A Band of Noble Women: Racial Politics in the Women's Peace Movement 9780815632573, 9780815651444

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Melinda Plastas

“The author has crafted a historically significant, well-written study that engages

the reader. .. . I found myself turning the pages with great interest, wanting to know what would happen next.” —Frances H. Early, author of A World Without War: How US. Feminists and Pacifists Resisted World War I

A Band of of A Band Noble Women Women Noble

Syracuse Studies Studieson onPeace Peaceand andConflict ConflictResolution Resolution

Robert A. Rubinstein, Rubinstein,series series editor editor

OTHER Ot h er TITLES t i t les FROM f rom SYRACUSE Sy r ac use STUDIES St u di es ON PEACE on Pe ac e AND a n d CONFLICT Con f lic t RESOLUTION R esolu t ion

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Back Channel Channel Negotiation: Secrecy in in the Middle East Peace Process Back ANTHONY WANIS-ST.JOHN A n t hon y Wa n is - St.Joh n

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Shots . . . ... and Diallo’sStory Story 41 Shots and Counting: Counting: What Amadou Diallo’s Teaches Us Us about about Policing, Policing, Race, Race,and and Justice Justice Teaches BETH Be t h ROY Roy

Human Rights and Conflict Resolution in in Context: Context: Human Conflict Resolution Colombia,Sierra SierraLeone, Leone,&&Northern NorthernIreland Ireland Colombia, F. BABBITT and ELLEN L. LUTZ, EEILEEN i l e e n F. Babbi t t and E ll e n L. Lu tz, eds. eds.

Versus Jews Jewsin inIsrael Israel National Minority, Minority, Regional Majority: Palestinian Arabs Versus REITER YYITZHAK i tz h a k R ei t e r

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in Confl Conflict ResolutionPractice Practice Re-Centering Culture and Knowledge Knowledge in ict Resolution MARY ADAMS S. Y. Y. Bow BOWLAND, LINDA JAMES M a ry Ada ms TTRUJILLO, ru j i llo, S. l a n d, Li n da Ja m es MYERS, M y er s,

PHILLIP ROY,eds. eds. Ph i lli p M. RICHARDS, R ic h a r ds, and BETH Be t h Roy,

A Band of Noble Women RACIAL Politics POLITICS in IN THE Racial the WOMEN’S Peace PEACE MOVEMENT Women’s Movement

Melinda Plastas Plastas Melinda

SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY Sy r acuse U ni v ersit y PRESS Pr ess

Copyright © Syracuse University Copyright © 2011 2011 by Syracuse UniversityPress Press Syracuse, New Syracuse, NewYork York13244-5290 13244-5290 All Rights Reserved Reserved

First Edition First Edition2011 2011

11 12 13 14 15 1666543 5 4 3 22 11

11 12 13 14 15 16

coThe Thepaper paperused used in in this this publication publication meets the ∞ the minimum minimumrequirements requirements of the the American American National of National Standard Standardfor forInformation InformationSciences—Permanence Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed PrintedLibrary LibraryMaterials, Materials,ANSI ANSIZ39.48-1992. Z39.48-1992.

listing of books published published and For a listing anddistributed distributedby bySyracuse SyracuseUniversity UniversityPress, Press, SyracuseUniversityPress.syr.edu. visit our Web site at SyracuseUniversityPress.syr.edu. ISBN: 978-0-8156-3257-3 ISBN: 978-0-8156-3257-3

Library of Congress Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Cataloging-in-PublicationData Data Plastas, Melinda.

women:: racial A band of noble women racial politics politics in inthe thewomen’s women’s peace peace movement movement // Melinda Plastas. Melinda Plastas.— —1st 1sted. ed. p. cm. — (Syracuse studies studieson onpeace peaceand andconflict conflictresolution) resolution) Includes bibliographical bibliographical references references and andindex. index.

ISBN 978–0-8156–3257–3 978—0-8156-3257-3 (cloth: alk. : alk.paper) paper)1.1.Women’s Women’sInternational International League ISBN (cloth League

Peace and and Freedom—History. 2.2.Women and peace—United States— for Peace Women and peace—United States— movements—United States—History—20th century. History—20th century. 3.3.Peace Peace movements—United States—History—20th century. United States—Race 4. African African American Americanpacifists—History—20th pacifists—History—20th century. century.5. 5. United States—Race

relations—History—20thcentury. century. I.I.Title. relations—History—20th Title. JZ5578.P53 JZ5578.P532011 2011

303.6'6092520973—dc23 2011020053 2011020053

303.6'6092520973—dc23

Manufactured Manufacturedininthe theUnited UnitedStates StatesofofAmerica America

This book book is dedicated to and in in memory memory of my mother, Patricia Patricia Plastas. of Plastas.

MELINDAPlastas PLASTASteaches teaches in in the the Women Women and Melinda and Gender Studies Gender Studies program programatatBates BatesCollege. College.

Contents LISTof OFI llust ILLUSTRATIONS List r at ions |

PREFACE Pr eface ||

| ix ix

x1xi

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Ack now ledgmen ts | | XU xv

Introduction Introduction Raceand andthe thePolitics Politics of Peace and Freedom | | 11 Race of Peace and Freedom

1. African African American American Women 1. Women and andthe theSearch Search

forPeace Peaceand Freedom| | 34 for and Freedom 34 2. Race and the 2. the Social Thought

of White WhiteWomen Womeninthe WILPF | — of in the WILPF | 84 84 3. Philadelphia 3. ForgingaaNational National Model of Interracial | | 145 145 Forging Model of Interracial PeacePeace Work Work

4. Cleveland, 4. Cleveland, Washington, Washington,DC, DC,and andBaltimore Baltimore Extendingthe theNetwork Network of Interracial Extending of Interracial PeacePeace Work Work | | 193 193

Conclusion|| Conclusion NOTES Not es ||

238 238

247 247

BIBLIOGRAPHY Bibliogr a ph y ||

INDEX|| Index

299 299

281 281

Illustrations Illustrations 1.1926 1926 WILPF delegation to Haiti 1. WILPF delegation to Haiti |

| 139 139 2. Library LibraryatatCamp CampLusitania Lusitania Nazaire, France| | 140 140 2. St. St. Nazaire, France 3. Postcard Postcard from Haiti of men wearing suits 3. suits and andcarrying carryingprotest protest

signs || 141 141

signs

4. Rachel RachelDavis Davis Dubois, c. 1923| | 142 142 4. Dubois, c. 1923 5. For For the the Advancement Advancement of 5. of the theRace: Race: Fourth FourthAnnual AnnualConference Conference

ofthe theNAACP, NAACP, | of 19171917

| 143 143

6. Lower LowerBucks BucksCounty CountyWILPF WILPF members, June 30, 1947|| 144144 6. members, June 30, 1947

1X ix

Preface Preface

IN FEBRUARY OF1926 1926an aninterracial interracialgroup group of of fifive women and and one man In F ebrua ry of ve women sailed from New York to Haiti to investigate the continued United New York continued UnitedStates States the island. island. After After traveling traveling for for three three weeks and talking occupation of the talking with with a vast array array of of Haitians, Haitians, the the team, team,under underthe theauspices auspicesofofthe theWomen’s Women’s International League returned to the International League for Peace Peace and Freedom Freedom (WILPF), (WILPF), returned United States and wrote Occupied Haiti, a 250-page report that United and wrote Occupied that chronicled chronicled deteriorating cultural, the deteriorating cultural, agricultural, agricultural,economic, economic, and and political political conditions conditions Haitians faced Haitians faced as as aa result resultof of US US intervention. intervention.The The report reportheavily heavilycriticized criticized the use of of paternalist paternalist racism racism by bygovernment governmentofficials officials as asjustification justification for for the occupation and it recorded the prevalence of Jim Crow practices and and it recorded the prevalence of Jim Crow practices and attitudes among attitudes among the the marines marinesstationed stationedon onthe theisland. island. Historians have noted that this WILPF mission Historians have noted that this WILPF missionaccelerated acceleratedantiantiof US USdollar dollar diplomacy, diplomacy,deepened deepened grassroots grassroots interimperialists’ criticism of est in opposing the occupation, and increased progressives’ opposing the occupation, and increased progressives’ leverage leverage But the the mission mission also also marked the deepening with congressional congressional officials.’ officials.1 But deepening of interracial alliances among middle-class of middle-class women women interested interestedininsecursecuring world peace and and racial racial justice. justice. When When Emily Emily Greene Greene Balch Balch and and Addie Addie Hunton, two nationally prominent social reformers, led the Haiti mission, prominent social they publicly united the the political political power of of the the primarily primarily white whitewomen’s women’s peace movement and and the theblack blackwomen’s women’s club club movement. movement. The The very veryprespresence of the WILPF Haiti mission, in in its its racial racial diversity diversityand andfemale femaleleadleadership, challenged US Jim Crow policies and paternalism. According to US Jim Crow policies and OccupiedHaiti, Haiti,Haitians Haitiansin inPort-au-Prince Port-au-Prince welcomed welcomed the the WILPF WILPF team team and and Occupied delighted that were delighted that the the interracial interracialgroup groupof ofwomen womenwas wassharing sharing“in “inmost most friendly fashion” friendly fashion” the same sleeping sleeping quarters. quarters. Emily Emily Greene Greene Balch Balch and Addie Hunton’s joint mission to Haiti did more than protest US Hunton’s joint mission to than protest US foreign foreign xi

xii xii | |Preface Preface policy; itit personifi personified the possibility of of racial racial harmony harmony and world peace in policy; ed the 2 the form unity.? AA Band ofofNoble the formof ofwomen’s women’sinterracial interracial unity.AsAs Band NobleWomen Womenreveals, reveals,

complex political, political, intellectual, intellectual, and social relationships complex relationships emerged emerged among among the women’s women’s peace movement, movement, African AfricanAmerican Americanwomen’s women’sreform reformpolipolitics, and black internationalism internationalismmore moregenerally. generally.And Andthis thisrace-conscious race-conscious women’s peace activism activism helped helpedcultivate cultivateproto—civil proto–civilrights rightsconsciousness, consciousness, indicating the relevance of peace activism to the emergent relevance peace activism to the emergent civil civil rights rights movements of movements of later later decades. decades. responded to and and shaped This book examines how the WILPF WILPF responded shapedthe thepreprevailing currents vailing currentsof of racial racial thought thoughtand andpolitics politicsthat thatdominated dominatedthe thefirst firstfour four decades of the twentieth century. Assembling a multivalent history of history of the the women’s peace peace movement movement and and the black women’s club and social reform women’s women’s club movements, this work provides a fresh perspective on an an important importantstory story of race, race, gender, gender, class, class, community, community, and consciousness of consciousness building building between between the two wars. These “noble women” also coalesced around cosmopolitan wars. around cosmopolitan ideals of internationalism, interdependency, and and mutual mutualhumanity; humanity;and and practicing interracial unity—from unity—from sponsoring sponsoringinvestigative investigativemissions missionstoto arranging interracial Haiti to arranging interracialstudy studygroups groupson onUS USforeign foreignpolicy—allowed policy—allowed them to challenge nationalism, foster world-mindedness, challenge nationalism, foster world-mindedness, and and confront confront 3 the tenets tenetsof ofJim Jim Crow.? Crow. and Addie Hunton Arguably, activists like Emily Greene Balch and Huntonwould would not have been able to achieve what they they did did without withoutthe theWILPF, WILPF, an an orgaorganization founded in 1915 and dedicated to uniting women around in 1915 dedicated to uniting women aroundthe the world to secure the the conditions conditions necessary necessaryfor forsocial socialjustice justice and andpeace. peace.AA Band of ofNoble NobleWomen Womenconsiders considersthree threeintricate intricate ways ways in which Band which the theWILPF WILPF negotiated and and influenced influenced the theracial racialpolitics politicsof ofthe theearly earlytwentieth twentiethcencentury. First, it examines the WILPF’s work to challenge the major racial examines the WILPF’s to challenge the major racial ideologies of the period period and andto toforge forgecounter counterorordissident dissidentideologies ideologiesasasa a part of its campaigns against against war war and andfor forpeace peace and andfreedom. freedom.Second, Second, itit traces the leadership leadership the the WILPF WILPF provided provided on onsome someof ofthe thecentral centralracial racial justice issues of the interwar period, namely, US foreign policy in Haiti interwar period, namely, US foreign policy in Haiti and efforts to pass antilynching and Liberia and antilynchinglegislation. legislation. Third, Third, itit takes takes up up uneven and and fraught attempts the WILPF’s WILPF’s uneven attemptsat atracial racialintegration integrationwithin withinitsits own membership membership and andleadership. leadership.In Inthis thisway, way,this thiscase casestudy studyencourages encourages

Preface || xiii Preface xiii us to attend attend to to the the contradictions contradictions that that constituted constitutedthe theshifting shiftingground groundofof US racial racial politics politicsduring during the interwar interwar period. US period. I begin by offering offering a revised revised history history of of the the founding founding years years of of the the WILPE.The Theintroduction introduction resituates resituates the WILPF. the WILPF WILPF within withinthe thecontext contextof ofearly early twentieth-century race relations and politics and the the rise rise of of the the National National Association for the Advancement Advancement of of Colored Colored People People (NAACP), (NAACP), the black black club movement, movement, the the New New Negro Negro movement, and and Pan-Africanism. women’s club Pan-Africanism. is then then divided into two parts. The book is parts. The two chapters chapters in in the the first first part part investigate the influence War II on the intellectual investigate influence of World World War intellectual frameworks frameworks and political strategies of six prominent women—three of them African African American and three American three of ofthem themAnglo-American. Anglo-American. Chapter Chapter11features featuresthe the political careers and and literary literary contributions contributionsof ofthree threeleading leadingblack blackreformreformers—Addie Hunton, Alice ers—Addie Alice Dunbar-Nelson, Dunbar-Nelson, and andJessie JessieFauset—whereas Fauset—whereas chapter 2 explores the the influence influence of of race race on onthe thesocial socialthought thoughtand andpolitipolitical strategies of of three threeinfluential influentialwhite whiteWILPF WILPFmembers: members:Rachel RachelDavis Davis and Anna Dubois, Emily Greene Balch, and AnnaMelissa MelissaGraves. Graves. The second part part examines examinesthe thework workof of women’s women’s interracial interracial peace peace comcommittees in in four four WILPF WILPF communities communities from from1927 1927 to to 1940. 1940. Chapter 33 conconsiders the flagship flagship Philadelphia Philadelphia interracial interracialcommittee, committee,whereas whereaschapter chapter44 turns the turns the focus focus to to interracial interracial activism activism in in Cleveland, Cleveland, Washington, Washington, DC, and Baltimore. Finally, Finally, the the conclusion explores the Baltimore. the relevance relevance of ofthe theWILPF’s WILPF’s interwar era struggles struggles with with race race and andracism racismfor fortoday’s today’s movements movements for for peace and and racial racial justice. justice. A Band Band of ofNoble NobleWomen Womenprovides providesan anopportunity opportunity to toconsider considerwomen’s women’s successes and and failures failures as they addressed the successes the manifold manifold issues issues of of militamilitarization, racism, rization, racism, and women’s women’s freedom during during the theinterwar interwaryears. years.As As our world continues continues to to seek seek models models of ofpolitical political engagement engagement and andcomcommunity building that that rest rest on onthe theprinciple principleof ofaacommon commonhumanity humanityand and mutual dependence, mutual dependence,as asopposed opposedtotowar warprofiteering profiteeringand andrace raceprofiling, profiling,we we might be better able to fashion a more sustainable and just future with with aa deepened understanding understandingof ofthe theantiracist antiracistpeace peaceefforts effortsin inwhich whichwomen women engaged in engaged in the theshadow shadowof ofWorld WorldWar WarI.I.

Acknowledgments

many people people who who have made I OWE ow e GRATITUDE gr at i t u de totomany made this thisbook bookpossible. possible. But I first want to acknowledge the unending and often unnoticed work But I first want to acknowledge the unending work for social social justice justice done done by by everyday everyday people people who who struggle struggle to provide for for their families their families and and communities communities and andto to live live free free from from war. war. At this project’s project’s earliest stage, the members members of of my my dissertation dissertationcomcommittee provided me with invaluable direction, criticism, and unending with invaluable direction, criticism, unending support. II could support. could not not have have asked askedfor foraabetter bettercommittee committeechair chairininSusan SusanK.K. Cahn. Susan patiently guided guided me me as as II searched searched to to turn turnmy my research researchinterinterproject. Through Through her own scholarship and ests into a viable project. and leadership leadership in in the field of women’s history, she modeled for me an approach to women’s field women’s history, she modeled an approach to women’s history that could be grounded grounded in inboth bothlocal local studies studiesand andnational nationaldeveldevelopments and that paid opments paid attention attention to to the the intersecting intersecting issues issues of of race race and and class. ItIt was Elizabeth Lapovsky Kennedy who nudged me class. me to to enter enterthe the PhD program. program. Thanks, Liz. As a scholar, member of my committee, and Thanks, Liz. As a scholar, member of my committee, and guided the development of this book in its nascent stage and and a friend, she guided remained a believer believer in in this this project project and andmy myability abilitytotocomplete completeit. it.ItItwas was in a graduate graduate seminar seminarwith withMasani MasaniAlexis AlexisDe DeVeaux Veaux that thatI Ifirst firstdiscovdiscovered the work of Addie Hunton, a woman who figures centrally to work of Addie Hunton, a woman who figures centrally tothis this book. Masani Masani not only only expanded expandedmy myunderstanding understandingofofthe thefield fieldofofAfrican African and activism, American women’s literature, history, and activism, she she reminded remindedme metoto be fearless and and to to find findenjoyment enjoymentininmy mywork. work.Likewise, Likewise,Michael MichaelFrisch Frisch believed in my scholarship, supported me throughout the process, believed scholarship, supported process, and and community-engaged research. offered a model of community-engaged research. Other Otherpeople peopleIIhad hadthe the working with while a graduate student and good fortune of working and who who influinfluenced my thinking enced thinking and andscholarship scholarshipinclude includeRuth RuthMeyerowitz, Meyerowitz,Alice Alice Echols, and Hester Eisenstein. I want to call particular attention to my Echols, and Hester Eisenstein. I want to call XV xv

xvi xvi | |Acknowledgments Acknowledgments good buddy buddy and andrespected respectedcolleague, colleague,Robin RobinHicks, Hicks,who whodied diedininDecember December 2005. Robin’s Robin’scommitment commitment to to African American 2005. American women’s women’s history historyand andthe the of education education inspired me. As well, her her great humor and politics of and unwaverunwaverfriendship were ing friendship were unmatched. unmatched. Members of my my writing writinggroup, group,Lisa LisaBotshon, Botshon,Monica MonicaChiu, Chiu,Robin Robin Hackett, Rebecca Rebecca Herzig, Eve Eve Raimon, and Siobhan Siobhan Senier, Senier, gave of of their their time and offered unwavering support support throughout throughoutthis thisendeavor. endeavor.Thanks Thanks to all of you for for your your keen keenreading readingofofmy mywork. work.I Ihave havegained gainedsosomuch much not only from your comments and and advice, advice, but just as importantly importantly II have have been emboldened emboldenedto topersevere persevereas asIIhave havewatched watchedyou youall allbring bringyour yourbooks books to fruition. In the final final stage of this work I made additional additional requests requests of of Lisa, Eve, Eve,and and Rebecca, Rebecca,who whograciously graciouslydid did yet yet another another set of readings readings of Lisa, of my work and answered answered my my questions questionsabout aboutthe themechanics mechanicsof ofturning turningmy my work into a book. work into a book. many years Chmielewski Over the many years and and versions versions of of this this project, Wendy Chmielewski of the Swarthmore of Swarthmore College College Peace Peace Collection Collection offered offered her herinsight insighton onthe the WILPF.Her Her professionalism professionalism and and friendship helped WILPF. helped this thisproject projectalong along in many ways. ways. II must must also also thank thankthe therest restofofthe thestaff staffatatSwarthmore Swarthmorefor for their diligence and and patience patience over over the theyears. years.My Mycolleagues colleagues at atBates Bates ColCollege have have provided friendship and lege and encouragement encouragement and andan anoverall overallwarm warm working environment. environment. The TheDean DeanofofFaculty’s Faculty’soffice officeand andBates BatesCollege College Faculty Research Research Grants made possible numerous Faculty numerous trips tripstotoarchives archivesand and the general completion completion of of this this manuscript. manuscript.At AtSyracuse SyracuseUniversity UniversityPress, Press, I want to thank thankformer formeracquisitions acquisitions editor editorAnnelise AnneliseFinegan, Finegan,Kay Kay SteinSteinmetz, Marcia Hough, and Lynn Hoppel Hoppel for for ushering ushering me me through throughthe theproproof bringing bringing this cess of this book book to to completion. completion. The The insightful insightfulcomments commentsof ofthe the Syracuse University Press reviewers, reviewers, Frances Frances Early Early and andone oneanonymous anonymous reviewer, also helped helped give giveshape shapetotothis thisproject. project. For general encouragement, I want to For to thank thankmy myfamily familyand andfriends friends who remained remained by by me me as as this this project project took took on on aa life of its own and spanned spanned many years. years. My My mother-in-law, mother-in-law, Carol Carol Jane Jane Gottfried, Gottfried,never neverfailed failedtotoask ask how the book was going and and to to remind remindme methat thatshe shelooked lookedforward forwardtoto reading it. Thanks reading Thanks also also to to my sister Andrea Andrea and andher herpartner partnerJoyce JoyceLupack Lupack for remaining key members members of of my my fan fan club. club. II also also want want to toacknowledge acknowledge Jim and Kay Plastas for their support. support. Special Special thanks thanksgo goto toCandace CandaceKanes Kanes

Acknowledgments Acknowledgments | | xvii xvii for being being there there during during an important moment in my and Barbara Murphy for life and for continuing life continuing to to provide provide warmth, warmth, great greatfood, food, and andirreverence irreverence just when when itit was was most most needed. needed.To To the the many manyfriends friendswho whogave gaveencourageencouragement at different stages, stages, I can’t say enough. Thanks go to to Marta Marta Albert, Albert, JoJo Lisa Collins, Mary Mary Dougherty, Dougherty,Junko JunkoKanamura, Kanamura,Madeline MadelineMcMahon, McMahon, Susan Shacter, Mazz Mazz Whitaker, and and Mary Power, Susan Mary Zepernick. Zepernick.To To my my nieces nieces and nephews, you brought brought joy joy and and levity levity at atall allthe theright rightmoments. moments.And And my deepest appreciation goes to my my appreciation goes my partner partner Laura Laura Gottfried. Gottfried. Thanks Thanks for sticking by me and this project project every step of the way and and for for always always believing believing in in me. me. This book is dedicated dedicatedto toand andininmemory memoryofofmy mymother, mother,Pat PatPlastas. Plastas.

A Band of of A Band Noble Women Women Noble

Introduction Introduction Race and the the Politics Politics of of Peace and and Freedom Freedom

ON August, AUGUST,29, 29,1914, 1914,more morethan thanfififteen hundred white white women women marched marched On fteen hundred through New City protesting protesting the war that in solemn silence through New York York City that had had just just begun begun in in Europe. Although Although women women had had participated participatedin inantiwar antiwarand andpeace peace crusades before, most notably the abolition movement and protest of before, notably the abolition movement and protest ofthe the Spanish-American War, War,the the demonstration demonstration that took place in immediate Spanish-American response to what what would wouldbecome become the theGreat GreatWar Warmarked markedaanew newdevelopdevelopment. Initiated Initiated and and led ledby bywhite whitewomen womenwho whowere wereactive activeininthe thewoman’s woman’s rights and suffrage campaigns of the past decades, the march marked and suffrage campaigns of the past decades, the march marked the emergence of of what what would wouldbecome becomeaavibrant, vibrant,multifaceted, multifaceted,and andinterinternational women’s women’s peace movement. Parade organizers organizers and andparticipants participants represented socialist socialist feminists, labor labor union union activists, activists, descendents descendents of of the the abolition movement, and initiators of the social settlement movement. abolition movement, and of the social settlement movement. intended to Coalesced, women intended to keep keep the theUnited UnitedStates Statesout outof ofthe thewar warand and to foster international conditions conditions that that would wouldend endthe thewar warswiftly. swiftly.Irritated Irritated by the sexism of male-dominated male-dominatedpeace peaceassociations, associations,emboldened emboldenedby bythe the state-to-state successes of the suffrage fight, and well equipped by recent fight, equipped by recent social reform reform work, work, the the women women marching marching through through the years of social the streets streets of of City brought brought a new feminist New York City feministoutlook outlookto toissues issuesof ofwar warand andpeace peace and a determination determination that thatwomen’s women’s voices voices be heard heard in in the thefight fight for for peace peace and freedom. Believing that war was the negation of progress and civiBelieving war was the negation of progress and civilization, they took to the streets, to the the halls halls of of Congress, Congress, and and to to women women around the to to conflict.! around theworld worldininhopes hopesofoffostering fosteringa anew newapproach approach conflict.1 Three summers after the Three the women’s women’s peace peace march, march, another another dramatic, dramatic, silent march in New York City marked a turning point in African American march in New York marked a turning point in African American 1I

of ofNoble 2|A | Band A Band NobleWomen Women resistance. On July nearly ten ten thousand thousand African resistance. July 28, 28, 1917, 1917, nearly African Americans— Americans— women in in white white outfits, outfits, men men in inblack black suits—walked suits—walkedin inprocession processiondown down protest the Fifth Avenue to protest the upsurge upsurgeof ofracist racistviolence violencein inthe theUnited UnitedStates. States. In particular, they they decried decried the theracist racistassault assaulton onblack blackcitizens citizensof ofEast EastSt. St. Louis, which which had started Louis, started weeks weeks earlier earlier on onJuly July 2. 2. Whites Whites angry angryatatthe the employment of black workers at aa local local factory factory had hadrampaged rampagedthrough through the city. At the end of of the the days days of of white whiteviolence, violence, close close to to forty forty African African were dead dead and more than six thousand peoAmericans and eight whites were ple, mostly African American, American, were wereleft left homeless. homeless.The TheEast EastSt. St. Louis Louis riots riots along with an an upsurge upsurgeof oflynchings lynchingsininTennessee Tennesseeand andTexas Texaswere wereon onthe the minds of of African African Americans Americans as as they theymarched marchedininNew NewYork YorkCity. City.Many Many marchers responded to to the theracist racistviolence violenceby byquestioning questioningthe thenation’s nation’s claim that that in in the theturmoil turmoilofofWorld WorldWar WarI,I,the theUnited UnitedStates Statescould couldoffer offerthe the world the best model of harmony and and progress. progress. Carrying Carrying banners bannersthat that asked “Mr. President, President, Why WhyNot NotMake MakeAmerica AmericaSafe Safefor forDemocracy?” Democracy?”the the marchers sought to to expose expose the the hypocrisy hypocrisyof ofthe thenation. nation.The Theprotest protestsigsignaled growing growing black black frustration frustration with withthe theracial racialpolitics politicsofofthe thewar. war.This This disillusionment would soon transform into what would be known as disillusionment would soon transform into what would be known as the the New Negro political political consciousness. consciousness. The The New NewNegro Negroembraced embraceda amore more international political international political philosophy philosophy and andwas wasaamore moreaggressive aggressivecritic criticof ofthe the failure of American American democracy democracyto totreat treatblack blackcitizens citizensequally. equally. and 1917 marches white white and and African American Although in in the the 1914 1914 and 1917 marches women took women took to to the the streets streetsof of New NewYork York City separately, their their participation participation in these public events represented represented aa shared sharedbelief beliefin inthe thepolitical politicaland anddisdiswomanhood.” Through cursive power power of “noble womanhood.” Throughtheir theirsilent silentstoicism, stoicism,AfriAfrican American and white women looked to capture capture the the heart heartand andwill willof of the nation. nation. These These activists activists believed believedthat thatwomen’s women’swisdom, wisdom,morality, morality,and and concern for the common good needed needed to to prevail prevailifif there therewas wasany anyhope hopeof of directing the nation nation and and the theworld worldaway awayfrom fromthe thepath pathofofwarmongerwarmongering and and racism. racism. Both marches marches raised raised questions questionsabout aboutthe thecharacter characterofofthe the United States States and challenged the proposition proposition that that war warwas wasthe theway waytoto achieve democracy in the world or bring an end end to to racial hatred. hatred. By the the winter of the Great Great War War had had come come to an end By of 1919, 1919, the end and andthe the details of the peace were being negotiated negotiated by by the the victors victors who whoconvened convened Conference. In In response, response, African African Americans and white at the Paris Peace Conference. white

Introduction| | 33 Introduction American and European women American women organized organized two two parallel parallel international international gatherings in in order order to toanalyze analyzethe thepeace peaceproceedings. proceedings.The ThePan-African Pan-African convened in Paris in February and Congress convened and the the International InternationalCongress Congress W.W.E.E.B.B. of Women took place three three months monthslater laterininZurich. Zurich.Initiated Initiatedbyby and attended attended by Du Bois Bois and by fifty-seven fifty-seven delegates, the the Pan-African Pan-African Congress Congress placed primary primary focus focus on onthe thepostwar postwarfuture futureofofAfrican Africancolonies. colonies.Seeking Seeking self-government for for black black nations, nations, the Pan-African self-government Pan-African Congress linked the the disempowerment of of blacks blacks in in the United States disempowerment States to the the mistreatment mistreatment of of colonized peoples worldwide. The The more more than thantwo twohundred hundredwomen womendeledelegathered in gates who gathered in Zurich Zurichin inMay Mayalso alsoprotested protestedthe theterms termsofofthe thepeace peace treaty. They believed that the the isolation isolation of of Germany Germany and andthe thelack lackof ofrigorrigorous and ous and universal universal terms terms for for disarmament disarmamentdid didlittle littletotocontain containororcontrol control nationalism and the forces of nationalism and militarism. militarism.They Theyalso alsocalled calledon onthe thefledgling fledgling Nations to earnestly promote the rights League of Nations rights of of women women and and address address the “odious wrongs for for which women women are are the thevictims victimsin intimes timesofofwar.” war.”2

Although gender gender was was not the only lens through which the women anaAlthough lyzed the war, they did did believe believe that that women women must musttake takeleadership leadershipininpostpostsignaled the postwar postwar expansion war developments. These two congresses signaled expansion of internationaland transnational-minded consciousness and _ international- and transnational-minded consciousness andpolitics. politics. In the war’s war’s aftermath, activists activists asked asked questions questionsabout aboutwar’s war’simpact impacton on they attempted to build women and and people people of color as they build new new forms forms of of community that munity that could could transcend transcendthe theconfines confinesof ofthe thenation-state. nation-state. In addition to sharing a new vision for the postwar sharing a new vision postwar world, world, both both meetmeet1919 ings marginalized marginalizedblack blackwomen. women.White Whitewomen womenprevailed prevailedatatthe the 1919ZurZurich women’s peace congress congress and and black black women women were underrepresented ich women’s peace at the Paris Paris Pan-African Pan-African Congress. Congress. Through the participation participation of of Addie Addie Hunton and Mary Church Terrell, two women who would become leadHunton and Mary Church Terrell, two women who would become leadblack women did ing forces in the the WILPF, WILPF, black did have have at at least leastaaminimal minimalprespresence in Paris Paris and Zurich. In their remarks, Hunton and ence and Terrell Terrell brought together the threads of race race and and gender gender and war and demanded aa place together place for black black women women in the international international movements emerging from the movements emerging from thewar. war. Having recently completed work with with the theblack blackUS US soldiers soldiersstationed stationed in France, France, Hunton joined the Pan-African Pan-African Congress delegates who were eager to critique the the racism racism of the the war war and andto tolaunch launchNew NewNegro Negroand andPanPanAfrican principles. principles. In In her her remarks to the congress, congress, Hunton Hunton informed the

of ofNoble 4|A | Band A Band NobleWomen Women overwhelmingly male audience audience that thatititwould wouldbe bethe theworld’s world’swomen womenwho who 3 would lead the way way away away from war and and towards towardspeace.’ peace. Three Three months months

later in Zurich, Zurich, Mary Mary Church ChurchTerrell, Terrell,aafounder founderofofthe theNational NationalAssociaAssociaaddressed the tion of Colored Women (NACW), (NACW), addressed the international internationalaudience audienceofof peace women as the sole African American representative. In her her speech, speech, Terrell reminded the white female audience that the end to war Terrell reminded the white female audience that the end to war was was dependent upon the end to racism. These early events revealed some of dependent upon the end to racism. These early events revealed some of the the central questions and and fault fault lines lines that thatwould wouldvex vexthe theWILPF. WILPF. One question the organization repeatedly attempted attempted to to answer answer concerned concerned the the role role that that promotion, prevention, race played in the promotion, prevention, and andimpact impactof of war. war. Black Black women internationalists, situated at the intersection of these developments, asked situated at the intersection of these asked how they could could ensure ensuretheir theirinfluence influenceon onthese theseinternationalist internationalistmovemovements. White women pondered, pondered, often oftenreluctantly, reluctantly, how howtheir theirown ownorganiorganizational practices zational practices reflected reflected or or contested contestedAmerican Americanracial racialattitudes. attitudes. As the 1914 and 1917 New York City marches and 1919 European conthe 1914 and 1917 New York City marches and 1919 European conferences demonstrate, American American women’s women’s peace peace efforts efforts came came of of age ageinto into a world not only only anxious anxious about aboutwomen’s women’s growing growing political political power power and and changing gender gender norms, norms, but but also also engaged engaged in a deep changing deep and and often often deadly deadly struggle over the position of people of color and the very meaning position of people of color and the very meaningand and function of of race. World War War II disrupted disrupted and challenged function race. World challenged ideas ideas about about nation, race, gender, and and citizenship; citizenship; itit set set into intomotion motionnew newsocial socialmovemovements, and altered and ments, and accelerated accelerated those already already in in existence. existence. The war also helped stimulate a renewed interest in internationalism and appeals to the principles of a common world humanity. As As historian historian Leila Leila Rupp Rupp documents, the the war war helped helpedescalate escalateinternationally internationallyorganized organized“worlds “worldsofof women.” And others have shown shown how how it invigorated invigorated interest interest in in the the buildbuilding of a black diaspora. diaspora.*4 But But this this idea idea of of separate separate or opposing internationopposing internationtransnationalisms misses alisms or transnationalisms misses the the important importantinteraction interaction that thatwas wasatat work. Indeed, Indeed, for radical critics of the war, the work. critics of the meaning meaning of of the thenation, nation, nationalism, and national belonging was under scrutiny as new forms of community were being imagined and and practiced. practiced. The The internationalism internationalism of of peace movement movement developed in concert with the women’s women’s peace with the the internationinternationalism of early twentieth-century twentieth-centuryblack blackleaders. leaders. In this chapter, chapter, II offer offer different different snapshots snapshots of of early early moments moments in in the the history of the US WILPE as a way to begin illustrating the varied ways in history of the US WILPF illustrating the varied ways in

Introduction| | 55 Introduction which race and and racism racism contributed contributed to to the thedevelopment developmentof ofthe theorganizaorganization. This chapter serves as as aa general general introduction introductionto tothe thefounding foundingofofthe the WILPF and and the the women’s women’s peace peace movement, movement,but butititdeparts departs from from the stanWILPF dard histories of the movement that cast gender as the central organizing principle. principle. Race Race mattered matteredto tothe theUS USwomen’s women’s peace peacemovement. movement.And Andtoto gain a greater greater appreciation appreciation of of the the complexity complexity of of Progressive Progressive Era Era reform reform movements, we we need to consider the role movements, role the the women’s women’s peace movement played in both both contesting contesting and and conforming conformingto tothe theJim JimCrow Crowpolitics politics of of the the interwar era. interwar era.

The Birth The Birth of of the the WILPF WILPF of women’s women’s suffrage suffrage and social reform Years of reform work workmade madethe theAugust August1914 1914 women’s peace peace protest protest march possible. The parade committee included women’s possible. The included suffrage leaders Harriot Harriot Stanton Stanton Blatch Blatch and and Carrie CarrieChapman ChapmanCatt, Catt,social social settlement house leader settlement leader Lillian Lillian Wald, Wald, labor labor activists activists Leonora Leonora O'Reilly O’Reilly and feminist feminist theorists theorists and writers and Rose Schneiderman, Schneiderman, and writers Charlotte Charlotte Perkins Gilman Gilman and Mary Perkins Mary Beard. Beard. The The organizational organizational resources resources and and Women helped helped transform political savvy of this first first generation of New Women the sentiments expressed through through the themarch marchinto intoan anexpansive, expansive,multimultiorganizational, and influential organizational, influential women’s women’s peace peacemovement. movement.Women’s Women’s objections to to the the direction direction of of the the war war coupled coupledwith with their their frustration frustration with with objections peace societies societies caused caused them to form the bureaucratic style of male-led peace separate women’s separate women’speace peacesocieties.” societies.5

Speaking tours throughout Speaking throughout the the United UnitedStates States in in1914 1914 by by European European suffragists Emmeline Pethick-Lawrence suffragists Pethick-Lawrence and Rosika Rosika Schwimmer Schwimmer concontributed to the urgency American women felt about the need to respond urgency American swiftly and swiftly andeffectively effectivelyto tothe thewar. war.In InJanuary Januaryofof1915, 1915, at at the the bequest bequestof ofJane Jane Addams and Carrie Carrie Chapman Chapman Catt, Catt, three three thousand thousandwomen womenattended attendedaa conference in Washington, Washington,DC. DC. Out Outof ofthe theconference conferencethe theWoman’s Woman’sPeace Peace Party (WPP) was formed. A few months later more than one thousand (WPP) was formed. A few months later more than one women gathered women gatheredat atThe The Hague Hagueto todevise deviseaapeace peacestrategy. strategy.Out Outof ofthe theApril April to May May 11 meeting meeting they formed 28 to formed the the International InternationalCommittee CommitteeofofWomen Women Permanent Peace (ICWPP). JaneAddams Addams was was selected the first for a Permanent (ICWPP). Jane first president of this new international women’s organization. At the end of the international women’s organization. At the end of

ofofNoble 6|A | Band A Band NobleWomen Women ICWPP women women gathered gathered in Zurich and war in in May May of of 1919, 1919, ICWPP andout outofofthis this meeting formed formed the theWILPF. WILPF. In November of that that same same year yearthe theUS US WPP WPP decided to decided tobecome becomethe theUS USWILPEF° WILPF.6 peace and and disarmament disarmament According to historian Nancy Nancy Cott, Cott, women’s peace work represented represented aakey key“arena “arenaofof[women’s] [women’s]voluntary voluntaryparticipation” participation” 7 during the the post-suffrage post-suffrage interwar interwaryears.’ years. Women Women who whohad hadstruggled struggledtoto pass the suffrage amendment, establish settlement houses, or the suffrage amendment, establish settlement houses, orlobby lobbyfor for improved health and work standards improved standards for for new new immigrants immigrants now now focused focused their skill and and resources resources on on international international foreign foreign policy policy and andsecuring securing world peace. Those women who sought sought to toparticipate participateininefforts effortstotostop stop war and promote peace found many options open to them as the moveand promote peace found many options open to them as the movement unfolding unfolding in inthe the1910s 1910s and and1920s 1920s represented representedaarange rangeofofpolitical political perspectives and and styles. styles. The development of the the WILPF WILPF and three three other otherwomen’s women’s peace peace socisocieties documents the varied agendas and strong appeal of peace work varied agendas and strong appeal of peace worktoto post-suffrage New New Women. Women. The TheWomen’s Women’s Peace Peace Society Society (WPS) (WPS) and andthe the Women’sPeace PeaceUnion Union (WPU) (WPU) gave gave feminists feminists options as Women’s as they theyconsidconsidered how they they wanted wantedto towork workfor forpeace. peace.The Themembership membershipofofthe theWPS, WPS, a strictly pacifist and single-issue organization dedicated to achieving pacifist and single-issue organization dedicated to achieving mandatory universal disarmament, never mandatory never surpassed surpassed sixteen sixteen hundred. hundred. WPU, another another single-issue organization, The WPU, organization, sought soughtto topass passaaUS USconsticonstitutional amendment tutional amendmentthat thatwould wouldoutlaw outlawwar. war.The TheWPU WPU used usedthe theoutlawry outlawry of war campaign as a vehicle to talk about the effects of war on vehicle talk about the effects of war onwomen women with aa particular particularfocus focuson onviolence violenceagainst againstwomen.® women.8 The The National NationalComCommittee on inin 1924 mittee on the theCause Causeand andCure CureofofWar War(NCCCW), (NCCCW),founded founded 1924bybyforformer suffrage leader Carrie Chapman ChapmanCatt, Catt, represented representedthe thelast lastmajor majorand and most moderate women’s peace group of the interwar years. The NCCCW interwar years. The NCCCW functioned as aa “clearinghouse “clearinghouse for for the the peace peace interests interestsof ofother otherwomen’s women’s 9 organizations.”’ Consisting organizations.” Consistingof of eleven elevenmajor majorwomen’s women’s associations, associations,includincluding the the League League of of Women Women Voters, Voters, the PTA, and the the American AmericanAssociation Association of University Women (AAUW), by 1930 the NCCCW boasted Women (AAUW), 1930 boasted that thatititreprepresented at resented at least least “one “one out outof of every everyfive five women womenin inthe theUnited UnitedStates.”"° States.”10 The The WPU, WPS, WPS,and and NCCCW NCCCWcontributed contributed immensely immensely to the nationwide WPU, nationwide propropeace spirit spirit of of the the1920s 1920s and and1930s, 1930s, but but unlike unlikethe theWILPF WILPFthese thesewomen’s women’s peace societies could not weather the strain of World War II. The NCCCW not weather the strain of World War II. The NCCCW

Introduction| | 77 Introduction leaving the the WILPF WILPF as as the only folded in in 1947, 1947, leaving only women’s women’s peace peace society society still still functioning in functioning inthe theyears yearsfollowing followingWWIL. WWII. As Frances Early and Kathleen Kennedy Kennedy point pointout, out,World World War War II also also produced serious concerns produced concerns about civil civil liberties liberties in in the theUnited UnitedStates.” States.11

Many young antimilitarist Many antimilitarist feminists feminists contributed contributed to tonew neworganizations organizations designed to designed to challenge challenge the thegovernment’s government’scrackdown crackdownon onwar warresisters, resisters,labor labor activists, socialists, and immigrants. New York City members of the WPP and immigrants. New York City members of the WPP encouraged fellow member member Frances Frances Witherspoon Witherspoon to to devise devise aaway wayto toproprovide legal assistance to people people being being harassed harassedfor fortheir theirpolitical politicalbeliefs. beliefs. With financial financial support support from from the theWPP, WPP, Witherspoon Witherspoon created createdthe theBureau Bureau of Legal Legal Advice, Advice, which which gave gave counsel to draft-age men and conscientious men and conscientious objectors. The Civil Liberties Bureau, the precursor precursorto tothe theAmerican AmericanCivil Civil Liberties Union, Union, also also took took shape shape in response to the repression Liberties repression produced produced by the the war. war. As As Early Early documents, documents,“civil “civilliberties libertiesactivism activismrepresented representeda a new direction for women.” women.”12In the midst of the war, progressives, In the midst of the war, progressives, socialsocialfeminists, liberals, liberals, left-wing left-wing labor labor groups, groups, and civil liberty activists ists, feminists, all contributed in in various various ways ways to to an an emerging emergingpeace peace culture. culture. In comparison to other other women’s women’s and mixed-gender mixed-gender peace peace organizaorganizations, the WILPF offered a more comprehensive political agenda; agenda; aa more more ageressive position position on US economic imperialism; and and a stronger aggressive economic imperialism; stronger comcommitment to to building buildingan aninternational internationalmovement. movement.By Bythe themid-1920s, mid-1920s,the the US section section supported paid US paid staff staff in inaanational nationaloffice office in inWashington, Washington,DC. DC. International headquarters in Geneva functioned as a watchdog over International headquarters Geneva functioned as a watchdog over of the League of Nations Nations and fostered the growth the developments developments of League of growth of of international WILPF WILPF sections. The The US US WILPF’s WILPF’s membership increased increased rapidlygrowing growing from an steadily until untilWorld WorldWar WarIIL, II, rapidly an initial initialmembership membership of about one hundred in 1919 to two thousand members in 1920. of about one hundred in 1919 to two thousand members in 1920.At Atits its pre-World War War II II high, the US maintained more more than fourteen pre–World US WILPF WILPF maintained thousand members. thousand members.By By1925 1925 the the international internationalWILPF WILPFconsisted consistedofofmore more 13 than twenty-five II divided divided the leadership than twenty-five national national sections.’’ sections. World War II leadership of the WILPF WILPF and and led to a dramatic decline in membership. In the dramatic decline in membership. In theinitial initial years of the war, war, the the WILPF WILPF worked along with other other peace peace organizaorganizations on the “Keep “Keep America Out of the War” War” neutrality neutrality campaigns. campaigns. As As information about information aboutthe theimpact impactof ofHitler’s Hitler’s fascism fascism on on European EuropeanJews Jewsspread spread and the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor brought the war more directly the brought the war more directly

ofofNoble 8|A | Band A Band NobleWomen Women US arena, arena, WILPF WILPFwomen women found found it increasingly increasingly diffi difficult maintain into a US cult to maintain organizational unity organizational unityover over aa position positionof of neutrality neutralityand andcomplete completepacifism. pacifism. By the the end end of the the war the WILPF’s membership stood at 3,789 members, aa By WILPF’s membership 3,789 members, eleven thousand thousand from its prewar high." decline of eleven high.14 After the suffrage, the worked less directly directly on After the passage passage of of suffrage, the WILPF worked on issues issues particular concern of particular concern to to women. women. Instead Insteadthe theWILPF WILPF sought sought to to educate educate and and mobilize women on issues of direct importance importance to securing a sustainable to securing a sustainable WILPF’spolitical politicalprogram program started started in 1915 with the the protest of peace. The WILPF’s 1915 with military preparedness preparedness and andthe themilitarized militarizedUS USbudget. budget.The TheUS USWILPF’s WILPF’s political agenda agenda during duringthe the1920s 1920s and andearly early1930s 1930s focused focusedon onlegal legalefforts efforts to limit the machinery of war and reverse US military and economic machinery of war and reverse US military and economic forforWar IIended, ended, the the WILPF WILPFhelped helped eign policy in Latin America. Once World War campaigns to to support the League of of Nations Nations direct national and global campaigns and unsuccessful unsuccessful efforts efforts to to pass passlegislation legislationoutlawing outlawingwar. war.These Thesecamcampaigns included international programs to pressure the government representatives attending attending the the1930 1930 London Naval Talks to endorse complete universal disarmament and halt halt the the production production of of naval naval warships. warships. The The WILPFEalso alsoestablished establishednumerous numerouscampaigns campaigns to investigate investigate and WILPF and denounce denounce US intervention intervention in places like Haiti, Nicaragua, and Panama. in places like Haiti, Nicaragua, and Panama.

Community Internationalism: Community Internationalism:1915 1915 Hague Hague Congress Congress The proceedings proceedings of International Congress of Women held held at The The of the the 1915 1915 International Hague indicated indicated the the type typeof of organization organizationthe theWILPF WILPF would would become. become. The 1915meeting meeting signaled signaled the centrality centrality of 1915 of transnationalism transnationalismtotothe theWILPF, WILPF,and and it underscored underscored women’s women’s commitment commitment to to devising devisingimplementable implementablepeace peace programs and policies. Although fifteen hundred women representing and policies. fifteen hundred women representing twenty-two countries countries and 150 organizations attended attended the congress, congress, the the twenty-two 150 organizations leadership would be dominated by European women for the duration of the interwar years.” years.15 The women at The Hague believed in the ability ability of of educated middle-class women to influence the thinking of governmento influence the thinking of governmental representatives and the the moral moral direction direction of of the theworld. world.The Thecongress congress lobby dignitaries dignitaries from the warring dispatched envoys of women to lobby warring and and neutral nations neutral nations to to stop stop fighting fighting and andstart startnegotiating negotiatingaapeace. peace.The TheHague Hague meeting also established the WILPF as an organization committed established the WILPF an organization committedtoto

Introduction| | 99 Introduction denouncing the denouncing the destructive destructivepowers powersof ofnationalism. nationalism.As AsEuropean EuropeansuffragsuffragAletta Jacobs stated: “If we can bring ist Aletta bring women womento tofeel feelthat thatinternationalinternationalism is higher than than nationalism, nationalism, then then they theywon't won’tstand standby bygovernments, governments, 16 they'll stand they’ll standby byhumanity.’”"° humanity.” The years surrounding surroundingWorld World War War II marked markedthe the“high “hightide tideofofinterinternationalism” as women deepened deepened their their belief belief that that aastrong stronginternational international sisterhood was necessary to the expansion of women’s rights and cursisterhood was necessary to the expansion of women’s rights andthe the cur17 tailment of The WILPF WILPF women women gathered gathered at tailment of war.’” war. The at The The Hague Haguerepresented represented this trend trend of of growing growinginternational internationalengagement engagementand andworld-mindedness. world-mindedness. For many women, including Jane Addams, the For the immediate immediate roots rootsof oftheir their community internationalism emerged from their experiences as workers community internationalism emerged from their experiences as workers herher 1907 in and and inhabitants inhabitantsofofurban urbansocial socialsettlement settlementhouses. houses.InIn 1907book, book, Newer Ideals IdealsofofPeace, Peace,Addams Addamscredits creditsthe the myriad myriad immigrants Newer immigrantsliving livingininthe the nation’s burgeoning burgeoning cities nation’s cities with with showing showingher herthat thatcoexistence coexistenceand andfellowfellowship under difficult and trying circumstances was possible. Dislocated under difficult and trying circumstances was possible. Dislocated from their home countries countries and andliving livingin indisheveled, disheveled,underresourced, underresourced,and and unfamiliar cities, unfamiliar cities, the the country’s country’s new newimmigrants immigrantswere, were,for forAddams, Addams,the the 18 In direct direct contrast to “humble harbingers harbingersof ofthe thenewer newerideals idealsofofpeace.’”'® peace.” In to the individualistic and combative ethos of the Darwinian survival of the the individualistic and combative ethos of the Darwinian survival of the fittest fi ttest ethic, Addams saw immigrant immigrantcommunities communities“develop “developthe thepower powerofof association which association which comes comes from from daily daily contact contact with withthose thosewho whoare areunalike.”” unalike.”19 In other other words, words, difference differenceof of origin, origin,nationality, nationality,race, race,and andethnicity ethnicityneed need not lead to conflict and violence. Community internationalism, based conflict based as as it was on observations of and admiration admiration for for immigrants, immigrants,not notonly onlyserved served blueprint for crias a blueprint forwomen’s women’sideals idealsof ofpeace, peace,but butititalso alsoserved servedasasa adirect direct crianti-immigrant sentiment tique of the racist anti-immigrant sentimentthat thatovertook overtookmuch muchofofAmeriAmerican politics in the early twentieth century. Peace women’s belief the early twentieth century. Peace women’s beliefininthe the possibility of coexistence coexistence stemmed also from from the thepractical practicalwork workunderunderway in the the social social settlement settlement houses houses administered administeredby bythem. them.InInthis thiswork work they experienced the the “bread “breadpolitics” politics”of ofcosmopolitanism. cosmopolitanism.From Fromdirectdirecting coal and kitchen cooperatives to practicing shared decision making, kitchen cooperatives practicing shared decision making, women applied applied these these practical practicalexperiences experiencesof of equanimity equanimityand andsharing sharingofof 20 resources to the the problems problems of of negotiating negotiatingand andsustaining sustainingpeace.” peace. As Ascomcommunity internationalists internationalists they they arrived arrived at at The The Hague “thinking “thinking in in terms terms of of 21 family, community, and the brotherhood of mankind.””! and the brotherhood of mankind.”

10 | A ofofNoble 10 | Band A Band NobleWomen Women Congressestablished established three three founding principles. First, sufThe 1915 1915 Congress frage for all women was was necessary. necessary. Second, Second, pacifism pacifism needed needed to to supplant supplant militarism. And third, transnationalism militarism. transnationalism must must replace replace nationalism. nationalism. As As future WILPF WILPF leader Emily Greene Balch Balch observed, “what stands stands out out most strongly among all my impressions impressions of of those thrilling thrillingand andstrained strained days at The Hague is the sense sense of of the the wonder wonder of of the thebeautiful beautifulspirit spiritof of self-controlled women women who who dared dared ridicule ridicule and every the brave, brave, self-controlled every sort sort of of difficulty diffi culty to express a passionate human human sympathy, sympathy, not not inconsistent inconsistentwith with 22 patriotism, but patriotism, buttranscending transcendingit.”** it.” The The “Principles “Principlesof ofaaPermanent PermanentPeace” Peace” that were adopted by the the congress congress registered attendees’ strong support for the advancement of women’s advancement of women’s rights. rights. The The plank plankabout aboutthe theEnfranchiseEnfranchisement of Women underscored that that women women could could only onlyhave havean an“effective “effective influence infl uence when they have have equal equal political political rights rightswith withmen.” men.”Resolutions Resolutions also protested the the “horrible “horrible violation of women which attends attends all all war.” war.”23

Learning to Speak Learning Speak for for Peace Peace The women of of the the new newpeace peacemovement movementwere weresuffragist-pacifist suffragist-pacifistpeace peace activists.24One of the first tasks they faced was convincing the public One of the first tasks they faced was convincing the publicthat that women had had something somethingto to contribute contributeto tothe thepolitical politicalefforts effortsto to curtail curtailwar. war. To do do so they turned To turned to tothe thelanguage languageofofsocial socialmotherhood motherhoodtotoexplain explain participation in women’s participation inissues issuesof ofwar warand andforeign foreignpolicy. policy.Social Socialmothermotherhood, though useful in explaining women’s work on behalf of useful in explaining women’s work on behalf of women women and children children in in urban urbansettings, settings,did didnot noteasily easilyconvince convince men men that thatwomen women Addams addressed this public understood war. Jane Jane Addams public resistance in her her 1915article article“Women “Women and and Internationalism.” Internationalism.” Men, 1915 Men,Addams Addamswrote, wrote,“argue “argue that aa woman’s municipal vote may be cast for the regulation of woman’s vote may be cast for the regulation ofconcontagious disease, her state vote vote for for the the protection protection of of working working children,” children,” but that that itit is is “preposterous” “preposterous” for for women women who who “cannot “cannot fight” fight” to to find fi nd solusolu25 tions to war.” war. Addams Addamsstruggled struggledtotoexplain explainwomen’s women’sinterest interestininwar warand and peace without only relying upon the argument that women were natuargument that women were naturally opposed opposed to to war. war. In In the the article articleshe sheproposes proposesthat thatwomen’s women’sinterests interests in war and and peace peace originate originate both both from from their their experiences experiences of of motherhood motherhood and from their their shared shared common common humanity humanitywith withthe theentire entireworld’s world’speopeople. Addams noted that: “The belief that that a woman is against war simply

Introduction| | II Introduction 11 because is aa woman woman and and not man cannot because she she is not aa man cannot of of course course be be substantiated. substantiated. country there In every country there are arewomen womenwho whobelieve believethat thatwar warisisinevitable inevitableand and 26 righteous.”*° Yet Addams did believe that women’s experience of motherrighteous.” Yet Addams did believe that experience motherhood produced produced for for many many women women aa unique uniqueand andnecessary necessarystandpoint standpointonon have brought brought men into the world and war. Women “who have and nurtured nurturedthem” them” destroyed.””” must “experience a peculiar peculiarrevulsion revulsionwhen whenthey theysee seethem them destroyed.”27 Even though Addams Even Addams located located the thelegitimacy legitimacyofofsome somewomen’s women’santiantiwar participation in their their maternal maternal qualities, qualities, she she resisted resisted claiming claiming that that understood the women alone understood the true truemeaning meaningofofwar warororpossessed possessedthe thekey key She concluded concluded that that organized organized womanhood womanhood sought to be but to peace. peace. She but “one more outstanding voice” in the urgent effort to stop the bloodshed “one more outstanding urgent effort to stop the bloodshed of war.*® of war.28 Although itit can Although can be be difficult difficultto togauge gaugethe theexact exactinfluence influenceofofthe theWILPF WILPF and the the women’s women’s peace peace movement movement on onnational nationalpolitics politicsand andpublic publicideolideology, it is is clear clear that that belief in peace flourished in the United States from flourished in the United States fromthe the until the late 1920s 1920s until the eve eve of of World World War War II. II. After AfterWorld WorldWar WarI,I,public publicsensentiment turned turned against against war war as as the thewartime wartimepromise promiseof ofdemocracy democracy failed failed and economic economic hardship hardship increased. increased. Mass Mass media, media,best-selling best-selling fiction, fiction, and and public outcry indicted World War I as senseless carnage, waged by innoindicted World War waged by innocent youth on the behalf cent behalf of of greedy greedy industrialists. industrialists. The The peace peace movement movement 1920s capitalized on on this thisgrowing growingcritical criticalpublic publicstance. stance.By Bythe thelate late 1920spropropeace activity had emerged in in many many corners corners of of the thenation nationwith withwomen, women, students, and clergy leading the way. One sign of the shifting public and clergy leading the way. One sign of the shifting publicattiattitude could tude could be be gauged gaugedatatVassar VassarCollege. College. In In1917 1917 Vassar women marched marched in support support of of war, war, but butin in1933 1933 five five hundred hundredgraduating graduatingseniors—led seniors—ledby by president—marched down down the the college president—marched the main main street street of of Poughkeepsie Poughkeepsie in in 29 caps and gowns protesting for peace.” gowns protesting for peace. gained the attention From its earliest days as the the WPP, WPP, the WILPE WILPF gained attention of of members of Congress, of the US US president, president, and of everyday citizens. In the members the years of World War War I,I,President President Woodrow Woodrow Wilson early years Wilson entertained entertainednumernumerous visits from women peace leaders who pleaded the case for maintainleaders who pleaded the case for maintaining US neutrality. neutrality. From From July July to to December Decemberof of1915 1915 Jane Jane Addams Addamsmet metwith with President Wilson President Wilson six times times to to persuade persuadehim himto tomaintain maintainUS USneutrality neutralityand and take leadership in negotiating negotiating aa mediated mediatedend endtotothe thewar. war.Emily EmilyGreene Greene Balch and Aletta Jacobs also met with Wilson during the same months.” Balch and Jacobs also during the same months.30

12 | A ofofNoble 12 | Band A Band NobleWomen Women and Jacobs’s visits did did not stop Though Addams’s, Addams’s, Balch’s, Balch’s, and Jacobs’s visits stop US US entrance entrance attentiveness to to the the women indicated the into the war, Wilson’s Wilson’s attentiveness the power power of of US WILPF WILPFwould would maintain maintain access the women’s peace lobby. The US access to to Capitol Capitol part this the skill and and Hill for many decades. In part this access access was a reflection reflection of the WILPF lobbyist, lobbyist,Dorothy Dorothy Detzer, Detzer, who who many many considered to be intellect of WILPF On the the the most effective liberal lobbyist at work in in the the 1920s 1920s and 1930s. 1930s. On the London London Naval eve of the Naval Conference Conferencein in1930, 1930, President PresidentHoover Hoovercalled calledfor foraa private meeting with with Detzer. He wanted wanted to to explain explain why why the the United United States States disarmament or standing standing behind was not advocating complete disarmament behindaa proposal proposal to abolish the building of of battleships battleships and and submarines. submarines. He He also alsowanted wanted to pressure her to to curtail curtail the the disarmament disarmament lobby lobby campaign campaign waged waged by by Detzerlistened listenedto to Hoover’s Hoover’s explanation explanation for the WILPEF. WILPF. Detzer for the theweakened weakenedUS US position. When Hoover asked Detzer what she would do in his shoes, she advised him to to be be bold bold and and “discard “discard all allideas ideasof of ‘parity’ ‘parity’ and and ‘reduction’ ‘reduction’ ...and . . that . . . andoffer offeraaprogram programsosoaudacious audacious. . . . thatthe theworld worldwould wouldrise riseup upand and 31 call me call me blessed.”*" blessed.”

WILPFreached reached people people outside outside of ofthe the White White House House and and its its own The WILPF marches, community community events, petition campaigns, and membership. Peace marches, and savvy use of the media helped familiarize people with the organization. the organization. 1916War WarAgainst AgainstWar Warart art show show drew drew more than than five A 1916 five thousand thousandpeople people during its opening days. in Brooklyn Brooklyn during days. The The exhibit then traveled traveled to to ChiChiand Massachusetts. cago and Massachusetts.In In1930, 1930, NBC NBC offered offered the theWILPF—for WILPF—for free—the free—the primetime evening spot of 6:30 to 7:00 Saturday evenings during primetime evening spot of 6:30 7:00 Saturday duringthe theLonLondon Naval Radio don NavalConference Conferencefor foraashow showentitled entitled RadioPeace PeaceProgram. Program.In Inthe theera eraofof radio popularity, the the show show could could reach reach thirty thirtyto toforty fortythousand thousandpeople.” people.32 Dealing with Dealing with the theInfluence Influenceof of Racism Racism social anxiety anxiety over gender and If social and the the changing changingrole roleof of women women influenced influenced the founding foundingof of the theWILPE, WILPF, so too did social unrest unrestover overrace raceand andthe therole role of people people of color in in the nation nation and world. The racial politics of the woman and world. The racial politics of the woman suffrage movement and social reform work clouded clouded the the question questionof of the the involvement of of African African American Americanwomen womenin in the the founding founding years of the involvement women’s peace peace movement. Just one year women’s year before before the the1914 1914 women’s peace march, an elaborate 1913 suffrage parade in Washington, an elaborate 1913 parade in Washington,DC, DC,restricted restricted

Introduction| | 13 Introduction 13 black women women from from marching marching with with white white women. women. In In planning planning for for the the sufsufparade and and the heated battle battle for for the thevote, vote,many manywhite whitewomen womenforthforthfrage parade rightly embraced embraced segregation segregationininorder order to to gain gain the the support support of of Southern Southern rightly states. White Whitewomen womeneased easedSouthern Southernfears fearsover overthe thepotential potentialenfranchiseenfranchisestates. black women women by by pledging pledging that that as as white white women women they they would vote ment of black 33 Likewise, during during the Spanish-American on behalf of of white white interests.*? interests. Likewise, Spanish-American War the Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) embraced racracWomen’s (WCTU) embraced feared the the potenpotenism as their reason for opposing the war. war. The WCTU WCTU feared acquisition of of Cuba Cubaand and the the Philippines Philippinesbecause becausethey theybelieved believedthat that tial acquisition the demise demise of of white white power power and and hasten hasten these island nations would lead to the national moral national moraldecay.** decay.34 WILPF was was complex. Unlike Unlike the WCTU’s The effect of race on the US WILPF WCTU’s position on on the the Spanish-American Spanish-AmericanWar, War,atatthe theturn turnofofthe thecentury centuryJane Jane position Addams opposed Yet,like like Addams opposed the the war war in in part partout out of of a clear antiracist position. Yet, many white women’s organizations, the WILPF functioned within the women’s organizations, the WILPF functioned within the and practices of the women’s club and and shadow of the segregation policies and women’s club 35 Crow atmosphere atmosphere of of the the nation nation at at large. large.” suffrage movements and the Jim Crow War IIhad had aa large largeeffect effecton onthe thedirection directionand and meaning meaning of of interracial interracial World War politics in the United States. Out of the urgency of the war, some African politics in the United States. Out of the urgency of the war, some African American and and white white women women pushed against traditions of racial segreAmerican racial segregation. Through their work work with with War War Work Work Councils Councils of of the the YWCA YWCA that were established to meet the needs of women in the war industries and were established to meet the needs of women in the war industries and enlisted soldiers, soldiers, some some white white women women questioned questioned the the effi efficiency racially ciency ofofracially committees. Women’s Women’swartime wartimework workalso alsoincreased increased segregated women’s women’s committees. cross-racialinteractions. interactions.AsAshistorians historianshave have the frequency frequency of women’s women’s cross-racial documented, the formalized “interracial cooperation” cooperation” documented, the idea and and practice of formalized gained appeal in the context of the war. Yet, if the call by whites forcoopcoopappeal in the context Yet, if the call by whites for eration was intended to improve race relations, relations, itit was was not not necessarily necessarily aa eration racial integration. integration. For For instance, instance, the the founding founding in 1920 ofthe theSouthSouthcall for racial 1920 of Cooperation (CIC) (CIC)sought soughttototemper temperthe the ern Commission on Interracial Interracial Cooperation extreme white racial violence that flared in 1919. The women’s committee extreme white racial violence that flared in 1919. The women’s committee CIC became became aa signifi significant avenuethrough through which which Southern Southern African African of the CIC cant avenue American and and white white women women attempted attempted interracial interracialorganizing. organizing.Although Although American worked to foster foster working working alliances alliances with with moderate moderate black black leaders, leaders, the CIC worked 36 it did not call for political racial equality.°° Starting as early as 1907 the not call for political racial equality. Starting 1907 the

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YWCA looked looked to to formalize formalize its relationship with YWCA with middle-class middle-class African African American women, women, although althoughthe theYWCA YWCA would wouldnot notformally formallydesegregate desegregate its branches branches until until1947, 1947. World War I also gave shape shape to tothe therace racerelation relation peace associations. associations. In order order to politics of women’s peace to most most effectively effectively agitate agitate many white women in for peace, many in the the WILPF WILPF believed it was necessary necessary to to enhance their their relationship relationship with withmiddle-class middle-classblack blackwomen. women.For Forreasons reasons of expediency and and political politicalphilosophy, philosophy,the theWILPF WILPFengaged engagedinincoalition coalition building building with with African African American Americanleaders, leaders, sought soughtthe theparticipation participationof ofAfriAfriAmerican women women in the organization, and became can American became a central central figure figure in a number of domestic and international international campaigns campaigns that thatcriticized criticizedthe the of the the US US government government and and championed the freedom of racism of of people of Yet, as as Joyce JoyceBlackwell Blackwelland and others others have color. Yet, have noted, noted,the theWILPF’s WILPF’sefforts efforts to work with with African African American Americanwomen womenin inthe thepeace peacemovement movementsuffered suffered often from the same attitudes witnessed in the YWCA and other often from the same attitudes witnessed in the YWCA and otherwomwomen’s associations. associations.”37 en’s

Jim Crow Crow climate climate of of the the fifirst two decades decades of of the the twentieth twentieth century century The Jim rst two and the and the postwar postwarrise riseininracial racialviolence violenceinfluenced influenceddevelopments developmentsininthe theUS US WILPF.From Fromthe the end end of of Radical Radical Reconstruction Reconstruction in 1877 through the rise WILPF. 1877 through of the postwar New Negro, black Americans experienced what historians New historians have called the nadir nadir of of the thepostbellum postbellumperiod. period.InIn1896, 1896, the the United United States States Supreme Court with thethe Plessy v. v. Ferguson Supreme Courtsanctioned sanctionedracial racialsegregation segregation with Plessy Fergusonrulruling that legalized legalized the the separate separatebut butequal equaldoctrine. doctrine.Throughout Throughoutthe theSouth, South, public facilities facilities including including transportation transportation (railroads, steamboats, taxis, and trolleys), parks, parks, theaters, workplaces, restaurants, trolleys), restaurants, and andhotels hotelsimplemented implemented what came to be known known as asJim Jim Crow Crow policies, policies, relegating black black citizens to separate and lesser accommodations. Jim Crow restrictions were one part of a multifaceted system that sought to strip of multifaceted system strip blacks, blacks, particularly in the the South, of any vestiges of political power and and to to instill instillaaclimate climateof ofsecondsecondclass citizenship, citizenship, fear, fear, and and instability. Jim Crow Crow left left its imprint on class instability. Jim on the the North as well. well. Although segregation was less less severe in the the North, North, black black Americans still frequently found their access to public facilities like still frequently found their access to public facilities likeresrestaurants, nightclubs, and taurants, and educational educational institutions institutionslimited limitedororprohibited. prohibited. Racist violence violence swept swept the country country in Racist in the the first first few few decades decadesof of the thecencentury as tury as whites whitesattacked attackedblacks blackswho whoattempted attemptedtotoforge forgeeconomic, economic,political, political, and social freedom. The renewal of the Ku Klux Klan in the early renewal of the Ku the early part partof of

Introduction| | 15 Introduction 15 the twentieth twentiethcentury, century,the theresurgence resurgenceofoflynching, lynching,and anda awave waveofofrace raceriots riots marked a revitalization revitalization of in 1919 1919 marked of white white aggression. aggression.The Thepinnacle pinnacleofofthis this violence took shape shape during duringwhat whatJames JamesWeldon WeldonJohnson Johnsoncoined coinedthe theRed Red Summer of The participation participation of Summer of 1919. 1919. The ofblack blacktroops troopsininWorld WorldWar WarI coupled I coupled with black migration from the the South South to to Midwestern Midwestern and andNorthern Northerncities cities in search of jobs in wartime wartime industries industriesescalated escalatedantiblack antiblackvigilantism vigilantisminin the country. country. During Duringthe thelast lastsix sixmonths monthsofof1919, 1919,twenty-five twenty-fiverace raceriots riotstore tore through the through the country. country.Whites Whitesrioted riotedfor forfive fivedays daysininChicago Chicagoand andWashWashington, DC. In Elaine, Arkansas, an an attack attack by by whites whitesagainst againstthe thepolitical political organizing of black sharecroppers resulted resulted in in the the murder murderof ofatatleast leasttwo two hundred black hundred blackresidents.** residents.38

This racial racial violence violence touched touched the women and This the lives lives of of women and men men who whowould would become associated with the WILPF. It forced some black women to leave become associated with the WILPF. It forced some black women to leave their homes in search of safety in the the North North and andinspired inspiredsome somewhite white women to lend their voice and expertise to new organizations, like voice expertise to new organizations, like the the NAACP. In In the the fall of 1906, 1906,up up to to ten thousand NAACP. thousandwhites whitesrioted riotedininAtlanta, Atlanta, resulting in in the the death deathof oftwenty-five twenty-fiveto toone onehundred hundredblack blackAtlanta Atlantaresiresidents. Armed Armed with with pitchforks, pitchforks, knives, knives, and andguns, guns,the thevigilante vigilantemob mobswept swept through the Five Points neighborhood, killing black residents and destroythrough the Five Points neighborhood, killing black residents and destroying the once vibrant black black middle-class business and and entertainment entertainmentdisdistrict. The Atlanta riots caused Addie Hunton and her husband to flee their trict. The Atlanta riots caused Addie Hunton and her husband to flee their home. With a sick child in in tow, tow, they they relocated relocated permanently permanentlytotoNew NewYork York 39 City.” Only thirteen years old at the time, Walter White also witnessed City. thirteen years old at the time, Walter White also witnessed the racist violence that overtook the the city, city, including including the the beating beatingdeath deathof ofaa black youth. White, who went went on on to to become become the theexecutive executivedirector directorof ofthe the NAACP and and a strong NAACP strong supporter supporterof ofthe theWILPF, WILPF, remembered remembered the theAtlanta Atlanta atrocities as one of the defining moments of his life. one of the defining moments of his life. In response to this this upsurge upsurgein inviolence violence and andthe themistreatment mistreatmentofofblack black soldiers, a new and soldiers, and diverse diversewave waveof ofpolitical politicalprotest protestand andconsciousness consciousness took shape. The New New Negro Negro movement movementadopted adopteda adefiant, defiant,outspoken, outspoken,and and international political consciousness. Out of the “revolutionary crucible” international political consciousness. Out of the “revolutionary crucible” 1919,aarange range of ofpolitical political voices voices took took hold of the country of 1919, countryand andpromised promised 40 constant cry.*° to make the the demand demandfor forjustice justicea apublic publicand and constant cry. From Fromsharesharecroppers to to domestic domestic workers workers to tomiddle-class middle-classclubwomen, clubwomen,the thepostwar postwar years opened the doors to more defiant forms of black resistance politics.” opened the doors to more defiant forms of black resistance politics.41

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Established in in 1909, the NAACP responded to Established 1909, the NAACP responded to postwar postwar developdevelopments with increased condemnation of the US race record and with ments with increased condemnation of the US race record and withthe the embrace of of a more fervent internationalism. An interracial embrace interracial organization organization formed in formed in response responseto tothe the1908 1908 Springfield, Springfield, Illinois, Illinois, race riots, the the NAACP represented the liberal liberal wing of of race race politics politics during during the theinterwar interwaryears. years. engaged in legislative and educational educational projects projects to to push push for for an end to It engaged legislative and to discrimination in housing, housing, education, education, employment, employment, voting, voting, and andtranstransportation. It also was at the forefront forefront of the campaigns to to stop stop lynching. lynching. the NAACP NAACPtook tookthe the lead lead during during the Through its magazine, the Crisis, Crisis, the 1920sand and 1930s 1930sininpromoting promoting the the literary and 1920s and cultural culturalaccomplishments accomplishments flourishing of the fl ourishing Harlem HarlemRenaissance. Renaissance. The fi first executive committee committee of the NAACP included future The rst executive of the NAACP included futureWILPF WILPF International President International President Jane Jane Addams Addamsand andMary MaryChurch ChurchTerrell. Terrell.The Thegengeneral committee of the newly newly formed formed NAACP NAACP included included other other members members who would would become become associated associatedwith withthe theWILPF: WILPF:Anna AnnaGarlin GarlinSpencer, Spencer, founding member member of of the the WPP WPP and andthe thefirst firstpresident presidentofofthe theUS USWILPF; WILPF; womens labor women’s labor activist activistLeonora LeonoraO’Reilly; O’Reilly; and Leslie Pinckney Hill, member of the American American Friends Friends Service Service Committee Committee (AFSC) (AFSC) and president president of of Cheyney College, a black school located outside Cheyney outside of of Philadelphia, Philadelphia,PennsylPennsylvania. Hill Philadelphia WILPPF’s vania. Hillwould wouldlater laterhelp helpestablish establishthe the Philadelphia WILPF’sinterracial interracial 42 extension committee.” extension committee.

appealed to The NAACP appealed to many many WILPF WILPF women women because because of of its its progresprogressive liberalism. liberalism. For Jane JaneAddams, Addams, participation participation in the NAACP represented represented extension of of the the social social justice justice ideals ideals she she promoted through through the a logical logical extension the Hull House settlement settlement in in Chicago Chicago and andher heralready alreadyestablished establishedrelationrelationships with withW. W. E. E. B. B. Du Du Bois Bois and andIda IdaB. B.Wells. Wells.Through ThroughAddams’s Addams’sinvitainvita-

tion, Du Bois spoke at Hull House, delivering an address on Bois spoke on Abraham Abraham Lincoln to a capacity Lincoln capacity crowd. crowd. Addams Addams traveled traveledtotoAtlanta AtlantaUniversity Universityinin 1908to toparticipate participate in in aa conference conference organized organized by 1908 by Du Du Bois Bois in advance advance of the the publication ofofhis collection, The Negro American Family: publication hisedited edited collection, The Negro American Family:Report Reportofofa a 43 Social Study to which Addams had contributed.* Through their support Social Study to which Addams had contributed. Through their supportofof white women women like Jane Addams Addams helped the NAACP, NAACP, white helpedestablish establishProgressive Progressive support for Era support for interracial interracial collaboration collaboration while while building buildingstrong strongworking working relationships and and good good faith faith with withblack black liberals. liberals.

Introduction| | 17 Introduction 17 The National National Association The Association of of Colored Colored Women Women Predating the Predating the NAACP NAACP and the the rise rise of the New Negro Negro movement, African American women American women established establishedthe theNational NationalAssociation Associationof of Colored Colored Women Women in 1896. 1896.With Withthe the motto motto Lifting as We Climb, the (NACW) in the NACW endeavendeavored to protect the reputation reputation of of black women while working to provide for the day-to-day day-to-day needs needsof of black black Americans. Americans.Clubwomen Clubwomenset setup upday daycare care provided job training training and centers, provided andhousing housingfor forwomen, women,and andestablished establishedlitliterary societies. By the the second decade erary decade of the twentieth twentiethcentury, century,the theNACW NACW had a membership membership of of one hundred hundredthousand. thousand.African AfricanAmerican Americanwomen women created their own associations created associations and clubs clubs in in order order to tomeet meetthe theongoing ongoing needs of of black black Americans Americans who who faced faced Jim Jim Crow, Crow, and and they theycreated createdthem them because of their their own ownexclusion exclusionfrom fromwhite whitewomen’s women’sclubs. clubs.As AsAnna AnnaJulia Julia Cooper wrote Cooper wroteininher her1892 1892book bookAAVoice Voicefrom from the the South, South, African AfricanAmerican American women occupied women occupied aa “unique “uniqueposition” position”at atthe theturn turnofofthe thecentury. century.InInthe theface face of the post-Reconstruction post-Reconstruction backlash backlash against againstAfrican AfricanAmerican Americanadvanceadvancement, middle-class black women believed believed they they were wereespecially especiallyqualified qualified 44 to lead the the race and and nation nationto toaaplace placeof ofjustice justiceand andequanimity.” equanimity. As As“race “race

women,” middle-class black women used their their “unique “uniqueposition” position”to toedueducate white white women cate women on on the the needs needsof ofblack blackAmericans Americansand andblack blackmen menon onthe the of women women in the uplifting uplifting of role of of the the race. Parallel with their their white white councounterparts, middle-class expanded during terparts, middle-class African African American American women’s women’s lives expanded during the Progressive Era as women manipulated the discourse of maternalProgressive Era the discourse of maternalism to extend extend women’s women’s duties into into new new areas areasofofsocial socialhousekeeping— housekeeping— teaching, settlement and and missionary missionary work, work, and and protesting protestingfor for the the political political 45 women.” rights of women. Many of the women Many of women who who joined joined and and most mostinfluenced influenced the theWILPF WILPF were leaders were leaders in in the the NACW NACW and and members members of of the theInternational InternationalCouncil Council of Women of the of the Darker Darker Races Races (ICWDR). (ICWDR). Mary Church Church Terrell, Terrell, Addie Addie Hunton, and Addie Addie Dickerson, Dickerson, for instance, instance, all all played played pivotal pivotal roles roles in in one or both of these organizations. Even though the NACW, like many of these organizations. Even though the NACW, like many middle-class black middle-class black Americans, Americans, initially initially supported supportedWorld WorldWar WarI Iininhopes hopes that black participation would result in in black black freedom, the racism of the war hastened the organization and and its its members members to take take up up the the cause cause of of

18 | A ofofNoble 18 | Band A Band NobleWomen Women peace. The NACW NACW established established a peace department peace. department to toeducate educateits itsmemmembers on issues and campaigns campaigns related related to to disarmament disarmament and and US US foreign foreign policy. In 1922, 1922,the the ICWDR ICWDRwas wasformed formed to to bring bring together policy. together clubwomen clubwomen to to study the history history and and conditions conditions of of people people of of color color around the the world, world, with aa particular with particularfocus focuson onwomen. women.Unfortunately, Unfortunately,the theICWDR ICWDRstruggled struggled as an organization organization due due to toits itslimited limitedfinancial financialresources resourcesand andthe theoneronerous existing responsibilities responsibilitiesand andaffiliations affiliationsof ofits itsmembers. members.For Forthis thisand and other reasons, the the organization’s organization’s first firstpresident, president,Margaret MargaretWashington, Washington, members also also to to join join select select internationally internationally minded minded encouraged ICWDR ICWDR members 46 white women’s white women’s organizations, organizations,like likethe theWILPF.* WILPF.

Considering Class, Considering Class, Considering ConsideringRace Race

Class and race Class race early early on on influenced influenced the the membership membership of of the theWILFP. WILFP. In theory, the WILPF was open to all men and women dedicated WILPF was open and women dedicatedto topeace, peace, but questions questions about about who who was wassuitable suitablefor forthe theorganization organizationemerged emergedfrom from the beginning. Even Even though though the the WILPF WILPF was philosophically opposed opposed to to divisions based on on race, class, and nationality, these very categories often served as dividing lines within the the movement movement and as as points points of of concern concern among the leadership. Jane Balch, among theWILPF’s WILPF’s leadership. Jane Addams Addamsand andEmily EmilyGreene Greene Balch,for for instance, often discussed with with each each other other the theobstacles obstacles the theorganization organization endeavored to appeal appeal to faced as it endeavored to a wider wider audience audience without withoutsacrificing sacrificingits its radical politics. In a letter to Addams, Balch observed that the WILPF was letter Addams, Balch observed that the WILPF was “so bourgeois we are not “so not acceptable acceptable to to the theworking workingpeople peopleand andsosototothe the 47 groups.”” left that we are not acceptable to the bourgeois groups.” Class distinctions marred marredthe thelandmark landmark1915 1915Hague HagueCongress. Congress.ReRemarkable for its ability ability to to bring women from warring and neutral nations and neutral nations together in one together one place, place, the congress congress could could not not transcend transcendall allpolitical politicaloror social divisions, and and debate debate ensued. ensued.For Forinstance, instance,the theAmerican Americanfeminist feminist Lenora O’Reilly Pethick-Lawrence Lenora O’Reilly and the theBritish Britishfeminist feministEmmeline Emmeline Pethick-Lawrence held differing assessments of the level of unity achieved differing assessments of the level of unity achievedatatthe thecongress. congress. Pethick-Lawrence remembered remembered the gathering Suffragist Pethick-Lawrence gathering affectionately. affectionately. In In particular she particular she believed believed that that the the congress congress not notonly onlytranscended transcendednationalnationalproduced a unifying ism, but produced unifyingwomanly womanlybond. bond.As Asshe sheobserved: observed:

Introduction| | 19 Introduction 19 A visitor who sat in the the gallery gallery was was impressed impressedby bythe thesimilarity similarityininperper-

sonality and dress dress of of the the delegates delegates who who occupied occupied the the body body of of the thehall. hall. nothing in There was nothing in general general appearance appearance to to distinguish distinguishone onenationality nationality from another, and looking into into our our own own hearts heartswe webeheld beheldas asin inaamirror mirror the hearts of all those who were assembled with us, because deep in our

own hearts hearts lies lies the the common commonheart heartof ofhumanity. humanity.We Werealized realizedthat thatthe thefear fear and mistrust mistrust that that had had been been fostered fostered between between the the peoples peoples of the nations

was an illusion. discovered that that at the bottom peace was nothing illusion. We We discovered more or more or less less than than communal communallove.* love.48

Though supportive of the movement’s radicalism and admiring Though movement’s radicalism admiring of of the the transnational goodwill goodwill practiced practiced by bythe thewomen womenatatThe TheHague, Hague,O’Reilly O’Reilly contested the the conclusion conclusion that that aa common heart or contested common heart or communal communal love love had had been achieved. As a leading leading labor labor rights rightsactivist, activist,O’Reilly O’Reilly found found PethickPethickLawrence’s treatment of class particularly troubling. In one of the Lawrence’s treatment of class particularly the daily daily penned to her mother notes O’Reilly O’Reilly penned mother apprising apprisingher herof ofthe thecongress congressproproceedings, she she shared sharedher herobservations observationsofofPethick-Lawrence’s Pethick-Lawrence’sattitude: attitude: To Mother Mother Mine, To Mine,

Supper over some stories stories about about lives lives of of working workingwomen womenby byMrs. Mrs. Pethick Lawrence Lawrence... Pethick . . .women womensuch suchasasMrs. Mrs.P.P.L. L.can cantalk talkof ofthese thesehuman human

beings with tears in in her her voice voice but yet as if they were made of different 49 matter.” matter. The differences in the the observations observationsoffered offeredby byO’Reilly O’Reillyand andPethickPethickLawrence are are instructive. instructive. Not Not only only do they Lawrence they raise raise questions questions about about the the classism of of the congress, they also remind classism congress, they remind us us of ofthe theimmense immensestakes stakes and potential adversity inherent in coalescing an international group potential adversity inherent in coalescing an international group of women women in the shadow of shadow of of the thewar. war.Congress Congressparticipants participantspledged pledgedtoto demonstrate—through their demonstrate—through theirability abilitytotoconvene, convene,peacefully, peacefully,women womenfrom from enemy nations—that nations—that peace peace was possible. Their espousal of a common enemy possible. Their common good and a common heart stood in heroic and stark contrast to the deadly stood in deadly divisiveness of the women’sclaims claims of ofunity unity ran ran the risk of maskdivisiveness the war. war. Yet, Yet, women’s race, and and nation that remained ing the fault lines of class, race, remained unresolved unresolvedin in organizations—even those organizations most women’s women’s organizations—even organizations that thatadopted adoptedthe the

of ofNoble 20 | A | Band A Band NobleWomen Women ideals of unity, antiracism, antiracism, workers’ workers’ rights, rights, and andtransnationalism. transnationalism.So Soititisis perhaps no perhaps no surprise surprisethat thataaparadox paradoxemerged emergedearly earlyononininthe theWILPF. WILPF.Even Even though the though theWILPF WILPF worked workedstoically stoicallyagainst againstracism’s racism’ssway swayover overworld worldand and US politics, politics, ititstruggled struggled when it came to identifying identifying and US andabolishing abolishingracism racism within its within its own own organization. organization.

difficulties that accompanied The diffi culties that accompaniedMary MaryChurch ChurchTerrell Terrellwhen whenshe shejoined joined WILPP’sleadership leadership in 1918 illustrate the paradox. the US WILPF’s 1918 illustrate paradox.On Onthe theone onehand, hand, Terrell’sstewardship stewardship that the it is because of Terrell’s the international internationalWILPF WILPF went wenton on record pledging to fight fight against against racism racism around aroundthe theworld. world.On Onthe theother, other, Terrell’s own own participation participation in the because Terrell’s the organization organizationwould wouldbe bedisputed disputed because she was an an African African American Americanwoman. woman.InInDecember Decemberofof1918, 1918,Terrell Terrellwas was notified notifi ed that that she she had hadbeen beenselected selectedto toserve serveas asaaUS US delegate delegateto tothe theupcomupcoming 1919 1919 Zurich Women’s Peace Congress. At the the time time of of her hernotification, notification, was working working in Services. Terrell was in the theSouth Southwith withthe theWar WarCamp CampCommunity Community Services. Through her Through her work, work,Terrell Terrell helped helpedrecently recentlydecommissioned decommissionedblack blacksoldiers soldiers resettle and and she she addressed addressedthe theneeds needsfaced facedby bytheir theirfamilies. families.Terrell’s Terrell’swork work in the South South hastened hastened her her desire desire to tojoin join the theemergent emergentpeace peacemovement movement and to make make fighting fighting racism racism aacentral centraltenet tenetof ofher herinvolvement. involvement.Honored Honored to have been been chosen chosen to to travel travel to toZurich, Zurich, Terrell Terrell quickly quickly arranged arranged to to be be released from Terreleased from her herduties dutiesininthe theSouth. South.Reflecting Reflectingininher herautobiography, autobiography, Terrell remarked with admiration admiration that that she she was was given given the the opportunity opportunitytotohave have leadership role a leadership role in in the the 1919 proceedings. As she noted, “There were many many women who had had been been deeply deeply interested interestedin inthe thepeace peace movement, movement, who whohad had contributed liberally to the cause cause and and were were financially financially able able to to go. go. For For that that 50 honor had reason I felt a signal honor had been beenconferred conferredupon uponme.”” me.”

Terrell acknowledged acknowledged her long-standing leadership The selection selection of Terrell leadership and power as a black clubwoman, her ongoing relationships with power as a black clubwoman, her ongoing relationships withwhite white feminists, and and her her preexisting preexistinginternational internationalexperience. experience.InIn1896 1896she shehelped helped found the to found the NACW NACWand andbecame becameits itsfirst firstpresident. president.InIn1898 1898she sheaddressed addressed ’s Suffrage SuffrageAssociation Association in in honor honor of the fiftieth the National National Woman Woman’s fiftieth annianniversary of “The versary of the theSeneca SenecaFalls FallsWomen’s Women’sRights RightsConvention. Convention.Her Herspeech, speech, “The Progress of Colored Women” conveyed to white Progress white suffragettes suffragettes the theissues issues faced by black women women at at the theturn turnofofthe thecentury. century.InIn1904 1904she shedelivered delivereda a speech in German German before beforethe theInternational InternationalCongress CongressofofWomen Womenconvened convened in Berlin. As a suffragette, suffragette, clubwoman, clubwoman, and charter member of the NAACP, and charter member of the NAACP,

Introduction || 21 Introduction 21 she knew many many of of the the women womeninvolved involvedininthe thewomen’s women’speace peacemovement. movement. as aadelegate delegateindicated indicated white white peace peacewomen’s women’sunderstanding understanding Her selection as Terrell’s stature stature and power. traveled to of Terrell’s power. In In 1919, 1919, Terrell traveled to the the congress congressby by ocean liner liner in the company of other prominent women, ocean women, including including Jane Addams, Alice Alice Hamilton, Emily Emily Greene Greene Balch, Balch, and Jeannette Jeannette Rankin. Rankin. On board the ship the group group of of US US delegates met regularly in Addams’s stateroom to hammer out the stateroom the resolutions resolutions and and policies policies to to be beoffered offered by by US women women to the international body of women they the US they would would soon soon join. join. they arrived arrived in Zurich, Terrell Terrellwas wasawarded awarded further further honor honor when she Once they was informed that that she she had hadbeen beenselected selectedtotodeliver deliverthe theUS USdelegation’s delegation’s address. In address. In her her autobiography autobiographyTerrell Terrellrecalled recalledthat that“on “onthe thethird thirdday dayofofthe the Congress Miss Miss Addams Addams called called me me to to her her and told me that Congress that the the American American 51 delegates had delegates had voted votedunanimously unanimouslytotohave haveme merepresent representthem.”*! them.” That Thatnext next night, after a day of of hurried hurried preparation, preparation,Terrell Terrell delivered delivered her her speech speech in in German to the hundreds of women gathered in the grand church—the German hundreds of women gathered in the grand church—the first woman was allowed allowed to speak from this particular particular church’s fi rst time a woman church’s pulpuladdressed issues pit. In her speech she addressed issuesof of racial racial equality equality and andreminded remindedthe the audience that to obtain peace, racism must simultaneously simultaneously be be eliminated. eliminated. Terrell’s contributions to the Zurich Congress went beyond Terrell’s contributions to the Zurich Congress beyond her her She took took the lead in drafting speech. She drafting and andpresenting presentingaaresolution resolutiontotothe the addressed the congress that addressed the issues issues of of racism and freedom. The resolution, entitled Nationality, Race,and andColor, Color,helped helpedset setthe thecourse course for for the the internaentitled Nationality, Race, international and US WILPF’s official political position on race discrimination and US WILPF’s official on race discrimination and it marked marked Terrell Terrell as as aa leader leaderon onrace racereform reformininthe thepeace peacemovement. movement. The resolution stated: The resolution stated:

Holding that no human Holding human being being on on account account of of their their nationality, nationality, race or color should should be deprived deprived of education, or of civil civil and and political political rights, rights, preprevented from earning a living, living, debarred debarred from from any any legitimate legitimate pursuit pursuit he he

may wish to follow, or subjected subjected to to humiliation, humiliation, this International follow, or International ConCongress of Women resolves to to work work for for the the abrogation abrogationof oflaws lawsand andchange change

of customs customs which which lead lead to to discrimination. discrimination.”52 of Not only did did Terrell Terrell help the the congress congress devise devise aa platform platform on onrace race and andracracism, Terrell Terrell was the only nonwhite woman attending the congress. She woman attending the congress. She

ofofNoble 22 | A | Band A Band NobleWomen Women noted in in her her autobiography autobiography that thatshe shewas wasthe the“only “only delegate delegate who whogave gave any any color to the delegation at all” color all” and and as assuch suchrepresented representednot notonly onlyAfrican African from around around the American women, but all women of color from the globe.” globe.53

In 1921 1921Terrell Terrellbecame became the the fifirst African American American woman In rst African womanto toserve serveon on the national national board boardof ofthe theWILPF. WILPF. Clearly, Clearly, Terrell’s Terrell’s Zurich participation participation assisted in her move into the leadership ranks ranks of of the the organization. organization. Her Her recruitment reflected the WILPF’s understanding of Terrell’s powerful reflected the WILPF’s understanding of Terrell’s powerful standing within standing withinblack black political political circles circles and andthe theorganization’s organization’sexpressed expressed desire to expand its membership both in terms desire terms of of numbers numbers and and racial racial diversity. During During the June diversity. June 1921 1921 executive executive committee committee meeting, board board members rejoiced in the report that the organization’s membership report that the organization’s membershiphad had grown from members in the grown from 494 494 members members to to 1,460 1,460 members the span span of of one one year. year. The The committee moved quickly to build build on this this new momentum momentum and executive committee and set new membership goals that focused on recruiting recruiting working working women, women, African American women, foreign-born women, and women from American women, foreign-born women, and women fromfarmfarming communities. communities. Terrell’s Terrell’s election to the board board and andthe theallocation allocationofof166 166 dollars to finance the travel of another African American woman to the dollars to finance the travel of another African American woman to the WILPF International International Congress Congress in Vienna upcoming 1922 1922 WILPF Vienna represented represented two early indicators of the WILPF’s intentions to diversify its indicators of the WILPF’s diversify its membermember54 ship and leadership.” leadership. Yet Terrell’s Terrell’stenure tenureasasaaboard boardmember memberrevealed revealed the the fraught fraught nature nature of Yet racial integration efforts efforts in in white white women’s women’s organizations organizationsand andthe theinfluinfluence of the deep deep legacies of racism on the politics of women’s community legacies racism on the politics of women’s community building and and peace peace reform. reform. In In her her brief brief two-year two-year board boardservice, service, Terrell Terrell confronted issues that that caused caused her heralarm. alarm.Moreover, Moreover, during duringher hertenure tenure organizational leaders WILPF’s organizational leadersquestioned questionedTerrell’s Terrell’scommitment commitmenttotothe the WILPF’s peace philosophy and scrutinized her leadership potential. Though scrutinized her leadership potential. Thoughno no stranger to the the complexities complexities of of interacting interacting with withpredominately predominatelywhite white associations, Terrell Terrellimmediately immediatelyfound found herself herself in in a situation that reassociations, required her quired her to to contest contest an an action action proposed proposedby bythe theWILPF. WILPF. Almost Almost as as soon soon as she joined the board, Terrell was asked to sign a petition that called Terrell that called for the removal of black troops stationed stationed in in Germany Germany because because of of their their rumored sexual rumored sexual violation violation of of white whiteGerman Germanwomen. women.According AccordingtotoTerrell, Terrell, the board was looking for unanimous support support for for the the petition. petition. In In a letter to Jane Jane Addams, Addams, Terrell Terrell explained explained why why she she found found the petition thoroughly thoroughly

Introduction| | 23 Introduction 23 and offered to resign from the board to which she had been objectionable and recently elected. recently elected. I have been asked to sign sign aa petition petition asking askingfor forthe theremoval removalofofthe theblack black troops from occupied German territory. The most terrible crimes are

said to be committed committed by these troops against these black troops againstthe theGerman Germanwomen. women.II belong to a race whose whose women have been the victims victims of assaults assaults committed upon them by white men and men of all other races. upon them by white men and men of other races. As a rule, these men have ruined ruinedand andwrecked wreckedthe thewomen womenofofmy myrace racewith withimpunity. impunity.For For

that reason I sympathize deeply with the German women, if they are . .. However, I am certain certain really the victims victims of of the the passions passions of of black men. men. . . .

that the black black soldiers are committing no more more assaults assaults upon upon the theGerGerman women than the the German German men men committed committed upon upon French French women women or or

that any race race of soldiers would would probably probably commit commit upon uponwomen womenininoccuoccu-

solders treated the Haitian women pied territory. territory. Our own American solders brutally. ... [can brutally. . . . I cannot notsign signthe thepetition petitionasking askingfor for the the removal removal of of the black believe itit isis aa direct direct appeal to race prejudice. . . . prejudice. .. . The troops, because I believe The propaganda against the black troops in this country is simply another against the black troops in this country is simply another and plausible appeal to to race race prejudice. . . . prejudice. .. . ItItis painful to violent and plausible [sic] [sic] appeal is very painful to me not to do anything anything which you or the organization I love would like to which you or the organization I love would like to Knowing you feelsure sure you you do do not not have me do. Knowing you as well as I do, however, II feel want me to be untrue to myself or to the race with which I am identified want me to be untrue to myself or to the race with which I am identified 55 my friends. friends.” simply to please my In the end, end, Terrell did did not not resign resignover overthe thepetition. petition.InInresponse responsetotoTerTerrell’s stern stern protest, protest, Addams intervened rell’s intervened and andsuccessfully successfullyhad hadthe thepetition petition removed from the organization’s removed organization’s agenda. Though the the specific specific issue issue of of the petition was resolved, the controversy and Terrell’s letter to Addams petition was resolved, the controversy and Terrell’s letter to Addams revealed a number of revealed of dynamics dynamics that that would wouldinfluence influence the therelationships relationships between many many African African American American and and white whitewomen womenwithin withinthe theWILPF WILPF in in the coming decades. As this this incident incident illustrates, illustrates, African African American Americanwomwomen's “unique position” was also a vexed position. Within the WILPF, en’s “unique position” was also a vexed position. Within the WILPF,AfriAfrican American women women were were specifically specifically recruited recruited because because of oftheir theirrace, race, and yet their and their race made made them them suspect suspectmembers. members.For Forinstance, instance,when whenTerrell Terrell taking action as a “race woman”—in woman’—in other words, when was perceived as taking she spoke out against the racism-laden petition—some out against the racism-laden petition—someWILPF WILPFmembers members

ofofNoble 24 | A | Band A Band NobleWomen Women concluded that concluded that her her advocacy advocacy on on behalf behalfof of black men men and and women womenhindered hindered her ability to be fully fully committed committedto toworking workingfor forpeace. peace.The Theinsistence insistenceby by some of polarizing these these two two causes, causes, the the struggle struggleagainst againstracism racismand andthe the struggle against against war, war, would would remain remainunresolved unresolvedfor foryears yearsand andcomplicate complicate women’s participation participation in in the organization. African American women’s 1923,Mary MaryChurch ChurchTerrell Terrellwas wasnot notreelected reelectedto tothe theboard. board.Although Although In 1923, this disappointed disappointedTerrell, Terrell, itit also also created created aa flurry flurryof of debate debateamong amongWILPF WILPF leaders. Some Some leaders leaders were were “much “much distressed” distressed” to leaders. tolearn learnthat thatTerrell Terrellhad hadnot not been reelected. reelected. Amy Amy Woods Woods and andBelle BelleLa La Follette, Follette, for for instance, instance,expressed expressed their concern their concern and andannounced announcedthat thatthey theyfelt feltstrongly stronglythat thatthe theWILPF WILPF“should “should the Negro Negro Race.” Race.”56 Others debated whether have a representative of the Others debated whetheror ornot not

Terrell had had been a significant Terrell significant contributing member to to the the board boardduring during Biddle Lewis, Lewis,aaSwarthmore Swarthmore College Collegetrustee trustee her two years years of service. Lucy Biddle representative on who had “thought “thought aa good good bit bit on the the subject of a colored representative the board,” felt that Mary Church Terrell had been “rather board,” felt that Mary Church Terrell had been “ratherfutile.”°” futile.”57 Emily Emily shared Biddle board particiGreene Balch shared Biddle Lewis’s Lewis’s assessment assessment of of Terrell’s Terrell’s board particiboard minutes minutes record pation. Yet Yet board record that thatTerrell Terrell attended attendedatatleast leastfive fiveboard board meetings during her two-year two-year membership and participated participated actively actively in 58 Biddle Lewis also believed that Terrell was ideothe business at hand.** the business at hand. Biddle Lewis also believed that Terrell was ideologically ill equipped equipped to logically to be be aa board boardmember. member.She Sheremarked remarkedabout aboutTerrell Terrell that “at the bottom of her heart she has not the fundamental understandthat “at the bottom of her heart she has not the fundamental understanding of our our ideals idealsIIam amsure.””’ sure.”59 One Onespecific specificcriticism criticismlaunched launchedatatTerrell Terrell was that in her public speeches, including her Zurich address, she gloin her public speeches, rified rifi ed black soldiers’ participation in in the theCivil CivilWar Warand andWorld WorldWar WarI.°° I.60 Terrell did did draw draw upon upon black military military service Indeed, in many of her talks, Terrell as a way to illustrate the the dilemmas dilemmas black black Americans Americans faced faced as as they they tried tried to secure their equality in the nation. Through her invocation of African the nation. Through her invocation American soldiers’ soldiers’ contributions contributions on on the battlefield, Terrell intended intended to American battlefield, Terrell expose the hypocrisy and depth depth of of American racism, not to endorse war itself. The questioning questioningofofTerrell’s Terrell’scomprehension comprehensionofofthe theWILPF’s WILPF’s“ideals” “ideals” can be read, of course, course, not not as as an an indication of of her her failure failure to to comprehend but of inabilitytotounderstand understand thoroughly of the the WILPPF’s WILPF’s inability thoroughlyhow howrace, race,gender, gender, and war intersected. and war intersected. This brief examination examinationof of Mary MaryChurch ChurchTerrell’s Terrell’s tenure tenureininthe theWILPF WILPF offers us one snapshot of how race influenced the early development offers race influenced the early development of of

Introduction| | 25 Introduction 25 the organization. organization.Terrell’s Terrell’s status status in in itit as as an anAfrican AfricanAmerican Americanwoman womanwas was

both exalted and and assailed. assailed. Also, Also, the the WILPF WILPF went went on on record record both bothcomcommitting itself to help end end racism racism around aroundthe theworld worldand andrecognizing recognizingitsits difficulty diffi culty in identifying it when it emerged within the the organization. organization. The The discussion of WILPFinternational international congress enhances following discussion of the the 1924 1924 WILPF enhances our picture of of the ways ways in in which which race race mattered mattered to tothe theemerging emergingmovemovement. African American American women women and andmen, men,including includingTerrell, Terrell,played playedconconsequential roles in the the conference—a conference—a conference conference that that confirmed confirmed the theUS US and international WILPF’s ambition to make central to its call for a New and international WILPF’s ambition to make central to its call for a New International Order International Order the thecommitment commitmentto tospeak speakforthrightly forthrightlyabout aboutthe thedandanracism-driven foreign gers of racism-driven foreignpolicy. policy. Working Toward Racial Unity and aa New New International International Order and Order In the spring springof of1924 1924 the the international internationalWILPF WILPFheld heldits itscongress congressand andInterInternational Summer School in the United States for the first time. With national Summer School in the United States for the first time. With aa theme that that called called for for the the development developmentof ofaa“New “NewInternational InternationalOrder,” Order,”the the WILPF meeting, meeting, held held in in Washington, Washington, DC, was was attended attended by seven-day-long WILPF eminent women from twenty-two twenty-two countries countries including includingLiberia, Liberia, the thePhilipPhilipand men pines, Guatemala, and and Japan. Japan. Women and men attended attendedworkshops, workshops,heard heard plenary speeches, and partook partook in inentertainment entertainmentthroughout throughoutthe thenation’s nation’s capital. The The call call for a New International capital. International Order Orderreflected reflected the thecomplexity complexity politicalagenda agendaand and its its need need to build aa range of the WILPP’s WILPF’s political range of of alliances alliances with organizations organizations outside outside of of the the traditional traditionalpeace peacemovement. movement. Many Many conconcerns were rolled into the 1924 call for a radical transformation of world cerns were rolled into the 1924 call for a radical transformation of world affairs. Activists were losing faith in in the the ability abilityof of the theLeague Leagueof ofNations Nations function as to function as an an effective effective international internationalwatchdog watchdogand andarbiter. arbiter.The TheWILPF WILPF fretted over fretted over the the persistence persistence of of economic economic imperialism imperialismand andthe thelink linkbetween between corporate interests interests and, for corporate for instance, instance, US US military involvement involvement in Latin Latin America. Congress Congress participants participants wanted wanted military conscription ended and America. and war outlawed. outlawed. In In addition, addition, the thecongress congresstallied talliedthe theways waysininwhich whichracism racism informed numerous aspects of US US and world world affairs. affairs. The The International International WILPF Congress Congress signaled the WILPF the growing growingpopularity popularityofofthe thepeace peacemovement movement and the and the increasingly increasinglyradical radicalpolitical politicalagenda agendaofofthe theWILPF. WILPF.

ofofNoble 26 | A | Band A Band NobleWomen Women prior to the 1924 1924Congress, Congress,the thepeace peacemovement movement galvanized galvanized In the years prior public sentiment sentiment against against the the merchants merchants of of war and encouraged public encouraged parents and young people people to think think critically critically about about the the creation creation of of army army reserves reserves under pressure from the peace and compulsory military military training. training. In In 1920, 1920, under movement, the million movement, the United United States States Congress Congress allocated allocatedonly only half half of of the the one million dollars requested requested by by the the War War Department. Department.The TheWILPF, WILPF, in in its its own ownefforts efforts to destabilize support support for for the theWar WarDepartment, Department,implemented implementednationwide nationwide campaigns that that targeted targetedfor fordefeat defeatcongressional congressionaloffice office seekers seekers who who supsupported the John Weeks, Weeks,unhappy unhappy with ported the War War Department. Department. Secretary Secretary of War John popularity and the popularity andtactics tacticsof of the the peace peace movement, devised devised aa publicity publicity campaign that that would would “counter “counter the the headway headway the the peace peace groups groups were were making making in in 61 opposition to the War Department’s national national defense defense policy." policy.”

WILPP’sability ability to to galvanize galvanize an international The WILPF’s internationalgroup groupofofwomen womentoto US domestic domestic and foreign policy threatened contest US threatenedthe theWar WarDepartment. Department. In an effort to smear the WILPF and scare women from the peace smear the WILPF and scare women from the peacemovemovethe War War Department Department published ment, in 1924 1924 the published the theSpider SpiderWeb Web Chart. Chart.The The chart linked chart linkedproponents proponentsofofwomen’s women’speace peacework workwith withinternational internationalsocialsocialism. This red-baiting ism. red-baiting campaign campaign signaled signaled the thegovernment’s government’sfrustration frustration with the appeal of the peace movement. To weaken the appeal, the appeal of the peace movement. To weaken the appeal,the thechart chart directly accused organizations organizationslike likethe theLeague Leagueof ofWomen Women Voters Voters and and the the of Parents Parents and Teachers, organizations that that had been National Congress of Teachers, organizations associated with with the the women’s women’s peace movement, of socialism and and national national disloyalty. The Spider Web Chart threatened women by suggesting that disloyalty. The Spider Web Chart threatened their link to peace issues would jeopardize their ability to advance other 62 women’s issues, issues, like like labor labor legislation. legislation.” The government government also feared the women’s The strengthening of strengthening ofthe theWILPF’s WILPF’s relationships relationshipswith withleading leadingblack blackactivists. activists. In the early 1920s, the WILPF and its allies like Jessie Fauset, James the early 1920s, and its allies like Jessie Fauset, JamesWelWeldon Johnson, Johnson, Mary Mary McLeod McLeod Bethune, Bethune, Walter Walter White, White, and andW. W. E. E. B. B. Du Bois shared criticism shared criticism of the United United States States for its domestic racial politics, interventionist postures, and the ventionist the links links between betweenthe thetwo. two.The Theorganization’s organization’s strong internationalism and deepening ties with black critics internationalism and deepening ties with black criticsofofUS USmilimilitary policy, tary policy, evident evident at at the the 1924 1924 congress, worried worried the theUS US government governmentand and indicated the WILPF’s maturation. indicated the WILPF’s maturation. On the first first morning morningof ofthe the1924 1924 international internationalcongress, congress,Jessie Jessie FauFauset, literary editor of the NAACP’s magazine, the Crisis, gave one of editor of the NAACP’s magazine, the Crisis, gave one of the the

Introduction | | 27 Introduction 27 welcoming addresses. addresses. Also Also aanovelist novelistand andessayist, essayist,Fauset Fausethad hadextensive extensive international experience World War I broke out. international experienceand andwas wasininEurope Europewhen when World War I broke out. As literary editor, editor, she she brought brought the theliterature literatureofofthe thePan-African Pan-Africanworld, world, including Haiti Haiti and Liberia, including Liberia, to to the themagazine’s magazine’s readers readers and andcultivated cultivated emerging Harlem Harlem Renaissance Renaissance talent. talent. In In1921, 1921, she attended attended and andreported reported on the second postwar postwarPan-African Pan-African Congress Congresswhich whichwas washeld heldininLondon, London, Paris, and and Belgium. Belgium.As Aspart partofofher her1924 1924WILPF WILPFremarks, remarks,Fauset Fausetsent sentgreetgreetings from “women of the darker darker races” races” from from around aroundthe theworld worldand andinin this way prompted promptedthe theWILPF WILPF to to expand expandthe thereach reachof ofthe theorganization organizationtoto include them. Sunday afternoon afternoon of of the the congress congress was was dedicated dedicatedto toaaYouth Youth Mass Meeting that commenced with with aa performance performanceby bythe theMusical Musical QuarQuarHampton Institute, tet of Hampton Institute, aa black black land-grant land-grant college college formed formed after after the theCivil Civil The afternoon afternoon consisted War. The consistedof oflectures lecturesby byformer formersoldiers soldiersand andworkshops workshops informing students of of the the state state of of militarization militarization and andpeace peace from from the theperperand India. At the spective of the United United States, Europe, Japan, Mexico, Mexico, and the end end day of ofspeeches speeches and and workshops, workshops, the Hampton Hampton Institute of aa day InstituteQuartet Quartetled ledthe the students in students inaa round roundof ofthe thepeace peacesong, song,“Ain’t “Ain’tGonna GonnaStudy StudyWar WarNo NoMore.”® More.”63 Sunday evening featured featuredaaconcert concertatatHoward HowardUniversity Universityby bythe theHoward Howard University Choral Society hosted by Mary Church Terrell. Choral hosted by Mary Church Terrell. congress’ssupport support of of black black student student activism, In a show of the 1924 1924 congress’s activism, the the antimilitarization protests antimilitarization protestsof ofHoward HowardUniversity Universitystudents studentsreceived receivedfrontfrontpage coverage in in the theJune Juneissue issueofofthe thePax PaxSpecial, Special, aa publication publicationproduced produced in honor of the International Congress. The article applauded of the International Congress. The article applaudedthe thefour four hundred students hundred students who who went went on onstrike striketo todenounce denouncethe themilitarization militarizationof of their campus. Angry Angry about about compulsory compulsorymilitary militarydrills drillsand andthe thepresence presence officers and the Army of Army Reserve offi cers and Army Training Training Corps, Corps, students studentscarried carried signs that read: “What is this going to be, an army or a university?” this going to be, an army or a university?” and and “Before we we will will be slaves, we will be in “Before in our our graves.” graves.” They Theyalso alsodemanded demanded that the the five five antimilitarists antimilitarists dismissed dismissed by byHoward’s Howard’s president president be be reinreinstated. The Howard student student protest protestnot not only only indicated indicatedgeneral generalyouth youthantiantiwar sentiment, but also the particular outrage black students felt because sentiment, but also the particular outrage black students felt because the mistreatment mistreatment of of the of black soldiers during during and andafter afterWorld WorldWar War I.I.64 NAACP’s James JamesWeldon WeldonJohnson Johnson continued continued with The NAACP’s with these thesethemes themesinin summer school conhis speech speech to to the the1924 1924 summer schoolthat thatfollowed followedthe theinternational international congress. Held in Chicago, the summer school enabled delegates to engage Held in the summer school enabled delegates to engageinin

ofofNoble 28 | A | Band A Band NobleWomen Women more extensive study study of of various various topics. topics. Johnson, Johnson, the thefirst firstblack black executive executive director of delivered aa speech director of the the NAACP, NAACP, delivered speechentitled entitled“The “TheRace RaceProblem Problemand and Peace.” Johnson Johnson began began his lengthy talk Peace.” talk stating statingthat thatthe thecause causeofofwar warwas was complex, not singular. Yet complex, Yet after offering offering aa familiar familiarlitany litanyofofthe themotives motives behind behind war: war: “greed, “greed, gain—in gain—inaaword, word,Money,” Money,” Johnson Johnsonshifted shiftedhis hisfocus focus to the role that racism played in softening the ground groundfor for colonialism colonialism and and mass-scale warfare. In order order for for European European colonizers colonizers of of Africa Africa to to “justify “justify of treachery treachery and cruelty acts of cruelty and and metamorphose metamorphosethem theminto intoacts actsofofbenefibeneficence and and Christianity,” cence Christianity,” they had to to produce produce the theidea ideathat thatthe the“darker “darker 65 races” were innately less races” less civilized civilized and andincapable incapableof ofself-rule.° self-rule. After Afteranan

examination of the the racial racial ideology ideology embedded embeddedininEuropean Europeancolonialism, colonialism, Johnson turned turned his his attention attention to tothe theUnited UnitedStates. States. He He reviewed reviewed the theraceracetainted discourse of civilization civilization and its use use by by the theUS US government government to to justify the fact fact that that itit had had“taken “takenall allthe thelittle littleAfricas Africason onthis thisside sideofofthe the ocean.” Johnson asked if American measures of civilization were objecasked if American measures of civilization were objective and preferable as he questioned “who could judge with finality finality about civilization.” Did Did convincing convincing Haiti farmers to civilization.” to forgo forgo bare bare feet feet for forpatent patent leather shoes or a straw leather straw hat hatfor foran an“American “American derby” derby”really reallyproduce produceaa better Haiti and justify intervention by the United States? Johnson and justify intervention by the United States? Johnsonnext next turned to to the the practice practice of lynching and the fact fact that thousands thousands of of men, men, women, and children children “gathered “gathered around aroundto towatch watchaahuman humanbeing beingbaptized baptized by gasoline and then then set set on onfire.” fire.” He He emphasized emphasizedthat thatininorder orderfor forthe the United States to proclaim superiority in the face of the practice of lynchproclaim superiority in the face of the practice of lynching, whites in in America America must mustabide abideby bythe thebelief beliefthat thatAfrican AfricanAmericans, Americans, 66 Haitians, were like Haitians, were not nothuman.® human. Johnson concluded his his lecture lecture with the proposition that “the surest Johnson concluded safeguard against future wars is the safeguard against the abolishment abolishment of the idea of innate inferiority.” He Hedirected directed women women to to debunk debunk the conceit that that European race inferiority.” and American interventions were based on benevolence. He and American interventions were based on benevolence. Healso alsoencourencouraged peace activists activists to to spend spendless lesstime timedebating debatingthe thepolicies policiesofofthe theLeague League of Nations, Nations, and more time educating the world away from modern time educating the world away from modernracracEndorsing the concluded his ism. Endorsing the cosmopolitanism cosmopolitanismof ofthe theWILPF, WILPF, Johnson concluded his speech by observing that the speech the “points “points of of difference difference between between people people are are 67 not necessarily necessarily points points of ofinferiority.”” inferiority.” Johnson’s Johnson’s words words and andsentiments sentiments aligned with Emily Greene Balch’s observation in 1915 that “[i]f aligned with Emily Greene Balch’s observation in 1915 that “[i]fwe wewould would

Introduction| | 29 Introduction 29 hearts and end war, let us enlarge our hearts and rejoice rejoice in the otherness of others.”68

Johnson's speech was was so favorably received that that in the fall Johnson’s speech favorably received fall of of 1924 1924 the WILPFE executive committee voted to print ten thousand copies of “The WILPF executive committee voted to print ten thousand Race Problem Problem and and Peace.” Peace.” The The expense expense of of the the printing and Race and distribution distribution 69 was shared with the NAACP. was shared with the NAACP. The issues foregrounded by Johnson, The Johnson, namely the role role of of racism racism in in legitimizing international military conquest and domestic policies, had military conquest and domestic policies, had leadersand andwould would continue continue to surfaced in earlier earlier discussions discussionsby byWILPEF WILPF leaders inform the the politics politics of of the the organization. organization.InIn1915 1915 Balch Balch wrote wrote aa number numberofof articles that pursued pursuedthe theconcerns concernsaddressed addressedby byJohnson. Johnson.InInher herMarch March6 6 article, “Racial Contacts and Cohesions,” published in the Survey, and Cohesions,” published in the Survey,Balch Balch took the position that that “racial “racial or national national arrogances, arrogances, greed, greed,fears, fears,intolerintolerances are in part ances part at at least least to to blame blame for for war.”” war.”70 In In fact, fact, exploration exploration of the relationship between between war and relationship and racism racism frequently frequently appeared appearedininspeeches speeches presented at WILPF congresses and articles featured in WILPF publicapresented at WILPF congresses and articles featured in WILPF publications during during the theinterwar interwaryears. years.InIn1923, 1923,Lewis LewisGannett, Gannett,associate associateeditor editor TheNation, Nation,delivered deliveredthe thespeech speechthe the“Modern “Modern Methods Methods of of Imperialism” Imperialism” of The WILPF’sAnnual AnnualMeeting. Meeting.InInthe thespeech speechhe he observed observed that that in in to the US US WILPF’s regard to Haiti, “We have even exported our race prejudices to this repubregard to Haiti, “We exported our race prejudices to this repubwhich was proud to be black. . .. Haitians lic which black. . . . Haitians today todaycannot cannotbe bereceived receivedin in the dining dining rooms roomsof ofthe thebest besthotels hotelsofofPort-au-Prince Port-au-Princebecause becauseSouthern Southern permit it.” white American officers officers will not permit it.” Gannett’s speech became the cover article in the May 1923 issue of the WILPF Bulletinand andititwas wasprinted printed in the May issue the WILPF Bulletin 71 feminist historian Mary Beard in Spanish and and English.” English. In In April Aprilof of 1925, 1925, feminist delivered aa talk delivered talkentitled entitled“The “TheJapanese—American Japanese–American Crisis” Crisis”at at the theUS US WILPF Annual Meeting. Meeting. Her Her speech, speech, published publishedininthe theJune June1925 1925WILPF WILPFBulleBulletin, attacked the role of racist saber rattling in fostering conditions tin, role of racist saber rattling in fostering conditionsthat that could produce US military involvement against against Japan. In addition, addition, Beard Beard assailed the newly passed and and sweeping sweeping anti-immigrant anti-immigrantlegislation legislation that that Beard condemned targeted, among others, the Japanese. Japanese. In her remarks, Beard the attitudes of white citizens and policy makers. As she attitudes of white citizens and policy makers. As sheobserves, observes,“There “There is a white menace. But where is the the yellow yellow peril? peril? The The handful handfulof ofJapanese Japanese or Chinese Chinese on or on the the Pacific Pacific coast?”” coast?”72 New International International Order that the WILPF WILPFpursued pursued necessitated necessitated an an The New unearthing of and accounting for, among other things, the racial fissures unearthing of and accounting for, among other things, the racial fissures

ofofNoble 30 | A | Band A Band NobleWomen Women through international woven through internationaland andUS USpostwar postwarpower powerpolitics. politics.As Asthe the1924 1924 international WILPF international WILPF congress and and surrounding surroundingUS USWILPF WILPF annual annualmeetmeetindicated, the WILPFbelieved believedthat that its itsability ability to toconstruct construct and and susings indicated, the US WILPF critique of ofglobal globalmilitarism militarismrequired required the the organization organization to tain a successful critique membership aa sophisticated foster among its membership sophisticatedanalysis analysisof ofthe thelinks linksbetween between and racism. It needed war, capitalism, and needed leaders—white leaders—white and andblack—within black—within the organization who understood understood these these connections connections and and also also strong strong allialliances with ances with the the likes likes of of the the NAACP NAACP and andthe theNACW NACWifif itit was wasserious seriousabout about its mission. mission. its

Disarmament and Disarmament andRace Race interwar era campaign The interwar campaign for disarmament disarmamentalso alsoemerged emergedas asan animportant important venue through through which which the theWILPF WILPF was was challenged challenged to tostrengthen strengthenits itsrelarelationship with black black leaders and and to to clarify clarify its its understanding understandingofofthe thelinks links between 1933,the theinternational international peace commubetween race race and and war. war.From From 1927 1927 to 1933, disarmament conferences nity focused its energies on a series of disarmament conferences planned planned by the League League of of Nations. Under Under the the slogan slogan “War “War Is Is Renounced—Let Renounced—Let Us Us Renounce Armaments,” the the US US WILPF WILPF determined determinedtotocollect collectsignatures signatures from one million Americans as aa part partof of aa global global petition petitiondrive drivedesigned designed to influence influence government government delegates delegatesattending attendingthe the1932 1932Geneva Genevaconference. conference. translated into The petition, translated into eighteen eighteen languages, languages, started startedto to circulate circulate in in May 1930.By ByFebruary Februaryof of1932 1932eight eightmillion millionsignatures signatures had had been collected of 1930. of them through through the With internationally, six million of the work work of of the the WILPF. WILPF. With its sights set on securing an an arms armsreduction reductiontreaty, treaty,the theUS US WILPF WILPF took to work expanding the the role role of of black black women in in the the organization. organization. Likewise, Likewise, many black leaders earnestly supported supported the thecampaign campaignbelieving, believing,as asW. W. E. E. B. Du Du Bois Boiswrote, wrote,that that disarmament disarmament “should have the heartfelt B. heartfelt sympathy sympathy and goodwill goodwill of of every every colored colored citizen of the the world” world” because because the the “menace “menace 73 ... lies . . . lies in in battleships, battleships, armaments, armaments, and andthe thewill willto to war.”” war.”

WILPF women women generated excitement and public WILPF public support supportfor fordisardisarmament by appealing appealing to to churches, churches,schools, schools, and andvoluntary voluntaryassociations. associations. success of of these these campaigns campaigns rested rested in large part on the work of local The success groups of women throughout groups throughoutthe thecountry. country.In Innumerous numerousWILPF WILPFbranches branches interracial peace campaigns emerged as an avenue for increasing emerged as an avenue for increasingblack black

Introduction || 31 Introduction 31 support for the the disarmament disarmamentmovement. movement. In Ineffect, effect, the the appeal appeal of of the the call call for disarmament produced for produced new new opportunities opportunitiesfor forracial racialcooperation. cooperation. And for some some women, women, the the interwar interwar era eramovement movement for forworld worlddisarmadisarmament transformed transformedinto intoaamovement movementfor for the theend endto tosocietal societalracial racialsegregasegregation. In the best of cases, the interracial campaigns for for disarmament disarmamentset set

women to assist in the the stage for local WILPF WILPF women the postwar postwarexpansion expansionofof antiracist politics. antiracist politics. Black women’s women’sleadership leadershipand and organizational organizational resources contributed Black considerably to to the the popularity of the international disarmament considerably disarmament movemovement. Starting in ment. in June June of of1931, 1931, aa WILPF WILPF transcontinental transcontinental car car caravan caravan began a nine-thousand-mile nine-thousand-milejourney journeythrough throughtwenty-five twenty-fivestates, states,stopping stopping across the the country country to drum up in communities across up support support for for disarmament disarmament and collecting collecting signatures. signatures. When When the thecaravan caravanreached reachedWashington, Washington,DC, DC, following fall, fall, aa parade parade of of more morethan than seven seven hundred hundred women, women, headed headed the following by Jane Addams, Addams, escorted the caravan caravan and and the the half-million half-million petitions petitionsdown down Pennsylvania Avenue. Pennsylvania Avenue. At the culmination culminationof of the the parade, parade,President PresidentHoover Hoover met with with Addams Addamsfor forthe theofficial official presentation presentationof ofthe thesigned signedpetitions.” petitions.74As As their support support of and and involvement a symbol of their involvement in in the the disarmament disarmamentventure, venture, Addie Hunton, Mary Church Terrell, and Terrell’s daughter participated Hunton, Mary Church Terrell, and Terrell’s daughter participated in the celebration. celebration. Julia West Hamilton, the the secretary secretaryof of the theNACW, NACW, also also joined Hunton and and Terrell Terrell to to greet greetthe thecaravan caravanand andtoast toastJane JaneAddams. Addams. Hamilton remarked with pride that that the the disarmament disarmament caravan caravan was was “quite “quite 75 the affair.”” the affair.” The pride peace women took in in their their work workwas wasnot notshared sharedby byeveryeveryone. For their their adversaries, adversaries, WILPF WILPF women’s women’s tenacity tenacity and andoutspokenness outspokenness on racism racism raised raisedalarm. alarm.On OnAugust August18, 18,1930, 1930,the theWILPF’s WILPF’s powerful powerfulexecexecutive director Dorothy Detzer was, after much campaigning, granted a Dorothy Detzer was, after campaigning, meeting with with Gano Gano Dunn, Dunn,the thepresident presidentofofthe theJ.J.G. G.White WhiteEngineering Engineering international secretary, Mary Company. The previous June, June, the the WILPF’s WILPF’s international Mary Sheepshank, had had been been informed informedby byaamember memberof ofthe theBritish BritishAnti-Slavery Anti-Slavery Society that Dunn’s company was in negotiations with Ethiopia in negotiations with Ethiopiatotobuild build dam on a dam on the the Nile Nile River River using usingslave slavelabor.” labor.76Upon Uponreceiving receivingSheepshank’s Sheepshank’s report, Detzer went went to to the the US US State Department Department demanding demandingclarification. clarification. also requested a meeting She also meeting with with Dunn. Dunn.ItIttook tooktwo twomonths monthsof ofpressure pressure and publicity before Dunn granted Detzer the meeting. The voracity Dunn granted Detzer the meeting. The voracityofof

32 | A 32 | Band A BandofofNoble Noble Women Women Detzer and and the WILPF generatedabout aboutDunn’s Dunn’scompany company the publicity publicity Detzer WILPF generated unnerved Dunn Dunn and took him by surprise. Until the the story story exploded, exploded, unnerved took him surprise. Until 77 Dunn had who Detzer Detzer or or the the WILPF WILPFwere. were.” Dunn had no no idea idea who one and and aa half halfhour hourmeeting, meeting,during duringwhich whichDunn Dunnrefused refusedtototake take The one calls or or messages messages from from his his secretary, secretary,took tookplace placeininhis hisNew NewYork York phone calls office. Onceinside insideDunn’s Dunn’soffi office, Detzernoted notedwith withamusement amusementthat that City offi ce. Once ce, Detzer on Dunn’s Dunn’s desk desk was wasan an “enormous “enormouspair pairofoftusks,” tusks,”which whichDunn, Dunn,without without informed her was a gift from Ethiopia’s Ethiopia’snew new emperor, emperor, Ras RasTafari Tafari reticence, informed Selassie).On Onthe thewall wallbehind behindDunn’s Dunn’sdesk deskwas wasa photograph a photographofof him (Haile Selassie). him leader. In In describing describing the the photograph photograph to toEmily EmilyGreene Greene with the Ethiopian leader. Balch, Detzer noted that Dunn and Tafari appeared to be “on quite cozy Balch, Detzer noted that Dunn and Tafari appeared to be “on quite cozy terms.” The The photograph photographand andtusks tuskssupported supportedDetzer’s Detzer’sfear fearthat thatDunn’s Dunn’s terms.” company was was in in alliance alliance with with the the Ethiopian Ethiopianleader. leader.At Atthe thetime, time,control control company of the the Nile Nile River Riverand and industrial industrial development developmentalong alongitsitsshores shoresinterested interested of many Western Western countries countriesand and developers. developers.The TheBritish Britishand andthe theItalians Italiansallall lay claim claim to to the the Nile Nileand and were wereworried worriedwhat whatthe thepresence presenceofofaaUS US vied to lay corporation in in Ethiopia Ethiopiameant meantfor fortheir theirown ownfuture future presence presencealong alongthe the corporation Detzer’smain mainconcern concernwas waswhether whetherDunn’s Dunn’snegotiations negotiationswith withTafari Tafari river. Detzer’s involved the use of slave labor and ascertaining if the State Department involved the use of slave labor and ascertaining if the State Department tacit involvement involvementininarranging arrangingthese thesedevelopments. developments.Dunn, Dunn,ononthe the had any tacit spent the the fifirst halfofofhis hismeeting meetingwith withDetzer Detzertrying tryingtotofigure figure other hand, spent rst half WILPF“was “wasinterested interestedin inslavery.” slavery.”Dunn Dunnshared sharedwith withDetzer Detzer out why the WILPF that he could not understand what the issue of slave labor “had to with that he could not understand what the issue of slave labor “had to dodo with 78 the Woman’s Movement.”” the Woman’s Movement.” Dunn's question, question, although althoughseemingly seeminglythoughtless thoughtlessininretrospect, retrospect,is is Dunn’s WILPF engaged engaged in in the the politics politics nonetheless quite germane. Why was the WILPF of race during the interwar years? In fact, interest in and concern about of race during years? In fact, interest in and concern about WILPF’sattention attentiontotorace racecame camefrom fromall allquarters. quarters.For Forthose thoselike likeDunn Dunn the WILPF’s government who who came came under under the the WILPF’s WILPF’sscrutiny, scrutiny,the theprespresand the US government ence of of an an interwar-era women’s women’sorganization organizationthat that served served as as aa critic critic of of ence American racism was disconcerting. Some WILPF members believed American racism disconcerting. Some WILPF members believed distracted from the organization’s organization’smain mainmission, mission, that attention to racism distracted peace. And And still still other other members members and and allies looked cautiously cautiouslyupon upon the the peace. allies looked organization’sunfolding unfoldinginterracial interracialprojects projectshoping hopingthat thatthey theywere werenot not organization’s an oblique form of segregation. Hence, frequent assessment by WILPF segregation. Hence, frequent assessment by WILPF

Introduction| | 33 Introduction 33 women like Addie Hunton and Dorothy Detzer was designed to encourWILPF to to get get itit right, right, to to bring bring into existence a multivalent multivalent internaage the WILPF internationally minded organization that that promoted promoted in in deed deedand andin inword wordaaform form of political engagement that could, in in the the shadow shadowof ofWorld World War War II and andall all attendant issues, its attendant issues, both both challenge challenge the the prevalence prevalence and andpotency potencyof of AmeriAmerican racism and and reverse reverse the thelegacy legacyof ofracism racismthat thathindered hinderedUS USwomen’s women’s organizations.

HG  Race, of of course, course, has has always always shaped shaped the Race, the intricate intricatehistories historiesofofwomen’s women’spolipolitics and and gender politics in the United States. As this book aims to show, forfor gender politics in the United States. As this book aims to show, comprehensive understanding a comprehensive understandingofofthe theinterwar-era interwar-erawomen’s women’speace peacemovemoveattend to the ment, we need to attend the various various and andoften oftencontradictory contradictoryinfluences influences WILPF of race on the movement. movement. As As the thefollowing followingchapters chaptersillustrate, illustrate,the the WILPF served as one of the venues through which early twentieth-century venues through which early twentieth-centuryracracism was both both practiced practiced and and contested. contested. With With World World War War I,I, the the political political consciousness and consciousness and activities activitiesof of African African American Americanand andwhite whitewomen womeninterinterested in contesting war war and and injustice injustice changed changedand andsometimes sometimesmerged. merged.

African American American Women Women and and the the Search for Peace and and Freedom Search for Peace Freedom Cano, I Sing

There’s murder murder and There’s and hate hate in inthe theBalkans; Balkans; vengeance in There’s vengeance in far farCathay; Cathay;

and tyranny tyranny threaten Injustice and threaten Where men men and and greed greedhave havetheir theirsway; sway;

lynching my They’re lynching mysisters sistersininTexas, Texas,

They’re flflogging my sons sons on the farm; They’re ogging my know the Omnipotence Omnipotence watches, But II know watches, That God has has a far-flung far-flung arm. arm. —ALICE —A lic e DUNBAR-NELSON, Du n ba r-N e lson,1929 1929

IN 1933 In 1933 the theNACW NACWpublished, published,inintheir theirorganizational organizationalmagazine magazineNational National Notes, an elegant quarter-page photograph of fifty-seven-year-old esteemed Notes, an elegant quarter-page photograph of fifty-seven-year-old esteemed clubwoman and writer clubwoman writer Alice Alice Dunbar-Nelson Dunbar-Nelson with aa large large caption captionthat that 1 Alice read “Advocate “Advocate of of Peace.”' Peace.” This Thisphotograph photographand and AliceDunbar-Nelson’s Dunbar-Nelson’s 1929poem poem “Cano, “Cano,IISing” Sing”capture capture the the rich rich and complicated history that 1929 complicated history surrounded many middle-class African American women’s relationships surrounded many middle-class African American women’s relationships to World War I,I, the the women’s women’s peace peace movement, movement, and andAfrican AfricanAmerican American internationalism. By internationalism. By linking linking the thelynching lynchingofofblack blackwomen, women,the theatrocities atrocities of the war-torn Balkans, and Asian unrest of unrest in inher herpoem, poem,Dunbar-Nelson Dunbar-Nelson consciously sought to place the black female body into the center of the consciously sought place female and freedom that were unfolding during the narratives of war and peace and first fi rst three decades of the century. Many African American women women develdeveloped from their their various various experiences experiences of of the war—their war—their work work as as propaganpropagandists, home front defense workers, and witnesses to racism—a particular and witnesses to racism—a particular 34 34

Searchfor forPeace Peaceand and Freedom| | 35 Search Freedom perspective on how how to to achieve achieve peace. peace. As As Addie Addie Hunton Huntonsolidly solidlybelieved, believed, “there can be no world peace without right right local local and and national nationalrelations.”” relations.”2

This pragmatic pragmatic perspective perspective linked linkedthe thelocal local and andthe theglobal global through throughthe theterterwomen’s experiences. experiences.As Asthey they endeavored endeavored to to bring bring together rain of black women’s the middle-class middle-class movements movements for for peace, peace, Pan-Africanism, Pan-Africanism, and andracial racialuplift uplift black women womenturned turned to to their own history as reformers and and justice, justice, black experiences of oppression to devise strategies making the strategies for for change. change. By By making the achievement of their own own freedom freedomthe thelitmus litmustest testfor forpeace, peace,women womenlike like Addie Hunton, Alice Alice Dunbar-Nelson, and Jessie Jessie Fauset connected the the conditions of their local conditions their own own lives lives to to the theglobal globalstrife strifefaced facedby byso somany. many. The life and writings of Addie Hunton (1866-1943), Alice Dunbarand writings of Addie Hunton (1866–1943), Alice DunbarNelson (1875-1935), capture the Nelson (1875–1935), and Jessie Jessie Fauset Fauset(1882-1961) (1882–1961) capture thecomplexity complexity of middle-class African American American women’s women’s postwar postwarideology ideologyand andactivactivpostwar politics ism. Their postwar politics as as evidenced evidenced in inspeeches, speeches, committee committeereports, reports, newspaper columns, novels, and essays revealed a double-edged story newspaper columns, novels, and essays revealed a double-edged storyof of brilliance and isolation. The The contemporary contemporary liminality liminality surrounding surrounding black black women’s contributions contributions to to the the postwar postwar restructuring women’s restructuring and andreimagining reimaginingofof gender, nation, nation, and and citizenship replicates in many the meanings of race, gender, ways the very conditions of marginalization very conditions of marginalizationAfrican AfricanAmerican Americanwomen women during the like navigated during the postwar postwar era. era. The near erasure today of women like Hunton, Dunbar-Nelson, Dunbar-Nelson, and and Fauset Fauset from from historical historical inquiry inquiry into into postwar postwar political and intellectual intellectual developments developments recreates recreates the themarginality marginalityAfrican African 3 American women maneuvered during the interwar years.” maneuvered during the interwar years. African American women’s interwar era era peace peace activity activity and andideology ideology and allemust be placed within within the the context context of the complex developments and At the war’s war’s end, end, the the fact fact that that women had won giances they negotiated. At the right to vote, that black black women women had had participated participated in large numbers in the war effort, effort, and and that that the theracism racismof of the thewar warhad hadreignited reignitedblack blackresisresistance and internationalism internationalism caused caused black black women women to to expand expandthe thereach reachofof their political their political influence. influence. Simultaneously, Simultaneously,middle-class middle-classblack blackwomen womenwere were still expected—through the arenas of social reform and racial uplift— expected—through of social reform and racial uplift— to attend attend to to the thebasic basicdaily dailyneeds needsofofthe therace.* race.4InIn1920, 1920,W. W. E. E. B. B. Du Du Bois Bois acknowledged the the magnitude magnitudeof ofthe theresponsibilities responsibilitiesshouldered shoulderedby byblack black women in moment. InIn hishis book Darkwater: Voices women in the theimmediate immediatepostwar postwar moment. book Darkwater: Voices from Within the Veil, Du Bois pondered the advice black women had from Within the Veil, Du Bois pondered the advice black women had to

36 | A ofofNoble 36 | Band A Band NobleWomen Women offer: “What “What is today the message offer: message of of these these black black women women to toAmerica Americaand and to the world? The uplift uplift of of women womenis, is, next nextto tothe theproblem problemofofthe thecolor colorline line and the the peace peace movement, movement, our our greatest greatestmodern moderncause. cause.When, When,now, now,two twoof of these movements—woman movements—woman and andcolor—combine color—combine in inone, one,the thecombination combination 5 has deep deep meaning.”° meaning.” Here he he praised praisedblack blackwomen womenfor fortheir theiraccomplishaccomplishments and their their ability ability to to link link the thestruggles strugglesfor forgender genderand andracial racialequalequality. Yet he also went on to compare their achievements and message with ity. Yet he also went on to compare their achievements and what he deemed deemed the the “noisier and and more spectacular spectacular advances advances of of my brothers.” Du Bois admired the ers.” Bois admired the robust robustpolitical politicalengagement engagementofofblack blackmen, men,yet yet he concluded that it was “the “the five five million women of my race who really 6 count.”° Du Bois’s comments were prescient in in many many ways. At the cusp count.” Du Bois’s comments were prescient cusp of of interwar era, black women women were were indeed indeed charging ahead the interwar ahead into the peace movement—the other great great modern moderncause causeDu DuBois Boisreferenced. referenced.And Andthey they would contend with with their theirchanging changingstatus statusasasrace racewomen womenasasmale maleleadleadership took on new importance. With the war just ended, black women new importance. With the war just ended, black women also took anew to the international internationalstage. stage. Mary Mary Church ChurchTerrell Terrell joined joined the the 1919WILPF WILPFCongress CongressininZurich Zurich where where women analyzed the 1919 theVersailles Versailles proposals and Addie proposals Addie Hunton Hunton spoke spoke before before the thePan-African Pan-African Congress Congress held that same year in France. In a few years, African American that same year in France. In a few years, African Americanwomen women would found found their theirown ownorganization, organization,the theICWDR, ICWDR, charged chargedwith withcharting charting course for internationalism. aa course for black black women’s women’s internationalism. With World War I and its its aftermath, aftermath,African AfricanAmerican Americanwomen womenconconfronted what Alice Dunbar-Nelson believed was a Gordian knot. Their fronted what Alice Dunbar-Nelson believed was a Gordian knot. Their influence infl uence and expertise expertise was was needed neededmore morethan thanever—by ever—bythe theWar War DepartDepartment and and the the movements movements for forpeace peaceand andracial racialjustice—yet justice—yet the therace raceand and gender politics politics of of the time troubled gender troubled their their every every move. move. The The promising promising New Negro movement that developed in response to the racism movement the racism of of the the 7 war produced produced aa highly highlymasculinist masculinistblack blackpolitical politicalculture.’ culture. From From the thewar, war, black men emerged as as the the de de facto facto leaders. leaders. Or Or as as Joy Joy James observes, the postwar landscape postwar landscape“masculinize(d) “masculinize(d)black blackagency” agency”and and“naturalize(d) “naturalize(d)the the 8 male intellectual.”* Men’s prominence—or, as Du Bois would state, their intellectual.” Men’s prominence—or, as Du Bois would state, their “spectacular advances”—sidelined advances”—sidelined and and overshadowed overshadowed the forty years of “spectacular women had given work middle-class middle-class women given in in the thepursuit pursuitofofracial racialprogress. progress. Additionally, black women faced faced the theracial racialpolitics politicsofofthe thenew newwomen’s women’s peace movement, which, although although not averse to the involvement not averse to the involvement of of black black

Searchfor forPeace Peaceand andFreedom Freedom| | 37 Search 37 women, held an image image of the ideal female peace reformer as as white. Chalwithin these lenged within these two two important importantmovements, movements,black black women women spent spent much much of the interwar era fashioning of fashioning political political strategies that that opened opened up upopporopportunities through tunities throughwhich whichthey theycould couldinfluence influencethe thepolitical politicalcontent content and andoutoutincreasingly merged come of the increasingly mergedstruggles strugglesfor forracial racialfreedom freedomand andpeace. peace.

African American African Americanwomen womenapproached approachedpeace peacework workfrom frommany manyavenues. avenues. aligned with They aligned with existing existingorganizations organizationslike likethe theWILPF, WILPF, they theyestablished established peace departments in their clubs, and and they created new orgapeace their women’s women’s clubs, organizations. For instance, in addition addition to to the theICWDR, ICWDR, middle-class middle-class women women Hunton and like Hunton andFauset Fauset formed formedthe theCircle Circlefor forPeace Peace and and Foreign Foreign Relations. Relations. Newspaper columns, poet Idabelle Yesier’s Philadelphia Tribune Newspaper columns,like like poet Idabelle Yesier’s Philadelphia Tribune“Peace “Peace Corner,” informed female readers about Corner,” about international internationaldisarmament disarmamentcamcampaigns, Cuba, and and efforts efforts to stop stop the the manufacturing manufacturingofofchildren’s children’swar wartoys. toys. Black women women also helped initiate Black initiate interracial interracial peace peace campaigns campaignsininmajor major cities like Washington, Washington, Detroit, Detroit,Los LosAngeles, Angeles,New NewYork, York,Boston, Boston,and andBalBaltimore. And artists artists like likeLaura LauraWheeler WheelerWaring Waringand andMeta MetaWarrick WarrickFuller Fuller and donated created and donated paintings paintingsand andsculptures sculpturestotobenefit benefitthe thewomen’s women’speace peace 9 movement.’ Dunbar-Nelson Dunbar-Nelson conjectured movement. conjecturedthat thatblack blackwomen womenpossessed possessedparpar-

ticular qualities that would would enhance enhance the theefforts effortsunder underway waytotomake makewar war obsolete and to obsolete to secure secure racial racialdemocracy. democracy. Black Black women’s women’s outlook on war, war, honed from the the daily daily challenges challenges of of living living in in the theworld worldas asblack blackwomen, women, Dunbar-Nelson believed, elevated their their understanding understandingabout abouthow howpower power worked and hence bestowed upon them specific ideas about the necessary worked and hence bestowed upon them specific ideas about the necessary approaches to approaches to achieving achieving freedom freedomand andpeace. peace. War II and and the the Politics Politics of of Black BlackMasculinity Masculinity World War War II symbolized symbolized an era marked World War marked by by the the twin twinforces forces of of racial racial pride pride and racial racial discrimination, discrimination, and the the black black soldier soldier served served as asthe thecentral central emblem of those forces. emblem forces. Starting with with the theRevolutionary RevolutionaryWar, War, the themilimilitary service of black men sparked national debate. Many whites asked of sparked national debate. Many whites askedifif black men were fit fit to fight fight and lead. lead. And And many manyworried worriedhow howblack blackserservice might might change change the landscape of of race race and and masculinity in the nation. vice nation. Black men men who who sought to serve in Black in World World War I hoped hoped to to prove prove once once and and for all that African Americans were as patriotic as whites and as fit African patriotic as whites and as fitto to

38 | A ofofNoble 38 | Band A Band NobleWomen Women defend the defend the nation. nation.Yet, Yet, as as in in the the past, past, black black male maleservice serviceduring duringWorld WorldWar War riddled with I was riddled with contention. contention. For For instance, instance, though thoughaasegregated segregatedofficer’s officer’s camp was established established by by the the War War Department Departmentin inDes DesMoines, Moines, Iowa, Iowa, only only hundred men twelve hundred men out out of of the the more more than than350,000 350,000 black men mobilized were recruited for it. And only a few few of them rose rose to to the the rank rankof of officer. officer.

Of the black black men who did make it to France, most served in the Service unloading ships, setting up and Supply Sector, Sector, unloading up camps, camps, and and maintaining maintaining 10 the day-to-day day-to-day operations operationsof of the themobilization.’ mobilization. Once OnceininEurope, Europe,black blacksolsoldiers faced segregated army army facilities facilities and and mistreatment mistreatmentby byUS USofficials. officials. lazy, and and unfi unfitt for the duties They were frequently labeled cowardly, lazy, duties of a soldier. The ultimate insult came on Bastille Day, July 14, 1919, ultimate insult came on Bastille Day, July 14, 1919, when when the the States barred barred the black black troops troops from from marching marching in the military vicUnited States tory parade." parade.11 Near Near the the war’s war’s end, end, black black servicemen in the the United United States States encountered relentless encountered relentlessdiscrimination discriminationand andviolence. violence.One Oneofofthe themany manyinciincidents that became symbolic not only of of the the depth depth of American American racism but but of the rising New Negro Negro consciousness consciousness occurred occurredat atCamp CampLogan Loganoutside outside of Houston, Texas. Black servicemen servicemen in in Houston had of Texas. Black had regularly regularlyexperiexperienced mistreatment and Jim enced Jim Crow segregation while, for instance, instance, riding the city’s streetcars. In August of 1917, a black soldier confronted the city’s streetcars. In August of 1917, a confronted two two officers he witnessed witnessed harassing a black white police offi cers he black woman. The The police police officers beat the the solider. solider. In In response to the beating offi cers beat beating other other black black soldiers, soldiers, up arms. In the ensuing ensuing who were “tired of being treated like dogs,” took up riot four blacks and twenty whites died. In retaliation against these twenty whites died. In retaliation against theseacts actsofof black self-defense, self-defense, nineteen nineteen black black soldiers soldiers were were executed executed by by hanging hanging and 12 another fifty another fifty soldiers soldiers received receivedlife lifesentences.” sentences. In the the end, end, World World War War II only onlyreinforced reinforced the thetenacity tenacityofofAmeriAmerican racism. And the racist mistreatment of black soldiers at home can racism. And the racist mistreatment of black soldiers at home and and in Europe became a key factor in igniting aa new new era era of of black black resistance. resistance. Black Americans Americans looked looked upon upon the soldiers’ contributions to the war Black war with with pride and and determined determinedto tobring bringthe thefight fightfor fordemocracy democracyhome. home.Although Although white Americans would rather forget the presence of black soldiers, Americans would rather forget the presence of black soldiers,black black Americans feted the returning returningsoldiers soldierswith withgallant gallantparades. parades.To Tothem themthe the black soldier represented dignity, leadership, patriotism, and and the themodel model of real American manhood. The fact of his wartime service in the face of real American manhood. The fact of his wartime service in the face of of mistreatment became the spark for a new black political consciousness. the spark for a new black political consciousness.

Searchfor forPeace Peaceand andFreedom Freedom| | 39 Search 39 Black Americans Americans would Black would no nolonger longerfight fightfor forequality equalityquietly, quietly,hesitantly, hesitantly,oror E. B. B. Du Du Bois Bois wrote in politely. As W. E. in his hisMay May1919 1919 editorial editorial“Returning “Returning Soldiers,” “we “we are are cowards and and jackasses Soldiers,” jackasses if, now that that the the war warisisover, over, we we londo not marshal marshalevery everyounce ounceof ofour ourbrain brainand andbrawn brawntotofight fighta asterner, sterner, longer, more more unbending unbending battle battle against against the the forces forcesofofhell hellininour ourown ownland.” land.”13 ger,

had begun. The New Negro era had begun. With the image of the mistreatment mistreatment of of the theblack black soldier soldier foremost foremost in in mind, it was commonly commonly agreed everyone’s mind, agreedthat thatititwas wasthe theblack blackman’s man’srepreputation that that needed neededto to be be redeemed redeemedand andthat thatititwas wasthe theblack blackman’s man’srights rights that were most most directly directly and andpublicly publicly trampled. trampled.Who Whobetter bettertotolead leadthe the fight for the future of democracy for black Americans than the black men fight the Americans the who had had just just risked riskedtheir theirlives livesfor forworld worlddemocracy? democracy?The Theprominence prominenceofof the image of the black soldier stimulated an an important importantnew newera eraininblack black resistance politics, resistance politics, but but ititalso alsocomplicated complicatedblack blackwomen’s women’sefforts effortstotoestabestablish their role in this movement. lish their role in this movement. The New Negro The Negro era era also also accelerated accelerated Pan-African Pan-African and world world conconsciousness. Marcus Marcus Garvey’s sciousness. Garvey’s United Negro Negro Improvement Improvement Association Association (UNIA) and and Du Bois’s Pan-African Congress Congress movement represented (UNIA) Bois’s Pan-African representedthe the two most significant aspects of this idea. In general, Pan-African consignificant of this idea. In general, Pan-African consciousness encouraged encouraged black black Americans Americans to to establish establishpersonal personaland andpolitipolitical allegiance cal allegiance with black black nations nations and and all allracialized racializedcolonial colonialsubjects. subjects. Garvey espoused espousedblack blackseparatism, separatism,economic economicself-sufficiency, self-sufficiency,and andblack black pride through the development of strong African affiliations. Founded through the development of strong African affiliations. Founded UNIAwas was extremely extremely popular popular with in 1914, 1914, UNIA with the theworking workingclass. class.The Theorgaorgawith more more than than eight eight hundred hundred chapters in nization peaked in the 1920s 1920s with 14 Du Bois’s brand of Pan-Africanism forty countries.’* countries. Du Bois’s brand Pan-Africanism was wasinitially initiallymore more intellectual and less confrontational, and maintained a hope for interraless and maintained a hope for interracial existence. The Pan-African Congress Congress movement movementsought soughttotonegotiate negotiate freedom for black colonial subjects and and to to develop develop “spiritual “spiritualsympathy sympathy and intellectual intellectual understanding understandingand andcooperation” cooperation”among amongallallpeople peopleofofthe the 15 darker races.” darker races. Garvey and and Du Du Bois’s Bois’s Pan-Africanism shared shared aa masculinist masculinistpolitical political ethos. Though women numbered numbered strongly strongly in in the theGarvey Garveymovement, movement, the the philosophical underpinnings underpinningsof ofUNIA‘s UNIA’s nationalism promoted the the ideal ideal of the black male patriarch patriarch and an idealized black womanhood. Du Bois’s and an idealized black womanhood. Du Bois’s

of ofNoble 40 | A | Band A Band NobleWomen Women Pan-African Congress Congress movement movement imagined the Pan-African the new newPan-African Pan-Africanconconsciousness as a development of sciousness of black black “brotherhood,” leaving leaving few few doors doors open for women’s participation and and leadership. leadership.In Inthe thewake wakeofofthese theseand and other developments developmentssparked sparkedby bythe thewar, war,women womenlike likeAddie AddieHunton, Hunton,Alice Alice Dunbar-Nelson, and and Jessie Fauset searched searched for doors Dunbar-Nelson, Jessie Fauset doors through throughwhich which they could enter into into the the changing changingworld worldof ofpolitical politicalparticipation participation and and consciousness."°16 consciousness. Addie Hunton: Hunton: Crusader Crusaderfor forDemocracy Democracy

Hunton in Hunton in France France

Boston’s Born in 1866 1866 in Norfolk, Virginia, Virginia, Addie AddieHunton Huntonattended attended Boston’sGirls Girls Latin School and Philadelphia’s Philadelphia’s Spencerian Spencerian College College of of Commerce where where she was the only African American student. In 1893 she married William American student. In 1893 married William Alphaeus Hunton, who became the first Alphaeus first black black secretary of the internainternational office of the YMCA. The Huntons lived in the South until tional office of the YMCA. The Huntons lived in the South until1906 1906 when the the Atlanta Atlanta race race riots riots forced forced them themto tomove movenorth northtotoBrooklyn, Brooklyn,New New York. They lived in Brooklyn for the remainder of their lives. William’s York. They Brooklyn for the remainder of their lives. William’s 1916death deathfrom from tuberculosis tuberculosis left left Addie Addie alone to raise their 1916 their two two children, children, husband, her Eunice and William William Alphaeus. Alphaeus. But But the the loss of her husband, her new new role role as as a single parent, and and her her own own compromised compromisedhealth healthdid didnot notcause causeHunton Huntontoto retreat from the increasing and changing changing political responsibilities brought 17 war.” on by the war. Before the the war, Hunton played Before played aa leading leadingrole roleininthe theblack blackwomen’s women’s club movement, attending attending the the1896 1896 founding founding meeting meetingof ofthe theNACW NACWand and serving as a field organizer for the association from 1906 to 1910. Hunton serving as a field organizer for the association from 1906 to 1910. Hunton YWCA; was also one one of of the thefirst firstblack blackwomen womentotowork workfor forthe the YWCA;starting starting she helped the organization in 1907 1907 she organization develop develop separate separate centers centers for for black black women. She She also also directed a study of women. of the the working working conditions conditions that that black black women endured in the factories and mills of Winston-Salem, North Carendured in the factories and mills of Winston-Salem, North Carolina. As aa YWCA YWCA representative, Hunton Hunton attended attendedthe thelandmark landmark1916 1916 Amenia Conference along with other Amenia Conference along other leading leadingAfrican AfricanAmerican Americanclubclubwomen, including Mary Mary Church ChurchTerrell, Terrell,Lucy LucyLaney, Laney, and andNannie NannieBurBurroughs. Hunton served as president of both New York State’s Empire State roughs. Hunton served as president of both New York State’s Empire State

Search for forPeace Peaceand andFreedom Freedom || 41 Search 41 Women’sClubs Clubsand and the the ICWDR. ICWDR.Her Her stellar stellar history history of serFederation of Women’s her employment employment with and her her husband’s reputation reputation vice work, her with the the YWCA, YWCA, and with the with the international international YMCA YMCA made made her her an an obvious obvious choice choice for for the the select select 18 of administering administering to the needs role of needs of of the black troops in France.” France. In the summer summer of of 1918 1918 Hunton Hunton and andformer formerNAACP NAACP field field organizer organizer Kathryn Johnson sailed from from New New York York City City to to the thesouthern southerncoast coastofof 19 France.” Under the auspices of the YMCA, they served as the first France. of the YMCA, as the firsttwo two African American American women women allowed African allowed to to staff staff the the canteen canteen and and hostess hostess huts huts black troops troops stationed in France. that served served 150,000 150,000 black France. This trip trip changed changed fifty-three-year-old Hunton’slife lifedramatically, dramatically,launching launchingher her into into an fi fty-three-year-old Hunton’s expanded career as an internationalist and a peace activist. Hunton an internationalist and a peace activist. Huntonand and Johnson left left for for France France on on a bright sunny sunny June June day day after after having havinglunch lunch on Fourteenth Street with family family and and friends. friends. Seeing Seeing Hunton Hunton off off were were her two children and the close female friend who would look after them her two children and the close female friend who would look after them for what would be more than than aa year. year. Also Also joining joining the the women women on ontheir their trip were were William William Sloane, Sloane, chair of of the the YMCA YMCA War Council Committee, and several several other other white white and andblack blackYY workers. workers. Hunton’s Hunton’s and andJohnson’s Johnson’s treatment on board board the the ship shippresaged presagedtheir theirexperiences experiencesin inFrance. France.Black Black women were required required to sleep in bunks located a floor below those of the to sleep in bunks located a floor white women who had had also also been been deployed deployed to toFrance. France. Though Though Hunton Hunton of the the meals, meals,entertainment, entertainment, and movies provided provided on board, spoke fondly of the dining rooms rooms were were segregated, segregated, with with Dutch Dutch civilians civilians serving serving as as the the 20 barrier between white and black US passengers.” barrier between white and black US passengers. 1920Hunton Hunton and and Johnson published an In 1920 an account account of of their their service service in in Two Colored Colored Women Womenwith with the the American American Expeditionary Expeditionary Forces. Two Forces. In their theirbook book they ardently ardently recounted recounted the theracism racism experienced experiencedby by the theblack black soldiers soldiers and and passionately championed the humanity and dedication of the soldiers passionately championed humanity and dedication of the soldiers claimed the the war war and its aftermath as rightful under their their care. care. They also claimed territory for black female analysis and and activism. activism. Through Through the thepublication publication Colored Women Womenwith with the the American American Expeditionary Expeditionary Forces Forcesthey they helped helped of Two Two Colored

usher in aa reconfigured reconfigured black black political political consciousness consciousness and and clarified clarified the the political responsibilities of of black women. After After the thewar, war,Hunton Huntonbecame became leading figure a leading figure in in the the NAACP, NAACP, the Pan-African Pan-African Congress Congress movement, movement,and and peace movement. movement.She Shecapitalized capitalizedon onher hermore morethan than twenty twenty the women’s women’s peace years of leadership in the club movement to enhance her work in the club movement to enhance her work inthese these

ofofNoble 42 | A | Band A Band NobleWomen Women other organizations. Although the war raised raised the thestature statureofofblack blackmale male leadership, Hunton’s Hunton’s political political record also illustrates leadership, illustrates that thatblack blackwomen’s women’s political contributions never receded. receded. Although Two Although TwoColored ColoredWomen Womenin inthe theAmerican AmericanExpeditionary ExpeditionaryForces Forceswas was primarily concerned primarily concerned with withthe thestruggles strugglesofofblack blackmen menininFrance, France,Hunton Hunton

account, of of course, course, also also documented how and Johnson’s Johnson’s account, how black black women women were treated. treated. As As they they documented, documented,black blackwomen womenwere weredenied deniedthe theopporopportunity to to serve serve in in ways ways that thatparalleled paralleledthe thestatus statusofofwhite whitewomen. women.The The Red Cross excluded black black women women from fromserving servingasasbattlefield battlefieldnurses, nurses,yet yet Alice Dunbar-Nelson reported Alice reported that thatthree threehundred hundredblack blackwomen womenserved served in this this capacity capacity by by passing passing as aswhite. white.Relief Relief and andgovernment governmentagencies agencies also strictly limited limited the the number numberof ofblack blackwomen womenallowed allowedtoto“spread “spreadtheir their 21 influence” infl uence” in canteens.*' canteens. Initially, Initially, only onlythree threeblack blackwomen—Hunton, women—Hunton, Johnson, and and Helen HelenCurtis—received Curtis—receivedYMCA YMCA appointments appointmentsasascanteen canteen workers. Eventually protests by black leaders resulted in an increase by black leaders resulted in an increasetoto YMCA’s eighteen women women by bythe theend endofofthe thewar. war.The The YMCA’scircumscription circumscriptionofof black women’s involvement in war relief work reflected YMCA’s black women’s involvement in war relief work reflectedthe the YMCA’sdisdismissal of the missal the needs needsof of black black soldiers. soldiers. ItIt also also severly severly limited limitedblack blackwomen’s women’s 22 opportunities to display their civic fitness and patriotism.” opportunities to display their civic fitness patriotism. Female canteen canteen workers workers provided important Female important services services to tosoldieries. soldieries. Additionally they brought the Additionally the symbol symbol of of American American home homelife lifeand andstastability to the war war front. front. They They also also reassured reassuredAmericans Americansback backhome homethat that their sons, brothers, fathers, and husbands were being cared for. These sons, brothers, fathers, and husbands were being cared for. These nurturing familiar and gendered gendered images images of idealized home life—women life—women nurturing through home-cooked men through home-cooked meals and attending attending to to their their spiritual spiritualpain— pain— helped improve improve public public sentiment sentiment about aboutthe thewar. war.Denying Denyingblack blackwomen women equal opportunity to care for black soldiers not only limited the services opportunity to care for black soldiers not only limited the services the men men received received by by the the black black troops, troops,but butititalso alsoserved servedtotothwart thwartthe thesymsymbolic power power of of black blackwomen’s women’sservice. service. Hunton and and Johnson Johnson reported reportedthat thatbecause becausethere therewere weresosofew fewblack black female canteen workers, each woman did the work equivalent of six workworkers, each woman did the work equivalent of six workers. They recounted that that in in Camp Camp Lusitania Lusitaniain inSt. St. Nazaire—home Nazaire—hometo tonine nine thousand black thousand blackstevedores—there stevedores—therewas wasonly onlyone onefemale femaleYMCA YMCAworker, worker,and and she was responsible for everything from shopping to to literacy literacy training training to to arranging social hours. This circumscription of black women’s opportunity arranging social hours. This circumscription of women’s opportunity

Searchfor forPeace Peaceand andFreedom Freedom| | 43 Search 43 to attend to attend to to black black soldiers soldiers recalled recalled other otherhistories historiesof ofwhite whiteintrusion intrusioninto into black community community and andfamily familylife. life.Slavery Slaverydenied deniedblack blackwomen womenthe theability ability attend to to attend to the the basic basic needs needs of of their theirfamilies. families. And Andthe theJim JimCrow Crowpractices practices of the war promised promised to tomake makeititdifficult difficultfor forblack blackAmericans Americansto toattend attendtoto These limits mattered not only because the basic needs of their soldiers. These they affected the health and and well-being well-being of of the the soldiers, soldiers, but but also also because because they limited limited black black women’s women’s ability ability to to fight fight for racial uplift. uplift. In In the the first first two two decades of the twentieth twentiethcentury, century,the thesuccessful successfulperformance performanceofofmothermotherhood symbolized hood symbolizedcivic civicmaturity. maturity.Hence, Hence,restricting restrictingblack blackwomen’s women’sopporopportunities to “mother” the black troops made more difficult difficult their efforts to capitalize on the capitalize the symbolism symbolism associated associatedwith withwomen’s women’swartime wartimeservice. service. This mattered because black Americans Americans supported the the war, war, in in part, part,as as women meant their care a way to showcase showcase their patriotism, which for women of the fighting fighting forces. forces. By By preempting preemptingblack blackwomen’s women’swork workininEurope, Europe,the the United States defied black women’s women’s determination determination to United States defi ed black to claim claim the the mantle mantle of of 23 motherhood, civic fi fitness, and equal citizenship as rightfully motherhood, tness, and rightfully theirs.” theirs. Hunton and and Johnson Johnson also also experienced experienced little little support supportfrom fromthe thewhite white Hunton and Johnson described women with whom they served in France. Hunton feeling ignored ignored by them, “not withstanding withstanding the thefact factthat thatthey theywere werewomen, women, 24 and Americans, and Americans,just justlike likethe theothers.”** others.” Even after after the theinitial initialYMCA YMCAreguregulations forbidding forbidding white white women womenfrom fromproviding providingservices servicestotoblack blacktroops troops Hunton and Johnson reported disappointment disappointment with were liberalized, Hunton with the the women’s behavior. behavior. Some of of the the white white workers still refused refused to do anything to do anything of the the black black troops. troops. Others Others resisted resisted the more personal tasks like on behalf of letter writing or or mending mendingthe themen’s men’s clothing. clothing. This This behavior behavior reminded reminded Hunton of the importance importance of of her her presence presence in in France. France. It It also also confirmed confirmed that she served in France not as a woman serving her country, France country, but as a race woman serving serving her her men. men. Additionally, Additionally, because because so so few few black black women women served in France and and those those who whodid didoften oftenreceived receivedaacold coldreception receptionfrom from Hunton often found white women, women like Hunton found themselves themselves with with very very few few outlets for female friendship. friendship. Even though their Even their numbers numberswere weresmall, small,black blackwomen’s women’s presence presence in in Europe at times troubled Europe troubled military military officials. officials. Not only did did women women like like Hunton provide Hunton provideneeded neededservices, services,they theywere werealso alsowitnesses witnessestotothe themistreatmistreatment of black men. As Hunton and Johnson noted in Two Colored men. As Hunton and Johnson noted in Two ColoredWomen Women

ofofNoble 44 | A | Band A Band NobleWomen Women the American AmericanExpeditionary ExpeditionaryForces, Forces, white andblack blacktroops troopswere weretreated treated with the white and Blacksoldiers soldiersinjured injuredin inthe theline lineofofduty dutycould couldwait waitthree threedays days differently. Black receive services services at at aa military military hospital while white soldiers were given to receive priority care. care. YMCA YMCAhuts hutsthat thatdispensed dispensedeverything everythingfrom fromice icecream creamtoto priority religious sermons sermons also also were were often often affi affixed with Whites Whites Only Only or or Blacks Blacks religious xed with

Crow policies policies were were not not necessarily necessarilyunexpected, unexpected, Only signs. Although Jim Crow these restrictions restrictions served served as as aa constant constant source source of of tension. tension.This Thistension tension these flared black troops troops were were assigned assigned the the physically physically fl ared at Camp Romagne where black of reburying reburying soldiers soldiers in in an an offi official military and emotionally arduous task of cial military cemetery. In In this this already already taxing taxing climate, climate, black blacksoldiers soldiersrebelled rebelledwhen whenaa cemetery. “whites only” only” Knights Knights of of Columbus Columbus tent tent was erected at their camp. As “whites Hunton described, described, the the black black men men “raze[d] “raze[d]the thetent tenttotothe the ground.” ground.”In In Hunton response, the the white white soldiers soldiersturned turned aa machine machinegun gun on on the the black blacksoldiers. soldiers. response, black women womenatatthe thecamp campwere wereordered orderedremoved removedtotoParis Parissosothat thatthey they The black 25 could not not interfere interfere with with or or serve serve as aswitnesses witnessesto tothe theriot. riot.” could

Journal,regularly regularlyfeatured featured Popular magazines, like like the the Ladies Ladies Home Home Journal, (white) female femalecanteen canteenworkers workersand and depicted depicted their their service service to to the the men (white) 26 These stationed abroad as that of “little mothers of the battlefield.”*° stationed abroad as that of “little mothers of the battlefield.” These popular news of motherhood. motherhood. news stories stories fostered a patriotic patriotic resignification resignification of historian Susan Zeiger documents, government government and and cultural cultural As peace peace historian Zeiger documents, forces sought sought to tolink linkAmerican Americanwomen womenwith withthe thewar wareffort effortbybyshifting shiftingthe the forces role of of mothers mothers from from that that of of antiwar antiwar agitators agitators to to supporters supporters appropriate role 27 of “citizen” soldiers.” This resignification of motherhood took differof “citizen” soldiers. This resignification of motherhood took aa differform for for Hunton. Hunton. Although AlthoughHunton Huntonused usedher her “maternal “maternaltouch” touch”and and ent form comprehension” to to ease ease men’s men’sexperiences experiencesofofthe thepain painofofwar, war, “womanly comprehension” used her “motherly” “motherly” services services to tofoster fosterininthe themen menaapolitical politicalconconshe also used 28 sciousness that was critical of the nation.*® Under Hunton’s leadership, the that was critical of the nation. Under Hunton’s leadership, the canteens were were aa place place in in which which men men could could gather gather to to build build racial racial pride pride canteens Byproviding providingthe the men men with with aa and strengthen their their racial racial consciousness. consciousness. By “home,”she sheassured assuredthe the black blacksoldiers soldiersthat thatthey they warm and comforting comforting “home,” were loved by their own race and especially by the women of the race, and especially women of race, As Hunton wrote, “Always, “Always,whether whetherininthe the if not by the nation at large. As set aside aside in in the the Y Y barracks barracks for forour our reception receptionroom, room,or oramong among little corner set books they they liked liked so so well well to to read, read,whether whetherby bythe theside sideofofthe thepiano pianooror the books over in the canteen, we were trying to love them as a mother or dear over in the canteen, we were trying to love them as a mother or aadear

Searchfor forPeace Peaceand andFreedom Freedom| | 45 Search 45 one would into a fuller knowledge knowledge and and appreciation appreciationof of themselves.”” themselves.”29 The The fuller appreciation Hunton helped helped the the men menachieve achieve was was aarecognition recognitionof of their black manhood as a politicized identity. In the canteens men heard politicized heard lectures about the contributions contributions of of the the leading leading men menof ofthe therace raceand andread read literature made the race literature made available available by by Hunton Huntonand andJohnson. Johnson.IfIfthe theUS US milimilitary despised despised and andmaligned malignedthem, them,black blackwomen womensaw sawininthese thesesoldiers soldiersthe the future of the race. Hunton encouraged the men under her care to carve out future of the Hunton encouraged the men under her care to carve out a new role for themselves themselves as as the theleaders leadersof ofaanew newmovement movementdesigned designedtoto seize equal equal rights rightsfor forblack blackAmericans. Americans. The championing championing of of black black male male leadership leadership marked marked a turning The turning point point in African American gender relations. Previous to the war, some Afrirelations. the war, some African American women publicly publicly criticized criticized black black men’s men’s efforts to lead lead the the race. After After the passage of the Fifteenth Amendment race. Amendment to to the theUS US ConstituConstitution extending extending voting voting privileges privilegestotoblack blackmen, men,many manyblack blackclubwomen clubwomen expressed dismay at the way in which black men exercised expressed the way in which black men exercisedtheir theirnew new women also also spurned spurned black political rights. Black Black women black male male leaders leaders who who failed failed to defend defend black to black women women from fromcharacter characterassassination. assassination.InInHunton’s Hunton’s1904 1904artiarticle, “Negro “Negro Womanhood Womanhood Defended,” cle, Defended,”she shechastised chastisedblack blackmen menfor forpublicly publicly concurring with whites that the “moral weakness of black womanhood” that the “moral weakness of black womanhood” was at the the center center of of the the “race “race problem.” problem.” Describing Describing in in great great flourish flourish the the pain and during slavery—"“the pain andhumiliation humiliationexacted exactedononblack blackwomen women during slavery—“theburbursoul-trying times den of those soul-trying times when, when, to to bring bringprofit profit to to the theslave slave trade tradeand and to satisfy the base desires of a stronger hand, the Negro woman was the Negro woman wasthe the subject of compulsory immorality’—Hunton immorality”—Huntonused usedher heressay essaytotoacknowlacknowledge the strength strengthand andresilience resilienceofofblack blackwomanhood. womanhood.Hunton Huntonretorted retorted Era fashion fashion that black women were the salvation, not in typical Woman’s Woman’s Era not the ruin, of the race. “The Negro woman,” Hunton reminded her readers, ruin, of the Hunton reminded her readers, “ha[d] been the motive power power in in whatever whateverha[d] ha[d] been beenaccomplished accomplishedby bythe the race.” Through Through her thrift race.” thrift she she had hadeducated educatedtwenty-five twenty-fivethousand thousandteachteachers and secured fourteen thousand dollars for black education. Within ers and secured fourteen thousand dollars for black education. Within her “womanhood” resided resided the the “moral “moral and andconservative conservative qualities” qualities” of of the the 30 race.*°She, She,alone, alone,would would uplift uplift the race. the race. race. World War War II brought brought a change to this World this uplift uplift discourse discourse and andset setinto into motion a new motion new racialized racialized gender gender discourse. discourse. The The postwar postwarclimate climatefound found women like Hunton using the maternal language of the Woman’s Era not women like Hunton using the maternal language of the Woman’s Era nottoto

ofofNoble 46 | A | Band A Band NobleWomen Women trumpet their trumpet theirown ownmove moveinto intopublic publiclife, life,but butto toverify verifythe thestrength strengthofofblack black manhood. The manhood. The hearth-like hearth-like atmosphere atmosphere of of wartime wartime canteens canteens functioned functionedas as transitional spaces—locales transitional spaces—locales in in which whichblack blackmen menand andwomen womenawakened awakenedtoto new individual new individual and andcollective collective consciousness. consciousness. Hunton’s Hunton’s “heart-to-heart” “heart-to-heart” talks with the men in her St. Nazaire YMCA canteen revealed talks with the men in her St. Nazaire YMCA canteen revealedblack blackmen’s men’s

respect black black womanhood womanhood and capacity to respect and to to lead the the race: Over in in the the canteen canteen in in France we learned learned to to know know our our own Over France we own men men as as we we had not known them them before, before, and this knowledge makes large our faith

in them. Because they talked fi first Because they rst and talked talked last last of of their their women women back back

home, usually usually with a glow upon their faces, we learned learned to know that home, faces, we colored men loved their their own own women womenas asthey theycould couldlove loveno noother otherwomen women

world . . . ... We in all the world We learned learned to know that there was being developed in France a racial consciousness and racial strength strength that thatcould couldnot nothave have

been gained in a half century of Over in in the of normal living in America. Over canteen in France we we learned learned to know know that that our young manhood manhood was was the the natural and and rightful rightfulguardian guardianofofour ourstruggling strugglingrace. race.Learning Learningall allthis this and more, and more, we we also also learned learnedto tolove loveour ourmen menbetter betterthan thanever everbefore.*! before.31

Hunton’s refl reflections illustrate that that the the racism Hunton’s ections illustrate racism embedded embedded in inthe thewar war amelioration and and transformation of the intraraencouraged a significant significant amelioration that many cial gender strife that many black black women, women, like Hunton, Hunton, had hadfelt felt during duringthe the Womans Era. Hunton’s Hunton’s relationship relationship with the men in her canteen revealed Woman’s to her previously hidden aspects previously aspects of of black black manhood. manhood. Reflected Reflected through the wartime double prism of of black patriotism and white racism, Hunton realized that realized thatblack black men men could could indeed indeedbe bestrong strongleaders, leaders,protectors protectorsofofblack black womanhood, and womanhood, andexemplars exemplarsof of American Americanmanhood. manhood.Her Herendorsement endorsementofof the superiority of black manhood served the radical purpose the radical purpose of of usherushering in the New New Negro Negro movement movement through the the mantel mantel of of masculinity. masculinity. It also challenged the the foundation foundationof ofwhite whiteAmerican Americanmanhood. manhood.This Thisreforreformulated narrative mulated narrative of of racialized racialized masculinity masculinitytook tookshape shapethrough throughHunton’s Hunton’s encounters in the canteens and her observation of black men’s work encounters in the canteens and her observation of black men’s work on on the the battlefields and in battlefields and in the the labor labor battalions. battalions. By sharing sharing her her observations, observations, Hunton Hunton provided her readers By readers with with proof proof of black In her most of black male exceptionalism. exceptionalism. In most poignant poignant passages, passages, Hunton Hunton explored the significance of the fact that it was black soldiers who were significance of the fact

Searchfor forPeace Peaceand and Freedom| | 47 Search Freedom primarily responsible responsible for consigning consigning to to graves graves the themen menkilled killedininbattle. battle. Gazing out her her canteen canteen kitchen kitchen window, window, Hunton Huntonwatched watchedthe thegrave gravedigdiggers as they gathered and and buried buried the the US US war dead. dead. Through Through the the “sweat “sweat of toil” ten thousand thousandblack blacktroops troopssearched searched480 480square squaremiles milesofofbattlefield battlefieldtoto bodies, aa task task deemed deemed too dirty for white solretrieve the dead soldiers’ soldiers’ bodies, diers. Hunton trumpeted trumpetedthe theblack blackmen menfor for their their“matchless “matchless patience patience and and endurance.” Hunton stood witness as endurance.” as the the men, men, working workingatatthe the“electric“electricperformed the “heartbreaking lighted cemetery,” cemetery,” performed “heartbreaking task” task” of of lowering lowering boxes boxes into the newly newly dug dug graves. graves. The The black black soldiers soldiers placed placed white white crosses crosses on on thousand graves twenty-two thousand graves and and hence hence “linked “linkedthe theplace placeof of sainted saintedpilpilerimage on grimage on the the Western Western Front Front with with[the] [the] homes” homes”of ofAmerican Americanfamilies. families. Although at the time many many argued arguedthat thatthe thedirty, dirty,disease-ridden disease-riddentask taskofof handling the handling the dead deadwas wasgiven givento toblack black soldiers soldiers because because they they were were deemed deemed dispensable and disease ridden, Hunton saw aa different in dispensable different significance significance in the assignment. assignment. She She asserted assertedthat thatthe theblack blacklabor laborbattalion battalionwas was“rendering “rendering American army the American army and andnation nationaasacred sacredservice,” service,”and andthat thatthese theseblack blackmen men real Americans” Americans” of of the the war. Her decree helped were the “10,000 “10,000 real helped to to culticulti32 new and and more more strident strident postwar postwar black blackidentity identityand andpolitic. politic. vate a new

Similar to clubwoman clubwoman and andjournalist journalistIda IdaB.B.Wells’s Wells’s analysis analysisof oflynchlynching and masculinity, masculinity, Hunton used her her observations observations of of the war war to to chalchallenge and and rearrange the national discourse discourse on manhood. At At the turn of lenge of Wells traveled traveled to Europe and the century, Ida B. B. Wells and used usedher herinternational international platform to call into question the foundation of US white bourgeois the foundation of US white bourgeois masmasculinity. Northern white men’s refusal to speak out against the culinity. men’s refusal the crime crime of of lynching, Wells charged, weakened weakened white white men’s men’s moral moral character character and andfitfitAddie Hunton concluded ness for leadership. Similarly, Similarly, Addie concluded that that white whitemen’s men’s refusal to take on the symbolically important and physically taxing task and physically reburying the war of reburying war dead dead signaled signaled their theirmoral moraland andphysical physicalweakness weaknessas as Black men, men, Hunton Hunton professed, well. Black professed, emerged emergedfrom fromthe thewar warmore morecivically civically 33 fitt and and prepared prepared to fi to lead lead the the race race and and the the nation nation into into aa new new day.” day. Like the the black black men men she she administered administered to, the conditions of to, the conditions ofwar warreshaped reshaped Hunton’s racial and civic consciousness and Hunton’s and radicalized radicalizedher herapproach approachtoto political change. change. When When Hunton told her political her readers readers that thather herfifteen fifteenmonths months felt like like living “close “close to to the the edge edge of of a smoldering crater,” crater,” they they in France felt knew that the crater symbolized the racist misdeeds misdeeds and failed promises

ofofNoble 48 | A | Band A Band NobleWomen Women of US US politicians, politicians, as as much much as, as, ifif not not more more than, the general of general dangers dangers of of 34 warfare.” Juggling warfare. Jugglingthe themultiple multipletasks tasksof oftaking takingcare careofofthe thetroops, troops,navigatnavigating white attitudes, and and representing representing black black womanhood womanhoodto to the the world—all world—all within the within the arena arenaof of war—steeled war—steeled Hunton Huntonfor foraanew newapproach approachtotothe thepostpostannounced to war world. She announced to her her readers readersthat thatshe sheemerged emergedfrom fromthe thewar war committed to “righteous and indignant indignant protest” protest” and andhoped hopedtotoinstill instillthe the same sentiment in the hearts and minds of the clubwomen who awaited same sentiment in the hearts and minds of the clubwomen who awaited return. Coupled Hunton still held out her return. Coupled with with a new yearning yearning for protest, Hunton hope that sharing sharing her her experiences experiences would would also also “make “make universal universal and and etereternal the practical application of the time-worn theory of of the brotherhood brotherhood 35 of man.” Yet little could Hunton realize that through her own wartime of man.” Yet promotion of black manhood, she she would would contribute contributeto tothe theformation formationofof a black social and political political climate climate that that would wouldbefuddle befuddleblack blackwomen’s women’s postwar search postwar searchfor forpolitical politicalagency. agency. Even though Addie Hunton’s Even Hunton’s wartime writings would would contribute contribute to to black men men as the leaders of the New Negro movethe repositioning of black ment, she she nevertheless expected to to play play a central role in the ment, nevertheless expected the postwar postwar For although the war stimulated pursuance of peace and racial equality. For stimulated renewed appreciation of black manhood, it also created the desire appreciation of manhood, desire among among clubwomen to establish fresh clubwomen fresh meaning, meaning, consciousness, consciousness, and andexpectation expectation for their own for own political political development development and and world world outlook. outlook. Hunton’s Hunton’s wartime work in France, combined with her attendance at the 1919 work in France, combined with her attendance at the 1919Paris ParisPanPanAfrican Congress, held simultaneously with the Versailles Peace Treaty with the Versailles Peace signaled to many Conference, signaled many black women women the the increasingly increasinglyglobal global nature nature of the future direction of their own work. of the future direction of their own work. A New Psychology Psychology

Addie Hunton Hunton returned Addie returned from from France France to to aa nation nation that that was was determined determined to deny the humanity humanity of of black black Americans. Americans. The The postwar postwar years years ushered ushered in the disenfranchisement of black women voters in the South, disenfranchisement of black women voters in the South,where where three-fourths of black black women lived. lived. Though Though the the passage passage of ofthe theNineNinewomen the right to vote, property property taxes, teenth Amendment Amendment in in 1920 1920 gave women literacy tests, and overall literacy overall harassment harassmenteffectively effectively denied deniedmost mostSouthern Southern 36 black women the franchise.*° The prospect of black female suffrage, the franchise. prospect of black female suffrage, the the

Searchfor forPeace Peaceand andFreedom Freedom| | 49 Search 49 symbolism of of the black soldier, and and the growth in symbolism black soldier, in black black urban urban centers centers threatened many many whites. whites. The The Red Red Summer Summer of of 1919 1919 convulsed with race race riots in twenty-seven riots twenty-seven cities cities and and the thelynching lynchingofofseventy-seven seventy-sevenblack black Americans, including five uniform.*” Americans, five women women and andeleven elevenblack blackmen meninin uniform.37 with these these national national tensions tensions and and the the need need to torepair repair the theinternational international Faced with destruction caused by the Great Great War, War, Hunton spent the the rest rest of of her herlife life (until her death in 1943 from diabetes at the age of seventy-seven) working her death in 1943 from diabetes at the age of seventy-seven) working wounds of war and tirelessly to heal the wounds and racism. racism. articles and and photographs appeared in the Immediately after the war, articles the black press that that recorded recorded and andchampioned championedblack blackwomen’s women’spolitical politicalinfluinfluence abroad. Coupled with the publication in 1920 of Two Colored Women abroad. Coupled with the publication in 1920 of Two Colored Women with the the American AmericanExpeditionary ExpeditionaryForces, Forces, thesewritings writingscontributed contributed to and with these and captured the unfolding unfolding of of aa more more internationalist internationalistand andless lessconciliatory conciliatory black female female political political ethos, ethos, one one interested interested less less in in racial racial uplift uplift and and more in racial justice. The December 1919 issue of the Crisis featured aa halfjustice. December 1919 issue of Crisis halfpage photograph of of Mary Mary Church ChurchTerrell, Terrell, honoring honoring her herfor forrepresentrepresenting “American Negroes” as aa delegate delegate to to the theInternational InternationalCongress Congressofof Women for for Permanent Permanent Peace Peace in in Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland. Switzerland. One One month month later the Crisis ran ran aa full-page full-page photograph photograph of Crisis of aa reception receptionhonoring honoringAddie AddieHunton’s Hunton’s return from Readers of of the the January January issue issue gazed gazed upon upon return from the the Western Western Front. Readers a gathering of of forty forty stately stately dressed, dressed,middle-aged middle-agedBrooklyn Brooklynclubwomen clubwomen who beamed with with adulation adulation for for Addie Addie Hunton, Hunton, aawoman womanthey theynow nowsaw saw as a central figure in the postwar expansion of black female political life. figure the postwar expansion of black female political life. wartime journey Hunton’s wartime journeyfrom fromher herhome homein inBrooklyn Brooklynto toFrance Franceand andback back concretely coupled the talent, outlook, and experience of turn-of-the-century clubwomen tury clubwomen to to the thepropagation propagationofofaanew newconsciousness consciousnessand andactivity. activity. This new outlook linked the daily life of African American women to the the daily life 38 future health future healthof ofthe thenation nationand andthe theworld.°* world. “Colored Women Women Are More than than Colored “Colored Colored Women Today”

In her In her 1922 1922 address address to to the theNAACP NAACP national national convention convention held heldininNewNewJersey,Addie AddieHunton Hunton made made clear clear to to those those gathered—men gathered—men and and ark, New Jersey, women, black black and white—that black women intended to women, to fully fully participarticipate in all struggles for democracy and international peace. Her speech struggles for democracy and international peace. Her speech

50 | A ofofNoble 50 | Band A Band NobleWomen Women was fueled in part part by by aa recent recent protest protest with withthe theNational NationalWoman’s Woman’s Party Party (NWP) and and the founding of a women’s antilynching crusade crusade within the (NWP) women’s antilynching the NAACP.Hunton Hunton declared declared to those NAACP. those gathered gatheredatatthe theFifth FifthAvenue AvenuePresbyPresbyterian Church Church that that “colored “colored women are are more more than than colored colored women women today; today; they are American citizens” who are are “tremendously “tremendously interested interestedin inall allthat that

bespeaks the welfare Hunton spoke truthfully, ifif not welfare of of this this country.”*’ country.”39 Hunton not humbly, when she reported that black women were “a part of this great humbly, when that black of this great struggle.... . .totomake whole struggle makethe the wholeworld worlda afitter fitterand andbetter betterplace.”“” place.”40 Hunton outlined to outlined to her her audience audience the theunfolding unfoldingtrajectory trajectoryofofwomen’s women’sclubs, clubs, which which had “changed clubs, Hunton Hunton believed, had “changed radically radically in in the the past past few few years.” The clubs, had acquired a “new status” and aa “new psychology” that resulted resulted in “new psychology” that thought” because women women were were “thinking “thinking in in terms terms national national and and in in “bigger thought” 41 international.” This combination terms international.” This understanding understandingemerged emerged from the combination of Woman’s Woman's Era Era leadership, leadership, wartime internationalism, of internationalism, and andNew NewNegro Negro militancy. For Addie Hunton, to be more than colored women also meant Hunton, to be more than colored women also meant trials and and tribulations tribulations serve serve as as indicaindicathat not only did black black women’s women’s trials tors of the particularities particularities of of black black women’s women’s lives, but also that that their their lives lives held universal universal significance. significance. Written onto the contested contested space space of the black female body were were the the webs webs of ofpower powerthat thatmarred marred the the postwar postwar world. world. And And so, to to attend attend to and and free black black women women was was to to attend attend to and and free the world so, all forms forms of violence violence and and injustice. of all new postwar protest mentality to Addie Hunton put put black black women’s women’s new the test during her 1921 controversy with during her 1921 with Alice Alice Paul, the feisty president president the NWP. NWP. Founded Founded by Paul in order to offer a militant militant voice in the fi fight of the ght womans suffrage, for woman’s suffrage, the NWP, NWP, after the winning winning of of suffrage, suffrage, hoped hoped to to transform the the female female electorate electorate into into an aneffective effective lobbying lobbying force. force. Yet, Yet, as was true true during the fight for woman’s suffrage, Paul and many others during the fight for and others continued to turn turntheir theirbacks backson onthe thepolitical politicalneeds needsof ofblack black women. women. When When Paul refused in 1921 to place place on on the NWP national conference agenda Paul 1921 to conference agenda a discussion of of the the recent recent violations violations of of Southern Southernblack blackwomen’s women’s voting voting rights, an infuriated Hunton struck back. In ten days, Hunton organized Hunton struck back. women from from ten ten states states to to pressure pressure Paul Paul to to change change her her mind. mind. When When sixty women protesters’ request, request, Hunton Hunton turned turned up the heat and used Paul denied the protesters’ concerns to to the the national national convention. other means to bring bring black black women’s women’s concerns By distributing one thousand pamphlets to conference By distributing one pamphlets to conference attendees that

Search for forPeace Peaceand andFreedom Freedom| | 51 Search 51

women in the South, detailed the disenfranchisement of black women South, Hunton thoroughly” and “bring our sought to “harass” Paul “very thoroughly” our issue issue to to the the floor.””* theend, end,a aresolution resolutionrequesting requesting an an investigation investigation into Southern fl oor.”42 InInthe Southern vote after after itit was was introduced introduced voting infringements reached the floor floor for a vote 43 by a white white delegate. delegate. The Theresolution resolutionwas wasvoted voteddown. down.*Hunton Huntonturned turned this this purported feminist purported feminist gathering gathering into into an an occasion occasion to to showcase showcase the radicalized collective consciousness of black womanhood. She also also linked linked the ized collective consciousness of black womanhood. She the future of Hunton future of white white womanhood womanhood to to the the civic civic status status of of black black women. women. Hunton warned those warned those who who rebuffed rebuffed her herprotest protestthat that“five “five million millionwomen womenin inthe the denied their rights United States can not be denied rights without without all all the the women women of of the the United States feeling the effect of that denial. No women are free until No women are free until all women women are Hunton’swords wordsand andactions actionsmarked marked aa stark stark differall are free.’”“* free.”44 Hunton’s differfrom her her prewar prewar belief belief that that idealism, idealism, Christianity, Christianity, and and the politics of of ence from 45 female citizenship. citizenship.” respectability could win win the the battle battle for black female In 1920 1920the theNAACP NAACPcommissioned commissioned Addie Addie Hunton Hunton to strengthen strengthen existexistbranches and ing branches and develop develop new newones. ones. Hunton Huntonworked workedfor forthe theNAACP NAACPuntil until 1924,traveling traveling to to places like Utica, New 1924, New York; York; Lima, Ohio; and and Kansas Kansas City, Missouri, Missouri, in in her efforts to vitalize the City, the organization. organization. In InColumbus, Columbus, Ohio, she “penetrated the Garvey ranks” and “won back” those Ohio, she “penetrated Garvey “won back” those who who In Atlantic Atlantic City City she she tried tried to to loosen loosen the the infl influhad been “carried away.” away.” In uence of the “conservative” elements of the YMCA on the branch. And in ence of the “conservative” elements of the YMCA on the branch. And in Raleigh, North North Carolina, she struggled with Raleigh, with the theobservation observationthat that“fear” “fear” and “timidity” constrained the work of members. These trips and constrained the work of members. and meetmeetings with folks folks throughout throughout the the country countrycontributed contributedtotoHunton’s Hunton’s growgrowing indignation with the the United United States. States. In In Virginia, Virginia, the Carolinas, Carolinas, and and Georgia she realized that “Truth “Truth could could not not have have aa hearing” hearing”because because the the terror imposed by racism limited the risks people were able to take. by racism limited the risks people were able to take. “Fear,” Hunton Hunton reported, reported, “lurks “Fear,” “lurks even even in instately statelyhomes, homes,beautiful beautifulschools schools and splendid business business enterprises” enterprises” where where “nothing “nothing else else matters matters ifif one one 46 answers to answers tothe thedescription descriptionofofa aNegro.””° Negro.” While her indignation grew, indignation grew, so so too too did did Hunton’s Hunton’s belief belief in the the imporimportance of the NAACP NAACP in the postwar postwar world. world. In In the thefall fallof of1922, 1922, she traveled in Springfield, Springfield, Illinois, where people were were designing designing aacampaign campaigntoto determined to end school segregation and and “seem[ed] “seem[ed] determined to fight” fight” the the Jim Jim Crow schools “out of existence.” Hunton spoke before an “immense crowd” schools “out of existence.” Hunton spoke before

52 | A of ofNoble 52 | Band A Band NobleWomen Women where “standing room was was at at aa premium.” premium.” The The interest interest in inthe theevening’s evening’s event was so overwhelming overwhelming people people had had to tobe beturned turnedaway. away.At Atthe theend endofof her remarks, remarks, Hunton Huntonreceived receivedwhat whatshe shereported reportedtotobe bethe thegreatest greatestovation ovation of her life. But But the struggle was far from of from over over as as the thenext nextday daythe theblack black teachers who attended attended her her talk talkwere werenot not allowed allowedinto intotheir theirschool schoolbuilding building

and “the principal and principal was wasbeaten.” beaten.” These These experiences experiences meeting meetingwith witheveryday everyday throughout the people throughout thecountry countryemboldened emboldenedHunton. Hunton.Not Notonly onlydid didshe sheproprodetailed reports vide the NAACP with detailed reportson onthe thestate stateof of the the organization organizationand and climate in in local localcommunities, communities, Hunton Hunton helped with with the the race climate the transformatransformablack consciousness consciousness into into one one that that was was less less abiding abiding to patience and tion of black attuned to providence and more attuned to deliberate deliberate protest, no matter the cost.” cost.47 work also also afforded afforded her the Hunton’s NAACP work the opportunity opportunitytotocontinue continue women. In her travels for the her leadership and fellowship fellowship with black women. NAACP,Hunton Hunton furthered furthered the NAACP, the work work of of the theAnti-Lynching Anti-LynchingCrusaders. Crusaders.InIn May of 1919, 1919,the theNAACP NAACPsponsored sponsoredaa National National Conference Conference on on Lynching attended by twenty-five twenty-five hundred hundred people. people. Out Outof ofthe theconference, conference,black black women launched launched the the Anti-Lynching Anti-Lynching Crusaders—a Crusaders—anational nationalnetwork networkofof black women women who sought to “arouse the consciousness of of the women of 48 America, both white and black.”“. Many involved in organizing and black.” Many involved organizing the the CruCrusaders, women like Mary Mary Talbert, Talbert, Alice Dunbar-Nelson, Dunbar-Nelson, and andHelen HelenCurCurtis, were themselves recently involved in drumming tis, recently involved drumming up upblack blacksupport support for the war. The group group created created aa fifteen-woman fifteen-woman board boardof ofdirectors directorswho who oversaw the work of seven hundred women organized in a nationwide oversaw the work of seven hundred nationwide network. They They raised thousands of network. of dollars, dollars, generated generated substantial substantial press press coverage, and and publicized the coverage, the fact fact that that black black women women as as well well as asblack black men men 49 were lynched.” lynched. During During her herwork workfor forthe theNAACP, NAACP, Hunton Huntonhelped helpedbring bring women from across the country into the network of Anti-Lynching Cruacross the country into the network of Anti-Lynching Crudetailed financial saders. The detailed financial records records Hunton Huntonkept keptdocumented documentedthe theefforts efforts of everyday everyday women women who who dug dug deep deep into into their their purses to help put an end of end to lynching. Though many were were not not women women of of means, means, they they were weredeterdetermined to do their small part on behalf of the race. In Bayonne, New Jersey, mined to do their small part on behalf of the race. In Bayonne, New women donated women donatedsixteen sixteendollars. dollars.InInNew NewRochelle, Rochelle,New NewYork, York,Hunton Huntoncolcollected sixty-seven dollars. dollars. And Andin inMarshall, Marshall,Texas, Texas,where wheretwelve twelvelynchlynchtwenty women donated ings were reported reportedbetween between1903 1903 and and1917, 1917, twenty donated aa total total 50 of one hundred dollars.” of one hundred dollars.

Search for forPeace Peaceand andFreedom Freedom || 53 Search 53 Hunton resigned resigned her herpost postas asNAACP NAACPfield field secretary secretaryin inJanuary January1924. 1924. Although it is not not exactly exactly clear clear why, why, a number number of of explanations explanations are arepospossible. The The extensive extensive travel travel and and relentless meetings had sible. had been beentaking takingaatoll toll Hunton’s health. health. In August of 1923 1923after aftershe shehad had attended attended a multi-day on Hunton’s meeting and and after Hunton landed ICWDR meeting after a rigorous rigorous trip tripfor for the the NAACP, NAACP, Hunton landedin in the hospital hospital for for three threedays. days.ItIt is is also also possible possible that thatshe shewas wasfeeling feelinghampered hampered by her NAACP employment—perhaps employment—perhaps in in part partbecause becauseof of gender genderissues. issues.In In 1921letter letterto toMary Mary White White Ovington, Ovington, aa board board and and staff member a March 1921 NAACP,Hunton Hunton shared, shared, “How I miss of the NAACP, miss you you when whenII come come in in from fromthe the field. There is is always alwaysso somuch muchto totell tell... fi eld. There . . .and andof ofcourse coursenobody nobodyunderstands understands point of view like a woman.” When a woman’s woman’s point When writing writingto toJames James Weldon Weldon Johnson about her resignation, Hunton assured assured him him that thatshe sheplanned plannedtoto remain an active volunteer and that that as as aa volunteer volunteer “perhaps “perhaps II shall shall have have 51 I so firmly believe.””! more freedom freedomto toespouse espousethe thecause causeininwhich which I so firmly believe.” Hunton’s involvement with the Pan-African Congress movement and Hunton’s involvement with Pan-African with the the WILPF WILPF brought an international international element element to to her her postwar postwarpolitics. politics. brought her It also brought her face-to-face face-to-face with withconstant constantchallenges challengesasasa ablack blackwoman. woman. Hunton believed Hunton believed that that for for peace peace and and black black freedom freedom to to prevail, prevail, black women women must contribute to the burgeoning women’s peace movement and contribute to the burgeoning women’s peace movement andPanPanAfrican movement. The work was not not easy. easy. Hunton’s Hunton’s involvement in the the Pan-African Congress movement Pan-African movement from from 1919 1919 to to 1927 1927 illustrated illustrated the thediffidifficulty black women faced establishing establishing substantive substantiveintellectual intellectualfemale femaleleadleadership in mixed-gender race associations. Though they tried, women mixed-gender race associations. they tried, womenlike like Hunton found gender analysis Hunton found itit difficult difficult to encourage a gender analysis within withinthe thepolitics politics and structure structureof of the the1919 1919 Pan-African Congress held in Paris. During During the the Hunton to Paris Congress, it was left to Hunton to remind remindthe themale maledignitaries dignitariesofofthe the “importance of women women in in the the world’s world’sreconstruction reconstructionand andregeneration.” regeneration.”52 Dismayed at Dismayed at the the gender genderimbalance imbalanceatatthe the1919 1919Pan-African Pan-AfricanCongress, Congress, Hunton lived to become one of the few female members of the Pan-African Hunton lived to become one of the few female members of the Pan-African Congress advisory advisory board. board.Even Even though thoughfew fewblack blackwomen womenacquired acquiredroles roles in the official Pan-African Congress committee structure, it was women official Pan-African Congress committee structure, who made made the theimmense immense1927 1927 Pan-African Pan-African Congress Congressheld heldininNew NewYork York scheduled 1925 City possible. The scheduled 1925 Pan-African Congress never materialmaterialized because ized because of the the poor poor leadership leadershipof ofthe themostly mostlymale malecommittee. committee.InIn1926 1926 Addie Hunton, by then aa committed Pan-Africanist and peace advocate, committed Pan-Africanist and peace advocate,

54 | A ofofNoble 54 | Band A Band NobleWomen Women was determined to to make make sure surethat thatthe theannounced announced1927 1927Congress Congresstook took Toensure ensure its its success, success,Hunton Hunton turned turned to place. To to the the black black female organizaorganizaPeace and and Foreign Relations. Relations. At At the the time, time, Hunton Hunton was tion, the Circle for Peace the director director and andJessie Jessie Fauset Fauset was wasaamember. member.The TheCircle Circlefor forPeace Peaceand and Foreign Relations Relations raised raised the entire three Foreign three thousand thousanddollars dollarsnecessary necessaryfor for

event. Not only did the 1927 1927 event. did black black women womenraise raiseall allthe themoney, money,they theyoveroverarrangements for saw all the local arrangements for the the four-day four-day congress, congress, which which was was held held in a variety variety of of venues venues throughout throughoutNew NewYork YorkCity. City.Five Five thousand thousandpeople, people, including 208 including 208 paid delegates from from twenty-two twenty-twostates, states, Haiti, Haiti,South SouthAmerAmerica, the Gold Coast, ica, Coast, Sierra Sierra Leone, Leone, Nigeria, Nigeria, Liberia, Liberia, Germany, Germany, and andIndia, India, black women made attended the the international international congress.” congress.53Although Although black women madethis this massive gathering of postwar postwar Pan-Africanists Pan-Africanists happen, they they were were absent absent from the list of chief speakers who addressed addressed the thegathering. gathering.Women Womenparparticipated on the ticipated the executive executive committee committee and and policy policy and andresolutions resolutionscomcommittees, but played little public role. A New York Times article about the but played little public role. A New York Times article congress listed only men as conference speakers and and made made no no mention mention of of the pivotal pivotal leadership leadershipof ofwomen womenororthe theCircle Circlefor forPeace Peaceand andForeign ForeignRelaRela54 tions in organizing organizing the the entire entireaffair.” affair. Hunton’s participation participation in the WILPFinterracial interracial investigative investigative and in the 1926 1926 WILPF friendship mission to Haiti Haiti also also reflected reflected the thecontested contested and andcontrolled controlled involvement of black women in international internationalpolitics. politics.At Atthe thetime timethat thatshe she joined joined the the Haiti Haiti trip, trip, Hunton Huntonwas waspresident presidentofofthe theICWDR. ICWDR.The The1926 1926 delegadelegation traveled traveled throughout Haiti for five weeks investigating the effect throughout Haiti for five weeks investigating the effectof of the the occupation on Occupied US occupation on Haitian Haitianlife. life.Afterward, Afterward,they theypublished published OccupiedHaiti, Haiti,a a lengthy report report that that subsequently subsequentlyguided guidedmany manyorganizations’ organizations’policies policieson on occupation. Although, Although, on on the the one one hand, hand, Hunton’s Hunton’s trip trip to Haiti and the US US occupation. subsequent work on the 1927 Pan-African Congress suggests work on the 1927 Pan-African Congress suggestssignificant significant development in development inthe thebreadth breadthofofblack blackwomen’s women’sinfluence influenceon onworld, world,national, national, and local local politics, on closer examination examination these thesedevelopments developmentscan canalso alsobe be read as aa sign sign of of the the limited limitedcontrol controlblack blackwomen womenheld heldover overthe thedevelopdevelopment of a black-female-centered intellectual analysis of global of a black-female-centered intellectual of global affairs. affairs. Although the the Crisis Crisis reported reportedthat thatthe the1927 1927Pan-African Pan-AfricanCongress Congresspassed passed a resolution on Haiti Haiti that thatendorsed endorsedthe thefindings findingsofofthe theWILPF WILPFmission, mission, the article failed to mention Hunton or educator Charlotte Atwood, to mention Hunton or educator Charlotte Atwood,the the 55 other black woman on the mission, as authors of the findings.» Likewise, authors of the findings. Likewise,

Searchfor forPeace Peaceand andFreedom Freedom| | 55 Search 55 though the ofofOccupied though theHaiti Haititrip tripresulted resultedininthe thepublication publication OccupiedHaiti, Haiti,Hunton’s Hunton’s specific views are hard hard to specifi c views to discern discernas asshe sheisisrepresented representedasasonly onlyaacoauthor, coauthor, with WILPF with WILPF vice president president Emily EmilyGreene GreeneBalch, Balch,of ofone oneof ofthe thereport's report’sfiffif56 Hunton’sparticipation participation in in the Haiti delegations deepened teen chapters.°° chapters. Hunton’s deepened her role in the the international international women’s women’s peace movement and gave gave her the the opportunity to opportunity to consult consultwith withfellow fellowmembers membersofofthe theNAACP NAACPconcerned concerned about Haiti, like James Weldon Weldon Johnson, Johnson, but but it also indicated the circumcircumscribed role scribed role black black women womenhad hadtotoconstantly constantlynegotiate.”” negotiate.57 A decade after announcing announcingtotothe the1922 1922 NAACP NAACP convention convention the the arrival arrival of black women’s women’s new psychology, psychology, Hunton took took to to the theconvention conventionstage stage again. In May 1932, at the age of sixty-six, Hunton delivered a lengthy May 1932, at age of sixty-six, Hunton delivered a lengthy time the the dominant dominant conspeech to those convened in Washington, DC. This time cerns were the impact impact of of the the Great Great Depression Depression on on everyday everydayblack black AmeriAmericans and internal internal dissension dissension within withinthe theorganization. organization.Hunton’s Hunton’sremarks remarks not surprisingly reflected her internationalist perspective, her commitsurprisingly reflected her internationalist perspective, her commitment to peace work, and and her her ongoing ongoing belief belief that that women womenwere werevital vitalto tothe the progress of the race and nation. Hunton progress Hunton acknowledged acknowledgedthat thatthe theconvention convention derived was “deeply challenged” at that moment moment in in history. The challenges derived from the dire economic conditions facing so many, the debate within dire economic conditions facing so many, the debate withinthe the of socialism socialism and and communism, and the related organization over the role of internal disagreements disagreements between between the thesoon soontotoresign resignDu DuBois Boisand andWalter Walter White. In In regard to the Depression, White. Depression, Hunton believed believed that its impact on struggling citizens locally and internationally internationally caused caused more moreturmoil turmoiland and destruction than and the the Innocent.” Innocent.” HumanHumandestruction thanWorld World War War II and the “Massacre “Massacre of of the ity, Hunton Hunton suggested, ity, suggested, was was“a “alittle littleless lesssane saneand anda alittle littlemore morehysterical,” hysterical,” making it all the the more more important importantfor forthe theNAACP NAACP to to “keep “keep faith faith and andhope hope alive.” She argued that the “despairing conditions” of those who had been alive.” She argued the “despairing conditions” of those who had been “dubbed the the marginal workers” “dubbed workers” called for an an “inspired “inspired interpretation interpretation of right and justice of justice for the colored men and and women women in in the thework workworld.” world.” Although Hunton was Although was not not advocating advocating an anembrace embraceof ofthe themore moreradical radical politics of the increasingly popular proponents of socialism and commupopular proponents of socialism and communism, she did did forcefully forcefully talk talk about about human humanrights. rights.“The “TheNegro,” Negro,”Hunton Hunton proclaimed, “has the the right right to to food, food, clothes, clothes, and andshelter.” shelter.” Faced Faced with with the the “facts of of violence, violence,denial denial of of opportunity, opportunity, and whole-sale “facts whole-sale discrimination,” discrimination,” 58 the time for “charitable consideration” was over.” the time for “charitable consideration” was over.

56 | A of of Noble 56 | Band A Band NobleWomen Women her speech speech Hunton Hunton invoked a more international international In the second half of her reminded her register. As she reminded her audience, audience, “With “With all all our our problems problems here, here, as as aa people within within aa people, people, we are are still still part partof of aa world world order.” order.” Hunton Hunton linked linked the struggles in the the United United States States with with the the struggles strugglesof of“darker “darker peoples” peoples” in “India, “India, Africa, Africa, and and Haiti,” Haiti,” who who experienced experienced “flagrant “flagrant violations” violations” of of rights. She challenged challenged the theNAACP NAACPto to“re-assume “re-assumethe thehuge hugetask taskofofeducateducating world opinion” about the humanity, humanity, needs, needs, and andrights rightsof ofpeople peopleof of the darker darker races races who, who, with withtheir their“sorrow-lined “sorrow-linedfaces,” faces,”might mightyet yet“rise-up “rise-up in might.” Hunton surveyed many many possible possible strategies for bringing about about justice at home and and abroad. abroad.The The core core challenge, challenge, Hunton Huntonstill stillbelieved, believed,was was to “change “change the restricted attitudes” of of whites whites who who still still abided abided by by ideas ideas “race inferiority.” inferiority.” Although Although Hunton Hunton held of “race held on onto towhat whatfor formany manywas wasanan increasingly old-fashioned old-fashioned belief belief in in the potential of increasingly of goodwill, goodwill, she she also also believed that time was running runningout. out.As Asshe sheshared sharedwith withher heraudience: audience:“I “I afraid that am afraid that unless unlesswe wespeedily speedilybuild buildaabridge bridgeof ofjustice justiceand andcooperation cooperation misunderstanding and the chasm of misunderstanding and distrust distrustmay maybecome becometoo too wide wideto to be be spanned.” Though Though Hunton Hunton struck struckaasober sobertone toneat atthis thismoment momentin inher hertalk, talk, she went on to applaud the the accomplishments accomplishments of of the NAACP and the risks individuals took individuals tookin intheir theirwork worktoto“end “endwage wageslavery,” slavery,”“awaken “awakenthe theAmeriAmerito the sport called can consciousness consciousness to called lynching,” lynching,” and and efforts efforts to to “stretch “stretch seas.” its hands abroad abroad to to help helpininAfrica, Africa,India, India,and andthe theIslands Islandsofofthe the seas.” She concluded her her address addressto tothe theTwenty-Third Twenty-ThirdAnnual AnnualConference Conferenceofofthe the NAACP by by applauding applauding the NAACP the ongoing ongoingtireless tirelesseffort effortof ofthe the“many “manywomen” women” and “some men” who were were “struggling “struggling desperately desperately to tosupplant supplantthe thewar war worn standards standards with withthose thoseof of the the Galilean.” Galilean.” Even though she feared that the world world was was heading headingfor for“terrible “terriblecataclysms,” cataclysms,”Hunton’s Hunton’sknowledge knowledgeofof the work done by women kept kept her her hopeful hopefulas asshe shebelieved believeditit would wouldthose those 59 gathered before her.” her. Addie Hunton’s Hunton’s 1932 1932 speech captures captures the theexpanded expandedpolitical politicalsubjecsubjectivity black women women developed developedafter afterWorld WorldWar WarI.I.In In her heraddress addressshe shemade made connections between the local, the national, and the international. connections between the local, the international. Her Her breathless postwar postwar work work to to secure secure black black women’s women’s suffrage, suffrage, end end lynching, lynching, procure global global disarmament, and promote Pan-African Pan-African consciousness, consciousness, procure and represented not haphazard attempt model interracial amity represented not a chaotic or haphazard attemptto to repair an unstable nation and world, but rather a conscious understanding rather understanding

Searchfor forPeace Peaceand and Freedom| | 57 Search Freedom of the interconnectedness of individual individual freedom freedom and andinternational internationalpeace. peace. Through her Through her leadership leadershipininaamyriad myriadofoforganizations organizationslike likethe theNAACP, NAACP,the the WILPFE, andthe theICWDR ICWDRAddie AddieHunton Huntonsought sought to to stitch stitch together aa new WILPF, and new political community that would political would stop stopmaking makingfalse falsedistinctions distinctionsbetween between world peace the work for world peace and and the the work workfor for racial racial justice justice and and gender genderequalequal-

ity. Her Her call call for for the embrace of new “Galilean” ity. “Galilean” standards was nothing nothing call for for progressive-minded progressive-minded white Americans and black men to short of a call begin to look look at at the the world world through through the experienced experienced and and sophisticated sophisticated eyes of black women. of black women. Alice Dunbar-Nelson Dunbar-Nelson Alice Born Alice Ruth Moore Moore in in 1875 1875 to to Patricia Patricia Moore, Moore, aaformer formerslave, slave,DunDunbar-Nelson developed her her desire desire for writing and bar-Nelson developed and teaching teaching while while living living in her hometown of New Orleans. Starting in her her youth youth and andcontinuing continuing throughout her throughout herlife, life, Alice Alice Dunbar-Nelson Dunbar-Nelsonwrote wroteplays, plays,poems, poems,short shortstostories, and newspaper columns. at the age of twenty, she received received ries, columns. In In 1895 1895 at ofof Violets notable attention attentionwith withthe thepublication publication Violetsand andOther OtherTales, Tales,aacolleccollection of her prose writing writing and andjournalism. journalism. Four Fouryears yearslater lateranother anothercolcol60 St.Rocque Rocqueand andOther OtherTales, Tales,appeared appearedinin print. print.” lection, The Goodness Goodness ofofSt. These would be the only published published volumes volumes of of her work to emerge while Dunbar-Nelson was Dunbar-Nelson was alive. alive. Although Although high high school school teaching teaching would wouldprovide provide the mainstay of Dunbar-Nelson’s economic livelihood, she did venture mainstay of Dunbar-Nelson’s economic did venture into paid and unpaid unpaid journalism. journalism. At At the the turn turnofofthe thecentury centuryshe shebegan began her career career in in journalism journalismpenning penningarticles articlesfor forChicago’s Chicago’sDaily Daily News News and for YorkSun. Sun.In InWilmington, Wilmington, Delaware, Delaware, she she attempted attempted to the New York to keep keepthe the Wilmington Advocate running, serving as its associate editor. In the 1920s Wilmington Advocate running, serving as its In the 1920s and the hard copy and the 1930s 1930s Dunbar-Nelson’s hard copy journalism journalismand andsyndicated syndicatedcolcolumns appeared umns appeared in in black black papers, papers, garnering garnering much much praise. praise. In In her her columns, columns, Dunbar-Nelson refused to to be be confined confined to to women’s women’s issues or or the the typical typical society page features. On the contrary, her her columns columns covered aa wide wide range range 61 issues from from popular popular culture of issues culture to to world world politics.” politics. Like many African American American women women with withmiddle-class middle-classaspirations, aspirations, teaching served for for years years as asDunbar-Nelson’s Dunbar-Nelson’s main mainemployment. employment.She She eraduated from New Orleans’ Straight College (now known as Dillard graduated from New Orleans’ Straight College (now known as Dillard

58 | |A Band 58 A BandofofNoble Noble Women Women University), attended attended the University University), University of Pennsylvania Pennsylvania and and Columbia Columbia UniUniversity, and and received a master’s degree from Cornell. Moving to Wilmversity, ington, Delaware, Dunbar-Nelson taught ington, Delaware, in in 1902, 1902, Dunbar-Nelson taught at at the the all-black all-black Howard Howard High School for eighteen eighteen years. High years. With With colleagues colleagues in in the theFederation Federationof ofColColClubs she she helped helped found found the Industrial ored Women’s Women’s Clubs Industrial School School for Colored

Girls in Marshallton, where from 1928she she worked worked as as aa teacher from 1924 1924 to 1928 and parole at Howard, Howard, reportedly reportedly for and parole officer officer after losing her job at for her her politipoliti62 activity.” cal activity. Mine Mine Eyes Eyes Have Have Seen: Black Women and World War II Patriotism Patriotism and World War

Dunbar-Nelson played Alice Dunbar-Nelson played aa significant significant role role before before the the war war in in galvanizgalvaniz1918 ing black Americans’ Americans’ pro-war pro-warpatriotism. patriotism.Her Her 1918play playMine MineEyes EyesHave Have Seen and her organizing of a large parade in Delaware underscore Seen and her organizing of a large Delaware underscore her preparedness moveleadership in bringing bringing black Americans into the war preparedness movement. Dunbar-Nelson’s efforts to convince black Americans to elevate ment. Dunbar-Nelson’s efforts to convince black Americans to elevate national allegiance national allegiance over over the the injuries injuries of of racism racism were were short-lived short-lived as as her her own own experiences of racism during during the war as a fieldworker for the War Work the war as a fieldworker for the War Work of the the YWCA YWCAjettisoned jettisonedher herability abilityand anddesire desiretotoput putpatriotism patriotism Council of before racial justice. justice. An An examination examination of her early before racial early pro-war pro-war efforts efforts and and her transition to to becoming becoming a critic critic of the war and and US US domestic domestic and and forforeign policy illuminates the importance of black women to both projects and the the gender gender dynamics dynamics of of these thesedevelopments. developments. Dunbar-Nelson, Dunbar-Nelson, like like Hunton, understood understood the the symbolic symbolic centrality of the black male soldier to both the wartime struggle to prove prove black blackpatriotism patriotismand andtotothe thepostwar postwar project of of New New Negro protest. Like Like Hunton, Hunton, she she also also aspired aspired to address by black blackwomen women in inthese thesetroubling troubling times times and and to legitimate legitimate the issues faced by and elevate the perspectives and perspectives offered offered by by black black women women on on the the Gordian Gordianknot knot race, gender, gender, and and militarism. militarism. of race, Mine Eyes Have Seenillustrates illustratesboth boththe the playwright’s playwright’s importance importance to Mine Eyes Have Seen the general campaign campaign to to cultivate cultivate black black wartime wartime allegiance allegiance and andDunbarDunbarNelson’s explicit explicituse useofofgender genderin inthis this cultivation. cultivation. Concerned Concernedabout about disdisNelson’s sension among black sension black Americans, Americans, the US US government government used usedthe the1917 1917

Searchfor forPeace Peaceand andFreedom Freedom| | 59 Search 59 Espionage Act Act to to pressure black Espionage black leaders and and the theblack blackpress presstotoforestall forestall antigovernment sentiment, sentiment, and to antigovernment to cultivate cultivate patriotism patriotism and andcompliance compliance with the the draft. draft. Under Underthese thesegovernmental governmentalpressures, pressures,W. W.E. E.B. B.Du DuBois Bois 63 turned the turned the Crisis Crisis into a vehicle for wartime propaganda. propaganda. Du DuBois’s Bois’sJuly July 1918editorial editorial “Close “Close Ranks” Ranks” has been 1918 been singled singledout outfor forits itssignificance significanceinin bringing the the Crisis Crisis readership in line line with with the thewar, war,yet yetDunbar-Nelson’s Dunbar-Nelson’s five-page pageant that appeared in the Crisis three months five-page pageant in the Crisis three monthsbefore beforeDu Du Bois’sessay essayalso alsocontributed contributed to to the the fashioning fashioning of black attitudes attitudes to the Bois’s the war war and presaged July.% and presagedarguments argumentsDu DuBois Boiswould wouldmake makeinin July.64With Withillustrations illustrations by artist artist Laura Laura Wheeler Wheeler Waring Waring and andaaclosing closingpoem poemby byGeorgia GeorgiaDouglas Douglas Johnson, Dunbar-Nelson’s piece exploited black female moral agency black female moral agencytoto rally black patriotism and and forestall forestall the the appeal appealof ofsocialist socialistantiwar antiwararguargu65 ments. It also served to extend the popularity popularityof of all all three threewomen.” women. The three central The central characters characters in in the theplay playare arethe theparentless parentlesssiblings siblings Lucy and her two brothers Chris and Dan. Jim Crow racism killed Lucy brothers Chris and Dan. Jim Crow racism killed their their parents—their father parents—their father was was lynched lynchedand andtheir theirmother motherdied diedfrom fromoverwork. overwork. Additionally,their theirfamily familyhome homewas wasburned burned to to the the ground by Additionally, by angry angry move on on their their own own to a Northern Northern industrial whites, forcing the siblings to move industrial city. Dan, the older brother, is exempt from the draft because he was city. Dan, brother, exempt from the draft because he wascripcrippled by an industrial industrialaccident. accident. Chris, Chris, the the younger youngerbrother, brother,has hasjust justbeen been drafted but drafted but initially initiallyrefuses refusesto togo. go.Dunbar-Nelson Dunbar-Nelsonuses usesthe thetwo twobrothers brotherstoto represent the represent the opposing opposingblack black perspectives perspectivesabout aboutparticipation participationininthe thewar. war. The position represented by Chris placed racial identity and the history ofof represented by Chris placed racial identity and the history racism before national national identity. identity.As As Chris Chrisasks asksearly earlyon onininthe theplay, play,“must “mustI I fight fi ght for a nation that that let let my my father’s father’s murder murder go gounpunished? unpunished?That Thatkilled killed my mother?” He followed followed this question with with the the assertion: assertion: “these “these white white people, they hate us.” Dan, on the other hand, elevated the history of black hate other hand, elevated the history of black military service military service and andaacollective collectivenational nationalidentity identityover overthe thepersistence persistenceofof racism. Dan reminded reminded his hisbrother brotherthat that“our “ourmen menhave havealways alwaysgone,” gone,”and and that the the “love “love of of humanity humanityisisabove abovethe thesmall smallconsiderations considerationsofoftime timeoror 66 place or race or sect.”° sect.” Throughout the play, play, Lucy serves as as aa mediator mediatorthough thoughher hersentisentiments are with Dan and and the the pro-war pro-war position. position. She She assures assures Chris Chris that thathis his first responsibility as fi rst responsibility as aa man manof of the thefamily familyisisto toserve servehis hisnation. nation.By By serving serving

60 | A ofofNoble 60 | Band A Band NobleWomen Women his nation, he would would be be fulfilling fulfilling his his masculine masculineduty dutyas asaaprotector protectorofofthe the innocent and and aa fighter fighter for fordemocracy. democracy. Dan Dan uses usesmasculinity masculinitytotoweaken weaken initial impulse impulse to Chris’s initial to refuse refusethe thedraft. draft.He Hecalls callsChris Chrisaaslacker, slacker,aaweakweak“big enough” enough” to to understand understand that as a man he ling, and wonders if he is “big he must protect also bebe “of must protect the thewomen womenand andchildren childrenofofhis hisrace raceand andmust must also “ofone one

blood” with with the the mothers mothersof ofEurope. Europe.By By the the end endof ofthe theplay playChris Chrisrealizes realizes the importance importanceof of obeying obeyingthe thedraft. draft.Dunbar-Nelson’s Dunbar-Nelson’splay, play,though thoughititcalls calls support of the war, keeps the history for support history of of racism central to the narrative narrative and embeds military military service service into into the the strategy strategyof ofracial racialuplift. uplift.She Sheasks asks readers of of the the Crisis Crisis to rally rally behind behindthe thewar warbecause, because,asasshe shestates, states,“It“ItISIS our country” and all all black black men should be “proud to be numbered with come into into our our inheritance.” inheritance.”67Dunbar-Nelson, the darker ones, soon to come Dunbar-Nelson,like like many others, wagered that that this thistime timemilitary militaryservice servicewould woulduplift upliftblack black Americans’ position position in in the country. Her play, Americans’ play, which ran ran three threemonths months before Du Bois’s oft-quoted “Close Ranks” editorial, presaged Du Bois’s oft-quoted editorial, presaged DuBois’s Bois’s

claim that through military claim military service service the race race made made “no “no ordinary ordinary sacrisacri68 fice.” fi ce.” Readers Readersof ofthe theCrisis Crisiswere werewell wellprepared preparedfor forDu DuBois’s Bois’scall calltotopatripatrimilitary action black otic military action because because Dunbar-Nelson, Dunbar-Nelson,through throughher herplay playabout about black domestic life in the time of war, had had already warmed the magazines’ readwarmed the magazines’ readership to the understanding understanding that thatthe therole roleof of black black women was to support support the sons, brothers, and and husbands husbandswho whowould wouldbe becalled calledtotoduty. duty.And Andthe the of black black men men was was to to support support the race through through military role of military service. service. Dunbar-Nelson would continue to serve as a mediator Dunbar-Nelson would continue to serve as a mediatorofofthe thevicisvicisof black black perspectives perspectives on on the the war war and its race and gender dimensitude of reputation as a supporter sions. Her reputation supporterof of black black participation participationincreased increasedwith with of the play play and would continue the publication publication of continue to grow. grow. A few months after the play appeared in the Crisis, the Philadelphia the play appeared in the Crisis, the PhiladelphiaTribune Tribune applauded applauded Dunbar-Nelson for Dunbar-Nelson for organizing organizingaaFlag FlagDay Dayparade paradeininDelaware Delawarethat thatdrew drew a massive crowd of six thousand thousand black black citizens. citizens. The The newspaper newspaperlabeled labeled parade the people... the parade the “greatest day in the history history of of colored people . . .where wherethe the loyalty of the Race to to the the American flag was the gist of many brilliant and flag gist many brilliant and addresses.”69From patriotic addresses.” Fromher herstrong strongsupport supportof ofthe thewar warto toher her transfortransformation into an an antiwar antiwaractivist, activist, Dunbar-Nelson Dunbar-Nelsonwould woulduse useher herskill skillasasan an organizer and organizer and aa writer writerto tokeep keeppeople peopleengaged engagedin inexamining examiningthe thepolitical political implications of US militarization. implications of militarization.

Search for forPeace Peaceand andFreedom Freedom| | 61 Search 61 Reporting on Reporting on Black Black Women in in War War Work Work

The war presented black The black women women with a number number of of questions, questions, includincluding what would be their role in the war effort effort and what would be the implications of of the the war on their implications their status statusin insociety? society? Many, Many, like like DunbarDunbarNelson, hoped hoped the war Nelson, war would would bring bringpositive positive developments developments including including opportunities and new employment opportunities and expanded expandedleadership leadershiproles. roles.And Andfor for Dunbar-Nelson and Dunbar-Nelson and others, others, although although the the war war did didopen openup upnew newjob job opporopporjobs was was ultimately ultimately outweighed outweighed by by the the troutroutunities, the advantage of the jobs bling race politics of the war. Dunbar-Nelson Dunbar-Nelson worked worked for for the theCommittee Committee Defense Work Work and and authored authored the on Women’s Women’s Defense the1919 1919 report report “Negro “NegroWomen Women Work.”The Thereport report was was one one of ofthe the fifirst detailed assessments assessments of of the the in War Work.” rst detailed 70 war's impact on war’s on black black female life.” life. Her findings findings along along with with observations observations by other women women who who would wouldbecome become associated associatedwith withthe theWILPF, WILPF, namely namely Mary Church Terrell and and Nannie Burroughs, concluded that although although the needs of the home front opened opened up up new newemployment employment opportunities, opportunities,the the persistence of racial segregation negated negated the thegains gainsoffered offeredby bythese thesejobs. jobs.

The mistreatment mistreatment of of black black women women during during the the war lessened The lessened their alleallegiance to the United States and compelled many to become outspoken giance compelled become the country country and critics of the andits itspolicies policies of of militarized militarizedracism. racism. historian Dorothy wartime patriAs historian Dorothy Salem Salem observes, observes, black black women’s wartime patriotic services “were not selfless sacrifices for the American war effort;” selfless sacrifices the American war effort;” instead they represented a desire to take “advantage desire to take “advantage of of opportunities opportunities to demonstrate ability ability and and responsibility, responsibility, showing showing themselves themselves worthy worthy 71 of equal equal treatment.””’ treatment.” Dunbar-Nelson’s Dunbar-Nelson’s life life exemplified exemplified the thecomplexicomplexities Salem describes. One major arena arena for for black black women’s women’s wartime wartime parparticipation was the Committee on Women’s Defense Work of the Council was the Committee on Women’s Defense Work Council of National National Defense. The committee committee allocated allocated four four hundred hundred thousand of Defense. The thousand dollars to organize dollars organize war war work work among amongblack blackwomen. women.Dunbar-Nelson Dunbar-Nelson as one one of of fififteen women designated designated to organize across the was Selected selected as fteen women country. Other noteworthy participants included Anna and Anna Julia Cooper and Bethune. Bethune created the Mutual Mary McLeod Bethune. Mutual Protection Protection League League Working Girls Girls to to help help young young women in the transition of Working transition from from domestic domestic and agricultural work work to to their their new new wartime wartimework work as as bellhops, bellhops, elevator elevator 72 girls, and factory workers.” Home front war work involved a range girls, workers. work involved range of of

62 | A ofofNoble 62 | Band A Band NobleWomen Women activity. Women Women established established canteens stateside to provide activity. provide for for black black serservicemen housed in training vicemen trainingcamps. camps.Women Women made made bandages bandagesand andother other medical products. products. They They supervised supervised the work medical work of of women women in in industry. industry. Many organized well-baby Many well-baby care services services and and raised raisedvictory victorygardens. gardens. Some organized organized patriotic patriotic parades to keep Some keep up up morale. morale. Dunbar-Nelson Dunbar-Nelson noted in her her report report that thatAfrican AfricanAmerican American women women were were particularly particularly well equipped to well to meet meet these these challenges challenges because because of of their their long longhistory history of racial uplift work. work. Segregation Segregation had hadforced forcedblack blackwomen womenfor fordecades decades to set up up and andrun runemployment employmentagencies, agencies,schools, schools,and andhealth healthclinics clinicsinin denied in many order to deliver the services blacks were denied many cities and and towns towns 73 country.” across the country.

Reporting on on her travels throughout the Reporting the South, South, during during which which she she visited women who who were were participating participatingin inwar warwork, work,Dunbar-Nelson Dunbar-Nelsoncapcaptured the the chaos chaos of of the the time time period. period. She She also also presented presented black black women women as stoic and well equipped to meet the challenges of the time: stoic and equipped meet the challenges of the Into this maelstrom Into maelstrom of of war war activity activity women women of of the the Negro Negrorace racehurled hurled themselves joyously. joyously.They Theyasked askedno noodds, odds, remembered remembered no no grudges, grudges, and

solicited no favors, favors, pleaded for no privileges. They came by the solicited the thouthousands, hands hands opened opened wide widetotogive giveofoflove loveand andservice serviceand andpatriotism. patriotism. It was enough for them that that their their country countrywas wasatatwar; war;ititwas wasenough enoughfor for

them that that there there was was work work to to do. do. Centuries Centuriesof of labor labor had hadtaught taughtthem themthe the of labor; labor; aa heritage heritage of ofservice servicehad had taught taught them the beauty of giving love of

of themselves, themselves, and and a race record of of patriotism and loyalty had imbued imbued them inherently with the flaming flaming desire to do their part in the the struggle struggle

for their their native native land. land.”74 for Dunbar-Nelson balanced this this description descriptionof ofblack black women’s women’s abiding abiding national pride and and patriotism patriotism with with aadiscussion discussionof ofwhite whitebehavior behavior durduring the war war and andhow howblack blackwomen womennegotiated negotiatedit.it.As Asshe sheobserved: observed:“the “the problem of the woman of the Negro race was a peculiar one. Was she woman of the Negro race was a peculiar one. Was shetoto do her work independently independentlyof of the thewomen womenof ofthe theother otherrace, race,or orwas wasshe shetoto The answer to the question varmerge herself into their organizations?” The throughout the ied throughout thecountry. country.Yet Yet in most cases, North North and and South, South, East East and and West, black women had to contend with segregation and racial prejudice. West, black women had to contend and racial prejudice.

Searchfor forPeace Peaceand andFreedom Freedom| | 63 Search 63 Seen,Dunbar-Nelson Dunbar-Nelson used But as in in her herplay, play, Mine Mine Eyes Eyes Have Have Seen, usedthe thepersispersistence of wartime racism racism as as an an opportunity opportunitytotochampion championblack blackmoral moralforfortitude and and humanity. humanity. Reflecting Reflecting on on the the deportment deportmentof ofthe theblack blackwomen women onon Women’s she had met met during duringher herwork workfor forthe theCommittee Committee Women’sDefense, Defense, Dunbar-Nelson observed that: Dunbar-Nelson observed that: They accepted without a murmur murmurthe theplace place assigned assignedthem themininthe theranks. ranks.

They placed They placed the national national need need before before the thelocal localprejudice; prejudice; they theyput put ereat-heartedness and great-heartedness andpure purepatriotism patriotismabove abovethe theancient ancientcreed creedofofracial racial antagonism. For pure, unalloyed unalloyed unselfishness unselfishnessof ofthe thehighest highestorder, order,the the

of Negro Negro women women of of the the United United States Statesduring during the the war war stands stands out conduct of splendid relief, in splendid relief, a lesson to the entire entire world world of of what what womanhood womanhoodof ofthe the best type type really means.” means.75

Yet black black women women did did not merely Yet merely accept accept mistreatment. mistreatment. And, And, in infact, fact, the resilience of white racism caused acts of defiance. In her travels the resilience of white racism caused acts of defiance. In her travelsfor for Work, Dunbar-Nelson Dunbar-Nelson was charged the Committee Committee on on Women’s Women’s Defense Work, charged with measuring with measuringthe thelevel levelof ofblack blackwomen’s women’s wartime wartimeefforts effortsasasfederal federaland and state officials worried that black women’s contribution level failed to meet state officials worried that black women’s contribution level failed to meet the standards standardsrequired requiredby bythe thewar. war.As AsDunbar-Nelson’s Dunbar-Nelson’sreport reportindicated, indicated, many black women offered stellar contributions, contributions, but but wartime wartimeracism racismdid did indeed dampen indeed dampenthe theinterests interestsof of some some men men and andwomen. women.A A poignant poignantexamexample Dunbar-Nelson Dunbar-Nelson recounted was the the case case of of aawoman womanininVicksburg, Vicksburg, Mississippi. The woman, whose husband was serving in the Mississippi. The woman, whose husband was the US US Army Army was tarred and in France, France, was and feathered feathered for for reportedly reportedly “acting “acting out out of of line.” line.” Dunbar-Nelson observed that when news of the woman’s mistreatment Dunbar-Nelson observed that when news of the woman’s mistreatment spread through through town, town, the the“colored “colored brass brass band” band” refused refusedto to“lead “leadthe thecolcol76 ored draftees to the station seeing no cause for making music.”” draftees to the station seeing no cause for making music.” Clubwomen turned turned the Clubwomen the stories stories of of women women who who withstood withstoodmistreatmistreatment yet who continued continued to to support supportthe thewar warinto intoexamples examplesofofblack blackwomwomen’sstalwartness stalwartness and and superior en’s superiorcharacter. character.In In reporting reportingon onher herown ownwartime wartime activity, Mary Church Church Terrell Terrell shared sharedher heroutrage outragethat thateven eventhe the“best “best[white] [white] citizens . . .. .. unilaterally citizens unilaterally opposed” opposed” hiring hiringblack black workers workers because because they they believed that they they were were “so “so bad bad on ongeneral generalprinciple principlethat thatititwas wasuseless useless 77 to try and and improve improve them.”” them.” Even Even in in the the face face of such attitudes, attitudes, the the NACW NACW

ofofNoble 64 | A | Band A Band NobleWomen Women underwrote the war war through through its its financial financial support, raising raising and and donating donating fifty-one million dollars. Behind this money were the fi fty-one million the selfless selfless actions actions of of numerous women numerous women who who banded bandedtogether togethertotomake makedonations. donations.For Forinstance, instance, ninety-one thousand dollars was raised ninety-one raised by by poor poor black black women women working working 78 Virginia, tobacco tobacco factories. factories.” And And in the face of wartime Jim in Norfolk, Virginia, Jim

the women women of of the the Josephine Josephine Gray Gray Colored Colored Lady Lady Knitters Knitters association association Crow, the proudly adopted a “definite” policy of “no color line” as they “knitted for proudly adopted a “definite” policy line” as they 79 American soldiers all American soldiers regardless regardlessof ofrace, race,color coloror ornationality.”” nationality.” Clubwomen and and church church women at times Clubwomen times tempered tempered their their wartime wartime patriotism. In aaSeptember September1918 1918 presidential presidential address addresstotothe theWomen’s Women’s Convention of the Black Baptist Church, S. Willie Layten encouraged Convention of Black S. Willie Layten encouraged the gathered women women to to grow grow victory victory gardens gardensand andconserve conservegoods, goods,yet yet she also acknowledged that women women were were “restless “restless and and discontent discontent when when 80 their rights rights are areabridged abridgedatathome.”*° home.” During the the same same conference, conference, NanNannie Burroughs, who would later become a supporter of the WILPE, called Burroughs, who would later become a supporter of the WILPF, called on the women to continue their their work work against against lynching lynchingand andsegregation. segregation. She also dared President She President Wilson Wilson to to apply apply his hisslogan slogan“make “makethe theworld world safe for democracy” to the United United States. States. The convention voted to to have have Burroughs’s speech, which was critical of the US president’s hypocritiBurroughs’s speech, critical of the US president’s hypocritical stand on on war, war, race, race, and and democracy, democracy, sent to to Wilson. Wilson. At At the the following following year’s convention convention women women continued continued their critique of war year’s war and andracism racismas as they joined joined together togetherand andsang sang“We've “We’veFought FoughtEvery EveryRace’s Race’sBattle Battlebut butOur Our Own.” Burroughs’s antiracist and defiant patriotism caused her to be Own.” Burroughs’s antiracist and defiant patriotism caused her be 81 investigated by investigated by the theWar War Department.*' Department. Dunbar-Nelson found Dunbar-Nelson found the the restrictions restrictionsplaced placedon on black black women women during during the war deeply deeply frustrating. frustrating. Unlike Unlike white whitewomen, women,black black women’s women’s opportunities to travel to Europe and provide wartime assistance tunities and provide wartime assistancewere wereseverely severely limited. Dunbar-Nelson met with with disappointment disappointmenton onaanumber numberofofoccaoccasions as she attempted attemptedto tofind findaaway wayto towork workoverseas. overseas.She Shewas wasdistressed distressed not to be one of of the the limited limitednumber numberofofblack blackwomen womenchosen chosentotodeploy deploytoto France to take care of the black troops. She was also angered when France black troops. She was also angered whenher her request to to the thewhite-owned white-ownedPhiladelphia PhiladelphiaPublic Public Ledger Ledger to be assigned assignedasas In In herher 1920 poem “IT“ISit a war war correspondent correspondentwas wasalso alsodenied. denied. 1920 poem Sitand andSew,” Sew,” Dunbar-Nelson lamented the fact that the double burden of her race and Dunbar-Nelson lamented the fact that the double burden of her race and

Searchfor forPeace Peaceand and Freedom| | 65 Search Freedom gender curtailed curtailed her her patriotic patriotic options.” options.82She She captures capturesthis thisexasperation exasperationinin the following following stanza stanzaof of her herpoem: poem: But—I must must sit sit and and sew. But—I sew. The little useless seam, seam, the the idle idle patch; patch;

homely thatch, thatch, Why dream I here beneath my homely When there they lie in sodden mud and and rain, rain, Pitifully calling calling me, me, the the quick quick ones ones and andthe theslain?*? slain?83

This deceptively simple simple poem poem testified testifiedtotoDunbar-Nelson’s Dunbar-Nelson’songoing ongoing political transformation. transformation. Although Although she initially applauded black political black womwomen’s stoic stoic patriotism patriotism and and encouraged her Crisis en’s Crisis reader to “shut “shut her her eyes eyes to past wrongs and present discomforts and future uncertainties,” when and future uncertainties,” when the racial the racial structures structures of of the the nation-state nation-state refused refusedto toabate abateDunbar-Nelson Dunbar-Nelson 84 championed the championed theNew NewNegro Negromovement.” movement. She Sheencouraged encouragedAfrican AfricanAmeriAmerican women to use their “more serious mind” and “new inner consciouscan women to use their “more serious mind” and “new inner consciousness” kindled by the the war, war, to to create create a “community “community consciousness among 85 people.” The like DunbarDunbarour people.” The initial initial patriotism patriotism promulgated promulgated by women like Nelson dissipated dissipated as as the thewar warreignited reignitedblack blackwomen’s women’sdouble doubleconsciousconscious86 The question question ness, or in in Dunbar-Nelson’s Dunbar-Nelson’s language, language, “double “double problem.”*° problem.” The now before Dunbar-Nelson was how to live as a black woman in nation now before Dunbar-Nelson was how to live as a black woman in aa nation that denied denied her her humanity humanityand andaccess accessto to full full citizenship. citizenship. Postwar Peace Forming of a Postwar Peace Identity Identity

In response to the postwar postwar rise rise in inracism, racism, Dunbar-Nelson Dunbar-Nelson turned turned her her attention to electoral politics, politics, antilynching antilynching reform, and and interracial peace work. Through Through these projects, she hoped to encourage in the work. projects, she the general general public an understanding understanding that thatantiracism antiracismneeded neededtotobe beaacore coreaspect aspectofof Dunbar-Nelson became became a member of the work for for peace. peace. In In 1920, 1920, Dunbar-Nelson of the the Delaware Republican State Committee, the first African American Delaware Republican State Committee, first African American position.”87 Dunbar-Nelson coupled woman in the country country to hold such a position. her knowledge of the electoral process with with her her work work to to try tryand andsecure secure the passage of of federal federal antilynching antilynching legislation. legislation. The The early early focus focus of of her her

66 | A ofofNoble 66 | Band A Band NobleWomen Women antilynching work antilynching workwas wasthe theDyer DyerAnti-Lynching Anti-LynchingBill, Bill, initially initiallyintroduced introduced by Representative in 1918 1918 by Representative Leonidas C. Dyer, Dyer, aa Republican Republican from fromMisMispassage of of the the bill bill seemed hopeful and souri. By By the early 1920s 1920s passage and AfriAfrican American American women, women, with Dunbar-Nelson Dunbar-Nelson as a key key leader, leader, founded founded the Anti-Lynching Crusaders Crusaders to to galvanize galvanizeblack blackwomen’s women’s financial fi nancial and and grassroots support Dunbar-Nelson led grassroots supportfor forthe thebill.** bill.88 Dunbar-Nelson ledthe theDelaware Delawarebranch branch

of the Anti-Lynching of Anti-Lynching Crusaders. In In 1922, 1922, on the heels heels of of the theunfortuunfortunate defeat of the the bill, bill, Dunbar-Nelson Dunbar-Nelson directed directedaasuccessful successfulcampaign campaign unseat Republican to unseat Republican Congressman Congressman Caleb Caleb R. R. Layton for his nonsupport nonsupport She helped helped register register twelve of the Dyer bill. She twelve thousand thousandnew newvoters; voters;Layton Layton lost his reelection campaign by seven thousand votes, equal to the number of black voters voters who cast a ballot ballot for his his democratic opponent. opponent.”89 In In the the 1921Dunbar-Nelson Dunbar-Nelson joined joined thirty thirty other prominent fall of 1921 prominent black black leaders, leaders, many of whom had supported supported the thewar, war,to toconvince convincePresident PresidentHarding Harding to grant executive clemency for the sixty-one black soldiers serving executive serving life life Houston race riots. Though sentences for the the 1917 1917 Houston Though the thedelegation, delegation,led ledby by James Weldon Weldon Johnson, Johnson, was was not successful their efforts symbolized symbolized the the growing militancy militancy of of the the postwar postwarNew NewNegro Negroand andthe theentrenchment entrenchmentofof 90 national racism.” national racism. Like other leading clubwomen Like clubwomen who had had organized organizedblack blackwomen’s women’s wartime contributions, contributions, after the the war warAlice AliceDunbar-Nelson Dunbar-Nelson became became aa 91 peace advocate advocate and andleading leadingcritic criticofofUS USforeign foreignpolicy.”! policy. Her Herpeace peaceadvoadvocacy took took root root in in her her journalism and in her work with the WILPF and her and in her work with the WILPF employment with the the American AmericanInterracial InterracialPeace PeaceCommittee Committee(AIPC) (AIPC) of of (AFSC). 1925 the American AmericanFriends FriendsService ServiceCommittee Committee (AFSC).InIn 1925WILPE WILPFpresipresident Hannah Clothier Hull notified Dunbar-Nelson that she had been dent Hannah Clothier Hull notified Dunbar-Nelson that she had been elected to the WILPF national board. The board elected her hoping WILPF national hoping that that she would help them them “educate “educate for peace in all groups groups of of women.”” women.”92 Three Three years later, in 1928, 1928, Dunbar-Nelson was hired hired to tobe bethe thepaid paidexecutive executive secretary of the AIPC. AIPC. The The WILPF WILPF and and the theAIPC AIPC placed placedDunbar-Nelson Dunbar-Nelson in the spotlight of peace advocacy and enabled her to influence spotlight of peace advocacy and enabled her to influencethe theopinopinion of white peace peace advocates advocates on on the therole roleofofrace raceininthe thepeace peacemovement. movement. Although the the AIPC AIPC folded folded in in 1930, 1930, Dunbar-Nelson maintained maintainedclose closeties ties with the supporting the with the WILPF, WILPF, supporting the Philadelphia PhiladelphiaWILPF WILPF Interracial InterracialExtension Extension Committee until her death in 1935. Committee until her death in 1935.

Searchfor forPeace Peaceand andFreedom Freedom| | 67 Search 67 “Une Femme Dit” “Une Femme Dit”

Dunbar-Nelson reached Dunbar-Nelson reached large large numbers numbersof of people peoplethrough throughher herjournalism journalism and her and her work work with withthe theWILPF WILPFand andAIPC. AIPC.In In1928 1928 alone alone she she addressed addressedten ten conventions, including women’s clubs and a gathering gathering of of seven seven hundred hundred 93 teachers.” And teachers. And in in 1930 1930 the AIPC sent her her on on aa ten-thousand-mile ten-thousand-milespeakspeak-

ing tour tour during duringwhich whichshe shespoke spoketotocollege collegestudents, students,YWCA YWCAand andYMCA YMCA conventions, and civic clubs. clubs. The AIPC AIPC reported that conventions, that through throughher hertravtravels Dunbar-Nelson reached twenty-three twenty-three thousand thousandpeople peopleininone oneyear.” year.94 Her newspaper newspaper columns columns also alsoprovided providedher herwith witha apredictable predictableavenue avenuefor for informing black readers on a range of issues. She frequently used her colinforming black readers on a range of issues. She frequently used her columns to umns toadvance advanceher heranalysis analysisofofthe theracial racialpolitics politicsofofUS USforeign foreignpolicy. policy.The The PittsburghCourier Courierran ranaanumber numberof ofdifferent differentcolumns columns penned penned by DunbarPittsburgh Nelson. “From the Woman’s Point of View,” later renamed “From the Woman’s Point of View,” later renamed“Une “UneFemme Femme Dit,” ran from January to September of 1926. From January to May Dit,” January to September of 1926. January to May 1930 1930 the same paper paper ran ranher hercolumn, column,“So “SoItItSeems Seems to toAlice Alice Dunbar-Nelson.” Dunbar-Nelson.” Another column by by Dunbar-Nelson, Dunbar-Nelson, “As “As in a Looking Looking Glass,” Glass,” appeared appeared 1930 in in the the Washington Eagle,the thenational national newspaper newspaper of the from 1926 1926 to 1930 Washington Eagle, the 95 Improved Benevolent and Protection Order of the Elks of the World.” Improved Benevolent and Protection Order of the Elks of the World. Through her journalism journalism and andspeaking speakingtours toursDunbar-Nelson Dunbar-Nelsoncontincontinproffered that race and gender uously proffered gender mattered mattered to to the theform formand andshape shape black women’s women’s peace peace consciousness consciousness and and analysis. Until her of black her death, death, she she would stitch together an analysis of war that used the mistreatment analysis that used the mistreatmentofof black Americans Americans during duringWorld WorldWar WarI,I, and andpeople peopleof ofcolor color the theworld worldover, over, as as fulcrum for her antiwar antiwar message. Though in her speeches and and writing writing the fulcrum Dunbar-Nelson would reference masculine icons like the soldier and Dunbar-Nelson would reference masculine icons like the soldier and folk folk hero John Henry to animate her New Negro analysis on war and peace, animate her New Negro analysis on war and peace, she still insisted insisted on on the thecentrality centralityof ofblack blackwomen womentotoall allefforts effortstotodesign design and racial equality. successful and sustainable sustainable movements movements for peace and during the war If during war Dunbar-Nelson Dunbar-Nelsonhelped helpedto tocreate createaa “same “same as” sensibility in the name of patriotism, after the war she sought to name patriotism, after the war she sought todevelop developaa“differ“different from” perspective. During During the thewar warshe sheencouraged encouragedblack blackAmericans Americanstoto put their put their Americanness Americannessfirst firstand andtotoset setaside asidethe theinjustice injusticeofofAmerican Americanracracencouraged black Americans ism. After the war she encouraged Americans to to embrace embrace their their racial racial difference as a place of moral exceptionalism and as a place from which exceptionalism and as a place from which

68 | A ofofNoble 68 | Band A Band NobleWomen Women to build political kinship kinship with withother otherpeople peopleof ofcolor. color. Dunbar-Nelson Dunbar-Nelsonnow now regularly derided the United regularly United States States and and warned warnedmembers membersofofthe theblack black diaspora of newspaper column diaspora of the the dangers dangersof ofUS US power. power. In In aa 1926 1926 newspaper columnDunbarDunbarNelson observed that “the dark nations are [was] [was] having a hard hard time” time” at at the expense expense of of US US foreign foreign policy. policy. Writing Writing about aboutdevelopments developmentsininLiberia, Liberia, Haiti, and the the Virgin Virgin Islands, Islands, Dunbar-Nelson Dunbar-Nelson used usedthe theapt aptimage imageof ofaasea sea creature as creature as aa metaphor metaphorfor forUS USactions. actions.She Sheasked askedrhetorically, rhetorically,“is “isititnot nottrue true that the the octopus octopus isisaawhite whitefish—reptile, fish—reptile,creature creatureof ofprey?” prey?”Like Likean anoctooctopus, US foreign policy, with with its pus, its “slimy “slimy white white tentacles” was was busy busy“gripping, “gripping, plunging, exploring, seizing, devouring all in its its reach.” reach.” Dunbar-Nelson closed her observations about race and foreign closed foreign policy policy by by reassuring reassuring her her 96 readers that . . is is white.” white.”” In In order order to to not not be be devoured devoured readers that the the octopus, octopus, “surely “surely .. . . and strangled, Dunbar-Nelson Dunbar-Nelson encouraged encouraged her her readers readers to tointensify intensifytheir their understanding of the the intention intention of of US US policies policies and to deepen deepen their their PanPanAfrican consciousness. African consciousness. Dunbar-Nelson regularly wrote and and spoke spoke about about the the racial racial economy economy of war, the appeal appeal of of Pan-Africanism, Pan-Africanism, and andthe thelimits limitsofofwhite whiteracial racialconconDunbar-Nelson also sciousness. Dunbar-Nelson also frequently frequently used usedthe thehistory historyofofblack blackserservicemen as a template for her observations. In a 1930 speech to a capacity as a template for her observations. In a 1930 speech to a capacity Dunbar-Nelson declared crowd at the the Los Angeles Civic Center, Dunbar-Nelson declaredover overand and over again that that war war had hadnothing nothinggood goodtotooffer offerblack blackcitizens. citizens.The Thepostpostwar Dunbar-Nelson now preached that that war war was was not not aa ticket ticket to to freedom. freedom. War was the antithesis of freedom: “Clear-eyed, the Negro stands antithesis of freedom: “Clear-eyed, the Negro standsnow now Greed and capitalism, and sees war war for for what what itit is;—an is,—an economic conflict. conflict. Greed reaching out to acquire more and yet yet more—and little ones of the earth, the peasant peasant and andthe theproletarian—and proletarian—andthe themass massofofNegroes Negroesisisboth—[are] both—[are] but the infinitesimal grains of black powder which fire the big Bertha of infinitesimal grains of fire 97 commerce.”””InInher herLos LosAngeles Angelesspeech, speech, Dunbar-Nelson Dunbar-Nelson invoked commerce.” invokedaamore more radical and populist radical populist tone. tone. She She called calledfor forAfrican AfricanAmerican Americanand andwhite white workers to unite through through aa shared sharedhistory historyof of wartime wartimemistreatment. mistreatment.She She ridiculed the greed that contributed to the Great Depression and the conridiculed the greed that contributed to the Great Depression and the continued profiteering tinued profiteering of of arms arms merchants. merchants. In order to explain why military participation did not produce racial racial Dunbar-Nelson deconstructed deconstructed how whites portrayed and equality, Dunbar-Nelson and treated treated the black soldier. One tactic used used by the United States was to completely by the United States was to completely

Searchfor forPeace Peaceand and Freedom| | 69 Search Freedom erase the history history of of black black bravery. bravery. In In her her April April1926 1926 “Une “Une Femme Femme Dit” Dit” column she she pointed with humor column humor to to US US efforts efforts to to deny deny Revolutionary Revolutionary War hero Crispus Crispus Attucks’s Attucks’s blackness. blackness. She noted noted sarcastically sarcastically about about the the debate: “Indian “Indian or oraaSpaniard Spaniard. . . ... or oraa dark Yankee Yankee... Negro? Attucks debate: . . .But But a Negro? A historical error. Let us draw draw aa deep deepbreath breathof ofrelief. relief. The The supremacy supremacyof of

the white Three months months later later in the white race race has has been beensaved.””> saved.”98 Three in another another column column Dunbar-Nelson compared Dunbar-Nelson compared the the treatment treatmentby byFrance Franceand andthe theUnited UnitedStates States its service service men. men. “France,” “France,” she she wrote, wrote, “praises “praises her her black troops, troops, and of its and gives gives them full credit credit for for their their valor valor and andheroism.” heroism.” The The United UnitedStates, States, on on the the hers, and and tearing the uniform from their crippled other hand, “lynches “lynches hers, forms, bids they forget they were were once once men.”” men.”99 Dunbar-Nelson Dunbar-Nelson devoted devoted substantial time substantial time to the misrepresentation misrepresentation and andmistreatment mistreatmentof ofblack black milimilitary men tary men because because she she wanted wantedto toforestall forestallblack black interest interestin inwar. war.In InaaMarch March 1928“As “AsininaaLooking LookingGlass” Glass”column, column,she sheobserved observedthat that“down “down to tothe the bed bed 1928 rock itit would would seem seem that that the the country country does not not wish wish to to arm arm Negroes, Negroes, does does fine not want Negro Negro soldiers.” soldiers.” This rejection, she concluded, was “a very fi ne thing for the Negro,” Negro,” because, “who wants to lay down his his life” life” for the the 100 “white man’s many many quarrels.” quarrels.”"°°The Theblack blackcitizen citizenwho whowas wasonce onceenchanted enchanted “white by the call of military service would now seek a new duty as a citizen now seek a new duty as a citizen of of Dunbar-Nelson applauded the world and guardian guardian of of the the peace. Dunbar-Nelson applauded the the New New affects humanity humanity of the darker skin Negro who “begins to see that what affects 101 everywhere,must mustaffect affecthim himhere hereon onthis thiscontinent” continent” and everywhere, and who who would would 102 “keep the keel keel of ofthe theship shipofofstate statesteady steadyand andtrue.” true.” “Harlem John John Henry Henry Views Views the the Airmada” Airmada” ”Harlem

Dunbar-Nelson combined peace advocacy and and world-mindedness world-mindednessininher her 1932poem poem “Harlem “Harlem John John Henry Views 1932 Views the the Airmada.” Airmada.” Dunbar-Nelson Dunbar-Nelson wrote the poem, which is laced with with black black spirituals, spirituals, in in aa mere mere two twohours hours wrote while she waited for for aa bridge bridge game gamewith withfellow fellowclubwomen clubwomento tobegin. begin. Dunbar-Nelson remarked in her diary that writing the poem left Dunbar-Nelson remarked in that writing the poem lefther her “limp as a rag,” though the highballs “limp highballs served served during during the the bridge bridge game game refreshed her.'*’ Printed in Geneva DisDisrefreshed her.103 Printed in the the Crisis Crisis on on the the eve eve of of the the 1932 1932 Geneva armament Conference, Conference,her her poem poem was was hailed hailed as as an “epic Negro peace peace armament “epic Negro 104 poem.”'* Peace advocates hoped that the much championed Geneva poem.” Peace advocates hoped the much championed Geneva

70 | A ofofNoble 70 | Band A Band NobleWomen Women

Disarmament Conference Conference would would place place strict strict limits limits on on the the building of Disarmament new navy and air air fleets fleets and and forestall forestall the the practice practice of of war war profiteering. profiteering. served as a paean Dunbar-Nelson’s verse served paean to to those those universal universalgoals. goals.ItIt also also disarmament squarely set the fight fight for disarmament squarelyininthe therealm realmofofblack blackconcern concernand and history. history. In the poem Dunbar-Nelson Dunbar-Nelson transforms the mythic mythic black black folk hero John John Henry into a critic critic of the the postwar postwar arms arms race. race. Folk Folk ballads ballads about about

John Henry usually usually portrayed portrayedhim himas asaasuperhuman, superhuman,hardworking, hardworking,steelsteeldriving railroad worker. worker. These images aimed to bring bring pride pride and andglory glory

of black black workers workers to to the the building building of to the backbreaking backbreaking contributions contributions of America’s infrastructure. infrastructure. Through America’s Through her herwriting, writing,Dunbar-Nelson Dunbar-Nelsonrelocates relocates John Henry’s Henry’s fame fame and and glory glory in in his his ability ability to to see see through through the the subterfuge of modern industrial capitalism of capitalism and war. war. When When “Harlem “Harlem John John Henry hears the sinister sinister drone droneof of sextuplets sextupletsof of planes” planes”ititmakes makeshis his“soul “soulflow flow to the past.” Harlem John Henry reviews the history history of of slavery slavery and and war war and warns and warnsblack black workers workersagainst againstonce onceagain againbecoming becomingcogs cogsininthe thewheels wheels military machine. of the military machine. The The jarring jarring sounds soundsof ofthe thewarplanes, warplanes,“the “thefierce fierce horse hiss hiss above above the the sky,” sky,” resurrect resurrectnot notmemories memoriesof ofpatriotism patriotismbut but“cruel “cruel corsairs of foul, slave-weighted ships” and “deep-throated corsairs slave-weighted ships” “deep-throated wails wails from from black, stench-crowded stench-crowded depths.” Harlem John Henry Henry remembers “Crispus, and the Smiting a first first wild wild blow blow for for Liberty,” and the “jingo “jingo jabs” jabs” of the SpanishSpanishAmerican War. As the airmada airmada of American of warplanes warplanes“make “makedark darkthe theair” air”over overthe the Hudson, “Harlem “Harlem John John Henry Henry stands standswith withlifted liftedface” face”and andmemorializes memorializes . . from those who who “stumble[d] “stumble[d] .. . . from France France and andFlanders FlandersField, Field,Back Back from fromthe the 105 mire and and rats rats and and rotting rottingdead.” dead.”He Heasks, asks, “was “was that thatin invain?”'” vain?” Dunbar-Nelson clearly feared that it could be. She worried worried that Alice Dunbar-Nelson Americans in general and black Americans in particular could general and black Americans in particular couldtoo tooeasily easily forget the costs of war. As Harlem Harlem John John Henry Henrylaments: laments:“Must “Mustbeauty beautydie die once more, slain o’er o’er and o’er o’er in stupid, senseless senseless rage?” rage?” With With her her poem poem Dunbar-Nelson redeployed redeployed the icon John Henry in order Dunbar-Nelson icon John order to toset setaanew new path for black manhood and, in this way, a new direction for interwar in this way, a new direction for interwar justice and and peace. She She hoped hoped to erase any remaining era politics of racial justice remaining thought that that war war could could be be fruitful. fruitful. Black Black Americans’ gallantry was now to be measured based on the courage to look at war with a sober mind

Search for forPeace Peaceand andFreedom Freedom || 71 Search 71 and pronounce pronounce itit inimical inimical to to humanity. humanity.To To never let war again again “insult “insult the the 106 quietofofspring.” spring.’ quiet

Improving the the odds that Improving that peace-mindedness peace-mindedness could could supplant supplant warwarmindedness required that that Dunbar-Nelson Dunbar-Nelson also turn turn her her attention attention to to the the attitudes of attitudes of white whitepeace peacewomen. women.InInaafall fallofof1928 1928“As “As in inaaLooking LookingGlass” Glass” column, Dunbar-Nelson reported the the unwillingness unwillingness of of white white women, women, in in attendance at an interracial meeting in Pennsylvania, to talk with honinterracial Pennsylvania, with honesty about about race. race. In In relief relief to to white whitewomen’s women’s reticence reticence to to speak speakforthrightly, forthrightly, Dunbar-Nelson made . . who Dunbar-Nelson made clear clear that that“it “itwas wasthe thecolored coloredwomen women. . . . whokept kept the conversation on a frank and and open open plane, plane, who who struggled struggledthe thehardest hardesttoto prevent the conference from degenerating into a sentimental admiration admiration society.” Praising Praising the work of black women who were society.” were in in attendance attendanceatatthe the Dunbar-Nelson indicated conference, Dunbar-Nelson indicatedthat thatwithout withoutblack blackwomen’s women’s scrutiny scrutiny and supervision, supervision, such such gatherings gatheringscould couldbecome becomeshams. shams.As AsDunbar-Nelson Dunbar-Nelson observed, “it takes real courage . . . to stick to the cold, hard unsentimental courage . . . to stick to the cold, hard unsentimental and to facts, and to pay payhomage homagetotothe theGod-of-Things-As-They-Are.”"” God-of-Things-As-They-Are.”107 Dunbar-Nelson’scourage, courage,her her transformation transformation from from a war Dunbar-Nelson’s war patriot patriot to a war war critic, critic, did did more more than thanmimic mimicthe theoverall overallpostwar postwarmove moveofofblack black Americans away from militarism. Dunbar-Nelson’s writing, speeches, Americans from militarism. Dunbar-Nelson’s writing, speeches, role ofofwomen inin it italive. and organizing organizing directed directedthe thetrend trendand andkept keptthe the role women alive. Dunbar-Nelson hoped that that by by providing providing the the nation nation with withaalooking lookingglass glass that reflected reflected the the reality realityof ofmiddle-class middle-classblack blackwomen’s women’sexperiences experiencesand and thoughts on war, a sharper and clearer picture of the path to peace and clearer to peace freedom would would emerge. Jessie Fauset Jessie Fauset Fauset was born in in Camden Camden County, New in 1882 1882 in New Jersey, Jersey, and raised raised by her father, father, Redmon Redmon Fauset, Fauset, a circuit circuit minister ministerwith withthe theAME AMEchurch. church. An honors graduate graduate from from the theselect selectPhiladelphia PhiladelphiaHigh HighSchool Schoolfor forGirls, Girls, Fauset’s entrance entrance to Bryn Mawr College was blocked by Bryn Mawr presito Bryn Mawr College was blocked by Bryn Mawr president M. Carey Thomas, who feared that that “Southern “Southerngirls” girls”would wouldwithdraw withdraw 108 school ifif Fauset Fauset was was matriculated. matriculated.’ “Exiled” from the elite private school “Exiled” from from Philadelphia, Fauset graduated graduatedPhi PhiBeta Beta Kappa Kappa from fromCornell Cornellin in1905 1905 and and

72 | A of ofNoble 72 | Band A Band NobleWomen Women then taught then taughtat at the thefamous famousM MStreet StreetHigh HighSchool Schoolin inWashington, Washington,DC, DC,from from 1905until until 1919 1919when whenshe shebegan began her her paid paid employment employment with 1905 with the theCrisis.'” Crisis.109

For more more than fifteen Fauset contributed contributed to to the life of For fifteen years, Jessie Jessie Fauset Her leadership leadership in in the magazine, behind the scenes the Crisis. Crisis. Her scenes and and as as aa gave Fauset Fauset infl influence over the the many many thousands of regular contributor, contributor, gave uence over of readers drawn readers drawnto tothe thepublication. publication.And Andas asone oneof ofthe thefew few African AfricanAmerican American women who actually traveled to Africa during the 1920s, Fauset women who actually traveled to Africa during the 1920s, Fausethelped helpedtoto bring the continent continent to to her her readership, readership, framing framing Africa Africa as as both bothaagrowing growing race unity unity and strength symbol of race strength and andof ofAmerican Americanand andEuropean Europeanexcess excess and imperialism. Crisiseditor editor Du Du Bois Bois recruited recruited Fauset, whom whom he and imperialism.In In1919, 1919, Crisis he had known since 1903 and who had been a contributing writer since 1912, had known since 1903 and who had been a contributing writer since 1912, to be the the magazine’s magazine’s first first literary literary editor. editor. For For the thenext nexteight eightyears, years,Fauset Fauset identified identifi ed and promoted the the leading leading writers writersof of the theHarlem HarlemRenaissance, Renaissance, including Langston Hughes, Hughes, Jean Jean Toomer, Toomer, Countee Cullen, and and Claude Claude McKay. In this way and others she influenced the literary taste and caliber McKay. In this way and others influenced literary taste and caliber Although the job of literary editor of the Crisis. Crisis. Although editor was wassignificant, significant,scholars scholars now concur concur that that Fauset’s Fauset’s role was was even even wider wideras asshe sheregularly regularlytook tookon onthe the day-to-day running running and day-to-day and promotion promotion of of the the magazine. magazine. For For instance, instance, when when Du Bois was called to France to investigate the conditions of the black to France to investigate the conditions of the black troops, Fauset took over as general managing managing editor troops, editorfor for the theduration durationof ofhis his five-month During the fi ve-month absence. During thetime timeof ofFauset’s Fauset’s tenure, tenure,the theCrisis Crisis reached reached 110 the homes of 110,000 readers.'” homes of 110,000 readers. A reading reading of of Jessie Jessie Fauset’s Fauset’s writing writingfor forthe theCrisis Crisisfrom from1915 1915to to1925 1925 reveals how how African African American and her her 1924 1924 novel, novel, There There Is Confusion, Confusion, reveals women influenced influenced New Negro consciousness on war and and peace peace and and PanPanpostwar ideals African dialogue. Fauset helped develop postwar ideals of of engaged internationalism and her writing conveyed the complexity involved in African nationalism and her writing conveyed the complexity rethinking of their place American women’s women’s rethinking place in in the thepostwar postwarworld. world.Not Not surprisingly, World World War War II influenced influenced Fauset’s Fauset’s writing writingfor forthe theCrisis Crisisand and provided the Starting with with provided the context context for for her herfirst firstnovel, novel,There There Is Is Confusion. Confusion. Starting her September 1915 essay “Tracing Shadows,” Crisis readers traveled with September 1915 essay “Tracing Shadows,” Crisis readers traveled with Fauset as she exposed the racialized parameters of the war and Fauset and the the new new possibilities and possibilities and new new limits limits itit presented presentedAfrican AfricanAmericans Americansin intheir theirsearch search democracy and a place to call home. In Paris on a scholarship for democracy scholarship when when Germany declared war on France, Fauset was on a train when she first Germany declared France, Fauset was on a train first

Searchfor forPeace Peaceand andFreedom Freedom| | 73 Search 73 heard about heard about the the outbreak outbreakof of war warfrom from“a “a polyglot polyglot lady lady of of no fixed fixed nation111 ality.”"™' From this pointononFauset Fausetbecame becamean ananalyzer analyzer of of the the impact of ality.” From this point

war on on ideas ideas of of national nationalidentity, identity,race, race, and andgender. gender.She Shechronicled chronicledand and championed the championed the Pan-African Pan-African Congress Congress movement, which which was was revitalized revitalized by the war. And And through throughher herfrequent frequentand andfar-ranging far-rangingbook bookreviews, reviews,she she brought brought the the literature literatureof of and andabout aboutblack black nations nationslike likeHaiti Haitiand andLiberia Liberiato to 112 the black imagination."” imagination. Fauset’s contributions contributions to to children’s children’s literature, literature, like her contributions Fauset’s contributions to the Crisis, Crisis, sought to formulate an an appreciation appreciation of of world-mindedness. world-mindedness. Soon after the war, Fauset, Du Bois, and Augustus Augustus Dill Dill launched launchedaaCrisis Crisis publication for young adults—the Brownies Book. A magazine “designed publication for young adults—the Brownies Book. magazine “designed for all children, but especially especially ours,” twenty-four issues were published published from 1920 to 1921. 1921.Fauset Fausetwrote wrotehundreds hundreds of from 1920 to of pieces pieces for for the themagazine, magazine,from from global children’s children’s games games and and songs songs to to her her regular regular column “The reviews of global Judge.” In one typical column, the Judge reprimands Judge.” In one Judge reprimands aayoung youngAfrican African American member member of of the Court of American of Children Children for for arrogantly arrogantly stating stating that that he was better than than aa delegate delegate from from China. China. “But “But Iam I aman anAmerican. American.I’m I’m better than thanthey theyare. are.I’m I’m the theway waythey theyought oughttotobe.” be.”The TheJudge Judgeresponds, responds, “What you are saying is the kind of thing that sets the world by that sets the world by its its ears, ears, 113 that makes makes war, war, that thatcauses causesunspeakable unspeakablecruelties.”"* cruelties.” Fauset’s Fauset’s work work on on Bookrepresented representedaaspirited spiritedpart partof ofher herpostwar postwar desire to help the Brownies Brownies Book shape black peace and andtransnational transnationalconsciousness. consciousness.Fauset’s Fauset’ssubsequent subsequent writing continued to examine African Americans’ relationship continued to examine African Americans’ relationship to to US US nationalism and nationalism and to to propose proposenew newalliances alliancesof ofbelonging belongingwith withpeople peoplefrom from non-Western worlds. non-Western worlds. “Nationalism and “Nationalism andEgypt”: Egypt”:Gender, Gender,Race, Race, and Pan-African Pan-African Consciousness Consciousness

Fauset’s April April 1920 1920six-page six-pageessay essay“Nationalism “Nationalism and and Egypt” Fauset’s Egypt”published publishedinin the Crisis was one of her first articles to examine the war’s on the Crisis was one of her first articles to examine the war’s influence influence on the future future of of black black nations nations and andto topromote promoteaaPan-African Pan-Africanideal. ideal.ItItalso also signaled her effort effort to analyze analyze women’s women’s connections to postwar postwar political political the article article Fauset Fauset reports reports on on the the struggle struggle between between Egypt developments. In the and its colonial ruler, Britain, over the issue of representation ruler, Britain, the issue of representationatatthe the1919 1919

74 | A ofofNoble 74 | Band A Band NobleWomen Women Paris Peace Conference. The British insisted insisted that thatonly onlydelegates delegatesselected selected by the the British British government governmentbe beofficially officiallyacknowledged. acknowledged.Egyptians, Egyptians,who who had elected elected their their own owndelegation delegationof ofMuslims Muslimsand andChristians Christiansfrom fromvarivarious class backgrounds, protested protested the theactions actionsofofthe theBritish. British.The TheUnited United States, Fauset Fauset reported, supported States, supportedGreat GreatBritain’s Britain’sposition. position.The TheBritish British responded to to public public protests protests by by brutally brutally attacking attackingthe thepopularly popularlyelected elected Egyptian delegation. Most interesting in in Fauset’s Fauset’s essay is how how she she situsituates women in the struggle against European empire and and in in the the postwar postwar construction of Egyptian nationalism. nationalism. Fauset Fauset designates designates aastreet streetprotest protest by three hundred hundred upper-class upper-class Cairo Cairo women who supported the the banned banned delegation as the most poignant poignantsymbol symbolof ofthe therelationship relationshipbetween betweenBritBritish imperial power and and the theeruption eruptionof ofEgyptian Egyptianpride. pride.By Byreporting reportingon on Egyptian women Egyptian womensurrounded surroundedbybybayonet-wielding bayonet-wieldingBritish Britishsoldiers, soldiers,Fauset Fauset connects colonial rule with with efforts efforts to to restrict restrict and andsuppress suppresswomen’s women’sfreefreedom, movement, and andself-expression. self-expression.After Aftereducating educatingher herCrisis Crisisreaders readers on the Egyptian Egyptian struggle struggle for for self-rule, self-rule, Fauset beckons them to to new new conconsciousness as she asks: “who doubts doubts that that Egypt Egyptisisreally reallyspeaking speakingfor forthe the 114 whole dark world?”'* world?” With “the scene being staged for for the the greatest greatest and and

most lasting lasting conflict conflict of of people,” people,” Fauset Fausetposits positswomen womenasascentral centraltotothe theact act resisting empire empire and demonstrates demonstrates that of resisting that struggles struggles for for national national liberation liberation can transform transform women’s women’s roles." roles.115Fauset Fausethonors honorsthe thedaringness daringnessofof“women “women the darker races” as they break of the break with with the theclass-laden class-ladensocial socialcodes codesof of pubpublic propriety. With this brief yet instructive mention of Egyptian women’s this brief yet instructive mention of Egyptian women’s momentarily encodes protest, Fauset momentarily encodes Pan-African Pan-African unity unity and andpolitical politicalwill will 116 with the agency."”® with theface faceofoffemale female agency. Reporting on the 1921 Pan-African Pan-African Congress Congress

JessieFauset Fausetattended attended and and reported In 1921, 1921, Jessie reported on onthat thatyear’s year’sPan-African Pan-African Congress proceedings, proceedings, which whichtook tookplace placeininLondon, London,Brussels, Brussels,and andParis. Paris. Her lengthy essay, “Impressions of the Second Pan-African Congress,” lengthy essay, “Impressions of the Second Pan-African Congress,” captures the the continuing continuing development development of of Pan-African Pan-African consciousness consciousness and and black critiques of World War I and and colonialism. colonialism. As As Fauset Fauset states statesearly earlyin in her essay, the “basic motif” motif” of of World World War War II “had “hadbeen beenthe therape rapeofofAfrica.” Africa.” And the portion of the congress held in Belgium proved to be particularly And the portion of the congress held in Belgium proved to be particularly

Searchfor forPeace Peaceand and Freedom| | 75 Search Freedom illustrative of the historical and and ongoing ongoing exploitation exploitation of of black black nations nations for for white gain. Fauset described her visit visit to to the the Congo Congo Museum Museum and andhow how “for the the fifirst “for rst time in my life I was able to envisage what Africa means means to to Europe.” Viewing the museum’s collection from “edible plants,” to “fine “fine grained mahogany grained mahogany as as thick thickas asaaman’s man’s body body is is wide,” wide,” to to “skins, “skins, and and furs, furs,

gold and copper” and musical saw with her own gold musical instruments, Fauset Fauset saw own eyes “the “the sources from which so many eyes sources from many Belgian Belgian capitalists capitalists drew their 117 prosperity.”"” prosperity.” But, of of course, course, the the Pan-African Pan-African Congress Congress sought to contest the conBut, conyears after after the tinued misappropriation misappropriation of of black black lands and and peoples. peoples. Two years Versailles Peace Treaty and the 1919 Pan-African Congress, it was increasand the 1919 Pan-African Congress, it was increasingly clear that the war war and andthe theWilsonian Wilsonianpledge pledgeof ofself-determination self-determination intended to end European were not intended European colonialism or American racism. This the war, war, though, though, did did help help generate generate the the growth growth of ofaatransnational transnational failure of the black political consciousness and a “black and yearning world.” and a “black and yearning world.”As AsFauFauset wrote at the finish finish of of the London London portion of of her her trip, trip, during during which which strange and “men from strange and diverse diverselands,” lands,”like likeSouth SouthAfrica, Africa,Jamaica, Jamaica, Sierra Sierra Leone, and and Largos, “came “came together”: together”: “Not “Not one one of of us us but envisaged in his Leone, his heart the dawn of a day of new and perfect African brotherhood.” In her heart the dawn of a day of new and perfect African brotherhood.” In her essay’s conclusion, conclusion, Fauset Fauset considered considered the the work left to be done at the essay’s the end end of the days of meetings. She talked about the of the need needto tocontinue continuetotobuild build a strong organization. She urged Americans to learn more languages languages so so that people could converse more freely. She called for patience, noting people could converse more freely. She called for patience, noting that nothing “can be righted in aa day day nor nor in in aadecade.” decade.” Most Most interestinterestingly, in in her her closing closing summation summation Fauset endorsed the development of an ingly, ageressive Pan-African community aggressive community that thatmight, might,paradoxically, paradoxically,generate generate cosmopolitan understanding: 118 “All the possibilities of all black men “All the possibilities of all black menare are needed to weld together the world world against against the day when needed together the the black men of the black and white meet to do do battle. battle. God God grant grant that thatwhen whenthat thatday daycomes comes we shall be so powerful powerful that that the theenemy enemywill willsay say“But ‘But behold behold these these men men 119 are our brothers." are our brothers.’” Fauset’s reporting reporting illuminates the dominance Fauset’s dominance of of male male leadership leadershipin in Inprevious previous congresses, congresses, African Amerithe Pan-African Pan-African Congress Congress of of 1921. 1921. In can women from Anna Julia Julia Cooper to Addie Hunton Hunton had hadadmonished admonished male Pan-Africanists to remember that women must participate in the Pan-Africanists to remember the

76 | A of ofNoble 76 | Band A Band NobleWomen Women own writing movement if it was to be be successful. successful. Interestingly, Interestingly, Fauset’s Fauset’s own on the congress undersells the presence presence of the women who participated. participated. Masculine constructions constructions of of Pan-Africanism, Pan-Africanism, of of the the bringing bringingtogether togetherof ofaa “spectacular brotherhood,” “spectacular brotherhood,”seemed seemedtotocloud cloudeven evenFauset’s Fauset’sability abilityto tochamchampion the participation participation of of women women in inthe the1921 1921 congress congress as as she she had hadearlier earlier championed the participation participation of of Egyptian Egyptian women women in in freedom freedomstruggles. struggles. Although the central central goal goal of of Pan-Africanism Pan-Africanism was wasthe thedevelopment developmentofofa a transnational black community and and consciousness, consciousness, the the construction construction of of that consciousness upon the measurement measurement of of manhood manhood seemed seemedto toresult result in the the sidelining sideliningof ofwomen. women.The Theparticipation participationofofICWDR ICWDRmember memberHelen Helen Curtis and white Curtis white Hull Hull House House founder founderand andNAACP NAACP advisory advisory member member Florence Kelley Kelley received received scant mention Florence mention in inFauset’s Fauset’s reporting. reporting.Fauset, Fauset, herself a delegate herself delegate representing representing the theDelta DeltaSigma SigmaTheta ThetaSorority, Sorority,made made no mention of her own speech speech in in Brussels Brussels in in which which she she chronicled chronicled the the achievements of of black black educational educational institutions institutions in achievements in the the United United States. States. Nor Nor does she acknowledge her her talk talk in inGlasgow Glasgow in inwhich whichshe sheproclaimed proclaimedthat that black women’s clubs were the “great women’s clubs “great moving moving force force behind behindall allthe themovemove120 ments for foremancipation.” emancipation.” ments Visiting Algiers Algiers The absence of African African women women from fromthe the1921 1921 Congress Congressrequired requiredFauset Fauset to ask the male African delegates to “carry a message of friendship male African delegates “carry a message of friendship and and 121 she had her encouragement to African African women.””! women.” By By 1924 1924 she her own ownopporopportunity to tunity to create create aa communion communion between between North NorthAfrican Africanwomen womenand andblack black part of a six-month study and women in the United United States. States. As part and leisure leisure trip trip to Europe, Fauset and artist friend Laura Wheeler Waring visited Algiers. and artist friend Laura Wheeler Waring visited Algiers. From this trip From trip Fauset Fauset produced produced two two articles. articles. The The first firstarticle, article, “Dark “Dark Algiers, the White,” appeared appeared as asaatwo-month two-monthserial serialininthe theCrisis Crisisaccomaccompanied by panied by sketches sketches by by Waring. Waring. Through Throughthis thisarticle articleFauset Fausetsought soughttotobring bring her readers “behind the veil” by sharing her and Waring’s experiences readers “behind the veil” by sharing her and Waring’s experiencesas as “dwellers in Africa,” a place they reached reached after afteraatwenty-eight-hour twenty-eight-hourboat boat ride on a “sea “sea that that smiled smiled and andfaintly faintlyrippled.” rippled.”According Accordingto toFauset, Fauset, the the boat ride began to “roll “roll back backthe thecurtain curtain which which separated separated our known known from 122 the unknown.” the unknown.”

Searchfor forPeace Peaceand andFreedom Freedom| | 77 Search 77 Whereas in Whereas in her her reporting reportingon onthe the1921 1921 Pan-African Pan-AfricanCongress CongressFauset Fausethad had emphasized the emphasized the exchanges exchanges of of men, men, in inAlgiers, Algiers, by by contrast, contrast, Fauset Fauset sought sought Pan-African understanding understanding for her readers through to create a Pan-African through centering centering her reporting reporting on on the the lives lives of of women. At first first when she arrived arrived in in Algeria, Algeria, Fauset recorded disappointment because she found Fauset found Algerian Algerian streets streets full full

and men, of “children, boys, and men, men, men, men.”’” men.”123 Yet, Yet, upon upon closer closer examination examination and foot travel into the streets streets of the Kasbah, Fauset fifinally found the Dark and nally found Algiers she was looking looking for, for, the the women women of of North NorthAfrica. Africa.Fauset Fausetstrives strives through the through the sketches sketches of of the diverse diverse women women she meets to transform transform Africa Africa from a “dreamland” “dreamland” to to aa reality. reality. She She gives gives her her readers readersimages imagesof ofveiled veiled and unveiled women; young and old; poor and prosperous; women who venture into public and ride the the bus bus unescorted; unescorted; women women traveling traveling under under the watchful watchful eyes eyes of of men; women women adorned adornedwith withankle anklebracelets; bracelets;and andcolcollectives of of women women gathered around lectives around cooking cooking fires fires attending attendingto tothe theday’s day’s news and household chores. As well, she attempts to move her reader and household chores. As well, she attempts to move her readerpast past exoticorientalism orientalism that that often accompanied accompanied the the cliché of exotic the image image of of veiled veiled women. To do so Fauset used used the women. the trope tropeof of domesticity domesticityto totry tryand andestablish establish a bond between between an an elderly elderly veiled veiled woman woman she she met meton onaabus busand andher herCrisis Crisis readers. Fauset writes of the interaction on the bus: “Before we ourselves readers. Fauset writes of the interaction on the bus: “Before we ourselves descended an descended an old old woman womancame cameand andsat satopposite oppositeand andwe wefound foundaachance chancetoto examine her embroidered examine her face face veil. It seemed to be made made of of a piece of soft embroidered muslin shaped very very much much like like the the white white apron apron aa good goodAmerican American househouse124 wife sometimes assumes on a leisurely afternoon.”’* Through this assumes on a leisurely afternoon.” Through thisuse useof of the trope trope of of domesticity domesticity Fauset Fauset hoped hopedto toextend extendPan-African Pan-Africanunity unityand and community more directly to to middle-class middle-class African African American American women. women. In In attempting to attempting to foster foster aa community communityof oflikeness likenessof of mind mindbetween betweenthe thewomen women who occupied the unfolding Pan-African world, Fauset questioned the unfolding Pan-African masculine framework framework of ofPan-Africanism. Pan-Africanism.Yet, Yet, as assymbols symbolsofofwomen’s women’s domestic sphere, sphere, the muslin veil and domestic and the the housewife’s housewife’s apron apron at at the thesame same time represented representedthe thelimits limitsofofwomen’s women’sinfluence. influence. Fauset’s descriptive act, in fact, gestures Fauset’s descriptive act, in fact, gestures toward the the very very dilemmas dilemmas black women faced faced as as they attempted to fashion black women fashion a role role for for black black womanhood in the the international international movements movements of of the thetime. time.On Onthe theone onehand, hand, Fauset’s trips trips to to Europe and North Fauset’s North Africa Africa symbolized symbolized the thepossibility possibilitytoto her readership of expanded female mobility; on the other hand, Fauset’s readership of expanded female mobility; on the other hand, Fauset’s

78 | A ofofNoble 78 | Band A Band NobleWomen Women the domestic domestic sphere sphere through through the image of the apron points to reference to the the very very tentative tentative nature natureofofaaPan-African Pan-Africanfemale femaleideal. ideal.For Fordecades, decades,midmiddle-class black black women women had had used the dle-class the language language of of domesticity domesticity and and social social motherhood to authorize their role role in in the thesocial social and andpolitical politicaladvanceadvanceThey argued argued that because ment of the race. They because they were were entrusted entrustedto toraise raise the future future leaders leaders of of the race, then they should should also also be be entrusted entrustedto toparparticipate more more directly in other ticipate other political political arenas. arenas. Black Black women women had had also also employed the employed the language languageof of domesticity domesticityto tochallenge challengewhite whiteAmerica’s America’sinsisinsisof achieving achieving maternal virtue tence that black women were not capable of virtue or or true womanhood. womanhood. Fauset’s Fauset’s incorporation of the apron and the veil, then, signals the ongoing need need middle-class middle-class black black women women felt felt to to lay lay claim claimto to even as as they sought active active and equal participation the domestic sphere even of the interwar period. in the increasingly international protest politics of With the prominence of the masculine masculine language language of of Pan-Africanism Pan-Africanism and and the political purchase purchaseof of domesticity, domesticity, black black women women like like Fauset Fauset struggled struggled figure to fi gure out how best to situate women in this shifting, expanding, expanding, and and treacherous social treacherous social and and political political culture. culture. There Is Confusion: Searching Searching for for aa Public Public Stage Stage

Gordian knot The Gordian knot of of gender, gender, race, race, and and nation nationsurfaced surfacedagain againininJessie JessieFauFau1924novel novel There ThereIsIsConfusion. Confusion.Released Releasedshortly shortlybefore before Fauset’s Fauset’s trip trip to set’s 1924 Europe and North North Africa, Africa, the novel, novel, the first first of the Harlem Renaissance to draw draw wide wide public public circulation circulationand andacclaim, acclaim,received receivedfavorable favorable review review Supplement, the the London Times, Times, and and in in the theNew NewYork York Times Times Book Book Supplement, invarious various publications of publications of the the black press. press. Its publication publication was was also alsothe thecatalyst catalystfor forthe the large formal gathering of of black and white white intellectuals intellectuals that thatmany manydeem deem the symbolic launching of the New Negro literary literary movement. There IsIsConfusion Confusionconcerns concernsthe thepostwar postwar coming coming to consciousness of There Joanna Marshall, a young young middle-class middle-class black black woman womanhoping hopingtotofind findperpersonal fulfillment fulfillment as as aa classical classical dancer dancer and andperformer. performer.The Thenovel novelexplores explores how the the Great Great War War changed changedJoanna’s Joanna’s outlook outlook and andthe thelives livesand andexpectaexpectations of the African American men and and women women around aroundher. her.Joanna’s Joanna’s love Peter Bye, Bye,goes goesoff offtotowar warwhere where his his dignity dignity is assaulted by the interest, Peter long arm of American racism. The other female characters in the the novel, novel,

Searchfor forPeace Peaceand and Freedom| | 79 Search Freedom Maggie Ellersley Ellersley and and Vera Vera Manning, Manning, come come to new race Maggie race consciousness consciousness through the through thewar. war. Maggie, Maggie, like like the the real-life Addie Hunton, Hunton, is is one one of the few black women allowed to go to France France to take take care care of of the the black black American American Expeditionary Forces. Expeditionary Forces. This experience amplifies amplifies her love of her race and and her conflict her conflict with with America. America.Similarly, Similarly, the theexperience experienceofofthe thewar warallows allowsVera Vera that the to realize that the value value of her ability to pass for white was not to be found of assimilation, assimilation, but but in in her her ability ability to to go gounderground underground in in the act of in the the South South and investigate and investigate the the racist racistrampages rampagesset setoff offby bythe thewar. war. Joanna’s desire desire since since aa young young age was was to to “dance “dance the the dance dance of of nations.” nations.” To fulfi fulfill this dream, dream, Joanna Joanna shoulders shoulders the To ll this theabuses abusesof ofJim Jim Crow Crow as she moves through New New York York City and Philadelphia Philadelphia in in search searchof ofthe thebest bestteachers teachers and venues venues for for her her pursuits. pursuits.Finally, Finally, Joanna Joanna receives receives her her break break when whenshe she performs the performs the starring starringrole roleof ofAmerica Americain inthe theDistrict DistrictLine LineTheater TheaterproducproducofNations. Nations.Joanna Joannagets gets the the job job as as aa last-minute replacement tion of Dance Dance of replacement white recalcitrant dancer. for a white dancer. The only hitch hitch is that that Joanna Joanna is is required requiredtoto opening night the white audience, suspecting suspecting that wear a white mask. On opening Joanna was black and hence unfit unfit to represent represent America, America, demanded demanded that that pull off her mask response to she pull mask and and reveal reveal her herreal real face. In response to this this demand, demand, Joanna attempts to claim her place in the nation nation through through lecturing lecturing her her audience on the history of of African African American male military military service. service. She She admonishes the admonishes theaudience: audience:“I “I hardly hardlyneed needtototell tellyou youthat thatthere thereisisno noone oneinin the audience more American than I am. My great-grandfather fought in the Revolution, my uncle fought fought in in the theCivil Civil War War and andmy mybrother brotherisis‘over‘over125 now.”'” At this this moment there’ now.” moment the thelimitations limitationsofofthe thepublic publicstage stagefor forblack black

Joanna. Even Eventhough though the the audience audience rewarded rewarded women began to unfold for Joanna. her with a standing standing ovation ovation and andthe theshow showmoved movedto toBroadway, Broadway, the public demand that she legitimate her claim to American citizenship and nationnationdemand that to American citizenship and hood dismayed dismayed her. her. Subsequent Subsequent interactions interactions with withJim Jim Crow Crow theaters theatersand and growing belief belief that that her her authenticity authenticity white performers performers confirmed confirmed Joanna’s growing would always would always be be contested contestedon onthe thenational nationalstage. stage.Joanna’s Joanna’syouthful youthfuldeterdetermination that individual black female exceptionalism could prevail mination that individual black female exceptionalism could prevailover over the color line weakened as she she awakened awakened to to the theinsidious insidiouspower powerof ofJim Jim Crow. Her Her claim to citizenship through Crow. through the thewartime wartimepatriotic patrioticcontribucontributions of the men men of of her her race race proved proved insufficient insufficient in in melting meltingthe thecolor colorline. line. At the conclusion of There Is Confusion, Fauset has Joanna walk off conclusion of There Is Confusion, Fauset has walk off the the

ofofNoble 80 | A | Band A Band NobleWomen Women stage and turn turnher herback back on onthe thewhite whitenation. nation.Joanna, Joanna,who whothroughout throughoutthe the marries him novel resists marriage marriage to to Peter Peter Bye, Bye, marries him in in the theend, end,refocusing refocusingher her energy and and talents talents on on the the private private sphere sphereof of the the family. family. Through the Through the character character of of Joanna Marshall, Fauset inspects the the dilemdilemwomen faced faced as as they they attempted attempted to rethink postwar mas black black women postwar America America

and their and their role role in in it. it. Fauset, Fauset, who who became became increasingly increasingly“disenchant[ed] “disenchant[ed]with with a United States that could could not not accept accept ‘difference ‘difference in its citizenry,” citizenry,’”returns returns Joanna to the sphere of the black home in an attempt to to create create a concept citizenship, nationhood, nationhood, and belonging that respected and experience of citizenship, 126 black womanhood. womanhood.” Read Readtogether, together,Fauset’s Fauset’sjournalism journalismon onEgypt, Egypt,AlgeAlge-

ria, and the the Pan-African Pan-African Congress Congress movement movement along along with withher herfirst firstnovel novel presented postwar presented postwarreaders readerswith withthe thedetails detailsof ofthe theGordian Gordianknot knotof ofgender, gender, race, and nation race, nation faced faced by by women womenof of color. color. As As Fauset Fauset chronicled, chronicled, the thewar war along with the protest protest movements movements that that developed developedfrom fromititrefigured refiguredand and complicated the ever-shifting puzzle of black female independence. the ever-shifting puzzle of black female independence. through her Fauset spent much much of her life, through her literary literaryand andpolitical politicalcareer, career, studies and her studies and international internationaltravel, travel, attempting attemptingto toenvision envisionforms formsof of black black independence that that worked worked for for women women as as well independence well as men. men. And And through through female protagonists like Joanna, Fauset looked to bring attention bring attentionto tothe the war’s impact impact on women. Central to these efforts war’s efforts was the the issue issue of of home. home. In her reporting reportingon onthe theevolution evolutionofofpostwar postwarPan-African Pan-Africanconsciousness, consciousness, Fauset helped helped foster foster the understanding that Fauset that for for African African Americans Americans the the experience of home, belonging, belonging, and and freedom might be most likely to occur freedom might be most likely to occur in a transnational transnational context context and and outside outside of of white white scrutiny. scrutiny. Writing Writing about about Pan-African Congress, Congress, Fauset Fauset rejoiced rejoiced that that “the rod of the 1921 1921 Pan-African of common common oppression had had made made them themfeel feeltheir theirown owncommunity communityofofblood, blood,ofofnecesnecessity; of of problem.” problem.” In In the postwar postwar world race could be a tool of oppression, world race could be a tool of oppression, but it could also create create new new possibilities. possibilities.Again Againremarking remarking on on the the postwar postwar rise in Pan-Africanism, Pan-Africanism, Fauset Fauset asked, asked, “What “Whatcan canbe bemore morefascinating fascinatingthan than learning .. . . .. that learning thatthe thestranger strangeracross acrossthe theseas, seas,however howeverdifferent differentininphrase phrase 127 or expression, yet knows no difference of heart?”!”” expression, yet knows no difference of heart?” At the end end of of her her novel, novel, when when Fauset Fauset reunites reunitesJoanna Joannawith withPeter, Peter,she she seems to conclude conclude that seems that black black women womencan canonly onlyexperience experiencelove loveand andpersonal personal fulfillment fulfi llment within withinthe thesphere sphereof ofblack blackhome homelife. life. This Thisreturn returntotothe thedomesdomestic sphere can be understood in many ways. Some may see it as a retreat. understood in many ways. Some may see it as a retreat.

Search for forPeace Peaceand andFreedom Freedom || 81 Search 81 Others may see it as a measure measure of of the the harm harmcaused causedby bypostwar postwarracism racismon on the lives of black women. Though it may seem as if if Joanna’s Joanna’s world and her mobility are shrinking, if we read the home to which Joanna returns returns transnational and as being the transnational andPan-African Pan-African home home Fauset Fauset experienced experienced and and reported on reported on throughout throughouther hercareer, career,than thanJoanna’s Joanna’s world world beyond beyondthe thewhite white stage is a potentially expansive expansive and andjoyful joyfulone. one. In Inwriting writingabout aboutmeeting meeting delegates from from throughout throughoutthe thePan-African Pan-Africanworld, world,Fauset Fausetexclaimed: exclaimed:“We “We clasped hands with with our our newly newly found found brethren brethren and anddeparted, departed,feeling feelingthat that 128 it was good to to be be alive alive and andmost mostwonderful wonderfultotobebecolored.”’* colored.” Like Likethe the

muslin veil conclusion to to There Is Is Confusion, muslin veil and andthe theapron, apron,the the conclusion There Confusion,Joanna’s Joanna’s marriage to Peter Bye, is a complicated symbol. Although Joanna marriage to Peter Bye, a complicated symbol. Although Joannaseems seems to finally finally experience the the wholesale wholesaleacceptance acceptanceof ofher herblack blackwomanhood womanhood she was looking looking for for in inPeter’s Peter’s love love of of her, her, the the reader readerisisleft lefttotoreconcile reconcileon on departure from her own Joanna’s Joanna’s departure from public public life. life. This This domestic domestic move, move, then, then, symbolizes both the postwar significance of national and transnational the postwar significance of national and transnational black black unity and community building and and the thepotential potentialcircumscription circumscription women’s lives. lives.Through Through Joanna, Fauset mobilized of black women’s mobilizedblack black women’s women’s to make make the point that war wartime experiences experiences to war does does not not resolve resolve quesquestions of race, gender, democracy, and citizenship or deter the spread democracy, or deter the spreadofof colonial power. What war colonial war does doesisiscomplicate complicateblack blackwomen’s women’s desire desirefor for and obtainment of freedom. and obtainment of freedom. Like her protagonist, Jessie Fauset found found the postwar postwar world Like Jessie Fauset world to to offer offer both opportunities and restrictions. The war and its aftermath gave Fauopportunities and restrictions. The war and its aftermath gave Fauopportunities to set opportunities to travel travel and andthe theresponsibility responsibilitytotoshape shapeblack blackthought thought on national and and transnational transnationalissues. issues.At Atthe thesame sametime, time,Fauset Fausetherself herself circumscribed and found her life circumscribed and her her right right to to occupy occupy the the social and and politipolitical spaces of the nation contested. In her March 1922 essay, “Some Notes the nation contested. In her March 1922 essay, “Some Notes Fauset wrote wrote that as “a on Color,” Color,” Fauset “a colored colored woman, woman, neither neither white white nor nor black, neitherpretty pretty or orugly ugly. . . .. . of of fair fair manners manners and and deportment deportment . . . ... inin black, neither brief the average average American Americandone doneover overin inbrown,” brown,”she shedid didnot notreceive receiveeven even common courtesy from white men on the subway, and she was unable common courtesy from subway, unable to dine dine in inrestaurants restaurantsofofher herchoice.’” choice.129Perhaps Perhapsmore moresignificantly, significantly,after after Fauset was was unable unable to secure a job in she left her Crisis Crisis position in 1926, 1926, Fauset publishing even though though she she offered offered to to “work “work at at home” home” ifif her her race race was was aa 130 problem."*’ In the end she was forced to return to teaching, an occupation problem. In the end she was forced to return to teaching, an occupation

82 | A ofofNoble 82 | Band A Band NobleWomen Women she did not like. And unlike Joanna, Fauset did not marry marry until until she she was was forty-seven years forty-seven years old. old. Although Fauset’s relationship with with the the WILPF WILPF was was not not as as extensive extensive and direct direct as as Addie AddieHunton’s Hunton’s and andAlice AliceDunbar-Nelson’s, Dunbar-Nelson’s, she she did didsupsupport the the organization organization in invarious variousways waysas asexemplified exemplified by by her herwelcoming welcoming remarks to to the the1924 1924 International International WILPF WILPF Congress Congress held heldin inWashington, Washington, Throughout the years, Fauset offered to lend her name to the DC. Throughout the WILPF and to write literature for campaigns. As and write pieces pieces of literature for various various WILPF WILPF campaigns. As a writer writer Fauset’s perspectives perspectives on race, war, peace, transnationalism, for the Crisis, Fauset’s transnationalism, and gender gender would wouldbe befamiliar familiartotothe themany manyWILPF WILPFmembers memberswho whohelped helped to found the the NAACP NAACP and and who who held held memberships membershipsin inthe theinterracial interracialorgaorganization. As a daughter daughter of of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, her her observations observations on on the the racial racial of potential interest to those inclined to restrictions of the city would be of be concerned concerned about Crow in in the the North North and and in the city of about the the practice practice of Jim Crow novel, The the national nationalWILPF WILPF office. office. And Andwhen whenher herthird third novel, TheChinaberry ChinaberryTree, Tree, was to be published published WILPF WILPF member, member, author, author, and andFauset Fausetfriend friendZona ZonaGale Gale was asked to write the introduction to it. Fauset Fauset and her ideas, ideas, in other words, would be be no no stranger stranger to to many manywhite whitewomen womenininthe theWILPF. WILPF. AddiAddicontemporary of tionally, as a contemporary of Hunton Huntonand andDunbar-Nelson, Dunbar-Nelson,Fauset’s Fauset’sideas ideas and friendship and friendship with withboth bothwomen womenwould wouldno nodoubt doubtinfluence influencethem. them.DunbarDunbarNelson and Fauset were known known to to play bridge together. And Hunton Hunton and and Fauset convened convened over over issues issues facing facing the NAACP, worked together together in in the the Fauset NAACP, worked Peace and and Foreign Foreign Relations, Relations, and and shared shared a commitment commitment to Circle for Peace to make make the Pan-African the Pan-African movement movementaasuccess. success. Hunton, Alice Dunbar-Nelson, Dunbar-Nelson, and Addie Hunton, andJessie Jessie Fauset spent spent the the postwar years attempting to create an awareness of the relationship between mistreatment of the mistreatment ofblack black women womenand andthe thepolitics politicsand andculture cultureofofwar. war.When When Dunbar-Nelson wrote, Sing,” the the poem poem cited at at the the beginning beginning of Dunbar-Nelson wrote, “Cano, I Sing,” this chapter, she sought sought to to place place the the history historyof ofblack black women womeninto intothe thecolcolmemory of of war war and the unfolding lective memory unfolding movements movements for for peace. peace. Through Through their persistent struggle struggle to to create create openness openness for for the the participation participationof of AfriAfrican American women in in the the social social and andpolitical political spaces spaces of of the the nation nationand and world, Hunton, Hunton, Dunbar-Nelson, Dunbar-Nelson, and and Fauset Fauset raised raised important questions world, about the practice practice of democracy, democracy, the experience of war and and citizenship, citizenship, and the path path to to peace peace and andfreedom. freedom. They They worked worked to to open open the thepostwar postwar

Searchfor forPeace Peaceand andFreedom Freedom| | 83 Search 83 public sphere to the equal participation participation of of African American women for they believed that that black black women’s women’s perspectives were vital to to the the success success of the search for peace and freedom. of freedom. To win, as Addie Hunton Hunton called called it, it, the Galilean Galilean struggles strugglesbefore beforethe theworld, world,black blackwomen’s women’sexperiences experiencesofofthe the multiple injuries of war needed needed to to be recognized recognized and andaddressed. addressed.

Race and the Social Thought of White White Women Women in in the the WILPF WILPF of

RachelDubois, Dubois, Emily Emily Greene Greene Balch, Balch, and and Anna TTHE h e WORK wor k ofofRachel Anna Melissa Melissa demonstrates that Graves demonstrates that many manywhite whitewomen womenof ofthe theinterwar interwarWILPF WILPFalso also and constantly negotiated race as as they they constructed constructed responses consciously and to war and national strife. Although their thinking differed thinking differed at at times, times, they they racial held in common the understanding that that unenlightened unenlightened Victorian Victorian racial attitudes played attitudes played aa significant significant role in maintaining maintainingthe theconditions conditionsthat thatcrecreated war and hindered efforts to establish domestic as well as internaated war and hindered efforts to establish domestic as well as international peace. The white white women women of of the theWILPF WILPF who whochallenged challengedscientific scientific counter-ideas about race as as they they moved moved to to crecreracism employed a range of counter-ideas new, more more equalitarian equalitarian and ate a new, and peaceful peaceful world world order. order. They endeavored endeavored the nation’s nation’s allegiance allegiance to tonativism nativism and and Anglo-Saxon superiority superiority to replace the with a new attachment attachment to the concepts of world-mindedness world-mindedness and cultural cultural diminish the biologicaland and aa pluralism. They hoped to diminish the idea that race was biological determining factor intelligence and and morality morality by by moving moving people people toward toward determining factor of intelligence a more cosmopolitan approach approach that thatbelieved believedin inthe thecollective collective humanity humanityofof the world’s people. people. The Rise The Rise of of Scientific Scientific Racism Racism

According to to John John Higham, Higham, by by the the turn turn of the century two currents of According of regressive race-based race-basedthinking thinking dominated dominated the the intellectual intellectual foundations foundations at at regressive work in the United States. A defensive form of racial nationalism aimed work in the United States. A defensive form of racial nationalism aimed to control control the the “enemy” “enemy” within within the the nation—immigrants nation—immigrants and African African Americans—whereas an aggressive racial nationalism worked to rally Americans—whereas an aggressive racial nationalism worked to 54 84

Race and and the theSocial SocialThought Thoughtofof White Women| | 85 Race White Women 85 and validate validate US US expansionism expansionism abroad.' abroad.1 With With aa new newwave waveof of immigration immigration under way way in in the the1890s 1890s and and US US military military intervention intervention in inCuba Cubaand andthe the Philippines, the nation recommitted itself to using race to explain and Philippines, using race to explain and legitimate domestic racism most most often often served served legitimate domestic and and foreign foreign policy. policy. Scientific Scientific racism as the scaffolding that both the the defensive defensive and and aggressive aggressive forms forms of of racial nationalism clung to. to. Proponents Proponents of ofscientific scientific racism racism believed believed that thatrace race was a measurable and quantifiable biological fact. Race, they proposed, measurable and quantifiable biological fact. Race, determined and explained explained everything about about aa person person or or aa society society from from intelligence and temperament temperament to to fitness fitness for for civilization. civilization. With With race race aa fixed fixed and unalterable unalterable quality, quality, proponents proponentsof ofscientific scientific racism racismstood stoodfirmly firmlyinin their observation that the superiority and inferiority of the races the superiority and inferiority of the raceswere were objective and natural objective natural facts. facts. They They used usedthis this“science” “science”totoargue arguefor forlimitalimitastate-endorsed eugenics programs, tions on immigration, state-endorsed programs, and and US US military and economic expansionism expansionism abroad. racists, slums slums were were prodprodand abroad.To To scientific scientific racists, ucts of poor breeding, not products of complex economic factors. Immipoor breeding, not products of complex economic factors. Immigrants were were feared feared because because they they might might“pollute” “pollute”the theAnglo-Saxon Anglo-Saxon stock.’ stock.2 and economists ofof The Sociologists and economistslike likeMadison MadisonGrant, Grant,author author ThePassing Passingofof or the the Racial Racial Basis Basis of ofEurope EuropeHistory, History,Lothrop Lothrop Stoddard, the Great White Race or Stoddard, author of Clashing Tides of Color, and Edward Alsworth Ross, leading author of Clashing Tides of Color, and Edward Alsworth leadingproproracism, promoted promoted a confl conflict-ridden social Darwinian Darwinian ponents of scientific scientific racism, ict-ridden social model of model of social social relations.° relations.3 During the Spanish-American War, Theodore Theodore Roosevelt used used the During the 1898 1898 Spanish-American language of social Darwinism Darwinism and Anglo-Saxon superiority to encourage and Anglo-Saxon superiority to encourage and manage manage the the US US takeover of the Philippines Philippines from from Spain. Spain. According According to this logic, a race-based hierarchy this hierarchy would wouldalways alwaysexist existand andthose thoselocated locatedon on the highest rungs rungs of of the ladder ladder needed needed to to take take charge charge of of those those less less capacapable. “Fitness,” “Fitness,” Theodore Roosevelt believed, was not a universal human not a universal human quality but but an an achievement achievement attainable attainableby byonly onlyaaselect selectfew. few. In Inchampionchampioning US expansionism Roosevelt argued, argued, “Fitness “Fitness [for [for self-government] is . . but not a God-given, natural right right .. . . butcomes comes to to aarace raceonly onlythrough throughthe the slow growth of centuries, centuries, and then only to those races which possess an immense reserve immense reservefund fundof ofstrength, strength,common commonsense, sense,and andmorality.* morality.4The ThelanlanAnglo-Saxon superiority superiority and masculine guage of Anglo-Saxon masculine benevolent benevolent responsibilresponsibility was was exemplified exemplified in inRudyard RudyardKipling’s Kipling’sfamous famous1898 1898poem poem“The “TheWhite White Man’s Burden” and embraced by leaders like Roosevelt. Though writing Man’s Burden” and leaders like Roosevelt. Though writing

86 | A ofofNoble 86 | Band A Band NobleWomen Women within aa British British context and and with with an anironic ironictone, tone,Kipling’s Kipling’s work created created expansionists who who wanted to soften, a moral argument suitable suitable for US expansionists though not not necessarily necessarily completely completely reverse, reverse, the theuse useofofscientific scientificracism. racism. According to the the masculine masculinebenevolence benevolenceargument, argument,the theUnited UnitedStates Stateswas was a nation made up up of of selfless selfless white men, willing to do do the the protectionist protectionist work that other other nations nationswere werenot notmanly manlyenough enoughtotoconsider.’ consider.5Although Although

perhaps aa little underlying the perhaps little softer softer in in its rhetoric, underlying the idea idea of of the the white white man’s man’s burden burdenremained remainedaabelief beliefin inAnglo-Saxon Anglo-Saxonsuperiority—a superiority—achauvinistic chauvinisticrelireliance upon white middle-class middle-class American American ideals ideals of of civilization, civilization, progress, and competence as the yardstick yardstick by by which which other othernations nationswere weretotobe bemeameasured and controlled. sured and controlled. and Graves turned turned to Modernists like Dubois, Balch, and to culture cultureto tochalchalcatlenge the claim that that race race was was aa quantifiable, quantifiable, scientific, scientific, and biological category of difference. Many anthropologists, anthropologists, sociologists, sociologists, economists, economists, and and philosophers “interpreted character, morality, and social organization “interpreted character, morality, and social organizationasas cultural, rather rather than than racial, racial, phenomena.” phenomena.”6By By shifting shiftingframeworks, frameworks,people people and Ruth like Franz Boas and Ruth Benedict Benedict sought sought to to remove removethe thenegative negativesignifysignifying power of race and and interrupt interruptthe thebelief beliefthat thatthere thereexisted existedidentifiable identifiable “pure” racial racial groups. groups.’7 Less Less willing willing to to see see the world in Victorian Victorian grand binary binary narratives narrativesof ofmale maleand andfemale, female,good goodand andevil, evil,savage savageand andcivilized, civilized, modernist social scientists disputed the view of race as biology biology and as a prescriptive determinant determinantof ofsocial socialrelations. relations.Women Women like like Dubois, Dubois, Graves, Graves, and Balch advanced the culture paradigm as a component of their culture paradigm as a component of theirvision vision an interdependent interdependent world humanity. As peace historian historian Sondra Herman Herman of an of the interwar period writes, peace progressives of period “combined “combined aa dynamic dynamic interpretation of human nature nature with with aarejection rejection of of conservative Darwin8 ism and and competitive individualism.”® Peace progressives believed that that the the competitive individualism.” Peace progressives believed world of of peace peaceand and freedom freedom rested rested upon upon the the ability formula for creating a world to, at least in part, to, part, redirect redirect people’s people’s adherence adherence to to racialized racialized hierarchies. hierarchies. This change in racial thought thought had hadto tooccur occurin inthe theday-to-day day-to-dayinteractions interactions of people as well as in the workings of nation-states. Cosmopolitan workings of Cosmopolitan theotheoof interdependence and mutuality directly contrasted with ries of with and and concontested scientific racism’s adherence to a conflict-ridden social Darwinian tested scientific racism’s adherence to a conflict-ridden social Darwinian concept of of social social relations as promoted by concept by people people like likeTeddy Teddy Roosevelt Roosevelt and Madison Grant. and Madison Grant.

Race and and the theSocial SocialThought ThoughtofofWhite White Women| | 87 Race Women 87

The critique critique of of race race as science The science did not produce produce one one coherent coherent new new understanding of understanding of race. race. Instead, Instead, as asPeggy PeggyPascoe Pascoe argues, argues,itithelped helpedfoster foster a consortium of new ideologies that she she labels labels “modernist “modernist racial racial ideoloideologies.”9 Although wanted to gies.” Although they theyshared sharedaacriticism criticismof of scientific scientific racism and wanted form aa “dissident form “dissident consciousness” consciousness”that thatwas wascritical criticalofof“race-coded “race-codedcivilizacivilizations,” racial modernists’ alternative understandings understandingswere wereconstantly constantlyinin 10 formation and not always internally coherent.’ The necessity always internally coherent. The necessity to to address address Stodthe writings writings and andpower powerof ofpeople peoplelike likeMadison MadisonGrant Grantand andLothrop Lothrop Stoddard was was clear. clear. What What itit meant meant to topromote promoterace raceasasculture, culture,instead insteadofof was not as clear. Modernists did race as biology, biology, was did not not necessarily necessarily get getrid rid of the concept of race, but they tried to denaturalize it and remove its of race, tried to denaturalize it and remove its power to stigmatize stigmatize and andoppress. oppress.Like Likeother otherracial racialmodernists, modernists,Dubois, Dubois, Balch, and and Graves’s ideas about about race race developed and shifted Balch, Graves’s ideas shifted over overtime time and in in response responseto tothe thespecific specific context context of of the the issue issue under understudy. study.As Asracial racial modernists and peace activists, their critical race consciousness develand peace activists, their critical race consciousness developed with, through, through,and andas asaapart partofoftheir theirembrace embraceofofcommunity communityinterinterthe community- and nationalism. Collectively, Collectively, the and internationalism-based internationalism-based modernism projects racial modernism projects they they engaged engagedin inencompassed encompassedfour fouroftentimes oftentimes interdependent projects. First, they challenged national legislation projects. First, legislation that used scientific used scientific racism to maintain maintainracial racialhierarchies. hierarchies.Second, Second,they theydecondeconstructed the the idea idea of of the thenatural naturalsuperiority superiorityofofAnglo-Saxons Anglo-Saxonsby byshifting shifting scrutiny from from the the practices practicesof ofracialized racializedethnicities ethnicitiesand andracial racialminorities minorities to the practices of whites. whites. Third, Third, they suggested suggested a link between the link between thepromopromorace-based thinking thinking and tion of race-based and the thedevelopment developmentof of hawkish hawkishnationalism. nationalism. And finally, finally, they advanced advanced the the humanist humanistconcepts conceptsofofinterdependence interdependence and world-mindedness. and world-mindedness. In her study study of of the the role role of of race in the the development developmentof of feminist feministthought thought from the the 1840s 1840s to the the 1920s, 1920s, Louise Michele Michele Newman Newman reminds remindsususthat that for many white women for women in in Western Western Europe Europe and and the theUnited UnitedStates States the the language and and practice practice of of imperialism imperialism or or expansionist expansionistracial racial nationalism nationalism proved useful to their advancement. Newman argues that “imperialism to their advancement. Newman argues that “imperialism provided an an important importantdiscourse discoursefor forwhite whiteelite elitewomen womenwho whodeveloped developed new identities for for themselves themselves as as missionaries, missionaries, explorers, explorers, educators, educators, and and ethnographers as they they staked staked out out new newrealms realmsof of possibility possibility and andpolitical political 11 power against the tight constraints of Victorian gender roles.”"' Newman against the tight constraints of Victorian gender roles.” Newman

88 | A ofofNoble 88 | Band A Band NobleWomen Women concludes that these Victorian concludes Victorian era feminists feminists embraced embraced the the ideology ideology of of Anglo-Saxon superiority in order Anglo-Saxon order to to argue arguethat thatwhite whitewomen womenwere werefitfitfor for citizenship and and equality equalitywith withthe themen menofoftheir theirrace. race.These Thesewomen womenjoined joined their male counterparts counterpartsin inadvancing advancingthe theconcept conceptofofthe thewhite whiteman’s man’sburburden and used used colonial colonial projects projects to open open up up spaces spaces for for white white middle-class middle-class into a variety women’s move into varietyof of public publicspheres. spheres.Women Womenlike likeDubois, Dubois,Balch, Balch, and Graves believed and believed they they had hadaadifferent differentburden. burden.As Ascritics criticsofofnationalism nationalism and imperialism, their burden burden entailed entailed exposing exposing the the paternalistic paternalistic racism racism burden was in which the the white white man’s burden was moored mooredwhile whilegalvanizing galvanizingpeople peopletoto drums of contest the drums of war war and andto topromote promoteaavision visionof of aa new newworld worldsteeped steeped humanist mutuality. in a race-sensitive humanist mutuality. The women in this chapter chapter responded respondedto tothe theovertly overtlyracist racistdiscourses discourses the early part part of the twentieth of the twentiethcentury centuryininaavariety varietyofofways waysasasthey theywent went about their their work work as as educators, educators, reformers, reformers,political politicalagitators, agitators,and andinternainternationalists. At At times times some some of of them advocated advocated cultural pluralism and the tionalists. the of the the varieties of racial/ethnic racial/ethnic groups celebration of groupsas asaacounter counterdiscourse discourse 12 to the 100 100 percent Americanism Americanism movement.” movement. They They all all advocated advocatedforms forms

of transnationalism, the replacement of nationalism with a dedication to of world-mindedness. world-mindedness. As community internationalists internationalists they they believed believed that that social and economic adjustments were central to the social the building building of of aalonglonglasting faith faith in in human unity. lasting unity. In this way way they they supported supported the the cultural cultural anthropologists’ claim that anthropologists’ that what what were wereunderstood understoodtotobebebiological biologicalrace race differences were in fact signs of social/cultural social/cultural differences and economic differences and economic disparities. Conflict Conflict in society was was not not inevitable inevitable but butthe theresult resultofofflawed flawed thinking that thinking thatled ledto toaabelief belief in in social social hierarchies. hierarchies. If we are to understand understand the thelives lives of of individual individualwomen womenand andthe theprojproject of peace peace and freedom that consumed so many during the interwar consumed so many during the interwar relationship to the years, we must consider consider white white WILPF WILPF women’s women’s relationship the loomlooming race issues of the time period. Without Without such aa consideration consideration we we will will understanding of continue to develop an incomplete understanding of the the motivation motivation and and intent of women who involved themselves in the women’s movement intent of women who involved themselves in the women’s movement for for peace during duringthe theinterwar interwaryears. years.The Theefforts effortsofofDubois, Dubois,Balch, Balch,and andGraves Graves to transform the way way Americans Americans thought thought about about race race after after World World War War II indicate that that the the women’s women’s peace movement movement was was much muchmore moreself-conscious self-conscious about the relationship of the structures of race to the future of relationship of the structures of race to the future ofpeace peace than than

Race and and the theSocial SocialThought Thoughtofof White Women| | 89 Race White Women thought. Their Their intelligent intelligentand and methodical methodical challenges challenges most historians have thought. twentieth-century American to early twentieth-century Americanracism racismreveal reveal that thatthe thewomen’s women’s peace least the the WILPF, WILPE,was wasaakey keypartner partnerin ininterwar interwar era era projects projects movement, at least in the the nation nation and to advance new ways of thinking thinking about to contest racism in about the nation. the heterogeneity of the

Rachel Davis Davis Dubois Dubois Rachel Dubois is considered by many Rachel Davis Dubois many to to be be the the initiator initiatorof of interculintercul13 tural education tural education and and its its “most “most prominent prominent champion.”" champion.” In In the theaftermath aftermathof of

World War War I,I,Dubois Duboisdesigned designed school schoolprograms programs intended intended to create a new of students students interested in cross-cultural and cross-racial friendfriendgeneration of ships. Through the achievement achievement of world-mindedness, Dubois believed that students would best that students would best be be able able to to resist resist future futurecalls callsto towar. war.In Inthe theracist racist and nativist climate of the postwar industrial society, Dubois promoted postwar industrial society, the idea idea that that culture social relations relations and and the culture could could serve serve as as aa safe safe “mediator “mediator of of social 14 structures.” To To convince convince students that all human human beings beings were equal and valuable contributors to society, society, Dubois championed championed the the“cultural “culturalgifts” gifts” educational model. Through increased familiarization with the accomincreased familiarization with the accomand ethnic groups in the areas of music, music, scisciplishments of different racial and ence, and and literature, literature, students students would learn to appreciate appreciate and and trust people ence, who differed from them. As Dubois was well aware, the fear differed from them. As Dubois was well aware, the fear of of difference difference was sanctioned around the country. country. Searing Searingand and angry angry debates debatesroared roaredin in her home home state state of of New New Jersey over black children’s efforts to integrate integrate pubpubswimming pools. lic swimming pools. At At the the same sametime, time,Catholic Catholicteachers teacherswere werebeing beingfired fired twenty-two states from schools, and twenty-two states banned bannedthe theteaching teachingof of“foreign” “foreign”lanlanguages in primary school. As an antidote to this fear, Dubois felt that pubprimary school. As an antidote to this fear, Dubois educational institutions institutions must lic educational mustlead leadefforts efforts to to change change adolescents’ adolescents’ beliefs 15 about ethnic and racial difference.” about ethnic and racial difference. Progressive Era reformers Progressive reformers placed placedsignificant significantvalue valueon onthe therole rolethat thatedueducation and middle-class middle-class values could play in the transformation of society. values could transformation of society. This investment in the power power of education extended extended past past the the Progressive Progressive Era as antiprejudice education reform took shape shape in in the the 1920s 1920s and 1930s. 1930s. As historian Diana Selig Selig documents, the teaching teaching of of tolerance tolerance emerged at the same time as and in response to the increase in nativist and racist racist

ofofNoble 90 | A | Band A Band NobleWomen Women most stunningly stunningly in the passage in sentiment and legislation—witnessed most 1924ofofthe the National National Origins Origins Act. 1924 Act. Pluralism, she documents, came came into into of the the “cultural “cultural gifts” gifts” of ofimmigrant immigrantgroups groups and and fashion and the teaching of African Americans served as an an “antidote” “antidote” to to the theexpansion expansionof ofnativist nativist 16 attitudes.’° Concomitant Concomitant with with the the theories theories of ofcultural cultural anthropologists anthropologists like attitudes. behavioral social social scientists scientists placed placed increasing increasing interest interest in in the the Franz Boas, Boas, behavioral psychological development of children. Studies by researchers like Bruno development of children. Studies by researchers like Bruno Lasker emphasized emphasized that that racial prejudices were not innate, Lasker prejudices were innate, and and hence hence that children children could could be be taught taughtto toappreciate, appreciate,not notfear, fear, the theheterogeneity heterogeneityof of science of of child child development development and the promotion the United States. The science promotion of cultural pluralism converged in the endeavors of people like pluralism converged in the endeavors of people likeRachel Rachel Davis Dubois. Dubois. Selig Selig emphasizes emphasizes that that the concept of cultural pluralism Davis pluralism elite, but but rather rather did not appeal only to a small group of the intellectual elite, became a part of popular popular culture. Moveculture. The The rise rise of the Parent Education Movement helped secure an avenue for the dissemination dissemination of this new thinking thinking and practices. inaugural issue endorsed the and practices. The The 1926 1926 inaugural issueof ofParents Parents Magazine Magazine endorsed the teaching of tolerance to children. Immigrant Immigrant groups groupsand andAfrican AfricanAmeriAmericans paid particular attention attention to to the the content content of of public public school school texts and and agitated for curriculum curriculum reform in hopes of of improving improving the the representation representation the cultural, political, and and intellectual achievements of the people they of the represented. In 1926 Dr. Carter Carter G. Woodson represented. 1926 Dr. Woodson instituted Negro Negro History History Week, which which marked marked one of of the the concrete concrete developments developments that that emerged out Week, 17 of interwar interwar era educational reform.” “Resistance to racial educational reform. “Resistance to racial prejudice,” prejudice,” Selig writes, “became mother or or modern teacher.’””® writes, “becamean anemblem emblemofofthe themodern modern mother modern teacher.”18 The promotion of internationalism in in schools schools was was also also supported supportedby by various segments postwar America. worked with various segments of postwar America. Female peace reformers worked with schools and educators to establish an appreciation of world-mindedness schools and of world-mindedness among young Dubois designed designed educational among young people. people. Women like Dubois educational resources resources for adopting adopting and implementing the more that offered educators strategies for minded curriculum. globally minded curriculum.At Atthe the1919 1919 International InternationalCongress CongressininZurZurich, the women of the WILPF WILPF spoke spoke boldly boldlyabout about the the role role of ofeducation education in in system. In In their their drive to “establish “establish aa inculcating a new worldwide value system. human civilization,” new basis for human civilization,” they theybelieved believedthat thatpeace peacewomen women“must “must begin with the the education education of of the the people.” people.” This global educational reform with the aspiration of “creating spirit” would would begin aspiration “creating an international international spirit” begin

Race and and the the Social SocialThought ThoughtofofWhite WhiteWomen Women | 9191 Race with removing from from textbooks textbooks all all materials materials that that“injure “injurenational nationalpride” pride” and that that “arouse “arouse hate hate and andscorn scornfor forforeign foreignpeople.” people.” In Inits itsplace placematematerial that “makes the the young” young” familiar familiarwith withthe the“evolution “evolutionof of peoples,” peoples,” and and that develops develops aa “world “worldconsciousnesses” consciousnesses”including includingthe the“duties “dutiesofofworldworldcitizenship” should should be be taught. taught. The The WILPF WILPF women encouraged encouraged the theuse useof of

literature from around comparative studies and and the the teaching teaching of literature around the the world. world. reeducating the They proposed that that the the “sacred “sacred task” task” of reeducating the world world could could only only be entrusted to to “men “men and and women women of of high high moral moral and and intellectual intellectual standstand19 ing.’ As ing.” Asone oneof ofthose thoseentrusted entrustedwith withthe theresponsibility responsibilityofofreeducating reeducatingthe the educational reform world citizenry, citizenry, Dubois’s educational reformwork workplaced placedan anexamination examination of ethno-racial ethno-racial difference at the center of education for peace-mindedness. difference education peace-mindedness. Dubois was was born bornin in1892 1892 in inWoodstown, Woodstown,New NewJersey, Jersey,totoaafamily familyofof devout Quakers. Raised on her family’s family’s farm, Dubois notes in her autoautobiography that her interactions with the the Italian Italian immigrants immigrants who who worked worked for her family provided her with one of her earliest forays into the provided her with one of her earliest forays into thestudy study of immigrant immigrant cultures. Dubois attended a local Quaker high school until of 1910when when she she left left to to attend attend Bucknell College. Immediately Immediately upon 1910 upongraduagraduashe was was hired hired to tion in in 1914, 1914, she to teach teach algebra, algebra,biology, biology,and andUnited UnitedStates Stateshishistory at Glassboro high school, located not too far from her hometown. She high school, located not too far from her hometown. She served briefly briefly as the acting principal principal of of Glassboro Glassboro High after after the the standstanding principal principal was was enlisted enlistedinto intoWorld WorldWar WarI.I. In In1915 1915 she married married Nathan Nathan Dubois, a man she had been acquainted acquainted with withfor for many manyyears. years. In In the thesumsummer of 1920 1920Dubois Duboisdecided decided to to take take aa hiatus hiatus from teaching teaching in order to in order to gain gain real-world experience, experience, and and dedicated dedicated her time and real-world and talent talent to to the thecause causeof of return to peace. Upon her return to teaching teaching she she launched launchedinto intoher herpublic publiccareer careeras as 20 an innovator in intercultural interculturaland andantiprejudice antiprejudiceeducation.” education. In the summer of 1920 Dubois attended the All Friends Congress in summer of 1920 Dubois attended London and and in inDecember Decemberof of1922 1922 she she participated participatedininthe theConference Conferencefor fora a sponsored by the International New Peace, sponsored InternationalWILPF WILPF and and held held at at The The Hague. Hague. These two events These events gave gave Dubois Dubois an anexceptional exceptionalopportunity opportunitytotobecome become acquainted with the postwar campaigns under way to meet the needs postwar campaigns under way to meet the needsof of war-torn Europeans. Europeans. She She learned learned about aboutthe theprevalence prevalenceofofchild childhunger, hunger, the spread spread of tuberculosis, and and the the impact impact of of the the blockades blockades on on Germany’s citizens. Dubois remembers the citizens. the London LondonQuaker QuakerCongress Congressfor forawakenawakening her to the impact of the war on European citizens and for raising the impact of the war on European citizens and for raisingher her

92 | A ofofNoble 92 | Band A Band NobleWomen Women awareness of the the racial racial dynamics dynamicsof ofcolonialism. colonialism.The Theharsh harshcriticism criticismthe the Indian Yearly Yearly Meeting representative representative delivered delivered about aboutBritish Britishcolonial colonial power in India Indiaadvanced advancedDubois’s Dubois’s consciousness consciousness about aboutrace, race,imperial imperial power, and war. At the same power, same time, time, the the derogatory derogatoryremarks remarksdelivered deliveredby by black the white white representative representativeofofthe theSouth SouthAfrican AfricanYearly YearlyMeeting Meetingabout about black South Africans drove Dubois to think think more more critically critically about about the thedynamics dynamics within her of race within her own ownpolitical politicalmilieu. milieu. and 1922 1922conferences conferences also also brought brought Dubois The 1920 1920 and Dubois into into contact contactwith with renowned women renowned women peace peaceactivists. activists.Dubois’s Dubois’s introduction introductiontotothe theworkings workings of the WILPF began on on her boat travel to Europe. of WILPF began Europe. Though Dubois and and her friend Clarinda Clarinda Richards Richardswere weretraveling travelingsecond secondclass, class,Jane JaneAddams Addams ignored the ship ship captain’s captain’s admonishment admonishment that that second-class second-class passengers passengers were not allowed entrance to first-class staterooms. And Addams were not allowed entrance to first-class staterooms. And Addams insisted insisted that Dubois attend attend the the daily daily meetings meetingsheld heldin inAddams’s Addams’s first-class first-class quarquarters. Participation in in these theseconfabs, confabs, during duringwhich whichthe theUS USdelegation delegationpreprepared for pared for the the congress, congress, introduced introducedDubois Duboistotothe thepolitics politicsand andpersonalities personalities of the movement. Once at at The The Hague, Hague,Dubois Duboiswas wasgreatly greatlyimpressed impressedbyby the “tone of harmony” and and “mutual “mutualacceptance” acceptance” she she observed observedamong amongthe the 350 Hague Hague delegates delegates who who gathered from various 350 various countries.” countries.21

Yet itit was was a trip Yet trip to to the theAmerican AmericanSouth Southinin1921 1921that thatDubois Duboiscredits credits with most significantly significantly shaping her emerging educational philosophy and and her thinking thinkingabout aboutthe therole roleof ofpeace, peace,race, race, and andethnicity ethnicityininUS USand andglobal global education. The Philadelphia Friends Yearly Meeting sent Dubois to education. Friends Yearly Dubois to the the South to visit aa black black high high school school for for which whichthey theywere wereconsidering consideringraising raising funds. It It was was aalife-changing life-changingexperience. experience.This Thistrip tripbegan beganDubois’s Dubois’sintrointroduction to the dire dire conditions conditions under underwhich whichpoor poorSouthern Southernblacks blackslived livedand and it expanded her understanding about how the systems of racial hierarchy her understanding about how the systems of racial hierarchy worked in in the theUnited UnitedStates. States.She, She, for for instance, instance,witnessed witnessedthe theubiquity ubiquityofof segregated bathrooms and segregated train train cars. cars. Once Once she arrived arrived at at the the Martha Schofield School in Aiken, South Carolina, Dubois was asked if she Martha Schofield School in Aiken, South Carolina, Dubois was asked if she would make would make an an address addressthe thefollowing followingday daytotothe theschool’s school’s five five hundred hundredstustudents. Having Having recently returned returnedfrom from the the International InternationalFriends FriendsCongress Congressin in included aa side trip London, which included trip to Germany Germany to to visit visit the the feeding feeding stations stations erected to alleviate the poverty poverty and andhunger hungerofofGermany’s Germany’schildren, children,Dubois Dubois decided to speak on the horrors of war. Davis remembers that at the speak on the horrors of war. Davis remembers that at theend endof of

Race and and the theSocial SocialThought Thoughtofof White Women| | 93 Race White Women 93 students applauded her talk, the students applaudedher herspeech speechby bysinging singing“Ain’t “Ain’t Gonna Gonna Study Study War No More.” More.” As moving as her her time time was wasatatthe theAiken Aikenschool, school,accordaccording to Dubois her real transformation took place during her return returntrain train Du Bois ride to Philadelphia. On On the the train, train, she sheread readan anarticle articleby byW. W. E. E. B. B. Du Bois was the underlying cause of of war war and in which he insisted that racism racism was underlying cause that “the “the damn damnpacifists pacifistsdon’t don’tknow knowit.” it.”Du DuBois’s Bois’s article, article, the the“Dilemma “Dilemma of the Negro,” published publishedin inthe theAmerican American Mercury, Mercury, brought brought the thestrands strandsofof Dubois’s interests interests together and Dubois’s and offered offered her heraaway wayto tocombine combineher herwork workfor for and her peace and her growing growingconcern concernabout aboutracial racialand andethnic ethnicstrife. strife.Dubois Duboisnow now understood that if racism was the root cause of war, then she could best that if racism was the root cause of war, then she could best advance the cause of peace through challenging the advance the nation’s nation’s attachment to xenophobia and antiblack antiblack attitudes. attitudes. Raising Raising better better educated educatedchildren children 22 cohesion for forfuture future generations. generations.” would assure assure a better chance at social cohesion A dedicated pacifist, pacifist, peace activist, and feminist, feminist, during during her herhiatus hiatus from teaching Dubois donated her time to emerging organizations includdonated her time to emerging organizations including the WILPF. WILPF. In particular, Dubois assisted assisted the theWILPF WILPF in inexpanding expandingits its

membership and appeal among membership among the the nation’s nation’s youth. youth. Dubois Dubois guided guided the the WILPF as as itit embarked embarked on a series of of peace peace education education programs for grade WILPF grade schools and high schools and she took charge of organizing Junior Interschools schools and she took charge of organizing Junior International Leagues for the organization. organization. In In the the first first year yearof of her heryouth youthcamcampaign, she reportedly reportedly spoke spoke to ten thousand children and young adults paign, adults about the importance importance of of the the peace peace movement movement and andits itsrelationship relationshipto totheir their future. She also helped create a Washington, DC, clearinghouse for youth helped create a Washington, DC, clearinghouse for youth eroups interested groups interested in in peace peace reform. reform. In In 1923 1923 Dubois became a member of Peace Caravan Caravan that traveled throughout Maryland, a three-woman Auto Peace Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Virginia, making “quite New Jersey, Jersey, Pennsylvania, “quite aa stir” stir” as as they they propromoted disarmament and internationalism. In the single town of Shamokin, moted disarmament and internationalism. In the single town of Shamokin, Pennsylvania, the women delivered their their message message to three three thousand thousandpeopeo23 gathered in the town’s theaters and silk mill. mill.* Fueled Fueled by by the the energy energy and and ple gathered the Auto Auto Peace Peace Caravan, Caravan, that that same year Dubois collaborated excitement of the with WILPEF executive secretary Amy Woods write an with WILPF executive secretary Amy Woods to write an eight-session eight-sessionhigh high 24 school program program entitled “War “War and and Its Its Consequences.” Consequences.” school After her four-year break from from teaching, teaching, Dubois Dubois returned returned to to her After four-year break vocation with new goals and vocation and aa new newemerging emergingeducational educationalphilosophy. philosophy. She began her work to popularize school assembly programs She popularize school assembly programsininworldworld-

94 | A ofofNoble 94 | Band A Band NobleWomen Women mindedness and and cultural cultural pluralism, pluralism, now nowbelieving believing that thatsuch suchwork workwas was vital to the the cause cause of of peace peace and andracial racialharmony. harmony.As Aspart partofofher herefforts effortstoto encourage cross-cultural thinking, Dubois designed designed programs programs for for use use in in high schools, including two programs programs published publishedby bythe thenational nationalWILPF WILPF office, offi ce, Education in in World-Mindedness: World-Mindedness: AASeries SeriesofofAssembly AssemblyPrograms Programsand and

Contributions of of Racial RacialElements ElementstotoAmerican AmericanLife, Life,which whichwere werepublished published in Contributions in 1928 and and 1930.*? Dubois’sinfl influence, though, went beyond the students 1928 1930.25 Dubois’s uence, though, went beyond the students in her classrooms classrooms and andthe thewomen womenofofthe theWILPE, WILPF,who whoused usedher herpageants pageants on world-mindedness world-mindedness in intheir theirbranches. branches.During Duringthe the1930s 1930sand and1940s, 1940s,she she became a leading leading figure figure in innationwide nationwideefforts effortstotopopularize popularizeintercultural intercultural education. education. Education in Education in World-Mindedness World-Mindedness

Dubois premiered her cultural Dubois cultural educational educational approach approach in in1926 1926 when when she she launched the first first of of her her two twomorning morningassembly assemblyprograms programsatather herWoodWoodbury, New Jersey, Jersey, high school. These innovative programs programs would wouldcome come She tested thethe Contributions ofofRacial to be known knownas asthe theWoodbury WoodburyPlan. Plan. She tested Contributions Racial Elements to to American American Life Lifeproject project from from 1926 to 1929 and and in 1927 she unveiled in 1927 she unveiled Through requiring her second second program, program,Education Education ininWorld-Mindedness. World-Mindedness. Through requiring students to participate in regular regular school school assembly programs programs and andauxiliary auxiliary classroom assignments assignmentsover overthe thelength lengthof ofthe theschool schoolyear, year,Dubois Duboisbelieved believed teachers could alter the prejudicial attitudes of their students. She prompted teachers could alter the prejudicial attitudes of their students. She prompted educators to revolutionize revolutionize the thepsychology psychologyof oftheir theirstudents, students,who whoDubois Dubois feared without withoutintervention interventionwould wouldgo go“out “outinto intolife lifewith withready-made ready-madeassoasso26 ciations between ciations betweenthe theconcept conceptof ofrace raceand andthose thoseofofmoral moralvalue.”*° value.” Anecdotal Anecdotal evidence from high school teachers illustrated to Dubois that educational illustrated to Dubois that educational intervention was intervention wasneeded. needed.As Asone oneBuffalo, Buffalo,New NewYork, York,teacher teacherreported, reported,byby the time her students students reached reached high high school school they demonstrated demonstrated an an attitude attitude of “‘one-hundred “one-hundred percentism,’ of percentism,’ an attitude which which takes takes the the idea idea of of Nordic Nordic 27 supremacy and our own national superiority simply for granted.””” supremacy and our own national superiority simply for granted.” of Racial RacialElements Elementsprogram programaimed aimed to kindle The Contributions Contributions of kindleininstustu28 dents “sympathy,” “sympathy,” not not“pity” “pity”oror“toleration.”** “toleration.” To To accomplish accomplishthis thisgoal, goal, immersed students Dubois immersed studentsin inthe thehistories, histories,customs, customs,and andaccomplishments accomplishments

Race and andthe theSocial SocialThought Thought White Women 95 Race of of White Women | |95 racial/ethnic groups groups overlooked overlookedorormisrepresented misrepresentedinineducational educationalenvienviof racial/ethnic was believed, believed,would wouldmediate mediatestudents’ students’drive drive ronments. This approach, itit was ostracize and and stigmatize stigmatize racial racialand andethnic ethnicgroups. groups.Believing Believingthat thatthe the to ostracize average student student was was “wandering, “wandering, culturally culturallyspeaking, speaking,ininaa No No Man’s Man’s average land,” Dubois Dubois wagered wagered that that with with intense intense immersion immersionin inthe the cultural cultural conconland,”

“cultural gifts” gifts” of of the the nation’s nation’sdiversity diversityofofpeople, people,students students tributions or “cultural 29 less inclined inclined to to develop developracist racistand andnativist nativistattitudes. attitudes.” Although would be less Although Dubois designed designed her her programs primarily to rehabilitate the attitudes of of Dubois rehabilitate the white students, students, she she also also hoped hopedthat that the the programs programswould wouldcontribute contributetoto white self-esteemand and pride pride of ofstudents studentswho whowere weremembers membersofofstigmatized stigmatized the self-esteem racial/ethnic groups. In her efforts efforts to to dislodge dislodge the the social socialDarwinist Darwinistdisdiscourses of of racial racial hierarchies, hierarchies,Dubois Duboisdevised devisedprograms programsthat thatshe sheanticianticicourses students that “no one one race raceisisany anybetter betterthan than pated would illustrate to her students Dubois combined combined the elements of cultural immersion, any other race.” race.” Dubois participatory democracy, andstudent-led student-ledexperimentation experimentationthrough throughher her participatory democracy, and assembly programs programs with with the the aim aim of of establishing establishingan an“ethical “ethicaltone” tone”and andaa assembly 30 “tradition of solemnity.”°° “tradition solemnity.” The programs programs consisted of three approaches offered to to generate generate aa The consisted of approaches offered synergy that could lead to attitudinal transformation. The intellectual synergy that could lead to attitudinal transformation. The intellectual approach involved involvedacquainting acquaintingstudents studentswith withnew new knowledge knowledgeabout about approach of marginalized marginalized peoples. peoples. The The second secondapproach—what approach—what the contributions contributions of labeled the the emotional emotional approach—was approach—wasintended intended to tohook hookstudents’ students’ Dubois labeled interest through their observance of demonstrations, readings, or perfortheir perforby special special guests guests invited invited to to the the schools. schools.And And the the third third element, element, mances by situational approach, approach,looked lookedtotogive givestudents studentsananopportunity opportunitytotopracpracthe situational tice and apply and new new attitudes. Schoolswere were tice apply their new knowledge knowledge and attitudes. Schools encouraged to intensely focus on about five racial/ethnic groups during encouraged to intensely focus on about five racial/ethnic groups during year. Each Each selected selected group group should should receive receive at at least least one one month month the school year. of designated study. study. In the spirit of Dubois of of pragmatism pragmatism and and efficiency, efficiency, Dubois that schools schoolswould wouldselect selectgroups groupstotostudy studybased basedon onthe thedegree degree anticipated that to which particular racial/ethnic groups were the targets of of discriminadiscrimina1934program program published published by her Service Service Bureau Bureau for for Education Education in in tion. In a 1934 Human Relations, Japanese, Japanese,Chinese, Chinese,Jews, Jews,and andAfrican AfricanAmericans Americanswere were Human selected as as the groups most in need selected need of of attention, attention, whereas, for instance, instance,

96 | A ofofNoble 96 | Band A Band NobleWomen Women study of the cultural cultural contributions the study contributions of of the the Norwegians Norwegians and andthe theGreeks Greeks could be forgone. To be be effective, effective,the the programs programs encouraged encouraged all all school school departments to To take part. Students Students in in geography geography made made detailed detailed maps mapsof ofthe thecountries countries under study. The music music department department taught students under students songs songs relevant to that Students listened month’s area of focus. Students listened to to Italian Italian operas, operas,black black spirituals, spirituals, American chants. chants. In In the the domestic domestic arts arts students students made made peanut and Native American bread Carver of the the Tuskegee TuskegeeInstitute. Institute. The The bread using using flour flour supplied supplied by by George Carver introduced to the history same students might also be introduced history and and art art of of Japanese flower arrangement. A history class might study the genesis of the Seder, Seder, fl ower arrangement. an art art class class might might make make Seder Seder plates, plates, and and each each homeroom homeroom might might parparticipate in in a Passover Passover dinner. dinner. Guest Guest speakers speakers and and performances performances featured featured ticipate prominently in prominently in the the programs. programs.Students Studentsat atthe themorning morningassembly assemblyprograms programs might hear might hear lectures lectureson onthe thehistory historyof ofJapanese Japanesesports, sports,view viewaaflower-arrangflower-arrangdemonstration, or ing demonstration, or watch watch aa Chinese Chinese opera. opera. Dubois Dubois wanted wantedher herstudents students to hear from the the people people she she believed believed were were the thebest bestrepresentatives representativesofofeach each eroup. In order to control the content of the material presented by guest group. speakers, she she screened screened the the guests guests herself herself to to make make sure sure they they matched matched her her speakers, Jersey school school many many of ofthe the inspiring inspiring criterion. Dubois brought to her New Jersey talents of the Harlem Harlem Renaissance. Renaissance. Author Jessie Jessie Fauset talked about her her painter Aaron Aaron Douglas Douglas discussed discussed his his art art and and inspirations, inspirations, and and poets poets work, painter Gwendolyn Bennett Bennett and and Georgia Georgia Douglass Douglass Johnson Johnson read read from from their theirworks works and discussed the the craft craft of of poetry. poetry. To To move move students from intellectual intellectual knowledge to improved social aptitude, students students hosted hostedteas teasfor forall allthe the teas ostensibly ostensiblygave gavestudents studentsopportunities opportunities visiting guest performers. The teas “practice . . . .. . the social amenities” amenities” involved involved in in civil civilcross-cultural cross-cultural interinterto “practice action. Further practice sociability occurred occurred action. practice in interracial or cross-racial cross-racial sociability as students participated in field field trips designed to introduce them to new students took trips to syncommunities and and neighborhoods. neighborhoods. For instance, students agogues, attended attended dinners dinnersheld heldby bythe theJapanese-American Japanese-AmericanYoung YoungPeoples Peoples Group, and and watched a Chinese puppet show at the Chinese Community Group, City. A A Washington, Washington, DC, school using School in New York City. using Dubois’s Dubois’s propro31 gram visited the art department department at at Howard Howard University.*' University.

Woodbury Plan program program in At the end of the 1934 1934 Woodbury in Englewood, Englewood, New New

Jersey, high school school teachers teachers surveyed surveyed seniors seniors to to assess assess if the year Jersey, high year of of

Race and and the theSocial SocialThought ThoughtofofWhite White Women| | 97 Race Women 97 cultural immersion made made aa difference. difference. The The students’ students’ reports reportsindicated indicated general improvement. improvement. Their Their remarks remarks ranged ranged from from surprise surprise that at least a general “foreigner|[s]could couldbe bequite quiteso sohuman,” human,” to to the the more cosmopolitan cosmopolitan attitude “foreigner[s] attitude that “we are all all human humanbeings.” beings.” Some Some students studentsstated statedthat thatalthough althoughthe the programs had programs hadnot notexactly exactly convinced convinced them themto tosee seetheir their“foreign “foreignneighbors neighbors as brothers,” it had had given given them themaa“swell “swellstart.” start.”From Fromthe thefaculty’s faculty’sperspecperspecthe programs programs improved tive, the improvedthe theatmosphere atmosphereininthe theclassroom. classroom.The Thelecture lecture by Jessie Jessie Fauset, Fauset, reported reported the chair chair of of the the literature literaturedepartment, department,improved improved the interracial interracial climate climate in inthe theclassroom, classroom,produced produced“increased “increasedconfidence confidence of the Negroes in themselves,” of themselves,” and led to increased increased interest interest by by all all stustudents in reading reading black black literature.” literature.32

Dubois’s “cultural “cultural gifts” programs programs placed Dubois’s placed primary primaryfocus focuson onthe thepsypsychology of of racial racial attitudes. One criticism of the programs chology programs was was that thatthey they gave little attention attention to tothe theissues issuesofofpolitical politicalpower, power,legislation, legislation,ororthe thehishistory of race politics in the United States. The closest her programs came United programs cameto to addressing the addressing the political political context context of of race race was was in in her herinstruction instructionthat thathomehomeroom teachers teachers lead lead discussions discussionsabout about“American “Americanconcepts” concepts”like like“fair “fairplay” play” 33 “justice.” and “justice.” Teaching Through Pageants Teaching Pageants

Dubois tested program, The Education inin WorldDubois testedher hersecond secondschool schoolassembly assembly program, The Education WorldMindedness, in Woodbury, New Jersey, from 1927 to 1928. This program Mindedness, in New Jersey, from 1927 to 1928. This program promoted Dubois’s understanding that promoted Dubois’s understanding thatrace raceantagonism antagonismwas wasaaroot rootcause cause challenge to pacifi pacifists, of war. Engaging Engaging W. W. E. B. B. Du Bois’s Bois’s challenge sts, Rachel Dubois Dubois instigated a program instigated program that thatlinked linkedenlightened enlightenedracial racialawareness awarenesstotothe theproproduction of a belief in a common humanity and the practice of peace. In duction common humanity and the practice of peace. Inthe the introduction to the the published publishedprogram, program,Dubois Duboisoutlined outlinedher herlofty loftygoals. goals. She believed believed that that the pageant could She could lead lead students studentsto tocreate create“a “anew newfaith faith in man; a new social justice at home and and abroad; abroad; aa new new conception conception of of the the 34 democracy of nations, and a new belief in World Brotherhood.”** To match democracy of nations, and a new belief in World Brotherhood.” To match the high high idealism idealism of of her her world-mindedness world-mindednessprogram, program,Dubois Duboisopened openedthe the school year with a pageant. pageant. Pageants Pageants were were distinguishable distinguishablefrom fromplays playsby by nature and their epic and flamboyant flamboyant nature and their theirunabashed unabashedattempt attempttotopropapropagandize. As propaganda, propaganda, pageants were popular among suffragists, pageants were popular among suffragists,black black

98 | A ofofNoble 98 | Band A Band NobleWomen Women activists, and peace peace activists activists for for their theireffectiveness effectivenessininpromoting promotingcauses. causes. figures, Along with historical fi gures, pageants often featured characters that that reprepresented large Beauty.”*? 1927 inauresented largeideals idealslike like“Truth, “Truth,Freedom, Freedom,and and Beauty.”35 The The 1927 inaugural pageant pageant performed performedatatDubois’s Dubois’s New New Jersey Jersey high high school school was was indeed indeed extravagant and and epic. epic. The The three-scene three-scene pageant, pageant,entitled entitled“World “WorldUnity,” Unity,” sought to explain the the causes causes of of war war and andracial racialstrife. strife.Central Centraltotoititwas was an exhortation on race and physical difference. The prologue to the play exhortation on race and physical difference. The prologue to the play announced the announced the vast vast intentions intentionsof of Dubois’s Dubois’s undertaking: undertaking: Then know know all all ye ye students studentsof ofHigh HighSchool, School,in inthis thisyear yearofofAssemblies, Assemblies,

We shall shall unfold unfold the story of Man Man through through the countless ages We

How he was was torn torn and and divided divided through through war and misunderstanding; With Good-will and and Education, Education,how howhe hemust mustbe bere-united, re-united,

To guide guide him To himback backto toWorld World Unity, Unity, in in her hergarden gardenofofPeace Peaceand andPlenty.°° Plenty.36

pageant’s featured featured characters included The pageant’s included Mother Mother Earth, Earth, Education, Education, Good-Will, Hunger, Ignorance, Superstition, Good-Will, Superstition, and andfive fivePrimitive PrimitiveMen. Men.InIn the opening scene of the pageant, Mother Earth and her five “brownscene of the pageant, Mother Earth and her five “brownskinned” male children play skinned” play happily happily and and fearlessly fearlessly as as they they enjoy enjoy the the bounties of nature that that surround surroundthem. them.This Thispeace peaceand andunity unityends endswhen when Hunger enters the stage and rips rips the the children childrenfrom fromMother Mother Earth, Earth, scatscattering each of them to different corners of the world. Forced to adapt different corners of the world. Forced adapt to to their new environments, environments, the thechildren’s children’s physical physical features featurestransform transformand and over time they change over change from from brown-skinned brown-skinned men men into into aa“Chinaman,” “Chinaman,” Indian,” an “East an “American “American Indian,” “East Indian,” Indian,” aa “Nordic,” “Nordic,” and and aa“Negro.” “Negro.” Once separated and scattered, the men lose their moral compass. Once men lose their moral compass. They They and begin to engage in are taken over by Ignorance Ignorance and Superstition, Superstition, and just when things warfare. But, But, just things look look bad, bad, two twoyoung youngsisters, sisters,Education Education dressed in and Good-Will, dressed in majestic majestic white white robes, robes, ceremoniously ceremoniously enter enter the the stage and reform and reunite the brothers. Yet before true peace can be and reunite the brothers. Yet before true peace can be achieved there is one achieved one more more piece piece of of work work still still to tobe bedone. done.As Asthe theEast East Indian exclaims: “Brothers!But Buthow howcan canwe we be be brothers brothers who who are are not Indian exclaims: “Brothers! not alike? ... This man is white, this red, this black! I cannot understand.”*” alike? . . . This man is white, this red, this black! I cannot understand.”37 At this moment in the pageant, the Nordic and the Negro step forward forward to explain the changes in their appearance—how they transformed from

Race and and the theSocial SocialThought Thoughtofof White Women| | 99 Race White Women

two brown-skinned two brown-skinned bothers bothers to to one one who who was was white white and andone onewho whowas was black. The Nordic Nordic explains: explains: IIam amaaNordic! Nordic! When gaunt Hunger Hunger tore tore Us Us from from our our Mother’s Mother’s side he

bade me go North . . My North for for my food food where where snow snow lies lies thick thick and andwhite white. . . . My brown skin skin whitened, whitened, my my dark dark hair hairgrew grewfair, fair, and andmy mynose noselengthened, lengthened, air might might be bemade madewarm warmin inpassing passingthrough throughmy mynostrils. nostrils.38 that the frozen air

And the Negro Negro explains: too,have havechanged changed from from him him whom once you you knew, knew, for forHunger Hunger pointed pointed I, too, South, I went forth forth into into the theJungle Jungleand andthe theheavy heavyheat heatofofthe theearth’s earth’sfertile fertile

places where where the the sun sun burned burned my brown skin to to black black. . . ... my places my nose grew

short, the nostrils wide and flaring, short, flaring, so the scant scant and and feeble feeble air air might might reach me easily.” easily.39

Cowritten with Cowritten with her her sister, sister, Ruth Ruth Edward EdwardDavies, Davies, the the pageant pageantapproaches approaches the issue of racial difference from a cultural cultural anthropological perspective. anthropological perspective. By explaining explaining perceivable By perceivable racial racial differences differencesas assimple simplephysical physicalvariations variations that developed as aa result result of of migration migration and andenvironmental environmentaladaptation, adaptation, race becomes a benign marker, marker, not not an anindicator indicatorof ofintelligence intelligenceor ormoralmorality. In keeping with the modernist approach to race, Dubois directed ity. In the modernist approach to race, Dubois directedher her students to comprehend students comprehend the the physical physical differences differences and and heterogeneity heterogeneity of of the the world as nothing to be feared and as nothing more than environmental necessity. By By selecting selecting the the Nordic Nordicand and the Negro brothers to deliver the necessity. Negro brothers message that differences in skin color and facial message differences facial features were benign, Dubois made made clear clear her her assessment assessment that that the most important attitudes to Dubois to alter were those held by white students studentsabout aboutAfrican AfricanAmericans. Americans.In Inorder order return to for the world to return to its its original originalstate stateof ofpeace, peace, the the brothers brothersneeded neededtoto be enlightened that race was not a sign of evolutionary status or enlightened that race was not a sign of evolutionary status ora alegitilegitimate ground groundfor fordivision divisionor orviolence. violence. Gender also factored into into the the pageant. pageant. On Onone onelevel, level, the the gender genderpolipoliof the the pageant are obvious: obvious: men men make war and women make peace. tics of When race race is coupled with gender, the gender contours contours of of the the pageant pageant deepen. By By adorning the the sisters sisters in in white whiterobes, robes,the thepageant pageantencourages encourages

100 | A of ofNoble 100 | Band A Band NobleWomen Women a strong connection connection between between the themoral moralqualities qualitiesneeded neededfor forpeacemakpeacemaking and and the the image image of of the the white whitefemale female reformer reformerand andpeacemaker peacemakerso soprespresent in the the popular popular culture cultureof ofthe the1920s. 1920s. By By having the the sisters sisters represent represent Education and Good-Will, Dubois relies relies upon upon and furthers Education Good-Will, Dubois furthers the the ideals ideals of of a racialized social motherhood. White women are allowed into the the public public

of society society because because they they promise promise to to act act as as teachers teachers and and nurturers nurturers of spaces of of soul and mind. By dressing the sisters in the civic soul in the the solemn solemn and andgallant gallant hundred white white robes, Dubois memorializes the fifteen fifteen hundred whitewomen womenwho who marched through marched throughthe thestreets streetsofofNew NewYork YorkCity Cityinin1914 1914announcing announcingtheir their claim to the moral high ground by standing up up and andcalling calling for for an an end end to to under the war. Dubois came of age under the shadow shadowof of esteemed esteemedwhite whitewomen womenlike like Jane Addams and and felt firsthand firsthand the the self-empowerment self-empowerment gained gainedby by rallying rallying people across forforpeace. B. Du people across the thecountry countrytotostand standupup peace.W. W.E.E. B. DuBois Boismay mayhave have inspired Rachel Rachel Davis Dubois to become committed to the the fight fight against against racism, but for Dubois racism, Dubois white white women women remained, remained, consciously consciously or or unconunconsciously, central central to the sciously, the project project for forpostwar postwarprogressive progressiveachievements.”” achievements.40InIn spite of her promotion promotion of of white whitewomanhood, womanhood,Rachel RachelDavis DavisDubois Duboisgave gave children and teachers teachers new and and groundbreaking groundbreakingtools, tools, opportunities opportunitiesand and outlooks that they could put to work in their interpersonal efforts to resist interpersonal efforts to racist, and and nativist alive in the the anti-immigrant, anti-immigrant, racist, nativist sentiments sentiments alive the United United States in the 1920s. States in the 1920s. Dubois’s leadership leadership in antiprejudice education Dubois’s education brought brought praise praisefrom from many, but it also brought threats of job loss and censure. The harsh attitudes held by some about her educational philosophy reflected reflected disdain for her promotion of pluralism pluralism and and her herinvolvement involvement in inthe thepeace peacemovemovement. She She was red-baited by the the Woodbury Woodbury American American Legion Legion and andthe the Daughters of the American Revolution for her promotion of peace idethe American Revolution for her promotion of peace ideals among high school students. Her commitment to teaching students students respect for all people brought the charge charge that that she she promoted promoted “disloyalty” “disloyalty” and “sexual promiscuity.” In response to her her work, work, the the Board Board of of EducaEducation and American Legion attempted, unsuccessfully, to have her and American Legion attempted, unsuccessfully, to have herfired. fired. Though she was not fired, Though fired, local scrutiny of her programs programs did didresult resultinin the canceling of a black history program. program. The The night night before before its its premiere, premiere, Dubois’s principal principal announced announced that Dubois’s thatthe theschool schoolboard boardrefused refusedtotoallow allowthe the program, which was designed by and was to showcase the school’s black program, which was designed by and was to showcase the school’s black

Race and and the the Social SocialThought ThoughtofofWhite WhiteWomen Women | 101 Race 101 students, to take take place. place. In In particular, particular, the theschool schoolobjected objectedto tothe theproposed proposed recital of James James Weldon Weldon Johnson's Johnson’s “God’s “God’s Trombones” Trombones” by by Ed EdDavis, Davis,aa senior student. The The censuring and ostracizing Dubois and her students senior students Timescovered covered the the story story and and received did did not notgo gounnoticed. unnoticed.The TheNew NewYork York Times she received letters of support support from, from, among amongothers, others,W. W. E. E. B. B. Du Bois and

Randolph.”41 A. Philip Randolph.

Dubois left her teaching Dubois teaching position position at at New NewJersey’s Jersey’s Woodbury Woodbury High High School in in 1929 to pursue aa doctorate School 1929 to doctorate degree degreeatatColumbia ColumbiaUniversity’s University’s Teachers College College and and in 1934 she founded founded the influential Teachers 1934 she influential Service Service Bureau Bureau for Education in Human Relations and became its first executive for Education in Human Relations and became its first executivesecresecretary. The Service Bureau served as a clearinghouse for teacher education clearinghouse for teacher education materials and teacher materials teacher trainings trainingsdesigned designedtotoimprove improvethe theantiprejudice antiprejudice approaches used in in schools schools throughout throughout the thecountry. country. In In1933, 1933, in preparation for opening the Bureau, Dubois taught the the first first course in the the country country on intercultural education to students at the Harvard extension on intercultural education to students at the Harvard extension school. school. Service Bureau Bureau was endorsed by aa range The Service range of of organizations, organizations,including including and received received funds funds from the Works Progress Administration Administration the AAUW, AAUW, and to hire people to interview students students about about their theirracial racialbeliefs.” beliefs.42 Starting Startingin in the mid-1920s mid-1920sshe sheregularly regularly attended attended the national meetings of the NAACP, the national meetings of the NAACP, enduring friendships which helped her form enduring friendshipswith withkey key people people in in the the strugstruggle for racial equality. Among the the people peoplewho whobecame becameher hercompatriots compatriots were Crystal Crystal Bird Bird Fauset, Fauset, James James Weldon Weldon Johnson, Johnson,William WilliamPickens, Pickens,and and A. Philip Randolph. James Weldon Johnson, among others, served Randolph. James Weldon Johnson, served on on the advisory board board of of the theService Service Bureau. Bureau. In Inthe themid-1920s mid-1920s Dubois and and W. E. E. B. B.Du DuBois Boisbegan beganaalifelong lifelongfriendship friendship that that would would entail numerous W. numerous opportunities for opportunities for them themto tocollaborate collaborate on oneducational educationalprojects. projects.In In1927 1927 she participated in the Pan-African Congress held in New York City, in the Pan-African Congress held in New York City,orgaorganized by nized by Addie AddieHunton. Hunton.InIn1931, 1931, at atthe thebehest behestofofDu DuBois Boisshe shewas waselected elected to the editorial editorial board boardof ofthe theCrisis. Crisis.In In1935, 1935, she became became the the first firstnational national director of director of the the Progressive ProgressiveEducation EducationAssociation’s Association’sCommission Commissionon onInterIntercultural Education. During the New Deal era she was a lead consultant the New Deal era she was a lead consultant Americans on the the twenty-six-part twenty-six-partCBS CBSRadio Radioseries series AmericansAll—Immigrants All—ImmigrantsAll. All. 1935 to to 1945 1945she shepublished published two two books on intercultural From 1935 interculturaleducation.® education.43 she helped helped found the Workshop In 1941 1941 she Workshop for for Cultural CulturalDemocracy. Democracy. In In later later years she would join the board of the American League for Puerto Rican would join the board of the American League for Puerto Rican

102. | |A A Band ofofNoble 102 Band NobleWomen Women Independence. And in in 1965 1965 Martin Luther King Jr. Jr. hired her as as aa memmember of the Atlanta staff of the Southern Southern Christian ChristianLeadership LeadershipCouncil. Council.He He strongly believed in the the model model of of interracial interracialdialogue dialogueshe shehad haddeveloped developed over the past four decades decades and and thought thoughtititwould wouldbe beaauseful usefultool toolfor forthe the civil rights movement. Dubois Dubois lived lived to tobe be101 101 years years old. old. She She kept kept up upher her commitment to peace reform and racial unity throughout throughouther herlife, life, hosting hosting multiracial group discussions in her multiracial her home home and and staying stayingactive active in inissues issues 44 housing justice.“ like housing justice.

of opinion existed among Differences of among social social scientists scientists and andeducators educators about the best approach to to use use when wheneducating educatingstudents studentsabout aboutrace raceand and ethnicity in the 1920s and 1930s. Those who disdained the melting pot in the 1920s and 1930s. disdained the melting pot varying ideas about approach, assimilation, and and scientific scientific racism held varying about the the the alternative alternative approaches content of the approaches that thatshould shouldbe beoffered. offered.Bruno BrunoLasker, Lasker, Rachel Dubois’s Dubois’sfriend friend and and at at times harsh critic, Rachel critic, offered that that although although there were “unending texts” about neighborliness, world friendship, “unending texts” about neighborliness, world friendship,and and “adventures in in brotherhood,” brotherhood,” much muchof of the thematerial materialwas wasoverly overlysentimensentimental, religious, and pedagogically pedagogically untested.* untested.45He Healso alsocalculated calculatedthat thatmany many school plays trafficked school trafficked in in “unmitigated “unmitigatedsnobbery,” snobbery,”where where“America” “America”isis 46 performed by the “prettiest and most popular pupil.” Lasker’s and most popular pupil.” Lasker’sbiggest biggest concern was was that that the cultural pluralism or cultural concern cultural gifts gifts approach approach did did little to raise students’ awareness or concern about the actual structures little to raise students’ awareness or concern about the actual structures society. Lasker Lasker found found the educational of racism in society. educational approach approach championed championed by Dubois potentially potentially dangerous because because itit usurped attention attention from from the politics and history of politics of discrimination, discrimination, leaving leaving untouched, untouched, for for instance, instance, the segregated segregated school school systems systems and and English-only English-only laws laws that thatencouraged encouraged bigotry. Selig offers offers that Dubois’s “softer approach” approach” may have bigotry. Selig Dubois’s “softer have been been aa result of the political prosecution she faced during her early advances political prosecution she faced during her early advancestoto teach about peace peace and cultural diversity. teach diversity. It may also have been a pragpragdecision driven by her need to secure funding matic decision fundingfor for the thework workof of her her pioneering agency, pioneering agency, the Service Service Bureau for for Education Education in in Human HumanRelaRela47 tions.” Another warranted criticism of the cultural pluralism model tions. warranted criticism of the cultural pluralism modelisis that it reifi reified particular paradigms that ed particular paradigmsofofrace, race,class, class,and andgender. gender.The Thefocus focuson on “sreat achievements” toto thethe Contributions “great achievements”and andmiddle-class middle-classvalues valuescentral central Contributions of Racial RacialElements ElementsProgram Programleft leftno noroom room for for championing championing the of thehistories historiesofof the working people filling the factories and neighborhoods of America filling and neighborhoods of America in in

Race and and the theSocial SocialThought Thoughtofof White Women| | 103 Race White Women 103 Inreaction reactionagainst againstthe the erasure erasure of of ethnic ethnic identity identity promoted promoted by by the 1920s. 1920s. In cultural pluralists nativists, cultural pluralists often often sentimentalized sentimentalizedimmigrants immigrantsand anderased erased all signs of intragroup intragroup difference. difference. And And the the promotion promotionof ofgroup groupparticuparticularism inherent to to the the pluralist pluralistapproach approachincreasingly increasinglycame cameunder underscruscrutiny during during the the era era of of Nazi fascism as progressives raised concern about “ethnic particularism” and called promoting static ideas of “ethnic called instead instead for for aa with these critipromotion of the idea of “democratic citizenship.”48Even Even with these critiDubois’s work work marked marked a radical departure cisms, Dubois’s departurefrom fromthe thecalls callsfor forimmiimmigrants to assimilate assimilate and and the theefforts effortsto tolimit limitimmigration immigrationall alltogether. together.Her Her promotion of African American history history and and culture culturein inpublic publicelementary elementary and high schools was a direct affront to to the the insidious insidious idea idea that that girded girded so much of much of US US interwar interwar racism—that racism—that African African Americans Americans had hadnot notcontribcontributed and and were were incapable incapable of of contributing contributing anything anythingof ofvalue valuetotowhat whatwas was understood to understood to be be the the best best of American culture. Her cultural gifts project sought peace peace through the dismantling racism and through dismantling of of scientific scientific racism the building building into intoaa new newgeneration generationof ofyouth youthaayearning yearningfor forconnectedness, connectedness, not conflict. not conflict.

Emily Greene Greene Balch Balch “(AJsocial socialage, age,an anage ageofoffraternal fraternalrelations relationsbetween between men, men, an an age age in in which which “[A] of rivalry rivalry of nation nation with with nation exploitation of class by class, of nation is is outgrown, outgrown, an age in which the unlikeness of other races will be conceived which the unlikeness of other races will be conceivedasasmuch much of an asset as the unlikeness of wind and of and string string instruments instrumentsin inaasymsymphony.” Emily Emily Greene Greene Balch Balch offered offered these these anticipatory anticipatory words words to the phony.” the female student student body bodyof ofWellesley WellesleyCollege College assembled assembledfor forher her1916 1916PresiPresidents’ Day speech. In her speech, “What It Means to Be an American,” dents’ Day It Means to Be an American,” Balch outlined outlined her utopian vision of a world cradled in harmony, respect, Balch and understanding.” understanding.49 To To achieve achieve this this utopian utopianvision, vision, Balch Balch engaged engaged in in work of of questioning questioning the meaning meaning and the complex work and function functionof of race race in in the the United States during the first half of the twentieth century. Balch’s tireless United during the first half of the twentieth century. Balch’s tireless US imperialism imperialism and efforts to expose US and racialized racialized nationalism nationalismmark markher herasas interwar era US trends trends and and policies. Over the next decades a key interwar era critic of US would tackle the role of race in US US domestic domestic and and foreign policy. Her Balch would work represents aa sophisticated effort to expose the sophisticated effort to expose theracial racialstructures structuresofof

104 | A ofofNoble 104 | Band A Band NobleWomen Women US nation nation building. building. Balch US Balch represented representedthe thevanguard vanguardofofWILPF WILPFleadership leadership concern about the racial superstructure superstructure of committed to voicing concern of US US history, culture, and and politics. politics. In In collaboration collaboration with withwomen womenlike likeJane Jane Addams, Addams, Dorothy Detzer, and and Addie Addie Hunton, Hunton,Balch Balchlooked lookedtotoeducate educatethe theWILPF WILPF membership, the the nation’s nation’s citizens, and the the nation’s nation’s leaders on the the folly folly of race-tainted politics. race-tainted politics. In her article article “Miscegenation “Miscegenation Law, Law, Court Cases, and Ideologies Ideologies of ‘Race’in in Twentieth-Century Twentieth-Century America,” America,” Peggy Peggy Pascoe Pascoe argues that ‘Race’ that the the twentieth-century transformation ofofscientific twentieth-century transformationfrom fromthe thediscourse discourse scientificracism racism modernist discourse unified, to the modernist discourseof of race race was was not the the smooth, smooth, complete, unifi ed, overnight accomplishment Pascoe isisconor overnight accomplishmentdepicted depictedby bymany manyhistorians. historians. Pascoe concerned that that historians’ historians’ treatment treatmentofofchallenges challengestotobiological biologicaltheories theoriesofof race approach the the period periodin inan anoversimplified oversimplifiedmanner, manner,asasifif“when “whenmodmod50 science emerges, emerges, racism racism runs runs out out of of intellectual intellectual steam.” steam.’ As ern social science Asaa corrective, Pascoe calls for more case studies studiesof of the theways waysin inwhich whichpeople people confronted and and reshaped reshapedthe thelanguage languageand andlandscape landscapeofofracial racialthought. thought. early twentieth-century twentieth-century and The early and interwar interwarera erawomen’s women’s peace movement offers aa compelling compelling and and underexamined underexamined example offers example of the shifting shifting ground ground of American racial politics for which Pascoe calls. calls. In In particular, the life life Emily Greene Greene Balch deserves deserves attention. of Emily attention. Balch, Balch, a Wellesley College professor, lifelong lifelong member and fessor, and president presidentofofthe theWILPF, WILPF,and andNobel NobelPeace Peace Prize winner, attempted throughout throughout her her career career to to redress redressthe thelegacy legacy of of racism in the United States and to replace scientific racism with ideas of the United States and to replace scientific racism with ideas of cultural pluralism cultural pluralismand andworld-mindedness. world-mindedness.From Fromher her1910 1910 pro-immigrant pro-immigrant book, Our Citizens,totoher her diplomatic diplomatic work Our Slavic Slavic Fellow Fellow Citizens, work on onUS USpolicy policyinin Haiti and Liberia in the 1920s and 1930s, Balch scrutinized and criticized Haiti and Liberia in the 1920s and 1930s, scrutinized and criticized the influence of racialized thinking on US domestic influence thinking on US domestic and andinternational international Balch, thinking thinking critically about race was often politics. For Balch, often aa vital vital part partof of thinking about thinking about peace peace and andsocial social transformation. transformation.Her Herefforts effortswere weredelibdelibwork to expose the presence erate and persistent. persistent. Balch’s Balch’s work presence of of racism racism in in US domestic and foreign policy marks Balch, and by extension the US US foreign policy marks Balch, and by extension the US WILPE,as askey keycontributors contributors to the modern WILPF, modernera erachallenge challengetotorace-based race-basedUS US expansionism. expansionism. Balch’sideas ideason onrace racewere werestimulated stimulated by by an an alchemy alchemy of of infl influences and Balch’s uences and confluences as the conditions of the pre-World War I years found many confluences as the conditions of the pre–World War I

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progressives engaged in progressives in intellectual intellectualand andpolitical politicalexploration. exploration.Balch’s Balch’s thinking about thinking aboutrace race developed developedthrough throughher herinvolvement involvementwith withfellow fellowproprogressive social reformers, her her training trainingin inthe thenew newsocial socialsciences, sciences,her herearly early socialist associations, associations, and and her leadership socialist leadership in in the thewomen’s women’s peace peace movemove51 ment.°' Like many community ment. community internationalists, internationalists,Balch Balchapplied appliedthe theideals ideals of the the social social settlement settlement house house movement international arbiof movement to to her her work work on on international arbitration and transnational community building. Balch witnessed in social transnational community building. Balch in social settlement houses the the proof proof that thatethnic, ethnic,racial, racial,and andnational nationaldifferences differences need not result in in strife. strife. And And she she shared sharedwith withJane JaneAddams Addamsaastrain strainofof human potential cosmopolitanism that believed in the human potential to to peacefully negotiate differences. Four hundred social settlement houses tiate differences. Four hundred social settlement houses existed existed in in the the during the United States during the first first decades decades of of the thetwentieth twentiethcentury. century.Weekly, Weekly, nine thousand thousand people people used usedHull HullHouse, House,the theChicago Chicagosettlement settlementhouse house 52 run by fellow WILPF WILPFleader leader Jane Jane Addams. Addams.” The daily run by Balch’s Balch’s fellow daily work workof of the the social settlement houses appealed to Balch’s pragmatism and suggested social to Balch’s pragmatism suggested that the the social social ills ills of of war, nativism, nativism, and andracism racismcould couldbe beovercome. overcome. Balch Balch knew that “goodwill, “goodwill, high purpose, purpose, [and] [and] devotion devotion to to great great ends” ends”was was not enough. She worked with with others others in inthe theWILPF WILPF to to develop develop “concrete “concrete devices” and “elaborate arrangements” that could produce achievable devices” “elaborate that could produce achievable forms of world community.” forms community.53 The The community community building buildingundertaken undertakenby by social settlement houses houses proved proved to toBalch Balch and andothers othersthat thatrace racewas wassocial, social, and that not biological, and that world worldharmony harmonywas wasachievable. achievable. Balch is is frequently frequently memorialized memorialized for her for her Kantian Kantiancosmopolitan cosmopolitantranstransnationalist vision captured nationalist capturedin inher heroft-quoted oft-quotedmotto, motto,“Lovers “Lovers of of Our Our Land, Land, 54 Balch’stransnational transnational dream We Are Citizens Citizensof ofthe theWorld.’”™ World.” Balch’s dreamisisusually usually linked to to her her involvement involvement in inthe thegendered genderedwomen’s women’speace peacemovement, movement, namely, the WILPF. Yet, although the internationalism central namely, WILPF. Yet, although internationalism centraltotothe the WILPF and and to many middle-class WILPF middle-class women’s women’s associations that that developed developed during the the Woman’s Woman’s Era indeed shaped shaped Balch, Balch, that that transnationalism transnationalismoror community internationalism community internationalismwas wasalso alsodeeply deeplysteeped steepedininconditions conditionsofofrace race that embattled the United States. In other words, Balch’s internationalism embattled the United States. other words, Balch’s internationalism was not just just aa product productofofthe thewomen’s women’speace peacemovement. movement.Balch’s Balch’s worldworldmindedness celebrated mindedness celebrated the potential potential of of women united united in infellowship fellowship and and activism, but it also contended contended that the economic and racial structures that that the economic and racial structures that produced divisive nationalism produced divisive nationalism needed neededto tobe beexamined examinedand andeviscerated. eviscerated.

106 | A ofofNoble 106 | Band A Band NobleWomen Women Born to a well-established Unitarian Unitarian New New England Englandfamily familytwo twoyears years after the the end end of ofthe theCivil CivilWar, War,Balch’s Balch’s educational educational path pathfollowed followedthat thatofof many bourgeois many bourgeois women womenof of the thetime timeperiod. period.She Sheattended attendedBryn BrynMawr MawrColColreceived its its European Fellowship, lege and in in 1890 1890 received Fellowship, which allowed her to to study the study the French French charity charitysystem. system.She She studied studiedatatthe theUniversity Universityof ofChicago, Chicago,

leading institution a leading institutionof ofthe thenewly newlydeveloping developingsocial socialsciences, sciences,and andalso alsoatatthe the Berlin, where where she she was was required required to University of Berlin, to petition petition the the male maleprofesprofesand student sors and studentbody bodyfor forpermission permissiontotoattend. attend.InIn1896 1896Balch Balch participated participated in the International InternationalSocialist SocialistWorkers’ Workers’ and andTrade TradeUnion UnionCongress CongressininLonLonin the the States she she pursued pursued workers’ don. Back in workers’ rights rights and andsocialism socialismfurther. further. she helped found In 1903 1903 she found the theWomen’s Women’s Trade Trade Union UnionLeague. League.Three Threeyears years publicly announced announced herself a socialist and in 1909 organized the later she publicly 1909 organized World Movement” Movement” conference conference with with Vida Scudder. Scudder. Though Though “Socialism as a World helped found she helped foundthe theDenison DenisonHouse, House,a asocial socialsettlement settlementininBoston, Boston,inin1892 1892 and served served as as its its first first director, director, Balch Balch was was not not content content with withphilanthropic philanthropic efforts. She believed that that “the “the point pointof ofleverage” leverage”was wastototeach teach“social “socialecoeco55 nomic subjects.” Her Herbelief beliefin ineducation educationover oversocial socialservice serviceor or good gooddeeds deeds

of immiimmiwork set her path for the remainder of her life. As a researcher of grant life, a professor at Wellesley College, and an intellectual leader of grant life, professor at and an intellectual leader ofthe the WILPE,Balch Balchstrove strove to to shape shape the intellectual WILPF, intellectualmind mindofofthe thenation.°® nation.56 Balch’straining training as as an an economist and sociologist along Emily Greene Balch’s with her almost almost half half aa century centurymembership membershipininthe theWILPF WILPFprovided providedher her with ample opportunities to examine the racial foundations of antiample opportunities examine the racial foundations of antiimmigration sentiment, immigration sentiment, economic economic imperialism, imperialism, and andcolonization. colonization.She She served as 1933and and served as president presidentof ofthe theUS US section sectionof of the theWILPF WILPF from from 1929 1929 to 1933 as a member of its International Executive Committee from 1919 to 1922 as a member of its International Executive Committee from 1919 to 1922 and from to 1932. 1932.In In 1946 1946she shereceived receivedthe the Nobel Nobel Peace Peace Prize Prize for for her her and from 1929 1929 to nationalism and work exposing the tenets of nationalism and for for promoting promoting transnational transnational community building. community building. Race, Immigration, Immigration, and Nation

Balch’s fifirst scholarly monograph, Citizens, published published Balch’s rst scholarly monograph, Our OurSlavic Slavic Fellow Fellow Citizens, established Balch Balchas asaaleader leader of ofProgressive Progressive Era Era struggles struggles to to disin 1910, 1910, established entangle notions of racial fitness from the requirements of citizenship. entangle fitness of citizenship.

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The content of her five-hundred-page The five-hundred-page study of of Slavic Slavic immigrants also also announced Balch as an advocate of unrestricted immigration, immigration, intermarintermarriage, and and the emerging concept of race race as as culture. culture. Balch Balch researched researched the the riage, book for two years, traveling throughout the the United United States States and and AustriaAustriaunderstand the originating cultural practices and and Hungry in a journey to understand immigrants arriving and values of the new Slavic Slavic immigrants and settling settling in in the theUnited United States, the the impact impact of of immigration immigration on on those those practices practices and and values, values, and and the the States, and political social and political conditions conditionsSlavic Slavic immigrants immigrantsfaced facedonce oncethey theyreached reached the United States. In the United States her travels took her her to to mining miningvilvillages in Pennsylvania Pennsylvania and andColorado, Colorado, tenements tenementsininNew NewYork YorkCity, City, Texas Texas farm communities, communities, and and industrial and Connecticut River Valley Valley farm industrial centers centers Pittsburgh and like Pittsburgh and Bridgeport.” Bridgeport.57 FellowCitizens Citizenswas wasone oneofofthe thevery veryfifirst detailed immigrant immigrant Our Slavic Slavic Fellow rst detailed studies. As such it helped helped establish establish the the model model for for future futureworks workson onimmiimmigration and it continues to be referenced as a significant intervention in to be referenced a significant in immigration that captivated the United States during during the the debates over immigration early twentieth twentieth century. century.One Onereviewer reviewerinin1911 1911 hailed hailedthe thebook bookfor forits itsabilabiland popular audiences and praised it as ity to appeal to both academic academic and “one of the most sympathetic and interesting “one of the interesting studies studiesof ofimmigration.”® immigration.”58 1973review review essay, essay,“How “HowHistorians Historians Have Looked at Immigrants Immigrants in A 1973 inthe the United States,” Slavic United States,”pointed pointedtotoBalch Balchand andOur Our SlavicFellow FellowCitizens Citizens as as one oneof ofthe the works that that helped institute the “friends of the immigrant” approach key works to immigrant studies in in direct direct contrast contrast to to the the restrictionist restrictionist and andassimiassimilationist writing that that was waspopular popularatatthe thetime timeofofBalch’s Balch’spro-immigrant pro-immigrant publication.”59 Writing publication. Writingin in2005, 2005, Robert Robert W. W. Dimand Dimandcalled calledBalch Balchone oneofofthe the “outstanding American “outstanding American economists” economists”and andcredited creditedOur OurSlavic SlavicFellow Fellow Citizens and a 1912 speech Balch delivered to the American Economics Assozens and 1912 speech Balch delivered to the ciation with redirecting the discourse ciation discourse on on immigrants immigrants and andimmigration immigration 60 dominant within the field of economics.” dominant within the field of economics. Balch’sstudy studyofof Slavic Slavicimmigrants immigrantsappeared appearedinin the the middle middle of a Balch’s national maelstrom over the role role and and future future of immigrants immigrants in the United States. A A steady steady rise rise in in immigration immigration began and reached reached its zenith States. began in in 1897 1897 and with the fi first in 1907 1907 with rst decade of the twentieth century century witnessing witnessing nine nine 61 million new immigrants entering the million the country.” country. This This period period of of immiimmigration was marked not only by the pace of immigration, but also by gration was pace immigration,

108 | A ofofNoble 108 | Band A Band NobleWomen Women the national national origins origins of of the thenew newarrivals. arrivals.The Theoverwhelmingly overwhelminglySouthern Southern and Eastern European heritage of the new immigrants provoked provoked aa racracist backlash. This new round round of of immigration immigrationstimulated stimulatedaacomingling comingling “science” and and racist racist nationalism nationalism into an of racial “science” an effort effort to to pass pass restrictive restrictive cultural anti-immigrant legislation and forestall the adoption adoption of of ideas of cultural

pluralism or “friends pluralism “friends of of the theimmigrant” immigrant”sentimentality. sentimentality.Racial Racial nativnativists wanted to to keep keep the the nation nation“one-hundred “one-hundredpercent percentAmerican,” American,”which which Northern and meant white, and white meant of Northern and Western Western European European origin. origin. Under the the guise guise of of Anglo-Saxon Anglo-Saxon superiority, superiority, scientific scientific racism, and and nativnativism, restrictionists restrictionists like like Madison Madison Grant Grant argued argued that that unlimited immigraism, tion would tion would lead lead to to the the literal literal demise demise of of the theso-called so-called white whiterace. race. IfIf the the new Eastern and Southern European immigrants, many of of whom were Catholic and Jewish, were allowed to mix with with the the “natural “naturalstock” stock”of ofthe the nation, Grant argued, argued, aa new new “lesser “lesser race” race” would would be be produced, produced,resulting resulting “Anglo-Saxon.”62 in the death of the “Anglo-Saxon.” Naturalization Act ImmigraFrom the 1870 1870 Naturalization Act to to the the 1924 1924 Johnson-Reed Immigration Act, legislation was was used usedto todefine definethe theracial racialshape shapeofofthe thenation. nation.The The 1870Naturalization Naturalization Act Act limited limited citizenship to 1870 to “white “white persons personsand andperpersons of African Descent.” From 1887 to 1923 there were twenty-five fedof African Descent.” From 1887 to 1923 there were twenty-five federal court challenges challenges to to the the Naturalization NaturalizationAct, Act,including includingtwo twoSupreme Supreme Court cases by defendants defendants who who claimed claimed that thatthey theywere werewhite, white,although although the courts ruled ruled that thatthe thedefendant’s defendant’snational nationalorigin originand andso-called so-calledcomcommonsense knowledge would deem them not white. The 1882 Chinese deem them not white. The 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act Act reversed reversed the patterns Exclusion patterns of of Chinese Chinese immigration immigrationand andlegitilegitimated generalized mated generalizedanti-Asian anti-Asiansentiment. sentiment.The The1924 1924Johnson-Reed Johnson-ReedAct ActlimlimEuropean immigration ited European immigrationtoto22percent percentof ofthe thenational nationalorigin origingroup groupininthe the United States in 1890. This meant that “Nordic” or Anglo-Saxon Europe1890. This meant that ans who made made up up the themajor major immigrant immigrantgroups groupsbefore before1890 1890 were were favored, favored, and those those perceived perceived to to be be nonwhite nonwhiteand andhence henceunassimilable, unassimilable,that thatis,is,the the Mediterranean immigrants Eastern European, European, Slavic, Slavic, and Mediterranean immigrantsofofthe the1890s 1890s and and 63 1920s, were restricted. 1920s, were restricted. CitizensBalch Balchset setout out not not to prove Through Our Our Slavic Slavic Fellow Fellow Citizens prove that that Slavic immigrants immigrants were Slavic were good good candidates candidatesfor forassimilation, assimilation,but buttotochallenge challenge based concept conceptofof racial racialor or ethnic ethnic type type central the biologically biologically based central to antiimmigrant sentiment and politics. She reasoned that the most and politics. the most endurable endurable

Race and and the theSocial SocialThought ThoughtofofWhite White Women| | 109 Race Women 109 way to kick open the door to full full citizenship citizenship for for immigrants immigrantswas wasby byshutshutthat underpinned underpinned restrictionists’ ting the door to the scientific scientific racism that restrictionists’and and Our Slavic racial nativists’ arguments. arguments. At Atthe thevery verysame sametime timethat that Our SlavicFellow Fellow Citizenscaptured captured in rich detail the daily Citizens daily customs customs of of the the Polish, Hungarian, Hungarian, and Ukrainian immigrants immigrants she she lived with, she warned her reader against equating these practices practices with aa knowable knowable racial racial type typeor oressence. essence. Balch Balch attempted to disrupt disrupt the the practice practice of of ranking ranking Europeans Europeansin inaahierarchy hierarchyof of racial desirability when she proclaimed that that “there “there isis no nosuch suchperson personasas asas a Teuton oror a Celt.”** a Slav any more more than thanthere thereisissuch sucha aperson person a Teuton a Celt.”64With With these words words she she expected expectedto toforestall forestallher herreader’s reader’sdesire desiretotoglean gleansome some essential truth about, for example, Polish coal miners in Pennsylvania, truth about, for example, Polish coal miners in Pennsylvania,atat that she directed directed her the same time that her reader reader to to question question the the popular popularassumpassumptranshistorical “Nordic” tion of a stable transhistorical “Nordic” ascendancy. ascendancy. She She shared sharedwith withher her readers that profound skepticism readers that she she “[felt] “[felt] a profound skepticismas asto to the thevalue valueof of generalizageneralizations in regard to the character of nations or races, more especially regard to the character of nations or races, more especiallyififititisis 65 assumed that that such such characters characters are areinherited inheritedand andunchangeable.” unchangeable.”Balch’s Balch’s of course course rooted rooted in in her herunderstanding understanding that “profound skepticism” was of that the the disdain for nation justified justified its disdain for the the new new immigrants immigrantshailing hailingfrom fromEastern Eastern and Southern Europe, the Mediterranean, and Asia by arguing arguing that that nonnonimmigrants possessed Nordic immigrants possessed inherently inherentlydangerous dangerous“racial “racialqualities” qualities”that that would, if not restricted, would, restricted, dilute dilutethe thequality qualityofofthe theso-called so-callednative nativestock stockand and result in race suicide. result in race suicide. The race suicide argument argument called calledupon uponpopular popularfears fearsofofboth botha adecline decline family sizes and of potential potential increased in the family sizes of “Anglo-Saxons” and increasedsexual sexualand and social intimacy with the the new new immigrants. immigrants.Leading LeadingUniversity Universityof ofWisconWisconeconomist and sin economist and sociologist sociologist Edward EdwardAlsworth AlsworthRoss Rosshelped helpedestablish establishthe the concept of race suicide at the turn of the century. Ross warned that “Latins, concept the turn of the century. Ross warned that “Latins, Slavs, Asiatics, Asiatics,and and Hebrews” Hebrews”66were Slavs, werecausing causingthe the“the “thesubmergence submergenceofofthe the ‘American’ pioneer pioneer breed.” breed.” In ‘American’ In true truescientific scientificracism racismform, form,Ross Rossused usedphysiphysical description when referring referring to to the theimmigrant immigrant“threat.” “threat.”He Hewarned warnedofof people with “sugar-loaf heads, moon-faces, slit mouths, lantern-jaws, with “sugar-loaf heads, moon-faces, slit mouths, lantern-jaws,and and goose-bill noses” noses” who allegedly swarmed the goose-bill the streets streetsof ofindustrial industrialcities cities driving down wages and threatening the future of of all around around them.” them.67 In In SlavicFellow FellowCitizens Citizens Balch addressedthe thepopular popularcontamination contamination and and Our Slavic Balch addressed race suicide narratives narratives by proposing that Anglo-Saxons would improve by proposing that Anglo-Saxons would improveinin

110 | |A Band ofofNoble 110 A Band NobleWomen Women contact with with the new immigrants immigrants Ross quality as a result of close contact Ross demonized. Intermixing, Balch Balch proposed, proposed, would would rejuvenate rejuvenatethe the“rather “rathersterile sterile and inbred inbred [Anglo-Saxon] [Anglo-Saxon] stock” by adding “valuable varieties of inheriinheritance to a rather rather puritanical, puritanical,one-sided one-sidedculture culturerich richininmiddle-class middle-classcomcom68 monplaces.”°*Balch’s Balch’sadvocacy advocacyof ofintermixing intermixing was monplaces.” was aa bold boldposition positiontototake take given the historical historical context. context. It pushed pushedagainst againstthe thelogic logicof ofscientific scientific racism racism and it refused to endorse the less charged politics of assimilation gaining refused to endorse the less charged politics of assimilation gaining traction at the dared to suggest suggest that traction the time. time. In their their place, Balch dared that the the qualities qualities the self-proclaimed dominant of the dominantrace racewould wouldbe bebetter betterserved servednot notfrom fromless less contact with with the new immigrants, but through contact through more more contact. contact. The nation, Balch theorized, would grow stronger in character and Balch theorized, stronger in character andquality qualitythrough through promotion of of racial/ethnic racial/ethnic equalitarian equalitarian social interaction and in the active promotion the process destabilize destabilize the thevery veryidea ideaof of the the Anglo-Saxon Anglo-Saxon and andAnglo-Saxon Anglo-Saxon superiority. With Our CitizensBalch Balchbegan began to advance advance the With Our Slavic Slavic Fellow Fellow Citizens theidea ideaofofrace race position would as culture. She believed this position would allow allow her her and andothers othersto toepisteepisteand pragmatically mologically and pragmatically contest contest forces forces like like the the Immigration ImmigrationRestricRestriction League and supporters supporters of of Madison Grant. Her book established her as “a friend of the immigrant” immigrant” in inaatime timewhen whenlabor laborunrest, unrest,urban urbanchaos, chaos, and the and the demise demiseof of the the so-called so-calledAnglo-Saxon Anglo-Saxonwere wereall allblamed blamedon onthe theprespresnon-Northern and ence of non-Northern andnon-Western non-WesternEuropean Europeanimmigrants. immigrants.Yet, Yet,even even in the most radical radical of of her proposals, proposals, like like her her support supportfor forintermixing, intermixing,we we see the residue of a science-based notion of race. Although Balch wrote of a science-based of race. Balch that “[g]roup “[g]roup types are perhaps in 1907 1907 that perhapsquite quiteas asmuch muchproducts productsofofsocial social development and development and imitation, imitation,determined determinedby byhistorical historicalcauses causeseconomic economicand and open the possibility possibility that other,” she left open that group grouptypes typeswere werealso alsoininpart part“the “the 69 expression of innate qualities.”” Still, even though she sometimes used qualities.” though she sometimes used stock, words associated associated with withracial racialscience, science,words wordslike like stock,breed, breed,and andinheriinheritance,Balch Balchdisputed disputed the concept of a natural natural Anglo-Saxon tance, Anglo-Saxonsuperiority. superiority. Balch aimed aimed to reconfi reconfigure Balch gure the the dominant dominantrace raceideologies ideologies adopted adoptedby by everyday citizens, union organizers, eugenicists, college presidents, her organizers, eugenicists, college her scientists, and and political leaders with her detailed fellow social scientists, detailed descriptions descriptions of Slavic Slavic life life in in all all its its variation in Europe and of and in inthe theUnited UnitedStates. States.She She aspired to aspired to help help lay the foundation foundationfor for aa pluralist pluralistnation nationin inwhich whichall allpeople people were equally welcomed and equally valued, not based on a demand not based on a demandfor for

Race and and the theSocial SocialThought Thoughtofof White Women| | III Race White Women 111 sameness, but on an appreciation for the unending unendingvariations variationsof oflifestyles lifestyles produced by title, Our Slavic produced by social socialand andhistorical historicalforces. forces.InInitsitsvery very title, Our SlavicFelFellow Citizens, Citizens,Balch Balchsituated situatedimmigrants immigrants on an equal low equal footing footingwith withall allother other people who were working working the the land, land,sweating sweatingininfactories, factories,and anddebating debating the future futuredirection directionof ofthe thenation. nation.Yet Yetat attimes, times,Balch Balchalso alsoceded cededthe themoral moral high ground groundto to the the very very immigrants immigrantswho whowere wereso sofeared fearedand andmaligned malignedatat the turn turn of of the the century. century. For For instance, instance, she she challenged challenged Americans Americans to to heed heed the conclusion conclusion of of one one Slavic Slavic leader who who observed, observed,“My “Mypeople peopledo donot notlive live 70 in America. They live underneath underneathAmerica.””” America.” Race, Gender, Gender, and and National National Character Character in Race, in Wartime Wartime

Presidents’ Day address address “What In her 1916 1916 Presidents’ “WhatItItMeans MeanstotoBe Bean anAmerican,” American,” delivered to students, Balch continued continued her delivered to Wellesley College students, her attack attackon onthe the 71 nativism and racism that she felt left “poison .. . in our minds.””’ The racism that she felt left “poison .  .  . in our minds.” The speech expanded in in Our Slavic Fellow speech expandedon onthemes themesshe sheoutlined outlined Our Slavic FellowCitizens, Citizens,and and it linked the growing national dislike of racial and ethnic difference and erowing class unrest with growing with the thewar warbeing beingwaged wagedininEurope. Europe.Addressed Addressed to the young white college women in her audience, Balch’s words comyoung white college women in her audience, Balch’s compel, in part, because she used used the theinjury injuryof ofrace racerather ratherthan thangender genderasasthe the nation’s Achilles’ Achilles’ heel. heel. Balch Balch challenged challenged her her female students nation’s students to to underunderstand how how racism racism worked worked and andurged urgedthem themtototake takeup upits itseradication eradicationwith with the same conviction she felt. Though woman’s suffrage was not yet a fedsame conviction she felt. Though woman’s suffrage was not yet a fedBalch understood understood the rising power eral achievement, achievement, Balch power available available to edueducated young white women like like those those in in her heraudience. audience.She She glimpsed glimpsedthe the potential for potential for their their imprint imprinton onthe thefuture futurecourse courseofofthe thenation nationand andthe theworld world and hoped to persuade her students to turn their civic participation hoped to persuade her students to turn their civic participationand and dreams of dreams of democracy to the eradication eradication of of anti-immigrant anti-immigrantsentiment sentimentand and lawless racial violence. lawless racial violence. Central to speech was the Central to Balch’s speech the contention contentionthat thatdemocracy, democracy,freedom, freedom, and liberty were not accomplishments to be memorialized on Presidents’ liberty were not accomplishments to be memorialized on Presidents’ Day, but but instead instead were contested and Day, and dynamic dynamic ideals ideals yet yetto tobe beachieved. achieved. Balch suggested suggested to to her her audience audience that the task Balch task before before the the nation nation was was to to 72 substantial and create a “liberty that is not a matter of form but substantial and real.”” real.” To To prove that liberty, freedom, and democracy are a mirage for many living and democracy are a mirage for many living

112 | |A Band ofofNoble 112 A Band NobleWomen Women in the nation, one only needed to turn turn to to the the plight plight of of the the nation’s nation’s poor pronounced that and racially stigmatized. stigmatized. Balch Balch pronounced that members membersof of the the working working class were only “half “half free.” free.” They They had had the thepolitical politicalrights rightsofofcitizenship, citizenship, but were forced into an industrial industrial caste caste system system that that robbed robbedthem themof ofsocial social freedom and control over their labor. Compounding the demeaning demeaning and and liberty-robbing conditions conditions of of industrial industriallabor, labor,Balch Balch observed observedthat thatracialracialized ethnic stereotypes stereotypes further limited the the promise promise of of democracy democracy and liberty for many. Americans, Americans, Balch Balch lectured lectured her herfemale femalestudents, students,should should be “mortified” to live live in a country that “mortified” to that mistreats mistreats Chinese Chinese and andChinese Chinese Americans and and continues continuesto topromote promote“prejudice “prejudiceand andclass classfeeling feelingfor forthe the newcomer.” From From the the ridicule of Slavic immigrants for going newcomer.” Slavic immigrants going barefoot barefoot in in the house and and the theshunning shunningofofIrish Irishwomen womenfor forwearing wearinga ashawl, shawl,totothe the embrace of racialized anti-immigrant embrace anti-immigrant epithets epithetslike like“Dago,” “Dago,” “Wop,” “Wop,” and and “Sheenie,” Balch Balchconcluded concludedthat that such such attitudes attitudes compromised “Sheenie,” compromised the the nation’s nation’s character and and warranted warranted radical character radical transformation.” transformation.73

Balch reserved reserved her strongest criticism for the discrimination discrimination and Balch andvioviolence that that targeted African Americans. In her remarks she invoked the lence Americans. In history of lynching to punctuate history punctuateher herpoint pointthat thatthe thenation nation“harbor[ed] “harbor[ed]the the ugliest types of racial prejudices prejudices and and brutality and and insolent lawlessness.”” insolent lawlessness.”74 In the the year yearpreceding precedingBalch’s Balch’sPresidents’ Presidents’Day Dayspeech, speech,D.D.W.W.Griffith’s Griffith’s Nation appeared, appeared, grabbing public attention landmark film film Birth Birth of of a Nation attention for for its advancement advancement of of film film technology technologyand andfor forits itsracist racistsubject subjectmatter. matter.The The NAACP demanded the banning of the film because the film celebrated NAACP demanded banning of the film because the film celebrated the Ku Klux Klan and and depicted depicted the theKKK KKK as as the the saviors saviorsof of white whitewomanwomanhood. The film film also portrayed portrayedblack black men menduring duringReconstruction Reconstructionasasshiftshiftless, primitive drunkards drunkards unfit less, unfitfor forthe thepolitical politicalrights rightswon wonatatthe theend endofof the Civil War. Griffith’s racist version of the Reconstruction period Civil War. Griffith’s the Reconstruction periodgargarapproval and praise and nered President President Woodrow Woodrow Wilson’s Wilson’s approval and aaprivate private White House House screening. screening.Ten Ten days daysafter afterthe thefilm filmopened openedininNew NewYork YorkCity, City, in in thethe New York an interview interviewwith withJane JaneAddams Addamsran ran New YorkEvening EveningPost. Post.InInher her remarks, Addams protested the film for depicting African Americans as the film for African “srotesque and “grotesque and primitive primitiveand andcontemptible” contemptible”and andfor foritsits“glorification” “glorification”ofof 75 the KKK.” the KKK. Balch’s speech speech extended extended Addams’s Balch’s Addams’scritique critiqueofofBirth Birthofofaa Nation Nation by by callcalling for public accountability for the crimes of lynching and for unity and and for unity and

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alliance building building between alliance between African African American American men and white white women. women. Instead of promoting aa defensive defensive racism racism through through aanarrative narrativethat thatpropromoted fear of black men, men, Balch Balchlectured lectured that that the nation needed needed to moted to ask Afri“forgiveness” for for the the bloody bloody history history of of slavery slavery and and for can Americans for “forgiveness” ongoing white vigilantism. vigilantism. She She directly directlycontested contestedD. D.W. W.Griffith’s Griffith’s depicdepicblack male male character character as rapacious by recalling to her white female tion of black students that during during slavery slavery “white “white women women and and children children were were safe” safe” in in 76 the hands hands of of slaves “when the masters were away at the war.”” war.” Instead of fearing African Americans Americans and andblack black men menin inparticular, particular,Balch Balchurged urgedher her students to work as allies in shaping a true democratic nation based students based upon upon “equal opportunity” for all. To build meaningful democracy and free“equal all. To meaningful democracy and freeBalch understood understood it, dom, as Balch it, required required that thatthe thehistory historyofoflynching lynchingnot notbebe minimized.” Balch “overlooked or minimized.” Balch lectured lecturedher heraudience audiencethat thatininthe thepreviprevihundred people ous two decades almost thirty-five thirty-five hundred people had had been been lynched lynched in in the United States and that “in the first nine months of 1914” twenty-seven United States and that “in the first nine months of 1914” twenty-seven lynchings had occurred, including the the lynching lynching of of three three women. women. In In case case her students students thought thoughtthe thepractice practiceof of lynching lynching rested restedin inthe thehands handsofofaafew few renegade men, men, she she made them aware that US renegade US railroads frequently “ran special trains—crowded trains—crowded with eager sightseers—to the place where a man with eager 77 burned alive was to be burned alive by the mob.”” mob.” In the conclusion conclusion to to her herPresidents’ Presidents’ Day Day speech, speech, Balch Balch linked linkedthe the ongoing race, race, ethnic, ethnic, and and class class wars wars in the nation to the ongoing the war war raging ragingin in Europe. “How far is the tragedy enacting itself across the seas today due tragedy enacting itself across the seas today due to the same evils which abound among among us us today?” today?” she asked her audiaudi78 ence.” This theme, the linking ence. linking of of local local conditions conditions of of inequality inequalitytotothe the global forces forces of of war, war, echoed echoed the founding principles global principles of of the the WILPF: WILPF: that peace and and freedom were inextricably linked goals and attributes. freedom were inextricably linked goals and attributes.InIna a1915 1915 article Balch wrote wrote for article for the the Survey Survey she directly directlyexplored exploredthe theimpact impactofofracial racial thought on the the war warin inEurope. Europe.She Sheconcluded concludedthat that“national “nationalvanity vanityand and national greed” stemmed stemmed from from aa philosophy philosophy of ofracialized racializedexceptionalexceptionalism and that this defensive and aggressive nationalism was one source this defensive and aggressive of the war in Europe. This need to strengthen of strengthen national national borders borders and andproprothose who differ from us,” Balch Balch proposed, proposed, “takes on mote “contempt for those 79 One of those forms could be found in the domesaa thousand forms.”” thousand forms.” One of those forms could be found in the domestic race politics saturating saturating the theUnited UnitedStates. States.For ForBalch Balch and andthe thefledgling fledgling

114 | |A Band ofofNoble 114 A Band NobleWomen Women WILPFE, uncheckednationalist nationalistqualities qualitiesthat thatproduced produced domestic racial WILPF, thethe unchecked were the the same qualities that promoted violence were promoted war. war. In the United United States States Balch worried that that citizens citizens had hadbecome becomecomplacomplaanti-immigrant, antiworker cent not only about the antiblack, anti-immigrant, antiworkersentiment sentimentofof the country but also also about the the “high “high responsibility” responsibility” before before the the nation nation to to

condemned the fact that the help bring peace. She condemned the nation nation exported exportedweapweapand “made Though the majorons and “mademoney moneyout outof of the thenecessities necessitiesof ofothers.”*° others.”80 Though her speech speech soared with harsh ity of her harsh assessments assessments of of the the state state of of the nation, nation, she brought her thoughts thoughts to to a close by invoking her pragmatist belief that another way way was was possible possible and andnecessary. necessary.Similar Similarto toD. D.W. W. Griffith, Griffith, Balch believed the nation and the world were experiencing a new and the world were experiencing a newbirth birthout outofof the combustion of war war and and racial racial and andethnic ethnicstrife. strife.Unlike UnlikeGriffith, Griffith,Balch Balch sought reconciliation, a “newer and and warmer warmertone,” tone,”and andaarealization realizationthat that 81 Balch hoped hoped that the we can bring “inspiration and and joy” joy” to to each each other.*' other. Balch female students in her audience would take up the work of in her audience would take up the work of reconciliation reconciliation and build the the “substantial “substantial and and real” real” liberty liberty she she believed believed the the time time period period called for. for. If If African African Americans Americans had “a heavy count against called against the the white white 82 man,” perhaps man,” perhapswhite white women women could could redress redress the the sins sins of of the thefounding founding fathers. Balch concluded that there was no “golden past” to celebrate that there was no “golden past” to celebrateon on Day and and that that answers to the race problems problems she she outlined outlined in her Presidents’ Day address were not to be found in the past, but in the potential address potential of the young white women white women sitting sittingbefore beforeher. her. Investigating Haiti: Haiti: White White Masculinity Masculinityas asthe theBlack Black Man’s Burden

Wellesley speech speech Balch Balchhoped hoped to toinspire inspire her her white white female female students students In her Wellesley to use their education education and sense of civic responsibility to help lay the founand sense of responsibility dation for a new world order order free free from from the the man-made man-maderivalries rivalriesof ofnation, nation, investigation of of the the continued US class, and race. A decade later, later, Balch’s Balch’s investigation US occupation of Haiti served occupation served as as aa strong strongreminder reminderofofthe thedepth depthofofUS USinvestinvestment in maintaining a corrosive race-based foreign policy and the maintaining a corrosive race-based foreign and the comcomplexity of the task task she she placed placed in inthe thehands handsofofthe thenation’s nation’swomen. women.InIn1926, 1926, under the the auspices auspices of of the theWILPF WILPF and andthe theleadership leadershipofofBalch, Balch,an aninterinterfive women and and one man traveled through racial group of fi ve women throughHaiti Haitifor forthree three weeks. In 1927 a report of their findings, Occupied Haiti, was published. 1927 report of their findings, Occupied Haiti, published.

Race and and the the Social SocialThought ThoughtofofWhite WhiteWomen Women || 115 Race 115 trip confirmed The trip confirmedfor forBalch Balch that thatrace racecontinued continuedtotostrongly stronglyinfluence influenceUS US policy. She Sheused used the the investigative mission, mission, the the subsequent report, foreign policy. report, and a meeting meeting with with President President Coolidge Coolidge as opportunities opportunitiesto tochallenge challengeand and thinking about recalibrate the nation’s nation’s thinking about race, masculinity, and and foreign foreign polpolicy. The The WILPF’s WILPF’swork workon onHaiti Haiti contested contested both the icy. the defensive defensive and andaggresaggres-

forms of of racism racism and and showed showed their their interdependence. sive forms Haiti, historian historian Mary Renda argues that In her book book Taking Taking Haiti, that the theUS US occupation of of Haiti powerfully infl influenced occupation uenced American culture, producing understanding race, “new ways of understanding race,gender, gender,sexuality sexualityand andAmericanness.”*? Americanness.”83

From white marines’ and From and soldiers’ soldiers’ letters letters home home to to family familyand andfriends friends to Eugene O’Neill’s Emperor Jones, Haiti became an important symbol Eugene O’Neill’s Emperor Jones, Haiti became an important symbol through which through which and and against against which which Americans Americans vetted vetted their their ideas ideas about about race and gender. For many the preponderance preponderance of of writings writings generated generated by by the the occupation, which equated equated Haiti Haiti with withvoodoo, voodoo,the theprimitive, primitive,and andbeastly beastly lust, served to justify the US expansionist spirit. The occupation lust, justify the US expansionist spirit. The occupation and and the cultural cultural fascination fascination with withHaiti Haitifacilitated facilitatedby byititemboldened emboldenedaaspirit spiritofof American exceptionalism exceptionalism and and steeped steeped that exceptionalism in the myth American exceptionalism in of benevolent of benevolent white manhood. manhood. For For others, others,including includingBalch, Balch,the theintense intense political and cultural obsession with Haiti had the opposite effect, political cultural obsession with Haiti had the opposite effect,asasitit ignited “challenges to domestic relations of power” and and produced producedantianti84 The occupation occupation precipitated racist political alliances.** alliances. The precipitated the theformation formationofof interracial alliances, dramatized dramatizedthe theinfluence influenceof ofJim Jim Crow Crow racism racism on on the the US military military machine, and accelerated critiques of the influence of race on machine, and accelerated critiques of the influence of race on US policy policy making. making. US Peace women women recorded recorded their their concern concern with with US intervention in in the Peace US intervention the Caribbean and Central America more than a decade before the 1926 Caribbean and Central America more than a decade before the 1926 WILPF mission mission sailed members of sailedfor forHaiti. Haiti.In InJuly Julyof of1915, 1915, members of the theWPP WPPpubpublicly protested the licly the presence presence of of US US troops troopsin inHaiti Haitialong alongwith withUS USaggresaggression and colonial aspirations aspirations in in Nicaragua, Nicaragua, the theDominican DominicanRepublic, Republic, and and 85 Emily Greene Greene Balch Balch began began making making requests in for a Puerto Rico.* Rico. Emily in 1915 1915 for mission to investigate US activity in Haiti. In 1920, the US WILPF executo investigate US activity in Haiti. In 1920, the US WILPF executive board officially officially went on record calling calling for for an an investigative investigative mission mission include African Americans.*° to Haiti and andstipulated stipulatedthat thatthe themission mission include African Americans.86 WILPFInternational International Congress Congress held held in Washington, DC, The 1924 1924 WILPF DC, called for a New International Order and generated increased momentum for generated increased for

116 | |A Band ofofNoble 116 A Band NobleWomen Women economic and and military aggression in Haiti a thorough accounting of US economic Haiti 87 and the and theWestern WesternHemisphere.*” Hemisphere. The interracial mission that traveled through through Haiti Haitifor for three threeweeks weeksin in built upon upon the the interracial alliances and February of 1926 1926 built and antiracist antiracist analyanalytrumpeted during sis trumpeted duringthe the1924 1924 International InternationalWILPF WILPFCongress. Congress.The Theinvestiinvestideepening ties internationalists gative team signaled signaled the the WILPF’s WILPF’s deepening ties to black internationalists and the development of a female-based interracial internationalism. the development of a female-based interracial internationalism.The The Haiti mission Haiti mission included included Addie Addie Hunton Hunton and andCharlotte CharlotteAtwood. Atwood.Charlotte Charlotte Atwood, a teacher from Dunbar High Atwood, High School School in Washington, Washington, DC, represented black clubwomen. The more famous of the black more famous of the two, two,Addie AddieHunton, Hunton, joined the mission as a representative of the ICWDR and as national mission as a representative of the ICWDR and as national vice vice and NACW NACW Hunton Hunton president of the the NACW.* NACW.88 As a leader of the ICWDR ICWDR and fashioned the fashioned the development developmentof of black feminist feminist internationalism internationalismand andencourencourbuilding with aged alliance building with like-minded like-mindedwhite whitewomen womenin inthe theWILPF. WILPF. As the interracial WILPF investigative team traveled around the interracial WILPF investigative traveled around the the and laypeople and studying studying the island meeting with with officials officials and the state state of agriculture, health health care, care, infrastructure, infrastructure,and andUS USmilitary militarypractices, practices,the theWILPF WILPF gsroupmodeled modeledaa form form of of transnational transnational diplomacy grounded group grounded in in mutual mutual respect and the principles of community internationalists. As community internationalists. As community internationalists, women internationalists, women like like Balch Balch and Hunton Hunton believed believed that thatthe thelessons lessons they learned learned as as they theyattempted attemptedtotowork workacross acrosslines linesofofracial racialdifference difference in the streets of Philadelphia or in the hills of Haiti held the nucleus nucleus to world peace. These local local lessons lessons of of mutual mutual respect and understanding, and understanding,ifif adopted by adopted by national nationalleaders, leaders,could couldhelp helpwalk walkthe theworld worldaway awayfrom fromaggresaggression and toward toward peace. Balch realized realized that that mutual mutual respect respect seemed seemed aa distant distant hope when the Balch military and political occupation of the island rested and political occupation island rested upon uponracist raciststereostereotypes. As she traveled through the the island island and andmet metwith withwhite whiteofficials, officials, Balch concluded concluded that that the the “traditional” “traditional” attitudes attitudes of Balch of white white men men stationed stationed in in Haiti were “intensified.” “intensified.” White marines, especially those those from from the the South, South, 89 believed in white superiority and black inferiority.®’ In 1926 the status white superiority and black inferiority. 1926 status of US US race race relations relations continued continued to to be be embattled embattled and and bleak. In the of bleak. In the South South where most African lived, lynching lynching remained remained a national where African Americans Americans lived, national economic outlooks outlooks stalled, stalled, and voting rights pastime, black black economic rights were were proprovisional. Haiti, on the other hand, had for more than one hundred years hand, had for more than one hundred years

Race and and the the Social SocialThought ThoughtofofWhite WhiteWomen Women | 117 Race 117

been an an independent independentnation nationled ledby byFrench-speaking French-speakingblack blackelites. elites.InInthe the face of this evidence of black fitness for self-rule, Balch found that the face of evidence of black fitness for self-rule, Balch found that the occupying forces escalated occupying escalated their theiruse useof ofracial racialstereotypes. stereotypes.As Asshe shewrote wroteinin the opening openingpages pagesof ofOccupied Occupied Haiti: “Of all the black man’s burdens burdensperperhaps the most tragic is that the uncultivated white man finds finds him him funny. funny. All peoples who have have known knownoppression oppressionsuffer suffersomething somethingofofthis—the this—the Jew . . . ...,the thethe educated Hindu (compare Kipling’s , theIrishman, Irishman, educated Hindu (compare Kipling’sBabus), Babus),but but 90 the Negro.” Negro.” none in such measure as the Through her announcement announcement and anddescription descriptionof ofthe theblack black man’s man’s burburBalch makes makes clear clearthat that the the occupation occupation served served not not only only as asaamechanism den, Balch mechanism for expanding US economic economic and and military strength but just as importantly strength but just as importantly as aamechanism mechanismfor for revitalizing revitalizingand andlegitimating legitimatingaatransatlantic transatlanticracist racistdisdiscourse. By By fifinding course. nding black Haitians funny, funny, the the US US occupying occupying forces forces were were invoking the vaudevillian stereotype of the invoking the middle-class middle-class dandy dandy used used during Reconstruction and in Birth of a Nation. The stereotype aimed during Reconstruction and in Birth of a Nation. The stereotype aimedtoto challenge and and forestall forestall the the growing growingeconomic economic and andpolitical politicalpower powerof offree free 91 blacks.’ blacks. Balch Balch knew that to to end endthe theoccupation occupationHaitians Haitiansand andtheir theirUS US allies not not only only needed to turn allies turn back back the the military military and andeconomic economic claws claws of the occupation, but also needed to turn around the race discourse. occupation, turn around the race discourse. Balch Balch calculated that in order order to to rescind rescind the theracist racistattitudes attitudesof ofthe theUS USmilitary military machine, the the focus machine, focus of scrutiny needed to to shift shift from from Haitian Haitianbehavior behavior to the behavior behavior of of the the US US occupying occupying forces. forces. To To do do so, so, Balch Balch questioned questioned the purported civility of white manhood by linking it with antimodern purported civility by it with antimodern parochialism. She observed: “There are many many white whitemen menwho whoconceive conceive of themselves as men of the world who yet find find it impossible to take seriously any man of ously of aa darker darker race race than thantheir theirown.”” own.”92With Withthis thiscomment, comment, Balch elevated the status of black manhood, distanced white women Balch elevated the distanced white womenlike like makers and herself from the the provincialism provincialismof of US US policy makers andmilitary militarymen, men,and and advanced her in humanist humanist internationalism. advanced her belief belief in internationalism. mission attacked the character The WILPF WILPF mission character of of the theoccupying occupyingforces forces in a number of ways. In its report it documented the illegal imprisonnumber of ways. In its report it documented the illegal imprisonment of Haitians, the the use useof offorced forcedlabor laborininUS USreconstruction reconstructionprojects, projects, and the indiscriminate indiscriminate killing killing of of civilians. civilians. But But it was the the discussion discussion of of sexual conduct conduct that Balch and others presented to unravel sexual Balch and unravel the the myth myth of of white benevolence and black criminality. In the early pages of Occupied benevolence and black criminality. In the early pages of Occupied

118 | |A Band ofofNoble 118 A Band NobleWomen Women Balch cited cited the the congressional congressional testimony Haiti, Balch testimonyof ofHelen HelenHill HillWeed Weedtotoestabestabthat before the lish that the occupation occupation white whitewomen womentraveling travelingalone aloneininHaiti Haitiwere were safe. In In her her testimony testimony Mrs. Mrs. Weed Weedreported reported that that she frequently traveled by safe. horseback “all “all through through the mountains” horseback mountains” and and“found “foundthe theHaitians Haitiansalways always 93 kind and and courteous.”” courteous.” Haitian Haitianwomen womenof ofall allclasses, classes, on onthe theother otherhand, hand,

experienced the militarized sexuality. experienced the racial racial politics of militarized sexuality. During Duringthe theoccupaoccupation, Port-au-Prince Port-au-Prince recorded recorded aa rise rise in the number of saloons and number of saloons and dance dance registered businesses that were known halls with with 147 147 registered known to to cater cater to to prostituprostitution. Balch Balch and and Hunton also reported tion. reported aa rise risein inthe thenumber numberofof“illegiti“illegitimate children” and and compared compared those thosefindings findingsto tothe thesame samedevelopments developments in the Philippines, a US protectorate since the Spanish-American Philippines, a US protectorate since the Spanish-American War.” War.94 Crow attitudes did Although Jim Crow did not not forbid forbid white white marines marinesfrom fromhaving having sex Haitian women, white marines sex marines who who desired desiredto toformalize formalizetheir theirrelarelations with Haitian women were sanctioned. In the race relations chapter of Occupied OccupiedHaiti HaitiBalch Balchand andHunton Hunton noted noted the the hypocrisy of of the the case case of of aa marine who, when he married into a prominent Haitian white marine Haitian family, was shunned by the marines shunned marines for for performing performing an an act act “unbecoming “unbecoming to to aa soldier soldier 95 gentlemen.” and gentlemen.” Balch maintained her her approach approach of of rebutting Balch maintained rebutting white racial attitudes ofof Occupied as one tactic tactic for for ending endingthe theoccupation. occupation.Upon Uponrelease release OccupiedHaiti, Haiti, Emily Greene Greene Balch Balch received received aa private Emily private meeting with with President President Calvin Calvin 96 Coolidge.” The The granting granting of of the meeting acknowledged the power of Coolidge. of the the female peace lobby, though the mission’s findings and interracial model lobby, the mission’s findings and interracial model enough to bring number of years were not enough bring the the occupation occupation to to a quick end. A number later, Balch Balch seized seized the the opportunity opportunity to draft later, draft aafive-page five-page memorandum memorandum to to President Hoover’s Haiti Commission in which she returned to the issue of President Hoover’s Haiti Commission in which she returned to the issue of the role of US US racial racial attitudes attitudes in the the occupation. occupation. Balch Balch warned warnedthe theHoover Hoover Commission that unless itit retracted Commission retracted the the “Massa “Massa in inNiggerland” Niggerland”attitude attitude from its diplomacy the administration administrationwould wouldnever neverbe beable ableto toreach reachaa“real “real understanding, from understanding, from the the inside inside out” out” of of the the Haitian Haitian claim claim for for the the restorarestora97 tion of self-rule.” Scientific racism, Balch believed, kept US policy makers self-rule. Scientific racism, Balch believed, kept US policy makers viewing Haitians from viewing Haitians as as equals, equals, civilized, civilized, and and fit fit for sovereignty. Echoing her argument on on immigration, immigration, Balch Balch advised the Hoover administration that it would gain gain in in character character and andoutlook outlookififitit could could begin beginto toempathize empathize with and learn from the Haitians it sought to control. Balch knew that the and learn from the Haitians it sought to control.

Race and and the the Social SocialThought ThoughtofofWhite WhiteWomen Women | 119 Race 119 commission would not take up up her her plea plea for for aa new new foreign foreign policy policy based based in in humanitarian mutuality. humanitarian mutuality.Yet Yet she she warned warnedthe thecommission commissionthat thatcontinuing continuing policy laced laced with with white white paternalism paternalism and would a foreign policy and scientific scientific racism would 98 a fools’ cause the the United UnitedStates Statesto toperpetually perpetually“live “liveinin a fools’paradise.””* paradise.”

immigration to From her work on immigration toher herefforts effortsto tocontest contestthe theUS US presence presence in Haiti, Balch engaged the modernist’s burden burden of of exposing exposing the theracism, racism, oftentimes cloaked as science, used by everyday people and politicians oftentimes cloaked as science, used by everyday people and politicianstoto restrict citizenship rights rights within within the the nation nation and andexpand expandUS US power power abroad. abroad. Balch’ssteady steadyefforts efforts to toconfront confront anti-immigrant anti-immigrant sentiment Balch’s sentimentand andJim JimCrow Crow politics at at home home and in Haiti politics Haiti indicate indicate that that she she helped helped direct directtwentiethtwentiethcentury transformations in race discourse and politics. To achieve century transformations in race discourse and politics. To achievethe thenew new age of ofinterdependence interdependence and and cosmopolitan world-mindedness world-mindedness Balch social age aspired to, aspired to, she she understood understoodthat thatthe thescaffolding scaffoldingofofscientific scientificracism racismneeded needed dismantled. To dismantle the scaffolding, Balch Balchincreasingly increasinglyturned turned to be dismantled. To dismantle to culture and history, and away from science, as explanatory frameand history, and away from science, as explanatory frameClearly for for Balch, Balch, to to work work for for peace peace mandated mandated a commitment works. Clearly commitment to to work against against racism. racism.

Anna Melissa Anna Melissa Graves Graves

The adventurous life and The and writing writing of ofAnna AnnaMelissa MelissaGraves, Graves, the thedaughdaughter of a Southern plantation owner, represents yet another way in which which white peace women attempted to shift the racial dynamics that defined attempted to shift the racial dynamics that defined during the first the twentieth twentieth century. Starting in the United States during first half of the 1917,Graves Gravesspent spentmore morethan thantwenty twenty years years of of her her life life traveling traveling the the world 1917, and publishing publishing collections collections of of letters letters and andmemoirs memoirsbased basedon onher herjourneys. journeys. Through her writing and travels, she aimed to “build up a belief travels, up a belief in the oneness of of humanity” humanity” and “expose and discredit all propaganda which oneness “expose and propaganda which tends to separate” in an effort to prove “that this propaganda which sepasepa99 As a method for discredrates is not disinterested and it is not scientific.”” rates is not disinterested and it is not scientific.” As a method for discrediting race-based stereotypes, Graves felt that the content of the letters she published—people’s discussions discussions about their families and their published—people’s their hopes hopes and and fears—would reveal reveal that that individuals individuals from disparate locations fears—would locations shared a common set of basic concerns concerns and desires. focusing on what she hoped common desires. By focusing hoped would be interpreted by her Western readers as familiar daily struggles interpreted by her Western readers as familiar daily struggles

120 | A ofofNoble 120 | Band A Band NobleWomen Women from people from places places like China, China, Peru, Peru, Armenia, Armenia, or orWest West Africa, Africa, for for instance, Graves endeavored to loosen her reader’s attachment to raceto loosen her reader’s attachment to racebased allegiances allegiances and and encourage encouragenew, new,more moretransnational transnationalallegiances allegiances based on what she identified universal yearnings identified as universal yearnings and andpractices. practices. Graves Graves did not necessarily want to to deny deny the the diversity diversityof of the theworld’s world’s people, but she did want to weaken the argument argument that that in in difference difference one one found found proof proof variation in levels of of human human development and and worth. of variation worth. Michele Newman Newman notes, historians As Louise Michele historians of of gender genderneed needtotoanaanawomen’sembeddedness embeddedness within the lyze “white women’s the racial discourses discourses of of abolisuffrage, missionary missionary ideology, civilization, civilization, imperialism, imperialism, tion, benevolence, suffrage, Graves, although progressivism, and and feminism.”'°° feminism.”100 As we see with with Graves, although she sheisis

of colonialism, colonialism, imperialism, imperialism, and a critic of andracism, racism,she sheisis attached attachedtotothe theidea idea that select Western white women held held aa particularly particularlyadvanced advancedcapability capability for and protect racially to advocate advocate for racially persecuted peoples and and nations. nations. In In other words, within her antiracist positions Graves can at times be seen as words, within her antiracist positions Graves can at times be seen as positioning some positioning some white white women womenas asexemplars exemplarsofofcivilization. civilization.InInaddition, addition, condemned the use of race as a method although Graves Graves condemned method of of separation separation when deployed deployed by by imperialists, imperialists,she sheadvocated advocatedits itsuse useasasa aform formofofoppooppositional consciousness and political community building when it came community building when it cameto to the campaign campaign to to secure secureLiberia’s Liberia’s independence independencefrom fromoutside outsideinfluence. influence. championed the With Liberia, Graves championed the formation formationof ofaastrong strongPan-African Pan-African consciousness, or or as W. E. E. B. B. Du Du Bois Bois called called for, for, a “new racial philosoconsciousness, 101 phy.”"' Graves’s support of Pan-Africanism is not phy.” support of Pan-Africanism is notnecessarily necessarilyan anendorseendorseGraves remains remains ment of the idea of of race as a biological biological or static category. Graves consistent in her belief consistent belief that that race raceisisaapolitical politicaland andmalleable malleablecategory; category; only in the the case case of of Liberia Liberia does does she she find find its its strategic strategic use useby bythe theracially racially 102 oppressed both acceptable acceptable and and necessary. necessary.’ toaaformerly formerlyslave-owning slave-owning Confederate famGraves was born in in 1875 1875 to She began began her her life travel in at the the age of forty-two forty-two when ily. She life of travel in 1917 1917 at whenshe shewent went slums with children to London to do social work in the city’s slums children crippled crippledby by the war. She then moved to France and associated herself with the Workthe war. She then moved to France and associated herself with the WorkClub of of aa French French munitions munitions plant. ing Women’s Women’s Club plant.For For the thenext nexttwo twodecades, decades, Graves moved moved around the globe, Graves globe, financing financing her travels travels in in part partthrough through teaching English and and history. history. Her Herstays staysin ineach eachplace placegenerally generallyvaried variedinin length from eight months to two years. Her longer travels included months to two years. Her longer travels includedvisits visits

Race and and the the Social Social Thought ThoughtofofWhite WhiteWomen Women | 121 Race 121 to China, China, Peru, Peru,Mexico, Mexico, Russia, Russia, Syria, Syria, and andPalestine; Palestine;Armenia, Armenia,Georgia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan; Azerbaijan; Liberia Liberia and andSierra SierraLeone; Leone;Portugal Portugaland andBrazil. Brazil.She Shealso also spent four four months months“exploring” “exploring”ten tenland-grant land-grantblack blackcolleges collegesininthe theUnited United States. Shorter Shorter trips included States. included visits visitstotoKorea, Korea,Bolivia, Bolivia, Chile, Chile, Argentina, Argentina, Germany, Italy, England, and and Switzerland. Switzerland.

manner to Graves used her world travels travels in a practical manner to help help expand expandthe the WILPF’sinternational international membership membership and WILPF’s and to to appraise appraiseorganizational organizationalleaders leaders on the political issues in in different different countries. countries.She She served servedas asan aneyewitness eyewitness and investigative investigative reporter reporterininplaces placeslike likeMexico, Mexico,Peru, Peru,and andLiberia. Liberia.With With Central and and South South America America and and Mexico Mexico prime prime targets targetsof of US US intervention, intervention, Graves assisted in strengthening strengtheningWILPF’s WILPF’s presence on the Pan-American continent. During continent. Duringher herten-month ten-monthvisit visittotoPeru Peruinin1922, 1922,she shenetworked networkedwith with Peruvian feminists feminists and andestablished establishedsupport supportfor forthe theWILPF. WILPF.Additionally, Additionally, she became an advocate for the the leftist leftist resistance resistancein inPeru, Peru,participating participatinginin campaigns that that demanded demandedthe thereturn returnofofexiled exiledleader leaderVictor VictorRaul RaulHaya Haya De La De La Torre. Torre. In In 1923 1923 Graves Graves assisted assisted the theWomen’s Women’sPeace PeaceUnion Unionininestabestablishing contact with with the the Consejo Consejo Nacional Nacional de de Mujeres Mujeres Mexicanas (National Council of Mexican Women) and and helped helpedZonia ZoniaBaber, Baber,the thechair chairofofthe theUS US WILPF’sPan-American Pan-American Committee, Committee, make contacts in WILPF’s in Mexico. Mexico. In the the early early 1930sshe shetraveled traveledto toWest WestAfrica, Africa,during duringwhich which time time she she spent spent three and 1930s and a half months months in inLiberia. Liberia. Shortly Shortlyafterward, afterward,Graves Gravesmoved movedtotoGeneva Genevaand and became a consultative consultative member memberfor forthe theWILPF WILPF on onthe theLeague Leagueof ofNations’ Nations’ 103 In the discussion of Graves that follows, I will first commission.'™ Liberia commission. In the discussion that follows, will first

focus on her writings about focus about her her stay stay in in China Chinaininthe theearly early1920s. 1920s. II will will of of Benvenuto also discuss discussher herpublication publication BenvenutoCellini CelliniHad HadNo NoPrejudice PrejudiceAgainst Against Bronze:Letters Lettersfrom fromWest WestAfrica Africainin1942. 1942.InInthe the fifinal section II will Bronze: nal section willexplore explore her work with Emily Greene Balch to derail US support for economic work with Emily Greene Balch to derail US support for economicand and potentially military potentially militaryintervention interventionininLiberia.’™ Liberia.104 Graves’szeal zeal and and passion for her Graves’s her work work was wasrooted rootedininher heridentity identityasas a feminist and and her her family’s family’s missionary missionary roots. roots. In In aaten-page ten-pageadvice advice letter letter Graves wrote in the early 1920s 1920sto toaaPeruvian Peruvian woman woman who who expressed expressed interinterest in feminist feminist peace peace work workwe wecan candetect detectthe theinfluence influenceofofthese thesetwo twoforces. forces. Buy and and borrow and Buy and lend lend books, books, read read at at least least one one book book or or five five articles a matters connected week on matters connectedwith withmen’s men’s relation relation to to man, man, and anddirectly directlywith with

122 | A ofofNoble 122 | Band A Band NobleWomen Women war.... . . butbut even before one informs one’s war even before one informs one’sself, self,before beforeone onestarts startsatatall, all, one must have the the conviction conviction that thatall all this thisisisnecessary—one necessary—onemust mustrealize realize the seriousness seriousness of of the the call call to to women—one women—one must mustliterally literallybe bepossessed possessedby by

this duty dutyto tothe theexclusion exclusionof ofeverything everythingelse—because else—becauseit itincludes includeseveryevery-

thing else. thing else. Almsgiving Almsgiving is is foolishness foolishness ifif one one is is doing doingnothing nothingtotoprevent prevent

that which when it comes makes all the almsgiving in the world world as aa drop of water in a desert of the famished.'” famished.105

Graves’sadvice adviceto to this this woman woman reverberated Graves’s reverberated with with the themissionary missionaryferfervor and righteousness righteousness so so familiar familiar in inher herown ownfamily. family.The Thelanguage languageofof conviction and and devotion mirrors conviction mirrors the thelinguistic linguisticstrategies strategiesemployed employedby by missionaries. Similarly, Graves’s call for women to be self-sacrificing, Similarly, Graves’s for women to be self-sacrificing, though in in the the name nameof ofpeace, peace, also also reveals revealsthe thesimilarities similaritiesininthe thecharaccharacter traits both both feminists feminists and andmissionaries missionarieshoped hopedtotofoster fosterand andadvocate. advocate. strategies abound, abound, the difference appeared appeared Though similarities in emotive strategies in the political project. If If missionaries served as the front people front people for for the the exploitation of colonial subjects, then, according according to to Graves, Graves, feminist feministpeace peace women functioned as the the antipode. antipode. Yet, Yet, although women peace internamissionary and tionalists situated situated themselves themselves as the antithesis antithesis of missionary and imperial imperial projects, their their own own personal personal histories were often often intimately intimately intertwined intertwined in own early childhood such projects. Graves’s own childhoodyears yearswere wereinfluenced influencedby bythe the evangelizing missionary tales of of her her uncle uncle and andthe thechildren’s children’sbooks booksshe she 106 loved to devour by British colonial author author Flora Flora Shaw.'” Shaw. In her her preface preface to to her own book, The Far East Is Not Very Far, Graves evokes an early childown book, The Far East Very Far, Graves evokes an childhood memory memory of of China China as as an anexample exampleof of the theinfluences influencesshe shewas wasworking working against during her own own travels travels around around the theworld. world. Remembering Remembering a mismissionary uncle uncle who lived in China sionary China during duringthe themid-nineteenth mid-nineteenthcentury, century, Graves recounts the songs and lessons he taught her: and lessons he taught her: When about about five, five, II could could sing sing“Jesus “Jesusloves lovesme, me,this thisI Iknow, know,for forthe theBible Bible tells me so” in Cantonese, and and still still remember rememberthe thewords. words.(But, (But, the theCanCan-

understand my tonese don’t don’t understand my pronunciation.) pronunciation.) Though Thoughmy myuncle’s uncle’s visits visits were not frequent frequent there there were werethree threeor orfour fourbetween between1880 1880and andhis hislast lastinin

and many many other missionaries came to our home. about 1904 1904 and home. Of course what I learned was rather rather uncomplimentary uncomplimentaryto tothe theChinese Chinesewho whoweren't weren’t

Race and and the theSocial SocialThought ThoughtofofWhite White Women| | 123 Race Women 123 “converted”; girl girl babies thrown thrown into “converted”; intothe the“baby “babytower,” tower,”hobbling hobblingwomen women

and drugged druggedmen."” men.107 This framing passage from her book of of China correspondence correspondence underundercentrality of the scores the centrality the missionary missionarynarrative narrativetotoGraves’s Graves’santi-imperialist anti-imperialist and the project and the centrality centralityof ofgender gendertotoher herefforts effortstotomake makethe theChinese Chinesemore more knowable to her Western readers. Graves wanted to save the Chinese from knowable to her Western readers. Graves wanted to save the Chinese from missionary family the likes of her missionary familyand andininso sodoing doingsave saveherself herselffrom fromthe theracracand misguided ism and misguidedreligious religiousfervor fervorof ofher herown ownfamilial familialheritage. heritage.Although Although she was highly highly critical critical of the the missionary missionarypast pastof ofher herfather fatherand anduncles, uncles,she she financed portions of her travels by working as a contract teacher for misfinanced travels by working as a contract teacher for missionary associations. In her her critique critique of of her herfamily’s family’s portrayal portrayalof ofChina Chinaand and inhabitants, she and political its inhabitants, she laments lamentsthe thelack lack of historical and political context context offered offered her as a child. her child. As she notes notes she she had had“no “noknowledge knowledgeofofits itssuffering sufferingfrom fromthe the West, no knowledge of opium wars... and of course had never been told West, no knowledge of opium wars . . . and of course had never been toldofof the part missionaries played in China’s subjugation and disintegration.”'” disintegration.”108 Graves made her own own first first expedition expedition to to China China in in the thetumultuous tumultuousyear yearofof 1919.Her Hertravels travelsbrought brought her her into into the the middle middle of Chinese Chinese upheaval, upheaval, marked marked 1919. by resistance to Japanese imperialism and internal political strife. With imperialism and internal political strife. Withher her uncle’s orientalist stories resonating resonating in in her herhead, head,Graves Gravestraveled traveledtotoChina China with a “background with “backgrounddivided dividedbetween betweena amemory memoryofofbaby-tower baby-towerstories storiesand and a determination to feel, if I could, that the ‘Chinee’ was neither ‘heathen’ determination to feel, if I could, that the ‘Chinee’ was neither ‘heathen’ or “peculiar.””’” AlthoughGraves Graveshad had been been beguiled beguiled as a young child ‘peculiar.’”109 Although child by by stories of of mysterious mysterious people people in in a faraway stories faraway land, she she ambitiously ambitiously sought sought through her through herWILPF WILPF associations associationsand andher herown owntravels travelstotochange changethe theWestern Western orientalist image of China she had had learned. learned.Her Herinvolvement involvementininthe theWILPF WILPF provided her with the general framework that the key to a future of provided her with the general framework that the key to a future ofpeace peace rested, in part, in women’s ability to cultivate an awareness awareness of the common common humanity of humanity of the the world’s world’s people. people.As Asthe theWILPF WILPF spoke spoke out outabout aboutthe thedandangers of jingoism, Graves looked back upon uponher herown ownupbringing upbringingasasa aplace place to begin her personal journey to stitch the world closer together. Through to stitch the world closer together. Through publishing her personal correspondence with with people people she met in her her world world travels, Graves sought sought to to prove provethat thatthe theracialized racializednationalist nationalistdifferences differences that divided divided the the world world into into warring warring parties parties were were false false and and surmountable. surmountable.

124 | A ofofNoble 124 | Band A Band NobleWomen Women Critiquing Scientific Critiquing Scientific Racism Racism

Graves’sunderstanding understanding of Graves’s of the the need needto tocritique critiquescientific scientificracism racismisisapparapparThe ent in in her her1942 1942 introductory introductoryessay essaytoto TheFar FarEast EastIsIsNot NotVery VeryFar, Far,aacolleccollecfifteen tion of her fi fteen years of correspondence with two two young young Chinese Chinesemen, men, Wang Shou-Ming and Liu Liu Yuan-Lung, Yuan-Lung, whom she she met met through throughher herassoassociation with English-teaching centers and and the theYMCA. YMCA. In the introduction introduction Graves declares that that she she hoped hopedthat thataa“closer “closermore moreintimate intimateknowledge” knowledge” of Chinese men would prove the “oneness” humanity and of “oneness” of humanity andthe the“close“closepossible between between individuals individuals of of all all cultures cultures and natures and ness possible and races races the Chinese were not a “pecuand geographies.”"” geographies.”110 In order to prove that that the Chinese were not a “pecu-

Gravesmaintained maintained that it was was incumbent incumbent upon her to disrupt disrupt liar” people, Graves popular Western popular Western stereotypes stereotypesabout aboutthe theChinese. Chinese.She Sheattempted attemptedtotodo dothis this ventured to in two ways. First, she ventured to universalize universalizebehavior behaviorthat thatWesterners Westerners had essentialized as indicative of a Chinese nature. Second, she essentialized as indicative of a Chinese nature. Second, she tried triedtoto present Chinese men men as as possessing possessingforms formsof ofmasculinity masculinitythat thatwould wouldbebe familiar and admirable to a Western reader. familiar and admirable to a Western reader. As a critic of scientific scientific racism, racism, Graves’s Graves’s overall goal goal for for her hercollection collection of letters was to make it impossible for her readers to link the behavior make it impossible for her readers to link the behavior happened to of people who happened to be be Chinese Chinesewith withfixed fixedideas ideasabout aboutsomething something understood to understood to be be aabiological biological “Chinese “Chinese race.” race.” In her her introduction introductiontotothe the collection, she she rattled rattled off off popular Western ideas about the collection, the Chinese. Chinese. The The Chinese were understood to be uncultured—“roughish” and “callous’”— understood to be uncultured—“roughish” and “callous”— and at the the same same time timehighly highlycultured culturedand andfree freespirited—a spirited—apeople peoplewho who “loved to laugh” and andwere were“innately “innatelymore morebeauty beautyloving, loving,more moresensitive sensitive 111 aestheticallythan than Western Westernpeople.” people.” As aesthetically As Edward Edward Said Said explains explains in his his book Orientalism, Orientalism,in inorder order for forthe the West Westor orthe theOccident Occidentto tounderstand understand itself as superior and and the the emblem emblem of of the thecivilized, civilized,ititmust mustcreate createininitsitsrelief relief an image of the East East or or the the Orient Orient that thattraffics traffics in intropes tropesthat thatpaint paintthe the 112 orientalother otherasasmysterious, mysterious,inferior, inferior,and andabject. abject.’ As aa challenge oriental challenge to to these these orientalist and biological determinist arguments, Graves offered numerarguments, Graves ous examples from her her own own observations observations of ofthe theChinese. Chinese.Of Ofa afemale female schoolteacher who who rebuffed a poor begging schoolteacher begging jinrikisha jinrikisha man, man,Graves Graves rherhetorically asked, “was her callousness Chinese?” In the the case case of pallbearers pallbearers who sat down on strike in the middle of a funeral, Graves remarked, down on strike in the middle of a funeral, Graves remarked,“was “was

Race and and the the Social SocialThought ThoughtofofWhite White Women| | 125 Race Women 125 their behavior behavior Chinese, Chinese, or orfor foraawant wantofofpoverty?” poverty?”Graves Gravesconcluded concludedher her attempt to disrupt disrupther herreaders’ readers’ability abilitytotomake makeconnections connectionsbetween betweenthe the day-to-day casual actions of people people who who happen happentotobe beChinese Chineseand andthe the idea of racially marked marked Chinese Chinesetraits traitsororvalues valuesbybyway wayofofcomparison. comparison. She asked her readers readers if if the the behaviors behaviors of of the the Chinese Chineseteacher teacheror orpallbearpallbearers were really any more inherent inherent or or mysterious mysterious than thanthat thatofofthe theforeign foreign rulers responsible rulers responsiblefor forthe the“absentee “absenteecontrol, control,subjugation subjugationand andexploitation” exploitation” 113 of China. China." of In order to to convince convince her readership readership that thatthe theChinese Chinesewere werenot notbiobiologically different from whites whites or or inferior, inferior, Graves Graves believed believed she she needed neededtoto establish her impartiality. With this in mind, she decided not to With this in mind, she decided not tofeature feature letters from the the Chinese Chinese women womento towhom whomshe shetaught taughthigh highschool schoolEnglish English and history ofof women’s and historyfor for fear fearthat thather herown ownfeminism feminismand andthe thediscussion discussion women’s issues in the the letters letterswould wouldbe beseen seentotocompromise compromiseher herappeal appealtotoobjectivobjectivity. Instead she featured her relationship with two men with whom she ity. featured her relationship with two men with whom she had corresponded, corresponded, but but with with whom whomshe shehad hadvery verylittle littledirect directcontact. contact.She She associanever met Wang Wang Shou-Ming Shou-Ming in in person personand andshe shecame cameinto intodirect direct association with with Liu Liu Yuan-Lung Yuan-Lung for foronly onlysix sixmonths. months.Graves Gravesfelt feltthat thatYuan-Lung Yuan-Lung in particular particular fit the bill of impartiality because he did not attend fit the bill of impartiality because he did not attendAmerican American missionary schools. became aa missionary schools.Additionally, Additionally,much muchtotoGraves’s Graves’schagrin, chagrin,hehe became militarist and militarist and supporter supporterof ofthe thenationalist nationalistmovement movementofofChiang ChiangKai-Shek. Kai-Shek. Graves used the the resilience resilience of her relationship relationshipwith withYuan-Lung Yuan-Lungin inthe theface face of his militarism as an example of her overall thesis that humans could as an example of her overall thesis that humans could learn to learn to care care for for each each other otheracross acrosslines linesof ofdifference. difference.Graves Graveswrote: wrote:“His “His change saddened me me but but did didnot notcreate createany anyestrangement estrangementwhatsoever. whatsoever. There was nothing nothing‘peculiar’ ‘peculiar’in init. it. II still still felt—as felt—as he did—that did—thatthere therewas wasno no 114 barrier because of race or culture.”"™ barrier because of race or culture.” The letters from Yuan-Lung The Yuan-Lung that appear in in the thebook bookdeliver delivertotothe the reader a youthful and and earnest earnest man man struggling strugglingto todo dowhat whatisisbest bestfor forhis his family. We Welearn learn about about the the responsibility responsibility he undertakes undertakes to family. to make make sure surethat that his younger sister and brother receive an education even in the face sister and brother receive an education even in the faceofof natural disasters, natural disasters, like like the the floods, floods, inflicting inflicting China. China. We We meet his his wife wife and and children and follow follow his struggle struggle to to provide provide for forthem themeconomically economically and and emotionally while he also tries to expand expand his his own owneducational educationalhorizons. horizons. He shares shares his dreams of going to London to secure a European education. his dreams of going to London to secure a European education.

126 | |A Band ofofNoble 126 A Band NobleWomen Women learning takes Financially unable unable to to go, much of his learning takes place place through throughthe thelarlarGraves, who who regularly regularly sends sends him gesse of Graves, him packages packagesof of books books often often includincludThrough the letters ing classics like the Iliad and the the Odyssey. Odyssey. Through letters that thatGraves Graves selected for for her text, selected text, we we also also learn learnthat thatYuan-Lung, Yuan-Lung, like likeShou-Ming, Shou-Ming, expresses deep deep devotion devotion for for Graves Graves and andfeels feelscompelled compelledtotoconvince convinceher her of his good character. character. In In aa letter letterfrom from1921 1921 to to Graves Graves he he writes, writes, “I “I really really do not know how how to to express express in in English English my my heart-felt heart-felt gratitude gratitudeto toyou youfor for affectionate,kindly kindlyconcern concernabout aboutmy myfuture future. . . ... Let all your affectionate, Let me assure you that II am am fully fully determined determinedtotoimprove,—to improve,—to develop develop spiritually spirituallyand and intellectually, IIam am fully fully determined determinedtotostruggle strugglesincerely sincerelyand andunselfishly unselfishly a further example in some work for the the benefit benefit of of mankind.”"” mankind.”115 As As a further exampleof ofhis his character we learn through through the theletters lettersthat thatYuan-Lung Yuan-Lungstruggles strugglesdeeply deeply with the question question of of militarism militarism as as he hetries triesto todecide decidewhat whathe hebelieves believesisis best for the future future of his family and for China. Although letters from Yuan-Lung were offered offered to attest to Yuan-Lung were to the the sosoand social fitness called psychological psychological and fitness of Chinese men, Graves Graves also felt felt compelled to address address Western Western beliefs beliefs that that Chinese Chinesemen menlacked lacked“vigor” “vigor” 116 and “virility.”"° By contesting contesting Western interpretations and “virility.” By interpretationsofofChinese Chinesemascumasculinity, Graves Graves believed believed she she was was defending defending China against further Western China against further Western encroachment on encroachment onChinese Chinesesovereignty. sovereignty.To Todefend defendChina’s China’sfitness fitnessfor forciviciviGraves considered it necessary to replace lization, Graves replace the the popular popularWestern Western understanding of understanding of Chinese Chinesemen menas as frail frail and andchildlike childlikewith withimages imagesof ofmusmuscular and brawny men. Graves conjectured that these physically mascubrawny men. Graves presented alongside line men, presented alongside the the intellectual intellectualman, man,like likeYuan-Lung, Yuan-Lung, who who family, would would provide provide the Western reader reader with recognizprovides for his family, and hence admirable forms of Chinese Chinese masculinity. able and Graves offered as evidence of Chinese men’s physicality her trip to Graves offered men’s physicality to the top top of of the the five-thousand-foot five-thousand-foot Taishan Taishan Mountain. Mountain.To To reach reachthe themounmounGraves was was transported transported in taintop, Graves in aa chair chair carried carriedby bytwo twoChinese Chinesemen. men. physiques” and and These two men, she told her readers, possessed “perfect physiques” 117 one of them was even reported to be more than six feet tall."” Although be more than six feet tall. through this through thisstory storyGraves Graves sought soughtto tocontest contestthe therote roteracist racistimages imagesofoffrail frail Chinese masculinity, masculinity, itit failed failed to to free Chinese men and disease-prone disease-prone Chinese from racialized racialized gender genderhierarchies. hierarchies.Graves’s Graves’s tale talemay mayhave havesuggested suggestedthat that Chinese men could compete with US muscularity, but if anything was compete US muscularity, but if

Race and and the theSocial SocialThought ThoughtofofWhite White Women| | 127 Race Women 127

accomplished through through the story accomplished story itit was wastotomaintain maintainGraves’s Graves’s own owngengendered race dered race status. status. By By sharing sharingthis thisstory storywith withher herWestern Westernaudience audienceGraves Graves secures her own own centrality centrality to tothe theunraveling unravelingofofWestern Westernimperialism imperialismatat the same time that she she maintains maintains her her own ownprivilege. privilege. And And by by positioning positioning herself, a white woman, woman, literally literally above above the the heads headsof ofChinese Chinesemen, men,she sheinin fact also feminizes them. In fact In her her zeal zealto todisengage disengageWestern Westernattachments attachments inferiority, she she left left unanalyzed unanalyzed her own to racialized notions of Chinese inferiority, position as aa Western Western white whitewoman. woman.Graves’s Graves’sefforts effortstotodisrupt disruptWestern Western orientalism and challenge challenge scientific scientific racism revealed the complexity complexity and unevenness of Graves flfluctuated between Westernizing the unevenness of such projects. Graves uctuated between Chinese to to make make them them understandable understandable to Chinese to aa Western Western audience audience and and encourencouraging her reader reader to tosee seeChinese Chineseattributes attributesasasuniversal. universal.Like LikeBalch, Balch,she she understood that understood that masculinity masculinityserved servedas asaameasure measureofofcivilization, civilization,yet yetfalfaltered in tered in her her ability ability to to question question the thecentrality centralityof ofWestern Westerngender gendernorms normsand and her own exalted position position as a white white American American woman. woman. Advocating for Pan-Africanism

A decade A decade after traveling traveling to and and writing writing about about China, China, Graves Graves turned turned her interest to to Africa. Africa. Her Her experiences experiences in inWest West Africa, Africa, in inparticular particularher her defense of Liberian sovereignty, generated generated aa change changein inher herthinking thinkingabout about the meaning meaning and andpolitics politics of of race. race. Although Although throughout throughoutmuch muchof ofher herwork work Graves insisted insisted that discernable Graves discernable differences differences among among the the world’s world’s people people derived from culture, culture, not not from from some some stable stable or or essential essentialracial racial distinctivedistinctiveendorsed the ness, in the case of Liberia Graves endorsed the use use of of racial racial nationalism nationalism as a form of resistance resistance against againstencroachment encroachmenton onLiberian Liberianindependence. independence. Her time in in Africa Africa turned turnedher herinto intoan anoutspoken outspokenadvocate advocateofofLiberia Liberiaand and of Pan-Africanism and would would create create an anideological ideological division divisionbetween betweenher her and Emily and Emily Greene Greene Balch. Balch. The influence The influence of of Africa Africa on onGraves’s Graves’s political political philosophy philosophy can canbebe detected ininher Benvenuto detected her1942 1942publication publication BenvenutoCellini CelliniHad HadNo NoPrejudice PrejudiceAgainst Against Bronze.Republished Republished in in 1960 under the Bronze. 1960 under the celebratory celebratoryand andAfrocentric Afrocentrictitle title Africa: The Wonder Wonderand andthe theGlory, Glory,the thebook booklooked looked to to contest traditional Africa: The traditional history texts texts that that ignored ignoredthe theaccomplishments accomplishmentsofofAfrica Africaand andAfricans. Africans. In her own book Graves detailed African historical, cultural, cultural, educational, educational,

128 | |A Band ofofNoble 128 A Band NobleWomen Women and political accomplishments and accomplishments and anddiscoveries, discoveries,in inorder orderto topromote promoteAfrica Africa as a model model of of aa superior superior civilization. civilization. In the the introduction introduction to to the the book, book, explained her approach to African history as a necessary Graves explained necessary political Because Europeans Europeans and and Americans abide by a “ludicrous” intervention. Because and “panicky “panicky fear fear of of losing prestige,” Graves observed that that they they “shy “shy off off

proof of of the the outstanding outstanding superiority of of aa man man from giving the world any proof Through her own publication or woman who has has any any Negro Negro blood.”"* blood.”118 Through Graves sought to demote demote the the assumed assumedelevated elevatedstatus statusofofWestern Westerncivilizacivilizations and and promote promoteAfrica Africaas asaamodel modelsociety. society. inin Benvenuto The African Africanhistory historyGraves Gravesprovided provided BenvenutoCellini CelliniHad HadNo NoPrejuPrejudice Against Bronze challenged popular portrayals of Africa as a backward dice Against Bronze challenged popular portrayals of Africa as a backward continent. Utilizing previously continent. previously published published African African histories, histories,including including the works works of of Franz FranzBoas, Boas,Leo LeoFrobenius, Frobenius,“the “thefather fatherofofAfricanology,” Africanology,” Shaw, Graves Gravespublished published an an exhaustive, exhaustive, and colonial political writer Flora Shaw, professional, and richly detailed book that recorded the longevity professional, and richly recorded the longevity and and complexity of African civilizations. civilizations. Much Much to to her her own ownamusement, amusement,Graves Graves assessed that Dependencyrepresented represented some assessed thatShaw’s Shaw’s1907 1907 A A Tropical Tropical Dependency someof ofthe the best description description of life in interior Sudan before the British rule. rule. Although Graves knew that Shaw was an “arch imperialist” and found Graves “arch imperialist” and foundthe thepolitipolitical narrative of the cal the book book “repulsive,” “repulsive,” Graves approved of of the the cultural cultural recorded of of Sudan, Sudan, fifinding untainted by and material history Shaw Shaw recorded nding itit untainted 119 Shaw’s colonial colonial perspective. perspective.'” Yet, as a rebuke Shaw’s Yet, as rebuke to to Shaw’s Shaw’s political views views on Africa, Graves used her own telling of African history to trumpet Africa, Graves used her African history African ingenuity ingenuity and the centrality like iron, iron, African centrality of of African African discoveries, discoveries, like to the development development of of modern modernindustrialization. industrialization.The TheSudanese, Sudanese,Graves Graves instructed her instructed her readers, designed designed some some of the earliest and most advanced judicial systems, and the Nubians judicial systems, the Nubians developed developedfour fourdifferent differentalphabets. alphabets. fact, Graves Graves contended contended that that the “broad and luminous” In fact, luminous” intelligence intelligence of of fourteenth-century Ghanaian fourteenth-century Ghanaianscholars scholarsrivaled rivaledthat thatofofcontemporary contemporaryHarHar120 vard professors.'” professors. In In addition addition to to promoting promotingAfrican Africanhistory historyas asaavehicle vehicle for contesting colonialism, Graves also engaged in direct political engaged in direct politicaladvoadvocacy. The The best best example example of this this work occurred cacy. occurredin inthe theearly early1930s 1930s when whenshe she helped direct direct campaigns campaignsto toinvestigate investigatethe theFirestone FirestoneCorporation’s Corporation’srole role in Liberian Liberian politics. politics.

Race and and the theSocial SocialThought ThoughtofofWhite White Women| | 129 Race Women 129 The White White Woman’s Burden: Graves, The Woman’s Burden: Graves, Balch, Balch, and the 1930s Liberian Crisis and the 1930s Liberian Crisis

Considerable tension developed developed between betweenEmily EmilyGreene GreeneBalch Balchand andAnna Anna Melissa Graves over the Liberian Liberian crisis. crisis. Their Their correspondence correspondenceabout aboutLibeLibe-

illuminates the ria illuminates the shifting shifting ground groundof of racial racial political thought thought and and its its influinfluence on how peace women women established establishedtheir theirviews viewson onkey keyforeign foreignpolicy policy first glance, US USintervention intervention in in Haiti Haiti and Liberia, two indepenindepenissues. At fi rst glance, nations, might dent black nations, might seem seemto to have havepresented presentedWILPF WILPFwomen womenwith withthe the unlike Graves, found same set of questions and and challenges. challenges.But But Balch, unlike found that that in the case of Liberia a racial analysis or framework could cloud as much much as it revealed. Although US financial financial ventures in in Liberia Liberia and andthe thethreat threat of military intervention to of to secure secure the the financial financial interests interestsof ofthe theFirestone Firestone Rubber Company raised Rubber raised alarms alarmsfor forBalch Balchabout aboutLiberia’s Liberia’sfreedom, freedom,the the behavior behavior of the black Liberian Liberian ruling rulingclass classalso alsotroubled troubledher herasasititdid didsome some The black black Liberian Liberian political elite other anti-imperialists.'’*" anti-imperialists.121 The elite supported supportedthe the coerced exportation exportation of of Liberian Liberian labor labor to to Spanish Spanishcolonies coloniesand andexacerbated exacerbated divisions between the ruling ruling elite elite and and indigenous indigenouspopulations, populations,showing showing no interest in equalizing political rights or social conditions for the interest in equalizing political rights or social conditions for themajormajority of Liberia’s Liberia’s people. For Balch the Liberian Liberian situation situationtested testedthe theconvicconvicher belief beliefthat that drawing drawing a direct direct line between something something understood tion of her understood essence and and fifitness for national national leadership leadership produced produced dangerous as racial essence tness for forms of nationalism. In the case of Liberia, Balch contended nationalism. In the case of Liberia, Balch contendedthat thatracialracialized nationalism, nationalism, even even when when practiced practicedby by the theblack black Liberian Liberian ruling rulingclass, class, was dangerous and and antithetical antithetical to to the the advancement advancement of of community community interinternationalism. Whereas Anna Melissa nationalism. Melissa Graves Graves and andothers othersunequivocally unequivocally promoted Liberia as an exemplar of Pan-African promise, Balch promoted Liberia as an exemplar of Pan-African promise, Balchrefused refused ruling Liberians. to condone the behavior behavior of the ruling Liberians.Although AlthoughBalch Balchremained remained motivations that critical of the racial motivations thatinfluenced influencedUS USforeign foreignpolicy policyin inLibeLiberia, she also ria, also maintained maintained that thatignoring ignoringthe theruling rulingLiberians’ Liberians’practices practices against their own citizens meant endorsing the excesses of nation-states. their own citizens meant endorsing the excesses of nation-states. Balch struggled struggled to fashion Balch fashion aa political political position position that thatcould couldcontest contestboth bothUS US colonialism and and the the excesses excesses of of the theLiberian Liberianruling rulingclass. class.Graves, Graves,on onthe the other hand, hand, stood stood firm firm in in her her unequivocal unequivocalsupport supportofofLiberia. Liberia.

130 | A ofofNoble 130 | Band A Band NobleWomen Women As historian details in in Black Scandal: America As historianI.I.K. K.Sundiata Sundiata details Black Scandal: Americaand andthe theLibeLibe1929-1936,Liberia Liberia came came to to represent represent both rian Crisis, Crisis, 1929–1936, bothaatest testcase caseofofracial racial whether blacks capacity, whether blacks were were capable capable of of self-rule, self-rule, and andaalightning lightningrod rodfor for politics and consciousness.’ the continued development development of of Pan-African politics consciousness.122

Yet, although although Liberia was a thorny Yet, thorny and andcomplicated complicatedissue issuefor forthe theUS USState State Department, so too was itit for for those those concerned concerned about about the thefuture futureofofLibeLiberian independence. Anna Melissa Graves and Emily Greene Balch Anna Melissa Graves and Emily Greene Balch both both Liberia’s agreed that that the thefree-floating free-floatingdollar dollardiplomacy diplomacythat thatthreatened threatened Liberia’s endangered the sovereignty endangered the future future of of international international peace and and the Liberian state. Yet Yet as as aa series of letters between Graves and Balch Graves and Balch illustrate, illustrate, these these two women disagreed on key points. For Graves, Liberia represented first women disagreed on key points. For Graves, Liberia represented first and foremost the the issue issue of of black black freedom. freedom. In In contrast, contrast, although althoughBalch Balch was was parameters and aware of the racial parameters andsignificance significanceof of the thecrisis, crisis, she she refused refusedto to question easily see it as a question easily divided dividedalong alongthe thelines linesofofwhite whiteimperial imperialexcess excess and black victimization. Her socialist roots and leeriness of all forms and black victimization. Her socialist roots and leeriness of all forms of of nationalism caused her to cast cast a discerning discerning eye eye on on the the labor labor practices practices of of of foreign foreign business business and the Americo-Liberians as well as on the activities of 123 governments.’ governments. Founded in American freedmen freedmen and Founded in the the 1820s 1820s by black American andformer formerslaves, slaves, Liberia served served from its formation Liberia formation as as aa symbol symbolof ofAfrican Africanand andAfrican African American freedom, freedom, independence, independence,and andPan-African Pan-Africanpossibility. possibility.The Thesovsovereignty of the new new nation, nation, though, though,soon soonfaltered falteredas aseconomic economicneed needled led to the establishment of neocolonial economic relations with Western to the establishment of neocolonial economic relations with Western nations. The internal practices practices of of the the Liberian Liberian ruling rulingclass, class,advanced advancedinin large part part by by the theUS US black black emigrants emigrantsto toLiberia Liberia(popularly (popularlyreferred referredtotoasas the Americo-Liberians), Americo-Liberians), also weakened the the stability stabilityof of the thenation. nation.DisreDisregard for indigenous tribal practices and the exportation of native practices the exportation of native labor labor as a cash commodity commodity exacerbated exacerbated internal internaldissention. dissention.To To some some onlookers onlookers this labor economic slavery.'™* this laborpractice practiceresembled resembled economic slavery.124 US involvement involvement in Liberia escalated US escalated in in 1912 1912 when the the federal federal governgovernment, along with Great Britain, France, and Germany, set up a receiverGreat France, a receivership in Liberia Liberia to to collect collect trade trade tariffs tariffs and andcontrol controlLiberia’s Liberia’s economic economic and and political development. In 1926 political 1926 the Firestone Firestone Corporation Corporation strong-armed strong-armed Liberia into a ninety-nine-year land land lease agreement agreement as as aa way to decrease US reliance on British-manufactured rubber. The terms US reliance on rubber. The terms of of the the agreement agreement

Race and and the theSocial SocialThought Thoughtofof White Women| | 131 Race White Women 131 leasing to to Firestone Firestonemultitudes multitudesofofLiberian Liberianland landatatthe thecutcutexchanged the leasing cost of ofsix sixcents centsan anacre acrefor forthe thepromise promisethat thatFirestone Firestonewould wouldemploy employ rate cost Liberian labor, labor,improve improveLiberia’s Liberia’sinfrastructure, infrastructure,and andassist assistininthe theretireretireLiberian interests. When When Liberia Liberia ment of the high debt Liberia Liberia owed to Western interests. Firestonetook tookits itsdissatisfaction dissatisfactionwith withthe theLiberians Liberianstoto soured on the deal, Firestone

State Department Department and and instigated instigated what what would would become become aa ten-year ten-year the US US State negotiations and maneuvers between set of negotiations between Firestone, Firestone, the United States, States, 125 Liberia, and and the the League LeagueofofNations. Nations.'” Liberia, Liberia, the the United UnitedStates Statesencouraged encouraged As a preemptive strike against Liberia, Nations to investigate the labor labor practices practices of of the the Liberian Liberian the League of Nations investigate the government and the reported unrest among the native peoples, includgovernment and the reported unrest among the native peoples, includLeague of ofNations Nationsconvened convenednumerous numerous exploratory exploratory ing the Kru tribe. The League missions that generated international scrutiny of ruling-class Liberians missions ruling-class Liberians of the the practices practicesof ofwhite whiteforeign foreigneconomic economicinterests interests and little questioning of in West West Africa. Africa.The TheUS USState StateDepartment, Department,while whileendorsing endorsingthe theconcerns concernsofof Firestone, worried worried that that the United States States might might be be perceived perceived as as “playing “playing Firestone, 126 Tothe theState StateDepartment’s Department’schagrin, chagrin, Caribbean politics in in West West Africa.”’*° Africa.” To Liberia did did become an issue of concern for some US US peace peace activists activists and and Liberia black leaders, leaders, who who launched launched campaigns campaigns to publicize publicize and and protest US US ecoeconomic intrusion intrusion into nomic into Liberia. Liberia. Haiti, the the US US WILPF WILPFworked workedhard hardtotoexpose exposethe thenature natureofof As with Haiti, US actions in Liberia. The WILPF’s decision to work on Liberia followed US actions in Liberia. The WILPF’s decision to work on Liberia followed naturally from the position position adopted by by peace peace women women atat the the 1915 1915Hague Hague Congress that that governments governments should should not not diplomatically diplomaticallyor ormilitarily militarilysupsupCongress intervention of of corporations corporations into into sovereign sovereign port the the coercive coercive economic economic intervention 127 countries.'” A A letter letter from from Anna Anna Melissa MelissaGraves GravestotoDorothy DorothyDetzer Detzerinin countries. the summer of 1931 began the more than five-year WILPF campaign 1931 began the more than five-year WILPF campaign toto US support support of the Firestone Corporation’s Corporation’sdealings dealings in in Liberia. Liberia. challenge US WILPF wanted wanted to to stop stop coercive coercive US USeconomic economicinvolvement involvementininLiberia, Liberia, The WILPF secure a guarantee guarantee that the United States would not not intervene intervene militarmilitarsecure States would ily, and forestall League of Nations’ oversight of Liberia as the League of ily, and of Nations’ oversight of Liberia as the League of Nations had had proposed proposed assigning assigning military military and and fifinancial advisorstoto the the Nations nancial advisors five years itit took took to to reach reachan an economic economicand and politipoliticountry. In the almost fi ve years suitable to to the the Liberian Liberian government, government, the the WILPF WILPFserved servedasas cal agreement suitable an aggressive watchdog of the League of Nations’ Liberia proceedings. aggressive watchdog of the League of Nations’ Liberia proceedings.

132 | |A Band ofofNoble 132 A Band NobleWomen Women Detzer, Balch, Balch, and Graves organized Detzer, organized numerous numerousmeetings meetingswith withofficials officials Department and in the US State Department and with withLeague Leagueof ofNation Nationofficials officials and andkept kept the pressure pressure on onthe theHoover Hooverand andRoosevelt Rooseveltadministrations. administrations.The TheWILPF WILPF also kept Liberia in the public public spotlight spotlight through throughsavvy savvymedia mediawork workand and 128 through the through the building building of of coalitions with leaders in the NAACP. NAACP. By ByJanuJanuFirestone, the the United United States, States, the the League of Nations, and the ary of 1936 1936 Firestone, the Barclay Liberian government reached an agreement on the terms of the Barclay Liberian government on the terms of the 1926Firestone Firestone loan that sovereignty.'”” 1926 that seemed seemedtotosecure secureLiberian Liberian sovereignty.129 intervening years In the intervening yearsbefore beforethe theagreement agreementwas wasreached, reached,Balch Balchand and Graves sparred over the relative Graves relative harm harm caused causedby bythe theAmerico-Liberians Americo-Liberians toward Liberian citizens and by the Firestone Corporation. Liberian citizens and by the Firestone Corporation.This Thisdebate debate between the two two women women developed developed in in response responseto toUS US circulated circulated reports reports that broadcast that broadcast the theAmerico-Liberians’ Americo-Liberians’mistreatment mistreatmentofofnative nativeLiberians. Liberians. part, these ofof FireIn part, these US US reports reportsserved servedtotodistract distractattention attentionfrom fromscrutiny scrutiny Firestone’s presence in West Africa. Upon learning of the US reports, Graves in West Africa. Upon learning of the US reports, Graves escalated her her own own efforts to tell the other escalated efforts to other side side of of the the story. story. Through Through letter-writing campaigns, letter-writing campaigns,aaspeaking speakingtour tourtototen tenblack blackcolleges, colleges,consultaconsultations with withW. W. E. E. B. Du Bois, and the the support supportofofthe theWILPF’s WILPF’snational nationaland and international offices, Graves publicized information about the labor pracinternational offices, information about the labor practices of the profit-hungry profit-hungry Firestone Firestone Corporation in in Liberia. Liberia. She She detailed detailed Firestone’spoor poor wages, wages, use use of of the abusive company Firestone’s company store store system, system, and and 130 decreased food Liberian workers.'*® decreased foodrations rationsgranted granted Liberian workers. Aware AwareofofBalch’s Balch’s incliinclination to heed some of the criticisms of the Americo-Liberians, Graves to heed some of the criticisms of the Americo-Liberians, Graves wrote to wrote to Balch Balch in in 1931 1931 that that the theAmerico-Liberians’ Americo-Liberians’ actions actionsneeded neededtotobebe kept in in perspective. perspective.In Inher herletter, letter,Graves Graveslikened likenedthe theAmerico-Liberians’ Americo-Liberians’ behavior to “a little hand hand roller, roller, not aa steamroller” steamroller” over over the the rights rightsof ofthe the 131 Liberian people.’' Additionally, Graves sought to put into perspective Liberian people. Additionally, to put into perspective the appearance of of corruption corruption or or graft graftamong amongthe theLiberian Liberianruling rulingelite, elite,a a point that that had hadbeen beenused usedby bythe theLeague LeagueofofNations’ Nations’investigative investigativeteam teamtoto legitimize a foreign mandate. mandate. If If political corruption corruption were were the thegrounds groundsfor for the forced removal of self-rule, Graves wrote to Balch, “is self-government removal of wrote to self-government to be taken taken from fromPhiladelphia, Philadelphia,from fromall allofofPennsylvania, Pennsylvania,New NewYork YorkCity, City, 132 and from from Chicago?”'* Chicago?” As the United United States States waged aa campaign campaign against against Liberia, Graves Graves urged urged the US to take a leading role Liberia, US WILPF WILPF to role in in waging wagingaa 133 public campaign campaign to “watch over ... the sinners against Liberia.”’’ Graves’s to “watch over . . . the sinners against Liberia.” Graves’s

Race and and the the Social SocialThought ThoughtofofWhite WhiteWomen Women | 133 Race 133 to US USstudents students and and other other interested interested parties parties echoed most heartfelt message to the warning warning Liberian Liberian president presidentC. C.B. B. D. D. King King made made in inFreetown, Freetown,Sierra Sierra Leone, years earlier: “The criticisms that Leone, that may maybe beleveled leveledupon uponthe theLibeLiberian Administration Administration will will not not be be confined confined to to Liberians Liberians only only but but on onevery every black man whether whether he hebe beofofSierra SierraLeone, Leone,the theGold GoldCoast, Coast,Nigeria, Nigeria,the the West Indies Indies or West or the theUnited UnitedStates StatesofofAmerica.”!™ America.”134

Balch was was not not oblivious oblivious to to these these dimensions dimensions of Balch of the the Liberian Liberian crisis. crisis. She She utilized the the Pan-Africanist Pan-Africanist symbolism symbolism and andpolitics politics surrounding surroundingLiberia Liberia as a warning in in her her correspondence correspondence with with the the State State Department. Department. As she wrote in letters letters to to State State Department Department leaders leaders in in the themonths monthsprevious previoustoto one of the many League of Nations arbitrations, “The decision to League Nations arbitrations, “The decision tobe betaken taken in May seems to me of very great importance importance for for Liberia, Liberia, but not only that—of genuine genuine importance importance to to the United States States both both as a question of that—of and for its repercussions among principle and among Africans Africans everywhere everywhere and andespeespe135 cially among among Negroes and friends of Negroes in the United States.”"» Negroes and friends of Negroes in the United States.” Yet Yet Balch could could not ignore the question Balch question of of Liberian Liberian duplicity duplicityin inthe thesubjugasubjugaindigenous rights tion of indigenous rights and andunfair unfairlabor laborpractices. practices.She Sherefused refusedtotoromanromanticize or valorize the the Liberian Liberian elite. elite. To To Balch the ends ends did didnot notjustify justifythe the means. As she wrote in 1926 in Pax International: “’Native’ governments she wrote in 1926 in Pax International: “‘Native’ governments are not all-wise and and all-virtuous all-virtuousany anymore morethan thanare arethose thoseofofLondon, London,Paris Paris 136 and Washington.’ Washington.” For ForBalch, Balch,aaresponse responsetotothe theLiberian Liberiancrisis crisispremised premised on an uncritical black nationalism potentially left unaddressed unaddressedboth boththe the complex dynamics behind foreign intervention and the limitations of complex foreign intervention and the limitations ofa a of resistance resistance postulated postulated on the hypernationalism. politics of the logic of hypernationalism. The differences The differences in political political philosophy between between Balch Balch and and Graves Graves surfaced again in in the thesummer summerofof1934 1934 when whenBalch Balch shared sharedwith witha aselect select group of WILPF leaders her impressions on Liberia. Although she warned group WILPF leaders her impressions Although she warned typed” and and “badly the women that her letter was “poorly typed” “badly thought thought out,” out,” its frankness and frankness andGraves’s Graves’s harsh harsh response responsetotoititprove proveillustrative. illustrative.InInher herletletter, Balch Balch shared shared observations observations from from her her meetings meetings with Lord Lugard and ter, Dr. Melville Douglas Mackenzie, both of England. Dr. Melville Mackenzie, England. Mackenzie, Mackenzie, aa medimedical expert, served served as as one oneof ofthree threemembers membersofofa a1931 1931League Leagueof ofNations’ Nations’ Liberian Committee ofofLiberia. Liberian Committee that thatmade maderecommendations recommendationsononthe thefuture future Liberia. Balch reported reported that she felt Balch felt that she she had hadinfluenced influenced Mackenzie Mackenzie to to conconsider the WILPF’s perspectives on the question of Liberia and the role WILPF’s perspectives on the and the role of of

134 | |A Band ofofNoble 134 A Band NobleWomen Women the League of Nations. At the same time, though, though, she she found found Mackenzie’s Mackenzie’s treatment of the native Kru discussion of the treatment Kru people people by by the the Liberian Liberian govgovernment compelling compelling as he “spoke “spoke with pain” about about the the indigenous indigenous sitsit137 uation.” Mackenzie, Balch that that in Liberia the uation. Mackenzie, it seems, also convinced convinced Balch Liberia the

League of of Nations Nations was was motivated motivated by by a sense of moral obligation in its League obligation in 138 efforts to to help helpstabilize stabilizethe thecountry. country.’ efforts Balch’s receptivity to Mackenzie inthis thismatter matter infuriated infuriated Graves, who Balch’s receptivity to Mackenzie in could not believe believe that Balch Balch had had fallen fallen for for Mackenzie, Mackenzie, who who in inGraves’s Graves’s estimation was was a mere servant of the League Graves wrote wrote estimation League of Nations. Graves her friend Balch that “letters such as yours yours almost almost make make me me want wantto tobe beaa Communist . . . ... Oh! Emily Balch you are not yet old enough to lose your Oh! Emily Balch lose your 139 vigor. Don’t Don’t for for God’s God’ssake sakefear fearto tospeak speak out.” out.”’’ In her letter she fearless vigor. In for seemingly seemingly reducing the situation to chastised Balch Balch for to aa match match of of perperShe urged urged Balch Balch not not to to forget forget the the real real meaning meaning of the Liberian sonalities. She 140 crisis. “It “It isn’t isn’taa question question of of Dr. Dr.Morais Moraisand and Mr. Mr.Barclay. Barclay.’ It is is aa question It of the League having sold itself to Firestone and to the of the colonial colonial powers powers 141 who wish wish to to damn damnLiberia,” Liberia,”she shescolded scoldedBalch.“! Balch. For ForGraves, Graves,Liberia Liberiahad had become example of of age-old age-old racist racist colonial colonial practices practices and and any become a clear-cut example consideration of any other aspects of the situation merely meant Balch had consideration had been duped duped and and misguided. misguided.Graves Graves continued continuedto toBalch: Balch: bit of ofAfrica Africacomparatively comparativelyfree freefrom fromforced forcedlabour labourand and exploitaexploitaThe last bit and worse still the evil results results of being looked down on, of not not being being tion and

self-respect, the the last last bit bit of ofAfrica Africawhere wherethe the Negro Negro race race can can able to have self-respect, say: “My “My foot foot isis on on my my native native hearth hearth and my name say: name is is Negro.” Negro.” That last last bit is being torn torn from the Africans and you listen to an old fool fool . . . .. . II feel feel 142 saying:“Ichabod! “Ichabod!Ichabod!” Ichabod!” like saying:

But Balch Balch did did not just But just blindly blindly absorb absorbMackenzie’s Mackenzie’s views views or or those thoseof of any other other League League of of Nations Nations officials. officials. In her meeting meeting with withMackenzie Mackenzieshe she presented him with a set of proposed actions that the WILPF considered presented him with a set of proposed actions that the WILPF considered to be an improvement improvement over the pressure pressure politics politics the United United States States was playing with the the League League of of Nations Nations and andLiberia. Liberia. Balch Balch hoped hoped to todisendisenforeign intervention and rehabilitate the tangle Liberia from oppressive foreign Americo-Liberian ruling class. Along with many Balch many US US black leaders, Balch

Race and and the the Social SocialThought ThoughtofofWhite WhiteWomen Women || 135 Race 135 suggested that the the Liberian Liberian crisis crisis required requiredaamultitiered multitieredresponse. response.Such Such “friendly disinterested disinterested aid” aid” in in an approach might include securing some “friendly of the the hands hands of Firestone or other fi financial order to get Liberia “out of nancial masters”; US USphilanthropic philanthropic involvement, including ters”; includingaaRockefeller Rockefeller Fund Fundproject project study tropical to study tropical hygiene; and and the the granting grantingof ofscholarships scholarshipsto toUS US black black col-

fifty of the the Monrovian Monrovian magnates” leges for fi fty “sons of magnates”as asaa way wayto to reform reformLibeLiberian governmental governmental practices practices and and launch launch aa new new generation generationof of leaders.'* leaders.143 Anna Melissa Melissa Graves and and Emily Emily Greene Greene Balch Balch shared shared concern concern about about the welfare of Liberia and the effect the Liberian situation could have the welfare of Liberia and the effect the Liberian situation could have on on

black sovereignty and and black black self-consciousness self-consciousness throughout throughoutthe theblack blackdiasdiaspora. But they held differing perspectives on the usefulness of the conperspectives on the usefulness of the condistinctiveness to the cept of racial distinctiveness the reconciliation reconciliation of of the the Liberian Liberian situation. situation. believed that that for for Liberia Liberiato toremain remain aastrong strongindependent independent nation free Graves believed influences, Liberiamust must maintain maintain and strengthen strengthen its from neocolonial infl uences, Liberia its PanAfricanist identity and appeal to other black nationalists. It must also build identity and appeal to other black nationalists. build black civil civil rights rights leaders leaders through through the utilizastronger alliances with US black utilizaPan-Africanist bond. bond. Though Though Graves Graves in in her her other other writings writings and tion of the Pan-Africanist hoped to build activities hoped build aa world world that that would wouldultimately ultimatelynullify nullifyracial racialtypes types or the use of racial hierarchies, she believed that Pan-Africanist thought of racial Pan-Africanist was necessary necessary to to forestall forestallwhite whiteneocolonial neocolonialincursion incursionininLiberia.'“* Liberia.144 Balch, Balch, on the other hand, hand, found found the the entertainment entertainmentofofnotions notionsof ofracial racialdistinctivedistinctiveness in the case of Liberia counter to the project of building international international community based in a common humanity. She believed that in a common humanity. She believed thatthe thepotenpotential short-term gains in racial pride and and diaspora diaspora building buildingwere werenot notoutoutweighed by the weighed the long-term long-term dangers dangersof of aa liberation liberationpolitics politics based basedin inrace. race. Although Balch Balch and Graves differed over the the overt overt use useof of race race as asaa tool for organizing resistance to neocolonial practices, they agreed that resistance to neocolonial practices, they agreed that

women they they had a responsibility to redress redress the sins of white as white women responsibility to men. Liberia, in other other words, words, represented representedtotoBalch Balchand andGraves Gravesaaform formofof the white white woman’s burden. burden.Both Both were were critics critics of of colonialism colonialism and andimperialimperialism, but they shared with earlier Victorian feminists who endorsed shared with earlier Victorian feminists who endorsedcolocolonialism and and imperialism imperialismaaracially raciallymotivated motivatedcalling callingtotoparticipate participateininthe the debates over nationalist expansionist politics politics and and the theposition positionof ofracialracialized “others” in in these these developments. developments.Colonialist Colonialistor orimperialist imperialistfeminists feminists gained access to global travel and the political sphere by showing that access to global travel and

136 | |A Band ofofNoble 136 A Band NobleWomen Women Anti-imperialist feminists feminists aimed aimed to extend they too could be colonizers. colonizers. Anti-imperialist influence white women by cleaning up up the the political infl uence of white the racist mess colonial feminists profited profited from. In both cases colonial/imperialist feminists and anti-imperial feminists feminists believed that the world needed white womanhood to take action. hood to take action. As As Graves Graves wrote wroteto toBalch Balchfrom fromBrazil Brazilin in1934: 1934: Sometimes II think perhaps II was Sometimes was wrong wrongin incoming cominghere, here,that thatperhaps perhaps Liberia needed me more than I needed needed to to study study Mulattoes Mulattoes in in Brazil. Brazil. For see no no one one is is fifighting for Liberia Liberiawith with the the faith faith in in her her that that as far as I can see ghting for I have and and the realization which I have that to expect anything from the

Governments which which are owned by those who wish to own her, is pure Governments 145 illusion to toput putititpolitely. politely. illusion

Emily Greene Greene Balch Balch approached approached Liberia Liberia with with less less emotional emotional attachEmily ment than Graves, yet like Graves, Balch believed that Liberia than Graves, yet like Graves, Balch believed that Liberiaserved servedasas a testing ground ground of of the thepolitical politicaland andintellectual intellectualpowers powersofofwhite whitepeace peace women. White men had failed at the end of World War I to devise a sustainwomen. White men had failed at the end of World War I to devise a sustainpeace treaty, treaty, an an end end to colonialism, colonialism, or aa truly truly functioning functioning international able peace international collective power sharing apparatus. The League of Nations floundered collective power sharing apparatus. floundered in in the face of the Liberia crisis. Now the question question was: was: Could Could white white peace peace women do aa better better job? job? Could white white women women untangle untanglethe thelegacy legacyof ofthe the white man’s man’s burden they felt felt challenged challenged to to address? address? As As Emily Emily Greene Greene Balch wrote wrote her WILPF WILPF associates, associates, “The “The apparently apparently insoluble question question [is] [is] how to build build up upaadecent decentform formofofindependence independencecapable capableofofevolving evolvinginto into something that something thatwill willbring bringout out[their] [their]capacity capacityand andbuild buildup upthe theself-respect self-respect ... to . . . tobreak breakthem themdown downby byforce forceand andpressure pressureisistotobegin beginagain againtotoassume assume the White Man’s Burden . . . and to leave them to do as they will is Man’s . . . to do as they will isto tosit sit 146 by and comments indicate her continand see seeaamisuse misuseofofpower.”'*° power.” Balch’s Balch’s comments continued attachment ued attachment to to the the schema schema of of the the white white man’s man’s burden. burden. Balch Balch situates situates herself and and the theWILPF WILPF as as potential potentialbrokers brokersof ofaanew newapproach approachtotorace raceand and international relations that ideally would stretch beyond the dichotomous international relations that stretch dichotomous seesaw of white control and black subservience, even while the language language she uses belies the idea that Liberians need white assistance in she uses belies the idea that Liberians need white assistance inorder ordertoto independent and develop an independent and sustainable sustainable nation. nation. As As Newman Newman noted notedin in her her study of Victorian feminists and the colonial project, “we must be willing study feminists and the colonial project, “we must be willing

Race and and the theSocial SocialThought Thoughtofof White Women| | 137 Race White Women 137 to embrace the idea that that opposition opposition movements movementsretain retainthe theresidue residueofofthat that 147 which they oppose.” Although AlthoughBalch Balchand andGraves Gravesretained retainedsome someracialracial-

ized attachment attachment to to the the idea idea that that white white peace peace women women maintained maintainedaaspecial special ability or special burden burdento toset setthe theworld worldon ona apeaceful peacefulracism-free racism-freepath, path, the residue of of white white exceptionalism exceptionalism that that can can be befound foundininthe thecorners cornersofof their work does not preclude us from placing their work in the company of other other modernists striving striving to to turn turnback backthe thetide tideof ofscientific scientific racism. Like Addie Hunton, Alice Like Alice Dunbar-Nelson, Dunbar-Nelson, and andJessie Jessie Fauset, Fauset, white white peace women women after afterWorld World War War II worked workedto to create create aa new newvision visionof of the theworld. world. their pursuit In their pursuitof ofpeace, peace,Dubois, Dubois,Balch, Balch, and andGraves Gravesaspired aspiredtotochange changethe the way people thought about race and the value placed on national distincvalue tiveness. Though their approaches and tiveness. and arenas arenasof ofinfluence influencediffered, differed,the the three agreed three agreedthat thataastumbling stumblingblock blocktotopeace peaceexisted existedininthe theproliferation proliferationofof racial stereotypes and Western chauvinism. As a counterdiscourse, they tried to paint paint aa panoramic panoramicview viewof ofaaculturally culturallycomplex complexworld worldininwhich which of centers centers and and margins margins and superiority the concepts of superiority and and inferiority inferiority held held meaning or no meaning or value. White women of the the WILPF WILPF provided provided valuable valuable leadership leadershipto tomany many of the postwar struggles against racism and nativism. They struggled of struggles racism nativism. They to reeducate reeducate America’s America’s youth youth away awayfrom fromAnglo-Saxon Anglo-Saxonchauvinism. chauvinism. And they led important important challenges challenges to the the racist racist discourses discourses embedded embedded policy. At At the the same time that in US foreign policy. that they theycontested contestedthe theworst worstofof modern racial discourses, they found themselves animated in part by racial discourses, they found themselves animated by the lingering lingering power power of of Progressive Progressive Era Era ideals ideals that thatdefined definedmiddle-class middle-class white womanhood womanhood as as the the salve salve to to the the nation’s nation’s industrialized, industrialized, racialized, racialized, and militarized chaos. chaos. They repudiated, relied upon, and and reconstituted reconstituted the racialized discourses at play in the early part of the twentieth in the early part of the twentiethcencenavers that more historically tury. Peggy Pascoe Pascoe avers historically detailed studies studies of of the the ways in which modernists modernistsconfronted confrontedscientific scientific racism racism are areneeded. needed.The The women’s peace peacemovement movementofofthe the interwar interwar years, years, as as represented by the women’s WILPF, offers a vital example of the complex domains in which which dominant dominant WILPF, offers a vital example of the complex domains in and norms were contested and racial politics and and new new ideas ideas about about race race and and its its relation to gender gender emerged. emerged. As As internationalists internationalistsand andpeace peacewomen, women,the the three women three women studied studiedhere hereattempted attemptedtotomove movethe theworld worldtotobelieve believeless lessinin hierarchies based on race, and in the place of these ethno-racial-national hierarchies based on race, and in the place of these ethno-racial-national

138 | |A Band ofofNoble 138 A Band NobleWomen Women hierarchies they wanted wanted aa new new landscape landscapeof of transnational transnationalallegiances allegiancesto to arise. [hese women were not mere dreamers or idealists. Balch knew that arise. These women were not mere dreamers or idealists. Balch knew that peace and and goodwill, although the project of peace althoughitit needed neededto tobe be thoughtful thoughtfuland and intentional, also needed to help address in an immediate immediate fashion fashion the daily wanted peace lives of people. She wanted peace women womento toadvance advance“concrete “concretedevices” devices” that produced produced actual actualchanges changesin inimmigration immigrationlaw, law,foreign foreignpolicy, policy,and andthe the and prosecution practice and prosecutionof of lynching, lynching,as aswell wellas aschanges changesininpeople’s people’sattiattitudes. Their work showed that that they they understood understoodthat thatnaturalized naturalizedideas ideas about race were a constitutive constitutive element element in in the themost mostabhorrent abhorrentpractices practicesofof asaspeace the nation nation and andthat thatititwas wastheir theirresponsibility responsibility peacewomen women to protest, protest, disdisrupt, and and transform transform these theseideological ideological suppositions. suppositions. Through Through their theirwork, work, Dubois, Balch, Balch, and and Graves Graves were were instrumental instrumental in Dubois, in the the earliest earliest critiques critiques of of scientificc racism, and so helped scientifi helped to tolimit limitits itsreach reachand andhistorical historicalsway. sway.

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