A Dictionary of the Bible: Dealing with its Language, Literature, and Contents, Including the Biblical Theology 9781463226619

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A Dictionary of the Bible

Gorgias Historical Dictionaries

22

The difficulty of locating historical dictionaries has long been a source of frustration for scholars. Gorgias Press seeks to address this difficulty by the introduction of a series of historic dictionaries. The Gorgias Historical Dictionaries series makes available classic sources at affordable prices.

A Dictionary of the Bible

Dealing with its Language, Literature, and Contents, Including the Biblical Theology

Volume 2 Edited by

James Hastings With the Assistance of

John A. Selbie

A

1 gotgias press 2010

Gorgias Press LLC, 954 River Road, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA www.gorgiaspress.com Copyright© 2010 by Gorgias Press LLC Originally published in 1898-1909 All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise without the prior written permission of Gorgias Press LLC.

A l

2010

ISBN 978-1-61719-215-9

ISSN 1935-3189 Reprinted from the 1898-1909 New York edition.

Printed in the United States of America

A

Dictionary of the Bible

PREFACE

' GIVE heed

to . . . teaching.'

Perhaps

the

Church

of

Christ

has

sufficient heed to t e a c h i n g since the earliest, and happiest days.

never

given

I n our o w n

day

the i m p o r t a n c e of teaching, or, as w e sometimes call it, e x p o s i t o r y preaching, has been pressed home t h r o u g h causes that are various y e t n e v e r a c c i d e n t a l ; and it is probable t h a t in the near f u t u r e more heed w i l l be given by the C h u r c h to

teaching

than has ever been g i v e n before. A s a contribution

towards the f u r n i s h i n g of the C h u r c h

this DICTIONAKY OF THE BIBLE is published.

for that g r e a t work,

I t is a D i c t i o n a r y of

the Old and N e w

Testaments, together w i t h the Old T e s t a m e n t A p o c r y p h a , according to the Authorize*! and Revised

E n g l i s h Versions, and with constant reference to t,he original

E v e r y effort has

been

used

to make the

information

it contain:-

tongues

reasonably

full,

reliable, and accessible. As

to fulness.

occurring

in

explanation. Dictionary

the

In

a

Bible,

Dictionary which

do

of not

the

Bible

explain

one

expects

themselves,

that

will

the

T h e present, D i c t i o n a r y more nearly meets t h a t e x p e c t a t i o n that

has h i t h e r t o been

published.

Articles

have

words

receive

some

than

been written

any

on

names of all Persons and Places, on the A u t i q u i t i e s and A r c h e o l o g y of the

the

Bible,

on its E t h n o l o g y , G e o l o g y , and N a t u r a l H i s t o r y , 011 Biblical T h e o l o g y and E t h i c , and even

on

the

obsolete

or archaic words

occurring

in

the

English

Versions.

The

greater number of the articles are of small compass, for care has been exercised exclude v a g u e generalities as well as unaccepted idiosyncrasies ; but there are articles w h i c h deal w i t h i m p o r t a n t and difficult subjects, and extend length.

to

to

many

considerable

Such, for e x a m p l e , is the article in the first v o l u m e on the C h r o n o l o g y of

the N e w Testament, a n d the article in the present v o l u m e on J e s u s Christ. As

to reliability.

T h e names of the authors are appended to their

articles,

e x c e p t w h e r e the article is v e r y brief or of minor importance ; and these names are the best guarantee t h a t the w o r k m a y lie relied on.

¡So far as could be ascertained,

those authors were chosen for each particular subject w h o had made a. special of t h a t subject, and m i g h t be able to speak w i t h a u t h o r i t y upon it.

study

Then, in addition

to the w o r k of the E d i t o r and his A s s i s t a n t , e v e r y sheet lias passed through hands of the three distinguished scholars whose n a m e s are found on the

the

title-page.

Those scholars are not responsible for errors of a n y kind, if such should vi»

be dis-

VIH

PREFACE

covered in the Dictionary, but che time and care they have spent upon it may be taken as a good assurance that the work as a whole is reliable and authoritative. As to accessibility. While all the articles have been written expressly for this work, so they have been arranged under the headings one would most naturally turn to. In a very few cases it has been found necessary to group allied subjects together. But even then, the careful system of black-lettering and cross-reference adopted should enable the reader to find the subject wanted without delay. Ami so important has it seemed to the Editor that each subject should be found under its own natural title, that he has allowed a little repetition here and there (though not in identical terms) rather than distress the reader by sending him from one article to another in search of the information he desires. The Proper Names will be found under the spelling adopted in the Revised Version, and in a few very familiar instances the spelling of the Authorized Version is also given, with a cross-reference to the other. On the Proper Names generally, and particularly on the very difficult and unsettled questions of their derivation, reference may be made to the article NAMES (PKOPER), which will be found in the third volume. The Hebrew, and (where it seemed to be of consequence for the identification of the name) the Greek of the Septuagint, have been given for all proper and many common names. I t was found impracticable to record all the variety of spelling discovered in different manuscripts of the Septuagint; and it was considered unnecessary, in view of the great Edition now in preparation in Cambridge, and the Concordance of Proper Names about to be published at the Clarendon Press. The Abbreviations, considering the size and scope of the work, will be seen to be few and easily mastered. A list of them, together with a simple and uniform scheme of transliterating Hebrew and Arabic words, will be found on the following pages. The Editor has pleasure in recording his thanks to many friends and willing fellow-workers, including the authors of the various articles. In especial, after those whose names are given on the title-page, he desires to thank the Rev. W. SANE-AY, D.D., LL.IJ., Lady Margaret Professor of Divinity in the University of Oxford, who has again read many of the articles and given valuable assistance in other ways; next, the Rev. G . M. MACKIE, M.A., of Beyrout, whose knowledge of modern Syrian life is both intimate and sympathetic; also Professor MAIIAFFY of Dublin, who kindly read some articles in proof; Professor RYLE of Cambridge; Principal SALMOND of Aberdeen; Principal STEWART of St. Andrews; and Principal FAIR BAIRN and Mr. J . VERNON BARTLET, M . A . , of Mansfield College, Oxford. The Editor regrets to have to record the death, since the issue of the first volume, of Dr. D. Shearer and the Rev. H. A. White, M.A., New College, Oxford.

Messrs. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, have t h e sole DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE in the United S t a t e s and Canada.

right

of publication of thta

SCHEME OF TRANSLITERATION HliliKEW.

AI ABIC.

«

; b

i—j

t

CJ

tli

¡JLJ

j

1)

1

d

T n

11

ÎT

h kli

U,

i

d dh

j

r

W

t

11

n

t

a y

J

z

k

j

s

i

u *

sii

m

s

n

d t

U

?

b

i

D b

»

s

D

P

Q

y

*

z

gh

k

è

f

r

9


P = Sinai ami Palestine. ¿,717-' ='Memoirs of the S u r v e y of W . Palestine. ThL or 77/ !/A--Theo). Literaturzeitung. TH I' — T1 J eo I. T J j D sit!; r i ft. TSE A = Transactions of Soe. of Bibl. Archaeology. Tl.- --Texte and Untersuchungen. WA /= West ern Asiatic Inscriptions. W'/.KM ~ \V it'iier Zeitschrift für Kunde dea Morgen],'aides. ZA —Zeitschrift fiir Assyriologie. ZA IP or ZA T IV = Zeitschrift für die Alttest. Wissenschaft. ZDMG — Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft. ZDPV— Zeitschrift des Deutschen PalästinaVereins. ZKSF — Zeitschrift für Keilschriftforschung. ZKW— Zeitschrift f ü r kirchliche Wissenschaft.

A small superior number designates the particular edition of the work referred to, as KAT2,

LOT\

M A P S IN VOLUME II THE KINGDOMS OF JUDAH AND ISRAEL JERUSALEM

.

.

.

.

.

.

. .

. .

. .

f a c i n g page

1 60O

AUTHORS OE ARTICLES IN VOL. II Rev.

WALTER

F.

ADENEY,

M.A.,

Professor

of

New Testament Exegesis in the New College, London. Ven. A. S. AGLKN, M . A . , D . D . , Archdeacon of St. Andrews. Rev.

Rev.

WILLOUGHBY

C.

ALLEN,

M.A.,

Chaplain,

Fellow, and Lecturer in Theology and Hebrew, Exeter College, Oxford. BENJAMIN

WISNER

BACON,

M.A.,

D.D.,

Professor of New Testament Criticism and Interpretation in Y a l e University, New Haven.

Rev.

JOHN

S.

BANKS,

Professor

of

T h e late R e v . JAMES S. CANDLISH, M . A . ,

Rev.

Peterhouse, Cambridge.

JAMES

VERNON

BARTLET,

M.A.,

Lecturer

Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford.

R e v . LLEWELLYN J. M . BEBB, M . A . , Principal

CARSLAW,

M.A.,

M.D.,

ARTHUR THOMAS CHAPMAN, M . A . ,

Rev.

FREDERIC

HENRY

CHASE,

M.A.,

D.D.,

CONDER,

R.E.,

Lieut.-Col.

CLAUDE

in

FRED.

of

Rev. G. A . COOKE, M . A . , Rector of Beaconsfield. Bucks, and late Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford.

LL.D., M.R.A.S.

REGNIER

C . C O N Y B E A R E , M . A . , l a t e F e l l o w of U n i -

versity College, Oxford.

Professor

Rev.

R e v . WILLIAM HENRY BENNETT, M . A . ,

Professor

W . E. CRUM, M . A . , of the E g y p t Fund.

JODSON

of Hebrew Language and Literature in Auburn Theological Seminary, New York. of Old Testament Exegesis in Hackney and New Colleges, London ; sometime Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge.

Rev.

Rev.

JOHN H E N R Y

BERNARD,

D.D.,

Fellow

of

Trinity College, and Archbishop King's Lecturer in Divinity in the University of Dublin. J.

F. BETHUNE-BAKER,

M.A.,

Fellow

Dean of Pembroke College, Cambridge.

and

Rev.

Rev.

HENRY

D.D.,

Rev.

Rev.

CHARLES

FOX BURNEY,

M.A.,

Lecturer

in

WINFRID

O. BURROWS, M . A . ,

Principal

of

Hebrew, and Fellow of St. Jolm Baptist's College, Oxford. Leeds Clergy Sel.ool.

R e v . GEORGE G . CAMERON, M . A . , D . D . ,

of Hebrew Aberdeen.

in

the

Free

Church

Professor

College,

D.D.,

Professor

of

EDWARD

LEWIS

Exploration

CURTIS,

Ph.D.,

D.D.,

DAVIDSON,

D.D.,

LL.D.,

Professor of Hebrew Language and Literature in the Divinity School, New Haven. ANDREW

BRUCE

Professor of Edinburgh.

Hebrew in

the New College,

R e v . T . W I T T O N D A VIER, B . A . , P h . D . ,

M.R.A.S.,

Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Literature in the Baptist College, Bangor, and Lecturer in Semitic Languages in University College, Bangor.

Exploration Fund in Jerusalem.

Professor of Apologetics and New Testament Exegesis in the Free Church College, Glasgow.

COWAN, M . A . ,

Church History in the University of Aberdeen.

F R E D E R I C K J . B L I S S , B . A . , P h . D . , of t h e P a l e s t i n e Rev. ALEXANDER BALMAIN BRUCE, M . A . ,

Fellow,

Fellow and Lecturer in Theology, Christ's College, and Principal of the Clergy School, Cambridge.

BEECHER, D . D . ,

WILLIS

the

of

St. David's College, Lampeter; formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford.

Rev.

of

Tutor, and Hebrew Lecturer, Emmanuel College, Cambridge. Rev. R O B E R T I I E N R Y C i i A i t i . K S , D.D., Professor of Biblical Greek in the University of Dublin.

Systematic

D.D., Fellow

WILLIAM

Lebanon Schools, Beyrout, Syria.

Rev.

Theology in the Headingley College, Leeds.

Rev. W . EMERY BARNES, M . A . ,

D.D.,

Professor of Systematic Theology in the Free Church College, Glasgow.

Rev.

Rev.

Rev.

Rev.

xii:

W.

T.

DAVISON, M . A . , D . D . , Professor

of

Old Testament Exegesis in the Handsworth Theological College, Birmingham. JAMES DENNEY,

M.A.,

Systematic Theology College, Glasgow. MARCUS

RODS,

M.A.,

SAMUEL

ROLLES

Exegetical Theology Edinburgh.

D.D.,

in the

in

D.D.,

Professor

of

Professor

of

Free

the New

DRIVER,

D.D.,

Church

College, Litt.D.,

Canon of Christ Church, and Regius Professor of Hebrew in the University of Oxford.

AUTHORS OF ARTICLES IN VOL. II

XIV

ttev. DAVID EATON, M . A . , G l a s g o w . Rev WILLIAM K. EDDY, of t h e A m e r i c a n M i s s i o n ,

JOHN

Sidon, Kyua.

Rev.

WILLIAM

EWING,

M.A.,

Glasgow,

merly of Tiberias, Palestine.

for-

JOSEPH

deenshire.

Mon-

trose ; Examiner in Biblical Languages in the Congregational flail, Edinburgh.

G. BUCHANAN GRAY, M . A . , L e c t u r e r in M a n s i i e l d

College, Oxfor. STRONG, B . D . , S t u d e n t a n d C e n s o l

Principal of Cheshunt College, Herts.

K e v . ARCHIBALD ROBERTSON,

of Christ Church, Oxford, and Examining Chaplain to the Bishop of Durham.

;

M.A., D.O.,

Prin-

Kev.

cipal of King's College, London, late Fellow or Trinity College, Oxford, ;

R e v . J. ARMITAGR ROBINSON, M . A . , P h . D . , D . D . ,

Canon of Westminster.

Rev.

I N

HERBERT

EDWARD

RYLE,

M.A.,

HKXKY

BARCLAY

SWETF,

M.A..

D.D.,

Lit(.l)., Regius Professor of Divinity, Cambridge. | TAYLOR, M.A., Litt.D., Vh-ar of i Rev.\\ joiiN incheoinbe.

D.D.,

HENRY

President of Queens' College, ami II ulsean Professor of Divinity in the University of Cambridge.

S T . JOHN -

THACKERAY.

M.A.,

Kxammei

in the Education Department, formerly 1 )ivinity Lecturer in Selwyn College, Cambridge. R e v . S T E W A R T D I N G W A L L F O R D V C E S A L M O K D , I Kev. G. W. THATCHER, M.A., H. D., Hebrew Tutor M.A., D.D., F.E.I.S., Principal and Professor j and Lecturer on Old Testament History and of Systematic Theology in the Free Church : Literature in Mansiield College, Oxford. College, Aberdeen. Rev.

JOSEPH

HENRY

THAYT;R,

M.A.,

D.D.,

Bussey Professor of New Testament Criticism and Interpretation in the Divinity School of Margaret Professor of Divinity, and Canon j Harvard University. of Christ Church, Oxford. I R e v . A R C H I B A L D H E N R Y S A Y C E , M . A . , L L . D . , | Rev. GEERHARDUs VOS, D.D., Professor of Biblical Theology in Princeton Theological Seminary, Fellow of Queen's College, and Professor of 1 New Jersey. Assyriology in the University of Oxford. Rev.

Rev.

WILLIAM

JOHN

A.

SANDAY,

cardineshire.

Rev. DAVID W .

SELBIE,

D.D.,

M.A.,

LL.D.,

Lady !

Maryculter,

SIMON, M . A . , D . D . , P r i n c i p a l

the United College, Bradford.

Rev.

JOHN

SKINNER,

M.A.,

D.I).,

R e v . (IKOROK W A L K E R , M . A . , B . D . ,

Kinof

Rev. ADAM C. WELCH, M . A . , B . D . ,

Rev.

GEORGE ADAM SMITH, M . A . ,

D.D.,

Professor of Hebrew in the Free College, Glasgow. VINCENT

HENRY

STANTON,

L L . D . , | Rev. NEWPORT J . D.WIUTE, M . A . , B.D., Librarian

of Archbishop Marsh's Library, and Assistant. Lecturer in Divinity and Hebrew in the University of Dublin.

Church

M A.,

D.D.,

R e v . O W E N C. WHITEHOUSE, M . A . , P r i n c i p a l

R e v . A. LUKYN WILLIAMS, M . A . , V i c a r of G u i l d e r

Morden, late T y r w h i t t and Crosse Scholar of the University of Cambridge.

in Hebrew and Theology, Wadham College, Oxford.

Rev.

GEORGE

B.

STEVENS,

ALEXANDER

STEWART,

Ph.D.,

Theology

D.D.,

in

M a j o r - G e n e r a l Sir CHARLES WILLIAM WILSON, R.E., K.C.B., K.C.M.G., D.C.L., LL.D..

Pro-

Yale

F.R.S.

R e v . FRANCIS HENRY M.A.,

D.D.,

WOODS, M . A . , B . D . ,

Vicar

of Chalfont St. Peter, Bucks, and late Fellow and Theological Lecturer of St. John's Col lege, Oxford.

Prin-

cipal of St. Mary's College, and Professor of Systematic Theology in the University of St. Andrews.

R e v . J A M E S S T R A C H A N , M . A . , S t . FERGUS.

and

Professor of Biblical Exegesis and Theology, Cheshunt College, Herts.

JOHN F . STENNING, M . A . , F e l l o w a n d L e c t u r e r

fessor of Systematic University.

Helensburgh.

in the University of Durham, and formerly Fellow of New College, Oxford.

Fellow of Trinity College, and Kly Professor of Divinity in the University of Cambridge.

Rev.

K.C.B.,

T h e l a t e R e v . HENRY ALCOCK W H I T E , M . A . , T u t o r

P r o f e s s o r of

Hebrew and Old Testament Exegesis in the Presbyterian College, London.

Rev.

Callander.

Coi. Sir C H A R L E S W A R R E N , G.C.M.G., F. K.S., Royal Engineers.

I

Rev.

JOHN

Syria.

WOKTAUKT,

M.A.,

M.D.,

tJe.yr«ut.

VOL J I.

Map 5.

DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE FEIGN (Lat. fingere, to mould, invent; Old Fr. feindre, ptcp. feignant).—1. To devise, invent: Neh 68 ' There are no such things done as thou sayest, but thou feignest them out of thine own heart' (*n?, only here and 1 K 1233 E V ' devise'); 2 P 2 3 ' And through covetousness shall they with feigned words make merchandise of you' (7r\a', Amer. R V ' r e f i n e r ' ) .

of Samuel. Should we also adopt it, there would no longer be a n y necessity to consider t h e adaptation of t h e berosh to t h e m a n u f a c t u r e of musical i n s t r u m e n t s (see Wellli. and Driver, ad loc.). Pinus Halepejisis, Mill., h a s been proposed aa t h e equivalent of berosh. B u t its wood is not durable, a n d would hardly have been chosen for t h e beams of t h e temple. T w o other trees have been proposed as t h e equivalent of berosh, either of which would meet all t h e requirements : Juniperus excelsa, M.B., and Cupressus sempervirens, L. T h e former is called in A r a b , lizzub and

8 14

J . HASTINGS.

FIR (ani? berdsh ; once CT'nz berothim, Ca l 17 ; tLptcevBos, tcidpos, virus, KV7rdoiacos, ire^Krj ; abies, cupressus). F r o m t h e numerous words by which t h e L X X h a s tr d t h e Heb. original, it is clear t h a t t h e learned men of t h a t d a y were not agreed a s to t h e i d e n t i t y of t h e tree intended. In a considerable n u m b e r of passages t h e t r n is not t h e n a m e of a tree a t all. The conditions required in t h e tree are—(1) T h a t it could supply boards and p l a n k s a n d timber for doors (LXX weCxtvai, 1 K 6 15 - 34 ). (2) T h a t it could supply beams (LXX 'JUNIPERUS EXCELSA.' TAT.L I'M I'EFT. KtSpivoi, 2 Ch 33) for t h e roofing of t h e temple. I t grows in t h e alpine and sub-a pine These m u s t have been large, and very strong. sherbtn. (3) T h a t it was useful in shipbuilding (Ezk 27°). regions of Lebanon and Antilebanon. up to an altiT h e L X X in this passage has transposed the words t u d e of 9000 f t . Its eomus, when not liackc:l by I t s t r u n k is for cedar a n d fir, giving as follows : ' T h e cedar t h e woodman, is ovate-lanceolate. from Senir was built for thee, t h e planks of the straight, and its wood very solid and durable. decks were t a k e n off t h e cypress of Lebanon, of I t has dense ascending branches, small appressed which to m a k e for t h e e pine masts.' I t uses here leaves, and black berries as large as a m a r r o w f a t Kundpicrcros for t h e transposed word. I t is not clear pea. The wood is well stored with resin—a. fact w h v t h e word pine in t h e last clause was added. which t h r e a t e n s t h e tree w i t h extinction, as tha Perhaps it refers to t h e resinous quality of t h e remaining forests are fast being cut down by t h a I t s t r u n k s m a k e solid and indewood. (4) I t was suitable for musical instruments t a r smelters. (2 S 6B). T h e L X X , however, in this passage structible beams, and its wood, which is reddish and f r a g r a n t , is suitable for boards, planks, ship renders t h e word beruslum by ei> ™ strength, a n d not by t h e n a m e of any tree. This corre- timber, and other purposes. But, n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g s sponds with t h e parallel passage 1 Ch 13 ' w i t h t h e suitableness of the juniper as a tree to t h e all their might,' where t h e Heb. t e x t is ISHMS requirements of t h e case, t h e weight of evidence sempervirens, D'Tf1?' instead of c v h ? su, VSj. If we adopt t h e is in favour of t h e cypress, Cupressus reading of 1 Ch in 1 S, t h e abruptness and a p p a r e n t L. T h i s tree has qualities resembling those of t h e last named. I t has a s t r a i g h t t r u n k , horiunseasonableness of t h e mention of t h e wood of which t h e musical i n s t r u m e n t s were made is zontal, somewhat straggling branches, forming an ovate-oblong comus, small a p p r i s e d leaves, and avoided, and t h e two passages satisfactorily reconciled. T h e slight clerical error which would t h u s globular gaibules, a b o u t an inch in diameter, combe corrected is obvious on a comparison of t h e posed of woody, shield-shaped scalcs. I t s wood ia t w o t e x t s side by side. Budde has adopted this useful for all t h e purposes indicated for t h e fir. amended reading in his new edition of t h e t e x t I t s name, Kxmdpititro':, is one of t h e most f r e q u e n t

t r a n s l a t i o n s of i t in t h e L X X . I t is called i n A r a b , saru a n d sherbin, b o t h of w h i c h a r e t h e e q u i v a l e n t of cypress i n t h a t l a n g u a g e . Contrary t o a n o p i n i o n cited i n Oxf. Heb. Lex., u n d e r t h e h e a d t^'na, i t is f o u n d in a b u n d a n c e in L e b a n o n a n d A n t i l e b a n o n . A v a r i e t y of i t , w i t h ascend-

•COPRESSUS SEMPER VIREXS.' WILD CYPRESS. i n g b r a n d i e s , f o r m i n g a l a n c e o l a t e e o m u s , is t h e f a m i l i a r cemetery cypress, so c o m m o n in t h e neighb o u r h o o d of O r i e n t a l cities. M a n y of t h e s e h a v e tall straight t r u n k s , which would m a k e massive beams and ship timbers. G . E . POST. FIRE (in O T m o s t c o m m o n l y irvp, irvpi), where the same Heb. word in N u 47. In all these three A V h a s rye a n d R V spelt (see R Y E ) . 2. I s 28 25 - 27 . passages A V has' covers.' In the remaining four inH e r e t h e H e b . is n ^ kezah. T h i s is t h e nutmeg stances where A V gives ' flagons,' the HebT is n ^ x Ca 2® [ni^v«]"; flower, Nigella sativa, 1»., a R a n u n c u l a c e o u s p l a n t , (2 S 619, 1 Ch 163, Hos 31 cultivated everywhere in the East for its black cf. nip.n rp ' the raisin-cakes [ A V ' foundaseeds, which are used as a condiment and a tions '] of Kir-hareseth,' Is 167). The meaning of medicine. I t is called in Arab, shuniz, or shihniz, this word is a ' pressed cake . . . composed of ing with this

trn

a n d habbat el-baraJcah, i.e. t h e seed of el-habbat es~sauda, i.e. t h e black seed.

blessing, or A n Arab,

proverb says, ' i n the black seed is the medicine for every disease.' Avicenna recommends it in dyspepsia, and for bronchial and other affections. Orientals often put a pinch of the seeds on the middle of the upper surface of the flat loaves of bread before baking. In baking they adhere, l'liny alludes to their use by bakers {Nat. Hist. xix. 52). They are believed to assist digestion. They have a warm aromatic flavour and carminative properties. Like other seeds produced in small quantities, as cummin, they are often beaten out with a stick, as mentioned in Is 2827, instead of being threshed out with the mCrag.

meal,

oil, and

dibs'

(W.

R. Smith,

01'JC1

434.

n. 7). Hence in 2 S 619, 1 Ch 16«, R V gives ' cake of raisins' for^AV 'flagon [of wine],' in Hos 33 'cakes of raisins' for 'flagons of wine,' and in Ca 25 ' raisins' ( R V m ' cakes of raisins') for ' flagons. ^ T h e L X X h a s in 2 S 6 1 9 Xdyauov ¿7rb rrjydvov, i n 1 C h 16a dp-opeiri], i n H o s 3 1 ^¿p^/xara

¿¿era aracpido?, and in Ca 25 fitpoi. Luther, who like A V adopted a false Rabbinical derivation and interpretation of tr. in 2.S 619 and 1 Ch 163 ein Nossel Wein, a n d i n H o s 3 1 eine Kanne Weins. I n C a 2 5 h e h a s Blumen. I n K a u t z s c h ' s AT we find f o r 2 S 6 19 a n d 1 C h 16s liosinenkuchen, and f o r H o s 3 1 a n d C a 2 5 Traubenkuchen. See f u r t h e r u n d e r FOOD, p. 32 b . J . A . SELBIE.

G . E . POST.

FLAG.—Two Heb. words are tr d b y j l a g .

1. in«

Ccihu ; &xei [ i n L X X of S i r 40 16 t h i s w a s s u p p o s e d t i l l 1896 t o r e p r e s e n t t h e H e b . 'dhu'] /3ofrrojxov)

occurs in three connexions, (a) Where the lane feed in an 'dhu (Gn 41 218 ). (6) Where Bildad asks, * Can the rush (K£3, irairvpos) grow up without mire? can the jlag (?rm, /3oiWo/xov) grow without water?' (Job 811). (c) In a passage (Hos 1313) where both A V and R V , following the L X X , give brethren

f o r c n x YiMm,

w h i c h t h e Oxf.

Heb.

Lex.

FLAX

(nri-^s pishtdh,

\Lvov, linum).—The

Heb.

and its equivalents in Gr., Lat., and Eng. are u s e d ( 1 ) f o r t h e growing plant ( E x 9 3 1 ) ; (2) f o r t h e stalks w h e n c u t ( J o s 2 6 f y n »n^s, \tvoKd\a.p.r), stipulce lini); (3) f o r a wick m a d e of t h e fibres

(Is 423 4317, A V ' tow,' R V ' flax,' marg. ' a wick'). The root form pesheth, with suilix 'nf? pishti, L X X ¿601ad p,ov, is also used for the flax fibres (Hos 25*9). The plural of the same, D'^?pishtim, is u s e d

for

the

hackled

fibres

(Pr

3I 1 3 , I s

199);

regards as a plural of abbreviated from B-IIJN these are twisted into cords (Jg 15^) or woven 'ahdwim, the context seeming to point to a water into stuff (Dt 22"). The shorter fibres are called T h e plural plant, withering before the E. wind, which dries r n w ne'6reth = tow ( J g 16 s , I s l 3 1 ) . up its spring. In the passage in Job the gome pishtim is also used for linen ( L v 134s-s3), as well 47 59 (vv. - , L X X I/IATTY (TTI-ITand the 'dhu occur in the two members of a as for linen garments parallelism. R V m gives for gome ' papyrus,' and icvivq, E z k 44 17 trroXds \ivas). for 'dhu 'reed-grass 5 (cf. Ebers, Egypten u. die F l a x , Linum sativum, L . , is a p l a n t o f t h e Bucher Moses, 338 f . ) . T h e l a t t e r is n o m o r e order Linacete, which has been cultivated from definite than Jlag, and therefore only confuses the earliest periods of the world's history. I t is the question of identity by another term. W e a perennial, with slender stalks, 2 to 3 ft. high, * Rashi ha« 'ponds of rest,' where the waters rest and are linear-lanceolate leaves, and showy blue flowers. retained! Ibn Ezra gives * where are the souls of the lish'; Its stalks produce the strong fibres out of which this is also adopted by Kimchi in his Lexicon (' pools in which linen is manufactured. These stalks were dried they hunt fish'); in his Comm. he mentions it, but he himself on the flat roofs of the houses (Jos 26), then offers the same explanation as the RV. steeped in water to cause the decay of the pulp, t Properly ' beer,' which was a favourite Egyptian beverage.

14

FLAYING

FLESH

9

confound it with t h e Greek antithesis between then hackled (Is 19 ) t o straighten t h e fibres and comb out the shorter ones, which are tow (Jg 169, material a n d immaterial. F u r t h e r , t h o u g h fi ciite 31 Is l ). I t was regarded as a crop of importance a n d creaturely weakness is implied in it, there is (Ex 981, Hos 29). Linen garments were used b y n o t necessarily a n y moral disparagement, e.g. * all the priests, etc. (Lv 13 47 - 59 ); t h e material is usually flesh' is used for t h e ' whole h u m a n r a c e ' in con-s t h a5 t ares8 most honourable, e.g. P s 65 spoken of as vti shesh (a n a m e still retained in t h e nexions 21 Arab, sh&sh, which is used for t h e grade of cotton 145 , Is 40 , J1 2 . Conclusive as to this is the n a t u r e of our Lord cloth known in English as cheese-cloth). The mum- use ofM * flesh' for t h e human (Jn 1 , R o 1« 9°, 1 T i 318). In t h e same line w i t h mies of E g y p t were swathed in linen bandages. this stands t h e more expanded phrase 'flesh and G . E . POST. blood* for human n a t u r e on its e a r t h l y side in F L A Y I N G . — S e e CltlMES AND PUNISHMENTS. contrast with50 something greater t h a n 14itself (Mt 16 12 FLEA (t?in9 par'osh, ¿u\\os, pulex).—An insect, 16", 1 Co 15 , Gal l , Eph 6 13, H e 2 , t o which Pulex irritans, L., universal in warm climates, should perhaps be added J n l ). This phrase is and a g r e a t pest t o m a n and t h e animals which peculiar t o t h e NT, though germane t o the OT i t infests. Insignificant as i t is, its bite is very idea ' t h e life of the flesh is in t h e blood,' and t h e be traced to t h e OT irritating, often causing considerable swelling and beginning of the usage can 18 31 intolerable itching, which robs its victim of m a n y Apocr. writers (cf. Sir 14 17 ). I t is common in an hour of sleep, and makes him ridiculous in his Rabbinical literature. This whole biblical use of frequently vain efforts t o catch his tormentor. the t e r m ' flesh' in application to man means t h a t T h e habit of t h e natives of the East of sleeping he is so called from his creaturely nature, or from in the same clothes which t h e y wear by day, and his n a t u r e on its creaturely side. spreading their beds on t h e m a t s on which they 4. A s one constituent of human nature (the sit, contributes much to the multiplication of t h e corporeal) combined or contrasted with t h e others. insect in their houses and camps. Fleas swarm OT usage presents a variety of such combinaesp. in t h e filthy tents of t h e Bedawin, and in tions. T h e whole of man is expressed as ' f l e s h ' stables and dog kennels. The flea is mentioned a n d ' soul' in P s 63\ J o b 1314 14 a a ; as ' flesh ' and by David (1 S 2414),* who compares himself t o ' h e a r t ' in P s 7326, Ezk 447-9, Ec ll 1 0 , P r 14S0 ; as this contemptible insect, in order to ridicule t h e 'flesh,' ' h e a r t , ' and ' soul,' Ps 842, in all which a insensate character of Saul's persecution by liken- duality of outer and inner, or lower a n d higher in ing it to t h e vain h u n t above alluded to. In E x man, is plainly intended. B u t so far is ' f l e s l i ' 81« KVm has ' f l e a s ' for ' l i c e ' (wh. see). from being despised in these contrasts t h a t i t is joined with the higher elements in t h e relation of G . E . POST. m a n to God and to his f u t u r e (?) hopes, as FLESH, represented b y 1^3, -in? in OT, and by t h e whole 1 9 2 26 adp£ and Kptas in NT, iti-^ occurs very seldom in in Ps 63 16 84 , J o b 19 . In t h e N T its use in this comp. with t h e constant word but seems to sense for t h e lower element in man, w i t h o u t a n y cover some of t h e same meanings, particularly flesh ethical disparagement, though n o t very frequent, for food, a n d flesh of consanguinity. Cf. Ps 7326 is still clear. In a sufficient n u m b e r of passages it 7 8 2 0 - P r ll 1 7 , J e r 5135, Lv 2oJ3. Kpeas is only used occurs coupled with 'spirit,' in the Pauline writtwice in NT, and each time in t h e phrase Kpia ings a s well as others, to show t h a t these two are tpayetr, E o 1421, 1 Co 813. I t is impossible to do t h e n a t u r a l elements of which m a n is made up, justice t o t h e biblical uses of this term Flesh with- exactly as ' f l e s h ' and ' s o u l , ' ' f l e ss8h ' and ' h e a r t ' out clearly distinguishing at least the following are in the OT {e.g. M t 26«, R o 2 - » 1 Co 5»). ' F l e s h ' is used by St. Paul of corporeal presence, five meanings:— in contrast to fellowship 1. Substance of an animal body, whether of cognizable5 by the senses, U s in ' spirit (2 Co 516, Col 2 1 - B ), indeed of m a n ' s beast or of m a n (e.g. Gn 41", Lv 4 , J o b 31 \ 1 Co without moral qualif.ca1539). For this use of the term in its application earthly or 20bodily 2life 2 to FOOD and to SACRIFICES, see under these words. tion (ll are found : »xtkovDiu, 2J t h 151«, Sir 2328 (RV omits), 2 Mac 4*? 8*« , \Z.ovQiw, Sir f> , Three 1» ; ixxxokovBii»,n Ad- Est 1 5 1S 5i r 466; y.^Toc-xoXovtiiui, sJ t h 19116 ; „ecpocxoXovBiu, 2 M a c 8 5 htuxw, Sir ll ' (UV ' p u r s u e ') 27 29 (Gr. Sivxuv'tpyoXecfSeion,AV ' he t h a t undurt a k e t h a n d followeth other men's& business for gain,' RV ' 17 und>jrtaketh contracts for w o r k ' ) 31 34 2 ; Sir 27 (IlV ' pursue ') ; , to follow close u p o n , M k 16-°, 1 T i 5 10 ( E V ' d i l i g e n t l y followed'), 5- 4 ( ' S o m e m e n ' s sins a r e open beforeh a n d , g o i n g before t o j u d g m e n t ; a n d some men * Cf. Kethe's version of Ps 1003 (as it first appeared in Daye's t h e y follow a f t e i , ' i.e. m a y be u n d e t e c t e d b y m a n , Psalter, 1500-61)— b u t follow t h e m h a r d t o God's j u d g m e n t - s e a t ) , 1 P 4 The Lord ye know is God in dede 2 a l ; (3) Kara.Ko\ovdeu3s t o follow b e h i n d , used only oi w i t h o u t o u r aide, he did u s m a k e : We a r e his folck, he d o t h us fede, w o m e n in N T , L k 2355, A c 16 n ; (4) irapaKoKovBto, to a n d for his shepe, he d o t h us take.' follow close, to follow uji, t r d ' follow ' in A V only 4 4 Modero editors have altered folck,' which represents people' in ' M k ' 1 6 " ' t h e s e signs shall follow t h e m t h a t in the prose versions, into 4 flock,' which represents nothing.

FOLLY

FOOD 8

27

p r i m e v a l m a n as y e t discovered. There were m i g h t y h u n t e r s even b e f o r e N i m r o d (Gn (j11 10 a ), a n d i m p l e m e n t s of t h e c h a s e w e r e a m o n g t h e first of m a n ' s i n v e n t i o n s . I n process of t i m e , as a g r i c u l t u r a l a n d p a s t o r a l i n d u s t r i e s developed, t h e p r o d u c e of t h e t i l l e d field a n d of t h e h e r d a n d flock sup plied m e n w i t h a d d i t i o n a l food-stuffs (Gn 4' 2 * 3 - 4 - 20 ). T h e expression of t h e d i v i n e s a n c t i o n f o r t h e s e a d d i t i o n s , r e c o r d e d i n Gn 9 3 , seems t o h a v e f o r i t s special o b j e c t tlie i n j u n c t i o n of t h e t a b o o c o n c e r n i n g t h e e a t i n g of blood. A. T h e i n h a b i t a n t s of t h e B i b l e l a n d s lived c h i e f h on vegetable food. A t the present day. bread, olives a n d oil, b u t t e r , m i l k , a n d cheese, f r u i t a n d v e g e t a b l e s , w i t h m e a t on special occasions, or in particularly wealthy households, m a k e up the d i e t a r y of m o s t of t h e i r d e s c e n d a n t s in t h e E a s t ( T h o m s o n , i. 98). T h e stall' of life w a s , a n d is, b r e a d m a d e of cereal g r a i n s , especially w h e a t , m i l l e t , d h t i r a h , a n d b a r l e y , t o w h i c h i* n o w a d d e d rice, u n k n o w n in B i b i e t i m e s (see BREAD). {a) P a r c h e d c o r n is 5 t i m e s m e n t i o n e d a s a n a r t i c l e of d i e t , a n d i s coupled w i t h broad in L v 23 14 . O n e f o r m of t h i s , called ^i? {.kali), w a s m a d e of t h e c o m m o n , n e a r l y r i p e w h e a t by h e a t i n g t h e g r a i n on a n i r o n ' g i r d l e ' ( L a n e , i. 251 ; R o b i n s o n , ii. 50), or by b i n d i n g t h e e a r s i n t o wisps a n d r o a s t i n g t h e m over t h e fire (ib. iii. 39tt). I n A r a b i c kali m e a n s a n y t h i n g d o n e i n t h e f r y i n g - p a n , a n d t h e m a t e r i a l of t h e p a r c h e d corn m a y be m e a l , or p o l e n t a , or flour, or else t h e u n g r o u n d g r a i n . I t i s a c o m m o n food of l a b o u r e r s (Ku 2 J4 ), a n d is sold r e a d y p r e p a r e d in E a s t e r n t o w n s a s a c o n v e n i e n t food f o r t r a v e l l e r s . D a v i d b r o u g h t 3 p e c k s of i t t o h i s b r e t h r e n a t E l a h (1 S 1717) ; a n d A b i g a i l b r o u g h t 5 p e c k s t o D a v i d ' s men (1 S 25 18 ). I n L v 2 14 ' g r e e n e a r s of corn d r i e d by t h e t i r e ' a r e m e n t i o n e d , a n d in L v 23 14 t h e s e a r e coupled w i t h p a r c h e d corn. T h i s f o r m is m a d e , a c c o r d i n g t o A b u 1 ! W a l i d , of finer g a r d e n w h e a t , w h i c h is called karmel (2 K 4 42 ). In R V t h i s is called ' b r u i s e d corn of t h e f r e s h e a r , ' a l l u d i n g t o I n 1 P 333 t h e e d d . p r e f e r tyterati a f t e r t h e b e s t M S S t o i t s b e i n g b e a t e n i n a m o r t a r ( P r 27 22 ). W h e n t h i s t u ^ T e t l of T R , h e n c e ' z e a l o u s ' i n R V f o r A V ' f o l l o w e r s . ' b r u i s e d corn w a s dried i n t h e s u n i t w a s called nisn J . HASTINGS. r¿phutA ( P r 272'J, 2 S 1719), G r a i n of t h i s k i n d w a s F O L L Y . — S e e FOOL. u s e d t o cover t h e well in w h i c h A h i m a a z a n d FOOD.—I. T h e m a t e r i a l e a t e n f o r t h e s u s t e n a n c e J o n a t h a n w e r e h i d d e n a t B a h u r i m ( L X X apa icapta) is not mentioned as a nebely 1 S l24 103, 2 S 161 (this word is used figuratively for the clouds in Job 3837), or ida nod, Jos f r u i t ; but a garden of nuts, which is mentioned in 94-13, Jg 419, 1 S 1(32(). This word is also used figura- Ca 611, is taken by the rabbinical authorities as tively m Ps 568 in «alliteration with nod, ' wander- meaning a garden of walnuts. T h e Arabs call the ing,' for there is no evidence of the use of lacry- tree gyaiis, and it is very common in Palestine. matories among the Jews. The nod was liable to T h e common walnut, Juglans regia, is too well shrivel if hung up in the heat (Ps 11983). In L X X known to need description. and N T bottle is au> fat" t a i f ( R V ) is the .v4** *«!y«h •-= broomy (Nu 3318). The roots were used as fuel or rump ( A Y ) of Ex 29- (see Herod, 'iii. 113). (Ps 1204), and the Revisers have put ' to warm them ' In Northern Palestine and Syria there is also a in marg. of Job 304, which, considering the uneat- short-woolled small sheep, resembling the merino ; able nature of the roots, is a more intelligible ren- both are varieties of the one species Oris Aries. dering. The word may be regarded as a The lamb was the commonest of ail meals for derivative of the verb D£n ' to heat,' in which sense feasts, and is stiil the animal often killed for a the same word occurs in Is 4714. This sense is taken guest (Doughty, i. 10). The ram, 's a n s u p p o s e d t o be t h e g u m m y e x u d a t i o n of t h e a s h r u b w h i c h g r o w s in t h e w i l d e r n e s s ; a c c e s s o r y t o t h e f e a s t of P a s s o v e r , t h o u g h in itself m'tnnifera, n o t a food-stulF, is a. l a b i a t e h e r b of i n c o n s p i c u o u s b u t t h e w h o l e d e s c r i p t i o n i n d i c a t e s t h a t i t w a s a size, w h i c h w a s u s e d b y t h e E g y p t i a n p r i e s t s f o r m i r a c u l o u s food. ITT. TABOOS.—There a r e c e r t a i n p r o h i b i t i o n s food ( P o r p h y r y , de Abstinentia, iv. 7), b u t is m e n t i o n e d in t h e B i b l e o n l y a s a m e a n s of a s p e r s i o n , s p e c i a l l y m e n t i o n e d in t h e P e n t a t e u c h . O n e of c o n s i d e r e d b y C e l s i u s t o b e t h e Hyssopus officinalis, t h e s e , t h e k i d j.n m o t h e r ' s m i l k , h a s b e e n a l r e a d y Blood is o n e of t h e m o s t a n c i e n t of a t h y m e - l i k e p l a n t . I n Negaim, xiv. 6, t h e r e a r e d i s c u s s e d . five k i n d s r e c o g n i z e d — t h e G r e e k {Orig>m um Smyr- t h e s e t a b o o s , a n d in c o n n e x i o n w i t h i t a l l a n i m a l s nczum), t h e E g y p t i a n {Ori&tnum Egyptianim), t h e w h i c h died of t h e m s e l v e s o r w e r e k i l l e d o t h e r Any w i l d ( 0 . Syriacum), t h e Cochali {Origanum mar it), wise t h a n b y b e i n g b l e d , w e r e f o r b i d d e n . a n d t h e R o m a n [Salureja Juliana). A s t h e h y s s o p s u c h n^n:, ncbeldh, o r c a r c a s e , m i g h t be g i v e n t o s t r a n g e r s , or sold to f o r e i g n e r s , b u t was a n a b o mih a d a f i r m s t e m a n d c o u l d b e t i e d in a b u n d l e , i t w a s p r o b a b l y t h e 0. maru. K i t t o c o n j e c t u r e s t h a t n a t i o n t o t h e J e w s ( D t 14-1). T h e e a t e r of i t 15 s 22 ). Likewise i t is t h e p o k e {Phytolacca, clecandra); b u t t h i s is w a s r e n d e r e d u n c l e a n ( L v 17 n o t a n a t i v e of P a l e s t i n e . R o y l e , T r i s t r a m , a n d t h a t w h i c h w a s t o r n of b e a s t s ( E x 22 31 ), w h i l e i t S t a n l e y believe it to be the caper {Capparis m i g h t b e e a t e n b y t h e s t r a n g e r , w a s n o t a l l o w e d t o H u n t i n g by dogs w a s spinosa) ; b u t t h i s does n o t fulfil t h e c o n d i t i o n s ; i t t h e I s r a e l i t e (Lv 17 15 ). T h e o b s e r v a n c e of t h i s is s o f t , s m o o t h , a n d i r r e g u l a r l y b r a n c h e d , b e s i d e s t h e r e f o r e n o t p r a c t i s e d . t a b o o of piggul, o r a b o m i n a b l e lies:'» is i t is m e n t i o n e d u n d e r a n o t h e r n a m e a s dbiyondh ( E c 123, * d e s i r e ' A V , ' c a p e r b e r r v ' R V ) . r e f e r r e d t o in E z k 4 14 a n d A c 1014 {-rrav KOLVVV /cal T h e flower - b u d s of t h e c a p e r a r e s u p p o s e d t o aKadapTov), a n d i t w a s o n e of t h e f o u r ' n e c e s s a r y s t i m u l a t e passion and appetite, a n d were eaten t h i n g s ' prohibited to t h e Gentile converts by th« w i t h v i n e g a r a l o n g w i t h m e a t a s t h e y a r e still ; J e r u s a l e m C o u n c i l , A c 1528 ( ' t h i n g s s t r a n g l e d ' ) . h e n c e t h e m e t a p h o r i c a l u s e in t h e p a s s a g e , w h o s e T h e e a t i n g of blood, w h i c h is o n e of t h e m o s t a n c i e n t

FOOD

FOOD

prohibitions (Gn 9 ) re-enacted in t h e Mosaic law in which it is f r e q u e n t l y repeated, had not only a hygienic basis, but had reference probably to t h e drink-offerings of blood which were parts of the h e a t h e n rituals (Ps 164). I t was t h u s a law of demarcation, and in Lv 1926 e a t i n g w i t h t h e blood and auguries are bracketed together. T h e poisonous eilects of bull's blood a r e referred to by several a u t h o r s ; Midas (Strabo, I. xi. § 21) and Psammenitus (Herodotus, iii. 15) are said to have been killed by it. The F a t of animals was also forbidden (Lv 730) as food, and in t h e sacrificed victims this is called ' the food of t h e b u r n t - o t t e r i n g ' Lv 313. ' All t h e f a t is the L o r d ' s ' (v.1G), see 1 S 216, 2 Ch 77, Gn 44. W h a t is specially referred to is t h e thick subcutaneous layer, and t h a t around t h e kidneys and other viscera, as well as t h e f a t t y tails of t h e sheep. T h e * f;»t t h i n g s ' of t h e promised spiritual feast in Is 25'' as well as in Nell 810 are c'jrr.-p mashmannim, delicate things, not n^n heleb, suet. The Sinew that shrank (Gn 323-), which it was the custom of t h e J e w s to avoid, was a tribal taboo although not specially interdicted by s t a t u t e . I t is not k n o w n w h a t p a r t is particularized by t h e n a m e TJ gid, as t h e word is a general one, used of t h e sinews of t h e whole body in t h e vision of dry bones, Ezk 378. Some have supposed it to be t h e g r e a t sciatic nerve a t t h e back of t h e hip (Josephus, Ant. I. xx. 2), but t h a t is not s i t u a t e d in t h e hollow of t h e thigh. This region, kaph hayyerek, evidently m e a n s t h e groin, which was facing his a n t a g o n i s t when J a c o b was wrestling. There are two sinews t h e r e which if. cramped cause lameness—one t h e tendon of t h e psoas, which exactly fits t h e description, b u t is very seldom cramped ; t h e other, t h a t of t h e adductor longus, is exceedingly liable to cramp when t h e t h i g h is twisted, and this causes agonizing pain a n d lameness, and would effectually disable a wrestler. I have known it to be severely strained in athletic exercises, causing lameness for several weeks. Some J e w s have recommended t h a t the hind legs of animals should not be eaten, lest by accident t h i s sinew should be p a r t a k e n of by mistake. This was not t h e practice in early times, for Samuel's cook set t h e thigh of t h e animal before Saul as t h e piece of honour (1 55 924. A V a n d KYm tr. p\& here ' shoulder'). See T r a c t Chullin, 7. Swine, forbidden as food to t h e Jews, were eaten by t h e surrounding peoples in general. The E g y p t i a n s also considered t h e pig unclean (Herod, ii. 47), for a reason t h e Greek a u t h o r forbears to mention, b u t which we learn from t h e Book of t h e Dead, as t h e demon Set once appeared in t h e form of a pig. Hence t h e y are never represented in t h e older monuments, b u t appear in those of t h e New Empire (Wilkinson, ii. 100). T h e foul h a b i t s and coarse feeding of swine, their supposed liability to gland u l a r disease [which has given us t h e L a t i n n a m e of such swellings 'scrofula'(Celsus, v. xxviii. 7), arid its Greek equivalent x0lP&$ (Hippoc. Aph. 1248)], and t h e notion t h a t leprosy followed t h e e a t i n g of swine's flesh, contributed to this dislike. A f t e r t h e Captivity, however, especially u n d e r Syrian and R o m a n domination, t h e keeping of swine was practised for commercial purposes if not for food, hence our Lord's references M t 76, L k 1515, M t 830 (see Thomson, i. 355 fF.). Swine's flesh is taboo to t h e M o h a m m e d a n as well as to t h e J e w . For a detailed consideration of this prohibition see Spencer, t/c

T h e H a r e (nninx), only mentioned as being unclean because it is not cloven-footed, was common in t h e hilly regions. In t h e N o r t h t h e commonest species

4

legibus Hebrceorum ritualibus, Cambridge, 1727, i.

p. 131. T h e Camel, which is eaten by t h e Bedawin, was forbidden by t h e Levitical code. I t is coarse and r a t h e r dry meat. The milk, however, was used in patriarchal times (see above). I t was probably camel's milk which J a e l gave to Siserfv

39

is Lc/rus Syrlacus, in the South L. JF.yyptlacus, and

in the A r a b a h and Dead Sea district L. Sinaiticus. I t is said to chew t h e cud from its h a b i t of s i t t i n g in its form, b u t it is not a t r u e r u m i n a n t . The same is the case w i t h t h e shaphan or coney, which

is the Nyrarc Syriacas.

The oldest taboo is t h a t of the f r u i t of t h e tree JH} rvj ' of the knowledge of good and evil.' Conjecture as to the actual tree m e a n t is useless, b u t i t is worth noting t h a t t h e b a n a n a was identified w i t h it by m a n y media?val w r i t e r s ; see I>i ocaid's Dcscript. Terra >S'anctri, xi. See also Celsius, Illerobot., in which it is supposed to be t h e quince. In the N T there is added t h e taboo of t h i n g s o lie red to idols (Ac 21-(i, 1 Co S1). The early ecclesiastics increased t h e stringency of t h e apostle's ordinance, and by t h e Council of A n c y r a (c. 7) it was forbidden to a Christian to eat in a n y place which was connected with idolatrous worship, even if he brought his own food. Oil t h e other hand, Gregory, in writing to A u g u s t i n e (Ep. xi. 76), recommends t h a t t h e h e a t h e n sacrifices of oxen should be allowed to be continued in t h e English temples to accustom t h e people gradually to t h e change of ritual, b u t t h a t t h e y should be made on saints' days. For t h e tabooed vineyard on account of mixed seeds see a b o v e ; a n d for rabbinical comments on taboos see Aboda Zara, especially v. § 0. The Ass, though a n unclean animal, was e a t e n during- periods of famine. In 2 K G23 it is said t h a t during- the siege of Samaria a rosh-hamur, or ass's head, was sold for a b o u t £10. I t has been supposed t h a t this m e a n t a measure of corn, b u t this is unlikely. In periods of dearth, distinctions of food are impracticable (Ezk 4 13 ); for parallels see P l u t a r c h (mt. Artax. Mnemon, i. 1023, and Xenophon, Anab. i. § 5). Even h u m a n flesh was eaten in such straits, see 2 IC 6s», La 4», Ezk 5». I V . FOOD P R E P A R A T I O N . — I n p r i m i t i v e t i m e s t h e

field, t h e llock, and t h e herd supplied all t h a t was needful to the family, who procured it directly when wanted as in On IS5 ; b u t with t h e growth of towns and t h e consequent division of labour, food became a m a t t e r of merchandise. I t was so in t i m e of famine (Gn 42J), or to those on j o u r n e y s (Dt 26- 2S). M a r k e t s or bazaars became established in t h e towns (Jer 37-'), and m e r c h a n t s a n d shopmen (1 K 1015) supplied t h e w a n t s of t h e town-dwellers. W e read of such sellers of victual in J e r u s a l e m (Nell 1315) and Samaria (Jn 4s). In t h i s way, bread, water, f r u i t , milk, and flesh a r e purveyed to t h e people of t h e cities of t h e East. Cookery was practised or supervised by t h e wife (Gn IS3), or by a slave (Gn IS7). A t set feasts t h e r e was a cook employed (1 S S25) who killed t h e animals, and hencc was called nj® tabbuh, a word also applied to soldiers or executioners (Jer 39»), Some of these were female cooks (1 S 8 H ) who dressed t h e meats, a n d differed from t h e n-ss or bakers, and t h e ninm who were perfumers or spice mixers ( 1 S 8 1 3 A V ami R V ' confectionaries '). The animals were killed immediately before being cooked (Gn IS7, L k 15'-'3) ; t h e t h r o a t was cut and t h e blood poured out in accordance with Lv 728 (see 1 S 1 4 * * ) ; they were then flayed (Mie 33) a n d c u t up i n t o joints, except in t h e case of small animals such as lambs, which were cooked whole (Ex 12"'). W i t h larger animals t h e flesh was separated from the holies, and these broken when t h e llesli was to be boiled (Mic 3 s ). T h e d o u b t f u l

air. \ey. nf-f is tr. in Job IS" collops.

Boiling n a s the ordinary method of cooking, lienee fe? bushnl, to boil, is used of cooking in general (2 S 13s> The vessels used for this purpose

40

FOOD

were pots or caldrons of different kinds, which are called by six different names (see below). Some of the sacrifices were boiled, having first been flayed, the fat alone being burned (2 Ch 3513). This was especially the case with the sacrificial feasts, peaceoffering, or hostia honorifica. In boiling, the caldron was first partly filled with water, and the flesh put in (Ezk 24s) j sometimes milk was used, as Burckliardt describes being done at the present day (i. 63), and occasionally the bones were used to make the fire bum briskly, as Ezekiel describes. When the scum rises it is taken off (Ezk 246, but R V tr. nç'pn heVâh, as ' the rust of the pot,' not scum, L X X 16s). in Ezk 2410 A Y tr. ivp-in harkîah, ' spice it well," as if derived from np-j to mix spices, but L X X has it éXarr&âi) à fw/x¿s, and R V renders it 4 make thick the broth.' Spicing, that is, mixing with savoury or carminative herbs, was used to render meat savoury (Gn 274), and such food was called ' dainty meat ' (Pr 233"6 oypç mat'am, but called man am in Ps 1414). Salt was also added, and when boiled the broth, p"3ç mârak (Is 654 I£erê, but the Kethib has garak, which means a stew or a mess of mincemeat in broth), was served separately (Jg 619,20). In modern Hebrew, soup is n2"3P"3 rakreketh. The broth may be used as a sauce for meat (Burckhardt, i. 63), or eaten with bread and butter (Gn 18e). Vegetables or rice or meal may be boiled in it or eaten mixed with it. Vegetable food was also boiled in water, witli butter or with milk, to make pottage (Gn 2Ô29, 2 K 438), which was of the consistence of thick Scotch broth or thin porridge.

FOOD boiling. These were slightly glazed by means ol salt and litharge. This may be referrea to in the c r p or silver dross of Pr 26-*. 5. The pot of 1 S 214 is in? par ur, tr. ' p a n ' i n Nu l l 8 ( R V pots); in Jg 619 it was a pot for holding broth, L X X xvrpdThe pan of 2 Ch 3ols is rinby zelahdh. This is the word tr. * cruse ' in 2 K. 220, and ' dish ' in 2 K 2113 and P r 1924 ( A V tr. it here 4 bosom ' as L X X jc6\iro-?). The caldron of A V Job 41'40 is properly translated 4 rushes' in R V . The figure being that leviathan's snortings make the pool in which he swims to boil like a caldron and the reeds to seem as if on lire. The ibvp or flesh hook was a brazen fork (Ex 273), which had three teeth (1 S 213). The hooks of Ezk 4043 for hanging up the slaughtered carcases of the offered animals are called o^SJ'f sMphattair.i. The firepan or chafing dish of 2 K 2515 mahtdh was used for carrying burning coals. These vessels were of gold in the first temple. The dishes or trays or other vessels in which food and drink were served are known by various names. Pottage was eaten out of the pot in w liich it was boiled (2 K 440). Thomson describes the Bedawin sitting around a large saucepan and doubling their bread spoon-fashion to eat their lentil pottage (i. 253). Many of the vessels na,med were employed only in the temple service. 'agartdl, L X X \pvKT-qp, Vulg. phiala, only used in Ezr l 9 and tr. ' charger,' was a gold bowl or basin, said by Ibn Ezra to be the same as that called mizrdJc. fax 'aggdnl L X X Kparrjp, used in Ex 24" ior a wash-vessel or basin for sacrificial blood, mace of gold, silver, or brass. Its plural is tr. cups in Is 2224; see also Ca 72. 'asuk, an oil vessel 2 K 4a tr. ' pot,' after Kimchi, but more probably a flask or bottle. ^argdz, a coffer or box, which could be slung to the side of a cart, such as that in which the votive offerings of the Philistines were sent (1 S 6 U ). paps bakbuk, a wide-mouthed bottle or cruse for carrying honey (1 K 143). I t was of earthenware, and so was easily broken (Jer 19 1,10 ); L X X renders it /3t/c6s, which is the name given by Herodotus to the Babylonian casks of palm wine (i. 194). Athenaeus uses it for a drinking vessel (784 D). In Maltese a large vessel of this kind is called bakbyka. gdbia'y wine bowls (as Jer 35®, L X X Kepdiuov), of earthenware, from which wine was poured into goblets. A silver cup used for drinking and divination Gn 442; L X X tcovSv, said to be a Persian word. I t is used for the pots of wine out of which Jeremiah filled the kCsuth for the Rechabites, J er 35®. nVa gulldh, L X X crpeirrbv avOefiiov, a round vessel for Holding oil in a lamp Zee 4s, the golden cruse of Ec 126, used also for the rounded bowls above the capitals of the temple-pillars in 1 K 741 and 2 Ch 412-13, possibly volutes such as those shown on the tablet of Samas in the Brit. Museum. -is lead, a pail or barrel to hold meal 1 K 1714, or water 1 K 1833. This name is given to Rebekah's pitcher Gn 2414*lsff-, and to Gideon's men's pitchers Jg 716 ; see also Ec 12s. •6? keli, a vessel in general, of gold and silver Gn 2453, or of clay L v ll 3 3 , apparently so called irrespective of shape, used for the vessels of the temple Is 52", Ezr l 7 , N u 415. oi3 kus, a wine cup as in Gn 40n-13- 21. Pharaoh's wine chalice, the cup which passed around the circle at a meal 2 S 123. See also P r 2381, used metaphorically Ps l l 6 11613, Is 5117"22, Hab 216 etc. lb and ap were vessels of measurement, the former about 8 bushels, the latter about 4 pints, nxp, also a measure, nearly equals the English peck, and is a little greater than the /xbdios or * Dushel' of

Roasting was practised with small animals, such as the paschal lamb, which was cooked whole (Ex 1246) over an open lire (Ex 128, 2 Ch 3513), which was of wood (Is 4416). Animals taken in the chase were also roasted («ni? hâra/c, Pr 12-7). Or the meat was baked in an oven, which may have been sunk in the ground (see BREAD). The paschal lamb was flayed oefore being roasted (2Ch35 u ). Eli's sons ( I S 212ffi) sinned in that they took part of the flesh, which should have been boiled, and roasted it. They also seem not to have been content with the priestly share, which was ultimately fixed as the breast of the peace-offering and the right shoulder ( L v 731"82). The only method of cooking fish mentioned in the Bible is broiling (Ô7rr6s, L k 24^, see Jn 219) on the coals. In the Gizeh Museum there is a representation of shepherds broiling fish over the fire, and wiping the ashes from them with little bundles of straw (see Perrot-Chipiez, Hist, de l'Art dans rantiquité, i.). V. VESSELS used in the conveyance and cooking of food. There were several kinds of basket (see BASKET). The pots were of six kinds : 1. vp sîr, L X X X^TJÎ, called in Jer l 13 a sir ndphiiah or boiling caldron. Of this kind were the ilesh-pots of Egypt (Ex 16s) and the great pot used by the sons of the prophets (2 K 438), as well as the caldron of Ezekiel's visions (ll 3 - 7 246), and of Zechariah (14-°-21). In the list of temple furniture this word is tr. ' p o t ' in 1 K74® and ' pan ' in Ex 27s, in which cases it was a brazen vessel for ashes, not for boiling. I t is tr d •washpot' in Ps 608 and 'caldrons' in Jer 52 1 8 (RV pots). 2. nrc d-ûd, usually tr. basket (which see), is the kettle of 1 S 214 and the calrlron of 2 Ch 3513, tr. \4p7}$ by L X X in the latter case. 3. The pan of 1 S 214, 1 K 7s8, and 2 Ch 48 is n'v? kiyyor, L X X X ^ s . This word is variously tr. ' torch ' (Zee 126, R V •pan'), 'laver,' or washing vessel (Ex 3018 etc.), and seems to have been a shallow, wide-mouthed utensil. The d:t? of L v 11s5, which like the tannur or oven could be broken down, was probably, as A V and R V render it in the text, a fireliearth or range for pots ( R V m has 'stewpan'), perhaps of two sides as the dual indicates, L X X xi/rpôîroôej. 4. The caldron of Mic 33 is nn^p kallahath, similarly tr. In 1 S 214, L X X x^rrPa> a n earthenware vessel for A l t 516.

See W E I G H T S A N D MEASURES.

FOOD

FOOD

41

"rts? kephdr, a deep cup or chalice as X Ch 2817, (Is 511), and eating in the morning is deprecated as Ezr l10, and 8s7, probably a cup with a cover. culpable luxury (Ec 101S) and out of due season. njno mahabath, a flat plate (?) for frving or baking I t is still the custom in the East to make the bread L v 6" 79, 1 Ch 23'9, Ezk 43. See BREAD. morning repast a very slight one—a cup of milk, a njjinn mahtdh, a firepan 2 K 2515, or an incense piece of butter. Robinson describes melted buttei bowl L v 1612, a coalpan Ex 273 25s8, L X X TT vpelov. {semen), or oil poured over bread, as a breakfast dish menakkiy&h, a sacrificial dish Ex 25"9 37ls, (ii. 70), or cakes baked on the ashes and broken up and mixed with butter in a dish (ii. 18). The Nu 47, Jer 5219, probably a libation vessel. np'io medokdh, a mortar in which e.g. the manna morning meal of the Bedawi is about 9 or 10 o'clock (Burckhardt, Notes, i. 69). Drummond was beaten before being baked Nu 11®. p-np a bowl; of these Hiram made a hundred notices how his negro bearers in tropical Africa 8 46 46 a9 14 17 rose from sleep and began their day's work without 2 Ch 4 , 1 K I - . See Ex 25 , 1 Ch 28 - , Nu 713, Zee 915. For the numbers of these (pidXat and food (Tropical Africa, p. 100). (rTTovdeta see Jos. Ant. VIII. iii. 7, 8. I t is a sacri- The mid-day meal or dinner in Egypt was at ficial bowl for dashing (p*]i) the blood in a volume noon (Gn 4316), and probably was at the same time against the altar (see Driver's note on A m 66). in Palestine (Ru 214). Abstinence from this is "!«: nod, a skin bottle, see above under Wine. called fasting (Jg 20-6, 1 S 1424, 2 S l 12 335). From nebel, a skin of wine 1 S l 24 103, 2 S 161; this these passages it is evident that the people were word is also used for an earthen vessel as in Is 22-24 accustomed to ' eat bread' at mid-day. God pro3014. It is also the name of a musical instrument, mised to Israel bread in the morning and flesh in a lute ( R V ) or psaltery or viol Is 512. the evening (Ex I612). This early meal is the Fjp saph, a basin or bowl for blood Ex 1222, dpicrrov of L k 1412. St. Peter's intended meal, 17 2 interrupted by Cornelius' messengers, was at Jer 52™, for wine Is 51 , Zee 12 . SSD ftephel, a bowl Jg S26 688; L X X XeK&vrj; also 12 o'clock. This meal took some time to prepare, so the good housewife began to make ready this pn in i K' 750 and 2 K 1213. 15 *19 pah, a vial or flask of oil 1 S 10\ 2 K 9 1 ' 8 ; while it was yet night (Pr5 3134 ). The30meal is called nu-js 'druhdh, as in Jer 40 52 , 2 K 25 , and Pr 1517. L X x kbuJc. %appahath, a water bottle 1 S 261'2, 1 K 19e, The noon meal is described in Lane's Modern ed.). I t sometimes or an oil bottle 1 K 1712; an oryballus or round Egyptians, p. 156 fF. (Gardner's 1ar or Oriental alabaster, which is a variegated his friends at the second hour of the night = 8 p.m. kind of marble of calcium carbonate, not tliey ypsum See also BJ 1. xvii. 4, and the great supper of or calcium sulphate now called alabaster. Vessels Lk 1413ff' of this kind are described by Theophrastus (de In the patriarchal days they seem to have sat Odoribus, 41) and by Pliny (ix. 56) as elongated on the ground as they do at present. Abraham's or pear-shaped with fairly narrow necks. Some guests probably thus sat while he stood and served alabastra were made of glass, gold (Plutarch, (Gn 188). Jacoo says to his father' sit and eat of my Vit. Alex.), or earthenware (Epiphanius, de men- venison,' but that was probably because the blind suris et ponderibus, xxiv. 182). old man was recumbent (Gn 2719). Jacob's sons Illvalz, the charger in which the Baptist's head also sat down to eat (G11 3725), as the Egyptian was sent (Mt 148- n ), was a flat dish. Finn refers to shepherds are represented in a painting from a case in which some Bedawin sent the head of an Sakkarah, now in the Gizeh Museum. The Levite enemy on a dish on the top of a pillau of rice (p. 35). and his concubine sat down to eat(Jg 196). Saul as did Samuel when The irapoipis of M t 2325 was a smaller dish on which also sat at meat (1 S 205he brought Saul to feast with him (1 S 922), and dainty food was served. 11 Of other N T vessels, ico-rfipiov is the drinking Jesse and his family (1 S 16 ). The old prophet cup of Mk 74, and that used at the Last Supper and his guest likewise took the forbidden meal 20 M k 1423 etc. £¿5piat Xldivai at the feast at Cana (Jn 26) were stonea stately bed with a table prepared before it 41 pitchers of considerable capacity. Early figures (Ezk 23 ), and the guests at Esther's banquet 8 of these from sarcophagi and from the well-known reclined on couches (Est 7 ). The table is also mentioned in Ps 235. Sitting on the ground was, ivory plaque in Ravenna are published by Bottari and Bandini, and an ancient hydria is shown as however, regarded as a sign of humiliation and 6 1 2 one of these in the Ch. of St. Ursula in Cologne; abasement in prophetic times, as in Is 3^ 47 52 , Jer 1318 RVm, La 210, Ezk 2616. for others see Didron, Annates ArcMol. xiii. 2. In N T times the usual attitude was reclining VI. The usual MEALS in ordinary life were two— a mid-day meal or dinner, and an evening meal or and resting on the left elbow; as at the supper supper, which was the more important. Break- described in J11 13'23, John reclined in front of our fast was, and still is, an informal repast. That Lord, and so when he leant back to speak to Him in Jn 2118 was a meal after a night of toil, so John's head was on Jesus' breast. I t has been sup4 dine' in A V is replaced in R V by ' break your posed from these expressions that the patriarchal fast' (dpicrT^a-are). The meal at the Pharisee'scustom changed, and that the practice of sitting 3 7 house in L k ll is also, as in RVm, a breakfast or as the Egyptians did was adopted by early Israel, early meal. Peter, defending the apostles, points the fashion changing in later time into the Graecoout tftat they could not be drunken, as it was only Roman custom of reclining on a couch with a 9 o'clock in the morning (Ac 215). Early drinking cushion for the left elbow, and the right arm free ; of wine at such a time was a sign of degradation but it is probable that these changes were slight,

FOOD

FOOD

and t h a t t h e phrase Bitting a t m e a t does not specify a posture such as t h a t to which we give t h e no me. T h u s our Lord uses t h e phrase uf the a t t i t u d e in His own time (Lk 148 177 22-7), and t h e m u l t i t u d e whom H e miraculously fed sat down on t h e ground (Jn G10). Of t h e tables, we have preserved a figure in t h e shewbrcad. table on t h e Arch of Titus. They m u s t have been high enough in t h e d a y s of Adonibezok for t h e 70 captive kings to sit on a lower level (Jg l 7 ) ; b u t the same phrase is used in N T times of t h e crumbs falling to t h e dogs under t h e table (Mt .io-7, M k 728), and L a z a r u s is said t o have s a t a t table a t the feast ( J n 122). T h e couches or mattresses on which t h e eaters s a t or reclined are never mentioned except in the cases given above, and t h e SLOOI in the prophet's chamber is the only m a t e r i a l seat specified in t h e OT, except royal thrones. A t ordinary meals i t is probable t h a t t h e family squatted around t h e dish, out of which they all helped themselves, even as is done a t the present d a y by t h e Bedawin. For an account of the ancient tables see Athenaaus, Deijmosophistce, especially ii. 32. T h e costly couches for reclining, w i t h ivory corners, are mentioned in A m 312 and 6-1. H o m e r refers to sitting a t food, II. x. 578 ; Oclyss. i. 145.

S a m a r i t a n carried also wine a n d oil. Dough ii sometimes carried tied in a wallet or cloth (sei D o u g h t y , i. 231). VII. FEASTS, or special meals, were provided on particular occasions, and a r e f r e q u e n t l y 111311tioned. These were of various kinds—(1) Feasts of hospitality for t h e e n t e r t a i n m e n t of £irangers (Gn 18JI1'-). These m i g h t be a t a n y time—Abraham's w a s a t t h e h e a t of t h e day, Lot's (G11 191"8) was in t h e evening. Por such feasts a t t h e present day see B u r c k h a r d t , Robinson, D o u g h t y , etc. (2) E n t e r t a i n m e n t s of friends specially invited (Lk 141G and m a n y other passages). These were usually evening feasts. (3) Religious or sacrificial feasts," non-Jewish or Jewish, ' eating bread before God 5 (Ex IS13), e a t i n g of sacrifices (Ex 3415 2D5-, Lv 195, N u 291-lt-, D t 127 27 6 ' 7 , 1 S 913, 2 S 019, 1 K ] fl 3 13 , Zepli l 7 ) ; also a t t h e offering of tithes (Dt 8 14- ). Closely allied were (4) anniversary feasts, such as Passover (Ex 1214), P u r i m (Est 922), and t h e Lord's Supper. (5) Celebrations of t h e completion of a g r e a t work, such as t h e building of t h e temple (2 Ch 7s), t h e carrying home of t h e a r k (2 S 6-9), a g r e a t deliverance (Jg 16-3), or t h e ratification of a t r e a t y (Gn 2G80 a n d 3154). (6) A t t h e beginning of a g r e a t work or laying a foundation. A reference to such a feast is' in P r 91"5. (7) Harvesthomes (Ex 2316), sheepshearing (1 S 2536, 2 S 13'% vintage (Jg 927), and other agricultural events, were likewise the occasions of feasting. '$) F a m i l y events were celebrated by feasts of relatives and f r i e n d s : circumcision (Lk 2;,s*i9), w e a n i n g (Gn 218), marriage (Jn 21, Gn 29". T o 819, J g 1410, M t 222), t h e r e t u r n of a w a n d e r i n g member (Lk 1523), funerals (2 S 3s*, J e r 167, Hos To 417). B i r t h d a y feasts were not common a m o i g Jews, some of whom t h o u g h t t h e m profane (Lightfoot, Iselius), probably because other nations, such as t h e Persians, honoured t h e m so conspicuously (see Herod, i. 133). B i r t l ^ a y feasts are mentioned in Gn 40-°, J o b l 4 , M t 146'y). A m o n g modern J e w s t h e circumcision least is a n i m p o r t a n t occasion (see

•12

The food a t a n ordinary meal a t present consists of messes of lentile-pottage (-n: nuzid) eaten -with bread or wooden spoons (Robinson, ii. 8G ; Gn 25 3J ). Sometimes t h i s is thickened with vegetables, or pillaus of rice w i t h or w i t h o u t meat, thin sheets of bread serving for plates, and used to sop up the gravy (Finn, 24). Sometimes bread, cheese, olives, a n d leben m a k e u p t h e repast (Finn, 272). D o u g h t y describes an A r a b meal in which the family surrounded a vast trencher heaped w i t h boiled m u t t o n ' a n d g r e a t store of girdle bread.' Pieces torn off with t h e hand from t h e m e a t were lapped in the t h i n cakes of bread and handed to those who could not reach t h e dish (i. 40). Robinson saw, likewise, t h e guests surrounding a circular t r a y on which was a m o u n t a i n of pillau of rice boiled w i t h C I R C U M C I S I O N ) . butter, a n d small pieces of m e a t strewed t h r o u g h it. O t h e r dishes used are sausages stuffed w i t h A n y such feast was called mishteh, the rice a n d chopped meat. B u r c k h a r d t gives a graphic p r i m a r y meaning of which is a b a n q u e t of wine, account of t h e discomforts of such a feast to one such as t h a t given by queen E s t h e r (Est 5fi l 7 ). unaccustomed to E a s t e r n habits, Notes, i. 63. T h e A b r a h a m ' s feast a t Isaac's weaning is called a poorer classes of Bedawin live chiefly on bread, mishteh gadol, or g r e a t drinking. J o b feared lest eaten with raw leeks or radishes for flavouring, his sons should be led i n t o excess a t t h e i r periodic which is t h e ' d i n n e r of h e r b s ' (Pr 15 17 ; see Ro 14-, feasts (l 5 ) Such d r i n k i n g feasts a r e specially D n l1:i). For such a meal the son of the prophets mentioned in 1 S 25™, 2 S 13-s, Dn 5 \ and reprobated w e n t o u t to collect t h e 'orCth or herbs (2 K 4'39). by t h e prophets Amos (0G) and Isaiah (5 U ). I n The Bedawi meal described in Ezk 2o5 consisted of t h e N T KQ/XOC are spoken of in Ro lo 13 , Gal 5 a , bread, dates, and milk. Por an ordinary meal a n d 1 P 43. The feast in 2 K G28 is named n-js there is generally one dish, so t h a t t h e member of ktruh, perhaps because t h e prisoner guests sat in t h e f a m i l y who cooks, when it is brought in, has a r i n g (cf. 3=: in I S 1G11). no f u r t h e r work. Hence our Lord's remonstrance Por these b a n q u e t s t h e food animals w e r e siaii* with M a r t h a , t h a t one dish alone was needful early in the day (Is 2213, P r 92, M t 22*), and t< (Lk 1042). I t was t h e d u t y of t h e cook to bring in second invitation sent to remind j u s t before the 3 t h e dishes when p r e p a r e d ' d S 9- ), and t h a t of t h e feast (Est G14, P r 93, M t 22s). The guests on arrival head of t h e family r-o distribute t h e portions were sometimes welcomed w i t h a kiss (To 76, L k (1 S l 5 ), whose size "might be varied according t o 745 ; see Goezius, de Osculo, in Ugolini, xxx.), a n d his affection for t h e members of t h e circle. So provided with w a t e r to wash t h e i r hands, as they Joseph gave B e n j a m i n a fivefold mess, and E l k a n a h p u t their hands in t h e common dish (Mk 7 3 ; see gave H a n n a h a double portion (but L X X says t h a t Odyss. i. 136). These washings were m a d e burdenlie gave her only aep'da \xiav, ' a single portion,' some by traditional r i t u a l s (Mk 7-' 18 ). W h e n t h e ho cause she had no child). Very often, however, visitors came from a distance t h e y were supplied the circle help themselves when they can reach t h e with w a t e r to wash their feet. So A b r a h a m did dish, and as t h e m e a t has been cut up before being for t h e angels a t their noontide feast (Gn IS4), a n d cooked i t does not need a n y carving. A t t h e L o t for t h e i r evening feast (Gn 19-). So t h e old present day t h e Mussulmans clrink w a t e r or m i l k m a n a t Gibeah did for t h e Levite a n d his concuor leben with their meals, b u t probably in earlier bine (Jg 19-1). See our Lord's r e b u k e to Simon times wine w a s used as a drink. In ancient times (Lk 744), His own practice ( J n 13J), and apostolic )>arley or polenta was used as rice is now, and t h e reference (1 T i 5 iP ). T h e anointing of guests ia pillau was t h e riXipiTcopeva Kpea of t h e classics (seereferred t o in Ps 23®, Am G8, L k 7s8, J n 123 (see Gruner, de Primit. Oblatione). The food carried ANOINTING ; and in addition t o the l i t e r a t u r e on j o u r n e y s consisted of bread, cakes of ligs or quoted there, see W e y m a r , de IJnctione Sacra raisins, parched corn, and water. The good lieh,, in Ugolini, xii.; 'lieinerus and Yerwey, de

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'1/??, bpo, n6;? (the root Bethania, in Ugolini, xxx.). T h e c r o w n i n g of a m e a n s p o s s i b l y ' t o b e t h i c k , " p l u m p , s l»u g^g „i s hu '). g u e s t s w i t h g a r l a n d s is m e n t i o n e d i n Is 28 1 , W i s 3. "?'!«, n^.N ( r o o t - c o n c e p t i o n p o s s i b l y t h e s a m e s 2 , J o s . Ant. XIX. i x . 1. See P l u t a r c h , Symp. a s in t h e p r e c e d i n g ) . 4. i>Vinn, niWin, n;iVw ( f r o m i l l . i. 3, a n d M a r t i a l , x . 19. A f t e r t h e s e pre- a r o o t s u g g e s t i n g t h e i d e a ' of w i l d f r a n t i c folly). l i m i n a r i e s t h e y s a t d o w n , m a l e s a n d f e m a l e s S. n j w ( f r o m a r o o t * t o b e i n s i p i d '), o n l v i n t o g e t h e r ( R u 2», 1 S I 4 , J o b 1», L k 10») ; a n d g r a c e J o b l 2 2 2 4 " , J e r 2 3 » . 6. nS-n ( s u p p o s e d b y Dillni. t o w a s said i n J e w i s h f e a s t s ( M t 14™, L k 9 16 , J n 6 11 ). b e c o n n e c t e d w i t h E t h . tahala, ' t o e r r ' ) , J o b 4 18 . T h e g u e s t s w e r e a r r a n g e d in o r d e r of r a n k ( G n All these terms denote something distinct from :B 22 5 43 , 1 S 9 20- , L k 14», M k 12®, J o s . Ant. x v . i m b e c i l i t y on t h e o n e h a n d a n d i n s a n i t y o n tile ii. 4), t h e h i g h e s t o c c u p y i n g t h e ' chief r o o m , ' o t h e r b a n d . I t is ill t h e f o r m s u n d e r 4 o n l y t h a t t h e s e a t o n t h e proto/disia. I n A s s y r . f e a s t s t h e y t h e n o t i o n s of ' f o l l y ' a n d ' m a d n e s s ' c o m e t o g e t h e r a r e r e p r e s e n t e d a s s i t t i n g ( L a y a r d , Nineveh, ii. 411). (of. J o b 1 2 " , I s 44-s w i t h 1 S 21 13 , J e r 2o 16 ). A s a F o r J e w i s h p r a c t i c e see a b o v e . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e r u l e , d i i f e r e n t w o r d s ( d e r i v a t i v e s f r o m l-jtf) a r e u s e d T o s a p h o t h to Bermhoth, vi., e a c h g u e s t h a d a f o r ' m a d m a n ' a n d ' m a d n e s s . ' T h e O T i d e a of s e p a r a t e t a b l e , b u t Pr 23 1 s p e a k s of s i t t i n g a t m e a t ' f o l l y ' c a n b e b e s t u n d e r s t o o d f r o m t h e a n t i t h e s i s w i t h t h e h o s t ; a n d D a v i d s a y s t h a t h e s a t a t t a b i c i t f o r m s t o ' w i s d o m . ' W i s d o m is n o t a t h e o r e t i c a l w i t h S a u l (1 S 20 5 ). T h e food w a s d i s t r i b u t e d o r a b s t r a c t l y s c i e n t i f i c a p p r e h e n s i o n of t h i n g s , b u t e i t h e r b y t h e c o o k or b y t h e h e a d of t h e h o u s e s u c h a p r a c t i c a l i m m e d i a t e i n s i g h t i n t o t h e i r (2 S 6 1S , G n 43 24 ), a n d t h e m o s t h o n o u r e d g u e s t r e a l i t y a n d m a n n e r of a c t i o n a s e n a b l e s o n e t o u s e r e c e i v e d t h e l a r g e s t p o r t i o n ( G n 43 34 ; see H e r o d . t h e m t o a d v a n t a g e . C o r r e s p o n d i n g l y , a fool is n o t vi. 57), o r else t h e t i t - b i t (1 S 9- J ). T o g u e s t s w h o o n e w h o is d e l i c i e n t in t h e p o w e r of logical t h o u g h t , c o u l d n o t come, p r e s e n t s of food w e r e s o m e t i m e s b u t o n e w h o l a c k s t h e n a t u r a l d i s c e r n m e n t a n d t a c t r e q u i r e d f o r success i n l i f e . B o t h w i s d o m a n d s e n t (2 S 11 s , K e h 81», E s t 9 19 " 22 ). A t a f e a s t i n N T t i m e s t h e g u e s t s r e c l i n e d on a f o l l y a r e t e l e o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t i o n s , a n d r e s t on t h e triclinium,the c o u c h e s b e i n g a r r a n g e d o n t h r e e sides p r i n c i p l e of a d j u s t m e n t t o a h i g h e r l a w f o r s o m e of a s q u a r e , t h e f o u r t h side b e i n g o p e n f o r s e r v i n g , p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e . T h i s g e n e r a l i d e a is, h o w e v e r , a n d s t r a n g e r s m i g h t s t a n d a r o u n d on t h e o u t e r a p p l i e d w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e v a r i e t y a s t o p a r t i c u l a r side (see R a s h i , ad Berachoth, 46b. IB ; Pesachim, s h a d e s of m e a n i n g . vii. 13). A w i n e c u p w a s p a s s e d r o u n d con(a) In t h e w i d e s t s e n s e f o l l y is l a c k of c o m m o n t a i n i n g w i n e m i x e d w i t h t h r e e p a r t s of w a t e r s e n s e i n o r d i n a r y a f f a i r s ( G n 31 23 , 1 S 2J 2 S [by: nte") {Shabbath, viii. 1) ; t o t h i s t h e r e a r e m a n y m e t a - 26 21 | > i P n ] , 2 S 1531 [>_-o]). H e r e t h e e l e m e n t o f ' i i n p h o r i c a l a l l u s i o n s in w h i c h t h e c u p in t h e h a n d of r e a s o n a b l e n e s s a n d i n e x p e d i e n c y is m o s t p r o m i n e n t . t h e L o r d is s p o k e n of ( P s 75 s , J e r 2 5 " ; see B u x t o r f , (b) A m o r a l a n d r e l i g i o u s e l e m e n t e n t e r s i n t o t h e Synagog. Jud. x i i . 2 4 2 , a n d W e r n e r , de Poculo c o n c e p t i o n w h e r e i t e x p r e s s e s flagrantly sinful Benedictionis). T h e guests were e n t e r t a i n e d with conduct such as offends a g a i n s t t h e f u n d a m e n t a l m u s i c (2 S 19 s5 , I s 5 l a , A m 6 4 - 5 , L k 15 2 3 ; see p r i n c i p l e s of m t t u r a l l a w a n d u s a g e . I n t h i s s e n s e s M a i m o n i d e s , de Jejnniis, 5), d a n c i n g ( M t 14 ), a n d fools a r e g r e a t s i n n e r s — i m p i o u s , r e p r o b a t e p e o p l e . r i d d l e s ( J g X41-). A f t e r t h e f e a s t t h e h a n d s w e r e B u t t h e o r i g i n a l i d e a is r e t a i n e d in so f a r a s t h e w a s h e d , a s t h e y w e r e soiled b y e a t i n g . F i n n s a w t h o u g h t of s u d d e n d i v i n e r e t r i b u t i o n lies in t h e a g u e s t t a k i n g h a n d f u l s of b u t t e r e d r i c e f r o m t h e b a c k g r o u n d , i t b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d t h e h e i g h t of f o l l y , d i s h , o u t of w h i c h h e s q u e e z e d t h e b u t t e r b e t w e e n b y v i o l a t i n g t h e e l e m e n t a r y r u l e s of r e l i g i o n a n d h i s f i n g e r s a n d l i c k e d i t a s i t flowed d o w n (Byeways, m o r a l i t y , t o e x p o s e o n e ' s self t o t h e u n t i m e l y e n d 1 7 1 ; B u r c k h a r d t , Notes, i. 03). G r a c e w a s said a t w h i c h f r e q u e n t l y b e f a l l s t h e fool ( J o s 7 15 , 2 S 3 s 3 t h e close of t h e m e a l ( D t 8 10 , R o 14 s ; see Bercichoth, (cf. D r i v e r , in loco). J o b 2 10 30 s S 3 - 3 [all bis, n J j j ] , vi. § 8). W e d d i n g f e a s t s w e r e g i v e n b y t h e bride- P s 107 17 [>•!«]). A p r o f o u n d e r a n d m o r e s p i r i t u a l g r o o m ( J g 14 10 ), b u t t h e a r r a n g e m e n t s w e r e c a r r i e d ized t u r n is g i v e n t o t h i s i d e a in s o m e of t h e p s a l m s , o u t u n d e r t h e d i r e c t i o n of a symposiarch o r r u l e r w h e r e i t is a p p l i e d t o sin a s s u c h ( P s 38 a 69 5 rn^Nl of t h e f e a s t , a n d t h e y s o m e t i m e s l a s t e d s e v e n d a y s ef. 2 S 2i'» This whole usage, w i t h " i t s ( J n 2», T o 7 s ; s e e S e l d e n , de Uxor. Jleb. i i . l i ) . i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of w h a t is s e n s i b l e a n d r i g h t , beW e d d i n g g a r m e n t s g i v e n t o g u e s t s a r e m e n t i o n e d s p e a k s a h i g h d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e p o p u l a r m o r a l in M t 2 2 " . s e n s e in I s r a e l . T h e g i v e r of t h e f e a s t s o m e t i m e s m a r k e d dis(c) A special u s a g e c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e f o r e g o i n g t i n g u i s h e d g u e s t s b y g i v i n g t h e m a s o p of b r e a d c h a r a c t e r i z e s a s f o l l y s e x u a l s i n s of v a r i o u s k i n d ? h e l d b e t w e e n t h e t h u m b a n d l i n g e r . A \poitilor of ( G n 34', D t 2 2 2 \ J g 1923- 2S- 24 20 8 - 10 , J e r 29®). The t h i s k i n d d i p p e d i n t h e haroseth w a s g i v e n b y o u r s t a n d i n g p h r a s e is ' f o l l y i n I s r a e l , ' ' w h i c h o u g h t L o r d t o J u d a s . Sops a r e u s e d t o c a t c h a n d c o n v e v n o t t o be d o n e , ' t h e i m p l i c a t i o n b e i n g t h a t s u c h pieces of m e a t ( L a n e , i. 193 ; B u r c k h a r d t , i. 63). I n offences g o a g a i n s t all r e a s o n in u n d e r m i n i n g t h e P r o v e r b s t h e l a z i n e s s of t h e s l u g g a r d is s a i d t o b e f o u n d a t i o n s of s o c i e t y a s w e l l a s d e s t r o y i n g t h e h o l i n e s s of I s r a e l . Vjj a n d n ^ j a r e r e g u l a r l y ° u s e d s u c h t h a t h e w i l l n o t e v e n l i f t u p a sop (19 24 26 15 ). F o r m e t a p h o r i c a l a l l u s i o n s t o f e a s t s see I s 25"; i n t h i s m e a n i n g ; a s y n o n y m ' i s nfi12 ' l e w d n e s s ' ; a n d of t h e t h e f e a s t of a n g e l s a t t h e f i n i s h i n g of c r e a t i o n is cf. f u r t h e r t h e s e n s e of n M j i n H o s 2 r e f e r r e d t o i n J o b 3S7. F o r J e w i s h f e a s t s i n v e r b in p a s s a g e s l i k e s J e r 14», M i c 7«, N a h 3 « : f u r t h e r , n J j j in J o b 42 . g e n e r a l see B u x t o r f , de conviviis vet. Hebrworarn. (d) I n a s m u c h a s i n t h e M o s a i c l a w a special n o r m L i t k r a t u r e . — For food-stuffs see Bochart, Hierozoicon, Frankt. 1075 ; Tristram, Nat. Hist, of Palestine-, Post, Flora of h a s b e e n g i v e n f o r t h e w i s e g u i d a n c e of I s r a e l ' s Palestine.-, Evnian, Life in Ancient Egypt,1S94 ; Celsius, Hierobo- life, d i s r e g a r d of t h i s l a w is e q u i v a l e n t t o foolishtanieon, Amsfc. 1748; Hiller, Llierophyton, Tubingen, 1723; Ilosenmiillcr, Botany of the Bible, Edinburgh, 1840. For customs, ness. A p o s t a t e I s r a e l is ' a foolish (S>=j) p e o p l e Burckhardt, lleisen in Syrien, Paliistina, etc. (ed. Gesenius), a n d u n w i s e ' ( D t 3 2 " ) ; t h e G e n t i l e s , n o t possessed of eimar, 1823, the same writer's 1Votes on the Bedouins ami s u c h a r e v e l a t i o n , a r e ' a foolish n a t i o n , ' ' a noWahabys, Lond. 1830, and his Travels in Arabia, Lond. 1821); p e o p l e ' ( D t 3 2 2 1 ; cf. D t 4", J e r 4 22 [ b o ] ) . The Robinson, BRP (3 vols. 1807); Thomson, Land, and Book (3 vols. 1881-80); Doughty, Arabia Deserta (2 vols. 1888); Finn, Byeways h e a t h e n d i v i n e r s s t a n d r e v e a l e d a s f o o l s w h e n t h e d i v i n e l y g u i d e d c o u r s e of h i s t o r y f o r e t o l d t o I s rael in Palestine. Talmudic quotations in the above article are from Surenhusius (Amsterdam edition). MACALISTER. m o c k s t h e i r p r o g n o s t i c a t i o n s (Is 19 11 - 13 44-'5, E z k 13 s ). E s p e c i a l l y t h e h i g h e r classes a m o n g I s r a e l m i g h t b e 4 F O O L — v I . I n O T . T h e w o r d s t r d b y ' t o o l , ' ' f o l l y , ' e x p e c t e d t o h a v e p r o f i t e d b y t h i s w i s d o m ( J e r 5 ). ' f o o l i s h n e s s , ' a r e t h e f o l l o w i n g : 1. ^jj, r ^ j i (opp. (e) A m o r e specialized m e a n i n g is a s s u m e d b y t h e 6 21 15 21 B?iJ in D t 32 , see D r i v e r , ad loc., a n d on *22 * *32 - ). t e r m ' f o o l ' i n t h e so-called U o k h m a - l i t e r a t u r e of 2.

44

FOOL

the OT (Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and some psalms and prophetic passages). Here also foolishness ia the opposite of wisdom. B u t wisdom has developed, out of the unreflecting instinctive g i f t of seeing right and doing right, into the conscious a r t of successfully ordering the whole of individual life and conduct in harmony with the teleological principles of the divine government of the world, especially as embodied in the revealed law. Hence wisdom and folly are here introduced as personifications ; and tiie divine wisdom, as the archetypal source of every teleological arrangement, is distinguished from human wisdom. Wisdom in this sense is ' practical virtuosity in the entire domain of ethics' (Riehm); it is equivalent to methodically applied religion and morality, as appears from the frequent interchange between it and the terms denoting piety and righteousness. Folly, as its contrast, is presented under two aspects, being either confined to a simple disregard of the rules of wisdom, or proceeding to open denial of the principle of divine government on which these rules are based. In the former character the fool is elaborately depicted in Proverbs. While wisdom consists primarily in circumspect behaviour, selfcontrol, self-restraint, and teachableness, the fool is he who lets his undisciplined nature have free play—the self-reliant, self-pleased, arrogant, indocile, hasty with words, contentious, envious, quick to anger, intemperate, credulous, sluggish, given to pursuit of vain things, unable to conceal his own folly and shame. As easily seduced, he is called 719 * simple,' as unreceptive of instruction either by counsel or experience as by nature stupid nag, as insensible to the claims of God or man S31 • cf. t h e 7definition of Sa: in Is 32® (in P r V32 occurs only 17 -81 3023, 19t.', ^'p? 491.).

FOOT 19

('K 'ish ragli (Jg 20 2 , 2 S 8 4 , 1 Ch 18" ID"). T h e " Greek is mostly jrefo/ (1 Es 8 al , J t h I 4 25* a 720 9', '2 M a c 1l 4 132), but we also find avSph 1 Mac 94, 6Xay£ 1 Mac 1083, Smau/M> T, J . A . SELBIE. pels 1 Mac 12«, and irefiKoi (nl -ij) 1 M a c 165. FootFOR.—Both as prep, a n d as conj. ' for ' h a s some men probably composed t h e whole of t h e Isr. 1 4 archaic or obscure uses t h a t deserve attention. forces (1 S 4 » 15 ) before t h e time of David. From 1. W h e n the meaning is on account o f , as Gn 20 s Solomon's d a y onwards Israel certainly possessed 28 •Behold thou a r t but a dead man. for t h e woman also chariots and cavalry (1 K 4 EV). See hoa hilst t a k e n ' P ï . R V ' b e c a u s e of'). ARMY. T h e E n g . word "is used freely in old S . u ™ 7 writers in t h i s sense, as Malory, Mnrte Darthur, The RnV h a s changed ' f os r ' i n t o 28' b e c a u s e15 o f ' in I. ix. ' A n d when he came t o t h e sea he sent home E z k 6 (Heb. Vx)1 3; Gn 20W , E s t 9 , Hos 9 2 (Heb. ID) ; 2 S 13 (Heb t h e footmen again, and took n o more w i t h him \I) ; Lv 16», L a18 4 , D n 5 (Heb 2 K 16 , J e r 9' 38 s (Heb. \ i « ) ; J e r 11« but t e n thousand men on h o r s e b a c k ' ; I. xiv. ' ever : and i n t o ' b y reason of'' in L v 17"+ in saving of one of t h e footmen we lose ten horse- (Heb. (Heb. 3); D t 28 4 ', Is 31 s , E z k 27 ls , Hos 8 10 , Zee 24 men for h i m . ' 2. A r u n n e r on f o o t : 1 S 22« ' A n d t h e king (Heb. I?). I n N T iirb, iv, ivtKa, iivl w i t h d a t . and «aid u n t o t h e footmen t h a t stood about him, T u r n , Sid w i t h acc. are all used in t h i s sense, a n d t ^ und slay t h e priests of t h e LORD' (D-S-J razirn-, ' f o r . W h e n t h e Gr. is did, w is9t h acc.,œ R V changes of ' in J n 4 , Ro 3 13» 1 Co 7 5 A V m ' o r guard, Heb. runners'-, E V *' guard,' C' for 1'5 i n1t o5 2' 9because ? J 'J " ' R o v 4 , 1 ; a n d i n t o ' b y reason o f ' in R V m ' H e b . runners'). ' R u n n e r s ' would be t h e 14 2 literal, a n d a t t h e same time t h e most appropriate 1 Co 7», 2 Co 9 , H e 5> . For tlfis m e a n i n g cf! tr°. T h e k i n g h a d a body of r u n n e r s a b o u t him, Chaucer, Bomaunt, A 1564— ' A b o u t e n i t is gi-as springing, not so much t o g u a r d his person a s t o r u n his F o r nioiste so t h i k k e a n d wel lyking, e r r a n d s and do his bidding. T h e y formed a reeogT h a t it ne m a y in w i n t e r d y e , n 1 . nized p a r t of t h e royal s t a t e (1 S 8 , 2 S 15 ); they No m o r e t h a n m a y t h e see b e d r y e / served as executioners ( I S 2217, 2 K I0 2 5 ); and, accompanying t h e k i n g or his general into battle! Sometimes18 t h e meaning approaches t h a t of against, t h e y brought back official tidings of its progress or a s 2 K 16 ' t h e king's e n t r y without, t u r n e d ha event (2 S 1819, a n d see AHIMAAZ). O u t of t h i s from t h e house of t h e LOKD for t h e k i n « of r u n n i n g messenger t h e Persian kings developed a A s s y r i a ' (\i;ç, R V ' b e c a u s e o f ' ) ; so Pa 27» W y e ' d r e s s e t h o u me in thi p a t h for m y n e n e m y e s ' regular postal system (Est 3 18 , and see POST). a n d I s 322 Cov. ' H e slialbe u n t o m e n , a s a defence R u n n e r s were a t one time in E n g l a n d an essential for t h e wynde, and a s a r e f u g e for t h e tempeste.' or means p a r t of a nobleman's t r a i n . T h u s Prior (1718), • mstead o f , or in exchange for, a s Alma, i. 58— m D n 8 8 ' t h e g r e a t horn was broken ; a n d for i t ' Like F o o t m e n r u n n i n g before Coaches came u p four notable o n e s ' (nos, R V ' i n s t e a d of To tell t h e I n n w h a t Lord a p p r o a c h e s . ' i t ) ; Is 61' ' For your shame ye shall h a v e double : B u t t h e Bee (1791) s a y s ' t h e i r a s s i s t a n c e was a n d for confusion t h e y shall rejoice in their oiten w a n t e d t o s u p p o r t t h e c o a c h o n e a c h side, t o 1 * In m o d e r n Syria, w h e r e level i r r i g a t e d g r o u n d like t h a t of p o r t i o n ' (no®); so N u 8 « (non, R V ' i n s t e a d o f ' ) ; t g y p t is p l a n t e d w i t h vegetables or m u l b e r r y trees in rows, t h e held o r p a t c h is laid o u t in shallow drills, a n d , as each receives its sufficiency of water, a little e a r t h is t a k e n from t h e end of t h e n e x t drill a n d p a t t e d by t h e n a k e d foot into a d a m , so t h a t t h e w a t e r m a y pass t o the drill n e x t in order.

1 m a k e thine enemies t h y f o o t s t o o l ' RV gives till I n u t t h i n e enemies u n d e r t h y feet ' a i ii» itiiVji* i « - W ¡X,X£Tth head, 2 Ch 20 ; and Tcpbewirop face, 1 Mac 4 . RV changes Lv 8 9 ' upon the mitre, even upon his forefront,' into ' upon the mitre, in f r o n t ' ; and 1 S 14® * The forefront of the one was situate northward ' into * The one 11crag rose up on the north.' RV also adds Jos 22 4 in the 4 iorefront of the land of 15bis Canaan' (^D-'JN, AV over against'); and Ezk 40 * And from the forefront of the gate a t the entrance unto the forefront of the inner porch' (D^X '•izb'bu "lj^O MfVfi, AV 4 from the face . . . unto the face').

49

12

In Ezk 16 , where AV has ' I put a jewel on thy forehead,' RV gives more correctly c t put a ring upon thy nose' (Tjgjr^S ou JFINI). F o r L v 1341FF- ( ' f o r e h e a d b a l d ' ) s e e B A L D N E S S . J . A . SELBIE.

FOREIGNER occurs four times in AV. I t is the tr11 in Ex 124® of atfin (RV more accurately 'so'ourner'), in Dt 153 and Ob 1 1 of n?:, and in

i £ph

219 of vdpoiKos (RV ' sojourner')." RV substitutes 'foreigner' for AV ' s t r a n g e r '13 as 20tr n 23 of -Dri! in Lv 23*®, and of in Dt 17 23 10 29 . 19 4 Amer. RV makes the same change in Ru 2 , 2 S FOREGO.—Sir 7 Forego not a wise and good ly woman : for her grace is above gold' {/¿fy ¿0-7-6%« 15 , where the Heb. word is the same. A cognate term is alien (s), which occurs in A V ywaucbs c6ei's), a n d p a r t l y f r o m a n E g y p . p i c t u r e . I t s e e m s t o h a v e c o n s i s t e d in w a s h i n g t h e m a t e r i a l w i t h s o m e p r e p a r a t i o n of lye, b e a t i n g o r r u b b i n g it, a n d e x p o s i n g i t t o t h e r a y s of t h e s u n . Thia e n s u r e d a c o n s i d e r a b l e a m o u n t of c l e a n i n g a n d b l e a c h i n g ; a n d t h e r e m a i n s of a n c i e n t E g y p . l i n e n s h o w t h a t t h e r e s u l t of t h e a r t , r u d e a s i t m a y h a v e been, w a s highly satisfactory. In N T t h e o n l y r e f e r e n c e t o i t ( M k 9^) is w h e r e t h e g a r m e n t s of J e s u s a t H i s t r a n s f i g u r a t i o n a r e said t o h a v e b e c o m e ' g l i s t e r i n g , e x c e e d i n g w h i t e ; so a s n o fuller on e a r t h can w h i t e n t h e m ' ( I i V ) ; a n d t h i s description shows t h a t t h e reader was familiar w i t h t h e f u l l e r ' s a r t a n d i t s b e a u t i f y i n g etiocts. T h e d r e s s of E g y p . a n d J e w i s h p r i e s t s was m a d e of w h i t e l i n e n , a n d a m o n g t h e i r h i g h e r classes of v e r y fine m a t e r i a l , w h o s e l u s t r e w a s e n h a n c e d b y a r t . F u l l i n g is still c a r r i e d o n in t h e E . , p r o b a b l y v e r y m u c h a s i t w a s p r a c t i s e d in a n c i e n t t i m e s , a n d is o f t e n e m p l o y e d b e f o r e d y e i n g c l o t h a n d y a r n , to remove impurities and improve t h e process of c o l o u r i n g ; b u t i t is r a p i d l y b e i n g s u p e r s e d e d b y t h e m o d e r n m o d e of b l e a c h i n g .

72

F U G I T I Y E . — 1 . S i m p l y o n e w h o flees, a s f r o m d a n g e r o r p u n i s h m e n t ( t h e m o d e r n , a s i t is also t h e e a r l i e s t , m e a n i n g of t h e w o r d , a f t e r L a t . fugitivus). So I s lo 5 ' I i i s f u g i t i v e s s h a l l tiee u n t o Z o a r ' ( R V ' H e r n o b l e s flee u n t o Z o a r , ' w i t h ' f u g i t i v e s ' in m a r g . T h e r e a d i n g is d o u b t f u l a n d d i f f i c u l t , see t h e C o m m . ) ; E z k 17'-1 ' A n d all his f u g i t i v e s w i t h all his b a n d s shall f a l l b y t h e s w o r d ' {so R V a n d Oxf. Heb. Lex., b u t r e a d i n g a g a i n d o u b t f u l ) . 2. A deserter f r o m d u t y . T h i s sense b e l o n g s t o fugitivus also. So J g 1 2 4 ' Y e G i l e a d i t e s a r e f u g i t i v e s of E p h r a i m 5 ; Cov. ( r u n n a g a t e s . ' T h a t t h i s is t h e m e a n i n g of E V is c e r t a i n , b u t M o o r e h o l d s t h a t it is a m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , t h e H e b . w o r d (o,t?,ir?) m e a n i n g n o t ' r u n a g a t e , ' b u t ' s u r v i v o r ' (see h i s n o t e ) ; 2 K 2 5 n ' t h e f u g i t i v e s t h a t fell a w a y t o t h e k i n g of B a b y l o n ' c^ssn Sy i1??}, R V ' t h o s e t h a t fell a w a y , t h a t fell t o t h e k i n g - ' ) ; J t h 16Vi 4 a s f u g i t i v e s ' c h i l d r e n ' (s 7rcu5as avTo/xoXovvTwv, R V * a s r u n a g a t e s ' c h i l d r e n ' ) ; 2 M a c 8 s 5 ( t h e o n l y e x a m p l e of t h e a d j . in A V ) ' H e came like a fugitive servant t h r o u g h t h e midl a n d u n t o A n t i o c h : (dpairerov rpoirov, R V ' l i k e a f u g i t i v e s l a v e ' ) . So S h a k s . Ant. and Cleop. IV. i x . 22— * B u t let t h e world r a n k m e in register A master-leaver, a n d a f u g i t i v e . '

3. A Wanderer, a s F o x e , Act. and Mon., iii. 747, ' If t h o u Avert a n h o n e s t W o m a n , t h o u w o u l d e s t not . . . r u n a b o u t the Country like a Fugitive.' T h i s is t h e m e a n i n g of G n 4 1 2 - 1 4 4 a f u g i t i v e a n d a v a g a b o n d ' ("U) p t c p . of yu t o w a n d e r ; L X X GTtvwv Kal Tpep-uv [ p r e s e r v i n g t h e p a r o n o m a s i a ] , V u l g . vagus et profugus; Luther, ' unstiit und f l ü c h t i g ' ; W y e . [1382] ' v a g a u n t a n d f e r f u g i t i f , ' [1338] ' u n s t a b l e of d w e l l y n g a n d fleynge a b o u t e ' ; Oov. ' a v a g a b u n d e a n d a r e n n a g a t e ' ; Bisli. ' a fugitive and a vagabond'). Shaks. presents a close p a r a l l e l in I Henry VI. III. iii. 07— * W h e n Talbot h a t h set footing once in France, A n d fashion'»! t h e e t h a t i n s t r u m e n t of ill, W h o t h e n b u t English H e n r y will be lord, A n d t h o u be t h r u s t o u t like a fugitive ' ' J . HASTINGS.

F U L L E R . — T h e f u l l e r ' s a r t is m e n t i o n e d in b o t h O T a n d N T o n l y in c o n n e x i o n w i t h h i m s e l f . In t h e f o r m e r t h e f u l l e r ' s field (2 K 1817, I s V 36 2 ) is t h e o n l y w o r d u s e d , a n d i n d i c a t e d a n open field on t h e w e s t of J e r u s . w h e r e c l o t h s w e r e f u l l e d a n d s p r e a d o u t in t h e s u n t o d r y . T h e process of

J . "VVORTABET.

F U L L E R ' S F I E L D , T H E (Daia mi?, 6 dypos yvatiiw, ager fullonis), w a s t h e s c e n e of R a b s h a k e h ' s i n t e r view w i t h E l i a k i m a n d o t h e r s (2 K 18 17 , I s 3(i-), a n d of t h a t b e t w e e n A l i a z , I s a i a h , a n d h i s son (Is 7 3 ). I n e a c h case i t is n a m e d in c o n n e x i o n w i t h t h e p h r a s e ' c o n d u i t of t h e U p p e r F o o l , ' w h i c h is ' in ' or ' o n ' ' t h e h i g h w a y of t h e F u l l e r ' s Field. 5 T h e c o n d u i t a p p a r e n t l y crossed t h e h i g h w a y a t a p o i n t close t o t h e c i t y , a s conversation, c a r r i e d on t h e r e could be hearcf b y t h e people o n t h e w a l l s (2 1C 18'26). T h e p l a c e c a n n o t n o w b e identilied with certainty. En-rogel we k n o w w a s a r e s o r t of t h e f u l l e r s ; w h e n c e p r o b a b l y i t s n a m e w a s d e r i v e d . T h e s a m e is t r u e of B i r k e t M a m i l l a , in t h e v a l e w e s t of t h e c i t y . T h e f o r m e r , l y i n g in t h e b o t t o m of t h e A-alley S . E . , w o u l d h a v e b e e n d i f f i c u l t of a p p r o a c h , a n d h e a r i n g f r o m t h e w a l l s impossible. T h e h i g h e r a q u e d u c t f r o m S o l o m o n ' s P o o l s crosses t h e v a l l e y a l i t t l e a b o v e B i r k e t M a m i l l a , a n d s e e m s t o h a v e e n t e r e d t h e c i t y -lose by t h e tower Psaphinus, a t t h e N . W . angle. T h i s , h o w e v e r , c o u l d h a r d l y b e called c t h e cond u i t of t h e U p p e r P o o l . ' F r o m B i r k e t M a m i l l a a c o n d u i t t a k e s w a t e r t o t h e P o o l of H e z e k i a h , p a s s i n g u n d e r t h e w a l l n o r t h w a r d of t h e J a f l a g a t e . B i r k e t M a m i l l a b e i n g t h e ' u p p e r ' of t h e t w o pools in t h e v a l l e y , t h e r e is a t least a p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e F u l l e r ' s F i e l d w a s l o c a t e d h e r e . On t h e N . , h o w e v e r , a n a n c i e n t conduit, e n t e r e d t h e c i t y E . of t h e D a m a s c u s g a t e . I t s c o u r s e w i t h o u t t h e wall h a s n o t been t r a c e d . I t m a y h a v e c o m e f r o m t h e l a r g e pool some d i s t a n c e o u t , t o t h e l e f t ol: t h e N a b l f i s r o a d . O n t h i s side t h e c i t y w a s e a s i e s t of approach ; t h e land here would perhaps best suit t h e d e s c r i p t i o n i m p l i e d in rny ' a r a b l e l a n d ' ; J o s e p h u s ( B J V. iv. 2) s p e a k s of ' T h e F u l l e r ' s M o n u m e n t , ' a t t h e E. c o r n e r of t h e N . w a l l ; a n d A r c u l f m e n t i o n s a g a t e w e s t of t h e D a m a s c u s g a t e , w h i c h a t t h e t i m e of h i s v i s i t ( t o w a r d s t h e e n d of t h e 7 t h c e n t . ) w a s called Porta ViUce Fullonis, ' G a t e of t h e F u l l e r ' s F a r m ' (ef. E u s e b . HE ii. 23). T h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s p o i n t t o t h e l o c a t i o n o:' t h e F u l l e r ' s F i e l d on t h e N . of t h e c i t y . B u t t h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e t o w a r r a n t a n y c e r t a i n conclusion. W.

EVYI>;CJ.

F U L N E S S . — S e e PLEROMA. F U N E R A L . — S e e BUIUAL. F U R L O N G . — S e e "WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

FURNACE.—III O T live w o r d s a r e t r d hirnaoe

FURXITUKE

FUKY

73 10

1. -R-13 P s G5 ( R V ' r i d g e « ' ) . in E V . 1. f^??, a kiln for b u r n i n g limestone i n t o i n g Heb. words. i l i a r t o u s in t h e lime, or for s m e l t i n g ore, chiefly iron. T h e f o r m e r T h i s word, which is m o s t f a8 m sense of a ' t r o o p ' {e.g. 1 S 3 0 , - 3 a n d oft.), m e a n s was c o n s t i u c t e d of lime-stones a r r a n g e d in concentric l a y e r s in t h e f o r m of a dome, w i t h a n literally a37 ' c u t t i n g , ' a n d (in plur. fem. nrns) appears opening a t t h e t o p for t h e escape of a i r and in J e r 48 in connexion w i t h c u t t i n g s iñ t h e flesh or P s 129:!, smoke, a n d a n o t h e r a t t h e "bottom for s u p p l y i n g as a sign of m o u r n i n g . 2. t h e hollow of t h e d o m e w i t h f u e l . I n t h i s case, w h e r e t h e word is used m e t a p h o r i c a l l y , ' T h e as well as in f u r n a c e s for s m e l t i n g , g r e a t a n d plowers plowed upon m y back, t h e y m a d e long The long-continued h e a t w a s r e q u i r e d , a n d t h e com- t h e i r f u r r o w s ' (Dni3¿?/? Kethibh, civ:;/:? Kerc). of t h i s word is in t h e obscure b u s t i o n caused a t h i c k a n d d a r k column of s m o k e only o t h e r occurrence 14 w h i c h is tr' 1 t o ascend. I t is this a p p e a r a n c e t h a t is referred t o expression in 1 S 14 rn'y "J¡ys in t h e a c c o u n t of t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of Sodom a n d in A V ' w i t h i n as i t were a n ' h a l f acre of land G o m o r r a h : ' and, lo, t h e smoke of t h e land w e n t [which] a y o k e [of oxen m i g h t plow]' ; A V m ' half u p as t h e s m o k e of a f u r n a c e ' (Gn 19-8). 2. pnx, a f u r r o w of a n acre of l a n d , ' 1ÍV ' w i t h i n as i t w e r e a n A r a m , word still in use in S y r i a (Arab, at tun) half a f u r r o w ' s l e n g t h in a n acre of l a n d , ' R V m T h e r e is t h e strongest for t h e lime-kiln described above. I t occurs only ' h a l f a n acre of l a n d . ' in D n 3, b u t t h e r e r e p e a t e d l y as t h e ' f u r n a c e ' reason to suspect t h e o r i g i n a l i t y of M T . L X X h a s i n t o w h i c h S h a d r a c h , Meshaeh, a n d Abed-nego év (joXícri Kctí kóx\o-^iv tov Trediov, a n d it is n o t imw e r e cast. 3. P s 126, b u t t h e t e x t h e r e is probable t h a t t h e Heb. expression originally speciq u i t e u n c e r t a i n . (See Cheyne, ad loc. a n d Expos. fied t h e weapons used by J o n a t h a n and his armourh a v e probably Times, viii. 1/0, 287, 336, 379.) 4. na (Arab, k&r, bearer, a l t h o u g h in t h a t case we 19 a b l a c k s m i t h ' s fireplace), a s m e l t i n g f u r n a c e , for here a gloss t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m v. (see W e l l h a u s e n ad loc., also B u d d e in SDOT). iron ( D t 420, 1 K 8 51 , J e r l l 4 ) , b u t especially for and Driver's notes, 7 10 gold ( P r 173 27 21 ), used m e t a p h o r i c a l l y (Is 48 ly , 3. runy E z k 17 - ,13 w h2 e r e R V r i g h t l y s u b sa8t i t u t e s 39™, f u r n a c e of affliction). 5. na®, sometimes tr. ' f u r - ' b e d s , '4' a s uin Ca 5 6 [all]. 4. 0% ¿íob 31 d n a c e ' (Gn 1517), a n d s o m e t i m e s ' o v e n ' (Lv 262t!)— Hos 10 12 . T h e ns a m e wold (in plur.) is t r by R V s ' in P s 6 5 , where A V h a s ' ridges.' 5. In t h e l a t t e r being p r o b a b l y t h e correct tr". T h e ' f u r r o w 10 A r a b , w o r d tannur is still in use on t h e Lebanon for H o s 10 t h e Kethibh has enry, Kcrc cn'u'iy ' f u r r o w s . ' a special k i n d of oven in which women b a k e bread. M a n y modern scholars (following L X X , V u l g . and A p i t is d u g in t h e e a r t h , a n d a hollow cylinder P e s h . ) would r e a d cni^iy ' transgressions.' T h e pasof p o t t e r y , a b o u t t w o f e e t in d i a m e t e r , is let down sage appears t o be hopelessly c o r r u p t . A V (text) i n t o it. F i r e is kindled a t t h e b o t t o m , a n d , w h e n ' w h e n t h e y shall bind themselves in t h e i r t w o t h e smoke subsides a n d t h e cylinder is sufficiently f u r r o w s , ' is of course meaningless. R V proposes h e a t e d , a t h i n circular l a y e r of d o u g h , spread o u t ' when t h e y are bound t o t h e i r t w o transgressions ' ; on a pad, is d e f t l y s t u c k to t h e i n n e r side of t h e b u t even this fails t o yield a s a t i s f a c t o r y sense. cylinder. T h e calves, which a r e a b o u t a foot in P r o b a b l y 11N o w a c k is n o t f a r wrong in h i s cond i a m e t e r , are considered a v e r y good kind of bread. j e c t u r a l tr um sie zu züchtigcn iccgcn ihrer beiden Vergehungcn, ' t o p u n i s h t h e m for b o t h t h e i r T h e same word in Gr. of N T (Mt 1342) and in transgressions.' S i m i l a r l y Gutlie (in Kautzscli's A r a b . (Kanivos, hamin) m e a n s a f u r n a c e . I n S y r i a AT), icenn sie für ihre zivei Verschiddimgcn t h e word is still in use for f u r n a c e s employed in Ziichtigung empfangen, ' when they receive h e a t i n g public b a t h s , a n d t h e h e a t g e n e r a t e d in ¿ninishment for t h e i r t w o transgressions.' The t h e m is very g r e a t . J . WORT ABET. l a t t e r will be t h e i r w r o n g choice of a k i n g a n d t h e i r idolatry, or p e r h a p s t h e r e f e r e n c e m a y 34 FURNITURE.—In Gn 31 it is said t h a t Rachel be t o t h e t w o calves a t B e t h e l a n d D a n (see h a d t a k e n t h e i m a g e s (IiV ' t e r a p h i i n ' ) belonging N o w a c k a n d W e l l h . ad loc., a n d cf. Siegfried t o h e r f a t h e r , a n d p u t t h e m ' in t h e camel's f u r - Stade, s. ¡iy). See f u r t h e r u n d e r AGRICULTURE. n i t u r e . ' T h e H e b . [ t | ] occurs only h e r e (^irr-g?), a n d designates a basket-shaped p a l a n q u i n which J . A . SELBIE. w a s placed on t h e camel's saddle, chiefly for carryFURTHER.—To ' f u r t h e r ' in t h e sense of ' h e l p i n g t h e w o m e n . See D i l l m a n n , in loc., who quotes f o r w a r d ' is used of persons in Ezr 83tJ ' t h e y Knobel a n d r e f e r s t o B u r c k l i a r d t , Bedouins, ii. f u r t h e r e d t h e people, and t h e house of G o d ' Otfy'4). 85 ; W . G. B r o w n , Travels, 4 5 3 ; K e r P o r t e r , So Chaucer, Hous of Fame, 2023— Travels, ii. 2 3 2 ; J a h n , Bibl. Arch. 5 4 ; see also ' A n d gaf e x p r e s c o m m a u n d e m e n t , a r t . CAMEL. T h e E n g . word is a p p a r e n t l y original To whiche I a m o b e d i e n t , To f u r t l i r e t h e e w i t h a.1 m y m i g h t . ' t o A V . T h e older E n g . V S S were misled by t h e V u l g . stramenta camcli, a n d L u t h e r ' s die, streu Furtherance occurs in Pli 1 J -- 2 5 as tr. of irpotcoir-q, der Kamel (mod. edd. die Streu der Kamcelc), a n d which in 1 Ti 415, i t s only o t h e r occurrence, is tr