A Dictionary of Papago Usage: Vol. 1 B - K 9783110813531, 9789027926777

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A DICTIONARY OF PAPAGO USAGE

RESEARCH CENTER FOR THE LANGUAGE SCIENCES INDIANA UNIVERSITY Thomas A. Sebeok, Chairman Andrew Vazsonyi, Associate Chairman

MADELEINE MATHIOT

A DICTIONARY OF PAPAGO USAGE Volume I

B-K

Published by INDIANA UNIVERSITY, BLOOMINGTON

INDIANA UNIVERSITY PUBLICATIONS LANGUAGE SCIENCE MONOGRAPHS Editor: C. F. Voegelin Volume 8/1

Copyright © by Franciscan Province of St. Barbara All rights reserved ISBN 87750-168-8 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 76-633850 All orders from the United States of America and from Canada should be sent to Humanities Press, Inc., 450 Park Avenue South, New York, New York 10016. Orders from all other countries should be sent to Co-libri, P.O. Box 482, The Hague 2076, The Netherlands. Printed in the United States of America

To my husband Paul L. Garvin who supported me through many revisions of this dictionary

Si quem dira manet sententia iudicis olim, Damnatum aerumnis suppliciisque caput: Hune neque fabrili lassent ergastula manus, Nec regidas vexent fossa metalla manus, Lexica contexat: nam cetera quid moror? omnes Poenarum faciès hic labor unus habet. J. J. Scaliger

Motto of Wilhelm Gesenius' Hebräisches und aramäisches Wörterbuch über das Alte Testament (17th edition, Leipzig, 1915)

CONTENTS

Preface

ix

List of Abbreviations

xi

1. Theoretical Considerations

5

2. Content and Organization of the Dictionary

11

3. Spelling Conventions

27

4. Grammatical Outline

35

PREFACE This is a Papago-English dictionary intended primarily for the linguistically untutored nonnative speaker of Papago who has dealings with the tribe and wishes to improve his command of the language. The principles followed in compiling the dictionary and the guidelines required for its proper use are explained in the Introduction. The Introduction also includes a Grammatical Outline, the purpose of which is to summarize the grammatical structure of the language for the nonlinguistic user. Consequently, only the results of the author's analysis are presented and not their linguistic justification. The terms contained in this dictionary were collected from the Totoguan dialect of Papago spoken in the Santa Rosa area of the Papago reservation in Arizona. Whenever available in the author's data, variant forms from other dialects — mostly Kol6odi — are cited. The data were obtained by two major techniques: lexical elicitation and the examination of texts with the help of a native interpreter. The lexicographic principles set forth in the Introduction were developed in the course of the compilation of the dictionary. As a consequence many revisions of the body of the dictionary were required. In spite of all the caution exercised by the author, each revision was an unavoidable source of inconsistencies and errors, which added themselves to the misprints usual in the presentation of exotic data. Last but not least, the author is not a native speaker of English. As a result, it is very likely that some unidiomatic, awkward or even erroneous expressions have found their way into the English portions of the dictionary. For all these inadequacies due apologies are made. The author wishes to acknowledge the support of the Franciscan Mission of Saint Barbara during the bulk of the effort that went into the compilation of this dictionary. The author also wishes to extend her thanks to the two members of the Papago tribe who contributed most substantially to this work: Mr. Jose Pancho of Santa Rosa and Mrs. Lena Antone of Covered Wells. Finally, the author wishes to acknowledge the contribution of Kenneth Hill to the preparation of the manuscript.

Abbreviations act Adj Adj Expr Adv Adv Comp Adv Expr aggreg alien anim assim>.... assim of *-asson > . . . asson of *-Comp Compi concus Conj Conj Expr cont contr of * correi def denom desid dial v dissim of * disson of * Distr, distr dtr Dur e.gelis of *-Engl event

actional adjective adjectival expression adverb adverbial compound adverbial expression aggregate status alienable status animate status assimilated forms are . . . assimilated form of * . . . assonant forms are . . . assonant form of * compound completive concursive conjunction expression with the status of conjunction continuative contacted form of *-correlative definite denominative desiderative dialectal variant disimilated form of *~ dissonant form of * distributive double transitive durative for example elided form of *-English eventive

ex Excl, Exclam Expr hort i.e. Immed, immed imper imper pis imper sgs impers inalien inanim incl in indef indiv instr Interr intr Ut loc ms, mass mass o met of * Mod Mod Expr mot mult N N alien NComp Neutr NExpr N inalien N Subst Num Num Expr o obj Part Part Expr pass pers

example(s) exclamation expression hortative that is to say immediative imperative imperative plural subject imperative singular subject impersonal inalienable status inanimate status included in indefinite individual status instrumental interruptive intransitvie literally locative mass status object with mass status metathesized form of *-modifier expression with the status of modifier motional multiple noun noun with alienable status nominal compound neutral nominal expression noun with inalienable status substitute noun numeral expression with the status of numeral object object particle expression with the status of particle passive person

pers personal pi plural pl/distr plural/distributive plo plural object pis plural subject poss possessive Postp postposition/preposition Postp Expr expression with the status of postposition/preposition Pr, Pron pronoun Pr Expr, Pron Expr pronominal expression pron pronounced quant quantifier recipr reciprocal recurs recursive redupl of * reduplicated form of * refer referent reflex reflexive reiter reiterative Repet repetitive result resultative s subject semelf semelfactive semi Stat semi stative sg singular sgo singular object sg refer singular referent sgs singular subject simul simulative sing single Span Spanish spec specific Stat stative verb Stat Comp compound with the status of stative verb Stat Expr expression with the status of stative verb subst subst substitute success successional tr transitive Unit unitive unspec unspecific V verb VComp verbal compound Vdtr double transitive verb

VExpr Vimpers Vintr Vreflex Vsubst Vtr

verbal expression impersonal verb intransitive verb reflexive verb substitute verb transitive verb

INTRODUCTION

Detailed Table of Contents of Section 1 : Theoretical Considerations 1.1.

1.2 1.3.

Lexicon versus Grammar 1.1.1. Lexical versus Grammatical Status of Terms 1.1.2. Lexical versus Grammatical Composition of Terms Delimitation of Terms Theoretical Requirements and Lexicographic Practice

1. Theoretical Considerations Writing a dictionary is not merely a question of collecting terms and finding their equivalents or definitions. From the standpoint of modern linguistics the compilation of a good dictionary requires the consideration of a number of theoretical issues — whether or not the dictionary is intended primarily for the use of linguists. These issues will be taken up in the following sections. 1.1 Lexicon versus Grammar It is generally accepted that a dictionary should contain the lexical inventory of a language. There is however no corresponding generally accepted position concerning the place of the lexicon in the structure of language. This author's basic tenet is that the lexicon is not just one of the "components" or "levels" of the grammar. Rather it is considered that it constitutes a separate dimension of language on a par with, and separate from, the grammar. The lexicon of a language is defined as the cultural system of reference, i.e., the system of reference to the various basic types of phenomena (such as entities or actions) distinguished by the culture. The grammar of a language is defined as the structure of discourse in that language. By discourse are meant the spontaneous utterances produced by the native speakers of the language. As a consequence of this author's conception of lexicon and grammar, the terms included in a dictionary need to be distinguished on the basis of two sets of criteria: (1) their lexical versus grammatical status; (2) their lexical versus grammatical composition. By status is meant the type of unit that a given term constitutes. By composition is meant the characterization in terms of components of the internal structure of a term. Both the status and the composition of a term are a function of the two dimensions of language, namely the lexical dimension and the grammatical dimension.

6

A Dictionary of Papago Usage

1.1.1. Lexical versus Grammatical Status of Terms At present three types of lexical statuses can be assigned to terms: unitary lexeme status, lexeme cluster status and lexeme conjunct status. These differ as follows: unitary lexeme status indicates that a given term consists of a minimal lexical unit, namely a lexeme. Lexeme cluster status or lexeme conjunct status indicate that a given term consists of a lexical fused unit, i.e., a lexical unit made up of more than one lexeme. The two types of lexical fused units are differentiated on the basis of the types of lexical substitution sets to which they belong. Lexeme clusters belong to closed lexical substitution sets. Lexeme conjuncts belong to open lexical substitution sets. From a grammatical standpoint terms can be differentiated on the basis of a number of statuses, the most common of which are word status and phrase status. Within word status, the most important distinction is that between simple word status (i.e., the word contains a single theme) and compound status (i.e., the word contains more than one theme). Most important for purposes of lexicography is the observation that — although there is some relation — there is no one-to-one correspondence between the lexical status and the grammatical status of a given term. Thus, simple words are always unitary lexemes. Conversely, lexical fused units are never simple words. But here is where the coincidence stops. Compounds can be unitary lexemes, lexeme clusters or lexeme conjuncts. Phrases can be unitary lexemes, lexeme clusters or lexeme conjuncts. Conversely unitary lexemes may be simple words, compounds or phrases. Lexical fused units may be compounds or phrases but not simple words. For a detailed discussion of the lexical status of terms and of the relation of lexical status to grammatical status as well as examples, see the author's "The Place of the Dictionary in Linguistic Description", Language vol. 43 no. 3 Sept. 1967 pp. 703-724. In the dictionary of Papago Usage the lexical status of a term is indicated by implication through its placement within a dictionary article. Unitary lexemes are dealt with in main entries (see section 2.1.2. below). The difference between lexeme clusters and lexeme conjuncts is not reflected in the organization of the dictionary. This is due to the fact that this distinction, while theoretically significant, has not yet found its operational implementation.

Introduction

7

The grammatical status of terms is indicated by appropiate notations in the explanatory matter of each dictionary entry (see section 2.2.2. below). 1.1.2. Lexical versus Grammatical Composition of Terms This question is closely related to the matter of the lexical versus grammatical status of terms discussed in the preceding section. The lexical composition of terms is obvious in the case of lexical fused units (they consist of constituent lexemes) and in the case of lexemes made up of simple words (they each have a single lexical component). It is not obvious, however, in the case of terms which are unitary lexemes not made up of simple words (i.e., which are either compound words or phrases). The following two cases may be distinguished: (1) a unitary lexeme may consist of more than one lexical component; (2) a unitary lexeme may consist of one lexical component and of one — or more — grammatical component. In addition, the grammatical component may — or may not — be the filler of a lexical slot. A Papago example of a unitary lexeme which consists of more than one lexical component is: cucul-'i'ispul "larkspur, a flower (lit: chicken spurs)". A Papago example of a unitary lexeme which consists of one lexical component and one grammatical component that is not the filler of a lexical slot is: si hajun "blood relatives(s) (lit: very much relative[s])". A Papago example of a unitary lexeme which consists of one lexical component and one grammatical component that is the filler of a lexical slot is: ha'icu nonha "egg(s) (lit: egg[s] of something)". For Papago the latter case is of particular interest since it is so frequent. In the Dictionary of Papago Usage, as already stated in section 1.1.1. above, the lexical composition of terms is indicated by implication: It can be inferred from a comparison of the headings of subentries with those of main entries. The grammatical composition of terms, on the other hand, is indicated by various orthographic devices in the presentation of the headings. Thus spaces are used to separate words; dashes are used to separate the components of compounds. In addition, inflectional prefixes are listed not within the heading of the entry but in the explanatory matter that follows the heading (see section 2.2.2. below).

8

A Dictionary of Papago Usage

1.2. Delimination of Terms A basic problem arises in the compilation of a dictionary. It is that of deciding what constitutes a single term as opposed to more than one term. One aspect of this problem stems from the fact that a given term usually includes a range of variant forms. These may be phonological and/or grammatical variants. Variants are assigned to the same term on the basis of common lexical meaning. For a further discussion and examples see section 2.2.1.1. below. Another aspect of this problem stems from the fact that the same form may have more than one lexical meaning. In the lexicographic literature this usually raises the question as to whether one is dealing with one single term having more than one meaning, or with more than one homonymous terms. In this dictionary decisions relating to this question have been based, whenever possible, on informants' responses, although these responses had not been systematically sought during the elicitation of the lexical data. Whenever no information was available regarding informants' responses, the decisions were based on some systematic grounds, such as the grammatical class membership of forms. Thus, identical forms with different grammatical class — or subclass — membership corresponding to different lexical meanings were treated as homonyms. Examples are: mo'o "head" and mo'o "hair"; hogi' "leather" and hogi" "hide". 1.3. Theoretical Requirements and Lexicographic Practice From a purely theoretical standpoint a dictionary should be limited to a listing of units with clearcut lexical status. However, practical considerations often make such a limitation undesirable. In the present dictionary a number of items were included which in the author's judgement have no lexical status but which a user nonetheless might be pleased to find listed. Such is the case with the various particles and conjuntions (see sections 4.3.2. and 4.3.4. below).

Detailed Table of Contents of Section 2: Content and Organization of the Dictionary 2.1.

2.2.

Dictionary Articles and Entries 2.1.1. Types of Dictionary Articles 2.1.2. Types of Entries 2.1.3. Assignment of Terms and their Variants to Dictionary Articles and Entries 2.1.4. Ordering of Dictionary Articles and Entries Elements of Information within each Entry 2.2.1. Entry Heading 2.2.1.1. Selection of Canonical Form 2.2.1.1.1. Potential Canonical Form 2.2.1.1.2. Definitive Canonical Form 2.2.1.2. Selection of Shape of Entry Headings 2.2.2. Explanatory Matter 2.2.2.1. Grammatical Information 2.2.2.2. Miscellaneous Information 2.2.3. English Equivalent(s) 2.2.4. Examples 2.2.5. Sample Entry

2. Content and Organization of the Dictionary The information contained in a dictionary is conveyed to the user on three levels of presentation. The lowest level consists of the individual elements of information. These are combined in various ways to form the second level of presentation, the dictionary entries. One — or more — of the latter, in turn, enters into each dictionary article which constitutes the third level of presentation. In the following two sections, a detailed account will be given of the principles used in the categorization and ordering of (1) dictionary articles and entries; (2) the elements of information within each entry. 2.1. Dictionary Articles and Entries This section deals with types of dictionary articles and entries, the assignment of terms and their variants to dictionary articles and to entries and finally the ordering of dictionary articles and of entries. 2.1.1. Types of Dictionary Articles Two types of dictionary articles can be distinguished in terms of their respective purpose and content. These two types are crossreferential dictionary articles and full dictionary articles. The purpose of a cross-referential dictionary article is to serve the user's convenience by cross-referring him to a full dictionary article elsewhere. The purpose of a full dictionary article is to provide the user with as much information as is both relevant and available about a given term in the source language. 2.1.2. Types of Entries Two major types of entries can be distinguished on the basis of the dictionary articles in which they occur. They are full entries and cross referential entries. Cross-referential entries occur in cross-referential dictionary articles and are of a single type. Full entries occur in full dictionary articles. There are two types of these: main entries and subentries. Subentries are entered after the main entries to which they are subordinate. Terms are assigned to the two types of entries on the

12

A Dictionary of Papago Usage

basis of their lexical status (see section 1.1.1. above). Unitary lexemes are assigned to main entries. Lexeme clusters and lexeme conjuncts are assigned to subentries. Thus, the terms assigned to the subentries under a given main entry offer a partial inventory of the various lexical combinations into which the lexeme dealt with in the main entry participates. The relation of entries to dictionary articles is the following: A cross-referential dictionary article consists of a single cross-referential entry. A full dictionary article consists of a single main entry that may — or may not — be accompanied by one or several subentries. An instance of a cross-referential entry constituting a cross-referential article is: mel see mecj 'to run, drive'. An instance of a full dictionary article including a main entry without subentries is: ban-viivga 'wild tobacco (lit: coyote's tobacco)'. An instance of a full dictionary article including a main entry and one subentry is :kegcunakuab, maagina-c7ed; instr maagina-kaj); pi: mamagina; distr: mammaginaj: car; machine ex: Mo 7 ob(< 7 ab) 7 ab "'ehuhhag g hemajkam. (a car is) that in which people are hauled. Smu 7 ij g mamagina ">ama7i. There are numerous cars down there. — Nam ha 7 u 7 7 a g 7emamagina (or: 7emammagina)? Does each one of you have his car? —Nt abx g maaginakaj o xooxo. I'll just sew the seams (of it) by machine. —Maaginat7ab 7 emua. He got killed in an automobile accident (lit.: he killed himself in a car). Sample Entry 2 maak

V dtr Unit (for Repet see mam[a]ka) [Neutr: def maa;indef maak; imper sgs maaka-ñ, maaki-ñ, maaki-ñ; pis maak-o; hort maaki'. Dur:

Introduction

23

maaka-d. Interr: maak[i]-him. Compl: maaki-ok; immed: maaki-oka 7 i]: to give obj to somebody ex: Mat ha7icu 7 ab o tmaa, mac hab 7 7 a aga 'maa\ When someone has given us something, that is what we mean by 'he gave it to him'. Nt o 7eo-kaj 'by means of my head', ta^-kada-j 'by means of his foot, on foot', 7uus-ga-j-kad 'by means of his stick', and t-taatacja-j 'by means of our feet, on foot'.

Introduction

43

The incorporated instrumental can combine with all the nominal inflectional categories but not with the incorporated locatives (see Table IV). In the dictionary, the incorporated instrumental is indicated by the abbreviation instr. The appropriate variant is cited in the inflectional information enclosed in a single set of brackets right after the word class information. The usual format used to cite the incorporated instrumental is as follows: [sg(.. .; intr kaj); pi: — ; distr: — J . Note that the incorporated instrumental is usually cited for the singular only within one set of parentheses enclosed in the brackets. 4.1.1.1.6. Incorporated Locationals They are constituted by five postpositions (see section 4.1.4. below) all of which have a locational meaning and all of which are suffixed to the noun theme. Three of the incorporated locationals have two variants each under the same conditions as the locative pronouns that correspond to them (see section 4.2.3. below). They are: variants -">ama">i and -">am 'down at, on the back of, in the back o f ; variants -">aba">i, and -">ab 'up at, up on, in the front of, against'; variants -">ana">i, and -"'an 'on the side, by the side, on (either up or down)'. One of the other two incorporated locationals has two variants in free variation, namely, and - 7 e^ 'inside'. The other incorporated locational has a single variant, namely, - 7 amje$ 'from'. In addition, each incorporated locational is attached to the noun theme by means of a link (i.e., a form devoid of meaning) which has two alternants. Alternant 1 has a single variant, namely, -k-. It occurs only with some substitute nouns (see section 4.1.1.3.1. below). Alternant 2 has two variants, -t- and -c-. The variant -c- occurs before -">e$ [a] and the variant -t- occurs before the other incorporated locationals. Examples are: pa^cu-k-^e^la], 'inside the bad one'; kii-c-"*e^[a] 'inside the house'; kii-t-",ab[a">i] 'on, against the wall'; kiijig-t-">am[a">i] 'down in the doorway'; kii-t-">an[a">i] 'by, on the side of, the house'; kii-t^amje^ 'from the house'. Note that the postpositions constituting the incorporated locationals are regarded as being suffixed to the noun theme only when the link is present. Whenever the link is not present, the postposition that follows the noun is not regarded as being suffixed to the noun theme. Thus in the case of kaviu-t-'ab 'on the back of the horse', 7 ab is regarded as being suffixed to the noun because the link -t- is present; in the case of

A Dictionary of Papago Usage

44

nkaviuga 7 ab 'on the back of my horse', postposition ' a b is not regarded as being suffixed because no link is present. Thus, the presence — or the absence — of the link is utilized as a criterion to decide whether two themes form a compound noun or a nominal expression, or whether they have dual status. An example of a noun compound is: jevu^-hugidag-t-'ab 'at the ocean edge, on the sea shore (lit: at the end of the land)'; an example of a nominal expression is: Cuk Xon "'amje^ 'from Tucson'; an example of a place name which has dual status, i.e., is sometimes a noun compound and sometimes a nominal expression, is 'Covered Wells' as can be seen from the following variation: CoveredWells-t-7amje^, or Covered Wells 'amje^ 'from Covered Wells'. The five incorporated locationals can combine with nominal number and intensity but not with person and alienability or with the incorporated instrumental (see Table IV). The five incorporated locationals enter into the following semantic oppositions: Locationals

axiality

central

peripheral ?

down 'ama'i

ana?i

inessive

ilative

'amje^

up 'aba'i

In the dictionary, a single abbreviation, namely loc, is used to indicate any of the five incorporated locationals. They are cited in the inflectional information enclosed in a single set of brackets right after the word class information. Whenever more than one incorporated locational is cited in a single sequence the various forms are separated by commas. The usual format used to cite the incorporated locationals is as follows: [sg( ; loc -c-'ed, -t- 7 am, -t-'ab ); pi: _ ; distr: ]. Note that the incorporated

Introduction

45

locationals are usually cited for the singular only within one set of parentheses enclosed in the brackets. 4.1.1.2. Variation of the Noun Theme Only two major types of variation affecting the noun theme will be considered: (1) the addition of an epenthetic vowel, (i.e., a regular vocalic extension of the theme), and (2) the reduplication of the theme. 4.1.1.2.1. Epenthetic Vowel Whenever the noun theme ends on a consonant when it occurs without an inflectional suffix, an epenthetic vowel is added before the third person definite singular object personal -j. If the last consonant of the theme is either an affricate, /c/ or /j/, the lamino-alveolar nasal /ñ/, the apico-alveolar fricative /s/ or the apico-alveolar flap /l/, the epenthetic vowel is /i/, otherwise it is /a/. Examples are: siisi-j 'his older brother', ciñi-j 'his mouth' but tada-j 'his foot', daaka-j 'his nose'. In the dictionary, nominal entries are usually cited without inflectional suffixes. The epenthetic vowel, whenever present, is indicated in the inflectional information enclosed in a single set of brackets right after the word class information. 4.1.1.2.2. Reduplication As mentioned in section 4.1.1.1.1. above, the category of nominal number is manifested by the reduplication of the first syllable of the theme. That form of a noun which corresponds either to the singular only, or to the singular together with the plural, is called the base variant of the theme. Those forms of a noun which correspond either to the plural and the distributive separately, or to the plural together with the distributive are the derived variants of the theme. The base variant of a noun may or may not be reduplicated. In either case, it contrasts with the derived variant(s) which are necessarily reduplicated. Thus, if the base variant is reduplicated, the derived variant(s) are reduplicated again, but in a different way. An example of a nonreduplicated base variant contrasting with two derived variants (namely plural and distributive) is: kaviu 'horse(sg)' versus kakaviu 'horses(pl)' and kakkaviu 'horses (distr)'. An example of a reduplicated base variant contrasting with one derived variant (namely the distributive) is: ">o">odham 'person(s), Papago(s) (sg/pl)' versus 'o^'odham 'persons, Papagos (distr)'. In the dictionary the base variant of nouns is chosen as

46

A Dictionary of Papago Usage

the canonical form for the main nominal entry of a full dictionary article (see 2.1.1. above) whereas the canonical form of a subentry may be either the base variant or a derived variant of the noun in question. In addition, the derived variants of the noun are cross-referred to the full dictionary article. 4.1.1.3. Noun Subclasses Two types of noun subclasses can be distinguished depending on whether differences in the inflection proper or differences in the theme serves as a criterion for their subclassification. These are called inflectional subclasses and thematic subclasses respectively. 4.1.1.3.1. Inflectional Subclasses Depending on whether or not a complete inflectional paradigm is present two primary inflectional subclasses of nouns can be distinguished: fully inflected nouns and partially inflected nouns. The primary subclass of fully inflected nouns is further differentiated on the basis of the category of alienability. This results in three secondary subclasses: (1) nouns which occur only as alienable, (2) nouns which occur only as inalienable; and (3) mixed nouns, i.e., nouns which can indiscriminately occur either as alienable or inalienable. In the dictionary, these subclasses are indicated by the abbreviations (1) alien, (2) inalien and (3) either alien, inalien or alien/inalien, immediately following the abbreviation N. An example of a mixed noun is: olgiiya, N alien, inalien 'fork; pitchfork'. The primary subclass of partially inflected nouns includes the following secondary subclasses: (1) 'e-nouns, (2) ha-nouns, (3) cunouns, (4) -j nouns and (5) substitute nouns. (Note that they are all uninfected for alienability). Nouns belonging to the first four of the above mentioned subclasses are inflected for number and for a single cluster of categories involving person. The cluster of categories for which a given noun is inflected is manifested by the object personal affix that serves to differentiate the subclass to which that noun belongs. Thus, -j nouns are inflected for number and for the cluster of categories manifested in the object personal -j, namely, reflexibility, person, definiteness and personal number (see section 4.1.1.1.2. above and Table III). An instance of 7 e-nouns is 7 e-hohontam 'bride and groom (lit: ones marrying each other)'; an instance of ha-nouns is: ha-hoontam 'bridegroom (lit: one

Introduction

47

marrying someone)'; an instance of cu-nouns is: cu-dadgedam 'wrestler (lit: one wrestling a non-Papago someone)'; an instance of -j nouns is: tahamdaj 'fiber o.f a specified plant (lit: its fiber)'. Substiute nouns are inflected for nominal number and intensity. In addition, a few substitute nouns are inflected for the cluster of categories which are manifested either in the object personal (-)cu- or in the object personal (-)ta-. This yields four types of substitute nouns: (1) substitute nouns which are in the non-intensive (e.g., kaviugakam 'horse owner'); (2) substitute nouns which are in the intensive (e.g., skais 'rich one'); (3) substitute nouns which are in the intensive and take the object personal (-)ta- (e.g., sta'eebidamakam 'dangerous one, frightening one'); (4) substitute nouns which are in the intensive and take the object personal (-)cu- (e.g., scu-'eeskam 'thief'). Note that the four types of substitute nouns have dual functioning. In addition to functioning as nouns they may also function as adjectives. Thus, kaviugakam 'horse owner' can function as a noun, as in the phrase hega'i kaviugakam 'that horse owner' or as an adjective, as in the phrase hega'i kaviugakam ' o ' o d h a m t h a t fellow owning a horse'. In the dictionary, subclasses 1, 2, and 3 (i.e., ">e-nouns, ha-nouns and cu-nouns) are indicated by the abbreviations 7 e-N, ha-N and cu-N respectively. The four subclasses of substitute nouns are indicated by the abbreviations N subst, s-N subst, sta-N subst, and scu-N subst respectively. The abbreviations referring to subclasses 1, 2, 3, and 5 are placed either immediately after the entry heading or immediately after the miscellaneous information enclosed in a single set of parentheses that may follow the heading. Subclass 4, that of -j nouns, is indicated by implication only. In the English equivalent, the following format is used: ' of a specified entity (lit: its )'. 4.1.1.3.2. Thematic Subclasses They are differentiated on the basis of their respective substantive statuses. Substantive statuses indicate the type of entity to which a given noun refers. There are three substantive statuses: mass, aggregate and individual. This distinction results in four secondary subclasses of nouns: (1) nouns with mass status which refer to undifferentiated masses (e.g., *>o*>o^ 'sand', xuudagi' 'water'); (2) nouns with aggregate status which refer to entities that occur in aggregation such as herds or groups (e.g., haivaii 'cattle', ' o ' o d h a m 'Papago, person'); (3) nouns

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A Dictionary of Papago Usage

with individual status which refer to entities that are neither realized as masses nor are part of an aggregation (e.g., ban 'coyote,' kaviu 'horse', daikug 'chair'); (4) nouns with mixed status which refer to entities that can have indiscriminately either aggregate status or individual status (e.g., siiki'deer', xee'e 'wolf). In the dictionary these subclasses are indicated by the abbreviations (1) mass, (2) aggreg, (3) indiv and (4) either aggreg, indiv or aggreg/indiv, immediately following either the abbreviation N or that referring to the alienability status of the term in question. An example of a nominal entry with individual status is: ban N alien indiv 'coyote'. 4.1.2. Verbs Most inflected verb forms do not occur by themselves. They combine with the subject complex words (see 4.2.1. below) and/or particles (see 4.3.4. below) to form verbal phrases which are analogous to the compound forms in languages such as English (for examples, see section 4.2.1. below). 4.1.2.1. Verb Inflection Papago verbs are inflected for the following categories: (1) various types of verbal number, (2) person and the categories associated with it, (3) several types of aspect, (4) mood, (5) voice, (6) alienability, and (7) intensity. In addition, they are inflected for a number of incorporated locationals. The verbal inflectional paradigm is shown in Table V. The way in which the different verbal inflectional categories may combine with each other is discussed in sections 4.1.2.1.1., 4.1.2.1.3., and 4.1.2.1.4. below. The respective positions that the verbal inflectional affixes can occupy in terms of each other are shown in Table VI. (Note that in this Table only single variants or base variants are given). 4.1.2.1.1. Verbal Number Categories In the Papago verb the different types of number categories are the following: two categories of aspectual number and three categories of entitive number, namely extended number, two categories of immediate number, subject number and object number, and finally one category of imperative number. Out of these six number categories only the category of extended number and the two categories of immediate number appear to be mutually exclusive. Aspectual number may combine with extended

Introduction

49

number and with imperative number. An instance is: dadagxp-o! '(You pi) put your hands on it'!, which is in the unitive (aspectual number) multiple (extended number) plural imperative (imperative number). Aspectual number may also combine with immediate number and imperative number. An instance is: cexaj-o! '(You pi) climb it'! which is in the unitive (aspectual number) singular object (immediate number) plural imperative (imperative number). Another instance is: baaniop-o! '(You pi) crawl on all fours'! which is in the unitive (aspectual number) plural subject (immediate number) plural imperative (imperative number). 4.1.2.1.1.1. Aspectual Number Categories The two categories of aspectual number are (1) localized aspectual number and (2) nonlocalized aspectual number. 4.1.2.1.1.1.1. Localized Aspectual Number This category indicates the number of times an action is performed — or a condition occurs — as well as the number of loci (i.e., culturally defined whereabouts) in which these performances — or occurrences — take place. There are three localized aspectual numbers: the unitive, the repetitive and the distributive. The unitive indicates a single action — or condition — in a single locus; the repetitive indicates several identical actions in a single locus; the distributive indicates several identical actions — or conditions — in several loci. Localized aspectual number is manifested by reduplication of either the stem or a thematic suffix. Repetitiveness and distributiveness are usually expressed by different types of reduplication. For examples see section 4.1.2.4. below. In the dictionary, the three localized aspectual numbers are indicated by the following abbreviations: Unit, Repet and Distr. The localized aspectual numbers of each verb to which the category applies are treated as separate entries with mutual cross-references placed within a single set of parentheses immediately after the abbreviation that indicates the localized aspectual number of the entry in question, as follows: . . .Unit (for Repet see : for Distr see ). The abbreviation indicating the localized aspectual number of the entry is placed immediately after the miscellaneous information enclosed in a single set of parentheses that may follow the heading.

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4.1.2.1.1.1.2. Nonlocalized Aspectual Number Nonlocalized aspectual number indicates the number of times an action is performed without concern for its locus. There are two nonlocalized aspectual numbers: the semelfactive and the reiterative. The semelfactive indicates a single action; the reiterative indicates several identical actions. The category of nonlocalized aspectual number is manifested by suffixes attached to the verb theme. The semelfactive is manifested by a suffix which has three alternants with a single variant each, namely -n, -n, and - (i.e., no overt manifestation). The reiterative is manifested by a suffix which has two alternants, each of which has two variants, namely, -x, or -xa, and -ke, or -e(-). Examples of the verb themes inflected for the category of nonlocalized number are: 'uli-n (semelfactive) and 7uli-x (reiterative) 'to hand out something, once or reiteratedly'; kopo-n (semelfactive) and kop-ke (reiterative 'to explode, once or reiteratedly'; vake-ad,-ad and -d. The variant - 7 ad is considered the base variant. Examples are: jeerii-">ad or jeeni-d (unitive) and jejjeiPi-ad or jejjena-d (repetitive) 'to smoke obj one after the other'. In the dictionary, the category of successionality is indicated only by implication in the English equivalent(s) that follow(s) the explanatory matter. The two succesional aspects of each verb to which the category applies are treated as separate entries without mutual cross-references. 4.1.2.1.4. Mood This category indicates the statement type characterizing the clause of which the verb in question is the predicate. Each one of the verbal inflectional categories mandatorily co-occur with the category of mood but not vice versa. This means that while the category of extensionality, for instance, must co-occur with the category of mood, the latter may occur without the former. The various ways in which the category of mood combines with forms of the verb inflected for the two categories of descriptive aspect are shown in Table X. There are four moods: (1) the imperative, (2) the concursive, (3) the correlative, and (4) the indicative. The imperative mood indicates command. Both the concursive mood and the correlative mood indicate the way in which the action — or condition — expressed by the verb is connected to another. The concursive indicates the simultaneity of two actions — or conditions. The correlative indicates the logical priority of one action — or condition — over another. Finally, the indicative mood indicates that the statement in question is neutral as to command and to connectedness. The category of mood is manifested by the presence of various modal suffixes for moods other than the indicative. The indicative mood is manifested by the absence of a modal suffix. The imperative mood is manifested by the imperative marker. The latter has two alternants with a single variant each, namely the suffix -n and the particle g. The suffix n is used when no other word precedes the verb form in the sentence; otherwise, the particle g is used. Examples of verb forms containing the imperative marker suffix are: 7 Eebi-n! '(You sg) stop crying!'; 'Ee'eb-n-o! '(You pi) stop crying!'; Kox-da-n! '(You sg) be sleeping!' Note that the imperative marker

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suffix is usually dropped before the imperative plural marker (see section 4.1.2.1.1.3. above). Note in addition that when the imperative marker is manifested as a particle, the form of the verb theme that co-occurs with the imperative particle is called the hortative alternant of the verb theme in the imperative mood (whether or not the verb is inflected for additional categories). With a few verbs, whenever they are uninflected for either one of the two categories of descriptive aspect, the hortative alternant of the verb theme is characterized by the presence of a morphemic component (see section 4.1.2.2.2. below). The latter is either -'i or - 7 a. Examples are:... g toa-'i! '...put them (somewhere)!'; g via-'a! '... leave it (somewhere)!'. With a few verbs the morphemic component - ' i appears to alternate freely with the morphemic component - 7 a. An example is: either ... g nia-'a or ... g nia-">i '... look!, wake up!' With other verbs the morphemic components -'i or -'a are either present or absent, apparently in free variation. Examples are: either ... g bee-'i or ... g bee '... get it!'; either ... g svia-'a or ... g svia '... ruin it!' The concursive mood is manifested by the concursive marker. The latter has two variants, -c and -kc. When the theme ends on a consonant, only the variant -c occurs. When the theme ends on a vowel, both variants are possible, apparently in free variation. An example of the latter case is: either 'ali-kc or 7ali-c 'being a child!. The variant -c is considered the base variant. The correlative mood is manifested by the correlative marker. The latter has three variants, -k, -ck and -hV, in which V stands for a vowel identical or similar to that which immediately precedes the correlative marker. The latter variant occurs when, within the same breath group, a word beginning with the consonant /g/ immediately follows the verb; otherwise, when the theme ends on a consonant, the variant -k occurs, and when the theme ends on a vowel both the variants -ck or -k occur, apparently in free variation. Examples are: him-k or him-he 'having gone, walked'; hab juu-k or hab juu-hu 'having acted a certain way'; maa-k or maa-ha 'having given it to him'; vu^ 7ali-ck 'as a consequence of being a child'. As already stated, the indicative mood is manifested by the absence of a modal suffix. In addition, with the forms of the verb that are uninflected for either one of the two categories of descriptive aspect, the theme has two alternants depending on the composition of the subject complex word which accompanies the verb in question (see

Introduction

63

section 4.2.1. below). One of these theme alternants is called the definite, the other the indefinite. For examples, see section 4.1.2.2.3. below. In the dictionary, the canonical form of the verb is usually cited (a) in a form of the verb that is uninflected for either one of the two categories of descriptive aspect and (b) in the indefinite alternant of the indicative mood. In the dictionary, the moods are indicated by the following abbreviations: def and indef, for the two theme alternants corresponding to the indicative mood; hort, for the hortative alternant of the verb theme in the imperative mood, when the imperative marker is manifested as a particle; imper, for the imperative mood when the imperative marker is manifested as a suffix; concurs, for the concursive mood; correl, for the correlative mood. The forms manifesting the various moods are cited in the inflectional information enclosed in a single set of brackets right after the word class information. The most common format used to cite the five moods is as follows: [Neutr: def ; indef ; hort ; imper sgs -n, pis -o; concurs -c; correl -k....]. Note that the most complete modal information is usually given for the forms of the verb that are uninflected for either one of the two categories of descriptive aspect. For the forms of the verb that are inflected for either one of the two categories of descriptive aspect, usually only forms in the indicative mood are cited. 4.1.2.1.5. Voice This category indicates whether or not the reference is to a state or a condition. There are two voices: the stative voice and the active

voice.

The stative voice indicates that the reference is to a state — or a condition. The active voice indicates that the reference is to an action or an occurrence. The category of voice is manifested by the presence or the absence of a suffix, the stative marker. The stative voice is manifested by the presence of the stative marker; the active voice is manifested by its absence. The variation of the stative marker can be stated in terms of whether or not the verb theme ends on /k/ or /ka/. If the verb theme ends on /k/ or /ka/, the stative marker has a single variant, namely, -iava-d-k-">am! 'Let us go where the trash is being dumped!' (durative aspect, indicative mood, active voice); Pt o ' o m ^ 1 am) "»ekeix m 7 an 'o'ohonas-k-daam! 'You're going to step on what's been written!' (indicative mood, stative voice); ...">i meqlk, ' i me^k, meliv-k-">ab '...having run and run, she arrived running up there' (indicative mood, active voice). In the dictionary, the incorporated locationals are never listed in the inflectional information. They are cited, however, in some of the examples. 4.1.2.2. Variation of the Verb Theme Only four major types of variation affecting the verb theme will be considered: (1) the addition of an epenthetic vowel (i.e., a regular vocalic extension of the theme); (2) the addition of a morphemic component (i.e., a separable stretch of form without identifiable presence of meaning); (3) the truncation of the theme; and (4) the reduplication of the theme. 4.1.2.2.1. Epenthetic Vowel Whenever the verb theme ends on a consonant when it occurs without an inflectional suffix, an epenthetic vowel may be added before (a) the durative marker, -d(-), -da- (b) the interruptive marker -him- and (c) the imperative marker -n(-) as follows: before the durative marker, the epenthetic vowel occurs only if the phonological sequence is -C(C)... ; it does not occur if the phonological sequence is -CV Examples are:hima-d 'being walking' and hima-d-c 'while being walking' but him-da-ii! (sg) and hihim-d-o! (pi) 'Be walking!'; jeeni-d 'being

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smoking, and jeeni-d-c 'while being smoking' but jeen-da-ii! 'Be smoking!' Before the interruptive and the imperative markers, the epenthetic vowel occurs oply if the morphemic component -i- (see section 4.1.2.2.2. below) is not present. Examples are: cikpana-him 'having been working' but him-i-him 'having been walking, walking in spurts'; Cikpana-n! 'work!' but Him-i-n ( which alternates freely with Hima-n!) 'Walk!' In the dictionary verbal entries are usually cited without inflectional suffixes. The epenthetic vowel, whenever present, is indicated in the inflectional information enclosed in a single set of brackets right after the word class information. 4.1.2.2.2. Morphemic Component Within the verb theme two important morphemic components can be observed to occur with a certain amount of regularity. The first morphemic component occurs in the hortative alternant of the verb theme in the imperative mood. It was described in some detail in section 4.1.2.1.4. above. The second morphemic component has the phonemic shape of the vowel /i/ when it occurs word medially or word finally after a vowel. It has the phonemic shape of the vowel /i'/ otherwise. It is found most commonly (a) before the imperative marker -ii(-), (b) in the hortative alternant of the verb theme in the imperative mood, (c) before the interruptive marker -him and (d) before the completive marker -ok, -o-. It may also occur in the indicative mood (definite alternant of the verb theme only) when the verb is uninflected for either one of the two categories of descriptive aspect. Examples are: Him-i-n! 'Walk!'; Beh-i-n! 'Get it!'; Ne'-i-n!' 'Sing!'; ...g keixp-il 'Step on it!'; ...him-i-him 'having been walking, walking in spurts'; ...be-i '...got it'; ...''a-i '...reached it'. Whenever it occurs, this morphemic component has the following effect on the preceding consonant: /«¿/ becomes /l/; /S/ becomes /s/; /d/ becomes /j/; /t/ becomes /c/; and /n/ becomes /h/. Examples are: Mel-i-n! 'Run!'; "'Es-i-n! 'Plant them (i.e., the seeds)!'. Sometimes, the morphemic component -i- is elided, but the effect on the preceding consonant remains. An example is: mel-i-him or mel-him 'having been running, running in spurts', ...g mel! 'Run!'. In the dictionary, a form of the verb without the morphemic component is usually chosen as the canonical form for the main verbal entry and the subentries of a full dictionary article (see section 2.1.1.

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A Dictionary of Papago Usage

above). Forms of the verb with the morphemic component are usually cross-referred to the full dictionary entry for that verb. 4.1.2.3. Truncation It is a process in which a portion of the theme is omitted. There are two types of truncation, each affecting certain themes: a fairly regular one affecting a large number of themes and an irregular one affecting a few themes. In the first case, truncation occurs under stable conditions. Two such sets of conditions are as follows: (1) In the indicative mood, if the verb is uninflected for either one of the two categories of descriptive aspect (see section 4.1.2.1.3.1. above), the definite alternant of the verb theme is often truncated while the indefinite alternant is not (see section 4.1.2.1.4. above). Examples are: cikp (definite), but cikpan (indefinite) 'to work'; hii (definite), but him (indefinite) 'to walk'; bei (definite), but behe (indefinite) 'to get obj.; daa (indefinite), but da 7 a (definite) 'to fly'. (2) In the correlative mood (see section 4.1.2.1.4. above) if the verb is uninflected for either one of the two categories of descriptive aspect, as well as in the immediative aspect (see section 4.1.2.1.3.1.2. above) a few themes are truncated. Examples are: be-k (correlative), and be-ka7i (immediative) are truncated forms of the theme behe 'to get obj.'; ju-k (correlative) and ju-ka'i (immediative) are truncated forms of the theme jun, as in hab jun 'to do something in a certain way'; da-k (correlative) and da-ka7i (immediative) are truncated forms of the theme daha 'to stay somewhere for a short while'; keix-k (correlative) and keix-ka7i (immediative) are truncated forms of the theme keixp, keixpa- 'to put one's foot on obj.'. In the second case truncation occurs under less statable conditions. Examples are: 7emaxca-io, truncated form of the theme 7 emaxcam-o 'to go to school (plural subject); do'ibi'o-n, truncated form of the theme do'ibi'ok, do'ibi'oka- 'to save o b j ' ; voopo-him, truncated form of the theme voopo'o 'to run (pis)'; huupa-d, truncated form of the theme huupani-d, huupani-da- 'to pull out obj for somebody'; noonogi', truncated-form of the theme noonojlag- 'to turn in a certain direction.' In the dictionary, truncation of the theme is indicated in various ways. On the one hand, the definite alternant of the verb theme in the indicative mood is cited preceded by the abbreviation def, in the inflectional information enclosed in a single set of brackets right after the word class information. On the other hand, truncation of the theme

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before certain morphemes (see above under (2)) is indicated by implication only, by listing the truncated forms of the verb in the inflectional information. In addition, the truncated forms are crossreferred to the full dictionary article. Sometimes, the truncation of the theme is indicated in the heading of the entry itself, either by listing both the nontruncated and the truncated forms with a comma separating them, or by listing a single form and enclosing with one set of square brackets the portion which may drop. Examples are: 'emaxcamo, 'emaxcaio... 'to go to school'; huupa[ni] d... 'to pull out obj for somebody'. 4.1.2.4. Reduplication As already mentioned, one category of aspectual number, namely, localized aspectual number (see section 4.1.2.1.1.1. above) and the two entitive number categories, namely, extended number and immediate number (see section 4.1.2.1.1.2. above) are manifested by the reduplication of the theme. That form of a verb which corresponds to either the unitive and/or the singular subject, the singular object or the single is called the base variant of the verb theme. Those forms which correspond either to the repetitive and the distributive and/or the plural object or the multiple are called the derived variants of the verb theme. The base variant of a verb may or may not be reduplicated. In either case, it contrasts with the derived variants which are necessarily reduplicated. Thus, if the base variant is reduplicated, the derived variant(s) are reduplicated again, but in a different way. In addition, in the case of the category of localized aspectual number, sometimes it is the first syllable of the stem that is reduplicated, sometimes it is a thematic suffix, such as the actional suffix -va. An example of a nonreduplicated base variant contrasting with two derived variants in which it is the first syllable of the stem that is reduplicated is: hab ce'e(unitive) versus hab cece (repetitive) and hab cecce (distributive) 'to say something in a certain way'. An example of a nonreduplicated base variant contrasting with one derived variant in which a thematic suffix is reduplicated is: vaha-va (unitive) versus vaha-vup (repetitive and distributive) 'to take obj. o f f . An example of a nonreduplicated base variant contrasting with three derived variants in which both the initial syllable of the stem and/or a thematic suffix may be reduplicated is: daax (unitive, singular object) versus dadxp (unitive, plural object), dadxa (repetitive, singular object) and dadxxap (repetitive, plural

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object) 'to put obj in a sitting position'. An example of a reduplicated base variant contrasting with one reduplicated derived variant is: hehem (unitive) versus hehhem (repetitive and distributive) 'to laugh'. Note that a few verbs have one reduplicated and one unreduplicated base variant each without apparent meaning differences between the two. Instances of such verbs are jeejen-, jeen 'to smoke', voopoii-, voon 'to pluck obj'. In the dictionary, it is the nonreduplicated base variant that is chosen as the canonical form for the main entry of the full dictionary article corresponding to the unitive aspectual number. The reduplicated forms of the verb in the same aspectual number are cross-referred to that full dictionary article. 4.1.2.3. Verb Subclasses The basic subdivision of Papago verbs is done in terms of the inflectional category of voice (see section 4.1.2.1.5. above). This yields three primary verb subclasses: (1) active verbs, i.e., verbs in the active voice; (2) stative verbs, i.e., verbs in the stative voice; (3) semistative verbs, i.e., verbs which are both in the active voice and in the stative voice. The three primary subclasses of Papago verbs are further subdivided on the basis of whether differences in their respective inflectional paradigm or differences in their respective themes serve as a criterion. For each primary subclass this yields secondary inflectional subclasses respectively. 4.1.2.3.1. Active Verbs Active verbs are verbs in which the stative marker is never present. The secondary subclasses of active verbs, both inflectional and thematic, are shown in Table XI. 4.1.2.3.1.1. Inflectional Subclasses Not all Papago active verbs are fully inflected for all categories. At this stage, however, the limitations to the inflectional pattern are only imperfectly- known. Clear-cut cases of limitation to the verbal inflectional pattern that can serve to distinguish secondary subclasses are few. Instances are: (1) Verbs which are inflected only for subject number and for intensity (e.g., sdahivuim (sgs) and sda^haivuim (pis) 'to wish to sit down'); (2) verbs which are inflected only for the interruptive aspect

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71

and for the combination interruptive-durative (e.g., 'oidahim 'to be thinking'). In the dictionary the first secondary subclass is indicated by the abbreviation s-V subst, the second by the abbreviation V Interr, placed either immediately after the entry heading, or immediately after the miscellaneous information within a single set of parentheses that may follow the heading. With the other active verbs, rather than a distinction based on whether or not they are fully inflected, the distinction is based on whether or not they are inflected for some specific categories which combine in various ways with each other. These categories are: (1) person and the categories associated with it; (2) intensity; (3) subject number; (4) object number and (5) extended number. Using the combinations of these inflectional categories as a criterion for subclassification yields as many subclasses as there are possible combinations. Examples are: m'iava 'to fall down', which is (a) uninflected for person and the categories associated with it, (b) inflected for intensity, (c) inflected for subject number, (d) uninflected for object number and (e) uninflected for extended number; scuda 7 a 'to be possessive', which is (a) inflected for person and the categories associated with it, (b) inflected for intensity, (c) uninflected for subject number, (d) uninflected for object number, and (e) uninflected for extended number; 'e-xaxkud 'to pass a handful of obj. to each other', which is (a) inflected for person and the categories associated with it, (b) uninflected for intensity, (c) uninflected for subject number, (d) uninflected for object number, (e) uninflected for extended number; hujiunid 'to take obj. down', which is (a) inflected for person and the categories associated with it, (b) uninflected for intensity, (c) uninflected for subject number, (d) inflected for object number, (e) uninflected for extended number; kiicud 'to build a house for obj ', which is (a) inflected for person and the categories associated with it, (b) uninflected for intensity, (c) uninflected for subject number, (d) uninflected for object number, and (e) inflected for extended number. In the dictionary, the secondary subclasses of active verbs differentiated on the basis of the combination of certain inflectional categories are indicated by clusters of abbreviations either immediately after the entry heading or immediately after the miscellaneous information within a single set of parentheses that may follow the heading. For a list of these clusters of abbreviations see Table XI.

72 4.1.2.3.1.2. Thematic

A Dictionary of Papago Usage Subclasses

They are differentiated on the basis of (1) the composition of the theme (i.e., presence of a certain thematic affix) and (2) certain syntactic.combinatorial characteristics of the theme (i.e., crucial words with which the theme combines). Using the composition of the theme as a criterion yields as many secondary subclassfes of active verbs as there are thematic affixes for which both form and meaning can be identified. For a sample of such thematic affixes, see Table XI. In the case of a large number of additional thematic affixes, the form could be identified but the meaning still offers some difficulty (e.g., -xp in kei-xp 'to step on obj ')• In the dictionary, the latter thematic affixes have not been taken into account in the subclassification of active verbs. Using syntactic combinatorial characteristics of the theme as a criterion yields four secondary subclasses. These are: on the one hand, (1) the verbs which must combine with either the indefinite qualifier hab or the indefinite qualifier has (e.g., either hab kaij 'to make a specified sound' or has kaij 'to make an unspecified sound'); (2) the verbs which do not combine with hab or has; on the other hand (3) the personal verbs which combine with subject complex words in which the three persons are manifested and (4) the impersonal verbs which combine only with the subject complex words in which the third person singular is manifested (e.g., mehe 'to get obj suntanned, sunburnt', ^ecikpan 'there is work'). In the dictionary the secondary subclasses differentiated on the basis of the composition of the theme are indicated by the abbreviations corresponding to the meaning of the thematic affix present in the theme in question (e.g., act, for the actional suffix -va). In each case the abbreviation is enclosed within a single set of parentheses placed right after the abbreviations(s) referring to the other subclass(es) to which the verb belongs, such as: Vtr (mot). The subclass of active verbs which must combine with either hab or has is indicated by the abbreviation hab/has immediately preceding the abbreviation referring to the primary subclassification and the abbreviation Expr (for expression) immediately after it, as follows: hab/has V Expr. The subclass of active verbs which do not combine with hab or has is indicated by implication: all active verbs which are not indicated as being members of the former secondary subclass are members of the latter. The subclass of impersonal active verbs is indicated by the abbreviation

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impers immediately following the abbreviation referring to the primary subclassification and immediately preceding the abbreviation(s) referring to the other secondary subclass(es) to which the verb belongs, such as: V impers tr. The subclass of personal active verbs is indicated only by implication: all active verbs that are not indicated as being impersonal verbs are personal verbs. 4.1.2.3.2. Stative

Verbs

Stative verbs are verbs in which the stative marker is always present. The secondary subclasses of stative verbs, both inflectional and thematic, are shown in Table XII. 4.1.2.3.2.1. Inflectional

Subclasses

As in the case of active verbs, rather than a distinction based on whether or not stative verbs are fully inflected, the distinction is based on whether or not they are inflected for some specific categories which combine in various ways with each other. These categories are: (1) intensity, (2) person and associated categories, (3) alienability, (4) localized aspectual number, (5) subject number and (6) extended number. Using the combination of these inflectional categories as a criterion for subclassification yields as many subclasses as there are possible combinations. Examples are: s-kegaj, 'to be beautiful', which is inflected for (a) intensity and (b) subject number; s-cu-7eebid 'to be fearful' and s-ta-'eebidama 'to be frightening', which are inflected for (a) intensity, (b) person, definiteness and humanness, and (c) subject number; s-^e-'iolags 'to have been mixed together', which is inflected for (a) intensity and (b) person and reflexivity; gogsga 'to have, own, a dog', which is inflected for (a) alienability and (b) extended number. In the dictionary, the secondary subclasses of stative verbs differentiated on the basis of the combination of certain inflectional categories are indicated by clusters of abbreviations placed either immediately after the entry heading or immediately after the miscellaneous information within a single set of parentheses that may follow the heading. For a list of these clusters of abbreviations see Table XII. 4.1.2.3.2.2. Thematic

Subclasses

They are differentiated on the basis of (1) the composition of the theme (i.e., presence of a certain thematic affix) and (2) certain

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syntactic combinatorial characteristics of the theme (i.e., crucial words with which the theme combine). Using the composition of the theme as a criterion yields as many secondary subclasses of stative verbs as there are thematic affixes for which both form and meaning can be identified. For a sample of such thematic affixes, see Table XII. As in the case of the active verb theme, for a number of thematic affixes the form could be identified but the meaning still offers some difficulty (e.g., -j in ge7e-j 'to be big'). In the dictionary, the latter thematic affixes have not been taken into account in the subclassification of stative verbs. Using syntactic combinatorial characteristics of the theme as a criterion yields six secondary subclasses: (1) statives which must combine with either the indefinite qualifier hab or the indefinite qualifier has (e.g., hab cu'ig 'to be a certain way'); (2) stative verbs which do not combine with hab or has; (3) statives which must combine with the particle vu$ 'to be' (e.g., vucj 7uugcuga 'to be someone's headman', vucj gogs 'to be a dog'); (4) stative verbs which do not combine with vue-veco. In the sentence, 'We could see way below them (i.e., people standing over there).', the translation of 'below them' is ha-veco. Note that with the first person the category of reflexivity does not apply. As a consequence, no distinction is made according to whether or not the referent of the person category is identical with the subject of the clause in which the postposition occurs. In either case the same form is used. Thus, in the two sentences, 'I could see way below

Introduction

83

myself.' and 'They could see way below me.', the Papago translation of 'below myself' and 'below me' is the same, namely, n-veco. 4.1.4.1.2.4. Distantiality This category applies only in the case of the third person singular (see Table XV). It indicates how far the entity that is the referent of the person category is located with respect to the speaker's point of reference. There are two members of the category of distantiality as it applies to the object personals that are affixed to postpositions. These are: the proximal and the distal. The proximal indicates that the entity that is the referent of the person category is close to the speaker's point of reference; the distal indicates that it is far. In the dictionary the category of distantiality is indicated by implication when the object personals in which it is jointly manifested with other categories are cited (see section 4.1.4.1.2.5. below). 4.1.4.1.2.5. The Postpositional Object Personals Person and the categories associated with it are jointly manifested in the object personals (see Table XV). There are nine object personals that can be prefixed to Papago postpositions. Six of them are identical to the ones that can be prefixed to nouns and to verbs. They have the same variants under the same conditions. In the examples cited in the dictionary, they are handled in the same way (see sections 4.1.1.1.2.6. and 4.1.2.1.2.6. above). These six object personals are: the first person sg (n-), the first person plural (t-), the nonfirst person reflexive Pe-), the second person nonreflexive singular (m-), the second person plural pem-) and the third person plural (ha-). The other three are peculiar to the postpositions. They are: on the one hand, the third person singular proximal and third person singular distal, which have one variant each, namely, "'id- and heg- respectively; on the other hand, the third person singular which has two variants, namely g- and 0-, the former being considered the base variant. Note that the latter object personal is neutral as to distantiality. 4.1.4.1.3. Intensity This category applies to some postpositions in the same way as it does to substitute nouns (see section 4.1.1.1.4. above). Note that the intensive marker does not occur when the postposition is immediately

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preceded by the negative particle pi. An example is: pi ">e£avko 'not in the midst of it'. 4.1.4.1. Variation of the Postposition Theme A single major type of variation affecting the postposition theme will be considered, namely, its reduplication. As mentioned in section 4.1.4.1.1. above, the category of postpositional number is manifested by the reduplication of the first syllable of the theme. That form of a postposition which corresponds to the postpositional singular is called the base variant of the theme. That form of the theme which corresponds to the postpositional distributive is called the derived variant of the theme. The base variants of postpositions are unreduplicated. The derived variants are reduplicated. Examples are: veco (postpositional singular) versus vepco (postpositional distributive) 'under'; vem (postpositional singular) versus ve'evem (postpositional distributive) 'with'; daam (postpositional singular) versus da 7 adam (postpositional distributive) 'above'. 4.1.4.3. Postposition Subclasses A single further subdivision of the postpositions suggests itself, namely, one based on the inflectional category of intensity. This yields two subclasses of postpositions: (1) postpositions inflected for intensity (e.g., s-7e(Javko 'in the midst of', and (2) postpositions uninfected for intensity (e.g., vemaj 'with'). Note that the latter subclass includes most of the postpositions. In the dictionary, the first subclass is indicated by the abbreviation s-Postp, the second by the abbreviation Postp placed immediately after the entry heading or the miscellaneous information placed within a single set of parentheses that may follow the heading. 4.1.5. Cardinal Numerals They are inflected for a single category, that of numeral number. 4.1.5.1. Numeral Number This category indicates the distributive application of a given cardinal number. There are two numeral numbers: the singular numeral and the distributive numeral. The singular numeral refers to the single application of a given number. The distributive numeral refers to the distributive application of a given number.

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The two numeral numbers are manifested by reduplication of the first syllable of the theme in the distributive numeral, and absence of it in the singular numeral. An example is: gook (singular numeral) 'two' versus go^ogok (distributive numeral) 'two by two, in groups of two'. In the dictionary, the two numeral numbers are indicated by the abbreviations sg and distr respectively. The canonical form of the heading of the main entry of a full dictionary article is in the singular numeral. The distributive numeral is cited as the only inflectional information enclosed in a single set of brackets right after the abbreviation indicating the subclass membership of the entry. The usual format used to cite the two numeral numbers is as follows: gook Mod [distr: go'ogok]: two. 4.2. Pseudo Inflected

Words

Instead of a stem with or without affixes, pseudo inflected words have a pseudo stem with or without pseudo affixes. The latter constitute their pseudo inflectional paradigm. Pseudo stems differ from genuine stems, such as noun and verb stems, by not entering into classes of unrestricted membership. Pseudo inflected words fall into five main classes both in terms of their respective pseudo stems and of their pseudo inflectional paradigm. These are: (1) the subject complex words, (2) the personal pronouns, (i.e., absence of form), respectively. In addition, sentence initially or after a pause, in subject personals without pseudo inflectional affixes, or in subject personals without pseudo inflectional prefixes and with or without pseudo inflectional suffixes, the constituent glottal stop and vowel may be dropped (e.g., nt, instead of "'ant). The alternants and the variants of the six subject personals are shown in Table XVIII. In the dictionary, the subject personals are cited only in the examples and never independently of the subject complex words of which they are a part.

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The variants of the subject personals are always written as they are pronounced. Whenever an assimilated variant occurs, the base variant is also given preceded by a wedge sign indicating origin; the base variant and the wedge sign are enclosed within a single set of parentheses as follows: .... 7 in(< 7 an)... . 4.2.1.3. Pseudo Inflection Subject complex words are inflected for two categories of statement type and three categories of statement qualification. In addition, they are inflected for three incorporated pseudo stems. The complete inflectional paradigm of the subject complex words is summed up in Table XIX. In this table, the respective positions that the inflectional affixes can occupy in terms of one another are indicated. 4.2.1.3.1. Statement Type Categories These categories indicate the type of statement of which the compound verb containing the subject complex word is the predicate. There are two statement type categories: (1) connectivity and (2) statment mode. 4.2.1.3.1.1. Connectivity This category indicates whether or not the statement in question is connected to a previous statement, either expressed or implied. It has two members: the connective and the disconnective. The connective indicates that the statement in question is connected to a previous statement. The disconnective indicates that the statement in question is not connected to a previous statement. The category of connectivity is manifested by two pseudo prefixes, the connective marker and the disconnective marker, respectively. Both markers have two alternants with a single variant each. The two alternants of the connective are: m- before the variant -o(-) of the third person definite, ma- otherwise. The two alternants of the disconnective marker are: k- before the variant -o(-) of the third person definite, kuotherwise. Examples of the use of the connective marker are: Kaa 7 an maiki 7 id hageeg. 'I heard that he won'; Pi g hivgid mas o 7egegus! 'Don't let him eat!'; 7 Ab 7 an kiikahim mo 7 i$an vu^ a 7 i hetasp 7 ahidag. 'I used to live up there five years ago'. Examples of the use of the disconnective marker are: 7 I 7 o keek g 7 o 7 odaham fcoki'ggogs 'ab vui him. 'Here is a man (standing) and there's a dog going towards

Introduction

89

him.'; kuh pi maac hascu vu^ 'o'odham kuts 'am 'aa'ad. 'I don't know what kind of a man he was and why they sent him there'. In the dictionary, the two members of the category of connectivity are cited only in the examples and never independently of the subject complex words of which they are a part. 4.2.1.3.1.2. Statement Mode This category indicates the speaker's intended effect upon the hearer. It has three members: the assertive, the promptive and the interrogative. The assertive indicates that the statement constitutes an emphatic assertion. The promptive indicates the speaker's attempt to prompt the hearer into action. The interrogative indicates that the statement constitutes a question. The category of statement mode is manifested by three pseudo prefixes, the emphatic marker, the promptive marker and the interrogative marker, respectively. Both the emphatic marker and the promptive marker have a single variant each. They are: the variant va- for the emphatic marker and the variant nee- for the promptive marker. The interrogative marker has three alternants. Alternant 1 occurs after either one of the three incorporated pseudo stems (see section 4.2.1.3.3. below). Alternant 2 occurs when the incognizant marker -s is present. Alternant 3 occurs when the variant -o(-) of the third person definite is present. Otherwise, alternant 4 occurs. Alternant 1 has two variants, -aa- and -oo-. The variant -aa- occurs after either one of the incorporated pseudo stems b- or x-; the variant -oo- occurs after the incorporated pseudo stem d- (see section 4.2.1.3.3. below). The variant -aa- is considered the base variant. The other three alternants have a single variant each, na'a, for alternant 2, n- for alternant 3 and na- for alternant 4. Instances of the use of the assertive are Vat o ' i pacjt 'It is sure to spoil'; Vant o a mmaa 'I will definitely give it to you'; Kantki'o ndagko! 'I am sure to lose my grip on it'. An instance of the use of the promptive is: Neept o nei g maaki! 'Why don't you see a doctor!' Instances of the use of the interrogative are: Baap vucj 'amje^kam? 'Where are you from'?; Xaap maas 'u'usga 7 'What kind of trees do you have?', Doop vuaacim-kaj 'by means of us'.

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A Dictionary of Papago Usage

In the dictionary, the incorporated instrumental is indicated by the abbreviation instr, and cited in the inflectional information enclosed in a single set of brackets right after the word class information. 4.2.2.3.6. Incorporated Locationals Only the third person indefinite nonhuman specific and unspecific pronouns have been observed to be inflected for incorporated locationals. The total number of incorporated locationals that can be suffixed to these personal pronouns has not been ascertained. So far, only two incorporated locationals have been collected. They are -'aba'i, - 7 ab 'up, on top of and - 7 e^a, -'e^ 'inside'. In both cases the incorporated locational suffix is attached to the personal pronoun by means of a link which has a single variant, namely, -k-. Examples are: ha'icu-k-'e^ 'inside something' in a sentence, such as M 'ant o a(ii- occurs before the variant -"'a of the specific marker; otherwise alternant 'i- occurs (e.g., ">ii-ma-">a and ">i-m-(>, for the proximal posterior infraitive specific; "Mi-na-^a and ">i-n-a 'right here'. In the dictionary, the intensive and the nonintensive forms of the various locative pronouns are each treated as full dictionary articles.

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4.2.3.3.7. IncorporatedLocational It seems that all locative pronouns can be inflected for a single locational suffix, namely, -jiii'a-ji^ 'from here (focused)'; "'ia-hu-ji^ 'from here (unfocused)'; hasko-ji^ 'from somewhere (unspecific)'. In the dictionary, the incorporated locational is indicated by the abbreviation loc, and cited in the inflectional information enclosed in a single set of brackets right after the word class information. 4.2.4. Indefinite Quantifiers They constitute a class of three, namely, hema, ha 7 i and ha. They are inflected for two categories both of which are jointly manifested in their pseudo stems. These two categories are: (1) referential number and (2) substantive status. 4.2.4.1. R eferen tial Numb er This category applies to the indefinite quantifiers in the same way as it does to the modifiers (see section 4.1.3.1.1. above) except for the way in which it is manifested. Both the referential singular and the referential plural are jointly manifested with the indefinite quantifier pseudo stems and with the category of substantive status (see section 4.2.4.2. below). Thus, the indefinite quantifier in the differentiated status is either hema 'one, a' when it is in the singular referent or ha^i 'some, a few' when it is in the plural referent. 4.2.4.2. Substantive Status This category indicates the status of the entity — or entities — to which the quantifier refers. There are two members of this category: the mass status and the differentiated status. Mass status indicates that the entity to which the quantifier refers is a homogeneous continuum without implied boundaries. Differentiated status indicates that the entity to which the quantifier refers is a body with definite outlines. Both mass status and differentiated status are jointly manifested with the indefinite pseudo stems and with the category of referential

Introduction

105

number (see 4.2.4.1. above). Thus the indefinite quantifier in the mass status is ha 'some, a little'; the indefinite quantifier in the differentiated status is either hema 'one, a',when it is in the singular referent, or ha'i 'some, a few' when it is in the plural referent. 4.2.4.3. Variation in the Indefinite Quantifiers A single indefinite quantifier undergoes variation. It is the indefinite quantifier in the mass status. It has a base variant and assimilated variants under the same conditions as that of the alternant (-)ha(-) of the third person indefinite human object personal (see section 4.1.1.1.2.6. above). The variant ha is considered the base variant. In the dictionary, each one of the three indefinite quantifiers constitutes a full dictionary article. In the case of the indefinite quantifier in the mass status, the base variant was chosen as canonical form for the heading of the main entry. In the examples, that variant is given which is appropriate to the context. If this happens to be an assimilated variant, the base variant is also given in parentheses preceded by a wedge sign indicating origin, as follows: ...ho( V T)

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