A Concise Custom Version of The Structure of English Words Designed Specifically for Stony Brook U [5 ed.] 9781792446405
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Contents Preface...........................................................................................................................................vii About the Authors.........................................................................................................................ix About the
1
Contributors
The English
Vocabulary................................................................................................................1
1.1
Native
1.2
Borrowed
Vocabulary....................................................................................................................1
1.3 Learning 1.4 1.5 1.6
2
Vocabulary..............................................................................................................1 New Vocabulary.......................................................................................................2
Unfamiliar
Words....................................................................................................................3
Memorizing
Base Forms .........................................................................................................3
Base Form Sets 1 and 2...........................................................................................................4
Word Structure ..............................................................................................................................5
2.1
Morphemes, the
2.2
Classes of
2.3
The
2.4
The Stem
2.5 2.6
3
.................................................................................................................x
Meaning ........................................................................................5
Morphemes.............................................................................................................6
Stem..................................................................................................................................8
Multiple
Extender
Sets 3 and
Prefixes
3.1
English
3.2
Relational
3.3
Negative
3.4
Numerical
..................................................................................................................8
Affixes........................................................................................................................9
Base Form
English
Units of
4 .........................................................................................................10
and Suffixes
.....................................................................................................11
Prefixes......................................................................................................................11 Prefixes
.................................................................................................................11
Prefixes....................................................................................................................13 Prefixes ................................................................................................................13
ii
3.5 English
Suffixes......................................................................................................................13
3.6 Inflectional 3.7
Suffixes ...............................................................................................................13
Derivational
Suffixes .............................................................................................................13
3.8 Verbal Suffixes........................................................................................................................14 3.9
Adjectival
Suffixes..................................................................................................................14
3.10
Nominal
3.11
The Adverbial
3.12
Common
3.13
Base Form Sets 5 and 6.......................................................................................................17
4
Morphological
4.1 Variant 4.2
Suffixes .................................................................................................................15 Suffix............................................................................................................16
Suffixes ................................................................................................................16
Rules ...................................................................................................................19
Forms of
Morphological
Morphemes ..............................................................................................19
Rules.............................................................................................................20
4.3 Base Form Sets 7 and 8.........................................................................................................20
5
Deletion
Rules..............................................................................................................................21
5.1 Vowel
Deletion.......................................................................................................................21
5.2 E-Deletion..............................................................................................................................22 5.3 S-Deletion ..............................................................................................................................23 5.4
D-Deletion .............................................................................................................................24
5.5 Vowel-C-Deletion..................................................................................................................25 5.6
N-Deletion.............................................................................................................................25
5.7
X-Deletion
.............................................................................................................................26
5.8
Base Form
Sets 9 and 10 .......................................................................................................27
6
iv
Content
Word
Analysis
6.1
Word
6.2
The
6.3
Word
..............................................................................................................................29
Analysis ........................................................................................................................29 Word
Analysis
Analysis
Method
..................................................................................................30
Tips................................................................................................................34
6.4
Summary................................................................................................................................34
6.5
Base Form
Sets 11 and
12 .....................................................................................................35
7
Change Rules................................................................................................................................37
7.1 Assimilation
...........................................................................................................................37
7.2
Weakening..............................................................................................................................41
7.3
Derivation ..............................................................................................................................43
7.4 E-Change................................................................................................................................44 7.5
T-Change................................................................................................................................45
7.6 V-Change................................................................................................................................45 7.7
Fused
7.8
Base
8
Other
Forms...........................................................................................................................46 Form
Sets
Addition
8.2
Spelling
8.3
Base Form
Rules .......................................................................................................................51 Rules.........................................................................................................................52
Unpredictable
9.1
14 .....................................................................................................49
Rules ..................................................................................................................................51
8.1
9
13 and
Metathesis
Sets 15 and
Processes
16 .....................................................................................................55
.............................................................................................................57
..............................................................................................................................57
9.2
Rhotacism
..............................................................................................................................58
9.3
Ablaut .....................................................................................................................................58
9.4
Latin-Greek
9.5
Base Form
Correspondences
Sets 17 and
..............................................................................................59
18 .....................................................................................................61
10
Meaning Shift...............................................................................................................................63
10.1
Narrowing
............................................................................................................................63
10.2
Widening..............................................................................................................................63
10.3
Degeneration
10.4
Amelioration........................................................................................................................65
.......................................................................................................................64
10.5 Synecdoche...........................................................................................................................65 10.6
Association...........................................................................................................................65
10.7
Cultural
10.8 10.9
Shift .......................................................................................................................66
Metaphor..............................................................................................................................66 Base Form Sets 19 and 20...................................................................................................68
Contents
11
Word Formation
Processes.........................................................................................................69
11.1
Derivation ............................................................................................................................69
11.2
Compounding
11.3 Functional
Back Formation
11.5
Clipping
11.6
Acronymy.............................................................................................................................70
11.7
Eponymy
...................................................................................................................70
...............................................................................................................................70
..............................................................................................................................71
11.8
Onomatopoeia.....................................................................................................................71
11.9
Blending
11.10
Root
11.11
Folk
...............................................................................................................................71 Creation
11.12
Combinations
11.13
Base Form
of
13
Glossary
Reverse
Word
Sets 21 and
and
Formation
Processes..................................................................72
22 .................................................................................................73
Glossary
of
Terms
...............................................................................75
..............................................................................................................................75
of Terms.........................................................................................................................76
of Base Forms and
Base Forms Number
of
Rules
Rule Summary Glossary
....................................................................................................................71
Etymology..................................................................................................................72
Summary
Index
Reverse Glossary of Roots .........................................................81
.......................................................................................................................153
Base Forms...................................................................................................................156 Glossary
Bibliography
Content
Shift ...................................................................................................................70
11.4
12
vi
.....................................................................................................................69
of
Roots..........................................................................................................157
..............................................................................................................................173
Preface Alarge vocabulary usare
judged
Examination
is always an asset. Students, teachers,
and the Law School
of potential
Admissions
academic and professional
It is not surprising,
therefore,
that
These books range from thirty
days to scholarly
supplied
with lists
improving
politicians,
salesmen, lawyersin
by our ability to use words. The creators of admissions
of
their
a rich vocabulary
fact all of
Graduate Record
one of the best indicators
success.
many books have been written
brightly
dictionaries
Test consider
tests such asthe
colored
paperbacks
of word-roots.
on the subject
that
of vocabulary
offer to double
Most rely heavily on
words or, at best, word elements that they
memorization.
must commit
enrich-ment.
your vocabulary to
memory, thereby
vocabulary.
Of course, some
memorization
is a necessary part of vocabulary
building.
However, the authors
of the
New English Dictionary estimate that there are approximately 600,000 English words, not including nouns
or the inflected
wordsthose
you
a long list
Fortunately, of
forms
words, and
word elements rather than
Afew relatively
simple
only different
and predictable rules determine
Nothing is
more tedious you
will know
the right than
This
method requires
even the various forms of the internal
methods of vocabulary These
methods
enrichment
uses of familiar
However,
Far from
being a new idea, this is the basis
many of the
of certain
makes sense to learn
word elements these programs
basic entities.
These forms
the different forms
which form
of a word element
muchless effort than it Furthermore,
will appear in a given word. By
outlined in this
you to analyze
of each chapter
increase
your
would take to
learning
of words at
memorize all the
these rules among
will increase
words or
your aware-ness
words.
book are based on
words you
modern linguistic
have never seen before and to
main sectionsthe
text and the glossary. In the text
of word elements
and take up other relevant
of words and the processes by which the sounds and
the end
are related
princi-ples.
understand
words.
This book is divided into two for relating
words
Many words are com-posed
English. It, therefore,
of words and of the relationships
will allow
memoriz-ing
only the
ways.
of word elements.
structure
plu-ral set of
systematically.
wayto enlarge your vocabulary.
forms
just
these rules and the basic elements they affect, you can greatly enlarge the number
your command.
structure
programs.
memorizing
memorizing,
whole words whenever possible.
entities are really
to each other in orderly
unusual
and practical
of vocabulary-building
treat as separate
The
small.
when you are done
will not have added to your vocabulary
there is a moreefficient
of your
meaningful elements that occur again and again in
of a number
learning
of verbs. So the chances
will come across in your readingis
of unrelated
on that list, but
in
The readers are
are exercises to test your
word analysis skills.
we discuss the rules
topics such as the general
meanings of words change over time.
understanding
of the
At the end of the first section is a summary
preceding
At
material and to
of the rules presented and
a glossary of terms.
vi
The second section is a glossary This glossary, although because it contains form
of the
major Latin and
comprehensive,
is smaller
only the basic forms
a root
by looking
up its
and affixes that
meaning.
we have included Werecommend
occur in
English.
lists in other vocabulary-building
of the roots and affixes: that is, those that cannot
by the rules given in the text. In addition,
you can find
Greek word roots
than comparable
books
be related to anoth-er
a glossary of roots in reverse order so that
that this book
be used in conjunction
with a
good up-to-date desk or collegiate dictionary. A good dictionary for this purposeis the American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. The latest in the series of New Collegiate Dictionaries published by Merriam Websteris also a good choice. It will also often be useful to consult the Oxford English Dictionary,
whichcontainsfar moreentriesthan a deskor collegiate dictionary. The OxfordEnglish Dictionaryis available for
usein the libraries
of
many educational
institutions
and in
many public libraries
online. Another dictionary with a very large number of entries is
as well. It is also available
WebstersThird NewInternational
Dictionary, Unabridged. It is also available in the libraries of manyeducational institutions libraries. The online version is called Merriam-Webster Unabridged Dictionary. Occasionally, students or not useful.
deciphering
process. Alarge
of science, technology, in
and
book, our intent
is not to teach individual
words never seen before. It would, of course,
words. And something
words is an ongoing
medicine.
many pub-lic
words used in this book in exercises or as examples are obscure
However, unlike in the usual vocabulary
rather a method for only familiar
object that some of the
and in
further
users of this book should
number
of new words enter
The process of creating
keep in
words but
not be possible to do that
using
mind is that the coinage of new
English every year, especially from the realms
new words is always ahead of the recording
of it
dictionaries. We wish to thank
Thanks also to Note to teachers: is available
viii
Karen
Kerry
The instructors
by contacting
Prefac
Duchaj and
Giardinelli,
Kendall
Nancy Sreenan for all they
Donna
Harris, and
manual for this text, Hunt Publishing.
did to
Denise Strohmaier which contains
makethis edition for their
better than the last.
help on the reverse glossary.
an answer key and additional
exercises,
About theAuthors Clarence
Sloat
Clarence Sloat received
his Ph.D. in
he was Professor of Linguistics Amerindian the
Linguistics
English
Institute
and Phonology.
Department
for
for two years.
Department
University
years.
Washington;
Humanist
experience includes education
During that time
of Academic
coauthored Introduction
Linguistics
National
of
Washington in 1966, after
of Oregon for fifteen
he served as Director
His awards include: Advanced
Fellowship,
years. He has authored
Services for
Program
and
in
of Graduate Studies in the
American
Head of the
American
for the
which
years, specializing
Research Assistantship, Fellowship,
Endowment
having served as President and
firm, for twenty-three
subjects involving
University
University
a year and as Director
of twelve of
Societies; and Younger
from the
He also served as Chair of the Linguistic
for a total
Foundation,
Linguistics
and English at the
National Council
Humanities.
English
Linguistics Science
of Learned
His other
pro-fessional
CEO of Pacific Language Associates, a pri-vate and coauthored
a number
of articles and
to Phonology in 1978. Heis now retired, but still actively publishing articles on
Native Americans.
Sharon Taylor Sharon Taylor received Ph.D. in
Linguistics
properties
of English
University
of Arts degree (Phi
University
American
of
Beta Kappa) in
Oregon in 1980.
Anthropology
Her dissertation
at Lewis-Clark
English Institute
and from
of Academic Services at the
1981 to 2004 as Director
State College where she also taught
She has also co-authored she still
of articles two
on teaching
handbooks
gives workshops
on teaching
of the Intensive
word analysis to college students,
to Phonology in 1978
word analysis and on the properties
on teaching
in 1973 and her
was on the idiosyncratic
students, and high school teachers. She co-authored Introduction
and has written a number now retired,
the
words. From 1979 to 1981, she worked as Coordinator
of Oregons
English Institute
international
her Bachelor
from
word analysis in
public schools.
of English
words.
Although
she is
word analysis.
i
About theContributors Karen Karen
Duchaj Duchaj received
her Ph.D. in
was on individual
Linguistics
appreciation
from
of humor.
University in 1991. Her research area is sociolinguistics,
Northwestern Her
M.A. in
focusing
University in 1999, English is from
where her dis-sertation
Northern
on names, address forms,
Illinois
speech com-munities,
and identity. Sheis a memberof the Linguistic Societyof America,as wellasthe American Name Society, and the Atlantic Provinces Linguistic Association/Association de Linguistique des Provinces Atlantiques. She has been a member of the linguistics faculty at Northeastern Illinois University for eleven years, where her teaching
specialties include
the history
of the
English language.
Nancy Sreenan Nancy Sreenan received 1978 and her
her Bachelor
M.A.in Linguistics
English as a Second Language at the NEIU since 1999. She haslived in as well as in Norwegian.
Mexico and throughout She analyzes
of Fine Arts from the School
from
Northeastern
Illinois
of the
Art Institute
University (NEIU)
of Chicago in
in 1998. She hastaught
City Colleges of Chicago since 1985, and has taught linguistics
both the
Norway and Finland
and travelled
United States. She has studied
words wherever she goes and enjoys teaching
widely in
Europe and
Japanese, French,
at Asia,
Russian, and
her students to do the same.
The English Vocabulary
The
English
vocabulary
is
made up of two
kinds
of
wordsnative
and
borrowed.
1.1 NATIVE VOCABULARY Native wordsarethose broughtto England by ourlinguistic forefathers,the Anglesand Saxons. Wordslike the, and, for, and go have been a part of English for a thousand years or more. Native words such asthese are the backbone in
of the language.
learning
example,
English.
they
For the
Words
include
that
most part, they
came
to
are the short,
us directly
from
familiar
Anglo
Saxon
words that usually
every speaker
have
quite
has
simple
mastered
meanings.
For
words for:
1. body partseye, foot, ear 2. family relationshipsfather,
wife,son
3. everyday objectsstone, house,cow 4. physical actseat,
drink, sleep
5. physical characteristicsred, Such words, although The remaining
small, quick
a vital component four-fifths
of the English language,
are composed
of borrowed
make up only about
one-fifth
of the vocab-ulary.
words.
1.2 BORROWEDVOCABULARY English speakers have always been great borrowers. that fills
a need, wejust change the pronunciation
the language.
We have been doing this for
long,
ones, came originally
difficult
Borrowed Greek). fact,
the
traders
words come English tribes while
and
from
three
from sources.
Whenever werun across a word from enough to
hundreds
The
majority
speakers
have been
whose language
eventually
became
tribes
still
lived
on the
of years. As a result,
some other language
English and incorporate
most English
it into
words, particularly
the
other languages.
pre-English
these
makeit acceptably
European
are borrowed
borrowing English mainland.
from borrowed These
from
the
these
languages
words early
classical
from
Latin
languages for
the borrowings
(Latin
many centuries. Roman
soldiers were
carried
and In and to
the British Isles as part of the tribesmens linguistic baggage.Wordslike dish, butter, street, and cheesewere borrowed
at this
time.
These
words
have been in the language
for
so long
that
they
have come
to
resemble
native English words. Wordsborrowedfrom Latin atalater time, such ascomplex, detract,and resolution,look morelike the original Latin becausethey havenot had time
to
become
English
were
fully
Anglicized.
borrowed
from
Most
classical
of the
Latin
technical
and
and
Greek
during
obscure the
words
last
eight
FUN FACT Phagophobia is either the FEAR of EATING
in
hun-dred
orthe FEAR of being EATEN.
years. Another
group
borrowing
of
borrowed
French
words
words in large
came
from
numbers
French.
since
English
the time
speakers
of the
have
Norman
been
conquest.
Words like beef,people,and moneywereborrowed oversix hundred yearsago. BecauseFrenchis an offspring of Latin, manyFrench borrowings, such as nation, infant, and misery,look like Latin borrowings. ascafe, receive, and menu,are distinctly French. The remaining
non-native
English
words
come from
a variety
of languages
Others,such
including:
Arabicalgebra, crimson, guitar, candy Chineseketchup, tycoon,typhoon, rickshaw Gaelichooligan, slug, whiskey,slob Hindidungarees, swastika, pajamas,thug Italianalto, American
opera, buffoon,spaghetti
English
Indians.
speakers
have
also
borrowed
many
place
names
from
the
languages
of
the
American
For example,
ChoctawOklahoma AlgonquinMassachusetts,
Michigan
IroquoisOhio OjibwaMississippi Other than all
place
Amerindian
names
such
words in
as these,
English
that
we have borrowed are
not place
very little
names
are
from
words for
American animals,
in the old world. Some examples are canoe, tomato, woodchuck,and tomahawk. words
with
Native
American
(American
Indian)
Indian plants,
languages. and things
Almost not found
Do not confuse native English
words.
1.3 LEARNING NEWVOCABULARY There
are three
occurs
when
absorb
words
learning
in
ways to learn you
hear
very rapidly.
this
many
ANALYSIS
think
before,
divide
How
in are
words.
it into
of
you
when
older,
that,
you
by without
absorb
make a conscious they
a set
Once you
familiar
three
lend
usually
when
memorizing
form
can these
English
grow
often
memorization, conscious
words
and effort,
more slowly,
by analysis. you
learn
but you
ABSORPTION
it.
Small
children
never completely
stop
think
about
decision learning
to
commit
new
words.
a It is
word to also
the
memory. method
This is the used
in
most
programs.
involves
to
absorption,
word so
As you
occurs people
vocabulary-building
together
wordsby
a
way.
MEMORIZATION method
new
or read
ways
pieces,
to
short
and their
words
different
recurring
mastered
and find
of learning
themselves
rather
of frequently
have
out its be applied
learning
meanings
word
are
parts
you
and
then
can take
learning
a
word
how
you
these
parts
have never
go
seen
meaning. to
methods. quite
word
analysis,
the
In
concrete.
English
vocabulary?
general, Further,
native
The
words
different
are easily
kinds
of
words
absorbed.
many are high frequency
words
They like
mother, me,and and. Such words are absorbed early in the process of learning the language. Of course, there are some low frequency native words,like tilth and thane, which,if you know them at all, you probably mem-orized.
Butthey arein the minority. The nativevocabularyalso hassomerecurring pieces,like the be-in beget, behave,bemoan,andthe -hoodin manhood,brotherhood,and neighborhood.Sosome analysisis possible.But
2
Chapter
1
|
The
English
Vocabular
for the
most part, native
Some common absorbed, Sofew
words are the ones we absorb.
words borrowed from exotic languages, such as Arabic candy and Chinese ketchup, are also
but for low frequency
words borrowed
words have been taken from
parts do recur, as in the ty-of seldom that they The words
have little
from
such languages,
there is little to be done but
each source that there are scarcely any recurring
tycoon and typhoon, or the the al-of
memorize.
parts. And even when the
algebra and albatross, they appear so
value in analysis.
most easily analyzed in
English are the classical borrowings
and the early French ones. This part of
the vocabulary has manyrecurring pieces,such asthe re-of respect, retract, and reduce, and the -ion of action, traction, and motion. Because manyof the less common wordsin English are classical borrowings, the ability to analyze them
will greatly increase
your reading
vocabulary.
1.4 UNFAMILIARWORDS If you like to read, you surprising,
therefore,
will encounter
words they
have never seen before.
Three types
of words are particularly
TECHNICAL
several hundred thousand
that even people who pride themselves
words are those
different
words during your lifetime.
on the size of their
likely to be troublesome:
technical
vocabularies
words, archaic
It is not
often come across
words, and new words.
used by some group to talk about their specialty. If you encounter
a word like
pediment,appellate,or myotomy,you probably wont know whatit means.Unlessyou happento bean archi-tect, a lawyer,
or a doctor, you
would have little
reason to learn these
words.
ARCHAIC words are those that once werecommon but are now rare. You probably do not use wordslike noc-ument
or disloign or profanate,although your great-grandfather mayhave. Archaic words often appearin older literary
works.
NEW words can also be a problem.
Many words are added to English every yearso
manyin fact that the pub-lishers
of WebstersThird International Dictionaryfind it necessaryto publish a supplement betweenprint-ings. It takes time for speakers to learn all these new words. The words multimedia and hypertext, for example, did not exist until quite recently.
FUN FACT So, how does a person deal with problem and patience and a large, of
most unfamiliar
up-to-date
dictionary,
wordsalthough
few of us have unlimited
time
words like these? If you have enough time
Anthropopathism is
you can search out the definitions
very new words
may still cause difficulty.
and patience and still fewer the stamina
the assignment of HUMAN FEELING to something not
But
needed to
carry around a copy of WebstersThird International Dictionary.It weighseleven
human, as a deity or an animal
pounds. Therefore, it is a great asset to be able to analyze unfamiliar of reference
materials. In this
book, you
words
without the aid
will learn to do such analysis.
1.5 MEMORIZING BASE FORMS In order to analyze classical
words, you
borrowed
Greek. These
English
from
Latin
words. By
and
memorizing
will need to
a relatively
word small
memorize the
parts, called number
most commonly
BASE FORMS,
of these forms,
recurring
occur in
parts of words
many thousands
you can enrich
of
your vocabulary
dramatically. At the end of each chapter, to with the
we will list a group
memory as they are presented.
of base forms.
The easiest way to
You should
commit
these forms
do this is to copy each base form
and their
meaning on the opposite side. You can then shuffle the cards so that you avoid learning
order. Also, base forms
that you know
Be sure to learn these forms
exactly
well can be removed from
as they
are given.
Base forms
mean-ings
onto a small card the forms
in
the stack. appear to the left;
Chapter
1
|
The
English
meanings appear to the
Vocabulary
3
right and are surrounded to learn
all forms
and
by single quotation
marks. Where more than
one form
or
meanings.
1.6 BASE FORM SETS 1AND 2 Set 1
Set 2
anthrop man, due lead,
human
being
auto, tauto self
pull
de-away,
erg, org, urg work log, leg speak,
eu-good,
write, study
well
gen, gon, gn birth,
phag eat
origin
iatr treat
pre-, pro-, prae-before, re-, red-again,
forward
path feel,
back, down
phil love
Chapter
1
|
The
suffer, illness
per-through,
se-apart
4
down, from
English
Vocabular
very
meaning is given, be sure
Word Structure
2.1 MORPHEMES, THE UNITS OFMEANING People often tend to think and
of words asindivisible
Mississippi are exactly that. indivisible
units of
Often, native English
meaning.
many words like run, apple,
borrowed
words represent a sin-gle,
meaning.
Most classical borrowings,
on the other
hand, are composed
of two
meaning. The word rearm, for example,
can be divided into two
weapons and re-means
meaning of rearm, to
the
And, indeed,
words and non-classical
again.
So the
or
more smaller
units, re-and
provide
again
arm.
units, each
with its own
Armmeans provide
with
with weapons, is a composite
of
meanings of its parts.
The meaningful First,
pieces that morphemes
units of language. have individual Consider the
make up words are called do not come apart into
MORPHEMES.
smaller
If you break a morpheme into
meaningful
smaller
Morphemes
have four
defining
pieces. They are the smallest
pieces, you get sounds.
But these sounds
meanings. word
1.
m+a + n
2.
ma + n
3.
m + an
man, for example. It can be divided three
It is hard to imagine
that
Sometimes the sound
each of the sounds
-n does have a meaning. It
present
past participle
grow
grown
see
seen
take
taken
give
given
draw
drawn
However, the -n in
m + a + n could
man does not
different
ways:
have a separate
marks the past participle
mark the past participle
of the
word
ma.
charac-teristics. meaning-ful
meaning.
of verbs such as these.
do not
Similarly,
the segment
an sometimes
meaning does not apply segment
carries the
here. The an of
m, of course, carries
meaning one
man simply
no meaning in
word
man (m,
single
morpheme.
meaning of the
ma, an, n) has a meaning that is part of the
Asecond characteristic overall
of
meaning of the
morphemes is that
word.
as in an apple. But obviously
mean what the an of an apple
this
means. The
English.
Each morpheme in a word usually carries part of the of the
(indefinite),
does not
each
word. Since none of the possible segments meaning of
morpheme typically
The word unsportsmanlike,
for
man, we assume that
has a meaning that
example,
man is a
contributes
can be divided into
to the
the following
morphemes.
/un
+ sport
+ s + man + like/
Weknow that the remains,
which has still Finally, if
another
characteristic
of
meaning because when we remove it from
different
And if
meaning. If
we remove
man, the
sports, the remaining
contributes
we then
some important
Afourth
blocks for the formation characteristic
some, like
of
as in the
are units of sound.
word rearm.
only in the
many other words.
not to confuse
Sometimes, the
morphemes
Morphemes act
Most morphemes are quite short. with syllables.
morpheme and syllable
divisions
The word
Mississippi, for instance,
The word boys, on the other
hand, is
has four syllables
made up of two
but, in
morphemes (boy
word
combinations. But
Morphemes are units of a word will coin-cide,
However, this is not always the case. Some words have more syllables than
and some have fewer. morpheme.
morpheme occurring in
They are not found
of words. The same blocks appear over and over in different
morphemes is that they can be of any length.
mor-phemes
word.
You often find the same disarm, and
yet again.
yet. Clearly, each of the
meaning of the
what
is sportsman,
sports, is different
different
arm are good examples.
Mississippi, are not. It is important
meaning; syllables
unsportsmanlike,
what remains
word remaining,
piece to the
morphemes is that they are recyclable.
words. The morphemes re-and
remove like,
word sport is still
They also occur in restate, respect, reply, army, armament,
as building
of
meaning.
unsportsmanlike
many different rearm.
un-carries
has a very
weremove the -s from
in Athird
morpheme
sportsmanlike,
mor-phemes,
English, is only one
+ plural)
within a single
syllable. A morpheme, then, has the following
four
1. It has a meaning that cannot
befurther
2. It normally
adds
many different
may occupy any number
The study
of
characteristics:
subdivided.
meaning to the overall
3. It often appears in 4. It
defining
meaning of the
words. (Particularly
word.
true
of classical
morphemes.)
of syllables.
morphemes and how they go together to
make words is called
MORPHOLOGY.
2.2 CLASSES OFMORPHEMES There are two
2.2.1
Some
morphemesroots
morphemes that form the basis of words. In the
morphemes con-and words, such
-ive are affixed.
as herb, ego, nymph,
as whole words are called other
Words containing blackberry,
two
airplane,
Chapter
2
port,
ROOTS.
word conducive,
must have at least
are composed
of a single
duc is the basic element to which
one root. root.
Roots that
can stand
can occur only in combination
by them-selves
with one or
more
The plac of placate and placebo and the pel of propel and expel
never occur alone as words. or
more roots are called
washboard,
|
and
Every word
FREE ROOTS. Roots that
morphemes are called BOUND
are bound roots; they
6
and affixes.
Roots
ROOTS are the
major classes of
Word
COMPOUNDS.
or of bound roots:
Structur
Compounds
microbiology, telegraph,
may be composed anthropomorphic.
of free roots:
2.2.2
Affixes
AFFIXES
are
and
other
relation
to
attached
morphemes
affixes.
to
the
root.
the
that
Affixes
Those
right
must be attached
are
of the
of three
attached root
to a root
types, to the left
are
or combination
depending
on
of the
SUFFIXES;
and
where
root
those
are
of roots
they
occur
PREFIXES;
inserted
into
FUN FACT
in
The
those
the
root
MOVEMENTof
plant toward
are
from
INFIXES.
a
or away
LIGHTis
called
phototropism In
English,
in
prefixes
some
usually
way. Consider
add
information
how these
to
prefixes
or
alter
the
react
to
act back
transact
to
act across
interact
to
act between
enact
put
Notice
that
the
information belongs
word
about to,
Suffixes,
but
only
on the
this
act is a verb,
the
other
function
nature
into and
of the
the
meaning.
hand,
often
change
the
meaning
meaning
of the
all of these
words
Typically,
English
a word from
one part
of speech
act (verb)
active
(adjective)
active
(adjective)
activity
(noun)
active
(adjective)
activate
(verb)
(verb)
activation
change
the
DERIVATIONAL
able,
to
Infixes are
affixes are
are affixes In fact, of
part of speech
AFFIXES.
a verb,
rare.
to
are suffixes.
or root-plus-affix
derive
Derivational
that
appear
only
inside
infix
that
a root. occurs
or
make new
prefixes,
such
construction words
as the
from
en-in
In
at
some
all in
languages,
English
infixes
is -n-.
The
are quite
infix
static
constant
Stig
stigma
distinguish
Tag
contagious
tangible
carries words.
roots
Affixes
are
take
frang; almost and
2.2.3 Roots
they
no
differ
the
infix.
always
affixes
in their
in
is no
English.
It is simply
way of predicting
modern
when the
We have
tag, tang;
ex (short
from
meaning
Since there
Identifying
are freer
adds
a word
words illus-trate
are attached
to
word. In
which
are called
English,
changes
most
an adjective,
common,
is inserted
but in
just
English
before
the
last
they con-sonant
with infix
Stat
frag,
they
an existing
n-infix
frangible
which
merely
of speech
The following
enable,
fragile
roots:
another.
prefix
part
roots.
without
n-infix
the
(noun)
frag
The
each case the
exceptional.
the
certain
of the root
That is, they
Root
of certain
In
do not change
of suffixes.
(noun)
derivational
root
act.
verbs.
prefixes
action
Affixes that
root
are also
act (verb)
activate
of the
action
act.
modify
modify
stat, bound
for
listed
stant;
or
infixed
forms
in
the
remnant,
will appear, glossary
necessary
it is best just
along
with
their
to the form to
memorize
corresponding
and so forth.
forms.
ex-wife
the
an historical n-infix
With
the
exception
ex-husband),
of
affixes
a few
occur
only
shortened in
forms
conjunction
like
pro
with
(short
for
pro-fessional)
a stem.
Roots and Affixes in
two
distribution.
ways.
First,
they
That is, they
usually
occur in
have
simpler
different
and
more specific
positions
Chapter
in
different
2
|
meanings,
and
second,
words.
Word
Structure
7
The
morpheme
pter, for
example, is clearly
pter in a word, you can be sure it
Further, it can appear at the beginning, wing-fingered
one, in the
The morpheme
asin
middle of apteryx one
very
for
asin
substituting
wing.
meaning than wing.
In
promiscuous mixing
very
distribution.
not difficult
always be identified
to decide
In the glossary
much It
may appear
beginning
only at or near the beginning
is when another
what remains
or an affix.
But in case of doubt,
Every word has at least one root. If all the other
a root
can
morphemes
must be the root.
on page 143, prefixes are indicated
marked with a dash to the left, as in -ate; infixes
and roots appear
of a word. The only time
prefix comes before it, as in deprogram.
whether a morpheme is a root
by a process of elimination.
in a word are clearly affixes,
for a noun
labor
it does not appear at the very beginning
Suffixes are
wings, and at the end of helicopter spiral
forward
pronoun word
has very limited
It is usually
without
or feathers.
of pterodactyl
meanings:
as in prolabor favoring
asin
Pro-also
propel push
Whenever you see
proclaim cry forth
substituting favoring
meaningwing.
wings or at the very least flying
pro-, on the other hand, is clearly an affix. It has a much less concrete
asin
forth
to do with
middle, or end of a word. So, wefind it at the beginning
fact, it can have any of the following forward
a root. It has a very specific
will have something
by a dash to the right are
of the form,
as in
pro-.
marked with a dash on each side, as in -n-;
without a dash, asin pter.
2.3 THE STEM A STEM is any construction a compound other
of roots,
morphemes
which affixes same reason:
to
which another
or a root
with one or
attached to it:
manly,
may be attached. The single root
mankind, gentleman.
may be added: gentlemanly. ungentlemanly.
morpheme more affixes.
may consist
of a single root,
man is a stem because it can have
The compound
The compound-plus-affix
Astem always contains
Astem
construction
gentleman gentlemanly
is also a stem to is a stem for the
at least one root.
2.4 THE STEM EXTENDER Usually, suffixes are attached a special suffix Most of them
are relics
have been lost. Note:
8
directly to a stem.
called a STEM
EXTENDER
of earlier
The
meaningful
most common
However, sometimes
is added. Stem extenders, morphemes; they carried
stem extenders
a stem cannot take a regular unlike
most suffixes,
meaning at one time,
are the consonants
duc+t+ile,
-s
repul+s+ive,
-o
pter+o+dactyl,
-i
resident+i+al,
-u
fact+u+al,
Chapter
scrip+t+ure, explo+s+ion,
ten+s+ile
phon+o+logy, real+i+ty, sin+u+ous,
2
reten+t+ion
|
Word
chron+o+graph
sap+i+ent punct+u+ate
Structur
but their
until
meaning. mean-ings
t and s and the vowels o, i, and u.
With rare exceptions, the vowels a and e never serve as stem extenders.
-t
suffix
have no
Other, less common, semi-vowel
stem extenders include
the consonants
r, n, and
mand the
FUN FACT
y: Autogamous
-r
polyhed+r+on,
-n
bi+n+ary,
-m
hyd+r+ogen,
tri+n+ity,
pneu+m+atic,
-y
These less common occur
example,
whereas the infix is inserted
There are also complex
stalag+m+ite
appear in the
need the
help of another
brach+y+cephalic
differs from
glossary
attached
plant.
to the roots
the -n-infix
in that the stem extender is added to the end of a
into the root.
stem extenders consisting
athletic, the -ec in gynecology,
They dont
brach(y).
Notice that the -n stem extender stem,
are SELF
REPRODUCING.
tach+y+scope,
stem extenders
with: for
plants
eth+n+ic
cry+m+otherapy,
bath+y+sphere,
they
quad+r+angl+e
the -ac in tenacity,
of two
or
more letters.
These include
the -et in genetic and
and the -as in fantasy.
2.5 MULTIPLE AFFIXES Often, a word will have morethan add equal
meaning to the
re-back suffix,
and in-in.
Reinstate, then,
however, the suffixes
of speech.
The other suffixes
suffixes: -ive, abstract
which
one prefix or suffix. If a word has morethan
word. The word reinstate, do not carry may or
Although
meansput equal
philosophic,
which
Redundant
suffixes
like ethnic and rustic. changing the
words like sensitive
adjectives such asimplicitand
A redundant
of the same
meaning having
the part of speech of a word, -ic in philosophical also occur in
in this
one
its
part
has three
which
word, the last suffix -ion
marks deter-mines
meaning. In the word philosophical,
or being.
means essentially the same thing
determines
sensit, the suffix -itmarks
word activation
marks verbs like equate; and -ion,
carry information
has a suffix
-ic and -al are both adjective suffixes
still have an adjective,
the
word determines
word.
Sometimes, a suffix is added to a stem that already for instance,
which
mean-ing:
state. If a word has more than
The last suffix in the
meaning. So, for example,
massive; -ate,
all three suffixes
the part of speech for the entire
one prefix, the prefixes usually
has two prefixes, both of which carry
back in (a former)
meaning.
may not add
marks adjectives like
nouns like fusion.
for example,
The -al can be omitted
as philosophical.
is called a REDUNDANT
and bellicose. Even though decrepit.
there is no such adjective It could
it is a necessary part of the form
Chapter
2
of the
|
we
SUFFIX.
Similarly, the -ic of bellicose occurs in
suffix is one that adds unnecessary information.
meaning of the word, although
and
Since the last suffix
Word
be omitted
word.
Structure
as
words with-out
2.6 BASE FORM SETS 3AND 4 Set 3
Set 4
ag act
an-lacking,
not
bio life
ander
male
ced, ceed go, cid cut, crat
let go
brach(y)
kill
mal,
dys-bad
trop
10
sexual
woman,
panta
turn,
male bad
nom law
gam marriage,
pan,
short
epi-on
govern
gyn(ec)
man,
union
phot,
female
plec fold
all
reg
change
Chapter
phos light
straight,
soph wise
2
|
Word
Structur
lead
English Prefixes and Suffixes
3.1 ENGLISH PREFIXES There are three NUMERICAL
main types
of
English
prefixes:
RELATIONAL
PREFIXES,
NEGATIVE
PREFIXES,
and
PREFIXES.
3.2 RELATIONAL PREFIXES Relational a list
prefixes, the largest
of relational
group of prefixes, denote relationships
that
prefixes. Some of these prefixes have variant forms,
ab-away
occur in space or time.
Following
is
which are listed in the glossary.
hyper-hypo-infra-iso-meta-ob-para-per-pre-re-se-sub-syn-tele-tra-tr
ad-ambi-ana-anti-apo-cata-cis-con-de-dia-dis-epi-ex-hetero-homo-toward on
both sides
under beneath
back
equal
opposite
beyond
away
toward
down
beside
on
the side
of
through
together
before
down
back
across
apart
apart
down
on
together
out
far
different
beyond
same
across
1
3.2.1
Temporal
Uses
As you
can see from
the list
However,
these
provided,
basic spatial
most of the
meanings
are often
meanings
extended
to
listed
express
refer
to relationships
in
relationships
(those
temporal
physical having
space. to
do
with time) as well. Thus, pre-before (in front of) also meansbefore in time, asin pre-Columbian and preview. However,
there
are a few
ante-before
relational
prefixes
that
have only temporal
meanings:
(in time)
neo-new paleo-old proto-first
3.2.2 Many
Intensive relational
prefixes,
to strengthen
conspicuous
obdurate perfect
very stand
of the
stems
to
convey
to
spatial
which they
and
temporal
are attached.
concepts,
Prefixes,
can
when
(for
done very
much
has
a number
with spatial of
words
and
meanings phrases
is
with
not
unusual
spatial
in languages.
meanings
that
are
In used
addition intensively:
downright
far and away outright out and out and through
Exercise whether each of the following
prefixes is used spatially, temporally,
1.
abduct
7.
disrupt
2.
seduce
8.
hyperactive
3.
incision, ciscut
9. condemn, demnharm
4.
prelude
10.
proceed
5.
extend
11.
prognosis
12.
diachronic
6. deny, nyno
12
Chapter
used as inten-sifiers,
something)
altogether
Determine
be used
or completely.
use ofmorphemes
English
through
also
hard
mixing
The intensive
used
flammable
completely
prefixes,
meaning
being
clear
strongly
very
promiscuous
the
to
visible
make very
inflammable
addition
strongly,
very
declare to
to
in
or intensify
mean very,
insist
Uses
3
|
English
Prefixes
and
Suffixe
or intensively.
to intensive
3.3 NEGATIVE PREFIXES Several
state,
prefixes
in
English
usually
carry
or simply
bad.
the
serve
to
negate
the
meaning not.
meaning
However,
of the
they
can
stem
to
also
which
they
mean opposite
are
affixed.
NEGATIVE
of, lacking,
back
to
PRE-FIXES
original
an-dis-in-non-un-anemic dishonest inaccurate
nonexistent unacceptable
3.4 NUMERICAL PREFIXES Most numerical
concepts are conveyed
by roots.
However, there
are a few numerical
prefixes.
di-, dich-poly-two many hemi-, semi-much,
half
3.5 ENGLISH SUFFIXES Although are
there
many
are quite a few prefixes in
more classes of suffixes.
DERIVATIONAL
English, the suffixes
The two
greatly
main classes of suffixes
outnumber
them.
English,
person,
inflectional
tense,
there
SUFFIXES
and
SUFFIXES.
3.6 INFLECTIONAL SUFFIXES In
Furthermore,
are INFLECTIONAL
suffixes
aspect,
indicate
grammatical
and case. Inflectional
-s
plural
-s
possessive
-s
present
-ed
past
-en
past
-ing
present
-er, -est
comparative,
suffixes
FUN FACT
distinctions
such
Zoophytesarelow level organismslike
as number,
sea urchins that have the characteristics of both PLANTS and
include:
ANIMALS. tense, third
person
tense and past participle participle participle superlative
3.7 DERIVATIONAL SUFFIXES The rest of the suffixes in suffixes:
VERBAL
English are called derivational
SUFFIXES,
ADJECTIVAL
SUFFIXES,
suffixes. and
There are three
NOMINAL
Chapter
3
|
major types
of derivational
SUFFIXES.
English
Prefixes
and
Suffixes
1
3.8 VERBAL SUFFIXES A verbal
suffix
marks
a word
as a verb.
There
are three
kinds
of
verbal
suffixes:
GENERAL,
CAUSATIVE,
of the
most common
and
MUTATIVE.
3.8.1
General
General
Verb Suffixes
verb suffixes
-y
crucify,
-e
relate,
-t
simply
ally,
Some
verb
-it,
deny,
is a list
general
verb suf-fixes.
comply
concede,
contact,
Following
conclude
reject,
depict,
elect
Causative Verb Suffixes
causative -ize,
rely,
deduce,
deduct,
3.8.2
mark a word as a verb.
suffixes
specifically
suffixes
-ise
have lost
regularize,
-ite
audit,
-ate
expedite,
causation.
meaning
legalize,
liberate,
3.8.3
denote
their
These
and simply
suffixes
mean cause
mark a word
to
as a verb.
be.
In
some
The causative
words,
suffixes
however,
are:
advertise
ignite,
aggravate,
unite detonate
Mutative Verb Suffixes
Two verb suffixes, -en and esc,
mark change from
one state to another. These mutative suffixes carry the
meaning change orbecome. Notethat -en occursin native wordsand -escin classical words. -en
sharpen,
darken,
-esc
coalesce,
effloresce,
redden adolescent
3.9 ADJECTIVAL SUFFIXES Adjectival suffixes the
suffixes can
mark
mean having,
being,
Following
or pertaining
to,
is a list depending
of frequently on the
word.
-al
legal
-ate
ornate
-ent
fluent
-ic
basic
-ive
active
-ous
porous
Other less frequently
14
words as adjectives.
-an
urban
-ane
arcane
-ant
pliant
occurring
-ar
lunar
-ary
customary
-id
fluid
-ile
senile
Chapter
3
|
English
suffixes
Prefixes
with the same
and
Suffixe
meaning are:
occurring meanings
adjectival of the
other
suffixes.
These
morphemes
in
-ine
saline
-it
implicit
-ite
finite
-ory
savory
-ose
verbose
Two adjectival suffixes, -able and -oid have very specific
meanings. The suffix -able and its variant forms -ible
and -ble mean capable of being. . ., asin portablecapable of being carried. Thesuffix -oid means like resembling, asin anthropoidman-like.
or
3.10 NOMINAL SUFFIXES Another large group ABSTRACT,
3.10.1
of suffixes
AGENTIVE,
General
mark words as nouns.
There are five types
of nominal
suffixes:
Noun Suffixes
General noun suffixes simply
mark a word as a noun.
They usually
meanthing
or substance.
-a
alga
-on
carbon
-em
emblem
-ory
accessory
-ice
notice
-s
chaos
-in
toxin
-t
cult
-m
poem
-um
album
-men
specimen
-ure
fracture
-ment
pigment
-us
fungus
3.10.2
Abstract
Noun Suffixes
Abstract
noun suffixes
common
suffixes are
mark a word as an abstract
noun and
meanact,
state, process,
or result.
damage
-is
stasis
-ate
senate
*-ism
baptism
*-e
importance
-tude
-em
problem
*-ion
action
Agentive
one
who
Agentive noun
most
magnitude
*-y
democracy
Noun Suffixes
suffixes
or that
The
marked with an asterisk (*).
-age
3.10.3
GENERAL,
PASSIVE, and LOCATIVE.
mark
a
word
as
meaning
a person
or thing
that
Chapter
3
performs
some
act.
These
suffixes
mean
which.
*-er
astrologer
-eer
auctioneer
-ar
templar
-or
actor
|
English
Prefixes
and
Suffixes
1
3.10.4 In
Passive
addition
to the
Noun Suffix agent
noun
suffixes,
which
denote
a person
or thing
that
does something,
there
is
one
pas-sive
suffix, -ee, which denotes one who undergoes some action. Thus, there are some sets of words distin-guished by agent
and
passive suffixes:
payer
payee
employer
employee
3.10.5 The
Locative
final
suffixes
type
of
usually
Suffixes
noun
suffix
FUN FACT marks
mean place
nouns
that
indicate
a location.
These
Bioscopyis the medical
locative
where.
EXAMINATION of a bodyto determine
-ary
granary,
estuary
-arium
planetarium,
-eria
cafeteria,
pizzeria
-ery
cemetery,
cannery
-ory
dormitory,
-orium
auditorium,
whether it is ALIVE
sanitarium
refectory
crematorium
3.11 THE ADVERBIAL SUFFIX Onesuffix in English marks words as adverbs. That suffix, -ly, can be affixed to corresponding
most adjectives to form the
adverb.
public
publicly
regular
regularly
profuse
profusely
3.12 COMMON SUFFIXES Following cards
and
is a list
of the
memorize
Suffix
most common
suffixes.
Meaning state,
-ous
having,
-e
state,
-e
one
-e
to
-y
state,
-al
having,
being, pertaining
-ive
having,
being, pertaining
-ist
one
-ism
belief
Chapter
act,
process,
being, act,
pertaining
process,
who, that
result
put these
suffixes
and their
glosses
action
adjective
porous
noun
expense
noun
recluse
verb
relate
noun
biology
to, -ing
adjective
floral
to, -ing
adjective
active
noun
activist
noun
atheism
to, -ing
result
which
act, process, result
who in, state
|
English
Prefixes
Example
noun
_______
3
You should
Part of Speech
-ion
16
English
them.
and
Suffixes
on flash
Suffix
Meaning
Part of Speech
Example
-ic
having,
being,
pertaining
to, -ing
adjective
phonic
-ate
having,
being,
pertaining
to,
adjective
ornate
-ate
cause
-er, -or
one
who, that
-ee
one
who is _______
to
-ing
_______ which
verb
liberate
noun
employer
noun
employee
3.13 BASE FORM SETS 5AND 6 Set 5
Set 6
apo-away
ad-to,
toward
graph,
gram write
con-, frag,
glot,
co-together, frang
with
break
glos tongue,
lat carry
in-,
speech
en-not,
neo new, op eye,
lacking
recent look
miso hate
ped,
paed, child,
training
monoone
ped, pod, pus foot
pel push
sen old
pend, pond hang
spec, skep, scop look,
phyt plant
zo animal
Chapter
3
|
English
see
Prefixes
and
Suffixes
1
Morphological Rules
4.1 VARIANT FORMS OFMORPHEMES We have seen that
morphemes are reusable building
blocks for forming
words.
However,
morphemes
do not
necessarily look exactlythe same everytime they appearin a word.For example,the morphemepel, meaning push, whichis part ofimpel and propel,hasanotherform, pul,in impulse and propulsion. Thedifferentforms of a morpheme are called its ALLOMORPHS. There are two
kinds of allomorphs:
Theforms pel and pul are allomorphs of the morpheme pel.
those that result from
predictable
changes and those that
do not. The allo-morphs
of pel are predictable. They do not occur randomly in words. Instead, pul occurs if the next sound in the wordis a consonant, and pel occurs everywhere else. That pel hasan allomorph pul can be explained by a general rule. This rule applies to many morphemes end-ing in el or ol. It is stated like this: an e or o followed byl changes to uif another morpheme beginning with a
consonantfollows the l. Thisrule accountsfor the uin impulse and propulsionas wellasthat in catapult,insult, cult, inculcate, emulsion,and manyother words. Becausea general rule accounts for predictable allomorphs like pul, you need not memorizethem. Rather, you can learn
one form
before any rules Unpredictable good example.
for each
morpheme.
The rules
have changed it is called its allomorphs,
on the other
hand,
There is no way to predict
will predict the
other forms.
The forms
of a morpheme
Allomorphs
containing
an n-infix
BASE FORM. must be memorized.
when the allomorph
with the infix
will occur.
are a
Consider the
words
frangible and fragile. Both allomorphs (with and without the infix) occur at the beginning of the word and both are followed by the sound, i. Therefore, nothing about the sound structure of the word can be usedto
predict whetherfrang orfrag will appear. Most unpredictable longer
allomorphs
are. Some, like those
are the remains
with the n-infix,
of processes that
are ancient fossils,
were once active in the language
dating
back
many centuries.
but no
Others, like the
allomorphs septand heptseven in septennialand heptagon,wereborrowedfrom differentsources.In this case, sept wasborrowedfrom Latin and heptfrom Greek.Since Greekand Latin arerelatedlanguages,the forms are similar
but not identical.
Whatever the
Wehave listed all unpredictable the base form
history
allomorphs
and any unpredictable
of such forms,
however, they
must be memorized.
in the glossary of this text. Predictable allomorphs
allomorphs
devoted to rules for predicting the distribution
are listed for each morpheme. of allomorphs.
are not listed:
Chapters V, VII, and VIII
Such rules are called
MORPHOLOGICAL
only will be
RULES.
1
4.2 MORPHOLOGICAL RULES The
rules
gravity.
we
will
Laws
are
Morphological
be
should
exceptionless.
rules
Nevertheless,
discussing
they
have
are
If
you
not
step
exceptionsin
useful
be
viewed
off
because
they
as laws
a cliff,
some
you
cases,
represent
FUN FACT
will fall
quite
patterns
like
the
every
a few rather
law
time.
work, it
will leave
the
morpheme
in the
base form,
which
you
than
random
already
knowin
this case,pel. Therefore, exceptions are not a problem. In fact, they are easierto interpret
than
Whether
allomorphs
the
rule
can
that apply
have
to
been changed
a particular
by rule.
morpheme
or not
Dostoyevskyand Van Gogh,had a
exceptions.
change.If the rule works,it will workin the waystated. For example, pel always becomespul whena consonantfollows. It never becomespal or pil. If the rule does not
Many artists and writers, including
of
depends
brain CONDITION called hypergraphia
that causedthem to WRITEor DRAW EXCESSIVELY.
on three
things: 1.
The shape
of the
2.
Where in the
3.
What other
morphemethat
word the
is,
morpheme
morphemes
occur
what sounds
occursat
the
it contains
or how
beginning,
middle,
many syllables
it
has.
or end.
near it.
Thus,the rule that changeseto uin impulse only affects morphemes1) endingin el or ol, 2)that occur atthe beginning
or in the
Morphological RULES. those
rules
Those that
that
middle
of a word,
are of three change
add a sound
to
types.
a sound
in
a morpheme
and
3) are followed
Those that the
remove
morpheme
are called
by a
morpheme
a sound
to some
ADDITION
from
other RULES.
that a
sound In the
begins
with
morpheme are called
a consonant.
are called CHANGE
next chapter,
DELETION RULES.
we will look
And
at dele-tion
rules.
4.3 BASE FORM SETS 7AND 8 Set 7
Set 8
anti-against, den,
odon
can,
tooth
ex-, ec-out, flec bend,
opposite
away turn
hypo-under,
super,
20
grow
hema,
em blood
not
enough
homo-,
produce
much
pyr fire
onym name
seg cut,
first
tele-far
hyper over,
Chapter
FUN FACT
homeo-same
poly-many,
par beget,
proto
col live,
hetero different
it go
nom,
cyn dog
too
4
|
much
Morphological
theo god
Rule
split
The ancient Romans called stones that could be used to
create FIRE pyrites. Wenow usethe word to refer to only one kind of stone:
a gold colored iron sulfide also known asfools
gold.
Deletion Rules
A number called
of
morphological
DELETION
rules
in
English
involve
the loss
of some
sound
from
a
morpheme.
Such rules
are
RULES.
5.1 VOWEL DELETION The
most common
prefixes,
such
of these is the
VOWEL
DELETION
rule.
This rule
accounts
anti-apo-cata-dia-meta-anti+pathy
The same rule affects roots
forms
of
many
apo+logy
ap+anthropy
cata+log
cat+egory
dia+meter
di+uretic met+onymy
and suffixes.
auto-miso-theo--ate
auto+graph
aut+ism
miso+gyny
would look
mis+anthrope
theo+logy
poly+the+ism
cre+ate
cre+at+ion
exactly like another
peri-(per-),
prefix if vowel deletion
occurred
usually
do not undergo this rule.
ana-(an-)
The vowel deletion rule removes the last vowel of a morpheme if the following as in the right-hand follows,
alternate
ant+agonize
meta+morphic
Prefixes that
for the
as the following.
column
of words listed.
as in the left-hand
column,
If the following
morpheme
begins
morpheme begins with a consonant
with a vowel, or no
mor-pheme
the rule does not apply.
2
In English morphology,the sound h usually behaveslike a vowel rather than a consonant. Therefore, mor-phemes beginning with h also causevowel deletion. anti-apo-cata-para-ant+helion ap+horism cat+holic par+helic It is important keep
to
their
vowel
that
follows.
note
that
even
this
when
rule
they
is restricted
occur
next
to to
morphemes
a
morpheme
of two beginning
bi-de-re-bi+ped
or
more with
vowels.
a vowel,
One-vowel as in
the
morphemes right-hand
col-umn
bi+ennial de+duce
de+oxidize
re+ply
re+act
Exercise Circle the
word in
each
pair that
has undergone
1.
theology
theanthropy
2.
autistic
automatic
3.
monism
monogamy
4.
misanthrope
misogynist
5.
telescope
6.
catalog
cathedral
7.
homorganic
homogeneous
vowel
deletion.
telautograph
5.2 E-DELETION Another common deletion rule affects morphemesthat end in either -er or -or. The E-DELETION RULE deletesthe e or oif the following morphemebegins with a vowel. mater
mater+nal
matr+ilineal
member
dis+member
membr+ane
meter
dia+meter
metr+ic
peter
salt+peter
This rule, like this
22
rule
vowel also
deletion, affects
stems
usually
affects
consisting
act+or
actr+ess
ancest+or
ancestr+al
aviat+or
aviatr+ix
en+ter
entr+ance
Chapter
5
|
Deletion
Rule
petr+ify
morphemes of a root
and
of two
or
more syllables.
However,
unlike
vowel
dele-tion,
suffix.
FUN FACT An astrocyte is a CELL that hasthe
shape of a STAR.
Exercise Circle the words that
have undergone
e-deletion.
1. androgynous
5.
remember
2.
meter
6.
philande
3. central
7.
center
4.
8.
remembrance
metric
5.3 S-DELETION Athird deletion rule, S-DELETION, affects morphemesbeginning with ans,such asthe following: ser
in+ser+t
ex+er+t
spec
re+spec+t
ex+pec+t
sist
re+sist
ex+ist
secu
con+secu+tive
ex+ecu+tive
spir
in+spir+e
ex+pir+e
Asyou canseefrom theseexamples,if a morphemebeginning with ans is precededbythe prefix ex-,the ini-tial s is lost.
LEARNMOREABOUTLINGUISTICS! To write rules like the ones found to represent rules in this widely used. The However, in this
in this chapter, linguists
book. This shorthand
main difference is that in
The rules take the following A
? B/
D ________
where Ais the sound sounds
We use a form
sounds
are represented
with spelling,
where it is
using a phonetic
we will usually
useletters
alphabet.
of the conven-tional
sounds.
form:
E being affected,
English, the notation
Some symbols ?
Bis what it changes to, and
D and E show the environment
used in this
above reads: A
notation
becomes B when it occurs between
of other
becomes
/
when it occurs C
any consonant
[+voice]
voiced
V
any vowel
[-voice]
voiceless
+
Lets look
at this
notation
D and E.
are:
nothing
?
of this shorthand
phonology,
where this change happens.
So, in plain
s
phonology,
book, for the sake of consistency
English alphabet to represent
use shorthand.
has a different look in generative
for a rule youve just learned:
the s-deletion
morpheme
boundary
rule.
/ x +_________
Orin other words, s becomes nothing (i.e., is lost) Try writing formulae
whenit occurs after a morpheme ending in x.
for the other rules as you learn them.
Chapter
5
|
Deletion
Rules
23
LEARNMOREABOUTLINGUISTICS! Whats really The letter
happening in the s-deletion
x
rule?
in English, except at the beginning
Try it! Say these
words aloud:
box, rocks,
the ones ending in the spelling
cks.
of words, actually
Sox, socks.
consists of two sounds together:
The words ending in the letter
Both are the sound combination
x
should
/ks/.
sound like
/ks/.
Nowlets look atthe wordexpect. The morphemes in it are/ex +spec +t/. Butex is phonetically/eks/, isnt
it? This puts two /s/s next to one another in the
word: /eksspekt/.
English phonotactic constraints (rules of sound combinations) do not allowthe pronunciation of two /s/s nextto oneanotherin a wordlike this. (Dont confusethis withspellingtwo ss, asin possible.) To resolve this that
problem, the s-deletion
wesaw in the
rule
drops the second
morphemes is now gone, and
we have the
pronounced
/s/. The result is that the letter
s
word expect.
Exercise What sound 1.
or sounds
have been deleted from
pyrolatry
____
2. isandrous
____
3. extant
____
4. expectation
____
each of the following
words?
____
____
5.4 D-DELETION Another deletion rule, D-DELETION, affects morphemes ending in d. Whenevera morpheme beginning with s follows one ending in d,the dis deleted.
24
cid
de+cid+e
de+cid+s ion
decision
clud
con+clud+e
con+clud+s+ion
conclusion
pend
ex+pend
ex+pend+sive
expensive
plod
ex+plod+e
ex+plod+sive
explosive
trud
pro+trud+e
pro+trud+sile
protrusile
Chapter
5
|
Deletion
Rule
Exercise Circle the word in each set that
has undergone
1. abrasive
abrade
2. divide
division
3. pretend
pretense
4. extensible
extend
5. collide
collision
d-deletion.
5.5 VOWEL-C-DELETION VOWEL-C-DELETION affects morphemesendingin a vowelfollowed by c or g.If the verbsuffix -y is added to one of these morphemes,boththe final vowel andthe c or g are deleted. spec
spec+tacle
sp+y
plec
im+plic+it
im+pl+y
fac
de+fec+tion
de+f+y
fic
cruci+fix+ion
cruci+f+y
neg
neg+ate
lig
de+n+y
re+lig+ion
Note: The changes occurring
in the
re+l+y
morphemes in the center column
will be discussed in
Chapter 7.
5.6 N-DELETION The final two
deletion
rules
However, in each case, the
we will consider
are somewhat
morpheme is a very common
different.
one that
They affect only one
appears in
morpheme
each.
many words so the rules are use-ful
to know.
Thefirst one of these morpheme rules is N-DELETION. if the following
morpheme
begins
with a consonant.
an+emic
a+theist
an+onymous
a+pathy
an+archy
a+political
an+orexia
a+trophy
an+oxia
a+symmetry
N-deletion removes the n of the morpheme an-not
The examples that follow
illustrate
this rule.
Notethat the sound h behaveslike a vowel once more,so wefind forms like these. an+hydrous an+harmonic an+hedral
Chapter
5
|
Deletion
Rules
2
This rule
maylook
suspiciously
like a rule you learned in grade school to
help you remember
when to use the
articles a and an. Thatrule says:use an before wordsbeginning witha vowel or an h, and usea before words beginning
with a consonant.
Basically, this is the same rule as the one we have been discussing. It is stated dif-ferently,
but the results are the same. an apple
FUN FACT
anarchy
an historical
event
Veternarians
anhydrous
a pear
sometimes prescribe an anticoprophagic
apolitical
Thisrule doesnot applyto other prefixesendingin n such asen-or in-.
medicine that PREVENTS dogs from EATIN
Exercise Circle the
words that
have undergone
n-deletion.
1. aphotic 2. anaerobic 3. anomalous 4. anarchy
5. asystematic 6. atomic
5.7 X-DELETION The other rule affecting only one morpheme,X-DELETION, deletesthe x of the prefix ex-out, away when the
following
morpheme
begins
with
a voiced
consonant.
A VOICED
CONSONANT
is
one that
involves
vibration of the vocal cords. In English, the voiced consonants are b, d, g,j, l, m,n, r, v, w,y, z. The remaining
consonants,those madewithout vocal cord vibration, arecalled VOICELESS.Thex remainsif either a voice-less consonant
or a vowel
follows.
Voiceless consonants p
ex+pel
t
ex+tend
k(q)
ex+quisite
s(c)
ex+cise
Vowels a
ex+alted
o
ex+odus
e
ex+empt
u
ex+uberant
ex+it
h
ex+hale
i
Voiced consonants
j
26
b
e+bullient
d
e+ducate
l
e+licit
g
e+gress
r
e+rase
e+ject
v
e+volve
Chapter
5
m
|
Deletion
Rules
e+mit
LEARNMOREABOUTLINGUISTICS! Did you know that Try this!
you dont
Put your thumb
aloud [ffffvvvvffffvvvv], to
and forefinger
made
with
memorize
this
English vowel sounds
which consonants
gently on the front
going back and forth
what you feel your larynx
A sound
have to
of your throat
between the sounds [f]
doing. You should feel a vibration
vibration
are voiced.
is
called
are voiced and
voiced,
Asfor consonants,
which are which, put your fingers to your throat
while
which arent?
(where
your larynx
and [v], all the
is).
Then say
while paying attention
during [v] that you dont feel during [f].
a sound
made
English includes
and try them
without
it is called
voiceless.
All
both voiced and voiceless. If you forget
out!
5.8 BASE FORM SETS 9AND 10 Set 9
Set 10
ante-, anti-before,
old
ana-back,
again
anth flower
cata-down,
aster star
chrom color
copro dung
dis-, di-away,
greg flock
meta-beyond
not
fer, pher, phor bear,
iso equal maniintense
away
send
hyd(r) water desire
later worship morph form
metermeasure
stat, stit, st stay, stand
multi many
tag, tang touch,
feel
Chapter
5
|
Deletion
Rules
2
as k,
by th t,
p,
conso-nant
x.
ex-,
and
out,
consonant,
the
any
ch,
followed except:
mit
ducate
quisite
pel
prefix
gress alted
tend
rase ject
volv
licit
is,
X-DELETION
sh, +bullient bath.
+
+
+
+
ex
ex
ex
ex
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
ex
ex
ex
ex
ex
ex
ex
voiced s,
When meaning
Deletes
away.
The
a
in
that f,
ex
a begins
n.
an-,
following
not. h)it like
the
consonant the
pathy
political
+
+
+
+
+
an
an
an
an
an
theist
a
symmetry trophy
prefix N-DELETION
When
meaning
The
morpheme Deletes
with behaves
vowel.
(except
c
g:
-y
or
and
C/G
ending c
+
+
mor-phemes.)
suffix
y
really
tion ion +
but vowel
but
+
y
but +
+
lig
lig
+
+
re
re
acle
up
y
rule verb
DELETION
+ + fec
fac
+
+
vowel
VOWEL g.
a
Morphemes With
Deletes
neg
in
spec
fac
(This
or
de
chews spec
spec
e
sion
+
+
de
lig
s d.
an
mor-pheme
in
ending sive a with +
morpheme
vs.
vs.
d.
ending after a
RULESRULE:
cid
cid
+
+
de
de
pend
pend
+
+
ex
ex
D-DELETION
d.
When
Morphemes
Deletes beginning
comes
in
s.
ex-.
s.
begin-ning
initial
t t
an
+
DELETION
t
t
prefix
+
vs.
+
+
vs.
vs.
the
with
the
spec
ser
ser
spec
sist
sist
S-DELETION +
+
+
+
+
+
Morphemes Deletes
After
ex
ex
re
in
ex
re
or of
or
end-ing
-or, that
-or. begins
ane
e or or
+
the
ess
ilineal
ic
+
+
ify suffix
-er consisting
+
vowel.
-er
following
+
+
a
in o.
in
E/O-DELETION
the
Morphemes
morpheme
mater
end
root
meter peter
the
If
stems
member
Deletes
with
act+or
2 h.
stem
root kinds
or
dont
with or multi-vowel last
ion
all
and
DELETION
+
begins
a
vowels.
to
andry the
helic
vowel
morpheme. agonize
following
hellion
egory
ism
androus
of
ist
horism
holic
uretic + +
a +
+
ate
+
+ +
+
+ +
act +
+
more
affixes the
VOWEL morpheme
morphemes
Deletes
with
of
extender
or
(Mono-syllabic morphemes
Applies
vowel
change:
re+
miso anti
apo
If
change?
What
What
morpheme?
What environment?
EXAMPLES: 1.
28
Chapter
2.
5
|
Deletion
Rules
3.
cata
dia
auto
theo
anti cre
apo
cata
para
Word Analysis
In
Chapter
method
1, three
for
English
methods words
of expanding of
your
classical
origin
vocabulary is
analysis,
were identified. often
Among
referred
to
these
the
as decomposition
most efficient or
WORD
ANALYSIS.
6.1 WORD ANALYSIS Word analysis a
with
is a process involving
number
which
you
process
of
common
memorization,
base
forms
and
can compute
the
meanings
of analyzing
unknown
computation,
morphological
of
many unfamiliar
words for
and imagination.
rules,
as you
are
words. In this
now
chapter,
To begin, doing.
you
These
must are
the
mem-orize tools
we will discuss the step-by-step
meaning.
Word Analysis Imagination
Computation om ut on
Memorization emor on
2
6.2 THEWORD ANALYSIS METHOD When
the
you
analyze
a
word,
word is analyzable;
us look
at each
6.2.1 The
morphemes to
the
and rules
thingyou
too,
But, first,
6.2.2
ask
that
Native
Usually,
nor
its
base forms;
memory
know, it
the
while,
and
will
be for
analysis. until
your
being
ones
1.
you
play
borrowed
are
easy
like
the
not
detect.
They
words
we have
out at you.
9.
paronymous
shibboleth
orate
13.
7.
wentletrap
14.
Let
Without
these
and
well-honed
them
and the
tools,
your better
it is
tools, you
the
under-stand
If
well. In fact,
you
did
practice
only
overlearn
thisnot
detecting
the
and sharp,
you
them.
one
rules
can
other
at
work.
begin
analy-sis.
be analyzed.
not candidates
you
do not know.
Remember do
that
not
The first
some
contain
thing
words
the
you
cannot
morphemes
must
be ana-lyzed. you
have
the
common
prefixes
and
suffixes
you
have learned.
with.
After
you
have been
at the following
list.
analyzing
Which
words
words strike
for
a
you
as
necropsy jujitsu
monotrophic
3, 5, 7, 8, 11, 12, and
Basque,
Objibwa,
for
13, you can already
Dutch,
analysis.
If you
West African, encounter
detect
unanalyzable
Japanese,
an unfamiliar
Middle
words.
English,
word that
cannot
and
These
words
Hebrew.
be analyzed,
came,
They look
are, it
up
dictionary.
begin
have determined
Parse the
The first
step in
process
of its
that
a word is, indeed,
one that
can
be analyzed,
you
is
Word
analyzing
called
morphemes,
word reduction
Chapter
a word is to
PARSING.
including
To show
stem
divide
it into
its
that
a word
has
extenders,
would be parsed re+duc+t+ion.
6
|
Word
FUN FACT Erotomania is a PSYCHOSIS in which a person
analysis.
6.2.3
30
opah
6.
But once you
all
8.
pease-pod
This
analysis.
available
a word
example,
12.
can
meaning.
analyze?
mackinaw
the
its
that
words.
Also, tools
can
working
for
11.
in
you.
languages
lack
been
Look,
5.
therefore,
determine
of letters (such as sh and gh) not found in classical words.
4. jactation
numbers
2)
6) compute
base forms
of
analysis?
exotic
10.
from
them;
of rules.
3. jailai
picked
affect
and
word
new
common
a word
for
from
to
2. isomagnetic
respectively,
analyze
have your
whether
candidate
dextrorotory
If you
of
considerably.
Once you
by the same set
will jump
could
that
you can recall
a part
and you encounter
a possible
words
words
rules
more numerous
to
the
become
vocabulary
determine
tools
the
you
Learn
they
nature.
a textbook
words
do they
do not look
such
the
5) gloss them;
more readily
They contain letters (such as w) and combinations They just
and
are the
As with any job,
word
second
word
unanalyzable
base forms
Word as Analyzable
this
words
memorized;
of them
are reading
Is
to
easier
must be able to
you is,
the
part
the
its
Rules
you
have increased
you
yourself
commit
reviewing
will be like
Identify
Imagine
and
words.
rules,
and
would
Soon that,
you
is a crucial
practicing
know
4) identify
more base forms
morphological
1)
order.
unfamiliar
The
Memorization Keep
steps in
Base Forms
analyze
easier the task.
must:
3) parse it;
of these
Memorize
impossible
you
Analysi
with
component been
plus
parsed,
marks (+).
morphemes. we separate
Thus, the
believesthat a stranger or celebrity is in LOVE with him or her.
Here are some hints to help you parse new words. First, look you know? If so, parse these first.
What is left
at the word carefully.
will then
Does it have prefixes or suf-fixes
be easier to deal with. So, for instance, if you
wish
to analyze the word reduction, you will first peel off the suffix -ion and the prefix re-. Then, look for stem extenders. The -t on the end of duct is a good candidate since t is afrequent stem extender. If you remove the
t, whatis left, duc,looks very muchlike aroot. The second step, then, is to identify root,
with or without
affixes.
the root,
root
port
root+suffix
portable
prefix+root
import
prefix+root+suffix
important
Compounds
of two roots,
two roots are relatively
with or without
rare.
Find the
of the
of the
that
words
most commonly
have a sin-gle
are very common.
less common.
every word
Words containing
more than
must have at least one root. If you have
you have made a mistake.
Morphemes
word into its component
morphemes; that is, the form
word. English
affixes, are somewhat
word has no root,
Base Forms
Once you have parsed the the
of the
configurations
When parsing, remember
parsed in such a way that your
6.2.4
or roots,
The following
morphemes, it is necessary to determine
morpheme
before any rules have been applied.
the base forms
To do this, you
of must
applythe rulesin reverse.So,for instance,if a word hasthe surfaceform autarchy,it will be parsedaut +arch + y. However, becausevowel deletion has applied, the actual baseform of the first morpheme is auto. This is where your skills as a detective come into play. You havelearned a baseform auto, but not aut. You have also learned a rule, vowel deletion, to explain what happened to the o in autarchy. You can therefore befairly cer-tain
that the first forms
6.2.5
morphemeof autarchyis auto. Theform of the word autarchy, parsedand withits base
restored, is indicated
Gloss the
with slash
marks (/): /auto+arch+y/.
Word
The next step is to assign a meaning, or gloss,
to each
morpheme and to the
whole word. This process is called
GLOSSING. For instance, the word autarchy is composed of the morphemes auto, meaningself, archgov-ern, and -y state of. Noticethat glossesareindicated by single quotation marks(). A good glossfor autarchy, then, is state
of self government.
Notice that, in a gloss, the
meanings do not always occur in the same order as the
morphemes in the
word.
Frequently, in fact, they occur in the reverse order. Consider the word podiatrist, for example. Podiatrist is
composed of three morphemes:podfoot, iatr treat and-ist one who. The glossfor the entire word,howev-er, is not foot
treat
Notice, too, that in
one who but one producing
who treats the foot.
an understandable
word gloss you
must not only decide on the
most logical
orderfor the morphemeglosses,you mustsometimes add grammatical markers.Thetense markers ontreats and the definite article the are not part of the an understandable meaning for the Although it is sometimes
English phrase. word from the
morpheme glosses; but they are nevertheless necessaryto pro-duce
The goal in glossing, remember, meanings of its parts. This is
necessary to add grammatical
information
is to produce
a logical
where your imagination
to the gloss, you
and compre-hensible comes in.
must be very careful not
to add otherinformation that is not presentin the morphemes. In glossingthe word dentist,you haveonlythe morphemesdenteeth and -istone who,but glossingdentistone whoteeth is hardlysensible.Youarethere-fore constrained to add a neutral verb like do. A good glossfor dentist would be one who doessomething to teeth. The morphological information in dentist does not allow the glossone whofixes teeth. Although that is the dictionary
definition,
fixing is not specifically
mentioned in the
morphemes.
This
mayseem trivial
in rela-tionship
to dentist,a wordyou alreadyknow. Butit becomesfar lesstrivial whenyou areanalyzing unfamiliar words. One of the
most common
errors
madein glossing is adding information
Chapter
not present in the
6
|
Word
morphemes.
Analysis
3
Remember,a glossis not a dictionary definition.It is aliteral definition basedon the meaningsof the mor-phemes in the Another
word.
common
The final
suffix
error
is failure
of a word,
to incorporate
you
the information
will remember,
usually
carried
tells
what
by a derivational
part
of speech
the
suffix word
into
the
gloss.
belongs
to.
So, if
a word ends in -ion, we know it is an abstract noun; if it ends in -ize, weknow it is a causative verb, and if it ends in -ous or -al, we can be fairly certain it is an adjective. Of course, this method is not fool-proof. Some
suffixes,such as-ate, can marknouns, verbs,and adjectives,andindividual words maysometimes be decep-tive. Usually,
however,
the final
or derivational
suffix
is a good
indicator
of
part
of speech.
If
a word
ends in
an agent noun suffix, then its gloss mustbe in the form of an agent noun. For example, the -er on the end of astrologer tells usthat the gloss musttake the form one whostudies the stars, whereasthe -y on astrology tells us its
gloss
A third the
must
be the
common
morphemes
meaning, conjunction
glossing in
part
study
a
with the
error
word.
of the task
of the
stars.
is choosing
Since
base
of glossing
meanings
is
of the
an inappropriate
forms
often
deciding other
have
meaning more
which
meaning
morphemes
in the
than
for
one
one
is
most logical
word.
of
FUN FACT
possible
Lithofractor is an explosive compound
in
For example,
of nitroglycerine usedfor
the wordincise is composed of the morphemesin-\ in, into, cidcut, kill, an s stem extender, and the verb suffix -e. Although it would be possible to glossincise kill in,
this
makes little
gloss is cut
into.
will almost
6.2.6
sense in the sentence
If two
always
equally
Compute
the
doctor
glosses
can be
correct
incised
the tumor.
made, the rest
BREAKING
The best
ROCK.
of the sentence
choice.
Meaning
Once you have assigned the technical
logical
give a clue to the
The
word aliteral
ones, have dictionary
meaning, you
definitions
may or may not be finished.
that are very similar
to their literal
analysis is necessary. Compare, for example, the glosses of the following
Many words, particularly
meanings. In such cases, no fur-ther words with the definitions
given
for them in the American Heritage Dictionary. Word
Gloss
brachypterous
having
demophobia
fear
dendrology
the
monochromatic
Definition short
study
resembling
phytophagous
plant
the current
short
Abnormal
of trees
The
one color
phyloid
For words like these, glossing is sufficient
Having
of people
having
are this easy. Sometimes,
wings
a leaf
fear of crowds
botanical
Having
Feeding
to determine
the full
meaning of the
meaning of a word has drifted
some
word.
study of trees
only one color
Resembling
eating
wings
a leaf, leaflike
on plants However, not all words
distance from
its original
gloss.
Consider,for example,the worddecide. Decidemeans literally cut away. Butthis gloss will clearly notsuffice as a definition for decide. You cannot say The meansto
conclude
hunter decided the underbrush
or settle: that is, to cut away all alternatives
with a machete. Decide now
but one. None of this extra information
is pres-ent
in the morphemesof decide.Fortunately, mostof the wordsthat haveundergonesuch extreme meaning changes are words you already If the information
is found
Often the combination
Consider the following
Chapter
The definitions
in the gloss is insufficient
may help.
sentences.
in the gloss and the context
32
know.
6
|
Word
to tell
you the
Analysi
words are usually quite similar
meaning
of the
word, the context
of gloss and context is enough to tell
Can you determine
of the sentence?
of rare
the
you
meaning of the underlined
to their in
glosses.
which the
what the
word
word
means.
word from information
1. Doctorsbelievethat endogenousdepressionis causedby a biochemicalimbalance. 2. Syndactylismof the lower extremity is lessrare. . . it is not uncommon to seetwo of the toes united as far
as the first
interphalangeal
joint.
3. They are generally excellent xenagogues and delight in guiding people through their country. 4. Specialfurnaces werecontrolled by the assistance of electrical pyrometers. In
each of these
sentences,
there
are clues to the
meaning
of the
underlined
word. In
sentence
2, for
example,
the meaning of syndactylism, state of having digits together, is restated later in the sentence astoes united. If the gloss of syndactylism did not give sufficient information, this sort of reinforcement should clarify the meaning
of the
word.
LEARNMOREABOUTLINGUISTICS! Now that
youre learning
Of course, you can look
all of these new words, you up the pronunciation
may be wondering:
in a dictionary.
knowing which syllable to stress. Taking two
How do I pronounce
However, one shortcut
that
them?
can help is sim-ply
words you already know, photograph and photography,
noticethat phtograph is stressedonthe first syllable and photgraphy onthe second. Does this
mean that
order to determine
English stress is unpredictable? the stress, but for the classical
No. There are words that
you
will have to look
words in this book, some general
up in
patterns exist. First, its
important to notethat Englishstressis determinedfrom the end of the word,notthe beginning. For many nouns and adjectives, stress the
penultimate
(second from
will fall
on the antepenultimate
(third
from
the end) syllable; for verbs, often
the end).
Letslook atthe examples,photographand photography,both nouns. Wedividethem into syllables(not morphemes!),starting with photograph. PHO
+
to
+
graph
XX antepenultimate 3rd
from
X
penultimate
end
2nd
from
syllable
beats
ultimate
end
end
Nowheres photography: pho
+
TO
+
XX
English stress than this,
phy X
penultimate
In both cases, notice that its the antepenultimate more to
+
X
antepenultimate
There is
gra
ultimate
syllable that receives the stress.
but this is a useful place to start.
Chapter
6
|
Word
Analysis
3
6.3 WORD ANALYSIS TIPS Here
1.
are
some
tips
that
Only classical
will
words
be
can
helpful
in
analyzing
be analyzed
using the
2. Classical words never contain the letter 3.
4.
Begin
parsing
by removing
Most words gloss from
5. EVERY
WORDHAS
the
words.
suffixes,
methods
outlined
in this
book.
w. then
the
prefixes.
right to left. AT LEAST
ONE ROOT. If you have analyzed a word as having
no root, you have
misparsed. 6.
ALL RELATIONAL
PREFIXES
CAN BE USED INTENSIVELY.
If you cannot
make sense of a gloss
because of the prefix, try glossing the prefix asvery. 7. Suffixes other than the final suffix 8.
often carry
A gloss is not the same as a dictionary of the
definition.
morphemes in a word; a dictionary
9. Every stem contains
no meaning. A gloss is a meaning
definition
often contains
made up only of the
additional
cultural
meanings
material.
at least one root.
10. STEM EXTENDERS
ALWAYS FOLLOW
11. Stemextendersandthe -n-infix
A STEM; they
never follow
a prefix alone.
haveaform but no meaning.Therefore,they appearin the parsebut
not in the gloss. 12.
When a root ending in a consonant
is followed
by a root
beginning
with a consonant,
a vowel stem
extender (o, i, u, y) will usually appear between the two roots. 13. 14.
Classical words of three WHAT CANNOT
or
more syllables are usually stressed on the third
BE PREDICTED
MUST BE MEMORIZED;
syllable from
what can be predicted
the end. need not be
memorized. 15.
Glosses should
be parsimonious
(short
and simple
while still capturing
the
meaning in grammatical
English).
6.4 SUMMARY English has an extremely It is, therefore,
rich and varied vocabulary.
useful to
have a method for analyzing
The method outlined
Step 1:
here involves
cannot frustration,
Step5:
be analyzed
without looking
them
up in the dic-tionary.
morphemes and rules in this book. To save yourself time to analyze is a candidate
and
for analysis.
Parsethe word. Thatis, divideit into its component morphemes.Peeloff familiar affixesfirst; the root
or roots.
Restore the baseforms of any morphemesthat haveundergonerules. Assigna glossto each morphemein the word. Then,createalogical phrasecomposed ofthe literal
morphemes.
This phrase is the gloss for the entire
word, also called its
meaning.
Determine the meaning of the word. For many words, this step is unnecessary becausetheir literal meanings are the only from larger
34
using the
word you are trying
glosses of the individual
Step 6:
words
six steps.
word as analyzable. Native words and words borrowed from exotic lan-guages
be sure the
then try to identify
Step4:
unfamiliar
words in the English language.
Memorizeas manycommon baseforms and morphological rules as possible.
Step 2: Identify the unfamiliar
Step3:
No speaker knows all the
Chapter
their
original
meanings they
discourse in
which the
6
Analysi
|
Word
have. But other
words have meanings that
gloss. In such cases, it is necessary to look word appears to determine
its
at the context meaning.
have drifted
of the sentence
away or
6.5 BASE FORM SETS 11AND 12 Set 11 arch,
Set 12
archae first,
govern
cad fall ero physical
ambi,
amphi
brad(y) love
sides
bush
equi even
peter rock post, poster after,
on both
slow
dendr tree,
mortdeath
both,
lith, lit stone behind
stru, struc build
rh, rrh flow
ten hold
son sound
top place
spir breathe
ven bring,
come
vor eat
vir male,
man
Chapter
6
|
Word
Analysis
3
Change Rules
The rules that
we considered
we will now look
in
at affect
a
Chapter
morpheme,
5 all not by
make the
morpheme
shorter
making it shorter,
by deleting
but by changing
some
one of its
sound.
The rules
sounds.
The rule
that changes e to uin propulsion is an example of such a rule. There are several types of change rules. Let us begin
by considering
two
of the
most common
types:
assimilation
and
weakening.
7.1 ASSIMILATION Often
some
is called
sound
in
a
morpheme
ASSIMILATION.
7.1.1
Total
There
changes
are two
to
types
become
more like
of assimilation:
a sound
total
in
a nearby
assimilation
and
morpheme.
partial
This
process
assimilation.
Assimilation
TOTAL ASSIMILATION occurs whena sound changesto becomeexactlylike a nearbysound. The d of the prefix ad-to, toward is a good example of a sound that undergoes total assimilation. In mostcases,the d of ad-becomes the same sound asthe first consonant of the following morpheme. Thus,the prefix in each of the following wordsis actually ad-. ab+breviate
an+nul
ac+count
ap+peal
af+fect
ar+rive
ag+gressive
as+sign
al+leviate
at+tend
The d of ad-assimilatesto every consonant except m,j, and v, but it doesnot assimilateto vowels, orto h, which
again
behaves
as a vowel.
ad+mit
ad+ept
ad+just
ad+opt
ad+vance
ad+it
ad+apt
ad+here
Note: The final d of afew roots also assimilates totally to afollowing
s. The mostcommon of these roots are
sed, grad, and ced: comparesedentary/session,gradual/progressive,procedure/process.Thisrule appliesto these few
morphemes instead
of D-deletion
(see 5.4).
3
The b ofthe prefixsub-down, under undergoestotal assimilation whenfollowed by a morphemebeginning with c,f, g, m,p, or r asin the following examples. suc+cess suf+ficient sug+gest sup+port sur+reptitious
The b of the prefix ob-to, toward, against also assimilates totally with c,f, or p.
when followed by a morpheme beginning
oc+casion of+fer op+pose
Before all other sounds, sub-and sub+arctic
ob+edient
sub+orn
ob+ituary
sub+divide
ob+durate
sub+ject
ob+ject
sub+merge
ob+noxious
sub+human
ob+ligation
sub+tract
ob+trude
ob-remain in their basicforms.
FUN FACT DIVINING the future by examining the patterns madeby thrown BONES is called osteomancy
The xin the morpheme ex-assimilates only to afollowing f. ex+tract
ef+fort
ex+pel
ef+fect
The n of the prefixesin-in, in-not, and con-totally assimilatesto a following l, r, or m. The prefix syn-behaves in the same waybut doesnot appearbeforestems beginning withr. lr
in-in
m
ir+radiate
im+migrate
in-not
il+logical
ir+rational
im+mature
con
col+lect
cor+rode
com+mit
syn-il+luminate
syl+logism
sym+metry
Exercise Underline the
the
prefix
in each
words that
1.
confuse
6.
attract
2.
affable
7.
admonish
3.
syllable
8.
corrupt
4. subnormal
9. occidental
5. allude
38
of the
prefix.
Chapter
10. observe
7
|
Change
Rules
has undergone
total
assimilation;
then
give the
base form
of
7.1.2
Partial
PARTIAL it.
There
Assimilation
ASSIMILATION are two
7.1.3
Nasal
types
occurs of partial
when a sound assimilation:
becomes NASAL
and
more like
a neighboring
sound
but
not exactly
like
VOICING.
Assimilation
The morphemesin-in, in-not, con-and syn-also undergo assimilation before p and b. But in this case,the assimilation is only partial. That is, the n at the end of these morphemes changes to m, which is morelike p and b than n but not exactly like them. The sounds p, b, and m are all made by pressing the lips together, whereasnis made with the lips open. The change from nto mtherefore makesit easierto pronounce the word. The change of nto m before morphemes beginning with p or bis called NASAL ASSIMILATION. pb in-in
im+bibe
in-not
im+probable
Ccon syn-im+port
The following
chart
lists
im+balance
com+pel
com+bine
sym+pathy
sym+bol
the
prefixes
that
undergo
total
or partial
assimilation.
Nasal assimilations
are under-lined.
Nasalassimilation also affects the n-infix whenit is followed by a p or b, asin the wordincumbent. The root in this caseis actually cub, asin incubate but with the n-infix: /cu-n-b/. The n-infix becomes mby assimilat-ing
to the following b.
FOLLOWING CONSONANTb c
n
ad-sub-ob-in-en-con-syn-ex-dis-ab-sub-ob-im-em-com-sym-ef-dif-FIGURE ac-suc-oc-f af-suf-of-g ag-sug-il-col-syl-im-em-com-1 al-m
an-p
ap-sup-op-im-em-com-sym ar-sur-ir-cor-sas-t
at-Chapter
Prefi
sym-r
1.
Prefixes
with assimilated
allomorphs.
7
|
Change
Rules
39
Exercise Mark the
words that
have undergone
and those that have not undergone
total
assimilation
T,those that
1. supply
_____
7.
empathy
_____
2. impending
_____
8.
syllogism
_____
3. adjective
_____
9. corrode
_____
4. combustion
_____
10. imbalance
_____
5.
_____
11. irregular
_____
_____
12.
_____
obnoxious
6. symbiotic
7.1.4
Voicing
have undergone
nasal assimilation
N,
any rule 0.
constrict
Assimilation
Another type of partial assimilation affects morphemes ending in g when a morpheme beginning with s or t follows. In these cases,the g becomes a hard c. The explanation for this change lies in how these sounds are made.To produce the voiced sound g you mustvibrate your vocal cords. The sound hard c is basically the same
sound asg, but madewithout vocal cord vibration. Botht ands are also madewithout vocal cord vibration. So, wheng comesinto contact with one of the voicelesssoundst or s,it changesto its voicelesscounterpart c. This process is called
VOICING
ASSIMILATION.
Following
are some
morphemes
that
undergo
voicing
assimilation.
root
without assimilation
with assimilation
ag
ag+ent
ac+t
frag
frag+ile
frac+ture
leg
leg+ion
selec+t
reg
reg+ulate
erec-t
seg
seg+ment
sec+tion
Thesame processaffects morphemesendingin the voicedsound b.In this case,the b changesto its voiceless counterpart p scrib
inscrib+e
inscrip+tion
sorb
absorb
absorp+tion
Onlyafew morphemesendin b. So mostcasesof voicing assimilation changegto c.
FUN FACT Female hypergamy is
the tendency of womenthroughout the world to choose men who are taller, older, and of
higherstatus.
40
Chapter
7
|
Change
Rule
Exercise Mark the
words that
those that two 1.
have undergone
have undergone
voicing
total
assimilation
assimilation
T, those that
V, and those that
have undergone
have not undergone
nasal assimilation
N,
any rule 0. The first
have been done for you. practical
__V___
7.
2. attune
__T___
8. conjunction
_____
3. illusion
_____
9. lecture
_____
4.
_____
10.
5. insect
_____
11. irrelevant
_____
6. symplex
_____
12. infraction
_____
pragmatic
obstruct
embolism
_____
_____
7.2 WEAKENING Another
type
of change rule affects the
depend on the location
of the
morpheme in the
types of weakenings: a-weakening
7.2.1
vowels in certain
morphemes.
These rules,
called
word and, in some cases, what sounds follow
WEAKENINGS, it.
There are two
and e-weakening.
A-Weakening
A-WEAKENING affects morphemes containing the vowel a.If a morpheme containing an a appears anywhere in a word except the first syllable, the a of the basic form will become e. This rule can be seen at work in the following
sets of words.
ann
ann+ual
bi+enn+ial
apt
apt+itude
in+ept
cand
cand+le
in+cend+iary
cap
cap+ture
ex+cep+t
damn
damn+ation
con+demn
Exercise Circle the 1.
words below that
have undergone
a-weakening.
perfect
2. inspect 3. faction 4. reception 5. reflect 6. adept
Chapter
7
|
Change
Rules
4
7.2.2
E-Weakening
Asecond weakeningrule affects morphemeswith an e in the baseform. If a morphemecontaining an e appears anywhere but the initial E-WEAKENING,
can
be seen
syllable and is followed
at work in the following
reg
reg+ular
incor+rig+ible
spec
spec+tacle
con+spic+uous
ten
ten+acious
con+tin+ent
sed
sed+entary
pre+sid+ent
leg
leg+ion
di+lig+ent
If
the
morpheme
is followed
by a consonant,
the
by a vowel, the e becomes an i. This rule, called
sets of
e-weakening
words
rule
below.
does
not
apply.
cor+rec+t in+spec+t con+ten+t se+lec+t Also, if the
base form
of a morpheme
itself
ends in
more than
one consonant,
the rule
does not apply.
ab+err+ent at+tend+ant
de+pend+ent syn+erg+ism
7.2.3
Double-Weakening
In some
words, both a-weakening
and e-weakening
affect the same
morpheme. If a morpheme containing
an
a appearsin non-initial position and is followed by a vowel, a-weakeningapplies;the resulting e canthen undergo e-weakening.For example,the morphemetag, whenit appearsin the wordcontiguous, has under-gone both Below
weakenings.
are some
examples
of base forms
a-weakening integrate
tag
fac cap
42
Chapter
7
|
that
can
undergo
double weakening contiguous
defect
deficient
inception
incipient
Change
Rule
double
weakening.
Exercise Mark the
words that
have undergone
an E, and those that
have undergone
1.
explicate
__E___
2.
affect
__A____
3.
assiduous
_____
4. incontinent
_____
5.
_____
homicide
6. reside
a-weakening no weakening
with an A, those that
have undergone
with a 0. The first two
e-weakening
with
have been done for you.
_____
7.3 DERIVATION A display
of the
base forms
of all the
morphemes in a word before they
undergo
any rules is called the
UNDERLYING FORM of the word. Thus,the underlying form of the word contiguous is /con+tag+u+ous/. Underlying forms
are always enclosed in slash
marks. The form
of a word after all applicable
rules have applied
is called its SURFACE FORM. Surfaceforms are underlined orin italics. Contiguous is a surface form. The underlying
form
the surface form
of a word, the list
presented together,
of rules that
apply to it, the changes that result from
make up a DERIVATION.
The derivations
those rules, and
of the words contiguous,
autism,tactile, ametric,correct, proceed,and anthropologyaregiven below: 1.
2.
Underlying
form:
a-weakening:
con+teg+u+ous
e-weakening:
con+tig+u+ous
Surface form:
contiguous
Underlying Total
form:
Assimilation:
Voicing
Assimilation:
Surface form: 3.
4.
/con+tag+u+ous/
Underlying
form:
/con+reg+t/ cor+reg+t cor+rec+t
correct /auto+ism/
Vowel deletion:
aut+ism
Surface form:
autism
Underlying Voicing
form:
Assimilation:
Surface form:
/tag+t+ile/ tac+t+ile
tactile
Chapter
7
|
Change
Rules
4
5.
Underlying
6.
form:
/an+meter+ic/
N-Deletion
a+meter+ic
E-Deletion
a+metr+ic
Surface form:
ametric
Underlying
form:
/anthrop+o+log+y/
anthropology
Surface form: 7.
Underlying
form:
/pro+ceed/
proceed
Surface form:
Manywords,such as proceedand anthropology,do not undergorules. Theyaresimply compositesofthe base forms
of their
morphemes. In such
/anthrop+o+log+y/.
because, by looking or
words the underlying
Words like these are said to at the surface form,
more rules are said to be OPAQUE.
form is the same as the surface form:
be TRANSPARENT,
or to
you can see the underlying
The more rules that
/pro+ceed/
have TRANSPARENT form.
apply to a word, the
Wordsthat
more opaque it
and MOR-PHOLOGY
undergo
one
will be. The
wordcontiguous, withtwo rules applyingto its root, is quite opaque. Mostwordsareeither transparent or only slightly
opaque.
7.4 E-CHANGE Achange rule which that we have already discussed at some length affects morphemes ending in el or ol. If a consonant follows one of these morphemes,the e or o of the baseform changesto u. The second wordin each of the following
sets has undergone
e-change.
pel
propel
propulsion
cel
cellar
occult
col
colony
culture
ol
adolescent
adult
Notice also that baseforms containing al can undergo e-change if they havefirst undergone weakening sothat the basic a has become an e. sal
salient
result
calc
calculate
inculcate
The derivation for result,then, would beasfollows: Underlying
/re+sal+t/
a-weakening:
re+sel+t
e-change:
re+sul+t
Surface
44
form:
result
Form:
Chapter
7
|
Change
Rule
7.5 T-CHANGE Another changerule affects morphemesending in t. Whencertain suffixes are addedto a morphemeending in t, the t changesto the sound [s]. This[s] maybespelled either s or c. Thesuffixesthat causet-change are -y, -e, -is, and -ia. This rule accounts for related pairs of words such as analytic/analysis; vacant/vacancy; dyspeptic/dyspepsia; important/importance. The first of the suffixes that cause t-change is the -y that makes abstract
nouns.
vacancy
/vac+ant+y/
secrecy
/se+cre+t+y/
democracy
/dem+o+crat+y/
ecstasy
/ec+stat+y/
The second is the abstract noun marker -e. adolescence
/ad+ol+esc+ent+e/
importance
/in+port+ant+e/
assistance
/ad+sist+ant+e
Thethird is the abstractsuffix -is. genesis
/gen+et+is/
stasis
/stat+is/
synthesis
/syn+the+t+is/
The fourth is the noun suffix -ia condition. dyspepsia
/dys+pept+ia/
anesthesia
/an+esthet+ia/
amnesia
/an+mn+et+ia/
kinesthesia
/kin+esthet+ia/
7.6 V-CHANGE Thefinal changerule we will consider affects morphemesendingin v. Whenone ofthese morphemes is fol-lowed by a consonant,the v changesto a u.If a vowel or no soundfollows, the v remainsin its baseform. nav
naval
nautical
av
aviary
auspicious
volv
revolve
revolution
salv
salvage
salutation
Chapter
7
|
Change
Rules
4
7.7 FUSED FORMS Certain
morphemes
appear
together
frequently
and,
when
they
do,
almost
always
have
a fixed
meaning.
For
example,the forms -o, log, and -y together form -ology whichalmost alwayscan beglossedthe study of. Such combinations
of
morphemes
are called
FUSED
FORMS.
Below
are some
common
fused
forms
and
their
glosses.
Morpheme
46
Surface Form
Gloss
+alg+ia
-algia
_______
+arch+y
-archy
government
+cid+e
-cide
the
+col+ous
-colous
living
+crat+y
-cracy
government
+ec+tom+y
-ectomy
surgical
+fac+y
-fy
to
+i+fer+ous
-iferous
bearing
+iatr+ics
-iatrics
the
+later+y
-latry
the
+mani+ia
-mania
obsession
with
+mant+y
-mancy
prophecy
using
+miso+___+ist
-miso____ist
one
+o+gen+ous
-ogenous
originating
+o+lit+e
-olite
_______stone
+o+lith
-olith
______stone
+o+log+y
-ology
the
+o+meter
-ometer
a thing for
+o+meter+y
-ometry
the
+o+tom+y
-otomy
surgery
+par+ous
-parous
producing
+phil+e
-phile
one
+phil+ia
-philia
the love
+phob+e
-phobe
one
+phob+ia
-phobia
the
+phor+ous
-phorous
bearing
+scop+e
-scope
a thing for looking
+trop+ic
-tropic
turning
Chapter
7
|
Change
Rule
pain by
act of killing, a substance for killing in, on, or among by
removal
of
make ________
science of treating worship
of
who hates in
study
or fossilized or fossilized
______ ______
of measuring, a
measurement
unit of
measurement
of
on
who loves, that
which benefits from
of
who fears fear of
(toward)
at
by
t p. by
or
a
ag,
a b: begin-ning seg;
ending
tio
and
s a
+
as
an
[k]
reg, with
c
such
VOICING
PARTIAL
followed
ture
becomes
sorb
sorp
+
+
root
adb
adb
pathy
bol
+
+
sym
sym
ile becomes
with scribe
ent
ag:
leg,
g
+
+
frag
frac
sorb:
frag:
t
g: b ASSIMILATION:
+
+
ag
ac
morpheme
a
When
morphemes
The hard
ending in
sorb,
frag,
root
the
a
root
of
in-not, syn-together,
end
syn begins
m b
with
with
con-,
the
or
in-in,
to
and
NASAL
pel
bine
p at
PARTIAL
following
port
and
probable
bibe
balance +
+
a n
+
+
+
+
im
im
im
im
con,
ASSIMILATION:
the
morpheme
The
with
prefixes
changes
If
com
com
migrate
mature
in,
together,
m
or m
begins
l
with
an
or syn-becomes
metry
TOTAL
l syn-together,
of
following an
logism
+
n
+
ASSIMILATION
the morpheme The
with
prefix
syl
If
sym
ASSIMILATIONRULE:
in-not,
r
or
begins
m, with
r
con-,
in-and or
in-in,
mit
TOTAL
l, of
PARTIAL
following
rode
and
m,
an n
+
con-becomes
luminate
logical
+
+
il
il
radiate
rational
+
+
ir
ir
+
ASSIMILATION
l,
the
+
+
im
im
+lect
morpheme The
with
prefixes
an
If together,
AND
col
cor
com
f,
begins
p
c,
TOTAL
or
ob
a
against
TOTAL ob-to,
f,
of
following
pose
durate
edient
casion
ject
trude
+
+
+
+
+
ob
ob
ob
ob
ob
c,
ituary
fer
b
ASSIMILATION
+
+ + p
the
NOT:
morpheme
The
with
prefix
becomes
oc
or
op
of
If
toward,
RULES: or
p,
f, begins
m,
c, r
a
sub
g,
mon
or
TOTAL f,
sub-down,
port
of gest
cess
following p,
arctic ject
repetitious ficient
+
+orn
c, b
CHANGE
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ ASSIMILATION m,
the NOT:
morpheme under
prefix
The
with
becomes If
suc
suf
sug
sum
sup
sur
sub
sub
sub
g,
r
d
v,
h the j,
sed,
conso-nant
vowel.
m,
final
as
a
ad-becomes
(seden-tary/session; and
the roots:
as because
TOTAL
every
ad-to,
of following ced h,
breviate
consonant
d
mit
nul
sound
except
peal count
+
+
+
toward;
of
grad,
grade/progressive;
procedure/process)
Before
and
of
same
+
ad
ad
ad
ad
+
NOT:
The behaves
here
+
+
the
morpheme.
prefix
vance
+
just rive leviate
+
+ +
a
+
gressive fect
few ASSIMILATION
ab
ac
af
an
ag
ap
al
ar
first
change?
What
morpheme?
What
What
environment?
EXAMPLES: 1.
2.
3.
Chapter
7
|
Change
Rules
47
u
to begins
ending
is
consonant. changes
V-CHANGE following
a v
-v the
Morphemes
morpheme
The
with
in
naval
nautical
If
aviary
auspicious
ecstaticecstasy
importantimportance
revolve
revolution
salvage
salutatio
dyspepticdyspepsia
anestheticanesthesia
be
may are
the
to
ia
ending
which
c.
morphemes
suffixes and
-t. or
in
T-CHANGE
the
s
to
[s],
changes -is,
t
-e, -t.
When
Morphemes
The added
in
ending
sound
-y,
vacantvacancy
spelled
democratdemocracy secretsecrecy
assistantassistance
geneticgenesis
syntheticsynthesis
staticstasis
ANDV-CHANGEDOUBLE
the
T-, ending
sion
begins
changes
+
t escent t
E-,
o-of
-ol
+
consonant, pel
or
ony
following
E-CHANGE
a
lar
form +
+
ol
ul
+
+
ad
ad
ture
cul
+
e-or
+
+
+
+ el
+
pul
u. the
Morphemes
morpheme with
in
base the
If
pro
pro
oc
col
cel
to
cul
by a
e,
posi-tion an then one i
>
uous the
e
followed
t
and
grate
tion
+
t
becomes
+
than
> is
ient
ient
+
+
+
+
+
e
i
a becomes
tac
a WEAKENING:
sule tig
>
tory non-initial
and more
a
+
the
teg
+
fec
fic
+
+
cep
cip
+
+
in
in
+ +
e + a
i: >
DOUBLEWEAKENING;
Morphemes no
vowel
containing
In
consonant
The
vowel.
and
an
con a
de
con
de cap
in
fac
ible
uous
&
i:
an
word
E-,
vowel. a first
i
is
ent
ent
a +
the
>
+
in
ent
+ the e
+
by
and
A-,
+ rig
tacle in
becomes ular
e
spic
+ acious
tin
entary sid
+
ion +
e +
E-WEAKENING:
+ +
+
+
lig +
i
+
> Morphemes
Anywhere vowel
containing
The
except
syllable,
followed
e
reg
spec
con
incor
con ten
pre sed
di leg
RULES: e:
word
an
a e
first iary
the
>
ial t
+
in
+
the
+ nation
a
le
CHANGE
ual
in
+
becomes
demn
ture
a + itude +
a
enn
ept
cep
cend
+
+ +
A-WEAKENING: e
+ +
+
+
>
Morphemes Anywhere containing
vowel
The except
ann syllable.
a
bi
change? RULE:
What
What
What
morpheme?
environment?
EXAMPLES: 1.
48
Chapter
2.
7
|
Change
3.
Rules
apt
in
cand
in
cap
ex
damn
con
7.8 BASE FORM SETS 13AND 14 Set 13 av bird,
Set 14 fly
ab-,
abs-from,
away
alg pain
cap, cup take,
contain
dem people
cere, cre come
forth,
fac do,
cosm universe,
make
gn, gnor, gnos know
cub, cumb lie
grad step,
en-, in-in,
go
grow
world
into
leg choose
prag do
rapt burst
sed sit,
sal jump
sub-down,
solv loosen
trans-, tra-across,
stay under beyond
Chapter
7
|
Change
Rules
4
Other Rules
In this
chapter
we will look
at two
more types
of rules:
addition
rules
and spelling
rules.
8.1 ADDITION RULES ADDITION
RULES
classical
morphemes
8.1.1
U-Addition
are rules in
that
English:
add some
u-addition
sound and
to
a
morpheme.
There
are two
addition
rules
that
affect
p-addition.
U-ADDITION affects morphemes or stems ending in gl or cl. If a suffix beginning with a vowel is added, a u is inserted between the g or c and the following 1. The words in the right-hand column have undergone
u-addition. Note:Thesilent -e suffix doesnot trigger u-addition. angle
angular
circle
circulate
particle
particulate
spectacle
spectacular
uncle
avuncular
The u-addition rule sometimes also affects morphemesendingin bl, asthe word pair hereillustrates. ambulate
amble
8.1.2
P-Addition
Asecondaddition rule, P-ADDITION, inserts a p betweenthe final mof a morphemeand afollowing voice-less consonant, usually at. Thefollowing word pairsillustrate this rule. assume
assumption
redeem
redemption
P-addition,
English.
like
assimilation,
makes
words
easier
to
pronounce.
It
affects
both
classical
However, the p is both pronounced and written in classical borrowings,
and
native
words in
whereasit is usually
5
pronounced contains
but not
written in native
words. Say the following
native
words aloud and you
will see that each
a [p].
dreamt something warmth
8.2 SPELLING RULES Unlike the rules of certain major spelling doubling,
we have been discussing, morphemes rules that
SPELLING
without changing affect classical
FUN FACT
their
RULES change the appear-ance
pronunciation.
morphemes:
There are three
x-replacement,
consonant
that is, they have unusually LARGE
HEADS.
and y-change.
8.2.1
Manyfamous people are megacephalic;
X-Replacement
The first of these rules affects
morphemes ending in the sound [k],
hard c. When an s follows the c, the
sequencec+sis replaced by an x. Thisrule is called X-REPLACEMENT.Following aresome wordsthat have undergone
x-replacement.
equinox
/equi+noc+s/
complex
/com+plec+s/
haruspex
/har+u+spec+s/
pontifex
/pont+i+fac+s/
reflex
/re+flec+s/
Morphemes ending in g are also subject to x-replacement since g becomes [k] through voicing assimilation whenfollowed by an s. Thefollowing words have undergone first voicing assimilation and then x-replacement. larynx
/laryng+s/
lexicon
/leg+s+ic+on/
sex
/seg+s/
8.2.2
Consonant
The second spelling
Doubling
rule,
CONSONANT
by a single stressed vowel.
The final
DOUBLING, consonant
with a vowel is added. Below are some examples
52
controller
/contra+1+er/
preferred
/pre+fr-ed/
propellant
/pro+pl+ant/
recurrent
/re+cr+ent/
transmittal
/trans+mt+al/
Chapter
8
|
Other
Rule
affects
morphemes ending in a single consonant
of such a morpheme is doubled if a morpheme of consonant
doubling.
pre-ceded begin-ning
Notice that
doubling
does not occur unless the root vowel is stressed.
conjugate
/cn+jug+ate/
preference
/pr+fer+ent+e/
profiting
/pr+fit+ing/
Ernest Hemmingway wasfond of
polydactyl cats (those with MORE
Notice also that, as in the case of the addition doubling
is
not present in the underlying
FUN FACT
rules, the consonant
form.
resulting
from
THAN THE USUAL NUMBER of TOES).
Because it is added by a spelling
rule,it doesnottrigger otherrulessuchase-change.Thisis whythe secondl in pro-pellant doesnot causethe eto changeto u, producing a surfaceform *propullant. 8.2.3
Y-Change
Afinal spelling rule, Y-CHANGE, affects morphemes that endin a yif the y is precededby a consonant.If such morphemesarefollowed by any suffix exceptone beginningin i, the final y changesto i. Following aresome examples
of the y-change rule.
ply
pliant
pity
pitiable
pity
pitiful
rely
reliable
sanitary
sanitarium
auditory
auditorium
victory
victorious
pacify
pacifier
enemy
enemies
If the following suffix begins with ani, however,the y does not change to i. For this reason, the wordsthat fol-low do not
undergo
y-change.
pacifying pitying relying
Neither do morphemes ending in a vowel followed by y undergo y-change, asthe following
wordsillustrate.
dismayed defrayal employable payer portrayed
Chapter
8
|
Other
Rules
5
a a
by
one
in
is
followed -y
except
ending
i.
preceded
and
auditorium
-i. in
sanitarium
victorious
enemie
final pacifier
to Y-CHANGE
is
suffix pitiable
pitiful reliable
-y
the
pliant
any the Morphemes consonant -y.
by
beginning
Then
changed
ply
pity
pacify
auditory
pity
If
rely
enemy
victory
sanitary
root
begins
single
the a
DOUBLING
consonant
unstressed:
al/
er/
in and
stress.
ant/ +
+
ed/
follows
ent/
ing/
+ + +
ol +
mit
when
final
+
what
pel
vowel
ending
+
fer
carries
the
fit
cur
a
+
+
+ not
+
doubled.
CONSONANT When Roots
Then
with
consonant.
But
vowel
preferred
controller /pre
/contra
is
propellant
profiting
/pro
/re
recurrent
/trans
/pro
transmittal
a
c+s, in
the
RULESRULE:
the
on/
s/ s/
ending
+
+
+ s/
follows + s/
ic
s
[k].
noc
[k].
+ +
replaces plec
an
s/
X c
c
+
s
X-REPLACEMENT
+ flec +
+
+
SPELLING
When
Morphemes
Then hard
g+s
equinox
hard
complex
/equi
/con
/re
reflex
/seg
sex /laryng
AND
between
ending
t.
a
added
by
t.
is assumption
redemption
p
P-ADDITION
and
morphemes
a
ADDITION
m
m.
followed Root
Then in
the
If
assume
redeem
-cl,
with
is
or
l. or
or
-gl -bl. vowel
c,
in
g,
inserted
spectacular
following
beginning
is morphemes
particulate
ambulate
the angular
u
U-ADDITION
avuncular circulate
the ending a
sometimes
suffix and a
Affects
pronounced
Then
and
b between
added. If
stems
angle
a
morpheme?
environment?
change?
What
What
What
1.
2.
3.
EXAMPLES:
54
Chapter
8
|
Other
particle circle
Rules
uncle spectacle
amble
larynx
/leg
lexicon
8.3 BASE FORM SETS 15AND 16 Set 15 card,
Set 16
cord heart,
doc,
dog teach,
fa, pha, fe,
agree praise
phe speak
fid trust idio
secu, sim,
do
toward
volv turn
dy,
du two
dactyl finger
same,
men, nec(r),
sequ follow sem
dich,
mant prophesy
mis send,
ob-to,
di,
infra-below
peculiar
mit,
apt, fit
min,
noc death,
neg not, one
semi-,
mnthink harm
no hemi
tract drag,
half
pull
Chapter
8
|
Other
Rules
5
Unpredictable Processes
In the
preceding
English.
chapters
This chapter
we have looked
will
be devoted
at the
to
the
morphological
historical
rules
processes
that
that
produce
produced
predictable what are
allomorphs
now
in
unpredictable
allomorphs.
9.1 METATHESIS The first process,
of these called
throughout
the
Children
world.
often
mazagine
processes
changes
METATHESIS,
It
is
has also
order
is, they
magazine,aminal
of sounds
natural
occurred
metathesizethat
for
the
a very
one.
It
repeatedly reverse
in
has
in
the
a
morpheme.
occurred
the
sounds
for animal, and psketti
in
history in
earlier
times,
more likely
to
before literacy become
morphemes
part
was widespread,
of the
were borrowed
The following
words
language
first
in
are examples
reversed
than
they
one form of such
a word.
nurture
nutrient
[rt
spectacle
skeptical
[pek
miscible
mixable
There
is
no
way
of
predicting
They
say
it is farthest AWAY from the EARTH is
for larynx, as these
A number
its apogee;the point whenit is NEAREST the EARTH is its
were
of clas-sical
a metathesized
perigee.
vari-ant.
borrowings.
> tr]
[sk
metathesis.
such
today.
and then in double
The point in the moons orbit when
for spaghetti. Adults,
forms
are
FUN FACT
of English.
too, sometimes metathesize.Theysayrevelant for relevant, larnyx and relator for realtor. In
This
languages
However,
> kep] > ks] some
sound
combinations
are
more likely
to
be reversed
than others. Thesequencesk is particularly susceptible,for example. But morphemescontaining susceptible sequences the
will
not necessarily
have
metathesized
allomorphs.
Therefore,
all
metathesized
variants
are listed
in
glossary.
5
9.2 RHOTACISM A secondsuch process, RHOTACISM,results in pairs of allomorphs, one ending in s and the other in r. Rhotacism wasoncea morphologicalrule by whichs changedto r betweenvowels. Thefollowing word pairs illustrate
this
rule.
plus
plural
osculate
oral
rustic
rural
robust
roborant
However,
in
Modern
English,
variation
due to
rhotacism
is
no longer
predictable
by this
rule.
In
the
allomorph
endingin s,the sfrequently appearsbetweenvowels. The wordsin the left-hand column representsuchcoun-terexamples. adhesion
adhere
inquisitive
inquiry
nasal
nares
diagnosis Because
of
ignore counterexamples
such
as these,
it
is
necessary
to learn
both
allomorphs.
9.3 ABLAUT In section 7.2 wesaw how a morphemecontaining an underlying a may, through weakening,cometo havea surface e or i. In addition to predictable vowel alternations like these, many English morphemesboth and classicalshow rule
unpredictable
governedat
remnants
least
of ancient
not
in
alternations Modern
morphological
of certain
Englishnor
vowels. were they
rules
called
ABLAUT
which
English,
Unlike even
weakening,
in
Greek
RULESrules
or
these Latin.
native
alternations
are not
Rather,
are
that
were active
descended,
most of the
they
more than
the
5,000
years ago. In the
original
parent
language
from
Greek, and
Latin
underlying
forms
of roots apparently contained an e. Often, however, ablaut rules caused that underlying e to change to o or to be deleted entirely. Thus, aclassical root mayappear with the original e,in which caseit is called the E-GRADE FORM; with an o,the O-GRADE FORM; or with no vowel at all, the ZERO-GRADE FORM. Following
are some
examples
of classical
morphemes
that
occur in
e-grade
o-grade
zero-grade
generate
gonad
pregnant
mental
monitor
legible
the
memorize
ablaut
grades.
amnesia
logic symbol
Since
different
rules
ablaut
governing
ablaut
problem are
no longer
variants.
active
in
FUN FACT English,
you
must simply
If you are procumbent, you are LYING face
DOWN. If you are recumbent, you are LYING
58
Chapter
9
|
Unpredictable
Processe
BACK.
9.4 LATIN-GREEK CORRESPONDENCES Sometimes,
words
is therefore
useful
a particular
containing
to
know
Latin root,
the
same
something
you
root
have
been
about
how
Latin
will be able to identify
its
borrowed
and
into
Greek
English
morphemes
Greek counterpart
from
both
Latin
differ. In that
or vice-versa.
and
way, if
There
Greek.
you
are three
It
know
impor-tant
correspondences between Latin and Greek morphemes: that between Latin s and Greek h, that between
Latin u and Greeky, andthat betweenLatin fand Greekph. 9.4.1 In
The Correspondence of s to h
Greek, all ss occurring at the beginning of words changed to h. In Latin, these ss remained s. Since the
changefrom sto h did not occurin Latin, wherevera Latinroot begins withs,its Greekcounterpart will begin with h. Therefore, wefind pairs of wordslike serpentand herpetology the study of snakes. Theformer wordis borrowed from Latin and the latter from the following
examples
Latin
Greek
semiannual
hemisphere
septenary
heptagon
sextet
hexad
saline
halide
9.4.2
Greek. A number of morphemes show this s to h correspondence, as
illustrate.
The Correspondence
of u to y
AnothercorrespondencebetweenLatin and Greek morphemes is that whereLatin hasu, Greekhasy. Thefol-lowing words illustrate
this
correspondence.
Latin
Greek
dual
dyad
muscle
epimysium
purulent 9.4.3
pyosis
The Correspondence
of f to
ph
Athird correspondence is that where Latin morphemes havean f, Greek morphemes have ph. The word pairs that follow
illustrate
this correspondence.
Latin
Greek
prefatory
aphasia
confer
periphery
fantastic
phantom
frenetic
schizophrenic
In all of these correspondences,
there is no way of predicting
which
words will contain
the
Latin form
and
which the Greek.In fact, modern words exist (such astelevision) composed partly of Latin and partly of Greek morphemes. It is therefore
necessary to
memorize both forms.
Chapter
9
|
Unpredictable
Processes
5
of
of
case
the a
Latin
than as
borrowed
both
Greek hemisphere
heptagon
hexad
halid
dyad
epimysium
pyosis
aphasia
periphery
phantom schizophrenic
rather y
ph
CORRESPONDENCES h
been
containing
described from
have
Greek Greek
Greek words
best GREEK
= =
f= u
root
is
s English
Greek.
muscle
Unpredictable
LATIN Latin
Latin
Latin
because
into
same
and
(This
dual
Latin
correspondence, change.)
semiannual
septenary
sextet
saline
than
and
of
describ-ing
roots more
original e.
forms
pregnant
zerograde
amnesia
problem
deleted. English
an
vowel, Latin
word
that
be
of or active remnants
native
stem
European
ABLAUT
o,
in
caused
underlying
monitor
are German
words
ago.
to
rules
o-grade
gonad
symbol logic
contained
both a
Indo the rules in
is
and
rules
origin.
years
of
change
change a Proto
to
Ablaut
words
occurs
Greek
Most
Unpredictable ablaut
of
5,000
apparently
mental
Ablaut e
e-grade
gene
legible
PROCESSESPROCESS: r.
one in
s.
other result,
in
to
the now, plural
oral
rural
roborant
plus
osculate
rustic
robust
ending RHOTACISM
and changed
vowels. s,
s
allomorphs in
of
UNPRDICTABLE
once
between Morphemes Unpredictable
but
Pairs
ending
r
not
>ri]
especially
reversed
[sk>ks]
[rt>tr]
[pec>kep] [ir
[sk>ks]
will
are
are
sound
places).
sk, metathesized
as
some change METATHESIS
containing have sequences
such
combinations
sounds although
Unpredictable
Any, sequences
susceptible.
morphemes
miscible-mixable
susceptible
necessarily
Sound allomorphs.
(two
change?
What
morpheme?
What
What
environment?
EXAMPLES: 1.
60
Chapter
2.
9
|
Unpredictable
3.
Processes
nurture-nutrient birds-bridds spectacle-skeptical
ask-aks
prefatory
confer fantastic
mor-phological
which
purulent
frenetic
9.5 BASE FORM SETS 17AND 18 Set 17
Set 18
dic speak
ac, acer,
fin end
cent
merg dip,
plunge
para beside, pter
wing,
feather
sper, spor seed,
scatter
hyster womb
vok speak,
dia-through,
ichthy longi ornith
heli sun
voc,
time across
geo earth
ten, tend stretch uter,
tip
hundred
chron
beyond
acerb sharp,
pon,
call
fish long bird pos place,
put
tu instruct
Chapter
9
|
Unpredictable
Processes
6
Meaning Shift
The
meanings
of
words
and
morphemes,
like
other
aspects
of language,
are in
a constant
process
of change.
Of course, there are wordslike cow, eye, and father whose basic meanings haveremained the same for twelve centuries
or
more.
have already that
differ
in these change
And it is
seen that
doubtful
that
many of the
considerably
meaning
words
from
shifts.
their
In this
their
meanings
borrowed literal
chapter,
into
glosses.
will change English
As with
we will consider
in the foreseeable
from
Latin
other
some
and
aspects
of the
Greek
future.
of language,
common
However,
have dictionary we find
ways in
regular
which
we defi-nitions pat-terns
meanings
over time.
10.1 NARROWING Sometimes that
the
a word word
has
with
a rather
NARROWED
broad in
meaning
meaning.
will
For
become
example,
restricted Samuel
in
scope.
Johnson,
in
When this his
dictionary
happens, published
we say in
1746,definesthe wordsaliva as:Everything that is spit up. This definition includes vomitus and phlegm, as well assecretions of the salivary gland. Since Johnsons time, saliva hasnarrowed to meanonly the last of these. Another example is the word pill. Pill came originally from the Latin pilula small ball, from which it narrowed to a specific kind of small round thinga medicinal tablet. Recentlysince 1960,in factpill has narrowed still
further
in
one
of its
meanings
Morphemes, too, can narrow in
to
a specific
kind
of
medicinal
tabletan
oral
meaning. The morpheme bibl, for instance,
contraceptive.
meantbook
originally. It still
appears withthat general meaningin wordslike bibliography and bibliophile. However,it has narrowedto meanone specific bookthe sacred book of Christianityin wordslike Bible, biblical, and bibliomancy. Similarly, the morpheme pom meansfruit in wordslike pomiculture the cultivation of fruit and pomiferous fruit bearing, but it has narrowed to meanonly one kind of fruit, the apple, in wordslike pomaceoushaving the
characteristics
of an
apple.
10.2 WIDENING More
often,
however,
the
meaning
of
a
word
becomes
broader
in
scope
over
time.
When
this
happens,
we say
the word has WIDENEDin meaning.Anexample of wideningis the wordtoxin. Toxincomesfrom the Latin wordtoxicum poison for arrows. In the modern word toxin, this meaning has widenedto include all kinds of poisons. Another example is the word auspicious. Auspicious means literally looking at birds
6
/av+spec+i+ous/. having
Its dictionary
a favorable
augury
definition
attended
by favorable
based on the observation
circumstances
is a widening
of the
mean-ing
of bird behavior.
Morphemescan also widenin meaning.The morpheme mater,for instance, maintainsits original meaning, mother, in matriarchand maternal,but widensto meansurrounding substancein whichsomething devel-ops in matrix. It widens still further to meansubstance in material. Similarly, the morpheme dom meant house originally, as can be seenin domicile and domestic. However,it has widened to meanany area under
control in dominion and domain. A very common instance of trade
names
speakers view
that
of widening is evident in our society have become
words like
common
Band-aid
and
words.
Kleenex
names of specific
brands of adhesive strips
brand names that
have become household
with the large num-ber
Thus, a whole
generation
FUN FACT
of
Mental patients
as generic labels rather than the
and facial tissue. words.
Following
is a list
suffering from tachyphagia will
of
How many did you believe to be
RAPIDLY EAT anything, edible
generic terms? 1. aspirin
9.
linoleum
2. cellophane
10.
3. corn flakes
11.
nylon
4. cube steak
12.
Raisin Bran
5.
13.
thermos
6. escalator
14.
trampoline
7.
15.
yo-yo
16.
zipper
dry ice
kerosene
8. lanolin Another common
instance
characteristics.
of widening involves
For example, Following
the use of an individuals
when wesay Shes
of a character in a book to designate anyone is called EPONYMY.
is alist
a real pollyanna,
with the same trait
of words that 5.
maverick
2.
6.
midas
3. jezebel
7.
quisling
4.
8.
scrooge
martinet
name to designate anyone we are using
with sim-ilar
what was once the
of excessive optimism.
have undergone
1. casanova don juan
or not, that will fit in their mouth.
mimeograph
This type
name
of widening
eponymy:
10.3 DEGENERATION Frequently,
process,
a
word
called
that
originally
DEGENERATION,
carried
a good
is very common.
or
neutral
meaning
Many of the
will
unpleasant
become
words
negative
and
with
morphemes
time.
in
This
English
once had morepositive meanings.For example,the wordvulgar originally meant of the people. Thus, Vulgar Latin
was not just
what the
Romans
wrote
on bathroom
wallsit
was the language
people, as opposed to the Latin used by the scholars. Overtime, however,the degenerated. ancestors
Its view
most prevalent of the
common
meaning
now, coarse,
rude,
or obscene,
spoken
by the
common
meaning of the word vulgar has
may tell
us something
about
our
man.
Anotherexample of degenerationis the wordsinister. In Latin,sinister meant on the left. It retains that mean-ing in some biologicalterms like sinistral facing the left side and sinistrorsespiraling from right to left. But, becausethe left side wasconsidered unlucky bythe Romansoothsayers,sinisteritself hascometo mean evil or ominous.
64
Chapter
10
|
Meaning
Shif
Morphemescan also degenerate.The morphemeatr,for instance, meantblack in Latin. It retainsthat mean-ing in the wordatrousintensely black. Butit hasdegeneratedand now means evil ormonstrous in atrocity and atrocious. Similarly, the morpheme grav originally meantheavy, and still doesin gravity and gravid heavy with child, but has degenerated to meanbad in grave (as a grave mistake) and aggravateto make worse.
10.4 AMELIORATION Because
of some
to get better. or positive word
or
quirk
of the
But sometimes meaning,
morpheme
human
mind,
meanings
do improve.
or a neutral
improves
word
word to
is called
meanings
are
Sometimes
have a very
much
more likely
an unpleasant
positive
one.
it
has become
more exhalted,
meaning one
the word dexter meanssimply on the right.
mayimprove in
worse than
The process
whereby
to
the
they
are
have a neu-tral meaning
of a
who
has spiritual
whofeedsthe sheep.In modern
charge
over
a congregation.
Similarly,
But, since the right hand is usually the moreadroit one, dexter in
dexterityand dextroushascometo mean skill Morphemes,too,
get
will come
AMELIORATION.
The word pastor has undergone amelioration. Pastorin Latin meantone English
to
word
orcleverness.
meaning. The morpheme gen,for example, means basicallybirth
or ori-gin.
However,in wordssuch as gentle,generous,and genteel,it hascome upin the world and denotesnoble birth and the characteristics which presumablyaccompanysuch a birth. The morphemearch hasalso ame-liorated. The original meaning of arch in Greek wasfirst. This meaningcan be seenin wordslike archaeolo-gy and archaic. In other cases, however, arch hastaken on the meaning ofmost important, asin architectmost important builder, archbishop and archangel. It hasfurther ameliorated to meanruling in monarch, patri-arch,
and archonruler.
10.5 SYNECDOCHE Sometimes
a word or
morpheme that
once referred to a whole entity
shifts to
mean only part of the
whole.
This shift is called SYNECDOCHE. Thus, a wordlike nymph young maiden hasshifted to meanlabia mino-ra in nymphotomy. More commonly, however, synecdoche involves the opposite shift in meaning: that of a
wordor morphemethat once meanta partto meanthe whole.The wordbureauis a good example.In French, bureau meanta writing desk. Now,in both Frenchand English,it canrefer to a wholeoffice or government department,
desks and all.
10.6 ASSOCIATION The meaning of a word or
morpheme sometimes
or suggests it. For example, the
changes simply
morpheme orchid originally
by ASSOCIATION
meanttesticle.
with a thing that resem-bles
It retains that
meaningin
wordssuch as orchidalgiapain in the testicles and orchidectomyremoval of atesticle. However,becauseof the similarity
in shape of the testicle to the root
of the orchid
plant, it
has also come to
meanorchid
in
words
like orchid itself, orchidaceous characteristic of the orchid, and orchisany white or magentaorchid. Similarly, the morpheme galac meantmilk originally and still does in galactosesimple sugar from milk and galac-tophagous
subsisting on milk. But becausesomeonethought the aggregateof stars,gas,and dust wecall the Milky Way looked like milk,galac nowrefersto anylarge group of stars with a definite overallstructure. With this
meaning,it occurs in
wordslike galaxy and galactic.
Many associative shifts involve time. In literature,
a change in
such a shift is called
meaning from
METONYMY.
one object to another that is close to it in space or
Metonymy is a frequent
and ongoing
process. For exam-ple,
if you say He drank the whole bottle, you are using bottle to meanthe contents of the bottle, not the bot-tle itself. A similar example is the morpheme burs. Burs originally meantpouch, as can be seen in medical
terms like bursasaclike bodily cavity and bursitisinflammation
of the bursa. But since a purseis pouch
Chapter
10
|
Meaning
Shift
6
shaped, burs cameto mean purse and then, by metonymy,to meanwhatis inside a pursemoney. Thislat-ter meaningcan beseenin wordslike bursary, disburse,and reimburse. Analmostidentical changetook place with the basket
morpheme fisc. Fisc originally
used
by the
Roman
tax
meantwoven
collectors.
By
basket. It then narrowed to
metonymy
it
then
came
to
mean the
meanthe kind of money
money
in
the
basket
and
then
made
from
just money, asin fiscal. Another
kind
of
associative
shift
involves
a change
from
some
substance
or
material
to
an
object
the substance. The word pen,from Latin pennafeather, nowrefersto writinginstruments madefrom many kinds of materials.Similarly, paper,from papyrus,is now madefrom wood products and ragsrather than the papyrus
plant.
10.7 CULTURAL SHIFT Occasionally In
such
the
cases,
day
meaning
of a word
the
literal
gloss
meaning.
You
will also
will develop
of the
word
need to
will
know
for
not
exclusively
give
about
the
cultural
a sufficient
cultural
clue
reasons. to its
situation
in
FUN FACT
pres-ent
Anisogeothermis an
which
it developed.Forinstance,the wordsalary,/sal+ar+y/ glosses something pertain-ing imaginary line con-necting to salt. you
To understand
need
to
know
that
its the
present Roman
meaning,
soldiers
a fixed
were
given
compensation a certain
for
all points on
services,
amount
of
the EARTH with the SAME average
money
each monthto buy salt. Nothingin the gloss of salarytells you this, however.
TEMPERATURE. Another word that has undergone cultural shift is trivia. three
road
thing.
the current
The only
way to
make any sense
meaning insignificant
wasoften a public squarea
of this
matters is to know that in
glosses
gloss in relation
to
Roman times, the place where three roads
met
placefor meetingand gossiping about trifles. Rivalis another example of cul-tural
shift. Rival /riv+al/ is glossedpertaining be understood
out
Trivia /tri+vi+a/
if you know that
rivals
to the river.What this gloss hasto do with competitors can only
were originally
water wasscarce, it is an easy step from sharing
people
who used the same brook
water to being in competition
and, in times
when
for it.
Wordslike salary and trivia and rival carry within them a glimpse of our cultural heritage. They are fascinat-ing for this reason. gloss seems totally out
However, they
do not lend
unrelated to the context
themselves
to easy analysis. If you encounter
of the sentence in
a word whose
which it appears, go to your dictionary
and find
why.
10.8 METAPHOR The
most common
to another. talking
and productive
kind
Often the change is from about abstract
notions.
of
meaning shift involves
a concrete
the change from
meaning to a more abstract
So they relate abstractions
to common
one sphere of discourse
one. Human beings have difficul-ty
physical
objects and acts. The word
metaphor/meta+phor/ to carry beyondis itself a metaphor.It takes a concrete notion, carrying, and applies it an abstract sphere, metaphor involves: The
meanings of
meaning.
the carrying many of the
is so pervasive in language and He
is walking understand
Meanings cannot
on air their
of
meaning from
discuss at all.
be carried,
one realm
obviously.
cannot
often goes unnoticed. beinterpreted
metaphorical
Hence, the
Yet, in a sense, that is
what
of discourse to another.
words we have considered in earlier chapters are
that it
Phrases such
metaphors. In fact,
as The
population
metaphor
mushroomed
literally,
yet they
do not strike
us as odd because weimme-diately
in language.
Without
metaphor, some notions are extremely
sense.
It is easy to see why metaphor is so common to
actually
words in
English
having to
do with
mental processes have their
dif-ficult
origins in
metaphor.Comprehend, for example, means literally to graspvery much. Words meaning take hold (of some-thing) also appear as metaphors in the English phrases to
66
Chapter
10
|
Meaning
Shif
grasp
(an idea)
and to
get (a concept).
Similarly,
if you perceivea notion, youliterally take hold ofit. communicate
understanding.
We also talk
about
Weusethis type of metaphorwhen wesayGotcha! to
examining
thoughts
and ideas
physical objects. For example, when you reflect on a thought, you turn
10.8.1 In
Metaphorical
analyzing
we were
manipulating
mind.
Extension
words, it is sometimes
like Johns
as if
it again in your
necessary
to
uncover
the
metaphors
behavior is egregious and did not know the
that
occur.
If
you
encountered
meaning of egregious, the
a sen-tence
morphemes alone
could not tell you. Egregious/ex+greg+ious/ glossesbeing out of the flock. Looking at the sentenceJohns behavior
was egregious
a sheep.
Instead, EXTENSION;
If
someones
the light
of the
you take behavior
way, the sentence surrounded
in
as a part
alone
by other
of this
process
gloss,
a concrete
notion
was outside
the
If the
not
outside
would
expect
sentences
continued
make you conclude
meaning
being
you
Fortunately,
speaker
does
the
like
flock,
does not indicate.
sentences.
however,
of determining
of such the flock it to
and apply
be unusual
seldom
talking
occur
about
that
a word, you
John,
John
make a it to
in
an abstract
some
way.
in isolation.
saying:
He
is a bird
or
METAPHOR-ICAL situa-tion.
But, in
They
what
are usually
alienates
everyone
or Just wait until you hear the awful thing he did! you would assume that egregious meansoutstandingly bad, whichit does. From egregious, comes the metaphorical image of a bird being chased out of the flockmade to fend for itself
because it
behaved
in
a way that
annoyed
the
other
birds;
not too
different
from
the
way
wehumanstreat people whosebehavioris antisocial or egregious.It is interesting to note that egregio,the Spanish cognate of egregious meansillustrious. led
to
from
forms
the
In doing
that
normal,
antonyms,
of being
the
outstanding:
word analysis, it is important
metaphorical metaphorical.
a.
are
extensions.
words
in
have
a common
English,
feature.
outstandingly
both to know the literal
A number
Consider the following
Eventhough the English and the Spanish developments have
of
words
have two
Both
bad; in
develop
the
Spanish,
notion
meanings of words and to current
of
outstandingly
being
apart
good.
makethe appropri-ate
meanings: one literal
and the
other
sentences:
Aelfric translated part of Genesisfrom Latin into
Old English.
b. The prophet Elijah wastranslated into heaven. The literal
meaning of translate is to
across from
Latin into
carry across. In sentence (a), Aelfric did not literally
Old English. Yet, metaphorically,
he carried the
meanings of the Latin
carry anything words and phras-es
to his OldEnglishreaders. The mostcommon senseoftranslatein modernEnglishis this metaphoricalone. Thelesscommon literal senseoftranslateis usedin sentence(b), Elijah wascarried acrossfrom earthto heav-en.
Now consider the following
pair of sentences:
c.
The Celts depended on the Romansfor protection.
d.
Hugelamps dependedfrom the vaulted ceiling.
In which sentence is depend used metaphorically? Since,in sentence (c), the literal down
would be peculiar,
we assume that
a metaphorical
extension
has taken
meaning of dependto
place. A person
who hangs
hang on
to youis relying on you for support. But he or sheis notliterally hangingfrom your person.So dependin (c) is a metaphor.In sentence(d), onthe other hand, dependis used perfectlyliterallythe lamps hung down from the ceiling.
Obviously,since you already know the common meaningsof translate and depend,you do not needto go through the process of deduction that explains why translate meansto express something in another lan-guage or why depend meansto rely on. But for words you do not know, this process maybe necessary.In many cases,
however,
the
metaphorical
sense
of a word
will be the familiar
sense
and the literal
sense the
unfa-miliar
one.If you know onlythe common, metaphoricalsenseof depend,a sentencelike Huge lamps depend-ed from the vaulted ceilingwill
seem odd indeed.
But if you know the
meanings of the
morphemes that com-pose
depend,its less common usage will be clarified.
Chapter
10
|
Meaning
Shift
6
As a rule, frequently Consequently, true
used words are
more likely to
many of the words you encounter
of technical
and scientific
have taken
on a metaphorical
for the first time
words. Some less common
will have literal
meaning than rare
words.
meanings. This is particu-larly
words, however, have undergone
metaphorical
extension. Every known language it at all. If you interpreting Metaphor
use of
a demonstration
human thought
of the pervasiveness
of
may make word analysis Metaphor
more difficult
underlies
many
at times,
of the
Metaphor is a fascinating the following
without it human language uses
changing
sentences, for example, there
process. Unravelling
The meanings of
2.
Unfamiliar
most unfamiliar
uses of common
3. If you know the literal
metaphorical
of language
a day
would be colorless as slang
and
extensions
metaphors.
need not be a mystery if you remem-ber
words are literal.
meaning of a word, the
metaphorical
extension
is usually
discourse.
Set 19
Set 20
brev short
aug increase grasp
dol suffer
loc place
lig bind
loqu, locu speak
nav boat,
lud play
otear
machbattle
sail
plat(y) flat,
tac arrange
pseudo false
tach(y) fast
sol, hol whole
sol alone,
som body
single
sol(ar) sun
therm hot, phon sound,
10
|
Meaning
Shif
poetic
world is dependent, to a large extent, on our
words will usually be literal.
of the sentence or larger
Chapter
such
are at least ten separate
10.9 BASE FORM SETS 19AND 20
68
we hardly rec-ognize
guidelines:
1.
context
but
most creative
Our ability to relate to and describe a rapidly metaphor. In the last four
lab seize,
process that
metaphor, try to go through
every sentence you hear literally.
and inefficient.
imagery.
makes use of metaphor. It is such a natural would like
broad
warm speech sound
obvious from
the
Word Formation Processes
In this
chapter
most common compounding, etymology,
we will look processes
and
functional and root
at some
of the
ways in
which
English
move on to the less common
shift,
back formation,
clipping,
words
ones.
are formed.
The processes
acronymy,
eponymy,
We will
we will cover
begin are:
onomatopoeia,
with the
derivation,
blending,
folk
creation.
11.1 DERIVATION DERIVATION
is the
formation
we have been considering in
of
derivation
a new
word
in some
by
adding
detail.
an
affix
Derivation
or
affixes
is the
to
a stem.
most common
Throughout
form
of
this
book
word formation
English.
11.2 COMPOUNDING COMPOUNDING
is the formation
of a new
word
by joining
two
or
more
words
or roots.
consist of two or morefree roots (roots that can stand alone as words) asin catfish /cat+fish/
A compound
may
or of two or more
boundroots asin anthropology/anthrop+o+log+y/. Noticethat a compound, in addition to its roots, can con-tain other
elements
with those
such
as stem
of another,
extenders
as is illustrated
and
affixes.
in the following
Free roots
of one grammatical
class can and
NOUN
VERB
NOUN
boyfriend
spoon-feed
headstrong
smokeout
VERB
dump
sleepwalk
carryall
sit-in
ADJECTIVE
poorhouse
shortchange
bittersweet
roundabout
PREPOSITION
underarm
underprivileged
throughout
truck
overdo
do com-bine
chart.
ADJECTIVE
PREPOSITION
Notice that compounds are written in various ways:they may be run together as one word, asin boyfriend; they maybe written with a hyphen, asin spoon-feed; or they maybe written with a space between the parts, as in dump truck.
6
11.3 FUNCTIONAL SHIFT Another
word
SHIFT.
formation
process
Functional
shift
that
occurs
is
quite
common
in
when a word shifts
English
from
is
FUNCT-IONAL
one part
FUN FACT
of speech
The original pedagogswere
to another without changing its form. For example, the noun clone, which came into the language around 1900, shifted to create the verb to clone about fifty years
Greek slaves whose job it wasto LEAD
later. Onthe other hand, the verbto commute, whichcameinto usein the late 1800s,hasquiterecentlyshifted to createthe noun a commute. As with mostrecent shifts, the noun commute has an informal intuitively
which
long
time
form
in
ago.
the
form
of a
To discover
word came the
first,
direction
the CHILDREN to school
feel. Often, you will not be able to tell particularly
of a shift,
if the
check
the
shift
took
etymology
place
a
of each
OED.
11.4 BACK FORMATION BACK
FORMATION
occurs
when a real
or supposed
affix
of a word is removed
to
make a new
word.
Speakers
often useanalogy in creating words. For example, the word television came into the language in the early 1900s (before
the
actual
device
was invented).
Then, in
the
1930s,
when
people
needed
a
word for
broadcasting
something on television, they analogizedfrom word pairslike revision and revise and createdtelevise. Similarly,the verb edit wascreatedfrom editor by analogy with word pairslike baker/bakeand washer/wash. Backformations like orientate and commentate are objectionable to some speakers. Others,like gruntle (from disgruntle) and burgle (from burglar), have a humorous feel.
11.5 CLIPPING CLIPPING part)
is
is the
word formation
retained.
For
process in
example,
through
which
clipping,
a word is clipped
in two
and
only
one
part (often
the first
we have:
lab from laboratory (or Labrador retriever) exam from examination fan from fanatic flu from influenza copter from helicopter busfrom omnibus
Noticethat clippings do not necessarilyoccurat a morphemebreak. Copter,for instance, from /helic+o+pter/ is madeup of the c from the morpheme helic spiral, the stem extender o, and the morpheme pter wing. Similarly, bus wasclipped from /omni+ibus/ omni all and the Latin plural dative ending -ibus for (so, a vehi-cle for
all).
11.6 ACRONYMY ACRONYMY acronyms regular
is the are
process
pronounced
of forming
letter
by letter:
a
word from JFK,
TV,
the DNA,
first TLC.
letter Others
or letters are
words:
NATOfrom North Atlantic Treaty Organization WASP from
WhiteAngloSaxon Protestant
LASERfrom Light Amplification by Simulated Emissionof Radiation NOWfrom National Organizationfor
70
Chapter
11
|
Word
Formation
Women
Processes
of a name
pronounced
or
phrase.
as though
they
Some were
Other acronyms
are formed
from
parts clipped from
two or
more words:
sitcom from situation comedy Nabiscofrom
National Biscuit Company
Gestapofrom
Geheime Staats Polezei
11.7 EPONYMY EPONYMY
is the
creation
of a general
word from
a proper
name.
For example,the wordlynch comesfrom Lynchlaw, namedfor to hang the wretches
harassing the people of Pittsylvania
Such
words
often
have a colorful
County,
Virginia.
Quite a large number
such as diddle, paisley, cardigan, volt, and doily have come into English through eponymy. that there a form
are several
dictionaries
of eponyms
history.
WilliamLynch, who,in 1780,led a campaign
both in print and online.
As wesaw in
of words
Enough, in fact,
Chapter 10, eponymy is
of widening.
11.8 ONOMATOPOEIA ONOMATOPOEIAis the creation of a wordthat imitates asound in nature. Words like boom,creak, mumble, crash, click, and tinkle are all the result of onomatopoeia as are many words for animal sounds such as moo, growl, cheep, woof,tweet, oink, hiss,and meow.This is the only processin which a words sound and meaning are
not linked
arbitrarily.
change through
However,
time, languages
because
what something
will not agree completely
sounds
on these
like
is
culturally
determined
words. So, whereas cats in
and
may
Thai, Spanish,
Arabic, German, Hebrew, Cantonese,and Finnish say something very similar to the English word meow, Japanese cats say nyaa and Coeur dAlene cats say pish-pish. Coeur dAlene is a Native American language of the
Northwest
United States.
11.9 BLENDING In BLENDING,
a new word is formed
by putting together
part of one word (often the beginning)
and part of
another (often the end). For example,the wordsmogis a blending of the beginning of smoke andthe end of fog. Other blended words are: brunch
from
breakfast
palimony
from
pal and alimony
stagflation
from
stagnation
pulsar
from
pulse and quasar
moped
from
motor and pedal
Spanglish
from
Spanish and English
staycation
from
stay (home)
Note that,
asin clipping,
This characteristic
and lunch
and inflation
and vacation
in blending, the source
differentiates
blending from
words are not necessarily broken at affixation
morpheme
on the one hand and compounding
boundaries.
on the other.
11.10 ROOT CREATION ROOT
CREATION
is the invention
Root creation is a rather rare
of totally
new words with no relationship
process, although it
might be the first
to other
words in the language.
one we would think
of when imagining
where new words come from. Some examples of words brought into the language byroot creation are quark, blimp, slang, quiz, nylon, and googol.
Chapter
11
|
Word
Formation
Processes
7
11.11 FOLK ETYMOLOGY FOLK
the
ETYMOLOGY
is
pronunciation
a relatively
or spelling
rare
word
of a strange
formation
sounding
process
borrowing
in
which
so that
a new
it
makes
word
is
created
more sense to
by
changing
English
speak-ers.
For example, when the Spanish word cucaracha was borrowed into English, English speakers changed it to cockroach, replacing the unfamiliar Spanish sylla-bles
withthe familiar Englishcockrooster and roacha type offish. Similarly,the Algonquin word musquashbecamein English muskrat,very fitting for a rodent with musk glands. Wesee folk etymology at work in modern expressions like old timers diseasefor Altzheimers Disease. Do not confuse folk etymology with the normal English
reader
process sound
of adjusting system.
as to its
In
origins
pronunciation
folk
by
etymology,
masking itself
of borrowed the
end
result
with apparently
words to is
a
word
familiar
conform that
to the
deceives
the
FUN FACT An anecdote was originally a private storyone NOT
GIVEN OUT to the public.
morphemes.
11.12 COMBINATIONS OFWORD FORMATION PROCESSES Often, words are the result of morethan one word formation process. For example, wesaw that cockroach is the result of folk etymology. Perhaps becausethe word cockrooster hasa vulgar homonym, it hassince been
clipped from cockroachto form roach. Anotherexampleis the word degauss to neutralizea magneticfield. Theroot of degauss,gauss a unit of magneticflux is taken from the name ofthe German mathematicianKarl Fredrick Gauss.This eponym then had the prefix de-added by derivation to create degauss.
LEARNMOREABOUTLINGUISTICS! The terms other terms for
used in this text for you
DERIVATION:
affixation
for FUNCTIONAL for
ACRONYMY:
for EPONYMY:
word formation
SHIFT: conversion, initialism
zero affixation,
antonomasia
for
ONOMATOPOEIA:
imitation
for
ROOT
portmanteau
novel creation,
CREATION: ETYMOLOGY:
Chapter
zero derivation,
or abbreviation
BLENDING:
72
use. Here are some of the
or agglutination
for
for FOLK
processes are not the only ones in
many encounter:
11
|
words
word
manufacture,
modification
Word
Formation
Processe
or coinage
or category
extension
11.13 BASE FORM SETS 21AND 22 Set 21
Set 22
bol,
agog lead,
cap
bl throw head
don,
cur,
dor,
do, da give
hum earth noc,
cor,
induce car run
-itis inflamation jac throw
nyc night
-osis abnormal
kine,
condition
cine
move
mut change
pachy thick
psych mind,
pol city,
state
ques, quer ask
vid, id,
eid see
troph
nourish
somn
spirit
sleep
ver, verg,
vor turn
uxor wife
Chapter
11
|
Word
Formation
Processes
7
Summary of Rules and Glossary of Terms
RULESUMMARY Name Vowel
Description Deletion
Deletes the last vowel.
Does
vowel
not
of a
apply
to
morpheme
one-vowel
if the following
morpheme
begins
with
a
morphemes.
Deletesthe final vowel of morphemes ending in -er or -or if the following
E-Deletion
morpheme
begins
with
a vowel.
Does not apply
to
one-syllable
morphemes.
Deletesthe initial s of a morphemeif the prefix ex-is added.
S-Deletion
Deletesthe final d of a morpheme if a morpheme beginning with s is added.
D-Deletion
Vowel-C-Deletion
Deletesthe final vowel plus c or g of a morphemeif the verbsuffix -yis added. Deletesthe n of the morpheme an-if the following
N-Deletion
morpheme begins with a
consonant.
Deletesthe x ofthe prefix ex-if the following
X-Deletion
morphemebegins with a voiced
consonant.
Total
Nasal
Voicing
Assimilation
Assimilation
Assimilation
Changes
a sound
so that
Changesa final nto
it
becomes
exactly
m when the following
like
some
nearby
sound.
morpheme begins with p or b.
Changesa final gto c or afinal bto p whenthe following
morpheme begins with
t or s. A-Weakening
Changes ato ein
morphemes occurring anywhere in a word except the first
syllable.
7
Changeseto i in morphemesoccurring anywherein a wordexceptthe first
E-Weakening
syllable
if the following
morpheme
begins
with
a vowel.
Changesthe final vowel of morphemes ending in -el or -ol to u if the following
E-Change
morpheme
begins
with a consonant.
T-Change
Changesafinal t to the sound [s] (spelled s or c) if followed by -y, -e, -is or -ia.
V-Change
Changesafinal vto u whenthe following
U-Addition
Affects morphemesor stemsending in gl or cl. Inserts a u betweenthe g(or c) and the l if the following
morphemebegins with a consonant.
morpheme begins with a vowel.
Inserts a p betweenthe final mof a morphemeand a voicelessconsonant.
P-Addition X-Replacement
The sequence c+s is replaced by the letter x.
Consonant
Affects morphemesending -VC. Thefinal consonantis doubledif followed by a
Doubling
morpheme
beginning
with
a vowel
spelling
only.
Affects morphemes ending -cy. Thefinal -y changesto i if followed by any suffix except one beginning in i.
Y-Change
GLOSSARY OFTERMS Name
Description
Ablaut
A process, unpredictable in English, whereby an underlying e changed to o or was deleted.
Absorption Abstract
The unconscious
Noun Suffix
A noun
suffix
process,
Acronymy Addition Adjectival
A rule
Suffix
Adverbial
in
A suffix to,
that
Affix
of forming
which
that
A morpheme
Noun Suffix
Allomorph
Chapter
word
as an
abstract
exposed
noun.
to it repeatedly.
Glossed
act,
state,
one
or
a word from
the first
more
are
sounds
letter
added
marks a word as an adjective.
to
or letters
a
of a name
or phrase.
morpheme.
Glossed having,
being,
pertaining
or ing.
A noun
suffix
Glossed one
76
a
by being
Asuffix that marksa wordasan adverb(-ly). Glossed in a _____ manner.
Suffix
Agentive
marks
of a word
or result.
The process
Rule
learning
A variant
12
|
Summary
of
form
Rules
that
is attached
that
who
marks
of a
and
a
or that
to
word
a root
of
alter its
as a person
which.
morpheme.
Glossary
to
Term
or thing
meaning.
that
performs
some
act.
Amelioration
The
meaning shift
whereby the
negative to neutral Analysis
A method of vocabulary their
Archaic
Word
Assimilation
component
A word that
The
was once common
Back Formation
meanings based on the
becomes
whereby a word or
process in
Blending
The process by which a word is formed
of a morpheme
(often the beginning) A root
which
A verb suffix
Change Rule
A morphological
Borrowings
Clipping
with
meaning cause to
affix of a word is removed
before any rules apply. by putting
one or
together
part of one word
(often the end). more other
morphemes.
be.
rule that causes a sound to become some other sound.
Word formation
Stem Extender
occurs
Words borrowed into
(often the first Common
more like some nearby sound.
morpheme comes to refer to a thing it
and part of another
always
Causative Verb Suffix
Classical
meanings of the parts.
make a new word.
The basic form
Root
words into
out of usage.
which a real or supposed
Base Form
Bound
unfamiliar
or suggests.
Word formation to
morpheme changes from
whereby one divides
but has fallen
which a sound
meaning shift
resembles
enrichment
parts and assigns
A change rule in
Association
meaning of a word or
or good.
English from
process in
Latin,
Greek, or Old French.
which a word is clipped in two and only one part
part) is retained.
Astem extender that
occurs in
many words. The most common
stem extenders
are o,i, u, t, and s. Compound
A word containing
Compounding
The formation
Cultural
Shift
The
The
or
more roots.
of a new word by joining
meaning shift
to the culture Degeneration
two
or
whereby a word will come to
or situation
meaning shift
two
in
more words or roots. have a meaning that is peculiar
which it develops.
whereby the
meaning of a word or
morpheme changes from
good or neutral to negative. Deletion Derivation
Rule
Arule that involves The formation
the loss of a sound
or sounds from
a morpheme.
of a new word by adding an affix or affixes to a stem.
made up of the underlying the changes that result from
Chapter
12
form
of an analyzed
word, alist
A display
of rules that apply,
those rules, and the surface form.
|
Summary
of
Rules
and
Glossary
of
Terms
7
Derivational
Affix
An affix that changes the part of speech of the stem it is attached to.
Eponymy Exotic
The creation
Borrowings
of a general
Words borrowed
Folk Etymology
Arelatively changing
from
word from
a proper
any language
rare word formation the pronunciation
name.
other than
process in
or spelling
Latin,
Greek, or Old French.
which a new word is created
of a strange-sounding
by
word so that it
makes more sense to native speakers. Free Root
Aroot
Gloss
To assign a meaning to a word based on the
Infix
which can be a word by itself.
An affix that can be inserted
Inflectional
Suffix
Asuffix that indicates
only into the
grammatical
meaning of its
morphemes.
middle of the root.
distinctions
such as number,
gender, person,
and tense. Intensive
Prefix
A prefix
used to strengthen
strongly, Irregular
Allomorph
or completely.
Variant form
or intensify Relational
the
prefixes
of a morpheme resulting
from
meaning of a root.
Glossed very,
may also be used intensively. a process no longer
active in the
language. Locative
Noun Suffix
A noun suffix that
Meaning Shift
marks location.
The gradual shift in the
Glossedplace
where.
meaning of a word from the original
meaning evident in
its gloss. Memorization
The learning
of a word by conscious
Metaphor
The meaning shift
whereby a word or
meaning to a more abstract Metaphorical
Extension
Metathesis
effort.
The process of taking
in
a concrete
one.
a concrete
A process, unpredictable
morpheme changes from
notion
English,
and applying
it to an abstract situation.
whereby certain sounds in a word are
reversed. Morphemes Morphological
The meaningful Rule
Arule that
pieces that
make up words.
predicts the changes a base form
will undergo
under certain
circumstances. Mutative Verb Suffix Narrowing
A verb suffix that
meanschange
The meaning shift
whereby the
narrower; Native
78
Words
Chapter
|
Summary
of
meaning of a word or
that is, it refers to a smaller
Words that
12
or become.
have always been English.
Rules
and
Glossary
of
Term
range of subjects.
morpheme
becomes
Negative
Prefix
A prefix usedto negatethe meaningof the root (non-, un-). Glossed not, lacking,
Nominal
Suffix
Numerical
Prefix
opposite,bad
A suffix
that
The
Opaque
A word that
Parse Partial
creation
To divide
Assimilation
marks
a
word
to
prior
condition.
as a noun.
A prefixthat denotesa number(di-two).
Onomatopoeia Word
or return
of a
that
imitates
has undergone
a word into
A process in exactly
word
which
one
a sound
or
nature.
more rules.
its component
a sound
in
morphemes.
changes
to
become
more like
another
sound
Passive Noun Suffix
A noun suffix that denotes one who undergoes some action (-ee).
Prefix
An affix
Rare Stem Extender
but
not
the same.
that
A stem
can
be attached
extender
that
occurs
only to the left
only
with
of the root.
certain
roots.
The
rare
stem
extenders
are
r, n, m, AND y. Redundant
Suffix
A suffix
that
suffixes
Relational
Prefix
adds the same
are necessary
meaning
to the form
as the final
of the
suffix
word but
of a word.
not to the
Redundant
meaning.
A prefixthat denotesa relationship occurringin spaceortime (de-down).
Rhotacism
A process, unpredictable in English, whereby s changesto r between vowels.
Root
A morpheme
Root Formation
that
The invention
forms
of totally
the
core
new
of the
words
word.
with
no relationship
to
other
words in the
language.
Spelling
Rule
A rule
which
changes
the spelling
or combination
of roots
of a
morpheme
without
changing
its
pronunciation.
Stem
Any
root
and
affixes
to
which
another
morpheme
can
be
added.
Stem Extender
A meaningless
morpheme
morpheme
Suffix
An affix
Surface Form
The form
Synecdoche
The entity referred
is
that
be attached
of a word
shifts to
shift to
a part
must sometimes
be added
to
a stem
before
anoth-er
added.
can
meaning
that
after
only to the
all applicable
whereby
mean only
a word a part,
of an entity
Chapter
12
or
shifts
|
right
rules
or
Summary
have applied.
morpheme
whereby to
of the root.
mean the
of
that
a word
Rules
or
once referred
to
morpheme
that
a whole once
whole.
and
Glossary
of
Terms
7
Total
Assimilation
Transparent
A process in
Word
A word that
which a sound
has not undergone
the base forms Underlying
Form
changes to become exactly like some nearby sound.
of its
any rules and is therefore
simply
a composite
of
morphemes.
A display of the base forms
of all the
morphemes in a word before they
undergo
any rules. Unpredictable
Process
A process that at some time in the history morphological unpredictable
Verbal Suffix
rule
but is no longer
of the language
predictable
was a predictable
and therefore
results in
allomorphs.
Asuffix that either
establishes a stem as a verb or changes a stem from
a noun or
adjective to a verb. Widening
The meaning shift
whereby the
meaning of a word or
that is, it refers to a larger range of subjects.
80
Chapter
12
|
Summary
of
Rules
and
Glossary
of
Term
morpheme
becomes
wider;
Glossary of BaseForms and Reverse Glossary of Roots
An asterisk,
*,
marks the
most frequently
occurring
Theless common stem extendersr, with:
Prefixes
Set
-n, -m, and -yappear
in parentheses attached to the roots they occur
brach(y).
Other stem
Roots
forms.
extenders
also appear
in
parentheses
are indicated
by a dash to their
are indicated
by a dash to their
are indicated
without
Base Form
any
right: left:
dashes:
with the roots
they
attach
to:
dyn(am);
gyn(ec)
anti-Suffixes -able
arbor
Meaning
Examples
A -a
Feminine
-a
NOUN
-a
alumna, alga,
Plural
anima,
formula,
automata,
bacteria,
criteria,
media,
curricula,
phenomena
see hab
ab *ab-,
Julia
papilla
impedimenta,
14
Sophia,
abs--able,
from,
away
abdicate, abnormal,
-ible,
-ble
able
to
be, suitable
for
(related to hab)
abduction,
adorable,
amiable,
notable,
observable,
sociable,
abhorrence,
abortion,
soluble,
absent,
abstract
audible,
innumerable,
pliable,
tangible,
quotable, taxable,
vendible abs--ac
see ab-one who,
that
which
aphrodisiac,
hypochondriac,
insomniac,
maniac -ac
being,
having,
pertaining
to
cardiac,
elegiac,
ileac,
theriac
8
-ac
STEM EXTENDER
audacious, tenacity,
18
sharp, tip, top (relatedto ox)
*ac, acer, acerb
herbaceous, loquacious,
vivacity
acerbic,
acetic, acidic, acidulate,
acidulous,
acme, acne, acrid,
acrimonious,
acrobat, acronym,
acrophobia,
acropolis,
acuminate,
acupuncture,
acuity, acumen, acute,
exacerbate -acle
6
that
*ad--ad
which
oracle, oracular, receptacle,
to, toward
spectacle,
spectacular,
spiracle, tabernacle,
abbreviate,
account,
admit,
tentacle
adapt, adduce,
affect, aggressive, alleviate,
annul,
appeal, arrive, assume, attract group
or unit of
chiliad,
dyad,
monad,
myriad, pentad,
tetrad, triad adip
fat
adipescent,
adipogenous,
adipophobia, -ae
plural
aer
algae, formulae,
air
papillae
aerate, aerial, aerodynamic, aerolite,
3
adipometer,
adipose, adiposity
aesth
seeesth
*ag
act (relatedto -agog, agon)
aeronaut,
aerodyne,
aeronautical,
aeronomy,
aerostate, anaerobic
act, action,
activity,
actual, actuary,
actuate, agenda, agency, agent, agile, agility,
agitate, ambiguous,
castigate, coagulate,
exact, exigency, fumigate, interact,
intransigent,
prodigal,
condition, result
22
process,
salvage,
teach, induce (related to ag)
*agog
navigate,
strategy,
variegate
damage, foliage,
of process
fustigate,
litigate,
react, retroactive,
transaction, -age
axiom,
enact, enactment,
herbage, lineage,
verbiage
anagogic,
demagogue,
hypnagogue,
emmenagogue,
mystagogue, pedagogue,
pedagogy, synagogue
struggle (relatedto ag)
agon
agony, agonize, antagonism, antagonize,
agr
field
-al
agrarian,
having,
being, pertaining
to
agriculture,
agribusiness,
agriology,
agronomist,
armorial,
astral, autumnal,
floral,
antagonist,
protagonist
peregrinate
glottal, immortal,
dual, factual, mental,
mortal,
nasal, neural, oral, papal, personal, scribal, spherical, *al, all
other
surgical
alias, alibi, alien, alienation, allele, allelomorph, allopatric, altruism,
82
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Root
allotrope, inalienable,
allegory,
allomorph, alternative, parallel
grow, nourish (relatedto alt)
al, ol
abolish,
adolescence,
aliment,
alimentary,
adolescent, alimony,
adult,
coalesce,
coalition alb
13
white
*alg
alb, albescent,
pain
algogenic,
algolagnia,
algometer,
arthralgia,
neuralgia,
nostalgic, wing
alar,
high (relatedto algrow)
am
alary,
*ambi,
amphi
both,
on all or both sides
pleuralgia
aliferous,
altimeter,
altitude,
altisonant,
amateur,
amiable,
amicable,
amity,
enemy, 12
alate,
albite,
albuminuria
aliform,
aliped
altigraph,
love
albumen,
odontalgia,
alinasal, alt
albino,
album,
analgesic,
ali
albiflorous,
albocracy,
amiability,
enamored,
inimical
ambidextrous,
ambient, ambivert,
amburbial,
exaltation amiably,
amorous,
enmity,
ambition,
altiloquence, alto, exalt,
ambiguous,
ambivalent,
amphibian,
amphitheater,
circumambient ambl
walk,
go
amble,
ambulance,
ambulomancy,
circumambulate,
preamble, amphi
see ambi
ampl
large
-an
having,
ample,
perambulate,
somnambulist
ampliate,
amplify,
amplification, being,
pertaining
to
-an
one
who, that
amplitude
batrachian,
human,
reptilian, which
ampliation,
silvan,
mammalian,
suburban
artisan,
cosmopolitan,
lesbian,
partisan,
pedestrian,
pediatrician,
pagan,
veteran 4
*an-*ana--ance
10
lacking,
back,
not
again
anarchy,
anemic,
atheism,
atheist,
apathetic,
aphotic,
atom
anabolism,
anagram,
anaphora,
anatomical,
anatomy,
anodize
addenda,
dividend,
analect,
analysis,
anatomize,
see -ant being, -e see -ant being, -y
-ancy -and,
-end
passive
NOUN
multiplicand,
memorandum,
operand,
ordinand,
reverend 4
*ander
man,
male
anadrous,
androcentric,
androgyny,
android,
gynandromorph, philander, -ane
having,
being,
pertaining
to
arcane,
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
pachysandra,
polyandry germance,
transmundane,
Chapter
androgenous, apandrous,
Reverse
montane,
mundane,
urbane
Glossary
of
Roots
8
anem
wind
anemography,
anemometer,
anemology,
anemophilous ang
constrict
angina, angustation,
anguish,
anxiety,
anxious angi
blood
vessel
angina, angioplasty,
angiogram
angl
angle
angular, anguliferous,
angui
snake
anguiform,
triangle,
anguilliform,
rectangle
anguine,
anguiped anim
mind
animadversion, animate,
animal,
animosity,
inanimate,
longanimity,
pusillanimous, 21
*ann
year
centennial,
being,
having, pertaining
to
-ant
one
who, that
which
brilliant,
constancy,
*ante, anti
before,
applicant,
old
defendant,
inhabitant,
intoxicant,
occupant,
participant,
ante, antebellum, anterior,
*anth, anthem
flower,
collection
human
being
antecedent,
anticipate,
antiquarian,
antique,
ananthous,
anther, anthesis,
monanthous, man,
servant, tenant
antiquated,
antiquity
anthology,
chrysanthemum,
*anthrop
discriminant, itinerant,
antedate, antediluvian,
anthoecology,
1
militant,
assistant, consultant,
antechamber,
9
defiance,
itinerant,
pregnancy, radiance
contestant,
9
perennial,
triennial
gallant, importance, pliant,
annuity,
biennium,
millenium,
adamant,
unanimous
annual,
biennial,
superannuate,
equanimity,
magnanimous,
reanimate,
annals, anniversary, biannual,
-ant
animalcule,
animus,
exanthema, perianth
anthropophagous,
anthropoid,
anthropology,
anthropophobia,
lycanthrope,
misanthrope,
philanthropist 7
*anti-anti-apec
against,
opposite
antibody, antipodes,
antichrist, antiseptic,
antidote,
antipathy,
antonym
see ante-tip apex, apical, apicular,
apiculate,
apicifixed aper
open
aperient,
apertometer,
aperture,
malapert api
bee
apian, apiarian, apiology,
84
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Root
apiary, apiculture,
apiphobia,
apivorous
5
*apo-away,
from,
off
apandrous,
apocalypse,
apodeictic,
apodictic,
apology,
apoplexy,
apocynum, apogamy,
apogee,
aporrheum,
apostle, apostrophe,
apostasy,
apothecary,
apotheosis 16
*apt
fit,
capable
adapt, adaptation,
adept, apt, aptitude,
aptness, coaptation, *aqua
water
aquarium,
ineptitude,
aquapuncture,
aqueduct,
aqueous,
aquiferous,
inept
aquatic,
aquiculture,
aquiform,
aquosity,
terraqueous -ar
having,
being, pertaining
to
alveolar, articular, insular,
particular,
see -r
arachn
spider
granular, nuclear,
popular, regular, similar,
spectacular, -ar
globular,
jocular, linear, lunar,
stellar, velar, vulgar
arachnean,
arachnid,
arachnophagous,
arachnoid,
arachnophobia,
arachnology arbiter
judge
arbiter,
arbitrary,
arbor
tree
arbor, arboraceous, arboretum,
11
*arch
first,
govern, foremost
arbitrate, arboreal,
arboricole,
anarchist,
diarch, archetype,
archives, ethnarch, matriarch, patriarch, burn,
dry
ardent,
-arium
see-ary place and -um
arm
weapon (relatedto art)
arboreous,
arboriculture
anarchy, archaeology,
archbishop,
ard, ar
arbitration
architect,
exarchy, hierarchy,
monarch, oligarchy, triarchy
ardor, arid, arson
alarm,
arm, armada, armament,
armigerous,
armistice,
armor,
armory,
arms, army, disarm arct
bear,
north
Antarctica,
art
skill, capability (relatedto arm)
art, artful, artifact, artifice, artificial, artillery, inert,
art
see arth
arter
artery
arctic, cynarctomachy
artisan, artist, artistic,
inertia
arterial,
arteriography,
arteriosclerosis, arthr, art
segment,
joint
arthralgia,
having,
-ary
having
being, pertaining (some
number
to
arbitrary,
of) parts
-ary
place
customary,
apothecary,
seminary,
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
solitary quinary, ternary,
aquarium,
planetarium,
13
articulate
unitary
estuary, granary,
Chapter
art, arthrology,
arthropod,
binary, quaternary, trinary,
arteriole,
periartertis
arthritis,
arthroplasty, -ary
artless,
sanctuary,
solarium,
Reverse
commissary,
mortuary,
Glossary
penitentiary,
sanitarium,
vocabulary
of
Roots
8
-as
9
STEM EXTENDER
asper
rough,
*aster
star (relatedto stell)
irritate
enthusiastic,
phantasy, orgasm, sarcasm
asperifoliate,
asperity, exasperate
aster, asterisk, asteroid, astral, astrodome,
astrogeny,
astrology,
astronaut,
astrophysics, -aster
inferior
one who
criticaster,
astrolatry, astronomy,
disaster, periaster
grammicaster,
philosophaster,
medicaster,
poetaster, stylaster,
theologaster *-ate
one
who, that
which
advocate,
affiliate,
laureate,
magistrate, novitiate,
prostitute, *-ate
having,
being, pertaining
to
beneficiate,
delegate, potentate,
triumvirate
affectionate,
alternate,
collegiate,
delicate, indiscrimate,
irate,
obstinate,
ornate *-ate
VERB cause
to
aggravate, asphyxiate,
convolute,
elongate, equate, fascinate, fumigate, infuriate,
athl
sport
liberate,
punctuate,
vacillate,
vegetate
athletic,
athleticism,
segregate,
decathlon,
pentathlon atmo
air
atmidometry, atmolysis,
atra
black,
aud
cruel
atmoclastic,
atmometer,
atrabilarian,
hear
atmograph,
atmosphere
atrabilious,
atrocious,
atrocity,
atrosanguineous,
atrous
audible,
audience,
audiology,
audition,
auditor,
auditorium,
audit, auditory,
inaudible 20
*aug
increase
auction,
auctioneer,
augmentation,
augment,
augur, augury,
August, auxesis, auxiliary,
august,
auxin,
auxology, inauguration aur
ear
aur, or
gold
aural, auricular,
binaural,
auramine,
aureate, aureole, auric,
auriferous,
aurigraphy, foretell,
protect
monaural
aurivorous,
aurous,
oriole
auspex, auspices, auspicial,
(relatedto avbird auster
aurilave,
auriscope,
aurific,
auspec
auriform,
auspicious
and spec)
south
Auster, austral, australopithecus,
Australian, austromancy,
Austronesia 2
*auto, tauto
self,
same
autarchy,
autecology,
autocracy,
autocratic,
autography,
automate,
automaton,
automobile,
autonomy, tautology,
86
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
autobiography,
of
Root
autotomic, tautophony
autogamy, automatic, autonomic, autopsy,
13
*av
bird,
fly
aviary, aviation,
aviator, avicular
(possiblyrelatedto ov, o) av, avar
desire
strongly
avarice, avaricious,
avid, avidity
B bacc
berry
baccate, bacciferous,
bacciform,
baccivorous bacch
orgiastic
bacchanal,
bacchanialian,
bacchanantic, bacill, bacter
small
staff, germ
bacilliform,
bacchante,
bacchic bacillus, bacteria,
bactericidal ban
outlaw,
desert
abandon,
abandonment,
banish, banishment, bapt
to
dip
Anabaptist, baptistry,
bar
bar, legal
profession
baptism, baptize,
ban, bandit,
contraband baptismal,
Baptist,
pedobaptist
bar, barrage, barrier,
barrister,
debar,
disbar, embar bar
weight
baritone,
barium,
barometer,
baroscope,
isobar barbar
uncivilized
Barbara, barbarian,
barbaric,
barbarize,
barbarous bas
bottom
basal, base, basic, basicranial,
basify,
basilar, basis, basophil bas
low
abase, base, basement,
bass, basset,
basso, bassoon, contrabass bat
beat
abate, bat, bate, battalion, battle, battlement,
batter, battery,
combat,
debate,
embattle batrach
frog
batrachian,
batrachite,
batrachoid,
batrachophagous bath(y)
depth
bathophobia,
bathos, bathybius,
bathycolpian,
bathymeter,
beat
blessed
beatific,
bell
war
antebellum,
bellicist,
belligernecy,
belligerent,
beatify, beatitudes
rebel, rebellion, *bene, bon
good,
well
bathysphere
benediction,
bellicose, bellipotent,
rebellious
benefaction,
benefactor,
benefic,
benefice, beneficial,
benefit,
benevolence,
beneficient,
benign, benignity,
bonus *bi(n)
two
biceps, bicycle, bifurcation,
bigamy,
bilingual,
biped,
biplane,
binary, binocular,
bisect, bivalve, combination,
combinatory,
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
combine
Glossary
of
Roots
8
3
bib
drink
bib, bibacious,
bibation,
bibulous,
imbibe bibl
book,
Bible
Bible, bibliography, bibliomania, bibliophile,
*bio
life
bibliopole,
amphibious, biometrics,
21
see bol
blast
embryonic
-ble
see-able
bol, bl
throw,
tissue
extend
bionics,
bov, bu
cow,
milk
blastema,
blastocyst,
biopsy,
blastoma,
dermoblast,
ectoblast
anabolism,
holograph,
bolometer,
catabolism,
discobolus,
ecbolic,
hyperbole,
parabola,
bovate, bovid,
arm
bioplasm,
microbe, symbiosis
bucolic, brach, brac
biology,
cenobite,
parable,
see bene
anaerobic,
bathybius,
emblematic,
bon
bibliopegist,
bibliotics
anabiosis,
autobiography,
bl
bibliolatry,
bibliomancy,
problem,
boviform,
bugle, butter,
symbol
bovine,
butyric
brace, bracelet, brachial, brachiosaurus,
emblem,
metabolism,
braciopod,
brachiate,
brachium,
embrace 4
*brach(y)
short
amphibrach,
brachycephalic,
brachydactylic, brachygraphy, 12
brad(y)
slow
bradycardia,
19
*brev
short
abbreviate,
bradypus,
bronch
windpipe
brachydont, brachylogy bradyerotic,
bradypod,
bradyseism abbreviation,
breviary,
brevilingual,
breviped,
brevirostrine,
bronchial,
bronchitis,
bronchopneumonia,
breve, brevet, breviloquent, brevity
bronchophony, bronchoscope,
bronchotomy bront
thunder
brontograph,
brontology,
brontophobia,
brontometer,
brontosaur,
brontotherium brun
brown
bu
see bov
bulb
bulb
burs
pouch,
bruneous,
bulbar, bulbiferous, money
bursa, bursal, bursiform,
88
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
brunet,
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Root
brunette
bulbiform,
bulbous
bursar, bursary, burse,
bursitis,
disburse,
reimburse
C *cac
bad
cack, cacodemonia, cacogenics,
cacoethes,
cacography,
caconym,
cacophony 11
*cad
fall
accident,
accidental,
cadaverous,
caducous,
cadence, cadenza, casual,
case, casuist, coincide,
decadence,
deciduous, incident,
occasion, occident,
recidivism caen
seecen
cal, calor
hot (relatedto cau(s)t)
caldron,
calescent, caliduct,
calorimeter,
caloric,
calorifacient, calc
heel
calcaneal,
calorescent,
calorie, caloricity,
calorific
calcaneus, calcar, iculate,
recalcitrant calc
lime (relatedto calcul)
calcul
pebble,
reckon
(related to calclime)
calcicole,
calcicosis,
calcinosis,
calcium
calculable,
calculate,
calculiform,
calciferous,
calcify,
calculation,
calculosis,
calculous,
calculus, incalculable cali
see calli
calic
see calyc
calli, cali
beautiful
calisthenics, calliope,
calor
see cal
calyc, calic
cup
caliciform,
camp
cover,
conceal
calyculus,
apocalypse,
field
campan
bell
calyx
eucalyptus,
camp, campaign, campus,
calligrapher, misocalligynous
calycate, calyceal, calycle,
calycular, calyp
calligram,
callipygian,
calyptera
campestral,
campo,
decamp, encamp, encampment
campana,
campanario,
campaniform,
campanist,
campanology,
campanile, campanulate 8
*can, cyn
dog
apocynum, canicule,
canaille, canary, canicola, canine, cynical,
cynophobia, can
sing,
intone
cynocephalous,
synosure
accent, canorous,
cantata, canticle,
canto, descant, incantation,
incentive,
precentor, recant cancer
see car
cand
burn,
glow
candelabrum, candid,
incandescent,
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
candent,
candidate,
Reverse
candescence,
candle, candor,
incendiary,
Glossary
incense
of
Roots
8
14
*cap, cup
to
take, contain
accept, acceptance, capacious,
anticipate,
capacitance,
capacity, capsule, captivate, captor, capture, encapsulate, inception,
capable,
capacitor, captive,
deception,
emancipate,
except, incapacitate,
incipient,
intussusception,
intercept,
occupy, participate,
participle,
perceptible,
principal,
principle,
recipient,
recuperate,
precept,
receptacle,
recipe,
susceptible,
usucaption 21
*cap
head
cape, capital, capitation,
capitol,
capitular,
capitulate,
captain,
occipital,
precipice,
precipitous,
decapitate,
recapitulate caper
goat,
impulse
caper, capric, caprice, capricorn, capriole,
capn
smoke
car, carcin, cancer
crab,
caprigenous,
hypercapnia,
cancer, cancerocidal,
15
seecerhorn
car
seecur
carb, cr
burn,
carbon
carcin
see car
*card, cord
heart,
agree
cancrizans,
carcinectomy,
carcinogenic, carcinoma,
carbolic,
carboraceous,
carbonated,
carboniferous,
carbuncle,
accord, accordance, cordiform,
flesh (relatedto cortec)
carcinology,
carbon, cremate
cardiac, obcordate,
record
carnage, carnal, carnation, carnival,
concord,
cordate, cordial, discord,
pericardium, *car(n)
cancroid, carcinomorphic
carbohydrate,
concordance,
misocapnist
cancerous,
cancrivorous, carcinolytic, car
caprine,
capripede
capnomancy, cancer
capricious,
carnivorous,
caruncle, incarnate,
carnelion,
carnosity, incarnation,
reincarnate carp
pluck,
fruit
carpet, carpogenic, carpophagous,
cart
paper
cartel, cartogram, cartoon,
case
cheese
cast
purify,
carpolite,
cartography,
cartridge,
caseate, caseic, casein, caseinate, caseous fortify
caste, castellan, castellate, castrato, castrension
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
carton,
cartulary
castigate,
castle, castlery, castrametation,
90
carpology,
excerpt
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Root
castrate,
10
*cata-down,
away, back opposite
catabaptist,
chain
catalogue,
cataract, catarrh,
catechism,
cathedral,
catastrophe,
catheter, cathode,
catoptrics
catena, catenary, catenate, catenoid, catenulate,
caud, cod
catacylsm,
catagenesis, catalepsy, catalog,
catholic, caten
catabolic,
catacomb,
tail
concatenation
brevicaudate, caudiform,
caudad, caudal, caudate, cephalocaudal,
coda,
longicaudate caul, col
stalk,
stem
caulescent,
caulicle, cauliculous,
cauliflorous,
cauliform,
cauligenous,
caulicarpous,
cauliflower, colcannon,
cole, coleslaw, colewort caust, caut
burn (relatedto cal)
caustic, causticize,
cauterize,
cautery,
holocaust cav, cavern
hollow
cavascope, cavate, cave, cavern, cavernous,
cavetto, cavicom,
cavity, concave, concavity,
3
cavin,
excavate
caval
horse
cavalcade, cavalier, cavalry
*ced, ceed
go, let go
accede, access, accessory, ancestor, antecedent,
cede, cessation, cession,
concede, epicede, excessive, incessant, intercede,
intercession,
precede, precedent, predecessor,
necessary,
precession,
procedure,
proceed, recede,
recess, recession, secede, succeed cel, cl, col
hide, cover (relatedto cil)
cell, cellar, cellophane,
cen, caen
new
caenogenesis,
caenophithecus,
cenozoology,
Cenozoic, Eoocene,
clandestine,
color,
occult
miocene,
cens
judge,
assess
recent
censor, censorate, censorial,
censorious,
censual, censure, census, recension 18
*cent
hundred
cent, centenarian, centgener, centigrade, centuple,
centurion,
center
androcentric, centrifuge,
centennial,
centesimate,
centimeter,
sesquicentennial, center
centenary,
centesimal,
centipede,
century,
center, central, centripetal,
concentrate,
percent,
sexcentenary
eccentric,
centralize,
centrist, egocentric,
geocentric cephal
head (see also encephal)
acephalous,
brachycephalic,
cephalate, cephalocaudal,
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
cephalagia, cephalopod,
dolichocephalic,
encephalitis,
mesocephalic,
microcephalic
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
9
cer, car, cr, ker
horn,
head, brain,
neck
crotid,
(relatedto corn)
cer, cr
14
separate,
*cere, cre
come
judge, settle
forth,
ceratoid,
cervical,
grow
cerebellum,
cervine, cervix,
criosphore,
keratin,
rhinocerus,
triceratops
cerebral,
cranium,
keratosis,
ascertain,
certain,
certificate,
certitude,
concern,
criterion,
decree, discern, discrete,
crime, critic,
discretion,
discriminate,
incertitude,
recriminate,
accretion,
certify,
excrement, secret, secretary
accrue, cereal, concrete,
concretion,
create, creature,
crescendo,
crescent, decrease, excresence, increase, increment, chem
substance,
chemical
procreate, recruit
alchemy, chemical,
chemist,
chemoprophylaxis,
chemotherapy,
chemurgy chir
hand
chiropodist,
chiromancy,
chiroplast, chirospasm, chlor
light
green, chlorine
chlorine,
bile,
gall
gut,
string
choledology,
*chrom
color,
embellishment
cholera, cholesterol,
melancholy
clavicord,
cord, cordal, chord, chordate,
chordion,
chordotomy,
harpsichord, 10
chlorophyll,
cholerigensis,
cholic, chord, cord
enchiridion
chlorite
cholagogue, choleric,
chiropteran,
chirotony,
chloroform,
chlorosis, chol
chironomy,
chiropractor,
chordotonal,
notochord,
achromatic,
tetrachord
chromatogenesis,
chromosome,
chromoplasm,
chromotype,
ferrochrome,
monochromatic,
panchromatic,
xanthochromous 16
*chron
time
anachronic,
chronic,
chronology,
chronometer,
diachronic, chrys
gold,
yellow
chrysoleptic, *cid
cut,
kill
bactericide, decision,
chrysalis,
eyelash,
hairlike
cin
see kin
cine
ashes
circumcise,
fungicide, incisor,
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
incision,
ciliary,
cinefaction,
Forms
and
decide,
regiscide,
cilium,
genocide, patricide,
suicide
palpicil,
supercilious
incinerate
Chapter
concise,
decisive, encisive, excise,
homicide,
cinerator,
92
chrysography,
excision, fratricide,
ciliate,
(relatedto celhide)
chrysanthemum,
chrysology
precise, recision, cil
chronoscope,
synchronic
chrysaniline,
chryselephantine,
3
chronicle,
Reverse
Glossary
of
Root
cinereceous, cinerous,
cinerarium,
cinerescent,
*circ, curv, cor
round,
around
circa, circle, circuit, circumference, circumspect, corolla,
circular,
circulate,
circumnavigate, circumstance,
corona,
curvature,
circus,
cornice, curve,
encircle cis-cit
on
the side of
cisequatorial,
cislunar,
cismontane,
cispontane summon,
arouse
citation,
(related to kin) cit
see civ
civ, cit
city,
refined
cite, excite, incite, incitement,
recital,
recitation,
solicit,
solicitude
citadel, citizen, civilian,
recite, resuscitate,
city, civic, civicism,
civilization,
civil,
incivility,
uncivilized cl
seecel
clam
cry
clar
out, call
clear,
bright
clas
break
claus
see clud
clav
key, locked
acclamation,
clamor,
declamatory,
exclamation,
proclamation,
reclamation
claret, clarify,
clarinet,
clarion, declare
cler
literate
cli, cliv, clin
lean, lie,
clavicle, clavier,
claviform,
claviger, claviol,
enclave
acclivity,
cleric, clerical, client,
close
clinical,
clinometer,
decline, declivity,
inclination,
*clud, claus, clos
clerisy, clerk
clientel, clinic,
clinograph,
declination,
clos
plagioclase
clavichord,
clinician,
see clud
oconoclast,
clavieristic,
clergyman, bed
clarity,
claviature, conclave,
see -l
exclamatory,
Clarence, declaration, bioclasm, clastic,
-cle, -cule
declamation,
proclivity,
enclitic,
recline, synclinal
claus, claustrophobia,
close, closet,
conclude,
conclusive,
conclusion,
disclose, disclosure, enclose, exclude, exclusion, include,
exclusive, inclose, inclosure,
inclusion,
recluse, reclusion, co-coc
preclude,
seclude, seclusion
see con-ripen, cook
concoct,
concoctive,
decoctum, cocc
inclusive,
berry,
kernel,
seed, spheroid
precocious
coccidiosis,
coccolite,
cocciferous,
coccosphere,
staphylococcus, cod
seecaud
cl
seecel
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
decoct, decoction,
Reverse
coccoid,
coccus,
streptococcal
Glossary
of
Roots
9
col, cull
filter,
clarify
colander,
colation,
machicolation, 8
*col
live, inhabit,
grow
aboriculture,
colature,
cullis,
percolator,
portcullis
accolent, agriculture,
arboricole,
bucolic, colonial,
colony, cultivate, horticulture,
culture,
incult,
colonize,
cultural,
lapidicolous,
saxicolous
caul
col col
seecel
coll
glue
colage, collagen, colloidion,
col, coll
neck
collectic,
collotype,
colloid,
protocol, taurocol
accolade, collar, colliform,
collum,
dcollet
5
com
see cop
*con-, co-see
together,
with (related to copi)
cognate, cohabit, combat,
con
cone
contr
seecounter
cop, com
strike,
copi
abundance,
cohort,
combine,
committee,
compass,
confirm,
cooperate,
coordinate,
corrupt
cone, conical, conifer, conodont,
cut
conoid,
apocope, comma, supply
collapse,
commerce,
copious,
congenial,
coniform,
conoplain,
sarcoptic,
longicone
syncopated
copy, cornucopia
(related to con-) 9
*copro
dung
coproculture, coprolite,
coprolagnia,
coprology,
coprolalia,
coprophagous,
coprophilia cor
seecirc
cor
seecir
cord
seecard
cord
see chord
corn
horn
(related to cer)
capricorn,
corn, cornea, corneous,
corner, cornet, cornucopia, tricorn, *corp
body,
flesh
corporal,
corporality,
corpulent,
14
outer
*cosm
covering
corporeal,
cortex, cortical, decorticate
universe,
cosmecology,
side,
coast
cosmetic, cosmic,
cosmology,
cosmopolitan,
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
corps, corpse,
corticolous,
cosmetology,
cosmonaut, cosmos,
microcosm
accost, costa, costal, costar, costate, costermonger,
94
corticate,
cosmogony, macrocosm, cost
corporate,
corpuscle, incorporate
(relatedto car(n)) world, order
cornu,
bicorn, longicorn,
unicorn
corporation,
cortec
corniform,
cornulite,
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
intercostal
counter,
contr
against,
opposite
contraband, contrast,
contradict,
contravene,
counteract,
contrary, controversy,
counterbalance,
countermand,
countermine,
counterpart,
countersign,
encounter,
incontrovertible cover
conceal,
protect
coverage, coverlet, covert, coverture, discove
3
cr
see carb
cr
seecerhorn
cr
see cere
*crat
govern
autocrat,
aristocracy,
democrat,
bureaucrat,
democratic,
plutocrat,
theocracy cre
see cere
*cre, cred
believe,
trust
credence, credential, creditable,
creditor,
credible,
credit,
credulity,
discredit, incredible,
credulous,
incredulity,
miscreant, recreant crin
hair
cruc
crinal,
cross, important
point, torment
crinet,
crinatous
crucial,
cruciate,
crucifix, crust
hard
covering,
shell
criniculture,
crinite,
criniparous,
crucifer,
cruciform,
crucify, crux, excruciating
crust, crustaceous,
crustal, crustify,
encrust cry(m)
cold
cryogenic,
cryopedologic,
cryophorus,
krypt
hidden
apocryphal,
*cub, cumb
lie,
hollow
concubine, incubate,
cube, cubicle, incubus,
-cule
see-1
culp
fault,
crime
seecolfilter
cumb
seecub
cumber
hinder
culpability,
cumber,
up
culprit,
inculpable,
cumbersome, encumber,
accumulate,
cumulate,
cumuliform,
recumbent,
superincumbent
culpable,
cumbrous, heap
incumbency,
succumb,
exculpation, cul
decumbent,
procumbent,
succubus,
cryptorchid,
krypton
incumbent,
cumul
cryotherapy
crypt, cryptic,
cryptography, 14
cryology,
seecrypt
cryph crypt, cryph,
crymotherapy,
cumulose,
exculpate,
inculpate
cumbrance, encumberance cumulative, cumulous,
cumulus cup
desire
concupiscence,
concupiscible,
Cupid,
cupidity
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
95
cup
seecaptake
cur
care
accurate,
curable,
curator,
curio,
manicure, secure, 22
*cur,
car,
cor
run
car,
career,
see circ
cuss
shake
procurator,
concur,
corsair,
concurrent,
currency,
cursive,
current,
cursory,
excursion,
incur,
incursion,
precursor,
recur,
recurrent,
concussion,
procure,
sinecure
carry,
curriculum,
curative, inaccurate,
pedicure,
security,
corridor,
curv
curate,
curious,
percussion,
discursive, occur, succor
reprecussion,
succussion cut
skin
cutaneous,
cuticle,
cuticolor,
cutin,
cutis,
subcutaneous cutl
knife
cutlass,
cyan
blue
cyanate,
cyb
control,
cycl
circle
computer
cutler,
cutlery,
cyaneous,
cybernate,
cutling
cyanide,
cybernetics,
cyanopathy
cyberspace,
cyborg bicycle,
cyclist,
cyclonic,
see can
cyst
sac,
cyt
cell
bladder
cycling,
encyclopedia,
motorcycle, cyn
cycle,
tricycle,
blastocyst,
monocycle, unicycle
cystitis,
cytogenesis,
cyclone,
cystic
cytology,
cytoplasm,
leucocyte
D 16
*dactyl
finger,
digit
dactyl,
dactylic,
dactylogram,
dactylography,
2
dam (n)
loss,
harm
dat
see don
*de-deb
away,
down,
dactyliomancy,
dactylology,
pamprodactyl,
pterodactyl,
condemn,
from
damn,
damnation,
debark,
debauch,
decline, owe
debenture,
acceptable (relatedto dog)
decency,
deduce,
decem
ten
decade,
decagon,
96
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Root
indemnity
decapitate,
deciduous,
declare,
deface debt, indebted decorate,
decorum,
decemvirate, decimate,
decay,
debit, decent,
damage,
indemnify,
deceive,
decorous, deca,
zygodactyl
condemnation,
decrease,
dec
dactylioglyph,
decoration,
indecorous decalogue,
decennial, duodecimo
December,
decibel,
decimal,
dei, div
god,
augury
deicide,
deific, deiform,
deist, deity, deodand, divination,
13
del
wipe
*dem
people
out
divine,
divinity
dele, delete, delible, indelible demagogue,
deme, demiurge,
democracy, demotic, demon
deify, deism,
deodate,
demon
demogoric,
endemic,
cacodemonia, demonize,
demophobia,
epidemic,
demoniac,
pandemic
demonic,
demonolatry,
eudemon,
pandemonium 7
*den, odon
tooth
dent, dental, dentifrice, dentition,
dentist,
denture, edentate, indent,
indentation,
indention,
indenture,
mastodon, orthodontist,
periodontal,
soricident 12
*dendr
tree
dendiform, dendroi,
dendrite,
philodendron, derm, derma
skin
dexter
right
di
day
dermal,
hand, adroit
*di-,
dich-,
dermatitis,
dermatology,
dermopterous,
hypodermic,
pachyderm,
ambidextrous,
dy-, du-di-*dia-bush, two
dendrophagous,
rhododendron
dermatosis,
ectoderm, taxidermy
dexter, dexterity,
dexterous,
dextral,
circadian,
dial, diary, dismal,
meridian, 16
dendrochronology,
dendrology,
diurnal,
meridonal, quotidian,
dichotomy, duality,
dextrocardia
dioxide,
dubious,
diphthong,
sine die dual,
dyad, indubitable
see dis-through, 18
across, between,
diagnosis,
opposite
dialytic,
diagonal, diametric,
diaphonous,
dialect, dialogue, dianoetic,
diaphonic,
diathermic,
diathesis diabol,
diabl
devil
diablerie,
diabolical,
diabolist,
diabolize,
diabolism, diabology,
diabolonian dich 17
see di-speak,
*dic
give
abdicate,
addict,
dedicate,
dictate, diction,
indict,
interdict,
valedictory, digit
finger,
toe, number
digit,
worthy,
fitting
digital,
condign,
dipl
double
(related to di-, plec)
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
and
digitalis,
dignitary,
edict,
predict,
digitation,
dignify,
dignity,
indignation
diploblastic,
Forms
malediction,
prestidigitation
indignant,
diploid,
contradict,
dictum,
verdict
digitigrade, dign
benediction,
diplocardiac,
diplopic,
Reverse
diplococcus,
diplopod,
Glossary
of
diplosis
Roots
9
10
*dis-,
di-away,
apart, not, lacking
differ,
(relatedto dia-)
difficult,
direct,
dishonest,
disobey,
disquisition,
15
div
see dei
doc
see dog
*doc,
dog
teach,
praise
digest, dilate, dilution,
disagree, disassemble,
docent,
displace,
dissertatio
docetism,
doctrinal,
docile,
doctrine,
doxological, indocile,
disbelieve,
disorder,
docility,
document,
doxology,
indoctrinate,
doctor,
dogma,
heterodox, orthodox,
paradox 20
*dol, dolor
suffer
condole, dolor,
*dom
21
*don,
house,
dor, do, da
control
give
condolence,
dolorific,
dole, doleful,
dolorifuge,
dolorous,
indolence
domain,
dome, domestic,
domicile,
domify,
dominion,
indomitable,
addition,
domesticate,
dominant,
anecdotal,
domineer,
predominate
condone,
dative, donate, donative, donor,
dolorimetry,
date,
donatory,
Dorothy, dosage, dose, dosimetry,
dosology, edition,
pardon,
perdition,
Theodore, tradition dorm
sleep
dormant,
dors
back
dorsad, dorsal, dorse, dorsiferous,
dormer,
dorsigerous,
dormitive,
dorsoventral,
dormitory
dorsum,
endorse dos
see don
dot
see don
drom
run,
course
acrodrome,
aerodrome,
dromedary,
dromond,
loxodromic,
anadromous, hippodrome,
palidrome,
prodrome,
syndrome
see di-lead,
du-1 *duc
pull
abduction,
aqueduct,
conduct,
conducive,
deduce, deduct,
ducal, ducat,
duct, ductile, enduce, educate, induce, introduce,
dulc
sweet
produce,
viaduct
dulcet, dulciana,
dulcifluous,
dulcigenic, duodeca
twelve
dupl
see dipl
dur
hard,
durable,
reduce,
dulcify,
dulcimer
duodecagon,
lasting
product,
seduce, traducer,
duodecillion,
durance,
endurance,
duodecuple
duration,
duress,
endure, indurated,
obdurary,
obdurate
see di-power
dyn, dynam
aerodyne,
dynamic,
dynamoelectric,
98
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
dynamite,
dynasty,
dynamo,
dynatron
3
*dys-bad,
badly
dysgenics,
dysentery,
dysphagia,
dysphasia,
dyspneic,
dyslexia, dyspeptic, dysphoria,
dysteleology,
dystrophy,
dysuria
E -e
-e
ec-ec
NOUN
abundance,
VERB
apostrophe,
epitome,
hyperbole
concede,
deduce,
dentifrice,
relate
see ex-inhabit ecology, economy,
ecosystem,
ecumenical eccles
assembly,
church
ecclesia, Ecclesiastes, ecclesiastic, ecclesiolatry,
ech -ec -ectomy
reflected
sound,
STEM
EXTENDER
act
of cutting
repetition
catechism,
passive
NOUN (one
catechumen,
echo, echolalia
gynecology
out
appendectomy,
(see ec-, tom, -y) -ee
ecclesiology
hysterectomy,
tonsillectomy who is . . .)
abandonee, legatee,
appellee, divorcee, employee,
moninee, payee, petitionee,
pledgee, refugee, transferee, -eer
see r
ego
self
eid
see vid
-el
see *-1
-em
ego, egocentric,
NOUN
categorem,
vendee
egoism, egomanic, egotist
emblem,
problem,
stratagem,
theorem em
take, buy (related to sum)
ademption,
exemplar,
peremptory,
exemplify,
pre-emption,
exempt,
premium,
redemptio em
see hem
eme
element
of a system
emic, glosseme, grapheme, morphophoneme,
morpheme,
philosopheme,
phoneme eme
vomit
antemetic,
emesis, emetic, emetine,
hematemesis en-en-en-Encephal
seein-, en-in, into VERB
embed, enable, enforce, engage, engirdle
seein-, en-lacking, not brain (see en-and cephal)
electroencephalogram, encephalography, encephalology,
encephalitis,
encephaloid, encephalon,
encephalotomy -end endo-see
-and
within
(related to en-in)
endocarp,
endoderm,
endogenous,
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
endogamy,
endomorph
Glossary
of
Roots
99
-ent
one
who, that
which
client, correspondent,
insurgent,
president,
resident, solvent,
student, -ent
having,
being, pertaining
to
proponent,
absorbent,
affluent,
confident,
see es(s)
enter
intestine
ento-entom
within
(relatedto en-in)
insect (seein-in
and tom)
dawn,
congruent,
proficient,
prudent,
enteralgia,
enteric,
entoblast,
entoderm,
entomologize,
early
ardent, complacent, decadent, fluent,
incandescent,
independent,
pubescent
enteritis,
enterology
entophyte,
entozoic
entomology,
entomophagous, eo-4
patient,
superintendent
frequent,
ent
dependent,
dissident, incumbent,
entomophilans
eoan, Eoanthopus,
Eocene, eohippus,
eolithic *epi-equ
upon,
over, after, in addition
epact, ephemeral, epidemic,
horse
epicanthic, epigone,
Episcopal,
epistle, epistomology,
epitaph,
eponymy
equerry,
equestrian,
equestrienne,
equine, equitation, 12
equi
even, level
epicycle,
epidermis,
Equuleus
equable, equal, equanimity, equator,
equipoise,
equation,
equity, equivocal,
equivocate
1
-er
see r
*erg, urg, org
work
dramaturgy,
energy, erg, ergate,
ergomania,
ergometer,
George,
metallurgy, orgy, synergism 11
*ero
physical
err
wander,
love
autoerotism,
go wrong
eroticize,
aberrant,
aberration,
errantic,
erratum,
inerrant,
eryth(r)
red
erogenous,
eroticism,
erotic, erotica,
erotomania err, errant,
erroneous,
error,
unerring
erythema,
erythrism,
erythrocyte,
erythrophobia *-esc, -sc
become,
change
adolescent,
calescent, coalescent,
convalescent,
crescent, effervescence,
effloresce, florescent, incandescent, *es, ent, ont
be,
basic
absent, amphiont, essence,
essential,
nonentity, presentation, esth
perceive
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
disinterested, halobiont,
ontogeny,
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Root
interest,
ontology,
aesthete, aesthetician,
Forms
entity, present,
quintessence, represent
esthesiophysiology,
100
frutescent,
nascent, pubescent
anesthesia,
esthetics, kinesthetic
-et eth
STEM burn,
EXTENDER light,
athletic,
delicate
esthetic, genetic,
ether, ethereal,
eth(n)
source
*eu
good,
well
euchrist,
etymologist,
etymologize,
etymon eudemon,
eulogy, eupeptic, euphoria,
7
ethyl
ethos
etymography, etymology,
2
etherize,
cacoethes, ethics, ethnic, ethnocentricity, ethnopraphy,
etym
etherify,
genesis
Eugene, eugenics,
euphemistic,
euphuism,
eury
broad
aneuryism,
ev
age, time
coeval, longevity,
*ex-, ec-custom
out, away (related to exo)
eccentric,
euphonic,
euthanasia
eurypterid,
eurythermal
medieval, primeval
educate, effect, effort,
elude, emit, eradicate,
eject,
evade, exarch,
excise, exhale, exhort,
exit, exode,
expand, exude exo-F
outside
(related to ex-)
exoderm,
exogamy, exogenous,
exopathic,
15
*fa, pha, fe, phe
speak,
spoken about
affable,
(related to phon)
exoskeleton,
aphasia, blaspheme,
euphemism, infamous,
*fac
do,
make
infant,
coefficient,
confection,
factious,
faculty, febrifacient, infection,
imperfect,
proficient,
ratify, refection, somnifacient,
typify
superficies,
bringing about (seefacdo
absorbifacient,
and -ent pertaining
somnifacient
to)
false
surface
febrifacient,
default, fallacious,
fallacy, false, falsetto,
falsify, falter, fault, faulty,
seeferr
fe
seefa
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
perfect,
deface, efface, facade, face, facet, facial, superficial,
farr
office,
pacific,
satisfaction,
suffice, terrific,
see phan
magnificent,
manufacture,
orifice,
perfection,
fan
factor,
fortify,
refectory,
fal, faul
effect,
effectual, facile,
factory, factotum,
officious,
facient
defective,
deify, disinfect,
fact, faction,
malefactor,
form (relatedto facdo)
beneficial,
edifice, efficacious,
effective, efficient,
fac
preface,
prophet
benefactor,
deficit,
edification, facilitate,
nefarious,
professor,
affect, artifact, deficient,
defame,
fable, famous, ineffable,
prefatory, 13
exotic
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
infallible
of
Roots
10
febr
fever
febrifacient, febrificide,
febriferous,
febrific,
febrificulous,
febrile,
febrifuge fel
cat
felid, feline, felinophobia,
felic
happy
felicific,
felicitation,
felinity
felicity,
Felix,
infelicitous fem
woman
effeminate,
female, feme, femicide,
feminine, *fend
strike,
ward off
feminist,
defend,
feminize
defendant,
defense,
fence, fencer, fencing,
defensive,
fend, fender,
offense, offensive 10
*fer, pher, phor
bear,
send, bring
circumferential, cruciferous,
confer, conifer, defer, deferential, fetiferous,
differ,
fertile,
fertility,
fructiferous,
infer,
metaphor, offer, periphery,
prefer,
preferable,
proffer, refer, sanguiferous,
semaphor,
suffer, transfer,
fer
wild
feral, ferine, ferity,
ferr, farr
iron
farrier,
farriery,
ferrocyanide,
vociferous
ferocious
ferriferous,
ferrolalloy,
ferromagnetic,
ferrotype,
ferrous, ferruginous ferv
boil,
bubble
effervesce, effervescent, fervency, fervent, fervid,
fest
feast, joyful
occasion
fervor
festa, festal, festine, festival, festive, festivity,
fet
unborn
child
festivous, festoon,
effete, fetal, fetation, fetography,
fiber
fiber
*fid
fiber, fibriform,
trust,
bold
affidavit,
divided
fetiferous,
fibrilation,
fibrin,
fibrosis, fibrous
bona fide, confidence, diffidence,
infidel, split,
fibril,
fibroid,
confident,
fid
feticide,
fetus
fibrinogen, 15
songfest
diffident,
fidelity,
perfidious
bifid, fissal, fissile, fission, fissiped,
fissure,
fissiparous,
palmatifid,
pinnafid,
trifid fig, fing
form
configuration, fiction,
disfigure,
fictitious,
figurative,
effigy, fictile,
figment,
figure, finger,
figural, prefigure,
transfigure fil
offspring
affiliate, filial,
filiate, filiation,
filicide,
filiety 17
*fin
end,
pay off
confine,
define, definite,
definitive,
finale, finality,
finesse, finish, infinite, firm
strong
102
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
confirm,
infirmities,
Root
finance,
finite, finitude,
infinitessimal,
affirmation, infirm,
definition, fine,
indefinite,
infinitive,
refine
firm, firmament,
reaffirm
fic
fasten
fla, flu
affix, crucifix,
blow
prefix, suffix, transfix
afflatus,
conflation,
flatulence, flag,
phleg, phlog
burn
(related to flam)
crucify, fix, fixation,
fixture,
deflate, flatters,
flautist,
conflagration,
flute, inflate,
inflation
deflagrate, flagrant,
phlegethon,
phlegm,
phlegmatic,
phlogiston flagell
whip
flagellate,
flam
flame (relatedto flag)
flagellant,
flagellatory,
flagellata,
flagelliform,
flame, flambeau, flamiferous,
flagellum
flamboyant,
flamingo,
flammable,
flamivomous,
inflame,
inflammable,
inflammatory 8
*flec
bend,
turn
circumflex, flexuous,
deflect, flexible, flexure,
inflection, flig
strike,
destroy
afflict,
reflection,
affliction,
infliction, flor, flos, flour
bloom,
flower
conflict,
profligate,
floriculture,
florid,
floscule, floueret, multiflorous, *flu, fluc, fluv
flow,
reflex
river
affluence, fluent,
Florence,
florin,
florist,
flour, flourish,
uniflorous
confluence,
effluvium,
inflict,
profligacy
effloresce, flora, floral,
(related to foli and phyll)
flexion,
genuflection,
effluence,
efflux, fluctuate,
fluid, fluvial,
fluviology, influenza,
fluvioglacial,
flux, fluxion, influx,
fluency,
influence,
mellifluous,
reflux,
superfluous flu
seefla
fluc
seeflu
fluor
fluorine,
flurescence
fluorescent,
(related to flu) fluv
seeflu
foc
center
fluoridate,
fluorocarbon,
fluorine,
fluoroscope,
fluorosis
focal, focalize, foci, focilate,
focimeter,
focus fod
dig
fodient,
fossa, fosse, fossiform,
fossil,
fossiliferous foli
leaf,
sheet
defoliate,
(relatedto phyll andflor) foll, fool
cavity,
empty
headed
defoliation,
exfoliate,
foliaceous,
foliage, foliar, foliate,
folicolons,
folio,
follicle,
portfolio,
follicular,
trifoliate
folliculate,
folly,
foolery, foolish *form
shape
conform,
conformity,
deformity,
formal,
formulate,
informal,
nonconformist, transform,
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
deform,
formality,
formula,
information,
oviform,
reform,
uniform
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
10
formic
ant
formic,
formicry,
formicate,
formicine,
formicivorous fort
strength,
ease
comfort,
comfortable,
discomfort,
effort, enforce, force, forcible,
fort,
fortification,
fortress,
fortify,
fortitude,
reinforce
5
fran
see phren
*frag, frang
break,
deflect
fractious,
fraction,
fracture,
fragile, fragment, irrefrangible,
fragility,
frangible,
infraction,
nucifragous,
refractory,
refraction frater
brother
confraternity, fraternize,
fren
see phren
fric
rub
affricate,
frig
cold
frigid,
fraternal,
fraternity,
fratricide
dentifice,
frigorific,
fricative,
friction
frigorimeter,
refrigerator front
forehead,
fru, frug
fruit,
forwardness
produce
affront,
confront,
frontage,
frontal,
fructification, fructose,
fructuous,
shrub
fug
flee
frutescent, centrifugal,
fructify,
frugal, frugivorous,
fruition,
frutex,
usufruct
fruticous,
febrifuge,
smoke,
fund
vapor
base,
bottom
fumarole,
fumatory,
fumigate,
perfume
fund, fundament,
fruticulose
fugacious,
refuge, refugee, subterfuge, fum
front,
frontispiece
fruciterous,
fruit, fruitage, frut
effrontery, frontier,
fugitive,
vermifuge
fume, fumiferous,
fundamental,
fundus,
functionary,
fungible,
profundity fund
seefus
fung
perform
defunct, function, perfunctory
furc
fork
bifurcated,
furcate, furcula,
furciform,
furciferous fus, fund
pour,
melt, blend
affusion,
confuse,
fusion, infuse,
diffuse, effusive, fuse,
profuse, refund,
refuse,
suffuse, transfuse
G g
see ag
galac
milk
(relatedto lac)
galactagogue,
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
galactin,
galactoid,
galactophagous,
galactorrhea,
galaxy
104
galactic,
galactodendron,
of
Root
galactose,
3
*gam
marriage,
sexual
union
allogamy,
bigamist,
epigamic,
gamete, gamic, gamogenesis,
heterogamous, garg, gurg, gorg
throat,
abyss
disgorge,
dichogamous,
monogamous,
polygamy
garget, gargle, gorge, gorget,
gurgitation,
gurgle, ingurgitate,
regurgitate gaster
stomach
epigastrium,
gastralgia,
gastrolith,
gel, gl
solidfy,
jelly, ice
gastromancy,
melanogaster
congelation,
gel, gelable, gelatification,
gelatinous, *geo
earth
gastropod,
gastrotomy,
gelatigeneous,
18
gastric,
gelatin, gelatinoid,
gelation,
gelid, glacial, glacier
apogee, epigeal, geic, gein, geocentric, geode, geodesic, geology, geometry, George, geosynclie,
gem, gemin
twin
geotropic,
gemel, gemeliparous,
gemination,
Gemini, geminiflorous, gem, gemm
bud,
precious stone
gem, gemmaceous, gemmation,
2
*gen, gon, gn, germ
birth,
innate
quality,
origin
geminous
gemmary,
gemmiferous,
gemmate,
gemologist
agnate, cognate, congener, epigone,
perigee
degenerate,
gender, general, generic,
genesis, genetic, genial, genius, genus, germinal,
germinate,
gonorrhea,
germination,
indigenous,
pregnant,
progenitor,
ingenuous, progeny,
regenerate *gen, gon
knee,
angle
amblygonite, genuine,
diagonal,
goneitis,
orthogonal, *ger, geront
old
ageratum,
ger
see ges
germ
see gen
ges, ger
carry,
bring,
offer
gerontocracy,
armiger,
belligerent,
congestion,
seegel
gladi
sword
glob, glom, glu
gather,
ball
agglutinative,
tongue,
speech
epiglottis, glossalgia, glottis,
gluc
seeglyc
glu
seeglob
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
gladiatorial,
conglomerate,
globule,
glutinous, *gloss, glot
congeries, gerund,
gesture, suggest
globoid,
5
gerontolog
gestic, gesticulate,
gladiate, gladiator, stick,
geriatrics,
digest, egest, ingest,
gest, gestation,
gl
gonion,
pentagon, trigonometry geratologous,
gerontic,
gestion,
genuflection,
goniometry,
gladiolus glob, globe,
glue, gluten, gluteus,
hemoglobin gloss, glossal, glossalalia, glossary, glossography,
polyglot,
Reverse
glottal,
xenoglossy
Glossary
of
Roots
105
glyc, gluc
sweet
glucose, glycerine,
glyph, glyp
carve
anaglyph,
glyph, glyptic,
hieroglyphic,
13
gn
seegenbirth
*gn, gnos, gnor
to know (related to norm and, possibly, to not)
agnostic, cognition,
cognizance,
diagnosis, ignore,
physiognomy,
13
gon
seegenknee
gorg
seegarg
*grad
step,
go
gnome, gnosis,
incognito,
prognosis, recognition,
recognizance, gon
glyptograph,
petroglyph
agnogenetic, ignorance,
seegenbirth
glycine, hypoglycemia
recognize
aggressive, centrigrade,
degrade, digress,
egress, gradate, gradation, gradient,
ingress, regression, gram
see graph
grand
great
aggrandizement,
*graph,
gram
make
lines,
write, record
agrapha,
anagram,
cablegram,
chirography,
grammar,
graphite,
lexicographer, radiogram,
autograph,
calligraphy,
diagram,
geography,
grandeur,
grandiose
agraphia,
biography,
graphic,
retrograde
grandee,
grandiloquent, 6
grade,
gradual, graduate, ingredient,
epigram, grammatical,
historiographer,
monogram, stenography,
program,
telegram,
topography grat
thankful,
pleased, kind
congratulate,
disgrace, grace, graceful,
graceless, gracious, grateful, gratification,
gratify,
gratis, gratitude,
gratuitous,
gratuity,
gratulation,
ingrate,
ingratiate grav
heavy,
*greg
flock,
bad
aggravate, grave, gravid, gravitation,
9
gather
gravitate,
gravitometer,
aggregate, aggregation, egregious,
gregarian,
gravity congregate,
gregarious,
segregatio gurg
seegarg
gust
taste,
enjoy
degust, disgust, gustation, gustatory,
gymn
3
naked,
gyn(ec)
nude
woman,
gymnasium,
female
circle
androgynous,
gynandromorph,
gynecocracy,
gyration,
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
gynecology,
misogynist gyre, gyroplane,
gyrostabilizer
106
gymnosophy,
gymnospore
polygyny, ring,
gymnopedia,
gymnosperm,
gynarchy,
gyr
gustatious,
gusto
gyroscope,
H
hold, have,live (relatedto -able) ability, able, disable,enable,cohabit,
hab, ab
exhibit,
habeas corpus,
habit, habitable, inhabitant,
habiliments,
habitat,
inhibit,
habitude,
inhibition,
prohibit,
rehabilitate hagio
sacred,
saint
hal
seesal
hect
hundred,
many
hagiarchy,
hagiocracy,
hagiography,
hagiolatry,
hagiology,
hagioscope
hectogram,
hectograph,
hectoliter,
hectometer hedon
pleasure
hedonics,
hedonist,
hedonomania,
hedonometer
seat, surface, side (related to *sed) cathedral, dodecahedron, hexahedron,
hed(r)
polyhedron 17
sun (related to sol sun)
heli
helic
aphelion,
spiral
heliacal, heliocentric,
heliolatry,
heliophobia,
heliotrope,
perihelion
helical,
helicline,
heliotaxis,
helicoid,
helicopter,
helix helmint,
helminth
worm
anthelmintic,
helminth,
helminthology, 8
hema, em
blood
anemia,
helminthic,
platyhelminth
hemacytometer,
hematic,
hematology,
hemoglobin,
hemophilia,
hematoma,
hemorrahage,
hemostat,
hydremia *hemi-,
semi-half
hemicycle,
hemihedral,
hemisphere,
hemitrope,
semiannual,
semicircle,
semiprecious, hepta, sept
seven
semitone,
heptachord,
heptad,
heptarchy,
heptometer,
hemipterous, hemistich, semilinear, semiweekly
heptagon,
September,
septenary, septennial hemer
day
ephemeral,
ephemerid,
ephemeris,
hemeralopias hendeca
eleven
hendecagon,
her
see hes
herb
grass,
hendecahedron,
hendecasyllable
herb
herb, herbacious, herbescent,
herbalist,
herbiferous,
herbary,
herbivorous,
herbous
herp(et),
serp
creep,
reptile
herpes, herpetism, herpetology, herpetotomy, serpentine,
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
herpetoid,
herpetophobia, serpent, serpentiform, serpentinoid,
Reverse
Glossary
serpigo
of
Roots
10
hes, her
stick,
hold back
adhere, adherent, coherent,
adhesion,
cohesive,
cohere,
hesitate, incoherent,
inherent 8
*hetero-hex,
different
heterodox,
heterogamy,
heterography,
heterogeneity,
heterogynous,
heteronym,
heterosexual sex
six
hexachord, hexapod, sextant,
hiero
sacred
hexad, hexagon,
hexameter,
hexarchy, sexpartite,
sextan,
sextet
hierarchy,
hieratic,
hieroglyph,
hierocracy,
hierogram,
hierology,
hierophant hilar
cheerful,
hipp
horse
glad
exhilarate,
hilarity,
eohippus,
hipparch,
hippogryph,
hilarious,
Hilary
hippodrome,
hippomania,
hippopotamus
8
hod
see od
hol
seesol
hom
earthling,
*homo-,
homeo-other,
human
being
homage,
homicide,
hominid,
(related to humearth)
hominivorous,
same
homeostasis,
homocentric,
homological,
homologue,
hominoid,
homo sapiens homogeneity,
homomorphic,
homonym,
homophonous,
homorganic,
homosexual hor
hour,
hor
season, time
bristle,
horography,
shake
horologe,
horologist,
horology,
horometry,
horoscope
adhor, adhorrence, horrible,
horrid,
horripilation, 21
hum
earth,
ground, low
humic,
humifuse,
humiliation,
mental state
*hyd(r)
water
human,
humble,
humiliate,
humility,
humid,
humorist,
anhydrous, hydatoid,
horrent,
horrify,
humus,
inhume
humectate, humor,
10
horrendous, horrific,
horror
inhumation, moist,
horometer,
exhume, exhumation,
(relatedto hom)
hum
horologic,
humidify,
humidor,
humorous
dehydrate, hydrangia,
hydatiform, hydrant,
hydraulic,
hydrocephalic,
hydrogen,
hydrography,
hydromel,
hydropathy,
hydrate,
hydremia, hydrology, hydrophobia,
hydroponics hygr 7
hyper-moisture
over,
above
(relatedto super,sum(m))
108
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
hygrograph,
hygrometer,
hyperactive,
hyperbole,
hypersensitive
Glossary
of
Root
hygroscope hypercritical,
hypno
sleep,
hypnotic
trance
autohypnosis,
hypnagogic,
hypnogenesis,
hypnoid,
hypnosis,
hypnotic 7
*hypo
under,
below, insufficient
hypobaric,
hypocenter,
hypocorism, hypostasis, hyps
high,
height
hyster
see uter
hypochondriac,
hypocrite,
hypodermic,
hypotaxis,
hypsicephalic,
hypotenuse
hypsodont,
hypsography,
hypsomete
I -i 13
-ia
plural
alumni,
condition,
disorder
cacti, fungi,
amnesia,
anemia, aphasia, dysphagia,
euphoria,
hysteria, insomnia,
mania, neuralgia, paraplegia, -ia
collection
of
nostalgia,
phobia,
area
Australia,
memorabilia,
trivia
Manchuria,
Rhodesia, suburbia, -ia
flower
2
see -ac
-ian
see -an
*iatr
treat
(medically)
dahlia, forsythia,
gardenia, lobelia,
magnolia, petunia,
iatric,
xenia
iatrogenic,
pediatrician, -ible
see -able
-ic
having,
being, pertaining
to
Mauritania, utopia
begonia, camellia, poinsettia,
-iac
malaria, paranois,
pneumonia
genitalia, juvenilia, paraphernalia,
-ia
syllabi
iatromisia,
archaic,
aristocratic,
chronic,
dialectic,
erratic,
geriatrics,
psychiatry
bibliographic(al), dichromatic,
ethnic, linguistic,
nomadic,
numerical,
phonetic,
plasmic,
elliptic,
metamorphic,
philosophical, pornographic,
rustic,
syllabic -ical -ice
see -ic, -al NOUN
accomplice,
avarice, cowardice,
imperatrice,
justice,
malice, notice,
novice, precipice, service
18
-ics
science
ichthy
fish
of
economics, ichthyoid,
pediatrics,
physics
ichthyologist,
ichthyomorphic, ichthyornis,
ichthyophagus,
ichthyosaur,
ichthyosis,
ichthyotoxin -icle
see *-l
icon
image
icon, iconic, iconoclast, iconography,
iconolatry,
iconodule, iconoscope,
iconastasis
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
109
-id
having,
being, pertaining
to
avid, florid, intrepid,
fluid,
frigid,
invalid,
horrid, incipid,
lucid,
palid, placid,
rabid, rancid
vid
id ident
same
identic,
identical,
identism, 15
*idio
peculiar
idiochromatic, idiom,
idiogenesis,
idiomorphic,
idiosyncrasy, -ier
see-r
ign
fire
igneous,
having,
being, pertaining
to
idiot
ignitron,
mercantile,
sterile, tactile,
6
most
*in, en-see
not,
ignite,
ignivomous
agile, docile, fertile, fragile, juvenile,
-im
ignigenous,
ignipuncture,
ignition,
idiolect,
idiopathy,
ignescent,
ignipotent,
-ile
identification,
identity
maximum, lacking
verile, volatile minimum,
enmity, ignoble, improper,
futile,
mobile, senile,
ultimate
illegal, impossible,
inactive,
independent,
optimal,
incredible,
insane, irrational,
irrepressible 14
*in-, en
in,
-in
into
emphasis,
NOUN
-ine
having,
being, pertaining
to
endoderm,
illuminate,
implant,
invade, irrigate,
aspirin,
auxin,
globulin,
Alpine, Benedictine, canine, crystalline, marine,
parenthesis toxin
bovine, cadaverine, feline, feminine,
masculine, piscine,
plasticine,
saline 16
*infra-insul
below
infralapsarianism, infrapose,
inframundane,
infrared,
infrasonic,
infraspecific
island,
separateness
insular, insularity, insulize,
integer
whole,
*-ion
untouched
disintegrate,
(relatedto in-, in and tag)
integration,
condition,
abstraction,
result
process,
of process
integer, integral,
administration,
confusion, declension,
erosion,
exclusion,
fusion, improvisation,
110
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
recession, reversion,
iridectomy,
Reverse
Glossary
persuasion,
provision,
irascible, colorful
negation,
prevention, slavation,
subscription,
rainbow,
coercion,
decision,
pollution, refulsion,
irid
integrand,
creation,
manipulation,
anger
insulin,
peninsular
integrity
falsification,
ir
insulation,
penninsula,
of
Root
promotion, revision,
stagnation,
tension,
vision
irate, ire, ireful iridenscent,
iridium,
iris
-is
condition, result
process,
analysis, anamorphosis,
of process
emphasis,
ellipsis,
genesis, hypnosis,
morphosis,
neurosis, osmosis, stasis, synopsis, synthesis -ism
in, state, act
baptism,
capitalism,
communism,
rhotacism
9
-ist
one
who
-ise
see-ize
*iso-belief
equal
Anarchist,
baptist, communist
isandrous,
isobar,
isodeot,
isochronal,
isogloss, isograph,
isomorphic,
isonomy,
isocracy,
isometric,
isopathy,
isothermal 7
*it
go
adit, ambition, initiate,
coitus, exit, initial,
itinerant,
obituary, sedition,
transit -it, -ite
having,
-it, -ite
VERB
being, pertaining
to
composite,
definite,
finite, implicit,
22
*-itis
inflammation
erudite, favorite,
indefinite,
tacit
audit, expedite, ignite,
posit, unite
appendicitis,
bronchitis,
arthritis,
bursitis,
cephalitis,
neuritis,
phlebitis,
pneumonitis,
hepatitis,
meningitis,
pleuritis,
poliomyelitis,
tonsillitis,
vagnitis -ity
see-ty
-ium
see-um
-ive
having,
being, pertaining
to
argumentative, conducive,
attentive,
conclusive,
comparative,
cursive,
dative,
decisive, defensive, evasive, extensive, fugitive,
generative,
productive, -ix
-ize, ise
feminine
administratrix,
VERB cause to
massive, pensive,
representative aviatrix,
curatrix,
directrix,
executrix,
procuratrix,
victrix
advertise,
anglicize,
baptize, chastize,
comprise,
epitomize,
etymologize,
eulogize, exorcise, fertilizer, neutralization,
organize,
realize, satirize,
vocalize
nasalize, patronize,
J 22
*jac
throw,
lay, lie
abject, adjacent, adjective,
conjecture,
dejected,
eject, infect,
interject, jaculatory,
disject, ejaculate, jactation,
jactitation,
object, project,
reject, subjacent,
projectile,
subjective,
traject,
trajectory joc
jest
Chapter
jocose, jocular, jocularity,
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
jocund
of
Roots
11
jud,
jug,
judge (related to jus)
judg
join
jung
adjudicate,
(related to zyg)
judge,
jur jus, jur
ritual,
judicial,
judicious,
prejedge,
prejudice
adjunct,
law,
equity
(relatedto jud)
judgment,
judicature,
conjugal,
conjugation,
seejus
judgmatic,
judicable,
junction,
abjure,
adjure,
conjuror,
injunction,
subjugate,
conjure,
injury,
jurisprudence, justice,
conjugate,
disjuncture,
jugular,
judiciary,
conjurer,
judicial, jurist,
subjunctive
jurisdiction,
juror,
jury,
objurgation,
perjure,
juvenescent,
juvenile,
just,
perjuror,
perjury juven
young
juvenal,
juvenilia,
rejuvenate
K kal
seecalli
ker
seecerhorn
kilo-22
thousand
kine,
move
cine
kilohertz,
(related to cit)
kilogram,
cinema,
kilometer,
hyperkinesia,
kinesics,
kilowatt
kinescope,
kinesiology,
kinetic,
telekinesis
seecrypt
krypt
L *-l
small
animalcule,
capsule,
icicle,
little,
kettle,
particular, 19
*lab
grasp,
seize
lip
lac
milk
(related
to
galac)
analeptic,
androlepsy,
catalepsy,
epilepsy,
astrolabe, narcolepsy,
organoleptic,
syllable,
syllepsis
bilabial,
labia,
lactase,
gastrula, particle,
testicle
nympholepsy,
lab
cubicle, nuzzle,
labiate,
lactation,
prolepsis,
labiodental,
lacteral,
labret
lactiferous,
lactogenic lag
rabbit
lag, lang
loose,
lagomorph,
lagomys,
lagopodous,
lagotic slack,
droop
(related to lagn) lagn
lust
lagoetic,
lagomorph,
laxative,
relax
algolagnia,
iconolagny, lal
talk,
lamell
seelamin
lamin,
lamell
babble
echolalia,
layer
delaminate,
laminar,
112
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Root
languid,
coprolagnia,
ecdemolagnia,
necrolagnia, glossolalia,
lamellate,
laminated,
languor,
pyrolagnia
idiolalia,
lamelliform,
laminitis
lallation
lang
seelag
lapid
stone
dilapidated,
lapidarion,
lapideous, laps
fall,
expire
collapse,
prolapse, *lat
carry
collate,
elate,
lat, later
wide,
broad,
side
correlate,
legislate,
relative,
collateral,
lapsus,
dilatory,
oblation,
superlative,
dilate,
laterigrade,
lapse,
supralapsarian
collatron,
elation,
lazuli
elapse,
lapsable,
relapse,
relate,
lapis
collapsible,
infralapsarian,
5
lapidary,
lapidicolous,
equilateral,
latitude,
prelate,
translation lateral,
latitudinarian,
quadrilateral 10
*later
worship
anthropolatry, geolatry,
astrolatry,
hagiolatry,
iconolatry,
bibliolater,
heliolatry,
idolater,
idolatry,
plutolatry,
theolatry lav, lv, luv
wash,
pour
abultion,
alluvium,
colluvium, lavage,
lavation,
pollute,
13
lec
delight
led
strike,
*leg
choose,
esteem,
care
for
lavatory,
delicate,
collide,
(relatedto leglaw andlog)
dilute,
eluvium, lave,
lava,
laver,
pollution
delectable, injure
antediluvian,
deluge,
delicious,
collision,
elide,
diligent,
elect,
neglect,
prelect,
elicit
elision,
elegant,
lesion
intelligent,
sacrilege,
select
seelog
leg
law, charge (relatedto legto choose and log)
*leg
allege,
delegate,
legacy,
legal,
legislator, len
soft,
gentle
lenient,
illegal,
legate,
legitimate, lenis,
illegitimate,
legatee,
legislation,
relegate,
lenitive,
lenity,
privilege lentitude,
relent -lent
full
leo(n)
of
lion
corpulent,
fraudulent,
pestilence,
turbulent,
chameleon,
leontiasis, lep, lepid
scaly
leper,
leuc,
luc
death,
sleep
light,
lethal,
white, colorous,
clear
lethargic,
Lucifer,
liber
light,
rise
free
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
leucine,
leprosy
leucocyte,
leucoma,
noctiluca,
alleviate,
elevate,
levitation,
illiberal,
liberal,
and
pellucid,
translucent
levitate,
libertine,
13
leproma,
lethiferous
Lucina,
liberoplast,
Chapter
leopard
leucoplast, leukemia, lucent, lucid, relucent,
lev
leonine,
lepidolite,
Lepidoptera,
elucidate,
(related to lumen, lun, and luster)
Leonard,
leontocephalous,
lepidodentroid,
lepidote, leth
Leo,
opulent, virulent
elevator,
levity,
lever,
liberalize,
libertarian,
levee,
levy liberate, liberticide,
liberty
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
11
liber
weigh,
consider
deliberate,
deliberation,
equilibrium,
equilibrist,
Libra, librate,
libration,
libratory
20
libr
book
librarian,
lic
permissible,
unrestrained
lic
seeligu to leave
*lig
bind
illicit,
library,
license, licensure,
licentious,
licet
alligation,
colligate,
ligand,
ligation,
obligatory, lign
seelin
lim
threshold
flax,
line
tongue,
lip
fat
speech
illimitable,
limitation,
limited,
fluid
delineate, line, lineage,
linseed, lint, linguate,
matrilineal
linguist,
lipemia,
lipoma,
linguistics
lipid,
lipogenous,
lipoprotein
eclipse, ecliptic,
ellipse, ellipsis
deliquesce, liquefy, liquid,
leave (relatedto lip)
lic
unlimited
linear, lineate, linen,
liquifacient, liqu, linqu,
limit,
preliminary,
supraliminal,
glycolipide,
liqu
limen,
align, alignment,
lipoid,
leave (relatedto liqu)
obligation,
lineal, lineament,
lingual,
lip
disoblige, ligament,
ligature,
eliminate,
lining, lingu
licentiate,
religio
subliminal, lin, lign
libretto
liquidate,
liquor
delinquent,
derelict, relic, relict,
relinquish lit
seelith
liter
letter
alliteration, literally,
illiteracy,
literary,
illiterate,
literature,
literal,
obliterate,
transliterate 12
*lith, lit
stone
cerolite,
coprolite,
grapholite, lithology,
eolith,
lithograph,
granulite,
lithoid,
lithophagous,
litholatry,
lithosphere,
monolith 19
loc
place
allocation,
collocation,
dislocation, location,
local, locale, locality,
locative,
locomotive,
1
locu
seeloqu
*log, leg
speak,
write, study
(related to
leg to choose and leg law)
locus
analogous,
apologue,
apology,
catalogue,
decalogue,
dialect, dialogue,
illegible,
illogical,
logician,
long
prologue,
longanimity, longicorn,
longevity, longilateral,
longimanous, longitute
114
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
biology,
horologue,
lexicon,
monologue,
philologist, longi
locate,
locomotion,
eulogy, homologous,
18
dislocate,
logic,
logical,
paralogism, sortilege,
syllogism
longicaudate, longiloquence,
longimetry,
longipennate,
19
*loqu, locu
speak
allocution,
circumlocution,
colloquium,
colloquy,
eloquent,
colloquial,
elocution,
grandiloquence,
locution,
loquacious,
obloquy,
interlocutor,
magniloquent,
prolocutor,
solioquy,
ventriloquist
19
lu
seelav
luc
seeleuc
*lud
play
allude, allusion, delusion, illusive,
collusion,
delude,
delusive, elude, illusion,
interlude,
ludicrous,
prelude,
prolusion lumen
light
(related to leuc)
illumination,
illumine,
luminosity, lun
moon,
madness (related to leuc)
demilune,luna, lunacy,lunar, lunate, lunatic,
lunation,
sublunar, lup, lyc
wolf
lupine,
luster
clear, pure (related to leuc)
illustrate,
luv
seelav
ly
loosen,
dissolve
lyc
ADVERB
lune, semilunar,
sublunary
lupus, lycanthrope, luster, lustral,
lycopodium
lustrate,
lustrical,
lustrous,
analysis,
dialysis, electrolyte,
litholyte,
lyophilic,
lysogenic, -ly
lumen, luminary,
luminous
lustrum
hydrolysis,
lyophobic,
lysergic,
lysis, paralysis, paralyte
profusely,
publicly,
regularly
seelup
M -m
NOUN
baptism,
chasm, idiom,
poem, sarcasm,
spasm m
see amlove
mac
long,
thin
emaciated,
macl
spot,
stain
immaculate,
paramecium mackle, macle, maculation,
maculature 19
*mach
battle
centauromachia, gigantomachy,
herpobatrachiomachy, logomachy,
machopolyp,
machozoid, tauromachy *macro
long,
large
macrobiotic,
macrocosm,
macrology,
macrodont,
macromastia,
macron,
macropterous mag, meg, maj
great, large
acromegaly,
magistrate,
magnificent, majestic,
magnify,
magnanimous, magnitude,
majesty, major, majority,
maximize,
maximum,
megalomania,
omega maj
see mag
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
11
4
*mal,
male
bad
malady, maladjusted,
malaria,
malcontent,
malediction,
maleficient,
malevolent,
malicious,
malign,
malefactor, malice,
malignant,
malignity,
malpractice man
hand,
handle
amanuensis,
emancipate,
manage, manicure, manipulate,
manual,
manumit, man, mn
remain
immanent,
order
manor,
command,
commandant,
mandate, *mani
intense
desire
manse, mansion,
remnant
countermand,
7
manufacture,
manuscript
permanent, mand
manacles,
manifest,
commandeer,
demand,
mandamus,
mandatory, remand
automania,
bibliomania,
manic,
mania,
maniac, megalomania 16
mant
prophesy,
divination
astromancy,
ceromancy,
hydromancy,
mantic,
chiromancy, mantis, mantology,
necromancy mar
sea
mare, marigraph, mariner,
mar
see mir
mascul
male
marina,
marine,
maritime, submarine,
transmarine,
ultramarine
emasculate,
emasculatome,
masculine,
masculinity mast
breast
amastia, mastitis,
macromastia,
mastectomy,
mastodon,
mastodynia,
maternity,
matricide,
mastoid 25
mater, metr
mother,
womb,
surrounding
math
learn,
material,
substance
study numbers
and forms
matrilineal,
matrimony,
metropolis,
metrorrhagia
chrestomathy,
go,
pass, passage
irremeable,
metritis,
mathematician,
mathematics, mea
matrix,
polymath meatal, meatometer,
meatoscope,
meatotome,
meatus,
permeate
attend to (relatedto mod)
med
irremediable, medical,
medicament,
medicate,
medicinal,
med
middle,
near
medicant,
medication,
medicine,
meditate,
remediable,
remedial,
remedy
immediate,
intermediate,
median,
mediate,
medieval,
mediator,
medial, mediety,
mediocre,
mediocrity,
melodeon,
melodize,
medium meg
see mag
mel
song
melisma,
melodrama,
116
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Root
melody,
melograph
mel, melan
dark,
blacken
calomel,
melancholy,
Melanesia,
melanin,
melanogaster,
melanian, melanoma, mel, mol
honey
melanosis, psilomelane
hydromel,
melis, melitologist,
melliferous, melior
better
ameliorate,
mellifluous,
molasses
melioration,
meliorism,
meliority member
see memor
member
part
of a whole
dismember,
member,
membrance, memor,
member
remember
membral,
membrum
commemorate,
commemoration,
immemorial,
memorabilia,
memorandum,
memory, remember, men, min, mon
lead,
project, threaten
amenable,
memorable,
memorial,
memorize,
remembrance
eminent, imminent,
minatory,
montage,
preeminent,
menace,
montane,
promenade,
monticle,
prominent,
promontory
moon,
men
month (related to
mens) catamenia, emmenagogue, menopause,
menarche,
menorrhagia,
mensal,
menses, menstruation 16
*men,
min, mn
think
(related to
mani
ament, amnesia, comment,
andto mon)
-men mend
NOUN defect
cryptomnesia,
demented,
memento,
mental, mentality,
mentor,
minerva, reminiscent
albumen,
acumen, regimen,
amendment,
emendation,
mendacious, mens
measure
(related to
met(er)
-ment
mensural,
NOUN
casement,
environment, interment, pigment, mer
share,
part
trade,
dip,
dimeric,
meristem,
meritocracy,
meritorious,
middle
mercer, mercy
emersion, immerse,
merganser,
merge, merger,
submersion
mesial, mesocarp, mesocephalic, Mesohippus, Mesopotamia,
Chapter
meropia,
commercial,
mercenary,
emerge, emergency, submerge,
merit,
polymer
immersion,
meso, mezzo
emeritus, isomer,
meretricious,
amerce, commerce,
plunge
inducement, pavement,
vestment
mercantile, merg
commandment,
fragment,
allomerism,
pay, reward
immense,
mensuration
parament,
monomer, merc
specimen mend,
dimension,
mensurate,
allotment,
mention,
mendicant
commensurate,
and men moon)
dementia,
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
mesolithic,
mesomorphic,
mezzosoprano,
Glossary
of
Roots
mezzotint
11
9
meta-beyond,
changed, after, behind
metabolic,
metalinguistics,
metamorphosis, metaphysical, metathesis,
metaphor, metaphysics,
metazoic,
metastasis,
meteor, method,
metonymny 9
measure (relatedto mens)
*meter
altimeter,
ametropic,
asymmetrical,
barometer,
diameter,
hexameter,
kilometer,
metrical,
geometry, meter, metric,
metrology, perimeter,
symmetrical,
symmetry,
thermometer,
trigonometry *micro
small
micrify,
microbe,
microcosm, micrometer,
wander
microfilm,
microphone,
microvolt, migr
microbiology,
microdont,
microscope,
microzoa
commigration,
emigrant,
immigrant,
migrate,
emigrate,
migration,
migratory, transmigration milit
fight
demilitarize, military,
milli
thousand
militancy,
militate,
millenarian, milliard,
militarist,
militia
millenium,
millimeter,
milligram,
million,
millionaire,
millipede mim
copy
mime, mimic,
mimicked,
mimeograph,
mimesis,
mimographer, min
little,
inferior
comminute,
mimotype, diminish,
diminutive,
minify,
minimum,
minuet,
pantomime
diminution, minimize,
minometer,
minuend,
mimicry, mimetic,
minor,
minus,
minority,
minuscule,
minute min
see menthink
min
see menlead
minister
serve (relatedto minlittle)
administer,
administrative,
administratrix,
minister,
ministrant, mir, mar
wonder
at, look
mis
see mit
misc, mix
mix
at
admire,
ministration,
marvel, miracle,
ministerial, ministry miraculous,
mirage, mirror
admixture, intermix,
apomixis,
miscellany,
miscible,
mixobarbaric, miser
pity,
wretched
commiserate, misericord,
5
*miso
hate
iatromisia, misogamy, misoneism,
118
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Root
commix,
miscegenation,
immix,
miscellaneous,
miscitation,
mix,
mixture, promiscuous miser, miserable, miserly,
miserere,
misery
misandry, misogynist, misosophy,
misanthrope, misology, misotheism
15
*mit,
mis
send,
do
admit,
commission,
compromise,
committee,
demit,
dismiss, emissary,
emit, intermission, missionary,
missile, mission,
missive, omit,
premise, pretermit, remit, mix
see misc
mn
see man
mn
see men
mob, mot
move
submit,
emotion,
motive, moderate,
control,
measure,
momentum,
modal, mode, model, modern,
modest, modify, massive,
labored,
troublesome
motion, remote
commodious,
commodity, moderation,
mol
momentary,
motor, promote,
accommodate,
manner(relatedto med)
mob, mobile,
moment,
momentous,
mod
promise, remiss,
surmise, transmit
locomotion,
mobility,
permit,
demolish,
modicum,
modulate,
module
mole, molecule,
molest,
molestation mol
see mel
moll
soft
emmollient, mollify,
mollescent,
molipilose,
molluscoid, mon
remind,
warn
mollusk
admonish,
(relatedto mento think)
mollient,
mollities,
demonstrate,
monition,
monitor,
monument,
monish,
monster,
premonition,
remonstrate,
summon mon 5
*mono
see mento lead one
monaural,
monism,
monogamy, monolith,
monochrome,
monogram, monologue,
monosyllable,
monograph, monomania,
monotheism,
monotonous -mon
mor
STEM
EXTENDER
humor,
manner, custom
acrimony,
matrimonial,
patrimony,
sanctimonius,
amoral,
demoralize,
morality,
parsimony, testimonial
immoral,
moralize,
morals,
morale, mores,
morose mor
stupid
moron,
moronic,
sophomore, morb
disease
morbid,
morosoph,
oxymoron,
sophomoric morbific,
morbiferous,
morbigenous mord
bite
mordacious,
mordant,
mordent,
morsel,
premorse, remorse 10
*morph
form
allomorph,
amorphous,
anthropomorphism, geomorphology, morphology,
endomorph, morpheme,
morphogenesis,
pseudomorph Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
11
11
*mort
death
amortize,
immortal,
mortal,
immortality,
mortality,
mortification,
mortgage,
mortify,
mortuary,
post
mortem mot
see mob
muc, munc
moldy,
sticky
emunctory, mucin,
9
*multi
many
muciferous,
mucoid,
multicolored,
mucilage,
mucosa, mucus multifarious,
multiform,
multilateral,
multiple,
multiplex,
multiplicity,
multiply,
multitude,
multitudinous mun
common,
public,
gift
communicate,
communion,
communism,
communist,
excommunicate, municipal, munc
see muc
mur
wall
immure,
community,
immune,
munificent,
intramural,
immunity,
remunerate
murage,
mural,
mure mur
see mus
mus
inspire
mus, mur, my
mouse,
muse, museology, muscle
epimysium,
murine,
myocardium, myosin, 22
mut
change,
exchange
museum,
commutation, mutable,
muscle, mussell,
myology,
myosotis,
music
myomancy,
mysicete, perimysium
commute,
mutagen,
immutable,
mutant,
mutation,
mutual, permute, transmute myc
fungus
mycetoma,
mycology,
mycoplasm,
mycophagous,
mycosis, neomycin,
schizomycete myria
countless,
myrmec
numerous,
myriancanthous,
ten thousand
myriameter,
ant
myrmecology,
myriad,
myriapod,
myriagram, myriarch
myrmecophagus,
myrmecophil
see mus
my
N -n
STEM EXTENDER
nar
see nas
narco
stupor
binary,
maternal, plenary
naracoanalysis, narcomania,
naracoma, narcosis,
narcolepsy,
narcosynthesis,
narcotic nas, nar
nose
nares, narial, nariform, nasology,
nasopharynx,
nasal, nasalize, nasturtium,
nasute nat
swim
natant,
natation,
natatorial,
natatorium,
supernatant nat
120
Chapter
source,
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
birth, tribe
Forms
and
adnate, enate, native, nature,
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
neonate
20
*nav
boat,
sail
aeronaut,
aeronautics,
astronaut, cosmonaut, nautilus,
ne-16
not
lacking
aquanaut,
circumnavigation, nausea, nauseous, nautical,
naval, nave, navicular,
navigable,
navigate, navigation,
nefaroius,
nepenthe,
navy
nescient, neuter
(relatedto negand nul) *nec(r),
noc
death,
harmful
innocent,
innocuous,
necrology,
internecine,
necromancy,
necrophilia,
necropsy,
necrophobia,
necropolis,
necrosis, nectar, nectarine, nocuous, noxious,
nocent,
obnoxious,
pernicious 16
not, no (relatedto ne-)
*neg
abnegate,
negation,
negligence,
negative, neglect,
negotiate,
negotiatrix,
renegade, renege
6
negr
see nigr
*neo
new,
recent
misoneism,
neanthropic,
neocracy, neolithic, neophyte, nerv, neur
nerve
enervate, innervate,
nervous,
neuralgia,
black
nervousness,
neuritis,
neurosurgeon, nigr, negr
neonate,
neoteric
aponeurosis, nervine,
neoclassical,
neologism,
denigrate,
nervy,
neuron,
unnerve
negrita,
Negrophile,
Negro, Negroid,
Negrophobe,
nigrescence,
nigrosine nihil,
nil
nothing
niter
annihilate,
niter,
nitrogen
nitrate,
nihilify,
nitric,
nihilism,
nitride,
nihility,
nil
nitroglycerine,
nitrous
21
no
see gn
noc
see nec
noc, nyc
night
equinox,
noctambulist,
noctimania,
nocturnal,
nyctitropic, nod
knot
noctilucent, nyctalopia,
nyctophobia
node, nodiform,
nodose, nodular,
nodulation 4
*nom
law,
system
anomie,
antinomy,
autonomous, Deuteronomy, 7
*nom,
onom,
onym
name
anonymous, homonym,
antonym,
metonymy,
binomial,
economy,
ignominy,
metronome denominate,
ignominious,
misnomer,
nomenclature, nominee,
astronomy,
autonomy,
nominal,
nomancy,
nominate,
onomatopoeia,
patronymic,
pseudonym nona
see nov
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
12
*non-not,
lacking
nonconformist,
nonentity,
nonpartisan, norm
standard,
not
nov
pattern
abnormal,
enormity,
nona
enormous,
normal,
note
annotate,
connote,
notation,
note, notice, notify
(possibly related to gno)
new
novem,
nonexistence,
nonsense
(related to gnor)
innovation,
nine
marry nut,
kernel
notary,
novel, novelty,
nonagon,
November,
nuc, nucl
notable,
novice,
renovate
nonagenarian,
nub
norm,
normative
novitiate, nov,
nonplus,
nonillion,
novena
connubial,
nubile,
nucament,
nuciferous,
nucifragous,
nuptial,
nuptiality
nuciform,
nuclear, nucleic, nucleon,
nucleoplasm,
nucleotide,
nucleus,
nuclide nud
uncovered
denude, nudist,
nothing
nul, null
(relatedto ne)
anul, annulment, nullify,
numer
number
nunc
nude, nudiflorous,
null, nullification,
nullity
enumerate, innumerable,
speak
nudiped,
nudity
numeration,
numerator,
numerous,
supernumerary
annunciate,
denunciation,
nunciature,
nuncio,
numeral, numerical,
enunciate,
pronunciation,
renunciation nutr, nurt
nourish
nurse, nursery, nurture, nutriment,
nyc
see noc
nymph
maiden,
labia
minora
nymph,
nutrition,
nympha,
nympholepsy,
nutrient,
nutritive
nymphitis,
nymphomania,
nymphotomy
O -o
STEM EXTENDER
anthropology, nyphotomy,
15
*ob-ocell
to, toward
gynandromorph, philodendron
obstacle, obviate, offend,
occasion, occident,
offense, omission,
opposition,
oppress
see ocl ochl
crowd
ochlesis,
ocl, ocell
eye
binoculars,
octa
eight
ochlocracy,
ochlophobia
monocle, inoculate,
ocellated,
oculist,
octagon,
octagonal,
octangular,
octave, octavo, octet, octogenarian,
122
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Root
ocellar,
oculate, oculomotor
octopus
October,
octant,
od, hod
way, journey
anode, cathode, hodograph,
episode, exodus,
method, odometer,
period,
synod od
song,
performance
melodious, parody,
melody,
prosody,
monody, ode,
psalmody, rhapsody,
threnody odon
see den
odor, ol
smell
inodorous,
malodorous,
odoriferous,
odorous,
odor,
olfactory,
olid,
redolent oeno
wine
oenanthic,
oenolin,
oenomancy, oenometer, -oid
similar
to
ol ol
see odor
ole, ol
oil
oenomel,
oenophilist
anthropoid,
see alto grow
oenology,
oenomania,
arachnoid,
asteroid,
ellipsoid,
haloid, odontoid,
pteridoid,
trapezoi
eucalyptol,
lanolin,
oleic, oleiferous,
planetoid,
oleaginous,
olefiant,
oleograph,
oleomargarine oligo--ology
few, little
oligarchy,
oligocarpus,
oligogalyctia,
oligocythemia,
oligophrenia,
oligopoly,
oligopsony
seelog -oma
growth,
tumor
carcinoma, lipoma,
fibroma,
glaucoma,
sarcoma, syphiloma, omni--on
all
omnidirectional, omniferous,
carbon,
omniscient,
criterion,
harmonicon,
6
seees(s)
onym
see nom
o
see ov
*op
eye, sight, look
at
amblyopia, optics,
oper
work
ametropia,
operate,
ophid,
ophi
snake
pleon
autopsy, biopsy,
myopic, optical,
optometer,
cooperate,
neuron,
photon,
isometropia,
omnipotent, omnivorous
epencephalon,
lexicon,
phenomenon, ont
trachoma
omnifarious,
omnigenous,
omnirange,
NOUN
glioma,
mycetoma, osteosarcoma,
optician,
optometrist
inoperative,
opera, operable,
operose
ophidiophobe,
ophiography,
ophiolatry,
ophiomancy ophthalm
eye
ophthalmia,
opi
opium
opiate, opinophagy,
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
ophthalmologist
Glossary
opiophyle,
of
Roots
opium
123
opt
choice
or
speak
adopt, co-opt, formally,
pray
adore, inexorable, oration,
or
rise,
appear
see aurgold
or
see os
-or
see-r
orb
circle
orch
testicle,
orchid
orb, orbicular,
cryptorchidism, orchidology,
order
orchialgia,
ordain,
coordination,
18
see-ory place
orn, ornith
bird
ornithic,
ornithopter,
ornithoscopy, upright,
correct
being, pertaining
to
ornithosis
orthodontia,
orthodox,
orthography,
orthopedics,
auditory,
compulsory,
laudatory,
NOUN
-ory
prefactory,
accessory, inventory,
place
auditorium,
bone
obligatory, sensory
trajectory,
victory
dormitory,
sanitorium
osseous, ossify, ossuary, ostitis, osteomyelitis,
os, or
orthoscopic
conservatory,
laboratory, os
orthoepy,
cursory,
mandatory,
predatory, -ory
ornithology,
ornithoid,
ornithophilous,
having,
subordinate
and -um ichthyorinis,
straight,
insubordinate,
ordinance,
ordination,
ornithomancy,
orth--ory
disorder,
inordinate,
order, ordinal,
ordinary,
-orium
orchid,
orchidectomy,
extraordinary,
see erg
orbiculate,
orchitis
coordinate,
org
orientation,
originate
orbital
orchidaceous,
ord
oracle,
orient, oriental, original,
exorbitant, orbit,
oracular,
orator, peroration
abortion, origin,
or
opative, option
mouth,
opening
oral, orator,
osteopathy oratrix,
orifice,
oscitancy,
osculate, ostiary -ose
having,
being, pertaining
to
bellicose, cerebrose, comatose, grandiose,
granulose, jocose,
lachrymose,
morose, varicose, verbose,
vesiculose 21
-osis
abnormal
osm
push,
condition
halitosis,
impel
neurosis, phychosis
endosmosis,
osmometry,
osmosis, osmotaxis, 20
ot
ear
lagotic,
otalgia,
otoplasty,
124
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Root
osmose,
osmotic
otic, otology,
otorrhea,
parotid
otogenous,
-ous
having,
being, pertaining
to
anxious,
carnivorous,
foliaceous,
inconspicuous, tenacious,
egg (possibly related to avbird)
ov, o
ocyte,
tortuous
ogenesis, olith,
oviduct, sharp,
impetuous,
pious, simultaneous,
opherectomy,
ox
coniferous,
glamorous,
ophagous,
oval, ovary, ovate,
oviferous,
sour, pointed
oviparous
oxalis, oxide, oxydactylic,
(related to acsharp)
oxmel, oxymoron, oxyrhine,
oxyopia,
oxyphonia,
paroxyosm
P pac
21
bind,
pachy
agreement,
peace
compact, impact,
(related to pag)
pact
thick
pachycephalic, pachymeter,
see ped
pag, peg
bind together (relatedto pac)
pacifist,
pachyderm,
pacify,
pachyglossia,
pachynema,
pachypteron, paed
pacific,
pachypod,
pachysandra
pagan, pectin,
pegamite,
propagate,
thoracophagus pal, pol
stake,
spade
impale, paling,
paleiform,
palette, palification,
palisade, palster, palule, paly,
pole paleo
long
ago, ancient
paleethnology,
paleoclimatic,
paleography,
paleolith,
paleontology,
Paleozoic pali(n)
again
pal, pall
cloak,
palikinesia,
palillogy,
palindrome, cover
pailial,
palimpsest,
palingenesis,
pall, palliate,
palliobranchiate,
palinode
palliative,
palliocardiac,
pallium,
paludiment
pal, pall
pale
appall,
palp
touch,
feel
pale, pall, pallid,
palp, palpable, palpiform,
3
*pan-,
panta-amphioxious, all,
all embracing
pand, pass
spread
out, go
palples
panegyric,
panoply,
panorama,
pansophy,
pantagamy,
pantheism,
pantheon,
pantomine,
pantophagist,
see past
palpitate,
panacea, pandect,
pandemonium,
pan
palpate, palpiferous,
palpitant,
pamprodactyl,
pallor, palomino
compass,
pantophobia
encompass,
expand,
pass,
passable, passage, passenger, passover, passport, surpass, trespass pant
see pan
pap, pop
father,
pope
papa, papacy, papal, paparchy, pop, pope, popery,
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
popish
Glossary
of
Roots
12
pap, pup
nipple,
child,
doll
pap, papila, papule, pupa, pupil,
puppet,
puppy
9
par
show
apparent,
par
beget,
produce
apparition,
floriparous,
gemeliparous,
gemmiparous, parent,
part,
share, equality
multipara,
parturition,
repertory, par, por
transparent
viper, vivaparous
apart, apartment, compartment,
compare,
department,
disparity, impart,
up, make ready
(related to para to 17
*para-set
beside,
apparatus,
prevent)
under, beyond,
proportionate
apparel, disparate,
preparation,
preparatory,
paradigm,
resembling
disparage,
par, parcel, parity,
parse, part, portion, par
oviparous,
primapara,
paradox,
paramedic,
paragraph,
paranoia,
paranthropus,
pare,
separate parallel,
paranormal,
paraphernalia,
parenthetic para
prevent
pass
see pand
past, pan
food,
(related to parset up)
dough,
bread
parachute, parapet, parasol, paratroops
companion,
panivorous,
pannier,
pantry,
paste, pastor, pastoral, pastorate, pasturage, pat, pass
feel,
undergo
pasture, pastry, repast
compassion,
dispassionate,
passion,
passive, patient pater
fatherland,
father,
allopatric,
bring about, sponsor
expatriate,
expatriation,
paternal,
paternity,
patriarach,
patrician,
patriotic,
patristic,
patrimony,
patron,
patronage,
patroness,
patronymic,
patronize,
perpetrate,
repatriate,
sympatric 2
*path
feel,
suffer, illness
allopathy,
antipathy,
apathy, empathy,
homeopathy,
pathetic,
pathos,
psychopath,
sympathetic,
sympathize,
sympathy pe
see poe
pec
stumble,
sin
peccable, peccadillo,
peccancy, peccant
(relatedto pedfoot) pector
chest
expectorant,
expectorate,
pectoral,
pectoriloquy pecu
wealth,
property
impecunious, peculium,
6
*ped, paed
child,
training,
education
peculate,
encyclopedia, pedagogy,
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Root
orthopedist,
pedant, pedarist,
pedobaptism,
126
peculiar,
pecuniary
pedodontia,
orthopedics, pediatrician, pedology
6
*ped,
pod,
pus
foot (related to pec)
biped,
brachiopod,
cephalopod,
centipede,
expedient,
expedition,
expedite,
gastropod,
impediment,
impede,
octopus,
pedestrian,
pedal,
pedigree,
pseudopodium,
pedestal,
podagra,
quadruped,
tripod,
velocipede
5
ped
soil
*pel
push
(related to pedfoot)
pedalfer,
pedocal,
catapult,
compel,
expel,
expulsion,
impulsive,
pulse, pel, pl
skin
pen
almost
pedology
compulsory,
dispel,
impel,
impulse,
interpellate,
repel,
propel,
repellent,
erysipelas, pelt,
pedologist,
repulsive
pellagra,
peltry,
pulsation,
pellagrin,
pellicle,
surplice
antepenult,
peneplain,
peninsula,
penumbra pen, pun
pen
punishment
impunity,
tail
penal,
punish,
punitive
pencil,
penicilliate,
penalty,
penology,
penicillin,
penile,
penis pen, 5
feather
pin
*pend,
pond
hang,
(related to pter) weigh,
pay,
pen,
consider
pennate,
append,
pinion,
pinnacle,
appendage,
compensate, dispense,
appendix,
compensation, expend,
impending, pendent,
depend,
expenditure,
independent, pendulous,
pension,
pinnate
pensive,
preponderant,
expense,
pendant, pendulum,
perpendicular,
recompense,
ponder,
suspend,
suspense penta-pept
five
pentagon,
pentahedral,
pentameter,
pentangular,
pentasyllibic, digest
dyspepsia,
pentamerous, pentarachy,
pentathlete,
pentatonic
eupeptic,
pepsin,
pellucid,
perennial,
perfidy,
perspire,
pervade
peptic,
peptide 2
*per-per,
pir
through
trial
empirical,
experiment,
permeate,
expert,
peril,
pirate peri
around,
near
perihelion, periphery,
pest
plague
pest,
perimeter, peripharsis,
pesticide,
periodontal, periscope
pestiferous,
pestilence,
pestology pet
go
seek
appetite,
compete,
competition, petition,
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
competent,
impetuous, petulant,
Reverse
impetus,
repetition
Glossary
of
Roots
12
11
peter
rock
Peter, petrification, petrol,
petrify,
petroleum,
petroglyph,
petrology,
petrous,
saltpeter
1
pha
seefa
phag
eat
anthropophagous, exophagus,
mycophagist,
necrophagous,
sarcophagus, phall
penis
show, appear (relatedto phot)
phan, phen, fan
phallic,
allophane,
diaphanous,
pharmacology,
2
phen
see phan
pher
seefer
*phil
love
pharmacomania, pharmac
Anglophile,
bibliophile,
ornithophilus,
Philip,
phleg
seeflag
phlog
seeflag
*phob
fear
philodendron,
philosophy,
photophilous, vein
lyophilic,
Philadelphia,
philanthropist,
phleb
pharmacist,
pharmacon,
philology,
phenomenal,
phosphene, sycophant
pharmaceutical,
seefa
fantasy,
phanatom,
phenomenon,
phe
epiphany,
fancy, fantastic,
hierophant,
drug
phallicism,
phallus
fanciful,
pharmac
phagocyte,
xylophage
ichthyphallic, phalloid,
dysphagia,
galactophagous,
phlebitis,
philter,
xenophilism,
phleboid,
zoophilist
phlebotomist,
phlebotomy
2
Anglophobe,
apiphobia,
heliophobic,
hydrophobia,
hypnophobia,
phobia,
claustrophobia, xenophobe,
zoophobia 20
*phon
speech,
sound
(relatedto fa speak)
antiphon,
aphonia,
diaphony,
dictaphone,
cacophonic, euphonious,
gramaphone,
phonetic,
phonic,
phonograph,
phonology,
symphony,
telephone
4
phor
seefer
phos
see phot
*phot,
light (relatedto phan)
phos
aphotic, photic,
phosphene, photobiotic,
photogene,
photography,
photometer,
phras
speech
phosphorescent, photoelectric,
photosynthesis,
phototropism
embolophrasia,
holophrastic,
metaphrase, paraphrase, phrase, phraseogram,
128
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
photokinesis,
photophobia,
of
Roots
periphrasis,
phraseology
phren, fran, fren
mind,
heart, diaphragm
frantic,
frenetic,
phrenism,
frenzy,
phrenology,
phrenic, phrenopathy,
schizophrenic phyl
phylac
tribe,
class, race
phylarch,
phyletic,
(related to phyt)
phylum
guard
anaphylaxis,
phylacobiosis,
phylactocarp, phyll
leaf (relatedto foli andflor)
chlorophyll, phylloid,
phys
phylactery, phylaxis
heterophyllous,
Phyllis,
phyllomancy,
diaphysis,
phylon,
prophylactic,
phyllophorous,
natural (relatedto phyt)
phylogeny,
phylophagous,
phyllotaxis,
sporophyll
metaphysician,
physic, physical,
metaphysics,
physician,
physics, physiogonomy,
physicist,
physiography,
physiology 5
*phyt
grow,
plant
neophyte,
(relatedto phyl and phys)
phytochemistry,
phytopathology, phytophilous,
pi
pig
holy,
tender
paint,
picture
piacular,
pitiable,
pity
hair
capillary,
pin
see pen
pin
seespin
pir
see per
pisc
fish
pictorial,
picture,
pigment
caterpillar,
horripilation, pileiform,
zoophyte
piety, pious, piteous,
pictograph,
picturesque, pil, pill
phytophagous, phytotomy,
expiate,
depict,
phytology,
depilatory,
mollipilose, pileous,
pilar, pile,
pilose
piscary, piscator, piscatorial, pisciculture,
pisciform,
Pisces,
piscine,
piscivorous pithec
ape
Australopithecus, pithecoid,
pl
see pel
plac
flat,
calm, pleasant
Pithecanthropus,
pithecological
complacent, placenta,
implacable,
placebo,
placid, placitum,
placoid,
placula plag
oblique,
slanting
plagal, plagihedral, plagiodont,
plas
form,
mold
anaplasty,
plagiocephalisms,
plagiotropic dysplasia, heteroplasy,
metaplasm, plasma, plaster, plastic, protoplasm 20
plat(y)
flat,
broad
plate,
plateau,
platitude,
platform,
plating,
platyhelminth,
platypus,
platyrrhine plaud, plod
clap,
accept
applaud, implosive,
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
explode, explosion, plaudit,
Reverse
plod,
plausible
Glossary
of
Roots
12
full,
ple
many(relatedto plus)
complement,
complete,
depletion,
expletive,
plenipotentiary,
ple
see plec
pleb
common
people
plenitude,
plentiful,
plenty,
replete,
supplement,
plebian,
*plec,
ple
fold,
tangle
application,
complicate,
complicity, explicit, imply,
quadruple, pleg,
ples
strike,
stroke
plebicolist,
plebiscite,
explicable,
plebs apply,
haploid,
implicate, perplex,
triple
paraplegia,
plegaphonia,
complex,
comply,
multiple,
reply,
apoplexy,
replenish,
supply
accomplice,
implicit,
plenary,
plenteous,
plethora,
plebianize,
plebifaction, 4
deplete,
implement,
plectrum,
plegia,
plessimeter,
plessor,
plexor
full
plen
(related to plus)
plenary, plenist,
plenilune,
plenum, ples
see pleg
plot
see plaud
plomb
see plum, lead
plum
feather
plum,
plomb,
plumb
lead
pipe, lead
weight,
straight
plenteous,
plenty,
deplume,
lead,
plenipotentiary,
plenitude,
plumage,
plumule,
plumy
aplomb,
plumb,
plumbery,
plentiful,
replenis
plumate,
plumose,
plumbago,
plumbing,
plumber,
plumbism,
plummet
see plus
plur plus,
more,
plur
many (related to ple)
nonplus,
overplus,
plurifloral, plus, plut
wealth,
Pluto
rain
pneu(m)
lung,
plutarchy,
Pluto,
plutology,
plutomania,
pluvial,
plutocrat,
plutonism,
dyspneic,
plutolatry,
plutonian, plutonium
pluviography,
pluvioscope, respiration
plurality,
pluriparous,
surplus
plutonic, pluvi
plural,
plurifoliate,
pluviometer,
pluvious pneodynamics,
pneogaster,
pneograph,
pneometry,
pneumatic,
pneumatophore,
pneumectomy,
pneuma,
pneumonia,
pneumonic,
pneumonopathy
see ped
pod poe,
poie
produce,
create
cosmopoietic, mythopoeic,
hematopoietic, onomatopoeia,
pharmacopoeia,
poetaster, prosopopeia
130
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
poem,
poetic,
poesy,
poetomachia,
poet,
21
pol
smooth
*pol
city,
polish,
state
polite,
politesse
acropolis,
cosmopolitan,
isopolity,
megalopolis,
necropolis,
police,
decapolis, metropolis,
policy, politics,
polity,
propolis pol
8
circumpolar,
pol
to
sell
pol
see pal
*poly-axis
much,
polar, polarity, transpolar
bibliopole,
many
monopoly,
polyandry,
polychrome,
polyglot,
polygon,
polypetalous, polytheism, pom
fruit,
apple
oligipoly
polygamy,
polygyny,
polysomia,
polynomial,
polysyllable,
polyvalent
pomace, pomaceous, pomander,
pomade,
pome, pomegranate,
pomiculture,
pomiferous,
pomiform,
pomology 18
*pon,
pos
place, put (relatedto post)
appose, component, deposition, impostor,
composite,
exponent, indispose,
pompose,
deposit,
expose, impose, opponent,
opposite,
pose, posit, positive,
postpone,
post, posture,
proposal,
propose, proposition,
repository,
preposition,
superimpose,
repose,
superpose,
suppose, transpose pond
see pend
pont
bridge
pontage,
pontine,
pontonier,
pontoon,
transpontine
see pap
pop popul,
publ
people
depopulate,
populace,
popularity, public, por
opening,
passage
por
see parpart
porn
prostitute
publication,
pore, poriferous,
(relatedto portharbor)
popular,
population,
porotype,
populous,
publish, republic porite,
porosity,
porous
philopornist,
pornerastic,
pomocracy,
pornography *port
carry
deport,
deportment,
import,
port
harbor,
gate
pos
see pon
pos
see potdrink
poss
see potbe able
13
|
portfolio,
rapport,
report,
opportunity,
(related to por opening)
Chapter
important,
porter,
Glossary
porthole,
of
Base
Forms
and
portable, portly,
portage,
purport,
support,
transport
port, portal,
porter,
portico,
Reverse
disport, export,
portcullus,
Glossary
of
portiere
Roots
13
11
*post,
after, behind (relatedto pon)
poster
postdate,
posterior,
posthumous,
posterity,
postlude,
post-mortem,
postorbital,
postpone,
postern,
postmeridian,
postscript,
postpartum,
post-war,
preposterous pot,
poss
be
able,
powerful
ignipotent,
impossible,
omnipotent, possible,
potent,
potentatiate,
pot,
pos
potam
river,
electric
current
impotent,
plenipotentiary,
potestate,
potables,
potate,
potatory,
potion,
symposium
hippopotamus,
potential,
prepotent
potable,
potamic,
possess,
potentate,
potation,
Mesopotamia,
potamography,
potamian,
potamology,
potamometer 14
*prag
do
apraxis,
impracticable,
practical,
practice,
pragmatic,
praxiology,
praxi
see pre-before,
prae-1 *pre,
impractical, practitioner,
prae-,
pro-drink
forward,
on behalf
near,
approximately,
of
precede,
praenomen,
precipice,
predestination,
predict,
preponderate, program,
praesidium,
preclude, prefer,
preposterous,
preterite,
progress,
prolong,
prosit,
protract,
propinquity,
prefix,
proximal,
proximate prec
entreat,
pray
deprecate,
imprecate,
precarious, prec
worth,
value
appreciable,
appreciate,
precious, pred
prey
take, seize (related to pre)
prehend
depredate,
depredation,
predation,
predator,
apprehend,
depress, oppress,
pressure, prin
first,
foremost
prehensile,
reprehensible,
compress, impress,
prim,
predacious, predatory
comprehend,
prehension, press
depreciate,
unappreciated
incomprehensible,
press
imprecation,
precatory
repress,
primal,
primary,
primeval,
depression, oppression,
express, press,
suppress primate,
primitive,
primordial,
reprehend
prime,
primer,
primogeniture,
primrose,
prince,
principal,
principle priv
single,
separate
deprivation, privation, privity,
find
private, privily,
privy
good
approbation, probable,
probe,
Chapter
privacy, privilege,
see pre-test,
pro-prob
132
deprive, privative,
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
disapprove, probate,
probity,
Roots
improbity,
probation,
reprobation
probative,
prol
proper
offspring
ones
prolen,
own
proletariat,
prolificacy,
proliferate,
proliferous,
appropriate,
improper,
prolific proper, property,
proprietor 7
*proto
first
(related to pre-)
protocol,
protohistory,
protolithic, protoplasm, 20
*pseudo
false
pseudesthesia,
pseudocorneous,
pseudodont,
pseudomania, pseudonym,
pseudopodium, spirit,
soul,
mind
protozoa
pseudepigraphy,
pseudomorph,
*psych
proton,
prototype,
pseudodox,
22
protohuman,
protomartyr,
pseudoscience
metempsychosis,
psyche, psychedelic,
psychiatry,
psychoanalysis,
psychology,
psychopathic,
psychogenic, psychosis,
psychosomatic psychr
cold
psychrometer,
psychrophilic,
psychrophyte 17
pter
wing,
feather, fern
apteryx,
(relatedto penfeather)
crossopterygian,
helicopter,
dipterous,
macropterous,
pteridoid,
pteridology,
pterodactyl,
peripteral,
pteridophyte,
pteropod,
pterosaur,
pterygoid pto
fall
asymptote,
proptosis,
ptomaine,
ptosis,
ptotic, symptom pub
mature,
hairy
puberty,
puberulent,
pubes, pubescent,
pubic publ
see popul
pud
feel
shame, cast off
impudent,
pudency, pudenda,
pudic,
repudiate pug(n)
fist, fight (relatedto pug)
expugn, impugn, pugnacious,
pugil, pugilist,
pugnacity,
oppugn,
repugnant pun
see pen
pung
prick,
pu, py
foul
point (related to pug)
compunction,
matter
pup
see pap
pur, purg
clean
expunge,
punctual,
punctuate,
pungency,
pungent
empyema,
purulent,
putrescent,
putrid,
pyogenic,
pyoid,
suppurate
[put
compurgation, impure,
punctilious,
puncture,
pus, pustule, putrify,
pyema,
pyorrhea,
pyosis,
pu, py after pub]
depurate, expurgate,
pure, purely, purgative,
purification,
purify,
Puritan,
purge,
puritanic,
purity, spurge
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
13
pus
see pedfoot
put
cut,
reckon,
consider
amputate,
conputation,
dispute,
disrepute,
indisputable,
putamen,
reputation, py
see pu
pyg
buttocks
*pyr
fire,
depute,
deputy,
imputation,
impute,
putatiave,
repute
callipygian,
pygal,
pygidium,
pygopod,
steatopygous 8
fever
antipyretic,
empyreal,
pyretic,
pyrites,
pyrometer,
pyralic,
pyro,
pyre,
pyromania,
pyrophobia,
pyrosis,
pyrotechnics
Q qua,
qual,
quo
amount
qualitative,
quality,
quantity,
quantize,
quorum,
quota,
quantification, quantum,
quote,
quasi,
quotient,
quotidian quad(r),
quatr,
quar
four
quadrangle,
quadrant,
quadrilateral, quadrumanous, quarantine,
quadruped, quart,
quatrain,
squad,
acquire,
conquer,
quarter,
quadruple, quarto,
squadron,
square
see ques
quer 22
quadrennial,
quadrillion,
*ques,
quer
ask,
seek
exquisite, prequisite,
rest,
be quiet,
be free,
give,
very
require,
acquiesce,
quit,
requite, quinqu
five
inquest,
question,
quest,
requisite
acquit,
quietus,
quin,
disquisition,
inquisition,
query,
request, qui
conquest,
inquire,
quiescent,
quite,
quiet,
requiem,
requital,
tranquil
quindecennial,
quinqugenarian,
quintessence, quintillion,
quintet,
quint,
quintile,
quintuplets
see qua
quo
R -r, -ar, -er, -eer, -ier,
one
who, that
which
actor,
-or
astrologer,
cashier,
charioteer,
governor, sailor, -r rad,
STEM raz
EXTENDER
flagrant,
scrape (relatedto rod)
abrade,
ray
irradiate, radio,
134
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
hydrogen, abrasive,
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
radial, radioactive,
Root
farrier,
masher,
templar,
rasorial,
canoneer,
cooker,
glazier,
tailor,
rascal, radi
baker,
mountaineer,
tractor,
volunteer
labret erase, erasure,
radula,
raze, razor radiant, radius
radiation,
radic
root,
basic
eradicate, radical, radiciform,
ram
radicand,
radicant,
radicle, radicular,
radix
ramage, rameal, ramification, ramify,
rap
seize, snatch
ramiform,
ramose, ramus
enrapture,
erepsin, rapacious,
rapid, rapine,
rape,
rapt, raptatorial,
rapture,
surreptitious rat
reckon,
reason
raz
seerad
*re-, red-branch
again,
irrational,
ratable,
rate, ratification,
ratio, ratiocination,
1
back, down
ration,
react, reassure, recall, recipe, reclamation, redolent,
recombine,
redundant,
redemption,
refit, reform,
refresh, regurgitate,
relapse, report,
reprocess, resist, retract,
4
re
thing
*reg
straight,
lead, rule, king
address, correct, dirigible, rectum,
rectify,
reptant,
net
root
subreption
rhinal,
rhinolith,
rhinology,
coleorhiza,
red
rhinitis,
rhinoplasty
rhizophagus,
rhizotomy
rhodamine,
rhodium,
rhododendron,
rhodophyll,
rhodora,
rose, roseate, roseola, rhe, rhy, rrh
flow,
stream,
measured motion
catarrh,
diarrhea,
hemorrhoid,
rid
laugh
shore
rheotome,
rheotropic,
rhysimeter,
rhythmic
deride, derision,
ridicule,
risibility,
risorial,
risible,
robor
seerobus
robus, robor
strong
corroborate,
rod
gnaw (related to rad)
corrode,
ask, take away (relatedto reg)
roborant,
corrosion,
abrogate, subrogate,
|
ridiculous, risus
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
robust
corrosive,
erode,
arrogate,
derogatory,
prerogative, rogation, superogation,
Reverse
rivulet
rosorial
arrogant,
interrogate,
13
rhyme,
arrive, rivage, rival, river, riverine,
erosive, rodent,
Chapter
gonorrhea,
pyorrhea, rheometer,
rhyolite,
river,
rosary,
Rosicurcian
rheostat,
riv
rog
rhinocerous,
mycorrhiza, rhizogenic,
rhizome,
rhodilite,
11
reticule,
retina
rhizopod, ros
reptile, reptilivorous,
reptilian,
oxyrhine,
rhizoid,
rhod,
regime,
rete, retiary, reticle, reticulated,
nose
rhizo
rector,
reglet, regular, regulus
reptatory,
retiform, rhino
interrex,
rectitude,
region,
reptiloid, ret
direct,
regal, regent, regicide,
regiment, reptile
corrigible,
erect, incorrigible,
rectangle,
creep,
retraction
real, reality, realize, rebus, republic
(relatedto rog)
rept
rationaliz
Glossary
rogue,
surrogate
of
Roots
135
beak (relatedto rod)
roster
brevirostrine,
longirostral,
rostrate,
rostrum rot
wheel,
turn
rotary,
rotate,
rotiform, rub,
ruf
red
erubescence, rubeola,
13
rough,
ruf
seerub
basic
*rupt
burst,
rur
seerus
rus, rur
country
become
ruderal,
bankrupt,
interrupt,
rural,
rurigenous,
rubricate,
rufescent,
rude,
erupt,
rubella,
rubric,
ruby,
abrupt,
rotunda
rubefacient,
erudition,
unsound
rotatory,
rotund,
rubescent,
rubricund, rud
rotation,
rotor,
Rufus rudiments
corrupt,
disrupt,
irruption,
rupture
rustic,
rusticate,
rusticity -ry
NOUN
chemistry,
NOUN
chaos,
pedantry,
puppitry,
rivalry
S -s
crux,
defense,
diplomatice, larynx, -s
STEM
EXTENDER
linguistics,
compulsion,
*sal,
saul
jump
assault,
desultory,
resilient,
resile,
sea
explosion,
dissilient,
result,
salient,
saltatory, salt,
expense,
persuasive
salacious,
sal, hal
ethics,
sex, tax
division,
illustrate, 13
diacoustics,
economics,
sally,
saltigrade,
halide,
halobiant,
salary,
exult,
salmon,
saltation,
somersault halogen,
saleratus,
insult,
resultant,
salad,
saliferous,
saline,
salami, salt,
saltpeter 21
*salv
safe,
healthy,
salute
insalubrious,
(relatedto solwhole)
salutary,
salubrious, salutation,
salutatory,
salute,
salvation, san
healthy,
mentally
competent
insane, sane,
salvia, insanity,
sanicle,
sanitation,
holy, official (relatedto sacer)
sanct
blood
salvable, salvo,
salvage,
unsalutory
sanative,
sanatorium,
sanitarium,
sanitary,
sanity
sacrosanct,
sanctify,
sanction, sangui(n)
salubrity,
salutatorian,
sanctity,
sanctimonious, sanctuary,
consanguine,
consanguinity,
sanguicolous,
sanguiferous,
sanguine,
sanguineous,
sanctum
sanguinary,
sanguinolent,
sanguinivorous sap
taste,
perceive
homo
sapiens,
sapidity, saporous
136
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Root
insipid,
sapience,
insipidity,
sapor,
saporific,
sapid,
sapr
seesep
sarc
flesh
sarcophagus, sarcoid,
sat
enough
see sal
saur
lizard
dissatisfaction,
insatiable, satire,
satiety,
sarcoptic insatiate,
satisfaction,
sate, satisfy,
unsatisfactory
brontosaurus, saurel,
dinosaur,
saurian,
icthyosaurous,
sauropod,
tyrannosaur
see -esc
-sc sca,
saracocarp,
sarcous,
satiate, saturate, saul
sarcasm,
sarcoma,
scal
climb,
steps
ascent,
condescend,
escalade, scan,
escalator,
scandent,
transcend, scat, skat
dung
schiz
scatological,
split,
divide
schism,
descent,
scalable,
scansion,
scalar,
scale,
scansorial,
transcendental scatomancy,
scatoscopy, schis,
descend,
skatole, schismatic,
schisogenesis,
scatophagous,
skatoxyl schist,
schizoid,
schizocarp,
schisophrenic,
schisopod schiz
seeschis
*sci
know,
scia,
skia
scler
discern
shadow,
image,
adscititious,
ghost
hard
conscience,
conscious,
nescience,
plebiscite,
prescience,
*scrib
write
science,
scientist,
scilicet,
sciagram,
scialytic,
sciamachy,
sciomancy,
scioptic,
skiagraph,
skioscopy
arteriosclerosis,
sciential,
sciolism sciatheric,
sciotheism,
sclera,
scleroma,
sclerotic, see
omniscient,
scientific,
scleroid,
scop
conscientious,
scleroderm,
sclerometer,
sclerosis,
sclerous
*spec
ascribe,
circumscribe,
describe,
description,
inscription, prescribe,
manuscript,
postscript,
prescription,
proscription, subscribe,
conscript, inscribe,
proscribe,
rescript,
scribble,
superscribe,
scripture,
superscription,
transcribe scrut
search
inscrutable,
scrutable,
scrutinize,
scrutiny 2
*se-seb
apart
desegregate, secret, segregate,
tallow,
sec
grease
secern,
secure,
secession,
sedition,
select,
seclude,
seduce,
sedulous,
separate
sebaceous,
sebiferous,
seborrhea,
sebum
sebiparous,
see sequ
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
13
14
sit, stay (relatedto hedr)
*sed
assess, assiduous, insidious, reside,
residence,
sedan,
sedate,
sediment,
seism
shake
*seg
cut,
split
president,
resident,
sessile,
residue, sedilla,
session,
subsidy,
supersede
seismic,
seismism,
subside,
seismograph,
seismometer
bisection, multisect, section,
insessorial,
preside,
sedentary,
seismology, 8
dissident,
possess,
dissect,
dissection,
secant,
sect, sectarian,
sectional,
intersect,
segment,
sex,
sectary, trisect,
venesection sem
seesim
sem
sign
semantics,
semaphore,
sematic,
semene,
semiology,
semasiology, semiotics
see hemi-seed,
semi-semen
germinate
6
sen
dissemination,
old
semen,
seminary,
semination,
seminific,
seminist,
senate,
senator,
senicide,
seminal,
seminivorous
senectitude,
senile,
seminar,
seminiferous,
senescence,
senility,
senior,
seniority,
senopia sen
aware,
feel,
think
assent,
consensus,
insensate, presentiment,
sensible,
putrid,
rotten
15
*sequ,
see sec
anatiseptic,
sapremia, saprophagous, sepia,
consecutive,
sequel,
put,
sequacious,
arrange,
write,
speak
assert,
desert,
watery
fliud
serolin,
serp
see herp(et)
serr
saw-toothed,
notched
serology,
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
serra,
Reverse
Glossary
of
sequent,
subsequent exert,
seriatim,
sertularian seromucous,
serotherapy,
serosity,
serum
serranid,
serriped,
|
serial,
series,
seropurulent, serous,
sequence,
dissertation,
insert,
seriation,
execute,
sect, sectarian,
sequester,
exertion,
13
septic
obsequious,
prosecute,
sequential,
Chapter
saprophyte,
sepsis,
executrix,
persecute,
138
saprobe,
consequent,
executive,
ser
sentinel
hept
follow
ser
sense,
sensuous,
sentient,
saprogenic, saprozoic, sept
sensation,
sensual,
sententious,
senetimental,
dissent,
nonsense,
resent,
sensitive,
sentence,
sep, sapr
consent,
insensible,
Root
serrulate
serrate,
serricorn,
serv
work
for
deserve, servant, serve, service, servile, servitor,
servitude,
servomechanism, serv
keep,
keep watch
subserve, subservient, servomotor
conserve, conservation,
conservative,
observe, preserve, reserve, reservoir sesqui
one
and a half,
more by
sesquialtera,
one-half
sex
see hex
sicc
dry
sesquipedalian,
sesquisulfide,
sesquitertian
desiccant,
flint
desiccate, exsiccate, siccative, siccific
silica, siliceous, silicoflouric,
silv, sylv
sesquiduplicate,
sesquioxide,
siccation, silic
sesquibasic,
sesquicentennial,
forest
siliciferous,
silicity,
silicone
Pennsylvania,
silva, silvan, silvate,
silviculture 15
sim, simil,
sem
same,
one
assemble, assimilate, dissimilar,
dissemble,
ensemble, facsimile,
sempiternal, similtude,
semplice,
similar,
simple, simplicity,
simulacrum,
simulate,
resemble, simile, simplify,
simultaneous,
verisimilitude sinister
left,
unlucky,
evil
sinister, sinistra,
sinistrad,
sinistrocerebral,
sinistrodextral,
sinistrorse, sinu
curve,
fold,
hollow
sinistral,
sinistrous
insinuate,
insinuation,
sinuousity,
sinuous,
sinuate, sinus, sinusitis,
sinusoid -sis
see -is
sist
to be,remain (relatedto sta(t))
assist, consist, consistency, insist,
desist, exist,
persist, resist, resistance, resistant,
subsist sit
food,
eating
skat
seescat
skia
seescia
soci
companion,
parasite, sitology,
ally
sitiomania,
associate, consociate,
dissociate, sociable,
social, society, sociocracy, sociophagous, 19
sol
alone,
single
desolation, soliped,
19
sol, solar
sun (relatedto helio-)
sole, solifidian,
13
|
Glossary
of
solitaire,
girasol, insol, insolate,
Base
Forms
soliloquy, solitary,
solo
parasol, solamine,
Chapter
sociology,
socius
solipsism,
solitude,
sitiophobia
insolation,
solar, solarium,
soliform,
solstice, solstitial,
and
Glossary
Reverse
of
turnsole
Roots
13
20
sol,
whole (relatedto salv)
hol
catholic,
consolidate, holistic,
holocene,
holograph,
holophrastic,
solid, 13
solv
loosen,
unbind
absolute,
solidify,
insolvent,
acrosome,
resolution, solute,
resolve,
solution,
solve,
chromosome,
somatome,
sleep (related to sop and hypn)
dissolute,
solvent
microsomia,
psychosomatic,
somn
solidity
absolve,
heterosomatous,
22
solemn,
insoluble,
soluble,
solvency, body
solder,
absolution,
solubility,
holocaust,
holohedral,
indisoluble,
insolvency,
som
holoblastic,
holotype,
solidarity,
dissolve,
20
consolidation,
holarctic,
somatism,
somatology,
somatoplasm
insomnia,
somnambulist,
somniferous,
somnifacient,
somnific,
somnipathy,
somniloquy,
somnolence,
somnolent,
somnolescent 11
4
*son
sound
*soph
assonance,
wise,
knowledge
consonant,
resonant,
sonata,
sonorous,
unison
philosophy,
deep sleep (related to somn)
sopor
sopite,
sonic,
sophistication,
sophomore, sop,
dissonant,
sone,
sonnet,
sophistry,
theosophy
sopor,
soporiferous,
soporific,
soporous sorb
suck
absorb,
absorbent,
sorbefacient, soror
sister
sort
lot,
spas
sororial, condition,
sudden,
type
burst
sororate,
assort,
assortment,
resort,
sort,
spasm,
*spec,
skep, scop
look,
see
consorting,
sortilege,
unassorted
spasmotin,
spastic,
circumspect,
spasticity
conspicuous,
despicable,
episcopal,
especial,
haruspex,
horoscope,
inspect,
introspection,
perspective,
perspicuous,
prospect,
species,
expect,
kaleidoscope,
periscope,
respectful,
retrospect, specify,
specter,
speculative,
spy,
microscope,
perspicacity, respect,
scope,
specimen,
spectator,
stereoscopic,
skeptic,
spectacle,
spectrum,
speculate,
stethoscope,
suspect,
suspicion,
telescope spel
cave
biospeleologist, speleothem,
sper
hope
desperado, prosper,
140
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Root
sorb,
sorority
consort,
spasmodic,
aspect,
resorb,
sororicide,
sortal,
spasmotoxin,
6
adsorb,
sorbile
spelean,
speleology,
spelunker desperate, prosperity
esperance,
17
*sper, spor
scatter,
seed
angiosperm, diaspora,
asperse, aspersion,
disperse, dispersion,
gymnosperm,
homosporous,
monospermous, spermatozoon, sporcarp, spher
ball,
globe
atmosphere, spherical,
bathysphere,
sphing
bind
point (related to spin)
sphericity,
sporozoan
blastosphere, sphere,
spheroid,
spherule,
stratosphere
aspic, spica, spicate, spicule, spiculiform,
tight
spiculous,
spiculum
spinchter,
sphincterate,
sphingiform, sphygm
sporadic,
hemisphere,
spherometer,
sharp
spermophile,
spore, sporogenesis,
cosmosphere,
spic
intersperse,
spermal, spermatid,
pulse
sphygmic,
sphingid,
sphingometer, sphygmogram,
sphingoid sphygmoid,
sphygmometer spin,
pin
sharp
point (related to spic)
porcupine,
spinal, spine, spinel,
spiniferous,
spinifix,
spinigerous,
spinney 11
*spir
breathe,
animate
aspirant,
aspiration,
conspire,
expire, inspired,
respiratory,
spir
coil
spiracle,
in
10
see sper
*st, stat, stit
stay, stand,
make firm
suspire, transpire
spiral, spire, spiriferous, spirograph,
spirulate
correspond,
spondency,
irresonsible,
respond,
despondent, responsive,
sponso
apostasy, armistice, destination, establish,
arrest, astasia, constituent,
destine, destitute, estate, extant,
instance, instant,
institution,
isostasy,
rest, restitution,
state, stately, statement,
statesman,
stationary,
substantiate,
stal
stalag(m)
dripping
seestol
stat
seest
Chapter
13
stalactic,
|
static,
stator, statue, stature,
substitute,
substance, superstition
epistaxis, stacte, stagnant, stagnate
stalagmite, stall
restore, stance, stasis,
status, statute, statutory,
not flow
institute,
obstacle, obstinancy,
solstice, stable, stability, station,
see stol
cost,
enstatite,
hypostasis,
iconostasis, reinstate,
drip,
spiricle,
spirogyra,
astatine, circumstance,
stag
spirit,
aspirin,
sponsal, sponsion, spor
spirant,
spirometer,
spiroid, engage
perspire,
spiritus,
spirochete,
spond
aspire, conspiracy,
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
stalactiform, stalagmitic,
Reverse
Glossary
stalactite, stalagmometer
of
Roots
141
seesteat
stear steat,
stear
fat
stearate,
covered, ridged (related to teg)
steg
stearic,
star
sten
narrow
stere
(related to aster)
steatopygous,
steatorrhea
steganography,
firm,
three-dimentional
steganopod,
Estelle,
constellation,
stellate,
stelliform,
sting
prick,
urge,
stenosis,
stenothermal,
stenotopic
cholesterol,
mark
stellify,
stellar,
stellular
stenophagous,
steradian,
stereochromy,
stig,
stegnosis,
Stella,
stenophyllous,
steric,
steatoma,
stegosaur
stenographer,
solid,
stear, steatite,
steatolysis,
stegodon, stell
stearin,
steatogenous,
stere,
stereography,
stereoscope,
stereopsis,
stereotype
astigmatism,
distinction,
distinctive,
distinguish,
instigate,
stenostomatous,
instinct,
sting,
extinguish,
instinctive,
stigma,
stigmata still
drop
distill,
distillation,
instill,
diastole,
epistle,
stolid,
systaltic
stillatory,
stillicid
sting
seestig
stit
seest
stl
seestol
stol,
stal, stall,
stl
send,
prepare,
make firm
apostle, peristalsis,
stom
mouth,
opening
anastomosis,
install,
ancyclostomiasis,
colostomy,
cyclostome,
stonology,
stoma,
stomatopod,
stomach,
stomatous,
stenostomatous strat
army,
organization
strategem,
strategy,
stratocracy,
stratography
strat
stretch,
spread
out
prostrate,
stratal,
stratification,
stratus, strep
seestroph
streph
seestroph
strig,
string
draw
tight,
narrow,
compress,
line,
district,
constrict, strict,
striction,
striga,
strigil,
strigous,
stringendo, streph,
strep
turn
stringent
anastrophe,
apostrophe,
diastrophism,
strophanthous, *stru,
struc
build
construction, instruct,
142
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
streptomycin, strophe, construe,
instrument,
reconstruct,
structural,
substruct,
superstructure
of
catastrophe,
strephosymbolia,
streptococcus,
12
constriction,
restrict,
stricture,
stroph,
stratosphere,
substratum
astringent,
furrow
straticulate,
stratiform,
Roots
strophulus destruction, obstruct, structure,
stup
styl
stunned,
obtuse
pillar,
stupefacient,
writing instrument,
manner
stupefaction,
stupefy,
stupendous,
stupid,
amphistylar,
astylar, epistyle,
peristyle, stylite,
stupidity,
stupor hypostyle,
prostyle, style, stylet, styliform,
stylobate,
stylograph,
styloid,
stylus suad 14
*sub-urge
dissuade, persuade, down,
under, secondary,
subactivity,
in place of
subaquatic,
subhuman, subtract,
persuasive, suasion subdivide,
subjugation,
subordination,
succor, suffix,
suggest, supplant,
suffocate,
support,
surreptitous,
suspend succ
juice
sud
sweat
succiferous,
succulent,
exude, sudamina, sudoriferous,
sulf, sulph
sulfur,
hellish
sulph
seesulf
sum
get,
expend
sulphur,
total (related to hyper) above
1
sylv
see silv
*syn-highest,
together,
consume,
consumptive,
presume,
presumptive,
presumptuous,
resume,
sumptuous,
consummation,
sumptuary
sum, summary,
summit
superintendent,
(relatedto hyper-,sum(m))
sulfonate,
consumption,
summation, over
sudatory,
transude
sulphurou
assume, assumption,
subsume,
super
sudatorium,
sudorific,
sulfa, sulfide, sulfohalite, sulfurize,
sum, summ
succus
supernumerary,
supraorbital
with
idiosyncrasy, symmetry,
syllable,
syllogism,
sympatric,
symphony,
synastry, synchronistic, synod,
synonymity,
syndrome,
synopsis,
synthesize,
system
T -t
one
who, that
which
architect, product,
-t
STEM
-t
VERB
tab
EXTENDER
active,
away
cult, enthusiast,
poet,
ductile, struction
contact,
waste
catapult, suspect
deduct, elect, reject
tabes, tabescent, tabetic, tabetiform, tabid, tabific
tabl
board,
table
tablature, tabular,
tac
arrange,
order
table, tableau, tablet, tabloid, tabulate, tabulation
atactic, ataxia, eutaxy, hypotaxis, isotactic,
syndiotactic,
syntactic,
syntax,
tactic, taxis, taxidermist tac
silent
reticence,
reticent,
tacit, taciturn,
taciturnity
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
143
19
tach(y)
fast
tachistoscope,
tachometer,
tachygraphy,
tachylyte,
tachyphrenia, 10
*tag, tang
touch,
feel
contact,
tachyscope
contagion,
contiguous, integrate,
taph
tomb,
trench
intangible, tactometer,
tangent,
tangential,
slow
taur
bull
retard,
tact, tactful, tangible,
tec, tech
build, skill (relatedto text)
tax
tardigrade,
tardy
tauriform,
taurocol,
tauromorphic,
see*auto
tactile,
taphrina
minotaur, tauricide,
tauto
integral,
tactor, tactual,
retardation,
tauroboly,
2
intact,
epitaph, taphephobia,
taphrenchyma, tard
contagious,
contingent,
taction,
cenotaph,
tachycardia,
tachyphrasia,
taurine,
tauromachy,
Taurus
architect,
pantechnicon,
technical,
technique,
polytechnic,
technology,
tectonic
cover
teg
(related to steg)
detect, detective, integument, protect,
protection,
tectorial,
tectrix,
obtect,
protege, tectiform,
tegmen, tegular,
tegument tel
perfection
entelechy, teleology, teleutospore,
teleost, telesis,
telic, teloblast,
telophase,
telson 8
*tele-end,
far
telegony, telegraphic,
telekinesis,
telemeter,
telepathy, telephone,
telephoto,
telescopic,
telesthesia,
television tem, ten
touch,
temper
state
tempor
try
attempt, tempt,
of things
temptation,
tempter,
tentacle, tentation,
tentative
temper, temperate,
temperature,
(related to tempor)
tempest,
time
contemporaneous,
tempestuous
extemporaneous,
contemporary, temporal,
temporary,
temporize 12
*ten
hold,
maintain
abstinence,
(relatedto tenstretch)
continent, impertinent,
144
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
incontinent,
pertinent,
retentive,
tenant, tenement,
see tem
of
Root
content,
detention,
tenacious, tenure ten
appurtenance, continue,
pertinacious,
sustenance, tenable, tenet,
17
*ten, tend
stretch,
thin
attend, attenuate,
(relatedto ten hold andton)
extenuate, intend,
intense,
intent,
ostentation,
ostensible,
subtend,
superintend,
tender, tendril, tension, *ter
between,
see tri
terat
monster
beyond
tent, tenuity,
exterior,
exteroceptive, interior,
back
intermingle,
internal,
interoceptive,
interrupt,
intersect,
intervene,
interview,
limit,
end
interlace,
intermural, interpret,
interstate,
interval,
preterit,
teratogenic,
preternatural
teratoid,
teratoma
tergal, tergant,
boundary,
exterofective,
pretermit,
tergiversate, term
pretense,
tense, tensile,
interject,
interline,
teratism,
intensity,
tenuous
interact,
teratology, terg
contend,
tend, tendency,
tendron,
preterlapsed, ter
attenuated,
detent, distend, extend, extensive,
tergiferous,
coterminous,
determinate,
determination,
determine,
indeterminate,
exterminate,
interminable,
predetermine, terminal,
tergite,
tergolateral
term, terminable,
termination,
terminous,
undetermined tern
seetra
ter, terr
earth
inter, interment, subterranean,
terrace, terrain,
terraqueous, terrestrial,
terrarium, terrevert,
terrigenous, ter, terr
frighten
witness,
male reproductive
protest,
deterrent, terrific,
detest, intestate,
protestant,
testament, testimonial, four
tetrad, tetragon, tetrachic,
thalass
weave,
compose
context,
testatrix, testify,
testosterone
tetrameter,
text
obtest,
protestantism,
testate, testator,
testes, testicle, testiculate,
tetra
terrier,
verditer
terror
attest, contest,
gland
terrene,
terricolous,
territory,
deter, determent, terrify,
test
Mediterranean,
tetrahedron,
tetrapod,
tetralogy,
tetrapterous,
tetrode pretext, text, textbook,
(relatedto tech)
textual, textuary,
sea
thalassic,
textile,
texture
thalassocracy,
thalassography,
thalassotherapy thanat
death
euthanasia,
thanatophidia,
thanatophobia,
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
thanatology,
thanatopsis,
Glossary
of
Thanatos
Roots
14
thaum
miracle
thaumatology,
thaumatolatry,
thaumatrope, the
place,
put
thaumaturgy
anathema,
antithesis,
apotahecary,
diathesis, epenthetic,
epithet,
metathesis, parenthesis,
hypothesis,
prosthesis,
prothesis, synthesis, synthetic,
theme,
thesis, thetic the, theor
look
at
theater, theorem,
theoretical,
theorize,
theory 8
*theo
god
apotheosis,
atheism,
pantheist, thearchy, theology,
theomachy,
theosophy,
theurgy
therolatry,
therology,
theroid
wild
beast
therodont,
*therm
hot,
warm
pantothermal,
thyr
thyroid
thyroid,
therm,
intimidate, timidly,
ting
dye
-tion
see -ion
titan
great
intimidation,
tinctorial,
titan, titanate, Titanosaurus,
1
seetom
*tom, tm
cut
anatomy,
thyrotropin
timid,
timidity,
tincture,
titanic,
tinge
titaniferous,
titanium,
titanothere
appendectomy,
craniotomy,
diatom,
entomology,
epitome,
hysterectomy, tome,
thyroproteid,
thyrotoxicosis,
Titanism, titanite,
tm
thermos
timorous
intinction,
size or strength
thermal,
thyroidectomy,
thyrotherapy, fear
theocracy,
Theodore, theologian,
ther
tim
theanthropic,
theist, theocentric,
theocratic,
20
atheist, panatheism,
polytheism,
atom,
dichotomy, gonotome,
microtome,
tonsillectomy,
phlebotomy,
trichotomy,
tmema,
tmesis ton
quality,
pitch
baritone,
(relatedto tento stretch)
intone, isotonic,
monotonous, tonetic,
monotone,
myotonia, tonal, tone,
tonic, tonometry,
tonoplast,
tonus 12
*top
place
isotope,
topiary,
topography, toponymy,
topic, topical,
topolatry,
topology,
topophobia,
topophone,
topotype *tor
twist
contortion, torment, torque,
torp
stiff,
numb
torsion,
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
torture
torpedo,
torpescent,
of
Root
extortion, toroid,
tort,
torturous,
torpor
146
distort, tormina,
retort,
torsade,
torticollis,
torpid,
tortuous,
torpify,
tot
all,
whole
factotum, totality,
tox
poison
teetotal,
antitoxin,
intoxicate, toxicogenic,
*tra-, tro-, ter-16
toxemia,
toxic,
toxicologist,
toxicosis,
anterior,
toxin
extraordinary,
extroversion, intramural, *tract
drag,
pull
tra-across,
beyond
extrorse,
external, interior, introrse,
attract,
contract,
distract,
extract,
protract,
subtract,
tract, tractable,
traction,
tractive,
traduce, traject, transform,
transhuman,
transition,
translocate, transpolar, transverse,
traverse
tremendous,
tremor,
tremble,
tri, ter(n)
three
ternary, ternate, tertian, tricolor,
triennial,
rub,
wear away
transmit,
transpontine,
shake
triple,
tractile,
transfigure,
trem
triangle,
detract, retract,
transact, transcend,
transfer,
transport,
attrition,
tremulous
tertiary,
tricycle,
trigonometry,
tripod,
ulterior
tractor
transcribe,
transplant,
internal,
retrogress,
abstract,
transliterate,
tri, trit
totitive
see trans-toward
tra
*trans-,
totipotent,
toxicide,
toxicomania,
14
total, totalitarian,
totipalmate,
triad,
trident, trilogy,
trioxide,
trisect, tritheism,
contrite,
detrimental,
tritocere
contrition,
detrition,
detritus, trite,
trituration trib
group,
give
attribute,
contribute,
distribute, tribunal, trich
hair
tribune,
holotrichia, trichina,
trichinosis,
trichoma,
seetra
troch
run,
round
object
retributive,
tributary,
leiotrichous,
trichocarpous,
tro
contribution,
retribution,
trochal,
trichiasis,
trichite,
trichogenous,
trichopter,
trochanter,
trochee, trochoid,
tribe,
tribute
trichology,
ulotrichous
trochate,
troche,
trochometer,
trochophore 3
trop
turn,
change
entropy,
heliotrope,
thermotropism,
phototropism,
trope, trophotropic,
tropical 21
troph
nourish
atrophy,
entrophic,
pedotrophy, trophic,
trophoblast,
trophopathy, trud
thrust
abstruse, intrusion, protrusile,
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
hypertrophy,
polytrophic,
trophesy,
trophoderm,
trophotropic,
trophozoite
extrude, extrusion,
intrude,
obtrude,
obtrusive,
protrude,
protrusion
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
14
18
tu
teach,
instruct
intuition,
intuitive,
tutelary, tub
hollow
tuition,
tutelage,
tutor, tutorial
tuba, tube, tubicolous,
tubicorn,
tubifacient,
tubiflorous,
tubiform,
tubilingual,
tubinarine,
tubular,
tabulation
bump, swelling (relatedto tum)
tuber
protuberance,tuber, tubercle, tuberculosis,
-tude
NOUN
aptitude,
tuberous
beatitude,
dulcitude,
gratitude, longitude, pulchritude,
fortitude,
magnitude,
quietude,
servitude,
solitude tum
swollen,
agitated
contumacy,
(relatedto tuber) tund
see tus
turb
whirl,
wild
contumely,
detumescent,
intumesce,
tumefacient,
tumescent,
tumid,
disturb,
tumefy,
tumor,
perturb, turbid,
tumul
turbine,
turbulent tus, tund
deaden,
blunt
contuse, contusion,
obtund,
obtuse,
retuse -ty
NOUN
amity, audacity, cruelty, enmity, loyalty,
tyl
cushion,
typ
model,
callus impression
diety, elasticity,
piety, reality, sanity,
sobriety,
unity, venality,
tylopod,
tylosis, tylostyle
antitype,
archetype,
somatype,
verity
prototype,
type, typical,
typify,
typology
U -u
STEM EXTENDER
-ule, -ula
see *-l
ult(r)
last,
actual, sinuous,
beyond
punctuate,
antepenultimate,
penultimate,
ultima,
ultimatum,
ultimate,
ultimogeniture, ultramodern,
NOUN
album,
ulterior,
ultra, ultraism, ultramontane,
ultramundane, -um, -us
tenuous
ultramarine
animus, anthropophagus,
apocynum,
atrium,
colloquium, quantum,
biennium,
equilibrium, spectrum,
impetus,
speculum,
locus,
stadium,
symposium umb, umber
shade
adumbral, umbel,
adumbrate,
umbellate,
umbraculate, umbratile, und
wave
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
umbrage, umbrella,
umbriferous
abundance,
abundant,
superabundant,
of
Roots
undulate,
umber,
umbrageous,
redundant, undulant,
148
penumbra,
umbelliform,
inundation, undulous
undine,
ung
smear,
oily
unction,
unctuous,
unguent, ungu
hoof,
claw
unctuousity,
unguentary,
unguiculate, ungular,
unguinous
unguiferous,
ungulate,
ungula,
ungual, unguicorn,
unguligrade uni
one
disunite,
reunite,
unicycle,
triune,
uniflorous,
unilateral, unique,
union,
unanimous,
uniform,
uniped,
unify,
uniplicate,
unison, unit, unitary,
univalent,
universal,
unite,
universe,
university,
univocal ur
tail
anthurium,
anurous,
cynosure, uropygium, ur
urine
urea, urethra, urogenital,
uran
heavens
uranic,
brachyurous,
urochord,
uropod,
urosteon,
urostyle
urinal,
urinalysis,
urology,
uranography,
uranology,
urine,
urotoxic uranolite,
uranometry,
uranoscopy,
Uranus urb
city
amburbial, urbane,
-ure
NOUN
suburb,
urbanity,
composure, departure,
creature, legislature,
measure, mixture, primogeniture,
urg
see erg
-us
see-um
us, ut
use
abuse,
urban,
debenture,
exposure, fixture,
investiture,
structure,
suburban, urbicolous
furniture,
literature,
nature, posture,
rupture,
scripture,
torture
misuse, peruse, usable, usage,
usance, useful, useless, usual, usufruct, usurp, usury, utensil, utility, 17
*uter,
hyster
womb,
hysteria
hysterectomy, hysterogenic,
hysteria, hysterocatalepsy, uteralgia,
uterogestation, uxor
wife
utile, utilitarian,
utilize
uxorial,
uterine,
uterolith,
uxoricide,
uterus
uxorious
V vac, van
empty,
vain
evacuate, evanescence, evanescent, vacancy, vacant, vacate, vacation, vacuist, vacuity, vacuole, vacuous,
vacuum,
vacuometer,
vaniloquence,
vanish,
vanity vad
go
evade, evasion, evasive, invade, invasion, pervade, pervasive
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
14
vag
wander
extravagant,
vagabond,
vagal, vagary,
vagrancy, vague, vagus vagin
sheath
evaginate,
vagina, vaginervose,
vaginismus, val
strong,
useful
vaginotomy,
convalescent, invaluable,
equivalent,
invalid,
valetudinarian,
validate,
vaginitis,
vaginula
valedictorian,
valiant,
valid,
valor, valuable,
value, univalent van
seevac
vari
astraddle,
vas, ves
vessel,
diverse
divaricate, invariable,
duct
variation,
varied,
variform,
various,
see veh
veh, vec
carry
*ven
advection,
come,
vary
vesical, vesicle
convection,
vector, vectorial, 12
bring
convent,
evection,
vehement,
advent, adventure, contravene,
22
love,
vent
wind
chase
vection,
vehicle
circumvent,
convene, convenient,
convention,
covenant,
intervene,
intervention,
invention,
inventory,
peradventure,
venerable, veneral, venery, vent, ventail,
event,
invent,
prevent, revenue, subvention, ven
variance,
vas, vase, vasectomy, vascular, vasomotor,
vec
variable,
variegate, variety,
ventiduct,
ventilation,
ventilator,
ventometer,
ventose
venture Venus
ventifact, ventile,
venter
belly
venter, ventral,
*ver, verg, vor
turn
adversary, adverse, advert, advertise, anniversary, conversation,
convert,
ventricle,
avert, controversy, converse,
invert,
obverse, pervert,
reverse, reversion, universal,
revert, subvert,
university,
verge, versatile,
verse, versify, version,
ver
true
vertigo,
animadvert, verdict,
converge,
conversion,
diverge, divert, inadvertent,
inversion,
vertical,
ventriloquist
vertebra,
vertex,
vortex
aver, veracious,
verdicial,
veracity,
verification,
verily, verismilitude,
verify,
veritable,
verity,
verbal,
verbatim,
very ver
seevir
*verb
word,
verb
adverb,
proverb,
verb,
verbiage, verbicide, verbigerate,
seeverturn
verg
150
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Root
verbid, verbify,
verbose, verbosity
verm
worm
vermicelli,
vermidice,
vermiculate,
ves
see vas
vic, vinc
conquer
vermin,
vermivorou
convict,
conviction,
convincing,
21
*vid, id, eid
see
vermifuge,
convince,
evict, eviction,
invincible, victory,
vermicular,
vermiform,
victor, victrix,
advisable,
Vincent, vincible
advise, eidetic, eidolon,
evident, idea, ideology, invisible,
provision,
supervision,
vin
wine (relatedto oeno)
alert
vigil, vigilance, vinaceous,
vigilant,
12
*vir
male,
man
vigor, vigorous
vine, vinegar, vinery, vinic,
viniculture,
vinous, vintage,
see vic
revise,
visit, vista, visual
vineyard,
vinc
provide, provisory,
video, visage, visible, vision,
visionary, lively,
idol, improvise,
kaleidoscope,
provident,
vig
evince,
Victoria, victorious,
vinter,
vinometer,
viny, vinyl
decemvir, triumvirate,
virago, virile,
virility,
virtuoso
virtual,
vir, ver
green
biliverdin,
vir
poison,virus
viricide,
virtue,
verdant, vireo, virescent, virology,
virulent,
virid
viruliferous,
virus visc
thick,
sticky
viscometer,
vit
life (relatedto viv)
revitalize, vitalize,
vitr
glass
*viv
live
vitae, vital, vitality, vitamins,
vitreous, vitriol,
(related to vit)
viscosity, viscous vitalism,
vitascope
vitrescent,
vitrify,
vitrine,
vitrite
convivial,
revive, vivacious,
vivarium,
vivid,
vivacity,
vivify, viviparous,
vivisection 17
*voc, vok
speak,
call
advocate,
avocation,
convocation,
convoke, evoke, equivocal, invocation, invoke,
irrevocable,
provocation,
provoke, revoke, vocable, vocabulary, vocal, vocation, vociferous, vol
fly
vol
will
volant,
vocative,
volary, volatile,
benevolent,
vociferate,
univocal volcano
malevolent, volition,
volunteer 15
*volv
turn,
roll
circumvolve,
convolution,
devolve, evolution,
vom
vomit
involve,
obvolute, revolt,
revolve,
voluble,
ignivomous,
convolvulus,
evole, involution, revolution,
volume
vomit,
vomitive,
vomitory,
vomiturition
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
151
11
*vor
eat
apivorous,
carnivore,
hominivorous, vermivorous, vor
see verturn
vot
vow
vuls
pull
devotion,
herbivore,
omnivorous,
piscivorous,
voracious
votary, vote, votive
avulse, convulse,
divulsion,
evulsion,
revulsion
X xanth
yellow
xanthochroid,
xanthoma,
xanthophyll,
xanthous 2
xen
foreign,
strange
euxenite, lipoxeny, xenogenesis,
xer
dry
xeroderma,
xerography,
xerophyte, xyl
wood
pyroxene, xenogamy,
xenophobia xerophilous,
xerosis, Xerox
xylan, xylograph,
xyloid,
xylophone,
xylogomy
Y -y
NOUN
antipathy,
astronomy,
hysterectomy,
misery, occupancy, sympathy, STEM EXTENDER
bathysphere,
-y
VERB
crucify,
small
militancy,
poignancy,
privacy,
urgency
-y
-y
flippancy,
melancholy,
brachycephalic,
deny,
tachycardia
multiply, reply, spy
baby, kitty, lady
Z 6
*zo
animal
mesozoic, protozoon, zoo, zoography,
zooid,
spermatozoon, zoology,
zooplasty
yoke (relatedto jug)
zyg
heterozygosis, zygospore,
zym
ferment,
catalyze
zygodactyl,
enzyme, lysozyme, zymosis, zymurgy
152
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Root
zygoma,
zygote zymase, zymology,
BASEFORMSINDEX 1
5
syn-together,
with
anthrop
human
man,
duc lead, erg,
log,
apo-away being
con-,
pull
org,
urg work
leg speak,
write, study
prae-before,
re-, red-again,
glos tongue,
speech
lat carry
back,
forward
mono one
down
pel push
se-apart
pend,
tm cut
pond
hang
phyt plant
2
6
auto,
tauto
self
de-away,
down,
eu-good,
well
gen,
gon,
from
ad-to,
toward
graph,
gram write
in-,
gn birth,
origin
en-not,
neo new,
iatr treat
lacking recent
op eye,
look
path suffer,
feel, illness
ped,
paed child,
per-through,
very
ped,
pod,
phil love
sen old
phob
spec,
fear
xen strange
training
pus foot
skep,
scop
look,
see
zo animal
7
3
anti-against, ag act
den,
bio life
cid cut,
let
go
flec
kill
gam marriage,
pan,
away turn
not enough
it go
dys-bad
gyn(ec)
bend,
hypo-under,
govern
trop
opposite
odon tooth
ex-, ec-out,
ced, ceed go,
crat
with
break
miso hate
pro-,
tom,
frang
glot,
phag eat pre-,
co-together,
frag,
sexual
woman,
union
female
produce
nom,
name
onym
proto
panta all turn,
par beget,
first
super,
hyper over,
too
much
change
8 4
can,
an-lacking,
not
ander man,
male
brach(y)
short
nom
phot,
em blood different
homo-, male bad law
much
pyr fire
phos light
reg straight,
homeo-same
poly many,
seg cut,
plec fold
soph
grow
hema, hetero
epi-on mal,
cyn dog
col live,
split
tele-far
lead
theo god
wise
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
15
9
13
ante-,
anti-before,
old
av bird,
fly
anth flower
alg pain
aster
dem
star
people
copro dung
fac do,
greg flock
gn, gnor,
iso equal
leg
meter measure
burst
sal jump
mani intense
desire
solv loosen
10
14
ana-back,
again
cata-down, color
dis-,
di-away,
fer,
pher,
hyd(r) later
ab-, abs-from,
away
chrom
not
phor bear,
contain
cere,
forth,
cre come
send
cub, cumb
worship
prag
morph form
stay
stand
sub-down,
feel
trans-,
11
under
tra-across,
archae first,
govern
cad fall ero physical
love
dog teach,
pha,
idio
poster after,
rrh
cord heart,
doc,
fe,
behind
missend,
ob-to,
secu,
spir breathe
sim,
vor eat
volv turn
12
16 amphi
dendr
both,
on both
sides
sequ follow sem same,
one
apt fit
slow tree,
do
toward
son sound
brad(y)
phe speak
peculiar
mit,
flow
ambi,
agree praise
fid trust
peter rock post,
card,
fa,
mort death
di, dich, bush
dactyl
equi even
dy, du two
finger
infra-below
lit stone
mant prophesy
struc build
men,
hold
nec(r),
top place
min,
come
semi-,
man
tract drag,
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
harm
no
vir male,
Chapter
mn think
noc death,
neg not,
ven bring,
154
beyond
15
arch,
ten
into
do
sed sit,
tag, tang touch,
grow
world
lie
en-, in-in,
st stay,
away
cap, cup take,
cosm universe,
water
stat, stit,
stru,
know
go
choose
rupt
multi many
lith,
gnos to
grad step,
meta-beyond
rh,
make
hemi half
Glossary
pull
of
Root
17
20
dic speak
aug increase
fin end
dol suffer
merg dip,
plunge
para beside,
beyond
pter wing,
tend
uter,
ot ear
scatter
plat(y)
stretch
hyster
flat,
pseudo
womb
sol,
heli sun voc,
bind
nav boat
feather
sper, spor seed, ten,
lig
broad
false
hol whole
som body
vok speak,
call
therm
hot,
warm
phon sound,
speech
sound
18 ac, acer, acerb sharp,
21
tip
cent hundred
bol,
chron
cap
time
dia-through,
across
don,
geo earth ichthy longi
noc,
long
pon,
dor,
do, da give
hum earth
fish
ornith
bl throw head
nyc night
-osis
bird
abnormal
condition
pachy thick
pos place,
put
tu instruct
pol city,
state
vid, id,
eid see
troph
nourish
19 22
brev short lab seize, loc
loqu, lud
grasp
agog lead,
place
cur,
locu
speak
induce car run
-itis inflamation
play
jac throw
mach battle
kine,
tac arrange
tach(y)
cine move
mut change
fast
sol alone, sol(ar)
cor,
psych mind, single
spirit
ques, quer ask
sun
somn
sleep
ver, verg,
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
vor turn
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
15
NUMBER BASEFORMS 1. uni,
mono
union,
unicycle,
universal,
monochrome, monotheism,
2. di, dich, dy, du, bi
dichotomy, dialogue,
uniform,
monogamy,
unit, university,
monaural,
monologue,
monosyllabic,
monolith,
monograph
dioxide,
diphthong,
dual, dubious,
biceps, bicycle, bigamy, bilingual,
dyad, indubitable,
biplane,
bivalve, biweekly,
combination
3. tri, tetra
triangle,
trioxide,
trident,
4. quad,
quat
5.
penta,
pente,
tertiary,
quarter,
quint
quadrant,
pentagram, quintet,
sextet,
7. sept,
September,
8.
octa
9.
non,
10.
ennea
deca, decem
100. cent,
kilo mega
hecto
yhousand
octagon,
octopus
enneagram
December,
decade,
decibel,
103 = 1,000
million
106 = 1,000,000
trillion
1012 = 1,000,000,000,000
109
= 1,000,000,000
peta
quadrillion
1015 = 1,000,000,000,000,000
exa
quintillion
1018 = 1,000,000,000,000,000,000
deci
one tenth
101
= 0.1
centi
hundredth
102
= 0.01
thousandth
103
= 0.001
millionth
106
= 0.000,001
109
= 0.000,000,001
pico
billionth
1012
= 0.000,000,000,001
femto
quadrillionth
1015
= 0.000,000,000,000,001
atto
quintillionth
1018
= 0.000,000,000,000,000,001
156
trillionth
Chapter
13
decagon
century
tera
nano
quintessence,
heptagon
billion
micro
square
hexagon
giga
milli
triad, triple, trigonometry,
pentameter,
November,
percent,
trilogy,
quintuplets
sextuplets,
October,
novem,
squad,
pentagon,
quintile,
6. sex, hex
hept
tricycle, ternate
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Root
tripod,
REVERSE GLOSSARY OFROOTS Morphemes are separated
by slash
marks / and allomorphs
Meaning
by commas.
Base Forms
A above
hyper, super
abundance
copi
accuse
crim
act
ag
adornment
cosmet
after
post, poster
again
pali(n)
age
ev
agree
card, cord
air
aer/ atmo
all
omni/
ally
soci
pan, panta/ tot
almost
pen
alone
sol
amount
qua, qual, quo
ancient
paleo
angle
angl/ gen, gon
animal
faun/
ankle
tars
ant
formic/
ape
pithec
apple
pom
zo myrmec
arm
brach, brac
around
circ, curv, cor/
arrange
tac
ashes
cine
ask
ques,
attend
to
quer/
peri
rog
med
aware
sen
axis
pol
B babble
lal
back
dors/ terg
bad
cac/ dys/
ball
glob, glom, glu/ sphere
base
fund
battle
mach/
be
mal, male
mar
sist
beak
roster
bear
(animal)
arct/ urs
bear
(carry)
fer, pher, phor
beast
ther
beat
bat
beautiful
cali, calli
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
15
bee
api
beget
par
behind
post, poster
believe
cr, cred
bell
campan
belly
venter
below
hypo-flec
bend berry
bacc
better
melior
between
ter
beyond
meta
Bible
bibl
bile
chol
bind
sphing/ lig/
bird
av/ orn, ornith
birth
gen, gon, gn/ nat
bite
mord
black
atra/
bladder
cyst beat
blood
em,
bloom
flor, flos, flour
blow
fla, flu
blue
cyan nav
body
corp/ som
boil
ferv os bibl/ libr
both
ambi/ amphi
bottom
bas
brain
car, cer, cr, ker/ encephal
branch
ram
break
clas/ frag, frang mast
breathe
spir
bring
ven hor
broad
lat/ eury
brother
frater
brown
brun
bubble
ferv
bud
gem, gemm
build
tec, tech/ stru, struc
bulb
bulb
bull
taur
burn
ar, ard/ cand/ carb, cr/ caust, caut/ eth/ flag,
|
sangui(n)
book
bristle
13
hema/
boat
breast
Chapter
mel, melan/ negr, nigr
blessed
bone
158
pac/ pag, peg
phleg, phlog
burst
rupt/ spas
bush
dendr
buttocks
pyg
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Root
C call
voc, vok/
carbon
carb,
care
clam
cr
cur
carry
lat/
ges,
carve
glyp,
cat
fel
cave
spel
cell
ger/
port/
veh,
vec
glyph
cyt
center
foc
chain
caten
change
mut
chase
ven
cheese
case
chemical
chem
chest
stern/
chicken
alector
pector
child
ped,
chord
chord
circle
cycl/
city
civ, cit/
clam
plac
clap
plod
claw
ungu
clean
pur,
clear
leuc,
climb
sca,
paed
orb/
luc/
claus, thromb
coast
cost
coil
spir
cold
cry(m)/
collection
anth,
color
chrom
clos,
clud
frig/
psychr
anthem
cere,
cre
come
ven
companion
soci
conceal
calyp/
cone
con
conquer
vic,
constrict
ang
contain
cap, cup
control
dom/
copy
clar/ luster
scal
clot
forth
urb
purg
close
come
gyr
pol/
cover
vin
mod
mim
country
pater/
course
drom
cover
calyp/
cow
bov, bu
crab
car,
create
poe,
creep
rept
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
rur,
pal,
carcin,
rus
pall/ teg
canc
poie
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
15
cross
cruc
cruel
atra
culture
ethn
cup
calic, calyc
curve
sinu
custom
eth(n)
cut cyb,
cid/ put/ seg/ tom cyber
computer
D dance
chore
dawn
eo
day
di
death
leth/
deep
nec(r),
bath(y)
deflect
frag, frang
delicate
eth
delight
lec
depths
bath(y)
desert
ban
desire
cup
devil
diabol,
different
hetero
dig
diabl
fod
digest
pept
dip
bapt
disease
morb
divide
schis, schiz
divided
fid
do
fac/
dog
can, cyn
double
mit, mis/ prag
dipl
drag draw
noc/
tract tight
strig
draw
graph, gram
drink
bib/ pot, pos
drip
stag
dripping
stalag(m)
droop
lag, lang
drunken
bacch
dry
ar, ard/ sicc/ xer
duct
vas, ves
dung
copro/
scat
E
160
Chapter
13
|
ear
ot
earth
geo/ hum/ ter, terr
eat
phag/ vor
egg
ov, oo
eight
octa
electricity
potam
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Root
mort/ thanat/
element
eme
eleven
hendeca
empty
vac, van
end
fin/ term/
enough
sat
equal
equi/ iso
even
equi
evil
sinister
expire
laps
tel
eye
ocl, ocell/ op/ ophthalm
eyelash
cil
F fall
cad/ pto
false
pseudo
fast
tach(y)
fasten
fic
fat
adip/ lip
father
pater/ pap, pop
fault
culp
fear
phob/ tim
feather
pen, pin/ plum/
feel
path/ pat, pass/ tag, tang
female
gyn(ec)
ferment
zym
fever
pyr/ febr
few
oligo/
field
agr/ camp
fight
pter
pau, pauc
milit/ pug(n)
filter
col, cull
finger
dactyl, digit/
fire
ign/
first
arch,
fish
ichthy/
pisc
five
penta/
quin
flame
phalang
pyr/ vulc archae/
prim/
proto
flam
flat
plac/ plat(y)
flee
fug
flesh
carn/ sarc
flock
greg
flow
flu, fluc, fluv/
flower
anth, anthem/ flor, flos, flour
fly
av
fold
plec, ple
follow
sequ, sec
food
past, pan/ sit
foot
ped, pod, pus
foreign
xen
forest
silv, sylv
foretell
mant
form
Chapter
rhe, rhy, rrh
fig, fing/
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
morph/
and
plas
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
16
fortify
cast
forward
front
foul
matter
pu, py
four
quad, quar, quatr/ tetra
free
liber
frighten
ter, terr
frog
batrach
fruit
carp/ fru, frug/
full
ple/ plen
fungus
pom
myc
gather
glob, glom, glu
G germ
bacill, bacter
give
don, dor, do, da
globe
spher
gnaw
rod
go
ced, ceed/ grad/ it/
goat
caper
god
dei, div/ theo
gold
aur, or/ chrys
good
ben, bon/ eu
govern
arch, archae/ crat
grasp
lab
grass
herb
grease
seb
great
mea/ vad
mag, maj, meg/ grand
green
ver, vir
grow
cere, cre/ col/ al, ol/ phyt
guard
phylac
H hair
crin/
hairy
pub
hand
chir/
hang
pend, pond
happy hard
crust dur/ scler
hare
lag
harm
dam(n)
hate
miso
head
cap/ car, cer, cr, ker/ cephal
healthy heap
Chapter
13
|
man
felic covering
hard
162
pil, pill/ trich
salv/ san up
cumul
hear
aud
heart
card, cord
heat
therm
heavens
uran
heel
calc
herb
herb
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Root
hidden
cryph, crypt,
hide
cel, cl, col
high
alt/ hyps
highest
sum, summ
hinder
cumber
hold
ten
hollow
cav/ tub
holy
hiero/
honey
pi/ sanct
mel, mol
hoof
ungu
hope
sper
horn
cer, corn
hot
cal, calor
hour
hor
house human
krypt
dom being
anthrop/
hundred
cent/
hom
hect
I ice
glac
illness
path
image
icon
increase
aug
induce
agog
insect
entom
instruct intense
doc, dog/ tu desire
av, avar/
intestine
enter
into
in-, en-can
mani
intone iron
ferr, farr
irritate
asper
island
insul
J join
jud, jung
joint
arthr, art
judge
jud, judg/
jump
sal, saul
cens/ cer, cr
K keep
serv
kernel
nucl
key
clav
kidney
nephr
kill
cid, cis
king
reg
knee
gen, gon
knot
nod
know
gn, gnos, gnor/ sci
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
16
L large
ampl/
last
ult
laugh
rid
law
bar/
lead
macro/
jus,
agog/
lead
(metal)
foli/
lean
cli,
left
sinister
less
leg/
duc/ reg/
plumb,
leaf
let
jur/
mag,
maj,
nom
men,
plum,
meg/ titan
min,
mon
plomb
phyll clin,
cliv
min go
ced, ceed
letter
liter
lie
cli,
life
clin,
bio/
light
green
cliv/
cub,
cumb
phot,
phos
vit
chlor
light
lev/ lumen/
lime
calc
lion
leo(n)
lip
lab
live
col/
lively
vig
lizard
saur
locked
clav
long
long/
look
spec, skep, scop
loose
lag,
loosen
solv/
ly
love
am/
phil/
low
bas
lung
hab/
viv
macro
lang
ven
pneu(m)
lust
lagn
M maiden
nymph
make
fac
male
ander/
vir/
man
ander/
vir
many
multi/
map
cart
marriage
gam
marry
nub
measure
med/
milk
lac/
mind
anim/
miracle
thaum
mix
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
plur,
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
poly
mens meso,
mezzo
psych/
phren,
mix
hum
of
plus/
galac
misc,
moist
164
ple/
meter/
middle
mascul
Glossary
of
Root
fran,
fren
moisture
hygr
money
burs
monster
terat
month
men
moon
lun/
mother
men
mater, metr
mouse
mur, mus, my
mouth
or, os/ stom
move
cine, kine/
much
poly
muscle
mob, mov
mur, mus, my
N naked
gymn
name
nom, onom,
narrow
sten
natural
phys
near
onym
med/ peri-car,
neck
cer, cr, ker/ col, coll
nerve
nerv, neur
net
ret
new
neo/ nov/ caen, cen
night
noc, nyc
nine
nov, nona
nitrogen
niter
north
arct
nose
nas, nar/ rhin
not
neg
nothing
nihil,
nourish
troph/
nil/ nul, null
number
arith/
nut
nuc, nucl
al, ol/ nutr, nurt digit/
numer
O offspring
fil/
oil
prol
ole, ol/ ung
old
ante, anti/ ger, geront/
one
and a half
sen
sesqui
one
mono/ uni
opening
aper/ or, os/ stom
opposite
anti-/
order
contr, counter
mand/ ord
orgiastic
bacch
origin
gen, gon, gn
other
al, all
outlaw
ban
over
hyper/ super
owe
deb
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
16
P paint
pig
paper
cart
part
mer/ par, por
pebble
calcul
peculiar
idio
penis
phall
people
dem/
perceive
esth
performance
od
physical
love
pleb/
popul,
publ
ero
picture
pig
pillar
styl
pitch
ton
pity
miser
place
loc/
plague
top
pest
plant
phyt
play
lud
pleasure
hedon
plunge
merg
point
pung
poison
tox
pour
lav, lu, luv/
power
fus, fund
dyn, dynam
powerful
pot,
precious
stone
poss
gem(m)
prevent
para
prey
pred
prick
stig, sting
produce
par
prostitute
porn
pull
duc/ tract
pulse
sphygm
punishment
pen, pun
purify
cast
push
pel/
put
pon,
putrid
sep, sapr
osm pos/ ser/
the
Q quality
ton
R
166
Chapter
13
|
rain
pluv
ray
radi
recent
neo
reckon
calcul
red
erythr/
region
clim(at)
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
rhod,
of
ros/
Root
rub,
ruf
remain
man, mn
remember
memor,
remind
mon
reptile
herp(et),
ridged right
member serp
steg hand
dexter
ripen
coc
rise
lev
river
flu, fluc, fluv/
rock
lapid/
peter
root
radic/
rhizo
rough
asper/ rud
round
circ, curv
rub
fric
run
potam/ riv
drom/ car, cur, cor/ troch
sacred
hier/ sacer/ hagio
safe
salv
sail
nav
saint
hagio
S salt
hal, sal
same
homo,
homeo/ ident/
saw toothed
serr
scaly
lep, lipid
scatter
sper, spor
scrape
rad, raz
sea
hal, sal/
search
scrut
see
spec, skep, scop/
seed
sper, spor/ semen
mar/ thalass
segment
arthr, art
seize
rap
self
auto, tauto
sell
sim, simil, sem
vid, id, eid
pol
send
fer/
send
stol, stal, stall, stl
mit, mis
seven
sept, hept
shade
umber
shadow
scia, skia
shake
cuss/ seism/ trem
shape
form
sharp
point
spin,
sharp
pin
ac, acer, acerb/ ox
shell
crust
shore
riv
short
brev/ brach(y)
shoulder
humer,
show
phan, phen, fan
umer
shrub
frut
side
cost/ lat/ cis
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
16
sign
sem
similar
to
-oid
sing
can/ chore/
single
sol/ priv
sister
soror
sit
sed
six
sex, hex
skill
art/ tec, tech
skin
cut/ derm, derma/
skull
cran
slack
lag, lang
slanting
plag
sleep
dorm/
slow
brad(y)/ micro/ odor, ol fum/ pol
snake
angui/
soft
sop, sopor
tard
smell smooth
pel, pl
hypno/ leth/
small smoke
mel
min
capn herp, serp/ ophi, ophid
moll
soil
ped
solid
stere
solidify
gel, gl
song
od
sour
ox
source
etym
south
auster
speak
dic/ fa, fe, pha, phe/ or/ leg, log/ loc, loqu/ voc, vok/ nunc
speech
glot, glos/ phras
spider
arachn
spiral
helic
spirit
anim
split
fid/ schis, schiz/ seg
sport
athl
spot
macl
spread
pand, pass
stalk
caul, col
stand
st, stat, stit
standard
norm
star
aster/ sider/ stell
state
pol
stay
sed/ st, stat, stit
stem
caul, col
step
grad
steps
sca, scal
stick
glob, glom, glu/ hes, her
sticky
168
Chapter
13
|
muc, munc/ visc
stomach
gaster
stone
lith, lit/ lapid
straight
orth/ reg
strange
xen
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Root
strength
fort
stretch
strat/ ten, tend
strike
cop, com/ fend/ flig/ led/
string
chord, cord
strong
firm/
struggle
agon
study
leg, log
stunned
stup
stupid
titan/
robus, robor/
pleg, ples val
mor
stupor
narco
substance
chem
suck
sorb
suffer
dol, dolor
summon
cit
sun
heli/ sol
swear
jus, jur
sweat
sud
sweet
dulc/ glyc, gluc
swelling
tuber
swim
nat
swollen
tum
system
nom
T tail
caud, cod/ pen, pin/ ur
take
cap, cup/ prehend
taste
gust/ sap
teach
agog/ tu/
ten
dec, decem
test
prob
testicle
orch
thankful
grat
thick
pachy
thin
ten, tend
thing
re
think
doc, dog
men, min, mn/ muse
thorn
acanth
thousand
kilo-/
three
tri, ter(n)
threshold
lim
throat
garg, gorg, gurg
throw
milli
bol, bl/ jac
thrust
trud
thunder
bront
tight
sphing
tighten
strig, string
time
chron/ tempor/
toe
dactyl/
phalang
tomb
taph
tongue
glot, glos/ lingu
tooth
den, odon
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
hor
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
16
total
sum
touch
palp/ tag, tang/ tem, ten
trade
merc
training
ped, paed
treat
iatr
tree
arbor/
tribe
phyl
dendr
true
ver
trust
fid
turn
flec/ stroph,
strep, streph/ trop/
vor/ volv twelve
duodeca
twin
gem, gemin
twist
tor
two
bi(n)/
tyrant
tyran
di, dich, du, dy
U unborn
child
fet
uncivilized
barbar
uncle
uncl
uncovered
nud
under
hypo
unit
-ad
universe
cosm
urine
ur
use
us, ut
V vapor
fum
vein
phleb
vomit
eme
W walk
ambl
wall
mur
wander
migr/ vag
war
170
Chapter
13
|
bell/
mar
warm
therm
wash
lav, lu, luv
water
aqua/ hyd(r)
wave
und
wax
cer
way
od, hod
wealth
plut
weapon
arm
weigh
pend, pond/ liber
weight
bar
well
eu
wheel
rot
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Root
ver, verg,
whip
flagell
white
alb/ leuc, luc
whole
sol, hol
wide
lat
wife
uxor
wild
fer/ turb
wind
anem/ vent
wine
oeno/ vin
wing
ali/ pter
wise
soph
within
endo
witness
test
wolf
lup, lyc
woman
fem/
womb
hyster/
wonder
uter
muse
wood
xyl
word work
gyn(ec)
verb for
serv
work
erg, org, urg/ oper
worm
helmint,
worship
helminth/
verm
later
worthy
dign
write
graph, gram/ leg, log/ scrib
Y year
ann
yellow
chrys/
yoke
zyg
young
juven
Chapter
13
|
Glossary
of
Base
Forms
ocher/ xanth
and
Reverse
Glossary
of
Roots
17
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Laurie.
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17