Citizenship Education in Japan 9781350091276, 9781847065612

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Notes on Contributors John Cogan is Professor Emeritus at the University of Minnesota and was director of the Citizenship Education Policy Study (CEPS) project. He works in the areas of citizenship and global/environmental education and is author of Citizenship for the 21st Century: An International Perspective on Education (Kogan Page, 1998), Civic Education in the Asia-Pacific Region (Routledge Falmer, 2002). Sir Bernard Crick was Professor Emeritus of Politics at Birkbeck College, University of London. He chaired the advisory group, Life in the United Kingdom, whose report introduced citizenship into national curriculum for England. The group, who wrote the report ‘The New and the Old’ (2003), also set out requirements for naturalization of citizens. He is the author of In Defence of Politics, Orwell: A Life, Essays on Citizenship (Penguin Books,1962) and Democracy (Oxford University Press, 2002). He died 19 December 2008. Takaaki Fujiwara is Professor of Social Studies and Global Education at Doshisha Women’s College of Liberal Arts, Japan. His research has focused on the teaching and learning of global and multicultural perspectives, and current issues in the field of Social Studies education. His most recent books in Japanese are Hyoutan-jima Issues: Learning Issues in the Multi-cultural Society of Japan (Akashi Shoten, 2008) and The Theory and Practice of Education on Current Issues (Fukumura Shuppan, 2009). He won an award from the AsiaPacific Centre of Education for International Understanding (APCEIU) for his Best Case Study proposal in the Experiential Learning Programme, 2007. Norio Ikeno is Professor of Social Studies in the Faculty of Education at Hiroshima University, where he teaches curriculum and pedagogy on the secondary teacher education courses. He is vice-president of the Japanese Educational Research Association for the Social Studies. His main research interests are international comparisons and new approaches to citizenship/ Social Studies education. With colleagues in the UK and Japan, Norio has inaugurated a comparative project on global citizenship in both countries. Kazuhiko Iwata is Professor Emeritus and specially appointed Professor at Hyogo University of Teacher Education. He worked as dean of the Joint Graduate School (PhD programme) in the Science of School Education at Hyogo University of Teacher Education for four years and president of the Japanese Educational Research Association for the Social Studies for

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three years. His research has focused on the Geography in Social Studies and the construction of lesson plans on Social Studies and the evaluation test. Books in Japanese include: The 30 Theories Proper to Lessons on Social Studies (Meijitosho, 2001) and The Theory for Research Methods on Social Studies (Meijitosho, 1994). Soji Katakami is Professor of Social Studies in the Faculty of Literature at Yasuda Women’s University, where he teaches curriculum and pedagogy. He is a former president of the Japanese Educational Research Association for the Social Studies. He is developing a study of children’s cognitive framework to understand society. Hirokazu Kimura is Professor of Social Studies in the Faculty of Education at Hiroshima University, where he teaches curriculum and pedagogy on the elementary teacher education courses. He is a regular director of the Japanese Educational Research Association for the Social Studies. His main research interests are histories of social studies curricular and lessons in Japan after World War II. Tomoyuki Kobara is a professor at the Graduate School of Education, Hiroshima University, Japan, where he teaches curriculum and instruction of social studies education. He has been president of the Japanese Educational Research Association for the Social Studies since April 2008. His main research interests are development of curriculum and instruction of Social Studies for citizenship education and life-long education (museum, TV and newspaper). He is also a project director for the Hiroshima University Global Partnership School Center (GPSC) and is an advisor in the department of Social Studies, Ministry of Education (MEXT), Japan. Kazuhiro Kusahara is Associate Professor at the Graduate School of Education, Hiroshima University, Japan. His research has focused on the role of geography in Social Studies, the international comparison of Social Studies, and the development of teaching and learning material for critical thinking. He has published books in Japanese on the curriculum and instruction of geography. In 2007, he won the award from the Japanese Educational Research Association for the Social Studies for his research on the Geography curriculum integrated into Social Studies, and its comparison between the US and Japan. Kazuhiro Mizoguchi is Associate Professor in the Faculty of Education at Kagoshima University in Japan, where he teaches curriculum and instruction for elementary and secondary Social Studies. He has been a director of the Japanese Educational Research Association for the Social Studies since 2002 and the Education in the Social Studies Department Research Association since 1998. Prior to this he taught a high school World Hstory

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course during the 1990s. He has been interested in value education in social studies and, particularly, in ways of teaching history to help students think more critically and reflectively about the rules or institutions of their own society and to form enlightened attitudes towards constitutional democracy. His recent works on citizenship education have focused on how to construct curriculum or unit contents of History and Social Studies combined with law-related education. Mitsuharu Mizuyama is professor of Social Studies and the head of the Center for Educational Research and Training at the Kyoto University of Education, Japan. He also has been the representative committee member of the Kyoto Environmental Education Center, working on global warming in the Kyoto City. His research has focused on the teaching and learning of political literacy, environmental perspectives and the comparative study between Japan and the UK in citizenship education. His most recent book is Three “C” educations, learning from the UK – Culture, Carrier and Citizenship (Sekaishisosha, 2009), co-authored with Atsuo Sugimoto and Hideaki Takanori. He now works as a leader of citizenship education in Yawata City, near Kyoto City, in cooperation with teachers of nine primary schools and four secondary schools. He is devoted to the challenging work of establishing citizenship education in Japan. Kenji Tanahashi is Professor of Social Studies Education and Dean of Graduate School of Education at Hiroshima University, Japan. His major focus is assessment of learning outcomes in social studies and citizenship education. His recent research has focused on the international citizenship education study that is carried out by the IEA. Japan does not participate in any international studies conducted by the IEA. Therefore, he researches the citizenship of Japanese students by using the student questionnaire of the IEA international research. Tanahashi also analyses civic knowledge, civic skills, attitudes towards civic concepts, and attitudes to civic engagement and participation in political activities of the Japanese student. Kazuya Taniguchi is Associate Professor of the Graduate School of Education, Tohoku University, Japan. His main research has focused on the curriculum theory based on Social Studies and citizenship education. But his research now covers broad areas of curriculum theories and collaborates with many Asian and European researchers. His main interest is the theoretical and political development of the curriculum of citizenship education in UK. Yoshiharu Toda is Professor in the Faculty of Education at Chiba University in Japan, where he teaches curriculum and instruction for elementary and secondary social studies. He has been a director of the Japan Social Studies

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Research Association and the Education in the Social Studies Department Research Association. He has been interested in law-related education in the social studies and, particularly, in ways of teaching history to help students think more critically and reflectively about the rules and institutions of their own society and form enlightened attitudes towards democratic society. His recent works on citizenship education have focused on how to construct unit contents or lesson of Social Studies combined with law-related education. Kotaro Yoshimura is Associate Professor at Tohoku Gakuin University, Japan, where he has been employed since 2004, after teaching Social Studies in high school and technical college. He is a board member of the Japanese Association for Civic Education. His main research interests His interests especially lie in the approach of controversial issues and consensus building. Masao Yoshida is Professor of Social Studies at Bunkyo University. He has worked for Hokkaido University of Education (Asahikawa Campus), Japan, since 1993 to March 2010, after both teaching in elementary schools and working for the Noda Municipal Board of Education. His research has focused on the description on Ainu people in junior high school social studies textbooks and supplementary readers for elementary school children used in Hokkaido. The theme of this research represents that he is interested in nation building and multicultural education. He intends to research social education of Singapore in order to develop this theme and to revise the history teaching contents for the Meiji Restoration. He is also interested in media studies as citizenship education. His second most recent article is ‘The birth of narration on Ainu people in the social studies textbooks of junior high school’, published in Journal of Research on Education in Social Studies Departments (2007, in Japanese). His most recent article is ‘A Case Study in “Media Studies” of Citizenship as a subject’, published in The Journal of Social Studies (2009, in Japanese).

Preface This book introduces an international audience to the concept of citizenship in Japan. It traces the development of citizenship education from before the Second World War to the present day, demonstrating the role of both the school system and society in general, and giving a detailed account anchored in the critical analysis of curricula, educational resources, pedagogy and assessment. It illustrates a variety of aspects of citizenship education in Japan, examining new developments such as current curricular innovations as well as reviewing its historical evolution. The book is in four parts. Part One, which addresses the history of citizenship in modern Japan, describes the historical background of citizenship education before and after World War II, identifies its origin and examines its administrative structure as a dual system of school and social education. Part Two provides a detailed description and explanation of different phases in citizenship education. Chapters 4 to 6, which explore its development in school curricula and textbooks after WWII, define the relationship between citizenship and Social Studies in schools as the aim of general education. Chapter 8, which discusses the main issues of citizenship education in Japan, focuses on the current controversy in Japanese education by dealing with four related areas which are referred to throughout the book: O O O O

global/intercultural education environmental education geographical education historical education.

Part Three, explores the current state of citizenship education. It gives an account of recent innovations and describes their trial period in Tokyo’s Shinagawa Ward and the attached primary school at Ochanomizu Women’s University, characterizing the trials as uniting school education and social education. Finally, Part Four demonstrates an example of a unit assessment on Social Studies and citizenship education and points out its advantages and defects. Overall, the book demonstrates that teaching and learning about citizenship in contemporary Japan entails not only knowledge of social, historical

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and geographical affairs but also active participation in society – locally, nationally and globally. In conclusion, I should like to express my profoundest gratitude to Professor John Cogan and especially to the late Professor Sir Bernard Crick, who was in hospital when writing his foreword to this book. My hopes for his recovery were dashed by the news on 19 December 2008 that he had passed away, and some friends in the UK confirmed to me that the foreword was his last. We would like to dedicate this volume to the memory of Professor Sir Bernard Crick. May he rest in peace. Norio Ikeno Hiroshima University, Japan

Acknowledgement The publication of this book has depended on a number of collaborators. I would like to thank Anthony Haynes for showing enthusiasm for this project from the beginning and Richard Kitchen for providing thoughtful suggestions for revisions. They helped us clarify our thoughts and greatly improved the quality of the book. Thanks also to Alison Clark and Anna Fleming for making the production process run so smoothly.

Foreword I truly believe that Professor Ikeno’s book will mark a breakthrough in political education in Japan. Over a 20-year period where I have been able to visit Japan spasmodically, I have observed – I am afraid I believe the old cliché – that methods of teaching are unduly traditional and rigid, which is contrary to the whole spirit of citizenship education in particular. This book gets away from teaching citizenship by defining rights, duties, obligations or offering definitions of democracy. It suggests that pupils, and indeed teachers, should be led to think these things out for themselves via a problem-based discussion of issues rather than being offered summaries and definitions, and so forth. The great Karl Popper would always insist that social sciences were a matter of problem solving, not of offering concise definitions. And Hannah Arandt, from whose work you should know I have great admiration, always insisted that politics itself was an activity of thinking and problem resolution rather than attempting definitive solutions. As this book so well argues, there is continual need for cultural assimilation to the central institutions of the Japanese state, but this assimilation should be achieved by asking the children themselves and, indeed, teachers when in training, what they think the functions of the state should be. To repeat oneself, only by not offering prepared definitions and resolutions in that way can young children grow to become independent citizens in home, neighbourhood and community. From the time of the Greeks and the Romans in the old European republics (the spirit of what we now called civic republicanism), citizenship education has been as important in the culture of the Western world – now permeating outwards throughout the world – as has been Western science and medicine and Eastern religious and spiritual stipulation, but there is still some way to go in breaking away from long ingrained habits and overly rigid traditional teaching. This problem is by no means unique to Japan. In Eastern Europe, and in America, it has taken a long time to realize that the alternative to communism is not just another set of tightly defined precepts but rather an open-ended speculative discussion, which is the mark of true citizenship. Citizenship is the speculation and participation of free men and women in a free state. It is self-defeating if you attempt to define the objectives tightly and rigidly, however clearly and precisely. In my book In Defense of Politics the first edition of which was translated into Japanese at the instigation of Professor Masao Maruyama, I maintained that politics is

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the conciliation of necessarily existing diversities of values and interests – it is not any attempt to resolve them finally. Thus the essence of politics and therefore political education is indeed to reach morally and economically acceptable compromises. The book well states that Social Studies has two aims: translating social and cultural knowledge and understanding, and educating children for citizenship. Social Studies can teach children a basic level of cultural and academic knowledge and instruct them to solve problems of life in home, neighbourhood and community. Also, it teaches students to research and resolve the same problems in their own lives, to what some have called the politics of everyday life. Institutions are the context of citizenship, not its objective. It is very important to add, as this new book well realizes, that education for active citizenship – not just good citizenship – must begin at the earliest possible opportunity in the entry grades to education. Habits learnt early can have some chance of fixing to which end classroom games and debates are not trivializing real subjects but they are their foundation. This is particularly important in relation to the learning of languages in connection to citizenship. English itself should be taught in a flexible and colloquial manner and should avoid any persistent repetition that there is one fully correct method of expression rather than colloquial alternatives. The speculative and discursive nature of citizenship, as well as beginning from the very start of education, should permeate the whole school in such a way that pupils are aware of their teachers discussing important matters freely among themselves. An example that it is tremendously influential to young children, I could walk into a school in England or Scotland and tell whether a citizenship course would work within that school, by whether there was free and lively discussion of real problems in the corridors, whether problems of subject matter or of school organization, and when one heard of a perpetual volley of cries of ‘don’t talk so loudly’, one knew that there would be problems with making citizenship education work. Citizenship education demands vigorous assertion, quite as much as any mistaken attempt to be correct all the time. This book should encourage both pupils and teachers to think for themselves in an independent spirit of mind. For democracy cannot just be,as Beatrice Webb once remarked, ‘what the crowd wants’, but rather an everlasting forceful dialogue between informed, even elitist opinion, and common opinion. The late Sir Bernard Crick, PhD, erstwhile Professor Emeritus, University of London

Foreword I have been a student of Japanese education and schooling for the past three decades. Specifically, I have been a close observer of how Japan develops one’s civic identity; that is, educating for citizenship, through schooling, within the broader context of the Social Studies in the Courses of Study that are revised and promulgated every ten years by the Japanese Ministry of Education (MEXT). It has been a fascinating period of time and I have made many, many friends and colleagues in the Japanese academy over this 30 years. So it is an honour to be asked to contribute a foreword to this book. This book has the potential to be a very important contribution to the literature in that it is, to my knowledge, a first of its kind. Many gaijin (foreigners) believe from cursory reading that the Japanese Social Studies curriculum in the Courses of Study mirrors, to a large extent, the Social Studies curriculum in the United States. This is because the overall post–World War II framework for education and Social Studies in particular under the occupation forces was modelled on what was done in the United States. Indeed, in the early years after the 1947 Fundamental Law of Education was promulgated under the occupation of the US military, the Japanese Ministry of Education did follow the US model very closely. But as soon as the occupation forces were removed and Japan moved to a democratic form of government and constitution, they very quickly moved to modify the school curriculum that had been imposed upon them by the occupation forces to be more ‘Japanese’ in form and character. That evolution has continued for more than 50 years, as described superbly by Ikeno in Part Two of this book. But talking about ‘citizenship education’ or ‘civic education’ in Japan is not quite as simple as it is in North America or even in European states. This is because of the two terms that are used to describe the concept of ‘citizen’ in Japan, shimin and komin, encourage scholars to debate the true meaning of these terms as witnessed in Taniguchi’s well-written first chapter. One from outside the nation must be very careful of the meaning they assign to the term and/or concept citizen when discussing educating for citizenship in the Japanese context. It is not synonymous with the legal term used in North America and Europe. It has far greater meaning and gaijin would be wise to study the history and nuance of the two terms in considerable depth before they begin using the term. Understanding how these two terms are used is critical to understanding citizenship education in Japan. Indeed,

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the remainder of this book cannot be truly understood without first comprehending the nature of these two terms as discussed by Taniguchi in the initial chapter of the book. This book is an attempt to introduce readers outside Japan to the history, definitions, curricula, policies, pedagogy and assessment measures used with respect to educating for citizenship. It is important because it is aimed specifically at an international audience of researchers, scholars and others interested in how nations educate the populations for their roles and responsibilities vis-à-vis citizenship. It outlines how the place of educating for citizenship has evolved over the years in the school curriculum, including the all-important weekly ‘Period of Integrated Study’ introduced into the curriculum in the 1998 Course of Study. Also discussed are the specific subject areas that are to have primary responsibility in this endeavour, that is, how Geography, History, global, multicultural, environmental education and moral education are utilized in educating young people to become citizens. The interface of traditional subject areas in the Social Studies with the Moral Education curriculum is deemed very important in educating the whole citizen. Moral and Civic Education are both important curricular elements in educating for civic identity in Asian and Pacific nations while of little import in North America and Europe. Understanding this duality is important to understanding citizenship education in Japan. The authors also do a good job of weaving in the important role played by extra or cocurricular activities in the development of democratic citizens. This dual role of formal and non-formal education elements in educating for citizenship is very important in many Asian nations and is borne out by research in the region as well (Cogan, Morris, Print 2002). This is a comprehensive look for the first time at how one of the most powerful and important democracies in Asia and the Pacific, educates its young people for their roles and responsibilities as citizens. The authors are all recognized scholars in the field of citizenship education in the Japanese academy. The book is an important contribution to the literature and hopefully is just the first of several such volumes that will emerge from Asia and the Pacific nations from whom we’ve heard far too little on this subject in the past. John J. Cogan, PhD Professor Emeritus University of Minnesota

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Chapter 1

The History of the Idea of Citizenship and its Teaching in Japan before World War II Kazuya Taniguchi

The Origin of Japanese Citizenship Education History Before Japanese Modernization The Japanese modern age started in 1868 when the Tokugawa shogunate returned rule to the Emperor. The beginning of the formal school system in Japan, which was largely modelled on the French educational system (Nakano 1971), started four years later under the Gakusei (the Educational Order of 1872). Before this time, Japanese citizenship education, especially for the samurai class, was based on Confucianism. Feudal lords established schools to instruct the children of their samurais. Small private schools (Terakoya) for merchants and farmers were also available. Reading, writing and arithmetic were taught to the children, along with specific training for their respective crafts. When Did Japanese Citizenship Education Start? The Japanese concept of citizenship is slightly different to that of other nations, because of the country’s unique historical background.1 In Japanese, the word Shimin means either ‘a sovereign of the nation’ or ‘a private citizen’. The word Komin means both ‘citizenship based on natural law’ and ‘citizenship based on the imperial family state’. Horio (1957, 1987) defines Shimin education as ‘education for individual freedom’ and states that this type of education was started after the democratization process at the end of WWII. He also states that the concept of Komin education started in 1920, when civic policy allowed labourers to adapt to monopolistic capitalism. This is one of the acknowledged perspectives (Omori and Mori 1968, Miyasaka 1968) but many recent researchers believe that Komin education has a broader meaning. Matsuno (1997: 5–6)

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defines the concept to include two education styles: (1) Komin education as based on the concept of the imperial family state (training the emotions through moral education); (2) Komin education as based on concepts of natural law (through the teaching of Law and Economics, and of Civics) (Matsuno 1997: 6–7). Many researchers of Social Studies adopt a definition similar to the latter (Takayama 1970a: 3). This paper will discuss the origins of Japanese citizenship education from 1872 to 1947. In 1872, the new education system was started under a modern nation state. In 1920, the concept of citizenship education was developed under monopolized capitalism and constitutional imperialism. In 1947, Social Studies was introduced from the United States under the new system of democracy in Japan.

1872–1890: The Enlightenment and the Formation of the Constitutional Nation The Character of the Period The concept of modern Western citizenship influenced social and educational movements at the beginning of the Meiji Era.2 Old feudal systems had disappeared by 1868 and the new concept of liberalism was introduced. Many elementary schools were established with the aid and support of community members, and in turn became the heart of the community. Horio (1974, 1987) coins this period as ‘the period from enlightenment to liberalism’. Miyahara’s (1962–25) analysis of the concept of education during this period concluded that the newly established government curriculum emphasized the introduction of practical sciences over the ideology of centralized Imperial Japan. Mizuhara (1997: 11–14) discusses the dilemma of the development of citizenship education in this period, that is the dilemma between westernization and the continuing traditions of citizenship from the samurai era. Table 1.1 Educational policy at the beginning of the Meiji Era 1868 1872 1879 1890

The Japanese social system changed from the feudal system to imperialism with a modern centralized political system The Educational System Order (Gakusei) formally started the modern education system The Imperial Ordinance relating to Education (Kyoiku-rei) was issued in 1879, and was revised in 1880 and 1885. The Imperial Rescript on Education (Kyoiku-Chokugo Rescript)3

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In contrast, Saito (1982) underestimates the westernization of education. He insists that the emphasis on practical sciences and modern political systems in the curriculum was simply a means to build a powerful nation by introducing Western technology. Therefore, Imperial Japan had started an education system based on Confucianism immediately after suppressing the rebellious movement of the samurai. Citizenship Education at the Beginning of the Meiji Era At the beginning of the modern education system in Japan, starting in 1872, the Outline of the Nation (Kokutai-gaku) and the Character of the Nation (Seitai-Taii and Kokutai-gaku-Taii) were part of the curriculum in both elementary schools and middle schools. Economics began in the middle school. In 1880, under the Imperial Ordinance relating to Education of 1880, these subjects were changed to economics (for elementary schools), and Law and Economics (for middle schools) (Takayama 1970b). However, students were introduced to the concept of Western citizenship in Reading.4 At the start of the Meiji Era, Seiyo-Jijo (Conditions in the West) and Gakumon no Susume (Encouragement of Learning) became the most popular textbooks for reading, and they included the topic of Western citizenship. The Enlightenment posed several problems for the new national government, which urgently needed to introduce Western technology but wished to exclude ideologies such as liberalism and Christianity. They prohibited the use of directly translated textbooks and, in 1880, adapted some to suit Japanese morality. Although the Enlightenment and liberalism were weakened, there was no basis for citizenship education other than that based on Western thought. Both Economics(Keizai) and Law and Economics(Hosei oyobi keizai) were taught without such a basis and without the theory of natural law. Students were required to memorize and recall the content of morality textbooks without questioning. This paper identifies citizenship education as dating from 1872. However, some researchers define it as starting in the 1900s, when Law and Economics (Hosei oyobi keizai) was introduced into schools (Omori and Mori 1968: 117–18), or in the 1920s, when Civics(Komin) was first taught (Horio 1974).

1891–1919: Constitutional Imperialism and New Citizenship Construction of the Constitutional Monarchy of Imperial Japan By 1873 the political struggles of the new government had settled down and the French-style liberals had been ousted. Some of these liberals, however,

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demanded the establishment of a Congress, and to this end they led samurai uprisings in the late 1870s. These movements expanded nationwide and the government was soon under considerable pressure. The drive to establish democratic rights also involved educated farmers in rural areas. They held meetings to study Western political systems and attempted to draft a constitution. The national government took several countermeasures to stifle these political movements and enacted laws to limit citizens’ rights. Meetings, freedom of speech and publishing rights were all restricted during this decade. Finally, however, the government acceded to demand and promised a congress within ten years. They planned an Imperial Japanese political system and drafted a constitution influenced by the constitutional monarchy of Prussia. A new aristocracy was established among those who contributed to the building of Imperial Japan. Finally, the first Constitution of the Empire of Japan was presented by the Emperor to the nation in 1889. This was the beginning of the constitutional monarchy of Japan. The first Congress was duly convened in 1890. The Imperial Rescript on Education (Kyoiku-Chokugo) Just as citizens’ rights were set out by the Constitution, so their morals and values were set out by the Imperial Rescript on Education in 1890. This rescript mandated how Japanese citizenship education was taught during this period. The Imperial Ordinance relating to Middle Schools (Chugakkourei) was enacted in 1891, and learning under the Imperial Rescript on Education began. Constitutional imperialists campaigned for the fundamental character of the nation to be formally taught, and prepared a draft for Congress. This was paradoxical, however, as they were trying to build a powerful imperial nation through internationalized military and modern economics while basing the education system on traditional samurai-era Confucianism. Because of this, much debate arose about the revision of moral education soon after the issue of the Imperial Rescript on Education. From Law And Economics to the National Subject Education in Law and Economics (Hosei oyobi Keizai) was revived by the Regulation for Carrying Out the Imperial Ordinance relating to Middle Schools in 1901. Matsuno (1997) discusses how Hosei oyobi keizai was later divided into Law and Economics itself and, separately, Civics (Matsuno 1997: 174). However, while the original content of Law and Economics covered

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only the existing legal and economic systems, it did contain a grounding in the theories behind them. According to Yoneda (1992), the re-establishment of Law and Economics was one of the reasons for continuity problems between the curriculums of middle and upper schools. However, Takayama (1970b: 20) disagrees, from the perspective of teaching the subject as well as the state of civic morality under the constitutional monarchy. Citizenship education in this period consisted of several discordant aspects. Problems arose from the fact that constitutional Imperialism and Imperial Family State traditions were still in conflict. Although the National Subject was required in this period, promoting good citizenship and public well-being, Reading and Moral Education still only contained the necessary degree of citizenship education to cultivate students emotionally, and, the existing Law and Economics syllabus continued to be fragmented. In order to become a true ‘national subject’, the traditional morals and values of the Family State and the basis and theory of Constitutional Imperialism would need to be integrated into one citizenship education system known as Civics. Table 1.2 Introduction of Law and Economics 1890

The Imperial Rescript on Education (Kyoiku-Chokugo)

1896

Civics (Komin)

1900

Law and Economics (Hosei oyobi keizai) Law and Economics (Hosei oyobi keizai)

1901

Supplementary School for Technical Institute (secondary grade) Higher Normal school Middle School

Optional subject Optional subject Compulsory subject

1907

Law and Economics (Hosei oyobi keizai)

Normal School

Compulsory subject

1920

Law and Economics (Hosei oyobi keizai)

Higher Female school

Optional subject

1921

Law and Economics (Hosei oyobi keizai)

Technical School

Compulsory subject

The Taisho Liberal Education Movements and the Experiment of the National Subject The educational movement of Progressivism swept Japan from 1910 to 1920 (Nakano 1968). This educational movement is now referred to as the Taisho liberal education movement. The Taisho liberal education movement originated in the work of

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pioneers such as Kanjiro Higuchi (1871–1917) and Tomeri Tanimoto (1867–1946). Higuchi published several books about child-centric teaching methods around 1900. Tanimoto introduced New Education in Europe in his book of 1906. Both authors discussed education from the perspective of society (Takayama 1970b: 21). Tsunezo Morioka (1971–1945) introduced French (‘L’Instruction Civique’) and German (‘Burgerkunde’ and ‘Gesellschftskunde’) in his book in 1905. He insisted on the need to establish a national subject in Japan. Morioka also tried to introduce the subject of ‘Nation’, drawing on the French L’Instruction Civique, in his Attached School of Tokyo Higher Normal School in the early 1910s. This model of education expanded widely during the 1910s and many attached elementary schools of normal schools suggested new strategies of education. The Attached Elementary School of Aichi First Normal School and other attached schools also tried this type of citizenship education (Tanigichi 1998). Meanwhile, the mainstream effort to cultivate citizenship in ordinary schools was made through Moral Education and Reading. Other pioneers, such as Kuniyoshi Obara (1887–1977) of Seijo Elementary School, tried to practice child-centered Moral Education. Citizenship Education for Developing the Community Leaders in the Future Civics was established in the Supplementary School for Technical Institutes in 1913 and became a compulsory subject in 1920. This type of school was designed for the children of farmers in rural areas, who would improve the local community. In this period, the Movement for Local Improvement sprang up nationally with support from the government. Civics was responsible for cultivating community citizenship by connecting villages to educational societies. Nakata Elementary School, in the Miyagi prefecture, was connected with the Nataka Educational Society, which organized youth groups, networked housewives, and supported public organizations in the village (Itabashi and Sato 2007). The role of Civics at village level was to develop children as ‘cadets of the farm village’.

1920–1937: Advocating Models of Citizenship Education Civics: Counters to the Taisho Democratic Movement World War II in Europe led to economic prosperity for Japan. Capital gains were invested in financial institutions, cotton spinning and shipping

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companies. However, the rate of agricultural production in the Gross National Product (GNP) saw a relative decrease. The economic gap between capitalists and labourers widened, as it did between urban and rural areas. As a result, there were frequent disputes between labourers and farmers. In the same period, the idea of democracy became familiar to the working class as a consequence of the movement towards universal suffrage and the actions of the Soviet Revolution and other foreign political movements in the 1920s (Nakano 1968: 10). The Japanese political movements of this period are now called the ‘Taisho democratic movements’. The Taisho liberal education movements grew from an experimental to a national level under the influence of politics in the 1920s. So, it was at their peak, in the mid-1920s, that the Taisho movements were oppressed. The national government used ‘carrot on a stick’ tactics to restore social order. While it approved universal suffrage (although limited to men) in 1925, the Maintenance of Public Order Act was enforced. Oppression of progressive teachers became exhaustive by the mid-1920s. The Imperial Ordinance Relating to National Spirit was enforced in 1923. Finally, Civics was introduced as a counter to the Taisho democratic movement. The national standard for Civics was established by the Items of Instruction in Civics Act of 1924, which included the concepts of democracy, socialism, communism, and labour and farmer disputes. This contrasted with the fragmentary information taught by the existing Law and Economics system. Students were taught to see the negative aspect of such concepts and introduced to the positive concept of National Spirit. Table 1.3 The introduction of Civics 1920

1924

Civics (Komin)

Supplementary School for Technical Institute (secondary grade) Items of Instruction in Supplementary School Civics (Komin ka kyouju yoko) for Technical Institute

Compulsory subject

1930

Civics (Komin)

Technical School

Compulsory subject

1931

Civics (Komin)

Middle School/Normal School

Compulsory subject

1935

Morality (Shushin) and Civics (Komin)

Youth School

Compulsory subject

Supplementary Schools for Technical Institutes were originally designed for farmers’ children: therefore Civics in these schools tended to mean education for citizenship in the community (Japanese Association for Social

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Studies 1984). However, the number of students increased rapidly in the 1910s and the national government took stock of the role of its schools. Standards were set, such as the Items of Instruction in Civics (both urban and rural versions) in 1924, which were eclectic and fell between German Civics and the New Civics of the United States (Nakano 1971). The Items of Instruction in Civics were epoch-making, because the national government had made a standard model for Civics, which infiltrated citizenship education (Nakano 1971: 67). The Spread of the Idea of Community Citizenship The Great Depression of 1929 damaged the Japanese economy, especially in rural areas. The economic crisis threatened to unravel rural communities. The national government tried to maintain order by funding normal school research in Regional Studies (Kyodo-kyoiku) and Regional History (Kyodo-shi) in 1930 and 1931. As a result of the educational policy, many books about regional studies were published from 1930 to 1933 (Miyahara 1963) and many groups dedicated to regional studies were established nationwide. The nature of regional studies meant that it could not be standardized. Teachers were free to plan its content and activities in relation to the specific nature of their region and its children. The introduction of regional studies meant that most teachers started to think about citizenship education at local and community level. Most teachers saw citizenship as part of regional studies, since it took into account children’s affection for the features, nature and history of their own region, which would easily develop into patriotism or nationalism. However, some teachers suggested that citizenship education should be introduced in its own right, as in Civics and Social Studies in the US and other countries. Kenko Mizuno, a teacher at the Attached Elementary School of Aichi First Normal School, taught Social Studies as Community Civics, based on ‘Items of Instruction in Civics (urban version)’. His aim was to develop his children as good members of Nagoya City. The Urban Curriculum (1933) of the Fuji Elementary School, Tokyo, and the Regional Survey Curriculum (1933) of the Attached School of Akashi Female Normal School, Akashi, were also well-planned Community Civics syllabi of this period (Taniguchi 1998). Writing (Tsuzurikata) was another subject that could be freely planned by individual teachers. Many left-wing teachers cultivated their students to become active labourers or farmers in the community by utilizing this subject to address real issues in the children’s lives. These socialist tendencies did not remain within specific subject boundaries. Discussions about restructuring the whole curriculum began in the 1930s, some of them reflecting

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child-centred and community-centred education and the latest research into curriculum development and Social Studies in foreign countries. Although the pressure of the Imperial Rescript on Education was still powerful in this period, teachers overcame the restrictions of standardized national education and tried to develop citizenship education at individual community level, taking into account the latest curricular theories and progressivism. Changing the Character of Civics The climate of militarism was spreading in the late 1930s. Supplementary schools such as technical institutes and young men’s training institutes were merged into Youth Schools, which taught Military and Technical Training in 1935. Young labourers and farmers were taught National Spirit through Morality and Civics. 1937 saw the revision of the Items of Instruction in Middle Schools to emphasize the National Spirit based on Shinto. Finally, citizenship education was reorganized into a new subject: Nation.

1938–1947: Oppression, Reinforcement of Nationalism and a New Beginning In 1938, the national government oppressed Tsuzurikata teachers5 and teachers of progressivism. In 1941, all elementary schools were reorganized into National Schools (Kokumin Gakko) and all school subjects into the single subject of Nation (Kokumin-Ka). The Imperial Rescript on Education (Kyoiku-Chokugo) was the guiding principle. The latest version of Civics was repealed and merged into Nation (Morality) in middle schools in 1943. The trial period for developing citizenship education and reviewing the school curriculum in the light of the latest theories was cancelled. Citizens’ rights were generally limited during the war. At the end of the second World War in August 1945, CIE (Civil Information and Education), which was one of the organizations of allied GHQ, controlled Japanese education. CIE judged that Moral Education, Japanese History and Japanese Geography had influenced the making of Japanese nationalism and banned the teaching of these three subjects. The Japanese government tried to develop a new curriculum including new concepts of citizenship in 1945 and 1946. New History and new Civics syllabi were planned but rejected by CIE (Katakami 1984, 1993). Finally, the Course of Study was issued in 1947, based on the American California

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Plan and Virginia Plan of the 1930s. These in turn were based on Dewey’s progressivism. Japanese citizenship education experienced a rebirth in this new curriculum. Table 1.4 The process of restarting 1938

Oppression of Tsuzurikata teachers

1941 1943

The Imperial Ordinance Relating to National Schools Civics was repealed and merged into Nation (Morality) at middle school level The end of WWII Moral Education, Japanese History and Japanese Geography were banned The report of the Reform Committee for Civics The Course of Study (1947) was introduced

1945 1945 1946 1947

Notes 1 Before 1868, Japan was composed of many independent regional states. The Tokugawa shogunate was the largest of these and had overwhelming economic and military power. Authority to rule was given to regional lords by the emperor, who in practice had very limited power in this period. Although he was thought of as the formal master of Tenka (the world, or all land under heaven), people thought of Japan as actually belonging to the Kuni (their individual local clan). 2 Japanese post-modernization history is divided into four eras of historical rule: Meiji (1868–1912), Taisho (1912–1926), Showa (1926–1989) and Heisei (1989). 3 As God gave the Ten Commandments to the Israelites, similarly the emperor gave the Kyoiku Chokugo to the Japanese schools. The Kyoiku Chokugo became the fundamental principle for all school systems until 1945. 4 According to Saito (1982), however, the percentage of the context of Reading, with concern to the concept of Western citizenship, was rather low in this period; over 80 per cent of the context of learning was devoted to the introduction of Western natural sciences, alongside students’ reading and writing. 5 Generally speaking, many teachers of Writing (Tsuzurikata) in the period were connected to leftist organizations.

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References Horio, Teruhisa (1957), ‘“Komin” and citizenship education: the concept of “Komin” in modern society and the meaning of citizenship education in Japan’, Mass Education, Tokyo: Maki Shoten. —(1974), ‘Meiji “enlightened” academic and educational thought’, Science and Thought, 14. Tokyo: Shin Nippon Press. —(1987), The Imperial Nation and Education. Tokyo: Aoki Publishing. Itabashi, Takayuki and Sato, Takaki (2007), ‘School Management of Rural Primary Schools and the Role of Village Educational Societies: A Case of Nakata Village, Miyagi’, Masashi Kajiyama (ed.) The History of Educational Societies of Modern Japanese. Tokyo: Gakujutsu Shuppannkai, 221–66. Katakami, Soji (1984), Civic Education Plan right after the End of War. Tokyo: Kyoiku Siryo Shuppannkai. —(1993), The History of the Formation of Japanese Social Studies. Tokyo: Kazama Shobo. Matsuno, Osamu (1997), Komin Education in the Modern Japan: Freedom, Law and Competition in the description of Textbooks. Nagoya: Nagoya University Press. Miyahara, Seiichi (1962), The History of Education. Tokyo: Toyo Keizai Inc. Miyasaka, Kosaku (1968), ‘A study of the formation processes of civics in the middle schools,’ The Compendium: Nation Education, History of School Subjects, vol. 3. Tokyo: Meiji Tosho, 177–206. Mizuhara, Katsutoshi (1997), The Curriculum Theory of Modern Japan. Tokyo: Kazama shobo. Nakano, Akira (1968), The Research on Taisho Liberal Education. Nagoya: Reimei Shobo. Nakano, Shigeto (1971), ‘A Historical Studies on Civics in Japan (I): Establishment of Civics in Vocational-Supplementary School’, Memoirs of The Faculty of Education, Miyazaki University, Social Sciences, vol. 30, 53–72. Omori, Teruo and Hideo Mori (1968), ‘The process of the establishment of civics in Japan and its development afterwards’, Bulletin of Tokyo Gakugei University, Series Social Studies, 20, 117–36. Saito, Toshihiko (1982), ‘The content and character of civic education in the “Gakusei” Era’, The Journal of Social Studies, 47, 1–15. Takayama, Tugiyoshi (1970a), ‘Nation Education to Civic Education’, The Journal of Social Studies, 30, 1–8. —(1970b), ‘Source of community civics’, Journal of Hokkaido University of Education, Section I-C, 20, (2), 16–30. Taniguchi, Kazuya (1998), The Development of Social Studies Curriculum in 1930s Japan, Tokyo: Kazama Shobo. Yoneda, Toshihiko (1992), The Establishment of Middle School System in Modern Japan. Tokyo: Tokyo University Press.

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Chapter 2

Postwar Citizenship Education Policy and its Development Norio Ikeno

Educational Policy on Citizenship Education: An Explanatory Framework Japan’s Education System Education in Japan is essentially a dual system consisting of academic education, given formally to children within the school system, and social education, independent of the school curriculum. While both these systems are involved in educating Japan’s youth, they are not unified in terms of policy and, indeed, sometimes go in different directions. The purpose of education in modern Japan has been to enable the ordinary citizenry to build a modern nation, and this remains true today. School education occupies a central role in this effort, with central government giving directions and being responsible for this stage in the assimilation and adaptation of students to Japanese culture. Meanwhile, social education has a complementary role to play, and that is to educate older youth and adults about the Japanese state. Schools instruct children in essential skills – particularly, the so-called three R’s of reading, writing and arithmetic – and impart basic factual knowledge along with an understanding of its implications. In addition, they provide some rudimentary training in attitudes and behavior. Before World War II, Japanese schools primarily served as an indoctrination mechanism for mobilizing young people to serve the state, and indeed schools were the lynchpin of the whole national mobilization effort. The basic curriculum driving this effort consisted of Japanese language, Geography, History and Morality, with Morality taking the central indoctrinal role. Note that it was not only schools but also the family, the community and other educational institutions that had crucial parts to play in this nationalistic indoctrination.

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In the aftermath of World War II, the government accepted the educational policies, administrative suggestions, and guidelines recommended by the United States of America and introduced democracy as the new educational ideal in Japan. Underlying the new educational policy, each school was free to formulate its own policy, develop its own curriculum, conduct classes, and evaluate their students’ performance and the effects of schooling on their attitudes and behavior. The new postwar education sought to turn children into independent-minded members of their families, neighbourhoods, communities and country. After studying the entire educational situation in Japan, a new Social Studies curriculum was recommended by a commission of education experts from the United States. This had an important role in schools after it was introduced in 1947. The new Social Studies had two principal objectives: to instil socio-cultural knowledge and understanding in children and to foster the principles of citizenship among them. This would occur by teaching basic academic sociocultural knowledge and understanding while encouraging children firstly to identify real-life issues in their homes, neighbourhoods and communities, and subsequently to survey the causes and propose solutions to these issues. Other subjects besides Social Studies also emphasized citizenship as well as academic knowledge and understanding: for example, Japanese language was taught using instructional materials drawn from real-life situations and incorporated problem solving as a way of teaching citizenship. Social education activities after the war greatly diverged from traditional pursuits like reading, music appreciation, flower arranging and the tea ceremony to encompass cultural creativity, political discussion, and attending lectures and symposiums. These activities spread beyond the home and immediate neighbourhood to community centres, workplaces and circle groups. There was a tremendous surge in all sorts of activities and it was demanded that they be run autonomously and independently. The purpose of many of these myriad activities was to promote the autonomy of individuals and to foster citizenship in local communities, in the national state and in international society. Learning and cultural activities for young people and adults raised their sense of citizenship to a higher level, taught them how to act independently and work together, and fostered an inquisitive spirit, a tolerant outlook and a desire for peace. A number of preconditions were required for postwar education to achieve this ideal. Politically, it required an expansion of civil liberties and a guaranteed minimum level of income and social services; in economic terms, it required escape from poverty and rapid economic growth; socially, it required qualitative improvements in peoples’ lives in the form

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of increased access to higher education and leisure opportunities. This combination of preconditions has been referred to by a variety of names – advanced industrialization, urbanization, the mature society – but whatever it is called, it has led to the transformation of Japan’s educational policies and administration. In terms of policy, central government has tightened its control over education. Governmental purview extends, for example, to the specification of national standards for instructional materials used in public schools; the review and censorship of textbooks; and the use of testing to ensure that student achievement meets national standards. It will be apparent that this runs counter to the ostensible democratization of education. Japan’s education system today is in a state of confusion and lacks a clear-cut policy. Education remains a dual system of education in school and education in society, and both are engaged in citizenship education. Social Studies classes in school education and cultural activities in social education are both indispensable to effective and overall citizenship education. The Structure and Stages of Citizenship Education Citizenship education in Japan is based on the country’s dual educational system. Citizenship education can be broadly classified into four major spheres, as schematically shown in Figure 2.1. Education CE 3 School education Classroom education CE 1 CS

Extra-curricular activities

Social education CE 2

CS: Citizenship Studies CE: Citizenship Education CE 1, CE 2, CE 3: Kinds of Citizenship Education

Figure 2.1 Structure of citizenship education in Japan

The first sphere is Citizenship Studies (CS), taught in Social Studies classes in elementary and middle schools and in Civics classes in high schools. These classes provide students with the social and cultural knowledge and understanding appropriate to their grade levels, as specified by the Course of Study issued by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), formerly called the Ministry of Education. Middle school Social Studies covers three areas, one of which is Civics. In the

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Civics curriculum, teachers provide students with a basic knowledge and understanding of Japanese politics, economics, society and international relations. The second sphere of citizenship education in Japan is Citizenship Education 1 (CE 1 in Figure 2.1), encompassing both classroom work and school-based extra-curricular activities. Students are provided with opportunities to learn about and participate in cultural activities, with strong guidance and leadership from their teachers. Teachers set goals, prepare lessons, organize activities and evaluate student achievement. In middle schools, teachers lead classroom discussions on a range of social issues. To teach students about Japan’s election system, for example, the Social Studies teacher reviews two systems – the small-constituency system and the proportional representation system – by discussing the pros and cons of each, and may mention electoral system reforms that are being considered or planned for the future. In addition, classroom teachers may allow students to carry out individual Social Studies projects and proposals during integrated learning or class activity periods. Student proposals must relate to public institutions, so students may be asked to present and explain their proposals to the electoral management committee, city council, or prefectural council. The third sphere of citizenship education is Citizenship Education 2 (CE 2 in Figure 2.1), provided through social education. Social education provides opportunities for students to become actively engaged in issues relating to society or the environment, independently of the school curriculum. These activities are largely supported and made available through NGOs and NPOs. Leaders suggest appropriate activities to members, and give advice as to which would have a beneficial effect on public plans and decisions. What is distinctive about this type of citizenship education is that it seeks to develop interest and concern with how goals are set and opinions formed, and how proposals and plans that affect society and the environment are developed; all without any prior academic knowledge or understanding. The fourth sphere of citizenship education is Citizenship Education 3 (CE 3 in Figure 2.1) provided by the educational system as a whole. Its purpose is the formation of public society itself. Here there is no particular plan or leader, and all members are free to get involved in all sorts of activities based on their own interests. These activities often begin when someone makes a statement or when a problem arises. Then a number of people express agreement or disagreement, and set about trying to change peoples’ attitudes or improve a situation. Involvement in such activities is a learning experience in itself. The activities teach that certain situations

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can cause problems for people, and this should appeal to one’s conscience and stir one to act. Without trying to achieve any one particular outcome, this type of citizenship education seeks to encourage people to engage in ongoing efforts to reshape society or the environment. Citizenship education in Japan can be classified into these four broad spheres, which, of course, are interlinked. Over the six-decade-long history of education in Japan after the war, we have gone through a number of phases during which different policies were favored, but at the same time there has been a continuity that persists up to the present day. The Chronology of Postwar Education Policy Broadly speaking, Japan’s postwar educational policies can be divided into four distinct stages, each having a different emphasis: O

O

O

O

Stage 1 (1945–1947): a rudderless period lacking principles and policies. Stage 2 (1947–1955): an experience-oriented phase when children’s experience was at the core of educational objectives. Stage 3 (1955–1989): a knowledge-oriented phase when acquisition of basic knowledge was the paramount concern. Stage 4 (1989 to the present): an activity-oriented approach with emphasis on education through children’s activities.

In pursuit of sound educational principles, throughout these four stages Japan’s education policy and administration has wavered between an experience-oriented approach, focused on experiential learning by children, and an academic-oriented approach based on systematic acquisition of knowledge. A number of concepts and ideas are in opposition; there has been debate as to whether learning by children or instruction by teachers was more important. Such disagreements have led to the emergence of other issues and escalated into conflict over whether schools and teachers should be allowed freedom and choice or should be constrained by regulations and restricted in the choice of educational content. In effect, Japan’s principle educational policies and administration gradually strengthened the emphasis on regulation and control. In Japan, citizenship is taught to children through Social Studies, which has been part of the public school curriculum since the Ministry of Education’s Course of Study was issued in March 1947. Social Studies was legally established by the School Education Law later in 1947, and designated to cover citizenship in the curriculum by the Course of Study for

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Social Studies published later in 1947 and the Supplement to the Course of Study published in 1948. The year 2007 marked the 60th anniversary of Social Studies being taught in Japanese public schools, and thus also the 60th anniversary of citizenship education in Japan. In the aftermath of a tumultuous war, Social Studies was deemed essential in order to cultivate a citizenry capable of building and sustaining a democratic society and to cultivate new democratic leaders to govern it. Postwar Japan was driven by necessity to overcome poverty and to democratize its society. In education, Social Studies played a central role in supporting and furthering these postwar reforms. During the 60 or more years since the end of the war to the present day, the Course of Study for Social Studies has been revised eight times, most recently in 2008. Yet throughout this entire six decades, the ultimate objective of Social Studies has remained unchanged: the cultivation of citizenship.

Changes in Educational Policy and the Development of Citizenship Education Educational Policy and Citizenship Education during the Four Stages First Stage The first stage in the evolution of Japan’s educational policy lasted only briefly, from 1945 to 1947. Following Japan’s defeat in World War II, the country underwent occupation by the Allied Forces. During this period there were no new policies to speak of, but prewar policy was reevaluated with the object of creating a new one. The US occupation forces (SCAP), the Japanese government and the Ministry of Education clashed over tough issues relating to a new postwar education system. The Japanese side wanted to preserve traditional educational policies as far as possible, while the Allies – primarily the Americans who dominated the occupation – demanded democratization and a totally reconstituted system. During this two-year period, the Geography, History and Morality classes at the heart of the prewar curriculum were suspended, and a committee was formed to create a new Civics education. A plan was developed to cover elementary and middle school curricula, but SCAP would not allow the plan to be implemented. Instead, all vestiges of the prewar system were scrapped and a wholly new one was developed based on a philosophy whose workings and principles were quite different.

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Second Stage The second stage of the history of Japan’s educational policies was marked by the adoption of an experience-oriented approach to learning, beginning in 1947. Opinion is divided as to whether the second period ended in 1955, when transition to a new approach began, or in 1958, when the experiential phase came to an end. I adopt the former position that the second stage lasted from 1947 to 1955. This stage saw the formation of the framework of Japan’s postwar education system, including its basic philosophy and principles as well as the schools and institutions themselves. The educational system preserved the dualistic separation between school education and social education that existed before the war, but its philosophy and policies were reoriented toward democratization. Rather than trying to inculcate children with predetermined content, attitudes and values, the new democratic educational philosophy meant that children should learn them through a process of tackling and solving problems on their own initiative. Instead of control and coercion, the new system was based on self-initiative and choice, and the individual schools and teachers organized the curriculum and content according to the circumstances of their communities and pupils. Actual instruction was based on the principle of learning through problem solving, in which the students addressed an issue that they faced in their own communities. This involved close cooperation between school education and social education, and the development of links between them. Schools were closely connected to their local communities and sought to develop independent citizens capable of autonomous decision-making. It was assumed that these were the kinds of citizens needed to transform the Japanese state into a democratic nation. In this second stage, Citizenship Education 1 (classroom work and extra-curricular activities in school) and Citizenship Education 2 (social education) were both important, and policies were formed to promote and encourage them. In schools, the new Social Studies classes took responsibility for Citizenship Education 1. Individual schools developed their own curricula based on real-life issues and community issues faced by the children. In this respect, the curriculum exemplified freedom and choice as the guiding philosophies and principles of the new postwar education. Although Social Studies was just one subject in the curriculum, the fact that it dealt with real-life issues and community concerns meant that it encompassed a diverse range of subject matter normally addressed in other subjects. For example, issues might come up in Social Studies relating to language or calculation that would normally be addressed in Japanese and

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Mathematics classes; issues involving natural phenomena or the home would usually be addressed in Physics or Home Economics classes; and issues relating to physical exercise and music would typically be handled in Physical Education and Music classes. Although just a single subject, plans were laid from the outset for a core curriculum and a cross-curriculum that would go beyond the boundaries of Social Studies per se. Turning to social education, Citizenship Education 2 focused on community centres, with the aim of producing upstanding citizens as parents and members of the local community. Good citizens are those who enable and assist the smooth functioning of the community, and the objective was to produce citizens with the necessary qualities to do so. Citizenship Education 1 and 2 were based on the principles and policies of the new postwar education: the concept of experiential or experienceoriented education. These essentially put into practice child-oriented and activity-oriented concepts of education derived from John Dewey’s concepts of ‘learning by doing’ and ‘creating a learning experience’. Note that this was not based on systematic or structured course content deriving from an academic background; nor did it involve specialization and the teaching of basic knowledge and understanding. Rather, the subject matter was based somewhat haphazardly on issues and concerns that happened to arise, leading critics to chide that it was like ‘crawling around looking for knowledge’. Because second-stage educational policy was based on freedom and choice, its implementation was largely left up to the community and the school. Teachers were free to teach pretty much anything they wanted. To sum up, citizenship education was provided by Social Studies classes organized as an important part of the school curriculum after the war. These emphasized individuality, regional differences and development of potential ability in accordance with the needs and circumstances of local children and students and the unique characteristics of the community. Third Stage The third stage of the history of Japan’s educational policies lasted from 1955 to 1989, and marked a major shift to a systematic approach to education. During this period, the foundation of learning became academic knowledge. Specific content and understanding of its implications – as well as abilities, skills, concerns and attitudes relating to that knowledge – were taught in a highly systematic manner. If the fundamental philosophy and policies of education in the second stage were based on an experiential approach, these policies underwent a profound transformation in the third

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stage when education came to be based on a thoroughly academic-oriented and instructional approach. The two most basic attributes of the third stage were: (1) the separation of school and social education and the removal of any coincidence between the two, and (2) the compartmentalization of citizenship education in the different spheres of the overall education system. Schools were responsible for comprehension of content, while social education focused on character building in terms of citizenship. Specifically, schools taught citizenship studies (CS) by covering the mechanisms, roles, systems and organizations in politics, the economy and society; social education provided activities through community centres and other local organizations under the rubric of Citizenship Education 2. For example, middle school Social Studies was divided into three subjects – Geography, History and Civics – and the body of knowledge particular to each subject was taught. Civics supported citizenship studies by providing basic fundamental knowledge about politics, economics, society and international relations. While Citizenship Education 1 was not entirely absent from Social Studies classes, it received less emphasis. This meant that its former association and coincidence with Citizenship Education 2 in social education ceased to exist, and the two spheres became independent and unrelated. Fourth Stage The fourth stage of the history of Japan’s educational policies began in 1989, with the unveiling of a new education policy by the Ministry of Education. There were a number of reasons for this change. It was found that there was such an overemphasis on content-oriented education in the third stage that there was no room for individual initiative and fun in children’s studies, and many students were simply not acquiring the qualities of citizenship, sociability and responsibility that they were expected to learn at school. Certainly knowledge and comprehension are important, but not to the exclusion of the acquisition of abilities and skills such as social rules and customs, as well as attitudes such as kindness and tolerance, and interest in events and affairs relevant to the student. The watchwords of those advocating this new approach were ‘a new view of achievement’ (atarashi gakuryokukan) and ‘the lenient curriculum’ (yutori kyoiku), and the Ministry of Education gave these new policy objectives priority in the education course revision of 1989. In contrast to the previous emphasis on teacher-led instruction, the emphasis shifted to children learning autonomously. This was based on a new view of education in which learning takes place when children become actively involved in the subject matter.

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In order to promote this kind of learning, the Ministry of Education’s revised Course of Study for 1989 instituted an integrated studies class in the school curriculum which was systematically designed to nurture a zest for living (ikiru chikara), promote inquisitiveness, and enhance students’ ability to think for themselves, make decisions and solve problems. While promoting this zest for living, the Integrated Studies classes were also intended to restore freedom and choice by giving each school the authority to determine what was taught and how to approach it, as well as the flexibility to tailor its teaching to the unique qualities of the school, its position in the community and the attributes of its students. Integrated Studies is used to present instructional materials relating to international understanding, local communities, environmental matters and other current social issues, as well as providing time for students to pursue individual assignments and learning tasks. Here, the new child-centred view of learning mentioned above is dominant. While this view of learning does not necessarily conflict with the instruction-oriented approach that prevailed earlier, it nevertheless represents a 180-degree shift in the way many instructors approached teaching. Rather than trying to stuff children’s heads with knowledge, they must always allow effective learning. Taken to extremes, the teacher does not do any actual teaching or guiding, but is merely present in the class as an onlooker. This would not only be ineffective, but would make it impossible to realize the original objectives of the policy. The 2008 revision of the Course of Study corrects this misinterpretation, and insists that instruction in basic fundamental knowledge and understanding should be re-evaluated along with the leadership role of teachers. The Current State of Citizenship Education In the fourth and most recent stage of the history of Japan’s educational policies, we have seen a rapprochement of school education and social education, particularly since entering the twenty-first century. Cultivation of zest for living was defined as an objective of education as a whole, and indeed this is something that should be nurtured both in school and in the community, and enhanced through cooperation between schools and society at large. Citizenship education in school is not only provided through Citizenship Studies (CS) in Social Studies, Geography, History and Civics classes: it is also taught through extra-curricular activities within the compass of Citizenship Education 1 (CE 1). Indeed, the range of activities has continued to grow, and social education projects in the realm of Citizenship Education 2 (CE 2) are sometimes pursued as part of Integrated Studies. This is because cooperation between the schools and the community is considered essential to

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the development of upstanding citizens. Some are now beginning to advocate the need for a new sphere of Citizenship Education 3 (CE 3), which is applicable in the broadest sense, linking both school education and social education. Believing that education is in part concerned with socialization, that is to say, accepting society as it is, these proponents insist that society will come to be recast in a new mould in a process similar to the one expressed in German as vergesellschaftung (nationalization).

Features of Citizenship Education in Japan I have outlined the history of educational policies and citizenship education in postwar Japan and the relationship between the two, identifying four separate periods and describing the characteristics of each. In this final section I will highlight six distinctive features of education and citizenship education in postwar Japan and consider their significance. The first feature I would note is that Japan’s postwar education is organized as a dual structure consisting of school education and social education, just as in the prewar period. I have dealt with these areas as two separate spheres, and in most periods of postwar history they have not been closely related. The second feature is that citizenship education has been governed by this dual structure. Education is divided between school education and social education, and citizenship education is similarly split between them. Citizenship education in schools and citizenship education in the community are distinct from and independent of one another. The third feature is that these two separate spheres have been shaped by a pervasive dualism, (1) between knowledge and understanding in schools versus practice in communities, and (2) between knowledge and comprehension in schools versus practical training in communities. The two domains are implicitly governed by a division between theory versus practice, and between knowledge and understanding versus structure, so that education itself is organized dualistically. Students tend to behave one way at school and another out in the community, according to the different principles and situations they encounter in each. The fourth feature is that the compartmentalization of the two spheres of education and citizenship education is lateral as well as vertical. The separation is both horizontal, in the sense that the two spheres are physically separated, so citizenship education in school is physically separated from citizenship education in society; and vertical, in the sense that both school

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and community share responsibility for an individual’s development when translating knowledge and understanding into practice. The fifth feature is that there is an inherent dualism between teaching and learning in both education and in citizenship education. Citizenship education has been governed by a dualism between instruction by teachers and learning by students, and this has been regarded as an either/or situation. We have now come to accept that both instruction and learning are required, but believing that it had to be one or the other, those involved in postwar Japanese education waged fierce debates over conflicting philosophies, principles, guidelines, administration and policies. Finally, in the twenty-first century, we have put this debate to rest with the realization that citizenship education requires both approaches. The sixth feature is that the different spheres of citizenship education are moving together and becoming more closely linked. Citizenship Studies and Citizenship Education 1, 2 and 3 are separate spheres, and the common assumption is that they should remain so. But with the advent of the new century, some are beginning to advocate that it might be more effective to link and associate these different spheres. While each of these six features is significant, many educators remain mired in squabbles or in finding fault with each other’s methods rather than making progress. This is certainly not a forward-looking approach. By ridding ourselves of this tendency, we can better consolidate our educational practices, and citizenship education in particular, for the new century.

References Ikeno, N. (2005), ‘Citizenship Education in Japan after World War II’, International Journal of Citizenship and Teacher Education, 1, (2), 93–8. McCullough, David (2008), ‘Moral and social education in Japanese schools: conflicting conceptions of citizenship’, in Citizenship Teaching and Learning, 4 (1), 21–34. Nagai, J. (1977), ‘Social studies in Japan’, in Teaching Social Studies in Other Nations, NCSS Bulletin 60. Washington, DC: NCSS. —(1983), ‘Education for responsible citizenship’, in Perspectives on Japan: A Guide for Teachers, NCSS Bulletin 69. Washington, DC: NCSS. Otsu, K. (1998), ‘Japan’, in Cogan, J. J. and Derricott, R. (eds), Citizenship for the 21st Century: An International Perspective on Education. London: Kogan Page. —(2002), ‘Recent development in civic education: the case of Japan,’ in Cogan, J. J., Morris P. and Print, M. (eds), Civic Education in the Asia-Pacific Region: Case Studies across Six Societies. New York and London: RoutledgeFalmer. Parmenter, L. (2004), ‘A solid foundation: citizenship education in Japan’, in Lee,

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W. O., Grossman, D. L., Kennedy K. L. and Fairbrother, G. P. (eds), Citizenship Education in Asia and the Pacific: Concepts and Issues. Norwell, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Parmenter, L., Mizuyama, M. and Taniguchi, K. (2008), ‘Citizenship Education in Japan’, in J. Arthur, I. Davies and C. Hahn (eds), The SAGE Handbook of Education for Citizenship and Democracy. Los Angeles and London: Sage.

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Chapter 3

The Birth of the Dominant Teaching Paradigm for Social Studies in Japanese Elementary Schools: Dominant Teaching Strategies for Citizenship Education in Social Studies after the 1977 Course of Study in Japan Masao Yoshida

Introduction The 1977 Course of Study was created due to a change in the educational administration policy of the Ministry of Education of Japan. The reason for the change was to cultivate the intellectual ability of students in order to build character. This might have been the result of the conversion of educational policy from ‘the Modernization of Education’ to ‘the Humanization of Education’ (Motogi 1976). At a moderate estimate, this has remained the status quo for 20 years or more. Most teachers younger than 40 regard this paradigm as the natural pattern of Social Studies lessons because almost all lessons that they experienced from the earliest point in their careers were constructed according to the model of ‘Social Studies lessons aimed at empathetic understanding’. So this paradigm has deeply permeated the educational philosophy of primary school teachers without their being conscious that it is only one of many. For that reason, it remains the dominant paradigm for the construction and evaluation of Social Studies lesson plans among primary school teachers. The aim of this paper is to deconstruct the paradigm of ‘Social Studies lessons aimed at empathetic understanding’. The author wants to inquire as to which ingredients (knowledge, skills and attitudes) of citizenship should be cultivated in Social Studies and what teaching strategies are effective in conveying lesson content. To that end, this paper investigates

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the chronology behind this paradigm, what kind of people produced it, and how it developed. The components of this paper are as follows. First, I set out the philosophical and educational strategies of the ‘Social Studies lessons aimed at empathetic understanding’, paradigm (B). Next, I explain how the paradigm was produced and examine the causes of its dissemination, (C). Finally, I discuss the possible dangers of the paradigm (D).

The Paradigm for ‘Social Studies Lessons Aimed at Empathetic Understanding’ The Case of Third and Fourth Grade Social Studies in Primary School Each programme produced by Nippon Hoso Kyokai (NHK, Japan Broadcasting Corporation) for broadcast in schools deliberately follows the government-mandated Course of Study. In the case of Social Studies programmes, the narration or text fulfils the teacher’s role in such functions as giving explanations and asking questions. This shows that NHK has adopted a teaching paradigm for Social Studies in the Course of Study. The teaching paradigm that NHK applies is as follows: to make pupils empathetically understand the ideas, activities, feelings and attitudes of people who work hard and contribute to society, and through that empathy to cultivate their own loyalty, interest and involvement. An example is a programme entitled ‘You can learn much from your ancestors’ (August, 2004 broadcast). It is one of the ‘Machi-Tobi (Let’s explore our hometown)’ series. The show profiles people who take up traditional performing arts and explores what they do, their feelings about it and the way they think. The host then asks the audience, ‘What would you do for your hometown?’ This particular show encourages pupils’ involvement in their hometown by understanding the work and mindset of people who take up traditional performing arts. Another episode in the series, ‘Let’s investigate the secrets of shopping centres’ (October, 2004 broadcast), has the same fundamental structure and purpose. This programme profiles the Sunamachi Ginza shopping arcade in the Koto-ku ward of Tokyo. A fish shop in the arcade is examined in particular detail. First, the programme’s presenter, Jiei Kabira, shows the shopping arcade and the processes involved in the operation of each store. This is the introduction (‘the presentation of social phenomena’). The programme shows that efforts are made to attract as many customers as possible. Because there

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are many stores of the same type among the 180 stores in the Sunamachi Ginza shopping arcade, they have to compete with each other in order to sell as many goods as possible. At this point, Jiei Kabira loudly states, ‘Here is the key point’. This constitutes ‘the presentation of a research theme and a viewpoint for the investigation’. In response to this, a female presenter says, ‘I visited a fish shop to investigate the owner’s hard work and how he feels about his job’, and then she shows what she found by observing the fishmonger’s work for an entire day. The main work of the fishmonger is seen in terms of his devotion to his customers. For example, because he wants to offer his customers the freshest fish possible, he goes to a seafood market early in the morning. The dealer also shows commitment to his clientele by providing ready-prepared crabs that are easier for customers to cook at home. Next, a scene in which the fishmonger complies with customer requests is shown. Immediately after this we witness him saying that he is happiest when he hears customers saying that his fish are delicious. He also states that because his own satisfaction lies in the satisfaction of his customers, he is always going to provide them with the very best fish. In this way, an hour-long lesson is compacted into a 15-minute television programme (see Table 3.1).1 Table 3.1 The composition of the programme, ‘Selling, buying and investigating’ Learning process

Main activities of the presenter and his team

Presentation of Social Phenomena

•

Showing everyday activities in a shopping arcade and the efforts of each store.

Grasping the Problem

•

Making pupils notice that each storekeeper must work hard by competing with other businesses in a shopping arcade (the presenter makes it clear that this is the key learning point)

Research (pupils learn how to observe a shopping arcade)

•

showing the work of a fishmonger from morning till night 6 a.m. Buying at a fish market to get the freshest fish morning arrangements for opening: slicing and packing raw fish; dressing crabs so customers can cook them easily, etc. afternoon attending to customers showing the fishmonger’s response to each customer’s requests, such as providing fish for baking or for boiling – presenting some of the customers’ positive comments: ‘This fishmonger is very kind, so I want to come here again.’

• •

•

(continued)

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32 Learning process

Main activities of the presenter and his team – presenting the fishmongers dedication to service: ‘When I hear customers say that my fish is delicious, it makes it all worthwhile. So I am going to continue working harder and harder.’

Research (cont.)

Conclusion (introduction to pupils’ own neighborhood study)

•

•

Conclusion: ‘Shopkeepers make efforts so that customers can buy goods easily and conveniently.’ Rousing pupils to investigate shopkeepers’ efforts in their own community: ‘You might be able to find the secrets of success in shops and stores in your neighborhood.’

Thus, the fundamental aim of this lesson plan is to instil a love for the hometown in students by making them empathize with those who make real efforts for their customers and try to satisfy them. This is expressed in Jiei Kabira’s explicit statement, ‘I want you to love your hometown.’ The Case of Teaching History within Social Studies at Primary School Level In teaching history to sixth graders in primary school, the goal has been for pupils to understand and empathize with the dedication, efforts, feelings and attitudes of people who contribute to a wonderful cultural heritage to the nation or who accomplish great feats. This programme of study profiles 42 historical heroes, including 39 men and 3 women. Therefore, the closer the teachers adhere to the syllabus, the more pupils will think about the example set by these figures of historical events and times. Masako Watanabe (2003: 47), a sociologist specializing in education, performed a comparative analysis of some Social Studies lessons that teach history in both Japanese and American primary schools, and then drew the following conclusions. ‘What?’ questions are the most commonly used in classes in both countries. ‘Why?’ questions are the second most common in the US, while in Japan it is the ‘How?’ questions. The former allows students to inquire into the cause of historical events and the relationships between social phenomena, whereas the latter allows students to understand past situations, how events developed, and the example and attitudes of historical heroes. At this point, history lessons differ between the two countries.2 Based on this analysis, Watanabe considers why Social Studies lessons that teach history in Japan came to be as they are. She concluded that because history teachers and researchers of historical education felt that simply identifying and explaining facts had made History lessons tedious, they

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readily embraced the idea of child-centred instead of fact-centred lessons. As a result, the 1989 Course of Study adopted the child-centred method and recommended encouraging pupils to learn through empathy, with examples taken from cases involving young people in real life. Furthermore, she suggested that the prototype of teaching methods designed to elicit students’ empathy in history education could be traced back to the ‘new education movement’ in the Taisho Democracy Era of Japan (Watanabe 2003: 57). However, without going back that far, we can explain why most Social Studies lessons in Japanese primary schools employ this method. It occurred after the formation of the ‘Social Studies lessons aimed at empathetic understanding’ paradigm. Asking about historical processes makes students aware of the tasks and challenges faced by historical heroes; asking about the attitudes and outlook of those heroes helps students understand them with empathy. Thus, these changes were not in fact caused by the 1989 revision of the Course of Study. Such lessons had already been widely taught on the basis that the correct paradigm of Social Studies lessons is ‘Social Studies lessons aimed at empathetic understanding’.

The Birth of the Paradigm of ‘Social Studies Lessons Aimed at Empathetic Understanding’ The objective of Social Studies teaching is to make students understand the ideas, activities, feelings and outlook of people through empathy, and also to cultivate in them positive and productive social attitudes. How was this paradigm of Social Studies lessons created and propagated? This chapter will discuss that question. Discrimination Between Orthodoxy and Heterodoxy by Shigeto Nakano, Inspector at the Ministry of Education On August 1983, Shigeto Nakano declared in his article entitled ‘How it is possible to evaluate the interest and attitude of students?’ that ‘Social Studies lessons aimed at empathetic understanding’ embody the philosophy of the Social Studies Course of Study. The legitimate Social Studies teaching paradigm of the Course of Study detailed in the 1977 edition was shown there in the form of a concrete lesson plan that he found to be ideal, which he contrasted with another plan that he called ‘heresy’. In 1979, Nakano took over the post of Inspector in the Ministry of Education from Yasushi Mizoue. Previously he had been associate professor at Miyazaki University. Nakano was striving to incorporate the philosophy of Social Studies

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in the 1977 Course of Study into a concrete lesson plan. This was because the new Social Studies did not yet have an adequate teaching paradigm that could be used to construct plans that would make more effective lessons, even though the 1977 Course of Study had been in use since 1980. The most important issue was how a suitable lesson plan for the new Social Studies should be constituted and what should be taught in relation to evaluating areas such as ‘interest and attitude toward doing something for other people’. The Ministry of Education published a new ‘academic and behavioral report card on students’ in 1980, requiring teachers in primary and junior high schools to assess students in this respect for all subjects. The 1968 Course of Study was greatly affected by the idea of ‘the modernization of educational content’. For example, it introduced teaching materials that required even primary school students to learn scientific theories. Consequently, some pupils were promoted to the next grade without a complete understanding of what they had been taught. The mass media called such pupils ‘drop-behinders’. Lessons that caused this group of students to fall behind by going too fast were dubbed ‘Shinkansen lessons’. The media began a crusade against the 1968 Course of Study and its results.3 The 1977 Course of Study was organized in response to such public opinion and forcefully touted the idea of ‘less strenuous education and respect for achievement’ as a central policy. Therefore, in compiling the new Course of Study, the chief of the Primary and Secondary School Education Bureau directed the inspectors of each subject to reduce the syllabus and to carefully select the content of the Course of Study. The 1977 Course of Study was also aimed at character building. Each subject was expected not only to provide intellectual training but also to consider the formation of attitude as an important target. The Ministry of Education, which decided fundamental changes in the educational policy, demanded the revision of the ‘academic and behavioral record of students’ to include attitude as an aspect of evaluation. It is for that reason that Nakano wrote a series of articles on the topic of ‘how to cultivate and evaluate interest and attitude’ as a matter of urgency, in response to a request by the editor of the magazine, Social Studies. At first he hesitated to undertake the task and refused several times, claiming insufficient knowledge and ability to tackle it. However, he eventually agreed to work on the theme (Nakano 1982: 125). It was in the 17th article in this series that ‘Social Studies lessons aimed at empathetic understanding’ was shown to be a legitimate Social Studies teaching paradigm as opposed to a heresy. The lesson plan of the Omori Sixth Primary School4 in Tokyo’s Ota ward for a class entitled ‘The study of garbage’

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was declared legitimate, while the lesson plan of Fukui City’s Asuwa Primary School, also named ‘The study of garbage’, was deemed heretical.5 Nakano pointed out that the Omori Sixth lesson plan was concerned with getting pupils to understand, through empathy, the work, attitudes and difficulties of people who collected garbage and to think of matters relating to garbage as their own problem. Thus, from the viewpoint of citizenship education in Social Studies, this was an excellent and appropriate lesson plan. In his opinion, Social Studies as citizenship education should present social phenomena and social problems as if they directly affected the pupils’ own lives and thoughts. He postulated that the Asuwa plan did not teach from this viewpoint, thus implying that it was unsuitable for citizenship education in Social Studies. Furthermore, Nakano addressed the fact that since the Social Studies section of the Ministry of Education aimed to cultivate knowledge, attitudes and abilities based upon a firm foundation, the Omori Sixth lesson plan was the more appropriate for the 1977 course of Social Studies. In short, Nakano defined legitimacy and heresy within Social Studies in the 1977 Course of Study and explained the reasons in his article.6 Responding to an interview conducted on the 27 March 2001, Nakano said, ‘We should not jump to conclusions as to whether this plan is excellent or bad, because teachers work hard in order to complete their lesson plans. So we have to be attentive to point out all of the qualities of these lesson plans when we evaluate them’. In his interview, Nakano strongly praised the Asuwa plan as a typical and excellent example of the ‘Inquiry Learning Plan’, which employs various learning activities (Nakano 1982: 124). However, he was harsh towards the Asuwa plan, pointing out that it was not suitable for Social Studies practice because it lacked the necessary elements for cultivating student empathy and therefore commitment to community, society and nation (Nakano 1982: 126–7). It can be said that this evaluation by Nakano dealt a large blow to the idea that Social Studies should be the foundation of Social Sciences and not concerned with cultivating values and attitudes with regard to society and its members. It recommended that many more primary and junior high school teachers should consider how to include and cultivate affective learning in their lesson plans.

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Birth of ‘Social Studies Lessons Aimed at Empathetic Understanding’ in Omori Sixth Primary School Even though the philosophy of the Course of Study changed to an approach geared towards character building, it took a long time before that philosophy was embodied in a concrete lesson plan. Before the advent of the ‘Social Studies lessons aimed at empathetic understanding’ paradigm in the Omori Sixth Primary School, the lesson plans created by Kubo-machi Primary School in Tokyo’s Bunkyo ward in 1978 still included much of the Social Studies lesson plans dating from the 1968 Course of Study, although the school was trying to produce a new paradigm for Social Studies lessons conforming to the 1977 version.7 Therefore, the Kubo-machi lesson plan consisted of three types of question: ‘When, where and how?’ questions for facts, ‘Why?’ questions for inquiring into causes and relationships, and ‘What should we do?’ questions for deciding on a course of action. However, it lacked questions geared toward understanding through empathy for the work, feelings and difficulties of people who collect garbage (as shown in Table 3.2). Kubo-machi Primary School had been designated by the Ministry of Education in the academic year 1977–1978 to create a new lesson-plan paradigm for Social Studies. According to Yasushi Mizoue, only four schools were so designated among the 24,000 primary schools in the whole country. Therefore, the Social Studies lesson plan created by Kubo-machi was expected to be cutting-edge. Mizoue wrote as follows (Kubo-machi Primary School 1979, 1): Moreover, because research being done in the 1977–1978 academic year at Kubomachi Primary School coincides with the change to a new curriculum for each subject including Social Studies, the research mainly looked at how ideas for the new Course of Study were embodied in the practical lesson plan. Therefore, it is certain that the results of research in the designated schools will provide very effective suggestions for the organization of a future curriculum and improvements in lesson plans for each subject. What Kubo-machi Primary created via their research will cause a stir in the world of education, where most teachers want a new paradigm of Social Studies teaching. The ripples will spread far and wide without ceasing.

How then was the Social Studies lesson plan of Omori Sixth Primary School created? It is different from any other pre-existing lesson plan. And Nakano praised it as the embodiment of the philosophy of Ministry of Education’s Plan for Social Studies. The author interviewed Mrs Kayoko Tanaka on 30 March 2001. Nakano

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referred to her as the teacher who created the Omori Sixth Social Studies lesson plan. Based on the interview and published materials, Tanaka’s views on school subjects, especially on Social Studies, are shown in what follows. Table 3.2 Unit on ‘Garbage’ (Kubo-machi Primary School) Theme: keeping our life sanitary disposing of garbage Section 1. Where does garbage go?

Objective •

•

•

Understanding how garbage is disposed of. Understanding why we have to separate types of garbage. Understanding that the wards, including Bunkyo-ku, which have neither a landfill nor a waste treatment centre, must depend on other wards to dispose of garbage.

2. Increase Understanding why in garbage garbage has been increasing. Considering how to solve the issue of increasing garbage.

Key questions and learning matters •

Presenting social phenomena showing picture of many garbage trucks in line; total amount of garbage for one day in Tokyo.

Key question 1: Where do so many trucks full of garbage go? Some go to a waste treatment centre and others go to a landfill, depending on what kind of garbage they carry. • Key question 2: How is garbage disposed of at a landfill and at a waste treatment centre? (Garbage is burned at waste treatment centres and the ash is buried in landfill sites. At the Tokyo Bay landfill site, the garbage is carefully buried in a sanitary way by sanitation engineers). • Key question 3: Why is the garbage of Bunkyo-ku carried all the way to another ward? Only 11 marginal wards of 23 in Tokyo have waste treatment centres. Furthermore, there is little hope that Bunkyo-ku will have its own waste treatment centre in the future. • Presenting social phenomena showing the increase in garbage, comparing the present amount with that of 20 years ago. (The amount of garbage in 1975 was six times as much as in 1955.) • Key question 1: Why has the amount of garbage so increased? Many people have lived in luxury and throw away commodities that are still usable. Also, waste paper has increased since people are using more paper. Around 1955 there were still many people who threw garbage into the river. •

(continued)

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38 Section 2. Increase in garbage (cont.)

Objective

Key questions and learning matters •

•

Key question 2: Why do they not build more waste treatment centres? (Residents oppose the plan of building a waste treatment centre in their domicile since they believe that it will generate environmental pollution.) Key question 3: How should we resolve the issue of increasing garbage and waste considering that it is impossible to build a new waste treatment centre or to get a new landfill. We have to reuse goods as much as possible and not throw them away too hastily.

Source: Kubo-machi Primary School’s teaching plan

How the Social Studies Lesson Plan of Omori Sixth Primary School Was Created In 1980–1981, Omori Sixth tackled the task of creating the new lesson plan paradigm for the following subjects as designated by the Ota ward: Japanese, Social Studies, Arithmetic and Science. The theme of the study was ‘A strategy for the teaching students through the evaluation of interest and attitudes’. A research bulletin released at a workshop in December 1981 stated the motive for the theme as follows (Omori Sixth Primary School 1981: 4): Under the new Course of Study that makes much of raising children who can think for themselves and judge correctly, we have focused on raising children who think about problems and issues thoroughly and then act upon these thoughts. In order to accomplish this objective, we have looked for a new paradigm for a lesson plan for the following subjects: Japanese, Social Studies, Arithmetic and Science. When we set this objective, we referred to the results of investigation into the actual circumstances of our pupils. Moreover, we reflected that we had made too much of mere knowledge and specific skills such as literacy and numeracy without taking character building into account. Consequently we have tackled not only methods of teaching knowledge and specific skills, but also of attitudes and other skills that might be useful in children’s self-development.

Although we can find words and phrases such as ‘the will and ability to develop one’s own character’ in the report, the phrase ‘empathetic

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understanding’ is not to be found. Therefore, ‘Social Studies lessons aimed at empathetic understanding’ was not a creation of the school as a whole. Surely, then, interaction between members of the Social Studies department was what brought this new paradigm into existence. The Social Studies department in 1981 consisted of three members: Kayoko Tanaka (in charge of 1st classroom-grade 1; a member of the research committee), Noriko Ichihara (in charge of 4th classroom-grade 1), and Yoshinori Kann (in charge of 5th classroom-grade 2). Tanaka, who was a member of the research committee, was expected to lead the Social Studies section in policy and practice. How did Tanaka conceive the ‘study of garbage’ lesson plan? What kinds of educational practices and concerns formed the basis of the paradigm for her lesson plan? She was asked: ‘How did the idea come into being of the plan that gets pupils to understand through empathy the hearts and efforts of working people? Did Inspector Nakano or another person give you some advice or any suggestions relating to that paradigm, or it was your own idea, or Miss Ichihara’s?’ To this question, Tanaka’s answer was as follows: It is difficult for me to say whose idea it was, because a study made in a primary school is different from that of university researchers. Generally speaking, lesson plans are created step by step with the interaction of the teachers, though in this case I presented the original plan to them. I made it myself. Then Miss Ichihara remodeled it to suit her pupils, if memory serves. I made and presented the original plan, remembering a lesson on ‘garbage study’ given by my former senior colleague, Mrs. Niike. I was not told of the new lesson plan paradigm by anyone, although I adopted the idea of making children pursue a garbage truck from Mrs. Niike. But Miss Ichihara completed the final lesson plan by adding some ideas, because she was in charge of carrying out the plan. Since completing the lesson plan was the most important matter for the team, all the members shared their opinions and ideas with each other. In the end, however, the opinion of the teacher actually carrying out the lesson was the most respected. I’m not very keen on learning teaching skills and ideas from books. I have learned much more from observing the wonderful practice of my teaching colleagues and from discussions with them than by reading books. I was impressed by the Social Studies lesson plan and teaching of Mrs. Niike in the ‘garbage study’ and ‘the study of mail collection’. You can track the course of a mail van by looking at the collection times written on the side of a mailbox. Pupils were absorbed in investigating the collection times.

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Nakano also testified in his interview with the author that he had never given advice to the school or Mrs Tanaka. In short, the lesson plan for ‘study of garbage’ was created by Tanaka herself with reference to the prior example of Niike, who had been the leading member of ‘Shoshi-no-kai’ (the group of educational association for the social studies, who is triying to achieve the original spirit of the social studies), and also through interaction with the other Social Studies teachers. The Background of Tanaka’s Lesson Plan During the interview with Tanaka, the author inquired about the philosophy of the subject and the background of the other Omori Sixth teachers who had influenced Tanaka. Then, the author asked what educational practices the school followed after 1977, when Tanaka was transferred there. First discussed was Noboru Tagami, who was the school’s principal in those days. ‘He gave himself to studying how to teach arithmetic and to rearing rabbits as a topic for study soon after World War II’ (Omori Sixth Primary School 1976), when he worked for the attached elementary school of Nara Women’s Higher Normal School as a young teacher. Takayasu Shigematsu, who participated in drawing up the first Course of Study for Social Studies, was its principal in those days. Shigematsu is still one of the most famous theorists of pragmatism in education in Japan, and the attached elementary school of Nara Women’s Higher Normal School is also still one of the most famous schools where pragmatism in education (entitled ‘Operation, drill and getting along well’) was practised. Tagami might have acquired there both the knowledge and skill to teach the lesson plan, which involved pragmatism in education. Under the guidance of Tagami, the Omori Sixth Primary School had been advancing the study of new ideas and their embodiment in practice since 1975, aiming for ‘education of the pupil for the pupil by the pupil’ and looking at ‘how it should be taught’. The premise of its study contains the following view of children: ‘Every pupil essentially likes learning and wishes to enhance himself or herself intellectually, spiritually and physically, and can work together with others to achieve those ends’ (Omori Sixth primary school 1979: 9). The teachers were putting infinite trust in the children they were teaching. This inevitably led towards the use of teaching units that combined subjects such as Japanese, Mathematics, Science, Social Studies, and so on. Therefore, Omori Sixth changed its own curriculum as much as a public elementary school could by initiating ‘the era of the pupil for the pupil by

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the pupil’ under the restrictions of the 1968 Course of Study, although it had not abolished the traditional teaching of classroom subjects. So, Tagami and the senior teachers discussed how to show that the school’s then-current curriculum did not deviate from the 1968 Course of Study when the inspectors of Ota ward planned to visit. President Tagami explains the past events and his decision as follows: I wrestled with this study. We had to solve many problems in order to put it into practice. First, I contended that we had to establish a ‘specified time for pupils’ free from the Course of Study. All the teachers of Omori Sixth agreed with this. Next, we had to find a time for it. I proposed to substitute the class on moral education for this class, since most teachers don’t like it and don’t teach it very often. This was, however, a kind of gamble. Some senior teachers advised me not to cancel moral education classes, saying that, ‘If you do so, you might be transferred to a remote place such as Izu Oshima island or Miyake-zima island. When you started working as a teacher of Tokyo Metropolitan City, you got a job at Minato-ku, a nice place to work, and the status of an elite teacher. But after that, you were exiled from the inner city of Tokyo and had to resign yourself to work at places such as Machida and Komae, away from the inner city. Now that you have finally attained the position of principal at an inner city school, you mustn’t do it!’ So we generated the ‘specified time for pupils’ by giving over a few classes in Japanese and tutorial sessions. As a result, we had to think of an excuse for this measure when the Board of Education of Tokyo inspected us. (Omori Sixth Primary School 1979: 151)

The adviser to the study was Takayasu Shigematsu, who at that time was a director of the Tokyo Research Institute of Education. The teachers called their educational practice ‘a time of children acting as leaders and the lessons were given their principal momentum by the children themselves’.8 Ichiji, who influenced Tanaka, summarized her methods of teaching firstgrade Arithmetic as follows: What objectives can make every pupil learn actively and independently? The answer is as follows: we have to set up objectives that reflect pupils’ inner needs. Moreover, these objectives must be flexible and adaptable in accordance with pupils’ interests and responses. It might be better if the objectives had the power to make pupils think about their way of life.

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Even though instruction in Mathematics was usually considered purely intellectual, Ichiji had been trying to set up ‘objectives that make pupils think about their way of life’. Tanaka, influenced by her views, believed that the lesson plan for a subject should aim at not considering only intellectual matters but also character building. Moreover, Niike writes as follows about Social Studies:9 A lesson given its principal momentum by pupils contributes to building character in children as well as cultivating social scientific thought and recognition through the study of problem solving. Professor Shigematsu says that the study of problem solving is essential to building and developing an independent personality through the process of reflection . . . It seems that a suitable topic of study and close contact between the children themselves as well as with the teacher in ‘a lesson given its principal momentum by pupils’ has deepened every pupil’s way of life. Teaching ‘a lesson given its principal momentum by pupils’ made me realize how profound and important an effect education can have. (Omori Sixth Primary School 1978: 88.)

It was the philosophy of child-centred education and the specific aim of cultivating character through teaching that influenced Tanaka and, therefore, the Social Studies lesson plan of Omori Sixth. It was also the Shoshi-no-kai philosophy on the subject, but in the Omori case it was limited only to developing social attitudes in children rather than trying to wake up their own independent personality and reconstruct their character accordingly. In the light of this, let us re-examine the ‘study of garbage’ (Omori Sixth Primary School 1979:81) conceived by Tanaka and her colleagues. First, the lesson shows that the total amount of garbage generated in Tokyo per day is 230 times the height of Mt Fuji, which is equal to 22.5 times the length of the Yamanote Line. This is ‘the presentation of social phenomena’ to evoke interest in the subject, which in this case is the treatment of garbage. Next, the teacher presents the pupils with the question of how such a lot of garbage is treated, and makes them accompany a garbage truck on its rounds. The expected result is that the students will feel it necessary to visit and observe a waste treatment centre. After the visit, pupils are expected to summarize what they understand and feel about the treatment of garbage, taking into consideration what they have observed. A teacher is expected to evaluate pupils’ ‘interest and attitude’ towards the problem of waste by interpreting how they summarize their feelings and understanding.

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How much a pupil considers the problem of waste as his or her own problem and how highly motivated he or she is to investigate and think about it are the criteria used for evaluation. Not only interest and attitude toward learning, but also ‘sympathy for the feelings and efforts of garbage collectors and their cooperative attitude in group activities’ (Omori Sixth Primary School 1981: 36) are the evaluation objectives. The criterion for evaluation created by Tanaka is shown in the axis of coordinates in Figure 3.1. Here, the x-axis is the borderline of whether or not pupils are concerned about the subject matter. The y-axis is the borderline of whether pupils consider a social problem to be their own concern. The pupils put in the first quadrant were evaluated on both their ‘empathy for the emotions and efforts of working people and a cooperative attitude’ (namely, desirable social attitude) and their high motivation for learning (desirable study attitude).

Eagerness for Study

Social Interest and Attitude Showing concern about the issue of garbage and waste, but not investigating the issue of garbage and waste and not regarding it as his/her own problem. Not showing concern for the issue of garbage and waste, nor investigating the issue of garbage and waste.

Investigating the issue of garbage and waste; furthermore, regarding it as his/her own problem. Investigating the issue of garbage and waste, but not regarding it as his/her own problem.

Figure for the evaluation of social and learning attitude

Figure 3.1 The evaluation of social and learning attitude by Tanaka

Furthermore, after a research visit, pupils are expected to discuss the treatment of waste again in the classroom and to notice that ‘a waste treatment centre effectively utilizes waste as the result of various efforts’. This activity is designed to ‘make pupils think of the relationship between the recycling of garbage and the problem of resources and energy’ (Omori Sixth Primary School 1981: 37). The next objective is for pupils to understand that ‘waste treatment methods have changed, in accordance with the increase in population’ and that ‘it is based on the wishes of the people involved’. Pupils are expected to develop empathy with the people who are engaged in collecting garbage and treating waste (Omori Sixth Primary School 1981: 37–8).

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Thus, although character building is also included in this lesson plan it is different from the case of Shoshi-no-kai, which aims at reorganizing the whole personality and character of each pupil. Here, character building is limited to cultivating social attitudes. Why then did Nakano pay special attention to this lesson plan? Nakano Again Nakano learned of the existence of Tanaka’s lesson plan through Yuichi Shiraishi, who was then the Social Studies inspector for the Ota ward. Tanaka answered the interviewer’s questions about the lesson plan as follows (Omori Sixth Primary School 1981: 38): Mr. Shiraishi asked me, ‘Do you mind if I send this lesson plan to Mr. Nakano?’ Of course I said, ‘No problem’, and he sent it to Mr. Nakano. After reading it, he came all the way to the school to observe ‘the presentation of lessons within the practice of open-door classrooms’. It seems that Mr. Nakano was holding a workshop to study Social Studies, and Mr. Shiraishi was one of the members. Although I too had been asked to attend the workshop, I declined, as I was too busy. Mr. Nakano was kind enough to invite me to attend another time. But I always answered, ‘I am afraid I can’t.’ So I just sent some articles I had been asked to write by Mr. Nakano without actually the workshop.

Why did this lesson plan to cultivate ‘social attitudes’ by arousing student empathy attract Nakano? It might be because it has the elements to support the following two views of Social Studies. One view is that Social Studies is not a subject with the sole aim of knowledge acquisition. The other is that Social Studies is just one subject, and the range of its content should be limited accordingly, even when a teacher aims more generally at character building. This means that because it is only one subject, it is too much to expect Social Studies to cover all aspects of character building. Both views of Social Studies might satisfy Nakano,10 who has been fighting over ‘the view of Social Studies as a subject of social sciences’ for many years, feeling that it was wrong for Shoshi-no-kai to aim to undertake character building entirely in Social Studies classes.11 While he worked for Miyazaki University, Nakano had already completed a model lesson plan that makes it possible to teach both conceptual knowledge of social sciences and character building (Nakano and Nakayama 1976: 15–35). The model is shown below in Figure 3.2. According to this model,

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children are expected to gain factual understanding of a social trend and then obtain conceptual knowledge based on this understanding. This part of the model is devised in order to make pupils discover and build on knowledge appropriate to ‘the view of Social Studies as a subject of social sciences’. However, Nakano’s model has another important feature: learning about people’s feelings. Nakano thought there were two kinds of people in society. One type consists of people who follow social trends and the other of people who deviate from those trends. For Nakano, it is very important for pupils to understand the feelings of both. This is because when students understand through empathy it helps the cultivation of personality. Nakano tried to embody ‘humanization of Social Studies’ through this. Although this model lesson plan was epoch-making, it also has a weakness. THE MODEL OF STUDY PROCESS Section A Learning of Conceptual Knowledge

SPECIFIC CASE

Many farmers in suburbs quit farming. That is why . . . Key question Why do many farmers in suburbs quit farming?

Section B Learning of Value • Learning of generalization of sociology • Empathizing with motives and feelings

Although many farmers have been quitting farming, there are some who are going to keep making their living from the soil. That depends on people’s sense of values. Key question Why are some farmers going to continue farming?

The motives and feelings of people who are going to continue farming are as follows: Pupils evaluate the motives and feelings of those who choose to continue farming. Key question What do you think of people who are going to continue farming and of people who quit farming?

Figure 3.2 Teaching model by Nakano

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This fault is that the step of understanding agriculture, for example, does not have a direct relationship with the step of understanding the feelings of agricultural workers. However, Tanaka’s lesson plan has the advantage that understanding agricultural work and understanding the feelings and values of people can be achieved in tandem, because it aims at getting pupils to understand the attitudes of working people who strive to overcome the difficulties of their work. That might be one of the reasons that Nakano paid attention to Tanaka’s lesson plan. Nakano also introduced the lesson plan of Nagara-higashi Primary School in the next issue of the educational magazine Social Studies. It may be interpreted as his effort to give legitimate status to ‘Social Studies lessons aimed at empathetic understanding’. The result was stated at the beginning of this paper.

A Danger of the ‘Social Studies Lessons Aimed at Empathetic Understanding’ Paradigm Some Apparent Merits of ‘Social Studies Lessons to Develop Empathetic Understanding’ The year of birth and the real parents of the ‘Social Studies lessons aimed at empathetic understanding’ paradigm are easily reckoned. The teachers of Omori Sixth Primary School who supported the philosophy of child-centred education (or the Shoshi-no-kai) were the natural mothers and Shigeto Nakano was the father. Within the negative climate towards intellectual discipline at that time, Nakano recognized ‘Social Studies lessons aimed at empathetic understanding’ as a legitimate child of the Course of Study and turned it into a major paradigm. It is clear why this paradigm has been given much greater educational credibility than the paradigm of ‘Social Studies as part of social sciences’: the former also aims at building character, while the latter, which claims that Social Studies should only aim to teach scientific knowledge, seems to fall into the blind belief that scientific knowledge is neutral and born in a vacuum. Social constructionism has shown this to be untrue. Moreover, from the position that citizenship training ought to be the main object of Social Studies, the paradigm of ‘Social Studies lessons aimed at empathetic understanding ‘looks ideal, because it will develop pupils’ personality in an integrated manner; that is, its targets are knowledge, capacity for thought and judgment, and attitude.

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However, the paradigm of ‘Social Studies lessons aimed at empathetic understanding’ has two drawbacks. One is that learning about social structure tends to be insufficient. Another is the risk of value infusion. The Change From Teaching About Social Sciences to Teaching About Humanities The inadequacy of teaching about social structure can be defined as follows: the ‘Social Studies lessons aimed at empathetic understanding’ paradigm might give little weight to teaching about such matters as ‘why farmers in Japan became less prosperous after buying and using more agricultural machinery’, ‘why the X region is famous for growing Y’ and ‘why farmers in Japan do not grow as much Z as they used to’. These issues are about social structure and its change, and formerly they were important areas of Social Studies even in primary schools. However, fifth graders in primary school no longer learn about these matters in terms of cause and effect, but only (for example) about the tough life and feelings of a struggling rice farmer. As shown in Figure 3.2, section B is emphasized rather than section A. In short, the paradigm of ‘Social Studies lessons aimed at empathetic understanding’ tends to make pupils learn about people’s work and attitudes without looking into the social structure behind them. This is a shortcoming, since work is fundamentally related to social structure. For example, farmers grow different vegetables for harvesting at different times of the year. This is so that they can maintain their income and, if possible, increase it. Farmers have to do this because they earn their living within a capitalist society where people sell things to make money. So the way they go about their work is not simply a matter of choice, inclination or enjoyment. Its roots are in the social structure itself, not in the job satisfaction (or otherwise) of the individual worker. Most lesson plans based on the paradigm of ‘Social Studies lessons aimed at empathetic understanding’ tend not to teach about social structure as it relates to the farmers’ efforts and feelings. To put it simply, such lesson plans are not for the study of social sciences but for the learning of humanities. This is also the case in teaching History. In 1955, the History curriculum of the Course of Study for secondary schools became issue-centred, investigating topics such as the development of human rights and democracy instead of focusing, as before, on chronology such as that of the history of Japan. The revised system is still in place and has the following two implications: O

Teaching about history in Social Studies has changed from quasi-academic

48

O

Citizenship Education in Japan history, concerning mainly the facts about each era, to inquiry into the origins of aspects and issues of the modern world. Teaching about history in Social Studies has changed from seeing it as part of social science (often interpreting historical events and affairs based on materialism) to seeing them as part of humanities, which aims to explore the human mind and its feelings, beliefs and attitudes.

As stated earlier, Social Studies became focused on humanities rather than on factual knowledge within social sciences. This is especially true in the Social Studies taught in primary schools. The Danger of Value Infusion The danger of this becomes evident if we consider what might happen in a history class. When a teacher explains about Nobunaga Oda12 and makes pupils understand through empathy Nobunaga’s efforts and feelings towards unification, it might be hard, in context, to teach less savoury facts, such as the massacre of the believers in Ikkoshu (a Buddist sect), who resisted Nobunaga at Ise Nagashima, or his killing of many innocent people by setting fire to Mt Hiei, one of the most holy places in contemporary Japan. In short, it might happen that a teacher focuses on events and issues that lead pupils to respect Nobunaga simply as ‘a great person’, without balancing these with the less positive facts about him. Leading pupils to recognize and evaluate various aspects of historical characters is one thing. Influencing pupils to take a particular attitude towards them is quite another. In ‘Social Studies lessons aimed at empathetic understanding’, information can be controlled to eliminate undesirable or inconvenient details in order to make pupils evaluate a historical character in a predetermined way. This is nothing but value infusion, in effect a kind of brainwashing, which many teachers and researchers in Japan object to because it contradicts the fundamental philosophy of Social Studies.

Conclusion ‘Social Studies lessons aimed at empathetic understanding’ is the dominant model in Japan and has been practiced by many teachers. This article details who created this paradigm, when it was made, and how it attained such authority that it prevails to the present day.

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The teachers of Omori Sixth Primary School created this paradigm in about 1980. They were strongly influenced by the idea of child-centred education and Shoshi-no-kai. They developed it as the new Social Studies lesson plan for the 1977 Course of Study. Yuichi Shiraishi, at that time the Social Studies inspector of Ota ward, sent the lesson plan to the Social Studies inspector of the Ministry of Education, Shigeto Nakano. Nakano presented the plan in August 1983 as an orthodox approach to Social Studies in the educational magazine Social Studies, in which he declared the alternative but influential plan of ‘Social Studies lessons making much of the knowledge of social sciences’ to be heterodoxy. It is certain that the dominant paradigm of the Social Studies lesson plan started with the movement from ‘Social Studies lessons making much of the knowledge of social sciences’ to ‘Social Studies lessons aimed at empathetic understanding’. This occurred among teachers working for attached schools as well as among the board of education inspectors in many prefectures and cities. It is also certain that such inspectors themselves strongly influenced the teachers’ paradigm for Social Studies through courses and workshops. This began around 1985, as can be verified by the Social Studies lesson plans preserved in the teacher training centres run by each prefecture or city. The question of whether the paradigm of ‘Social Studies lessons aimed at empathetic understanding’ was born in different places at almost the same time can be considered as follows. As early as 1973, Mr Mitsuo Abe, a leading Social Studies teacher who had created and taught many lesson plans for Inquiry Learning (a kind of ‘Social Studies lessons making much of the knowledge of social sciences’), stated that in order to answer ‘How?’ questions we must first teach pupils about ‘the ideas and efforts of working people’; and then make them understand the workers’ desire to improve their lives (Center of Social Studies Education 1973: 39–47). This illustrates the growing view of the time that the learning objectives in Social Studies lessons must be ‘the ideas and efforts of working people’, even though the view was not yet totally prevalent and still lacked the idea of ‘understanding through empathy’. Nakano introduced the lesson plan of Nagara-higashi Primary School in the next issue of Social Studies, which also followed the paradigm of ‘a Social Studies lesson aimed at empathetic understanding’. If this lesson plan was created independently of Nakano and Omori Sixth Primary School, the birth of ‘a Social Studies lesson aiming at empathetic understanding’ is more complex: did it have a single place of origin or more than one? Investigating this is another assignment for the author.

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Notes 1 The makers of the school broadcasting programme (Social Studies) of NHK are aware that it is not enough for pupils simply to watch television. Most programs aim to awaken and increase pupils’ interest and involvement in the social phenomenon presented, and in such a way that they too will want to investigate the topics. Therefore, at the conclusion of a programme, the host Jiey Kabira always says, ‘There may be nice people who also have such secrets in your surroundings. Check it out!’ 2 Although what she pointed out is right, it would be wrong to regard ‘Why?’ questions as a general feature of Social Studies lessons in the US and Japan. It might be true that the lessons in the US that Watanabe observed contained many examples, but not every Social Studies history lesson in the US is constructed around ‘Why?’ questions. Jean Anyon discussed this in detail in her 1982 article, ‘Social class and school knowledge’. Anyon clearly showed that Social Studies lessons in the US help to perpetuate the social status quo, and that lessons differ between schools according to the social class of students in their catchment area. Therefore not every lesson in the US is constructed around a ‘Why?’ question, since the topics taught in Social Studies are selected according to social class. 3 ‘Schools Now’ by Asahi Shimbun was the first example. It became a long-term series, which ran for four and a half years from 1972 to 1977. 4 There is no Omori Sixth Primary School now. It was closed due to the decrease in the number of pupils in the 2002 fiscal year. 5 Takayasu Shigematsu seemed to feel somewhat uncomfortable with the phrase ‘a lesson which children control’ (Omori Sixth Primary School 1978, Preface). However, some teachers who are members of Shoshi-no-Kai coined several new terms such as ‘child-run lessons versus social lessons with teachers’ in order to give a name to their ideal child-centred lesson (Nagaoka 1976: 71). The phrase ‘A lesson which a child controls’ can be regarded as one such suggestion. 6 The reason why Nakano’s concept of Social Studies as emphasizing ‘attitude formation’ is not called ‘attitude formation-oriented Social Studies’, but ‘empathetic understanding-oriented Social Studies’ is mainly because ‘every theory of Social Studies aims at attitude formation, unless it is deliberately excluded’. That is, ‘attitude formation-oriented Social Studies’ is not characteristic of Nakano’s theory. 7 Yuji Inaba, the principal of Kubo-machi Primary School at the time, states as follows: We have researched not only the appropriate content of the new Social Studies but also how to teach it effectively. Although we used the textbooks for the Course of Study of 1968 for the research (due to the transition period, we do not have new textbooks for the new Social Studies), we developed both plans and practices as suitable for the new Social Studies as possible. (Kubo-machi Primary School 1979: 15).

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8 Articles written by Tanaka can be found in educational books and magazines such as The Data of Elementary School Education (May 1982, Showa 57 issue) and The Collection of Elementary School Lesson Practices (2) – Teaching Strategies and Evaluation for Raising Interest and Attitude (Shigeto Nakano [ed.], Tokyo: Meiji Tosho, 1984). 9 It is Michiko Niike who wrote this part of the bulletin. She was in charge of Social Studies at the time when the study theme of Omori Sixth was how to create a ‘specified time for pupils’ and ‘a lesson that pupils control’. Also, Michiko Niike is one of the leading members of Shoshi-no-kai, and the record of her teaching practice can be found in The Fifth Collection of Social Studies Lessons of Shoshi-no-kai (Tokyo: Meiji Tosho, 1984). 10 In the article, ‘Social Studies and Value’ (included in Shigeru Nagai (ed.), Exploring the ideal teaching strategies for Social Education [Tokyo: Meiji Tosho, 1984]), Nakano had already written that a lesson plan for Social Studies that is ‘indifferent to value’ has a grave problem, because it conforms to neither the aims of the subject nor to the purpose of education. Social Studies was created as a subject in order to develop ‘understanding, attitude and ability’ in an integrated fashion. And education itself is an activity that produces values. 11 On the point that we should not expect Social Studies to achieve character building by itself because it is only one subject, Nakano (1984: 46) stated: ‘Social Studies can contribute to enhancing human character and ability, but no more or less than that.’ 12 Nobunaga Oda (1534–1582) was a great lord during the feudal era in Japan. He almost unified Japan, but was killed by one of his commanders.

References Anyon, Jean (1981), ‘Social class and school knowledge’, Curriculum Inquiry, 11, (1), 3–42 Center of Social Studies Education (1973), Lesson Plans and Practices of Inquiry Learning for Social Studies. Tokyo: Meiji Tosho. (In Japanese.) Kubo-machi Primary School (1979), The Planning and Practice of the New Social Studies. Tokyo: Meiji Tosho. (In Japanese.) Motogi, Ken (1976), Social Studies for Learning about Human Beings and Human Disposition. Tokyo: Meiji Tosho. (In Japanese.) Nagaoka, Fumio (1976), ‘Deepening and broadening the view of mailboxes among pupils’, The Second Collection of Social Studies Lessons of Shoshi-no-kai. Tokyo: Meiji Tosho. (In Japanese.) Nakano, Shigeto (1982), ‘The measurement and teaching of interest and attitude in Social Studies’, Social Studies, no. 228, Showa 57 issue, April 1982, 125–131. Tokyo: Meiji Tosho. (In Japanese.) Nakano, Shigeto and Yoshinori Nakayama (1976), ‘The humanization of Social

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Studies – a lesson plan and its effectiveness (2)’, The Research of Social Studies, no. 38, The National Association of Research of Social Studies. (In Japanese.) Omori Sixth Primary School (1979), Child-Centered Education – Child Comes to the Front at Every Time and Every Place, Preface by Takayasu Shigematsu. Tokyo: Meiji Tosho. (In Japanese.) Omori Sixth Primary School (1981), ‘The Report of Research of 1985 & 1986: How to raise the ability of pupils’ studying’ (reported to Ota-ku Board of Education). (In Japanese.) Watanabe, Masako (2003), ‘Styles of explanation and evaluation in history education’, The Bulletin of Sociology of Education, no. 73, 43–63, National Association of Sociology of Education. (In Japanese.)

Chapter 4

The History of Citizenship Education in the Postwar Course of Study: Moral Education and Other Topics Hirokazu Kimura

Introduction The Present Curriculum in Japan The curriculum for elementary, lower secondary and upper secondary schools is based on the Course of Study, which is revised every ten years. Table 4.1 presents details of the curriculum as revised in 2008; the curriculum framework remained almost unchanged from the previous version, the only change being that the elementary school subject ‘Life Environment Studies’ was renamed as ‘Living Environment Studies’. At upper secondary school level, each main subject is composed of several individual subjects. Table 4.1 Curriculum as revised in 2008 Elementary School

Lower Secondary School

Upper Secondary School

Subjects Japanese Language

Japanese Language

Japanese Language

Social Studies (Grades 3–6)

Social Studies

Geography and History

Arithmetic

Mathematics

Civics

Science (Grades 3–6)

Science

Mathematics

Living Environment Studies (Grades 1 and 2)

Music

Science

Music

Fine Arts

Health and Physical Education

Art and Handicrafts

Health and Physical Education

Art (continued)

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Elementary School

Lower Secondary School

Upper Secondary School

Homemaking (Grades 5 and 6)

Industrial Arts and Homemaking

Foreign Language

Physical Education

Foreign Language

Homemaking Information Study

Moral Education Special Activities Period for Integrated Study (Grades 3–6)

Moral Education Special Activities Period for Integrated Study

—— Special Activities Period for Integrated Study

As can be seen in Table 4.1, the Japanese curriculum is composed of subjects and Special Activities, which include extra-curricular activities. During the time devoted to subjects, the brief for teachers is to focus on student acquisition of skills and knowledge, while also providing background knowledge in science, technology and many other fields. Under the 1989 revisions to the Course of Study, Life and Environment Studies was added to the curriculum for the lower grader of the elementary school as a subject that combined Social Studies and Science. Under the same revisions, Social Studies at upper secondary school level was divided into Geography, History and Civics. It was the first time that there had been any reorganization to the subjects taught in the Course of Study curriculum since the end of World War II. Special Activities, which are discussed in more detail later in this article, are concerned with instilling in children those aspects of behaviour that will allow them to become good citizens. It aims to teach them how to think and behave in order to live in harmony with others and acquire self-knowledge. The Purpose of this Chapter The Fundamental Law of Education, issued in March 1947, stated in its first article that ‘education shall aim at the full development of an individual’s personality; strive to nurture the people, making them sound in mind and body; and show them how to love truth and justice, esteem individual values, respect the workers, have a deep sense of responsibility, and be imbued with an independent spirit, as builders of a peaceful state and society’. In other words, the aim of education was ‘the fostering of citizenship’ in its broadest sense. Based on this philosophy, Social Studies was born as the central subject covering the nurturing of citizenship in postwar Japan. However, the requirement of ‘the full development of personality’

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applied not only to Social Studies but also to school education overall: so, what role have other subjects played in nurturing citizenship? How might their contribution have changed over the past 60 years? This important issue is addressed in this chapter. In the next chapter, Dr Tomoyuki Kobara expands on the changes in citizenship education in the postwar Course of Study for Social Studies. This chapter is concerned with looking at changes in citizenship education within subjects other than Social Studies, and in extra-curricular activities. However, because of limited space, we have concentrated on Moral Education, Special Activities and Life and Environmental Studies, as they tend to play a larger role in nourishing citizenship than other subjects.

The Nurturing of Citizenship Through Moral Education Moral Education at the Beginning of the Postwar Era In Japan after the end of World War II, it was decided to teach Moral Education at all stages of a child’s schooling. Social Studies was created as the subject pivotal to achieving this aim. However, the aim was only partly realized and it was not until the start of the 1950s that there was a general demand for Moral Education to be taught more explicitly in schools. In September 1950, ‘The Report of the Second United States Education Mission to Japan’ was submitted, which indicated that Moral Education should be taught not only through Social Studies but also through the entire school curriculum, as it was not to be considered separate from family and social education. Accordingly, in February 1951, the Ministry of Education published ‘Strategies for the Promotion of Moral Education’; this was followed by ‘The Guide to Moral Education’. The Guide, while supporting the idea that Moral Education should be taught through the whole curriculum, also pointed out the need for it to be taught as a discrete subject. Below are some guidelines as to how a teacher might think about Moral Education in order to approach it concretely. (a) The philosophy of Moral Education O Ensure that Moral Education, and thus education as a whole, maintains a democratic nature. O Do not teach it following the old methods of instruction for Shushin (the previous system of Moral Education in Japan); consider new ways of teaching Moral Education based on the student’s own experiences.

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Set great store by the value of individual dignity, and teach concepts based on a trust in humanity.

(b) Guidelines to teachers of Moral Education O Take every available opportunity to teach the subject. O Direct the teaching at the ‘inner self’. O In other words, teachers should not concern themselves with outward behavioral issues such as inappropriate conduct or the breaking of school rules; rather, they should aim to nurture the inner moral qualities of children to enable them to adopt desirable behavior based on tolerant attitudes, sensitivity to others and self-discipline. O You should always look for the motive and reason behind an action or attitude. O Issues concerning morals should be taught on a regular basis and over a sustained period of time. O Students should always be corrected in a positive fashion. O The classes should be taught in a pleasant learning environment. O Be patient and persistent. (c) Moral Education in lower and upper secondary schools O Moral Education at secondary level needs to be appropriate to the child’s stage of development. Students will start thinking about self and the meaning of life at a gradual and sensible pace as they develop their self-identity. Contents of Moral Education O Be democratic. O Don’t teach it in the old (‘wrong’) way as Shushin (the old style of moral education in Japan) was taught, consider new ways of teaching Moral Education based on pupils’ own experiences. O Place a strong focus on personal values and dignity, and base teaching on trust in humanity. Teaching O Look for opportunities to provide moral education and exploit them fully. Aim at developing internal standards in the students: in other words, what teachers should really be concerned with is not a set of individual rules such as ‘students should not run in the corridor’, but deeper moral standards which form the basis of desirable behavior; such as flexibility, enthusiasm and self-discipline.

The History of Citizenship Education O O O O O

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Always search for causes, reasons and motives. Teach consistently. Admonish pupils in positive ways. Create a suitable environment. Allow plenty of time. Persevere in the long run, and so forth.

Moral Education in Lower and Upper Secondary Schools We need to suit our teaching to the grade levels and different stages of schooling, and try to consider the meanings of life and oneself in relation to self-development.

O

Moral Education, as outlined above, aims to encourage students to acquire, through realistic and holistic approaches, the kind of principles that will enable them to behave properly in all aspects of their life in society, and ultimately to form an ethical personality of their own. This means that the early postwar educational goal of including empirical education (as set out by John Dewey) in the process of Moral Education has been achieved. The Constitution of the New Moral Education At about the time of the signing of the San Francisco Peace Treaty, in September 1951, there was growing demand for the introduction of Moral Education in Japan. In response to this, in March 1958, the Curriculum Council submitted a report entitled ‘An Improvement in the Curriculum of Elementary and Lower Secondary Schools’. Two precepts were established within this report, namely: 1. ‘Regarding Moral Education: although the principle is that this should be conducted through all educational activities at school, nevertheless in order to achieve greater awareness, Moral Education should be conceived as a subject in its own right and be taught continually in every week of every school year.’ 2. ‘Moral Education should be taught to each grade in school for over an hour every week, and is not to be addressed from a merely conventional viewpoint.’ As a result of this report, the 1958 Course of Study introduced the teaching of moral education in elementary and lower secondary schools, and classes started in September of the same year. Since then Moral Education has come to be a major subject in the curriculum, and is now a field of study with its own distinct aims, content and assigned lesson time. Upper secondary

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schools have adhered to the precept that moral education is to be conducted through all the educational activities in school and especially within the Social Studies curriculum. The aim and contents of Moral Education, as set out in the 1958 Course of Study, are discussed below. Firstly, we address the elements common to both elementary and lower secondary school levels as shown in the ‘general provision’ section of the Course of Study: The objectives of Moral Education are based on the principles of education stated in the Fundamental Law of Education and the School Education Law. That is, to cultivate in children a morality which enables their development as people who realize and are true to the spirit of respect for others in everyday life and in the home, school, and community to which they belong; who endeavour to create a culture rich in individuality and help to develop a democratic nation and community; and who can make a contribution to the achievement of peace in the world. Moral Education classes, therefore, should supplement, deepen and integrate the moral content found in other subjects and in Special Activities; and through planned guidance, the children’s moral and behavioral attitudes should be developed, promoting within them a capacity for moral judgment and helping to enrich their moral outlook and spirit

Based on these objectives, the Course of Study for Moral Education in elementary schools was composed of 36 items divided into four main categories: O

Category 1 ‘Basic behavioral patterns in daily life’ 1. To respect human life, promote good health and maintain safety. 2. To be independent and not have to rely on others. 3. To match one’s dress, language and behavior to the circumstances, and to observe good manners. 4. To keep oneself neat and tidy, and try to improve the environment. 5. To take good care of things and use them effectively, and recognize the value of money and how to use it. 6. To use one’s time effectively and live in an orderly manner.

O

Category 2 ‘Moral sense and moral judgement’ 1. To respect your own and other peoples’ personalities, and be mindful of each other’s welfare. 2. To act according to one’s own beliefs, and not be swayed unreasonably by others’ opinion or behavior.

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3. To act freely according to one’s own will, and be responsible for one’s own actions. 4. To be honest, faithful, sincere and consistent in behavior. 5. To love justice and hate injustice, and to act righteously and with courage. 6. To endure hardship in order to accomplish what is right. 7. To reflect on oneself, listen to the advice of others, and to act with deep consideration. 8. To act moderately, without selfishness. 9. To maintain cheerful attitude and behavior, and to act decisively. 10. To be gentle and take good care of animals and plants. 11. To esteem beautiful and noble things and to have a pure mind. O

Category 3 ‘Personality development and creative behavior for life’ 1. To recognize and consolidate one’s own particular abilities. 2. To strive towards a worthy purpose, and to set high goals for oneself. 3. To be rational in thought and behavior. 4. To try to live a better life with thought-provoking ideas. 5. To maintain an investigative attitude, and seek the truth. 6. To do willingly what one believes to be good, and to be willing to try new experiences.

O

Category 4 ‘Moral attitude and its voluntary practice as a member of society and the nation’ 1. To be kind to everybody and to care for the weak or unfortunate. 2. To respect those who devote themselves to others and to appreciate their work. 3. To trust each other and to be cooperative and friendly. 4. To be fair and impartial to everybody without prejudice or bias. 5. To understand another’s feelings and positions, and to forgive another’s faults generously. 6. To understand and obey rules and regulations and the significance of making rules for oneself, and to follow them willingly. 7. To assert one’s rights within reason, as well as to perform one’s duties conscientiously. 8. To appreciate the value of work and to cooperate actively in the service of others. 9. To protect public property and public morality, and not to cause trouble to others.

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Citizenship Education in Japan 10. To love and respect all members of one’s family and to strive to cooperate in making a good home. 11. To love and respect friends and to strive to establish good school traditions. 12. To love the nation with pride as a Japanese person and to contribute to its development. 13. To understand and respect all of the people of the world and cooperate with them for the welfare of mankind.

In lower secondary schools, Moral Education as outlined in the Course of Study was composed of 21 items classified within three categories as follows: Category 1: To understand what behavior is correct in everyday situations, to become comfortable with it, and to be able to act and speak appropriately to each occasion. Category 2: To cultivate moral judgement and apply it to human relations, and to establish one’s individuality and a creative lifestyle. Category 3: To exercise the moral outlook required of a member of a democratic nation, and to cooperate with the establishment of a righteous society. As was mentioned above, the aim of Moral Education classes in elementary and lower secondary schools was not to teach specific ways of behavior or to instil an individual with one particular system of values, but rather to develop sufficient moral awareness to live a normal life. In other words, the classes aimed to cultivate a person who would appreciate the values needed to live as a human being. Changes in Moral Education After the Revision of the Course of Study The Course of Study in Japan was revised approximately every ten years, in 1968 (in 1969 for lower secondary school), 1977, 1989, 1998 and 2008. The Revision of the Objectives of Moral Education The objectives of Moral Education were revised in 1968 (and in 1969 for lower secondary schools) as follows: The objectives of Moral Education are to cultivate in children a sense of morality which will serve as a basis for their development as people who will never lose the spirit of respect for their fellows; who will exemplify this spirit in the home, the school and other aspects of life in the society of which they are members; who strive for the creation of a culture rich in individuality and for the development of a

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democratic nation and society; and who are able to make a willing contribution to a peaceful international society. Based on the above, Moral Education lessons should supplement, deepen and integrate the aspects of morality taught in other subjects and in Special Activities; and through schematic guidance, the children’s moral and behavioral attitudes should be developed by promoting within them a capacity for moral judgment and by enhancing their moral habits and spirit [emphasis original].

The italicized phrase in the above paragraph differs considerably from the original version of 1958. This phrase defines the objective for Moral Education in elementary and lower secondary schools: to cultivate morality in children. Although other phrases were modified slightly, there were no major alterations to the latter parts. In the 1977 revision, the first half of the objectives of Moral Education remained unchanged, while the latter half was modified as follows (quoted from the Course of Study for lower secondary schools): Based on the objectives mentioned above, teachers should endeavor, through systematic and developmental guidance during Moral Education lessons, to supplement, deepen and integrate the aspects of morality taught in other subjects and in Special Activities, while keeping a close correlation with the latter. By doing so, the aim is to deepen the students’ understanding of humanity, enhance their ability to act morally, and enrich their moral sense; thereby establishing self-control and a desire for and appreciation of consistency in moral attitudes [emphasis original].

The italicized phrases again differ considerably from the document’s predecessor, this time the 1969 revision of the Course of Study. The phrase in bold italics does not appear in the Course of Study for elementary schools, only at lower secondary school level. The phrase ‘understanding of humanity’ makes it clear that the basic concern of a Moral Education class is with issues of humanity. The reason why this phrase is included in the Course of Study for lower secondary schools but not elementary schools was to take into account the difference between the children’s stage of development stages at each level. ‘Enhance their ability to act morally’ is a phrase common to the Course of Study for both elementary and lower secondary schools. This phrase was added afterwards in response to requests for clearer and more effective guidelines in teaching Moral Education. Here, Moral Education is to look for tangible examples of moral behavior as an expression of children’s inner

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qualities. By encouraging ‘their ability to act morally’, Moral Education is connected to the real world and its practices. This revision was intended to make the subject more effective in terms of practically enhancing students’ ability to act in a moral way. In the 1989 revision, the objectives of Moral Education were modified as follows (again, this is quoted from the Course of Study for lower secondary schools): The objective of Moral Education is built on the basic spirit of education as defined in the Basic Educational Law and the School Education Law. That is, the object of Moral Education is to foster the students’ moral character as an essential aspect of their upbringing; to ensure that they show respect for other human beings and a veneration of life within their experiences at home, school, and in other social situations, striving for the creation of a culture rich in individuality and for the development of a democratic society and State; and to cultivate a nation of independently thinking Japanese people who can contribute to the development of a peaceful international society.

Based on the above mentioned objectives, the teacher should endeavour, through systematic and developmental guidance during Moral Education lessons, to supplement, deepen and integrate the aspects of morality taught in other subjects and in Special Activities, while keeping a close correlation with the latter. By so doing, the aim is to have the students deepen their understanding of humanity as a person, enhance their ability to make moral judgments, and enrich their moral sense, thereby establishing self-control and showing a positive desire for consistent moral attitudes. Compared with the 1977 revisions to the Course of Study, some phrases were modified slightly; the first three italicized parts were revised considerably. The phrase ‘respect for . . . veneration of life’ (see above) is important in that it was added to the phrase ‘respect for human beings’ which had been a part of the philosophy of Moral Education since its introduction. In the Interim Report by the Curriculum Council in October 1986, an awareness of the following problem becomes apparent: ‘[L]ooking into the mindset and behaviour of children, a currently prevailing condition is that children often lack the correct attitude to allow them to respect other peoples’ ways of life, which also prevents them from showing kindness to others; this is manifest in the worrying level of bullying and the number of suicides these days.’ Real-life conditions and awareness of them explain the addition of this quasi-religious phrase ‘veneration of life’.

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The reason why ‘independently thinking’ was inserted in the original phrase, ‘Japanese people who could contribute to the development of a peaceful international society’, can be explained as follows. It was felt that cultivating a Japanese people with an awareness of how their country should be, having its unique role and responsibilities, and who could use their own personal qualities to make an active contribution, was essential to Japan taking an active part in the international community in the near future. With this in mind, it was felt imperative to cultivate an appreciation of the international community, a wider vision and deeper knowledge of other races and nations, in order for countries to learn to cooperate and live in harmony. Because of this trend and belief, Social Studies and Moral Education needed to be taught in close cooperation. The phrase in bold italics appears only in the Course of Study for Moral Education in lower secondary schools. The word ‘humanity’ was expanded to ‘humanity as a person’. It represents a very meaningful change in that children were not to be taught about the lives of people in general but to think about how to live as a person oneself (i.e. independently) and determine one’s own thoughts about things. In the 1998 revision, the objective of ‘enriching people’s minds’ was added. The meaning of this will be explained later in this article. The Changing Content of Moral Education (Its Concrete Educational Objects) Following the revision in 1968 (1969 for lower secondary schools), the categories used to classify the contents of the 1958 Course of Study were removed and the various items reorganized and unified. Further refinement was made in 1977, when some new topics like ‘love of one’s home’ and ‘nature’ were added, as well as, for lower secondary school only, ‘the sense of awe for existence beyond that of human beings’. A great improvement was seen in the objectives of Moral Education following the 1989 revisions to the Course of Study. The content was organized into four categories, all of which were common to both elementary and lower secondary schools, and the revisions specified the structure of each topic and the relationship and development between them. The four categories were: O O O O

Concerning one’s own self Concerning an individual’s relationship with others Concerning an individual’s relationship with nature and ideals Concerning the relationship between a group and society.

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These four categories were considered essential in cultivating a people who would live their lives with their minds enriched through inner strength. The aims of each of the four categories was to develop a mental outlook that would: (1) allow one to face personal traits and issues seriously; (2) allow one to sympathize with others; (3) allow one to be moved openly by beauty and ideals; and (4) create a truly open mind, enabling one to devote oneself to the good of others and of society as a whole. This policy was continued in the 1998 edition of the Course of Study.

The Nurturing Of Citizenship Through the Special Activities Programme The Definition and Objectives of Special Activities ‘Special Activities’ is the educational programme that in the current Course of Study consists of: Classroom Guidance (known as Home-room Guidance or Tutorial in upper secondary school), Student Assembly, Club Activities (only in elementary school), and School Events (ceremonial events, study-related events, events related to health and safety education, school excursions including overnight trips, events related to work and careers, and volunteering). These programs are a formal part of the school curriculum and mandatory in achieving the objectives of education and the development of personality. Using the handbook of the Teachers’ Training Association, the educational significance of the Special Activities is explained below. Although children are taught many subjects in order for them to grow into decent and well-educated adults and learn social skills, there are other aspects that are of equal importance. In particular, experiences which are based on free, innovative and creative activities, and on social and group learning, are very important. Special Activities is a programme that tries to meet the need for these experiences and learning. Therefore, the educational significance of Special Activities lies in several concepts. Whilst recognizing the value of a child’s free and independent learning activities that encourage self-discipline and exploration, it also values group activities, and those which are directly connected to real-life situations. (p. 41)

Given this, Special Activities maintains a close relationship with Moral Education in terms of its objectives and contents. For example, ‘Student

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Assembly’ concerns the theory that students should engage in spontaneous and self-governing activities and thus achieve the objectives in Moral Education of developing self-discipline, learning about group organization, work and responsibility, and so on. Also, ‘School Events’, which values group activities involving the entire school, is a good opportunity for students to learn about organization in practical situations involving groups, and to experience the importance of cooperation and responsibility in real circumstances. Even though Moral Education and Special Activities are closely related, they are distinct and independent subjects, and should not be confused. The objective of Special Activities is not directly aimed at Moral Education. For example, ‘Student Assembly’ and ‘Classroom Assembly’ allow the Students to deal independently with the real and various problems that arise in school and the classroom, which are not dealt with by Moral Education. Therefore, within Special Activities we should think of Moral Education as playing only an indirect role. Moral attitudes are involved in Special Activities and students will encounter and identify issues of morality in various situations within its sphere, but as an additional rather than a discrete aim. The objectives of Special Activities in the present Course of Study as revised in 1998 are discussed below. Objectives at Elementary School Level Through desirable group activities, to promote a harmonized development of mind and body and development of individuality, while at the same time to cultivate self-awareness as a member of the group and of society, and to develop self-discipline and practical attitudes in order to allow one to co-operate with others for a better way of life.

Objectives at Lower Secondary School Level Through desirable group activities, to promote a harmonized development of mind and body and development of individuality, and to develop self-discipline and practical attitudes in order to allow one to cooperate with others for a better way of life as a member of the group and of society, while at the same time to cultivate awareness of oneself as a person and to develop the ability to turn one’s self to advantage.

The objectives of Special Activities in the Course of Study for Upper Secondary Schools are the same as for Lower Secondary Schools, except for the phrase ‘awareness of oneself as a person’ in Lower Secondary Schools,

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which becomes ‘awareness of oneself as a person and how one ought to be’ in Upper Secondary Schools. The Development of Special Activities in the Course of Study This article will now survey the historical development of Special Activities in Japan from its beginnings, in particular at lower secondary level. In the Course of Study dated 1947, Special Activities was called ‘Free Study’, and conceived as a part of the optional curriculum. The contents of Free Study were composed of free learning as an extension of a subject, club activities, classroom assembly, and so on. The two former were the models for the present activities of Clubs and Classroom Assembly. In the 1951 revision, the programme became known as ‘Special Educational Activities’, and was taught as part of the curriculum within compulsory school subjects. It was comprised of Homeroom or Tutorial (which included group exploration of various issues that children may encounter, personal and social development, discussions on the choice of career, and so on), Student Council, Student Assembly and Club Activities. In the 1958 revision, the programme kept its name but became a subject in its own right, a discrete area of the mandatory school curriculum. The contents were composed of Student Council, Club Activities and Classroom Assembly. Student Assembly was added to these three activities by the 1951 revisions, ‘Homeroom’ changed its name to ‘Classroom Assembly’, and included all activities concerning future careers. ‘Special Activities’ was adopted as the official name for the first time in the 1969 revisions. Its title and position in the curriculum have remained unchanged up to the present day. It consisted of Student Activities, Classroom Activities and Regular School Events. Student Activities were composed of Student Assembly, Club Activities and Homeroom Activities, which concerned solving various problems that arose in classroom life, sharing the class’s duties, and building a happy and orderly life in the classroom. Classroom Guidance was added as a new topic, concerning the adaptation of the individual to group life as well as aspects of schoolwork and health and safety. The introduction of ‘Harmonious and unified development of mind and body, the cultivation of a rich mind in children, and the fostering of self-control and practical willingness’ and ‘Cultivation of the ability to choose future directions, and understanding of personality and one’s own abilities’ became the focus of improvements in the educational curriculum. Under the revisions in 1977, the contents of Special Activities were reorganized into: Classroom Assembly, Student Council, Clubs, and School

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Events. The newly introduced ‘Classroom Assembly’ was integrated with the former Homeroom Activities and Classroom Guidance. In 1989, the phrase ‘member of the group’ in the objectives of Special Activities in Lower Secondary Schools was changed to ‘member of the group and society’, as the importance of this was better recognized and accordingly given more weight. These changes established the importance of learning about the basic rules and principles of morality governing social life. Moreover, the aim of fulfilling ‘the function of guidance (i.e. to cultivate the ability to adapt to school life and human relations as well as attitudes and abilities which allow independent choice and decision-making, including the ability to live independently and choose future directions)’ was another notable innovation of the 1989 revisions. In 1998, the contents of Special Activities were reorganized as: Classroom Assembly, Student Council and School Events. Club Activities were abolished in lower secondary schools, and the contents have remained unchanged until now. Following the changes in Special Activities over the years, it is evident that the development of citizenship has been taken very seriously and is the result of careful and consistent thought. Summary In the revision of the Course of Study in 1989, the integration of Social Studies with Science introduced the topic Life and Environment Studies into the lower grades of elementary school. The keystone of the Course of Study for Life and Environment Studies has not changed; nevertheless, following revisions in 1998 its objectives and contents are as follows (please note that these are only extracts): Overall Objectives: ‘Through specific activities and experiences to develop an interest in the relationship between oneself and people around one, and with society and nature, to think about oneself and one’s life, and through this process to cultivate the basis of independence, and to acquire habits and skills necessary in life.’

Contents 3. ‘To understand that one’s life concerns other people in the community, to develop an affinity with them, and be able to live harmoniously and safely with them . . . 4. To understand that city buildings and public facilities are for use by

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everybody and to cherish them and ensure that they are used correctly and safely . . . 8. To understand that support from other people will help one’s individual growth and achievements and allow one to take on many roles; to show gratitude to them for supporting one’s early life and development; and to be able to live an active life with a strong desire for future growth.’ Following the history of the Course of Study in Japan after World War II, we can see that the development of citizenship has progressed through careful and serious thought and achieved by steady degrees.

References Publications in English Educational and Cultural Exchange Division UNESCO (International Affairs, Department of Science, International Affairs Bureau) and Ministry of Education, Science and Culture (Government of Japan) (1976), Course of Study for Lower Secondary Schools in Japan. Educational and Cultural Exchange Division UNESCO, International Affairs Department Science and International Affairs Bureau and Ministry of Education, Science and Culture Government of JAPAN (1976), Course of Study for Upper Secondary Schools in Japan. Educational and Cultural Exchange Division UNESCO, International Affairs Department Science and International Affairs Bureau and Ministry of Education, Science and Culture Government of Japan (1983), Course of Study for Elementary Schools in Japan. Educational and Cultural Exchange Division UNESCO, International Affairs Department Science and International Affairs Bureau and Ministry of Education, Science and Culture Government of Japan (1983), Course of Study for Lower Secondary Schools in Japan. Educational and Cultural Exchange Division UNESCO, International Affairs Department Science and International Affairs Bureau and Ministry of Education, Science and Culture Government of Japan (1983), Course of Study for Upper Secondary Schools in Japan. Japanese National Commission for UNESCO (1969), Revised Course of Study for Elementary Schools in Japan.

Publications in Japanese Kyoshi Kyoiku Kenkyuukai (The Teacher Training Association) (2000), Dotoku Kyoiku-no Kenkyuu (A Study of Moral Education). Tokyo: Gakugei Tosho.

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Okuda, Masatake (ed.) (1985), Kyoka Kyoiku Hyakunen-shi (A Hundred-Year History of Curriculum Study in Japan). Tokyo: Kenpakusha. Okuda, Masatake and Norio Atsumi (eds) (1994), Dotoku kyoiku (Moral Education). Tokyo: Gyosei. Takahashi, Tetsuo, Haraguchi, Seiji and Yukichi Inoue (2000), Tokubetu Katudou Kenkyuu (A Study of Special Activities). Tokyo: Kyoiku Shuppan.

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Chapter 5

The Evolution of Postwar Guidelines for Teaching Social Studies and Citizenship Education in Japan Tomoyuki Kobara

The History of Postwar Guidelines for Teaching Social Studies Citizenship education for children in Japan is taught as part of the school curriculum within the subject of Social Studies. The title of Social Studies and the classroom time devoted to its study were first stipulated in the General Guidelines for Teaching (trial draft), published 20 March 1947. Social Studies was then established as a school subject following the promulgation of the Enforcement Regulations for the School Education Law on 23 May of the same year. Furthermore, the Explanation of the Guidelines for Teaching Social Studies in Elementary School was issued on 15 September 1948 to complement any deficiencies in the original guidelines and regulations. Therefore, the year 2007 marked the 60th anniversary of teaching Social Studies in schools in Japan. Why was it felt necessary all those years ago to establish this subject, incorporating citizenship education, as part of the school curriculum? It is thought that the major reason was a response to the need to nurture a society able to build and maintain a democratic society from the confusion following the end of World War II. Thus, amid the postwar turmoil, when Japan was confronted with the need to overcome poverty and realize social democratization, Social Studies came to be regarded as central to these educational innovations. In the ensuing years, the Guidelines for Teaching Social Studies have undergone a number of revisions. However, the ultimate goal of nurturing civic qualities has remained the same. Table 5.1 summarizes the changes undergone by the Guidelines for Teaching Social Studies in the postwar years.

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Table 5.1 Changes in the Guidelines for Teaching Social Studies Publication Date

Social Studies in Elementary School

1947 Edition

•

Book of Social Studies, Course of Study I(tentative plan)

Social Studies in Junior and Senior High School •

•

•

•

1951 Edition

•

Book of Elementary Social Studies, Course of Study (tentative plan)

•

•

•

•

1955 and 1956 Edition

1958 and 1960 Edition

•

•

Book of Social Studies, Course of Study in Elementary School

•

Social Studies, Course of Study in Elementary School

•

•

•

1968 and 1970 Edition

•

Social Studies, Course of Study in Elementary School

•

•

1977 and 1978 Edition

•

Social Studies, Course of Study in Elementary School

•

•

Book of Social Studies, Course of Study (tentative plan) Book of Human Geography, Course of Study II(tentative plan) Book of Eastern History, Course of Study (tentative plan) Book of Western History, Course of Study (tentative plan) Book of Social Studies, Course of Study in Junior and Senior High School (tentative plan) Book of Social Studies, Course of Study in Junior and Senior High School (tentative plan) Book of Social Studies, Course of Study in Junior and Senior High School (a) (b) (tentative plan) Book of Social Studies, Course of Study in Junior and Senior High School (c) (tentative plan) Book of Social Studies, Course of Study in Junior High School Book of Social Studies, Course of Study in Senior High School Social Studies, Course of Study in Junior High School Social Studies, Course of Study in Senior High School Social Studies, Course of Study in Junior High School Social Studies, Course of Study in Senior High School Social Studies, Course of Study in Junior High School Social Studies, Course of Study in Senior High School (continued)

The Evolution of Postwar Guidelines Publication Date

Social Studies in Elementary School

1989 Edition

•

Social Studies, Course of Study in Elementary School

Social Studies in Junior and Senior High School •

•

1998 and 1999 Edition

• •

Social Studies, Course of Study in Elementary School

75

•

•

Social Studies, Course of Study in Junior High School Social Studies, Course of Study in Senior High School Social Studies, Course of Study in Junior High School Social Studies, Course of Study in Senior High School

How have the subject structure and the general goals of the Guidelines for Teaching Social Studies changed over the years? What improvements in citizenship education can be seen in such modifications? And which components of Social Studies education have remained unchanged to the present day? The following paragraphs will consider these points.

Changes in the Structure of Social Studies Table 5.2 is a schematic presentation of the transitions in the structure of Social Studies at elementary, junior high and senior high schools as stated in the Guidelines for Teaching Social Studies from 1947 to the present. As evident from the information presented in Table 5.2, the teaching of Social Studies at elementary school level consisted of a general Social Studies course in the postwar years. The biggest change occurred with the implementation of the 1989 Guidelines, when Life and Environment Studies were introduced and Social Studies was no longer taught to the lower grades of elementary school age children. In the case of junior high school students, from the 1955 Guidelines onwards the teaching of Social Studies was divided into three areas: Geography, History and Politics, Economics and Society (later referred to as ‘Civics’). Then in 1968 new Guidelines were introduced that made further quite radical changes in the way the three subjects were taught at junior high school level, from the study of Geography in the first grade, History in the second and Civics in the third, to the π (pi) structure which entailed the parallel learning of Geography and History in the first and second grades, with a switch to Civics in the third grade. At senior high school level, it can be seen that over the years the Social Studies curriculum has evolved from one with a general content to one with several different and more specific branches. For example, whereas

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the teaching of general Social Studies was included in the 1947 and 1951 Guidelines, it was removed in the 1955 version, and then in 1960 the number of subjects was increased from three to seven. However, the greatest change occurred in 1989, when Social Studies was removed as a separate subject and replaced with Geography, History and Civics. Moreover, the current guidelines, dating from 1998 and 1999, introduced a Period for Integrated Study from the third grade of elementary school through to senior high school, and it is within this topic that citizenship education is now taught.

Table 5.2 Changes in the subject structure as outlined in the Guidelines for Teaching Social Studies Elementary School 1947 Edition Social Studies

Junior High School

Social Studies Japanese History

1951 Edition Social Studies

Social Studies Japanese History

1955 Edition Social Studies

1958/60 Edition Social Studies

Senior High School

Social Eastern History Studies Western History Human Geography Current Affairs Social Japanese History Studies World History Human Geography Current Affairs

Geography History Politics Economics Sociology

Society Japanese History World Geography Human Geography

Geography

Ethics & Society Politics & Economics Japanese History World History A World History B Human Geography A

History Politics Economics Sociology

Human Geography B (continued)

The Evolution of Postwar Guidelines Elementary School 1968/70 Edition Social Studies

Junior High School

1977/78 Edition Social Studies

Civics

Contemporary Society

Japanese History World History Geography Ethics Politics & Economics

[Geography/History] World History A World History B

Social Geography Studies

History

Ethics & Society Politics & Economics Japanese History World History Geography A Geography B

Civics

Geography History

1989 Edition Life Environment Studies

Senior High School

Geography

History

77

Civics

Japanese History A Japanese History B Geography A Geography B [Civics] Contemporary Society Ethics Politics & Economics

1998/99 Edition Social Geography Life Environment Studies Studies Civics History

[Geography/History] World History A World History B Japanese History A Japanese History B Geography A Geography B [Civics] (continued)

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78 Elementary School

Junior High School

1998/99 Edition continued Social History Life Environment Studies Studies Period for Integrated study

Civics

Period for Integrated study

2008/09 Edition Social Geography Life Environment Studies Studies

Civics

History

Senior High School Contemporary Society Ethics Politics & Economics Period for Integrated study

[Geography/History] World History A World History B Japanese History A Japanese History B Geography A Geography B Contemporary Society Ethics Politics & Economics

Period for Integrated study

Period for Integrated study

Period for Integrated study

Changes in General Aims – Junior High School Social Studies How have educational aims changed in tandem with the postwar transitions in the Guidelines for Teaching Social Studies? To address this question, we will study the Guidelines for Teaching Social Studies at junior high school; the general goals are summarized in Table 5.3.

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Table 5.3 Transitions in the General Goals of Guidelines for Teaching Social Studies at Junior High School Date of Issue General Goals and Notification 1947

1951

1955

1958

1968

1977

1989

1998

To give young people an understanding of civil life and to develop an attitude and capacity to contribute to the development of society. To enable an understanding of modern society and to foster the attitudes, capacity and skills, desirable in a member of a democratic society (NB this an abbreviated version of the goal). (At junior high school level) To enhance further the goals of the more broadly-based Social Studies education started in elementary school, in order to nurture the qualities appropriate to the future builders of the state and society, while at the same time realizing the overall objectives of secondary education. To meet the objective of giving students a correct understanding of civil life, imparting to them the necessary attitudes and capacity to contribute to the advancement of society. Through the learning of Geography, History, Politics, Economics and Society, to nurture an understanding and awareness of civil life and the basic civic qualities appropriate to the future builders of a democratic and peaceful state and society. Through the adoption of a wider perspective and a deeper understanding and love of one’s country, its nature and history to develop a strong educational foundation for all citizens, from which to nurture the basic civic qualities appropriate to the future builders of a democratic and peaceful state and society. Through the adoption of a wider perspective and a deeper understanding and love of one’s country, its nature and history, to nurture the basic education of citizens, and to develop within them civic qualities appropriate to the future builders of a democratic and peaceful state and society to enable our country to coexist with the international community. Through the adoption of a wider perspective and a deeper understanding and love of one’s country, its nature and history, and through the conducting of multifaceted and diverse examinations of various resources, to nurture the basic education of citizens and to develop within them civic qualities appropriate to the future builders of a democratic and peaceful state and society to enable the country to coexist with the international community.

As Table 5.3 illustrates, the general goals of postwar Social Studies education have remained essentially unchanged. In other words, the ultimate objective has always been the development of ‘the basic civic qualities appropriate

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to builders of the state and society’, i.e. the development of citizenship. Of course, this means that citizenship must be based on an understanding of civil life. The 1947 Guidelines stated the following: ‘The mission of the newly established subject, Social Studies, is to give young people an understanding of civil life and to develop the necessary attitudes and capacity to contribute to the development of society.’ Moreover, the Explanation of the Guidelines for Teaching Social Studies in Elementary School, issued the following year, explained the need to nurture understanding, attitude and ability uniformly, from the viewpoint of developing civic qualities, and thereby identified the basic character of Social Studies as citizenship education. These civic qualities were described as ‘the numerous characteristics appropriate to all citizens living in a democratic society’. Of these, the Guidelines highlighted three in particular: (1) an understanding of the world, (2) an active enthusiasm for and inherent interest in the happiness of other people, and (3) the various skills, customs and attitudes essential for conducting oneself properly in society and the community. In this way, the general goals of Social Studies can be divided broadly into: (a) intellectual goals concerning the formation of social awareness, namely an ‘understanding of civic life’; (b) practical goals concerning the development of ‘civic qualities’, namely the necessary attitudes and capacity to contribute to the development of society. Emphasis is placed on developing the latter through the former. The composition of the general goals has remained constant through subsequent Guidelines for Teaching Social Studies. The current Guidelines, published in 1998, defined the goals from an intellectual viewpoint, as ‘knowing about and understanding’ civic life through ‘adopting a wider perspective and a deeper understanding and greater love of our country, its nature and history; and, through the conducting of multifaceted and diverse examinations of various resources, to nurture the basic education required of citizens’. From the practical viewpoint, the goals were defined, as living in society through ‘the development of the basic civic qualities appropriate to the future builders of a democratic and peaceful state and society to enable the country to coexist with the international community’. Furthermore, the composition of these goals is the same for Social Studies as taught at all educational levels, from elementary through to senior high school. The same basic thread also applies to the general goals of Geography, History and Civic Studies in senior high school.

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Features of the Postwar Guidelines for Teaching Social Studies from the Viewpoint of Citizenship Education The Identity of the Postwar Guidelines for Teaching Social Studies Within the changes made to the Guidelines for Teaching Social Studies in the postwar era, the following five features have remained constant: 1. The first feature concerns the basic character of ‘Social Studies as citizenship education’. The development of citizenship, which refers to civic qualities, is the ultimate goal of Social Studies. Social Studies are neither ‘culture-based Social Studies’, nor ‘social science’. Rather, they are ‘citizenship studies’ geared to nurturing civic qualities. Moreover, the inherent nature of Social Studies lies in the development of civic qualities through the understanding of civic life. 2. The second feature is ‘Social Studies that guarantee the integrity of the goal’. Social Studies has consistently aimed at uniformly developing the skills, capacity, interest, motivation and attitude required for civil life in addition to a knowledge and understanding of it. 3. The third feature is ‘Social Studies that guarantee a comprehensive content’. Social Studies aims to build a comprehensive awareness of civic life as practiced by people geographically, historically and socially, based on the interrelationship between the objectives, means and results of human problem-solving activities. 4. The fourth point concerns ‘Social Studies that guarantee the modernity of the issues’. Social Studies aim to provide the children with an understanding of the modern society in which they live, along with an education that is geared to solving the issues facing modern society. The History curriculum aims to investigate the historical background of modern society as well as the issues behind the problems it now faces. 5. The fifth and final feature is ‘Social Studies that guarantee the autonomy of learning’. Social Studies are geared to enabling children to understand civic life and nurture basic civic qualities through autonomous and voluntary activities. This is variously expressed as ‘self-learning Social Studies’ or ‘Social Studies learned through doing’, and the Guidelines for Teaching Social Studies have consistently emphasized this aspect.

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Changes in Lesson Theory for Developing Civic Qualities – From ‘Problem Solving’ to ‘Understanding’ What has characterized the transitions in Social Studies lesson theory viewed in terms of citizenship education? When we analyse the variations in the Guidelines for Teaching Social Studies from 1947 to 1998, particularly at elementary and junior high school levels, it may be said from the viewpoint of lesson theory geared to developing civic qualities that Social Studies has broadly shifted from ‘problem solving’ to ‘understanding’. The 1947 and 1951 Guidelines were based on the principle of ‘problem solving’. In comparison, the Guidelines from 1955 onwards can be viewed as being based on ‘understanding’. ‘Problem solving’ refers to activities geared to considering the most rational means of realizing one’s objectives in problem situations (in short, to finding solutions), and this process entails the uniform development of knowledge, understanding, attitude and capacity. The basic tenet of the 1947 Guidelines was lifestyle learning geared to helping children identify their actual needs, whereas the 1951 Guidelines were primarily focused on teaching them how to deal autonomously and consistently with real and compelling issues (things we want to know and things we want to investigate). Therefore, the civic qualities aspired to by Social Studies lesson theory based on problem solving refers to this capacity in its broadest sense. ‘Understanding’ refers to activities geared to enabling the empathetic understanding of human behavior and its meaning through examples of problem-solving behavior by humans (as individuals and in groups and organizations). In ‘understanding’, the following five elements are acquired: 1. Understanding the facts about what kinds of behavior human beings resort to in certain situations. 2. Teleonomic understanding in terms of the relationship between behaviour and objective, i.e. explaining how behavior is a means for realizing objectives (in short, how one tries to get what one wants). 3. Understanding the social significance of behavior, i.e. how people’s lifestyles can be maintained, improved and advanced as a result of their behavior. 4. Understanding the historical significance of behavior, i.e. how it has proved useful in developing and improving later society and our current lifestyles. 5. Understanding the distinctive characteristics of human behavior in individual regions and eras, which has created their unique and invaluable nature.

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Once the above understanding has been acquired, we are able to see how we should live in the future. We can develop the knowledge, awareness and attitudes required to realize our wishes. This leads to the development of civic qualities. To put it a slightly different way, the Guidelines from 1955 to 1968 focus on what is to be understood, while the Guidelines from 1977 to 1998 concentrate on how it is to be made understood.

References (all in Japanese) Kobara, Tomoyuki (1985a), ‘Practical Education, Ideas and its Movement’, in Okuda, Shinjo (ed.), 100 Year History of Curricular Education. Tokyo: Kenpakusha, 1023–36. —(1985b), ‘How to Change Development of Civic Qualities’, in Social Awareness Education Association (ed.), Social Studies Education in the 21st Century. Tokyo: Meiji Tosho, 124–134. —(1991), ‘Transitions in Guidelines for Teaching’, in Association for the Publication of Modern Social Studies Education Practical Courses, Modern Social Studies Education Practical Course 20: History of and Outlook on Social Studies Education. Tokyo: Association for the Publication of Modern Social Studies Education Practical Courses, 74–84. —(1998), ‘Innovation of the methodology of social studies to promote children’s social cognition: new roles of social studies in school education for tomorrow’, in Journal of Research on Education in the Social Studies Department, Vol. 10, Education in the Social Studies Department Research Association, 5–12. Ohmori, Tadashi (1979), ‘Transitions in Guidelines for Teaching’, in Hamada and Ueda (eds), Education Course 10: Theory and Structure of Social Studies Education. Tokyo: Gakken Nishitani, Minoru, Matsuo, Masayuki, Usui, Yoshikazu and Kobara, Tomoyuki (1988), ‘Seeking the identity of social studies’, Social Studies Education Theory, Japan Social Studies Research Association, Vol. 35, 37–82.

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Chapter 6

Citizenship Education in Social Studies Textbooks and Supplementary Readers in Postwar Japan Kazuhiko Iwata

Outline for the Analysis of the Course of Study for Citizenship The Course of Study for citizenship has been analysed in order to provide a broad general idea of the entire subject. The objects of the analysis were Japanese junior high school textbooks on the subject. A contemporary textbook used in Britain was used for comparison. At the current time, patriotism is experiencing an increase and one goal of citizenship education is to encourage patriotism. But the formation of personal qualities and characteristics as a global citizen is also important. Analysis of the textbooks currently in use and the issues they address show how the qualities of citizenship should be developed in schools and the kind of judgement that should be fostered in a student. Consequently, the outline for analysis of the process of citizenship education is: Point of View of Analysis: World or Global Citizenship Object of analysis: Textbooks for junior high school Social Studies students 1. Topics concerning the Earth 2. How to deal with problems concerning the Earth. Contents of the Analysis: 1. Characteristics of global citizenship 2. How to develop the characteristics of global citizenship 3. Structure of the textbooks’ presentation of issues pertaining to global citizenship and the Earth

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Analysis of Textbooks for Junior High School Students in Japan The Course of Study for Social Studies and corresponding views on the subject have been revised several times since its introduction in the 22nd year of Showa, and its textbooks have changed accordingly. Since they were replaced at the time of each reform, the historical changes leading to the present Course of Study are reflected in their contents. Editions of the Course of Study Textbook in the 22nd and 26th Year of Showa (1947 and 1951) Social Studies taught through the empirical method of education began after the defeat of Japan in World War II. The translated edition of the American Virginia Plan for Social Studies was used. Subsequently, a new Social Studies was conceived specifically for Japan and set out in the Course of Study of 1947, the 22nd year of Showa. This Course of Study was first revised in the 26th year of Showa. Social Studies using the textbooks of the 22nd and 26th years of Showa are referred to as ‘initial Social Studies’. The citizenship education content is analysed as follows, in relation to world citizenship at the time of the initial Social Studies. Textbook used for analysis: H. Hirosawa et al., New Society, 6th Grade (new edition), Tokyo: Tokyo Shoseki, published 25 August 1955 (the 30th year of Showa). Official approval has been given for analysis of this textbook. The Nature of Global Citizenship What should I do to stop war in the world and to help keep peace through international cooperation? This is the problem that all people worldwide are thinking about. It is important for us to get to know each other and proceed with mutual understanding. Did we forget about past efforts to achieve this, so that we are still frequently in conflict? We are hoping that Japan will develop as a respected state in cooperation with other countries. We who are the members of the world must concern ourselves with how to live a proper life through proper knowledge about the world. (pp. 8–9) How to Nurture the Characteristics Necessary for Citizenship Regarding the Earth Topics concerning the Earth: peace without weapons; atomic bombs; wars of aggression; the politics of power and protective trade. Close associations among states are difficult when their cultures and

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ways of thinking are different. For example, confrontation often takes place between socialist and the capitalist countries. But, we do not have to continue such confrontation. The more drastic the conflict, the more important it is to resolve it. It can be resolved if the antagonists become more familiar with each other and can identify common ways of thinking. Not only statesmen and intellectuals, but all people must take part in the effort to achieve this. (pp. 22–3) The Structure of How Information is Presented in Textbooks About the Earth Connection with the World and Peace (pp. 6–44). Introduction Chapter 1: The international status of Japan 1. The present condition of the world 2. Japan’s position in the world Chapter 2: Global understanding and various problems 1. Cultural exchange 2. Economic trade 3. Political exchange Chapter 3: Efforts toward peace The causes of events in the post–World War II era are reflected upon, and the maintenance of peace forms the central issue of the textbook. Efforts toward mutual understanding are emphasized in the formation of characteristics of citizenship. But striving for ‘mutual understanding’, despite being a virtue in itself, cannot, in reality, play a large role in the character formation of an individual. Editions of the Course of Study Textbook in the 30th and 33rd Year of Showa (1955 and 1958) Social Studies based on empiricism was criticized as ‘crawling around for knowledge’, and its content and principles had greatly changed by the 30th and 33rd year of Showa. The textbook used for analysis is T. Kanamori et al., The Junior High School Social Studies: Politics, Economics, Society, 3rd ed. Tokyo: Sanseido, published 30 April 1958 (the 33rd year of Showa). Official approval has been given for analysis of this textbook.

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Global Citizenship We want to continue in the belief that all countries should stop war and scrap their weapons. This cannot be realized easily, but we must try to think that an ideal can be realized one step at a time by patient efforts that are never discouraged by the difficulties encountered. Today’s wonderful civilization could not have been built if difficulties had not been overcome or if mankind had easily abandoned its ideals. However, in spite of mankind’s efforts, the subject that remains to be addressed is world peace (p. 231). How to Develop the Characteristics Required in a Citizen in Addressing Subjects Concerning the Earth Topics concerning the Earth: confrontation among nation-states; peace based on the balance of power; the law of nations; the birth of the ultimate weapon; the mechanics of international peace; the International Geophysical Year (1957–1958). Let us understand first within what limits such international cooperation for peace is being pursued and try to discover what kind of cooperation is prevalent in the modern world. In order to bring about such international cooperation, it is necessary to have more accurate knowledge about the international society that forms the structure of the present world. We will consider how ‘international cooperation for peace’ is to be achieved in our future world by means of such learning. Let us think about the way in which Japan must develop in such a world and the part that Japan must play in world peace. (pp. 160–1) The Structure of How Information is Presented Concerning the Earth All Japanese People and International Cooperation (pp. 153–233) Chapter 1: Efforts to build peace Chapter 2: Japan’s connections to the world and international society 1. Japan’s connection to the rest of the world 2. International society Chapter 3: The history of war and its causes 1. The history of war and calamity 2. The causes of war

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Chapter 4: The peace movement and international cooperation 1. History of the peace movement 2. International cooperation for peace Chapter 5: Current events and trends in the world and the direction taken by Japan 1. The present condition of the world 2. Public opinion about peace and the tendency of the peace movement 3. The Japanese position On the subject of the Earth, the information in this textbook is centred around the idea of peace, with ‘international cooperation for peace’ as a core concern. The importance of ‘accurate knowledge’ is emphasized in the formation of characteristics of citizenship. Moreover, special attention is drawn to information on the Antarctic exploration, the first postwar ‘International Geophysical Year’, and the natural environment of the Earth. Editions of the Course of Study Textbook in the 44th and 53rd Year of Showa (1969 and 1978) Between the 1950s and the latter half of the twentieth century, Japan underwent a rapid development in a way that was not experienced by the rest of the world. The effect of this is beginning to be reflected in the emphasis on world citizenship concerning the Earth. The direction of the Course of Study was influenced by the schematization of education in the 1960s and serious consideration was given to the information provided and the structure of content. The textbook used for analysis is Y. Watanabe et al., Junior High School Social Studies on Citizenship. Tokyo: Gakko Tosho, published 31 March 1980 (the 55th year of Showa). Official approval was given for analysis of this textbook. Global Citizenship Many resources, high costs and a great number of people are necessary to expand all mankind’s human rights and to secure a rewarding life. Knowledge and technology are also necessary. Each country should reduce its armaments, and ensure that its people are safe and have adequate income. It is imperative that weaponry today is reduced so that natural resources, human potential, and finance can be used peaceably to increase the stability of peoples’ lives through international détente and a welfare society. (p. 86)

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How to Nurture the Characteristics Required For Citizenship Concerning the Earth Topics concerning the Earth: environmental rights; economic stability; poverty and housing; commercialism. 1. This concerns the awareness of the people in power and how they influence Japan and therefore the present and future state of the world. I want to enhance the nation and its cultural interchange by reflecting on the part that the Japanese should play and be responsible for. (p. 89) 2. We must grapple actively with the problem of pollution by thinking of the future in our business and politics, not just our present well-being, so that people of the next generation will inherit a safe and healthy environment. (p. 98) 3. The oil crisis drew attention to the issue of natural resources. Japan is trying to secure its natural resources. The era of cheap resources is over. (pp. 163–4) The Structure of the Presentation of Information in the Textbook on the Subject of the Earth I. National life and politics. 4. International society and peace: The end of postwar Japan; a change in the impact of international society on Japan; the nuclear threat; changes in the international situation; world peace and the role of Japan 5. The present day and the subject of the Japanese democratic government: Issues of human rights; issues of equality; modern politics and national life; elections and democracy. II. National life and the economy. 4. The history and present state of the Japanese economy: The starting point of the postwar economy; rapid economic growth; the source of problems within the Japanese economy; Japan in the world economy; international economic cooperation and Japanese responsibility. As the period of focusing on peace alone comes to an end, the subject of concern for the Earth has broadened to include human rights, race issues, natural resources and economic growth. In particular, the matter of pollution has become a serious concern.

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Comparison of an English and a Japanese Textbook on Civics 1. Editions of the Course of Study Textbook in the 1st and 10th Year of Heisei in Japan (1989 and 1999) The Course of Study at this time placed emphasis on educational methodology and learning through inquiry. The textbook used for analysis is H. Tanabe et al., Junior High School Social Studies on Citizenship. Tokyo: Tokyo Shoseki, published 30 March 2001 (the 13th year of Heisei). Official approval has been given for analysis of this textbook. Global Citizen Characteristics This text states that in the twenty-first century, it is important to be aware that each of us is a member of the world’s society. Then it investigates the characteristics of ‘a global citizen’, who works towards solving the problems facing the Earth. How to Form Characteristics Required for Citizenship Concerning the Earth Topics concerning the Earth: resources; energy; the environment; population; food and peace. 1. A global citizen doesn’t think only about the profit of the nation and its prosperity (the national interest), but understands that it is important to pursue activities which profit the entire Earth (for the good of mankind). 2. It is important to have discussion that transcends local and national boundaries and to cooperate to find solutions to the problems facing the Earth. The Structure of the Presentation of Information Concerning the Earth International Problems and Global Citizenship: 1. Steps towards global citizenship 2. Resources and energy problems 3. Global environmental issues 4. The forests of Asia and Japan 5. Population and food issues.

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The Structure of the Textbook’s Treatment of International Problems Information on Resources and Energy Problems: Increase in the amount of energy consumption in the world; the exhaustion of resources; global warming; the development of alternative energy; saving energy. These subjects are described in parallel. Information on Global Environment Problems: Exploitation of the global environment is destroying life. An international organization is needed to find solutions to the problem. The work being done to maintain the environment. Information on the Forests of Asia and Japan: Asian forests, which Japan destroyed and is now replenishing. Information on Population and Food Issues: Population increase in developing countries. Why industrialized countries favour a society that has fewer children and many older people. The North–South divide in issues concerning food. The topics are approached objectively, looking at the cause, development and results of issues concerning the Earth. Specifying a code of conduct for global citizenship is avoided as far as possible: the facts are given, but the students must form their own opinions. These are typical examples of information for the nurturing of characteristics of global citizenship. A British Approach The textbooks analysed are: Terry Fiehn, This is Citizenship 1. London: John Murray, published 2002, and Terry Fiehn and Julia Fiehn, This is Citizenship 2. London: John Murray, also published 2002. Global Citizen Characteristics You will: O O O O

think about moral issues and decide what is right discuss these issues in small groups and as a whole class use your imagination to consider other people’s experiences take part in a class project to raise money for an appeal.

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How to Nurture the Characteristics Required for Citizenship Concerning the Earth Topics concerning the Earth: wealth and poverty; the push and pull effect on migration; charities at work. You will learn about: O O O O O

ideas we have about other countries how our ideas are shaped by images in the media how charities help people in countries throughout the world reasons for helping people in other countries aid programmes.

The Structure of the Presentation of Information in a Textbook Concerning the Earth Citizenship 1 is a textbook for the seventh and eighth grade of Key Stage 3. Citizenship 2 is a textbook for the eighth and ninth grades of Key Stage 3. The format and structure of both books are the same. An example of the content of each is as follows: From Citizenship 1: Section 6: Global citizenship What part do you play in the world? 6.1 What do you know about other countries? 6.2 Refugees and migrants 6.3 How do charities try to help? 6.4 Info: Organizations that help the world From Citizenship 2: Section 6: Global citizenship Can you change the world? 6.1 How can trade be made fairer? 6.2 Trade trap – a fair trade game 6.3 Hard labor! 6.4 How does tourism affect people in other countries? 6.5 How would you develop tourism in Malaysia? 6.6 Tourism – the good, the bad and the ugly 6.7 The United Kingdom and the European Union 6.8 Information about the European Union The Japanese textbook covers subjects concerning the whole Earth such as the environment, energy, forestation, population and food. The English textbook covers such subjects as refugees, settlers, acts of charity, trade and sightseeing as a basis for the formation of characteristics of world citizenship. It is evident that the difference in content regarding the Earth differs

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between the two texts. Where does this difference come from? The cause may be because thoughts about society differ between England and Japan.

References Fiehn, Terry (2002), This is Citizenship 1. London: John Murray. Fiehn, Terry and Julia Fiehn (2002), This is Citizenship 2. London: John Murray. Hirosawa, H., et al. (1955), New Society, 6th Grade, new edition. Tokyo: Tokyo Shoseki. Kanamori, T., et al. (1958), The Junior High School Social Studies: Politics, Economics, Society, 3rd ed. Tokyo: Sanseido. Tanabe H., et al. (2001), Junior High School Social Studies on Citizenship. Tokyo: Tokyo Shoseki. Watanabe, Y., et al. (1980), Junior High School Social Studies on Citizenship. Tokyo: Gakko Tosho.

Chapter 7

The Characteristics of Citizenship Education Practices in Japan: Two Projects that Teach Controversial Issues Kotaro Yoshimura

This chapter focuses on discriminative projects in secondary citizenship education in Japan and describes the outline and specific features of these projects. Most secondary schools in Japan consist of junior high school (grades 7–9), which is the lower secondary school, and senior high school (grades 10–12), which is the upper secondary school. Attendance at the former is compulsory, whereby it is not compulsory at the latter. Education about society is provided through a subject called ‘Social Studies’ in the first half of secondary school. Geography and History are studied in the first two years of secondary school and Civics courses are offered in the last compulsory school year, the ninth grade. Citizenship education is chiefly provided in Civics, which incorporates topics such as politics, economics, society and culture. The purpose of Civics is to provide students with knowledge of political and economical systems and to encourage attitudes leading to engagement with social issues. For those particular purposes, many teachers make unit plans and conduct lessons on social issues. The projects that will be discussed here were developed for secondary school students to discuss controversial issues in Japanese society. One project, entitled ‘Attempts to make laws regarding garbage collection’, provides law-related education that fosters students’ understanding of the legal system and its implications as well as of their rights and responsibilities as citizens. Another project, entitled ‘Thinking about how a company should handle issues of patenting’, provides civics education from the viewpoint that in discussing controversial issues we should not consider one particular social and economic system to be the only correct one, but that the ideal society of the future will be diverse. Hereafter, it is assumed that features of citizenship

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education in Japan can be explained through outlining these two classroom projects and clarifying the characteristics of this method of learning.

Project 1 Making Laws Regarding Garbage Collection The controversy: where should we put garbage for collection? No country can avoid the problem of waste and it is a problem familiar to every society. In particular, the decision about where to deposit garbage is very troublesome. In Japan, garbage is often not put outside each house but is taken to a specific point for collection, which is decided upon in each ward. This is an unpleasant problem for those whose homes are near the deposit site, as garbage is unsightly and smells bad. In this class, a hypothetical town is presented that is composed of an old residential quarter, old shopping street, and a newly established residential quarter. A resident of the old quarter who lives by the garbage deposit site has suggested changing the drop-off point to the new residential quarter, expressing the opinion that the people in the new neighbourhood do not follow the rules for depositing garbage. The activity that becomes the focus of the class is a simulated discussion by various members of the town council and the implementation of a rule about garbage deposit for the neighbourhood association. Objectives This project aims to help students to: O

O

O

O

develop a greater interest in rules and encourage them to think seriously about the meaning of rules encourage serious thought about the importance of agreement in social life, the necessity of agreeing rights of individual liberty within a group and the meaning of observing rules draw up a set of rules as a good solution to the case in question and present these rules to the class be able to rationally consider and evaluate rules.

Outline of Sessions Part 1: Try to make a rule about garbage collection. Prior to this lesson, students are assigned the task of taking garbage to the deposit site in their own home area and of writing a report on their thoughts and feelings about this activity. In the introduction of this lesson,

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students share feedback on this activity and confirm the need to resolve garbage-related issues. They read a handout about such issues and consider different opinions of people in six different positions in the neighbourhood association (a resident near the garbage collection point, an older resident, a new resident, an estate agent, the officers of the neighbourhood association, the owner of a downtown store) on where the garbage collection point should be located. For the role-play, groups are divided according to the six positions and students discuss and attempt to create the neighbourhood association’s rule for the depositing of garbage. Part 2: Try to make a rule for the neighbourhood association. Students share ideas and discuss the creation of the association’s rule from each position. Each position presents its own plan for depositing garbage, followed by a question-and-answer session. After the role-play, the students develop their own ideas about the rule and discuss it with others. Part 3: Try to evaluate the plan for their neighbourhood association’s rule on garbage collection. Once the plan for the neighbourhood association’s rule has been formulated, the students form groups to evaluate it according to four criteria (suitability, clarity, fairness and procedural justifiability) and then share and discuss their opinions with the entire class. By the end of the project, each student has had the experience of making an appropriate rule and is aware of the function of the law and the necessity of rules. Source Material 1: Roles and Viewpoints Role-playing position 1: Resident near the garbage collection point Claim: We should change the garbage collection point to another location because of the increasing volume of garbage and because it has been at the same location for a long time. Suggested rule: The garbage collection point should be located on the corner of the new residential quarter. Reasons: It is necessary to share the disadvantages of living near the garbage collection point. It is unfair that one quarter should take all the responsibility. The garbage collection point has been outside my house for many years. From now on, it should be located on the corner of the new residential quarter.

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Role-playing position 2: Older resident Claim: It is necessary to locate the garbage collection point on the corner of the new residential quarter. The increase in the number of residences is the major cause of the increase in garbage. Suggested rule: The garbage collection point should be located on the corner of the new residential quarter and people should observe the date and the rules for depositing. Reasons: The drawbacks of living near the garbage collection point should be shared. It is unfair that one quarter should take all the responsibility. The area outside one particular house has been used for many years. From now on, the garbage collection point should be on the corner of the new residential quarter. This would mean that in future the burden will be shared equally. Role-playing position 3: New resident Claim: The garbage collection point need not be changed. The amount of garbage has not increased very much, and it is only necessary that all residents obey the rules for depositing the garbage. Suggested rule: The current garbage collection point is good. People of the neighbourhood association should observe and follow the date and rules for depositing garbage. Anyone who doesn’t do this should be made to clean the garbage collection point as a punishment. Reasons: I apologize for having put out garbage carelessly on the wrong day. But there has been no problem with this collection place until now and it should remain in the same place. There is no problem as long as the day and the rules for depositing garbage are observed. Role-playing position 4: Estate agent (details are omitted) Role-playing position 5: Officer of the neighbourhood association Claims: I want to make a rule that is good for everyone, older residents as well as new. Reasons: Up to now, the members of the neighbourhood

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association have upheld the rules. As for where the garbage should be deposited, any location is acceptable to the officers of the association. I think that the most important thing is to observe the rules. Please discuss thoroughly what rules are necessary. Role-playing position 6: Owner of a downtown store (details are omitted) Source Material 2: Example of Discussion Points 1. Are the disadvantages to the resident who lives near the garbage collection point severe enough to warrant changing its location? 2. If the garbage collection location changes, what factors do we need to consider in fairly selecting a new site? 3. If someone does not observe the rules of garbage collection with regard to the day, place, time, separation of items, and so on, is it necessary to apply penal regulations? 4. Is it necessary to take measures against passersby, who leave litter at the collection point, and cats and birds that scatter the garbage? Features This project addresses an issue that affects everyone in daily life – the problem of waste – and examines strategies for solving related problems. This project has the following three features: 1. The classroom is set up as a simulated local committee, and students are given a virtual social experience by role-playing a discussion about the problem of waste. Through the role-play, the students solve the problem by considering the opinions of various people in different positions. The discussion would be unsatisfactory if differing opinions were not presented and students had only one viewpoint to consider. This method of teaching through simulation comes close to the reality of society. However, outside the classroom, real-life experience of such things as a committee discussion would not in itself be sufficient as a learning programme to foster citizenship. The fostering of students’ qualities and abilities as citizens by participation in a virtual experience is important since they will eventually participate in local society. In this project, the simulation enables students to consider the viewpoints of various people who comprise local society and to foster their ability as citizens to take on the responsibilities of problem-solving and consensus-building by discussion.

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2. Students can analyse and evaluate the discussion process and the rules made by the objective discussion in the latter half of the class. The students evaluate whether the rule they made themselves is suitable in a democratic society based on the four viewpoints presented. Students reflect on their discussion process and the rule that they made and assess whether they were democratic and socially aware. The teacher does not indoctrinate the students, and the students learn to see all viewpoints as worthy of consideration. Finally, a rule is made by objective analysis, which brings about a solution to a concrete problem in local society. 3. The class activity proceeds through reciprocal decision-making between individual and group level. This class has five decision-making stages: O

O

O O O

group decision-making by people representing the same standpoint (part 1, role-playing) group decision-making by people representing a different standpoint (part 2, role playing) personal decision-making (part 2, after role-playing) group decision-making (part 3, reflection) the personal decision (part 3, reflection).

When people address social issues, decisions must be made not only on the grounds of one person’s ideas and sense of values but by taking into equal consideration the opinions of others, which do not necessarily correspond to one’s own. In reality, of course, decision-making is not strictly divided into personal decision-making and group decision-making; however, both might be important during the former, when individuals deliberate and decide on their own opinion, and during the latter, in that various opinions and ideas are introduced and consensus is built by negotiation. Both are important in enabling good citizens to review and modify their own opinions, to make concessions in the discussion and to shape and closely examine opinions based on broad knowledge and different perspectives. The scheme of activity that intentionally divides the decision-making stage into two stages, such as individual and group levels, has been used successfully in many classes.

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Project 2 How Can you Accomplish Work within a Company? The Company’s Role, Organization and Management Style in Relation to an Issue of Patenting Objectives This project aims to help students to: O

O

O

O

understand that the role, organization and management style of a company are varied, and that they differ according to what kind of economic society a person belongs to. (Knowledge and understanding) encourage an understanding of the role, organization and management style of a company from source material about the topic of obtaining a patent, and to illustrate the point of view of the company by presenting information in the form of a diagram. (Use of diagrams) form an opinion on the role, organization and management style of a company, and also to express the pros and cons of other student’s opinions. (Reflection and judgement) actively form an opinion about the company by considering the issue of whether a patent belongs to an individual employee or to the company. (Engagement, motivation and attitude)

Outline of Sessions Part 1: Can we think about the style of the company? Students read newspaper articles about a court case involving a patent: an employee is in dispute with the company he works for over who should profit from his new invention. Students are made aware of common views such as ‘The profit belongs to the company’ or ‘The employee is owned by the company’. Part 2: The case of a profit-making company with a hierarchal structure Students are made to read and analyse a magazine article by the inventor of blue LED entitled ‘Why I left the company’. This company has a hierarchal top-down management style typical of bureaucratic organizations, and aims at providing a commodity or service to the consumer at a low price by keeping labour costs low. Such a point of view causes conflict between employees who want discretionary power in their work and suitable reward and managers who deny these wishes. Based on this situation, students come to understand producer-oriented policies and the patent ownership problem.

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Part 3: The case of a profit-making company with a network, or direct marketing, policy Students read and analyse some information about a company with a network system, organized so that independent organizations have the authority to deal directly with the consumer. It aims to achieve a situation in which consumers’ needs are served to the maximum extent. However, indiscriminate patent filings by staff have caused an increase in the price of goods. Decentralization of authority aimed at improving customer satisfaction has actually achieved the opposite. Based on this situation, students come to understand consumer-oriented policies and the patent filing problem. Part 4: The case of a non-profit-making company with a network policy Students read and analyse information about a company with a different network policy from that described in Part 3. A company reshuffle has encouraged its business managers to consider the position of ordinary citizens as both producers and consumers, and it strives to deliver a commodity or service to them that will help to improve the social structure. Students learn that this kind of company can succeed in avoiding indiscriminate patent filing, but there is a risk of losing sight of the purpose of the patent system, which aims at technological and economic development. Part 5: What is the best kind of company? Students think about the blue LED problem described in Part 1 from the standpoint of the three company structures presented in Parts 2 to 4. Three solutions for the blue LED patent problem are presented and the three styles are assessed and ranked. The students realize that the role, organization and management style of a company can be complex and reflect more than one influence, and they come to understand that management style can vary according to the kind of economic society we desire. Features This project takes into account the economic issues of patenting, and students think about the social system that forms the background of the conflict. The project has the following three features: 1. The problem itself is related to social issues, and consideration is given as to the ideal type of social system that would remove such problems. This project does not concern everyday matters but a major controversy that raises questions about the entire social system. The main feature of this project is that it aims not only to solve the issue of the patenting

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problem but also to examine the social system that created it, and hence to reflect on the nature of society. If a controversial problem is tackled superficially there will not be a profound solution. In some cases, the current social system might be the cause of the controversy, and in order to progress towards an ideal society it is important to examine the former while thinking about the latter. 2. The teacher tries to liberate the student from commonplace views on how to achieve an ideal society. Many people think of society only in terms of a political system, and neglect the fact that within the system are many other mechanisms such as economics, religion and culture. They fail to recognize that problem solving must be achieved within the framework of the entire social structure. This lack of realization leads to the view that the best way to deal with current social issues is through tried and trusted means, and that society can easily be managed within such conventions. Needless to say, such a narrow attitude will lead to a society that is readily disrupted by the unexpected, and this may lead to a shift in the social structure. The current system is clearly not perfect and the enlightened citizen cannot uphold it without reservation. In this class, students recognize that they can aim to solve the problem while also considering the possibility of changing society in a wider sense, being aware that the current social system is not fixed and absolute. To bring about that recognition, as well as to solve the specific problem, it is necessary not only to understand the social system behind it but also to compare that with other systems and to contemplate new ones. Of course, it would be impossible both to plan an ideal society and to decide the solution to the problem simply from the conclusions drawn in class. However, even if a concrete solution is not reached, it is necessary to liberate the student from believing that a social system is fixed and absolute. 3. Before considering the possibility of reforming social structures, students reflect on their own criteria for the kind of society that they would like. In this topic, their fixed views and ideas about the patenting issue as formed by their own experiences are examined. The next stage is where they are made aware of commonly held viewpoints about what makes an ideal society. For example, students frequently assume, from their limited experience and knowledge and from what is generally regarded as the norm, that the company is necessarily profit seeking. In the third stage, a new ideal of society is planned, independent of common beliefs and practices, by thinking about potential solutions to social issues. Students recognize that an ideal economic society is different from one

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Citizenship Education in Japan that simply prioritizes the market by learning about a company that puts its contribution to society above profit. It is valuable for students to study and learn in order to solve problems. They will engage with the issues and research, discuss and decide on the solution. Awareness of methods for problem solving is an important qualification for citizenship. It is necessary first to get the students interested in an issue so that they approach it positively, and members of a democratic society ought to be concerned with its workings and its development. However, if students lack background knowledge of issues and viewpoints and ideas, it is difficult for them to make discerning judgements. Tackling problems related to social controversy is closely related to ways of dealing with politics and the economic system in society, involving the various values to be found among its members. An important qualification as a citizen might be, a well as a knowledge of politics and economic and social systems, the ability to inquire into issues with an awareness of the wide range of people’s sense of values. This project seeks to nurture such a capacity in our future citizens.

Conclusion The main characteristics of these two projects are as follows: Students study the essential elements necessary for decision-making and the construction of a new social framework by trying to find a solution for social issues rather than by simply studying methodologies of discussion, problem solving, social participation, and so on. Then, not only familiar social issues but also much wider topics can be addressed. There is a weakness in that big issues are not necessarily more compelling for students than smaller ones, and the larger problems require the acquisition of complex social knowledge in the process of trying to solve them. Thus, the problem-solving process is more difficult. However, in order to enable students to evaluate the current social system and form concepts and plans for a better society, it is necessary to look at controversial issues of national and global scope as well as what is familiar and local. These projects attempt to promote the qualities of well-considered social judgement through the search for a solution to a problem.

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References Ikeno, N. (2007), ‘Teaching about a controversial electoral system: lessons from Japan’, in Hilary Claire and Cathie Holden (eds), The Challenge of Teaching Controversial Issues. Stafordshire: Trentham Books, pp. 103–9 Fujise, Y. (2004), ‘The principle of teaching Economics as social construction: developing the unit on “Thinking about how a company should handle patenting problems”’, in Journal of Educational Research on Social Studies, 61, 61–70. (In Japanese) Law-related Education Study Group (2005), ‘Making Law: a lesson plan for a lawrelated education project’, in Law-related Education for Beginners. Tokyo: Gyosei, pp. 40–62. (In Japanese)

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Chapter 8

Issues in Citizenship Education 8.1 International, Global and Multicultural Education as an Issue in Citizenship Education

Takaaki Fujiwara Introduction The topic of citizenship education is currently controversial in Japan due to the multilayered society that now exists within the country, embracing local, national and global dimensions and a multicultural population. I wish to discuss these issues by first examining the historical background, and then some of the key ideas introduced into education in Japan in the late 1980s and the early 1990s. UNESCO and Social Reform in Japan: 1950s to Early 1970s Japan reformed the structure of its society during the period of Allied occupation that followed the country’s defeat in the Second World War. Under the supervision of General Headquarters, led mainly by the USA, Japan established a new constitution and undertook a series of democratic reforms in its political, economic and social sectors in order to change from a militaristic and authoritarian state to a cultural and democratic one. School education at all levels also became based on democratic principles and aimed to foster citizens who would create, and become part of, a democratic state and society. Social Studies in particular, which was introduced from the USA, became a core subject in the school curriculum and played an important role in developing the type of citizenship education required to help build a democratic society (Hirata 1986; Kobara 1998). International Education started when Japan joined the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in 1951, prior to joining the United Nations (UN) in 1956. After Japan became a member of the ASP (Associates School Project of UNESCO) in 1953, some ASP

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schools introduced experimental lessons on such topics as human rights, understanding of other countries and cultures, and the UN. This was done in the hope of realizing peace, following the famous phrase in UNESCO’s constitution: ‘since wars begin in the minds of men, it is in the minds of men that the defences of peace must be constructed’. Although the lessons at the ASP schools between 1954 and the early 1970s produced some good results, their influence did not spread to other schools in Japan. Therefore the ideal goal of UNESCO was not realized, not only for this reason but also because of the reality of the Cold War and the economic recovery and growth that Japan was undergoing at the same time. During this period, UNESCO was debating the concept of international education. The organization advocated the ‘World Citizenship’ through initiatives such as Education for World Citizenship (1950) and Education for Living in a World Community (1953). However, due to confrontation between the member states, it modified this concept to ‘Education for International Co-operation’ (1955).1 Global Issues in the World and National Issues in Japan: Late 1970s to the Late 1980s In 1974, UNESCO recommended two new international policies: Education for International Understanding, Co-operation and Peace; and Education Relating to Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. The Recommendation was based on the reality of increasing interdependence between the North and South and the emergence of global issues. Compared with the former model of international education propounded by UNESCO, the Recommendation of 1974 stressed the importance of fostering global citizenship, in order to achieve both awareness of the need for solidarity as citizens of the world and an understanding of cultural diversity and global issues. However, the Japanese National Commission for UNESCO did not agree with the Recommendation, so it was not until eight years later that the guide to Education for International Understanding was revised. The delay occurred partly because, while UNESCO emphasized global citizenship and global issues, the Japanese National Commission focused on education for achieving international and intercultural understanding. The other reason was that the Japanese Ministry of Education placed greater priority on the readjustment of students returning from periods abroad to study in Japanese schools than on the global issues to be found in UNESCO’s Recommendation. In the 1970s and 1980s, many Japanese companies set up overseas branches and factories in the USA, Europe and Asia.

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One consequence of this was that many children of Japanese employees working for these overseas companies studied in foreign schools for several years. On returning to Japan, many of the students experienced a cultural gap and a sense of friction with other students and with the Japanese education system. Therefore, in response to the request of the largest Japanese companies, the Ministry of Education introduced a policy to deal with the integration and readjustment of these overseas-educated students on their return to Japan. During this period, the areas of contention lay in the gap between global issues in the world and national issues in Japan, and in the difference between education for global citizenship following UNESCO guidelines and the cultural adjustment and assimilation of the returning students. In addition, the number of lessons for international education at the ASP schools had decreased, which meant that the only way to implement International Education was by establishing specialist schools for returning students. However, the Prize for Encouragement of Education for International Understanding, sponsored by the Institute for Research on Education for International Understanding of Tezukayama Gakuin University between 1975 and 2005, supported educational practices by teachers in schools and members of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in society. The winning entries were those that responded to the various issues and topics proposed by the Recommendation of 1974. In addition, some Japanese NGOs were founded that were composed of volunteers with a desire to aid Indochinese refugees, whose situation was recognized as an important global issue (Nakanishi 1997).2 The Suitability of New Educational Ideas – Global and Development Education from the USA and the UK: Late 1980s to the Early 1990s Development Education The UNESCO Recommendation of 1974 shared the same perspectives as Global Education in the USA and Development Education in the UK, with respect to global interdependence, global issues and global citizenship. At its inception, Development Education took an emotional approach and aimed to encourage charitable fundraising to overcome poverty in developing countries. However, the aim has changed in recent years and there is now a structural approach to understanding the inequality between the North and the South. Currently, development issues and North–South problems are interconnected with global issues such as those concerned with the environment, human rights and peace. The concept of development education has

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expanded from teaching about development to teaching for development, thus concentrating on promoting a global system, common interests and sustainable development for all humankind rather than simply noting the differences between ‘the rich North and the poor South’. The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), which is also concerned with child poverty and survival in areas of conflict and instability after the end of Cold War, recommends Education for Development aimed at fostering global citizenship in individuals.3 Global Education Global Education emerged in the USA in the early 1970s. Its reformation of the school curriculum emphasized the importance of a non-expanding horizon, non-Western and global perspectives, and global citizenship. It has been recognized as an education system suitable for a diverse ethnic society and the international economy. Japanese educators developed an interest in Global Education about ten years later, when the Japanese economic system became internationalized and interdependent with other countries in the late 1980s. Therefore, Global Education was regarded as a new educational subject in teaching about citizenship in the internationalized economy seen in Japan (Uozumi 1995, 1987).4 World Studies The World Studies Project was a global education project introduced in middle schools in the UK in the late 1970s. It aimed to develop knowledge, skills and attitudes for responsible citizenship in a multicultural society and an interdependent world. It was based on development education and antiracist education, and focused on non-Western perspectives, awareness of holistic/global systems and recognition of human potential. Like the Global Education Initiative of the USA, the World Studies Project was also introduced in Japan about ten years later. It was valued for its varied teaching materials and methods, such as active learning, and for addressing multicultural and global issues rather than placing an emphasis on specific local issues such as poverty. There was much debate during this period over the application of Global Education (USA) and World Studies (UK) to the Japanese educational system. Japanese educators discussed the relative advantages of global citizenship or national civics, as taught in the USA, compared with the human rights or multicultural approach and knowledge-centred or active learning as seen in the UK (Kimura 2000).5

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Multiple and Multilayered Citizenship or National Citizenship in the Schools of Japan: Late 1990s to the Present Day Since the 1990s, International Education in Japan has been revitalized after its stagnation between the 1960s and the 1980s. In the 1990s, new educational approaches such as Global and Development Education were recognized as providing guidance for developing the curriculum and teaching materials and methods in Japan. Since the 1990s, Japan has played an important global role as a member of G7 (and G8). For example, Japan is ranked first and second, respectively, as a contributor to overseas development aid and as a member nation involved in the UN peacekeeping operations. Globalization since the end of the Cold War in 1991 has removed many of the world’s borders, and while this has led to a greater homogeneity amongst the world’s populations, nevertheless the gap between rich and poor has widened. The report of UNESCO’s International Commission on Education for the Twenty-first Century, ‘Learning the Treasure Within’, underlined the importance of education, especially at primary level, and of a culture of peace. The UN also set its Millennium Development Goals in 2000. Thus, there was a need to develop effective new citizenship learning, based on global education, both worldwide and in Japan. The Course of Study of Japan has been revised three times, in 1989, 1998 and 2008. School curricula have been modified to facilitate the internationalization and specializations of schools, and Integrated Studies has been introduced to foster learning for international understanding, environmental issues, information and technology, and social welfare. In the civic sector, voluntary activities have increased following the Great Hanshin earthquake in 1995 and the enhancement of the 1998 Act for the promotion of non-profit organizations (NPOs). Thus, the need to provide an education in new citizenship has been recognized in Japan. During these years, the important issue has been the concept of international education in Japan, with emphasis on nationalism and essentialism as ‘one nation, one language, one ethnicity’. Japan has invested more in fostering good citizens to represent the nation on the world stage than in teaching about foreign cultures and international affairs. Recently, however, the concept of a multilayered citizenship at local, national and global levels has become important, based on local regions, the multicultural nation, and a global and interdependent world. In response to this recognition, the International Education Society of Japan developed a new curriculum for international education for the global age and published its report in 2006 (Fujiwara 1994, Tada and JAIE 2006).6

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Chart 1 The transition of the number of non-Japanese people who reside in Japan for longer than 3 months 1975–2007

2,500,000

2,152,973 2,000,000

1,686,444 1,500,000 1,362,371

1,075,317

1,000,000

850,612 751,842

782,910 500,000

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

2007

0

Figure 8.1.1 Population by year of non-Japanese people residing in Japan for longer than 3 months (1975–2007) (Immigration Bureau of Japan 2008)

Chart 2 Nationality of non-Japanese people (%, 2007)

Others 20%

Chinese 28%

Filipinos 9%

Brazilian 15%

Korean 28%

Figure 8.1.2 Nationality of non-Japanese people residing in Japan in 2007 (%)

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Multicultural and Social Integration, Assimilation and Adjustment in the Globalized Society of Modern-day Japan: Late 1990s to the Present Day At present, Japan depends on workers from overseas because of a shortage of domestic workers due to the decreasing birth rate, an aging society, and the need for lower wages to help the country perform well in the growing competitiveness of a globalized economy. About 700,000 Korean people continued to live in Japan after the period of Japan’s colonization of Korea (1910 to 1945). Koreans represented around 90 per cent of the foreign residents of Japan until the 1980s, and were the target of racist abuse and human rights violations. However, since the 1990s, the number of newcomers from Brazil, China, the Philippines, Thailand and other countries has increased rapidly (see Figures 8.1.1 and 8.1.2 on previous page). The number of children in the families of these newcomers has now reached 20,000 and they all require Japanese language education in a school environment in order to help them adjust to Japanese society. In 2005, the number of non-Japanese living in the country had reached 2 million, including the Koreans. Intercultural marriages are also much more frequent, and thus Japanese society is gradually becoming multi-ethnic and multicultural. The debate in recent years has been over the framework of citizenship and issues such as promoting the social integration of all groups within this multicultural society. This debate has included discussion on differences in nationality and ethnicity, the distinctions between Citizenship, as a school subject, and citizenship in daily life, and the greater importance of civic values and citizenship over ethnicity Fujiwara (2006a, 2006b).7

Conclusion After the end of the Second World War, UNESCO’s International Education programme influenced citizenship education in Japan through its perspective of world citizenship, global issues and a culture of peace. New educational initiatives such as Global and Development Education from the USA and the UK have introduced global perspectives to international education in Japan, in particular those with a focus on global issues, interdependence and the cultural diversity of the global society. Thus, in facing the reality of globalization and multiculturalization, the debate in Japan over citizenship education is twofold: one part is education for a multilayered or national citizenship; the other, education to encourage

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social integration and harmonious coexistence within a multicultural society or assimilation and adjustment into Japanese culture.

Notes 1 See Nagai (1989) and Nakanishi (rep.) (1997). 2 See also Institute for Research on Education for International Understanding of Tezukayama Gakuin University (1976–2005). 3 See Development Education Association and Resource Centre, DEAR (1983– 2007), Tanaka (1994) and Development Education Seminar (1995) 4 See also Kniep (1987), Fujiwara (2002, 2003), Nakamura (2004). 5 See also Otsu (1997, 1992) and Pike and Selby (1988). 6 See also Sato (2001) and Tada (2006). 7 See also Mizuyama (2007) and Department of Curriculum Development for Citizenship Education of the Board of Education of Sinagawa-Ku, Tokyo (2006).

References Department of Curriculum Development for Citizenship Education in the Board of Education of Sinagawa-Ku, Tokyo (2006), The Consistent Curriculum for Citizenship Education at the Primary and Junior High School. Tokyo: Kyoiku Syuppan. Development Education Association and Resource Centre (DEAR) (ed.) (1983–2007), Development Education, nos. 1–53. Development Education Seminar (ed.) (1995), New Development Education for Global Citizenship. Tokyo: Kokon Shoin. Fujiwara, Takaaki (1994), Teaching about Issues on Immigrant Workers: Lessons for Global Education. Tokyo: Akashi Shoten. —(2002), ‘A study of the development of the teaching materials for global Education: a case of the textbook, Global Issues’, Education in the Social Studies Department Research Association Japan, Journal of Research on Education in the Social Studies Department, 14, 1–8. —(2003), ‘A study of the curriculum development of Global Education: a case of the curriculum models by W. M. Kniep and the textbook, Global Issues’, Japan Association of Global Education, Global Education, 5, 40–53. —(2006a), ‘Significance of active citizenship in social studies: a possibility of learning for social participation’, Japan Social Studies Research Association, Journal of Educational Research on Social Studies, 65, 51–60. —(2006b), ‘Developing active citizenship: the example of Get Global as a textbook for citizenship education in England’, Doshisha Women’s College of Liberal Arts, Journal of Contemporary Social Studies, 2, 21–38.

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—(2008), Simulation Teaching Material ‘Issues in the Hyotan Island’: Learning Problems in the Multiculturalized Society of Japan. Tokyo: Akashi Shoten. Hirata, Kazo, (1986), Research of the Practice of Social Studies Education in the Early Postwar Period. Tokyo: Kyoiku Syuppan Center. Immigration Bureau of Japan (2008) Online statistics. Available from: http://www. immi-moj.go.jp/toukei/index.html (in Japanese). Institute of Education for International Understanding of Tezukayama Gakuin University (ed.) (1976–2005), International Understanding, nos. 8–35. Kimura, Kazuko (2000), Global Education in the UK. Tokyo: Keiso Shobo. Kniep, Willard M. (ed.) (1987), Next Steps in Global Education: A Curriculum Development, Global Perspective. New York: Global Perspective in Education. Kobara, Tomoyuki (1998), Development of Learning in Social Studies Education in the Early Post-war Period. Tokyo: Kazama Shobo. —(ed.) (2006), Development of Issues in Centered Learning for International Understanding. Tokyo: Meiji Tosho, 17–27. Nagai, Jiro (1989), Education for International Understanding: For Global Cooperation. Hiroshima: Daiichi Gakusyu-sya. Nakanishi, Akira and Japan Association for International Education (JAIE) (ed.) (1997), Report of the Comprehensive Research on Building Theoretical and Practical Strategies of Education for International Understanding. Tokyo: JAIE. Nakamura, Tetsu (ed.) (2004), The Curriculum and Lesson Organization of Social Studies as Global Education. Tokyo: Kazama Shobo. Mizuyama, Mitsuharu (ed.) (2007), Report of the Research of Critical Adoption on Citizenship Education of the UK in Social Studies Education: Report sponsored by Japan Society for the Promotion of Science 2004–2006. Kyoto: Kyoto University of Education. Otsu, Kazuko (1997), Development of Teaching Materials for Global Integrated Learning. Tokyo: Meiji Tosho. —(1992), Education for International Understanding: Lessons and Plans for Global Citizenship. Tokyo: Kokudo-sya. Pike, Graham and David Selby (1988), Global Teacher, Global Learner. London: Hodder & Stoughton. Sato, Gun-ei (2001), Education for International Education: Schooling in the Multicultural Society. Tokyo: Akashi Shoten. Tada, Takashi and JAIE (ed.) (2006), Report of The Theoretical and Practical Research on the Curriculum Development of Education for International Understanding in the Global Age. Tokyo: JAIE. Tanaka, Haruhiko (1994), North–South Issues and Development Education for the Global Citizen. Tokyo: Aki Shobo. Uozumi, Tadahisa (1987), Theory and Development of Global Education: Social Studies for the 21st Century. Nagoya: Reimei Shobo. —(1995), Global Education: For Global Citizen. Nagoya: Reimei Shobo.

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8.2 The Environment as an Issue in Citizenship Education

Mitsuharu Mizuyama Introduction Problems concerning the subject of the environment in citizenship education can be divided into two major issues: one questions the assumption that environmental education should necessarily be part of citizenship education, the other questions the necessity of ‘the environment’ in itself as a topic of citizenship education. These issues include sub-issues as follows: O

Issues regarding the provision of environmental education 1. Is environmental education better provided as an independent subject or as a cross-curricular theme? 2. Which should be taught, environmental education or education about environmental problems? 3. Should civic activity be part of environmental education? 4. Which should be taught, conservative environmental education or progressive environmental education?

O

Issues regarding the essential significance of environmental education 1. Is ‘global’ more important than ‘environmental’ in conceptualizing this aspect of citizenship? 2. Is the single issue of the environment out of date for citizenship education?

In the process of dealing with these issues, environmental education in Japan is beginning to move towards education for sustainability. In the future, the existence of environmental education in itself will come to be questioned in the movement towards a more diverse curriculum. Issues Regarding the Provision of Environmental Education 1. Is environmental education better provided as an independent subject or as a cross-curricular theme? Environmental education in Japan began as anti-pollution education in parallel with traditional outdoor nature education. The National

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Society of Primary and Secondary Schools for the Study of Pollution and Countermeasures was established in 1966. In those days, the key subject in teaching about pollution was Social Studies. In 1970, some parts of the Course of Study were revised, and learning about pollution became a part of Social Studies. In the 1970s, when measures for the reduction of pollution were decided on, and after a series of international conferences on the environment such as the United Nations Human Environment Conference, held in Stockholm, and the Belgrade Conference, the concept of environmental education was introduced in Japan. Anti-pollution education gradually transformed into environmental education. In 1975, the aforementioned society changed its title to the National Society of Primary and Secondary Schools for Environmental Education Study (Ichikawa 2002: 37). As environmental education grew in popularity, the problem arose of whether it should be provided as an independent subject, as a cross-curricular theme or as an activity outside the curriculum. Just as Social Studies corresponds to Social Science, there was a common tendency to try to make the new subject of ‘The Environment’ correspond to environmental science when deciding its contents and objectives (NIER 1981: 159). The other view was that environmental education should be a cross-curricular theme rather than a discrete subject (Nogami 1994). The main points of this argument are as follows: O

O

O

Even though environmental science is assumed to be its background, a subject like The Environment lacks an academic backbone, because environmental science is comparatively new compared with established subjects such as Geography, History or Physics. Since environmental science was developed from an interdisciplinary approach, it is only natural that environmental education should combine and integrate various subjects. In the school curriculum for environmental education in advanced countries like the USA, Britain and Germany, it has become usual practice to deal with the environment as a cross-curricular theme, not as a discrete subject.

This argument of ‘independent subject versus cross-curricular theme’ has been temporarily suspended in Japan because of the introduction of integrated learning to the curriculum of primary and secondary schools in the 1998 revision of the Course of Study, facilitating the practice of environmental education. By its very name, integrated learning appears to deal with

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cross-curricular themes because it enables the planning of interdisciplinary lessons. It also appears to be an independent subject because a block of time is specified for its classes. At the time, these characteristics were welcomed by teachers who were eager to introduce environmental education into their schools. Currently, however, the limitations of environmental education in integrated learning are gradually becoming clear: namely, the independence of schools in curriculum design, the lack of consensus about integrated learning, and the tendency to ascribe importance to basic subjects like Japanese and Science rather than to integrated learning. The debate over cross-curriculum versus independent subject will return in the future, because integrated learning might be abolished or reduced, or the time given to environmental education decreased, by the next revision of the Course of Study. 2. Which should be taught, environmental education or education about environmental problems? There is an insistence that environmental education must change its style in keeping with the change in environmental problems. In other words, in the same way that the cause for concern changed from ‘industrial pollution’ before the 1970s to ‘urban pollution’ after the 1980s, it is felt that environmental education must change too. Anti-pollution education in the 1960s, one of the foundation stones of environmental education in Japan, was linked with community protest against severe industrial pollution and encouraged the investigation of damage to the community and the provision of activities to motivate students against pollution. However, such direct connection between social movements and school education came to be criticized. Sajima (1991: 11) criticized anti-pollution education, with its tendency to be linked with protest and a social movement, as follows: Anti-pollution learning in schools, reflecting adult society, has a tendency to be controlled by ‘the inquiring cause model’ and ‘the accusing enterprise model’. It is ruled by a ‘passive view of the environment’ and is always searching for a criminal or a villain. In such a passive view of the environment, it is impossible to develop awareness as a member of the environment and to create a new environment. Students must aim to form a positive view of the environment in order to be able to react to it as human beings who then act to create a better one.

In contrast, Fujioka (2005) argues for education about environmental (antipollution) problems as follows:

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After the 1990s, the value of environmental education was widely accepted and it achieved its place in the official curriculum. At the same time, there was a tendency to separate its teaching from issues such as pollution and to replace local environment problems with global environment problems, not regarding environmental education as a positive educational practice of teachers. I shall suggest four propositions that counter this recent tendency: 1. Environmental problems take precedence over environmental education O Environmental education cannot be separated from the system and processes of consumption and production in society. 2. The core of environmental education is to learn from the occurrence of environmental problems and their solution O The environment tends to be protected only by people living in areas where the environment has been damaged. 3. Environmental education is an educational practice which embodies the essential issues of ‘how to combine life and education’ and ‘how to combine science and education’ O Fieldwork should be the basis of learning. 4. Environmental education naturally inquires into environmental problems O The logic of ‘environmental rights’ only can theorize about these problems.

In other words, Fujioka believes that teachers should play an active part in solving local environmental problems. He also writes that education about environmental problems that examines the relationship between science and real life can be implemented through fieldwork lessons, or through cooperative learning between students and teachers. The argument regarding ‘environmental education’ and ‘education about environmental problems’ then comprises the next two aspects: 5. Is it true that students are likely to adopt a passive view of the environment when teachers use a ‘causal investigation’ or an ‘accusatory’ teaching style as Sajima claims? 6. Is it in fact wrong for learning about environmental problems to be ‘causal investigation’ or ‘accusatory’?

Pertaining to point 5, in order to accuse others fairly and to deal with social problems such as damage to the environment, severe self-analysis of one’s own actions must be undergone, and an uncritical view of the environment must be discouraged. Criticism of others, which doesn’t include

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self-criticism, is irresponsible, and sincere self-analysis must take place before making serious criticism of others. Moreover, the issue of point 6 is ultimately that of whether the politics and ideology of the anti-pollution campaign have a place in the classroom. Fujioka (2005) is in favour, while Sajima (1991) disagrees. This problem leads us to the next problem of ‘How should we develop citizenship within Social Studies?’ 3. Should civic activity be part of environmental education? The model of environmental education in Japan is based on the Belgrade Charter, which was adopted in the International Environmental Education Meeting held in Belgrade in 1975. The Belgrade Charter defines the goal of environmental education as follows: To develop a world population that is aware of, and concerned about, the environment and its associated problems, and which has the knowledge, skills, attitudes, motivations and commitment to work individually and collectively toward solutions of current problems and the prevention of new ones. (UNESCO 1975: 3)

The six items of interest, knowledge, attitude, skill, ability of evaluation, and participation were pointed out as concrete aims of environmental education (Sakakibara 1976: 6). The Japanese Ministry of Education defined environmental education in official guidance materials based on the Belgrade Charter as follows (MoE 1991: 6): The aims of environmental education are to realize the following, based on interest, knowledge of environment and environmental problems, and a holistic understanding and recognition of the relation with human activity and environment: O

O O

to acquire skill and ability of thought and judgement in doing desirable work in consideration of the preservation of environment to participate actively in creative work for a better environment to foster an attitude that enables responsible behavior toward the environment.

Notably, the same guidance material states: ‘The solution of environmental problems is the common task of humanity. The nurturing of an active attitude toward the environment should be the fundamental teaching principle’ (p. 16). This is the fundamental concept and definition of environmental education that has been widely recognized in Japan during the twenty-first century.

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In this definition, great consideration is taken not only of knowledge and understanding about the environment and environmental problems, but also of the promotion of positive attitudes and active participation in finding solutions. Accordingly, various movements aimed at developing environmental education and involving active participation in society can be seen in practice at schools. By contrast, in the learning process of Social Studies, which has been the compulsory curriculum subject shouldering the most responsibility for the direct promotion of citizenship, there is a train of thought against the inclusion of participation and action. It is generally said that Social Studies is defined as a subject that nurtures social responsibility and promotes citizenship. This means that the promotion of citizenship in theory and the citizen’s activities in practice are quite separate matters, and that the purpose of Social Studies must not overstep the boundaries (Moriwake 2001: 13). According to the theory which keeps citizenship in ‘the structure of social recognition and judgement’ and in ‘rational decision-making’ or ‘practical decision-making’, positive work and participation in society toward the solution of environmental problems is called ‘civic activity’ and must not be included in education about citizenship. Civic activity exceeds the learning boundaries of Social Studies. However, from the viewpoint that participation and activity in society are an important part of environmental education, such a standpoint seems to overestimate theoretical knowledge and is insufficient in itself to constitute environmental education. 4. Which should be taught, conservative environmental education or progressive environmental education? When the environment is considered from the viewpoint of the economy, there arises a conflict between conservative environmental education and progressive environmental education. On one hand, Yamane (1996: 1–12) said that ‘conservative environmental education theory doesn’t deny the market economy system that has been the fundamental base of the Japanese economic system until now’ and it ‘doesn’t deny people’s desire to be financially better off’. On the other hand progressive environmental education ‘doesn’t hesitate to refute the market economy system and the desire of people for greater wealth. This is because environmental problems will not be solved as long as these two factors are accepted as the norm’. Supporting conservative environmental education, Yamane criticizes the alternative and its opposition to the pursuit of material wealth and the market economy system while accepting environmental totalitarianism:

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O

The reason for denying progressive environmental education is that it accepts totalitarianism. In other words, it denies the fundamental principal of individual freedom and democracy. The reason why progressive environmental education theory falls into a bottleneck is in its ‘insistence on the positive and honest poverty principle’ which denies utilitarianism. When the honest poverty principle is insisted on, honest poverty itself becomes a goal. But it is difficult to maintain the honest poverty condition throughout life. People’s standard of living must go theoretically to the extreme limit of honest poverty. It is irresponsible as an educator to set a goal for education which has very little possibility of being realized.

In the origin of this theory, there is a human-centred idea that the purpose of protecting the environment is not for the sake of the environment itself, but for human survival in present and future generations (Yamane 1996: 8). Yamane then makes a further two points in defense of conservative environmental education: O

O

In order to implement environmental education, the honest poverty principle that basically denies utilitarianism need not be taken away. It is possible to introduce the following environmental education approaches while keeping utilitarianism as a basis: — Thinking about the burden on the environment, which we have to reduce for the protection of the world as a whole, not only of Japan. — Thinking about personal economic needs. — Thinking equally about the economic needs of the world and its countries and inhabitants. — Thinking about the burden on the environment which we have managed to lessen. To practice environmental education, the theory of market economy need not be denied and there is no necessity for totalitarianism. The technology and concepts which make the market system the basis of the world’s economy can be applied justly to desirable and sustainable economic development and to achieve an effective lightening of the load on the environment.

Imamura (2005: 10) argued against this, taking the standpoint of progressive environmental education theory as follows:

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Two beliefs dominating contemporary industrial society have brought about environmental problems. One is that nature exists to fulfil people’s desires, and is there for human beings to use for economic gain. The other is that the search for pleasure and profit and the progress of science and technology are good. If environmental education undervalues nature, aiming persistently at maximizing production, profit and wealth, and giving ultimate and unlimited priority to development and progress based on the paradigm of ‘development = progress’, environmental improvement will not occur, simply because ‘development and progress’ are being prioritized over ‘the environment’ . . . In other words, it is necessary to introduce a type of education which realizes sustainability through a new environmental paradigm, in contrast with the ‘development = progress’ paradigm. Although such a paradigm wouldn’t be able to explain perfectly, for example, the relationship between human beings and nature as interdependent, insofar as it would respect nature, apply technology carefully and recognize ‘a limit to growth and progress’ without giving undue priority to profit, it would reflect the value of trying to live harmoniously with nature and the environment, even if this were to place some limitations on people’s lifestyles.

In other words, Imamura’s ‘new environmental paradigm’ is characterized by a limit to growth and progress (in particular, growth) and also by ‘harmony’ between human beings and nature. Imamura continues, ‘Utilitarianism should not be denied. However, there is a limit to the premise of nature, and growth should keep within that limit.’ Against this, Yamane (1996) argues that the definition of ‘growth’ isn’t fixed and that it changes independently of nature’s limits and never stands still or reverses. He stated that the utilitarian mind of a human being, who is seeking to be richer today than yesterday, and richer tomorrow than today, will never change, even if the concept of wealth changes. Imamura (2005) avers against this that however strongly environmental education is promoted, environmental improvement will not be realized as long as it is based on a ‘development = progress’ paradigm. If Yamane wants to win this argument, the market principle economic system which he insists on must achieve not only the happiness of human beings, which is his aim, but also the harmony of human beings with the environment, which is Imamura’s goal. For Imamura to win, the new environmental paradigm that he insists on must be realized. If it isn’t, Yamane’s system will realize neither the harmony of human beings with their environment, nor the human happiness that he desires. In this case, humankind will become as extinct as the debate itself.

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Issues Regarding the Essential Significance of Environmental Education 1. Is ‘global’ perspective more important than ‘environmental’ in conceptualizing this aspect of citizenship? When trying to identify environmental education as an inclusive education concept at global level, its relationship and consistency with other educational concepts such as global education, education for international understanding and suchlike become an issue. Uozumi (1987: 75) conceptualized environmental awareness, international understanding and global education according to three models as follows: (A) The model of fostering a global way of thinking in parallel with environmental education and education for international understanding; restricting curriculum content to global matters and forming the knowledge, ability and attitude necessary for the solution of issues.

Education for International Understanding

Global Education

Environmental Education

Figure 8.2.1 Model (A)

(B) The model of assimilative learning about issues held in common by education for international understanding, global education, and environmental education. (C) The model of absorption, integration, and development toward global education of all goals and contents of both environmental education and education for international understanding. Giving much thought to global education, Uozumi (1987) tried to grasp the relationship between the three areas of education as a parallel row of three concepts or as dominated by global education. However, from the viewpoint of giving importance to environmental education, and

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Education for International Understanding

Environmental Education

Figure 8.2.2 Model (B)

Global Education

Environmental Education

Education for International Understanding

Figure 8.2.3 Model (C)

Education for International Understanding

Global Education

Environmental Education

Figure 8.2.4 Model (D)

taking into consideration the similarity of global education and education for international understanding, it is natural to integrate global education and education for international understanding and then to establish a relationship with environmental education, as in model D

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(Figure 8.2.4): Recently, the concept of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) has become prominent in Japan.1 As it is commonly understood, Sustainable Development means development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (United Nations, World Commission on Environment and Development(1987), Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development. Available at: http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/42/ ares42-187.htm). In the context of environmental education, the Declaration of Thessaloniki (UNESCO 1997) is often referred to as an example of this concept.2 The Declaration of Thessaloniki explains the relationship between sustainable development and environmental education as follows: 10. The concept of sustainability encompassses not only environment but also poverty, population, health, food security, democracy, human rights and peace. Sustainability is, in the final analysis, a moral and ethical imperative in which cultural diversity and traditional knowledge need to be respected. 11. Environmental education may also be referred to as education for environment and sustainability.

On the basis of the Declaration of Thessaloniki, the promotional meeting of the UN’s Decade of Education for Sustainable Development discussed the relationship between ESD and related areas of education. Its definition of ‘the essence of ESD’ is where the overlap occurs at the centre of model Development Diversity Welfare New Education

Environment Peace Human Rights Gender

Figure 8.2.5 Model (E) (Meeting for the Decade of Education for Sustainable Development 2005: 3)

From this viewpoint, the concept of education for international understanding can be included as one of the new areas of learning.

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How to grasp the relationship between these concepts is connected directly with the reason for the existence of the new educational areas, as well as with the content and structure of the curriculum. In particular, the issue of how to organize relationships among concepts will be an ongoing topic of discussion with in ESD. 2. Is the single issue of the environment out of date in citizenship education? The proponents of environmental education in Japan insisted firmly on its independent existence, being a comparatively new educational field which succeeded anti-pollution education, whose concepts were inconclusive in terms of the relationship between nature, culture and society. Therefore, environmental education researchers and practitioners were not very successful in making connections with other issues of citizenship like peace, human rights and international understanding. Also, they tended to see teaching about the environment and its problems in terms of separate subjects like Social Studies, Natural Science and Home Economics rather than as a cross-curricular topic. Education as seen from such a single-issue viewpoint often becomes political and too readily critical of the present government and the dominant political party (Davies, Mitsuharu and Kato 2003: 126). It also tends to diverge from a democracy in which a citizen understands social duty and responsibility, participates in a political process, recognizes the necessity of compromise, and accepts the process of making decisions based on ideals of citizenship and democracy; not only in environmental education but also in peace education or development education (Ross 2006: 48). In this way, single-issue environmental education can be criticized for emphasizing individualized issues at the expense of promoting inclusive learning about political cultures and concepts.

Conclusion Arguments about the significance of environmental education range from the level of concrete lesson planning to questions of its very existence. Along with other new educational fields related to citizenship education, it shares the problem of its position in the curriculum. In addition, environmental education demands ‘active participation in creative activity for a better environment’; but there is debate over the balance of participation between the personal level and social level. This is common to the general problem of how to deal with active citizenship in education. Furthermore,

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environmental education tends to be political and ideological when it is taught as a single issue. This affects how one ‘participates’ at a social level. Through environmental education, it is important to find the more general features of citizenship education: for instance, the meaning of learning the concept of democracy or critical thinking skills, as well as diverse aspects such as Education for Sustainable Development (ESD).

Notes 1 After the suggestion by the Japanese government at the Johannesburg Summit in September 2002, the idea of ‘making the ten years from 2005 to 2014 the Decade for Sustainable Development’ was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in October 2002. 2 The Declaration of Thessaloniki was adopted by the participants of 83 countries in the international conference ‘The Environment and Society: Education for Sustainability and Public Awareness’ held in 1997 by the co-sponsorship of UNESCO and the Greek government.

References Davies, I., Mizuyama, M., Kato, Y. (2003) ‘The Aims and Reality Behind Citizenship Education in England’, International Understanding (published in Japan), 34, 121–135 Fujioka, S. (2005), ‘Educational value of environmental right recognition’, Japanese Environmental Education Symposium, 11 (Nagano) Conference. Ichikawa, H. (2002), ‘History of Environmental Education’, in M. Kawashima et al. (eds), Invitation to Environmental Education. Kyoto: Minerva Shobo. Imamura, M. (2005), Environmental Education Toward Sustainability. Tokyo: Showado. Meeting for the Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (2005), Kick-off for the UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development. Tokyo: ESD-J. Ministry of Education (MoE) (1991), Environmental Education Guidance. Tokyo: The Ministry of Finance Printing Bureau. Moriwake, T. (2001), ‘Rational decision-making for fostering citizenship in social studies’, Journal of Research for Social Studies Education, 13, 43–50 National Institute for Educational Research (NIER) Society for Environmental Education Study Group (1981), School Education and Environmental Education. Tokyo: Institute for Social Development. Nogami, T. (1994), Environmental Education and the School Curriculum. Tokyo: Toyokan Shuppansha.

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Ross, A. (2003) ‘Children’s Political Learning’, in C. Roland-Lévy and A. Ross (eds) Political Learning and Citizenship in Europe. London: Trentham Books Ltd. (Tokyo: Akashi Shoten, 2006). Sakakibara, Y. (1976), ‘Basic character and human historic significance of an environmental education’, Educational Science of Social Studies, 146. Tokyo: Meiji Tosho., 5–10. Sajima, T. (1991), ‘The trend of environmental education in Japan’, Educational Science of Social Studies, 345. Tokyo: Meiji Tosho., 10–14 Uozumi, T. (1987), Theory and Practice of Global Education. Nagoya: Reimei Books. UNESCO (1975), ‘The Belgrade Charter: A framework for environmental education’, adopted at the International Workshop on Environmental Education, 1975. Available at: http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/file_download.php/47f146 a292d047189d9b3ea7651a2b98The+Belgrade+Charter.pdf —(1997), ‘Declaration of Thessaloniki’, International Conference Environment and Society: Education and Public Awareness for Sustainability, Thessaloniki, 8–12 December 1997. Available at: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0011/001177/117772eo.pdf Yamane, E. (1996), ‘A critique on progressive environmental education theory – the relation between environmental education and economic education in social studies’, Journal of Social Studies Education Study, 76, 1–12.

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8.3 Geographical Education as an Issue in Citizenship Education

Kazuhiro Kusahara The purpose of this section is to demonstrate how teaching and learning about geography has been justified as part of citizenship education after the Second World War. In Japan’s educational system, the aims and content of the Course of Study designed by the government have been implemented by law. Therefore, most of the controversies relating to geography education have developed as objections to the Course of Study. The first question to be asked is: On what principles has Course of Study Geography been established? The second is: What alternatives have arisen? Thus, let us begin our consideration by answering these questions and then outline the implications for citizenship education. The Basic Principles of Geography Education as Suggested in the Course of Study Geography education as outlined in the Course of Study has not changed drastically from the second revised version issued in 1955 to the seventh revised version in 1990, with the exception of minor changes involving the wording of aims and the order of priority of teaching contents. The consistent principal idea inherent in the Course of Study has been education about national identity. While this is undoubtedly a universal phenomenon that can be observed to some degree in any nation-state, the process of nation building can be classified into two models of education. One seeks to build an independent person who can see, review and improve their nation-state through critical thinking, which is natural and desirable in a democratic society. The other seeks to build a dependent member of society who can become involved in the community blindly and unreservedly, as would occur ideally in an undemocratic society. Historically, through piecemeal amendments, postwar educators in Japan have tried to abandon the latter model and reform education according to the former. However, this phase of educational reform was left unfinished. Although the longstanding movement against ultra-nationalism has been largely successful, traces of it remain. Some readers might pose further questions, such as how can Geography

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be a medium for education about national identity? Is it not a neutral subject in comparison with some others? The following four provisos have enabled Course of Study Geography to become central to education about national identity with the support of the conservative parties. The Nation is to Have Common Knowledge The first general strategy in building a nation is to impart a common body of knowledge to all schoolchildren. The ideas encompassed are those that children of all nations should know. This knowledge is sometimes referred to as ‘cultural literacy’ (Hirsch 1988), which is essential for people to be able to communicate with each other in community life and is useful for inspiring a sense of unity through such communication. The Course of Study represents a body of knowledge to be acquired and held within a nation. In the case of geography education, this knowledge corresponds to geographical literacy: knowing the names of the country’s capital, large cities and so on, its natural features and the typical products of each region. Since the Course of Study in Japan functions as the criteria for what is taught in the classroom, all commercial publishers must follow its directives in their textbooks. In advance of publication, the government reviews a book’s text and illustrations, as well as its subject matter or theme, to decide whether or not it conforms to the Course of Study. Through this process, the standardization of knowledge is inevitably reinforced. Based on the traditional pattern of Course of Study Geography and its textbook, the learning objectives are based on the following themes: Grades 1–2. Grades 3–4. Grade 5. Grade 6. Grades 7–8.

The communities where the students live. The local region in which the students live. The industrial regions of Japan. Selected world regions where Japan has clear concerns. Regional geography in Japan and the world.

Selecting Knowledge Concerning the Environment: the Natural and Cultural Features of a Region The second strategy in building a nation is for teachers to impart ‘selected’ common knowledge, especially knowledge originating from geographical perspectives. The criterion for selection is based on environmental concepts, namely landforms, bodies of water, climate, minerals, agriculture (wheat, rice, vegetable and fruit production), industry (automobiles, steel, chemicals, machinery, textiles, etc.), population and lifestyle, and the organic

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relations between them within a region. As the relationship between people and the land is a core geographical concept, it is not surprising that these features comprise the contents of Geography as a subject. The same filter for describing the regions also has influenced Geography textbooks. The following excerpt from a textbook’s contents page (Tanabe et al. 1996) shows a typical selection of knowledge pertaining to one region of the world. 1. East Asia 2. China: large area, large population Large population; distribution of population; difference in physical geog raphy between west and east. 3. Changes in Rural China Growing crops in the north; growing rice in the south; farmers and the production contract system. 4. Developing Industry in China Rich minerals and industrialization; foreign-affiliated firms and local capital firms. [NB: Points (1), (5) and (6) do not concern China and are omitted here.]

It is clear that the author of this textbook focuses on human and natural phenomena (section 2), the primary and secondary industries that are subject to natural conditions (section 3), and economic development resulting from human activities in relation to the natural conditions (section 4). This kind of selection and reconstruction of knowledge is not restricted to Asian countries; for example, arid land, irrigation systems and cotton production in Egypt and coalfields, canal systems, the steel industry, and water and air pollution in Germany are also profiled. The concept of human predominance over nature defines the teaching content. The accumulation of such facts suggests that activities related to industrialization are positive and essential to national prosperity, even if to the detriment of some environmental issues. Needless to say, the restrictions on knowledge of regional geography were actually effective in justifying human predominance over nature during the period of economic development in post–World War II Japan. The Geography curriculum appears to be neutral, but through the selection and teaching of regional facts it could in fact strongly influence personal attitude and opinion.

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Excluding Knowledge Concerning Society, Capital and Power The third strategy in building a nation is to impart selected common knowledge that excludes certain aspects of the social system of a region; for example, government structure, the party system, human rights and the judicial process, the economic system, social norms, the institution of family, sense of community, and foreign affairs. Since these aspects are generally not regarded as core concepts of Geography, most teachers tend to accept this criterion for exclusion without reservation. For example, in the afore-mentioned textbook, these elements barely feature in the section on China. The implications of a communist society, issues of human rights, the status of minority groups, the corruption of officials, and wage differentials are all ignored, even though China’s emerging market system is referred to in relation to industrial activity. A lack of information about society inevitably leads to ignorance of social reality among students. Moreover, ignorance of social reality leads to a decrease in the knowledge essential for reflecting on and appraising our own social system. We have to recognize how such a Geography curriculum might deprive students of political intelligence and social awareness, and, as a result, lead to unthinking political obedience. Knowledge Focusing on Space The fourth strategy in nation building is to impart common knowledge that focuses on ‘space’. Any social phenomenon could enter the Geography curriculum by transforming itself into components of location, division, distribution and movement, and asking for analysis of the spatial relationship between them in the places where they occur. Since a spatial dimension as well as an environmental perspective is at the core of geographical study, spatial phenomena seem to be a logical part of the Geography curriculum. For example, ‘trade’ represents a spatial transformation of industrial activity; ‘border’ means a spatial transformation of national security or international relations. The geography of China, for instance, emphasizes not only its economic activities, but also its spatial differentiation. This transformation is certainly useful for creating interest among students, but it may also cause a misleading emphasis on the spatial dimension itself (e.g. asking ‘What is it like?’) rather than on social reality and its processes (e.g. asking ‘Why it is like that?’).

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Summary Course of Study Geography in Japan has essentially been organized according to the above four interrelated provisos. Therefore, those who disagree with the Course of Study approach to the subject have aimed their protests at these four principles. While some have tried to undertake a piecemeal reform while maintaining these principles, others have striven for a radical reform by replacing these principles with new ones. Alternatives to Course of Study Geography The three columns in Table 8.3.1 show different types of socialization process for citizenship education. The alternatives are classified into three types (1, 2 and 3) according to the three reform phases of socialization. Figure 8.3.1 shows the relationship between the three phases: (1) ‘passive socialization’ means that the student or pupil (P) adapts to the status quo in order to be accepted as a good member of society (S), by locating himself inside of the boundaries of society; (2)‘counter-socialization’ refers to independence of the student from the status quo, where he clarifies reality by moving himself outside of society; and (3) ‘active socialization’ represents a bridge to a point where he finds relevance in the status quo by locating himself both inside and outside of society. These three types of socialization process also reflect the typical purposes of Geography in realizing citizenship education.

S

P

S

(1)

P (2)

S: Society

S

P (3)

P: Pupil

Figure 8.3.1 Phases in socialization as supported by the teaching of Geography Table 8.3.1 Typology of objections to Course of Study Geography in Japan (1) Passive socialization

(2) Countersocialization

3. Active socialization

A2 Materialistic Science B1 B2 Reflective Thinking Multidisciplinary Science

A3 Regional Participation B3 Social Criticism

A. Creating identity A1 in education National Literacy B. Supporting plurality in education

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The two rows in the table present the results of socialization. The alternatives classified in (1), (2) and (3) are reclassified as two sub-types focusing on the effects of teaching Geography. ‘Creating identity through education’ means the forming of a member of society who seeks unity within the community. Unifying cognition in closed-ended learning must promote identification with the community. On the other hand, ‘supporting plurality through education’ means the forming of a person who can make a desirable individual commitment to a multilayered community. Independent cognition in open-ended learning fosters plurality in the community. Each sub-type promotes, through citizenship education, the kind of society regarded as desirable by its curriculum designer and according to the leanings of the government, teachers, researchers, and so on. Actually, the definition of ‘desirable’ depends on their idea of public education, which inevitably defines the method of ‘nation building’ in a particular society. This section will examine six alternative models for Geography teaching as proposed after World War II and according to the framework presented in Table 8.3.1. Traditional Course of Study Geography is located in category A1, therefore most objections to it have taken the form of either piecemeal reform (resulting in A2 or A3) or radical reform (B series) aimed at conquering the limitations of the A series. Objections Based on Type A1: National Literacy The Geography curriculum that can be labelled under ‘National Literacy Education’ consists of a series of geographical facts to be shared. There is essentially no objection that corresponds to A1, since A1 is the target objection anyway. There is, however, one alternative that must be considered. This remarkable example involved an internal attempt to reform the traditional Course of Study in 1999, initiated by Fumitaka Shibusawa, a curriculum specialist affiliated with the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport. He tried to revise Course of Study Geography partly in order to stress the importance of active student learning. His solutions and recommendations (Shibusawa 2001) can be summarized as follows: O

O

To provide education in the skills and research methods needed for knowledge about regions rather than in the actual results (the contents) of that knowledge. To teach by providing minimal knowledge: this essential point involved teaching the names and shapes of the world’s countries and the prefectures of Japan, which could be a basis for learning geography.

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To recognize the geographical status or geographical uniqueness of Japan compared with other counties.

As a result of Shibusawa’s efforts, a new Course of Study was established. The current Course of Study Geography directs teachers to teach (1) the basics of world and Japanese geography, (2) regional research methods on three levels (community, local and national), and (3) the regional characteristics of Japan. This new Course of Study Geography is remarkable for its move away from the old essentialism to approve the active gathering, interpreting and presenting of geographical knowledge, instead of simply accepting information from the teacher. Objections Based on Type B1: Reflective Thinking The Geography curriculum that can be labelled under ‘Reflective Thinking Education’ consists of a series of problem-solving activities for constructing a personal value system by using geographical knowledge. This alternative originated from the idea of pragmatism, which gave a theological basis to the original Course of Study (1947) and the first revision (1953), but which was eliminated after the second revision (1955). This theory and practice was taken up by one of the unofficial teachers’ associations, Shakaika no Shoshi wo Turanuku Kai (Association for reevaluating the original ideas of Social Studies). Therefore, their practices can be regarded as a typical example of B1. The original idea in early Social Studies in Japan can be summarized as follows (Shakaika no shoshi wo Turanuku Kai 1997): O

O

O

To support the problem solving that the student will require in daily life; for example, for preventing a fire, overcoming a misunderstanding about the railway platelayer’s role, reviving the local textile industry, and so on. To apply situations relating to events and solutions in one context to other contexts, in order to understand the problems of people in other places as well as to solve our own. Historical-geographical information is a tool for problem solving. To aid in constructing the students’ criteria for making judgements and taking action in daily life.

This model calls for a type of Geography education that helps children to develop socially. However, it is so personally oriented that it places the cause

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of a problem within a student’s own mentality rather than in the social system. The significance of A2 compared with A1 is that it promotes children’s independent thinking. Both A1 and A2, however, are apt to lead students to think only in terms of the status quo, prohibiting them from analysing their society and reforming it through assuming a critical perspective. Objections Based on Type A2: Materialistic Science The Geography curriculum that can be labelled under ‘Materialistic Science Education’ consists of a series of generalizations originating from the theory of Marxism, which was useful for explaining social conflict. This type of objection had an influence on teachers’ practices in Japan in the 1960s and 1970s. In particular, one of the unofficial teachers’ associations, Kyouiku Kagaku Kenkyukai, was well known for publishing a famous, well-respected and important work entitled, Shakaika Kyouiku no Riron (A Theory of Social Studies Education), which gave shape to A2 education. The solutions and concepts recommended by Kyouiku Kagaku Kenkyukai (1966) can be summarized as follows: O

O

O

To teach geographical concepts and rules for understanding human activities that increase production potential. Here, ‘geographic concepts and rules’ refers to the relationship between the physical environment and the underlying structure which forms the basis of social institutions; for example, (1) features of the physical environment (land, rivers, etc.) and (2) the production methods which use them (irrigation, farming, mining, manufacturing). They also refer to spatial distribution; for example, (3) spatial inequality of distribution (of natural resources, economic income, access to public services, etc.). To create an attitude that realizes a fairer society based on geographical understanding originating in Materialistic Science.

This model propounds the need for a type of geography education that helps the student to learn a scientific framework for resolving conflicts in a region. However, it rejects all other different knowledge systems for understanding the world. Therefore we cannot deny the possibility in A2 that scientific education could turn into ideological education, interpreting the world from one rigid viewpoint.

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Objections Based on Type B2: Multidisciplinary Science The Geography curriculum that can be labelled under ‘Multidisciplinary Science Education’ consists of a series of generalizations originating from multiple social sciences. If we wish to explain the social phenomena of a region in rational terms, we need to examine some possible hypotheses from the perspectives of history, political science, economics and sociology anthropology, as well as geography. This curriculum intends to guarantee students such study of a geographical area. Geographical knowledge concerning facts about a specific area is treated simply as data for verifying multidisciplinary generalizations. This type of curriculum was proposed by Takaharu Moriwake, and then systematized by Kazuhiro Kusahara, based on critical rationalism. The recommendations of Moriwake (1978) and Kusahara (2004) can be summarized as follows: O

O

O

To guide studies in a specific area by applying concepts from various social sciences, whereby the concept needing to be applied depends on the target to be examined. To examine social issues in the area, as well as to understand the social system (political, economic, social, cultural) and social change, as well as the reasons behind those issues, using regional data. To enable the student to investigate critically the area in which he lives through studies comparing it with others. What the student considers to be desirable in his own area is left to individual choice.

This alternative concerns the need for a type of geography education that works as a part of integrated Social Studies. The significance of B2 compared with B1 is that it promotes independent, scientific inquiry. Neither B1 nor B2, however, are likely to be directly relevant to the society of the classroom, as they approach the study of various areas from the viewpoint of an outsider. Objections Based on Type A3: Regional Participation The Geography curriculum that can be labelled under ‘Regional Participation Education’ consists of a series of regional features in which students are expected to take interest. In this type of curriculum, making emotional bridges between a region and its residents and strengthening such bridges would be the responsibility of the curriculum designer. The typical objection that corresponds to A3 was raised by Yukio Yamaguchi, who became president of the Japanese Association for Geography Education

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in 2000. He refined traditional Course of Study Geography to heighten its educational impact. The solutions proposed by Yamaguchi (2002) can be summarized as follows: O

O

O

To develop a sense of belonging to a region on a local and national scale. Hometown geography could form the basis of all geographical education. To focus on those regional features to which students feel some attachment. For example, the natural environment, industry, cultural legacies and heroes or people who have worked for the betterment of their society. Physical activities such as card games, simulations and fieldwork, as well as use of the senses, such as absorbing the sights and sounds of important places, are considered effective ways of encouraging such attachment. To enable the student to empathize with his society and to make decisions concerning spatial location, land usage, or environmental issues in his region.

This approach calls for a type of geography education that urges practical involvement in the region. It rejects a view of geography education as directly relevant to social issues, but assumes that Geography cannot play an important role without the promotion of social attitudes in its teaching. Objections Based on Type B3: Social Criticism The Geography curriculum that can be labelled under ‘Social Criticism Education’ consists of a series of social issues emerging in the local region. Students are expected to investigate the issues and draw up a plan that can change the current situation. An analytical attitude to society is the ultimate goal. Many educators and educational groups have, in fact, posited this type of theory, but Norio Ikeno, the latest researcher in this field, takes a sophisticated critical perspective. Ikeno (2004) propounds concepts and solutions that can be summarized as follows: O

O

To build a public sphere. A democratic society requires the use of discussion skills and techniques in the process of reaching agreement. Society is not a fixed structure. Since a social institution and its space have been formed and reformed continuously by peoples’ actions, education must instil an ability to consider the process involved. When we teach this curriculum, the public issues in the region are very useful. For example,

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an emerging issue of economic inequality or garbage treatment on a local, national and global scale would serve as a suitable topic. To enable the students to formulate and develop constructive solutions and to participate in the problem-solving process through the consideration of public issues.

This approach propounds a type of geography education that is relevant to social reality. The significance of C2 compared with C1 is that it creates opportunities to pursue a critical but constructive perspective. Both C1 and C2, however, are likely to stress active involvement in society, and thus education might become a type of governance, in which the authorities can urge people to act voluntarily without exercising powers of compulsion. What are the Implications of the Objections? So far we have outlined the history of Course of Study Geography and the objections and alternatives to its various components. Given the typology, alliances and controversies over citizenship education are likely to occur as the theorists and practitioners of each alternative vie for supremacy. Citizenship Education in Geography Versus Geography in Citizenship Education The first controversy starts with the question of what are the most important purposes of teaching geography. Table 8.3.1 suggests that the upside represents ‘citizenship education in geography’, while the downside represents ‘geography in citizenship education’. The three types (A1, A2 and A3) categorized as being on the upside of ‘citizenship education in geography’ are similar in that they seek a greater significance for geography. As geography takes priority over citizenship education in these theories, the curriculum is likely to specialize in teaching geographical concepts and methods. Any civic activity can be introduced as a medium for justifying the meaning of geographic learning activities. On the other hand, the three types (B1, B2 and B3) categorized as being on the downside of ‘geography in citizenship education’ are similar in respect to the purposes of citizenship education. In other words, citizenship education takes priority over the teaching of geography. Therefore, the Geography curriculum always consists of the realities, generalizations or issues of society. Geographical content is selected and taught according to its relevance to citizenship education. The conflict creates a new controversy over the responsibility of specific classroom subjects in public education. The insistence of one side is that each student has to integrate many elements using his own ability; the

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responsibility of a specific classroom subject (e.g. Geography) is to teach a basic element of (purely geographical) knowledge and skills in civil life. That of the other side is that each subject has to guarantee the opportunity to teach Social Studies, not just to teach a particular element (e.g. not only Geography but also other topics): the responsibility of the classroom subject is to support the application of knowledge and skills for improving civil life. It seems that the current neo-liberal government prefers the former style of education, which could limit the expenditure and range of public schooling and at the same time easily assess children’s learning and clearly rank the level of each school. If the significance of a specific subject (Geography) is justified by the single criterion of what students know about it, in isolation from the complex real society where they lead their lives, the gap could widen further between those who can organize and enrich a fragmentary system of knowledge based on their cultural capital and those who cannot. This is recognized as a critical issue in contemporary Japan. Minimum or Maximum Commitment to Society Versus Moderate Commitment to Society The second controversy concerns to what degree Geography as a classroom subject should consider citizenship education. Table 8.3.1 suggests that there are different degrees (from left to right) to which the Geography curriculum is relevant to society. The first areas on the left (A1 and B1) are aimed at personal growth through knowledge acquisition or problem solving. The second areas in the centre (A2 and B2) are aimed at intellectual enlightenment by means of scientific truth or hypothesis. The third areas on the right (A3 and B3) attempt to promote a public disposition by examining a particular feature or issue. Geography education of the right-hand kind rather than the left is committed to social matters relating to citizenship. The conflict creates a new controversy over the function of classroom subjects in a democratic society. One view purports that the function of a classroom subject is to facilitate subjective knowledge dependent on personal insights into society gained from direct or indirect experience. The other view purports that the original function of a classroom subject is to facilitate objective knowledge independently of daily social bonds but supported by a scientific and rational approach. The former principle corresponds to the areas on the left and right sides of Table 8.3.1 (A1, B1, A3 and C3), and the latter corresponds to those in the centre (A2 and B2). The current neo-conservatives as well as neo-liberals seem to prefer the

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former style of education, which underlines the importance of self-esteem, self-governance, self-responsibility and not behaving as critical outsiders towards one’s own nation. A recent phenomenon in Japan is the tendency for conservatives to encourage children to feel motivated to contribute voluntarily to their community. These strategies are effective in promoting a sense of belonging without any external pressure. We are now confronted with many difficulties when examining which Geography curriculum is more useful for the education of future generations and which is more reasonable in a democratic nation.

References Hirsch, E. D., Jr. (1988), Cultural Literacy: What Every American Needs to Know. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. Kusahara, K. (2004), A Study on the Geography Curriculum (Chiri-Naiyouhensei-RonKenkyu). Tokyo: Kazama Press (in Japanese). Kyouiku Kagaku Kenkyukai/Shakaika Bukai (1966), Theory on Social Studies Education (Syakaika Kyouiku no Riron). Tokyo: Aoi Press (in Japanese). Ikeno, N. (2004), ‘A critical theory of social studies education in reference to Building the public sphere’, (Koukyousei no Shatei: Syakaika Kyouiku no Hihan Riron), Journal of Social Studies (Shakaika Kyouiku Kenkyu), no. 92, 9–20 (in Japanese). Moriwake, T. (1978), Theory and Practice in Social Studies (Shakaika Kyouiku no Riron to Houhou). Tokyo: Meiji Press (in Japanese). Shakaika no Shoshi wo Turanuku Kai (1997), Succession and Reform in Problem-Solving Learning (Mondai Kaiketsu Gakushu no Keisho to Kakushin). Tokyo: Meiji Press (in Japanese). Shibusawa, F. (2001), Reform and Development of New Geography Education in Junior High Schools (Chugakkou Shin Chiri Gakushu no Houkou to Tenkai). Tokyo: Meiji Press (in Japanese). Tanabe, H. et al. (1996), New Society: Geography, New Edition (Atarashii Shakai, Chiri). Tokyo: Tokyo Press, pp. 61–73 (in Japanese). Yamaguchi, Y. (2002), Theory on Geography Education in Social Studies (Syakaika Chiri Kyouiku Ron). Tokyo: Kokon Press (in Japanese).

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8.4 Historical Education as an Issue in Citizenship Education: Four Issues of Citizenship Education in Japan after World War II With Reference to History Teaching

Kazuhiro Mizoguchi Introduction In this section, I summarize the issues related to citizenship education in Japan after World War II with particular attention to theories of citizenship education in History class. Also, I explain that the focus of these issues has been on what constitutes the meaning of teaching history in public education. Regarding these points, the most important issues are as follows: 1. Why history? Why do we teach history as a school subject? 2. What should we teach as ‘history’? 3. Why does history education contribute to citizenship education? I attempt to describe the opposing viewpoints of several camps that propose different rationales for history education, rather than to describe the general characteristics of history education in sequential periods. In adequately presenting the arguments for each camp, it must be made clear what and how history should be taught in school, what kind of abilities and intelligence should be developed through studying history, and why students must study history in order to develop into citizens of civil society. By reading about the logical relationship between the goal of history education and the content of its subject matter on one hand, and the methodology of school history on the other, some aspects and issues concerning citizenship education in history courses can be identified. On the Logic of Comprehensive History Based on the Course of Study Issues of citizenship education in Japan after World War II have focused, in a sense, on how history education should be taught. In Japan, curriculum standards for elementary and secondary schools are prescribed in the Courses of Study. These standards have had a substantial influence on teaching practices in schools since the 1950s because they

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provide the basic framework for the curricula: the aims of each subject and its content and structure in each grade are directed by law. It is true that such legal authority has to some extent furthered the realization of the principle of equal opportunities in education, but its characteristics have come under criticism. Since the third revision of the Course of Study in the 1960s, history teachers have taught a wide variety of historical facts in fields such as politics, the economy, society, and ancient and modern culture; and they have tried to get students to understand history as a whole. Although the focus of history courses differs between elementary schools, which are concerned with historical figures in each era, and secondary schools, which are concerned with facts and phenomena, the courses themselves have a characteristic in common. That commonality is a theory of history which has gained acceptance by teachers and is built on a chronological view of the subject. It has been so extensively shared and championed among historians and educators that exploring issues from any other viewpoint is very difficult. I will attempt to explore these issues without oversimplifying the basic concepts involved. The philosophy of history teaching to which many Japanese teachers adhere, and on which the History curriculum in Japan is based, especially in secondary schools, is described as follows. Every event is connected with other events in the past, present or future, and these events together form history as a whole. A current event happens because of an event in a former age, which will also influence future events. Every event in politics, the economy, culture and society in any era has some mutual relationship with other events in other fields. Taken together, these events create the unique and distinct characteristics of each individual era. Also, these cross-influences have created a channel like a great river running through time. Small streams begin to flow together and in time form larger streams that will flow into the future. These represent the tendencies or trends that have appeared during the ages and together they form the so-called meaning of history. Modern society developed from a line beginning in ancient times. Modern society is a product of the stream of history that developed sequentially and comprehensively across time. If we study history as a whole and understand this stream, we can make decisions in our lives in accordance with its flow. Therefore, it is necessary for us to identify the whole network of causality that will show us the meaning of history. However, it is difficult to understand the linkage of individual events when they are studied in isolation from the time or the stream in which they occurred.

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We should learn history in chronological order, starting from ancient times and moving on to the Middle Ages and then to the beginning of the modern era, because modern society has its origin in the Middle Ages, which in turn developed from ancient times. Knowing this will enable us to understand better where and how modern society arose, where we came from, where we are now, and where we will and should go. Grounded in a philosophy such as outlined above, History curricula ought to deal in chronological order with a large number of events and facts in various fields of society. Controversy: Memorizing or Learning In reality, however, teachers disagree about how history should be taught within the framework of the Course of Study. I will not consider every issue in detail but focus on the most radical problems of both ‘teaching general history’ and ‘teaching history in the form of comprehensive history’. At first, to examine the former, we should begin by considering how we create ‘history’ as subject matter. Moriwake (1986) identified some aspects of the process of content selection: how people who described past events become known through their writings; how historians read between the lines of primary sources and write theses or books to make such events understandable; and how some teachers make their own interpretation of the events in class. Therefore, many stages lie between the selection of topics that make up history and the presentation of those topics in order to be understood by students. If students are not aware of such a process, they regard the story told by the classroom teacher as history itself and fail to distinguish history as interpretation from history as fact. Nevertheless, many teachers teach the subject by storytelling, presenting their interpretation as if it is immutable truth. Because students are not made aware of how content is selected, there is a potential danger of indoctrination. Teachers could unintentionally instil their own values in a student’s mind. Moreover, there are some problems with teaching history in the form of ‘comprehensive history’. First, it does not provide a rationale for content selection. If you want your students to grasp the totality of each era, you need to teach all major historical events in as much detail as possible within every field of politics, the economy, society, culture, and so forth. You would probably select the fields to be dealt with in class according to the developmental stage or readiness of the students; however, no matter how you determine which fields to teach and when, you need to cover all the facts within each of them in order for students to sufficiently understand the material. Ironically,

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no matter how teachers decide which fields to cover, they are inevitably overselective and their lessons fall chronically short of the totality they aim for. Consequently, history lessons which merely cite one fact after another result in the belief that to study history is simply to memorize facts. Second, it is very difficult for students to find meaning in this approach. For many students, memorizing the dates, facts and events of each era would be the goal of learning in itself, rather than forming an understanding that would be of use in real life in society. Because this approach rarely offers opportunities to study modern society from a historical perspective, it is hard for students to apply the lessons of history to their daily life. Although students live in the present, they would be ignorant of the society around them and how it affects their lives. Issues in the Traditional Way of Teaching History Memorizing or Learning? It is very difficult to get students interested in history by presenting facts to be memorized in time sequence. This is not learning but just transmitting meaningless information. Instead, many teachers have tried to get students to formulate their own ideas of history. For example, a series of lessons called ‘The Rebel of Spartacus’, devised by Toshio Yasui in the 1980s, attracted much attention from professionals and caused controversy within history education. This polemical case raises issues about citizenship education in a history course. In his class, Yasui (1994) intended students to develop sympathy for members of the rebel army, to put themselves in Spartacus’s shoes, and to cope with making decisions at crucial moments, as Spartacus had to, such as ‘Should we run or should we fight the Roman army?’ In his writings, Yasui repeatedly pointed out the importance of students developing sympathy for historical figures, defining this process as the driving force in achieving self-knowledge through learning about history. His goal in teaching history was to develop students’ awareness of citizenship through decision-making from the point of view of oppressed people, who have been the driving force in history. This idea of teaching comes from the philosophy of the subject as influenced by Marxism. For Yasui, it is essential for students to understand the laws of historical evolution and to realize that people’s struggles in history are closely related to their own lives, hopes and expectations.

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Active Learning or History as a Discipline? While many teachers believe that the practice of active learning is good, historians have criticized it on the grounds that students do not have sufficient factual knowledge for it to be effective. They point out that students cannot truly analyse the social system in Roman times if they are subjectively biased towards the rebels. They also argue that History classes should provide more expertise: through investigating historical materials, students should be able to identify events and place them in the context of the historical development of a social structure, taking a more objective attitude based on the idea of history as a discipline. From a specialist’s point of view, the role of the history teacher must be to help students to make their own interpretation of the past but to stay faithful to accepted academic practices by structuring lessons effectively and respecting recognized sources. Teaching History for Citizenship Education: History as a Tool Teachers who think active learning should be the first consideration and teachers who give priority to historical content and methods as a discipline both hold that teaching history fosters citizenship. However, it is hard to make what is experienced in history class relevant to the daily life of students. Come what may, the goal of lessons is not to identify the connection between the past and the present but to understand the past: namely, to grasp the characteristics of each era, their transformation through time, and the influence of one event on other events then and in subsequent ages. However, some teachers use the subject of History as a tool for equipping students to live in modern civil society. Such teachers have become conscious of citizenship education in the teaching of history and have developed a wide range of theories about it. ‘History for Social Studies’ is the general name in Japan for this approach, as distinct from ‘History for its own sake’ as mentioned above. I describe two issues in teaching history for citizenship education in order to categorize those theories and evaluate them. Contents of Learning and Goals of Learning Naturally, students could learn something meaningful about life in modern civil society through history lessons. The first point at issue is what should be taught. Content could be divided into two types of learning: learning facts and learning about values. It is essential for students to grasp the realities of modern society and to understand the concepts behind it; but what we deal with concretely in the name of ‘history’ differs greatly according to whether we focus on facts or values.

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The second point relates to the goals of learning and could also be subdivided into two. The first subdivision aims to increase knowledge through learning. Those who favour that goal believe that much of the intellectual basis of citizenship is the ability to make wise decisions about public affairs. The second focuses on the fostering of discourse. We form our society through thinking, making decisions and acting according to what we know. But knowledge does not create society, people do. Therefore, students need not only to study society, but also to take part in the practice of creating it. The following table shows the relationship between these two approaches. The vertical columns indicate types of goals and the horizontal rows show types of content. Four types of history lessons as part of citizenship education are indicated in Roman numerals. Table 8.4.1 Types of history lessons as citizenship education Content of learning

Viewpoints of facts

Viewpoints of values

Goals of learning Growth of knowledge

Growth of discourse

Concepts and theories of Social Sciences

Criteria for decision-making in politics or verdicts in courts of law I. Inquiry III. Interpretation II. Reflection Discourse on Facts and Values IV. Discussion

On Content of Learning: Facts or Values? I. Scientific Inquiry Using History History lessons placed in type I in the table focus on fostering citizenship indirectly. This type inherits the fruit of the experimental curricula, the so-called New Social Studies, developed in USA in the 1960s. Moriwake (1972), who extracted the rationale of this New Social Studies and applied it to the study of social sciences education in Japan, argued that citizens of a democratic society need to understand in depth the system or mechanism of our society in order to avoid making wrong decisions or judgements about critical issues, and that citizens of the future will also need to know about the results of research by social scientists and inquire into the structure of social problems like themselves. Teachers of Social Studies should support the concept that student inquiries be carried out deliberately and should make an effort to deepen student understanding of scientific concepts and theories through the preparation of effective and well-made

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educational materials. Such materials would promote productive inquiries and discussions. Teachers can find suitable examples in the field of history to initiate such inquiry and allow students to obtain scientific knowledge from facts and then to verify or reinforce that knowledge using historical examples. For instance, Moriwake and others (1990) developed a project to teach the socio-historical world-systems theory, proposed by Immanuel Wallerstein, in which students compare and analyse the transformation of society in Britain, Poland and the Venetian city-state in Italy from the late sixteenth century to the middle of the eighteenth century and analyse the causes of this transformation. Using history as a tool for inquiry, their aim is to transform the students’ subjective views of society into scientific ones. II. The Role of Reflection in Decision-making When Formulating Rules and Institutions in our Society In type II, value education takes a leading part. In other words, it deals directly with decision-making or judgement in a historical context. In a constitutional democracy, which favours diversity, we must not indoctrinate students about how society should be or which ideas about society students should hold. Although, in general, school history has been used for promoting assimilation into a social group or country as a tool of political-socialization. For example, the story of a particular society can be told as a story of freedom and liberation or a story of progress and development in order to make students believe that the rules and institutions of their society have become what they ought to be and that there is no correct alternative. However, this type not only results in a one-sided, superficial understanding but it also takes away opportunities for reflection on society and prevents students from cultivating rational and critical viewpoints. Mizoguchi (2003) argued that history lessons should be transformed into a mechanism for open-ended value formation for counter-socialization and identified a rationale and methods for this through analysis of history projects developed in the United States, such as the Harvard Social Studies Project. As stated earlier, if we teach history as being an inevitable stream, we lose the opportunity for students to reflect on how society should be. Karl Popper (1980) mentioned that history does not have meaning in itself but that we give it a meaning. We pursue history, searching for explanations of the cause of the problems that we confront or solutions to them, and in the process we create our own ideas, thus giving history meaning. Therefore, in history lessons, it is necessary for students to start learning from the present, looking at a problematic situation in our society, and then move to the past when the

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rules or institutions which gave rise to the issue were formulated or revised; thus students can examine various opposing arguments on which to base decisions or judgements. By showing history as a process of decisions or judgements made by individuals, groups, organizations and systems, and by having students consider various alternatives in policy selection or judicial decision, they may come to think of history as an open-ended process of creating a ‘better’ society in the present through considering diverse possible visions of it and developing the faculties of discernment and good decision-making or judgement. III. Comparing and Weighing Different Interpretations of History Type III also strives for increased knowledge based on facts or values through criticizing interpretations of history. Kodama (2005), who advocates this type of approach, stated that people use history to justify or criticize the status quo of our society. Once there is dispute over the direction of society, we usually face various interpretations of history, such as ‘X shouldn’t be changed because of Y in the past’ or ‘A should be changed because of B in the past’ and have to verify the truth of opposing statements. Therefore, history teachers get students to examine competing interpretations closely in order to shape their own interpretation. Also, because of the importance given to learning about the modern society in which students live, we should deal with multiple interpretations of history that are useful for inquiring into the origin and progress of controversial issues, such as the relationship between individuals and the government, ethnic problems, and a sustainable relationship with the environment. Kodama actually developed many teaching units about world history so that students could compare multiple interpretations; for example, by examining opposing viewpoints on who propelled the Industrial Revolution, industrial capitalists or financial capitalists. Awakening students to differing standpoints on history attempts to open up their understanding of it through carefully considering a wide variety of interpretations. On Goals of Learning: Growth of Knowledge or Growth of Discourse? The three types described above aim mainly at the growth of knowledge, while type IV aims to develop level of performance in criticizing and sharing a statement or a discourse. It is informed by to the theory of constructivism.

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IV. Discussing Facts and Values in Discourse on History Ikeno (2006) argues that history education is not the teaching of history itself, but teaching students to construct history. In other words, the history learned in class is constructed by all of us, including the students. History itself is a discourse. People who record events, historians who look closely into them, and history teachers who use those records in class, all understand the past only through language. It is the only possible approach. The past emerges through language or concepts. History itself does not exist as facts viewed objectively, only when we construct past facts from our own perspective. We do not have one objective history. We have a multi-history that is always being rewritten. Just as people in civil society have diverse values and a differing awareness of issues, so history is also diversified. People point to the significance or seriousness of certain events by constructing the origin or progression of these events as history from their own perspectives. When former perspectives on the past are criticized and refuted, history is rewritten. That is to say, history is in a process of endless review in which it is tested against another version of itself. Thus, students in history class should continuously examine and challenge ‘orthodox’ interpretations, recognizing their socio-political backgrounds and ways of constructing history so that they can reflect on the relationship between it and themselves from different points of view and gain a better understanding of the past. Ikeno (2006) argues that history education has focused on knowledge (that is, the results of historical study) at the expense of the process of constructing ‘a’ history together with the perspectives behind it and the social function that operated within it; and he asserts the importance of including those aspects or elements in history education. Moreover, interpretations dealt with in history lessons should be exposed to critical discussion by the class because history is constructed through a social process. Even when one interpretation seems rational and persuasive, students should expose it to discussion in order to create a temporary consensus. In this way, they learn about the process of constructing society itself. Citizenship education can be fostered and realized through critical discourse on history, since one of its aims is the growth of discourse itself.

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Conclusion I have described issues of citizenship education in school history courses in Japan, referring to the theories that oppose the teaching of comprehensive history. The teaching of comprehensive history is seen to be problematic, promoting rote memorization, losing the true meaning of learning, and tending towards indoctrination. Examination of the issues here implies that we should abandon the idea of History for its own sake, which aims primarily at understanding the past itself in history lessons, and boldly switch to the idea of History for Social Studies, which attempts to have students understand and reflect on modern society through a stimulating conversation between the past and the present, in accordance with their needs in civil society.

References (all in Japanese) Ikeno, N. (1998), ‘Open-ended reviews of plural history’, Social Education, 460, 40–41. —(2000), ‘Educating Children for the Formation of Civil Society in Social Studies Lessons’, Journal of Social Studies Annual Report, 47–53. —(2006), ‘The principles of teaching history as social studies education for civil society’, Journal of Educational Research on Social Studies, 64, 11–20. Kodama, Y. (2001), ‘On the significance and problems of history study based on theory criticism in secondary education: from the viewpoint of social studies’, Journal of Educational Research on Social Studies, 55, 11–20. —(2005), A Developmental Study on the Contents of History in Secondary Schools – Openended Learning of History. Tokyo: Kazamashobo. Miyahara, T. (1998), How Did Children Study History? Tokyo: Aokisyoten. Mizoguchi, K. (1994), ‘A study of value education in teaching history: a case study of teaching materials in history for political literacy’, Research Journal of Educational Methods, 20, 127–36. —(2000), ‘A study on the curriculum organization of history for citizenship education: history curricula as value studies’, Journal of Educational Research on Social Studies, 53, 33–42. —(2003), A Study on Reforming Theories of History Education in the USA. Tokyo: Kazamashobo. Moriwake, T. (1972), ‘Reform in teaching of history: teaching of history as social science education’, Journal of Educational Research on Social Studies, 20, 60–78. —(1986), ‘Considering issues on the independence of “history” from the social studies as a school subject’, Bulletin of Japan Social Studies Research Association, 34, 78–88.

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—(2001), ‘Teaching Social Studies in citizenship education: rational decision making’, Journal of Research on Education in Social Studies Department Contents, 13, 43–50. Moriwake, T., Ikawa, I., Okuyama, K., Toda, Y. and Hirosawa, K. (eds) (1990), Curriculum Development on Secondary Social Studies – A Tentative Lesson plan on ‘The Modern World System’, The Annals of Educational Research, Hiroshima: Hiroshima University, Faculty of Education and Attached Schools, 18, 43–53. Popper, K. (1980), The Open Society and Its Enemies. Vol. 2, Hegel and Marx. Tokyo: Miraisha. Yasui, T. (1994), Pursuing Social Studies Lessons. Tokyo: Chirekisha.

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Chapter 9

The Curriculum of Ochanomizu Elementary School and the Role of a New Field of Study Called ‘Citizenship’

Soji Katakami Ochanomizu Elementary School’s History and Present Curriculum Ochanomizu Elementary School was founded in 1878 as an elementary school attached to Tokyo Women’s Teacher Training College. Following Japan’s defeat in the Second World War and subsequent educational reform, it became an elementary school attached to Ochanomizu Women’s University. The school has a long history of being used as an experimental school for both Tokyo Women’s Teacher Training College and Ochanomizu Women’s University. For a period of time after World War II, the school’s teaching conformed to a national course of study, which is referred to as Gakusyuu shidou youryo in Japanese. Today, however, the school has developed its own curriculum. In 2003, it introduced a new curriculum (see Table 9.1) that defines the content of classes by teaching field rather than by subject, in order to allow classes to be taught according to the specific needs of the children. In this report, I briefly explain the teaching field called ‘Citizenship’.

From Social Studies to Citizenship By comparing the curriculum of Ochanomizu Elementary School (Table 9.1) with the Course of Study for elementary schools (Table 9.2), it becomes apparent that a number of changes have been made. One significant change is the introduction of a class called Citizenship to replace Social Studies.

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The authors of this new course explain that while Social Studies is said to foster citizenship through social awareness, it cannot always succeed in doing so. Accordingly, Citizenship is specifically designed to help children develop citizenship through the process of learning about decision-making. The teacher’s role is defined as helping to enhance the skills and attitude of the children as active citizens. The authors of the course add that care had to be taken when choosing its title, because there is already a school subject called komin, which can be translated as ‘civics’ or ‘citizen’ and has almost the same meaning as shimin, citizen. Finally, they decided not to use the word komin because it is not very familiar to the general public. They decided to call the course ‘Citizenship’ to highlight that it is designed to foster active citizens who can play an important role in supporting Japan’s democratic society. Table 9.1 The new curriculum at Ochanomizu Elementary School

Number of School Hours by Field

Classification

Grade Grade Grade Grade 1 2 3 4

Grade 6

Language Arts

144

210

175

175

175

175

Learning Together 132

192

–

–

–

–

Citizenship

–

–

105

105

105

105

Arithmetic

96

175

175

175

175

175

Ecology

48

105

105

105

105

105

Music

32

52

70

70

70

70

Creative Learning

–

–

175

175

140

140

Arts

–

–

70

70

70

70

Home Economics and Consumer Education

–

–

–

–

70

70

Physical Education and Health Education

72

105

105

105

105

105

Total number of school hours

528

839

980

980

1015

1015

The Curriculum of Ochanomizu Elementary School

159

Table 9.2 The Course of Study for Public Elementary Schools

Number of School Hours by Field

Classification

Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade 1 2 3 4 5 6

Japanese Language

272

280

235

233

180

175

Social Studies

–

–

70

85

90

100

Arithmetic

114

155

150

150

150

150

Science

–

–

70

90

95

95

Life Environment Studies

102

105

–

–

–

–

Music

68

70

60

60

50

50

Arts and Handicrafts

68

70

60

60

50

50

Homemaking

–

–

–

–

60

55

Physical Education 90

90

90

90

90

90

Number of Periods for Moral Education

34

35

35

35

35

35

Number of Periods for Special Activities

34

35

35

35

35

35

Number of Periods – for Integrated Studies

–

105

105

110

110

Total Number of School Hours

840

910

945

945

945

782

What is Citizenship? The Basis of Citizenship Ochanomizu Elementary School defines citizenship as the ability to judge and make decisions about social affairs because the school believes that we all have to cope with difficult social problems in the twenty-first century. This school wants children to be aware of three basic factors with regard to citizenship:

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1. In society there are some things that one can manage by oneself and some things that one cannot manage by oneself. 2. Personal interests and social interests cannot always coincide. 3. In addition to making an effort to improve society, children must also be aware that a social system is needed in order to make adjustments to social affairs. Social Judgement and Decision-making as an Important Component of Citizenship At Ochanomizu Elementary School teachers want children to become responsible future citizens. Therefore, citizenship can also be understood to mean qualities that a responsible citizen needs to be able to play an active role in society. The main points that the teachers of Citizenship want the children to acquire are: O

O

O

The ability to judge social situations and to make decisions about social affairs. An interest in Japan, its history, its government and industry – knowledge of these aspects is necessary to participate in any kind of reform of Japan’s society. The ability to understand information.

A Framework for Teaching Citizenship The Ultimate Goal of Citizenship The ultimate goal of the Citizenship course is to cultivate the qualities required to be a responsible citizen who can make use of his or her viewpoint and take part in the outside world by proposing activities and making decisions. Curriculum Original materials for this curriculum have not yet been fully developed; therefore, materials for the national Course of Study are used. However, some original materials are available, such as those that focus on current events. These are very useful in helping children to achieve skills and develop the attitude required to build society. Teaching Strategy Citizenship starts in the third grade. In this grade, affairs in the home and community are covered. Although the topics and teaching materials are

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familiar to children, it is difficult for them to discuss the related problems, so they are encouraged to think about what problems they can focus on and how to discuss them. In the fifth and sixth grades, topics such as the environment, industry, history and the government are covered. These topics are not always familiar to the students, so teachers are required to help them to understand why they are pressing matters. How to Make a Smooth Transition from Learning Together to Citizenship In this school, Citizenship is taught from the third grade onwards and is preceded in the first and second grades by a class called Learning Together. Therefore, it is important to ensure that the children can make a smooth transition from Learning Together to Citizenship when they enter the third grade. The method used to facilitate the transition involves focusing on the quality of decisions made by the children and the relationship between those decisions. Methods Used to Foster Citizenship The teachers of this course believe that it is important for children to be able to judge or make decisions with regard to their own social affairs in order to develop citizenship. Consequently, the children are given the opportunity to do this in each grade. Teachers also try to present issues to help the children judge and make decisions. Table 9.3 shows examples of such issues. Table 9.3 Sample issues used by teachers in Citizenship classes Middle Grade

• • • •

Grade 5

• • • •

Grade 6

• • •

• • •

Where and what kind of park do you want to build in Otuka? Make your own plan to protect the school from fire Decide your own menu for dinner Make a plan to reduce garbage Is Japanese food sufficient in quantity? Reclaiming of Isahaya Bay: how do newspapers deal with this issue? Where do you want to build an automobile factory? Design a new type of car that we can drive in the future Think about history from the viewpoint of an historical person Which would you most like to live in, the Jomon or the Yayoi era? Which person do you support in the case of constructing a social system for the Meiji State, Saigo or Okubo? What are the three biggest news events since the Second World War? How to manage foreign aid in the future What is your scheme for dealing with the problems of an aging society?

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A Rough Sketch of How Teachers Take the Lead in a Citizenship Class Teachers are expected to take a leadership role in these classes to promote and explain the proposal and aid the children in their decision-making. The procedures for the teacher are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Decide what pressing problem/issue to focus on in the class. Collect data to support a first judgement. Recast the data to persuade other children. Present one’s own idea in class and receive responses before making a final decision. 5. Sum up one’s own idea in a conclusion and make a final decision.

Conclusion Ochanomizu Elementary School developed a course called Citizenship to replace Social Studies. It has some unique features in that it regards ‘citizenship’ as independent from Social Studies. This is in contrast to a number of schools that have implemented similar forms of education within the subject of Social Studies. From the viewpoint of citizenship education, it can be argued that the Citizenship course does not stress activities such as volunteer work or learning in the community. However, it should be noted that discussions are currently underway about how to broaden the scope of this course and set it as a core of the curriculum.

Chapter 10

Citizenship in Shinagawa Ward, Tokyo Yoshiharu Toda

Introduction The Course of Study in Japan has been revised many times. After World War II, a new subject, Social Studies, was established in elementary, junior high and high schools. Now, Social Studies is a compulsory subject taught in elementary schools and junior high schools. In former times, citizenship was one of the principal focuses within Social Studies, and this focus has continued. Researchers of Social Studies education have used citizenship to explain the justification for its existence in the school curriculum, arguing that no other subject had citizenship as its objective. But the situation has changed for two reasons. The first is the establishment of the Period for Integrated Study in the Course of Study after its revision in 1998. There was conflicting opinion. Some analysts reported that Social Studies involved more than its title suggested, since it also taught children about citizenship; others, that it was only a medley of Geography, History and Civics and taught only facts. The second reason is related to new educational theories that make citizenship the core concept. These are called citizenship educational theories, in order to distinguish them from theories related to Social Studies education. Furthermore, in the area of Shinagawa Ward, Tokyo, citizenship education has recently become part of the school curriculum. The Shinagawa Ward Board of Education newly established the Shimin-ka, new subject for citizenship education without abolishing Social Studies. Since special permission was obtained from the Japanese government, Shinagawa Ward can establish a new subject uniquely. In present day Japan, there is confusion about citizenship education. There exist two kinds of educational theories and two kinds of subjects that

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make it a core concept. In this paper, I will first address the state of confusion in educational theory. Second, I will clarify the features of Shimin-ka, which the Shinagawa Ward Board of Education has newly established.

The Diversity of Citizenship Education Theories in Japan Citizenship education theories make citizenship a core concept in general education. These theories have been proposed by a variety of people, such as

Table 10.1 Standard teaching hours for subjects in the National Curriculum in Japan GRADES

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

272

280

235

235

180

175

140

105

105

Subjects Japanese Language Social Studies Arithmetic, Mathematics Science

–

–

70

85

90

100

105

105

85

114

155

150

150

150

150

105

105

105

–

–

70

90

95

95

105

105

80

102

105

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Music

68

70

60

60

50

50

45

35

35

Arts

68

70

60

60

50

50

45

35

35

–

–

–

–

60

55

70

70

35

Physical Education/ Health and Physical Education

90

90

90

90

90

90

90

90

90

Moral Education

34

35

35

35

35

35

35

35

35

Speical Activities

34

35

35

35

35

35

35

35

35

Optional Subject

–

–

–

–

–

– from 0 to 30

from 50 to 85

from 105 to 165

Period for Integrated Study

–

–

105

105

110

110

from 70 to 100

from 70 to 105

from 70 to 130

782

840

910

945

945

945

980

980

980

Life Environment Studies

Homemaking/ Industrial Arts and Home Economics

TOTAL

Citizenship in Shinagawa Ward

165

pedagogues, social scientists, the staff of volunteer associations, and so forth. Their concepts of citizenship are varied, and they can be divided roughly into three groups. The first group considers that an independent adult should be endowed with citizenship, and proposes theories on citizenship education that will enable a child to grow into an independent adult. The background to this theory is that in Japan the condition of adolescent males is considered a big social problem. Miyamoto (2002) detects a rise in the number of young men who cannot free themselves from adolescence. Such young men are taken care of by the triangular system of home, school (a place of study) and company (a place Table 10.2 Standard teaching hours for subjects in Shinagawa Ward schools GRADES Subjects Japanese Language Social Studies Arithmetic, Mathematics Science Life Environment Studies Music Arts Homemaking/ Industrial Arts and Home Economics Physical Education/ Health and Physical Education Foreign Language** Shimin-ka

Step-up Studies

TOTAL *

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

284 – 114

290 – 160

285 70 205

285 85 205

200 90 170

195 100 170

155 105 120

105 105 105

105 85 105

– 102

– 105

70 –

90 –

95 –

95 –

105 –

105 –

80 –

68 68 –

70 70 –

60 60 –

60 60 –

50 50 60

50 50 55

45 45 70

35 35 70

35 35 35

90

90

90

90

90

90

90

90

90

20 70

20 70

35 70

35 70

35 105

35 105

105 105

–

–

–

816

875

945

105 105 from from 105 to 105 to 140 140 from – 70 70 70 from 120 to 200 to 235 155 980 1,015 1,015 1,015 1,015 1,015

If it is between the maximum and minimum which were defined, each school can set up time freely. ** G1–6 1 School hour: 45 minutes G7–9 1 School hour: 50 minutes *** Although the subject’s title is Foreign Language, English is the language taught. (Shinagawa Ward Board of Education 2005: 26)

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166

of work). Miyamoto proposes an educational theory which promotes the growth of the young man within this triangle into independent adults. In the kind of citizenship education that she upholds, young men would ‘take part in’ practical social decision-making (Miyamoto 2002). Alternatively, the kind of citizenship that Kodama (2003) supports aims to make adults become politically independent. He has the same awareness of the issues as Miyamoto. However, unlike Miyamoto, Kodama believes that citizenship education should be provided as a school subject (Kodama 2003). These two views have features in common. Both researchers quote Gill Jones and Claire Wallace, Youth, Family and Citizenship. Second, they favour a citizenship education that enables a child to grow into an independent adult. The Kodama’s group considers that a new type of citizenship is required for a person to become engaged in civic activities such as non-profit organizations (NPO) activity, volunteering, and so on. Therefore, they have proposed a new type of citizen; the old type of citizen was a beneficiary of

Shimin-ka • Construction of a view of life • Consciousness of one’s own existience and way of life, and discovery of one’s own future life

INTEGRATION

Moral Education

Special Activities

Period of Integrated Study

• Moral feelings • Moral attitude • Moral practice

• Desirable group activity • Active and practical attitude • Rich sociality, humanity

• Power of problem-solving • Training for an independent attitude • Mutual relations with other subjects

Figure 10.1 The relationship of Shimin-ka to existing subjects* *

The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) has determined both Social Studies and a Foreign Language as compulsory subjects, but Moral Education, Special Activities and the Period for Integrated Study are not (Shinagawa Ward Board of Education 2005: 22–3).

Citizenship in Shinagawa Ward

167

public service, as determined by public institutions, whereas the citizen of the future would participate in the decision-making process itself, taking an active rather than a passive role. Sato points out the importance of NPO activities as self-supporting civic activities in a democratic society. As to how to involve people in them, she claims that children already do participate in NPO activity (Sato 2001). The Japan Volunteer Learning Society (JVLS) attempts to encourage autonomy and the kind of citizenship needed for people to support the local community as well as global society. The JVLS cites as an example the National Curriculum in England (JVLS 2000). Among the staff of Japanese volunteer organizations, Citizenship in the National Curriculum in England is broadly accepted as a type of study in favour of voluntary activity (Naganuma 2003). The common features shared by Kodama and Miyamoto are as follows. First, the type of citizenship education they favour is not limited to providing essential knowledge and understanding but also aims to provide practical skills for use in civic activity. Second, they consider that such abilities and skills are best taught by actual participation. The other group considers citizenship to be the new ‘public image’ in a global society. The research team of the National Institute for Research Advancement (NIRA) analyses the social problems of Japan brought about by globalization in recent years. Their findings indicate that the character of Japan as a nation-state has changed greatly as a result of globalization and its factors, such as the increase in foreign workers, immigrants, and point to the necessity of implementing a new public attitude. Formerly, Japan defined itself to the world through its ‘Japaneseness’. Only the Japanese had it, and Japanese people did not question it. Nowadays, more foreigners live and work in the country, who do not have ‘Japaneseness’, and Japan has become a multicultural society. As a result, they propose changing the emphasis of education in Japan from national identity to citizenship. This implies not only educational reform but reform of the whole social system of Japan. At present, several different educational theories on citizenship are asserted in Japan. This is because citizenship itself is diverse. Previously, only Social Studies pedagogues developed educational theories about the characteristics of citizenship. Now, not only pedagogues but researchers in other areas of study propose such theories. In Japan, theories of citizenship education are in a state of confusion.

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Citizenship Education in Japan

Educational Reform in Shinagawa Ward The Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) has specified uniform education throughout all schools. The compulsory education system in Japan is called the 6:3 system, elementary schooling lasting for six years and junior high school for three years. Furthermore, the central government has specified the number of hours each subject is to be taught for the entire school curriculum (Table 10.1). Management of each school, however, is left to local government and the board of education of each city, town and village. Citizenship does not exist as a discrete subject in the Course of Study, but citizenship education is given as part of Social Studies. Generally, teaching in elementary schools and junior high schools must be based on the Course of Study, but at the time of former Prime Minister Koizumi, if a local board of education applied to the national government for permission and it was accepted, a school was able to vary its curriculum from the Course of Study model. Shinagawa Ward created its original curriculum using this system, and established a new subject called Shimin-ka in April 2006. (Shimin-ka in practice is slightly different from its direct English translation as ‘citizenship’, and so I have used the Japanese term.) Shinagawa Ward is famous as the local government that enacted a very interesting educational reform. Central government evaluated and authorized it as a special case in 2004. As a result, it became possible for the Shinagawa Ward Board of Education to create an original school curriculum differing from the Course of Study. First, Shinagawa Ward developed a new compulsory education system. In the Course of Study in Japan, compulsory education consists of six years of elementary school and three years of junior high school. The curriculum of each of these two school stages is strongly independent. The Shinagawa Ward Board of Education reexamined the nine years of compulsory education from the viewpoint of consistency, and reconstructed the 6:3 system to a 4:3:2 system. The objectives of the subjects studied during each of these stages differ according to a child’s mental and physical development. The objective of grades 1 to 4 is to establish a foundation. The target from grades 5 to 7 is to complete the foundation stage. In grades 8 and 9, the goal is to increase the scope of subject selection and extend a student’s individuality and abilities. Second, the Shinagawa Ward Board of Education established new subjects which are not included in the Course of Study (Table 10.2). These new subjects are a foreign language and Shimin-ka. In the Course of Study of Japan, foreign language teaching begins at

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secondary school. However, Shinagawa Ward began it at elementary level. While this was completely innovative, Shimin-ka is a revised version of an existing subject. The Shinagawa Ward Board of Education defined it as integrating Moral Education, Special Activities, and the Period for Integrated Study (see Figure 10.1).

The Establishment of Shimin-ka in Shinagawa Ward Here, I describe the background to the establishment of Shimin-ka by the Shinagawa Ward Board of Education. Its members felt that contemporary youth had neither dreams for the future nor ideals, and lacked standards on which to base one’s, morality, social behavior, judgement of good and evil, and so on. They also believed that those things should not be taught by mature adults who had lost their ideals as citizens or by teachers who did not wholeheartedly embrace the task of guiding their students’ character building. As a result, the board reached the following conclusions: We think it is necessary to teach children two abilities in equal balance. One is the ability to live in ‘our world’ (being able to live as part of society). The other is the power of living in ‘the world of oneself’ (being able to live one’s own life while firmly accepting one’s responsibilities). By ‘citizen’ we mean a person who is socially developed in a wide sense. In elementary and junior high schools, in order to develop the characteristics and capabilities necessary to fulfil one’s role as a social constituent, in order to nurture a person who can live according to steadfast beliefs, in order to develop a person who can be socially self-aware and can live in a proper manner, we establish the new subject Shimin-ka which develops citizenship. (Shinagawa Ward Board of Education 2005: 21)

The Board’s goal for Shimin-ka is as follows: In order to prepare for life in future society, in order to enable a child or student to develop the will to search for the right way to be and for a good way of life, and at the same time to acquire the ability to contribute positively to social development, it is important to impart a sense of belief that pierces through the mass of information spread by personal computers, cellular phones, etc. The target of the Shimin-ka is acquisition of the ability to reason, which continually helps one to seek the truth for oneself as well as being valuable in its own right; training

170

Citizenship Education in Japan

for the power of self-control that respects order and convention in society and supports a sense of ethics; and finally, fostering the true meaning of the ability of living, such as methods for realizing future ideals. (Shinagawa Ward Board of Education 2005: 196)

The board believes that the young men of Japan today are different from those of the past. The parental generation has not changed but young people have lost their ‘Japaneseness’, that unique type of citizenship which differs from Western democratic citizenship. The average Japanese Social Studies educational researcher believes that citizenship consists of the qualities and abilities which enable a person to function in the state and society, and that by teaching it we equip a child to be part of a democratic society. But I think that the citizen whom the Shinagawa Ward Board of Education describes is an adult, and that citizenship means the characteristics and abilities necessary in a grown-up. I think that Shimin-ka is a subject about which teachers as adults can educate students as youth.

Outline of Shimin-ka in Shinagawa Ward The Shinagawa Ward Board of Education proposed that a child requires seven qualities for everyday social life. These seven qualities were established as the objectives of Shimin-ka (Table 10.3). The board selected five areas of everyday social life and established 15 skills needed to develop attitudes, behavioral patterns and solutions appropriate to each (Table 10.4). Note: The English translations of Table 10.3 and Table 10.4 are based on Shiraishi’s research (2006). Table 10.3 Seven internal qualities to be developed by Shimin-ka Seven internal qualities Relationship of individual to himself

Relationship of individual to groups

Independence To define opinions and positions Enterprise To positively approach other people, groups and the local community Adaptability To adapt to location, situations, conditions and environment

Qualities taught in grades: 1 to 4 •

5 to 7

8 to 9

•

•

•

(continued)

Citizenship in Shinagawa Ward Seven internal qualities Relationship of individual to groups (cont.)

Civic Virtues

Relationship of individual to society

Fulfilment

171

Qualities taught in grades:

To judge good and evil behavior in social life To grasp the essence of problems and to solve them by methodical thinking To choose the right methods and actions to achieve a purpose To make improvements through their own efforts

Logicality

Creativity

• •

•

•

(Shinagawa Ward Board of Education 2005: 197)

Table 10.4 Five areas in Shimin-ka and fifteen skills to be developed in relation to these areas (Shinagawa Ward Board of Education 2005: 198) Areas

Skills needed for

About the Individual

Self-control

•

Linking the individual with groups and societys

Forming human relations

• • • •

•

Autonomous activity

• • •

In relation to Cultural society creativity

• •

•

Future planning

• •

•

Self-control Environmental adaptation Fulfilment of responsibilities Group adaptation Understanding oneself and others Communication Autonomous activity Moral practices Social judgment and action Cultural activity Planning and expression of ideas Self-improvement Finding one’s role in society Identifying yourself with society Future-oriented thinking

Qualities taught in grades: 1 to 4 5 to 7 8 to 9 •

•

•

•

•

In the area of ‘Self-control’, children adopt an ideal model of life and social behavior, establish harmony between themselves and the environment, carry out duties and responsibilities, and learn the qualities and skills required to manage their lives with independence and autonomy.

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Citizenship Education in Japan

In ‘Forming human relations’, children deepen their self-understanding, come to respect the individuality of others, and achieve a mutual relationship within a group; they build good relationships with different people, and learn the qualities and skills required to live together with various members of society. In the area of ‘Autonomous activity’, children participate in autonomous activity based on self-generated intentions and responsibilities based on social norms, and learn the qualities and skills required to form a democratic community. In the ‘Cultural creativity’, children become interested in traditional culture and deepen their understanding of it, even participating in cultural events; they gain a view of life based on their ancestors’, and learn the qualities and skills required to inherit and develop universal cultural values. In ‘Future planning’, children learn about the economic and financial systems in modern society, become aware of the role that the self should play, establish goals for their future way of life and career, and learn the qualities and skills required to plan their lives. These skills are nurtured in all age groups. Although most of the items on the table can be simply regarded as skills, some areas include knowledge and social participation. For instance, the skills for cultural activity include knowledge about Japan and foreign countries. In addition, finding one’s role in society requires social participation. It is clear that these skills are strongly related to a person’s moral responsibilities as a citizen, and these skills must be fostered by developing the pupil’s sense of morality. In Shinagawa Ward, the nine years of primary and lower secondary schooling were divided into three stages: grades 1 to 4, grades 5 to 7 and grades 8 to 9 (Tables 10.3 and 10.4). We can observe a similarity between the qualities to be developed and the skills required, extending the range from the individual to the group and from the group to society with the progression of the grades. The Shinagawa Ward Board of Education subsequently re-examined compulsory education for the nine years from the viewpoint of consistency and so the Shimin-ka curriculum is currently divided into four stages: grades 1 to 2, grades 3 to 4, grades 5 to 7, and grades 8 to 9. Within each stage, content is organized under five headings, namely ‘Self-control’, ‘Forming human relations’, ‘Autonomy’, ‘Cultural Creativity’ and ‘Planning for the future’. The learning targets specified for each stage are summarized in Table 10.5. Furthermore, the board has also written and published a textbook and teacher’s guide.

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Table 10.5 The targets and contents of each grade in Shimin-ka Stage

The targets of each grade (Abstract)

Grades 1 to 2

•

Grades 3 to 4

Grades 5 to 7

Grades 8 to 9

Fundamental lifestyle and normative consciousness To learn about life adjustment, group adaptation, etc., through school and class life, and to firmly establish the foundation of a fundamental lifestyle or code of conduct. • While mastering the foundation of self-control and the process of forming personal relationships, and while deepening understanding about the relation of self to a group, community, etc., to learn more about the attitudes needed to build a positive life. Attitude training for a better life • To learn about life adjustment, group adaptation, etc. through school and class life, and to firmly establish the foundation of a fundamental lifestyle or code of conduct. • While mastering the foundation of the capacity for self-control and personal relationships, and while deepening an understanding about the relation of self to a group, community, etc., to learn more about the attitudes needed to build a positive life. Foundation of the social drive • To study self-government activities for improvement in group life. To learn about the foundation of the social drive: one’s role at home or in society; spontaneous participation in a group or society. • Issues about life at school, in a community, etc., are explored, and active/practical attitudes are learned, such as problem-solving as an individual and in a group or organization. Development of citizenship awareness and a future way of life • To develop interest in social issues as a civic member, and while heightening the ability to consider and make judgements about them through problem solving, to develop an attitude which contributes positively to society, through activities such as work experience or voluntary work. • To develop a view of one’s future way of life, considering topics such as desirable work values in relation to one’s own place in society.

Conclusion The first feature of the Shimin-ka curriculum is that the aim of Shimin-ka is to allow a child to grow up to be an adult; we understand this to be the reason that Shimin-ka was established. Also, the skills currently thought to be important in the last grade fare in the area of ‘Future planning’ and relate to the planning of one’s life ahead.

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Citizenship Education in Japan

The second feature is that the curriculum of Shimin-ka is created from two viewpoints: internal qualities and skills. Naturally, Shimin-ka has a specific goal but this goal is very abstract and it is difficult to constitute a curriculum based on it. Therefore, the Shinagawa Ward Board of Education formulated skills based on internal qualities and the curriculum of Shimin-ka is constituted to develop these. In the Course of Study, the syllabus of a subject, for example, Social Studies, is prescribed in terms of contents and study activities. The Shinagawa Ward Board of Education transposed the contents and study activities to focus on the internal characteristics and skills needed to attain the objectives of Shimin-ka. The third feature is that the curriculum is constituted in a concentric circle. Seven internal qualities are established in Shimin-ka and can be summarized in three groups, ‘The relationship of an individual to himself’, ‘The relationship of an individual to groups’, and ‘The relationship of an individual to society’. Moreover, 15 skills are established according to Shimin-ka and can also be summarized in three groups, ‘About the individual’, ‘Linking the individual with the group and society’, and ‘In relation to society’. In the higher grades, the importance moves from the individual to groups and from groups to society. The fourth feature is that Shimin-ka coexists with Social Studies. The majority of Japanese Social Studies educational researchers see citizenship as closely related to the social sciences, democracy and the social structure. However, in Shimin-ka, the aspects of social sciences and social structure are missing. People translate Shimin-ka as ‘citizenship’ but I avoid this translation because of its exclusion of social sciences. To be accurate, Shimin-ka is Japanese-style citizenship education or Japanese moral education: training for Japanese children to become Japanese adults.

References Jones, G. and C. Wallace (1992), Youth, Family, and Citizenship. Milton Keyes: Open University Press, Japan Volunteer Learning Society (JVLS) (2000), Citizenship Education in UK, JVLS Report. Kodama, S. (2003), Educational Thought about Citizenship. Tokyo: Hakutakusya. Miyamoto, M. (2002), A young man falls into a socially vulnerable group. Tokyo: Yousensya. Naganuma, Y. (2003), What is citizenship education. Tokyo: Hitujishobo. Sato, K. (2001), NPO and Learning in Participant Society. Tokyo: Eideru-Kenkyuusyo.

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Shinagawa Ward Board of Education (2005), Curriculum for Integrated Education in Primary and Lower Secondary Schools in Shinagawa Ward. Tokyo: Kodansya. Shiraishi, M. (2006), Comparative Study of Citizenship Education in England and Japan: Curriculum, Textbook and Interview. Masters dissertation, University of York, Educational Studies.

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Chapter 11

The Assessment of Students in Citizenship Education in Japan Kenji Tanahashi Introduction In assessing students’ understanding and response in the field of citizenship education in Japan, each teacher and each school uses their own original methods and criteria. Various research consortiums, educational centers, and so forth, have made known their different theories and practices concerning the assessment of students. Therefore, the assessment of students’ response to citizenship education varies. However, the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) has established both a course of study and a record of learning outcomes for schools in Japan. The Course of Study provides a basic framework for educational content and methodology. The Student Cumulative Guidance Record provides a basic structure of content for evaluating a student’s learning. Other chapters in this book discuss the course of study. This chapter first introduces the Student Cumulative Guidance Record of citizenship education in Japan, it then goes on to explain the assessment criteria used by the junior high school attached to Hiroshima University, as an example of how evaluation might be carried out.

Four Viewpoints for Evaluating Students’ Citizenship The present Student Cumulative Guidance Record assesses students from the following four perspectives: (1) interest, involvement and attitude regarding social issues; (2) social ideas and judgement; (3) skill in utilizing documents and expressing ideas; and (4) knowledge and understanding of social topics. The purpose of these in ninth grade Social Studies (Civics) is as follows.

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Citizenship Education in Japan

Interest, involvement and attitude regarding social issues: to encourage students to increase their interest in modern social issues, to investigate them eagerly, to develop a broad outlook in considering what makes a good society, and to carry out their responsibilities in full awareness of being a citizen. Social ideas and judgement: students should be able to detect problems within modern social issues, consider the significance and role of social issues and how they are connected, and use various ways of thinking and judging ideas and events with a sense of justice. Skill in utilizing documents and expressing ideas: students should learn how to collect various documents relating to modern social issues, for example, statistics, newspaper articles, and pictures, and extract useful information from these. Students should be able to tabulate the information, investigate certain items within this information, consider the facts, summarize them in a report, and present or discuss their findings. Knowledge and understanding of social topics: students should be able to understand basic ways of thinking about modern society, politics and the economy, and the significance and role of social issues and the connections between them.

From Norm-referenced Evaluation to Criterion-referenced Evaluation For a long time, the assessment of students’ citizenship in the Cumulative Guidance Record was made by norm-referenced evaluation. This is a comparative assessment on a scale of 1 to 5. The number of students in a class who would receive an evaluation of 5 was decided in advance. However, the level of a student’s citizenship cannot be judged meaningfully by such an evaluation method, nor can the teacher decide how he or she should provide supplementary guidance for a student. There are two main reasons why the norm-referenced system was valued. The first reason is that in Japan the main purpose of evaluation was considered to be the collection of data necessary to rank students or to select them for such things as specific educational opportunities. Therefore, each member of the class was in competition with the others, and one’s placing in the class was a subject of serious concern. Within this system of evaluation, it is difficult to judge objectively how adequately a student has understood social topics. It is relatively easy, however, to place students objectively in rank order, and that is the second reason why the norm-referenced system was valued.

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181

However, the importance of criterion-referenced evaluation has been upheld for a long time. Recently, the method of assessment of students in the Cumulative Guidance Record has changed from norm-referenced evaluation to criterion-referenced evaluation. In Japan, two functions of student evaluation are of great importance. First, the evaluation must offer information to the learner about the results of the learning process. Learners will then know which aspects of their performance are satisfactory and which must be improved in order to achieve their aims. Second, based on the results of an evaluation, a teacher can attempt to implement better teaching methods or materials. The aim in the classroom is to guarantee the formation of scholastic ability in the student. In Japan, we call such evaluation ‘a cross between guidance and evaluation’ or ‘feedback evaluation for guidance by the teacher’. To improve guidance, it is necessary to judge what aspects of a topic a student might not understand and why. To accomplish this, it is necessary to clarify the elements that comprise citizenship and the process of their formation. The teacher establishes structured objectives that are reflected in the process of developing citizenship in a student within the classroom. The teacher considers the results of the assessment of the student in order to judge whether those objectives have been achieved. The information necessary for a teacher to judge what level of citizenship a student has achieved in class is also an indication as to what point the student has reached in the process of actually becoming a citizen. Information about ranking in class is not useful for this purpose. The social context wherein criterion-referenced evaluation came to be respected is the widespread belief amongst parents and general society that a school has a responsibility to explain its educational aims and methods. As an example, a certain student’s achievement was evaluated at 5, but that student had in fact hardly understood anything. He received a 5 only because the other students had learned less than he did. In other words, his performance was judged by norm-referenced criteria in relation to the lowest standards achieved in the class. The reality of a student’s understanding of citizenship cannot be reflected in that kind of evaluation. What level of citizenship did the student really achieve? Was it sufficient for his present needs? Did the outcome of his education justify the amount of time, effort and money involved? It is not norm-referenced evaluation but only criterion-referenced evaluation that can answer these questions. Thus, the assessment of citizenship education in Japan has changed greatly in recent years.

Table 11.1 Junior high school attached to Hiroshima University. Student Assessment Norms and Standards, 2003 Item (unit)

Objective

Content of study

Standard for assessing student’s performance

Modern society and us

Interest in various events in modern society, understand the development process, and the transformation of modern Japan

•

Examine the structure and traits of modern society

•

Understand the structure and traits of modern society sufficiently

•

Examine the history of society and its economy in Japan

•

•

Examine the development of science and technology

•

•

Examine the transformation from an industrialized society to an information-based society Examine the relationship between economic growth and the life of the people

•

Understand the transformation of society and the development of economy in Japan Recognize the development of technology Understand why the transformation occurred

Criteria for assessment 1

Economic growth and us

Think about the high economic growth period of Japan, the content of economic activity of that period, and relate it to the life of the people.

•

•

Understand the relationship between economic growth and the life of the people

2

3

4

Method for assessing student’s performance

•

•

•

•

•

• Announcement

Worksheet

• Test

• Test

Item (unit)

Objective

Content of study

Standard for assessing student’s performance

Criteria for assessment 3 •

Method for assessing student’s performance 4 • Worksheet

•

• Presentation

•

• Worksheet

•

•

• Presentation

•

•

• Presentation

1 Economic growth and us (cont.)

Also, consider what true wealth is while analyzing how life seems to be.

•

•

•

•

•

•

Examine the transformation of the ratio of employed population according to industry Examine the diffusion of durable consumer goods

Examine the change in the real economic growth rate Investigate the realities and cause of four cases of pollution during the period of high economic growth Examine the changing value of land and stock (from 1985 to 2000) Examine the result of a Japanese opinion poll (from the first half of the 1960s to 2000s)

•

Understand why it has transformed

•

Understand the relation between diffusion and the growth rate

•

Understand why pollution occurred

•

Understand the meaning of the assetinflated economy Notice that there is a gap between the ideal way of economic development and the spirit of the society, and explain the problem

•

•

2 •

Item (unit)

Objective

Content of study

Standard for assessing student’s performance

Criteria for assessment 1

Japan and the world are tied together

•

•

Understand that the Japanese economy occupies an important position in the global community and notice that the lives of people are greatly influenced by the development of social globalization

Think about the role of Japan in international society

•

Examine the international trade of Japan with foreign countries

•

•

Examine the ratio of Japanese trade in the world

•

•

Examine the breakdown of exports and imports in Japan Examine the total number of Japanese companies overseas Examine the concrete consequences of living with globalization Think about the role that Japan can play in international society

•

•

•

•

Understand the position that the Japanese economy occupies in the global community Understand the position that the Japanese economy occupies in terms of the quantity of Japanese trade Recognize the types of Japanese trade

•

Understand why the Japanese went abroad

•

Enumerate examples of the influence of globalization Understand the role of Japan in international society sufficiently

•

2

3 •

•

Method for assessing student’s performance 4 • Worksheet

• Test Presentation

•

• Worksheet

•

• Test

•

• Presentation Test

•

• Announcement

(continued)

Item (unit)

Objective

Content of study

Standard for assessing student’s performance

Criteria for assessment 1

•

Examine the breakdown of official development assistance in Japan

•

•

Examine the PKO in which Japan participated

•

•

Examine activities such as Japan Overseas Cooperation Volunteers and NGO

•

Understand the regions in foreign countries where the Japanese government helped development Understand the role of PKO Understand the content of the activities

•

2

3

Method for assessing student’s performance

4 • Test w

• Worksheet

•

Test

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Citizenship Education in Japan

An Example of Evaluation Norms and Standards In criterion-referenced evaluation, the concrete content of the objectives is very important because deciding what citizenship is also means deciding educational objectives. To introduce criterion-referenced evaluation across the board, decisions about standards and norms are actively made in many Japanese schools. The assessment norms and standards drawn up by the National Institute for Educational Policy Research are highly influential in schools throughout the country. Moreover, several other educational bodies are similarly devising assessment norms and standards. The work is not necessarily easy: evaluation norms and standards describe teaching content in detail, while the Course of Study is only an outline. Research into student assessment by norm-referenced evaluation is psychological research. Research into student assessment by criterionreferenced evaluation is subject-based pedagogical research. It attempts to answer a root question – What is citizenship education? – based on a concrete learning outcome. As one example, this chapter introduces the assessment norm and standard devised by a junior high school attached to Hiroshima University. In Japan, such a university-affiliated school has the role of a teaching school. In schools in Japan, citizenship education is central to Social Studies. Social Studies in junior high school is composed of three fields (History, Geography and Civics). In Civics, citizenship education is placed at the center of the objectives. Civics is composed of four large teaching units covering ‘Analysis of contemporary society through an overview of the history of present-day Japan’, ‘Politics’, ‘The economy’ and ‘International society’. This section introduces the norm and standard of the first unit.

The Assessment Norm and Standard for Evaluating Student Performance in Social Studies (Civics) in the Junior High School Attached to Hiroshima University Third school year: Social Studies (Civics) 1 (A) The History of Modern Japan and Our Life Today Content of the Course of Study: Understand and outline the process of the development and globalization of modern Japan and understand the characteristics of modern society. Understand the transformation of our country and the global community from the period of high economic growth to today, and relate it to the life

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of the people. In addition, consider the role of our country in the global community. A concrete example of the norm for assessing student’s performance: Topic: The Society in Which We Live Objectives: O Understand the transformation of our country and the global community from the period of high economic growth to today and relate it to the life of the people. O Understand the characteristics of modern society based on the background of the transformation from the period of high economic growth. O Think about the role of our country in international society based on the background of the progress of internationalization and the transformation of international society.

References Cogan, J. J. and Derricott, R. (eds) (1998), Citizenship for the 21st Century: An International Perspective on Education. London: Kogan Page. Cogan, J. J., Morris, P. and Print, M. (eds) (2002), Civic Education in the Asia-Pacific Region: Case Studies across Six Societies. New York and London: RoutledgeFalmer. Ikeno, N. (2005), ‘Citizenship education in Japan after World War II’, International Journal of Citizenship and Teacher Education, 1, (2), 93–8. Lee, W. O., Grossman, D. L., Kennedy, K. J. and Fairbrother, G. P. (eds) (2004), Citizenship Education in Asia and the Pacific: Concepts and Issues. Norwell, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers. McCullough, David (2008), Moral and social education in Japanese schools: conflicting conceptions of citizenship’, Citizenship Teaching and Learning, 4, (1), 21–34. Nagai, J. (1977), ‘Social studies in Japan’, in Teaching Social Studies in Other Nations, NCSS Bulletin 60. Washington, DC: NCSS. —(1983), ‘Education for Responsible Citizenship,’ in Perspectives on Japan: A Guide for Teachers, NCSS Bulletin 69. Washington, DC: NCSS. Otsu, K. (1988), ‘Japan’, in Cogan J. J. and Derricott, R. (eds), Citizenship for the 21st Century: An International Perspective on Education. London: Kogan Page. —(2002), ‘Recent development in civic education: the case of Japan,’ in Cogan, J. J., Morris P. and Print, M. (eds), Civic Education in the Asia-Pacific Region: Case Studies across Six Societies. New York and London: RoutledgeFalmer. Parmenter, L. (2004), ‘A Solid Foundation: Citizenship Education in Japan,’ in Lee, W. O., Grossman, D. L., Kennedy K. L. and Fairbrother, G. P. (eds), Citizenship Education in Asia and the Pacific: Concepts and Issues. Norwell, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 81–96.

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Parmenter, L., Mizuyama, M. and Taniguchi, K. (2008), ‘Citizenship Education in Japan’, in J. Arthur, I. Davies and C. Hahn (eds), The SAGE Handbook of Education for Citizenship and Democracy. Los Angeles and London: Sage. Steiner-Khamsi, G., Torney-Purta, J. and Schwille, J. (eds) (2002), New Paradigms and Recurring Paradoxes in Education for Citizenship: An International Comparison. Amsterdam, London and Tokyo: JAI Press.

Index

Abe, Mitsuo 49 academic education 15 knowledge 16, 18, 22 active citizenship 127 learning 110, 147 activity-oriented approach 19, 22 arithmetic 3, 15, 38, 40–1, 55, 158–9, 164–5 assessment 179–87 Associates School Project (ASP) 107–9 atomic bombs 86 attitudes 15–16, 18, 21–3, 29–30, 32–5, 38, 42–3, 46–8, 50, 58, 69, 79–83, 95, 101, 103, 110, 120–1, 132, 137, 139, 147, 158, 160, 167, 170, 173, 179, 180 behavioural 60, 63 cooperative 43 moral 61, 63–4, 67, 166 necessary 79–80 practical 67, 166, 173 autonomist activity 171–2

autonomy 16, 81, 167, 171–2 behaviour 15–16, 58, 60–2, 82, 120 desirable 58 moral 64 social 169, 171 understanding of 62 Belgrade Charter 120, 129 Brazil 113 California Plan 11–12 capitalism 3–4, 9, 47, 87, 150 careers 29, 66, 68, 172 character, building of 23, 29, 34, 36, 38, 42, 44, 46, 51, 87, 169 child-centred approach 8, 11, 24, 33, 42, 46, 49–50 China 113, 132–3 choice 19, 21–2, 24, 47, 68–9, 138 CIE (Civil Information and Education) 11 Citizenship (school subject) 157–62

Citizenship Education 1 18, 21–4, 26 Citizenship Education 2 18, 21–4 Citizenship Education 3 18, 25 Citizenship Studies (CS) (school subject) 17, 23–4, 26, 81 Civics (school subject) 4–13, 17–18, 20, 23–4, 55–6, 75–8, 95, 163, 179, 186 Civics Act (1924) 9 civil liberties 16 see also freedom of speech Classroom Assembly 67–9 clubs 66, 68–9 Cold War 108, 110–11 communism 9 community 4, 8–11, 15–16, 21–6, 32, 35, 60, 65, 69, 80, 118, 130–1, 133, 135–6, 142, 160, 172–3 global 184, 186, 187 international 65, 79–80 local 8, 16, 21–2, 24, 167, 170

190 compartmentalization 23, 25 compromise, necessity of 127 Confucianism 3, 5–6 conscience 19 constitution 6, 59 constructivism 150 content 5–6, 10, 19, 21–3, 29, 34, 44, 50, 58–60, 65–6, 68–9, 75, 81, 85–7, 89, 93, 117, 124, 127, 130, 132, 135, 140, 143–5, 147–8, 157, 172–4, 179, 182–6 selection of 145 continuity 7, 19 cooperation 24, 43, 61–2, 65, 67 international 86, 88–91 Course of Study 11–12, 19–20, 29–30, 33–6, 40–1, 55–7, 59–60, 62–70, 74–5, 85–7, 117–18, 130–1, 134–6, 143–5, 168, 174, 179, 186 Course of Study for Social Studies 20 cultural creativity 171–2 culture 15, 60, 63–4, 81, 86, 95, 103, 108, 111, 114, 127, 144–5, 161, 172, 179 curriculum 4–5, 10, 12, 15–16, 18–24, 40, 47, 55–9, 68, 73, 75, 81, 107, 110–11, 116–19, 121, 124, 127, 132,

Index 135–46, 152, 157–60, 162–4, 167–8, 172–4 development of 11, 114–15 new 11–12, 16, 36, 111, 157–8 and teachers 18, 21, 29, 32, 36, 41, 46, 49, 56–8, 66, 109, 118, 133, 135–6, 144–6, 148–9 decision-making 21, 24, 69, 100, 104, 121, 127, 139, 144, 146, 148–50, 158–62, 166–7 Declaration of Thessaloniki 126, 128–9 democracy 4, 9, 16, 20–1, 27, 47, 58, 62–4, 79–80, 100, 107, 126–8, 141–2 development education 109–11, 113–15, 127 Dewey, John 12, 22, 59 disarmament 88–9 discussion 4, 6, 18, 39–41, 67–8, 91–2, 95–7, 99–100, 104, 126–7, 148–9, 151, 161–2 diversity 21, 79–80, 95, 108, 110, 113, 116, 126, 128, 149–51, 164, 167 Economics (school subject) 4–7, 75, 79, 87, 94, 165 empathy 30, 32–3, 35–6, 39, 43–5, 139

environment 18–19, 60, 91–3, 109, 116–23, 126–8, 131, 137, 150, 161, 170–1 environmental education 16–29 problems 116, 118–21, 123 science 117 equal opportunities 144 evaluation 29, 34–5, 38, 43, 51–2, 120, 179–80, 186 see also testing criterion-referenced 180–1, 186 norm-referenced 180–1, 186 experience-oriented approach 19, 21–2 extra-curricular activities 17–18, 21, 24, 56–7 farmers 3, 8–11, 45, 47, 132 fieldwork 119, 139 forming human relations 171–3 freedom 3, 6, 13, 19, 21–2, 24, 122, 149 individual 3, 122 of speech 6 see also civil liberties future planning 171–3 Gakumon no Susume 5 Gakusei 3–4, 13 garbage collection 37, 39, 42, 96–9 disposal 42, 140

Index study of 37–9, 140, 161 Geography (school subject) 15, 20, 23–4, 56, 75–80, 95, 117, 130–42, 163, 186 global citizenship 85–6, 88–9, 91–3, 108–10, 115 Global Education Initiative 110 Gross National Product (GNP) 9 group activities 43, 67, 166 adaptation 171, 173 learning 66–7, 97 Guidelines for Teaching Social Studies 73–6, 78–82 harmony 56, 65, 123, 171 Higuchi, Kanjiro 8 History (school subject) 11, 15, 20, 23–4, 32–3, 47–8, 56, 74–7, 79–81, 95, 117, 143–52, 163, 186 History for Social Studies 147 human rights 47, 89–90, 108–10, 126–7, 133 humanities 47–8, 58, 63–5, 120, 166 ikiru chikara 24 imperial family state 3–4, 7 Imperial Ordinance 4–6

on Middle Schools 6 Relating to National Schools 12 Relating to National Spirit 9 Imperial Rescript on Education 4, 6–7, 11 indoctrination 15, 100, 145, 149, 152 industrialization 132 Inquiry Learning 35, 49 Integrated Studies 24, 56, 76, 111, 159, 163–4, 166, 169 international education 107–9, 111, 113, 115 International Education Society of Japan 111 International Geophysical Year 88–9 interpretation (of facts) 145, 147, 150–1 Items of Instruction in Civics 9–10 Japan Volunteer Learning Society (JVLS) 167, 174 Japanese Geography (school subject) 11–12 Japanese History (school subject) 11–12, 76–8 Junior High School Social Studies on Citizenship 89, 91 Junior High School Social Studies: Politics, Economics, Society 87 justice 56, 61, 180

191 Kabira, Jiei 30–2, 50 knowledge-oriented approach 19 Koizumi, Junichiro 168 Komin 5, 7, 9, 13 Koreans 113 Kusahara, Kazuhiro 130, 138, 142 labourers 3, 9 language 15–16, 21, 60, 111, 113, 151, 165, 168, 178 Law and Economics 4–7 leadership 18, 24, 41, 162 learning active 110, 147 affective 35 assimilative 124 autonomous 23 cooperative 119 ‘Learning the Treasure Within’ 111 leisure 17 lesson plans 32–6, 38–40, 42, 44, 47, 49, 51–2, 105 liberalism 4–5 Life and Environment Studies 55–6, 69, 75, 77–8, 159, 164–5 Maintenance of Public Order Act 9 Marxism 137, 146 memorizing 5, 39, 145–6, 152 militarism 11, 107 Millennium Development Goals 111

192 Ministry of Education 19–20, 23–4, 29, 33–6, 49, 57, 109, 120, 135 Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) 17, 166, 168, 179 Mizoue, Yasushi 33, 36 Mizuno, Kenko 10 modern society 13, 79, 81, 144–7, 150, 152, 172, 180, 182, 186–7 moral education 4, 6, 41, 58–60, 174 Moral Education (school subject) 7–8, 11–12, 55–60, 62–4, 66–7, 71, 159, 164, 166, 169 objectives of 60, 62–5 philosophy of 57–8, 64 moral judgement 60, 63–4 morality 9, 11–12, 15, 60, 62–4, 67, 69, 169, 172 Moriwake, Takaharu 121, 138, 145, 148–9 motivation 43, 81, 101 motives 38, 45, 58–9 multicultural issues 107, 110–11, 113–15, 167 Nakano, Shigeto 3, 7, 9–10, 13, 33–6, 40, 44–6, 49 Nakata Educational Society 8 Nation (Kokumin-Ka)

Index (school subject) 13 National Institute for Research Advancement (NIRA) 167 National Schools 11–12 National Society of Primary and Secondary Schools for Environmental Education Study 117 national subject 6–8 natural law 3–5 natural resources 89–90, 137 New Social Studies 16, 34, 86, 148 New Society 86, 94, 142 Nippon Hoho Kyokai (NHK) 30, 50 non-governmental organizations (NGOs) 18, 109, 185 non-profit organizations (NPOs) 18, 111, 166–7, 174 North-South development factors 92, 109 Obara, Kuniyoshi 8 Ochanomizu Elementary School 157–62 Oda, Nobunaga 48, 51 opinion 18, 21, 34–5, 39, 61, 89, 92, 96–7, 99–101, 132, 163, 170, 183 participation 99, 104, 114, 120–1, 127, 167, 172

patriotism 10, 85 peace 16, 60, 86–91, 108–9, 126–7 education 127 movement 88–9 personality, development of 42, 44–6, 56, 60, 66, 68 Philippines 113 pi structure 75 policy, educational 4, 10, 15–17, 19–26, 29, 34, 39, 66, 108–9, 150 politics 9, 23, 75, 79, 86–7, 90, 95, 104, 120, 144–5, 148, 180, 186 pollution 90, 117–19, 183 Popper, Karl 149 population 43, 91–3, 112, 126, 131–2 poverty 16, 20, 73, 90, 93, 109–10, 126 pragmatism 40, 136 Prize for Encouragement of Education for International Understanding 109 problem solving 21, 24, 81–2, 99, 104, 136, 140, 166 progressivism 7, 11–12 projects 18, 95–7, 99, 101–2, 104–5, 149 question types in lessons 32, 36, 49, 133 racism 110, 113 reading 3, 5, 7–8, 15–16, 39, 44, 143

Index real-life factors 16, 21, 64, 66, 99 reflection 42, 100–1, 148–9 reform 103, 107, 137, 139, 160, 167 educational 11–12, 20, 86, 110, 130, 134–5, 157, 167–8 refugees 93 Regional History 10 Regional Studies 10 regulations 6, 19, 61, 73 religion 103 responsibility see also self-responsibility as citizen 23, 56, 95, 172, 180 moral 172 social 121, 127, 181 role-play 97–100 rules obedience to 61, 96–100, school 58 social 23, 69, 137, 149–50 rural areas 6, 8–10 samurai 3–6 School Education Law (1947) 19, 60, 64, 73 School Events 66–7, 178–9 schools elementary 4–5, 8, 11, 17, 20, 40, 55–6, 59–60, 62–3, 65–6, 69–73, 75–6, 79–80, 82, 143–4, 157, 163, 168–9

junior high 34–5, 74–9, 82, 85, 95, 163, 168–9, 179, 182, 186 lower secondary 55–6, 59–60, 62–5, 67–9, 95, 172 middle 5–7, 9, 11–12, 17–18, 20, 23 Normal 7–10, 40 public 17, 19–20, 141 senior high 74–8, 80, 95 upper secondary 55–6, 58–9, 66–8, 95 see also National Schools; Youth Schools Seiyo-Jijo 5 self-analysis 119–20 self-control 63–4, 68, 170–3 self-criticism 120 self-discipline 58, 66–7 self-esteem 142 self-governance 142 self-knowledge 56, 146 self-responsibility 67, 142, 169 see also responsibility Shakaika Kyouiku no Riron (Theory of Social Studies Education) 136, 142 Shibusawa, Fumitaka 135–6 Shigematsu, Takayasu 40–2 Shimin 3

193 Shimin-ka 163–6, 168–74 Shinto 11 Shiraishi, Yuichi 44, 49 skills 22, 38, 56, 79, 120, 135, 167 essential 15, 128 social 23, 29, 66, 69, 79–81, 110, 139, 141, 158, 160, 167, 170–4 teaching 39, 40 sociability 23 social constructionism 46 education 15, 17–18, 21–6, 51, 57, 152, 196 reality 133, 140 structure 47, 102–3, 147, 174 system 102–4, 133, 137–8, 147, 160–1, 167 socialism 9 socialization 25 types of 134–5 Special Activities 56, 60, 63–4, 66–9, 159, 166, 169 Student Assembly 66–8 Student Cumulative Guidance Record 179 Supplementary School for Technical Institutes 7–9 sustainability 116, 123, 126, 128–9 Tagami, Noboru 40–1 Taisho democratic movements 9

194 Taisho liberal education movement 7, 9 Tanaka, Kayoko 37, 39–40, 42–4 Tanimoto, Tomeri 8 teachers and curriculum 18, 21, 29, 32, 36, 41, 46, 49, 56–8, 66, 109, 118, 133, 135–6, 144–6, 148–9 planning by 10–11, 18, 35, 37, 39–40, 49, 95 progressive 9, 11 role of 18–19, 22–4, 26, 30, 34, 42, 44, 48, 50, 63–4, 100, 103, 119, 131, 136–7, 145–7, 150–1, 158, 160–2, 169–70 Tsuzurikata 10–12 teaching balance in 48, 169 materials 34, 111, 114–15, 152, 160

Index technology 17, 56, 89, 111, 122–3, 166, 168, 179, 182 Terakoya 3 testing 17, 151, 182 184–5 see also evaluation textbooks 5, 13, 17, 50, 85–7, 89–93, 114, 131–2, 172, 175 Thailand 113 This Is Citizenship 92, 94 Tokyo Research Institute of Education 41 tolerance 16, 23, 58 trade 93, 133, 184

111, 113, 120, 126, 128–9 United Nations Human Environment Conference 117 utilitarianism 122–3

understanding 15–18, 22, 24–6, 42, 63–4, 101, 108–9, 137, 149–50, 171–3 empathetic 29–30, 33–4, 36, 39, 46–9, 82–3 UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) 107–8,

war, cessation of 86, 88 westernization 4–5 World Studies project 110 writing 3, 10, 12, 15, 96 Yamaguchi, Yukio 138–9, 142 Yasui, Toshio 146, 153 Youth, Family and Citizenship 166 Youth Schools 11

values 6–7, 21, 45–6, 51, 58, 60–2, 66, 100, 104, 119, 123, 145, 147–8, 150–1, 172–3 Virginia Plan 12, 86 voluntary activity 66, 81, 109, 111, 140, 142, 162, 165–7, 173