Dictionary of Sects, Heresies, Ecclesiastical Parties, and Schools of Religious Thought 9781463214029

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Dictionary of Sects, Heresies, Ecclesiastical Parties, and Schools of Religious Thought

GORGIAS R E F E R E N C E CLASSICS

3

Dictionary of Sects, Heresies, Ecclesiastical Parties, and Schools of Religious Thought

JOHN HENRY BLUNT

GORGIAS PRESS

2008

First Gorgias Press Edition, 2008 The special contents of this edition are copyright © 2008 by Gorgias Press LLC

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This edition is a facsimile reprint of the original edition published by J.B. Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia, 1874 ISBN 978-1-59333-796-4 ISSN 1937-3287

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A CLASSIFIED TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL CONTENTS JEWISH

SECTS

Pharisees Sadducees Essenes Therapeut» Hemerobaptists Karaites Masbothœans Nazarasans Gerüstes Meristee Mendeeans Gorthseans HEATHEN

RELI-

GIONS

Brahmins Buddhists Parsees Yezeedees Mahometans Brahmoo Somaj H E R E T I C S REFERRED TO IN THE N E W TESTAMENT

False Christs False Apostles Simonians Judaizers Gnostics Nicolaitanes Alexander Demas Diotrephes Hermogenes Hymenœas Philetus Phygellus E A B L Y H E R E T I C S , BETWEEN THE APOSTOLTC A G E AND THE E N D OF THE PERSECUTIONS OP THE CHURCH, A.D. 313

Dosithfeans Mena,ndrians Nazai-enes Cerinthians

} ! ¡-Ai y) / 70-120] !

DooetEe Ebionites Ophites Adamites, or Prodicians Sethians Cainites Cleobians Basilidians Saturninians Carpocratians Marcellinians Cerdonians Marcionites Lucianists Apellianists Valentinians Heracleonites Marcosites Colorbasians Secundians Florinians Quartodeci-

L A T E R H E R E T I C S , BETWEEN THE CESSATION [A.D. 70-120]

OF THE PERSECUTIONS AND

THE

ESTABLISH-

MENT OF MAHOMETANISM I N THE EAST [A.D. 313-700] [A.D. 120-130]

Arians \ Eusebians Semi-Arians Aetians [A.D. 180-140] Anomoeans, or Eunomians Acacians [A.D. / 320-350] ! Eudoxians [A.D. Psathyrians 138-158] Photinians Aerians Donatists Circumcellions Marcellians mans Macedonians, \ Encratites or PnetimatoTatianists 1 [A.D. > 150-170] machi Severians Luciferians HydroparaApollinarians statra Synusiastse Archontics Bonosians Apotactics [A.D. Collyridians Hermogenians / 350-400] Jovinianists Seleucians Euchites, or Montanists Messalians Theodotians [A.D. 170-200] Hypsistarians Tertullianists AntidicomariArtemonites anites Bardesanians Tropitse / Ascodrug-ytas Nestorians [A.D. 42s] Noétians • [ A . D . 205] Eutychians [A.D. 44,8] Praxeans Pelagians Melchisedechiaiis \ Hieracites Arabici Helvidians Sabellians [A.D. 220] Esaianites Elchasaites [A.D. 224] Barsanians y jA D Origenists [A.D. 250] Barsanuphites ' 430-500] Novatians [A.D. 2Si] Audians [A.D. 2 6 1 - 3 2 5 ] Eunomio-TheoManichasans [A.D. 280] phronians Samosatenes [A.D. 2SOJ Theosebites Metangismonitsa Timotheans / Artotyritse ) Monophysites, or Jaco- [ A . D . 300] Ascitaa < bites [A.D. 451] Meletian Schism [A.D. 308] Acephali [A.D. 482]

Aphthartodocetse Gaianitte Actistetes, or Ctistolatrse Phthartolatrse, Severians, or Theodosians Xenaians Theopaschites Triphysites Tritheists, or Philoponists Cononites Damianists Monothelites Paulicians Athingani Agynians Agoniclites

MEDIEVAL AND

[A.D. 520-600]

7TH CENTURY.

SECTS

HERESIES

Adalbertines Adamites Adoptionists Albanenses Albigenses Amalricians Apostolicals Athocians Bagnolenses Barlaamites ! Baruli j Beghards j Bogomiles i Bohemian Brethren I Brethren of the Free I Spirit I Calixtines j Capuciati j Clementines I Dancers Davidists Eonians Flagellants Fraticelli Gueux Henricians Hesychasts Hussites Joachimites

A Classified Table of the Principal Contents

VI

Josephistse Lollards Men of Understanding Ortlibenses Pasagians Pastoureux Paterini Paulicians Perfecti Petrobrusians Petro-Joannites Porretanists Stedingers Taborites Tanchelmians Thondracians Waldenses White Brethren

Rosenfelders Saint Simonians Schwenckfeldians Servetians Sionites Synergists Theophilanthropists Ubiquitarians Uckewallists United Evangelical Church Verschoorists Waterlanders Wilhelmians Zwinglians

ENGLISH

SECTS

[Long Extinct] CONTINENTALSECTS OF

REFORMATION

LATER DATE.

Abecedarians, or Zwickau Prophets Adiaphorists Adrianists Ambrosians Amsdorflans Amyraldists Anabaptists Angelic Brothers Apostoolians Arminians Bacularii Bourignonists Brugglenians Calvinists Cameronites Camisards Christo Sacrum Collegiants Convulsionarles Cornarists Familists Flemings Gomarists Hattemists Huguenots Hutites Illuminati Kornthalitea Labadists Lutherans Majorists Martinists Melchiorists Mennonites Michelhahnites Mommiers Moravians Old Lutherans Osiandrians Pietists Psychopannychites Puccianites Pueris Similes Reformed Church, or German Calvinists

AND

Anabaptists Alascans Enthusiasts Familists Fifth Monarchy Men Grindletonians Hetheringtonians Nonjurors Ranters Se-Baptists Seekers Separatists Semi-Separatists Traskites Wilkinsonians

[All

the English sects named

below are very insignificant in |

numbers,

and

some

of

tliem are nearly extinct]

Seventh-Day Baptists Muggletonians Southcottians Independent or Calvinistic Methodists Jumpers Shakers Socinians Universalists Bourneans Coglers Peculiar People " Christians" Free Gospel Christians Freethinking Christians New Christians Original Christians Primitive Christians Protestant Christians United Christians Christian Association Christian Brethren Christian Disciples Christian Israelites Christadelphians

SCOTTISH

SECTS

[See also p. 609]

Scottish Kirk Cameronians [A.D. 1672] Secession Kirk, or Associate Synod [A.D. 1733] [Chief existing Sects] Burghers [See also p. viii. ] Antiburghers Roman Catholics [A.D. 1570] Old Light Burghers Independents, or Congre- New Light Burghers New Light Antiburghers gationalists [A.D. I6I(IJ Old Light Antiburghers Baptists, or Particular Relief Synod Baptists [A.D. 1033] United Secession Quakers [A.D. 1650] Presbyterians [A.D. 1662] Protesters Resolutioners General or Unitarian Original Burghers Baptists [A.D. 1691] Original Seceders Unitarians [A.D. 1719] United Original Seceders Huntingdon Connexion Morisonians [A.D. 174S] Free Kirk [A.D. 1843] Moravians [A.D. 1749] New Connexion General United Presbyterians [A.D.

AMERICAN

SECTS

[Most of the Sects which are to bo found in Europe arc also to be found in America. The following list contains some among those -which are of native growth]

African Episcopal Methodists Campbellites, or Disciples of Christ, or Reformed Baptists, or Reformers Christian Connexion Conferentie Party Cumberland Presbyterians Darrelites Evangelical Association, or Albrecht Brethren Hard-Shell Baptists Harmony Society Hicksites Hopkinsians Jerkers and Barkers Jumpers Keithians, or Quaker Baptists Knipperdollings Methodist Episcopal Church Methodist Protestant Church Methodist Reformed Church Methodist Society Mormons The New Bom New Lights, or Randallites, or Free Will Baptists, or General Provisioners New School Presbyterians Old School Baptists Old School Presbyterians Ornish Church Perfectionists, Bible Communists, or Free Lovers Re3torationists Rogerians Separates Shakers Six Principle Baptists Spiritualists Tunkers, Dunkers, Brethren, or Tumblers United Brethren in Christ Universalists Wakemanites Wilburites Wilkinsonians, or Universal Friends Zion Wesley Methodists Zoarites

1847] Baptists [A.D. 1770] Swedenborgians [A.D. 1788] Sweet Singers Wesleyan Methodists [A.B. The Men 1702] Nonjurors [Presbyterian] New Connexion Metho- Moderates dists [A D. 1797] Buchanites Primitive Methodists [A.D. Scottish Baptists 1810] Marrow Men Bryanites, or Bible Chris- Campbellites, or Rowites tians [A.D. 1816] Daleites Plymouth Brethren [A.D. Glassites RUSSIAN SECTS 1830] Sandemanians [Raschoiniks, or Kerjaki] Irvingites [A.D. 1831] Wilkinsonians Bezpopoffcschins United Methodist Free Smytonites Church [A.D. 1857] Haldanites Bezslovestni

A Classified Table of the Principal Contents Diaconoftschins Duchobortzi Epefanoftschins Ikonobortzi Isbraniki, or Roscholschiki Khlisti Martinists Malakanes, or Istineeye Christiane Morelstschiki Netovtschins, or Spasova Soglasia Peremayanoftschins philipoftschins Pomorane, or Feodosians Popoftschins Sabatniki Samochrischtchina Skoptzi Starovertzi, or Old Believers Strigolniks Uniates Wjetkaers, or Tschernoboltzi

Yedinovertzi, slovenni C H U R C H

or

P A

Blago- Hoadly L o w Churchmen High Churchmen R T I E S Broad Churchmen

A R E ILLUSTRATED BY THE FOLLOWING A R T I C L E S

Iconoclasts Separation of East and West Berengarius Paschasius Radbertus Arnoldists Lollards Ultramontanists Gallicans Roman Catholics German Catholics Old Catholics Puritans Covenanters Scottish K i r k Nonconformists Nonjurors I.atitudinarians Bangorian Controversy

Leibnitz Spinoza Hobbes Kant Hume

S C H O O L S OP T H O U G H T A R E ILLUSTRATED BY THE FOLLOWING A R T I C L E S

Origenists Alexandrian School Antioch, School of Eclectics Mystics Plotinus Neo-Platonists Schoolmen Nominalists Realists Friends of God Bacon, Roger Descartes Geulincx Malebranche

Atheists Deists Sceptics Pantheists Materialists Rationalists Freethinkers Encyclopaedists Martinists Socialists Hegelians Molinists Jansenists Quietists Syncretists Pietists Rosicrucians Theosophists

vii

Genealogy of Church Parties and Sects e S «•g p.

rH 2 r-*

to

a 'CD1

m

I S ! °

T) a

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QJ o

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00,0

m

S o

H ü

O

,a m

m m

ZI

K M J CÖ fe s

m

's

.1

O

£ ï o -SUS

1719.

-Presbyterian sect, A.D.

1662.

Spi co'

-Nonconformists,

te

-Quaker sect,

A.D.

A.».

1662.

1650.

-Baptist sect, 3

Ph

A.D.

1633.

-Independent sect, A.D.

1616.

a o & -

in

S

4S S, ci

ï* >0

United Meth. I Free A.D. 1 8 4 9 . - Wesln. Association, J Church, -Wesln. Reformers,

A.D.

1835.

-Bryanites, A.D.

1

A.D.

I

1857.

1815.

-Primitive Methodists, A.D.

1810.

-New Connexion Meth., A.D.

1797.

-Wesleyan Methodists, A.D.

1792.

-Calvinistic Methodists, A.D.

1742.

A ABECEDAEIANS.

A name given to the 1 S 2 0 ] , a section of the German Anabaptists, who claimed to have direct inspiration from God, and maintained that this inspiration was obstructed by human learning. They carried this theory to such a length as to declare* that it was desirable never even to learn A B C , since all human learning is founded on the alphabet, and the knowledge of it thus opens the door to that which is an obstacle to Divine illumination. Nicholas Stork, a weaver of Zwickau, was the first to proclaim this principle, but it was afterwards supported by Carlstadt, once an ally of Luther, who, yielding to Stork's invectives against learning, shut up his books, resigned his degree of Doctor of Divinity, forsook all study of Holy Scripture, and looked for Divine truth at the mouths of those who, by all ordinary men, were accounted the most ignorant of mankind. The Abecedarian theory, in a more moderate form, has had much influence on some modern sects, especially the more ignorant sects of Methodists. ZWICKAU

PROPHETS

[A.D.

ABELARD. [SCHOOLMEN. NOMINALISTS.] A B E L LANS. [ABELONITES.] ABELITES. [ABELONITES.] ABELOITES. [ABELONITES.] ABELONITES. An obscure African sect, deriving its name from Abel, the son of Adam. The exact date of its origin is unknown, but it became extinct during the reign of Theodosius the Younger [A.D. 4 0 8 - 4 5 0 ] , for at the time when St. Augustine composed his book on Heresies [cap. 87], he alludes to it as having lingered on as late as his time in a village near Hippo, of which he was bishop [A.D. 3 9 5 - 4 3 0 ] , The members of this sect adopted the eccentric practice of marrying wives without procreating children, in supposed imitation of Abel, who was stated to have had a wife, but not to have known h e r ; and in lieu of the consummation of marriage, and at the same time to enable them to perpetuate their sect, the husband and wife adopted two children of different sexes, who in their turn were to abstain from all intercourse, and oil the death of their foster-parents to resort to the same plan of adoption. I t is said that young persons were easily procured for that purpose from the superfluous families of the poor population in the neighbourhood. The conduct of the Abelonites was a mistaken attempt to carry

out literally such texts as, " I t remaineth that both they that have wives be as though they had none" [1 Cor. vii. 29]. But there does not seem any historical evidence for connecting them with the Gnostics generally, as Mosheim does, or with the Manichasans in particular, as does Herzog. [Aug. de Hares, cap. 87 ; Prcedestinati liber, cap, 87, Walch, Hist. Kctzereien, i. 607.] ABENONELE.

[ABELONITES.]

ABLAYIUS. The historian Nieephorus mentions a heretic of this name as having been Novatian, bishop of Niciea about A.D. 430. He had been a pupil of the sophist Trollus, and became celebrated as one of the foremost orators of his day. He seems to have taught the Novatian heresy in its most extreme form, maintaining that Baptism is the only means by which remission of sins can be obtained; and that, consequently, penitence and mortification of the flesh are utterly useless. [Niceph, Hist. Heel. xiv. 15. Socrat. Hist. JSeol.Yii. 12.] ABEAHAMITES. A branch of the PAULICIANS, so called from their founder Abraham, or Ibrahim, a native of Antioeh, who lived in the end of the eighth and the beginning of the ninth century. They do not appear to have held any distinctive tenets, but were simply Antiochean Paulicians : and the heresy was soon suppressed in that city by the vigorous opposition of the patriarch Cyriacus. ABEAHAMITES. A Bohemian sect of no importance, existing at the end of the last century in the town of Pardubitz and its neighbourhood. They professed to follow the religion of Abraham before he was circumcised, rejected all distinctively Christian doctrine, and only acknowledged the Decalogue and the Lord's Prayer as Holy Scriptures. ABSTINENTES. A sect which arose in Gaul and Spain, at the close of the third century, during the reigns of Diocletian and Maximian, and in the pontificate of Marcellinus. Like the Eastern ENCBATITES, they held Gnostic views on the subject of marriage, which they denounced not as absolutely wrong, but as a thing to be avoided by those who sought sanctity. This was their deduction from such texts in Holy Scripture as "There be eunuchs which have made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom of Heaven's sake. He that is able to receive it, let A

Acacians him receive it" [Matt. xix. 12], and "Without holiness no man shall see the Lord" [Heb. xii. 14]; and their argument ran thus: Christ must have preached some new virtue, or have performed some praiseworthy action not commanded in the Old Testament. Did He come to teach the fear of God 1 This is contained in the Law. Was it to condemn envy, covetousness, and the like % This was done in the Old Testament. He could not, therefore, have any other view but to preach continence to the world, practising Himself that chastity without which everlasting life could not be attained [Epiphan. adv. Hieres. lib. ii. torn. 2, p. 710]. They also condemned the use of meat, as having been created by the devil and not by God [Phiiaster, cap. 84] : to which later writers add that, while admitting the Godhead of the Father and the Son, they held the Holy Ghost to be merely a created Being. Led perhaps by the similarity of some of their views, Phiiaster connects the Abstinentes with the Gnostics and Manichaeans, and Baronius [in Annal. ad ann. 288] identifies them with the HIERACITES.

ACACIANS. Three broad lines can be drawn among the various subdivisions into which Arianism branched about the middle of the fourth century. [1.] Semi-Arians, of whom Basil of Ancyra and George of Laodicasa were the leaders. [2.] The Anomceans (avofxoioi), or Ultra-Arians, followers of Aetius and his pupil Eunomius, Bishop of Cyzieum. [3.] Between these two extremes rose the Acacians, a third party, who would neither allow any approximation to the orthodox doctrine of the Homoousion, nor yet admit that the Second Person in the Trinity was a mere creature, on the level of all other created beings. They derived their name from Acacius, who succeeded Eusebius as Bishop of Cassarea in Palestine [A.D. 338], a person possessed of many of the qualifications necessary for the leadership of a party. He was strong and active, a fluent speaker, and evinced his regard for learning by taking great pains to increase his predecessor's library [Tillemont, Mem. vol. xv. 458, edit. Brux. 1707]. At the same time he was extremely unscrupulous and fickle : at first a furious Arian under Constantius, who sheltered him from the decree of deposition passed by a majority of the Semi-Arian Council held at Sardica [A.D. 347], he became a Catholic under Jovian, and veered round to Arianism once more under Yalens. He was prominently concerned in the banishment of Liberius and the substitution of the antipope Felix [A.D. 355-358], after whose expulsion a sentence of deposition was passed against him at Seleucia [A.D. 359], and repeated at the Council of Lampsacus [A.D. 365], which he only survived for about a twelvemonth. The Acacians as a body partook of the chameleon character of their teacher, and the shifts were various by which they attempted to sustain their indeterminate position between the Semiand the Ultra-Arians. Their end would be obtained at one time by an intellectual subterfuge, 2

A caciam at another time by the abolition of the terms of technical theology. In A.D. 363, on the ascent of the orthodox Jovian to the throne, they attended a synod held at Antioch under Meletius, and agreed to sign the Meene Creed, with a mental reservation to the effect that the expression "consubstantial" or " co-essential" meant no more than begotten of the Father's essence, and therefore like Him in essence. Four years previously, at Seleucia in Isauria [A.D. 359], they had attempted to banish the term ova-ia altogether, with its compounds oftoovsriov and o/xoiowtoF, and asked to be allowed to adopt a formula of belief in God's only Son, without any further qualification as to His nature; rejecting "consubstantial" as not found in Holy Scripture, and the phrase dvo/xoiov T(j> ILarpi, as equally defenceless. On being further pressed, they allowed the Son to be like the Father, but seemed to prefer the absence of closer definition. But if the Son was like the Father, in what, asked the orthodox party, did the resemblance consist? Was it merely a resemblance in respect of will ? or was it a resemblance of a still more unreal character, like that of a statue to the original, which involves no inherent element of identity 1 The answer of the Acacians to these questions must be discovered from the creed which was promulgated on that occasion, the precise terms of which have been preserved: " W e confess and believe in one God the Father Almighty, Maker of Heaven and earth, and of things visible and invisible. " We believe also in our Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, begotten of Him without any passion (avadSn), before all ages, the God Word, God of God, Only-begotten, Light, Life, Truth, Wisdom, Virtue, by Whom all things were made which are in Heaven and earth, whether visible or invisible. Wo believe Him to have assumed flesh of the Blessed Virgin at the end of the world to put away sin, and that He was made man, that He suffered also for our sins, rose again, and having ascended into Heaven, is seated at the right hand of the Father, and shall come again with glory to judge the quick and dead. " We believe also in one Holy Spirit, Whom our Saviour and Lord Jesus Christ called the Paraclete, and promised that He would send the same on His Apostles after His departure, Whom He both truly sent, and by Him doth sanctify the faithful in the Church, who are baptized in the Namo of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit. But whosoever preach anything beyond what is contained in this Creed the Catholic Church considers them as aliens." [Epiphan. Hceres. lxxiii.] The following forty-three bishops subscribed to the above Creed :—Acacius, Bishop of Csesarea, Basil of Ancyra, Mark of Arethusa, George of Alexandria, Pancratius, Hypatian, Uranius of Tyre, Eutychius of Eletitheropolis, Zoilus of Larissa in Syria, Seras of Paraatonium in Libya, Paul of Emessa, Eustathius of Epiphania, Irenaeus of Tripolis in Phoenicia, Eusebius of Seleucia in Syria, Eutychian of Patara

Accaophori in Lycia, Eustathius of Pinara and Didyma, Basil of Caurica in. Lydia, Peter of Hippus in Palestine, Stephen of Ptolemais in Libya, Eudoxius, Apollonius of Oxyrinchus, Theoctistus of Ostraeine, Leontius of Lydia, Theodosius of Philadelphia, Phoebus of Polychalanda in Lydia, Magnus of Tliemisi in Phrygia, Evagrius of Mytilene, Cyrion of Doliche, Augustus of Euphratesia, Pollux of the second province of Libya, Pancratius of Pelusium, Philicadns of Augustada in Phrygia, Serapionof Antipyrgum in Libya, Eusebius of Sebaste in Palestine, Heliodorus of Sezusa in Pentapolis, Ptolemy of Thmuis Augustonias, Angarus of Cyrus Euphrasia, Exeresius of Gerasa, Arabion of A d m , Charisius of Azotus, Elissseus of Diocletianopolis, Germanus ofPetras, and Barochius of Arabia. [Mosheim, Ecdes. Hist. i. 306. Tillemont, Meraoires, torn, vi. 304, Paris edit. Nicephorus, Eccles. Hist. lib. ix. Epiphanius, Hceres. lxxiii.] ACCAOPHORI. A sect of heretics which used water instead of wine for the Holy Eucharist has this name given to it by Timotheus Presbyter, and he traces their origin to the followers of Tatian, or the Encratites. But he adds that they were also called Hydroparastatae, and hence " Accaophori " is supposed to be merely a misreading for SACCAOPHORI. [Timoth. Presb. in ed. Combefisian. And. nov. Ubl. Pair. Grceeo-Latin. ii. 451, Coteler. Mon. ecd. Grrne. i. 776. Ittig, De Heresiardi. II. xii. 13.] ACEPHALI [vtrfs) accipi a Gregorio Nysseno, ah Epiphanio, adeoque ab ipso Athanasio ostendit Petavius de Trinit. iv. 1, n. 2, 3 " [ibid. II. ix. 11], This uncertainty of theological terms, though of considerable importance, is however by no means sufficient for an explanation of the origin of the errors of Eutyches. There was a real difference between the theology of Alexandria and that of Antioch, and consequently an antagonism between the schools. Each held adequately a portion of the truth concerning the person of Christ, but failed to set forth adequately the complement of that portion, and was therefore liable each to its distinctive heresy. "The school of Antioch, by way of preventing an Apollinarian identification of the divine and the human in the vovs of Christ, distinguished between the two aspects as two natures, the school of Alexandria started with laying emphasis on the unity (eVwo-is vtriKy), and then proceeded to consider what could be said concerning the duality. Both held that the divine nature, the Logos, had a substantial existence, an hypostasis ; but whilst the Alexandrians attached the humanity of Christ, including the soul and its powers, to the divine hypostasis as little more than a receptive passive material, the Antiocheins, for the reasons previously mentioned, strove to prove that the human factor also had a relative independence, but shewed themselves not infrequently inclined to the use of expressions which attributed to the human aspect an independent hypostasis or personality " [Dorner's Person of Christ, II. i. 56, Clark's tr.]. Cyril of Alexandria, whose side Eutyches warmly took, and by whose words he afterwards defended himself, was thus, by the character of the theological school to which he belonged, inclined to use that language which set forth most strongly the union of the two natures; and his fault, Dcirner remarks, was principally that of too tenaciously clinging to the vagueness of expression and thought which prevailed at an earlier period, without its defectiveness being felt,— treating it as though it were perfect and satisfactory, and setting himself in opposition to those who demanded that the unity should be more accurately defined, and the rationale thereof be more distinctly exhibited. Eutyches, with a theological acumen far inferior to Cyril's, imperfectly understood his leader, exaggerated his forms of expression, and drew inferences from them which Cyril would not have allowed. About A.D. 448, he taught that in Christ there was but one nature, that of the Incarnate Word. Cyril had expressed himself in this manner, and

[ARIAN8.

SBMI-ARIANS.]

EXIST ATHI AN S. A local name given to the Euchites from Eustathius, Bishop of Sebaste in Armenia, who was deposed by the Council of Gangra [A.D. 380], and his principles condemned in twenty-one canons of that council. [Socr. Hist. Eecl. ii, 33.] EUSTATHIANS. During the time of Arian ascendancy at Antioch [A.D. 358] the Catholics were called by the naxne of Eustathius, the last presiding orthodox bishop of that see. [ M E L E TIANS OF ANTIOCH. Sozom. Hist. Eccl. iii. 20. Theod. Hist. Eecl. ii. 12.] EUT1CHISTJS.

[EUTYCHBM.1

EUTYCHITES. [EUTTOHHTA] EUTYCHETiE. A sect of heretics of this name is mentioned by Theodoret, who writes, " Erom this most bitter root" of Simonianisia "sprang the Cleobians, Dosithseans, Gorthseans, Masbothoaans, Adrianists, Eutychetse, and Canistse," adding that they lasted but a short time, and were then consigned to perpetual oblivion [Theod. HOST. fab. i. 1]. In the edition of Cotelerius the sect is supposed to he identical with the Euchites; Theodoret in one place naming together Carpociates, Epiphanes, Prodicus, the Cainites, the Antitactics, and the Euchites [Coteler. in Theod. Haer. fab. v. 9]. Ittigius, however, considers that they are the same as the Entychites mentioned by Clement of Alexandria as being named from their iniquitous practices [Stromal vii. 17, ad fin.}-, and that they probably made their profligacies (eFTt>xtvo-ecriv d Account.} While Hoadly thus rejected on the one hand all that flows to man through the society of the Church, through her ministers and sacraments, he rejected no less on the other hand those parts of Christian truth which he might have learnt from Leighton, which were soon to form the strength of the Evangelical School. [ D I O T . of THEOL., EVANGELICALS.] Kegarding Prayer, the Atonement, Grace, Justification, and kindred topics, his opinions are scarcely discernible from those of modern Unitarians. 1 Destitute of the excellencies of the schools and leading men with whom he was connected, which preserved them from the full effects of their Latituuinarian principles, he has shewn to what those principles really lead, to a system, namely, of prayer without fervour, sacraments without grace, clergy without a calling, and a church without cohesion. Such is the natural issue of the rationalizing Christianity introduced by Hales and Chillingworth, aided presently by the Dutch Bemonstrants. The deterioration of the Arminian divines after the Synod of Dort was rapid. Episcopius drew perilously near to Soeinianism. His form of Arminianism, as embraced by the English Latitudinarians, never possessed the Church's sacramental element, and it had rejected or at least neglected the doctrine of the Atonement which had given an evangelical tone to the teaching of Arminius. It set forth Christ as an example rather than as a Saviour. In Hoadly, therefore, Arminian Latitudinarianism "became a kind of Protestantism within the Church of England, protesting not only against the doctrinal system of Calvin (for which it might be excuscd), but against all the vital powers and agencies of Apostolical Christianity. An alleged sincerity of purpose took the place of faith; revelation was to be brought down to human comprehension ; all mysteries were to be excluded. All who said that they loved J esus Christ in sincerity, whatever their creed, whatever their worship, were Christian brethren: and (as a necessary consequence of Chillingworth's original dictum) all who held the Scriptures to be the rule of belief and morals were alike members of the Church. Many in Hie Church of England fell into this state of indif1 Hoadly defined prayer t h u s : " A ealm a n l undisturbed address to God." 202

Hobbes ferentism. They were not Arminians in a true sense of the word, they were such only because they were not Calvinists. When a revival of religion came there was, besides a recurrence to primitive doctrine through the leading of the English Church, a reappearance also of the distinctive tenets of Arminius and Calvin. Wesley reinvigorated Arminianism, while a fervent and more spiritual Latitudinarianism (of which Leighton remained the unsurpassable type) joined with distinct Calvinistie tenets, revived in Evangelicalism. But the Evangelical School has borne marks of Hoadly throughout its whole course. Its doctrine of the Sacraments, particularly of the Holy Eucharist, fell below Calvin's, and is only distinguishable from Hoadly's by greater devotion, Hoadly's tenet that a man's title to God's favour cannot depend upon his actual being or continuing in any particular method, which, if it mean anything, means first that there is no Church to which God joins those whom Ho will save, and then that all sects whatever (the Catholic Church being a sect) are equal, remained theoretically in Evangelicalism; with, the practical distinction however that dissenters from the Church of England were commonly looked upon as the more godly, HOBBES. Few philosophical writers who have not written directly against Christianity have had a wider influence in promoting scepticism than Thomas Hobbes : and yet his philosophy is rather one of polities than of religion. He was the son of a clergyman, was born at Malmesbury on April 5th, 1588, took his degree at Oxford, was private tutor, first to Lord Cavendish, and afterwards to his surviving brother, the Earl of Devonshire, and through his pupils became intimate with Bacon and Lord Herbert of Cherbury, During his absenco from England under the Long Parliament he also became acquainted at Paris with Descartes. In the year 1651 he published his principal work, The Leviathan, and shortly afterwards returned to England. Having been for a short time mathematical tutor to Charles II. (though he had not learned the first rudiments till after his fortieth, year) he received a pension of £100 a year at the Restoration, and lived to the great age of ninety-two, dying on December 4th, 1679. Beligion received little attention from Hobbes except as a part of government, a matter of police, by means of which the absolute sovereign may be assisted in maintaining order in his kingdom. But tiie whole of his philosophy is pervaded by Materialism, the foundation of which he thus lays in the first chapter of his Leviathan: " Concerning the thoughts of man I will consider them first singly, and afterwards in a train or dependence upon one another. Singly they are every one a representation or appearance of some quality or other accident of a body without its, which is commonly called an object—which object worketh on the eyes, ears, and other parts of a man's body; and by diversity of working, prodnccth diversity of appearances. The original of them all is that which we call ' Sense,' for

Hominicolce there is no conception in a man's mind wliicli hath not at first, totally or by parts, been begotten upon the organs of sense. The rest are derived from that original." Elsewhere he says, " All the qualities called 1 sensible' are, in the object that causeth them, but so many several motions of the matter by which it presseth on our organs diversely. Neither in us that are pressed are they anything else but divers motions ; for motion producetli nothing but motion." " Conception is a motion in some internal substance of the head." The Materialism of Hobbes did not developo into Atheism, for he acknowledged the existence of God, and looked upon Pantheism as absurd. But he denied the possibility of knowing anything about God beyond the fact of His existence ; and as regards the duty owing to Him by man he expressly defines religion as " the fear of an invisible power feigned by the mind or imagined from tales publicly allowed." When such fear is associated with " tales," not " publicly allowed" by the civil authority, he defines it as "superstition." The principal opponents of Hobbes wrere Archbishop Bramhall, who printed The Catching of the Leviathan in 1658, with the object of shewing that no man who is thoroughly a Ilobbeist can be a good Christian, or a good Commonwealth's man, or reconcile himself to himself : Lord Clarendon, who wrote A Brief View of the Dangerous and Pernicious Views to Church and State in Mr. Hobbes' book entitled Leviathan; and Archbishop Tenison, the author of the Creed of Mr. Hobbes Examined. The Leviathan has been little read since the age in which it was published, but a new edition of Hobbes' works was edited by Sir William Molesworth in the year 1845. [ D I C T . of TIIEOL., D E I S M . ] HOFFMANITES. [ J E R U S A L E M F R I E N D S . ] HOMINICOLCE. This is not the name of a sect, but a controversial term of reproach used by the Apollinarians and other heretics towards the orthodox as worshippers of " the Man Christ Jesus." HOMMES D'INTELLIGENCE. [MEN OF UNDERSTANDING.]

HOMOIOUSIANS. A name given to the who refused to accept the statement of the Nicene Creed that the Son is of one substance with the Father, and maintained instead that He was of a like or similar substance. HOMÔOUSIANS. The orthodox believers in the doctrine stated in the Nicene Creed, that the Son is " of one substance with the Father." HOMTJNCIOXITiE. This name is given by the author of Prédestinât us to those who maintained the opinion that the image of God was to be found in the body and not in the soul of mau [Prœdest. Ilair. Ixxvi.]. St. Augustine just mentions the opinion, writing "alia dicit corpus hominis, non animam, esse imaginera Dei," but gives no name to those who held it [Aug. Hair. Ixxvi.]. Philaster confutes at some length an opinion that the body was created before the soul, and SEMI-ARIANS,

ZUT)

Hume that it, and not the soul, was created in the image of God ; but neither does he give any name to those who maintained it [Philast. de Hair. xcvii.]. Epiphanius attributes the same opinion to the Audians [Epiphan. Hour. 1.], as does also Theodoret [Hist. Heel. iv. 10]. I t has also been attributed to Melito of Sardis and his followers, whose belief respecting the corporeity of God approached Anthropomorphism [ANTHBOPOMOKPHITES] ; but there seems no foundation for this beyond the presence of the word " Melitonii" against the opinion in the Inrlicidus which precedes St. Augustine's work on heresies, but which is of very doubtful authenticity. I t is singular that Prudentius, who wrote his Apotheosis about the end of the fourth century, entitles a portion of it "contra Homuncionitas," without saying a word about the opinion referred to in the preceding paragraphs. The opinion condemned by him is stated in the lines— " Hoc tantum quod verus liomo est ; at ccelitus ilium Affirmant non esse Deum ; pietate fatentur Majestate nega.nt : morum pro laude sacratum Concelebrant: adimunt naturae summa sivpernse."

[Prudent. Apoth. 553.]

This so plainly refers to the Arians that the title " contra Homusionitas" has sometimes been substituted. H O P K I N S I A N S . A party among the Independents of America, who slightly differ from their sect in general as to their view of Calvinism, but who have never formed themselves into a separate body. Their name is taken from Samuel Hopkins, an Independent minister at Newport in Rhode Island, whose System of Divinity was published in the year 1803, shortly after his death. The principal point in which they differ from ordinary Supralapsarian Calvinists is in denying the imputation of Adam's guilt or of Christ's righteousness. They also make a great point of maintaining that holiness consists in disinterested benevolence, and sin in interested selfishness. [II. Adams' Diet of Sects.'] HOREBITES. A party of 'the Hussites who took their name from a mountain in Bohemia, to which they gave the Scriptural name of Horeb, and on which they encamped when commencing the war with Germany. [BOHEMIANS. H U S S I T E S . ] A similar party called themselves Taborites, find they were accustomed to name the adjacent German provinces Edom, Moab, Amalok, &c., after the nations who were opposed to the Israelites. HUME. The historian Hume [A.D. 1711-1770] became also known as the founder of a. sceptical school of thought which carries into the province of religion the great principle of the Baconian philosophy, that the only way of certainly arriving at truth is by experience. This had led Hobbes, the friend of Bacon, to Materialism, and was in no small degree the teaching of Locke, but it was reserved for David Hume to formulate the opinion in such a manner as to bring it to bear directly on Christianity; the key of his position having two fronts, the denial of a First Cause and the denial of miracles. Both forms of denial Hume based upon the principle that oniy

Humanitarians that can be received as true which can he- proved on tlie evidence of experience. Hume's theory respecting God may be condensed into two statements. [1] That when we argue from the course of nature, and infer a particular intelligent Cause •which at first bestowed, and still preserves, order in the universe, we embrace a principle which is both uncertain and useless, because the subject lies entirely beyond the reach of human experience. [2] That the idea of God as an infinitely intelligent, wise, and good Being, arises from reflecting on the operations of our own minds, and augmenting those qualities of goodness and wisdom without bound or limit; so that, whatever we esteem good in human nature, we elevate into an attribute of Deity by adding to it an arbitrary idea of in finity. His theory respecting miracles was : |1] That there can, by no possibility, be sufficient ground for believing in them. Experience, he alleged, is our only guide in reasoning on matters of fact, and even experience is not an infallible guide. Thus, when any testimony is presented to us respecting alleged miracles, we must balance it against opposite circumstances which may create doubt, and thus the value of the evidence on one side may be destroyed by that on the other, or by the very nature of the facts alleged when interpreted by evidence so balanced. The experience of mankind, lie maintained, is against the truth of miracles, and we do not know the attributes of God sufficiently to know whether He can or cannot work them; and thus no evidence in proof of their occurrence is possible. [2] But he further maintained that no miracle had ever been recorded on historical testimony that was sufficiently good to establish it as a matter of belief. The witnesses of a miracle ought, he said, to be of such unquestionable good sense, education, and learning, as to secure us against any mistake on their part. They should also be of such integrity as to raise tlieir evidence beyond suspicions of interestedness or of untruthfulness. And, lastly, miracles should be performed so publicly, and under such circumstances of publicity, that imposture should be evidently impossible. Of course Hume's conclusion was that the Gospel miracles will not stand the test required by the a posteriori argument; but it is the a priori argument alone which has any force, as the general opinion of thinkers altogether favours the soundness of the Gospel history. Hume's reasonings had much influence oil the scepticism of his time, and have affected later literature to an extent far greater than might be supposed from the obscurity into which his Philosophical Essays have fallen. Perhaps this may have arisen from the great perspicuity of his writings, in which he presents a conspicuous contrast to German philosophers. [ S C E P T I C S . ] HUMANITARIANS. This is a term occasionally used to designate those who believe only in the humanity or human nature of our Lord, rejecting the doctrine of His Divine Nature. 204

Hungarian HUMANITY,

Protestants

RELIGION

OF.

[Posi-

T1VISTS.]

H U N G A R I A N PROTESTANTS. An antipapal party existed in Hungary very long before the Reformation. I t has been calculated that it contained as many as eighty thousand Waldenses in the earlier part of the fourteenth century. The Hussites in the succeeding century were equally numerous, so that it causes no surprise to learn that Lutheran teaching speedily found its way into Hungary. As early as A.D. 1521, George Szakmary, Archbishop of Grail, ordered a condemnation of Luther's books to be read from the pulpits of all the principal churches ; episcopal edicts to the same effect followed [A.D. 15231525], accompanied by a persecution so relentless that the Protestant party was nearly destroyed. Political events, however, caused a respite. On the death of Louis II. [A.D. 1526] John Zapolski and Ferdinand I. endeavoured to enlist sympathy for their rival claims to the crown by denouncing the Reformers, who continued to grow ill numbers and importance, and even ventured to retaliate cn the inmates of the religious houses, while the minds of the community were distracted by the civil war. Some years later a printing-office was established at Cronstadt by John Honter [A.D. 1533], for the purpose of disseminating Protestant opinions through the press as well as through the pulpit; and Matthew Devay, " the Luther of Hungary," published a Magyar translation of St. Paul's Epistles, followed in three years' time by the Gospels, and afterwards by the whole New Testament both in Magyar and in the Croatian dialect [A.D. 1563]. Originally Devay was a Lutheran in his opinions, and as such had signed the Augsburg Confession, but he subsequently changed, and adopted Zwinglian views, especially on the Holy Eucharist. This led to a division in the Reformers' camp. Five leading cities drew up a protest against the Swiss doctrines known as the " Confessio Pentapolitana" [A.D. 1549]. The common Confession of Faith of the Reformed Hungarians, "Confessio Czengerina," was published at Czenger [A.D. 1557], containing strong Calvinistic teaching, and based on the Helvetic Confession, which had been printed at Torgau in Prussian Saxony in the previous year. The issue of these confessions proves by itself the sway by this time obtained by Protestantism in Hungary. Leave to conform to it was demanded and obtained by five free cities in North Hungary, twelve market towns in the county of Zips, a few towns in Lower Hungary, and by the heads of several noble houses [A.D. 1555]. The final abandonment of Lutheranism and open union with the Swiss Calvinists took place A.D. 1566. I n Transylvania, which became an independent kingdom A.D. 1540, the widow of John Zapolski granted full religious liberty to the Lutherans A.D. 1557, and to the Calvinistic Protestants a few years later. Her successor, John Sigismund, extended this toleration to the Socinians, who, on being driven out of Hungary, settled in great numbers in Transylvania.

IIuntingdon

Connexion

HUNTINGDON CONNEXION. A sect of Calvinistic Methodists which derives its name from Selina, widow of the ninth Earl of Huntingdon. Its history dates from the year 1748, and is closely connected with that of the " Evangelical" party in the Church of England. [Low CHURCHMEN.]

Lady Huntingdon was brought into an early association with the Methodists through the marriage of her husband's sister, Lady Margaret Hastings, to Mr. Ingham, one of the Oxford "Eeligious Society" out of which Methodism took its origin, and one of Wesley's companions on his voyage to Georgia. [ISGHAMITES.] On tli© separation of Wesley and Whitelield, Lady Huntingdon attached herself closely to the latter, and in 1748 appointed him one of her chaplains, that she might have a claim on his services to preach to her friends at her residence, afterwards Cremorne House, Chelsea, and the next mansion to that of Count Zinzendorf, the founder of the Moravians. Here, and at her house in Park Street, large assemblies of the nobility, including even such men as Lord Bolingbroke, Lord Chesterfield, and Horace Walpole, used to gather to listen to the famous preacher; and under his influence fashionable ladies invited parties for prayer at each others' houses as they had been accustomed to invite parties for cards. The next step taken by Lady Huntingdon was to build chapels in fashionable towns, such as Bath, Clifton, Tunbridge Wells, Brighton, &e., which she kept entirely in her own hands, and provided with clergymen, whom she called her chaplains. This she did on the ground that as a peeress she had a right to employ as many chaplains as she pleased, and that she was entitled to employ them where she pleased. To secure a succession of such chaplains of her own way of thinking, she then set up a theological college in an old mansion named Trevecca House, at Talgarth, near Brecon. This was opened by herself and George Whitfield on August 24th, 1708, the first principal being Sir "Richard Hill's well-known French chaplain, Fletcher, or Jean Guillaume de la Elechere, afterwards Yicar of Madeley, Lady Huntingdon required the bishops to ordain as her chaplains, and for her chapels, such candidates for orders as should be sent to them from this college; but this they declined to do, the number of chaplains to an earl, and therefore to a countess, being limited to five by the Act of Parliament 21 Henry V I I I . e. 13, and the kind of duty for which they are intended being ministrations within the domestic chapels of mansions, and not in public chapels like those erected by Lady Huntingdon. It, was not to be expected, however, that a lady whose ecclesiastical habits had acquired for her the name of Pope Joan would be easily brought to submit to any other discipline than her own, and she therefore continued to tempt clergymen into her chapels by the bribe of a " scarf," the badge of a nobleman's chaplain, which was at that time considered a mark of dignity and social position. Thus many " Free Churches," as thev would now 205

IIuntingdon

Connexion

be called, were set up throughout the country, in which Calvinistic clergymen officiated according to the customs of the Church of England ; but entirely without any ecclesiastical authority. They were appointed and removed entirely at the pleasure of their patroness ; and nothing could be more abject than the submission with which they bowed to " h e r ladyship's condescension" on every occasion. The extravagant claims of Lady Huntingdon were brought to the test of law in the year 1776. Shortly before that time a large chapel in Spa Fields called the " Pantheon"—intended for the worship of all denominations—hacl been taken by a company for the purpose of being used as a chapel on the same plan as Lady Huntingdon's, and two clergymen named Jones and Taylor were engaged to officiate in it. The Vicar of the parish of St. James, Clerkenwell, in which "Northampton Chapel" was situated, at once took proceedings against those two clergymen, and they were prohibited from further ministration, neither they nor the chapel being licensed by the Bishop. Lady Huntingdon then bought the chapel, placing there as her " chaplains" Dr. Haweis and Mr. Glascott. Proceedings were taken against them with the same result, when it was determined to license the place as a dissenting meeting-house, and two clergymen named Wills and Taylor qualified themselves, under the Toleration Act, as dissenters, for the purpose of taking charge of it. From this time many of Lady Huntingdon's chaplains, including Romaine, De Ccmrcy, Venn and Toplady, withdrew from her service, and became distinguished as early members of the Low Chureh school in the Church of England. But the discovery of her sectarian position had not the same effect upon Lady Huntingdon, for when she found that the law of England requires every place of worship to be licensed either for the use of the Church or for the use of dissenters, she gave up all connection with the former, and chose that her chapels should become avowedly those of dissenters rather than yield her authority over them. Thus, in the year 1783, a sect was formally established by her, and to provide ministers for some of the vacated ehapiels six of the young men from Trevecca were "ordained" by the seceding priests at Spa Fields. At Lady Huntingdon's death in 1791, at the age of eighty-four, her chapels were, by her will, bequeathed to Dr. Haweis, Mrs. Haweis, Lady Ann Erskine, and Mr. Lloyd, who formed a trust for the administration of them and of Trevecca College. The latter, however, was removed to Cheshunt in Hertfordshire, in the following year, where it was eventually reformed for the education of young men " who are left entirely free in their choice of the denomination of Christians among whom they may prefer to exercise their ministry." The result has been that the college has become a nursery for ministers o^ the " Congregationalist" or Independent sect, though its numbers have always been very small.

Hwitiiigtonians The position taken up by Lady Huntingdon's Connexion was that of a " Free Church," in which the Calvinistie aspect that some. Divines have discovered in the Church of England should he strongly wrought out in association with the use of the Prayer Book. During her lifetime it attained enough popularity to win the jealousy of Wesley, who hated Calvinism, ana did not much love a successful rival who could he as imperious a pope as himself. Four years after her death, Dr. Haweis estimated that her preachers had Sunday congregations amounting in the aggregate to 100,000 people. But when the Religious Census was taken in 1851, the Connexion only returned 19,159 members, with 101 chapels. A large numher of its members were absorbed into the Low Church section of the Church of England during the first half of the nineteenth century, and the sect is now very small. [Lady Huntingdon's Life and Times. Gledstane's Life of Whiff eld. Middleton's Ecel. Mem. of the First Four Decades o f Geonje i//.] HUXTIXGTONIAXS. The followers of an Antinomian preacher known as William Huntington, the " preaching coalheaver," who collected a congregation around him first in a chapel in Margaret Street, Cavendish Square, and then at Providence Chapel in Gray's Inn Lane, London, at the end of the last and the beginning of the present century. He made some stir among the Dissenters in London, but did not leave any formally constituted sect behind him. Huntington was the son of a man of some social position named Russel, by the wife of a Kentish labourer na"icd Hunt. He was born near Cranbrooli in the year 174.3, and was brought up as one of his large family by the labourer, whose name he bore for the first thirty or thirty-live years of his life. He professed to have changed his name from Hunt to Huntington at his " conversion," writing " with this name I was born again," &c., but he also gives as his reason that being unable or unwilling to pay the parish officers for the maintenance of a bastard son, he made the addition of the two latter syllables to the one by which he was known, on the ground that " if I let my present name stand, I may by that be traced by moans of the newspapers." When he became a preacher he always wrote his name " William Huntington, S.S.," the initials representing his spiritual degree of " Sinner Saved." 1 He worked as a labourer until he found preaching more profitable, but died a wealthy man, having drawn largely upon the pockets of his admirers, and having (after the death of his wife and six infants) married Lady Saunderson, the widow of a Lord Mayor, l i e had been accustomed to rail at the bishops for " rolling their fat carcases about in chariots," but having now a chariot of his own he justified the change to himself and his followers by qnot1 It is not unlikely that Huntington borrowed these letters from the " S . S." with which Sowers of Sedition were formally branded. Leigh ton was ordered to be so branded in 1630, the " S . S." being mentioned in his sentence.

206

II uguenots ing Acts xxi. 15, " A n d after those days we took lip our carriages, and went up to Jerusalem." This popular preacher of his day seems to have acquired considerable influence by preaching in an exaggerated form the two doctrines of Faith and Indefectible Grace, which were made so prominent by the Methodists and the Calvinistie clergy, and by spicing his sermons with coarse humour, such as attracted so many to Spurgeon in a later generation. He ^ a s strongly, though justly denounced by Rowland Hill, who is said to have shewn his detestation of the man and his works by taking up one of Huntington's volumes with a pair of tongs, and giving it thus to his servant for lighting the kitchen fire. But the humour and invective of the gentleman were no match for those of the coalheaver. Huntington contrived to leave twenty "volumes in print, but his own portion of them is filled with cant and vulgar wit, and they also include whole volumes of letters written to him by his obsequious dupes. [Huntington's Works. Quart. Rev. xxiv. 462.] HUGUENOTS. The origin of this name, which was given in contempt to the Calvinists of France, is uncertain. I t is generally thought to be a corruption of the German word Eidfjenossen, confederates; but it is difficult to see how a German name ever came to be applied to the French Calvinists, who took their beginning from Geneva, not from Augsburg. Davila says that they were called Huguenots because their first conventicles in the city of Tours, where their doctrines first gained strength, were in certain cellars near the gate of Count Hugo, which seems a more plausible derivation [Dar. Hist, des Guerres Civ. t. 1], I n public documents they were called Religionaires, or " Ceux de la Religion pretendue Reformee." They were not called Protestants before the seventeenth century. The doctrines of the Reformers, especially as formulated by Calvin, spread widely in France during the reign of Francis I. [1515-4-7]. That Prince, while he lent support to the German Protestants, as a means of annoying his rival Charles V., persecuted the Calvinists in his own country. I t was during his reign that Calvin, having been driven from France, published his Imtitutio Christiana} Relujionis, expressly as the confession of faith of those who were persecuted in France [Basle, 155.3], a work which he republished almost every year with additions and amendments. In 1538 he formed a French community in Strasburg, the number of refugees even at that early date being great enough to require organization. The persecution grew more severe toward the end of Francis' reign; it was made criminal to aid the new doctrines in any way whatever; and an inquisition was set up, which had the power of hunting out heretics and delivering them over to the ecclesiastical and criminal courts. Under Henry II., the feeble successor of Francis [1547-9], the same double policy was continued. The war of the Protestant party, headed by Maurice of Saxony, against the Emperor, broke

Huguenots out in 1552. Henry agreed to join the Protestants; and the war was made memorable by the French conquest of Metz, which was retained to the kingdom mainly by the skill of the Duke of Guise. This was perhaps the greatest public service rendered by the great house of Guise, which at this time became eminent for the talents of its members and for its bitter hostility to the Reformed religion. The house of Guise, of French Lorraine, was a branch of the old sovereign house of Lorraine, and in this century became united with the Bourbon branch of the royal family of France. The defender of Metz had married a granddaughter of Louis X I I . His brother, the Cardinal of Lorraine, was not inferior to him in ambition or ability. The chief rival of the Guisos was the Constable Montmorency, a soldier who had shared the wars oí Francis I., but whose harsh and unpopular character little fitted him to dispute the ascendancy of the Guises. The religionists were at this time held in contempt as a misguided rabble: an accident revealed to the Guises that many men of high rank were among their adherents. Some followers of the new faith met together in Paris, where they were attacked by the mob. A riot followed, and the whole of them being taken in custody, they were found to have among them a number of the highest rank, including the celebrated Admiral Coligny, the nephew of Montmorency. Several of them were condemned and burned under the existing edicts by the alarmed court; and greater powers for the suppression of heresy were demanded from the Parliament of Paris. The King held a bed of justice in 1559, and with apparent candour requested the members of the Parliament to give utterance to their opinions of the new doctrines. Two of them incautiously spoke in favour of the Keformers, and were put to death for that reason. Under Francis II. [1559-60] these dissensions first bogan to threaten the peace of the kingdom. The power of the Guises was increased by their relation to Mary of Scotland, the new Queen of France, who was their nieco. On the other hand the Bourbons openly avowed the new doctrines. These princes of the blood—the King of JNavarre and his brother Louis, Prince of Conde—were however unable to resist the Guises at court. The latter had gained a powerful auxiliary in the Queen mother, Catharine of Medici, who had no other motive than to increase her own power by joining the prevailing faction. The Guises continued the persecution of the heretics with fanatical fury. In every parliament there was established a chamber called the burning chamber (chambre ardente), for the purpose of examining and punishing heretics. The estates of those who fled were sold and their children reduced to beggary. But notwithstanding this persecution the Reformers would not have thought o of rebellion unless they had been countenanced by a prince of the Hood. They inquired of lawyers and theologians whether they could with a good conscience make war against the Guises: and the divines of Germany answered that with the aid 207

Hiignenofs of a prince of the blood it would be lawful to do so. I n 1560 was formed the conspiracy of Amboise for seizing the person of the young king. The brave Prince Louis of Condé was chosen to be leader of the enterprise, but his namo was kept secret, and a gentleman of Perigord, Jean du Barry, Sieur of Eemandie, was appointed his deputy. The plot was betrayed; ancl about 1200 persons paid with their lives the penalty of being concerned in it. The Guises now desired to establish the Inquisition, but the good Chancellor De l'Hôpital, to avoid the greater evil, obtained the amendment that all cases of heresy should be put into the hands of the bishops, the parliament ceasing to have any jurisdiction therein. This was ordered by the edict of Eomorantin [A.D. 1560], and the civil power was thus superseded. About the same time an assembly of notables was held at Fontainebleau, where Coligny presented a petition for liberty of conscience, which, he said, would ere long be signed by ten thousand persons holding the same faith with himself. " And I," replied the Duke of Guise, " will present another, which a hundred thousand men under my orders will sign with their blood." The States-General met at Orleans at the end of the year, and both parties regarded the meeting battlefield for the superiority. Before the day arrived however the two Bourbon princes were arrested and thrown into prison by the contrivance of the Guises; Condé was condemned to death ; and, in order to strike terror into the Eeligionaires, his execution was fixed for the first day of the meeting, and the scaffold was to be raised in the hall where the sittings were to be held. The sudden death of the king saved the life of Condé. On the accession of Charles IX. [A.D. 1560-7-1] the power of the house of Lorraine seemed to bo on the wane. They lost the hold on the court which they had through the young Queen Mary, their niece. A long minority ensued, the King being only ten years old, and though the Queen mother got herself appointed regent, yet the King of Navarre was named lieutenant-general of the kingdom. The Constable Montmorency, on the other hand, joined himself more closely with the five Guises. An edict, known as the Edict of July 1561, freed the Huguenots from the penalty of death, but remitted no other severity, and ordered their ministers to be expelled the kingdom [Davila, t. 11]. Shortly afterwards a meeting was held, which is known as the Conference of Poissy, at which, the two parties entered into theological controversy in a spirit of conciliation, which was only prevented by the Sorbonno from ending in pacification. The following year the edict of January granted the Huguenots freedom of worship. But their enemies continued to disturb their assemblies. Bloody scenes frequently ensued, and the massacre of Vassy in 1562 was the immediate cause of the First Civil War. The Huguenots made Orleans their headquarters, where a considerable army was gathered. The war was

IIugnenots marked by petty conflicts, in vliicli both sides behaved with perfidy and cruelty. At. the outset the King of Navarre deserted the Huguenots, and formed a union with Guise and Montmorency, which the Huguenots called the Triumvirate. Conde advanced on Paris with a small army, hut was compelled to retreat; then came the bloody battle of Dreux in Normandy, in which Conde was taken prisoner on one side and Montmore ncy on the other. The Huguenots were defeated; and Guise advanced on Orleans, before the walls of which he was assassinated by a pretended deserter named Poltrot. His death inclined both sides to come to terms; and the first religious war was concluded by the peace of Amboise, by which certain cities were assigned in every province for the religious assemblies of the Huguenots. This peace was made upon the fatal principle of treating the Huguenots not as part of the general population, to be dealt with under a uniform law, but as a separate community of pacified rebels. They had been declared rebels; and it must be admitted that they had behaved as such in calling in the English, to whom they had surrendered several fortified towns. The terms granted by the peace of Amboise were gradually infringed; and in 1567 the Huguenots again hacl recourse to arms. Montmorency was slain at the beginning of the struggle in the indecisive action of St. Denis. Cruelty and treachery marked this second religious war, which ended in a peace as hollow as the former. The third war was memorable for the death of the great Huguenot leader Conde, who fell in the battle of Jarnac in 1569. Coligny was now the only great leader left on either side of those who had seen the beginning of the troubles, so rapidly fatal were the religious wars to the leaders on both sides. But the place of Conde was filled by the illustrious Henry IV., then Prince of Beam, wdio joined the Huguenots wdth three thousand men. His presence compensated for the defeat of Coligny at Moncontour, and an advantageous peace was concluded in 1570. Meanwhile the young King of France, as he advanced towards manhood, manifested a disposition singularly cruel, bigoted, and treacherous. The Queen mother fostered these qualities, which she shared to the full, and along with him began that system of deceitful blandishments, lavished upon Coligny and the other Huguenot leaders, which were to be the prelude of St. Bartholomew. Coligny appeared at court, and was loaded with favours. A marriage was proposed between Henry of Beam, now King of Navarre, and the king's sister Margaret. For two years the mask was worn. The royal marriage was celebrated on the 17th August 1572, and Paris was filled with the principal Huguenot gentry. On the evening of the 24th August the festival of St. Bartholomew, that crime was enacted, which in magnitude, malice, and success stands unrivalled even in the blood-stained streets of Paris. There, and throughout France, vast numbers, calculated by historians at from 30,000 to 100,000, were slaughtered in cold blood, and 208

II ugiicuots the aged Coligny was among the number of the victims. The slaughter had been planned with the knowdedge and advice of the Pope Clement VIII., and when the news of it arrived, " a Solemn Procession" was "made by the Sovereign Pontiff" to the Church of St. Louis, "for the most happy news of the destruction of the Huguenot sect," as is shewn by the official document, of wdiich a copy exists in the Bodleian Library. Silver and copper medals were also struck by the Pope, with his head on one side, and a representation of the slaughter on the other, above the latter being the inscription " VGONOTTORVM STBAGES 1572." Medals of a similar kind were also struck at Paris, and the national fratricide was treated as if it had been a victory over foreign enemies. Yet the blow eventually improved the. position of the Huguenots, who, shutting themselves up in Rochelle and Montauban, defeated with great slaughter the armies sent against them. Another hasty peace was made; and in two years the wretched king ceased to pollute the throne of France. He was succeeded by his brother Henry I I I . [A.IX 1574-891, in whose reign the relations between the contending factions became still more intricate. A body called the Politiques had formed itself, consisting of moderate Catholics, who condemned the excesses of civil war. On the other hand, the dependants of the Ultramontane party were -formed by Guise into one well united body, which obtained the name of the League. Th is body had Us centre in the fanatical populace of Paris, by whom Guise was idolized, and it became evident that they intended to raise him to the throne. Yet the feeble king, after a vain attempt to abide by more moderate counsels, was compelled to become the head of the League, and to lend a sanction to the violent war which was waged by it against Henry of Navarre, the next heir to the throne. Guise was all powerful; his army overran the Huguenot part of the country j town after town was taken; and at last resistance was confined to the small but unconquerable kingdom of Navarre. Four distinct wars, divided from one another by short, scarcely observed treaties, are enumerated by the historians between St. Bartholomew's Day and the accession of Henry IV. In 1587 Henry, while still King of Navarre, defeated the army of the League at Contros, near Bordeaux. The assassination of Guise by the King in 1588 was followed by the assassination of the King by the Duchess of Montpensier, Guise's sister, in the following year, and Henry IV. was left heir to a vacant throne. A rival candidate was set up by Mayence, brother of Guise, who now headed the League, in the person of the Cardinal of Bourbon, the only Catholic member of the Bourbon family. Iienry now entered on that war for the maintenance of his rights, which was made memorable by the victories of Arques and Tory, and the siege of Paris. The capital was reduced to the utmost extremities of famine, and must have yielded but for the generosity of Henry, who allowed convoys of provisions to enter, and

Huguenots

Huguenots

women and children to leave tlie place. This enabled the League to hold out until a Spanish force under the great Parma entered the field against Henry ; whose cause was then reduced to desperation. I t was not until, by the advice of Sully, he had embraced the Eoman Catholic religion, that he obtained possession of his kingdom in 1593. Five years afterwards he secured to the Huguenots their civil rights by the Edict of Nantes: which confirmed to them the free exercise of their religion, and gave them equal claims with the Catholics to all offices and dignities. But, according to the old system, this edict, by leaving to them as a security the towns and fortresses which had been ceded to them, afforded them the means of forming a kind of republic within the kingdom ; and such a powerful body, established on terms of mistrust towards the government, could not fail to become sooner or later a source of danger to the state. I t was the work of Richelieu, in the succeeding reign of Louis X I I I . , to destroy this territorial independence of the Huguenots. The religious war broke out afresh in 1621 ; and the Huguenots lost the greater part of their strongholds through the treachery or cowardice of the governors. Some of them however were still remaining, and among them the important fortified city of Kochelle, when, weary of the war and disunited among themselves, they concluded a peace. But while Kochelle remained, the great cardinal saw that his work was imperfect. That stronghold, situated on the sea, enabled them to keep open their communications with England, and gave them a meeting-place for their independent representative assemblies. The siege of Rochelle was formed, and prosecuted with the utmost vigour by Richelieu in person, the cardinal shewing a genius for war worthy of his political renown. After enduring every extremity, after seeing the English fleet retire without being able to relieve it, Rochelle fell in 1629. The Huguenots were compelled to surrender all their other strongholds; and lay at the mercy of their enemies. But the opposition of Richelieu was political, not fanatical. Having broken down their autonomy, which was becoming dangerous to the consolidation of France under the monarchy, the object of his policy, he left the Huguenots undisturbed in their religious freedom; and thus a final settlement seemed to be made of the great struggle which had convulsed France for more than half a century. This settlement was not disturbed by Mazarin, and might have remained for ever, but for the orthodoxy of Louis XIV. Hot to be " o f the King's religion" was an offence in the eyes of that monarch, of his confessors, and of his mistresses, an offence for which civic harmlessness could not atone. Louis began to persecute the Huguenots, and in 1681 he deprived them of most of their civil rights. After the death of the moderate Colbert, he was urged still further in the .path of persecution by Louvois, Le Jellin, and his confessor, La Chaise the Jesuit. Bodies of dragoons were sent into the South, where the Protestants most abounded, to compel them to 209

abjure their religion. The frontiers were strictly guarded to prevent emigration. Yet more than half a million of Huguenots made their escape to Holland, Germany, Switzerland, and England. Many who remained were forced to renounce their faith. Lists of convicts, real or pretended, were sent to the King, who was led to believe that he had nearly extirpated false opinions in France. Under this impression he took the fatal step of the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, the great charter of religious liberty, in 1685. But he had still half a million of Protestant subjects; and this unjust and senseless policy deprived the kingdom of a great number of rich and useful subjects, whose wealth and skill found a welcome in foreign countries. I n the provinces between the Rhone and the Garonne the Protestants continued numerous in spite of emigration; and the mountains of the Cevennes afforded them shelter. There the CAMISARDS maintained a resistance for twenty years; and in 1706 compelled the government to come to terms with them. Under Louis XV. the rigour of the persecution was relaxed: and in 1746 the Protestants began to shew themselves publicly in Languedoe and Dauphin4 The court was as fanatical as ever; but public opinion was now set strongly against persecution; and though severe edicts were issued, they could no longer be carried out. The horrible fate of John Galas put an end to all active persecution. This unhappy man, on a false accusation of murdering his son for turning Catholic, was condemned in 1762 by the Parliament of Toulouse to be tortured and then broken on the wheel; and this sentence was carried out. Voltaire brought the case before the bar of public opinion in his Essay on Toleration, in which he drew attention to the defective state of the criminal law. The family of Calas solicited a revision of the trial. Fifty judges re-examined the evidence, and pronounced Calas to have been entirely innocent. From that time the Protestants were no longer molested; they were restored to equal rights, but still remained ineligible for public offices. The Revolution gave them back all their rights, and they frequently laid out their concealed treasures in the purchase of public domains. Their equality with the Catholics was confirmed by the Code Napoleon. At the Restoration they manifested a strong attachment to the former government, and though they did not offer any opposition to the new order of things, yet troubles, attended with bloodshed, took place at Nismes and the vicinity, which were however suppressed by the judicious measures of the government. After the Revolution of 1830, universal freedom of religion was proclaimed by the Reformed Charter of France, and this principle has prevailed ever since. The Protestant Church, in which are included both the Reformed and the Lutheran, is under the control of the State, from which its pastors receive their salaries. The doctrines held by the Huguenots were those of Calvin; their worship was extremely simple, preaching being the principal feature in it. The Confession of France was first presented in French o

Hussites

Hussites

in the year 1559, to Francis II. at Amboise, " i n the behalf of all the godly of the kingdom ;" again in 1561 at Poissy to Charles IX. ; and at length was published in Latin in 1566 by the pastors of the French Churches, with a preface to all other evangelical pastors. I t may be seen in the Harmonia Confessionum Reformatarum Ecclesiarurn, which was published at Geneva in 1581 [English transi. Lond. 1842, Hall's ed.]. [Davila, Hist, des Guerres Civiles. De Thou, Historia sui Temporis. Puaux, Hid. de la Memoire de Condé; Reformation Française; Mem. de Sully. Browning, Hist, of the Huguenots, 1829. Aignan, De l'Etat de Protestans en France. Burn, Hist, of the Protestant Refugees. Michelet, Louis XIV. et la Revocation de I Edit de Narrfes. Benoit, Hist, de VEdit de Nantes. Rulhière, Sur les Causes de la Revocation de VEdit de Nantes. Smiles, The Huguenots in England. ] HUSSITES. The Hussites were a party among the Bohemians, who, after the execution of Huss, professed to be his immediate followers, and received from their opponents a name derived from his, although they differed from him in many important points both of doctrine and ritual. As soon as the execution of Huss was known, the nobles of Bohemia met together in the chapel of the Bethlehem, and issued an address, denouncing the deed of the Council of Constance. I n this Wenceslaus, the king, joined, but the storm of public indignation soon passed beyond his control. A large body of Hussites, consisting of more than 30,000 men, met together on the White Mountain, afterwards called Tabor, near Prague, to celebrate the Eucharist in both kinds, under the guidance of two noblemen, Nicholas of Hussinetz, and Ziska. The first of these died shortly afterwards, and the latter assumed the command in the war that followed. This J o h n of Trocznow, surnamed Ziska, was a nobleman of small means, who had won distinction, and lost an eye in a war between the Prussians and Lithuanians in A.D. 1410. He was afterwards appointed chamberlain to Wenceslaus, with whom he bccame a great favourite. After the meeting on the White Mountain he led his followers to Prague, where a street tumult kindled the flame of the war which agitated Bohemia for many years. During a procession to the Church of St. Stephen one of the Hussite priests was struck by a stone thrown from the senate-house ; Ziska and his followers broke into the house, and murdered the city judge, and seven of the senators, by defenestration, that is, throwing them out of the window, according to the old Bohemian mode of putting criminals to death. This act threw Wenceslaus into a lit of passion, of which he died A.D. 1419. An important distinction now became observable between the Bohemians in general and the Hussites, or followers of Ziska. The latter set on foot a system of iconoclasm ; they defaced the altars, seriously injured the churches, overthrew the monuments, and utterly destroyed a Carthusian convent near Prague. Bohemia at that time prided herself on her beautiful churches, and the 210

havoc caused by the religious war which followed may be estimated by the fact that she has now only one of earlier date than the introduction of the Jesuits. During this civil warfare, a foreign war was also in progress with the Emperor Sigismund, who laid claim to the crown. The national Bohemians or Calixtines, and the Taborite followers of Ziska, united to oppose him, but they held very different opinions. The Bohemians, though Catholic, were antipapal, and while they opposed the Emperor, had yet no objection to monarchy in the abstract, much less to their own old constitutional monarchy; the party of Ziska, on the other hand, anticipated the Protestants of the following century, and the seeds of Socialism had been sown among them. They appealed to no authority in religious matters except the Scriptures, as interpreted by every man's individual judgment. I n 1420 they published fourteen articles, of which the following are the most important:— I. No other writings of learned men are to be received by the faithful, except those that are contained in the Canon. All the rest should be destroyed as the work of Antichrist. I I . Every student in polite literature, and every graduate therein, is vain and a Gentile, and sins against the gospel of Christ. I I I . No decrees of the Fathers, no ancient rite or tradition of men, is to be retained, save those which Christ and His apostles have declared in the New Testament; all others are to be abolished as the traditions of Antichrist. IY. Whence it follows that the holy oil, and the consecration of the water in Baptism, and, in fact, the whole ritual of the Church is rejected. V. Infants ought not to be baptized with exorcisms, and the use of sponsors is to be discontinued. Y I . All the office books, vestments, monstrances, chalices, &c., are to be destroyed. V I I . Auricular confession is not to be retained. V I I I . The stated fasts of the Church, as Lent, Ember-tide, and the vigils, and in like manner the festivals, except the Lord's Day, are not to be considered of obligatory observance. I X . The clergy are not to be allowed, as such, to hold property. To these follow protests against Elevation, Keservation of the Sacrament, Purgatory, Prayers for the Dead, the Invocation of Saints, the erection of images for any purpose whatever. They did not, however, go to the fullest length in their opposition to the received doctrines. Some of them, indeed, maintained that the bread and wine in the Eucharist are mere signs, but these were expelled from the community. A strange sect, the Adamites, Men of the Free Spirit, who held that, like Adam, they were the sons of God, and went so far as to discard the use of any clothing, alleging his example, were ruthlessly exterminated by Ziska. Upon the death of Wenceslaus, his widow, Sophia, assumed the regency, and occupied the citadel of Prague with those who had espoused

Hussites the cause of Sigismund. Ziska failed to reduce the citadel, and at length a suspension of arms was concluded, during which an appeal might be made to the Emperor. Ziska retired to Pilsen, which he fortified, and there proceeded to discipline his forces, in preparation for the conflict he saw was at hand. The commissioners sent to Sigismund could effect no accommodation. The national excitement increased, and when the Pope (Martin V.) published a crusade against the Bohemians, and the Emperor denounced the ban of the empire against them, they retaliated by a solemn league at Pilsen, in which they rejected him as their king. The war that followed, glorious as it was for the Bohemians, who, though single-handed, and often divided among themselves, more than held their own against all the power of the papacy and the empire combined, exceeded all former wars in horror, and in the disasters that it brought upon all persons concerned in it. On the one side, it was held that no faith should be kept with heretics, and on the other that it was a sacred duty to destroy the enemies of God's people. I n Kuttenberg, a German and Catholic city, no less than 1600 prisoners of war were burned, beheaded, or hanged as heretics, and Ziska retaliated upon priests and monks wherever he could take them. His soldiers were for the most part infantry, but he trained some of them to fight from war chariots, the fiery onset of which was a terror to the Germans, while, when the fight was over, they served to strengthen the fortifications of the camp. He was soon forced by a movement of the royal troops to evacuate Pilsen, whence he betook himself to a mountain in the district of Bechin, which his followers named Tabor, and from it derived their distinctive name of Taborites. I t was a hill almost encircled by a river and a torrent. On the exposed side he formed an artificial trench, and within a triple line of fortifications. I n the first campaign [A.D. 1420] Sigismund advanced as far as Prague, and went through the ceremony of his coronation in the castle, granting at the same time general liberty of conscience ; but the constant assaults of Ziska forced him to beat a retreat, which soon became a flight, and was followed by a signal defeat in the battle of Wyschebrad. I t was in this campaign that Ziska lost his remaining eye by an arrow-shot, but his total blindness did not break off his career of victory. I t was his custom to take his stand in the centre of his army on some elevated position, surrounded by his officers; they reported to him the state of aifairs, and he issued his orders to them accordingly. I n the next campaign another invasion was made; the Germans penetrated as far as Saaz, but the approach of Ziska threw them into a panic, and in the flight that followed they suffered terrible slaughter. JSTor did they fare the better in the following year, a.d. 1422. Sigismund advanced into Moravia with a Hungarian force, but was utterly routed in the battle of Deutchbrod. 211

Hussites A ray of hope was afforded to the Emperor by a quarrel between Ziska and the people of Prague, headed by the nobles, to whom his exactions and sacrilegious excesses had given great dissatisfaction. Ziska fled some distance to the mountains, in which his pursuers became entangled, and were routed with the loss of 3000 men. He fired Cuthna, with the fugitives that were in it, and laid siege to Prague; but a reconciliation was effected by the friendly intervention of John Rochezana, afterwards archbishop. Sigismund now tried to gain over Ziska. He offered him the government of Bohemia, the command of the armies, and a yearly tribute, if he would acknowledge the Emperor as king of Bohemia. But these negotiations were broken off by the death of Ziska from the plague, before the town of Prebislana, which he was besieging. After his death his followers were divided. Many submitted to the leadership of his favourite officer, Procopius, a priest, surnamed the elder to distinguish him from another of the same name; but many refused to acknowledge any successor to their great captain, and, in their sorrow for his loss, styled themselves "orphans." These, however, although governed in the main by councils of war, were always ready to march with the followers of Procopius against their common enemies, and consequently the Taborites continued as formidable as ever. A new campaign was commenced by a plundering foray into Moravia and Silesia, and another crusade was preached by the Pope against these irreclaimable Bohemians, who had become as great an object of terror as the Turks themselves to the Empire. Three large armies invaded Bohemia, composed of Saxons, Franconians, and Ehinelanders—200,000 in all. But the mere rumour of the enemy's approach served to put them to a shameful flight, with the abandonment of all their treasures and munitions of war in 1427. The Bohemians now determined to retaliate. They assembled together at the White Mountain, whence they broke into the enemy's country on every side, plundering and destroying, and their conduct may be estimated by the fact that they took for their rule of warfare the invasion of Canaan by the Israelites. Again Sigismund attempted to conciliate his opponents, and at least to detach the national Bohemians or Calixtines from the Taborites. Each party was invited to send commissioners to the Council of Basle, where their grievances might be discussed. I n the debate upon their demands Procopius distinguished himself by his eloquenee and by the firmness with which lie maintained his views, but the Council would concede nothing. A reconciliation was afterwards effected with the Calixtines, chiefly by the labours of yEneas Sylvius, who obtained the concession that the cup should be allowed to the laity. But the requirements of Procopius and his Taborites were far more extensive, and they refused to be bound by this arrangement. Another invasion of the country proved as unsuccessful as the former, and the victory of Taas

Hn tch in son ians

Hutch insonians was the most complete one gained during the war. Meanwhile the national Bohemians, who had been won over by iEneas Sylvius, determined to put an end to this exhausting strife, and turned against the Taborites. The nobles and burghers met in Diet, and chose Alexius of Wzestiof as chief of the state, an office that was meant to be annual, and a civil war followed. Procopius, the elder, was besieging Pilsen, when he heard of the failure of his younger namesake to maintain himself at Prague against the new governor. Upon this he raised the siege and marched to Prague. He was met at Bochmischgrod, in the neighbourhood of the city, and after an obstinate engagement was himself slain, whilst his followers were exterminated. Tabor itself surrendered, and shortly afterwards the authority of Sigismund was acknowledged throughout the kingdom. As a political party and military power the Hussites had now ceased to exist, but as a religious body they may be said to have been represented to later ages by the BOHEMIAN BRETHREN. HUTCHINSONIANS. A school of divines which sprung up in the early part of the eighteenth century, whose leading principle was that the key to all scientific and philosophical truth is to be found in the Holy Scriptures. John Hutchinson, the founder of this school, was a self-educated Yorkshireman, born at Spennythorn in 1674, and for about twenty years, between the age of twenty and forty, steward in the households of Mr. Bathurst,Lord Scarborough, and the Duke of Somerset. The latter obtained him a sinecure office as purveyor of the royal stables, worth about ¿£200 a year, and this he retained until his death in the year 1737. Hutchinson was an ingenious mechanic, attained some knowledge of Hebrew, and had an empirical acquaintance with natural science. After he obtained his sinecure, he became a voluminous writer, and his collected works, republished in 1748 and 1749, fill twelve octavo volumes, the whole of them having been printed during the last thirteen years of his life. The philosophy of Hutchinson is chiefly contained in his Moses' Prtncipia; Poicer Essential and Mechanical; Glory or Gravity; and Glory Mechanical, or the Agent of Nature, and Manner of their Agency explained. He supposes the air to exist in three conditions, fire, light, and spirit; pure fire forming the life and motion-imparting body of the sun, pure light its surrounding medium, and a commixture of light and spirit constituting the atmosphere in which the earth is placed. Beyond the earth, onward to the periphery of the solar system, he imagined the atmosphere to become more and more dense, and as it recedes in distance from the sun, to be less and less capable of that motion which the heat of the sun imparts : until at the verge of the solar system, he found the " outer darkness" and " blackness of darkness " of the Scriptures. In his Moses' Sine Principio, and elsewhere, he suggests that Fire, Light, and Spirit, the three principal agents in nature, are three conditions of one substance, in which he seems to have had a 212

dim foresight of the modern scientific dogma oi the " correlation of forces." But the philosophy of Hutchinson oscillated dangerously towards the heresies of Sabellius and the Tritheists when he made these three conditions of one substance explanatory of the doctrine of the Holy Trinity. Jones of Nayland expresses this opinion in the words: " Nature shews us these three agents in the world, on which all natural life and motion depend; and these three are used in the Scripture to signify to us the three supreme powers of the Godhead in the administration of the spiritual world" [Jones' Life of Bp, Home, p. 29, ed.

1801].

Some other characteristics of the Hutchinsonian system are also stated by the last writer, who was one of Hutchinson's greatest admirers. " Few writers for natural religion," he writes, " have shewn any regard to the types and figures of the Scripture, or known much about them. But the Hutchinsonians, with the old Christian Fathers, and the Divines of the Reformation, are very attentive to them, and take great delight in them. They differ in their nature from all the learning of the world ; and so much of the wisdom of revelation is contained in them, that no Christian should neglect the knowledge of them. All infidels abominate them. Lord Bolingbroke calls St. Paul a cabbalist for arguing from them ; but the Hutchinsonians are ambitious of being such cabbalists as St. Paul was. In natural philosophy they have great regard to the name of Newton as the most wonderful genius of his kind. But they are sure his method of proving a vacuum is not agreeable to nature." Hutchinson, in fact, spent a large part of his time in endeavouring to overthrow the Newtonian theory of gravitation, denying that inert matter could be capable of active qualities, and maintaining that motion was the result of an universal force, exercised by the fluid medium which he divided into Fire, Light, and Spirit. Among many other interpretations which the Hutchinsonians gave to the Old Testament Scriptures, they believed the eherubim of Eden, of the Tabernacle, and of Ezekiel's vision, to be mystical figures of deep signification, especially as typifying the Divine attributes; and it was part of their theory that all heathen idolatry originated in corrupt notions respecting these mystical figures. Laborious and interminable essays on the cherubim are extant in the writings of Hutchinson's disciples, as well as in his own; and this mysticism also occupies a large place in the sermons of the clergy belonging to the school. Almost equally prolix were their speculations on the Names of God, on the garden of Eden, and on the symbolism of sacrificial ceremonies. These speculations are not without a certain value, but they are too often of a one-sided character, based almost entirely on peculiar and untrustworthy notions respecting the Hebrew language, and undertaken with far too little knowledge of, or regard for, the received theology of Christendom. The most distinguished divines of the Hutchin-

Hutites

Hydroparastatce

sonian school were Bishop Home, J ones of Nayland, Parkhurst and Eomaine; and most of the more learned clergy among the early Evangelicals belonged to the school. Many of the Scotch Episcopal clergy also adopted Hutchinsonian tenets ; and among others, Macfarlane, Bishop of Moray and Eoss in 1787, who carried out Hutchinson's view of the doctrineof the Trinity in such a manner as to lay himself open to the charge of Sabellianism. There were, indeed, few of the school who did not fall into error respecting the eternal generation of the Second Person in the Blessed Trinity, and Neale remarks that even a few passages of Jones of Nayland require to be received with all possible charity, while some of Bishop Home's assertions cannot be defended at all [Neale's Life of Bishop Tomj, 29]. Hutchinsonianismdied out during the first quarter of the nineteenth century. The later Evangelical clergy had not the same taste for speculative study that had made it attractive to their predecessors, and were more engaged in writing hortatory sermons than in working out labyrinthine problems respecting the cherubim. Hutchinson's opposition to the Newtonian system failed, moreover, to hold its place against the faith of modem science, which will not permit that system even to be called in question. While, lastly, his philological views respecting Hebrew have been exploded bythe more thorough knowledge of the Semitic languages. HUTITES. A religious fraternity formed in the sixteenth century by an Anabaptist, named John Hut, Huta, or Hutter, at Marhern, in Moravia. A writer in the time of the Commonwealth describes them as living " at this day in great number at Marhern in palaces and convents, upon their accidental contributions, and where they get their livelihood with their hands, and apply themselves to any handicraft whereof they are the masters and governors, who by the commodities gained by them increase the common stock. They have at home with them their cooks, their scullions, their errand boys, and their butlers, who have a care, and dispose of all things as they do in monasteries and hospitals. They study to maintain mutual peace and concord, being all equal. These, even to this day, are commonly known by the name of the Hutsian Fraternity" [Pagitt's Heresiology, app.]. This settlement of Hut at Marhern appears likely to have been the original from which the Hernnhut settlement of the Moravians under Count Zindendorff, in the eighteenth century, was copied. [ M O K A V I A N S . ] HYDRO PAKASTATiE. Water-offerers: that is, those who offered water instead of wine in the Holy Eucharist. This heretical practice was not confined to one sect, but was common to several. Gieseler says to " many" parties, but he does not enumerate the parties. Clement of Alexandria, giving a mystical interpretation of the "bread and water " of Prov. ix. 17, and using the additional verses which are found in the Septuagint, says that the Scripture manifestly applies the terms "bread and water" to those heresies which use bread and water in the Eucharist, not according to the rule of the Church. " For there are 213

some who celebrate the Eucharist with water only" [Clem. Alex. Strom. I. xix.]. St. Chrysostom speaks of the evil heresy of those who used water only in the mysteries. He cites our Lord's words, " I will not henceforth drink," &c. [Matt. xxvi. 29], and urges that, to pluck up this heresy by the roots, the cup of our Lord's ordinary resurrection-table was a cup of wine [Chrysost. Horn, in Matt, lxxxii. Field's ed. ii. p. 462-3]. St. Cyprian's Epistle to Csecilius is on this practice ; on the practice, however, not as proceeding from an heretical principle, but from a desire to avoid notice in time of persecution. Cyprian shews that wine is necessary for the legitimate consecration of the sacrifice; and expressing his hope that the omission may have been pardonable in the case he is dealing with, as arising from ignorance or misapprehension, he warns Caseilius of the guilt that will be incurred by continuing the practice after admonition [Cypr. Ep. lxiii. D I C T . of T H E O L . , CONOOMITAJNUBJ.

Leaving this case, and confining ourselves to the practice as proceeding from heresy, it will be seen at once that the practice indicates heresy regarding our Lord's Person, and the sacrifice of His death. If the Holy Eucharist were instituted merely on the principle of a memoria technica, merely a reminder to us, it would be otherwise. But when the Body broken and Blood shed are to be re-presented to God, and are to be our necessary spiritual food and sustenance, the Mysteries must needs correspond to the Passion, and the outward signs to the thing signified. A departure from the sign shews a previous departure from the faith. Whence Irenasus writes of the Ebionites, " They are vain, not receiving by faith into their soul the union of God and man. . . . Therefore do these men reject the commixture of the heavenly wine, and wish it to be water of the world only, not receiving God so as to have union with H i m " [Iren. Hoer. v. 1]. The followers of Tatian, again, used the same custom ; the asceticism of the E N C R A T I T E S springing from the belief that matter is the source of evil. Hence they endeavoured by excessive rigour to mortify the flesh. Consistently, they denied the reality of Christ's Body. From this came their rejection of the element of wine. As Docetse, they held that Christ did not die, and consequently that we are not redeemed by His blood. And if there be no real bloodshedding, why should wine, the symbol of blood, be used 1 The unreal, shadowy blood, cannot have a real, substantial symbol. The practice of the Hydroparastate incidentally draws out the opinions of some of the Fathers respecting the mixture of water with wine (an almost universal custom of the Church) in the Eucharist. Irenseus and Cyprian take the same view respecting it, Irenaeus stating its symbolism as it looks to the Divine Nature of Christ Himself, Cyprian as it looks to those who are made members of Christ. I n the former view, the union of God and man is typified in the commixture, the two natures of Christ being set forth : in the latter, from the foundation of the general .principle that in Scripture water symbolizes

Hydvotheitce peoples, the water of the mixed cup is taken to represent the faithful who are joined unto Christ. The two views coalesce. " When, therefore, the mingled cup and the manufactured bread receive the Word of God, and the Eucharist becomes the Body of Christ, from which the substance of our flesh is increased and supported, how can it be affirmed that the flesh is incapable of receiving the gift of God, which is life eternal, which flesh is nourished from the Body and Blood of the Lord, and is a member of Him? Even as the blessed Paul declares, ' We are members of His Body, of His Flesh, and of His Bones'" [Iren. v. 2]. Cyprian, although his primary object was to shew the necessity of the wine in the mixed cup, speaks very strongly on the necessity of the element of water. " Water cannot be offered alone, as neither can the wine be offered alone : for if the wine be offered by itself, the blood of Christ begins to be without us; and if the water be alone, the people begin to be without Christ" [Ep. ad Ccecil. p. 154, Fell]. The Canons relating to this subject are: [I.] St. Basil, Canon i. [A.D. 370], in which the Hydroparastatse are named after the Encratites, as if their custom had not been adopted by all the Encratites. The chief point named in the Canon is the alteration of the form of baptism by the Encratites. [II.] The third Council of Braga, Canon I. [A.D. 675], which condemns sundry errors in the celebration of the Holy Eucharist, and quotes St. Cyprian, as given above. III.] The Quinisextine Council, Canon xxxii. A.D. 692], which condemns both the Hydroparastatse and the Armenians, who offered wine alone. This Canon quotes St. Chrysostom (as referred to above), and, secondly, produces the authorities of the Liturgies of SS. Basil and James, and the fortieth Canon of the Council of Carthage [A.D. 408], HYDROTHEITIE. A sect of heretics are mentioned by several of the early heresiologists as holding the opinion that all created things had emanated by a process of spontaneous evolution from the element of water, which they alleged to be co-eternal with God. Nothing is known of their history, or of the locality to which this heresy belonged. Probably it was nothing more than the speculation of some early materialists [HERMOGENIANS], never formulated into the dogma of a sect. The name is found only in Praedestinatus, but Danajus assigns that of "Aqusei" to them in his edition of St. Augustine. [Philast. Ileer. xcvi. Aug. IIwr. lxxv. Praedest. liar. Ixxv.] HYMEN^EUS. One of the two heretics mentioned by St. Paul, as having " erred concerning the truth, saying that the resurrection is past already," and who had not only been guilty of holding such errors themselves, but had spread their false doctrine among others, and "overthrown the faith of some " [2 Tim. ii. 18]. He was probably the same person who is elsewhere named with Alexander as having put away a good conscience, and made shipwreck concerning the faith [1 Tim. i. 19]. The heresy of Hymena3us and Alexander was of so serious a description, that St. Paul had passed on them the extreme 214

Hypsistarians sentence of excommunication, which he expresses in the words, "Whom I have delivered unto Satan, that they may learn not to blaspheme" [1 Tim. i. 20], The Apostle also characterizes the heresy of Hymenaeus and Philetus as " profane and vain babblings," of which he predicts that " they will increase to more ungodliness," and that their doctrine " will eat as doth a cancer" or gangrene [2 Tim. ii. 16-18], From these few indications, it would seem that the heresy of Hymenaeus was an early form of that which afterwards became known by the name of Valentinus, the dogma that " the resurrection is past already" being one which Tertullian specially attributes to the Yalentinians [Tertull. Be Prwscr. Hceret. xxxiii.], and the " profane and vain babblings" being singularly characteristic of the Gnostic theories, which did indeed eat into the Eastern Churches like a deadly cancer. The Gnostics in general interpreted the resurrection allegorically, maintaining that to " rise again" was to receive the y i w t s , or secret knowledge of God, which they possessed and handed on to the initiated. Hence " the resurrection " was " passed already" when a man received this knowledge. Such, probably, was the heresy of Hymenseus and Philetus. The wide extent to which such a heresy reached in the very first age of the Church is shewn by St. Paul's words to the Corinthians, " How say some among you, that there is no resurrection of the dead?" [1 Cor. xv. 12] ; and by those of Polycarp to the Philippians, " Whosoever perverts the oracles of the Lord to his own lusts, and says that there is neither resurrection nor judgment, he is the first-born of Satan" [Polyc. ad Philipp. vii.]. The immoral tendency of a heresy which virtually repudiates the expectation of a future life is obvious ; and when St. Paul says that Hymenseus and Alexander had put away a good conscience, he indicates that this tendency was already manifested. H Y P O T H E T I C A L U N I V E R S ALISTS. [AMYBALDISTS.]

HYPSISTARIANS. A sect of heretics which existed in Cappadocia in the fourth century, the leading principle of whose belief was the recognition of God only as " the Most High" ["YfurTOS]. They rejected sacrifices and circumcision, but observed the Jewish Sabbath and Jewish distinctions of clean and unclean food. They also held the Jewish objection to pictures and images, but used fire and lights as representative symbols of the Deity, apparently using them in the same manner in which they were used by the Magians. These heretics are only noticed Tinder the name of v^urTapm by St. Gregory of Nyssa [adv. Eunom. ii.] and St. Gregory of Nazianzum \Orat. xviii. 5], but they appear to be the Cappadocian representatives of a widely-spread eclectic heresy in which an attempt was made to combine such portions of Judaism, Magianism, and Christianity as were not'utterly irreconcilable. They seem to be closely allied to the EUPHEMITES or Massalian Syrians and Phoenicians [Epiphan. liar. lxviii.], who professed to be neither heathens nor Christians, yet originated in heathenism.

I ICONOCLASTS. The name of a party in the Chivrch which maintained a long controversy on the subject of the devotional use of pictures and statues, a controversy that raged with great violence in the East for more than a century, i.e. from the tenth year of the reign of Leo TIL [A.D. 1726] to the second year of the regency of the Empress Theodora [A.D. 843]. To understand its bearings we must recollect that a great change had swept over the whole Christian Church on the question of the use of external aids to devotion. Not only had an elaborate ritual arisen, but the arts of painting and sculpture had been pressed into the service of the sanctuary, and by the eighth century almost every church possessed its pictures or images or relics, in which some special virtue was believed to reside, and which were the objects of attachment and veneration to the whole congregation. Some indeed enjoyed a far wider reputation. At Edessa there was a famous statue made after a likeness of our Saviour, which Christ Himself had sent to King Abgarus [Euseb. Eccl. Hist. i. 13, ii. 1], and which was said to have saved that city from the arms of the Persian monarch, Chosroes Mishirvan [A.D. 611]. This miraculous image was often appealed to during the controversy; by Gregory II. in an epistle to Leo the Isaurian {Isaur. Condi, torn. viii. 656]; by John of Damascus [Opera, torn. i. p. 281, edit. Lequien], and by the second iTicene Council [Act v. p. 1030]. At Kome there was the famous '' veronica " handkerchief. In Diospolis in Phrygia there was a church on one of whose marble pillars the face of the Blessed Virgin had been supernaturally outlined. All this was a great contrast to the belief and habits of the first centuries of the Christian era. Churches then possessed neither images nor pictures. On the contrary there was an actual dislike of both, which is quite accounted for by the opposition raised by the early Christians to the idolatry that surrounded them. There are however frequent protests made by early writers which seem to betoken a change of sentiment on this subject. Tertullian [A.D. 160-240] insisted that God forbade the making equally with the worship of an image [Tertull. de ldolatria, c. 3]. In another tract he appears to disapprove of a Christian pursuing the trade of either a painter or a statuary [Tertull. contr. Hermog. c. 3J. Origen [A.D. 185-255] said that the use of images was of the Ophites [Orig. contr.

Gels. vii. 4]. The thirty-sixth canon of the Council of Illiberis [c. A.D. 305] forbids pictures in churches, " lest that which is worshipped and adored be painted on the walls;" an enactment evidently levelled against a recent and growing practice. Eusebius of Csesarea, writing to Constantia, sister of Constantine the Great, says that no one ought to attempt to represent the personages of Scripture, that the glory of the Saviour cannot be represented, and that the true image of the saints is a holy life [Hardu. Coneil. iv. 405], St. Augustine [A.D. 354-430] wrote: " Do not follow the crowds of ignorant persons, who even under the shelter of the true religion itself become so superstitious or surrender themselves so far to their lustful imaginations (libidinibus) that they forget what they have promised to God. I know that many are adorers of sepulchres and pictures," &c. [Aug. de Mor. Eccl. Cath. xxxiv.]. Epiphanius, Bishop of Constantia in Cyprus [A.D. 394], tore with his own hands a curtain in a church of Palestine, declaring that the painting of a figure of the Saviour or of a saint upon it was contrary to Scripture [Hieron. Ep. li. 9J. About two hundred years later Serenus, Bishop of Marseilles, removed or demolished the pictures in the churches of that town, because of the misuse the common people made of them. This involved him in a correspondence with Gregory the Great, whose verdict on bis conduct ran thus: " We altogether commend you for having forbidden the worship of images, but we blame you for having broken them" [Greg. Ep. ix. 91]. This moderate judgment found much favour in the Western Church, and Charlemagne closes the four Caroline Books with an allusion to it, although the ardent Eoman apologist Baronius [A.D. 1538-1607] has endeavoured to evacuate it of its real meaning, by interpreting Gregory's prohibition as against the worship of the material colours used in making the image or picture. The above quoted passages amount to an occasional protest against what at the same time they prove the existence of, a gradual reaction against the primitive simplicity of worship, and a widespreading sentiment in favour of the use of images; a sentiment which became firmly established by the close of the sixth century, and had run into such extremes by the commencement of the eighth century that many writers have considered them to justify as well as explain the iconoclastic mania. People knelt before images, burned incense and lighted candles before them.

Iconoclasts

Iconoclasts

Some of the clergy scraped off the paint from them, and mingling it with the eucharistic elements, administered the mixture to the communicants [Mich. ap. Baron. 824, 16]. The rich used to send their bread to the church, to have it held up to an image before eating it. Some people even employed images as sponsors for their children, a course defended by Theodore, nephew of the Abbot Plato, when introduced by the Patriarch Mcephorus to argue with Leo the Armenian [a.d. 814]. But in the earlier part of the eighth century a reaction sprung up in the East of Europe. A party of " image-breakers" arose, which was even more fanatical and extreme in its opposition to images, and in the means employed to abolish them. The rise of the " Iconoclastic Controversy" which followed is by some writers thrown as far back as a.d. 712. In that year the Emperor Philippicus Bardanes ordered the removal of a picture of the sixth General Council from the Church of St. Sophia in Constantinople, and sent an order of a similar character to Rome. Pope Constantine made a vigorous protest; and caused the Emperor to be condemned as an apostate for what looks like a repudiation of the council rather than of the picture, and he also followed up this protest by directing that pictures of the six General Councils should be suspended in the porch of St. Peter's. But Leo III. " t h e Isaurian," who came to the throne a.d. 717, was undoubtedly an iconoclastic emperor. At the time of his elevation from the army to the imperial dignity, the Mahometans were pressing hard on the Byzantine empire, and the first eight or ten years of his reign were occupied in defending his kingdom and his capital itself against the Saracen foe under Moslemah. During this time there were no symptoms of his future hostility to images; it was only as external troubles disappeared that his secret antipathy began to manifest itself. As a first step he wanted the Pope to consent to a General Council being summoned to consider the whole question; but Gregory demurred to the proposal. He then desired that the images and paintings on the walls of the churches should be raised higher so as to be out of the reach of the embraces and kisses of the devout multitude. Then discovering that his object was by no means attained, he issued an edict forbidding the worship of all statues, paintings, or mosaics. The chronology of this period is obscure, but the date of the last step is generally placed at a.d. 724-726. There is much obscurity also attending the investigation of the causes which led both Leo and his successors into this line of action. The edicts and letters which might have thrown light on the reasons assigned are not extant, but conjecture would certainly suggest that in the case of the once humble Isaurian, it must have been a barbarian dislike of the fine arts, rather than the championship of a more spiritual religion, which actuated him in the course that he pursued. Others have supposed it to be the action of a general who found men relying for safety on their tutelar 216

images instead of their own military exertions, or part of the scheme of an ambitious monarch wishing to establish an ecclesiastical as well as a civil autocracy. Legend also has attempted to supply the motive. A thick smoke was said to have been seen rising from the sea between the islands of Thera and Terasia, and this was interpreted to Leo as a token of the displeasure of Heaven against the permission of image-worship. I t was rumoured that Leo, while still an obscure youth on his native hills, had been met by two Jews, who promised him the sovereignty on a condition which they afterwards called on him to fulfil; that condition being the extirpation of image-worship throughout his dominions. Another report said that he was under the influence of a certain Bezer, formerly in the service of the Caliph, and an apostate from the Christian faith. But whether the emperor acted propria motu or at the suggestion of others, it is certain that this first edict was shortly followed by a second of a far more sweeping and severe character, ordering a general destruction of images throughout the Western empire. Its precise date is unknown, but it must be placed before the death of Gregory II. in a.d. 731, as that Pontiff was among its most strenuous opponents. Kb words can exaggerate the dismay which it occasioned, or the tumult and agitation which followed its promulgation; unlike the decision of some abstruse question in a court of law, or the authoritative solution of some metaphysical subtlety which would only agitate the narrow intellectual circle capable of understanding its bearings, this was a question affecting the religious life of multitudes. Every church had its picture or its image, before which rich and poor had been accustomed to offer their devotions ; almost every household bad its representation of some patron saints, which they had been wont to regard with feelings of the utmost affection. I t has been suggested that the effect would be similar if an order were issued to destroy the images of the Blessed Virgin which deck the thoroughfares of a modern Roman Catholic town; but even this would not effect such a total revulsion of both domestic and public feeling as the first iconoclastic edict of Leo the Isaurian. I t was the signal for sedition at home and revolt abroad. In Constantinople the soldiers who were charged with the execution of the order were insulted and maltreated. The man who dared to plant his ladder against the palace gate, and to demolish the time-honoured image of Christ with which it was adorned, was hurled to the ground and killed by the indignant mob. Abroad an insurrection was organized in the Cyclades, under a leader named Stephanus. In Greece the usurper Cosmas was proclaimed by the rebels. In Italy the provinces subject to the Greek empire threw off their allegiance. At an appeal from Gregory II., Bavenna, whose exarch lost his life, Venice, the cities of the exarchate, and Pentapolis, declared against Leo, and refused the usual tribute, and what caused more anxiety, the fleet despatched against them to the Adriatic Sea was repulsed off Bavenna.

Iconoclasts

Iconoclasts

But Leo was not without Ms supporters. The a m y was devoted to him, and there was a small section of the ecclesiastical body which declined to oppose him, of which Theodosius, metropolitan of Ephesus, Constantine, Bishop of Naeolia in Phrygia, John, Bishop of Synnada, Thomas, Bishop of Claudiopolis in Paphlagonia, are mentioned as leaders. But it had far more formidable opponents, both in position and ability. First of all there was Germanus, the Patriarch of Constantinople, who had reached the venerable age of ninety-six, and whom, when unable to win him over, Leo did not hesitate to depose, and to supersede by his own secretary Anastasius. Then there was the famous controversialist, John of Damascus, who delivered three orations advocating the proper use of images, which from their learning and eloquence have won for their author the title of Doctor of Christian art. Pope Gregory II. [A.D. 715-731] likewise wrote in favour of images. He is the author of two extant letters to Leo, in which he upbraids Mm with fickleness and impiety, refuses the request for a General Council, defies him to attempt to carry his edicts into execution, and finally predicts the most disastrous consequences if he does so. His successor, Gregory III., pursued the same policy, and summoning a synod of ninety-three bishops at Borne, openly pronounced sentence of condemnation on iconoclasm and its imperial author.

thematized by name. The groat flaw in the constitution of this Council was that none of the patriarchates were represented in it. The Bishop of Bome was not present either in person or by deputy. The see of Constantinople was vacant, Anastasius having died just before the first sitting, and his successor, an iconoclastic monk named Constantine, Bishop of Sylaeum, not being nominated till its close, lest it should be said that its deliberations had been presided over by a nominee of the Emperor. The other three patriarchs, those of Antioch, Alexandria, and J erusalem, were under Mahometan dominion, and could not have obtained leave to be present. I n their absence the council was presided over by Theodosius, Bishop of Ephesus and exarch of Asia, and Pastillus, Bishop of Perga and Metropolitan of Pamphylia.

The Emperor Leo was succeeded, A.D. 741, by his son Constantine Copronymus. During the first year of Ms reign, while he was absent on an expedition against the Saracens, the hopes of the image-worshippers revived, and a report being spread of the Emperor's death, they attempted to place Artavasdus, his brother-in-law, and a favourer of images, on the throne in his stead. This resolution was supported by the Patriarch, who, having been an iconoclast under Leo, changed sides under Artavasdus, and veered round once more to his original party under Constantine. Ten years of comparative quiet followed the suppression of this rebellion, lasting until Constantine summoned the bishops to meet at the capital in a council known as the third Council of Constantinople [A.D. 754], and which also aspired to the grander title (one never acknowledged in the West) of the seventh (Ecumenical Council, I t consisted of three hundred and forty-eight bishops, who unanimously condemned image-worship. Unfortunately the Acts of the Council have perished, but from the passages which are quoted for condemnation by the Fathers assembled at Nice [A.D. 787] we learn that it ordered the destruction of all images and paintings both public and private; persons found with images in their possession, if ecclesiastics, were to be degraded, if laymen, excommunicated ; to make an image of Christ was said to involve either JsTestorianism in separating the persons of Christ, or Eutychianism in confounding the two substances; and the chief champions of image-worship, the Patriarch Germanus, John of Damascus, and George of Cyprus, were ana217

The attempt to carry out the decisions of the Council was met by universal opposition on the part of the monks, and then followed a general persecution of the monks by the Emperor, who attempted to exterminate the whole order. Among the most famous victims were a certain Andrew, who for having ventured contumeliously to remonstrate with the Emperor, was publicly scourged and afterwards strangled; another zealous monk named Stephen was thrown into prison and there assassinated. The patriarch himself having incurred the suspicions of the Emperor's party, was deposed, insulted, scourged, led round the city on an ass, and having been compelled to assent to the consecration of Nicetas, a Sclavonian eunuch in his place, finally beheaded. These cruelties, of which the above instances are only samples, were effectual for the time. Iconoclasm was triumphant for the rest of the reign of Constantine Copronymus, who died during an expedition against the Bulgarians [A.D, 775]. He was succeeded by his son and heir Leo IV., surnamed the Chazar, a man of feeble health and mild disposition, who continued his father's opposition to the monkish party, but in a much less severe form. This was partly owing to the influence of his wife Irene, a lady sprung from an Athenian family well known for their attachment to image-worship, and who figures very prominently during the next twenty years of the controversy. Emboldened by a knowledge of Irene's sympathy and Leo's mildness of character some officers ventured stealtHly to introduce images into the palace itself. They were detected and severely punished, and for the rest of his short reign of four years and a half Leo's persecuting character was more strongly developed. Constantine VI., who succeeded his father on the throne [A.D. 780], was a boy only ten years of age, and his mother Irene acted as regent during his minority. Her opposition to the iconoclastic policy of the last three Emperors began now more plainly to manifest itself. As a first step permission was publicly granted to every one to employ images in domestic acts of worship. Then Paul, a Cypriot by birth, who had been elevated by Leo IV. from the office of

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reader to that of patriarch, was induced, probably by Irene's solicitations, to retire from his dignity into a monastery. This left the Empress free to elect a successor who would carry out her views. She selected a layman, Tarasius, one of her privy counsellors, who was known to be favourable to images; and his appointment was followed by the summoning of a general council to be held at Constantinople. To this course Pope Hadrian gave his consent, allowing himself to be represented by two legates, Peter, chief presbyter of St. Peter's, and another Peter, abbot of St. Sabes. The Eastern patriarchs were also indirectly represented by two monks, John, the late syncellus of the patriarch of Antioch, and Thomas, who had been Abbot of St. Arsenius in Egypt, and became afterwards Archbishop of Thessalonica. The Council held its first session at Constantinople, but in consequence of the disturbances raised by the troops, who were still devotedly attached to the memory of Leo I I I . and Constantine Copronymus, no business could be transacted, and the session was adjourned. It met again [A.D. 787] at the quieter town of Nice. Here between three hundred and thirty and three hundred and eighty-seven prelates assembled and proclaimed the legality of imageworship with as much vehemence and unanimity as the Council of Constantinople [A.D. 754] had condemned it. They were at the same time careful to distinguish between the reverence (ti/x^TLK-q Trpoo-Kvviqvi's) due to images and the worship (Xarpa'a) to be paid to God alone. It has also been asserted that they referred to pictures only, a limitation to which the Greek Church adheres to this day. Much exception has been taken to the arguments employed and the apocryphal miracles quoted in defence of images on this occasion, but over and beyond this reason the English Church has refused to recognise the claim of this second Council of Nice to the title of Seventh General Council on these grounds: [1] Because no subsequent recognition of its cecumenicity has been given by the universal Church; [2] because the Eastern Church was only informally represented so far as concerned the patriarchs of Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem ; [3] because the representation of the Western Church was more nominal still, and neither Gaul nor Germany acquiesced in its decisions. This is proved by the Caroline Books, which, composed by Alcuin and the French bishops, but published in the name of Charlemagne [A.D. 788], reject this second Council of Nicasa equally with the third of Constantinople; and also by the Council of Frankfort [A.D. 794], whose second canon is to the same effect.

latter year, she was dethroned and banished to the island of Lesbos, where she died in the year following. Her secretary, JSTicephorus, who had headed the rebellion, then ascended the throne. During his reign [A.D. 802-811] and that of his successor's, Stauracius, who only reigned a few months, and of Michael I., surnamed Rhangabes [A.D. 811-813], the controversy was allowed to slumber. But when in the latter year Michael, feeling his own incapacity for the sovereignty, retired into a monastery in favour of Leo V., surnamed the Armenian [A.D. 813-820], it;broke out again. This Emperor, nicknamed the Chameleon, from his vacillating policy at his consecration, when he declined to make any personal declaration of faith, seems to have allowed several synods to be held; the first under Meephorus [A.D. 814], which pronounced in favour of images; the second [A.D. 815], which consented to the deposition of that patriarch as a heretic, in consequence of which he was banished and lingered fourteen years in a monastery; the third [A.D. 816], under the presidency of Theodotus Cassiteras, a layman of noble birth but of iconoclastic family, being a collateral descendant of Constantine Copronymus, and whom Leo had raised to the vacant throne; this synod openly annulled the decisions of the second Mcene Council [A.D. 787] and re-affirmed those of the third Council of Constantinople [A.D. 754], It was accompanied by an imperial edict forbidding imageworship, to which the Emperor is said to have been urged by the prophecies of some obscure monk, who foretold a glorious reign if he would tread in the steps of his famous predecessor Leo the Isaurian. John the Grammarian and Antony, Bishop of Sylfeum in Pamphylia, were among the few men of eminence who supported this policy, which was unrelentingly opposed by the monks, especially by Theodore the Studite, who, like many others, endured scourging and imprisonment rather than acknowledge Cassiteras or consent to give up the use of images. In A.D. 820 Leo V. was assassinated by conspirators in the midst of the sacred rites early on Christmas morning, and one of his generals named Michael was taken from prison and chains for elevation to the imperial throne. Michael II., surnamed the Stammerer, being an ignorant man, and generally indifferent to all ecclesiastical questions, tolerated both parties with a contemptuous impartiality. Antony of Sylfeum, the Iconoclast, was raised to the patriarchate A.D. 821, but the banished monks were at the same time allowed to return, not excepting Theodore the Studite, who however was found intractable, and being again banished died in exile [A.D. 826],

Constantine V I . came of age A.D. 791, and the remaining six years were occupied in a desperate struggle between him and his mother for the reins of government. A t last Irene gained the upper hand, and after blinding her son, a deed of cruelty which Cardinal Baronius and other Eoman advocates have vainly attempted to palliate [Baron. Annal. sub. arm. 796], she enjoyed five years of sole rule [A.D. 797-802], until, in the 218

In A.D. 829 Michael was succeeded by Theophilus, his son by his first wife Thecla, and the most bitter and cruel of all the iconoclast emperors. He had been the pupil of John the Grammarian, whom he raised to the patriarchate on the death of Antony in A.D. 832, and who probably presided at the local synod which in that year repeated the condemnation of imageworship. Thereupon Theophilus announced his

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determination no longer to copy his predecessors' indifference, but to root out the whole race of monks from the face of the earth. The cruelties of preceding reigns were repeated ill an exaggerated form. One entire confraternity, the Abrahamites, are said to have suffered martyrdom on an island in the Euxine Sea. Others were scourged and imprisoned. A celebrated painter Lazarus had his hands burnt with hot-iron plates to prevent his pursuing his hated art. Two' brothers, Theophanes the singer and Theodoie the illuminator, were branded in the face with some iambics which had been composed by the Emperor, who in consequence of these and similar cruelties has been called by his opponents a second Belshazzar, but has been described by his apologists as " a most virtuous prince, equal to the greatest emperors, a most rigid exacter of justice, and the severe punisher of all impiety, a Tyclides melior patre" [Spanheim, Hist. Imag. p. 584]. But the failure of these violent efforts to extirpate the popular affection for images might be traced to his own roof. His wife Theodora and her mother Theoctista, had always cherished a fondness for them, and though the secret was discovered by the impertinent curiosity of a dwarf and revealed to the husband, he would not resort to harsh measures against his nearest relations. He died in A.D. 842, and the history of A.D. 780 repeated itself. There was another minor, Michael III., afterwards known as " T h e Drunkard," entrusted to the guardianship of two image-worshipping uncles, Manuel and Theoctistus, and another empress mother left as regent, whose sentiments corresponded to those of Irene. At first indeed Theodora was restrained by affection for her late husband and unwillingness to compromise his memory, but when these scruples had been overcome she gladly gave vent to her own prepossessions. The monks were recalled from banishment; a synod was summoned which restored the Mcene decrees. John the Grammarian, who had been made patriarch by Theophilus, being found unwilling to recant his iconoclasm, was deposed, and Methodius, a monk and confessor in the late reign, substituted in his place. On the 19th of February, the first Sunday in Lent [A.D. 842], a solemn perambulation of St. Sophia took place, headed by the archbishop and clergy, the Empress and her infant son, and that day has ever since been observed by the Eastern Church as the Feast of Orthodoxy, or thanksgiving for the final overthrow of that iconoclastic heresy which for more than a century had disturbed the peace of the Church. There is little to record of that party after this date beyond the fact, supported by two later allusions to it, that it dwindled gradually away. When the patriarch Photius appealed to Pope Nicolas against his rival Ignatius [A.D. 860], the application was nominally made for aid to extinguish a remnant of the iconoclastic party. Nine years later, at the eighth General Council at Constantinople [A.D. 869], Theodore, surnamed KpiBivos, Nicetas, an ecclesiastic, and two lay219

men, Theophanes a jurist, and Theophilus, were accused of iconoclasm. The three latter, overawed by the unanimity of the Council, confessed their error; the first named, along with all who then, did or should hereafter share his opinions, were pronounced to be under an anathema. Papal share in the Iconoclastic controversy. The Roman Church was largely and not always indirectly affected by the controversy that raged at Constantinople. Its members, like those of the Greek Church, were devotedly attached to images and pictures, and used them habitually as aids to devotion and as decorations of their churches. Pope John VII. [A.D. 705-708] dedicated a chapel in St. Peter's to the Blessed Virgin, whose walls were inlaid with representations of the saints of former days; and his successors, still in theory subjects of the Eastern empire, were only the representatives of the popular feeling in the various steps by which they resented the impious decrees of the Byzantine emperors. I t may be useful to subjoin a summary of the different occasions on which collisions occurred, although most of them have been, alluded to in the foregoing columns. I n A.D. 712, when Philippicus Bardanes sent an order to Rome for the removal of a picture of the, sixth General Council, Pope Constantine not only declined to obey it but had several additional pictures suspended, and in a synod summoned at the same time caused the Emperor to be condemned as an apostate. His successor Gregory II. [A.D. 715-731] was the author of two letters of remonstrance to Leo the Isaurian, which have been preserved, without date, in the Acts of the Nicene Council [Isaur. Cone. viii. 651-674]. I n them he declares Leo unworthy of the name of a Christian; to which Theophanes and other Byzantine historians add that it was at his suggestion that the Italian provinces refused to pay the usual tribute, though they continued nominally under the Eastern rule till the coronation of Charlemagne [A.D. 800], but for whose succour and that of his father Pepin they must have become the subjects of the Lombards under their successive monarchs, Liutprand, Astolphus, and Desiderius. Pope Gregory I I I . [A.D. 731-741], a Syrian by birth, pursued the same policy. In the second year of his pontificate ninety-three bishops met at Rome and condemned iconoclasm and all its abettors, a step for which Leo took revenge by confiscating Sicily, Calabria, and other parts of his dominions, and transferring Greece and Illyricum from the Roman to the Byzantine patriarchate. His successor Zacharias was the first pope who did not obtain the imperial sanction to his election through the exarch of Ravenna. From the Iconoclast Council of Constantinople [A.D. 754] Stephen II. held entirely aloof; but when twenty-one years later it was proposed by Tarasius to summon a council for the purpose of restoring image-worship, Pope Adrian not only expressed his approbation but consented to be represented at Nice [A.D. 787] by two legates. I n his answer to the Eastern patriarch he fortifies the orthodox party by re-

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peating how, when on one occasion St. Paul and who were unanimous in allowing the use of St. Peter appeared to Constantine the Great in a images while forbidding their worship ; the condream, the latter recognised his heavenly visi- clusions of the Council of Nice were openly retors by their resemblance to pictures of them in jected [canon ii.], the Caroline Boohs confirmed, the possession of Pope Sylvester. Later on and Pope Adrian's answer to them [A.D. 792] Pascal [A.D. 817] refused to admit the envoys of condemned. I t should be added that their reLeo the Armenian, but sent his own legates to jection of the decrees of the second Nicene Counthe Emperor to intercede for image-worship, and cil was based upon a mistake. The passage built a monastery for the reception of Greek most objected to was, " that those should be anarefugees, and assigned a church for the performance thematized who should not bestow service or of the liturgy in their own language. I n a simi- adoration on the images of the saints even as on lar way he dismissed the legates of Michael the the Divine Trinity"—a resolution which could Stammerer, who arrived [A.D. 824] with costly not possibly have been passed by a council which presents for St. Peter's, to justify that Emperor's carefully distinguished between the reverence attitude by quoting the extremes to which image- due to images and the worship to be reserved worship sometimes ventured. He also cen- for God alone. sured a work against the use of images in divine Charlemagne was succeeded [A.D. 814] by worship which appeared about this time from the Louis the Meek. When the Emperor Michael pen of Claudius, Bishop of Turin. Once after- despatched an embassy to him [A.D. 824] for the wards [A.D. 860] Photius thought that the surest purpose of renewing bonds of confederation, and way to secure papal sympathy for his side would with the view of winning him openly over to be by representing to Nicolas that his appeal iconoclastic principles, Louis assembled a council against his rival Ignatius was really an appeal at Paris [A.D. 825], which refused to depart in for aid in suppressing the then dormant, if not any way from the resolutions of the preceding quite extinct, spirit of iconoclasm. council at Frankfort, and repeated its censure of Western share in the Iconoclastic controversy. the Council of Nice, and its condemnation of the The Western Church, by which we mean the papal views, as expressed in Adrian's answer to Churches of Germany, Gaul, and England, pur- the Caroline Books. Michael was apparently too sued a middle course between both the extreme indifferent, and the Pope too much indebted to parties in this controversy. Just as the Eastern the Western Emperor, to make any further reChristians seem to have cherished images for the monstrance, and the Franks became shortly aftersake of contrast with the Mahometans, so the wards engaged in domestic troubles, which prePranks were restrained from any ultra reverence vented their taking further active interest in the for images, to oppose the idolatry of the uncon- controversy. verted Germans. Still it was impossible that Two tracts, strongly tinged with iconoclasm, the atmosphere of Western Christendom should were written about this time by Western authors. remain entirely unaffected by the storm which The first by Agobard, Archbishop of Lyons [died raged at Constantinople, and the question is said A.D. 840]; the second, and the more violent, by to have been discussed at a mixed assembly held Claudius, a pupil of Felix of Urgel, raised by at Gentilly, under Pepin [A.D. 767], in conse- Louis to the see of Turin [A.D. 814]. The latter quence of an embassy from Constantine Coprony- work was censured not only by Pope Pascal, but mus to that king. The result is uncertain. Paul by the general voice of the West, as represented I. expressed his satisfaction with it, probably out by the Abbot Theodemir; Dungal, a Scot; of gratitude to Pepin for his refusal to restore to Jonas, of Orleans; and Walafrid Strabo. the Greek Emperor the territory which had been The iconoclastic movement was never a popuseized from the Lombards and given to the lar one. Throughout its course the monks, who Eoman See. I n A.D. 790, Charlemagne, influ- were a very numerous body, and the great maenced possibly by irritation with Irene for jority of the population, especially of the poorer breaking off the match between her son and the classes, were devotedly attached to the use of Princess Eothrud, issued four books on the sub- images. Iconoclasm emanated from the Emject of images, known as the Caroline Boohs.1 perors only, and was the attempt of despots to They were probably only in part the Emperor's force their views on their subjects. No religious own composition, and mainly the work of the movement has ever been successful under these English Alcuin and other ecclesiastics. In them conditions; and, therefore, in spite of the spirthe independent and medium view of the Wes- itual tendency of which its admirers regard it as tern Church is clearly mapped out. The Coun- a manifestation, it ultimately failed. cil of Constantinople [A.D. 754] is condemned Nor was the movement grounded on any prinfor its destruction of images, and the Council of ciple of abstract theology. The questions which Nice [A.D. 787] for allowing their worship, its had hitherto agitated the Church had been mainly edicts being combated and all its views exa- abstract and metaphysical in their character. mined at great length, and its claim to cecumeni- Nestorianism, Eutychianism, and other previous city denied. Four years later the Council of heresies, referred to notional distinctions, and disErankfort was summoned by Charlemagne [A.D. turbed the small and intellectual circles rather 794], I t was attended by three hundred bishops, than the mass of men. Iconoclasm, although 1 the philosopher might detect in it a phase of They are still extant, and were printed by Heumann at Hanover A.D. 1731. the contest between spiritualism and material220

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ism, was in the eyes of the many merely an un- also supported by the fact of the friendship which provoked attack on their sensible, outward, and existed between Theophilus, the cruellest of all familiar aids to devotion, and would therefore the iconoclastic emperors, and the Caliph of Bagoccupy their thoughts, and create a resentment dad, to whom he sent a magnificent embassy unparalleled in the history of previous religious under the charge of John the Grammarian. Others have regarded it as a retrogression tocontroversies. I t was also an inherent element of weakness in wards Judaism, or, with John of Damascus, as iconoclasm, that it was negative rather than a result of the Manichaean theory of the essential positive; it pulled down without being able to evil of matter. build up ; it destroyed the popular objects of The consequences of the iconoclast movement veneration and accessories of worship, but had were very disastrous. nothing wherewith to supply the minds of those [1.] Such eminent soldiers as Leo the Isaurian worshippers whose walls it had denuded of their and Constantine spent their lives amid the turpictures and statues. Unlike the Eeformation it moil of civil disturbances, instead of being able to did not attempt to concentrate men's minds on devote all their energies, and to concentrate the some overpowering conviction, such as personal Empire's forces, against the inroads of Mahometillumination or justification by faith, and unlike anism. the Eeformation it failed. [2.] Iconoclasm was never acceptable in Italy, The view in which the advocates of iconoclasm whose inhabitants opposed it consistently, and have always delighted to regard it, is as a pro- from the very first) and the schism between the test against a transformed paganism. It was the Eastern and Western Churches, which commenced view of the Emperor Theophilus and his tutor, by the refusal of the Italian provinces to pay John the Grammarian [Neander, Church Hist. tribute [A.D. 729], continued to grow in intensity vi. 368]. I t is endorsed by the Deist historian, until it was completed territorially by the corowho says, " By a slow though inevitable progres- nation of Charlemagne [A.D. 800], ecclesiastically sion the honours of the original were transferred by the excommunication of Eastern Christendom to the copy. The devout Christian prayed before [A.D. 1053] by Leo IX. the image of a saint, and the pagan rites of genu[3.] While the power of the Patriarchs of flexion, luminaries, and incense again stole into Constantinople sensibly waned, from the character the Catholic Church" [Gibbon's Rom. Ernp. chap, of some of those whom successive emperors raised xlix.]. Again, " So long as the ancient mytho- to that dignity, and from the ignominious treatlogy had any separate establishment in the empire, ment which they repeatedly received at their the spiritual worship which our religion demands, hands, the influence of the popes continued and so essentially implies, as only fitting for it, steadily to increase, not only from the high charwas presented in its purity by means of the salu- acter of such men as Gregory II. and III., but tary contrast; but as soon as the Church became from the unshaken fidelity with which both they completely triumphant and exclusive, and the and their successors supported the orthodox, and parallel of pagan idolatry totally removed, then in Italy the universally popular, cause. the old constitutional appetite revived in all its [This subject has been treated from the Cathoforce, and after a short but famous struggle with lic point of view by Baronius, Annales Eccles.; the iconoclasts, an image-worship was established Natalis Alexander, Hist. Eccles. scec. viii. ix.; and consecrated by bulls and canons, which, in Maimbourg, Hist, des Iconoclastes • and from the whatever light it is regarded, differed in no Protestant side by Fred. Spanheim, Hist. Imag.; respects but the names of its objects from that James Basnage, Hist, des Eglises Reform, ii. which had existed for so many years as the chief See also Schlosser's Hist, of the Iconocl. Emp.; characteristic of the religion and faith of the Schroek's Kirchengeschichte, vols. xx. xxiii.; Gentiles" [H. Nelson Coleridge], I t will be Walch's Hist, der Ketzer. x. xi., and Keale's observed that the last quotation ignores entirely Hist. East. Ch.] the distinction laid down carefully by the second IDEALISTS. [DESCARTES. MALEBRANCHE. Nicene Council between •¡rpocn'!«n of Popery. Hotheir own mental power was so dwarfed that they happily lived to restore Carlisle Cathedral in the-highest were, wholly unable to influence for good the wonecclesiastical taste.

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Lucianists derfully rapid growth of literature during the last generation. The Evangelical movement may thus be characterized generally as a movement of transition, so far as national religious life is concerned. It was a movement of unintellectual subjective religion, leading onwards to a movement of intellectual objective religion. It taught habits of prayer as a stage on the road towards habits of adoration, so that the idea of getting good for ourselves by prayer was supplemented (under the influence of a later school) by the idea of worshipping God for His own glory. It revived the spirit of faith, that others might afterwards set before believers definite objects in which to believe. Such a work should never be valued lightly, for when men had been brought to a sense of sin, to repentance, and to the love of God, there was but a little way further for the religious life of the nation to travel before it would reach that higher ground to which, in the next generation, it attained.

[ H i g h Churchmen.]

LUCIANISTS. A section of the Marcionites, followers of Lucian, as he is called by Hippolytus and Epiphanius, or Lucan, as he is called by Tertullian and Origen. This heretic was originally a disciple of Marcion [Hippol. Refut. Hmr. vii. 25], and seems to have formed a sect of his own (as his companion Apelles did) about a.d. 140. Beausobre, Lardner, and some others of the same school, consider that they are identical with the Seleucians, who are mentioned by Augustine and Philaster, but the principal ground for this opinion is that the name of Seleucus is given as Leucius in some manuscripts of St. Jerome's works. [Lardner's Hist. Heret. 283.] The particular tenet by which the Lucianists were distinguished from the Marcionites in general was that, in the resurrection from the dead, neither the actual body nor the actual soul of the deceased person would arise, but that a " tertium quid," something created for the purpose, would represent his personality. " We may ignore," says Tertullian, " a certain Lucan, who does not spare even this part of our nature, the soul, which he follows Aristotle in reducing to dissolution, and substitutes some other thing in lieu of it. Some third nature it is which, according to him, is to rise again, neither soul nor flesh; in other words, not a man, but a bear perhaps—for instance, Lucan himself" [Tertull. de liesurr. earn. ii.]. This may have been intended by Tertullian to indicate that Lucan believed in the transmigration of human souls into animals of a lower nature than man [Mill's N. T. Prolegum. 334, p. 37]. But this opinion was attributed to Marcion by Epiphanius, and the words of Tertuilian seem to be rather a contemptuous rejection of Lucan's opinion, whatever it was, than a statement that such was the terminus of that opinion. Neander considers that Lucan " thought himself compelled to believe that everything ' psychical' was perishable ; but that the TrvevjiaTiKov only, which participated of the Divine life, was immortal" [Neander, Ch. Hist. ii. 151, Bohn's transl.] There is no evidence that the Lucianists ever 262

Luciferiaus occupied any important position as a sect, Epiphanius knowing scarcely anything about them in his time [Epiph. Hceres. xliii.]. Lucan himself, however, exercised no small influence for evil, being condemned as the author of many forged imitations of Scripture as early as the end of the fifth century, by Gelasius [Gelas. Decret. Labb. Condi, iv. 1264], Many of the apocryphal writings now extant under the names of the Apostles are also traced up to him by Grabe Spicileg. S. S. Pcitr. ut et Hceret. vol. i.], Mill Prolegom, ad N. T.~], and Beausobre [Hist. Manich. vol. i.]. LUCIANISTS. A name sometimes given to the early Arians from Lucian, who was one of the most famous heads of the school of Antioch, and among whose pupils had been the Arian bishops Eusebius of Nicomedia, Maris of Chalcedon, Theognis of Nicsea, Leontius of Antioch, Antonius of Tarsus, and others [Philostorg. Hist. Eccl. ii. 14]. Lucian was himself a pupil of the heretical Paul of Samosata, and Alexander, Bishop of Alexandria, accuses him of having adopted his opinions [Theodor. Hist. Eccl. i. 4], During the persecution of Athanasius the Eusebian party brought forward a Semi-Arian creed, which they alleged to be in the handwriting of Lucian [Sozom. Hist. Eccl. iii. 5]; but Sozomen seems to doubt whether this was a true assertion, and adds that Lucian was a most estimable man, and learned in the Holy Scriptures. Epiphanius speaks of him as infected with Arian errors [Epipli. Hceres. xliii.]. If Lucian was in any sense the father of the errors taught by his pupils he must have renounced them himself in his later life, for he is spoken of in the highest terms by St. Athanasius, St. Jerome [Gatal. cap. lxxvii.], and St. Chrysostom \Opp. i. Horn, xlvi.] ; and the touching account of his martyrdom at Nicomedia a.d. 311], during the Diocletian persecution Euseb. Hist. Eccl. viii. 13, ix. 6; Philostorg. Hist. Eccl. ii. 13], oilers no indication that he was then an Arian. Epiphanius [/. c.] says that the Arians in his time had indeed claimed Lucian as one of their martyrs, but lie has had a place in Catholic martyrologies from the earliest times to which they can be traced. LUCIFERIANS. A schismatical party, followers of Lucifer, Bishop of Caralis (Cagliari) in Sardinia, who in the year 362 separated from the Church, on the ground that Arian bishops and clergy, on their return to the Church, ought to be admitted only to lay communion, and that the Church which receives them into the clerisy is contaminated, and her communion to be avoided. Lucifer, the fellow-labourer of Athanasius, Eusebius of Vercelli, and Hilary of Poitiers, commended by Athanasius and Jerome [Aptol. de, Fuga. Opp. i. p. 703, ed. 1627 ; adv. Lucif. Opp. i. p. 169, ed. 1616], the undaunted opponent of the Arian Emperor at the Council of Milan [Hieron. de Vir. Jllustr.], fell into this schism through dissatisfaction at the lenity of the Council of Alexandria, which decided that Arian bishops and clergy, on reception into the

Luciferians Church should retain their rank and office [Athan. Epist. ad Antioch, i. p. 374]. The divisions of the Church of Antioch at the time of this council, and the part which Lucifer took are narrated elsewhere. [ M E L E T I A N S , A N T I O C H E N E . ] It is frequently said that the general disapproval of the consecration of Paulinus for the Eustathians was the first cause of Lucifer's separating himself from the communion of the Catholic bishops. But Paulinus' title was recognised by the Council of Alexandria, and generally by the Western Church. The disapproval of Eusebius [Sozom. Hist. Eccl. v. 13], and of others in private, may have led to a breach of communion with them individually, but could not have outweighed the reception of Paulinus by the council. The vehemence of Lucifer's opposition to the Arians drove him into an excess of rigour in discipline, and led him to advance maxims which excommunicated the whole Church. He retired to his diocese, and for the remainder of bis life continued with his followers in separation from the Church. Theodoret states that he added certain new dogmas to the doctrine of the Church [II. E. iii. 5], But the testimonies of Ambrose, Jerome, and Augustine clear him of this charge [Amb. Oral. da obitu Satijri; Jerome, adv. Lucif.; August. Hcer. lxxxi.]. His rule was that laymen coming over from the Arians were to be received by imposition of hands, with invocation of the Holy Spirit, that clerics could be received only to lay communion, and that the Church deciding otherwise was turned into a brothel. This last was a familiar word with the Luciferians, and Lucifer's known violence of language makes it probable enough that the word was his. The usual assumption of schismatics that the Church has apostatized is reproved by Jerome,' 1 Christ did not come down solely for the Sardinian sheepskin," " Christ is too poor if he has only a church in Sardinia;" and the disciplinary maxim is controverted at length in the dialogue referred to. From these expressions of Jerome Lardner inferred that the schism never spread very far. This is construing Jerome's words too literally. The schism found its way into Italy, Antiocli, Spain, and Egypt; and a bishop of the sect was created for Rome [Marcell. et Faust, in BiN. Pair. Lugd. v.] Hilary the Deacon, a Sardinian, who had been associated with Lucifer and Eusebius at the Council of Milan, followed Lucifer; and presently went beyond him by rebaptizing the Arians, for which Jerome calls him "Deucalion orbis" [adv. Lucif. p. 170], About A.D. 384 the Luciferians obtained a rescript from Theodosius, to secure them from persecution, since they made no innovations in the faith. But the party came to an end rapidly. Tlieo(.\oret speaks of it as extinct in liis time [II. E. iii. 5], The Church of Cagliari celebrated the feast of a Saint Lucifer on the 20th of May. Two Archbishops of Sardinia wrote for and against the sanctity of Lucifer. The Congregation of the Inquisition imposed silence on both parties, and decreed that the veneration of Lucifer should 263

Lullards stand as it was. The Bollandists defend this decree of the Congregation, Baillet, in his Life of Lucifer (and ]Sratalis Alexander), contending that the Lucifer in question is not the author of the schism, but another Lucifer who suffered martyrdom in the persecution of the Yandals. [Calmet, Sac. and Prof. History, lxv. 110. Liguori, Hist. Hams. I. iv. 3, 50. Kat, Alex. vii. 117, ed. 1787.] LUCIEEKIAXS. A local name of the BEGHARDS, by which they were known in Angermiinde about A.D. 1336. [Chronic. Maqd. ap. Meibom. ii. 340. Mosh. de Beqhard. 338.] LUCOPETEIANS. A name given to the M E S S A L I A N S from an alleged founder named Peter. Euthymius Zigabenus says that he set himself up as the Messiah, and promised to appear again after his death; that three days after his death his disciples were watching for his resurrection when the devil appeared to them in the form of a wolf, and that hence they named their founder in derision AvKoirerpos, or Wolf-Peter. The principal disciple and successor of Peter is said to have been Tycliicus, whom Euthymius alleges to have applied to his master all the texts in Holy Scripture which speak of the First and Third Persons of the Holy Trinity. W h a t is the true foundation of this legend it is impossible to say. [Euthymius, Triumph, do Secta Messalian.] LULLAIiDS. The name of some fraternities in Germany and the Netherlands, which were formed in the twelfth century for carrying to the grave the bodies of those who had died of the plague when no other persons were willing to perform this office of charity, and who were popularly so called from the soft funeral hymns which they sang [" lullen," :£ lollen," " lallen," Old German\ as their mournful processions went on their way. These fraternities were known among themselves by the names of " Cellite Brothers and Sisters " or " Brothers and Sisters of St. Alexius;" the one from their houses claiming to be monastic cells, the other from their patron saint. They were also known as " die Nollbriider," from the obsolete word " ISTollen." The Lullards appear to have been viewed with distrust at a very early date by the ecclesiastical authorities. I n the year 1309 they are spoken of in the neighbourhood of Liège as " quidam hypocritai gyrovagi, qui ' Lollardi,' sivo Deum laudantes, vocabantur" [Gest. Pontif. Leod. Script. ii. 350]. In 1395 the Pope Boniface IX. recalls any privileges which had been granted by himself or his predecessors to persons of either sex " vnlgo Beghardi, sou ' Lullardi ' et ' Zuestriones,' a seipsis ' I r a trie elii ' seu ' Pauperes puerili ' nominati," on the ground that heresies were lurking among them. A few years afterwards [A.D. 1408] Arundel, Arch bishop of Canterbury, complains that his province is infected with " new unprofitable doctrines, and blemished with the new damnable brand of Lollardy " [Johnson's Canons, ii. 470.] In the year 1472 the Cellites wTere admitted among the exempt religious orders by Sixtus IY., and had further privileges conferred upon them in 1506 by Julius I I I . I t is probable therefore

L ntherans that the name of Lullard had come to signify two different classes of persons, the original fraternities for the burial of the dead, and those who were associated with the general stream of heresy which began to flow so strongly in the Beghards and the Wickliffites in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries [Mosh. Eccl. Hist. ii. 285, Stubbs' ed.]. LUTHERANS. I n the beginning of the sixteenth century the urgent need of a Reformation in the Church became universally acknowledged. Corruption tainted every order. Bishops and abbots had become more like secular princes than spiritual fathers, or had degenerated into unscrupulous statesmen, their example naturally affecting the lower orders of the clergy and the laity also. The Papacy had been polluted by the immoralities of Alexander VI., and was not raised very highly again as a religious institution by Julius II., a man in whom there was more of the soldier than the priest, or by Leo X., whose elegant tastes and refined scholarship were chequered by a scarcely disguised infidelity. In fact the revival of learning had become, in Italy at least, a revival of heathenism, and the state of morals, as revealed in Boccaccio's Decameron, was frightful in the extreme, while the wealth of nations was drained into Italy upon religious pretexts, to support the luxuriousness of the Roman Court. It was under these circumstances that Lutheranism sprang into being, and as all reform within the Church was at first refused, the Catholic Church lost a considerable part of the Teutonic and all the Scandinavian race. Martin Luther, the son of John Luther, a refiner of metals, was born at Eisleben in Saxony, on the Eve of St. Martin's Day 1483. His childhood was passed at Mansfield, were his father had settled as chief magistrate. The Universities, first of Eisenach and then of Magdeburg, laid in him the foundations of that learning of which lie afterwards made such effectual use. In 1501 he migrated to the University of Erfurt, where he took his degree. He had originally intended to devote himself to the study of civil law, but the sudden death of a friend, struck by lightning, strengthened in him those religious impressions by which he had always been to a great extent influenced. Accordingly, he entered in 1505 the monastery of Augustine Eremites at Erfurt, supposing that the life and discipline of a monk was the best aid to the practice of religion and study of theology. His religious history at this period is interesting. He used often to meditate upon the anger of God and His many judgments of sin, until at length he became possessed by an extreme dread of eternal judgment. His fears urged him on to a more diligent study of the Scriptures, with which it is said that he first became acquainted in his monastery, and at the same time the sermons of an aged monk at Erfurt on the remission of sins taught him to discriminate between a general belief in the article, such as devils might have, and the particular adaptation of it to his own needs. This led him to a more attentive study of St. Paul's Epistles, and from 264

Lutherans them he at length evolved his doctrine of justification by faith only. His principle was, believe, or rather feel, that your sins are forgiven, and they are forgiven. This faith would cover anything. He is reported to have said, " Pecca fortiter, crede fortius." Meanwhile he studied carefully the works of St. Augustine, nor did he negleofc the authors who had the best repute in his day, the Schoolman Ockham, as might have been cxpected, being his favourite among them. I n 1508 he was summoned to the newlyfounded University of Wittenberg, at the instance of John Staupitz, Provincial of the Augustinians,and Professor at Wittenberg. There his fame for philosophical and theological knowledge increased. I n 1507 he had been ordained priest and celebrated his first mass. Three years later he was sent on business connected with his order to Rome, where the profligacy, the infidelity, and the irreligion that prevailed, did not help to confirm his attachment to the existing order of things. I n 1512 he took his Doctor's degree, and began to give public instruction in Theology. I n his lectures he based his teaching upon the Scriptures and the writings of St. Augustine, rather than upon the Schoolmen, against whom he wrote several theses. At this time Leo X., who wanted money partly to meet his extravagances and partly to complete St. Peter's, sought to supply the want by issuing an extraordinary number of indulgences. These had originally Tt>een remissions or relaxations of canonical penance, but were now regarded as full pardons for every kind of sin, past, present, or to come, so that the fortunate possessor would be secure of an immediate entrance into Paradise after death. The sale of these indulgences was conducted with scarcely less decorum than that of quack medicines at a fair; one of their most scandalous vendors being Tetzel, a Dominican friar, the sub-commissary of the Elector Archbishop of Mayence, who carried on the business as a mere matter of ordinary trade, wherein the object was to gain the largest possible return. I t was even said that indulgences were staked at the gaming-table. The discontent which this conduct caused impelled J ohn of Staupitz to put forward Luther to oppose him, a task which Luther was ready enough to undertake; for some of those who had confessed to him had held forth the indulgences as a plea against the penance which he had imposed : whereupon he had refused them absolution, and so drew upon himself the angry threats of Tetzel. Luther, having appealed in vain to the Elector Archbishop to stop the sale, first preached a sermon against the abuse, and then in the autumn of 1517 set up on the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg ninety-five theses against indulgences, copies of which he also sent to the neighbouring bishops [Loscher, Acts of the Reformation, i. 4387]. He maintained therein that the whole life of a Christian ought to be one continued act of penance; that the papal indulgences could not go beyond the remission of can-

Lutherans

Lutherans

onical penance, which could be imposed on the living only ; therefore, they did not affect the dead : that those who trusted in them for salvation would with their deluders perish everlastingly ; that they are in fact quite distinct from the pardon of God ; that contrition alone is necessary ; that the truly penitent have full remission from all pains or guilt, even though they he without a written indulgence. He did not however undervalue papal absolution as a declaration of remission, but he considered it most hurtful if men got to trust in it, or lost through it the fear of God: if the Pope possessed the power he ought to exercise it freely for the love of God, and not for the sake of money or to build a church. He also preached a sermon on indulgence and grace, in which he attacked the doctrine that satisfaction necessarily finds place in true repentance. These proceedings drew out from Tetzel a reply in the shape of counter theses, in which he was seconded by other men of learning, chiefly Dominicans, to whom Luther replied with great acrimony and zeal. The Pope, though at first he did not trouble himself about the matter, was at length persuaded to interfere. Instead, however, of requiring Luther's presence at Borne, which had "been his first intention, he deputed his Cardinal Legate Cajetan, at Augsburg, to arrange the dispute. His haughty demand of unconditional submission provoked Luther to appeal from a Pope who had been ill informed to one who should he better informed, and at length from the Pope to a General Council. About this time the Emperor Maximilian died, and during the interval before the election of a successor the government was conducted by the Yicar of the Empire, Frederick, Elector of Saxony, Luther's immediate sovereign and protector. Meanwhile the papal proceedings were suspended, and Luther liad time to draw around him friends and followers, among whom the most celebrated was Schwartzerd, or Melanchthon, a professor of Wittenberg. Leo wished to win over Frederick with a view to the imperial election, and accordingly sent his chamberlain, Charles of Miltitz, to settle affairs. By his conciliating manner ho persuaded Luther to promise to keep silent, if his enemies did the same, and to profess publicly obedience to Home. This Luther was the more easily persuaded to do as Miltitz had stopped the proceedings of Tetzel. But a disputation at Leipsic upon free-will between Eek and Bodenstein of Carlstadt, a follower of Luther's, opened the controversy afresh, as the primacy of the Pope was dragged into the question, and Eck stigmatized his opponents as Hussites and Lutheran heretics. I t was at this time that Luther began seriously to inquire into the grounds of the papal claims, and to express those doubts which afterwards led to an open rupture. After the actual conference the dispute was continued in writing, so that men's attention was once more drawn to him and his opinions. The Bohemian C A I I X T I N E S wrote to him congratulating and encouraging him, and he was thus the more confirmed in his design to appear 265

as a Church reformer. Frederick of Saxony proved his firm friend ; Erasmus pleaded for him with the Elector Archbishop of Mayence, and supporters began to shew themselves in various parts of Germany, whereupon he issued an appeal to the Christian nobles. A bull of excommunication was issued against Luther on July 15th, 1520. Forty-one propositions taken from his works were pronounced heretical; his writings were proscribed ; he was declared excommunicate if ho should not retract within sixty days, and all the princes were called upon to seize his person. The bull was received in Germany with open marks of disapprobation, and met by Luther's work De Captivitate Babylonica Ecdesim, in which he entirely threw over indulgences (hitherto allowed by him in a modilied form), and declared the papacy to be the Kingdom of Babylon, and the power of Nimrod the mighty hunter. He requested his friends to burn his early books on each of these subjects; he maintained that there were three Sacraments, Baptism, Penance, and the Eucharist, in the las.t lie claimed the cup for the laity, denied transubstantiation as a Thomist and papal doctrine; he declared that the elements continued true bread and true wine, but that there was in them a real Presence of Christ's true Body and true Blood; he denied the doctrine of sacrifice in the mass, and the sacrament of extreme unction. As bis friends encouraged him to go on in his resistance, and demanded an impartial investigation into the point at issue, Luther was emboldened to send a fierce letter to the Pope, together with his work on Christian Liberty, in which he maintained his doctrine on justification in its most offensive form, and inveighed furiously against the vices of the papal court. At length, after having appealed to a General Council, on December 10th, 1520, he appeared in public at the eastern gate of Wittenberg, formally abjured the papal authority, and flung into a large fire which had been prepared the Bull, the Decretals, the Extravagant«, and the Clementines, adding the words, " Because thou hast troubled the sanctuary of the Lord, therefore may the eternal fire torment thee." In consequence the Pope issued another bull of excommunication and interdict upon any place where he or his followers might reside, calling in also the aid of the secular arm, which the newly elected Emperor Charles V. was glad to afford. A diet had been assembled at Worms early in 1521, to which Aleander, the papal legate, appealed, but the assembled princes were unwilling to condemn Luther at the mere instance of pope or emperor; they had also a quarrel of their own with the Pope, and drew up a list of a hundred and one grievances. As they required that the reformer should be summoned to answer for himself, a safe conduct was granted to him, and he appeared before the diet. There he avowed his works and refused to recant, but his safe conduct was respected, and no violence was done to his person, notwithstanding the suggestions of the papal legates.

Lutherans After his departure tlie ban of the empire was published against him and his adherents. The safe-conduct gave him protection for twenty-one days only, after which lie would be exposed to the attacks of his watchful enemies; the Elector of Saxony, therefore, who had no desire to oppose directly the imperial power, devised a stratagem to secure his safety. A body of masked horsemen, disguised as brigands, seized him and carried him off to the Castle of "Wartburg, where he remained for three quarters of a year in honourable captivity, concealed alike from friends and foes, being unknown even to his guards. During this interval he gave himself up to study, and commenced the translation of the Scriptures into German. This was not however the first translation of the kind, for there were no fewer than fourteen printed editions of the Bible in High and Low German between 1462 and 1518 [Walch, BibliotJi. iv. 76]. Ho also issued various tracts against confession, masses, vows, and enforced clerical celibacy, and sent a very combative reply to Henry YIII.'s treatise, on the seven sacraments. The ban of the Empire fell with comparative harmlessness upon his followers. The Emperor was too much engaged with the French War to put it into execution; many of the princes openly favoured the Lutherans, and others were indifferent or did not care to make themselves unpopular with their subjects. I t had practical force only in the personal domains of the Emperor and his brother, in Bavaria and the Duchy of Saxony, and where some of the prince bishops thought fit to enforce it. Meanwhile the Church system was overthrown at Wittenberg, and a new state of things brought in under the auspices of Carlstadt. The monks were encouraged to desert their monasteries, several priests contracted marriage, private masses were abolished, images were removed from the churches, auricular confession and the invocation of the saints were discontinued, and the cup was restored to the laity. Those clergy who still persisted in celebrating mass and chanting the hours were exposed to mob violence. Those changes alarmed Luther as being too hasty, and accordingly he wrote to the Elector to deprecate them. There was the more urgent cause to do so, for fanatics like the A N A B A P T I S T S began to appear, teaching the doctrine of a visible kingdom of Christ upon earth, soon to be manifested, in which rights of property should be unknown, and denying Infant Baptism. Luther, therefore, left his retreat without consulting the Elector (to whom he afterwards wrote an apology), and hastened back to Wittenberg, where the control of ecclesiastical affairs was placed in his hands. Of the changes made by Carlstadt, he confirmed some and moderated others. Private masses were abolished, the use of images and the practice of confession were restored, and the reception of the communion, under one or both kinds, was left to the discretion of the people themselves. He now [A.D. 1522] published his translation of the I\ew Testament. Much opposition was checked by the fact that the new Pope, Hadrian VL, was an honest, 266

Lutherans sincere, and religious man, who had a real desire to remedy the evils that he saw existing round him, and openly admitted that the whole Church required a thorough reform. That he was sincere is unquestionable, though he may have also hoped to lessen the influence of Luther, by taking the work into his own hands. As it was, he only damped the ardour of his own supporters, and drew out from the Diet of Nuremberg a more urgent demand for the redress of grievances, and a petition for a general council. But Hadrian's efforts were cut short by his death, and the accession of the most conservative of Popes, Clement VII., in 1523. Luther won over many of the Princes by his proposal to secularize the monastic and episcopal property; and about this time the Kings of Sweden and Denmark leagued together to establish Lutheranism in their own dominions. The whole of the north coast of Germany was now on his side, as were many of the free towns, and he confirmed his followers everywhere in their belief by his writings. But they had become so numerous that a closer organization was necessary. Accordingly, he prepared a revised and translated form of the mass, and arranged for the systematic management of the revenues of his communion, according to the primitive plan, by appointing definite portions for the clergy, for the schools, for the relief of the poor, for the repair of churches. At first his changes were designed for Saxony only, but they were afterwards adopted in all the countries where his doctrines prevailed. The successful spread of those doctrines was very rapid. I t was in vain that the papal legates demanded from one diet after another the execution of the decree of Worms against him and his followers, and that the Emperor confirmed the request by his rescript. They were met with demandsfor theredressof grievances and the convocation of a general council. It was indeed proposed that a diet to be summoned at Spires should arrange matters, but meanwhile the Lutherans were left practically in peace. In 1524, Luther threw oil' the monastic dress which ho had up to this time retained. The same year witnessed his quarrel with Erasmus, who had hitherto been able to occupy a middle position, and though he was strongly in favour of reform, would not renounce communion with Rome. This was a position that Luther could neither endure nor understand, and the admirers of each were constantly urging on their chiefs to break with the other as a time-server or a heretic. Luther's violence, and a request from Henry of England, provoked Erasmus to publish his work on Free Will, in which he opposed, though with moderation, the Augustinian opinions that Luther had adopted. Luther rejoined in a treatise on the Slavery of the Will, which was in part an intemperate answer to Erasmus, and in part a personal attack upon him. To this Erasmus replied in his Hyperaspistes [A.D. 1526], and then throw himself entirely into the arms of the party opposed to Luther. This was followed by the controversy with Zwingli on the Eucharist. Luther ever held

Lutherans firmly to the belief in the Real Presence ( ' Objective " as we should now term it), although he was not always consistent with himself in his manner of explaining it. Carlstadt had effected at Orlamund what he considered a more thorough reformation. He disallowed the use of images entirely, and in his views on the Eucharist dissented from his old master. But Luther proved too strong for him, and being obliged to retire to Basle, he was at length reduced to such narrow circumstances that he gave way and returned to Saxony. Zwingli had adopted Carlstadt's theory that the Eucharist is a mere memorial rite, and defended it in several works, and as it thus began to prevail in Southern Germany as well as in Switzerland, Luther again plunged into the conflict. A conference held between him and Zwingli, at Marburg, in A.D. 1529, at the instance of Philip Landgrave of Hesse, ended in a final separation. Luther has beeu censured for liis conduct on this occasion, and, no doubt, he did carry on the controversy with all the violence natural to his character, but no permanent union could be expected between an earnest believer in the Real Presence and a dogmatic denier of it. Another blow fell upon him through the insurrection of the Anabaptists, for although Luther had ascribed their principles to the inspiration of the Devil, and encouraged the Princes to wield the temporal sword that God had entrusted to them against the fanatics, many supposed that they were only carrying out Luther's own principles to their extreme, and thus his cause was not a little damaged. I n 1525, Luther, a professed monk, married a nun, Catherine Bora, a lady of high rank. His friends greatly blamed him for this act, concerning which he himself had misgivings at times. Both parties concerned were under a vow of celibacy, and whatever may be thought of the expediency of such vows, few would deny, that having been taken, a religious reformer ought to have self-command enough to keep them, and to be above suspicion in his own conduct. I n spite of these drawbacks, Luther's sect rapidly extended itself. Besides the Elector of Saxony, he had the Landgrave of Hesse, the Dukes of Mecklenburg, Pomerania, and Zell, among his followers, together with many free cities of the Empire. The Grand Master of the Teutonic Order and Margrave of Brandenburg broke through his vows, secularized Eastern Prussia, the possession of his order, added it to Brandenburg, and so founded in sacrilege what afterwards became the Kingdom of Prussia. Associations for defence were formed by the Princes of both sides, by the Catholics in the League of Ratisbon, by the Lutherans in that of Torgau, The Diet of Spires, in 1526, allowed freedom and toleration to the Lutherans until a General Council should be assembled; but the Council was delayed owing to the wars of the Emperor with France and Italy, and the intrigues of the Pope. Three years later, in a second Diet at Spires, the tolerant decrees of the first Diet were virtually repealed bv the following enactments:— 267

Lutherans [1.] That whore the Edict of Worms had been executed it should be still observed. [2.] That no further innovations should be made by the Lutherans. [3.] That the Mass should be re-established in all places where it had been abolished, and that the Catholic subjects of Lutheran Princes should enjoy complete toleration, [4.] No new doctrines were to be preached, or any contrary to the interpretation of the Church. [5.] There were to be no new hostilities under pretence of religion. [6.] The Zwinglians and Anabaptists were to be proscribed. The Lutheran Princes published a protest against this Edict, and so won for themselves the name of " Protestants." I n this protest they declared,— [1.] That the unanimous decision of one Diet ought not to be rescinded by a mere majority in another. [2.] That their consciences would not allow them to restore the Mass among their subjects, i.e. the Catholic minority, or allow two forms of administering the Communion in one place. [3.] They objected to clause 4, the question being, W h a t is the true Church 1 [4.] They held to Scripture as the sole infallible rule of life, to be interpreted by itself alone, and not by tradition; they would not allow anything to be taught within their dominions except Scripture. [5.] They consented to proscribe the Anabaptists, but desired to exempt from persecution the Zwinglians. [Coxe, House of Austria, c. xxviii. sub fin.] This protest was signed by the Elector of Saxony, the Margrave of Brandenburg Anspach, the Landgrave of Hesse, the Duke of Brunswick and his brother, the Prince of Anhalt, with the representatives of the imperial cities, Strasburg, jSuremburg, Ulm, Constance, and ten others of less note; to which shortly afterwards were added Augsburg, Frankfort, Hanover, Hamburg, and others. The protest was sent to the Emperor, who received it with marks of severe displeasure, and arrested the deputies who had been appointed to convey i t ; but he was shortly afterwards induced to act with more moderation, and summon a Diet to meet at Augsburg. Here the Protestants, who were still labouring under the stigma of a connection with the Anabaptists, put forth the Confession of Faith known as the Confession of Augsburg, wdiich has become one of the authorized formularies of the Lutheran communion. I t had been drawn up by Luther, but was revised and somewhat softened down by Melanchthon. I t contains twenty-eight articles, of which twentyone are affirmative and declaratory of doctrine, and seven polemical, against Roman doctrine or practice. The Emperor received the Confession with coldness, and forbade its publication. Fruitless discussions followed, but the divisions of the Catholics proved the safeguard of the Protestants, some advocating extreme measures, while others,

Lutherans headed by the Elector Archbishop of Mentz, recommended conciliation. Finally a decree was passed ordering the re-establishment of all suppressed doctrines and practices, the enforcement of clerical celibacy, and the restoration of all the plundered Church property. But no practical result followed, for all parties were looking forward to the meeting of a General Council, which, however, the Pope still contrived to delay. But the election in 1531 of the Emperor's brother, Ferdinand of Austria, King of Hungary and Bohemia, to be King of the Romans, alarmed the Protestant Princes, who at Smalkald formed a league for the protection of their religion and liberty. The history of this League, with its first transient success and final disastrous failure, forms part of the history of the Holy Roman Empire, and not of the Lutherans. A civil war followed, and the result was that the Protestants were entirely foiled on every side. Hermann, the reforming Elector Archbishop of Cologne, was deposed, the Margrave of Brandenburg and the Duke of Saxony were won over by Charles to desert their party, other Princes were compelled to submit, and the two great champions of the Protestant cause, the Elector of Saxony, the son of Luther's old friend, and the Landgrave of Hesse, were made prisoners. Charles was everywhere triumphant. Wittenberg itself fell into his hands, but he used his victory with moderation, allowing the Protestants to continue in peace. The remainder of Luther's life was uneventful; but lie was fully occupied in writing, and in superintending the communities which were calh d by his name, living in security at Wittenbeig, where he could defy alike the thunders of the Vatican and the menaces of the Emperor. Death carried him off before the triumph of Charles and the fall of Wittenberg, which probably would have been followed by more severe measuns against him. He died shortly after the first meeting of the Council of Trent, in 1546, at his native place, Eisleben, whither he had been summoned by the Count of Mansfeldt to settle by his local knowledge a dispute that had arisen about boundaries. He was buried at Wittenberg with great pomp. Luther's extraordinary strength of character is shewn by the great Revolution which owes its origin, its course, and its final triumph to him. Nothing but a strong self-will would have enabled him to withstand the powers alike of the Pope and the Emperor, but it often hurried him into too great violence in his controversies with his opponents. For the Pope, as might be expected, he had no consideration; but in his disputes with Henry V I I I . and Duke George of Saxony, he displayed a violence of temper which only injured his cause. His final breach with Zwingli was unavoidable; but the controversy with Erasmus was carried on by him with an unbecoming heat, which only alienated and sent into the arms of the opposite party one who had strong yearnings after reform. The other great defect of Luther's character was his subjectiveness. He had himself gone 2C8

Lutherans through a certain spiritual course, by which he had been brought from sorrow and despondency to find peace; and, like Wesley, he supposed that every one else must experience the same, or else forfeit his claim to be considered a child of light. In a similar spirit he rejected the Epistle of St. James and the Apocalypse from the Canon, because they did not accommodate themselves to his judgment, or rather his theory, and thus he laid the foundation of that Rationalism which afterwards prevailed so extensively in Germany. He claimed for himself to throw off Church authority, but it was that he might set up an authority of his own, and he would not allow to Erasmus, to Carlstadt, to Zwingli, or to the Anabaptists the right of differing from him. The history of Lutheranism after the death of Luther may be shortly told. When Charles had destroyed the power of the League he contented himself with asserting his political supremacy over the Protestant Princes, and did not interfere with their religious principles. His desire was to effect a comprehension through the Council of Trent, which was then commencing its sittings. Of the history of the Council it is not the place to speak, save that at the critical moment, the Pope, for his private ends, baffled the Emperor's design, by suspending its sittings. Thus disappointed, Charles drew up twenty-six articles of compromise, known as the Interim, which ho submitted to both parties. I t was to hold good only until the Council had given judgment on the disputed points, whence it derived its name. For the most part it allowed matters to remain for the time as they were, and was therefore gladly accepted by the moderate Lutherans, although the more rigid, particularly those in the imperial cities, still held aloof, until they were reduced by force of arms. But these victories lessened the Emperor's authority, by kindling the jealousies of Catholic and Protestant Princes alike; and Maurice, the new Elector of Saxony, by whose aid he had won most of his power, was still a zealous Protestant, although ambition had hitherto got the better of his religious principles. Maurice now felt alarm for the existence of his party, and accordingly began to intrigue against the Emperor, until seizing a favourable opportunity, when the attention of the latter was drawn off to the Council of Trent, he again raised the standard of civil war. His professed object was to protect the liberties of the Empire, to maintain the Protestant religion, and to liberate the Landgrave of Hesse, whom Charles had long detained in unjust captivity. In the war that followed, the ascendancy of the Protestant party was once more established, and Charles himself narrowly escaped being made prisoner. His ill success, the advance of the Turks into Hungary, and the mediation of his brother Ferdinand, the King of the Romans, at length induced him to consent to the treaty of Passau, 1552. The Landgrave was set at liberty, and the Lutherans were placed on an equal footing with the Catholics of the Empire until a diet could meet which should settle all religious and civil

Lutherans difficulties. But Albert of Brandenburg refused to be bound by the treaty, and carried on a war of plunder with the Catholic Princes, until the ban of the Empire having been published against him, he was driven into exile, and his dominions were granted to his nephew, the Margrave of Anspacli. The long expected diet met at Augsburg in 1555, under Ferdinand King of the Romans, who used all his influence to effect a reconciliation between the contending parties. The result was an act of perpetual peace and toleration for all who adhered to the Confession of Augsburg. Henceforth Lutheranism became the established religion of Korth Germany, and was placed on an equal footing with the Church in the imperial government. The only remaining point of dispute concerned the ecclesiastical fiefs. Ferdinand decreed that toleration should be granted to subjects, but that the change of religion in any prelate should ipso facto vacate his benefice. This decision was disputed in later times, but the question was finally settled after the Thirty Years' War, when the treaty of Passau was again confirmed. To return now to the internal history of Luther's communion. His place was at first filled by Melanchthon, but he was too gentle to maintain Luther's pre-eminence, and henceforth the cause won no more triumphs, but rather retrogressed, first before the reformations effected in the Church by the Council of Trent, and then before Calvinism. The causes for this are easy to see. The chief cause was the fearful spread of immorality among Luther's followers, arising from his doctrine of justification: an evil which was acknowledged alike by friend and foe. There were first the Antinomians, who appeared before Luther's death under Agricola. He maintained that the Gospel only should be taught in the Churches to the exclusion of the L a w ; but his disciples claimed the right to sin as much as they pleased if only they held to Christ. Even among the Lutherans Nicholas Amsdorf declared that good works were pernicious to salvation, and many others, without going so far, were indifferent about Christian holiness. The preachers in their sermons confined themselves more and more to polemics, or to dry points of philosophical theology, to the loss of spiritual religion. And though learning flourished, Erastianism swallowed up zeal and piety. The later history of the Lutherans resolves itself into two chapters, their controversies among themselves, and their efforts to bring about union with the Calvinists. The first controversy was that of the Adiaphora, or things indifferent, arising from the Interim. This decree proved distasteful to both Catholics and Protestants; and Melanchthon, when called upon to give his opinion 011 the matter, declared that while it could not be accepted as a whole, submission would prove the best course in things indifferent, such as concerning the exact number of the Sacraments, many rites and ceremonies, particularly chanting, unction, &c. This decision gave rise to a fierce controversv. The rigid Lutherans 269

Lutherans branded the accepters of the Interim as ADIAPHORISTS, and alleged that Melanchthon was defective on the doctrine of Justification, because he maintained the necessity of good works. The controversy was put an end to by t h e Formula of Concord, and in the interval was thrown into the background by the Synergistic dispute. The SYNERGISTS declared that man co-operates with God in the work of salvation. On this point also Melanchthon sided with them in opposition to the rigid Lutherans, who were headed by Flacius of Saxe-Weimar, Professor of Divinity at Jena. His intemperate zeal threatened to cause a schism between the Lutherans of Saxony and of Saxe-Weimar, which was prevented only by the interference of the Princes. Many other disputes broke out and sectarian divisions arose, and their result was seriously to impede the progress of Lutheranism. A t length, at the instance of the Elector of Saxony and the D u k e of SaxeWeimar, who sawr and lamented the evils of division, a body of moderate men -was appointed to draw up a Formula of Concord, which might be accepted by the whole Lutheran body. Difficult although this undertaking was, it proved successful beyond anticipation. The Form was produced at a conference at Torgau in 1576. I t was examined and corrected by a large number of Lutheran Doctors, was submitted to the consideration of the Princes, was at last brought forward before a general assembly of divines that met at Magdeburg, and was adopted by them as an authoritative exponent of Lutheran doctrine against Calvinists on the one hand, and Lutheran innovators on the other. The next important controversy was that of the SYNCRETISTS, commenced by George Calixtus in the following century. His aim was to induce the Lutheran and Eeformed (or Calvinist) communions, to which he was quite ready to add the Catholics, not indeed to unite in one body, but to abstain from mutual enmity and to join together in the bonds of brotherly love. H e believed, to the scandal of many of that time, that the knowledge of the Holy Trinity is less clearly revealed in the Old Testament than in the ISTew, that good works are necessary to salvation, and that God is accidentally (per accidens) the author of sin. This dispute was ended by the rise of Pietism. [See further, J . G. Walch's Introduction to the Controversies in the Lutheran Church.~\ P I E T I S M was an attempt to lessen the profligacy, want of discipline, and the general disorders which had been caused by the Thirty Tears' War. I t originated with Spener of Frankfort, who strove to effect a reform similar to that which Wesley afterwards had in view in England. H e instituted prayer meetings, private classes for religious instruction, to be carried on side b y side with the public services and exegetical teaching of Scripture. But many of his followers degenerated into wild enthusiasts, prophecy-mongers and fanatics, so that in some places laws were enacted against them, and the magistrates were compelled to suppress their meetings, owing to the commotions to which they gave occasion.

Lutherans I n the last century a body of men, the Hcrrenh iitter of Lusatia, formed a distinct social and religious community under Count Zinzendorf. Many of them had originally been Lutherans, with whom they professed to agree in doctrine, though their ecclesiastical discipline was peculiar, but they actually formed a distinct sect, and as such have ever been discountenanced by the rigid Lutherans. [ M O R A V I A N S . ] I t only remains to glance at the relations between the Lutheran and the Calvinistic bodies. An attempt had been made in the sixteenth century to effect a union, but this was rendered hopeless by the Formula of Concord. It may have been in consequence of this Formula that Maurice Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel went over to the Calvinists, and displaced all the Lutheran teachers in the University of Marburg, and the ministers generally throughout his dominions. This was in 1604. The dispossessed found shelter in Hesse-Darmstadt,'which has continued Lutheran. In 1610 the Elector of Brandenburg adopted a modified Calvinism. He introduced the simpler form of worship, and embraced Calvin's views oil the Person of Christ, and on the Eucharist, but rejected his teaching on Grace and the Divine decrees. He was content to hold these opinions himself, and put no restraint upon his subjects, but allowed, what was rare in those days, liberty of conscience to all. Henceforth his successors, the Electors and Kings of Prussia, have distinguished themselves by their efforts to bring about a union from time to time, as in A.]). 1631, 1662, 1736, and in 1817. The last endeavour has met with a certain amount of success. The King of Prussia in that year formed out of both communions in his dominions one Evangelical Christian Church; the names alike of Protestant and lieformed being abolished. I n A.D. 1822 a new 270

Lutherans Liturgy was drawn up and accepted, by 7750 out of 8950 congregations] the opposition coming partly from Berlin, where a protest was made by the magistrates and twelve ministers, and partly from Silesia. The old Lutherans, as they were called, were for some time subjected to persecution, particularly in Silesia, where troops were quartered upon them to bring them into submission, and numbers of them fled to America, but they are now recognised by the law. [ U N I T E D E V A N G E L I CAL C H U R C H . ]

While the Lutheran and Eeformed bodies exist side by side in many parts of Germany, it may be said generally that the greater part of North Germany, Hanover, Saxony, Hesse-Darmstadt, and Saxe-Coburg, and, in the south, Wurtemberg, are Lutherans; whereas in Hesse-Cassel, Baden, and Anhalt, Calvinism prevails. The Scandinavian kingdoms are rigidly Lutheran, and there an Episcopal form of Church Government and some ancient Catholic customs have been retained. [SWEDISH PROTESTANTS.]

Latterly, Lutheranism has spread widely in America owing to the German immigration. Its adherents are, however, very much divided, especially on questions connected with ceremonial worship. On the one hand are the " Old Lutherans," who used many ancient liturgical customs, such as altar crucifixes and altar lights; on the other are the " N e w , " or "Eeformed Lutherans," who discourage the use of liturgies and liturgical customs, and adopt the American fanaticism of " revivals." [Seckendorf, Historia Lutheranismi. D I C T . O / T I J E O L . , art. L U T H E R A N ISM. For a good detailed history of Lutheran theology and its relations, see Krauth's Conservative Reformation, Philadelphia, 1871.] LYONS, POOR OF. [ W A L D E N S E S . ]

M MACAEIANS. Tlie Monotlielites of Antiocb, so called from Macarius, who was patriarch at tlie time of the second Council of Constantinople [A.D. 680], at which he attended, and where he defended his opinions. [MONOTHELITBS.] MACEDONIANS. [PNEUMATOMACHI.] MACMILLANITES. [CAMERONIANS.] MAGIANS. [PAKSEES.] MAHOMETANS. The followers of Mahomet [A.D. 571-032], who began to propagate his new faith in Arabia, his native country, about A.D. 611. The name given by the founder to his religion and adopted by its professors, is " Islam," the meaning of which is said by some to be " to make peace, obtain unanimity," especially by submission—hence " t o surrender," and in a religious sense, "to submit wholly to God, and acknowledge him only as Lord;"—but by others, to be " t o seek righteousness with all one's strength." I . PERSONAL HISTORY OF MAHOMET. Mahomet, or, as the word is more correctly written, Mohammed, Mohammad, or Muhammad ( " t h e praised" or " the desired"), was born at Mecca, April 20th, A.D. 571. 1 It seems that he was named Kotham, and that he adopted the title Mohammed, about the time of the liegira, to apply to himself some Old Testament Messianic prophecies [Hagg. ii. 8 ; Cant. v. 16], He was the only son of Abdallah and Amina, of the noble but impoverished family of Hashim, of the tribe of Koreish. His father died two months before his birth, and his mother when he was six years old ; his grandfather, and, on his death in two years, his uncle Abu-Talib, though poor and with a large family, took charge of him, and treated him kindly. As a boy he earned his living as a shepherd, an occupation much despised by Arabs, but little is known with certainty of his early life. I n his twenty-fourth year he entered the service of Ithadijah, a rich and clever widow, thirty-eight years old, whom he subsequently married, and by whom he had two sons, who died young, and four daughters. We learn nothing further of him till he came before the world as a religious reformer. Arabia was at this time ripe for a moral and religious reformation. Christianity had been early in1 This date m u s t be regarded only as conventional, being t h a t generally accepted soon after Mahomet's death [Sprenger, i. 138], H u i r [i. 13] and 0. de Perceval [i. 282, 283] give Aug. 20th, 570 ; others fix it in 569. [See Weil, 21, note 1 ; Sprenger (English), 75 ; Syed Ahmed, 0>i the Early Childhood, 2, 3.]

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troduced [Gal. i. 17], but was only slightly diffused, chiefly in the petty kingdoms on the borders of Syria, in Irak, and in some desert oases. Orthodoxy was rare ; persecution had from early times driven into the Peninsula heretics of all kinds and shades. Judaizing Christians—Ebionites, Nazarasans, MEND^IANS,—were most numerous. From these, especially the Mendasans, Mahomet seems to have borrowed his Christology and several ritual and devotional practices; his early converts being indeed sometimes called Sabians in the traditions. Judaism was more widely extended and powerful. Several Jewish communities were scattered over the country, and Jewish ideas, owing to the high intellectual culture of the Jews, were widely spread among the heathen, seeming to have tainted Arabic Christianity also. Magianism [PAKSEES] had a few adherents, chiefly on the borders of Persia. But idolatry prevailed over the greater part of Arabia. One personal God (Allah) and Creator was acknowledged, but he was too far above man to care for h i m ; hence various deities, who usurped most of his honour, were set beside him, especially several goddesses, daughters of, and mediators with Allah. "Worship was paid to the host of heaven, to fetishes, symbols of higher powers, to stones and trees. Each tribe had its own deity, priesthood, and temple, but the centre of worship for all was the Kaaba or holy house of Mecca, with its numerous idols, said to be 360, whither the Arabs yearly went on pilgrimage. Belief in evil spirits (Jinn), by whom soothsayers and oracles were inspired, and in angels, was universal; some tribes had a vague belief in a resurrection. Their moral condition was of the lowest. They practised polygamy, with unlimited liberty of divorce; marriage was allowed to near relations; widespread profligacy prevailed among both sexes. They were passionately fond of wine, gambling, and marauding, were very revengeful, and had a horrible custom of burying their infant daughters alive. On the other hand, they were, as at the present day, brave, generous, hospitable, high-spirited and eloquent. On the borders small kingdoms had been established, the kings of which were vassals to the Byzantines, to the Persians, or to the Abyssinians ; but the greater part of the Arabs, whether settled in towns or nomads, were divided into numerous tribes, each with its own chief, which were perpetually at war with each other.

Mahometans From among these profligate idolaters, just before, and during, Mahomet's youth, had arisen a number of inquirers, who, probably influenced indirectly by Jewish and Christian ideas, were seeking a higher faith. These had cast off idolatry, with the superstitions and cruelties which it involved, and professed to teach the religion of Abraham, having sacred books of their own and calling themselves Hanifs, i.e. "Puritans." Four of them were relations of Mahomet; with one of whom, Waraka, his wife's cousin, he was very intimate. He at first called himself a Hanif, adopting their teaching and often their words. As regards the rest of the world, it will suffice to give these historical landmarks. Mahomet's appearance as a prophet nearly coincided with the foundation of Westminster Abbey ; Boniface IY. had recently attained the Papacy; the Saxons and other tribes of Northern Germany were adopting Christianity. Prance was slumbering under the Merovingians ; the Eastern Empire was being ravaged by the Persians and Avars, but Heraclius, who had just [A.D. 610] ascended the throne, was preparing for his victorious campaigns. [For the pre-Islamic state of Arabia, see Pocock, Spec. Hist. Arab. 1-7, 33, 173; Sale, P. D. § 1 ; C. de Perceval, Essai, &c. vols. i. and ii.; Weil, chap. i. ; Sprenger (English) chap. i.; (German) i. 13-92, 249-268; Cazenove, Mahometanism, 29-50 ; Muir, vol. i., Introduction; Quart. Rev. cxxvii. 314-322 ; Syed Ahmed, Essays; On the Religion of the Pre-lslamic Arabs.] When Mahomet was about forty years old, he began, under the influences above described, to doubt the truth of idolatry, to ponder in solitude, among the valleys and rocks near Mecca, on the Unity of God, immortality, judgment to come. After a severe mental struggle, amounting at times almost to insanity, accompanied with epileptic fits (to which he had been subject in childhood), horrible dreams and hallucinations, he imagined, that as he slept in a cave in Mount Bira, an angel, who afterwards declared himself to be Gabriel, appeared to him, and, calling him thrice, bade him "cry." Mahomet answered, " W h a t shall I cry?" whereon the angel delivered to him a message from God, the first revelation [Kor. xcvi. 1-5; cf. Isaiah xxix. 11; xl. 6]. No further revelations came for some time. 1 Mahomet's mental distress returned; he thought himself possessed by devils, and was only prevented from suicide by a second appearance of the angel, followed by a violent fit, on recovery from which he received a second revelation, bidding him "arise and preach" [Kor. lxxiv. I,.««?.]. From that time to his death the revelations were constant, sometimes coming quietly, but generally accompanied by horrible fits, after which he was conscious of God's message to him. Such is the traditional account of Mahomet's call, and it is important as throwing light on his belief in himself. Mahomet's mission was at once acknowledged by his own household—his wife, the confidante of his doubts; Ali, his cousin, who was however 1

This interval is called the Fatrah, or intermission [Rodwell, 3, note 2],

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Mahometans only seven years old ; and Zeid, his freedman and adopted son, who had been a Christian. Others soon joined him; some being persons of position, as Abu-Bekr, and Othman, afterwards caliphs, and several slaves. At first he and his converts suffered only from derision, and there was a general feeling in his favour. But when, after about two years, he proceeded publicly to attack idolatry, violent persecutions arose; he was compelled to teach only in private, in the house of a follower named Arkam; he himself had to endure insult and violence; his poorer followers were tortured, many of them recanted, and others fled to Abyssinia [A.D. G16]. The fugitives however returned in a few months, on a rumour that a reconciliation had taken place between the prophet and his persecutors. The truth was, that Mahomet's faith in his mission had for a time given way, and ho acknowledged idols as intercessors with God. But finding his converts much scandalized [Kor. liii. 34], and himself despised, he retracted his concession, declaring that the devil had misled him [Kor. xvii. 74, 75, xxii. 51]. Persecution therefore was renewed; but indignation at his treatment led to the conversion of his uncle, Ilamza, and soon after the valiant and energetic Omar, hitherto a bitter persecutor, joined him. This caused a great increase in the ranks of the Moslems, 'who now ventured publicly to proclaim their faith. Plots were then formed against Mahomet's life, and when the family of Hashim, headed by Abu-Talib, declared that they would avenge his death, the rest of the Koreishites formed a league against them, put them under a ban, forced them to retire in a body to their own quarter of Mecca (the " Shib"), and there blockaded them [A.D. 617]. About the same time 2 some Moslems again took refuge in Abyssinia, where the Christian King (Najashi) protected them. Others afterwards joined these, and few of them rejoined Mahomet till after the Hegira. The Hashimites suffered much from privation, but after two (perhaps three) years [A.D. 619 or 620], dissensions arose among the confederates, the league was broken up, and the ban removed. Soon after this event Mahomet lost his wife, and his uncle and protector, Abu-Talib. I n a few weeks lie married a second wife, and was betrothed to a third, thus adopting polygamy. For a time, another uncle, Abu-Lahab, subsequently his bitterest foe, protected Mahomet; but withdrew this protection in disgust at his teaching that all their heathen forefathers were in hell. Mahomet then attempted to gain converts at Tayif, three days' journey from Mecca, but after a short stay was driven out with insult and violence. On his road back to Mecca, he imagined that a company of Jinn were converted by hearing him recite the Koran [Kor. xlvi. 29 sq., lxxii. 1«/.]. Bypreaching at fairs, to caravans of pilgrims, and wherever numbers of people were collected, Mahomet had during some years won adherents in different parts of Arabia, especially at Yathrib, afterwards called Medina— 2 Some authorities put this second emigration soon after the first [Sprenger, ii. 42, seq. 142 ; Muir, ii, 161,

saj.].

Mahometans an abbreviation of Medinat-an-Kabi, " the city of the Prophet." At two successive pilgrimages deputies from that city had secret interviews with the Prophet in a valley near Mecca; they promised to propagate Islam by every means in their power, gentle or forcible, and to receive and protect the Prophet if he were compelled to leave Mecca. On discovering this, the Koreishites resolved that Mahomet should be murdered, and he was nearly surprised, only escaping by the devotion of Ali. Accompanied by Abu-Bekr, he fled from Mecca, and they took refuge from pursuit in a cave, before which, say the traditions, a spider wove its web, a pigeon laid two eggs in its nest, and a tree grew up, to testify to its solitude. After three days they reached Medina, whither Mahomet's chief followers had already betaken themselves, and the Prophet entered the city in triumphal procession. This event is the Hegira or flight; it took place in A.D. 622, in the summer or early autumn. The Hegira marks an epoch in Mahomet's life. Islam and its founder henceforth have their place in the history of the world. Hitherto the Prophet had had no field for action; he had been the man of thought and speech, the persecuted preacher of a Monotheism which looked to himself as its prophet. Henceforth he was the man of action. Accordingly, he soon became Prince as well as Prophet; he formed the design of spreading his faith and rule first over Arabia, then over the world. His revelations underwent a corresponding change. Hitherto they bad consisted of doctrinal and moral precepts ; threats of a judgment on the wicked, promises of bliss for the good, accounts of God's dealings with the men of old. Their style is earnest, poetic, full of fire, and often very striking. Now they assumed a more prosaic tone : they concern passing events, contain laws, political and social, and military directions, not unlike the " general orders " of an army, 1 justifications of Mahomet's acts, public and even private, such as his dealingswithhis wives. The morality of the Koran also deteriorates; polygamy is formally sanctioned; the liberty of divorce is extended; force takes the place of persuasion. "We see at the same time a very marked declension in Mahomet's character ; he gradually gives himself up to the gratification of his passions, and produces revelations which allow to himself that which he forbids to others ; he becomes treacherous, vindictive, cruel, countenancing and orderingassassination of his enemies, wholesale massacre of his prisoners. Nevertheless, sucb were his attractive qualities and his force of will, that he retained and increased to the last the devotion of the great body of his followers. The Prophet's first care was the organization of the believers. Forms and times of worship and practical observances (fasting and alms), were definitely settled; a mosque was built, with houses adjoining for Mahomet and his wives, the number of whom was constantly increasing. To prevent jealousy between the two classes of his followers, the Muhajerin, or " refugees," from Mecca, and the Ansares, or " helpers," of Medina, he formed 1 Sprenger says, " The Koran 'became a sort of 'Moniteur.' *' [Pref. to vol. iv. p. 29.]

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Mahometans them into a brotherhood by pairs, one of each party. He soon acquired such power in the city, that even those who disbelieved him were compelled to dissemble, but yet took every opportunity of thwarting him. These are often mentioned in the Koran as " the hypocrites " [ii. 9-19, xxxiii. 12, 47, lvii. 13], and gave Mahomet much trouble. The Prophet tried to win over the Jews also, having already adopted many of their ceremonies and institutions. He made a few converts, but the great body repelled his overtures, and became his bitter opponents. Mahomet thereupon altered most of the observances intended to gain them, and, as soon as he was strong enough, attacked, and either exterminated them or expelled them from their lands with circumstances of great cruelty and treachery. The next six years of his life [A.D. 622-628] were passed in almost constant fighting, which began with attacks on Meccan caravans, but soon developed into regular warfare. The first pitched battle, at Badr [A.D. 624], was a great victory to Mahomet, which he ascribed to angelic aid \Kor. iii. 120, se.q., viii. 9,10], But in the battle of Ohod [A.D. 625] the Moslems were completely defeated, and Mahomet himself was severely wounded. For a time his influence was much weakened, but his undaunted spirit and self-confidence soon regained their sway. At length the Koreishites and their allies, in alarm at Mahomet's growing power, with 10,000 men besieged Medina, which was fortified against them [A.D. 627], TheMosleins defended themselves vigorously for fifteen days; dissensions, fomented by emissaries of the Prophet, broke out in the enemy's camp, and they retired discomfited. Henceforth Mahomet had little to fear from his enemies. He had adopted the policy of conquering and converting Arabia in detail, and encouraged by his successes, he marched with a great force on Mecca [A.D. 628], under pretext of performing pilgrimage. The Koreishites opposed him in formidable numbers, and, after some negotiations a truce for ten years was concluded at Hodeibia, close to Mecca, one condition being that the Moslem pilgrimage should be postponed till the next year. This caused great discontent, which Mahomet tried to appease by calling the truce a victory \Kor. xlviii. ], seq.\ Soon after, a Jewess, whose relations had been slain in battle with the Moslems, set some poisoned meat before the Prophet; one of his companions died, and Mahomet himself, who only tasted a morsel, felt the effect to the day of his death. The next year [A.D. 629] he made the pilgrimage to Mecca, and many of his chief enemies in that city came over to him. But his forces shortly after suffered a severe defeat at Muta in Syria, in their first encounter with the Empire, on which the Koreishites broke the truce. Mahomet, with 10,000 men, marched on Mecca, which submitted with little resistance [A.D. 630], The Prophet entered the city, went at once to the Kaaba, and with the words, " T r u t h is come, let lies depart," ordered all the idols to be broken before his eyes. "With wise magnanimity he spared even bis bitterest opponents ; and, if they embraced his faith, loaded them S

Mahometans with honours and wealth. From Mecca he sent expeditions against the neighbouring tribes, and destroyed their idols. The next year, called the year of deputations, was marked by the submission of almost all the Arabic tribes. Henceforth the policy of intolerance and exclusiveness was proclaimed in all its rigour. Idolaters were forbidden to set foot in the Holy City of Mecca; they were to be destroyed whenever and wherever they were found. To Jews, Christians, Sabians, Magians (" The people of the Book"), was offered only the alternative, " the Koran, tribute, or the sword " [Kor. ix. 1-7, 29-35]. After the conquest of Mecca, Mahomet returned to Medina, his refuge in distress and poverty, where, notwithstanding his immense power, he continued to live the same ostentatiously simple life as before, mending his own clothes, and milking his own goats. I n 631 he led another expedition against the empire, which, partly through the faint-heartedness of some of his followers, partly from the privations of the long march, effected only the conversion of some border tribes. Mahomet was now past sixty years of age ; his health was broken by fatigues, mental and bodily, by the effects of his malady, his licentiousness, and the poison which had been administered to him. The last year of his life was troubled by pretenders, who, aware of his feeble health, hoped to seize his power. These, however, with the exception of Moseilama of Yemama, the most formidable, were crushed before his death. Mahomet, feeling his end approaching, made the pilgrimage to Mecca, which was conducted with unexampled splendour, in the spring of 632. Soon after his return to Medina he was attacked by a fever, and died after an illness of fourteen days on J u n e 8th, 632. He was buried in the house of his wife Ayesha, and almost on the spot where he had died. One daughter, Fatima, married to her cousin Ali, survived him. After Khadijah's death lie had sixteen wives and several concubines, but only one son was born to him, who died an infant. [For his person and habits, see Gagnier's Abulfeda, chaps. 65 and 66; Weil, 339-348 ; Irving, ch. 29 ; C. de Perceval, iii. 332-337 ; Sprenger (English), 84-94 ; Muir, ii. 28-31, iv. 302, seq.; Quart. Rev. cxxvii. 301-304.] The Mahometan biographers ascribe an immense number of miracles to their P r o p h e t ; but in this they contradict many passages of the Koran [vi. 32-37, 109, 1 2 4 ; vii. 92-98, &c.], from which it is plain that Mahomet, when appealed to, as he often was, for a miracle, referred his objectors to the Koran itself as a proof of his mission, and declares that even if a miracle were granted them they would not believe. The only wonder hinted at in the Koran is the journey to Jerusalem and the seventh heaven in one night, which was pretended, or was dreamt, to have taken place just before the Hegira. [Kor. xvii. 1. For the traditional account of this journey, see Irving, Life of Mahomet, chap, xii.; Taylor,/?/^. Mohammedanism, 367-379.] I t is difficult to decide how far Mahomet was sincere in his claim to be God's messenger, and to what extent he was a conscious deceiver. The theory that he was an impostor of the type of Joseph 274

Mahometans Smith [MORMONS] is in contradiction with his whole life and with the character of his system, as a real advance, religious and moral, upon Arabian heathenism. On the other hand his gross immorality in his dealings with his wives, his breaches of faith, such as the making war in the holy months, and the revelations published to sanction these crimes, his publishing as divine inspirations to himself legends which he had learnt from Jews and others, the opportuneness of so many revelations to suit his own wishes and plans, make it impossible to acquit him of imposture. The probable explanation is, that his earnestness and belief in his mission led him, as it has led many others, to look upon all his impulses, desires, and excuses, as coming from divine prompting [Möhler, Ueber das Verhältniss, &c., i. 368-370]. The nature of those impulses, especially towards the end of Mahomet's life, and the character and history of his religion as the greatest foe of Christianity, make it probable also that he was a special instrument in the hands of Satan [Muir, ii. 60. seq.~]. HISTORY OF MAHOMETANISM. Before entering in detail into this subject, it is necessary to describe the nature of Islam as a political power. Its peculiarity is the predominance, both in idea and in fact, of the religious element. The acquisition of political power is a religious principle. The whole social and civil fabric rests on the divine law. The State, therefore, is only the religious community in its unavoidable political relations. The head of the Church is ipso facto head of the State, and that because he is head of the Church. Hence, in theory, Islam forms only one community, under one head : there is no room for national distinctions ; every believer is a fellow countryman; only a Moslem can rule Moslems. The head of the one community is an absolute despot, spiritual and temporal, controlled only by the divine lawgiven to Mahomet. And as Islam claims to he the universal faith of mankind, that head is the lawful lord of the W'orld.1 The result of this theory was the establishment for a time of the mightiest empire which the world has ever seen. That empire was dismembered, not by national revolts from a foreign rule, but by disputes as to the lawful successor of the Prophet. Hence every rebel was a heretic also; orthodoxy and loyalty were identical: theological differences produced, or were produced by, political changes. [Döllinger, Muhammad's Religion, &c., 33-36; Freeman, Lectures on the Saracens, lect. iii.]

AstheProphet hadappointed nosuccessor, onhis death there was much disputing, and some danger of a schism. Finally, Abu-Bekr, whom Mahomet had seemed on several occasions to point out for the office, was generally accepted. He took the title of Caliph (properly Khalif, "Successor"). On the news of Mahomet's death, almost all Arabia revolted, but after a short and bloody struggle was finally subdued. Abu-Bekr [A.D. 632-634] bequeathed his office to Omar [634-644], who 1 The Sultan of Turkey, in his official titles, still makes this claim.

Mahometans named six of Mahomet's companions to appoint Iris successor. They, passing oyer Ali, appointed Othman [A.D. 644-656], under whom the primitive simplicity of Ms predecessors began to be exchanged for luxury and corruption. He was murdered in the mosque at Medina, having provoked a rebellion by his partiality and injustice. Ali [A.D. 656-661] succeeded him; but, encouraged by his unpopularity, Moawiyah, son of Abu-Sophian, of the family of the Omniiads, claimed the caliphate, and in a campaign against him Ali was murdered. His weak and gentle son, Hassan, was in six months compelled to resign in favour of Moawiyah [A.D. 661-680], who removed the seat of power to Damascus, and made the caliphate hereditary. On his death, many Moslems refused to acknowledge his son Yezid, advocating the claims of Ali's family : hence arose the sect of the Shiites. Hosein, son of Ali, grandson of the Prophet, tried to raise a rebellion, but was defeated and slain on the plain of Kerbcla [A.D. 680]. Several civil wars followed, during which the holy cities of Mecca and Medina were twice stormed, and the Kaaba was much damaged. Under the Ommiads the caliphate became little more than an ordinary Eastern despotism. I n A.D. 750, after a fierce war, the caliphate was transferred to the Abbasides, descendants of Mahomet's uncle Abbas, whereon the now vast empire began to be dismembered. Abderrahman, an Ommiad, established a caliphate in Spain [A.D. 755-1030], Different dynasties, nominally subject to the caliph, really independent, occupied outlying provinces—the Aglabites, in Tripoli and Tunis [A.D. 800], the Edrisites, in the west of Barbary [A.D. 808], the Taherites, in Khorassan [A.D. 820], and others, A third (the Fatimite) caliphate was established in Egypt [A.D. 908-1168] by Moham mad-al-Merdi, who professed to be descended from the Prophet. One of this line, Al-Hakim [A.D. 996-1020], claimed divine honours as an emanation of the Deity, and is still worshipped by the Druses. The name of Al-Mostanser was '[A.D. 1055], by order of the Emir-al-Oinra, substituted for that of the .Abbaside caliph in the prayers of the mosques in Bagdad. Against Mustali, who had captured Jerusalem [A.D. 109 6], the first crusade was directed. The Fatimites were finally [A.D. 1168] overthrown by Saladin. The rival caliphs were constantly at war, and did not scruple to use the aid of infidels against each other. In 762 the Abbaside Al-Mansor removed the seat of the caliphate to Bagdad. The Abbaside caliphs were great patrons of science and literature, but by their luxury and extravagance hastened the decline of the caliphate. I n the middle of the ninth century, the Caliph Al-Motassem formed a bodyguard of Turkish slaves, who soon were able to dispose of the throne at will among the Abbaside family. From this time the caliphs of Bagdad, though venerated in their spiritual capacity, had little temporal power beyond Bagdad and its neighbourhood. They became mere puppets in the hands of a new officer, the Emir-alOmra, " Commander of Commanders." Finally [A.D. 1258], the Mongols took Bagdad and slew the last caliph, Al-Mostassem. A person claiming 275

Mahometans to be his uncle fled to Egypt, where he and his successors were recognised as spiritual powers, being found by Mahometan rulers to be useful instruments. The last of them [A.D. 1377] ceded his claims to Selim the Terrible, Sultan of the Ottomans, whose successors have since that time been regarded by orthodox Moslems as the rightf u l caliphs. The detailed history of the Mahometan conquests and empire must be left to strictly historical works; 1 a brief summary will suffice. The Saracens 2 —so the Arabs were known to the West,—in little more than a century [A.D. 650750], in spite of two repulses from Constantinople [A.D. 668-675 and 717-718], and the great defeat of Tours [A.D. 732], conquered Syria, Persia, and Western Asia to the Oxus, Egypt, almost all Africa and Spain. BetweenA.D. 750-1050,owingtotherevival of the Eastern Empire, the decline of the caliphate, and internal dissensions, the Moslem arms were on the whole stationary or retrograding. Crete [A.D. 823], however, and Sicily [A.D. 827-878] were conquered, and even Rome was sacked from the sea [A.D. 846]. In Asia Mahmoud of Ghizni [A.D. 9971028] won Transoxiana and Cabul, and introduced Islam into India. The revival of military zeal, under the Seljukian Turks [eleventh century], who took the place of the now worn-out Saracens, was checked by the Crusades [A.D. 1095-1270] in the West and the Mongol ravages in the East. At the end of the thirteenth century, Islam was at its lowest ebb, ruling only in Egypt, part of Syria,, part of Hindostán, and Spain. But in 1299 the Ottoman Empire began its great career. I t established itself in Europe [A.D. 1353], subdued Thrace [A.D. 1354], and the remainsof the Byzantine possessions in Asia [A.D. 1390]. The defeat and captare of Bajazet by Tamerlane [A.D. 14021 scarcely checked their course. Bosnia [A.D. 1415], Wallachia [A.D. 1418], were subdued ; and after several attempts Constantinople was taken by Mahomet II.,and the Eastern Empire destroyed [A.D. 1453], On the other hand the Saracens were finally expelled from Spain[A.D. 1492], Moldavia[.\.D. 1456],Servia, the Morea, Albania [A.D. 1466], the Crimea [A.D. 1475], Rhodes [A.D. 1522], most of Hungary [A.D. 1550], Croatia [A.D. 1537], Transylvania [A.D. 1552], were successively subdued. Germany wag twice invaded [ A. D. 1529,1532], Italy was ravaged [A. D. 15 43], and s c veral great vie tories were gained at sea. From about A.D. 1550,owingtothegreatnavaldefeatat Lepanto, a wearing struggle with Persia, and internal dissensions, the Ottoman power declined; yet Cyprus A.D.

1573" Crete ~ ~ [A.D. 1669], and" part of Poland [A.D. 1676 , were added to their dominions. I n 1678came the first straggle with Russia; and the utter rout of 1 See especially Gibbon, Decline and Fall, chapa. 51 to end ; Finlay, Byzantine. Empire ; Ockley, Hist, of Saracens ; Washington Irving, Lives of the Successors of Mahomet; E. A. Freeman, Lectures on the Saracens; "Weil, Geschichte der Chalifen ; J. H. Newman, Lectures on the Turks; Creasy, Hist. Ottoman Turks; Von Hammer, Geschichte des Osmanischen Meiches. 2 This name, originally that of a small tribe of ArabiaFelix, is derived from Zara, Sara, "thedesert,"Sarrik, " a robber," or Sharkioun, "Eastern" [Smith, Diet. Anc. Geogr. Saracens, ii. 204 ; Gibbon, ed. Smith, vi. 204, notes 30 and a ; Pococke, Spec. 33-35].

Mahometans the Turks before Vienna [A.D. 1683], finally overthrew their military ascendancy : by the end of the century theOttonian power was completely broken. The Turks have gradually been stripped of almost all their European provinces, and their wars have been almost wholly defensive. The effects of the Mahometan conquests on the religion of the conquered have been very various. In Christian countries where the Moslem power has not been lasting, as in Spain, Sicily, and those parts of Eastern Europe conquered by the Turks, no trace of them is left except buildings and some popular customs and superstitions. But where their dominion has endured, as in Western Asia and Northern Africa, Christianity, once supreme, has now almost perished. This has been caused partly by individual conversions—for no Christian population, except perhaps that of Crete, has ever in a body apostatized—but mainly by the substitution of a Moslem for a Christian population. Baptism and the teaching of Christianity were forbidden; Christian women were forced into the harems of Mahometans; Christian children were forcibly brought up as Moslems; indignities, burdensome taxes, and personal duties, were imposed on Christians; from time to time violent persecutions took place. Moreover, in many countries heresy largely prevailed, which is unable to furnish any firm ground of faith. Heretics frequently invited or combined with Mahometans for the sake of overthrowing their orthodox rivals. [Egypt: Lane, ii. 276; Gibbon, vi. 332, 428. Syria and North Africa : Einlay, Byzantine Empire, i. 159. Asia Minor : ib. i. 198]. One remarkable effect of the Mahometan spirit of conquest must be noticed. As it attacked Christianity as a religion, at first defence, and subsequently reprisals on the part of the Church became a religious duty. The unwarlike spirit of the early Church entirely passed away; and in its stead appeared that military Christianity which is so conspicuous in the history of-the Crusades [Milman, Lat. dir. ii. 220222 ; Lecky, Hist. Europ. Morals, ii. 262-268], In heathen countries, the inhabitants usually embraced, after a longer or shorter time, the Moslem faith. Persia since its first conquest has undergone many vicissitudes between heathenism (under the Mongols), Sonnism, and Shiism, which is now the national faith, and has becomo in many points assimilated to the ancient Magianism. In India, during the Moslem dominion, Islam was confined to the ruling classes at the various courts, and found little acceptance with the natives. The Emperor Akbar discarded Mahometan peculiarities, and was a simple Deist. In many points Islam has approximated to Brahmanism. Persecution has done its work here also, even in modern times, especially by Tippoo Saib of Mysore [Dollinger, 15, 16]. The sword and persecution have ever been the chief means of propagating Islam; no missionary organization has at any time existed, and individual efforts for voluntary conversion have been rare and accidental. Yet instances are frequent—the Turks [eleventh century], the Mongols [thirteenth century]—of whole heathen 276

Mahometans nations brought in contact with Mahometans having voluntarily accepted Islam. Astonishing progress has been made by it for many years past in Central Africa; while in China and the Asiatic Islands it has made many converts [Dollinger, Muhammad's Religion, &c. 16-20; Mohler, Ueber das Verhaltniss, &c. i. 386]. The causes of the success and rapid extension of Islam may be thus summarized :— [1.] The great power over nomadic and Eastern races—as were the Saracens and Turks—of Mahomet's personal character and religion. Even in his faults he nearly corresponds with their ideal, and his religioii suits their habits and ways of thought. [2.] Extension by the sword, as a religious principle, together with the intense and burning religious zeal of the Mahometans, fanned by hopes of immediate bliss, sensual or spiritual, to suit different temperaments, to those who died fighting for the faith. [3.] Want of religious depth and earnestness among the Christians to whom Islam was opposed. In early times, this was in great measure the result of widespread heresy, which weakened faith, caused indifference through weariness of controversy, and created numerous divisions and discords; in later times, of discords between the Roman and Eastern Churches, and Protestants. Christendom was divided; Mahometanism was, at the time of its successes, absolute unity, spiritual and temporal. [4.] The outward character presented by Mahometanism. The permission in this life, and promise in the next, of sensuality influenced low and coarse minds; asceticism in the long and strict fast, regular prayers and ablutions, almsgiving, abstinence from intoxicating liquors, and other burdensome precepts, and a generally austere and scrupulous spirit, suited higher characters. [See Hallam, Middle Ages, ii. 117, ed. >872.] [5.] The inward truth in the religion, namely, the intense acknowledgment of God's sole supremacy, hatred of idolatry, and of everything that trenched upon His prerogatives. [6.] The military skill and wise policy of both Saracens and Turks in dealing with Christians, and the consequent strength of their government as opposed to the weakness and discords among Christian powers. The cause of Mahometan decline is mainly that Islam is especially a religion for nomad and half-nomad races; hence when they settle they lose their strength, which arises from their nomadic life, and their religion loses its purity and power. They degenerate, become luxurious and inactive ; internal dissensions and divisions arise; the same doctrines {e.g. fatalism) that strengthened them in their success weaken them in their depression. Moreover, the opposition to progress innate in Islam tends to keep Mahometan nations stationary, while Christian powers advance in power and wealth. A U T H O R I T A T I V E S O U R C E S OP DOCTRINE. These are the Koran and the Sonna. [1.] The Koran consists of the revelations which Mahomet professed to receive from time

Mahometans to time, either directly from God or through the Angel Gabriel, The name Koran (lit. "that which is read " or " that which ought to he read ") is applied both to the whole work and to any part of it. It has many other titles with the Mahometans : A1 Eorkan, " Liberation," " Deliverance," hence " Illumination," " Revelation ;" A1 Moshaf, " T h e Volume;" A1 K M b , " T h e Book;" A1 Dhikr, " T h e Admonition." It is divided into 114 Chapters ("Suras," "rows, primarily of bricks in a wall," thence " a line " of writing). Each chapter is divided into verses (Ayat, " signs," " wonders"), which, vary slightly in different editions. Both suras and verses are of very different lengths, the suras having from three to 286 verses, the verses being from one to nearly twenty lines. Each sura has its title, taken either from some subject treated or some person mentioned in it, or from some important word, often in the middle or near the end of the sura. Some suras have two titles; some verses have also titles of their own. iiext to the title comes the mention of the place where, according to tradition, the sura was revealed—Mecca, Medina, or partly at Mecca, partly at Medina. To every sura but the ninth is prefixed the form of blessing, " In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful." This blessing is often called " Bismillah," from the first word in the Arabic. It is used at the beginning of all books and public documents, before meals and other actions, and is constantly on the lips of Mahometans. As Mahomet thought expedient, he recited each revelation to those who happened to be present, one or more of whom usually committed it to writing, on palm leaves, leather, stones, mutton-bones, or any rude material which might be at hand. After the Hegira, the Prophet had regular secretaries always in attendance on him. Mahomet professed to recite each passage immediately on receiving i t ; in fact, most of them were carefully elaborated in private before they were published. "When the passages were taken down, some few copied them, but most learnt them by heart, as Mahomet wished his words to " live in men's hearts." I t is said that at the Prophet's death a few persons could repeat the whole Koran. Two years after, many of those who knew the Koran were slain in the campaign against Moseilama ; whereon Abu-Bekr, fearing the loss of some of it, commissioned Zeid ibn Thabit of Medina, one of Mahomet's secretaries, to collect and arrange the fragments; he is said to have gathered the text from "date leaves and tablets of white stone, and from the breasts of men." Apparently few or no copies of this recension were made, for in A.D. 652, the Caliph Otliman, learning that there were important variations in the existing texts and in the recital of the Koran by different persons, commissioned the same Zeid ibn Thabit, aided by three Koreishites, to make a new revision. Several copies were sent to the chief military stations, and all others were destroyed by the caliph's command. This recension of Othman has come down to us almost unaltered. 277

Mahometans The greatest care has been exercised in maintaining the text pure; hence there are very few various readings, and those mostly confined to the differences in the vowel points and diacritical signs, which did not exist in Othman's time. There is good reason for believing that the first recension under Abu-Bekr contained the Koran as taken down from the Prophet's lips, with doubtless some omissions, but without important falsifications or interpolations; and that Othman's revision—that is, the present text—faithfully reproduces that recension. The Koran is composed absolutely without any arrangement or system whatsoever. I t has neither beginning, middle, nor end ; it is a gathering of irregular scraps indiscriminately put together. Zeid ibn Thabit seems to have arranged the suras in their present order, putting the opening prayer at the beginning, and the rest like the pipes of an organ, the longest first. The division into suras is, in a great measure, due to Mahomet himself. To suit his own purposes and the needs of his community, while at Medina, he seems to have arranged his revelations, by mixing up those of different dates and on different subjects all in a chaos. Hence in the same sura the most discordant matters are treated, the writer passing abruptly from one to another without the slightest transition. Of modern authors no two agree as to the chronological order of the different parts. Numberless volumes have been written by Mahometan theologians to point out the connection and train of thought. "Detailed injunctions of things allowed and forbidden, legendary stories of Jewish and Christian religion, amplifications of all kinds, boundless tautologies and repetitions, form the body of this sacred volume" [Goethe, quoted in Quart. Rev. cxxvii. 348]. Few of the legends are repeated less than twice, some of them eight or ten times. Descriptions of the last day, judgment, hell, paradise, form nearly one-sixth of the whole. Many of the repetitions are to be ascribed to the redactors, who accepted and incorporated all that proceeded from Mahomet, even although it might have been superseded by later utterances. We have, more than once, several drafts of the same passage [comp. Kor. lxxxiv. 1-5; lxxxii. 1-5; lxxxi. 1-14], In spite, therefore, of many passages of striking power and grandeur, of much vigour and beauty of description, of moral sentiments tersely and keenly expressed; in spite, too, of the deep earnestness of conviction, the real devotion and piety that pervades the Koran, it is to an English reader dreary, monotonous, tedious, and dull. But no work suffers so much from a translation, however masterly, because its beauties consist mainly in its rhythm and diction. There are no less than an hundred names for the last day, and as many epithets of God. Moreover, it was intended not for reading, but for chanting, or recitation; hence, almost throughout runs a kind of continuous rhyme, to which the sense is frequently sacrificed, often very striking, which no translation can exactly reproduce. Three stages may be recognised in the compo-

Mahometans eition of the Koran. [1.] The period of early struggles, marked by a higher poetical spirit, an appreciation of the beauties of nature, more intense feeling and earnestness. [2.] The period of controversy and the formation of doctrine, shewing a more prosaic and didactic style, with frequent repetitions of histories and legends- [3.] Period of power, of legislation, moral and ecclesiastical, indicated by a more dogmatic and commanding tone, and comparative freedom from histories and legends. Yet, even to the last, there come at times grand and wild poetic utterances, like those of the first period. A certain unity of style runs through the whole. A special peculiarity of the Koran is, that every word is ascribed to God speaking to Mahomet; in order to mark this, the word " say" is prefixed to the didactic portions [see e.g. Kor. cxii. 1], The orthodox Mahometans hold that the Koran is divine and uncreated; that the first transcript has existed from everlasting beneath the throne of God, written on a tablet of vast size, called " The Preserved Tablet," which contains also the divine decrees, past and future. A copy from this tablet, in a single paper volume, bound in silk and ornamented with gems, was, on the " Night of Power" [Kor. xcvii. 1], in the month Ramadhan, sent down by the hands of Gabriel to the lowest heaven, whence the Archangel revealed it to Mahomet in portions, as occasion arose, shewing the whole volume to the Prophet once a year [Pococke, Spec. Hist. Arab. 222, tseq.; D'Herbelot, B. 0. art. Alcoran]. The most extravagant language is used in its praise. Mahomet himself appeals to its surpassing excellence in proof of his mission [Kor. ii. 2 1 ; iv. 8 4 ; xi. 1 6 ; xvii. 90 ; xlvi. 2-7, &c.], and this has been a favourite argument with his followers. A living Mahometan writer heads a subdivision of an essay, " That the perfection of the Koran proves its divine origin" [Syed Ahmed, On the Holy Koran, 35], in which we read, " W e boldly and confidently assert, in the face of all our antagonists, that a like unto it has never been, and never will be produced" [ibid. 36], To explain the various contradictions and discrepancies, they put forth the doctrine of abrogation [Kor. ii. 100; xvi. 103], that God cancelled some verses arid supplied them by others: 225 verses of the present text are said to be abrogated. The Koran is with the Mahometans not only all that the Bible is to Christians, but also their code of law and jurisprudence, and to a great extent also their Book of Common Prayer. They hold it to contain, implicitly or explicitly, all knowledge. They treat it with the utmost reverence, being very careful so to hold or hang it that it may not be below the girdle; no other book is ever put on the top of i t ; no Moslem may touch it unless he is legally pure; it may not be printed, for fear of something unclean in the ink, paper, or printer; it may not be sold to, or even touched by, an unbeliever; they use it, the whole, or separate verses, as an amulet or charm; they consult it and divine by it on all important occasions.

Mahometans [2.] The Soma (lit. "custom"). The second authoritative source of doctrine is an amplification and explanation of the Koran. I t consists of the sayings and doings of the Prophet, as handed down by tradition, put into writing, at the earliest at the end of the first century after the Hegira. The original purpose of the collectors of traditions was to supply materials for the decision of questions of doctrine, morals, law, and even of habits and customs, when the Koran is silent. The Sonna, therefore, chiefly deals with matters of practice. As Mahomet was an inspired prophet, all his deeds and words are regarded as prompted by God, and therefore as authoritative guides to his followers. Hence it became a regular business to collect all.statements about the Prophet that rested on credible authority. They were at first learnt by heart, and taught in lectures; afterwards, when the number increased to an enormous extent, they were brought into one form and put into writing. At first any professed traditions were accepted; at length, learned Moslems undertook to sift and criticise them. Hence the formation of the Six Canonical Collections, •which were composed between A.D. 870-930. There are also others of later date and inferior authority. The traditions are all cast in the same form. They are seldom more than ten lines long; each relates usually only to one fact, in the same style, and in the form of a dialogue. At the head of each is put the chain of witnesses (Isnad) on whose authority the tradition rests, beginning with the writer, and going up to some companion of the Prophet. This is of great importance, and is, with Mahometans, a test of the " soundness" of a tradition. They are on all possible subjects. A single specimen will suffice,— " Ibn Saad, from Wakidy, from Zakariya ibn Yahia ibn Yazid Saadi, from his father. The Prophet said, ' I speak purest Arabic; I am a Koreishite, and speak the dialect of the BanuSaad.'" Many of these traditions are spurious; those that relate to questions of law and morals have been of great advantage in enlarging and giving breadth to the narrowness of the Koran [Muir, I. xxviii.-cv.; Sprenger, i. 9-12, iii. lxvii.-civ.; Dollinger, 9-12]. DOCTRINES. On this subject it is important to bear in mind two points. [1.] According to Islam, revealed religion has the same extent as in the law of Moses, including civil and criminal laws, and also, to some degree, social habits. [2.] Islam, as professed, does not represent Mahomet's personal views at any period of his life. The Koran and the genuine traditions represent all the stages of belief and action through which the Prophet passed in twenty years; whereas all therein contained is of equal and absolute authority with Mahometans. Moreover, there are many accretions of later date, to supply felt deficiencies either in theology or jurisprudence; most of these accretions being derived from the same sources as the teaching of Mahomet, namely, Judaism and Christianity. The faith of Islam is summed up in the two articles:—" 1. There is no God but God. 2.

Mahometans Mahomet is the Prophet of God." Hence all the doctrines and ordinances taught or practised by the Prophet are of divine authority. Mahometan theologians divide their religion into two parts— Faith (Iman) and Practice (Din.) [A.] F A I T H is divided into six heads. 1. God. 2. His Angels. 3. His Scriptures. 4. His Prophets. 5. The Kesurrection and Day of Judgment. 6. God's absolute decree and predestination of good and evil. 1.] God is the creator and preserver of all things in heaven and earth, -without beginning or end, omnipotent, omniscient, omnipresent. Beyond all other attributes is that of absolute unity. Mahometanism teaches the sternest and strictest monotheism. Nothing exists but the Creator and the creation. The Creator is the only power, force, and act, in the universe; all things are effected at His will and by His passive ministers. Hence God is immeasurably above His creatures, who are but His tools. Angels, devils, jinn (or genii), all owe their being to Him, and are liable to death or extinction at His will. Thus Mahometanism is far removed on the one hand from Epicureanism, Pantheism, and idolatry; on the other, from the Christian doctrines of the Trinity and the Incarnation. Christians, and even Jews, because they hold Ezra to be the Son of God [Kor. ix. 30], are included with heathens as polytheists—those who pay divine honours to creatures. 2.] Angels are inferior to men, because they were bidden to worship Adam, and because Mahomet was a man. They are God's ministers and servants, free from sin, who praise God day and night, and are never weary of serving Him. They have pure and subtle bodies, created of an ethereal kind of fire or light; they have neither distinction of sexes nor carnal appetites, but differ in form, degree and duties. Some bear the throne of God ; others intercede for the faithful; others guide the affairs of earth, and help and guard the faithful; others watch over heaven, others preside over hell; others bear away the soul at death ; two, one on the right hand, one on the left of each living person, record his good and evil deeds respectively; two shall bear each soul to judgment. The four most important angels are—Gabriel, their chief, the angel of revelations, declared to be identical with the Holy Ghost; Michael, the friend and protector of the Jews; Azrael, the angel of death; Izrafil, who shall sound the trumpet on the resurrection-day. One of the angels was called Azazil. Refusing God's command to worship Adam at his creation, he was cursed, and lost his high position ; hence he became Iblis [Atá/JoAos], or Satan, the enemy of God and man. Besides angels there are also Jinn (sing. Jinnee), a race inferior to angels, created before Adam, of fire. The jinn are both good and evil. The former accepted Islam, the latter rebelled against God, and refused to believe Islam; they are called Sheitans (Satans), Ifrits, or Merids. Of these Iblis is the lord, and, according to some, the father. These evil jinn, by listening at the doors of 279

Mahometans heaven, learn God's secrets, which they impart to soothsayers ; the angels drive them away with stones, i.e. shooting-stars. The jinn are of both sexes, propagate their species, sometimes with human beings, eat, drink, and are subject te death. They are generally invisible, but can assume various forms at pleasure. Many men, especially Solomon, have gained great power over the jinn. The doctrine of angels and jinn is derived mainly from Jewish tradition and Arabic belief, with a slight admixture of Christian notions [Geiger, Was hat Mohammad aus dem Judenthume avfgenommen, 83-85, 185; Sprenger, ii. 238-251; Eodwell and Sale, notes passim], 3.] Scriptures, or Divine Books. These have been in all 104, sent down by God to man ; ten to Adam, fifty to Seth, thirty to Idris (Enoch), ten to Abraham, one to Moses (the Law or Pentateuch), one to David (the Psalms), one to Jesus (the Gospel), one to Mahomet. Each of these abrogated the preceding, and confirmed that which followed. All are lost but the last four, of which all but the Koran have been misinterpreted and corrupted by the Jews and Christians; but yet some passages remain confirming the Koran and prophesying Mahomet. The whole Old Testament is regarded as sacred, but not so highly as the Psalms and Law. The following texts are quoted as referring to Mahomet:—Gen. xvii. 20, xxi. 13 ; Deut. xviii. 15, 18, compared with xxxiv. 10; xxxiii. 2; Hab. iii. 3. (Sinai = Judaism; Seir = Christianity; Paran = Islam). Cant. v. 10-16 (a description of Mahomet); Isa. xxi. 7 (Chariot of Camels, or, more literally (Yulg.), Eider upon a camel = Mahomet; chariot of asses, or rider upon an ass = Jesus); Hagg. ii. 7; Luke xxiv. -19; John i. 20-25 (that Prophet=Mahomet), xiv. 25, 26; xvi. 7 (HapaKX-qroi, a corruption of neptKAnTos=Mahomet) [Syed Ahmed, Essays, On the Prophecies respecting Mohammed, esp. pp. 9, 1 0 ; Pococke, Spec. Hist. Arabum, 17, seq.~\ 4.] Prophets. These are men sent down from God to teach mankind, all believing the same creed (Islam), honoured by communications from God, workers of miracles. Of these there have been, according to one tradition, 224,000, according to another, 124,000, of whom 313 have been ambassadors or apostles. Of these there are mentioned in the Koran, Adam, Abel, Seth, Idris (Enoch), Noah, Hud (identified by some with Heber), Abraham, Lot, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Moses, Aaron, Shoaib (the same as Reuel, Raguel, or Jethro, Moses' father-in-law), David, Solomon, Elijah, Elisha, Jonah, Job, Ezra. Yery curious and unscriptural legends are told of many of these, derived chiefly from Jewish tradition [Geiger, Was hat Mohammad, &c. 98-196], Erom the New Testament, Zachariah, John the Baptist, and Jesus, are named prophets in the Koran ; the accounts of these are derived from an heretical, apparently Ebionite or JudasoChristian, source. Besides these, there are mentioned also Lokman, Saleh, Arabian prophets; Dhulkifl, whose identity is disputed (Ezekiel, Obadiah [1 Kings xviii. 4], or Isaiah [Rodwell, 179]), and Dhulkarnain (Alexander the Great).

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5.] Resurrection and the Day of Judgment. Under tliis head it will be convenient to take the whole doctrine of the state of the soul after death. "VYhen a corpse has been laid in the tomb the soul returns to it for a short time,, and the deceased is then visited by two terrible angels, Mnnkar and Nekir, who question him concerning his faith. The wicked they will severely torture, but the good they will leave in peace. There are many opinions about the state of the soul of ordinary believers between death and the resurrection [Sale, P. D., § 4 ; or Lane, Mod. Egypt, ii. 269], The souls of prophets are admitted into paradise at once ; the souls of martyrs—those who die in battle against infidels—rest in the crops of green birds, which eat of the fruits and drink of the rivers of paradise. Many fearful signs will go before the resurrection, eclipses, earthquakes, wars, the coming of Antichrist (Dijjal), who will be defeated and slain by Jesus Christ. I t will he preceded by three blasts of the trumpet: at the first of which the universe will be shaken, the sea dried up, the mountains levelled, and the works of man destroyed; at the second, all living creatures, even angels and jinn, will be annihilated; only God and the dwellers in paradise and hell will remain. Forty years after will be sounded the blast of resurrection, when all will come to life again, will appear before God and be judged; their deeds shall be weighed in a balance, and as good or evil preponderates, so shall be the sentence. Xot only men but also brutes and jinn will be thus judged. After the judgment retribution will be exacted for every wrong and injury done to others. This being finished, all men will be led over the bridge Al-Sirat, which extends over the midst of hell, finer than a hair and sharper than a sword's edge, beset on both sides by briars and thorns. The good, led by Mahomet and the prophets, will pass safely over it into paradise; the wicked will fall into hell. In hell there are seven regions : the first of these is reserved for wicked Mahometans, who will only remain till their sins are expiated, and will then be admitted into paradise; the other six regions are assigned to those of other religions, who will be tortured for ever. The horrors of hell are very vividly described ; fear being, according to Mahometan doctors, the chief motive of morality. Between bell and paradise there is a partition (Al-Araf), or intermediate region, where those shall be placed whose good and evil deeds are equal. The descriptions of the joys of Paradise are very minute ; the reward of the blessed will consist chiefly in sensual enjoyments—most delicious meats and drinks, the society of each man's wives, and of the houries or girls of paradise. To enjoy these thoroughly they will live in perpetual youth. But these sensual delights will be little regarded by the most blessed, to whom it will be granted to see the face of God. Many Moslems hold that the descriptions of paradise are figurative : and it is worth notice that they were written when Mahomet had only one wife. Persons will be admitted to paradise, not by their own 280

merits, but simply by the mercy of Rod, through faith; but the happiness of each will be measured by his merits. To estimate these, sins are divided into those that deserve punishment in the next world and those whose penalty is inflicted during this life. Doctors differ in the assignment of particular sins to these categories [Palgrave, Arabia, 281-285, sm. ed.]. The doctrine of the future state is derived mainly from Jewish tradition, with an admixture of Christian and Parsee elements. 6.] Predestination. Every event has been absolutely predestined by God, and written from all eternity on the "Preserved Tablet." Hence each man's lot is irrevocably fixed—• how, and how long, he is to live, what his end will be, and no human care can vary or ward off God's decree. [B.] PRACTICE. This has four branches. 1. Prayer, including Purification. 2. Almsgiving. 3. Fasting. 4. Pilgrimage. 1.] Prayer and Purification. Purification is a necessary preparative for prayer, which will not be accepted from an unclean person. I t is of two kinds. The greater or extraordinary purification is of the whole body, to cleanse from certain ceremonial defilements. These defilements are nearly the same as those of the Jewish Law [Lev. xv.]. I t is also performed on the morning of Friday and of the great festivals. The lesser or ordinary purification takes place before the ordinary prayers, and on some other occasions ; it consists in washing the face, arms, elbows, feet, hands, mouth, nostrils, ears, feet, with prayers, and reciting sura 97 of the Koran. The prayers, &c., are often omitted [Lane, Mod. Egypt, i. 8-5-89]. When water cannot be procured, sand is allowed to be used. This relaxation occurs in the Talmud [Geiger, 89], Prayer is ordered to be made five times daily: [1] in the morning at daybreak and before sunrise; [2] just after noon, when the sun begins to decline; [3] in the afternoon, midway between noon and nightfall; [4] a few minutes after sunset; [5] at nightfall, when the evening has just shut in. Some add two other times, which are not imperative : [6] between sunrise and noon; [7] a little after midnight. The second and third and the fourth and fifth services may be kept together, thus making three prayers daily [Syed Ahmed, On the Religion of the PreIslamitic Arabs, 17]. The times of prayer are proclaimed by muezzins from the minarets of the mosque, in a sort of chant, with very striking effect. The prayers may be performed either at home or in the mosque. The worshipper always turns towards Mecca (the Kaaba); he adopts various attitudes. The worship consists of repeated ejaculations of the Takbir (Allah u Akbar, God is most great), Eaka, or inclinations, prayers and recitations from the Koran, especially suras iii., v. 256, cviii. cxii. cxiii. cxiv. The prayers are short forms, incessantly repeated, inelastic, inexpansive, with few ideas. The regular public service in the mosque takes place at noon on Friday, " t h e day of the assembly;" it is of the same nature as the private daily devotions, with tho

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addition of a sermon. Except on certain festivals women are not allowed to attend the public services, or to pray in the mosque. Intercession, "both for the living and the dead, forms a conspicuous part of the devotions. The prayers are all addressed to God; but the intercession of Mahomet and the saints is intreated. The Mahometans are very reverent and devout during their devotions, both private and public. 2.] Alms are of two kinds, those prescribed by the law, and those which are voluntary. The former were in early ages collected by officers appointed by the sovereign, and applied to pious uses ; their payment and application is now left to the conscience. The proportion to be given varies according to the kind of property from which it is given. 3.] Fasting. There is one obligatory fast in the year—the month of Eamadhan, because the Koran was given in that month. From the time the new moon appears to the next new moon, the Moslem is bidden to fast every day, from the time when one can distinguish plainly the white thread from the black—explained by some to mean the white and black streaks seen in the east before daybreak—until sunset. He must abstain during that time from eating, drinking, smoking, perfumes, and all sensual indulgences. There are some few exemptions, but those who are hindered by any temporary cause must fast an equal number of days in another month. This fast is kept with great strictness, and when Eamadhan falls in summer 1 it is most oppressive. The idea was probably derived from the Christian Lent. There are also some optional fasts, the most important being the Ashura, the 10th day of Moharram (1st month). This was in imitation of the Jewish day of Atonement; it was instituted as obligatory soon after the Hegira, when Mahomet was trying to win over the Jews, and was afterwards made optional. The same day is also kept in memory of the martyrdom of Hosein, the Prophet's grandson, at Kerbela. 4.] Pilgrimage. Every believer is bound once in his life, either in person and by another, whose expenses he pays, to make the pilgrimage to Mecca and Mount Arafat, unless prevented by poverty or ill-health. It takes place in the month Dzul-hajji. The ceremonies to be performed by pilgrims are very numerous and complicated; the chief of them are the wearing of the Ihram or sacred garment, consisting of two simple pieces of cloth wrapped round the loins and over the shoulder, compassing seven times the Kaaba or holy house of Mecca, kissing or touching each time the black stone, fabled to have fallen from heaven; a journey to Mount Arafat, about ten miles from Mecca, and the offering of victims (sheep, goats, kine, or camel). [For further particulars see Burckhardt, Travels in Arabia, vol. i.; Burton, A Pilgrimage to Mecca and El-Medinah; Sale, P. D., § 4.] The practice of pilgrimage and most of the customs connected therewith were borrowed from the heathen Arabs; but a fresh

meaning, connected with the legend that Abraham and Ishmael instituted the pilgrimage, was assigned to them. Pilgrimages are also often made to the tombs of saints, to pray for their intercession. Besides the above observances, all the Mahometans practise circumcision and wear beards. These customs, derived from the Arabs, are not mentioned in the Koran, their institution is ascribed to Abraham. [Syed Ahmed, Eel. of Pre-Islamitic Arabs, 8.] There are certain things forbidden by Islam— partly heathen practices, partly unclean meats, partly things likely to do harm. These are various superstitions about cattle, burying female children alive, divining by arrows, casting lots, gambling, usury, wine, and all intoxicating liquors and drugs (some add even coffee and tobacco), eating blood, swine's flesh, whatever dies of itself or is strangled, or killed by a blow or fall, or by another beast, or is slain in honour of an idol, or anything at the slaughtering of which the name of God has not been said.2 Some Moslems add many other meats to this list, being, with some exceptions, those forbidden by the law of Moses. War against all unbelievers, if they have been the aggressors, is enjoined as a sacred d u t y ; if not fighting for pay, those who are killed in it are regarded as martyrs. Of those enemies who, refusing to capitulate or surrender, are reduced by force of arms, the men may be killed or enslaved, and the women and children enslaved. Life and liberty may be granted them if they surrender and agree to pay a poll-tax, or embrace Islam. If they have acted treacherously they may be exterminated. I t has been a great question with Mahometan theologians when " religious war " (Jihad) is allowed or commanded [Hunter's Indian Musulmans, chap. iii.]. C I V I L AND CRIMINAL LAWS. The most important of these are the laws relating to marriage. A Moslem may not have at the same time more than four wives, who must all be free women and Moslems; but, in addition, he may keep any number of slave concubines [Kor. iv. 3; Lane, i. 122]. An unlimited power of divorce, without giving any reason, is allowed to the husband, and is fully taken advantage o f ; cases are mentioned of middleaged Mahometans who have had thirty, forty, or even fifty wives [Dollinger, 26]. A wife cannot obtain a divorce except for cruelty or neglect, and then she loses her dowry. A man may divorce his wife twice, and take her back without any ceremony ; but if he divorce her a third time, or pronounce a triple divorce in one sentence, and then wish to marry her again, she must be first married and divorced by another husband, who must have consummated the marriage. A divorced woman must wait three months, or, if pregnant, till she is delivered, before she can marry again. An adulteress is punished by stoning if detected; but there must be four eye witnesses of the deed, and a false accusation against any woman is punished by scourging. If a man have a child

1 The Mahometan year is lunar ; hence eaeli month goes through all the seasons in about thirty-two years.

2 Hence the Moslem butchers always say the " Bismillah" on slaughtering a beast.

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Mahometans

Mahometans

by a concubine, the child is free; the mother cannot afterwards be sold or given away, and on her master's death becomes free. The prohibited degrees are somewhat wide, and apply both to •wives and concubines. Women may not shew their faces to any man but their husbands and those within the prohibited degrees. Slavery is allowed, with almost absolute power to the owner. Por murder, manslaughter, and personal injuries, retaliation or satisfaction in money is prescribed. Theft is punished by loss of limbs, lesser crimes by scourging, apostasy or blasphemy by death. The laws of inheritance are very elaborate, the chief principles being the rejection of any privileges of primogeniture, and the assigning to a female half the share of the male of the same degree of relationship. RELATION TO JUDAISM AND CHRISTIANITY.

On

this point the Koran is inconsistent. In many passages [ii. 3, 59, 285; iv. 5 0 ; v. 5 3 ; vi. 0 2 ; x. 3 8 ; xlvi. 8-11, 29, &c.] the view is put forth that the Old and New Testaments and the teaching of Mahomet are identical, that all three are books sent down from God, equally sacred and to be obeyed, and the believers in each (with, in some passages [ii. 59; v. 73], the Sabians also) will be saved. In other later passages it is taught that Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, are successive revelations from God, confirming but superseding each other, Jesus being a greater Prophet than Moses, and Mahomet than Jesus, that the Jews were perverse and wicked in not accepting Christianity, and both Jews and Christians in not accepting Islam. Whenever opportunity offered, they were to be compelled to embrace it or pay tribute [Kor. ix. 28-35]. To support this view, which is that now held by Mahometans, it is constantly asserted that the Jewish and Christian Scriptures had been misinterpreted and falsified. This inconsistency is explained by the change in Mahomet's views, through which from the Prophet of Arabia only he proclaimed himself the Prophet of the World [Mohler, Ueber das Verhaltniss, &c., 361-385]. From Judaism is derived all that distinguishes Islam from pure Deism. Its local character—the Kaaba standing in somewhat the same relation to Islam as the Temple to Judaism—its strong religious and national unity, its conception of the nature of a divine revelation, as prescribing not only principles, but detailed laws, and even habits and customs, many theological notions, moral and ritual, civil and criminal laws, and a very large portion of the substance of the Koran, are of Jewish origin. But frequent errors and confusions [see e.g. Kor. ii. 250], numerous coincidences, verbal and in matters of fact, with the Talmud, prove that Mahomet's knowledge of Judaism was obtained not from the Scriptures, or any written document, but from oral ti'adition. I t is doubtful, indeed, whether he could read. Christianity, known to Mahomet in a similar way, evidently in great part from an heretical source, though theoretically superior to Judaism, 1 had little real influence on his teaching. 1 For evidence that Mahomet made large and dishonest use of the sacred books of the Sabians and Hanifs, " the

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The doctrine of the Trinity [supposed to consist of the Father, Jesus, and Mary; iv. 169; v. 7679], and of the Sonship of Jesus, is repeatedly and vehemently attacked. The Holy Ghost is identified with the angel Gabriel. Yet Jesus is set forth as the Word of God, and a spirit proceeding from Him, as the greatest Prophet before Mahomet, conceived miraculously of a pure virgin. 2 Mary or Miriam, the daughter of Amram and sister of Aaron [Kor. iii. 3 3 ; xix. 23]. Stories are told of Him which appear also in the Apocryphal Gospels [Kor. iii. 40, 41]; and finally, when the Jews wished to crucify Him, God rescued Him, and substituted another person in His place \_Kor. iii. 4 8 ; iv. 156], while He died a natural death. But He will appear again at the last day and destroy Antichrist. Baptism and the Holy Eucharist are barely alluded to [ii. 132; v. 112-115], OTHER CHARACTERISTICS. There are several festivals kept by the Moslems. The first ten days of Moharram, the first month of the year, are considered as eminently blessed, and are kept with rejoicing. Many are in the habit of giving alms on this day. The tenth Moharram, as already mentioned, is kept by some as a fast, and by all is held sacred, as the day on which the Prophet's grandson, Hosein, was slain on the plain of Kerbela. I t is a great day with some orders of dervishes. From the third to the twelfth of E a b i a l . (the third month), the Prophet's birthday is kept with decorations and great rejoicing, and with chanting the Koran and hymns in honour of Mahomet. The eve of the twenty-seventh Rajib (the seventh month), is a festival in honour of the " Miraj "—the Prophet's journey to heaven. The eve of the fifteenth Shaban (the eighth month), is kept with solemn reverence as the day on which each person's fate for the year is determined. A special form of prayer is used on this night, either at home or in the mosques. The two chief festivals are called the two Ids, and by the Turks, the two Bairams. The lesser Bairam, or Id-alFitr (feast of the breaking of the fast), is immediately after the fast of Pamadhan, on the first three days of Shawal (tenth month). The greater Bairam, Id-al-Kurban, or Id-al-Adha (the feast of the sacrifice), begins the tenth Dzul-Hajjeh, the last month of the year, on Avhich day, that on which the pilgrims at Mecca offer sacrifice, animals are sacrificed, and the meat given to the poor. Both feasts are kept with general rejoicing and special public prayers. Moslems also visit the tombs of their relations, and have part or all of the Koran recited there. There are many festivals kept in honour of the birthdays of saints or " Welis," especially of near relatives of the Prophet. Very great and superstitious reverence, unauthorized by the Koran or traditions, is paid to saints. In fact, Mahomet and the saints are put almost on an equality with God. Over the graves of the most celebrated saints mosques are erected; and over all, a small building, which is Rolls of Abraham and Moses," " t h e oldest rolls," &e., see Sprenger's Life of Mohammad, i. 53, seq. ; for Mahomet's instructors, the same, ii. 348-390. 2 The Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mar}' is hinted at in Kor. iii. 31, 37.

Mahometans held sacred. These sanctuaries are visited to pay honour to the saint, or to obtain his intercession with God for some "benefit to the devotee. On these occasions prayers are said, parts of the Koran are recited, and votive offerings made. Marriages are performed in private, with prayers, pious ejaculations, and recitations of the Koran. At burials there is a service in the mosque, and sometimes a sacrifice is offered at the grave. Islam has no priesthood, nor even a regular order of ministers. The Imams who usually lead the public services and preach, generally have other occupations; any competent person may take their place; they may be dismissed from their office, and then lose their title ; they have no religious authority, and no official respect. The sacrifices are simply commemorative; any person may slay the victims. The Ulemas of Constantinople are a corporation of men learned in theology and jurisprudence, who give decisions in cases of conscience, law and religion and public policy; their sentence (Fetwa) has great weight. Muftis, or Doctors of Law and Theology, are numerous and much respected; the concurrence of the doctors makes with strict Moslems an article of faith. Orders or societies of persons uniting for devotional purposes are very numerous. The members of them are called Dervishes. Some of their devotional practices are very strange. Many of them give themselves up to an ascetic life, and live on alms; these are sometimes called Fakirs, and receive much reverence. Both the strange devotions and asceticism are the results chiefly of widespread Pantheism (Sufiism) among Mahometans, though this theory is utterly at variance with the principles of Islam [Taylor's Hist. Mohamm. ch. 1 3 ; Dollinger, 70-79; Lane, i. 3043 1 1 ; ii. 151-154, 168-182, 187-190]. Religious Sects among the Mahometans are almost countless. The orthodox, or Sonnites, are divided into four sects, named, after their founders, Hanifites, Malekites, Shafeites, and Hanbalites, who differ in some unimportant points of ritual and Koranic interpretation. Of the heretical sects, the most important are the Shiites, who reject the first three caliphs as usurpers, holding Ali, and the Imams, his descendants, to be the lawful successors of Mahomet. They also reject the Sonna, accepting in its place four collections of traditions of their own. Shiism is the established religion of Persia, where it has adopted some peculiarities of Zoroastrianism. There are several sects of Shiites, some of whom hold the Imams to be incarnations of God. The Sufies, who are mystic pantheists, have been mentioned. The Babs, a recent sect in Persia, have mixed Christian and Magian doctrines with Islam. The Wahabees, founded by Abd-al-"Wahb (died 1787), accept only the Koran and Sonna, and desire to purify Islam from, superstitious accretions, saintworship, &c. They have founded a great power in Central Arabia, and have caused much trouble in India by preaching the duty of war against infidels. They call orthodox Moslems, with Christians and idolaters, polytheists. Many sects differ only in abstruse points regarding God's 283

Mahometans attributes and predestination, the eternity of tho Koran, &c. [See Pococke, Spec. Hist. Arabum, 26, 27, 199-327; D'Herbelot, B. 0., under the different names; Sale, P. D., § 8; Dollinger, 80-133.] The effects of Mahometanism, as shewn in life and character, must be briefly noticed. The minuteness of the ritual and the social rules, together with the hardness and coldness of the morality taught, produces a great amount of formalism. The name of God and pious ejaculations are constantly on the lips, even in the midst of the most indecent conversation. Mahometans often say the " Bismillah" before committing a crime [Sprenger, ii. 206]. Hence the most scrupulous observance of outward duties is not unfrequently united with the grossest habitual immorality and crime [Dollinger, 26-29]; religion and morality seem completely sundered. Another great evil results from the minuteness of the laws concerning marriage and divorce. Many volumes have been written to explain them, entering into the closest and most disgusting details, forming " a mass of corruption, poisoning the mind and morals of every Mahometan student" [Muir, iii. 302], and utterly defiling the very language. Hence arises the prevalence not only of most indecent language and conduct, but also of extreme profligacy among both sexes. Unnatural vice is fearfully common. The pictures of the sensual joys of paradise contribute in some degree to this profligacy; these come to be the chief object of their thoughts, and are anticipated, so far as possible, on earth. The doctrine of predestination, or rather fatalism, produces extreme apathy and want of energy in action ; while the notion that all Mahometans are God's chosen in a special sense, though causing a deep brotherly feeling among themselves, which is fostered by the precepts on almsgiving, leads them to abitter contempt andhatred for all other religions. I t remains to sum up the good and evil sides of Mahometanism. On the one hand, it is a rigid foe to idolatry, as it teaches the unity, perfection, providence and government of God, and hence submission and resignation to His will, together with the great doctrine of a judgment and eternal retribution. It inculcates, moreover, brotherly love and union with fellow-believers, and many social virtues, with almsgiving, temperance, and a certain standard of morality. On the other hand, it perpetuates the great evils of the East—polygamy, slavery, and absolute despotism; it opposes all political and social progress, while the semicivilized a r b i t r a l character of its law and justice renders property insecure. Its doctrine of propagation by the sword leads to constant wars and rebellions, with an utter contempt for human life. I t is, in fact, a semi-barbarous religion. On its religious side it fails to satisfy the natural longing for some mediation between God and man, while yet it bows before God as an irresistible Power; its morality, in itself defective, is dry, cold, hard, lifeless, without any amiable traits; and, finally, as substituting Mahomet for Christ, it is essentially antichristian. While it may be an advance on heathenism, it is an advance which almost excludes the further advance of

Majorini Pars

Malebranche

Christianity, missionary efforts being almost without result. [Abulfeda, de Vita et Relus G'estis Mohammedis (an Arabic writer of fourteenth century), ed. et trans. Gagnier, Oxford, 1723. Maracei, A1coram textus universus, Pavia, 1698. Dr. G. Weil, Mohammed der Prophet, sein Leben und seine Lehre. Id., Einleitung in den Koran. Washington Irving, Life of Mahomet. Caussin de Perceval, Essai sur l'Histoire des Arabes. Sir W . Muir, Life of Mahomet. Dr. A. Sprenger, Life of Mohammed (in English), part i., Allahabad, 1851. Das Leben und die Lehre des Mohammad, 2d ed., Berlin, 1869. Carlyle, Heroes and Hero Worship. Syed Ahmed Khan Bahadoor, C.S.I., A Series of Essays on the Life of Mohammed, and subjects subsidiary thereto, vol. i., London, 1870 (each Essay is paged separately). Sale, The Koran, translated, with notes and a Preliminary Discourse. Lane, Selections from, the Kur-an. Rev. J. M. Rodwell, The Koran, translated, with a preface and notes. T. Nöldeke, Geschichte des Qorans. Forster, Mahometanism Unveiled. A. Geiger, Was hat Mohammed aus dem Judenthume aufgenommen. H. H. Milman, Hist. Lat. Christianity, 4th ed. 1867. J. M. Neale, History of the Holy Eastern Church. A. P. Stanley, Lectures on the Eastern Church, 4th ed. W. C. Taylor, History of Mohammedanism. D'Herbelot, Bibliothèque Orientale. Pococke, Specimen Historice Arabum, Oxford, 1806. Reland, de Religione Mohammedicâ. J . G. Cazenove, Mahometanism, reprinted from the Christian Remembrancer, Jan. 1855. Möhler, Ueber das Verhältniss des Islams zum Evangelhim, in his Gesammelte Schriften und Aufsätze, i. 348-402. Döllinger, Muhammed's Religion nach ihrer inneren Entwicklung. Lane, The Modern Egyptians, 5th ed. 1871. F. B. Zincke, Egypt of the Pharaohs and of the Khedivê. W. W . Hunter, The Indian Musalmans, 2d ed. 1872. Articles in the North British Review, Jan. 1855, Aug. 1855 ; Quarterly Review, Oct. 1869, vol. exxvii. 293-356 ; British Quarterly Review, Jan. 1872, vol. lv. 100-135.]

lers." A colony of about three thousand Malakanes were settled in the earlier part of this century in the Crimea, where they were visited by Baron Haxthausen [A.D. 1843], who discovered that, among various erroneous points, they rejected the necessity of Baptism and the Holy Eucharist, as well as the lesser sacraments, explaining away the words which refer to material elements by a spiritualizing interpretation. This sect, composed of the lowest and most illiterate peasants, was imposed upon [A.D. 1833] by a certain Terenti Belioreff, who, claiming to be the Elias, announced the advent of the Millennium within thirty months, the immediate cessation of all business, and the community of goods. He then summoned them in large numbers to witness his ascent to heaven like Elijah, but when, upon making the attempt, he fell to the earth instead, he was seized as an impostor and a disturber of the peace, and sent to prison, where he shortly died. Many of his followers, to avoid persecution, emigrated to Georgia, where they are said to be still awaiting the promised Millennium. The following extracts from their Confession of Eaith will shew that, unlike most Eussian sects, this one was much akin to modern forms of Protestantism.

Of Baptism : " Paul says, Christ did not send me to baptize but to preach: we, therefore, understand by the Sacrament of Baptism, not the earthly water, but the spiritual cleansing of our souls from sin in faith, and the destruction of the old Adam within us, with all his works, that we may become clothed anew with a true and perfect life." Of the Ministry: " W e have a bishop and high-priest in the person of Christ alone, Who has called us all alike." [Haxthausen, Stvdien uber Russland, Hanover, 1847.] MALEBRANCHE. Nicholas Malebranche [A.D. 1638-1715] was born at Paris, and was afflicted from his birth with deformity and disease. His theological studies were pursued at the Sorbonne, where he read Eusebius and the other ecclesiastical historians,—while the celebrated father Richard Simon taught him Hebrew and Syriac. But all was labour in vain; he confused MAJORIOT PARS. The party of Majorinus. his roots; applied to one century the events of This was the name by which the Donatist party another, and had a very dim appreciation of the in Africa always referred to themselves, before nature of heresy. I n his twenty-second year he the Catholics had invented the later title by joined the Congregation of the Oratory; but hapwhich, in spite of their resentment, they became pening to purchase at a bookstall the treatise of popularly designated. Majorinus was consecrated Descartes De Homine, it took such effect upon to the see of Carthage, in opposition to Ceecilian him as to cause him to abandon the study of [A.D. 311], and was the predecessor of Donatus theology, and to devote himself to philosophy as an earnest Cartesian, though prosecuting at the in that episcopate. MAJOKISTS. The followers of Major in his same time mathematical studies. controversy with Amsdorf. The seventh volume The basis of the creed of Malebranche was of Schlusselburg's Hmreticorum Catalogus has the axiom, thoroughly Cartesian in its prin859 pages treating " D e Secta Majoristorum." ciple, that our only perception and knowledge [AMSDORFIANS.] of things is in God. Knowledge is the solution MALA K A XES, or MOLOKANE. AKussian of the antagonism between the thinking subject sect, which arose first in the government of Tam- and the external object. I t can only be this bof. in the middle of the eighteenth century, and solution by our immanence in God. Finite subwhich was so called from their custom of living stance remains finite, and eternally distinct from on milk (Malako), instead of fasting altogether, the Absolute; the Absolute is the sole fountain upon fast-days. They call themselves Istineeye and source of knowledge, which alone can harChristiane, i.e. true Christians, and also "Gospel- monize the antithesis of thought and its object. 284

Malebranche

Malebranche

A brilliant flash of lightning in the dark night illuminates every object and reveals the distant country as in broad day, and we know the different features of the landscape, but we know it only in the light that is external to ourselves : so knowledge, of whatever kind, can only be attained in the Light of the Divine Substance. I n ourselves we are wholly dark. I n the Cartesian system Infinite Substance is a mere copula, whereby the mind acquires a perception of finite substance in its true nature—it is as a mere mathematical point of spirit innate in the mind of man : but in the system of Malebranclie it widens out. Although there can be no interpénétration of mind and matter 1 —the two substances being mutually opposed—yet there can be a true and permanent union between the mind of man and the Absolute, both being of spiritual substance. Malebranche declares that he was at times tempted to consider himself and his thoughts part of the Divine Nature, which Geulincx before him, and Spinoza afterwards, did not hesitate to affirm. H e says, for instance, " J e me suis porté à croire que ma substance est éternelle, et que je suis partie de l'être divin, et que toutes mes diverses pensées ne sont que des modifications de la raison universelle " [Méd. Chrêt. ix. 16], H u m a n reason may coalesce with the Absolute reason from whence it derives its light. God knows everything, and we who know God have a true perception of the ideas that God has of all that is. Although the spirit, therefore, cannot penetrate material substance so as to gain an objective knowledge of it, yet it has a subjective knowledge of it in a perception of the ideas that God lias of it. Such is his theory of vision in God. The idea of God therefore teems with the spirits of men, and is the world of ideal existence. All our knowledge of things is in the Absolute Substance of God, and since this knowledge as a mode of mind is our very selves, therefore our spirit has an immanence in God ; and the subject-matter of our knowledge, that is, the idea of external things, is in God ; the Absolute is peopled with spirits and with ideas. Absolute Substance, from this point of view, teems with life and reality, while in the Cartesian scheme it is a vast and dreamy void.

it can only have been communicated by God Himself. Malebranche declared that bodily movement is under the immediate direction of God. The notion that the spirit of man should move the body he thought to be a metaphysical difficulty that could not be got over. God being the Supreme Cause, there can be no other cause for anything; for, if there were any co-ordinate cause, it would either act in opposition to the Absolute, which is absurd, or in co-operation, which is superfluous; therefore he came to tho conclusion that all movement emanates from God. I will to move, but God effects the movement ; will is suggestive rather than causative of movement. I t was the occasionalism, again, of Geulincx, whoso ideas received a considerable development in Malebranche ; the difference between the two being chiefly referable to the difference of their religious belief.

Malebranche explained our knowledge of a Divine Being as Descartes had done. Spiritual and extended material substance are diametrically opposed ; therefore the idea of extended matter could never originate in the human spirit. The spirit of man is divided out among the millions of individuals of which the human race consists, an aggregate of being that can never produce unity of idea. Hence, any universal sense in which all men are agreed can never have had its source in this herd of spirits ; it must be traced to some other source than the mind of man. But belief in the existence of God is such a universal sense, for it underlies the consciousness of every human being; and 1 Still it was a favourite speculation with him to refer memory to certain material ix"V, o r images in the brain ; which was nothing else than a feeble compromise between materialism and spiritualism.

285

Descartes had remained satisfied with demonstrating, by solid reasoning, the existence of a Deity ; he rather flinched from discussing the relation that subsists between God and the external creation. His treatises declare that the extension of matter is indefinite. His letters, in a more pronounced way, laugh at those who circumscribe the work of God within a b a l l ; but he nowhere pushes on the notion of infinitude to duration as well as extension; only when Queen Christina questioned him with respect to the eternity of the world, he declared that the world would never perish, and that as the mind gains wider ideas of the universe, in the same proportion it has reason to praise the Creator in the infinity of His works. As regards the moral government of the world he said that everything is of God—good and evil, fair and foul, true and false. From Him it comes that good is good and evil is evil; that murder and incest are crimes, as well as that the radii of a circle are equal, or that the square of the hypotenuse in a right-angled triangle is equal to the squares of perpendicular and base. Here Malebranche diverges from the Cartesian theory, and engrafts upon it those Platonic views of the justice and benevolence of the Deity that he derived from Augustine. God is the absolute and all-powerful Cause of all; but He is the intelligent and designing Cause; and the happiness of the creature is the final cause of creation. H e is the universal reason, the Light that lighteth every man that coineth into the world. God exists not simply because we have an inborn idea of His power and vastness, but because we believe Him to be holy and just and t r u e ; otherwise the Deity would be infinite indeed in power, but no object for the creature's love, and differing in degree only, but not at all in kind from the brute force of nature. Benevolence is the general design (volonte gendrale) of the Divine order of things; though there must of necessity be occasional interruption in its working. Rain will fall on barren sands, and fertile tracts are rendered barren by drought. The worst evils of life will befal the good, while the evil prosper. The general

Malebranche rule is only established by such exceptions. And, in an ascending scale, the world of grace is ordered by the same general design (volontés générales) as the natural and moral world. All is ruled by the same purpose of deep counsel, all proceeds according to one law of general design. There is no capricious choice, no blind election. The God of theology, as the God of philosophy, is still the same Infinite Being of eternal justice, intelligence and wisdom. God moves in simple ways, and those ways, throughout every part of His government, whether in the order of nature or of grace, are general. Are these two orders separate? or are they parts of one system ? A knotty point which Malebranche solves through the revealed doctrine of God made Man. That which had been always held to be a deep unfathomable mystery was to Malebranche the central sun of his system. The Infinite, he said, in calling the universe into existence, could only have proposed to Himself an infinite result. The finite is wholly absorbed in His infinity. The worlds that teem through space ; the spiritual essences which rise in ascending scale from man to God, and far transcend in their worth myriads of worlds, are all as nothing in the Presence of the Infinite. But creation, to be worthy of the Creator, must also be infinite. Then it was needed that the Creator should impart to it His own infinity of Being, and cause the Eternal Word to descend into it, and become part of it, that the Word should be " made flesh." The Incarnation of the Son of God is the key of the whole mystery; the centre on which everything turns ; the answer of Malebranche to Anselm's question, " Cur Deus Homo 1 " For it raises man, and with man all nature, to the Being of God. The several systems of nature, moral order and grace here blend in harmony ; the one dominant idea of which is the Divine progression by ways that are at once simple and general. The more we know of the laws that govern the universe, the more we perceive that they are simple and harmonious in their design and action ; and that they resolve themselves more and more under the comprehensive heading of general laws. Organic anatomy demonstrates unity of principle ; philology is comparative by reason of the inherent harmony of its parts. Extinct fossil species have their counterpart in living organisms ; and dead languages, in their broad distinctive features, are one with those of to-day. Malebranche could only trace the same analogies and wide-spreading laws in the relation subsisting between the Creator and His universe. But such a scheme from a gentle and loving son of the Church was a novelty ; and Antoine Arnaud of Port-Royal celebrity, and Bossuet denounced it at once as neoterizing, as contradictory to the Fathers, especially to Augustine ; •—as chimerical and as subversive of all that had ever been held to be true in theology. The most mysterious doctrines, they urged, were submitted to rationalizing investigation ; the doctrine of the Incarnation became only an element of the general scheme of creation ; and the antagonizing svstems 286

Manichœans of nature and of grace were made to blend together in reciprocating harmony of action. Prophecy, revelation, miracles, which the Church could only refer to the predestined purposes of God, were reduced by Malebranche under the head of general laws and designs. Thus Butler also considered that, under the operation of general laws, " five or six thousand years may have given scope for causes, occasions, reasons, or circumstances from whence miraculous interpositions may have arisen" [Anal. II. ii.; Eitter, Gesch. d. Phil. XI. iv. 2], MANICHiEANS. Manichseism was the system of religious and philosophical eclecticism founded by an Oriental named Mani, at the commencement of the latter half of the third century A.D. I t rose in Persia during the reign of Sapor II., prince of the dynasty of the Sassanidte, and spread with extraordinary rapidity through the adjacent provinces of the Roman Empire. Much mystery attaches to each phase of its existence, even to the name, pretensions, and death, of its founder, and an almost romantic interest has been thrown around its history by the frequent and sanguinary persecutions it has suffered, and the dark and incredible charges by which those persecutions have been justified. I t professed to identify, and was in fact an attempt to harmonize, the dominant principles of Zoroastrianism and Christianitj'. Unlike almost every other form of error, it had the fortune to possess a distinct creed, discipline, and ethical system, the salient features of which have remained constant under all variations of latitude and fortune, and it has thus gained the repute rather of a separate false religion than of the heresy of a sect. Its philosophy rested on the purest Dualism of the East, and by its recognition of the complete identity of matter and evil, purported to reduce morality within the domain of physical law. Its moral code arrogated the principles of the most elevated virtue, and inculcated the most rigorous asceticism. The practice of few sects is entirely adequate to their professions ; still it is hard to conceive, as the possible outcome of such a system, the Manichseism described by Leo the Great [Leo. Opp. i. Serm. xxxvi.] as the sum of all the profane in paganism, the blind in Judaism, the sacrilegious and blasphemous in all other heresies. At no time, indeed, has the purity of its professions saved it from the hatred and contempt of mankind; and yet, despite this hatred, and despite the persecutions of Caesar and pontiff, this faith, amidst infinite discouragements, preserved, during a thousand years, a vigorous life in Europe, and still, it is alleged, survives in Asia. Mani, as the Orientals write his name—Manes and Manichseus, as the Europeans—was born about A.D. 240 in Persia, or at least in some district obeying the Persian rule. Probabl3r of Magian family, he was certainly educated among, if not admitted to the fellowship of, the Magi; but his native dialect appears nevertheless to have been Chaldee. The Greeks (as we read in the Acta Archelai cum Manete, n. 53, p. 97, from.

Manichceans

Manichceans

whom most of the orthodox writers have borrowed) have a story that his real name was Cubricus or Corbicius; that he was a slave-boy in the house of a widow, to whose bounty he owed both freedom and position ; that in the house of this widow died, by diabolical visitation, Terebinthus or Buddas, an arch-heretic, who bequeathed to her his books of impiety (themselves the work of Scythian, a Saracen disciple of Empedocles and an opponent of the Apostles); that Cubricus, taking possession of the heretical library, assumed the mission of the deceased Terebinthus, and thereupon exchanged the name of his servitude for the more honourable one of Manes, or " the eloquent." There are many circumstances calculated to discredit this plausible narrative, which is found in the authorities who have followed the Acta, but in none others : for it is all but impossible that Scythian could have confronted the Apostles; and there is evidence that, of the socalled predecessors who instructed Mani, one at least was a disciple and contemporary. Besides, Mani indisputably was admitted to the Magian court of Sapor, where a slave-boy would not readily have found an entrance. Finally, the doubtful authenticity of the Acta [see literature of Manichffiism], and the manifest plagiarism of the other authors in whose writings wo find this narrative, must destroy our confidence in a story not probable in itself, and altogether at variance with the unsuspected Oriental authorities. I t is probable that the resemblance between the Oriental " m a n i " and the Greek "manes," the typical slave-name of Greece, is the parent of this remarkable legend. St. Augustine tells us that the name of Manes was changed to Manicheeus to avoid the preposterous ribaldry of opponents, to which its resemblance to the Greek ¡xavla was found to give occasion. The name of Mani, somewhat fancifully connected with the Hebrew " menahem," or "comforter," more probably belongs to the same Sanskrit family with the Greek " manes."

offering Christianity to the Persians as the pu.rc Magusian creed, which the Christians ignorantly followed. At first Sapor received his teaching in good part, but nationality and faction were soon arrayed against him, and he escaped with difficulty from the indignation of his countrymen. Prom the court of Sapor he fled northwards into Turkestan. His flight was the Hegira of Manicliseism. Prom this moment he assumed the prophet and claimed the full rights of an apostle— that apostle, he alleged, through whom was the coming of the Paraclete. From the place of his exile missions were despatched to all parts of Asia, reaching, it is said, as far as China and Thibet; and here, with more or less of conscious imposture, he wrote and decorated with pictures or carvings his sacred book, the Ertenglii Mani.

All accounts agree in placing Mani at the court of Sapor in the middle of the third century, and in describing him as learned in all the wisdom of the Magians,—physician, astronomer, artist, philosopher and poet. He found the religion of Zoroaster, which had languished under the Parthian rule, just restored to life and vigour by the successors of Cyrus. The sword of Aristotle (so the Persians named the science of the Greeks) had been broken in the strong hands of Artaxerxes, Christianity was groaning under the persecution of Sapor, but Zoroastrianism, in the moment of its triumph over foreign and domestic rivals, was divided into two hostile factions of dogmatic opinion. Of these the Magusian, to which Mani was attached, desired to restore the pure primitivefaith, which made Ahura-mazda, or Ormuzd, and Angramainjus, or Ahriman, (themselves the eidola of the Divine ideas of the Yedas) the sole tenants of the Zoroastrian Olympus. The other, or specifically Magian faction, supported the pretensions of atliird and superior being, known as Zarvana-alcarane, or "Time without bounds." It was a notable moment for a reformer; and Mani came forward, 287

From the Christian sources before referred to, comes a tale to the effect that the exile of Mani was due to his want of medical skill; that, called in by Sapor to cure the sickness of his son, and proving unsuccessful, he fled from the anger of the bereaved father. Some (Mosheini among the number) have supposed this to be an allegory describing the moral sickness with which the apostatizing son of Sapor was afHicted, a supposition only less improbable than the tale itself. The production of the Ertenghi Mani, the same writers tell us, was accompanied by a pretended miracle of a journey to heaven, evidenced by the disappearance of the prophet in a cave, into which he had previously conveyed a large store of provisions, and whence, after the completion of his work, he came forth to the world, announcing it as a gift from the hand of the Deity. I t may not be unreasonable to suppose that a man persecuted for his life should have spent many months in a cavern in the mountains, nor that the credulous enthusiasm of his followers should have attributed a celestial j ourney to their martyred teacher; at any rate the legend rests on a very slender foundation of probability. I n exile, the heresiaich certainly adapted the Scriptures to his canon, and composed besides certain theological treatises, of which the principal were known as the Mysteries, Chapters, Gospels, and Treasures. Such of the rude science and astronomy of the East as was current in Persia was carefully collected by the hands of the immediate followers of Mani; and as they dwelt, in exile, far from the Persian centres of learning, this scientific bent must have been given to their labours by the individual influence of their leader. They proposed to explain both the origin of things and the nature of the Deity, and propounded a solution of theological doubt as well as a removal of scientific difficulty. The testimony of St. Augustine is given to the alluring quality of these pretensions, and at least to the eloquence of the authors who supported them. These authors anticipated, by a fortunate guess, the existence of the antipodes; and were among the many speculators respecting the existence and character of purgatory. Followers, and devoted followers, very soon collected around the prophet; and it is particularly noticeable that the preaching of Mani

Manichceans met with this marked success, because, in this early period, Manichseism appears as a belief addressed to the reason of a small and cultivated class rather than one calculated to rouse the enthusiasm of an ignorant multitude. From his exile in Turkestan, the preaching of Mani penetrated the Roman Empire of Valerian and Gallienus, and reached the capital and palace of Sapor. On the death of that prince, his son and successor, Hormisdas, embraced the heresy anil recalled the heresiarch. Either to secure his safety, or for convenience in superintending his missions, the prince allowed him to inhabit a strong castle near his western frontier. But the reign of Hormisdas lasted less than two years, and on the acccssion of his successor Yaranes, the same Magian jealousy which had caused the exile of Mani successfully contrived his death. He was induced to accept a disputation with the Magi, and being declared defeated in the contest, his skin was flayed from his body and his carcase given to the dogs. I t is not quite clear whether this took place during the short reign of Yaranes I. or of his successor Yaranes II., but the date given to the encounter and the execution is a.d. 277. This date is the same as that given to the supposed controversy with Archelaus, Bishop of Cascar, according to the doubtful work so entitled; that work, however, ascribes the death of Mani to Sapor, into whose kingdom Mani, although under proscription, is alleged to have withdrawn after his humiliating defeat by the Christian bishop. The Orientals ascribe his death to the causes we have mentioned, and in fact to the inconsiderate zeal with which he laboured to introduce Christianity into Zoroastrianism. The death of Mani crowned the edifice of Manichseism ; and the fresh Magian. persecution, for which it was the signal, dispersed, without disheartening, his followers, who continued the dissemination of their opinions in the countries of their dispersion. The mythological scheme which Mani bequeathed to the world shews Ormuzd, the spirit deity or principle of good, eternally dwelling in his peculiar realm, with five ministers, light, air, fire, bright water, and gentle wind. Opposite to him is Ahriman, the author of evil, in a separate dominion, also having five servants, darkness, fire, smoke, foul waters, and tempestuous winds. The creatures of the kingdom of Ahriman had always pursued the congenial occupation of internecine strife, in ignorance of the existence of the kingdom of Ormuzd. Accident discovered to the powers of darkness the realm of light; it was the signal for its immediate invasion. For its defence, a spiritual emanation, called " the first man," was produced, under whose guidance the spiritual armies suffered defeat, if not captivity, at thehands of Ahriman. As aconsequence of this defeat, beings made in the likeness of this Adam, but of evil nature, were in turn produced. The contest was soon however renewed by the servants of Ormuzd. A further emanation of light, styled "the Spirit of Life," took command of the armiesof his defeated predecessor,and obtained a partialsuccess over the creatures of darkness, and the victor 288

Manichceans was enabled to arrange the particles of evil into such a form, and so to blend the spiritual and the material Adam, that, though temporarily united in this Mezentian embrace of material evil, the light should possess the means of subsequent escape. I t is to these labours of the Spirit of Life that we owe the condition of the world on which man lives. It follows, therefore, that no creation, in the Christian sense, can be predicated of the belief of Mani. W e have only here a process of mixture by means of which the two opposing elements pervade and permeate each other, so that the existing system partakes of the nature of both. To the subjugation of the forces of light by the powers of darkness is attributed the loss of that free will which is the rule of human souls in the pure and spiritual condition. From these conquered beings, who by the force or guile of Ahriman underwent the material bondage of the body, the tainted inheritance of the enslaved will has been transmitted. I n each body of a man thus descended there is a soul of darkness derived from the creations of Ahriman, a soul of light from those of Ormuzd, while the body of its own nature is material and vicious. Salvation is the freeing of the soul of Ormuzd. Ormuzd, the first person of the Christian Trinity, (not in any case to be identified with Jehovah, a subordinate Demiurgic minister of Ahriman), produced (contemporaneously with the production or rather the arrangement of the earth by the Spirit of Life,) the Christ, a spirit of light—misnamed Mithras by the Persians, residing in the sun by His power and in the moon by His wisdom, and the thirdDivine Person, the Holy Spirit. Christ descended upon the earth in a docetic body, to draw upwards the souls of light. The sufferings which seemed to mar His divine person were the phantoms of the unpurged material eyesight, and symbolized the dishonour of the material effigy. According to Mani, those who confess Christ must renounce Jehovah, the servant of Ahriman and the minister of matter, and by obedience to the law of Christ, as expounded by his prophet, seek the freedom of the immaterial heaven. Leaving the vicious earth, the soul which achieves salvation will, after death, undergo a twofold purgation ; the first, by water in the moon, whose phases mark the ebb and flow of arriving and departing souls ; the second, by fire in the sun. The soul that has lived in sin must reenter matter, and there undergo the ordeal of a new life, or if only fit for the Manichfean purgatory, be given over to the demon-people of the terrestrial air. When all are purified save the irrecoverable, fire will consume the matter of the earth, and Ahriman, with the existences that belong to him, relegated to the proper realm of darkness, will be eternally guarded by the remorseful watchfulness of the damned. Holding this bizarre faith, the Manichteans declared themselves orthodox, as Trinitarians, as believers in a final judgment, in a resurrection of the spirit (not, of course, of the body, which they accounted evil), and in a salvation through Christ, dexterously claimed by the advent of His power, not by His sacrifice or expiation.

Mcwichceaas The whole sect was divided into two classes, t h e elect or perfect, and the auditors or catechumens, a circumstance which gave rise to the mocking accusation, that they possessed an eedesiu in ecclcsi.a. Their hierarchy consisted of twelve magistri or apostles, with a president or successor to Mani, under whom were seventy-two bishops, with presbyters and deacons in descending series. All of these were selected from the higher rank of the perfect, though that order included many of the laity ; and indeed it is everywhere a note of Manichaeism, that it was to the pure life and not to the sacerdotal function that the dignity of " perfection " attached. N o distinction of sanctity existed between the perfect: the priestly office was purely ministerial, and the lay and ecclesiastical members of the order were upon a footing of absolute equality. I n these democratic elements, or rather in their capacity for democratic development, lies the secret of much of the vitality of Manichaeism. The perfect were solemnly admitted by a baptism of purification, and to them were confined t h e highest sacra of their religion. They obeyed a rule of the most severe asceticism, were forbidden all animal food (including eggs and milk), wine, and all sensual gratifications ; even marriage and the bath were proscribed. To till the land, to attend to private or public business, to do anything save to pray, bless, and receive the homage of the catechumens, was to depart from virtue. I t is scarcely possible to conceive a system more antagonistic to the Zoroastrian ideal; for the rule of life of the " Destour " enjoins, in the first place, activity and usefulness. The saint, as Zoroaster paints him, is an industrious citizen, who begets children, plants trees in bare places, carries water to the dry land ; and indeed the Zendavesta tells us, that he who sows the ground with care and diligence acquires a greater store of merit t h a n he who repeats a thousand prayers. Such antagonism explains the abhorrence of the Magi ; and almost justifies the persecutions of the Sassanidaj. The life of the auditor or catechumen was equally inimical to Zoroastrian theory, although rather one of profession than of practice. His rule of morality was the same as that of the perfect, but he enjoyed the license of the weaker nature and was not bound to the ascetic life. Even the elect, unless the final act of lustration had been accomplished, were permitted to retire, if strength failed them, into the humbler condition of the catechumen. The ritual of the Manichceans consisted of daily, almost hourly, prayer and fasting, and the perusal of the Scripture according to their canon ; b u t no special temple was allowed to be devoted to the purposes of worship. They used certain hymns, which were however probably recited not sung, addressed, in great part, to certain beings, whose names iu/ioi 6 x- ^ is thus very likely that some Roman Church, their number being then about recognized title of our Lord might be found, 40,000. On the final destruction of that kingdom, •which might by this exhaustive process be made two centuries afterwards, the Maronites ceased literally to represent the A and fi in the Marcosian for some time to have any intercourse with Western Christendom, but were formally reunited to sense. From this alphabetical mystery was developed Rome at the Council of Elorence [A.D. 1445], a system of Tetrads, Ogdoads, Decads, and In the following century a Maronite college was Duodecads, in which the letters were in a manner founded at Rome [A.D. 1584], for the education personified, representing /Eons, and even the of their clergy, and from it have proceeded several Divine Persons themselves, with their attributes. theologians of great eminence, especially the illusAnd in connection with this theory of letters and trious family of the Asseinani, of whom Joseph numbers Marcosians provided themselves with a Simon [A.D. 1687-1768] and his brother Joseph cosmogony, and a theory of creation, in which Aloysius [d. A.D. 1782] are among the greatest of visible things were made to match the images of Oriental scholars and liturgical writers. Although the Maronites are in union with those that are invisible,—earthly Ogdoads, etc., Rome, it has been found expedient to leave them 1 Such seem a number of names mentioned by Irenams in a condition of unusual independence. The as used by the Marcosians,—Basemn, Chamosse, Bace- election of their Patriarch is left entirely to themnaora, Mistadia, Ruada, Kousta, Babaplior, Kalaclithei, Messia, Upliareg, Narnempsceman, CnaMceauer, Moso- selves, and notwithstanding that a synod, held on Seot. 30th, 1736, subscribed to the decrees medcea, Aephranoe, 1'saua, Jesus Najsaria. 29!)

Marrow Men of the Council of Trent, they retain their own liturgical customs. They hare bishops at Aleppo, Tripoli, Byblns, Baalbek, Damascus, Cyprus, Berytus and Tyre, and their patriarch resides in the monastery of Karnobin. I n modern times they have suffered much persecution from the Druses. [Le Quien, Or tens Christ, iii. 10. Asseman. Diblioth. Orient. Vatican, i. 487. Neale's Eastern Ch. Introd. i. 153.] MARROW MEN. I n the year 1646, Edward Fisher, a lay member of Brasenose College, Oxford, published a compilation, chiefly from foreign Reformers and Puritan writers, on the subjects of Justification and Sanctification, in the form of a dialogue, which he entitled, The Marrow of Modern Divinity. About the year 1700, Thomas Boston having met with a copy in a farmhouse, in his then parish of Simprin, Berwickshire, was much, attracted by it, and having recommended it to the notice of others, it was reprinted in 1718 at Edinburgh, with a preface by Thomas Hog, minister of Carnock in Fifeshire. The book excited considerable notice, and it is said to have been esteemed by many Presbyterians as next in value to the Bible and their Shorter Catechism ; but a controversy arising upon some of the points in its teaching, an unfavourable report was made to the General Assembly by a committee appointed to examine it, and on May 20th, 1720, the Assembly formally condemned various propositions -which, it contained, and prohibited all ministers from using or recommending it. The propositions censured were to the following effect: [1.] That personal assurance is of the essence of faith ; faith being a belief that Christ has done all for each individual. [2.] That Christ made a universal atonement (in sufficiency of merit) for the sins of all men, and that eternal life is offered to all in Him by the Father as by a deed of gift, although He died for the elect only, who were chosen before by an irreversible decree. [3.] That holiness is not necessary as a condition of salvation (although absolutely necessary as its accompaniment). [4.] That fear of punishment and hope of reward ought not to be motives of a believer's obedience. [5.] That the believer is not under the law as a rule of life. With these were condemned various extravagant Antinomian paradoxes, e.g. that the believer does not commit sin, that the Lord sees no sin in him, and is not angry with him for his sins, and that he has no cause to confess his sins or seek for pardon. Hereupon, twelve ministers (including Boston and the two Erskines) drew up a Representation, complaining of the Act of Assembly, and vindicating the teaching of the Marrow from the interpretation put on i t ; hence they became, known in Scottish polemics by the names of RejJresentcrs and Marrow Men. A somewhat modified or explanatory act was in consequence passed in 1722; but at the same time the prohibition against teaching the condemned propositions was strictly renewed, and the Iiepresenters, "because of the injurious reflections contained in their Representation," were ordered to be rebuked and admonished by the Moderator, " though their offence deserves a much 300

Martinists higher censure."' However, as is usual in such eases of ecclesiastical admonition, the Iiepresenters only protested against the new act, and forthwith proceeded to disobey it. The controversy, however, gradually died out, but the discontent engendered by it at length found vent in the Secession originated by Ralph and Ebenezer Erskine in 1734. \Acts of the General Assembly; Papers on the Marrow Controversy, by Dr. M'Crie, in the Edinb. Christian Instructor for 1834, not reprinted in his Works; State of the Controversy concerning the Marrow, as delated in 1720 and 1721, Glasg. 1773 ; Andr. Robertson, Atonement Controversy in the Secession Church, Edinb. 1846.] MARTINISTS. A school of religionists, formed originally by the Chevalier St. Martin a few years before the French Revolution broke out, as a kind of Pietistie freemasonry, but afterwards swept into the general tide of Republican infidelity by which France was overwhelmed. St. Martin [A.D. 1743-1804] had originally been brought up to the bar, but exchanged the profession of the law for that of the army. Forming some opinions, however, against the lawfulness of war, he left the army and settled down as a private gentleman, at Paris. There he became acquainted with a Portuguese named Martinez Pasqualis, who had elaborated a peculiar mystical system of Christian philosophy, which seems to have contained a good deal of Cabbalistic Gnosticism, and who afterwards emigrated to St. Domingo, where he died in the year 1799. From the instructions of Martinez, and from his own studies, St. Martin became a mystic of the class called Theosophists, and he appears to have been an ardent student of the works of Jacob Boehin and Emanuel Swedenborg. His indignation was excited by a work of Bonlanger, in which was revived the ancient tenet of Atheists, that all religions have had their origin in the terror of mankind at some great convulsions of nature. To this work St. Martin replied in 1775, in a volume, an English edition of which was published at Edinburgh, under the title Error and Truth, a book written in obscure and mystical language, apparently with the intention of shewing that all true religions contain common elements of Christianity. I n the preface to this he says, " Though the light be made for all eyes, it is still more certain that all eyes are not made to behold it in its brightness] and the small number of those who are the depositaries of the truths which I announce are bonnd to prudence and discretion by the strictest engagements. Therefore I have allowed myself to use a great reserve in this country, ancl oftentimes to cover myself with a veil, through which even eyes that are not ordinary ones cannot always pierce, especially as I speak sometimes of something altogether different from that of which I seem to be treating." This reference to a secret understanding between him and his followers led to the supposition that St. Martin was engaged in a revolutionary plot, and it has been asserted that he was connected with the not jvious secret society of Jacobins, formed at Avignon by Count Grahianea,, a Polish refugee, and the Bene-

Martinisis dictine monk Pernetty. But the secrecy really referred to a new order of freemasonry, with masonic signs, hieroglyphs, &e., of which lodges were formed in several parts of France, especially at Lyons and Montpellier, and by means of which St. Martin was endeavouring to spread his theosophy. Barruel says that St. Martin's book circulated more widely even than the writings of Yoltaire. I t was especially read "by ladies, whose " dressingrooms were metamorphosed into secret schools, where the interpreting adept developed the mysteries of each page, and the novice in ecstasy applauded the mystery which was hidden from the vulgar. Little by little the novice herself became an interpreter, and founded a species of school. This is not a mere assertion," continues Barruel ; "such schools for the explanation of the code existed at Paris and in the provinces, particularly at Avignon, the headquarters of the Martinists. I was and am acquainted with several persons who were introduced to these schools." Such a circulation must have tended greatly to the promotion of infidelity; for, among all its mystical nonsense, the book contains such statements as that man is antecedent to any being in nature, existing in spirit before he existed in body,andbeing of the sameessence as God Himself. After publishing several other works, and extending his societies into Russia, where they were more successful than in France, St. Martin printed his last book in the year 1802, entitling it Ministère de l'homme esprit, par le Philosopha inconnu. This was an attempt to shew that Christianity exists as something separate from the doctrines of the Church, and that the latter are only a means by which to attain the former ; that there is in fact, as is so often asserted by Pietists, but so often disproved by the history of religion, an "undogmatic Christianity" which is the true theosophy or knowledge of God. There is probably no truth in the bitter accusations of Jacobinism which Barruel brings against St. Martin ; but there can be little doubt that the charges are true as regards those who called themselves after his name. [Didot's Nauv. Biogr. Univ. Gregoire's Hist, des Sectes Relig. ii. 217. Barruel's Mémoires du Jacobinisme, Eng. ed. ii. 339-355.] The Martinists were transplanted to Russia during the reign of Catharine II. by Grabianea, already mentioned as one of the Avignon Jacobins, and the Russian Admiral Pleschkeyoff. There also they attempted to promote their principles by the formation of masonic lodges and confraternities, and professed to devote themselves to the study of the writings of Swedenborg, Boëhm, Ekartshausen, and other mystics. A large library was established at Moscow for the purchase, and a printing-press for the publication, of moral and religious literature, to which free access was permitted to young men of talent, who were even searched out and offered pecuniary assistance for the development of their powers. But the suspicion of revolutionary societies hung about them, justly or unjustly, and the Empress Catharine persecuted their leading members in various ways. Norikoff was imprisoned in a fortress ; the 301

Masbotheans wealthy Lapookhin, Prince Nicholas Trubetzki, and Tourgheneif were banished from Moscow to their own estates ; and although under her successors, the Emperors Paul I. [A.D. 1796-1801] and Alexander I. [A.W. 1801-1825], rather more liberty was allowed, the whole genius of the Russian nation was against them, and its ecclesiastical conservatism and social traditions have prevailed. MARTIN MARPRELATE. [PURITANS.] M A R T Y R I A N I . [EUCHITES.] MASBOTIIEANS. An obscure sect of Jewish freethinkers who denied the Providence of God, said that the world was formed by a spontaneous motion, and denied the immortality of the soul. This statement rests on the authority of the Apostolic Constitutions, and on the assumption that the Basmotheans there named [vi. 6] are no other than the Masbotheans. This assumption is most probably correct; and if so, the Masbotheans were Jews who had learnt the philosophy of Epicurus. Hegesippus [in Euseb. II. E. iv. 22] undoubtedly speaks of a Jewish sect of Masbotheans, but (supposing the text to be correct) his wrords certainly imply a Christian sect of the same name. Yalesius concludes that the text is corrupted. Later notices however shew, that in one particular the Masbotheans alleged the authority of our Lord's teaching, and from this may have sprung the notion of a Christian sect of this name. Pseudo-IIieronymus mentions the Masbotheans thus, " Masbotliei dicunt ipsum esse Christum qui docuit illos in omni re sabbatizare" [Indie, iii.]. Isidore of Hispalis repeats the words. In. this statement there are two difficulties ; first, a rigid Sabbatism is quite inconsistent with the denial of the creation of the world and of God's Providence; and secondly, it is not easy to see how our Lord's teaching, by any amount of plausible misrepresentation, could be quoted in favour of it. Instead then of giving up the identification of the Basmotheans and Masbotheans, and asserting the existence of a JudaeoChristian sect of Sabbatarians, distinguished only by the rigour of their Sabbatism from the ordinary practice of the Jewish Christians, it may he allowed us to conjecture that the Masbotheans were the very reverse of rigid Sabbatarians ; that they availed themselves of Christ's teaching to proclaim that men are lords of the Sabbath [compare Clem. Alexand. Strom. I I I . iv., who says that the Gnostics claimed to be lords of the Sabbath]; that their opponents retorted by asserting their Sabbath to be a sabbath of desolation, of Gentile domination, giving it a name from Lament, i. 7 j 1 for in that passage the sabbath which the adversaries derided was the desolation of the land [see 2 Chron. xxxvi. 21; Lev.xxvi. 34]. From the word signifying "cessation es" the name Masbotheanswas given to the sect, and later writers, knowing the derivation of the word from " Sabbath," erroneously imagined Masbotheans to mean Sabbatarians. 1 " Her advei'saries did mock at her sabbaths." [Eng. vers.] "Riserunt de eessationibns ejus. O'. eye\aaav irrl KaroiKcalt}. (alia exempt. ¡ARROTKETRIJI, s. TIJ /leroiKeaiq,) airijs. 'A . . . xadeSpq. avrijs. 2. ¿yt\at. II. vii. 1755.]

These half Christians are said by Ignatius a, Jesu to have imitations or perversions of the Christian Sacraments. They administer baptism on Sunday only, with a liturgy, and by semiimmersion in a flowing stream, water being poured thrice on the head of the child " In the name of the Lord Himself, the First and the Last, the Lord of the world, and of Paradise, of Him Who is above all and Creator of all." 1 For their Eucharist they use wafers composed of flour, wine, and oil; the other element being a kind of wine made by steeping dry grapes in water, the same which is used also for making the wafers. They maintain a line of bishops and priests, in which the Levitical system of lineal descent is kept up, the nearest relative being elected to succeed a deceased bishop if he left no son to take his place. None can be ordained priest who does not belong to the sacerdotal family, nor any who is the son of a mother who was otherwise than a virgin when she married. The Christians of St. John hold the Cross in the highest veneration, and have a curious superstition that the original Cross was placed in the sun, and that the sun and the moon derive their light from it. St. John Baptist is kept in memory by an annual five days' festival, when all, young and old, flock to their patriarch and are baptized in a flowing river by him ; a rite which has led some writers to identify them with the HEMERO-BAPTISTS. Among many singular superstitions respecting St. John Baptist, one is that he commanded his disciples to crucify his dead body, which they did ; and that afterwards it was preserved in a crystal sepulchre at Sciuster, a city of Persia. The Christology of the Mendceans is of a very heretical character. They hold that Christ is the Soul of God, as the Mahometans say that He is the Spirit of God. Some of them have Docetic notions respecting the Crucifixion, believing that Christ passed through the hands of those who held Him, and that only an appearance of His body was nailed to the Cross : while others maintain that His Soul only ascended to heaven, and 1 This formula is given in the Memliean dialect of Arabia by Ignatius á Jesu, and is translated somewhat differently. The above is as given by Norberg, in his De reli'i. et ling. Saboiorum, p. S.

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MENNONITES. A general name given to the four sects of Dutch Baptists, the Flemings, Frieslanders, Germans, and Waterlanders. They were originally called " Anabaptists," but after their reformation by Menno in the middle of the sixteenth century that name, which had become very odious through the iniquities with which it was associated [ANABAPTISTS], was exchanged for the name of " Mennonites " in memory of their reformer. They are also called "Doopsgezinden " or " Dippers ;" and, in America, by a name of similar meaning, TUNKERS. Menno Simonis, or Symons [A.D. 1505-1561] was a priest, and rector of his native village, Witmarsum, near Bolswert, in Friesland. He gives the somewhat improbable account of himself that, having as a priest lived a profligate life, he yet discovered by reading the New Testament that Infant Baptism is not a scriptural practice; and that on this account, at the age of thirty-one, he gave up his position and became a reformed character. As he is found married after his connection with the Anabaptists, it is probable that marriage had something to do with his secession. I n the following year [A.D. 1537] he became a teacher among the Anabaptists, the fiercest and worst part of the sect having been exterminated in the siege and capture of Munster, and in the suppression of the insurrections which followed at Amsterdam, Deventer, and elsewhere. The remnant of the sect was in so depressed a condition, and so entirely without a leader, that the accession of a man of position and ability was

Mennonites

Mennonites

extremely welcome, and he soon acquired so much influence and power among them as to "become their new leader and head, an office which ha hold until his death, a quarter of a century afterwards. Under Menno's guidance the Anabaptists entirely lost their revolutionary character, so that some have found it difficult to recognise the one continuous sectarian body under two such different aspects. But the notion of an immediate Millennium had been exploded by the failure and death of John of Leyden, the " K i n g " of their " New Jerusalem," and with that notion their motives for insurrection and aggression had passed away. It is also probable that those who were spared from slaughter were a milder and less political kind of Anabaptists than those who became so conspicuous under Miinzer and Bockhold, and that thus the religious element of the sect alone survived, and that among a comparatively quiet and religious class of people. The character of Menno would influence his followers in the same direction, for he was a gentle and peaceful man, whose ambition, if he possessed any, was the ambition of a religious leader in the sense of later times, and not in that of the fierce fanatics of the Middle Ages.

of Brownists which had emigrated to Holland. [INDEPENDENTS], and was regarded only as a private document; but it has been recognised in subsequent times as containing, substantially, a statement of Mennonite doctrine. [Schyn, Hist. Mennonitarum, vii.] [1] I t begins with an expression of belief in the doctrines of the Blessed Trinity and Incarnation, which is necessarily vague and incomplete; for Menno denied that our Lord became incarnate through taking the natural substance of His Mother, maintaining that His Human Body was a direct creation out of nothing in the womb of the immaculate Virgin, by the power of the Holy Ghost, This opinion is still held by the Flemings or old Mennonites, but the sect in general has been strongly tainted with Arianism, perhaps by a not unnatural recoil from this tenet of Menno. [2] Original sin is a doctrine almost entirely repudiated, the guilt of Adam not being considered as transmitted to his descendants, but only some germ of sinfulness such as orthodox Christians believe still to lurk in the will of the baptized. This repudiation of the doctrine of original sin may be considered as the theological ground for the repudiation of Infant Baptism, though the latter is usually stated as founded on the absence of any direct notice of such a rite in the New Testament. The practice of the Mennonites is to baptize children at twelve years of age, not by immersion, but by affusion, or pouring water on the head. [3] The sacrifice of Christ's death is set forth as applicable to all mankind, the Mennonite doctrine thus symbolizing with Arminianism and not Calvinism. [4] The Lutheran doctrine of " Justification by faith alone " is as distinctly ignored as the Calvinist doctrine of the " decrees," faith being defined as that which leads men to do works of love, co-operating with the righteous work of Christ. [5] The Mennonite view of the Eucharist is, however, neither more nor less than the " memorial " theory of Zwingli. [6] In the recoil from the early Anabaptist fury of the sect, the Mennonites went to the opposite extreme, considering war, and even resistance to injury, to be altogether unlawful for Christian men. They also considered oaths to be unlawful, and that it was unfit for a Christian man to undertake the duties of any office of civil government.

Another conspicuous change which arose among the Anabaptists from the violent explosion of their millennial expectations was, that they no longer entertained the notion of a superior dispensation of the Spirit having arrived, a notion grounded entirely on that of the Millennium itself. Hence they no longer claimed a direct inspiration superseding the teaching of the Scriptures such as had been claimed before. [ZWICKAU PROPHETS.] The Scriptures, therefore, regained their influence both as a rule of belief and a rule of life ; and whatever errors the Anabaptists may be chargeable with, even under Menno's leadership, they cannot be justly accused of that frightful Antinomianism which had characterized them before their suppression as an insurrectionary sect. They became, in fact, notorious for their deference to the Scriptures, and instead of claiming an inspiration superior to it, bowed down to the most literal interpretation of its precepts. Before the accession of Menno the Anabaptists cannot be said to have had any theological system. Under his guidance, however, a form of Protestantism was established among them which is, in some particulars, quite independent of the systems of Luther, Calvin, or Zwingli. But Menno was averse to "Confessions," such as were common among the Continental Protestants, and did not draw up any for his followers. He wrote, however, in 1556 a treatise under the title of "The True Christian Belief," in which he compared his own teaching with that of the Romanists and the Protestants in such parts as they differed; and from this basis, two Mennonite preachers named Lubbert Gerardi and Hans de Eys, constructed, in the year 1580, a "Confession of Waterland," which professes to set forth the tenets of the sect. This was at first drawn up for the information of the English congregation 311

Such were the original principles of the Mennonites, as set forth in the Confession of 1580. They were in some degree modified by a subsequent Confession, drawn up in 1632, with the view of uniting the several sects into which the original one had broken up ; but no substantial alteration has taken place in their belief, except that above mentioned, the development in the direction of Arianism of Menno's original belief respecting the Incarnation. While Menno was still living, his followers broke up into two divisions on the subject of discipline. Leonard Bowenson and Theodore Philippi headed a party which maintained the strictest views possible respecting the treatment of those who fell into s i n ; requiring that they should not only be excommunicated, but that

Meristce tliey should never be received back into the sect again, and that they should be debarred all intercourse with their relatives, even their husbands, wives, or children. The same party also defined sin in so strict a manner as to make even innocent amusements a cause for excommunication. Menno endeavoured to unite the two parties, and in his own person set an example of compromise and conciliation, but his attempts met with no success, and his followers became henceforward divided into the " F i n e " or strict Mennonites (Die Feinen), the party of Bowenson and Philippi, and the "Coarse" or lax Mennonites (Die Gruben), the one being the ascetic representatives of the original sect, the other the representatives of the more ordinary Protestant phase of the sect into which it had begun to develope under Menno's own guidance. These two parties were" also marked off from each other geographically, as well as theologically, and as most of the lax Mennonites were inhabitants of a region in the north of Holland named Waterland, they were called WATERLANDERS ; while the strict Mennonites being chiefly in Flanders, they acquired the name of FLEMINGS. The latter were soon subdivided into " Flandrians," " Frieslanders," and " Germans," the subject of their disputes being still that of discipline and the exact standard of strictness or laxness which should be permitted. I n subsequent times, however, the Flemings grew fewer and fewer, and now most of the Mennonites are "Waterlanders. The number of the Mennonites now existing in Holland is said to be small, there being only about 150 congregations of them. There are also about the same number in Germany, on the Lower Rhine. Large numbers of them emigrated to America by invitation of William Penn in the latter part of the seventeenth century ; and it is calculated that the sect in the United States and in Canada now numbers about 240 ministers, 400 congregations, and about 50,000 members. [Schyn's Hist. Christ, qui in Belgio fmderato Mennonitm appellantur, Amst. 1723. Scliyn's Ilid. Mennonit. jplenior Deduct io, 1729. Menno's Works, Amst. 1651. Brandt's Hist. Reform.] MERINTHIANS. [CERINTHIANS.] MEKISTiE. A Jewish sect named, along with the Genistse, by Justin Martyr [Dial. c. Try ph. lxxx.]. The name ( = Dividers) is probably the correlative name in opposition to Genistas, which implied that its bearers represented the true yivos of the nation. The sect is probably the sect of Nazarasans described by Epiphanius in his eighteenth heresy. St. Isidore says respecting them, " Meristaa appellati eo quod separant Scripturas, non credontes omnibus prophetis, dicentes aliis et aliis spiritibus illos prophetasse. Mepos enim Grsece portio dicitur." [Isidor. Hisp. cap. v. 8.] MESS ALLANS. [EUOHITES.] METAGENETiE. Some heretics are mentioned by Prsedestinatus, who maintained that the Second Person of the Blessed Trinity was not co-eternal with the First, and that being begotten by the Father's will, had that will been wanting He would not have existed. I n the " Elenchus 312

Methodists Ilteresum" prefixed to the work of Prœdestmatus these heretics are named Metagenetœ [Prœdest. Iter. lxxx.] METANGISMONITiE. A sect of heretics belonging to the third century, who maintained that the union between the Father and the Son in the Holy Trinity was effected by the Son entering into the Father as a lesser vessel (àyyeiov) may be placed in one that is greater. I t is remarkable that, when describing this heresy, Philaster [A.D. 380] confutes their opinion in words which contain a peculiar expression nearly identical with a clause of the Athanasian Hymn, " E t separant se a catholica ecclesia, propter illos suos pseudoprophetas : insaniunt adsentientes, et non intelligentes quod qualis immensus est Pater, talis est et Filius, talis est et Spiritus Sanctus, œqualis in omnibus, ita ut sit immobilis Trinitas, immensa et omnipotens atque sempiterna ubique, qua3 nobis nuntiatur ex sanctis scripturis apertissime, ut et sint très Person® viventes in perpetuum, et tequales in omni maj estate et potentia, Filius tamen et Spiritus Sanctus de Patre sint proprie" [Philast. Hear. li.]. These words are not quoted by St. Augustine, although he names the heresy [Aug. Iter, lviii.], but Praîdestinatus writes in analogous terms, " Quos ideo répudiât ecclesia, quia de incorporeo carnaliter sentiunt, et de incomprehensibili liniatis agunt, et de sequalitate divinitatis gradus statuunt" [Prsedest. Hear. lviii.]. The last author says that the heresy was opposed by Diodorus, Bishop of Nicomedia. METHODISTS. The general name given to a number of sects which are derived more or less directly from the confraternity formed in the year 1739 by John Wesley, Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. The parent sect is now usually distinguished as that of the "Wesleyan Methodists," or simply as "Wesleyans." The other principal sects are the " Welsh Calvinistic," " New Connexion," " Primitive," and " United Free Church " Methodists. There are also several smaller divisions of the sect both in England and in America. The following article will deal with the history, organization, principles and practices of the original body, and the offshoots of it will be noticed in succeeding articles in chronological order. I . ORIGIN OP THE JSFAME. When J o h n Wesley first founded his confraternity he called it the " United Society," after the Moravians or Unitas Fratrum ; but the vulgar tongue was too strong for him, and the name of " Methodists "—given in banter to a small brotherhood of fellows of colleges and undergraduates formed by him at Oxford some years earlier—became the world-wide designation of his followers. The lineage of that name is curious and interesting. Early in the seventeenth century it came into use in France to designate a class of theologians, "Méthodistes," who endeavoured by precise and fair statements of the case on both sides to bring about the reunion of the Huguenots with the Church. Of these theological Methodists, the most distinguished representative was Bossuet. 1 [Mosheim's 1 In classical times the same name was used for those who practised any s t u d y or profession, as oratoiy for exa m p l e according to rule : but its best k n o w n application

Methodists Eccl. Ilist. iii. 242, Stubbs' ed. ]•'. Spanlieim, Diss, de Prescript. in reb. fid. adv. Novos Methodistas pontificios, Opp. I I I . ii. 1079.] I t was probably of similar exact writers on the Puritan side that a preacher spoke when lie satirized the " plain pikestaff Methodists " who " esteemed all flowers of rhetoric in their sermons no better than stinking weeds" [Spence's Sermons, 1657] : and it is obvious that the name " Precisians," so commonly used for the Puritans, was analogous to that of Methodists in its later sense. The term, however, came closest to its modern signification in the " New Methodists," who held " the great point of justification" in peculiar prominence about ten years before John Wesley's birth [ War among the Angels of the Churches, 1693] ; and in those who were so called because they " stood up for God," as mentioned about the same time by Calamy. It was first appropriated to "Wesley and his lialf-dozen friends as a piece of Oxford undergraduate banter in the year 1728 ; and, becoming the popular name of his followers, was fully accepted by himself and them as early as the year 1744. [Min. of Oonf. i. 9,10.] I I . HISTORY OF METHODISM. The original form of Methodism was that of a Society or Brotherhood for the promotion of personal piety, according to the principles and practices of the Church of England : and it was part of that wave of Pietism which passed over Germany and England in the dissolute times of the seventeenth century. Early in that century such societies had been formed in Holland by the COLLEGIANTS, a section of the Arminians: in the latter part of the century they were organized by Spener under the name of Colleges of Piety [PIETISTS] ; and both these had their type in the FRIENDS OF GOD, of whom Tauler, a great authority with Wesley, was one of the most famous. Societies of a similar kind were very generally established in England during the reigns of William I I I . and Queen Anne by the name of "Religions Societies." The Wesleys belonged to one of these latter Societies when they were at Oxford, and the early stage of their movement was simply a development of the obligations undertaken by them in association with i t ; they and several other young men, banding together in 1727 to study the Bible, to visit the poor, to observe Wednesday and Friday fasts, and to communicate more frequently than was then the custom in the Universities. I n the year 1735 this Brotherhood consisted of fourteen or fifteen in number, including John and Charles Wesley, George Whitfield, Hervey, Ingham, Clayton, and Broughton. Some years later, on Wesley's return from his unsuccessful work in Georgia [A.D. 17354738] as a missionary of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, the movement was revived in a similar form in London. " I n November 1738," writes Wesley, " two or three persons who desired to flee from was to t h e physician who treated his patients according to a scientific system [Me#oSi/res] as opposed to the empiric, who depended chiefly on practical experience. This use of t h e word still existed at t h e end of t h e seventeenth century, being found in t h e works of Boyle [ii. 245] and H a m m o n d [iv. 577].

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Methodists the wrath to come, and then seven or eight more, came to me in London, and desired me to advise and pray with them. I said,' If you will meet on Thursday night I will help you as well as I can.' More and more then desired to meet with them, till they increased to many hundreds. The case was afterwards the same at Bristol, Kingswood, Newcastle, and many other parts of England, Scotland, and Ireland. I t may be observed the desire was on their part, not mine. My desire was to live and die in retirement. But I did not see that I could refuse them my help and be guiltless before God." [Minutes of Conference, i. p. 58, ed. 1812.] By this time, however, John Wesley had become intimately acquainted with the Moravians and their system, having visited their settlement at Herrnhut in 1738, and having taken part in the services of their chapel in Fetter Lane for more than a year after his return. This association had tended greatly to weaken Wesley's hold upon the system of the Church, and although to the latest day of his life he earnestly repudiated the idea of separating from it, yet his movement from that date distinctly and progressively tended towards the formation of a religious community independent of the Church. The impetus of this sectarian movement grew with every year of his life, and after his death Methodism at once passed beyond the borders of the Church of England, and was developed into a separate body by the lay-preachers, whose authority then took the place of that so long exercised by the clerical head of their Society. The first step which Wesley himself took in this direction was that of building " preachinghouses," the object of which was very similar to that of modern " mission chapels," but which differed from the latter in the important point of being set up without any sanction, obtained or sought, from the clergyman of the parish or the bishop of the diocese. This first step offers one illustration among many of the way in which Wesley, though exacting the strictest obedience from those who were set under him, disregarded the authority of those who were set over him whenever obedience clashed with his plans. " How far," he asks, in 1744, " is it our duty to obey the bishops?" His reply is, " I n all things indifferent. And on this ground of obeying them, we should observe the canons, so far as we can with a safe conscience " [Min. of Conf. i. 8]. Thus, while professing to be earnestly devoted to the system of the Church of England, and laying great stress upon his position as a priest of that Church, he began the organization of his Society by acting as if such a thing as Church laws had no existence, and recognising no authority except his own. When he was asked, a quarter of a century later, by what authority he acted, his reply was, " B y the authority of Jesus Christ, conveyed to me by the now Archbishop of Canterbury, when he laid hands upon me and said, Take thou authority to preach the Gospel" [Wesley's Works, xxvii. 88]. But he garbled these words by omitting the important ones which

Methodists complete their sense, namely, " in the congregation where thou shalt be lawfully appointed theieu r t o ; " and this omission gives the hey to Wesley's life. The first preaching-house was begun at Bristol on May 12th, 1739, but before it was completed Wesley had fitted up for the purpose an old cannon-foundry in Moorfields, and this was opened under the name of " The Foundry," and as the headquarters of the Methodist movement, on November 11th, 1739, which may be regarded as the birthday of the sect, though many years elapsed before its position as a separate family from the Church of England was fully established. The second step towards the organization of Methodism as a sect was the appointment of lay preachers. The preaching-houses were originally intended as places where Wesley and other clergymen who co-operated with him might officiate at any time without asking for the use of a church, or being necessarily driven to preach in the open air. They also, doubtless, offered greater freedom for extempore prayer, and many customs could be permitted in them which Wesley and his clerical friends would have shrunk from countenancing in a consecrated building. But an uneducated young layman named Thomas Maxiield,1 whom Wesley had appointed to pray extempore in the preaching-house at Moorfields during his own absence at Bristol, thought himself as well able to preach as to pray, and was encouraged to do so by Lady Huntingdon [Life of Lady Hunt. i. 3]. " H e is," she wrote to Wesley, " one of the greatest instances of God's peculiar favour that I know. He has raised from the stones one to sit among the princes of His people"—"princes" being apparently interpreted "preachers" by this rather silly Countess. He hastened to London to put a stop to the innovation, of which he very strongly disapproved; but his mother's persuasions were added to those of Lady Huntingdon, and feminine influence so far overcame Wesley's better judgment, that he was persuaded to sanction Maxfield's performances with the questionable explanation, " I t is the Lord, let Him do what seemeth Him good." From that time [A.D. 1741] lay-preacliing became part of the Methodist system, and by means of it the Methodists were rapidly withdrawn from the influence of the Church system.; for the ministrations of an ordained clergy became less and less necessary in their eyes the more they became familiar with the sight of laymen in the pulpits of their preaching-houses. Wesley apologized for this innovation on the ground of necessity, for " what could they do in a case of so extreme necessity, where so many souls were at stake 1 ~Ro clergyman would assist at all." But his writings in the Minutes of Conference and elsewhere give abundant evidence 1 Maxfield was ordained some years afterwards by the Bishop of Deny, with the words, " S i r , I ordain you to assist that good man, that he may not work himself to death." Eventually he seceded from Wesley on. the question of Calvinism, and having become rich by marriage, he built a chapel for himself in Moorfields, where he officiated f«r twenty years.

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Methodists that the system thus forced upon him was one which he never heartily accepted, and that the preachers were often too strong for the power of even his will to keep close to the pattern of his own orthodox teaching. Ever afterwards, also, he was in dread that they would end by severing that connection with the Church which he still claimed for his Society. " Do we separate from the Church?" he asked in the conference which was held three years after lay-preaching had been established. His answer was: " W e conceive not. W e hold communion therewith for conscience' sake, by constantly attending both the Word preached and the Sacraments administered therein " [Min. of Conf. i. 9], But the " we " included a very small number, if any, of his preachers, and the growing secession from the Church became so evident, that in 1749 he issued the following remonstrance and admonition to them, the language of which, even under its catechetical veil, clearly indicates the circumstances of the case. " In every place," he writes, " exhort those who were brought up in the Church constantly to attend its service. And in visiting the classes, ask every one, ' Do you go to Church as often as ever you did?' Set the example yourself. And immediately alter every plan that interferes therewith. I s there not a cause for this 1 Are we not unawares, by little and little, tending to a separation from the Church 1 Oh ! remove every tendency thereto with all diligence. [1] Let all our preachers go to Church. [2] Let all our people go constantly. 3] Receive the sacrament at every opportunity. _4J Warn all against niceness in hearing, a great prevailing evil. [5] Warn them likewise against despising the prayers of the Church. [6] Against calling our Society a church or the Church. [7] Against calling our preachers ministers ; our houses meeting-houses; (call them plain preaching-houses.) [8] Do not license them as such. The proper form of a petition to the judge is, ' A. B. desires to have his house in C. licensed for public worship.' [9] Do not license yourself, till you are constrained ; and then not as a Dissenter, but a Methodist preacher. I t is time enough, when yon are prosecuted, to take the oaths. Thereby you are licensed." [31in. of Conf. i. 57.] The third step towards the separation of Wesley's Society from the Church was a personal act of schism, of the gravest possible character, on the part of Wesley himself; for on September 2nd, 1784, a new plea of necessity induced him to assume the office of a bishop by going through the form of consecrating Dr. Coke and Mr. Asbury as bishops, and others as priests, for his missions in North America: Dr. Coke being already a priest of the Church of England. The shockingcharacter of this assumption he attempted to veil by calling the pretended bishops " superintendents," and the others " elders," and by alleging " Lord King's account of the Primitive Church convinced me many years ago that bishops and presbyters are the same order, and consequently have the same right to ordain : " and this

Methodists when Lord King himself had recanted his unhistorical notion. He also excused himself on the following grounds : " It has, indeed, been proposed to desire the English bishops to ordain part of our preachers for America. But to this 1 object. [1] I desired the Bishop of London to ordain only one, but could not prevail. [2] If they consented, we know the slowness of their proceedings ; but the matter admits of no delay. [3] If they would ordain them now, they would likewise expect to govern them. And how grievously would this entangle us ! [4] As our American brethren are now totally disentangled, both from the State and from the English hierarchy, we dare not entangle them again either with the one or the other. They are now at full liberty simply to follow the Scriptures and the Primitive Church. And we judge it best that they should stand fast in that liberty wherewith God has so strangely made them free." [Min. of Conf. i. 179.] But this professed confidence for " many years " in his power as a priest to act as a bishop, had never yet been sufficiently strong to induce him to go through the same forms of ordination with his preachers, though he was "for many years importuned" to do so. I t is not too much to say, 1. that he had far too great facility in convincing himself that what he wished to do was right to do, and 2. that his respect for his preachers was not strong enough to stimulate his wishes to the point of raising them to the same ministerial level with himself in England. 1 The wise Alexander Knox, his intimate friend, wrote that Wesley was " the dupe of his own weakness, and of other men's arts" [lietnains of Knox, iii. 470, ed. 1837], which seems to be the plain and straightforward explanation of the matter. I t was the occasion of a sarcastic epigram from the pen of Charles Wesley :— " How easy now are Bishops made, By man or woman's whim ; Wesley his hands on Coke hath laid, But who laid hands on him ?"

And although the loving spirits of the two could not be alienated from each other, Charles Wesley ceased for the remaining four years of his life to take any further part in the affairs of the Methodists beyond that of paying his brother's debts. The fourth and last step taken by Wesley towards organizing his followers into one independent sect was that of authorizing the preaches to use the Book of Common Prayer in the preaching-houses. This he did first about the beginning of 1786, his rules respecting the permission being given in a paper dated from Bristol on July 22nd of that year. " Perhaps there is one part of what I wrote some time since which requires a little further explanation. I n what cases do we allow of service in Church hours 1 I answer, [1] When the minister is a notoriously wicked m a n ; [2] 1 When they had complained in 1766 that he was "shackling free-born Englishmen by not permitting them to vote in the Conferences," his reply was, " I answer, it is possible, after my death, something of this kind may take place : but not while I live and when he was charged with making himself a Pope, he replied, " I see no hurt in it." [Min. of Conf. i. 60.]

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Methodists When he preaches Arian, or any equally pernicious doctrine ; [3] When there are not churches in the town sufficient to contain half the people ; and [4] When there is no church at all within two or three miles. And we advise every one who preaches in the Church hours to read the Psalms and Lessons, with part of the Church prayers : because we apprehend this will endear the Church service to our brethren, who probably would be prejudiced against it if they heard none but extemporary prayer" [Min. of Conf. i. 191], But these vague limitations were superseded shortly afterwards, in 1788, by the following general order : " The assistants shall have a discretionary power to read the Prayer Book in the preaching-houses on Sunday mornings, when they think it expedient, if the generality of the society acquiesce with it; on condition that Divine Service never be performed in the Church hours on the Sundays when the Sacrament is administered in the parish church where the preachinghouse is situated, and the people be strenuously exhorted to attend the Sacrament in the parish church on those Sundays " [ibid. 208]. These four steps towards making the Methodists a sect (in spite of his frequent and vigorous protests against their separation from the Church) bore their fruit, even in their ^ « ' W s lifetime. The preachers had importuned Wesley in ordain them, but by permitting them to preach and to use the Book of Common Prayer he had given them a position which, to their ignorant minds, seemed almost the same as that of clergymen. One thing only seemed to them to be wanting to complete their sacerdotal character, and that was permission to administer the Holy Communion. Wesley stopped these demands at first by expelling those who made them from his society [Centenary of Meth. 38], but they increased so greatly in number that this course became no longer possible without breaking up the work of his life. Some of his last words shew better than any others can do how vigorously he resisted this final attempt to make the Methodist Society independent of the Church. " I n 1744, all the Methodist preachers had their first Conference; but none of them dreamed that the being called to preach gave them any right to administer Sacraments j one of our first rules was given to each preacher : ' You are to do that part of the work which we appoint.' But what work was this ? Did we ever appoint you to administer Sacraments 1 to exercise the priestly office ? Such a design never entered into our mind; it was farthest from our thoughts; and if any member had taken such a step, we should have looked upon it as a palpable breach of this rule, and consequently as a recantation of our connection. I wish all you who are vulgarly termed Methodists would seriously consider what has been said, and particularly you whom God has commissioned to call sinners to repentance. I t does by no means follow hence, that you axe commissioned xo BAPTIZE AND TO ADMINISTER THE LORD'S SUFFER. Ye never dreamed of this for

Methodists ten or twenty years after ye began to preach; ye did not tlien, like Korah, Dathan, and Abiram, seek the priesthood also ; ye knew no man taketh this honour unto himself but lie that is called of God, as was Aaron. Oh, contain yourselves within your own bounds." [Armin. Meth. Mag. 1790.] John Wesley died on March 2nd, 1791, at the great age of eighty-eight. His personal holiness had gained for him the veneration of all who knew him ; his vast industry in preaching had led multitudes to a better life; his great powers of organization had formed a Society whose ramifications extended through every part of England and Wales, and across the Atlantic; his strong will had kept that Society under control far beyond anything that could have been expected when it is considered of what social elements it was composed. But when the influence of his holiness, industry, and strong will were removed, the revolution which had been impending among the Methodists for so many years immediately broke out, and exhibited at once the weak point in his organization, that of making it dependent on a personal influence that must soon pass away, instead of resting it on the corporate system of the Church, which has a continuous existence. If Wesley had possessed more faith in the Episcopate as a system, and less confidence in his own power of organization he mighthave reformed theChurch r i " \^ivgiand instead of founding a sect.1 1 His views on the subject are further illustrated by the following letter, which is in the possession of Mr. Henry J. Mills of Bristol, the lady to whom it is addressed having become the second wife of Mr. Mills' grandfather. "London, Oct. 10, 1778. " M y dear Miss Bishop,—I am not unwilling to write to you, even upon a tender subject, because you will weigh the matter fairly. And if you have a little prepossession (which, who has not?) yet you are willing to give it up to reason. " T h e original Methodists were all of the Church of England, and the more awakened they were the more zealously they adhered to it in every point, both of Doctrine anil Discipline. Hence we inserted in the very first Rules of our Society, ' They that leave the Church leave us.' And this we did, not as a point of prudence, but a point of conscience. We believed it utterly unlawful to separate from the Church, unless sinful terms of communion were imposed ; just as did Mr. Philip Henry, and most of those holy men that were contemporary with them. " ' But the ministers of it do not preach the Gospel.' Neither do the Independent or Anabaptist ministers. Calvinism is not the Gospel; nay, it is further from it than most of the sermons I hear at Church. These are very frequently unevangelical ; but those are anti-evangelical. They are (to say no more) equally wrong ; and they are far more dangerously wrong. Few of the Methodists are now in danger of imbibing error from the Church ministers ; but they are in great danger of imbibing the grand error—Calvinism—from the Dissenting ministers. Perhaps thousands have done it already; most of whom have drawn back to perdition. I see more instances of this than any one else can do ; and on this ground also exhort all who would keep to the Methodists, and from Calvinism—' Go to the Church and not the meeting.' " But, to speak freely, I myself find more life in the Church prayers than in the formal extemporary prayers of Dissenters. Nay, I find more profit in sermons on either good tempers or good works than in what are vulgarly called Gospel sermons. That term is now become a mere cant word. I wish none of our Society would use it. It has no determinate meaning. Let but a pert, selfsufficient animal, that has neither sense nor grace, bawl 316

Methodists But that Wesley had founded a sect became only too evident immediately after his death. The younger generation of Methodists had long accepted such a position for themselves; and as soon as their head was taken away from them they began their endeavours to force the whole body to take up definitively and officially a similar position. Within two months of Wesley's death, his Society was racked with dissension on two questions, the one relating to its government and the other to the administration of the Sacraments independently of the Church. The younger party wished to restrict the power of the preachers by admitting " laymen " to a larger share in the general and the detailed management of the Society, and to remove every restraint as to the times of service and the administration of the Sacraments in the preaching-houses. Opposite to these was a party that desired to return to the original idea of Methodism ,as an organization supplementary to the Church system, and not supplanting it. A third and intermediate party, led by those into whose hands the power of Wesley was passing, desired to stereotype Wesley's latter plans, only permitting the Methodist chapel to be a complete rival to the parish church in particular cases, and reserving to the Conference the power of licensing it to become so. This latter party was entirely opposed also to any extension of lay influence in the Conference, or in the minor organizations of the Methodist body. After much preliminary pamphleteering and wrangling, the Conference met at Manchester on July 26th, 1791, when a letter was produced which Wesley had written on April 7th, 1785, and committed to the charge of his travelling companion or secretary, in which he besought the Conference to let all things go on, as far as circumstances would permit, exactly in the same manner as during his lifetime [¿/ire. of Conf. i. 234], A president was therefore elected from the intermediate party. The Conference took upon itself the government of the body without any further change than that of arranging the " circuits into " districts," and then out something about Christ and His Blood, or justification by faith, and his hearers cry out, ' What a fine Gospel sermon !' Surely the Methodists have not so learnt Christ ? We know no Gospel without salvation from sin. " T h e r e is a Romish error which many Protestants sanction unawares. I t is an avowed doctrine of the Romish Church that the 'pure intention of the minister is essential to the validity of the Sacraments.' If so, we ought not to attend the ministrations of an unholy m a n ; but in flat opposition to this, our Church teaches, in the 28th Article, that ' the unworthiness of the minister does not hinder the validity of the Sacraments.' Although, therefore, there are many disagreeable circumstances, yet I advise all our friends to keep to the Church. God has surely raised us up for the Church chiefly, that a. little leaven may leaven the whole lump. " I wish you would seriously consider that little tract, 'Reasons against a Separation from the Church of England.' Those reasons were never answered yet, and I believe they never will be. " I am glad you have undertaken that labour of love, and I trust it will increase both your spiritual and bodily health. " I am, my dear Miss Bishop, " Y o u r s very aifectionatelv, "J.

WESLEY."

Methodists

Methodists

now agreed, that the Lord's Supper shall not be administered in future where the union and concord of the Society can be preserved without it. 4thly, The preachers will not perform the office of Baptism, except for the desirable ends of love and concord ; though Baptism, as well as the burial of the dead, was performed by many of the preachers long before the death of Mr. Wesley, and with his consent." [Min. of Gonf. i. 299.] The final settlement of the question was effected in the year 1795, when eighteen "Articles" respecting the Sacraments and Discipline were set forth, the ten first, relating to the former subject, being these :—" Articles of agreement for general pacification : [I.] Concerning the Lord's Supper, Baptism, &c. 1. The Sacrament of the Lord's Supper shall not be administered in any chapel, except the majority of the trustees of that chapel on the one hand, and the majority of the stewards and leaders belonging to that chapel (as the best qualified to give the sense of the people) on the other hand, allow of it. Nevertheless, in all cases, the consent of the Conference shall be obtained before the Lord's Supper he administered. 2. Wherever there is a society, but no chapel, if the majority of the stewards and leaders of that society testify that it is the wish of the people that the Lord's Supper should be administered to them, their desire shall be gratified: provided, that the consent of the Conference be previously obtained. 3. Provided, nevertheless, that in Mount Pleasant Chapel in Liverpool, and in all other chapels where the Lord's Supper has been already peaceably administered, the administration of it shall be continued I n 1793 a resolution was passed by the Con- in future. 4. The administration of baptism, ference, " That the Sacrament of the Lord's the burial of the dead, and service in Church Supper shall not be administered by the preachers hours, shall be determined according to the reguin any part of our Connexion, except where the lations above mentioned. 5. Wherever the Lord's whole Society is unanimous for it, and will not Supper shall be administered according to the be contented without it; and, in even those few before-mentioned regulations, it shall always be exempt Societies, it shall be administered, as far continued, except the Conference order the conas practicable, in the evening only, and according trary. 6. The Lord's Supper shall be administo the form of the Church of England." [Min. of tered by those only who are authorized by the Conference, and at such times, and in such Gonf. i. 279.] manner only, as the Conference shall appoint. At the same time an Address was printed in 7. The administration of Baptism, and the Lord's which the Conference said, " W e are determined, Supper according to the above regulations, is as a body, to remain in connexion with the intended only for the members of our own Church of England. W e have never sanctioned Society. 8. W e agree, that the Lord's Supper be ordination in England, either in this Conference administered among us on Sunday evenings or in any other, in any degree, or ever attempted only, except where the majority of the stewards to do it." [Min. of Gonf. i. 281.] and leaders desire it in church hours, or where I n 1794 other resolutions were passed on the it has already been administered in those hours. same subject, as follows : " 1st, All ecclesiastical Nevertheless, it shall never be administered on titles, such as Reverend, &c., shall be laid aside, those Sundays on which it is administered in as also gowns, bands, &c., agreeably to the resothe parochial church. 9. The Lord's Supper lutions of the Conference held at Leeds in 1793. 1 shall be always administered in England accord2ndly, Preaching in Church hours shall not be ing to the form of the Established Church; but permitted, except for special reasons, and where the person who administers shall have full it will not cause a division. 3rdly, As the liberty to give out hymns and to use exhortation Lord's Supper has not been administered, except and extemporary prayer. 10. Wherever Divine where the Society has been unanimous for it, and Service is performed in England, on the Lord's would not have been contented without it, it is day in Church hours, the officiating preacher 1 shall read either the service of the Established The President of the Conference lias recently been

pledged itself to a conservative policy in the words, " W e engage to follow strictly the plan •which Mr. Wesley left us at his death." [Min. of Covf. i. 246.] I t is needless to go into any detail respecting the hitter wranglings which ensued during the next few years, in consequence of the position thus taken up by the Conference. Ignoring this, we may see the plain history of the case indicated by the following extracts from the minutes of the following year. "Q. 23. What rules shall be made concerning ordinations'? A. 1. No ordination shall take place in the Methodist Connexion without the consent of the Conference first obtained. 2. If any brother shall break the abovementioned rule, by ordaining or being ordained, without the consent of the Conference previously obtained, the brother so breaking the rule does thereby exclude himself. Q. 24. What rule shall be made concerning the administration of the Lord's Supper 1 A. The Lord's Supper shall not be administered by any person among our Societies in England and Ireland, for the ensuing year, on any consideration whatsoever, except in London. Q. 26. What rule shall be made concerning the service in the Church-hours 1 A. The service shall not be performed in any new place in the Church hours in future, without the consent of the Conference first obtained. Q. 27. Expressions have been used by some, through a false zeal for their own peculiar sentiments, which were very unjustifiable. How shall we prevent this in future i A. No person is to call another heretic, bigot, or by any other disrespectful name, on any account, for a difference in sentiment." [Min. of Gonf. i. 259.]

styled "Eight Reverend."

317

Methodists

Methodists

Church, our venerable father's abridgment, or at least the Lessons appointed by tlio Calendar. But we recommend either the full service, or the abridgment." [Min. of Gonf. i. 322.] During the few following years the petitions for permission to administer the Sacraments were very numerous, and it was not long before the practice became almost universal in Methodist chapels. The usual mode of "ordination" adopted until the year 1836 was that of " setting apart" with prayer. I n that year imposition of hands "was introduced, and this has been the only important change in the practice of the Methodists since their final settlement as a body distinct from the Church by the above " Articles of Pacification." The later history of the sect has not been distinguished by any other events of importance except the formation of other sects from the original one. These have been the " New Connexion," which separated under the leadership of Alexander Kilham, on the questions of the Sacraments and lay influence, in the year 1797 [METHODISTS, NEW CONNEXION] : the Primitive

Methodists,

who separated in the year 1810, who claimed, but were forbidden, the right to use the original exciting methods of promoting conversion [METHODISTS, PRIMITIVE] : the Bryanites, or Bible Christians, who formed a sect in Cornwall in 1815 [METHODISTS, BRYANJTE] : the " Wesleyan Association," which was formed in 1835, and the "Wesleyan Reformers " in 1839, both of which have since been united in one sect [METHODISTS, U N I T E D F R E E CHURCH]. III.

T H E ORGANIZATION OF THE METHODISTS.

The most distinctive feature of the system established by Wesley was its organization for the purposes of religious discipline, finance, and ecclesiastical government; an organization which was admirably adapted to the habits of the classes out of whom his community was formed. 1] Bands. The unit of this system is a small body of from five to ten persons called a " b a n d . " 1 I t is not compulsory on every Methodist to belong to one of these bands, but it was Wesley's original intention that all should so associate themselves voluntarily. His object was to keep up a sense of sin in the members of his confraternity, and to assist them in overcoming temptation, by means of mutual confession. 1 This system of " b a n d s " was copied from the Moravians, having been established by Zinzendorf in 1727. "The Societies called bands," said Zinzendorf, speaking in 1747 of what had occurred twenty years before, "consist of a few individuals met together in the name of Jesus, amongst whom Jesus is: who converse together in a particularly cordial and childlike manner on the whole state of their hearts, and conceal nothing from each other, but who have wholly committed themselves to each other's care in the Lord. Cordiality, secrecy, and daily intercourse is of great service to such individuals, and ought never to be neglected; but whenever slothfulness creeps in, the individuals ought to feel ashamed of it and amend." [Spangenberg's Life of Zinzendorf, Jackson's transl. 87.] " Love feasts" were also established at Herrnhut in 1727, originating in little companies that were provided with "something from the Count's kitchen for dinner, which they ate together in love " after returning from receiving the Communion

[ibid. 89]. 318

" The design " of the bands, he writes, " is to obey that command of God, ' Confess your faults one to another, and pray one for another that you may be healed.' The chief rules are : [1] To meet once a week. [2] To come punctually. [3] To begin with singilig or prayer. [4] To speak each of us in order, freely and plainly, the true state of our soul, with the faults we have committed in thought, word, or deed, and the temptations we have felt since our last meeting. [5] To desire some person among us (thence called a leader) to speak his own state first, and then to ask the rest in order as many and as searching questions as may be concerning their state, sins, and temptations." Two questions are to be asked occasionally, thus :—" Do you desire we should come as close as possible, that we should cut to the quick, and search your heart to the bottom 1 Is it your desire and design to be on this and all other occasions entirely open, so as to speak everything that is in your heart, without exception, without disguise, and without reserve?" Four questions are, however, to be asked at every meeting of the band :—[1] " W h a t known sins have you committed since our last meeting 1 [2] W h a t temptations have you met with ? [3] How were you delivered 1 [4] W h a t have you thought, said, or done, of which you doubt whether it be a sin or not ?" [Wesley's Works, xv. 212, 1st ed.] These " bands " were considered of great importance for the spiritual discipline of his followers by Wesley. " A3 soon," he wrote to his preachers in 1768, " a s there are four men or women believers in any place, put them into a band. These need to be inquired of continuallj*, and the place of any that do not meet supplied. I n every place where there are bands, meet them constantly, and encourage them to speak without reserve" [Min. of Gonf. i. 79]. " E x h o r t the leaders of bands to speak to those with them in the closest manner possible" [ibid. 73]. " An objection boldly and frequently urged is, ' all these bands are mere popery.' A very stale objection, which many people make against anything they do not like, and which betrays the gross ignorance of those who make it in two respects: the confession we practise (in bands) Papists do n o t ; the confession they hold (i.e. private to a priest) our Church holds also" [Wesley's Works, xv. 214], The band meetings •were considered as private and confidential: and the nature of the confessions required at them was, of course, such as obliged the bands for each sex to be held separately. I t was also contrived that each band should consist of persons occupying similar positions in life, and of about a uniform age, so that they might speak their minds with the less embarrassment. After Wesley's death the band part of his system greatly fell off. [Min. of Gonf. iii. 294.] 2] Classes. The next step in the system is that of "classes," consisting of from twelve to thirty persons, to one of which every Methodist must necessarily belong, several of these classes making a " society" or congregation. The mem-

Methodists

Methodists Iters of these classes are required to meet, under a leader of their own election, once a week, when, after a hymn and a prayer, each member of the class is expected to follow the leader in telling his spiritual "experience" during the week preceding. This practice has been found to degenerate into unreal exaggeration, in which persons often magnify the depths of wickedness out of which they have escaped, and mostly the heights of goodness to which they have attained. And it seems impossible that ordinary persons could be trusted to tell their " experience " without such unreality arising, partly from a supposed necessity of saying something, partly from the difficulty of making a true " diagnosis " of one's own case, and partly from emulation in the ostentation of humility. The class-meeting is, however, a very essential part of the modern Methodist system. " Whatever may be alleged," says the Conference of 1870, "against that mode of Christian fellowship which is in use among ourselves, it was the origin of Methodism. The peculiar features of our system have grown out of the class meeting. . . . W e exhort you on every ground to value the pearl of Methodist privileges. To surrender the class meeting is to take the heart out of Methodism; to esteem it lightly is to enfeeble the pulsations of that heart" [ M i n . of Conf. 1870, p. 216], I n the next year, however, the Conference " cannot but mourn over the report this year of a diminished number in our classes," and they associate this diminution with the " spiritual depression" of Methodists. \_Min. of Conf. 1871, p. 227.] I t is also to be observed that the class meeting has an important bearing on the financial prosperity of the Methodist community, since every member of a class is required to contribute at least one penny weekly, and one shilling quarterly to the general fund, out of which ministers are paid. This Wesley calls his " original rule" [Min. of Conf. p. i. 159, ed.

1812],

3] Circuits. Several of the " societies" (or congregations formed by the union of several classes) are organized into a " circuit," which generally comprehends the chapels in some market town and the villages for ten or twelve miles round. To each of these circuits are appointed from one to five ministers, and a number of lay or " local" preachers, the ministers being technically called " travelling preachers," because they are not allowed to continue in the same circuit for more than one or two years ; the local preachers always remaining in the circuit to which they belong. The senior minister of each circuit is called the " superintendent" of it, and to him is committed the general supervision of all the societies and the preachers within its boundaries. These superintendents were originally called " assistants " to Wesley. 4] Districts. The circuits are again organized into "districts," of which there are thirty-three in England and Scotland, each containing on an average eighteen circuits. These districts (which were arranged by the Conference after Wesley's death) are organized chieflv for the purpose of gathering 319

the preachers together in meetings at appointed times for financial and disciplinal objects. Of the district meetings thus gathered each one acts as a kind of local committee of the Conference, when that body is not sitting, having authority to suspend preachers for misconduct or insufficiency, to authorize the building of chapels, and to superintend the finances of the district. Every district has its chairman and financial secretary. 5] The Conference. This is the central governing body of the Methodist community. I t consisted originally of those travelling preachers whom Wesley invited to meet him once a year for consultation respecting the affairs of the community, and to assist him in making and enforcing arrangements for its government. I n the year 1784, this annual Conference was formed into a body, recognisable in Courts of Law by a " Deed of Declaration," drawn up under the advice of counsel, and properly enrolled in the Court of Chancery. Under this deed, " The Yearly Conference of the people called Methodists" consists of one hundred of the travelling preachers originally nominated by Wesley ; its succession being, however, provided for by directing that after his death vacancies should be filled up by the Conference itself. I t meets once a year in London or some large provincial town, for a session not to exceed three weeks, or to last less than five days, and appoints committees for carrying on the details of business connected with the various institutions of Methodism during the interval between its meetings. Although the Deed of Declaration limits this body to the number of one hundred, every preacher who has been admitted into " full connexion," after five years' itinerancy, is permitted to attend, and to vote in its proceedings. The presidency of the Conference is the post of highest honour in the Methodist community, having been filled by Wesley himself for forty-seven years. The principal business of the Conference is the reception of probationers on trial for the ministry, the ordination of those preachers whoso term of probation has expired, the appointment of preachers to every circuit for the ensuing year, and the general supervision of the affairs of Methodists throughout England. The results of its proceedings are ultimately published in the form of " Minutes of Conference." IV.

T H E THEOLOGY OF THE METHODISTS

has

been from the beginning of their existence as a community, and still is, formally that of the Church of England. John and Charles Wesley were, like their father and their elder brother, High Churchmen of the Laudian school; they, like Laud and other opponents of Calvinism, being called " Arminians." John Wesley accepted the title of Arminian, but the jejune creed of the true Arminians was far from being his creed, and he accepted it only in the modified sense of anti-Calvinist, being very imprudent in accepting at all a name which merely represented one controversial facett of his theology. 1 1 "Wesley's almost morbid aversion to Calvinism might be illustrated by very many passages from his works.

Methodists

Methodists I t is not unfrequently alleged, indeed, that the theology of Wesley in his later life was very different from that of his earlier days. But those who knew him well thought differently, and his own words agree with their testimony. Alexander Knox wrote, " In his prevalent tastes and likings, as an individual, he was a Church of England man of the highest tone ; not only did he value and love that pure spirit of faith and piety which the Church of England inherits from Catholic antiquity; but even in the more circumstantial part there was not a service or a ceremony, a gesture or a habit, for which he has not an unfeigned predilection." " I am now," he himself writes in his last years, " and have been from my youth, a member and minister of the Church of England, and I have no desire nor design to separate from it till my soul separates from my body." " I have uniformly gone on for fifty years, never varying from the doctrine of the Church at all." " I have been uniform both in doctrine and discipline for above these fifty years, and it is a little too late for me to turn into a new path now I am grey-headed.'' Abundant illustrations have also been given from his works to the same effect [John Wesley and High Churchmen, by an old Methodist, 1866], shewing that his teaching on the subject of the Sacraments of Baptism and the Holy Communion, and on other chief doctrines of Christianity, was distinctly that of the Church of England as interpreted by theologians of the present day. 1 His very first principle was indeed that of maintaining such a position. " I hold all the doctrines of the Church of England," he wrote in 1790, The following is taken from the Minutes of 1776. " Q. 26. Calvinism has been the grand hindrance of the work of God. "What makes men swallow it so greedily ? A. Because it is so pleasing to flesh and blood : the doctrine of final perseverance in particular. Q. 27. What can be done to stop its progress ? A. 1. Let all our preachers carefully read our tracts, and Mr. Fletcher's and Mr. Sellon's. 2. Let them preach Universal Kedemption frequently and explicitly ; but in love and gentleness, taking care never to return railing for railing. Let the Calvinists have all this to themselves. 3. Do not imitate them in screaming, allegorizing, calling themselves ordained, boasting of their learning, college, or ' my lady.'" The Countess of Huntingdon was the great patroness of Whitfield and the Calvinistic Methodists. The rivalry of John Wesley and " m y lady" was so well known that they came to be called " P o p e J o h n " and " P o p e Joan." 1 The tone of Wesley's churchmanship may be illustrated by the following memorandum in his own handwriting, written when he was about forty years of age :— " I believe [myself] it a duty to observe, so far as I can [without breaking communion with my own Church] " 1 . To baptize by immersion. " 2 . To use Water, Oblation of Elements, Invocation, Alms, a Prothesis, in the Eucharist. " 3. To pray for the faithful departed. " 4. To pray standing on Sunday in Pentecost. " 5. To observe Saturday and Sunday Pentecost as festival. " 6. To abstain from blood, things strangled. " I think it prudent (our own Church not considered): " 1. To observe the Stations. " 2. Lent, especially the Holy Week. " 3 . To turn to the East at the Creed." [Urlin's Wesley's Place in Church Hist. 69.]

320

" and I love her Liturgy, I approve her plan of discipline, and only wish it could be put in execution" [Armin. Mag. 1790, p. 287]. It was in this sense also that he accepted the names " Precisian " and " Methodist," writing that a " a true Methodist" was " none other than a true Churchman," precise and methodical in his observance of Church rules respecting the practice of personal piety. [Wesley's Works, xvi. 10.] The standard of Methodist theology is still formally the same, being based on Wesley's Sermons and his Notes to the iTew Testament, to both of which the preachers of the " Old Connexion" are obliged to subscribe. The Thirty-nine Articles of Beligion are accepted by Methodists, as is also the Book of Common Prayer, the sacramental offices of which are used entire, although those of Morning and Evening Prayer are usually abridged. ]STo standard of doctrine other than that of the Church of England has ever been imposed upon the Methodists either by Wesley or by the Conference; and what variations from it there may be in the teaching of some of their ministers are the variations of individual opinion only, which have no sanction from any authoritative Methodist formulary of faith. V.

THE

PRACTICAL SYSTEM OP THE M E T H O -

DISTS. Apart from the usurpation of the sacerdotal office by their ministers, the Methodists have not anything in their practical system which is inconsistent with the principles of the Church of England. It met with the disapprobation of many in former days on account of its " enthusiasm," but much of what is called enthusiastic in the practices of the Methodists results from a sincere zeal in the pursuit of personal religion; and its faults are rather those of stilted language and general bad taste than those of unorthodoxy. The discipline adopted by them in their "classes" is simply a form of pastoral superintendence; and though the "class-meetings" at which they " tell their experience," have often been made occasions for the display of spiritual vanity and pride, their real object is exactly that of confession—the unburdening of conscience. Such practices were strange enough to the " donnish " bishops and other prominent persons who were taken as exemplars of the Church of England down to quite a recent period, but the revival of personal religion and devotional earnestness which was effected by the Evanglieal and Tractarian movements has naturalized the zeal and the confessional system of the Methodists ; and has also shewn that stilted language and bad taste in religion are merely class peculiarities, which must be borne with until they pass away under the influence of sound religious education. The practical system of the Methodists is founded on a set of rules which were drawn up by the two Wesleys in the year 1743, and as these offer a full illustration of it in the present day, as well as in the early days of Methodism, they are given at length.

Methodists " RULES OF THE SOCIETY OF THE PEOPLE CALLED METHODISTS.

"1. I n the latter end of the year 1739, eight or ten persons came to me in London, who appeared to be deeply convinced of sin, and earnestly groaning for redemption. They desired (as did two or three more the next day) that I would spend some time with them in prayer, and advise them how to flee from the wrath to come, which they saw continually hanging over their heads. That we might have more time for this great work, I appointed a day when they might all come together; which, from thenceforward, they did every week, viz., on Thursday in the evening. To these, and as many more as desired to join with them (for their number increased daily), I gave those advices from time to time which I judged most needful for them ; and we always concluded our meetings with prayer suitable to their several necessities, " 2 . This was the rise of the U N I T E D SOCIETY, first in London, and then in other places. Such a society is no other than ' a company of men having the form, and seeking the power, of godliness ; united in order to pray together, to receive the word of exhortation, and to watch over one another in love, that they may help each other to work out their salvation.' " 3. That it may the more easily be discerned whether they are indeed working out their own salvation, each society is divided into smaller companies, called classes, according to their respective places of abode. There are about twelve persons in every class ; one of whom is styled the leader. I t is his business, " [1] To see each person in his class once a week, at least, in order " To inquire how their souls prosper ; " T o advise, reprove, comfort, or exhort, as occasion may require; " To receive what they are willing to give towards the support of the Gospel: " [2] To meet the ministers and the stewards of the society once a week, in order " To inform the minister of any that are sick, or of any that walk disorderly, and will not be reproved; " To pay to the stewards what they have received of their several classes in the week preceding ; and " To shew their account of what each person has contributed. " 4. There is one only condition previously required of those who desire admission into those societies; viz., ' a desire to flee from the wrath to come, and be saved from their sins.' But wherever this is really fixed in the soul, it will be shewn by its fruits. It is therefore expected cf all who continue therein that they should continue to evidence their desire of salvation, " First, By doing no harm, by avoiding evil in every kind ; especially that which is most generally practised. Such as " The taking the name of God in vain : " The profaning the day of the Lord, either by 321

Methodists doing ordinary work thereon, or by buying or selling: " Drunkenness ; buying or selling spirituous liquors ; or drinking them, unless in cases of extreme necessity : " Fighting, quarrelling, brawling; brother going to law with brother ; returning-evil for evil, or railing for railing; the using many words in buying or selling : " The buying or selling uncustomed goods : "•The giving or taking things on usury, viz. unlawful interest: " Uncharitable or unprofitable conversation ; particularly speaking evil of magistrates or of ministers : " Doing to others as we would not they should do unto us : " Doing what we know is not for the glory of God, as, " The putting on of gold and costly apparel; " The taking such diversions as cannot be used in the name of the Lord Jesus ; " T h e singing those songs, or reading those books, which do not tend to the knowledge or love of God : " Softness, and needless self-indulgence : " Laying up treasure upon earth : " Borrowing without a probability of paying ; or taking up goods without a probability of paying for them. " 5. I t is expected of all who continue in these societies, that they should continue to evidence their desire of salvation. " Secondly, By doing good, by being in every kind merciful after their power, as they have opportunity ; doing good of every possible sort, and as far as is possible to all men : " To their bodies, of the ability that God giveth, by giving food to the hungry, by clothing the naked, by helping or visiting them that are sick, or in prison : " To their souls, by instructing, reproving, or exhorting all we have any intercourse w i t h : trampling under foot that enthusiastic doctrine of devils, that 'we are not to do good, unless our hearts be free to it.' " By doing good, especially to them that are of the household of faith, or groaning so to b e ; employing them preferably to others, buying one of another, helping each other in business ; and so much the more, because the world will love its own, and them only. " By all possible diligence and frugality, that the Gospel be not blamed. " By running with patience the race that is set before them, denying themselves, and taking up their cross daily ; submitting to bear the reproach of Christ; to be as the filth and offscouring of the world ; and looking that men should say all manner of evil of them falsely, for the Lord's sake. " 6. I t is expected of all who desire to continue in these societies that they should continue to evidence their desire of salvation. " Thirdly, By attending upon all the ordinances of God : such are x

Methodists

Methodists " The public worship of God; " The ministry of the Word, either read or expounded ; " The Supper of the Lord ; " Family and private prayer " Searching the Scriptures; and " Fasting or abstinence. " 7. These are the general rules of our societies : all which we are taught of God to observe, even in His written Word,—the only rule, and the sufficient rule, both of our faith and practice. And all these we know His Spirit writes on every truly awakened heart. If there be any among us •who observe them not, who habitually break any of them, let it be made known unto them who watch over that soul, as they that must give an account. W e will admonish him of the error of his ways: we will bear with him for a season. But then, if he repent not, he hath no more place among us. W e have delivered our own souls. " JOHN WESLEY, "CIIABLES WESLEY. " M a y 1, 1 7 4 3 . "

These rules might just as well be called those of " the people called Churchmen" as those of " the people called Methodists ; " and when the Wesleys framed them, the two zealous brothers were but working out in their own way a good system of pastoral work such as is mapped out in Bishop Burnet's Pastoral Care, or George Herbert's Country Parson, and a good system of personal holiness such as was illustrated by the lives of the Ferrara, and has been illustrated by many others before and since, both in the Church of England and in Catholic Churches elsewhere. I n conclusion, it may be said that there is nothing which really differences the Methodist community from the Church of England, except the assumption of the sacerdotal office and sacerdotal functions by its ministers. This is an error of a very grave character, but it is one which has partly resulted from the incomplete manner in which the nature of the priest's office was sot forth by theologians of a past day ; and it is, therefore, one .for which much excuse may be made. The day may come when the better instructed Methodist preachers may seek and obtain episcopal ordination, and when the less educated class may also have work assigned to them analogous to their present work, but not sacerdotal, under similar authority. A general movement of this kind would go far towards ending the sectarian position of the Methodist body and restoring it to the position which it was intended by its fouTider to occupy. The two streams of practical godliness which now flow in the two separate channels of the Church of England and of the Methodist community, might then combine to form one great river whose broad expanse would represent an unity consistent with the varieties of English character and habit, and whose almost irresistible force would mould the religion of English-speaking people throughout the world. V I . STATISTICS OF THE W E S L E Y A N METHODISTS.

At the time of Wesley's death, in the year 1791, his 322

Societies in various countries numbered 130,622 members. Of these there were 60,000 in Great Britain, and 11,000 in Ireland, far the greater proportion of the former, 35,000 in the north and 12,000 in the west, being among the people of the northern and western counties. The number of ministers in Great Britain was then about 300, not including the local preachers. I n the year 1871, there were in England and Scotland 347,090 members of classes, and 18,12S on trial; the number of ministers being 1,649. These numbers shew a decrease during the previous twelve months of 1,381 members of classes and 2,307 on trial. A growing decrease in numbers is conspicuous in tho iron and cottoD districts, in the metropolis and in Scotland, as is shewn by the following table; and in populous districts it amounts to nearly 2 per cent, per annum diminution of actual members. Metropolis, . . Lancashire, . . Birminirhnm friiM d i - i r i i ' t , . D u r h a m , Cumberland, and Northumberland, . Scotland, . . . Total,

1870. 20,252 29,659

1871. 19,593 29,431

Decrease. 659 228

11,915

13,416

499

29,862 5,722

29,664 5,456

198 266

97,410

95,560

1,850

Other districts also are decreasing in numbers, but there is a partial counterbalance on the whole of some increase in Yorkshire, Wales, and the Eastern Counties. The whole number of members throughout the British Empire amounted in 1871 to 576,000, those on trial numbering 39,000, there being an increase of 5,000 in Canada and Australia during the preceding year. The Methodists formerly did but little in the work of educating their poor, considering their great resources; but since the formation of the "Wesleyan Education Committee" in 1837, they have been much more active in this direction, especially in recent years. In 1863, their week-day schools were 556 in number, with an attendance of 79,582 scholars. In 1871, the schools were 889, and the scholars 150,765. The number of Sunday scholars is about four times as large, and there is a teacher for every six children. The Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society employs upwards of 1,000 missionaries, for whose education a College has recently been established at Richmond near London. The expenditure of the Society on its missionary work amounts to ¿£150,000 a year. There are also two other Colleges for the education of Wesleyan ministers, one at Didsbury near Manchester, accommodating seventy students, and another for forty at Headingley near Leeds. [.Minutes of Conference. Wesley's Worlcs, ed. 1773 and 1829. Myles' Chronological Hist. Meth. Warren's Digest of Meth. Lams and Regul. Coke and Moore's Life of Wesley Tyerman's Life of Wesley. Smith's Hist, of

Methodists,

Calvinistic

Mdh. Steven's Hist, of Meth. Dict. o / T u e o l . Methodism.] METHODISTS, C A L Y I M S T I C . Another •branch of the great stream of religious revival, "which flowed off from that of "Wesley under the guidance of George Whitfield in the year 1741. While he was a young servitor at Pembroke [a.d. 1732-1736], Whitfield had become known to Charles Wesley, who was then a student of Christ Church, and through him to his brother John, who was a Fellow of Lincoln. He had thus been brought into association with the Methodists in the University stage of their existence, and when he was ordained deacon, in 1736, he very soon gave up his dull Hampshire curacy at DU tamer, and assumed to himself a roving commission as a preacher wherever ho could get people for hearers. After two years of such work, he left the shores of England for missionary work in Georgia just as Wesley was returning to them after his failure there. Beaching Georgia in May 1738, he was back in London on Dec. 8th of the same year, and on January 11th, 1739, was ordained priest. He sailed again for his living at Savannah in August, after much itinerant preaching in England; but towards the end of 1740, being suspended by the Episcopal Commissary in Georgia for ecclesiastical irregularities, he appealed home, and returned thither himself by March 11th, 1741, marrying a widow ten or twelve yeaTS older than himself shortly afterwards. The thirty-four years of his ministry were all spent in a similar restless manner, for during that time (of which he lived half in England and half in America) he made thirteen voyages across the Atlantic, and seldom remained many days together in one place, either in the old country or the new. I t was while Whitfield was in America in 1740, that he received information respecting Wesley's "Arminian" preaching of Universal Kedemption from John Cennick, one of the Methodist lay-preachers, who accompanied his information with an earnest entreaty that be "vvould return home to oppose the "heresy" of their master. A controversy at once arose between Wesley and Whitfield, and they preached and printed sermons against each other across the ocean. On his return to England Whitfield immediately began preaching on Kennington Common, and in Moorfields, not far from Wesley's " Foundry" chapel. Once lie was invited to preach in the chapel itself, and using the opportunity for the proclamation of his Calvinistic views respecting the eternal decree of some to damnation as well as of some to salvation, he was not permitted to preach there any more. For this he consoled himself with some words in Beza's Life of Calvin, "Calvin turned out of Geneva, but behold a new Church arises," and the omen was fulfilled by some of his admirers erecting a temporary wooden " Tabernacle" for him in Moorfields, shortly to be superseded by a permanent building. 1 1 "Tabernacle" was a terra used for the wooden sheds set up for Divine worship after the Fire of London. It

323

Methodists, Welsh Calvinistic From this date, 1741, the Methodists who dissented from Wesley on the ground of his opposition to Calvinism, looked to Whitfield as their theological leader for thirty years; but the practical leadership of the party drifted into the hands of the enthusiastic Countess of Huntingdon, and most of them in England became members of the Low Church sect which she established, half within and half without the Church of England. [Hdntingdon Connexion.] Whitfield died at ]NTewbury-Port near Boston, in JSfew England, on September 30th, 1770. He had no power whatever of organization, his one talent being that of impassioned preaching, and consequently his followers were never formed into a compact society by him as the Wesleyan Methodists were. Adam Clarke records a saying of Whitfield's illustrating this fact: " My brother Wesley acted wisely. The souls that were awakened under his ministry he joined in class, and thus preserved the fruits of his labour. This I neglected ; and my people are a rope of sand." 2 Some part of the sand agglomerated in the formation of Lady Huntingdon's sect: but a large portion of Whitfield's followers were absorbed into the Church, to form the nucleus of the "Evangelical" school. [Low Churchmen.] Some of their chapels were, however, kept up in a few places independently of the Church, yet following its usages so closely as to be mistaken for Episcopal chapels. Before the revival of Church building, not a few of them were found in which the Prayer Book, the surplice, and all Church customs were adopted in the same manner as in Lady Huntingdon's Connexion, although the ministers were not ordained in the Church. Such were Surrey Chapel, where the well-known Eowland Hill, brother of the great Lord Hill, was minister (who was, however, in deacon's orders), and Eanelagh Chapel, Chelsea, so well known at a later date as the Court Theatre. Most of these, however, have given way before Church extension, and the few scattered congregations of Calvinistic Methodists which still remain adopt the name of " Independent Methodists," and the usages of the Independents. METHODISTS, W E L S H CALVINISTIC. A large community of Methodists which owes its origin indirectly to Wesley, and has adopted his system of organization, but which follows the Calvinistic theology of Whitfield. is also used by Tillotson in 1688 in a letter to Lady Russel; and as synonymous with "chapel of ease" in the report of Convocation to Parliament respecting the scheme for new churches in 1710. 2 Wesley records his conviction, on August 25th, 1763, that the work of the Calvinistic Methodists was a "rope of sand" in spiritual matters also. " I was more convinced than ever that the preaching like an apostle, without joining together those that are awakened and training them up in the ways of God, is only begetting children for the murderer. How much preaching has there been for these twenty years in Pembrokeshire ? But no regular societies, no discipline, no order or connection, And the consequence is, that nine in ten of the once awakened are now faster asleep than ever.' [Wesley's Journ. xii. 33].

Methodists, Welsh

Calvinistic

The direct originator of Welsh Methodism was an Oxford disciple of the Wesleys and friend of Whitfield named Howell Harris [A.D. 17141773], a young man of some property at Trevecca. Harris left Oxford without taking his degree, and when (being under twenty-three years of age) Bishop Clagett declined to ordain him [A.D. 1736] he began to emulate the career of Whitfield as an itinerant preacher among his countrymen, and formed societies similar to those of Wesley. This work he continued in spite of much opposition, and before 1742 he had won over ten clergymen to co-operate with him, among whom the most effective fellow-worker was Daniel Eowlands, Hector of Llangeitho, near Cardigan, and Chaplain to the D u k e of Leinster, whose grand presence and voice gained him the name of " the Thunderer" among his excitable countrymen. Eowlands was suspended by his bishop after some years of irregular ministration, and for t h e rest of his life he followed the course of Wesley and Whitfield, travelling from one end to another of Wales, and continually preaching to multitudes with vehement energy until a little before his death, which took place in 1790, when he was seventy-seven years old. The work of Harris and Eowlands in South Wales was taken up in North Wales by Thomas Charles, Curate of Bala, one of the founders of the Bible Society. H e was offered several benefices in the Church, but he preferred the position of authority which he acquired over a large number of his countrymen by following in the footsteps of Eowlands. Before his time the Welsh Methodists had not actually coagulated into a sect, although long practically dissociated from the Church, but in 1811, Mr. Charles completed their sectarian organization by " ordaining" a number of their laypreachers, and establishing a settled system of rules for the government of the Society. In 1823, a " Confession of Faith" was agreed to, which was founded on the Calvinistic Confession of the Westminster Assembly of Divines. A t the present time the actual members of the Welsh Methodist sect number about 60,000, but many who are not Methodists attend their chapels. They have 200 ministers, 250 laypreachers, and between eight and nine hundred chapels. I n estimating the number of chapels, however, it must be remembered that some of them represent a body of a dozen or two only of attendants. " I am not sure," says a recent correspondent in a Welsh Methodist Magazine, " t h a t some chapels are not erected and small branches separated from the mother Church to be independent churches, from desire of office and a spirit of ambition. Some persons feel—Oh ! there is no possibility of my being a leader in this Church as it is ; no one here sees any need of me ; but we will have a little Church of our own, and we will be heads over it. The great poet Milton puts in the mouth of Satan, ' Better to reign in hell than serve in heaven.' The language of some men's conduct is, ' Better to reign over a society where there are no more than five members, than servo 324

Methodists, New Connexion in a Church where there are 3 0 0 . ' " The Welsh Methodists have training colleges for their ministers at Trevecca and at Bala. M E T H O D I S T S , N E W CONNEXION". This body of Methodists seceded from the original connexion under the leadership of Alexander Kilham, in the year 1797, and are hence known also as " Kilhamites." On their first separation they were also called " The N e w Itinerancy." The New Connexion was formed by about 5000 Methodists, who were discontented because the following claims were not granted by the Conference. [1.] The right of the people to hold their public religious worship at such hours as were most convenient, without their being restricted to the mere intervals of the hours appointed for service in the Church. [2.] The right of the people to receive the ordinances of baptism and the Lord's Supper from the hands of their own ministers, and in their own places of worship. [3.] The right of the people to a representation in the district meetings and the annual Conferences, and thereby to participate in the government of the community and in the appropriation of funds. [4.] The right of the people to have a voice, through the local business meetings, in the reception and expulsion of members, the choice of local officers, and in the calling out of candidates for the ministry. The growing discontent had been much fostered by the anonymous publications and avowed opposition of Kilham, a Methodist from Wesley's own village of Epworth, who had done good service in the Channel Islands. The position of Kilham at last became so dangerous to the preachers who ruled the Society, that it was resolved to accept the risk of expelling him, notwithstanding the number of those who would follow, rather than that of allowing him to break up their oligarchy. A t the Conference held on J u l y 26th, 1796, Kilham was therefore required to subscribe afresh to the canon law of Methodism, the " rules of the large minutes " of Conference. His reply to the demand was " I agree to them as far as they are agreeable with Scripture." The answer of the Conference was, " W e all agree with the Koran of Mahomet with t h e same limitation, namely, as far as it is agreeable to Scripture; but we agree to these rules because we believe them to he agreeable with Scripture." As the accused, or already condemned, preacher had nothing further to say, he was expelled by the following sentence of excommunication: " Whereas Mr. Kilham has brought several charges against Mr. Wesley and the body of the preachers of a slanderous and criminal nature, which charges he declared he could prove, and which, upon examination, he could not prove even one of them ; and also considering the disunion and strife which he has occasioned in many of the societies, we adjudge him unworthy of being a member of the Methodist Connexion." Kilham protested against this sentence, and a Committee was sent to him to see whether he would subscribe the "Articles of Pacification:" but as he

Methodists,

Primitive

refused to do so, the sentence was confirmed, with the declaration of the Conference, that " he could have no place in the Connexion while he continued in his present opinions." [Min. of Conf. i. 347.] Killiam being a man of some power and great energy, soon gathered around him a large body of seceders, 167 class-leaders in Leeds alone coming to his side; some of the circuits in Yorkshire, Lancashire, and Nottinghamshire retained hardly any members of the Old Connexion, and the first census of the New one shewed as many as 5000 members. The disgusted Conference issued an Address, which contains the following passage : " We shall lose all the turbulent disturbers of our Zion,—all who have embraced the sentiments of Payne, and place a great part of their religion in contending for (what they call) liberty. The vine which the Lord has planted among us with His own right hand needed to pass through this pruning and purgation. At the same time, all our watchfulness and diligence should be em] loyed, that the wheat may not be destroyed with the tares. For the loss of the latter we have reason to be thankful to God. And we trust and believe that He will preserve our dear faithful brethren from all the attacks of Satan and His emissaries. The Captain of our salvation is stronger than the demon of discord, and He will in His good time drive him back to the hell whence he came" [Min. of Conf. i. 388]. Bub there is no reason to think that there was any such Atheism among the seceders as they are here charged with : nor was the religious liberty for which they seceded at all inconsistent with the principles of Methodism as they had by this time become developed. The fact is, that the ruling preachers inherited Wesley's intolerance of opposition, and his custom of assuming that all who opposed him were necessarily influenced by the powers of darkness. The New Connexion Methodists at once adopted the practice respecting the Sacraments which were only gradually adopted by the parent sect: and they also introduced the " l a y element" freely into the organizations of their Society from the class upwards to the Conference. This latter point is now the only one in which they differ from the Wesleyan Methodists of the older stock. Their numbers are not very large. I n the year 1870 there were 22,633 members in England and Wales, with 419 chapels and rooms, and 149 preachers. This was a decrease of 605 members during the preceding twelve months; the diminution in London being 132, in the Northern counties 412, and in CornAvall 177, counterbalanced by a small increase in some other parts of England. The sect is distributed chiefly over the northern counties, where they number 13,568, in Lancashire, Yorkshire, Durham, and Northumberland. I t expends more than £5000 a year on foreign missions, and numbers 9000 members out of England. METHODISTS, PRIMITIVE. Shortly after tli3 secession of the New Connexion from the main body of the Methodists, extensive attempts were made to recruit the ranks of the latter by 5»i

Methodists,

Primitive

means of "revival services," especially in Cornwall, Lancashire, and Staffordshire. I n 1807 these efforts were assisted, in the last-named county, by Lawrence Dow, an American Methodist who had previously been engaged in the same kind of work in Ireland as well as in the United States. To him is traced the origin in England of the well-known " camp-meetings," the first of which was held at Mole Cop, near Newcastle in Staffordshire. These were extensively promoted by two local preachers named William Clowes and Hugh James Bourne, who had long advocated a revival of the original methods by which Wesley, Whitfield, and other field-preachers had won so many converts sixty years before. The Methodists were now, however, established in a position of more dignity than in those long-gone days, and they looked npon a revival of old Methodist habits much as a parvenu looks upon the trade of his grandfather. The Conference of 1807 asked itself, therefore, " What is the judgment of the Conference concerning what are called camp-meetings 1" and answered, " I t is our judgment that, even supposing such meetings to be allowable in America, they are highly improper in England, and likely to be productive of considerable mischief. And we disclaim all connection with them." [Min. of Conf. ii. 403.] I n 1808, Bourne was expelled from the Methodist body by the Burslein Quarterly Meeting, and in 1810 this expulsion was followed by that of Clowes. These two local preachers, being thus made the victims of a generation of travelling preachers who had learned to despise the origin of Methodism, at once began to form a new sect, and were joined by sixteen congregations and twenty-eight preachers in Lancashire and Cheshire. Thus a nucleus was formed for an organization which has numbered more than all other offshoots of the parent body put together, and which has been its most dangerous rival. Within twenty years, in 1830, the Primitive Methodists numbered 36,000, which was 6,000 more than the original Methodists had numbered in England in 1774, after thirty years of Wesley's vigorous preaching and organizing; and at the present time they reckon 30,000 more members than the original community did in 1804, when it had been in existence for the same number of years. By the statistics published in their Minutes of Conference, the Primitive Methodists numbered in 1870 as many as 150,169 in England, and 12,000 elsewhere, being an increase of 1152 during the previous twelve months. Their chapels were reckoned as 6,397, their travelling preachers as 961, and their local preachers as 14,332. Of day schools they counted only 41, with 2,717 scholars ; but their Sunday scholars were 271,802 in number, with 47,379 teachers. The distribution of the sect in England is 32,916 in the southern and western counties, 12,609 in the eastern counties, 20,981 in the Birmingham iron district, and 83,663 in the northern counties.1 1 The Primitive lletliodists still keep up the earl}habits of the original followers of Wesley, as will be seen

Methodists, Primitive

Irish

METHODISTS, P R I M I T I V E I R I S H . This name is used in Ireland as descriptive of those Methodists who still adhere to Wesley's system of making their Societies part of the Church system. METHODISTS, BIIYAXITE. This sect of Methodists, which is also known by the vague name of " Bible Christians," owes its origin to a local preacher of Cornwall named O'Bryan, who separated from the main body of the Methodists in the year 1815 and returned to it again in 1829. There are no substantial differences whatever between their doctrines and customs and those of the sect from which they seceded, except that they permit women to preach, and that the preachers form a smaller portion of their governing bodies. The Bryanites are especially a West-country sect, the distribution throughout England in their circuits and home missions in 1870 being as follows:—Cornwall and Devonshire, . West Somersetshire and Wales, Sussex, Hampshire, and other Counties, . . . . Total, .

Chapels.

Members.

lit

3,466

544

18,466

.

370 60

13,000 2,000

I t thus appears that there is a chapel to every 33 members of the sect. There are also about 7000 Bryanites in Canada and Australia. [Min. of Conf. of Bible Christ. 1870.] METHODISTS, ASSOCIATED.

[METHODISTS,

UNITED F R E E CHURCH.] METHODIST

REFORMERS.

[METHODISTS,

UNITED FREE CHURCH.]

METHODISTS, U N I T E D F R E E CHURCH. This sect of Methodists has been organized in its present form since the year 1857, but previously to that time the two bodies by whose union it was formed had existed, the one from 1835, the other from 1849. The first secession, that of the W E S L E T A N M E T H O D I S T ASSOCIATION, arose out of a dispute respecting the establishment of the Wesleyan Theological Institution. Dr. Samuel Warren (best known as the father of the author of Ten Thousand a Year) taking a part in this quarrel which was objectionable to the other members of the Conference, that body secured his expulsion by the district meeting from the Manchester by the following particulars, very moderately stated by

the Primitive Methodist Maganw,, of occurrences in

Durham, so recent as 1871 :—"On the 5th of March last, Mrs. Thompson, formerly Miss Hyde, commenced a series of special services, which extended over six weeks. The chapel will seat 600 persons, and on the week evenings it was often crowded. On the Sabbath evenings scores could not find admission. Individuals often lay prostrate for hours during the services, ar.d some were restive, and in a trance-like state with closed eyes would walk about the chapel, and even stand upon the pew backs, and if not held, appeared as though they would come over the front of the gallery. Scores were converted. The city membership rose from 58 in March to 110 in June. The numbers were taken again in August for September, and there were 106. Several have joined since the numbers were made up. There is converting power in the services. Prostrations are still experienced, and moving about in the service at times, but it does not excite so much attention as at first." These "individuals" appear, from other reports, to have been all, or nearly all, young women.

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Methodists. United Free Church chapel of which he was the minister, the act being sustained by the Vice-Chancellor, and eventually by the Lord Chancellor. [Min. of C. 520- including the nine canons which had formed the 53-5] resided in Alexandria, and became the basis of reconciliation. The Roman Pope refounder of the later school of Monopliysites. In plied in.terms approving of the policy which had some fragments of his writings which have come been adopted, and assenting to the Monothelite down to modern times, Severus remarks that our dogma, though regarding it as an unpractical Lord's words, " Not My will, but Thine be done" piece of controversy. But Honorius seems even [Luke xxii. 42], do not prove the existence of a to have gone further than Sergius in assenting to will distinct from the Divine Will, nor that there it; for whereas the latter and Cyrus, with the was any struggle or resistance on the part of the canon passed in the council, had only spoken of Saviour's Soul as if He had a Iranian fear of death one activity or ivtpyda, Honorius writes : " Inasor a human unwillingness to die; but that the much as the Humanity was naturally united with words are so set down by way of accommodation, the Word, and Christ is therefore One, we acand for Christian instruction [Mai, Coll. Nov. knowledge one will of our Lord Jesus Christ— vii. 288]. But the distinct formulation of the unam voluntatem fatemur Domini nostri Jesu Monothelite dogma is attributed to Theodore, Christi" [Mansi, Concil. xi. 539], Sophronius Bishop of Pharan in Arabia. Although not a appealed to Honorius, sending to him Stephen, Monophysite, Theodore taught that all the acts of Bishop of Dora, and entreating him to oppose Christ proceeded from one principle, originating the growing heresy, but he only met with a sharp in the Word, and operating through the human rebuke from the Pope, who admonished him to soul and body. Hence, though the Logos and submit his opinion to that of Sergius, and no the Manhood were distinct natures, they were longer to teach that there was a duality of wills both acted upon by one and the same ¿vépytia; in Christ. Shortly afterwards Antioch was in and there being one activity, there was one will the hands of the Saracens, and no more is heard by which it was moved, that will being divine. of Sophronius. [AOTOÜ yap TO 6ÉKR¡FIA, fy lort, Kal TOVTO 6Ú'K6V. Within a few months after the correspondence Mansi, Cornil. xi. 568.] with Honorius, the Emperor Heraclius followed Athanasius, the Monophysite patriarch of An- the example of Zeno and Justinian by publishing tioch, was a zealous convert to the opinion of [A.D. 638] an edict composed by Sergius, which Theodore, and laid it before the Emperor Hera- contained an exposition of the faith, and hence clius as offering a basis for such a compromise received the name of the " Ecthesis" ("EKAOTIS TTJS between his sect and the Church as might enable jrtcrriMs). This forbad discussion on the subject them to reunite in one communion. The idea of of the unity or duality of the kvépyeiai, but laid reunion was taken up with enthusiasm both by down positively that the Catholic faith required the Emperor and by Sergius, the patriarch of the acknowledgment of one only will in Christ ; Constantinople; and the see of Alexandria becom- thus substantially embodying the statements which ing vacant [A.D. 630], Cyrus, Bishop of Pharis, Sergius had received from Honorius, though in was translated thither for the purpose of effecting some parts using the words of the epistle which it in that city, which was the intellectual strong- Sergius himself had written to Rome. [Mansi, hold of the Monophysites. Immediately after Concil. x. 9 9 2 . ] his appointment, Cyrus held a council, at which The Ecthesis was quietly received in the East, terms of reunion were arranged in nine articles, hut John IV., the successor of Honorius, rejected all of which were orthodox except the seventh, and condemned it in a council which he held at in which the opinion of Theodore was affirmed Eome in the year 641. He also wrote against in the words rov avrov iva Xptcrróv Kal vtov it to the Emperor Constantine (son and successor 335

Monothelites to Heraclius), and to Pyrrhus, the successor of Sergius [Theoplian. Chronograph, i. 5 0 8 ; Mansi, Concil, x. 682, xi. 9] ; but his remonstrances produced no effect upon either emperor or patriarch. I n a few years, however, the edict was withdrawn by Constans II., and its place supplied [A.D. 648] by another called the " Type" [TOTTO? TTJS TRICRTEOIS], which strictly forbad, under penalties, all controversy respecting the mode in which Christ's will or energy is exercised, and required both clergy and laity to keep within the bounds of conciliar statements [Mansi, Condi, x. 1029], This penal suppression of truth, as well as falsehood, was so unacceptable at Rome, that Martin, who was then Pope, immediately summoned a council to meet at the Lateran, which, in A.D. 649, condemned the Monothelite heresy, the Ecthesis and the Type, and anathematized Theodore, Sergius, Cyrus, Pyrrhus, and also Paul, the reigning patriarch of Alexandria. The Emperor •was so indignant at this disregard of his authority, that he caused the Pope to be treated with great severity. He was carried to Constantinople as a criminal, tortured and banished to the Crimea, where he died in the year 655, to be numbered among the martyrs of the Western and the Confessors of the Eastern Church. His great intellectual supporter at the council had been a Greek abbot named Maximus: and he too underwent a long persecution, being scourged, having his tongue cut out, and at last dying a death little short of martyrdom just as he had reached his place of exile, A.D. 662. The final and authoritative condemnation of the Monothelite heresy took place at the Sixth General Council held at Constantinople in the year 680. This council was summoned by Constantine Pogonatus [A.D. 668-685], the successor of Constans II., and sat from November 7th, 680, to September 16th, 681, the Emperor himself sometimes presiding. The English bishop Wilfrid was present, and brought home the acts of the council to be accepted by the Church of England at the Council of Hatfield [Haddan & Stubbs' Councils, iii. 140], An exact and laborious inquiry was made into the arguments which were alleged by Macarius, Patriarch of Antioch, on the Monothelite side, and those of Pope Agatho's deputation on that of the orthodox faith, but it was not until the thirteenth of its eighteen sessions that the council arrived at any decision. At last it was ruled that there are in Christ " t w o natural wills and two natural operations, without division, without conversion or change, with nothing like antagonism, and nothinglike confusion," but that at the same time the Human Will of Christ could not come into collision with His Divine Will, but is in all things subject to it. An anathema was also pronounced on Theodore, Sergius, Honorius, and all who had maintained the heresy : this anathema being confirmed by Leo II., who wrote to the Emperor respecting his own predecessor in the See of Rome Anathematizamus . . . necnon et. Honorium qui hanc apostolicam ecclesiam non apostolicre traditionis doctrina lustravit, sed profana prodi33G

Montanists tione immaculatamsubvertere conatus est" [Mansi, Concil. xi. 631-637, 731], This anathema of Pope Honorius was repeated by his successors for three centuries. After this oecumenical condemnation of Monothelitism little more is heard of the heresy. The controversy which had risen respecting it was soon supplanted b y that of the Iconoclasts, and the only Monothelites known in recent times are the small community of the MAKONITES, who inhabit the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon. [Combefis. Hist. Iwr. Monothelit. Paris, 1648. Assemann, Bibl. Orient. Isomer's Person of Christ. I I . i. Clark's transl. Neale's Hist. East. Ch. Patriarch. Alex.] M O N T A N I S T S . A sect of the second century which claimed, in virtue of new revelations, to introduce a dispensation of the Spirit superior to that of Christ and His Apostles; and to perfect accordingly the discipline of the Church in the matters of the power of the keys, the rule of marriage, the rules of food and fasting, and tho permission to save life in time of persecution. This sect is now usually called Montanist [as it was by Theod. Hcer. fab. iii. 2], from its founder Montanus, a native of Ardaba, a village of Mvsia adjoining Phrygia [anon, author in Euseb. H. E. v. 16], but of old more commonly Phrygian or Cataphrygian [so Eusebius, v. 14 ; Epiphanius,xlviii.; Augustine,xxvi.; Philastrius, xlix.] from the country ; sometimes (or more properly a branch of them) Pepuzians, from Pepuza, a town in Western Phrygia, in which they located the heavenly Jerusalem [Epiph. xlviii. 14]. The author 1 whom Eusebius quotes dates the rise of Montanus in the proconsulship of Gratus in Asia, but the year of this proconsulship has not been ascertained; Eusebius [Chronicle] in the twelfth year of Marcus Antoninus, i.e. A.D. 171, which agrees with Eusebius' narrative [v. 3] of the letters of the churches of Yienne and Lyons. Epiphanius gives the date A.D. 156, and Pearson and Beausobre follow him. Eusebius, however, is more correct in his chronology than Epiphanius, and the later date is much more consistent than the earlier with the appearance of Montanism in Rome. Gieseler and Milman remark that the national character of the Phrygians impressed itself on their Christianity, and led to a sensuous enthusiastic worship of the Deity and to a wild mysticism. But this cannot have been the cause of the Montanist movement; it can only have given a peculiar character to the movement, and influenced its details. For Montanism is but one of a number of similar movements in the Church. At intervals, throughout the annals of Christianity, the Holy Ghost has been summoned by the hopes, felt as present by the kindled imaginations, been proclaimed by the passionate enthusiasm of a few, as accomplishing in them the imperfect revelation; as the third revelation which is to supersede and to fulfil the Law and 1 N o t Asterius Urbanus, who is an older writer quoted by t h e anonymous a u t h o r whom Eusebius cites [Kouth, lid. Sacr. ii. p. 209J.

Montanist s the Gospel. This notion appears again in the Middle Ages as the doctrine of the Abbot Joachim, of John Peter de Oliva, and the, Fratricelli; in a milder form it is that of George Fox and of Barclay [Milman, Latin Christ, i. 1], In the Irvingites of our day the same notion is but slenderly disguised. For if God restores Apostles to His Church, it is quite open to the Irvingites to argue that as the Church developed itself from St. James of Jerusalem to St. Paul of Antioeh, so it may develope itself beyond the Gospel of St. Paul under later Apostles. I n all these cases there is a striving, but a misguided striving, after a higher standard. This striving is at first, it may be, an endeavour to raise the Church above that which is its normal condition since Apostolic days to the extraordinary condition of those days, not only in piety and charity, which is the endeavour of every good man, and tends to a true revival of religion, but in apostolic and prophetic mission, in the extraordinary yap^l10-t. and C. xliv. 3, pp. 194, 195], sold his farm for that purpose. Meanwhile the " Church of Christ," as it was at first called, was being organized through numerous and minute

Mormons revelations, and on Tuesday, April 6th, 1830, it was formally started at La Fayette, State of New York. Six members were present, who ordained each other, after which they received the Communion, and were " confirmed in the Church of Christ by the Holy Ghost," who granted them the gift of prophecy. Several persons present as spectators were converted and baptized, among them the Prophet's father and mother. About the same time the Book of Mormon was published. This work was really written about 1809, by Solomon Spaulding, who had been a preacher of some obscure sect, and had afterwards failed in business. The discovery of some remains of an extinct race led him to write a romance connecting this race with the Jews on the one hand and the American Indians on the other. The MS. was entrusted for publication in 1812 to a bookseller named Paterson at Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. Before, however, the arrangements were completed, Spaulding died. The MS. remained with Paterson, who, it would seem, allowed a copy of it to be taken by Sydney Eigdon, one of his compositors, a man of some ability and a preacher of the CAMPBELLITES. It is supposed by some that Eigdon was an accomplice of Smith in concocting the story of the plates and the plan of a new religion ; but the two appear not to have met till after the Book of Mormon was published. I t is therefore probable that Smith obtained Spaulding's MS., or a copy of it, in some other way, and that it was the knowledge of the origin of the pretended Holy Book that drew Eigdon to him. There is no doubt that several persons, including the widow, the brother, and the partner of Spaulding, recognised in the Book of Mormon Spaulding's fiction. The same names, incidents, and peculiarities of style were found in it, with such additions as suited the imposture. The story of the gold plates was probably suggested by the discovery by Smith of some ancient remains, such as are often found in North America. I t was at first apparently intended as a hoax, but the credence which it obtained induced Smith to carry it further, and to use Spaulding's MS. to support his story. The publication of the Book of Mormon, and some alleged miracles, attracted several converts ; and at the First Conference of the Church [June 1st, 1830] thirty members were present. Missionaries were sent forth through the States, and had no small success, among their converts being Brigham Young, Smith's successor as president, and two brothers named Pratt, both clever men. Eigdon also openly joined Smith, and at once became his confidential counsellor. The affairs of the Church were entirely directed by revelations. Many of these were simply to serve Smith's idleness and greed. For instance, one [dated July 1830] orders the Church to support him [/>. and C. ix. 4, p. 112]; another [February 1831] declares: " I t is mete that my servant Joseph Smith, jun., should have a house built" [D. and C. lxi. 3, p. 214] ; a third bids that he be provided " with food and raiment, and whatsoever things he needeth to 34 G

Mormons accomplish the work wherewith I have com mandedhim" [D. and C. xiv. 3, p. 131], The success of the Prophet rovised great animosity; his previous conduct and character were cast in his teeth ; charges of fraud were brought against him, and when he was acquitted in the district courts, he and his friends were threatened with violence. I n the beginning of 1831, therefore, the saints in a body removed to Kirtland, Ohio, where Eigdon had made many converts. Here the Prophet resided for some years, employing himself, with the help of Eigdon and others, in elaborating, by revelation, the doctrines and discipline of the sect. He also pretended to make, with the help of the Urim and Thummim, a new translation of the Bible. I n this year the Melchisedek Priesthood was established. Soon after his arrival in Kirtland, Smith, seeing that ho could not carry out his plans in the more settled States, set out with several companions westward in search of a fitting settlement. He pitched upon a spot in Jackson County, Missouri, on the banks of the Missouri Eiver, which was declared to be " Zion, the New Jerusalem, where Christ would shortly reign in person." The saints were ordered by revelation to settle there, and buy up the land, and in a short time nearly 1200 persons had removed thither. After a stay of about six weeks the Prophet returned to Kirtland. In addition to his duties as " Prophet, Seer, Eevelator, and Translator," he managed a store, a mill, and a bank, and he also occasionally went on missionary tours through the States, where, by preaching and pretending to work miracles, he gained many converts. But persecution, arising partly from jealousy of the Saints' prosperity, partly from disgust at their teaching, soon broke out at Kirtland also. I n March 1832, Smith and Eigdon were torn from their beds by a mob, and tarred and feathered. Eigdon was treated so roughly that he was for some days insane; Smith, however, on the next day preached to a great crowd and made three converts [Biogr, Sketches, 192-194], In the next year [A.D. 1833] the first edition of " The Book of Doctrine and Covenants" was published. Troubles now came on the new colony in Missouri. The Mormons in their enthusiasm declared that all unbelievers would be rooted out from the State, which would soon be theirs. Their newspaper also put forth abolitionist views. The people, enraged by these proceedings, and by charges against the Saints of communism of goods and wives, resolved on their expulsion. After enduring mob violence for some months, and receiving no protection from the authorities, the Mormons were compelled to forsake Zion. in the midst of winter. They settled ultimately at Liberty, Clay County. On the news of this outbreak, Smith, with 150 men, set out from Kiitland to aid his followers. Before starting, he established, in order to appease some jealousies, the first presidency of three members, himself being first and Eigdon second, and the High Council of 12, and as the ruling authorities of the Church. The formal title of " The Church of

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Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints" was also adopted [May 1834]. The Prophet and his "company for the redemption of Zion" suffered much hardship in their journey ; the cholera also broke out among them, which Smith, to the scandal of the Saints, was unable to cure by the laying on of hands. On their arrival, they found themselves too few for their purpose; the Prophet therefore returned, after a fortnight's stay, to Kirtland. The Mormons now remained unmolested for nearly four years [1834—end of 1837], and, through their missionary zeal, their numbers largely increased. The institution of tithes was now [November 1834] set on a regular footing. I n 1835, Smith obtained some Egyptian papyrus rolls, of which he published translations, obtained by the Urim and Thummim. The first foreign mission was despatched to England in 1837, the first conference of converts was held at Preston, Lancashire, December 25th of that year. Smith still carried on his trading enterprises, obtaining the capital required from the tithes and contributions of the Saints, while the profits were made over chiefly to his own family, who were not sparing in their demands. Accordingly, in the autumn of 1837, the business" failed, and the bank, which had issued notes to a large amount, stopped payment. Smith and Rigdon were at once indicted for swindling, and to avoid the writs fled by night to their friends in Missouri. Here also troubles soon arose, both within and without the Church ; and the dissensions reached such a pitch, that Cowdery, Harris, Rigdon, and other Mormons of longstanding were [A.D. 1838], expelled from the Church. Rigdon, however, who knew too much to be made an enemy of, was soon pardoned and re-admitted. During their respite from persecution, the Mormons, through their industry, had prospered much. With success, their arrogance also returned. The Prophet is said to have declared that he would yet trample on the necks of his enemies, and that as it was with Mahomet, " The Koran, or the sword," so it should soon be " Joseph Smith and the sword." About this time also a band of men, called Danites, or Destroying Angels, was secretly organized to defend the First Presidency by any means, fair or foul, and there is little doubt that, up to a recent time, many murders and other acts of violence were committed by them on opponents and apostates. Persecution again began; the Mormons retaliated, and regular warfare, with much destruction of property and some bloodshed, ensued. At length the State militia were called out, nominally to preserve the peace, really to crush the Mormons. After much loss and suffering, especially at a place called Hawn's Mill, where several Mormons were massacred, the Saints were driven, in the depth of winter, across the Mississippi into Illinois [A.n. 1838], The Prophet, his brother Hyram, and other leading Mormons, were seized, and sentenced by courtmartial to be shot; but the sentence was not carried out, and after some months' close confinement, they all escaped into Illinois [April 347

1839], A third settlement was there formed, and named Nauvoo, explained as Hebrew for " beautiful," Numerous converts assembled, and the Saints soon amounted to 15,000. I n 1840 a charter of incorporation was obtained; the militia, consisting of all able-bodied men, with Smith for General, was organized, under the name of " The Nauvoo Legion and a mansion was built, where the Prophet and his family were maintained at the public cost. A revelation of great length [D. and C. 103, p. 298, s^.] gave directions for the building of a splendid temple, the first stone of which was laid with great pomp on April 6th, 1841. The Anti-Mormons now tried another mode of attack. During the next three years Smith was several times brought to trial on charges of libel, swindling, treason, and inciting to murder. He was, however, always acquitted; though he had a narrow escape in 1842, when accused of bribing a ruffian to shoot Governor Boggs of Missouri, one of his chief opponents. The Mormons still increased in wealth, numbers, and audacity. The corporation assumed an independent jurisdiction, and passed an ordinance imposing imprisonment on any person who should speak disrespectfully of the Prophet; all legal documents were declared to be void unless backed by his signature. Smith was now absolute ruler, both in spiritual and temporal things, over 20,000 persons ; and his converts, both in America and elsewhere, were rapidly increasing in numbers. I t is stated that in 1843 there were 10,000 in Great Britain alone; and in the following year a copy of the Book of Mormon was presented to the Queen. Smith used his prosperity for the gratification of his greed and lusts. He exacted large contributions in money and kind ; and, with his chief followers, he began, under cover of a theory of " Spiritual Wives," secretly and cautiously to teach polygamy. Some of the women to whom proposals were made informed their friends, rousing thereby great indignation. Meanwhile, in 1844, Smith went so far as to offer himself as a candidate for the Presidency of the United States. But his proceedings raised against him many bitter enemies, including some of his former partisans. At length the Anti-Mormons established a newspaper in Nauvoo itself, in the first number of which were published affidavits from sixteen women, stating that Smith, Rigdon, and other prominent Mormons had attempted to seduce them. A council of the Saints promptly declared the journal a public nuisance. Smith ordered the nuisance to be abated, and a mob of Mormons destroyed the office, papers, and furniture. The owners obtained warrants against Smith and others concerned: the Mormons resisted their execution : the whole neighbouring population rose in arms against them: the governor called out the militia, and finally, to avoid a general massacre, and on the governor pledging his word and the honour of the State that they should be protected, Joseph Smith, Ms brother Hyram, and some others, surrendered, and were lodged in prison at Carthage, the State

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capital. All was quiet for a time, but a rumour arose tliat the governor wished their escape. At 6 A.M., June 27th, 184-4, 200 men, disguised and painted as Indians, overpowered the guard, broke into the prison, and shot the Smiths dead, severely wounding their companions. [Accounts from Mormon eye-witnesses, in Burton, app. iii.; Maekay, 189, sy.]. Joseph Smith was thirty-eight years of age, and left a widow, with several children. His character and whole career is that of a low-minded, lustful impostor, with little education but much shrewdness, led on by circumstances to play the part of a religious leader. There is not the slightest evidence that he was, as some have maintained, a misguided enthusiast. He used his power simply for his own personal ends ; and his zeal and endurance under persecution were prompted by keen-sighted views of the future, and in some degree also by natural firmness and resolution. [For the life of Smith, see JBiographical Sketches of Joseph Smith the Prophet and his Progenitors, by Lucy Smith, mother of the Prophet; The Autobiography of Joseph Smith, in Mill. Star, xiv. xv. ; The Booli of Doctrine and Covenants, passim.] At first it seemed that the death of the Prophet would cause the ruin of his religion. Four claimants for the vacant presidency arose; but the twelve apostles unanimously elected Brigham Young their president; and the choice was generally accepted. Rigdon, who ventured to resist, was, with some adherents, finally excommunicated. - The " Saints" were for a time left in peace; but their rejoicings and boastings at the laying the capstone of the temple again roused the populace against them. After much loss of life, the leaders resolved to remove from the civilized world beyond the Rocky Mountains. They agreed to leave Illinois altogether in the course of 1846, and a promise was made that they should be allowed to sell their property and retire in peace. An exploring expedition, setting out in February 1846, after much hardship reached Iowa. Here circumstances compelled them to wait till they were recruited by fresh parties from Nauvoo. Meanwhile those who remained in the city, while preparing for their removal, pressed forward the building of the temple, which was solemnly consecrated in May 1846. This proceeding was regarded as a sign that the Saints intended to remain or to return hereafter. The populace again rose; and after three days' bombardment, the remnant, of the Mormons were driven out of Nauvoo by the sword, in the greatest misery. The city, which had contained 20,000 inhabitants, was left desolate. The temple, having been dismantled by the departing Mormons, was set on fire by an incendiary, November 19th, 1848; and the bare walls were blown down by a hurricane, May 27th, 1850. From the camp in Iowa an advanced body, with the president, after marching for three months, reached the valley of the Great Salt Lake; and, guided, as they said, by an angel, fixed on this for their new home. Here they were soon joined by the main body. They 348

suffered terribly in their long march, and during the autumn and winter after their arrival. A circular letter from the twelve apostles called ail the Saints to the new " Zion," which was named Deseret, interpreted to mean, in the " reformed Egyptian" language, " Honey-bee" [Book of Mormon, Ether, i. 3, p. 518]. Public buildings (including a tabernacle, or temporary place for public worship), manufactures and shops were soon established; and a system of emigration was organized, with a fund to help the Saints on their way, who flocked thither, enduring much privation from the journey. I n 1850, the district—part of that ceded by Mexico in 1849—was admitted into the United States as a territory, with the name Utah, a claim that it should be erected into a State being rejected. Brigham Young was named the first governor. I n 1852, the "Celestial Law of Marriage," authorizing polygamy, was promulgated, and at once acted on ; and in 1853 the corner-stone of the temple, the plan of which with all its details was " revealed" to the president, was laid; it is not [A.D. 1873] nearly finished. Difficulties soon arose with the judges and other officers appointed by the United States President; and twice, in 1854 and 1856, they were all compelled to fly to Washington. The first difficulty was smoothed over; but in 1857,2,500 troops were sent to enforce submission. The Mormons prepared to resist, but, after some skirmishes, gave way. The troops were withdrawn in 1860, but in 1862 it was found necessary to form a permanent camp at Douglas, close to the city, to overawe the Mormons. The governor forbade the annual muster of the militia, and tried to prevent the packing of juries; his death soon after was considered by the Saints as a judgment. His successoi', supported by the judges, continued this policy; and in consequence the Mormon periodicals are full of complaints of injustice, corruption, and personal profligacy. In 1871 some of the Mormon leaders were indicted under the United States law against bigamy; in the first case, the defendant was convicted, whereon the president was arrested for bigamy and inciting to murder. On appeal, however, the proceedings were quashed, to the great joy of the Mormons, who look on this result as due to a special interference of Providence. They declare their resolve to resist to the death all attempts to put down polygamy, and their firm belief that God will work miracles for them, as for his ancient Saints, the Jews [Rae, 116, Mill. Star, vol. xxxii. passim, esp. p. 328]. The opening of the Pacific Railway [A.D. 1869], by giving a great impulse to mining, has largely increased the number of "gentiles;" and this fact will probably greatly influence the future fortunes of the Mormons. Recent events [May 1873] shew symptoms of a design to leave Utah for some spot where a more complete isolation can be maintained. II. Sacred Boohs. The alleged discovery and real history of the " Book of Mormon" has been already described. I n its published form it is a duodecimo volume of 563 pages of small

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print. 1 I t is divided, in imitation of the Old Testament, into fifteen books of unequal length, bearing the names of their supposed authors,— Nephi [r/. 2 Macc. i. 36], Jacob, Enos, Jarom, Mosiah. and the like; each book being divided into chapters and numbered paragraphs. The •work contains the history of three peoples who came from the East to America; the earliest after the dispersion of Babel, the others setting out from Jerusalem in the reign of Zedekiah. Lehi [c/. Judg. xv. 19], a righteous Jew of the tribe of Joseph, warned by God tofleefrom the approaching destruction of Jerusalem, was, with his wife and four sons, divinely guided to America. From this family sprung two nations, the righteous Nephites and the wicked Lamanites, who were continually at war with each other. The latter were finally punished by the loss of their fair skins, and were allowed to sink into barbarism, becoming the Red Indians. The history of the Nephites is given at length. I n the fifth century after their arrival, the Nephites, under Divine guidance, found and united with a people of the tribe of Judah, whose ancestors had left Jerusalem after its capture by Nebuchadnezzar. This people possessed plates containing the history of the family of Jared, who had come to America after the dispersion of Babel. From this family sprung great nations, who mutually destroyed each other. A number of prophets arose among the Nephites, who foretold the redemption through Christ, and instituted baptism in His líame. At the time of the Crucifixion the Nephites were visited with terrible convulsions of nature, and a voice from Heaven commanded the people to repent and believe. After the Ascension, Jesus Christ thrice appeared to them, converted all the nation, appointed twelve disciples, instituted the two sacraments, performed many miracles, and ascended again into Heaven. After a long period of piety and prosperity wickedness and troubles again arose ; and finally, all the Nepliites but one were slain by their enemies the Lamanites. So all true religion perished; miracles and gifts of grace ceased. The chronicles of the Nephites were kept on gold plates, handed down from generation to generation. The final possessors of them, Mormon, and Moroni his son, at God's command, made an abridgment of the history, and hid it in the place where it was found by Joseph Smith. W i t h the history are mixed up long exhortations, visions, parables, religious meditations, in language imitating that of the English Bible, from which many passages are directly copied, sometimes with slight variations which do not improve the sense, including large portions of Isaiah, the Sermon on the Mount, and some verses of St. Paul's Epistles. The narrative is most tedious; there is not a trace of any elevated, poetic, or religions feeling. The stylo is that of an uneducated person, glaring grammatical errors appearing on nearly every page, besides the grossest

absurdities and anachronisms. Beyond the assertions that the Book is the work of inspired writers teaching true religion, and that revelations, miracles, and gifts of tongues are ever with the faithful, few of the doctrinal peculiarities of Mormonism appear. Materialistic notions of the Deity are hinted at [Ether, i. 8, p. 521, 522], and infant baptism is forbidden [Moroni, viii. 2, pp. 557], The chief authority on doctrine is The Book of Doctrine and Covenants of the Church of Jems Christ of Latter-day Saints, selected from the Revelations of Gocl, by Joseph Smith, President. The first edition, published in 1833, differs much from the later ones, and was subsequently suppressed.2 This work consists of two distinct parts. Pp. 1-64 contain seven lectures on faith, originally delivered before a class of elders at Kirtland; and it seems probable that they were written by Rigdon. I n them are some very curious statements. For instance, it is inferred from Heb. xi. 3, that faith is " the principle of power existing in the bosom of God by which the worlds were framed, and that if this principle or attribute were taken from the Deity, He would cease to exist [Lect. i. 13-17, p. 3]. Again, " W h e n a man works by faith, he works by mental exertion, instead of physical force. I t is by words, instead of exerting his physical powers, with which every being works, when he works by faith" [Lect. vii. 3, p. 55]. Many peculiar doctrines are here set forth. The second part, entitled Covenants and, Commandments, consists of the revelations given to Smith at various times, and is evidently by a different hand from the "Lectures." The style and grammar betray the interpolator of the Book of Mormon. The "Covenants and Commandments" resemble in form the K o r a n ; both works contain Divine revelations ; much in both is only of temporary interest, and both afford undesigned materials for the life of their authors. But all the merits of the Koran are absent and all its defects present in the work of Joseph Smith. The revelations were given to a great number of persons, but always through the medium of Smith. They refer to various subjects: the organization, worship and hierarchy of the Church; instructions in faith and morals; prophecies, visions, parables, interpretations of Scripture ; directions to individuals about their acts, preachings, journeyings, for the promotion of the faith ; and concerning the affairs and needs, spiritual and temporal, of the Church. There are also two addresses of the Prophet to the Saints in Nauvoo, delivered in writing only; minutes of the High Council [February 17th, 1834]; declarations of the Church on marriage, and governments; and an account of the martyrdom of Joseph Smith and his brother. Those sections relating to the organization of the Church and the duties of the ministry are placed first, then the portions chiefly treating of faith and practice; lastly, those that relate chiefly to individuals and to temporary circumstances.

1 The edition here referred to is the sixth European, Liverpool, 1866. The first figure denotes the chapter, the second the paragraph.

e The edition used is the sixth European, 1869. It is referred to as [D. and C.]. When there are two figures, the first denotes the section, the second the paragraph.

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Mormons Many other revelations, translations, prophecies addresses, etc., of Smith were published in the periodicals of the sect, all of which are regarded as of authority. Some of these have been collected into a pamphlet, entitled The Pearl of Great Price, being a choice selection from the revelations, translations, and narrations of Joseph Smith, Liverpool, 1851 [referred to as P. of G. P.]. I n this book is set forth the theory that Moxmonisni is a revival of the primitive religion revealed to Adam [see also D. and C. Lect. ii. p. 8, sq.; Coots, and Comm. iii. 18-29, p. 78], A similar theory is found in the Koran. Here also appears a translation, with facsimiles, of some Egyptian papyrus rolls, procured from a travelling showman. Smith declared these rolls to be written by Abraham, narrating his stay in Egypt. An eminent French Egyptologer, M. Deveria, before whom the facsimiles were laid, shewed that they represented the resurrection of Osiris, a funerary disk, and a painting from a funerary MS. [For full details see Kemy, ii. 536, sq.~\ I n this pamphlet two different accounts of the creation are given, both made up out of Gen. i. A translation is given of Matt, xxiii. 39 and xxiv. differing from the Authorized Version in containing additions to the extent of one-third, entirely unsupported by any MS. or version. There are some other fragments, absurd but unimportant, except as shewing the audacity of the author. The " translations" are portions of a translation of the whole Bible, said to exist in MS. in the hands of the Mormon leaders. Some further extracts have appeared in periodicals : the text is altered to suit Mormon doctrines, and large additions made. I t is asserted by the Mormons, that the Authorized Version has been fraudulently corrupted, and that this " translation" alone represents the original and true form. Other revelations are also said to exist in MS., to be published when the world is ripe for them.

Mormons theism. All that exists is material; matter therefore is eternal, and is in fact only one substance of which all existing things are modifications. The Supreme Deity then is material, originating in the union of two elementary particles of matter : passing through the human stage, H e has by constant development attained omnipotence. This Supreme Godhead is threefold : its nature may be understood by comparing it to a council of three, each of whom is separate and distinct from the others, equal in knowledge, truth, power, and all other respects; but yet the three compose but one body. These three persons are called Elohim, Jehovah, and Michael, who is the same as A d a m ; and they " organized" the world out of previously existing matter. This God has also a wife, a female Deity, and from these two have sprung, by a celestial mode of generation, countless gods of both sexes, dilt'ering in dignity and power, also angels and the spirits of men. No spiritual being therefore is created; all are begotton. " God," said Smith, " never did have power to create the spirit of man at all. The very idea lessens man in my estimamation. I know better" [Last sermon in Mill. Star, v. 87, sg.]. The gods possess both body, parts, and passions; and therefore are not omnipresent. A Mormon hymn [iTo. 349] begins— " The God that others worship is not the God for me : He has no parts nor tody, and cannot hear nor see."

[See also Spencer, Lett. viii.; Coinpend, 140146.] The gods therefore have local residences ; the Supreme Deity lives " i n the planet Kolob" [P. of G. P. 2 4 ; Compend. 199-200], The revelation which the Trinity, Elohim, Jehovah, Michael, bears to the Christian Trinity is not very clear. I t is said that " these three . . . in organizing element are perfectly represented in the Deity as Father, Son, and Holy Ghost" [Compend. 153], God the Father, like the other gods, has the form and body of a man, and in I I I . Doctrines. I t is difficult to set forth fact once inhabited this earth, but by developexactly and clearly the principles of Mormon ment has become the model or standard of pertheology, first, from the theory of continuous fection to which man is intended to attain. revelation abiding in the Church [see preface Jesus Christ, the Son of God, was born of the to Hymn Book, 1856, quoted in Qu. Rev. cxxii. Virgin Mary, the latter having been duly married 477; also Spencer, Lect. ii.; Compendium, 43-47]; after betrothal by the Angel Gabriel. Yet He secondly, Mormon theology has neither scientific had a previous existence in the bosom of the form nor leading idea, being a disorderly mixture Father, and " He is called the Son, because of of doctrines and superstitions borrowed from the flesh" [D. and C., Lect. v. 2, p. 45], The many different sources. The only document at Father is a personage of spirit, glory and power, all resembling a creed is published in P. of G. P. possessing all perfection and fulness, " b u t tho [p. 55, see also Burton, 467-480], which nearly Son is a personage of tabernacle, made or represents the form in which Mormonism is fashioned like unto man, or being in the form usually preached. Faith in Joseph and his sue • and likeness of man, or rather man was formed cessors, repentance, baptism for the remission of after His likeness and in His image" [¿6,]. sins, reverence for the Bible and the sacred books There are two personages in the Godhead, the described above, the payment of tithes, absolute Father and the Son [ib. p. 47]. The Holy obedience to the president and the priesthood, Spirit also is a member of the Godhead, being this is nearly all that is required of the orthodox ; the mind of the Father and the Son ; but while while farms at Utah and the attractions of poly- the other two persons have bodies of flesh and gamy are held out to gain converts. The deeper bones, the Holy Ghost has not, but is a personage doctrines are reserved for the intelligent and of Spirit [Compend. 154]. Yet His substance is material, subject to the necessary laws which inquiring. The Mormon faith is based on very gross govern matter. H e has therefore parts, which Materialism, in some points verging on Pan- are infinite and spread throughout all space, and 350

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so is He virtually omnipresent. The Father and the Son, as persons, are not omnipresent, but only through the Spirit [Camp. 140-148], Ho may properly he called (Sod's minister, to execute His will in immensity. He is therefore the worker of miracles, the source of grace, and even the cause of increase, being in every person upon the face of the earth ; for the " elements that every individual is made of and lives in possess the Godhead" [B. Young in Compend, 148], As God is in the form of a man, so man was created to become a god. The Divine beings are constantly producing souls by generation ; these are destined to become gods, which they can only do by obtaining bodies. Hence, Michael, or Adam, and Eve his wife, who were immortal, assumed humanity to provide tabernacles of flesh for the disembodied spirits. They and their offspring would not have been subject to death but for the Fall, which necessitated redemption by the death of Christ. They have now become gods, and with the other deities continue to bear disembodied souls, which are waiting for bodies, in order that they may attain perfection. This can only be effected through the agency of men. He who has few or no children is injuring these souls, and the more wives and children a man has, the greater will be his glory in the next life as a god. Thus one of the hymns [326] says,—

doomed to almost immediate destruction which is indeed already beginning, to the Zion of the latter-days on the Western Continent. When the Gospel has been preached to all the world, and the elect have assembled at Zion, then all unbelievers will be destroyed; the kingdom of heaven will be set up on the earth, and God will reign in Zion in person. IY. Ordinances. The " Ordinances of the Gospel" are five: [1] Faith, which is very strangely described, see quotations from D. and G. above; [2] Repentance, i.e. sorrow for sin, and resolution to lead a good life; [3] Baptism, administered by immersion, to none younger than eight years, that being regarded as the age at which moral responsibility begins [D. and O. xxii. 4, p. 160], Infant baptism is declared to be a " solemn mockery, because little children have no sins to repent of, and are not under the curse of Adam" [Mormon, Moroni, viii. 2, 3, p. 557]. The rite is administered as follows: " The person who is called of God, and has authority from Jesus Christ to baptize, shall go down into the water with the person who has presented him or herself for baptism, and shall say, calling him or her by name: ' Having been commissioned of Jesus Christ, I baptize you in the name of the Father, and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost. Amen.' Then shall he immerse him or her in the water, and come forth again out of the water" [Mormon, Nephi, v. 8, p. 4 5 7 ; D. and C. ii. 21, p. 73], The effect of baptism, when administered to and by a qualified person, is declared to be the remission of sins, the gift of the Holy Ghost, and a title to eternal life. I t is regarded as absolutely necessary to salvation ; without it, neither repentance nor faith avail []). and G. iv. 12, p. 87], To supply the deficiency of those who through ignorance or other involuntary defect have died unbaptized in the Mormon faith, the practice of baptism for the dead has been ordained. The faith is preached to the dead in Hades by departed Saints; and the benefit of baptism is obtained for them by proxy. Any believer may be baptized for his departed friends, relations, and ancestors to the most remote ages ; and, in the perfect state, those for whom a person has been thus baptized will he added to his family and subjects [Spencer, Letters, 162-164; Mill. Star, v. 87, s$r.]. A careful record of the persons vicariously baptized, is kept by duly appointed registrars. These records are the books spoken of by St. John [Rev. xx. 12], the book of life being a record kept in heaven to verify those kept on earth [D. and C. cvi. 6, 7, p. 319]. [4] Laying on of hands for the gift of the Holy Ghost, sometimes called baptism by fire as distinguished from baptism by water. I t is usually administered immediately after baptism, of which it is regarded as the completion. By it the spirit of prophecy, the gift of tongues, and the power to work miracles are given. [5] The Sacrament of the Lord's Supper, originally administered in bread and wine, as Christ Himself ordained when He appeared to the Nephites [Mormon, Nephi, viii. 6, p. 469],

" Through, him who holds the sealing power, Ye faithful ones who heed Celestial laws, take many wives, And rear a righteous seed. " Though fools revile, I'll honour you, As Abraham my friend, You shall be gods, and shall be blessed With lives that never end."

Jesus Christ had several wives, among others Mary and Martha, the sisters of Lazarus. Joseph Smith will be a chief god. Hence it is said of him [Hymn 252], "Mingling with gods, he can plan for his brethren," and [290], " His home's in the sky; he dwells with the gods." The angels have been men, who have not fulfilled the law of their life, nor spent their strength in perfect obedience to God, like Abraham, and other scriptural friends of God, i.e. have not taken many wives. Hence they will never become gods. This theology is supported by the most absolutely literal interpretations of Scripture, and also by the doctrine that the Mormon faith, through the continuous revelations granted to the priesthood, is the supplement and perfection of Christianity, standing in nearly the same relation to it as Christianity to Judaism [Spencer, Letters, 55]. At the same time, Mormonism is a revival of primitive Christianity, with all its miraculous powers, the gifts of tongues, healing, etc., which were suspended through the failure of faith till Smith came. Many accounts of miraculous cures are given [Mill. Star, v. 32,1870, 445, 475, 494, also Hymn 243], As the Jews were bidden to separate themselves from the Gentiles, and the early Christians (the Ancient Saints) from the 'heathen, so the Latter-Day Saints are called forth from a wicked world, 351

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In 1833, it was revealed to Smith that "strong eeived a long revelation on the subject. [See chinks are not for the belly, but for the washing Burton, 451.] This document, if genuine, was of your bodies," and that wine was only to be kept secret till August 29th, 1852, when it was used in this ordinance if it was the pure juice published at a great meeting at Utah [Eerny, ii. of the grape, and made by Mormons [D. and 0. 112-130]. The Prophet's widow at once deIxxxi. 1, p. 240]. Water only, therefore, is now nounced it as a forgery, and, with four of her used. The rite is administered every Sunday; sons, headed a schism. On the other hand, the water, having been blessed, is handed round several women publicly declared that they had been married to Joseph, while the president and in tin cans, together with the bread [Rae, 106]. Of other rites, the most important is that of others stated that they had been taught the marriage. The present service is of some length, doctrine by him [Mill. Star, xxxii. 327, 333, etc.]. containing, in the case of all marriages after the The practice is now carried to great lengths, the first, certain ceremonies by the first wife [Cony- leading men having from fifteen to forty wives beare, 74, 75], There are two kinds of marriage each; and it is preached as the one thing need—for eternity and for time. A marriage for ful to regenerate a world steeped in wickedMany plausible and paradoxical argueternity holds good not only during this life, but ness. [See Convfor ever, and is not necessarily consummated ments are urged in its favour. beare, 76-83; Bemy, ii. 97-109; Burton, 525, here ; but those thus married will produce souls in the world to come. Marriages " for time" sq.; Ollivant, App. B. 148-151, and Mill. Star, Por burial there appears to be no are in order to produce children in this world ; passim.] hence a woman may be married, or "sealed," to prescribed ritual. The ordinary worship conone man for eternity, and to another for time, or sists of prayers, with addresses, often of a very The chief pemay be married to the same man both for time homely character, and hymns. and for eternity. Marriages for time only are culiarity of the services is the absence of any dissolved by death; and the children in the true devotional element. The duties of private perfected state are added to the family of the prayer, meditation, communion with God, selfhusband for eternity, increasing his glory. The examination, are seldom or never spoken of; and faithful Mormon who in this life has been pre- very gross irreverence is often shewn during vented by some involuntary cause, such as an public worship [Qu. Rev. exxii. 486-488; Olliearly death, from doing his duty as a child-pro- vant, 54, and App. A. 119, 147; Bae, 106, sg.\ ducer, may have wives "sealed" to him. I n When the temple is completed, it is intended, this case another person, appointed by the as the founder ordered, to establish sacrifices and president, acts for the dead m a n ; and if any every ordinance belonging to the priesthood, as children are born they are reckoned to the latter. they existed prior to Moses' day [Compend. Divorce is common, and marriage is allowed within 177]. There are also some ceremonies, which near degrees; a man may marry two sisters, a arc most carefully kept secret, and of which very niece, a mother and daughter, and even a half- different accounts have been given. sister, The consequence of this doctrine of V. Hierarchy. This is very elaborate ; and the marriage is the utter degradation of woman ; by ministers possess very great power. About oneherself she is useless and meaningless; all her fifth of the male members hold some church honour, both in this life and the next, comes office. " T h e priesthood," said the Prophet, " i s from the husband; an unmarried woman has the channel through which the Almighty com1 only the very lowest place. The public promenced revealing His glory at the beginning of fession of polygamy, or, as it is officially called, the creation of this earth, and through which He "plurality," is a later development of Morhas continued to reveal Himself to the children monism. Suspicions were early aroused by the of men to the present time, and through which life of Smith and other leading Mormons; and He will make known His purposes to the end of the charge of teaching this practice was frequently time" [Compend. 176], There are two grand thought to excite public odium. The accusation divisions of the priesthood, the Melchisedek and however was vigorously denied. Passages from the Aaronic or Levitical. To the former belong the Book of Mormon [Jacob, ii. p. 118, sy.] the first presidency, the patriarch, the apostles, were quoted against it: a public declaration of the the seventies, the high-priests, the elders; to the Church [a.d. 1841] stated, ""VVe believe that one latter, bishops, priests, deacons, teachers. The man should have one wife, and one woman but Melchisedek priesthood is so called " because one husband" [.D. and G. cix. 4, p. 331]. The Melchisedek was such a great high-priest" [D. Millennial Star [Aug. 1842] declares, " i i o such and G. iii. 1, p. 74]. Its power and authority principle ever existed among the Latter-Day is thus described : " T o hold the keys of all the Saints, and never will" [Mill. Star, iii. 74]. I t spiritual blessings of the Church—to have the is however now alleged, that in 1832 it was, in privilege of receiving the mysteries of the kinganswer to an inquiry, divinely revealed to Joseph dom of heaven, to have the heavens opened to that the principle of " plurality" is true, but that them—to commune with the general assembly the time had not yet come for it to be practised ; of the first-born, and to enjoy the communion and that, on July 12th, 1843, the Prophet, and presence of God the Father, and Jesus the then at the height of his power in Nauvoo, reMediator of the new covenant" [D. and G. iii. 9, p. 76], The Aaronic priesthood ought to con1 For the practical working of polygamy see A Lady's sist of literal descendants of .Aaron, pointed out Life among the Mormons, London. 1873.

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by revelation ; but, in default of such, others may be appointed [ibid. iii. 8, p. 75]. The power and authority of this priesthood is " t o hold the keys of the ministering of angels, and to administer in outward ordinances the letter of the Gospel—the baptism of repentance for the remission of sin's" [ibid. iii. 10, p. 76]. The highest office in the Church is The First Presidency, consisting of three members, the successors of Peter, James and J o h n among the Apostles. Of these the first president is supreme, being ex officio seer, revelator, and prophet; lie is " the presiding high-priest oyer the highpriesthood of God, and, under God, holds the keys of heaven and hell." From his decision there is no appeal; for the other two presidents are only his councillors. The first presidency is said to be appointed by revelation, but at the General Conferences^ held twice a year, a vote is passed to sustain the existing holders. The Patriarch, also called " Father of the Church," is appointed by the Church for life. His sole duty is to administer blessings. The Twelve Apostles, or Second Presidency, are " t h e special witnesses of the If ame of Christ in all the world" [Z>. and G. iii. 11, p. 76], being mainly for missionary purposes. Their duty is to build up the Church, and to ordain and set in order all inferior ministers; they take the lead in all meetings, except in presence of a president, and may administer all ordinances. An apostle presides over the most important foreign missions and churches. The Seventies are a number of committees, so called because each consists of seventy persons. The first seventy, like the apostles, are chosen by the Church in conference at U t a h ; of these seven are appointed presidents, with a chief, "the president of all the seventies." The presidents appoint seventy others, and these again seventy more, " until seven times seventy, if the work in the vineyard so require." Thus the number of " t h e seventies" amounts to many hundred, though the number of seventy is rarely complete. Their duty is to assist the apostles, under their direction, in building up the Church ; and they are in fact travelling ministers. The High-Priests, after the order of the Melchisedek priesthood, form the highest class of ordinary ministers; they exercise spiritual authority under the general direction of the first presidency, and the control of a president of their own order; they may officiate in all offices of the Church. The Bishops, the highest order of the Aaronic priesthood, have chiefly temporal duties, though in spiritual matters they have authority over the lower ministers. Their work consists mainly in the management of the Church funds, obtained by tithes and offerings, in relieving the wants of the ministers, aiding needy Saints, &c. A bishop is the local authority in each of the wards of Utah and the settlements in the neighbourhood. The Elders, the lowest rank of the Melchisedek priesthood and the most numerous class of ministers, conduct the ordinary meetings, except in presence of one of higher rank, and execute the ordinary ministerial duties—the ad353

ministration of the ordinances, preaching, teaching, visiting from house to house, and privately exhorting the Saints. The Priests have the same duties as the elders, and may also ordain other priests, teachers, and deacons in subordination to the elders. The Teachers usually assist the other ministers; they exercise a general supervision over the members, may expound, exhort and teach at meetings, but may not administer any ordinances. The Deacons assist the bishops in their temporal duties, as collectors, treasurers, etc.; they may officiate in the absence of other ministers, but only as preachers and expounders. Besides these office-bearers, there is also The Standing High Council, to settle difficulties among believers. This consists of eighteen (at first twelve) high-priests, appointed by ballot, with one or three presidents, being the first president alone, or with his assessors. After the evidence has been heard, and the accusers, accused, and a certain number of councillors, from two to six, according to the gravity of the case, have spoken, the president gives his decision, and calls on the other members to sanction it. Sometimes a case is reheard; in special difficulties recourse is had to revelation. Every " stake " and separate church is governed by its own " High Council," with a similar constitution and procedure ; and with an appeal to the Supreme High Council. General affairs are managed by conferences, held April 6th and December 6th in each year. At these, which sometimes last several days, the first presidency and other office-bearers are sustained in office by the vote, always unanimous, of the meeting, vacancies are filled, reports on various subjects are read, prayers are offered, addresses delivered, hymns and anthems sung, etc. [Mill. Star, passim; Burton, 367, sq.; Qu. Rev. exxii. 488.] Missions are a great feature of Mormonism. Any member of the priesthood is liable to be sent, at the will of the president, on a sudden impulse, at short notice, to " preach the Gospel to the Gentiles." The missionaries are sent forth moneyless, or with only sufficient funds to take them to their destination, and have to work for their living till they can be supported by the offerings of converts. The Book of Mormon has been translated into Welsh, French, German, Italian, Danish, Norwegian, and other languages ; churches have been founded in Great Britain, Denmark, Norway, several parts of Australia. Gibraltar, Malta, Switzerland, France, and Germany. Missions to Sweden, Austria, Chili, China, Hindostán, have been unsuccessful. The converts are numerous, most being from the North of England, Wales, Norway, Denmark, and the seaboard States of the U n i o n ; almost all have belonged to some Protestant sect, and all are from the indigent and hopelessly ignorant classes. Every inducement is held, out to them to go to U t a h ; and an excellent system of emigration has been established [Conybeare, 5 6 ; Ed. Rev. No. 233, pp. 188, 189]. For this, and other

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Muggletonians

purposes, every Moimon is "bound to pay tithe from Ms income to the Church ; and is exhorted to give liberally besides. The tithes are supposed to be devoted to the building of the temple [Hymn 218]; but are absolutely at the disposal of the president. The Mormon system is an almost unlimited temporal and spiritual despotism. " The people," it is said, " will be as much condemned if they do not obey Brother Brighani as they would if they should disobey the Lord God were He here in person" [Covipend. 42]. " W h e n the Lord comes, He will take vengeance on those who obey not His priesthood. The word of Brother Brigham is the word of the Lord" [ibid. 43]. The whole duty of a Mormon consists in thinking and doing as he is told, even as regards his most private and personal affairs. The president may order, or forbid, a man to marry; a bishop may at any time enter any Mormon's house and issue what orders he pleases. All are compelled to deal only at the authorized shops and stores, which are managed on the cooperative principle for the benefit of the Church, i.e. the enrichment of the leaders. By means of a constant system of espionage, any breach of rules is promptly noticed, and if it be persisted in, the offender is cut off from the Church, and every means are used to crush him. Persons are even excommuaiicated without any reason assigned, and, on complaining, are told that their crime will in due time come to light; it being held that if any man fails in obedience to the priesthood in any respect he, must have committed some great sin, whereby he has lost the Spirit of God [Ollivant, 86, 87]. All the arrangements at Utah are admirably suited to maintain obedience. Every means are adopted to prevent any but the chief men from accumulating money; so that while a man can live from hand to mouth in some comfort, he cannot save anything; hence in no place are there more people, who can just hang on, short of absolute poverty [Ollivant, 47,101]. The majority, therefore, are virtually prisoners in Utah. If any man secedes, or is cast out, all Mormons are forbidden to have any intercourse with him, even to give him food or shelter; sometimes violence, even to death, has been used, and in such a way that it cannot be easily proved; moreover, accused Mormons are usually acquitted by packed juries. All "Gentiles" are suspected, and every means are used to keep or drive them away. [See Rae, 118-120 ; Fraser's Mag. for June 1871, p. 692],

influence of the two schisms is considerable in causing disaffection ; and the younger people are said, partly from education, partly through intercourse with Gentiles, not to be, as a body, very zealous for the faith. An Episcopal Mission, established in 1806, has had some success, chiefly through the excellence of its schools. The causes of the success of Mormonism may be briefly summed up. [1] Its appeal to that unreasoning reverence for the letter of the English Bible fostered by popular Protestantism in the uneducated. [2] The claim to be " the Lord's own people," appealing to the feeling of spiritual pride, and the idea that God is ever interfering, by miracles and extraordinary gifts, in their behalf. [3] Its earthly character, as a religion—not above, but on a level with low and carnal desires, offering the full present enjoyment of this life, and a life to come, which is only a continuation of that enjoyment. [4] The pictures held out by preachers of the wealth and comfort to be obtained at Utah, and the allurements of polygamy. Two schisms have taken place from Mormonism. The first, whose headquarters are in Illinois, with the title of " The Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints," was led, in 1852, by the widow and sons of the founder, on the publication of the revelation authorizing polygamy, the genuineness of which they denied. Their chief feature is the rejection of that practice and the doctrines connected therewith. The second secession arose in 1869, in Utah itself, with the title of the " Church of Zion;" it advocates freedom of thought and action, as opposed to the despotism of the president and the priesthood. Many old and prominent Mormons have joined tins body [Rae, 157, sq.j Ollivant, 82-90]. Both these schisms cause much trouble to the Mormon leaders. [A Compendium of the Faith and Doctrines of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints. Liverpool and London, 1857. Letters exhibiting the most prominent Doctrines of the Church, etc., by Elder Orson, Spencer, 5th ed. 1866. Sacred Hymns and Spiritual Songs for the Church, etc., 12th ed. 1863. Tracts, chiefly by Orson Pratt. The Millennial Star, a periodical published at Liverpool. W. J . Conybeare, Mormonism, repr. from Edin. Rev. No. 202. Olshausen, Geschichte cler Mormonen. Bennett, Mormonism Exposed, Boston, U.S. 1842. Mackay, The Mormons, 4th ed. Chandless, A Visit to Salt Lake. Burton, City of the Saints. Rémy, A Journey to Great Salt Lake City. Dixon, New America. Rae, Westivard by Bail. Ollivant, A Breeze from the Great Salt Lake. Articles: Herzog, Encyklopiidie, art. Mormonen. Revue des cleux Mondes, Sept. 1853, Feb. 1856, Sept. 1859, April 1861. Edin. Rev. No. 233, p. 185, sq. Quart. Rev. vol. cxxii. p. 450. Fraser's Mag. vols. iii. andiv., new series, June and July 1871.] MUGGLETONIANS. A sect originated during the Great Rebellion by Ludovick Muggleton [A.D. 1609-1697], a journeyman tailor of London, and an associate named Reeves.

The prospects of Mormonism in its present form do not seem favourable. The Republican party in the States have made it part of their platform " to put down the Saints ; " and though the first attempt has failed, it will doubtless be repeated with greater caution and success. In that case, the Mormons would have to choose between abandoning polygamy or Utah. If the former were done, they might still linger on among the chaos of sects in America. If the latter, they might for a few years retain their attractions for the sensual and the fanatic. The •654

Minister, Presbytery of

Mystics

Muggleton set forth that he and his accomplice were the two witnesses spoken of in Bev. xi. 3-6, and that it was their mission to prophesy during the last days, which had then arrived. They professed to have special revelations from heaven, and that they had received power to destroy any who opposed them. The fanatics also taught strange notions, that look as if they were confused memories of some Gnostic heresies,—as that earth and water were not created, but selforiginated ; that the Evil One became incarnate in Eve; that the Father was the SuiFerer upon the Cross, having left Elijah to govern heaven, while He came to earth to die; that Eeeves represented Moses, and Muggleton represented Aaron. Eeeves died many years before Muggleton, and after his death the latter claimed to have a double portion of the Spirit bestowed upon him. He himself died in the year 1697, and was buried in Spinningwheel Alley, Moorfields, where the following inscription was placed upon his tomb:— " Whilst mausoleums and large inscriptions give Might, splendour, and past death make potents live, It is enough briefly to write thy name. Succeeding times by that will read thy fame; Thy deeds, thy acts, around the world resound, No foreign soil where Muggleton's not found."

The sect of the Muggletonians just survived until within the last few years. [Chamberlain's Pres. State of Eng. 1702, p. 258. The Snake in the Grass. Transact. Liverpool Lit. and Phil. Soc. 1868-70.] M U N S T E R , P R E S B Y T E R Y OF.

A

seces-

sion from the main body of the Presbyterians of Ireland, consisting of ten congregations in Dublin and the South of Ireland. MUISZEE.

[ANABAPTISTS.]

MUSTITANI. A small and obscure sect of Donatists, condemned by the three hundred and ten bishops of that schism, who met at Bagai. or Vaga in Kumidia, A.D. 398. [S. Aug. contra epist,. Parmeniani, lib. iii. cap. 29.] MYSTICS, so called from [XVCTTLKOV, that which pertains to mysteries from which the uninitiated are excluded. The term applies at the present day to that union with the Deity which the rapt soul is believed to attain by ecstatic contemplation. Mysticism, in this sense, lies at the root of every form of religious enthusiasm, and by easy degrees may pass on into fanaticism. " Mysticismus haud raro obit in fanaticum furorem " [Wegscheider], Where mysticism is the dominant power of the will it is fanaticism :; as mixed up with the imagination it is enthusiasm ; and where it has attempted to engraft the religious idea on anciently received forms of philosophy, it has been definitely known as theosophy. In every case it claims to set itself above the moral guidance of principle; the feedings of the heart and the purblind impulse of the imagination being its only law. But a distinction may be drawn between the mystical principle, holding the verity of the soul's union with God, and mvsticism in its ex 355

aggerated and morbid condition [JSTitzsch, Si/st. d. dir. Lehre; Sack, PoJemi!c\ ; and certainly, so far as the inner life of the soul, in direct communion with God, is to be distinguished from the action of the same soul in its relation with the world, a distinct phase of spiritual power is to be recognised, whether it be termed the mystical principle of the soul, or the divine union of the soul with God, or the Life of God in the soul of man. Mysticism is the intensified application of this principle, carried out to lengths that are inconsistent with the everyday duties of life. Mysticism has so far no necessary connection with practical piety. It aims at the absorption of the life of man in the Divine; while a rational piety seeks its blessing in representing the Divine Life faithfully in every relation with the world ; that is, in every phase and minute ramification of daily duty. The tendency of mysticism is towards a pantheistical summing of all in the Deity, whereby the sense of distinct personal existence, whether in the human or divine substance, becomes confused. Yet the mystical principle is to a certain extent inseparable from a deep appreciation of the religious idea. The soul's yearning for the invisible finds the object of its aspiration in a sacramental union with the object of its desire. Jacob's realisation of the Divine presence at Bethel was as the mystic ladder of communication, on which the angels of God passed to and fro between earth and heaven. By a deeper generalization Solomon saw in the wisdom of God the bond of union that connects the Spirit of the universe with the Spirit of God. The religious idea had at that early date its obverse side of mystic impress. In the cognate theology of St. John, the Word is the middle term between earth and heaven, and being God from the beginning, Ho is still the Light that lighteth every man that cometh into the world. Hence the mystic principle is inseparable from true religion, so far as it sets the Invisible before the eye of faith, and enables the soul to anticipate the future for which it was created. Hence also the less true forms of religion have one and all embodied the mystic principle, as involving the very essence of religion. Therapeutic contemplation was the obverse of Mosaic ordinance ; the Cabbala refined upon the Talmud ; and Persian Sufism is as the spirit of which the Koran is the letter. In the Church of the sixth century the pseudoDionysian mysticism was a reaction upon the dogmatic teaching forced upon the Church by heresy; much as the mysticism of the ALOMBRADOS or Illuminati of Spain, in the sixteenth century, was called forth by the rigid orthodoxy of the Inquisition, and Jansenist and Quietist tenets by Jesuitism. Mysticism has still been the most usual form in which the expiring flame of religion has flickered up from its embers. Theoso]Jiical mysticism may be referred back to the allegorizing exegesis of the Alexandrian school of theology, the remote source of whicli may be found in the writings of Philo. The historical treatises of this writer were evidently

Mystics composed for Hellenistic readers, and set forth such facts of Jewish history as were known to every child under synagogal discipline. His allegorizing treatises 1 were addressed to that particular phase of the Jewish mind that is dimly indicated in the Proverbs of Solomon, more clearly in the writings of the Son of Sirach, and which became a rule of life in the Therapeutic of Alexandria. At Alexandria the literary Jewadded the. study of Plato to the teaching of the Law, and learned to qualify the anthropomorphism of the.latter by the transcendental notions of the. Deity conveyed by the purest form of Greek philosophy. By a natural progression the anthropopathic descriptions of the Sacred Books were spiritually interpreted as divine allegory, and in time the whole letter of the Law was regarded only as a veil that screened deep mystical truths from the vulgar gaze ; a^eSo^ Ta Travra dWyyopeiTai are the words of Philo. This is the true origin of the allegorizing school of exegesis that was developed in the catechetical school of Alexandria by Clement and Origen, and continued elsewhere by Theophilus of Antiocli, Hilary, Cyril of Alexandria, Ephrem Syrus, and the elder Macarius. The authority principally followed by mystics of succeeding ages was that of Dionysius the Areopagite, said to have been the first Bishop [St. Denys] of Paris, 2 in the " Mystical Theology," the " Divine Names," the " Heavenly Hierarchy," and the " Ecclesiastical Hierarchy." The object of this writer was to give a Platonic development and colouring to the deep mysteries of the Christian faith; and to lead the soul on by contemplative energy to adunation with the Deity. The highest attainment in Christian philosophy was to behold in spirit, and to become one with, God, Who is neither darkness nor light, neither negative nor positive. Three steps lead to this blissful consummation : purification, illumination, and vision (e-oTrreta) • terms adopted from the various grades of Eleusinian initiation [Plut. Demetr. 26], A more direct application of the terminology of heathen mysticism was made by this writer when he gave its title to the work " De Mystica Theologia." The works of Dionysius exercised a considerable influence on the Latin Church of the Middle Ages. J o h n Scotus Erigena translated them into Latin by the command of Charles the Bald, and left them as a model, of which the St. Victoire schoolmen afterwards made much use. These writings are referred by Dr. Westcott [ Contemp. Rev. May 1867] to some writer of the Edessene school at the latter end of the fifth or commencement of the sixth century. The immediate 1 E.g. the Books on the Allegories of the Law, the Treatises on the Cherubim, on the Sacrifice of Cain and Abel, the Good plotted against by the Evil, on the Posterity of Cain, on the Giants, on the Immutability of God, and other Books, having for their theme subjects from t h e Mosaic records. The tone of thought represented in these books was scarcely originated by Philo : he made application of existing material. 2 H u n c alii moderni temporis asserunt, . . . a Papa Clemente in partes Galliarum directum fuisse, et Parisiis martyrii gloria coronatum fuisse. [J. Scot. E n g . Prccf. in Dion. Areop.]

356

Mystics source of Dionysian mysticism was the Symposium of Plato, in which the function of Eros is described as the medium of intimate communication between God and men ; filling every void place throughout the universe, and binding together all its parts, celestial and mundane, in one compact body of love [Symposium, 202 E]. Dante, himself an exponent of the Symposium, perhaps drew from thence the inspiring thought of his Beatrice. The further development of the Platonic idea by the Neo-Platonists, Plotinus, Porphyry and Proclus, is closely copied in the abstraction from mundane grosser thought, and in the unity of divine contemplation to which Dionysius aspired. He ploughed, as Fabricius says, with the JSTeo-Platonic heifer [Fabr. in vit. Prodi., Proleg. xii. ; Lupton, Jntrod. to Dean Oolet's two Treatises on Dionijs. xlii.]. The great end at which he aimed was to shew how, by means of an intermediate and mediatorial hierarchy, man may hold communion with these celestial powers, order above order, until he reposes on the immediate contemplation of God Himself. But he seems to wander beyond the pale of the Church. The celestial hierarchy in this scheme replaces the mediatorial functions of the Redeemer of Mankind. He himself defines this hierarchy [Goel. Hier. iii. 1] as a divine order, science and energy, standing in closest connection with the attributes of D e i t y ; it is in fact an exact reflex of those attributes. The works of Dionysius were explained as genuine in a commentary by Maximus the monk, of Constantinople. He composed also an allegorizing work on the Liturgy, with the title of Mystagogia, in close connection with Dionysian views. This work still has a value as exhibiting the Liturgy of the Greek Church of the seventh century. Maximus forms a middle term between the so-called Areopagite and Erigena. W e find in his Scholia on Gregory of JSTazianzum the same transcendental notions of the Deity, and of the Divine Immanence in the world of matter, which only is by virtue of that Immanence. 3 As supra-substantial (virepova-ws) God has nothing in common with any 4 known thing ; but so far as the one is manifested in Being it is multiform ; and conversely, the multiform by involution is substantially one. 6 I t anticipates the Spinozist "Alles ist Eins, und Eins ist Alles." Man having had an eternal existence in the Ideality of the Divine Being, partakes of that Being.® From the Divine Substance he comes forth, and 3 El's eavrov TO, trdvra dvaKeipa\aiotfi.emv, KUO' ov R6 re etvai Kal TO diafj.ti'eLi' Kal e£ oS ra yeyovora UJS ylyove Qeou' IT aura, yap /jLertyei dia TO ¿K 0eoD yeyevijuffat ava\6yct>5 GeoO, '/} Kara vovv, ?) Kara \6yov, 7) aXff&r\In the following year began the dispute among proaching if not actually amounting to schism— the Nonjurors respecting the " usages." Collier which was caused in the six dioceses and 400 parishes, when they were thus provided each witli wrote a tract entitled " Seasons for Restoring two pastors. But many of them, doubtless, took some Prayers and Directions as they stand in the the same line that was taken by Bishop Ken, Communion Service of the first English Reformed and quietly retiring from their posts refused to Liturgy," etc. I n this he advocated the reintroduction into the Communion Service of the mixed take any part in setting up a rival communion. cup, of the Invocation of the Holy Ghost, of the I I I . The first stop which was taken towards Prayer of Oblation, and of Prayers for the departed, placing the Nonjuring clergy in a schismatical these always having been used by Hickes, who position was an imprudent act which Sancroft celebrated with the Communion Office of Edward himself was persuaded to perform, that of dele- YI. First Book, and by Collier himself, while gating to Lloyd, the ejected Bishop of Norwich, Brett and the Scottish bishop Campbell strongly that archiépiscopal jurisdiction which he declined supported the practice. A division thus sprung to exercise personally. This was done by an in- up in the now small body of Nonjurors, Spinckes strument dated February 9th, 1691-2, when he had and Gandy leading one party, which wished to allowed his authority to lie dormant for eighteen retain the use of the last Book of Common months ; during half of which time Tillotson Prayer, Collier and Brett leading another section, had been consecrating suffragans for the province, which used the First Book : the former party being and ordaining and confirming within the diocese called " Non-Usagers" and the latter " Usagers." of Canterbury, while Sancroft himself had been The two parties remained separate, each conseliving the life of a hermit on a small property crating several bishops, from the year 1718 to which he possessed at Fresingfield. Under the 1733, when a reconciliation took place, though authority thus delegated to him, Lloyd shortly some still continued to be " Usagers" and others afterwards took steps for consecrating two bishops, " Non-Usagers." and the consent of the exiled King having been The sect lingered on during the whole of the 381

Nonjurors, Scottish eighteenth century, but with continually diminishing numbers and with continually increasing divisions. Few priests seem to have been ordained among its members, but the consecration of bishops was kept up, at last in a very irregular and reckless manner, until nearly the close of the century. [ D I C T . of THEOL. p. 515.] Among them were many men of great learning, and whose works have been of high value to the Church, especially Hickes and Dodwell as theologians, Collier and Carte as historical writers, Brett as a high authority in liturgical theology, Kettle well, Kelson, and Law as devotional writers whose influence deeply affected the religion of the Church for a century and a half. The Nonjurors appear to have always held their services in private houses, and many of their clergy practised medicine or followed some trade. Gordon, the last of their regular bishops, died in 1779 ; Cartwright, one of the last of the irregular section, practised as a surgeon at Shrewsbury, and was reconciled to the Church at the Abbey there in 1799, by a clergyman who mentioned the circumstance, in his old age, to the present writer. Bootlie, the last of all their bishops, died in Ireland in 1805, but some small congregations of lionjurors are said to have existed some years later. Many of the last of the Nonjurors, however, attended their parish churches, only reserving to their consciences the privilege of using Prayer Books which had been printed before the Revolution. A strong intimacy was always kept up between the Nonjurors of England and the Episcopalians of Scotland, and they were mostly mixed up with the Jacobite party to a dangerous extent, some of them even suffering for high treason in 1716 and 1745. Not a few of them seceded to the Roman Catholic sect, and when an Act was passed against Recusants, the Nonjurors were included. The strong desire for Catholic reunion, which thus impelled them to seek it somewhere, although their political feelings would not permit them to seek it in the Church of England, also led to an attempt being made in 1716 to bring about " a concordat betwixt the orthodox and catholic remnant of the British Churches and the Catholic and Apostolic Oriental Church." The full particulars of this have been printed in Williams' Orthodox Church of the East in the nth century, but the correspondence on the subject fell through in 1725. [Life of Kettlewell. Bowles' Life of Km. D'Oyley's Life of Bancroft. Lathbury's History of the Nonjurors,] NONJURORS, SCOTTISH. A party in the Scottish Establishment became known by this name in 1712, on their refusing to take the Oath of Abjuration as enjoined in the Toleration Act passed in that year. The oath recognised by implication the conditions of the Succession Act, among which were the provisions that the Sovereign should always be of the communion of the Church of England, and should swear to maintain that Church as by law established. Hence, by many amongst the more rigid Presbyterians, the refusing the oath was regarded as a criterion of 382

Novatians ministerial faithfulness, and almost as a test of communion. In 1719 the oath was modified, in accordance with an address from the Nonjurors themselves; but a few (including T. Boston, who wrote Reasons for refusing the Abjuration Oath in its Latest Form) still resolutely declined it. [CAMERONIANS. MARROW M E N . ] NON-USAGERS. [NONJURORS.] NORWEGIAN PROTESTANTS. PROTESTANTS.]

[DANISH

N O T A T I A N S or NOVA1TANISTS. A sect which arose at Rome, in the middle of the third century, from a simple spirit of insubordination, and then adopted, as if for its justification, the tenet that the means of grace and reconciliation entrusted to the Church are inapplicable to those who have fallen from the faith in persecution, and to those who have after baptism committed mortal sin. The sect organized itself into a body, and the schism became complete when Novatian, from whom it is named, fell off from Catholic unity, and assumed the position of bishop of Rome, in the reign of the Emperor Decius. A succession of schismatic bishops was kept up for nearly three hundred years, not in Rome only, but almost throughout Christendom. The sternness of Novatian's refusal to admit the lapsed to penitence was extended by his followers, if not by Novatian himself, to other cases of heinous sin, and to some cases treated as sinful by a mistaken asceticism, such as second marriages. In this matter the sect, which in other respects of doctrine was orthodox, must be judged heretical. Eroni this attempt to enforce a more rigid discipline, they took the name " Cathari," the Pure; and shewed their schismatic spirit by unchurching the body from which they separated, denying even the validity of the Catholic baptism. The spirit of schism manifested itself also, as is usual, in an alliance with the secular power. They gained the favour of the heathen government, treated the banishments of bishops by the government as if they were canonical depositions, and thus virtually surrendered the liberties of the Church to the secular arm. Thus the schism of the Novatians involved these three cardinal points: the constitution of the Christian Church, its use of the means of grace and reconciliation, and its relation to the secular power. Considering this, and considering the wide extent and long duration of the schism, it is remarkable that there does not remain from original authority any detailed account of its rise and progress. Its history must be gathered from unsystematic notices in Cyprian's epistles; from some few epistles of particular bishops and doctors of the Roman, African, and Eastern Churches extant among Cyprian's works; from the remains of some tracts and epistles of Dionysius of Alexandria preserved by Eusebius; from Pacian's epistles; from Ambrose's treatise, De Pcenitentia; from a few conciliar determinations; from the occasional notes of Socrates and Sozomen; and from statements of particular points of doctrine or history by Jerome, Augustine, and Basil. By

Novatians far the greater part of this information comes from opponents, and in the consideration of it, this chapter of Church history, more perhaps than other chapters, is liable to be distorted by the prepossessions of the historian. The history of this schism must begin with the Carthaginian presbyter ISTovatus,1 for with him began the rebellion against episcopal authority. That in opposition to Cyprian he advocated lenity, in opposition to Cornelius he advocated rigour, shews that his mercy and his severity arose from his love of rebellion. The election of Cyprian to the bishopric of Carthage was opposed by a small but relentless minority. F i v e presbyters in particular carried oil their opposition after his consecration [Cypr. Ep. xliii.]. Whether ISTovatus was one of these five, is disputed; but if the expression in E p . xliii. regarding the five presbyters, " A n t i q u a ilia contra episcopatum nieum venena retinentes," be compared with Ep. xiv., in which are given the names of four of the schismatical presbyters, ISTovatus being among them, there will be little doubt of the " existence of only one anti-Cyprian party from the very beginning—a party which held together, and in which Novatus took a conspicuous p a r t " [Meander's Ch. Hist. Eose's transl. i. p. 241]. ISTovatus first set himself in open opposition to his bishop by procuring the ordination of Felicissimus, and appointing him his deacon, without Cyprian's permission [Cyp. Ep. lii.]. 2 ISTovatus was now accused of heinous crimes. I t was said that he had robbed widows and orphans, that he had kicked his wife during her pregnancy and caused the death of her child, that he had allowed his father to starve, and then remain unburied. On these charges ho was to be tried, but the Decian 1 iTovatian, the presbyter of Kome, is generally called Novatus by the Greek writers. Lardner argues that his real name was Novatus [Credit, note on chap, xlvii.]. It has been said that Lardner confounded the two [Smith's Did., Novatianus], This is a mistake. Lardner writes, " Novatus of Carthage came to liome, and joined the party of the Roman presbyter of that name" \Oredib. ch. xlvii. I l l ] , But the two have often been confounded. Natalis Alexander states that Eusebius, Epiphanius and Theodoret confound them; and so Sirmondi writes: " Subtilius do Novatianorum conditore disputant Patres Latini, qui Novatum Episcopum Africamim, distinguunt a Novatiano Presbytero Romano. Utrumque pro uno babuerunt plerique Groeci" [Note in Theod. Hwr. fab. III. v.]. But it appears only that they called Novatian Novatus. They do not ascribe to Novatus of Home anything proper to Novatus of Carthage. 2 Cyprian's words are: " Ipse est qui Felieissimum satellitem suum Diaconum, nee permittente me, nec sciente, sua factione et ambitione constituit." Many historians understand by this a presbyterian ordination by Novatus himself. Neander writes that Novatus, with his view;, and a^nrlin™ to his presbyterian system, might 1 liiiih liim-.-lfqu di!i.-d, as a presbyter and president of a church, to perform this. It does not seem at all probable that Cyprian would have brooked a presbyterian ordination, though he might be obliged to pass over the irregularity of the ordination by another bishop. lie allowrd I'Ylici-imiis to remain in office. Bingham's interpretation is therefore adopted [Antiq. II. iii. 7]. So Pearson also understands Cyprian's words [Ann. Cypr. p. 25]. Some have argued, but without sufficient ground, that Novatus was a bishop. See the quotation from Sirmondi in foregoing note. So also Baronius, Petavius, Labbseus.

383

Novatians persecution prevented the trial [Cypr. Ep. lii.]. Of these charges it can only be said that they are not proved. I t is as unjust to Cyprian to attribute them to blind passion, to the rancour of controversy, as it is to .ISTovatus to assume them to be true, in their full extent, because Cyprian believed them. From Epistle xiv., written during the persecution, after Cyprian had left Carthage, it appears that Novatus and three other of the presbyters wrote to Cyprian concerning the affairs of the diocese. A good deal of stress has been laid on the fact that Cyprian calls these four "compresbyteri nostri." H e was too just to deny ISTovatus this title before trial and proof of the charges and sentence given. And the inference from these several notices appears to be, that ISTovatus was waiting trial when the persecution broke out—that the persecution prevented the trial coming on—that ISTovatus did not immediately flee, which would naturally tell in his favour in the mind of the bishop—that a lull of persecution rendered it likely the trial might come on—that ISTovatus then retreated—that (as is always the case when men avoid trial) further evidence against him came to light, and convinced Cyprian of the guilt of his presbyter, and caused the stronger language of the later Epistle, the iifty-second. Cyprian's retreat from persecution was justifiable, but was open to doubt, and very liable to misrepresentation. 3 His opponents were not slow to take advantage of it, and besides traducing the character of their bishop, they increased their numbers by receiving on easier terms than Cyprian would have allowed those who had denied the faith and offered sacrifice, and those who without actually sacrificing had bought certificates of submission. Felicissimus was now at the head of the party. H e resisted Cyprian's commissioners, who were empowered to visit the, church and regulate the distribution of the church funds. Upon Cyprian's return, he with his party was condemned in a synod of the ISTorth-African Church. Instead of yielding, he procured the consecration, as rival bishop, of Fortunatus, one of the five presbyters. Our subject requires us not to dwell on these events, but to follow Novatus to Rome. iNovatian, whose party l i o v a t u s now joined, a presbyter of Rome, had, according to Cornelius' account, been possessed by a devil, had been aided by exorcism, and after a long illness had received baptism as a clinic, but upon his recovery had neglected the rite of confirmation [Cornel. Epist. 3 In considering Cyprian's conduct in this particular, it must be remembered that the persecution was begun by the people, not by the Emperor's edict, which was not issued by Deems until a year after. Reasons will be given below for thinking that Cyprian's Christian opponents joined in flu; popular cry against him. In such a state of things there may have been more to justify his retreat than would have been if the persecution had arisen from the edict. His remaining with his flock might have provoked the unbelievers to greater violence against them. See Cypr. Ep. xliii. xiv. lix. " Opovtet nos tamen paci communi consulere, et interdum, quamvis cum tsedio animi nostri, deesse vobis, ne prsesentia nostri invidiam et violentiam gentilium provocet" [Ep. vii.].

No-vatians in Euseb. Hist. Ecd. vi. 43]. There is probably some truth in the reproach of Cornelius (exaggerated as we must believe his letter to be, and uncharitable in several respects as we must feel it), that Novatian was a man of unsocial and savage habits. 1 The alleged possession by the devil was—or accompanied—an attack of the solitary and gloomy hypochondriasm of a hard nature, to the unsociability of which the wrestlings of a mind labouring after knowledge would naturally contribute. The rejection of the further means of grace in the ordinances of the Church —the neglect of confirmation implies also the neglect of the Holy Eucharist—indicates a want of humility and true self-knowledge, the proud self-reliance of one who had not altogether unlearned the lessons of heathen philosophy. Cyprian's words make it at least very probable, though they do not certainly prove, that Novatian had been trained in the Stoic school'2 [Cypr. Epist. lv.]. How long this standing aloof from Church communion lasted we do not know. But we know that Novatian distinguished himself by his writings in defence of the Catholic faith, and by an ascetic life. Fabian, Bishop of Eome, ordained him priest notwithstanding the remonstrance of the clergy, who alleged the law of the Church, that no clinic should be ordained 3 [Cornel. Ep.]. As a presbyter Novatian gained much esteem and influence. I n the year 250, during the vacancy of the see after the death of Fabian, he was commissioned by the Roman clergy to write a letter in their name to Cyprian [Cypr. Ep. xxx. ; see Ep. lv. p. 102], In this letter, it must be carefully observed, Novatian does not deny absolution to the lapsed at the point of death. He argues strongly against hasty absolution, he urges the propriety of doing nothing new before the appointment of a bishop, and says that the Roman clergy " believe that in the meantime, while the grant of a bishop is withheld from them by God, the cause of such as are able to bear the delays of postponement should be kept in suspense; but of such as impendingdeath does not suffer to bear the delay . . . to them such cautious and careful help should be ministered, . . . so that neither ungodly men should praise our smooth facility, nor truly penitent men accuse our severity as cruel." Cyprian quotes the substance of this in brief, " that peace ought to be granted to the lapsed who were sick and at the point of departure." The story told by Cornelius that Novatian shut 1

Cornelius relates -rijp &Koivuvi)aiav airov ko.1 \vKotpi\iav. ¿.KOLV. Ita loqui videtur Cornelius propter peeuliarem Novatiani opinionem." Constantius, in Romanarum, Pontificum Ejmtolm, quoted by Kouth, Reliq. Sac. iii. 53 : but the term \vKoi\ia does not seem to agree with this interpretation. 2 "Novatianiphilosophiam,perquam ille innanfragiuin religionis incurrit" [Paeian, Ep. ii. p. 197]. Ambrose states that the Stoic doctrine of the equality of sins led Novatian to deny penance to lesser sins as well as greater \de Pcen. I. ii. ]. 3 The existing canon to this effect is of later date, Neocres. xii. A.D. 315. But that it was a re-establishment of the old law of the Church is shewn by the testimony of the Roman clergy. I t admits an exception, " unless it be for his fidelity and diligence afterwards," "

TT)V

Stfi

Novatians himself up in the time of the persecution, and refused to go to the assistance of the sufferers, saying " that he wished to be presbyter no longer, but to follow a different philosophy," if true, is very discreditable. But it does not appear to be consistent with Novatian's character, and is probably, to say the least, much distorted. [See Evans, Biography of Early Church, ii. p. 259.] So stood matters when Cornelius was elected bishop in June 251. Novatian had assured the Church with a solemn oath, that he did not desire the office. He was taken at his word. There was also good reason for passing him by. His literary qualifications would not compensate for the gloomy and unsocial disposition, which was unsuitable to the active and practical nature of the bishop's duties. Cornelius was made bishop by the testimony of almost all the clergy, and by the suffrage of the people then present [Cypr. Epist. lv.]. The exact time of Novatus' appearing in Rome is not known, but it was probably in the beginning of the same year. That he joined the party of Novatian in opposition to Cornelius there is no doubt; as to the extent of his influence there is considerable doubt. " The Greek writers, who appear to be well acquainted with the Novatian sect, say nothing of this African Novatus; nor does Cornelius, in the fragments of his letter to Fabius of Antioch preserved by Eusebius, take any notice of him. Indeed, Cornelius, in a letter to Cyprian, mentions this person among other legates in the second deputation sent by his rival from Rome to Africa ; but he does not lay anything particularly to his charge: and he there actually calls another person (Evaristus) author of the schism 4 [Cypr. Ep. 1.]. I t is also apparent from Cyprian's answer to that letter that Cornelius had never sent him any account of the conduct of the African Novatus" [Lardner, Gredib. xlvii. 111]. From this silence regarding Novatus it is inferred by Lardner that Cyprian had an exaggerated notion of the powers and importance of the man who had given him so much trouble, and that his statements, such as, e.g., that Novatus made Novatian bishop as he had made Felicissimus deacon, cannot be relied upon. Others, as Neander, accept Cyprian's statements of Novatus' influence, and suppose that it was Novatus' mode of proceeding to be the moving-spring of all troubles, and yet not to set himself but another at the head of the party. Of far greater consequence than the determination of this point is a correct judgment of the change which took place in Novatian's principles. His letter, which has been already quoted, allows the reception of penitents in prospect of death; it urges the propriety of waiting for the election of a new bishop before any new rule is made. Then he is joined by Novatus, who at Carthage had been on the side of lenity ; a bishop is appointed with whom the majority of the Roman clergy agreed ; yet we presently find Novatian at 4 Evaristus was probably one of the conseerators of Novatian. [See Kouth's note, Reliq. Sac. iii. p. 35.]_

Novaticins the head of a party which had altered its principles so entirely as to deny the power of the Church to grant absolution even in articulo mortis, and which insisted on its new principle so rigidly as to assert, that the church which did grant this absolution was apostate, and became 110 church at all. This change of principle on the part of JNovatian is not to be classed with the changes of Cyprian and Cornelius. These were only changes of degree, of more or less strictness or lenity. Jfovatian's change was from a recognition to a denial of the power of the Church. The inference to be drawn from the facts is, that the heresy was on account of the schism, not the schism for the sake of the heresy.1 Jerome's apophthegm is proved true by Church history : " Nullum schisma non aliquam sibi confingit hoeresin, ut recte ab ecclesia recessisse videatur" [Hieron. in Ep. ad, Tit~\, and ISiovatian's heresy appears to be no exception. Pacian speaks very expressly to the point. St. Ambrose concurs with him. Dionysius of Alexandria puts the schism first. St. Basil says that " the beginning of their separation was by schism," as distinguished, i.e., from heresy.2 These testimonies will outweigh the account given by Socrates, who says that the Novatians deserted Cornelius because he received into communion those who in the time of the Decian persecution had sacrificed to idols [Socrat. Hist. Eccl. iv. 13J. How little the denial of the power of the Church to receive the lapsed was the cause of the schism may be seen from this, that Maximus, who was Novatian's legate from Italy to Africa, and was excommunicated there by the Catholics, was by the Novatians made a bishop in Africa though he had sacrificed [Cypr. Ep. lix. pp. 132, 133], and from this, that in the year 253, the Novatians communicated with the Lapsi [Cypr. Ep. lxv.]. We are led therefore to describe the consecration of Novatian as an act of pure schism, without the excuse which a principle put forward, as for the maintenance of holy discipline, might 1 The controversy no doubt had arisen before Nbvatian's consecration [see Routh's note, Meliq. Sacr. iii. p. 42], but it would not have assumed such importance, the point in dispute would not have been made t h e " artieulus stantis vel cadentis ecclesise," except for the sake of justifying t h e schism, 2 " T u postquam a reliquo corpore segregatus es, et a matre divisus, u t facti tui rationem redderes totos librorum l'ecessus, assiduus scrutator, inquiris. Occulta quasque solicitas, quicquid exinde securum est inquietas " [Pacian, Ep. iii. p. 199], Again, having related Novatian's earlier opinions, as shewn in his letter to Cyprian, Pacian writes: " S i nemo vobis Cornelium praetulisset, maneret ilia Novatiani scribentis auctoritas; nunc displicet tota sententia" \ib. p. 202], ' Qui ideo, ut dicitis, in ecclesiam non convenitis, quia per pcenitentiam tributa spes fuerat Ms qui lapsi sunt, revertendi. Sed hoc prset e n t u m est specie. Ceterum episcopatus amissi dolore succensus Novatianus schisma composuit" [Ambr. de Pmnit. I. xv. 85, Bened. edit. Eusebius H. E. vii. 8.

Novatians seem to lend it. 5 The Xovatian doctrine of repentance was a new heresy upon a schism. Pacian writes that Novatian was first stimulated and provoked by his envy, and could not endure Cornelius' episcopal government over him, whereupon he gave himself up to jSTovatus \_Ep. ii. ad Sempron.\ Under these circumstances we may well believe that Novatian's consecration was procured by secret, underhand and treacherous dealings. The account which Cornelius gives of the transaction is, that Novatian's agents persuaded three distant Italian bishops to come to Rome to act as mediators between the two parties, feasted and intoxicated them on their arrival, and then compelled them to perform the consecration4 [Euseb. Hist. Eccl. vi. 43]. Cyprian, contrasting the conduct of Cornelius and Novatian, states that the latter used force and violence : " Non, ut quidam, vim facit ut episcopus fieret, sed ipse vim passus est, ut episcopatum conatus acciperet" [Cypr. Ep. Iv.]. Of the three consecrators, one not long afterwards, returned to the Church, mourning and confessing his error. He was admitted to lay communion. The other two were deposed. Many of the Roman confessors had sided with Novatian. Cornelius was soon able to inform Cyprian of their return to the unity of the Church [Cypr. Ep. xlix.]. Novatian and Fortunatus 5 followed the custom of the Church in notifying their election to other sees, and Novatian was anxious to be recognised by the three great Churches of Carthage, Antioch, 3 Pacian states t h a t iTovatia,n assumed episcopal authority upon the receipt of a letter from t h e confessors, without consecration. " Novatianus . . . quem absentem Epístola episcopum finxit, quem, consecrante nullo, linteata sedes accepit" [ii. p. 196], " Sine consecratione legitima episcopum factum, ideoque nec factum per Epistolam eorum qui se confessores esse simular e n t " [p. 198], " N o v a t u s . . . ex Africa . . . Romam v e n i t ; et cum apud Carthaginem, urgentibus in ecclesia fratribus, dies congnitionis ipsius immineret, et hie l a t i t a v i t : nec multo post Novatianum istum episcopatu Cornelii anxium, (nam sibi speraverat) cum aliquantis, u t in tali re solet, ex sua parte fautoribus nutantem impellit, dubitantem fovet ; . . . invenit a.liquos ex eorum numero qui tempestatem persecutionis illius evasertint, apud quos hanc ipsam de lapsis reeeptis Cornelio conflaret invidiam : dat eorum Epistolas ad Novatianum : ille ex auctoritate epistolarum, sedente jam Eomae Episcopo, adversum fas, sacerdotii singularis alterius Episcopi sibi nomen assumit: Cornelium lapsis communicasse arguit : se vindicat innocentem" [iii. p. 202], This account is quite compatible with t h a t given above. Novatian t h u s assuming the title of bishop, would soon find a consecration necessary, and procure it by any means. The account indicates (if true) not settled presbyterian principles, b u t a disbelief of t>he necessity of any ordination whatever. Theodoret states t h a t Novatian went himself into Italy to find and bring t h e three bishops. This is contradicted by Cornelius' account of t h e transaction.

4 Cornelius describes the conduct of the principal t h u s : oíros 7hp . . . 6irr¡VÍKA. irepunratrdai re KO.1 vfiap-irdfeiv T'tjV /¿i] SoBeTo-AV aórqi ávudev éTí É7re%eí/>«, K.T.X.-. of the Basil, Oan. Epist. i., ad Amphil.}. This conclusion agents, &pq. SEKDRY fieBiovras KO.1 KpaíiraXdvraí ¡xerh ¡3ías agrees with t h e tenor of Cyprian's letter to Antonianus fyáyKacev. I t appears to be t h e ordinary case of agents [Ep. Iv. ]. Pacian states that he took his narrative from effecting t h e principal's wishes by means he had not Cyprian's Epistles, and he appears to have had access to directly sanctioned. The proportions of guilt man canletters not now extant. See Historical Collections cone.not assign. District iSuccessions, p. 179, and the note in Benedictine 5 Fortunatus sent Felicissimus and others to Rome on edit, of Ambrose, loc. cit. this errand [Cypr. Ep. lix.]. 2 B 385

Novatians and Alexandria. His legates arrived at Carthage while a council was sitting, and were at once repelled [Cypr. Ep. xliv.], upon the representation of four African bishops, who at the same time returned from Rome, where, with fourteen others, they had been present at the election of Cornelius, and now bore testimony to the "validity of that election. 1 The letter of Cornelius to Fabius of Antioch, which has been quoted so often, was probably a reply to inquiries of Fabius in consequence of a missive from Novatian. Dionysius of Alexandria answers Novatian, " If as you say, you were forced against your will, you will shew it by retiring voluntarily" [Euseb. Hist. Eccl. vi. 45], The Novatians now endeavoured to support their cause by assuming the appearance of superior sanctity. They restricted the power of the keys, denying at first its extension to those who had apostatized in persecution, then to those who committed certain greater crimes after baptism. The power of binding and loosing was in fact ultimately limited to the remission of sins in baptism. 2 They took the title of Cathari, and asserted that all besides themselves had forfeited their catholicity. They rebaptized those who joined them. This shew of sanctity and rigour of discipline doubtless prevailed with some : some it alienated; of whom an example is given by Socrates, who reports that Atticus of Constantinople drew the distinction between Novatian and his followers, approving the refusal of communion to those who had sacrificed, condemning the refusal to the laity who had been guilty of less heinous crimes [Socrates, Hist. Eccl. vii. 25]. The great cause of the rapid increase of this sect was that they gained the secular power to their side, enabling tliem to form themselves into a corporation to purchase lands and build churches ; and further protecting them by law in invading not only the sees of the Catholics and their spiritual rights, but their temporalities also, which the schismatics were enabled to use for carrying on their schism. This appears from Constantine's edict of restitution, which will be quoted below. Decius declared his mortal and irreconcilable hatred to Cornelius. H e had put Fabian to death, and " would rather hear of a rival prince than of a priest of God setting himself up at Eome " [Cypr. Ep. lv.]. From the tenor of Dionysius' reply to Novatian it appears that Novatian asserted (with what truth we are not able to say) that he was compelled by the Emperor's threats to accept the

Novatians bishopric; for Dionysius tells him it is a duty to suffer anything, even martyrdom, rather than to afflict the Church of God. Novatian could not have pretended that he was in danger of martyrdom from the Roman clergy if he refused to be made bishop. But it is uncertain how far Novation's letter of excuse told the whole truth. The exemption of the Novatians, however, from persecution under Gallus and Volusianus can hardly be accounted for on any other supposition than that of favour shewn from the first to Novatian as the rival of Cornelius. Decius' death was late in the year 251. Persecution then ceased for about seven months, and recommenced upon the refusal of the Christians to sacrifice at the heathen altars of propitiation. I n August 252, Cyprian wrote to Cornelius, who was then in exile, and his letter contrasts the sufferings of the Catholics with the rest the heretics enjoyed [Ep. lx.]. Now we do not suspect the Novatians of sacrificing; and that their refusal to sacrifice was overlooked can be attributed only to some earlier concordat with the government. If they had been persecuted under Decius' government, although they were Cornelius' rivals, it is difficult to assign the ground on which such a concordat can have been made in the seven months of rest. I t is far easier to suppose that they were favoured from the first as enemies of Cornelius. Novatian retired from Rome, it is true, at the time of the Decian persecution; but if he left his followers under persecution, a letter on Jewish meats, without one word of exhortation to constancy and patience, was surely a singular mode of seeking to edify them. His retirement may have been only to save appearances.

I n Carthage, early in the year 251, the five presbyters who opposed Cyprian were associated with the magistrates in an edict, says Cyprian, that they might overthrow our faith, and turn away the hearts of the brethren [Ep. xliii.]. This makes it more probable that a like course was pursued at Rome. Cyprian's Epistle to Lucius [lxi.] speaks also of the freedom which the Novatians enjoyed ; God's secret ordering so contrived it, he says, that the punishment was a test which distinguished the true C h u r c h ; the devil attacked only the soldiers and fortresses of Christ, he passed by the heretics once prostrated and already made his own. H e expressly limits the persecution to the Church of Christ and its bishop Cornelius. I t is to feared then that, as at Carthage the heretical presbyters joined the magistrates against Cyprian, so at Rome the Novatians joined the 1 Fabius at first seemed to incline to the new schism, secular power in this persecution for the sake of but was saved from it by Dionysius. A council met at removing the Catholic bishops, and setting themAntioch, where certain persons were trying to establish the schism [Euseb. H. E. vi. 44, 46], selves as successors in their sees. How far the 2 Novatian wrote circular letters to the churches, Novatians profited by the persecution and availed urging them to refuse communion with those who had themselves of it, is at least clear from the laws sacrificed, but the terms of the letters included all cases we are now to name, which prove that they had of the commission of " peccata mortalia" [Socr. iv. 13], churches, cemeteries, and houses, possessed by Neander accordingly writes that Novatian had probably intended from the first this whole class of sins. Accordthem a long time as their freehold, even from ingly the office of penitentiaries was abolished or dropped the beginning of their schism, some of which by them : oTs ov\oyos fieravolas, oiStv roiWov ¿cetjuev belonged to the Catholic bishops and clergy, [Sozom. II. E. vii. 16]. 386

Novatìans

Novatians

Constantine's law is rather favourable than otherwise to the sect. "Novatianos non adeo comperimus prEedamnatos, ut iis, quse petiverant, crederemus minime largienda. Itaque ecclesiie suai domos et loca sepulchris apta sine inquietudine eos firmiter possidere prsecipimus : ea scilicet, quae ex diuturno tempore vel ex empto habuerunt, vel qualibet qusesiverunt ratione. Sane providendum erit ne quid sibi usurpare conentur ex his, quaì ante dissidium ad ecclesias perpetua sanctitatis pertinuisse manifestum est." Dat. vii. Kal. Oct. Spoleti, Constantino A. vii., et Constantio C. Coss. [A.D. 326], 1 The law of Theodosius the younger and Yalentinian I I I . is general : " Hsereticorum ita est reprimenda insania, ut ante omnia quas ab orthodoxis abreptas tenent ubicunque ecclesias, statini catholicas ecclesias tradendas esse non ambigant, quia ferri non potest, ut, qui nec proprias habere debuerant, ab orthodoxis possessas aut conditas suaque temeritate invasas ultra detineant." Section 2 proceeds : " Posthaac, quoniam non omnes eadem austeritate plectendi sunt, Arianis quidem, Macedonianis et Apollinarianis, quorum hoc est facinus, quod nocenti meditatione decepti credunt de veritatis fonte mendacia, intra nullam civitatem eeclesiam habere liceat ; Novatianis autem et Sabbatianis (the Sabbatians were the Judaizing Novatians) omnis innovationis adimatur licentia, si quam forte tentaverint ; Eunomiani vero . . . et Maniehasi nusquam in Romano solo conveniendi orandique habeant facultatem ;" Dat. iii. Kal. Jun. Costantinopoli, Felice et Tauro Coss. [A.D. 428]. [Cod. Theocl. lib. xvi. tit. v. legg. I. 65.] The first and third clauses of this latter section referring to holding places of worship, the meaning of " innovatio " in the second clause must be trespass upon the Catholic churches, and change of their destination from Catholic worship to heretical.

deed the natural and common course of schismatical action. To this favour shewn by the emperors and their governments is to be attributed the increase of the sect, after the severe blow which it received when the confessors returned to the Catholic Church.3 The error of the confessors it is not difficult to understand. " I t is natural for men who have distinguished themselves in any way from the rest to consider themselves an exclusive party. Where this distinction is of a dangerous nature they consider themselves as the elect, and are fain to shew their election visibly to the world, as well as palpably to represent it to themselves, by drawing a line between themselves and the general body. The martyrs, therefore, sometimes as weak in understanding as they were strong in resolution, were a ready prey to the flattery of such as wished to use them for the instruments of schism" [Evans' Biog. of Early Church, ii. p. 273].4 The error lasted but a short time. Cyprian's interposition was successful ; the confessors publicly acknowledged their fault, and submitted to the rightful authority of Cornelius [Cypr. Ep. xlvi. xlvii. xlix.].

The sixth title also of the same book, " N e sanctum baptisma iteretur," appears to refer primarily to the Novatians, as the chief sect which then xebaptized. The first law of Yalentinian and Yalens [A.D. 373] declares the Antistes who rebaptizes to be unworthy of the priesthood ; the second, of Yalens, Gratian, and Yalentinian [A.D. 377], condemning rebaptism, proceeds, " Eos igitur auctoritas tua erroribus miseris jubebit absistere, ecclesiis, quas contra fidcm retinent, restitutis catholicis." The law is directed "ad Flavianum Yicarium Africse."2 From all this it may be concluded that the Novatians did what the Donatists and Arians did—the Donatists courted Julian the Apostate, the Arians complied not only with the Meletian schismatics, but with the heathens, to make their party stronger. [DONATISTS. ARIANS.] I t is in1

Sozomen mentions a severe law of Constantine, about the year 331, in which the Novatians are placed at the head of the worst heresies, the Montanists, Yalentinians, Marcionites, Paulianists ; all these are forbidden to hold public or private assemblies, their oratories are confiscated, their leaders banished [Sozom, Hist. JBccl. ii. 30], 2 Jerome speaks of Novatian's remaining at this time "nudatus et pene solus."

387

The letter of Dionysius of Alexandria, given by Eusebius [if. E. vii. 5], and Eusebius' words introducing it, have been quoted to prove a rapid decline of the party. We venture to think that this arises from misinterpretation. Eusebius represents the Churches of the East as averse to the innovations of Novatian, and as at peace among themselves, that is, on the point of the re-baptism of heretics. This question had caused an interruption of communion : and the restoration of communion among themselves, not the return of the majority of the Novatians to the Church, appears to be the peace which Dionysius refers to. There are many proofs of the wide extension of the Novatian body. Cyprian writes thus : "Per plurimas civitates novos apostolos suos mittit . . . ille super episcopos in persecutions proscriptos ereare alios pseudoepiscopos audet" \Ep. lv.]. We have no complete catalogue of these intruding bishops, but we meet with them frequently in history: Maximus at Carthage [Cyp. Ep. lix.], Acesius of Constantinople [Socr. Hist. Ecd. I. vii.], Agelius of Constantinople [ibid. v. 12], Leontius of Rome \ibid. v. 14], are examples. " Socrates speaks of their sees at Constantinople, Nice, Nicomedia, and Cotiasus in Phrygia, as the chief sees of the sect in the fourth century, in the East at least; for 3 It would appear from Eusebius that Moses, confessor, and afterwards martyr, renounced communion with Novatian and his five presbyters after their formal schism

had taken place [Euseb. Hist. Heel. vi. 43],

But see

Pearson's Ann. Cyp., anno 251, for the date of Moses' death. 4 Evans ascribes to the desperation which Novatiaij felt at his adherents thus deserting him, the impiety, which Cornelius relates, of forcing communicants in the Holy Eucharist to swear that they would not return to

Cornelius [Biogr. Early Church, ii. 283], It is difficult

to believe the story ; and the tone of Cornelius' letter makes one judge that he would not be very careful in examining the evidence on which it rested.

Novatians he supposeth them besides very numerous in the West. The pieces written against them by St. Ambrose, Pacian, the anonymous author of the Questions out of the Old and New Testament, the notice taken of them by Basil, Gregory Nazianzen, the accounts given of them by Socrates and Sozomen, are proofs of their being numerous, and in most parts of the world, in the fourth and fifth centuries. Eulogius of Alexandria wrote against them not long before the end of the sixth century " [Lardner, Credit). part II. ch. xlvii.]. In Phrygia, where on account of the national character and manners of the people the Novatian sect greatly flourished, a subordinate schism took place through the introduction of the Quartodeciman dispute. It began under Yalentinian and Yalens, i.e. about A.D. 270, when a small synod at Pazus, a village at the source of the Sangaris, decreed that the Jewish Paschal reckoning should be adopted. The leading Novatian bishops were not present at this synod, and the matter appears to have rested until, under Yalentinian II. and Theodosius, the question was again brought up by a presbyter, Sabbatius, a convert from Judaism. Marcian, his bishop, called a council to consider the subject. The council declared the point to be indifferent, and no just cause of separation or of breach of communion. Sabbatius would not yield. He gathered followers, and was made bishop (by what consecrators does not appear), although he had before taken an oath that he would not be consecrated. [Sccr. Hist. Eccl. iv. 13, v. 20 j Sozom. Ilist. Eccl. vi. 24, vii. 18]. These Quartodeciman Novatians appear to have coalesced with the Montanists, their notions of discipline being nearly the same, but we are not told whether in this coalition the Novatians adopted the Montanist new prophecy, or the Montanists abandoned it. The formal action of the Church regarding the Novatian sect wTas as follows. Immediately upon the consecration of Novatian a council was called at Home by Cornelius in the year 251. Sixty bishops and as many presbyters assembled. Novatian and his followers were declared to be separated from the Church, and it was decreed that the brethren who had fallen were to be admitted to the remedies of repentance [Euseb. Hist. Eccl. vi. 43]. Eusebius states that the epistles of Cornelius shew not only the transactions of the Council of Home, but the opinions of all those in Italy and Africa. The opinions of the Africans were delivered in a council, A.D. 251, mentioned by Cyprian, Ep. lvii.; and Jerome speaks of three councils, supposing that the opinions of the Italians were formally delivered also in an Italian Council. At Antioch also a council was held, A.D. 253, which came, to the same determination. I t was summoned by Fabius, but he died before it met : and it was held by his successor Demetrianus [Euseb. Hist. Eccl. v. 46], The Council of Nicaja assigned to the Cathari their place in the Church upon reconciliation. Canon viii. decreed that those already ordained 388

Novatians should continue to rank among the clergy,1 upon written promise that they would adhere to the decrees of the Catholic Church, that is, that they would communicate with those who had married a second time, and those who had lapsed under persecution, to whom a term of penance had been assigned. I n places where there were no other clergy they were to remain in their order; where there was a bishop or priest of the Catholic Church that bishop was to retain his dignity, the Novatian bishop having the honour of a priest, unless the bishop should think fit to allow him the nominal honour of episcopate, otherwise the bishop was to provide for him the place of a chorepiscopus, or of a priest, so that there should not be two bishops in one city. 2 The Council of Laodicea, A.D. 367, directs that the Novatians are not to be received until they have anathematized all heresy, especially that in which they have been engaged. Their communicants, having learnt the creeds and having been anointed with the chrism, may then partake of the holy mysteries [can. vii.]. The Council of Constantinople, A.D. 381, receives " the Sabbatians and Novatians who call themselves Cathari, 3 if they give in a written renunciation of their errors, and anathematize heresy, by sealing them with the holy chrism on forehead, eyes, nose, mouth, and ears, with the words, The Seal of the Gift of the Holy Spirit" [can. vii.]. The Council of Telepte (Thala in Numidia), A.D. 418, decreed " Ut venientes a Novatianis vel Montensibus per manus imposi1

&(TT€ xeLP°@€T0vptvovs avrovs fxiveiv otfrws ev Tip

K\-tipit>. There is considerable doubt as to the meaning of these words. Balsamon, Zonaras, and after them Beveridge and Routh, understand them in the sense given above. Bouth [0})usc. ii. p. 437] adopts Beveridge's note. Dionysius Exiguus, Justel, and lately Kobertsou [Hist, of Church, i. p. 123], understand t h a t tlie Novatian clergy are to be admitted by imposition of hands, t h a t is, the validity of their orders is to be allowed, and the imposition of hands is a ceremony of reconciliation. But again, Theophilus of Alexandria, about A.D. 385, in the exposition of canons, or supernumerary canons, states that the Council of Kiceea ordered such to be reordained, and directs this rule to be followed if their life be upright. This makes the liovatian orders in themselves null, but allows t h e m to be a title for Catholic orders [Hardouin, i. 2000], 2

It may be noticed that the Prcefatio Arabica men-

tions the washings, purifications, and fastings of the Cathari ; and states that, while they preserved t h e faith and retained the Scriptures, they asserted t h a t there was no place for repentance of sin after baptism, and consequently admitted none to absolution [Hardouin, Condi. i. 1018 B], 3

In Cardinal Pitra's Juris Eccl. Qrcec. Historia et

Monumcnta is the following note, i. p. 438 : " Catharos hie vocari Kovatianos non dubitatur, turn etiam impositionein manuum non de confirmationis Sacramento juxta Morini sententiam, sed de ecclesiastica ordinatione esse intelligendam. Cave autem ne vetere deceptus interprete ad iteratam referas qute recte ad receptam antea a Novatianis ordinationem pertinent. ' Placuit magnce

synodo eos jam ordincttos sic manere,' id est, sic ut sunt

ordinati. Ita recte synodus vi. Carthagin. Graea verti jussit. Yid. imprimis Ballerini in Ep. S. Leonis 167, not. 13. Innocentius vero I. pp. rom. tetigit hunc canonem in epist. apud Sozom. viii. 26, turn etiam Angustinus in Epist. 100, qua cast'.Me fetetur se quid Lie prohiberetur, iguoravisse."

Novatians

Novatians

tionem suscipiantur, ex eo quod reb&ptizant" [Brun's Cánones Apost. et Condi, i. p, 154], The sixth of Carthage [A.D. 419] enforced and explained Nic. I. viii.; see last note. The second of Aries [A.D. 452] directs that a Novatian shall not be received into communion without undergoing penance for his disbelief, and condemning his error [can. ix.]. Of these the Constantinopolitan canon is to be noticed as determining, against St. Basil, the validity of Novatian baptism.1 In Basil's first canonical epistle, to Amphilochius, canons i. and xlvii. involve this point. There are several difficulties regarding their interpretation, but thus much seems to be clear that Basil proceeded on the general principle of the invalidity of lay baptism; and, arguing that the Cathari had no longer the communication of the Holy Ghost, having broken the succession, that being schismatics, they were become laymen, he ordered them (at least such of them as had received only Novatian baptism) to be received into the Church by baptism. The first Council of Aries [A.D. 314] had laid down the principle that those baptized in the name of the Holy Trinity should be received by imposition of hands [can. viii.].

It remains only to define the heresy which was superadded to this schism. Several authors have ascribed to Novatian a denial of the possibility of salvation to those who after baptism fall into the greater or deadly sins. That this is an exaggeration is shewn by Petavius, and our limits compel us simply to refer to his Essay. Novatian denied that the Church can reconcile them. It has already been pointed out that Novatian's change of opinion on this point was not a change of degree of rigour of discipline, but a change of principle; and his new principle must be judged heretical. Cyprian did not scruple to call Novatian a heretic, and the great Dionysius, whose proceedings were both cautious and charitable, wrote thus:-—" It is with good reason that we detest Novatian for rending asunder (as he has done) the Church, drawing some of the brethren into impieties and blasphemies, introducing a novel and most impious doctrine respecting God, traducing our most kind Lord Jesus Christ as devoid of pity, and in addition to all this, setting at nought the holy laver, subverting the faith and confession which precedes it, and utterly putting to flight from among them the Holy Spirit" [Euseb. Hist. Ecd. vii. 8], The Church being the Body of Christ, where there is a possibility of salvation there must be in the same degree the possibility of reconciliation to the Church. The means of grace being in and through the Church, repentance has by God's promise a valid title to be met by the ordinances of the Church. Holy men will differ as to the due period of penance: to refuse reconciliation and the means of grace altogether, involves a denial of God's mercy either primarily, which in terms Novatian was not guilty of, or secondarily, in the denial of His mercy through the Church. And those who consider the office and nature of the Church, and the extent of the power of the keys, cannot but judge it heretical to assert that the covenant of mercy in the Church has narrower limits than the primary mercy of God in Christ.

There must be noticed, lastly, the conduct of several distinguished prelates towards the Novatians as recorded by Socrates. Cyril of Alexandria, we are told, shut up their churches, and took away all their sacred vessels and ornaments, and deprived Theopemptus, their bishop, of all that he had. Innocent I. persecuted them at Eome, and took from them many churches. Celestinus followed the same course [Socrat. Hist, Ecd. vii. 7, 9, 11]. The particulars of these transactions we do not know, but after the proofs we have had of the violent intrusion of the schismatics into Catholic churches, it is as easy to suppose, and is far more likely, that what Socrates represents as persecution and robbery was only discipline and restitution. The Novatians suffered together with the Catholics in the Arian persecution under Constantius about the year 356. Such are the main points which have come down to us of the history of the Novatians. From this contention the Catholic system of the Church, deeply rooted and thoroughly compact in all its parts, came forth victorious; and the Novatians were reduced to an inconsiderable party about the middle of the fifth century.

1 We, have called this canon a Gonstantinopolitan Canon, as it is usually so classed, but probably it was not passed by any council before the Quinisextine. See Beveridge's note. One of Beveridge's arguments is founded on the mention of the SABBATIANS.

389

NUDIPEDES.

[EXCALCEATI.]

NYCTAGES. A name derived from vwrci(cir or vvKrdgeiv, and given to those who repudiated the night hours of prayer, on the ground that as the day is divinely ordained for work, so the night is equally ordained for rest and sleep. [Isidor. de Honres. Ixiv.; Paulus, de Hceres. lii.; Ebrard. in Bibl. Max. xxiv. 1577]. They are alio spoken of undo: the name of Dormitantes by St. Jerome ia his treatise against Vigilantius.

o OCCAMITES. The school of English Nominalists, or rather the revivers of ^Nominalism, who followed William of Occham's lead in the first half of the fourteenth century, and whose opposition to Realism brought about the decline of scholastic philosophy. [Schoolmen.] OCKWA1LISTS. [UcKWALLisTs.] ODIANS. [Audians.] OLD BELIEVERS. [Staeovebtzi.] OLD CATHOLICS. The Old "Catholic movement originated in Germany, where it still has its headquarters, though it now extends over other Catholic countries of Europe, and beyond it. And it is necessary, in order to understand its true nature and significance, to go back some years and examine briefly the remoter causes out of which it sprung. When both Catholic and Protestant theology woke from the long religious sleep of the last century, they were at once brought face to face with each other in their revived energy in the mixed religious society and mixed universities of Germany; and thus a spirit of honest scientific inquiry was engendered, which soon came to be viewed with great jealousy at Rome. The Congregation of the Index, whose arbitrary and unintelligent method of procedure was exposed some years ago in the posthumous Letters of one of its Austrian Consultors [ B r i e f e aus Rom. von Dr. Flir, Innsbruck, 1864], was set to work, and few distinguished names among the Catholic divines of Germany, such as Hermes and Gunther, escaped its censure. As a rule they were condemned unheard, without explanation of reasons or opportunity of appeal, and for the most part they made a formal submission, and so the matter ended. Some years ago, however, a book on the Soul was published by Dr. Froschammer, of Munich, based on copious authorities from Fathers and Catholic divines, which for some unexplained reason was placed on the Index. He requested information as to the grounds of the sentence, which was, as usual, peremptorily refused; and on his declining, under these circumstances, to make an unconditional ex animo submission, he found himself (in 1863) ipso facto excommunicated. This occurrence may have helped to precipitate the crisis, though Dr. Froschammer, who has now abandoned the standpoint of Christian belief altogether, never had any connection with the Old Catholic movement, except as its bitter assailant both in the Contemporary Review and in various German periodicals. 390

In September 1863 a Conference of about a hundred Catholic scholars and divines (which Dr. Froschammer did not attend) was held in the Benedictine abbey at Munich, under the presidency of Dr. Dollinger, and with the full sanction of the archbishop, who sang high mass at the opening. I t was designed at once to form a bond of union between the Catholic divines of Germany and to illustrate the real harmony of scientific and religious truth. The president's inaugural address \_Die Vergangenheit und Gegenwart der hath. Theoloyie~\, which has unfortunately never been translated into English, but of which an excellent summary appeared in the Home and Foreign Review for January 1864, contains a masterly sketch of the growth of Catholic theology from the Alexandrian school of the second century down to our own days. I t was however unfavourably received by the party who have the ear of Rome, and early in 1864 a Papal Brief was addressed to the Archbishop of Munich, denouncing the methods and spirit of German theology, and asserting the absolute supremacy of scholasticism and of the Roman Congregations. This was understood on all sides as a censure of the Munich Conference, which accordingly did not meet again in that year, as had been intended; and when, some months later, the now famous Syllabus was issued, it was felt that war to the knife with Catholic Germany had been proclaimed by the authorities at Rome. I t was not to be expected that the German Catholic divines would acquiesce in the finality of a verdict almost avowedly intended to suppress them. I t could only become final on the assumption of Papal infallibility, which they had never accepted, and which, though a popular Ultramontane opinion, was no doctrine of the Church. But the Jesuits, who for 'the last twenty-five years have been supreme at Rome, were resolved to enforce, in its fullest and most obnoxious sense, the teaching of the Syllabus, which, in fact, was their own work [see Stimviert aus Maria Lauch, Freiburg im Breisgau, 1868-70], and they had for years been sedulously pioneering the way for a definition which would summarily dispose of all controversies by the infallible arbitrament of Rome. The main outlines of their policy are traced in the earlier pages of Janus [The Pope and the Council, Rivingtons], and its results may be studied at length in the Letters of Qiririnus [Rivingtons],

Old Catholics

Old Catholics

which Bishop Strossmayer has declared to be Movement" in the Theological Review for Jan. " t h e truest compendium of the proceedings of 1872. the Vatican Council" which he has seen. When The time was now come for Dollinger, whose in 1868 a General Council was summoned for studious and Conservative instincts and his the ensuing year, there could be little doubt of habitual deference to authority would have made its real object, though no hint of it was given in him shrink from courting such a position, to be the Bull of Induction; and a series of papers forced to the front of the contest. The Archwhich appeared early in 1869 in the Givilta bishop of Munich, on his return from Bome, had Cattolica, the authorized Jesuit organ of the summoned the Theological Faculty, and called on Holy See, raised suspicion into moral certainty. them for their adhesion to the Vatican decrees, A Catholic writer in the Allgemeine Zeitung which was refused [Friedrich's Tagebuch, pp. replied in what now forms the earlier portion 389, sg.] ; but all except two had subsequently of Janus, and in the summer of the same year succumbed, including Haneberg, Abbot of St. an influentially signed address from Catholic Boniface, who has since been made Bishop of laymen at Coblentz, combating the Jesuit pro- Spires. By the end of March [ 18 71 ] the two recalcigramme for the Council, was presented to the trants, Dollinger and Friedrich, were required to Bishop of Treves. I n September the German make their formal submission, and on March 29th bishops issued a joint Pastoral from Fulda, Dollinger handed in his famous ErMarung (a declaring against any doctrinal innovations. full translation of which may be read in the I t is not our business here to write the history Union Review for May 1871), which at once struck of the Vatican Council, which met on December a chord that vibrated throughout Catholic Ger8th, 1869. Suffice it to say, that the 55 Schemata many. It announced his definite rejection of the to be laid before it had been carefully prepared dogma of papal infallibility, as contrary to Scripbeforehand, in strict secrecy, under Jesuit aus- ture and Tradition, based on spurious authorities, pices. Two of them, after undergoing some condemned by the Councils of Constance and modifications, were passed—the Schema cle Fide, Basle, and incompatible with the existing civil on April 24th, and the Schema de Ecclesia, includ- order of European States. On Palm Sunday ing the chapters on the supreme universal juris- [April 2nd] a Pastoral was read in all the churches diction and infallible teaching of the Pope, on of Munich condemning his views. He pontificated July 13th, by 451 placets against 88 non-placets, lor the last time on Easter Sunday in the Chapel and 61 conditional votes, while 91 members Boyal, and received on the same day an address abstained from voting at all. The minority of sympathy from the Catholic Professors of the bishops handed in a protest, and left Borne University. On Easter Monday a public meeting before the Solemn Session of July 18th, when the to express sympathy with him was held in the voting was of course all but unanimous. Their Museum, and an address to the King denouncing objections, both to the dogma and the validity of the new dogma received 12,000 signatures. The the Council, may be seen at length in the official Archbishop declared all the signataries to be ipso Synopsis Analytica Observationum, reprinted in facto excommunicate, and on April 18th proFriedrich's Documenta ad Ulustrandum Cone. nounced the greater excommunication against Vat. [Nordlingen 1871], and summarized in Dollinger by name, as a formal heretic. FriedLord Acton's Sendschreiben an einen deutschen rich had been already excommunicated. The Bischoff [Nordlingen 1870], Nevertheless, with- " venerable Nestor of Catholic theology " was in a short time, nearly all of them outwardly thus placed, by no choice of his own, at the head succumbed, though the Austrian bishops and of the movement which was now fairly begun. some others have never made any pretence of I n "VVhitsun week he presided over a preliminary enforcing the decrees. Bishop Hefele held out conference of Catholic divines from various parts for nearly a twelvemonth, when he was re- of Germany held at Munich, which set forth duced by a refusal to renew his quinquennial the aims and principles of the movement in a faculties; Archbishop Darboy was murdered by the programme forming the basis of that afterwards Commune; Bishop Strossmayer still remains firm. adopted by the first Old Catholic Congress. In I n August 1870 the North German bishops this document the validity of censures pronounced assembled at Fulda, and issued a Pastoral pro- on priests or laymen for rejecting the Vatican mulgating the Vatican decrees, thereby, as Pro- Council is openly denied. And accordingly, when fessor Beinkens has expressed it, " affirming the a Munich professor who died in the following precise opposite of their Pastoral of the previous June, Dr. Zenger, was refused the last sacraments year, and of their declarations at Bome." This by his parish priest, on account of his having public announcement that no help could be signed the address to Dr. Dollinger, Dr. Friedrich looked for from the bishops proved the signal administered them to him, and performed the rites for a vigorous resistance to the new articles of of burial in the presence of 20,000 persons, includfaith. Lord Acton's Letter, already referred to, ing nearly all his colleagues in the professoriate. appeared a month afterwards; and in the same He was also called on to marry couples who were month appeared what may be called the first Old refused on similar grounds by the parish priests, Catholic manifesto, publicly rejecting the Vatican and a petition with 18,000 signatures, chiefly of decrees, issued by a large body of Catholic pro- heads of families, was presented to the Governfessors at Nuremberg. It may be found at ment on the subject. But although several length in the article on " T h e Altiatholik members of the Bavarian Chambers and Cabinet 391

Old Catholics

Old Catholics

had taken part in the Whitsuntide meeting, and the Government had declined the request of the bishops to set aside Dr. Dollinger's election in July as Rector Magnificats of the University, by the unprecedented majority of 54 votes against 6, it was not till the end of August that an official note was issued by Herr von Lutz, the Minister of Worship, intimating that the Government did not recognise the legal validity of the Vatican decrees, and would maintain the rights of its Catholic subjects, whether clergy or laity, who rejected them. The action of the Government has however throughout been undecided and evasive, and Professor Huber observed at the Congress of Cologne last September [1872] that if they had talked less and done more, half Munich would long ago have openly joined the mo%'ement. The first Old Catholic Congress met at Munich on Friday, September 22nd, 1871, and sat for three days. Schulte, Professor of Canon Law at Prague, but a Prussian by birth, presided, and the Committee for drawing up the resolutions consisted, besides himself, of Professors Maassen of Vienna, Langen of Bonn, Reinkens of Breslau, Huber of Munich, and Dollinger, The Vicepresidents were Keller of Aarau, and Professor Windseheid of Heidelberg; Professor Sch wicker of Ofen and Stumpf of Coblentz were secretaries. Deputies were present from every part of Germany, and the meeting was in fact the response of Catholic Germany to Dollinger's Declaration of the previous March ; but there were also representatives of nearly every European country and of North America and Brazil, together with three priests of the so-called Jansenist Church of Utrecht, and Dr. Ossinin, a theological prolessor at St Petersburg. The main part of the programme, agreed upon after full and minute discussion, ought to be put on record here, defining as it does the doctrinal basis and scope of the movement, and thereby clearly establishing its distinctively Catholic character. " I. I n the consciousness of our religious duties we hold fast to the ancient Catholic faith as witnessed in Scripture and Tradition, and the ancient Catholic worship. We therefore claim our full rights as members of the Catholic Church, and refuse to be thrust out of Church communion or of the ecclesiastical and civil rights appertaining thereto. W e declare the Church censures inflicted on us for our loyalty to our faith to be objectless and arbitrary, and shall not be disturbed or hindered in conscience thereby in our active participation in Church communion. Prom the standpoint of the confession of faith contained in the Tridentine Creed, we reject the doctrines introduced under the pontificate of Pius IX., in contradiction to the teaching of the Church, and the principles observed from the Apostolic Council downwards, especially the dogma of ' the infallible teaching office' and 'supreme ordinary and immediate jurisdiction,' of the Pope. " I I . W e adhere to the ancient constitution of the Church. W e reject every attempt to thrust out the bishops from the immediate and inde392

pendent government of the separate churches. W e reject the doctrine embodied in the Vatican decrees, that the Pope is the sole divinely ordained depositary of all ecclesiastical authority and official power, as contradicting the Tridentine canon, according to which the divinely ordained hierarchy consists of bishops, priests, and deacons. We acknowledge the primacy of the 1 toman Pontiff, as it was acknowledged on the ground of Scripture by the Fathers and Councils of the ancient undivided Church. " [ 1 ] W e declare that articles of faith cannot be defined simply by the decision of the existing Pope, and the express or tacit assent of the bishops, who are pledged by oath to unconditional obedience to him, but only in harmony with Holy Scripture and the ancient tradition of the Church, as contained in the acknowledged Fathers and Councils. Even a Council not deficient, like the Vatican, in essential outward conditions of oeeumenicity, and where the breach with the fundamental principles and past history of the Church is consummated by the unanimous vote of its members, could not issue decrees binding o)i the conscience of any members of the Church. " [2] W e maintain that the dogmatic decisions of a Council must be shewn to agree with the original and traditional faith of the Church in the consciousness of the Catholic people and in theological science. W e reserve to the Catholic laity and clergy, as also to scientific theology, the right of bearing testimony or of objecting in the establishment of rules of faith. " [3] W e desire by the aid of theology and canon law, and in the spirit of the ancient Church, to effect a reform which shall remove existing abuses and defects, and fulfil the legitimate desires of the Catholic laity for a constitutional participation in Church affairs, whereby national views and needs may be recognised without prejudice to doctrinal unity. W e declare that the charge of Jansenism has been unjustly brought against the Church of Utrecht, and that consequently there is no dogmatic difference between us. W e hope for a reunion with the Oriental and Russian Churches, whose separation had no urgent cause, and is based on no irreconcilable dogmatic differences. I n view of the reforms we are striving for, and in the way of science and advancing Christian culture, we look for a gradual understanding with the Protestant and the Episcopal Churches." The remaining paragraphs deal with the necessity of searching reforms in clerical education and discipline, the political aspects of the new dogma, and the pernicious moral and social results of Jesuit teaching, which ought therefore to be suppressed ; and the last clause affirms the full civil rights of the Áítlcatholiken " to all real property and possessions of .the Church." I t was further resolved that unions (Vereine) for organizing the movement should be formed throughout Germany, and religious congregations (Qerneinde) wherever circumstances required it. One such congregation had already been established in the Church of St. Nicholas at Munich, and they ara

Old Catholics

Old Catholics

now spread over the country, the first effect generally being that, wherever an Old Catholic church is opened, the regular parish priests at once cease from asking any questions about the new dogma in the confessional. I n Austria, where 110 difficulty is made about giving the sacraments to Old Catholics, separate congregations have not been established. Dr. Schulte, who presided at both the first and second Old Catholic Congress, continued to live on intimate terms with the Cardinal Archbishop of Prague (Scliwarzenberg) until he quite recently migrated to Bonn, where a chair had been offered him. The Munich Congress, which first gave to the movement a definite organization, established two points beyond possibility of doubt ; viz. that it represents no mere local or temporary phase of opinion, and that it does not aspire, like the so-called " German Catholics " or Lichtfreunde of a quarter of a century ago, to add one more sect to the multitudinous progeny of the Reformation, but is a bona fide attempt to fulfil the design, again and again proclaimed since the Council of Constance by some of the wisest and holiest of her sons, to effect from within a genuine " reform of the Catholic Church in her head and in her members." I t claims to represent the Catholic f a i t h as held up to J u l y 18th, 1870. A t the same time it does express what has long been a strong and growing conviction in Germany in favour of restricting Roman influences to what is necessarily involved in the idea of the primacy, and that as well from a deep moral indignation against the habitual policy of the Curia, as with a view to facilitate the reunion of religious bodies separated from the Church. Dollinger himself has avowed his conviction that " Philoctetes has received his death wound, and it is now only a question of time when the movement shall triumph over the curialistic system." And Archbishop Darboy has embodied in the brief but pregnant pamphlet he published towards the close of the Yatican Council [La Derniers Heure du Concile] a similar sentiment- : " Les Spartiates, qui étaient tombés aux ïhermopyles, pour défendre les terres de la liberté, avaient préparé au flot impitoyable du despotisme la défaite de Salamine." The Congress closed with two public .meetings held in the Glass Palace, where addresses were delivered to some thousands of persons by Schulte, Huber, Michelis, Reinkens, Hyacinthe, Y a n Thiel (from Utrecht), and other speakers, the whole assembly joining in a final tribute to the steadfastness and courage of " the great Nestor of German theology," Dr. Dollinger.

seminator of a powerful work [Qwoesziio] againstpapal infallibility, soon became the most influential champion of Ultramontanism in the German Episcopate, who assembled again at Fulda in September 1872, and addressed a memorial to the Government endorsing, while it ingeniously misrepresented, the Yatican dogmas. A reply was published, drawn up by the Standing Committee of the Cologne Congress. This memorial seems to have given the immediate occasion of Prince Bismarck's ecclesiastical legislation, which was soon afterwards introduced into I n Prance Dr. Michaud the Prussian Landtag. served the cause by the issue of a remarkable series of eight pamphlets [Paris, Sandoz et Fischbacher], and in the spring of the year Dr. Dollinger delivered at Munich his Lectures cm the Reunion of the Churches, since translated into English. I n Prussia, Archbishop Melcbers of Cologne, and Bishop Crementz of Ermeland, both members of the Opposition at Rome, led the crusade against the anti-infallibilist clergy and professors. In March, four Catholic professors at Bonn, three of whom were priests, were excommunicated by the Archbishop of Cologne—Hilgers, Reusch, Langen, and Knoodt—and vindicated their position in a spirited and telling reply. Shortly before, Mother Augustine (Amalie de Lasaulx), Superior of the Sisters of Charity at Bonn, who was so beloved and revered throughout the Rhineland for her holiness and works of mercy as to be popularly credited with miraculous powers, had been excommunicated and turned out of her convent during her last illness for refusing to accept the Yatican decrees, and was refused the last sacraments and the rites of Christian burial. A weeping crowd followed her to the grave 011 January 30th, when Dr. Reusch, formerly confessor of the convent, said a few prayers. I t was well known that numbers both among the clergy and laity, who lacked the courage or the occasion for openly avowing their sentiments, were of the same mind. The Theological Faculty of Tubingen, e.g. have never submitted, and the venerable Dr. K u h n , who is at the head of it, has written a work against the dogma, which is only withheld from publication for a time to spare further embarrassment to his diocesan, Bishop Hefele. To the immense majority of the clergy, who are absolutely at the mercy of their bishops in the present abnormal state of the law, resistance would mean starvation, whence the term Hungerdogma has come to be applied to the new article of f a i t h ; and there are large classes of the people, as was pointed out at the Cologne Congress by Reinkens, who are dependent on Ultramontane patronage, and would be exposed to ruin or serious loss if they ventured to speak out. The professed Old Catholics form therefore the centre and nucleus of a movement which has a wide circumference. The defection of the German bishops of the minority has supplied the ground and example of an outward conformity, which in numberless cases represents no inward belief.

W e must pass rapidly over the year intervening between the first and second Congress, which was marked by an extensive development of the movement both in Germany and Switzerland, and the appearance of several learned and able publications in connection with it. The Prussian Government meanwhile expelled the Jesuits and adopted other measures, which it does not fall within the scope of this article to criticise, hostile to Ultramontane interests. Bishop Ketteler of Mayence, who was a leading member of the Opposition at Rome, and the inspirer and dis393

Notwithstanding these serious difficulties the movement, first organized at the Munich Congress

Old Catholics

Old Catholics

of 1871, had enormously extended its range general applause on the necessity of maintaining and influence when the second Congress met Catholic unity. at Cologne on September 20th, 1872. The At the time of the Congress the movement mere fact of its migration from a court and had made little progress in Switzerland, but it university city like Munich to a busy commercial has since advanced rapidly, especially in the centre of North Germany, the chief Catholic city diocese of Basle, where several Altlcatholik conof the Rhineland, illustrated the advance made gregations have now been formed. During the during the past twelvemonth, of which another first fortnight of December, Reinkens, in comindication was seen in the presence of the Arch- pliance with urgent invitations addressed to bishop of Utrecht 1 —who had already held a series him, visited Olten, Soleure, Berne, Rheinfelden, of confirmations for Old. Catholics in G ermany— and Lucerne, where he addressed enthusiastic and of the Bishops of Lincoln, Ely and Maryland, audiences; on liis departure six parishes had and the Russian Archpriest Janyschew. Letters openly joined the movement, and several more of sympathy were read from two Eastern Arch- have since followed their example. Meanwhile bishops and the Bishop of Lichfield, and from the bishop, Mgr. Lachat, who had made every several distinguished English clergymen and lay- eifort to enforce the Vatican decrees by susmen who were unable to be there. In all, about pension and excommunication, became involved 500 deputies and invited guests from Belgium, in disputes with the Diocesan Conference Switzerland, Hungary, and Italy, as well as of the seven Cantons under his jurisdiction, various parts of Germany, took part in the and eventually with the Government. I n Febbusiness sessions, and from 3,000 to 4,000 ruary last Reinkens and Michelis addressed a persons attended the two public meetings and the meeting of 3,000 persons in the Old Council services and sermons in St. Pantaleon's Church. Ilall of Constance, and one of the churches there Schulte again presided, with Petri of Wiesbaden is now assigned to tho Old Catholics. On June and Cornelius of Munich for vice-presidents. 4th a select body of clergy and laymen, assembled This time there was no programme to be drawn at St. Pantaleon's Church, Cologne, elected Dr. up, and the Congress was entirely occupied with Reinkens, late Professor of Ecclesiastical History practical business, the main points being the at Breslau, Missionary Bishop for the Old further organization of worship and cure of souls Catholics of Germany, and he was consecrated at (Seelsorge) for Old Catholics, and of means for Rotterdam by the Bishop of Deventer on August maintaining their civil rights, and for extending 11th, 1873, according to the Roman rite, but withthe movement; the appointment of a Committee out any recognition of the Pope's supremacy. He to make arrangements for appointing one or more is a man of great learning and eloquence and proBishops, who will receive consecration at Utrecht; found earnestness, and has contributed to the and of a Committee of ten members to promote pending controversy an able treatise on the Papal Reunion, with Dollinger for chairman, Friedrich, Decrees of July \§th, 1870, in six parts. Until a Reinkens, Michelis, and Michaud among its mem- bishop was appointed the movement, successful as bers. Two Central Committees were nominated it has already proved, could not be considered to for North and South Germany respectively, and have passed beyond its tentative and initial stage. it was resolved that the Congress should be held in We have not spoken of Italy, as the movement alternate years at Munich and Cologne. For a full has not yet taken shape there, but Mr. Chauncey report of the very interesting speeches delivered Langdon, American chaplain at Florence, bore tesboth at the private and public sessions, we must timony at the Cologne Congress to the sympathy refer our readers to the official Acts \_Verhandfelt for it among both ecclesiastics and laity, and liingen des zweiten Altkath. Congresses]. or for an they have an organ in tho Rinnovamento Cattolico English summary of them to the last article of at Florence. Signor Mamiani, a member of the the Union Review for March 1872. I t should Italian Parliament, also wrote to express his symbe noticed that the same Conservative spirit pathy. I n France political events have conspired pievailed as at the first Congress. Advocates of with episcopal absolutism to repress any outward extreme measures, like Bauer and Kaminslci, resistance to the dominant Ultramontanism. But found no support, and Hyacinthe, whose unthere is practically no interference with the wideauthorized marriage had discredited him, was spread personal disbelief in the Vatican dogmas, not invited to speak, while the question of and many of the bishops are with good reason organic reforms, as in the law of celibacy, was exsuspected of retaining the convictions they so pressly reserved for " t h e constitutional organs of emphatically expressed at the Council. the Church." The President began by defining I t will be a convenience to those who desire furtheir " stand-point " as " the Catholic one," and ther information if we append to this necessarily added, "Those who do not hold to the ground brief sketch some references to works bearing on of positive believing Christianity, as contained the antecedents, history, and character of the Old in the Scriptures and the truly (Ecumenical Catholic movement. The English reader may Councils, we cannot regard as Catholics, nor can profitably consult The Pope and the Council, by they have any active participation in our work." Janus; Letters from Rome on the Council, by And the Archbishop of Utrecht insisted amid Quirinus ; The Church of God and the Bishops, by Liano; Lectures on Reunion of the Churches, 1 Archbishop Loos, who had held the See of Utrecht by Dollinger (Rivingtons); Home and Foreign since 1858, died June 4th, 1873, leaving the Suffragan Review, January 1864, art. "Munich Congress;" Bishop of Deventer to carry on the succession. 394

Old Lutherans

Ophites

Theological Review, January 1872, "Altkatholik Movement" (Williams and Norgate): North British Review, October 1870, "Vatican Council" (Edmonston and Douglas); Union Review, May 1871, "Liberal Catholics of Germany;" ibid. January 1872, "CatholicCongress of Munich;" ibid. March 1873, "Eussian Yiew of the 0 . C. Congress," " Second 0. C. Congress;" Letters to Mgr. Deschamps, by A. Gratry (Hayes); Contemp. Rev. November 1872, " 0 . C. Congress," by Dr. Littledale ; to which may be added a series of articles bearing on the subject in the Saturday Review during the last four years. Among the mass of original authorities, illustrating the history of the movement, may be specified Documenta ad Illustrandum Gone. Vat., von Friedrich; Tagebuch, Friedrich (Nördlingen); Stenographischer Bericht des Gongresses, 1871 (München); Die Verhandlungen des zweiten Altkath. Congress (Köln und Leipzig 1872); Erklärung an den Erzbischof von München, von J . Döllinger (München 1871; Lord Acton's Sendschreiben an einen deutschen Bischof, Nördlingen 1870). The following works, among many others, exhibit or illustrate its principles: Das Vatican. Dogma, von J. Langen (Bonn 1871); Die päpstlichen Dekrete, von H. Reinkens (Münster 1871); Die Stellung von Concilien, Päpsten und Bischöfe, von J. F. Schulte (Prag 1871); Stimmen aus der kath. Kirche (München 1870); La Derniere Heure du Gondle (München 1870) ; Einige Worte über Unfehlbarkeit, von J. Döllinger (München 1870). Some other works have been already referred to in the course of the article.

been a compound of the mysteries of Isis, and of the involved fancies of Oriental mythology, mingled with corrupt notions of Christian history and doctrine. St. Cyprian mentions them by name [Cypr. Ep. lxxiii. 4 ] ; and the last chapter but one of Irenseus' first book is supposed to be written against tlieni and the S E T H I A N S [Iren. adv. Hair. i. 30]. Origen calls them " a very obscure sect," and denies that they were Christians, saying " that no person was allowed to join their assemblies till he had uttered curses against Jesus" [Orig. contr. Gels. iii. 13, vi. 24]. He also says that they were founded by a man named Euphrates [ibid. vi. 28], a name mentioned by Theodoret as that belonging to the founder of the heresy of the PERATJS [Theodor. Hwr. fab. i. 17] ; but which in the account of the Naasseni or Ophites given by Hippolytus is taken as the name of the mystical water of life spoken of in John iv. 10. Hippolytus looks upon the Ophites as the originators of all heresies, and associates them both with the Jews and the Gnostics; for he writes of them under the Hebrew form of their name as '*' the Naasseni" [from £>ru nachash], " who call themselves Gnostics " [Hippol. Refut. v. 6], Philaster places them first in his list of heresies before Christ [Philast. de. Hair, i.], while Epiphanius and St. Augustine say that they were alleged to have been derived from the Nicolaitanes or the Gnostics. [Epiphan. Panar. xxxvii. Aug. de Ilier. xvii.]

OLD

FLEMINGS.

[FLEMINGS.]

OLD L I G H T ANTIBURGHERS.

[Avn-

BURGHERS.L

OLD L I G H T BURGHERS. [ B U H G H E E S . ] OLD LUTHERANS. Those Lutherans of Prussia are so called who have not joined the U N I T E D EVANGELICAL CHURCH.

OLD SCHOOL BAPTISTS. A party among the American Baptists who adhere to the original strict notions respecting predestination and election, in opposition to the tendency which the younger generation of the sect shews towards the doctrine of free will and towards imiversalism. The Old School Baptists deny that the salvation of souls can depend on human effort, and maintain the strictest Calvinism in regard to the doctrine of election. OLD SCHOOL PRESBYTERIANS. [PRESBYTERIANS.]

OMISH CHURCH. A sect of American strict Mennonites, who are said to take their peculiar name from Jacob Amen, a Swiss Mennonite preacher of Amenthal, of the seventeenth century, and to have been originally called "Amenites." Some still remaining in Switzerland are called " Hook Mennonites " or " Button Mennonites" according as they wear hooks or buttons on their coats. The American sect is analogous to that of the FLEMINGS or " F i n e " Mennonites of Holland. 'OM#AAO'¥YXOI.

[HESYCHASTS.]

OPHITES An Egyptian sect of very early date, the principles of which appear to have 395

The author of the Treatise against all Heresies which goes by the name of Tertullian says of the Ophites that they derived their name from the reverence which they entertained towards the tempter of Eve, who brought into the world the knowledge of good and evil. It was in reference to his power and majesty, they alleged, that Moses set up the brazen serpent, and they brought our Lord's words [John iii. 14] in support of this notion; thus shewing their acquaintance with the New Testament. The same writer also states that they introduced the serpent into their assemblies to bless the Eucharist [Tertull. adv. Hceres. ii.]; a horrible ceremony, in which, as Epiphanius, St. Augustine, and other writers affirm, they caused the serpent to trail over the bread of which the communicants were about to partake; each person also kissing the serpent before receiving. The heretical philosophy of the sect is given by Hippolytus and by Epiphanius as above quoted. The former says that they professed to derive it from James the brother of our Lord, who handed it down to Mariamne. He also quotes from a " Gospel according to Thomas," which was in use among them, which seems to be the " Gospel according to the Egyptians," mentioned by Epiphanius in his twenty-sixth book, among the Gnostic Apocrypha. I n addition to these sources of information there is also an account given by Origen of their "Diagram," a tablet on which they set forth their doctrines in a hieroglyphical form [Orig. contr. Gels. vi. 33]. The chief points of their profane belief, apart from the intricate and fanciful system of dualistic philosophy which

Ordibarii

Origet lists

they adopted, were : that the serpent was Christ, that He Who was born of the Virgin was Jesus alone, upon whom Christ afterwards descended. They held the Yalentinian theory of a Demiurge, whom they named Jaldabaoth, and who was set forth as begetting six beings, the spirits of the seven planets. By these six beings man was created after their common image, a body without a soul, and they brought him to Jaldabaoth, who breathed into him a living spirit. At the sight of man's perfection Jaldabaoth became envious, and gave him a command which the serpent led him to disobey. Hence the conflict of good and evil in the world, the good being represented by the serpent. The mythic Christ of the Valentinians is the opponent of Jaldabaoth, and is ever endeavouring to defend man from his envy. The sect continued to exist after other forms of Gnosticism had died out, the Emperor Justinian enacting laws against them [Cod. I. v. 1, 18, 19, 21] so late as A.D. 530. ORDIBARII. This name appears in the treatise of Eeinerius against the Waldenses, in close association with the sect of the Ortlibenses [Bibl. Max. xxv. 266]; but Gieseler states that the reading of an authentic manuscript gives the word as "Ortlibarii." The context of the passage gives no reason for supposing that Reiner was writing of two sects, all that he says applying to the Ortlibenses. In Pluquot's Dictionnaire des Heresies, and in the Index to Sianda's Lexicon Polemicum, the name is printed " Orbibarii," which offers a further illustration of the way in which the original name may have been corrupted.

Demetrius, and he returned to Alexandria. A few years afterwards he again visited his friend and pupil, Alexander, the Bishop of Jerusalem, and was ordained priest by him, when he was about forty-four years of age. This ordination was uncanonical in two ways : Origen having incapacitated himself for the priesthood by his early self-mutilation, and it being contrary to all rule for a bishop to ordain a person belonging to another diocese without letters commendatory from the bishop of the latter. An angry discussion arose, in which the clergy of Palestine took the side of Origen, and those of Alexandria that of Demetrius. The latter summoned a council, before which it was represented that the great catechist had been guilty of teaching heresy as well as of violating the canons, and he was condemned and excommunicated in A.D. 232, being at the same time deposed from his office as the head of the Catechetical School [Euseb. Hist. Eccl. vi. 26], This sentence was afterwards, perhaps, withdrawn [Huet's Origeniana, I. iii. 10], and it was certainly disregarded by the bishops of Palestine, Arabia, and Greece; but Origen never returned to Alexandria. Labouring for the con-

[ORTLIBENSES.] OREBITES.

[HOREBITES.]

O R I G E N I S T S . Those of the immediate disciples of the great Origen, and those subsequent students and admirers of his works who developed heretical opinions out of the bold philosophical speculations which he mingled with his allegorical interpretations of Scripture. The father of philosophical Christianity from whom these errors were said to have sprung— Origen [A.D. 185-253] the Adamantine ['ASa/tarrtos] a n d the "brazen-brained"

[xaAKevrepos]—

was pupil and successor to St. Clement in the school of Alexandria, being appointed by Demetrius the Patriarch on the flight of St.Clement during the persecution of Severus, and before he had reached the age of twenty [Euseb. Hist. Eccl. vi. 3]. He had already adopted the life of an ascetic, and of a hard, untiring student, endeavouring to carry out the Counsels of Perfection literally [Matth. xix. 12], going barefoot, having but one coat, sleeping on the bare floor, and restricting his diet to the humblest vegetable fare. Pour years of such a life as this, combined with the daily labour of instruction, compelled him to retire for a time from Alexandria to Rome, but in the yeai 212 he was again at his post. Three years afterwards lie visited Palestine, and although not ordained to the priesthood, was invited by the Bishops of Jerusalem and Csesarea to preach in the churches of those cities. This led to a remonstrance on the part of his own bishop, 396

v e r s i o n of h e r e t i c s [BERYLLUS, ARABICI] i n t h e

three countries named, he at the same time accomplished literary labours so vast that he is said to have been the author of 6000 separate books and tracts (most of which are lost), to have dictated to seven amanuenses, and, as it is put by St. Jerome, to have written more than any other man could read. Among such a multitude of writings it would not be difficult, probably, to find materials out of which to frame charges of heresy, yet the opinions on which these charges are chiefly founded are contained in a work on First Principles [EEepi apx] his oriental tone of thought, and [c] the intellectual rather than practical character of the heresy, all of which may he only proofs of the intimate connection which early existed between the British and Eastern Churches. Towards the close of the fourth century lie left Britain for Italy, and took up his quarters at Koine, where he became acquainted with several of the leading ecclesiastics of the time; among them the saintly Paulinus, afterwards Bishop of ííola [A.D. 409-421]; Rufinus of Aquileia; Coelestius, variously described as an Italian or a Scotchman, his future companion in thought and travel, and almost equally famous with himself. I n the year 411, after the sack of Eome by the Goths under Alaric, Pelagius and Coelestius left Italy in company for Africa, where, after a very few years together, Pelagius left his companion encountering the strong opposition of the African prelates, and took up his abode in Palestine, where he first found a friend and then a foe in Jerome, at that time resident in Bethlehem. Pelagius had by this time acquired both a fame for his learning and a reputation for his piety. This is frequently and candidly admitted by St. Augustine [1» Boehm's works ; and herself wrote many books, the mystic character of which is indicated by the title of one published in 1695, " The Wonders of God's Creation manifested in the variety of Eight Worlds, as they were made known experimentally 425

Philipoftschins to the Author." In establishing the Philadelphian Society she was assisted by a physician named Pordage, who was in Holy Orders, but had taken to the practice of medicine when ejected from his benefice as a Nonjuror. He wras the author of "Divine and True Metaphysics," in three volumes, and also of " Theologia Mystica," and some ascetic works. Another of the Philadelpliians was the learned physician Francis Lee, who contributed the historical Prolegomena to Grabe's Septuagint, and the " Occasional Annotations" on physiological and other scientific subjects to Parker's admirable but unfinished commentary, entitled " Bibliotheca Biblica." Dr. Lee edited the "Theosophical Transactions" of the Society, and also the later works of Mrs. Lead, who in her old age was blind. A third physician who became an active member of the Society was Lot Fisher, who caused all the works of Mrs. Lead and her associates to be translated and splendidly published in Dutch. A fourth principal coadjutor was Thomas Bromley, author of " The Sabbath of Eest," and of some works on Biblical subjects. The Philadelphian Society contributed largely to the spread of that mystical piety which is so conspicuous in the wrorks of the good and learned William Law, and which affected in no small degree the early stages of Methodism. Mrs. Lead herself, howTever, combined much fanaticism with her pietism, professing (like Swedenborg in a later generation) to hold intercourse with spirits. This fanaticism imparted itself to many members of the Philadelphian Society, and imaginary apparitions of good and evil angels became, for a time, a prominent feature of their religious life. I n other respects their mysticism was of the ordinary character, making the contemplative life the basis of religious knowledge and practice. A small work entitled " The Principles of the Philadelphians," published in 1697,gives acurious exposition of their mysticism. PHILETUS. A heretic of Apostolic times, who is coupled with Hymenseus by St. Paul as one of those who " concerning the truth have erred, saying that the resurrection is passed already" [2 Tim. ii. 17, 18], Nothing further is known respecting him than what is recorded in the few wrords of the Apostle. [ H Y M E N J J I J S . I _ P H I L I P O F T S C H I N S . A small sect of Russian dissenters, who, after the disturbances at Strelitz under Peter I. [A.D. 1689-1725], in which they had taken part, fled for refuge to Lithuania, where they formed a new denomination under the leadership of a monk named Philip, known among themselves as Pustos-Wiat, or the Saint of the Desert. They are sometimes calledBruleurs or Tueurs from their tendency to suicide, which they considered meritorious, and which they accordingly courted, sometimes burying themselves alive, sometimes starving themselves to death. I t was rather on points of practice than of doctrine that they differed from the orthodox church, whose baptism they only rejected as invalid, because "Amen" was repeated four times in the course of the service. Without a regular priesthood [STAROVERTZI], they elected one of their number as

Philippists

Photiniaus

an elder, who was called the Starik, who occupied the position of a pope or priest, and remained unmarried ; but the duty of preaching was left open to any one who felt himself " called by the Spirit" to undertake it. Accusations of laxity of morals were brought against them, of renouncing marriage, and living in spiritual brotherhood and sisterhood, the truth of which was never clearly established; for when the Empress Anne [a.b. 1730-1740] sent commissioners to inquire into the state of their monasteries, they shut themselves up and burnt themselves alive within their own walls rather than give any evidence on the subject. PHILIPOOTAifS. [PniLiPOFTScmNS.] P H I L I P P I S T S . The party of moderate and conciliatory Lutherans who sided with Philip Melanchthon against the rigid Lutherans headed by Flacius Illyrieus, the dispute between whom acquired the name of the Adiaphoristic Controversy. The Philippists were strongest in the University of Wittenberg, the opposite party in that of Jena. The former were in the end accused of being Calvinists at heart, and were much persecuted by the ultra-Lutheran party. \ Adiaphorists.] P H I L I P P I N S . [Philipoftschins.] P H I L O P O M S T S . A section of the Tritheists of the sixth century who followed John Philoponus, a layman of Alexandria, famous as a grammarian and philosopher. The Pliiloponists formed the main body of the Alexandrian Tritheists; being, however, divided from the Coxonites on the subject of the resurrection of the body. Philoponus maintained that, both the matter and form of bodies will be restored at the resurrection, but the Cononites limited the restoration to their matter only. John Philoponus received his surname, " The Laborious" £o /os], on account of his great literary industry. He wrote a work on the Hexiemcron, another 011 Easter, a treatise against the materialism of Proclus, another against the work written by Jamblichus in favour of Image-worship, a book on the Eesurrection, and another on the Trinity, together with Commentaries on Aristotle and other secular works. [Niceph. Hist. Eccl. xviii. 45-48. Joann. Damasc. de Hares. Ixxxiii.

Photinus held the tenet of an Antitrinitarian Monarchia, and that Jesus Christ was born of the Holy Ghost and the Virgin Mary ; that a certain portion of the Divine Substance, which he called of Paul [Pearson appears to take dirb uipovs to mean partially: on the Creed, note p. 119, fol. edit.]; Socrates and Sozomenus class together Sabellius, Marcellus, Paul, and Photinus ; Theodoret says that Photinus differs from Sabellius only in phraseology. Hilary of Poitiers, Jerome loc. eit., Pseudo-'Hieronynras [Hocr. xxxvi.], Isidore of Hispalis [Ilcer. xxxviii.], Honoring [Hcer. liii.], Pope Damasus [Theod. H. E. v. 11], say that Photinus revived the heresy of Ebion. This statement, in any accurate sense, we may dismiss, as Pearson does. [Ebionites.] Sulpicius Severus [Ghron. ii. 37] having said that Marcellus asserted the Sabellian heresy, adds that Photinus introduced a new heresy, "aSabellio quidem in unione dissentiens, sed initium Christi ex Maria pradicabat." The evidence that Photinus held the "Unio " outweighs the testimony of Sulpicius. So, too, Mavius Mercator must be held in error in stating that Photinus denied the miraculous birth of our Lord [Diss, cle XII. Anath. n. xvii. t. ii. p. 128 ; Garner], Of greater weight than any authority yet named must be the authority of Hilary of Poitiers; and those who identify Photinianism with an advanced Sabellianism must be able to give a reasonable explanation of Hilary's statements. For Hilary expressly confronts both Sabellius and Alius with Photinus. The passage is long, but it must be given in full; " J a m vero qua lidei nostrre victoria Hebion, qui Photinus est, aut vincit aut vincitur : dum Sabellium arguit, cur hominem neget filium Dei; dum ab Ariomanitis confutatur, cur in homine nesciat Dei filium. Adversum Sabellium Evangelia sibi ex filio Maria; defendit : Alius ei Evangelia per solum Mariie filium non relinquit. Adversum hunc, qui filium negat, homo ab eo usurpatuj in filium. Ab hoc ei, qui ante srecula filium ncsciat, filius Dei solum negator ex homine. Vincant, ut volunt, quia se invicem vincendo vincuntur : dum et hi, qui nunc sunt, de natura Dei confutantur, et Sabellius de saeramento lilii refellitur, et Photinus natum ante saieula Dei filium vel ignorare arguitur, vel negarc. Sed inter h»c Ecclesias fides, evangelicis atque apostolieis fundata doctrinis, et adversus Sabellium tenet filii professionem, et adversus Arium Dei naturam, et adversus Photinum sseeuli creatorem : et hoc verius, quod hsec ab his invicem non negantur. Naturam enim Dei in operibus Sabellius prffidicat, sed operantem filium nescit. Hi vero filium nuncupant, sed veritatem in eo naturre Dei non confitentur. Hominem autem Photinus usurpat, sed in usurpato sibi homine nativitatem Dei ante sfecula ignorat" [De Trin. vii. 7], Here Photinus is said to hold a Sonship beginning from Mary, while Sabellius allows none at all. The later part of this assertion is clearly contradictory to the statements of Epiphanius, which are supported by Augustine and others ; for these aver that Sabellius t~ngV.1 t' it the Son came into the world as a Kay from i 1.• r.

By comparison with these statements the "Deus protensus usque ad Virginem " named by Hilary is referred by commentaries to Sabellius. [ S a b e l l i a n s . ] According i. 267.] to these statements Sabellian doctrine and Photinian P H O T I N I A N S . A sect of Sabellian heretics doctrine, as condemned at Sirmium, are perfectly equivawhich arose in the fourth century, under the lent as regards the Sonship of our Lord. But Hilary's leadership of Photinus, Bishop of Shmium in assertion is true of the first stage of Sabellianism, in there was held to be, properly, no Son at all, the LowerPannonia. PhotinuswasanativeofGalatia, which Father being Son. Accordingly Pearson remarks that and a disciple of Marcellus of Ancyra, under whom Photinus differs from Sabellius, being far from a Patrihe served as deacon [Hieron. de Vir. 11?. iii. 107 ; passian. Understand then Hilary, in the chapter which Hilar. Pict. Frag. Hist. ii. 19]; but the dates has been quoted, to bo speaking of the first or Patripassian stage of Sabellianism, and the chapter becomes clear. of his birth and consecration are not known. The The only question remaining undecided is the comparacouncils in which he was condemned on the tively unimportant one, whether Sabellius himself passed appearance of his heresy range from a.d. 33G to into the second stage into which his school undoubtedly 351. His tenets were nearly identical with those passed, as Epiphanius asserts him to have done ; or, whether, as a strict interpretation of Hilarj- would lead of Paul of Samosata. 1 us to think, he continued to hold Patripassian doctrine, 1 Philaster and the author of Pradestinatus assert the and the doctrine of the " Deus protensus" is not really his, but belongs only to his followers who deserted him. entire identity of Photinian and Samosatene doctrine. The evidence before us leads to the conclusion that Eufinus calls Photinus Paul's successor. Epiphanius Sabellius did pass out of the Patripassian stage, and that says he held the same, or even worse doctrines than Hilary, in the somewhat rhetorical passage we have quoted, Paul concerning the Son of God, that he was of the faction.

W a l c h , Hist.

426

Ketz.

viii. 702.

Cave, Hist.

Liter.

Photinians

Photinians

the Word, descended upon and acted through Patrenr aut ipsum Filium esse eestimet, quod ita the man Jesus Christ; that 011 account of this sentiens delirat Sabellius." He turns to the other association of the Word with the human nature error, namely of Photinus, " Et ne iterum missus Jesus was called the Son of God, and even God Filius de coelo ajstimetur non esse ubique in Patre, Himself; that the Holy Ghost was not a distinct dixit quidem so missum a Patre, ubique tarnen Person, but a celestial virtue proceeding from the esse cum Patre ostendit, dicens, Pater qui me Deity [Epiph. Hear. lxxi.; Hilar, de Trin. vii. misit mecum est. Non ergo separationem loci 3, 7, viii. 40; Rufinus, Comm. in Si/mb. § 3 9 ; dixit." A belief in a local separation of one part Socr. H. E. i. 18, 19, 30; Sozom. iv. 6; Theod. of the "triformis Deus" is attributed to Photinus; Hcer. fab. ii. 11, Dial. ii. vol. iv. p. 52, ed. and it is rightly noted that this belief denies the 1642; August. Ep. 1. ad Bunif. and Serin, in attribute of God, that He is Immensus, cureipos, Matth. xii.]. These tenets are sufficiently stated D/xerpijTos. The fourth Lateran Council [A.D. in the article SAMOSATENES, and other articles re- 1215] declaring that God is " Immensus," is said garding the various Monarchian sects; and it will to have had in view this heresy of Photinus [Dec. be requisite only to point out wherein Photinus i., de Fide Cutholicaj. differed from Paul. In this Marius Mercator is The description of this sect by Vincent of our first authority. 1 Marius writes (in words Lerins is thus found to be correct as far as it goes, which Lardner said the learned would more easily but incomplete in that it does not define the nature understand than he could translate): "Differentia of the Divine element which Photinus conceived itaque inter Samosatenum et Photinum ista sola to be superadded to the man Jesus to constitute est, qua Paulus Verbum Dei irpoopiKov, nal Him the Son of God. Vincent says : " Photini IRPAKTIKOV Xóyov KOX kvepyi]TIKOV, id est, prolati- ergo secta hffic est. Dicit Deum singulum esse et vum et potestatis effectivum Verbum sensit, non soiitarium, et more Judaico confitendum. Trinisubstantivum, quod Grseci owióJSes dicunt" [Diss, tatis plenitudinem negat, neque ullam Dei Verbi, de XII. Anath. Nestorii, Num. xix.]. This state- aut ullam Spiritus Sancti putat esse personam. ment of Paul's doctrine agrees exactly with the Christum vero hominem tantummodo solitariuin statement in the article Samosatenes in the words asserit, cui principium adscribit ex Maria ; et hoc of Athanasius. Marius asserts that Photinus held omnibus modis dogmatizat, solam nos personam the Divine element that acted in our Lord's Per- Dei Patris, et solum Christum hominem colere son to be " substantivum, or owiwSes." Now debere" [Vincent. Lirin. adv. Hear. xvii.]. If to Photinus denied the personality, and consequently this we add from the second stage of Sabellianism the Sonship of the Word, but allowed Its eternity the tenet, that there acted in and through the as existing in the one undistinguished God. man Jesus an element from the nature of the We are therefore thrown back upon the tenet Deity, impersonal, yet substantive, which is to described iu SABELLIANS as the division of the be again resumed into the Deity, our conception Union, namely, that the " Deus protensus," not of Photinianism will, it is thought, be complete. being a distinct Person, is separable from the GodThe statements of the errors of Photinus made head, or that a certain portion of the Divine Substance added to the human nature formed Jesus by the councils which condemned him (so far as the acts have come down to us) have been left Christ the Son of God. for verification. Photinus was, first, condemned The conclusion that this was the doctrine of with Marcellus [Sulpic. Sever, ii. 36]. This was 2 Photinus is supported by a remarkable chapter in probably at Constantinople, A.D. 336, for then Philaster (the chapter which has some of the lan- the Arians in synod deprived Marcellus [Socr. i. guage of the Athanasian Creed), the 93rd, " Est 36; Sozomen. ii. 33]. Secondly, in the Semi-Arian hseresis quaj dicit veluti triform em Deum esse et Council, the second, of Antiocli, A.D. 344 [Socr. ii. compositum, ut quaedam pars Patris, qusedam Filii, 19]. Thirdly, in the Council of Sardica, A.D. 347, quaedam Spiritus Sancti sit." Philaster enounces when Marcellus was acquitted, but the sentence the doctrine of the Three Persons of the One God, against Photinus was not reversed [Sulpic. Sever. and proceeds, " Immensibilis est igitur hsec Trini- ii. 36; Epiph. Hcer. lxxi.]. Fourthly, in a council tas, invisibilis," etc. " Cum cnim dicit mittere Pa- at Milan in the same year [Ilil. Frag. Hist. ii. 19; trem Filium, et Filium mittere Spiritum Sanctum, Socr. ii. 36, Valesius' note]. Fifthly, by a council personarum causa dicit, non loci separatione dis- at Eome, A.D. 349 [see authorities in Cave's Hist. junctos ostendit, propter Sabellium scilicet et Pho- Lit. ad aim. 349], Sixthly, in a Synod at Sirtinum htereticos." Then he speaks of Sabellius: mium, A.D. 349, when he was deposed by the " Cum ergo dicit misisse Patrem, et missum fuisse Western Bishops, but through the affection and Filium, personarum causa dicit, ne quis aut ipsum opinion of the people could not be removed [Hilar. Frag. Hist. ii. 21]. Seventhly, at the second Synod of Sirmium, A.D. 351, by the Eastern argues upon his earlier tenets, which doubtless would be in such aoase rather quietly ignored than formally recanted. Bishops, when, being convicted by Basil of AnWe much miss on this point ittigius' promised dissertacyra, ho was banished [Socr. ii. 29 ; Sozom. iv. 6, tion [Hist. Photini. cap. ix.]. Besides the difference in Valesius' note in Socr. for the date]. The foretheir conception of the Logos, Photinus appears to have going enumeration is that of Pearson, except believed t h a t the Logos inhabited Christ from the time of the Nativity ; Paul, that the Logos did not descend that the Roman synod is added [c/. Newman's into the Son until He had merited the gift by H i s holy Treatises of At]tanas, i. 160. w.]. life.

[See Stillingfleet on the. Trinity, p. 50.] See regarding Marius Mercator, Natalis Alex. Sosc. iv. cap. v. art. 8, 1

427

2 See a discussion of the question in Ittigius [Diss, p. 440], and a notice of all the synods.

Photinians

Photinians

Out of these, the second-named council, which and being anointed with the chrism, may receive issued the Macrostiche, anathematized Paul of the Holy Mysteries. Samosata, and further, those who hold the docThe General Council of Constantinople, A.D. trine of a Logos, impersonal and unsubstantial, 381, beginning with a general condemnation of now irp00piK0'5) now ivSidOeros. who say thatheresies, named Photinians after Sabellians and Jesus Christ wis not before the world, but only Marcellians [Can. I.] ; and sanctioned the addifrom the time of Mary, when His kingdom began, tion to the Creed of the clause, " Whose kingdom which kingdom is to have an end. Of which shall have no end." The contrary opinion was sort, they say, are the followers of Marcellus and held by Marcellus as well as Photinus. I t apPhotinus, who do away the existence of Christ pears from Cyril's Catechetical Lectures that the before the worlds, and His divinity, that they clause had been already added to the Creed by may seem to establish the " Monarchy." some of the Eastern Churches. The Allocution Here, it will be observed, no distinction is of the Fathers of Chalcedon to the Emperor made between TrXaTva-fiSs, strictly taken as a Marcian, A.D. 451, describes Photinus and Mar"dilatatio substantias,"and the Marcellian irXaTvcr- cellus as introducing a new blasphemy against the ¡10s, which consisted in the Ivepyda of the Aoyos. Son, denying His existence, and reducing the [M ARCELLIANS.] But the language of the Council Trinity to a Trinity of names. Against them of Sirmium [A.D. 251] is very explicit: " Si quis therefore the Fathers have declared the dogma of dilatatam substantiam Dei Filium dicat facere, aut three Hypostases [Harduin, Gone. ii. 645], The latitudinem substantias ejus Filium nominet, ana- second Council of Aries, A.D. 452, decreed " P h o thema sit." There can be little doubt that this tiniaeos she Paulianistas secundum Patrum stais directed specially against Photinus. The fifth tut-a baptizari oportere." The "statuta P a t r u m " article (which Pearson says aims clearly at Pho- are the Apostolic Canon X L V I . [XLVII.], and tinus) is really more general; it is directed against particularly the 8th Canon of the first of Aries ; those who say that the Son existed before Mary and as the principle of that canon is applied by only in the foreknowledge and purpose of God. the second council to the case of the Bonosiacs, Then follow articles against two classes to whom who coming from the same error yet retain the the former would apply, those who held the Catholic form, and are not to be baptized, it " dilatatio substantias," and those who hold the appears to follow without doubt tliat the Photi" prolativum verbum," the Photinians and the nians had changed the form. Further, since at Marcellians. The last article, as directed against Laodicea Photinian baptism was allowed, it folthe head and front of the heresy, must be quoted : lows that the form was changed between the times " Si quis Christum Deum Filium Dei ante ssecula of these two councils. I n the 7th Canon of Consubsistentem et ministrantem Patri ad omnium stantinople, which treats of Baptism, the Phoperfectionem non dicat, sed ex quo de Maria natus tinians are not specified, but Sabellians are ordered est, cx eo et Christum et Filium nominatum esse, to be baptized, and all other heresies, especially et initium accepisse ut sit Deus, dicat : anathema such as come from the country of the Galatians. sit." One observation may be made with regard The council evidently proceeded on the same rules to what has been said of Hilary's putting Pho- as the councils of Aries. tinus in opposition to Sabellius. The synod wag Photinians are specified in the Constitution of called against Photinus : Hilary says, " to meet Gratian, Yalentinian and Theodosius, A.D. 381, the heresy which was renewed by Photinus." against heretical conventicles and for restoring Now it is clear that the errors denounced are churches to Catholics. Also in that of Theodosius those of the different branches of Sabellianism. and Yalentinian, A.D. 428, to the same purpose as The Patripassianism of Noetus, e.g. is condemned the former, and imposing on heretics severe civil in Art. xii. Now when we find the earlier articles disqualifications [Cod. Theod. X V I . v. 6, 65], which have been named (v. to viii.) clearly applyPHTHARTOLATKiE. One of the two prining to a developed Sabellianism, it follows surely cipal divisions into which the sect of the Monothat the opposition stated by Hilary was, as was physites broke up in the early part of the sixth argued, only to the early stage [Hilar, de Synodis. century. The name was given to them by their 1174, et seq.~\. The Bishops of Italy, in their opponents the Aphthartodocetas, and was comletter to the Illyrian Bishops, say that Photinus pounded of the Greek words for " corruptible " was condemned " partiaria Sabellii tsereditate" [tfidafiTos] and " worship " [AaTpe/a] ; indicating [Hil. Frag. Hist. xii.]. the tenet of the sect, that the human body of the Next after these decisions, there meets us the Saviour was subject to the corruptibility incident seventh Canon of Laodicea. There appears to be to ordinary human nature. The sect was known no sufficient reason for excluding " Photinians " in Antioch by the name of " Severians," from from this canon, and the mention of them proves Severus its founder, the deprived Monophysite beyond doubt that the council cannot be of the patriarch; in Egypt by the name of " Theodosians," early date, A.D. 320, assigned to it by Baronius from a rhetorician of Alexandria who became a and Binius. W e adopt therefore the later date, disciple of Severus, and the leader of his sect in 366. I t is ordered that catechumens or communi- that city after his death [A.D. 535]. The sect cants converted from Photinianism shall not be was known among Western writers by the name received without anathematizing all heresy, espe- of " Corrupticolse." cially that in which they have been engaged, and Severus became Patriarch of Antioch in the that the communicants having learned the creeds, year 511, and was deposed by order of the 428

Pietists

Phundaiies Emperor J u s t i n in the year 520. H e fled to E g y p t after his deposition, finding Alexandria a sale place of retreat, and so greatly is his memory venerated by the Jacobites even to this day as one of the chief founders of their sect, that the day of liis entrance into Egypt is observed as a festival. W h i l e at Alexandria, Severus was brought into controversy with Julian, the deprived Monophysite bishop of Iialicarnassus, the founder of the Aphthartodocetae, and maintained against him the opinion t h a t the natural body of Christ was necessarily subject to the natural wear and tear to which all h u m a n bodies are liable, and hence to the necessity of food and rest. If it were not so, Severus contended, the t r u t h of His Passion would be denied, and an additional support would be given to the heresy of Manes, who followed the Docetse in asserting that our Lord took merely t h e semblance of a body, and not a real and substantial one. The Phthartolatrce, however, never went the length attributed to them, as a consequence of their argument, b y their opponents—that the body of Christ was capable of corruption after death. The tenets of the Phthartolatrce were those which eventually prevailed among t h e Monophysites in general, notwithstanding an edict of Justinian in the year 563 in favour of their opponents. B u t a large party among t h e m had early adopted the opinions of Themistius, and, driving the doctrine of Severus beyond its proper limits, had attributed imperfection to the soul of our Lord, and earned for themselves the name of AGNOETJS. [Evagr. Hist. Eccl. iv. 1 1 . M O N O P H Y S I T E S . A P H THARTODOCETJL.] PHRYGIANS.

[MONTANISTS.]

PHUNDAITES. The Bogomiles were so called from the peculiar " p l i u n d a " or girdle which t h e y wore. [BOGOMILES.] PHYGELLUS. One of those of whom St. P a u l writes to Timothy, " This thou knowest, t h a t all they which are in Asia be turned away from me ; of whom are Phygellus and Hermogenes" [2 Tim. i. 15]. The Apostle seems to speak of t h e m as in some way deserting him in his missionary work rather t h a n as forsaking t h e faith. Tertullian, however, i n the next century, speaks of them as " erring concerning the t r u t h , " in respect to the resurrection of the body [Tertull. de Resurr. Guru, xxiv.], and Epiphanius classes t h e m w i t h Cerinthus, Ebion, and others who denied the Divine Nature and miraculous conception of our Lord. [Epijthan. Hcer. li. 6.] PICARDS. [BEGHARDS.] PIETISTS.1 The specific appellation of a 1 Tlie name of Pietists is frequently, but hardly accurately, bestowed on other "bodies besides that here described. It has in fact been applied generally to designate sects which, like the Beghards and Oathari, have laid claim to abnormal piety. Latterly, too, it has been used to denominate many classes of mystics having no pretensions resembling those of the followers of Spener. For this use reference may be made to the well-known

work Ma-nipulus Obscrvationum Aniipietisticarum.

On

all these bodies the name lias been fathered by the contempt of their opponents ; it is, however, the proper appellation of a small missionary society founded in 1678 by Nicolas Barre, and otherwise known as " t h e Brethren 429

party of Reformers in the Lutheran Church, who appeared in Germany towards the close of the seventeenth century, and were in fact the Methodists of that country. They cannot be strictly described as a sect, for they neither claimed nor desired any severance from the main body of the Lutherans, nor did t h e y promulgate any special theological doctrines. B u t the party is important, for amongst their numbers were m a n y distinguished persons whose opinions strongly influenced the subsequent teaching of Protestantism. I n this way the Pietistie tendency was specially noteworthy : first, because it was indifferent to all scholastic definition, w h e n such differences of opinion were considered points of cardinal importance; secondly, because it laid great stress upon the duties of active morality at a time w h e n morality was particularly neglected. Historically, Pietism may be described as the formularization of the popular discontent at the arid dogmatism which t h e Church's continuous conflict with Geneva and Rome had made endemic in the Lutheran pulpits, and it was at t h e same time a protest against t h e low state of public morals engendered b y the miserable delays of t h e T h i r t y Years' AYar. The leader of the movement, P h i l i p p J a k o b Spener (who has been called t h e Eenelon of Germany), was born at Rappolzweiler, in Elsass, in the year 1635. H e was educated in Strasburg in the strictest sect of the Lutherans, under the eye of the famous professors Sebastian Schmidt and Conrad Dannhauer. After completing his theological education at the various seats of Protestant learning, he was appointed public pastor at Strasburg in 1662, whence, after a few years, he passed by invitation to Frankfort. There his career as a preacher was at first marked b y a violent advocacy of t h e teachings of Luther, and an equally violent denunciation of t h e opinions of Calvin. Serious remonstrance from some influential Calvinists followed, and, strange to say, the remonstrance was listened to. I n deed, Spener appears to have soon convinced himself t h a t these polemical addresses were undesirable, and t h a t the need for virtue was more urgent in Germany t h a n t h a t for sound doctrine. Acting upon this conviction, and to the grief of t h e more zealous Lutherans, he turned the current of his powerful eloquence from the exclusive denunciation of Calvinism to the exclusive advocacy of morality. I t was i n this cause, and in an endeavour to evangelize his congregation, t h a t he established those meetings which, under the name of " Collegia P i e t a t i s " or " Collegia Biblica," formed, subsequently, the distinguishing feature of Pietism. A b o u t 1670, Spener, being at t h a t time pastor in Erankfort, set on foot, first at his private residence, and subsequently in t h e church, gatherings, where all his congregation were welcomed to hear the pure Scripture read and its difficulties explained. The name of " C o l l e g i a " and Sisters of the Pious and Religious Schools." The aim of this society was in no way sectarian, but directed wholly to the education of the poor.

Pietists was adopted for these meetings from the resemblance to the gatherings of the Mennonites of Holland, who were known in Germany under the name of COLLEGIANTS. This practice of Spener's was well received, and became popular with the laity, particularly with the poorer classes, though regarded with jealous eyes by the old Lutheran and aristocratic party; nor was this mistrust diminished when Spener's admirers began to attract notice by their ostentatious asceticism of dress and demeanour, and their absence from all, even the most innocent, amusements. ^Nevertheless, during a long series of years, no overt act of hostility interrupted Spener's evangelical labours, and it was during this period that he composed his celebrated Pia Desideria, a work which sufficiently sets forth the modest aims and genuine piety of the founder of Pietism. The full title of the book, originally intended for a preface to a republication of Professor Arndt, but subsequently printed in a separate form, is "Pia .Desideria, or Earnest Wishes for the Good Improvement of the True Evangelical Church, with some Christian Proposals for that end." It consists mainly of an expression of the need of reform in education, particularly with reference to the Bible, and of regret at the injury which the incessant preaching of dogma was effecting on the public morals. The work added greatly to the fame of the author, and assisted the spread of the peculiar opinion of Spener, that a virtuous life was of greater importance than a correct creed. The revivalist feeling spread rapidly through Germany, where the institution of " Collegia," being in complete accord with the national instinct, soon attained great popularity. Up to this time Pietism had spread without exciting commotion, no persecution having yet been attempted; but this fortunate state of things did not long continue. I n 1686 Spener removed to Dresden, where he was high in favour with the Electoral Prince. Thither he brought with him numerous theological students, amongst whom were Francke, Antony and Schade, destined to be the shining lights of Pietism. Some of these shortly afterwards removing to Leipsic, commenced lecturing in Collegia in imitation of their leader's practice, giving in their lectures particular prominence to the correction of the errors contained in Luther's translation of the Bible. As this translation was regarded as little short of inspired by the body of educated Lutherans, this freedom of criticism was far from popular. I t was in particular badly received by the older members of the University, who also took umbrage at the delivery of these lectures in the vulgar tongue. All kinds of adverse rumours were spread abroad; and opinion was further irritated by the conduct of the Pietist audience, who, with the ardour of new converts, changed their dress and manners of everyday life for a marked and ascetic habit. Considerable disturbances arose from time to time; and on one of these occasions (it is said at a funeral discourse delivered at the grave of one of Erancke's congregation) the term " Pietist" was finally fixed 430

Pietists and adopted as the soubriquet of Spener's admirers. I n the end the lecturers were accused of heresy, and a commission was directed to investigate the matter. The learned Thomasius— who was a fervent admirer of Spener—undertook the defence; but although Francke and his friends were triumphantly acquitted, the biblical lectures were prohibited. This inopportune prosecution made the fortune of Pietism; and Collegia sprang up rapidly in every considerable town with a German-speaking population. I n Hamburg and Giessen, Frankfort, Gotha, and the towns of Switzerland, the revival was more than ever successful; and to such an extent was the old party at Leipsic enraged by this success, that the acquitted Pietists and their advocate were driven from the University by threats of personal violence. The leader of Pietism himself had at this time left Dresden, having given offence to the Elector by rebuking him for drunkenness, and was now in 1691 at Berlin, under the protection of the Duke and future King of Prussia. There his influence was sufficient effectually to succour his expelled followers ; and under his patronage the exiles founded the University of Halle as the home for the proscribed opinions. Meanwhile a serious attack was made on Spener by the Wittenberg divines, who at length formally arraigned him for false doctrine and impiety. Spener energetically and successfully defended himself, and his work, " The True Agreement with the Confession of Augsburg," •which sets forth a complete justification of his teaching, became the leading authoritative treatise on ultra-evangelical Lutheranism. These persecutions and this defence set the seal to the division of the Lutherans into what may be properly called a right and left party—a division which, with more or less continuity, has ever since existed in that communion. I t was not, however, from men of learning like Francke and Spener, nor from the Universities that Lutheranism had anything to fear. But in the practice of the Collegia there was a genuine source of danger. Ignorant and fanatical persons, arrogating to themselves an insight to which they had no claim, gave the rein to their fancies, and mistook them for the prompting of the Holy Spirit. Thus they went so far as to speak of the Lutheran Church as Babylon, and prophesied its impending dissolution. Spener died in 1705, and, shortly afterwards, the commotions at Augsburg, Giessen, Dantzig, Hamburg, Erfurt, and other places, had become so intolerable, that the executive interfered by the imposition of severe penal laws, and finally proscribed the overt exercise of Pietism. Thus all opportunity for the development of the Pietists into a completely organized sect was effectually destroyed. The principal reforms demanded by the Pietists, to be gathered from the writings of their leaders, were these : First, that the theological schools should he reformed by the abolition of all systematic theology, philosophy, and metaphysics, and that morals and not doctrine should form the staple of all preaching; secondly, that only those

Pi phi les

Plotimis

persons should be admitted into the Lutheran ministry whose lives were examples of living piety. In support of this last proposal, they urged the quasi-Wiclcliffite doctrine, that the theology of the wicked cannot he a true theology ; and (some of them at least) added that the ministrations of the wicked are inefficacious. Other doctrines, some of them of a violent character, are attributed to certain men of mark who were connected with the Pietistie movement, such as Arnold Dippel and Petersen ; but these were for the most part either the result of hatred for the Lutheran order, or, as in case of the last-named writer, of simple delusion. An exception must be made of Schade, who, undoubtedly, opposed the Lutheran practice of confession. Though an undoubted Pietist, he was singular in this opinion. It deserves mention that the Pietists were accused of impugning the special Lutheran view7 of the doctrine of justification by faith only ; but the accusation was unfounded. Spener and his followers never denied that good works were unnecessary to salvation, they only desired that this difficult doctrine should not be preached to the congregation.

is thought probable that they were in some way connected with the STRIGOLNIKS of Russia, although the latter belong to a much more recent

Debarred from the exercise of special external ceremonies, Pietism has, from the beginning of the eighteenth century, preserved a meagre and unimportant existence up to the present time. First, the Wolffian philosophy ; secondly, that of the Encyclopedists ; finally, modern nationalism, has, since the death of Spener, given to Lutheran Christianity opponents of a calibre sufficient to employr all its powers of resistance, and this has made it perhaps unwilling to renew a frivolous and internecine conflict. The dead formulism of Halle indeed long continued, and may, in a sense, still be said to preserve the tenets of Spener in a fossilized condition, but the quickening ardour of the leaders of the movement that made Pietism a force has long since disappeared. A temporary reanimation is to be noted, commencing about 1827 by the appearance of a publication edited by Hengstenberg ; but the movement was quite unimportant, and since 1835 European attention has not been attracted to the Evangelicalism of Spener. [The best account of Pietism is to be found in Hossbach, Spener unci seine Zeite ; Illgen, Historia Collegii Philobibliei ; Bretschneider, die Gfrundlage des Evangelischen Pietismus; Marklin, Darstellvng und Kritik des modernen Pietisnms;

with which Binder's Des Pietismus und die moderne Bildung, Brucker's Historia Criticu Philosophize, Shroeckh's Kirchen. nach der Re-

form. can he advantageously compared.] PILGRIMS A N D S T R A N G E R S . [ S I O M T E S . ] PIPHILES. A name given to the Flemish

Albigenses. [Ekhert. adv. Gathar. in Bill. Lvgd. xxiii. 601.]

Max.

431

[Krazinski, Reform, in Poland, i. 55.]

PLOTINUS [born A.D. 205, died A.D. 270], A native of Egypt, the most celebrated follower of Ammonius Saccas, although a bitter foe of Christianity, closely connected with its schools on the side of Mysticism. Where doubt had been considered to be the true atmosphere of philosophy he aspired to give certainty. To Pyrrhonism he opposed a system of pure intellectualism, and engaged to lead his followers into positive truth. The soul, he said, is in a state of debasement through contact with a body of matter ; it is alienated from the eternal and infinite Source of its being, in whose nature it still participates. It is the mission of a true philosophy to restore this interrupted union, and to lead back the soul to a blissful oneness with the Source of all goodness and unity. He affirmed with his dying breath, " I am striving to bring the God Which is in us into harmony with the God Which is in the universe." But he did it by confusing subject and object, in the same manner as Fichte and Hegel and modem pantheists. That harmony is true knowledge, and philosophy alone can teach it. It is a knowledge, he said, that is more than philosophy, to which he only possessed the clue, existing 110t in the imagination, but as absolute verity, not in set words and phrases, but in subjective truth. It is cognizable by a higher powrer than mere intellectual thought; this power is self-consciousness, voijcris, the knowledge which reason possesses of its own being ; that itself is the truth and the substantive existence of the being man. This knowledge is not to be reasoned out as though its object were without the percipient soul, but it is of such a nature as to fuse together all distinction between the subject and object of knowledge. We do not discern reason, but reason discerns itself. It is perceptible in 110 other way. Supersensate truth can only be known in the spirit. Philo had already held similar opinions with respect to union of the soul with God. However great, he said, the gulf may be between man and the Deity, it may be bridged oyer through the manifestation of God to the soul. It is not only that the mind mirrors out to itself God the Creator and Preserver of the sensible world of matter,1 whereby is gained a consciousness only of the existence of the Deity, but no adequate idea of His Being or Nature. To aspire to know this wrere mere folly ; 2 man cannot see God, but God reveals Himself to man in the reasonable soul,8 and this revelation consti1

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?5etfe, Käß' oaoi> oibv re %v IdeTv rhv ßKiirovra. Sib \tyercu, oüx on 0 triipos etSe Qfdc, a\\' on 0 9eos wtfi&i]ra. Kai

Plotinus

Plotinus

tutes his highest happiness. We have here the germ of all those semi-fanatical aspirations after a union with the Deity that afterwards became the soul of mystical theology, descending through the Eeo-Platonic school and Dionysius (PseudoAreopagita) to the school of St. Victoire, and thence to Bonaventura, Eckhart, and Gerson.1 Where this is accorded to man, his soul is no longer led by the subordinate powers of divine relation nor by angelic influence, but by God Himself; and man, though " a little lower than the angels," is raised to a level with them. JSrumenius also defined the divine Unity as Eeason and Goodness, and said that the soul was capable of such a close union with it as to involve positively no diversity.2 The outer rays of die Divine Nature nourish and support our bodily nature ; by internal contemplation of the Deity we rise above the body, and emerge into the purer life of reason, being made partakers of a blessed existence. It was a prolepsis of Fichtean and Hegelian Pantheism. Plotinus fairly outsoars his predecessors. Intellect as the principle of unity does not satisfy him ; something yet more recondite there must be from which it emanates, which Plotinus names " the First," or " the undefined and undefinable, the source of motion and rest, itself devoid of either as being infinite." Such human notions as Thought and Will are wholly inapplicable to the Absolute, with which nothing else can have relation, and whom no attribute can limit. Itself nothing in respect of all things, it is yet the power and energy of all. Plotinus aspired to reach back to this principle through the contemplative faculty of the soul itself, an emanation from intellect, the second principle, as light proceeds from the sun by effulgence rather than emanation. Intellect, as the source of every living principle, contains within itself the principle of multiplicity ; in it are stored the universal ideas that are spirit and life ; the intelligible world— Kocr/Ltos voijtos. Nothing of human reason, nothing of material ¡sense, can have anything to do with union of the soul with its origin, for the One is an incomprehensible essence. The soul united with it exists in a divine ecstasy ; it is then conscious of nothing earthly ; mortal sense has no part in that which transcends all human reason. The whole soul is filled with a God-like delight ; it is one with the Beautiful, which is no longer external to it but inherently one.8 The soul is distracted at such a time with no earthly thoughts, yàp ijv aSimrov Karahafiùv òv /t-ij Tapatprjvavros èneivov

riva Si avrov TI x / w s èavrò Kal irapatei^avrot

ah-fjBeiav [de

Air. 17, p. 13, and compare de Poster. Cain. 5, 229].

1 "Beri Sé ris reXewrepos Kal fiiXAov KeKa6app.évo$ vovs, rà ri p.eyd\a ¡ivaT^pia fivydeh, ò'cms OVK àirò rCiv yeyovòruv a'iriov yvwpifei, US àv àwb (TKiàs rò fiévov, àW' ìnrepKVxj/as rò yévvijrov !p,fh.". All who ha•• • :i1 — • !-!!••••: Ii!\c approved l i ' - iji• >• • i ;inHoly Ghost. . . . Our bishops, and proud, popish, presumptuous, paltry, pestilent, and pernicious prelates are usurpers. I will presently mar the fashion of your lordships. They are cogging and cozening knaves. The bishops will lie like dogs. Impudent, shameless, wainseoatfaced bishops. . . . I have heard some say his Grace will speak against his conscience. I t is true " [Strype's Life of Whitgift, i. 553, 570]. The Mar-Prelate tracts were printed at a press which was quickly moved from place to place to avoid discovery, being set u p first at Moulsey near Kingston-on-Thames, then at Fawsley in Northamptonshire, Norton, Coventry, Welston in Warwickshire, from which latter place the letters were sent to anotherpress in or near Manchester, where the printer was ultimately discovered while at work on a libellous tract against Bishop Cooper. The publications were forbidden by a proclamation, issued on February 13, 1589, but the printers, though lined and imprisoned by the Star Chamber, were eventually pardoned. Dr. J o h n Bridges, Dean of Salisbury, and Thomas Cooper, Bishop of Winchester, wrote against Mar-Prelate and his assistants, but such publications cannot be met by argument. A full account of the series may be found in Ifaskell's History of the Martin Mar-Prelate Controversy, 1845.

Puritans

Puritans

Presbyterian or Calvinistic principles, in a sermon which he preached at Paul's Cross on February 9th, 1588-9, the Sunday before the meeting of Parliament. In this sermon he laid down the principle of Episcopacy as of Divine institution, as that which was the true and only Scriptural mode of Church government; and shewed that the Presbyterian system, or " Discipline," 1 was one of mere modern invention, founded in the wilfulness and selfishness of man, and not in any revelation from, or obedience to, God. This Divine origin and authority of the Church system had already been maintained by Archbishop Whitgift in his controversy with Cartwriglit [Strype's Life of WIdtgift, ii. 51]; it was followed up in detail in Saravia's " Treatise on the various Degrees of Ministers of the Gospel as they were instituted by the Lord, and delivered on by the Apostles, and confirmed by constant use of all Churches" [A.D. 1590]; and it was the fundamental doctrine of Hooker's " L a w s of Ecclesiastical Polity," written between the years 1586 and 1591, and published in the year 1594. About the same time it was also elaborated in Bishop Bilson's " Perpetual Government of Christ's Church" [A.D. 1593-4]; and in the same year Bancroft exposed and refuted the Presbyterian system in his " Dangerous Positions" (already quoted and referred to), and his " Survey of the pretended Holy Discipline." By these works a younger school of clergy was trained up in the true principles of the English Reformation; and although they wore not able to stem the tide of Puritanism altogether, they erected a bulwark for the Church on which the Caroline Divines could take firm theological and literary standing in the deadly struggle that occupied their generation, making the subjugation of English intellect by Presbyterianism for ever impossible. When the long reign of the High Church Queen Elizabeth was brought to a close in the year 1603, and she was succeeded by the Scottish King James, who had lived in the midst of the Presbyterian system and had outwardly conformed to it, the hopes of the Puritans were raised to a confident height. On his journey to London he was met by a deputation of the party bearing the " Millenary Petition," a memorial signed by 750 clergymen, in which the whole platform of Puritanism was set forth, the petitioners complaining that " we, to the number of more than a thousand of your Majesty's subjects and ministers, all groaning as under a common burden of human rites and ceremonies, do, with one joint consent, humble ourselves at your Majesty's feet, to be eased and relieved in this behalf," and praying for " a Conference among the learned" for the settlement of the points in dispute [Puller's Gh. Hist. X. i. 27]. I n consequence of this petition the King summoned representatives of the Puritan clergy to appear before liim, with 1 Discipline is defined as follows in Travers' "Discipline is an order for the good government Church of Christ, whereof there be two parts, the of ecclesiastical functions, the second of the duty

book : of the first is of the

rest of the faithful." [Full and Plain Declar. Eccl. Discip.; ad init.'] 459

nine bishops, four deans, and two other doctors, for the purpose of considering the grievances which were represented to exist, and of providing remedies if necessary. These met at Hampton Court on January 14th, 16th, and 18th, 1603-4, and from the place of meeting their consultation acquired the name of the Hampton Court Conference. But although so many were summoned, the number of the Church party who were eventually callcd in to take part in the actual Conference was much reduced, and the names of the acting Divines on either side were as follows:— Bancroft, Bishop of London. .Reynolds, President of C. C. Bilson, „ Winchester, j Coll., Oxford. Montague, Dean of Chapel ¡Sparks, Begins Prof. Dir., Royal. ! Oxford. Andrewes,DeanofWestminster. Chaderton, Master of Emm. Overall, ,, St Paul's. \ Coll., Cambridge. Barlow, ,, Chester. iKnewstub, Vicar of Cockfield. Bridges, ,, Salisbury. ICalloway, Minister of Perth.

I t is noticed by the historians of the time that while the bishops and deans appeared in their canonicals—as was and still is customary in the presence of the Sovereign—the Puritan clergy discarded even their University gowns, and, with perverse want of taste and judgment, wore furred gowns such as are still worn by City Aldermen. On the first day the consultation was restricted to Members of the Privy Council. On the second the actual Conference took place, those above named being present, and also a largo number of privy councillors. The result which was arrived at on the third day was that the King considered most of the Puritan requirements unreasonable, and inconsistent with the status of the Church of England ; but that some verbal changes should be made in the Prayer Book, and that an addition should be made to the Catechism explanatory of the Sacraments. But the Puritan Divines did not in reality state the Puritan case in any detail. Probably they felt how weak that case would be when stated before such men as Bilson, Andrewes, and Overall; and how easily those learned Divines would have shewn its shallowness and want of authority. [Barlow's Sum and Substance of the Conference . . . at Hampton Court, 1604. Card well's Conferences.] Cartwright, the leader of the Puritan clergy, had died a few weeks before the Hampton Court Conference, on December 27th, 1603. Archbishop Whitgift died a few weeks after its close, on February 29th, 1603-4. ]Sro leader arose among the Puritans equal to Cartwriglit, while Bancroft, the successor of Whitgift, was a man of far higher ability than the latter, and so much better able to contend with them, that Lord Clarendon says of him, " he had almost rescued the Church out of the hand of the Calvinian party, and very much subdued the unruly spirit of the Nonconformists." He died on November 2nd, 1611 (having lived to see the completion of that noble revision of the English Bible which had occupied the most learned divines of the Church of England during the years of his primacy), and was succeeded by George Abbott, the Bishop of London. Abbott was a strict Calvinist, very indifferent to

Puritans

Puritans

the Church system, and far from unfavourable to the " Discipline" or Presbyterian system. During his long primacy [A.D. 1610-1633] the power of the Puritans increased to such an extent that in a few years after his death they attained the object at which the party had been aiming for nearly a century, tbe establishment of Presbyterianism in the place of Episcopacy. A great stimulus was given to the party by the success of the Calvinists at the Synod of Dort, held in the year 1618. [ D O R T , SYNOD OF.] The English Calvinists had been foiled in their attempt to force the " Lambeth Articles" on the Church of England in the year 1595, and again at the Hampton Court Conference [ D I C T . of T H E O L . , L A I I B E T H A R T I C L E S ] ; but the presence of the English Commissioners, sent to Dort by King James, seemed (though falsely) to give force to the decision of the Synod in the Church of England, and the Puritans regarded that decision as foreshadowing their own victory over English "Arminians," as they called the members of the High Church party. They thus raised such a controversial agitation that, on August 22nd, 1622, the King issued Injunctions prohibiting any preachers under the rank of bishop or dean from preaching " in any popular auditory on the deep points of Predestination, Election, Reprobation, or of the Universality, Efficacy, Eesistibility or Irresistibility of God's grace." A proclamation of a similar tenor was issued by Charles I. on January 14th, 1626 ; and for the same purpose the ''Declaration" was prefixed to the Thirty-nine Articles of Religion in 1628, enforcing their plain grammatical sense. These attempts to temper the bitterly controversial spirit of the Puritans had, however, no effect; and the latter were greatly strengthened as a party by the House of Commons, which had now been seized with that strange religious madness that affected it for so many years. After a long debate on the " Declaration," the House of Commons passed the following resolution :—" We, the Commons in Parliament assembled, do claim, protest, and avow for truth, the sense of the Articles of Religion which were established by Parliament in the thirteenth year of our late Queen Elizabeth, which by the public act of the Church of England, and by the current exposition of the writers of our Church, have been delivered unto us. And we reject the sense of the Jesuits and Arminians, and all others that differ from us" [Neal's Hist. Parit. 193]. This was the first of that marvellous collection of resolutions and ordinances respecting religion of which Sir Simonds D'Ewes is stated to have declared, that " in bulk and number they did not only equal but exceed all the laws and statutes made since the Conquest" [Fuller's Ch. Hist. iii. 490], When the Long Parliament opened, on November 3rd, 1640, its distinctly Puritan temper was shewn by an order to Bishop Williams, Dean of Westminster, to place a Communion Table in the middle of the Abbey for the members to receive the Holy Communion on the following Sunday, instead of celebrating it in the usual place at the Altar in the Choir. Having thus 460

shewn the direction in which their prejudices leaned, the Long Parliament then appointed a Committee of the whole House for hearing grievances about religion, the Committee being afterwards subdivided into more than twenty; and from that time the course of Parliamentary agitation and legislation Avent steadily onward to the end. During the spring and summer of the following year [A.D. 1641] there was a long struggle for the expulsion of Bishops from the House of Lords, and when the Puritan party had failed in carrying their Bill for this purpose, another Bill was brought in, founded on a petition recently presented, which provided for " the utter extirpation of all Bishops, Deans and Chapters, Archdeacons, Prebendaries, Chanters, with all Chancellors, Officials, and Officers belonging to them ; and for the disposing of their lands, manors, etc. as the Parliament shall appoint." This Bill also was thrown out: but not long afterwards twelve of the Bishops, who were in London at Christmas time, were attacked by a mob of apprentices led by Sir Richard Wiseman, and prevented from taking their places in the House of Lords. The mob at the same time attacked Westminster Abbey, but were driven off by the Westminster scholars and others, who had collected on the alarm, and Sir Richard Wiseman was mortally wounded (in a manner very similar to that in which Lord Brooke was killed, in March 1653, during the assault which he was leading on Lichfield Cathedral) by a stone thrown from the Abbey leads. For protesting against their violent detention from the House of Lords ten of the Bishops were sent to the Tower the next day, December 27th, 1641, and there they remained until May utli, 1642. Meanwhile an Act of Parliament was passed, on February 14th, 1642, depriving them of tlieir places in Parliament, and no Bishop sat there again for twenty years. Shortly afterwards they were deprived also of their official incomes, and some of them wore reduced to great poverty and want. I n the beginning of the Civil War which now broke out, the General Assembly of Scotland accompanied the invasion of England by Scottish troops by a fresh attack upon the English Church, sending a letter to Parliament on August 3rd, 1642, to urge that there should be " o n e confession of faith, one directory of worship, one public catechism, and one form of Church government, in both Kingdoms " [Rushworth's Collect. v. 388]. Upon this the English Parliament obediently passed a resolution: " That this government by Archbishops, Bishops, their Chancellors and Commissaries, Deans and Chapters, Archdeacons, and other ecclesiastical officers depending upon the hierarchy, is evil, and justly offensive and burdensome to the Kingdom, a great impediment to reformation and growth of religion, very prejudicial to the State and government of this Kingdom; and that we are resolved that it shall be taken away." A Bill for the utter abolition of Episcopacy was shortly afterwards brought in, and was passed on January 26th,

Puritans

Puritans

1643. This was supplemented on October 9th, 1646, by an ordinance " f o r the abolishing of Archbishops and Bishops, and providing for the payment of the just and necessary debts of the Kingdom, into which the same hath been drawn by a war mainly promoted by and in favour of the said Archbishops and Bishops, and other their adherents and dependents." After September 6th, the names and titles were to be "wholly abolished and taken away," together with all authority and jurisdiction ; and all the possessions of the sees were to be placed in the hands of a Commission of Aldermen and others named in the Act—subsequent Ordinances defining the public uses to which they were to be applied. [Eushw. Hist. Coll. vii. 373.] While the abolition of Episcopacy was thus being effected, the Puritans were also preparing for the climax of their long labours, the establishment of Presbytery in its place. By an " Ordinance" of Parliament dated June 12th, 1643 (the Ordinance replacing a Bill introduced in the previous October but never carried), an Assembly of Divines was summoned to meet at Westminster to peifect the work of Reformation which the Parliament had begun, and to settle the government of the Church in nearer agreement with that of Scotland and of other reformed communions abroad. [Rushwortli's Hist. Coll. vi. 327.] This Assembly met in Westminster Abbey on July 1st, 1643, sat until the autumn of 1647, and did not finally vanish (it was never formally dissolved) until the dispersion of the Long Parliament by Cromwell in the year 1652. It originally consisted of 121 clergy, most of whom were Puritans, and of 30 lay assessors. Of the few clergy belonging to the moderate section of the Church party who were summoned (including Archbishop Ussher, Bishops Brownrigg, Westfield, and Prideaux), most refused to attend because a Royal Proclamation had been issued forbidding the Assembly, and the rest fell off after the first meeting. The permanent part of it was entirely Presbyterian in colour, though a few " Independents "—half political and half religious in their independency—subsequently came to light in the body. 1 The first actual work of the Assembly was the acceptance of the Scottish " Solemn League and Covenant" for the extirpation of Episcopacy, and setting up of Presbytery, which was adopted with the forms of an oath by the Assembly and the Parliament on September 25th, 1643 [COVENANTEES], and was afterwards imposed upon every one in England who by threats or persuasions could be induccd to subscribe to it. Its next work was to prepare a "Directory for Public Worship," similar to that which had been published by Cartwright half a century before. Afterwards the Assembly compiled a most voluminous and verbose " Con-

fession of Faith," with equally diffuse "Longer" and " Shorter " Catechisms, all these formularies being still in use as the Standards of Faith and Worship among the Presbyterians of Scotland.

1 Tliey were five in number, Thomas Goodwin, Fellow of Catherine Hall, Cambridge; William Bridge, Fellow of Emmanuel College, Cambridge; Jeremiah Burroughs, of the same College; Sidraeli Simpson, of Queen's College, Cambridge; and Philip Nye, who liad been educated at Oxford. [Fuller's Oh. Eist. iii. 461, ed. 1837.]

461

[SCOTCH K I E K . ]

On January 4th, 1645, the following Ordinance of Parliament abolished the use of the Book of Common Prayer : " The Lords and Commons assembled in Parliament, taking into serious consideration the manifold inconveniences that have arisen by the Book of Common Prayer in this Kingdom, and resolving, according to their Covenant, to reform religion according to the Word of God, and the example of the best reformed Churches, have consulted with the reverend, pious, and learned Divines called together for that purpose, and do judge it necessary that the said Book of Common Prayer be abolished, and the Directory for the Public Worship of God, hereinafter mentioned, be established and observed in all the churches within this Kingdom." [Rushworth's Hist. Collect, vi. 839.] This was supplemented on August 23rd by another ordinance making the use of the Prayer Book penal. After reciting the ordinance of January 4th abolishing its use, this ordinance goes on to enact that the Directory shall be delivered to the parish constable of each parish by the members of Parliament for the county or town in which such parish is situated, to be paid for by the parishioners, and to be used by the ministers on the next Sunday. " A n d it is further hereby ordained by the said Lords and Commons, That if any person or persons whatsoever shall at any time or times hereafter use, or cause the aforesaid Book of Common Prayer to be used, in any church, chapel, or publiek place of worship, or in any private place or family within the Kingdom of England, or Dominion of Wales, or port and town of Berwick, That then every person so offending therein, shall, for the first offence, forfeit and pay the sum of five pounds of lawful English money; for the second offence, the sum of ten pounds; and for the third offence, shall suffer one whole year's imprisonment, without bail or mainprise." At the same time those who refused to use the Directory were to be fined forty shillings for every offence; and those who wrote or preached against it were to be similarly fined, not less than five or more than fifty pounds; while all Prayer Books were to be delivered up to the authorities, under a fine of forty shilling's. [Ibid. vii. 205.] The final establishment of the Puritan " Discipline " took place under similar ordinances. On August 19th, 1645, directions were given by " the Lords and Commons (after advice had with the Assembly of Divines) for the election and choosing of ruling elders in all the congregations, and in the classical assemblies for the cities of London and Westminster, and the several counties of the Kingdom, for the speedy settling of the Presbyterial government." On June 5th, 1016, an ordinance was passed "for the present settling (without further delay) of the Presbyterial government in the Church of England." On August

Puritans 28th, 1646, there Tras an "Ordinance of the Lords and Commons for the Ordination of Ministers by the classical presbyters within their respective bounds, for the several congregations in the Kingdom of E n g l a n d ; " and one on January 29th, 1647-8, "for the speedy dividing and settling of the several counties of the Kingdom into distinct classical presbyteries and congregational elderships." The Puritan " platform " was thus established on the ruins of the Church, and the Monarchy, the Archbishop of Canterbury having been beheaded, the bishops and clergy driven from their duties, the Prayer Book having been outlawed, and the King awaiting in prison the last sad scene of what has been not inaptly called his " martyrdom," which took place within sight of the places where the Assembly and the Parliament were sitting by whom the ruin was effected. The hour in which the Puritans attained their final triumph was, however, the hour in which their power began to wane. During the next twelve years Sectarianism broke up their ranks, the country became tired of their tyranny, and while the BAPTISTS, I N D E P E N D E N T S , and Q U A K E R S , with minor sects which separated from them, cared nothing for the " Discipline" of the Presbyterian system, the people at large began to long for the return of that old Church which had been so recklessly thrust aside. By the time the longedfor restoration had taken place the Puritans as a party in the Church of England had ceased to exist. [NONCONFORMISTS. LOW C H U R C H M E N . ] The temporary ruin which the Puritans brought on the Church was the result in no small degree of that strong self-appreciation which led them to look with extreme contempt on the works of former times. Their own days they looked upon as far better than the days of their fathers, and though there was no constructive ability in the party at any time to replace by those which were better the institutions, the fabrics, the works of art, and the literary treasures which they despised, yet they destroyed them in the most ruthless manner, perceiving nothing admirable in anything that was old, and utterly regardless of the fact that they who inherit national heirlooms from tlieir fathers are trustees of them for their own children. Thus it is to them, chiefly, that we owe also the ruin of hundreds of national buildings, such as Fountains, Tintern, Heading, St. Mary's, York, Whitby, and Tynemoutli. Even the cathedrals themselves were scarcely spared by them, Puritan deans, like Whittingham of Durham, stripping them of their lead and much besides for the profit of themselves and their families. Probably there were not a few Puritans in the sixteenth century who agreed with Beza when he wrote : " I could wish those great temples . . . had been demolished from the beginning, and others more convenient for sermons and the administration of the Sacraments had been erected" [Beza's CoIIoq. ii. 29] : or in the seventeenth century, who agreed with another writer, " As for pompous cathedrals . . . I have no more to say for them, but that it were well if, 462

Pitritans with the high places, they were pulled down, and the materials thereof converted to a better use" 1 [Nehuslitfin, 1688, p. 73]. The dense " Philistinism" of the party could see nothing but idols in the beautiful sculptures and paintings with which English churches had until their time abounded, and the destruction of these by them long left the impression that there had been no national school of art, and that England had been in a rude condition as regards everything artistic, while other nations had reached almost the perfection of taste and design.2 Nor was it merely in matters connected with the Church that the Puritans shewed their utter want of culture : for libraries were destroyed by them without any attempt to select the books which might be offensive to their system from those which were not so : all the noble collection of volumes contained in that which is now known as the Bodleian Library being, among others, burned or sent abroad, and the very shelves and desks sold as worthless lumber by them in 1 5 5 0 [ M a c r a y ' s Annals

of Bodl.

Libr.

p. 11].

It may be observed, in conclusion, that there has never been any revival of the original " Puritan platform" in the Church of England since it had its trial during the time of the Commonwealth. The Calvinistic doctrine which they held was inherited by the Low Church party, but no important section of the Church has ever since the Eestoration advocated the introduction of the Presbyterian system of Church government instead of Episcopacy. The Disciplinarian idea as to the oversight of morals was to some extent revived by the Societies for the .Reformation of manners, and by the class system which John Wesley borrowed from the Moravians. But the former soon became intolerable, and the latter has never gained a firm footing in connection with the Church. Although, therefore, the Puritans have been in some degree represented in later generations, the most distinctive features of their 1 On June 2nd, 1643, Charles I. wrote to the Dean and Chapter of Durham, that on his recent visit to their city he had found houses built against the walls of the Cathedral, and the burial-ground of the latter let out oil lease to one of the tenants of the former, " a thing," writes the King, " b y no means to be endured" [Calend. St. Pap. Dom. ch, i.]. 2 " A m o n g other directions sent from the K i n g " James I. " one was for repairing of the chapel" of Holyrood House, " a n d some English carpenters were employed, who brought with them portraits of the Apostles to be set in the pews or stalls." It was soon rumoured that idols were being set up in the Royal Chapel, and the Bishop of Galloway, who was Dean of the Chapel, wrote to the King on the subject. " T h e answer returned by the K i n g " [onMarchl3th, 1617] "was full of anger, objecting ignorance unto them that could not distinguish betwixt pictures intended for ornament and decoration, and images erected for worship and adoration : and resembling them to the constable of Castile, who being sent to swear the peace concluded with Spain, when he understood the business was to be performed in the chapel where some anthems were to be sung, desired that whatsoever was sung, God's name might not be used in it, and that being forborne, he was content they should sing what they listed. Just so, said the King, you can endure lions, dragons, and devils, to be figured in your churches, but will not allow the like place to the Patriarchs and Apostles" [Spottiswoode's Hist. Ch. Scotl. iii. 239, ed. 1851].

Puseyites system have never been reproduced; and Puritanism may thus be said to have burned itself out in the fierce successes to which it attained in the middle of the seventeenth century. PUSEYITES. A name given to High Churchmen of the Traetarian" school, from Dr. Edward Bouverid Pusey, Canon of Christ Church, and Eegius Professor of Hebrew, for more than a third of a century, in Oxford. In the year 1870 Dr. Pusey wrote respecting this party-name as follows : " I never was a party leader. I never acted on any system. My name was used first to designate those of us who gave themselves to revive the teaching of forgotten truth and piety, because I first had occasion to write on Baptismal .Regeneration. But it was used by opponents, not by confederates. We should have thought it a note against us to have deserved any party name, or to have been anything but the followers of Jesus, the disciples of the Church, the sons and pupils of the great fathers whom He raised up in her. I never had any temptation to try to form a party, for it was against our principles. 4G3

Pyrrhonists . . . Then, personally, I was the more exempt from this temptation, because God has given me neither the peculiar organizing abilities which tempt men to it, nor any office (as that of an Archdeacon) which would entitle me directly to counsel others. . . . My life, contrary to the character of party-leaders, has been spent in a succession of insulated efforts; bearing, indeed, upon our one great end, the growth of Catholic truth and piety among us, or contrariwise, resistance to what might hinder, retard, or obscure i t ; but still insulated." [Pusey's Eirenicon, iii. 338.] PYERHOXISTS. A name given to the extreme school of Sceptics, which denies the possibility of attaining to any certainty or absolute truth. It is derived from Pyrrho of Elis [b.c. 360-270J, the originator of Greek Scepticism. This extreme form of doubt was revived at Alexandria in the first century after Christ by JEnesidemus, but lay dormant again for many centuries, until it was again resuscitated in the philosophy of Kant. [SCiii>TJ.CS.]

Q QUADETSACRAMEXTAPJAXS. A con- Banters turned from horrid profaneness and troversial name for some German reformers in blasphemy to a life of extreme austerity on the Wittenberg and its neighbourhood, who main- other side." " Their doctrines," he adds, " were tained that there are four Sacraments necessary mostly the same with the Eanters." He atto salvation, namely, Baptism, the Lord's Supper, tributes their origin to Naylor, says nothing of Absolution, and Holy Orders. Some who hold Fox, and adds, " But of late one William Penn is such an opinion are mentioned by Melanchthon. become their leader, and would reform the sect, and set up a kind of ministry among them" [Melanchthon's Luc. Comm.] [Baxter's Life and Times, i. 77]. Pagitt also traces QUAKER BAPTISTS. [KEITHIANS.] QUAKEKS. The popular name of a sect them up to Naylor as their founder, and says that which represents the extreme form of Puritanism, they were " thickest set in the North parts." and which originated about the year 1650 in James Naylor [A.D. 1616-1660] was a WakeYorkshire, Durham, Lancashire, and Cumber- field man, " a member," as General Lambert said, land, under the leadership of three young men " of a very sweet society of an Independent named James Naylor, Eicliard Farnworth, and Church." He certainly helped largely to spread George Pox. the fanaticism which afterwards developed into The idea of "quaking and trembling" was Quakerism, especially in his native county and very common among the extreme Puritans, and on the Fells of Lancashire and Westmoreland ; the founders of the Quaker sect probably derived but this fanaticism reached to such a height about it as a prominent characteristic of religion from the year 1655 that Naylor was repudiated by the TBASIUTES. The early use of the name is Fox and his friends. He was imprisoned in illustrated by one of the first publications of the Exeter gaol, and while there allowed himself to sect, a tract of Eichard Parnworth of Balby in be addressed by his followers as " The EverlastYorkshire, printed in 1G52, and entitled " A ing Son, the Prince of Peace, the fairest among Discovery of Truth and Falsehood, . . . written ten thousand," and it was believed, if not assorted from the Spirit of the Lord by one whom the by himself, that he had power to raise the Prince of the World calls a Quaker, but is of the dead to life. Having been set free, he went in Divine Nature made a partaker." They began triumphal procession through Glastonbury and by calling themselves " The people of the Lord," Wells, men and women strewing his path with " The people of God," " Children of Light," etc.; their clothes, and walking bareheaded before but they soon accepted the popular title given to him, as in the case of the fanatic Prince in recent them, as when in 1653 Nay lor, in his "Power times. [PMNCEITES.] At Bristol the crowds and Glory of the Lord shining out of the North," carried this blasphemous parody so far as to quotes many texts of Scripture to shew that the shout Ilosanna, and hymns were sung to his earth trembled and quaked, that Isaac trembled praise in the words of the Song of Solomon. exceedingly, that Moses feared and quaked, that The scandal caused by these proceedings led to the Lord bade His disciples quake for fear, Naylor's being again imprisoned by order of the and that therefore saints ought to be Quakers. Parliament, and having been brought to trial in Thus they were, in their own language, " t h e 1656 before the House of Commons, he narrowly people called Quakers," " t h e poor Quakers," escaped capital sentence. After a violent debate, " the despised Quakers." Afterwards it became he was condemned to be pilloried at Westcustomary for them to use the name " Friends," minster, whipped thenco to the Old Exchange, as in " A True Account of the Proceeding, Sen>o to be there pilloried again for two hours, to have and Advice of the people called Quakers, at tlio his tongue bored through with a hot iron, and yearly meeting of Faithful Friends and Brethren," his forehead branded with the letter B. Thence in 1694; and towards the end of the last century he was carried to Bristol, conveyed through the this was formally fixed upon the sect in the title city on a horse's back with his face to the tail, and " Society of Friends." In Pagitt's Heresiology, whipped publicly on the next market-day in five which was written shortly after the rise of the different places. Ho was then sent back to bo sect, they are called " Quakers and Shakers" kept in solitary confinement in London, with no other sustenance than what he could earn. After [Pagitt's Heresiol. 244], a time spent in prison he recanted, was released Baxter says that the Quakers "were but the 464

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by the Rump Parliament, and readmitted into capital punishment. Upon his release, in 1651, the Society which had disowned liim. ifaylor he extended his range to Lincolnshire, Yorkshire, died at King's Ripton, near Huntingdon, just .Northumberland, and the Lake district, where he before the Restoration. co-operated with Xaylor, and drew together a George Fox [A.D. 1624-1G91J, the other principal large number of converts. fotinder of the Quaker sect, was the son of a LeiAt this time the followers of Pox drew persecestershire -weaver, and was brought up as a cob- cution upon themselves from the Puritans by bler in Drayton, his native village, in that county. their extravagances, the worst of which Fox did As he grew up he became a victim to those fits of not imitate, though he did not withhold his approreligious despondency which characterized the re- bation. Some went through the towns and villages ligious life of the lower classes in Puritan times : naked for a testimony. One female proselyte pre and under the influence of these he became unfit sented herself in that state before the Protector in for work, and wandered about the country under Whitehall Chapel. A man took up his station the pretext of seeking rest for his troubled spirit. outside the Parliament House with a drawn sword, He applied for direction to a clergyman, the curate with which he assaulted every one who passed by. of Mancetter in Warwickshire, who told him to These excesses led to so general a persecution smoke tobacco and sing psalms. Another coun- of the sect by the dominant religionists, that, in selled a course of physic and bleeding, advice the year 1657, there are said to have been 140 doubtless excellent so far as it went, but insuffi- Quakers in prison, while in the six years previous cient to satisfy the cravings of the ignorant [A.D. 1651-1657] as many as 1900 had been imenthusiast. All his advisers proving equally prisoned, of whom 21 died under their persecution. " blind guides" to him, he was thrown back upon In 1659 they presented to Parliament a long his own resources. At length, in May 1646, light protest against the ill-treatment that they had reseemed to dawn upon h i m ; his doubts were re- ceived ; their leader being at the time in Lancasmoved, and he obtained peace of mind. At the ter Castle, "where he was confined in a cell so same time the revelation from above was granted smoky that he could hardly distinguish the misto him (as he fancied), that it was not a univer- erable light that was allowed him. The accession sity education which fitted a man for the minis- of Charles II. procured his release, and that of try, but that the Spirit enlightened whom He 200 of his followers. The King was willing to would; and that, moreover, he himself was the grant them toleration, and made a favourable resubject of spiritual revelations. His belief was ply to a congratulatory address which they prethat every man, Christian or heathen, had natur- sented to him, pledging his word to that effect; ally a portion of Divine light in him, the gift of but the rising of Venner kindled the suspicions the Spirit, which, if he would follow, he might of the Government: for though the Quakers were attain to perfection. About 1649, Pox began to not really concerned in it, they had already given -wander about the country in Warwickshire, abundant evidence of that tenacious pugnacity by Nottinghamshire, and Derbyshire, haranguing all which the sect—in spite of its peaceable pretenwho would listen to him. He used to force him- sions—has always been distinguished, and had self into the churches, and interrupt the scrvice not yet learned to veil their pugnacity by by wild denunciations, for which he was often ostentatiously smooth words. Their refusal to beaten and imprisoned. He also delivered his take the oath of allegiance, though it sprang not testimony before magistrates, in part orally and in from disaffection to the Government, but from a part by strange wordy epistles, for which he was conviction of the unlawfulness of all oaths, told rewarded by the stocks or imprisonment. The strongly against them, insomuch that, in 1662, an chief plea urged against him was contempt of Act was passed against them for refusing to take court, since he regarded it as a deadly sin to un- lawful oaths. In the same year a more specific Act cover his head before the justices. At Mansfield, was passed against them, prohibiting their assemfor example, where he had interrupted the service, bling for public worship under the penalty of £5, he was beaten, placed in the stocks, and after- and transportation for the third offence [14 Carol. wards hunted with stones out of the town. At II. c. 1.]. Men were transported to Barbadoes, and Derby, in 1650, he was brought before the magis- women to Jamaica, where they were sold as slaves trates for brawling, when Justice Gervase Bennet, to the colonists for a longer or shorter period. I n an Independent, who signed the mittimus for his 1665 it was actually ordered that no captain should imprisonment, nicknamed him Quaker, alluding be allowed to sail to the West Indies without a pass, to the shakings which he made part of his ritual, which was only granted to those who professed and to his exhortations to his hearers to quake. themselves willing to transport Quakers [Sewel, I n prison he converted his jailor, and issued pre- Hist. vol. i.]. Though the Conventicle and tentious warnings to magistrates, clergy and people, Five Mile Acts were not directed particularly till the alarmed authorities afforded him facilities against them, they felt their effects more than did for escape, hoping thus, but in vain, to get rid of the other Dissenters, and that because their conhim. As he had brought under his influence a sciences would not allow them to conceal their company of soldiers quartered in the town, the opinions or to meet in secresy. On the contrary, Parliamentary Commissioners offered Pox the post when their meeting-houses were closed, they would of captain. For his refusal he was again im- preach in the public streets. Two of their numprisoned ; when in his confinement he revolved ber, Penn and Mead, were brought before the Reschemes for reforming the gaols and restraining corder of London, and indicted for having caused 465 2 o

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a riot in Gracecliurcli Street. They were acquitted after a lengthy trial, but the jurors were 011 that account fined forty marks each, and the two Quakers were sent to prison for contempt of court, because they refused to uncover their heads. I t was about this time that a great change came over the society. Fox was an uneducated man of narrow understanding, as appears in his many writings, some of which are in such atrocious English as to be barely intelligible. B u t he was now joined by men of higher social position, of superior intelligence and refinement, who, while they ever looked up to him as their master spiritually, practically took the management of affairs into their own hands, and gave a new tone to the Society. They also edited his writings and translated them into better English. Of these the most celebrated were Keith, Barclay, and William Penn. Henceforth we hear no more of disturbances in churches and outrages upon public decency, and on the other hand, if the Quakers were persecuted at all, it was partly in common with all other sects, and partly because they refused to pay tithes, to take oaths, or to give t h e proper marks of respect to persons in office.

peace and quietness both in England and Ireland so long as James was on the throne. ISTor did the Revolution make much difference to them, except indeed in Ireland, where they shared in the misfortunes of that unhappy country. I n the insurrection of the native Irish, their loss has been estimated by Macaulay at ¿£100,000, or more than three times as much in the value of our money [Macaulay, Hist. Eng. iv. 166]. But the great gain that befell them was through the Toleration Act, under which they were allowed to hold meetings in peace upon their signing a declaration against Transubstantiation, a promise of fidelity to the Government, and a confession of faith in t h e Trinity and in the inspiration of Holy Scriptures. On both these last points Fox and Barclay had given in their writings signs of heterodoxy, nor was P e n n quite free from suspicion. I n 1696 an Act received the royal assent allowing the affirmation of Quakers to be received in a court of law in place of an oath. Since that time the only change in their external position towards the State has been that, in 1723, they were admitted to the freedom of corporations without oath, and of course the repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts brought the same relief to them that it did to other Dissenters.

A t the accession of James I I . they petitioned the K i n g for toleration, on the grounds that he equally with them dissented from the Established Church. They complained that three hundred and twenty of their number had died in prison in the preceding reign, among whom were two celebrated preachers, Burroughs and Howgill, James was inclined to favour them, mainly for the sake of Penn, who was the son of Sir William Penn, an old naval friend. William P e n n [A.D. 1014-1718] had been drawn over to the Quakers while he was an undergraduate of Christ Church, and the first consequence of his conversion was that he refused to wear his surplice in chapel: for which, in 1662, he was expelled from Oxford. H e openly joined the Quakers in 1666, to the great grief of his father, and when the young Quaker positively refused to " worship" the King by taking off his hat in the royal presence, the Admiral turned him out of doors. H e was however shortly afterwards reconciled to him, and at his death left him lands to the yearly value of ¿£1500, together with claims upon the Government which he afterwards turned to good account. Meanwhile P e n n had twice suffered imprisonment, once on the occasion above mentioned, and before this for a tract, " The Sandy Foundation Shaken," in which he objected to the doctrine of the Trinity. Other writings of his attracted attention to the views of the Quakers from those who would have shewn scant courtesy to the wild ungrammatical rhapsodies of Fox. His connexion with America had brought him into great notoriety, so that, at the accession of James, P e n n was the acknowledged mouthpiece of the Society. As such he was trusted and loved by James, partly on account of his own character, and partly because through the Quakers James very naturally saw a means for obtaining a better position for his own co-religionists. Through Penn's influence, the Quakers enjoyed 466

The change which came over the sect at the end of the seventeenth century is shown by the account given of it in t h e early editions of The Present State of England. After describing their origin, the writer goes on to say, " They practised formerly abstinence and self-denial, but now of late none are prouder or more luxurious than the generality of them. They formerly wore plain and'coarse clothes, now the men wear very fine cloth, and are distinguished from others only be a particular shaping of their coats, a little plaited cravat, and a slender hatband. The women nevertheless wear flowered, or striped, or damask silks; and the finest linen cut and plaited in imitation of lace ; but they wear no lace or superfluous ribbons. However they are extremely nice ill t h e choice of tailors, sempstresses and laundresses. Those of the men who wear perriwigs have 'em of genteel hair and shape, tho' not long. They are as curious in their meats and as cheerful in their drink, and as soft in their amours, and as much in the enjoyment of life as others." [Chamberlain, Pres. St. of Eng. 1702, p. 259.] I n America the Quakers increased more than in England or Ireland, and have held their ground with greater tenacity, though their commencement was most unpromising, for they at first suffered severe persecution from the " Pilgrim Fathers" of New England. [INDEPENDENTS.] Two women of the sect were the first to appear at Boston in 1656, but they were not suffered to land. Their books were seized and burnt, knd they themselves were imprisoned on board their vessel, and after a brief interval were sent back again. Eight others met with tho like treatment in the same year; and a law was passed in the Colony forbidding their introduction on pain of imprisonment. Still they increased in number, so that in 1658 a more stringent Act was passed against them.

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A fine of £100 was imposed upon any colonist who should bring in a Quaker, with an addition of ¿£5 for every hour's concealment; the male Quaker for his first appearance in the country had one ear cut off, and was imprisoned until lie should have worked out the cost of his passage hack to England; for the second offence his other ear was cut off, and he was imprisoned in like manner. The women were for the first and second offence severely whipped and imprisoned, and for the third had their tongues bored through with a hot iron. To account for this greater severity in their case, it must be remembered that women were not only allowed, but encouraged by the Quakers to exercise the ministerial office. I t must be remembered that all these severe punishments were inflicted, not for any overt act, as in England for brawling in churches, insulting magistrates, or outraging public decency, or for making any converts, but for the bare fact of their having landed in the colony. And this was done by those pretended champions of civil and religious liberty, the "Pilgrim Fathers," the Puritans of New England. But worse things yet remain to be told. The Quakers still increased in number, and therefore at a later period in the same year an Act passed the General Court of Boston, at the petition of the Puritan ministers, inflicting banishment for the first offence, and death for the second, that is, for mere reappearance in the colony. A bare majority, that is, two out of three justices, without any jury, were thus made competent to inflict capital punishment.

one farthing of revenue. In 1682, Penn sailed thither with a large body of colonists, men of his own way of thinking, and founded the city of Philadelphia, which became the head of a State, called after him Pennsylvania by his devoted followers, but against his own wishes. But Penn was a conscientious man, and fully believed in the rights of the aborigines. He accordingly clid what no other colonist in America before or after him, except his followers, ever did : he assembled the native chiefs, and purchased from them the land that he required. This statesmanlike example was followed afterwards by his successors in the province when they wished to extend their settlements : and the consequence was that Pennsylvania alone of the American States has never known the horrors of a war with the Indians. Penn drew up for his colony a peculiar code of regulations. He allowed full toleration to all Deists, but required that his officials should be believers in Jesus, and men of unblemished moral character. A compulsory system of State education was established, requiring every child to be taught the elements, and at the age of twelve years to be put forth to some trade. Great crimes were punished by solitary confinement and hard labour. He restricted the punishment of death to cases of murder and high treason: an equitable court with a mixed jury settled all disputes with the natives. [Gough, Hist. v.; see also Bibliothhque Britannique, xv. p. 310.] After some years' stay in America he returned home, and became a great and deserved favourite with James II. The Revolution brought him into corresponding disfavour with the new Government. James had protected him and those of his sect, and had moreover been his father's friend, whereupon Penn naturally clung to him in his adversity. He has been accused, in common with many others of all classes and parties, of corresponding with the exiled King, and even of being implicated in Preston's plot. He was more than once arrested, but the Government could get up no case against him. He was deprived indeed of his colony, but it was shortly afterwards restored to him by William, who declared that the only grave accusations against him were groundless. Upon his death he offered the government to the Crown for ¿£12,000. His sect has continued to flourish there, and in America generally they have thriven better than in England. I n 1856 the number of American Quakers was estimated at 160,000. Though the Quakers have no authorized formularies to which they can appeal for confirmation of doctrine, they have not been without their disputes and schisms. The most celebrated was that of the Keithians, under George Keith, one of the most refined and learned of the early Quakers. He had followed Penn to America, but was .there accused of holding erroneous views concerning the human nature of our Lord, which he supposed to be twofold, the one celestial and spiritual, the other terrestrial and corporeal [Crcesi Hisioria Qualceriana, iii. 446]. It is a question

And the Act was enforced. Many Quakers were exiled, and some who returned were put to death. Gough gives the particulars of two men and one woman who thus suffered in 1659. The persecution was stayed by the Restoration, one of the first Acts of the new Government being to require that the Quakers should be sent over to England and there tried. As a matter of fact the Act of 1658 was illegal, and henceforth fell through; but for a long time the Quakers were exposed to severe persecution throughout the States of lSrew England. They were frequently whipped through three towns. But they had shortly afterwards their city of refuge on the same continent in Pennsylvania. Eox himself had visited Maryland, Virginia, and the Carolinas, but it does not appear that his progress was attended by much success. Penrt also appeared in America in 1677, and purchased an estate in New Jersey; but in 1681 the means of making a more important and lasting settlement were thrown into his hands. His father the Admiral had advanced money to the Government for the service of the navy, and as he was an intimate friend of the Duke of York, he fared better than the ordinary creditors of the Crown in those days. The son received in lieu of payment a grant of land on the West of the Delaware, large enough to make a European kingdom —an easy way of paying the debt, which cost Charles nothing, as the country was still in the possession of the natives, and did not produce 4G7

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whether he really meant anything more than that our Lord is, as touching His humanity, of a reasonable soul and human flesh subsisting; but the early American Quakers had strong Deistical tendencies, and Keith was specially unpopular with his brethren because he opposed their system of allegorizing the Gospels, whereby the historical facts of our Lord's life on earth were explained away into a symbolical representation of the origin of Christianity. These views did not prevail extensively among the Quakers of Europe, but some of those in America even went so far as to say that Christ never existed at all except in the hearts of the faithful, thus carrying out to its logical extent the principle whereby Pox overruled our Lord's express injunctions respecting the Sacraments. But to these theories Keith offered a most strenuous opposition, and soon gathered together a large body of followers. I n 1695 he was expelled from the Society by Penn, and returned to England, where he headed a congregation that met for worship in Turner's Hall, Philpot Lane. These restored the Sacraments, but retained the language, dress, and manners of Quakers, and accordingly were called Quaker Baptists. But this position was too anomalous for Keith to continue in it for long. In 1700 he conformed to the Church, took Holy Orders, and was presented to the living of Edburton, Sussex, which he held till his death [Burnet, Hist, of his own Times, ii. 249]. The Quakers however never forgave his desertion, and have charged him with neglect of his clerical duties, and rigorous exactions of tithes from his poorer parishioners. [ K E I T H I A N S . ]

II. it was first revealed to him that self-defence was unlawful. So they now disapprove of capital punishment, but Penn retained it in his laws for Pennsylvania, and the whole Society, at least the English branch, clamoured for the blood of Spencer Cowper in 1699, for the alleged murder of a Quakeress, and even appealed against the verdict of " Not guilty," as was possible in those days [Maeaulay's Ilist. Eng. viii. 233], Upon the whole, the change that has come over the sect has been decidedly for the better. They are more orthodox than their original representatives on the doctrine of the Trinity and the value of Scripture. They have retained some strange but innocent peculiarities of dress and language, and have settled down into a sober and industrious body, peaceful andpeace-loving except where tithes, and until lately, church rates, are concerned, when they display something of their old pugnacity. The sect has always been conspicuous for works of practical benevolence. They have very few poor in their community, and such as they have are mostly those who have been reduced by some mischance from a better state of things, but they relieve and help them out of their own resources. I n the case of many excellent reforms which this century has witnessed, either the first idea was started by Quakers, or they rendered valuable support to those who took them in hand. Thus Fox himself first suggested that reformation of prisons which Howard effected a century later. They were firm and useful supporters of "VVilberforce in his efforts against the slave-trade. One of their number, Mrs Fry, devoted herself to the cause of education long before the idea of popular education had dawned upon the minds of ministers of State or members of Parliament. "William Forster during the Irish potato famine lent invaluable aid to those who sought to lesson the sufferings of the unfortunate peasantry. He also distinguished himself by his efforts on behalf of the slaves in the United States; and interested himself in a work which, to him as a Quaker, must have been peculiarly distasteful, an attempt to promote the spiritual good of actors in London theatres. Though they ordinarily despise the fine arts as useless and frivolous, they have had a painter in Benjamin "West, and a novelist in Mrs. Opie; neither of whom, it is true, attained to high excellence. The number of the Quakers has been on the decline for the last hundred years and more. In England [this diminution has been marked and rapid. They find it difficult to retain their younger members, partly owing to their archaisms of dross and language, from which the youthful mind naturally recoils, while owing to the greater publicity of modern life, and the close blending together of different classes, they have become more conspicuous; and partly owing to their strictness, which will not make any allowance for the innocent desires of youth. Other elements in producing their decline have also been their direct opposition alike to the letter and to the spirit of Holy Scripture; their system of

The Keithians in America continued for some time to form a separate sect, but at length dwindled away to a very small body, which, in the course of the last century, became reabsorbed into the original body. Por a change then came over the Quakers generally. Their ancestors of Philadelphia had displayed signs of a tendency towards Socinianism, and a denial of the personality of the Holy Ghost. Even Penn had fallen under suspicion, although he vehemently asserted his essential orthodoxy on both of these points in a pamphlet, " Innocency with her Open Face." No such suspicions can now be attached to the sect. In their reverence also for Holy Scripture the Quakers indeed go beyond their founder. In the beginning of the present century, when Elias Hicks, a minister of Philadelphia, taught that the inward light was superior as an authority to the Scriptures—the very principle of Pox—and that our Lord suffered as an example only, he was expelled from the sect. [HICKSITES.] I n other matters also the Quakers have departed from their founder, as in their views on the unlawfulness of v.-ar. Pox complained that some of his disciples were dismissed from the Protector's army, although they could fight better than the best; and in a letter to Cromwell he exhorted him to come out and let no one take his crown : to let liis soldiers go forth with a free and willing heart, so that he might rock the nations as a cradle [Letter and Advice, p. 27, etc.]. At the accession of Charles 468

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female preaching; their non-use of Sacraments, end jlie intense subjectivity of a religion of which the chief ordinance is meditation. The reading of Scripture and the voice of prayer are almost unknown in their meetings, which are marked chiefly by silence, varied by exhortations confined to a very limited range of subjects. Those who leave the Society usually join the Church, other sects of Dissenters having little or no attraction for them. I n 1800 there Avere 413 Quaker meeting-houses in the United Kingdom; these had diminished in 1871 to 372. Their numbers were set down in the census of 1851 as 14,000. There is a large number at Falmouth, where some of the descendants of Fox are still to be found, and also at Darlington near Durham. About the year 1840 a secession from the Irish Quakers took place, the members of which have adopted a custom originated by some of the early ancestors of the sect in England, that of dressing wholly in white, from which they are called " White Quakers." What information has been obtained from a voluminous collection of tracts and broadsides printed by their leaders shews that they are Antinomians of the worst description, practising profligacy under the pretence of inspiration, and cloaking villainy in the most sanctimonious language current with the parent sect. The White Quakers are a small community, of which there are very few out of Dublin. [Sewel's Hist, of the People called Quakers, 1722. This folio volume was originally written in Dutch, and was translated into English by the author himself. Gougli's Hist. Quakers. Fox's Journal. Barclay's Apology. Smith's Quaker Bibliography, an admirable descriptive catalogue, in two thick volumes, of all Quaker books and pamphlets.] QUAKERS, SHAKING. [SHAKEN.] QUARTODECIMANS. Those who celebrated Easter, or more strictly speaking the Paschal Feast, at the time of the Jewish Passover, that is, on the fourteenth day of the moon or month Nisan, whatever day of the week that happened to bo. The name thus taken from the particular day of observance was, by some at least, extended so as to include, without regard to its proper meaning, all who did not obey the decrees of the Councils of Nica'a and Antioch, which ordered Easter to be kept on the first Sunday after the full moon. For Epiphanius says that some of the Quartodecimans in Cappadocia always kept their pasch on a fixed day, namely on the eighth of the Kalends of April, the 25th of March; maintaining, on the authority of the Acts of Pilate, that day to bo the true day of our Saviour's Passion [Epiph. Ilmr. 1.]. These, then, were not properly Quartodecimans, but were classed with them as disobeying the Nicene decree. The Nicene decree was founded on the custom of the Western Church, with which agreed the custom of the Churches of Palestine, Jerusalem, and Csesarea. The Churches of Asia Minor followed the Jewish rule. The matter had been debated between Polycarp and Anicetus when Polycarp visited Rome.

Polycarp urged that he had kept Easter according to the Asiatic custom, with St. John and the rest of the Apostles with whom he associated; Anicetus urged that he too was bound to maintain the custom of all his predecessors 1 in the See of Rome [Euseb. Hist. Eccl. v. 24]. Neither of the two would give up the custom of his Church; but no breach of communion or of charity followed. About the year 196 a sharper controversy arose. Victor wished to introduce uniformity by enforcing the Western custom on the whole Church. His zeal, which, it must bo allowed, led to intemperate and overbearing measures, was roused by the danger of the introduction of Judaism through this Judaic observance, and by a supposed connection between Quartodecimanism and Montanism. The former danger, it will be seen, was not imaginary; the latter connection may seem to have no foundation in principle, but it will be found as we proceed that Quartodecimanism has a tendency to connect itself with an undue rigour of discipline and practice. I n tlie appendix to Tertullian's Treatise oil Heresies, it is said that one Blastus, who joined the Montanists, wished to introduce Judaism, and advocated the Asiatic Easter custom. This Blastus appears at Rome as a leader of schism. Irenseus remonstrated with him in a letter " On Schism," but Blastus was deposed from tho presbytery [ibid. v. 15-20], Moved, as it appears, by the schismatical proceedings of Blastus, Victor pressed upon tho Asiatic Churches the relinquishment of their ancient custom. Under the leadership of Polycrates, Bishop of Ephesus, they refused. Victor, strengthened by synodical determinations of the Churches of Caisarea, Jerusalem, Pontus, Corinth, Osrhoene, and Gaul, to the effect that the Resurrection of our Lord should be celebrated only on the Lord's Day, up to which day the Paschal Fast should continue, issued letters of excommunication against the Asiatic Churches, and moved the Churches which sided with him to cease from communion with them. But the bishops, and particularly Trenasus, resisted this measure, admonished Victor of his too great haste, and restored peace. Both parties continued undisturbed in the observance of their own customs till the Council of Nicasa [ibid. v. 23, 24]. That there Avas real danger of Judaism entering through the Asiatic custom appears not only from the example of Blastus, but from tho account Avhich Hippolytus gives, some twentyfive years later, of the Quartodecimans. Considering the part which Irenseus took in the controversy, and that Irenaeus, although he followed the Western usage in his own Church, had been a Quartodeciman by early association with Polycarp, whose example both he and Polycrates 1 The successors of Peter and Paul, who have taught all the churches in which they sowed the spiritual seeds of the Gospel, that the solemn festival of the Besurrection of the Lord can he celebrated only on the Lord's Day [Anatolius, Paschal Canon, x. in Ante-Nicene Library, xiv. p. 419. See the whole chapter]. So also Socrates [Hist. Bed. v. 21] states t h a t the Western party claimed the authority of St. Peter and St. Paul.

Quartodecimans pressed so strongly upon Victar; considering also that Hippolytus was a disciple of Irenceus, the account given by the former is very remarkable. The sectarian spirit of the Quartodecimans is pointed out. They are described as contentious by nature, wholly uninformed as regards knowledge, and more than usually quarrelsome. Further, Hippolytus adds, they do not look to that which was spoken by the Apostle, " I testify to every man that is circumcised that he is a debtor to do the whole law" [Hippol. Refut. Ilcer. viii. 11]. If from this we are not entitled to infer with certainty that circumcision was itself introduced, it is quite certain that in Hippolytus' opinion the Asiatic custom was 110 longer the innocent custom it had been in the days of Polycarp and St. John, but that an attempt was founded upon it to enforce the whole law. If Hippolytus be a competent witness, the toleration procured by Irenaaus was much misused; Victor, greatly as he may have erred in the manner of his proceedings, was right in his desire to put an end to the Asiatic custom; and the Councils of Nicsea and Antioch had a more pressing cause for their decrees than the mere love of uniformity. 1 Before proceeding to these decrees, one or two earlier enactments require notice. The seventh (or eighth) Apostolical Canon orders the deposition of clergy celebrating the paschal feast before the vernal equinox, as the Jews do. I t is not necessary to enter into the subject of the defective Jewish calculations, which frequently brought the spring month Nisan before the equinox; for our present purpose it is to be noticed that this canon, while it does not forbid the keeping the paschal feast on the fourteenth day of the first month regularly calculated, supposes that the Christian Church is to make its own independent calculation, and not to rest on the current Jewish calendar. I t is not improbable that the canon was made by Eastern Quartodecimans. Again, Epiphanius quotes an old Apostolical Constitution which, directs that the feast should bo kept at the same time at which it was celebrated by the brethren of the circumcision, without being concerned for mistakes in their calculations. But the constitution as we now have it (v. 16) directs the pasch to be kept after the equinox, not with the Jews, with whom Christians have no communion. TJssher refers the canon and the new constitution to the time of the Paschal Canon of Anatolius, an Alexandrian and Bishop of Laodicea [Euseb. Hist. Eccl. vii. 32]. His canon exists in a Latin translation by Iiufinus, and is translated in the Ante-Kicene Library, vol. xiv. He insists strongly on the necessity of observing the pasch after the equinox. The Council of Aries [A.D. 314] ordered that Easter should be generally observed on one and the same day, and that letters fixing the day 1 See against t h e view here taken Lanlner, Credibil. vol. iv. p . 61, edit. 1861, art. " T h e Council of Nice," and Bitschl, Die Entstehung der Altkatholischen Kirche [1857, p. 270], who says, " D a s motiv der Verwerfung der kleinasiatischen Observanz war überhaupt der Trieb nach Uniformität des Cultus u n d der kirchlichen Sitte."

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Quartodecimans should be issued as usual by the metropolitan [Can. i.]. The custom of the Gallic Church was to keep Easter on the Sunday, and this canon refers to the appointment of the same Sunday. We may proceed now to the Council of jSTicfea. One reason for summoning the Council of .Nicasa was that they of Syria, Cilicia and Mesopotamia went haltingly (¿xtuAeuoi') with regard to the feast, and kept their pasch with the Jews [Athanas. de Synod, c. 5]. Eusebius \de Vita Const, iii. 5], and Sozomen [Hist. Eccl. i. 15], shew that the feast was kept by some not merely at the Jewish time, but after a Jewish fashion. Constantine had sent Hosius into the East to quiet if possible this dispute, as well as the dispute between Alexander, Bishop of Alexandria, and Arius. Hosius' mission was fruitless. At the council, therefore, a decree was made that Easter should be observed by all on the Sunday which followed the fourteenth of the moon next after the vernal equinox. I t is agreed that Canon xxi., which is on this matter, is spurious; but tliere is 110 doubt that such a decree was made [Euseb. Vit. Const, iii. 17-18; Socrates, Hist. Eccl. i. 9 ; Theod. Hist. Eccl. i. 10]. By the Council of Antioch [A.D. 341] this decree was re-enacted and guarded by a sentence of excommunication. From this time, therefore, it became a scliismatical act to disobey the decree; and rules were made regarding the Quartodecimans, which treat them as schismatics or heretics. Thus the Council of Laodicea [A.D. 367] directs that converts from their body shall be received after they have anathematized all heresy, and may partake of the Holy Mysteries after they have been anointed with the chrism. Johnson notes upon this (from Aristenus) that the Quartodecimans were Uovatians in not admitting lapsed persons to penance. Sozomen, however, states [Hist. Eccl vi. 24] that about A.D. 374 the Siovatianists in Phrygia, contrary to their former custom, began to celebrate their pasch at the same time as the Jews. And under the reign of Theodosius and Yalentinian II. [A.D. 375-395], he narrates the controversies and schisms among the Novatianists on this point [vii. 18]. [NOVATIANISTS.] The Council of Laodicea, therefore, it must be concluded, made their enactment regarding the Quartodecimans without any reference to .Novatian error. The Laodicean rule was again enacted by the first Council of Constantinople [can. vii.], A.D. 381 ; and by the second of Constantinople, or Quinisextine, A.D. 692 [can. xcv.]. About the year 370, according to Theodoret, or in the time of Arius, according to Epiphanius, flourished Auda^us. He was a Syrian of Mesopotamia, much esteemed in his own country, as Epiphanius acknowledges, for holiness of life, and zeal for the faith. The freedom with which he censured the corrupt manners of the clergy brought upon him much ill-treatment, which he endured for some time, till at length he separated from the Church [Epiph. Hcer. lxx.; Theod. fab. Hceret. iv. 9 ; August. Hcer. 1.]. He is charged by some with Anthropomorphism, and licentiousness, but Epiphanius acquits him ;

Quietists and when Epiphanius acquits it is generally safe to accept his verdict. Audaeus was banished "by the Emperor, and went among the Goths, many of whom he converted. His chief peculiarity was his Quartodeciman practice. This practice he maintained to be the ancient custom, confirmed by the Apostolical Constitutions. The NicEean rule he held to be an innovation adopted in complaisance to Constantine. I n this may be noticed again the tendency of Quartodeciinanism to connect itself with the sects which pressed Church discipline into undue rigour, and carried asceticism to an extreme. [ A U D I A N S . ] The body of Quartodecimans then, it appears, passed into the Audians and Novatianists; the latter adding to their other causes of separation from the Church the Jewish celebration of Easter, the former separating on this point alone. For Augusiine writes, from Epiphanius, that they separated themselves " culpando Episcopos divites, et pascha cum Judseis celebrando." The inculpation of rich bishops can scarcely have been a formal cause of schism. The imperial laws were severe upon the Audians as schismatics. Theodosius the Great in one of his laws ranked them with the Manichees, forbade their conventicles, confiscated their goods, rendered them intestate, and liable also to capital punishment [God. Theod. lib. xvi. tit. 5 ; de Hceret. leg. 9 ; Bingham's Antiq. XX. v. 3]. Into the differences which arose from the difficulty of ascertaining the Sunday to be observed as Easter Sunday, it is quite unnecessary to enter. They were brought about by no difference of principle, but only through imperfect calculation. These variations appear in the history of the Churches of Franco and Britain, which retained the old Roman mode of calculation, and were found to be at variance with the new Roman or Alexandrian Canon, which was brought into use in the Roman Church by Dionysius Exiguus in the year 525. QUESNFX.

[JANSENISTS.]

QUIETISTS. A school of Mystics who profess to resign themselves in passiveness more or less absolute to an imagined Divine Manifestation. The quietude aimed at, beginning with an act of so-called resignation of self, is a state of mental inactivity, without thought, reflection, hope, or wish. In this state it is supposed that the soul is brought so immediately into the Divine Presence as to be merged in It by an essential union. Quietism, accordingly, is not peculiar to Christianity, for it requires no basis of Christology. It results from every philosophical system, by an excess or perversion of contemplation, when the ethical tendency of the mind is too weak to preserve a just balance with the contemplative tendency. But, further than this, it will appear that the height of Quietism, as defined above, is really inconsistent with Christianity, in the state of mind inculcated, in the character of the Divine access sought for, and consequently in the nature of the promised union with the Deity. The further the Christian Quietist advances the nearer 471

Quietists does he approach to the state of the heathen Quietist. Christian meditation is no inactive process. The general rule that all knowledge shall be limited by religion, and referred to use and action, becomes in the instance of meditation the particular rule that " meditation shall be in order to the production of piety." Meditation therefore is " nothing else but the using of all those motives, arguments and irradiations which God intended to be instrumental to piety." Quietist contemplation professes to be a state superior to this. The Quietists call it indeed a vulgar error to say that in the prayer of rest the faculties operate not, and the soul is idle and inactive; but they assert at the same time that the soul operates neither by means of the memory nor by the intellect, nor by ratiocination, but by simple apprehension [Molinos, Spiritual Guide, i. 12]. W h a t an active apprehension is when none of the powers of the mind are exerted it is difficult to see. I t appears that the Quietists think to attain that repose of the mind which is the result of exertion, and that quiet rest in God which follows from the earnestness of meditative prayer, by altogether surceasing from the exertion and superseding the earnestness. Consequently, the mind being reduced to inactivity, the body has sway; and the state of perfect quietude, supposed to be a waiting for the Divine access, becomes that state (which maybe produced by "mesmeric" process) in which the body suffers or simulates catalepsy, and the mind apes a divine trance. Quietism becomes mental sleep. Christianity, in the next place, maintains a relation of the outward and the inward, of the corporeal and the spiritual. The Mediator is God and Man : and in virtue of the Incarnation the nearest approach to God is through Sacraments. Quietism aims at an entire abstraction from all externals, and seeks to put the spirit of man into direct and immediate union with the very nature of the Godhead. From this there inevitably results, instead of the Christian doctrine of the Communion of Saints, the doctrine of a pantheistic identification of the creature with the Creator, and an ultimate absorption of the soul into the substance of God. The statements which have been thus made may be verified by history. Vaughan Hours with the Mystics, i. ch. 2, p. 43, ed. 1860] observes that the "same round of notions, occurring to minds of similar make under similar circumstances, is common to mystics in ancient India and in modern Christendom." He gives a summary of Hindoo Mysticism; that it [1] Lays claim to disinterested love, as opposed to a mercenary religion : [2] Reacts against the ceremonial prescription and pedantic literalism of the Yedas : [3] Identifies in its Pantheism subject and object, worshipper and worshipped : [4] Aims at ultimate absorption into the Infinite : [5] Inculcates, as the way to this dissolution, absolute passivity, withdrawal into the inmost

Quietists self, cessation of all the powers—giving recipes ibr procuring tliis beatific torpor or trance: [0] Believes that eternity may thus be realized in time: [7] Has its mythical miraculous pretensions, i.e. its tlieurgic department: [8] And, finally, advises the learner in this kind of religion to submit himself implicitly to a spiritual guide,—his Garu. Of these articles the 3d, 4th, 5th and 6th give Quietism properly so called: and it is our part to inquire whether the manifestation of this doctrine in Christianity adds anything essential to the definition of article 5, so as to save Christian Quietism from the pantheistic conclusions of articles 3 and 4. Mystics, it will be observed, who start with pantheistic doctrine, will deduce from that doctrine article 5 as a rule : Christian mystics, on the other hand, adopting the rule of this article, are led by it into Pantheism. The doctrine of disinterested love [art. 1] does not constitute Quietism, nor is it peculiar to Quietism. The controversy between Fenelon and Bossuet will immediately occur to the reader's mind. The reaction against ceremonial prescription [art. 2] is not paralleled by the action of Quietism exclusively, against a formal routine of Church observances ; but by such action of Mysticism in general [see Knox, Remains, vol. iii. p. 145], Article 7 relates to a matter incident, not essential, to Quietism. The mind not able to attain to passivity, or not content to rest in it, craves a sign. The entrance and extent of this tlieurgic element differences the mystic from the mystic of theopatliy. Lastly, it may at once be noticed that the second book of Molinos' Spiritual Guide is " Of the Ghostly Father, and the Obedience due to Him ;" but neither is this point peculiar to Quietism. Again, Quietism is taught by the followers of Fo in China; " for they say that all those who seek true happiness ought to be so far absorbed by profound meditations as to make no use of tlieir intellect; and that they ought through a perfect insensibility to sink into the repose and inaction of the first principle; which is the true way of being perfectly like it and partaking of happiness" [Bayle, Did. art. Spinoza, note B ; art. Taulerus, note F]. But, to come to that which directly affects the Christian Church, there is a remarkable similarity between the Mysticism of the Plotinian School and that of the Quietists. The aim of the divine philosopher was to enter into the immediate vision of Deity. "Unconditioned Being, or the Godhead, cannot be grasped by thinking, or science, only by intuition. I n this pure intuition, the good, or the absolute being, gazes upon itself through the medium of our own spirits. To close the eye against all things transient and variable, to raise ourselves to this simple essence, to take refuge in the absolute, this must bo regarded as the highest aim of all our spiritual eiforts " [Prof. C. A. Brandis in Smith's Biog. Did. art. Plo472

Quietists tinus, p. 427]. Plotinian contemplation may find a place in the system of John Smith and Henry More, but it may also pass as readily into the reveries of Molinos. I t is to be considered whether the tendency of such contemplation is not to reduce the Father manifested in the Son to the cold abstraction of the Plotinian Deity. In the Church there have been two kinds of Mysticism, one, a churchly Mysticism, which allies itself with the ordinances and rites of the Gospel, the other subjective or inward, which gradually rejects more and more all that is external, and even at last passes beyond the contemplation of the Humanity of our Lord, and the Sacraments which make men partakers of His Body, to " seek a resting-place beyond all that is created in the Logos as He existed prior to the Incarnation and Creation " [Dorner, On the Person of Christ, II. i. 233. M Y S T I C S . ] Those who hold that the Sacraments are generally necessary to salvation will see in this a very obvious and natural discrimination; they will at once see that mystics of the former class have in their retention of church ordinances a check of excess and a guide of progress, according to their use of which their mysticism may be tolerated or approved; while mystics of the latter class, in their passing beyond these necessary ordinances, stand self-condemned, and pretending to advance in divine knowledge are really retrograding towards heathenism. 3STor will they who hold the true doctrine of the Sacraments find it strange that men who pass beyond the Sacraments of Christ presently pass beyond the contemplation of the Humanity of Christ. This uncliristianizing of Christianity, the presenting the great drama without its central figure, the removing God Incarnate from the mystery of godliness, as the result of a perverted or depraved Mysticism, is exhibited more than once in the history of the Church. The words quoted from Dorner on the subject were used regarding Maximus Confessor. We may resume and continue them. " True love and knowledge unite to seek a resting-point beyond all that is created, beyond even the humanity of Christ: their final goal is the pure and bare {yvjivos) Logos, as He existed prior to the Incarnation and the Creation. It is clear that in the last instance Christ is hereby reduced to the position of a mere theophany, and that the historical significance of His Person is destroyed. The same thing appears also from his application to the professedly highest stage of the words. Even though we have known Christ after the flesh, yet now know we Him no longer. So far was he from attributing eternal significance to the God-man, that lie regarded the Humanity of Christ rather in the light of an hindrance to the full knowledge and love of the pure God,—an hindrance which must bo surmounted by those who aim to reach the highest stage" [Dorner, loe. cit. and see note 48 there referred to]. So in Italy, Marsilius Ficinus and John Pico of Mirandola turned Christianity in many respects into a Neo-Platonic theosophy. So in England the doctrino of the Quakers was noted to be highly

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dangerous " as mingling with so many good and wholesome things an abominable slighting of the history of Christ, and making a mere allegory of it, tending to the utter overthrow of that warrantable though more external frame of Christianity which Scripture itself points out to u s " [H. More, quoted in Vaughan, Hours, ii. p. 328], I n another article [ M Y S T I C S ] this subject is more opened, and the Schools of Mysticism of the Greek and Latin Churches classified. In the article HESYCHASTS is related the Quietism of the Greek Church. At present it is only necessary to point out that these Hesychasts had the same rule as the Hindoo Quietists, namely, that to produce the state of abstraction the eyes must be steadily fixed on some particular object. The Hindoos prescribed the tip of the nose, the Hesychasts the navel. Such a custom is like the ordinary mesmeric trick, producing an affection of the brain which simulates catalepsy, the torpor of a corporeal Quietism. I t is remarkable that this gross Materialism should have connected itself with the subtle disquisitions regarding the light of God as distinct from His essence. While this was in some minds the goal reached by unchecked subjective Mysticism, in other minds Pantheism was approached, sometimes reached, as by Amalric of liena [Gioseler, Compend. iii. p. 298, note 10, and p. 467, Clark's transí.]. From the instances of history thus pointed out may be deduced the following proposition: that the Quietist, passing over the sacraments and ordinances of the Church in his endeavour to obtain through contemplation, individually and independently of the Church, an union with God, is led to pass over the Incarnate Son, and to suppose and hold a pantheistic identification of the creature and the Creator. • This proposition is necessary as a preliminary to the consideration of the history of those to whom the name Quietist is commonly appropriated—Molinos and his followers. Molinos' Spiritual Guide, published in Spanish in 1675, and the same year in Italian, passed through above twenty editions in different languages in six years. At Home and Naples many of the clergy declared themselves in Molinos' favour, especially three Fathers of the Oratory, Coloredi, Giceri and Petrucci (author of several treatises and letters on mystic theology), who were all afterwards made cardinals: Cardinal Odeschalci, who, when made Pope in the next year (Innocent XI.), lodged Molinos in the Vatican : and Cardinal D'Estrees, the French Ambassador at Eome, who had procured the translation into Italian of Malaval's Dialogue, which is said to go even beyond the Mysticism of Molinos. The Jesuits in general were opposed to this doctrine of Quietism. They published several works in refutation of it, and induced the Inquisition to take cognizance of the Spiritual Guide and of Petrucci's Letters ; and it is said that the Jesuit Esparsa, who had given an imprimatur to Molinos' woL-k, was kept in seclusion. Nob only were Molinos and l'etrucci acquitted, but the writings issued against them were condemned as libels. 473

Petrucci was made Bishop of Jessi. About A.D. 1084, Pcrc la Chaise induced the King of France, by motives partly of orthodoxy, partly of policy, to move against the Quietists. Cardinal D'Estrees, in obedience to the King, caused Molinos and Petrucci to be cited again before the Inquisition. When taxed with his own prior approval of their doctrine, he professed that he had only pretended friendship to obtain a conviction. Petrucci was dismissed, Molinos was imprisoned, and there was a lull in the controversy. I n 1687 the activity of the Inquisition was renewed. Count and Countess Yespiniani, and about seventy others, were brought up for examination on the charge (to state it in general terms) of neglecting the ordinances of religion, and giving themselves to solitude and inward prayer. The Countess averred that she had been betrayed by her confessor, and declared that she would discontinue confession. She and her husband were set free on promise of appearing when required. I n a month about two hundred persons were cited. At this time the Pope himself was examined. There was issued a circular to the Italian prelates warning them that, under the pretence of the way of quietude, execrable errors were taught, and enjoining them to forbid and disperse assemblies of Quietists. There was added a list of nineteen articles of Quietist errors. The Pope was at length brought to assent to the final condemnation of Molinos by a Bull dated Sept. 4th, 1687, and he lived till 1690 in the prison of the Inquisition. W e must review this chapter of Church history by the help of the principles drawn from earlier history. The second book of the Spiritual Guide is "Of the Ghostly Father, the Obedience due to Him ; of indiscreet zeal, and of internal and external penance." Its thirteenth and fourteenth chapters are " Frequent Communion is an effectual means of getting all virtues, and in particular, internal peace." Molinos published also, about the same time as the Spiritual Guide, " A brief treatise concerning daily Communion," in which the practice is strongly recommended. There was no intention then of superseding Church ordinances; and it is no wonder that Molinos was classed with the acknowledged mystics of the Church. The dangerous tendency of his teaching however appears to have been detected by one of his early Jesuit opponents. " Segueri magnified the contemplative state highly, while he thought that few were capable of it, and considered it to be an extraordinary favour of God. He censured severely some of Molinos' expressions, such as that, He who had God, had Christ, as if this were an abandoning of Christ's Humanity." These particular words we cannot discover, but the following will prove Segueri's charge. " St. Thomas with all the mystical masters says that contemplation is a sincere, sweet, and full, view of the eternal truth 'without ratiocination or reflexion. But if the soul rejoices in, or eyes the effects of, God in the creatures, and amongst them, in the Humanity of our Lord Christ, as the most perfect of all, this is not perfect contemplation, as St. Thomas

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affirms, since all these are meansforknowingof God as He is in Himself: and although the Humanity of Christ he the most holy and perfect means for going to God, the chief instrument of our salvation, and the channel through which m receive all the good we hope for, nevertheless the Humanity is not the chief good, which consists in seeing God; but as Jesus Christ is more by His Divinity than His Humanity, so he that thinks and fixes his contemplation always on God (because the Divinity is united to Humanity) always thinks on and beholds Jesus Christ, especially the contemplative man in whom faith is more sincere, pure, and exercised" Guide, Preface, Advert. II.]. By this we are to understand the following : " Know that he who would attain the mystical science must be denied and taken off from five things: [1] from the creatures ; [2] from temporal things; [3] from the very gifts of the Holy Ghost; [4] from himself; [5] he must be lost in God" [B. iii. sect. 185]. Mystical perfection then resolves itself into a bare abstract belief in God's infinite essence; and, as Knox observes, is hostile to Christianity, because it necessarily disqualifies the mind for that distinct and intelligent contemplation of Immanuel, to which we are called by all and every trait, however minute, of the evangelic records [Knox, Remains, i. pp. 3315-337].1 Molinos, it is true (as Knox observes of Fenelon), tries to avoid the legitimate conclusions of thi3 doctrine; but his very caveats on the point sound strangely in a Christian ear. " Hence it follows that the remembrance of the Passion and Death of our Saviour ought not wholly to be blotted out; nay, it is also certain, that whatever high elevation of mind the soul may be raised to, it ought not in all things to be separate from the most holy humanity" Guide, I. cap. xvi. sect. 118],2 This niggardly concession only brings out more strikingly the relegation of the proper powers of the Gospel to an earlier and inferior stage of the Christian life, and the assumption that man can, and in his best state does, contemplate God simply in Himself, in His own pure spiritual essence. Against the delusions of this doctrine the only safeguard is the use of the ordinances of the Church. Petrucci, accordingly, was dismissed on the second examination, when Molinos was imprisoned, because, as the Protestant author of the Letters from Italy phrases it, he mixed in his letters so many rules relating to the devotions

of the Quire that there was less occasion given for censure in his writings : that is, he limited Ids mystical devotions by the rules and requirements of an adherence to the communion of the faithful. Again, the tendency of Molinos' teaching became still more apparent when Countess Yespiniani, and doubtless others after her example, refused confession, such refusal leading, by the rules of the Church, to the omission of Holy Communion. There appears then to be little ground for the assertion that the opposition to Molinos was merely an opposition to true religion, or for the mere vulgar assertion that it arose from the lessening of the priests' profits. Xor does such a statement involve an approval of all the proceedings of the Inquisition. That this system of Quietism conducts directly to a pantheistic identification of the creature with the Creator, through the annihilation of self, which is so much insisted on, is very clear. The chapter [iii. 19] on true and perfect annihilation ends thus : " The soul thus dead and annihilated lives no longer in itself, because God lives in i t ; and now it may most truly be said of it, that it. is a renewed phoenix, because it is changed, transformed; spiritualized, and deified." This is different doctrine from St. Paul's [Gal. ii. 20], from St. John's [1 John iv. 9], from our Lord's [John xvii. 20-23]. And the term Deification is not an accidental hyperbole, but Molinos' usual language. Penelon and Madame Guyon were usually called Semi-Quietists: they were preserved from the extremes into which Molinos fell by the different temper of their minds. " A moral taste such as Penelon's would naturally and necessarily place limits to the aberrations of understanding;" in M. Guyon the theurgic element very largely qualified the theopathetie. Regarding Fenelon's doctrine of disinterested love, it is sufficient to refer to Butler's Sermons on the Love of Our Neighbour. But this doctrine, demonstrated, by Butler's establishment of a different view, to be founded on pure ignorance of man's true nature, leads us to some general reflections on the moral character and tendencies of the subjective Mysticism we have been considering. That character and tendency is seen in the anxiety to detect a principle of criminal selfishness underlying the pleasure which a good man has in doing good, the testimony of his good conscience to his sincerity, the joy which he has in the Holy Ghost. The analysis which they made of the actions of their minds was probably correct. Probably they did detect an undue self-love and self-esteem. And for this reason: they were in that habit of introspection, instead of looking from themselves to Christ and Christ's members, which naturally engenders those feelings. They created the disease, and then strove to cure it, not by reversing their habit of mind, and returning to a healthy course of action, but by attempting to merge the true .joys of religion in a state of mental torpor. Molinos' rule has already been quoted, that the Quietist must be taken off, as from the creature,

1 Vaughan defends Molinos on this point. See Hours with the Mystics, ii. p. 29D. 2 It may be noticed that Molinos' tract on Daily Communion has been neglected in comparison with the Spiritual Guide. Also, that the English edition of the Spiritual Guide [1699] leaves out altogether the second book, the subject of which was named above, in which are the chapters on Frequent Communion. Whether any Italian editions were printed after Countess Vespiniaii's refusal of confession, without this book regarding the office of the confessor, we have not been able to ascertain. But the omission in the sf-cond F.n':l ; -h edition is significant, shewing the real tend- : of M..:i.' doctrine. An abstract of the Spiritual Guide was published in England in 1774, and is still reprinted for the use of Quakers.

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Quietists including the Humanity of our Lord, so from the gifts of the Holy Ghost. Again we read, " The monster self-love puts its head everywhere—• sometimes it cleaves to spiritual pleasures, staying even in the gifts of God, and in His graces freely bestowed" \_Spir. Guide, iii. 3-20]. Again, " T h e very virtues acquired, and not purified, are a hindrance to this great gift of the peace of the soul; and more, the soul is clogged by an inordinate desire of sublime gifts, by the appetite of feeling spiritual consolation, by sticking to infused and divine graces, entertaining itself in them, and desiring more of them, to enjoy them, and finally, by a desire of becoming great" [iii. 4, 26]. As surely as a man is ill, or makes himself ill, who is every hour feeling his pulse and examining his tongue, so surely is there a morbid state of mind engendered by unceasingly turning the eye within instead of looking out of self to Christ. The unavoidable consequence is a remissness in good works. The chapter of the Spiritual Guide concerning indiscreet zeal is a sad example [ii. 3]. " No sooner dost thou find in thyself any new and fervent light, but thou wouldst lay thyself wholly out for the good of souls; and in the meantime it's odds but that that is self-love which thou takest to be pure zeal." " It is never good to love thy neighbour to the detriment of thine own spiritual good. To please God in purity ought to be the only scope of thy works." " One pure act of internal resignation is more worth than a hundred thousand exercises for one's own will." A contemporary comment was as follows: " Le Chap. 3 est detestable. Sous le titre, de zele indiscret, il condamne toute la pratique de la cliarite tendant au salut du pro475

Quinquarticular Controversy chain" [Traité Historique, 1699, p. 122], Knox identifies the doctrine of Molinos with that of the English mystic Law ; and concludes that the moral characters of the doctrine are the worst part; they amount to this, that nothing commonly called vice is so essentially vicious as seeing, knowing, or feeling the reality of one's own virtue ; and that no virtue is genuine that is earnest to feel its own progress, or even to be satisfied of its own existence [Remains, i. p. 343]. If Quietism tends to supersede Gospel faith, it tends also to supersede Gospel righteousness. [Molinos' Spiritual Guide, with a Short Treatise concerning Daily Communion, 1688 (the edition referred to above). Another English edition, 1699, without the "Daily Communion," and omitting book ii. : this edition has " The Substance of several Letters from Italy concerning the Quietists." Life of Lady Guion, written by herself, now abridged, Bristol, 1772: this book has " Life of M. de Molinos and Progress of Quietism," which appears to be translated from Recueil des Diverses Pieces concernant le Quietisme et les Quietistes, 1688. Traité Historique, contenant la, Jugement d'un Protestant, 1699. Knox, " Letter on the Character of Mysticism, and Answer to a Reply," Remains, vol. i. Vaughan's Hours with the Mystics. LTpliam, Life of Mada me Guyon. Bossuet, Works. Gilbert Burnet, Tracts, 1689, vol. i. "All that can be alleged in defence of Molinos," says Mosheim, " has been collected by Weisman, in his Histor. Ecclesiast. sect, xvii."] QUINQUARTICULAR CONTROVERSY. The mi11 roversv respecting the " Eive Articles." [Arminians. Calvinists. Dokt, Synod of.] QUINTILLÏANS. [Priscillianists.]

R RACCIIFJ. A name given by mistake to the [oSTicetas, Thesaur. Orth. Fid. in Bill. Max. Lugd. xxv. 109, E]. R A K U S I A i f S . A Christian sect mentioned by Mahometan writers as existing in Arabia, but of whom nothing definite is known. Their tenets appear to have been those of the MENd^;an8 or Sabians, still further corrupted by Ebionite influences. [Sprenger, Das Lcben und die Lehre des Mohammed, i. 43, ii. 255, iii. 387, 395. "Weil, Mohammed der Prophet, 219, n. 386.] ZACCHEI

RANDALLITES.

[ F R E E W I L L BAPTISTS.]

RANTERS. A profligate sect of Antinomian heretics which became conspicuous under the name of Ranters during the Commonwealth, but was probably of older date and associated with the F A M I L I S T S , of whom Fuller speaks as their ancestors [Fuller's Gh. Hist. iii. 211, ed. 1837]. I n Ross's Havere/Jeta the Ranters are described as making an open profession of lewdness and irreligion, as holding that God, angels, devils, heaven, hell, etc., are fictions and fables; that Moses, John the Baptist, and our Lord, were impostors ; that praying and preaching are useless ; that all ministry has come to an end, and that sin is a mere imagination. He says that in their letters the Ranters endeavoured to be strangely profane and blasphemous, uttering atheistical imprecations, and he gives a specimen which quite bears out his words. He also alleges that they sanctioned and practised community of women [Ross's Havcrtfiiia, p. 287, ed. 1655], Much of the same account also is given by Pagitt a few years later [1'agitt's Heresioyruphy, pp. 259, 294. ed. 1662]. Baxter also writes respecting them : " I have myself letters written from Abingdon, where among both soldiers and people this contagion did then prevail, full of horrid oaths and curses, and blasphemy, not lit to bo repeated by the tongue and pen of m a n ; and tbis all uttered as the effect of knowledge and a part of their religion, in a fanatic strain, and fathered on the Spirit of God" [Baxter's Own Life and Times, 77]. And the following passage is found in a Life of Bunyan, added to an imitation of his work which is called " the Third Part of the Pilgrim's Progress." " About this time," in Bunyan's early life, " a very large liberty being given as to conscience, 476

there started up a sect of loose prophane wretches, afterwards called Ranters and Sweet Singers, pretending themselves safe from, or being incapable of, sinning; though indeed they were the debauchest and profligate wretches living, in their baudy meetings and revels; for fancying themselves in Adam's state, as he was in Paradise before the fall, they would strip themselves, both men and women, and so catch as catch could, and to it they went, to satiate their lust under pretence of increasing and multiplying" [An account of the Life and Actions of Mr. John Bunyan, etc., London, 1692, p. 22]. I n later times the name of " Ranters" has been given to the Primitive Methodists. EASCHOLNIKS. A Russian word, denoting " Schismatics," and used as a general name for all those bodies which dissent from the orthodox and Established Church in that country. Although a few sects, as the Strigolniks, existed as early the fourteenth or fifteenth centuries, the greater number arose either in the middle of the seventeenth century, among those who rejected the revision of Holy Scripture, and of the old liturgical books, proposed and carried out by the Patriarch JSTicon at Moscow [A.D. 1654], or in the earlier part of the eighteenth century, in consequence of the innovating policy of Peter the Great [A.D. 1089-1725], Many of the Rascliolniks regard this Emperor as Antichrist, and his semi-political, semi-ecclesiastical reforms as impious, e.g. the amalgamation of Church and State under his own supreme personal rule; the alteration of the date of the commencement of the year from the first of September to the first of January ; and the substitution of the date Anno Domini for Anno Mundi in the calculation of time. The general character of Russian dissent may be described as eminently conservative. Unlike English dissent, which is usually based on some deviation from time-honoured tradition, or some departure from Catholic teaching, it resents the most trifling interference with the hereditary ritual, such as the number of fingers with which the sign of the cross is to be made, the mode of pronouncing such a word as Jesus, the number of times in which an Amen or an Alleluia is to be repeated in the course of a service. It has also a tendency to develope into extreme fanaticism, as may be seen by reference to the SKOX'TZI or K H L I S T I ; and it does not

Rationalists escape the proclivity of schism in all ages, and in all countries, to produce an increasing number of sects, and subdivisions of sects, more or less hostile to each other as well as to the Church from which they have originally sprung. The chief Eussian sects are the Bespopofftschins, Besslovestnie, Blagoslovennie, Duchobortzi, Isbraniki, Istineeye Christiane, Karabliki, Khlisti, Kcrjakis, Malakanes, Martinists, Morelschiki, Niconians, Njetowschitscliini, Philipponians, Pomorane, Popofftschins, Eascolschiki, Sabatniki, Skoptzi, Starovertzi, Strigolniks, Wjetkaers, Yedinovertzi, of each of which some account is given in this Dictionary. Further information about them may be obtained in Mouravieff's History of the Church of Russia, London, 1842. Krazinski's Lectures on Slaoonia, or Religious History of the Slavonic Nations, London, 1869. Farlati, Episcopi Bosnensis, IJlyricum Sacrum. August, yon Haxthausen, Stiulien uber Russland, Han. 1847. Gregoire, Histoire des Sectes Religieuses, vol. iv. Paris, 1814. History of Russian Sects, by Dimitri, Archbishop of Eostow. Slrahl's Geschichte der Griindung und Ausbreitung der Christlichen Lehre in Russie, and Geschichte der Russichen Kirche, Halle. 1830. Platon's Present State of the Greeh Church in Russia, Pinkerton's transl., Edin. 1814, NewYork, 1815. EATIONALISTS. Those who maintain that reason is the sole guide to, and test of, truth in matters of religion, and especially in the interpretation of Holy Scripture. The name is first found in use in a " Letter of Intelligence" written from London to Secretary Nicholas, in which it is said that " T h e Presbyterian and Independent agree well enough together. But there is a new sect sprung up among them, and these are the Eationalists ; and what their reason dictates them in Church or State stands for good until they be convinced with better; and that is according as it serves their own turns. Some of them were at the House this day" [October 14th, 1647], ".and much reason was propounded this day by divers of the agitators to the Council of W a r " 1 [Clarendon's St. Pap. ii. app. xl.]. Soon afterwards the Soeinians were called Eationalists by Comenius, and in the eighteenth century the name was used in Germany to designate those who had been previously called N A T U R A L I S T S [Hahn, De Rationcdismo : a disputation at Leipzig^. Both in England and in Germany the name is very commonly used as a designation of those who reject gener1 This principle may be found in tlie pages of Cliillingworth, whose religion was first that of the Church of England, then that of the Roman Catholics, then " t h e religion of Protestants," and finally that of the Socinians. " Your Church, " h e writes to the Roman Catholics, " y o u admit, because you think you have reason to do so; so that by you, as well as Protestants, all is finally resolved into your own reason " [Chillingworth's Melig. of Protest. 134]. Lord Clarendon said of Chillingworth that he " h a d contracted such an irresolution and habit of doubting, that at last he was confident of liolliincr:" and Dugald Stewart uses this characteristic of tlu- I'luloian!. champion as an illustration of the ruinous result which follows from bondage to the scholastic logic.

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Rationalists ally the idea of " Supernaturalism," whether as relating to faith or facts—the term " Naturalist" in this sense having dropped out of use. I . T I I E E I S E OF EATIONALISM. The remote ancestry of modern Eationalism may be traced to the NOMINALISTS of the Middle Ages, whose bold questionings of received dogmas had a continual tendency towards the denial of all wdiich could not be proved by observation, and whose notions respecting Deity continually produced that evolution of opinions which later times have called Eantheism. But the more immediate origin of Eationalism is to bo found in two influences, one early and one of later date, which sprung out of the Eeformation of the sixteenth century. [1] The first of these influences was the spirit of doubt—often developing into actual scepticism,—which was encouraged in the laity by the reckless assaults of Luther and Calvin, and still more, of their followers, on established beliefs. The twists and turns, and non-natural interpretations which were given to the words of Holy Scripture, for the purpose of justifying the novel theological positions which Avere taken up by these leaders of Protestantism, were such as to unsettle the minds of multitudes as regarded the plain sense of Divine Eevelation. The ignorant followed the track opened out by their leaders, and widened it still more by the adoption of any wild, irreverent, or foolish interpretation that would serve their immediate turn : the educated followed in the same track, by learning still further to undervalue the authority of that which their leaders had treated with such reckless freedom. Thus, Lutheranism in Germany, Calvinism in France and England, became fruitful fields for the growth of Eationalism. [2] The second great influence arising out of the Eeformation was a reaction against the extravagant views which some Protestant Divines maintained on the subject of inspiration. These were carried to such a length that every word of a vernacular Bible was treated as if it had been undoubtedly inspired; that the vowel points of the Hebrew text (never used in Hebrew Bibles until about A.D. 500) were also considered as being endowed with the same high authority; that all influence of a human element in the composition of the books of Holy Writ was denied; and that criticism of every kind was discouraged, or even reprobated, as if it had been an insult to the Word of God. Against such extravagances the minds of scholars naturally revolted, and it was inevitable (according to all experience of human nature) that there should be an oscillation in the opposite direction, when others would deal with the Bible as they would deal with a collection of ordinary ancient writings, and deny it any supernatural character whatever. The results of these two influences exhibited themselves first in the early English Deists, of whom Lord Herbert of Cherbury [A.D. 1581-1648], the elder brother of George Herbert the poet, may be considered as the representative. These professed a belief in the possibility of a revelation, and thought it most likely that a law of natural

Rationalists religion was divinely communicated to the earliest of mankind, which had since been transmitted by tradition to their descendants. But tliey would not allow that Eevelation exists at present in any other form, and set aside the Bible without troubling themselves to examine it, just as they set aside everything else professing to be part of a supernatural system, as being d priori impossible. Yery similar was the treatment of Holy Scripture by Hobbes [A.D. 1588-1C79] and Spinoza [A.D. 1G32-1677], both of whom may be said rather to have ignored it than to have made any elaborate attempt to refute its statements or to reconcile them with their own philosophical systems. The earliest writer, indeed, who set himself systematically to oppose received opinions respecting Holy Scripture from the Bationalist point of view, as distinguished from that of the Deists, was a French Calvinist named De la Peyrero [A.D. 1594-1676], who published a work entitled Prmadamitm, in the year 1655, in which he anticipated many of the criticisms that have been put forth as if they were new in modern days. This author, says Lecky, " who fully admitted, though ho endeavoured to restrict, the sphere of the miraculous, had been struck by some difficulties connected with the ordinary doctrine of original sin, and by some points in which science seemed to clash with the assertions of the Old Testament; and he endeavoured to meet them by altogether isolating the Biblical history from the general current of human affairs. Adam, he maintained, was not the father of the human race, but simply the progenitor of the Jews, and the whole antediluvian history is only that of a single people. Thus the antiquity whicli the Eastern nations claimed might be admitted, and the principal difficulties attending the Deluge were dissolved. I t was altogether a mistake to suppose that death and sickness and suffering were the consequences of the transgression. Adam had by this act simply incurred spiritual penalties, which descended upon the Jews. 1 I n the day thou eatest thou shalt die,' could not have been meant literally, because it was not literally fulfilled ; nor can the curse upon the serpent, because the motion of the serpent along the ground is precisely that whicli its conformation implies. The existence of men who were not of the family of Adam is shadowed obscurely in many passages, but appears decisively in the history of Cain, who feared to wander forth least men should kill him, and who built a city at a time when, according to the common view, he was almost alone in the world. The mingling of the sons of God and the. daughters of men means the intermarriage between the two races. The Deluge is an absolute impossibility if regarded as universal, but not at all surprising if regarded as a partial inundation. Proceeding to the history of a later period, La Peyrere in the first place denies the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch. I n defence of this position he urges the account of the death of Moses, and he anticipates several of those minute criticisms which in our own day have acquired so great a prominence. The phrase, ' These are the words 478

Rationalists which Moses spake beyond Jordan,' the notice of the city which is called ' Jair to the present day,' the iron bedstead of Og still shewn in Rabbath, the difficulties about the conquest of the Idumajans, and a few other passages, seem to shew that the compilation of these books was long posterior to the time of Moses, while certain signs of chronological confusion which they evince render it probable that they are not homogeneous, but are formed by the fusion of several distinct documents. I t should be observed, too, that they employ a language of metaphor and of hyperbole which has occasionally given rise to misapprehensions, special instances of Providential guidance being interpreted as absolute miracles. Thus, for example, the wool of the Jewish flocks was quite sufficient to furnish materials for clothing in the desert, and t h e assertion that the clothes of the Jews waxed not old is simply an emphatic expression of that extraordinary providence which preserved them from all want for forty years in the wilderness. At the same time, La Peyrero does not deny that the Jewish history is full of miracles, but he maintains very strongly that these were only local, and that tho general course of the universe was never disturbed to effect them. The prolongation of the day at the command of Joshua was not produced by any alteration in the course of the earth or sun, but was simply an atmospheric phenomenon such as is sometimes exhibited in the Arctic regions. The darkness at the Crucifixion was also local; tho retrogression of the shadow on the sundial in tho reign of Hezekiah did not result from a disturbance of the order of the heavenly bodies; the light that stood over the cradle of Christ was a meteor, for a star could not possibly mark out with precision a house" [Lecky's Rationalism in Europe, i. 323, ed. 1865]. I t cannot be said that this comparatively unknown French writer founded any school, and he probably only expressed, in an extreme form, the views of many whose faith in Holy Scripture had been thoroughly shaken, but who were looking for some less shocking justification of their opinions than that involved in the theory of the later Deists, that it is a mere congeries of impostures. I t is however a theory which has been adopted by many later nationalists, recommending itself to them by leaving open many important questions, such as those of the origin of the visible creation and especially of man, and also by not interfering in any great degree with the narrative of those events given in Holy Scripture. II. ENGLISH F R E E T H I N K E R S . — T h e Deists and Freethinkers were necessarily Bationalists, and there is, unhappily, a regular succession of English writers oi this extreme rationalizing class from the middle of the seventeenth century down to Hume and Gibbon, whose writings belong to the last half of the eighteenth. This school of Bationalists may be said to begin with Charles Blount [A.D. 1654-93], the third son of Sir Henry Pope Blount, who was himself known as a sceptical writer. The " Anitna Mundi" of Charles Blount, in the writing of which he is supposed

Rationalists to have been assisted by liis father, was professedly intended to vindicate Christianity against Paganism, by shewing the errors of the latter respecting the immortality of the soul. But it is, in reality, a keen ironical attack upon the Scriptural doctrine of the soul, and was probably put into sucli a form that it might more easily obtain the license for printing which was necessary at the time of its publication, in the year 1679. Of a similar character was his " Great is Diana of the Ephesians," which, by arguments against heathen sacrifices, endeavoured to prove that Christianity was an invention of priests. I n a similar ironical style Blount attacked tlio miracles of Holy Scripture in his notes to an edition of " The Two First Books of Pliilostratus'' on the Life and Miracles of Apollonius of Tyana, which was published in the year 1680, and to which he prefixed a motto from Seneca—" Cum omnia in incerto sint, fave tibi et crede quod mavis"'—strikingly illustrative of the Kationalist's standpoint. 1 Blount wrote many smaller works, which had much influence in inoculating the educated classes with Rationalist principles during the last quarter of the seventeenth century. His " Oracles of Reason " made its appearance in 1693, under the editorship of his friend Gildon, shortly after its author had put an end to his life by suicide, because his deceased wife's sister refused to marry him. I n this last work ho borrowed largely, without acknowledgment, from the writings of De la Peyrere. Shortly after the death of Charles Blount, an author equally bold—and like him a member of a Roman Catholic family, though subsequently a Protestant Dissenter—made his appearance in the same field of antichristian literature. This was John Toland [A.D. 1669-1722], who published in the year 1693 a volume entitled " Christianity not Mysterious," the object of which is fully shewn by its second title, " A Discourse shewing there is nothing in the Gospel contrary to reason nor above i t ; and that no Christian doctrine can be properly called a Mystery." This work was very notorious in its day, and was answered by as many as fifty1 Apollonius Tyanams is said to have been bom at Tyana in Cappadocia about the time of the Christian era, and to have lived until nearly the end of the first century, being thus exactly contemporary with St. John, and living through the time of our Lord and His other apostles. His life was written about a hundred years after his death, by a rhetorician named Pliilostratus, who seems to have mingled a few facts with a large amount of fiction, and especially to have imitated the Gospel miracles with the view of setting up Apollonius as a heathen rival of Christ. The birth of Apollonius is announced to his mother beforehand by Proteus, who himself becomes incarnate : a choir of swans is heard singing for joy on the occasion of his birth : he casts out devils, raises the dead to life, heals the sick, appears and disappears in a supernatural manner, and a l)ivine voice was heard calling him at his death. The ECLECTICS of the third and fourth centuries set up a comparison between Apollonius and our Lord, but the idea seems to have lain dormant until it was revived by Lord Herbert and Blount. For an examination of this comparison see Cudworth's Intellectual System, iv. 15 ; More's Mystery of Godliness, iv. 9-12 ; Baur's Apollon. von Tyana una Chrisius; and Bitter's Geschiclite der 1'hil. iv. 492.

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Rationalists four wiiters in England, France, and Germany during the following half century. It is not a work of high talent, but its enunciation of the Rationalist theory was plain and undisguised ; and it was thus intelligible to a much wider circle of readers than the irony of Blount or the philosophy of Hobbes had been. Toland also endeavoured to lessen the authority of the New Testament by a book to which he gave the title of " Amyntor," published in 1698. I n this he classed the apocryphal Gospels, and other works of a similar character to the number of eighty, with the authentic Gospels, pretending that there was no better evidence for the truth of the latter than of the former. [TOLAND.]

Lord Shaftesbury [A.D. 1671-1713] was an elegant writer, who gave a certain amount of lofty patronage to practical Christianity, as something to be admired and to be thought of rather favourably than otherwise, but who at the same time endeavoured to destroy its force and influence as an historical and intellectual religion, and thus drew nearer to the type of the modern Eationalist school than any of his predecessors. Iiis " Characteristics of Men, Manners, Opinions, and Times," in three volumes, appeared in the year 1711, and contained so much that is contrary to the received principles of Christianity as to elicit even from Voltaire the declaration that lie was too bitter an opponent of it. Bishop Warburton has also handed down an opinion of Pope that Lord Shaftesbury's writings had done more harm to revealed religion in England than all the other works of infidelity put together. His criticisms on Holy Scripture are principally contained in the third volume of the " Characteristics," in which there are disquisitions on t; Scepticism," the " History of Religion," " Inspiration," and other kindred subjects; but throughout the other volumes also he deals with every part of Revelation in the most contemptuous manner, and the highest place which he allows to it is that of a collection of works, established in use for purposes of order and government by public authority. The general tone of Lord Shaftesbury's Rationalism may be seen by his statement that the suspicion was natural to intellectual man " that the holy records themselves were no other than the pure invention and artificial compliment of an interested party, in behalf of the richest corporation and most profitable monopoly which could be erected in the world" [Shaftesb. Charact. iii. 336]. This " suspicion," which was rather a foregone conclusion than what it was called, Shaftesbury endeavoured to corroborate by critical objections against the Scriptures drawn from the variety of readings and of interpretations, from supposed interpolations and fraudulent dealings with the text; and in these objections he anticipated many of those that have been offered by modern writers. Another layman belonging to the higher classes, Anthony Collins [A.D. 1676-1729], a contemporary of Lord Shaftesbury, carried still

Rationalists further the principles of the FREETHINKERS, as the Rationalist school now began to he named in England. His first publication was an "Essay concerning the use of Reason in Propositions the evidence whereof depends upon Human Testimony," published anonymously in 1709, and this was followed by many tracts and larger works, also anonymous, the last being a volume " On the Grounds and Reasons of the Christian Religion," and 011 " The Quotations made from the Old Testament in the New," which did not appear until after his death. In his " Discourse 011 Freetliinking" Collins also declares his opinions as to the result of a "rational" examination into the authority of Holy Scripture, and places the latter 011 the same footing as the Yedas, the Koran, and other " sacred books." Collins maintained, most uncritically, that the Gospels had undergone a general alteration in the sixth century; but he also maintained that the narrative which they contain had no foundation in fact, but was based upon the prophecies of the Old Testament, and that the whole New Testament was of an allegorical and not a literal character. Among those who learned at the feet of these Freetliinking laymen was Matthew Ti tidal [A.D. 1657-1733], a Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford, and Thomas Woolston [A.D. 1669-1733], a clerical Fellow of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge. Tindal (who was a Roman Catholic during the reign of James II.) reproduced many of the arguments of Shaftesbury against the authenticity of the Scriptures in his " Christianity as old as the Creation," published in 1730. The object of this work was to establish the theory of the NATURALISTS, that what they called "natural religion," i.e. the guidance of reason and feeling, as originally given to mankind, is sufficient for all human necessities. True religion being thus established in a complete and in its only obligatory form at the Creation, any subsequent Revelation would be wholly unnecessary, and Christianity becomes surplusage. Woolston was chiefly notorious for his " Discourse on the Miracles of our Saviour in view of the present controversy between Infidels and Apostates," Collins being the Infidel, and his opponents the Apostates. These Discourses came out in the form of six "Letters" during the years 1727-29, and obtained so rapid a circulation as to run into twelve editions in two or three years. Voltaire states, apparently from personal knowledge, that 30,000 of them were sold, and that large numbers were sent to America. Swift notices their great popularity in his biting poem " O11 the Death of Dr. Swift, written in November 1731," in the following lines, which he puts into the mouth of Lintot the bookseller, who cannot find a copy of the Dean's writings, for they are already out of fashion, but who offers among other publications these letters of Woolston 021 the Miracles. " Here's Wolston's tracts the twelfth edition ; "Tis read by every politician ;

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Rationalists The country members when in town, To all their boroughs send them down; Yon never met a tiling so s m a r t ; The courtiers have them all by h e a r t : Those maids of honour who can read, Are taught to use them for their creed. # * * « He does an honour to his gown, By bravely running priestcraft down. He shews, as sure as God's in Glo'ster, That Moses was a grand iinposter ; That all his miracles were cheats, Performed as jugglers do their feats ; The Church had never such a writer, A shame he has not got a mitre."

Woolston was tried for blasphemy and condemned to a year's imprisonment, with a fine of £150. If he could have found sureties for his good behaviour he would have been released from prison, but freedom of thought does not generally develope freedom of fellowship, and numerous as wore Woolston's readers 110 two could be found liberal enough to become his sureties, and he died in prison. The character of Woolston was a very contemptible one, and his notorious work is no better. The general substance of it is that all Scripture is allegorical. This he alleges, not in the sense of Origen and other early writers, who maintained a primary literal sense, and made the allegorical sense only secondary; for Woolston maintained that Scripture has no literal sense, and that all its seemingly historical narratives are in reality mere allegories. " When he wants to utter grosser blasphemies than in his own person he dares, or than would befit the standing-point which he had assumed from whence to assault Revelation, he introduces a Jewish Rabbi, and suffers him to speak without restraint, himself only observing, £ This is what an adversary might say; to these accusations we Christians expose ourselves, so long as we cleave to the historic letter • we can only escape them by forsaking that, and holding fast the allegorical meaning alone.' . . . He is dealing with the miracle of the man sick of the palsy, who was let through the broken roof of the house where Jesus was, and thereupon healed [Mark ii. 1-12]. But how, he asks, should there have been such a crowd to hoar Jesus preach at Capernaum, whore He was so well known, and so little admired ? And then, if there was that crowd, what need of such urgent haste ? I t was but waiting an hour or two till the multitude had dispersed ; 1 I should have thought their faith might have worked patience.' Why did not Jesus tell the people to make way? Would they not have done so readily, since to see a miracle was the very thing they wanted 1 How should the pulleys, ropes, and ladder have been at hand to haul him up? How strange that they should have had hatchets and hammers ready to break through the spars and rafters of the roof, and stranger still, that the good man of the house should have endured, without a remonstrance, his property to be so injured! How did those below escape without injury from the falling tiles and plaster? And, if there were a door in the roof, as some, to mitigate the difficulty, tell us,

Rationalists why did not Jesus go up to the roof, and there speak the healing word, and so spare all this trouble, damage, and danger V As for his allegorical meaning, Woolston considers that " B y the palsy of this man is signified a ' dissoluteness of morals and unsteadiness of faith and principles, which is the condition of mankind at present, who want Jesus' help for the cure of it.' The four beareis are the i'our Evangelists, ' on whose faith and doctrine mankind is to he carried unto Christ.' The house to the top of which he is to he carried is ' the intellectual edifice of the world, otherwise called Wisdom's house.' But ' to the sublime sense of the Scriptures, called the top of the house, is the man to he t a k e n ; he is not to abide in the low and literal sense of them.' Then if he dare to ' open the house of Wisdom, he will presently be admitted to the presence and knowledge of J e s u s ' " [Trench on the Miracles, 82, ed. 1850], Such irrational stuff as this has become the daily pabulum of many more modern " Rationalists," and in the earlier half of the last century, when it was comparatively novel, there was doubtless a large class of persons of a similar kind whose reasoning powers had been imperfectly educated, and who took such folly for wisdom because it looked deep, and they could not see below its surface to discern its absurd shallowness. This unworthy clergyman was, however, far eclipsed by one who became the great exponent of the true office which Reason holds in matters of religion, Joseph Butler [A.D. 1692-1752], who subsequently became Bishop of Durham, and whose "Analogy of Religion, Natural and Revealed, to the Constitution and Course of Nature," was published in the year 1736. This profound and solid work may be said to have extinguished Rationalism in England for a century, except so far as it was represented directly in the Essays of H u m e and the fleeting writings of Lord Boiingbroke, and indirectly in the grand historical volumes of Gibbon. [Lechler's GeschicTde des Englischen Deismns. SCEPTICS. D I C T . of T H E O L . , D E I S M . ] I I I . G E R M A N RATIONALISTS. The rough footings of German Rationalism were laid by Spinoza and Leibnitz, but the upper courses of the foundation were more methodically arranged by Wolff and Sender. Christian Wolff [A.D. 1679-1754], a native of Breslau, became Professor of Mathematics in the University of Halle in the year 1707, and on the recommendation of Leibnitz. For some years Wolff employed himself entirely upon the duties of his office, and the production of mathematical text-books. His mind was alwaj's bent, however, towards theological studies, and before long he came to the conclusion that true theology must he a science which could he followed out Avith mathematical exactness of demonstration, and that only when so followed out could theology be true. He writes of himself, " H a v i n g been devoted to the study of theology by a vow"—that of his father before he was b o m — " I had also chosen it for myself, and my intention has all along been to serve God in the ministry, even after I had become Professor at Halle, until at length I was led 481

Rationalists away from it against my will, God having arranged circumstances in such a manner that I coidd not carry out my intention. But having lived in my native place, Breslau, among the Catholics, and having perceived from my very childhood the zeal of the Lutherans and Catholics against each other, the idea was always agitating my mind, whether it would not he possible so distinctly to exhibit theological truth that it would not admit of any contradiction. W h e n afterwards I learned that the mathematicians were so sure of their ground that every one must acknowledge it to he true, I became anxious to study mathematics for the sake of the method, in order to give diligence to reduce theology to incontrovertible certainty." The inevitable corollary of this principle followed, namely, that what cannot he proved to demonstration, as a mathematical truth may be proved, cannot be true : and thus everything that is mysterious in religion must at once he swept away. I n the year 1719 Wolff published his "Rational Thoughts on God, the World, the Soul of Man, and Being in g e n e r a l a n d , in the following year, his " Moral Philosophy," shortly succeeded hy a volume on " Civil and Political Philosophy." These works raised great opposition to Wolff among the Pietists, who then formed the most influential party at Halle, and this opposition was brought to a climax by a controversy which arose out of a lecture on the Morals of Confucius, in which he enthusiastically praised the philosopher. Court influences were also brought to bear against him, and at length, in November 1723, the King of Prussia, Frederick William I., deprived Wolff of his professorship, and ordered him to leave the kingdom within forty-eight hours. For seventeen years he resided at Marburg and Cassell, where he published many philosophical works, and especially his " Natural Theology," which appeared in the year 1737, and in which the supremacy of Reason over Revelation was boldly asserted. On this point Wolff maintained that a Divine Revelation cannot contradict reason and experience, nor command anything which is opposed to the laws of nature. But whose reason and experience are to be taken as the standard, or where the code of the " laws of nature " is to be found, he does not state. The inevitable result of accepting such a principle must be that those who adopt it subordinate Revelation to their own individual reason and experience, however narrow and untrained they may be. Wolff was recalled to Prussia, and restored to his Professorship at Halle in the year 1740 h y Frederick the Great, and became extremely popular as a leader of thought. His application of mathematical reason to philosophy and theology fell in with the tone of the age, and thus the Wolffian system quickly took possession of the German mind. " T h e system," says Professor Farrar, "soon became universally dominant. Its orderly method possessed the fascination which belongs to any Encycloptedic view of human knowledge. . . . The evil effects which it subsequently produced in reference to religion were due only to the point of view which it ultimately 2

H

Rationalists induced. Like Locke's worlc on the reasonableness of Christianity, it stimulated speculation concerning revelation. By suggesting attempts to deduce a priori the necessary character of religious truths, it turned men's attention more than ever away from spiritual religion to theology. The attempt to demonstrate everything caused dogmas to he viewed apart from their practical aspect; and men being compelled to discard the previous method of drawing philosophy out of Scripture, an independent philosophy was created, and Scripture compared with its discoveries. Philosophy no longer relied on Scripture, but Scripture rested on philosophy. Dogmatic theology was made a part of metaphysical philosophy. This was the mode in which Wolff's philosophy ministered indirectly to the creation of the disposition to make scriptural dogmas submit to reason, which was denominated Rationalism" [Farrar's Bampt. Led, 215]. Still further, however, was this principle of the Rationalist school developed by J o h n Solomon Semler [A.D. 1725-1791], who is generally considered as the father of modern Rationalism. This title does not, in reality, belong to him or to any other particular person, for modern Rationalism originated with many minds as has already been shewn. But that special school of Rationalists who busy themselves with the destructive criticism of Holy Scripture may justly look up to Semler as their modern founder. Semler was brought up as a strict Pietist, but was unsettled in his opinions by the teaching of Baumgarten, who had succeeded Wolff at Halle, to which university Semler was sent from Saalfeld, his native place. A t the age of twenty-six he was appointed Professor of Theology at Halle, and so continued for forty years. During that time he sent as many as one hundred and seventy-one different publications into the world, a proof of much industry, but a sign also of much haste and superficiality. ISTo man had ever previously shewn so thorough and unflinching a determination as Semler shewed in the " f r e e handling" of Holy Scripture. His first attack was on the Canon; and the result of his labours appears in conclusions which get rid of nearly every book of the Bible. The Pentateuch he determined to be a collection of legends, Genesis especially being made up of broken fragments which were all that survived of the early fictions of our race. The Books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, the Kings, and Daniel are too doubtful to be of much value. The Books of Chronicles, Ruth, Ezra, ISTeliemiah, Esther, and the Song of Solomon cannot be accepted at all as what they profess to b e ; and the Proverbs, though they may possibly have been written by Solomon, are more likely to have been written by unknown authors of moderate literary powers. The authenticity of the Gospels is very doubtful, the Catholic Epistles are a late production, and the Revelation was composed by some fanatic who had nothing to do with St. John. Semler is also credited with the invention of the Positive Accommodation theory, which first 482

Rationalists appears in the preface to his Paraphrase of St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans. According to this theory our Lord and His Apostles accommodated their teaching, in many points, to the prevailing opinions of those whom they taught that they might the more certainly win them. Thus it happens that the Divine Teacher said many things which are not to be taken as literal truths, and many such things also enter into the records of the Hew Testament. W h e n the resurrection of the dead and the last judgment are spoken of, they are not spoken of as real facts, nor are angels or devils mentioned as real beings. The Jews believed in these things, and so Christ and His Apostles accommodated their teaching to the current superstitions of the time as matters of no consequence, that they might by such concessions gain the more influence in matters which they did consider important. A third way in which Semler used his destructive criticism was by distinguishing between that which he judged to be only local and temporary in Scripture, and that which he considered universal and permanent. Many portions of the historical and the prophetical books were written for particular people and times, and when the persons and the age had passed away these parts of Scripture had no further application to any one, either in ancient or modern days. This theory by itself opens limitless fields of scepticism respecting Holy Scripture, for no more ready or plausible explanation could be given of any difficult or unacceptable passage than that it was " local" and " temporary," its sense or its importance having long since passed away. I t was thus that in his "Apparatus for the liberal Interpretation of the Old Testament," in his four volumes on the Canon, and in many successive works of a similar character, Semler laid broad foundations for the " historico-critical" school of later generations to build upon. He may also be said to have been the first to have carried out fully and unflinchingly the principle which others had acted upon, but had scarcely dared to proclaim aloud, that the Bible is a book which may be as freely criticised as any other book, and which is to be judged by the same rules. I t was a principle likely to be snatched up with eagerness by the vain and self-confident; and much of the later Rationalism of Germany has arisen from the unwholesome pleasure which a people of literary tastes felt in their liberation from those restraints in regard to the Bible which had checked " f r e e handling," while it was regarded as a collection of sacred writings whose special characteristics placed them in a different category from all others, and distinguished that book above all books as T H E B O O K . I t was while Semler was thus undermining the authority of Revelation that Lessing published the famous " Wolfenbuttel Fragments," which carried disbelief in the Scriptures further towards a general disbelief in the received truths of religion than had been done by Semler. Gotthold Ephraim Lessing [A.D. 1729-1781] had already attained considerable literary dis-

Rationalists tinction, b u t being always in debt a n d trouble from his improvident habits, was glad in 1770 to accept an appointment as librarian to t h e D u k e of Wolfenbuttel. I n t h e clucal library of which h e had charge Lessing discovered a manuscript work, written some years previously by H e r m a n n Samuel Reimarus [A.D. 1694-1765], Professor of H e b r e w and Mathematics at H a m burg. This work was entitled " A Vindication of t h e Rational W o r s h i p p e r s of God," and had been privately circulated among his friends b y Reimarus in manuscript. Lessing extracted from the copy w h i c h fell into his h a n d s seven of t h e more important or most telling passages, and p r i n t e d t h e m successively u n d e r t h e title of " F r a g m e n t s from t h e Library of W o l f e n b u t t e l , " between t h e years 1774 and 1778. These p a m p h l e t s caused a sensation in t h e G e r m a n y of t h a t period similar to t h a t caused b y " E s s a y s and R e v i e w s " in E n g l a n d three generations later ; and in b o t h cases it was t h e boldness w i t h which received beliefs were contradicted t h a t drew attention to productions otherwise n o t remarkable. According to t h e W o l f e n b u t t e l Fragments, " t h e historical evidences of Christianity and of t h e doctrine of inspiration are clad in such a garb of superstition t h a t t h e y do n o t merit t h e credence of sensible men. T h e confessions framed at different periods of t h e history of t h e C h u r c h have savoured f a r more of h u m a n weakness t h a n of D i v i n e knowledge. They bear b u t slight traces of Biblical t r u t h . T h e T r i n i t y is incomprehensible, and t h e h e a r t should n o t feel b o u n d to lean u p o n what Reason cannot fathom. Nearly all t h e Old Testament history is a string of legends and m y t h s which an advanced age should indignantly reject. Christ never i n t e n d e d to establish a p e r m a n e n t r e l i g i o n ; and t h e work of His Apostles was something unanticipated b y Himself H i s design was to restore J u d a i s m to its former state, t h r o w off the R o m a n yoke, a n d declare Himself King. H i s public entry into Jerusalem was designed to be H i s installation as a temporal K i n g ; b u t h e failed in H i s dependence upon popular support, and instead of attaining a throne H e died u p o n t h e Cross. Belief in Scriptural records is perfectly n a t u r a l to t h e Christian, for he has imbibed it from education and training. Reason is forestalled in t h e ordinary education of c h i l d r e n ; t h e y are baptized before t h e y are old enough to exercise their own reasoning faculties. F a i t h in Scripture testimony is really of no greater value t h a n t h e belief of t h e M a h o m e t a n or J e w in their oracles, unless Reason b e permitted to occupy t h e seat of judgm e n t . " [Hurst's Hist. Ration. 127.] I n t h e midst of such elements of unbelief as are here indicated arose t h e modern Critical School of Germany, and their influence is s h e w n in nearly every one cf its writers. Ernesti [A.D. 1707-1781] and Michaelis [A.D. 1717-1791] b y their narrow application of philological criticism to the N e w a n d Old T e s t a m e n t 1 h a d prepared 1 Eruesti's IusfMutio inlerprelis Kovi Testamcnti was published in 1761, Michaelis' Commentaries on the Laws 483

Rationalists t h e way for S e n d e r ; Eichliorn [A.D. 1752-1827] followed in t h e same track ; and it was only natural t h a t from such teachers a younger and still more daring school should spring, ready to apply t h e caustic acid of such criticism as their masters h a d invented to every page of t h e Bible. T h e best of this younger school was E r n e s t Rosenmiiller [A.D. 1768-1835], Professor of Arabic a n d Oriental Literature at Leipsic, whose " Scholia i n V e t u s Testamentum," even i n their unfinished state, extended to t w e n t y - t h r e e volumes. Far more advanced representatives of it appeared in H e i n r i c h P a u l u s [A.D. 1761-1851], who was Professor of Exegesis and C h u r c h H i s t o r y at Heidelberg for t h e last forty years of his l i f e ; i n Frederick Schleiermacher [A.D. 1768-1834], Professor of Theology in t h e new University of Berlin from its opening i n 1810 u n t i l his death ; a n d above all in D a v i d Frederick Strauss [A.D. 1808—*], whose " L i f e of Jesus," published i n t h e year 1835, reduced t h e whole Gospel to an agglomeration of m y t h s . A m o n g t h e lesser lights of t h e same school were R o h r , whose " Letters on R a t i o n a l i s m " were published at Aachen in 1813, and Wegscheider, whose " I n stitutions of Dogmatic T h e o l o g y " appeared i n 1815 at Halle. T h e m a n n e r in which this younger school of critics developed from t h e older, and in w h i c h (while often repudiating their interpretation) t h e y extended t h e range of destructive criticism which their teachers h a d originated, m a y be shortly illustrated. Rosenmiiller is commenting on t h e sixteenth chapter of N u m b e r s , and treats i n due course of K o r a h , D a t h a n , and Abiram. Michaelis, h e tells us, " t h i n k s t h a t an e a r t h q u a k e took place, which Moses as a messenger f r o m God could foresee. B u t others (Rosenmiiller omits their names, and they are n o t worth" inquiring for) t h i n k s t h a t Moses h a d t a k e n care privily to u n d e i m i n e t h e whole of t h e ground on w h i c h t h e tents of t h e sinners wore, and t h a t t h u s there was no wonder either t h a t they fell in or t h a t they should k n o w t h e y would. But, says Rosenmiiller, w i t h great calmness, these writers did n o t consider h o w such a t h i n g could be done privately in t h e midst of so m a n y men, and in t h e course of a single day. Being discontented w i t h this wise explanation, he gives at some length Eichliorn's. E i c h h o r n t h i n k s t h a t t h e three offenders were b u r n e d alive with their property by order of Moses, and if w e will interpret verses 31 and 32 according to t h e style of speaking and t h i n k i n g among t h e ancients, h e does not see t h a t they contradict his theory. " P a u l u s gives a dissertation on t h e miracle of t h e tribute money and t h e fish. ' W h a t sort of a miracle is it,' says Paulus, ' which is commonly f o u n d here 1 I will not say a miracle of about sixteen or t w e n t y g r o s c h e n ' " [2s. 6d.] " 1 for t h e greatness of t h e value does n o t make t h e greatness of t h e miracle. B u t it may b e observed [1] t h a t as, first, J e s u s received in general support of Moses in 1773, anil liis Inlrochiclimi to the N. T., in four volumes, in 1780, both written in Germany.

Rationalists from many persons (Judas kept the stock, John xii. 6) in the same way as the Eabbis frequently live from such donations; as, secondly, so many pious women provided for the wants of Jesus; as, finally, the claim did not occur at any remote place, hut at Capernaum, where Christ had friends, a miracle for about a thaler would certainly have been superfluous. But [2] it would not only have been superfluous and paltry,—it would have taught this principle, that Peter, even when he could have remedied his necessities easily in other ways, might and ought to reckon on a miraculous interference of the Deity, a notion which would entirely contradict the fundamental principle of Jesus on the interference of the Deity. . . . There is a great deal more of this, after which Paulus considers the narration, and shews that there is nothing of a miraculous appearance in i t ; for that if there had been, 1 the fiery Peter would not have been cold-blooded at such a miracle,' but would have expressed himself as in Luke v. 8; that in the whole aim and tone of the narration there is no appearance of any wondering; that Christ only meant to give a moral lesson, viz. that we are not, if we can avoid it by trifling sacrifices, to give offence to our brethren : that Ho probably reasoned thus with Peter, ' Though there is no real occasion for us to pay the tribute, yet as we may be reckoned as enemies of the Temple, and not attended to when we wish to teach what is good, why should not you, who are a fisherman, and can easily do it, go and get enough to pay the demand t Go then to the sea, cast your hook, and take up TrpCnov the first and best fish. Peter was not to stay longer at his work this time than to gain the required money, n-pwros often refers not to number but to time, and '¿xOvv may undoubtedly be taken as a collective. Peter must either have caught so many fish as would be reckoned worth a stater at Capernaum (so near to a sea rich in fish), or one so large and fine as would have been valued at that sum.'" The command " Open his mouth " is then learnedly explained as being for the purpose of taking the hook out. [Eose's State of Protestantism in Germany, 131, ed. 1829.] In a similar manner Paulus explains the miracle of Christ walking on the sea. " ' The fact is,' he says, 1 that when Christ saw that the wind was contraiy, He did not wish to sustain the inconvenience of such a voyage, but walked along the shore, and resolved to pass the disciples as the wind was against them. They coasted the shore from the state of the weather, and when they saw Plim walking on the land they were frightened, and, on their calling out, Christ desired Peter, who as a fisherman was a good swimmer, to swim ashore to ascertain that it was H e ; Peter ran round to the proper side of the ship and jumped into the sea. When he was frightened by the violence of the waves, Christ, W h o was standing on the shore, put out His hand and caught him ' " [ibid. 135]. " Amnion, in his preface to Ernesti's Institutes, has given a dissertation on miracles in general, 484

Rationalists and wipes them away by wholesale. I n Matt, iii. 17, it was thunder. In Acts ix. 4, St. Paul was in a transport. Ill Matt. viii. 3, KaOapiaai is to declare one pure. I n xiv. 23, he explains the passage, first, ' to walk on the shallows,' and then ' to swim.' I n John xix. 34, nVorw is to strike. I n Luke xxiv. 40, it is quite clear that the nails were not driven through the hands or feet. Some miracles arose from the fancy of the sick, as Luke viii. 40; Acts v. 18, xiii. 12, xvi. 8, xix. 12. Some arise from mistaken opinions or embellishment on the part of the Apostles. The temptation of Christ is only an exaggerated account of various conflicts of opinions from which He suffered. The story of Ananias and Sapphira wras merely an ornamented account of the fact that Ananias died of fear in a meeting of the Apostles, and his wife followed soon after" [ibid. 13G], I n a similar manner this school of " Eationalists"—one cannot use the name for such interpreters without a smile at the absurd selfdeception which its assumption involved—explained away everything relating to the history of our Lord. They set Him forth in general, though not always, as a pattern of moral goodness, but eliminated from the evangelical account of Him every trace of the supernatural. So Bohr in his Letters on nationalism represents the Saviour as a great genius, the blossom of His age and generation, and unsurpassed in wisdom by any one before or after Him. His origin, culture, deeds, and experience are yet veiled, and the accounts we have of Him are so distorted by rhapsody that wo cannot reach a clear conception of Him. He had a rare acquaintance with mankind, and studied the Old Testament carefully. He possessed a large measure of tact, imagination, judgment, wisdom, and power. His wisdom was the product of unbiassed reason, a sound heart, and freedom from scholastic prejudices He knew how to seize upon the best means for the attainment of His human purposes. He embraced in His plan a universal religion, and to this He made all things minister. All His doctrines were borrowed from the Old Testament; and the most admirable can be found as far back as the time of Moses. He performed no real miracles, but things which He did seemed miraculous to those who witnessed them. He uttered no real prophecies, but His mind was so full of the future that some of His predictions came to pass, because they were made with a keen natural foresight which drew correct conclusions as to what would happen. His cures were effected by His skill as a physician, every Jew of that day having some medical knowledge, and His being above the average. His Apostles propagated Christianity because of the influence, which He had gained with t h e m ; but His fame would have been little if Paul had not arisen to carry it beyond Palestine; but, after all, the spread of Christianity was not more remarkable than that of Maliometanism. To wind up his theory of Christ, Bohr apostrophizes Him as one of his own school, calling Him a Rationalist of

Rationalists pure, clear, sound reason, free from prejudice, of ready perceptions, great love of truth and warm sympathies, an exalted picture of intellectual and moral greatness. " Who," he adds, " would not bow before Thee," as if such an adoration of this made-up character fully answered the requirements of that Christianity whose first principle is the worship of the historical Christ. Very few of' the philosophical writers of Germany can be said, however, to have any faith in our Lord as sueli faitli has ordinarily teen understood in the Christian world. " If Christ could have been ignored, He would have been ignored in Protestant Germany, when Christian faith had been eaten out of the heart of that rountry by the older Rationalism. Yet scarcely any German ' thinker' of note can be named who lias not projected what is termed a Christology. The Christ of Kant is the ideal of moral perfection, and as such, we are told, He is to be carefully distinguished from the historical Jesus, since of this ideal alone, and in a transcendental sense, can the statements of the orthodox creed be predicated. The Christ of Jacobi is a religious ideal, and worship addressed to the historical Jesus is denounced as sheer idolatry, unless beneath the recorded manifestation the ideal itself be discerned and honoured. According to Fichte, on the contrary, the real interest of philosophy in Jesus is historical and not metaphysical; Jesus first possessed an insight into the absolute unity of the being of man with that of God, and in revealing this insight He communicated the highest knowledge which man can possess. Of the later Pantheistic philosophers, Schelling proclaims that the Christian theology is hopelessly in error when it teaches that at a particular moment of time God became Incarnate, since God is 'external to' all time, and the Incarnation of God is an eternal fact. But Schelling ¿•{intends that the man Christ Jesus is the highest point or effort of this eternal Incarnation, and the beginning of its real manifestation to m e n ; 'none before Him after such a manner has revealed to man the Infinite.' And the Christ of Hegel is not the actual Incarnation of God in Jesus of Nazareth, but the symbol of His Incarnation in humanity at large" [Liddon's Bampt. Led. 19]. The general tone in which the German Rationalists now dealt with Holy Scripture at large may be seen in the " Institutiones Dogmaticse" of Wegscheider, which were first printed in 1815, and which ran through many editions during the generation following. "Whatever narrations," he says, "especially accommodated to a certain age, and relating miracles and mysteries, are united with the histories and subject-matter of revelation of this kind, these ought to be referred to the natural sources and true nature of human knowledge. By how much the more clearly the author of the Christian religion, not without the help of Deity, exhibited to men the ideas of reason imbued with true religion, so as to represent, as it were, a reflection of the Divine Reason, or the Divine Spirit, by so much the more 485

Rationalists diligently ought man to strive to approach as nearly as possible to form that archetype in the mind, and to study to imitate it in life and manners to the utmost of his ability. Behold here the intimate and eternal union and agreement of Christianity with Rationalism. . . . The various modes of supernatural revelation mentioned in many places of the sacred books are to be referred altogether to the notions and mythical narrations of every civilized people; and this following the suggestion of Holy Scripture itself, and therefore to be attributed, as any events in the nature of things, to the laws of Nature known to us. As to Theophanies, the sight of the Infinite Deity is expressly denied; John i. 18; 1 John iv. 12; 1 Tim. vi. 16. Angelophanies, which the Jews of a later date substituted for the appearances of God Himself, like the narrations of the appearances of demons found amongst many nations, are plainly destitute of certain historic proofs ; and the names, species, and commissions attributed to angels in the sacred books, plainly betray their Jewish origin. . . . The persuasion concerning the truth of that supernatural revelation which rests on the testimony of the sacred volume of the Old and New Testaments, like every opinion of the kind, labours under what is commonly called a pet-itio %mncipii." A new turn was given to German Rationalism by the establishment of the University of Berlin in the year 1810, or rather by the appointment of Schleiermacher as the head of its Theological faculty. This influential teacher originally belonged to the Calvinistic or "Reformed" section of German Protestants, and was brought up among Moravians. After giving up his connection with the latter (among whom he was to have become a preacher) he went to the University of Halle, where he sat at the feet of Semler. He became distinguished as a preacher at Berlin, but in 1804 was appointed to a Professorship at Halle. In 1807 he returned to Berlin, being designated for the Theological Professorship in the projected University, and when at last it was opened by King Frederick William, Schleiermacher began there bis thirty years' brilliant career in that post. The fashion of the time in Germany was then tending towards comprehension, the King projecting the formation of an United Church out of the Lutheran and Calvinistic bodies into which Prussia was divided. Schleiermacher's inclinations ran in the same direction, but his attention was turned chiefly to a reconciliation of philosophy and theology. In attempting this he oscillated very far towards the extreme of Rationalism, although on the whole his influence tended towards a breaking up of the destructive school of criticism in Germany. He gave little authority to the Old Testament Scriptures, alleging that they are indebted for their place in our Bible partly to the appeals which are made to them in the New Testament, and partly to the historic connection between Church worship and that of the Synagogue. The Law of Moses he considered to be

Rationalists altogether uninspired, because it seemed to him to be irreconcilable with the goodness of God; but as the historical books are grounded on the Law, so they also must be uninspired. To the Old Testament prophecies he allowed some small measure of inspiration. Retaining a higher belief in the New Testament, and especially having a strong faith in a personal Christ, Sclileiermacher yet considered that the accounts of the miraculous Conception, the Resurrection, and the Ascension of Christ were not positive truths, but " outward representations of general truths and miracles were, with him, only "relatively" miraculous, that is, they were wonderful when compared with ordinary experiences, but not actually supernatural. Such principles as these when looked at by themselves appear to be very little different from those of preceding and avowed Rationalists. Rut viewed 4 by the light of the circumstances in which Sclileiermacher was placed,—by the theology in which he had been trained, by his earnest desire for unity, and by his keen sympathies with both the sides which he wished to un ite,—his theology, unsatisfactory at it is, must be considered as that of one who was groping his way back to a firmer footing of truth. I t is known that his own views became more and more developed as he grew old, and it is also known that those who sat at his feet became more orthodox believers than himself. After his death the older school of Rationalists gradually became discontented with his writings, and the influence of his name very soon passed away in Germany, though English Rationalists—who take easily to cast-off intellectual clothes—long continued to look on him as a leader. Hegel had passed away three years before Sclileiermacher, and after his death his followers had divided into three parties, which called themselves Right, Centre, and Left Hegelians. The Right professed to reconcile the cloudy metaphysics of Hegel with orthodox Christianity, the Centre professed to he strict followers of their master, and the Left were Rationalists of the most extreme type. From among the latter party arose Strauss, who had sat under both Hegel and Sclileiermacher, but at the death of the latter was only twenty-six years of age, though already engaged as a Theological Lecturer at Tubingen. A few months later, in 1835, Strauss published his " Life of Jesus," and at once achieved an European notoriety by the extreme character of his Rationalism. I n " Das Leben Jesu," Strauss endeavours to explain the Gospel narratives respecting our Lord 011 the principle of the " m j t l i , " wherever anything appears in them of a supernatural character. Having adopted a philosophy which utterly denied the possibility of the supernatural, the theologian who hacl to deal with the New Testament was driven to seek for some explanation of what he found there; and none of the theories propounded by previous Rationalists satisfying him, he took a line of his own. and laboured to reduce everything in the life of our Lord to a consistent 480

Rationalists agreement with the theory thus invented. But " it is far more," says Dr. Mill, " from a desire of working on a historical ground the philosophical principles of his master, than from any attachment to mythical theories on their own account, that we are clearly to deduce the destructive process which Strauss has applied to the Life of J e s u s " [Mill's Pantheism, II. i. This destructive process " eliminates from the Gospel most of Christ's discourses, all of His miracles, His supernatural Birth, and his Resurrection from the grave. The so-called ' historical ' residuum might easily be compressed within the limits of a newspaper paragraph, and it retains nothing that can rouse a moderate measure, I do not say of enthusiasm, but even of interest" [Liddon's Bampt. Led. 220], The general theory of Strauss is that the minds of the Jews were in an excited state of expectation at the time when Christ appeared among them, and that He so far answered to the ideal which they had formed of their Messiah from the traditions of their fathers, that some of them accepted Him as such. His career is viewed as a perfectly natural one. Born of humble parents, He was baptized by J o h n , collected a few disciples, inveighed against all who opposed Him, and failing to maintain Himself against tliem, suffered death at their hands. A good many years after His death popular imagination ran wild with stories about this obscure Xazarene, and then the' Gospels were composed, not in accordance with the true facts of His life, but to embody these popular fancies. The writers of the Gospels did not wilfully intend to write down a congeries of falsehoods, but not possessing the critical faculty they just put down all the stories they heard floating about among lovers of the marvellous, little dreaming of the position which their curious but not very clever compilations would occupy in the esteem of future generations. As for the details of the Gospel narrative, this youthful theological lecturer—he was about fiveand-twenty when his Leben Jesu was written— could satisfactorily account for them all. The story of John the Baptist's birth grew out of the Old Testament myths of Isaac, Samson, and Samuel. That of the miraculous Conception cf Jesus is a philosophical, dogmatic myth of early Christianity, grounded on a notion taken up from Isaiah vii. 14, and agrees with a habit common to all nations of assigning some marvellous origin to their Divine heroes. The Conception and Birth were in reality, the writer alleges, similar to those of all other children. The slaughter of the Innocents never took place as a fact, but the story of it is a poetical plagiarism of the myths respecting Nimrod and Pharaoh. The Epiphany star was invented to fit in with the alleged prophecy of Balaam. The Holy Child among the doctors was a myth founded on the precocity oJ Moses, Samuel, and Solomon. The miracles of Christ " are the halo of glory with which the infant Church gradually and without purposes of deceit clothed its Founder and its H e a d "

Rationalists [Trench on Mir. 84]. The alleged sufferings of the Saviour were a myth made up from the Lamentations of Jeremiah, the older myth of the brazen serpent, and the poetical descriptions given in the twenty-second and sixty-ninth Psalms. The Resurrection he regards as a myth grounded on the necessity under which the disciples of Jesus were placed of reconciling His fate with the opinions which they had formed of Him. " "When once the idea of a resurrection of Jesus had been formed in this manner, the great event could not have been allowed to happen so simply, but must be surrounded and embellished with all the pomp that the Jewish imagination furnished. The chief ornaments which stood at command for this purpose were angels; hence these must open the grave of Jesus, must, after He had come forth from it, keep watch in the empty place, and deliver to the women—who, because without doubt women had the first visions, must be the first to go to the grave—the tidings of what had happened. As it was Galilee where Jesus subsequently appeared to them, the journey of the disciples thither (which was nothing else than their return home somewhat hastened by fear) was derived from the direction of an angel: nay, Jesus Himself must already before His death, and as Matthew too zealously adds, once after His resurrection also, have enjoined this journey on the disciples. But the farther these narratives were propagated by tradition, the more must the difference between the locality of the Resurrection itself and that of the appearance of the risen One he allowed to fall out of sight as inconvenient; and, since the locality of the Death was not transferable, the appearances were gradually placed in the same locality as the Resurrection, in Jerusalem, which, as the more brilliant theatre and the seat of the first Christian Church, was especially appropriate for them." Lastly, the Ascension was a myth founded upon the stories of Enoch and Elijah; and those of the apotheosis of Hercules and of Romulus. The only original idea in the work of Strauss, even if that can be so called, is the mythical theory. All the rest is an ingenious mosaic formed from the materials which he raked together by a most industrious perusal of the works of preceding Rationalists, German, English, and French. It was professedly written only for the learned, but it soon became known to a very wide range of readers, passed through many editions, and was translated into other languages. Twentynine years later the author followed it up with " Das Leben Jesu, fur das Deutsche Yolk bearbietet," which was published at Leipsic in 1864: but this popularized replica of his former woik has never obtained any wide notice. In the meanwhile he had aroused the attention of theologians in Germany and elsewhere, and the historical character of the Gospels was elucidated more clearly than ever by their writings. Among the many learned works drawn out by Strauss' " Life of Jesus " may be named Dorner's volumes on " The Person of Christ," in which the author gives an elaborate view of the course of opinion 487

Rationalists respecting our Lord. Neander also wrote a " Life of Christ" in opposition to that of Strauss, the line taken by him being very much that of his master Schleiermacher. Hengstenberg was among his most vigorous opponents in the pages of periodical literature,but his "Christology" was printed before the " Leben Jesu" appeared. The " Tiibingen School" of Rationalists was indirectly developed from Strauss, being composed of a not large clique of theologians, headed by Iiaur [A.D. 1792-1860], Schwegler and Zeller, who set themselves the task of moulding the negative system of Strauss into a positive system by the same processes of criticism. Their attention was principally directed towards the Apostolic age, and the key of their system is the idea that Christianity is not a divinely revealed and complete truth and life, but a vital force in process of development. In working out their principle this school relies chiefly upon the Pauline epistles, especially those to the Romans, Galatians, and Corinthians, which are considered to be most in accordance with the theory of an infant but growing Christianity that was feeling its way towards the light. The Books of the i\rew Testament are looked upon as the productions respectively of an early Petrine or Paulino party, most of them having only a temporary object, and such of them being now to be regarded simply as literary monuments of a departed controversy, which may illustrate history, but cannot prove or teach truth. This is the latest phase of German Rationalism ; but it has been so vigorously met by the works of Bunsen, Thiersch, Bleek, and others, that the influence of the school has not been very widely extended; and, like that of German Rationalism in general, it is rapidly on the wane. I Y . F R E N C H RATIONALISTS. The revolution in the religion of the French people was as destructive as that in their political life, and no country of Europe ever so generally repudiated Christianity as did France during the last century, under the influence of Yoltaire, Rousseau, the ENCYCLOPAEDISTS, and the fanatics who overthrew the monarchy. The climax was reached in the year 1793, when a number of the Parisian clergy, with Gobel, the Archbishop of Paris, at their head, gave up their offices as priests of 1he Church into the hands of the Convention, and renounced Christianity as an exploded superstition. At the instigation of Anacharsis Cloots—a rich Prussian nobleman who had, in his enthusiastic admiration of the Revolution, turned Frenchman and become a member of the National Convention—it was at length determined to set up Rationalism as the religion of the country instead of Christianity. The churches were despoiled of everything that had been used in Christian worship, and the symbols of the new religion which were set up in them were the busts of Marat and Lepelletier, which were also carried in procession under canopies as the reserved Sacrament had been carried on the Festival of Corpus Christi. The great cathedral of Paris, Notre-Dame, was then rededicated as " The Temple of Reason," every tenth day was ordered to be observed as a festival of

Rationalists Reason in the place of the Christian Sunday, and on November 10tl>, 1793, the first of these festivals was kept with great ceremony, an official procession of the Supreme Government of France taking place, in which the " Goddess of Reason" was personated by a young woman in theatrical costume carried aloft on a throne, and surrounded by girls dressed in white and crowned with roses. W h e n this procession had arrived at the " Temple of Reason," hymns were chanted in praise of Reason, and then the multitude moved on to the National Convention, where the Procurator-General, Cliaumette, addressed the assembly in words which stated the national renunciation of Christianity. " Legislators," he said, " Fanaticism has given place to Reason. Its eraven eyes have been unable to bear the lustre of light. To-day an immense concourse has been gathered under those Gothic arches, which, for the first time, resound to the echoes of truth. There the French people have celebrated the only true worship, that of Liberty and Reason." The Convention then returned with the procession, and officially joined in the " W o r s h i p of Reason" under t i e vaulted roof of Notre-Dame [Thiers' French Revol. ch. xxviii.]. This absurd outburst of French Rationalism was but a temporary phase of it ; but, absurd as it was, it represented not untruly the attitude of the nation towards Christianity. The Church gradually re-established its position as the national religion of France, and the Protestants returned to their Calvinism, but both Catholics and Protestants have continued to be largely infected with Rationalism, and comparatively few Frenchmen give an intellectual assent to the doctrines founded upon historical Christianity, or to historical Christianity itself. The Christology of French Rationalists has been crystallized by Joseph Ernest Renan [A.D. 1823-*] in his " Life of Jesus." Renan was originally educated for the priesthood, and became an ardent student of oriental languages while at St. Sulpice. He did not eventually enter into holy orders, but pursued his study of theology from the philological side, and in 1856, a few years after publishing his " Histoire Générale et Systèmes comparés des Langues Sémitiques," and his " Etude de la Langue Grecque au Moyen Age," was elected a member of the Institute on account of his philological learning. Renan's " Vie do J é s u s " was written after an official expedition which he had made into Syria in the year 1860, and was published in 18G3. It became rapidly popular in France, where 100,000 copies of it were sold in a short time, and was almost equally popular in other countries of Europe, which were quickly supplied with translations in English, German, Spanish, and Italian. In 1SG6 the " Life of Jesus " was supplemented by a volume bearing " T h e Apostles" fur its title, the two being together entitled " The Origins of Christianity." Renan's theories respecting Christianity are very similar to those of Strauss. Christ he alleges to have been an ordinary human being, 483

Rationalists the son of Joseph and Mary, but one whose character was developed in such a direction as to fit in with the ideal of the Messiah that had become fixed in the Jewish mind. By study of the Old Testament Ile became impressed with the imagination that He should become a great reformer of the world, and this was the key to His life, the idea of such a reformation developing into that of the formation of a " Kingdom of God." The miracles of the Gospel narrative Renan considers to be exaggerated accounts of natural occurrences ; and the crowning miracle of the Resurrection is altogether denied, the account of it being founded on an hallucination of Mary Magdalen's excited mind. The phenomena of Pentecost are reduced to a thunder-storm, a strong wind which blew open the windows of the upper chamber, and an electric illumination of the air. I n their ecstacy the Apostles uttered some inarticulate sounds which were thought to be foreign languages, and of which zealous interpreters professed to give the meaning. At a later time Paul was struck with fever and ophthalmia from sunstroke as he was going to Damascus ; and the direction thus given to the fanatical mind of the last of the Apostles originated the later phase of Christianity as it became known throughout the compass of St. Paul's travels. Thus Renan emasculates the narrative of the New Testament, repudiating all its supernaturalism, making out Christ to be only a man above men, and setting forth the Church of Christ as a community founded in the mistakes and the fanaticism of His followers. Had the " W o r s h i p of Reason" lasted a little longer, or had Robespierre been able to establish lib reformation of it, the work of Renan would probably have been anticipated by two generations, his view of Christianity being exactly that which assigns to it a place in the Pantheon of Reason without accepting it as true. So polite a treatment of " superstition" would have much commended itself to the polished politeness of French philosophers, when the first fanaticism of Reason worship had worn off. The less polished repudiation of Christianity which marked the Rationalism of Comte is noticed elsewhere. V.

THE

[POSITIVISM.] REVIVAL

OP

ENGLISH

RATIONALISM.

I t has often been said that the English Deists gave Rationalism to Germany in the sixteenth century, and that it was re-imported thence into England in the nineteenth. This is scarcely an historical truth as regards the first part of the saying, since the foundation of scepticism laid by Spinoza was broad enough for all the subsequent structure of German Rationalism to build upon, and it may be doubted whether the earlier writers of the school were acquainted with the works of the English Deists to any great extent. P u t it is notorious that modern English Rationalism, although it is practically a revival of the school of Hume, Woolston, Tindal, and Collins, originated in the study of the destructive school of German critics, and not in that of English writers. I t is in fact the result of a revived taste for the

Rationalists German language among the young men of the last generation, a taste •vvliich led those whose studies ran in the direction of theology or philosophy to obtain their knowledge from German authors; and, under the influence of the Lias thus given, to accept those authors as final authorities before whom all others must bow. H a d the mind of Coleridge [A.D. 1772-1834] been of a less desultory character, he would have left behind him a system of Christian philosophy which would have been a formidable opponent to this German influence; but Coleridge did little more than stimulate and strengthen the thinking power of his own generation and of the generation immediately following him. His influence went far in developing the intellectual school of High Church theologians, but he never formuO

O

la.ted a system to a sufficient extent for that influence to be much felt as an educational power in the rather later revival of philosophical study. A great impulse was, however, given to the rationalizing tendency which accompanied the revival of religion between 1830 and 1850 by the teaching of Julius Charles Hare [A.D. 17951855], who followed up a career of ten years' influential teaching at Cambridge with twenty years of influential preaching and writing after he became a Sussex Rector and Archdeacon of Lewes. The general tendency of Hare's teaching was that of drawing minds away from historical Christianity, and fixing them on an imaginative spirit.ualizat.ion of it. I n particular, he combated the Protestant theory of the Atonement by setting forth the self-sacrifice of Christ's Life in the place of the great act of sacrifice which He accomplished by His D e a t h ; and made the latter a crowning act of self-denial and voluntary suffering, rather than an act of expiation. Hare's principal works were five volumes of Sermons, the first of which, published in 1840, was entitled " T h e Victory of Faith," and the last, six years later, " T h e Mission of the Comforter." To Hare and his brother-in-law Maurice as theologians, to Whateley as a philosophical writer, to Tbirlwall as an historian, and to Arnold as a teacher of the rising generation, the BKOAD CHURCH SCHOOL owes its origin, a school which is always tending towards Rationalism, and out of which many extreme Rationalists have arisen among the laity, and a few among the clergy. None of these latter have, however, been men of much learning, or men endowed with great power as leaders, and neither in the Church of England, nor among English Dissenters, has Rationalism ever run to the same height of unbelief as among the German Lutherans or the French Calvinists of France and Geneva. External to all religious communities, there are indeed many who repudiate historical Christianity, just as they repudiate everything which assumes to bo associated with a supernatural order of things. But the Rationalism of these classes is merely a part of the system which they profess, and they have developed unbelief to a much further extent in the direction of Positivism and Atheism. Among the principal 489

Realists of their intellectual leaders must be reckoned Henry Thomas Buckle, whose Materialist theories were propounded at length in his " History of Civilization in England," of which only one thick volume, the Introduction, was published, in 1856, when the author's death put an end to the work. But Materialism and the Worship of Humanity, such as are to be found in the work of Buckle and of his teacher, Comte, seem to be the natural terminus of Rationalism. in Germany, [Rose's State of Protestantism 2nd ed. 1829. Puseifs Historical Enquiry into the probable causes of the Rationalist Character lately predominant in the Theology of Germany, 1828, 1830. Amand Sainte's Hist. Critique du Rationalisme en Allemagne. Stafidlin's Gesch. des Ration, und Supranat. Farrar's Critical Hist, of Free Thought; the Bampton Lectures for 1862. Hurst's Hist. Rationalism, 1867 ; the Appendix to which contains an useful list of German, French, English, and American books on both sides. Lecky's Hist. Ration, in Europe. POSITIVJSTS. ATHEISTS.

PANTHEISTS.]

R A T R A M N US. A monk of Corbey in Aquitaine, wTho engaged in controversy with PASCHASIUS RADBERTUS on the subject of the Holy Eucharist, in the middle of the ninth century. He is sometimes called Bertram the Monk, or Bertram the Priest, but it is thought that this is a corruption of B. Ratramnus, " Beatus" being sometimes prefixed to the names of venerated writers even when there had been no act of beatification. The work of Ratramn, which was entitled " De Corpora et Sanguine Domini," had much influence upon the English Reformation. I t was published at Cologne in the year 1532, after having been brought into notice by Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, as early as 1526 ; and it largely influenced the minds of Archbishop Cranmer and Bishop Ridley. I n 1548 an English translation of it was printed by William Hugh, under the name of " the Book of Bertram." I t has often been quoted by mistake as a work of Scotus Erigena, was supposed by many Romanist theologians to be a forgery of the Reformers, and is excluded from the collection of Ratramn'» works printed in the Bibliotheca Maxima, on f.he ground that it has been hopelessly interpolated by supposititious heretics. R E A L I S T S . A school of mediaeval theologians, who adopted the doctrine attributed by Aristotle to Plato, that genera, or " universals," have an existence prior to and independent of the individual objects to which they relate, the formula of the school being " universalia ante rem." This theory was brought into prominence by Johannes Scotus Erigena [circ. 805-877], and was generally held by philosophical theologians until the rise of Nominalism in the eleventh century. Roscellin. the founder of the latter school [NOMINALISTS], was vigorously opposed by St. Ansehn [A.D. 1033-1109], who looked upon the application of Nominalist theories to the " doctrine of the Trinity as involving the heresy of Tritheisvn." St. Anselm also maintained that the Realist doctrine was the only one reconcilable with the Incarnation, for that Deity could not have as-

Rectisants

Relief Synod

sumed Humanity unless the latter had a real objective existence, distinguished from that of individual m e n ; a theory which he s e f o r t h in his treatise entitled " Cnr Deus Homo." The most distinguished champions of Realism after Anselm were William of Champeaux [A.D. 1070-1121], the opponent of Ahelard, and St. Thomas Aquinas [A.D. 1225-1274]; the latter however holding the Realist opinion in the modified form that universals have a real existence prior to the individuals to which they relate through their antecedent existence in the Divine Mind. The Schoolmen in general held Realist opinions ranging between this theory and the extreme form of them maintained by St. Ansehn. Wicldifi'e also was on the same side, although the freedom of his theology was more in .sympathy with the Nominalist school. The general tone of Realism is that of submission to authority and dogma: especially regarding that truth as most certain which is revealed by the All-Knowing and All-True ; consequently regarding revelation as the true foundation of belief, and belief as the entrance-gate to a wide domain of knowledge on which the mind would not otherwise euter. [SCHOOLMEN.] RECUSANTS, This term came into use in the reign of Queen Elizabeth as the legal designation of persons refusing [reeusantes] to attend the services of the Church of England. " In the beginning of the eleventh year of her reign," says Lord Coke, in his charge to the grand jury of Norfolk, " Cornwallis, Bedingfield, and Silyard, were the first Recusants, they absolutely refusing to come to our churches. And, until they in that sort begun, the name of Recusant was never heard of amongst us." Later on in the same charge he says, " T h e last sort of Recusants, though troublesome (yet in my conscience the least dangerous), are those which do, with too much violence, contend against some ceremonies in the Church, with whose indirect proceedings, in mine own knowledge, his Majesty is much grieved" [The Lord Coke, His Speech and Charge, 1607]. This application of the name to both Roman Catholics aud Puritans is illustrated by the lists of Recusants, to one volume of which, containing the names and particulars of those registered in the reign of Charles II. up to the year 1671, there is a note affixed by the official compiler, that it is unreliable as a list of Popish Recusants, since it also contains the names of many Puritans [Brit. Mus. Add. MS. 20,739], In the reign of William III. the Nonjurors were also classed among Recusants by Act of Parliament. But the name most commonly refers to ROMAN C A THOLICS. REFORMED AMERICAN.]

BAPTISTS.

[CA.MPBELLITES,

REFORMED CHURCH, GERMAN. That section of German Protestants which adopted the Calvinistic instead of the Lutheran phase of the Continental Reformation. Calvinism has, however, failed to gain a footing in Germany in its extreme form, and the "Reformed," as they are 490

generally called, belong rather to the Zwinglian school modified by contact with Lutheranisrn than to that of the strict Calvinists, and adopt the Heidelberg Confession. [PROTESTANT CONFESSIONS.] Several distinguished theologians have belonged to this section of the German Protestants, as Herzog, Ebrard, Lange, and Hagenbach. I t is now being gradually absorbed into the U N I T E D EVANGELICAL CHURCH.

In America the German Reformed are a considerable body, and though not so numerous as the Lutherans, are said to number about 300 ministers and 100,000 communicants. As in Germany, the sect tends towards an union with moderate Lutheranisrn, and has within the last few years adopted " A Liturgy, or Order of Christian Worship," which is chiefly compiled from the Book of Common Prayer. REFORMED PRESBYTERIANS. [CAMEEONIANS.] REFORMERS.

[CAMPBELLITES, AMERICAN.]

REFORMERS, WESLEYAN. CJIUBCH METHODISTS.]

[UNITED EKES

R E L I E F S YN OD. One of the seceding bodies in Scotland which arose out of opposition to the system of Patronage. A majority of the Presbytery of Dunfermline having refused to take part in the induction of a minister to the parish of Inverkeithing who was unacceptable to the people, they were cited in 1752 before the General Assembly, and one of the number, Thomas Gillespie, minister of Carnock (who had been ordained amongst the Independents in England), being foremost in defence of the recusants, was deposed from the ministry, while three others were visited with a sentence of suspension, which lasted for thirteen years. This proceeding of the Assembly, which was urged on by Dr. Robertson, who was then rising into notice, was one of extreme severity, the only charge against Gillespie, "one of the most inofi'ensive and upright men of his time" [Moncrielf's Life of Erskine, p. 460], being that of mere absence on the day appointed for the presentee's induction, and not of any active opposition. Returning home at once, Gillespie met his wife at his manse-door with the words, " I am no longer minister of Carnock," to which she cheerfully replied, " Well, if Ave must beg, I will carry the meal-pock." His congregation, however, prevented any such hard necessity by still retaining him as their minister ; and, upon the defeat of a motion in the Assembly of the following year for his restoration, a seceding body was constituted at Dunfermline. I n 1757 a similar congregation was formed by Thomas Boston (son of Boston of Ettrick) at Jedburgh, in consequence of the forcible intrusion of a minister into that parish, where the people desired that Boston should be appointed. A third congregation was formed from a similar cause in 1760; and on October 22nd in the following year, the three ministers, Gillespie, Boston, and Thomas Colier, " formed themselves," in the words of their original minute, " into a Presbytery for the relief of Christians oppressed in their Christian privileges." They thus separated from the Kirk simply on the

Religious Societies question of patronage, and. liad, no doctrinal differences; they were free, however, from the bitterness of the old covenanting spirit, and, partly perhaps from the necessities of their isolated position, exhibited a temper of toleration hitherto unknown in Scotland. In 1772, when the number of congregations had considerably increased, it was resolved at a meeting of representatives that it was agreeable to their principles " to hold communion with those of the Episcopal or Independent persuasion occasionally, upon supposition always that they are by profession visible saints." Two ministers, who could not endure this " monstrous" desertion from old Presbyterian views, thereupon separated, and the Synod thenceforward accepted free communion as one of its fundamental principles.1 Its uncontroversial and unaggressive position doubtlessly somewhat hindered its growth. In 1807 it numbered about sixty congregations, with 36,000 members; and in 1847 one hundred and fourteen, with about 45,000 members. I n 1834 proposals wore made for a union between the Secession and Belief Synods, the two bodies being identical in general views, and the latter having gradually become more like the former in opposition to the principle of Establishments, while the Secession were willing to relax their old declaration of adherence to the Covenant, and leave the practice of free communion an open question for each minister and congregation to decide for themselves. The negotiations lasted for several years, but at length the union was formally completed on 13tli May 1847, when the two bodies assumed the name of the United Presbyterian Synod. Two Eelief ministers dissented from this union, and continued in charge of congregations under their old name. These two congregations were in existence when the census of 1851 was taken, but appear now to be extinct.

Resolutioners selves into a body somewhat similar to the Societies of St. Vincent de Paul, which had been established half a century earlier in Paris, or like those of the Collegiants and other Pietistic communities in Holland and Germany. The members of the Religious Society so formed arranged to meet once a week for religious conference and devotion, the meetings being conducted with singing, prayer, Scripture reading, and exposition, and with special preparation for the Holy Communion. When daily celebrations of the Holy Communion were set up by James II. in the Chapels Royal, the Religious Society established a week-day service at St. Clement Danes in the Strand, and celebrations on holy days, for which latter they prepared by a careful observance of the Yigils preceding them. To all these means for the promotion of personal piety they added practical works of charity, contributing by their purses and by personal exertions to the establishment and maintenance of schools, the visitation of the poor, and support of missions in America.

The Religious Societies increased rapidly in number during the reign of William III., fortytwo holding their meetings in London, and others in country towns, as also in the two Universities. They received the warm support of Robert Nelson —the Wilberforce of his day*—of Tillotson, Compton, and other bishops. They were also closely connected with the Societies for the Reformation of Manners [q. v.], which were established in 1691, and were looked upon as efficient allies by the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge. That at Oxford was joined by John and Charles Wesley, and by George Whitfield, and the good practices with which the names of the founders of Methodism were so closely associated during their University life were those enjoined by the rules of the Brotherhood to which they had thus become attached. [Struthers' Hist, of Relief Church, 1839, and One of the last of the annual meetings of the IIM. of the Rise of Relief Church, 1848; 1Memo- London Religious Societies was held at Bow rials of the Union of the Secession and Relief Church in the year 1738; and it may be conSt/nods, 1847.] cluded that they disappeared before the Methodist RELIGIONAIRES. [HUGUENOTS.] revival, which in its earlier days was of the same RELIGIOUS SOCIETIES. Associations for " High Church" character. [Woodward's Rise the promotion of personal piety which were estab- and Progress of the Religions Societies, etc. lished among members of the Church of England Nelson's Address to Persons of Quality,-p. 136. about the year 1678, and existed until the rise of Nelson's Festivals and Fasts, pref. ; Secretan's the Methodists in the following century. Life of Nelson.'] They began with a few young men who had RELLYANISTS. [UNIVERSALIS.] been impressed by the preaching of Dr. Horneek, REMONSTRANTS. [ABMINIANS.] preacher at the Savoy, and of Mr. Smithies, lecREMONSTRANTS. [RESOLUTIONERS.] turer at St. Michael's, Cornhill. Under the advice RENUNCIATOBES. [APOTACTICS.] of some clergymen these young men formed tliemREPRESENTERS. [MAKROW-MEN.]

1 One great evidence of the broader tone of the Eelief Synod was afforded in 1794 by their sanction of the use of a hymn-book, the singing of anything besides t h e Scottish version of the Psalms (even of the duly allowed Paraphrases) being an abomination to the straiter Presbyterians. But though they could tolerate hymns, they could not endure instrumental accompaniment, and a minister in Edinburgh quitted the body in 1829, and afterwards (in 1833) joined the Establishment because the use of an organ in his chapel was entirely prohibited ["Memoir of Jíev. J . Johnston, prefixed to his Sermons, 1834],

491

RESOLUTIONERS.

I n January

1649, an

Act called the Act of Glasses was passed by the Parliament of Scotland, incapacitating certain of the " Malignants," i.e. Uovali-N. ami persons opposed to the Covenant, for State employment or power. After the Battle of Dunbar, the moee moderate among the Covenanting party saw the need of admitting to military service those who had been thus incapacitated, and two Resolutions (supported by Robert Baillie amongst others)

Restorationists were passed by the Commission of tlie Assembly, approving of tlie employment, at least ill defence of the country, of such persons, -with the exception of those that were excommunicated and forfeited, or professed enemies to the Covenant and cause of God. I n pursuance of these Resolutions, t h e Parliament, on 2nd J u n e 1651, repealed the Act of Classes. B u t the Resolutions were vehemently opposed by a strong party, including James Guthrie and Patrick Gillespie among the ministers, and Argyle and Warriston among laymen, who refused to act in common against the common enemy, and issued a " Remonstrance " against any approach to a junction with the " Malignant" party. These were consequently known by the names of Remonstrants or Protesters, while their opponents were styled Resol id iorters. Their disputes did not cease with the subjugation of Scotland by Cromwell, b u t were continued up to the time of the Restoration. Among the most active on the part of the Resolutioners, and employed as agent in England to thwart the endeavours of the Protesters to gain Cromwell's favour, was James Sharp, afterwards the well-known Archbishop of St Andrews. [D. Laing's Life of R. Bnillie, in Baillie's Letters and Journals, I I I . lxvii.-lxxii.] R E S T O R A T I O N I S T S . A sect of American Universalists who maintain that modified form of Universalism which is said by them to have been the original principle of the sect, namely, that the wicked will be restored to holiness and happiness after a temporary punishment in the future life. About the year 1818 Hosea Hallow, an Universalist preacher of Boston, began to teach that sin is entirely connected with the body, and that as death liberates the soul from the body, so also it frees the soul from the punishment of sin. The growth of this opinion led many of the Universalists to separate from that sect in the year 1831, and to form a separate community under the name of " U n i v e r s a l Restorationists" or " R e storationists," their congregations being found chiefly in Massachusetts. They are almost identical in all their opinions with the older English Unitarians. RHEINSBERGERS.

[COLLEGIANTS.]

R I I E T O R I A N S . A n Alexandrian sect of this name is mentioned by Philaster as founded by Rhetorius, and maintaining the opinion that there was no harm in any heresy whatever [Philast. Hwr. xci.]. S t Augustine remarks that this seems so absurd that he considers it incredible [¿Vug. Ilw.r. lxxii.]. Philaster is the original authority for the existence of such a sect, b u t Praidcstinatus speaks of them as if they were not unknown to him, adding to Philaster's statement that they advocated Christian fellowship with all who believed in the Incarnation [Pnedest. liar, lxxii.]. Even before Philaster's time St. Athanasius mentions a person named Rhetorius, whom he accuses of holding the opinion that doctrines are of no consequence, and that all heretics are right in their own way [Athanas. contr. Apollin. i. 6]. A n d at a later date St. J o h n Damascene enumerates the yv¿nTi¡iaya.i as the eighty-eighth in his 492

Roman Catholics Catalogue of Heresies, who, it seems probable, were " knowledge " (or theology) " haters " in the sense of being anti-dogmatists, who had arisen from reaction against the subleties of the Gnostics, the Antiochean and the Alexandrian schools of theologians, and who were identical with the Rhetorians of Philaster. RITUALISTS.

[HIGH

CHURCHMEN.]

B O G A T I A N I. One of the numerous sects into which Donatism subdivided itself. They took their name from their leader Rogatus, and flourished in Mauritania Ca\sariensis [c. A. L>. 372-.')]. [Augustine, Up. 48, contra Oresconiam Donatistam, lib. iv. cap. 70.] ROGERIANS. A n American sect of the Puritan B A N T E R S which appeared in 2few England about the year 1677 under the leadership of J o h n Rogers, from whom they took their name. Their principal tenet was that worship on the Lord's Day is idolatry, which it was a matter of conscience to oppose ; and hence they used to disturb the congregations in churches and chapels as the Ranters were accustomed to do in England [H. Adams' View of all Religions]. BOHR.

[RATIONALISTS.]

R O M A N CATHOLICS. A sect originally organized b y the Jesuits out of the relics of tiie Marian party of clergy and laity in t h e reign of Queen Elizabeth, and further organized into a Donatist hierarchy by Cardinal Wiseman in the year 1850. The name is found in use as early as the year 156-1, when the words " e v e r y Romish Catholique within England and Ireland or any of England's territories " are found in a paper of intelligence sent home from Italy for the information of Burleigh by Dennum, the Queen's secret agent [Brit. Mus. Add. MS. 4784], I t also occurs in the charge delivered to the grand jury of Norfolk in the year 1607, by Lord Chief-Justice Coke. I n a wide sense, all members of churches or sects recognised by the Pope as in communion with himself are often called Roman Catholics, b u t the name is more strictly applicable to the English sect. A distinguished Roman Catholic writer of the last century dates the origin of his community from the accession of Queen Elizabeth. " I n the year 1558," he says, " E l i z a b e t h ascended the throne of England. At this time begins the real era of English Reformation ; and consequently from tills tin^e Catholics are to be considered as a sect, dissenting from the National C h u r c h " [Berington's State and, Behaviour of Emjlish Catholics from the Reformation, to the //ear 178'), with a view of their present number, •(cen'th, character, etc. 1780]. But this is antedating its origin by about twelve years, for although there was a strong Romanizing party in the Church during the early years of Queen Elizabeth's reign, it was not until the publication of the Bull by which the Pope excommunicated her in 1570, that those of the party who had not in the meanwhile been won over to the Reformation separated themselves from the national communion. They were not thoroughly organized into a sect

Roman

Catholics

Roman

until the arrival of the Jesuits, the first of whom came over in the year 1581 ; and had it not been for the work of these enemies of Catholic unity the Soman Catholics would probably have been reabsorbed by the Church as the Nonjurors were in the next century. I.

HISTORY

OP

SOMAN

CATHOLICS.

In

the

early stage of the Reformation the clergy and laity of England generally assented to the new order of things, although there were many who, like Bishop Fisher, Sir Thomas More, and the Charterhouse monks, were unable to agree with the Tudor view of the Royal Supremacy. The evidence of this general concurrence of Church and State is given in detail in the first volume of Bluut's History of the Reformed km of the. Church of England during the reign of Henry V I I I . ; and all that can be said on the subject in the short compass of this article is that the Houses of Lords and Commons, the Convocations of the Clergy, the Universities, and even the monastic bodies, all concurred in the repudiation of the Papal Supremacy, that absurd relic of Roman Imperialism, the repudiation of which was, and was well known to be, the backbone of the Reformation. The development of an " extreme left," however, in the form of Puritanism, led naturally to the development of an " extreme right" in the form of revived Ultramontanism; and although the reactionary party did not at once become Ultramontane, and was not large during the reign of Henry V I I I . , it was exasperated by the intemperate rule of the Privy Council during the calamitous reign of Edward VI., so that when Mary came to the throne it at once leaped into power under the leadership of Bishop Gardiner. The policy of the party during the first of the two years which then elapsed before Gardiner's death was that of his great master Wolsey, and was directed towards the restoration of that national system of ecclesiastical affairs which had existed in the latter half of the reign of Henry V I I I . , and not to the establishment of the Ultramontane system which eventually became the notorious characteristic of Queen Mary's reign. But a Spanish party had arisen in England through the Queen's engagement to Philip of Spain, and her marriage with him on July 25th, 1554. Her relationship to Cardinal Pole, and her personal affection for him, had also smoothed the way for that Italianized Englishman's return to his native country with the fullest powers of a Papal Legate. From the arrival of the latter, on November 24th, 1554, power passed out of the hands of Gardiner and the national party into the hands of Pole and the King of Spain, and under the influence of the Ulramontane party, formed by the union of these two foreign elements, England was " reconciled to the Holy See" on November 30th, 1554. Under the same influences—Philip himself being especially prepared for the work by a treatise on Heresies and another on the punishment of Heretics re-written for the purpose by his confessor, a Castro 1 —that dread5 See the dedications to Charles V. and Philip which are prefixed to these works respectively. [HEEESIOLOGISTS. ]

Catholics

fill persecution of the Puritans began in which not a few of the orthodox clergy and laity also suffered, and which permanently alienated the people of England from Ultramontanism. 2 Upon the accession of Queen Elizabeth, the utmost tact and patience became necessary to prevent the Catholic Reformation from being crushed by the pressure of the two reactionary parties, the Puritan " L e f t " and the Roman " R i g h t . " Hennc arose nearly two years of politic silence, temporizing, and delay on the part of her Government in settling the aifairs of the Church. During these two years the influence of the Spanish party was gradually extinguished, and although a considerable section of the clergy and laity desired to retain the ancient rites of the Church of England, and to prevent a dissolution of the reestablished communion with Rome, tiiis party also was being gradually thinned as the Marian bishops and clergy died off. W h e n at length the Prayer Book system of the Reformation was re-established, there seemed good reason to hope that those of the reactionary party, who had at first been dissatisfied with it, were gradually becoming reconciled. During the early years of Queen Elizabeth's reign, say the Instructions given to Walsingham on his mission to France, those who afterwards became Recusants " did ordinarily resort, in all open places, to the churches and to divine service in the church, without any contradiction or show of misliking." So also Sir Edward Coke declared at the trial of Garnet, on January 27th, 1605, in the following words :—" Before the Bull of Impius Pius Quintus, in the eleventh year of the Queen, wherein her Majesty was excommunicated and deposed, and all they accursed who should yield any obedience unto her, etc. there were no Recusants in England, all came to church (howsoever popislily inclined or persuaded in most points) to the same divine service wye now use; but thereupon presently they refused to assemble in our churches, or join with us in public service, not for conscience of anything there done, against wdiich they might justly except out of the Word of God, but because the Pope had excommunicated and deposed her Majesty, and cursed those who should obey h e r " [State Trials, i. 242], 2 The name of the great and thoroughly English prelate Gardiner has been unhistorically associated with the cruelties of Queen Mary's reign as if he had been one of the chief movers in them. But he only once sat in judgment on " heretics" during that reign, namely, when he presided, as Lord Chancellor, over the court, composed of thirteen new bishops and others, by which Rogers, Hooper, Saunders, and Taylor were condemned, on January 22nd, 1555. From that time he took little part in public business, and a disease—on account of which he had told the Privy Council in the beginning of Edward's reign that " N a t u r e had destined his death"— carried him oil' on November 12th, 1555, his end having been expected so long before, according to a letter of Noailles the French ambassador [v. 127], as September 9lh. There is much evidence to shew that Gardiner, like his master Wolsey, was a man of a gentle and forbearing disposition. The tradition to the contrary is derived from the Puritans, who always had strong foreign sympathies, and exhibited a singular animosity towards patriotic and constitutional Englishmen like Wolsey and Gardiner.

Roman

Catholics

Roman

Catholics

Garnet tried to shew that this was a mistake of Sir Edward Coke's, yet he admitted the nini.i fact even while contradicting the reason which the great Attorney-General had given for the change that afterwards took place. " I know divers myself," said Qarnet, " who before that Bull refused to go to church all the time of Queen Elizabeth, though perhaps most Catholics did indeed go to church before. Tt was about the end of the Council of Trent where this matter was discussed by twelve learned men, and concluded not lawful. And this was occasioned for that Calvin himself held it not lawful for any Protestant to be present, not only at our Mass, wherein perhaps they may say there is idolatry, but not at our Evensong, being the same with theirs" [ibid. 250], But Coke proved that this was " a gross error; for the last session of that council was in the year of our Lord 1563, which was in the fifth year of Queen Elizabeth ; whereas I shewed, and am able to justify and prove, that their Bomish English Catholics came to our service in our churches until the nineteenth year of her Majesty, which was many years after that council was ended" [ibid. 252],

cially of the elder priests of Queen Mary's Jays. And this division was not only favoured by the council, but nourished also for many years by divers troublesome people of our own, both in teaching and writing" 1 [Persons' Brief Apology or Defence of the Catholic Eccl. Hierarchy, fol. 2]. Until the year 1570, therefore, there was no separate Roman community in England, although there was a party, but a gradually diminishing party, whose feelings were strongly prejudiced against the changes made in the reign of Edward VI., and who wished for the revival of that ecclesiastical position which had been adopted during the reign of Queen Mary. But this party remained for several years within the Church. There they remained until they were told by the Pope and the Jesuits that their duty to the former was inconsistent with this outward loyalty to the Church of their country. And there they would have remained still, if they had not enrolled themselves among that unwise minority of Englishmen who are found ready in every generation to submit to the dictation of foreigners, Calvin oil the one hand, or the Pope on the other.

When he was Lord Chief-Justice, Coke again repeated his assertion in the following words, in his charge to the grand jury at the Norwich assizes of 1607. His words were : " Notwithstanding the change of religion, it cannot be denied that for the first ten years of her Majesty's reign the estate of Roman Catholics in England was tolerable, though some were committed in the beginning of her coming to the crown, yet none but those whose precedent actions had caused the faith of their allegiance to remain doubtful; and so was the manner of their commitment mixed with such gracious clemency, as that they rather endured a favourable restraint than any straight or rigorous imprisonment. But as well those restrained as generally all the Papists in this kingdom, not any of them did refuse to come to our church and yield their formal obedience to the laws established. And thus they all continued, not any one refusing to come to our churches during the first ten years of her Majesty's government. And in the beginning of the eleventh year of her reign Cornwallis, Bedingfield, and Silyard were the first Recusants, they absolutely refusing to come to our churches. And until they in that sort begun, the name of Eecusant was never heard of amongst us" [The Lord Coke, His Speech and Charge, 1607].

Long before the year 1570, however, an unprincipled and shocking conspiracy against the English Church and nation had been in process of concoction at Home, where England has never been understood, and where little pains have ever been taken to understand it, until the Papal policy was stimulated bv the talent and pertinacity of modern seceders from the Church of England. The earliest information which we possess respecting this conspiracy is contained in a paper sent to Burleigh from Venice, on April 13th, 1564, by Dennum, a secret agent of the English Government, who had been sent to the Continent to gain what information he could respecting "foreign conspiracies and contrivances;" but Dennum's information is confirmed by subsequent events and by the history of Pius V. which was written by Catena in the year 1586. Dennum's paper has been already printed, though not very correctly [Strype's Mem. I. ii. 54]; but it is of so much importance towards elucidating the origin of the Roman Catholics that it is here given at length, from the copy of it preserved in the British Museum, the spelling being modernized :— " A list of several Consultations amongst the Cardinals, Bishops, and other of the several orders of Rome now a contriving and conspiring against her gracious Majesty and the Established Church of England. " Pius having consulted with the clergy of

I t was, perhaps, even earlier than this that the Jesuit Persons had written to the same effect, attributing the change to the teaching of the Jesuits. Some time after the year 1595, he wrrote :-—" Whereupon also the same devil" [emulation between laity and clergy, and between the secular priests and the monks] brought in the division of opinions about going to the heretical churches and service, which most part of Catholics did follow for many years; and when the better and truer opinion was taught them by priests and religious men from beyond the seas as more perfect and necessary, there wanted not manv that opposed themselves, espe494

1 In tlie year 1606 Persons published a volume of 3S6 closely printed pages against the fifth part of Sir Edward Coke's reports. The last chapter, the sixteenth, is a reply to Coke's statement as given above. Yet after a quantity of mere rhetoric, Persons s a y s : — " I deny not but t h a t many others "besides these" the deprived dignitaries " throughout the realm, though otherwise Catholics in heart (as most of them were) did at that time and after, as also now, either upon fear, or lack of better instruction, or both, repair to Protestant churches, the case being then not so fully discussed by learned men, as after it was, ' whether a man with good conscience may go to the church and service of a different religion from his own.'"

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Italy, and assembling them together, it was hy England should become as they who had these general consent voted, that the immunity of the licenses, and what should be done in that case. Romish Church and her jurisdiction is required " 4. It was then answered by the Bishop of to he defended by all her princes as the principal Mens that that was the thing they aimed at, and Church of God. that they desired no more than separation amongst " And to encourage the same, the Council hath the heretics of England; and by so doing, in case voted that Pius should bestow her Grace's realm an animosity be amongst them (the Church established by the heretic Queen, as they so termed on that prince who shall attempt to conquer it. " There was a Council ordered by way of a her Grace), there would be the less to oppose the Committee, who contain three of the cardinals, Mother Church of Rome, whenever opportunity two of the archbishops, six of the bishops, and served. This reason of the Bishops pacified the as many of the late order of the Jesuits, who whole Council. daily increase and come into great favour with " 5. It was granted, not only indulgence and the Pope of late; these do present weekly methods, pardon to the party that should assault her Grace, ways, and contrivances for the Church of Home, either private or in public, or to any cook, brewer, which hold the great Council for the week fol- baker, physician, vintner, grocer, chirurgeon, or lowing in employment how to order all things any other calling whatsoever, that should or did for the advancement of the Romish faith. Some make her away out of this world, a pardon, but an of these contrivances, coming to my hands by the absolute remission of sins to the heirs of that help of the silver-key, be as follow :—• party's family sprung from him, and a perpetual " 1. The people of England being much averted annuity to them for ever, and the said heir to be from their Mother Church of Rome, they have never beholden to any of the fathers for pardon, thought fit, sounding out their inclinations how be they of what order soever, unless it pleased the common sort are taken with the Liturgy in himself, and to be one of those Privy Council, English, for to offer her Grace to confirm it with whosoever reigned successively. some things altered therein, provided that her " 6. It was ordered, for the better assurance of Grace and the Council do acknowledge the same further intelligence to the See of Rome, to give from Rome and her Council, which, if it be licenses to any that shall swear to that supremacy denied, as we suppose it will, then these are to due obedience and allegiance, to her powers, to asperse the Liturgy of England by all ways and dispense with sacraments, baptism, marriages, and conspiracy imaginable. other ceremonies of our now Established Church " 2. A license or dispensation to be granted to in England; that the parties so obliged may posany of the Romish orders to preach, speak, or write sess and enjoy any office, employment, either against the now Established Church of England, ecclesiastical, military or civil, and to take such amongst other protestors against Rome, purposely oaths as shall be imposed upon them, provided to make England odious to them ; and that they that the said oaths be taken with a reserve for to may retain their assistances promised them in ease serve the Mother Church of Rome whenever opof any prince's invasion, and the parties so licen- portunity serveth; and thereby in so doing the sed and indulged (dispensed with) to be seemingly Act in Council was passed, it was no sin, but as one of them, and not to be either taxed, checked, meritorious until occasion served to the contrary, or excommunicated for so doing. And further, for and that when it so served for Rome's advantage the better assurance of the party so licensed and the party was absolved from his oath, indulged the party to change his name, lest he be " 7. It was also ordered that all the Romish discovered, andtokeepa quarternal correspondence orders, as well regular as secular, to cherish all with any of the cardinals, archbishops, bishops, the adherents of the Mother Church of Rome, abbots, priors, or other of the chief monasteries, whenever occasion serveth, to be in readiness at abbeys, etc. At which quarternal correspond- the times that shall be appointed, and to conence shall not only give the Pope intelligence of tribute according to their capacities what in them heretical conspiracy, but be a full assurance of lieth for the promotion of the Romish cause. their fidelity to Rome. " 8 . I t is ordered that the Romish party shall " This proposal was much debated in the Coun- propose a match for the Queen of the Catholic cil, which caused some of the Council to say, how princes for to further or to promote the Romish shall we prevent it, in case any of the parties so faith. licensed flinch from us and receive a good reward, " 9. I t is ordered, upon pain of excommunicaand fall off from our correspondency. tion, and of a perpetual curse to light on the " 3. It was then ordered that there should be families and posterities of all those of the Mother several appointed for to watch the parties so Church of Rome who will not promote or assist licensed and indulged, and to give intelligence to by means of money or otherwise Mary Queen Rome of their behaviour; which parties are sworn of Scotland's pretence to the Crown of Engnot to divulge to any of those so licensed or in- land. dulged what they he, or from whence they came, " 10. I t is also ordered that every Romish but to be strange, and to come in as one of their Catholic within England and Ireland, or any of converts, so that the party shall be cautious how England's territories, to contribute to those Romish and which way he bendeth. bishops, parish priests, etc., that are privately or " It was afterwards debated how it should be shall be by Rome set over them, to pay all the ordered in case any of the heretical ministry of Church duties, as if they were in possession upon 495

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pain of excommunication of tliem and their posterity. " 1 1 . I t is ordered t h a t ' t h e See of Rome do dispense with all parties of the Roman faith to swear against all heretics of England as elsewhere, and that not to be a crime, or an offence against the soul of the party, the accused taking the oath with an intention to promote or advance the Roman Catholic faith" [Brit. Mus. Add. MS. 4784 if. 39-42], Such were the secret plans of the Court of Rome for overturning the independence of the Church of England. A complete view of the subsequent progress of the conspiracy is found in the work of a contemporary Italian writer, devoted to the interests of the Papacy, Girolamo Catena, who makes the following statements in two chapters on the transactions of Pius V. against Queen Elizabeth in his life of that Pope :— " How clearly the zeal of Pope Pius flamed out for retrieving the state of religion which was fallen and decayed, may be seen in the affairs of England. Besides the continual supplies and pensions which he gave to many persons of quality of that nation, and to such as had fled thence for the sake of the Catholic faith, he resolved immediately to send Vincenzo Lauro, Bishop of Mondovi, Nuncio into Scotland, where Calvin's heresy began to creep in, furnishing him with a good sum of money to be expended in the cause of religion, and of Queen Mary Stuart, who had still preserved herself Catholic. Vincenzo gave her that supply of money, together with his wholesome advice; but by reason of the many and great troubles of that kingdom, fomented by Elizabeth Queen of England, he, residing at Paris, could not penetrate so far into those affairs as Queen Mary desired, as well for the great devotion she bore to the holiness and bounty of the Pope, as for her great regard to the worth and singular prudence of the Nuncio. She, after having solemnly baptized the Prince her sen according to the rites of the Roman Church, was several times reduced to such a condition by the snares and treachery of the heretics (whom Elizabeth secretly favoured, yet seeming to take pity on her, exhorting her to patience, and keeping her in hope of assistance, 'till she might entice and draw' her into her territories), that she passed at length into England to demand succours against her rebellious subjects, relying on the promises of the said Queen ; who yet no sooner had her in her power but she shut her up in prison ; fearing, lest if Mary prospered, who being nearest of blood to Henry V I I I . was his lawful heir, she would lose her kingdom of England, whobeingborn of Anneof Boleyn, not his wife but his concubine, might justly be driven out of it as illegitimate. Now Pius, taking into consideration, as well how he might help and deliver the Queen of Scots (whom neither imprisonment, nor bonds, nor threatened tortures, nor promised rewards could shako from the Catholic faith, or frnm the obedience to the Holy See), as how he might restore the true religion in England, and remove the very stink or source of so great evils (Elizabeth still aiding and abetting tho 496

dissensions in Christendom, especially in France and Flanders, and giving support to the Protestants in Germany), deputed certain persons who should go into that kingdom, and informing themselves of the state of the heretics and Catholics, should give him an account of both, animating the latter to set up again tho ancient rites and worship. And as ho was not permitted to have there an Apostolical Nuncio, or any public minister for the Holy See, he had diligent care that Robert Bidolii, a Florentine gentleman, who resided in England under the show of a merchant, should move the minds of the people to a sedition for the destruction of Elizabeth. This gentleman operated after such a manner in the name of his Holiness, not only with the Catholics, of whom there are great numbers; but likewise with many of the principal Protestants, wdio concurred in this design for various reasons, some for the personal enmity they had with those who aspired to the next succession of the Crown; some prompted by more solid hopes in the change of tho government ; that there was reason to expect a good event. While these things were secretly in agitation, there arose a difference between the Catholic King and Elizabeth, on account of shipping and of money detained in London, which the King intended for the payment of his army in Flanders, and neither these nor the goods of the Genoese being restored as the Duke d'Alva demanded, he, by way of reprisal, seized on the effects of the English at Antwerp, and other places. Hence Pius, taking advantage of the occasion, pressed the King to favour the design of the conspirators in England, as he could not better secure his dominions in Flanders than by depressing the power of this Queen, who, while she was in a condition, would always infest those Provinces ; and reminded him of the obligation of his religion, as the first motive to such an undertaking. Tho King gladly embracing this proposal, it was left to the care of Pius to manage dextrously with the Court of France, in order to its favouring the Catholics of England. But for this, he was to use, as he did, very different persuasives, representing chiefly the interest of the Queen of Scots, who was allied to the Crown of France, and of those noblemen who had assisted the same Crown, when the Admiral, at the head of an army, was attempting the ruin of the Royal family, these having kept back Elizabeth from declaring herself openly in behalf of the French rebels. Everything appearing to be well concerted in England, Ridolfi pushed the matter so strenuously that the greatest part of the nobility joined together, taking the Duke of Norfolk for their head, to whom the Queen of Scots, with her own consent, was promised in marriage. And that this insurrection might be of greater service to the said Queen, and Duke, and nobles, Pins at the same time published a Bull and sentence against Elizabeth, declaring her to be heretical, and deprived of her kingdom, discharging her subjects from their oath of fidelity and from all other duty whatsoever, and likewise excommunicating those that should hereafter obey her, in the same form

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granting full commission to all to withstand and oppose her. A n d , first of all, there being a difficulty of publishing the B u l l in Spain or France for fear of provoking this wicked woman, he caused it to be published in that very kingdom, transmitting to Kidolfi many printed copies to be dispersed, as was accordingly done. Thus, none knowing whence they came, many persons were executed for having transcribed them with their own hand. A m o n g others John Melela" [Felton] " an English gentleman, having fixed a copy 011 the gate of the Bishop of London's palace, suffered a most cruel death, constantly affirming to the last that he had done well, and that he was ready to do it again, according to the tenor and purport of the said B u l l ; which so far influenced and excited the minds of the people, that they declared publicly against yielding any farther allegiance to Elizabeth, and if any head of the faction had then discovered himself, they would certainly have run into a sudden and open revolt. Whereupon Elizabeth, apprehending her danger, and not being altogether ignorant of the conspiracy of the nobles, began to arm, and to use the necessary precautions, as well to defend herself, as to lay hold 011 some of the parties that were engaged against her.

to keep them on the borders of Scotland, part to the D u k e of Norfolk, part to others of the conspirators, to hold them firm. Y e t the alarm still sounding through the realm, Elizabeth called several persons to Court under various pretences, not daring to make a greater noise : who refused to come, and gave her plainly enough to understand that they owed her no manner of obedience during the interdict of the B u l l ; of which Elizabeth herself was heard to say, that it troubled her not so much for its substance and contents, as because it had Pius for its author, whose election and life she could not but esteem miraculous. N o w that the work might proceed on at due foundations, they despatched Kidolfi to Pius, acquainting him, that on their side all things were now ready, and desiring that he "would be pleased to lend his name to the undertaking, as designed for the cause of religion, and for setting the Queen of Scots on the English throne after her marriage to the D u k e of N o r f o l k ; as also that he would move the Catholic king to grant them the succours they had demanded. Pius, well comprehending all their measures, and approving them, and rejecting what the D u k e d'Alva had written to dissuade from the enterprise, after Kidolfi had communicated it to him in passing through Flanders, sent the same Kidolfi to the K i n g of Spain under pretence of carrying articles for a League, and gave him likewise Briefs to the K i n g 'of Portugal, with all necessary instructions and deliberations ; at the same time Writing to the D u k e of Norfolk, and exhorting him to be of good courage, inasmuch as he should want no assistance. Kidolfi, presenting the Brief to the Catholic king, with the Pope's commission, by which he encouraged him to make the attempt, and speedily to send the desired succours, offering not only ail his power, but even to go in person, if need were, for the obtaining so great a benefit to all Christendom, and to pawn all the substance of the Apostolical See, the chalices, the crosses, and even his own vestments; informing him exactly how feasible the thing was if he would only send into England a detachment of his army in Flanders, under the command of Chiapin Yitelli, in case that d ' A l v a Avas hindered. The K i n g having signified his pleasure to this purpose by an express courier, and Pius having remitted by the way of Flanders a great supply of money, d ' A l v a was not pleased to forward the execution ; as well that he might deny this honour to Yitelli (having in his place proposed his own son, whom neither the K i n g nor Council accepted), as on account of the new troubles in France, it being necessary to use precaution with that Crown, lest it should discover that the Catholic king embarked in this design without its aid, and thereupon should interpose to hinder it, and so the arms both of France and England should be brought against Flanders, because the French would be jealous lest the Spaniard should make himself master of England, as the Spaniard would have been, could the French have attempted the like by their own strength, as they were never yet able to do : nor could the Pope give sufficient security in the

" H e n c e the Earls of Northumberland and Westmoreland, fearing to be surprised on their estates, without tarrying for their companions, or for succour from abroad, rose with more than twelve thousand men, and by public declarations notified the cause of their rising to be the restoring of the Catholic religion, and the ancient laws of the kingdom. 1 Nor did they scour the country and march immediately against Elizabeth, as they ought to have done; and b y which means they would have been sure of all their followers. But standing still, and not being able to maintain themselves in the field for want of money, at length retiring into Scotland, they did nothing at all, but gave occasion to Elizabeth to put the D u k e of Norfolk under a guard upon suspicion, as also for fear of his marriage with the Queen of Scots, and to imprison many others, of whom Kidolfi was one. B u t Elizabeth, not being able to penetrate the depth of the conspiracy, they were all set at liberty except the Duke. I n the meanwhile Pius had given Kidolfi a credit of an hundred and fifty thousand crowns, and was preparing a greater sum to advance the design. Kidolfi, being then a prisoner, could not distribute the money among those who were up in arms ; yet afterwards he gave part of it to them 1 Sanders says in his " De visibili Monarcliia," written in the year 1572, that the Pope caused the rebellion in the North by sending Nicolas Morton, a priest, to declare to the Earls of Northumberland and Westmoreland that Elizabeth was a heretic, that she had thus lost all claim to dominion and power ; that she was to be regarded by them as a heathen ; and that they were free from any obligation to obey her laws. The exact words are thus given by another writer : " Our Lord has inspired your minds with a zeal worthy of your Catholic faith, that you may attempt to free yourselves and your country from the shameful slavery of female lewdness, and bring it back to its former obedience to this holy Eoman See " [Throckmorton's Further Considerations, 1011 497

2 1

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case. Wherefore d'Alva -wrote back to the Spanish Court, representing these difficulties and considerations. And, while his master gave him new orders, that, notwithstanding any objections, he should undertake the assistance of his friends in England in the manner that was resolved on, and sent Ridolii to him with money for the performance, it pleased God, in His secret judgment, to permit that Elizabeth should be advised of the whole design by a person abroad, whose name is here concealed. "Whence, using still greater diligence, and being more upon her guard, and having found at the passing of a river letters from the Duke of Norfolk with twelve thousand crowns, which he sent to his friends in Scotland to be ready with forces, she ordered him to be taken into stricter custody, many others being imprisoned, and among these his secretary, who at the torture, confessed his cipher, upon which the Duke, being convicted, was put to death, with many others. W i t h what excess of sorrow the Pope regretted this disappointment, let the reader judge. The Catholic king lamented it before the Cardinal of Alexandria, telling him that never was there a fairer enterprise, nor better concerted, nor ever more union and constancy among the parties concerned, it having never been discovered by their means all the time it was in agitation. Nor indeed was it less easy; because, if only three thousand of the infantry had in one night and one day unexpectedly passed over from Flanders, and landed at a time appointed in a certain place near London where Elizabeth's guards were posted, as in the Tower and in the Palace, there was so good an understanding, and so many people prepared, that the blow had been given in England before it could have been heard of in France, the Queen of Scots had been set at liberty, and confirmed Queen of England, as lawful heir, and the Catholic religion restored in that kingdom. Especially there having been assurance given, that Thomas Stuckley, an English gentleman, by means of the correspondence he held in Ireland, should in a few weeks, with certain ships of war granted him by the King of Spain, and three; thousand soldiers on board, reduce that whole island to the devotion of the Catholics; at the same time sending his own pilot with two ships, and two armed barks, to burn all the vessels in the Eiver of Thames." [Vita del Gloriosissimo Papa Pio Quinto, scritta, etc., Girolamo Catena, dedicata al Santissimo signur nostra Sisto Quinto. In Roma con lieenza etprivilegi, 1587, pp. 112-118]. I t was in the year after Catena had published the preceding narrative of this atrocious Papal conspiracy that the climax of that conspiracy was attained in the long-expected invasion of England undertaken by Philip II. with the great fleet named the "Armada." His expedition sailed in May 1588, and before August 5th of that year it was utterly ruined, partly by storms, partly by the resolute hearts and strong arms of Englishmen who loved their country, and in spite of those traitors who were inviting the enemies of England to her shores. After that notable 498

failure, no foreign prince was ever so unwise as to endeavour to conquer England for the Pope, and henceforth the Papal party sought their ends (except in the case of the Gunpowder Plot and its abortive insurrection) by more ordinary means. Meanwhile that party was diminishing in its native and growing in its alien element. For the old Marian party, which had come from within the Church of England, was almost extinguished by the lapse of time, and was being replaced by a party which had never had any connection with the Church of England. The Marian Episcopate died out in a very remarkable manner. The last of the twenty bishops consecrated during Mary's reign was Christopherson, who was consecrated to the See of Chichester (while Scory, its Edwardian Bishop, was still living) on November 21st, 1557. Between that time and the consecration of the first twelve Elizabethan Bishops on December 17th and 21st, 1559, and on January 21st and March 24th, 1560, no fewer than seventeen sees became vacant by death. These were as follows :— Vacated.

See.

Oct. Dec.

Oxtord Chichester Gloucester Canterbury Rochester Bristol St. David's Winchester

Peterborough

. . . . May . . . . Sept. „ . . . . Nov. „ . . . . Dec. Nov. . . . . Dec. . . . . Jan.

.

.

.

By death of

6, 1557. 4, ,, 1558

Capon. Kill!?. Hopton. Christophersou. Glynne. Brookes, Parfew. Poole. Griffin. Holvman. TuiLitall. Morgan. White. Bayne. Oglethorpe. Turberville. Poole.

,.

21, „ 7, „ 22, „ 19, ,, 20, „ 20. ,, 18.1559. 23, .. 12,1500.

,,

Another see, that of Llandaff, became vacant by the death of Kitchin in the year 1563, and there were then only eight survivors of the Marian Episcopate. One of these, Bonnor of London, was in prison; two, Goldwell of St. Asaph and Pates of Worcester, were living abroad, having deserted their sees on the death of M a r y ; five, Heath of York, Watson of Lincoln, Thirlby of Ely, Bourne of Bath, and Scott of Chester, were living as private gentlemen, having apparently resigned their sees. The last survivor of all was Watson, ex-Bishop of Lincoln, who was compromised by some treasonable conspiracy, and imprisoned in Wisbeach Castle, dying in the year 1584. W i t h his death the Marian succession came entirely to an end, no attempt ever having been made by any of the surviving bishops to consecrate others. 1 And with the end of the 1 In the British Museum l i b r a r y there is, however, a sheet of rough paper containing a list " o f f all ye Bysshopes, Doctours, and Priestes t h a t were prisoners in ye flyte for Religion synce t h e fyrste yore off the roigne of quene Elizabethe anno dom. 1559." I t gives twenty-four names, and among t h e m those of " T h e Bishop of Hertefordde," who was committed, on May 13th, 1561, and " Mr Thomas "Wood elected a Bishop," who was committ e d on November 20th, 1561 [Earl. MS. 360-7]. This

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Marian succession there came also to an end all connection whatever between the ancient Church of England and the new community of Roman Catholics. Until the old bishops had died there vas a shadow of such a connection, and the small community under them might claim to run parallel with that which under the bishops of the Church represented the old and broad ecclesiastical stream that had flowed onward to the sixteenth century from Apostolic times. But when the deatli of Watson without any Episcopal heir had brought that portion of the succession which he represented to an end, the English Episcopate descended from Archbishop Parker became the only lineal representatives of the mediaeval, Anglo-Saxon, and Primitive, Church of England. The Koman Catholic community of subsequent days no more flowed from the ancient Church of England than the Tiber flows from the Thames.

antipathy to England and the English Church. Some of these began to come over in the year 1571. "apparelled like mariners," and with " captains' passports" obtained in the Low Countries [Harl. MS. 360, f. 25], They landed as if they were coming to an enemy's country, and one in which the light of Christianity having been extinguished it was to be kindled again by their means, as it had been kindled among the heathen Saxons of Kent by the missionaries under St. Augustine. Secretly as they came, their movements were well known to the Government, and minute descriptions of their persons exist, one being described as having "little hair on the front of his forehead," another as " freckled," a third as a " pretty little fellow, of complexion something brown, and apparelled in blue," and so forth [ibid.]; but the Queen and her Government were not uneasy about them for the first few years, believing that the movement was only a temporary one, and would gradually from one cause or another cease [Sanders, cle Schism. Anglic. 312]. Queen Elizabeth had been nineteen years on the throne before any seminary priest suffered punishment, but when the papal conspiracy was aided by them, and especially by those of them who were Jesuits, a very serious danger threatened the Queen and the nation, and it became necessary to treat those as traitors who unhesitatingly mixed themselves up with treason.

But the probability of the schism dying out for want of a ministry had been foreseen as early as the year 1568 by an acute Oxford seceder named William Allen [A.D. 1532-94], who had been a Fellow of Oriel in the reign of Edward VI., Principal of St. Mary's Hall in that of Queen Mary, received the empty title of Cardinal of England in the year 1587, and became Archbishop of Mechlin in 1589. During the early part of Elizabeth's reign Allen was in England, and endeavoured to prevent his friends from frequenting the services of the Church. But about 1566 he went abroad, and was ordained priest at Mechlin, where he became a reader in theology. His acquaintance with the state of the Marian party in England led him to the conclusion that the old clergy would not perpetuate the schism, and he therefore devised the plan of founding colleges on the Continent "for restoring," as Persons writes, " a new English clergy." The first of these colleges, or " seminaries" as they were called, was established at Douay in Flanders in the year 1568, under Allen himself. From 1576 until 1593 it was carried on at Rheims, whither it had been driven by a riot at Douay. But in 1593 it was reinstated at the latter town, and continued there until the French Revolution, when it migrated to Old Hall Green at Ware, in Hertfordshire, and is now known as St. Edmund's College, though originally dedicated to St. Thomas of Canterbury. Other seminaries were founded at Eome, Seville, and Madrid, in 1578, and others at VYdladolid, St. Omer's, Paris, Liège, Lisbon, Louvain, and Ghent, during the subsequent forty years [Butler's Hist. Mem. ii. 172, 440]; and soenergetically were these supported by the Court of Rome that dispensations were granted to those Roman Catholics who possessed abbey lands, freeing them from all spiritual censures on that account if they contributed to the support of seminaries [Fuller's Ch. Hist. 92], At the foreign colleges thus established English youths were educated for the priesthood on the most extreme system of devotion to Eome and of stray paper is not much evidence, but it may indicate that some attempts to obtain a separate Episcopate were at first made, but instantly cheeked,

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The historian of the Jesuit Mission in England says that one of the body named William Good was sent to Ireland for four years, leaving the country again in 1568, but that none came to England until Campion and Persons made their appearance there in 1581. The reason he alleges is that as in the Divine Counsels the Saviour was not sent into the world until it was sunk in darkness, so England was permitted to become dark and wicked before the Jesuits were sent to convert it [More, Hist. Miss. Anglican. Soc. Jesu. 1660, p. 33]. But a story is told by Strype which shews that More was mistaken, and that Jesuits were among the earliest of the so called "missionaries." According to this narrative one of them named Thomas Heath, brother to the former Archbishop of York, was at work early in the Queen's reign, and was discovered in a curious manner. From 1562 until 1568 he went up and down the country, preaching in the churches, and spicing his sermons with Puritanism of the most extreme type. At last he applied to the Dean of Rochester as a poor minister deserving preferment, and to test his ability the Dean gave him a preaching turn in the cathedral. While preaching a sermon, in which he cried down the services of the Church, he accidentally dropped a letter from his pocket, which had been addressed to him under the name of Thomas Fine from an eminent English Jesuit named Malt at Madrid. This letter, containing instructions respecting his mission, was carried to the Bishop of Rochester, and led to Heath's chamber being searched, when there were found in his boots and in his trunk a license from the

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Jesuits, a Bull from the Pope authorizing him to preach what doctrine the Jesuits ordered him to preach for dividing Protestants, with several books against Infant Baptism. Heath was put in the pillory, branded with an R as a Recusant, and condemned to imprisonment for life; but ho died after being a few months in prison [Strvpe's Ann. ii. 273, eel. 1824], Somewhat earlier, May 10th, 1566, the Pope had issued a Bull anathematizing the English heretics, and enjoining all wise and learned ecclesiastics " to labour, endeavour, and contrive all manner of devices to abate, assuage, and confound them." This was so interpreted as that it gave dispensations to mission priests for " devising of new tenets, doctrines, and covenants," . . . "provided that the device intended was to promote the advancement of R o m e ; " and also permitting them to go through the ceremony of marriage with what women they pleased, on the ground that heretical marriage was no marriage, and that by appearing to be married they could better carry on their work of converting the nation. Commissions were given to them under several names in case they should be discovered, and that when they had intelligence they might fly to another place and still keep correspondence with the convents to which they belonged [ibid. 219], Added to these provocations there were many books sent into England by Allen, Bristowe, Sanders, Persons, and others, which were as damaging to the peace of the State as to that of the Church; and thus it is not surprising that the conduct of the seminary priests at last brought down severe punishment upon them. The old Marian clergy had been treated with kindness and liberality, and even the seminary priests had been merely placed under surveillance so long as they continued q u i e t ; b u t after the year 1577, in which the first of the latter was executed for treason, a large number suffered imprisonment and death, about 120 in all being punished as traitors during the remaining years of the Queen's reign.

a sovereign's life is entered into, whatever the ultimate object may be towards which the conspirators consider the sovereign's death as a step, those who thus conspire engage in an act of treason, and must risk the consequences. There was also published an official paper of six pages, entitled " A Declaration of the favourable dealing of Her Majesty's Commissioners appointed for the examination of certain traitors, and of tortures unjustly reported to be done upon them for matters of religion, 1583." This states, in addition, that the torture was never used to any of the accused persons, unless they gave evidence that they knew treasons which they would not reveal. If they said as Christian men, in such a manner as was usual and usually credited among Christian men, that they did not know, their allegation was always accepted. Those who were tortured were not so treated until after every endeavour had been used to get at the truth otherwise, and none, not even Campian himself, were so racked, but they were able to walk away from the rack, and to write with their hands, immediately afterwards.

These statements on the one hand are corroborated on the other by a publication which emanated from some of the seminary priests themselves, when they had come to see how much evil had resulted from the conduct of the Roman Catholics under the leadership of the Jesuits. This work was written, on behalf of a number of the secular priests, by one of their own number, named William Watson, and the title itself is instructive, being as follows : — " I m p o r t a n t considerations which ought to move all true and sound Catholics who are not wholly Jesuited to acknowledge, without all equivocations, ambiguities, or shiftings, that the proceedings of Her Majesty, and of the State, with them since the beginning of Her Highness' reign, have been both mild and merciful. Published b y sundry of us the secular priests in dislike of many treatises, letters, and reports, which have been written and made in divers places to the contrary ; together with our opinions Roman Catholics are accustomed to balance of a better course hereafter for the promoting of these executions against the burnings of Queen the Catholic faith in England, is ewly imprinted, 1601." The work is a manifesto against " t h e Mary's reign, as if, in the later cases as well as in the earlier, the persons executed were sufferers Jesuitical Hispanized faction" led by Persons, Garnet, and Blackwell, and speaks of the laity as for religion. But this allegation was disproved by Lord Burleigh in his work entitled " E x e c u - being strongly under the influence of the Jesuits. tion for Treason, and not for Religion," printed Their historical statement of facts agrees exactly in 1583. 1 H e shews that the Seminary priests with that of Burleigh ; and they say the State were arraigned under Acts of Parliament of Ed- had good reason to make laws against them, conward I I I . ' s reign, about 1330, not under any sidering what " outrageous" treasons were being "Sure new l a w s ; that only those were condemned for practised, and having the Bull in view. we are, that no king or prince in Christendom treason who engaged in political conspiracies, and especially who maintained the effect of the Pope's would like or tolerate any such subjects within Bullagainst the Queen. These personsalways made their dominions, if possibly they could be rid of a point of saying that what they did -was done for t h e m " [p. 21], They attribute Throckmorton's religion, also that they suffered for religion ; but it plot, and those connected with Mary, Queen of is sufficiently plain that when a conspiracy against Scots, in general, to the Jesuits, and declare the Pope himself to have " plotted with the King of 1 The full title is " E x e c u t i o n of Justice in England Spain'' at their instigation, for putting Marv on for maintenance of public and Christian peace against the throne of England. To the Jesuits also they certain stirrers of sedition and adherents to the traitors attribute the contrivance of plots for the assassiand enemies of t h e realm, without any persecution of t h e m for questions of religion, as is falsely reported and nation of the Queen, mentioning Patrick Collen, published b v the fautors and fosterers of "tlieir treasons" Doctor. Lopez, Yorke, Williams, and Squire as ! Second ed. 1583]. having been so employed by them. 500

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The troubles inflicted have been "great we confess in themselves, but far less we think than any prince living in Her Majesty's case, and so provoked, would have inflicted upon us. Some of us have said many a time when we have read and heard speeches of Her Majesty's supposed cruelty, ' Why, my masters, what would you have her to do, being resolved as she is in matters of religion, except she should willingly cast off the care, not only of her State and kingdom, but of her life also and princely estimation V Yea, there have been amongst us of our own calling who have likewise said that they themselves, knowing what they do know, how, under pretence of religion, the life of Her Majesty and the subversion of the kingdom is aimed a t ; if they had been of her Highness' Council, they would have given their consent for the making of very strait and rigorous laws to the better suppressing and preventing of all such Jesuitical and wicked designmen ts" [p. 37]. And this, notwithstanding that " we profess ourselves with all godly courage and boldness to be as sound Catholic priests as any Jesuits or men living in the world, and that we do not desire to draw breath any longer on the earth than that we shall so continue."

to the few who were traitors to their sovereign and country was often necessary, in those times, to preserve the liberties of the many who were loyal to both. I t has already been shewn that the formal organization of the Roman Catholics in England began with the Jesuits. On the death of Bishop Watson, the few secular clergy who remained felt themselves left entirely without a head, and the idea of continuing the old succession, if it had ever been seriously entertained, was necessarily abandoned. The Jesuits, henceforth, easily took the lead (although constantly and bitterly opposed by the secular clergy), and the " English Mission" was established under their leadership and under the sanction of the Pope. No pretence was at that time made by them to represent the old Church of England, their professed object being to effect a new conversion of the English people, and so to found a new branch of the Church. [Persons' Four Conversions of England. Berington's Panzanils Mem,. Introd. 42.J This object was well understood by the partizans of the Pope on the Continent, and excited so much interest and expectation that an official letter of intelligence to the Lord Treasurer, dated August 31st, 1592, savs, " Scarcely anything else is talked of in Italy but this combat of England." The writer adds, however, that in Germany there were many who disapproved of what was going on [Hurl. MS. 35, f. 372],

Such evidence as this shews that the severities used towards Iioman Catholics in the earlier times of the existence of their sect were actually forced upon the Government by the unscrupulous conduct of those who were endeavouring, as the chief part of their mission, to overthrow or to destroy the Queen ; that by her destruction they might remove what they considered to be the chief barrier against the introduction of the Papal authority and system. I t was no persecution of the " ancieut faith" or of the " remnant of the ancient Church," as is so often represented by Roman Catholic writers, but simply and entirely the punishment, in self-defence, of sectarian priests who had come to this country with the arrogant profession of converting its people, but who strove to bring them under the yoke of Ultramontanism by acts which the law accounted, and would still account, treasonable. 1 That no great severity was shewn towards Iioman Catholics on account of their religion alone is shewn by an order of Council, dated May 7th, 1581, at the very time when Campian the Jesuit was in the Tower for treason, directing that all Eecusants shall be set free on recognizances not to depart the realm without license, nor to go more than three miles from home until they have conformed [Council Boole, Lansd. MS. 1162, Brit, Mvs\ That great severity was shewn by Queen Elizabeth's government towards Roman Catholic traitors, as well as towards all other traitors, is not to be doubted. But severity 1 " A f t e r t h e promulgation of the Bull, six queries were generally proposed to the priests who were iirraicrncd. They regarded the import of that Bull, the deposition of t h e Queen as pronounced in it, and what should be the conduct of good subjects in reference to both. Few answered, I am sorry to observe, as became loyal Englishmen and faithful citizens. They seemed, rather, to consider themselves as the subjects of a foreign master, whose sovereignty was paramount and whose will was supreme."

[Berington's Memoirs of Panzani, Introd. 34.]

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For some years the direction of this arrogant and sehismatical " Mission" was assumed by Robert Persons [A.D. 1546-1610], an Oxford seceder who had become a Jesuit in the year 1575, and having come to England with Edmund Campian 2 (an ex-fellow of St. John's, Oxford) under a commission from Gregory X I I I . , in July 1580, returned to Rome soon after the execution of Campian in 1581, and after being Rector of the English Seminary at Rome for some years, was eventually appointed " Prefect of the English Mission " in the year 1592. Father Persons himself was under the direction of Cardinal Allen, who was Archbishop of Mechlin, but neither of them left the Continent, Persons remaining in safety abroad while he stirred up sedition in England by means of his books and his Jesuit agents. This mode of government was very objectionable to the sehismatical clergy, who all along felt themselves to be in a false position, and desired to place themselves in one that should seem more justifiable than that of a foreign mission, by having bishops appointed from their own body. After the death of Cardinal Allen, in the year 1594, this feeling grew stronger, and it ended in 1597 in an unanimons petition to the Pope for the restoration of a hierarchy " in which Bishops should be elected by the common consent of the clergy and appointed by the,m to different districts" [Mush, Declaratio Motuum, 21, 30], In'3 Campian's true name it is said was Edwards, but he assumed t h a t by which h e is usually known to save hia friends from trouble [Earl. MS. 360, f. 25], H e is, however, entered as " Kdmnnd C a m p i a n " in modern Oxford lists.

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stead, of acceding to the request so made, the Pope was persuaded b j the Jesuits to appoint an Arch priest (or Rural Dean), George Blackwell [A.D. 1545-1613], an Oxford seceder, whose sole commission was a letter from Cardinal Cajetan, dated March 7th, 1598. This gave him authority over the 400 Roman Catholic clergy of England, but restricted t h a t authority by appointing a council of six to act w i t h him, and by prohibiting him from determining anything of importance without consulting the Superior of the Jesuits. The clergy remonstrated so strongly at the slight put upon them by the oii'-hand manner in which this appointment was made, that at last the Pope was persuaded to add the dignity and weight of his own commission, which was issued to Blackwell in the form of & Brief on August 17th, 1601. Blackwell, however, became a loyal Englishman under the influence of horror and disgust at the Gunpowder Plot, and taking the oath of allegiance to J a m e s I. was deprived of his office by the Pope for so doing in the year 1608. 1 Two other archpriests were appointed, GeoTge Birkhead, in 1608, and George Harrison, in 1615, b u t on the death of the latter, in 1621, the Pope was again petitioned to substitute bishops for these anomalous officers. This request was so far conceded that William Bishop was consecrated to the episcopal office on J u n e 4th, 1623, and sent to England as Vicar-Apostolic, with faculties similar to " those of the late archpriests joined to those which ordinaries enjoy and exercise," b u t the authority was given only during the pleasure of the Pope, and the Vicar-Apostolic was not a Bishop with independent power, b u t only a delegate of another Bishop, the Pope, under t h e title of the " Bishop of Chalcedon." Now " it seemed to many," says Berington, " that the English Catholic Church was re-established in the renovation of her hierarchy. But the fond imagination, I fear, was founded on no truth. . . . The Roman Pontiff still continued to be, what the clergy of England h a d for many years permitted him to be, their only Bishop. H o w then, with him at our head, could it in the estimation of such men be said that we were without a church and a hierarchy of transcendent excellence 1 H e governed us at one time by the agency of Dr. Allen, perhaps by that of Father Persons ; at another by his archpriests ; now by the Bishop of Chalcedon; and in after times, as it will appear, by a series of similar delegations" [Berington's Memoirs of Pcinzani, Introd. 105], The first " Bishop of Chalcedon" died in less t h a n a year after his appointment. H e was succeeded by Richard Smith, under the same title, who retained the office until 1655, but lived most of the time abroad. For thirty years n o successor to Smith was appointed, b u t in 1685 J o h n L e y b u m was consecrated under the title of " Bishop of Adrumetum," and England was afterwards, on J a n u a r y 20th, 1688, divided into t h e London, Midland, Northern, and W e s t e r n

Districts, b y Pope Innocent X I . The Roman Catholics of Scotland were placed under the Archpriests and Vicars-Apostolic of England until the year 1694, since which time they have had VicarsApostolic of their own. There is not space in this article to follow u p in any detail the history of the R o m a n Catholic sect during the time that has elapsed between its original organization and t h e present d a y : and it must suffice to trace the course of t h a t history only in general outline. Early in the reign of James I. the efforts of the Jesuits at home, and of t h e Seminaries abroad, were so successful t h a t both Houses of Parliament presented an address to the Crown, setting forth t h a t there was a " mischievous increase of Papists in his Majesty's dominion of late," which they feel bound to represent to the King, with the dangerous consequences t h a t were likely to result. Their dependence on foreign princes, the address said, was very e v i d e n t ; and there was also great danger if any ambitious man should become popular as the leader of the P o p i s h party. The principal causes of this increase are stated to be the too great leniency which was shewn in enforcing the laws against Jesuits, Seminary priests, and Popish recusants; t h e influence which was exercised in their favour b y foreign ambassadors, and the resort of the Papists to their chapels; their concourse to t h e City, and their frequent conferences t h e r e ; t h e education of their children in foreign seminaries and colleges, which had been greatly enlarged of l a t e ; the insufficient instruction of the population; t h e licentious permittance of Popish b o o k s ; and lastly, t h e employment of men i n places of government who gave countenance to the Popish party [Hurl MS. 35, f. 452, Brit. Mus.]? Similar addresses were sent u p to Charles I. on March 31st, 1628, and on this occasion also great importance was attributed to the immigration of Jesuits, and of children who h a d been educated in the foreign seminaries. I t was also alleged t h a t many schools at home were in the h a n d s of Recusants, and that the latter were acquiring much wealth by clever management of money in the C i t y — w h a t in later times has been, called "stockj o b b i n g " [ibid. 1G1, f. 228], T h e great struggle for power which is t h u s indicated was continued during the Civil W a r s by means of those disgraceful u n d e r h a n d practices to which the party devoted to t h e Pope seems always ready to r e s o r t : and Bishop Bramliall declares that nearly one h u n d r e d of the Romisli clergy became soldiers in t h e Parliament's army t h a t they might stir u p f u r t h e r animosities against

1 There are many documents connected with Blackwell's official -work as deputy of the Eoman See in the Harleian MS. volume, 6848, in the British Museum.

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2 The rapid increase of the sect on the death of Queen Elizabeth is shewn conspicuously in Peacock's List of the Eoman Catholics in the County of York in 1604, which was printed by Mr. Peacock from a MS. in the Bodleian. Library in the year 1872. The recusants are distinguished in this list as " o l d " and " n e w ; " and while there arc parishes enumerated in which no persons reiused to come to Church in the Queen's time, though "new recusants " had arisen within a year of her death, other cases are recorded in which two "recusants o l d " were reinforced by twenty-five "recusants new since 25 Marcii 1603."

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the Church of England, in the hope that its overthrow would eventually place their own party in the ascendant [Bramhall's Works, i. 95]. The establishment of Cromwell's iron tyranny was, however, very unfavourable to the prosperity and progress of the sect, and it was not until the latter part of the reign of Charles II. that it again began to flourish. The astute policy then adopted by the Jesuit leaders of the "English Mission" was to secure the co-operation of the Protestant Dissenters in attempting to secure what was called " toleration," but what was in reality freedom to carry on their never-ceasing endeavours to re-establish the Supremacy of the Pope in England. In the reign of James II. a very dangerous advance was made towards this end. I n the year 1686, Father Petre, the Vice-Provincial of the Jesuits in England, was made a member of the Privy Council, and of the "junto," or Cabinet Council of the Prime Minister, the Earl of Sunderland. This body then consisted only of seven members, and Sunderland himself, with two or three others, being Eoman Catholics, the government of England was practically in the hands of the sect. St. James' Chapel was appropriated to the use of fourteen Benedictine monks and the King's chaplains; the Savoy became a Jesuit monastery, the Franciscans set up their banner in Lincoln Inn Fields, the Carmelites in the City. At Oxford the Dean of Christ Church and the Master of University College established the Eoman services in their college chapels; 1 and for the first time since the sect had been founded public chapels were opened for its use throughout the country. Four Yicars-Apostolic were also appointed by the Pope, and for each of them the Government provided an income of £1000 a year out of the Exchequer [Berington's State and Behaviour of Oath. 157]. But when the alliance of Protestant and Eoman Catholic Dissenters had obtained from James II. the unconstitutional " Declaration of Liberty of Conscience," by which the latter hoped to pave the way for completing the work which had been so prosperously commenced, the clergy and laity of the Church were fairly aroused to the danger, and the imprisonment of the seven bishops who resisted this overbearing exercise of the prerogative caused the tide to turn.

bearing—" Roman Catholic Emancipation," in the year 1829 by 10 Geo. IV. ch. 7; and by a subsequent Act passed in 1832 [3 Will. IY. ch. 115] Eoman Catholics were placed on the same constitutional footing as other Dissenters. 2 It has already been said that the Deputy Bishops, or " Aricars-Apostolic," from 1623 to 1688, were only three in number, and that for a large portion of these sixty-five years there was not any Eoman Catholic Bishop in England. The conduct of James II. and his Government was, however, so encouraging to the Papal Court, that on January 30th, 1688, Pope Innocent XI. divided England into four districts, appointing YicarsApostolic to each. This arrangement continued for a century and a half, during which time there were thirty-three of these schismatical bishops in England. On July 30tli. 1840, Pope Gregory XYI. re-divided the four districts into eight; and fourteen Yicars-Apostolic were appointed 1o these between 1840 and 1850. All these VicarsApostolic had been consecrated nominally to dioceses " in partibus infidelium," and bore such titles as Bishops of Melipotamus, Ariopolis, Olena, Tloa, Samosata, etc. But t under the management of Cardinal Wiseman, Pope Pius IX., on September 29th, 1850, divided England into thirteen dioceses bearing English titles, namely, those of Westminster, Beverley, Birmingham, Clifton, Hexham and Newcastle, Liverpool, Menevia and Newport, Northampton, Nottingham, Plymouth, Salford, Shrewsbury, and Southwark. The twelve latter of these are considered to be within the Province of Westminster, of which Cardinal Wiseman became the first titular Archbishop in 1850, and Henry Edward Manning, formerly Archdeacon of Chichester, the second in 1865.

After the Revolution of 1688, which followed this development of Romanism, and which was chiefly occasioned by it, the Eoman Catholics began to decline in power; and although their ecclesiastical organization was more and more developed under their Yicars-Apostolic, it was not until they had succeeded in their long-continued efforts to obtain the removal-of those civic disabilities which the treasons and disloyalty of the sect had brought upon them, that they again attained any prominent position in England. These disabilities were finally removed by what was called—with great exaggeration of their true 1 The Eoman Catholics up to this time still used to some extent the old Saram Service Books. The Missal used by James II. himself is preserved in the Cathedral Library at Worcester.

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If anything was wanting before to complete the schismatical and sectarian position of the Roman Catholics, this was the crowning act; and in concluding the historical review of their sect no words can better bo used to describe the position which, has thus been assumed by them than those of Henry Edward Manning himself, written in 1845, when he was a leading "High Churchman." " The attempt," he writes, " to impose an uncanonical jurisdiction on the British churches, and a refusal to hold communion with them except on that condition, was clearly an act of schism. And this was further aggravated by every kind of aggression: acts of excommunication and anathema, instigations to warfare abroad and to rebellion and schism at home, are the measures by which the Roman Church has exhibited its professed desire to restore unity to the Church of Christ. It must never be forgotten that the act of the Bishop of Rome, by which a most grievous and stubborn contest was begun in the English Church, 2 The disabilities under which Eoman Catholics were placed were that they were disqualified for sitting in Parliament by 30 Ch. II. 2, § 1, in 1677; were excepted from the Toleration Act of 1689; ivere disabled from voting at elections by 7 & 8 "Will. I I I . ch. 27, in 1696; and from inheriting or holding lands by 11 & 12 Will. III. ch. 27, in 1700. These disabilities were almost all imposed by the Government of William III.

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Roman Catholics

was taken not in the character of Patriarch, but in the title of Supreme Pontiff. The same Bull which made a rent in every English diocese professed to depose also the Queen of England. I t was a power to give away not sees, but thrones also; and the effect of this has been, as in the East so in England, to erect altar against altar, and succession against succession. I n the formation of sects in diocesan churches, in the exclusive assumption of the name Catholic, in the reordination of priests, and in restricting the One Church to their own communion, there has been no such example of division since the schism of Donatus" [Manning's Unity of the Church, 364, 2nd ed.]. II. ROMAN CATHOLIC DOCTRINE. The main point of difference between the Church of England and the Roman Catholics of England originally consisted in the claim made for the Pope, on the one hand, to exercise jurisdiction over the clergy and laity of England; and the denial of that claim, on the other, by the clergy in Convocation, and the sovereign, prelates and laity in Parliament. If this claim had been admitted on the accession of Queen Elizabeth, and perhaps during the earlier part of the reign of James I., the Pope and the Court of Rome would have been willing to have passed over other differences very lightly, or at least to have let them slumber until a council had spoken upon the subject. I t is worth notice that the Book of Common Prayer as revised in 1559 was quietly accepted by the great body of Romanist laity; and also that the Pope himself saw so little to object to in it that he offered to give the book his full sanction if his authority were recognised by the Queen and kingdom. This fact is referred to in the first head of Dennum's paper from Venice in 1564 [p. 495], I n the same charge also, from which a quotation has already been made [p. 494] respecting the attendance of Roman Catholics at church, Sir Edward Coke states as follows : That the Pope [Pius IV.] " before the time of his excommunication against Queen Elizabeth denounced, sent his letter unto her Majesty, in which he did allow the Bible and Book of Divine Service as it is now used among us to be authentic and not repugnant to truth ; but that therein was contained enough necessary to salvation, though there was not in it so much as might conveniently be, and that he would also allow it unto us, without changing any part, so as her Majesty would acknowledge to receive it from the Pope, and by his allowance; which her Majesty denying to do, she was then presently by the same Pope excommunicated. And this is the truth concerning Pope Pius Quartus as I have faith to God and men. I have oftentimes heard avowed by the late Queen her own words; and I have conferred with some Lords that were of greatest reckoning in the State, who had seen and read the letter, which the Pope sent to that effect, as have been by me specified. And this upon my credit, as I am an honest man, is most true." [The Lord Coke, His Speech and Charge, London, 1607. See also Camden, Ann. Eliz. p. 59, ed. 1615. Twysden's

Historical Vindication of the Church of England, p. 175. Humphrey Prideaux's Validity of the Orders of the Church of England. Bramhall's Works, ii. 85, ed. 1845. Bishop Babington's Notes on the Pentateuch; on Numbers vii. Courayer's Defence of the Dissertation on the Validity of English Ordinations, ii. 360, 378. Harrington's Pius IV. and the Booh of Common Prayer, 1856.] 1 I t is manifest that the concession of the Prayer Book carried with it substantially the concession of the doctrinal phase of the English Reformation. There were probably, indeed, few of the English clergy or laity who would not gradually have accepted the official Reformation of the Church of England—a very different thing from accepting the Puritan interpretation of it—if the Pope's supremacy had not stood in the way. But the exclusion of the Church of England from the Council of Trent [A.D. 1545-1563] embittered the controversy between England and Rome; and raised further difficulties by petrifying opinions into dogmas with a positive minuteness from which the English mind lias always revolted. Notwithstanding this, the doctrines of the Council of Trent were held by English Roman Catholics with much less rigidity than by the Continental churches until recent times; and the following fair statement of them by a writer of the last century; will shew that at that time they did not much differ, except in those articles which relate to the Papal Supremacy, and making allowance for differing modes of expressing the same truth from those of the Church of England as held by High Church divines :— " [1] That Christ has established a Church upon earth, and that this Church is that which holds communion with the See of Rome, being One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolical. " [2] That we are obliged to hear this Church, and therefore that she is infallible by the guidance of Almighty God. in her decisions regarding faith. " [3] That Peter, by Divine commission, was appointed the head of this Church, under Christ its founder : and that the Pope, or Bishop of Rome, as successor to St. Peter, has always been, aucl is at present, by Divine right, head of this Church. " [4] That the Canon of the Old and New Testament, as proposed to us by this Church, is the Word of G o d ; as also such traditions, belonging to faith and morals, which being originally delivered by Christ to His Apostles have been preserved by constant succession in the Catholic Church. " [5] That honour and veneration are due to the Angels of God and Ilis Saints; that they offer up prayers to God for us ; that it is good and profitable to have recourse to their intercession ; and that the relics or earthly remains of God's particular servants are to be held in respect. " [6] That no sins ever were, or can be, remitted unless by the mercy of God, through Jesus Christ; and therefore that man's justification is the work of Divine grace. 1 Blimt's Annotated Prayer-Boots, xxxv.

Roman Catholics " [7] That the good works which we do receive their whole value from the grace of God; and that by such good works we not only comply with the precepts of the Divine law, but that wo thereby likewise merit eternal life. " [8] That by works done in the spirit of penance we can make satisfaction to God for the temporal punishment which often remains due after our sins, by the Divine goodness, have been forgiven ns. " [9] That Christ has left to His Church a power of granting indulgences, that is, a relaxation from such temporal chastisements only as remains due after the Divine pardon of sin: and that the use of such indulgences is profitable to sinners. "[10] That there is a Purgatory or Middle State, and that the souls of imperfect Christians therein detained are helped by the prayers of the faithful. " [11] That there are seven Sacraments, all instituted by Christ; Baptism, Confirmation, Eucharist, Penance, Extreme Unction, Holy Order, Matrimony. " [12] That in the most holy Sacrament of the Eucharist there is truly, really, and substantially the body and blood, together with the Soul and the Divinity of our Lord Jesus Christ. " [13] That in this Sacrament there is, by the Omnipotence of God, a conversion or change of the whole substance of the bread into the body of Christ, and of the whole substance of the wine into His blood, which change Ave call Transubstantiation. " [14] That under either kind Christ is received whole and entire. " [15] That in the Mass, or Sacrifice of the Altar, is offered to God a true, proper, and propitiatory sacrifice for the living and the dead. " [16] That in the Sacrament of Penance, the sins we fall into after Baptism are, by the Divine Mercy, forgiven us. " There are points of discipline also which regulate conduct, and to which we pay obedience, as fasting on particular clays, communion in one kind, celibacy of Churchmen, use of the Latin language in public service, and other similar practices; but as these vary, and may be either altered or suppressed by due authority, they belong not to what is properly styled the Faith of Catholics" [Berington's State and. Behaviour of Eng. Catholics, 1780, pp. 143-148], But in the middle of the nineteenth century the old tone of the Roman Catholics was again supplanted to a very great extent by the modern Ultramontane tone; the change arising partly from the authoritative way in which the Pope and the Roman Court acted towards English Roman Catholics after 1829, partly from the more free intercourse which existed between England and the Continent, and partly from the zeal of some seceders from the Church of England, which led them to adopt the most extreme theology of the community to which they attached themselves. The imposition as articles of faith of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception by 505

Roman Catholics the Vatican Council of 1854, and of the personal Infallibility of the Pope by that of 1870, set up still higher the wall between Anglican and Roman belief, removed the Roman Catholic body in England still further from the Apostolic Church of England than it had stood before, and put a stop to those attempts to promote re-union which might otherwise have led to an eventual abolition of the schism. III. STATISTICS.—The number of Roman Catholics in England and Wales has often been greatly exaggerated. Butler, in his " Historical Memoirs of the English Catholics," states that they were a majority of the population, that is more than 2,250,000, in the reign of Elizabeth : and Hallam, although he lowers this estimate considerably, still considers that they formed a third of the population at that time, or about I,500,000. Both of these estimates are mere guesses, utterly unsupported by any historical evidence; and such guesses are disgraceful in those who profess to write with authority for the guidance of public opinion to truth. Sir John Dalrympic's Memoirs, on the other hand, preserve a memorandum, of which he says —" While King William was engaged in his project of reconciling the religious differences of England, he was at great pains to find out the proportions between Churchmen, Dissenters, and Papists. In his chest there is the followingcurious report in consequence of an inquiry upon that head" 1 [Dalrymple's Memoirs, Ajjp. to Part II. p. 14]. This report gives the number in a tabular form for each county, and also the general result, afterwards adding an equal number to each total for children under sixteen years of age. The numbers thus arrived at are as follows:— Nonconformists.

Papists.

Province of Canterbury •2,123,362 Province of York . . 353,892

93,151 15,325

11,878 1,978

2,477,254 2,477,254

108,476 108,676

13,856 13,856

4,954,508

217,152

27,712

Conformists.

This estimate seems likely to be correct, as the total, 5,199,372, nearly agrees with the number at which the population of England and Wales is estimated about the time at which it was made ; that population amounting to six millions in the beginning of the eighteenth century. In the year 1767 the House of Lords, on the motion of Lord Radnor, requested the Bishops to obtain a census of the Roman Catholics, by means of inquiries to be made by the clergy of their respective dioceses. This inquiry is in fact ordered by the 114th Canon of 1603 to be made by the clergy every year, and the results of it to be presented by the archbishops to the Crown: 1 A Broadsheet of 1705 gives this report a different origin, heading the ligures " Great and good news to the Cliureh of England, being the exact numbers of Churchmen, Dissenters, and Komans in England and Wales, as they were given to the late King James on the 3rd day of May 1688," etc. [Bodl. Pamph. 264, 1705-6].

Roman Catholics

Rosier iiciafs

but it may be doubted whether this canon was ever strictly observed. As to the census ordered in 1767, Berington, speaking of it in 1780, hopes that a careful inquiry will be made by the bishops, but meanwhile gives his own estimate. " From the best information I can procure," he writes, "their number does not, at this day, exceed 60,000 : and this even I suspect to be far beyond the mark. . . . The few Catholics I have mentioned are also dispersed in the different counties. I n many, particularly in the West, in South Wales, and in some of the Midland Counties, there is scarcely a Catholic to be found.. This is easily known from the residence of the priests. Alter Loudon, by far the greatest number is in Lancashire. I n Staffordshire are a good many, as also in the northern counties of York, Durham, and Northumberland. Some of the manufacturing and trading towns, as Norwich, Manchester, Liverpool, Wolverhampton, and Newcastle-uponTyne, have chapels, which are rather crowded, but these constitute the greatest part of the number I have just given to their respective counties. I n a few towns, particularly at Coventry, their number I lind is increased; but this by no means in proportion of the general increase of population in the same places. Excepting in the towns, and out of Lancashire, the chief situation of Catholics is in the neighbourhood of the old families of that persuasion. They are the servants who have married from those families, and who choose to remain round the old mansion for the eonveniency of prayers, and because they hope to receive favours and assistance from their former masters" [Berington, Stale and Behaviour of English Catholics, iii. 111-114].

The number of Roman Catholic clergy in England and Wales in 1780 is reckoned by Berington at 300, and ho says that they " either live as chaplains in the families of gentlemen, and have the care bf the little congregations around them, or else they reside in towns, or in some country places where funds have been settled for their support. The chapels are in their own houses" [Berington's State and Behaviour of Eng. Cath. 160]. I n the year 1872 the number of clergy (including 16 bishops) was 1599, and the number of public chapels 1005, but many of the latter are only "stations" at which services were held occasionally, "while many of the clergy are private chaplains or belong to monastic communities. Roman Catholic colleges, convents, and schools for the higher and middle classes are, however, very numerous ; and these are continually growing in wealthy endowments and in social power. 1

If, instead of estimating the Boman Catholics at 50 per cent, of the population with .Butler, or at 33 per cent, with Hallam, we reckon them as averaging about 60,000, or 1 per cent., from 1570 to 1800, we shall probably be not far from the truth. Since the rise of manufacturing industry a very large number of Irish labourers has been required both in the field and in the factory; and a majority of these being Roman Catholics the numbers of the sect in England and Wales have increased greatly in modern times. A very careful statistician has recently calculated that they now stand as follows :—• English Roman Catholics and their Children, Foreign, do. do. Irish, do. do.

179,000 52,000 732,560 963,560

[Ravenstein's Denominational Statistics, 1870, p. 20.] As the population of England and Wales is now 23,000,000, the proportion of English Roman Catholics appears by these figures to be reduced to f per cent. ; including the foreigners it is exactly 1 per cent; and including both them and the Irish, it amounts to rather more than 4 per cent. In Scotland the proportion is very much higher, being not less than 10 per cent., the number in Glasgow alone being stated in Gordon's Glasglm Fades as 120,000. 506

ROSCELLIN.

[Schoolmen.]

EOSCIIOLSCHIKI. [Isbraniki.] ROSEN F E E D E R S . The fanatic followers of an impostor named Hans Rosenfeld, who had been a gamekeeper, but set himself up as the Messiah about the year 1763, and seduced a large number of followers in Prussia and the neighbouring states. Rosenfeld persuaded his followers that Christianity was a delusion, its priests impostors, and Frederick the Great neither more nor less than the Evil One, whom Rosenfeld was to depose, that he might afterwards govern the world himself as the Messiah, assisted by a council of twenty-four elders like those of the Apocalypse. This impostor deluded multitudes, and lived upon them in outrageous profligacy for twenty years. Eventually, in the year 1782, one of his followers, who still believed in him, appealed to the King, whom he believed to be the Evil One, to revenge him on Rosenfeld for the seduction of his three daughters. This led the King to order proceedings to be taken against the impostor, and he was sentenced to be flogged and imprisoned for the remainder of his life at Spandau; after which his sect was dispersed. [Gregoirc's Hist, des Sectes lletig.] ROSICRUCIANS, This name was that adopted by a large section of the later iirephilosophers or Theosophists, who were spread throughout all the countries of Northern Europe, about the beginning of the seventeenth century. Considerable difficulty exists as to the origin of the name, as well as to the limits and character of the society. The name, popularly derived from " r o s a " and "crux," seems at first sight 1 Berington says respecting the Roman Catholic clergy of his time: " Out' priests in their general character are upright and sincere, but narrowed by a bad education; they contract early prejudices which they very seldom afterwards deposit. . . . They are bred up ill the persuasion that on coming to England they are to meet with racks and persecution; they land, therefore, as in an enemy's country, cautious, diffident, and s'lspectful." His account of them, generally, is that they were discontented, bigoted, ignorant, and unlit to hold their own in society ; an account which substantially agrees with what is otherwise known of those who came from the foreign seminaries.

Rosicrucians

R up itee

to have some connection with the arms of Luther, which are composed of these symbols. But the term is really a chemical one, and barbarously derived from " ros," dew (in alchemistic belief a powerful if not universal solvent), and "crux," which in the alchemistic language is identified with light, because the figure of a cross contains, in various presentations, all the three capital letters of the word "lux." Moreover, the lirephilosophers applied the term " lux" to the seed of the red dragon, or to that crude and corporeal light which by due process of concentration was believed to produce gold. The Eosicrucians were in fact the philosophers who by means of dew sought for the alchemistic light, that is, for the substance of the philosopher's stone. A different derivation is however suggested by the earliest Kosicrucian publication, the " Fama Fraternitatis," which was published in Frankfort about A.D. 1610. I n this work the founder and head of the fraternity is said to have been one Christopher llosencreutz, a German, born A.D. 1388, who, during a pilgrimage to Damascus and the Holy Sepulchre, was entertained and instructed by certain wise men of the East, from whose hands he passed into those of the chemists of Egypt and Morocco, where his education was completed. Having thus obtained a thorough insight into the Kabbala and all magical arts, he is alleged on his return home to have commenced the reform of human knowledge ; and it is pretended that having for this purpose admitted several pupils to his studies, the fraternity so formed preserved its continuity up to the seventeenth century. The publication of this singular fable divided popular opinion into two parties, one declaring the Rosierucians to bo a body of learned and orthodox reformers, the other holding them to be a band of ignorant dreamers, the puryeyors of mischievous delusion. As the Eosicrucian doctrines depended entirely on reasoning derived from facts testified to by heated imaginations and morbidly receptive senses, unanimity of opinion is not to be expected. The sectaries agreed, however, in holding: first, that the only true knowledge was to be derived by analysis of all bodies by the agency of fire ; secondly, that God operates by the same laws in the kingdom of Grace as in the kingdom of Nature, and that there is therefore a complete analogy and coincidence between science and religion ; thirdly, that a divine soul or energy is diffused through the fabric of the universe—this incorporeal existence being by some called "Ar507

chaius," by others the Universal Spirit. Holding these views, it is but natural to find that they expressed their religious doctrines in chemical terms. They also taught a vague and uncertain astrology, magic, and demonology. The Rosicrucians obtained a factitious importance through their strenuous opposition to the Peripatetic philosophy, which was in their time dominant throughout Christendom. I n their bizarre and irrational way they anticipated the great revolt against the Aristotelians, which the close of the seventeenth century saw in full vigour; but in this revolt, and in the scientific impulses which accompanied it, the idle dreaming of the Rosicrucians was incontinently swept away. The great names of these alchemistic philosophers are Robert Fludd, an Englishman ; Jacob Bohmen, a shoemaker of Gorlitz; and Michael Mayer. The Helmonts, Knorr, Kuhlmann, Xoll, and Sperber, complete the list. [Literature of Rosicrucianism. The work Fama Fraternitatis Rosea Cruris — Fama e Scanzia redux TOIE-'U Buccinia Jubilei ultima, Eoce Ilijperbolew Frcenuncia montium Europce continua suo clangore feriens inter colles et convalles Araba resonans, etc., equally remarkable for its spelling and contents, is the first authority as to the pretensions and tenets of the sect. Nearly all the leaders, however, whose names are mentioned above wrote some work to be found under their names. Examen Philosophic^ Fludclance, by Pierre Gassendi, is the first controversial work on this subject; Kirchen- und Ketzerhistorie, by Gottfried Arnold; and Historia Crítica Philosophic, part iv., by Briicker, contain full information. See also Mosheim, Ecclesiast. Hist. cent, xvii.] EOWITES. [CAMPBELLITES.] RUNCARII. An Antinomian sect of the Waldenses which is mentioned by Reinerius as agreeing for the most part with the Paterins, but as holding that no part of the body below the waist can commit mortal sin, because such sin proceeds "out of the heart." They probably took their name from the town of Runcalia, or Runkel. [Reiner, corttr. Waldens. in Bibl. Max. Lagd. xxv. 266 f.] RUPITIE, or R U P I T A N I . A name given to the small Donatist congregation at Rome from their being driven to shelter among the rocks for the purpose of celebrating their religious services. [Schlosser, s. v.~\ R U S S I A N SECTS. [RASCIIOLNIKS.]

s S A B A T N I K I . A sect of Russian Sabbatarians, or " Sabbath honotirers," which arose in Ifovogorod [c. A.D. 1470], where some clergy and laity were persuaded b}r a J e w of Kiev, named Zacharias, into a belief that the Mosaic dispensation alone was of Divine origin. They accepted the Old Testament only, of which, being unacquainted with Hebrew, they used the Sclavonic translation. Like the Jews, they were led to expect the advent of an earthly Messiah. Some of them denied the Resurrection ; and being accused of practising several cabbalistic arts, for which points of Jewish ceremonial may have been mistaken, were regarded by the common people as soothsayers and sorcerers. They were gradually becoming a powerful sect, one of their number, named Zosima, having even been elected Archbishop of Moscow, when in A.D. 1490 they were condemned by a synod, and a fierce persecution nearly obliterated them. But here and there, in remote parts of Russia, travellers have within the last century discovered fragmentary communities holding Jewish views, which have been thought to be relies of the older sect of Sabatniki. I n Irkutsk they continue to exist under the name of Selesnewschschini. [Platon's Present State of Greek Church in Russia, Pinkerton : s traxisl. 273.] S A B B A T A R I A N S . Those who maintain that the observance of the Sabbath is obligatory upon Christians. The early Jewish Christians of Palestine retained the whole Mosaic law, and observed consequently the Sabbath as well as the Lord's Day. From them the custom spread in the Eastern Church of distinguishing Saturday as well as Sunday b y not fasting, and by fuller public prayer, with the Holy Eucharist. I t is clearly in the power of the Church, or of any integral portion of the Church, to mark in this way the day of God's rest from the work of creation, which is a matter for perpetual remembrance. Kor is such an observance open to the charge implied in the word Sabbatarian if it be kept free from Jewish superstition. On the other hand, in the "Western Church (though prolably not from the beginning) the Sabbath was a fast-day. l'n this rule God's resting from creation must have been kept out of sight; for the divine Sabbath cannot be proposed as the occasion of a fast. The Western Saturday fast arose from opposition 508

to Judaism, which was strong in the Western Churches, and particularly at Rome. To justify the fast on this ground requires the fact of a large and dangerous amount of Judaism in the rest of the Church. If the seventh day be considered with reference to the work of redemption, it may be viewed either in the light of the preceding day of the Crucifixion, or of the following day of the Resurrection: and it is in the power of each Church to solenmixe it as a fast or festival as shall bo judged most for edification. On the one hand, the Sabbatum Magnum or Easter Eve has always been held a fast preparatory to Easter Day : and similar considerations may influence a church in the observance of the Saturday as preparatory to the weekly Resurrection feast: or, on the other hand, it may be judged better to limit such preparatory fast to the yearly celebration, adopting it only for the winding up of Lent, and in the weekly celebration to direct the mind of the worshipper to the deep quiet joy of the rest in which the Father gave His Beloved sleep, and to the triumph of the good tidings, brought on that day to the spirits in prison. Both views may be justified, and it is for each Church to judge for itself which it shall adopt. A wise and good man will, with St. Ambrose, at Rome keep fast with R o m e ; at Milan keep feast with Milan. 1 Of the custom of the Eastern Church we have the following rules :—In the Apostolic Canons, it is ordered that clergymen fasting on any Sabbath except one are to be deposed, laymen to be suspended from communion [can. 5 6 ] ; clergy abstaining from flesh and wine on the Sabbath festival out of abhorrence, and not for mortification, to be deposed [can. 45 or 53]. This more special rule points to the Gnostic tenets, that, creation is evil, and the Creator an inferior demiurge or evil angel. By the Apostolic Constitutions Sabbaths are regarded as festivals, except the Great Sabbath in which our Lord lay in the grave, on which day mourning on His account is more proper than joy for the creation. Public worship is to be celebrated, to hear the Prophets and Gospels, to offer the Oblation, to partake of the Holy Supper. Servants are to rest from work, that they may 1

Milan was the one Church of the West which followed the Oriental custom. St. Augustine wrote to St. Jerome, intimating his opinion that a good man may without dissimulation conform to the custom of the Church where

he happens to be [Aug. Episl. xix. acl Rieron.].

Sabbatarians attend public worship [ii. 20, 59; v. 15; vii. 23 ; viii. 33]. At the Council of Laodicea [A.D. 3G7], the Gospels are ordered to be read on the Sabbath [can. 16]; Christians are not to Judaize and rest, but work on the Sabbath, and rest on the Lord's Day [can. 29]. On the Sabbaths of Lent consecration in the Holy Eucharist may be made [can. 49], I n the Canonical Answers of Timothy, Bishop of Alexandria [A.D. 380], the thirteenth puts the Sabbath and the Lord's Day on a level regarding the intercourse of man and wife. The 55 th canon of the second Council of Constantinople or Quinisextine [A.D. 683] confirms the 56tli Apostolical canon, andBalsamon observes that this is one great reason why the Romanists reject these canons. Thus the only difference observed between the Sabbath and the Lord's Day -was that labour was allowed or rather enjoined on the former, and abstinence from work was considered to be a mark of Judaism. For this reason the Ebionites were condemned for joining the observance of the Sabbath according to the law of the Jews with the observance of the Lord's Day after the manner of Christians. And in this sense we are to understand what Gregory the Great says, that Antichrist will renew the observance of the Sabbath [Greg. lib. xi. ep. 3.] There is little or no doubt that such was the primitive custom in the West as well as in the East ; that the Western fast is of later origin. Kaye sums up the evidence from Tertullian oil this point, that the Sabbath "inTertullian's time appears to have been kept as a day of rejoicing. Even the Montanists—anxious as they were to introduce a more rigorous discipline in the observance of fasts—when they kept their two weeks of Xerophague, did not fast on the Saturday and Sunday. The Saturday before Easter Day was however an exception; that was observed as a fast" [Kaye on Tertullian, p. 409]. When Tertullian says the Catholics kept no Sabbath a fast except the Sabbatum Magnum, it is hardly possible that Borne was an exception [Tertull. deJejun. p. 712, ed. 1641], The Council of Eliberis [A.D. 305] introduced the Sabbath fast into Spain [can. xxvi.]. This was probably in imitation of Eome, in which case the introduction of the custom into Eome will lie between Tertullian's time and the Council of Eliberis—somewhere, that is, in the third century. 1

Sabbatarians The Decretal of Innocent, or Epistle to Decentius, is no doubt spurious, but it was an early forgery, for it was received as genuine by Dionysius Exiguus; and it is evidence of the rule of the Eoman Church in the fourth century. It decrees that the Sabbath is to be fasted as well as Friday every week, because on those two days the Apostles must have been grieved for our Saviour's Death and Descent into Hell. Bingham notices that Socrates makes the Eoman Church to vary once more in this matter. For Socrates says that in his time they did not fast at Eome on Saturdays, even in Lent [Socr. Hist. Eccl. v. 22]. This statement Bingham thinks is to be distrusted, because the Quinisextine Council charges the Eomans with keeping fast on Saturday. For a variation of practice at a later time see Catalani, Pontificate, iii. 37, ed. 1852. Gratian rests the Eoman practice upon Innocent's Decretal. It has been observed already that the terms of the Apostolic Canons, fasting " out of abhorrence, not out of mortification," refer to Gnostic tenets. Of this perversion of the Saturday fast the Marcionites give an example. They were in the habit of fasting, especially on the Sabbath, as being the day on which the Demiurge, or God of the Jews, towards whom they were anxious to shew no respect, ended the creation of the world and rested [Tertullian, adv. Marcion, iv. 12]. The perversion, on the other hand, of the Sabbath festival is the keeping it in a Jewish manner, and making it a moans of introducing the spirit of Judaism. Ignatius \cid Magnes, cap. ix.] makes the Sabbath the test of adherence to the ancient order or the new hope. The canons already quoted shew both the danger and the carefulness of the Church to guard against it. Ancient Sabbatarianism was thus for the most part a literal observance of the Sabbath. The Western Church resisted this Judaism by the strong measure of turning the Sabbath into a fast; the Eastern by formally sanctioning labour on the seventh day, and by laying down the nature of the rejoicing proper to it.

Modern Sabbatarianism, properly so called, is rare; for in general modern Sabbatarians neglect the Sabbath altogether, and transfer its Jewish obligations and rules, with its name, to the Lord's Day. There is this common ground to the old Sabbath and the new Lord's Day, that both are days of rest; and for those who do not attain 1 the truth, that in the former rest was the religion The Canon is, " Errorem placuit corrigi, ut omni Sabbati die superpositiones celebremus. " Victorinus uses of the day, in the latter such rest is enjoined as the phrase, " Hoc quoque die (die sexto) ob passio nera ministers to the opportunities of religion, it is Domini Jesu Christi aut stationem Deo, aut jejunium, easy and natural to apply to the latter the rules facimus. Die septimo requievit ab omnibus opevibus suis, of the former. A curious example of this Sabet benedixit emu et sanctifieavit. Hoe die solemus snperponere; idcirco, ut die Dominico cum gratiarum actione batarianism is found in the Injunctions of the ad panem exeamus. Et paresceve superpositio fiat, Abbot of Flay, A.D. 1201 [Johnson, English nequid cum Judseis Sabbatum observare videamur," etc. Canons, ii. 95], They are an attempt to extend [Kouth, Ileliq. Sac. iii. p. 457, ed. 1846]. Superpositio is the translation of virépBc~ISTS. ]

609

UNIVERSALISTS. Those who believe in the ultimate salvation of all mankind, the wicked as well as the good. This opinion was held in ancient times by the QRIGENISTS, and has no doubt been held as a 2 q

Universalists

Usagers and Collegers

private opinion "by many persons in more recent times; but the first attempt to consolidate a sect of which this should bo the leading tenet was made in London by an Unitarian preacher named James Belly, about the middle oi' the last century. Although modern Unitarians are generally Universalists, however, the latter have never formed a separate, sect of any importance in England. Eelly was succeeded [a.d. 1781] by an American preacher named Elhanan Winchester, who had been a Calvinistic Baptist, but the congregation in London was soon broken up. Other small congregations were formed here and there, and two existed in Liverpool and Plymouth at the time when the religious census was taken_ in the year 1851. In America, on the other hand, the L'niversalists have formed a large sect quite distinct from the Unitarians. The American sect originated with an English Methodist preacher named John Murray, who gave up his connection with Wesley in the year 1770, and emigrated to America for the purpose of gaining proselytes to the Universalist opinions which he had learned from Eelly. Finding a soil in which the seeds of heresy readily germinated, he travelled about the States for some years, but finally settled down at Gloucester, Massachusetts, where he organized a congregation in the year 1779. Six years later, in 1785, the numbers of the sect and of their congregations had multiplied sufficiently for them to hold a convention at Boston, under the name of the " Independent Christian Universalists.1' Since that time the sect has gone on growing, and notwithstanding several divisions its numbers still increase. In 1840 the Eestorationists separated off from the original body and formed a distinct sect on what was regarded the original principle of Universalism, that there is a future state of punishment for the wicked, but that it is of limited duration, and that after enduring it they will eventually be restored to happiness. A portion of the remaining body sympathized with the Eestorationists in their opinions, but did not leave the original sect, forming a party within it under the name of " Impartialists." But the opinion has largely gained ground among the elder body, that there is no punishment for sin except that which follows from the consequences of sin in the present life. Originally, no doubt, Universalism was a reaction from Calvinism, and many persons still take refuge from the latter by going to the opposite extreme in the former. But in its later American, and in its English Unitarian form, the dogma has assumed a very different character, the denial of future punishment going far to destroy the belief in moral responsibility, and leading through Antinomianism to Deism.

and Defence of Universal ism, New York, 1840.

The American Universalists in 1847 numbered 716 congregations; in 1862 they numbered about 1000 congregations. They have eight academies and three colleges, and they make large use of the press, having no fewer than seventeen periodical publications. [Whittemore's Hist. of Universalism, Boston, I860. Williamson's Exposit. 610

Universalist Register. VEESALISJI.]

D i c t . of Theol., L^ni-

UEBANENSES. One of the numerous small sects of Donatists in Numidia. They are mentioned by St. Augustine. [Aug. contr. Crescou. iv. 70.] USA GEES AND COLLEGEES. Names given to two parties existing in the Church of Scotland in the reigns of George I. and George II. Upon the gradual removal by death of the bishops who were ejected from their sees upon the Eevolution, others were consecrated, not to occupy their places as diocesan bishops, but in order to preserve the Apostolic succession until such time as, it was fondly hoped, the Church, as well as the King, might have her own again. On the death of Bishop Eose of Edinburgh in 1720, he being the last of the old diocesan prelates, it was proposed that the Church should in future be governed by a College of Bishops in common. This proposal was supported by Lockhart of Camwath and others of the political lay supporters in Scotland of the cause of the Chevalier, from the idea that if these bishops without sees were created at will and in any number by the exiled Prince, without any distinct work or jurisdiction, they might be used mainly as powerful instruments in promoting his interests. On the other hand, the clergy were chiefly desirous of maintaining the diocesan, system, and with this view Bishop Fullerton was at once elected by the clergy of Edinburgh to succeed Bishop Eose, and Ealconer was elected to St. Andrews. Hence immediately arose some political difference between the two parties; the favourers of the College system would have made the bishops the mere nominees and creatures of an expatriated Eoman Catholic prince, while the maintainers of diocesan Episcopacy urged that, under the actual circumstances of the country, the bishops ought to be independently elected by the clergy of the several dioceses. But a further cause of division was added. Bishops Campbell and Gadderar, of the diocesan party, in consequence of their intimacy with the Nonjuring Bishops Hickes and Collier, during a continued residence in England, were led to favour the adoption in Scotland of the Usages at the Holy Communion, which had been revived in England, these Usages being—[1] The mixing water witli the wine ; [2] Commemorating the faithful departed ; [3] The Invocation in the Prayer of Consecration; [4] Oblation before administration. [Nonjurors.] Gadderar being subsequently chosen Bishop of Aberdeen, the Usages became identified with the party opposed to the College system ; and consecrations of bishops at large were consequently multiplied by the Collegers, in obedience to instructions from abroad, in order to crush the diocesan Usagers. In 1724, however, an agreement was entered into between Gadderar and the College majority, by which the former, in order to avoid being suspended by his brethren, consented not to insist upon the adoption of the Usages in his diocese, and to conform to the practice of the Church except with regard

Usagers and Collegers to the mixing water witla the wine; to the retention of "which latter usage the other bishops hadno objection, providing it was done only when demanded, and with privacy and prudence. Lockhart says, that at the meetingO at which this arrangement was O made there was little reasoning, the one side indulging only in invectives and reflections against Gadderar, whilst he, on the other side, was as obstinate as a mule. The strife Avitli regard to the government of the Church, however, still went on, but by degrees the clergy of the various dioceses proceeded to elect their own overseers, until at length, in 1732, the College party, finding themselves gradually outnumbered and defeated, entered into a concordat which finally terminated the struggle. By the terms of this deed it was agreed that the peace of the Church should not any more be disturbed by the adoption of the Usages ; that no one should be consecrated without the consent of the majority of the bishops; that the presbyters of a diocese should not elect without a mandate from the Primus, and that the Primus should simply be a president. The dioceses were then allotted to the respective existing bishops, with a provision that no bishop should claim jurisdiction beyond the bounds of his own district. Though the Usages were thus formally given up, they were subsequently, with the exception of the first, incorporated in the Scottish Form for the Holy Communion when it was finally revised in 1765, and at that time occasioned no revival of the controversy. But in 1849 the dispute came up again, with much of the former bitterness, upon the publication bv Bishop Torry (then 611

Utraquists nearly a nonagenarian) of an edition of the Scottish Praver-Book for the use of his own diocese of St. Andrews. I n this the aged bishop sought to perpetuate various practices which had been customary in the last century, and which lingered in some places by an unwritten tradition; amongst other things he allowed the mixing water with the wine and reservation for the sick, and enjoined the signing with the cross at confirmation. The book was condemned by the rest of the bishops (Bishop Forbes of Brechin dissenting) at a synod held at Aberdeen in April 1850, but Bishop Torry refused to acknowledge the sentence or recall the book, regarding this step of his colleagues as an unwarrantable interference with his authority as a diocesan bishop, and as an attempt to revive the old system of collegiate government. l i e was however plainly wrong in issuing his own private edition of the Prayer-Book, with novel rubrics, under the authoritative title of " The Book of Common Prayer and Administration of the Sacraments [etc.], according to the use of the Church of Scotland." [Skinner's EccJ. Hist of Scotland. Lawson's Hist. of the Scottish Episc. Church. Grub's Eccl. Hist, of Scotland. J. M. Neale's Life of Bp. Torry.] UTEAQUISTS. A controversial name given to those who maintain that the Holy Eucharist should be received sub utrdque specie by the laity. But the name is specially applied to the CALIXTINES, a section of the followers of Huss, in the fifteenth century. The term is used by Gieseler in his Compendium of Ecclesiastical History, and in Sianda's Lexicon Polemicum.

"V"

VADIANI. [Audians.1 YALDIANT. [Audians.] YALENTIJSTIANS. A seco or early Gnostics, taking their origin from Yalentinus, about the middle of the second century. They are spoken of by Tertullian, writing about a.d. 200, as being a very numerous sect, and he attributes the popularity of their heresy to the fables with which their theology abounded, and to the air of mystery which was thrown around it [Tertull. adv. Valent. i.J. Yalentinus was a contemporary cf J u s t i n Martyr, flourishing, says Tertullian, in the reign of Antoninus Pius [a.d. 138-161]. As J u s t i n Martyr mentions the sect of the Yalentinians in his Dialogue with Trypho [ch. xxxv.], which was written about a.d. 158, it is probable t h a t it had been in existence for some years at least before t h a t date. H e does not name Valentinus, however, with Simon, Menander and Marcion, whom he twice mentions 'in his First Apology [ch. xxvi. lvi.], which was written about twenty years earlier, and hence it may be supposed t h a t the heresy had not then originated. Tertullian says that Yalentinus was a man of ability and eloquence, b u t t h a t being offended at the promotion of another person who had been a confessor to a bishopric which he had himself expected, he left the Church in disgust, and formed a system, not indeed entirely new, but founded in some measure upon opinions previously current [Tertull. adv. Valent. iv.; de Prccscr. Ha:ret. xxix. xxx.]. From this statement it would appear t h a t his followers were from the first a sect outside of the Church, and not a party holding their opinions within it and afterwards separating from it. From later writers it is known that Y"alentinus went from Alexandria (of which city tie was apparently a priest) to Rome, about a.d. 140, t h a t he was there excommunicated, and that he died in Cyprus about a.d. 100 [Euseb. Hint. Eccl. iv. 11, Chron. s. a. 2155]. H e is said to have written many hymns, and a work entitled the " Secret Doctrine of Theudas, a disciple of Paul," with whom he is supposed to have been acquainted [Clem. Alex. Strom, vii.], b u t fragments only of liis writings are preserved.

learn it chiefly from Irenseus, Hippolytus, Tertullian, 1 and Clement of Alexandria, and not from his own writings. Disentangling it as much as possible from these, and from the aifectations of mystery with which it is dressed up, the following seems to bo a fair statement of it as given b y these writers, the one a contemporary of Yalentinus, and the others of his immediate disciples. An unoriginated, invisible, eternal, and incomprehensible, Absolute Being, dwells in height ineffable, living in a state of profound tranquillity. This Supreme Existence, KlSsv TeXews, ILpoapxq, 'A-PXV, lie represented to be of a dual nature, as the Gods were in all t h e more ancient mythologies, being on the one hand an Abyss or Prof u n d i t y of Self-existence, to which he gave the name Bu0os, and on the other an Eternal silent consciousness to which he gave the name of "Evvoia, Xapis, or more commonly The D u a d or dual being thus imagined was further treated in the Valentinian system as partly a personal unity and partly as two persons, Bythus or Absolute Being originating all phenomenal existence in solitary brooding, while yet Sige becomes the mother of all things by conjunction with him. From this first duad three other duads of iEons emanated. Movoytvrjs was the only-begotten, Nov? or 'Apxr) [ c f . J o h n i. 1 ], the Mind, First Principle, and Image of the Supreme Bythus ; b u t hero again, accompanying NoSs was 'AAij6eia, Mind and T r u t h thus making the second duad. F r o m these again emanated the W o r d and t h e Life, Aoyos and Z/, a third duad. A n d from this third duad there proceeded "Kv6punro1< .¡sure] 11

criyKpaais [composition] 1 fiaKapia [happiness]

SILENCIE

TRUTH

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L I F E [fan;]

CHURCH [E/i/CXIJTRIA]

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