Global Citizen Formation: Global Citizenship Education in Higher Education (Governance and Citizenship in Asia) 9811619581, 9789811619588

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Governance and Citizenship in Asia

Amy Shumin Chen

Global Citizen Formation Global Citizenship Education in Higher Education

Governance and Citizenship in Asia Series Editors Kerry J. Kennedy, The Education University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China Sonny Shiu Hing Lo, School of Professional and Continuing Education, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China

Aims and Scope This series explores how citizenship is shaped by social, political, cultural and historical contexts and how it may be moulded to serve the nation state in the age of globalization. In these publications we see how governance relates to all aspects of civic life, including politics, public policy, administration, civil society and the economy, as well as the core values of society. Titles cover themes including public trust and trust building, the role of civil society, citizens’ rights and obligations, citizenship identities including those related to gender, class and ethnicities. Authors explore how young people are shaped by democratic and traditional value systems and the importance of citizenship challenges in the Asia Pacific region. Research collaborations in this interdisciplinary series probe questions such as: What are the links between ‘good governance’ and new forms of citizenship? What is the role of citizenship education as a tool in state formation and the development of active citizenship cultures? How do we explain the distinctive features of governance and citizenship in Asian societies? Through these publications we see that citizenship is an integral part of ‘good governance’ and that such governance ultimately enriches citizenship. Scholarly investigation and academic dialogue in this series describe the interdependence and mutuality of governance and citizenship. Please contact Melody Zhang (e-mail: [email protected]) for submitting book proposals for this series.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11911

Amy Shumin Chen

Global Citizen Formation Global Citizenship Education in Higher Education

Amy Shumin Chen Tatung University Taipei, Taiwan

ISSN 2365-6255 ISSN 2365-6263 (electronic) Governance and Citizenship in Asia ISBN 978-981-16-1958-8 ISBN 978-981-16-1959-5 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-1959-5 © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Foreword I

A Research Program for Global Citizenship Education and the Responsibilities of the University It is truly a pleasure to write a Foreword for the book of Professor Shumin Chen. Her book constitutes de facto a research program putting together a cornucopia of theories, and blending them into the basic premises of a critical theory research program. From a perspective of Critical Theory, I would argue that such a research program implies three dimensions not always found in the contemporary studies of citizenship education or global citizenship education. First, it is a program based on human science, providing a humanistic, anti-positivist approach. Second, is built as a historical science of society, hence it is a form of historical sociology. Finally, it is a sociocultural critique that is concerned with normative theory, which by definition is a theory about values and what should be a good society for the common good. This, in turn, offers very rich insights into the role of Critical Theory in scholarship. For Critical Theorists, research cannot be separated from praxis. Therefore, the goals of this book are not only an understanding of social reality, or improving logical and analytical perspectives in research (i.e., theorizing), but also should contribute to the improvement of practices of policy-makers, policy brokers, and policy constituencies, in particular, in this case, teachers and university professors. But also, improvement of the cognitive and non-cognitive outcomes of the teaching and learning process (Torres, 2009). There are mainly three reasons why to advance global citizenship education as a formidable research program and transformation agenda for the twenty-first century. The world is changing, cultures are intersecting, and borders are more permeable than ever. We are confronting a world with growing hybrid cultures requiring a more sensible approach to intercultural dialectics. There is also a profound change in classic individual citizenship and its accompanying rights, privileges, and civil minimums. Lastly, all these changes are happening under a growing process of globalization, and the social and political contestation of its global fragmentation and v

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outcomes clamor for cosmopolitan democracies answering tensions resulting from the transformation in the global system. No doubt, one of the growing tensions is the presence of authoritarian movements which seek to delete from the world the tradition, practices, and legal frameworks of liberal democracy. Perhaps it is paradoxical, but the beginning of the twentyfirst century shows a growing plurality of authoritarian movements, of diverse sign and origins, but ultimately becoming transnational in nature. Is it too far-fetched to think of a global new-fascist movement confronting the premises of a cosmopolitan democracy? Could a cosmopolitan Fascism become a worldwide reality? Even in societies with a long democratic tradition like the USA these trends are salient, and well reflected in the attack to the Capitol on January 6, 2021. It seems that all bets are off after the experience of Donald Trump’s white supremacy presidency though dressed in populists’ robes. Professor Chen makes two important claims that I shall highlight as lynchpins of her arguments. The first one, following German scholar Ulrich Beck is that global citizenship education is a response to the risk society analysis and its practical implications. I completely agree with this assessment. Ban-Ki-moon surprised the world crafting the Global Education First Initiative (GEFI) of the United Nations. The GEFI initiative was associated with two other key initiatives of his administration, including the 2007 Climate Change Summit and the Millennium Development Goals. Many were much impressed with his administration—he was unanimously reelected for a second term—and particularly when Ban-ki-moon launched the Global Education First Initiative or GEFI in 2012. There were three pillars of the initiative, improvement of access to education, improvement of quality education, and global citizenship education that will facilitate the previous two pillars. A logical explanation of including global citizenship education along with two classical education dimensions like access and quality of education is that the UN Secretary, a skillful and well-rounded diplomat, noted the risks associated with the transformation of the world (perhaps drawing from learnings of the risk society theory) and sought a new model of citizenship that would provide a global answer. Thus, global citizenship education (Torres & Tarozzi, 2020). The second lynchpin of Professor Chen’s analysis, in the spirit of GEFI and the Sustainable Development Goals of the U.N., is her observation of global citizenship education becoming a new social movement. Professor Chen argues “the processes and effects of global citizenship and global citizenship education require a new approach for teaching and learning at all levels of education, along with a curriculum design and public policy initiatives, to cultivate learner achievements and the capacity to be a competent local and global citizen on our planet.” Hearing this call, and implementing it immediately are urgent responsibilities of governments, nonprofit organizations, and interested citizens. Likewise, there is a fundamental need to bring this conversation inside our universities (Bossio & Torres, 2019; Rhoads & Torres, 2006; Torres, 2016; Torres & Bossio, 2020) and in our public education systems (Tarozzi & Torres, 2017). Professor Chen offers to the reader a substantial book with rich theories and policy recommendations. Well written and based on solid evidence-based research, this is

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a book that will make an impact in any serious and informed conversation about global citizenship education. A book that will be useful for scholars, graduate and undergraduate students seeking to further understand these complex topics. Carlos Alberto Torres Distinguished Professor University of California Los Angeles, USA

References Bosio, E., & Torres, C. A. (2019). Global citizenship education: An educational theory of the common good? A conversation with Carlos Alberto Torres. Policy Features in Education, 17(6), 745–760. https://doi.org/10.1177/1478210319825517journals.sagepub.com/home/pfe. Rhoads, R., & Torres, C. A. (Eds.). (2006). The university, state and markets. The political economy of globalization in the Americas. Stanford University Press. Tarozzi, M., & Torres, C. A. (2016). Global citizenship education and the crisis of multiculturalism: Comparative perspectives. Bloomsbury. Torres, C. A., & Tarozzi, M. (2020). Multiculturalism in the world system: Towards a social justice model of inter/multicultural education. Globalisation, Societies and Education, 18(1), 7–18. Torres, C. A., & Bosio, E. (2020). Global citizenship education at the crossroads: Globalization, global commons, common good, and critical consciousness. Prospects, Comparative Journal of Curriculum, Learning and Assessment, 48, 99–112. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11125-019-094 58-w. Torres, C. A. (2009). Education and neoliberal globalization (P. Noguera, Intro.). Routledge. Torres, C. A. (2017). Theoretical and empirical foundations of critical global citizenship education. Routledge/Taylor & Francis.

Foreword II

Globalization has advanced rapidly in the past few decades and affects individuals around the world in manifold ways. Yet, there are various negative consequences to this new interconnection, such as the ongoing environmental crisis, the global outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, and unstable international political relations. No country can ignore global issues and their impact on the day-to-day lives of world citizens. Consequently, any analysis of the concept of citizenship in modern society should consider the coexistence of strengths and weaknesses. The institutional development of contemporary education systems is subject to external influences, and it is necessary to interpret what globalization means to individuals in shaping public education policies. For example, what are the effects of globalization on education? What are the implications of this new power on the diverse facets of education? Globalization invokes differing responses around the world, and global power involves fundamental inequalities in resources, rights, wealth, education, and several other areas. The future will never be a linear sequence of events, and there is always a possibility of contradictory development trends. Therefore, formulating educational frameworks to help youth understand the process of global transformation would be a useful and worthy approach. Global citizenship education aims to advance new generations to build their own understanding of world events and their risks, to think about their values, and to take learning into the real world. Education enacts and enlightens promising global citizens on ideas of peace, multiculturalism, and sustainable development through interaction and action in the global society. This book intelligently explores the theory and practice of global citizenship education by exploring the crucial issues of social changes in globalization and provides cautious, evidence-based inquiries and suggested solutions for higher education. When I was president of the “Taiwan Association for Sociology of Education” from 2018 to 2020, Amy served as the secretary-general. During that time, she also served as my co-investigator on the project named “International Civic and Citizenship Education Study.” We have long held similar values on education regarding sociology and citizenship, and I am delighted to offer my most heartfelt congratulations to her on the publication of this work. This book reveals ideal types as well ix

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as empirical findings on global citizenship education and presents solid research findings. I believe that both scholars and general readers will find the book highly informative and every chapter simultaneously insightful and thought-provoking. Meihui Liu Dean of Academic Affairs Department of Education National Taiwan Normal University Taipei, Taiwan

Preface

The opening chapter of this book outlines frameworks and features in the theory and practice of global citizenship. I provide a systematic analysis of how citizenship education highlights the paradox that the younger generation faces in the challenges and uncertainties of this global social movement. In this introduction, I discuss how the transformation of globalization influences the identity of citizens, from recognizing individual roles to clarifying their sense of belonging to a community. I also provide an analytical framework for exploring the complicated matrix of citizenship theories when the citizen’s life is surrounded by the expansion of technology and the increase in uncertainty. The processes and effects of global citizenship and global citizenship education require a new approach for teaching and learning at all levels of education, along with a curriculum design and public policy initiatives, to cultivate learner achievements and the capacity to be a competent local and global citizen on our planet.

I. The Significance and Paradox of Global Citizenship The notion of global citizenship and education has received attention from educators, commentators, and education policy-makers. It emerged in the late 1990s as a key strategic principle in higher education. In scores of colleges and universities in North America, Europe, and the Asia-Pacific region, the current era of globalization has been accompanied by a renewed scholarly interest in the international dimension of citizenship as well as numerous initiatives to inspire young people to think and live as global citizens (Schattle, 2008, p. 3). Global citizenship and global citizenship education have thus emerged in the international development discourse, offering a new perspective by reframing old problems in a new educational context that attempts to make sense of the dilemmas of citizenship in a diverse globalized society (Tarozzi &Torres, 2016). This comprehensive objective poses a challenge for educational institutes. Since inculcating a sense of national identity and belonging is a core characteristic of schools, often accompanied with blunt advocacy of nationalism and patriotism, many xi

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observers inquire inserting global citizenship into curricular and pedagogy is an essential objective or merely an alternative option. Many countries have answered this question in different ways. Countries aim to develop youth who have the capacity to encounter the global transformation on a global scale has driven a broad range of educational initiatives in global citizenship. In the United States and Canada, Peace First, a nonprofit organization, launched a project that volunteer youth work with children to design and implement peacemaking and problem-solving projects that involve participatory approaches that require social and emotional skills. In Japan, Tokyo Global Engineering Corporation provides capstone education programs that encourage students to express and publish local stories and documents about their reactions and interactions with global forces that affect local affairs. In Taiwan, the Ministry of Education promotes an education program called “Upgrading Global Mobility for Youth” which aims to develop students in postsecondary schools into global citizens capable to adapt and communicate in the global society. The struggles over global citizenship education illuminate the conflicting objectives of the current development of education. Educational institutions present challenges in their pedagogy on how the young can handle future global transformations and opportunities. Many questions have been raised concerning the challenges that educational institutions present in the pedagogy on how the young handles future global transformations and opportunities. Competence in global citizenship and national competitiveness requires that citizens simultaneously support their national identity as well as awareness and actions in globalization. In traditional political theories, citizens must obey a national power and its needs, which induces loyalty to single governments and disdained uncertainty over political identity. In contrast, global citizenship pursues a conscious belonging to the global society and promotes virtuous behavior toward humanity and even animals. Torres (2015) defines global citizenship as being marked by an understanding of global ties and a commitment to the collective good. Global citizenship entails multiple values that extend from its political discourse to cultural aspects. Rhoads and Torres (2006) advance the idea of “democratic multicultural citizenship” in which education helps students develop the abilities needed to work across social and cultural differences in a quest for solidarity. Moreover, it is important to examine the impacts and influences of social class and social stratification on global citizenship. Global citizenship education must avoid yielding benefits only to the wealthy, who can easily access and advance their own self-interests on the global level. Thus, the idea of global citizenship should address the needs of the middle class, working class, and the poor around the world. Beck (1999) observes that the “global citizenry” composes of multiple branches and should not be restrained with the global managerial class. It is critical to distinguish between global capitalism and global citizenship so that the educational system can properly serve the common good. In short, the learner’s awareness of the wider world will encourage the motivation for many self-described global citizens to not only embark on sustained involvement

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in social and political issues but also become responsible for a global common good. The theories of global citizenship and its educational plans are both necessary to reach the goal of sustainable development on our planet.

II. Challenges to Global Citizenship Education One thing is certain: there can be no dominant notion of global citizenship education. Terms such as “global citizenship” and “education” remain contested and open to further argument and revision. Globalization describes a world environment in which there are relatively free and frequent movement of goods, capital, people, information, and ideas across international borders. Globalization and its uncontrollable economic processes require a new form of cosmopolitan democracy that conveys not only the competitiveness among countries and citizens but also builds a robust theory for the global era. This has justified the development of centralized institutions that represent world citizens in the face of unrestrained economic and political crises as well as new administrative structures and legal rights called “cosmopolitan rights” (Held, 2003). One of the key international documents recognizing the aims and principles of the world as one community is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Announced by the United Nations in 1948 in the wake of World War II, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights asserts the statement of global citizen with common rights in the modern political and social systems. Nowadays, global citizenship education offers the prospect of expanding education from the common values of human rights and multiculturalism, along with postmodernity, in a critical and informed manner (Peters et al., 2008). As a mainstream perspective on education reform, global citizenship must actively engage with these very issues. At the same time, global citizenship education is viewed against the contemporary realities of traditional educational regimes and institutes established by the nation-states, which focus on the prosperity and development of each own nation and country. Moreover, education for global citizenship received great attention in the form of advanced goals promulgated by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). After the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, South Africa in 2002, the United Nations reaffirmed its commitment to sustainable development. UNESCO (2002) has launched “a multimedia teacher education program for teaching and learning for a sustainable future.” It announced that “the interconnectedness amongst humans on the planet” is sometimes also referred to as a “global village” where the barriers of national and international boundaries become less relevant and the world, figuratively, becomes a smaller place. This process is driven economically by international financial flows and trade, technologically by information technology and mass media entertainment, and very significantly, also by such as cultural exchanges, migration, and international tourism among different groups of people.

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Pacing the trends and challenges of the global era, ideals of global citizenship are found in many countries and regions. UNESCO (2015) further advocates that global citizenship education should enable learners to: • Develop an understanding of global governance structures, rights and responsibilities, and global issues and connections between global, national, and local systems and processes • Recognize and appreciate different and multiple identities, e.g., in culture, language, religion, gender and our common humanity, and develop skills for living in an increasingly diverse world • Develop and apply critical skills for civic literacy, e.g., critical inquiry, information technology, media literacy, critical thinking, decision-making, problem-solving, negotiation, peacebuilding, and personal and social responsibility • Recognize and examine beliefs and values and how they influence political and social decision-making, perceptions about social justice and civic engagement • Develop attitudes of care and empathy for others and the environment, and respect for diversity • Develop values of fairness and social justice, and skills to critically analyze inequalities based on gender, socio-economic status, culture, religion, age and other issues • Participate in and contribute to contemporary global issues at the local, national, and global levels as informed, engaged, responsible, and responsive global citizens. These criteria show that global citizenship education entails an individual with the capacity to connect the self to a broader society that goes beyond the boundaries of a single country. To encounter the fundamental changes around the world, the principles and goals of education in pedagogies of cognition, affection and skills must respond to the challenges identified by UNESCO. Moreover, UNESCO (2015) contends that growing interest in global citizenship has resulted in more attention to the global dimension of citizenship education, and its implications in policies and curricula. UNESCO (2015) has created a comprehensive guide on leading the young to become world citizens (Table 1). Table 1 Core conceptual dimensions of global citizenship education Cognitive

To acquire knowledge, understanding, and critical thinking about global, regional, national, and local issues and the interconnectedness and interdependency of different countries and populations

Socio-emotional To have a sense of belonging to common humanity, sharing values and responsibilities, empathy, solidarity, and respect for differences and diversity Behavioral

To act effectively and responsibly at the local, national, and global levels for a more peaceful and sustainable world

Source UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) (2015). Global Citizenship Education: Topics and learning objectives

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UNESCO (2017) emphasizes that global citizenship education aims at realizing human rights and includes diverse disadvantaged groups together as one world. While the global society encounters various political, social, cultural, and economic challenges and risks, those conflict may destroy political reform, social inclusion, cultural diversity, and economic prosperity for a peaceful interaction among countries. Moreover, the global uncertainty of extremist nationalism, terrorism, environmental degradation, refugee crisis, and disease outbreak are all severe issues to consider in building solidarity earth for human beings. It is critical for the education systems promoting global citizenship education to cultivate citizens with a sense of belonging to a broader community and common humanity and highlight the interdependency and interconnectedness between the local, the national, and the global. The objectives of global citizenship education include student competences ranging from the knowledge, values, and skills required for being a well-educated learner in local and global affairs. In essence, global citizenship education is designed to empower students and learners by teaching and learning approaches that introduce ideal and real activities. Such an approach can provide opportunities for students to take on active roles and to become proactive contributors in resolving and conquering global challenges for a more peaceful, tolerant, inclusive, and secure world.

III. Objectives of This Book This book addresses what is widely acknowledged around the world to be one of the most fundamental and pressing concerns in contemporary society: the ways in which citizens understand and play an active role in globalization. To show how the theories of global citizenship and its educational plans can be achieved, the aims of this book are to: • Prove why and how citizenship education is activating higher education in society, with an emphasis on the transformation of citizenship in our high modern society and the corresponding pedagogy for teaching college students about global citizenship. • Analyze an empirical survey on educational sites comprised of universities and adult community universities to illustrate their engagements and attainments in global citizenship formation and performance. • Explore the multifaceted nature of global citizenship education through college students’ global mobility and teachers’ perspectives of global citizenship education • Provide recommendations based on previous research to enhance understanding of the formation of citizens according to each social context.

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IV. Propositions of This Book (I) Proposition 1: The Development of Citizenship The composition and definition of citizens have different expositions and emphasis at different stages of political development. In particular, the dialectics between citizenship discourse and the freedom and democracy praised by individuals should be worthy of note. The following is an overview of the different stages. In the seventeenth to eighteenth century, classical democratic theory believed that everyone is equal to have active and rational participation in politics. Classical democratic theory can cultivate and enhance the political virtues and abilities of citizens, and the purpose of the government is to protect human rights. The people can replace the government and effectively participate in public affairs. In the nineteenth to the twentieth century, elite democratic theory proposed that elites are the decision-makers for the political power in democratic nations and the distribution of social values. In the 1970s, multiple participation democracy theory advocated that administrative power is decentralized and all interest groups can participate in decision-making. In the 1990s, deliberative democracy encouraged citizens to form consensus through rational communication under the conditions of full disclosure of information, equal opportunities for speaking, and fair decision-making. Citizenship discourse not only can be analyzed through its development in different stages, but also categorized through the different values, contexts, and verifications. The definitions and connotations of citizenship differ in the citizenship discourses of liberal theories, communitarianism theories, radical theories, and other political philosophies. How can we reconcile the deviation between liberalism and citizenship? This relationship can be understood through discussion from Will Kymlicka. If citizens do not take responsibility for their own heath in their lives, such as eating healthy diets, engaging in regular exercise, and limiting tobacco and alcohol consumption, the state cannot provide adequate health policies. If citizens do not take care of their relatives, including the children, the elderly, and the disabled, the state cannot accommodate the needs of all disadvantaged groups. If citizens do not reduce their consumption and reuse resources, the state cannot protect the environment. If citizens lose tolerance for differences and have a general lack of social justice, the state cannot create a fair society. Without cooperation and self-discipline in these issues, social inclusion and its process will be diluted (Galston, 1991; Kymlicka, 2003). Regarding how to connect individual rights with traditional liberalism, Dagger (1997) applies a solid analysis framework that refines the concept of citizenship with three elements: autonomy, virtue, and rights. He states that the integration of these three values should complement one another instead of being in tension. The argument is as follows. First of all, because autonomy is the basic right of individuals, that is, everyone is an autonomous being. Therefore, the morality between individuals is equal as well. This virtue founded on mutual respect manifests as

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all citizens enjoying the same rights without exception. Accordingly, when liberalism is defending the rights of individuals, it simultaneously accepts the moral duty to “respect the rights of all members in the community.” Education systems entail crucial missions to foster students in their citizenship cultivation. Harshman (2017) proposed that learners require a critical media literacy for recognizing the global unequal consequences by identifying the phenomena and influences of colonialism, capitalism, conflict, citizenship, and conscientious consumerism. The article alerts that when global educators teach students’ awareness and ability through films, the resources they use to teach about viewpoints too often tend to focus on the Global North. As a global educator who teaches global issues, the core values to promote interconnectedness and increase cross-cultural learning reshapes the way we image places and diversity. These discussions establish how to connect and correspond to the debate and design of liberal democratic institutions when we discuss the qualifications of citizenship. Liberal citizenship is the sort of political principle in which democratic participation is possibly performed when individuals realize that the defense of free and democratic institutions is necessary. Neoliberalism and nation-centrism imply that Hong Kong’s global citizenship development primarily influences by the logic of market and state power. When the government is against the standpoint and the citizens are able to protest for civic participation even by an illegal contest. Baildon and Alviar-Martin (2020) discover that the Hong Kong educational policy declines to cultivate global citizenship by composing the thoughts and practices of neoliberal and nation-centric educational agendas. However, in 2019, the Anti-Extradition Law Amendment Bill Movement is a social movement in Hong Kong that started on March 15 and gained trajectory on June 9, 2019. This is a decentralized movement with no clear leadership and most of the protests in this movement were organized through social media. The purpose of the protests is to call for the Hong Kong government to withdraw the extradition bill that will allow criminal suspects to extradite to mainland China. Hong Kong citizens are concerned that the passing of the bill will compromise with the independent legal system of Hong Kong. The protesters highlight the shift in self-identification with the Hong Kong identity (Kuang & Kennedy, 2020). The Hong Kong protests not only call attention to issues of political identification, legal justice, and citizen movements but also show the apparent disparity and even conflicts between global citizenship and national citizenship (Chee, 2020; Lin & Jackson, 2020; Tu, 2020).

(II) Proposition 2: Citizenship in the Context of Globalization The definition of citizens should be revised due to the changes in individual living conditions and experiences in the context of globalization. The focus of this book is not to scrutinize the various formations of citizenship or definitions of political philosophies, but to focus on clarifying one important point: the definition of citizens should be revised due to the changes in individual living conditions and experiences

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in the context of globalization. That is, the transformation from a purely public domain to a private domain should also be taken into consideration. The reason why it is necessary to face the changes in the realm of citizenship includes Giddens’s choice of daily life in the process of self-identification of individuals in the late modern society (called life politics). His view reveals that when the individual lives in a system of high risks and technological surveillance, he or she needs a physical and mental safe space. This is the private sphere that not only serves as a buffer or escape, but a form of living practice. Chapter 2 concerns the fact that an individual’s life also includes public characteristics and explain that various recent completed legislation in the private sector (domestic violence law, artificial reproduction law, same-sex marriage law) reveal this aspect. As a result, the definition of citizenship should be supplemented and adjusted to show the diversity of global citizenship. Modern institutions differ from all preceding forms of social order in respect of their dynamism, the degree to which they undercut traditional habits and customs, and their global impact. However, these are not only extensional transformations: modernity radically alters the nature of day-to-day social life and affects the most personal aspects of our experience (Giddens, 1991). This book focuses more on the composition and connotation of an individual’s citizens based on the real-life situation of the individual. These changes consider not only the development of the political system, but also the impact and consequences of the changes in the global society. Thus, this book also explains the composition of citizens at different levels, presenting individual citizen experience and actions from multiple perspectives. The impact of globalization on individual life and social operation can be explored from multiple and different perspectives. When we talk about how to analyze the qualifications of citizenship, political citizens can be regarded as the most traditional and central connotation of citizenship. However, traditional atomism uses the one-person-one-vote mechanism to design a democratic election system that has the vote of each citizen to have the same value to achieve democratic opportunity and practice in form. But for certain minority groups, such as indigenous people, new immigrants, and physically and mentally disadvantaged people, it is near impossible to form effective, positive communication with mainstream society and reflect on their different traits and statuses through democratic institutions. Friedman (2018) sketches the term “cosmopolitan capital” by comparing the enactment of global citizenship education to depict the unequal experience and displacement of college students in different status universities. He argues that the high-status universities decline to cultivate students with a sophisticated cosmopolitan disposition for positions of leadership and, on the contrary, the low-status universities do not thoroughly encourage students to learn about the world and develop social tolerance. The higher education institutes become an unequal social system since they only select certain undergraduates as global citizens. Hence, the affirmative practices in democratic systems founded on multiculturalism, such as the recognition of differences, respect, and supplementation, is increasingly becoming the core plan for implementing social justice. For this reason, this

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book also takes on a cultural perspective to interpret the connotation and performance of cultural citizens in the context of globalization and analyze the attitudes of teachers and students on college campuses. Through this approach, this book aims to present the care ethics and practical values that global citizens should have. Generally speaking, economic issues are rarely touched on when discussing citizen qualifications and even economic issues are omitted in the discussion of citizen qualifications. If there is any discussion, reducing the overwhelming gap between the rich and the poor is used to review whether citizen qualifications are properly maintained. But in the context of globalization, economic issues are not just the focus of national macro-control, as Article X of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights refers to as the right to work. This concept is even more prominent in the context of globalization. On the one hand, it responds to the competitive environment in the workplace. On the other hand, it hopes to pursue individuality and autonomy in a work style that tends to be uniform. In other words, emphasizing the opportunity to participate in the economic life of the individual makes work more than just pursuing maximum wealth. Work also symbolizes individual identity and social class position. This is why this book considers economic citizenship as a composition of global citizenship. Because the composition of citizens is not limited to the public sphere, how should we interpret the meaning of citizenship in the private sphere? For individuals, the private sphere is not only a manifestation of self-life style and a practice of selflife decision, but also an area of positive resistance or response to technological rationality and survival risks in the context of globalization. The practice of intimate citizenship demonstrates a way of thinking that is rather different from public rationality. Such life experience or role behavior is worthy of being examined from the perspective of citizenship. This is due to intimate citizenship is not completely practiced on the hidden and inward self. Rather, the decisions that the individual make in lifestyle and intimate relationships are deeply impacted by the development of globalization to transform into expressions that respond to the macro life in the context of globalization. Therefore, intimate citizenship can be regarded as a form of citizenship that is forced to develop and perform in an intense manner. That is, although intimate citizenship is not a traditional form of citizenship, it is highly connected to external social changes. More importantly, intimate citizenship fiercely maintains self-space and displays autonomous action and will in the private sphere to act as an active response of citizenship in the context of globalization. The analysis and discussion on this aspect can be regarded in the book as the development of the theoretical and practical level of global citizens. Over the past few decades, largely since the arrival of second-wave feminism and the lesbian and gay movement—a new field of enquiry that connects the public social life world to the private personal life world has been taking shape. Simultaneously, major new fields of both social investigation and social policy have been appearing from domestic/sexual violence and reproductive rights to identity politics and gender/

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sexual discriminations. People confronted by a plurality of public discourses developing about how to live the personal and intimate life in a late modern and global world (Plummer, 2003).

(III) Proposition 3: The Implement of Global Citizenship Although the learning and cultivation of global citizenship is based on a global vision and scope, it needs to be implemented in a real, accessible, and everyday manner. This book sets forth the critical and practical exposition that when state apparatuses and educational institutions are pressured by the development of globalized political, economic, cultural, and technological trends, they seem to lose their influence in political power, economic control, cultural identity, and technological surveillance. However, the paradox is that no matter how strong the globalization wave becomes, state apparatuses and educational institutions still remain the foundation of important systems and mechanisms that cultivate and educate global citizens. Among all educational systems, the concepts and practices of global citizenship are more valued at the higher education stage. This is due to learners having developed corresponding levels of maturity in independent actions, independent thinking, social awareness, and other qualities. Based on cross-domain and cross-international training goals, the global citizen-related abilities and actions of college students have received greater emphasis and attention. As Stein (2015) mentioned, although global citizenship education has arisen as a core agenda to teach undergraduates the capacity to encounter and engage in the uncertain and risk society, the term “global citizenship” remains under-discovered in the context of higher education. On the other hand, the homogeneous development of globalization causes a predicament in which college students are expected to be intellectuals who resist the invasion of globalization in the areas of science, technology, and culture. Under globalization and its concurrent advantages and disadvantages, the cultivation of global citizens as means to counter globalization is another education outlook to consider that increases college students’ acknowledgement toward what is happening around the world.

(IV) Proposition 4: The Influence of Higher Education Higher education institutions performing in terms of curriculum structure, teaching practices, and promotional developments are worthy to examine. Then, the question that is worth exploring is: concerning the functions and responsibilities of higher education college institutions, how do college institutions perform in terms of curriculum structure, teaching practices, and promotional developments? These issues continue to be discussed through cases in different countries and regions. In this book, the author wants to bring to view how higher education (including adult

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education) has developed in Taiwan. This educational development in the case of Taiwan is special because Taiwan has long been impacted and restricted by its relations with China. To this day, Taiwan is still unable to participate in international organizations such as the United Nations, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). Recently, Taiwan’s exclusion from the World Health Organization has received attention again due to the global pandemic. With a population of 23 million, Taiwan is placed at 11th in 2020 of the IMD (International Institute for Management Development) World Competitiveness ranking and 1st in Asia in the Gender Inequality Index. Although Taiwan is obviously limited in its actual participation in international organizations, the state apparatuses and educational institutions under this political entity and government are still committed to the development and implementation of global citizenship education. Chong (2020) investigated the curricular integration to advance student’s competence on global citizenship and found that having weak interdisciplinary knowledge will be difficult to develop transferrable skills. Based on Taiwan’s performance and results, this book hopes to show the direction that we strive for, the difficulties that we face, the challenges that occur, and the evidence, trends, and significance of these performances provided through empirical research. This is a discourse as well as an action. By discussing how to clarify the cultivation of global citizens, specific national and social systems need not just the external support from transnational organizations, but sufficient beliefs and action for the development of global citizens to become increasingly mature. In terms of specific actions, we can see that even political entities which are restricted to some extent can still speak and act for themselves based on the values of cultivating good global citizens. These political entities can still seek the best possibilities and dedicate themselves to introspection and reflection on related education policies and programs.

(V) Proposition 5: The Individual Experience in Global Citizenship The development of global citizens needs to emphasize the implementation of individual experiences. The development of global citizens needs to emphasize the implementation of individual experiences. In the higher education stage, studying abroad is often equated with the cultivation of global citizens. This can be regarded as a trend, but this is also a misconception. In fact, the cultivation of global citizens should be universal and even integrated into universal education policies or programs. This is to emphasize that the promotion of all learners to advance forward together in global citizenship competency. Teachers’ education should highlight the need for increased pre-service and in-service training opportunities for teachers of global studies related courses (Saperstein, 2020).

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The case of “Laureate’s transnational civic learning project” extends its missions on the scale of global society and consists of broad core competencies to prepare leaders for a precarious and uncertain future. The youth encounters the challenges for reserving the very sustainability of the planet. This projects consists of broad core competencies of self-awareness about local and transnational society, social diversity, reflect power relationships, and taking actions for common good. The development of human resources and civil society depends on the ability and will of global citizens to work together across national borders, languages, cultures, religions, politics, and economic ambitions for shared goals and values (Plater, 2017). That is to say, the formulation and implementation of education policies need to start from the learners as the foundation and grasp the actual situation and issues. Only by doing so can educational policies be planed and promoted based on the experience, perspectives, and feelings of the learners. Therefore, this book utilizes numerous research methods, including in-depth interviews, questionnaires, and focus discussions. This is in order to collect, present, and analyze the development of global citizens on university campuses and the opinions of teachers and students. In regards to global citizenship research, when we propose various ideas and discussions, we need to apply better research tools and methods to help us think based on actual situations. As for the practical development of global citizenship, global citizenship is a concept that covers a wide range of issues. We need more information from different regions to understand and analyze the differences in the development and performance of each region. Therefore, these research findings in this book can also reveal how workers and learners perform in the field of education in terms of cognition, affection, and behavior within the context of East Asian ethnic Chinese communities and Confucian culture. These materials are worth expanding to different countries or regions for comparison and discussion. As the report of IEA (International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement) on international civic and citizenship education study (ICCS, 2016) recognizes that foundational skills are important, yet that these alone are not sufficient to enable young peoples to prosper in a world with uncertainty and crisis. The young generation requires an open and culture-oriented approach, a moral orientation emphasizing human rights and a focus on social justice and active political participation. This statement illustrates the necessity of education design and plans for cultivating students with the knowledge, values and skills to become global citizens. It is worth noting that this article not only explores the realm of general universities in the discussion on specific educational institutions but also focuses on the performance of adult higher education institutions, especially community universities that have developed in a Taiwanese context. These adult education institutions are established through the educational and social movements led by nongovernmental forces. One of the founding goals is to “emancipate knowledge” and the other is to promote “civil society.” The community university aims to break the exclusive educational ivory tower dominated by elites and provide means for adults to know themselves, others, and modern society. After the emergence of the first community university in 1998, numerous community universities have been established in localities all over Taiwan. Within 10 years, community universities have become

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widespread. They have brought forth a new trend of adult higher education learning and are integrated with the local community and its residents. Through the methods of co-reading, speculation, and discussion, community universities outline specific practical actions to achieve the ultimate vision of building a “civil society” that can enhance citizenship and create a new culture in Taiwan. After the changes in the past twenty years, how to present the civic formation and in-depth performance of community universities, especially the exploration of global citizenship practices and restrictions by adult higher education institutions. In addition, it can help us to clarify and grasp the progress of global citizens in real social situations. Based on these five propositions, an outline of this book and each chapter is given below.

Chapter 1: Introduction: The Complexity of Global Citizenship The opening chapter outlines a framework for the study. The author provides a systematic analysis and discussion of how citizenship education cultivates the competencies and literacy of a younger generation to meet the challenges and uncertainties within a global social movement. In this introduction, the author offers a theoretical framework for exploring the complicated matrix of citizenship theories based on the complexity of global citizenship, highlighting the international focus on global citizenship.

Chapter 2: Cross Boundary and Learning Reflection: An Analysis of Crossing the Borders of Citizenship in a Global Society This chapter analyzes the transformation of frameworks and the content of citizenship in a postmodern society where the public and private spheres emerge to challenge public governance and personal life. The author advocates that citizenship extends to the private sphere rather than being limited strictly to the public sphere and is significant for extending the life worlds of both individuals and collectives. This chapter describes a research framework that fits citizens’ experiences into the diverse fields of a postmodern society. Reflections on this approach and its dimensions are taken into consideration in describing the limitations of modern society based on the purchase of public political success. The author also shows that the private sphere can create positive agency in the face of global challenges.

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Chapter 3: Cultivating Multifaceted Citizenship by Curriculum Development and Practice in the Community University This chapter is an exploration of the objectives and content of a community university’s curriculum in the context of globalization. It aims to enhance democratic citizenship and cultivate citizens’ capacity. Because the curricula of an educational organization present its thoughts and values, I adopt the curriculum as the material for analysis in this study. The curriculum guidelines and content for Taiwanese community universities are investigated via a content analysis method.

Chapter 4: Global Citizenship Education and Its Pedagogical Practices This chapter explores the features of global citizenship and analyzes the ideal learning structures for forming citizenship through education and pedagogy. It illustrates how the young generation cultivates adequate abilities and attitudes through systematic pedagogical practices. An example of “poverty” is used as the content to discuss pedagogical activities for students learning of the complicated challenges in the global era.

Chapter 5: Opportunities and Challenges: A Study of Undergraduates’ Experiences of Becoming Global Citizens This chapter examines the study abroad experiences of undergraduates, explores the values students place on being global citizens. Studying abroad also provides them an opportunity to express the way they think of themselves as members of the broader world community. The research was conducted by interviewing students who had studied abroad. It aims to open a debate about the meaning of student’s global mobility, which is based on the opinions and values of college students who had either studied abroad long or short term. The study shows that students have grasped the transformation of globalization and are concerned with their competitiveness on the global stage. They pointed out that their higher education courses do not provide enough opportunities for students to encounter the broader world. These students often had to cope with culture shock in issues such as the way they interacted with classmates, attitudes about contributing to society, and the linguistic barrier to communication due to not knowing the local language well enough. Proposed changes can start by having professors, for example, bring the

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reality of other cultures into the students’ learning process, show their students the common values and competencies of modern college students around the world, and facilitate and encourage critical thinking.

Chapter 6: Teachers’ Perspectives on Student Competency in Global Citizenship This chapter suggests that the college teacher serves as a critical and practical actor in cultivating students’ knowledge, behavior, and affection so that they progress in global citizenship competencies. This chapter adopts a research questionnaire to survey college teachers’ opinions on college students’ achievements and difficulties in gaining global citizenship literacy. Global citizenship views the ability to operate in the knowledge and skills that consider life experience in the context of globalization as fundamental to the young generation. The extents to which knowledge and skills differ from traditional education policies that emphasize national identify education for learners deserve an investigation. To this end, a practical and empirical survey was used to probe into teachers’ values and attitudes in this regard.

Chapter 7: Undergraduates’ Self-Evaluation of Global Citizenship Competency: Analysis by Structural Equation Modeling Undergraduates’ global citizenship achievements and performance are critical issues for higher education in practicing its duty in the global society. I employed a literature review and theoretical analysis as well as in-depth interviews and focus group meetings to construct a research questionnaire. Undergraduates were the respondents in this survey and the data was analyzed using measures of frequency, ANOVA, t-test, post-hoc test, and structural equation modeling. The results found that a relationship exists between the respondents’ knowledge, affect, and action.

Chapter 8: Conclusion: Global Citizen Formation as a Practical Approach to Assuring a Peaceful Future Education has long been perceived as an instrument and institution for social changes, its progress and citizen formation. Global citizenship makes a valuable contribution to advance and improve citizen quality for modern challenges on a global scale and

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scope. This chapter not only portrays the complex debates of global problems but also points out the goals for sustainable development in the future. Taipei, Taiwan

Amy Shumin Chen

References Baildon, M., & Alviar-Martin, T. (2020). Taming cosmopolitanism: The limits of national and neoliberal civic education in two global cities. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 40(1), 98–111. Beck, U. (1999). What is globalisation? Polity Press. Chee, W. C. (2020). Local and global, but not national: Citizenship education of south Asian migrant students in post-colonial Hong Kong. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 51(2), 146–164. Chong, E. K. M. (2020). How does globalization shape the interdisciplinary curriculum development in Hong Kong’s education reform? Curriculum and Teaching, 35(1), 23–51. Dagger, R. (1997). Civic virtues: rights, citizenship and republican liberalism. Oxford University. Friedman, J. Z. (2018). The global citizenship agenda and the generation of cosmopolitan capital in British higher education. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 39(4), 436–450. Galston, W. (1991). Liberal purposes: Goods, virtues and duties in the liberal state. Cambridge University Press. Giddens, A. (1991). Modernity and self-identity: Self and society in the late modernity age. Polity Press. Harshman, J. (2017). Developing globally minded, critical media literacy skills. Journal of Social Studies Education Research, 8(1), 69–92. Held, D. (2003). From executive to cosmopolitan multilateralism. In D. Held & M. KoenigArchibugi (Eds.), Taming globalization: Frontiers of governance (pp. 160–186). Polity Press. Kuang, X. X., & Kennedy, K. (2020). Hong Kong adolescents’ future civic engagement: Do protest activities count? Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 50(3), 428–446. Kymlicka, W. (2003). Contemporary political philosophy. Clarendon Press. Lin, C., & Jackson, L. (2020). Decolonization, nationalism, and local identity: Rethinking cosmopolitanism in educational practice in Hong Kong. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 40(1), 87–97. Losito, B., Agrusti, G., Damiani, V., & Schulz, W. (2016). Young people’s perceptions of Europe in a time of change: IEA International Civic and Citizenship Education Study 2016 European report. Springer. Peters, M. A., Britton, A., & Blee, H. (Eds.). (2008). Global citizenship education: Philosophy, theory and pedagogy. Sense Publications. Plater, W. M. (2017). Transforming the world in which we live: Laureate’s transnational civic learning project. Higher Learning Research Communications, 7(1), 16–26. Plummer, K. (2003). Intimate citizenship: Private decisions and public dialogues. University of Washington Press. Rhoads, R. A., & Torres, C. A. (2006). The university, state, and market: The political economy of globalization in the Americas. Stanford University Press. Saperstein, E. (2019). Perceptions and experiences of global citizenship education. Northeastern University. Saperstein, E. (2020). Global citizenship education starts with teacher training and professional development. Journal of Global Education and Research, 4(2), 125–139. Schattle, H. (2008). The practices of global citizenship. Rowman & Littlefield. Stein, S. (2015). Mapping global citizenship. Journal of College and Character, 16(4), 242–252.

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Tarozzi, M., & Torres, C. A. (2016). Global citizenship education and the crises of multiculturalism: Comparative perspectives. Bloomsbury Academic. https://doi.org/10.5040/9781474236003. Torres, C. A. (2015). Global citizenship and global universities: The age of global interdependence and cosmopolitanism. European Journal of Education, 50, 262–279. https://doi.org/10.1111/ ejed.12129. Tu, D. (2020). Identity and citizenship in Hong Kong: A theoretical reflection using Chinese landscape painting. Chinese Education & Society, 53(1), 47–56. UNESCO. (2002). Report of the world summit on sustainable development. United Nations. UNESCO. (2015). Global citizenship education: Topics and objectives. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Yemini, M. (2017). Internationalization and global citizenship: Policy and practice in education. Palgrave Macmillan.

Acknowledgments

This book is a testimony to the collective efforts of many people, without whose help it would have never materialized. It began life as a doctoral thesis and has since been reworked to make it more gainful for a wider readership. Interdisciplinarity lies at the core of this endeavor, and it required me to venture outside familiar intellectual terrain. I had to engage with disciplines and epistemologies beyond the purview of my research area. Ultimately, this book represents a long and reflective journey on thinking and narration. This task was made easier by Professors Po-Chang Chen and Sheue-Yun Chen, who introduced me to research and writing for interdisciplinary studies. I thank them for supervising my doctoral work and for their help in shaping my academic career from the very beginning when I committed to being a researcher and teacher in the fields of education for citizenship, sociology of education, and globalization. Without my experience as a visiting researcher at the Institute of the Societal Issues at UC Berkeley, I would not be able to expand my local perspective to include international values on education for global citizens in this new era of uncertainty and risk. While there, the cordiality of Professors Martin Sanchez-Jankowski, Christine Trost, and Deborah Freedman Lustig made my stay at Berkeley feel like home. Editor Lawrence Liu was the one who contacted me to write this book, and his encouragement made the process of revising the manuscript a lot easier. I will always hold dear the memories of us meeting and talking in Taipei City and Singapore. I also appreciate the help that editors Melody Zhang and Sophie Li provided regarding all the book’s production details. Professor Chen Wei Chang is an intimate friend, and we share many viewpoints and experiences on citizenship education and global mobility in higher education. Their kindness and generosity are greatly appreciated. Moreover, I would like to express my deep gratitude to Professors Liu Mei-hui and Carlos Torres on writing the foreword. I regard them not only as my forerunners in terms of their approaches in studying citizenship education but also as much valued academic career advisers. I sincerely thank my friends and family for their warmth and hospitality during my writing. As with so much of my academic labor, writing this book interrupted my family life and friendships. I thank all those who were affected for their consideration, patience, and support. xxix

Contents

1 Introduction: The Complexity of Global Citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 Social Movements, Citizenship, and Globalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Transformation in Citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Multiple Dimensions of Citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.1 Liberalism as a Foundation of Citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.2 The Citizen’s Individual and Collective Social Roles . . . . . . 1.3.3 The Citizen’s National Identity in Global Era . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.4 The Citizen’s Awareness of Consumption Society . . . . . . . . . 1.4 East Asian and Taiwanese Higher Education Responds to Globalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 Global Citizenship Education and the Vision for the Future . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Crossing Boundaries and Self Reflections: Public Roles and Private Choices on Citizenship in a Global Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Dilemma in Public Roles and Personal Choices for Citizen . . . . . . . 2.2 Technology and Information Monopolizes Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Restriction in National Governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Emergence of Life Politics to Resist Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.1 Resist to Technology-Based Supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.2 Struggle for Self-Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.3 Reflexivity as a Capacity to Shape Self-Identity . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 Integration of Public and Private Livelihood to Foster Citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Cultivating Multifaceted Citizenship by Curriculum Development and Practice in the Community University . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 Lifelong Learning for Citizenship in the Global Society . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Dimensions and Transformation of Citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 Transformation in Citizenship Spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2 Multiple Citizenship Development for Globalization . . . . . . 3.3 Methods and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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3.3.1 Backgrounds of Community University . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2 Courses in Each Community University . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.3 Content Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Distribution and Variation of Global Citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.1 Distribution of Each Analysis Items . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.2 Distribution in Private and Public Spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.3 Correspondence Analysis of Citizenship Development . . . . 3.4.4 Analysis and Meanings in Each Community University . . . . 3.5 Multiple Patterns for Developing Global Citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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4 Global Citizenship Education and Its Pedagogical Practices . . . . . . . . 4.1 Global Citizenship as Reaction Toward the Risk Society . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Global Citizen as an Agency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Features and Dimensions of Global Citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.1 Transformation of Citizenship at the National and Global Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.2 Learning Framework for Global Citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Experiential Learning for Global Citizenship Education . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.1 Development of Critical Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.2 Internalize Reflective Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.3 Preparation for Vocational Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.4 Multiple Alternatives in Lifestyle Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.5 Practice Reflexive Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5 Teaching and Learning Practice for Global Citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6 Capacity and Reflection for Action in Real World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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5 Opportunities and Challenges: A Study of Undergraduates’ Experiences of Becoming Global Citizens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 Student’s Global Mobility and New Education Agenda . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 College Students for Global Mobility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Backgrounds of Respondents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Implications and Lessons designed for Students Global Mobility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.1 Students Global Mobility and Awareness of Global Citizens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.2 Enforcement of Students Mobility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5 Bring the Reality of Other Cultures into the Classroom . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Teachers’ Perspectives on Student Competency in Global Citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 Global Governance in Multiple Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 University as a Site for Global Citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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6.2.1 Students’ Global Mobility and Forming Global Citizens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.2 Undergraduates Requiring Global Literacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.3 Significance in Evaluation of Teachers’ Viewpoints of Global Citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 Response of Higher Education: Thought and Practice on Global Citizenship Literacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.1 Teaching as Fundamental Approaches to Cultivate Global Citizens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4 Methods and Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.1 Research Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.2 Development of Research Instrument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.3 Reliability and Validity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.4 Sample Analysis and Statistical Analysis Strategies . . . . . . . 6.5 Findings and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.1 Mean of Undergraduates’ Competency in Global Citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.2 Importance and Performance Analysis of Undergraduates’ Global Citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.3 Cluster Analysis of Teachers’ Opinion of the Importance and Performance of Global Citizenship Literacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.4 Encountering Changes and Challenges of Global Citizenship Literacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6 Empower Teachers’ Teaching in Global Citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6.1 Support for Teaching to Increase Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6.2 Encouraging the Development of Teacher’s Worldviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Undergraduates Self-Evaluation of Global Citizenship Competency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 Student’s Engagement on Global Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Empirical Discovery on Undergraduate’s Opinions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.1 Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.2 Survey Instrument and Definition of the Variables . . . . . . . . 7.2.3 Sampling Design and Questionnaire Returns Rate . . . . . . . . 7.2.4 Reliability and Validity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.5 Representative Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.6 Statistical Analysis Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 Student’s Performance and Shortage on Global Citizenship . . . . . . . 7.3.1 Descriptive Statistical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.2 Estimation of Goodness-of-Fit for the Measurement Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.3 The Structural Equation Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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7.3.4 College Students’ Self-Evaluation of Their Global Citizenship Knowledge, Affection, and Action . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 Conclusions and Suggestions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4.1 Students Lack Awareness in Global Issues and All Latent Variables Have an Influential Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4.2 Enriching the Connection from the Local to the Global as Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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8 Conclusion: Global Citizen Formation as a Practical Approach to Ensure a Sustainable Development for the Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1 A Complex of Global Problems and Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 Debates on Future Development and Learning Engagement . . . . . . . 8.3 Promoting Student’s Awareness on Global Citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4 Goals and Competences of Global Citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.5 Prospect for Future in a Global Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

157 157 159 160 162 166 168

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Chapter 1

Introduction: The Complexity of Global Citizenship

1.1 Social Movements, Citizenship, and Globalization Citizenship addresses the significance of individual rights, obligations, and legal status as national citizens. This chapter clarifies how nations and societies adapt and transform the statements of citizenship in a changing social context. Individuals are not only passively included by national form or social context, but also actively expanding their potential space against national regimes and authorities. Deliberative negotiation is extremely significant to assure that the development of citizenship will not be limited to moral and legal regulations and thus lose its validity in this uncertain period. Differences in systems and values among British, American, and European societies emphasize the diverse perceptions about citizenship across these different social contexts. In Britain, citizenship is based on a strong socialist tradition and emphasizes reducing social stratification, class conflict, poverty, and unemployment. It focuses on those issues to increase the cultivation of individual citizenship and decrease class inequality in traditional society. America is a nation with multiple races that focuses on minority civil rights, feminist citizenship, civic moral, and cultural rights. It seeks to cultivate citizen knowledge, attitudes, and competences to promote the consolidation of different groups in a multicultural society. The European Union aims at creating citizenship on a large scale as a legal reality to develop a common concept of citizenship based on a variety of national traditions and understandings. The European Union aims for peace, well-being, freedom, security, justice, and sustainable development, and fights against social exclusion and discrimination. In the 1980s, scholars in England and the United States, e.g., Marshall (1950), MacIntyre (1990), Taylor (1989), Sandel (1982), and Walzer (1983), became dissatisfied with the new conservative policies of the American President Reagan and the British government of Thatcher. Moreover, they rejected the social and political policies of classical liberalism, neoliberalism, and liberal egalitarianism. These scholars recognized citizens’ responsibilities and obligations within a nation and advocated building a political system that would benefit from civic participation and pursue © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. S. Chen, Global Citizen Formation, Governance and Citizenship in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-1959-5_1

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the civic virtue of Republicanism. They believed that the spiritual character and core values of citizens’ lives are the fundamental constituents of democracy and freedom in national development. Furthermore, they viewed voting as one of the approaches in political participation, and scholars conceded that the traditional virtues and values of the community played key roles in the quality of citizenship. Therefore, individuals interested in the progress of and alternatives to citizenship should consider the reality of their social environment to create concepts of individual citizenship that corresponds to social change. Many sociological scholars have focused on exploring how the transformation of society has positively influenced political participation and individual life. These scholars have developed numerous terms to describe the features and structures of postmodern society, such as postindustrial society, bourgeois society, super-industrial society, postcapitalist society, and postmodern society. For example, in the view of famed sociologist Anthony Giddens (1990, 1991), modernity is the abbreviation of modern society or industrial civilization in its simplest form traditional society is rapidly changing into modern society, but the social context does not separate its forms from modernity. We obviously acknowledge the existence of capitalism, science and technology, and democracy in many countries. Furthermore, ordinary life, which is governed by cultural, economic, and political systems, continues to operate according to the rules of modernization. Modernization can be viewed as a progressive process that includes the development of social change and social evolution, accompanied by knowledge, democratization, technology, international trade, and globalization. Consequently, while we define our social reality as postmodern, the term shows its limitations in explaining real life. Postmodern society is a stage that occurs after modern society. The society opens diverse possibilities for the individual to challenge and change traditional society, but also entails uncertainty and causes everyone to live in fragile circumstances. Searching for self-identity in ordinary life and for collective groups to find belonging drives individuals to engage in self-actualization and self-realization in their everyday contexts. The interconnection between personal self-identity and macro social movement in the contemporary state highlights the basic rhythm of everyday life. It is common for a social movement to cause every person to need to adapt and reflect themselves through self-expression in public life and career planning in personal life. Thus, the defining characteristics of society must incorporate personal life tracks. Therefore, this research defines the social context in terms of high modernity, which Giddens describes as a “radicalization of modernity” (1990, 1991). The concept of high modernity attempts to improve social systems via risk management, environmental protection, closing the gap between the rich and the poor, and finding coherence between different social changes (Misiaszek, 2018). High modernity thus enhances our attention to each individual’s ordinary life as well as the public good. Private life and public roles interact and may even contradict one another. For instance, individuals who practice citizenship and participate in community events, and do things for the common well may have no gender consciousness. They themselves may not feel discriminated over gender issues and may have never been criticized for their sexual preferences in public. When the rationale and principles of

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private and public life are inconsistent in society, those who have been discriminated are frustrated living together. However, a progressive society with gender consciousness and equality should be the goal in both the personal and public sphere. Another example of how the public and private interact, sometimes negatively, is the information and technology policy adopted by the Taiwan government to collect citizens’ fingerprints. The government announced that citizens had to cooperate with this policy. The government saw itself as making laws to manage society, but at the same time, the rights of and respect for citizens were destroyed. The program was discontinued after a public protest. The above two cases show how citizenship not only refers to personal resources and privileges in the public sphere, but also what citizens own in the private sphere. The traditional basis of the nation-state puts emphasis on citizens’ public responsibilities and obligations, but citizenship under the social context of high modernity is based on a different concept. The formulation of membership in this kind of social transformation gives one power and rights in various issues for making decisions based on deep consideration. The individual life of self, diversity, and differences in the context of high modernity strong emphasizes the emergence of political life. The strongly political issues of citizenship emerge from the struggle for an ordinary life with political choices based on the dialectic of love, intimate relationships, and choices in one’s personal life decisions. Giddens (1991), Beck (1992), and Lash (1994) put forward a theory of reflexive modernization that describes the principles by which citizens maintain the multiple dimensions of their life experiences. Given these circumstances, it is critical to re-evaluate private and public life using personal reflexive decisions and solutions when one encounters social changes. Giddens (1991), Beck (1992), and Lash (1994) are famous for their theory on the social movement into a post-traditional culture in which individuals understand their self-identity as a reflexive life project. The high risk and uncertain consequences of globalization address challenges toward human beings, and people are forced to reflect, and construct their biographical narratives as they go through life. In order to live in these transformations, people need to be able to recognize forces of socialization and alter their position in the social structures. An individual shaping his or her own norms, tastes, politics, desires, and so on, would define a high level of social reflexivity. People in the late-modernity society people have to treat their identities as a continuous project. In Giddens and Lash’s viewpoints, citizens embrace the cognitive, aesthetic, and hermeneutic aspects of individual life as reflexive approaches and expand the right to have autonomy in their choice of lifestyle. Reflexivity can be viewed as a strategy for coping with the late modern society and further examined as an approach to discover the transformation in society. Reflexivity is also as a methodological issue that includes both a subjective process of self-consciousness inquiry and the study of social behavior with reference to theories about social relationships. Therefore, the potential to deepen and develop the concepts and practices of citizenship within the social context of high modernity can be fulfilled by illustrating new structures for citizenship and transforming the development of citizenship with a comprehensive viewpoint. With this in mind, the research objectives of this study are discussed below.

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1.2 Transformation in Citizenship This book outlines the theoretical discourses, previous studies, empirical findings, and practical approaches of the universities and colleges making progress in global citizenship education. Each chapter illustrates the influential structures and critical issues of global citizen formation and applies multiple research methods to discover the opinions of respondents and students regarding their ability and educational environments. The author’s aim is to explore the relationship between theory and practice as well as applying various educational research topics and methods to provide an understanding of global citizenship education from a comprehensive and systematic perspective. No doubt, in this new century, dramatic changes in information, communication and transportation are synergistically enhanced by the interconnectedness of technology, opening a new space for citizens to develop opportunities that offer better life choices and experiences. However, society encounters problems ranging from natural disasters to human alienation caused by technology, which move ahead as quickly as engineers and artificial intelligence can take them. In order to cultivate and equip human beings with better alternatives, the educational system has to overcome the disadvantages of individualism as it seeks to establish an awareness of community, a concern for humanity and the common good, and the ability to peacefully coexist with others. As the complexity and struggles of global issues spreads through our modern world, the educational system entails a duty to open the minds of learners’ to think and act with alternative viewpoints on behalf of the future of our planet. Although global level issues are always entangled with unsolved critical threats, the solution has to be initiated and constructed from the grassroots up by individuals themselves as political members who belong to the global society. That is why, in this book, the author attempts to illustrate the possibilities of higher education’s advancement through engaging with teachers and students to reflection our era of globalization, both locally and globally. Political members belonging to the global society perceive the limitations of national citizenship. Equally significant is the rise of normative claims based on international law that are binding the state and recognize that the rights and duties of individuals no longer begin and end with the authority of the state (Falk, 2002a). Global issues cut across national boundaries and break down the baseline of internal and external affairs in a country. We can view the example of environmental protection in macro-perspective. When a national policy aims at environmental protection and sustainability, it does not merely maintain a limited area to support its long-term development, but must also deal with the catastrophic devastation caused by natural disease and climate change. Each nation has to respond to such disturbances with a solution that can deal with threats and effects beyond its borders. Besides our interaction with the natural environment, conflicts and contentions among groups, religions, ethnicities, and self-interests erupt into hostility and demand global solutions (Falk, 2002b). A profound trend in communication and transportation is increasing human migration, but it is hampered by the violent struggles

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that continue to occur around the world. The value of multiculturalism is doubtless appealing as protection against inequity and injustice. The basis for interactions among differentiated groups is to encourage the diversity of cultures and interaction among those of differing identities wherever people meet on the global stage. Therefore, developing individuals who have the values and competency of global citizenship becomes a useful and critical approach in a global society. Educational institutions play a key role in, conveying and leading learners to realize their role in the future and the world.

1.3 Multiple Dimensions of Citizenship Global and multicultural citizenship are two sides of the same coin: one internally focused and the other externally focused. Cultural and ethnic communities need to be respected and legitimized because not only do they provide safe spaces for ethnic, cultural, and language groups on the margins of society, but they also serve as a conscience for the nation-state. The aspects of citizenship in the global society face multiple structural changes concerning how individuals cope with the uncertain risks in life.

1.3.1 Liberalism as a Foundation of Citizenship Liberalism proposes that freedom, democracy, and equality are the principles which each country should establish a constitution, and administration to operate a mature political system with citizen participation. The theory of liberalism assumes a rational, autonomous citizen operating within a certain kind of consensual liberal democracy. Liberalism is discussed in a limited way. Friedman (2006) further explication of liberalism as a movement emanating from the Age of the Enlightenment and its historical development over time from classical liberalism, to social liberalism and also economic (or neoliberal) forms of liberalism. Citizenship education aims to represent a modernist conception of enlightened learners as social actors with agency for pursuing life. As Giroux indicates, without an understanding of the political and economic context of inequalities, we cannot attain the pursuit of liberalism, which emphasizes democracy, Liberalism is often little more than a simple-minded celebration of individualism and citizenship, taking for granted the ability of the capitalist state and its attendant market logic to address the suffering of subordinated and marginalized groups. (Giroux, 1989, p. 55)

Citizenship in this view is characterized by strong individualism that results in a weak social bond, especially with people from other cultures. Since the world is going through a process of interaction and migration, this conception of global citizens indicates the need for approaches that will cultivate citizens with values

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that respect diverse others. To understand the global community as a whole society means one cannot ignore ethical challenges such as how to evaluate and balance between freedom and the common good, economic growth and social justice, and social welfare and fair competition (Kymlicka & Norman, 2000). Neoliberal ideas of citizenship have been widely criticized from a holistic perspective by Young (1990) and Nussbaum (2002) for their market-oriented influence on education policies. This has led to arguments on how liberal and/or republican citizenship cannot meet the needs of an increasingly diverse society. Nussbaum (1996) advocates world citizenship rather than state or national citizenship as the appropriate central focus in civic education. This is because education for world citizenship helps promote individual and collective self-awareness as well as a spirit of cooperation in solving global problems, acknowledging the moral obligations from the wealthier and privileged nations to the rest of the world. In her view, cosmopolitanism in the present day often emerges as a global extrapolation of classical liberal principles such as liberty, equality, and justice. Nussbaum (1996) indicates that, If we really do believe that all human beings are created equal and endowed with certain inalienable rights, we are morally required to think about what that conception requires us to do with and for the rest of the world. (Nussbaum, 1996, p. 14)

Citizenship rights are formally given to all citizens, but in practice are unattainable to specific groups due to cultural differences. From a pragmatic perspective, citizenship implies a degree of equality. Rights that are conferred to citizens on equal terms will not be realized unless the cultural differences that comprise the whole of the citizenry are taken into account. Inequality will persist if cultural differences are not considered in the formal narrative. Liberal thinking on minority rights has too often been guilty of ethnocentric assumptions, or overgeneralization from particular cases, or conflating political expedience with moral principle. If liberalism is to have any chance to take root in newly emerging democracies, it must explicitly address the needs and aspirations of the ethnic and national minorities. For states to address the cultural differences that define contemporary multicultural societies, a pragmatic solution that formally considers the relevant differences that have created certain categories of people is needed. Consensus is a key element of a well-functioning society (Carabain et al., 2012). One of the most important identities for a community is its beliefs of belonging to each other. Community thus goes against the individualism preached by liberals. The basic principle of community is that people are by nature part of a socio-cultural formation. What matters is that the central focus is not on individual goals, but rather on common goals. Loyalty to the community is an essential value for living together. A typology of the different sorts of minority rights that ethnic and national groups may demand is critical. People tend to distinguish various forms of cultural pluralism, which can sometimes be conflated under the label of “multiculturalism,” especially between “multination” states that have national minorities and “poly-ethnic” states that have ethnic groups.

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In particular, there are three types of groups differentiated via collective rights: rights of self-government (involving the delegation of powers of government, often within a federal structure), poly-ethnic rights (involving financial support and legal protection for certain practices associate with particular ethnic or religious groups), and special representation rights (guaranteeing representation of minority groups within the central institutions of the larger state).

Identity and community conclude with examples of each type from various countries and explore some key differences among them regarding their institutional embodiment and constitutional protection. More than ever before, the competences of multicultural perspectives, the emergence of global issues, and an open, respectful, compassionate attitude to difference have become vital to education systems and policies. From the multicultural view, citizenship denotes active participation in a multicultural society and respect for its similarities and differences. People from different groups without mutual understanding and respect will engage in conflict with each other. For example, institutionalized racial segregation and discrimination dominated South African society until the early 1990s. The resulting racial stratification caused internal conflicts among the different races that persist to this day. The conflicts and struggles for the development of citizen virtues in this new era of rapid interaction and transformation force people to building a better community whether it is on the local or global scale. To cultivate global citizens, education must foster the cognitions, attributes, and behaviors that define the global citizen as someone who understands how the world works, respects diversity, acts to make the world a more equitable and sustainable place, and takes responsibility for his or her actions.

1.3.2 The Citizen’s Individual and Collective Social Roles The formation of a modern global citizenship defines a citizen as one that belongs to a particular country as well as to a modern state offering “civil” citizenship in a global context. The meanings of “global” contain complex conceptions and related theories range from extreme individualism to extreme communism, and all points in between. This framework views global citizenship as core competitiveness of personal ability and development involving global mobility. Concretely, it means a youth with the freedom, power, and mobility in the world to pursue a successful and wealthy life. We can trace back to Kant’s promotion of a “cosmopolitan theory”that regards beings as members in a single moral community of the world where citizens share common moral laws of equality, freedom, and independence. Tully (2008) indicates that the definition of global citizenship contains two contested meanings which are “modern” and “diverse” ways of thinking. Examples of dichotomous pairs of these ideas include global citizenship from above versus global citizenship from below, low intensity versus high-intensity global citizenship, representative versus direct, hegemonic versus counter-hegemonic, and cosmopolitan

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versus place-based. “Global” and “globalization” in the diverse citizenship tradition refer to the global networking of local practices of civic citizenship, in contrast to the use of “global” and “globalization” in modern/cosmopolitan citizenship. “Diverse” global citizenship in crossing territorial boundaries pursues commitments for the public good and participation in the larger community. Mason (2014) discussed these two approaches to global citizenship and proposed a comprehensive conception of a “justice account” to modify Tully’s (2008) ideas of global citizenship. Mason (2014) argued that the “justice account” of citizenship can extend to disagree with either the moral or legal dimensions of global citizenship and generates a fundamental principle for practicing global citizenship in a real society in which citizens are interdependent and interact with others with good manners for the public good (Mason, 2014). The “diverse” tradition recognizes a multiplicity of different practices rather than a single set of standards. Traditional political thinkers have argued that while global citizenship is formulated in both real and ideal societies, it struggles to equitably arrange individual benefits and accomplishments with collective advancement and the common good. In addition to the spectrum of issues encountered when trying to achieve consensus across individualism and altruism, alternatives can explain the different approaches to the features of global citizenship. For example, James Tully’s (2008) analysis marks a refreshing change from the familiar contrast between liberal and republican approaches. His main distinction is between what he calls modern and diverse traditions. The modern tradition possesses a particular set of rights and duties and their corresponding institutional preconditions, for instance, of the government, schools, and legislatures, which provide standards and allocate resources to civil action. The abstract individualism of the liberal tradition tends to view the individual and community as being in opposition and in part, this explains their ambivalence toward responsibilities, democracy, and social rights. In particular, the emphasis placed on individual autonomy makes liberals suspicious of notions of community. A series of dualisms echoes this fundamental opposition and can be traced through liberal theory (Falk, 2000). The spectrum of global citizenship reveals the complexity of approaches to understanding citizen identity in society and in the global age. Dual and more controversial conceptions of global citizenship are also employed by Falk (2000), who identifies “ten dualisms of liberal citizenship” (Table 1.1): Citizenship is closely related to personal and social identity. People develop a sense of identity from their experiences and backgrounds, which may involve race, gender, ethnicity, location, faith, family, sexuality, employment, or some combination of these factors. They may also define themselves as citizens of a particular country, with varying degrees of allegiance to that country’s traditions and values. The overall effect is to create diversity, uncertainty, and tension—a potentially explosive mix. With an increasing population of immigrants bringing more diversity into the mix, each citizen builds and forms his or her own identity by developing new, long-term personal and family ties. These changes mirror developments in the scale and scope of globalization and global society.

1.3 Multiple Dimensions of Citizenship Table 1.1: Ten dualisms of liberal citizenship

Individual

9 Community

Agency

Structure

Private sphere

Public sphere

Men as citizens

Women as caretakers

Freedom through the market

Equality through politics

Market rights

Social rights

Active citizens

Passive citizens

Rights

Responsibilities

Sovereignty

Human rights

Science

Nature

Source Citizenship, Keith Falk (2000). London: Routledge, p. 57

Citizenship has become a sensitive political issue with the growth of international conflicts (Humes, 2008). Therefore, the definition and explanation of global citizenship show that policy and theory must investigate the fundamental framework and values of global citizenship to generate a baseline of individual rights in modern society. Kymlicka (2003) emphasizes that political conflict among multiple groups should be solved with the principles of justice and freedom. The multicultural view of the rights and obligations of citizens represents a critique of the discourse of liberalism for its extreme emphasis on freedom, equality, and political power. The theory thus leads to a lack of relationship between public responsibility and civic common good, which is an urgent issue in light of the conflicts and risks of our era.

1.3.3 The Citizen’s National Identity in Global Era National identity is a very complicated and multidimensional matter. National identity is an abstract concept in which a citizen recognizes that he or she belongs to a specific location and political entity. This term suggests that citizens empower their own political influence by participating and changing the legislation and constitutions within a specific boundary. Moreover, the recent political arena suffers under contradictory trends in which minority groups search for alliances with others left out of cooperations because of their “differences.” This political connection and cooperation among groups are driven by the emergence of globalization and interaction among different groups. The union of different groups conveys the ideal discourse in which individuals and their willing cooperation are respected in their decision-making. Therefore, the difference represents a potential baseline for cooperation. However, identity is a “relational concept” which draws distinctions “between us and them” and fulfills emotional functions (Brown, 2000; Welsh, 1993). Identities

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are generally complementary, but in changing circumstances certain identities may become more prevalent (Okamura, 1981; Osaghae, 1994). We can now say that national identity is constructed and dependent on time and space. The concept of identity is introduced both as a notion of continuity and of change without making them contradictory. Nonetheless, continuity, in so far as it concerns the “self” in its relation with the “other,” is meaningless without transformation. The solution to linking individuals and collectives in the context of nationalbelonging and global citizenry is the core agenda of cosmopolitanism. This is primarily regarded as a specific idea or behavioral pattern. Cosmopolitan individuals are those who consider themselves unfettered by the boundaries of existing political communities and their loyalty is not only toward any particular political community, but also the community of all human beings. Contemporary cosmopolitanism is typically presented as mere detachment from the political systems of nation-states, but it actually posits a notion of openness to the world. It is beginning to be seen as a legal and political framework, as an ethical ideal and vision of justice, and as a type of identity choice made by individuals. The formation of a global society urges people to seek their local, ethnic, religious, and national identities. Global society then grows because the global networks that evolve out of the intertwining local networks are necessary to its survival.

1.3.4 The Citizen’s Awareness of Consumption Society Globalization is the rapid spread of the capitalist market and capitalism privileges the global economy. It espouses competition in global markets and widens the gap between the rich and poor to produce inequality on a global scale. The world’s economic and political systems are undergoing their most dramatic transformation since the emergence of the international economy in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. After the end of the Cold War, the collapse of the Soviet Union, the reality of a stagnant yet enormously rich Japan, the reunification of Germany and its consequent return as the dominant power in Western Europe, and the rise of China and Pacific Asia have impacted every aspect of international affairs. Changes and developments include the technological revolution associated with the computer and the information economy, and the redistribution of economic power from the industrialized West to the rapidly industrializing and crisis-driven economies of Pacific Asia have become more prominent. Colonialism and imperialism have driven the growth of global interaction, communication, and transportation for several centuries, and the expansion of capitalism has increased inequalities in social status and classes in every society. However, this rather pessimistic position declares that the clash between communism and capitalism has been replaced by conflicts among rival forms of capitalism and social systems represented in regional economic blocs. The growth of a global civil society is intertwined with the history of colonialism and

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imperialism because economic development has been a key incentive for nations to increase their influence on the global stage. World system theory refers to the inter-regional and transnational division of labor, which divides the world into core countries, semi-periphery countries, and periphery countries. Core countries focus on higher skilled, capital-intensive production while the rest of the world focuses on low-skilled, labor-intensive production and the extraction of raw materials. The structure of the world system constantly reinforces how the dominant core countries fabricate a world economy rooted in capitalist economic practices. Although social justice suffers from exploitation by the force of capitalism, the concept of global citizenship should not only establish the prosperity of capitalism and global markets, but also emphasize the importance in realizing of public good and a civil society in which citizens strengthen their bonds with the human community and contribute to social inclusion, cohesion, and justice. A variety of international organizations with global concerns work for modern workers Obviously, the idea of global citizenship supposes citizens are equipped with the ability to compete in global social and economic trends as well as mechanisms that support fair and just interactions in a global civil society. Scholars have considered and clarified strategies for developing global citizenship, and rules that lead citizens to be active in public life. Held (1995) has linked his understanding of global citizenship to a proposed model of cosmopolitan democracy that would include an elected worldwide assembly, an international judiciary, military force, economic policy institutions, and transnational and nongovernmental organizations. Held argues that states should no longer be regarded as the exclusive power centers within their borders but should be “relocated” within an umbrella of cosmopolitan democratic law, and the sovereign authority of states is situated within an overarching global legal framework. Held(1995)promotes a conceptual enlargement of citizenship in order to account for multiple ties to different spheres. People sustain through access to global governing institutions and informal networks within transnational civil society (such as Greenpeace institutions, international religious foundations, Youth Chamber of Commerce, and Amnesty International) through engagement. “Citizen” in this framework is both a role and a member, one who cannot only adhere to national level rights, duties, and obligations but who also intends to be aware and present in global problems. As Gaventa (2001: 278) has written, …global citizenship is the exercise of the right to participate in decision-making in social, economic, cultural and political life, within and across the local, national, and global arenas. This is true especially at the global level: Where the institutions and authority of global governance are not so clear, the rights of citizenship are made real not only through legal instruments but through the process of citizen action, or human agency, itself.

The campaign of global citizenship and the outcomes of education, which include the dimensions of pedagogy and curriculum, give schools and communities a profound conception of how learners are impacted by capitalism in the global age. A prime task for showing citizen competence and the responsibility of global citizens

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is to create citizen awareness of the oppression and exploitation caused by capitalism in a broad sphere which encompasses the changes regarding information and technology in the global market. When citizens are able to identify the influences of a market-oriented society and take the initiative to build an equal and fair society, the quality and well-being of society can advance. If citizens maintain their public duty of environmental protection and sustainability, they will not only evaluate their consumption habits, but also critique their own waste of resources.

1.4 East Asian and Taiwanese Higher Education Responds to Globalization The overwhelming adoption of neoliberal, free-market economic policies in the 1980s and the subsequent deregulation of education have had an impact on many systems in Europe, North and South America, and Asia (including New Zealand and Australia) (Olssen & Peters, 2005). As the world becomes more globalized, student populations in university settings continue to diversify in Asia–Pacific, where Taiwan is located. Many countries in these regions have restructured their systems of public education systems in an attempt to give higher education institutes relative autonomy and enable them to assume responsibility as independent institutions. As a result of deregulation and liberalization, individual institutions have become more competitive and accountable through the creation of an overall market mechanism within the education system (Giroux, 2002). Multiculturalism is vibrant, while nationalistic fervor is often stoked to destructive ends. To ensure that students develop the cultural competence to adapt to new environments, universities and colleges must develop policies and programs to aid in cultural acceptance and understanding. The young generation of Asia–Pacific learners faces an increasingly interconnected but highly fragmented world in the global epoch. Urgent action to address the complex issues of today can ensure a sustainable and peaceful tomorrow. Promoting global citizenship education in the Asian–Pacific movements, the UNESCO in Bangkok is actively involved in advancing global citizenship competency in education systems throughout Asia–Pacific. The development of each country and region presents various experiences in the global citizenship education in higher education. I address the Taiwanese experience and development of global citizenship and illustrate some countries of Asia–Pacific in the issues. Singapore and Hong Kong have adopted depoliticized forms of citizenship as a means of inoculation against global ills. In practice, although critical, transnational, and other emergent civic perspectives are apparent in both cities, they yielded little evidence of curricular opportunities for students to become exposed to alternative discourses and discursive contradictions (Alviar-Martin & Baildon, 2016). However, these types of citizenship are not only more nationalistic than global in nature, but more moral rather than political, focusing mainly on utilitarian goals to produce adaptable workers to support national economic projects in the global economy.

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These countries emphasize the development and achievement of national power for economic ranking in the world, and global citizenship education aims to cultivate a citizen with comparativeness in economic attainment and participation in the world economic systems. While we scrutinize developed Japan’s progress in citizenship education, Japanese development education has enthusiastically absorbed the fundamental principles of world studies, global education, and development education, which include critical thinking, global dimensions in education, and participatory and learner-centered methods that all revolve around social justice and human rights. Those principles are shared broadly within the field of development education in Japan and are considered indispensable for cultivating global citizenship in the social context and cultural diversity of schools and universities. But, most Japanese schoolteachers hesitate to practice education based on critical, participatory, open-ended, and learner-centered principles. Teachers are even reluctant to take up politically controversial issues in their classes. Although the law of “Basic Act on Education of Japan” of Article 14 promotes that political education has “the political literacy necessary for sensible citizenship shall be valued in education,” the majority of schools and teachers in Japan emphasize Section 2 of Article 14, which states that “schools prescribed by law shall refrain from political education or other political activities for or against any specific political party” (Basic Act on Education of Japan, Act No. 120 of 2006, art. 14,). Therefore, teachers tend to avoid discussing politics in their classrooms, citing political neutrality as their reason for doing so. This limitation according to the Basic Act on Education of Japan produces barriers in the development of citizenship education as well as global citizenship education for teachers to teach undergraduates’ awareness as global citizens. In the 1980s, the Taiwan government focused on producing capital and technology-intensive goods for export and became a society that was dominated by the service industry. Concurrently, Taiwanese higher education systems had also reached a stage where universities started to recruit international students after many decades of primarily sending their own students abroad. Alongside Taiwan’s economy advancement and political process, the governance over higher education moved toward democratization in the late 1980s, and universities began to pursue academic freedom and autonomy inspired by their American counterparts. Higher education in Taiwan underwent a dramatic transformation after 1987, with the end of an authoritarian regime that had lasted four decades and the beginning of increased interactions between China and Taiwan. Educational advocates demanded greater social change through abolishing media censorship, granting more freedom to the banking establishment, and producing more competent college students to accommodate Taiwan’s emerging high technology industry. Governments in Taiwan have to reform to keep up with the worldwide trend of globalization and neoliberalism along with the processes of political democratization and economic transformation from the 1980s (Chou, 2008). In fact, there was a period when the establishment of private universities was strictly controlled and banned before the mid-1980s. In 1998, there were only 84 universities and colleges, comprising 410,000 students and 841 graduate institutes,

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while in 2003 the numbers reached 142 universities with 830,000 students and 2215 graduate institutes (Cheng & Wu, 2004). Governments asserted for neoliberal market ideology regarding political liberalism and economic deregulation; therefore higher education systems in Taiwan have expanded more than expected. The expansion of higher education coupled with neoliberalism’s influence has caused multiple consequences. Overall, policy-makers were convinced that adopting market-oriented mechanisms would encourage universities to decrease the financial burden of higher education. The evaluation of cost-effective behavior and increased efficiency as well as educational quality in the universities and colleges became the most important criteria for governance and management. The government’s role shifted from initiating rules and regulations toward specifying funding standards for universities and colleges and promoted accountability, performance, competition, and deregulation in the governance of higher education. The development of higher education in Taiwan in these past decades represents a transition from a highly centralized administration to government-regulated and market-driven management. The impact of foreign influences and local heritage on the current system as well as the uniqueness of a system that combines Japanese, American, Chinese, and local features that enforces Taiwan to pursue localization and globalization in higher education (MOE, 2016). According to the trends of globalization, the main aim of international education is to cross boundaries between countries to ensure promotion and mobility of human resources. In order to promote international education exchange programs and to integrate cross-strait educational affairs, the Ministry of Education in Taiwan has reconstructed its former Bureau of International Cultural and Educational Relations. Along with the Mainland Affairs Division and the Commission of Overseas Chinese Education Affair in 2013, it became the new Department of International and Crossstrait Education for policy-making and enhancement. The integration between the Department of International and Cross-strait Education provides students’ international engagement and learning programs through international cooperation, such as the interaction between Cross-Taiwan Strait students, overseas Taiwanese schools, and Mandarin Chinese education, protocol affairs about exchanges students and scholars, and overseas Chinese Students and international students’ service. Since there is a particular political relationship between Taiwan and Mainland China, Taiwan was disqualified from the United Nations. Nevertheless, the Taiwan government has figured out various strategies to contribute to the political, cultural, and economic growth worldwide. Another landmark in overseas cooperation and connection with higher education institutions is the new policy Southbound Talent Development Program. Launched by President Ying wen Tsai in 2016, this program integrates several goals. First, the Taiwan government offers quality education and professional training for domestic, ASEAN and Southeast Asian youths. Second, the Ministry of Education in Taiwan encourages universities to expand the bilateral exchange of young scholars and students. Third, higher education institutes focus on building a platform for bilateral educational cooperation. These goals are attained through multiple missions and responsibilities operated in higher education, such

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as: offering credit courses and programs on industries and regional studies geared toward the New Southbound Policy, providing subsidies to university students to train in overseas Taiwanese businesses or multinational corporations, and offering funding to university professors and students for overseas research in ASEAN and South Asian nations. This program implemented in Taiwan is a critical policy that benefits Taiwan’s international education with other countries. Not only does the Ministry of Education recruit international students to study in Taiwan’s universities, but the Ministry of Foreign Affairs also started a Taiwan Scholarship Program in 2004, continuing to encourage outstanding students to pursue academic degrees in Taiwan and deepening their understanding of Taiwan’s academic environment. Scholarship from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs is, in principle, granted to students from countries that have diplomatic relations with Taiwan. Taiwan’s current and future vision of international growth includes cross-strait cooperation and exchange, recruitment of outstanding students from Mainland China, Hong Kong, and Macau, and cultivation and sharing of talents with the international community, including the promotion of Taiwan’s Mandarin Chinese education performance. Due to the above critical factors which were influenced by educational management and policies, the educational expansion in universities and colleges, and missions undertaken by the administrations, we can tell that undergraduates have increased opportunities in global mobility as well as diverse interaction with classmates from different cultural backgrounds. In this trend, the cultivation of youth competency in global citizenship has become the essential agenda for higher education institutions. Because of international trends and events, young people broaden their international outlook and improve global mobility in Taiwan and other countries through expanding international cooperation on youth affairs and advancing youth international exchange.

1.5 Global Citizenship Education and the Vision for the Future According to the UN, global citizenship education provides the knowledge, skills, and values students need to resolve the interconnected challenges of the twenty-first century, including climate change, conflict, poverty, hunger, and issues of equity and sustainability. These same educational outcomes prepare students to be successful in the workplace of the twenty-first century as well. It has been true for decades that the United States stands as an international police officer in charge of the global order, although its influence and the consequences may not satisfy all the countries involved. The progression of constitutional systems, democracy, freedom, and equity prevail worldwide has become the universal norms in politics that touch on human rights and the common good. The international political systems push for more international laws and politics via the state mechanism

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and their foreign policies, which in the face of pressing global challenges. However, behind the achievements of the international order and values, world peace remains unstable and uncertain. Despite anticipation for long-term peace, people still lack confidence. We can see that Trump’s “American First” policy really changes the rules in international cooperation and competition, and the reform of China’s Constitutional Law on the national president’s term length immediately evoked international concern. International nonprofit organizations worry about how these events impact the balance among international powers. The consequences of this imbalance endanger multicultural values and the assurance of global peace. Education systems play a key role in improving society and cultivating citizens alongside the new trends addressed in learning and teaching missions. In facing the transformation and challenges of globalization, education must now be measured against the standards of decency and human survival. On the one hand, individuals should acquire the capacity to make decisions and act effectively in accordance with social problems. Because the practice of teaching and learning needs information and communication technologies to form sophisticated achievements, thus challenges and changes occur in educational innovation. In a sense, higher education not only serves as an approach to learn about cognitive intelligence but also a goal to create perfect citizenry. A global citizen is a bearer of the rights and values founded on respect for others, and global citizenship is about our equal moral status, which should be acknowledged wherever we live. A global citizen is also someone who commits to a certain view based on their awareness of how they ought to be treated and their behavior toward others. A global citizen embraces the world or what would be good for the world in terms of what should be done to protect the environment, maintain peace, make technology responsive to human ends, and pursue liberal immigration policies. Coming back to the original question of how we can convert people’s way of thinking in globalization and how we can achieve higher learning in foreign language education, perfectionist education would give us hope—the hope of awakening oneself and others by trusting the unlimited resourcefulness of language. We need to tap into new human resources for the global citizen—for the individual who will live in uncertain circumstances. This I shall conclude to be the fundamental sense of liberal education. Therefore, the educational system plays a key role in preparing and cultivating learners with a worldview that reaches beyond national boundaries. The goals to educate global citizens include a series of arrangements based on formal, non-formal, and informal education which constitute the programs, pedagogies, curricula, and activities for learners on and off campus as well as at local and global levels. The outcomes of global citizenship in ordinary civil life contribute to the grassroots community and social networks with a prospective competency in the global and universal issues that concern collective interests encompassing all diversity living on this planet. After all, the way citizenship is discussed and deployed actually evokes the daily life we lead and the way we interact, not only with our social, economic, and political connections, but as well as our physical environment and other extra-anthropocentric realities.

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Global citizenship education is a strategic area of UNESCO’s Education Sector program running from 2014 to 2021, which, for 7 years, will build on the work of Peace and Human Rights Education. It aims to make learners advance the values that support responsible global citizenship: innovation and commitment to peace, human rights, and sustainable development. UNESCO (2015) engaged in this field, which is guided by the Education 2030 Agenda and Framework for Action, notably Target 4.7 of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 4 on Education). These goals calls on countries to “ensure that all learners are provided with the knowledge and skills to promote sustainable development, including, among others, through education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture’s contribution to sustainable development.” Connected within Target 4.7, Global Citizenship Education Development (GCED) and Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) are recognized as mutually reinforcing approaches with commonalities and specificities. Both prioritize the relevance of education in order to ensure that education helps build a peaceful and sustainable world. Both also emphasize the need to foster the competences that allow individuals to make informed decisions and assume active roles on a local, national, and global scale. Additional information is that parts of the content in some chapters of this book have been published in various journals in Madarin, but all the articles have been thoroughly revised and rewritten in terms of the framework or the analysis. I appreciate all the opportunities to convey my perspective, analysis, and reflection on the issues of global citizenship for academic communities, policy makers, and educational practitioners.

References Alviar-Martin, T., & Baildon, M. (2016). Context and curriculum in two global cities: A study of discourses of citizenship in Hong Kong and Singapore. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 24(58), 1–31. Beck, U. (1992). Risk society: Towards a new modernity (M. Ritter, Trans.). Sage. Brown, R. (2000). Social identity theory: Past achievements, current problems and future challenges. European Journal of Social Psychology, 30, 745–778. Carabain, C., Keulemans, S., Gent M., & Spitz, G. (2012). Global citizenship: From public support to active participation. National Committee for International Cooperation and Sustainable Development. Cheng, G. G., & Wu, Y. M. (2004). The new challenge of the unbalanced development of graduate education in Taiwan. http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/economies/Asia-and-thePacific/ Taiwan.html#ixzz2r33HHWdV. Chou, C. (2008). The impact of neo-liberalism on Taiwanese higher education. International Perspectives on Education and Society, 9, 297–311. Falk, R. (2000). Human rights horizons: The pursuit of justice in a globalizing world. Routledge. Falk, R. (2002a). Reframing the international: Law, culture, politics. Routledge. Falk, R. (2002b). The great terror war. Interlink Publishing Group.

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Friedman, J. (2006). Preface. In E. Rata & R. Openshaw (Eds.), Public policy and ethnicity: The politics of ethnic boundary making (pp. xi–xxv). Palgrave Macmillan. Gaventa, J. (2001). Global citizen action: Lessons and challenges. In M. Edwards & J. Gaventa (Eds.), Global citizen action (p. 278). Earthscan. Giddens, A. (1990). The consequences of modernity. Stanford University. Giddens, A. (1991). Modernity and self-identity: Self and society in the late modernity age. Polity. Giroux, H. A. (1989). Schooling for democracy: Critical pedagogy in the modern age. Routledge. Giroux, H. A. (2002). Neoliberalism, corporate culture, and the promise of higher education: The University as a democratic public space. Harvard Educational Review, 72(4), 425–463. Held, D. (1995). Democracy and the global order. Polity. Humes, W. (2008). The discourse of global citizenship. In M. A. Peters, A. Britton, & H. Blee (Eds.), Global citizenship education: Philosophy, theory and pedagogy. Sense Publications. Kymlicka, W. (2003). Contemporary political philosophy. Clarendon Press. Kymlicka, W., & Norman, W. (2000). Citizenship in diverse societies. Oxford University Press. Lash, S. (1994). Reflexivity, and its doubles: Structure, aesthetics, community. In U. Beck, A. Giddens, & S. Lash (Eds.), Reflexive modernization (pp. 110–173). Sage. MacIntyre, A. (1990). Three rival versions of moral enquiry: Encyclopaedia, genealogy, and tradition. University of Notre Dame Press. Marshall, T. H. (1950).Citizenship and social class: And other essays. Cambridge University Press. Mason, A. (2014). Modern versus diverse citizenship: Historical and ideal theory perspectives. In J. Tully (Ed.), On global citizenship: James Tully in dialogue (pp. 229–246). Bloomsbury Academic. https://doi.org/10.5040/9781472544827.ch-007. Ministry of Education. (2016). Promoting global mobility for the young generation. Ministry of Education. Misiaszek, G. W. (2018). Educating the global environmental citizen: Understanding ecopedagogy in local and global contexts. Routledge. Nussbaum, M. C., et al. (1996). Patriotism and cosmopolitanism. In M. C. Nussbaum (Ed.), For love of country: Debating the limits of patriotism (p. 14). Beacon Press. Nussbaum, M. C. (2002). Women and law of peoples. Politics, Philosophy and Economics, 1, 283–306. Okamura, J. (1981). Situational ethnicity. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 4(4), 452–465. Olssen, M., & Peters, M. A. (2005). Neoliberalism, higher education and the knowledge economy: From the free market to knowledge capitalism. Journal of Education Policy, 20, 313–345. Osaghae, E. H. (1994). Ethnicity in Africa or African identity: The search for contextual understanding. In U. Himmelstrand et al. (Eds.), African perspectives on development. St. Martin’s Press. Sandel, M. (1982). Liberalism and the limits of justice. Cambridge University Press. Taylor, C. (1989). Sources of the self: The making of the modern identity. Cambridge University Press. Tully, J. (2008). Two meanings of global citizenship: Modern and diverse. In M. A. Peters, H. Blee, & A. Britton (Eds.), Global citizenship education: Philosophy, theory and pedagogy. Sense Publications. UNESCO. (2015). Global citizenship education: Topics and objectives. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Walzer, M. (1983). Spheres of justice: A defense of pluralism and equality. Blackwell. Welsh, D. (1993). Domestic politics and ethnic conflict. Survival, 35(1), 63–80. Young, I. M. (1990). Justice and the politics of difference. Princeton University Press.

Chapter 2

Crossing Boundaries and Self Reflections: Public Roles and Private Choices on Citizenship in a Global Society

This chapter analyzes how the framework and content of citizenship transform in a post-modern society, in which citizens’ everyday life in the public and private sphere are merged, creating challenges for public governance and personal experience. I contend that citizenship extends to the private sphere rather than being strictly limited to the public sphere and is significant to extend the lived experience of both individuals and collectives. This chapter presents a reflective research framework to understand the diversity of citizen experiences in a post-modern society. Reflections on this approach and its dimensions are considered in order to delineate the limitations of modern society which too often are based on the purchase of public political access. I demonstrate that the private life can create active meaning when facing these global challenges.

2.1 Dilemma in Public Roles and Personal Choices for Citizen There has been a long-standing discussion of citizenship-related issues on how to navigate between the public power of citizens and their public responsibilities. The approaches that explore the theory of citizenship have two origins. The first, discourse investigates political or social theories through relatively stable and clear systems of communication and an understanding of the definition of citizenship. The second discourse considers the rights, obligations, and responsibilities of individuals in public life remain a major issue regarding the multiple aspects of citizens’ roles. Citizenship issues encompass everything from the national and public governance level to the social, individual, and family level. In The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, Habermas (1989b) indicates that the private and public sphere coexist in society. The private sphere belongs to the citizens and their livelihoods. The public sphere means the political systems that are controlled by the national government. Giddens (1991) suggests that the © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. S. Chen, Global Citizen Formation, Governance and Citizenship in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-1959-5_2

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comparison of civil life politics to national governance is equivalent to the differences between the public and private sphere. Moreover, personal private life is under strict and thorough supervision via the media, medical systems, law regulations, and other mechanisms of public control, which causes changes in the interpersonal, gender, and power aspects in individual experiences (Arnot, 2008). Plummer (2003) also pledges to develop intimate citizenship and advocates that the practice of individual citizenship should include the private sphere. She also holds that we should analyze the connection between the private sphere and the quality of citizenship. As he analyzes that: What impact does the increasingly public character of personal life have on our sense of ourselves and on how we view our own intimate choices? To navigate our way through a world in which people’s private lives are so often subject to public scrutiny and debate, and in which the public sphere is increasingly pluralized and contested, we must broaden our understanding of what it means to be a citizen. (Plummer, 2003, p. 1)

Heater (1990) also states that one of the main goals of developing civil society is to develop a field that differs from traditional national power and identity. Civil society is an area within a political system that the national administrative power cannot thoroughly control or regulate. The rise of civil society, which is a world outside of the national regime and structural regulation, is filled with stronger autonomy and flexibility in personal and apolitical matters. Here we can clarify with an example from the medical field. One’s health is one’s own responsibility, but if anyone destroys his health and then uses up the coverage of his health insurance, it is not only his own family that incurs the cost; it also becomes a public expense. In our individual lifestyle, people can not only become aware of the existence of the political system and civil society, but also understand that civil society is a different entity than national state governance. Competition and conflict exists between the governance of public and national affairs as well as the life and the identity of individual development. In order to maintain a private, unique, and identifiable self, the individual struggles against power and desire, but finds his private sphere increasingly controlled by nations, systems, and regulations. This process creates a dilemma between how to connect to personal alternatives and rights in public life and how to maintain for the common good the right to make personal life choices. Connections between individual life choices and public governance in areas of alternative values, interest orientations, and the rights/responsibilities equilibrium gradually become the main rhythm. Therefore, multiple rights and responsibilities in the public spheres differ from private life. As a result, the formation and maintenance of citizenship mesh the personal and private fields. Individual citizenship is no longer limited to public responsibilities and rights. There are many cases that illustrate private issues taking on a public character: naked protests to raise the profile of some social issue, the medical treatment of physiological problems, and public health insurance expenditures on dieting and weight loss. Citizens participate in public issues and policies by using the body as a carrier to present their willingness and opinions.

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Public governance can correspond to differences and identities that emerge within the social context of high modernity (Isin & Wood, 1999). Simultaneously, individuals cannot stop their obsession with their desires, social positions, core values, and abilities. Most likely, although the physical and mental health of citizens is one of the critical goals for public health organizations and the government, the personal behavior of citizens—exercising, playing sports, dancing and even eating styles, also plays a crucial role. All decisions relate to the foundation of individual self-identity and autonomy (Ginsberg, 2000; Huang & You, 2004). Perspectives on the connection between individual citizenship and the private sphere were published in a special issue of the Journal for the Philosophical Study of Public Affairs on citizenship and education in September 2005. Tsai (2005) argues that the diversity and democracy of citizenship contradict each other because the conception of citizenship coexists as human rights, civil rights, and national and global citizenship. He described the diversity of citizenship as: The modern democratic nation is built on the basis of an open multicultural society that recognizes the diversity and differences within citizens’ political, social and cultural beliefs. For this reason, the authority of the nation includes various citizens’ identities. For example, citizens in each country are involved in political affairs. Citizens are also free to identify themselves as global citizens and can further affirm themselves by nationality. Furthermore, citizens can give up any form of citizenship and only identify themselves based on their personal work, family, and ordinary lives. (Tsai, 2005, p. 22)

This citizenship described by Tsai (2005) is a status of legitimation as well as a responsibility of obligation. Kymlicka (2003) points out that the political life of citizen participation in a collective society is not so much a right as it is a sacrifice. An individual can obtain enormous joy from intimate relationships, love, consumption, and work. However, traditional Aristotelian republicanism excluded personal life from political affairs. This logic will result in a strong gap between the public and private duties of individuals. If we follow traditional thinking and analyze the content or boundaries of citizenship, we will misunderstand the social context of high modernity. These observations remind us that, in the thinking of traditional citizenship theory, less emphasis is put on the moral disciplines of individual behavior locally or in the community. Thus, it has become an unavoidable issue to know how to reflect on both the self and social systems to develop a connection between the individual and society. Citizens participate in public affairs not only to pursue their individual rights, but also to realize citizens’ responsibilities toward their country. Based on the development of the nation-state, citizenship has been called a right and a duty. However, research shows that the definition and practice of citizenship may not be limited to public affairs. An explanation of traditional society by the theory of social action faces controversial difficulties in defining and exploring individual citizenship when it includes public as well as private affairs in governance. On the one hand, national supervision over the responsibilities of citizenship becomes more and more exacting, which appears to oppose democracy and the right for personal development. On the other hand, individual citizenship takes on forms in its rights and practices that increase private dimensions. Moreover, this trend may damage the common norms

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or systems maintaining society. Issues and approaches coping with this hydra-headed social problem deserve to find solutions.

2.2 Technology and Information Monopolizes Society The emergence of mass production, mass consumption, and mass government has prevailed along the development of technology and information which impacts the individual’s experience of the new ways to organize everyday work and home life. Coates (1998) indicates that there are six categories of new technologies which will fundamentally shape the human enterprise, including genetics technology, energy technology, material technology, brain technology, and information technology. The combination of these new technologies becomes new environmentalism for people. Moreover, these social changes strengthened by the mechanism of capitalism incentive cause social problems, such as people’s ability to use technology and information, citizen’s literacy toward media influence and power, the gap between the rich and poor on their resources and accesses toward technology and information, and the new lifestyles of communication and expression among people. Nowadays, global citizens are influenced by the overabundance of information and technology, especially in their interactions and collisions among technology, society, culture, and economic developments. The informational technology will be the focus analysis in this section. Researches also argue that information and technology developments not only fulfill instrumental functions but also gradually impact people behaviors and affections. Individual values, orders and methods about how to work, communicate, travel, and consume deserve re-examination. Lash, Giddens, and Beck have argued that information technology and the Internet connect together to form a strongly linked system which is a critical mechanism that extends to the convergences and diffusions among multiple social media and virtual communities in high modernity (Beck, 1994; Giddens, 1994; Lash, 1994). While this system is convenient for users, it is also marked by increasing hesitation. Surveillance conducted by states, organizations, and individuals has received attention because of its consequences on citizens. Information technology systems increase social interaction and to some extent destroy the nontechnical dimensions of society with their far-reaching and uncertain power. For example, although the environmental organization Greenpeace is not states-authorized, it has used information technology to build international connections. Information technology goes beyond the limitations imposed by state regulation on internal, sovereign, and diplomatic norms and even influences social developments (Beck, 1992). The invasion of information technology into culture, relationships, and individual consciousness may cause the collapse of organizations and expansion of power. For instance, when governments have the power to collect citizens’ personal data through information technologies, citizens’ personal spheres will become transparent to the state. In China, the province of Guizhou has established the world’s biggest camera surveillance network. Many of these cameras are installed

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with artificial intelligence, including facial recognition technology. This will change public life across the dimensions of community, ideas, communication, and social development. Information technology can be used to control individual life via two main approaches. One approach is to develop abstract symbolic systems by which we come to recognize as general knowledge. The other is to take professional knowledge from the construct of a specific person or field and to distribute it among different specialists (Langran & Birk, 2016). Symbols are convenient for communication, interaction, demonstration, and identification. Abstract symbolic systems with the attribute of transparency can be easily accepted by the public and form common standards for communication. The implementation of this system signifies that the symbol can decrease its original locality and gain significance by common acknowledgement. This operational logic allows capitalism to easily sustain itself via exchanges and consumption. The massive use of abstract symbolic systems under capitalism, which moves from individual ordinary life to the local and real society, can transform and modify individual life experiences in challenging ways (Beck, 1992; Giddens, 1991). For example, people’s understandings of their lifestyle are shaped by information distributed through TV, movies, the Internet, images and not necessary relate to their own personal life and communities. Instead, this information creates experiences of similarity toward distant places using abstract symbolic systems. People experience other cultures by watching travel TV programs without actually having to go there to experience them first-hand. Adults experience the idea of love by watching movies instead of dating others. Students play electronic games to feel empowerment and self-growth. Abstract symbolic systems come to occupy personal life. Basic necessities in life can increase value beyond the material foundation of society through the involvement of abstract symbolic systems. In the social context of high modernity, we can see that operational logic and ideological preferences increase the influence of distant events. A case in point is that credit card or online payments are not real currency. But people use them as money to make payments worldwide. Since money turned into a not-for-real paper or coin, it has become more abstract and refined its symbol in society. Furthermore, by taking on an abstract meaning, the credit card and bitcoin are no longer limited in locality, but can circulate around the globe. An abstract symbolic system raises a challenge for real social life. Lash (1994) argued that professional knowledge is uncertain and limited. In Lash’s view, professional knowledge is usually separate from the local life context. However, information is unequal to human wisdom and professional knowledge is only relevant for a relatively short-term period. As a result, people pursue information instead of truth and become entangled in the production of highly professionalized knowledge. Based on the advancement of science and technology, government agencies make control over personal life more rigid and supervise citizen’s rights and privacy. Although civic republicanism and communism advocate citizen’s public responsibility and civic participation, they do not imply that citizens should yield their boundaries without limitation to the government (Kymlicka, 2003).

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Governments monitor citizens by efficient information and technological mechanisms which entail professional knowledge and abstract symbolic systems. Professional knowledge and the abstract symbolic system diffuse across the Internet into the private and public sphere and form the concrete material basis of social relationships. Information regulation carried out by the government embedded into citizen’s lives, and people have concrete ideas about whom they have contacted. It is possible that some of the government’s control will be against citizen’s decisions and willingness. However, citizens have to agree that their knowledge is limited due to the compromise and concession with unfamiliar and unspecified specialists. The development of information technology not only executes the transformation of various interactive networks and patterns but also takes place within changes in social relations. Only if individuals pause and inquire about the rigorous control of technology and information can they defend themselves and refuse the overall control from the government (Beck, 1992, 1994). Because mechanisms of information technology are sufficient to influence people’s lifestyles by exchange, demonstration, representation, and the operation of abstract knowledge, they influence the self anytime and anywhere. Under the risk of the surveillance power in information technology, how to define citizen’s recognition confronts a new stage of crisis in balancing personal privacy and public good in the high technology society.

2.3 Restriction in National Governance Personal life with its political dimensions and influences puts national governance in a tough struggle in the social context of high modernity. Many critical works argue these issues, including Ellul’s The Technological Society (Ellul, 1964), Adorno’s The Culture Industry (Adorno, 2001), Marcuse’s One Dimensional Man (Marcuse, 1964) and Habermas’ The New Conservatism: Cultural Criticism and the Historians’ Debate (Habermas, 1989a). These books analyze “instrumental reason” and “technological civilization” based on the logic of capitalism, which oppresses lower social classes and humanity. Capitalism pursues the deregulation of polities and claims to practice the liberation of polities through a liberated approach. National governance transfers the characteristic of personal life to the polity involved. The choices of personal life tend to have a plausible pattern to escape from the control of governments. Individual practice of liberal politics takes place in a contemporary society in which the political dimension of personal freedom and the basis of information technology penetrate and intersect one another (Giddens, 1991). Simultaneously, this stage causes many social problems and contradictions. The definition of political norms is encountered in a complex of promises and practices. For example, gene engineering regulation conflicts with humanity; sex and gender issues remain problematic in many countries; family labor deserves a new reclamation; the individual’s attainment of liberty, equality, and democracy seeks new approaches based on a whole-sighted philosophy. Laws, regulations, and judgments have an impact on the

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ways of personal life. Moreover, the trends of transformation on social structures and cultures cause the individual’s relationship to national governments to change. This is apparent in Plummer’s (2003) discussion on the issues of intimate citizenship. She proposes that the definition of citizenship should gradually come to involve the individual life, including ordinary and private aspects. She argues that the complex dialectic of intimate citizenship demonstrates the difficulties that the individual faces when making life decisions in this highly diverse social context—decisions such as whether to marry or not, give birth to a baby or not, or pay joint taxes or not. A news article related to this phenomenon was reported in September of 2005 in Taiwan. A woman wanted to obtain her dead fiancé’s sperm for artificial reproduction after his death in a military accident. She expressed a strong desire to have a baby with her fiancé. Public opinion almost completely ignored that the child would be illegitimate in this case. Under traditional values and norms, she would not be allowed to conceive a child who would be born without a father from the very beginning of his life. There was tension between life ethics and reproductive technology ethics. The media and the public showed deep sympathy for her experience despite it going against traditional customs. Citizenship has both a public and private character. Difficulties arise in seeking a balance between personal alternatives and public orders for citizenship. Interactions of technology, national governance, and the individual’s will present constant adjustment, dialectic, and reflection processes between the self and society. How individuals make diverse and uncertain decisions in their lives reveal the one-dimensional limitations of national governance, public policies, and administrative regulations. However, political power cannot significantly interpret and correspond to the complex reality of an individual’s decisions in everyday life. Thus, the challenges of citizenship in such social circumstances deserve to be examined.

2.4 Emergence of Life Politics to Resist Control The comparison of the national state and civil society can be applied to the segregation of the public and private spheres (Giddens, 1988). Transformations within modernity itself have precipitated a new form of politics which Anthony Giddens names “life politics.” Whereas civil society is established by the people, national power penetrates the ordinary lives of citizens to affirm the operation of regulations and systems. Traditionally, the public sphere controls and oppresses peoples’ lives via bureaucracy, whereas the private sphere resists the intrusion of bureaucracy. The rationale for this observation is that the operational logic of pursuing the deregulation of the upper classes in democratic systems, and this logic is believed to be the proper way to illustrate the functional process of individual life plans and changes in personal decisions (Acker, 1992). The dynamic of personal liberation occurs within the diversity and differences among individuals to create multiple alternatives for personal life in the social context. Personal life plans do not necessarily coincide with the norms, folkways, customs, and values of traditional society and instead

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create multiple performances out of ordinary life matters such as cuisine, literature and art, fashion, relationships, and family interactions. Social protests such as those of student activism as well as social and feminist movements demonstrate how to pursue self-advocacy and identity in society. For example, the feminist movement looks into all the assumed concepts within ordinary life, such as rearranging the height of hooks in female toilet stalls, opening breastfeeding rooms in public places, and encouraging female participation in traditionally male-only occupations. The feminist movement thus covers the spectrum of living conditions from public policies to motherhood practices. Citizenship encompasses the connections of the public and private sphere in almost all life affairs. For example, personal health issues can simultaneously influence public health policies as well as the quality of family income and job outcomes. When public power becomes involved in personal affairs, such as citizen health management, public policies expand its control in certain aspects of personal life. For example, the decision of what school to attend is not only viewed as the parents’ free choice, but national educational policies shaped by political and economic systems define what constitutes as “going to school” and the length of compulsory education. Alongside this mandatory rule, some nations permit their private sphere to refuse the national education and implement home-schooling. This multifaceted law allows parents to take on another approach against compulsory education. The significance of this transformation is that the individual attempts to break away from the control of conventional modern civilization, and this process gradually decreases the influence of traditional society. Such development of national policies and the treatment of citizens also show how public power invades communities, local areas, and family systems. Transferring private affairs to the public field means that the personal sphere acquires public characteristics: the engagement of national regulations, systems, and bureaucracies increases the political nature of civil personal life choices. A clear example of this is the caring of the elderly and children. This is usually considered as family affairs, but when families oversee their family members, it increases government intervention. Sophisticated control systems operated by political, social, and technological power and regimes interrupt individual fields of life through the normalized patterns of public power (Foucault, 1965). To punctuate personal life choices with public systems and regulations results in either the acceptance or the rejection of personal existence, lifestyle, and identity. Those transformations evoke many questions about human responsibilities and relations in large-scale social and political movements. The individual’s life encounters, struggles, and challenges must suit the common good and self-satisfaction. Constant decision-making has become a steady rule for citizens, whether the decisions arise from affirming individual life politics or opposing against the invasion of public power in the personal life. Thus, each citizen should have the knowledge, virtue, and competence to handle the social context of high modernity. In addition to considering traditional public affairs, it should be possible to prevent interference from public power over personal life power and choices. Since the rapid and prevalent advancement of technology and information, it has become crucial for citizens to be able to defend themselves from authority.

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2.4.1 Resist to Technology-Based Supervision The distinctness between personal rights and national governance is under question. Since the absolute of personal rights and freedoms are not examined in detail, liberalism always calls for total freedom in our decision-making in ordinary life. However, in Kymlicka’s viewpoint (2001), such liberal theories may not fit with the struggle for citizenship in our era. Therefore, the relationship between private sphere and public sphere remains an issue to be explored. The boundaries of citizenship have overlapping public and private spheres, which creates conflicts and imbalances in areas of citizen rights and responsibilities. Kymlicka not only acknowledges the contradiction between the theoretical discourse and political practice but also advises limitations in the degree of national power over citizens. Kymlicka (2002) argues that in order to empower citizenry, national governance must be expanded and based on the common good to adjust the power gap between the government and the individual. He said: Some people face difficulties in making decisions in all aspects of life. These people may make mistakes and choose wrong solutions, lose dignity and do harmful matters of others and self. If we aim at caring human beings, we should stop these person’s behaviors. While people cannot deal with life with efficiency and function, we insist to respect their selfdecision. Its consequence is only pushing them in an awful circumstance. (Kymlicka, 2002, p. 213)

In short, national governance affects how individuals achieve the ideal collective life and responsibility. Although national governance and personal rights compete with each other, the individual’s political and social engagement should find an equilibrium. Thus, citizenship does not occur in a vacuum but is strongly connected to the individual’s life in its social context. The development of citizenship not only relies on common interest politics, but recalls the essential foundation of civic morals, knowledge, and abilities for all. To achieve the common ideal of a communicative and good society, national governance has to engage in ordinary life issues. However, is the power of national governance that easy to control? Supervising private citizen’s lives may not be acceptable. Furthermore, prevailing relations between information technology companies and governments will raise suspicions that the government is interfering with citizens’ freedom and privacy. For example, Taiwan’s Ministry of Interior Affairs planned to collect citizens’ fingerprints when citizens renewed their ID cards. The public expressed strong disagreement with this policy. Liu (2004) argued: Enforcing the government to collect personal information of (citizens’) fingerprints and DNA severely threatens individual dignity and privacy. All these actions should be examined by the Constitution. Collecting citizens’ fingerprint data doesn’t hurt any person’s particular rights. But, this policy gives personal information and privacy a transparent status that ignores the law protecting personal information. Furthermore, if any citizen refuses to provide their fingerprints, they will not be allowed to have a new ID card. This condition creates inappropriate links in due process. Human rights are severely offended by this policy. (Liu, 2004: E4)

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Even if there is a specific purpose for using information technology functions, national government policies should not strongly regulate individual citizenship practices (Giddens & Pierson, 1998; Habermas, 1989c). Supervision mechanisms pervade the development of technology, but in practice, citizens scrutinize the appropriateness of the supervisory system. A system of mechanical supervision faces a complicated decision-making environment when it can be implemented, and fundamental solutions depend on citizens’ reflexivity in recognizing the system. Because the national governance formulates the supervision policies, citizens have no choice but to accept them. To yield personal life to public policy causes conflicts. Under the supervision of national governance, citizens are exposed to uncertainty and risk. If we are to cope with all changes of events in new decision-making challenges, we need reflexivity in all supervision systems. When citizens become aware of the system and its entailing complications, they can affect system developments because they can actually step in to manage it. In conclusion, the competition and disputation over specific issues between national citizens and citizen self-identity will happen regularly. How the national government supervises its members refines the process of individual responsibility and seeks to build common civic values that include all members according to social equality and justice. Yet the system has to be flexible and open to deliberate individual development in the face of technological risks and national power. Furthermore, the competition between a supervisory system and citizens’ private space depicts national government bargaining with personal rights. This demonstrates the importance of lasting reflexivity over the supervisory system. For individuals, it is necessary to have open reflexivity in every kind of social situation to not only reach reasonable and practicable solutions for systems but also attain optimistic expectations of the system.

2.4.2 Struggle for Self-Identity Social movements of individualization, diversification, and detraditionalization decrease the morality that affects individual life choices and self-identity. It is time to review the conception that industrialized society remains adequate to expand and transform the social structure in areas such as class/hierarchy, male/female division of labor, and the nuclear family is up for review (Liou, 2002). Individuals should live with constant consideration with reflexivity. The dynamic process of self-identification becomes more radical when accompanied by the ideas of liberalism, which view personal freedom and democracy as the core spirit of political systems. The value of freedom and personal decisionmaking is not only a principle in public affairs but also a key factor in private individual lifestyles. This also goes for developing and managing personal relationships. Decisions about marriage, giving birth, and maintaining relationships are typically categorized into private spheres. Behaviors or attitudes toward birth, rites, festivals, weddings and funerals present as the realms of social rituals and religious culture.

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However, personal decisions and life movements affect all aspects of high modernity. Identity is a result of self-directed regular references to social changes. But the process is difficult and full of uncertainty and contradiction. There is neither one standard nor is there an obvious answer for the conclusion of life and self. An example of how individual lives get involved in deliberated and uncertain situations is modern couples who spend only weekends together. This means how the couple interacts depends on cautious and self-conscious decisions, instead of falling back on traditional social expectations or co-dependence. Another case also exemplifies the phenomenon of unpredictability. The “Artificial Reproduction Act” was enacted in 2007 in Taiwan to provide a legal framework for would-be parents to conceive via artificial reproduction. This law connects the private field of reproduction with public citizenship by defining the boundaries of what it means to be parents. Reproductive technology makes it possible to become parents via medical technology. But beyond the implementation process and its results, ethical issues were examined. Scholars, specialists, and representatives of private groups established an advisory committee. This committee not only considered the development of social ethics, medicine, and the maintenance of public health but deliberated on an acceptable basis to implement this Act. Private life ethics and public health cooperated to prevent commodifying sperm and ova and protect the autonomy to give birth and engage in artificial reproduction. Individual life experiences encompass a range of possibilities in the high modern social context. Nonetheless, individuals express themselves through various possible choices, experience, styles, and values, and this results in conflicts with others. For example, how much time should be spent with one’s lover? What is an individual’s favorite diet? How about one’s sleeping schedule habits? How are holidays celebrated? Individual expressions of everyday life are not written on a blank slate. Consequently, public governance should contemplate the experience of individuals and take private citizenship into consideration.

2.4.3 Reflexivity as a Capacity to Shape Self-Identity Constantly developing and revising self-identity is a fundamental pattern for individuals in late modern society. Giddens (1991) proposes that self-identity is a well-organized reflexive plan for self-integration, autobiographical narratives, and multiple choices of lifestyles. Self-identity can form various possible presentations of “self,” as the individual constantly responds to positive and negative feedback in the social context. This process is also recognized in the statements about the politicization of personal life choices from Beck (1992), Beck and Beck-Gernsheim (2002), and Giddens (1992). These personal choices and actions do not follow customs but require citizens to make decisions, even under conflicting or contradictory conditions. The reason for defining individual life choices as being “political” is that these choices, the everyday decisions that play out in personal life experiences, illustrate one’s political interests or values.

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When Beck and Giddens discuss the transformation of family life and self-choice in the social context of high modernity, they also state that there are changes in self-expression, self-management, and the negotiation of intimate relationships. Selfidentity develops in an inward direction toward one’s self-image, but at the same time it also extends to social networks with family, friends, and significant others. People’s lifestyles by the life patterns of their particular communities and are rooted in groups to establish and portray the self. Examples can cover a broad range of categories, such as the clothes they wear, the way they talk, the activities they do in their free time, the food they eat, the vehicles they drive, and the holidays they celebrate. These categories convey how each person identifies with their own personality and taste. (Featherstone, 1991; Friedman, 1994). In late modern society, democratization of personal lives and a reflexive self are forces that encourage a more egalitarian society. How the relationship network operates differs from traditional society in the social context of high modernity. The rules to establish intimate or interpersonal relationships are based on personal decisionmaking, autonomy, equality. This further forms the character of ethics and morals in interpersonal interactions when people connect with each other and show their concern (Beck, 1992; Giddens, 1992). This new structure for intimate relationships surpasses the definition of both the physical desire and power struggle in interactions between males and females and shapes diverse possibilities in sexuality and relationships. Furthermore, the awareness of human rights and women’s rights enforces and realizes the principles of power, autonomy, and equality among family members. Because of information and technology, our concept of space and time has changed; people become more familiar with each other due to the dramatic reduction of time and space. However, people still tend to build connections based on interpersonal relationships. People interact with each other through various means to reach solid egalitarian interactions and extend their connections. The individual’s intimate interpersonal relationships transform into new and flexible connections. The structures and models of behavior in these relationships are challenged by social movements (Giddens, 1992). This trend changes the meanings of intimate interpersonal relationships from past public rational thinking (Stallybrass & White, 1986; Wouters, 1986). The emergence of life politics in a high modern social context is exactly what traditional citizenship rejected from public boundaries, and some examples include purchasing personal life opportunity and affirming personal values. Conversely, one’s private lifestyle relates to the political arena in the individual’s life. The impact of that transition is that the multiple abundant self-choices of the individual’s life force citizens to concentrate on private matters. The associations and social network to develop self-identity have widely shifted to nonpublic boundaries, and individuals find satisfaction and seek belonging in those private networks. Consequently, the individual avoids the control of national governance, public supervision or the technological rationale. Instead, the individual joins clubs and organizations, attends virtual and actual communities, and participates in leisure activities to express his or her transformed individual life politics and different relationships. Generally speaking, what defines citizenship as belonging to the public sphere conflicts with the difficulties in interpreting and expanding the condition of everyday

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life? Public affairs and obligations cannot replace nor demolish the individuals’ attention to their bodies, intimate relationships, affectionate interactions, and family management. Political scholars who wish to situate citizenship closer to the contemporary social context have gradually noticed this struggle. The reflexive process of self-identifying not only calls attention to the rise of individual life politics, but also illustrate the diversity of personal life circumstances and focus on the private sphere. Indeed, the ways to judge individual citizenship should break through the segregation that exists between public and private aspects and promote a spirit of openness and flexibility. The discourse and related boundaries of citizenship should be redefined in the social context of high modernity. Many scholars agree that this perspective should be developed. For example, Gilligan (1982) and Noddings (1984) clearly advocate that gender, relationship and family relations should be promoted to expand the discourse and practice space into civil society. Plummer (2003) also agrees with this statement and supports the development of multiple relationships in intimate citizenship, which is defined as private life. Lister (1998) uses the term “differentiated universalism” to clarify that differences between the public and private sphere still exist. What the scholars above mentioned highlights the significance of connecting individual citizenship with the individual’s intimate interpersonal relationships in social transformation.

2.5 Integration of Public and Private Livelihood to Foster Citizenship This chapter analyzed individual citizenship-related issues in the social context that show how citizenship transforms in a high modern society influenced by globalization. Therefore, the traditional theory of citizenship that pertains to individual rights and obligations is restricted in a discourse attached to public norms. Since the drastic changes occur within each society as well as in crossing boundaries, we should examine the values, identities, and actions of individual citizenship. Defining citizenship in terms of knowledge, virtue, and ability can upgrade individuals’ participation in political life (Plummer, 2003). Competence of Citizenship can illustrate how citizen identity shapes the values of equal justice, freedom, and democracy in society. Therefore, citizenship should correspond to concrete conditions and be concerned with solving the contradictions that arise between public governance and personal freedom. People are also affected by the recent global financial crisis and its subsequent wave of massive unemployment in contemporary society. The difficulties that unemployment presents are not only obstacles in job searching, but also obstacles for the individual’s quality of life, values, and plans to carry out his or her duties for national public policy. Additionally, adequately predicting risk, making choices, and then living with the consequences are key points in the dynamic relationship between the

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individual’s self-plan and national public policies. That is why reflexivity develops in the context of individual self-choice. In fact, this mechanism has to function in our social context of high modernity. We should recognize the features of the private sphere in the development of citizenship. It is critical and crucial that we deal with obstacles in both the discourse and practice of expanding and deepening citizenship, which was traditionally limited to public affairs. The accompanying rise of issues in the private sphere, the tendency to be politically involved based on personal life choices, and the substantial influences or dialectic processes of defining individual citizenship should be included in further political and sociological studies. Although this chapter points out the competing relationship between public responsibility and personal rights in citizenship, one must still question to what extent citizenship should remain at the boundaries of the public sphere or to what extent it should be included within the boundaries of the private field. The answers to these questions all rely on further empirical research.

References Acker, J. (1992). Gendering organizational theory. In A. J. Mills & P. Tancred (Eds.), Gendering organizational analysis (pp. 248–260). Sage. Adorno, T. (2001). The culture industry: Selected essays on mass culture. Routledge. Arnot, M. (2008, May). Education, gender, and the global conscience collective: Explorations into the politics and ethics of educating the global learner citizen. Paper presented at TASE 2008 International Conference on Rethinking Inequalities in Education, Chiayi. Beck, U. (1992). Risk society: Towards a new modernity (M. Ritter, Trans.). Sage. Beck, U. (1994). The reinvention of politics: Towards a theory of reflexive modernization. In U. Beck, A. Giddens, & S. Lash (Eds.), Reflexive modernization (pp. 1–55). Sage. Beck, U., & Beck-Gernsheim, E. (2002). Individualization: Institutionalized individualism and its social and political consequences. Sage. Coates, J. (1998). The next twenty-five years of technology: Opportunities and risks. In OECD (Eds.), 21st century technologies: Promises and Perils of a dynamic future (pp. 33–46). OECD. Ellul, J. (1964). The technological society (W. John, Trans.). Vintage Books. Featherstone, M. (1991). Consumer culture and postmodernism. Sage. Foucault, M. (1965). Madness and civilization: A history of insanity in the age of reason (R. Howard, Trans.). Pantheon Books. Friedman, J. (1994). Cultural identity and global process. Sage. Giddens, A. (1988). Social theory today. Stanford University. Giddens, A. (1991). Modernity and self- identity: Self and society in the late modernity age. Polity Press. Giddens, A. (1992). The transformation of intimacy: Sexuality, love and eroticism in modern societies. Polity Press. Giddens, A. (1994). Living in a post-traditional society. In U. Beck, A. Giddens, & S. Lash (Eds.), Reflexive modernization (pp. 56–109). Sage. Giddens, A., & Pierson, C. (1998). Conversations with Anthony Giddens. Polity Press. Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice: Psychological theory and women’s development. Harvard University Press. Ginsberg, L. (2000). The hard work of working out: Defining leisure, health, and beauty in a Japanese fitness club. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 24(3), 260–281.

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Habermas, J. (1989a). The new conservatism: Cultural criticism and the historians’ debate (S. W. Nicholsen, Trans.). Polity Press. Habermas, J. (1989b). The structure transformation of the public sphere. MIT Press, Polity Press. Habermas, J. (1989). The crisis of the welfare state and the exhaustion of Utopian energies. In S. Seidman (Ed.), Jügen Habermas on society and politics: A reader (pp. 284–299). Beacon Press. Heater, D. (1990). Citizenship: The civic ideal in world history, politics, and education. Longman. Huang, H.-T., & You, M.-H. (2004). Anactive pursuer with a docile body? Health-and-leisure oriented consumption practice in a fitness center. Soochow Journal of Sociology, 17, 69-129. Isin, E. F., & Wood, P. K. (1999). Citizenship and identity. Sage. Kymlicka, W. (2001). Politics in the vernacular: Nationalism, multiculturalism, and citizenship. Oxford University Press. Kymlicka, W. (2002). Contemporary political philosophy: An introduction. Oxford University Press. Kymlicka, W. (2003). Contemporary political philosophy. Clarendon Press. Langran, I. V., & Birk, T. (2016). Globalization and global citizenship: Interdisciplinary approaches. Routledge. Lash, S. (1994). Reflexivity, and its doubles: Structure, aesthetics, community. In U. Beck, A. Giddens, & S. Lash (Eds.), Reflexive modernization (pp. 110–173). Sage. Liou, W.-G. (2002). The Discourse on the modern social theory of consumer culture: Cultural economy, lifestyles, and the aesthetics of everyday life. Soochow Journal of Sociology, 11, 113– 136. Lister, R. (1998). Citizenship: Feminist perspectives. New York University Press. Liu, C.-Y. (2004). The arguments of citizens forced to establish their fingerprint and the act of protection of individuals’ information. Retrieved April 19, 2005 from http://intermargins.net/ Forum/2001%20July-Dec/privacy/nation/na08.htm. Marcuse, H. (1964). One dimensional man: Studies in the ideology of advanced industrial society. Beacon Press. Noddings, N. (1984). Caring: A feminine approach to ethics and moral education. University of California Press. Plummer, K. (2003). Intimate citizenship: Private decisions and public dialogues. University of Washington Press. Stallybrass, P., & White, A. (1986). The politics and poetics of transgression. Methuen. Tsai, Y. W. (2005). The idea of multiple citizenship and its democratic implication. A Journal for Philosophical Study of Public Affairs, 14, 1–36. Wouters, C. (1986). Formalization and informalization: Changing tension balances in civilizing process. Theory, Culture and Society, 3(2), 1–19.

Chapter 3

Cultivating Multifaceted Citizenship by Curriculum Development and Practice in the Community University

This chapter explores multifaceted citizenship by analyzing the objectives and practices of a community university’s curriculum within the context of globalization. Adult education in informal learning organizations aims to enhance democratic citizenship and cultivate citizens’ capacity. The curricula of an educational organization convey the organization’s values, this chapter adopts the curriculum of three adult education organizations to analyze how adult learning is carried out. The curriculum guidelines and contents of Taiwanese community universities are investigated via a content analysis method to illustrate the outcomes of citizenship for adult learners.

3.1 Lifelong Learning for Citizenship in the Global Society Since the first community university was established in 1998 in the Wenshan district of Taipei City, it has been two decades and over 100 community universities have sprung up in Taiwan, catering to either the general community or the indigenous community. The number of students registered in these type of schools exceeds 100,000 per year. There is a considerable amount of research on community universities and their role in the development of civil society. For instance, there is an analysis of the relationship between community university and social movements, an examination of community university development and research perspectives (C. J. Chen, 2000), and an exploration of the workings of community in public life (Chang, 2001). Such research not only highlights but also strengthens the far-reaching role that community university plays in civil society. Community universities are critical in stimulating individuals to integrate knowledge into their social and personal lives as citizens. The goal of achieving lifelong learning relies on a well-structured curriculum. In the past two decades, research has been done on the curriculum framework of community universities in Taiwan, such as a master’s thesis by B. W. Huang (2001) that compares the differences between the community university curriculum of Denmark and that of Taiwan, and © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. S. Chen, Global Citizen Formation, Governance and Citizenship in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-1959-5_3

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Huang points out that “there are too many practical-oriented courses in community university course programs.” Li (1998) points out that in the face of social change, the curriculum planning framework of community university should retain the flexibility to be revised to keep up with the progress of knowledge liberation and social movements. Huang (2001), who is an advocator of community university in Taiwan since the beginning stages, insists that planning the community university curriculum should be regarded as one aspect of community building. There’s more to it than just thinking of local communities and civil society. A more open attitude that is based on respect and acceptance of individual differences and choices is needed when the individual is interacting in the face of advancing information technology and transportation networks, the formulation of global citizenship, and the spread of globalization (Lin, 1998; H. Y. Chen, 2005; Y. W. Tsai, 2005; The European Commission, 2002; Usher et al., 1997). In other words, community university cannot be unaffected by social change brought about by globalization, as has been discussed by Juan (1998), D. M. Chen (2001), H. Huang et al. (2002), C. C. Huang, (2002) and H. H. Hsiao (2001). These researchers have pointed out that Taiwan’s community university applies arts and humanities courses, life skills, and community service as the basic framework in adult education. Their accumulated educational achievements have important functions not only on a local scale but on a global scale as well. The importance of the curriculum is evident as it is related to the educational quality and social contribution of the community university C. C. Huang (2002), C. H. Tsai (2002) and Ku (2005) indicate that the community university cannot merely provide courses for adult learners, but must also have higher-level goals. Community university needs to break through the limitations that have appeared. C. C. Huang (2002) bluntly says, “How many academic courses should there be? How many life skills courses should be established in community universities? How do we establish critical thinking, and do we need to consider whether the courses are profitable or market-oriented? In all of these aspects, community university needs to have a clear goal.” If adult education institutions cannot constantly inquire about the relationship between their curriculum framework and the social movements, and further deepen the content of adult education, then their contribution to social progress will be limited (Apps, 1988; Griffin, 1983; Paterson, 1977; Verdun, 1980). In essence, we need to probe into the individual’s relationship between personal development and public life from multiple unfolding perspectives that consider each facet of globalization. As the curriculum symbolizes the knowledge and values that the college instills in its learners, it is all the more significant to clarify the critical roles that the curriculum plays in community university. Despite a decade or so of cumulative results in community university, the link between the curriculum framework, meaningful content, and social change still needs to be properly understood and interpreted. If community university courses only focus on their functions in the public domain, it is difficult to properly position many of the so-called non-public domain courses in community universities. Courses about self-expression cover various themes, such as makeup and appearance, exercise and sports, intimate relationships, fashion, and dietary habits. All these courses

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get included in civic knowledge along with abilities and virtues. When the National Association for the Promotion of community universities decided to include workshops that contribute to the public in their curriculum, they were concerned that the arts and entertainment courses held an over high ratio in community universities. We ought to explore more possibilities from various angles and courses in arts and life skills should be taught. Clearly, if we want our community universities to continue to bear importance, we need to rethink community universities to deepen their legitimacy and establish institutional characteristics in the relationship between community universities, social trends, and social life. Given the above issues of theoretical and practical concern, this chapter aims to provide an empirical study of the curricula framework and content offered by community universities, especially on how they correspond to citizenship and globalization.

3.2 Dimensions and Transformation of Citizenship 3.2.1 Transformation in Citizenship Spheres The national state shadows citizens and restricts their citizens with its administrative power. Habermas (1989a), in The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, indicates that national administration and social life coexist in the public and private spheres of an individual. The public sphere enhances the huge political system of the national government, and the private sphere is the social system in which people live independently. The parallel dynamic allows citizens to maintain their personal space and lifestyle in secure status. Giddens (1991) also infers that the difference between national administration and social life is similar to the distinction between public and private spheres. There are different choices and consequences in the public sphere than in personal life, family life, and intimate relationships. Giddens (1990, 1991) outlines the changes of contemporary society in areas of information technology, administrative supervision, and professionalized occupation into the political dimension of life’s issues, which invokes uncertain demarcations between private and public spheres. Beck (1992), Bauman (1998) and Appadurai (2000) posture similar perspectives, pointing out that the influence of globalization is deeply involved in the personal life plans and choices of individuals. For example, advocators of feminism encourage the relationship between humans and the natural environment to follow the spirit of caring, instead of domination. Participation in the affairs of everyday life—the bare essentials in our daily lives—utilize politics to advocate in society. The consequences of globalization on our lifestyles can be seen in how we treat our bodies. Individuals view their bodies as a critical interface to express their self-image. Therefore, our physical bodies become medium of self-expression us to perform and manage. This

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National state

Democratic freedom in the public sphere

Realization of emancipation for multiple groups

Global society

Choice and diversity in the private sphere

Choice in personal life politics

Fig. 3.1 Transformative citizenship within the context of globalization

is why we have become overwhelmed with books on self-help and self-improvement that discuss about physical and mental health. Social phenomena also react as key elements in the curriculum development of community universities. Lister (2002) insists that individual citizenship is not limited to the resources and interests of the public sphere, but is also connected to that of the private sphere. She argues that individual life gives priority over the purely public sphere. The private sphere of personal life experience is a critical component of the individual’s life and a core approach to a citizen’s expression of autonomy and liberation; as such, it needs to be fully maintained (Giddens, 1991). In other words, individual citizenship under the context of a global society shows the changes and trends in both the public and the private sphere of citizen’s political life. In the globalization context, individual citizenship has tended to embody both the public and private spheres in civic life. The public sphere focuses on the emancipation of traditional society, and the private sphere emphasizes emerging life politics. What deserves special mention is, in fact, that life politics does not appear out of thin air nor does it lack a social basis. When Giddens (1990, 1991) discusses life politics, it is strategically regarded as class emancipation. Later, a new trend that uses individual life practice to fight against exploitation and in turn resist the monopoly on the information technology system in the context of globalization, as shown in Fig. 3.1. In sum, if the construction of civil society can incorporate this point of view, then the discussion and practice of citizenship would be more forward-looking.

3.2.2 Multiple Citizenship Development for Globalization If the personal life situation refers to the dual structures of the public and private sphere, how should the analytical framework of individual citizenship be redefined? From a theoretical point of view, it is important for many political scholars to not only develop a field that is different from national politics, but also consider the composition of citizenship from a pluralistic perspective to break through the arbitrary control of dominant groups in laws and regulations (Heater, 1990; Kymlicka,

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2001, 2002; Lister, 2002; Plummer, 2003). These debates have surpassed a substantive equality concept of citizenship to appeal to the substantive justice of citizenship. Furthermore, adult learning in citizenship is not limited to the political and cultural level. For example, in the era of booming international trade, adult educators should focus on improving the ability of adult learners to help them adapt to the modern market economy (Mikulecky, 1996; Peterson, 1982). One of the core issues of adult education is to cultivate citizens with economic capabilities. Habermas (1989b), Keane (1984), and Welton (1995) agree that economic production is unavoidable when participating in public life. Given the diversity of autonomy and power in the context of globalization, Giddens (1992) points to the logic on how to develop and maintain an intimate relationship in The Transformation of Intimacy. Relationships have already gotten rid of economic dependence (especially of women) and demanded that autonomy and equality should be core values for pursuing personal life choices in a relationship. That is to say, citizenship not only refers to the public categories of political, cultural, and economic aspects, but has also expanded to personal, family, and intimate aspects. Lister (2002) and Plummer (2003) praise the new and multiple structures of citizenship, and Plummer (2003) takes it one step further by coining the term “intimate citizenship.” The viewpoint of individual citizenship extends the political, cultural, and economic dimensions into the personal life dimension, adopting a more comprehensive view of citizenship. Generally, the core issues of citizenship concern empowerment, justice, autonomy, and caring in the personal life in the context of globalization. Therefore, the framework of individual citizenship in the context of globalization is as shown in Fig. 3.2. The constitution of the multiple dimensions and levels of citizenship performance is explained as follows. Spheres

Categories

Aims

Political citizenship Public sphere Composition of citizenship in the context of globalization

Cultural citizenship

Liberation politics

Economic citizenship

Private sphere

Intimate citizenship

Fig. 3.2 Categories and aims of citizenship in the context of globalization

Life politics

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3.2.2.1

3 Cultivating Multifaceted Citizenship by Curriculum …

Political Citizenship: Rights and Responsibilities

Although the national, political, and economic systems have not faltered under the context of globalization, all countries have encountered the challenges of integration and stabilization in the face of various issues arising from globalization. For example, issues such as marriage, manpower, the cross-border flow of jobs and funds, the protection of the ecological environment, and the circulation of finances. Such a large increase in cross-border issues have led to civil rights and obligations no longer based solely on national borders. Regarding how to develop civic qualities to cope with the strong advance of globalization, Turner (2000) proposes a worldwide strategy to enhance the moral excellence of citizens above tribalism, parochialism, and global consumerism to achieve global fairness and justice. Heater (1990) clearly points out that political citizens have two attributes in the globalization context. One adopts the view of the traditional nation-state which expresses the individual’s fulfillment of his rights and obligations within a specific country as a national citizen. The other adopts the path of worldwide/universal thought which is designed to respond to the globalized world, and thus it is necessary to develop the qualities of a cosmopolitan citizen, also known as a world citizen. The two citizens have different orientations. The former refers to citizens who are still attached to their national identity, cultivating citizenship to strengthen national consciousness and patriotism and pursue national strength and unity; the latter emphasizes that the individual’s recognition of global values should transcend national identity, and the cultivation of citizenship appeals to how the individual sympathizes with others and global issues as well as how he or she pursues mutual cooperation and care to resolve world issues. Political citizenship embraces the issues of human rights, environmental protection, freedom and democracy, consumer rights, religious traditions, ethnic diversity and cosmopolitanism, and the mobilization of global civic movements, such as the hosting of the transnational summits on ethnic groups, economy, law, resources and the environment. Such can be seen in the Tokyo Protocol, the G8 Summit (G8), and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC). In sum, the construction and practice of citizenship under the context of globalization is no longer confined to fixed national borders, but is based on the development of the nation-state and incorporates the thinking of world citizens.

3.2.2.2

Cultural Citizenship: Equity and Justice

The interaction among different groups has become more frequent, making cultural understanding all the more important in the global era. Each culture encounters different levels of understanding, participation or sustenance in society. Some cultures are more widely acknowledged and applied in society, while others face discrimination and oppression. In order to break free of the cultural hierarchy in the global framework, the cultural practices of various groups have to be respected.

3.2 Dimensions and Transformation of Citizenship

41

Supporting and responding to ethnic groups can break down discrimination and gradually establish fairness and equality among all cultural groups. Therefore, although political citizenship focuses on nation-state affairs and international negotiations, it cannot take account of many social minorities who continue to face oppression, marginalization, and distress. With a deeper understanding of equality, respect, and diversity, society can be expected to tolerate, recognize, and include different cultural groups. Citizens of different groups are eager to have an equal voice and their cultural identity recognized and affirmed by society. As a result, cultural citizenship calls for mutual recognition and respect among multiple groups to make up for its lack of recognition in political citizenship which composes of different ethnic groups, classes, and genders (Lin, 1998; G. Y. Hsiao, 1998). Culture and self-identity are inseparable. The policy of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, which was declared by the United Nations in 1976, views participation in cultural life as a fundamental human right. This is because protecting cultural life is a value with a strong consensus. Given the values of the cultural difference and identity inherent in cultural citizenship, I construct cultural citizenship as distinct from ethnic citizenship, class citizenship, and gender citizenship to manifest the sense of belonging and identity among different cultural groups. Next, I will show another aspect of citizenship for dealing with global challenges.

3.2.2.3

Economic Citizenship: Vocational Competence and Ethics

For a long time education was only regarded as means to advance social civilization and public enlightenment, but nowadays education is viewed as an important process to produce workplace efficient personnel, and from that has even derived the theory of human capital. Therefore, education is a field that prepares professional workers and vocational experts for economic growth and development. Welton (1995) explains that good vocational and personal skills are closely related, and the possibility for the individual’s fulfillment and success lies in social participation in the workplace. The stability and continuity of the individual’s career life is one criterion of life quality and dignity in the modern era. In a society of freedom, reason, and justice, the individual should be able to find opportunities to enter the workforce. The individual faces severe competition in vocational effectiveness. He hopes to pursue personal independence and autonomy in a work style that is consistent. The dilemma in one’s work ethic is that one’s career is not only for gaining personal fortune, but also tied to one’s identity and social status (Liu, 2001; Meijers & Wijers, 1998). Moreover, one’s vocational ethics changes as one’s career identity becomes more and more a part of one’s personal life. Workers can demonstrate the link between self and work through planning career paths and establishing interpersonal networks. In his book The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, sociologist Weber (2001) indicates the complex intersection between the work ethic and moral values of Christian employees. In this work, he links the impact of personal work ethic to social movements.

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3 Cultivating Multifaceted Citizenship by Curriculum …

For example, each individual strives to chase after a better life by not only finding a place in the workforce but also performing to the best of one’s personal ability to contribute to society through one’s job and career. However, in a globalized society, the individual faces many choices and challenges in his or her job, making decisions in order to integrate his or her self-identity into the huge global markets. No one can escape from the deliberation process and career experience which continues throughout one’s working life. This is due to the fact that there is no guarantee of a job and little loyalty toward jobs in the global era. It is obvious that bank tellers, taxi drivers, production line workers, and so on will face the impact of the coming artificial intelligence era. Let me sum it up by saying that the connection between personal economic citizenship and social transformation reveals the significance for individuals to enhance both economic competences and economic ethics and pursue financial achievements for better life quality in the context of globalization.

3.2.2.4

Intimate Citizenship: Self-Development and Family Relationships

Because the individual has constantly outweighed the risk and uncertainty of global life, the private sphere becomes a kind of practice site for the individual to resist the global hierarchy by focusing on personal lifestyle. Individuals express their personal tastes and styles to convey the acuity of their personal uniqueness. Thus, one’s lifestyle presents infinite possibilities in one’s personal development. The practice of lifestyle includes various aspects of how one expresses himself or herself through our body, our words, and our actions, such as the leisure activities we partake in, the dietary preferences we consume, the vehicles we chose, and which holidays are celebrated and in what manner (Featherstone, 1991). Additionally, a gradual transformation has occurred in the relationship between self and family. Family is an important space for maintaining intimate relationships that display interaction and affection. The traditional family structure has been replaced by new and flexible family relationships due to the decrease of family members and the increase of diverse lifestyles within families (Giddens, 1992, p. 26). For individuals, family relationships are quite different from the relationship in the arena of public reason, because the individual’s perceptual control can be influenced by sensibility and affection toward family members, and this lessens the impact of scientific rationality on one’s perceptual control (Featherstone, 1991; Friedman, 1994; Stallybrass & White, 1986; Wouters, 1986). In essence, intimate citizenship not only promotes the significance of intimate life. Conversely, it expresses concern on how the role of intimacy between plays out self and family and how one decides a personal life plan for individuals who are under the pressure of globalization. The intimate relationships in one’s individual life respond to the macro life that is shadowed by globalization. The category “intimate relationships” is divided into self-development and family relationships in the hope of understanding the practice of citizenship in the private sector.

3.2 Dimensions and Transformation of Citizenship

Spheres

Categories Political citizenship

43

References National citizenship World citizenship Ethnic citizenship

Public sphere

Cultural citizenship

Class citizenship Gender citizenship

Composition of citizenship in the global context

Economic competence Economic citizenship

Private sphere

Intimate citizenship

Economic ethics Self-development Family relationships

Fig. 3.3 The structure of citizenship in the context of globalization

For example, the dramatic and rapid changes of globalization have a direct impact on citizens. People lack the power and resources to protect themselves and their families from globalization. But one’s personal intimate relationships can be anticipated to become the scope and scale of life that can be integrated into one’s personal life plans. Therefore, intimate citizenship presents a critical field that resists the global society. According to the trends and changes in globalization and their impact on citizenship, citizenship in the global context comprises the framework and context of adult citizenship, as shown in Fig. 3.3. Next, the author will investigate the community curriculum framework and analyze the values that surface in forming the ideal citizenship.

3.3 Methods and Analysis Taking how the globalization of citizenship develops as a reference structure, this study probes into the framework and content of globalization in the curriculum design of Taiwanese community universities. Because each course conveys different categories of citizenship content, it is necessary to classify the course content of each school in each semester. By implementing the content analysis method, I was able to collect both quantitative and qualitative data. The curriculum content is the material for text analysis. The research was conducted as follows: (a) each course syllabus was examined and categorized, (b) the ratio of each type of citizenship taught as determined by content analysis was reported, (c) the differences among three community universities were compared by the correspondence analysis method, and

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(d) additionally, qualitative interviews were conducted with the administrative staff of these community universities to enrich the quantitative data.

3.3.1 Backgrounds of Community University Economic status and geographical location were the main criteria considered in selecting community universities to sample for analysis. Because community universities have different characteristics due to their urban or county location, I adopted the purposive sampling method to choose Yilan Community University, Xinyi Community University, and Yonghe Community University as cases. The details of each are as follows. The three community universities differ in their established backgrounds, organization and operating model, and educational plans. Yilan Community University was first proposed in August 1999 by the local Yilan government who launched community universities in cooperation with different nonprofit organizations that formed the educational foundation for Yilan Community University later in October 1999. From that time onward, Yilan Community University has organized all kinds of cultural and educational resources of Yilan County to expand its operation. In the case of Xinyi Community University, the Taipei City government provides the campus and funding for the privately managed public school. The Liteon Culture and Education Foundation introduced multiple learning tracks for community development, such as a reading club and community volunteers. The Yonghe Community University was founded by Professor Huang Wu-Hsiung, an advocate of community university in Taiwan. It emphasizes experiential and self-directed learning of local citizens. Its mission as a nonprofit organization is to encourage citizens to get involved in their community. The geographical and developmental backgrounds of the three community universities are as follows. • Yilan Community University: located in Yilan County where there is an abundant cultural heritage, especially in the history of agricultural society. Yilan’s folk art not only enriches the citizens’ lives with humanistic culture, but also fosters a network of cultural enterprises and international communication resources. • Xinyi Community University: located in the emerging financial area of Taipei City, and the development of Xinyi District has established the area as an exhibition hub. The district is viewed as the cultural, political, and economic center in Taipei City. Xinyi District has upgraded from an old arsenal and military dependents’ village to a gateway to international financial growth in Taipei City. • Yonghe Community University: located in the densely populated satellite city of Yonghe City, Taipei County, and Yonghe is separated from Taipei City by a river. Its total area only 5.599 square kilometers has the highest population density in Asia with 220,000 residents.

3.3 Methods and Analysis

45

3.3.2 Courses in Each Community University This study conducted an analysis of the courses offered by each school. The period of analysis varied from college to college. For Yilan Community University, the period of analysis was from July 1999 to February 2005. For Xinyi Community University, it was from July 2001 to February 2005, and Yonghe Community University was reviewed from August 1999 to February 2005. In order to explore courses along a longitudinal timeline, all of the course materials were included in the investigation. The total number of courses were as follows: 988 courses at Yilan Community University, 1,029 courses at Xinyi Community University, and 1,353 courses at Yonghe Community University. In all, there were a total of 3,370 courses for analysis.

3.3.3 Content Analysis 3.3.3.1

Specialist Validity

The categories for content analysis in this study were explored in two stages. In the first stage, I explored the course manuals of all community universities, and categorized the courses by the content shown in the teaching syllabi. There were eleven categories identified, including interpersonal relationships, family relationships, knowledge management, skill management, spiritual beauty, physical beauty, gender citizenship, ethnic citizenship, city citizenship, world citizenship, and national citizenship. I further held a focus group interview to discuss these categories to better fit them into theory and practice. Following the focus group interview, I conducted a content analysis of the curriculum. In this research process, the definitions of the public and private spheres were identified and subcategorized according to the adult experiences. The public sphere covered political citizenship, cultural citizenship, and economic citizenship, while the private sphere covered intimate citizenship. The structure of the categories was derived from the empirical materials and validated by a two-step specialist review as well. Please check the results shown in Table 3.1.

3.3.3.2

Reliability over Time and Among Analysts

The content analysis reliability measurement emphasizes the consistency of any given coder in assigning codes from the category coding table over time (time consistency) and the consistency among the different coders when categorizing a text into one of the categories (analyst consistency). This study invited one analyst to determine the categories of the curriculum used to confirm the reliability by Cohen Kappa Coefficient. The analyst is a graduate of the Institute of National Development of National Taiwan University, majoring in government systems and has been teaching

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Table 3.1 Category analysis of citizenship in Yilan, Xinyi and Yonghe Community University Aspect

Content

Political citizenship

World citizenship • 1-1 Ecological protection • 1-2 Natural knowledge • 1-3 International communication • 1-4 Cross-border understanding National citizenship • 1-5 Public health • 1-6 Governmental policy • 1-7 Regulations in law • 1-8 Cross-strait relations (Taiwan-China) • 1-9 Political movements

Cultural citizenship

Ethnic citizenship • 2-1 Chinese language and culture • 2-2 Taiwanese language and culture • 2-3 Hakka language and culture • 2-4 Aboriginal language and culture Class citizenship • 2-5 Cultural differences between the ruling class and the ruled class • 2-6 Cultural differences between the haves and the have nots Gender citizenship • 2-7 Gender differences • 2-8 Gender equality • 2-9 Feminist consciousness-raising

Economic citizenship

Economic competence • 3-1 Learning information technology • 3-2 Learning vocational language • 3-3 Gaining professional certification Economic ethic • 3-4 Life plans in the workplace • 3-5 Human interaction in the workplace

Intimate citizenship

Personal development • 4-1 Showing personal interest • 4-2 Forming a lifestyle • 4-3 Learning about fitness and health Family relationships • 4-4 Marital relationships • 4-5 Parental relationships • 4-6 Legal relationships

3.3 Methods and Analysis

47

Civics in Taipei County Junior High School for over five years. The coders’ reliability over time and the reliability between the researcher and the analyst are, respectively, labeled “average agreement” and “reliability.” The calculation formula is shown below: Average agreement =

2M N × (average agreement) Reliability = 1 + (N − 1) × (average agreement) N1 + N2

M: the average degree of agreement between the two analysts N: number of analysts N1: number of instances analyzed by the first analyst N2: number of instances analyzed by the second analyst Using purposive sampling, the researcher chose Yilan Community University as the school to analyze the coding and reference reliability baseline. There are total 988 courses in Yilan Community University, and the evaluation reliability of the analysts’ consistency is 0.88; the evaluation reliability of the time consistency by the author is 0.92. The calculation result is shown below: • Analyst consistency check – Average agreement = (2 × 770) / 988 + 988 = 0.78 – Reliability = 2 × 0.78 / 1 + 0.78 = 0.88 • Time consistency check – Average agreement = (2 × 873) / 988 + 988 = 0.88 – Reliability = 2 × 0.88 / 1 + 0.88 = 0.92

3.4 Distribution and Variation of Global Citizenship The results show the framework and the content of adult citizenship in the globalization context by exploring the course manuals of each community university. The first stage looked at each category of citizenship and conducted correspondence analysis to formulate a representative curriculum and course content. The study then went on to consider the relevant curriculum content and interview results for each of the community universities and comprehensively discussed them.

3.4.1 Distribution of Each Analysis Items The category of adult citizenship is composed of political citizenship, cultural citizenship, economic citizenship and intimate citizenship, and each citizenship category

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has a variety of content. The distribution of the numbers and percentage in citizenship categories of these three community universities is shown in Table 3.2. Each citizenship category is included below: • Total course numbers – Political citizenship course numbers + cultural citizenship course numbers + economic citizenship course numbers + intimate citizenship course numbers. • Percentage of courses offered in each citizenship category = Course numbers in each citizenship category/total number of courses (%). • Percentage of courses offered in each citizenship sphere = Course numbers in each citizenship sphere/total number of courses (%). • Percentage of courses offered in each sphere within the three community universities combined = Course numbers in public or private citizenship sphere/total number of courses (%). Taking Yilan Community University as an example, the total number of courses was 238 (political citizenship category) + 300 (cultural citizenship category) + 77 (economic citizenship category) + 373 (intimate citizenship category) = 988. The distribution percentage of categories in each school is as follows: • The ratio of courses by category offered at Yilan Community University over the years of this study were: – Political citizenship category courses totaled 238 (24.1%), cultural citizenship category courses totaled 300 (30.4%), economic citizenship category courses totaled 77 (7.8%), and finally, intimate citizenship category courses totaled 373 (37.8%). • The ratio of courses by category offered at Xinyi Community University over the years of this study were: – Political citizenship category totaled 383 (37.2%), cultural citizenship category courses totaled 116 (11.3%), economic citizenship category courses totaled 145 (14.1%), intimate citizenship category courses totaled (37.4%). Cultural citizenship had the second-highest percentage in the Yilan Community University, but the lowest percentage at Xinyi Community University. • The ratio of courses by category offered at Yonghe Community University over the years of this study were: – Political citizenship category courses totaled 495 (37.4%), cultural citizenship category courses totaled 315 (23.3%), economic citizenship category courses totaled 62 (4.6%), and intimate citizenship category courses totaled 481 (35.6%). Yonghe Community University offered the highest percentage of courses in political citizenship. Intimate citizenship courses were only 1.8% lower than that of political citizenship. There was an obvious strength in

3.4 Distribution and Variation of Global Citizenship

49

Table 3.2 Analysis structure of the citizenship taught in each community university School/citizenship

Aspects of citizenship

Number in aspect

Number in category

Percentage of category

National citizenship

154

238

24.1%

World citizenship

84

Ethnic citizenship

281

300

30.4%

77

7.8%

373

37.8%

383

37.2%

116

11.3%

145

14.1%

385

37.4%

495

36.6%

Yilan Community University (total 988) Political citizenship

Cultural citizenship

Class citizenship 13 Gender citizenship

6

Economic citizenship

Economic competence

70

Economic ethics

7

Intimate citizenship

Personal development

328

Family relationships

45

Xinyi Community University (total 1029) Political citizenship

Cultural citizenship

National citizenship

271

World citizenship

112

Ethnic citizenship

108

Class citizenship 2

Economic citizenship

Intimate citizenship

Gender citizenship

6

Economic competence

127

Economic ethics

18

Personal development

313

Family relationships

72

Yonghe Community University (total 1353) Political citizenship

National citizenship

275

World citizenship

220 (continued)

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3 Cultivating Multifaceted Citizenship by Curriculum …

Table 3.2 (continued) School/citizenship

Aspects of citizenship

Number in aspect

Number in category

Percentage of category

Cultural citizenship

Ethnic citizenship

210

315

23.3%

62

4.6%

481

35.6%

Class citizenship 42 Gender citizenship

63

Economic citizenship

Economic competence

49

Economic ethics

13

Intimate citizenship

Personal development

443

Family relationships

38

offering more economic citizenship courses. Only 4.6% of all courses offered at Yonghe were in this category, and this is the lowest ratio in this aspect among all three schools.

3.4.2 Distribution in Private and Public Spheres The distribution of courses in the public and private spheres is demonstrated in Table 3.3. When weighing the public sphere against the private sphere in the curriculum structure and content, it was the public sphere that weighed in with a higher ratio than the private sphere: • From July 2000 to February 2005, of the 988 courses offered at Yilan Community University, those in the public sphere totaled 615 (62.2%), whereas those in the private sphere came to only 373 (37.8%). Table 3.3 Distribution of courses offered in the public and private spheres in the three community universities School

Public sphere

Private sphere

n

%

n

%

Yilan Community University

615

62.2%

373

37.8%

Xinyi Community University

644

62.6%

385

37.4%

Yonghe Community University

872

64.4%

481

35.6%

3.4 Distribution and Variation of Global Citizenship

51

• From July 2001 to February 2005, of the 1,029 courses offered at Xinyi Community University, 644 were in the public sphere (62.6%), while only 385 (37.4%) were in the private sphere. The public sphere trumped the private sphere by 25.2%. • From August 1999 to February 2005, Yonghe Community University offered 1,353 citizenship courses, 872 of which were in the public sphere (64.3%). Those in the private sphere came to only 481 (35.7%). It is particularly noteworthy that some researchers have suggested that community university courses have tended to decline in issues of citizen’s private and everyday life (Chang, 2001; Ku, 2005; Y. W. Tsai, 2005), but the results of this study show that the ratio of courses in the public sphere remained higher than those in the private sphere in all community universities.

3.4.3 Correspondence Analysis of Citizenship Development Conducting content analysis on the curriculum and syllabi of each college provides a guideline on how the courses were distributed across the public and private spheres, but the correspondence between the three community universities still needs to be linked together in a meaningful comparison, clarifying the relationship between the college and the analysis category. This complicated relationship is easier to understand if you can visualize it in a spatial image, like the coordinate system in Fig. 3.4. The concept of geometric relationship can demonstrate the distance between each category. Correspondence analysis is used because it is an approach that illustrates

Fig. 3.4 Correspondent analysis of citizenship among the three community universities

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3 Cultivating Multifaceted Citizenship by Curriculum …

the relative distance between the location and the different categories of citizenship by comparing the colleges and curriculum tendency. Intimate citizenship is located in the central part. This category shows equal distance to all community universities and the result shows intimate citizenship as a category common to the curriculum structure of all three community universities. At the Yilan Community University, intimate citizenship is close to cultural citizenship, whereas at Xinyi Community University it is near economic citizenship and at Yonghe Community University it is closer to political citizenship. It is apparent that the curriculum development of each community university is strongly connected to that college’s locality. These results reveal that community university serves as lifelong learning organizations that are integrated into the public sphere and private spheres of citizenship in the globalization context.

3.4.4 Analysis and Meanings in Each Community University I conducted the survey of the curriculum content and also interviewed the administrative staff managing the three community universities. The comprehensive findings and discussion are as follows. • The curriculum structure of the three community universities demonstrates that citizenship not only covers the public sphere, but also extends to the private sphere. The results show that the ratio of courses in the public sphere is above 62% in all three community universities, with public sphere offerings in Yonghe Community University at 64.4%, slightly ahead of Xinyi and Yilan colleges whose public sphere course offerings are both at 62.6%. Public concerns and the common good retain a high proportion of the curriculum content whether the community university resides in a rural (Yilan), urban (Xinyi), or satellite county (Yonghe). Conversely, about 35% of the citizenship courses offered by each community university is in the private sphere (Yilan Community University 37.8%, Xinyi Community University 37.4%, and Yonghe Community University 35.7%). These findings correspond to the viewpoint of Giddens (1990, 1991), Beck (1994) and Lash (1994) on how the emergence of private sphere issues should not be discriminated against as capitalism or consumerism in the global context. We have to strongly define, maintain, and pursue the personal identity, life choices, and plans of the individuals in contemporary society. The finding verifies that the curriculum structure and the content of community universities are responding to the social transformation and changes of the social milieu of our time. • A study of the three community universities reveals that curriculum development strongly connects with the local environment. The analysis shows that the distribution of citizenship categories in each school is strongly related to the local environment and culture. Yilan Community University

3.4 Distribution and Variation of Global Citizenship

53

has a stronger emphasis on cultural citizenship and the administrative staff of the university expressed that: The environment and land reclamation in Yilan County are sustainable resources for local citizens, and this value of the local county spirit is addressed in the curriculum. Yilan Community University aims to protect and sustain the land, environment, and culture for long-term development. (Interview with Yilan Community University, No. 20081113A)

Yilan Community University’s course design establishes native consciousness in the learner and also provides courses in classical Chinese culture, such as Laozih, choral chanting, Yijing, and Qigong breathing exercises, bridging the relationship between Yilan locality and Chinese culture. For example, the course “Contemplation and Exploration of Civilization” covers both Eastern and Western culture to convey world culture to citizens through music. Music expresses the connection of cultural systems to the world. As the course objective explains, What’s the difference between eastern and western music? Are there other systems besides the eastern and western? Coming from different backgrounds, a significant difference in cosmology and mindset might exist. Therefore, a sophisticated technique to study world music requires a mind of wisdom to liberate our hearts. Everything in our life is connected to a huge cultural system and the history of humankind. (Yilan Community University, 2005, pp. 148–149)

Xinyi Community University tends to gravitate toward economic citizenship, and its curriculum content including courses such as “Become a professional investor,” “Become a smart and the rich tax payer,” “Create family financial plans,” “Deal with fortune,” and “Make more money.” All of these courses are related to economic topics and a reaction to the school’s location near the new and developing financial district in the capital city of Taipei. The course description for “Make big financial fortune” infers that: The person who does not seriously manage his wealth will encounter more financial and security challenges than the person who earnestly invests. Investment analysis skills are fundamental knowledge for the modern citizen. (Xinyi Community University, 2003b, p. 31)

The courses in Xinyi Community University warn against poor financial management and examine the importance of investing and financial competence in metropolitan districts. This viewpoint is similar to those of Bauman (1993), Featherstone (1991), and Waters (1995). Because of the increasing uncertainty in the economic environment in the globalization context, the individual’s workplace participation needs to be constantly reconciled with the stable order of society. By constantly learning vocational skills and principles, the individual can adapt to the changes in the economic structure and the changing demands in the production environment. Yonghe Community University puts an emphasis on the political citizenship category. In 1999, it advocates for national citizens to take responsibility in their courses on Taiwanese history. History is seen as the act of rebuilding the memories of the past. The construction and reflection on national history helps one to understand oneself in society and to shape one’s identity.

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3 Cultivating Multifaceted Citizenship by Curriculum … Modernization and internationalization are presented through important historical events to establish the historical consciousness of the land and its people. (Yonghe Community University, 1999, pp. 25–29)

Environment damage causes disaster in the world and Yonghe Community University promotes the protection of the ecosystem. Therefore, the curriculum in Yonghe Community University focuses on enriching the learning of national citizenship with an emphasis on world citizenship. • Intimate citizenship portrays and reflects on the diversity of individuals’ life practices in the curriculum content The intimate citizenship category is distributed at an equal distance in all three community universities. This means that intimate citizenship is common to all three schools, and it appears in the curriculum through a wide range of topics. For example, from July 2000 to February 2005, the Yonghe Community University offered the course “Developing the Body’s Original Dance.” This course aims to achieve education through art, exploring physical movement to discover the self. Yilan and Xinyi Community University both also opened courses related to personal development and family relationships. How does a citizen write an autobiography and search for the meaning of what happened in his or her life? It is by the awareness and acceptance of one’s experience that we can attain the wisdom to improve our minds, increase our courage, and face our lives. (Yilan Community University, 2005, p. 56) Not everyone is born to be qualified parents, but people can learn through multiple approaches and develop adequate skills to teach and take care of kids through practice. (Yilan Community University, 2001, p. 40)

The above statements convey the idea that intimate citizenship reacts to the context of globalization. The administrative staff of Xinyi Community University considered the courses of personal life in the private sphere to empower the individual against oppression from globalization. However, it is not easy to achieve reflective learning in courses of the intimate citizenship category, but the conscious process of reflection is necessary for effective learning. The administrative staff of the Yonghe Community University stated: The private sphere might reflect how global capitalism infiltrates into personal life, even going so far as to represent the mainstream market value instead of serving as a completely rebellious or a completely reflective function. In other words, community universities recognize their function in the private sphere of providing protection against global capitalism. (Interview with Yonghe Community University, 20081113A)

This kind of reflective consciousness for individual self-identity and choice is the key to community university empowering their learners under the context of globalization.

3.5 Multiple Patterns for Developing Global Citizenship

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3.5 Multiple Patterns for Developing Global Citizenship The aim of this chapter was to examine the curriculum structure and content of Taiwan community universities by content analysis and interview methods, revealing the transformation of adult citizenship through adult learning. The issue of citizenship not only refers to the public sphere but also extends to the private sphere. Research findings provide a framework to analyze adult citizenship in the global society. The analytical materials of the community university curricula show that the learning issues of citizenship are a reaction to emergencies in the private sphere. Whether the community university is an urban, rural, or satellite type, the research findings illustrate the significance of this adult learning organization in the curriculum reform and the shift toward personal performance and transformation in the curricula of community universities. In general, the curriculum of these three community universities shows that the practices of the public and private spheres coexist in the lifelong learning organization. All community universities establish the curriculum structures and content to foster the locality and background of the place they are situated. The results show that Yilan Community University has a special emphasis on cultural citizenship, Xinyi Community University focuses more on economic citizenship, and Yonghe Community University is outstanding in political citizenship. It has become a dynamic trend for adult learning institutions to involve local characteristics and development to compete against the risk and interruptions caused by globalization. Overall, the findings also show that the administrative operation, pedagogical practices, and the teacher’s consciousness have to further connect with social issues and challenges. It is recommended that future research adopts participant observation and action research methods to get firsthand materials and opinions. All of these issues are important topics for the development of community university as well as academic progress in general.

References Appadurai, A. (2000). Globalization. Routledge. Apps, J. W. (1988). Leadership for the emerging age: Transforming practice in adult and continuing education. Jossey-Bass. Bauman, Z. (1993). Postmodern ethics. Butterworth. Bauman, Z. (1998). Globalization: The human consequences. Columbia University. Beck, U. (1992). Risk society: Towards a new modernity (M. Ritter, Trans.). Sage. Beck, U. (1994). The reinvention of politics: Towards a theory of reflexive modernization. In U. Beck, A. Giddens, & S. Lash (Eds.), Reflexive modernization (pp. 1–55). Sage. Chang, L. H. (2001). The formation of public community life: A study of Wenshan community university (Unpublished master’s thesis). National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan. Chen, C. J. (2000). Study on the development and role of Taiwan community university (Unpublished master’s thesis). National Kaohsiung Normal University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.

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Chen, D. M. (2001). Study on the community universities in Taiwan: Realization of the construction of civil society and lifelong learning policy (Unpublished master’s thesis). National Chengchi University, Taipei, Taiwan. Chen, H. Y. (2005). Community-oriented learning for active citizenship: Reflective learning from informal education to non-formal education. In Association for adult and lifelong learning (Eds.), Non-formal learning (pp. 151–182). Shida Publishing. European Commission. (2002). European report on quality indicators of lifelong learning. European Commission. Featherstone, M. (1991). Consumer culture and postmodernism. Sage. Friedman, J. (1994). Cultural identity & global process. Sage. Giddens, A. (1990). The consequences of modernity. Polity Press. Giddens, A. (1991). Modernity and self identity. Polity Press. Giddens, A. (1992). The transformation of intimacy: Sexuality, love & eroticism in modern societies. Polity Press. Griffin, C. (1983). Curriculum theory in adult and lifelong education. Nichols Publishing Company. Habermas, J. (1989a). The crisis of the welfare state and the exhaustion of utopian energies. In S. S. Seidman (Ed.), Jurgen Habermas on society and politics: A reader. Beacon Press. Habermas, J. (1989b). The structural transformation of the public sphere: An inquiry into a category of bourgeois society (B. Thomas, Trans.). Polity Press. Heater, D. (1990). Citizenship: The civic ideal in world history politics and education. Longman. Hsiao, G. Y. (1998). Multiculturalism and the politics of recognition. In C. G. Y. Hsiao & R. N. Su (Eds.), Studies in political thought: Pluralism (pp. 487–509). Research Center for Humanities and Social Sciences. Hsiao, H. H. (2001). Present and feature of Taiwan’s non-profit organization. In H. H. Hsiao (Ed.), Non-profit organization and operation (pp. 110–128). Chuliu Publisher. Huang, B. W. (2001). A comparative study on curricula of Danish folk high schools and Taiwanese community university (Unpublished master’s thesis). National Chi Nan University, Nantou, Taiwan. Huang, C. C. (2002). The ideas and practices of the university in the twenty-first-century age of globalization. Journal of General Education, 9(1), 93–110. Juan, H. F. (1998). Community University and the idea of community management. In college of humanities and social sciences department of adult and community education (Ed.), University development and community participation (pp. 113–139). Fuwen. Keane, J. (1984). Public life and late capitalism: Towards a socialist theory of democracy. Cambridge University Press. Ku, C. H. (2005). Interpretation of social power: Learning and civil society in Taiwan. Rive Gauche Publishing House. Kymlicka, W. (2001). Politics in the vernacular: Nationalism, multiculturalism, and citizenship. Oxford University Press. Kymlicka, W. (2002). Contemporary political philosophy: An introduction. Oxford University Press. Lash, S. (1994). Reflexivity, and its doubles: Structure, aesthetics community. In U. Beck, A. Giddens, & S. Lash (Eds.), Reflexive modernization (pp. 110–173). Sage. Li, D. T. (1998). From the integrated community empowerment and development to community universities. Literatures of Hsin-Chu, 7, 8–10. Lin, H. W. (1998). Citizenship: Identity and difference. In C. G. Y. Hsiao & R. N. Su (Eds.), Studies in political thought: Pluralism (pp. 379–409). Research center for humanities and social sciences, sinica. Lister, R. (2002). Sexual citizenship. In E. F. Isin & B. S. Turner (Eds.), Handbook of citizenship studies (pp. 191–207). Sage. Liu, W. K. (2001). The discourse on the modern social theory of consumer culture: Cultural economy, lifestyles, and the aesthetics of everyday life. Soochow Journal of Sociology, 11, 113–116.

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Chapter 4

Global Citizenship Education and Its Pedagogical Practices

This chapter explores the features of global citizenship and analyzes the learning structures that form citizenship through adequate educational designs and plans. It illustrates the cultivation of suitable abilities and attitudes of the young generation through systematic pedagogical practices. Moreover, the global issues of “poverty” will be given as an example for the activities for students learning of complicated challenges in global society.

4.1 Global Citizenship as Reaction Toward the Risk Society In view of both rapid communication technology and capitalism which increases the social interactions, citizens become more interdependent on the global level and encounter the consequence of compressing time and space (Giddens, 2003). The cross-boundary and trans-boundary landscapes portray the movement into the era of globalization (Appadurai, 1990; Featherstone, 1995; Pieterse, 1995; Robertson, 1995). German scholar Beck (1999) addressed the risks of the coming challenges after globalization, and some of the most serious inequalities in globalization are ecological problems. Poor countries are impacted by the destruction of their natural or living environment. Global development and political radicalization cause uncontrollable risks among countries and an enormous impact on the structure of political, social, and cultural life in traditional nation-states with issues such as terrorism, gene recombination, global epidemic disease, and ethnic conflicts. Conflict influences the environment by direct damage as well as disruption of productivity and responsible resources practices. In either case, the most severe expression of conflict is war. How can we respond and react to this series of global crises? Tomlinson (1999) examines the movement of globalization and points out that if we want to realize a political strategy for global governance, the basis relies on individual reflection and participation in global systems. Approaches to increase individual awareness, and © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. S. Chen, Global Citizen Formation, Governance and Citizenship in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-1959-5_4

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actions toward global environment all lead countries to increase their expectations on promoting social actors’ knowledge, virtue, skills, and attitudes of citizens toward facing various difficulties in a global society (Burbules &Torrey, 2000; Giddens, 1991; Peters, 2005; Walters, 2000; Welton, 1995). For example, the British and American scholars Peters et al. (2008) edited a book Global Citizenship Education: Philosophy, Theory, and Pedagogy and points out in the beginning of that book: Global civil society causes multiple influences to interior and cross-boundary problems among countries. Therefore, the educational decisions and policy plans should be significant to understanding this tendency and responding efficiently (Peters et al., 2008, p. 1).

In the book Risk and Society, Denny (2005) calls for membership in a global society. But do the masses have enough recognition toward global crisis? Are public educational organizations aware of the risk that is unavoidable in individual life situations? These questions induce various challenges and consciousness to civic educational levels in globalization society (Spring, 2001; Stromquist & Monkman, 2000). In fact, related research has demonstrated abundant findings in the analysis framework, and empirical research of ideal citizenship education (Chen & Peng, 2007; Dong, 2009). However, the analysis of civic education so far has been limited to particular nations and descriptions of ideal types of civic education, lacking an exploration of how to change global society. Since globalization has greatly transformed human circumstances, traditional civic education has to adapt its models to cope with these demands and cultivate a new kind of citizen that is responsible and aware (Callan, 1997). This has an impact on educational organizations. In the dimension of education agenda, the transformation of citizen qualities and learning fields for global citizenship education is necessary. Furthermore, this research clarifies the pedagogy practice of global citizenship education and considers the undergraduate learning experience. These examples illustrate the pedagogical practice in cultivating global citizenship in courses of higher education. The definition of pedagogy in this article is a series of arrangement of knowledge, produce, and reproduction in education process that focuses on increasing learners’ recognition, attitude, virtue, or skills in the planned learning process. It is not all the same as the broad definition of pedagogy in educational theories. Based on the above motivations and concerns, the aims of this research are as follows: • To clarify the framework of the global citizenship of individuals’ actions and explain the response of civic education toward these educational changes. • To interpret the learning dimensions of global citizenship and civic characters in a global context to identify the possible directions of a global citizenship education. • To reframe pedagogical practices and contents of global citizenship education with experiential learning theories and use undergraduate students as examples to reveal practical strategies and pedagogy. • To provide conclusions and research findings as well as point out potential future research directions.

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4.2 Global Citizen as an Agency In 1980, American educational scholars Anderson and Rivin (1980) indicated in their published book Citizenship Education in a Global Age that the curricular form of schools has changed toward a worldview in our contemporary age. The main trends are from regional-centered to whole-world viewpoints, from a national to global-centered view, from a human-centered to one of respecting all species, from exploring human-past to focusing on the future, and from information storage to global application of information. The recognition and practice of citizenship has gradually adapted to how society has changed. According to the definition of citizenship in the global transformation, Heater (1999) indicated that citizenship is built by both parallel and multiple frameworks. In the parallel dimension, it can refer to citizens of different places and countries, such as a person with dual nationality. In the multiple dimension, it refers to citizens’ practices from local to international level, for example the European Union citizenship identified from individuals to local, from local to nation, and from nation to the European Union. If we view individual’s identity on a global level, the individual citizenship can connect from individuals to nation, from nation to global, and gradually diffuse to global systems. Afterward, Heater (2002) integrated the geographic division, civic characters, and related education content in to a part which X-axis is a geographical level of world, region, national country and local, and Y-axis is about civic characters such as identity, virtue, laws/civil, politics, social welfare, and security, whereas Z-axis shows civic educational goals, such as knowledge, attitudes, and capabilities. This analytical framework of global citizenship extends our viewpoints from the traditional national citizens to global context; on the other hand, it also emphasizes the citizens’ moral and competence. Peters et al. (2008) propose three main dimensions for discussion about global citizenship after exploring the theories of Rousseau, Kant, Rawls, and Habermas. The first one is the moral global citizenship that views human rights as a core value to attain global universal values. Second, political global citizenship concerns the transformation among multiple nationalities and political identities. Third, economical global citizenship is rooted in the international free trade of neoliberalism. This discussion concerns how the life experiences of global citizens react to global social movements and explores three dimension theories of global citizenship, which are the moral, democratic, and economic. We can see that individual citizens combine their personal experiences with the global organizations and issues to protest in their ordinary life practices. Through the interconnection approach, a citizen can respond to the influences in their life in a global range. For example, the mobility of transnational marriage or career, business traffic or international communication, the calculation of food consumption and carbon footprints, and participation in specific cross-national social movements and protests. Although political and economic citizenship can direct our eyes on to national states affairs, cross-national negotiations, and economic lives, it cannot address that

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many groups are oppressed, marginalized, or restrained within society. When we increase our acknowledgment toward the equality and diversity of cultural groups, we express stronger expectations toward inclusion, recognition, and tolerance among different cultural minorities. In 1976, the United Nations declared the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights. This law emphasizes that participation in cultural life is an essential right for citizens to convey and sustain their cultural rights. It recognizes citizen’s cultural belonging and identities, and their hopes to be treated as an equal in society. Moreover, social organizations should respect the differences between diverse ethnics, classes, and genders as well as pledge for the possibility of mutual recognition and respect among different groups to fulfill their collective and self-identity (Lin, 1998). As a result, individual cultural understanding has become more significant since individual identity has been transferred from the support of particular national government symbols to diverse perspectives on cultural identity regarding complex backgrounds and cultural belongings (Delanty, 2000). When the individual takes action as a citizen in this situation, it is not only in accordance with many alternatives but reflects the complexity of global issues. While individuals make choices and take actions, they constantly need enough competence to smoothly accommodate their lives and adjust with the collective society (Biesta et al., 2009; Peters et al., 2008). As a result, Schattle (2008) interpreted that the practice of global citizenship defined awareness, responsibility, and participation as primary abilities for global citizenship. He further mentioned cross-cultural empathy, international mobility, and personal achievement as secondary abilities for global citizenship. These claims have been across the formative definition of civil rights and obligations. Moreover, it is in the pledges for substantial abilities of citizenship. It certainly deserves clarification to inquire global citizenship education and its pedagogy process. (Spring, 2001; Stromquist & Monkman, 2000). Global citizenship displays different characteristics and features from citizenship in the traditional national state in relation to connection, action, geography, and practice. With respect to connection, citizenship maintains its freedom of life, work, and the rules of international travel and identity. We can say that global citizenship connects to external society by following fewer laws and regulations. New actors have emerged along with the new style of global citizenship, such as global reformers, global elite business people, global environmental managers, and crossnational actors. They are all different patterns of global citizenship that take action in grassroots activism and freedom to express their will and take real action. In the geographical dimension, the function of information technology creates different groups and backgrounds that can break through the limitation of time and space to construct international convergence and connection networks. In the rearrangement of global citizen participation and geographic mobility, a different democratic participation mechanism gradually forms over time. In the global progress dimension, citizens’ rights and obligations in the global context emphasize familiar values and norms, such as the support of universal rights, respect for identities and rights of immigration, and acknowledgement of the rise of females’ roles. These changes

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provide different countries with inter-referred standards to discuss the movement of global citizenship. Global movement and political changes coexist in the modern era. As Held (1991) has mentioned, the implementation of political systems gradually becomes a multiple-centered political power. The philosophy and action of each country’s citizens is hardly retrained in the original territory. This process has established a reality of personal life which, when connected with global affairs, addresses the unavoidable agendas of individuals, groups, societies, and countries (Beck, 1999; Spring, 2001; Stromquist & Monkman, 2000; Zgaga, 2009). In the practice or development of education, each nation cultivates its own quality of global citizenship that refers to the mature performance of their citizens’ quality. As a result, while we explore the referred framework of individual life practice in globalization, the discourse and its related education of global citizenship provide prospective and visible alternatives.

4.3 Features and Dimensions of Global Citizenship Equipping citizens with the knowledge and consciousness for globalization is not normally traditional national citizenship. This raises several issues. First, how does one deliberate the changing civic character in the face of change, risk, and justice issues in the globalization context? Second, how does one construct the learning dimensions and related goals that address the cultivation of global citizenship in the uncertain environment of realizing theories and ideals of global citizenship? All of these rely on further study. Finally, the author will explore the transformation of civic character in the context of learning dimensions in global citizenship education.

4.3.1 Transformation of Citizenship at the National and Global Levels We can see that individual life circumstances connected with global affairs provide a different condition for citizenship. Traditionally, it emphasizes the operation of the nation-state and limited citizens’ rights and obligations in the national territory. Heater (1990) clarifies that realizing cosmopolitanism and universalism is a very new goal for the political citizen in the global context. In contrast, Held (2003) infers that the inherent nation-state has lost its essential base of power, so that when we confront issues that are related to global levels, it is difficult to distinguish the political consequences and responsibilities allocated by the national state. According to this, Beck et al. (1994) indicate that under the changing environment of various radical and risky challenges in globalization, more and more actors can express their pledge or take action on public issues at the global level of democratic engagement.

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For each government, all countries have to promote citizen’s international cooperation to expand national development, but simultaneously the government has to stabilize its relationship between countries and individual citizens. Each country faces a complex challenge of political and public affair in interior policies and decisions, such as environmental protection, social welfare, education participation, and communication technology. All these policies are explored in uncertain conditions that increase the difficulties for government policies and create limited outcomes. At the same time, each citizen confronts a reality that knowledge transformation is complex and rapid. The hybridization and amalgamation of knowledge transformation (Popkewitz, 2000) is illustrated in all social operations. However, all nations face the challenge of weak civic consciousness in public participation that forms a threat for national policy (Galston, 1991; Klaassen, 1994; Kymlicka, 2001; Putnam, 1993; Torney-Purta, 2001). We can say that citizens are in a framework including both national and global features, whereas what government or countries provide for citizens is the ability to deal with the changes and movement. Therefore, it is necessary to increase citizens’ competence to face changes or accidental events, and this trend leads the national apparatus to expect more from its citizen’s ability to respond to the crisis and conflicts on the global levels both for collective or individual development (Zgaga, 2009). Educational organizations cultivating citizens with the awareness and practical abilities has emerged in distinct and critical educational issues. Multiple challenges address the difficulties and limitations for cultivating citizenship, and we expect a new philosophical framework to cope with the trends. For this, we can learn from the research concerning citizenship education to explore the philosophy and strategy that reviews the qualities of citizenship. In 2002, the British government started a longitudinal study in citizenship education. The Advisory Group on citizenship promoted the idea that citizens should have the knowledge and understanding to explore contemporary issues and social events with the local national European Union and international levels for twenty-first-century citizenship education and policies (Crick, 1998). In 2007, the Ministerial Conference of European Higher Education signified the London Communiqué, which in the starting paragraph pointed out that higher education should have macro perspectives and goals, including equipping students to be active citizens in a democratic society, career placement, personal development, and creativity for learning. This means that in addition to their background as students, they share the rights as a citizen but also take responsibility in public matters (Zgaga, 2009). The Ministry of the Environment in Canada has advocated that environmental protection should be one of the essential qualities of citizenship to promote economic independence. They even proposed that citizens need to sacrifice themselves for ecological environmental protection to attain global environmental justice (Barry, 2006; Luque, 2005; Madin et al., 2008; Melo-Escrihuela, 2008; Szerszynski, 2006). Liu (2002) analyzes the authoritarianism regime reform in Taiwan and discuss the relationship between citizenship education and civil society. He urges us not to ignore global and local interaction that may affect national citizens’ consciousness in the interaction of citizenship education and civil society. On the other hand, facing

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the over-differentiation of local consciousness in the global framework, we should examine if national citizenship education responds adequately to the needs of the global movement (Chen, 1999; Dong, 2006; Gu, 2005). From the above perspective, when individual citizens simultaneously have national and global characteristics, citizenship education should not limit itself to teaching only citizen rights and obligations, such as the respective government systems and constitutional principles (Cogan, 1997; Hicks, 2003; Kubow et al., 1998). Instead, the individual should learn to be aware and respond to conflicts and controversies in the global context. It is necessary to increase citizens’ understanding of the principles of skepticism through modern reflexivity to deal with conditions relating to their decisions. Individuals have to constantly aware the uncertainty, risk and uncertainty happened in their life (Giddens, 1991; Habermas, 1996; Pieterse, 2004). While entangled with multiple global issues, the learning dimensions of global citizenship should demonstrate an integrated overview to understand each individual citizen’s status in the globalization context. In the sections that follow, the author discusses the learning dimensions and the content of global citizenship.

4.3.2 Learning Framework for Global Citizenship Chen and Peng (2007) analyze a curriculum framework for global perspective in education. They promote the idea that the learning dimension should include human values, global systems, global issues and problems, global history, cross-culture understanding, and realizing human choices. First, cultivating students’ global citizenship for an active attitude; second, caring, thinking, and investigating various global issues; third, transferring their caring abilities to global citizen actions from the local neighborhood to international boundaries; fourth, enhancing humanity and civic efficiency to solve global problems; finally, inducing student to be active global citizens as part of the wave of globalization. Oxfam (1997) advocates that to cultivate global citizenship requires knowledge and understanding, skills, values, and attitudes as explained in Table 4.1. All of these issues involve fairness and justice, acceptance of political differences, historical conflicts, resources sustainability, and multiculturalism in cultivating global citizenship (Oxfam, 1997). These theories illustrate that the knowledge ability and value dimension while educating global citizenship refer to complex contents and learning topics. The promotion of citizen characters and learning skills for global changes is necessary in the reforms on educational plans and policies. The legal aspect of global citizenship promotes universalism and human rights, freedom and democracy, and environmental protection as core aspects. This dimension aims to promote learners’ recognition to widen their worldview, to respect human rights as an international social membership, and to deal with problems for purchasing common sustainable

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Table 4.1 Oxfam’s curriculum for global citizenship Knowledge and understanding

Social justice and equity Identity and diversity Globalization and interdependence Sustainable development Peace and conflict Human rights Power and governance

Skills

Critical and creative thinking Empathy Self-awareness and reflection Communication Cooperation and conflict resolution Ability to manage complexity and uncertainty Informed and reflective action

Values and Attitudes

Sense of identity and self-esteem Commitment to social justice and equity Respect for people and human rights Value diversity Concern for the environment and commitment to sustainable development Commitment to participation and inclusion Belief that people can bring about change

Table 4.2 The dimensions and ideals of global citizenship learning

Leaning dimension

Ideal pursuing

Legal dimension

Universalism

Political dimension

Global Governance

Cultural dimension

Social Justice

Civic participation dimension

Mobilization and assembly in global level

development through which we can see the common principles in Declaration of Human Rights and the Tokyo Protocol. The political dimensions of global citizenship differ from government management in the national context, but insights can be gained by examining the collapses and reconstruction of political structures, the rapid expansion of world population, and the empowerment of female social roles in the global context. Traditional citizenship has shown its limitation (Kerr, 2000) and the idea of global governance comes forth from the international relationship (Held, 2003). In these circumstances, the perspectives and values of cultivating global citizenship deserve to be constructed in the global context (Table 4.2).

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The cultural dimension of global citizenship views social justice as a core value and aims at reflecting the damage of cultural hegemony and colonialism. It promotes that individuals will solve conflicts by non-violence approaches and emphasizes tolerance among different social, political, and religious systems. Multiculturalism accepts people and cultural mobility among countries, and emphasizes inclusion in the immigrant process (Winn, 2005). The action participation dimension of global citizenship focuses on assembly in civic social movements at the global level. Contrary to the past, civic social movements with various opportunities cooperate and operate with international non-government organizations and even practice its mobilization and influence of civic active participation in social movements at the global level to the local level. For example, the Group of Eight leaders hold summits while there are protests against the conference. Green Peace organization resists destruction of the environment. Individuals not only recognize their civic roles and responsibilities in the global systems, but also actively engage in maintaining the peace and equity of our world. It becomes urgent to explore related pedagogy and theories in global citizenship education while citizens are facing national and global crises at the same time, and it extends the civic learning dimension to legal, political, cultural, and active participation. Beck et al. (1994) state that we should increase learning opportunities and competence in dialogue and performance in the globalization environment by practice. Usher et al. (1997) indicate that we should establish the autonomy and empowerment of learners to help them progress from abstract knowledge to experiential knowledge, from positive acceptance to conscious awareness, and from oppression to liberation. We can cultivate citizens with the ability to cope with the transformation of society and culture by adapting the practice of pedagogy in a social culturally contracted context for learners.

4.4 Experiential Learning for Global Citizenship Education If we want to promote learners’ recognition and understanding of various issues and structures to increase their ability to solve global conflicts by global citizenship education, we have to systematically believe and practice our pedagogy. Learning global citizenship refers to essential issues. First is how to convey the conceptions of global citizenship to learners. Second is how to promote learners’ abilities from knowledge-based to action-orientated global citizenship. When we employ the learning objectives in regards to the global context, we have overcome the traditional limits of national citizenship and induced learners to extend their viewpoints of self-awareness, responsibility, and caring to a global level. As a result, learners participate and reflect on multiple issues with global intendancy. Applying the traditional packaged knowledge to cultivate citizens’ recognition, awareness, or action is difficult to teach independent judgment and decision-making skills. For this, Usher et al. (1997) advocate the pedagogy of experiential learning, which views the self as the key-starting point for learners and emphasizes the practice

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Autonomy

Y Learning Challenge

Lifestyle experiences

Critical experiences Application

Expression

Vocational experiences

X

Learning Performance

Confessional experiences

Adaptation

Fig. 4.1 Framework of individuals’ experiential learning in globalization context (Reference Revised from Usher et al. [1997, p. 106])

process for learners. Usher et al. (1997) explores the transformation of global citizenship and aims at increasing the competence of learners to correspond to the changes and the risk in globalization. The author explains the framework and context of pedagogy for global citizenship education through theories on experiential learning. Moreover, in the constant risks and changes of globalization, individuals live in an uncertain state. Besides equipping individuals with experiential learning, it is critical to overcome traditional ideologies. Learners have to adapt and take action through reflexive learning to gain insight on phenomena from a metacognitive perspective. This paragraph will use global poverty as an example to illustrate experiential learning and reflective learning for undergraduate students. The Ministry of Education in Taiwan has proposed a topic of global connection and criteria for students in the national curriculum. However, in an empirical survey of the implementation by Dong (2006), in the Taiwanese Curriculum Outline for the elementary and junior high school shows that there are 14 competences on knowledge, 1.5 on skills, 2.5 on affection, and among 18 competence related to global issues. There are no competences about taking action, but learners’ competences should include multiple experiences. Usher et al. (1997) analyze learning dimensions of critical experience, reflexive experience, vocational experience, and lifestyle experience, which depict a framework of individual learning experience in the globalization context. This is shown in Fig. 4.1.

4.4.1 Development of Critical Experience Through a systematic learning process, individuals can escape from ideological and conventional knowledge frameworks to recognize the learning process based on self-experience (Giroux, 2003). In the transformative learning approaches of critical experience, we can expect individuals to understand social phenomena and their

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context to resist political domination. In the practice of critical pedagogy, learners are not only limited in constructing their knowledge, but their learning processes are also part of the constructive roots of knowledge (Gustavsson, 2002). When global citizens confront social changes, their aim to learn knowledge won’t conform to official knowledge or particular authorities, but instead returns to the local context. Learners’ learning experiences will connect with the local context and even resist the control of traditional education. This learning process helps individuals to not only establish their social relations with others, but voice concerns to social phenomena through official channels. Recently, colleges and universities proposed service learning for students to apply their professional competence into social reality in different fields. This learning approach founded on experience shows that values for learning and equipping global citizens can exemplify learning topics of human rights. The goal to empower learners’ human rights does not simply acknowledge law regulation, but uses their direct experience to serve disadvantaged groups, allowing learners to transform what they have learned in their profession. We can also learn from international volunteer programs. International volunteers travel to specific countries or regions to implement their abilities, and they can recognize the developmental gap among different areas. Through this process, they gain the opportunity and experience to employ their reflection into social action.

4.4.2 Internalize Reflective Experience Reflective experience emphasizes the advancement, of the self and expects individuals to actively construct personal subjectivity (Ranson et al., 2001). Individuals constantly examine the status of external experience and internal self by selfreflection, especially to adapt self-development in the context of global conflicts and struggles. It is unfortunate that teachers seldom mention global controversies such as the diffusion of nuclear weapons, the population of refugees, the gap between the rich and the poor, and the ethics of genetic technologies. Therefore students have limited knowledge on global crisis and tend to adopt banking education as learning approaches. (Dong, 2006; Liu & Dong, 2009). When Schattle (2008) composed the development of global citizenship, he mentioned that it is a quite common social tendency for people to interact with people from cross nationality, ethnicity, boundaries, and groups in a globalization era. The impact of cultural diversity and different heritages requires citizens to have cross-cultural empathy, especially to shift from the role of an outsider to an insider to solve cross-cultural conflicts. For this goal, global citizenship differs from traditional national citizenship in its approach at pursuing a peaceful solution among various groups’ conflicts. We can tell this from macro international relations, for example, the dispute over the Gaza strip among Israel, Palestine, and Turkey; or we can learn this from the micro perspectives of different ethnic interactions in a country, for example, the political power structure between the French region and Dutch region

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in Belgium. Furthermore, how to empower learners through the learning and teaching process to solve conflicts in the globalization context has become a critical challenge for education. In a sense, colleges and universities are not only responsible for providing students with specific packaged knowledge, but assembling lectures to promote global citizenship. In practice, institutes of higher education should inspire undergraduates’ thinking and action as well as open up students’ viewpoints of public affairs through public gatherings on specific issues, affairs, or values (Masschelen & Simons, 2009). Proposing the learning model of “ladder of participatory” Hart (1992) declares that this model transfers the decision power from teachers to the learners who become the active decision makers in course development. The implemental sequences of this pedagogy are splitting into groups, understanding issues through different activities, holding a mock public forum, playing as a role of public opinion leaders, and finding a solution for specific problems.

4.4.3 Preparation for Vocational Experience One of the main missions for education is to engage individuals in society and attain life skills. Therefore, one of the critical goals of global citizenship education is to motivate individuals to understand market trends and gradually adapt into the social economic environment. Because of the interaction between the market-oriented environment and educational system, it is quite critical for global citizens to have economic autonomy and abilities in economic life. Vocational experience, based on practical competence, is one of the main dimensions in experiential learning theory. This perspective refers to Habermas (1989), Keane (1984), and Welton (1995), and they all claim that we should pay attention to the economic production in individual participation in public life. What are the rationales for global citizenship to explore vocational experiential learning in the global context? In brief, civic individuals’ economic autonomy is a right and also a duty for citizens to cope with global capitalism. The duty and obligation of economic competence have strong public significance for society. The United Nations declaration of “Lost Generation” of Squandered Talent and Dreams in August, 2012 (Ban, 2012) emphasizes that the rapid diffusion of inequality and lack of fitness for the youth in the economic structure poses a serious risk on global levels. The reason is those respective countries’ economic recession and high youth unemployment ratio (for example, graduates immigrate to Germany for jobs from Spain, youth unemployment ratio is the highest among all ages in Taiwan, and the concerns of NEETs in Japan society). With these cases, we can tell that the youth are increasingly searching for jobs abroad. Implementing connections between professional curriculum, industrial, and social movement by well-planned internship systems and practical experiential courses can enhance career competitiveness for college students. In other words, to smoothly

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transfer students from education toward work is a core challenge for higher education nowadays. This practical development can be a response to Usher et.al. (1997) perspectives which view vocational practice as important criteria for constructing students’ experience learning in the global context.

4.4.4 Multiple Alternatives in Lifestyle Experience Expressions in lifestyle not only manifest in the individuals’ self-expression through their body, fashion, mannerism, leisure activities, and holidays, but also in the personal dreams and desires in their life plans. These all together construct selfpictures of individual and extend interpersonal interaction (Usher et al., 1997; Worpole, 2002). The experience of this learning practice dimension mainly relates to individuals’ choices in their everyday life (Jensen & van der Veen, 1996; Johnston, 1999) to mold a clear self-imagination and identity. Individuals constantly attain their learning and practice in empowerment and advance their abilities to make adequate judgments in the complex global life context. The goals of life experience learning and practice aim at illustrating the individual’s abilities to express themselves for their life decisions and self-realization. For example, while facing the damages of climate change in the globalization context, individuals can reduce their carbon footprint by taking mass transportation systems protect the environment by buying food from the local community for ecological protection, and promote environment sustainability by supporting small crafts and arts in the local community. The decisions in everyday life accumulate to reveal how the individual deals with global transformation. In brief, individuals enlarge their experiential learning through various actions in the global challenges. They promote self-competence and moral attitudes by engaging in critical, reflexive, vocational, and lifestyle praxis, which all form a profound individual competence to confront with the global dynamic and complex movement. In Figure 4.1, X-line points out that the practice of lifestyle experiences and confessional experiences outline expression as the goal in the experiential process, and the practices of critical experiences and vocational experiences emphasize on the application in everyday life. Y-line views the practice of critical experiences and lifestyle experiences as the goal for pursuing autonomy, but to a certain degree learners have to adapt to the practice of vocational experiences and confessional experiences. These four quadrants integrate in pedagogy practice to open up an experiential learning pedagogy for individuals to shape their knowledge, consciousness, and action as a response to the global challenges.

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4.4.5 Practice Reflexive Learning When Beck (1999) explored and evaluated the various crises in the global social context, he proposed education as a fundamental policy for learners to face global challenges and advance their self-development by learning. It is quite critical for learners to understand the difficulties in cross cultural communication by avoiding narrow thinking. In other words, individuals have to adapt and readjust their selfawareness, decision-making, and self-reflection in their everyday behavior and attitude. Various risks, arguments, and disasters result in the globalization by suitable pedagogy approaches for cultivating global citizenships’ awareness. It is more essential to focus on what to learn as a studying point to realize why to learn for students. That is to say, the practice of pedagogy needs a certain extent of meta-cognition in the process (Lewis, 2006). Edwards et al. (2002) and Beck et al. (1994) all agreed that reflectivity should be the core goal for learners in pursue of the learning process in a globalization context. Based on a series of learning stages, it is important for individuals’ reflexivity to include several factors: recognition of primary knowing, reflection of analysis and understanding by practical participation, and reflexivity of meta-cognition analysis and knowledge schema transformation. Living in the constant risk of globalization, learners need to have insight on the structure or external limitations in reality. Individuals’ reflexivity in the globalization context can help them revise or resist self-determination in the modern movement. This is because the damages of related issues, such as poverty, ethnic conflict, resources competition, ecological protection, and technology risk are hard to recognize with the traditional political and social approaches in the civic practice field. We can tell that the traditional professional knowledge system hardly provides solutions and strategies in comprehensive and effective ways, and these condition forces individuals to have related awareness and consciousness toward the social life changes in the globalization context (Giddens, 1991, 1992). In brief, the maturity of citizenship in each country represents not only the practice of legal and regulation significance in the nation-state field, but also a judgment or action to connect national development to the global level in the international network (Kymlicka, 2001; Lister, 2002; Plummer, 2003). The teaching and learning approaches for global citizenship education in Taiwan invoke a reflexive response. Taiwanese researchers found that many teachers use the question and answer process as a discursive teaching method to review textbooks. Teachers actually seldom teach critical thinking, problem-solving thinking, or cases analysis in the social discipline curriculum, which results in insufficient development for a cosmopolitan with critical thinking and active ability (Dong, 2006). Taiwanese researchers are worried that if global citizenship education lacks the reflexivity to face the changes and risks in globalization, there will evidently be a severely inadequate curriculum to cultivate citizenship.

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Compared to the lack of superficial teaching in the global citizenship education in Taiwan, Pike and Selby (2000) advocate in In the Global Classroom 2 that cultivating global citizenship should increase learners’ awareness and knowledge on their civic laws in both global and local aspects. Citizens’ awareness not only refers to the transformation of learners’ meta-cognition and analysis schema to recognize various values and phenomena in social movements, but also emphasizes the principles of self-decision, autonomy, equality, and reflexivity for individuals to reevaluate and take action in their personal lives or interpersonal relationships (Giddens, 1992). To accomplish these aims, the teaching process should inspire learners to use the methodologies of reflexive learning in multiple learning practices while facing volatile life circumstances. It is quite important for learners to take skepticism to deal with various sudden and new situations in nature, systems, norms, and environments, and also encourage learners to rechose, readapt, and take action.

4.5 Teaching and Learning Practice for Global Citizenship Experiential learning helps the self to shape identity and make personal life-choices to demonstrate learning and reflexive learning in pedagogy. In the following, the author exemplifies the issue of global poverty as an example for college students to illustrate systematically plan on learning dimension, topic content, teaching practice, and learning goals in Fig. 4.2. When teachers demonstrate the adequate teaching units and plans of experiential learning and reflexive learning, learners can link their life experiences from a local to global level in learning processes. With a specific learning goal in experiential learning and reflexive learning, learners can further shape their knowledge and consciousness as a whole perspective and reevaluate their actions. This model demonstrates that learning experiences are critical for young generation to have the capability of global citizenship and an understanding of global issues. When we examine the teaching and learning designs in sustainable development issues, we can establish a pedagogy for teaching and learning outcomes, taking example from “No poverty and hunger,” which is launched by UNESCO’s one of the SDGs goals. This model begins with multiple learning dimensions which express the various goals and issues for learners. This model takes the core issue of poverty as a teaching and learning topic. Therefore, the learning dimensions include critic, reflection, vocation, lifestyle, and problem-solving, and the initiated issues are all connected to poverty and hunger. Teaching implications demonstrates how teachers can deliver the knowledge, action, and attitudes to students inside the classroom as well as outside the classroom. The teaching and learning processes aims at promoting students’ diverse capacities on global citizenship. When learners recognize and understand the facts and impacts of poverty and reflect the stratification among countries and groups caused by cross-national

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Learning dimension

Issues

Teaching implication

Learning outcomes

Critic

Poverty condition

To display and compare the poor phenomena and conditions in different regions, communities, countries, and local places of the poverty images, and to explain what are the differences between the poor’s and non-poor’s life experiences.

Consciousness

Reflection

Diffusion of poverty

Using simulation games and role plays to have students realize the achievement and weakness in essential human rights, and to explain the obstacles and challenges for the poor in the globalization social structures.

Internalization

End of poverty

Visit international enterprises and local farmers to understand the differences of economical productive models by different vocational workers. Interview the structured unemployment in person to explore the challenges of getting jobs and the impacts of low incomes.

Transformation

Everyday choice of the non-poor

To develop a life choice list covering all everyday affairs, for example, eating habits and food portions, the real demand and flaunting off of clothes, and the habits of public communication and transportation. Provide learners the opportunity to reflect their acceptation or rejection of resources compared to people who are below the poverty line.

Choice

Influence and alternative by the nonpoor on poverty

To set up discussion groups to explore the idea of “where there is a will, there’s a way” and does it also affect people who are below the absolute poverty line? To explore how the accumulated wealth of specific groups and countries may come from depriving and exploiting specific groups and communities, and to analyze the causes and mechanism of this condition. Base on the above series of learning experiences, learners can develop action programs to solve the limitation of the poor. For example, learning in different locations, protecting the environment, having public responsibility, understanding the practice of justice and participation in international assistance.

Action

Vocation

Reflexivity

Lifestyle

Problem -solving

Fig. 4.2 Example of pedagogical practice in teaching and learning for global citizenship

hierarchy, they become motivated to learn and investigate the reasons and influences toward communities and people in poverty. This process will allow the young generation to realize the aspects of the difficulties in poverty and the challenges of poverty to individuals and societies. Institutes of higher education and teachers of global-related subjects serve to advance and increase undergraduates competence for transferring values into actions as to approach the poverty issues in each country. After transferring new perspectives on poverty issues, learners will be able to take adequate alternatives and decisions to contribute to the situation of poverty

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groups. During the learning processes, the learners have to evaluate and reflect on their decisions and actions to pursue a global society with well-being and equity.

4.6 Capacity and Reflection for Action in Real World Sociology of knowledge and education both indicate that the transformations in education or knowledge certainly do not occur in a vacuum, and the learning issues are always influenced by social trends or circumstances and take on new forms. In this sense, contemporary education development cannot be isolated from the various issues, challenges, risks, or responsibilities in the globalization context. To sum up, advancing learners’ recognition of roles in global citizenship through education is an unavoidable problem for civic education. Based on this, it becomes more and more important argument to construct positive approaches in pedagogy practice when thinking about future outcomes in our society. The complex social movement of globalization impacts the global and local, conflict and cooperation, and opportunities and risks. In the complicated situation of coexistence between national power and global transformation, a challenge occurs between individual life and global effects. Individuals either actively or are positively forced to relate to globalization’s consequences, and this phenomenon is a fundamental point of departure for exploring global citizenship. By analyzing the pedagogy practice, this chapter explains experiential and reflexive learning approaches as a route for promoting citizens’ social agency in the global context. The maturity in global citizenships’ recognition and practice emerge as a core transformation for cultivating global citizenship, and it also stands as a pedagogy for increasing learners’ competence and value in practice. Relatively speaking, as one of the countries aiming to develop global citizenship education, Taiwan can still improve in some aspects. However, it is apparent that we have gradually agreed and moved on to focus on learners’ capacity in experience and reflection to become global citizens. This chapter analyzes the characteristics and movements of global citizenship and points out experiential learning as a fundamental pedagogy to prepare students’ experiences in the learning dimension of critical, reflexive, vocational, and lifestyle aspects. The approaches of reflexive learning also induce learners to clarify the citizenship transformation in the contemporary age. Finally, this research focuses on theoretical analysis and explores the global citizenship education and its pedagogy co-practice, moreover, taking the global poor as an example to clarify undergraduate learning and studying. In fact, global citizenship education should include all educational levels whereas each level has its particular goal. There is also a potential project strategy to take specific issues, such as environmental, cultural, and social justice problems to realize global citizenship. Taiwan and other countries deserve more empirical investigations to inspect the significance of education in their own social context and analyze their self-development history to establish perspectives and values of global citizenship education for further research and policies.

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Chapter 5

Opportunities and Challenges: A Study of Undergraduates’ Experiences of Becoming Global Citizens

This chapter aims to open a debate about the meaning of student’s global mobility based on the opinions of college students who had studied abroad either long- or short-term. Students care about globalization and its influence on their competitiveness. They believe that their higher education courses should put more emphasis on understanding other cultures. To counter the lack of opportunities, professors can teach students the abilities needed to interact with others on the global stage.

5.1 Student’s Global Mobility and New Education Agenda Education can contribute to the cultivation of particular abilities for example, social and moral responsibility, critical thinking, acting deliberately in a pluralistic world, political literacy, and participation in politics and civil society (Zgaga, 2009). Students’ global mobility underlines political concerns, such as awareness of international organizations and their roles in promoting human rights and tackling universal problems. In other cases, students’ global mobility portrays a moral vision that treats the “human family” as interconnected. It therefore aims to promote respect toward ethnic and cultural diversity both at home and abroad. Students’ global mobility entails educational programs to teach global understanding and cross-cultural empathy. Is it necessary to redefine the role of the teacher and the mode of pedagogy at local, national, and international levels? Global citizenship education curriculum and pedagogy enable students to acquire a delicate balance of cultural, national, and global issues, understand the ways in which knowledge is constructed, and participate in civic action to create a more humane nation and world (Banks, 1997). Schattle (2008) further presents global citizenship as a concept with both primary and secondary meanings. The former component includes awareness, responsibility, and participation, while the latter component consists of cross-cultural empathy, personal achievement, and international mobility. Thus, global citizens exercise their voices © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. S. Chen, Global Citizen Formation, Governance and Citizenship in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-1959-5_5

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in the critical issues of our time: wealth and poverty, equality and justice, access and exclusion, rights and democracy, and freedom and authority. Promoting students’ global mobility through curriculum and pedagogies has become the core agenda of each national higher education policy that seeks to foster the quality of its citizens. Teachers must develop reflective cultural, national, and global identifications themselves if they are to help students become thoughtful, caring, and reflective citizens in a diverse society (Laker et al., 2014). Students’ global mobility can also be understood in terms of the minimum number of rights and duties held directly under international law, or in the context of membership in new institutions of global governance. Global citizenship education has attracted attention, for example, in the United Kingdom where politicians promote education for Global Citizenship (Oxfam, 2007), and school curriculums emphasize cultivation of global citizens. Also, the Ministry of Environment in Canada encourages environmental citizenship in the sustainability development of our planet. In short, an awareness of the wider world motivates many governments to involve self-described global citizens in social and political issues and to take responsibility for the global common good (Schattle, 2008). Many versions of student’s global mobility stress engagement in cosmopolitan duties assume a universal morality. This includes recognizing special duties at local and national levels, and suggests that in extreme circumstances the claims of humanity should come first. (Falk, 2000).

5.2 College Students for Global Mobility Traditional education concentrates on teaching citizens what national citizens should be like and how the younger generation contributes to national prosperity. What happens in other parts of the world is now increasingly influencing local regions and communities, and as such, the younger generation needs appropriate knowledge and skills to realize the impact of global forces (Pieterse, 1995). Education is a powerful tool for changing the world, especially in relation to issues such as poverty, the denial of rights, and the inequitable and unsustainable use of resources (Hicks, 2003). As colleges and universities apply strategies with the aim to advance cross-border education, both higher education institutions and national policies must emphasize the public’s understanding of global mobility and also inspire the younger generation to think and live as global citizens. International exchange and cooperation programs are encouraged by all facets in higher education institutes. The programs, which provide a bridge for young people to have cross-cultural experiences, allow young students from all over the world to interact with other people and turn into global citizens in the end. (Skelly, 2009) International students also help stimulate and revitalize those countries which receive these exchange students. The educational environments of home countries will be more diverse, holistic, and universal in the long run and benefit from a win–win cooperative relationship.

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The rapid growth of students’ global mobility in recent years has changed the global landscape of international education. Since the beginning of the twenty-first century, the number of students traveling abroad to pursue higher education has increased by 65 percent, totaling over 3.3 million students in the year 2008 alone. The traditional hosts in developed countries and the new players in developing countries are all vying for a foothold in the global market of international education. Undergraduates can attain a world standard education by studying abroad while extending their learning to include cross-cultural understanding. Students can stay in host countries to receive internships or job opportunities beneficial to personal and career development. Furthermore, advancements in the high-tech and communication sectors have made the modes of study abroad programs more flexible and feasible; as a result, this movement leads to more students being educated at an international level. There is no question that the international dimension of higher education is becoming increasingly important and at the same time more complex in the twentyfirst century. In recent decades, the scale of college students’ global mobility has prevailed in higher education, although the trend mainly occurs in southern countries moving to northern countries and eastern countries moving to western countries. This consequence increases the integration in higher education progress, but there also arises doubt on the enlarging gap between the rich and the poor countries in higher education (Seefeldt, 2018). An empirical survey on Europe proved that the inter-mobility between the west and the east is quite weak. Such unilateral flow limits the further development of education in the Eastern Europe and forms an unbalanced situation in the European continent (Macrander, 2017). Moreover, mobility programs further widen the gap between major cities and other areas. History tells us that the changes in external and internal environment play an extremely important role in the process of internationalization of higher education, and the outcomes of international student mobility are impacted by a complex interplay of multiple push and pull variables, such as: mutual understanding in social and cultural factors, revenue earning and skill migration and capacity building. Knight (2012) categorises the development of student mobility through longitudinal observation and points out there are typically three stages. The first generation displays the students’ mobility to foreign country for education purposes. The second generation aims at programme and provider mobility which extends to institutions/companies across jurisdictional borders for delivery of education by multiple patterns, e.g., branch campus, virtual university, joint/double award, and twinning. The third wave transfers into education hubs built on the first and second generation. It represents a wider strategic configuration of actors and activities that exerts more influence in the new marketplace of education for revenue from international students’ fees and international competitiveness in the regional and global scales. Kathleen, Barker, and Harris (2016) explore the process of global citizen learning and the student mind-set, pointing out that the model identifies facilitators and manifestations of “student change” as well as reflexivity, criticality, and the social imaginary as capacities of global mind-set. The strategies for educating all students as

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global citizens could be more closely aligned to the internationalization of education and employability agendas. Students’ mind-sets and experiences will influence their motivation to participate in the global mobility program. Studying abroad and international connection with classmates from different countries always become challenges for young people. Wu et al. (2018) shows that many students are not satisfied with the insufficient fund from the Erasmus program and believe that such kinds of mobility intensify unequal higher education. Another important institutional limitation is that mobility abroad will probably negatively affect students after they return to their home universities and absolutely damp students’ enthusiasm to apply for mobility programs. Insights from past and present developments of student’s global mobility raise a series of practical and academic questions for consideration. For example, today’s educational initiatives invoke the specific term “global citizen education,” which is really new and distinctive in comparison with other plans related to international education. Student’s global mobility brings intellectual substance to global mobility. Educators cultivate a climate on campus in which a plurality of student global mobility education can coexist without lapsing into incoherence and irrelevance. Such inquiries become critically vital as universities continue to work on particular programs and activities that demonstrate how student’s global mobility can spring to life (Beelen, 2014). Woldemelekot (2017) testifies the Pearson correlation in the global competence of college students. This study indicates that global competence and global citizenry are strongly correlated r(681) = 0.70 and the correlation is significant at 0.01 level (2-tailed). Global competence and global ventures are also moderately correlated at Pearson’s correlation 0.01 level (2-tailed) with r(681) = 0.59. The relation between global citizenry and global ventures is moderate with Pearson correlation r (681) = 0.62 significant at 0.01 (2-tailed). The correlation among variables of undergraduates’ competency on global capacity exists, and improvements on undergraduates’ learning opportunity and quality should be the duty of educational institutions. Enhancing undergraduates to learn global citizenship for their multicultural and cross-border mobility have prevailed by implementing pedagogies in higher education. While Leavitt et al. (2017) show teaching practices by focusing on a culturally aware curriculum and by featuring extensive coverage on social constructivism, cocurricular learning, and inclusive pedagogy to support the development of students’ global competence. It is not easy to extend and expand international student mobility. Usually, globally ranked universities do aspire to provide meaningful international experiences for their domestic students, and their leaders are also committed to the mission of global engagement. However, the environment for student global mobility has to persevere in the face of challenges brought about by the current rise in anti-immigration rhetoric Marklein (2017). Gaulee et al. (2018) ask where do students go to study, where do they come from and who was able to leave home, and what obstacles do students face and how do they overcome them? These questions should not just be answered by using whatever perspectives are dominant in the places where students arrive or

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whatever theories are popular among those who do the studying. In that the student experience presents the actors’ perspective and values of global mobility from a local to global level. According to the diverse objectives and missions of global student mobility, there are various approaches to explain and explore the study of global student mobility. One is by comparative analysis of mobility which examines the changing nature of mobility with an emphasis on what has changed and why. The other is by critical analysis of mobility which reveals the type of international factor, cost factor, and cross-border delivery through the pull and push theory of global student mobility (Wit, 2018). This chapter focuses on the issue of undergraduates’ experiences which extends their learning approaches from local contexts to diverse, global environments. Investigation of students’ global mobility will give us an understanding of what factors and consequences students must face and conquer in order to study abroad. This chapter explores the concept of student’s global mobility, which differs from traditional international education, and will argue that the roles of universities in teaching and equipping global citizens have to take on a broader perspective and give students the opportunity to apply the skills into real life.

5.3 Backgrounds of Respondents This chapter focuses on undergraduate students’ experiences in study abroad programs in the context of globalization. The study was conducted by interviewing students who had taken international courses to extend their learning experience. Because the research interviewed students from multiple countries, it took about two years to collect the empirical data. The research aimed to open a debate about the meanings and understandings of students’ global mobility by employing the opinions and values of college students who have had long or short-term study abroad experiences. The participants included students who (1) had come to Taiwan to learn Mandarin or a specific major, and (2) local Taiwanese students who had gone to study at the University of California in Berkeley as short-term students to gain credits in language or professional courses. The first group of students was interviewed in 2010 when the researcher worked as an executive secretary at the Office of the Taiwan Scholarship and Huayu Enrichment Scholarship Program, which aims to attract and support international students in Taiwan. The other group of students was interviewed in 2011 when the researcher was a visiting scholar at U.C. Berkeley. The researcher held face-to-face interviews with students to conduct this study. A semi-questionnaire included core questions, such as: • What were your motivations for studying abroad? • How did you receive the opportunity to study abroad? • Have you experienced culture shock when visiting a new country?

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• Would you join this kind of exchange program again? • Do you have other opinions and comments regarding students’ global mobility? The researcher obtained the agreement of each interviewee to record each interview in adherence to research ethics. Then the researcher transcribed the interview data and analyzed the transcriptions with the qualitative analysis software Nvivo 10.0. There were a total of fifteen students interviewed, comprising seven nonAsian students who were Taiwan Scholarship recipients, and eight students from mainland China and Taiwan who had studied in the UnitedStates. After the datacollecting interviews, analysis codes that conform to “nationality respondent identity and their response sequences” were assigned. For example, the code “TaiwanE01” indicates the fifth interviewee’s first response; specifically, the fifth letter of the English alphabet “E” represents the fifth interviewee and the number “01” shows that this was his or her first response.

5.4 Implications and Lessons designed for Students Global Mobility 5.4.1 Students Global Mobility and Awareness of Global Citizens Equipping students with competences for meeting global challenges involves active learning and the skills of critical thinking, communication, cooperation, and conflict resolution to improve their motivation and behavior. Reflecting on personal experiences of studying abroad, one Taiwanese respondent said: Education is one of the foundations of human civilization and the government should not only encourage college students to save money or gain grants to study abroad, but also increase the budget to provide undergraduates opportunities to learn with international students (TaiwanA04, TaiwanB04).

In practice, interaction with people from other cultures achieves the fundamental ability of being global citizens. Whether one is an outsider in unfamiliar surroundings or fully entrenched in one’s place of birth, global citizenship as cross-cultural empathy depends on a willingness to build personal relationships with those from other backgrounds. The cross cultural aspects of global citizenship that occur in human relationships yield many sources of differences, such as ethnicity, language, religion, and social class. The opportunity for students’ global mobility encourages people to think about other people’s values and absorb their cultural traditions and heritages. Students argued that their education requires teachers to promote a willingness, first, to connect with unfamiliar experiences, and then also to learn how to interact with people from diverse backgrounds. In order to attain this competence, the first

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step, and also a key point, relies on the teacher’s attitude and instruction. One student argued: When I studied in Taiwanese universities, I felt that teachers lacked the information and the ability to interact with various cultures. Thus, they weren’t aware enough to expand students’ knowledge and skills in cross-cultural experiences (Taiwan E01).

Some scholars hold the same perspective and argue that if the government tightens control over the curriculum of higher education at the state level, it will fail to provide students with opportunities to understand the multiple dimensions of global, regional, and local affairs and changes (Barry, 2006; Heater, 2002; Power & Whitty, 1996). Taiwanese students reflecting on their course regulations in Taiwan expect that: Higher education institutions should provide students with more flexible opportunities to transfer majors. This deregulation would promote students’ active learning during their college period (TaiwanC02). The higher education system should enable undergraduate to have more flexibility in choosing majors. Because having a singular profession is not enough these days, it is important to equip students with multiple competencies in multiple dimensions (TaiwanD01).

Undergraduates think that the education and experience of both knowledge and affect are demanded on the global stage nowadays. Global citizenship often amounts to a state of mind and also serves as a continual process of personal growth and awareness (Lagos, 2009). Fostering young students to interpret and practice global affairs is incorporated into different school subjects. However, student’s subjectivity remains a core issue in teaching global affairs and establishing the students’ world views. A Chinese student who felt the dramatic cultural gap between eastern and western society offered the following insight: When I left my country, I realized the huge gap between eastern and western cultures; and this experience led me to reflect and look back on my own values and behavior in my society. (China H03)

The challenge of culture shock was encountered not only by an Asian student but also by an Australian student. While living in a new environment, respondents explained their process of cultural adaption and the actions they took, as expressed by this Australian student: It is not necessary to feel that the local students don’t understand you or you have difficulty adapting to the local people. When you study abroad, it takes time to understand the cultural gap and overcome the language barrier. (Australia A04)

Another Mexican girl, who strongly echoed this kind of experience, mentioned that: Racism is very obvious when you go to new places. It happened to me during my time at Berkeley. I think this situation is the same around the world. (Mexico A03)

Students showed a realization of critical issues and one student (Taiwan A06) responded with understanding:

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There was a student from Senegal who had adapted to the local cultures and transcended stereotypes. He expanded his identity to include the distant world and stated: My parents were born in Africa, but I was born in France. Having lived in diverse cultures and places throughout my learning process, I have developed a sophisticated and comprehensive identity as a Senegalese, a Muslim, and a global citizen. (Senegal A01).

This above opinion emphasizes that he belongs not only to his local community but extends his sense of belonging to civic life in a global community.

5.4.2 Enforcement of Students Mobility One of the vital globalization forces influencing higher education on the international level is the flow of international students, scholars, and scientists from the poor developing countries to the developed ones. The students who enrich their learning experiences by studying abroad are optimistic that their future trajectory will be unlimited. As the Senegalese respondent replied: If I can find a good job, I am willing to go anywhere. In a globalized era, anyone can live and work in France, the United States, or Senegal. (Senegal A02)

Globalization opens a new era for the younger generation to work at various places and to enforce their competitiveness through diverse environments. Therefore, if professors take action to improve their teaching methods to fit this challenge, it can encourage the students to achieve this level of learning. One student from Iceland who came to Taiwan to major in ethnic music was confident in his own ability and said that: The ethnic music program in Taiwan is really professional, so after graduating from here, I will be able to study in the U.S. or other countries. In the global era, it is nice to have learning experiences from both developed and developing countries. (Iceland A01)

In the beginning of the twenty-first century, the workforce and the development of human resources are facing the new challenge of uncertain labor markets, which Edwards and Usher (2008) called “dislocation.” More individualized and mobile workers are in fluid and virtual spaces to perform their outcomes. In attempting to raise a particular agenda and mission for the higher education system, one confronts the question of what the main goals are for universities in fostering students to care about global sustainability and development. The role of higher education changes when the requirements of competitiveness and productivity reconfigure students’ spaces and work places. A Taiwanese student reflected on the experience of studying in a local context and the benefits of an international learning opportunity.

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In Taiwan, I was taught not to be too aggressive, but when I came to learn with classmates from all around the world, I realized I should be more active in my studies. Overall, it is good to have the opportunity to learn with international friends. (Taiwan A02) One of my classmates said she enjoyed learning languages, math, literature, and so on. I was surprised because I seldom feel enjoyment in my own studies. Their positive attitude influenced me to make a personal change in my own attitude toward learning. (Taiwan A01)

The changes in learning and teaching in higher education need to offer more opportunities for learner-centered pedagogies. This requires a shift in focus from teaching to learning, from pedagogies of transmission to pedagogies as creators of the learning environment and learning as design (Kress, 2003). It is suggested that this process is facilitated by a reconfiguration of the teacher–student relationship, where everyone can be experts given the abundance and availability of information in virtual and real spaces (Edwards & Usher, 2008). The significance of such a project is to invite students to think and act together, instead of imposing content on the student’s life. The role of a professor is not simply to explain how or what things are, but to turn the global society into a reality through more examples and events. Moreover, the relationship among language, culture, and nation-state has never been simple(Edwards & Usher, 2008). With the development comes the need to think anew what constitutes the teacher’s role and its performance in pedagogy. For instance, the university should provide learning environments built on democracy and freedom for students who have the motivation to decide their study plans. A student from mainland China proposed: Let students have more control in their life. If students can choose courses based on their interests, then it will better cultivate talents. (China G02)

A student from Taiwan suggested: Global organizations can work on providing the younger generations with opportunities to visit different places and understand the world. (Taiwan G03)

The pedagogical and curricular changes have a direct impact on college students’ ability to learn by global mobility. All aspects of human development and sustainability are concerned with taking responsibility, valuing people and the environment, and resolving problems through virtue thinking. The inquisition of what knowledge is taught and what attitudes are conveyed has revealed that a transformation in teaching and learning approaches is vital for college students to realize their identity and role within the world as good citizens in the new era. This strategy can lead them along the route of communicating, interacting, and translating values, languages, and attitude from culture to culture.

5.5 Bring the Reality of Other Cultures into the Classroom This study shows that student’s global mobility has become a prevailing trend around the world in the globalization context. Institutions of higher education have endeavoured to design programs that give students opportunities to learn in diverse cultural

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and educational environments. This chapter investigated fifteen students’ opinions and experiences expressed on different research occasions and shows that students have grasped the transformation of globalization and are concerned about their learning achievements and competition on the global stage. Research findings show that the Chinese and Taiwanese students faced culture shock and reflected on their learning attitudes and behaviors. They realized that they should take on a more aggressive mentality toward their life plan and motivation to study in college. Due to the benefits gained through international study experiences, they pointed out that institutions should show more support to students studying abroad. Students who came to Taiwan to study confronted difficulties, such as culture shock in their interactions with classmates and in day-to-day life as well as the communication barrier due to unfamiliarity with local languages. However, they showed more confidence and independence to change their lifestyles and meet the expectations of the local cultures and communities. The non-Asian students had stronger self-identities and were not bothered by uncomfortable consequences in their interactions with local classmates and roommates. On the contrary, they viewed this situation as inevitable when visiting and living in a different culture. Additionally, the students from Mexico and Iceland stated that they had plans to return home and contribute their learning outcomes to their respective countries. This decision fortified them to face the isolation they sometimes felt between themselves and the local people. The other significant finding of this paper is that the courses and pedagogies of higher education do not provide enough opportunities for college students to encounter the world on a broader level. Changes can start with professors. For example, professors can introduce the reality of other cultures into the students’ learning processes, showing them the international common values and competencies of modern college students and encouraging critical thinking. The Asian students suggested that they should be more independent from their family, classmates, and traditional values in order to attain personal development in the international community. In summary, this chapter has examined the study abroad experiences of undergraduates, exploring their values and perspectives on being global citizens and expressing their thoughts on being members of the broader world. How to consider the implications in making student’s global mobility a greater part of the program is a permanent part of educational movements and policies. This study is a starting point for looking at these concerns and issues and underlines the significance of a coming and prosperous era of globalization by the insights gleaned from this younger generation on becoming global citizens.

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References Banks, J. A. (1997). Educating citizens in a multicultural society. Teacher College Press. Barry, J. (2006). Resistance is fertile: From environmental to sustainability citizenship. In A. Dobson & D. Bell (Eds.), Environmental citizenship (pp. 21–48). MIT Press. Beelen, J. (2014). The other side of mobility: The impact of incoming students on home students. In B. Streitwieser (Ed.), Internationalisation of higher education and global mobility (pp. 287–299). Symposium Books. Edwards, R., & Usher, R. (2008). Globalisation and pedagogy: Space, place and identity. Routledge. Falk, R. (2000). The decline of citizenship in an era of globalization. Citizenship Studies, 4(1), 3–17. Gaulee, U., Sharma, S., & Bista, K. (2018). Rethinking Education across Borders. Springer Verlag. Heater, D. (2002). World citizenship: Cosmopolitan thinking and its opponents. Continuum. Hicks, D. (2003). Thirty years of global education: A reminder of key principles and precedents. Educational Review, 55(3), 265–275. Kathleen, L., Michelle, B., & Neil, H. (2016). The global citizen conceptualized: Accommodating ambiguity. Journal of Studies in International Education, 21(1), 6–21. Knight, J. (2012). Student mobility and internationalization: Trends and yribulations. Research in Comparative and International Education, 7(1), 20–23. Kress, G. (2003). Literacy in the new media age. Routledge. Lagos, T. G. (2009). Global citizenship: Towards a definition. Retrieved from http://depts.washin gton.edu/gcp/pdf/globalcitizenship.pdf. Accessed 8 November 2017. Laker, J., Naval, C., & Mrnjaus, K. (2014). Civic pedagogies in higher education: Teaching for democracy in Europe, Canada and the USA. Palgrave Macmillan. Leavitt, L., Wisdom, S., Leavitt, K. (2017). Cultural awareness and competency development in higher education. IGI Global. Marklein, M. B. (2017, November 4). Achieving a globally engaged campus in testing times. University world news. Retrieved from https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=201711 04041947500. Oxfam. (2007). A curriculum for global citizenship. Retrieved from http://globalcitizen.nctu.edu. tw/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/1.-Education-for-Global-Citizenship-A-Guide-for-Schools.pdf. Accessed 9 December 2009. Pieterse, J. N. (1995). Globalisation as hybridization. In M. Featherstone, S. Lash, & R. Robertson (Eds.), Global modernities (pp. 46–48). Sage. Power, S., Whitty, G. (1996). Teaching new subjects? The hidden curriculum of marketized educational systems. Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association Annual General Meeting, Chicago, USA. Schattle, H. (2008). The practices of global citizenship. Rowman and Littlefield. Seefeldt, B. (2018). The impact of education expenditures on income inequality: Evidence from US states (Master’s thesis). Bryant University, Rhode Island. https://digitalcommons.bryant.edu/cgi/ viewcontent.cgi?article=1026&context=honors_economics Skelly, J. M. (2009). Fostering engagement: The role of international education in the development of global civil society. In R. Lewin (Ed.), The handbook of practice and research in study abroad: Higher education and the quest for global citizenship (pp. 20–32). Routledge. Wit, H. (2018, July 6). The new dynamics in international student circulation. Retrieved from https:// www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=20180704143553337. Woldemelekot, N. (2017). A correlational study of Georgia undergraduate student global competence, global citizenry, and global ventures (Doctoral dissertation thesis). Northcentral University, CA. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED575235 Wu, Y., Wang, Q., Liu, N. C. (2018). World-Class universities:Towards a global common good and seeking. Koninklijke Brill NV. Zgaga, P. (2009). Higher education and citizenship: The full range of purposes. European Educational Research Journal, 8(1), 175–188.

Chapter 6

Teachers’ Perspectives on Student Competency in Global Citizenship

This chapter suggests that the college teacher acts as a critical and practical actor in cultivating students’ knowledge, behavior, and affection to achieve global citizenship competencies. This chapter adopts a research questionnaire to survey college teachers’ opinions on college students’ achievements and difficulties in gaining global citizenship literacy. Global citizenship believes it is fundamental for the young generation to cultivate the knowledge and skills that consider life experience in the context of globalization. The extent to which the knowledge and skills differ from traditional education plans and policies, which emphasize national identify education for learners, deserves to be investigated. To this end, a practical and empirical survey was used to probe teachers’ values and attitudes in this regard.

6.1 Global Governance in Multiple Relations Rosenau (1990) argues that the state-centric world would be replaced by multicentric global relationships. The technological progress and operational logic of globalization will cause politics to no longer function through national countries but transform into multi-centered politics that transcends borders. It appears to include: • Operation of transnational organizations: The World Bank, the Catholic Church, International Sociological Association, Amnesty International, and Green Peace are organizations that operate across borders. Cooperation or opposition will be between such organizations rather than between countries. • Reaction to cross-national issues: Different countries will explore many diverse issues, such as climate change, international infectious diseases, racial conflicts, and financial crisis. • Development of cross-national events: The media focuses the world’s attention on select events, for example, wars, exhibitions, world games, and religious assemblies. © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. S. Chen, Global Citizen Formation, Governance and Citizenship in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-1959-5_6

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• Connection among cross-national communities: Various interest-based communities rally around issues such as religions, experts, lifestyle, kinship, environment protection, or consumer boycotts. • Transformation in cross-cultural structures: Globalization has an enormous impact on social structures, such as the vocation, marriage, industry, and financial crisis around the world. Global structure and its content are constantly in an uncertain state and its operational logic has a dual dialectical nature (McGrew, 2000). There will be a phenomenon of coexistence of universalism and tribalism. For example, almost all cultures identify human rights as universal, but simultaneously human rights depend on the social context. Therefore, upholding human rights can differ from culture to culture or from country to country in practice. On the other hand, every step forward in convergence and separation brings forth new patterns that shape cross-border communities to establish a new social correlation, but the national sovereignty is threatened by the new order. Globalization is not only a centralization process of capital, power, knowledge, and wealth, but also a landscape of deregulation, which renders each country to construct and identify its national and international strategies in the global structure. Faced with this series of changes, the gradual limitations of the traditional discourse or practice of citizenship must be extended. That is, apart from the civic political rights that were based on the individualism of liberal theory, and the economic and social and cultural rights that were based on interest-groups’ rights, now the discourse and practice of citizenship must extend to multiple aspects such as the right to solidarity and the right to development based on ecological ethics and sustainable development (Nussbaum, 2004). It is critical that global citizenship avoids smashing global sustainable development when maximizing the profits of a capitalist economy, and that we adjust our stance toward the ecological environment from man conquering nature to being willing to sacrifice to a certain degree. This concept of justice not only fits into the relationship between ecological environment and human kind, but is also worth expanding to become a strategic solution for the social and life issues of each individual (van Steenbergen, 1994). In the process of forming and transforming paradigms of globalization, individuals face challenges as they respond and react to the social uncertainty. In that, higher education organizations should play a role in cultivating civic awareness and action to counter the core challenges of the opportunities and crises that each encounters in globalization. Global citizenship in this study is an integrated concept based on the theories discussed by Archibugi and Held (1995), Peters (2005), and Schattle (2008). Peters particularly points out that world citizenship and global citizenship directly correspond to each other. In fact, when we mention the term “world citizenship,” it corresponds to the definition of world or cosmopolitan, but the term “global citizenship” is more congruent with how globalization tends to trigger changes in society. Abdi et al. (2015) alert that most of the scholarship on global citizenship education is from the West and they mostly focus on the lives of people in the developing world. In order to extend and broaden the understanding and practice of global citizenship education, it is necessary to promote multidirectional and decolonizing knowledge

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and perspectives on global citizenship education. Nevertheless, scholars should also acknowledge the equality, justice, and common humanity of all in symbiosis with the social and natural environment. As institutes of higher education move toward increased expectation and engagement internationally, it is important to take a critical and reflective approach to fully understand what this engagement intends to accomplish. Briefly, in this chapter, global citizenship refers to individuals equipping themselves with global awareness and responsibility, extending this to the global scope where they can participate in global affairs to demonstrate their knowledge, virtue, and action for a global society.

6.2 University as a Site for Global Citizenship 6.2.1 Students’ Global Mobility and Forming Global Citizens Despite a long history of international education policies that ties citizens’ views of themselves with the broader world, some U.S. scholars disagree that global education is being viewed in the same way as international education in practice (Held & McGrew, 2003). Gutek (1993) indicates that global education emphasizes a global environment, humanitarianism, and economic development. It further seeks balance between individual and local interests on the one hand, and social and global interests on the other hand. On the contrary, international education, particularly as it is conceptualized in contemporary U.S. education policies, generally binds interest and action within societies and nation-states. Frey and Whitehead (2009) further analyze two Ohio and Indiana state national curriculum policies to reveal that rather than expanding educational goals from the local to the global, the international education plans are grounded in local and state issues of national security, domestic diversity, and state economic development priorities. Additionally, Frey and Whitehead argue that these policies establish clear boundaries that limit international education to local economic and national security concerns. Traditional education programs tend to lack appropriate attention to crucial features of global citizens such as: incorporating critical thinking skills of knowledge, comprehension, analysis, synthesis, explanation, evaluation, and extrapolation and evaluating global competence as an outcome (Nussbaum, 2013). Compared to traditional education, student mobility places more emphasis on equipping undergraduates with competence and particularly promoting their understanding of human relationships and inter-institutional relationships in different contexts. In order to cultivate in students the viewpoint of global citizenship, there is a broad array of disciplines included, such as philosophy to identify the reasons for becoming global citizens, history to acknowledge the transformation of power on a world scale, and religion to explore faith in its diverse forms.

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From a political standpoint, citizenship is primarily national but includes the dimension that influences the state to act in accordance with universal principles (Delanty, 2000). Kant has provided inspiration at three different levels: the moral theory that endorses cosmopolitanism, the views on the relationship between promoting globalism and political action, and the views on international institutions (Carter, 2001). These approaches indicate that being a good citizen of a given country should mean one is acting as a political agent who can realize and act for the broader common good. Global citizen characteristics differ from traditional characteristics which underlies national identity and even patriotism in particular statements. Carter (2001) suggests three aspects of citizenship in the state that can be found in liberal thought. The first seeks to maximize individual freedom of choice and is linked to the market or neoliberalism according to the global market. The second one gives more weight to individual morale and political responsibility toward building a shared society and further participating in a global internationalism. The third aspect emphasizes individual obligations, individual rights, and the value of political activism, pursuing both cosmopolitan values and civil society. Regarding the incentives and mechanism of the global market nowadays, individuals can view themselves as bearers of rights and duties in a global context. As such, they will especially find that the very limitations of neoliberal individualism and the passive model of citizenship within the state become advantages for them. The power of the economy could dominate and even destroy citizens’ public participation and contributions. However, as long as a common political culture emerges from a civil society and public communication crosses national frontiers, the model of democracy can therefore be applied at various political levels (Habermas, 1989). Thus, citizenship is not only a status given by the institutions of the modern constitutional state and international law, but rather, it is a set of negotiated practices and outcomes which promote an individual to become a citizen through engaging in society (Tully, 2008). The qualities of global citizenship include self-awareness, empathy, participation, and readjustment to contemporary global changes and problems, which can be seen in citizens acting largely on their own as well as in public officials acting on behalf of entire countries. Global citizens have the sense that everyone is responsible for the public spaces that establish fair systems of rules and reach principled decisions when it comes to international and cross-national policy-making. Moreover, he or she has an understanding of how the world works and shows respect for diversity. The global citizen sympathizes with social justice and is willing to make the world a more equitable and sustainable place. He or she also participates in the community at a wide range of levels, from the local to the global and takes responsibility for his or her actions.

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6.2.2 Undergraduates Requiring Global Literacy Changes in globalization are extremely broad, covering urban and rural living, ordinary life, refugee migration (Richmond, 1994), religion (Beyer, 2006), the transformation of intimate relationships (Plummer, 2003), and the consequences of these changes constantly influence human life (Berry, 2003; Featherstone & Lash, 1995; Hirst & Thompson, 1999; Zedillo, 2008). In this dramatic transformation, the global problems that occur pose challenges that differ from the challenges of past history, and the social and political movements are beyond the traditional framework of nation-state and international relationships. We should increase college students’ understanding on how to deal with the difficulties in cross-cultural communication and conflicts. The social movements and landscapes should be defined in terms of “global society,” formerly known as “world society.” Beck et al. (1994) point out that the operational and experiential framework of the new society as a whole is far removed from that of post-traditional society. It must be recognized as not merely a world society but a global society. The reason Beck et al. (1994) assert this definition is because globalization, that is, the refusal of tradition and social connections, are absolutely separate from the traditional beliefs and folk norms, instead forming a new network of connections in the global order. In such ambiguous and hazy circumstances, citizenship is not only a core concept referring to the nation-state in political theory and thought, but calls for more alternatives, obligations, and duties for the individual. In addition to maintaining civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights, it is critical to examine and intervene in the cultivation of citizenship in the context of globalization. Beck (1999) investigates the various crises that may be induced by the entire global social context and advocates that learning must enable individuals to master their own lives. Hence it is necessary for higher education to plan curriculum and programs that provide the youth with a cross-cultural international perspective. Educational institutions should further inquire into with which perspectives and actions on citizenship are needed to equip the younger generation in accordance with the context of globalization. Globalization derives from various issues of changes, risks, and justice. When we review related studies on civic education carried out in Taiwan, it is clear that the research outcomes and studies are closer to ideal citizenship education (Chen & Peng, 2007; Gu, 2005; Liu & Dong, 2009; Ministry of Education, 2003). However, research tends to illustrate the ideal type of citizenship education, but with limited results they fail to envision the issues in the context of global social change, or they establish their educational content as if citizenship were to operate within stable and static social conditions. This is why, in this chapter, I will continue to investigate the developing issues. The educational issue of global citizenship has distinctly futuristic features. In What is Globalization?, Beck (1999) points out that one of the most important and effective strategies in responding to globalization is to establish a society with abundant education and knowledge. Instead of subsidizing German enterprises, Beck

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insists that the government should invest that money in education to enable its citizens to acquire various competences to face international issues. For this reason, the quality of citizenship in the global context is different from the traditional educational goals of the past that were used to cultivate national citizenship (Ellis, 2016). If college students’ progress toward the goal tend to be global citizens, they cannot escape from the aim to improve college teachers’ understanding so that they can participate as a progressive force in global citizenship. This chapter explores college teachers’ responses via survey to investigate the developmental highlights and problems of cultivating undergraduate literacy in global citizenship.

6.2.3 Significance in Evaluation of Teachers’ Viewpoints of Global Citizenship This chapter surveys college teachers to explore the framework and elements of undergraduate global citizenship. This study further presents college teachers’ opinions on each question. Since teachers are the direct practitioners cultivating college students’ global citizenship, this research design can dig into the relationship between the perspectives (what is important) and practice (what is actually done) of college teachers. The research objectives of this chapter are as follows: • Inquire about college teachers’ opinions and perspectives on the importance of educating undergraduates in global citizenship and its performance. • Analyze the distribution of college teachers’ opinions on undergraduate global citizenship. • Adapt the cluster analysis method to illustrate the grouping distributions of teachers’ opinions on global citizenship education. This chapter uses the statistical analysis methods of descriptive statistics, the correspondence analysis of importance and performance, and the cluster analysis. The multiple statistics analysis hypothesizes that the variables of college teachers’ gender, occupation level, school type, service years, and school location, significant differences exist in how teachers cultivate undergraduate global citizenship. Moreover, the questionnaire survey was administered to teachers of the selected colleges to explore their opinions on global citizenship.

6.3 Response of Higher Education: Thought and Practice on Global Citizenship Literacy In the age of globalization, colleges and universities encounter forces of contradictions that lead to the coexistence of both challenges and opportunities (Zgaga, 2009). Higher education struggles between the global and the local, the universal and the

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particular, tradition and modernity, competition and integration, and economic and ethical coexistence in the globalized context. Biesta (2009) argues that it is acceptable for compulsory education to be limited to the country’s priorities, but higher education should cross national boundaries. The role of higher education institutes is not only to create new workers for the next generation, but also to promote cultural, social, and civic development at both the level of the nation and European Union. In August 2009, the European Educational Research Journal returned to the fundamental starting point and explored the complex situation in which national power and global progress coexist. What is the possible contribution of higher education institutes to citizen’s development? How can the universities’ role effectively contribute to the progress of European citizenship (Biesta et al., 2009)? The connotation of a European citizenship refers not only to the individual’s political identity, but further has competency-based connotations, ensuring that universities can respond to external challenges (Biesta et al., 2009). In Israel, a country that emphasizes political identity, their educational experts say it is extremely difficult to convey to the younger generation the consensus and vision of Israeli society and at the same time to equip Israeli citizens with global citizenship literacy (Ichillov, 1998). Correspondingly, the challenges encountered by European Union teachers are also significant because they have to explain to students that they are not only citizens of a particular country, but must also identify as European citizens and even global citizens. If it is impossible to help students understand their role as citizens during their educational years, then it is difficult to expect the European Union to develop into a well-integrated community in the arena of public opinion and practice. Moreover, the discourse has to inculcate in students an understanding of their relationship to their country, region, and locality and further include the dimension of the European community (Biccum, 2010). As Callan (1997) states, the reality of a multicultural society makes the cohesive identity more urgent than before, and whether educational approaches can positively contribute to this is worth evaluating. Zgaga (2009) proposes that no matter what their future profession may be, students should have civic potential. The concern is that any individualization or personalization of citizenship will threaten the development of democracy. He says this to point out that university and college are at risk of instrumentalism. Biesta (2009) also states that if a society put too much emphasis on social consensus, it would probably degrade universities and colleges into socializing agencies. As a result, societies would threaten the public spirit and values pursued by of higher education and transform citizenship education into a form of socialization. Biesta (2009) and Zgaga (2009) argue that the learning approaches for citizenship literacy at the stage of higher education should not only implant particular concepts and consensus to students, but should also stimulate undergraduates’ knowledge and abilities in critical thinking for life. Despite the decline of national governance and the challenges of globalization, higher education should advocate the spirit of multiculturalism and enforce participation in democratic politics. Because we are in an era in which the traditional governance is gradually changing, global citizens need to have a critical consciousness. Universities and colleges play the core role

98

6 Teachers’ Perspectives on Student …

in teaching and conveying knowledge. They are the most adequate organizations to cultivate global citizenship competency in our era (Masschelein & Simons, 2009). For this reason, political and social philosophical scholars pursue a response to global transformation and crises so that learners can comprehend the new relationship, knowledge, and crises in the new context (Habermas, 1996; Pieterse, 2004; Welton, 1995). As scholars have mentioned on cultivating individual value choices, supervising the learning environment, and encouraging reflective thinking (Shen, 2004; Wang, 2008), it is worthy to investigate the corresponding relationships between citizenship education and social movements to establish a discourse and practice of citizenship education that is applicable in reality.

6.3.1 Teaching as Fundamental Approaches to Cultivate Global Citizens In 2007, the Association of American Colleges and Universities launched a global citizenship education program. Ten universities participating to promote global citizenship education through various course designs, including forming new knowledge among academic communities, encouraging teachers and students to deeply understanding their civic and social responsibilities, molding the frequency and student competency in cross-cultural exchanges, and promoting the students’ knowledge, dialectic, and practice in democracy (Association of American Colleges and Universities, 2007). This program further evaluated the efficacy of higher education to promote public well-being and provide social service for society. Regarding the construction of global citizenship literacy, Seitz and Hite (2012) explain that global issues cover a wide range of issues, including poverty, population, wealth, food, energy, the environment, technology, and future trends. Oxfam (1997) proposes that global citizenship literacy should be incorporated in knowledge, understanding, abilities, and perspectives. There needs to be an understanding of the inequities and injustices in society, being a global citizen, the interdependence of globalization and world affairs, historical conflicts and conflict prevention, the importance of sustainable development, culture and social diversity, and the nature of prejudice and transcendence. With regard to practices, global citizens need to be able to cooperate and resolve conflicts, make rational claims, evaluate various information and opinions, and challenge unfairness and injustice with appropriate action. In terms of value, the willingness to understand others and compromise appropriately, to believe in the power of human change, and to care for the environment have been advocated broadly in educational institutes. The system extends the learning of global citizenship literacy from merely conveying knowledge to the level of practice and willingness. Winn (2005) conducts an empirical survey to understand global citizenship and proposes three dimensions of global citizenship as the fundamental responsibilities of higher education. The first dimension is environmental protection, including aspects such as the willingness to facilitate sustainable development around the world as well

6.3 Response of Higher Education …

99

as an awareness of global systems and global conditions, to name a few. The second is social justice, which includes aspects such as knowing and respecting peoples’ human rights, as well as cherishing and emphasizing the cultural differences and multicultural views. The third is citizen participation, including aspects such as the willingness to make the world a place of fairness, a commitment to global peace, and an understanding of one’s role as a citizen. Ouimet and Pike (2008) propose that the learning dimensions of global citizenship literacy should include critical thinking, communication skills, vocational experiences, policy participation, civic engagement, teamwork skills, community beliefs, helping others, and language learning. Dolby (2008) analyzes the studying abroad experiences of 46 American and Australian respondents which show that global citizenship is not merely an abstract discourse, but an actual experience for the learners. She calls for higher education to provide long term or short term learning opportunities for undergraduates. Hendershot (2010) had conducted a nearly 5-year observation of practical education programs, mainly exploring the establishment of global citizenship and the corresponding learning transformation process among college students. The study found that a series of global citizenship literacy courses, such as constructive participation differences groups, the implementation of social activism, peer discussion and dialogue, and community engagement facilitate the learning process from short-term cognitive growth to continuous learning and action. The research findings reveal the criteria that have influenced the students’ learning of global citizenship the most. The empirical research portrays a clear pattern of the issue. Before delving into the findings, I will explain the data collection method of the Taiwanese experience.

6.4 Methods and Data Collection 6.4.1 Research Framework The framework of this research is as shown in Fig. 6.1.

6.4.2 Development of Research Instrument The questionnaire on the competency in global citizenship of college students was conducted in two stages. I adopted the categories of global issues from Seitz and Hite (2012), the learning dimensions of global citizenship from Oxfam (1997), and the survey framework from Winn (2005). Then, I established a questionnaire on global citizenship with 3 domains and 12 dimensions. The items are as follows:

100

6 Teachers’ Perspectives on Student … Background variables Gender Job Title School types Service years School location

Domains

Statistical methods

Cognitive domain (6 dimensions)

Mean analysis

Skill domain

IPA analysis

(3 dimensions) Affective domain (3 dimensions)

Cluster analysis

Fig. 6.1 Research framework

• Cognitive domain – – – – – –

Information and technology Ecological and natural resources Economic structures Peace and conflict International politics and organizations Cultural expansion and colonialism

• Skill domain – Identification – Reflection – Action • Affective domain – Respecting diversity – Interdependence – Connectedness

6.4.3 Reliability and Validity The questionnaire includes the three domains of cognition, skill, and affection to evaluate teachers’ perceptions on students’ global competency. The fields of each item were divided into “importance” and “performance.” The 4 points of the Likert scale were defined as “very important,” “important,” not “that important,” and “definitely not important.” Likewise, “performance” was defined as “high performance,” “satisfactory performance,” “low performance,” and “no performance.” In addition, background variables were included, such as gender, job title, school type, service year, and the school location.

6.4 Methods and Data Collection

101

Table 6.1 Sample size distribution of stratified random sampling of the survey population Public Population Sampling

Private

Total

General

Technology

General

Technology

Population

11,748

6643

11,747

20,943

Proportion

23%

13%

23%

41%

100%

Number

239

135

239

427

1040

Percentage

23%

13%

23%

41%

100%

51,081

The survey began in October 2011 and was carried out until December 2012. The sampling process was based on the teacher population in different types of school—public university, private university, public technological university, and private technological university. The distribution of the population and samples are shown in Table 6.1. The study adopted Cronbach’s alpha (α) as a measure of internal consistency. Exploratory factor analysis was used to examine the factor loading by principal axis factoring and to rotate the axis by the director oblimin whenever the eigenvalues were larger than 1. The KMO test was conducted to determine sampling adequacy and validity; the values it returned met the requirements of statistical analysis. Reliability was tested by Cronbach’s alpha value. In general, a Cronbach’s alpha value of < 0.35 is low confidence, and 0.35 < Cronbach’s alpha value < 0.7 reliability is acceptable. The Cronbach’s alpha values in this study fell between 0.889 and 0.951, showing that the internal consistency of the scale used in this study was sufficient, as shown in Table 6.2. Table 6.2 Reliability and validity test Items

Validity test Criteria

Reliability test Explained variance

KMO values

Cronbach’s α values

Global citizenship cognition

Importance

56.80

0.946

0.950

Performance

59.48

0.949

0.959

Global citizenship skills

Importance

54.15

0.937

0.939

Performance

61.02

0.951

0.955

Global citizenship affection

Importance

59.98

0.889

0.912

Performance

58.57

0.908

0.933

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6 Teachers’ Perspectives on Student …

6.4.4 Sample Analysis and Statistical Analysis Strategies 6.4.4.1

Sample Representativeness, Weighted Average, and Representative Analysis

This study adopted the ranking ratio for weighting. According to the gender ratio of the survey sample to the school type, the weight is calculated repeatedly and constantly rectified until the difference between the sample structure and the parent population reaches a non-significant level. The differences between the groups did not reach a significant level, confirming that the survey samples were representative, as shown in Table 6.3. Table 6.3 χ2 Test of representative samples before and after weighting χ2 Test Variables

Before Weighting

Weighted

Sample

Expectations

χ2 Test result

Weighted sample

Male

274

342.3

χ2 = 42.3, df = 1, p =.000

332

Female

231

162.7

Unanswered

9

χ2 Test result

Gender

173

χ2 = 0. 962, df = 1,p = .327

9

School type Public universities

141

140.5

139

Private universities

163

124.2

122

Public technology universities

37

42.0

Private technology universities

109

143.3

Others

63

Unanswered

1

χ2 = 20. 928, df = 3, p = .000

χ2 = 0. 233, df = 3, p = .972

6.4 Methods and Data Collection

6.4.4.2

103

Variables Setting

Independent variables were: (1) gender: male and female; (2) job title: professor, associate professor, assistant professor, lecturer; (3) school type: public university, private university, public technological university, private technological university, others; (4) service year: under 5 years, 6–10 years, 11–15 years, 16–20 years, 21– 25 years, above 26 years; (5) school location: north, central, south, east. The dependent variables were the performance of the undergraduates’ knowledge, ability, and virtue in global citizenship. In reference to the ratio between population and samples, the analysis of weighted representative samples is shown in Table 6.4.

6.4.4.3

Statistical Analysis Strategies

This chapter aims to investigate the distribution of importance and performance to understand the teachers’ comments on the importance and performance of college students’ global citizenship. I adopted the Importance-Performance Analysis (IPA), which is established by Martilla and James (1977), as an analysis approach. The method, often used to examine customer satisfaction and management strategies, divides the distribution of importance and satisfaction with the performance of manufactured products, and evaluates the mean scores by their placement in a matrix. The results observed the related locations in each quadrant by evaluating the position of the axis and quadrant, as shown in Fig. 6.2. Finally, I used cluster analysis, a statistical strategy to observe the scores of all samples in each variable and further classify the samples into multiple groups. Samples of the same category will have similar scores in each variable; conversely, samples of different categories will have differences in the scores of each variable. This method helped to clarify whether the performance of college students’ global citizenship was clustered and indicated the attribute which could be assigned to items within the same cluster, and as a result, to realize the homogeneity of these data. I used a two-stage clustering analysis method of inquiry. The first stage used the hierarchical cluster analysis method, which relies on Ward’s method and Euclidean liner distance squared cluster analysis, to find the appropriate numbers of clusters. The second stage used the K-Means cluster analysis method to inquire into the results of each grouping and present the features of each cluster.

104 Table 6.4 Analysis of weighted representative sample

6 Teachers’ Perspectives on Student … Item

n

%

Gender Male

332

64.5

Female

173

33.7

9

1.8

Unanswered Job Title Professor

43

8.4

Associate professor

124

24.0

Assistant Professor

135

26.2

Lecturer

209

40.6

4

0.7

Public universities

139

27.0

Private universities

122

23.7

Public technology universities

41

8.0

Private technology universities

148

28.7

Other

63

12.3

Unanswered

1

0.2

Under 5 years

91

17.8

6–10 years

101

19.6

11–15 years

97

18.9

16–20 years

87

17.0

21–25 years

84

16.4

Over 26 years

50

9.7

Unanswered

3

0.6

North

211

41.0

Central

118

23.0

South

112

21.9

Unanswered School types

Service years

School location

East

73

14.2

Total

513

100.0

Note Numbers of each variables may be with minor difference due to the results of sample weighting

6.5 Findings and Discussion

105 I quadrant (keep up the good work)

Satisfaction level (performance)

II quadrant (possible overkill)

III quadrant (low priority)

IV quadrant (concentrate here)

Importance level (importance)

Fig. 6.2 The Importance-Performance Analysis model of Martilla and James’ (1977)

6.5 Findings and Discussion 6.5.1 Mean of Undergraduates’ Competency in Global Citizenship The following shows the mean analysis of importance and performance in the cognitive domain, skill domain, and affective domain.

6.5.1.1

Analysis of Importance and Performance in Cognitive Domain

According to the research results, the analysis of importance and performance in the cognitive domain is as shown in Table 6.5 The Dimension of International Politics and Organizations The item “understanding the formation and changes in international hegemony” is the lowest both in importance (3.30) and performance (3.21); Conversely, the item “understanding common human values” is the highest in importance (3.70) and performance (3.51). The Dimension of Economic Structures The item “understanding the current trend of the global workforce” is the lowest both in importance (3.28) and performance (3.15). However, the item “understanding the operation and risks of the globalization of financial markets” is outstanding in importance (3.49) and performance (3.30), also the performance (3.30) of “understanding the large increase of the global poor population” is the highest. The Dimension of Peace and Conflict The item “understanding the rights of indigenous peoples and minorities” is the lowest both in importance (3.31) and performance (3.16), whereas the item “understanding international tensions in competition for natural resources” is the highest both in importance (3.67) and performance (3.46). The Dimension of Ecological and Natural Resources The item “understanding the impact of ecological and environmental degradation on biodiversity” is the lowest both in importance (3.63) and performance (3.44); yet the item “understanding the

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6 Teachers’ Perspectives on Student …

Table 6.5 The mean analysis of importance and performance in the cognitive domain of global citizenship Dimension International politics and organizations

Economic structures

Peace and conflict

Items

Importance

Performance

M

SD

Understanding common human values

3.70

0.529 3.51

0.594

Understanding international alliance between governments

3.41

0.616 3.34

0.620

Understanding the operation of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)

3.45

0.612 3.33

0.660

Understanding the formation and changes in international hegemony

3.30

0.731 3.21

0.674

Understanding the causes (poverty and war) of refugee migration and displacement

3.50

0.634 3.33

0.650

Understanding the operation and risks of globalization in financial markets

3.49

0.595 3.30

0.637

Understanding the global spread of capitalism

3.33

0.674 3.25

0.651

Understanding the widening economic gap between different countries and peoples

3.44

0.678 3.28

0.677

Understanding the current 3.28 trend of the global workforce

0.698 3.15

0.672

Understanding the large increase of the global poor population

3.45

0.642 3.30

0.654

Understanding the 3.50 contributing factors and responses to conflicts among different civilizations and religions

0.651 3.34

0.672

Understanding the racial conflicts and discrimination

0.595 3.35

0.645

3.52

M

SD

(continued)

6.5 Findings and Discussion

107

Table 6.5 (continued) Dimension

Ecological and natural resources

Information and technology

Items

Importance

Performance

M

SD

M

SD

Understanding international tensions in competition for natural resources

3.67

0.530 3.46

0.635

Understanding global inequality and injustice

3.50

0.659 3.29

0.673

Understanding the rights 3.31 of indigenous peoples and minorities

0.732 3.16

0.713

Understanding the limits of ecological and natural resources

3.78

0.446 3.56

0.597

Understanding the correlation between population increase and environmental damage

3.67

0.517 3.51

0.601

Understanding the destruction of the global ecological environment due to industrial development

3.70

0.507 3.51

0.590

Understanding the impact 3.63 of ecological and environmental degradation on biodiversity

0.616 3.44

0.660

Understanding the 3.74 universal human responsibility to maintain the ecological and natural environment

0.502 3.55

0.601

Understanding the impact 3.45 of information and technology advancement on transportation

0.655 3.37

0.621

Understanding the damage and risk of various technologies

3.55

0.573 3.40

0.634

Understanding the gap in technological development between countries

3.18

0.674 3.13

0.653

Understanding the development and impact of genetic engineering

3.22

0.682 3.09

0.710

(continued)

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6 Teachers’ Perspectives on Student …

Table 6.5 (continued) Dimension

Items

Importance

Performance

M

SD

M

SD

Cultural expansion and Understanding the global colonialism spread of mass and popular cultures

3.35

0.704 3.34

0.633

Understanding the cultural colonization behind the dissemination of media and information

3.35

0.707 3.25

0.708

Understanding the global development of consumerism

3.29

0.714 3.26

0.698

Understanding the global travel trends of tourists and immigrants

3.21

0.740 3.21

0.685

Understanding the establishment and influences of internet-based social networks

3.41

0.725 3.35

0.696

Understanding the change 3.39 of the modern women’s role

0.635 3.33

0.662

M mean, SD standard deviation

limits of ecological and natural resources” is the highest in both importance (3.78) and performance (3.56). The Dimension of Information and Technology Opinions on the importance (3.18) of “understanding the gap in technological development between countries” and the performance (3.09) of “understanding the development and impact of genetic engineering” are both the lowest; however, the item “understanding the damage and risk of various technologies” is regarded most highly in both importance (3.55) and performance (3.40). The Dimension of Cultural Expansion and Colonialism The item “understanding the global travel trends of tourists and immigrants” is the lowest in both importance (3.21) and performance (3.21), whereas the item “understanding the establishment and influences of internet-based social networks” is highly regarded for its importance (3.41) and performance (3.35), while “understanding the global diffusion of mass and popular cultures” is the highest in performance (3.34).

6.5 Findings and Discussion

6.5.1.2

109

Analysis of Importance and Performance in the Skill Domain

According to the research results, the analysis of importance and performance in the skill domain is as shown in Table 6.6. The Dimension of Identification The item of being “able to identify controversial human rights issues, such as child labor, human trafficking, and political refugees” received the lowest rating in importance (3.50). As for performance, “able to distinguish inequalities and inequities in societies” is given the lowest rating (3.14). The Dimension of Reflection Being “able to change existing ideologies and make new choices or judgments” was ranked lowest in both importance (3.44) and performance (2.99). Conversely, being “able to identify local cultural values and commit to local and global connections” received highly agreement in importance (3.53) and performance (3.20). In addition, being “able to appreciate cultural differences and examine oneself” was also given considerable support in performance (3.21). The Dimension of Action “Able to participate in events organized by local and global non-profit organizations” ranks lowest in importance (3.32) whereas being “able to challenge global injustice and inequity” ranks lowest in performance (2.84). However, being “able to change personal lifestyle and consumption habits to maintain the sustainability of natural resources” ranks highest both in importance (3.56) and performance (3.16).

6.5.1.3

Analysis of Importance and Performance in the Affective Domain

According to the research results, the analysis of importance and performance in the affective domain is as shown in Table 6.7. The Dimension of Respecting Diversity “Willing to respect biodiversity” is given a low ranking in both importance (3.63) and performance (3.28), whereas being “willing to respect and support human rights” ranks highest in both importance (3.80) and performance (3.41). The Dimension of Interdependence The item ranked lowest in importance is “willing to sympathize with others’ differences, feelings, and needs” (3.64), while the lowest ranked item in performance is “willing to commit to the pursuing a world of justice and equity” (3.21). But “willing to give ongoing care to the ecological environment and commit to sustainable development” ranks the highest both in importance (3.68) and performance (3.29). The Dimension of Connectedness In importance, “willing to learn others’ lifestyles and cultures” is ranked low (3.49), while in performance, “willing to assume public roles and responsibilities” has the lowest ranking (3.16). Conversely, “willing to cooperate and coordinate with others” is ranked the highest in both importance (3.68) and performance (3.31).

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6 Teachers’ Perspectives on Student …

Table 6.6 The mean analysis of importance and performance in the skill domain of global citizenship Dimension Identification

Reflection

Items

Importance

Performance

M

SD

M

SD

3.67

0.529

3.34

0.634

Able to identify 3.50 controversial human rights issues, such as child labor, human trafficking, and political refugees

0.587

3.23

0.632

Able to identify the global impact or significance of events and phenomena

3.53

0.575

3.21

0.671

Able to think systematically

3.61

0.572

3.18

0.712

Able to face and solve conflicts

3.65

0.541

3.19

0.721

Able to distinguish inequalities and inequities in societies

3.58

0.574

3.14

0.679

Able to collect and 3.62 verify information to construct or revise ones’ views

0.557

3.24

0.691

Able to analyze the positions and ways of thinking behind various claims and values

3.51

0.573

3.05

0.737

Able to change existing ideologies and make new judgments

3.44

0.660

2.99

0.770

Able to identify local cultural values and commit to local and global connections

3.53

0.605

3.20

0.697

Able to reflect on the public good vs. social responsibility dilemma of development

3.49

0.614

3.11

0.711

Able to appreciate cultural differences and examine oneself

3.52

0.660

3.21

0.726

Able to identify the common value of human rights

(continued)

6.5 Findings and Discussion

111

Table 6.6 (continued) Dimension Action

Items

Importance

Performance

M

SD

M

SD

3.53

0.585

3.02

0.764

Able to challenge global 3.34 injustice and inequality

0.674

2.84

0.851

Able to participate in events organized by local and global nonprofit organizations

3.32

0.708

3.00

0.798

Able and willing to pursue world peace through practical actions

3.36

0.698

2.97

0.858

Able to change personal 3.56 lifestyle and consumption habits to maintain the sustainability of natural resources

0.601

3.16

0.794

Able to defend and support human rights

M mean, SD standard deviation

6.5.2 Importance and Performance Analysis of Undergraduates’ Global Citizenship When implementing this survey, each item measured the “importance” and “performance” opinions from teachers on the global citizenship literacy of college students. In addition to grasping the intensity of the teachers’ opinions on each item, the IPA method can clarify how the intensity of the teachers’ opinions is distributed in both the importance and performance of each item. Therefore, through the use of the IPA analysis method, the comprehensive benefits of each item are determined. The following is a presentation and explanation of the IPA analysis of teachers’ opinions on college students’ knowledge, ability, and affection in regards to their global citizenship literacy.

6.5.2.1

IPA of Cognitive Achievement

For teachers’ opinions on the cognitive aspect of each item, we found that the items “understanding of international politics and organizations” and “understanding the ecological environment and natural resources” located in the quadrant I, implying that teachers should keep up the good work in teaching these issues. The location of items in quadrant III, “cultural expansion and colonialism,” “information and

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6 Teachers’ Perspectives on Student …

Table 6.7 The mean analysis of importance and performance in the affective domain of global citizenship Dimension Respecting diversity

Interdependence

Connectedness

Item

Importance

Performance

M

SD

M

SD

Willing to respect and support human rights

3.80

0.450

3.41

0.638

Willing to accept cultural differences

3.77

0.472

3.38

0.665

Willing to respect biodiversity

3.63

0.569

3.28

0.723

Willing to solve conflict through non-violent means

3.75

0.471

3.34

0.684

Willing to commit to pursuing a world of justice and equity

3.66

0.517

3.21

0.739

Willing to sympathize with others’ differences, feelings, and needs

3.64

0.571

3.23

0.724

Willing to give ongoing care to the ecological environment and commit to sustainable development

3.68

0.549

3.29

0.712

Willing to cooperate and coordinate with others

3.68

0.523

3.31

0.671

Willing to assume public roles and responsibilities

3.55

0.595

3.16

0.703

Willing to learn others’ lifestyles and cultures

3.49

0.645

3.19

0.711

M mean, SD standard deviation

technology,” and “economic structures,” reveals the lower priority that teachers put into teaching these items, both in terms of importance and performance. The quadrant IV only has the item “peace and conflict” located in it, and that means teachers with lower agreement and action in the issues of “peace and conflict” (Fig. 6.3) If individual items of the cognitive domain are observed through the IPA analysis strategy, it can be found in Figs. 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 6.7, 6.8, and 6.9 that a total of 15 items fall into quadrant I. Those items that fall into quadrant II can be classified as possible overkill, indicating that although the items in this quadrant are highly feasible, they already receive more attention than warranted. Teachers need to reexamine the time and resources allocated to teaching the four cognitive domain items in quadrant II. Items that show up in quadrant III are there because they are not gaining teachers’ support in terms of importance or performance, and there are eight items in total. On the one hand, it is worth looking into the reasons behind

6.5 Findings and Discussion

113

II

I

III

IV

Fig. 6.3 The IPA analysis chart of global issues (Note Mean of importance is 3.45; mean of performance is 3.31. Numbers represent the following: 1. International politics and organizations; 2. Economic structures; 3. Peace and conflict; 4. Ecological environment and natural resources; 5. Information and technology; 6. Cultural expansion and colonialism)

II

I

III

IV

Fig. 6.4 The IPA analysis chart of international politics and organizations (Note Mean of importance is 3.46; mean of performance is 3.33. Numbers represent the following: 1. Understanding common human values, such as the development of freedom and democracy; 2. Understanding international alliance between governments, such as the United Nations, the European Union, and the ASEAN–China Free Trade Area; 3. Understanding the operation of NGOs, such as Greenpeace, Amnesty International, and World Vision; 4. Understanding the formation and changes in international hegemony; 5. Understanding the causes (poverty and war) of refugee migration and displacement)

114

6 Teachers’ Perspectives on Student …

II

I

III

IV

Fig. 6.5 The IPA analysis chart of economic structures (Note Mean of importance is 3.38; mean of performance is 3.24. Numbers represent the following: 1. Understanding the operation and risks of globalization in financial markets; 2. Understanding the global spread of capitalism; 3. Understanding the widening economic gap between different countries and peoples; 4. Understanding the current trend of the global workforce; 5. Understanding the large increase of the global poor population)

II

I

III IV

Fig. 6.6 The IPA analysis chart of peace and conflict (Note Mean of importance is 3.48; mean of performance is 3.30. Numbers represent the following: 1. Understanding the contributing factors and responses to conflicts among different civilizations and religions; 2. Understanding the racial conflicts and discrimination; 3. Understanding international tensions in competition for natural resources; 4. Understanding global inequality and injustice; 5. Understanding the rights of indigenous peoples and minorities)

this result, but on the other hand, the result shows the possibility to reduce the proportion of time spent on teaching the connotations of such issues. Such items are important to the teacher and can also be feasibly implemented (high in importance and performance); it is worth noting that those items that fall into quadrant IV are of high importance but lack feasibility (low performance). These items “understand

6.5 Findings and Discussion

115

II

I

III

IV

Fig. 6.7 The IPA analysis chart of information and technology (Note Mean of importance is 3.35; mean of performance is 3.23. Numbers represent the following: 1. Understanding the impact of information and technology advancement on transportation; 2. Understanding the damage and risk of various technologies; 3. Understanding the gap in technological development between countries; 4. Understanding the development and impact of genetic engineering)

II

III

I

IV

Fig. 6.8 The IPA analysis chart of ecological and natural resources (Note Mean of importance is 3.70; mean of performance is 3.50. Numbers represent the following: 1.Understanding the limitation of ecological and natural resources; 2. Understanding the correlation between population increase and environmental damage; 3. Understanding the destruction of the global ecological environment due to industrial development; 4. Understanding the impact of ecological and environmental degradation on biodiversity; 5. Understanding the universal human responsibility to maintain the ecological and natural environment)

the cultural colonization behind the dissemination of media and information” and “understand the global inequality and injustice.” It shows that while most teachers pay attention to these items, they also have doubts about how to teach them. It is worthwhile to not only promote teachers’ global citizenship literacy teaching plans, but follow up by providing the resources to assist them.

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II

III

I

IV

Fig. 6.9 The IPA analysis chart of cultural expansion and colonialism (Note Mean of importance is 3.33; mean of performance is 3.28. Numbers represent the following: 1.Understanding the global spread of mass and popular cultures; 2. Understanding the cultural colonization behind the dissemination of media and information; 3. Understanding the global development of consumerism; 4. Understanding the global travel trends of tourists and immigrants; 5. Understanding the establishment and influences of internet-based social networks; 6. Understanding the change of the modern women’s role)

6.5.2.2

IPA of Skill Achievement

On the whole, teachers think that students’ achievement in the skills or abilities in global citizenship literacy are good. Figure 6.10 illustrates that “identification” is supported by teachers as it falls in quadrant I, indicating that it is being taught well and should continue to be taught in this manner. For teachers, college students’ global citizenship’s “active ability” is ranked lower in both importance and performance.

II

I

III IV

Fig. 6.10 The IPA analysis chart of skill (Note Mean of importance is 3.50; mean of performance is 3.10. Numbers represent the following: 1. Identification; 2. Reflection; 3. Action)

6.5 Findings and Discussion

117

II

I

III

IV

Fig. 6.11 The IPA analysis chart of identification (Note Mean of importance is 3.59; mean of performance is 3.21. Numbers represent the following: 1. Able to identify the universal value of human rights; 2. Able to identify controversial human rights issues, such as child labor, human trafficking, and political refugees; 3. Able to identify the global impact or significance of events and phenomena; 4. Able to think systematically; 5. Able to face and solve conflicts; 6. Able to distinguish inequalities and inequities in societies; 7. Able to collect and verify information to construct or revise ones’ views)

This view is inconsistent with the current trend in citizenship education and should be further investigated. In looking at the individual skill items through IPA analysis, we found that 6 items are located in quadrant I, which shows that teachers believe in their importance and feasibility. The items located in the quadrant II rank high in performance but low in importance in the teaching and learning process. They are “able to identify controversial human rights issues, such as child labor, human trafficking, and political refugees,” “able to reflect on the public good versus social responsibility dilemma of development,” and “able to participate in events organized by local and global nonprofit organizations.” As shown in Figs. 6.11, 6.12, and 6.13, the items located in quadrant III comprise of “able to distinguish inequalities and inequities in societies,” “able to change existing ideologies and make new choices and judgments,” “able to challenge global injustice and inequity,” and “able and willing to pursue global peace through practical actions.” Teachers consider these items to be of low priority both in importance and in performance. Items located in quadrant IV are given higher importance yet are lacking in performance. Items that fall in quadrant IV are “able to think systematically,” “able to face and solve conflicts,” and “able to analyze the positions and ways of thinking behind various claims and values.” The results indicate that teachers are aware of the importance of these items, but consider their students’ global citizenship competency in them to be below par.

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II

I

III

IV

Fig. 6.12 The IPA analysis chart of reflection (Note Mean of importance is 3.49; mean of performance is 3.11. Numbers represent the following: 1. Able to analyze the positions and ways of thinking behind various claims and values; 2. Able to change existing ideologies and make new judgments; 3. Able to identify local cultural values and commit to local and global connections; 4. Able to reflect on the public good vs. social responsibility dilemma of development; 5. Able to appreciate cultural differences and examine oneself)

II

I

III

IV

Fig. 6.13 The IPA analysis chart of action (Note Mean of importance is 3.50; mean of performance is 3.10. Numbers represent the following: 1. Able to defend and support human rights; 2. Able to challenge global injustice and inequality; 3. Able to participate in events organized by local and global nonprofit organizations; 4. Able and willing to pursue world peace through practical actions; 5. Able to change personal lifestyle and consumption habits to maintain the sustainability of natural resources)

6.5 Findings and Discussion

6.5.2.3

119

IPA of Affective Achievement

As shown in Fig. 6.14, “respecting diversity” is located in quadrant I, showing that teachers believe there is affective value in teaching it. However, as for “connectedness,” teachers’ responses infer that it is of low priority in global citizenship education both in terms of importance and performance. By observing the survey results for each item’s IPA, we can see that 4 items are located in quadrant I, which means that they are ranked high in both importance and performance for teaching. “Willing to sympathize with others’ differences, feelings, and needs” is located in quadrant II, showing it ranked high in performance but low in

II

I

III

IV

Fig. 6.14 The IPA analysis chart of affection (Note Mean of importance is 3.65; mean of performance is 3.26. Numbers represent the following: 1. Respecting diversity; 2. Interdependence; 3. Connectedness)

II

I

III

IV

Fig. 6.15 The IPA analysis chart of respecting diversity (Note Mean of importance is 3.73; mean of performance is 3.34. Numbers represent the following: 1. Willing to respect and support human rights; 2. Willing to accept cultural differences; 3. Willing to respect biodiversity; 4. Willing to solve conflict through non-violent means)

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6 Teachers’ Perspectives on Student …

II

I

III

IV

Fig. 6.16 The IPA analysis chart of interdependence (Note Mean of importance is 3.65; mean of performance is 3.22. Numbers represent the following: 1. Willing to commit to pursuing a world of justice and equity; 2. Willing to sympathize with others’ differences, feelings, and needs; 3. Willing to give ongoing care to the ecological environment and commit to sustainable development)

II

I

III

IV

Fig. 6.17 The IPA analysis chart of connectedness (Note Mean of importance is 3.58; mean of performance is 3.21. Numbers represent the following: 1. Willing to cooperate and coordinate with others; 2. Willing to assume public roles and responsibilities; 3. Willing to learn others’ lifestyles and cultures)

importance. This shows it has been over-emphasized and II should be demoted in the curriculum and teaching designs. The items “willing to respect biodiversity,” “willing to learn others’ lifestyles and cultures,” and “willing to assume public roles and responsibilities” are ranked lower by teachers in both importance and performance. The item “willing to commit to the pursuit of a world with justice and equity” is located in quadrant IV, showing that it is high in importance but low in performance for teachers. The affective aspect of global citizenship refers to students’ moral cultivation, and teachers are urged to be more supportive in this regard (Figs. 6.15, 6.16, and 6.17).

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121

6.5.3 Cluster Analysis of Teachers’ Opinion of the Importance and Performance of Global Citizenship Literacy According to the survey results, teachers’ opinions on the importance of global citizenship can be divided into the three main clusters “highly important,” “somewhat important,” and “not very important”, as shown in Table 6.8. Teachers of different backgrounds certainly contribute to the various tendencies of each cluster, as shown in Table 6.9. The attributes of the more supportive group were female, lecturer, at private technological universities, serving over 26 years, and in schools located in central Taiwan (Figs. 6.18 and 6.19).

6.5.3.1

The Cluster Analysis of Importance in Undergraduates’ Global Citizenship Literacy

The result of teachers’ opinions on the importance of global citizenship are clustered into the “highly important,” “somewhat important,” and “not very important” groups, as shown in Table 6.8. There are obvious clusters of groups among the teachers, as shown in Table 6.9. The attributes of the more supportive group toward global citizenship are female, lecturer, at private technology universities, service between 21 and 25 years, and Table 6.8 The groupings of importance in global citizenship literacy Global citizenship groupings

Group 1 (highly important)

Group 2 (somewhat important)

Group 3 (not very important)

International politics and organizations

1.120541

−3.14330

−1.01138

Economic structures

1.15919

−2.69393

−0.76737

Peace and conflict

0.95420

−2.87024

0.95420

Ecological and natural resources

2.63118

−4.11298

−0.74090

Information and technology

2.24216

−2.64980

0.28538

Cultural expansion and colonialism

1.42777

−2.30392

−0.29455

Identification

0.93689

−3.72451

0.93689

Reflection

0.99570

−2.98855

−0.59800

Action

1.46211

−2.68002

−0.42068

Respecting diversity

3.13234

−4.31901

−6.18184

Interdependence

2.11483

−3.46459

0.71998

Connectedness

0.83930

−3.07749

−1.11909

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Table 6.9 Group cross-analysis of importance in global citizenship literacy Groups

Group 1 (highly important)

Group 2 (somewhat important)

Group 3 (not very important)

Background Variables

n

n

%

n

%

%

Gender 1. Male

147

48.5%

26

8.6%

130

42.9%

2. Female

98

61.3%

5

3.1%

57

35.6%

1. Lecturer

115

59.9%

12

6.3%

65

33.9%

2. Assistant professor

64

51.2%

8

6.4%

53

42.4%

3. Associate professor

56

49.1%

6

5.3%

52

45.6%

4. Professor

15

40.5%

4

10.8%

18

48.6%

1. Private technological university

87

66.4%

3

2.3%

41

31.3%

2. Private university

47

42.0%

21

18.8%

44

39.3%

3. Public technological university

18

46.2%

0

0.0%

21

53.8%

4. Public university

67

51.9%

5

3.9%

57

44.2%

1. Under 5 years

44

50.0%

6

6.8%

38

43.2%

2. 6–10 years

49

53.8%

5

5.5%

37

40.7%

3. 11–15 years

48

54.5%

7

8.0%

33

37.5%

4. 16–20 years

43

53.8%

9

11.3%

28

35.0%

5. 21–25 years

47

63.5%

1

1.4%

26

35.1%

6. Over 26 years

18

39.1%

2

4.3%

26

56.5%

1. Northern Taiwan

117

60.6%

6

3.1%

70

36.3%

2. Central Taiwan

49

44.1%

12

10.8%

50

45.0%

3. Southern Taiwan

49

50.0%

11

11.2%

38

38/98

4. Eastern Taiwan

38

53.5%

2

2.8%

31

43.7%

Job Title

School type

Years of Service

School location

located in northern Taiwan. The attributes of the group of teachers who less supportive of global citizenship are male, professor, at public technological universities, service for over 26 years, and located in central Taiwan.

6.5 Findings and Discussion

123

Fig. 6.18 The cluster analysis of importance in undergraduates’global citizenship literacy

Fig. 6.19 The cluster analysis of performance in undergraduates’global citizenship literacy

6.5.3.2

The Cluster Analysis of Performance in Undergraduates’ Global Citizenship Literacy

According to the survey results, teachers’ opinions on the performance of global citizenship literacy can be divided into the three main clusters “high,” “mid,” and “low” degrees to indicate their support, as represented in Table 6.10. With regard to feasibility, the results show that different teacher groupings are certainly represented by the different degrees of consent within each cluster, as shown in Table 6.11. The attributes of the highly supportive group are female, lecturer, at

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Table 6.10 The groupings of performance in global citizenship literacy Groups Global citizenship

Group 1 (high)

Group 2 (mid)

Group 3 (low)

International politics and organizations

0.92833

1.33634

−2.74372

Economic structures

2.56461

1.41431

−3.57033

Peace and conflict

1.95364

1.23091

−3.46679

Ecological and natural resources

0.92309

0.92309

−3.99429

Information and technology

0.95475

−0.46700

−3.78439

Cultural expansion and colonialism

1.55513

1.25861

−2.89274

Identification

0.92763

−2.28504

−2.82049

Reflection

1.41738

−1.78412

−2.74457

Action

2.89578

−1.43909

−2.88404

Respecting diversity

1.09906

−2.72707

−2.72707

Interdependence

2.24803

−1.97229

−3.02737

Connectedness

1.26548

−1.98499

−1.98499

private technological university, serving between 6 and 10 years, and teaching in eastern Taiwan. In less supportive groups, the background of the teachers is male, assistant professor, at private universities, serving between 21 and 25 years, and serving in schools in southern Taiwan.

6.5.4 Encountering Changes and Challenges of Global Citizenship Literacy As Beck (1999), Nussbaum (2006), and Schattle (2008) have indicated, an educational approach is an important strategy for all nations to have in the face of global changes and challenges. The following discussion compares research literature with empirical findings.

6.5.4.1

For Most Items, Opinions on Importance Ranked Higher Than on Performance

The survey results reveal areas of lack and limitation in how teachers cultivate their students’ global citizenship literacy. The findings provide further direction for the development and reform of college students’ learning. For the cognitive domain, the importance of the item “understanding the impact of progress in technology on transportation (3.18)” in the “information and technology” dimension and the item “understanding the global travel trends of tourists

6.5 Findings and Discussion

125

Table 6.11 Group cross-analysis of performance in global citizenship literacy Groups

Group 1 (high)

Group 2 (mid)

Group 3 (low)

Background Variables

n

%

n

%

n

%

1. Male

102

43.6

91

38.9

41

17.5

2. Female

58

46.0

53

42.1

15

11.9

1. Lecturer

74

50.3

56

38.1

17

11.6

2. Assistant professor

36

37.1

40

41.2

21

21.6

3. Associate professor

36

41.4

37

42.5

14

16.1

4. Professor

15

45.5

13

39.4

5

15.2

1. Private technological university

57

54.8

36

34.6

11

10.6

2. Private universities

27

35.1

25

32.5

25

32.5

3. Public technological 15 university

44.1

11

32.4

8

23.5

4. Public university

43

42.2

51

50.0

8

7.8

5. Others

20

4081.6

23

46.9

6

12.2

1. Under 5 years

25

37.9

30

45.5

11

16.7%

2. 6–10 years

33

50.0

23

34.8

10

15.2%

3. 11–15 years

32

47.1

27

337.5

9

13.2%

4. 16–20 years

29

44.6

29

44.6

7

10.8%

5. 21–25 years

29

46.8

19

30.6

14

22.6%

6. Over 26 years

13

34.2

20

52.6

5

13.2%

1. Northern Taiwan

74

47.4

63

40.4%

19

12.2%

2. Central Taiwan

30

38.5

33

42.3%

15

19.2%

3. Southern Taiwan

28

39.4

25

35.2%

18

25.4%

4. Eastern Taiwan

28

47.5

26

44.1%

5

8.5%

Gender

Job Title

School types

Years of Service

School location

and immigrants (3.12)” in the “cultural expansion and colonialism” dimension are ranked the lowest. On the achievements of performance, the item “understanding the development and impact of genetic engineering (3.09)” and “understanding the gap in technological development between countries (3.13)” the dimension of “information and technology” are the most difficult topics to put into practice for teachers. The item “understanding the current trend of the global workforce (3.15)” in the “economic structures” dimension also is difficult to teach.

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As for the degree of consent on importance in the skill domain, the items “able to participate in events organized by local and global non-profit organizations (3.32)” and “able to challenge global injustice and inequality (3.34),” which are both in the “action” dimension, have the lowest rank. On the achievements of performance, the items “able to challenge global injustice and inequality (2.84)” and “able and willing to pursue world peace through practical actions (2.84),” which are also in the “action” dimension, are the most difficult to implement. On cultivating global citizenship literacy, there is an obvious gap in teachers’ prescriptive teaching between what actions should be taken and what actual action is taken. The results echo Chen and Peng’s (2007) opinion that we need to put more emphasis on the action approaches in global citizenship education. In terms of the agreement on importance in the affective domain, the item “willing to learn others’ lifestyles and cultures (3.49)” in the connectedness dimension has the lowest rank. On the achievements of performance, the items “willing to assume public roles and responsibilities (3.16)” and “willing to learn others’ lifestyles and cultures (3.19),” which are both in the connectedness dimension, show unfavorable attitudes. It is noteworthy that the item “willing to respect and support human rights (3.80)” has the highest score of all items in the affective domain. However, the items that are related to public participation and accepting diversity show lower results in the affective domain. In sum, apart from the item “understanding the global travel trends of tourists and immigrants,” in which the mean of performance is equal to that of importance, most of the items are stronger in importance than performance. This finding is similar to Xun’s (2007) research that found that college students had stronger civic attitudes than they attained in behavior. Moreover, these results also demonstrate that even though teachers recognize the importance of global citizenship literacy, they still encounter challenges in encouraging students to perform or practice global citizenship through the curriculum and pedagogy.

6.5.4.2

The Results of IPA Can Lead Us to Concentrate on the Items Which Deserve More Attention in Developing Undergraduates’ Global Citizenship

The IPA strategy shows that the comprehensive results of importance and performance locate six items in quadrant II: “understanding global inequality and injustice,” and “understanding the cultural colonization behind the dissemination of media and information” in the cognitive domain; “able to think systematically,” “able to face and solve conflicts,” and “able to analyze the positions and ways of thinking behind various claims and values” in the skill domain; and “willing to commit to pursuing a world of justice and equity” in the affective domain. This result means that teachers are obviously aware of the importance of these items, but there are challenges in integrating them into the curriculum and finding ways to implement them in the pedagogical design.

6.5 Findings and Discussion

6.5.4.3

127

An Obvious Clustering Phenomena in Teachers Opinions on the Global Citizenship of College Students

The results of cluster analysis help us to examine whether there are any differences in teachers’ opinions on cultivating undergraduates’ global citizenship competence. The results demonstrated that a clustering phenomenon exists among teachers’ opinions, and the phenomenon can be further sub-divided into high, mid, and low groups. In the high-scoring clusters, the attributes of female, lecturer, private technological university, and north or east Taiwan have better performance in the cluster analysis of both importance and performance. It is worthy of note that the service years seem to have relatively large differences. Those who have taught longer are more positive about importance, but those with lower seniority have higher confidence in performance. It is worth observing whether this is because of the generation gap among teachers that causes them to pay attention to different aspects of global citizenship. In contrast, in the lower scoring groups, cluster analysis of importance and performance are influenced by the teachers’ years of service and school locations. The teachers who have served longer demonstrate a low level of support toward cultivating college students’ global citizenship, and this finding echoes Chen’s (2009) research which states that the globalization literacy performance of teachers who had served for 6–10 years is higher than that of teachers who had served 11–20 years. Lai and Lu (2009), who study the topic of globalization and school competitiveness, find that the longest serving teachers were similar in that they possess a lower knowledge of globalization. In addition, in the clusters formed by school location, teachers in central and southern Taiwan were less supportive of the cultivation of global citizenship. This finding obviously differs from the general expectation that the east coast schools would be disadvantaged in promoting the globalization development program due to their remote and inconvenient location (Huang, 2001). This phenomenon may be related to the current development of information technology, as it overcomes the geographical limitations or resource shortages in global citizenship education.

6.6 Empower Teachers’ Teaching in Global Citizenship This chapter targets college teachers and develops a research instrument using an empirical research approach to inquire into teachers’ opinions on the performance, distribution, and groupings of college students’ global citizenship literacy. The conclusions are as follows, and further recommendations are made for follow-up educational practices and research for relevant interest groups.

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6.6.1 Support for Teaching to Increase Performance 6.6.1.1

Means of Most Items Were Higher on Importance Than Performance

The distribution of teachers’ opinions on undergraduate global citizenship literacy clusters in different groupings. Worthy of note is the fact that agreement among teachers is higher for importance than performance in all dimensions and aspects. Regarding the aspects of teachers’ opinions on college students’ global citizenship, the perspective of the cognitive aspect shows that support for “the ecology and natural resources” is the highest and “information and technology” is the lowest. From the perspective of skill, support for “identification” is the highest and “action” is the lowest. In terms of affection, support for “respecting diversity” is the highest, and “connectedness” is the lowest. Addressing the teachers’ evaluations of college students’ global citizenship exemplifies the students’ global citizen competency. Most of all, the findings help us deal with the unsatisfactory outcomes in these issues: the understanding of information and technology, the ability to take action, and the caring and responsibility that links us to others. Furthermore, the research also illustrates that for all of the variables, importance scored higher than performance. The results deserve further attention in emphasizing practical action.

6.6.1.2

Providing Teachers Related Materials and Resources on Global Issues

In the cross analysis of the importance and performance in each variable, it seems that teachers need guidance and support in implementing certain items to cultivate students’ global citizenship. Items that teachers need support include “understanding global inequality and injustice” and “understanding the cultural colonization behind the dissemination of media and information” in the cognition domain; “able to think systematically,” “able to face and solve conflicts,” and “able to distinguish inequalities and inequities in societies” in the skill domain; and “willing to commit to pursuing a world of justice and equity” in the affective domain. Approaches that make the policy of global citizenship education popular and practical can be promoted by different organizations. The Ministry of Education can create opportunities to advance the significance of global citizenship education in each educational level. Teachers can work together to create teaching materials as online samples with free access. Local schools and universities can hold forum and brainstorming events on the global citizenship and its development to open eyes and make this more tangible for teachers. In essence, the items that refer to the ability to engage in dialectic and choice, an awareness of cultural colonialism, a willingness to respond to global conflicts and

6.6 Empower Teachers’ Teaching in Global Citizenship

129

injustice, and the willingness to take potential global action all have to empower students with global competences. The approaches to life politics can be viewed as a way to enforce learners’ decisions and reflections on their everyday affairs and hone their abilities to respond as an individual to global movements. It is critical to equip individuals with adequate behaviors so that they will rise to the challenge in their day-to-day life when encountering global accidents or crises and achieve the political possibilities of self-realization in the global context. Both Europe and the United States advocate colleges and universities as public educational institutes that should be one of the contributing organizations to inspire students’ thinking and abilities. Regarding national governance and global challenges, this research shows that the teachers agree on the importance of global citizenship in this contemporary era, but they hope to have more support in pedagogical practice. As Eis and MoulinDoos (2017) questioned the influence of global citizenship education on the social changes and they promoted that while cultivating young generation as global citizens with political power, the possibility of acting politically relies on the citizens’ critical power for social and political participation. The systems of formal and nonformal education have to include the curricula with the programs of social actors. For this goal, teachers’ teaching resources and abilities have to increase in the schools and learning organizations. The findings point out the necessity of connecting the curriculum to the promotion of specific programs in order to advance undergraduates’ global citizenship in educational sites.

6.6.1.3

Teachers’ Background Variables Correlate with Significant Difference in Cultivating Global Citizens

This chapter adopted the cluster analysis method to explore the opinions of teachers from various backgrounds on cultivating undergraduates’ global citizenship and found various differences among the different groups of teachers. The research findings show that opinion distribution is influenced by the teachers’ gender, level, year of service, school type, and location. It is worthy of note that the teachers who most strongly support the items are the ones at the lecturer level teaching in private technological universities with 6 to 11 years of service at schools located in northern Taiwan. On the contrary, teachers in private universities located in central or southern Taiwan who have served longer display the lowest performance in their responses to each item. We have discovered that a gap exists between the different groups of teachers in their opinions on cultivating undergraduates’ global citizenship and its achievements.

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6.6.2 Encouraging the Development of Teacher’s Worldviews Cultivating undergraduates’ global citizenship should emphasize the value of practice and provide related teacher development programs to help teachers develop stronger links between their teaching and real-word issues. This chapter uses a questionnaire that investigates the importance and performance through multiple global citizenship items. IPA statistics effectively judge the items, finding some either have been over-emphasized or have been low in importance but high in performance. IPA further distinguishes the items deserving improvement— those with high importance but low performance on the graphs. The schools should provide teachers with detailed instructions on teaching implementation. Take the item “understanding the cultural colonization behind the dissemination of media and information” as an example. If the traditional approach of lecturing is used, it will remain at the cognitive level and the effect will be limited. A more extensive use of workshops, field trips, forums, or ethical dilemma debates would encourage students with moral issues and provide teachers with opportunities to grow through hands-on experience and participation. As a result, teaching practices would see more direct benefits. For this research, a questionnaire for teachers about undergraduates’ global citizenship literacy was constructed and surveyed; their responses were then analyzed by multiple research methods. Future research could revise this to survey the college students for their opinions; the methods used here of means, IPA, and cluster analysis could then be applied as well. The correlation between college students’ opinions on their learning experience, and those of their teachers would also show the critical importance for college students to learn global citizenship. This could be accomplished through correlation analysis or path analysis routes of structural equation modeling.

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Chapter 7

Undergraduates Self-Evaluation of Global Citizenship Competency

Undergraduates’ global citizenship achievements and performance are critical issues that higher education needs to consider when practicing its duty in the global society. I employed a literature review, theoretical analysis, in-depth interviews, and focus group meetings to construct a research questionnaire. Undergraduates were the respondents in this survey and the data was analyzed using measures of frequency, ANOVA, t-test, post-hoc test, and structural equation modeling. The results found that a relationship between the respondents’ knowledge, affection, and action.

7.1 Student’s Engagement on Global Issues Institutes of higher education react to the content of global citizenship and focus on contemporary problems. The emergence of changes and conflicts that occur due to economic, political, and cultural issues under the impact of globalization must be incorporated into civic education. Educational institutions have to adjust their pedagogy to cultivate global citizens that can adapt to global changes. As an organization at the global level, institutes of higher education have to illustrate its awareness and action by educating global citizens. Falk (1994) once analyzed global citizenship in its many aspects. First, it leads citizens to have the civic moral character and attain global sustainability for a better life in a world of peace and justice. Second, because of the convergence of global phenomena, it expands one’s perspective to embrace global dimensions is necessary. Third, owning to its value toward resources and the need for environmental sustainability, it should form global citizens within ecological networks. Fourth, it should encourage global citizens to have the consciousness to willingly and actively pursue the care of our planet. If college students only have professional knowledge and skills without recognizing the challenges, opportunities, and risks in the global movements, they hinder their professional development (Zgaga, 2009). Shen (2004) reminds us that citizenship is complex both in theory and in practice. Some issues related to individuals’ © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. S. Chen, Global Citizen Formation, Governance and Citizenship in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-1959-5_7

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rights and others focus on collective obligation and welfare (Rhoads & Szelényi, 2011). In essence, the framework and content of global citizenship education need to be clarified and exemplified. Universities in Canada have expressed their concern for global citizenship. For example, in 2009, the University of Alberta set up the International Office and Global Education Network to execute a global citizenship education project. This project covers the development of curriculum and pedagogy, including that of higher education courses, proposing interdisciplinary development in educating global citizens. Certification for global citizenship was also established as a learning goal. This project promoted the idea that global citizenship is not only related to international awareness, but must also empower citizens to implement the rights and responsibilities connected to their global identity to achieve a world of equality, sustainability, and justice. Liberal education has widely recognized global citizenship as a core competency in college students’ global mobility, but we need more comprehensive information and data of the fundamental and practical circumstances. Taiwanese scholars have indicated that the ideal curriculum plan and teaching materials have not gained enough emphasis in global citizenship education (Wang, 2008). The political aspect takes priority in global citizenship. Political citizens in the globalization context have double-faceted features. On the one hand, they belong to the traditional nation state in which individuals practice their rights and obligations in a particular country as national citizens. On the other hand, the interaction of cosmopolitanism and universalism has consequences in a global society that requires global citizenship to emphasize an identity with global values that extend beyond ones national identity (Heater, 1990). Therefore, global citizenship cultivation extends beyond an understanding to collaborate with others on global issues, showing concern and taking responsibility on a global scale. The core solution to incorporating global citizenship education in schools is through carrying out policies and curricula that will enable students to be modern citizens involved in global transformation. Shen (2000) analyzes the political citizenship education taught in higher education through the content of general courses and found that universities had grasped the educational objectives of freedom, democratic law, national viewpoint, and worldview. However, in terms of curriculum design, the connection between theory and real life remained insufficient for learners. Garcia and Longo (2013) determine that although the United States emphasizes global progress and issues, college students are unprepared to encounter global changes. The Association of American Colleges and Universities (AAC&U) launched in 2001, which is a multi-project national initiative, to promote the operation of an international learning program. This program promotes various activities for students to participate in the global citizenship education program. The outcomes of the program are that international learning experiences increased students’ knowledge and resulted in transformational action for the students. Global education should include cultivating global knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes as its aspects and goals (Hicks, 2003). Hovland and Schneider (2011) propose that general education is an adequate approach to evaluate college students’

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global citizenship, suggesting evaluation criteria such as analysis and thinking, cultural understanding, active citizenship, and effective communication. In order to encourage student participation in global citizenship learning, the pedagogical objective must be transferred into student competency. Canadian scholar Massey (2013) explained that the learning objectives of global citizenship should include training students to participate in the global labor force market, developing a mature worldview, cultivating an understanding of global citizenship, critical thinking, and global responsibility, and enforcing deep thinking to eliminate global inequality. Oxfam (2006) of England requires educational institutes to be comprehensive, covering knowledge, ability, attitude, and values when cultivating students’ global citizenship. Knowledge relies on an understanding of issues such as social justice and equity, diversity, sustainable development, and peace and conflict. Ability includes critical thinking, challenging inequality and injustice, respecting human beings and lives, and cooperating to solve conflicts. Values involve self-esteem, empathy, a respect for differences, creating a caring environment, and a concern for sustainability. The Lehigh University calls for the participation of college students in global learning. It states that the global citizenship curriculum framework should include the following: discussion activities in the classroom, learning opportunities abroad, building connections with nonprofit organizations, an internship operating in an international network, and integrated with practical abilities (Sperandio et al., 2010). These studies emphasized the framework and criteria in the global citizenship education but lacked empirical exploration. I will add to these research findings by establishing an evaluation instrument and conducting a survey. There are practical research findings about how college students developed their international viewpoints through service experiences too. Chen (2008) argues that students who volunteer in international programs will demonstrate cross-cultural and cross-ethnic abilities to cooperate with others in different cultures. Hung (2007) proposes that the global citizenship learning process would contribute to teamwork and communication, language learning motivation, and problem-solving abilities. The above research findings focus on the framework and content needed to establish global citizenship competency in college students. All of the criteria will be integrated into the survey instrument of this study. The survey will collect empirical data from learners, exploring college students’ global citizenship through an evidencebased approach. The mechanism of influential background variables and multiple competencies will be examined. The goals of this chapter are as follows: • To explore the performance of college students’ global citizenship in knowledge, affection, and action. • To examine differences due to background variations (gender, school type, school location, and grades) in college students’ global citizenship. • To illustrate the mechanisms that influence how knowledge and affection become action in college students’ global citizenship.

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7.2 Empirical Discovery on Undergraduate’s Opinions 7.2.1 Hypothesis This study explores the competency of college students’ cognitive, moral, active performance, further examining the differences based on their background variables. I adapt the structural equation model to illustrate the relationship among all variables. The research hypotheses are as follows: • Hypothesis 1: Significant differences in global citizenship performance competency in cognitive, affective, and active dimensions exist in college students due to various background variables (gender, school type, school region, and grades). • Hypothesis 2: College students’ cognitive performance of global citizenship positively influences their affective performance in global citizenship competency. • Hypothesis 3: College students’ cognitive performance of global citizenship positively influences their active performance of global citizenship competency. • Hypothesis 4: College students’ cognitive performance of global citizenship indirectly influences their active global citizenship through the mediating effect of affection in global citizenship.

7.2.2 Survey Instrument and Definition of the Variables 7.2.2.1

Development of the Survey Instrument

The research instrument is the questionnaire of “a survey of college students’ global citizenship competency”. The questionnaire was established in two stages. I referred to the categories of global issues by Seitz and Hite (2012) and the learning dimension formed by Oxfam (2006). From these categories, three dimensions and 11 items were established: (1) Cognitive aspect: politics and organizations, economic phenomena, ecological environment, and cultural diffusion. (2) Affective aspect: diversity and tolerance, peace and sustainability, and reflection and reflexivity. (3) Active aspect: defense and support of human rights, participation in events organized by local and global nonprofit organizations, the pursuit of global peace through action, and change in personal lifestyle and consumption habits to maintain the sustainability of natural resources. There were in-depth interviews launched to review the questionnaire. The experts’ fields of discipline are shown in Table 7.1.

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Table 7.1 Disciplines of in-depth interview scholars Scholars

Disciplines of the experts

Scholar A

Biological industry and risk management, social crisis, globalization, civic society

Scholar B

Educational philosophy, post-modernism and education, human rights, and civic education

Table 7.2 Disciplines of focus group meeting scholars Scholars

Disciplines of the experts

Scholar C

Postmodernism and education, Cultural studies, Critical pedagogy

Scholar D

Literature, media, and feminism

Scholar E

Science education, Science and society

Scholar F

Student affairs, Service learning, Aboriginal education

Scholar G

Sociology of education, Higher education, Social justice

Scholar H

Higher education, Educational evaluation

Scholar I

Sociology of education, Social justice, Student rights

7.2.2.2

Focus Group Meetings

Besides the above interviews, the study held two focus group meetings to evaluate the content of the questionnaire for the purpose of revising the survey items. The disciplines of these experts are shown in Table 7.2.

7.2.2.3

Variables

The three main aspects of the questionnaire include survey scales for cognitive, moral, and active global citizenship. The cognitive measurement includes politics and organizations, economic phenomena, the ecological environment, and cultural diffusion; the moral measurement includes diversity and tolerance, peace and sustainability, and reflection and reflexivity; and the active measurement includes the defense and support of human rights, participation in events organized by local and global nonprofit organizations, the pursuit of global peace through action, and change in personal lifestyle and consumption habits to maintain the sustainability of natural resources. Background variables include gender, school type, school region, and graduate (versus undergraduate). The questionnaire responses range from 1 to 4 points on a Likert scale.

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Table 7.3 Distribution of samples in surveying by using stratified random sampling Public Population Sample

Private

Total

General

Technological

General

Technological

N

171,911

70,423

286,116

278,154

%

21%

9%

36%

34%

100%

N

420

180

720

680

2,000

%

21%

9%

36%

34%

100%

806,604

Resources http://stats.moe.gov.tw/files/detail/100/100_student.xls

7.2.3 Sampling Design and Questionnaire Returns Rate The survey was administered from October 2011 to February 2012. This survey was given to a population of Taiwanese college students and the sample was calculated based on the student ratio in different school types, as shown in Table 7.3.

7.2.4 Reliability and Validity The study tested the coefficient of internal consistency by Cronbach’s α value. The reliability performance was 0.762 for the cognitive dimension, 0.820 for the moral dimension, and 0.762 for the active dimension. This shows that the items were measured with consistency as shown in Table 7.4. The exploratory factor analysis showed the Bartletts’ test of sphericity of the cognitive dimension returned a significantly related coefficient (p < 0.001) with a KMO (Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin) value of 0.773. The Bartletts’ test of sphericity of the moral dimension returned a significantly related coefficient (p < 0.001) with a KMO value of 0.653, and the variance is explained by the value of 63.62%. The Bartletts’ test of sphericity of the active dimension returned a significantly related coefficient (p < 0.001) with a KMO value of 0.730, and the variance is explained by the value of 46.53%. The validity is good for inferential statistical analysis.

7.2.5 Representative Samples The study adopted the estimation of ratio using ranked set sampling for weighting. According to the ratio of background variables of gender and school type, the weight was calculated repeatedly and constantly rectified until non-significance among the structure of samples and the population was reached, as shown in Table 7.5. After weighting, the representative samples and percentages are shown in Table 7.6.

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Table 7.4 Coefficient of Cronbach’s α of the potential, dependent, and observed variables

Cognitive (potential variables)

Cronbach’s α coefficient

Item numbers

Observed variable

Item numbers

0.759

19

A1 politics and organizations

5

A2 economic phenomena

4

A3 ecological environment

5

A4 cultural diffusion 5 Affective (potential variables)

Active (dependent variable)

0.820

0.762

16

4

B1 tolerance and inclusion

6

B2 peace and sustainability

4

B3 reflection and reflexivity

6

C1 defense and support for human rights

1

C2 participation in events organized by local and global nonprofit organizations

1

C3 pursuit of global 1 peace through action C4 change in 1 personal lifestyle and consumption habits to maintain the sustainability of natural resources

7.2.6 Statistical Analysis Strategy The descriptive analysis was shown by the mean. Then, ANOVA (analysis of variance) was adopted to test the differences. If the ANOVA revealed a significant difference, the variation would continue to be evaluated by Scheffé’s post-hoc analysis. I examined the relationship among factors and findings by structural equation modeling to exemplify the relationship between the theoretical model and the empirical data.

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Table 7.5 Comparison of the χ2 test of the representative samples for weighting χ2 Test

Before weighting

After weighting

Variables Samples

Expectations

χ2 test results χ2 = 7.490, df = 1, p = 0.001

Gender Male

390

429.4

Female

440

400.6

Unanswered

29

Numbers after weighting 428 402

χ2 test results χ2 = 0.009, df = 1, p = 0.923

2 χ2

School region

= 490.737, df = 3, p < 0.000

Northern Taiwan

266

388.3

Central Taiwan

231

219.1

218

Southern Taiwan

184

193.0

193

Eastern Taiwan

151

31.6

33

School type

χ2 = 788.073, df = 3, p < 0.000

388

Public universities

190

177.3

178

Private universities

295

72.6

73

Public technological universities

126

295.1

294

Private technological universities

221

286.9

287

χ2 = 0.68, df = 3, p = 0.995

χ2 = 0.020, df = 3, p=1

Note Numbers of samplings according to the original population, retrieved from: http://www.edu. te/files/site_content/B0013/overview01.xls Table 7.6 The analysis of representative samples Gender

School region

School type

N(%)

N(%)

N(%)

Male

428(51.4)

Northern Taiwan 388(46.6)

Private technological 287(34.5)

Female

402(48.3)

Central Taiwan

Private

294(35.3)

Southern Taiwan 193(23.2)

Public technological

73(8.8)

Eastern Taiwan

Public

178(21.4)

Unanswered 2(0.3) Total

832(100.0)

218(26.2) 33(4.0) 832(100.0)

832(100.0)

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141

7.3 Student’s Performance and Shortage on Global Citizenship 7.3.1 Descriptive Statistical Analysis The following will show the mean analysis, analysis of variance, and post-hoc tests in the cognitive, affective, and active dimensions.

7.3.1.1

Cognitive Dimension

The mean and standard of different observed variables are shown in Table 7.7. The performance of each item—“politics and organizations”. “economic phenomena”, “ecological environment”, and “cultural diffusion” are 2.60 (SD = 0.480), 2.65 (SD = 0.553), 3.08 (SD = 0.508), and 2.96 (SD = 0.502), respectively. College students fell short in the cognitive dimension on “government alliances”, “refugee immigration or displacement in war-torn regions or countries,” and “international non-government organizations”. It shows that the issues about global organizations and international refugees have room for improvement. The analysis of variance shows “gender” (t(827) = 2.943, p < 0.01), “school type” (F(3.,827) = 3.005, p < 0.05), and “school region” (F(3, 827) = 2.781, p < 0.05) to have significant differences. After implementing a t-test and Scheffé’s post-hoc test, male students were shown to have done better than female students on the observed variable of economic phenomena, as shown in Table 7.8. Among the variables of “school type,” “public universities” were obviously higher than “private technological colleges” on ecological environment. However, there were no differences among the school regions, as seen in Table 7.9.

7.3.1.2

Affective Dimension

Table 7.10 shows the mean and standard of difference of observed variables: the means of “diversity and tolerance”, “peace and sustainability”, and “reflection and reflexivity” are 3.26 (SD = 0.480), 3.11 (SD = 0.515), and 2.85 (SD = 0.462), respectively. This shows that the performance of the affective dimension in the area of “reflection and reflexivity” is not good enough. Further examination reveals that college students are found lacking in some points, namely, “having insight into controversial human rights issues”, “observing global influences and their significance in events and phenomena”, and “reflecting on the common good and difficulties in carrying out ones’ public responsibilities”. However, this kind of cultivation of affection is highly abstract and difficult for teachers to convey through teaching. It would be helpful if we could establish an accurate learning route and methods. Through an analysis of variance, we find “gender” with significant difference (t816) = −2.382, p < 0.05); t(818) = −2.293, p < 0.05). T-test results show that

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Table 7.7 Mean analysis of the cognitive dimension of global citizenship Observed variables

Items

M

SD

Politics and organizations 2.60 (SD = 0.480)

Universal values pursued by all human beings, such as democracy, human rights, and peace

2.83

0.595

Government alliances, such as the United Nations, European Union, and East Association

2.54

0.655

International non-government organizations such as Greenpeace, Amnesty International, and World Vision International

2.51

0.664

Formation and changes in international hegemony, such as the competition between China and the U.S.A

2.73

0.715

Refugee immigration and displacement in war-torn regions and countries, such as Syria and Afghanistan

2.41

0.704

Operation and risk in the global financial market

2.47

0.704

Diffusion of global capitalism

2.53

0.720

The growing gap between the rich and the poor

3.00

0.664

Global mobility of the labor force

2.60

0.740

Limitations in ecology and natural resources

3.13

0.611

Population growth and environmental change

2.99

0.617

Impact of industrial development on 3.03 the global ecological environment

0.678

The negative ecological and environmental impact on biodiversity

3.06

0.647

The common duty of mankind to 3.17 maintain the ecology and the natural environment

0.643

Diffusion of mass/popular culture

3.03

0.635

Colonizing phenomenon in the spread of western media and information

2.85

0.707

Self-identity formulation influences by materialism and consumerism

2.88

0.719

Global mobility of tourists or immigrants

2.82

0.681

Economic phenomena 2.65 (SD = 0.553)

Ecological environment 3.08 (SD = 0.508)

Cultural diffusion 2.96 (SD = 0.502)

(continued)

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143

Table 7.7 (continued) Observed variables

Items

M

SD

Social networks as a medium to connect and maintain relationships with others

3.20

0.643

M mean, SD standard deviation.

Table 7.8 Background variables of T-test on cognitive dimension of college students’ global citizenship Items

Basic variable

Variance

Mean

Standard

T-test

Economic phenomena

Gender

Male

2.75

0.53

2.943**

Female

2.64

0.53

*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001

Table 7.9 Background variables of post-hoc analysis on cognitive dimension of college students’ global citizenship Items

Basic variable

The analysis of variance Mean square

Ecological environment

School type

School region

Between groups

2.310

Within groups

210.917

Total

213.227

Between groups

2.140

Within groups

211.087

Total

213.227

Post-Hoc test F

Scheffé

3.005*

4