.g. 4878, 5156, 5169; Figure 277) were recovered from the secondary occupation (BEE), the abandonment deposits (BEF) and the deposits in front of the entrance (BEH). There were no securely stratified everted rims from the early occupation (BEC) or from the preceding block (BD). The introduction of everted rims appears to be contemporary with the abandonment of platter.

Measurements – N Sharples The pottery and bone from 33 contexts in House 3 were measured to provide some assessment of the preservation of these assemblages. The largest assemblages of bone examined came from blocks BEA, BEF and BEI but the pottery was primarily from the house floors (BEC, BEE) and the occupation deposits to the west (BEI). The assemblages examined from the house floors came from

The Late Norse activity on mound 2 (BE) BEA

363

BEG/H

C573

3107

4842 (BEH) 5169+5457 (BEG) SF5245+5106+5105

87063

8717

3106

C9

BEC 8718

8738

8739

8740

8741

4191

BEE

BEI

5156

C113

BEF 0

4878+5057+5224

20cm

5056

Figure 277. A selection of feature sherds from the blocks associated with House 3 (BE)

several contexts, distributed across the floors, as did the material from the pre-floor pits (BEB). The assemblages examined from the remaining blocks tended to be restricted to a small number of contexts. The bone assemblages appear to divide into two groups (Figure 278). The bone from the floors (BEC, BEE) and occupation deposits (BEI) is poorly preserved, 35% to 41% of the bones were between 10 and 20 mm, whereas the other blocks have better preserved assemblages, with the mode lying between 20 and 30 mm. The abandonment deposit (BEF) has slightly fewer small fragments but very few well preserved pieces. The deposits from the pre-floor pits (BEB) and the deposits outside the entrance (BEH) produced the least numerous but best preserved assemblages. The pottery from the House 3 blocks is much less numerous than the bone, so the distinctions are less clear cut. The best preserved assemblages come from the later house floor (BEE) and the abandonment deposits (BEF), whereas the early floor (BEC) and the occupation deposits (BEI) both produced heavily fragmented assemblages. The assemblages from House 3 could be regarded

as typical of a house occupation deposit. The animal bone from the floors is not a substantial assemblage and is generally more fragmented than the material in the related assemblages from outside the house. The pottery assemblage is again small, and the final floor (BEE) and the abandonment deposits (BEF) produced the larger fragments. However, these patterns contrast markedly with the patterns noted in the deposits associated with the occupation of House 2, where largely complete vessels were deposited on the house floor (BCC; see Chapter 4). There was clearly a dramatic change in depositional practice between the twelfth century and the thirteenth century AD.

Artefacts – A Pannett, R Smith and N Sharples Artefacts from BEA and BEB A small collection of 29 artefacts was recovered from deposits associated with the construction of House 3 (BEA

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

364 40 35

70

Bone

30 25

BEB

% 20

BED

15

BEH

50 %

40

0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15+

BEC

20

BEE

15

%

25 20 15

10

10

5

5

40

0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15+

Pot

50

30 25 20

BEF

40

BEH

% 30

BEI

15 10

20 10

5 0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15+

60

Bone

35

%

30

BEA

25

45

Pot

40 35

30

0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15+

45

Bone

35

%

30

10

5

45

40

20

10 0

Pot

60

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15+

0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15+

Figure 278. Histograms showing the size distribution of the measured bone and pot from the blocks associated with House 3 (BE)

and BEB; Table 112; Figure 279). The assemblage is not distinctive but does include a number of long bone splinters that may be blanks for the manufacture of bone pins. There are very few tools. The presence of three comb fragments in the brown sand (573) behind the east wall is notable, and two of the pieces are interesting. The side-plate (5185) has three lines of ring and dot decoration and an incised cross. These motifs are found on other combs at Bornais but the arrangement is unusual, as is the curved cross-section of the side-plate. The endplate (5313) has been carefully shaped, with a concave curve that is rare at Bornais. The structural fittings and miscellaneous material typical of the assemblages from other areas of the settlement at Bornais, but there is a lead object (4969) which may be a fitting. The flint assemblage consists of three complete flakes, two flake fragments and three chunks, one from BEA

and two from BEB. One flake has abrupt retouch along on edge, forming a simple edge tool, and edge damage along the opposite lateral edge where it appears to have been used.

Artefacts from BEC A total of 102 artefacts was recovered from the early occupation of House 3 (BEC; Table 112, Figure 279). An important find is a silver coin (5206) that is an imitation of a class 3 ‘long cross’ penny of Henry III, probably made on the Continent in the second half of the thirteenth century (Besly pers. comm.). The quantity of bone and antler waste is negligible, just three pieces of antler, some whale bone and a long bone splinter that may be pin manufacturing debris. The

Total

Miscellaneous

Structural fittings

steatite

Cu alloy

sheet/fragments

fragment

iron

sheet

whale bone

iron

strip/rod

unworked

iron

fragments

whale bone

iron

fitting

worked

Cu alloy

tack

bone

iron

rove

worked

iron

nail

lead

glass

bead

sheet/strip

bone

pin

antler

comb

Personal objects

bone

toggle/buzz bomb

Gaming pieces

silver

bone

weft beater

coin

iron

iron

knife

awl

bone

17

1

1

2

1

1

3

5

flint

point

2

1

573

whale bone/antler

bone

pin manufacturing

offcut

antler

tine/beam

Currency

Tools

Working debris

Material

Object type

1332 2

1

1

1340 1

1

2032 3

1

1

1

2650 2

1

1

Sub-total 25

0

0

0

1

1

0

1

1

2

0

0

1

1

0

2

3

0

0

0

0

0

1

6

2

2

1

1094 1

1

1204 1

1

1205 1

1

2007 1

1

1485 26

1

1

1

2

1

1

5

1

1

9

3

BEC Floor 1076 24

1

1

1

2

3

1

1

13

1

1449 13

1

1

1

1

2

1

5

1

BEC Hearth centre 1082 2

15

1

1

2

1

1

2

1

2

1069 1

10

1

1

1

1

4

3

15

1

1

1

1

2

1

44

1

102

2

1

2

1

0

4

1

4

4

2

0

2

3

1

1

2

3

1

2

3

3

1

1478

1

1

1467 1

1

1493

2

4

winkle layer 1426 2

charcoal layer 2083

6

brown sand 1427

2

BEC Hearth south 1468

BEC Sub-total

BEB

BEA

Table 112. The artefacts from House 3 construction (BEA), pre floor features (BEB) and early occupation (BEC)

1403 2

1

1

1423 1

1

134

3

1

2

2

1

4

2

5

6

2

1

3

4

3

4

18

1

1

1

1

2

2

53

5

4

3

Total

The Late Norse activity on mound 2 (BE) 365

BED

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

366

BEA

5185

5313

4969

BEC

3510

6871

5480

5486

6141

0

6322

6026

3481

10cm

Figure 279. Artefacts from blocks BEA and BEC. 4969 is lead; 3481, 5480, 6026, 6141 are iron; all the rest are bone or antler.

assemblage of tools is limited, but includes a couple of knives (including 6026), an awl (3481), a bone point and socket. The most interesting tool is a crude whale bone comb or weft beater (3510), which has short, stubby teeth along one edge and has been crudely hacked to shape on the other. It might originally have been a larger object, comparable to the flax scutcher from mound 1 (Sharples 2012, fig. 177, 1354). A reasonable quantity of comb fragments were found (including decorated side-plates; 5486, 6871), one pin (6322), three glass beads and a toggle or ‘buzz bone’. The combs are mostly small fragments, and the identifi­ able side-plate fragments are similar to those of combs from earlier deposits, and could be residual. Other than three nails and two roves, there are only two structural fittings (5480 and 6141). The presence of two steatite vessel fragments suggests these layers contained residual material, as the use of steatite vessels at Bornais appears to have ceased after the Early Norse period. The flint assemblage is more substantial than that of BEA-BEB, and comprises 13 complete flakes, nine flake fragments, eight pieces of microdebitage, three pebbles and 11 chunks. Three pieces have been burnt. One flake has been retouched, with abrupt retouch along one lateral edge to form a simple edge tool. The finds assemblage from the early House 3 floors (BEC) is small, particularly in comparison to the large assemblage from the floor of House 2. Furthermore, many small fragments of flint, bone, antler and iron, were

recovered from the intensive sieving strategy. The floor layer (1485/1076/1449) produced the largest number of artefacts (53 objects). However, the hearth layers also produced objects and the layer of burnt winkle shell (1426) was particularly productive (see Figure 249).

Artefacts from BED Only three artefacts were recovered from BED, a bone splinter and pin fragment from the charcoal-rich fill (1403) of pit 1402, and a flint flake from the fill of gully 1423.

Artefacts from BEE A total of 157 objects were recovered from the secondary occupation of House 3 (BEE, Table 113, Figure 280). The assemblage did not include much evidence for manufacturing activity; six pieces of cut antler and one possible piece of bone pin making debris. The flint assemblage consists of 14 complete flakes, nine flake fragments, 11 pieces of microdebitage and nine chunks. One chert chunk was also identified in the assemblage but this may be unworked. One flint chunk and two flake fragments have been burnt. Three pieces have been retouched, one proximal flake fragment has a shallow notch formed from abrupt retouch across the truncated or broken distal end, and a second flake has two notches formed on one lateral edge from abrupt retouch. One heavy flake has edge damage along one side and appears to have been used

The Late Norse activity on mound 2 (BE)

367

BEE

3673 5267 5137 5392 5123

5256

4483

5858

5504

5489

6861

3314

0

5340 5526

5932

3cm

8353

5360 5296

3371

BEF

BEG

6837

0

3cm 4984

5018

5447

0

10cm

5453

5406

Figure 280. Artefacts from blocks BEE, BEF and BEG. 5267 is lead; 4483, 4984, 5123, 5137, 5256, 5392, 5504 and 5858 are

iron; 5360, 5932 are copper alloy; 3314, 3673, 6837 are glass; 5406, 5453, 5489, are stone; all the rest are bone or antler

as a rough scraper. One core-trimming flake has abrupt retouch along one lateral edge and across the distal end that forms a wide point. The truncated piece is prehistoric in form and may be residual, but the other retouched pieces, particularly the rough side-scraper, could be Norse. Tools included three bone points, an iron punch (5256), a complete knife (5858), a whetstone (5489) and a frag­ ment of an unfinished steatite spindle whorl (5155; which conjoined with a fragment from BDI) The assemblage of personal objects is more substantial

than that from the primary floor, with reasonable numbers of pins (bone and copper alloy), comb fragments, two ‘buzz bones’ and a couple of beads. The bone pins include a number of complete examples, including good examples of a class 1 expanded head (3371), three non-headed (e.g. 5296), and four thistle-headed types (e.g. 5340). The copper-alloy pins included a square spatula-headed (5360) and a club-headed (5932) pin. The beads included a simple, small oval bead (3673), which may be amber and a larger more complex grooved blue glass bead (3314). Objects

Total

Miscellaneous

Structural fittings

Personal objects

Gaming pieces

Weapons

Tools

Working debris

1

lead

bone/antler

whale bone

whale bone

steatite

worked

worked

unworked

fragment

Cu alloy

sheet/strip

sheet/fragments

iron

iron

fragments

iron

Cu alloy

tack

strip/rod

iron

fitting

sheet

iron

staple

12

1

1

15

1

17

1

2

3

iron

iron

rove

holdfast

2

bone

1

iron

1

2

1

1

pin

glass

iron/Cu alloy

bead

pin

2

1

1 1

nail

Bone

antler

toggle/buzz bone

iron

comb

iron

chain mail

stone

iron

whetstone

scabbard

crossbow bolt

iron

iron

knife

punch/awl

steatite

bone

spindle whorl

point

4

3

1

1

1

5

1

2

1

1

3

1

1

1

5

2

1

1

1

9

1

2

1

4

1

14

1

2

1

2

1

7

12

2

1

2

1

1

1

2

1

1

11

2

1

1

3

1

1

1

1048 10

2112

1

1466 6

1413

antler

1415

flint

1020

offcut

1395 1

1379

antler

1382

bone

1394

tine/beam

Material 948

pin manufacturing

Object type 1408 2

1

1

1409 1

1

1

1

1412

1377 1

1

North hearth

7

1

2

1

1

1

1

1378

Central hearth 2

3

3

1396

Floor 2

1

1

1411

Hearth

1418 5

2

2

1

1407 3

1

1

1

1433 1

1

1443 2

1

1

2002 2

1

1

1430 1

1

Pit fills

2

1

1

1458

Floor 1

4

1

1

1

1

1453

Table 113. The artefacts from the secondary occupation of House 3 (BEE)

1

1455 8

1

1

1

2

2

2097 1

1

1422 1

1

1446 1

1

1447 4

1

1

1

1

157

3

1

3

5

2

2

3

9

16

3

5

1

1

16

10

5

3

2

6

2

2

1

1

1

1

1

3

1

43

2

1

2

Total

368

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

The Late Norse activity on mound 2 (BE)

369

Table 114. The artefacts from the House 3 abandonment (BEF) and the entrance deposits (BEG)

11

1

0

1

1392

1

1 1

Sub-total

0

BEH

1376

lead

4

1374

nodule

1

1373

0

3

2041

bone

1380

antler

pin manufacturing

1336

tine/beam

599

Material

579

Object type

1375

BEG Sub-total

BEF

Total

1

5

1

1

Working debris flint

Tools

Personal objects

Structural fittings

8

3

3

1

1

1

5

16

1

1

0

1

2

2 2

point

bone

spindle whorl

bone

whetstone

stone

comb

antler

2

2

0

bead

glass

1

1

0

1

nail

iron

2

10

rove holdfast

1

1 0

1

1

4

iron

1

1

2

0

2

iron

1

1

2

0

2

fitting

iron

2

2

1

3

rivet/tack

Cu alloy

1

1

0

1

fragments

iron

strip/rod

iron

2

sheet

iron

1

sheet/fragments

Cu alloy

1

3

2

8

2

3

1

1

7 1

1

1

1

1

4

0

1

0

8 1

5

Miscellaneous

Total

2

23

17

1

1

1

4

47

1 2

8

5

1

1 1

16

2 1

64

BEI

1676 1308

1109

5945

1507 1386

1451

1455

0

10cm

1791

Figure 281. Artefacts from deposits to the west of House 3 (BEI). 1109, 1386, 1676, 5945 are iron; 1451 is copper alloy; all the

rest are bone or antler

associated with warfare include iron rings, interlinked (5504) and isolated (4483), that may indicate broken chain mail, a possible crossbow bolt (5123) and a broken slotted plate that may be part of an iron scabbard (5392), though all these objects have alternative interpretations. A large proportion of the assemblage consists of

metal fittings and miscellaneous metal fragments. There are reasonable quantities of iron nails and roves, and a staple (5137). The presence of a large number of such structural fittings contrasts with their scarcity in the finds assemblage from the early occupation (BEC) and may suggest that the later house was allowed to decay,

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

370

flint

Tools chisel

iron

Weapons

arrow

iron

comb

antler

Personal objects

pin

iron/Cu alloy

Structural fittings

Miscellaneous

Total

pin

bone

nail

iron

rove

iron

holdfast

iron

fragments

iron

strip/rod

iron

sheet

iron

unworked

horn

unworked

whale bone

2054

2053

2052

190

184

170

162

158

113

1

147

bone

111

point

Waste

109

Material

96

Object type

107

BEI

9

Table 115. The artefacts from deposits to the west of House 3 (BEI)

1

Total

2 0 1

1

1

1 1

1

2

1

1

2 1

1

2

1

1

2

4

1

1

8

1 1

1

1

2

1

1

1

1

2

1

1 1

1

1 2

2 4

1 2

6

1

1

1

5

1

1

3

2

3

1

1

1

31

Figure 282. The fish tailed comb (1308) from deposits to the west of House 3 (BEI)

whereas the original house was purposefully dismantled prior to reoccupation. The most productive contexts were the floor layers, which contained most but not all of the tools and personal ornaments. The miscellaneous iron and the structural fittings were more evenly distributed between the floor and hearth layers (see Figure 262). There were no obvious special deposits in the pits, though there was a concentration of structural fittings in the fills of the large pit (1454) at the north end of the house.

Artefacts from BEF and BEG A total of 47 objects were recovered from the abandonment layer of House 3 (BEF; Table 114, Figure 280). More than half of the material comprises iron fragments and structural fittings, which include an unusual heavy binding (4984). There was only one tool, a bone spindle whorl (5018), and personal objects are restricted to two comb fragments and a glass bead (6837). The flint assemblage consists of three complete flakes, one flake fragment, one core, one piece of microdebitage, a pebble and four chunks. The core

The Late Norse activity on mound 2 (BE)

371

Table 116. The carbonised plant from the pre floor features (BEB) Sample Context Feature no Block Litres Context Type Fraction Cereals Hordeum vulgare grains Hordeum vulgare apical Hordeum vulgare embryo Hordeum sativum rachis frags Hordeum sp. Avena sp. grains Avena sp. apical Avena sp. embryo Avena sp. indet. frag cf Secale cereale grains cf Secale cereale apical Secale sp. rachis frags Oat palea/lemma Cereal rachis frags Cereal grain frags Other Crops Linum usitatissimum cf Linum usitatissimum frags Weeds/Wild species Brassica/Sinapis spp Buglossoides sp. Carex sp. Type 1 Carex sp. Type 2 Carex sp. Type 3 Carex sp. Type 4 Carex sp. Type 5 Scirpus spp Cyperaceae indet. type 6 Cyperaceae indet. Cyperaceae/Polygonaceae Type cf Cerastium sp. Chenopodiaceae Chenopodiaceae/Caryophyllaceae Compositae indet. Compositae Type 2 large Crucifereae spp Erica sp. Euphorbia cf helioscopia cf Fumaria sp. Galium sp. Type 1 Gramineae Gramineae Type 1 Gramineae Type 2 small Phleum sp. Bromus sp. cf Liliaceae Papaver sp. Plantago sp. Primulaceae Potentilla sp. Rumex/Polgonum spp Rumex sp. Type 1 Rumex/Polygonum sp. Type 2 Polygonum sp. Type 3 Polygonum sp. Type 4 Rumex/Polygonum spp kernels Ranunculus sp. small Ranunculus sp. large cf Raphanus sp. frag cf Sisymbrium sp. Urtica urens Urtica dioica Indet. Type 1 Twigs/stalks cf Seaweed Heather frags Indet small flower bud Poss ID Amorphous material Indet. Indet. mineralised Dung

9487 1094 1097 BEB 5 fill 100%

9486 1203 1202/2006 BEB 5 fill 100%

9485 1217 1232 BEB 4 fill 100%

10762 2010 1202/2006 BEB 1 fill 100%

11838 2149 2148 BEB 10 fill 100%

11839 2151 2150 BEB 6 fill 100%

11840 2154 2150 BEB 1.5 fill 100%

11844 2159 2158 BEB 9 fill 100%

11846 2162 2160 BEB 5 fill 100%

23 3 1 7

203 12 4

5 2

24

50 3 2

27

8

58 2

18

1 1

4

4

16 5 11 3 1

? 16 14 5 9

2

10

1 87

9 322

2 3t/1b

26 123 19 1 1

6 4

3 4 1 1 1

24

11

2 1 55

5 1t/3b

1

4 1

26 4t/1b

1

1

2 24 2 2 1

1 1

13 35

2

13 3

1

2 13

10

4

3 2

2 1 37

19 2t/30

8

150

16

5

5

2 4

2 15 1

1 3 1

3 1

4

2

15 18

6 7

7 3 10 8

7 1 3

4

2

8 2 8 7

5

1 5

3 2

3 5

5

7

1

3

2

13

3

2

1

6

12 1 1

9 2 1

1 2 2 7 11 4

6 31 7 16 4 9

13

9

1

1 2 1

8

1

1

2

1 4

12 1

1 1 1

4

4

1 2 1 14

4

5 1

1

8 3 2

1

2 1 1 1 1

3

4 1 1 1

1

1 1

2

2 5 2

1

1 1

1

1 1 4

1

1

3 X X 25 X X

X X 8 X X

X X

X

X

X

2 1

X X

X

X

X

12 X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

372

Table 117. The carbonised plant from the early occupation (BEC) House Sample Context Block Litres Context Type Fraction Cereals Hordeum vulgare grains Hordeum vulgare apical Hordeum vulgare embryo Hordeum vulgare indet. frags Hordeum sativum rachis frags Hordeum sp. Avena sp. grains Avena sp. apical Avena sp. embryo Avena sp. indet. frag cf Secale cereale grains cf Secale cereale apical cf Secale cereale embryo cf Secale cereale indet. frag Secale sp. rachis frags Oat palea/lemma Cereal rachis frags Cereal culm frags Cereal grain frags Other Crops Linum usitatissimum cf Linum usitatissimum frags Weeds/Wild species Brassica/Sinapis spp Brassica/Sinapis spp mineralised-whole Buglossoides sp. Carex sp. Type 1 Carex sp. Type 2 Carex sp. Type 3 Carex sp. Type 4 Carex sp. Type 5 Scirpus spp Cyperaceae indet. cf Cerastium sp. Chenopodiaceae Chenopodiaceae/Caryophyllaceae Compositae indet. Compositae Type 1 flat type Compositae Type 2 large Crucifereae spp Erica sp. Euphorbia cf helioscopia cf Fumaria sp. Galium sp. Type 2 Gramineae Gramineae Type 1 Gramineae Type 2 small Phleum sp. Bromus sp. cf Juncus sp. Paniceae type grain Papaver sp. Plantago sp. Primulaceae Potentilla sp. Polygonum sp. Rumex/Polgonum spp Rumex sp. Type 1 Rumex/Polygonum sp. Type 2 Polygonum sp. Type 3 Polygonum sp. Type 4 Rumex/Polygonum spp kernels Ranunculus sp. small Ranunculus sp. large cf Raphanus sp. cf Raphanus sp. frag Rubus sp. cf Sisymbrium sp. Urtica urens Urtica dioica Indet. Type 1 Twigs/stalks cf Seaweed Heather frags Indet. small flower bud Poss ID Amorphous material Indet. small flower bud Indet. mineralised Dung

3 9921 1076 BEC 24 floor 100%

3 9950 1082 BEC 20 floor 100%

3 10249 1426 BEC 2.5 floor 100%

3 10257 1426 BEC 6 floor 100%

3 10267 1426 BEC 6 floor 100%

3 10277 1426 BEC 4 floor 100%

3 10288 1427 BEC 3 floor 100%

3 10292 1427 BEC 4 floor 100%

3 11690 1427 BEC 7 floor 100%

3 10372 1449 BEC 6 floor 100%

250 4 6

51 2 2 1

3 2

85

17 1

59

1

7 1

5

23

5

3 10375 1449 BEC 2 floor 100%

3 10387 1449 BEC 4 floor 100%

3 11772 1449 BEC 12 floor 100%

3 11776 1449 BEC 9 floor 100%

3 11818 1449 BEC 7 floor 100%

3 10542 1467 BEC 10 hearth 100%

1

11

19

6

90 5 8

550 27 15

1 1

3 160 24 56 7 48 4 1

57 2 7 1 6 1

22 4 7

15 4 7

7

13

5 1 2 3

3

4 1 1 1

16 1 7 2

7 1 1 1 4

1 2 2

4

2

2

9 162 25 71 9 45 2 1

1

4

1 53

1

1

1 24 44 6 1 1 1 1 66 34

2

8

25

50

3

1

7

3

12

2

3 2

2 1

1 1 1

2

17

24

5

1

1

96 11 28 5 21

3 3 5f

14

38

56

197

1

1

2

10

28 16

2

5 8

1

1 2 6

1

3 8 1

2

1 1

2

3

1

3 4

4 1

22 2 10 1 2 16 2 1

41 5 18 8

1

58 1t/13b

5 7

10

2

1 2 3 436

1 1 11 1 9 1

1

1 12

3 1

1

23 30

9 59

1

3

1

4

4

1

7

1

1 1

6

1

1

2

2 2

1

2 3 2

3

1 1

1

1

4

2

1

16

10

5

3 1 272

66

1 7 1

1 1

1

1

7 11

1

1 2

20 7 1 1

1 1

2 1

1 10

1 1

5 3 1 1 2

1

2

1 1

1

2

1 2 1

1

1

2

3 1 5

1 X

X

X

3

X

X

X

1

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X X 1

1

X

X

X X

X

1 X X

X

The Late Norse activity on mound 2 (BE)

3 10546 1469 BEC 2 hearth 100%

3 10571 1478 BEC 2 hearth 100%

8

1

3 1

1 1

3 10597 1482 BEC 1 hearth 100%

1

4

373

3 10795 1482 BEC 3 hearth 100%

3 10606 1484 BEC 3 hearth 100%

3 10625 1485 BEC 5 floor 100%

3 10634 1485 BEC 10 floor 100%

3 10638 1485 BEC 5 floor 100%

3 10646 1485 BEC 22 floor 100%

3 10650 1485 BEC 3 floor 100%

3 10668 1485 BEC 6 floor 100%

3 10672 1485 BEC 5 floor 100%

3 10682 1485 BEC 19.5 floor 100%

3 10684 1485 BEC 15 floor 100%

3 10688 1485 BEC 7 floor 100%

3 11784 1485 BEC 25 floor 100%

3 10658 1488 BEC 10 hearth 100%

3 10699 1493 BEC 20 hearth 100%

8

36 3

8

37 1

3

39 3 4 1

25 4 3

21

44

26

2

179 1 3

7 2 3

14

1 1 20 13 19 12 1

1 4 16 3 6 1 5

109 5 6 14 2 5 40 6

1

1

13 2 2 1 3 1

16 1 2 2 4

3

10

1 1

4 14 2

5 1 3 2

68 8 8 13

6

15 1 2 1 3

1 2 17 1 3

1 2 3

2

60 8 9 35 4 2

18 3 7 1 1

5 1

1 4 2

1

4 1

12

6

3

15

1 53

2

1

13

29

85

27

195

87

7

5

40

2 54

74

2

1

3

47

40

2

3

189

26

7

10 3

1

2

4

1

1

1

3

2 1 1

4 2

1 5 9 1

3

6 16

1 4 3

1

1 3 2 1 min

3

1 2

17

1

2

2

2

6

12

1

8 2

3 13 37

1 4

17

1

1

3

13

1

1

2 + 2 diff

2

2 2

1

2

3 1

2

1 2

1

20 1 2 1 15 1 7 11

1

1

3

1

1

1

1

1

3 1

1 2

1 1

4 13 1

1 2

1 1 1

1

1 4

1

1

1 1 2 1

1 X

X

1 X

X

2 X X 13 X X

2

3

X X X

X X

X X 1 X X X

X

X X

X

X X

X 1 X X

X X

X 2

2

X

X

X

X

4 X X

X

X

X

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

374

Table 118. The carbonised plant from the secondary occupation of House 3 (BEE) House 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Sample 9659 9669 9721 9725 9764 9772 9791 9801 9818 9828 9864 9868 9878 9889 7707 7711 7742 7743 7758 7798 7807 7817 7821 7905 Context 948 948 1020 1020 1020 1037 1048 1048 1048 1048 1048 1048 1048 1048 1378 1378 1379 1379 1379 1382 1382 1382 1382 1384 Block BEE BEE BEE BEE BEE BEC BEE BEE BEE BEE BEE BEE BEE BEE BEE BEE BEE BEE BEE BEE BEE BEE BEE BEE Litres 8 28 12 4 8 5 9 6 8 9 8.5 3.5 8 5 18 6 11.5 16 3 6 3.5 14 10.5 7 Context Type hearth hearth floor floor floor hearth floor floor floor floor floor floor floor floor floor floor floor floor floor floor floor floor floor floor Fraction 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% Cereals Hordeum vulgare grains Hordeum vulgare apical Hordeum vulgare embryo Hordeum vulgare indet frags Hordeum sativum rachis frags Hordeum vulgare mineralised Hordeum sp. Avena sp. grains Avena sp. apical Avena sp. embryo Avena sp. indet. frag cf Secale cereale grains cf Secale cereale apical cf Secale cereale embryo Secale sp. rachis frags Oat palea/lemma Cereal rachis frags Cereal culm frags Cereal grain frags Other Crops Linum usitatissimum cf Linum usitatissimum frags Weeds/Wild species Brassica/Sinapis spp Brassica/Sinapis spp mineralised-frag Buglossoides sp. Carex sp. Type 1 Carex sp. Type 2 Carex sp. Type 3 Carex sp. Type 4 Scirpus spp Cyperaceae indet. type 6 Cyperaceae indet. Cyperaceae/Polygonaceae Type cf Cerastium sp. Chenopodiaceae Chenopodiaceae/Caryophyllaceae Compositae indet. Compositae Type 1 flat type Compositae Type 2 large Crucifereae spp Erica sp. Euphorbia cf helioscopia cf Fumaria sp. Galium sp. Type 2 Gramineae Gramineae Type 1 Gramineae Type 2 small Phleum sp. Bromus sp. cf Juncus sp. cf Liliaceae Paniceae type grain Plantago sp. Primulaceae Potamogeton sp. Potentilla sp. Polygonum sp. Rumex sp. Rumex/Polgonum spp Rumex sp. Type 1 Rumex sp. Type 1 frag Rumex/Polygonum sp. Type 2 Polygonum sp. Type 3 Polygonum sp. Type 4 Rumex/Polygonum sp. Type 5 Ranunculus sp. small Ranunculus sp. large cf Raphanus sp. cf Raphanus sp. frag Rubus sp. cf Sisymbrium sp. Urtica urens Urtica sp. mineralised Urtica dioica Indet. Type 1 Twigs/stalks cf. Seaweed Heather frags Indet. small flower bud Poss ID Amorphous material Indet. small flower bud Indet. mineralised Dung

53 3 2

507 16 12

1

6

52

184 39 56 18 4

14 2 3

5 1

7

7 3

3 1 2

1

1

8 1 1 1

5

1

7 2 1

7 1 1

40

48

1

13 3 2

51 2 1

9 2 3 1

8 1

6

23 1 1

4 2

75 14 18 5 6

6

2 3 4 1 1

6 2

12 4 1

76 12 24 8 6 2 1

18 2 1

1 1

3 18

7 1 6

7 2 4

5 3 1 2 1

6 2 1 2 1

4 1

1 2

4 1 2

6 2

7

2

18 5 12

13 3 8

4

2

23 12 11 2 1

2 1

1

1 2 1

1 2

2 3 500

26

18

483 165

3 2

1

35

44

12

21

1

1

1

6

47

10

23

2

1 1

1 1

17

111

97

60

59

1

2

3

2

3

44

18

9

30

1

1 1

2

3 1 1

7 20 4 1

15 2 4 2 1

1 1

1 129

4 1

1 3

1 1 4

6

78

50

1

1

1

1

1

1

2 3

1

2

3 1 1

2

1

2 5 1

1

1 1 1 16 32

30 152

4

3 1

1 1

3

1

2 4

3 1

1

3

3

23

7

3 2

5 20

1 2 1

3 1

1

18

1 1 4 14 3

1

3

1

1

14

10 1 1 1 1 1

18 50

2 1

19 2 25

1

9 57 3

1 1

1

4

2

1

2

1

1

1

1 1

2

2

2

1

1

1 1

1

6 1 1 4

2 2

2 3 1

17

1

1 7

2 1 1

1

1

3 1

1

1 8

7

1

1

1

1 1

2

2

1 1

3 4 2

1 1 1 1

7

1

1 1

5 2 2 1

1

1

1

4 2

1

2 2

2 1

1 1

1 1 1

1 4

1

1 1 2 3 2

1

2 1

1

1

1

1

1

2

1 6 7

1 1

2

4

2

X X 17

X

X

X

1

1

2 1

1 1

X X

6 X

1 X X

X

X X

X

X X

3 X X

3 X X X

X

1 X X

X

X

X

X

1 X X

X X 3 X X

X X X X X

X X

X

X

X X

X

X X 2 X X

X 2 X X

The Late Norse activity on mound 2 (BE) 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 7906 7913 10024 10034 10038 10056 10060 1394 1394 1395 1395 1395 1395 1395 BEE BEE BEE BEE BEE BEE BEE 14 7 6 5.5 1 4 7 floor floor floor floor floor floor floor 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 33

7 5 5 6 4

11

2

4

1

7

3

3

2

4

7

13 3 1 1

1 9

6

12 1

3 10069 1395 BEE 4 floor 100% 6

1 2 1

2

375

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 11592 11596 11613 11617 7959 7970 7993 10104 10422 10426 10442 10446 10456 10463 10476 10496 10500 10516 10520 11633 1395 1395 1395 1395 1409 1410 1413 1418 1466 1466 1466 1466 1466 1466 1466 1466 1466 1466 1466 2002 BEE BEE BEE BEE BEE BEE BEE BEE BEE BEE BEE BEE BEE BEE BEE BEE BEE BEE BEE BEE 6 2.5 2 3 2 1 3 4 2 13 4 2 10 12 2.5 5 3 31 7 11 floor floor floor floor hearth hearth hearth hearth floor floor floor floor floor floor floor floor floor floor floor floor 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 12

2

9 4 1 1 3

2 1 1

8 1 4 1

11

11 2 4 1

32 4 1

6 7 8 2

79 6

13 2

505 26 12

3

9

19 3 7 4 2

113 183 25 3 8 8

5 4 3

11 1

9

18 2

1

3

5

7

1

1

5

1 2

1 3 1

66 3 2 4

5

3

9

10

3

4

1

1

2

2

2

1

1

1

1

47 6 13 1 2

4

1 126

1

1 2 5

1

2

1

43

52

10

11

2

1

2

1

5

24

18

12

15

1

1

19

54

1

1

88

184

22

515

2

2

2

4 1 2

1 1w/2f 1

28

36

11

78 4

1 2

3

9

1

11

3

3

9

7

9

9

1

9 1

2 1

1

1

7 3 1

2 1

1

1 2

5 2 2

1

3 2 1 1 3

1 3 32

1 1

14 104

1

3

1

7

1

1 1

1 5

1

11w10f

5

2

1

6

2 2

1

1

7 5

2 1 1

2 2 1

1

1

1

25

1

1 8

3

1

1

2

1

1

1

2

1

1 2

2 5

2

1 1

2

3

6 3

1 1

2

3 1

6 4

1

124

1

6 51

1

1

1

1

15

2

1

3

2 1 3

2 1

1 1

1

1 4

2

2 2 2

2

1 1

1

1

1 1

3

2

1

1 1

1 3 1

1 1

1 1

1 1 1 9 1 1

1 1

1 1

2 2

1

1 1

1 8 X

X X

1 X X

X

X

X

3 X X

1 X X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

3 X X

X X

X

X

X

25 X X

X

X

1 X X

X 1

X X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X X

X

X

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

376

comprises the last vestiges of a worked-out single platform flakelet core with evidence of platform preparation – this appears to be prehistoric and is likely to be residual. One complete flake has abrupt retouch along the distal end. A small assemblage of 16 artefacts was recovered from the entrance passage (BEG; Figure 280; Table 114) and this includes two whetstones (5406, 5453, made from Eidsborg schist) and a bone point (5447). The flint consists of four flakes and one piece of flake shatter. There was one iron strip from the area in front of the entrance passage (BEH).

Artefacts from BEI A small assemblage of 31 artefacts was recovered from the occupation deposits to the west of House 3 (BEI, Table 115; Figure 281). Just over half the assemblage consists of iron structural fittings and other iron scraps, but amongst the other artefacts are several important objects, notably two antler combs, a copper-alloy pin, an iron socketed chisel and an iron arrowhead. The largely complete comb (1308; Figure 282) is a particularly fine example of a ‘fish-tailed’ comb, a style that is thought to have originated in Norway in the thirteenth to fourteenth centuries (Clarke and Heald 2002; Ashby 2006). The other comb fragment (1455) is an endplate with a small fragment of side-plate attached. The side-plate is decorated with diagonal saw-cuts over horizontal grooves, which is quite a common motif at Bornais. However, the endplate has been carefully finished with a curving concave shape, which though unusual at Bornais is also present in the House 3 construction deposits (BEA; see 5313 in Figure 279). The copper-alloy pin (1451) is a fine example of a clubheaded pin, and there are two bone pins (1791, 1507) with complex ornamental heads. The iron arrowhead (1386) is a fine barbed and socketed point. The simple socketed chisel (1676) is likely to be a fairly common tool used for a variety of tasks, but these were rarely found on the site.

Carbonised plant remains – J Summers and J Bond The carbonised plant remains from a large number of samples were examined from the Late Norse deposits associated with the occupation of House 3 (Tables 116, 117 and 118; Figure 283): • • • •

nine samples (46.5 litres of soil) from the fill of prefloor features (BEB); 34 samples (290 litres of soil) from the early occupation (BEC); 52 samples (392 litres of soil) from the secondary occupation (BEE); one three-litre sample from the deposits outside the entrance (BEH).

14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Barley

Oat

Rye

BEB

BEC

Flax

Wild

BEE

Figure 283. Histograms showing the density of the main groups of carbonised plant remains in the blocks associated with House 3

The single sample from BEH had very high densities that may be due to the accumulation of rubbish outside the entrance to the house, but this may be misleading as the sample size was small. It is excluded from the discussion below. No samples were examined from the abandonment deposits (BEF) or the entrance (BEG) All four cultivars were present in the House 3 assemblages: barley was the most frequent, followed by oats, flax and then rye (Figure 283). The early occupation (BEC) had higher densities of barley, oats and rye, but much lower densities of flax than the secondary occupation (BEE). The fills of the pre-floor features (BEB) had high densities of barley and wild seeds. The average densities of barley, oats and flax were generally higher than they were in House 2 (BCC), but rye was roughly equivalent. The densities of barley and, to a lesser extent, oats varied depending on whether the sample came from the ash spreads of the hearths or from the floor layers. The high barley density for the primary occupation (BEC) was largely due to one sample, 10542 from hearth layer 1467, which produced 550 grains. The floor layers from the secondary occupation (BEE) generally had low densities of barley, but the hearth layers consistently produced large quantities of grains (505 grains from 10404 and 507 grains from 9669). It is possible that grain was being used as fuel in these hearths, but high densities might also occur if the hearth was used for graddaning (sheaf burning to toast the grains) and an accident occurred. High densities of all the major cultivars and high densities of wild seeds tended to occur in the same samples, and this again would support the interpretation that these samples were mixed deposits. The density of flax seeds was highest in the secondary occupation (BEE), due to the 483 seeds in sample 9669, from hearth layer 948. The density of wild seeds was much higher in the pre-floor features (BEB) than in other BE deposits. This was due not to one particularly large collection of seeds, but to the large number of seeds of many different species in two samples (sample 9487 in

The Late Norse activity on mound 2 (BE)

1094, the basal fill of pit 1097; sample 11838 from fill layer 2149, in post hole 2148). Chaff elements, including barley and rye rachis were present but, as in other phases, the numbers were low.

70 60 50 % 40 30

Animal bone – A Powell, J Best, J Mulville and N Sharples

20 10 BEA

BEC

Cattle

BEE

BEF

Sheep/goat

BEG/H Pig

The Late Norse activity associated with House 3 produced a substantial assemblage of animal bones, 1,350 identifiable fragments (BE; Tables 119, 120 and 121). The largest assemblages came from the construction deposits (BEA, 318 fragments), the secondary occupation (BEE, 313 fragments) and the occupation deposits to the west of the

BEI Deer

Figure 284. Histograms showing the distribution of the four main species of animals in the blocks associated with House 3

3

4

1

1340

BEA

east side

2032

BEA

west side

Sub-total

BEA

1094

BEB

fill of 1097

1203

BEB

fill of 1202

1204

BEB

fill of 1202

2007

BEB

fill of 1202

1205

BEB

fill of 1232

2000

BEB

fill of 1499

2004

BEB

fill of 2003

2011

BEB

2159

BEB

2162

BEB

Sub-total

1

19

8

3 1

9

3

1

113

20

Total

10

10

194

2

3

74

2

14

1

30

16

318

1 3

1

12

3

107

23

1 1

1

18

1

1

0

15

6

1

1 1

1 1

1

2 2

1

1

1

1

2

1

1

1

1

4

1

3

1

5

fill of 2158

1

1

fill of 2160

1

BEB

1

1

1

1

7

0

0

8

3

8

1

1

2

1

34

8

38

21

3

BEC

brown sand

BEC

floor

1486

BEC

hearth north

1

1082

BEC

hearth centre

1

1

1069

BEC

hearth south

1

1

1467

BEC

hearth south

1468

BEC

hearth south

1

1478

BEC

hearth south

1

1493

BEC

hearth south

1496

BEC

fill of 1495

2116

BEC

fill of 2115

1426

BEC

winkle layer BEC

2

4

2

1076/1449/1485

Total

1

5

6

1427

Sub-total

1

Sheep-sized mammal

33

east side

12

Cattle-sized mammal

north corner

BEA

1

Cetacean

BEA

1332/1337

12

Seal

1318/2650

70

Common seal

10

Roe deer

67

Red deer

east side

Dog

BEA

Pig

Sheep

573/1339

Sheep/goat

Feature type

Goat

Block

Equid

Context

Cattle

Table 119. The animal bone from House 3 construction (BEA), pre floor features (BEB) and early occupation (BEC)

Cat

0

377

0

0

2

2

0

1

0

0

1

1

3

6

1

23

8

121

14

1 5 2

1

1

6 1

3

1 1

2

1

1

7 1

1 2

1

3

1

1

1

8

2

50

13

0

47

28

2

0

3

0

1

1

1

7

12

167

4

170

33

1

162

54

3

1

23

1

1

3

1

22

29

508

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

378

Sub-total

BED

0

0 5

0

4

1

1

1

1

1

2

Hare/fox-sized mammal

2

Sheep-sized mammal

2

fill of 1423

Cattle-sized mammal

fill of 1402

BED

Cetacean

BED

1424

Pine marten

1403

Otter

Feature type

Roe deer

Block

Red deer

Context

Pig

Sheep/goat

Goat

Sheep

Cattle

Table 120. The animal bone from the reconstruction of House 3 (BED) and its secondary occupation (BEE)

Total

4 2

0

0

0

0

0

0

12

0

6 24

1378

BEE

charcoal layer

4

1381

BEE

charcoal layer

1

1413

BEE

charcoal layer

1

2062

BEE

charcoal layer

2112

BEE

floor

10

2

1048/1395/1466

BEE

floor 1

15

6

1020/1379/1382/1394

BEE

floor 2

35

8

948

BEE

hearth

1

1409

BEE

hearth

1

1410

BEE

hearth

1

1411

BEE

hearth

1418

BEE

hearth

1419

BEE

hearth

1

1

1039

BEE

fill of 1038

1

1

1385

BEE

fill of 1476

1

1405

BEE

fill of 1404

1407

BEE

fill of 1406

1433

BEE

fill of 1434

1443

BEE

fill of 1434

1445

BEE

fill of 1454

1447

BEE

fill of 1454

5

1453

BEE

fill of 1454

1

1455

BEE

fill of 1454

2

1458

BEE

fill of 1454

1479

BEE

fill of 1441

1

1

2002

BEE

fill of 1434

2

2

2

2097

BEE

fill of 1454

1

Sub-total Total

BEE

1 1 2

1

2

6

2

2

24

6

7

36

4

6

7

2

2 2 1

2

1

2

6

2

4

7

6

32 67 1

2

12 1 1

1 1

107

1

1

1

1

4

1 1

2

3

1

2

7

2 1

1

3

1

1

12

1

3

2

1

19 2

1 1

6

1

10

1

1 2 1

7 1

85

24

1

123

18

16

1

4

1

2

14

23

1

313

85

24

1

127

18

16

1

4

1

2

15

24

1

319

house (BEI, 325 fragments). The early occupation (BEC, 167 fragments) and the abandonment deposits (BEF, 127 fragments) had reasonable quantities, but the other assemblages were small. The most common domestic species is sheep/goat (48% of the total of cattle, sheep, pig, horse and deer) which is slightly above the 45% average for mound 2. Cattle are the next most common with a percentage (37%), which is the mound 2 average. Pig are present (9%), though slightly less common than average (10% for mound 2), and deer are again an occasional presence (5%, slightly less than the mound 2 average). The distribution of the four main species is depicted in Figure 284. The proportions vary quite considerably

between the different blocks. Cattle seem to decline in importance during the life of House 3. They begin as almost 40% of the assemblage (BEA) and in the abandonment level (BEF) they are 24%. Cattle are the dominant species in the occupation deposits to the west (BEI, 51%), which may support the suggestion, based on the pottery analysis, that these deposits were formed early in the House 3 occupation. In all other blocks, sheep increase in importance in relation to cattle. In the early occupation of the house (BEC) pig are a significant presence (20%). Sheep dominate the very small assemblage from outside the entrance (BEH, 77%). Deer are numerically most important in the small assemblages from the foundation pits (BEB) and the entrance (BEG).

The Late Norse activity on mound 2 (BE)

379

Table 121. The animal bone from the House 3 abandonment (BEF), the entrance (BEG), outside the entrance (BEH) and the deposits

2

1

BEG

1

4

1376

BEG

2

1

Sub-total

BEG

5

1

1391

BEH

1392

BEH

8

5

1417

BEH

Sub-total

BEH

0

0

8

5

9/107/147

BEI

2

1

60

10

109/110

BEI

5

1

111

BEI

113

BEI

12

4

1

2

0

0

26

0

15

0

58

6

110 3

5

1

0

4

1

0

0

2

0

0

3

10

4 0

1

4

1 0

0

0

2

34

2

1

1

0

35

2

1

1

0

1

34

11

1

5

5 0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

1

2

2

54

1

3

8

8

143

1

2

11

1

1

1

19

1

1

3

8

1

1

2

4

2

30

0

0

0

1

1

0

1

1 0

2

0

9

BEI

1

1

1

1

162

BEI

12

3

5

170

BEI

12

1

1

173

BEI

2

184/186

BEI

15

5

4

96/190

BEI

20

6

2052

BEI

Sub-total

BEI

8

57

11

BEI

1

14

1 1

2

127

5

1 0

Total

10

1

1

135

1

2

1

4

1

16 2

1

2

1 2

3

1

3

2

31

2

1

1

45

3

5

5

1

139

12

1

74

28

2

3

14

0

2

1

0

0

1

22

19

1

325

7

1

178

33

1

173

35

4

4

20

1

2

1

2

1

1

26

32

1

523

Table 122. The taphonomy of the animal bone from all House 3

% butchered

125

38

1

13

5

2

0.0

23

6

26

0

9

1

4

0.0

BEC

166

51

31

0

12

6

4

0.0

BEE

313

83

26

1

15

15

5

0.3

BEF

127

38

30

0

17

3

2

0.0

BEG

14

4

29

0

36

1

7

0.0

BEH

57

15

26

0

12

3

5

0.0

BEI

325

104

31

1

10

2

1

0.0

Total

1349

427

31

1

13

36

3

0.1

% calcined

% rodent gnawed

318

BEB

% burnt

Total gnawed

BEA

Total Burnt

Block

Total ID

blocks (BE)

% carnivore gnawed

9

1 1

3

156

Total

3

Hare/fox-sized mammal

BEG

1374

1

2

Sheep-sized mammal

1373

1

2

Cattle-sized mammal

BEF

1

Porpoise

Sub-total

50

Cetacean

BEF

14

Seal

BEF

1380

5

4

22

Pine marten

1352

3 2

Otter

BEF

Deer

BEF

599/1336/2041

Red deer

579

Cat

Block

Dog

Context

Pig

Sheep/goat

Goat

Sheep

Cattle

Horse

Equid

to the west (BEI)

Other species are present in small numbers. These include 12 equid or horse bones, seven dog and five cat bones. Wild animals include six otter, two possible pine marten, six seal and one porpoise bone. The assemblage has a high percentage of carnivoregnawed bones and a rather lower percentage of bones butchered or burnt (Table 122). The carnivore gnawing is fairly evenly distributed across the different blocks, but the butchered bones are much more common in the assemblage from the entrance (BEG), though the very small size of this assemblage makes this observation of questionable significance. Burnt bones are more variable in their presence, but it is noticeable that the two large assemblages of bones from the construction phase (BEA) and the occupation deposits to the west (BEI) have very low percentages. An assemblage of 139 identifiable bird bones was

BEE

BEE

BEE

BEE

BEE

BEE

BEE

BEE

BEF

BEF

1048/1395/1466

1020/1379/1382/1394

948

1414

1415

1453

1455

2097

579/1352

599/1336/2041

Total

BEI

BEE

2112

184

BEE

1378

BEI

BEC

1426

107

BEC

1478

BEI

BEC

1486

96/190

BEC

1082

BEH

BEC

1076/1449/1485

1392

BEC

1427

BEG

BEB

2011

1376

BEB

2000

BEG

BEA

2650

1374

BEA

2032

BEF

BEA

1340

BEG

BEA

1337

1373

BEA

573/1339

1380

Block

Context

Cormorant

Cormorant / Shag 1

Curlew 1

1

Galliform cf Grouse 1

2

1

4

1

3

Goose, Branta sp. 1

1

1

1

5

1

1

2

21

2

2

1

5

pit fill

pit fill

1

1

pit fill

hearth

hearth

hearth

floor 2

1

2

8

1

1

floor

floor 1

1

1

1

charcoal layer

winkle layer

hearth south

hearth north

hearth centre

10

1

1

1

2

3

1

6

3

1

1

8

1

1

4

12

2

1

2

2

1

3

5

Galliform cf Domestic Fowl 1

Gannet 3

Goose, Large Grey cf Greylag

floor

1

1

Goose sp. 1

1

1

Domestic Fowl 1

Duck sp. Medium / Large 3

Great Northern Diver

brown sand

brown sand

fill of 1499

north corner

west side

east side

east side

east side

Feature type

Guillemot 1

1

Gull, Great BlackBacked 3

1

2

4

1

3

Gull, Herring / Lesser Black-Backed

Table 123. The bird bone from all House 3 blocks (BE)

Gull sp. 7

1

1

1

2

2

Gull / Skua / Wader 4

1

1

1

1

Plover cf Golden 1

1

Puffin 2

1

1

Razorbill 2

1

1

Razorbill / Guillemot 1

1

Red Grouse 2

1

1

Small Passerine 10

1

1

3

2

1

2

Snipe 1

1

Swan sp. 1

1

Wader sp. 7

1

1

1

3

1

Wader, Small 12

1

4

1

1

4

1

139

1

3

3

4

1

1

1

1

8

2

2

5

1

1

1

1

13

14

5

2

4

2

5

1

28

1

2

1

2

2

1

5

15

Total

380

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

The Late Norse activity on mound 2 (BE)

381

Table 124. The fish bone taxa from all House 3 blocks (BE) 10mm

BED

BED

Raja montagui Raja clavata cf Raja clavata

1

1

BEE

BEE

1

1

1

1

Clupea harengus

57

114

1347

1347

1147

1148

cf Clupeidae spp

2

4

19

19

43

43

11

11

18

18 20

BEB

BEC

BEE

1

2

Salmo salar Salmo trutta Salmo spp cf Salmonidae

1

1

Anguilla anguilla

4

4

20

1 1

1

Conger conger

2

2

1

1

Merlangius merlangus

9

9

2

4

cf Anguilla anguilla

cf Merlangius merlangus cf Trisopterus spp Pollachius pollachius Pollachius virens

3

6

2

2

14

12

17

17

35

35

16

13

11

11

13

13

36

9

1

1

4

4

7

7

40

12

Pollachius spp

1

Gadus morhua Melanogrammus aeglefinus Merluccius merluccius Molva molva Large gadid

1

2

1

1

1

1

23

23

18

18

Medium gadid

2

2

Small gadid

3

3

Gadidae spp

12

12

1

1

1

1

7

7

2

2

1

1

4

1

8

8

28

24

1

cf Gadidae spp cf Dicentrachus labrax Trachurus trachurus Sparidae spp

2

Labrus bergylta Labridae spp

1

1

cf Labridae spp

1

1

Ammodytidae spp

3

3

cf Ammodytidae spp

1

1

Scomber scombrus

3

3

3

3

1

1

cf Scombridae spp Pholis gunnellus

2

2

cf Pholididae spp

2

2

cf Zoarcidae spp. Scophthalmus maximus

2

2

1

1

Pleuronectes platessa

2

2

2

2

4

4

Flatfish 1

1

1

1

Unidentifiable

cf Flatfish 61

122

7159

7159

5269

5289

Total

124

248

8642

8642

1

6605

6628

Total identifiable

63

126

1483

1483

1

1

1336

% identifiable

51

51

17

17

100

100

20

projected quantities

1

151

80

1

296

167

1339

1

145

87

20

100

49

52

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

382

Table 125. Fish bone elements from all House 3 blocks (BE) Skeletal element

Clupea harengus BEB

Ethmoid

BEC

BEE

Pollachius virens BEB

BEC

BEE

BEC

BEE

2

1

1

1

Pterotic 4

8

13

10

Articular

1

5

Dentary

4

1

1

BEE

BEC

BEE

1

1

1 2 2

1

5

1

Palatine

2

2

1

1

3

1

Metapterygoid

6

1

Premaxilla

1

5

Quadrate

1

1

3

3

1

Epihyal

1

1

1

1 1

1

1 1

2

Hyomandibular

2

1

Symplectic

2 1

Opercular

2

4

Interoperacular

1

Preopercular

1

Subopercular

3

5

Urohyal

2

4

Cleithra

2

6

Posttemporal

2

Supracleithra

1

5

8

1

30

32

Posterior abdominal vertebra

17

368

301

Caudal vertebra

25

469

392

18

17

11

173

185

234

152

1346

1147

Hypural Scale

33

3 1

2

Otolith 57

1

1 1

Anterior abdominal vertebra

MNI

BEC

Pollachius pollachius

1

Maxilla

Total

BEE

1

Ectopterygoid

Vertebra fragment

BEC

Molva molva

1

Prootic

Ceratohyal

Merluccius merluccius

1

Vomer

Basioccipital

Gadus morhua

3

1

6

8

1

2

1

2

1

7

7

10

3

22

5

7

5

5

8

16

26

14

12

17

9

1

2

3

1

1

1

1

47

22

1

2

33

48

3

recovered from the deposits associated with House 3 (Table 123). The assemblage was concentrated in the deposits from the early occupation and the secondary occupation (BEC, BEE), but identifiable birds were also recovered from all the other blocks, except BED. In these BE blocks, the quantity of domestic fowl increases in comparison to the earlier phases, to become the most numerous species identified, accounting for 15% of the assemblage (and 22% when ‘galliform cf domestic’ bones are included in the count). The great northern diver, geese (both grey and black), gulls and small waders form a sizeable proportion of the identifiable birds. A range of other species including cormorant, auks and ducks are present in small numbers, and there are two bones of red grouse, which is rare in the mound 2 assemblage.

2

1 2

43

19 2

9

9 1

16

12 1

A higher-than-average 4% of the identifiable bird bone is burnt, 6% is butchered, and 10% has been gnawed (including one example of rodent gnawing).

Fish bone – C Ingrem The 2–10 mm residues from House 3 comprises a total of 2,883 specimens, and the greater than 10 mm residues a further 233 pieces (Table 124). The majority of the remains from both categories of material came from contexts associated with the early (BEC) and later (BEE) phases of occupation, with a smaller amount derived from foundation pits (BEB). Once again, the assemblages are clearly dominated by herring although a wide range of taxa

The Late Norse activity on mound 2 (BE)

383

Table 126. The estimated size of the fish from all House 3 blocks (BE) 150-300 mm

c.300 mm

300-600 mm

600-1200 mm

>1200 mm

Species

Block

Clupea harengus

BEB

Clupea harengus

BEC

17

1074

8

Clupea harengus

BEE

27

838

50

Pollachius virens

BEB

3

Pollachius virens

BEC

13

7

13

Pollachius virens

BEE

32

2

14

Gadus morhua

BEC

2

3

38

4

Gadus morhua

BEE

2

18

2

Merluccius merluccius

BEC

Merluccius merluccius

BEE

57

44 2

are present, albeit in relatively small numbers. As in earlier periods, these include saithe, salmonid, eel, cod and hake. The assemblages of herring are comprised mainly of vertebrae, with a relatively small number of other bones present (Table 125). The calculation of percentage presence illustrates this and shows that the only other element well represented is the basioccipital. Abdominal vertebrae have the highest relative presence with a minimum of 33 individuals represented. In contrast, the relatively small saithe assemblage contains a more even distribution of elements, with bones from most regions of the body present, although vertebrae are numerically dominant. However, the calculation of percentage presence indicates that the head was better repre­ sented than the abdominal or caudal region. A min­imum of three individual saithe are represented by the vomer. Cranial and appendicular remains are also relatively well represented in the small cod assemblage, and the calculation of percentage presence indicates that the post-temporal has the highest presence, and represents a minimum of two individuals. Abdominal vertebrae are the most numerous hake element according to both NISP and the calculation of percentage presence, although some cranial and appendicular elements are present; a minimum of two individual hake are represented. The majority of the herring remains are from fish approximately 300mm in length (Table 126). More than half the saithe bones belong to small specimens, although medium and large fish are also represented. Most of the cod and hake remains are from large fish. A cut-mark was visible on a posttemporal bone belonging to a large gadoid fish recovered from a hearth (1469, BEC). Forty-nine bones were crushed in a manner suggestive of chewing; most belong to herring although other taxa are affected, including salmonid, saithe and flatfish (Table 216). The gnawed bones came from various contexts in the early and later occupation deposits (BEC, BEE); floor layer (1449) produced 14 specimens. A larger number (n = 138) show evidence for burning (Table 216). Most of these were recovered from an early occupation

15

floor layer (1485), but smaller amounts were associated with the later occupation, including a charcoal-rich layer (1378), and a brown sand deposit (1382). A particularly large sample of 5,232 fish bones was examined from a floor layer (1485) of the early occupation (BEC)). The second largest sample, 1,817 fish bones, came from floor layer 1378 of the secondary occupation (BEE). The early occupation (BEC) also produced the highest densities of fish with 400 frag/litre recorded compared with 105 frag/litre in the late occupation floor.2 The density of fish remains in deposits associated with the early occupation (BEC) was generally high, 231 frag/litre recorded for a brown sand layer (1426) and 186 frag/litre in floor layer (1449).

Conclusion – N Sharples The construction of House 3 indicated a revitalisation of the settlement on mound 2. The disordered and relatively messy period of settlement activity in the immediately preceding phase was in marked contrast to the earlier phases when large houses were constructed in the centre of the mound. House 3 was a structure comparable in size to Houses 1 and 2. Radiocarbon dates (see Chapter 11) indicate that the initial activity associated with the construction of House 3 started in cal AD 1190–1270 (95% probability) and probably cal AD 1225–1260 (68% probability). The earliest occupation is estimated to have begun in cal AD 1235–1280 (95% probability) and probably cal AD 1250– 1275 (68% probability), and the secondary use in cal AD 1265–1290 (95% probability) and probably cal AD 1270– 1285 (68% probability). House 3 is estimated to have been abandoned in cal AD 1280–1330 (95% probability) and probably cal AD 1285–1310 (68% probability). House 3 was essentially a mid to late thirteenth-century structure that might have survived into the beginning of the fourteenth century and was probably in use for couple of generations (30–75 years; 68% probability).

384

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

The gap between the occupation of House 2 and the construction of House 3 was between 20–155 years (95% probability) or 65–130 years (68% probability), which is a significant length of time during which this mound, and possibly the entire settlement at Bornais, appears to have had no large house at its centre. The radiocarbon dates suggest construction of the new house preceded the political transfer of the islands from the King of Norway to the Kingdom of Scotland in 1266, but there remains a statistical possibility that that the construction of House 3 was directly related to this event and represents the introduction of an alien Scottish tradition into the previously Norse islands. However, this is an overtly simplistic view of what was undoubtedly a complex political and economic period in the island’s history (see Chapter 12). This house marked a significant departure from the earlier Norse building tradition of bow-shaped halls. The new house had a rectangular ground plan, only slightly subterranean, that was defined by a low stone revetment wall. The stone wall was constructed to an even height of just under half a metre and it seems likely that it provided a foundation for a timber frame that supported timber panel walls. Internal supports were not identified by any substantial post holes in the interior of the house, but flat stones may indicate the presence of a supporting timber frame. This timber structure was surrounded by a turf wall and the vestigial remains of a kerb on the west side of the house suggest that this was about 1 m thick. Similar buildings were present in the final phases of all the mounds excavated at Bornais and at Cille Pheadair, but none of these buildings came close to the size of the house on mound 2. House 3 enclosed an area 12.00 m by 5.60 m, which provided 67.2 sq m of floor space. The final house on mound 3, for example, was 4.00 m by 7.20 m, and enclosed an area of only 28.8 sq m (Sharples 2005b). The size of House 3 suggests it was a significant structure and this understanding of its importance is enhanced when one contemplates the amount of timber required to build the house. To create a roof spanning a 5.60 m-wide house would have required substantial timbers that were not readily available on the islands. If the reconstruction of this building type (discussed in Sharples 2005b) is correct, then a considerable amount of timber was further required to support the roof and furnish the interior. These timbers would have to have been imported, from either the Scottish mainland or Scandinavia. The construction of House 3 involved the systematic demolition of the east end of House 2. The east gable wall of House 2 survived, though it was reduced to two courses (Figure 112 and 431), and it lay directly underneath the long east wall of House 3. This was a relationship that was deliberately emphasised, as the house walls on the north and south sides of House 2 were completely removed. The link is reminiscent of similar relationships between different structures noted at Cille Pheadair (Parker Pearson et al. 2004; 2018).

The change from an east–west to a north–south orientation is likely to be important and also occurred at Cille Pheadair, where the principal domestic structure shifts from a north–south orientation to an east–west orientation and then back to north–south. Exactly what these changes in orientation meant is unknown, but it is clear that the rectangular houses in the Hebrides were built with a cardinal orientation and that this was a trait common to other Norse-influenced areas (Doxtater 1990). The identification of numerous pre-floor pits in these houses suggests the existence of a ritual practice that descended from the pre-Norse inhabitants of the islands, when such pit-digging was a well-established tradition (Campbell 1991). The pits found beneath the centre of House 3 were dug out and filled in prior to the construction of the house and are comparable in position to similar pits in House 2 and House 1, though there is no consistency of form and content in these pits. Exactly what purpose the pits served is unknown, but in House 3 they were associated with burning and thin, charcoal-rich layers featured prominently in their fills. Similar foundation pits were excavated when the floor was refurbished and re-laid. The form, location and orientation of the entrance to House 3 are distinctive. It was located in the middle of the north end of the house’s long east side and comprised a rectangular stone-lined trough, with a sill separating the interior of the house from the passage. This feature is similar to the entrance to the final house on mound 3 and to the final phase house at Cille Pheadair, though that structure also had a second, opposing entrance (Parker Pearson et al. 2018). This is clearly an architectural feature that should be looked for in other late medieval structures in Scotland and the Norse world. The position of the entrance to House 2, close to the end of its south wall, is not dissimilar. This preference for an entrance near the end of a wall is a feature of other Viking houses (Milek 2006), but in earlier buildings, the entrances are not sunken features, and no sill stones separating the passage from the interior are present. Despite the intensive sampling of deposits, and the concomitant immense amount of time and labour devoted to the analysis of the material thus recovered, the features and deposits excavated in the interior of House 3 have not provided a simple picture of how this space was used. It is clear that there were significant changes in the manner in which large, high-status houses were used. The division of houses into three aisles, with a long central hearth area, was abandoned and instead the house was divided into ‘rooms’ marked by the presence or absence of discrete hearths. For the purpose of this summary, House 3 can be divided into four units similar to those used to discuss House 2: north end, north-centre, south-centre and south end (Figure 244).3 In the early occupation (BEC), the most important hearth was in the south-central area where a complex sequence of ash accumulations suggests a long period of hearth activity. There was also a smaller and stratigraphically

The Late Norse activity on mound 2 (BE) simpler hearth in the north-central area, whereas there was only a patch of redeposited ash in the north end and no ash layers at all in the south end. The presence of these distinct hearths may suggest the house was divided into separate households, but there could be functional reasons for this division. Nevertheless, it is clear that the substantial, elongated hearths characteristic of the earlier long houses were abandoned and that smaller hearths became the norm. This may reflect a change in social organisation, from large extended households to smaller, more nuclear households. The analysis of the residues produced by the sampling programme has revealed a significant difference between the floor layers in the north end of the house and the floor layers at the south end during the early occupation (BEC). The north end produced very high densities of fish bone, in both the above 10 mm and the 2–10 mm residues. Winkles were also very common in the north end, in contrast to limpets, which were evenly spread throughout the floor layers. The material from the 2–10 mm residues shows a gradual decline in the quantity of mammal bone as one moves from south to north but this decline is less visible in the results from the above 10 mm residues. B.O.M. was generally concentrated in the north half of the house, whereas the Spirorbis, egg and crab shell were most frequent in the south, particularly close to the main hearth. Pottery from both the small and large residues was concentrated in the south, though this is a small assemblage. The distinction between pottery, animal bone, crab and egg in the south and winkle, fish and B.O.M. in the north may reflect a division between a cooking and consumption area in the southern part of the house’s interior and a dirty processing area in the northern part. In the secondary occupation (BEE), the central southern hearth continued in use, but during this period of occupation a large, new hearth area was established in the northern half of the house, opposite the entrance. There were other patches of ash that possibly indicate short-lived subsidiary hearths, including one in the centre of the southern area, but these could be ash dumped to consolidate the floor. A very large pit was dug out at the beginning of this secondary occupation, in the northwest corner of the house; it was quickly filled in and covered by the later floor of the secondary occupation. The analysis of the residues emphasises the massive concentration of winkles in the south-central area, where they were laid as a surface around the hearth. This would have provided a firmer surface underfoot than the sand but the surrounding floor layers contained ash and charcoal that would also have provided a degree of stability sufficient for occupation. Limpets were much less common than winkles in these floors: were they not robust enough to be suitable for flooring, or were they simply regarded as less comfortable to walk on? Other patterns in the later floors are not as clear as they are in the earlier occupation deposits, possibly because the

385

floor was occupied for a longer period and use changed over time. Fish bones were still concentrated in the northeast corner and there was also a small concentration of animal bone in this corner. B.O.M. and charcoal were concentrated in the south end of the house, as was the pottery. The smaller materials (Spirorbis, crab and eggshell) are much rarer in this phase and show no obvious pattern. Coprolite, in contrast, is much more frequent and was concentrated at the south end of the house. The overall pattern of the house occupation suggests that, during the life of the house, there was a shift in focus from the area in the south-centre, where the hearth was originally placed, towards an area opposite the entrance, where a new hearth was placed and activity was focused. The very distinct cooking and consumption space of the early occupation is a deeply embedded feature of the Scandinavian longhouses, observed in Houses 1 and 2 (see above 000). It is therefore significant that it was retained even after the introduction of a distinctly new form of architecture, the rectangular house. It was during the life of House 3 that the area opposite the entrance became the main focus for sociality. By the end of the fourteenth century, when the final houses were constructed on mounds 3 and 2A (Sharples 2005b; this volume Chapter 8), the hearth had become a small, tightly delimited structure immediately opposite the entrance. Other chronological changes can be noted during this phase, most obviously in the ceramic assemblage. The inhabitants of the house stopped using platter and finer wares with everted rims were introduced. Both these changes occurred between the early occupation and the secondary occupation. The occupants continued to have a widespread network of contacts, demonstrated by the presence of the fish-tailed comb (1308), which was probably made in Norway, and the silver coin (5206), which was probably made in the Low Countries. There are no obvious differences in the carbonised plant assemblages to suggest any change in the arable agriculture of the inhabitants during this period. However, there is a general decline in the importance of cattle over time, and a significant decline in the quantity of pig bones present. These changes may indicate a shift in the nature of consumption practices, away from feasting on high-status meat-producing animals.

Notes 1 The layers are collectively labelled the ‘abandonment deposits’ in the discussions below but the interpretation of the material in these deposits should assume that this derives from activity within the house. 2 These densities are based on the identified fragments and differ from the raw densities derived from the residue sorting. 3 The lay-out of the sampling grid is slightly skewed in relation to the axis of the house, because the grid was originally established when only a small area of the centre of the house was exposed.

8  The Late Norse activity on mound 2A – N Sharples and K Waddington with K Stentoft

Introduction The Late Norse activity on mound 2A was extensive and substantial, and comprises an important sequence of houses and ancillary structures, as well as extensive areas

450/230

460/230

House 12 House 13 House 14 House 15 anc. build. 3

450/210

of midden deposition (Figure 285). The mound was clearly structured: there was a central sequence of houses (GE), which lay in the southern part of the excavated trench; to the north of this was an area of largely ancillary buildings

0

470/230

5m

460/210

470/210

Figure 285. An overall plan showing the relationship of the sequence of Late Norse houses (GE and GF) identified on mound 2A

The Late Norse activity on mound 2A (GC), which was the main focus for the excavations described here; this was surrounded by middens (GD), with the thickest accumulations on the east side of the mound. The archaeology was divided into four areas of Late Norse activity, which are subdivided into a total of 21 blocks (see Figure 26). The southern end of the settle­ ment mound was only superficially excavated, but nine stratigraphic blocks were identified that delineate a com­ plex sequence of house construction, use and infilling (GE) in this area: • • • • • •

the construction of House 12 (GEA) and its occupa­ tion (GEB); the infilling of House 12 (GEC); the construction of House 13 (GED) and its occupa­ tion (GEE); the infilling of House 13 (GEF); the construction of House 14 (GEG) and its occupa­ tion (GEH), and the construction of ancillary structure 3 (GEI).

In the centre of the trench, in an area completely excavated, was a sequence of structures (GC): • • •

the construction of ancillary structure 5 (GCA) and its occupation (GCB); the construction of ancillary structure 6 (GCC) and its occupation (GCD); the construction of House 15 (GCE) and its occupa­ tion (GCF).

Surrounding these structures and contemporary with them was an area of midden accumulation (GD) explored by extension trenches, square 11 to the west, square 3 to the north and square 15 to the east (see Figure 25 for the plan of excavation squares). On the west side of the mound the midden deposits are block GDA, on the north side GDB, and on the east side GDC. Amongst the midden deposits on the east side was a building, ancillary structure 4, that was only partially explored (GG). The excavated deposits provide invaluable evidence for the Late Norse occupation at Bornais. The building sequence, whilst only partially explored, clearly informs our understanding of architectural developments in this period of transformation. There is a wealth of artefactual and economic data that provide an important source of information on the agricultural economy of the settlement and its exchange relationships. The nature of the deposits excavated also provides a different perspective on the settlement that contrasts with the occupation of the highstatus houses on mound 2.

The southern houses (GE) In the second season of excavation on mound 2A in 2000, the discovery of the north end of a house (numbered as House 12; Figure 285) indicated that substantial structures

387

existed to the south of the main excavation area and these were confirmed by trial trenches in 2003 and exposed by a large area excavation in 2004 (Figure 286). The aim of the 2004 excavation was to clarify the structural sequence by surface examination alone; full excavation of any exposed structures was not part of the research design. Three houses and an ancillary structure, all oriented roughly north–south (Figure 285) were identified and it was demonstrated that the southern part of the mound was the main settlement focus in the Late Norse period. Since these buildings were not fully excavated, it is very possible that the full sequence of structures on mound 2A has not been fully exposed, and earlier houses or ancillary buildings may be present in this southern area.

The construction of House 12 (GEA) In square 16, the excavations identified the northern end of a rectangular subterranean building (House 12), whose walls were built in a construction pit (1745; Figure 287). The house was defined by a continuous stone wall that described a curvilinear U-shape in the trench (Figure 287). The wall (1701/1702/1703) was substantial and over three courses, 0.40 m high were exposed. However, the walls must have been at least 1.00 m tall, given the depth of the deposits infilling the house. The size of the stones used in the wall varied, with large blocks on the west side and smaller slabs, 0.60 m by 0.14 m maximum, on the north and east sides. Construction pit 1745, in which House 12 was built, was filled with a light grey-brown sand (1744; Figure 289). The pit truncated a considerable thickness of deposits (Figure 289), including ash layers derived from the use of the south kiln (GBC), which indicates that House 12 was late in the sequence of activity on this mound. Immediately adjacent to the walls of the house were deposits (2453, 1671; Figure 287) that may represent either the fill of the construction pit, or later deposits associated with the dismantling of House 12. To the south, the slightly deeper excavation of the linear 2003 trial trench (Figure 287) revealed a wall (unnumbered), which may well be a continuation of the west wall of House 12. It was built into a red brown sand with red mottles (1722) that is presumed to relate to the construction of House 12.

The occupation of House 12 (GEB) Only superficial investigations of the layers within the house were carried out, and it appears that most of the deposits excavated within the walls of House 12 postdate the house’s occupation. However, the lowest layer exposed (but not dug), a grey-black, charcoal-rich sand (1646) might have been a floor.

Post-occupation infilling of House 12 (GEC) House 12 contained a sequence of layers that appeared to

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

388

Figure 286. A view across the excavated area on mound 2A in 2004 from the south. In the foreground is House 13

1745

1671 1702

1701

1640 1698

1703

460/220

455/220

465/220

1722

0

5m

Figure 287. A detailed plan of House 12 showing the pit (1698) in the fill and the location of the house cut (1745) to the north (see Figure 22 for a key to the colours used)

The Late Norse activity on mound 2A

389

A

1652 1654 1655 1666

B

C 1667

D

1658 1665 2472 1634

1634

1732 455/220

460/220

465/220

1737

0

5m

Figure 288. A plan of the deposits in the fill of House 12 and the possible internal wall

have been deliberately deposited to fill the structure prior to the construction of the later houses, House 13 and House 15 (Figure 289 B, C and D, 290). On top of the possible floor layer (1646) was a grey sand layer (1645), which contained a patch of orange sand (1644). This layer was cut by a pit or scoop (1698; Figure 287), 1.00 m by 1.30 m and 0.25 m deep. The pit was filled with a thin basal layer of red-brown sand (1690), followed by grey sand (1689) and a charcoal-rich yellow sand (1681). The pit was then covered with a red-orange sand with charcoal flecks (1640), which expanded beyond the ill-defined edge of the pit (Figures 287, 289 B and D). The fill of the eastern half of the house was different, possibly as a result of the construction of another structure between House 12 and House 13. An internal line of stones (2472; Figure 288), that may belong to an ephemeral later structure, extended from the east wall, where this wall had been deliberately reduced in height, and ran into the south section, halfway across the house. Inside this half of House 12, a dark brown fill (1658) was removed that seemed similar to layer 1640. However, in section (Figure 289 B) a complex series of very thin layers was visible, and these could be interpreted as floor layers. These might not have been identified during the excavation

because they did not extend much beyond the section edge. Above layer 1658 were two small patches of orange sand (1655, 1652) and one patch of grey sand (1654); these were covered by a dark brown sand (1648/1642) and then a lighter grey-brown sand (1634) that contained small lenses of orange sand (1665, 1666, 1667). This was all covered by brown sand (1629/1638; Figure 289 B). All of these layers were sealed by a sequence of thin layers of light brown, wind-blown sand that infill a hollow (736) caused by the subsidence of the deposits infilling House 12 (Figures 289 C and D, 290 and 291). The sequence was light brown sand (740), yellow sand (737), dark brown sand (726), grey-brown sand (725) and yellow sand (714). This resulted from the gradual erosion and accumulation of the surrounding midden layers, and may post-date the construction of House 13. The southern end of House 15 (GCE; Figure 285) was built into the final layer of this sequence (Figure 290). During the excavation of the trial trench (square 18), deposits were found under House 13 (GED) that probably belonged to the infilling of House 12. The lowest layer was a dark brown/grey sand (1737) that was exposed but not excavated; over this was a mottled (green, brown, and red) clay-like sand (1732).

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

390 A

1651

1745

1663

1744

1791

717 1198

1603

1659

728

1770 1748 1784 1788 2452

1668

1669 1673

B 1642 = 1648

1629

Backfill

1638

1634

1671 1658

1640

1645

C

D

729 714

737 740

1681

706 714

713

713 725

725 726

1698

1640 1690

0

1634

1646

1645

1689

3m

Figure 289. Various sections through deposits at the south end of mound 2A: A) The north facing section on the south sides of squares 13 and 14; B) The north facing section on the south side of square 16; C) A north south section through the hollow underlying the south wall of House 15 (see Figure 288 for the location); D) A north south section through the deposits infilling House 12 (see Figure 288 for the location)

Figure 290. A view of the north south section through the deposits infilling House 12. The wall of the southern entrance to House 15 is visible at the top of the section and it is notable that the south wall of House 15 directly overlies the north wall of House 12

The Late Norse activity on mound 2A

391

Figure 291. A view of the east west section through the deposits infilling House 12, the holes indicate the location of OSL samples that were taken but never processed

2406 2463

2389

2464

2468

2465

2436

1783 455/220

465/220

1774 1771

1773 1772

0

5m

Figure 292. A detailed plan of House 13 showing the various brown sand layers that defined the turf wall

392

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Figure 293. A view of the west wall of House 13

Figure 294. A view of the north wall of House 13 showing subsidence presumably into an underlying pit. A limited amount of tumble from the collapse of this wall has been removed

The Late Norse activity on mound 2A

393

2422 2436

2425

455/220

465/220

0

5m

Figure 295. A plan of the secondary deposits in House 13. This included tumble from the north wall and a small slab defined box constructed against the east wall which appears to be a secondary construction

The construction of House 13 (GED) This house was located in the southeast corner of the trench (Figure 285) and at most half of the interior was present in the area excavated (Figure 292). House 13 was 3.60 m wide and had walls 0.90 m thick. Assuming this house was comparable in length to the other Late Norse houses at Bornais, the line of the west wall should extend southwards as far as the entrance to House 14, the GEG house which was explored in in square 20 (the trench south of the main area). The absence of any visible evidence for House 13) in that trench suggests it predates House 14. House 13 was defined by a well-built inner revetment wall, a turf core and the remnants of an outer revetment wall (Figure 292). On the east side of the house, a 2.80 m stretch of wall (2463) was exposed, comprising two to three courses of medium to large squared blocks. The west side of the house comprised a stretch of wall (1774/1782/2465; Figure 293) very similar to the east wall. However, it was better preserved and stood up to four courses high. The north side of the house consisted of a 3.60 m stretch of wall (2464), again two to three courses high, and made from medium to large blocks. A section of the central part of this wall had collapsed forward, probably because of subsidence into a pit which, though unexcavated, was clearly visible as a depression in the floor layers in front of the wall (Figure 294).

The outer revetment (1783) was not a continuous wall but was identified to the west in the trial trench (square 18), where two courses of small stones were observed, and at the northwest corner, where much larger stones appear to have been used. A complicated arrangement of revetment walls was excavated in square 19, a small 2003 trial trench at the south end of the main area. Two north–south walls (1773, 1771) were identified and could be the remains of the outer revetment wall. If the western stretch of wall (1773) was the outer revetment, its position in relation to wall 1783 would indicate that the width of the wall expanded at this point. The two north–south walls ran south to an east–west oriented wall (1772), which suggests the presence of a west-facing entrance, though this would be an unusual orientation for a house at Bornais. The revetment walls on the west side enclosed brown sand layers (2468/1716, 2389, 2406), which clearly rep­ resent the turf component of the double-skinned house wall. The lower layer (2406) had a lot more material (shell, slag, bone) in it than the other layers and may be an underlying midden, or underlying midden redeposited. However, given the height of these deposits in relation to the stone walls, they are probably best interpreted as wall core. A thick brown sand (1750) covered the small walls in square 19 and might have been the remains of slumped turf wall.

394

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Figure 296. A view of the charcoal rich occupation deposits inside House 13; note the slab defined box in the southeast

The occupation of House 13 (GEE) The excavation stopped when a uniform, dark charcoal-rich sand (2436) was exposed (Figure 292 and 296). This is assumed to be the floor of the house. As mentioned above, a hollow was clearly visible in the surface of the floor in front of the north wall and suggests the presence of a large pit. In the area to the west of House 13, exposed in the square 18 trial trench, were some surface occupation layers roughly contemporary with the house’s occupation. Adjacent to the west wall (1783) was a thin, dark brown sand (1718) mottled with gold; where this layer extended over the wall of House 12 (GEA), it became a more homo­ gen­eous dark brown sand (1727). A long cross penny of Henry III was found in 1727. This was issued in the 1260s and provides some chronological security for the Late Norse date for these deposits.

Post-occupation infilling of House 13 (GEF) In the putative centre of the east wall (2463) was a stone box (2422), built on top of the black floor layer (2436) that extended to the south of the excavated area. The east side of the box consisted of the house wall (2463), its north side was a single rectangular slab that projected 1.00 m in from the east wall, and the west side comprised three flat stones (Figures 295 and 296). The south side of the box was not exposed. The box was filled with sterile, white wind-blown sand (2417).

At roughly the same level as the box, the floor was covered by a charcoal-flecked, midbrown, mottled sand (2425), which contained a few stones from the collapse of the northern house wall.

The construction of House 14 (GEG) Immediately to the south of the main excavation was an isolated trench, numbered as square 20, separated from the main area by the unexcavated south wall of a nineteenthcentury enclosure (BHA; see Chapter 10). This trench exposed the north end of House 14, a rectangular building 3.15 m wide (Figures 297 and 298). The west wall of House 14 (1756) was well preserved, with two courses of stones 0.25 m to 0.29 m high. The wall stones were medium-sized slabs except for one very large boulder. Only a few small stones of the north wall survived, but the extent of the internal floor layer confirms its original presence. Approximately 2.80 m of the east wall (1757) survived, though not in very good condition. This east wall was penetrated by an entrance, 0.60 m wide. Where it entered the interior, the entrance was marked by a sill consisting of two medium-sized stones, an upright stone and a flat slab. It is noticeable that the entrance passage walls (1758, 1759) splayed outwards, becoming over 0.70 m wide towards the outside. The end of the entrance passage was beyond the excavated area, so we do not know its full dimensions. The walls of the house

The Late Norse activity on mound 2A

Figure 297. A detailed plan of House 14 (light green walls) and ancillary structure 3 (dark green walls)

Figure 298. A view of House 14 and edge of ancillary structure 3, from the west

395

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

396 2

1

0

pottery

unburnt bone burnt bone

GEA

fish

BOM

GEC

GEE

slag

limpet

winkle

GEF

Figure 299. Histograms of the above 10 mm sampling densities from the mound 2A house fills (GE)

were backed by brown sand (1766, 1767) to the west and north of the house.

• •

The occupation of House 14 (GEH) Covering the interior of the house was a compact, dark brown sand (1765), which may represent a final floor layer (Figure 297). This did not quite reach the surrounding walls, where a lighter brown sand (un-numbered) was visible. In the centre of the area exposed, directly opposite the entrance, was a circular patch of orange-yellow, charcoal flecked sand (1755) surrounded by a very black charcoalrich sand. These deposits indicate the location of the hearth, and the overall plan and structure of House 14 is directly comparable to the Late Norse house on mound 3 (Sharples 2005b, 53, fig. 36). The floor deposits were not excavated.

The construction of ancillary building 3 (GEI) House 14 was severely damaged by the construction of ancillary structure 3, of which only a small part was exposed; most of this building lay beyond the southern edge of the trench (Figure 297). The interior of this building was 2.60 m wide. The construction of its north wall (1754) was distinctive, with a basal course of upright slabs on top of which horizontal slabs were laid. One of the upright slabs was a large whale bone and several other large whale bones were found in the sterile sand infilling this structure. The size and distinctive nature of the construction suggests this was not a house but rather an ancillary build­ ing. It was filled with sterile wind-blown sand (1753; GFB) indistinguishable from that covering the whole of the trench.

Sampling data – N Sharples Twenty four samples, 498 litres of soil, were taken and processed from the southern houses (GE; Table 127): • •

three samples, 90 litres of soil, came from the con­ struc­tion of House 12 (GEA); 18 samples, 336.35 litres of soil, from the post-occu­ pation infilling of House 12 (GEC);

two samples, 51 litres of soil, from the occupation of House 13 (GEE); one sample, 21 litres of soil, from the post-occupation infilling of House 13 (GEF).

It was felt that the relatively superficial excavation of this area could not justify the allocation of post-excavation resources to the analysis of the 2–10 mm residues and these have therefore been stored for future analysis. The average densities of the material from the above 10 mm residues are depicted in Figure 299. The very limited number of samples analysed from GEA, GEE and GEF makes it difficult to generalise about these deposits. The average densities of unburnt mammal bone (0.3 frag/litre), fish bone (0.3 frag/litre), slag (0.5 frag/litre), limpets (0.7 shells/litre) and winkles (1.6 shells/litre) were typical for the settlement. Winkles were the most common presence in all the blocks with limpets generally the next most common, though the limpets were much closer to the average densities for most materials. Slag was a significant presence in sample 10305 (con­ text 1744, the fill of the house construction pit), because of its proximity to the slag-rich kiln deposits of the previous phase (GB; Figure 289). The other materials tended to have remarkably consistent densities across the different blocks and none of the individual layers produced particularly high or unusual densities of any material.

Pottery – K Harding and N Sharples A total of 245 sherds, weighing approximately 1,456 g, was recovered from the houses at the south end of mound 2A (GE; Table 128). This is an insignificant quantity compared to the assemblage from the peripheral middens (GD), but is comparable to most of the other blocks on mound 2A. The overwhelming bulk of the assemblage came from the infilling of House 12 (GEC; 75% of the sherds, 80% by weight). None of the other GE blocks are likely to have much stratigraphic merit as the only significant assemblages came from deposits (GEA and GEF) close to the surface. The average sherd size of the GEC assemblage (6.3 g per sherd) is slightly higher than the average from

GEC

GEC

2425

Total

11088

24 samples

Sub-total

1727

7930

2 samples

1727

7869

Sub-total

1732

18 samples

7995

GEC

1689

1690

7637

7639

GEC

GE

GEF

GEE

GEE

GEE

GEC

GEC

GEC

1667

1681

GEC

GEC

GEC

GEC

GEC

GEC

GEC

GEC

GEC

GEC

GEC

7275

1666

7273

GEA

GEC

7532

1658

1665

7254

7271

1654

1655

7242

1652

7238

7244

1644

1648

7216

7226

1638

1642

7200

7202

1629

1634

7141

7188

737

Sub-total

8809

3 samples

GEA

GEA

1722

1744

7847

10305

Block

GEA

Context

1671

7499

Sample

498

21.00

51.00

32.00

19.00

336.35

7.00

23.00

10.00

6.00

0.25

4.00

1.50

34.00

2.00

12.00

3.00

38.00

0.60

40.00

40.00

51.00

50.00

14.00

90.00

34.00

36.00

20.00

Litres

160

7

17

11

6

110

0

4

0

4

0

0

0

15

0

0

0

6

0

29

9

17

21

5

26

2

24

0

no.

0.32

0.33

0.33

0.34

0.32

0.33

0.00

0.17

0.00

0.67

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.44

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.16

0.00

0.73

0.23

0.33

0.42

0.36

0.29

0.06

0.67

0.00

density

Fish

153

8

16

9

7

102

0

17

5

3

0

0

0

10

0

4

0

3

0

8

9

23

19

1

27

4

23

0

no.

0.31

0.38

0.31

0.28

0.37

0.30

0.00

0.74

0.50

0.50

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.29

0.00

0.33

0.00

0.08

0.00

0.20

0.23

0.45

0.38

0.07

0.30

0.12

0.64

0.00

density

Unburnt bone

18

3

0

0

0

14

0

2

0

3

0

0

0

2

0

1

3

2

0

0

1

0

0

0

1

0

1

0

no.

0.04

0.14

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.04

0.00

0.09

0.00

0.50

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.06

0.00

0.08

1.00

0.05

0.00

0.00

0.03

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.01

0.00

0.03

0.00

density

Burnt bone

0

3

1

2

1

42

32

2

0

0

0

0

0

2

0

0

3

2

0

11

0

4

6

1

7

3

4

0

no.

0.08

0.00

0.06

0.03

0.11

0.10

0.14

0.09

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.06

0.00

0.00

1.00

0.05

0.00

0.28

0.00

0.08

0.12

0.07

0.08

0.09

0.11

0.00

density

Pottery

257

4

19

14

5

110

2

9

7

0

0

0

0

14

0

3

0

5

1

4

14

27

24

0

124

76

48

0

no.

0.52

0.19

0.37

0.44

0.26

0.33

0.29

0.39

0.70

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.41

0.00

0.25

0.00

0.13

1.67

0.10

0.35

0.53

0.48

0.00

1.38

2.24

1.33

0.00

density

Slag

369

3

39

27

12

232

2

9

3

1

0

4

1

72

0

8

0

9

0

11

18

35

55

4

95

5

90

0

no.

0.74

0.14

0.76

0.84

0.63

0.69

0.29

0.39

0.30

0.17

0.00

1.00

0.67

2.12

0.00

0.67

0.00

0.24

0.00

0.28

0.45

0.69

1.10

0.29

1.06

0.15

2.50

0.00

density

Limpet

791

12

100

72

28

554

3

24

7

10

0

0

2

50

2

16

0

56

1

37

47

159

133

7

125

33

92

0

no.

1.59

0.57

1.96

2.25

1.47

1.65

0.43

1.04

0.70

1.67

0.00

0.00

1.33

1.47

1.00

1.33

0.00

1.47

1.67

0.93

1.18

3.12

2.66

0.50

1.39

0.97

2.56

0.00

density

Winkle

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

no.

Egg

3

0

0

0

0

3

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

no.

Charcoal

Table 127. The material identified in sorting the greater than 10 mm residue from the southern houses (GE) on mound 2A

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

no.

Coprolite

34

0

2

0

2

32

0

2

0

3

0

2

2

8

1

0

0

0

1

4

1

6

2

0

0

0

0

0

0.07

0.00

0.04

0.00

0.11

0.10

0.00

0.09

0.00

0.50

0.00

0.50

1.33

0.24

0.50

0.00

0.00

0.00

1.67

0.10

0.03

0.12

0.04

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

density

B.O.M. no.

The Late Norse activity on mound 2A 397

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

398

GEA

GED

5869

5217

GEC

4979

5950

4922+4905

5550

4904

4916

5036

C1638

4931

0

C1634

10cm

Figure 300. A selection of feature sherds from the mound 2A house fills (GE)

mound 2A, which suggests this deposit was relatively well protected after deposition. A substantial assemblage of platter sherds was recov­ ered from GEC (46 sherds, 25% of the GEC assemb­ lage) and this is comparable with the assemblage from the Middle Norse occupation (GB) on mound 2A. An important collection of everted rims (Figure 300) was also recovered from GEC contexts; these come from large, closed-mouth jars. Some of the illustrated sherds may belong to the same vessel but variations in the form of the rims suggest there is more than one vessel present. There is also one fine ware sherd with impressed decoration of a very unusual type (context 1638; Figure 300). This is an important assemblage, as everted rims are relatively rare on both mound 2 and 2A, and it suggests a Late Norse date for the infilling of House 13. Fine wares are also an important part of the assemblage from this block and perhaps indicate that the status of the inhabitants

of mound 2A during this period of occupation should not be underestimated.

Artefacts – A Pannett, R Smith and N Sharples An assemblage of 98 artefacts was recovered from the southern houses (GE; Table 129, Figure 301). A feature of the assemblage is the relatively small quantity of flint. Only five pieces were recorded from this area; two flakes came from GEA, one flake from GEC and one flake and a chunk from GEE. There is a reasonable quantity of bone waste that includes pin-manufacturing material, and antler and whale bone offcuts; there is nothing to indicate comb production. Tools are not particularly common but include iron fish hooks (5061, 5094), a couple of knives (5181, 5220), a bone pin beater used in textile production (5024) and a pair of copper-alloy needles (4921, 4929).

The Late Norse activity on mound 2A

399

Table 128. The pottery from the southern houses (GE) on mound 2A Block

Context

Weight (g)

No.

Ave wght (g)

Rim

GEA

1671

86.5

11

7.86

2

GEA

1722

55.4

7

7.91

GEA

1744

16.5

7

2.36

Base

Body

Misc.

6

3

1

GEA

2453

33.3

8

4.16

GEA

Sub-total

191.7

33

5.81

GEB

1646

8.5

1

8.50

GEC

1634

110

18

6.11

2

GEC

1638

186.2

27

6.90

8

GEC

1640

95.4

16

5.96

GEC

1642

152.1

26

5.85

GEC

1645

333.2

42

GEC

1648

55.6

13

GEC

1658

195.4

GEC

1732

GEC

1737

GEC GEE

Platter

Sooted

Fine

10

2 2

2

4

3

2

5

3

1

5

2

8

8

2

11

9

9

24

12

1

1

6

9

1

11

6

2

3

12

2

13

13

3

1

4

6

2

11

8

1

2

6

12

5

17

13

7.93

4

2

9

5

22

15

7

4.28

2

3

5

3

8

4

32

6.11

2

16

6

6

11

10

29.6

8

3.70

2

5

2

3

8.3

2

4.15

Sub-total

1165.8

184

6.34

59

46

89

1727

19.2

4

4.80

3

1

2

2

GEE

1718

2.1

3

0.70

3

1

3

GEE

Sub-total

21.3

7

3.04

GEF

2425

69

20

3.45

GE

Total

1456.3

245

5.94

2

1

2 1

2 22

10

0 24

47

1 64

0

0

6

1

3

5

2

3

14

1

13

5

14

62

88

57

130

87

Table 129. The artefacts from the southern houses (GE) on mound 2A

Weapons Currency

Personal ornament

Structural fittings

Miscellaneous

Total

Cu alloy

pin beater

bone

needle case

bone

knife

iron

fishing hook

iron

whetstone

stone

weapon

iron

1

2 1

2 1

iron

miscellaneous

iron

strip

silver

rod

Cu alloy

strip/fragment

Cu alloy

object

Cu alloy

worked

bone

unworked

whale bone

worked

whale bone

2425

1727

2406

1750

1737

1732

1754

2 1 1

1

1

4

1 1

iron

1 1

1

bone

bar/rod/strip/fragments

1 1 1

iron

sheet

2 2

1

pin

Cu alloy

1

1

nail

Cu alloy

2 1

1

tack

1 1

2

bone

fitting

5

1

Cu alloy

iron

2

2

1

tuning peg

antler/bone

8 1

1

brooch

key/lock

1

2

1

casket mount

3

1

1

silver

antler

1

1 1

1

1

2

1

1

1

1

1

2

1

5

1

13

1

2

1

1 1

2

1

2

5

1 1

2

2 1

1

1

1

1

1

4

12

1

2

1

2

1 1

1 1

1

1

1

1

1

3

6

1

2 1

1

2

1

1

1 1

2

3

1

Total

1

Cu alloy

iron

1

1

GEE GEF GEI

1

coin

comb

1690

1

buckle

pin

1681

1

1658

1642

bone

GED 1648

1640

1

1645

1638

2

1644

1634

1

needle

1629

1

Cu alloy

1646

antler antler/whale bone

ingot

1744

GEC

tine/segment/beam/burr

flint

Tools

GEB

offcut Working debris pin manufacturing

1722

Material

1671

GEA Object type

3

7

3

15

10

1

8

2

3

2

1

7

2

5

3

5

13

1

2

1

98

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

400

GEA

GEB

GED

4960

5216

GEE

GEF

6394

5019

5166

6385

5220

GEC

5061

5181

5244 5183

4920

4965

4914

5094

5011

5083

5021

4924

5024

4925

0

4921

4929

4942

10cm

Figure 301. A selection of artefacts from the mound 2A house fills (GE); 4914, 4920, 4965, 5061, 5094, 5181, 5183, 5220, 5244 are iron; 4921, 4924, 4925, 4929, 4942, 5019, 6394 are copper alloy; 5011 is silver; 5021 is stone; all the rest are bone or antler

The Late Norse activity on mound 2A

401

Figure 302. The terminal of penannular brooch, 4924, from the fill of House 12

The assemblage is dominated by miscellaneous objects and structural fittings, but the iron artefacts amongst the latter material (Figure 301) are slightly different from the normal collection of nails, roves and holdfasts, as the assemblage includes part of a lock mechanism (5244), a key (4965) and a small fragment of casket mount (4960). There are no holdfasts or roves from this area. Copper-alloy miscellaneous items include five copperalloy tacks and an object (5019; GEA; Figure 301) that is essentially a rod with two carefully flattened planes perpendicular to each other at either end. This artefact is so far unparalleled and this too may be a casket fitting. Personal objects are present but they tend to be fragmented and unexceptional, though there was one coin (5162) a long cross penny of Henry III. More than 60% of the artefact assemblage came from the infill of House 12 (GEC). Within that block two contexts (1640, 1642) stand out as having large and interesting assemb­lages (Figure 301); 1640 was the final fill of a pit dug into the initial backfilling of the house and 1642 was a layer infilling the east half of the house. Layer 1640 produced a number of small copper-alloy trinkets, including a buckle (4942), the terminal of a pen­ annular brooch (4924, Figure 302), a staple (5062, not illustrated) and an ingot (4925). The latter suggests this is perhaps a collection gathered together by a metalworker

for recycling. This context also produced a small fragment of comb with copper-alloy rivets (5083), and the two fish hooks. The assemblage from layer 1642 is equally interesting. It includes two copper-alloy needles (4921, 4929), a piece of silver (5011) and an iron object that could be interpreted as part of a scabbard (4920). The pin beater (5024) also came from this block. This assemblage from the infilling of House 12 (GEC) confirms a pattern previously noted, that the infilling of Hebridean houses sometimes involved the deposition of interesting objects in placed deposits (Sharples 2012, 326). This act of ritual was an important feature of both the Iron Age and Norse periods and may be an indication of population continuity.

Carbonised plant remains – J Summers and J Bond Carbonised plant remains were examined from five samples (121 litres of soil) from the deposits infilling House 12 (GEC; Table 130, Figure 339). Barley, oat and rye were all present in the samples and, as in the other phases of activity on mound 2A, barley rachis was present, as well as flax. The densities of all grains and seeds were generally low, and rye and flax were rare.

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

402

Table 130. The carbonised plant from the southern houses (GE) on mound 2A Sample

7218

7242

7254

7637

7639

Context

1645

1654

1658

1689

1690

Litres

42

12

34

10

23

Group

GEC

GEC

GEC

GEC

GEC

Hordeum vulgare grains

47

6

77

14

43

Hordeum vulgare indet. frags

1

Cereals

Hordeum sativum rachis frags

2

Avena sp. grains

49

7

31

10

38

Avena sp. indet. frag

3

1

2

2

6

cf Secale cereale grains

5

15

3

2

255

28

94

Cereal grain frags

154

29

Other Crops Linum usitatissimum

4

9

2

2

8

5

8

Weeds/Wild species Carex sp. Type 1 Carex sp. Type 2

7

Carex sp. Type 3

1

Carex sp. Type 5

2

3

Scirpus spp

2

1

Cyperaceae indet.

1

4

cf Cerastium sp.

1

1

3

Chenopodiaceae

12

1

6

Crucifereae cf Raphanus sp.

1

Crucifereae Type 2

2

cf Fumaria sp.

4

1 1

1

Galium sp. Type 1

1

Gramineae

2

Phleum sp.

2

8

Paniceae type grain

1

Papaver sp.

1

Potentilla sp.

3

Polygonaceae

1

3

Rumex/Polygonum sp. Type 1

1

5

Rumex/Polygonum sp. Type 2

1

Rumex/Polygonum sp. Type 3

1

The Late Norse occupation of the southern houses produced a small assemblage of 379 animal bones (GE; Table 131). Most of the assemblage, 255 bones, was recovered from layers infilling House 12 (GEC). The most common species is sheep/goat (53%), closely followed by cattle (41%) and this pattern is reasonably consistent throughout the blocks, even in the smaller assemblages. Only small quantities of pig and deer are present; they are only a minor proportion of the assemblage of major species, at 4% for pig and 2% for deer, which is lower than the mound 2A averages. Bones from animals other than the principal species are rare. Equid and dog are present in small numbers (seven and one bones respectively) and there is one seal bone. Nearly half of the GE bone assemblage has been gnawed by carnivores. This is the most heavily gnawed assemblage from any phase on mound 2A, with the percentage gnawed being significantly greater than the mound average. This is a consistent pattern across the GE blocks (Table 132), including the large assemblage from the fill of House 12 (GEC). The percentage of butchered bone is also slightly higher than average and this is particularly noticeable in the material from contexts associated with the construction of House 13 (GED). The proportion of burnt bone is close to the mound average, but the variation between the blocks is considerable, ranging from zero in GEE to over 6% in GEF. This may reflect the small size of the assemblages. A total of 33 identifiable bird bones were recovered from the southern houses (GE; Table 133). The bulk of the material (73%) came from the post-occupation infilling of House 12 (GEC). In this small assemblage domestic fowl are the most common species (24% of the identifiable bone), followed by geese and large gulls. Crow/rook, cormorant/shag, gannet, duck, woodcock, razorbill and shearwaters are present in small numbers. Two specimens have been butchered and three display carnivore gnawing. No fish bones were examined from these blocks.

1

1

Rumex/Polygonum spp kernels

1

Ranunculus sp. small

1

Ranunculus sp. large

1

cf Sisymbrium sp.

2

3 1

1

1

Urtica sp.

2

1

Heather frags

3

1

1

Poss ID

3

1

2

Amorphous material

1

Indeterminate indet.

X

X

X

Fungal spores/insect pellets

4

Animal bone – A Powell, J Best, J Mulville and N Sharples

2

1 3

X

X X

The ancillary structures (GC) Sometime after the Middle Norse kilns (GB) had been abandoned and infilled, a sequence of buildings was constructed on the raised area created by the kilns In contrast to the kilns and the U-shaped early structure (GBA), these later buildings appear to have been roofed and had interior floor layers (GCB, GCD, GCF). There were at least three phases of construction (GCA, GCC, GCE). The first two buildings are difficult to interpret as only the west side of these structures appears to have been defined by stone walls. The north, east and south sides probably had timber walls, but only in isolated places

The Late Norse activity on mound 2A

403

GEA

1744

2

2

1

GEA

2453

1

4

GEA

Sub-total

GEC

1629

GEC

1634

GEC

1638

GEC

1

1

11

4

10

1

4

1

19

1

32

1

9

2

5

1640

16

5

14

GEC

1642

10

1

GEC

1645

9

1

GEC

1648

3

GEC

1658

GEC

1666

GEC

1689

GEC

1690

GEC

1732

GEC

1737

GEC

Sub-total

98

13

GED

1716

1

1

GED

1750

4

GED

1774

5

GED

2389

1

5

7

3

35

1

5

17

1

1

1

1

59 19

1

1

2

2

25

3

39

4

41

3

31

4

2

1

2

104

6

1

5

1

1

2

1

1

1

0

5

1

2

4

GEE

1727

1

4

1

1

4

1

10

3

7

139

25

16 1

8

14

255

2

1

14

2

1

10

1 1 0

1

6

2

1

14

3

1

4

17 1

0

0

1

2

1

1

2

6 14

2

1

152

13

% carnivore gnawed

% rodent gnawed

% butchered

Total burnt

% burnt

17

49

3

6

1

3

0

255

127

50

1

12

5

2

0.4

GED

44

19

43

0

18

2

5

0 0

% calcined

Total gnawed

35

GEC GEE

14

8

57

0

14

0

0

GEF

31

13

42

0

0

2

6

3

Total

379

184

49

1

11

10

3

0.5

44 12

2 0

GEA

Total ID

2

1

Table 132. The taphonomy of the bones from the southern houses (GE) on mound 2A

Block

0

1

1

6

2425

1

2

1

16

Total

0

6

1

2

GE

0

7

1

1

1

GEF

0

1

1

2406

2436

9

16

Sub-total

Sub-total

2

13

17 1

16

GED

GEE

14

Total

9 1

1

GED

GEE

0

Sheep-sized mammal

1

Cattle-sized mammal

3

Cetacean

5

3

Seal

1

5

Red deer

3

1722

Dog

1671

GEA

Pig

Sheep

GEA

Goat

Context

Equid

Block

Cattle

Sheep/goat

Table 131. The animal bone from the southern houses (GE) on mound 2A

0

0

1

0

0

1

0

14

2

31

1

7

1

3

11

19

379

was it possible to identify the actual line of the walls. The very haphazard nature of the first two structures, their small size and the absence of formal hearths suggest that these were not dwellings but ‘ancillary buildings’. The final structure (GCE) was a better defined building, with an internal stone revetment wall on all four sides, and this was probably a house. Its walls had been badly damaged by ploughing and the internal floors were damaged by rabbits, but the remnants were sufficient to define the size and shape of the house. The occupation of the ancillary buildings was contem­ porary with the houses on the southern part of the mound (GE, discussed above), and with a series of midden deposits to the north, west and east (GD, discussed below).

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

404

Table 133. The bird bones from the southern houses (GE) on mound 2A GEA

GEC

GED

GEE

GEF

1750

1727

2425

Species

Total 1671

1744

1634

1638

1640

1642

1645

1648

1658

1690

1732

Cormorant

1

1

Cormorant / Shag

1

1

Crow / Rook

3

Domestic Fowl

2

Duck sp. Small

3

3 1

1

1

1

1

Galliform cf Domestic Fowl

1

Galliform sp.

1

2

1

Gannet Goose, Large Grey cf Domestic

2

3

1

1

1

Goose, Large Grey cf Greylag

1

Gull, Great Black-Backed

1

1 1

1

3 1

Gull, Herring / Lesser Black-Backed

1

Gull sp. Large

1

2

1

1

Procellariidae sp. cf Shearwater

1

1

Razorbill

1

Small Passerine

1

2

1

1

Woodcock

1

Total

8

2

1

6

3

7

1

2

1

1

1

1

2

1

4

1

33

1180 1182

952

1696

450/230

460/230

1139

1661

1738

1721 1725

1104

1710

2354 1159

450/225

0

5m

460/225

Figure 303. A plan of the structural features of ancillary structure 5

The construction of ancillary building 5 (GCA) Building 5 was a poorly preserved structure estimated to have been 3.40 m by 6.00 m. Its best preserved feature was its west wall, a north–south orientated wall (1104/711; Figure 303) that lay approximately 0.80 m east of the

earlier wall of the U-shaped building (1183/772, GBA), within a cut (1139) filled with brown sand (1661; Figures 82 and 217). The wall comprised a line of medium to large stones clearly facing east. The east wall of the building was represented by a line

The Late Norse activity on mound 2A

405

Table 134. A summary description of the features in the ancillary structures (GC) Cut no.

Block

Feature type

Shape in plan

1710

GCA

Post hole

circular

steep-sided

0.17

0.12

1711

dark brown sand

1721

GCA

Post hole

circular

steep-sided

0.24

0.10

1720

mid-brown

steep-sided

1725

GCA

Post hole

rectangular

1738

GCA

Scoop

oval

2354/ 2368

GCA

Pit

oval

1693

GCB

Post hole

circular

1609/ 764

GCB

Scoop

oval

1676

GCB

Scoop

irregular

1147

GCB

Scoop

oval

1656

GCD

Scoop

oval

Profile

Orientation

Length

Width

Depth

Primary fill

NE-SW

0.41

0.16

0.17

1728

dark brown sand

shallow

E-W

0.56

0.29

0.09

1739

dark brown sand

steep-sided

N-S

0.60

0.53

0.40

2369

reddish-black sand

0.32

0.26

0.14

1683

dark brown sand

0.84

0.74

0.13

1610/ 763

orange with charcoal flecks

gradually sloping with flat base assymetrical

NE-SW

steep sides, rounded base

NE-SW

0.90

0.65

0.20

1678

dark brown sand

assymetrical

E-W

0.72

0.56

0.20

2359/ 2429

dark brown charcoal flecked sand

shallow

N-S

0.55

0.50

0.17

1657

orange-yellow compact sand

450/230

1676

Secondary fill

1726

grey sand

2355/ 2366

charcoal-flecked orange sand

755

charcoal-rich sand

1677

mid-brown sand, charcoal flecks

460/230

1618/762

1693 1609

1147

450/225

460/225

0

5m

Figure 304. A plan of the floor deposits in ancillary structure 5

of stones (1180) and a sequence of ash and midden dumps in the western half of square 6. These were composed of a yellow-brown sand (1697), dark brown clayey sand (1696), dark brown sand (1686) and mid-brown sand (1685; Figure 217), with a much more homogeneous brown sand (1182) to the north.

The north wall was defined by a linear dump of brown sand (952), which flanked a gully used to build the wall of the subsequent structure (GCC). The southern end of building 5 could be indicated by a single stone backed by a small dump of grey sand (1159), but this is a very cautious interpretation.

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

406

2480

1173

450/230

460/230

777

1147

450/225

460/225

0

5m

Figure 305. A plan of the structural features of ancillary structure 6

In the southern half of building 5 were a group of five features (Table 134): three post holes (1725, 1721, 1710), one pit (2354/2368) and one scoop (1738), which might have preceded the creation of the floor deposits (GCB). Four of these features formed a line that cut across the floor of the building (Figure 303) but, as there was no consistency in the size or depth of these features and the line was not perpendicular to the adjacent wall, their significance is unclear.

The occupation of ancillary building 5 (GCB) A primary floor associated with building 5 was identified in squares 5, 6, 8 and 9. It was a dark brown charcoal-rich layer (1618/762), approximately 0.10 m thick, with thick lenses of orange and yellow sand, and covered an area roughly 3.10 m by 2.30 m (Figure 304). Two radiocarbon dates (SUERC-18260, SUERC-18261) were obtained from carbonised barley grains in this layer. They have radiocarbon ages of 800±35 BP and 875±35 BP, which calibrate to an age of cal AD 1160–1280 and cal AD 1040–1250 respectively. Cutting floor 1618/762 were three scoops or shallow pits (1676, 1609, 1147) and a possible post hole (1693; Figure 217). The fills of most of these scoops included charcoal and ash. These features were all located along the west wall of the building, but there is little that can be

said about their significance. The southernmost pit (1147) underlay a later wall (777, GCC; Figures 217 and 304) and the lowest stones of that wall had subsided into the pit, suggesting that its fills had not consolidated when wall 777 was constructed.

The construction of ancillary building 6 (GCC) Building 6 appeared to be a structure roughly 4.00 m by 5.50 m. It was only well defined on its north and west sides, but a line of scattered stones probably indicated the location of the east wall (Figure 305). Most of the south side, including the southeast corner, appears to have been removed by the construction of the final building in this area of the mound (House 15, GCE; see below), but building 6’s south wall probably followed or lay immediately in front of the earlier wall of the GBA U-shaped structure (772; see Figure 208). The west side of building 6 was defined by a north– south wall 4.20 m long (777) that lay immediately inside (east of) the earlier wall (1104, GCA). Wall 777 was little more than a discontinuous line of medium to large boulders, though it did clearly face to the east (Figure 305). The south end of the wall stopped just short of the east–west aligned GBA wall (772) and appeared to run into a large circular pit (1147; GCB). As mentioned above, the wall slumped into the pit and had collapsed slightly due to the unstable nature of the pit fill.

The Late Norse activity on mound 2A

407

2480

1113 1621

450/230 450/230

1656

460/230

1616 2341 2338 777

1133

450/225

460/225

0

5m

Figure 306. A plan of the floor deposits of ancillary structure 6

Figure 307. Cleaning the floor of ancillary structure 6; note the possible stone seat in the centre of the structure and the eastfacing revetment walls that define the major structures

408

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Figure 308. Pit 1656 during excavation from the west

The north end of wall 777 terminated near a feature indicated by dark brown sand (1173). The north side of the structure continued to be defined by a cut (1177; shown on Figure 82), whereas the east side was defined by a line of stones (2480) that was not coherent enough to be definitively called a wall. This eastern line of stones lay roughly one metre to the east of the equivalent wall (1180) of building 5 (Figure 303). If these stones were the remnants of the east wall of the structure their position indicates that building 6 was significantly wider than the preceding ancillary structure, building 5 The previous floor (1618, building 5) was sealed by a thin grey sand (1670), which appeared to have been deliberately laid prior to the construction of building 6.

The occupation of ancillary building 6 (GCD) The floor of building 6 was defined by a colourful mixed layer (1616; Figures 306 and 307), which appeared to have been truncated by the construction of the later House 15 to the south (GCE). There were layers of red, yellow and black sand, some of which were quite thick, and a distinctive patch of green clay (1621). Two radiocarbon dates (SUERC-18262, SUERC-18263) were obtained from carbonised rye grains in the floor layer (1616). They have radiocarbon ages of 750±35 BP and 770±35 BP, which both calibrate to a date of cal AD 1210–1290. Contemporary with floor layer 1616 was a shallow pit

or scoop (1656) filled with a bright orange sand (1657; Figure 308), a fill that appears to have served as part of the floor. On the east side of this pit were two large stones (1731), set in position to act as a seat, perhaps. At the back of these stones, and partially covered by the upper stone, was a small lens of dark brown sand (1713) that could be contemporary with the floor layer. These occupation deposits produced large quantities of antler and whale bone debris from comb production (see below 000). At the south end of building 6, the floor layers survived in a very patchy manner and only a few represent­ative layers are illustrated in Figure 306. Two layers had subsided into the earlier pit (1147, GCB), a greenishbrown clay (1133) and a mottled yellow/black ash deposit (1131). In the centre of the building was a mottled red and green layer (2341), and a patch of black sand (2338) that lay adjacent to a more extensive spread of red-brown sand (1694; Figure 217). A small patch of green silty sand (1176) may be equivalent to layer 1133, and overlying this was a red-brown sand (1162). In the centre of the structure, a layer of brown sand (1113/749) and a patch of charcoal sat on top of the east side of floor 1616. All of these deposits were sealed by an extensive, mottled greenish-brown silty sand (748/768/884/ 1101/1179/1687), a floor layer that produced waste from comb production. Layer 884 was sealed by a circular patch of red clayey sand (885). To the north, in square 5, these layers blended into a quite different layer, a dark

Sample

68

17

1618.2

?2

36

12

1616.2

?1

29

48

Layer and microstratographic unit

1618.1

Maximum thickness in thin section (mm)

1616.1

BG

Microstructure

V, some C

IM

IM

V

IM, some BG

76

35

94

60

nnnn

nnnn

nnnn

nnn

50

45

Porosity

nnnn

Sorting (%)

nnnn

C/F(100 µm) ratio 40:60

95:5

88:12

50:50

85:15

40:60

SSP & CFE

C/F(100 µm) related distribution CP

SSFE

SSFE

CP

SSFE, some CG

LB,D

Nature of Fine Material (PPL) GB,D

DB,D

DB,D

L/YB,D

DB,D

Colour of B-fabric (OIL) Y/O

LB

LB

O/Y

LB

Y/R

C

Birefringence fabric of fine material (XPL) C

LB

UD

UD

UD

Charred amorphous organic matter nn

n

 

nn

nn

nn

Charred wood n

 

 

 

n

nn

Charred plant nn

n

nnnnn

nnn

n

nnn

Shell  

n

 

n

nn

nn

n

Eggshell  

 

 

n

 

n

 

n

n

n

n

Burnt bone n

n

 

 

nn

n

n

n

 

 

 

 

n

n

n

 

n

nn

n

Phytoliths n

 

 

n

n

n

Diatoms n

 

 

 

n

Non-metallurgic slag  

 

 

 

n

 

 

Clay  

 

 

 

nnnn

Pedofeatures

 

 

 

n

 

 

Fe nodules

 

 

 

 

 

 

Nature and birefringence of fine material: B – Brown, DB – Dark Brown, LB – Light Brown, YB – Yellow-brown, GB – Grey-brown, R – Red, O – Orange, Y – Yellow, D – Dotted, U – Undifferentiated, C – Crystallitic

Course/Fine Related distribution: CFE – Close Fine Enaulic, SSFE – Single-spaced Fine Enaulic, SSEE – Single-spaced Equal Enaulic, DSFE – Double-spaced Fine Enaulic, DSCE – Double-spaced Coarse Enaulic, CP – Close Porphyric, SSP – Single-spaced Porphyric, CG – Convex Gefuric, CH – Chitonic, CM – Coarse Monic

Microstructure: IM – Intergrain Microaggregate, V – Vughy, BG – Bridged Grain, C – Channel, M – Massive, SG – Single Grain

Values: + Present in trace amounts, n 5-10%, nnnn >10-20%, nnnnn >20-30%, nnnnnn >30-40%, nnnnnnn >40-50% (of visible area)

7608

7198

7197

Unburnt bone

Organic and anthropogenic components

Plant tissue

Mineral components

Amorphous organic matter

Groundmass

Fe replaced organic matter

Microstructure and porosity

+

n

 

nn

n

n

Excremental pedofeatures

Table 135. The soil micromorphology descriptions of samples taken from the floors of the ancillary structures (GC)

The Late Norse activity on mound 2A 409

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

410 A

B

3 mm

3 mm

Figure 309. Soil micromorphology: A) Context 1618.1, large horizontally orientated shell fragment (PPL); B) Context 1618.1, speckled green clay granules (PPL)

grey-brown sand with charcoal flecks (1117), which again contained fragments of comb production waste.

Soil micromorphology – K Milek and K Munro Three samples (7197, 7198 and 7608) were taken from occupation deposits inside the ancillary structures (Table 135). The earlier floor (1618; building 5, GCB) was observed in sample 7197 (shown in Figure 217) and sample 7608. In sample 7197, this context (1618.1) was a fine quartzite sand with a small calcium carbonate content and a moderate amount of fine organo-mineral material (a coarse–fine ratio of 85:15). It contained shell fragments (4.7%), including one large fragment (Figure 309 A) with a horizontal orientation, charred amorphous organic material (2.3%), various small rounded burnt bone fragments (1.1%), one aggregate of non-metallurgical slag (1%), charred plant (0.5%) and charred wood (0.5%). Also present were a number of clay granules (15%). The majority of such clay was present in the form of large, grey-green speckled granules that possessed a mosaic b-fabric (Figure 309 B), but there were also a number of small, orange clay granules that were impregnated by iron. Clay is not a natural feature of the well-drained sandy machair and must have been brought here from a source off the machair. In sample 7608, the equivalent context (1618.2) was found to be different, similar to the later floor layer 1616 (building 6, GCD) in samples 7197 and 7198. It was a thick layer (68 mm, occupying the entire sample) that consisted of numerous, dense horizontal lenses of peat ash with fine sand grains embedded within. The majority of the sand was quartzite with a small calcium carbonate content, as in 1618.1. The ash lenses varied in their proportions of sand, fine organo-mineral material and pore space, as well as inclusions present. They all contained charred amorphous organic material (2.9% for the layer in total), charred plant (2.7%), charred wood (1.1%), and unburnt bone (1%). The later floor 1616 was observed in samples 7197 and 7198. In sample 7197 it was labelled 1616.1 and occupied

the top 48 mm. It was comprised of fine quartzite sand (with only a minute quantity of medium-sized calcareous sand) embedded in peat ash and fine organo-material. It contained charred plant (8%), shell (3%), charred wood (2.5%), charred amorphous organic material (2%), plant tissue (1.3%), unburnt bone (1.3%, the majority of which appeared to be fish bone) and amorphous organic matter (1%). The high quantity of peat ash and charred plant in 1616.1 indicated that a substantial volume of peat was burned in this building. The majority of the charred remains were arranged in compact horizontal lenses, indicating they were deposited on a horizontal surface and were subject to compaction, suggesting they were an occupation deposit. In sample 7198, this layer was labelled 1616.2 and occupied the top 36 mm of the sample. It was a layer of calcareous sand embedded within yellow-brown peat ash and fine organo-mineral material. The layer had been bioturbated by earthworms, and had a number of channels and vughs, partially infilled by earthworm excrement (2%). Inclusions comprised a high quantity of charred plant (5.9%), unburnt bone (2.7%), charred amorphous organic matter (2.1%), eggshell (1%), amorphous organic matter (0.7%), shell (0.4%) and burnt bone (0.2%). Sample 7198 also contained two contexts below 1616, 1670.2, and 1618.1. The basal layer 1670.2 was a calcar­ eous and quartzite sand with a tiny amount of fine organomineral material (coarse–fine ratio of 95:5). The layer contained only a small quantity of charred plant (0.5%) and amorphous organic matter (0.4%). 1618.1 was a thin layer (12 mm thick) dominated by a horizontal lens of charred plant (26%), probably the remains of burnt peat. This was located within calcareous and quartzite sand (identical to 1670.2), but with a small amount of fine organo-mineral material (coarse–fine ratio of 88:12), peat ash and burnt bone (0.4%). These samples analysed from the ancillary buildings contained ash-dominated deposits similar to house floor layers in close proximity to hearths, such as were found in

The Late Norse activity on mound 2A

411

1167 1166

745

1164

775

450/230

773 460/230

774 1152

898

711

776 450/225

460/225

719

0

5m

729/727

Figure 310. A plan of the structural features of House 15

Figure 311. A view of the north end of House 15. The undulating nature of the surface is due to rabbit burrowing

412

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

the central aisle of House 2 (see Chapter 4). The deposits indicate that ash from hearths was spread, probably to create a stable, compact floor surface. The quantity of peat ash present indicates a considerable amount of peat was being burnt. Charred wood was also present, but the quantities indicate it was a significantly less important fuel than peat. Shell and bone were present in most layers, indicating that these buildings were used for domestic purposes such as food processing. One non-metallurgic slag inclusion was observed, but this is the only example from an internal hearth in mounds 2 and 2A, and could be a residual presence from the earlier kilns.

The construction of House 15 (GCE) The final building in this sequence was a badly preserved structure, 6.10 m by 3.60 m (see Figure 285 and 310). The walling was never continuous, but was sufficiently coherent to identify all four sides of a building (Figure 311). It was built on a slightly different orientation to the preceding structures and in a shallow pit that truncated the floor layers of the earlier buildings. The poor preservation of this structure was caused by recent ploughing of the mound, but some of the walling of the house might also have been reused to build the nineteenth-century enclosure wall that passed within a few metres to the south and east of this structure. The most extensive stretch of house wall was in the northeast corner of the main excavation trench and comprised three distinct sections. Running roughly east– west was a stretch of wall (773), 1.35 m in length and surviving to a height of 0.20 m, which defined the north wall of an entrance passage. The opposing south wall was represented by one stone (1152) and possibly another couple to the east. The west end of the entrance passage was attached to a north–south aligned wall (774), attached in turn to an east–west aligned wall (775). These two walls defined the northeast corner of the house. The north wall of the house (775) was further defined to the west by two very large stones set on their edges. These stones were different from the other stones used in the house walls, which are laid flat, but they seem to be located on the line of the wall. Wall 775 was contained within a cut (1165) filled with an orange sand (1166), grey sand (1164) and dark brown sand (745). The latter two layers may indicate material used in the turf wall that would have surrounded this structure. Two discrete patches of orange sand (1155, 1167) may indicate reused midden associated with the wall construction, but they could also represent dumps associated with the use of the house. The largely absent north wall was backed by a brown sand (958, 985/1174/765), separated from a very similar brown sand (879/971; Figure 217), by an orange sand layer (982). These layers merged into a thick brown sand, which became the plough-disturbed midden in GDB (see below).

The west side of the house was defined by two separate lengths of walling (711, 776; Figure 310). The northern stretch of wall (776) was 2.70 m long and appeared to be roughly in situ. The southern stretch of walling (711) had collapsed and was recognisable as a layer of tipped stones lying approximately 0.40 m in front of the original wall line. Wall 776 was sitting on an orange-brown sand (898), which appeared to have been deposited to infill and raise the ground level where the earlier wall of building 6 (777) had subsided into a pit (1147). The south side of House 15 was defined by a short stretch of revetment wall (729) and, running perpendicular to this, another short stretch of wall (727; Figure 310). The latter wall defined the west side of a passage, creating an entrance through the south wall of the house. The east side of this passage was identified by two isolated stones (719), not obviously oriented parallel to the passage’s west wall. These southern walls were contained within a layer of thick brown sand (713; see Figure 289 C and D), which also enclosed a layer of marine shells (732). These layers merged into a thick brown sand that marks the edge of the plough-disturbed midden sequence in GDC (see below). There was no evidence for a wall along the southeast and east sides of the house between the southern entrance and the entrance in the northeast corner of the house. The position of the wall in this area was not marked by any obvious cut or deposits. The shape of the structure defined by these walls suggests it was a small house, as opposed to an ancillary structure. It had two well-defined entrances, one positioned in the northern section of its east wall, and one at the west end of its south wall. The entrance in the east wall was located in a similar position to the entrance to House 3 on mound 2 (Figure 229) and to House 5 on mound 3 (Sharples 2005b, fig. 36), but an entrance through an end wall is more unusual. The best parallel for this feature was is house 500 at Cille Pheadair (Parker Pearson et al. 2018). The north end of that house had an entrance passage that lead from the main living space into a subsidiary room. However, there was no sign of a subsidiary room at Bornais and it may be that this gable-end doorway in House 15 simply provided access to a contemporary ancillary structure (building 3, GEI; see Figure 285) some distance to the south of this house. Another axial entrance may be present in House 6 on mound 1 (Sharples 2012, fig. 92), but the excavations were not sufficiently extensive to fully understand the structural details of that house.

The occupation of House 15 (GCF) The identification of deposits related to the occupation of this structure was as difficult as the definition of the walls. A very large area in the centre of the house had been destroyed by an extensive rabbit warren (Figure 311). At the south end, the house appeared to have no distinct floor layers, even in the area undamaged by the rabbits. The brown sand (713) that surrounded the surviving

The Late Norse activity on mound 2A

413

450/230

460/230

716 746

709 715

718

754 747 752/751

450/225

753 757 753

460/225

0

5m

Figure 312. A plan of the badly rabbit damaged hearth deposits in House 15

south wall and passage was the same both inside and outside the structure and above and below the wall. This homogeneity was probably caused by the use of a sandy turf as an integral part of the wall construction and by the short-lived nature of the occupation. The south end of the house appears to have been built up slightly, to create a level surface for the wall. If the upper part of the wall was created out of a sandy turf similar to that used to create the foundations, and given that the turf walls would subsequently have decayed into the house’s interior after its abandonment, then the walls effectively became surrounded by material the same as that from which they were constructed. The occupation deposits identified in the interior were concentrated in the centre and the northern half of the house (Figure 312). The central deposits comprised a sequence of many small red ash and charcoal deposits that suggest a hearth area. The sequence of layers began with a spread of pale pink sand (759); this was overlain by orange sand (757, 754), then a compact brown sand (753) with orange and charcoal flecks, followed by a patchy, black charcoal-rich spread (752), and finally another orange sand (751). These layers were covered by a brown sand (747, 716).

Slabs were arranged around the edge of the hearth area and two very large slabs (738) were particularly prominent on its northeast edge. Adjacent to these slabs were discrete patches of dark brown sand (718, 715, 709), which contained ash and charcoal. The deposits in the northern half of the house were different, there were some discrete ash spreads but there were also some more extensive layers. The most extensive were a dense, black charcoal-rich deposit (756) and a spread of compact red and orange sand (746). All these deposits were sealed by an extensive dark brown sand (722) that completely covered the northern half of the house. In the dark brown sand (722) was an assemblage of large animal bones that included several cattle metapodials (Figure 313). These bones were spread in front of a large whale vertebra placed on top of a silty sand floor layer (748), just to the east of the centre of the north wall of the house. One surface of the vertebra was scored with many knife-cuts but on discovery this surface was facing downwards, which suggests that the vertebra originally functioned as a chopping surface but was later turned over to be used as a seat. Two radiocarbon dates (SUERC-2693, SUERC-18264) were obtained from a cattle metacarpal and a carbonised rye grain in layer 722. They have radiocarbon ages of 620±35 BP and 610±35 BP,

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

414

whale bone

450/230

733

460/230

734

722

730 731

450/225

460/225

0

5m

Figure 313. The secondary occupation of House 15

which calibrate to dates of cal AD 1280–1410 and cal AD 1280–1420 respectively. The eastern entrance passageway did not have an obvious floor but a dark brown, shell-rich sand (733) and a light brown sand (734) might have been deposited during the use of this house (Figure 313). Against the west wall of House 15 a dump of fuel ash slag (731) was identified abutting a brown sand (730). Along the north side of the house, where the wall was missing, a brown sand (710) was identified, which was either contemporary with or later than the occupation of the house. This contained a concentrated mass of iron holdfasts and a broken axe (see Figure 322), which appeared to be the remains of a bag of scrap metal collected for recycling and stored in or against the wall. In conclusion, despite the house being badly damaged, it had a primary floor layer that indicates an activity area focused around a hearth in the centre of the northern half of the house, opposite an entrance facing east. There is little evidence for activity in the southern half of the house, though this unusually had a second entrance leading south. There was a secondary occupation, which includes evidence for animal butchery associated with a whale vertebra seat or chopping block.

Sampling data – N Sharples One hundred and ninety samples, 2,684 litres of soil, were taken and processed from the construction and occupation of the buildings (GC) in the centre of the excavated area (Table 136): • • • • •

18 samples, 257 litres of soil, from the construction of building 5 (GCA); 36 samples, 546 litres of soil, from the occupation of building 5 (GCB); 75 samples, 1129 litres of soil, from the occupation of building 6 (GCD); 13 samples, 146 litres of soil, from the construction of House 15 (GCE); 48 samples, 607 litres of soil, from the occupation of House 15 (GCF).

The 2–10 mm residues were sorted from 44 samples 386.75 litres of soil (Table 137): • • • • •

seven samples, 80.25 litres of soil, from GCA; nine samples, 90.75 litres of soil, from GCB; 14 samples, 113.5 litres of soil, from GCD; three samples, 16.5 litres of soil, from GCE; 11 samples, 85.75 litres of soil, from GCF.

The Late Norse activity on mound 2A

415

Table 136. The material identified in sorting the greater than 10 mm residue from the ancillary structures (GC) Fish Unburnt bone Burnt bone Pottery Slag Limpet Winkle no. density no. density no. density no. density no. density no. density no. density 15 5 0.33 2 0.13 0 0.00 1 0.07 123 8.20 1 0.07 1 0.07 8 0 0.00 2 0.25 3 0.38 0.00 9 1.13 2 0.25 1 0.13 31 6 0.19 2 0.06 0 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 3 0.10 11 0.35 3 2 0.67 0 0.00 0 0.00 12 4.00 0 0.00 16 5.33 7 2.33 29 40 1.38 12 0.41 2 0.07 27 0.93 0 0.00 31 1.07 322 11.10 45 48 1.07 19 0.42 1 0.02 8 0.18 4 0.09 58 1.29 178 3.96 27 4 0.15 3 0.11 0 0.00 4 0.15 1 0.04 2 0.07 39 1.44 2 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 2 1.33 1 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 5 0 0.00 10 2.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 1 0.20 46 9.20 1 0 0.00 2 4.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 3 6.00 10 20.00 10 5 0.53 3 0.32 0 0.00 3 0.32 2 0.21 30 3.16 122 12.84 10 3 0.30 12 1.20 2 0.20 8 0.80 0 0.00 2 0.20 22 2.20 12 5 0.42 3 0.25 0 0.00 2 0.17 0 0.00 12 1.00 17 1.42 15 5 0.33 4 0.27 3 0.20 4 0.27 0 0.00 5 0.33 12 0.80 21 6 0.29 1 0.05 0 0.00 0 0.00 2 0.10 1 0.05 5 0.24 24 13 0.54 15 0.63 1 0.04 3 0.13 3 0.13 6 0.25 14 0.58 257 142 0.55 90 0.35 12 0.05 72 0.28 144 0.56 173 0.67 809 3.15 8 0 0.00 1 0.13 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 8 1.00 35 4 0.11 4 0.11 0 0.00 3 0.09 0 0.00 4 0.11 7 0.20 389 67 0.17 106 0.27 21 0.05 61 0.16 58 0.15 181 0.47 707 1.82 10 8 0.80 4 0.40 0 0.00 0 0.00 3 0.30 0 0.00 0 0.00 50 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 2 19 9.50 23 11.50 0 0.00 3 1.50 0 0.00 2 1.00 5 2.50 38 9 0.24 29 0.76 2 0.05 2 0.05 8 0.21 10 0.26 89 2.34 14 3 0.21 15 1.07 1 0.07 1 0.07 1 0.07 7 0.50 50 3.57 546 110 0.20 182 0.33 24 0.04 70 0.13 70 0.13 204 0.37 866 1.59 624 193.0 0.31 95 0.15 15 0.02 35 0.06 31 0.05 90 0.14 1202 1.93 3 0 0.00 3 1.20 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 3 7 2.33 1 0.33 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 1 0.33 3 1.00 49 16.0 0.33 3.0 0.06 2.0 0.04 0.0 0.00 2.0 0.04 16.0 0.33 5.0 0.10 5 3 0.60 1 0.20 0 0.00 2 0.40 0 0.00 0 0.00 2 0.40 8 2 0.27 2 0.27 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 7 0.93 0 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 6 24.00 2 8.00 36 18 0.50 25 0.69 2 0.06 0 0.00 6 0.17 7 0.19 17 0.47 1 3 3.00 4 4.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 3 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 8 2.67 0 0.00 17 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 1 0.06 0 0.00 5 0.30 8 0 0.00 2 0.27 0 0.00 0 0.00 1 0.13 0 0.00 2 0.27 229 200.0 0.87 107.0 0.47 24.0 0.10 34.0 0.15 4.0 0.02 29.0 0.13 78.0 0.34 14 27 1.93 16 1.14 1 0.07 1 0.07 0 0.00 1 0.07 6 0.43 54 16 0.30 14 0.26 20 0.37 12 0.22 4 0.07 24 0.44 64 1.19 9 6 0.67 7 0.78 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 3 0.33 22 2.44 40 23 0.58 49 1.23 4 0.10 7 0.18 1 0.03 16 0.40 94 2.35 3 3 1.00 4 1.33 0 0.00 1 0.33 1 0.33 1 0.33 10 3.33 25.0 3 0.12 1 0.04 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 3 0.12 2 0.08 1129 520 0.46 334 0.30 68 0.06 92 0.08 51 0.05 205 0.18 1521 1.35 10 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 80 8.00 3 0.30 1 0.10 15 0 0.00 1 0.07 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 11 0.76 15 1.03 14 11 0.79 5 0.36 2 0.14 0 0.00 0 0.00 35 2.50 12 0.86 12 2 0.17 0 0.00 0 0.00 2 0.17 0 0.00 4 0.33 10 0.83 20 2 0.10 1 0.05 1 0.05 1 0.05 4 0.20 3 0.15 15 0.75 20 5 0.25 1 0.05 0 0.00 1 0.05 0 0.00 4 0.20 23 1.15 7 29 4.46 1 0.15 4 0.62 1 0.15 0 0.00 30 4.62 13 2.00 20 11 0.55 18 0.90 2 0.10 10 0.50 0 0.00 5 0.25 36 1.80 17 1 0.06 3 0.18 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 7 0.42 4 0.24 8 7 0.93 4 0.53 1 0.13 0 0.00 4 0.53 3 0.40 19 2.53 5 1 0.20 1 0.20 0 0.00 0 0.00 1 0.20 1 0.20 2 0.40 146 69 0.47 35 0.24 10 0.07 15 0.10 89 0.61 106 0.73 150 1.03 6 0 0.00 2 0.36 0 0.00 2 0.36 3 0.55 12 2.18 35 6.36 36 21 0.59 3 0.08 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 11 0.31 89 2.51 469 57 0.12 120 0.26 13 0.03 24 0.05 75 0.16 150 0.32 301 0.64 14 4 0.30 10 0.74 1 0.07 8 0.59 1 0.07 11 0.81 37 2.74 17 23 1.35 34 2.00 0 0.00 7 0.41 0 0.00 49 2.88 313 18.41 26 2 0.08 9 0.35 2 0.08 2 0.08 0 0.00 13 0.51 30 1.18 5 1 0.20 3 0.60 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 8 1.60 1 0.20 1 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 4 4.00 3 3.00 0 0.00 3 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 2 0.80 2 0.80 6 0 0.00 1 0.17 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 3 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 25 10.00 6 0 0.00 1 0.17 0 0.00 2 0.33 1 0.17 2 0.33 0 0.00 8 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 2 0.27 2 0.27 4 0.53 10 9 0.90 9 0.90 0 0.00 0 0.00 0.00 52 5.20 35 3.50 607 117 0.19 192 0.32 16 0.03 45 0.07 86 0.14 315 0.52 872 1.44 2684 958 0.36 833 0.31 130 0.05 294 0.11 440 0.16 1003 0.37 4218 1.57

Sample

Context

Block Litres

9215 9319 7261 7538 7540 2 samples 7653 7835 7843 7845 7864 7871 10095 10160 11047 11061 11062 18 samples 8896 7068 29 samples 7505 7530 7534 11051 11089 36 samples 31 samples 8931 8937 7 samples 9254 9259 9262 2 samples 9271 9286 2 samples 9325 18 samples 7123 7246 2 samples 7610 11034 11040 75 samples 8801 8802 9234 9244 9220 9232 2 samples 2 samples 9323 9327 9324 13 samples 8803 4 samples 24 samples 4 samples 8808 6 samples 8891 8893 8894 8895 8897 8932 8934 9293 48 samples 190 samples

952 1159 1661 1685 1686 1696 1697 1711 1719 1720 1726 1728 1739 1741 2355 2366 2369 Sub-total 755 1610 1618 1677 1678 1683 2359 2429 Sub-total 748 758 768 884 885 1101 1105 1117 1122 1131 1133 1171 1616 1621 1657 1687 1694 2338 2341 Sub-total 711 713 879 898 958 971 982 985 1166 1174 1167 Sub-total 709 710 722 730 733 746 747 752 753 754 756 757 759 872 Sub-total Total

GCA GCA GCA GCA GCA GCA GCA GCA GCA GCA GCA GCA GCA GCA GCA GCA GCA GCA GCB GCB GCB GCB GCB GCB GCB GCB GCB GCD GCD GCD GCD GCD GCD GCD GCD GCD GCD GCD GCD GCD GCD GCD GCD GCD GCD GCD GCD GCE GCE GCE GCE GCE GCE GCE GCE GCE GCE GCE GCE GCF GCF GCF GCF GCF GCF GCF GCF GCF GCF GCF GCF GCF GCF GCF GC

Egg no. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3

Charcoal no. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 13 1 0 0 0 6 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 25

Coprolite B.O.M. no. no. density 0 0 0.00 6 1 0.13 0 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0 2 0.07 0 1 0.02 0 3 0.11 0 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 2 0 0.00 0 1 0.10 0 1 0.08 0 2 0.13 0 0 0.00 0 1 0.04 8 12 0.05 0 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 11 15 0.04 0 5 0.50 0 0 0.00 0 1 0.50 0 0 0.00 0 3 0.21 11 24 0.04 0 41 0.07 0 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0 2 0.04 0 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0 12 0.33 0 1 1.00 0 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0 34 0.15 0 1 0.07 0 17 0.31 0 0 0.00 0 1 0.03 0 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0 109 0.10 0 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0 3 0.21 0 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0 1 0.05 0 5 0.77 0 3 0.15 0 1 0.06 0 1 0.13 0 9 1.80 0 23 0.16 0 0 0.00 0 4 0.11 0 17 0.04 0 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0 3 0.12 0 0 0.00 0 2 2.00 0 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0 26 0.04 19 194 0.07

GCA

1117

2338

2341

11034

11040

GCF

GCF

759

Sub-total

Total

8934

11 samples

44 samples

GC

GCF

GCF

GCF

754

746

8878

GCF

GCF

756

730

8860

8895

722

8831

GCF

GCF

GCF

GCF

GCF

GCE

GCE

GCE

GCE

GCD

GCD

GCD

GCD

GCD

GCD

GCD

GCD

GCD

GCD

GCD

GCD

GCD

GCD

GCD

GCB

GCB

8897

722

722

8819

722

8815

8824

710

710

8886

8887

Sub-total

982

985

9279

9246

3 samples

982

9243

Sub-total

1687

7542

14 samples

1616

1616

7104

7161

1616

1616

7107

7110

1616

1101

9259

9321

1616

884

9311

7099

884

9308

7102

884

9307

Sub-total

GCB

1618

2429

7632

11089

9 samples

GCB

1618

7627

GCB

GCB

1618

1618

7523

GCB

GCB

GCB

GCB

GCA

GCA

7629

1618

1618

7517

7519

755

1618

8896

7511

Sub-total

2369

7 samples

11062

GCA

2355

2366

11047

11061

GCA

GCA

1696

1697

7626

GCA

GCA

Block

7653

952

1686

9215

Context

7540

Sample

598.8

85.75

7.5

2.5

6

0.25

8

16

5

3

20

2.5

15

16.5

10

3.5

3

179

25

3

4

11.5

3

10

29

30

8

25

7.5

10

8

5

149.5

14

7

3

3.5

17

20

34

43

8

168

24

21

15

27

37

29

15

Litres

386.75

85.75

7.5

2.5

6

0.25

8

16

5

3

20

2.5

15

16.5

10

3.5

3

113.5

12.5

3

2

11.5

3

5

14.5

15

4

12.5

7.5

10

8

5

90.75

14

7

3

1.75

8.5

10

17

21.5

8

80.25

12

10.5

7.5

13.5

18.5

14.5

3.75

Litres sorted

504 1.30

13 0.15

2 0.27

0 0.00

2 0.33

0 0.00

3 0.38

1 0.06

1 0.20

0 0.00

2 0.10

0 0.00

2 0.13

4 0.24

4 0.40

0 0.00

0 0.00

72 0.63

2 0.16

24 8.00

3 1.50

4140 10.70

730 8.51

58 7.73

14 5.60

29 4.83

2 8.00

100 12.50

204 12.75

131 26.20

21 7.00

76 3.80

24 9.60

71 4.73

202 12.24

140 14.00

44 12.57

18 6.00

1393 12.27

79 6.32

88 29.33

90 45.00

28 9.33 192 16.70

1 0.09

56 11.20

68 4.69

153 10.20

39 9.75

352 28.16

33 4.40

118 11.80

51 6.38

46 9.20

804 8.86

232 16.57

56 8.00

30 10.00

137 78.29

137 16.12

90 9.00

59 3.47

30 1.40

33 4.13

1011 12.60

165 13.75

98 9.33

120 16.00

122 9.04

268 14.49

227 15.66

10 3.33

0 0.00

21 1.45

0 0.00

10 2.50

1 0.08

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

287 3.16

25 1.79

3 0.43

0 0.00

8 4.57

37 4.35

55 5.50

10 0.59

146 6.79

3 0.38

128 1.60

7 0.58

1 0.10

9 1.20

11 0.81

17 0.92

82 5.66

11 2.93

no. density

1 0.27

Unburnt bone

Pottery no. density

Fish

26 3.71

3258 8.42

402 4.69

13 1.73

48 19.20

46 7.67

41 164.00

24 3.00

68 4.25

21 4.20

3 1.00

29 1.45

6 2.40

103 6.87

94 5.70

57 5.70

16 4.57

21 7.00

1058 9.32

28 2.24

47 15.67

13 6.50

36 3.13

242 80.67

45 9.00

203 14.00

194 12.93

122 30.50

34 2.72

2 0.27

47 4.70

15 1.88

30 6.00

955 10.52

75 5.36

10120 26.17

1806 21.06

92 12.27

32 12.80

56 9.33

7 28.00

164 20.50

272 17.00

75 15.00

48 16.00

200 10.00

55 22.00

805 53.67

858 52.00

347 34.70

212 60.57

299 99.67

2798 24.65

57 4.56

93 31.00

91 45.50

409 35.57

34 11.33

53 10.60

170 11.72

1000 66.67

130 32.50

363 29.04

49 6.53

184 18.40

85 10.63

80 16.00

1095 12.07

229 16.36

76 10.86

19 6.33

97 55.43

10 3.33

258 30.35

75 42.86

133 13.30

97 5.71

87 4.05

99 12.38

3563 44.40

505 42.08

131 12.48

221 29.47

442 32.74

935 50.54

1273 87.79

56 14.93

no. density

116 13.65

243 24.30

163 9.59

236 10.98

11 1.38

749 9.33

98 8.17

80 7.62

109 14.53

103 7.63

72 3.89

276 19.03

11 2.93

no. density

Burnt bone

2199 5.69

176 2.05

0 0.00

7 2.80

0 0.00

5 20.00

20 2.50

36 2.25

14 2.80

4 1.33

46 2.30

5 2.00

39 2.60

20 1.21

15 1.50

0 0.00

5 1.67

500 4.41

24 1.92

158 52.67

4 2.00

7 0.61

9 3.00

0 0.00

51 3.52

170 11.33

43 10.75

20 1.60

2 0.27

10 1.00

2 0.25

0 0.00

625 6.89

100 7.14

4 0.57

15 5.00

160 91.43

93 10.94

133 13.30

29 1.71

85 3.95

6 0.75

878 10.94

308 25.67

90 8.57

175 23.33

28 2.07

152 8.22

118 8.14

7 1.87

no. density

Charcoal

10425 26.96

1586 18.50

2 0.27

350 140.00

11 1.83

4 16.00

113 14.13

214 13.38

111 22.20

198 66.00

259 12.95

29 11.60

295 19.67

901 54.61

280 28.00

342 97.71

279 93.00

3894 34.31

45 3.60

129 43.00

34 17.00

450 39.13

169 56.33

209 41.80

550 37.93

630 42.00

600 150.00

850 68.00

29 3.87

105 10.50

46 5.75

48 9.60

2157 23.77

389 27.79

65 9.29

26 8.67

99 56.57

278 32.71

570 57.00

204 12.00

404 18.79

122 15.25

1887 23.51

143 11.92

100 9.52

210 28.00

209 15.48

398 21.51

529 36.48

298 79.47

no. density

B.O.M.

14148 36.58

1518 17.70

1046 139.47

45 18.00

117 19.50

1 4.00

141 17.63

54 3.38

17 3.40

7 2.33

45 2.25

0 0.00

45 3.00

58 3.52

40 4.00

14 4.00

4 1.33

1510 13.30

241 19.28

143 47.67

36 18.00

350 30.43

12 4.00

42 8.40

19 1.31

22 1.47

12 3.00

420 33.60

36 4.80

93 9.30

74 9.25

10 2.00

4576 50.42

651 46.50

900 128.57

425 141.67

600 342.86

670 78.82

236 23.60

650 38.24

410 19.07

34 4.25

6486 80.82

750 62.50

400 38.10

123 16.40

498 36.89

720 38.92

525 36.21

3470 925.33

no. density

Slag

23 0.06

2 0.02

0 0.00

1 0.40

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.33

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.06

0 0.00

1 0.29

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

6 0.07

1 0.07

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

5 0.23

0 0.00

14 0.17

1 0.08

0 0.00

0 0.00

4 0.30

4 0.22

5 0.34

0 0.00

no. density

Crab

Table 137. The material identified in sorting the 2 to 10 mm residue from the ancillary structures (GC) Egg

1629 4.21

1048 12.22

22 2.93

0 0.00

27 4.50

1 4.00

56 7.00

754 47.13

69 13.80

7 2.33

11 0.55

7 2.80

94 6.27

188 11.39

91 9.10

49 14.00

48 16.00

145 1.28

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.50

4 0.35

17 5.67

5 1.00

9 0.62

5 0.33

6 1.50

70 5.60

0 0.00

16 1.60

7 0.88

5 1.00

80 0.88

12 0.86

4 0.57

2 0.67

8 4.57

34 4.00

6 0.60

4 0.24

8 0.37

2 0.25

168 2.09

92 7.67

14 1.33

17 2.27

6 0.44

27 1.46

11 0.76

1 0.27

no. density

Spirorbis

2 0.01

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

2 0.12

2 0.20

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

no. density

Coprolite

1159 3.00

487 5.68

21 2.80

3 1.20

147 24.50

34 136.00

5 0.63

82 5.13

80 16.00

6 2.00

33 1.65

0 0.00

76 5.07

340 20.61

19 1.90

100 28.57

221 73.67

157 1.38

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.09

0 0.00

122 24.40

0 0.00

11 0.73

0 0.00

3 0.24

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

20 4.00

174 1.92

48 3.43

0 0.00

0 0.00

3 1.71

10 1.18

61 6.10

0 0.00

50 2.33

2 0.25

1 0.01

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.07

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

no. density

416

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

The Late Norse activity on mound 2A

417

0.6 3

0.5 0.4

2

0.3 0.2

1

0.1 0

pottery

unburnt bone

fish

0

burnt bone GCA

GCB

GCD

GCE

BOM

slag

limpet

winkle

GCF

Figure 314. Histograms of the above 10 mm sampling densities from the ancillary structures (GC) 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

fish

unburnt bone

burnt bone

pot

90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

charcoal

BOM

slag

25 20 15 10 5 0

crab GCA

spirorbis GCB

egg GCD

GCE

coprolite GCF

Figure 315. Histograms of the 2 to 10 mm sampling densities from the ancillary structures (GC)

The densities of the material from the above 10 mm residues are depicted in Figure 314. These layers had average densities for mound 2A, though most of the blocks had higher densities of fish bone than previous blocks. There seems little obvious pattern in the overall distribution of material from each block. Winkle, as usual, had the highest densities (1.6 shells/litre) and these were concentrated in GCA. Limpets were the next most common (0.4 shells/ litre) and these were most common in GCA and GCE. Fish bone had an average of 0.4 frag/litre and there was a significant difference between the high densities from GCA, GCD and GCE and the low densities from GCB and GCF. Unburnt mammal bones were fairly evenly distributed and had an average density of 0.3 frag/litre. In contrast slag, which had a similar density (0.2 frag/litre) was concentrated in GCA and GCE. Pottery was again more evenly distributed (0.1 frag/litre), but there was a concentration in GCA. The average densities of the material recovered from the 2–10 mm residues are depicted in Figure 315. The most common material present was slag (36.6 frag/ litre); this dominated the assemblage from GCA and, to a lesser extent, GCB, and indicates the presence of residual material from the previous phase. B.O.M. was also present in high densities (27.0 frag/litre), but this shows the opposite trend and was increasingly common in the later phases; in the final phase, however, B.O.M. and slag were present in roughly equivalent densities. Fish bone was only slightly less common than slag (26.2 frag/litre) a significant increase in the density of fish bone from the previous phase (GB). Unburnt and burnt mammal bone had a relatively even distribution across the different blocks and the densities (10.7 frag/litre and 8.4 frag/litre) were generally above average for mound 2A. Pottery reached a peak density (3.2 frag/litre) in GCB, which was the second highest density for mound 2A, and then declined gradually. Many of the less frequent materials showed significant and often atypical peaks in this block. Eggshell had high densities in GCE and GCF (11.4 and 12.2 frag/litre

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

418

Table 138. The pottery from the ancillary structures (GC) Block

Context

Weight (g)

No.

Ave wght

GCA

1159

21.2

1

21.20

Rim

Base

Body

Misc.

Platter

Sooted

GCA

1178

27.8

5

5.56

GCA

1661

173.9

25

6.96

GCA

1686

61.0

15

4.07

GCA

1685

16.4

5

3.28

GCA

1696

46.9

3

15.63

GCA

1697

123.4

11

11.22

1

GCA

1728

4.0

1

4.00

1

2

2

2

1

4

1

3

7

14

7

1

1

1

7

4

12

3

5

2

1

1

1

3

3

3

1

2369

9.0

2

4.50

GCA

Sub-total

483.6

68

7.11

4

GCB

1610

3.5

1

3.50

1

GCB

1618

294.4

13

22.65

1

GCB

1678

3.4

1

3.40

GCB

Sub-total

301.3

15

20.09

2

2

3

GCD

748

231.3

34

6.80

8

1

13

GCD

749

20.0

4

5.00

GCD

767

1.3

1

1.30

GCD

1616

3.7

1

3.70

1

GCD

1657

2.2

2

1.10

2

GCD

1694

126.7

34

3.73

GCD

1101

1.4

1

1.40

1

1 6

12

20

2

3

2

11

0

11

1

30

7

4

1 1

1

4

16

2

1.85

2

6.10

6

GCD

1176

0.9

1

0.90

1

3.47 5.04

GCE

713

9.9

5

1.98

GCE

765

0.8

1

0.80

GCE

879

107.9

20

5.40

GCE

958

6.5

4

1.63

GCE

971

37.5

16

GCE

982

16.8

GCE

985

GCE

1164

GCE GCF

1

1

16 3

10

1

13

12

2 1

10

10

2

1

1

17

39

32

54

11

1

4 3

10

9

1 8

4

2.34

1

10

4

4.20

2

2

37.5

7

5.36

3

4

6.0

2

3.00

Sub-total

222.9

59

3.78

710

2.2

1

2.20

GCF

715

12.1

1

12.10

GCF

722

80.4

27

2.98

2

GCF

733

31.1

8

3.89

2

GCF

747

3.0

1

3.00

GCF

753

23.3

2

11.65

2

2

GCF

757

17.0

2

8.50

2

2

GCF

759

2.8

1

2.80

GCF

872

11.8

2

5.90

GCF

Sub-total

183.7

45

4.08

4

Total

1690.7

286

5.91

23

GC

12

5

3.7

99

1 37

3

97.6 10.4

1

9

1117

499.2

5

5

1133 1713

8

26

1

GCD

Sub-total

2

1

GCD

GCD

3

1

GCA

GCD

Fine

1

3

2

4

3

2

15

5

3

3

2

1

1

26

13

19

14

1

1 9

2

1 1 1

3

1 15 2

4

1

19

9

2

1

1

1

1

1

1

2

5

11

21

4

31

11

16

58

109

80

152

48

1

The Late Norse activity on mound 2A

419

GCD

4654

2589

GCF

2651

4654

3084

0

10cm

Figure 316. A selection of feature sherds from the ancillary structures (GC)

respectively), and coprolite also had an unusually high density (20.6 frag/litre) in GCE. These high densities may be influenced by the small size of the samples from GCE (only 17 litres in total), and both the sampled layers were interpreted as redeposited material behind the north wall of the house. Crab shell was present but in unusually low densities in comparison to other Middle and Late Norse deposits from mound 2A.

Pottery – K Harding and N Sharples A total of 286 sherds, weighing approximately 1690.7  g, was recovered from the layers associated with the construction and use of the two ancillary buildings and House 15 (GC; Table 138, Figure 316). This is a small but significant assemblage for the site, much smaller than the assemblage from the contemporary middens to the east but larger than those from the middens to the west and north. The largest assemblage of sherds came from the occupation of building 6 (GCD), but this only slightly exceeded, by weight, from the assemblage associated with the construction of building 5 (GCA). The smallest assemblage of sherds came from the occupation of building 5 (GCB), but this was the third largest by weight.

The assemblage from GCA was largely recovered from a brown sand (1661) that filled the cut for the west wall, and from a brown sand (1686) that formed a bank associated with the east wall. In GCD, most of the sherds came from two layers, a red-brown floor layer (1694) and the final floor layer (748). Most of the assemblage from the construction of House 15 (GCE) came from a brown sand (879/971) dumped behind the north wall. The bulk of the assemblage from the house’s occupation (GCF) came from the extensive, dark brown secondary floor layer (722) that also contained a large quantity of animal bones. It seems likely that many of the deposits associated with the building of the ancillary structures and House 15 (GCA, GCE) were redeposited dumps of midden and the stratigraphic integrity of much of the associated ceramic assemblages is therefore problematic. There is a significant variation in the size of the sherds in these blocks. The average weight of sherds in GCB is over 20 g and in GCA over 7.1 g, but the final blocks have an average sherd weight of 5 g or less. The distribution of platter sherds is interesting when compared to the distribution of rim sherds. The proportion of platter sherds is substantial in the earliest phase, particularly compared to the small quantity of rim sherds.

Total

Miscellaneous

Structural fittings

Personal objects

Tools

Working debris

antler/whale bone

ivory

bone

flint

offcut

offcut

pin manufacturing

iron

Cu alloy

iron

fitting

rivet

bar/rod/strip/fragments

whale bone

iron

rove

Cu alloy

iron

nail

worked

iron

pin

strip/sheet/frag

bone

pin

bone

gaming piece

whale bone

antler

perforated tine

decorated

Cu alloy

key

antler

iron

fishing hook

comb

bone

point

whale bone

1

antler/whale bone

plate blank

spindle whorl

1

antler

segment

1178 1

1

antler

tine/beam/burr

1661 4

1

1

Material

Object type 1686 3

3

1696 3

1

2

1697 1

1

1739 1

1

2366 2

2

2369 2

2

887 1

1

1610 1

1

22

1

1

18

1

1

1618

GCB 2359 1

1

748 49

2

6

1

3

1

1

2

1

1

6

5

5

9

6

749 3

1

2

758 1

1

767 1

1

884 5

1

1

1

1

1

886 7

1

1

1

2

1

1

1101 75

4

4

3

2

1

1

2

1

2

5

16

22

12

1112 1

1

GCD

18

2

2

1

1

2

5

5

1113

GCA

12

2

4

1

5

1117

Table 139. The artefacts from the construction and use of the first two ancillary structures (GCA to GCD)

1179 1

1

1616 31

4

5

1

16

1

4

1657 3

2

1

1687 15

1

1

1

2

1

3

3

1

2

1694 1

1

1713 5

1

1

1

2

2338 1

1

271

8

12

23

1

2

2

6

1

1

1

5

2

3

1

1

1

1

61

1

3

24

38

43

30

Total

420

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

The Late Norse activity on mound 2A

421

GCD

5961

3346

3399

3740

2319

2438

4023

3344

0

2240

2216

2408

2256

5124

10cm

Figure 317. Artefacts from the deposits in the ancillary structure 6. 3340 and 3740 are iron, 2438 is copper alloy; all the rest are bone or antler

If one ignores the small assemblage from GCB, the platter numbers decline over time and in the last phase GCF the number of rim sherds is equivalent to the number of platter sherds. One rim that appears to be of an everted form is present in GCA but everted rim forms are more numerous in GCD (Figure 316).

Artefacts – A Pannett, R Smith and N Sharples An assemblage of 361 artefacts was recovered from this area (GC; Tables 139 and 140) and a selection of the more important finds are illustrated in Figures 317, 318 and 319. The assemblage is dominated by waste materials from building 6 (GCD), which indicates that this building was used as a workshop for the production of composite combs. Large quantities of antler and whale bone waste were found on the floor of this structure, including beam and tine offcuts (e.g. 7563, 4031), split segments (e.g. 2276, 4018, 5164, 4035), and blanks for the creation of side-plates (e.g. 3363, 4045, 4050) and toothplates (e.g. 3317, 4037, 4042, 3416). Several toothplate blanks were carefully shaped (4383, 4384, 5630), and indicate that this workshop was

producing small double-sided combs. A number of flat rectangular blanks of dense whale bone (4029, 4044) shows experimentation with different materials for the production of comb side-plates. The distribution of primary comb-making debris inside the workshop (Figure 320) clusters to the north and east of the large stone placed in the centre of the house (1731; Figures 306 and 308) and this could have been a seat on which the comb-maker sat. During excavation a concentration of waste was exposed at this location (Figure 321). Unfortunately a large part of this waste deposit was removed before the excavators realised its significance so detailed recording exists for only part of the deposit. The pattern of the comb-making debris in the area for which we have comprehensive recording indicates a circular concentration of waste, possibly representing a bag of material placed on the floor. The contents of this deposit include a collection of primary antler waste fragments and one finished toothplate, but the assemblage is dominated by secondary debris, including 10 blanks for the production of side-plates and toothplates. There were also two tines in this deposit, possibly tools for splitting antler beams, and a piece of copper sheet that

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

422

GCD

4030

4031

2276

4018

5164

7563 4035 3363

4050

4037

4045

2224

5630

4384

4383 3416

3317

4373

4029

4044 0

10cm

Figure 318. Antler debris from comb production on the floor of ancillary structure 6 (GCD)

4042

GCE

The Late Norse activity on mound 2A

GCE

GCF

423

GCF

3057 3570 3057 3570 3576

1839

1819

3576

1839

1819

3114

3114 3516

7532

3516

7532

0

3136

3723

3136

10cm 3723

0

10cm

GCF GCF

2171

50cm

0 2171

Figure 319. A selection of artefacts from0 the later deposits in the ancillary structures.50cm 3057 is copper alloy; 1819 and 3516 are iron; all the rest are bone or antler

424

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Figure 320. The distribution of comb making debris in the Late Norse deposits on mound 2A

Whale bone Secondary debris, blank Secondary debris, segment

455.00 231.50

Secondary debris, shaving Primary debris 0

10cm

455.00 231.00

Copper alloy

Figure 321. A photograph and plan of a concentration of antler comb making debris that probably represents a bag of material left on the floor of ancillary structure 6

The Late Norse activity on mound 2A

0

425

10cm

Figure 322. A cluster of holdfasts and an axe fragment found in the wall of House 15

could have been used as raw material for making comb rivets. The workshop was also used for the production of gaming pieces: one small, roughly shaped piece (2256) and one large piece that was split in half (2408) were discovered. Debris includes a rough cube of ivory, sperm whale tooth (5124). There is also an ivory, sperm whale tooth, offcut (3570) from a GCE context, which is probably residual. There are three crudely worked perforated antler tines (2319, 3399, 4023), one of which (2319) has a single

ring-and-dot motif inscribed on one side. This tine might have been used as a trial piece. A rather finer, flat plaque of whale bone (3346) has five ring-and-dot motifs of varying sizes incised in a cluster on one surface. The smooth finish of the whale bone and the presence of incised lines running down each edge of the fragment suggest this is part of a larger object but the arrangement and character of the ringand-dot motif are atypical and it seems likely this has been reused as a trial piece. The assemblage of waste material from building 5 (GCB)

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

426

is minimal and the small quantities of waste present in blocks GCE and GCF (House 15) are likely to be residual. The flint assemblage from GC consists of one bladelet, 14 flakes, five flake fragments, 31 pieces of microdebitage, one pebble and 12 chunks and there was one quartz flake from GCD. The bladelet has abrupt retouch along one lateral edge and could be a backed bladelet microlith of Mesolithic date, and clearly intrusive in this Late Norse context. One flake from GCB and two flakes from GCD have been retouched; one flake from GCD has semiinvasive retouch along one edge, forming a simple cutting tool, and the other two have abrupt retouch along one edge suggesting they are scrapers. Tools that could have been used as part of the combmaking process are rare. The most likely comb-making tool is an antler handle (3114) from GCE, which would have held a very fine iron blade, possibly a saw, which has snapped off in the socket. Other tools include an iron knife (1819), a fish hook (3740), an iron awl (3516) and a bone pin (1839).

There is also a very large whale vertebra (2171) that was found on the floor of House 15 (GCF), apparently acting as a seat at one end of the building (see Figure 313). This has been carefully trimmed to shape and both sides have cut-marks that indicate it was used as a chopping block, though the cut-marks are most frequent on the underside (i.e. on the surface that was facing downwards at the time of excavation). This seat belongs to the final phase of activity in this area of the site and may well be associated with animal butchery, as large quantities of animal bone were found scattered on the secondary floor of House 15. Surprisingly, given the amount of comb production debris from building 6, the number of pieces of finished combs from these blocks is minimal, just six fragments. There is one double-sided toothplate (2216), which has clearly been used, and a fragment of side-plate (5961) from a single-sided comb. There is also an unusual toothplate fragment from an exceptionally thick double-sided comb (3576). It has triangular teeth and a concave central area defined by two thin lines. In section it resembles

Table 140. The artefacts from the construction and use of House 15 (GCE and GCF) GCE

GCF

point

bone

2

chopping block

whale bone

1

1

knife

iron

1

1

1 2

1

1

872

1

746

antler

733

handle

730

2

1

5

722

1

flint

1

1

1

710

ivory

1

1

1166

offcut

2

1152

6

1

10

1

985

antler/whale bone

1

982

antler/whale bone

offcut

971

plate blank

1

958

antler

879

antler

segment

765

tine/beam/burr

719

Material

713

Object type

Total

2

16

1

10

1

8

Working debris

Tools

3

11 1

1

1

4 1 2

axe

1

1

awl

iron

1

1

cobble tool

stone

key

Cu alloy

perforated tine

antler

1

1

comb

antler

1

1

pin

bone

1

nail

iron

1

holdfast

iron

rove

iron

fitting

iron

tack

Cu alloy

1

bar/rod/strip/fragments

iron

3

strip/sheet/frag

Cu alloy

1

unworked

whale bone

worked

whale bone

1

1

1

1

Personal objects

Structural fittings

1

1

1 1

4

1

1

1

4

7

8

1

1 0 1

2

5

1

2

Miscellaneous

Total

1 2

1

1

39

1 3

3

1

13

1

2

1

1

1

3

11

6

1

1

1

4

90

The Late Norse activity on mound 2A •

8 7

•

6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Barley

Oats GCB

Rye GCD

Flax

Wild

GCF

Figure 323. Histograms showing the density of the main crop species in the carbonised plant remains

the single-piece wooden combs from southern England (Winchester; Biddle 1990) but it is difficult to understand how these could have been made in antler. Pins are similarly rare, with only five bone pins (e.g. 2240) and one iron pin (4880, not illustrated) recorded. A pair of small copper-alloy keys (2438, 3057) were found; 2438 came from the floor of ancillary building 6 (GCD), whereas 3057 came from the following block (GCE), from a layer (879) that produced a large assemblage of artefacts. It seems likely that these are a pair and that their separation is an indication of later disturbance. Perhaps the comb-maker had a locked box containing a tool-kit: the tools could have been more valuable than the combs produced. The structural fittings and miscellaneous categories are not substantial and the quantities of nails, roves and holdfasts are generally low. However, these numbers are considerably enhanced by the discovery of a cluster of iron objects from a brown sand deposit (710) on the line of the (absent) north wall of House 15. This cluster (1830; Figure 322) comprised a fragment of an axe, seven holdfasts and a detached rove, and probably indicates scrap metal collected in a bag and stored in a wall space for recycling. The presence of a number of copper-alloy sheet frag­ments may be related to the comb-making. Many late combs were held together by copper-alloy rivets and sheet fragments would have been the raw material for the production of these rivets. There are also a couple of copper-alloy objects that could be referred to as tacks or rivets.

Carbonised plant remains – J Summers, J Bond and N Sharples The carbonised plant remains were examined from 30 samples from the occupation layers in the two ancillary structures and House 15 (Table 141). These comprised: •

10 samples from ancillary building 5 (GCB, 159.5 litres of soil):

427

10 samples from ancillary building 6 (GCD, 139.5 litres of soil); 10 samples from House 15 (GCF, 85.5 litres of soil).

Seven of the samples from GCB came from the floor layer (1618), six of the samples from GCD came from the floor layer (1616), but the samples from GCF came from a wider range of contexts. The assemblage was dominated by oats and barley (average densities 5.8 frag/litre and 5.5 frag/litre). There were large quantities of wild seeds (3.8 frag/litre) and a significant assemblage of rye and flax (1.5 frag/litre and 1.5 frag/litre). The densities of the main species are depicted in Figure 323. The most obvious trend through time for these GC blocks is the gradual decline in the densities, and this is particularly clear for barley. Oats maintained a high density in ancillary building 6 (GCD) but dropped significantly in House 15 (GCF). The densities for flax and wild seeds were higher in building 6 (GCD) than in building 5 (GCB), but then fell sharply. The only crop to vary from this trend is rye, which was at its lowest density in ancillary building 6 (GCD) and had roughly equivalent densities in building 5 (GCB) and House 15 (GCF). There is a clear correlation between barley and oats, with high densities of these species coming from related samples (Figure 324). Samples with large quantities of barley and oat seeds came from the floors of building 5 (1618) and building 6 (1616). In contrast, the distribution of rye and flax is very different, with no samples producing high densities of both crops (Figure 324). High densities of rye were largely restricted to building 5 (samples 7629, 7632, 8896), whereas high densities of flax were concentrated in building 6 (samples 7099, 7104, 7110). The correlation between these crops and the more dominant crops is more difficult to see but high densities of rye were slightly more common in samples that also had high densities of oats and barley.

Animal bone – A Powell, J Best, J Mulville and N Sharples The Late Norse occupation of the two ancillary structures and House 15 (GC) produced a small assemblage of 415 animal bones (Table 142). The bulk of the assemblage was recovered from the deposits associated with the construction and use of House 15 (GCE, GCF), and one layer (722) produced almost a third of the assemblage (111 bones). This layer was the final occupation of House 15 and may represent primary butchery in an abandoned structure; it also produced a large pottery assemblage, an iron knife and the whale bone chopping block (see above),. The bulk of the assemblage is cattle (47%), closely followed by sheep (41%), but this pattern varies between the blocks. The large assemblage from the final occupation of House 15 (722) is dominated by cattle (68%) and this influences the overall proportions of the assemblage. The

Other crops

1

1

29

2

Gramineae

Phleum sp.

Bromus sp.

9

1

10

Galium sp. Type 2

Galium sp. Type 1

2

35

Euphorbia cf. helioscopia

cf Fumaria sp.

2

12

4

7

20

6

3

6

3

Crucifereae Type 2

Erica sp.

5

11

1

1

5

1

53

14

1

1

46

8

9

3

Crucifereae cf Raphanus sp.

Compositae type

Chenopodiaceae

cf Cerastium sp.

Cyperaceae/Polygonaceae

Cyperaceae indet.

Cyperaceae indet. type 5

Cyperaceae indet. type 4

1

2

Carex sp. Type 5

45

1

Carex sp. Type 3

Scirpus spp.

6

5

Carex sp. Type 1

Carex sp. Type 2

4

2

5

1

1

10

7

9

2

1

1

1

4

8

2

23

1

2

1

3

1

2

3

22

9

1

3

6

3

254

1

174

4

1

5

1

1

1

1

2

1

1

3

2

90

53

11

115

5

21

8

GCB

755

8896

1

1

6

3

1

1

4

156

66

8

91

2

82

14

GCB

2429

11089

7099

7

2

3

1

7

8

2

5

6

5

42

60

15

4

66

2

81

8

GCD

1616

7102

1

4

1

4

2

16

4

2

3

6

2

19

20

5

80

185

40

19

257

9

16

166

30

GCD

1616

7104

2

1

1

1

1

4

1

1

3

15

37

1

18

86

1

9

68

3

GCD

1616

7107

6

3

1

2

2

1

4

83

12

5

2

6

5

3

11

100

196

15

19

297

3

230

29

GCD

1616

7110

1

1

11

34

2

1

3

46

50

9

1

34

2

34

10

GCD

1616

7161

1

1

2

52

3

4

21

23

11.5

GCD

1616

2

1

1

1

5

11

3

7

5

GCD

884

9307

1

1

1

7

2

9

4

8

GCD

884

9308

1

30

2

3

7

8

10

GCD

884

9311

1

1

2

1

1

1

1

1

2

1

5

91

7

4

41

45

25

GCD

1117

9321

3

2

15

1

1

5

101

22

10

49

1

25

20

GCF

722

8815

2

18

9

2

2

3

GCF

722

8819

1 1

2

2

1

58

89

6

98

2

23

5

GCF

722

8824

1

167

24

3

57

2

41

16

GCF

722

8831

4

11

1

1

1

1

Buglossoides sp.

Weeds/Wild species

12

101

54

65

9

33

8

1

39

7

GCB

1618

7632

Brassica/Sinapis spp

14

239

21

17

122

3

3

85

3.5

GCB

1618

7629

2

134

401

2

14

1

25

3

GCB

1618

7627

cf Linum usitatissimum frags

Linum usitatissimum

915

13

306

46

8

17

116

6

15

133

17

GCB

1618

7523

Cereal grain frags

42

18

118

3

7

132

20

GCB

1618

7519

1

54

12

38

16

9

166

34

GCB

1618

7517

Cereal culm frags

cf Secale cereale grains

279

14

10

393

43

GCB

35

1

8

Hordeum sativum rachis frags

Avena sp. grains

7511

1618

Avena sp. indet. frag

1

10

Litres

20

GCB

Block

Hordeum vulgare grains

1677

Hordeum vulgare indet. frags

Cereals

7505

Sample

Context

Table 141. The carbonised plant remains from the ancillary structures (GC)

1

90

3

9

1

16

8

GCF

730

8860

2

10

1

2

2

2

132

2

3

32

2

4

41

15

GCF

710

8886

1

1

1

13

1

3

2.5

GCF

710

8887

2

1

21

1

5

14

6

GCF

754

8895

2

1

1

18

1

1

6

2.5

GCF

756

8897

1

12

2

5

3

7.5

GCF

759

8934

428

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

cf Liliaceae

1

1

1

1

2

1

X

X

Indet.

Fungal spores/ insect pellets

Amorphous material

X

X

2

12

20

1

Heather frags

2

Poss ID

Indet. Type 4

cf. Viola sp.

X

X

1

4

3

X

X

17

1

X

X

5

X

X

1

X

X

5

X

3

X

X X

X

2

X

X

11

1

X

X

5

2

6

Urtica sp.

5

1

2

1

1

2

1

3

2

1

3

3 19

1

1

2

3

3

1

5

1

1

1

Rubus sp.

2

1

1

3

4

4

2

4

cf Sisymbrium sp.

5

1

Ranunculus sp. large

cf Ranunculus sp.

1

1

2

Rumex/Polygonum spp kernels

1

Ranunculus sp. small

Rumex/Polygonum sp. Type 5

1

2

3

1

1

2

Rumex/Polygonum sp. Type 4

2

1

1

1

Rumex/Polygonum sp. Type 3

3

2

5

9

23

Rumex/Polygonum sp. Type 1

1

16

Polygonaceae

2

1

Rumex/Polygonum sp. Type 2

4

3

Plantago sp.

2

Potentilla sp.

Papaver sp.

Paniceae type grain

X

X

2

1

1

1

X

X

2

3

16

3

6

1

1

8

2

1

12

1

1

3

202

X

X

5

2

2

3

1

2

2

1

1

X

X

1

1

X

X

1

4

X

X

1

1

X

2

X

X

2

1

1

3

1

X

2

1

X

X

X

1

1

X

2

X

1

X

X

1

1

X

X

1

1

The Late Norse activity on mound 2A 429

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

430

30

45 40

25 20

30 25

Wild

Avena

35

20

10

15 10

5

5

20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

0

5

10

15 Hordeum

20

25

0

30

0

5

10

15 20 Hordeum

25

30

6 5 4 Linum

Secale

0

15

3 2 1

0

5

10

15 Hordeum

20

25

0

30 GCB

GCD

0

5

10 Secale

15

20

GCF

Figure 324. Scatter plots showing the relationship between the main crop species

assemblages from the occupation of building 6 (GCD) have a slightly lower proportion of sheep (34%) than the average for the GC blocks, in contrast to the construction deposits (GCE) which are dominated by sheep (56%).. Pig and deer are present in similar quantities (6%). Pig has a relatively consistent pattern across the different blocks, but deer varies and relatively large numbers (15%) came from the occupation of building 6 (GCD), where the comb production debris was recovered. Bones from animals other than the principal species are rare. There are seven horse/equid, one dog, two cat and three seal bones. In comparison to the other assemblages from mound 2A, this assemblage has a lower than average proportion of bones exhibiting carnivore gnawing, butchery and burning (Table 143). The small assemblage from the construction of building 5 has the highest percentage of gnawed and burnt bone. There is little similarity in the patterns from the different floors. The occupation of building 5 (GCB) is characterised by a comparatively low proportion of gnawed bones, and no butchered or burnt bones, whereas the assemblage from the occupation of building 6 (GCD) has a proportion of gnawing near the mound 2A average, and fewer than average butchered and burnt bones. The final floor in House 15 (GCF) has a near-average percentage of gnawed bone and of butchered bones, but low numbers of burnt bones.

An assemblage of 48 bird bones were recovered from the ancillary structures and House 15 (GC, Table 144). The bulk of the assemblage (52%) came from deposits associated with the construction of House 15 (GCE). The majority of bird bones from GCE are a bone group of a young gull, which was recovered from the wall of the house’s south entrance. This context was disturbed by rabbits and may include intrusive or residual material. As well as this unusual bone group, the rest of the assemblage is also comprised mainly of seabirds, including guillemot, gannet, cormorant and three more gulls; geese and ducks are rare. Domestic fowl are present in reasonable numbers. Two bones had knife-cuts, one was burnt, and four had been gnawed.

Fish bone – C Ingrem A large number of fish bones came from the 2–10 mm residues that derive from deposits associated with the ancillary structures and House 15 (GC), but only a small proportion of the remains (592 bones) are identifiable (Table 145). Herring comprises 82% of the 2–10 mm assemblage from all the blocks. Saithe is the second most numerous species but makes up just 5% of the identifiable assemblage. Other taxa are scarce; fish present include elasmobranch, eel, whiting, pollack, saithe, cod, hake, wrasse and butterfish.

The Late Norse activity on mound 2A

431

2

1686

GCA

1696

2

GCA

1697

1

GCA

2369

GCA

Sub-total

3

2

Hare/fox-sized mammal

1685

GCA

Sheep-sized mammal

GCA

10

Cattle-sized mammal

6

Cetacean

1661

Seal

GCA

Rodent

1178

Roe deer

1159

GCA

Red deer

GCA

Cat

Context

Dog

Block

Pig

Sheep/goat

Sheep

Cattle

Horse

Equid

Table 142. The animal bone from the ancillary structures (GC)

15

2 1

2

10

1

1

1

1

19 4

1

1 0

0

19

1 2

1

2

2 1

18

Total

3 2

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

5

2

0

1

48

GCB

755

GCB

1610

1

GCB

1618

GCB

1678

3

GCB

2359

2

1

GCB

Sub-total

0

0

7

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

GCC

1670

0

0

2

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

6

GCD

748

13

2

1

4

1

1

3

1

1

37

GCD

749

GCD

758

GCD

767

2

2 1

1

0

2

1

10

1 3 3

1

1

1

1 1

GCD

884

1

GCD

1101

4

GCD

1113

GCD

1117

GCD

1133

GCD

1171

GCD

1176

GCD

1616

GCD

1687

GCD

1694

11

5

GCD

1713

2

1

GCD

2341

1

GCD

Sub-total

GCE GCE GCE

745

GCE

765

GCE

879

GCE

958

3

GCE

971

2

GCE

982

1

2 1

2

2

8 1

1

1

3

1

1

5

1

2

1

1

1

1 1

1

1

0

1

1 1

3

2

22

1

1

5

2

33

1

24

5

713

8

5

6

2

727

4

3

3

1

2

10

1

2

3 2

2

1

4

3

1

1

1

2 2

17

12 1

1 3

30

3 1

2

1

6

63

1 1

4

2

1

6

2 1

8

92 23

1

1

1

10

2

GCE

985

GCE

1164

1

GCE

1166

GCE

Sub-total

GCF

710

GCF

715

GCF

722

67

GCF

730

4

GCF

733

1

GCF

747

2

GCF

757

GCF

759

1

GCF

872

1

1

1

GCF

Sub-total

1

2

78

5

25

5

0

0

3

0

0

0

0

8

4

1

132

GC

Total

2

5

171

17

131

20

1

2

19

1

2

3

3

20

16

2

415

1

11

1

1

1 1

2

38

2

2

1 9

55

7

0

0

4

0

0

1

0

3

7

0

1

127 1 4

4

23

5

8

3

1

1

111 5

2

3 1

3

1

1 1 3

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

432

GCB

10

2

20

GCC

6

2

33

GCD

88

25

GCE

127

GCF

132

GC total

411

% calcined

35

% burnt

17

Total burnt

% carnivore gnawed

48

% butchered

Total gnawed

GCA

% rodent gnawed

Block

Total ID

Table 143. The taphonomy of the bones from the ancillary structures (GC)

2

10

3

6

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

17

0

0

0

28

3

5

1

1

1

25

20

0

12

2

2

1

35

27

0

11

1

1

1

106

26

1

9

7

2

1

Table 144. The bird bones from the ancillary structures (GC)

Auk, Small

1

2

3

1

3 1

1 1

Duck / Goose Galliform sp.

1

Gannet

1

2

4

Goose, Large Grey cf Greylag

1

1

Guillemot

4 1

Gull, Herring / Lesser Black-Backed

1

Gull sp. cf Small

17

Oystercatcher

1

1

1

1 1

1

1

Swan sp.

1

1 1

1 1

1

4

The greater than 10 mm residues produced a further 679 identifiable specimens (Table 145) and this assemblage is dominated by gadoid fish, especially cod and hake, although pollack, saithe and ling are present in most blocks. According to NISP, the herring assemblage is dom­ inated by vertebrae, especially caudal vertebrae, which represent a minimum of nine individual fish (Table 146). The calculation of percentage presence for selected anatomical elements indicates that, even taking into account the number of times that the various cranial bones occur in the body, head bones of herring are consistently under-represented. The saithe assemblage is relatively small, with just one individual fish represented by the material examined from the various blocks. Both cranial and vertebral bones

1

2

1 2

1

2

18 3

Procellariidae sp.

Wader, Small

4 1

1

Small Passerine

1 1

1

Gull, Great Black-Backed

Total

1

2

Dove, Rock / Stock

Total

722

710

971

1

Cormorant Domestic Fowl

958

GCE

879

727

713

1694

GCE 1117

884

749

748

GCD

2429

GCB 1618

1739

Species

1159

GCA

1

2

1

19

2 1

3

1

1

7

48

are present in all the individual blocks. Calculation of percentage presence indicates that, for saithe, cranial bones are better represented than vertebrae in the assemblage as a whole. Most of the cod bones came from deposits associated with the use of ancillary building 6 (GCD), with smaller numbers deriving from contexts associated with the construction of ancillary building 5 (GCA) and the use of House 15 (GCF). Bones from the cranial, abdominal and caudal regions of the skeleton were recovered from all three blocks. The calculation of percentage presence indicates that overall a minimum of six individual fish are represented, and that some cranial bones are present in greater numbers than either abdominal or caudal vertebrae. Most of the hake bones also derive from deposits

The Late Norse activity on mound 2A

433

Table 145. The fish bone taxa from the ancillary structures (GC) Species

10mm

GCA

GCD

GCF

GCF

137

137

3

3

Salmonidae spp Anguilla anguilla

5

10

1

1

2

2

Merlangius merlangus Pollachius pollachius

1

19

5

2

2

1

6

18

14

3

3

15

15

1

3

5

3

3

2

Molva molva 7

14

3

3

1

1

Gadidae spp

6

1

3 15

1

2

11

16 3

1

1

13

13

10

1

224

1

20

10

89

2

6

1

4

23

1

2

4

2

123

Sparidae spp 1 1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

2

1

1 2

2

Unidentifiable

2302

4413

939

939

1355

1439

1395

1395

69

Total

2494

4753

1035

1035

1496

1586

1558

1558

Total identifiable

192

340

96

96

141

147

163

163

8

7

9

9

9

9

10

10

Muglidae spp

% identifiable

32

1

Scomber scombrus Pholis gunnellus

45

1

Labrus bergylta Labridae spp

GCF

2

9 8

GCE

5

2 8

GCD

5

Pollachius virens Gadus morhua

1 1

GCB

1

Pollachius spp Merluccius merluccius

1 1

GCA

44

916

211

106

69

1421

4

319

37

25

505

4

108

35

36

36

100

34

projected quantities

associated with the use of ancillary building 6 (GCD), with smaller numbers coming from contexts associated with the construction and use of ancillary building 5 (GCA, GCB), and a few specimens from contexts associated with the construction and use of House 15 (GCE, GCF). Bones from the cranial, abdominal and caudal regions of the skeleton are present in all but the two very small samples. The calculation of percentage presence indicates that a minimum of four individual fish are represented and that, as with cod, some cranial bones are better represented than vertebrae, with abdominal vertebrae more numerous than those from the caudal region. A few herring bones provide an indication of body size and these belong to individuals approximately 300 mm in total length (Table 147), whilst those recorded by Parks were assigned to the small category. The saithe assemblage contains bones from large, medium-sized and small fish. All but one of the cod and hake bones are from large individuals (600–1200 mm). Several bones belonging to herring and single speci­ mens of eel, saithe and hake have been crushed in a manner suggestive of chewing (Table 216). A very large number of bones were burnt, more than in any other phase on either mound 2 or mound 2A (Table 216). Most of the

burnt bones belong to cod and were recovered from the final floor layer (748) in ancillary building 6. The most productive individual samples that were examined came from layer 1696 (988 bones) and layer 1686 (979 bones), both being ash and midden dumps outside the east wall of ancillary building 5 (GCA), and from floor layers 748 (1,051 bones) and 1616 (1,485 bones) of ancillary building 6 (GCD). The highest densities of fish bone, which ranged from 61 to 77 frag/litre of soil, were recorded from layer1686 (an ash/midden dump), floor 1618 of ancillary building 5 (GCB), floor 1616 of ancillary building 6 (GCD) and from a brown sand deposit (710) associated with the occupation of House 15 (GCF).

Midden accumulation (GD) A series of thick midden layers accumulated on the north, east and west sides of the mound that were roughly contemporary with the occupation of the central structures (GC; Figure 285). The middens comprised an alternating sequence of dark brown, mid-brown and red-brown occupation-rich sand layers that sloped down the mound away from the central activity area. The accumulation

9

1

GCD

1

GCF

1

5

GCD

1

1

1

1

1 1

1

33

48

1 4

9

33

16

3

MNI *

4

10

10

1

2

18

140

14

4

3

Total

116

2

2

Otolith

9

56

17

1

63

Scale

86

50

47

4

Vertebra fragment

151

94

Hypural

50

Caudal vertebra

3

1

Abdominal vertebra

Posterior abdominal vertebra

Anterior abdominal vertebra

Supracleithra

Scapula

Cleithra

Posttemporal

1

6

225

1

1

69

48

8

6

3

10

1

Brachial bone

4

1

Lower pharyngeal

1

5

Symplectic

Subopercular

Preopercular

3

3

3

2

5

1

1

47

2

2

12

12

8

1

1

1

3

1

2

1

28

11

6

2

10

5

2

1

1

1

1

1

1

2

2

1

1

GCE

1

1

GCF

1

1

GCA

1

2

1

GCB

2

1

1

4

1

1

GCD

Molva molva

4

92

1

25

8

41

4

6

3

1

4

1

23

5

1

1

1

2

1

1

2

1

2

7 10

3

1

2

2

GCD

Merluccius merluccius GCB

1

2

2

1

1

3

2

GCA

Opercular

1

1

2

2

1

1

1

GCF

Interopercular

2

1

Hyomandibular

1

1

1

1

Ceratohyal

Epihyal

1

1

Quadrate

Premaxilla

Palatine

1

7

2

6

Maxilla

1

9

2

2

2

1

GCE

Gadus morhua GCB

Ecopterygoid

Dentary

Articular

Basioccipital

1

1

GCA

1

2

GCB

Pollachius virens

Otic bulla

1

GCA

3

2

GCF

1

1

GCD

2

1

GCB

Clupea harengus

Parasphenoid

1

GCA

Lachrimal

Vomer

Skeletal element

Table 146. Fish bone elements from the ancillary structures (GC)

1

1

GCE

2

1

1

GCF

1

1

GCA

2

1

1

GCB

1

24

12

10

1

1

GCD

Pollachius pollachius

5

2

1

2

GCF

434

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

The Late Norse activity on mound 2A

435

Table 147. The size of the fish in the ancillary structures (GC) 150-300 mm

c.300 mm

GCF

1

122

GCA

3

Pollachius virens

GCB

1

Pollachius virens

GCD

1

8

8

Pollachius virens

GCF

7

9

Gadus morhua

GCD

2

200

Gadus morhua

GCE

1

Gadus morhua

GCF

44

Merluccius merluccius

GCD

81

Merluccius merluccius

GCE

2

Merluccius merluccius

GCF

6

Species

Block

Clupea harengus

GCD

Clupea harengus Pollachius virens

of midden was concentrated on the sides of the mound, particularly the east side where numerous thick layers were recorded. Only a single thin layer was present to the north. On the periphery of the mound, the deposits were thick, homogeneous layers but towards the central area these midden layers split into numerous thin layers differentiated by colour, texture and inclusions. Many small individual dumps were identifiable, particularly in the western part of square 6 (see Figure 25 for the plan of the excavation squares). Furthermore, there was a greater colour contrast between layers in this area, with red and orange-tinged layers very prominent. This suggests that ash dumped from hearths made a more significant contribution to the midden in this area than to the layers on the periphery of the mound.

Midden on the west side (GDA) The midden accumulation on the west side of the mound was complicated by features that appeared to be contemporary with the midden layers and the buildings constructed in the centre of the mound, but which were quite different in character from both. The extension trench to the west (square 11) revealed a sequence of midden layers on this side of the mound. The earliest activity appeared to be the digging-out of two pits (2342, 2367; Figures 325 C, 326 A, 327). The primary fills of these pits were quite distinctive: pit 2367 had a red ash layer (2362) and pit 2342 had a red ash (2343) overlain by a dark brown sand (2344). Most of the fill of both pits was, however, indistinguishable from the overlying midden layer. The midden sequence (Figure 325 C) began with a thick, dark brown deposit (2316) that contained large quantities of animal bone and shell. Two discrete redorange ash spreads were identified; 2329 lay below 2316, and 2308 above 2316 (Figure 326 B). A similar restricted

300-600 mm

600-1200 mm

5 6

red ash spread (2330) lay to the north of pits 2342 and 2367. The second extensive midden layer was a dark brown sand (2300), which was similar to layer 2316 but more compact and with a more silty texture. Layer 2300 extended further east, towards the central structures, and covered pits 2342 and 2367 and the red ash 2330. Layers 2300 and 2316 both became thicker as they sloped down the mound to the west, away from the central structures. The deposits that were encountered where the western extension trench met the main trench are difficult to interpret as they were truncated by a hollow (2438, discussed below). There were a series of cut features (Table 148) that started with a gully (2331) filled with mid/dark brown sand (2332). The gully was truncated by a pit (2336), which contained three large stones (2352) aligned north–south (Figure 326 C), and a yellow windblown sand (2335). The gully was then truncated by a large hollow (2348), which extended to the west of the main trench and to the north of the extension trench and was observed in squares 4, 7 and 11 (Figure 326 A). The hollow cut a grey sand (893) banked up against the stones of walls 961/1183 of the GBA U-shaped structure (see Figure 208). Most of the deposits in squares 7, 11 and 12 appear to be late in the midden sequence and infilled hollow 2348. The primary fill of the hollow was an orange-brown silty sand (860, 983, 1121, 2349). In places this layer comprised interleaved layers of green silty sand and light grey/white sand that must have been deposited by gradual erosion of the sides of the hollow. The main fill was a thick grey sand layer (964; Figure 217), very similar to grey sand 893. On top of the layers that filled the hollow was a shallow gully (1126), running east–west through the gap between wall 961 and wall 1183, in squares 7 and 8 (see Figure 208). This linear feature was identified by the presence of a sequence of discrete fills. The primary fill at the western edge of the trench was a dark brown/greenish sand

787 786 785 783 784 779 954

C

1145

874 881 893

slag

B

A

2424

874

794

2391

2357

892

794

2351

0

781

2300

2430

2407

2357

2340

1145

2431 2408

2438

2433

780

782

2360 2424

2353 2391

2342

2m

2330

788

954

1125

896

2343

2438

2367

2353 2360 2344 2362

967

2391

2300

864

990

2316 2360

2430

969

2407

1145

2309

788

954

950

896

977

899

2424

984

790

862 1624

969

967

883

0

450/230

B

1623 1608

C

1627

460/230

1691

5m

954 1760

1779 977

Figure 325. Sections through the peripheral middens (GD): A) The south side of square 15; B) The east side of square 3; C) The south side of area 11

2438

2430

2360

794 707

990

789

787

783

861

A

1637 1688 1777

436

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

The Late Norse activity on mound 2A A

437

B

450/230

460/230

450/230

460/230

450/230

460/230

975

1121

968

983 2349

860 2336 2332

2308

2342 2367

2329 460/220

460/220

460/220

460/220

C

D

955 450/230 450/230

460/230

460/230

957 798

897 868

959

897

724 720

2308

460/220

460/220

0

5m

Figure 326. The various features and deposits on the west side of the mound (GDA)

438

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Figure 327. A view of the west extension trench from the west during excavation in 2004

(963/1127), overlain by a thin layer of orange sand (980). This feature was then re-emphasised by the excavation of a pit (975; Figure 326 B), which contained a concentration of winkles. To the east of pit 975, between the ends of the two GBA walls (961/1183), was a sequence of thin layers that continued the line of the gully. These were, from bottom to top, a green silty sand (968), a thin layer of mottled red-brown sand (962), a patch of charcoalrich sand (868), and a patch of orange sand (867) which merged into a patch of red-orange sand (897) (Figures 82 and 326 B and C). It is difficult to understand what was going on in this area, as we have exposed so little. The hollow (2348) lay largely outside the trench but its size can be estimated as roughly 4.25 m by 3.50 m. These dimensions suggest that this may be the location of a small ancillary building; the compact, almost clay-like primary fill (860/983/1121/2349) would have acted as a stable floor layer. However, there was no obvious occupation layer, or evidence for a structure, and the shallow sides of the cut are different from the cuts for other ancillary buildings on mound 2A. The later linear feature (gully 1126) could have been

created by erosion of a path leading westwards from the ancillary structures in the centre of the mound (GC), but the absence of an obvious west-facing entrance to any of those structures makes this interpretation problematic, though the structures were very poorly preserved. Only further excavation will resolve the interpretation of this area to the west of the GC structures. The final activity on the west side of the mound was represented by isolated deposits scattered across the area. Immediately adjacent to the western edge of the main trench (Figure 326 D) was a discrete thin layer of orange yellow sand (797), and a patch of brown sand (798). These were overlain by a more extensive layer of grey sand (959), and a mottled orange-red sand (957/955; Figure 82). A dark orange-brown sand (705) covered the surface of this area. On the west side of square 13, immediately to the west of the south kiln, was a dump of shells (720) and a patch of orange-brown sand (724).

Midden on the north side (GDB) The midden layers exposed in the northern extension trench (square 3) were relatively thin, and the sequence was limited

The Late Norse activity on mound 2A

439

Table 148. A summary description of the features in the midden accumulation (GD) Block

Cut no.

Feature type

Shape in plan

GDA

975

Pit

sub-rectangular

GDA

1126

Gully

GDA

2342

GDA

Profile

Primary fill

Orientation

Length

Width

Depth

steep-sided, flat base

ENE-WSW

0.52

0.41

0.16

973

oval

steep-sided

ENE-WSW

1.00

0.40

0.30

963/1127

Pit

circular?

steep-sided

0.33

0.14

2343

red sand

2367

Pit

circular?

steep-sided

0.35

0.08

2362

red sand

GDA

2331

Gully

unknown

steep-sided

?

?

0.14

2332

mid/dark brown sand

GDA

2336

Pit

unclear

NNW-SSE

1.20

0.80

2352

GDA

2348

Hollow

rectangular

gently sloping sides, flat bottom

NW-SE

4.50

0.40

GDC

1189

Pit

circular

steep sided, round based

0.26

steep-sided flat-bottomed

(Figure 325 B). The upper midden layer sloped slightly down from the centre of the mound towards the north, but the lower soil horizon rose slightly further away from the mound. This could indicate a focus for earlier activity away from the mound to the north. The midden formed on the grey sand (967) that accumulated in the Early Norse period (GAD), and there were no intervening deposits that could be associated with the Middle Norse activity (GB). The earliest midden layer was a thin patch of redorange clayey sand (864), located roughly in the centre of the extension trench (square 3; Figure 325 B). This was sealed by an extensive brown sand layer (788), which was located immediately beneath the wind-blown sand and turf (789). This was equivalent to a brown sand (1143/1154) in square 6, a deposit of similar stratigraphic position, texture and colour. The midden (788) appeared to be truncated by modern ploughing approximately 4 m from the north end of the extension trench.

Midden on the east side (GDC) The sequence of middens on the east side of the mound was explored in square 6, the northeast corner of the trench, and square 15, the eastern extension (Figure 325 A). There are some obvious similarities in the sequences in these areas, but there are also significant differences. The primary layer in square 15 was a compact brown sand (1175; Figure 217) that produced large quantities of non-metallurgic slag, and also contained concentrations of yellow and orange ash, particularly on the western edge of the deposit. This was overlain by a thin, charcoal-rich, grey-brown sand (1749), and a light grey sand (1742). Above this was a series of small patches of orange (1740), yellow (1734, 1735) and charcoal-rich sand (1699, 1736). These were stratigraphically contemporary with a large spread of orange sand with frequent charcoal flecks (1692; Figure 217). A radiocarbon date (SUERC-18270) was obtained from a carbonised oat grain in this layer. This has a

0.72

2.11

Secondary fill

light/dark grey sand with shell brown sand 2344

dark brown sand

three stones

2335

yellow windblown sand

2349

light orange-brown sand

860

orange/red clayey sand

1187

shell (limpet) layer

radiocarbon age of 825±35 BP, which calibrates to an age of cal AD 1150–1280. Over this was another layer of grey sand (1691; Figure 217). A radiocarbon date (SUERC-2674) was obtained from an articulated cattle navicular cuboid and tarsal in layer 1691. It has a radiocarbon age of 825±35 BP, which calibrates to an age of cal AD 1150–1280. Overlying grey sand 1691 was another patchy layer of red and yellow sand (1688). A radiocarbon date (SUERC-18269) was obtained from a carbonised oat grain in layer 1688. This has a radiocarbon age of 820±35 BP, which again calibrates to an age of cal AD 1150–1280. Context 1688 was covered by an extensive layer of dark brown sand (1637 in square 14; 950 in square 15; Figure 325A), which was restricted to the southwest corner of the extension trench. This incorporated small patches of charcoal (1672) and red sand (1664) and was overlain by a brown sand (889) and two patches of red and yellow sand (1633, 1632). A layer of light grey sand (1627) overlay these layers, and was concentrated in the southern edge of square 14. This was overlain by a distinctive yet patchy deposit of red clayey sand (899/1624). A radiocarbon date (SUERC-18825) was obtained from a carbonised barley grain in this layer. This has a radiocarbon age of 840±30 BP, which calibrates to an age of cal AD 1150–1270. Light grey sand 951 sat above part of this layer in the northern part of the extension trench. Also above 899/1624 was a light grey/brown sand (894), which was restricted to the north side of the trench. These layers were in turn sealed by a dark red-brown sand (883), which contained many small finds, including antler waste from comb-making. Sitting on top of this extensive layer were three roughly circular patches of orange ash (877, 878, 880). Overlying these patches were two essentially similar deposits of dark brown sand (861, 862; Figure 325A); 862 contained antler waste. Overlying these deposits was a reddish-brown sand (796) with patches of orange ash, limited to the northwest corner of the trench.

GDA

GDA

2352

GDC

1114

1124

1128

9276

9273

9282

894

899

9219

2 samples

GBG

862

866

9197

9202

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDC

790

GDC

GDC

796

779

9211

9190

760

8935

GDC

GDB

GDB

GDB

GDA

GDA

9193

704

8927

Sub-total

788

1154

2 samples

9328

3 samples

Sub-total

30 samples

11058

GDA

2335

2349

11032

11043

GDA

GDA

2330

2332

11026

GDA

GDA

GDA

GDA

GDA

GDA

11027

2316

2329

11012

11025

2300

2308

11007

11013

1127

2300

9274

9281

11001

GDA

983

1121

9245

GDA

GDA

973

980

9231

GDA

GDA

GDA

GDA

GDA

GDA

GDA

GDA

GDA

GDA

GDA

GDA

GDA

Block

9240

964

968

9280

963

9229

9225

955

962

2 samples

2 samples

867

868

9217

9218

860

864

9198

9200

797

798

9194

9195

720

724

8805

8806

Context

Sample

5.0

7.0

10.0

35.0

15.0

18.0

20.0

26.0

28.0

18.0

9.0

15.0

63.0

13.0

50.0

514.4

0.5

6.0

35.0

2.4

13.00

12.0

35.0

24.0

33.0

26.0

12.5

14.0

12.0

10.0

11.0

14.0

13.0

10.0

44.0

56.0

18.0

3.0

12.0

25.0

17.0

30.0

12.0

14.0

Litres

0 0.00

5 0.71

36 3.60

68 1.94

14 0.93

5 0.28

0 0.00

51 1.96

21 0.75

2 0.11

10 1.11

2 0.13

71 1.13

18 1.38

53 1.06

227 0.44

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

2 0.15

1 0.08

11 0.31

20 0.83

25 0.76

14 0.54

8 0.64

0 0.00

0 0.00

17 1.70

0 0.00

6 0.43

0 0.00

3 0.30

36 0.82

6 0.11

5 0.28

1 0.33

3 0.25

0 0.00

4 0.24

63 2.10

2 0.17

0 0.00

0 0.00

5 0.50

34 0.97

4 0.27

10 0.56

1 0.05

20 0.77

18 0.64

2 0.11

6 0.67

2 0.13

60 0.95

6 0.46

54 1.08

203 0.39

1 2.00

1 0.17

7 0.20

1 0.42

6 0.46

0 0.00

24 0.69

6 0.25

30 0.91

9 0.35

2 0.16

1 0.07

0 0.00

1 0.10

3 0.27

5 0.36

1 0.08

1 0.10

32 0.73

7 0.13

19 1.06

4 1.33

0 0.00

3 0.12

7 0.41

29 0.97

1 0.08

2 0.14

no. density

0 0.00

Unburnt bone

Fish no. density

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.03

1 0.07

0 0.00

1 0.05

3 0.12

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.11

0 0.00

3 0.05

1 0.08

2 0.04

20 0.04

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.03

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

3 0.09

1 0.04

2 0.06

0 0.00

1 0.08

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.10

0 0.00

1 0.07

0 0.00

0 0.00

8 0.18

0 0.00

1 0.06

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.06

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

no. density

Burnt bone

0 0.00

0 0.00

2 0.20

1 0.03

1 0.07

3 0.17

1 0.05

2 0.08

3 0.11

0 0.00

2 0.22

0 0.00

7 0.11

1 0.08

6 0.12

95 0.18

0 0.00

0 0.00

2 0.06

2 0.83

1 0.08

0 0.00

6 0.17

2 0.08

1 0.03

8 0.31

1 0.08

0 0.00

0 0.00

16 1.60

0 0.00

1 0.07

0 0.00

5 0.50

9 0.20

0 0.00

27 1.50

0 0.00

1 0.08

1 0.04

2 0.12

10 0.33

0 0.00

0 0.00

no. density

Pottery

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.10

2 0.06

4 0.27

0 0.00

14 0.70

2 0.08

1 0.04

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.07

28 0.44

2 0.15

26 0.52

563 1.09

0 0.00

1 0.17

2 0.06

0 0.00

2 0.15

1 0.08

8 0.23

0 0.00

6 0.18

3 0.12

9 0.72

11 0.79

10 0.83

3 0.30

5 0.45

1 0.07

20 1.54

8 0.80

6 0.14

319 5.70

1 0.06

0 0.00

63 5.25

7 0.28

44 2.59

5 0.17

11 0.92

17 1.21

no. density

Slag

0 0.00

0 0.00

2 0.20

53 1.51

10 0.67

2 0.11

0 0.00

19 0.73

50 1.79

0 0.00

12 1.33

88 5.87

48 0.76

11 0.85

37 0.74

1023 1.99

0 0.00

4 0.67

4 0.11

0 0.00

48 3.69

0 0.00

95 2.71

102 4.25

379 11.48

59 2.27

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

3 0.30

94 8.55

17 1.21

1 0.08

11 1.10

40 0.91

4 0.07

60 3.33

1 0.33

1 0.08

2 0.08

6 0.35

24 0.80

13 1.08

55 3.93

no. density

Limpet

0 0.00

0 0.00

3 0.30

135 3.86

51 3.40

40 2.22

0 0.00

30 1.15

90 3.21

13 0.72

28 3.11

286 19.07

338 5.37

79 6.08

259 5.18

2559 4.97

0 0.00

4 0.67

4 0.11

16 6.67

36 2.77

6 0.50

202 5.77

37 1.54

615 18.64

98 3.77

70 5.60

2 0.14

3 0.25

1 0.10

470 42.73

31 2.21

6 0.46

36 3.60

101 2.30

13 0.23

41 2.28

0 0.00

5 0.42

6 0.24

12 0.71

144 4.80

298 24.83

302 21.57

no. density

Winkle

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

no.

Egg

0

0

0

4

0

1

0

19

3

0

0

0

0

0

0

9

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

3

0

0

0

0

4

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

no.

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

no.

Charcoal Coprolite

Table 149. The material identified in sorting the greater than 10 mm residue from the midden accumulation (GD) B.O.M.

0 0.00

0 0.00

2 0.20

6 0.17

1 0.07

7 0.39

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

10 0.56

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.02

0 0.00

1 0.02

31 0.06

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

5 0.38

0 0.00

2 0.06

1 0.04

3 0.09

1 0.04

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

2 0.20

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

5 0.11

11 0.20

1 0.06

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

no. density

440

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDC

1740

1742

1749

10099

10158

Sub-total

Total

58 samples

91 samples

10228

GDC

1736

10092

GDC

GD

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDC

1734

1735

10013

GDC

GDC

10089

1695

1699

7612

2 samples

GDC

1691

1692

7607

7635

GDC

GDC

1672

1688

3 samples

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDC

7605

1637

1664

7196

7269

1632

1633

2 samples

7192

1624

1627

7153

7138

1619

1623

7113

7151

GDC

1615

7093

GDC

GDC

1602

1608

7042

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDC

GGC

7070

1185

1187

7007

7014

1175

1184

9330

7004

1160

1161

9317

9320

1156

1157

10090

2 samples

GDC

1149

1150

2 samples

9305

GDC

GDC

1138

1140

9294

GDC

GDC

GDC

9298

1132

1135

9283

9292

1129

1130

9290

9284

4.0

1594.1

1016.7

49.0

58.0

6.0

12.0

1.0

1.5

4.1

5.0

33.0

35.0

30.0

17.5

19.0

38.0

20.0

5.0

8.5

35.0

16.0

29.0

26.0

38.0

38.0

22.0

32.0

36.0

7.0

21.0

15.0

48.0

18.0

7.0

52.0

2.0

6.0

8.0

8.0

0.1

1 0.25

799 0.50

501 0.49

19 0.39

1 0.02

2 0.33

0 0.00

0 0.00

2 1.33

0 0.00

1 0.20

13 0.39

33 0.94

7 0.23

4 0.23

25 1.32

16 0.42

7 0.35

3 0.60

0 0.00

11 0.31

8 0.50

3 0.10

4 0.15

16 0.42

30 0.79

6 0.27

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.14

5 0.24

1 0.07

2 0.04

7 0.39

0 0.00

3 0.06

1 0.50

25 4.17

18 2.25

12 1.50

0 0.00

2 0.50

578 0.36

315 0.31

17 0.35

15 0.26

4 0.67

2 0.17

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.24

2 0.40

11 0.33

11 0.31

6 0.20

0 0.00

10 0.53

8 0.21

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

5 0.14

3 0.19

4 0.14

0 0.00

1 1 0.29

32 0.84

5 0.23

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

11 0.52

12 0.80

13 0.27

4 0.22

1 0.14

13 0.25

0 0.00

0 0.00

6 0.75

4 0.50

0 0.00

0 0.00

53 0.03

30 0.03

2 0.04

2 0.03

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

2 0.06

2 0.06

2 0.07

0 0.00

2 0.11

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.04

0 0.00

5 0.13

1 0.05

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

3 0.14

1 0.07

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

223 0.14

121 0.12

0 0.00

1 0.02

1 0.17

1 0.08

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.20

13 0.39

34 0.97

8 0.27

11 0.63

2 0.11

0 0.00

6 0.30

1 0.20

0 0.00

6 0.17

1 0.06

1 0.03

0 0.00

2 0.05

4 0.11

2 0.09

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

6 0.29

1 0.07

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

4 0.08

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

1159 0.73

568 0.56

94 1.92

32 0.55

2 0.33

0 0.00

1 1.00

0 0.00

1 0.24

0 0.00

2 0.06

4 0.11

6 0.20

0 0.00

0 0.00

2 0.05

1 0.05

1 0.20

0 0.00

3 0.09

1 0.06

1 0.03

2 0.08

3 0.08

22 0.58

3 0.14

0 0.00

0 0.00

18 2.57

19 0.90

3 0.20

278 5.79

2 0.11

1 0.14

41 0.79

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

3669 2.30

2598 2.56

3 0.06

16 0.28

34 5.67

51 4.25

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.20

102 3.09

116 3.31

51 1.70

0 0.00

8 0.42

3 0.08

1 0.05

0 0.00

0 0.00

4 0.11

3 0.19

2 0.07

1 0.04

14 0.37

154 4.05

1607 73.05

0 0.00

0 0.00

5 0.71

76 3.62

17 1.13

6 0.13

17 0.94

15 2.14

11 0.21

0 0.00

7 1.17

15 1.88

22 2.75

0 0.00

4 1.00

6072 3.81

3175 3.12

14 0.29

27 0.47

17 2.83

4 0.33

0 0.00

2 1.33

2 0.49

4 0.80

83 2.52

1054 30.11

301 10.03

11 0.63

14 0.74

54 1.42

39 1.95

2 0.40

0 0.00

16 0.46

7 0.44

23 0.79

11 0.42

68 1.79

378 9.95

170 7.73

0 0.00

0 0.00

4 0.57

91 4.33

23 1.53

19 0.40

7 0.39

6 0.86

26 0.50

0 0.00

5 0.83

9 1.13

4 0.50

0 0.00

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

37

28

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

3

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0 0.00

150 0.09

118 0.12

2 0.04

1 0.02

4 0.67

5 0.42

1 1.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

4 0.12

0 0.00

3 0.10

6 0.34

13 0.68

1 0.03

11 0.55

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.03

0 0.00

2 0.07

3 0.12

5 0.13

9 0.24

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

1 0.02

3 0.17

4 0.57

0 0.00

4 2.00

3 0.50

4 0.50

2 0.25

0 0.00

The Late Norse activity on mound 2A 441

797

860

864

867

868

963

968

973

1127

2300

2308

2316

2329

2330

2335

2349

11029

9198

9200

9217

9218

9229

9225

9231

9274

11001

11013

11012

11025

11026

11032

11043

788

704

760

779

790

796

862

866

894

899

1114

1124

1128

1132

1135

1138

1140

1149

1157

9192

8927

8935

9211

9190

9193

9197

9202

9219

2 samples

9276

9273

9282

9283

9292

9294

9298

9303

10341

Sub-total

720

8805

17 samples

Context

Sample

GDC

GGC

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDB

GDA

GDA

GDA

GDA

GDA

GDA

GDA

GDA

GDA

GDA

GDA

GDA

GDA

GDA

GDA

GDA

GDA

GDA

Block

44

4

2

6

8

8

5

7

10

35

15

18

20

26

28

18

9

15

26

280.5

6

35

13

12

35

24

26

12.5

11

14

10

18

3

12

25

10

14

Litres

11

4

2

6

4

4

5

7

5

17.5

7.5

18

20

13

14

9

9

7.5

13

147.25

3

17.5

6.5

6

17.5

12

13

6.25

11

7

5

9

3

6

12.5

5

7

Litres sorted

0

0

0

0

6

1

0

3

3

0

0

9

0

0

6

0

11

5

27

132

3

4

5

1

9

0

14

4

17

7

2

45

3

0

3

15

0

no.

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

1.50

0.25

0.00

0.43

0.60

0.00

0.00

0.50

0.00

0.00

0.43

0.00

1.22

0.67

2.08

0.90

1.00

0.23

0.77

0.17

0.51

0.00

1.08

0.64

1.55

1.00

0.40

5.00

1.00

0.00

0.24

3.00

0.00

density

Pottery

87

108

19

30

36

66

2

13

38

232

91

228

19

57

104

42

88

57

102

2004

53

159

52

148

700

86

223

59

50

77

22

95

16

39

85

54

86

no.

7.91

27.00

9.50

5.00

9.00

16.50

0.40

1.86

7.60

13.26

12.13

12.67

0.95

4.38

7.43

4.67

9.78

7.60

7.85

13.61

17.67

9.09

8.00

24.67

40.00

7.17

17.15

9.44

4.55

11.00

4.40

10.56

5.33

6.50

6.80

10.80

12.29

density

Unburnt bone

7

26

0

33

12

27

9

14

26

142

71

58

8

112

36

12

46

17

54

415

3

29

44

32

41

61

39

25

12

24

10

45

10

18

9

2

11

no.

0.64

6.50

0.00

5.50

3.00

6.75

1.80

2.00

5.20

8.11

9.47

3.22

0.40

8.62

2.57

1.33

5.11

2.27

4.15

2.82

1.00

1.66

6.77

5.33

2.34

5.08

3.00

4.00

1.09

3.43

2.00

5.00

3.33

3.00

0.72

0.40

1.57

density

Burnt bone

44

87

10

176

139

166

16

190

235

949

503

252

18

477

377

137

482

94

631

2701

19

33

134

49

570

252

556

86

110

156

90

264

23

56

97

57

149

no.

4.00

21.75

5.00

29.33

34.75

41.50

3.20

27.14

47.00

54.23

67.07

14.00

0.90

36.69

26.93

15.22

53.56

12.53

48.54

18.34

6.33

1.89

20.62

8.17

32.57

21.00

42.77

13.76

10.00

22.29

18.00

29.33

7.67

9.33

7.76

11.40

21.29

density

Fish

18

0

21

22

54

29

2

2

7

145

54

22

1

37

25

1

67

12

23

757

16

8

33

37

83

37

84

12

89

92

27

158

70

1

1

1

8

no.

1.64

0.00

10.50

3.67

13.50

7.25

0.40

0.29

1.40

8.29

7.20

1.22

0.05

2.85

1.79

0.11

7.44

1.60

1.77

5.14

5.33

0.46

5.08

6.17

4.74

3.08

6.46

1.92

8.09

13.14

5.40

17.56

23.33

0.17

0.08

0.20

1.14

density

Charcoal

54

57

280

600

236

142

35

62

303

291

76

442

49

575

302

2833

291

55

94

3177

27

55

365

96

700

410

667

56

49

107

54

164

10

210

93

44

70

no.

4.91

14.25

140.00

100.00

59.00

35.50

7.00

8.86

60.60

16.63

10.13

24.56

2.45

44.23

21.57

314.78

32.33

7.33

7.23

21.58

9.00

3.14

56.15

16.00

40.00

34.17

51.31

8.96

4.45

15.29

10.80

18.22

3.33

35.00

7.44

8.80

10.00

density

B.O.M.

7500

216

7

23

36

8

1

11

16

78

43

210

3

84

89

3

528

55

511

15523

203

67

146

170

950

77

488

500

292

192

426

89

15

681.82

54.00

3.50

3.83

9.00

2.00

0.20

1.57

3.20

4.46

5.73

11.67

0.15

6.46

6.36

0.33

58.67

7.33

39.31

105.42

67.67

3.83

22.46

28.33

54.29

6.42

37.54

80.00

26.55

27.43

85.20

9.89

5.00

730.00

110.08

119.40

793.57

density

Slag

4380

1376

597

5555

no.

0

0

0

3

0

0

0

0

0

2

7

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

3

3

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

no.

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.50

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.11

0.93

0.00

0.00

0.08

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.23

0.02

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.18

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.08

0.00

0.00

density

Crab

Table 150. The material identified in sorting the 2 to 10 mm residue from the midden accumulation (GD)

0

5

1

29

40

40

0

1

11

6

10

12

13

48

60

0

15

8

21

206

2

2

16

0

20

86

19

1

17

8

4

17

0

2

3

4

5

no.

0.00

1.25

0.50

4.83

10.00

10.00

0.00

0.14

2.20

0.34

1.33

0.67

0.65

3.69

4.29

0.00

1.67

1.07

1.62

1.40

0.67

0.11

2.46

0.00

1.14

7.17

1.46

0.16

1.55

1.14

0.80

1.89

0.00

0.33

0.24

0.80

0.71

density

Egg

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

0

0

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.01

0.00

0.00

0.31

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

density

Spirorbis no.

3

0

61

19

0

0

0

0

0

13

0

70

108

29

10

0

11

0

6

75

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

4

70

0

0

0

0

0

0.27

0.00

30.50

3.17

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.74

0.00

3.89

5.40

2.23

0.71

0.00

1.22

0.00

0.46

0.51

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.06

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.80

7.78

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

density

Coprolite no.

442

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

1.47

1.18 620 0.00 2 1.78 936 0.12 65 56.70 29880 29.59 15596 4.76 2506 25.839 13617 4.87 2564 13.58 7158 0.89 470 527.0 1005.5 GD Total 54 samples

0.00 0

539 0.00

0.00 0

0 1.93

0.00 0

709 0.16

0.00 0

59 37.75

4.00 3

13846 33.61

6.67 5

12325 4.71

1.33 1

1726 28.04

44.00 33

10285 5.71

1.33 1

2095 13.78

2.67 2

5052 0.85

0.00 0

311 366.8

0.75 1.5

699 GDC

GDC 1734 10013

Sub-total

1692 7635

36 samples

3.58 59 0.00 0 3.33 55 0.30 5 21.58 356 26.97 445 7.88 130 31.58 521 17.82 294 16.73 276 0.42 7 16.5 33

1691 7607

GDC

1.20

0.00 0 0.00 0 2.51 44 0.06 1 34.29 600 10.06 176 8.11 142 55.77 976 8.57 150 22.80 399 8.29 145 17.5 35

0.00

1688 7605

GDC

18 0.00 0 2.20 33 1.33 20 48.87 733 14.40 216 10.00 150 35.00 525 15.40 231 28.20 423 1.87 28 15 30

0.84

1672 7839

GDC

0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 7.11 32 13.78 62 3.33 15 0.22 1 3.78 17 3.11 14 0.00 0 4.5 4.5

0.00

1664 7269

GDC

8 0.00 0 4.11 39 0.00 0 18.95 180 90.21 857 15.89 151 72.32 687 21.47 204 42.95 408 0.74 7 9.5 19

0.30

1637 7196

GDC

0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 20.53 390 22.37 425 3.79 72 34.42 654 3.05 58 18.58 353 1.16 22 19 38

0.00

1633 7192

GDC

3 0.00 0 0.60 6 0.00 0 13.00 130 107.00 1070 6.80 68 26.40 264 8.80 88 11.90 119 1.40 14 10 20

0.00

1624 7153

GDC

0 0.00 0 2.23 39 0.00 0 13.43 235 32.91 576 1.43 25 23.20 406 2.40 42 16.97 297 0.46 8 17.5 35

0.00

1623 7151

GDC

0 0.00 0 7.00 56 0.00 0 8.25 66 20.38 163 3.25 26 21.25 170 3.00 24 9.50 76 0.50 4 8 16

9.00

1619 7113

GDC

0 0.00 0 1.17 17 0.00 0 10.00 145 16.48 239 3.79 55 17.31 251 2.21 32 26.97 391 0.21 3 14.5 29

0.53

1615 7093

GDC

117 0.00 0 2.00 26 0.00 0 3.69 48 48.77 634 3.69 48 33.92 441 6.46 84 6.77 88 0.15 2 13 26

0.00

1608 7070

GDC

10 0.00 0 2.68 51 0.00 0 9.11 173 20.26 385 12.89 245 14.84 282 3.74 71 18.32 348 0.53 10 19 38

0.00

1602

GDC

0 0.00 0 2.32 22 2.11 20 72.74 691 20.63 196 5.05 48 33.68 320 6.42 61 14.63 139 0.53 5 9.5 38

0.00

7042

GDC

0 0.00 0 0.73 8 0.00 0 13.91 153 1.64 18 0.64 7 12.00 132 2.09 23 7.45 82 0.55 6 11 22 1187 7014

GDC

0

0 0.00

0.00 0

0 0.67

0.86 9

5 0.00

0.00 0

0 26.67

76.19 800

200 8.80

10.38 109

66 1.07

1.52 16

8 19.60

11.71 123

147 3.60

3.05 32

27 22.67

14.29 150

170 0.13

0.48 5

1 7.5

10.5 21

15

1161 9320

GDC 1160 9317

GDC

0.00

The Late Norse activity on mound 2A

443

The final midden layer was a brown sand (790), rich in bone, shells and small finds. Layers 790 and 861 merged together as they extended downslope to the east and in the process became a rather silty sand (779) that was dark brown to black in colour. The ‘black’ colour appears to be caused by the presence of B.O.M, as this layer has one of the highest densities of B.O.M. in mounds 2 and 2A. The final midden deposits on the western edge of square 15 overlay a yellow-orange sand (1623), and comprised an extensive layer of red-brown sand (1619), a discrete patch of red-orange sand (1615) and a dark brown sand (1608; Figure 217). In the centre of the main trench, in square 16 to the southeast of House 15, a dark brown sand (760/2426), sealed by another dark brown sand (728; Figure 289) and covered by a dump of shells (704/2418), completed the sequence. The midden sequence in the northeast corner of the main trench (square 6) was disrupted by the presence of a possible structure (GG, see below). In square 6, a layer of red ash (1606/1620, GBG) was covered with a thick layer of loose, light grey sand (1604; Figure 217). Over this was a discrete patch of dark red-brown sand (1602), then a dark brown sand (1184) which was cut by a small pit (1189) filled with limpets (1187; Figure 217). These layers were then covered by an extensive red-brown sand (1185/1160/1695), which was in turn sealed by brown sand (1161/1130) and a thick grey sand (1163). This sequence in square 6 continued with a small patch of red sand (1150), a brownish-grey sand (1153), a bright orange silt (1140) and then a red silt with charcoal flecks (1138). A radiocarbon date (SUERC-2675) was obtained from a sheep/goat lumbar vertebra in layer 1153. This has a radiocarbon age of 815±40 BP, which calibrates to an age of cal AD 1150–1280. These deposits were covered by a thin layer of grey-brown sand (1135) that was restricted to the southeast corner of square 6. Above this, in the eastern extremity of square 6, the stratigraphy split into two separate sequences of thin layers (Figure 217). The first sequence consisted of a cream-coloured silt (1129), covered by brown sand (1124) and a grey-green clayey sand (1116). The second sequence consisted of a brown sand (1137), a red silt (1136), a brown sand (1132) and a yellow clayey sand (1128). These sequences were both sealed by a thick layer of orange clayey-sand (1114), which covered the east side of the trench. On the west side of square 6 was a sequence of layers of limited extent, probably quite late in date. The first was a small patch of grey sand (890) covered by brown sand (866, 1157). Layer 1157 was covered by a patch of red sand (1156) and layer 866 was covered by a mixed orange/ red/black sand (865). In the northeast corner of this area was a thin, yellow clayey sand (1172) that was covered by creamy clayey sand (1170) with frequent charcoal inclusions.

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

444 1.2

6

1.0

5

0.8

4

0.6

3

0.4

2

0.2

1

0

fish

unburnt bone

burnt bone

pottery

0

BOM GDA

GDB

slag

limpet

winkle

GDC

Figure 328. Histograms of the above 10 mm sampling densities from the peripheral middens (GD)

Sampling data – N Sharples Ninety-one samples, 1594.1 litres of soil, were taken and processed from the Late Norse middens (GD; Table 149): • 30 samples, 514.4 litres of soil, came from the middens on the west side of the mound (GDA); • three samples, 63 litres of soil, from the middens to the north (GDB); • 58 samples, 1016.7 litres of soil, from the middens on the east side. The 2–10 mm residues were sorted from 54 samples, 527 litres of soil (Table 150): • • •

17 samples, 147.3 litres of soil, came from GDA; one sample, 13 litres of soil, from GDB; 36 samples, 366.8 litres of soil, from GDC.

The average densities of the material from the above 10 mm residues are depicted in Figure 328. Winkles dominated these layers and the average density for all GD blocks of 3.8 shells/litre was one of the highest densities for any phase on mound 2A. Limpets were also common, with an average density of 2.3 shells/litre. The highest density of winkles came from the midden to the north but this was a small possibly unrepresentative sample. A more reliable observation is that the density of winkles was greater on the west side of the mound, whereas the density of limpets was greater on the east side. Winkles were the dominant shellfish dumped on the west, whereas limpets and winkles were present in roughly similar quantities on the east side. Unburnt mammal bone and fish bone were both common, with densities of 0.4 and 0.5 frag/litre respectively. Fish bone was more frequent on the east side (GDC), whereas mammal bone was more frequent on the west side (GDA). The pottery average density was low (0.1 frags/ litre), but these blocks have above average densities of pottery for this mound. The densities of burnt bone (0.03 frag/litre), B.O.M. (0.1 frag/litre) and slag (0.7 frag/litre) were all low for this trench suggesting a decline in the use of hearths and kilns in this area. Figure 329 shows the quantities of material above

10 mm recovered from the midden sequence in square 15, arranged chronologically with the latest deposits at the top. Unburnt mammal and fish bone have similar patterns, with a gradual increased density in later layers. Fish always had higher densities in the later deposits, but there are some early contexts, such as 1742, where unburnt, mammal bone was more frequent than fish bone. The highest density of pottery came from layer 1691 and it is very noticeable that pottery was rare at the beginning and the end of the sequence. This distribution is similar to that for B.O.M., winkles and, to a lesser extent, limpets. Slag had a very different distribution, with the early layers producing the highest densities. Figure 329 also shows the quantities of material above 10 mm recovered from the midden sequence in square 6, arranged chronologically with the latest deposits at the top. The most notable patterns in the distribution is the presence of higher quantities of limpet and winkle in the lower layers whereas the fish bones and B.O.M. are heavily concentrated in the upper layers. The mammal bones are more evenly distributed and pottery and slag are of limited significance. The average densities of the material recovered from the 2–10 mm residues are depicted in Figure 330. The most common material present was slag, which had an average density of 56.7 frag/litre. B.O.M. was the next most common material with an average density of 29.6 frag/litre, then fish bone with an average density of 25.8 frag/litre. The slag densities were low for mound 2A and the highest densities came from the west side of the mound (GDA). B.O.M. was more common on the east side (GDC) and the densities for this area were relatively high for mound 2A. The fish bone densities were relatively high, but the very high peak for the northern midden (48.5 frag/litre) again reflects the small sample size. Unburnt bone was relatively evenly distributed around the mound and had an average density of 13.6 frag/litre, which was relatively high for this mound. Pottery similarly had a relatively even distribution, ignoring GDB, and was well represented in

The Late Norse activity on mound 2A mammal

pottery

slag

BOM

445 limpet

fish

winkle

779 790 796 862 1623 894 899 1624 1627 1632 1633 1672 1664 1637 1688 1691 1692 1740 1736 1735 1734 1699 1699 1742 1749 1175

0

1

2 0

1

2 0

pottery

mammal

1

2 0

1

2

3 0

2

slag

BOM

4 0

fish

10

20 0

10

20

30

20

30

winkle

limpet

1114 1128 1124 1132 1135 1138 1140 1150 1161 1130 1695 1185 1160 1187 1184 1602

0

1

2 0

1

2 0

1

2 0

1

2

3 0

2

4

0

10

20 0

10

Figure 329. 329. AA detailed detailed stratigraphic stratigraphic analysis analysis of of the the above above 10 10 mm mm residues residues in in area area 15, 15, on on the the top, top, and and area area 6, 6, on on the the bottom bottom Figure

these blocks (0.9 frag/litre). The high densities of pot, bone and fish bone from these blocks indicate refuse disposal was an important activity on the periphery of the mound. The densities of eggshell was low (1.8 frag/litre), whereas the density of crab shell was relatively high (0.1 frag/litre). All of these materials were more common on the east side of the mound. Figure 331 shows the quantities of 2–10 mm materials recovered from the midden sequence in square 15, arranged chronologically with the latest deposits at the top. The clearest patterns are for the pottery and slag. These had their highest densities close to the bottom of the sequence and then the densities gradually declined. Burnt and unburnt mammal bone show similar but less clearly defined patterns. B.O.M. shows a very different distribution, with a major peak near the top of the sequence. Fish bone and charcoal have less clear patterning, but the highest and lowest densities came in the middle of the sequence. Eggshell and crab shell appear to have a similar binary distribution, with high densities in layers at either end of the sequence, though not from the same contexts. A similar sequence for the 2–10 mm material from

square 6 is shown in Figure 332, again arranged with the earliest contexts at the bottom and the latest at the top. The patterns are less clear in this sequence. A distinction between slag-rich layers at the base of the sequence and B.O.M.-rich layers in the middle contexts is clear. These middle contexts also have high densities of charcoal, fish bone and eggshell; the latter category is normally associated with house floors. Burnt and unburnt mammal bone are more unevenly distributed, with higher densities in the lower layers. A sequence of five contexts from the middens on the west side of the mound (GDA, square 11; 2–10 mm material) is depicted in Figure 333. These indicate a pattern comparable to square 6, most noticeably a decline in the densities of slag coinciding with a rise in B.O.M and charcoal. The burnt bone, fish bone and eggshell also produce higher densities as one rises in the sequence, again more noticeably than in the square 6 sequence. This sequence also contains one context, 868, with a high density of pottery. As in square 6, mammal bone is more variable and here the earliest layers have low densities. In this sequence, the densities of all the categories

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

446 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

fish

unburnt bone

burnt bone

pot

120 100 80 60 40 20 0

charcoal

BOM

slag

crab

egg

coprolite

2

1

0

GDA

GDB

GDC

Figure 330. Histograms of the 2 to 10 mm sampling densities from the peripheral middens (GD)

drop significantly in the final context, with the exception of charcoal. This drop may reflect the proximity to the surface but it is difficult to understand why the charcoal would not also drop if this were the explanation.

Pottery – K Harding and N Sharples A total of 1,593 sherds, weighing approximately 7,427 g, were recovered from the peripheral middens dating to the Late Norse period (Table 151). This is the most substantial assemblage from mound 2A, forming 48% by weight and 53% of the sherds from this mound. Most of the assemblage (78% by weight and 77% of the sherds) came from the middens on the east side of the mound (GDC), 16% by weight and numbers came from the west side (GDA) and

only 5% by weight and 6% of the sherds came from the north end (GDB). The assemblage from the east side can be further split into the material from square 6 and from square 15. This also demonstrates that the deposition of pottery in the middens declined towards the north: square 6 produced 21.1% by weight and 17.3% of the sherds; whereas square 15 produced 55.6% by weight and 58.5% of the sherds. The average weight of the sherds in these midden layers is lower than the average for mound 2A and varies significantly between the different blocks. The assemblage from the northern midden layers is poorly preserved, with an average weight of 4.07 g., whereas the assemblage from the layers on the east side are relatively well preserved, though there are differences between the different areas on the east side. Several individual midden layers produced very large assemblages. The largest assemblage, 1,532 g, came from an extensive layer of dark brown sand (1637) roughly in the middle of the sequence in squares 14. This is a relatively poorly preserved assemblage, with an average sherd weight of only 3.2 g. Just below this was a grey sand layer (1691) that produced the second largest assemblage (709 g), which in contrast to 1637 is relatively well preserved with an average sherd weight of 6.7 g. The largest assemblage from square 6 (581 g) is from a greybrown sand layer (1153) in the middle of the sequence. This is a well-preserved assemblage, with an average sherd size of 5.8 g, and it may be equivalent to layer 1691 in square 15. The quantity of platter from these layers is substantial – over 526 sherds, which make up 33.0% of the assemblage from these blocks. Platter is particularly common in the lower layers of square 6, but it continues through the assemblage and there is a significant number of sherds in one of the latest midden layers (790). Everted rims are a relatively frequent occurrence within these assemblages (Figures 334 and 335) and some of these may indicate imported vessels. These rims came from closed-mouth jars and there are also several closed-mouth jars with simple rims (e.g. 3140, 4851; Figures 334 and 335) There is one thickened rim with stab-marks, 6265; Figure 334) that is similar to the rims in GBG (Figure 222).

Artefacts – A Pannett, R Smith and N Sharples An assemblage of 305 artefacts were recovered from the midden accumulation (GD; Tables 152 and 153; Figure 336, 337 and 338). The assemblage is dominated by waste materials from the production of composite combs (Figure 338), which were particularly common on the west side of the settlement mound (GDC). This area had by far the largest assemblages of all types of artefact, and this reflects the depth of midden layers in the area. The comb-making debris was concentrated in layers 790, 862 and 883, which lay near the top of the midden

The Late Norse activity on mound 2A 779 790 779 796 790 862 796 1623 862 894 1623 1624 894 899 1624 1633 899 1672 1633 1664 1672 1637 1664 1688 1637 1691 1688 1692 1691 1734 1692 1734 0

447

unburnt bone

burnt bone

fish

pot

charcoal

unburnt bone

burnt bone

fish

pot

charcoal

0

20

40

60

0

10

20

30

0

20

40

60

80

0

5

10

0

5

10

15

20

20

40

60

0

10

20

30

0

20

40

60

80

0

5

10

0

5

10

15

20

BOM

slag

BOM slag 779 790 779 796 790 862 796 1623 862 894 1623 1624 894 899 1624 1633 899 1672 1633 1664 1672 1637 1664 1688 1637 unburnt bone burnt bone 1691 1688 1692 779 1691 790 1734 1692 796 1734 0 100 200 300 400 0 20 40 60 0 862 0 100 200 300 400 0 20 40 60 0 1623 894 1624 899 1633 1672 1664 unburnt bone burnt bone 1637 unburnt bone 1114 burnt bone 1688 1128 1691 1114 1692 1124 1128 1734 1132 1124 0 1135 40 60 0 10 20 30 0 20 1132 20 113 8 1135 1140 113 8 1161 BOM slag 1140 1160 1161 779 1602 790 1160 0 5 10 15 20 25 0 2 4 6 796 1602 862 0 5 10 15 20 25 0 2 4 6 1623 894 BOM charcoal 1624 BOM charcoal 899 1114 1633 1128 1114 1124 1672 1128 1664 1132 1124 1637 1135 1132 1688 1138 1135 1691 1140 1138 1692 1161 1140 1734 1160 1161 1602 0 1160 100 200 300 400 0 20 40 60 0 2 0 50 10 15 0 50 100 1602

egg

crab

egg

crab

fish

charcoal

pot

2

4

6

8

0

1

2

4

6

8

0

1

Figure 331. A detailed stratigraphic analysis of the 2 to10 mm residues in area 15 Figure 331. A detailed stratigraphic analysis of of thethe 2 to10 mm residues in in area 1515 Figure 331. A detailed stratigraphic analysis 2 to10 mm residues area

40

60

80

fish

pot

fish

pot

0

5

egg

10

0

5

10

15

crab

8

0

10

20

30

40

50 0

1

2

8

0

10

20

30

40

50 0

1

2

4

150

0

6

8

slag

egg

slag

egg

0

20

40

1

60

80

0

5

10

15

Figure 331. AAdetailed analysis mm residues inin 0 50 10 15 stratigraphic 0 50 100 150 0of the 20 2 to10 60 80 0 5 area1015 Figure 332. detailed stratigraphic analysis ofof the 2 40to10 mm residues area 66 Figure 332. A detailed stratigraphic analysis the 2 to10 mm residues in area Figure 332. A detailed stratigraphic analysis of the 2 to10 mm residues in area 6

867 868 867 968 868 963 968 860 963 860

unburnt bone unburnt bone

1114 1128 1124 1132 1135 113 8 1140 0 1161 1160 0 1602

0

868 867 968 868 963 968 860 963 860

0

pot

fish

pot

10

15

0

2

4

6

0

10

20

30

40

0

2

4

6

5

10

15

0

2

4

6

0

10

20

30

40

0

2

4

6

0

10

charcoal 5 10

15

20

25 0

BOM 4

2

6

8

20

30

BOM

slag40

50 0

egg2

1

slag

BOM

egg

slag

egg

10

15

20

25

0

5

10

15

20

0

50

100

150

0

1

2

10

15

20

25

0

5

10

15

20

0

50

100

150

0

1

2

Figure 333. A detailed stratigraphic analysis of the 2 to10 mm residues in area 11 Figure 333. A detailed stratigraphic analysis of the 2 to10 mm residues in area 11 50

10

15

0

50

100

150

0

20

40

60

80

0

5

10

15

Figure 333. A detailed stratigraphic analysis of the 2 to10 mm residues in area 11 Figure 332. A detailed stratigraphic analysis of the 2 to10 mm residues in area 6 unburnt bone 867 868 968 963

15

5

charcoal 1114 1128 1124 0 5 1132 0 1135 5 1138 1140 1161 1160 1602

pot

fish

burnt bone

charcoal

867

fish

burnt bone burnt bone

unburnt bone

20

burnt bone

fish

pot

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

448

GDA

3140

4188

3160

3428

5913

6265

GDB

3164

GDC

3886

3105

8703

3457

8704

0

2259

2744

10cm

Figure 334. A selection of feature sherds from GDA, GDB and GDC

sequence in the eastern extension trench (square 15); there was very little evidence for the dumping of comb-making debris in square 6. A small amount of waste came from the northern extension (788, GDB) and this includes definite comb-making debris. The comb-making debris is very

similar to that recovered from the occupation of building 6 (GCD). Primary waste is present and includes sawn burrs (3206, 2727), segments and offcuts; secondary waste is represented by blanks for toothplates (e.g. 2850, 2875, 2747). There is also a large section of beam with most of

The Late Norse activity on mound 2A

449

GDC

5092

5008

5100

5065

5867

3832

4844

4851

4939

5305

4595

4200

C890

4241 0

5101 10cm

Figure 335. A selection of feature sherds from GDC

5225

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

450

Table 151. The pottery from the midden accumulation (GD) Block GDA GDA GDA GDA GDA GDA GDA GDA GDA GDA GDA GDA GDA GDA GDA GDA GDA GDA GDB GDB GDB GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDB GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GD

Context 705 724 860 864 868 897 957 962 963 964 968 973 980 983 1121 1127 2300 Sub-total 788 1154 Sub-total 704 728 760 779 790 796 862 866 878 883 890 894 950 1114 1115 1124 1132 1138 1137 1140 1143 1150 1153 1157 1160 1161 1175 1184 1602 1604 1608 1619 1623 1624 1633 1633 1637 1664 1688 1691 1692 1695 1742 1749 1761 2418 2426 Sub-total Total

Weight (g) 20.4 27.6 229.2 22.3 127.6 6.5 26.3 17.1 79.8 87 0.8 13.7 19 132.4 48.8 4.6 309.3 1172.4 310.3 93.1 403.4 26.5 18.1 43.3 2.6 449.4 3 89.8 169.3 4.9 106.3 21.2 59.6 42.3 39 14.1 6 401.6 8 4.7 90 91.2 25.8 581.3 94.2 26.2 182.4 35 42.7 3.8 49.1 201.2 40.3 41.1 38.5 11.2 3 1532.37 12.21 57.8 709.3 228.4 2.7 7.6 37.9 155.6 37.7 3.2 5851.48 7427.28

No. 1 4 48 6 17 2 8 4 19 26 1 2 5 13 10 1 90 257 80 19 99 4 6 10 1 68 1 17 31 1 24 1 10 12 8 3 2 65 1 1 12 23 11 100 29 2 28 7 10 1 11 27 11 1 12 2 1 480 3 15 106 35 1 2 9 27 4 1 1237 1593

Ave wght 20.40 6.90 4.78 3.72 7.51 3.25 3.29 4.28 4.20 3.35 0.80 6.85 3.80 10.18 4.88 4.60 3.44 4.56 3.88 4.90 4.07 6.63 3.02 4.33 2.60 6.61 3.00 5.28 5.46 4.90 4.43 21.20 5.96 3.53 4.88 4.70 3.00 6.18 8.00 4.70 7.50 3.97 2.35 5.81 3.25 13.10 6.51 5.00 4.27 3.80 4.46 7.45 3.66 41.10 3.21 5.60 3.00 3.19 4.07 3.85 6.69 6.53 2.70 3.80 4.21 5.76 9.43 3.20 4.73 4.66

Rim

Base

Body 1 4 1

1 3 3 1 1 5

1 3

4 1 3

1

1

2

6

4

16 1 3 5

1

2 1

1

13

8 11

5 14

1

15

7 1

6 3 1

2 6 4 2

16

27

8 1

1 3 2 2 5 3 3 1

7 1

4 1 1

3 6 1

3 1 23

10

44

2 7 1

17 3

2 17 9

1 3 5

72 95

1 1 1 16 91 33 5 38

53 97 32 12 44 2 3 4 1 29

1

12 1

45 3 11 2 2 2 3 2 1 1

1 1 10 3 11 44 8

6

2 2 3

4 5

3 9 1 1 2

2

Platter

3 1 11 14

7 16 6 1 7 1

1 1 1 1

Misc.

5 5 3 36 21 8 4 5 1 4 8 7

3 2

5 1 2 4

3 16 8 60 1 2 17 4 4 2 1

6 2

3

190 1 4 30 7 1

158 2 7 35 15

5 20 1

1 1

488 629

397 526

1

63 74

2 2 1 162 214

Sooted 1 2 1 2 2

Fine

2 6 21

1 2 18

1 1

1

7

2 3

10 5

17 63 36 10 46 4 2 4 1 38 1 5 11 1 16

5 47 10 1 11 2

8 3 3 1

8 3 3 1

59 1 1 5 2 3 11 24

1

5 3 3 1 2 15 5 1 4 1 188 8 46 8 1 1 5 21 2 1 525 634

3 11 1 3 4 2 8

1 4 1 2 5 3 1 1 1 1 5

1 1 42

38 11 1 2 4 2 177 235

The Late Norse activity on mound 2A

451

Table 152. The artefacts from the midden accumulation on the west and north sides (GDA and GDB) of mound 2A

Waste

Tools

Gaming Pieces Personal objects

Structural fitting Miscellaneous Total

point

bone

knife

iron

cobble tool

stone

whetstone

stone

gaming piece

bone

comb

antler

buckle

cu alloy

bead

glass/stone/bone

nail

iron

rove

1154

flint

788

Flint

2316

bone

2308

pin manufuring debris

2300

antler

1121

offcut

GDB 964

antler

963

antler

blank

962

segment

959

antler

957

tine/beam/burr

955

Material

868

Object type

860

GDA

3

Total 3

1

1

1

2

2

2

3

1 1

2

1

2

4

7

1 1

1

1

1

1

2

1

1 1

1

1 1

1

3

3

1 1

2

11

1

1 1

1

1

3

2

7

iron

1

1

2

holdfast

iron

3

bar/rod/strip/fragments

iron 2

the tines removed (4270), which could be regarded as a resource rather than waste. The craft debris includes evidence for the production of gaming pieces (4388) and a number of antler and ivory (sperm whale tooth) cubes that are unfinished dice (2925, 2854). A finished and used die (6066; Figure 336) was found on the west side of the settlement mound. A selection of modified antler tines (2851, 2761, 3013, 2939) could be tools, or ornaments in production, and 2851 is almost complete, though lacking any evidence for use. There is an antler handle (2742), similar to 3114 in GCE (Figure 319), though not quite as carefully made. Other tools include a whale bone disc (2694), a frag­ ment of fine Eidsborg schist whetstone (5940) from the west side of the mound, and a crude whetstone (3011) from the east side. There are six knife blades of varying form (e.g. 2795, 3038, 4848). The flint assemblage comprises 16 flakes, seven flake fragments, eight pieces of microdebitage and 13 chunks. Three flakes have been retouched, two with abrupt retouch along one lateral edge to form simple edgeretouched tools, and one with abrupt retouch along the distal end to form a rough end scraper. The assemblage is similar in materials and quality of manufacture to that from GC. Personal items are more common than in the ancillary buildings (GC), and a number of comb side-plate fragments were found on all sides of the mound (GDA, 3004, 6074, 6088; GDB, 2762; GDC, 2812, 2746, 3381, 4415; Figures 336 and 337). Ring-and-dot decoration

1

1

1

18

1

3

2

3

1

1

3

1

19

3 2

1

3

1

9

6

24

2

68

seems to be much more common than in other blocks and there is a distinctive group decorated with ring-and-dot and saltire motifs. A Norwegian double-sided fish-tailed comb (2987; similar to 1308 from BEI; see Figures 281 and 282) came from a layer (950) near the beginning of the eastern midden sequence. There are a couple of beads (e.g. 2844), and a small collection of pins, which includes a good example of an iron dress pin (4852). The west side of the mound also produced a copper-alloy buckle plate (5894). There is the usual collection of structural fittings and miscellaneous pieces but amongst the former is an interesting copper-alloy object (2929; Figure 337) that com­ prises two thin plates riveted across a wooden block, which has clearly broken at both ends. The arrangement of the five rivets has been carefully done to create a pleasing effect.

Carbonised plant remains – J Summers, J Bond and N Sharples The carbonised plant remains were analysed from 32 samples taken from the midden layers surrounding the ancillary structures (Table 154): • •

15 samples, 264.5 litres of soil, were analysed from the middens on the west side (GDA); 17 samples, 468 litres of soil, came from the east side (GDC)

All the samples were from different contexts.

Total

Miscellaneous

Structural fitting

Personal objects

Gaming Pieces

Tools

Waste

iron

Cu alloy

Cu alloy

iron

iron

lead/bone

Cu alloy

antler

whale bone

steatite

fitting

tack

fitting

bar/rod/strip/fragments

sheet

strip

fragment/sheet/strip

object/worked

cut

misc 2

iron

3

iron

rove

holdfast

4

2

2

iron

nail

68

4

5

1

5

glass/stone/bone

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

2

9

8

10

16

bead

1

728 1

2

779

iron

bone

pin

704 1

760 2

790

pin

antler

stone

whetstone

comb

stone

cobble tool

bone

iron

gaming piece

iron

handle

knife

antler

point

awl

lead/bone

bone

spindle whorl/disc

flint

bone

pin manufuring debris

antler

offcut

antler/ivory

antler

blank

gaming piece debris

antler

segment

whale bone

antler

tine/beam/burr

comb making debris

Material

Object type 796 3

1

1

1

861 2

1

1

862 50

2

4

3

1

2

4

1

2

2

7

6

6

10

866 3

1

2

877 1

1

883 22

2

2

2

1

1

1

1

3

2

4

3

894 4

1

1

1

1

899 2

2

950 9

1

1

1

2

2

2

1128 2

2

1132 2

1

1

1140 1

1

4

4

1149

GDC 1153 6

1

1

1

1

1

1

1157 2

1

1

1184 1

1

1602 2

2

1604 1

1

1608 8

1

1

1

1

1

2

1

1615 1

1

1

1

1619

Table 153. The artefacts from the midden accumulation on the west side (GDC) of mound 2A

1623 1

1

1624 1

1

1637 13

1

1

2

1

1

1

2

2

2

1664 3

1

1

1

1688 3

1

2

1691 3

2

1

1692 2

2

1695 1

1

1749 1

1

2418 4

1

1

2

237

1

4

10

15

1

1

9

3

1

1

3

4

17

1

1

4

10

2

2

2

4

1

1

2

2

26

6

4

3

22

20

20

34

Total

452

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

The Late Norse activity on mound 2A GDA

453

GDB

7127

3004

5894

2762

6074

6066

5940

6088 0

10cm

Figure 336. A selection of artefacts from the peripheral middens (GD). 7127 is glass; 5894 is copper alloy; 5940 is stone; all the rest are bone or antler

GDC

4415

2746

3381

2812

4803 2987

4852

3120

4962

2795

0

3038

4848

2929

10cm

Figure 337. A selection of artefacts from the peripheral middens (GDC). 2795, 3120, 3038, 4848, 4852, 4962 are iron; 2929 is a composite of copper alloy and wood; all the rest are antler or bone.

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

454

GDC

2694

2850

2875

4388

4838

3206

2747

2727

2925

2854

3013

7502 2761

2939 2851

2844 0

2cm

2742

4270

3011 0

10cm

Figure 338. Antler comb making debris and artefacts from the peripheral middens (GDC). 3011 is stone; all the rest are antler or bone

The Late Norse activity on mound 2A 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Barley

Oats GDA

Rye GDC

Flax GGB

Wild GEC

Figure 339. Histograms showing the density of the main crop species in the Late Norse deposits from mound 2A

455

The densities of the main species present are depicted in Figure 339. The assemblage was dominated by oats and barley, with oats slightly more common (4.5 frag/litre) than barley (3.6 frag/litre). Only small quantities of rye and flax were present. A single wheat grain was present in layer 1633 (7192) a midden deposit on the east side of the mound (GDC) and this sample also contained a single large legume (Fabaceae). Cultivated pulses are not commonly encountered in archaeobotanical assemblages in Atlantic Scotland. It is possible that this represents an economically valuable plant, such as a pea or bean, but its status as a cultivar, weed or import is difficult to determine based on a single specimen. Wild seeds were relatively common, with significant concentrations of

18 16 2

14 Secale

12 Avena

10 8 6

1

4 2 0

0

2

4

6

8 10 12 Hordeum

14

16

18

0

20

0

2

4

6

8 10 12 Hordeum

14

16

18

4

9 8 7

3 Linum

Wild

6 5 4

2

3 1

2 1 0

0

2

4

6

8

10 12 Hordeum

14

16

18

20

0

0

1

Secale

2

9 8 7 Wild

6

GDA

5

GDC

4

GEC

3

GGB

2 1 0

0

1

Secale

2

Figure 340. Scatter plots showing the relationship between the main crop species in the Late Norse deposits from mound 2A

20

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

456

Table 154. The carbonised plant from the midden accumulation (GD) Sample

8805

11029

9198

9200

9218

9229

9225

9231

9274

11001

11013

11012

11025

11026

Context

720

797

860

864

868

963

968

973

1127

2300

2308

2316

2329

2330

Litres

14

10

25

12

18

10

14

11

12.5

26

24

35

12

13

Group

GDA

GDA

GDA

GDA

GDA

GDA

GDA

GDA

GDA

GDA

GDA

GDA

GDA

GDA

15

8

21

11

23

79

142

88

39

23

6

9

3

Cereals Hordeum vulgare grains

50

60

292

21

Hordeum vulgare indet. frags

3

1

20

2

Hordeum sativum rachis frags

1

5

22

1

1

18

Avena sp. grains

30

16

31

99

52

20

13

10

28

41

40

52

56

17

Avena sp. Indet. frag

1

4

2

17

12

10

3

5

5

15

5

18

11

9

cf Secale cereale grains

15

3

23

1

1

7

3

12

7

2

1

3

Triticum sp. Oat palea/Lemma

1

12

Cereal culm frags Cereal grain frags

47

58

208

260

476

72

63

59

1

2

110

157

296

161

122

3

4

4

5

2

7

3

1

18

97

Other Crops Linum usitatissimum

1

1

cf Linum usitatissimum frags

1

4

1

5

cf Large legume Weeds/wild species Brassica/Sinapis spp

1

Buglossoides sp.

1

Carex sp. Type 1

1

Carex sp. Type 2 Carex sp. Type 3

2

2

8

1

1

2

1

1

4

2

1

5

1

Carex sp. Type 5

1

1

Scirpus spp

1

1

1

2

1

Cyperaceae indet. type 4

1

1

Cyperaceae indet.

1

2

2

2

5

Cyperaceae/Polygonaceae cf Cerastium sp. Chenopodiaceae

2

2

1

1

2

1

4

28

1

3

2

3

14

9

1

2

8

5

13

1

1

2

1

1

5

1

Compositae type Crucifereae cf. Raphanus sp.

1

1

Crucifereae Type 2 Erica sp. Euphorbia cf helioscopia

1

cf Fumaria sp.

1

2

Galium sp. Type 1 Galium sp. Type 2

1

Gramineae

2

Phleum sp.

3

1

1

1 2

1

9

Bromus sp. Paniceae type grain

1

1

2

1

1

1

1

2

Papaver sp. Plantago sp.

1

Potentilla sp.

1

Polygonaceae

1

1 1

4

1

Rumex/Polygonum sp. Type 1

1

Rumex/Polygonum sp. Type 2

1

1

Rumex/Polygonum sp. Type 3

1

1

1

1

1

2

1

3

1

2

1

1

6

2

1

1

1

1

1

3

1

1

Polygonum sp. Type 4 Rumex/Polygonum sp. Type 5 Rumex/Polygonum spp kernels Ranunculus sp. small

1

3

2

Ranunculus sp. large

1

1

6

cf Ranunculus sp. Rubus sp. cf Sisymbrium sp.

1

Urtica sp.

2

1 1

7

3

3

Indet. Type 4

1

Heather frags

8

Poss ID

3

1

X

X

2

2

1

1

2

7

3

3

7

2 2

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Amorphous material Indeterminate indet. Fungal spores/insect pellets

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

The Late Norse activity on mound 2A

457

11032

11043

9211

9190

9193

9197

9214

9317

7042

7070

7093

7113

7153

7192

7196

7269

7605

7607

7635

2335

2349

779

790

796

862

899

1160

1602

1608

1615

1619

1624

1633

1637

1664

1688

1691

1692

35

6

18

28

26

20

20

15

38

38

26

29

35

20

38

19

30

35

33

GDA

GDA

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDC

GDC

26

17

71

126

64

83

32

159

66

71

52

147

40

83

167

83

67

266

2

18

1

6

2

4

2

4

5

4

6

6

6

3

12

6

1

1

1

3

2

11

1

50

105

16

39

93

13

37

149

304

235

479

16

17

3

3

21

46

39

82

18

3

4

4

6

10

17

18

9

6

1

7

74

37

158

398

70

25

8

9

28

80

27

1

8

11

20

5

3

12

25

23

1

1

2

1 1 67

55

1

166

283

80

107

165

226

309

158

183

438

104

220

209

407

344

487

6

6

6

26

51

22

9

3

2

7

2

4

6

17

8

38

1

1

1

6

1

1

3

3

2

3 2

1

3

3

11

13

10

1

5

2

4

6

3

2 1

1

4

4

4 1 5

2

3

2

3

1

1

5

2

4

2

7

6

1

21

6

5

10

17

11

55

16

10

44

7

3

7

2 2

3

1

1

6

2

2

1

5

6

1

1 1

1

10

2

10

1

7

10

7

1

1 1

1 2 1

2 1

3

1

1

6

1

1

4

3

13

5

33

1

10

5

1

24

1

1 1 1

2

17

6

6

2

5

2

2

1

3

6

7

21

4

2

3

1 1 4

1

7

3

3

1

1

5

4

1

2

3

3

2

8

2

2

1 1 1

1 1

1

1

2

5

2

1

4

6

2

9

3 2

1

1

2 1

1

3

2

4

2

13

4 1 1

1 2

1

2

2

1

3

3

2

1

3

1

3

2

3

8

1

1

1 1

1

1 1

1

1

5

2

2

1

2

3

3

4

2

2

1

25

14

7

3

2

6

3

1

1

1

1

1

1 2

1

3

1

1 1

1

1 1

1

1

1

1

3

2

2 3 1

1

3 1

4

1

X

X

2

1

1

1

1

X

1

1

1

10

2

1

1

4

5

5

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

3

1

1

2

X

X

X

X

2 X

2 2

1

8

2

7

4

4

3

7

4

31

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

1 X

2

2 2

3 X

3 7

3

2

2 X

2

4

5

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

458

GDA GDA GDA GDA GDA GDA GDA GDA GDA GDA GDA GDA GDA GDA GDA GDA GDA GDA GDA GDA GDB GDB GDB GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDB GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GDC GD

860 864 867 868 897 955 957 959 962 963 964 968 973 983 1121 2300 2308 2316 2335 Sub-total 788 1154 Sub-total 704 728 760 779 790 796 861 862 866 877 880 883 894 899 950 1114 1115 1124 1132 1138 1140 1143 1149 1150 1153 1157 1161 1175 1184 1185 1187 1602 1604 1608 1619 1623 1624 1632 1633 1637 1664 1688 1691 1736 1740 1742 1749 1761 2418 2426 1691, 1692 Sub-total Total

6

12 1

1

Hare/fox sized mammal

Sheep-sized mammal

Cattle-sized mammal

Cetacean

Seal

Grey seal

Common seal

Rodent

Carnivore

Red deer

Cat

Dog

Pig

Sheep/goat

Sheep

Cattle

Context

Horse

Block

Equid

Table 155. The animal bone from the midden accumulation (GD)

1

1 1

3 2

1

3 2 3 4 2

1 1

1

1 2 4 1 1 1

1 1 1

1

2

1

3 1

1

2 3

0

3

3

2 1 2

1

1

1

6 12 3 9

1 16

48 71 1 72

21 10

4 3 18 47 1 5 32 2 1 16 19 5 19 1 1 1 2 1 3 3 9 1 5 5 4 1 12

9 14

10 2 1 1 1 4 1 1 3 3

8 1 3 2 1 1 1 1 4 2 1

3 1 12 8 6

1 1 2 1 1

5

2

1 63 1 4 1

1 3 4

2

3 1 1 1 36 368 488

11 1

1 63 94

3 54 5 16 110 51 2 53 2 8 12 10 56 2 15 49 5 2 46 18 6 45 1 2 1 2 2 1 5 8 3 22 3 7 1 3 5 3 12 46 2 1 5 1 1 110 3 5

7 1 8

1

22 10 1 11

1 1

0

1

0

1 6 1 3 1 14 11 1 12

1

1 1

3

5

1

0 1

1

0

1

2

1

4 10

7 9

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

10

9

0

2 1 2 4 1 10 2

3 3 1 5

1

1 1

1 2

1 5

11

2 1

3 5 1

1 1

1

1

1

5 3 3

1 1

1 6

2

1

1

3

1

2 5

1

2

1

1 3 1 4 1

1

1 2

1

1

1 1 1 2 3

1

2

1

1 1 3

3

6 2

2 1

3 1

2

2 1 1

1 2 1

1

2

8

1

1

1

12

2

1

1

1 1 1 3 2

2 1

1 31 571 734

16 76 109

9 1

1

8 10

5 5

11

1

2 49 75

0 1

0 1

1 1

0 1

1 13 15

2 3

6 40 54

9 69 85

1 1

Total

20 1 1 4 3 1 6 5 7 7 7 1 3 1 11 106 10 40 1 235 177 5 182 4 15 17 35 130 4 26 111 18 7 1 82 57 13 86 2 7 2 7 4 7 10 22 4 42 12 18 5 21 6 7 2 34 61 11 1 14 1 2 228 5 11 3 1 1 1 10 4 1 2 103 1278 1695

The Late Norse activity on mound 2A Carex sp., Cerastium sp., Chenopodiaceae, Crucifereae and Rumex/Polygonum sp., particularly in the middens on the east side (GDC). The most obvious difference between the midden deposits on the east and west sides of the mound is that the east side (GDC) produced much higher densities of oats, flax and wild seeds. Barley and rye densities were very similar on both sides of the mound. Oats dominated the assemblage from the east side, but barley was dominant on the west side. There is a correlation between barley and oats, with high densities coming from related samples (Figure 340). In contrast, the distribution of rye and flax is very different and none of the samples produced high densities of both crops. The highest densities of rye were present in samples 8805 and 9200 (both from GDA contexts), whereas the highest densities of flax were from 9317, from a GDC context. The correlation between the minor crops and the more dominant crops is more difficult to see, but samples with high densities of rye often had high densities of oats and barley. Samples with high densities of wild seeds also tended to be have high densities of oats.

Animal bone – A Powell, J Best, J Mulville and N Sharples The Late Norse middens (GD) produced the second largest assemblage of animal bones from mound 2A (1,695 bones; Table 155). The bulk of the assemblage (1,278 bones) was recovered from the deposits on the east side of the settlement mound (GDC). This assemblage was fairly evenly distributed across a large number of contexts. GDC midden layers 790, 862 and 1637 all had over 100 identifiable bones. The most productive layer on the west side (GDA) was 2300, which had over 100 bones. The bulk of the assemblage is sheep/goat (55%), with only limited quantities of cattle (32%). Cattle is the dominant animal in the small assemblage from the northern midden (GDB), but sheep were even more dominant in the west midden (GDA) than in the east (GDC). Pig and deer are both present (7% and 5%), and pig is most significant on the west side (10%).

Block

Total ID

Total gnawed

% carnivore gnawed

% rodent gnawed

% butchered

Total burnt

% burnt

% calcined

Table 156. The taphonomy of the bones from the midden accumulation (GD)

GDA

235

72

31

1

7

5

2

0

GDB

192

44

23

0

3

1

1

0

GDC

1246

475

38

0

8

16

1

0.2

GD total

1673

591

35

0

7

22

1

0.1

459

The small numbers of bones from animals other than the principal species were widely dispersed throughout the different layers. Horse/equid is present in small numbers (18 bones) and there are 16 seal bones, which includes one common and one grey seal. There are 10 dog and five cat bones. The assemblage has a higher than average percentage of gnawed bones and lower than average percentage of butchered and burnt bones (Table 156). The percentages for gnawed, butchered bones are highest in the assemblage from the middens on the east side, and lowest in the middens on the north side of the mound. The highest densities of burnt bones are in the assemblage from the west side of the mound. An assemblage of 103 bird bones was recovered from the midden layers (GD; Table 157). The overwhelming bulk of these bones (77%) came from the middens on the east side of the mound (GDC), and one extensive brown sand layer (1637) produced 16 bones, including six gannet and three cormorant. Cormorant (31 bones) and, to a lesser extent, gannet (15 bones) are unusually common in these midden layers and there is also a strong representation of goose (14 bones) and domestic fowl (9 bones). Gulls are less numerous than in the other mound 2A deposits and are represented by nine bones. A range of species is present in smaller numbers, including guillemot, puffin, Manx shearwater, a swan, small waders and at least two duck species. A rare occurrence is a rail, cf corncrake. One bone is burnt, seven have been butchered and at least eight have been gnawed (mainly by carnivores).

Fish bone – C Ingrem The 2–10 mm residues recovered from samples from the peripheral middens are dominated by herring (Table 158). The most productive sample came from the middens located on the east side (GDC) of the mound, although only 6% of that assemblage is identifiable (232 fragments). The assemblage recovered from the middens located on the west side (GDA) is smaller, but a higher proportion of the material is identifiable (12%), with the result that the assemblages are of a similar size. The above 10 mm assemblage is larger, consisting of 6,570 identifiable specimens, most of which derive from the eastern middens. The assemblages recovered from both the western and northern middens (GDC, GDB) both comprise more than 600 specimens (Table 158). All three greater than 10 mm assemblages are dominated by the remains of large gadoid fish, particularly cod and hake. The herring assemblages are once again dominated by vertebrae, with those from the abdominal region more numerous than caudal vertebrae (Table 159); a minimum of nine individuals are represented. Saithe are generally better represented by head bones and the calculation of percentage presence indicates that vertebrae are under-

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

460

GDA

897

GDA

962

GDA

1121

GDA

2300

GDA

2308

GDA

2316

GDA

Sub-total

GDB

788

6

0

2

2

GDC

779

1

0

2

1

0

1

1

862

1

2

1

1

GDC

894

1

GDC

950

1

GDC

1114

GDC

1115 1138

1

GDC

1140

2

GDC

1143

GDC

1149

3

1150

3

GDC

1175 1185

GDC

1602

GDC

1604

GDC

1608

GDC

1623

GDC

1632

GDC

1633

0

0

1

1

Total

Wader, Small

Swan sp.

Rail cf Corncrake

Puffin

Manx Shearwater

Gull sp. Large

Gull, Herring / Lesser Black-Backed

Gull, Great BlackBacked

Goose sp.

Goose, Large Grey cf Greylag

Guillemot 3

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

2

1

1

14 10

0

0

0

0

0

0 1

10 5

4 1

1

5

1

4

4 1

1

1 2 1

3 1 1

4 3

1

1

2

1

1

2

1

1 1

1

1

1 1

1

1

1

1

3

1

1 1

1

1

1

2418

0

2 2

1

1692

Sub-total

0

1

GDC

GDC

1

0 3

1

1

GDC

1

1 1

1688

1695

0

1

1637

1749

1 1

1

GDC

GDC

0

2

GDC

GDC

Goose sp. cf Branta

Galliform cf Domestic Fowl

Duck sp.

Gannet 0 1

1

GDC

GDC

2 1

1

GDC

1157

1

1

883

1161

1

2 7

1

GDC

GDC

1

1

GDC

GDC

1

1

728

790

1 1

1

Sub-total

861

1

1

0

Total

1

5

GDB

GDC

Domestic Fowl 1

1

GDC

GDC

Cormorant / Shag

Context

Cormorant

Block

Anatidae cf Black Goose

Table 157. The bird bone from the midden accumulation (GD)

3

1

1

6

1

1

1

1

1

2

1

16 1 3

3

3 1

1

1

1

1

23

3

7

2

3

14

1

4

6

4

1

3

1

1

2

1

1

1

79

1

31

3

9

3

4

15

1

6

7

7

1

7

1

1

2

1

1

2

103

represented. A minimum of 12 individual saithe are represented by the dentary (the figure in table 158 is based on the MNI for vertebra). Cod are represented by elements from the cranial, abdominal and caudal regions of the body. As is evident in other phases and areas of the site, abdominal vertebrae are more numerous than those from the caudal region.

Vertebrae are numerically dominant in all three groups of middens according to NISP, but once again the calculation of percentage presence shows them to be generally underrepresented compared with some head bones. Jaw bones are particularly numerous and the premaxilla indicates that a minimum of 81 individuals were represented. A very similar pattern is visible for hake, ling and

The Late Norse activity on mound 2A

461

Table 158. The fish bone from the midden accumulation (GD) Species

10mm

GDA

GDA

GDC

GDC

1

1

3

7

Clupea harengus

187

328

179

392

Salmonidae spp

4

7

2

8

Anguilla anguilla

2

4

6

18

1

2

1

Rajidae spp

GDA

GDB

Elasmobranch

GDC 1

Conger conger

1

5 1

1 3

Merlangius merlangus

4

6

Pollachius pollachius

1

2

2

4

21

15

111

Pollachius virens

31

59

15

32

21

3

170

6

12

5

3

20

5

10

140

186

1859

Pollachius spp Gadus morhua

2

4

Melanogrammus aeglefinus

7

Brosme brosme

3

Merluccius merluccius

1

1

Ciliata/Gaidropsarus spp

2

4

3

6

Molva molva Gadidae spp

27

52

7

15

211

283

1677

55

40

362

146

145

1060

Dicentrachus labrax

1

Trachurus trachurus

1

Labrus bergylta

2

2

5

Scomber scombrus Scophthalmus maximus

1

Pleuronectes platessa Flatfish

1

2

1

1

2

1

Unidentifiable

1848

3268

3470

7355

806

667

5951

Total

2109

3734

3702

7867

1411

1345

11238

Total identifiable

261

466

232

512

605

678

5287

% identifiable

12

12

6

7

43

50

47

projected quantities

pollack, with bones from all parts of the skeleton present in all midden areas and with vertebrae common according to NISP (Table 159). In respect of hake, percentage presence indicates that caudal vertebrae are once again underrepresented, although in this case abdominal vertebrae are better represented than head bones and represent a minimum of 55 individuals. Caudal vertebrae belonging to ling and pollack are also relatively scarce compared with cranial and abdominal remains. As with cod, some cranial bones are particularly well-represented, with a minimum of 13 ling represented by the quadrate, and six pollack. Comparative material indicates that most of the herring were approximately 300 mm in total length (Table 160). More than half the saithe bones recovered from the western middens are from small (150–300 mm) fish and a similar number are from large (600–1200 mm) specimens. In contrast, most saithe bones from the eastern middens

belong to large specimens. Almost all the cod and hake bones belong to large fish and a good number are from very large fish (>1200 mm). Thirty-seven bones display evidence for butchery. Most (n = 23) belong to cod, but conger eel, pollack, torsk, hake and ling were also affected (Table 216). Thirteen bones have been crushed so were probably chewed; these belong to a variety of taxa including herring, salmonid, whiting pollack, cod and hake (Table 216) and came mostly from the eastern middens. Twenty-seven bones were burnt and most of these also came from the eastern middens (Table 216). All three midden groups produced large assemblages from individual contexts: 947 fragments came from context 2300 in the western midden (GDA) and 1,254 fragments came from layer 788 in the northern midden (GDB). Even larger assemblages derive from contexts

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

462

Table 159. Fish bone elements from the midden accumulation (GD) Clupea harengus

Pollachius virens

Gadus morhua

Merluccius merluccius

Molva molva

Pollachius pollachius

Skeletal element GDA

GDC

GDA

GDB

GDC

GDA

GDB

Ethmoid

GDC

GDA

GDB

GDC

GDA

GDB

GDC

5

3

19

1

4

4

1

3

GDA

GDB

GDC

1

2

4

Vomer

1

1

4

8

6

Prefrontal

37 1

Supraoccipital

1

Pterotic

2

Parasphenoid

2

3

1

1

2

2

3

9

6

76

5

3

16

1

6

22

3

89

8

7

39

3

2

18

1

15

72

3

1

15

1

2

2

7

1

18

4

13

1

2

Otic bulla Basioccipital Articular Dentary

3

21

10

10

97

8

Ecopterygoid

1

1

1

2

33

1

2

8

11

9

95

10

Maxilla

1

Metapterygoid

30

22

2

72

4 2 1 3

2

Palatine

1

5

5

3

50

2

2

11

1

6

Premaxilla

1

2

13

16

133

20

16

68

2

3

18

2

2

8

12

4

13

90

7

8

39

4

2

20

1

2

4

1

3

4

52

3

5

35

2

2

15

1

1

2

1

1

146

1

5

3

33

Quadrate Ceratohyal

1

Epihyal Hyomandibular

1

Hypohyal

6 1

6

23

9

2 2

1

9

1

4

1

3

Interopercular

1

4

Opercular Preopercular

1

3

15

3

5

18

2

27

4

2

43

1

1

8

1

2 2 1

4

2

13

3

1

3

1

Subopercular Symplectic

1

1

Urohyal Ceratobranchial

1

3

1

4

2

1

Lower pharyngeal

1

Posttemporal

4

Cleithra

1 7

9

50

1

3

34

Coracoid

11

1

5

1

7

1

Postcleithra

2

6

Scapula

1

2

Supracleithra

1

Anterior abdominal vertebra

3

2

4

Posterior abdominal vertebra

78

2

19

Abdominal vertebra

10

96

1

Caudal vertebra

83

80

14

11

3

188

184

1

5

1

5

74

2

12

1

1

6

29

14

11

111

13

11

160

4

4

13

1

1

23

30

11

23

229

57

72

655

7

5

88

7

2

27

16

5

71

5

1

13

22

15

113

1 44

26

4

40

266

66

103

377

7

12

1

7

17

212

283

1678

Hypural Vertebra fragment

7

Scale Otolith Total MNI *

9

52

3

185

1

8

12

142

193

1875

4

in the eastern midden, with 2,371 pieces recovered from layer 1637, and 1,578 specimens from layer 1691. The highest densities were recorded for the eastern midden, with layer 1664 producing 66 frag/litre of soil excavated, whilst the highest density recorded for the western midden was 30 frag/litre from layer 868.

81

55

55

40

362

13

6

A structure in the eastern middens (GGA–GGC) A cut at least 0.50 m deep (1612; GGA) truncated a grey sand layer (1163) in square 6 (Figure 217, 341) and represents the northwest corner of a rectangular

The Late Norse activity on mound 2A

463

Table 160. The size of the fish from the midden accumulation (GD) Species

Block

150-300 mm

c.300 mm

300-600 mm

600-1200 mm

26

1

20

3

7

162

>1200 mm

Clupea harengus

GDA

7

163

Clupea harengus

GDC

1

4

Pollachius virens

GDA

Pollachius virens

GDB

Pollachius virens

GDC

Gadus morhua

GDA

Gadus morhua

GDB

1

180

5

Gadus morhua

GDC

1

1784

61

Merluccius merluccius

GDA

203

1

Merluccius merluccius

GDB

282

1

Merluccius merluccius

GDC

1657

3

3

subterranean structure,1 which extended to the east and south into unexcavated deposits. A red brown sand (1151) laid on the edge of the cut may have been placed there to give the cut more stability. The basal fill of the cut was an orange-red sand (1613; GGB) with charcoal flecks. This was a compact layer, only 0.13 m thick, and its position at the base of the substantial hollow suggests it was the floor of a building (Figure 341). A radiocarbon date (SUERC-18271) was obtained from a carbonised barley grain in this layer. This has a radiocarbon age of 850±35 BP, which calibrates to a date of cal AD 1050–1270. No stones existed to indicate the presence of a wall and it must be assumed that either

1

140

the walls were completely removed at the end of the structure’s life or that it had a timber frame. The hollow was filled with grey sand (1607, GGC; Figure 217), which was initially not recognised as different to the grey sand (1163) into which the structure was cut. The grey sand fill probably represents natural erosion of the surrounding grey sand deposits.

Sampling data – N Sharples The limited nature of the area excavated meant that very few samples were taken from this block (Table 161):

1612

1613 1151

450/230

460/230

0

5m

Figure 341. A plan of the structure at the east end of area 6 (GG)

Total

2 samples

GGC

GGC

GGB

Block

60

18

42

Litres

GG

GGC

GGB

GGA

Block 26 5 0 31

42.0 18.0 66.0

no. 6.0

Litres

30

9

21

Litres sorted

Context

1151

1613

1607

Total

Block

GGA

GGB

GGC

GG

Cattle

7

3

2

2

Sheep

4

4

Sheep/goat

5

2

3

1

1

2

2

Red deer

(GG)

Pig

0.47

0.00

0.12

4.33

density

Fish

21

0

12

9

0.32

0.00

0.29

1.50

density

Unburnt bone no.

2

1

0

1

0.03

0.06

0.00

0.17

density

Burnt bone no.

2

0

1

1

0.03

0.00

0.02

0.17

density

Pottery no.

1

0

1

0

no.

0.02

0.00

0.02

0.00

density

Slag

32

7

10

15

0.48

0.39

0.24

2.50

density

Limpet no.

11

2

3

6

0.17

0.11

0.07

1.00

density

Winkle no.

0

1

1

20

6

2

12

Total

178 5.93

11 1.22

167 7.95

Fish

379 12.63

61 6.778

318 15.14

no. density

1 7 177 229 52 23

Gadidae spp Unidentifiable Total Total identifiable % identifiable

1

Pollachius virens Pollachius spp

43

GGB

Clupea harengus

Species

(GG)

382 12.73

7 0.23

Burnt bone no. density

Charcoal

546 18.20

4 0.44

542 25.81

no. density

B.O.M.

400 13.33

37 4.11

363 17.29

no. density

25

15

61

46

15

GGC

projected quantities

23

104

458

354

14

2

2

86

GGB

10-20%, nnnnn >20-30%, nnnnnn >30-40%, nnnnnnn >40-50% (of visible area)

9719

9718

9717

9715

9714

9713

Plant tissue

Organic and anthropogenic components Amorphous organic matter

Mineral components

Fe nodules

Groundmass

Fe replaced organic matter

Microstructure and porosity

Excremental pedofeatures

Table 188. The soil micromorphology descriptions of the samples from the floors of the ancillary structure

The final occupation of the settlement 507

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

508 A

B

50 µm

500 µm

Figure 379. Details of the soil micromorphology sections from the floors of the ancillary structure in House 3. A Context 928, concentration of faecal spherulites located below occupation deposit (context 925) (XPL). B Context 925, thin peat ash occupation deposit (PPL)

secondary occupation layer (941.2, an in situ hearth deposit; see below). This context was primarily comprised of calcareous sand, with little fine material (coarse–fine ratio of 95:5). It contained charred amorphous organic matter (0.5%), and some charred material identified as charred plant (0.7%). The majority of the charred remains were concentrated at the top of the layer, and some appeared to have migrated downwards from the layer above (941.2), via trampling or bioturbation. However, some of the charred material had a horizontal orientation, indicating they were trampled in situ (as was seen in 1015.1). Therefore the upper portion of this context appears to have been an occupation deposit, formed before the structure was used intensively. The lower portion of this layer was relatively sterile in nature and had a high level of sorting (98%). This part of the layer appears to have been either an aeolian deposit, or a layer of dumped sand, deposited prior to the occupation of the structure. This layer was also found to contain high quantities of faecal spherulites, probably washed down the soil profile with fine material from layers above (this process is described in detail below).

Occupation deposits The principal occupation deposit in the ancillary structure was a red sand layer (941, BFB), which was present in four samples (9713, 9714, 9715, and 9719). The context varies significantly, and was divided into sub-contexts numbered 941.1 to 941.4. Sample 9713 was from the southeast corner of the structure. The occupation deposit, 941.1, was located above context 1015 (see above) and below wind-blown sand 932 (not reported for this sample), and had a maximum thickness of 45 mm. This context was a layer of calcareous sand with a relatively small quantity of fine material (coarse–fine ratio of 90:10), most of which was peat ash. The layer contained a small number of inclusions,

most notably charred amorphous organic matter (2%), shell fragments (1%) and unburnt bone (0.5%). This layer had no evidence of vertical compression, nor did it contain any material possessing a horizontal orientation, and so it does not appear to have experienced any trampling. It appears this was an area of the structure where small amounts of ash or anthropogenic materials accumulated, but which was not often walked on. Sample 9714 containing layer 941.2 was taken from the centre of the structure. This layer was a dense matrix of peat ash in the form of various horizontal lenses, slightly varying in colour and composition. A large number of charred remains were present, many of which were unidentifiable charred amorphous organic matter (5.9%), while a large amount were charred plant (6.4%). Most of these charred remains lacked any form of cell structure, indicating that they decomposed prior to being burned. The only other inclusion was shell (1.6%). Although all the peat ash lenses contained calcareous sand, lenses located in the mid to lower part of the context contained significantly less calcareous sand than those near the top of the sample. These lower layers were dominated by quartzite, which suggests that the peat burnt in the lower layers came from locations further away from the machair, from areas of peat not containing machair sand. The high levels of calcareous sand in the peat ash from the upper part of this context suggest the burning of peat cut from areas nearer the machair. Layer 941.3 came from the bottom of sample 9715. This was a layer of calcareous sand with a considerable quantity of charred plant material (20%), most of which was located in a large peat lens. Also noted were a small amount of unidentifiable charred amorphous organic matter (1%) and amorphous organic material (2.6%), some of the latter being located in a small horizontal lens. The horizontal orientation suggests a flat surface and some degree of vertical compression characteristic of a floor. The presence of a lens of charred plant and other charred

The final occupation of the settlement remains is unsurprising, given the close proximity to the hearth. Layer 941.4 was from sample 9719 in the southwest corner of the structure. It was a calcareous sand with a small presence of fine material (coarse–fine ratio of 98:2) and a high degree of sorting (95%). There were a small number of inclusions, most notably large fragments of shell (2.9%) and unburnt bone (2.5%). These were located in close proximity to one another, and had a relatively horizontal orientation indicative of a floor layer.

Later occupation deposits Samples 9715 and 9717 contain sediment from the reuse of the ancillary structure (BFC) overlying the earlier occupation deposit (941). Context 932.1 in sample 9715 was a relatively sterile layer of calcareous sand, and was almost perfectly sorted (98% sorting). The sterility suggests this was an aeolian deposit and it contained only a small amount of light brown fine material (2%), much of which was intergrain microaggregates deposited by earthworm bioturbation. Some fine material was located on sand grains as small ‘coatings’, or even bridges, between grains. This indicates the fine material arrived via illuvial processes, probably rainwater percolation.

509

This fine material was closely associated with high quantities of faecal spherulites. These are minute crystal aggregates of calcium carbonate surrounded by organic coatings, which have a spherical appearance with a permanent extinction cross when viewed under XPL (Canti 1998). These form in the stomach of herbivores, most notably sheep, although they are also produced by goats and cattle (Canti 1999). Their close association with the illuvially deposited material suggests they were washed down the soil profile from layers above. This sample was extracted from below a secondary occupation layer, and the abundance of faecal spherulites may indicate stabling was a feature of the later occupation of this structure. Context 932 was also present in sample 9717 (932.2) and displayed very similar traits to those described in context 932.1. Context 932.2 was a layer of calcareous sand with little fine material or anthropogenic inclusions, and was almost perfectly sorted (99%). The high level of sorting and the sterile nature of context 932 indicate an aeolian deposit that accumulated directly on top of the floor (941) once the structure was abandoned. This layer also contained high quantities of faecal spherulites. One sample (9718) targeted a later occupation layer (925, BFC) in the ancillary structure. It contained three

927

1

BFC

928

BFC

932

BFC

1343

BFD

568

BFD

908

2

BFD

911

1

BFD

913

BFD

1073

1

Hare/fox sized mammal

BFC

Sheep-sized mammal

7

2

1

1

5

1 2

4

1

3

24

1

16

4

11 1

2

3

5

1

2

1

9

5

66

2

19

2 2

1

19

3

25

2

9

2

1

2

1

2

2

2 1

3

1

1

2 1

3

1

7

4

28

7

26

4

1

1

1 1

1

5

5

1

22

577 1317

1

BFE

1324

5

BFE

1327

BFE

1347

BFE

1353

BFE

1365

1

1

BFE

1368

2

2

22

1

2

BFE

1

3

2

BFE

Total

4

Total

3

11 1

8

Cattle-sized mammal

1354

Common seal

1015

BFB

Seal

BFB

Grey seal

941

Rodent

1359

BFB

Red deer

BFA

Cat

Context

Dog

1

Block

Pig

Sheep

1

Sheep/goat

Cattle

Horse

Equid

Table 189. Animal bones from the final occupation of mound 2 (BF)

85

1

3

3

3

33

3

2 11

3

2

6

73

2 1

7

2

84

2

17

142

2 1

22

4

2

2

12

3

2

24

1

13

25

1

359

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

510

Block

% rodent gnawed

% butchered

Total burnt

% burnt

% calcined

Carbonised plant remains – J Summers and J Bond

% carnivore gnawed

Table 190. Taphonomy of the bones from the final occupation of mound 2 (BF) Total gnawed

some charred amorphous organic matter fragments (2.6%) and a small quantity of burnt bone fragments (1.4%). The final layer (913, BFD) was a calcareous sand with a minute amount of fine material (coarse–fine ratio of 98:2). It was almost perfectly sorted (94%) and nearly sterile, indicating that it was aeolian in nature. To conclude, the samples taken from the layers infilling the ancillary structure indicate that both prior to and after its occupation, layers of wind-blown sand were being deposited with no apparent human influence. It also indicates a very short period of occupation when peat was burned within the structure, most likely as fuel for a fire. The high numbers of faecal spherulites located directly below the final occupation deposit suggest the presence of herbivores that were defecating within the structure.

Total ID

contexts, with sediment from before, during, and after this occupation. At the bottom of the sample was a sterile layer of calcareous sand (928) with an almost perfect level of sorting (98% sorted), which is likely to have been aeolian in nature. Very few anthropogenic inclusions were present, just charred amorphous organic matter (0.3%) and amorphous organic material (0.4%). The upper part of this layer contained a dense concentration of faecal spherulites (Figure 379 A), similar to those described above. Immediately above this wind-blown sand (928) in sample 9718 was a layer of peat ash (925; Figure 379 B) that represents the renewed occupation of the ancillary structure. This occupation layer was extremely thin, only 3 mm at its greatest thickness, which suggests a short-lived period of activity. The layer was dominated by peat ash, and contained

BFA

3

1

33

0

0

0

0

0

BFB

50

16

32

0

10

2

4

0

BFC

15

4

27

0

13

0

0

0

BFD

110

33

30

1

14

1

1

0

BFE

180

46

24

1

16

2

1

0

Total

358

100

28

1

14

5

1

0

The carbonised plant remains recovered from these deposits were minimal and no analysis was undertaken.

Animal bone – A Powell, J Best, J Mulville and N Sharples A total of 359 bones were recovered from the final occupation of mound 2 (Table 189) and 50% of these came from the deposits in the northern half of House 3 (BFE). Very few bones came from the occupation of the

Table 191. The bird bone from the final occupation of mound 2 (BF) Species

BFB 941

BFC

1015

928

BFD 568

908

BFE

1073

1325

Cormorant

577

1327

1

Cormorant / Shag

1

1

Galliform cf Domestic Fowl

1

1

Gannet

1

1

1

Goose sp.

1

Total

1 1

3 1

Great Northern Diver

1

3 1

Guillemot

1

1

Gull, Great Black-Backed

1

1

Gull, Herring / Lesser Black-Backed

1

Gull / Skua

1

Gull sp.

1

Oystercatcher Small Passerine

1

2

1

1 1

1 1

1

1

2

Swan sp. Total

3 2

1

Wader, Large Wader, Small

2 1

1 2

1

2

5

1

2

1 1

5

6

25

The final occupation of the settlement

511

Figure 380. House 15 on mound 2A when it was first exposed, viewed from the northeast. Note the corner structure in the foreground and the whale vertebra (2171) adjacent to it

743

742

450/230

460/230

721

450/225

0

5m

Figure 381. House 15 on mound 2A showing the corner shelter (721) and the late hearth (742)

0.02 1 0 0 1.29 0.50 2 0.02 6 samples

Sub-total

GFB

66.50

10

0.15

0

0.00

1

0.03

9

0.14

33

86

0

1.00

0.00 0

1 0

0 0

0 0

0

1.00

0.50

1

1

2.00

1.00

2

2

0.00

0.00 0

0 1.00

0.00

1

0

0.00

The final occupation of mound 2A was scrappy compared to the occupation of mound 2. There was only a limited amount of wind-blown sand overlying and protecting the underlying archaeology. The surface deposits were being actively ploughed immediately prior to our excavation and rabbit damage was extensive (Figure 380). Consequently it was only possible to isolate a small number of features, a hearth and a small corner enclosure, which clearly post-date the occupation of the final house (GCF).

0.00

0

0 0.00

0.00 0

0 0.50

0.00 0

1 2.00

1.00 GFB 791

882

9199

9209

GFB

0.00

0.00 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0

1.19

0.52 11 5

25 0.67

0.24

14 0.00

0.43 9

0 0.00

0.00

0

0

0.00

0.00

0

0 0.00

0.00 0

0 0.24

0.10 2

5 21.00

21.00 GFB 706

707

GFB

The final occupation of mound 2A (GF)

In front of the entrance to the final house (GCF), in squares 15 and 10, was a well-defined hearth (Figures 381 and 382). It sat on top of midden deposits (GDC) and appeared to be the final activity in this area. The hearth consisted of a U-shaped arc of small upright slabs (778) c. 1.60 m by 1.40 m. It opened to the north, and orange ash from its use spilled out in this direction. The area within this small stone kerb was filled with a main central deposit of red-orange sand (742, 1679), which covered a pale brown sand (1680; see Figure 217 C) with charcoal inclusions. Also identified were slightly different patches of black charcoal-rich sand (1723) that covered the edge of the red ash (1679) and a reddishbrown sand (1724) amongst the hearth stones. The hearth was surrounded by a layer of dark brown charcoal-rich sand (743) which was probably related to its use. The ash layers (1111, 1123) to the north were probably also contemporary. Layer 1111 was an oval deposit, roughly 0.90 m by 0.50 m, and comprised multiple thin lenses of different coloured ash deposits, which suggests an in situ hearth used several times. Another patch of red ash (1660) to the southwest of the hearth may be related to this activity. All of these

8800

2.72 0.24 3 0.00 0 0.08 1 0.08 1 0.00 0 0.08 1 12.50 GFB 701 8804

structure (BFB) but there is a reasonable assemblage from the final infilling (BFD). Sheep/goat dominate the assemblage in all the different blocks and make up 56% of the main species from this phase. Cattle make up roughly 30% of the assemblage, pig 8% and deer 5%. Horse, dog and cat are present in low numbers and there are 27 seal bones. The proportion of bones gnawed or butchered (Table 190) is close to the average for mound 2, but the proportion of burnt bones is the lowest for mound 2. A small assemblage of 25 identifiable bird bones was recovered from the final occupation layers (Table 191). Large gulls are most common, followed by geese and gannet. Great northern diver, guillemot, auks and cormorant maintain a presence within the assemblage. None of the bird bones have been burnt, three display butchery marks and three have been gnawed.

Miscellaneous late features (GFA)

9201

0.00 0 0 0

0.14

34

0

0

14 0

0 0

0 0

0

3.39

1.56 14 7

340 0.48

0.78

48

0.00

0.07 7

0 0

0.13 13 0.67

0 0.00

0.04 4

0 0.11

0.29 29

1 9.00

100.30 GFA

GFB 700

Sub-total 10 samples

8807

67

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0

0.00

0.67

0

1

0.00

0.67

0

1

0.00

0.00 0

0 0.00

0.00

0

0

0.00

0.00

0

0 0.00

0.00 0

0 0.00

0.00 0

0 1.50

0.80 GFA 1723

1724

7852

7862

GFA

0.12

0.00 0

2 0

0 0

0 0

0

2.18

14.64

37

205

0.88

0.86

15

12

0.12

0.14 2

2 0.06

0.14

1

2

0.12

0.00

2

0 0.00

0.12 2

0 0.21

0.12 2

3 14.00

17.00 GFA

GFA

1679

1680

2 samples

7527

0.00

0.00 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0

0.86

4.40

15

44

0.06

1.30

1

13

0.00

0.00 0

0 0.06

0.10

1

1

2.00

0.10

35

1 0.00

0.00 0

0 0.20

0.40 7

2 10.00

17.50 GFA

2 samples

GFA

1123

1660

2 samples

density

0.30 12 0 0 0 0.96 38 0.15 6 0.08 3 0.20 8 0.73 29 0.05 2 0.38 15 39.50 GFA 1111 9264

B.O.M.

no. no.

Coprolite

no.

Charcoal Egg

no. density

Winkle

no. density

Llimpet

no. density

Slag

no. density

Pottery

no. density

Fish

no. density no.

Burnt bone

density no.

Unburnt bone Litres Block Context Sample

Table 192. The material identified in sorting the greater than 10 mm residue from the final occupation of mound 2A (GF)

0.00

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

512

The final occupation of the settlement

513

Table 193. The artefacts from the final occupation of mound 2A (GF) GFA Object type

Working debris

Material

Personal objects

Structural fittings

Miscellaneous

Total

1123

1190

tine/beam/burr

antler

segment

antler

1 2

1660

1

all

Total

5

6

1

2

plate blank

antler

1

3

comb making debris

whale bone

3

3

nodule

lead

1

1

point

bone

flint Tools

1111

GFB

1

3

4

3

3

chopping block

whale bone

1

1

whetstone

stone

1

1

pin

bone

2

2

bead

glass/stone/bone

nail

iron

rove

iron

holdfast

iron

fitting

iron

bar/rod/strip/fragments

iron

miscellaneous

iron

sheet/strip/fragment

Cu alloy

1 2 1 1 1

1

1

5

6

1

3

2

3

1

1

7

8

1

2

2

2

object

bone/antler

1

1

worked

bone/antler

1

1

unworked

whale bone 1

2

7

1

2

2

45

56

Figure 382. A view of the late Norse hearth showing the U-shaped arc of stones (778) and the orange hearth deposits (742)

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

514

Figure 383. A view of the corner structure (721) and the adjacent whale vertebra 2171

GFA

GFB

8704

2790

0

5134

10cm

Figure 384. Ceramics from the final activity on mound 2A

The final occupation of the settlement

515

Figure 385. A view of the south-facing section of the western extension (trench 11) showing the modern plough damage to the top of the midden

contexts were visible immediately after the removal of the topsoil and wind-blown sand, and were clearly the final deposits in this area. An arc of stones (721; Figures 381 and 383) built in the northeast corner of House 15 (GCF) was another indication of late activity on mound 2A. Three mediumsized flat slabs were used for this construction and there were several more irregularly-laid blocks placed outside the arc. The internal dimensions of this structure are 0.60 m by 1.00 m and the slabs enclosed a brown sand that was indistinguishable from the sand surrounding the structure and gave no clues as to its function. It seems unlikely that this small structure1 was ever intended to be a functional space capable of providing shelter for people or animals. Immediately adjacent to this structure was the large whale bone vertebra (2171; Figures 319 and 383). This appears to be positioned in the previous phase, GCF, but it would have been visible when this later structure was constructed.

Sampling data – N Sharples Sixteen samples, 166.8 litres of soil, were taken and processed from the contexts associated with the final activity on mound 2A. The bulk of the samples (10 samples, 100.3 litres of soil) came from the late features (GFA), and six samples, 66.5 litres of soil, came from the post-occupation decay layers (GFB, described below; Table 192). The 2–10 mm residues from these samples were not examined. The most common find in the above 10 mm residues was winkles and the density (3.4 shells/litre) from the features (GFA) was higher than that of many of the other mound 2A blocks. Fish bone was also relatively common (0.7 frag/litre), but limpets were much less frequent discoveries. These patterns are not necessarily a reflection of the late activity as the features overly and were cut into earlier middens (GDC) and it is likely that a lot of residual material is present in the samples.

Artefacts – A Pannett, R Smith and N Sharples Only 11 objects were recovered from the final occupation of mound 2A (GFA) and seven of these came from a general clean of this area (1190). The material present is restricted to bone comb-making debris, probably residual, and the usual fragments of iron (Table 193). The one piece of flint is an indeterminate chunk. A fairly wide range of artefacts was recovered in small numbers from post-occupation deposits (GFB, described below), the majority of the objects probably being residual (Table 193) A total of 54 potsherds, weighing 302 g, was recovered from GFA contexts. A thickened rim from a general surface layer (1190) has distinctive stab impressed decoration (Figure 384). The average sherd weight indicates a poorly preserved assemblage and the presence of a reasonably large assemblage of platter (18 sherds in GFA and a further 42 in GFB) confirms that these deposits include a lot of residual material.

Animal bone – A Powell, J Best, C Ingrem, J Mulville and N Sharples A total of 68 bones were recovered from the final occupation (GFA) of mound 2A. Sheep/goat dominate the assemblage and pig is completely absent. As the assemblage is small and the likelihood of residual contamination is high, there is little point in discussing it in any detail. Two bird bones – a large grey goose and a carrion crow or rook – were recovered from ash layer 1123. The crow bone has been knife-cut and the goose bone has been gnawed.

The recent activity on mound 2 and mound 2A (BG, BH, GFB) Mounds 2 and 2A were both covered by a thick layer of

516

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Figure 386. The nineteenth century enclosure wall at the western edge of mound 2, viewed from the north

white sand that represented a substantial accumulation of wind-blown sand. This was sealed by turf and disturbed by rabbits. The depth of the deposit varied considerably depending on whether it was trapped in structures, or subject to recent ploughing. On mound 2 there was very little at the northern edge of the trench (183, 155 in Figure 39), but the deposits over House 3 were more substantial (Figure 369). On mound 2A the depth of sterile wind-blown sand was generally thinner in the centre of the excavated area than on mound 2. However, sand accumulated around the periphery of the mound (Figure 385), and a significant

quantity accumulated over the southern house (GE; Figure 298). In both areas the sand accumulated not as a single layer but built up gradually, with sterile sand layers separated by intervening soil horizons. Beneath the wind-blown sand on mound 2A was a relatively homogeneous brown sand that covered the site. It appeared to represent the gradual weathering of the turf-built structures and midden deposits. There is evidence for the ploughing of this abandonment deposit and plough-marks infilled with sterile wind-blown sand were observed in the west and east trenches (Figure 325). The north section of the western extension also showed

The final occupation of the settlement

1531

517

1506

400/220

410/220 1501

1500

400/215

1503

0

3m

Figure 387. A plan of the nineteenth century enclosure wall on the west side of mound 2

the damage done by modern ploughing, which is turning the upper layers of the midden into the current topsoil (Figure 385). On the north side of the excavated area in mound 2A (squares 5 and 6) a hollow was identified, immediately behind the wall of the House 15. This was filled with a pale yellow/white sand (793/882) that surrounded a collection of large flat slabs (795). It was covered by a layer of light brown sand (970), and discrete patches of charcoal-rich sand (791) and brown sand (792). The stones were clearly deliberately placed in this feature and represent activity of a relatively late date, perhaps connected with the construction of the nineteenth-century enclosure wall (see below). A large quantity of context numbers were allocated to the final wind-blown sand layers and these are described in the archive reports and listed in Appendix 1 and 2.

Artefacts and material from the sorted residues from these layers are described above.

The enclosure wall (BH) Contained within the wind-blown sand deposits discussed above was a stone-walled enclosure built as part of a sheep farm in the late nineteenth century. Geophysical survey demonstrated that this was a roughly square structure that enclosed an area 72 m by 70 m (Sharples 2005b, 17). It was built over mound 2, mound 2A and mound 3, and the east and west walls were apparently deliberately laid out to cut across the highest points of mounds 2 and 3. Two stretches of the enclosure wall lay inside the area excavated on mound 2 (Figures 386 and 387), a 9.30 m length of its west wall (1501) and a shorter 5.20 m length

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

518

Table 194. The unstratified artefacts from all the mounds 2 Object

No mound BG

tine/beam/burr

2A

Material BH

antler

u/s

GFB

u/s

4

5

5

Total 14

segment

antler

1

3

4

plate blank

antler

1

1

2

3

offcut

antler/whale bone

offcut

ivory

pin manufacturing

bone

4

7

1

1

Working debris

ingot/nodule

1

1

Cu alloy/lead

1

flint

3

needle

Cu alloy/iron

spindle whorl

stone

spindle whorl

lead

spindle whorl

bone

1

2 3

2

2

2

2

2

4

4

2

4

needle case

bone

1

1

perforated disc

whale bone

1

1

point

bone

1

3

1

5

Tools

Currency

Personal objects

Structural fittings

Miscellaneous

knife

iron

axe head

iron

strike a light

iron

chopping block

whale bone

weight

Cu alloy

cobble tool

stone

whetstone

stone

1

1

1

1

4 1

silver

1 3

Cu alloy/iron

1

1

antler

bone

1 1

coin

pin

4 1

1

comb

pin

2 1

5 1

3

2

5

1

2 8

1

2

1

3

1

11

ring

Cu alloy

1

1

toggle/buzz bone

bone

1

1

gaming piece

antler

bead

glass/stone/bone

nail

iron

2

2

9

37

1 3

1

19

5

1

rove

iron

3

1

2

holdfast

iron

1

6

2

4

fitting

iron

1

6

1

2

10

1

1

ring

iron

plaque

bone

fitting

Cu alloy

bar/rod/strip/fragments

iron

2

1 3

17

1 7

sheet

iron

1

9

iron

2

2

1

sheet/strip/fragment

Cu alloy

4

2

1

sheet/offcut

lead

3

object

bone/antler

2

worked

bone/antler whale bone

worked

whale bone

pot lid?

whale bone

vessel

steatite

2

14

2

miscellaneous

unworked

6 1

1

10

2

39

1

11 5

3

10

2

5

1

4

5

1

6

4

2

8

1

1

1

1

Vessels Total

4 18

4

126

45

62

1

5

5

260

The final occupation of the settlement

6515 5853

1445

5852

1145

2702

519

4218

6541 1598

1838

1074

2703

6602

1142

5980

5856

1706

3591

1237

3592 3539

1785

3588

5512

0

1126

2705

6125

10cm

Figure 388. A selection of unstratified finds. 1445 and 1838 are copper alloy, 1126, 2705, 3593 and 6125 are iron; 1074 and 5512 are stone; 1706, 1785, 3588, 3591, 3592 and 5980 are lead; all the rest are bone or antler

of its south wall (1503). The wall was 0.64 m wide and made from rounded cobbles of the local metamorphic gneiss. The size of stone varied considerably, from stones 0.20 m by 0.14 m by 0.05 m to larger stones 0.44 m by 0.40 m by 0.15 m. The wall was placed in a trench (1502) cut into sterile sand (1506). Close to this wall, in the northwest corner of mound 2, a pit (1530), 0.24 m deep, was identified that extended west and north beyond the section line. It was filled with a dark grey sand (1529) that contained modern material.

Unstratified objects – A Pannett, R Smith and N Sharples A total of 260 objects were recovered during the excav­ ations that either had no contextual data or were associated with the superficial or modern deposits discussed above (Table 194). Most of these were recovered from scrutiny of the spoilheaps and the large quantity of iron recovered reflects not only the importance of this material in the Norse settlement, but the regular use of a metal detector to scan the spoilheaps.

520

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

One hundred and forty-eight objects were recovered from mound 2 and 107 from mound 2A; there are five objects that cannot be closely associated with either mound. Important individual artefacts are illustrated in Figure 388 and include; a silver penny (4801) of Eadgar (AD 957–975)(not illustrated); a copper-alloy weight (1445); a copper-alloy dress pin (1838), the longest from the site; several distinctive cone-shaped lead spindle whorls (1706, 3591, 3592, 5980); several complete bone pins (5852, 6541, 5853), one of which (5853) is a small pin with a cylindrical head that resembles the hipped pins of the Late Iron Age; two fine needles, one copper-alloy (6515), the other bone (1145/60); a complete conical antler gaming piece (2703) and a fragment of a substantial comb side-plate with ring-and-dot decoration (1598). The bulk of the finds are classed as miscellaneous material and fittings and this reflects the presence of large quantities of iron nails and iron fragments that were recovered as a result of metal detecting the spoilheaps. Manufacturing waste was concentrated on mound 2A, whereas tools and personal items were concentrated on mound 2 and this conforms to the general pattern of the site.

Conclusion – N Sharples The final phase of activity on both mounds suggests intermittent activity on the site and seasonal visits by farmers, either cultivating crops on the occupation-rich soils of the settlement mounds, or grazing animals on the machair plain. The structural evidence from the mounds comprises three small structures that were inserted into existing houses. The largest structure was in the south end of House 3 and involved the construction of an L-shaped wall with a north-facing entrance that enclosed an area roughly 12.40 sq m. This was a reasonably substantial structure that was the focus for repeated occupation. There was evidence of a hearth and a possible bed alcove in the early occupation, but the soil micromorphology indicates that the later occupation included the stabling of animals within the structure. A smaller structure in House 3 was a horseshoe-shaped setting of stones that surrounded a large slab pulled, or collapsed, from the west wall of the house. This structure enclosed an area of just 0.5 m, which seems too small to be a comfortable living space but could have provided emergency shelter if the weather turned bad.

The final construction on mound 2A was an unusually small corner structure found in the northeast corner of the final house (House 15, GCE). An arrangement of three stones enclosed an area of approximately 0.30 sq m. This clearly could not have been used as a shelter for people, or any other large mammal, though it could possibly have been used to keep a hen. Close to this structure was a substantial hearth that did not appear to be associated with any building. It was located directly in front of the entrance to the last house (GCE), which may be a significant location. All these structures are assumed to have had a turf superstructure as there were no collapsed slabs to indicate a significant stone superstructure. Structures similar to this were found in the final phases of several houses elsewhere at Bornais and at Cille Pheadair. On mound 3, a well-built rectangular structure was constructed in the northwest corner of a corn-drying kiln (Sharples 2005b, 77) and enclosed an area of roughly 8.40 sq m. In the final small rectangular house at Cille Pheadair (Parker Pearson et al. 2018, 233– 9), two structures were built into the north and south ends of the abandoned house (Figure 19 G). In each case, these corner structures seem to have been largely restricted to the final phases of the settlement and can be differentiated from the ancillary buildings at both Bornais and Cille Pheadair, which occurred throughout the sequence. Such ancillary buildings were free-standing structures and tend to have floor layers, which are often conspicuously missing in many of the corner structures. A simple explanation for these structures is that they indicate transient occupation of the settlement after it had been largely abandoned by the occupants in favour of the blacklands to the east. Some of these structures were built on significant deposits of wind-blown sand, which indicates the machair was undergoing a period of instability. This instability may be the reason people moved away from the settlement. Nevertheless, it seems likely that there was still agricultural activity being undertaken on the machair and people would have returned to the immediate environs of the settlement to cultivate land and to graze animals, both cattle and sheep. The significance of these structures will be considered in more detail in the final discussion chapter.

Note 1 Labelled Shelter 8 in Chapter 13.

11  The chronology

Radiocarbon dates – P Marshall, C Bronk Ramsey and G Cook Methods A total of 65 samples were submitted for radiocarbon analysis from mounds 2 and 2A; 61 radiocarbon determinations were obtained and four samples failed (Tables 195, 196). The 36 results from mound 2 have been obtained from 23 animal bones and 13 carbonised seeds and the 25 results for mound 2A come from 19 carbonised seeds and six animal bones. Three animal bone samples were submitted to the Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit in 1999–2000. These samples were subject to collagen extraction (Law and Hedges 1989; Hedges et al. 1989) followed by gelatinisation and separation by filtration (Bronk Ramsey et al. 2000). They were measured by accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) according to the methods outlined in Hedges et al. (1989) and Bronk Ramsey and Hedges (1997). However, following the identification of a problem with the ultrafiltration procedures undertaken as part of bone pre-treatment at Oxford in October 2002 (see Bronk Ramsey, Higham, Bowles and Hedges 2004), these results were subsequently withdrawn (OxA-9638–9639 and OxA-9642). These samples were subsequently reprocessed in 2006 according to the new pre-treatment ultrafiltration stage outlined in Bronk Ramsey, Higham, Bowles and Hedges (2004) and measured by accelerator mass spectrometry as described by Bronk Ramsey, Ditchfield and Humm (2004). Sixty-two samples (26 animal bone and 36 carbonised seeds) were processed at the Scottish Universities Research and Reactor Centre in East Kilbride. Four of the carbonised seeds failed to provide a radiocarbon determination and are identified by the laboratory code GU- in Tables 195 and 196. The animal bone samples were pre-treated using a modified Longin method (Longin 1971), and the carbonised seeds using the acid-base-acid protocol (Stenhouse and Baxter 1983). The samples were all converted to carbon dioxide in pre-cleaned sealed quartz tubes (Vandeputte et al. 1996), and graphitised as described by Slota et al. (1997). They were measured by accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) as described by Xu et al. (2004).

Both these laboratories maintain continual programmes of quality assurance procedures, in addition to participation in international inter-comparisons (Scott 2003). These tests indicate no laboratory offsets and demonstrate the validity of the precision quoted.

Sampling strategy The first stage in sample selection was to identify shortlived material that was demonstrably not residual in the context from which it was recovered. The taphonomic relationship between a sample and its context is the most hazardous link in this process, since the mechanisms by which a sample came to be in its context are a matter of interpretative decision rather than certain knowledge. All samples consisted of single entities (Ashmore 1999). Material was selected only where there was evidence that a sample had been put fresh into its context. The main categories of material that met these taphonomic criteria were: • Articulated animal bones. Articulated animal bone deposits must have been buried with tendons attached or they would not have remained in articulation, and so were almost certainly less than six months old when buried (Mant 1987, 71). A number of these were observed during the excavations and consequently these samples were demonstrably in situ on discovery • Articulating bone. Groups of animal bone from the same context which were found to articulate during analysis, but which were not recorded as articulated at the point of excavation. These samples were probably articulated in the ground, or only slightly disturbed, and hence are likely to be as close in age to their contexts as articulated bone. • Bone with articulating epiphyseal plates. • Concentrations of seeds/cereals, where they formed substantial and discrete deposits likely to represent a ‘single event’”. • Single bones thought to be deliberately placed.

Results The radiocarbon results in Tables 195 and 196 are quoted in accordance with the international standard known as the

OxA-15522

OxA-15415

BCC

BCB/BCC

SUERC-22884

BFB

(1336)

SUERC-2683

SUERC-2682

BEF

SUERC-22874

SUERC-22875

BEE

BEE

BEG

(1418)

SUERC-22889

BEE

(1076)

(1354)

(1373)

(948)

(1455)

(1467)

GU-18292

SUERC-22878

(2116)

BEC

SUERC-22898

BEC

(1203)

(1094)

(518)

(593)

(576)

(558)

(557)

(182)

(2297)

(1057)

(1231)

(1267)

(1049)

(1010)

(1252)

(1252)

(1525)

(1525)

(1525)

(1514)

(1514)

(1859)

(1592)

(1592)

(1927)

(1927)

(1927)

(1929)

(1532)

Context and sample reference

BEC

SUERC-22870

SUERC-22869

BEB

BEB

SUERC-22895

SUERC-22888

BDE

BDF

SUERC-22886

OxA-15420

BCC

BDD

SUERC-22897

SUERC-22890

BCC

BCC

SUERC-22894

BCC

GU-18290

SUERC-2684

SUERC-22896

SUERC-22868

BCB

BCC

BCC

SUERC-23145

BCB

BCC

SUERC-22866

SUERC-22867

BBC

BBC

SUERC-22885

SUERC-22865

BBC

SUERC-2685

BBC

BBC

SUERC-22876

SUERC-22877

SUERC-2686

BBA

SUERC-22880

BAB

BBA

BBA

SUERC-22887

SUERC-22879

BAB

BAB

SUERC-2691

SUERC-2690

BAA

BAB

Laboratory no.

Block

Ovis; navicular cuboid, cuneiform

Bos; rib

Bos; lumbar vertebra

Avena sp.

Linum sp. seed

Ovis; tibia, malleous

Hordeum sp.

Linum sp.

Ovis; magnum, unciform

Hordeum sp. grain

Carex sp.

Ovis; metatarsal, navicular cuboid

Sus; ulna

Bos; carpals

Bos; rib

Bos; rib

670±30

655±35

650±35

1110±30

695±30

735±30

760±35

680±30

770±30

855±30

935±30

955±30

965±30

924±26

985±26

903±27

975±25

Bos; radial, ulnar, intermediate, pisiform carpals Ovis; vertebra

970±30

Cerastium sp. Bos; radial, intermediate, unciform carpals

1035±30

875±30

Cervus; radial, intermediate & magnum carpals Sus; lateral metapodial, 2× phalanges

925±35

Bos; thoracic vertebra

920±25

1050±30

Sus; metatarsal, navicular cuboid, lat cuneiform Secale sp.

950±30

1000±30

1105±30

995±30

1115±35

675±30

1175±30

1125±45

1270±30

1245±30

1245±30

1270±35

1275±35

Radiocarbon age (BP)

Hordeum sp.

Hordeum sp.

Avena sp.

Ovis; astragalus, calcaneum

Sus metatarsal

Avena sp.

Secale sp.

Bos; metacarpal

Hordeum sp.

Hordeum sp.

Cervus; tibia, malleolus

Cervus; distal femur

Bos; 2nd phalanx

Material

₋21.1

₋21.6

₋22.1

₋22.5

₋27.6

₋20.9

₋23.9

₋21.4

₋24.5

₋25.4

₋20.6

₋20.7

₋20.8

₋20.8

₋21

₋20.5

₋21

₋21.3

₋18.3

₋21.9

₋21.7

₋25

₋19.3

₋24.7

₋22.9

₋26.5

₋20.6

₋19.3

₋25.5

₋21.3

₋21

₋23.7

₋27.9

₋22

₋19

₋21.3

δ13C (‰)

4.9

4.6

3.7

5

4.6

4.4

5.7

6

6.2

9.6

3.4

5.5

7.3

10.6

9.6

4.2

9.6

6.3

8.7

5.3

4.9

4.1

4.5

δ15N (‰)

Table 195. Mound 2 radiocarbon results

3.2

3.5

3.6

3.3

3.2

3.1

3.8

3.2

3.3

3.3

3.3

3.4

3.2

3.3

3.2

3.3

3.2

3.3

3.1

3.1

3.7

3.7

3.5

cal AD 970–1040

cal AD 1040–1230

cal AD 1020–1220

cal AD 1020–1190

cal AD 980–1170

cal AD 1020–1170

cal AD 980–1150

cal AD 880–1020

cal AD 990–1160

cal AD 890–1040

cal AD 1270–1390

cal AD 770–970

cal AD 770–1020

cal AD 660–810

cal AD 670–890

cal AD 670–890

cal AD 660–870

cal AD 660–860

Calibrated date range (95% confidence)

cal AD 1270–1400

cal AD 1270–1400

cal AD 1270–1400

cal AD 880–1020

cal AD 1260–1390

cal AD 1250–1300

cal AD 1210–1290

sample failed

cal AD 1270–1390

cal AD 1210–1290

cal AD 1050–1260

cal AD 1020–1170

cal AD 1010–1170

cal AD 1010–1160

cal AD 1020–1180

cal AD 990–1160

cal AD 1030–1220

cal AD 1010–1160

cal AD 1010–1160

sample failed

C:N ratio

cal AD 1280–1325 (74%) or 1350–1390 (21%)

cal AD 1270–1310

cal AD 1275–1310

cal AD 1275–1300

cal AD 1275–1300

cal AD 1250–1285

cal AD 1260–1290

cal AD 1220–1295

cal AD 1205–1270

cal AD 1090–1160

cal AD 1095–1160

cal AD 1090–1155

cal AD 1055–1145

cal AD 1070–1150

cal AD 1060–1145

cal AD 1070–1150

cal AD 1090–1160

cal AD 900–920 (3%) or 960–1040 (92%)

cal AD 1060–1145

cal AD 1065–1145

cal AD 1040–1130

cal AD 900–925 (8%) or 945–1030 (87%)

cal AD 995–1070

cal AD 985–1045

cal AD 920–1020

cal AD 935–1020

cal AD 775–795 (2%) or 810–815 (1%) or 825–845 (1%) or 860–1015 (91%)

cal AD 850–980

cal AD 865–990

cal AD 685–775

cal AD 685–805

cal AD 685–805

cal AD 670–770

cal AD 665–770

Posterior density estimate (95% probability)

522

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

The final occupation of the settlement

523

Table 196. Mound 2A radiocarbon results Block

Laboratory number

Context and sample reference

Material

Radiocarbon Age (BP)

δ13C (‰)

δ15N (‰)

C:N ratio

Calibrated date range (95% confidence)

Posterior density estimate (95% probability)

GAA

SUERC-2681

(1125)

Bos; metatarsal & distal epiphysis, RHS

1150±35

-21.1

4.8

3.4

cal AD 770-990

cal AD 885-990

GAA

SUERC-18245

(1199)

Hordeum vulgare

1150±30

-24.6

cal AD 770-980

cal AD 885-990

GAA

SUERC-18249

(1605)

Hordeum vulgare

1145±35

-23.3

cal AD 770-990

cal AD 885-990

GAA

SUERC-18250

(1626)

Secale sp.

1065±35

-23

cal AD 890-1030

cal AD 900-1005

GAB

SUERC-18251

(2445)

Secale sp.

1060±35

-25.7

cal AD 890-1030

cal AD 900-1005

GAC

GU-16588

(1794)

Avena sp.

GAC

SUERC-18824

(1794)

Avena sp.

1030±30

-24.8

Bos; radius & ulna, RHS adult

1045±40

-21.4

Sample failed

GAD

SUERC-2680

(1714)

GAD

SUERC-18253

(1625)

Secale sp.

970±35

-20.8

GAD

SUERC-2676

(1106)

Bos, metatarsal

1040±35

-21.2

cal AD 900-1040

cal AD 970-1015 cal AD 900-1040

4.3

3.6

cal AD 890-1040 cal AD 990-1160

cal AD 995-1070

5.1

3.2

cal AD 890-1040

cal AD 990-1040 cal AD 1020-1080

GAD

SUERC-18252

(1707)

Secale sp.

900±35

-23.2

cal AD 1020-1220

GBE

SUERC-18254

(988)

Hordeum vulgare

1010±35

-22.5

cal AD 970-1150

cal AD 1060-1160

GBG

SUERC-18255

(1760)

Avena sp.

900±35

-25.3

cal AD 1020-1220

cal AD 1055-1175

GBG

SUERC-18259

(1760)

Avena sp.

865±35

-25.4

cal AD 1040-1260

cal AD 1055-1185

GCB

SUERC-18260

(1618)

Hordeum vulgare

800±35

-23.6

cal AD 1160-1280

cal AD 1180-1265

GCB

SUERC-18261

(1618)

Hordeum vulgare

875±35

-23.8

cal AD 1040-1250

cal AD 1170-1260

GCD

SUERC-18262

(1616)

Secale sp.

750±35

-24.6

cal AD 1210-1290

cal AD 1230-1290

GCD

SUERC-18263

(1616)

Secale sp.

770±35

-23.4

GCF

SUERC-2693

(722)

Bos, metacarpal

620±35

-21.7

GCF

SUERC-18264

(722)

Secale sp.

610±35

-21.9

(1691)

Bos, Navicular cuboid & tarsal

825±35

-21.3

4.4

815±40

-21.6

4.8

GDC

SUERC-2674

GDC

SUERC-2675

(1153)

Ovis, Lumbar vert

GDC

GU-16599

(1624)

Hordeum vulgare

5.3

cal AD 1210-1290

cal AD 1230-1285

cal AD 1280-1410

cal AD 1285-1395

cal AD 1280-1420

cal AD 1285-1390

3.3

cal AD 1150-1280

cal AD 1180-1250

3.6

cal AD 1150-1280

cal AD 1185-1260

3.8

Sample failed

GDC

SUERC-18269

(1688)

Avena sp.

820±35

-25.9

cal AD 1150-1280

cal AD 1185-1255

GDC

SUERC-18270

(1692)

Avena sp.

825±35

-25.7

cal AD 1150-1280

cal AD 1185-1260

GDC

SUERC-18825

(1624)

Hordeum vulgare

840±30

-23.4

cal AD 1150-1270

cal AD 1190-1265

GGB

SUERC-18271

(1613)

Hordeum vulgare

850±35

-25.5

cal AD 1050-1270

cal AD 1160-1245

Trondheim convention (Stuiver and Kra 1986). They are conventional radiocarbon ages (Stuiver and Polach 1977). The calibration of the results, relating the radiocarbon measurements directly to calendar dates, is given in Tables 195 and 196. The radiocarbon determinations have been calibrated with data from Reimer et al. (2013) using OxCal (v4.2) (Bronk Ramsey 1995; 1998; 2001; 2009). The date ranges have been calculated according to the maximum intercept method (Stuiver and Reimer 1986), and are cited at two sigma confidence. They are quoted in the form recommended by Mook (1986), with the end points rounded outwards to 10 years. The ranges quoted in italics are posterior density estimates derived from mathematical modelling of archaeological problems (see below). The probability distributions (Figures 389–391, 395, 397) are derived from the usual probability method (Stuiver and Reimer 1993).

Stable isotopes Carbon and nitrogen stable isotope analysis was applied to animal bone samples as there is the potential for dietinduced radiocarbon offsets if an animal has taken up

carbon from a reservoir (marine) not in equilibrium with the terrestrial biosphere (Lanting and van der Plicht 1998) and this might have implications for the chronology of the two mounds. The stable isotope results (Tables 195–196) indicate that the animals consumed a diet predominantly based upon temperate terrestrial C3 foods (Schoeninger and DeNiro 1984; Katzenberg and Krouse 1989), but three pigs from mound 2 (SUERC-2685, SUERC-22890 and SUERC-23145) clearly consumed a considerable amount of marine protein in their diet. These three radiocarbon results are therefore likely to be affected by a significant reservoir effect (Bayliss et al. 2004) and have therefore been incorporated as termini post quos in the model for mound 2 (Figure 391). The C:N ratios (Tables 195–196) suggest that bone preservation was sufficiently good for us to have confidence in the accuracy of the radiocarbon determinations (Tuross et al. 1988). The C:N ratio of four samples (SUERC-2690, SUERC-22887 and SUERC-22895 [mound 2]; SUERC-2693 [mound 2A]) is outside the range usually quoted as being indicative of good quality collagen preservation (2.9–3.6; DeNiro

524

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Boundary end_Norse Figure 10.3 Boundary start_Norse Sequence Norse Boundary end_Pictish Figure 10.2 Boundary start_Pictish Sequence Pictish Sequence Bornais Mound 2 [Amodel:63] 400

600 800 1000 1200 Posterior Density Estimate (cal AD)

1400

1600

Figure 389. Overall structure of the chronological model for Mound 2. The component sections of this model are shown in detail in Figures 390 and 391

R_Date SUERC-22879 [A:124] R_Date SUERC-22880 [A:108] R_Date SUERC-22887 [A:124] Phase (1927) R_Date SUERC-2690 [A:114] Sequence [BAB] R_Date SUERC-2691 [A:107] After BAA Phase [BAA] & [BAB] 600

650 700 750 800 850 Posterior Density Estimate (cal AD)

900

950

Figure 390. Probability distributions of radiocarbon dates from Late Iron Age activity on Bornais Mound 2: each distribution represents the relative probability that an event occurs at a particular time. For each of the radiocarbon dates two distributions have been plotted, one in outline, which is the result of simple calibration, and a solid one, which is based on the chronological model used. Distributions other than those relating to particular samples correspond to aspects of the model. For example, the distribution start_Pictish is the estimated date when Late Iron Age activity began. Figures in brackets after the laboratory numbers are the individual indices of agreement which provide an indication of the consistency of the radiocarbon dates with the prior information included in the model (Bronk Ramsey 1995). The large square brackets down the left hand side along with the OxCal keywords define the model exactly

1985). Those ratios should only be used as a guide, however, because variability does exist (G. Cook pers. comm.).

Methodological approach A Bayesian approach has been adopted for the inter­ pretation of the chronology from the two mounds (Buck et al. 1996). Although the simple calibrated dates are accurate estimates of the dates of the samples, this is usually not what archaeologists really wish to know. It is the dates of the archaeological events, which are represented by those samples that are of interest. In the case of mounds 2 and 2A, it is the chronology of the activity that is under consideration, not the dates of the individual samples. The dates of this activity can be estimated not only using the absolute dating information from the radiocarbon measurements on the samples, but

also by using the stratigraphic relationships between samples. Fortunately, methodology is now available which allows the combination of these different types of inform­ ation explicitly, to produce realistic estimates of the dates of archaeological interest. It should be emphasised that the posterior density estimates produced by this modelling are not absolute. They are interpretative estimates, which can and will change as further data become available and as other researchers choose to model the existing data from different perspectives. The technique used is a form of Markov Chain Monte Carlo sampling, and has been applied using the program OxCal v4.2 (https://c14.arch.ox.ac.uk/oxcal.html). Details of the algorithms employed by this program are available from the on-line manual or in Bronk Ramsey (1995; 1998; 2001; 2009). The algorithm used in the models described below can be derived from the structures shown in Figures 389–391 and 395.

The final occupation of the settlement

525

R_Date SUERC-22884 [A:92] Phase post_House 3 [BFB] Boundary end_house_3 R_Date SUERC-2682 [A:96] Phase [BEG] R_Date SUERC-2683 [A:108] R_Date SUERC-22874 [A:142] R_Date SUERC-22875? [P:0] Phase tertiary R_Date SUERC-22889 [A:100] Sequence House 3_later floor [BEE] & [BEF] house 3_secondary_use_ R_Date SUERC-22898 [A:51] R_Date SUERC-22878 [A:130] Phase House 3_early_occupation [BEC] Sequence House 3 Phase House 3 build_house_3 R_Date SUERC-22869 [A:109] R_Date SUERC-22870 [A:37] Phase foundation pits [BEB] Boundary start_house_3 Boundary end_infilling/ancillary R_Date SUERC-22888 [A:108] R_Date SUERC-22895 [A:103] R_Date SUERC-22886 [A:104] Sequence between 2 & 3 Boundary end_house_2/start_infilling/ancillary R_Date SUERC-22890 [A:100] After R_Date SUERC-22894 [A:34] R_Date SUERC-22896 [A:96] R_Date SUERC-22897 [A:77] R_Date SUERC-2684 [A:110] Phase floor samples R_Date OxA-15420 [A:86] R_Date OxA-15522 [A:57] Phase house 2 [BCC] build_house_2 R_Date SUERC-23145 [A:100] After R_Date SUERC-22868 [A:108] Phase construction layer [BCB] Sequence [BCB & BCC] R_Date OxA-15415 [A:105] Phase [BCB/BCC] Boundary start_house_2 Boundary end_house_1 R_Date SUERC-22867 [A:91] R_Date SUERC-22865 [A:80] R_Date SUERC-22866 [A:126] Phase (1525) R_Date SUERC-22885 [A:128] R_Date SUERC-2685 [A:100] After Phase (1514) Phase house 1 [BBC] build_house_1 R_Date SUERC-22877? [P:0] R_Date SUERC-2686 [A:125] Phase (1859) R_Date SUERC-22876 [A:56] Phase (1592) Phase [BBA] 800

900 1000 1100 1200 Posterior Density Estimate (cal AD)

1300

1400

Figure 391. Probability distributions of radiocarbon dates from Norse activity on Bornais Mound 2: each distribution represents the relative probability that an event occurs at a particular time. The format is identical to Figure 390

526

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Mound 2 – the sequence Block BAA The single Bos phalanx (SUERC-2691) from context 1532 provides a terminus post quem for the infilling of the sub-rectangular feature (1533) beneath the windblown sand (1519).

occupation of House 2 (Table 195). Although these seven measurements are not statistically consistent (T’=20.9; T’ (5%)=12.6; ν=6), this is not surprising, given that the occupation deposits are likely to represent activity taking place over a number of decades, as suggested above for House 1. The measurements are consistent at the 99.9% critical value and this suggests they are associated with activity taking place over a relatively short-lived period of time, i.e. the lifetime of a house.

Block BAB Four samples were dated from a sequence of floor layers that formed the early deposits (Late Iron Age, referred to here as ‘Pictish’) at the base of the cut (1513) for House 1. A red deer femur (SUERC-2690) from the earliest floor deposit (1929) was sealed beneath a compact dark brown sand (1927) from which two Hordeum sp. grains (SUERC-22879 and SUERC-22880) and a red deer tibia (SUERC-22887) produced statistically consistent results (T’=0.5; T’ (5%)=6.0; ν=2; Ward and Wilson 1978), suggesting they could be of the same date.

Block BBA Samples were dated from two pits (1591 and 1858) that were part of a more extensive complex of pits and scoops at the base of the cut for House 1. The cow metacarpal (SUERC-2686) and Secale sp. grain (SUERC-22876) from the fill (1592) of pit 1591 are statistically consistent (T’=0.9; T’ (5%)=3.8; ν=1) and could be of the same actual age. The carbonised Avena sp. grain (SUERC-22877; cal AD 1270–1390) from the fill (1859) of pit 1858 is clearly intrusive and represents material from much later in the occupation of the mound.

Block BBC Five samples were dated from the floor deposits associated with the occupation of House 1; two animal bones (SUERC-2685 and SUERC-22885) from context 1514 and three carbonised cereal grains (SUERC-22865–22867) from a compact peat ash deposit (1525). The five measurements are not statistically consistent (T’=21.7; T’ (5%)=9.5; ν=4), although this is not unexpected given the house could have been in use over many decades during which the floor deposits accumulated.

Block BCB The two samples (SUERC-22868 and SUERC-23145) from context 1252, which is associated with the construction of House 2, are not statistically consistent (T’=11.1; T’ (5%)=3.8; ν=1) and represent material of different ages.

Block BCC Seven samples were dated from deposits associated with the

Blocks BCB/BCC A single measurement (OxA-15415) on a cow bone from context 558 could come from either the occupation or construction of House 2, and has therefore been modelled as part of block BCB/BCC.

Blocks BDD–BDF After abandonment House 2 was substantially modified several times and then infilled. The BDD structure within the abandoned House 2 provided a single sample (SUERC-22886) from context 576 and a pig ulna (SUERC-22895) from its floor (593) provides a date for the use of this structure (BDE). The overlying sand fill of the House 2 hollow (BDF) was dated by single sample (SUERC-22888) from a dark brown sand (518).

Block BEB A number of features were sealed by the primary floor layer of House 3 and must therefore pre-date the occupation of the house. Samples from two of these features, fill 1094 from scoop 1097 (SUERC-22870) and fill 1203 from scoop 1202/2006 (SUERC-22869) were dated; although they are not statistically consistent (T’=4.0; T’ (5%)=3.8; ν=1), they do pass at the 99% critical value, suggesting the infilling of the cut features took place fairly rapidly.

Block BEC Two samples (SUERC-22878 and SUERC-22898) were dated from deposits (1467, 2116) associated with the early occupation of House 3; a third sample (GU-18292) failed. The two measurements are statistically consistent (T’=3.0; T’ (5%)=3.8; ν=1) and could therefore be of the same actual age.

Block BEE A single sheep tibia (SUERC-22889) came from the secondary fill (1455) of pit 1454, associated with the primary floor of the secondary occupation of House 3. Two samples are associated with the later floor, a Linum seed (SUERC-22874) from an ash layer (948) in the central hearth and an Avena sp. grain (SUERC-22875) from an ash layer (1418) in the north hearth. These are of

The final occupation of the settlement

527

Span Norse Span Pictish 0

100

200

300 400 Interval (yrs)

500

600

700

800

900

Figure 392. Probability distributions of the number of years of Late Iron Age and Norse activity on Mound 2. The distributions are derived from the models shown in Figures 389–391

Pictish-Norse Infilling/ancillary_House_3 House_1_House_2 0

50

100 Interval (yrs)

150

200

250

Figure 393. Probability distributions of the number of years interval between phases of use on Mound 2. The distributions are derived from the model shown in Figures 389–391

House_3_use House_2_use House_1_use 0

50

100

150 Interval (yrs)

200

250

300

Figure 394. Probability distributions of the number of years over which House 1–3 where in use on Mound 2. The distributions are derived from the model shown in Figures 389–391

very different dates and it is clear that the Avena sp. grain (SUERC-22875; cal AD 880–1020) is residual.

Block BEF The three floor layers of the early and late occupation of House 3 were sealed by an extensive, compact dark brown sand (1336) from which a cattle vertebra (SUERC-2683) provides a date for the final occupation or abandonment of House 3.

Block BEG The deposits in the entrance to House 3 were spatially separated from the deposits associated with the interior of the house. The cattle rib (SUERC-2682) from the floor layer (1373) inside the passage cannot, therefore, be stratigraphically related to either the early or late occupation of the house.

Block BFB Built inside the southern end of House 3 was a secondary structure. A single sample (SUERC-22884) from the occupation layer (1354) in the centre of the structure provides a date for its occupation (BFB).

The chronology of mound 2 The models shown in Figures 389–391, which exclude SUERC-22875 and SUERC-22877 (see above), show good agreement between the radiocarbon dates and stratigraphy (Amodel=63). The estimate for the start of Pictish activity on mound 2 of cal AD 590–770 (95% probability; start_ Pictish; Figure 389), probably cal AD 655–740 (68% probability) is only a terminus ante quem, as the lowest occupation deposits were not excavated. The dated Pictish activity in blocks BAA and BAB lasted for a minimum of 1–105 years (95% probability: Pictish; Figure 392), probably 1–50 years (68% probability) and ended in cal AD 700–870 (95% probability; end_Pictish; Figure 389), probably cal AD 720–795 (68% probability). The Norse activity associated with the initial construc­ tion of House 1 (the pits and scoops sealed by the floors of the house) started in cal AD 815–975 (95% probability; start_Norse; Figure 389) and probably cal AD 870– 960 (68% probability), between 15–230 years (95% probability: Pictish–Norse; Figure 393) and probably 90–205 years (68% probability) after the end of the dated Pictish activity. The start of the occupation of House 1 (BBC) took place in cal AD 900–1010 (95% probability; build_ house_1; Figure 393) and probably cal AD 940–990 (68% probability). House 1 was in use for 60–250 years

0.0%

0.0%

0.5%

start_mound_3

end_mound_3

0.0%

end_ancillary_structures

0.0%

end_kilns

0.0%

0.0%

start_kilns

start_ancillary_structures

0.0%

end_grey_sand

0.0%

4.0%

start_ploughsoil

end_midden

0.0%

end_house_3

0.0%

0.0%

build_house_3

start_midden

0.0%

end_house_2

0.0%

0.0%

0.0%

end_house_1

build_house_2

0.0%

0.0%

2.4%

0.0%

0.0%

0.0%

0.0%

0.0%

0.0%

0.0%

40.3%

0.0%

0.0%

0.0%

0.0%

11.7%

0.3%

build_house_1

0.0%

0.0%

end_Norse_middens

first_industrial_activity

7.5%

92.5%

last_industrial_activity

last_industrial_activity

Scottish crown (AD 1266)

Mound 3

Mound 2A

Mound 2

Mound 1

first_industrial_activity

end_Norse_middens 78.4%

12.1%

100.0%

39.5%

97.8%

89.7%

97.4%

99.9%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

60.0%

81.0%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

build_house_1 0.0%

0.0%

6.0%

0.0%

0.0%

0.0%

0.0%

0.0%

0.0%

0.0%

88.0%

0.0%

0.0%

0.0%

0.0%

0.0%

0.0%

88.3%

99.7%

end_house_1 0.0%

0.0%

35.6%

0.0%

0.0%

0.0%

0.0%

1.1%

11.4%

41.2%

100.0%

0.0%

0.0%

2.0%

7.0%

100.0%

0.0%

100.0%

100.0%

build_house_2 0.0%

0.0%

62.5%

0.0%

0.2%

0.0%

0.0%

8.8%

47.3%

89.1%

100.0%

0.0%

0.0%

17.0%

93.0%

100.0%

0.0%

100.0%

100.0%

end_house_2 0.0%

0.0%

81.8%

0.0%

1.0%

0.0%

0.0%

21.3%

70.6%

96.5%

100.0%

0.0%

0.0%

83.0%

98.0%

100.0%

0.0%

100.0%

100.0%

build_house_3 33.6%

0.0%

100.0%

0.0%

99.1%

83.2%

99.4%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

0.0%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

19.0%

100.0%

100.0%

end_house_3 100.0%

0.0%

100.0%

5.3%

100.0%

98.7%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

40.0%

100.0%

100.0%

start_ploughsoil 0.0%

0.0%

2.6%

0.0%

0.0%

0.0%

0.0%

0.0%

0.0%

0.0%

0.0%

0.0%

0.0%

0.0%

0.0%

12.0%

0.0%

59.7%

96.1%

end_grey_sand 0.0%

0.0%

39.1%

0.0%

0.0%

0.0%

0.0%

1.9%

15.6%

100.0%

0.0%

0.0%

3.5%

10.9%

58.8%

100.0%

0.0%

100.0%

100.0%

start_kilns 0.0%

0.0%

65.3%

0.0%

0.6%

0.0%

0.0%

13.2%

84.4%

100.0%

0.0%

0.0%

29.4%

52.7%

88.6%

100.0%

0.0%

100.0%

100.0%

end_kilns 0.0%

0.0%

91.9%

0.0%

11.7%

0.5%

3.9%

86.8%

98.2%

100.0%

0.0%

0.0%

78.7%

91.2%

98.9%

100.0%

0.1%

100.0%

100.0%

0.0%

0.0%

100.0%

0.0%

62.8%

13.9%

96.1%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

0.0%

0.6%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

2.6%

100.0%

100.0%

start_midden

Mound 2A

end_midden 9.1%

0.0%

100.0%

0.3%

88.2%

86.1%

99.5%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

1.3%

16.9%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

10.3%

100.0%

100.0%

start_ancillary_structures 0.0%

0.0%

99.7%

0.0%

11.8%

37.2%

88.3%

99.4%

100.0%

100.0%

0.0%

0.9%

99.0%

99.8%

100.0%

100.0%

2.2%

100.0%

100.0%

end_ancillary_structures 100.0%

4.8%

100.0%

100.0%

99.7%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

94.7%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

60.5%

100.0%

100.0%

Mound 3

0.0%

0.0%

0.0%

0.3%

0.0%

0.0%

8.1%

34.7%

60.9%

97.4%

0.0%

0.0%

18.2%

37.5%

64.4%

94.0%

0.0%

97.6%

99.5%

start_mound_3

Mound 2

100.0%

100.0%

95.2%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

87.9%

100.0%

100.0%

end_mound_3

Mound 1

0.0%

100.0%

0.0%

100.0%

90.9%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

0.0%

66.5%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

21.6%

100.0%

100.0%

Scottish crown (AD 1266)

Table 197. Percentage probabilities of the relative order of the beginnings and endings of activities at Bornais. The cells show the probability of the distribution in the left-hand column being earlier than the distribution in the top row. For example, the probability that industrial activity started on Mound 1 before the start of construction of house 1 on Mound 2 is 68.2%

528

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

The final occupation of the settlement

House_500_built

50.4%

Manus - 1098AD

24.1%

Manus - 1098AD

start_house_2_M2

House_500_built

start_house_2_M2

Table 198. Percentage probabilities of the relative order of the beginnings of use of Mound 2, House 2 at Bornais, Cille Phadeair House 500 and King Magnus Barelegs expedition in AD 1098. The cells show the probability of the distribution in the left-hand column being earlier than the distribution in the top row. For example, the probability that Mound 2, House 2 at Bornish was built before House 500 at Cille Phadaeir is 49.6%

49.6%

75.9% 86.1%

13.9%

(95% probability: House_1_use; Figure 394), probably 85–180 years (68% probability) and its abandonment is estimated to have taken place in cal AD 1020–1095 (95% probability; end_house_1; Figure 391), probably cal AD 1030–1065 (68% probability). Following the abandonment of House 1, sand accumulated on its floors and subsequently foundation pits were dug prior to the construction of House 2. The length of time between the abandonment of House 1 and the construction of House 2 (BCB) is estimated to be relatively short, 1–70 years (95% probability; House_1_House_2; Figure 393), probably 1–40 years (68% probability). Activity associated with House 2 started in cal AD 1035–1130 (95% probability; start_house_2; Figure 391), probably cal AD 1055–1100 (68% probability), with its occupation (BCC) starting in cal AD 1040–1130 (95% probability; build_house_2; Figure 391), probably cal AD 1065–1105 (68% probability). House 2 was occupied for a couple of generations (1–80 years (95% probability; House_2_use; Figure 394), probably 1–50 years (68% probability) and went out of use in cal AD 1080–1150 (95% probability; end_ house_2/start_infilling/ancillary; Figure 391), probably cal AD 1090–1130 (68% probability) when the house was substantially modified. The activity between the end of use of House 2 and the construction of House 3, when various structures were built within House 2 and its hollow filled in, lasted for at least 20–155 years (95% probability; Infilling/ancillary_ House_3; Figure 393), probably 65–130 years (68% probability). The activity was completed by cal AD 1095– 1210 (95% probability; end_infilling/ancillary; Figure 391) and probably cal AD 1110–1165 (68% probability). The relatively small number of samples from this phase of activity means that the estimate given for the end of the activity that took place between the abandonment of House 2 and the building of House 3 is probably best treated as a terminus post quem.

529

The small number of cut features (BEB) sealed by the primary floor of House 3 must have filled prior to its occupation and this pit-digging is estimated to have started in cal AD 1190–1270 (95% probability; start_ house_3; Figure 391) and probably cal AD 1225–1260 (68% probability). The early occupation of House 3 (BEC) is estimated to have begun in cal AD 1235–1280 (95% probability; build_ house_3; Figure 391) and probably cal AD 1250–1275 (68% probability), and the secondary use (BEE) in cal AD 1265–1290 (95% probability; house_3_secondary_ use; Figure 391) and probably cal AD 1270–1285 (68% probability). House 3 is estimated to have gone out of use in cal AD 1280–1330 (95% probability; end_house_3; Figure 391), probably cal AD 1285–1310 (68% probability). House 3 was probably in use for a couple of generations, 10–80 years (95% probability; House_3_use; Figure 394). The end of the dated activity (BFB) on mound 2 occurred in cal AD 1280–1475 (95% probability; end_ Norse; Figure 389) and probably cal AD 1370–1390 (6% probability) or 1285–1345 (62% probability).

Mound 2A – the sequence Blocks GAA and GAB Four samples were dated from the ploughsoils that represent the first phase of activity on mound 2A (Table 196). Three samples (SUERC-18250, SUERC-18249, SUERC-2681) came from the first ploughsoil layer (contexts associated with 2482) and one sample (SUERC-18245) from the second layer (contexts associated with 2483). These four measurements are statistically consistent (T’=4.4; T’ (5%)=7.8; ν=3) and could therefore be of the same actual age. A single carbonised Secale sp. grain (SUERC-18251) from an ash layer (2445) in gully 2470 of the hearth (GAB) provides a date for the primary use of the hearth.

Block GAC Cutting the final ploughsoil layer (1791) was a stonelined hearth (2469). A single carbonised Avena sp. grain (SUERC-18824) was dated from the ash deposits (1794) in the hearth.

Block GAD The thick grey sand layers that accumulated across the trench had evidently built up over a substantial period of time. The four samples (Table 196) dated from this block are not statistically consistent (T’=10.8; T’ (5%)=7.8; ν=3), adding weight to the suggestion that the grey sand built up slowly over a period of time.

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A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Boundary end_ancillary_structures R_Date SUERC-18264 [A:101] R_Date SUERC-2693 [A:102] Phase [GCF] end_build_3/start_build_4 R_Date SUERC-18263 [A:114] R_Date SUERC-18262 [A:119] Phase [GCD] end_build_2/start_build_3 R_Date SUERC-18261 [A:86] R_Date SUERC-18260 [A:103] Phase [GCB] Sequence ancillary structures Boundary start_ancillary_structures Sequence [GC] Boundary end_midden R_Date SUERC-18270 [A:119] R_Date SUERC-2675 [A:119] R_Date SUERC-18825 [A:95] R_Date SUERC-18269 [A:119] R_Date SUERC-2674 [A:117] Sequence [GDC] Phase [GDC] start_midden R_Date SUERC-18271 [A:124] Phase GGB Sequence [GBG] & [GDC] Boundary start_eastern_midden Sequence eastern midden Phase midden & ancillary structures Boundary end_kilns R_Date SUERC-18254 [A:29] Phase [GBE] R_Date SUERC-18255 [A:103] R_Date SUERC-18259 [A:59] Phase [GBG] Phase [GBG] & [GBE] Boundary start_kilns Sequence kilns Sequence mound 2A Boundary end_grey_sand R_Date SUERC-18253 [A:114] R_Date SUERC-18252 [A:74] R_Date SUERC-2676 [A:118] R_Date SUERC-2680 [A:121] Phase [GAD] start_grey_sand R_Date SUERC-18824 [A:100] Phase [GAC] R_Date SUERC-18251 [A:94] Phase [GAB] R_Date SUERC-18250 [A:99] R_Date SUERC-18249 [A:110] R_Date SUERC-18245 [A:104] R_Date SUERC-2681 [A:104] Phase [GAA] Phase ploughsoils Sequence mound 2A Boundary start_ploughsoil Sequence Sequence mound 2A [Amodel:91] 750

1000

1250

1500

1750

Posterior Density Estimate (cal AD) Figure 395. Probability distributions of radiocarbon dates from Norse activity on Bornais Mound 2A: each distribution represents the relative probability that an event occurs at a particular time. The format is identical to Figure 390

The final occupation of the settlement

531

span_grey_sand use_midden use_ancillary_structures use_kilns 0

100

200 300 Interval (yrs)

400

500

600

Figure 396. Probability distributions of the number of years over which activities at Mound 2A took place. The distributions are derived from the model shown in Figure 395

Radiocarbon determination (BP)

1200

1000

R_Date SUERC-18254 [A:29]

R_Date SUERC-18255 [A:103] R_Date SUERC-18259 [A:59] 800

600 800

900

1000 1100 Posterior Density Estimate (cal AD)

1200

1300

Figure 397. Probability distributions of dates from the Mound 2A kilns plotted on the radiocarbon calibration curve (c 750-1350 AD; Reimer et al 2013).

Blocks GBE and GBG At the end of the build-up of the grey sand layers (GAD), a complex series of structures was constructed, discovered in the centre of the excavated area. The most noteworthy structures were the two-stone built kilns (north and south).

A single barley grain (SUERC-18254) was dated from deposits relating to the use of the north kiln (GBE) and two carbonised oat grains (SUERC-18255 and SUERC-18259) were dated from context 1760, a large cache of burnt grains (GBG) on the east side of the mound, contemporary with the

532

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

kilns. The two dates from the large burnt grain cache (1760) could be of the same actual age (T’=0.5; T’ (5%)=3.8; ν=1), but they are not statistically consistent (T’=9.4; T’ (5%)=6.0; ν=2) with the date from the GBE context.

related to those from square 15. All these samples from GDC contexts could be of the same actual age as their radiocarbon measurements are statistically consistent (T’=0.0; T’ (5%)=3.8; ν=1)

Blocks belonging to GC

Block GGB

Following the abandonment and infilling of the kilns, a sequence of ancillary buildings (GC) was constructed in the central area of the mound. Unlike the GBA structure, these buildings had a number of floor layers and their construction coincided with the accumulation of rich midden deposits on the sides of the mound (GDC on the east side).

The middens on the east side of the mound (GDC) were cut by a house pit (GGB) which was sealed by later midden layers. A single barley grain (SUERC-18271) from red-orange sand 1613 dates the floor of the building represented by cut 1612.

Block GCB

The chronology of mound 2A

Two barley grains (SUERC-18260 and SUERC-18261) were dated from the primary floor (1618) of ancillary building 5 (GCB), and produced statistically consistent results (T’=2.3; T’ (5%)=3.8; ν=1).

The model shown in Figure 395 shows good agreement between the radiocarbon dates and stratigraphy (Amodel=91). The first phase of activity on mound 2A represented by a thick sequence of brown ash-rich ploughsoils, is estimated to have started in cal AD 835–975 (95% probability; start_ploughsoil; Figure 395) and probably cal AD 885–955 (68% probability). The north hearth (2470; GAB) dates from cal AD 900–1005 (95% probability; SUERC-18251; Figure 395) and probably cal AD 950–1000 (68% probability) and the south hearth (1794; GAC) dates from cal AD 970– 1015 (95% probability; SUERC-18824; Figure 395) and probably cal AD 990–1015 (68% probability). As the south hearth cut the final brown ploughsoil layer (1791), the estimate provides a terminus ante quem for the initial activity on the mound. The accumulation of the thick grey sand layers (GAD) is estimated to have begun in cal AD 980–1025 (95% probability; start_grey_sand; Figure 395) and probably cal AD 990–1015 (68% probability). The period of grey sand accumulation lasted for at least 35–155 years (95% probability; span_grey_sand; Figure 396) and probably 50–125 years (68% probability). As the dated material probably does not adequately sample the later part of the phase of sand accumulation, this and the estimated end – cal AD 1025–1100 (95% probability; end_grey_ sand; Figure 395), probably cal AD 1030–1070 (68% probability) – are best treated as minimum estimates. The formation of the sand layers was disrupted by the construction of a series of buildings, discovered in the centre of the excavated area. The first structure, an arc of walling (GBA), does not appear to have been a finished structure. There was no obvious evidence for significant occupation associated with this structure. The most important early activity was the construction of two stone-built kilns, one situated in the north of the excavated area (GBD), and one in the south (GBB), at either end of the arc of walling. The similarity of the architecture of the two kilns and the deposits they contain suggests that both are contemporary and relate to the same

Block GCD Ancillary was subsequently rebuilt (GCC) and a new floor (1616) was established (GCD). Measurements on two carbonised rye grains from the GCD floor (1616) are statistically consistent (T’=0.2; T’ (5%)=3.8; ν=1) and could therefore be of the same date.

Block GCF After ancillary building 6 had gone out of use, a more substantial structure – probably a house – was constructed. The final occupation of this structure, House 15, comprised a dark brown sand (722), containing a spread of large animal bones, and two radiocarbon samples from a cow metacarpal (SUERC-2693) and a carbonised rye grain (SUERC-18264) were dated. These two measurements are statistically consistent (T’=0.0; T’ (5%)=3.8; ν=1).

Block GDC (midden accumulation) A series of thick midden deposits (GD) contemporary with the occupation of the central structures (GC) built up around the periphery of the mound. Five measurements were obtained on material from the midden on the east side of the mound (GDC). A sequence of four samples were dated from square 15: a carbonised oat grain (SUERC-18270) from a charcoalrich orange sand (1692); a cow bone (SUERC-2674) from a grey sand (1691); a carbonised oat grain (SUERC-18269) from a patchy layer of red and yellow sand (1688); and a carbonised barley grain (SUERC-18825) from a stratigraphically later layer of red clayey sand (1624). The remaining sample from the GDC midden – a sheep bone (SUERC-2675) from a grey-brown sand (1153) – came from square 6 and is not stratigraphically

The final occupation of the settlement

533

Boundary end_bornish end_mound_3 [A:100] last_M3_houses [A:101] first_M3_houses [A:100] last_M3_kiln [A:100] first_M3_kiln [A:100] start_mound_3 [A:101] Phase mound 3 end_ancillary_structures [A:102] start_ancillary_structures [A:100] end_midden [A:100] start_midden [A:100] end_kilns [A:100] start_kilns [A:100] end_grey_sand [A:100] start_ploughsoil [A:108] Phase mound 2A end_Norse [A:103] end_house_3 [A:100] build_house_3 [A:100] end_house_2 [A:100] build_house_2 [A:100] end_house_1 [A:100] build_house_1 [A:101] start_Norse [A:112] Phase mound 2 end_Norse_middens [A:105] last_industrial_activity [A:108] first_industrial_activity [A:29] Phase mound 1 Phase Bornish Boundary start_bornish Sequence Bornish [Amodel:82] 700

800

900

1000

1100

1200

1300

1400

1500

1600

Posterior Density Estimate (cal BC) Figure 398. Probability distributions for beginnings and endings of activity at Bornais. The format is identical to that of Figure 390, although the tails on some distributions have been shortened. The distributions are derived from the model shown in Figures 389–391 (Marshall, Bronk Ramsey and Cook, 2012, fig 137 and Marshall 2012, fig 2)

type of heat-intensive crop-processing activity. The kilns started to be used in cal AD 1040–1150 (95% probability; start_kilns; Figure 395), probably cal AD 1055–1125 (68% probability). However, the paucity of samples from the kilns, together with the fact they fall on a small plateau in the calibration curve (Figure 397) means this estimate, and that for the end of this phase of activity, is much wider than we had hoped. The estimate for the end of the period of sand accumulation also provides little in the way of a constraint, suggesting the actual length of grey sand accumulation was considerably longer than the estimate provided above. The model does though suggest that the period of crop-processing activity using the kilns was relatively

short, 1–80 years (95% probability; use_kilns; Figure 396) and probably 1–40 years (68% probability), although given the problems outlined this is likely to be a much longer estimate than was actually the case. The kilns went out of use by cal AD 1070–1210 (95% probability; end_kilns; Figure 395), probably cal AD 1115–1190 (68% probability). Sometime, 1–125 years (95% probability; distribution not shown) and probably 1–70 years (68% probability), after the two kilns had been infilled and abandoned, ancillary building 5 (GCA) was constructed in cal AD 1140–1255 (95% probability; start_ancillary_structures; Figure 395) and probably cal AD 1165–1230 (68% probability). In contrast to the previous structure (GBA), this building

534

A Norse settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Figure 399. Schematic diagram showing the periods of use of dated structures and activity at Bornais

Figure 400. Schematic diagram showing the periods of dated activity at Bornais and Cille Pheadair

had associated floor levels (GCB) and its construction was broadly contemporary with the accumulation of occupation-rich deposits on the east side of the mound, which began in cal AD 1170–1245 (95% probability; start_midden; Figure 395) and probably cal AD 1185– 1225 (68% probability). There is only a 37.4% probability that the midden pre-dates the first ancillary building (Table 197). The end of use of ancillary building 5 (GCB) and the construction of ancillary building 6 (GCC) is estimated to have taken place in cal AD 1205–1275 (95% probability; end_build_2/start_build_3; Figure 395) and probably cal AD 1230–1265 (68% probability). After ancillary building 6 (GCD) went out of use in cal AD 1255–1340 (95% probability; end_build_3/start_build_4; Figure 395), probably cal AD 1270–1305 (68% probability) a new structure, House 15 (GCE), was built. The final use of House 15 (GCF) occurred in cal AD 1290–1440 (95% probability; end_ancillary_structures; Figure 395) and probably cal AD 1300–1370 (68% probability). The ancillary structures were substantially rebuilt at least twice during their estimated life of 45–205 years (95% probability; use_ancillary_structures; Figure 396) and probably 70–155 years (68% probability). However, the rather haphazard nature of these structures, together with the absence of formal hearths, did limit the number of potential samples for dating. The use of the ancillary buildings was associated with

the accumulation of a series of midden deposits, which spread over the peripheral slopes of the mound to the north, west and east of the ancillary structures. Midden accumulation on the east side of the mound started in the late twelfth/early thirteenth centuries cal AD. The midden accumulated for at least 1–80 years (95% probability; use_midden; Figure 396) and probably 1–40 years (68% probability), and came to an end in cal AD 1190–1285 (95% probability; end_midden; Figure 395), probably cal AD 1215–1260 (68% probability). However, midden material continued to be added after this date as no secure samples were obtained from the final layers of the midden sequence. This means that the estimate for the length of time the midden deposits took to accumulate is an underestimate. No samples were submitted from the midden material that accumulated on the west side of the mound.

The currency of Norse activity at Bornais A model for the beginning and ending of Norse activity at Bornais is shown in Figure 398. This has been constructed by taking the estimated dates for the major events of archaeological interest from the models described above, plus those for mounds 1 and 3 ((Marshall et al. in Sharples 2005; Marshall et al in Sharples 2012). The

The final occupation of the settlement prior information in this model is that once Norse activity began, it was continuous and relatively constant until it ended. The model (Figure 398) shows good overall agreement (Amodel=82) and provides an estimate for the beginning of Norse activity at Bornais of cal AD 745–930 (95% probability; start_bornish; Figure 398) and probably cal AD 810–925 (68% probability), and the end of activity of cal AD 1405–1525 (95% probability; end_bornish; Figure 398) and probably cal AD 1420–1475 (68% probability). The earliest dated Norse activity at Bornais was the industrial activity on mound 1 (95.3% probable; Table 197; product of the probability that first_industrial_activity < build_house_1