Christological Paradigm Shifts in Prophetic Pentecostalism in South Africa (Routledge New Critical Thinking in Religion, Theology and Biblical Studies) [1 ed.] 9781032065540, 9781032081083, 9781003212973, 1032065540

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Christological Paradigm Shifts in Prophetic Pentecostalism in South Africa

This book explores recent developments in South African Pentecostalism, focusing on new prophetic churches. The chapters engage with a number of paradigm shifts in Christology, identified as complementing Christ, competing with Christ, removing Christ and replacing Christ. What are the implications of these shifts? Does it mean that believers no longer believe in Christ but in their leaders? Does it shift believers’ faith towards materiality than the person of Christ? This volume will be valuable for scholars of African Christianity and in particular those interested in the neo-prophetic movement and Christology in a South African context. Mookgo Solomon Kgatle is Professor of Missiology at the University of South Africa (UNISA). He completed his PhD (Theology) from the University of Pretoria in 2016. Kgatle is a National Research Foundation (NRF) Y Rated researcher (2019–2024) in the area of African Pentecostalism. He is the visiting scholar at the Centre for Pentecostal and Charismatic Studies, University of Birmingham (2020–2022). Kgatle is the current President of the Southern African Society for Pentecostal Studies. Marius Nel is currently the Chair, Ecumenism: Pentecostalism and Neo-­ Pentecostalism and Research Professor at the Unit for Reformed Theology, Faculty Theology, Potchefstroom campus, North-West University, South Africa. He holds three doctorates, DTh (Practical Theology, Unisa), PhD (Old Testament, Pretoria) and PhD (New Testament, Radboud University]. Nel is a National Research Foundation (NRF) C Rated researcher and a pastor of the AFM of South Africa with three decades’ experience. He has published many peer reviewed articles and books with international publishers. Collium Banda is a post-doctoral research fellow in the Faculty of Theology at North-West University, South Africa, and adjunct lecturer at Theological College of Zimbabwe. He is an emerging researcher with interests in African Pentecostalism, Christian doctrines in the African public space, African traditional religions, African indigenous knowledge systems and Christianity in African contexts of poverty.

Routledge New Critical Thinking in Religion, Theology and Biblical Studies

The Routledge New Critical Thinking in Religion, Theology and Biblical Studies series brings high quality research monograph publishing back into focus for authors, international libraries, and student, academic and research readers. This open-ended monograph series presents cutting-edge research from both established and new authors in the field. With specialist focus yet clear contextual presentation of contemporary research, books in the series take research into important new directions and open the field to new critical debate within the discipline, in areas of related study, and in key areas for contemporary society. Queer Soul and Queer Theology Ethics and Redemption in Real Life Laurel Schneider and Thelathia N. Young Multilateral Theology A 21st Century Theological Methodology Timothy T. N. Lim Violence, Entitlement, and Politics A Theology on Transforming the Subject Steven G. Ogden Christological Paradigm Shifts in Prophetic Pentecostalism in South Africa Edited by Mookgo Solomon Kgatle, Marius Nel & Collium Banda Developing Animal Theology An Engagement with Leonardo Boff Clair Linzey For more information about this series, please visit: https://www.routledge. com/religion/series/RCRITREL

Christological Paradigm Shifts in Prophetic Pentecostalism in South Africa Edited by Mookgo Solomon Kgatle, Marius Nel and Collium Banda

First published 2022 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2022 selection and editorial matter, Mookgo Solomon Kgatle, Marius Nel & Collium Banda; individual chapters, the contributors The right of Mookgo Solomon Kgatle, Marius Nel & Collium Banda to be identified as the authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Kgatle, Mookgo S., editor. | Nel, Marius, editor. | Banda, Collium, editor. Title: Christological paradigm shifts in prophetic Pentecostalism in South Africa / edited by Mookgo Solomon Kgatle, Marius Nel & Collium Banda. Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York : Routledge, 2022. | Series: Routledge new critical thinking in religion, theology and biblical studies | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2021015156 (print) | LCCN 2021015157 (ebook) | ISBN 9781032065540 (hbk) | ISBN 9781032081083 (pbk) | ISBN 9781003212973 (ebk) Subjects: LCSH: Pentecostal churches--South Africa. | Pentecostal churches--Doctrines. | Jesus Christ--History of doctrines. | Pentecostalism--South Africa. Classification: LCC BX8762.A45 S63 2022 (print) | LCC BX8762. A45 (ebook) | DDC 230/.9940968--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021015156 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021015157 ISBN: 978-1-032-06554-0 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-032-08108-3 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-21297-3 (ebk) DOI: 10.4324/9781003212973 Typeset in Sabon by KnowledgeWorks Global Ltd.

Contents

Acknowledgementsvii List of abbreviationsviii Notes on contributorsix

Introduction

1

MOOKGO SOLOMON KGATLE, MARIUS NEL AND COLLIUM BANDA

1 The paradigmatic shift of some New Prophetic Churches from the ipsissima verba of Scripture to a non-existent Christology

18

PAUL THEMBA MNGADI

2 “Who has bewitched you?”: The Christological shift from faith to works in Galatians 3:1–9 applied to South African Pentecostalism

39

ELISE B. KISUNGU

3 Towards a deepened Christology on the Cape Flats: The “Spirit of Christ” metaphor in the neo-Pentecostal church

61

EUGENE BARON

4 Wo/Men’s God-given power: Male headship versus female agency in Pentecostal sermons

79

TUMI MAMPANE

5 Examining the position of prophets in relation to Christology within contemporary South African Pentecostal missions THEMBA SHINGANGE

101

vi  Contents 6 African neo-Pentecostalism’s emphasis on prosperity and its implications for its Christology: An African Pentecostal hermeneutical consideration

124

MARIUS NEL

7 Insufficient to ransom Africans?: The neo-Pentecostal fear of generational curses in Africa and Christ’s vicarious atonement

140

COLLIUM BANDA

8 Christ and the neo-Pentecostal preacher on the platform: Catechists or celebrities?

163

KELEBOGILE T. RESANE

9 From replacing Christ to crisis: Rethinking Christology in some new religious ministries in South Africa

182

BEKITHEMBA DUBE

Epilogue Index

208 210

Acknowledgements

First, different to a monograph, the timeous and excellent publication of an edited volume requires the dedication, commitment and diligence of the contributors. We therefore want to appreciate all the contributors of this volume who ensured that they submit their chapters on time. In addition, the contributors were willing to revise their chapters after peer-review. Second, the readability of an academic piece is not only based on its content but on way it is written in terms of language and grammar. We therefore would like to thank Unisa’s Directorate Language Services for the editing of all the chapters before we sent the final submission to the publisher. Last, the book followed a double-blind review for all the individual chapters (i.e., the identity of both the authors and the reviewers were not revealed to each other). We therefore want to thank all the reviewers who had the expertise and interest in the chapters they reviewed. Mookgo Solomon Kgatle Professor, University of South Africa Marius Nel Professor, Faculty Theology, North-West University Collium Banda Post-doctoral Research Fellow, Faculty of Theology, North-West University

Abbreviations

AFM AIC AIP AIPC AOG ATR BLF BFT CDA CDCM CRC ECG ESV JMPD MMC NAR NPC PAR RLW PCC PMC SAPCC SAPM SSC TMC WCC ZAOGA ZCC

Apostolic Faith Mission African Initiated Churches African indigenous Pentecostalism African Initiated Pentecostal Churches Assemblies of God African Traditional Religions Black First Land First Black Feminist Theology Critical Discourse Analysis Classical Dogmatic Christian Mission Christian Reformed Church Enlightened Christian Gathering English Standard Version Johannesburg Municipal Police Department Mighty Men’s Conference New Apostolic Reformation New Prophetic Churches Participatory Action Research Rivers of Living Waters Pentecostal Charismatic Christianity Pentecostal Mission Churches South African Pentecostal Christian churches South African Pentecostal missions Social-Scientific Criticism Traditional Male Circumcision World Council of Churches Zimbabwe Assemblies of God Africa Zion Christian Church

Contributors

Mookgo Solomon Kgatle is Professor of Missiology at the University of South Africa (UNISA). He completed his PhD (Theology) from the University of Pretoria in 2016. He is a National Research Foundation (NRF) Y Rated researcher (2019–2024) in the area of African Pentecostalism. He is the visiting scholar at the Centre for Pentecostal and Charismatic Studies-University of Birmingham (2020–2022). He is the current President of the Southern African Society for Pentecostal Studies. Marius Nel is currently the Chair, Ecumenism: Pentecostalism and NeoPentecostalism and Research Professor at the Unit for Reformed Theology, Faculty Theology, Potchefstroom campus, North-West University, South Africa. He holds three doctorates, DTh (Practical Theology, Unisa), PhD (Old Testament, Pretoria) and PhD (New Testament, Radboud University]. He is a National Research Foundation (NRF) C Rated researcher and a pastor of the AFM of South Africa with three decades’ experience. He has published many peer reviewed articles and books with international publishers. Collium Banda is a post-doctoral research fellow in the Faculty of Theology at North-West University, South Africa, and adjunct lecturer at Theological College of Zimbabwe. He is an emerging researcher with interests in African Pentecostalism, Christian doctrines in the African public space, African traditional religions, African indigenous knowledge systems and Christianity in African contexts of poverty. Paul Themba Mngadi is a registered PhD student at the University of Fort Hare, South Africa. He completed his Master of Theology at the University of Kwazulu Natal in 1997. He is a qualified educator and Anglican Priest. He was among National Team that wrote the IQMS for FET in 2004. He was appointed as Quality Assurance Manager in 2006, developed the College Quality Management System and the new Strategic Plan. He was appointed as Manager: Quality Assurance at the University of Fort Hare. He developed Quality Assurance Management

x  Contributors System, a Manual for Reviews and wrote the Quality Enhancement Project of 2017/18. Elise B. Kisungu is a Master student at University of South Africa. Her interest in urban ministry and migration prompted her to carry out a research on Congolese Churches in Gauteng, South Africa. In addition, she has interest for academic contributions that join efforts with the South African voices that rise on the global scale in the commitment of breaking misconceptions about African Pentecostalism and calling on the movement to stand on a biblical ground. Eugene Baron is a Senior Lecturer in Missiology at the University of the Free State (UFS), South Africa. He completed his PhD (Theological Ethics) from the University of the Western Cape in 2018 and an Honours in Psychology at the University of South Africa (UNISA). Eugene is on the Editorial Board of Theological Explorations (TE) an annual publication of Sun Media, as well as the online editor of Missionalia: Southern African Journal of Missiology. His current research focuses on the themes Mission as Reconciliation, Mission and the Media, Mission and Christian lived experiences, and Mission and Race. Tumi Mampane is a Black feminist scholar, the recipient of a Global Excellence and Stature scholarship. She is now a PhD Candidate at the Nelson Mandela University, affiliated with the NRF Research Chair on African Feminist Imaginations. Her MA dissertation in Communication Studies is titled “Pentecostal Charismatic Constructions of Femininity in Alexandra Township”. Her research interests include cultural and media studies, African Pentecostalism, discourse analysis, narrative analysis, ethnography, and feminist theory. Themba Shingange is a Senior Personnel Practitioner – Employee Health and Wellness and the Limpopo Provincial Power House – Research and Innovation Coordinator at the South African Police Services (SAPS). He obtained PhD in Missiology from the University of South Africa. He is an emerging researcher in the area of African Pentecostalism, Mission and Gender and Post-Heteronormative mission praxis. He has presented papers in local conferences addressing similar topics. Kelebogile T. Resane obtained his PhD (Theology) (Dogmatics and Christian Ethics) in 2008. For 31 years (1979–2010), he served in Youth for Christ International. He was a Teaching and Learning Manager for the Faculty of Theology and Religion at the University of the Free State for five years (2014–2018), and continues as a Research Fellow at the same university. His research interests are broadly on the New Apostolic Reformation, Pentecostal theology and public theology in general. He is currently serving at Bible League International/South Africa.

Contributors xi Bekithemba Dube is a Senior lecturer at the faculty of Education at the University of the Free State (UFS), a guest editor of alternation journal, Managing Editor and Co-ordinator for the International Society for Studies in Rural Contexts. He holds a PhD in Curriculum Studies from UFS. He is a scholar in the field of Education focusing on Sociology, Philosophy of Education and Religion. He has published several peerreviewed articles in international journals in the same areas.

Introduction Mookgo Solomon Kgatle, Marius Nel and Collium Banda

Contextualising Christology The task of theologians within the Christian tradition in studying Christology is to reveal the “significance and meaning of Jesus Christ for our times in light of biblical and historical developments”.1 African theologians reveal Christology as taking the titles of Jesus in the New Testament like son of man, servant of God and Lord and interpret them in light of an African culture. 2 Given the many years of slavery and colonisation in Africa, these titles have previously been interpreted from western perspectives. Therefore, African theologians have seen a need to reconstruct Christological meanings and make them relevant in the African context.3 These theologians in African Christology aim to interpret the biblical Christ through African lenses and make him to speak and act like an African. Therefore, African Christology is important in Christological discourses as it reveals the meaning of Christ in the African context.4 The reason for such an interpretation, according to Mligo, is that the knowledge of Christ depends on one’s context and geographical location. Thus, different people in different locations do not see Christ in the same way; someone’s perspective depends on their specific context.5 However, this freedom of perceiving Jesus according to one’s context comes with some challenges specifically in the context of the developments in prophetic Pentecostalism. It is our argument in this book that the freedom to see Jesus in one’s own context has led to four shifts in prophetic Pentecostalism in South Africa. The classical Pentecostals in South Africa made their confession to affirm their belief in Jesus Christ. However, as many saw the seeming insufficiency of the biblical Christ in dealing with their problems, they sought to complement him with additional things like anointed objects. Some “men and women of God” have become so powerful that they actually start competing with the very Christ they initially believed in. Some of them do not even acknowledge Christ at all. Prophetic Pentecostalism has experienced four shifts: complementing Christ, competing with Christ, removing Christ and replacing Christ. The purpose of this book is to outline these shifts and to find ways of

2  M.S. Kgatle, M. Nel and C. Banda addressing them by using various approaches. In this chapter, we are going to introduce South African Pentecostalism and its Christology, then discuss the four paradigm shifts in detail followed by the different approaches in addressing these shifts. At the end of the chapter, we will introduce all the chapters of the book and their relevance to the theme of Christology in prophetic Pentecostalism.

Justification for research This book acknowledges the studies already done on African Christology in the context of South African Pentecostalism. This means that African theologians have already brought to light studies illustrating how African people know and interpret the notion of Christology as depicted in the Bible. However, few have reflected on the paradigm shifts in Christology and addressed such shifts within prophetic Pentecostalism in South Africa. Therefore, the contribution of this book is twofold: first, reflects on the recent developments regarding the paradigm shifts in Christology in a South African context. Second, the reflection on Christology will assist in addressing the theological reasons behind the negative consequences of these shifts like the abuse of religion. 6 Mostly the chapters will address the paradigm shifts from different perspectives, for example from the viewpoint of politics, systematic theology, biblical studies, feminism, missiology and decolonial motifs. The contributors are all experts in South African Pentecostalism as both insiders (i.e. within the Pentecostal tradition) and outsiders (i.e. involved in Pentecostal research).

South African Pentecostalism Scholars7 interested in South African Pentecostalism have recognised three main categories classifying the movement. The first category is called the Pentecostal Charismatic Christianity (PCC) or classical churches comprised of denominations like the Apostolic Faith Mission (AFM) of South Africa, the Assemblies of God (AOG) and the Full Gospel Church (FGC).8 In the second category, Allan Anderson differentiates between African Initiated Churches (AICs) and African Initiated Pentecostal Churches (AIPCs) to introduce the Pentecostal-type AICs.9 The third category is the Charismatic Churches.10 However, Kgatle has introduced a fourth category that he refers to as “the fourth Pentecostal wave”, the New Prophetic Churches (NPCs).11 These are churches like the Enlightened Christian Gathering (ECG) of Prophet Shepherd Bushiri in Pretoria,12 Rabboni Ministries of Lesego Daniel in Soshanguve, Pretoria,13 Incredible Happenings of Paseka Motsoeneng in the east of Johannesburg,14 Alleluia Ministries of Alph Lukau in Randburg15 and numerous others. In this book, the NPCs are known as prophetic Pentecostalism.

Introduction 3

Christology in South African Pentecostalism Given the previous experiences of slavery and colonisation in Africa, Christ has been perceived as the liberator by many Africans. The liberating power of Christ is not only confined to the church but has an influence in the workplace, business and politics.16 Hence, the role of Christ is bringing health, wealth and material prosperity to the believer.17 In addition, African Pentecostals see Jesus as the one carrying the power to dismantle all the powers of the devil.18 According to Moloney, African Pentecostals generally see Jesus Christ as “an active, militant, liberating Jesus, [and he] liberates and transforms life in solidarity with people”.19 Hence, in South Africa, a black theologian like Takatso Mofokeng spoke of a “Black Christology”. Mofokeng’s main argument in his published thesis is that the cross of Jesus stands in agreement with the oppressed carrying the crosses of poverty, oppression and injustices.20 The liberating Christ is connected to the reconciling Christ especially in light of post-apartheid South Africa.21 However, many still insist on the liberation Christology given the persistent socio-economic challenges in post-apartheid South Africa like unemployment, poverty and inequality.22 The second form of Christology in African Pentecostalism is connected to the Spirit in what many scholars define as “Spirit Christology” as Christ and the Holy Spirit are inseparable. Spirit Christology connects the Spirit to the redemptive and soteriological mission of Christ in the life of the believer. 23 However, it is our view that the reliance on the Spirit has made Christ to largely disappear among many neo-Pentecostals. Many neo-­ Pentecostal preachers in Africa are men and women of the Spirit as illustrated in their sermons. For example, Bishop Stephen Zondo of Rivers of Living Waters (RLW) once said in a sermon that if his followers were to choose between offering to Jesus and him, his bowl would be full and Jesus’ bowl would be empty. This statement by Zondo gives an impression that he is “competing with Christ”, indicating one of the paradigm shifts.24 Many other prophets use various materials for healing and deliverance in what scholars call “complementing Christ” – indicating another paradigm shift. 25 Another prophet, Bishop HQ Nala, defended his polygamous relationships by arguing that “he is not a Christian but a plentiologist-world of plenty” and thus, introducing a third paradigm shift, “removing Christ”.26 Black First Land First (BLF) leader, Andile Mngxitama, said that “Bushiri has replaced the white Jesus with himself”, which is a fourth paradigm shift, “replacing Christ”. 27 These shifts are discussed below in detail.

Paradigm shifts in the prophetic Pentecostal Christology A prominent Christological shift that can be noted in the prophetic Pentecostalism is one that can be categorised as “complementing Christ”. The complementing Christ paradigm describes the mediatory role played by Pentecostal prophets in which they act as mediators between God and

4  M.S. Kgatle, M. Nel and C. Banda their followers in ways that ultimately supplement Christ’s mediatory role between God and humanity. Although 1 Timothy 2:5 describes Jesus Christ as the only mediator between God and humanity (1 Tim 2:5), which means that he is humanity’s only direct access to God, Pentecostal prophets present themselves as effective channels between God and people.28 They claim to be uniquely anointed by God to be spiritually powerful men and women of God who enjoy a special relationship with God. This special relationship with God endows them with God’s authority which makes them channels of accessing God’s presence and power. 29 If they can function as mediators between God and humanity, it means they also have the power to block people’s access to God.30 Therefore, the followers of those prophets revere them, fearing to question or criticise them, because doing so would be tantamount to speaking against, thus opposing God. Notable examples of the complementing Christ shift include the use of various forms of “prophetic objects”31 or anointed objects that are given or sold to needy members for use to draw nearer to God and access his presence and power. Indeed, arguments over the Christian use of material objects in worship and healing are inconclusive and the Bible does have a rich record of the use of material objects in worship and healing. However, what is of great concern about the prophetic objects in prophetic Pentecostalism is its commercialised and commodified nature and the emphasis placed on the objects that end up competing with the believer’s exclusive reliance on Christ. Some may say trusting an object given by a prophet of God is ultimately to trust in God the power behind the object. However, many of these objects are branded with the prophet’s face, name and with words such as “I am a child of the prophet”, which takes the focus of Christian allegiance away from Christ and places it on the prophet. This leads to the complementing Christ shift as the prophet seems to supplement Christ’s ability of meeting believers’ needs. However, this also leads to competing with Christ since the believer can choose whatever they think will effectively mediate God’s power in their situation, whether it is faith in Christ only or the use of the prophet’s anointed objects that are believed to work wonders. From the previous example one can see that sometimes the emerging Christological paradigm shift falls somewhere between complementing and competing with Christ. A fitting example of the complementing Christ paradigm can be seen in the case of Ezekiel Guti, the Zimbabwean leader of the Forward in Faith Ministries International, also known as Zimbabwe Assemblies of God Africa (ZAOGA), which has many churches in South Africa and is growing phenomenally across the world. Guti is quoted by Biri telling his congregation: [H]ow many of you dreamt me [sic] when they had challenges? It is not me but God [who] sends angels to you, that personify themselves as me. But they will be angels to deliver you. Then your problems will be gone!32

Introduction 5 One can see that, without denying or questioning the biblical assertion that Jesus is the one and only mediator between God and humanity, Guti claims to have a special privileged relationship with God that makes him “a channel of encountering God”. 33 Guti’s claim that when his followers dream about him during their moments of crises it will be God sending his angels to them in the form of Guti accords him a complementary relationship to Christ, because it suggests that his special connection with God qualifies him to mediate God’s presence to the believers. Yet it also projects him in competing terms with Christ because it potentially means Guti’s presence signals the presence of God accessed through Guti. Biri further records testimonies of evangelists from Guti’s church who reported that they used his portrait to cast out demons and heal the sick. 34 However, one may choose to look at how Guti reportedly presents himself, there is a strong semblance of competition, because when people failed to drive out demons in Christ’s name, they eventually accomplished it by using Guti’s portrait. The contentious issue in this case is that it is generally maintained in Pentecostal churches that salvation is by faith in Christ alone and yet the daily life of faith is lived by reliance on the portrait of the prophet. In prophetic Pentecostalism the signs of the competing with Christ paradigm can be seen in prophets and pastors who view their bodies and personal presence as signifying God’s presence. In these prophets’ thinking, by meeting them and drawing close to them one can actually meet and draw nearer to God. Competing with Christ is also explicitly evident in the acts of prophets like Shepherd Bushiri who invited people to a gala he hosted in Pretoria in 2017, where he charged people R25000 for sitting at the top table close to him and R1000 for an ordinary table far away from him.35 The Christological implications of this are not difficult to figure out. The message is that the prophet is closer to God and in his bodily being he exhibits the presence of God and therefore sitting closer to him means sitting closer to God. He can therefore charge more for a place at the top table close to him, but the one who sits far away from the prophet is far away from the presence of God and should therefore pay less. Sometimes the same concept is applied when giving money to the church, as people who give large amounts of money receive individualised personal prayer from the prophet while those who give smaller amounts only receive general prayers. The competing element in all of this is also evident in that the prophets feel they can charge people in needy situations large amounts of money because they see themselves as offering something that believers cannot easily find by their faith in Christ only. Sometimes prophets compete with Christ by projecting themselves as God’s unique agents who can provide quick solutions to people’s problems by providing easy access to God, and in the process subvert people’s absolute confidence in Christ. As analysed by Magezi and Banda, “the mediatory role of Christ is undermined as

6  M.S. Kgatle, M. Nel and C. Banda Christians end up depending on the miraculous and piety of the prophet for all their spiritual needs and security”.36 Some of the above noted scenarios resemble a paradigm of removing Christ or presenting a Christ who no longer responds to the pleas of desperate people in need of his salvation in the midst of their pain and suffering. This absentee Christ or unresponsive Christ needs expensive gifts and owning special anointed objects for him to act in the pain of the lives of his followers. For example, when one looks at the array of the anointed products sold by Bishop HQ Nala that are branded with his picture and name, such as anointed pens, oil, water, honey, towels and caps, 37 it is difficult to reconcile the correlation between the supposed spiritual power of these objects, the redemptive power of Christ and Christ’s promise to always be with his disciples to the very end of the age (Matt 28:20). Furthermore, the ministerial conduct in some South African Pentecostal churches shows a Christological paradigm that can be described as removing Christ. In the removing Christ paradigm, Christ is removed from the religious framework as the prophets and pastors themselves start to assume the status of the Lord and Saviour. To some extent, some of the examples cited above also have some semblance of removing Christ, where the primary focus is not on Christ but on the leader. While the leader may well confess Christ’s name, the primary focus is not on Christ but on the leader. This paradigm can be attributed to the several controversial practices widely reported in the media that have led to calls for the regulation of religion in South Africa. These controversial practices include unorthodox and strange practices in worship such as using dog meat for communion and religious manipulation of women leading to them even being raped by prophets’ healing methods that sexually violate women, 38 and a display of sexually inappropriate material in public worship. 39 At the core of these practices lies the removing of Christ which leads to the worship becoming prophet centred. Degbe describes these prophets as dubious characters who have no interest in the wellbeing of the church but only in their own selfish ends.40 Another element of removing Christ is through the one-on-one prophetic consultations where prophets charge needy people exorbitant prices to meet with them for special prayers and rituals. In some cases, many ungodly and abusive activities especially with women have been reported to take place in the prophets’ shrines. When people are made to feel that they are in great spiritual danger because of the evil spirits in them or in their families and that they are spiritually too sinful or worthless for God to hear their prayers and change their lives, they become vulnerable to all forms of spiritual manipulation.41 When considering the various paradigm shifts in South African Pentecostal Christology it is helpful to recall the assessment by the British missionary to Africa, John V. Taylor, made almost 60 years ago concerning

Introduction 7 the state of Christology in Africa. Taylor made the following remark that ended with a very important question: Christ has been presented as the answer to the questions a white man would ask, the solution to the needs that western man would feel, the Saviour of the world of the European worldview, the object of the adoration and prayer of historic Christendom. But if Christ were to appear as the answer to the questions that Africans are asking, what would he look like?42 Taylor’s criticism pointed out that Africans did not find Jesus Christ as proclaimed in the traditional white-run mission churches relevant to their African context, because he did not answer their inert African questions. Taylor’s question about what Jesus would look like if he appeared as the answer to questions asked by Africans, challenges us to pay attention to the underlying issues that inform the Christological paradigm being studied. It is important to realise that the Christological paradigm shifts in prophetic Pentecostalism emerge out of important questions asked by mainly black South Africans in their search for a Christ who is relevant to their context marked with poverty and various forms of human suffering. The main thrust of some of the emerging paradigm shifts is not doctrinal coherence but more a response to the situational context of human suffering, mostly blamed on evil spirits and people’s inability to draw the divine power needed to change their undesirable situations. Furthermore, as one can see, these paradigms do not function in isolation from one another as some South African Pentecostal spiritual leaders exhibit several Christological paradigms in their ministries according to the different situations in which they minister. Often times who or what Jesus is in one context is different from another context, sometimes even within the same church.

Approaches in addressing paradigm shifts Scholars in this book use various approaches to address the paradigm shifts within prophetic Pentecostalism. It is important to note the significance of these paradigm shifts. The independent neo-Pentecostal or neo-charismatic churches that include the New Prophetic Churches are expanding in Africa faster even than Islam, at twice the rate of the Roman Catholic Church, and at three times the rate of the other non-Catholic religious traditions. It is possible that their growth is even considerably stemming the growth of the African Instituted Churches in West Africa.43 This forced Paul Gifford to label the whole movement as a paradigm shift amidst the new developments in African Christianity.44 This movement, among others, is characterised by its reconstruction of religious geography through the construction of religious camps or spaces. It buys up large expanses of land and constructs a range of facilities,

8  M.S. Kgatle, M. Nel and C. Banda including auditoriums, schools, guest houses, dormitories, banks, hospitals and petrol stations that function as alternative cities.45 In South Africa alone, so far back as 1995, there were over 5,000 such independent denominations and groups that bore the familiar marks of Pentecostal spirituality.46 They comprised 10–40 per cent of the black population, depending on how Pentecostalism is defined.47 In Zimbabwe, in 2014, 50 per cent of all Christians belonged to such independent churches.48 In southern Africa, the independent movements have a few megachurches, mostly in the hands of white leaders (like Ray McCauley of Rhema Ministries, the late Ed Roebert of Hatfield Christian Church, and Fred Roberts of the Durban Christian Centre, with Mosa Sono of the Grace Bible Church in Soweto and Kenneth Meshoe as exceptions). A positive feature of these (English-speaking) megachurches was that in apartheid days it contributed to better ethnic relations. While the policy of separate development led to forced segregation between races, these multi-ethnic congregations promoted friendship and fellowship across racial barriers.49 The megachurches for which Ghana and Nigeria are famous are few in number among South African blacks. Only when Nigerian, Ghanaian and Kenyan preachers began to visit South Africa in the 1990s, after the dismantling of apartheid, did the idea of a new Pentecostalism begin to take off among South African blacks. It put a new emphasis on black consciousness and dignity and for that reason became an attractive alternative to the option presented by white charismatics, with significant and at times dire consequences for the development of Christology within the movement, as is highlighted and demonstrated by this book.50 The work of the African theological scholars found in this book represent various approaches, including perspectives based on the different theological disciplines such as New Testament studies, Old Testament studies, systematic theology, theological ethics, missiology and practical theology. Each discipline reflects its own assortment of approaches, combining to present interesting perspectives on African Christology. However, some contributions are also based on contemporary angles on biblical theology, such as gender, decolonisation, Africanisation, liberation and others. These angles unlock Christology in significant ways with the specific important aspects that they emphasise. A last question that needs to be asked about these different angles and contributions is the possibility of establishing and setting a norm for a Christology to be considered as orthodox, showing similarity with the Christ traditions found in the New Testament. Myk Habets suggests six such criteria for an orthodox Christology:51 First of all it must be faithful to the biblical testimony, and specifically the language used about Jesus. This is because Pentecostalism, like Protestantism in general, accepts the principle that the Bible is normative for the teaching and practice of Christians, even though such normativity is interpreted in different terms. Second, an orthodox Christology must adequately present

Introduction 9 both Christ’s humanity and divinity. Third, such a Christology should resist the temptation to diminish either of Christ’s two natures. Fourth, an orthodox Christological model should be able to conceive of the unity of the divine and the human in Jesus, resulting in coherency with the other doctrines confessed by the church. The fifth criterion is that such a Christology should also agree with the ecumenical confessions as defined by the major historical Councils that had decided about Christology and that achieved universal acceptance by the church. The sixth and last criterion requires that contemporary Christology should be able to respond to contemporary issues. It must be able to empower Christians to live authentic lives of faith because it is relevant and intelligible. Merely repeating the ancient symbols of the Councils may imply that one is ignorant of the different thoughtworld(s) that contemporary people inhabit.

Outline of the chapters Chapter 1 contextualises the paradigm shifts in Christology in the New Prophetic Churches in South Africa. The contribution of this chapter is to actually show the virtual non-existence of Christology in some NPCs in South Africa. The argument is that most NPCs today do not see the Bible as the final authority guiding the doctrine of Christ in the church. Hence, the words of Christ as the head of the church are silenced through the prosperity gospel. The findings are that the Christology of the NPCs is different from the Christology of mainline churches and to a certain extent also from that of other classical Pentecostal churches. Chapter 2 is an exegetical study of Galatians 3 addressing a Christological shift from faith to doing things according to the flesh. This study of Galatians 3 is applied to Christology within prophetic Pentecostalism. The chapter argues that some neo-Pentecostals have shifted from the sufficiency of Christ to operate in ministry according to their own strength. The chapter comes to the conclusion that many neo-Pentecostal preachers have either replaced or totally removed Christ in their practice of religion. The chapter makes proposals on how NPCs can return to the basics of a biblical Christology that will be relevant in a South African context. Chapter 3 acknowledges that Christology in South Africa during the apartheid period was different from the Christology in a democratic South Africa. The work of Christ in ministry was fully acknowledged by many Pentecostal churches during the apartheid era. However, since the dawn of democracy, some neo-Pentecostals began to complement Christ in their practices. The findings in this chapter are that the shifts are being influenced by the political context in South Africa, not only the socio-economic context. These conclusions will be reached by reflecting on Christology in both the apartheid period and the democratic dispensation. Chapter 4 makes a connection between paradigm shifts in Christology and gender issues. The chapter uses two sermons, applying critical discourse

10  M.S. Kgatle, M. Nel and C. Banda analysis and black feminist theology to illustrate the connection between Pentecostal Christianity and patriarchy. The first sermon speaks about a woman who depends upon God to judge her wrongfulness. The second sermon affirms and encourages a woman as a leader in society, the church and family. The two sermons are used in this chapter to illustrate how they can encourage feminist in believing in Christ. Chapter 5 argues that Christ who is known as part of the trinity, God the Father, God the Son and God the Holy Spirit, is perceived differently among neo-Pentecostals in Africa. This assertion is based on the fact that many neo-Pentecostals have actually taken the place of Christ in their understanding of God’s mission. This presents a shift in how mission has been understood by classical Pentecostal churches in South Africa. The contribution of this chapter lies in an examination of how this shift has changed the understanding of the fundamental teachings of conducting missions in South Africa. The chapter proposes a Christology among neo-Pentecostals that will return to the fundamental teachings of the mission of God. Chapter 6 studies a Christology that is based on the spiritual death of Christ that originated from a teaching that during incarnation, Christ left his divine nature. This Christology implies that Christ as a sinner has replaced sinful humanity in his death and resurrection. Therefore, his death and resurrection become sources for the believer to live a life of prosperity in their body, soul and spirit. The contribution of this chapter lies in it revisiting the doctrine of the spiritual death of Christ in order to guard against the dangers of such a doctrine. Chapter 7 evaluates the fear of generational curses among neo-­ Pentecostals in Africa in the context of the death of Christ. The relevant question here is the sufficiency of the death of Christ in liberating Africans from the challenge of generational curses. How sufficient is his death given the fear of generational curses among neo-Pentecostals and their need for deliverance? As opposed to the believers’ reliance on prophets for spiritual deliverance from generational curses, the chapter proposes the sufficiency of Christ to deal with such curses. Chapter 8 uses the figure of Jesus as catechist to assess the model of Christology among neo-Pentecostal preachers. The chapter presents Jesus’ catechism as an inclusive one where Christ is presented as the one who is found among those in the margins. This model is also demonstrated in what he taught his disciples, namely “to love your neighbor as yourself”. The chapter argues that this model is not practiced among neo-­Pentecostal preachers as many are caught up in elitism and populism. Thus, most neo-Pentecostal preachers in South Africa have shifted from catechism to populism by elevating themselves instead of Christ. Chapter 9 uses decoloniality motifs to argue that most neo-Pentecostal churches in South Africa have moved from Christ into crises. Religious practices such as the manipulation of the prophetic office, the “man of God” syndrome and so forth, evoke crises in terms of the interpretation of

Introduction 11 Christ in South Africa. The chapter argues through an ontological density used in decoloniality motifs that men and women of God have elevated themselves above Christ while claiming to be ambassadors of the same Christ. Therefore, the chapter sees a need to challenge a Christology that has placed Christ in crisis without negating new forms of Pentecostalism in South Africa.

Notes 1 Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, Christology: A Global Introduction (Baker Academic, 2003), 9. 2 Elia Shabani Mligo, Jesus and the Stigmatized: Reading the Gospel of John in a Context of HIV/AIDS-related Stigmatization in Tanzania (Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2011), 361. 3 Kwame Bediako, Christianity in Africa: The Renewal of a non-Western religion (Edinburgh University Press, 1995), 6; cf. Victor I. Ezigbo, Re-imagining African Christologies: Conversing with the Interpretations and Appropriations of Jesus in Contemporary African Christianity. Vol. 132 (Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2010), 7; cf. Kwame Bediako, Jesus and the Gospel in Africa: History and Experience (New York: Orbis Books, 2004). 4 Clifton Clarke, African Christology: Jesus in P-missionary African Christianity (Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2011). 5 Elia Shabani Mligo, Rediscovering Jesus in Our Places: Contextual Theology and Its Relevance to Contemporary Africa (Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2020), 2. 6 The Commission for the Promotion and Protection of the Rights of Cultural, Religious and Linguistic Communities (the CRL Commission) in South Africa began two investigations: on the commercialisation of religion, see Paul Kyingi Kibuuka, Carel J. Van Aardt and Deon Herold, Tustin, An Investigative Study of the Commercialisation of Religion in the Republic of South Africa 2016 Gauteng Pilot Study (Pretoria: CRL Rights Commission/UNISA, 2016) and on the abuse of people, see CRL Rights Commission, Report on the Hearings on the Commercialisation of Religion and Abuse of People’s Beliefs Systems. (Pretoria: CRL Rights Commission, 2017). This book might help in dealing with the abuse of religion in South Africa. 7 Allan Anderson, a leading theologian and historian in African and global Pentecostalism in his book Bazalwane: African Pentecostals in South Africa. University of South Africa, 1992, and other various publications have categorised South African Pentecostalism into three main streams, cf. Marthinus L. Daneel, “African Initiated Churches in Southern Africa: Protest Movements or Mission Churches?,” in Christianity Reborn: The Global Expansion of Evangelicalism in the Twentieth Century (2004): 181–218; cf. Derrick T. Mashau. “Ministering Effectively in the Context of Pentecostalism in Africa: A Reformed Missional Reflection.” In die Skriflig/In Luce Verbi 47, no. 1 (2013): 10–17. 8 Allan Anderson. “The Newer Pentecostal and Charismatic Churches: The Shape of Future Christianity in Africa?” Pneuma 24, no. 2 (2002): 167–184; cf. Maria Frahm-Arp, Professional Women in South African Pentecostal Charismatic Churches (Leiden: Brill, 2010); cf. William K. Kay, Pentecostalism: A Very Short Introduction. Vol. 255 (Oxford University Press, 2011); cf. Marius Nel, African Pentecostalism and Eschatological Expectations: He is Coming Back Again! (Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2019).

12  M.S. Kgatle, M. Nel and C. Banda 9 Allan Anderson. “New African Initiated Pentecostalism and Charismatics in South Africa.” Journal of Religion in Africa 35, no. 1 (2005): 66–92. 10 Ibid, 70. 11 Mookgo S. Kgatle, The Fourth Pentecostal Wave in South Africa: A Critical Engagement (Abingdon: Routledge, 2019); cf. Mookgo S. Kgatle. “New Paradigms of Pneumatological Ecclesiology Brought About by New Prophetic Churches within South African Pentecostalism.” Verbum et Ecclesia 41, no. 1 (2020): 6. 12 Hulisani Ramantswana. “Prophets Praying for, or Preying on People’s Faith: A Reflection on Prophetic Ministry in the South African Context.” In die Skriflig/In Luce Verbi 53, no. 4 (2019): 1–8; Collium Banda. “Mediating God’s Relationality? A Trinitarian Perichoretic Critique of the Reliance on Anointed Objects in African Neo-Pentecostalism.” HTS Theological Studies 76, no. 1 (2020): 1–10; cf. Mookgo S. Kgatle. “Reimagining the Practice of Pentecostal Prophecy in Southern Africa: A Critical Engagement.” HTS Theological Studies 75, no. 4 (2019): 1–7. 13 Marius Nel, An African Pentecostal Hermeneutics: A Distinctive Contribution to Hermeneutics (Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2018), 23. 14 Marius Nel, The Prosperity Gospel in Africa: An African Pentecostal Hermeneutical Consideration (Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2020). 15 Bekithemba Dube and Thabile Zondi. “The Incongruity of Mafiarised Religion and Ontological Density in South Africa: What it Offers Africa’s 21st Century Scholarship.” African Renaissance 16, no. Special Issue 3 (September 2019): 39–56; cf. Mookgo S. Kgatle. “Propagating the Fear of Witchcraft: Pentecostal Prophecies in the New Prophetic Churches in South Africa.” Journal of the European Pentecostal Theological Association 40, no. 2(2020): 1–12. 16 Wolfgang Vondey, Pentecostalism: A Guide for the Perplexed (A&C Black, 2012). 17 Thinandavha Mashau and Mookgo S. Kgatle. “Prosperity Gospel and the Culture of Greed in Post-colonial Africa: Constructing an Alternative African Christian Theology of Ubuntu.” Verbum et Ecclesia 40, no. 1 (2019): 1–8. 18 Joseph Quayesi-Amakye, Christology and Evil in Ghana: Towards a Pentecostal Public Theology (Leiden: Brill, 2013). 19 Raymond Moloney. “African Christology.” Theological Studies 48, no. 3 (1987): 505–515. 20 T. A. Mofokeng, The Crucified Among the Crossbearers: Towards a Black Christology. (Kampen: Kok, 1983). 21 Kärkkäinen, Christology: A Global Introduction, 255; cf. Matthew Michael, Christian Theology and African Traditions (Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2013), 142. 22 Mookgo S. Kgatle. “The Relationship between the Economic Strand of Contemporary Pentecostalism and Neo-Liberalism in Post-1994 South Africa.” Religions 11, no. 4 (2020): 156. 23 Tony Richie, Essentials of Pentecostal Theology: An Eternal and Unchanging Lord Powerfully Present & Active by the Holy Spirit (Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2020), 79; cf. Sammy Alfaro, Divino Compañero: Toward a Hispanic Pentecostal Christology. Vol. 147 (Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2010), 94. 24 Vhumani Magezi and Collium Banda. “Competing with Christ? A Critical Christological Analysis of the Reliance on Pentecostal Prophets in Zimbabwe.” In die Skriflig/In Luce Verbi 51, no. 2 (2017): 1–10.

Introduction 13 25 Collium Banda. “Complementing Christ? A Soteriological Evaluation of the Anointed Objects of the African Pentecostal Prophets.” Conspectus: The Journal of the South African Theological Seminary 2018, no. Special Edition 2 (2018): 55–69. 26 https://citizen.co.za/news/south-africa/974509/dr-nala-claims-to-have-raisedthe-dead/ 27 https://citizen.co.za/news/south-africa/society/2087284/bushiri-hasreplaced-the-white-jesus-with-himself-blf/ 28 A similar critique can also be made from the perspective of the Holy Spirit that Pentecostal prophets position themselves in the lives of their followers in ways that distort the independent and sovereign function of the Holy Spirit in the believers’ lives. 29 Masiiwa R. Gunda and Francis Machingura. “The ‘Man of God’: Understanding Biblical Influence on Contemporary Mega-Church Prophets in Zimbabwe,” E. Chitando, M.R Gunda and J. Kügler (eds.), Prophets, Profits and the Bible in Zimbabwe: Festschrift for Aynos Masotcha Moyo, BiAS 12 (Bamberg: University of Bamberg, 2013), 21; Takura Rukwati, “Prophets Mustn’t Be Questioned.” The Herald, 10 July 2012, http://www.herald. co.zw/prophets-mustnt-be-questioned/ 30 Rukwati, “Prophets Mustn’t Be Questioned | The Herald.” 31 Kgatle, “Reimagining the Practice of Pentecostal Prophecy,” 4. 32 Kudzai Biri, “The Silent Echoing Voice: Aspects of Zimbabwean Pentecostalism and the Quest for Power, Healing and Miracles,” August 2012, 6, http:// uir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/6609. 33 Magezi and Banda, “Competing with Christ?,” 2. 34 Biri, “The Silent Echoing Voice,” 5. 35 Mahlohonolo Magadla, “Prophet Bushiri Gala Ticket Prices Cause Social Media Outrage,” News24, 12 December 2017, https://www.news24.com/ SouthAfrica/News/prophet-bushiri-gala-ticket-prices-cause-social-mediaoutrage-20171212. 36 Magezi and Banda, “Competing with Christ?,” 6. 37 Nala Mandate International, “Nala Mandate International,” 2020, http:// www.nalamandate.com/about.html. 38 TimesLive, “Pastor Mboro – When a Prophet Takes the Biscuit,” 14 April 2016, https://www.timeslive.co.za/news/south-africa/2016-04-14-­pastormboro—when-a-prophet-takes-the-biscuit/; Jacaranda FM, “Prophet Mboro Speaks of Healing through Blessing Underwear,” 2016, https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=49iwlzg1vKg. 39 Jacaranda FM, “Prophet Mboro Speaks of Healing through Blessing Underwear.” 40 In Degbe’s analysis these prophets “are usually independent and not under any ecclesiastical authority; they are not accountable financially, doctrinally, or ethically to any Christian bodies or organisations. Strangely enough, though they subscribe to core Pentecostal-Charismatic emphases and ethos, they somehow do not mix or share their platforms with the more credible, recognized and established Pentecostals or Charismatics. They are scandalous, dubious, and morally bankrupt; they portray a negative face of Ghana’s Christianity in general by their actions, beliefs, practices, and syncretistic mode of operations. They are at best, rehabilitators of the primal worldview.” Simon Kouessan Degbe, “‘Generational Curses’ and the ‘Four Horns.’” Journal of Pentecostal Theology 23, no. 2 (October 2014): 264, https://doi.org/10.1163/17455251-02301007. 41 Chima Agazue. “‘He Told Me That My Waist and Private Parts Have Been Ravaged by Demons’: Sexual Exploitation of Female Church Members by

14  M.S. Kgatle, M. Nel and C. Banda ‘Prophets’ in Nigeria.” Dignity: A Journal on Sexual Exploitation and Violence 1, no. 1 (2016): 10. 42 John V. Taylor. The Primal Vision: Christian Presence amid African Religion (London: SCM, 1963), 16. 43 Ogbu U. Kalu. “A Discursive Interpretation of African Pentecostalism.” Fides et Historia 41, no.1 (2009): 73. 44 Paul Gifford, Ghana’s New Christianity: Pentecostalism in a Globalizing African Economy (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2004), 23–4. 45 Mookgo S. Kgatle. “The Unusual Practices Within Some Neo-Pentecostal Churches in South Africa: Reflections and Recommendations.” HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies 73, no. 3 (2017). https://doi.org/10.4102/ hts.v73i3.4656. Such a city was also built at the end of the nineteenth century by John Alexander Dowie who established the city of Zion for his Christian Catholic Apostolic Church in Illinois in the USA. 46 Harvey Cox, Fire from Heaven: The Rise of Pentecostal Spirituality and the Reshaping of Religion in the Twenty-First Century (New York: Addison-­ Wesley, 1995), 245–46. 47 Anderson uses a wider definition that includes those Pentecostals with historical links to worldwide Pentecostal denominations, the African Initiated Spirit churches with historical links with Pentecostalism but following a trajectory of their own, and the new Independent Pentecostal churches, and comes to the higher estimation (Allan H. Anderson. “New African Initiated Pentecostalism and Charismatics in South Africa.” Journal of Religion in Africa 35, no. 1 (2005), 67). 48 Temi Banjo. “Aftermath of Eating Grass: Pastor Lesego Daniel’s Church Members Fall Sick.” Nigerian Monitor (16 January 2014). http://www. nigerianmonitor.com/photos-aftermath-of-eating-grass-pastor-lesegodaniels-church-members-fall-sick 49 Gladys Ganiel. “Pentecostal and Charismatic Christianity in South Africa and Zimbabwe: A Review.” Religion Compass 4, no. 3 (2010): 137. 50 Anderson, “New African Initiated Pentecostalism,” 71. 51 Myk Habets. “Spirit Christology: Seeing in stereo.” Journal of Pentecostal Theology 11, no. 2 (2003), 199–234.

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Introduction 15 __________. “Mediating God’s Relationality? A Trinitarian Perichoretic Critique of the Reliance on Anointed Objects in African Neo-Pentecostalism.” HTS Theological Studies 76, no. 1 (2020): 1–10. Banjo, Temi. “Aftermath of Eating Grass: Pastor Lesego Daniel’s Church Members Fall Sick.” Nigerian Monitor (16 January 2014). http://www.nigerianmonitor.com/ photos-aftermath-of-eating-grass-pastor-lesego-daniels-church-members-fall-sick\ Bediako, Kwame. Christianity in Africa: The Renewal of a Non-Western Religion. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1995. __________. Jesus and the Gospel in Africa: History and Experience. New York: Orbis Books, 2004. Biri, Kudzai, “The Silent Echoing Voice: Aspects of Zimbabwean Pentecostalism and the Quest for Power, Healing and Miracles,” August 2012. http://uir.unisa.ac.za/ handle/10500/6609. Clarke, Clifton R. African Christology: Jesus in Post-missionary African Christianity. Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2011. Cox, Harvey. Fire from Heaven: The Rise of Pentecostal Spirituality and the Reshaping of Religion in the Twenty-First Century. New York: Addison-Wesley, 1995. CRL Rights Commission. Report on the Hearings on the Commercialisation of Religion and Abuse of People’s Beliefs Systems. Pretoria: CRL Rights Commission, 2017. Daneel, Marthinus L. “African Initiated Churches in Southern Africa: Protest Movements or Mission Churches?,” Donald M. Lewis (ed.), Christianity Reborn: The Global Expansion of Evangelicalism in the Twentieth Century. (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2004), 181–218. Degbe, Simon Kouessan. “‘Generational Curses’ and the ‘Four Horns.’” Journal of Pentecostal Theology 23, no. 2 (October 2014): 246–65. https://doi. org/10.1163/17455251-02301007. Dube, Bekithemba and Thabile Zondi. “The Incongruity of Mafiarised Religion and Ontological Density in South Africa: What it Offers Africa’s 21st Century Scholarship.” African Renaissance 16, no. Special Issue 3 (September 2019): 39–56. Ezigbo, Victor I. Re-imagining African Christologies: Conversing with the Interpretations and Appropriations of Jesus in Contemporary African Christianity. Vol. 132. Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2010. Frahm-Arp, Maria. Professional Women in South African Pentecostal Charismatic Churches. Leiden: Brill, 2010. Ganiel, Gladys. “Pentecostal and Charismatic Christianity in South Africa and Zimbabwe: A Review.” Religion Compass 4, no. 3 (2010): 130–43. Gifford, Paul. Ghana’s New Christianity: Pentecostalism in a Globalizing African Economy. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2004. Gunda, Masiiwa Ragies and Francis Machingura. “The ‘Man of God’: Understanding Biblical Influence on Contemporary Mega-Church Prophets in Zimbabwe,” E. Chitando, M.R Gunda and J Kügler (eds.), Prophets, Profits and the Bible in Zimbabwe: Festschrift for Aynos Masotcha Moyo. BiAS 12. (Bamberg: University of Bamberg, 2013), 15–28. Habets, Myk. “Spirit Christology: Seeing in Stereo.” Journal of Pentecostal Theology 11, no. 2 (2003): 199–234. Jacaranda FM. “Prophet Mboro Speaks of Healing through Blessing Underwear,” 2016. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=49iwlzg1vKg.

16  M.S. Kgatle, M. Nel and C. Banda Kalu, Ogbu U. “A Discursive Interpretation of African Pentecostalism.” Fides et Historia 41, no. 1 (2009): 71–90. Kärkkäinen, Veli-Matti. Christology: A Global Introduction. Ada, MI: Baker Academic, 2003. Kay, William K. Pentecostalism: A Very Short Introduction. Vol. 255. Oxford University Press, 2011. Kgatle, Mookgo S. “The Unusual Practices within Some Neo-Pentecostal Churches in South Africa: Reflections and Recommendations.” HTS Theological Studies 73, no. 3 (2017): 1–8. __________. The Fourth Pentecostal Wave in South Africa: A Critical Engagement. Abingdon, Oxfordshire: Routledge, 2019. __________. “Reimagining the Practice of Pentecostal Prophecy in Southern Africa: A Critical Engagement.” HTS Theological Studies 75, no. 4 (2019): 1–7. __________. “The Relationship between the Economic Strand of Contemporary Pentecostalism and Neo-Liberalism in Post-1994 South Africa.” Religions 11, no. 4 (2020): 156. __________. “New Paradigms of Pneumatological Ecclesiology Brought About by New Prophetic Churches within South African Pentecostalism.” Verbum et Ecclesia 41, no. 1 (2020): 6. __________. “Propagating the fear of witchcraft: Pentecostal prophecies in the new prophetic churches in South Africa.” Journal of the European Pentecostal Theological Association 40, no. 2 (2020): 1–12. Kibuuka, Paul Kiyingi, Carel. J. Van Aardt and Deon Herold, Tustin. An Investigative Study of the Commercialisation of Religion in the Republic of South Africa 2016 Gauteng Pilot Study. Pretoria: CRL Rights Commission/UNISA, 2016. Magadla, Mahlohonolo. “Prophet Bushiri Gala Ticket Prices Cause Social Media Outrage.” News24, 12 December 2017. https://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/ News/prophet-bushiri-gala-ticket-prices-cause-social-media-outrage-20171212. Magezi, Vhumani and Collium Banda. “Competing with Christ? A Critical Christological Analysis of the Reliance on Pentecostal Prophets in Zimbabwe.” In die Skriflig/In Luce Verbi 51, no. 2 (2017): 1–10. Mashau, Derrick. T. “Ministering Effectively in the Context of Pentecostalism in Africa: A Reformed Missional Reflection. In die Skriflig/In Luce Verbi 47, no. 1 (2013): 10–17. Mashau, Thinandavha D. and Mookgo S. Kgatle. “Prosperity Gospel and the Culture of Greed in Post-Colonial Africa: Constructing an Alternative African Christian Theology of Ubuntu.” Verbum et Ecclesia 40, no. 1 (2019): 1–8. Michael, Matthew. Christian Theology and African Traditions. Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2013. Mligo, Elia Shabani. Rediscovering Jesus in Our Places: Contextual Theology and Its Relevance to Contemporary Africa. Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2020. Mofokeng, T.A. The Crucified Among the Crossbearers: Towards a Black Christology. Kampen: Kok, 1983. Moloney, Raymond. “African Christology.” Theological Studies 48, no. 3 (1987): 505–515. Nala Mandate International. “Nala Mandate International,” 2020. http://www. nalamandate.com/about.html

Introduction 17 Nel, Marius. An African Pentecostal Hermeneutics: A Distinctive Contribution to Hermeneutics. Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2018. __________. African Pentecostalism and Eschatological Expectations: He is Coming Back Again! Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2019. __________. The Prosperity Gospel in Africa: An African Pentecostal Hermeneutical Consideration. Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2020. Quayesi-Amakye, Joseph. Christology and Evil in Ghana: Towards a Pentecostal Public Theology. Leiden: Brill, 2013. Ramantswana, Hulisani. “Prophets Praying for, or Preying on People’s Faith: A Reflection on Prophetic Ministry in the South African Context.” In die Skriflig/In Luce Verbi 53, no. 4 (2019): 1–8. Richie, Tony. Essentials of Pentecostal Theology: An Eternal and Unchanging Lord Powerfully Present & Active by the Holy Spirit. Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2020. Rukwati, Takura. “Prophets Mustn’t Be Questioned | The Herald.” The Herald, 10 July 2012. http://www.herald.co.zw/prophets-mustnt-be-questioned/. Taylor, John V. The Primal Vision: Christian Presence amid African Religion. London: SCM, 1963. TimesLive. “Pastor Mboro – When a Prophet Takes the Biscuit.” TimesLIVE, 14 April 2016. https://www.timeslive.co.za/news/south-africa/2016-04-14-pastor-mboro— when-a-prophet-takes-the-biscuit/. Vondey, Wolfgang. Pentecostalism: A Guide for the Perplexed. A&C Black, 2012.

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The paradigmatic shift of some New Prophetic Churches from the ipsissima verba of Scripture to a non-existent Christology Paul Themba Mngadi

1.1 Introduction This chapter argues that the Christology of some New Prophetic Churches (NPCs; also called neo-Prophetic/Pentecostal churches) in South Africa established by South African pastors and other pastors from elsewhere in Africa has become non-existent. These non-denominational churches and ministries have sprung up all over South Africa, and are mushrooming exponentially mainly in urban Thoko Mkhwanazi-Xaluva, the chairperson of the Commission for the Promotion and Protection of the Rights of Cultural, Religious and Linguistic Communities (the CRL Rights Commission) told News24: In the charismatic sector, you start up and report to no one, you report to heaven. If I have a calling tonight, by tomorrow I can buy a tent and a sound system, I can call myself bishop, a prophet, whatever – and I’m good to go …. 2 According to the various vision statements of these prophets, they each brand themselves as having valid reasons for their presence as they are serving a particular niche need (usually personal empowerment, promoting the agenda of a particular political party, prophecy, healing, the gospel of prosperity and community outreach programmes, etc.). Kgatle sums it up as follows: These churches are known for their refusal to affiliate with established denominations in South Africa. Some of these churches also refuse to be part of the South African Council of Churches (SACC). They are also known for ministering relevantly to the needs of the people as opposed to classical Pentecostalism that is perceived as western and irrelevant. These are churches that offer an alternative to daily challenges of public life like sickness, joblessness, poverty, etc. These churches also offer a range of prayers for the affluent so that they can protect their wealth and keep on growing economically. In this way each non-­denominational church or ministry develops a theme and vision that clearly sets apart from others.3 DOI: 10.4324/9781003212973-1

Paradigmatic shift of NPCs 19 They are neither regulated nor registered/accredited.4 Most of these pastors have either a long history as members of mainline churches or felt a need to establish an independent church or ministry on their own terms.5 In most cases, they have little or no formal/accredited theological qualification and pastoral training. These churches and ministries have subsequently developed either an understanding of Christ parallel to the existing core Christology paradigms or sometimes to various degrees. In the light of complementing Christ, competing with Christ and even replacing Christ as the centre of the Christian religion and faith experience (Jn. 14:6). National media platforms have sadly become the place where so many of our differences and biases have been displayed to the detriment of the Christian unity of the faith that Christ prayed for (Jn. 17:20–22). My very honest purpose for writing this chapter is to open up an opportunity for the multivocality of different researchers from various fields of specialisation to arise (biblical hermeneutics, missiology and systematic theology) and to inspire them to probe this very current topic multi-­ directionally. The main issue that makes Christology such an important topic in systematic theology is the confessional answers we give to the key questions that Christ asked: “Whom do people say that I am? …. Whom do you say that I am? [emphasis added]” (Mark 8: 27–30). These questions are crucial for Christians within the context of the Christ-event that generally covers his birth, life, ministry, suffering on the cross, death, resurrection, ascension and his reign at the right hand of the Father. This investigative study has been carried out using in-depth interviewing and participant observation as qualitative research methods. Selected groups of neo-Pentecostal religious leaders, church committee members and ordinary members of various age groups and social status have been selected for this purpose. Survey research, stratified sampling and purposive sampling have been used to do hypothesis testing of data for the validation of findings. This chapter is underpinned by the transformative paradigm as the theoretical framework to evaluate the impact and critically challenge the deification of these neo-Pentecostal leaders. Issues of social justice, and the advocacy of critical systemic thinking and practice are focal points of discussion. This systemic research approach is aimed at exploring how the gullible followers of the abusive NPC prophets can be empowered. I am basing my Afrocentric philosophical argument and investigative research on critical social theory to evaluate the teachings about Christ in the neo-Pentecostal churches. It is on this basis that I shall argue against the doctrinal abuse of Christ in these churches, in addition to the prophets’ abuse of the socio-historic trust which their vulnerable and gullible followers put in them. The major findings of this chapter are that some neo-Pentecostal leaders are pursuing an agenda of doing away with Christ, silencing Him, complementing Him and competing with Him. As a result, we cannot even speak of a Christology in these NPCs and neo-Prophetic ministries; rather

20  Paul Themba Mngadi a Christodicy.6 In order to demonstrate how much the neo-Prophetic churches’ teachings about Christ have deviated from that which has historically been accepted as normative, I will now discuss a few epochal paradigms of Christology (as a discipline of systematic theology), starting with the Council of Nicea.

1.2 Key historical paradigms in South African Christology There are what I would call epochal or paradigmatic answers to the question, “Who is Christ?” that has been given by both theologians and lay Christians. My focus in this chapter is the confessional answers given by Christians to this central question at various epochs of history. John Mbiti puts it so well, “Theology falls or stands on how it understands, translates and interprets Jesus Christ at a given time, place or human situation”.7 It is important to note that the question of who Christ is, has first been asked by Christ himself, talking to his followers. Thus, the ipssisima verba level of authenticity of this question has never been doubted. It, therefore, serves as the basis for the Christology I resonate with. I will start by focusing on missionary Christology and the Eurocentric Christian faith confessions that have served as a foundational basis for the Afrocentric, anthropocentric and pragmatic Christological confessions. This acknowledgement of the missionary Christology and Eurocentric faith confessions of Christ as consolidated in the Nicene Creed by the Council of Nicea will continue to serve as a point of reference in this chapter. In view of the developments that have taken place from Eurocentric to Afrocentric Christologies in Africa, I will thus argue against the validity of various neo-Prophetic teachings about Christ that are not only in contention with one another but also keep on evaporating as each prophet commercialises Christianity for personal gain.8 This highly questionable path to prosperity leads to a Christian faith experience that is “dominated by self-advancement, self-esteem and self-­ sufficiency, individualism, materialism and universalism”.9 1.2.1 The Christology of the Council of Nicea The first paradigm of Christology emanated out of the Nicene Creed that was formulated by the First Ecumenical Council of Nicea (325 AD) to resolve the heretical teachings of Arianism and Donatism. Emperor Constantine convoked this council to develop what I would call a Christendom and politically unifying Christology to ensure “one emperor and one state religion”.10 This was a mutually beneficial strategy that brought unity in the empire and peace to the church. The emphasis here is on Christ as both divine and human:11 Jesus Christ of Narazeth that was born of Mary is believed to have been sent forth into this world by God the Father for our redemption and adoption as children of the heavenly Father (Jn. 1:1416; Gal. 4.4–5 and Mk. 1:11). He was fully human in nature and yet fully

Paradigmatic shift of NPCs 21 divine as the Son of God (Phil. 2:5–8). He is the second person in the Holy Trinity (Mk. 16:16 and Jn. 13:3). This forms the basis of an Incarnational Christology model12 even in African Christianity. Through evangelisation also known as the great commission (Mt. 28: 16–20), Christians are called to proclaim Jesus Christ as our Lord and Saviour who ministered, died and rose from the dead for our sake. Through his ministry and messianic death, he reconciled us to the Father (Lk. 4:16–21 and Zech. 4:4). He is the only Son of God (Mk. 14:61–62). He was acknowledged as the Lord during his ministry (Mt. 8:2 and 15:22). This scriptural doctrine became the core basis of the Christology that was part of the Christian doctrine of the Western colonialists and missionaries.13 1.2.2 The 19th-century missionary Christology in Africa The second paradigm is the missionary Christology of the 19th century. It lacked contextuality or responsiveness to the African context as the focus was on enlightenment and the promotion of the epistemological (socio-­ economic, imperialist and doctrinal) worldview of the west. Kalu shows the hermeneutical and epistemological damage that Africans suffered during this evangelisation and the supremacist spiritual rescue by the colonialists. He sums it up as follows: Reasons for the nineteenth-century revival of the missionary enterprise include scientific discoveries, voyages of exploration, new and aggressive mercantilist economic theories, scientific theories of racism, and competition for the plantation of colonies, as well as humanitarianism, anti-slavery movements, resettlement of liberated slaves, and the desire to convert souls allegedly headed for perdition.14 This Enlightenment Christology viewed Africans as having to be saved out of their cultures and traditions. This became the worst moment of Western and African cultures crossing paths. According to Ezigbo, this missionary Christology of an “enlightened and imperialist Jesus’ concept dehumanised and made Africans to be viewed as inferior to Western missionaries and colonisers”.15 This epochal Christology inflicted serious damage on the existing African indigenous religions on the basis that they were viewed as satanic and totally Anti-Christ, and therefore they couldn’t be transformed. The other missed opportunity on the part of Western missionaries was the fact that they failed to present Christ as the answer to African ontological/religious questions and/ or concrete daily life experiences. Taylor has captured this succinctly, saying, Christ has been presented as the answer to the questions a white man would ask, the solution to the needs that Western man would feel, the Saviour of the world of the European world-view, the object of

22  Paul Themba Mngadi adoration and prayer of historic Christendom. But if Christ were to appear as the answer to the questions that Africans are asking, what would he look like? If he came into the world of African cosmology to redeem Man as Africans understand him, would he be recognizable to the rest of the Church Universal?16 1.2.3 Inculturated or culture-oriented African Christologies Missionary Christology led to what I would call the second paradigm where African Christologies were developed by various African theologians like Ogbu Kalu, Vhumani Magezi and Collium Banda, Luke Mbefo, John Mbiti, Peter Nyende, Enyi Udoh and J.S. Ukpong.17 Their main aim was to deconstruct the Europeanised Christian faith experience of Africans that had led to what Ezigbo calls reconstructive Christologies, one of which is his concept of Revealer Christology.18 None of these theologians declared the missionary Christology obsolete but reconstructed a variety of more responsive indigenous Christologies, “[arising] from the ‘new shifts’ and ‘new historical’ conditions in the context-of-life of a given people”.19 Igba has done an extensive study on African Ancestor Christology20 mainly based on Hebrews (1:1–4). The way Jesus has been presented in the book of Hebrews reveals a commonality with our African societies in the sense of the role of the ancestors, the important tradition of sacrifice, and priestly mediation. Out of this commonality arises a clearly shared identity between our African religious beliefs and the contextualisation of Christ as the answer to the daily challenges and cultural traditions of the Hebrew community to which this book was addressed. Nyamiti adopted a strategy of enculturating Christology from an African perspective and worldview/cultural background in the same way the first Christians did. 21 John Samuel Pobee22 concurred with Nyamiti but also raised the issue that Africa has diverse oral and other rituals that have been passed on through generations throughout the continent. As a result of this diversity, he proposed localised Ancestor Christologies for every one with his own set of beliefs, moral practices and rituals for each version of African traditional religion. For Charles Wanamaker, this diversity has naturally been a part of how Christ and the different Christologies emerged from oral traditions to the various versions seen in the New Testament. He says, “As late as the second century CE some groups of Christians treated the oral traditions regarding Jesus as more authoritative than the written accounts of his sayings and deeds embodied in canonical Gospels”. 23 For Bediako, on the basis of John 14:6 and 1 Timothy 2:5, Christ is seen primarily as the mediating Ancestor between God the Father and humanity. 24 Joel Mokhoathi brings an argument that Ancestor Christology as one of the contextual Christologies has given Christ titles like “Ancestor Par

Paradigmatic shift of NPCs 23 Excellence” and “Proto-Ancestor”, yet remaining a paradigm that “does not touch-base with the practical experiences of Bantu Christians. It rather appears to justify the persistent veneration of ancestors in the name of Christ”. 25 Potgieter and Magezi have also argued against Bediako’s ancestral incarnational Christological model as not a theological/biblical model that best describes Christ as God incarnate nor fully contextualises the Christ-event within African indigenous cultures and traditions. It, therefore, fails to deforeignise Christ; instead, it promotes syncretism among African Christians. 26 Mbefo also presents one of the contextual Christologies of Christ as the definitive fulfiller and unifier of the religious or spiritual gap in their traditional indigenous practices. He argues: “By adopting these elements of traditional heritage through affirmation and denial we carry forward into Christianity those authentic interpretations of God who already revealed himself to our ancestors before Christianity came as fulfilment”. 27 This reconstructive Christological model re-affirms that certain fragments within every culture are divinely inspired and compatible with Christianity. This bottom-up paradigm is favourable to the indigenisation of Christianity in Africa and shares a common base with Mathew (5:17). This paradigm of Christology de-stigmatises African cultures and the Christ-event can thus be inscribed into our own African cultures. 28 For instance, the African monotheistic concept of God and its grassroots variation point to Africa already having had an established connection with God long before colonisation. 1.2.4 African reconstructive Christology Another paradigm of interest to me is one that Ezigbo categorises as culture-oriented Christology. He approaches the contextualising of the significant role of Christ as the centre of the Christian religion and primary solution to the daily problems that humanity faces from a liberative angle. He speaks of culture-oriented and solution-oriented Christologies developed from the grassroots and theological discourses that rehabilitate some good elements of African cultures in appropriating the Christ-event. This paradigm locates Christ as both the Questioner who confrontationally deconstruct the Western ideological or colonial theology and catechesis and the Revealer of divinity and humanity. “Thus, he mediates and interprets divinity and humanity for the purpose of enacting and sustaining a relationship between God and human beings”. 29 This is the circumference within which Ezigbo proposes, we locate a truly African Christological claim among all other claims in conflict about the Christ-event, including the Western imperialist claim on Christ. Christ is the Revealer of the redemptive plan of God and is also the One to accomplish it among us. This Revealer Christology has a very strong link with the fulfilment of the prophecy of Isaiah (9:6) and Luke (2:14).

24  Paul Themba Mngadi God reveals the hidden and unveils/uncovers the long obscure view of who He is in the two indivisible divine and human natures of Christ (John 1:14). In this way, the image of God in every human being in the universe is affirmed as godly (Ps. 8:4–8). Ezigbo’s Revealer Christology was influenced by his constructive and incarnational theology that had emerged out of the scholarly works of Bolaji, 30 Manus, 31 Mbefo32 and grassroots or lay Christologies prevalent in Nigeria. This presentation of Christ as both a solution to people’s daily challenges (e.g., fears of evil spirits, ill-health and lack of prosperity) is highlighted in this following argument. Ezigbo argues: As God’s self-revelatory act, Jesus Christ embodies both God’s presence and true humanity in the world. In Jesus, therefore, a person encounters and is invited into God’s fellowship …. The Revealer Christology model situates Jesus within the core of African indigenous religious experience … [It] presents Jesus simultaneously as ‘questioner’ and ‘solution’ to the experiences and religious quest of Africans.33 Ezigbo also says: “The Christ-Event provides a unique opportunity for human beings to experience God’s remoulding, critiquing, gracious love, forgiveness, acceptance, and blessings, but it is only God that can possibly convey God’s salvation to people”.34 Christ does not only reveal God within the confines of the Christian faith but even beyond it (Acts 8:26–40; Acts 17). His presence and revelation of God self is beyond what has been written or contained in the Bible (John 20:30–31; 21:25). This theophanic presence and revelation supersede everything that all the angels and the prophets could possibly bring (Heb. 1:1–4). The other leading African systematic theologian on this subject is Enyi Udoh from Nigeria. He has dedicated a book on “Guest Christology”. This reconstructive and rehabilitative Christology has a better chance to put to an end what Udoh calls the “religious schizophrenia” that had produced African Christians who are behaviourally loyal to African Traditional Religions during the week and religiously loyal to Christianity on weekends.35 He starts by highlighting Christ as an imposed tyrant, an unfriendly and impatient foreigner who was introduced to Africans by colonialists who marginalised them and treated their cultures as primitively barbaric.36 As a result, Christ was rejected, doubted and excluded as not worthy of any respect.37 The African reconstructive Christology that Udoh proposes strongly affirms the African indigenous cultures and moral values like Ubuntu. From this grassroots perspective, one could say that this cultural and liberative Christology reveals Christ as transcending the ontological confines of European imperialism and the epistemology of the neo-­liberalist political agenda. Udoh asserts that the Christ presented by the Christian missionaries was distant and very different from the one that Nigerians read about in the Bible.38

Paradigmatic shift of NPCs 25 The only relational trajectory that could cause Christ to be accepted and move from the status of a mere guest to that of kin and Lord among the Nigerians was for Him to undergo a family and community ceremony of a welcomed guest. Once a guest and host have voluntarily initiated themselves into this new role, the distance between them begins to shorten, the number of laws governing them gets fewer and the choices before them increase. There exists in effect a new sense of solidarity, one ethical principle and shared destiny. This communalism and hospitality of Africans is the only viable option to make Christ accepted according to the terms of the accepting host.39 In this culture, Christ cannot pick and choose from what the host culture dictates. According to this perspective, the compliance and loyalty of Christ are key for his acceptance among Africans. This reveals some kind of a domesticated Christ within African culture. His authority cannot supersede nor be seen as of equal status to that of the traditional leaders. He remains a guest, albeit an honoured one.

1.3 The New Prophetic Churches’ teachings on Christ Despite in-depth studies by various African scholars, especially systematic theologians, some neo-Prophetic/Pentecostal leaders have chosen to compete with Christ and/or to complement Christ, even doing away with Him completely, viewing Him as an insufficient answer and solution to Africans’ daily needs for security, prosperity and health. This has resulted in a sometimes non-existent Christology among many of the neo-Prophetic churches in South Africa. Mugambi and Magesa put a lot of emphasis on the centrality of Christ as a basis for any Christology and Christian theology in general. They say: Christology is, in the final analysis, the most basic and central issue of Christian theology. The faith, the hope and the praxis of love that Christian theology attempts to explicate, and which Christians endeavour to witness to by their life, must have Christ as their foundation and goal. Without Jesus Christ as the cornerstone and final aim, nothing in Christology counts; nothing in theological thought is of any significance from the Christian point of view. In fact, to be precise, theology is not Christian at all when it does not offer Jesus Christ of Nazareth as the answer to the human quest.40 The neo-Prophetic churches’ teachings on Christ have become so widely divergent and pluralised, actually so secularised, that they have had a negative effect on Afrocentric and pragmatic value systems and religious beliefs.

26  Paul Themba Mngadi The teachings about Christ and the use of the name of Jesus Christ are often indicative of unresolved issues. Shorter raises the issue of the neo-­ Pentecostals’ conscious and resolute agenda to eliminate the “Christ factor” in Christianity. There is a strong drive in these circles to have an African Christianity without Christ at the centre. Shorter’s experience at a conference on Christianity and African culture held in Nairobi and attended by academics, students and secular humanist writers, indicated a shift driven by African neo-Pentecostals to develop “a ‘user-friendly Gospel’ and a Jesus they can believe in with the supernatural edited out …. this [is] a Christianity without any Christ at all”.41 The agenda of commercialising and commodifying the Christian faith experience within neo-Pentecostal kerygma in Africa resulted in turning Christ into a European foreigner in African Christianity. This foreignness of Christ, seemingly so unrelated to the African context, has serious and negative ontological implications in a systematic theological understanding of soteriology. It is like there is no room in the inn for Christ in Africa (Lk. 2:7), and no welcome for Him among African neo-Pentecostal Christians.42 Among the neo-Prophetic leaders in South Africa, I have taken an interest in Dr Nala, King of the Plentiologist Nation, and decided to do some research on him. His Facebook page (King SoMnala-Nala Mandate) shows that he has many titles like King of the Plentian Nation, Plentiologist, Professor, Doctor of Divinity, Psalmist, Apostle, Bishop, Church Leader, Counsellor to Pastors and Life Coach.43 He sees himself as very close to Christ, to such an extent that he even dares to replace Him. As the self-­ appointed leader of the Rebirth Family Church, he was challenged by the Treatment Action Campaign for selling holy water for R10 that he claimed was a miracle remedy to heal HIV/Aids. On the 5th of November 2013, Nala was quoted verbatim, saying: “They (TAC) must say medically there is no cure for Aids. I agree with that, but through prayer and faith water and any material branded in my name, as God said prophetically, I believe in that. People can be healed”.44 Some testimonies have indicated victory and congregants enjoying success after having used his anointed objects. Some have had success in job interviews, some passed exams, someone even won in a murder case and was acquitted in a court of law despite a solid case with strong evidence against them. Nala is also reported to have made a claim that on the 16th of September 2014, his faith water resurrected a dead person and a still-born baby, healed cancer and a woman without a womb conceived.45 This is evidence of Nala as a clear example of those in competition with Christ. This competition is evidenced in this celebrity pastor’s claim of possessing supernatural powers as a “Man of God”. Gunda and Machingura have written extensively on this title, “Man of God”. It is used mainly by those church leaders who aim at replacing the centrality of Christ in Christianity with their own sense of spiritual importance. “The phrase ‘Man of God’ occurs eighty times in the Christian Bible. Of the eighty

Paradigmatic shift of NPCs 27 times that this phrase is used, only once is it used in the New Testament, precisely in 1 Tim. 6:9–11”.46 The RSV translation reads as follows: 9 But those who desire to be rich fall into temptation, into a snare, into many senseless and hurtful desires that plunge men into ruin and destruction. 10 For the love of money is the root of all evils; it is through this craving that some have wandered away from the faith and pierced their hearts with many pangs. 11 But as for you, man of God, shun all this; aim at righteousness, godliness, faith, love, steadfastness, gentleness. When one reads the above Bible text, you get a sense that the real meaning of 1 Timothy (6:11) is found within the context of the whole chapter, including I Timothy (6:9–10). Therefore, any selective reading of I timothy (6:11) out of its natural context that is done even by some scholars leads to a loss of the biblical broader context. This to me shows the dangers of selective reading as having alienated this quoted text out of the context that gives it its true and clear meaning. The following characteristics as tabulated by Gunda and Machingura are indicative of the “Man of God” as justifiably authoritarian. First, the main characteristics of the “Man of God” or Übermensch depict such a person as above ordinary men. He can stand before the Lord and be unharmed (Gen. 18:22, 19:27; 1 Sam. 6:20; Lk.1:19).47 Second, the Man of God has an understanding of the Divine and power to impart blessings on the people of God. Gunda and Machungura say: Moses stands as the founding father blessing his descendants, and this comes after he had received the law from Yahweh and had passed on the same to the Israelites. The law that is interchangeably called the Law of the Lord or the Law of Moses is central in understanding why Moses is qualified as “man of God”. No other individual had been this close to God!48 Third, the status of Man of God is equivalent to being a messenger of God who accesses God uniquely as compared to the rest of the people. “This is similarly important that the blessings given by Moses are as good as blessings given by God because the Man of God stands for God, his actions are God’s actions”.49 Fourth, the effect of his presence is huge as the Man of God shares the same authority with God as seen in 1 Kings (17:14–24). Whatever he declares happens according to his pronouncement. Fifth, the presence and power of the Man of God mark the presence and power of God among his people. He has power as the seer and visionary who can even intercede for his people (1 Kings 13). Besides the Man of God’s state of being infallible, they claim so much Divine power that, if one can afford the exorbitant price of a one-on-one consultation,50 one could tell the prophet what one wants and is then promised that one will receive it. Coleman calls this “positive confession”.51 The church

28  Paul Themba Mngadi leader would also claim to be the sole revealer and translator of the voice of God. So they are feared and cannot be questioned. This commodification of God’s kingdom replaces Christ.52 Banda also contends that the atheistic competition of prophets for equal recognition against the soteriological sufficiency of Christ53 as the Redeemer, Liberator and Healer has resulted in his mediatory role being downplayed (John 14:6 and 6:44–69). Another example of this is Shepherd Bushiri who had claimed to have raised the dead.54 Chima Aguzue has spoken out strongly against the “prophetic craze” of these “religio-commercial” self-appointed prophets. This craze has definitely distorted and usurped so much of the role of Christ55 as the Centre of Christianity, the Good Shepherd (John 10:10), and presented Him as having to be complemented with their anointed objects.56 Christ is generally portrayed as an alien who is often unavailable. He is not sufficient as a stand-alone Saviour. Some of these neo-Prophetic leaders and their competition for recognition have led to syncretism and Christ being replaced by prophets who are actually just traditional diviners portraying themselves as superior and above everyone else. This competition is even more evident in the practice of what Kgatle calls “forensic prophecy”.57 Like the practice of divination in the African Traditional Religions, some neo-Pentecostal prophets afford people consultation sessions at which they claim to be enlightened by the Holy Spirit, foretelling the future of their follower and revealing their personal details or that of a relative. These details may be, amongst others, a person’s name, physical address or health condition without the prophet having any prior information about what they reveal. These consultation sessions take place in full view of the whole gathering so as to enhance their reputation and credibility. People struggle to discern and clearly distinguish between true and false prophecy, and the lines between truth and falsehood become very blurred. Biri argues that this syncretism has contributed to the transplanting of divination as a practice from African Traditional Religions into neo-Pentecostalism. He talks about “… the ‘voice’ of African spiritualities that has been ‘silenced’ by Pentecostals but that continues to whisper and guide their perception and quest for the power of healing and miracles”.58 In this context, Christ as the Saviour competes with various practices of simonism and syncretism within neo-Liberalist Pentecostalism. This is done to purportedly bestow good health, protection against forces of darkness and financial prosperity on unsuspecting African believers. For Meyer, all this is pointing at one reality: Thus in the Pentecostal context the narratives of satanic riches are considered to be not mere stories but true revelations of the invisible. By constructing narratives of evil powers as confessions, Pentecostal Churches represent themselves as purveyors of true knowledge. By revealing what is otherwise confined to secrecy and discussed mainly in the context of gossip they render this diffuse theme discursive.59

Paradigmatic shift of NPCs 29 In line with this, Banda expresses his sadness at how some of these forensic prophecies, healing, and deliverance miracles were performed in public and how awkward and humiliating it often is for the gullible recipients. He says: “People trust these bizarre objects and endure the uncomfortable and humiliating touches from the prophets and pastors because they consider them to bear miraculous powers. It remains, however, seriously disturbing that the work of Christ on the believer has to be fulfilled through violent and degrading means”.60 Banda is therefore conclusive in saying: Ironically, while African Pentecostal prophets severely criticise African Independent Churches for adopting African traditional religious methods, their preoccupation with anointed mantles shows that they too have adopted African traditional religious methods … Just like the African Independent prophets, African Pentecostal prophets have ‘retained the main ATR structures in recreated Christianised form.61 These scholarly views show the African Pentecostal prophets’ extreme abuse of their followers’ trust and respect and their agenda to commercialise and commodify our Christian faith experience by taking advantage of peoples’ spiritual insecurities. They are promoting a lived African Christian faith experience of “one foot in Christ and another in their African Traditional Religions”.62

1.4 The subservience of Christ and the commodification of the Christian faith experience Out of this emerges a kind of deification of the persona of the church leader as the greatest healer, the divine answer to all human misery like unemployment, immense suffering from evil spirits and infertility. Neo-Prophetic Pentecostal church leaders tend to instil fear as a strategy to ensure total reliance of their congregants on the religious products that are on sale as sure protection of their marriages, health and financial prosperity (promotions at work and thriving businesses). Because of this fear believers give offerings just to ensure their survival.63 “Poverty within this paradigm is defined as sin, laziness and lack of faith. Human suffering is also perceived as a lack of Godly favour”.64 This neo-Pentecostal teaching on Christ causes Him to be subservient to the dictates of the church leader. The kind of replacement of Christ contradicts the Christology held among those churches with leaders that have received formal ministry training from accredited higher education institutions. Such a fundamentalist interpretation and teaching is both disempowering and impoverishes the Christian faith experience of believers, especially when what has been declared as a prophecy over their lives does not happen. Anderson gives an example of a counselling session with a member of a church who was in dire need of money and in serious debt. This person was given lottery numbers and his/her hands were

30  Paul Themba Mngadi anointed with oil. This gave this person a sure hope that all the problems would be solved but in actual fact, nothing happened.65 In a context where attainment of salvation, relief from infertility and escape from torment by malevolent spirits can be achieved through buying anointed items with no guarantee that it will work, people begin to lose faith in Christ too. In view of this reality, neo-Pentecostalism is bringing radical and alarming change in how the Christian faith experience is lived. The reality is that the “religion of salvation [has become] a human-centred programme for the attainment of health, wealth and success”.66

1.5 Concluding remarks On the basis of all this, I conclude that there is no Christology among these neo-Prophetic churches but rather a strong element of Christodicy. Christ is not as seen as the second Person of the Trinity. He is given the role of a “guest” and remains a foreigner who falls below the standard of the Messiah, Redeemer, Healer and the Way to the Father (John 10:10). This comes with a costly betrayal of Jesus Christ as the cornerstone of our Christian faith. Simonism and syncretism are being promoted far beyond Christ as the Liberator and “the Lamb of God who takes away the sins of the world” (John 1:29). Neo-Prophetic teachings about Christ are not redemptive, rehabilitative and spiritually empowering. In line with this, Kgatle suggests “a prophecy of salvation, prophecy of love, prophecy of humility and approved prophecy as a remedy for bizarre practices of Pentecostal prophecy in Southern Africa”.67 I therefore agree and am willing to respond to the call of the chairperson of the CRL Rights Commission who has invited Christian theologians and leaders to “assist all religious institutions to create an environment where they, not the state, can effectively regulate themselves, and hold people who bring religion into disrepute accountable, as per their various religious systems”.68 For me, this is a problem that needs to be urgently addressed as it is a breeding ground for ever-escalating divisions in the Christian religion. This will need both preventative and corrective measures to be put in place to resolve this problem systemically. It has emerged as a new field of study to which I want to give my full support and contribute any new knowledge I might gain, for the benefit of South Africa.

Notes 1 This Latin expression denotes that the words quoted are the exact and original version taken verbatim from their originator. As an example, John the Evangelist recorded the conversation between Jesus and Nicodemus (Jn. 3: 1–15) and Jesus and the woman at the well (Jn. 4:7–30) exactly as spoken and divinely inspired. The divine inspiration of these recorded words led to them carrying more authority and they are therefore considered by Christians as without error. This claimed authenticity and authority of Scripture has a clear purpose. See 2 Timothy 3: 16–17.

Paradigmatic shift of NPCs 31 2 https://www.news24.com/news24/SouthAfrica/News/Churches-cannotbe-spaza-shops-rights-commission-20151025 3 Mookgo S. Kgatle. “The Unusual Practices within Some Neo-Pentecostal Churches in South Africa: Reflections and Recommendations.” HTS Theological Studies 73, no. 3 (2017): 1. 4 CRL Rights Commission. “Report of the Hearings on the Commercialisation of Religion and Abuse of People’s Belief Systems.” (Braamfontein, Johannesburg: CRL Rights Commission, 2017), 4. 5 Sphesihle B. Khanyile. “The Virtualization of the Church: New Media Representations of Neo-Pentecostal Performance(s) in South Africa.” (MA diss., Johannesburg: University of the Witwatersrand, 2016), 15. 6 Hezron M. Kagwima, Josiah O. Osamba, and Joisa K. Murage. “Christologies among the Christians of Ndia in KirinyagaWest Sub-County of Kenya.” Analisa: Journal of Social Science and Religion (2018): 59–78. In this article, the authors did an evaluative study among the Christians of Ndia. One of the key findings is that 17.40% of respondents stated that Christ had failed them at the most critical times like the death of a loved one, failing examinations, living in abject poverty and suffering defeat from enemies. At times Christ was seen as having refused to perform as expected in answer to their requests. This forms the foundational basis for satan to be seen as quick to respond and powerful. As a result, the glorification of satan came to a point of downplaying soteriological Christologies. So Christodicy is a perception of satan being seen as more victorious over Christ. That led to syncretism and devil worship. 7 John S. Mbiti. New Testament Eschatology in an African background: A Study of the Encounter between New Testament Theology and African Traditional Concepts (London: Oxford University Press, 1971), 90. 8 Princewell A. Nwanganga. “Church Commercialization in Nigeria: Implications for Public Relations Practice.” Journal of Philosophy, Culture and Religion 28 (2019): 1; George Anderson. “Commercialisation of Religion in Neo-Prophetic Pentecostal/Charismatic Churches in Ghana: Christian Ethical Analysis of their Strategies.” Journal of Philosophy, Culture and Religion 42, no. 1 (2019): 2. 9 David Platt, Radical: Taking Back your Faith from the American Dream, The Great Why of God (Colorado: Multinomah Books, 2010), 19. 10 Rodgers Mulenga. “The Arain Controversy vis-a-vis the Council of Nicea and Inculturation of the faith.” (MA diss., Vienna: Universitat Wien, 2017). 11 Uchenna A. Ezeh. Jesus Christ the Ancestor: African Contextual Christology in the Light of the Major Dogmatic Christological Definitions of the Church from the Council of Nicea (325) to Chalcedon (451) (Oxford: Peter Lang Publishers, 2003). 12 Raymond Potgieter and Christopher Magezi. “A Critical Assessment of Bediako’s Incarnational Christological Model as a Response to the Foreignness of Christ in African Christianity.” In die Skriflig/In Luce Verbi ( 50, no. 1 (2016): 1–9 13 Kwame Bediako. Christianity in Africa: The Renewal of a non-Western Religion (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1995), 6. 14 Ogbu U. Kalu. “Church Presence in Africa: A Historical Analysis of the Evangelization Process,” Kofi Appiah-Kubi and Sergio Torres (eds.), African Theology en route: Papers from the Pan-African Conference of Third World Theologians, December 17–23, 1977, Accra, Ghana (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1979), 17. 15 Victor I. Ezigbo. “Contextualizing the Christ-Event: A Christological Study of the Interpretations and Appropriations of Jesus Christ in Nigerian Christianity.” (PhD. diss., University of Edinburgh, 2008), 15.

32  Paul Themba Mngadi 16 John V. Taylor. The Primal Vision: Christian Presence amid African Religion (London: SCM Press, 1963), 16. 17 Ogbu U. Kalu. “Introduction: The Shape and Flow of African Historiography,” Ogbu Kalu, J.W. Hofmeyr and P.J Maritz (eds.), African Christianity: An African Story (Pretoria: University of Pretoria, 2005), 1–23; Vhumani Magezi and Collium Banda. “Competing with Christ? A Critical Christological Analysis of the Reliance on Pentecostal Prophets in Zimbabwe.” In die Skriflig/In Luce Verbi 52, no. 2 (2017): 5; Luke N. Mbefo, Christian Theology and African Heritage (Onitsha: Spiritan Publishers, 1996); John S. Mbiti, New Testament Eschatology in an African background: A Study of the Encounter between New Testament Theology and African Traditional Concepts (London: Oxford University Press, 1997); John S. Mbiti, “Some African Concepts of Christology,” C. F. Vicedom (ed.), Christ and the Younger Churches: Theological Contributions from Asia, Africa and Latin America (London: SPCK, 1972), 51–62; Peter T.N. Nyende. “Jesus the Greatest Ancestor: A Typology-Based Theological Interpretation of Hebrews’ Christology in Africa.” (PhD diss., University of Edinburgh, 2005); Enyi Ben Udoh, Guest Christology. An Interpretative View of the Christological Problem in Africa (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang Publishers, 1988); Justin S. Ukpong. “The Immanuel Christology of Matthew 25, 31–46 in African Context,” J. S. Pobee (ed.), Afro-Christology (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang Publishers, 1992), 55–64; and Justin S. Ukpong. “Christology and Inculturation: A New Testament Perspective,” Rosino Gibellini (ed.), Paths of African Theology (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1994), 40–61. 18 Victor I. Ezigbo. “Contextualizing the Christ-Event: A Christological Study of the Interpretations and Appropriations of Jesus Christ in Nigerian Christianity.” (PhD. diss., University of Edinburgh, 2008); Victor I. Ezigbo, Re-­ imagining African Christologies: Conversing with the Interpretations and Appropriations of Jesus in Contemporary African Christianity (Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2010). 19 Victor I. Ezigbo. “Contextualizing the Christ-Event: A Christological Study of the Interpretations and Appropriations of Jesus Christ in Nigerian Christianity.” (PhD. diss., University of Edinburgh, 2008), 19. 20 Jacob T. Igba. “Ancestor Christology and Jesus’ Identity: A Study based on the Epistle to the Hebrews.” (MA thesis, Potchefstroom: North West University, 2013). 21 Charles Nyamiti. “African Christologies Today,” R. J. Schreiter (ed.), Faces of Jesus in Africa (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1991), 3–23; Charles Nyamiti. “Contemporary African Christologies: Assessment and Practical Suggestion,” Rosino Gibellini (ed.), Paths of African Theology (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1994), 62–77. 22 John S. Pobee. “Toward Christology in an African Theology,” John S. Pobee (ed.), Toward an African Theology. (Nashville, TN: Abingdon, 1979), 81–98; John S. Pobee. “In Search of Christology in Africa: Some Considerations for Today,” J. S. Pobee (ed.), Exploring Afro-Christology (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang Publishers, 1992), 9–20. 23 Charles A. Wanamaker. “Jesus the Ancestor: Reading the story of Jesus from an African Perspective.” Scriptura 63 (1997): 281–298. 24 Kwame Bediako. “Biblical Christologies in the context of African Traditional religions,” V. Samuel and C. Sugden (eds.), Sharing Jesus in the Two Thirds World: Evangelical Christologies from the Contexts of Poverty, Powerlessness, and Religious Pluralism: the Papers of the First Conference of Evangelical Mission Theologians from the Two Thirds World, Bangkok, Thailand, March 22–25, 1982 (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1983); and

Paradigmatic shift of NPCs 33





Kwame Bediako. “The Doctrine of Christ and the Significance of Vernacular Terminology.” International Bulletin of Missionary Research 22, no. 3 (1998): 110–111. 25 Joel Mokhoathi. “Jesus as an Ancestor: A Critique of Ancestor Christology in Bantu Communities.” Pharos Journal of Theology (2018): 1 26 Raymond Potgieter and Christopher Magezi. “A Critical Assessment of Bediako’s Incarnational Christological Model as a Response to the Foreignness of Christ in African Christianity.” In die Skriflig/In Luce Verbi (2016). 27 Luke N. Mbefo. Christian Theology and African Heritage (Onitsha: Spiritan Publishers, 1996), 10. 28 Ibid., 2. 29 Victor I. Ezigbo. “Contextualizing the Christ-Event: A Christological Study of the Interpretations and Appropriations of Jesus Christ in Nigerian Christianity.” (PhD. diss., University of Edinburgh, 2008), iii. 30 Idowu E. Bolaji. African Traditional Religion: A Definition (London: SCM Press, 1973). 31 Chris U. Manus. Christ the African King: New Testament Christology (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang Publishers, 1993). 32 Luke N. Mbefo. Christian Theology and African Heritage (Onitsha: Spiritan Publishers, 1996). 33 Victor I. Ezigbo. Re-imagining African Christologies: Conversing with the Interpretations and Appropriations of Jesus in Contemporary African Christianity (Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2010), 99. 34 Victor I. Ezigbo. “Contextualizing the Christ-Event: A Christological Study of the Interpretations and Appropriations of Jesus Christ in Nigerian Christianity.” (PhD. diss., University of Edinburgh, 2008), 151. 35 Ben E. Udoh. Guest Christology: An Interpretative View of the Christological Problem in Africa (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang Publishers, 1988). 36 Ibid., 74–75. 37 Ibid., 225. 38 Ibid., 212. 39 Roland De Vries. “Becoming a Guest: Christology and Ecclesiology Identity.” Theologique 25, no. 2 (2017): 165–184. 40 Jesse N.K. Mugambi and Laurenti Mages. “Introduction” in Jesus in African Christianity: Experimentation and Diversity in African Christology (Nairobi: Action Publishers, 1998), x. 41 Aylward Shorter. Evangelisation and Culture (New York: Geoffrey Chapman, 1994), 1–2. 42 Vhumani Magezi and Christopher Magezi. “An Adamic Incarnational Christological Framework as a Theological Approach for African Contextual Ministry.” Missionalia 44, no. 2 (2016): 152–174. 43 [email protected] 44 https://www.enca.com/south-africa/hivaids-holy-water-cure-put-test 45 https://citizen.co.za/news/south-africa/974509/dr-nala-claims-to-haveraised-the-dead/ 46 Masiiwa R. Gunda and Francis Machungura. “The ‘Man of God’: Understanding Biblical Influence on Contemporary Mega-Church Prophets In Zimbabwe,” E. Chitando, M.R. Gunda et al. (eds.), Prophets, Profits and the Bible In Zimbabwe, 12 Bible Studies in Africa (University of Bamberg Press, 2013), 17. 47 Neil Glover. “Elijah versus the Narrative of Elijah: The Contest between the Prophet and the Word.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 30, no. 4 (2006): 449–462. 48 Masiiwa R. Gunda and Francis Machungura. “The ‘Man of God’: Understanding Biblical Influence on Contemporary Mega-Church Prophets in

34  Paul Themba Mngadi





Zimbabwe,” E. Chitando, M.R. Gunda et al. (eds.), Prophets, Profits and the Bible In Zimbabwe, 12 Bible Studies in Africa (University of Bamberg Press, 2013), 19. 49 Ibid., 20. 50 Mzansi Stories, 2017, “Prophet Bushiri: R7000 rumours to have 1 on 1 session with the prophet,” viewed 07 March 2017, from www.mzansistories.com. 51 Simon Coleman. The Globalisation of Charismatic Christianity: Spreading the Gospel of Prosperity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 29 and 49. 52 Collium Banda. “The Impersonalisation of God? A Theological Analysis of the Expression of Power of God’s Kingdom among the Zimbabwean Pentecostal Prophets.” In die Skriflig/In Luce Verbi 53, no. 1 (2019). 53 Collium Banda. “The Sufficiency of Christ in Africa: A Christological Challenge from African Traditional Religions” (MA diss., Pretoria: University of South Africa, 2005). 54 Prophetic channel. TV, 2015. “The dead comes back to life: Prophet Shepherd Bushiri,” viewed 16 November 2015, from www.propheticchannel.tv. 55 Chima Aguzue. The Role of a Culture of Superstition in the Proliferation of Religio-Commercial Pastors in Nigeria (Bloomington, UK: AuthorHouse, 2015). 56 Collium Banda. “Complementing Christ? A Soteriological Evaluation of the Anointed Objects of the African Pentecostal Prophets.” The Journal of the South African Theological Seminary, Special Edition, 2018; Collium Banda. “Mediating God’s Relationality? A Trinitarian Perichretic Critique of the Reliance on the Anointed Objects in African Neo-Pentecostalism.” HTS Theological Studies (2020). 57 Mookgo S. Kgatle. “Reimagining the practice of Pentecostal prophecy in Southern Africa: A critical engagement.” HTS Theological Studies 75, no. 4 (2019): 4. 58 Kudzai Biri. “The Silent Echoing Voice: Aspects of Zimbabwean Pentecostalism and Quest for Power, Healing and Miracles.” Studia, Historiae Ecclesiasticae Supplement 38 (2012): 37. 59 Birgit Meyer. “Delivered from the Powers of Darkness: Confessions of Satanic Riches in Christian Ghana.” Journal of the International African Institute 65, no. 2 (1995): 236–255. 60 Collium Banda. “Complementing Christ? A Soteriological Evaluation of the Anointed Objects of the African Pentecostal Prophets.” The Journal of the South African Theological Seminary, Special Edition (2018): 57. 61 Ibid., 59. 62 Ibid., 57. 63 Phillp Jenkins. The New Faces of Christianity: Believing the Bible in the Global South (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 90–97. 64 Mookgo S. Kgatle. “Reimagining the Practice of Pentecostal Prophecy in Southern Africa.” HTS Theological Studies 75, no. 4 (2019): 1. 65 George Anderson. “Commercialisation of Religion in Neo-Prophetic Pentecostal/Charismatic Churches in Ghana: Christian Ethical Analysis of their Strategies.” Journal of Philosophy, Culture and Religion 42, no. 1 (2019): 4. 66 Mookgo S. Kgatle. “The Unusual Practices Within Some Neo-Pentecostal Churches in South Africa: Reflections and Recommendations.” HTS Theological Studies 73, no. 3 (2017): 1. 67 Mookgo S. Kgatle. “Reimagining the Practice of Pentecostal Prophecy in Southern Africa.” HTS Theological Studies 75, no. 4 (2019): 1 68 CRL Rights Commission. “Report of the Hearings on the Commercialisation of Religion and Abuse of People’s Belief Systems.” (Braamfontein: CRL Rights Commission, 2017), 4.

Paradigmatic shift of NPCs 35

References Aguzue, Chima. The Role of a Culture of Superstition in the Proliferation of ReligioCommercial Pastors in Nigeria. Bloomington, UK: AuthorHouse, 2015. Akper, Godwin. The Person of Jesus Christ in Contemporary African Christological Discourse, Religion and Theology. University of Stellenbosch: South Africa, 2007. Anderson, George. “Commercialisation of Religion in Neo-Prophetic Pentecostal/ Charismatic Churches in Ghana: Christian Ethical Analysis of their Strategies.” Journal of Philosophy, Culture and Religion 42, no.1 (2019), 1–8. Banda, Collium. “The Sufficiency of Christ in Africa: A Christological Challenge from African Traditional Religions.” MA thesis, Pretoria: University of South Africa, 2005. Banda, Collium. “Complementing Christ? A Soteriological Evaluation of the Anointed Objects of the African Pentecostal Prophets.” The Journal of the South African Theological Seminary, se2 (2018): 55–69. Banda, Collium. “The Impersonalisation of God? A Theological Analysis of the Expression of Power of God’s Kingdom among the Zimbabwean Pentecostal Prophets.” In die Skriflig/In Luce Verbi 53, no.1 (2019):1–9. Collium, Banda. “Mediating God’s Relationality? A Trinitarian Perichretic Critique of the Reliance on the Anointed Objects in African Neo-Pentecostalism.” HTS Theological Studies 78, no. 1 (2020): 1–10. https://doi.org/10.4102/hts.v76i1.5856 Bediako, Kwame “Biblical Christologies in the Context of African Traditional religions,” Samuel, V., and C. Sugden (eds.), Sharing Jesus in the Two Thirds World: Evangelical Christologies from the Contexts of Poverty, Powerlessness, and Religious Pluralism: the Papers of the First Conference of Evangelical Mission Theologians from the Two Thirds World, Bangkok, Thailand, March 22–25, 1982 (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1983). Bediako, Kwame.“The Doctrine of Christ and the Significance of Vernacular Terminology.” International Bulletin of Missionary Research 22, no. 3. (1998): 110–111. Bediako, Kwame. “‘Whose Religion is Christianity?’ Reflections on Opportunities and Challenges for Christian Theological Scholarship as Public Discourse: The African Dimension.” Journal of African Christian Thought 9, no. 2 (2006): 43–48. Bediako, Kwame. Christianity in Africa: The Renewal of a Non-Western Religion. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1995. Biri, Kudzai. “The Silent Echoing Voice: Aspects of Zimbabwean Pentecostalism and Quest for Power, Healing and Miracles.” Studia, Historiae Ecclesiasticae Supplement 38 (2012): 37–55. Bolaji, E. Idowu. African Traditional Religion: A Definition. London, UK: SCM Press, 1973. Coleman, Simon. The Globalisation of Charismatic Christianity: Spreading the Gospel of Prosperity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. Commission for the Promotion and Protection of the Rights of Cultural, Religious and Linguistic Communities (CRL Rights Commission). “Report of the Hearings on the Commercialisation of Religion and Abuse of People’s Belief Systems.” Braamfontein, Johannesburg, 2017. De Vries, Roland. “Becoming a Guest: Christology and Ecclesiology Identity.” Theologique 25, no. 2 (2017):165–184. Ezeh, Uchenna A. Jesus Christ the Ancestor: African Contextual Christology in the Light of the Major Dogmatic Christological Definitions of the Church from the Council of Nicea (325) to Chalcedon (451). Oxford: Peter Lang Publishers, 2003.

36  Paul Themba Mngadi Ezigbo, Victor I. “Contextualizing the Christ-Event: A Christological Study of the Interpretations and Appropriations of Jesus Christ in Nigerian Christianity.” PhD diss., University of Edinburgh, 2008. Ezigbo, Victor I. Re-imagining African Christologies: Conversing with the Interpretations and Appropriations of Jesus in Contemporary African Christianity. Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2010. Glover, Neil. “Elijah versus the Narrative of Elijah: The Contest between the Prophet and the Word.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 30, no. 4 (2006): 449–462. ENCA. “HIV/Aids holy water cure put to the test” viewed 5 November 2013. https://www.enca.com/south-africa/hivaids-holy-water-cure-put-test Citizen.“Dr Nala claims to have raised the dead” viewed 03 February 2016. https:// citizen.co.za/news/south-africa/974509/dr-nala-claims-to-have-raised-the-dead/ Gunda, Masiiwa and Francis. Machungura. “The ‘Man of God’: Understanding Biblical Influence on Contemporary Mega-Church Prophets in Zimbabwe,” Ezra. Chitando, Masiiwa.Rs. Gunda et al. (eds.), Prophets, Profits and the Bible in Zimbabwe, 12 Bible Studies in Africa. (Bamberg: University of Bamberg Press, 2013), 15–27. Igba, Jacob T. “Ancestor Christology and Jesus’ Identity: A Study based on the Epistle to the Hebrews.” MA thesis, Potchefstroom: North West University, 2013. Jenkins, Philip. The New Faces of Christianity: Believing the Bible in the Global South. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006. Kalu, Ogbu U. “Introduction: The Shape and Flow of African Historiography,” Ogbu U. Kalu, Johannes W. Hofmeyr & Petrus J. Maritz (eds.), African Christianity: An African Story. (Pretoria: University of Pretoria, 2005), 1–23. Kalu, Ogbu U. “Church Presence in Africa: A Historical Analysis of the Evangelization Process,” Kofi Appiah-Kubi & Sergio Torres (eds.), African Theology en Route: Papers from the Pan-African Conference of Third World Theologians, December 17-23, 1977, Accra, Ghana; Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1979. Karkkainen, Veli-Matti. Christology: A Global Introduction, an Ecumenical, International, and Contextual Perspective. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2003. Kgatle, Mookgo S. “Reimagining the Practice of Pentecostal Prophecy in Southern Africa.” HTS Theological Studies 75, no. 4 (2019):1–7. Kgatle, Mookgo S. “The unusual practices within some Neo-Pentecostal churches in South Africa: Reflections and recommendations.” HTS Theological Studies 73, no. 3 (2017):1–8. Khanyile, Sphesihle Blessing. “The Virtualization of the Church: New Media Representations of Neo-Pentecostal Performance(s) in South Africa.” MA diss., Johannesburg: University of the Witwatersrand, 2016. Kagwima, Hezron M., Osamba, Josiah O. and Murage, Josia K. “Christologies among the Christians of Ndia in Kirinyaga West Sub-County of Kenya.” Analisa: Journal of Social Science and Religion 3 (2018):59–78. Magezi, Vumani. and Christopher. Magezi. “An Adamic Incarnational Christological Framework as a Theological Approach for African Contextual Ministry.” Missionalia 44, no. 2 (2016):152–174. Magezi, Vhumani and Banda Collium. “Competing with Christ? A Critical Christological Analysis of the Reliance on Pentecostal Prophets in Zimbabwe.” In die Skriflig/In Luce Verbi 51, no. 2 (2017):1–10. DOI:10.4102/ids.v51i2.2273.

Paradigmatic shift of NPCs 37 Manus, Chris U. Christ the African King: New Testament Christology. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang Publishers, 1993. Mbefo, Luke N. Christian Theology and African Heritage. Onitsha: Spiritan Publishers, 1996. Mbiti, John S. New Testament Eschatology in an African background: A Study of the Encounter between New Testament Theology and African Traditional Concepts. London: Oxford University Press, 1971. Mbiti, John S. “Some African Concepts of Christology,” C. F. Vicedom (ed.), Christ and the Younger Churches: Theological Contributions from Asia, Africa and Latin America. (London: SPCK, 1972), 51–62. Meyer, Birgit. “Delivered from the Powers of Darkness: Confessions of Satanic Riches in Christian Ghana,” Journal of the International African Institute 65, no. 2 (1995): 236–255. Mokhoathi, Joel. “Jesus as an Ancestor: A Critique of Ancestor Christology in Bantu Communities.” Pharos Journal of Theology 99 (2018), 1–16. Mugambi, Jesse N.K. and Magesa Laurenti. “Introduction” in Jesus in African Christianity: Experimentation and Diversity in African Christology. Nairobi: Action Publishers, 1998. Mulenga, Rodgers. “The Arain Controversy vis-a-vis the Council of Nicea and Inculturation of the faith.” MA thesis, Vienna: Universitat Wien, 2017. Nyamiti, Charles. “African Christologies Today,” Robert J. Schreiter (ed.), Faces of Jesus in Africa. (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1991), 3–23. Nyamiti, Charles. “Contemporary African Christologies: Assessment and Practical Suggestion,” Rosino Gibellini (ed.), Paths of African Theology. (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1994), 62–77. Nyende, Peter T.N. “Jesus the Greatest Ancestor: A Typology-Based Theological Interpretation of Hebrews’ Christology in Africa.” PhD diss., University of Edinburgh, 2005. Nwanganga, Princewell A. “Church Commercialization in Nigeria: Implications for Public Relations Practice.” Journal of Philosophy, Culture and Religion 28 (2019): 1–11. Pobee, John S. “Toward Christology in an African Theology,” J.S. Pobee (ed.), Toward an African Theology. (Nashville, TN: Abingdon, 1979), 81–98. Pobee, John S. “In Search of Christology in Africa: Some Considerations for Today,” J. S. Pobee (ed.), Exploring Afro-Christology. (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang Publishers, 1992), 9–20. Pobee, John S. West Africa: Christ would be an African Too. Geneva: World Council of Churches, 1996. Potgieter, Raymond. and Christopher. Magezi. “A Critical Assessment of Bediako’s Incarnational Christological Model as a Response to the Foreignness of Christ in African Christianity.” On-line version, In die Skriflig/In Luce Verbi 50, no.1 (2016): 1–9. Prophetic Channel.TV, 2015, “The dead comes back to life: Prophet Shepherd Bushiri,” viewed 16 November 2015, from www.propheticchannel.tv. Shorter, Aylward. Evangelisation and Culture. New York: Geoffrey Chapman, 1994. Stinton, Diane B. Jesus of Africa: Voices of Contemporary African Christology. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2004. Taylor, John V. The Primal Vision: Christian Presence amid African Religion. London: SCM Press, 1963.

38  Paul Themba Mngadi Udoh, Enyi. Ben. Guest Christolog: An Interpretative View of the Christological Problem in Africa. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang Publishers, 1988. Ukpong, Justin S. “Christology and Inculturation: A New Testament Perspective,” Rosino Gibellini (ed.), Paths of African Theology. (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1994), 40–61. Wanamaker, Charles A. “Jesus the Ancestor: Reading the Story of Jesus from an African Perspective.” Scriptura 63 (1997): 281–298.

2

“Who has bewitched you?” The Christological shift from faith to works in Galatians 3:1–9 applied to South African Pentecostalism Elise B. Kisungu

2.1 Introduction Since antiquity human beings have shown a propensity to abandon the convictions that they have embraced earlier. From the fall of Adam and Eve to Israel’s repeated periods of backsliding to the Christological heresies of the Galatian churches, examples of spiritual relapses by God’s people are legion. This always happened due to various factors within a specific context. In the case of Galatia, Jews in the different assemblies rose up and incited the believers to observe certain Judaic elements, for example circumcision, as complementary to the work of Christ. This Christological shift occurred after the churches in Galatia were at first rooted in a Christcentred Christology as a result of Pauls’ proclamation of the pure gospel. Thereafter, justification and its implications, including salvation, the gifts of the Holy Spirit, the work of miracles, and so forth, were no longer seen as through faith in the sufficient work of Christ alone, as Paul so uncompromisingly taught. Paul then responded to this shocking decline with his Epistle to the Galatians (Gal.). This chapter explores the parallels that can be drawn between the state of the Galatian churches and Paul’s outcry over it (specifically aimed at the Galatian context), and the deplorable Christological deviations currently evident in South African Pentecostalism. In fact, in the early wave of Pentecostalism, that is, Classical Pentecostalism, Christology was grounded in the firm conviction that faith in the finished work of Christ alone was at the heart of the gospel. Faith, and faith alone, was thus the key to justification and all the resulting spiritual and material benefits as presented in Paul’s teaching. In contrast, with the subsequent different Pentecostal waves, and the New Pentecostal Churches (NPCs) in particular, Christology has shown a troubling development in the opposite direction. The extent of this deviation is in fact such that earlier Pentecostal waves as well as other Christian traditions have no qualms in calling these NPCs heretical. In our view, this calls for deeper research aimed at apprehending the exact factors underlying the deviation and the challenges it poses to Christian mission. This is the task this chapter aims to undertake. DOI: 10.4324/9781003212973-2

40  Elise B. Kisungu Whilst in the Galatian context, the Christological shift was evident in the churches’ submission to Judaic elements, in the case of the NPCs the Christological shift can clearly be seen in the inappropriate role some church leaders and their “sacred objects” play in these churches. Our sense is that this inappropriate role needs to be challenged in that it tries to complement and even replace the work and person of Jesus Christ, the only true mediator for the justification of all men before God.

2.2  Methodology and theoretical framework This chapter uses Social-Scientific Criticism (SSC). With regard to SSC, Van Eck explains, Social-scientific criticism, as an exegetical method, analyses texts in terms of their strategy (the pragmatic and rhetorical dimensions of the text) and situation (the social circumstances in which the text was produced).1 Horrell argues that SSC enables the researcher “to avoid the perils of anachronism and ethnocentrism and to appreciate the cultural dynamics of the Ancient Mediterranean”. 2 Elliot’s insights regarding SCC add even more reasons for the choice and the relevance of the method: Each biblical writing is not merely a literary composition but also a social and rhetorical product with literary, theological or social aims. Each is designed to serve as a means of social communication and social interaction and to prompt social action on the part of its targeted audience. Exegesis requires a social-scientific dimension, inasmuch as the biblical texts are both records and products of such sociality.3 Since the pericope under study, Galatians 3:1–9, reveals profound cultural elements of ancient times that need to be analysed prior to properly grasping their implications, as a researcher I believe that SCC is the appropriate method for this chapter.

2.3  Literature review pertaining to Galatians 3:1–9 In the first part of Galatians, Chapters 1 and 2, Paul defines the nature of the problem in the Galatian churches (Gal. 1:6) and reinforces the gravity of abandoning the gospel (Gal. 1:8–9). Then, in the remaining part of the first two chapters, he defends the divine character of both his gospel and apostolate.4 Our pericope, Galatians 3:1–9, falls within Galatians 3:1 to 4:11, which is, according to Williams, the theological centre of the letter.5 Williams further argues that as a rhetoric, Galatians 3:1 to 4:11“constitutes Paul’s principal proof, an attempt to persuade by emphasizing ideas and appealing to

“Who has bewitched you?” 41 the experience and reason of his hearers”.6 Longenecker considers that at various places, particularly in Chapters 3 and 4, “Paul engages in scriptural interpretation, seeking to show that scripture itself supports his gospel”.7 After Galatians 1:6, Galatians 3:1–5 is the next place where Paul addresses the issue directly and in a succinct way as pointed out by Kwon.8 The preceding views give us a general idea of the section in which our pericope is situated. The sensitivity around certain terms in the pericope requires an extensive analysis in order to avoid a wrong understanding that may mislead us, hence the next few paragraphs. Tolmie makes an important observation about the Greek word “ajnovhtoi” in Galatians 3:1. He argues that this Greek word which is usually translated as “foolish”, “stupid” or “one without understanding”, “has a rather negative connotation, namely, pertaining to unwillingness to use one’s mental faculties in order to understand”.9 Elliot draws the,attention to the cultural dimension and understanding of the Greek verb “εβάσκανεν” (ebaskanen) in Galatians 3:1 with its literal meaning alluding to “being injured with an evil eye” and commonly translated as “bewitched”. This word according to Elliot entails the notion that someone’s eye could be so powerful that a mere glance could injure, destroy or kill any person, animal or ,thing struck by it.10 Elliot states that the belief attached to the term “εβάσκανεν” (the dread of the evil eye) was spread throughout Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Greek and Roman cultures. As for the mention of the evil eye in Galatians 3:1, Elliot writes: In this struggle for the “hearts and minds” of the Galatians, Paul’s rivals challenged him in the court of public opinion and sought to discredit him as a dangerous evil-eyed stranger intent on grievously harming his Galatian hosts. Paul defended himself against this charge and turned the tables on his accusers, claiming that it was they and not he who were exploiting and injuring the vulnerable Galatians with their Evil-eyed malice.11 It is pivotal to note that Elliot , does not fully agree with the modern English Bible translations of “εβάσκανεν” as “bewitched”, “pull or cast a spell on or over”. He contends that such renditions do not communicate to modern readers the factor of the evil eye entailed in “baskainô” and its paronyms. “As a consequence”, says Elliot, “modern Bible readers fail to learn that Paul is referring here to the dreaded evil eye”.12 Elliot’s perspective is particularly important for the analysis of the verse. Nevertheless, for research purposes I have chosen the English Standard Version (ESV) translation, “who has bewitched you?” (Gal. 3:1). Modern translations have often interpreted Paul’s intention this way, captured by Martin Luther’s comments on this verse: The spiritual witchery of the devil creates in the heart a wrong idea of Christ. Those who share the opinion that a person is justified by the

42  Elise B. Kisungu works of the Law, are simply bewitched. Their belief goes against faith and Christ.13 Paul’s intention was to draw the Galatians’ attention to the fact that deserting the truth was a consequence of a gradual influence from the forces of evil. This connection between a distortion (or refusal even) of the truth and the influence of evil spirits can also be perceived in other letters from Paul, for example: And even if our gospel is veiled, it is veiled to those who are perishing. In their case the god of this world has blinded the minds of the unbelievers, to keep them from seeing the light of the gospel of the glory of Christ, who is the image of God.14 The mystical causality of events as displayed in Paul’s writings is also ingrained in an African worldview. Hence, a rendition such as “bewitched” cannot be read in a simplistic way in Africa. Rather, it will give African readers the idea of evil spirits being at the root of the problem, just the way Paul had intended it to be understood by the Galatians. This brings us to the next verses. From verses 2 through to 5, Paul continues with questions as a way to remind the Galatians that the experiences which they had, namely the supply of Spirit and the working of miracles, were grounded in their faith in the work of Christ alone; not on their compliance with the law. Accordingly, Tolmie makes an important observation regarding Paul’s appeal to the Galatians’ experiences. He writes: According to Paul these events were such that they could be used effectively against the views propagated by his opponents. If a speaker can appeal to events experienced by the audience, and these experiences appear to agree with the view he/she expresses, this constitutes a very powerful and effective argument, as people are not prone to doubt their own experience.15 In emphasising the Galatians’ experiences, Paul, in verses 6 through to 9, uses Abraham in reference to Genesis 15:6, as a paradigm of justification by faith alone. Watson suggests that the theological basis on which the Judaizers demanded the Galatians to be circumcised may be the fact that: …the promises of salvation were originally given to Abraham and his seed, and that seed of Abraham are those who are circumcised and who have submitted to the requirements of the law.16 The Judaizers’ theological argument was compelling to some degree. For this reason, Paul explains to the Galatians that Abraham to whom the

“Who has bewitched you?” 43 Judaizers referred, “was accepted by God as an uncircumcised believer, as somebody without the law”.17 It is upon this congruent argument that Lategan offers a valuable glimpse on Paul’s logic in using Abraham as a paradigm of justification by faith: He believed in God and it was credited to him as righteousness” (Gal 3:6). Therefore, those who believe are children of Abraham (3:7) and those that have faith are blessed along with Abraham, the man of faith (3:9).18 Furthermore, it may be deduced that Paul’s reference to Abraham implies that the Galatians had nothing further to append to their faith in order to belong to the family of God. As explicitly stated in Galatians 3:28, the Galatians have already inherited the right to partake in God’s promised blessings through Christ. This premise leads us to the Christological shift that took place in Galatia.

2.4  The Christological shift in Galatians 3:1–9 It may be assumed that Paul’s clear and vivid proclamation of the gospel and the Galatians’ experiences gave him a profound confidence that the Galatians would resist heretical teachings. Tolmie depicts Paul’s conviction in this way: “The notion which Paul wishes to convey is that someone who has experienced his vivid preaching on the crucified Christ should not be inclined to accept a false gospel”.19 Unfortunately, Paul’s confidence in the Galatians proved to be wrong. The Galatians found themselves in a situation defined by Lemmer as … being persuaded to not only doubt the veracity of the message first heard, but to actually accept identity markers of Judaism, the Torah and circumcision, and thereby denying the foundation of their Christian faith.20 In reference to Lemmer’s contention, one can ask, what precisely led the Galatians to such a Christological shift and aggravated their vulnerability in the light of another gospel? Lemmer raises a sociological aspect which may explain the lethargy of the Galatians, stating: They [the Galatians] may be under siege to yield to social pressure, since they do not possess the correct identity markers in order to belong to the people of God, the Torah with other concomitant regulations and circumcision (hence their relatedness to Abraham is questionable - he was the first to be circumcised; this would inevitably involve their relationship with the God of Abraham). 21 The social strain as described by Lemmer may lead one to understand and exonerate the Galatians’ acceptance of the law-based teachings.

44  Elise B. Kisungu Despite this argument, however, Paul’s rebuke of the Galatians as foolish (Gal. 3:1) clearly shows that he held the Galatians responsible in the situation at some degree. Tolmie advises that one should not attempt to soften this rebuke (“O foolish Galatians…”) as the use of the word “ajnovhtoi” (foolish) makes reference “to unwillingness to use one’s mental faculties in order to understand”. 22 The following section is a brief discussion of Paul’s response to the Christological shift. As part of my research I choose to extend the analysis beyond the limit of the pericope (Gal. 3:1–9) by also examining other parts of the book of Galatians in order to gain greater insight into Paul’s arguments.

2.5  Paul’s response to the Galatians’ Christological shift The purpose of Paul’s letter to the Galatians, similarly to some of his letters, was to respond to specific predicaments that he could not discuss in person. Longenecker notes that in writing to the Galatians, Paul was engaged in a struggle to preserve three essential elements which were conspicuously affected in the crisis: the gospel he preached, his apostolic credentials, and the spiritual health of the Galatians.23 Paul’s response to recover the gospel of Jesus Christ can be delineated in the following two aspects: 2.5.1  Only one gospel Astonished by the Galatians’ acceptance of another gospel, Paul begins his letter with a rebuke, drawing a line between the gospel of Jesus Christ and “another gospel” which he firmly denounces as no gospel at all (Gal. 1:6–7). In fact, Galatians 1:6–7 depicts Paul’s categorical and unshakeable conviction regarding the sufficiency and uniqueness of the gospel of Christ which precludes any other kind of “gospel”. Furthermore, Paul clearly affirms in Galatians 3:10–14 that people are justified before God by faith and not by law. It is critically important at this stage to understand that Paul approaches the Christological challenge as a very serious matter, because accepting the other gospel amounts to deserting God who called the Galatians into the grace of Christ (Gal. 1:6). 2.5.2  Renouncing the Judaizers Despite the fact that the Judaizers claimed to belong to the mother church of Jerusalem, Paul didn’t hesitate to denounce them and their teachings. Paul continues by even cursing them. With respect to Paul’s cursing, Watson alleges that, …the curse is the strongest possible form of denunciation. It tacitly assumes that God shares the speaker’s utter abhorrence for the person

“Who has bewitched you?” 45 cursed and seeks to evoke in its hearers that they are confronted with a horrifying, super-human evil, which divine power will soon annihilate. 24 Watson’s comments on Paul’s approach to the crisis reflect the gravity of the doctrinal deviation not just in the church, but also in the eyes of God. Paul’s seriousness about the Christological shift shows conclusively that Paul wanted to instil in the Galatians the same no-compromise attitude he had regarding doctrinal deviation.

2.6 The Christological shift in South African Pentecostalism Though space doesn’t allow for a more lengthy discussion of the Christological shift that took place in Galatia, it is clear that the crisis shook the foundations of the Christian faith. Deplorably, some aspects of the Galatian crisis and its consequences have been witnessed within the context of South African Pentecostalism. We will subsequently discuss certain facets and implications of the Christological shift within the framework of South African Pentecostalism. South Africa is one of the African countries where American Pentecostal missionaries first arrived.25 Classical Pentecostalism was the first wave in Pentecostalism, globally and locally in South Africa. This means that since its early stages to the present day, South African Classical Pentecostalism had closely followed the theology championed by American Classical Pentecostalism. This is due to the fact that the American Pentecostal missionaries (John G. Lake and Thomas Hezmalhac) who came to South Africa had all the hallmarks of the Azusa Street Revival.26 The Azusa Street theology included the message of salvation through faith in Jesus Christ alone, divine healing and the baptism in the Holy Spirit evidenced by speaking in tongues.27 This did not prevent, however, South African Pentecostalism from developing its own features distinct from global and African Pentecostalism. Despite the emergence of other forms of Pentecostalism, South African Classical Pentecostalism still has a large following. As for the Christological terms in Classical Pentecostalism, Mashau says: One of the basic tenets with regard to the teachings of the Pentecostals is salvation that is earned by faith in Christ. Belief in Christ is essential for one to receive salvation and inherit eternal life. The emphasis is on being born again or regenerated by the power of the Holy Spirit. The call to repent, believe and accept Christ as personal Saviour and Lord is critical in their preaching. 28 Anderson confirms that, “From the beginning, classical Pentecostals declared their faith in strong Christological terms. Their full gospel was:

46  Elise B. Kisungu ‘Jesus Christ the Saviour, Sanctifier, Healer, Baptizer and Soon Coming King’”. 29 These statements by Mashau and Anderson suggest that the Person and the work of Jesus Christ are the grounds on which any divine blessing is given and received. Even the Pentecostal theology of the Spirit is solely linked to the Person of Christ and his work. Anderson describes the link between Christology and Pneumatology in Pentecostalism in the following way: Like other evangelicals, Pentecostals are primarily Christocentric. They declare that Christ is the one who by his Spirit transforms the lives of Christians in a “born again” experience and makes them useful in this world in the service of God and humanity. We can only understand Pentecostalism’s theology of the Spirit in this light.30 The strong Christological terms in which Classical Pentecostals declare their faith, is also found within the third wave of Pentecostalism, the Charismatics. It is common knowledge that the Charismatics place emphasis on the gifts of the Holy Spirit and believe that these gifts can be practiced by all believers.31 Nevertheless, Charismatics’ propensity for the prosperity gospel with all its malfeasance has brought reproach on the Charismatics. However, despite their emphasis on the gifts of the Holy Spirit and the prosperity gospel, the Charismatics share the same Christological convictions as the Classical Pentecostals. The Christological shift with its serious theological implications such as competing with Christ, and even replacing Christ, have started to appear with the emergence of the two other waves of Pentecostalism: The African Independent Churches (AICs) and the New Pentecostal Churches (NPCs). It is appropriate to say a few words on the Christological shift in the AICs before dedicating the rest of the chapter to various aspects of the NPCs, our main focus. It should be pointed out that the Christological shift in the AICs can only be better understood if we look at the main factor at their formation, which is the domestication of Christianity. This factor cannot be separated from their fight against the racism and imperialism that governed the mainline churches and some Classical Pentecostal churches. However, the enthusiasm to become relevant to Africans had led many of the AICs to adopt practices that tended to pervert the gospel of justification by faith alone. Banda states that from the outset the AICs thrived on the spiritual charisma of the founding prophets and the use of a large number of holy objects such as colourful church garments embossed with symbols like the cross and stars, strings worn on various parts of the body, weaponry in the form of rods and shepherd crooks, and holy water. 32

“Who has bewitched you?” 47

2.7 The Christological shift in the New Pentecostal Churches The New Pentecostal Churches emerged in South Africa in recent years and have remarkable differences with the preceding Pentecostal waves. These differences vary from their emphasis on the prophetic to their preference of planting churches in urban milieus. The religious freedom allowed by the post-apartheid government has created the climate that allowed thousands of churches affiliated to the preceding Pentecostal waves to spring up; likewise, the NPCs later on. This context of religious freedom, that is, everything is allowed, may even be the reason for some of these church leaders feeling free to shamelessly advocate strange teachings and perform highly questionable, even criminal acts. As researcher I am of the opinion that the NPC prophets’ brazen attitude, and them seemingly acting without any conscience, have enabled the dangerous Christological heresies to take root and become established in their churches. Compared to the preceding waves, the NPCs as the fourth wave of Pentecostalism in South Africa have revealed profound abnormalities in their Christological approach. The Christological shift in the NPCs covers a much wider field in South Africa, but since I use the Christological shift in the Galatian churches as reference, I will limit my analysis to the similarities between the Galatian churches and the NPCs in this regard. It is worth remembering that the Christological problem in the Galatian churches was created by the Judaizers requiring the Gentile Christians to complement the work of Christ with circumcision and observance of the law for their justification. In order to establish their credibility and that of their teachings, the Judaizers discredited Paul and portrayed themselves as being under the leadership of the apostles in Jerusalem. The next section will be focused on the complementary role played by the NPCs leaders and their holy objects. 2.7.1  Complementing the work of Christ by using sacred objects It is well known that the leaders of the NPCs in Africa in general and South Africa in particular put much emphasis on the use of “sacred objects”. These objects, including oil, water, bracelets, T-shirts, stickers and others, are usually considered prophetic and are often quite expensive. It is believed that these objects priorly blessed by the prophet provide spiritual protection against evil spirits and carry all kinds of blessings.33 In certain instances, objects such as T-shirts and even cars bear the portrayals of the church leaders. This is an important aspect, as the congregants are proud to exhibit their affiliation to their church and their leader. One may ask, how do these objects complement the work of Christ? This is what we will attempt to answer next.

48  Elise B. Kisungu The majority of the NPC congregants are black Africans. This means they are accustomed to the African worldview where objects have a profound significance. Banda draws an interesting connection between salvation in an African worldview and the use of objects. He starts off by explaining how Africans conceive of salvation. Banda writes: “In the ATR [African Traditional Religions], religion is functional. Salvation is a practical and an existential concept”.34 Banda goes on to explain the significance of objects within the ATR in these terms: “In various African languages the words used for salvation express being safe from danger and real threats of life”.35 He concludes as follows: African faithfulness and commitment to Christian salvation is determined by how they experience its functional role in their quest for solutions to their existential problems. The anointed objects of African Pentecostal prophets fit well into this scheme of thought.36 Following the connection between the meaning of salvation within the African worldview and the use of objects as depicted by Banda in the statement above, one could say that the consideration and the role given to the prophetic objects in the South African NPCs basically have the same value as circumcision in the Galatian churches. The NPC congregants appear to be more closely connected to these objects than they are by faith related to the person and the work of Jesus Christ. For instance, in introducing a teaching session on anointing oil, Pastor Alph Lukau, the leader of Alleluia Ministries which is one of the popular NPCs in South Africa, claimed that Alleluia Ministries was in alignment with everything the Bible says. This claim was meant to support and legitimise the use of the anointing oil. Then, after his teaching, the pastor made some declarations over his large audience applauding to show their approval of his words: Now as you go home with the anointing oil and you anoint your house in that neighborhood every flying devil, crippling devil, walking devil, running devil will know that house number 2 is not for everybody. That house is sanctified unto God. As you go to work you may have a desk in an open place where many other desks are there. As you go and sanctify your desk, you sanctify your computer and your chair, I promise you every witch in that company will know that this is a sanctified chair. It is booked unto God… the yoke of poverty, stagnation, misery shall be destroyed because of the anointing oil in Jesus’ name.37 Another example illustrating the significance of sacred objects in the NPCs is that of the anointing oil used in the Enlightened Christian Gathering (ECG), another popular NPC based in Pretoria, led by Prophet Shepherd Bushiri. This anointing oil is called “Angel Gabriel Anointing Oil”.

“Who has bewitched you?” 49 Prophet Bushiri has posted the following statement on his Facebook page with respect to the anointed materials used in his church: I recently saw a vision of anointing oil and anointing water and in the process, I requested God to give reason as to why these particular materials have been working mightily amidst his children. Thereafter, God showed me an explosion that resembled that of a nuclear bomb coming out from these products and this particular explosion destroyed everything it came into contact with. Evidently, I was then made aware of this truth, every time you administer either the anointing oil or the anointing water it demolishes, breaks, uproots and solves every attack of the enemy over your life.38 Such declarations and presentations of the anointed items as channels of protection and blessings are widely approved by the congregants as reflected in their applause and comments on social media. An additional example to support what has been said about holy objects is that while Bushiri and his wife appeared in court following charges of fraud and money laundering, congregants were filmed trying to get rid of the Directorate for Priority Crime Investigation (Hawks) with holy water.39 It is evident that the profound trust in the anointed prophetic objects and practices, as in the case of the circumcision requirement in the Galatian churches, conceals the complementary role of these objects and practices to the work of Christ. Such beliefs have very serious implications such as causing people to deny the actual foundation of their Christian faith as had happened in Galatia. As a researcher, I am of the opinion that the high usage of these objects only serves to further entrench the “foreignness” of Christ, something which remains a challenge in African Christianity.40 Magezi argues that the foreignness of Christ in African Christianity can be ascribed to certain factors, including the African ancestral worldview and the newness of Christ to African religiosity. Nevertheless, Christ’s “foreignness” was also intensified by the western way in which missionaries presented Jesus to Africans.41 2.7.2  The NPC leaders complementing Jesus There is another important aspect that needs to be highlighted. The anointed materials used by church members are those coming from specific figures such as Pastor Lukau, Prophet Bushiri, Pastor Mboro and other wellknown figures in the NPCs. This is because in these churches, it is believed that the leader has a particular intimacy with God that the congregants do not have. This implies that God pays special attention to the leaders’ prayers. That is also the reason why the sacred objects recommended by these leaders, sold or sometimes offered free of charge, are believed to bring spiritual security and material prosperity. The point is that these leaders are viewed as closer to God than ordinary people.

50  Elise B. Kisungu To illustrate this, during one of his church services, Pastor Lukau revealed some details of the life of a prostitute lady and of the man she slept with the night before coming to church. He told that lady that the man belonged to an occult circle. He also named the occult circle and provided details of its leader. Furthermore, he told the lady that the money given to her by that previous night’s client was beyond the average amount she generally receives from her night-time clients, the reason being that it was a way to claim her life in the spiritual realm. To publicly reveal someone’s personal information like this, is called “accurate prophecy” in Pastor Lukau’s church (other churches often call it “forensic prophecy”). Before praying for the deliverance of the prostitute lady, Pastor Lukau said: “All the world will know that in this generation there is a prophet of God anointed for difficult matters”.42 Another emerging NPC prophet named Nana Poku made the following claims about himself and the oil he administered: I know how I can turn your destiny. I am a spiritual man… I can call fire the fire will come. When you come on one on one, I will tell you your house number, your children’s names. And when I finish, I give you solution, your life is ok. This oil is from Israel. I gave the oil to a man who lost his three cars. I gave him the address where the cars were, they found them.43 Such claims confirm what Magezi and Banda say: “The Pentecostal prophets create a distance between believers and Christ, and then set themselves as the only effective priests that can bridge the gap between Christ and humanity”.44 In addition to these claims, the naming and titles of these leaders and the manner their services are presented on social media become tools to show that they are indeed very special people, distinct from their congregants and also from other servants of God, for example: “Major 1”, “the facilitator of your miracle”, “Number 1”, “powerful man of God”, “never seen before”, “must be watched”. These are only a few of the thousands of claims made by the NPC leaders and their congregants that I think bring confusion to the minds of congregants and non-believers alike. Consciously or unconsciously, the high esteem in which these leaders are held, the terms used to present their services, and their naming and titles, turn these church leaders into some kind of super human beings able to complement, compete with and even replace Christ and his work. The influence of these leaders extends beyond South Africa and has spread even to other Christian denominations. Their preaching is often rooted in experience and not based on proper biblical hermeneutics. Their services and their sacred objects are given more credit than that of other ecclesiastic leaders. Sadly, the ensemble of these services and objects are

“Who has bewitched you?” 51 deeply trusted to be the true gospel by an ignorant audience, overwhelmed by political and economic challenges and hardship. It should be kept in mind, however, that in the midst of all these Christological errors, the NPCs like many other contemporary Pentecostal churches, address the real needs of communities to a degree. And, as expressed by Kgatle, they have the “potential for encouraging young people to become entrepreneurs and alleviate poverty not only for their families, but also for the communities where they live as well”.45 Notwithstanding these strengths ascribed to them, one can conclude that the NPCs have overlooked and sidelined the uniqueness of Jesus Christ and his work as the essential elements of Christianity as proclaimed in the Bible. In this regard Magezi and Banda say, Despite many demonstrable merits in functioning as a coping mechanism, prophetic Pentecostalism promotes a serious overreliance on the prophets that turns them into mediators of God’s blessings to their followers.46 Magezi and Banda’s observation has been made in the context of Zimbabwe.47 The same can also be said of the South African NPCs leaders. The Christological shift in the NPCs has thus become a major challenge to the proclamation of the gospel of Jesus Christ in South Africa, similarly to the teachings of the Judaizers in the Galatian churches. What follows are some recommendations that may help to address these challenges.

2.8 Recommendations As said earlier, the inadequate translation of Christianity in African terms may well be at the root of the Christological deviations and the gullibility of the NPC followers. Thus, I think that addressing challenges such as the foreignness of Jesus Christ and the lack of theological education, would help to get to the root of the problem. Furthermore, the false teachings and doctrines need to be radically and publicly denounced. 2.8.1  Addressing the foreignness of Jesus Christ It is well known that mystical causality is central to the African worldview. Because of such convictions, Africans live in permanent fear. In their quest of power to overcome the omnipresent evils that threaten their lives, “African Christians long for spiritual security as provided by Christ”.48 However, Magezi points out that the traditional African ancestral worldview requires a blood-related ancestor to ensure protection for their live descendants. This notion “makes it impossible for Christ’s securing power to penetrate within African spiritual challenges”.49 It is against this

52  Elise B. Kisungu backdrop that Jesus often seems to be a foreigner to Africans and therefore not capable of helping them overcome their perpetual insecurity. In an attempt to address this problem, African theologians have proposed various Christological models to help Africans see the relevance of Jesus within their African context. Among the different models proposed are Jesus as the Ancestor, Jesus as the Healer, and Jesus as the King. Discussing the relevance and the drawbacks of these various models is beyond the scope of this chapter. Scholars such as Magezi50 and Banda51 have written extensively about this. Banda, for example, highly esteems the contribution of different scholars and their reference to the Scriptures. Nevertheless, Banda contends that, “the major problem in these paradigms is that they are determined and controlled by the African worldview much to the risk of producing a provincial Jesus Christ”.52 In the same way, Beyers who specifically looked at the model portraying Jesus as an Ancestor, pointed to the danger of such considerations: To accept Jesus as Ancestor would include accepting a specific worldview. Only in a community with a dynamistic and animistic worldview is it possible to imagine the existence of ancestors and their influence on a community’s life a reality. Even if Jesus is accepted as Ancestor, it may in some cases lead to henotheism. There might be many powerful ancestors to worship and ask for advice, but only one is powerful enough to provide in that which is asked of him.53 Banda proposes three Christological factors that will “…challenge African Christians to transform their African traditionally influenced worldview to a Christ-influenced and empowered one”. 54 Below I will provide a brief overview of Banda’s three factors as I believe these to be pivotal in addressing the foreignness of Christ in African Christianity in general, and in the NPCs in particular. 2.8.1.1  The victory of Jesus Christ Scriptures depict the devil as the one who has captured the world and has ever since wielded a brutal authority over it. However, the life of Jesus Christ, his own words, the preaching of the apostles, the miracles reported, and the resurrection of Christ show Jesus’ power over the devil and points to the human race’s freedom from the devil’s authority. Following the victorious picture of Jesus in the New Testament, Banda writes: It is indeed true that life on earth is under the threat of satanic power, just as the African worldview affirms; yet this power has already suffered decisive loss at the hands of Christ. Rather than see the world under the threat of Satan, the African Christian must see it as under the victorious Jesus Christ.55

“Who has bewitched you?” 53 2.8.1.2  The reign and the presence of Christ Besides presenting Christ as the One who defeats the devil, the New Testament presents Him as the bringer of God’s kingdom and reign as the sovereign King of that kingdom. In Paul’s letter to the Colossians (1:13), he explains that as Christians, we belong to the kingdom of Christ that had triumphed over the devil and his empire and rules. From the viewpoint of that truth, Banda says: Instead of seeing the world through the lens of vulnerability under satanic forces, the African Christian must see it through the lens of the sovereign Christ’s reigning over it. Indeed, Satan still exercises gradual power over the world but Christ’s power surpasses it. Even though Satan appears to be having an upper hand, he reigns as a defeated king.56 Banda further emphasises Matthew 28:20, appealing to African Christians to consider Christ’s active presence in their daily lives and not just for the few hours spent at church. He argues that Christ’s presence means power. As declared by Paul in Ephesians 1:19, the same power that raised Jesus from the death is at work in the lives of believers. 2.8.1.3  The limitations imposed by the fall On this point, Banda adds insightful remarks in line with what has been said in the two previous points. The salvation granted by Christ is perfect and complete. Nevertheless, in view of the fact that we inhabit a fallen world even after we have received a complete and perfect salvation from Christ, life on this side of the eschaton will never reach a utopian state absolutely devoid of all disruptive and destructive forces.57 Banda made this statement to disagree with the utopian realm envisaged in the African Traditional worldview. In the same vein, Anderson contends: There is a tendency to disparage the role of suffering in the lives of those Christian believers whose needs remain unanswered. There are not always instant solutions to life’s problems, and spirituality should not be measured in terms of success. People are not only convinced by the triumphs of Christianity but also by its perseverance in trials.58 The points raised by Banda and Anderson above are of great significance, as Jesus himself exhorted his disciples to confront the coming trials with courage (John 16:33). It is worth noting that the tendency to guarantee solutions to every problem and success in life is gaining ground not only in the NPCs, but also in some other African churches. Such an unbiblical perspective results in a false perception of Christianity and leads church members to see an evil hand behind every hardship. Against this background, church members devote themselves to church hopping in the quest

54  Elise B. Kisungu for deliverance, rather than relying on the permanent working power of Christ which is able to strengthen them in the midst of trials and deliver them from every attack of the devil, as promised in the Scriptures. In order to prevent the one-sided view of suffering, I propose that the leaders of NPCs and of other African churches strive to implement the biblical viewpoint of trials and the divine providence in these trials. This will help church members to abandon all forms of personality cult and the highly-esteemed sacred objects that supposedly complement the sufficiency of Jesus Christ and his finished work. 2.8.2  Considering the Scriptures above experience One of the weaknesses deplored in the NPCs is the lack of appropriate interpretation of certain biblical texts and the importance attached to experience above the Scriptures. As a researcher, I maintain that elevating experience at the expense of the Scriptures is one of the factors at the root of the Christological shift discussed in this chapter. As a consequence, the congregants rely more on what the prophet says on the pulpit and neglect a precious time of personal Bible study. Deke argues that, regrettably, “In the prophetic church, any reference to the word of God is not made but to the prophet. They believe that the Bible must be supplemented with new revelations that they make”.59 Space prevents us from detailing the troubling misuse of the Scriptures in the NPCs. Kgatle’s writings shed light on the matter. He points out the lack of exegesis of Scriptures which leads to eisegesis (imposing own thoughts on the text instead of learning from the Bible), reading and preaching Scriptures out of context and the manipulation of Scriptures.60 The article by Kgatle and Mofokeng on a decolonial hermeneutic of experience in African Pentecostal Christianity offers valuable additional insight into this topic.61 It should be said, before closing this subsection, that in the light of the often devastating consequences of the misinterpretation and misapplication of the Scriptures, there is an urgent need to pray that God will open the eyes of these NPC leaders to see the damage they have done and to return to a proper reading and application of the Scriptures. One of the best ways for the NPC leaders to become well versed in the Scriptures is to consider prioritising the theological training that they have disregarded for far too long. This may not be an easy step. Theological training institutions can play a key role in building bridges with the leadership of these churches to support them in this regard. 2.8.3  Denouncing heretical leaders and practices In order to restore the truth, Paul strongly denounced the Judaizers and their teachings. Christological heresies in the NPCs as explained in this chapter are gaining popularity, especially in the urban parts of South Africa.

“Who has bewitched you?” 55 Regrettably, it appears that today there are not too many voices like that of Paul in New-Testament times to condemn these heresies. The efforts of scholars to carry out researches and propose constructive recommendations regarding the NPCs are appreciable. However, the average church member is rarely in any contact with any academic research. The onus rests on the academic institutions that are conducting research on the NPCs and the other Pentecostal waves to organise gatherings in order to raise awareness of their findings and advocate a return to a biblical Christology. Other churches too have a responsibility to stand by the NPCs when necessary, and denounce whatever is not sound doctrine. As this would be aiming at preserving the true gospel (Gal. 2:5), correction should never be done in a competitive or jealous spirit.

2.9 Conclusion It must have been very painful for Paul to witness the doctrinal decline in those to whom he taught the essentials of the gospel, establishing them in the truth of Christ being the sole and sufficient source of salvation and provider in all earthly needs. The same pain is felt today, and cannot be ignored, in view of the Christological challenges that the deviant leaders from the NPCs and their sacred objects pose to the Christian mission. The present study has attempted to shed light on the wrongful place that these elements occupy in the NPC followers’ faith compared to a biblical Christology, specifically in the context of South Africa. There is no doubt that today the deviant elements in the South African religious landscape play a complementary role to the work of Christ in the eyes of deceived believers, as is the case with the NPCs everywhere, wherever in the world they are emerging. It has also been demonstrated in the study how profoundly damaging these deviations and their consequences have been. In fact, the NPC leaders can hardly refrain from presenting themselves as the unique, predestined instruments of God poised to guarantee the spiritual and material security their adherents long for. These people end up viewing their leaders and their sacred objects as channels of salvation and blessing, inasmuch as they view the person of Jesus Christ as a distant figure who is hard to relate to. Although the study has focused on the complementing role played by the deviant elements, it is of great importance to emphasise how the different forms of Christological heresy, namely complementing the work of Christ, competing with Christ and even replacing Christ to the point of him being completely absent, are completely intertwined. As a result, falling into one of these forms of heresy always gives way to the others before it eventually culminates in the extreme form where Christ becomes wholly absent. With that said, one wonders what would really be an effective approach for theologians and missions concerned with the NPCs in South Africa and elsewhere to follow that would be able to eradicate the heresies that are

56  Elise B. Kisungu sadly so glaringly obvious. It is my sense that an effective approach would hinge on two things being thoroughly and radically addressed: the foreignness of Jesus Christ in the African context and the lack of proper biblical exegesis in the NPCs. In addition, false teachings must be outrightly and boldly denounced, for no other purpose than recovering the biblical truth of the one true gospel.

Notes 1 Ernest Van Eck. “When Patrons are Patrons: A Social-Scientific Reading of the Rich Man and Lazarus (Lk 16:19–26).” HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies 65, no. 1 (2009): 1–11. 2 David G. Horrell. “Social Sciences Studying Formative Christian phenomena: A Creative Movement.” Anthony Blasi, Jean Duhaime and Paul-Andre Turcotte (eds.), Handbook of Early Christianity: Social Science Approaches (Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira Press, 2002): 3–28. 3 John Elliot. “Social-Scientific Criticism: Perspectives, Process and Payoff. Evil Eye Accusation at Galatia as Illustration of the Method.” HTS Theological Studies 67, no. 1 (2011): 1–10. 4 Debbie Hunn. “Pleasing God or Pleasing People? Defending the Gospel in Galatians 1–2.” Peeters Publishers 91, no. 1 (2010): 24–49. 5 Sam K. Williams. “Galatians,” Abingdon New Testament Commentaries (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1997), 82–113. 6 Williams. “Galatians,” 82. 7 Bruce Longenecker. “Galatians,” James D.G. Dunn (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to St Paul (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 64–73. 8 Yon-Gyong Kwon. “Eschatology in Galatians.” (PhD diss., King’s College, University of London, 2000): 42–61. 9 Francois Tolmie. “A rhetorical analysis of the letter to the Galatians.” (PhD diss., Bloemfontein: University of the Free State, 2004): 99–106. 10 Elliot. “Social-Scientific Criticism,” 5. 11 Ibid, 11. 12 Elliot. “Social-Scientific Criticism,” 7. 13 Martin Luther. A Commentary on St Paul’s Epistle to the Galatians. A New Abridged Translation by Theodore D. D. Graebner (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1999). 14 2 Corinthians 4:3–4. 15 Tolmie. “A rhetorical analysis,” 100. 16 Francis Watson. Paul, Judaism and the Gentiles: A Sociological Approach (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 49–72. 17 Bernard Lategan. “Reconsidering the origin and function of Galatians 3:28.” New Testament Society of Southern Africa 46, no. 2 (2012): 274–286. 18 Lategan. “Reconsidering the origin,” 282. 19 Tolmie. “A rhetorical analysis,” 101. 20 Richard Lemmer. “Mnemonic Reference to the Spirit as a Persuasive Tool (Galatians 3:1–6 within the argument, 3:1–4:11).” Neotestamentica 26, no. 2 (1992): 359–388. 21 Lemmer. “Mnemonic reference,” 363–364. 22 Tolmie. “A Rhetorical Analysis,” 101. 23 Longenecker. “Galatians,” 64.

“Who has bewitched you?” 57 24 Watson. Paul, Judaism and the Gentiles, 61–62. 25 Allan H. Anderson. “New African Initiated Pentecostalism and Charismatics in South Africa.” Journal of Religion in Africa 35, fasc. 1 (2005): 66–92. 26 Mookgo S. Kgatle. “The Influence of Azusa Street in the Early Developments of the Apostolic Faith Mission of South Africa.” Missionalia 44, no. 3 (2016): 321–335. 27 Kgatle. “The influence of Azusa Street,” 329. 28 Tshinandavha Mashau. “Ministering Effectively in the Context of Pentecostalism in Africa: A Reformed Missional Reflection.” In die Skriflig/In Luce Verbi 47, no. 1 (2013): 1–8. 29 Allan Anderson. An Introduction to Pentecostalism: Global Charismatic Christianity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 179–197. 30 Anderson. An Introduction to Pentecostalism, 197. 31 Mookgo S. Kgatle. The Fourth Pentecostal Wave in South Africa: A Critical Engagement (London: Routledge, 2020), 21–41. 32 Collium Banda. “Complementing Christ? A Soteriological Evaluation of the Anointed Objects of the Soteriological of the African Pentecostal Prophets.” Conspectus: The Journal of the South African Theological Seminary, Special Edition 2 (2018): 55–69. 33 Hulisani Ramantswana. “Prophets Praying for, or Preying on People’s Faith: A Reflection on Prophetic Ministry in the South African Context.” In die Skriflig/In Luce Verbi 53, no. 4 (2019): 1–8. 34 Banda. “Complementing Christ?” 60. 35 Ibid. 36 Ibid., 61. 37 Pastor Alph Lukau. “6 biblical uses of the anointing 1b.” YouTube, accessed August 26, 2020. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JYdlhcg35SE 38 Shepherd Prophet Bushiri. Accessed August 26, 2020. https://www.facebook. com/shepherdbushiriministries/posts/diplomatic-livethe-anointed-materialsi-recently-saw-a-vision-of-anointing-oil-a/1286009881411294/ 39 Maryn Blignot “Haibo: Bushiri’s Supporters use Holy Water to Get Rid of Hawks.” Accessed October 26, 2020. https://briefly.co.za/83821-haibobushiris-supporters-holy-water-rid-hawks.html 40 Vhumani Magezi and Christopher Magezi. “Christ is also Ours in Africa: A Consideration of Torrance’s Incarnational, Christological Model as Nexus for Christ’s Identification with African Christians.” Verbum et Ecclesia 38, no. 1 (2017): 1–12. 41 Christopher Magezi. “The Conceptualisation of Christ’s Salvation in Kwame Bediako and Thomas F. Torrance and its Implications for Spiritual Security in African Christianity.” (MTh diss., Potchefstroom Campus of the North West University, 2016): 27–33. 42 Pastor Alph Lukau. “Former prostitute gets engaged in church.” YouTube, accessed August 26, 2020. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lz_ZXLV6ydc 43 “Prophet Nana Poku introduces his anointing oil.” YouTube, accessed August 27, 2020. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vhgRMIEOSlU 44 Vhumani Magezi and Collium Banda. “Competing with Christ? A Critical Christological Analysis of the Reliance on Pentecostal Prophets in Zimbabwe.” In die Skriflig/In Luce Verbi 51, no. 2 (2017): 1–10. 45 Mookgo S. Kgatle. “The Relationship between the Economic Strand of Contemporary Pentecostalism and Neo-Liberalism in Post-1994 South Africa.” Religions 11, no. 156 (2020): 1–10. 46 Magezi and Banda. “Competing with Christ?” 2. 47 Ibid.

58  Elise B. Kisungu

48 Magezi. “The Conceptualisation of Christ’s Salvation,” 27. 49 Ibid. 50 Ibid. 51 Collium Banda. “The Sufficiency of Christ in Africa: A Christological Challenge from African Traditional Religions.” (MTh diss., Pretoria: University of South Africa, 2005). 52 Banda. “The Sufficiency of Christ in Africa,” 18. 53 Jaco Beyers. “Jesus as an Ancestor: An African Christian understanding.” HTS Teologiese Studies/ Theological Studies 65, no. 1 (2009): 1–5. 54 Banda. “The Sufficiency of Christ in Africa,” 29. 55 Banda. “The Sufficiency of Christ in Africa,” 30. 56 Banda. “The Sufficiency of Christ in Africa,” 31. 57 Banda. “The Sufficiency of Christ in Africa,” 33. 58 Anderson. An Introduction to Pentecostalism, 190. 59 Augustine Deke. “The Politics of Prophets and Profits in African Christianity.” Journal of Philosophy, Culture and Religion 12 (2015): 11–24. 60 Kgatle. The Fourth Pentecostal Wave, 111–114. 61 Mookgo S. Kgatle and Thabang R. Mofokeng. “Towards a Decolonial Hermeneutic of Experience in African Pentecostal Christianity: A South African Perspective.” HTS Theological Studies 75, no. 4 (2019): 1–9.

References Anderson, Allan. “New African Initiated Pentecostalism and Charismatics in South Africa.” Journal of Religion in Africa 35, fasc. 1 (2005): 66–92. Anderson, Allan. An Introduction to Pentecostalism: Global Charismatic Christianity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014. Banda, Collium. “Complementing Christ? A Soteriological Evaluation of the Anointed Objects of the Soteriological of the African Pentecostal Prophets.” Conspectus: The Journal of the South African Theological Seminary, Special Edition 2 (2018): 55–69. Banda, Collium. “The Sufficiency of Christ in Africa: A Christological Challenge from African Traditional Religions.” MTh diss., Pretoria: University of South Africa, 2005. Beyers, Jaco. “Jesus as an Ancestor: An African Christian Understanding.” HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies 65, no. 1 (2009): 1–5. Deke, Augustine. “The Politics of Prophets and Profits in African Christianity.” Journal of Philosophy, Culture and Religion 12 (2015): 11–24. Elliot, John H. “Social-Scientific Criticism: Perspective, Process and Payoff. Evil Eye Accusation at Galatia as Illustration of the Method.” HTS Teologiese Studies/ Theological Studies 67, no. 1 (2011): 1–10. Blignaut, Maryn. “Haibo: Bushiri’s Supporters Use Holy Water to get Rid of Hawks.” Accessed October 26, 2020. https://briefly.co.za/83821-haibo-bushiris-supportersholy-water-rid-hawks.html Horrell, David G. “Social Sciences Studying Formative Christian Phenomena: A Creative Movement,” Anthony Blasi, Jean Duhaime, and Paul-Andre Turcotte (eds.), Handbook of Early Christianity: Social Science Approaches. (Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira Press, 2002), 3–28. Hunn, Debbie. “Pleasing God or Pleasing People? Defending the Gospel in Galatians 1-2.” Peeters Publishers 91, no. 1 (2010): 24–49.

“Who has bewitched you?” 59 Kgatle, Mookgo S. “The Influence of Azusa Street in the Early Developments of the Apostolic Faith Mission of South Africa.” Missionalia 44, no. 3 (2016): 321–335. Kgatle, Mookgo S., and Thabang R. Mofokeng. “Towards a Decolonial Hermeneutic of Experience in African Pentecostal Christianity: A South African Perspective.” HTS Theological Studies 75, no. 4 (2019): 1–9. Kgatle, Mookgo S. “The Relationship between the Economic Strand of Contemporary Pentecostalism and Neo-Liberalism in Post-1994 South Africa.” Religions 11, no. 156 (2020): 1–10. Kgatle, Mookgo S. The Fourth Pentecostal Wave in South Africa. A Critical Engagement. New York: Routledge, 2020. Kwon, Yon-Gyong. “Eschatology in Galatians.” PhD diss., King’s College, University of London, 2000. Lategan, Bernard C. “Reconsidering the Origin and Function of Galatians 3:28.” New Testament Society of Southern Africa 46, no. 2 (2012): 274–286. Lemmer, Richard H. “Mnemonic Reference to the Spirit as a Persuasive Tool (Galatians 3:1-6 within the argument 3:1-4:11).” Neotestamentica 26, no. 2 (1992): 359–388. Longenecker, Bruce. “Galatians,” James D.G. Dunn (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to St Paul. (New York: Cambridge Press University, 2006), 64–73. Luther, Martin. A Commentary on St Paul’s Epistle to the Galatians. A New Abridged Translation by Theodore D. D. Graebner. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1999. Magezi, Christopher. “The Conceptualisation of Christ’s Salvation in Kwame Bediako and Thomas F. Torrance and its Implications for Spiritual Security in African Christianity.” MTh diss., Potchefstroom Campus of the North West University, 2016. Magezi, Vhumani, and Banda Collium. “Competing with Christ? A Critical Christological Analysis of the Reliance on Pentecostal Prophets in Zimbabwe.” In die Skriflig/In Luce Verbi 51, no. 2 (2017): 1–10. Magezi, Vhumani, and Magezi Christopher. “Christ is also ours in Africa: A Consideration of Torrance’s Incarnational, Christological Model as Nexus for Christ’s Identification with African Christians.” Verbum et Ecclesia 38, no. 1 (2017): 1–12. Mashau, Tshinandavha D. “Ministering Effectively in the Context of Pentecostalism in Africa: A Reformed Missional Reflection.” In die Skriflig/In Luce Verbi 47, no. 1 (2013): 1–8. Pastor Alph Lukau. “6 Biblical Use of the Anointing 1b.” YouTube, accessed August 26, 2020. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JYdlhcg35SE Pastor Alph Lukau. “Former Prostitute gets Engaged in Church.” You Tube, accessed January 31, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lz_ZXLV6ydc Ugl truth. “Prophet Nana Poku Introduces his Anointing Oil.” YouTube, accessed August 27, 2020. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vhgRMIEOSlU Ramantswana, Hulisani. “Prophets Praying for, or Preying on People’s Faith: A Reflection on Prophetic Ministry in the South African Context.” In die Skriflig/In Luce Verbi 53, no. 4 (2019): 1–8. Shepherd Prophet Bushiri. Facebook, 2020, accessed August 26, 2020. https:// www.facebook.com/shepherdbushiriministries/posts/diplomatic-livethe-anointedmaterials-i-recently-saw-a-vision-of-anointing-oil-a/1286009881411294/ Tolmie, Donald Francois. “A Rhetorical Analysis of the Letter to the Galatians.” PhD diss., Bloemfontein, University of the Free State, 2004.

60  Elise B. Kisungu Van Eck, Ernest. “When Patrons are Patrons: A Social Scientific Reading of the Rich Man and Lazarus (Lk 16:19–26).” HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies 65, no. 1 (2009): 1–11. Watson, Francis. Paul, Judaism and the Gentiles: A Sociological Approach. Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series, 1986. Williams, Sam K. Galatians. Abingdon New Testament Commentaries. Nashville: Abingdon, 1997.

3

Towards a deepened Christology on the Cape Flats The “Spirit of Christ” metaphor in the neo-Pentecostal church Eugene Baron

3.1 Introduction The neo-Pentecostal churches1 in South Africa have in the recent past been in the media for all the wrong reasons. 2 However, this issue is not the focus of this chapter; rather, it attempts to reflect on a deepened Christology for the neo-Pentecostal movement by engaging with some of its commonly used biblical texts and its socio-political ecclesial praxis. The author argues that in its complete embrace of the “Spirit of Christ” metaphor for its expression of faith in the world, neo-Pentecostalism could become a source of inspiration as well as widening its transformational praxis in the lives of its adherents in South Africa. In this chapter, the author first picks up on those existing trends through engaging with a very specific Cape Flats version of neo-Pentecostalism and the basic biblical texts and choruses that they employ. The Cape Flats is an area for so-called coloured people in the Western Cape province of South Africa. The author demonstrates that those commonly used biblical texts and choruses are closely linked to the “Spirit of Christ” metaphor in the context of empire. The author argues that though the neo-Pentecostal churches have placed its focus squarely on the gifts and the “unction” of the Spirit, there is, wittingly or unwittingly, very good theological and ecclesial-historical resources present in its commonly used biblical texts, choruses and socio-political praxis. The author argues that neo-Pentecostal churches have a positive contribution to make to South Africa if it would engage in a deepened Christology. For this to happen they need to embrace a fully-fledged “Spirit of Christ” metaphor that would enhance their Christology beyond the current emphasis solely on the gifts of the Spirit. Such a Christology could address the socio-economic realities plaguing its adherents in the context of neo-colonial South Africa. The focus of this chapter is thus not on the disturbing ethical dilemmas that some of the neo-Pentecostal practices present but rather on the issue of how a deepened hermeneutics and exegesis of their existing theological texts and ecclesial-historical praxis can have maximum benefit for its members and even the country.3 DOI: 10.4324/9781003212973-3

62  Eugene Baron

3.2 The neo-Pentecostal church in South Africa: A Cape Flats version Quebedeaux4 in his book The New Charismatics argues that neo-­ Pentecostals substituted the middle-class values espoused by the classic Pentecostalism movement for “lower-class” values which provide some insight into their socio-political ecclesial praxis. He further argues that neo-Pentecostal churches have been built with good resources, which, I would argue, are also biblical resources which can provide a solid basis for social action in the world – even though many neo-Pentecostals themselves seem to be oblivious of these resources. Quebedeaux5 also mentions that besides the sociological distinction from classic Pentecostalism and the resultant shift to “lower-class” values, theologically neo-Pentecostals would argue for the “instant personal religious experience”. Quebedeaux6 argues that another distinction between the classical Pentecostal and the neo-Pentecostal churches is the belief that “revelation” did not cease with the closing of the (biblical) canon and that God speaks today as authoritatively as he spoke to the biblical authors. This is why there is a strong link to the “greater things” (John 14:12–15) that the Spirit will assist them in doing. Classical Pentecostalism would place a greater emphasis on biblical authority as evidence and justification for what has happened in church while the neo-Pentecostals, especially in South Africa, would believe in the Bible and its authority but also that the Spirit can do and reveal that which cannot be supported by the current “closed” canon through a “word of prophecy” and a “word of wisdom”.7 Although, they would argue that whatever takes place in church should always be submitted to the scrutiny of the Word of God. Peterson8 states, What is distinctive about Neo Pentecostalism is the emphasis on success and prosperity, which is experienced in both spiritual and material terms. As noted above, there is a great concern about the new emphasis on material prosperity, especially since most prosperity gospel preachers do not address the structural reasons for poverty. For many such preachers, theirs is a very individualistic message: the church becomes a means to an end for believers to find spiritual and material success in their own lives. However, these distinctions could be very fluid and depend on variables in each context. Therefore, hard and fast demarcations are not always fruitful when one wants to define the characteristics of the neo-­ Pentecostal movement. Besides the self-enrichment of neo-Pentecostal pastors, most commentators focus on the prosperity gospel as a trademark of the neo-Pentecostals. This however cannot be the only parameters when establishing the definition of a neo-Pentecostal church.9 This is salient, especially because of their “step child” relationship with the classical

Deepened Christology on the Cape Flats 63 Pentecostal church. Even some mainline churches in South Africa are often biased and have prejudices towards neo-Pentecostal churches because some of its members might have left them for these churches. It is also not helpful that there are very little “empirical” and “self-critique” research done by neo-Pentecostals themselves. In South Africa neo-Pentecostalism has developed from classical Pentecostalism. The classical Pentecostal churches would be those that can trace their historical roots back to the Azusa Street revival in early 1990. In South Africa, this movement has mainly taken root through the missionary work of William J. Seymour. One also finds church formations in South Africa that had started as a break-away from the mainline classical Pentecostal churches and embraced ancestral spirits.10 These church formations are known as the African Indigenous Churches (AICs), of which the largest and most well-known one is the Zion Christian Church (ZCC). However, the neo-Pentecostal movement in South Africa and the charismatic movement in South Africa consist of independent churches that in certain cases present a break-away from the classical Pentecostal churches. These churches have also received an overflow from the western phenomenon of the “prosperity gospel” and the “Toronto blessing”.11 Reports by the Christian Reformed Church (CRC) state that the neo-Pentecostal churches would believe in a “second blessing” which is that no Christian could be satisfied unless he or she has been “speaking in tongues” as proof of the second baptism.12 Though there is a strong emphasis on the Spirit in both classical Pentecostalism and neo-Pentecostalism, there is a greater emphasis in neo-Pentecostal churches on the “proof of the baptism of the Holy Spirit” through the “speaking in tongues” and the continuation of the gifts of the Spirit as signs of the baptism of the Holy Spirit. There is also the belief that the Holy Spirit works outside of the generally accepted means of grace, as Peterson13 asserts, “the Spirit works in an unmediated way apart from the proclamation of the Word and the Sacraments of the church. In other words: Can God reveal God’s will through means such as bodily postures, dreams, prayers, etc.?” Interestingly, the neo-Pentecostal churches seldom show an awareness of a relationship between themselves and the socio-­political context, whereas through closer scrutiny of their theological disposition, and the evidence of its socio-political ecclesial character, it reflects the contrary. The author therefore argues in this chapter that these churches also have a socio-political character which could be observed through its ecclesial praxis speaking to their Christological character. Although inadequate as pointed out earlier, I will use the abovementioned characteristics as the criteria for neo-Pentecostal churches, also as seen in the way it engages with the neo-Pentecostal churches in the Cape Flats. In this chapter we are going to specifically look at a Cape Flats version of a neo-Pentecostal approach as seen in the television gospel music

64  Eugene Baron and talk show Koortjies met Jonathan Rubain (“Choruses with Jonathan Rubain”) that started in April 2020 and is being aired on the DSTV television channel kykNET & kie.14 The author uses this specific show as a case study to draw come conclusions and make certain recommendations on the Christology of neo-Pentecostalism on the Cape Flats. The Cape Flats is an expansive, low-lying and flat township area, home to mainly the coloured community, situated to the south-east of central Cape Town. The Cape Flats has developed as the result of the apartheid government’s policy of forced removals under the Group Area’s Act. The show Koortjies with Jonathan Rubain is rooted in the Cape Flats, and as such presents a specific manifestation of neo-Pentecostalism that has developed within the coloured community in this area which is a gangster-ridden and dangerous one.15 At the time, in response to the dire socio-economic conditions, a particular kind of neo-Pentecostalism developed in this poverty-stricken area. People were forcibly moved into small houses or crammed into flats, thus creating very unhealthy living conditions that led to an outbreak of social ills. In these desolate townships people started informal “Pentecostal”16 gatherings.17 Neo-Pentecostalism on the Cape Flats developed as a move away from South African mainline denominations, as well as from some classical Pentecostal denominations. This was a kind of psycho-social move in order to be liberated from “denominationalism” and other forms of church institutionalisation that were prohibiting people to give more free and “uncontrolled” expression to their faith. People needed a new and different space to express their need and longing for a “move of God”. The author therefore finds it very relevant and useful that provides insight to the author to assess the Christology of this very specific community as it is deeply embedded in the historic injustices people have suffered as a result of apartheid. It is evident in the “Cape Flats” version of neo-Pentecostalism, as seen in Koortjies met Jonathan Rubain, in the songs, and in the biblical texts used during the show, and the references made to their ‘origin’ (that confirm their socio-political praxis) as ‘Pentecostal’ guest on the show alluded to, that the Spirit has almost always been brought in relationship with Christ. Therefore, the author argues there is far more to the Cape Flats version of neo-Pentecostalism than merely a focus on the “greater things”18 that the Spirit will do, but that it is indeed closely linked with the “Spirit of Christ” within the context of empire. In, fact it is Christ who uttered those words (“You will do even greater things”) in John 14. Therefore, it is naive to ignore the underlying paradigm in this expression of neo-­Pentecostalism that would also provide others with a good sense of their Christology, which is closely linked with the socio-political liberation of human beings. The author will show this through a close analysis of the most common biblical texts that are used by neo-Pentecostals on the Cape Flats as seen in this show. It will also subsequently show this in their socio-political ecclesial praxis.

Deepened Christology on the Cape Flats 65

3.3  The “Spirit” in neo-Pentecostalism in South Africa Neo-Pentecostal churches have been known for their emphasis on speaking in tongues, their emphasis on all the gifts of the Spirit, for example, the gift of prophecy and the word of faith, and also for proclaiming a “health and wealth” gospel. In this sense, Christ is often reduced to the gifts of the Spirit. Neo-Pentecostals believe that there is a continuation of the “supernatural gifts”.19 However, a closer look at the texts that they use, shows the “Spirit” to be the “Spirit of Christ’ – something these churches have not really engaged with themselves. Despite the more bizarre elements of neo-Pentecostalism the community that the author engaged through his research (Koortjies met Jonathan Rubain) reflected a commitment to the Bible and showed Christ in relation to the Spirit. Scholars would plead that the work of the Spirit should not be seen as a subsequent work but for the reciprocity between Christ and the Spirit to be acknowledged and upheld.20 The neo-Pentecostal churches would use biblical texts that would focus on the Spirit as a spirit of freedom, a spirit that bestows the gifts and bestow them with the supernatural power of God to perform miracles. However, upon closer scrutiny, it is evident that these churches are actually referring to the Spirit of Christ. Therefore, the content of some of their koortjies (choruses) follows the same line in which the Spirit is aligned with the Spirit of Christ. The following excerpt from a testimony by a neo-Pentecostal Christian demonstrates the relationship between Christ and the Spirit: We could scarcely wait for the Monday evening service. After the message, those wishing to receive the fullness of the Holy Spirit met together. God’s desire to fill us with the Spirit was explained from the Scriptures. We were told to relax and believe that God would answer prayer as those ministering laid hands on our heads and prayed for us. We were told to worship the Lord Jesus Christ as the Holy Spirit led us – quietly and reverently. For it would be the Holy Spirit who would use our voice, although we would do the speaking, and miraculous guide our tongue in a language we would not know. 21 This testimony correlates with those of neo-Pentecostals from the Cape Flats as was observed in the TV Koortjies met Jonathan Rubain that would also explicitly focus on the Spirit. Here too a closer look shows that it is within the context of the “Spirit of Christ”, meaning the “Lord Jesus Christ”. In the next two sections, the author will discuss and analyse some biblical texts and choruses popular on the Cape Flats as evident in Koortjies met Jonathan Rubain. Through close scrutiny of the use of the “Spirit of Christ”, these neo-Pentecostals’ Christology will become apparent. The work of some scholars on the “Spirit of Christ” is noteworthy for our purposes. The first work the author wants to look at is Die Gees van

66  Eugene Baron Christus (“The Spirit of Christ”) by Willie Jonker.22 Jonker deals specifically with the Spirit of Christ in the Pentecostal Movement but also subsequently in the neo-Pentecostal church. He refers to the closeness between Karl Barth and the neo-Pentecostal movement, specifically when he links the Spirit with the Spirit of Christ. The Spirit is argued to be the one that empowered Christ in his earthly ministry. The Spirit is the connection between the Godhead and Christ, but as the Spirit glorified Christ, so it also does to ordinary believers. 23 Jonker points out Barth’s assertion that there is a similarity between Christ’s empowerment and the empowerment of believers. Let us now have a closer look at the biblical texts that neo-Pentecostals use to substantiate that similarity.

3.4 The biblical texts commonly featured in neo-Pentecostalism The author made a selection of some of the biblical texts that featured on Koortjies with Jonathan Rubain, picking up on the existing trend of those biblical texts that neo-Pentecostal churches frequently use. The author shows that those texts are closely related to the “Spirit of Christ” metaphor, and that these biblical texts do not only speak to the gifts of the Spirit but also to the “Spirit of Christ”. For instance, in 2 Corinthians 3:18 it states that the believers’ spiritual transformation is done by “the Lord, who is the Spirit”: Now the Lord is that Spirit: and where the Spirit of the Lord is, there is liberty. But we all, with open face beholding as in a glass the glory of the Lord, are changed into the same image from glory to glory, even as by the Spirit of the Lord (2 Cor 3:17–18, NIV). In using this text, neo-Pentecostal churches emphasise the spiritual transformation that the Spirit does within the heart of a person. However, biblical scholars highlight that this text is not only about the Spirit, but actually about the “Spirit of the Lord”. This Spirit of the Lord is the one that transforms. According to Calvin, … the Holy Spirit is the one that Christ himself confers upon his people. Christ, however, by regenerating us, gives life to the law, and shows himself to be the fountain of life, as all vital functions proceed from man’s soul. Christ, then, is to all (so to speak) the universal soul, not in respect of essence, but respect of grace. Or, if you prefer it, Christ is the Spirit, because he quickens us by the life-giving influence of his Spirit. 24 Clearly it is the Spirit of Christ that gives liberty. Therefore, the neo-­ Pentecostal emphasis on the Spirit only is not an adequate interpretation

Deepened Christology on the Cape Flats 67 of this text. However, this is often how it is read and interpreted in neo-­ Pentecostalism. In the case study it was also interpreted in this limited way. However, the biblical scholar Neil Elliott 25 discusses this particular text within its social-political context. He argues that the passage addresses the Spirit as the kurios, the King within a Kingdom and connects it with his rulership in people’s lives against the Kurios (the Roman Emperor) within the Roman imperial context. Though these neo-Pentecostal churches would certainly relate the Spirit with the Spirit of Christ, there is little done to show the magnitude of what that would entail. Elliot26 discusses the subtle ways in which Paul had to instruct his readers, telling them to submit to the authorities, knowing full well that Christ would soon return as the King and that they should prepare for this and his subsequent reign (cf. Rom. 13:11–14). Therefore, Elliot argues that Paul was only asking people to “temporarily” submit to the imperial rule. It is apparent that for Elliot, 27 this text should be read within the context of the “Spirit of the Lord”. A further argument that Calvin 28 raises in terms of this text is Paul’s continued reference to notions of fear and bondage. This is relevant because the text illustrates life under the empire, and therefore the Lordship of Christ and his providence of liberty should be read in the context of the Christians’ position as subjects of imperial rule at the time. The next texts that were frequently used in the case study were Galatians 5:1 and 22: 1 It is for freedom that Christ has set us free. Stand firm, then, and do not let yourselves be burdened again by a yoke of slavery (v.1, NIV.) 2 But the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, forbearance, kindness, goodness, faithfulness (v. 22, NIV). In most neo-Pentecostal churches, Galatians 5:1 is used to pronounce the congregants’ freedom, especially at the commencement of the liturgical service. It would reflect their embracing of their total dependency on the Holy Spirit to usher them into experiences that they have never seen or known before. They thus proclaim themselves to be open to new revelations. This scripture is also used to undergird a liberating move from restricting church structures with too many limitations, interpreted as “spiritual bondage”. It is often used to apply to former churches of which neo-Pentecostals were members (mainline and classical Pentecostal denominations) and which they felt were limiting the work of the Spirit to only that which can be “supported by the Bible”, that is, the closed canon. This text in Galatians has been used by neo-Pentecostals to justify and encourage their independence from the rules and obligations of institutional church structures and traditions. They interpret it as meaning they should be more obedient to the Spirit than to human beings which they would argue constitutes the draconian church regulations. Through this, they imply that they would freely listen and do whatever the Spirit is telling

68  Eugene Baron them to do. The “yoke” in the text symbolises to them the man-made restrictions that have been placed upon them; restrictions emanating from those traditional church structures that would infringe on the freedom that Christ has given them. It is interesting that Calvin’s comment from the 16th century is closely aligned with such an interpretation because he would have read Galatians 5:1 against the backdrop of their break-away from the institutionalised and hierarchical system of the Roman Catholic Church when they were earnestly contending for freedom of faith … in opposition to the tyranny of the Pope. Nevertheless, further on in Galatians 5 Paul also refers to the “fruit of the Spirit” which was also emphasised in the neo-Pentecostal case study. Therefore, the Spirit of freedom should be seen as the same Spirit that produces the fruit of the Spirit. Moreover, in this text, the Spirit is the Spirit of Christ which brings both freedom and produces the fruit of the Spirit. This makes it therefore imperative for neo-Pentecostal believers to broaden their focus on the Spirit and to acknowledge it as the Spirit of Christ in order to deepen their Christology. Moreover, the Spirit of Christ that brings freedom should be seen in the context of the imperial forces of Rome, and not only in the context of institutional church structures that restrict the move of the Spirit. Horsley29 reminds us that Paul was writing in the context of the Roman imperial powers of the day and instructed the believers how to deal with that bondage. Calvin, when responding to this text in Galatians, reminds us that any kingdom outside of Christ would bring bondage.30 Therefore, we note that it was actually the kingdom of Rome that bound them to the obligations and the customs of that kingdom, which restricted them to give full expression to their faith. In the context of the Christians in Galatia, Horsley states, Paul talks in Galatians 3:28 about there being “neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, etc. …. ”. Therefore, he suggests that in Paul’s writings it is evident that the struggle of Christian movements to become pluriform movements of women and men is inspired by the divine Spirit, leading to an ongoing theological debate over equality, freedom, dignity, and full “citizenship” in the ekklesia.31 Therefore, the reference to the Spirit of Christ should be read in the context of Roman imperialism, and neo-Pentecostal churches should be challenged to move beyond a narrow interpretation that focuses exclusively on bondage through institutional ecclesial structures. The following text from the gospel of Luke is one of the most quoted verses in neo-Pentecostalism, particularly in the Cape Flats version thereof as became evident in the case study: He went to Nazareth, where he had been brought up, and on the Sabbath day, he went into the synagogue, as was his custom. He stood up to read, 16

and the scroll of the prophet Isaiah were handed to him. Unrolling it, he found the place where it is written: 17

Deepened Christology on the Cape Flats 69 “The Spirit of the Lord is on me, because he has anointed me to proclaim good news to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim freedom for the prisoners and recovery of sight for the blind, to set the oppressed free, 18

19

to proclaim the year of the Lord’s favour.”

Then he rolled up the scroll, gave it back to the attendant and sat down. The eyes of everyone in the synagogue were fastened on him. 20

He began by saying to them, “Today, this scripture is fulfilled in your hearing” (Luke 4:16-21, NIV). 21

In their use of this biblical passage, neo-Pentecostals usually emphasise that they operate in the power of the Spirit. Nevertheless, notable in this text is that the Spirit is the “Spirit of the Lord”. There are indeed many correlations with Calvin’s ecclesial-historical context and that of neo-­ Pentecostal churches that broke away because they were dissatisfied with the institutionalised church system. However, the issue was actually much deeper than a mere structural issue and was mainly doctrinal: the fact that the church’s institutional system did not fully allow God’s freedom to reign during worship. Calvin32 argues that Jesus deliberately chose this text to point to himself, as the Lord who alone was endued with the Spirit (John 3:34), and “he alone, by the power of his Spirit, performs and grants all the benefits that are here promised”. “The Spirit” in Luke 4:18 is closely connected with the Spirit of the King (Lord) of the new Kingdom. Calvin states, “Many make a false boast that they have the Spirit of God, while they are destitute of his gifts”. Calvin argued that preaching was effective because of the “heavenly power of the Spirit”, 33 unlike some neo-Pentecostal pastors and, in Calvin’s time, the Papacy, which ascribed effective preaching to “wisdom”. Those who chose to take up the “Spirit of the Lord” needed to attend specifically to those in the text “called poor, and broken, and captives, and blind, and bruised”, and that meant everyone, Calvin argued. Many people, however, did not perceive themselves as such, he said, which simply meant that they were not prepared to accept such “grace”.34 To take up the Spirit of the Lord means to sign up to the Kurios, the Lordship of Christ, over the imperial powers that threaten the well-being of the people. It certainly does not only mean a manifestation of the gifts of the Spirit for the edification of the body of Christ. Should the “Spirit” be interpreted as the “Spirit of Christ” in neo-Pentecostalism, it will bring to the fore and deepen its Christology as one related to the socio-political context in which imperial power has always left people oppressed and afflicted in many different ways. Therefore, Horsley35states, Jesus’ healing and exorcism addressed the illnesses and spirit possession that had resulted partly or primarily from the killing and the

70  Eugene Baron destruction of people’s houses and livelihood in the periodic Roman re-conquests. It was understood that the illnesses of the time were the cause of imperial distress. Calvin argues that the “belief in and possession by superhuman spirits was an adaptive way of coping with the imperial violence. Jesus’s exorcisms that “cast out” the invasive, possessing spirits (“Legion”) could thus be understood as a healing of the effects of imperial violence”. What is of particular relevance for Africa is the following statement by Horsley, “Studies of spirit possession and exorcism in African societies have found that they are related, as recent medical anthropological studies suggest, to the impact of colonial rule, as indigenous societies make cultural adjustments to cope with this impact”.36 DeGruy, in writing about “post-traumatic slave syndrome”, also said that this condition has been brought upon people by oppressive societal systems. However, DeGruy argues that this cannot be healed through clinical therapy only, but also and ultimately through a change in social conditions.37 Therefore, a reading of this text in Luke 4 in relation to the “Spirit of Christ” means that it could provide neo-Pentecostal churches, just as Christ himself did in the gospels, with an opportunity to present a different Kingdom, a society, a community that could foster values that would be liberating amidst the adverse context that Christians find themselves. Space does not allow us to look deeper into this text in Luke, but suffice to say that it has a lot to say about the Spirit of Christ which neo-Pentecostals do not yet emphasise when they employ this text. Let me render some concluding remarks on the use of the “Spirit of Christ” in neo-Pentecostalism. The Dutch theologian van de Beek38 argues in favour of a return to the church fathers’ perspective on the Spirit and Christ. He states, According to the synoptic gospels, the Spirit is upon Christ when He does his work on earth (Mt 3:16; 4:1; 12:18; Mk 1:10, 12; Lk 3:22; 4:1, 18), and it is the Spirit of Christ who inspires the members of the Church (Mt 3:11; 10:20; Mk 1:8; 13:11; Lk 3:16; 12:12). Both belong to intrinsically together. They are the same God in action. Now that Christ is in heaven, his Spirit is his presence on earth, and we must view the Spirit in this perspective: no pneumatology without Christology and no pneumatology that is not in Christological perspective. That is the way of thinking about the Holy Spirit of both the New Testament and Christian theologians of the first centuries. The notion of “Spirit of Christ” was mentioned by the Church Father Irenaeus in the sense that he saw the Son and the Spirit as the two hands of God. He argued that God used both hands to create the world. Van de Beek argues that Irenaeus’ version is close to that of the Gospel of John when Jesus spoke the following of the Spirit: “He will speak only what He

Deepened Christology on the Cape Flats 71 hears. All that belongs to the Father is mine. That is why I said the Spirit would take from what is mine and make it known to you” (John 16:15).39 According to van de Beek, “The Spirit makes people participate in the work of Christ. Not only John speaks about the Spirit in that way, but also all of the New Testament authors”.40 It is Hans Kűng 41 that argues that the church is the “Spirit of God and Christ”.

3.5 The relationship between the Spirit and the “Spirit of Christ” in its socio-political ecclesial praxis In the neo-Pentecostal church, the slightest hinting at the idea that its followers should also somehow be “political” would be utterly abhorred. However, as a religious movement, they would have a robust socio-­political element operating anyway. Most neo-Pentecostal churches present break-away groups, especially from any form of ecclesial structure that they have felt limited their freedom to worship God in a particular way and prevented openness to the working of the Holy Spirit through the operating of the spiritual gifts.42 Therefore, in essence, neo-Pentecostalism is a kind of socio-­political movement. However, this has not yet been publicly proclaimed because these “socio-political” actions would be described purely as acts of the Holy Spirit. However, the author will briefly highlight the characteristics present in neo-Pentecostalism that demonstrate its “socio-political” character. In the 1970s the Study Committee report on the phenomenon of neo-­ Pentecostalism would underscore their repeated reference to Jesus as the one that was “hidden to them behind the doctrines, liturgies, and unspiritual atmosphere of churches”.43 This Jesus became known to them, more in the sense of spiritual freedom, but that freedom was felt in their everyday living. Nowadays, in neo-Pentecostalism, this Jesus is often placed within the context of unemployment, poverty, hunger and homelessness. In South Africa, therefore, many people flock to these churches, oftentimes abandoning the mainline churches in which they grew up because they find the Jesus in the neo-Pentecostal churches more accessible. After careful analysis of the songs that neo-Pentecostals sing, the author could observe that this Jesus they sing about would through his Spirit not only equip his followers for the church, but also empower them for the world. During 2020 the author observed the television show Koortjies met Jonathan Rubain for six months. The show featured various neo-­ Pentecostal presenters and gospel singers from the Cape Flats. It was interesting to observe that though many neo-Pentecostal people like the guests on the show could previously have been described as simply whipping up emotional hype, it became evident during the show and even the singing that there was a purposeful and intentional engagement with the issues, struggles and the socio-political challenges in South African society. The guests on the show demonstrated that the producers usually chose those from marginalised communities who struggled to make a living and who

72  Eugene Baron would never have dreamt of gaining such exposure. The topics ranged from “career choices” to “emotional intelligence”. This would indeed not have characterised a neo-Pentecostal gathering a few years back. It often seemed as if there was a strong element of political, economic, and social survival present in the conversations at display. Therefore, for many neo-­ Pentecostals watching a show like this it meant that they could make a clear connection between contemporary challenges and their biblical witness, not merely keeping their heads buried in the Bible. In this way, neo-­ Pentecostals could see the importance of their context in relation to their biblical witness and vice versa, very similar to what Calvin did when he interpreted the Luke 4 passage against the backdrop of the Roman Catholic Church and gave his critique against it.44 There was always the idea of getuienisse (testimonies) in the neo-­ Pentecostal church – something which should not be underestimated and which could take up most of the time at church and even in the case study assessed for this study, with notably less emphasis on sermons. This implies that there is a constant engagement with struggles in the socio-political context, even though there is less of a biblical exegesis which is something that Reformed theologians have been critical of in the past. Here are segments of some of the choruses that were sung on Koortjies met Jonathan Rubain: • • •

“Ek het u lief o Heer … ” (“I love you Lord”) “Jesus Koning van Getsemane … ” (“Jesus King of Gethsemane”) “Soos ‘n brandende hout … Hy haal my uit die vuur uit … ” (“Like a coal he [Christ] takes me out of the fire”)

Reference is made in some of these songs to Jesus as Lord and as the ruler of the earth. This would imply that Jesus is ruler over the people’s lives singing those songs. However, Jesus is linked with the Spirit as one that would also bring relief to their everyday challenges. People seemingly use the choruses to complement their ecclesial social praxis.

3.6 The possibilities of the “Spirit of Christ” metaphor in neo-Pentecostalism The author argues that though neo-Pentecostal churches have been placing its focus mostly on the gifts of the Spirit, it has simultaneously also embraced – at least in its practice and biblical texts (even though this might be empirically disputed in some) – the “Spirit of Christ” that is often related to the work of the Spirit. In the analysis above, the author has shown that the Spirit of Christ metaphor is evident in neo-Pentecostalism, as seen in this specific Cape Flats version of it. However, this has not been completely embraced, as there is clearly an emphasis on the spiritual gifts and the

Deepened Christology on the Cape Flats 73 “power of the Spirit”. The author argues that should the neo-Pentecostal church embrace this metaphor intentionally, it will deepen its Christology. It would proclaim in conjunction with the freedom found in Christ, the fruits of the Spirit (Gal. 5:21, 22) and that would amount to acts of confronting the empires of the day.

3.7 The implications of the “Spirit of Christ” as a deep Christology for South African Neo-Pentecostalism There have been many critiques in South Africa concerning the silence of the prophetic voice of the church, and also its lack of contextually engaging the South African realities that cause oppression and suffering. Theologians have been caught up in theological jargon to conceal their lack of what Katongole45 calls a “theology of relocation” where prophets are in touch with the concrete realities of the poor and oppressed. The church’s lack of engagement with South African realities is challenged on two levels. The first one is within the academic sphere. One can see this, for example, when Urbaniak46 fiercely critiques the work of Nico Koopman. Urbaniak47 compares the Christology of Koopman and Maluleke respectively in terms of their engagement with South African realities of oppression and suffering. This is what he has to say about Koopman’s Christology: Koopman’s ‘global Reformed Christ’, albeit displaying an African veneer, upon scrutiny, appears to be unfamiliar with and unconcerned about the problems faced by most South Africans today and thereby fails to constructively engage with African (especially black African) contexts of our day. He argues the opposite of Maluleke’s Christology: Maluleke’s Christological approach, on the other hand – thanks to his emphasis on cultural-theological factors necessary for Africanness to be acknowledged as a legitimate ‘host’ for Christ as well as his multi-faceted reflection on African appropriations of Jesus – meets the requirements for an engaged and prophetic Christology. The second level of challenging the church’s lack of engagement with South African realities is aimed at church leaders and Christians. Botha and Makofane48 refer to the withdrawal of the church from its prophetic task post-1994; something also lamented by Kritzinger49 when he refers to the voicelessness of the church in the new millennium. However, Botha and Makofane50 argue that there are signs that the church in South Africa is starting to take up its prophetic role and those signs have been discussed in their paper. Recently Baron and Maponya51 wrote that the ecclesial

74  Eugene Baron imagination of church members in South Africa also has a role to play in transforming the nature of churches. They argue that pastors and church leadership should indeed address their congregants’ “ecclesial” imaginations.52 The critical point that these authors make is that the prophetic nature of the church has been stifled and is the cause of the church not speaking out loudly and unambiguously against oppressive conditions in South Africa. Van der Beek also lists a few implications of adopting a “Spirit of Christ” metaphor.53 He argues that should such a metaphor be embraced “we become humbled people”. Neo-Pentecostals will then realise that it is “we who crucified him by our sin, and it is only his grace that saved us”. He argues that that is what the Spirit of Christ will do: unmask our pride (sin). We will begin to realise that “Christ gave Himself for us while we were still sinners” (Rom. 5:8), “… even enemies” (Rom. 5:10). According to van der Beek, if we acknowledge this, it would also make us act differently.54 Adopting the “Spirit of Christ” metaphor would change Christians’ approach towards people: “… brothers and sisters in Christ who can only live through the same grace”. Van der Beek says that Christians would become as the early Christians, people who … walked softly, indeed, and are thus vulnerable. They had compassion with the victims of history, the outcasts, the orphans, the handicapped, and the diseased. They confronted the world with another way of life. By doing so, they unmasked the world in its harshness, its violence, its self-satisfaction. He further argues, The way they think and decide is within this paradigm: being in Christ. They are always aware of his willingness to make Himself as nothing, becoming obedient unto death, even the death on the cross (Phil. 2:8), as a cursed person on behalf of us (Gal. 3:13). They come to Jesus with this outlook, in ultimate gratefulness. They would also approach the people outside of this relationship: those who deny God’s indescribable gift in Christ and who believe that they are free from any sin. Those people are strong in the world. They are not meek in their opinions in the manner that Christians are.

3.8 Conclusion Though in many respects the neo-Pentecostal church lacks greater appreciation for biblical hermeneutics for the full liberation of all oppressed people of South Africa, it has often been striking a good balance between the text and the context, as has been done by various, but in particular Reformed theologians today.

Deepened Christology on the Cape Flats 75

Notes 1 What the author refers to in this chapter as neo-Pentecostal churches, the authors in the other chapters refer to it as New Prophetic churches, which the author of this chapter see as a “off-shoot” of the neo-Pentecostalism movement in South Africa. 2 See, for instance, the media report “South African preacher tells parishioner to eat grass to get closer to God.” https://www.nydailynews.com/news/world/ preacher-tells-parishioners-eat-grass-article-1.1576965. At another occasion, the pastor made the congregants to drink petrol: https://www.dailymail. co.uk/news/article-2794275/first-congregation-eating-grass-make-close-godcontroversial-south-african-preacher-makes-flock-drink-petrol.html 3 This should be regarded as a similar approach that Smith (2012) follows in his book Thinking in Tongues. James K.A. Smith. Thinking in Tongues: Pentecostal Contributions to Christian Philosophy (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2012). 4 Richard Quebedeaux. The New Charismatics: The Origins, Development, and Significance of Neo-Pentecostalism (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1976), 159. 5 Quebedeaux. The New Charismatics: The Origins, Development, and Significance of Neo-Pentecostalism, 30. 6 Ibid. 7 Cheryl M. Peterson. “Pneumatology and the Cross: The Challenge of Neo-­ Pentecostalism to Lutheran Theology.” Dialog 50, no. 2 (2011): 133–142. 8 Peterson. “Pneumatology and the Cross: The Challenge of Neo-­Pentecostalism to Lutheran Theology,” 133–142. 9 Ibid. 10 Moss Nthla. “Pentecostal and Evangelical Perspectives on Ecumenicity,” Ernst M. Conradie (ed.), South African Perspectives on Notions and Forms of Ecumenicity (Stellenbosch: Sun Media, 2013): 154–155. 11 See, for instance, the campaigns by Kathryn Kuhlman who some like Hank Hanegraaf (1997) in his book Counterfeit Revival was described as the forerunner of the Charismatic Movement, and subsequently also Benny Hinn who showed a strong emphasis on healing and “slaying in the spirit,” etc. 12 Study Committee Report. “Report 34: Neo-Pentecostalism.” Supplement-­ Report 34, no. 1 (1975): 398–493. 13 Peterson. “Pneumatology and the Cross: The Challenge of Neo-­Pentecostalism to Lutheran Theology,” 133–142. 14 This is a talk and gospel music show that has been broadcast on the DSTV channel kykNET & kie since April 2020. It is Afrikaans show based on the neo-Pentecostal worship genre from the Western Cape in South Africa and guests on the show are mainly from the Cape Flats area in Cape Town which is in the Western Cape. 15 The Cape Flats includes the following townships: Athlone, Belhar, Bonteheuwel, Elsies River, Khayelitsha, Manenberg, Heideveld, Hanover Park, Mitchell’s Plain, Lavender Hill, Vrygrond, Capricorn, Overcome Heights, Sea Winds, Retreat, Grassy Park, Landsdowne, Lotus River, Parkwood, Strandfontein, Pelican Park and Eagle Park. 16 The author places it between inverted commas, because from a scholarly perspective this was strictly speaking a neo-Pentecostal movement. 17 Here is some more information specifically on the Cape Flats: “During the apartheid era, race-based legislation such as the Group Areas Act and pass laws either forced non-white people out of more central urban areas designated for white people and into government-built townships in the Cape

76  Eugene Baron





Flats or made living in the area illegal, forcing many people into informal settlements elsewhere in the Cape Flats. Large housing projects were built here, mostly as part of the Nationalist government’s larger effort to force the so-called Coloured community out of the central and western areas of Cape Town, which were designated as white areas under the Group Areas Act” (Wikipedia, 2020) “Race and ethnicity in South Africa.” Accessed 23 March 2015. https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/race-and-ethnicity-south-africa 18 Willie D. Jonker, Die Gees van Christus (NG Kerkboekhandel, 1983), 226. The author explains that the big difference between the Pentecostal movement (Pentecostalism and the Charismatic movement) on the one hand and traditional Protestant churches on the other hand, lies in the authenticity of the claim that the extraordinary gifts of the Spirit are still operating in Christianity today. 19 Study Committee Report, “Report 34: Neo-Pentecostalism,” 398–493. 20 Benno Van Den Toren. “The Relationship between Christ and the Spirit in a Christian Theology of Religions.” Missiology: An International Review 40, no. 3 (2012): 267. 21 Study Committee Report, “Report 34: Neo-Pentecostalism,” 404. 22 Jonker. Die Gees van Christus, 212–245. 23 Jonker. Die Gees van Christus, 226. 24 John Calvin. Commentary on Corinthians – Volume 2 (Grand Rapids, MI: Classics Ethereal Library, 1509a), 159. 25 Neil Elliott. “The Apostle Paul and Empire,” Richard A. Horsley (ed.), In the Shadow of Empire: Reclaiming the Bible as a History of Faithful Resistance (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2008): 112–116. 26 Elliott. “The Apostle Paul and Empire,” 112–116. 27 Ibid. 28 Calvin. Commentary on Corinthians – Volume 2, 159. 29 Richard A. Horsley (ed.). In the Shadow of Empire: Reclaiming the Bible as a History of Faithful Resistance (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2008), 105–106. 30 John Calvin. Commentary on Galatians and Ephesians (Grand Rapids, MI: Christian Classics Ethereal Library, 1509c), 119–133. 31 Richard A. Horsley, Paul and Politics (Harrisburg: Trinity Press International, 2000), 57. 32 John Calvin. Commentary on Matthew, Mark, Luke – Volume 1 (Grand Rapids, MI: Christian Classics Ethereal Library, 1509c), 202. 33 Calvin, Commentary on Matthew, Mark, Luke – Volume 1, 202. 34 Calvin, Commentary on Matthew, Mark, Luke – Volume 1, 203. 35 Richard A. Horsley. Jesus and the Politics of Roman Palestine, Near Eastern Archaeology (South Caolina: University of South Carolina Press, 2014), 70. 36 Horsley. Jesus and the Politics of Roman Palestine, Near Eastern Archaeology, 81. 37 Joy DeGruy. Post Traumatic Slave Syndrome: America’s Legacy of Enduring Injury and Healing (DeGruy Publishers, 2005), 50. 38 A. van de Beek. “The Spirit of the Body of Christ: The Holy Spirit’s indwelling in the Church.” Acta Theologica 33, no. 1 (2013): 259. 39 Van de Beek. “The Spirit of the Body of Christ: The Holy Spirit’s Indwelling in the Church,” 252–256. 40 Ibid. 41 Hans Küng, The Church (Image Books, 1976), 229. 42 See Peterson. “Pneumatology and the Cross: The Challenge of Neo-Pentecostalism to Lutheran Theology,” 133; “Many in the global South are threatened by neo-Pentecostalism’s ability to attract members away from the Lutheran

Deepened Christology on the Cape Flats 77







churches. People are leaving Lutheran congregations because these churches are not preaching about transformation in concrete ways.” 43 Study Committee Report. “Report 34: Neo-Pentecostalism,” 398–493. 44 Calvin. Commentary on Matthew, Mark, Luke – Volume 1, 202. 45 Emmanuel M. Katongole. The Sacrifice of Africa: A Political Theology for Africa (Grand Rapids, MI: WB Eerdmans, 2011), 143. 46 Jacob Urbaniak. “What makes Christology in a post-apartheid South Africa engaged and prophetic? Comparative study of Koopman and Maluleke,” Rian Venter (ed.), Theology and the (Post)Apartheid Condition: Genealogies and Future Directions (Stellenbosch: Sun Media, 2016), 126. 47 Urbaniak. “What makes Christology in a Post-Apartheid South Africa Engaged and Prophetic? Comparative Study of Koopman and Maluleke,” 126. 48 Karabo Makofane and Nico A. Botha. “Christianity and Social Transformation in Post-Apartheid South Africa: From Prophetic Quietism to Signs of Prophetic Recovery.” Acta Theologica 28, no. 6 (2019): 88–103. 49 Klippies Kritzinger. “Overcoming Theological Voicelessness in the New Millennium.” Missionalia 40, no. 3 (2012): 233–250. 50 Makofane and Botha. “Christianity and Social Transformation in Post-Apartheid South Africa: From Prophetic Quietism to Signs of Prophetic Recovery,” 88–103. 51 Eugene Baron and Moses Maponya. “The Recovery of the Prophetic Voice of the Church: The Adoption of a ‘Missional Church’ Imagination.” Verbum et Ecclesia 41, no. 1 (2020): 1–9. 52 Baron and Maponya. “The Recovery of the Prophetic Voice of the Church: The Adoption of a ‘Missional Church’ Imagination,” 1–9; They refer to at least three “ecclesial imaginations” that emerged through their research: theatre, business and stokvel ecclesiologies. 53 Van de Beek, “The Spirit of the Body of Christ: The Holy Spirit’s Indwelling in the Church,” 252–256. 54 Ibid.

References Baron, Eugene and Moses Maponya. “The Recovery of the Prophetic Voice of the Church: The Adoption of a ‘Missional Church’ Imagination.” Verbum et Ecclesia 41, no.1 (2020): 9. Van de Beek, A. “The Spirit of the Body of Christ: The Holy Spirit’s Indwelling in the Church.” Acta Theologica 33, no. 1 (2013): 252–265. Calvin, John. Commentary on Corinthians - Volume 2. Grand Rapids, MI: Classics Ethereal Library, 1509a. __________. Commentary on Galatians and Ephesians. Grand Rapids, MI: Christian Classics Ethereal Library, 1509b. __________. Commentary on Matthew, Mark, Luke - Volume 2. Vol. 1. Grand Rapids, MI: Christian Classics Ethereal Library, 1509c. DeGruy, Joy. Post Traumatic Slave Syndrome. Portland: De Gruy Publishers, 2005. Elliott, Neil. “The Apostle Paul and Empire,” Richard A. Horsley (ed.), In the Shadow of Empire: Reclaiming the Bible as a History of Faithful Resistance. (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2008): 97–116. Horsley, Richard A. In the Shadow of Empire: Reclaiming the Bible as a History of Faithful Resistance. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2008. __________. Jesus and the Politics of Roman Palestine: Near Eastern Archaeology. University of South Carolina Press, 2014.

78  Eugene Baron Jonker, Willie D. Die Gees van Christus. Melville: NG Kerkboekhandel, 1983. Katongole, Emmanuel M. The Sacrifice of Africa: A Political Theology for Africa. Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2011. Kritzinger, Klippies. “Overcoming theological voicelessness in the new millennium.” Missionalia 3 (2012): 233–250. Küng, Hans. The Church. Basel: Image Books, 1976. Makofane, Karabo and Nico A. Botha. “Christianity and Social Transformation in Post-Apartheid South Africa: From Prophetic Quietism to Signs of Prophetic Recovery.” Acta Theologica 28, no. 6 (2019): 88–103. Nthla, Moss. “Pentecostal and Evangelical Perspectives on Ecumenicity,” Ernst M. Conradie (ed.), South African Perspectives on Notions and Forms of Ecumenicity. (Stellenbosch: Sun Media, 2013): 154–155. Peterson, Cheryl M. “Pneumatology and the Cross: The Challenge of NeoPentecostalism to Lutheran Theology.” Dialog 50, no. 2 (2011): 133–142. Quebedeaux, Richard. The New Charismatic: The Origins, Development, and Significance of Neo-Pentecostalism. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1976. Smith, James K.A. Thinking in Tongues: Pentecostal Contributions to Christian Philosophy. Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2012. Study Committee Report. “Report 34: Neo-Pentecostalism.” Supplement-Report 34, no. 1 (1975): 398–493. Toren, Benno Van Den. “The Relationship between Christ and the Spirit in a Christian Theology of Religions.” Missiology: An International Review 40, no. 3 (2012): 263–280. Urbaniak, Jakub. “What Makes Christology in a Post-Apartheid South Africa Engaged and Prophetic? Comparative Study of Koopman and Maluleke.” Rian Venter (ed.), Theology and the (Post)Apartheid Condition: Genealogies and Future Directions. (Bloemfontein, Sun Media, 2016): 125–155.

4

Wo/Men’s God-given power Male headship versus female agency in Pentecostal sermons Tumi Mampane

4.1 Introduction Over two decades after the transition to democracy and a promise of equality for all, women in South Africa, and especially Black women, are still economically disadvantaged, often fall victim to physical and sexual abuse by men, and earn less than men for doing the same work. The law and different organisational policies may be in favour of women’s equality to men, but these must be realised and implemented. The law may give a good start in executing social change, but we must constantly question, challenge and transform the ideological structures which give dominance to one group over another. Patriarchy is one such ideology. Patriarchy deeproots gender stereotypes and “norms”, giving an allowance for societal systems that legitimate the subjugation of women. Patriarchy is a “norm” in itself and is woven into our everyday language, culture and beliefs. It is this entrenchment and normalisation that had the Commission on Gender Equality stating: It is a sad fact that […] patriarchy […] is so firmly rooted that it is given a cultural halo and identified with customs and personalities of different communities. Thus to challenge patriarchy, to dispute the idea that it is men who should be dominant figures in the family and society, is to be seen not as fighting against the male privilege, but as attempting to destroy African tradition, or to subvert Afrikaner ideals or undermine civilised and deemed British values.1 The same can be said of religious ideals, as the institutions that support and are built by patriarchy include churches. This is due to the role of religion in legitimating social constructs and ideologies. 2 Yet male privilege must be challenged and the acknowledgement of religion’s role in the ideological construction of the world means its ability to equally reconstruct ideas in a positive, equality-driven direction should also be noted. And as Pentecostal Christianity is, by many standards, the fastest growing

DOI: 10.4324/9781003212973-4

80  Tumi Mampane religious movement in the world with a considerable following in Africa,3 it is a fitting site to interrogate the issues of gendered discourse and its effects. Furthermore, the historical association of Pentecostalism with the promise of liberation for the marginalised and dispossessed4 brings us to the necessity of exploring if, how far, and to what degree this liberation can be attained by women too. Black feminist theology (BFT) bases its ideas on this very premise and identifies Black women as the most oppressed and marginalised group in South Africa, giving them “a greater claim to God’s compassion”. 5 BFT identifies with and recognises the need for the liberation of all Black people and challenges all theology to do the same, for “any form of liberation which does not address itself to the emancipation of the whole person should be seriously challenged for misrepresenting the concept of liberation”.6 This is the challenge which my research brings to the fore. I ask whether the concept of liberation, so closely associated with Pentecostalism, is one which includes the emancipation of women, and especially Black African women. And where paradigmatic shifts are being debated, within this book and other platforms, in relation to Pentecostalists and neo-Pentecostalists, my reading insists that we see paradigms in Christology along the gendered lines on which institutions are built and maintained. I also critique the prevalence of male headship in churches in Alexandra township which, according to the last census, are largely populated by women, 33.6% of whom are heading their households.7 This chapter seeks to reveal the relationship between Pentecostal Charismatic Christianity and patriarchal ideology. Recorded sermons from two Pentecostal Charismatic Churches in Alexandra township – one pastored by a man and the other by a woman – are compared using critical discourse analysis (CDA). Through this analysis, my research ascertains how, if at all, these Pentecostal Charismatic Churches construct gender hierarchies and perpetuate or challenge societal inequality between men and women. Following the approach that patriarchy is a “truth” constructed through language and using a Black/African feminist and womanist lens, the discourses of these two churches in Alexandra are analysed to uncover the perpetuation or challenging of gender inequality in Pentecostal charismatic sermons. I use the plural for “discourses”, because I argue that charismatic Christianity is a contested space that does not neatly fit the binaries of a masculine versus feminine identity, and that gendered identity in these churches produces an unresolved tension between traditional African views of womanhood and challenges to women from a broadly modern feminist standpoint. What is most interesting about my findings is that this unresolved tension plays itself out in terms of different and conflicting understandings of spirituality. Even within this tension, though, differing discourses converge in encouraging a femininity of “believing Christ”.

Wo/Men’s God-given power 81

4.2 African gender discourses and their Pentecostal embodiments Sylvia Tamale8 relates Christian, Judaic and Islamic (which she groups as “Messianic religious”) texts to the current laws and policies in several African countries. Since in Africa there is a “tendency […] to adopt an institutionalised and organic union between religion and the state”,9 Tamale asserts a link between the three realms of the law, religion and culture, which she sees as working together to control African bodies. African women bear the brunt of this, having to live a respectability based on domesticity that “reinforce[s] the idea that the ‘proper’ or ‘real’ African woman is a woman who is heterosexual, married, bears children, and more often than not, pleases her husband sexually”.10 Women’s bodies are controlled in this way to grow and sustain patriarchal capitalism. Men, who are often the heads of households, have economic power and control over women and children; and women free men to be active in industry and politics through the unpaid domestic labour of taking care of home and children. Keeping these domestic and public power bases in place also means keeping women’s sexuality under surveillance and creating laws with double standards for women and men. Theologians also call into question the role of Christianity in constructing an inferior identity for African women. Elijah M. Baloyi11 writes extensively about the hindrances that biblical interpretations pose to African women’s rights by giving men undue control over their bodies. The same concerns regarding the subordination of African women are voiced by Renier Koegelenberg12 who studies masculinities as a means to curb the unequal power relations that cause women to be more vulnerable to HIV/ AIDS infection as they are unable to negotiate safe sex. Women, and Black women in particular, are amongst the poorest of the world’s population and most subjected to violence, even from their childhood. So, Ikenga Oraegbunam13 links the attitudes and beliefs that lead to the unfair biases against women to all of the major religions and cultural practices around the world, including Christianity. Women’s identification with an inferior “other” has also been attributed to the patriarchal imagery of God as subjugating male ruler, justifying men’s “natural” domination over women. Both men and women often view and make sense of all structures of society through this understanding.14 Several studies have argued that Pentecostal women experience violence at the hands of men, and do not find the necessary support from the church to free themselves of it.15 Frahm-Arp16 attributes women’s acceptance of domestic violence to systems of power within Pentecostalism that create an ideology of denial, normalising, and self-blame. Caroline Tuckey and Louise Kretzchmar,17 who have conducted empirical research on the Church of the Province of Southern Africa in Johannesburg, argue that Pentecostalism “preps” women and men for patriarchal structures which

82  Tumi Mampane could lead to violence and the oppression of women from a young age by socialising girls and boys for a Christian life of female servitude and inferiority and male dominance and macho leadership. Patriarchal ideology is further entrenched throughout different stages of women’s lives. Groups based on biblical descriptions of good women are formed to teach Pentecostal women to “know their place” in society.18 This place is taken up in feminine roles that are set up by the church. One of the roles is that of motherhood. Frahm-Arp19 finds that the churches construct their ideals of motherhood based on pop culture discourse, and then legitimise this through an “authoritative” reference to the Bible. The role of wife is linked closely to that of the mother in that it is constructed as a service to the family but introduces a relation of submission to a husband. 20 Sarojini Nadar and Cheryl Potgieter term this ideology “masculinism”21 and “formenism”:22 Formenism, like masculinism, subscribes to a belief in the inherent superiority of men over women, but unlike masculinism it is not an ideology developed and sustained by men, but an ideology designed, constructed, and sustained by women. Like its phonetics suggests, this is a concept for men – that is to say, men are the chief beneficiaries of the hierarchical social positioning that it advocates. 23 Nadar and Potgieter further illustrate how the position encouraged by formenism appropriates John Stuart Mill’s description of the “willing slave”, where subordination is a choice made by women in line with institutional (religious in this case) requirements. Women also accept formenism because it offers the solution of “patriarchal bargaining”, where men are given leadership in exchange for being responsible for their wives and children. 24 Like Rosinah Mmannana Gabaitse, 25 whose research is based on Pentecostalism in Botswana, Nadar and Potgieter link the discourse of submission in South Africa to the abuse experienced by women in their relationships with men. In defining masculinism, Nadar refers to the Mighty Men’s Conference (MMC) founded and led in South Africa by Angus Buchan. The movement claims to help men “regain” their masculinity. Niel Vels reasons that the MMC appeals to the loss of identity experienced by Buchan’s farming Afrikaner congregants. He likens the MMC to a gang that offers displaced men a solution and opportunity “to help them make sense of life and their identity, particularly the sense of loss (and possible loss of identity) in tough economic and social circumstances”. 26 These circumstances are the changes brought about by the transition from apartheid to democracy in South Africa. Other authors give a sense of male responsibilisation in the construction of masculinities by Pentecostalism. The born-again experience requires men to leave behind the recklessness of substance abuse, promiscuity and

Wo/Men’s God-given power 83 violence in favour of a Christian life that takes male leadership and agency as caring, considerate and loving within the home, 27 as well as taking up roles of responsibility in the socio-political sphere.28 Marian Burchardt also acknowledges the responsibility element in the construction of Pentecostal masculinity, but highlights an element of traditional masculinity too. These “fundamentally contradictory” constructs lead to the assumption that “Pentecostal masculinity may rise to become a new hegemony rather than offering ways to escape, or reproducing hegemonic masculinity”, especially since “Pentecostalism is increasingly seen as the religion of ‘success’”. 29 Pentecostal discourse has also been found to construct the female identity as spiritually gifted and religiously sensitive,30 qualities which justify positions of leadership for women, pastoral included. But a strong distinction is still made between what liberties and authority women may enjoy in church as opposed to their expected submission at home and in other societal settings.31 Scholars lament the smaller numbers of ordained female leaders in Pentecostal spaces in spite of the fact that the beliefs of Pentecostalism are based on a democratic practice of spirituality and respect for spiritual gifts regardless of class, gender or race.32 Some African male pastors in Pentecostal Charismatic Churches have also shown support for Black women who are a part of their congregations in the different struggles they are facing. They provide spaces for coping mechanisms and new subjectivities which change how the women view themselves in the church and society. The women in such churches are found to have a high self-worth (regardless of marital status). They are also equipped with the masculine skills of management in corporate spaces.33 I must note that most of this literature leans towards a homogenous identity of Pentecostalism which is the picture of the megachurch and the many miracle-focused pastors that have dominated the media lately. My focus in this chapter, however, is on smaller churches, in this instance based in Alexandra township where the churches in question do not necessarily represent the “success” and “prosperity” gospel usually associated with the Pentecostal charismatic ministry. I show in this chapter that these churches add different layers to Pentecostal practice that are often overlooked by scholarship on African Pentecostalism but that are also important. I focus on sermons delivered to diverse audiences in a regular Sunday service as opposed to the more “specialised” group settings within the literature reviewed.

4.3 Pastor Masindi and Pastor Thoko in Alexandra township Alexandra township, in the north of Johannesburg, is the sole surviving “freehold” Black township, which means that even during apartheid Black and so-called Coloured people had land and were protected from the impeding Forced Removals Act of a violently racialised and unjust system. 34

84  Tumi Mampane The township’s identity as a farming and entrepreneurial space, however, later became complicated by slum dwellers who, after fleeing the forced removals of the Forced Removals Act, found solace and a home in an urban area occupied by their own. Being a space that was unregulated and without close white supervision attracted even more people, including immigrants from the then Rhodesia and other Southern African countries. Alexandra grew rapidly in the years 1938–1944, but more importantly began to gain what Phillip Bonner and Noor Neiftagodien describe as “multiple personalities”. It was a combination of all these personalities, the complaints of drunkenness and wild parties by white neighbours in the surrounding suburbs, and a rising rate of crime that earned Alexandra its pseudonym, Gomora.35 In Gomora many people attend mainline and Pentecostal churches every Sunday. I visited two Pentecostal Charismatic Churches in Alexandra. These two churches, Ujehova Ulapha and Thy Kingdom Come Ministry, are pastored by Pastor Thoko Mampane (referred to as Pastor Thoko) and Pastor Masindi respectively. Pastor Thoko is a woman and native to Alexandra township, having lived there since birth, and Pastor Masindi moved to Alexandra as a youth in 1970. He founded his church, with his late wife Mrs. Masindi in 1993. Thy Kingdom Come Ministry has since grown to a congregation of about 60 members, most of whom are women and children. The congregants of Ujehova Ulapha are mostly women. This is a small church of just over 20 members and grouped into five families. The women who attend this church are relatively young professionals (none over 55) and university students. Pastor Thoko attracts the attention of Alexandra women as the first woman to be officially ordained into and founded her own Pentecostal ministry. Though she does not identify herself as a feminist, most of her sermons are centred on the experiences of Black women, and an analysis of these sermons shows her leaning towards an ideology of egalitarian ideals and the empowerment of her congregants.

4.4  Pastor Thoko’s sermon The macro-textual positioning of Pastor Thoko’s sermon is one against tradition, encouraging women to make more decisions and take power in their marriages and society. She strengthens this argument with the story of Moses’s wife found in the book of Exodus: Inkosikazi kaMoses yabona ulaka luka Nkulunkulu. Ethukuthele uNkulunkulu, ethukutheliswa indoda yakhe. Wathatha umntwana ngokwakhe, wathatha ummese wasoka lo mntwana. Lwehla ulaka luka Nkulunkulu. Wasindisa indoda yakhe nomntwana wakhe. [“Moses’s wife saw the wrath of God. God was angry. He was angry with her husband. She took the child herself, took a knife and cut

Wo/Men’s God-given power 85 him – she circumcised him. God’s wrath came down (or stopped). She saved her husband and child.”] We see a disturbance of equilibrium in that God was angry and can assume that this anger would have led to Moses’s death (and that of their son). Moses’s wife, in her taking the traditionally male role of circumcising a male child, assumes the position of hero and attempts to restore equilibrium. A reinstatement is indeed established, as God calms down and both Moses and the child are saved from death. We see that it was in her breaking of tradition that Moses’s wife saves her family. Traditional male circumcision is executed by men in most cultures and religions (including Jewish, many African cultures, and Islam) which practise it. Pastor Thoko, in fact, begins the following narrative by way of an epideictic argument – denouncing women who hold too strongly to tradition: Ayikho into engicasula njengomfazi wesiwula because umfazi wesiwula uyoyekela izinto zimoshakale athi “Hayi ubaba akekho lento ifanele iyenzwe ngubaba”. [“Nothing angers me more than a foolish woman, because a foolish woman will allow the disintegration of things based on tradition. She will say, ‘My husband/a man should fix this, since he is not here nothing can be done’.”] The denunciation is first seen in her description of this mythical woman as a fool, and then also in the representation of a woman with the word “umfazi”. In the Zulu language a woman can be referred to as “inkosikazi”, when addressing a married woman and a woman who is being given respect. Inkosikazi translates to: a woman of breeding and authority; the wife of a lord, in other words, a polite term referring to a woman. A woman can also be called “umama”, which translates to a mother, also a term not strictly related to women who have children, but that rather applies to women who are older and/or wiser and hence deserve the respect of the person addressing them. It is a sentimental term which appeals to the nurturing nature of a woman hence we can call even women who are not related to us in any way “umama”. “Umfazi” is a married woman – it denotes a wife. The connotative meaning of this word choice, however, can be seen in the lexicalisation between the three modes of representation: “inkosikazi”/“umama”/“umfazi”. While “inkosikazi” refers to a higher ranking of woman, followed by “umama”, which is more sentimental, “umfazi” connotes a mere married woman. “Umfazi wesiwula” connotes a lesser woman, a foolish woman who deserves neither respect nor admiration. She is presented as an example of what a woman should not be. She is the kind of woman who angers, annoys and irritates Pastor Thoko (“Nothing angers me more than a foolish

86  Tumi Mampane umfazi”). When “umfazi wesiwula” is juxtaposed to Moses’s heroic wife (who is not bound by traditional roles), women within this congregation are persuaded to do away with traditionally assigned gender roles by taking the “roles of men” to save their families rather than sit in the “silent roles of women” and be mere married fools. God is in support of this, she adds, as “God is not for tradition and religion” (“Izinto zika Nkulunkulu azina tradition ne-religion”). There is another type of woman that the congregation should not imitate: Kukhona abanye abomama abathi baxakwa izinto zabo and turn a blind eye because they cannot be kings. Bese ama-frustration abo nento zabo zizobatholela ebantwaneni. Bathi, “Abobaba bayalingeka, ningalingi abobaba” Uyamazi. Uhlulwa ukusokisa indoda yakho uzogqokisa umntwana amaduku. Uhamba uthwala amaduku wena njalo uma usuka ekhaya ukuthi ukwazi ukumbesa abantwana because awukwazi ukulungisa lento eyenzeka ekhaya lakho. Ufuna ukuyilungisa kulo mntwana. Phuma emathangeni omntwana. Ngena ezipini yendoda yakho. [“There are some women who are frustrated by their own problems at home but turn a blind eye because they cannot be kings. They rather take those frustrations out on children. They say, ‘Men are tempted, do not tempt men’. You know them. You fail to circumcise your husband, and instead cover children with a head scarf (doek). You go everywhere with your doeks. You never leave home without them so that you can cover up children because you don’t know how to fix the situation in your home. You want to fix children instead. Leave the child’s thighs alone. Concentrate on your husband’s zip/pants.”] This woman is given the title of “umama” as she seems to take care of the people in the congregation. There is a problem presented, however, in the way she chooses to look after the men and children of her church. People in Pentecostal Charismatic Churches do not have to wear a uniform and are generally not concerned about a dress code. Men, women and children are permitted to wear jeans and takkies to church, for example. There are no “rules” about what can or cannot be worn. That being said, by observing the members of most churches in Alexandra (and others I have visited around Johannesburg), one will notice that it is only the youth who display “no rules” in their choice of attire. Men usually wear suits and if in jeans will wear them with a shirt and tie – they never wear takkies. Women wear dresses and skirts; they are never in casual pants. Some cover their heads with a hat or a doek, but not all and not always. Though there are no rules about the length of a skirt, showing too much of one’s legs can be frowned upon – this is what Pastor Thoko refers to in her description of the second kind of woman. When a female person (a youth, as indicated) is seen to be

Wo/Men’s God-given power 87 showing too much of her legs, there will be an older woman who quickly covers her up using a doek. This is done in full view of the church, as the girls who are covered up will be sitting in the front, giving testimony on the pulpit, or responding to an altar call (this is when a pastor calls people forward to be prayed for). The youths are also more likely to be in the worship team so the girls there are mostly the objects of this covering up. Young girls and women have for a long time been the object of scrutiny where sexuality is concerned. Tamale argues, along with African feminist movements, that domesticating and ultimately privatising a woman’s body strengthens and maintains male power.36 Women are therefore forced or encouraged to hide or censor their sexuality and to remain monogamous. Further, the blame for adultery has always been placed on the woman. Biblical texts support this claim with examples of women such as Delilah who seduced Samson in order to have his power taken away; Potiphar’s wife who tried to seduce Joseph and had him jailed when she did not get her way; the women who were stoned when caught in intimate acts with men to whom they were not married; and Salome who (following the instruction of her mother Herodias) used a sensuous dance to coerce Herod into beheading John the Baptist. All these stories have in common immoral acts where women are portrayed as the instigators. Men, with legitimate public sexual rights, have been represented as the victims of females who tempted and seduced them with their naked bodies. To “remedy” this issue, the church and society have continued to practise the silencing of women by controlling how they dress, the spaces they occupy and limiting their interaction with men to whom they are not married. Young girls are especially socialised to live up to the ideals of a private and domesticated body. The covering of a young girl’s legs to keep men from being tempted is an example of this – something which has become the object of Pastor Thoko’s criticism of practices by women in the church. She presents the women (“mothers”) as frustrated by their situation at home. This is a mental process of transitivity which gives the women the role of sensor (of frustration). She even assigns ownership of the said problems (whatever they may be) to the women (“izinto zabo” – “their problems”). She then suggests that these women, rather than accepting the ownership of their feelings of inadequacy and frustration, project them onto the young girls in the church. This is shown in the material transitivity process where the women (“abomama”) are the actors “doing to” (by taking it out on or projecting it onto) the passive young girls (“abantwana”). In her mimicry of the words used by these women (“ningalingi abobaba” – “do not tempt men”) she exposes the protection of men from seductive women as an excuse and concealment of deeper problems that not only lie with men in the church, but with their wives too – problems within their homes. The description of the act of covering young women/children is delivered through a forensic argument. Pastor Thoko shows how the actions of these women are not only irrational (“You go everywhere with your doeks.

88  Tumi Mampane You never leave home without them so that you can cover up children”), but also unjust (“They rather take those frustrations out on children”). Her initial description of these women is of them as “they”, thereby suggesting that the women she is talking about are outside the congregation. “They” can be imagined or even have a known identity but are essentially outsiders. The congregation is placed at ease by the use of this deictic pronoun, allowing them the position to critically consider the actions of these frustrated women. Pastor Thoko then addresses the women who act this way directly, as if they are in the audience. The deictic pronoun takes a turn from “they” to “you”, forcing the congregants to turn their critical view of the frustrated outsiders onto themselves. “You” is anyone within the congregation who has either taken part in, approved of or has been complacent with the covering of young women in church. The women addressed are presented with the problem with which they are unsuccessfully dealing when Pastor Thoko states that these women are unable to circumcise (“ukusokisa”) their husbands. The meaning of “ukusokisa” in this context is polysemous. Circumcision, in the biblical-­ Christian context, signifies a “cutting” of one’s sinful nature so that one becomes holy and is brought closer to God (Romans 9:24). In the African traditional context, it signifies a coming of age and solidifies a man’s respectable standing within his community.37 Pastor Thoko adds another signifier in her account of Moses’s wife performing a circumcision herself and saving her family from the wrath of God. We also get an indication of another meaning when she speaks of the man’s zip (“ngena ezipini yendoda yakho” − “keep your man on a leash”), a common response used when the mistress is confronted by the wife regarding her affair with her husband. Whatever the meaning Pastor Thoko intends to encode in this case, the subject of her address remains the same. She is challenging women to face their marital problems without projecting them onto girls’ bodies. Whether “ukusokisa” or circumcision is taken as making the husband holy; giving him respectability in his community; saving him from the wrath of God; or controlling his sexual urges, it is a responsibility which Pastor Thoko assigns to the wife. This problematises the agency which Pastor Thoko encourages women to take considering the greater societal issues at play. Women have been represented in different structures of society as the sexual objects of men, 38 which has subsequently led to their falling victim to the violence of men whether married to them or not.39 However, to suggest that married women should take full responsibility for their husbands’ sexual actions is not empowerment, but a legitimisation of an existing oppression. I do note, however, that Pastor Thoko’s statement is in response to older women’s policing of young girls’ bodies and is thus less simplistic than simply an “oppression versus liberation of women” discourse. She seems to have taken a stand with the less powerful of two groups of women, but defending young girls against the older women in this way (though liberating as far as the discussion of women’s bodies is

Wo/Men’s God-given power 89 concerned) only serves to conceal the patriarchal structures that have created that situation. Later on in the sermon accountability is placed with men: Banesibindi labo baba bemikhaba. Babamba ukhalonyana. Amablessers, amanyala. Amanyala Nkosi yami. Ubaba onesibindi sokubamba ithanga elisamile elinganyakazi. [These men with potbellies have got some audacity. They hold onto/ touch a tiny (or a little bit of) waist. Blessers, disgraceful (or filthy). So disgraceful, my Lord. A man with the audacity to touch/hold a firm, unquivering thigh.] The argument in this clause is both epideictic and forensic. She denounces the character of blessers (older men who have transactional relationships with young women) by describing them as disgraceful or filthy and having the audacity to do things that are so disgraceful. She also presents their touching of young girls as an injustice when she describes the small structure and innocence of a young girl’s body (“ukhalonyana”, “ithanga elinganyakazi”). By describing blessers as the active participants who touch or hold passive young girls, Pastor Thoko uses material transitivity to take a stance that the girls are victimised by these men. Since the phenomenon of the blesser was highly publicised by the media much debate has taken place about the agency of young women versus their victimisation in relationships with older rich men.40 The position taken by Pastor Thoko is similar to that portrayed by Jacky Phamotse41 in her account of the life of a young blessee, which was based on true events. This is, again, an issue which cannot be discussed without taking into account the patriarchal structures that have placed women at an economic disadvantage. It also highlights the sexual objectification of women as I have discussed. Pastor Thoko vilifies blessers, in this case, and challenges them to become accountable, just as she has challenged the married women who promote patriarchy to be accountable for what they are doing. They are “obaba” − not just men, but fathers who are expected to protect young women instead of exploiting their bodies. When they fail to carry out this duty they are (and she repeats) filth (“amanyala”) that have the audacity (“isibindi”) to do such disgraceful things. She does not, however, make a direct reference to men’s responsibilities to their wives, families or any other women in the church or community.

4.5  Pastor Masindi’s sermons There are very few instances where Pastor Masindi (who preaches in English) addresses gender issues, so I have included clauses from two of his sermons. In the first, he discusses Galatians 3:13, “Christ redeemed us

90  Tumi Mampane from the curse of the law”. In the second, he focuses on tithes and offerings. Both these sermons include narratives and arguments which suggest his leaning towards traditional gender norms. About women who wish to marry he says: I would advise young women to hold back on pursuing love. I know that things are changing and you are able to take care of yourselves. But when it comes to relationships, don’t be the one to pursue. If you pursue a man and he ends up marrying you, later on when you experience problems in your marriage he will say, “I didn’t ask for this. It was your idea,” and you will end up alone. When a young man wants to marry a young woman he says, “You have won my heart”. He will try to resist but something keeps pushing him, that is how spiritual things work. According to this narrative, a woman’s attempt to restore equilibrium by finding a partner could lead to her getting what she wants. She would, however, have to bear the consequences later as the man would be reluctant to fix things within the marriage should the equilibrium be broken again. So, a woman who breaks the traditional gender norms of courtship can restore equilibrium, but only temporarily. Pastor Masindi uses a deliberative argument to discourage women from taking the lead in courtship and relationships. He acknowledges that women are becoming more financially independent (“you are able to take care of yourselves”) and that gender roles in the new millennium are changing (“things are changing”), but discourages young women from allowing these changes to break tradition. He says this in a way of protecting them from future harm (of ending up alone). Marriage in churches is highly encouraged for both men and women. Pastors often quote the scripture: “He who finds a wife, finds a good thing and obtains favour from the Lord” (Proverbs 18:22). It is even suggested in this scripture that marriage is to be pursued by men. Gender norms in African cultures (and many others around the world) also dictate that men should be the initiators in relationships. Baloyi argues that these gender norms further entrench patriarchy as “this attitude projects women as passive recipients of men, which, in turn, makes them direct objects of men”.42 Yet Pastor Masindi strengthens his argument by suggesting, quite romantically, that a woman who waits to be pursued succeeds in capturing a man’s heart (“you have won my heart”). Pastor Masindi employs material transitivity in his description of a man who gives in to love, for he then becomes the passive receiver of the woman’s actions (or lack thereof). This may look like a contradiction to the patriarchal notion of the man as initiator, but actually only serves to conceal patriarchy as women are encouraged

Wo/Men’s God-given power 91 to take a “bottom” or submissive position of power. This is the only kind of position allowed to women so as not to threaten the dominance of men. Regarding the offer of freedom in the scripture quoted above he says: This scripture is for women more than anyone else. Women are the ones who suffer the most in the world, but God wants you to know that you will be freed. When man was cursed at the garden of Eden women got it worse. Even now that men enjoy some freedoms, women still live under that curse. Your freedom will come in heaven. And another thing: don’t listen to what people of the world are telling you. If you fight for yourself then God will not fight for you. Let God be the one who fights and help you with your struggles. Don’t try to fight for yourself. We see here an acknowledgement that women are a marginalised group. Though Masindi does not specify what it is that women “suffer the most”, we can take this as a discourse based on presupposed knowledge.43 The plight of women in South Africa is not just one that is experienced individually or discussed in closed groups, but is also a highly mediated topic. In recent years (2017–present) the issue of “femicide” has been all over the media, from social media to mass media. Most of the public who listen to or read the news will be familiar with the rape statistics of the country, and of course the extremely high level of violence against women in general. Equality between the genders is also widely debated and the South African government has made a commitment to close the gender gap, not only in workspaces and parliament but in families as well. Based on this, we can see that Pastor Masindi’s speaking of women’s suffering is founded on the assumption that all who are listening have some idea if not experience of what women suffer. As the scripture is one which offers “freedom from the curse of the law”, Pastor Masindi suggests that this freedom was made for women. The “law” in the biblical text refers to the ten commandments given to Moses by God in the book of Exodus. It was given to the Jews as a means of keeping them holy through their actions, but breaking the laws meant bringing curses onto themselves. New Testament theology sees the birth, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ as able to break the curses associated with the transgressing of the law, and not so much denoting a breaking away from adhering to the law. Jesus was very close to women during his life on earth, and this is what Pastor Masindi refers to in his suggesting that the scripture was meant for women. One of the most popular scriptures in the New Testament gives an account of Jesus saving a woman from being stoned to death after she has been caught in the act of adultery. The law of Moses stated that adultery was punishable by death, but Jesus liberated women specifically (as they mostly fell victim to this punishment) from the “curse”.

92  Tumi Mampane Since Jesus lived on earth and saved this adulteress from being stoned on earth it is rather questionable that Pastor Masindi tells women to await their true liberation only in the afterlife. He further instructs women, by way of an epideictic argument, to refrain from fighting (“don’t fight for yourselves”). He denounces “others” who are seen to be “fighting” or encouraging women to engage in this fight (“do not listen to the people of this world”). The people of this world in the context of Pentecostal discourse is anyone who does not believe in Christ or does not follow the Christian way of living, so there is a clear polarization between “us” and “them”. He seems to be of the belief that any Christian women who partake in these “fights” must be doing so due to an influence coming from outside of the church constructs. Hall argues that difference gives meaning to things which places them in symbolic categories so “stable cultures require things to stay in their appointed place”.44 So when Christian women partake in the fights which are initiated by outsiders, a disturbance of this stability is created. Pastor Masindi uses this marked difference to drive that point across and convince Christian women that to strive for equality is a betrayal of the values for which they stand. I must, however, note a statement made by Pastor Masindi, which made it apparent that he does not always only promote male dominance and female subordination. In his account of family finances related to tithes and offerings he said, “My wife is the Minister of Finance”. He places himself here as an example of how finances in the home could be handled. He even uses a word which gives women authority over finances by using a title associated with political authority (“Minister”).

4.6  Comparing the sermons of the two pastors An analysis of the two pastors’ sermons gives us an idea of the ideologies they stand for, but also of an “interideologicality”,45 in that they are not always either on the side of or in opposition to patriarchy. Both pastors have a certain form of authority which places them in a position to employ discursive strategies which (re)produce or challenge dominant ideologies. The most common discursive strategies include justification/legitimation of the social order, and a denial/concealment of inequality. Pastor Masindi uses justification as a strategy to convince women that men are and should remain the leaders in courtship and relationships. He tries to deter women from deviating from traditional gender norms and presents this as a necessity to protect them from future emotional harm. He also uses polarized models of representation to sustain existing attitudes about gender norms when he describes women who “wait” and “don’t fight” as exemplary and in a better position to win the favour of men and God. In contrast there are those women, described as “people of this world”, who challenge gender norms and stand up to the injustices

Wo/Men’s God-given power 93 they experience. Pastor Masindi’s notions and apparent resistance to change in gender hierarchies are in standing with the ideology of masculinism, which stands for male domination and poses an “antithesis to feminism”.46 Pastor Thoko, again, uses the same strategies to oppose masculinism and promote feminism. She resists the notion of a “natural” gender order, stating that God is not for tradition. On the “deviant” side of her polarized models are the women who bind themselves to traditional practices; female church leaders who attempt to control how young women dress; and men known as blessers who exploit young girls’ bodies instead of taking responsibility as fathers. She convinces women to take their stand in society by using the wife of Moses as example, in that she broke tradition to save her family. Pastor Thoko does, however, employ a denial strategy when she implies that women should be in control of their husbands’ actions, seemingly paying no attention to the patriarchal structures which have made it difficult for women to challenge men. Van Dijk47 and Fairclough48 argue that in such cases we do not always get a clear picture of villains and victims, and that those in marginalised groups can be influenced in a way which has them acting in the interests of the powerful out of their own free will (a universalising of dominance called hegemony). Pastor Masindi’s denial and concealment begin by his attributing women’s suffering to God’s “curses” in the Garden of Eden, thereby removing responsibility for their pain from the patriarchal actions of men and society. He speaks of the growing independence of women but problematises this by highlighting how it only serves to alienate the very men they wish to marry. He further conceals inequality by giving women a claim to power over men’s hearts and favour from God only if they take a “bottom power”, which I have already stated is simply a form of negotiated (or palatable) patriarchy. He also gives women a hope of liberation yet makes it inaccessible for them by stating that it can only be enjoyed in heaven. Both ministers also display a resistance to traditional norms in certain respects: Pastor Masindi by proudly stating that his wife handles the finances in their home; and Pastor Thoko by exposing the covering of girls’ legs in church as an unjust policing of female bodies rather than a holy strategy to prevent adultery.

4.7 Conclusion This chapter has shown how a simple sermon presented to family groupings in a small township hall can deter women from their struggle for equality and convince men that their power is justified. The very same setting can be used to encourage women who are already heading their homes that they are on the right path and encourage those who are afraid to do so that God is on their side.

94  Tumi Mampane Both the direct and subtle messages of ideology in the findings give us much to think about. Discursive strategies can be employed by those in an authoritative position to perpetuate or challenge patriarchy. The picture here is a complex one: the ideology of male dominance can be both naturalised and presented as a norm while the normality of it can be presented as foolish and a danger to the family. Any of the two representations construct an identity in the listeners who are given the polarized views of “believing Christ”. Pastor Masindi’s view of what is “Christian” is unchallenging of patriarchal norms and “unchristian” fights for injustices against women. He constructs an identity for women that does not threaten the existing male power and dominance. A spiritual woman, according to his sermon, is one who allows men their traditional roles and accepts what he says is God’s doing regarding women’s plight. His view shows the danger of using the Bible and spirituality to further subjugate a group and is in contradiction to the idea of a Jesus who liberates and restores women’s dignity. Pastor Thoko, on the other hand, presents to her congregants an image of a “Christian” as one who opposes tradition, stands up for the silenced and challenges those who attempt to silence women. The “unchristian” choice is the one holding on to tradition and/or practices the silencing of women. Given these choices, on which side would a woman be who has been taught all her life to submit to her husband? Most likely it is not a choice she has made upon hearing one such sermon. If we keep with the constructionist theory that ideologies are practised and reiterated over time, then we can assume that Pastor Masindi’s words sounded natural to his audience whereas Pastor Thoko’s audience could have seen her as more radical. Yet, if such radicality could be the norm and women could be seen even through “spiritual” eyes as holding and deserving of God’s power; and if all ministers were to preach about a God who has no tradition, how much liberation (the very cusp of charismatic Christianity) could be truly realised for women and men? I add to this a suggestion of constant reflexivity for those who do challenge patriarchy, as even Pastor Thoko displays a hegemonic leaning in her attacks on traditionalist views. Her statements in this regard do not go as far as the formenism concept of Nadar and Potgieter,49 but perhaps expose a part of her own thinking that she herself has not challenged for being patriarchal. These unexamined and unchallenged parts of our thinking exist because we haven’t yet realised how deeply entrenched patriarchal structures are within society. We must begin to see the oppression that comes from outside but also recognise its roots within. We must realise that freedom is not in the crumbs that patriarchy leaves for us to bicker over in our oppressed corners. Borrowing the face of the oppressor to oppress you further can never free me, for “the master’s tools will never dismantle the master’s house”.50

Wo/Men’s God-given power 95

Notes 1 Commission on Gender Equality. Annual Report of the Commission on Gender Equality, 1998. https://www.cge.org.za/annual-reports/ 2 Michael Argyle. Psychology and Religion (London: Routledge, 2000). 3 See Allan Anderson. An Introduction to Pentecostalism: Global Charismtic Christianity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013); Allan Anderson and Samuel Otwang. Tumelo: The Faith of African Pentecostals in South Africa (Pretoria: University of South Africa, 1993). 4 Elizabeth Isichei. The Religious Traditions of Africa: A History (Westport: Praeger Publishing, 2004), 170–190. 5 Christina Landman. “Ten Years of Feminist Theology in South Africa.” Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion 11, no. 1 (1995): 144. 6 Roxanne Jordaan. “The Emergence of Black Feminist Theology in South Africa.” Journal of Black Theology in South Africa 1, no. 2 (1987): 42–46. 7 Statistics South Africa. “City of Johannesburg,” http://www.statssa.gov. za/?page_id=4286&id=11305. 8 Sylvia Tamale. “Exploring the Contours of African Sexualities: Religion, Law and Power.” African Human Rights Law Journal 14, no. 1 (2014): 150–177. 9 Ibid., 157. 10 Jessica Horn. “Re-righting the Sexual Body.” Feminist Africa 6 (2006): 9. 11 See Elijah M. Baloyi. “An African View of Women as Sexual Objects as a Concern for Gender Equality: A Critical Study.” Verbum et Ecclesia 31, no. 1 (2010): 1–6; “Patriarchal Structures, a Hindrance to Women’s Rights.” (PhD diss., University of Pretoria, 2008); “The Biblical Exegesis of Headship: A Challenge to Patriarchal Understanding that Impinges on Women’s Rights in the Church and Society.” Verbum et Ecclesia 2008: 1–13. 12 Renier Koegelenberg. Men in the Pulpit, Women in the Pew? Addressing Gender Inequality in Africa (Stellenbosch: Sun Press, 2012). 13 Ikenga Oraegbunam. “From Patriarchy to Women Empowerment: Socio-­ Religious Challenges and Prospects.” Gender and Behaviour 4, no. 2 (2006): 852–866. 14 Mary Daly. Beyond God the Father: Toward a Philosophy of Women’s Liberation (Boston: Beacon Press, 1985); Elizabeth Johnson. “The Incomprehensibility of God and the Image of God Male and Female.” Theological Studies 45, no. 3 (1984): 441–465; Susan Shooter. “How Feminine Participation in the Divine Might Renew the Church and Its Leadership.” Feminist Theology 22, no. 2 (2014): 173–185. 15 Tinyiko Sam Maluleke and Sarojini Nadar. “Breaking the Covenant of Violence Against Women.” Journal of Theology for Southern Africa 114 (2002): 5; Sarojini Nadar. “Searching the Dungeons Beneath our Religious Discourses: The Case of Violence against Women and the ‘Unholy Trinity’.” Agenda 19, no. 66 (2005): 16–22; Nomatter Sande. “The Pentecostal Theology and Gender-Based Violence.” International Journal of Contemporary Applied Researches 6, no. 2 (2019): 1–13. 16 Maria Frahm-Arp. “Surveillance and Violence Against Women in Grace Bible Church and the Zionist Christian Church.” Journal of Gender and Religion in Africa 21, no, 1 (2015): 71–84. 17 Caroline Tuckey and Louise Kretzschmar. “Socialisation, Sexism, Children and the Church.” Missionalia 30, no. 3 (2002): 389–409. 18 Rekopantswe Mate. “Wombs as God’s Laboratories: Pentecostal Discourses of Femininity in Zimbabwe.” Africa 72, no. 4 (2002): 549–568. 19 Maria Frahm-Arp. “Constructions of Mothering in Pentecostal Charismatic Churches.” Neotestamentica 50, no. 1 (2016): 145–163.

96  Tumi Mampane 20 Sibonile E. Ellece. “’Be a Fool Like Me’: Gender Construction in the Marriage Ceremonies in Botswana – a Critical Discourse Analysis.” Agenda 25 no. 1 (2011): 43–52; Mlondi kaNdlondlo. “When Sacrificing Self is the Only Way Out: A Tribute to My Mother.” Agenda 25, no. 1 (2011): 15–21; Damaris Seleina Parsitau and Philomena Njeri Mwaura. “God in the City: Pentecostalism as an Urban Phenomenon in Kenya.” Studia Historiae Ecclesiasticae 36, no. 2 (2010): 95. 21 Sarojini Nadar. “Palatable Patriarchy and Violence Against Wo/Men in South Africa – Angus Buchan’s Mighty Men’s Conference as a Case Study of Masculinism.” Scriptura 102, no. 1 (2009): 551. 22 Sarojini Nadar and Cheryl Potgieter. “The Worthy Woman’s Conference as a Case Study of Formenism.” Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion 26, no. 2 (2010): 141. 23 Ibid., 141. 24 Ibid., 146–147. 25 Rosinah Mmannana Gabaitse. “Pentecostal hermeneutics and the marginalisation of women.” Scriptura 114 (2015): 1; Rosina Mmannana Gabaitse. “Towards an African Pentecostal Feminist Biblical Hermeneutic of Liberation: Interpreting Acts 2:1–47 in the Context of Botswana.” (PhD diss., University of Kwazulu-Natal, 2012). 26 Neil Vels. “Want to be in My Gang? Power, Prestige, Possession and the Search for Christian Identity in South Africa.” Journal of Theology for Southern Africa 146 (2013): 124. 27 Jane E. Soothill. Gender, Social Change and Spiritual Power: Charismatic Christianity in Ghana (Leiden: Brill, 2007); Adriaan S. van Klinken. “Men in the Remaking: Conversion Narratives and Born-Again Masculinity in Zambia.” Journal of Religion in Africa 42, no. 3 (2012): 215–239; Adriaan S. van Klinken. “Male Headship as Male Agency: An Alternative Understanding of a ‘Patriarchal’ African Pentecostal Discourse on Masculinity.” Religion and Gender 1, no. 1 (2011): 104–124. 28 Adriaan S. Van Klinken and Ebenezar Obadare. “Christianity, Sexuality and Citizenship in Africa: Critical Intersections.” Citizenship Studies 22, no. 6 (2018): 557–568. 29 Marian Burchardt. “Saved from Hegemonic Masculinity? Charismatic Christianity and Men’s Responsibilization in South Africa.” Current Sociology 66, no. 1 (2018): 110–127. 30 Bernice Martin. “The Pentecostal Gender Paradox: A Cautionary Tale for the Sociology of Religion,” R. K. Fenn (ed.), The Blackwell Companion to Sociology of Religion (Oxford: Blackwell, 2003): 52–66.; Brigid M. Sackey. New Directions in Gender and Religion: The Changing Status of Women in African Independent Churches (Lanham: Lexington Books, 2006). 31 Rafael Cazarin and Mar Griera. “Born a Pastor, Being a Woman: Biographical Accounts on Gendered Religious Gifts in the Diaspora.” Culture and Religion 19, no. 4 (2018): 451–470. 32 See Ashton Crawley. “Let’s Get It On! Performance Theory and Black Pentecostalism.” Black Theology: An International Journal 6, no. 3 (2008): 308– 329; Musa Dube. “God Never Opened the Bible to Me: The Role of Women in Botswana Churches,” F. Nkomazana (ed.), Church History of Botswana (Pietermaritzburg: Cluster, 2007): 210–236. 33 Maria Frahm-Arp. Professional Women in South African Pentecostal Charismatic Churches (Boston: Brill, 2010); Juliet Gilbert. “The Heart as a Compass: Preaching Self-Worth and Success to Single Young Women in a Nigerian Pentecostal Church.” Journal of Religion in Africa 45 (2015): 307–333.

Wo/Men’s God-given power 97 34 Philip Bonner and Noor Nieftagodien. Alexandra: A History (Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 2008). 35 The original spelling, from the Bible, is Gommorah. I have chosen the spelling widely accepted in popular culture and used in the new television series on Mzanzi Magic that is set in Alexandra township. 36 Tamale, African Sexualities, 40; see also Pumla Dineo Gqola. Rape: A South African Nightmare (Johannesburg: MF Books, 2015): 76–137; Sylvia Tamale. “‘Keep Your Eyes off My Thighs’: A Feminist Analysis of Uganda’s ‘Miniskirt Law’.” Feminist Africa no. 21 (2016): 83–90. 37 Sinakekelwe Khumalo. “Shortening the Foreskin: Probing Perceptions Towards Medical Male Circumcision.” (MA diss., University of KwaZulu-­ Natal, 2015); Ndyebo Kingsworth Momoti. “Law and Culture in the New Constitutional Dispensation with Specific Reference to the Custom of Circumcision as Practised in the Eastern Cape.” (MA diss., Grahamstown: Rhodes University, 2002). 38 Baloyi, “An African View,” 1–6. 39 Baloyi, “Patriarchal Structures”; Ruth Everhart. “The Bible’s #MeToo Stories.” Christian Century 1, August (2018): 22–25; Paul J. Fleming et al. “Men’s Violence Against Women are Inter-related: Recommendations for Simultaneous Intervention.” Social Science & Medicine 146 (2015): 249– 256; Helen Moffett. “‘These Women, They Force Us to Rape Them’: Rape as Narrative of Social Control in Post-Apartheid South Africa.” Journal of Southern African Studies 32, no. 1 (2006): 129–145. 40 Julian Hoss and Linda M. Blockland. “Sugar Daddies and Blessers: A Contextual Study of Transactional Sexual Interactions Among Young Girls and Older Men.” Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology 28, no. 5 (2018): 306–317. 41 Jacky Phamotse. BARE the Blesser’s Game: The Breeding of an Underdog (Johannesburg: Porcupine Press, 2017). 42 Baloyi, “An African View,” 3. 43 Teun A. Van Dijk. “Discourse, Knowledge, Power and Politics: Towards Critical Epistemic Discourse Analysis,” C.J. Hart (ed.), Critical Discourse Studies in Context and Cognition (Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2010): 27–64. 44 Stuart Hall. “The Spectacle of the ‘Other’,” Stuart Hall, Jessica Evans and Sean Nixon (eds.), Representation (London: Sage/Open University, 2013): 215–287. 45 See Teun A. van Dijk. “Political Discourse and Ideology.” Journal of Political Ideologies 11, no. 2 (2006): 115–140. 46 Nadar, “Palatable Patriarchy,” 552. 47 Van Dijk, “Principles of Critical Discourse Analysis.” 48 Fairclough, Analysing Discourse. 49 Nadar and Potgieter, “The Worthy Woman’s Conference,” 141. 50 Audre Lorde. Sister Outsider: Essays and Speeches (New York: Ten Speed Press, 2007), 74.

References Anderson, Allan. An Introduction to Pentecostalism: Global Charismatic Christianity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013. Anderson, Allan, Michael Bergunder, Andre F. Droogers, and Cornelis Van der Laan (eds.). Studying Global Pentecostalism: Theories and Methods. Vol. 10. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2010.

98  Tumi Mampane Anderson, Allan, and Samuel Otwang. Tumelo: The Faith of African Pentecostals in South Africa. 1st edition. Pretoria: University of South Africa, 1993. Argyle, Michael. Psychology and Religion: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2005. Baloyi, Elijah M. “The Biblical Exegesis of Headship: A Challenge to Patriarchal Understanding that Impinges on Women’s Rights in the Church and Society.” Verbum et Ecclesia 29, no. 1 (2008a): 1–13. Baloyi, Elijah M. “Patriarchal Structures, a Hindrance to Women’s Rights.” PhD thesis, University of Pretoria, 2008b. Baloyi, Elijah M. “An African View of Women as Sexual Objects as a Concern for Gender Equality: A Critical Study.” Verbum et Ecclesia 31, no. 1 (2010): 1–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/ve.v31i1.380 Bonner, Philip and Noor Nieftagodien. Alexandra: A History. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 2008. Burchardt, Marian. “Saved from Hegemonic Masculinity? Charismatic Christianity and Men’s Responsibilization in South Africa.” Current Sociology 66, no. 1 (2018): 110–127. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011392117702429 Cazarin, Rafael, and Mar Griera. “Born a Pastor, Being a Woman: Biographical Accounts on Gendered Religious Gifts in the Diaspora.” Culture and Religion 19, no. 4 (2018): 451–470. https://doi.org/10.1080/14755610.2018.1534749 Commission on Gender Equality. 1998. Annual Report of the Commission on Gender Equality. Pretoria: Government Printer. https://www.cge.org.za/annual-reports/ Crawley, Ashon. “‘Let’s Get It On!’ Performance Theory and Black Pentecostalism.” Black Theology 6, no. 3 (2008): 308–329. Daly, Mary. Beyond God the Father: Toward a Philosophy of Women’s Liberation. Boston: Beacon Press, 1985 Dube, Musa. “Between the Spirit and the Word: Reading the Gendered African Pentecostal Bible.” HTS Theological Studies 70, no. 1 (2014): 1–7. http://dx.doi. org/10.4102/hts.v70i1.2651 Dube, M.W. “God Never Opened the Bible to Me: The Role of Women in Botswana Churches.” Church History of Botswana (2007): 210–236. Ellece, S. “‘Be a Fool Like Me’: Gender Construction in the Marriage Ceremonies in Botswana – A Critical Discourse Analysis.” Agenda 25, no. 1 (2011): 43–52. Fairclough, Norman. Analysing Discourse: Textual Analysis for Social Research. East Sussex: Psychology Press, 2003. Frahm-Arp, Maria. “Constructions of Mothering in Pentecostal Charismatic Churches in South Africa.” Neotestamentica 50, no. 1 (2016): 145–163. https:// doi.org/doi:10.2307/26417473 Frahm-Arp, Maria. Professional Women in South African Pentecostal Charismatic Churches. Boston: Brill, 2010. Frahm-Arp, Maria. “Singleness, Sexuality, and the Dream of Marriage.” Journal of Religion in Africa 42 (2012): 369–383. Frahm-Arp, Maria. “Surveillance and Violence against Women in Grace Bible Church and the Zionist Christian Church.” Journal of Gender and Religion in Africa 21, no. 1 (2015a): 71–84 Gabaitse, Rosinah Mmannana. “Pentecostal Hermeneutics and the Marginalisation of Women.” Scriptura 114 (2015): 1–12. https://doi.org/10.7833/114-0-1043 Gabaitse, Rosinah Mmannana. “Towards an African Pentecostal Feminist Biblical Hermeneutic of Liberation: Interpreting Acts 2: 1–47 in the context of Botswana.” PhD diss., Pietermaritzburg: University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2012.

Wo/Men’s God-given power 99 Gilbert, Juliet. “The Heart as a Compass: Preaching Self-Worth and Success to Single Young Women in a Nigerian Pentecostal Church.” Journal of Religion in Africa 45, no. 3–4 (2015): 307. https://doi.org/10.1163/15700666-12340048 Hall, Stuart. “Encoding/Decoding.” Media and Cultural Studies: Keyworks 2 (2001). New Jersey: Blackwell publishing. Horn, Jessica. “Re-righting the Sexual Body.” Feminist Africa 6 (2006): 7–19. Hoss, Juliane, and Linda M. Eskell Blokland. “Sugar Daddies and Blessers: A Contextual Study of Transactional Sexual Interactions Among Young Girls and Older Men.” Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology 28, no. 5 (2018): 306–317. https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.2361 Isichei, E. The Religious Traditions of Africa: A History. Westport: Praeger Publishing, 2004. Johnson, Elizabeth A. “The Incomprehensibility of God and the Image of God Male and Female.” Theological Studies 45, no. 3 (1984): 441–465. Jordaan, Roxanne. “The Emergence of Black Feminist Theology in South Africa.” Journal of Black Theology in South Africa 1, no. 2 (1987): 42–46. kaNdlondlo, Mlondi. “When Sacrificing Self is the Only Way Out: A Tribute to My Mother.” Agenda 25, no. 1 (2011): 15–21. Khumalo, Sinakekelwe Khanyisile. “Shortening the Foreskin: Probing Perceptions Towards Medical Male Circumcision (MMC) and Traditional Male Circumcision Among University of KwaZulu-Natal African Male Students.” PhD diss., University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2015. Koegelenberg, Renier (series editor). Men in the Pulpit, Women in the Pew? Addressing Gender Inequality in Africa, Vol. 1. Howard Jurgens Hendriks, Elna Mouton, Lena Hansen and Elisabet le Roux (eds.). Stellenbosch: Sun Press, 2012. Landman, C. “Ten Years of Feminist Theology in South Africa.” Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion 11, no. 1 (1995): 143–148. Lorde, Audre. Sister Outsider: Essays and Speeches. New York: Ten Speed Press, 2007. Maluleke, Tinyiko Sam, and Sarojini Nadar. “Breaking the Covenant of Violence against Women.” Journal of Theology for Southern Africa 114 (2002): 5–17. Mate, Rekopantwe. “Wombs as God’s Laboratories: Pentecostal Discourses of Femininity in Zimbabwe.” Africa 72, no. 4 (2002): 549–568. Momoti, Ndyebo Kingsworth. “Law and Culture in the New Constitutional Dispensation with Specific Reference to the Custom of Circumcision as Practiced in the Eastern Cape.” PhD diss., Grahamstown: Rhodes University, 2002. Nadar, Sarojini. “Palatable Patriarchy and Violence against Wo/Men in South Africa – Angus Buchan’s Mighty Men’s Conference as a Case Study of Masculinism.” Scriptura 102 (2009): 551–561. Nadar, Sarojini. “Searching the Dungeons Beneath our Religious Discourses: The Case of Violence Against Women and the ‘Unholy Trinity’.” Agenda 19, no. 66 (2005): 16–22. Nadar, Sarojini, and Cheryl Potgieter. “The Worthy Woman’s Conference as a Case Study of Formenism.” Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion 26, no. 2 (2010): 141–151. Oraegbunam, Ikenga K.E. “From Patriarchy to Women Empowerment: SocioReligious Challenges and Prospects.” Gender and Behaviour 4, no. 2 (2006): 852–866. Parsitau, Damaris Seleina, and Philomena Njeri Mwaura. “God in the City: Pentecostalism as an Urban Phenomenon in Kenya.” Studia Historiae Ecclesiasticae 36, no. 2 (2010): 95.

100  Tumi Mampane Phamotse, Jackie. BARE the Blesser’s Game: The Breeding of an Underdog. Johannesburg: Porcupine Press, 2017. Sande, Nomatter. “The Pentecostal Theology and Gender-Based Violence.” International Journal of Contemporary Applied Researches 6, no. 2 (2019): 1–12. Shooter, Susan. “How Feminine Participation in the Divine Might Renew the Church and Its Leadership.” Feminist Theology 22, no. 2 (2014): 173–185. https://doi. org/10.1177/0966735013507854 Soothill, Jane E. Gender, Social Change and Spiritual Power: Charismatic Christianity in Ghana, Vol. 30. Leiden: Brill, 2007. Statistics South Africa. 2011. City of Johannesburg. Accessed February 19, 2018. http://www.statssa.gov.za/?page_id=4286&id=11305 Tamale, S. “‘Keep Your Eyes off My Thighs’: A Feminist Analysis of Uganda’s ‘Miniskirt Law’.” Feminist Africa 21 (2016): 83–90. Tamale, S. (ed.). African Sexualities. Cape Town: Pambazuka Press, 2011. Tamale, S. “Exploring the Contours of African Sexualities: Religion, Law and Power.” African Human Rights Law Journal 14, no. 1 (2014): 150–177. Van Dijk, Teun A. “Discourse, Knowledge, Power and Politics: Towards Critical Epistemic Discourse Analysis,” Christopher J. Hart (ed.), Critical Discourse Studies in Context and Cognition. (Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2010), 27–64. Van Dijk, Teun A. “Political Discourse and Ideology.” Journal of Political Ideologies 11, no. 2 (2006): 115–140. VanDijk, Teun A. “Principles of Critical Discourse Analysis.” Discourse and Society 4, no. 2 (1993): 249–283. http://www.jstor.org/stable/42888777 Van Klinken, Adriaan S. “Male Headship as Male Agency: An Alternative Understanding of a ‘Patriarchal’ African Pentecostal Discourse on Masculinity.” Religion and Gender 1, no. 1 (2011): 104–124. Van Klinken, Adriaan S. “Men in the Remaking: Conversion Narratives and BornAgain Masculinity in Zambia.” Journal of Religion in Africa 42, no. 3 (2012): 215–239. Van Klinken, Adriaan S., and Ebenezer Obadare. “Christianity, Sexuality and Citizenship in Africa: Critical Intersections.” Citizenship Studies 22, no. 6 (2018): 557–568. https://doi.org/10.1080/13621025.2018.1494900 Vels, Niel. “Want to be in My Gang? Power, Prestige, Possession and the Search for Christian Identity in South Africa.” Journal of Theology for Southern Africa 146 (2013): 122–138.

5

Examining the position of prophets in relation to Christology within contemporary South African Pentecostal missions Themba Shingange

5.1 Introduction It goes without saying that the emerging iconic posture displayed by some Pentecostal prophets within the contemporary South African Pentecostal Christian churches (SAPCC) is problematic. The term “Pentecostal prophets” has recently gained currency within the African Pentecostal scholarship. Scholars such as Magezi and Banda and Kgatle have aptly used this term in their analysis of current African Pentecostalism.1 The contemporary usage of this term within these spaces tends to refer to all ministers of the Gospel irrespective of their gifts and calling. Pentecostal prophets in contemporary Pentecostalism is used in reference to individual ministers who might be pastors, evangelists, teachers and apostles in their calling. Nevertheless, their followers simply use the buzz term “prophets” when referring to them. The posture displayed by these prophets vividly manifests itself in their superiority stance and also in the over-awed perceptions of their followers. These prevailing stances have emerged as a paradigm shift from the historic Christology where Christ was at the centre of the classical dogmatic Christian mission (CDM). Nonetheless, the modern-day Pentecostal prophets now claim to have sole access to God. 2 They also demand unwarranted veneration from their followers by taking centre stage in their ministries. Their followers believe that these prophets possess mysterious powers to perform miracles, heal the sick, give prosperity and enable them to cast out evil spells often caused by witchcraft which is greatly feared within the African Pentecostal spaces. 3 Remarkably, although these prophets proclaim Christ as Lord and Saviour, the manner in which they conduct themselves portrays an opposite narrative.4 They overtly demonstrate that they themselves have taken the place of Christ. This stance however, challenges the Christocentric mission that prevailed throughout the historic Pentecostalism. Such mission moved from the premise of the mission of God (missio Dei) that presented Christ as occupying the central position.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003212973-5

102  Themba Shingange This chapter raises a fundamental question regarding the position of these prophets in relation to Christology. Subsequently, it engages in a critical examination of the discrepancies between the CDM and the current Christology presented in the South African Pentecostal Christian mission (SAPM). And so, the central question in this chapter is to try and find out what Pentecostal Christians ought to do in the face of the current paradigm shift. We will investigate this by looking at how prophets related to Christology within the CDM in the past, and also within the broader Pentecostal Christian mission. Additionally, the chapter further looks at the drivers of this particular paradigm shift. It also highlights the implications of the current narrative to Christology and mission. In grappling with the central question of this chapter, South African Pentecostal Christians are called upon to forge unity and challenge the status quo. This action should take Psalms 11:3 as an impetus for the move. As the Psalmist decries, “When the foundations are being destroyed, what can the righteous do?” Pentecostal Christians as the “righteous of God” are now challenged to unite in order to seek for responses that can change the current narrative.

5.2  Christology in the classical dogmatic mission The human and divine nature of Christ include his person as both true God and true human without any contradiction. 5 Kaoma aptly opined the following about Christ’s human nature; when presenting the Calvinistic view of Christology: In John 1:14, the writer makes another significant claim: ‘The Word became flesh and made his dwelling among us’ – again pointing to the earthly dimension of Jesus. Unlike the Gnostics who perceived the flesh (sarx) as evil, John alerts us to the fact that Jesus took on the complexities of the sarx; hence through the Incarnation, God became earth (adamah). Just as humanity was formed from adamah, it is through the Incarnate Word that Creation was made – thus nothing exists without the Incarnate Word. In other words, Jesus’ life-blood and DNA exist in every bio kind – suggesting that every creature shares his divine essence.6 Christ’s human nature is therefore based on his incarnation when as the Word he became flesh and dwelt amongst the people as stated in John 1:14. On the other hand, his divine nature moves from his divine role in the Trinity where, being God the Son, Christ assumed the mediatory role as presented in 1 Timothy 2:5. Christ is portrayed in this portion of Scripture as the only mediator between God and humankind. His role within missions is entrenched in the very mission of God. This is presented in the

Position of prophets in relation to Christology 103 Trinitarian mission where God the Father, God the Son and God the Holy Spirit together send the church on missions. Christ is still taking the central place of being the mediator between God, humanity and the entire universe. He achieved this position through his sacrificial death on the cross. Bosch showed the same understanding when he opined: The classical doctrine on the missio Dei as God the Father sending the Son, and God the Father and the Son sending the Holy Spirit was expanded to include yet another “movement”: Father, Son and Holy Spirit sending the church into the world.7 Although Bosch provided a broader understanding of God’s mission, it should however be borne in mind that mission presents multifaceted nuances. These nuances further attest to the centrality of Christ in every mission endeavour. It is the same as Bosch’s conclusion that mission is multidimensional. It can in a sense only be defined by appealing to images, metaphors, events and pictures rather than to logic or analysis.8 It is against this backdrop that the centrality of Christ in mission is ingrained in the metaphors and events of “witness, service, justice, healing, reconciliation, liberation, peace, evangelism, fellowship, church planting and contextualisation”.9 All these metaphors and events speak of the work of Christ that all Christians are privileged to partake in. When glancing back at the historical understanding of Christology within the mission of God, it is apparent that the role of Christ became possible when the Trinity sent the church into the world.10 Accordingly, the CDM emphasised the active participation of the Trinity where each person has specificity and freedom when sending the church out in mission.11 For this reason, the role of Christ was to bring God to humanity and the whole creation and vice versa. This synergy forms the basis of the foundation of missions across the historic Christian background. Additionally, it is also important to distinguish between mission in its singular form and mission in its plural form in order to avoid ambiguities. The term “mission” is used here to refer to the mission of God (missio Dei). On the other hand, the plural form “missions” is used to refer to the activities of Christians as they participate in the mission of God. The CDMs are therefore rooted in missio Dei and are presented in the mission activities of Christian communities. For that reason, the mediatory role of Christ in God’s mission is clearly distinguishable from the role of prophets who are only engaging in missions. However, since the Pentecostal prophets have taken the position of Christ in their ministries, their actions have significant implications for the meaning of the mission of God. The whole synergy of God the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit is being interrupted. It is therefore important to also look at the role of the prophets in relation to Christology in order to correct this interruption.

104  Themba Shingange

5.3  The role of the prophets in relation to Christology Magezi and Banda found that “the mediatory role of the Pentecostal prophets is riddled with competition against the mediatory role of Christ”.12 Although the competing tendencies are prevalent within these spaces, the competition has been raised to a level where Christ has been completely replaced. It is against this backdrop that it becomes very evident that the tendencies of these Pentecostal prophets have clearly gone completely overboard. This is in contrast to the earlier ministry of prophets in Biblical times whose role was to point to the mediatory role of Christ. Prophets in the Bible served as the heralds of Christ’s mediatory role, not as the replacement of his ministry. The term “prophets”, however, needs to be correctly contextualised in view of the existing paradigm shift. Prophets have come to mean different things throughout the biblical times and in the history of the Christian church. However, the emphasis here is on Pentecostal prophecy and delineating the roles of Pentecostal prophets in mission. Masenya reckoned that within the African-South African Pentecostal setting, prophecy is done in a similar manner as the prophets of old.13 It is usually encountered in the form of sermons and teachings.14 On the other hand, Kgatle sees Pentecostal prophecy as a practice which is not much different from the divination that is practiced by African Traditional Religions (ATR) where the spiritualist is able to tell the recipient of the prophecy exactly what their problem is.15 Both Masenya and Kgatle have presented an understanding of Pentecostal prophecy although seeing the term from different angles. There is at times a confusion between “prophecy” which is simplistically defined as an utterance given under the influence and inspiration of the Holy Spirit, and the ministry of a prophet that is part of the office of the prophet, one of the five-fold ministry gifts as presented by the apostle Paul in Ephesians 4:11.16 Prophets are appointed by Christ in the same manner as in the Old Testament (OT) where prophets were called by God to challenge Israel not only as a people (the then believers), but also the evil economic, political and religious structures that oppressed the poor.17 The prophets’ mandate is therefore to do the work as Christ directs them. This appointment is clearly embedded in the notion that it was Christ who appointed apostles, prophets, evangelist, pastors and teachers as highlighted in Ephesians 4:11. Even so, the ministry of prophets is like the other four ministries which are also appointed by Christ. They are all appointed to participate in the mission of God as directed by Christ. There is also another form of prophet in the history of the Israelites. These prophets proclaimed prophetic messages and were solely used by God for the purpose of reminding the people of their relationship with YHWH18 and also to challenge the oppressive structures in society. Similarly, “Pentecostal prophets” should continue with the proclamation of Christ’s salvific work and also challenge oppression whenever it manifests in their times and spaces. This leads to the discussion on Christology, specifically within the Pentecostal mission.

Position of prophets in relation to Christology 105

5.4  Christology within the Pentecostal mission Most Pentecostal Christians hold a similar view of Christ as presented earlier in Section 5.2 on Christology in the CDM. A good example of this is the South African Assemblies of God (AOG). In their constitution, the AOG presents a similar point of departure when declaring in their statement of fundamental truths or things commonly believed amongst ourselves that “we believe that Jesus Christ was conceived by the Holy Spirit and born of the Virgin Mary. And thus we uphold His absolute deity and His complete humanity”.19 For this reason, Christ is deemed to be of true humanity and at the same time truly Divine within Pentecostalism. However, Pentecostalism sometimes tends to view the activities of the Trinity in mission in the form of dispensations. Pentecostalism often maintains there was an era of God the Father and God the Son. Therefore, now it is believed to be the dispensation of the Holy Spirit. 20 The dispensationalist mentality sometimes gives an impression that God the Father and God the Son have receded since the Holy Spirit is the only one active in the current dispensation. Still, the same synergy of the Trinity that formed the basis of “mission churches” also defines mission for classical Pentecostal Christians. It is, however, interesting to note that even before Matthey questioned the relevance of the term missio Dei within the Pentecostal mission, he had already concluded earlier that “the reference to the Trinitarian and God-based approach to mission appeared to be meaningful to evangelical mission theologians and even to Pentecostals”. 21 The dispensationalist mentality, somewhat, contributed to the current paradigm shift. This is true when the Trinity is seen as not fully active in the current dispensation. Some Pentecostal prophets tend to disregard Christ and focus only on God, the Holy Spirit and themselves. This, however, is tantamount to dismantling the Trinity in mission. It is as Matthey maintained, that if the reference to missio Dei was to be lost with regard to mission, it would be tantamount to placing the sole responsibility for mission on human shoulders thereby risking the promotion of the notion of gaining salvation by human achievement. 22 These Pentecostal prophets have subscribed to the error of perpetuating “salvation by human achievement”. They have done so by replacing Christ and presenting themselves as mediators between God, humanity and the entire creation. To curb this grievous error, missio Dei, therefore, should remain the arbiter in the execution of Pentecostal missions. From the inception of the Pentecostal movement, Pentecostal groups and churches understood themselves as mission movements. 23 However, it should also be noted that Pentecostals, as was the case with many evangelical groups, understood missions specifically as evangelism. Thus in this regard Saayman notes that “from the beginning Pentecostalism was characterised by strong evangelistic outreach”.24 So, Pentecostal Christians

106  Themba Shingange saw themselves as continuing in the salvific work of Christ through their evangelistic works such as tent campaigns, distribution of evangelistic pamphlets, open air meetings, and preaching in buses and trains. Christ has always been at the centre of Pentecostal missions as the Saviour of humankind and the entire universe. Holmes aptly expatiates this thought when asserting, “By the Spirit, the church participates in the continuing work of the (already eschatological complete) mission given to Christ by the Father”. 25 The role of Christ in mission is to send prophets to partake in the mission of God through the help of the Holy Spirit. At the same time, in the Trinitarian mission according to Matthy’s elucidation of Matthew 11:28-30, Christ is the main actor in God’s mission, and as He promised to take away the heavy load from our shoulders.26 Therefore, “If we can keep this coherence while giving space to the specificity and freedom of each person of the Trinity, we will have done a great service to the basis of mission”. 27 It is a matter of concern though, that the same Christ who marked the existence of historic Pentecostalism and made it grow is gradually disappearing within the context of contemporary South African Pentecostalism. Amongst other scholars, Maluleke and Masenya have pointed out that the growth of African Pentecostalism was gaining momentum at the expense of mainline churches losing their membership. 28 Amongst many other reasons, these members were drawn to the vibrancy of contemporary Pentecostalism as displayed in their revival tents and churches. Their music has also become more upbeat and their sermons more charismatic. 29 In his quest to highlight the challenges facing the ecumenical church today, Maluleke clearly differentiated between the historic mission churches and the newer types of churches, often held in revival tents, which are mostly charismatic and Pentecostal.30 Although the emergence and growth of these newer types of churches as pointed out by Maluleke and Masenya is undeniable, it is also evident that the current paradigm shift in view of Christology within Pentecostalism has developed into another serious problem. This is highlighted in the following section.

5.5 The paradigm shift within South African Pentecostalism African Pentecostalism encompasses several distinguishable sub-traditions. However, Anderson is correct when arguing that “the newer Pentecostal and Charismatic movement are not fundamentally different from the Holy Spirit movement and the so-called ‘prophet healing’ and ‘spiritual churches’ that preceded it in the form of the AICs”.31 This is because they are all fundamentally more focused on responding to people’s existential needs within the African milieu.32 For example, Victor Mokgotlhoa of

Position of prophets in relation to Christology 107 the Praise Tabernacle Church in Johannesburg explained the growth of his church by saying that it is because of the emphasis on the word that concentrates on meeting people’s needs, both physical and spiritual.33 This paradigm shift is evident across all the different Pentecostal sub-traditions, although it manifests differently within the various spaces, taking diverse forms. This section, however, focuses only on a few major sub-traditions whilst acknowledging the existence of other unstructured and perhaps undocumented Pentecostal sub-traditions. This includes amongst others the Zionist-type, small independent Pentecostal groups, usually with a small membership. Anderson simply speaks of “Pentecostal mission churches” and “independent Pentecostal churches”.34 Both these sub-traditions are critical when examining the existing paradigm shift and we will accordingly look at both of them. The process, however, follows the comprehensive distinctions that were presented by Kgatle and Mofokeng.35 They identified the extensive Pentecostal sub-traditions as “denominational based Pentecostalism (Classical Pentecostalism), African indigenous Pentecostalism (AIP) and neo-Pentecostalism”.36 They interchangeably referred to “denominational based Pentecostalism” as “mission Pentecostalism”.37 This chapter also included the Pentecostal-Charismatics in this category since it is part of the subject under discussion. It is for this reason that it is important to look at the different sub-traditions as individual bodies to delineate the nature of the paradigm shift within each one of them.

5.6  African indigenous Pentecostalism (AIP) Any discussion of realities within contemporary SAPM which excludes AIP presents a skewed narrative. This often happens when classical Pentecostalism is deemed to be the sole representative of what Pentecostalism is actually all about. With its roots in the Western missionary enterprise it has mistakenly been regarded as having a superior position over the rest of African Pentecostal experiences. The African Initiated churches (AICs) are thus often looked upon as inferior, less Pentecostal or even completely non-Pentecostal. The truth is, however, that African spirituality existed long before the arrival of the first missionaries in Africa.38 Furthermore, Daneel and Roberts correctly discouraged the tendency of making a distinction between the “mission churches” and the AICs. They regarded that tendency as misleading, because: The AIC’s are missionary churches par excellence, and the mission churches, by virtue of the missionary contributions of their members from the beginning of their history, could be characterised as African Initiated churches. Nevertheless, the distinction between the two families of churches remains important only for historical and sociological reasons.39

108  Themba Shingange Putting aside the differences between the AICs and “mission churches” makes it obvious that the paradigm shift in Christology is prevalent across all the different Pentecostal spaces. This phenomenon within the AICs also needs to be duly interrogated as the adherents of the prophets within the AICs often shift their trust from Christ to their messianic-type of leaders. Indeed, most of these followers regard their leaders as Godlike enough to take the place of Christ. The existence of the messianic-type of leadership is common amongst what has been identified as Ethiopian-type, Zionist, Spirit-type churches and Apostolic movements.40 What is of paramount importance at this juncture, though, is how these messianic-type of leaders understood and continue to understand their roles in relation to Christology. Additionally, it is also critical how these leaders are perceived by their followers. We will only discuss a few prominent pioneers from the AICs in this section, although the author is cognisant that the list of pioneers is endless. Albert Motseshane provides an apt historical background of the prophets who pioneered the AICs.41 Yet, some brief consideration is worth noting at this stage. In his study, Motseshane appropriately provides a historical account of how some prominent AIC leaders started their congregations. He cited amongst others Elias Mahlangu who formed the Zion Apostolic Church in South Africa and Paulo Mbilitsa who started the Christian Apostolic Church. He further highlighted that in 1920 Edward “Lion” Motaung broke away from Elias Motaung to form the Zion Apostolic Faith Mission (AFM) church. Again, in 1925 Engenas (Ignatius) Lekganyane broke away from Motaung and formed the prominent Zion Christian Church (ZCC).42 There are many other pioneers in the AICs, but suffice to mention Nehemiah Tile of the Tembu National Church (1884), Mangena Mokone (1892), the pioneer Zionists, Masuka, Mtisi, Makamba and Isaiah Shembe of the Nazarene Baptist Church with a large following in KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) province of South Africa.43 Most of these pioneers fall within what is commonly called the iconic leadership-type or semi-messianic-type of leadership.44 The same is also true elsewhere such as in Zimbabwe with Muntendi, the founder of the ZCC.45 The messianic-type of leadership dates back to Biblical times when leaders such as Abraham was called by God to leave his father’s house and promised that his descendants would one day become a great nation (Genesis 12:1–20). Moses was another such leader, sent by God to Egypt to deliver the Israelites from bondage (Exodus 3:10–22); in New Testament times there were Peter an apostle of Jesus Christ (1 Peter 1:1) and Paul, a servant of Christ Jesus (Romans 1:1), to name but a couple. These leaders contributed hugely in shaping the faith of Israel (in the case of Abraham and Moses) and Christian communities through the ages. This shows, therefore, that there is nothing wrong with this kind of leadership because leaders like these were always conscious of their position in relation to Christ and the Trinity.

Position of prophets in relation to Christology 109 The challenge in AIP began when people started to sacralise the pioneer leaders. This often happens when prophets themselves present a domineering attitude that makes their followers perceive them to be better than Christ. A clear example is how the instructions of these leaders are often observed as superior to the commandments of Christ as presented in the Bible, thus, the ditaelo46 (prescriptions) of the prophets are often seen as carrying more weight than the words of Christ. Such prescriptions are often given by a prophet or priest to a person (who may or may not be a member of the church), depending on the nature of their problem or ailment.47 More often than not, the recipients consider these prescriptions to be Divine utterances that cannot be disputed. This can be equated with what Magezi and Banda call “practical atheism”.48 It manifests when “Pentecostal Christians cognitively believe in the power of Christ …[but]… heavily rely on prophets and their prescriptions”.49 This is clear evidence that the prophets within the AICs have practically replaced Christ since their prescriptions are regarded as superseding those of Christ in the Bible. The same is also true within some classical Pentecostal settings.

5.7  The Pentecostal mission churches In most of the Pentecostal mission churches (PMCs) the replacement of Christ happens in a subtle manner. The reality though, is that some of the founders have also replaced Christ in one way or another. Like the AICs, there are also a number of structured and unstructured churches falling within classical Pentecostalism. Anderson identified the three largest classical Pentecostal churches in South Africa as the AFM, the AOG and the Full Gospel Church.50 On the other hand, Daneel and Robert maintained that “mission churches” evolved directly from the outreach of Western denominations, and still represent the collegial tradition concerned. 51 Lamentably, the pioneers within these churches are often being held in high esteem even long after they are gone. Although there is nothing wrong in honouring great leaders, venerating them to the point of elevating them above Christ is a serious problem that exists within these spaces. Most of the historical accounts of Pentecostalism so far, do not suggest that the pioneers within these spaces demanded such veneration from their followers. Even Clark in his presentation of the historical background of the AFM and the AOG did not suggest otherwise.52 The common cause that often made these pioneers to leave their former denominations and start their own was usually the desire to be autonomous. It also was the case with Reverend Nicholas Bhengu, together with his co-workers Alfred Gumede and Gideon Buthelezi, when they left the Full Gospel Church to work under the umbrella of the AOG.53 The impetus behind their move was an understanding that Bhengu would enjoy complete autonomy over his own affairs. Nonetheless, failure to get that desired autonomy under the

110  Themba Shingange general umbrella of the AOG led Bhengu to start his own black-dominated AOG with the Back to God crusade.54 Remarkably though, great leaders within classical Pentecostalism did not see themselves as messianic leaders. Pioneers such as John G. Lake,55 Elias Letwaba, Frank Chikane of the AFM56 and Nicholas Bhengu in the AOG to name but a few, only considered themselves as servant leaders. Nevertheless, there is a different narrative amongst most of their successors and followers. This is demonstrated by the exaggerated reverence given to these leaders by their successors and followers. An example can be drawn from the way in which Bhengu’s adherents overemphasise izikhonkwane57 (pegs or landmarks) at the expense of the words of Christ. This tends to happen whenever these followers have disputes over church traditions, doctrinal, moral or theological issues. 58 In most cases Bhengu’s followers regard what he said as infallible, indisputable and something that cannot be challenged or amended. They look at these landmarks in the AOG in the light of Proverbs 22:28, “Do not move an ancient landmark that your fathers have placed” (ESV). In the process, however, the words of Bhengu, who is regarded as a father in the AOG, sometimes carry too much weight. It is common for the adherents of prominent leaders to often appeal to the teachings and principles of their leaders when faced with dilemmas or disputes; however, considering the words of the pioneers as infallible is simply erroneous. Such a blind and fundamentalist reliance on the words of pioneers coupled with an extreme fear from deviating from what these pioneers have said can be deemed as the replacement of Christ. This tendency is also common within the other Pentecostal churches, even within the Pentecostal-Charismatics.

5.8  The Pentecostal-Charismatics The charismatic nature of spiritual leaders within these spaces naturally places them in the spotlight. Pentecostal-Charismatic prophets tend to appear and act like celebrities and their ministries are often marked by motivational types of sermons about marriages and family relationships. 59 These sermons attract many elite politicians, business entrepreneurs and young academics, to mention but a few. Additionally, PentecostalCharismatics consist of a number of various new and many non-aligned churches. Anderson, therefore, concluded that these churches can be simplistically accepted as Pentecostal or just charismatic.60 These sub-­ traditions are closely related and almost indistinguishable and sometimes it becomes difficult to discern whether a congregation is Pentecostal or exclusively charismatic. The Charismatic movement started in the 1960s when glossolalia was experienced in the older Protestant and Catholic churches throughout the world. South Africa began to feel its impact in the mid-sixties.61 According

Position of prophets in relation to Christology 111 to Anderson one of its prominent leaders was the Archbishop of Cape Town, Bill Burnett (1917–94) who was the Anglican Bishop of Grahamstown when he became Charismatic. Subsequently, Anderson provided a historic account of other Pentecostal charismatic leaders such as Ray McCauley, the founder of Rhema Ministries in Randburg, Ed Roebert, founder of Hatfield Christian Church in Pretoria (formerly a Baptist Church), Fred Roberts, founder of the Durban Christian Centre (formerly a Full Gospel Church), Mosa Sono, founder of the Grace Bible Church in Soweto, and Mandla Alfred Maphalala, founder of the Victory Fellowship group of churches in KwaThema, Springs.62 There are still many other undocumented prominent figures within the Pentecostal-Charismatic sphere who cannot be listed here because the scope of the chapter. The same tendencies prevalent within the classical Pentecostal churches and the AICs are also evident within the Pentecostal-Charismatic spaces. The celebrity-style leadership of many of the Pentecostal-Charismatic prophets has led to some followers regarding them as semi-gods. Although there is no evidence showing that these prophets themselves demand veneration, the lifestyle maintained by some of these prophets is surely questionable. An example can be drawn from the tendency of prophets who deliberately arrive late at a church service. Often they walk straight to the pulpit to give a sermon. In most cases when these prophets enter the church, the whole congregation gives them a standing ovation. This is often done with the congregants making a loud noise and clapping their hands. The keyboard player will play the music over a sound system that is set on a high volume whilst the program director lauds the prophet by reading a long list of accolades which that particular prophet have received. There are ushers who carry the prophet’s Bible and sweat towels for them. It is such an exaggerated performance that eventually the followers start to think that such a prophet is the replacement of Christ. With the advent of neo-Pentecostalism in South Africa, however, the replacement of Christ has become even more prevalent than in the other Pentecostal sub-traditions.

5.9 Neo-Pentecostalism It is indisputable that the advent of neo-Pentecostalism in South Africa has brought with it the blatant replacement of Christ by its prophets to an even greater degree. This does not, however, suggest that neo-Pentecostalism is solely to blame for this error. As already alluded to above, the entire South African Pentecostal community is equally guilty. However, the notorious unusual practices within some neo-Pentecostal churches as Kgatle correctly calls them, have surely exacerbated the problem.63 Unlike with the AICs, classical and Pentecostal Charismatic Churches where the replacement of Christ often happens in a subtler manner, neo-Pentecostalism has explicitly promulgated this error.

112  Themba Shingange As a matter of fact, some of the neo-Pentecostal prophets overtly challenge the position of Christ. In this regard Kgatle specifically lists some prominent neo-Pentecostal prophets, Pastor Lesego Daniel of Rabboni Centre Ministries, Prophet Penuel Mnguni of End Time Disciples Ministries, Pastor Lethebo Rabalago of Mount Zion General Assembly and Pastor Paseka Motsoeneng of Incredible Happenings church.64 On another occasion he also mentioned Prophet Shepherd Bushiri of the Enlightened Christian Gathering (ECG) in Pretoria and called him “a prophet who is in a league of his own”.65 Most of these prophets take the place of Christ by claiming to have the sole privilege of accessing God, thus, they are deemed to be in a position where their words and actions cannot be questioned.66 Pentecostal prophets in these spaces often emerge as flamboyant prophetic figures who claim to have all authority over everyone including Christ himself. Their practices have been well documented by a number of scholars including Magezi and Banda.67 Another remarkable characteristic of these Pentecostal prophets is their distinctive use of prophetic titles such as “Major 1”, and “Seer 1” to exalt the person of a specific prophet to a level above other prophets and Christ.68 Other titles that are also often abused by these prophets include, “Bishop”, “Daddy”, “Papa”, “man of God”, etc. Consequently, because of these titles, Pentecostal prophets are elevated and faith in Christ diminishes in the lives of their followers. The titles that they adopt are often from the Bible, referring to prophets of old and other significant spiritual figures. Thus, the prophet Elijah was referred to as “man of God” in 2 Kings 1:11. Again, the apostle Paul in 1 Timothy 6:11 addresses Timothy using the same title. This shows that there is nothing wrong with the title itself, however, the problem starts when it is used to elevate an individual to a position that is above that of Christ. Again, Gunda and Machingura have aptly demonstrated how the title “man of God” was often correctly used in the Bible.69 However, it is possible that what is implied by the title “man of God” is wrongly applied within neo-Pentecostalism. In this regard Gunda and Machingura asserted: The biblical “man of God” is essentially more than simply a human being, he or she is a divine human being because he embodies an amalgamation of his mortal nature and the immortal nature of God, sharing in the fate of humanity yet exercising the power and authority of God. The performance of miracles and other such paranormal activities is understood in the context of their divinity.70 Therefore, it should not come as a surprise that Pentecostal prophets who operate with the mentality of being some form of “Divine beings” dare to take the position of Christ. Likewise, they also find it easy to abuse their positions since they are perceived to be carrying the very authority of God. Most of these prophets, grandiosely, even use bodyguards. These

Position of prophets in relation to Christology 113 bodyguards are on guard even when the prophets are preaching in the pulpit. An example is Pastor Ekwusa from the Sounding Bells of Salvation Church in Johannesburg described as walking swiftly to the pulpit, flanked by his heavily built bodyguards clad in black suits.71 Some of these prophets have even gone to the extreme of having exclusive very important people (VIP) couches in their churches. These couches are reserved solely for the prophets and their wives. All these over-the-top practices make it clear that the primary position of Christ no longer exists in these spaces. Again, one can further ask, what are the factors that have contributed to this paradigm shift? The next section presents some possible responses to this question.

5.10 Some factors that have contributed to this paradigm shift Surely there were various factors which have helped to bring about this paradigm shift, enabling it to thrive. For our purposes we will only name a few which should be sufficient to illustrate the context that has allowed this paradigm shift to occur. 5.10.1 The quest for a Christ compatible with an African identity Magezi and Banda argue that “Christological insecurities” play a role whenever prophets compete with Christ.72 This is also true even when prophets replace Christ. Either way, these Christological insecurities make Christ to seem incompatible with African worldviews and practices. Furthermore, they are embedded in the notion of African Christians grappling with the relevance of Christ for them in their African identity.73 The same notion has often been a stimulus for research interest of anthropologists, missiologists and African theologians, hence the resurgence of terms such indigenisation, contextualisation and African theology in attempts to bridge the divide between Christology and an African identity.74 This is what can be called the quest for a Christ who is compatible with an African identity. Pentecostal prophets prey on these insecurities in order to lure their unsuspecting followers. They do this by presenting themselves as African alternatives to replace the “Eurocentric Christ” who is often deemed to be aloof from African realities. Most African Christians within Pentecostalism find it easier to relate to these prophets because they resemble their African identities. The quest for an African compatible Christ is promulgated easily within the messianic style leadership of the AICs and the celebrity prophets of neo-­Pentecostalism. The African traditional concept of God (theism) that generally emphasises the transcendence of God (Deus otiosus)75 can be easier perceived with the immanence of these prophets who are closer to their followers.

114  Themba Shingange This can be likened to Christ’s incarnation (John 1:14) where Christ became flesh and lived amongst the people. In other words, Christ for Africans is camouflaged in the form of these prophets. Since they are visible in human form, these prophets provide some hope for their African followers who yearn for a visible figure to worship. 5.10.2  The dispensationalist mentality The overemphasis that Christ is no longer active since the Holy Spirit took over, has opened an opportunity for the mischievousness of self-appointed Pentecostal prophets to thrive. This happens when these prophets emphasise the importance of the Holy Spirit above all other biblical doctrines. It also manifests in the overemphasis of prophecies, dreams, visions, speaking in tongues, prayer for healing and deliverance from evil spirits amongst the Pentecostals.76 Anderson’s assertion is true that pneumatology inhabits the central place in most of the African independent churches.77 Some researchers have even concluded that pneumatology is emphasised almost to the exclusion of other Christian doctrines.78 This overemphasis has lamentably led to the exclusion of Christology which has meant that Christ is no longer seen as the centre of Pentecostal churches and ministries – a very negative shift with serious consequences. Disappointingly, Pentecostal prophets use the dispensationalist view to wrongfully position themselves as agents who operate directly with the Holy Spirit. Although these prophets sometimes preach Christ as the Saviour and also use the name of Jesus to cast out evil spirits, it is apparent that most of them do not even believe in the same Christ they preach. Mangezi and Banda observed that Pentecostal prophets do indeed proclaim Jesus Christ as Lord and Saviour.79 They show this by having their auditoriums adorned with banners inscribed with some form of affirmation of Jesus Christ as Lord and Saviour. They also conduct healing and deliverance in the name of Christ, proclaiming him as redeemer and liberator.80 This might sound to be contradicting the claim that these prophets have replaced Christ. However, there is no contradiction here as the manner in which these prophets portray themselves, confirm the claim. 5.10.3  The pursuit of miracles, healing and prosperity The Pentecostal prophets continue to lure their followers by citing the issues of low socio-economic status, sickness and lack of wellbeing, and promising them prosperity, health and wellbeing respectively. These prophets devote much time in their ministries for deliverance from satanic forces. They use this too to lure their followers who are in dire need of health and prosperity.81 Some of these followers often find themselves in a predicament because as much as they love Christ, they are being drawn to the contemporary Pentecostal churches with the hope that these prophets will meet

Position of prophets in relation to Christology 115 their needs. They often find it difficult to turn from these prophets even when their needs are not immediately met. They continue to hope that one day their answers will come as long as they follow the instructions given by the prophets. Moreover, they also keep believing that their faith will cause them to get whatever it is they are trusting for.82 They regard delays in receiving answers as not having enough faith on their side rather than blaming the prophets for misleading them. Pondani has aptly captured the reasons most Africans get lured to Pentecostal churches which emphasise miracles, healing and prosperity, when asserting: Many African societies have been bombarded with unemployment, poverty and harsh diseases and thus, cannot afford proper and right medical treatment. As a result, many people resort to “spiritual” means in the attempt to relieve themselves of the pain or sad feelings of watching their loved ones suffer from sickness.83 It is out of desperation that many people follow these Pentecostal prophets who promise them solutions to their problems. It is lamentable though, that in most cases these followers are subjected to gross human rights violations and treated with contempt by the very same prophets who promise them solutions.84 These prophets appear as religious consultants or “men of God” who are all-powerful. Seemingly innocent, people yield their will to these powerful leaders when they seek favour from them.85 No wonder people who follow these prophets are quick to perceive them as the replacement of Christ. However, such actions have proved to have dire implications for both mission and Christology.

5.11  Possible implications for mission and Christology The current paradigm shift is a distortion of mission and Christology. This is because the contemporary missio Dei is not congruent with the original Trinitarian mission of God. Thus, the presumption that Christ can be replaced by a Pentecostal prophet is a grievous deception to both mission and Christology. This deception entails a wrongful reconstruction of the synergy of God’s mission that speaks of God the Father, the Holy Spirit and the Pentecostal prophets. Therefore, the current Pentecostal mission constitutes heresy because it deviates from the dogmatic Christian faith and practice. Dube observed the same error, saying that “[i]n order to satisfy their over-expectant followers, this modern brand of ‘prophets’ twist and tweak Scripture to their taste”.86 For these prophets, resorting to heresy is not a problem; their major desire is to lure followers and to make profit in the process. This presents a twisted Christology that moves Christ away from his place as a mediator between God and humanity and the entire universe.

116  Themba Shingange The prescriptions of these prophets and the words of the pioneers have thus replaced the words of Christ found in the Bible. Even though the quest for an African identity is duly justified, rendering Christ as inadequate in order to lure African followers is an unspeakable notion. Also, miracles, healing and prosperity come from Christ and not the prophets. Nonetheless, the current narrative shifts the faith of the followers away from Christ and causes the Pentecostal prophets to take their authority only from God and the Holy Spirit. Christ is unreservedly removed from the mission of God. Surely, there is something that Pentecostal Christians can do to correct this grievous error.

5.12 What can Pentecostals do to correct the replacement of Christ? This question is based on Psalms 11:3 that asks this pivotal question: “When the foundations are being destroyed, what can the righteous do?” (NIV). Since Christ, the stone rejected by the builders who became the chief cornerstone (Matthew 21:42), is now rejected and replaced by Pentecostal prophets, this question should serve as an impetus for Pentecostal Christians to seek ways that can help them correct this current narrative. Pentecostal Christians are surely the righteous of God, as Romans 5:1 puts it: “Therefore, since we have been made righteous through his faithfulness, we have peace with God through our Lord Jesus Christ” (CEB). Therefore, since they have been made righteous, what should they now do since the centrality of Christ as one of the foundations of mission has been destroyed? Pentecostal Christians need to unite and forge a collective response from all Pentecostal sub-traditions. The differences that have been intrinsic to Pentecostalism manifesting in a broad spectrum of variances in doctrinal emphasis and styles of worship within African Pentecostalism87 should now be shaken to the core. Anderson presented the positive contribution of ecumenism, conferences, dialogues and consultations to the subject of Pentecostal Christians’ healing.88 Perhaps now is the time for similar dialogues, conferences and consultations to address the paradigm shift within South African Pentecostalism. This can happen in the same manner envisaged by the World Council of Churches (WCC). The WCC asserted that “many inspirational and transformative linkages are being formed between churches that are geographically far apart and located in very different contexts, yet they are coming together in unity”.89 The quest for restoring the central place of Christ in the Pentecostal mission can be dealt with in these transformative linkages. These linkages can also challenge the tendencies of polarisation and fission that seem to be intrinsic within Pentecostal spaces.90 Pentecostal Christians

Position of prophets in relation to Christology 117 need to start engaging in dialogues that will deliberate on this issue. The same unity can also provide a platform for Pentecostal Christians to challenge this error and also many other errors that have started to emerge within their circles. Mission begins in the heart of the Triune God and the love which binds together the Holy Trinity overflows to all humanity and creation. The missionary God who sent his Son to the world also calls all God’s people (John 20:21).91 It is now critical for Pentecostal Christians to establish what can be called “Pentecostal dialogues on Prophets and Christology”. This can happen through Pentecostal Christians and ministers within local congregations who can form small dialogues. Eventually these dialogues can move to provincial and national spaces, and even to the entire African Pentecostal space. Such dialogues can provide spaces for promulgating a proper Christology that reinforces the central place of Christ. It can further encourage the development of Pentecostal theological training amongst Pentecostal ministers that will place Christ in his central place. This can in a way also contribute to realigning the contemporary Pentecostal praxis with the other bodies of theological polities. It is, therefore, the development of a Pentecostal dialogue that can open up spaces for robust and frank discourses about this problem. Such a dialogue can also bring about the development of a new generation of Pentecostal Christians and prophets who are deeply conscious of the place of Christ. This will mean that Pentecostal Christians will then be equipped to challenge any deviation from Christology whenever it manifests within their local congregations and communities.

5.13 Conclusion This chapter has moved from the premise that there has been a paradigm shift within the contemporary South African Pentecostal mission. This paradigm shift is marked by the emergence of Pentecostal prophets who have replaced Christ in their ministries and churches. Consequently, their acts have also caused their followers to perceive them as Christ’s replacement. This has distorted the very nature of the Trinitarian mission of God (mission Dei). All the Pentecostal sub-traditions are guilty of this error. Amongst others, the quest for an African compatible Christ, the dispensationalist mentality and the need for healing and prosperity have caused people to fall prey to these prophets. This has presented a mission that is incongruent with the dogmatic mission of God and also presented a distorted Christology. However, Psalms 11:3 can be an impetus for Pentecostal Christians to forge anew a unity through dialogues, conferences and consultations aimed at restoring the centrality of Christ. This can help Christians to challenge any deviation from Christology within their spaces.

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Notes 1 Vhumani Magezi and Collium Banda. “Competing with Christ? A Critical Christological Analysis of the Reliance on Pentecostal Prophets in Zimbabwe.” In die Skriflig/In Luce Verbi 51, no. 2 (2017): 1–10. http://doi. org/10.4102/ids.v51i2.2273; Mookgo Kgatle. “The Unusual Practices Within Some Neo-Pentecostal Churches in South Africa: Reflections and Recommendations.” HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies 73, no. 3 (2017):1–8. https//doi.org/10.4102/hts.v73i3.4656. 2 Magezi and Banda, “Competing with Christ?,” 1. 3 Mookgo Kgatle. “Propagating the Fear of Witchcraft: Pentecostal Prophecies in the New Prophetic Churches in South Africa.” Journal of European Pentecostal Theological Association (2020): 1. http://doi.org./10.1080/18124461. 2020.1795420. 4 Magezi and Banda, “Competing with Christ?,” 6. 5 Michael Allen. “Calvin’s Christ: A Dogmatic Matrix for Discussion of Christ’s Human Nature.” International Journal of Systematic Theology 9 (2007): 393. doi:10.1111/j.1462-2400.2007.00265.x. 6 Kapya Kaoma. “The Earth in the Mission of the Incarnate God,” Kapya Kaoma (ed.), Creation Care in Christian Mission (Oxford: Regnum, 2015): 284. 7 David Bosch. Transforming Mission Paradigm Shifts in Theology of Mission (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1991), 390. 8 Ibid., 512. 9 Ibid., 512. 10 Ibid., 390. 11 Jacques Matthey. “God’s Mission Today: Summary and Conclusions.” International Review of Mission 92, no. 367 (2003): 579–587. 12 Magezi and Banda, “Competing with Christ?,” 1. 13 Madipoane Masenya. “The Bible and Prophecy in African-South African Pentecostal Churches.” Missionalia: Southern African Journal of Missiology 33, no. 1 (2005): 38. 14 Ibid., 38. 15 Kgatle, “Propagating the Fear of Witchcraft,” 3. 16 Masenya, “The Bible and Prophecy,” 39. 17 Ibid., 41. 18 Wes Howard-Brook, The Church Before Christianity (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2004), 124. 19 AOG Constitution: Giyani Assembly of God. www.giyaniaog.co.za. 20 Bosch, Transforming Missions, 516. 21 Matthey, “God’s mission today,” 581. 22 Ibid., 582. 23 Willem Saayman. “Some Reflections on the Development of the Pentecostal Mission Model in South Africa.” Missionalia 21, no. 1 (1993): 51. 24 Ibid., 42. 25 Stephen Holmes. “Trinitarian Missiology: Towards a Theology of God as Missionary,” International Journal of Systematic Theology 8, no. 1 (2006): 75. 26 Matthey, “God’s Mission Today,” 582. 27 Ibid., 580. 28 Tinyiko Maluleke. “The Bird in our Hands: Challenges Facing the Ecumenical Church in South Africa today.” Missionalia: Southern African Journal of Missiology 38, no. 1 (2010):170; Masenya, “The Bible and prophecy,” 36. 29 Maluleke, “The bird in our hands,” 170.

Position of prophets in relation to Christology 119 30 Ibid., 170. 31 Allan Anderson. “New African Initiated Pentecostalism and Charismatics in South Africa.” Journal of Religion in Africa 35, no. 1 (2005): 3. 32 Ibid., 3. 33 Ibid., 17. 34 Allan Anderson and Samuel Otwang. Tumelo: The Faith of African Pentecostals in South Africa (Pretoria: University of South Africa Press, 1993), 31. 35 Mookgo Kgatle and Thabang R. Mofokeng. “Towards a decolonial hermeneutic of experience in African Pentecostal Christianity: A South African Perspective.” HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies 75, no. 4 (2019): 3. https://doi.org/10.4102/hts.v75i4.5473. 36 Ibid., 3. 37 Ibid., 1. 38 Kwame Bediako. Christianity in Africa: The Renewal of a Non-Western Religion (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1995), 176. 39 Marthinus L. Daneel and Dana L. Robert, “Series Preface,” African Christian Outreach: African Initiated Churches. African initiatives in Christian Mission. Missionalia 28, no. 2 (2000): 3. 40 Jacqueline Martha Francisca Wouters. “An Anthropological Study of Healing Practices in African Initiated Churches with Specific Reference to a Zionist Christian Church in Marabastad.” (MA diss., Pretoria: University of South Africa, 2014), 38–47. 41 Albert Stephen Motsheshane. “Culture and Conflict in Pentecostalism: The Assemblies of God in South Africa: Nicholas Bhengu and American Missionaries, and the International Assemblies of God (1917–1964).” (PhD thesis, University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2015), 1–299. 42 Ibid., 109. 43 Marthinus L. Daneel and Dana L. Robert, Editorial, in “African Christian Outreach: African Initiated Churches. African Initiatives in Christian Mission.” Missionalia 28, no. 2 (2000): v–vi. 44 Wouters, “An Anthropological Study of Healing Practices,” 41. 45 Ibid., 41. 46 Ditaelo is a Pedi word meaning “prescriptions.” 47 Lazarus Lebeloane and Mokhele Madise. “The Use of Different Types of Water in the Zion Christian Church.” Studia Historiae Ecclesiasticae 32, no. 1 (2006): 5. 48 Magezi and Banda, “Competing with Christ?,” 6. 49 Ibid., 6. 50 Anderson, “New African Initiated Pentecostalism,” 2. 51 Ibid., i. 52 Matthew Clark. “Two Contrasting Models of Missions in South Africa: The Apostolic Faith Mission and the Assemblies of God.” Asian Journal of Pentecostal Studies 8, no. 1 (2005): 146–147. 53 Ibid., 146–147. 54 Ibid., 146–147. 55 Christiaan Rudolph De Wet. “The Apostolic Faith Mission in Africa 1908– 1980: A Case Study in Church Growth in Segregated Society.” (PhD thesis, University of Cape Town, 1989), 58. 56 Matthew Clark. “Contemporary Pentecostal Leadership: The Apostolic Faith Mission of South Africa.” Asian Journal of Pentecostal Studies 10, no. 1 (2007): 42–61. 57 Izikhonkwane is a Zulu word for pegs/landmarks that were often used by African communities to demarcate their homesteads and fields. The members of the AOG often use this term to refer to the documented and undocumented

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set of rules, directives and traditions laid out by Bhengu during his times of pioneering the AOG amongst the black communities. 58 The author has loosely made this statement based on his observations and experience as a member of the AOG. The experience he gained from his childhood in the AOG Sunday school classes in the early 80s, his ministry training as a theological student in the Nicholas Bhengu Theological College in Meyerton, South Africa (1995–1997) and later as an ordained Senior Pastor in the same church (1998–2009). 59 Anderson, “New African Pentecostalism,” 3. 60 Ibid., 18. 61 Ibid., 10. 62 Ibid., 11–17. 63 Kgatle, “The unusual practices,” 1–8. 64 Ibid., 3–5. 65 Mookgo Kgatle. “Reimagining the Practice of Pentecostal Prophecy in South Africa: A Critical Engagement.” HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies 75, no. 4 (2019): 1. https://doi.org/10.4102/hts.v75i4.5183. 66 Magezi and Banda, “Competing with Christ?,” 2. 67 Ibid., 1–10. 68 Kgatle. “Reimagining the Practice,” 3. 69 Masiiwa Ragies Gunda and Francis Machingura. “The Man of God: Understanding Biblical Influence on Contemporary Megachurch Prophets in Zimbabwe.” Prophets, Profits and the Bible in Zimbabwe (Bamberg: University of Bamberg Press, 2013): 22. 70 Ibid., 22. 71 Obvious Katsaura. “Theo-urbanism: Pastoral Power and Pentecostalism in Johannesburg.” Culture and Religion (2017): 238. https://doi.org/10.1080/1 4755610.2017.1358193. 72 Magezi and Banda, “Competing with Christ?,” 7. 73 Ibid., 7. 74 Birgit Meyer, “Christianity in Africa: From African Independent to Pentecostal-Charismatic Churches. ”Annual Review of Anthropology 33, no.1 (2004): 447–474. 75 Allan Anderson, Moya the Holy Spirit in an African context (Pretoria: The Institute for Theological Research, UNISA, 1991), 13. 76 Meyer, “Christianity in Africa,” 452. 77 Anderson, Moya the Holy Spirit, 13. 78 Meyer, “Christianity in Africa,” 452. 79 Magezi and Banda, “Competing with Christ?,” 6–7. 80 Magezi and Banda, “Competing with Christ?,” 6–7. 81 Meyer, “Christianity in Africa,” 456. 82 Elijah Dube. “Desperation in an Attempt to Curb Modern-day Prophets: Pentecostalisation and the Church in South Africa and Zimbabwe.” Conspectus: The Journal of the South African Theological Seminary 27, no. 1 (2019): 28. http://www.sat.edu.za/dube-desperation-curb-mordern-day-prophets. 83 Simbarashe Pondani. “‘Prophets of Doom’: The Phenomenon of Healing and Power Dynamics in Neo Pentecostal African Churches.” (MA diss., University of Stellenbosch University, 2019), 29. 84 Ibid., 37. 85 Ibid., 52. 86 Dube, “Desperation in an attempt,” 28. 87 Meyer, “Christianity in Africa,” 453. 88 Allan Anderson. “Pentecostal, Healing and Ecumenism.” International Review of Mission 95, no. 370/371 (2004): 486–496.

Position of prophets in relation to Christology 121 89 Jooseop Keum (ed.), Together Towards Life: Mission and Evangelism in Changing Landscapes with a Practical Guide. World Council of Churches Publications (2013): 28. 90 Meyer, “Christianity in Africa,” 453. 91 Ibid., 4.

References Allen, Michael. “Calvin’s Christ: A Dogmatic Matrix for Discussion of Christ’s Human Nature.” International Journal of Systematic Theology 9, no. 4 (2007): 382–397. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2400.2007.00265.x. Anderson, Allan. “The New Pentecostal and Charismatic Churches: The Shape of Future Christianity in Africa?” Pneuma: The Journal of the Society for Pentecostal Studies 24, no. 2 (2002): 167–184. https://doi.org/10.1163/15700740260388027. Anderson, Allan. “New African Initiated Pentecostalism and Charismatics in South Africa.” Journal of Religion in Africa 35, no. 1 (2005): 66–92. https://doi. org/10.1163/1570066052995843. Anderson, Allan. “Pentecostal, Healing and Ecumenism.” International Review of Mission 93, no. 370/371 (2004): 486–496. https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1758-6631.2004.tb00476.x. Anderson, Allan. Moya the Holy Spirit in an African Context. Pretoria: UNISA, 1991. Anderson, Allan, and Samuel Otwang. Tumelo: The Faith of African Pentecostals in South Africa. Pretoria: UNISA, 1993. Anderson, George. “Commercialisation of Religion in Neo-Prophetic Pentecostal/ Charismatic Churches in Ghana: Christian Ethical Analysis of Their Strategies.” Journal of Philosophy, Culture and Religion 42 (2019): 1–8. https://doi. org/10.7176/JPCR/42-01. Bediako, Kwame. Christianity in Africa: The Renewal of a Non-Western Religion. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1995. Bosch, David. Transforming Mission Paradigm Shifts in Theology of Mission. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1991. Howard-Brook, Wes. The Church Before Christianity. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2004. Clark, Matthew. “Two Contrasting Models of Missions in South Africa: The Apostolic Faith Mission and the Assemblies of God.” Asian Journal of Pentecostal Studies 8, no.1 (2005): 143–161. Clark, Matthew. “Contemporary Pentecostal Leadership: The Apostolic Faith Mission of South Africa as a Case Study.” Asian Journal of Pentecostal Studies 10, no. 1 (2007): 42–61. Daneel, Marthinus L., and Dana L. Robert (eds.). African Christian Outreach: African Initiated Churches. African Initiatives in Christian mission. Pretoria: South African Missiological Society, 2001. De Wet, Christiaan R. “The Apostolic Faith Mission in Africa 1908–1980: A Case Study in Church Growth in Segregated Society.” PhD thesis, University of Cape Town, 1989. Dube, Elijah N. “Desperation in an Attempt to Curb Modern-Day Prophets: Pentecostalisation and the Church in South Africa and Zimbabwe.” Conspectus: The Journal of the South African Theological Seminary 27, no. 1, (2019): 25–53. http://www.sat.edu.za/dube-desperation-curb-mordern-day-prophets.

122  Themba Shingange Gunda, Masiiwa R., and Francis Machingura. “The Man of God: Understanding Biblical Influence on Contemporary Mega-Church Prophets in Zimbabwe.” Prophets, Profits and the Bible in Zimbabwe: Festschrift for Aynos Masotcha Moyo (2013): 15–28. http://doi.org//10.20378/irbo.51300. Holmes, Stephen. “Trinitarian Missiology: Towards a Theology of God as Missionary.” International Journal of Systematic Theology 8, no. 1 (2006): 72–90. Katsaura, Obvious. “Theo-urbanism: Pastoral Power and Pentecostalism in Johannesburg.” Culture and Religion 18, no. 3 (2017): 232–262. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/14755610.2017.1358193. Kaoma, Kapya. “The Earth in the Mission of the Incarnate God,” Kapya Kaoma (ed.), Creation Care in Christian mission (Oxford: Regnum, 2015), 280–295. Keum, Jooseop (ed.). Together Towards Life: Mission and Evangelism in Changing Landscapes with a Practical Guide. Geneva: World Council of Churches Publications, 2013. Kgatle, Mookgo S. “The Unusual Practices Within Some Neo-Pentecostal Churches in South Africa: Reflections and Recommendations.” HTS Teologiese Studies/ Theological Studies 73, no. 3 (2017): 1–8. https//doi.org/10.4102/hts.v73i3.4656. Kgatle, Mookgo S. “Reimagining the Practice of Pentecostal Prophecy in South Africa: A Critical Engagement.” HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies 75, no. 4 (2019): 3. https://doi.org/10.4102/hts.v75i4.5183. Kgatle, Mookgo S., and Thabang R Mofokeng. “Towards a Decolonial Hermeneutic of Experience in African Pentecostal Christianity: A South African Perspective.” HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies 75, no. 4a (2019): 3. https://doi. org/10.4102/hts.v75i4.5473. Kgatle, Mookgo S. “Propagating the Fear of Witchcraft: Pentecostal Prophecies in the New Prophetic Churches in South Africa.” Journal of the European Pentecostal Theological Association 40, no. 2 (2020): 132–143. https://doi.org/10.1080/1812 4461.2020.1795420. Lebeloane, Lazarus, and Madise Mokhele. “The Use of Different Types of Water in the Zion Christian Church.” Studia Historiae Ecclesiasticae 32, no. 2 (2006): 143–152. Masenya, Madipoane. “The Bible and Prophecy in African-South African Pentecostal Churches.” Missionalia: Southern African Journal of Missiology 33, no. 1 (2005): 35–45. Magezi, Vhumani, and Collium Banda. “Competing with Christ? A Critical Christological Analysis of the Reliance on Pentecostal Prophets in Zimbabwe.” In die Skriflig/In Luce Verbi 51, no. 2 (2017): 1–10. http://doi.org/10.4102/ids. v51i2.2273. Maluleke, Tinyiko. “The Bird in our Hands: Challenges Facing the Ecumenical Church in South Africa Today.” Missionalia: Southern African Journal of Missiology 38, no. 1 (2010): 167–172. Matthey, Jacques. “God’s Mission Today: Summary and Conclusions.” International Review of Mission 92, no. 367 (2003): 579–587. Meyer, Birgit. “Christianity in Africa: From African Independent to PentecostalCharismatic Churches.” Annual Review of Anthropology 33, (2004): 447–474. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.143835. Motsheshane, Albert S. “Culture and Conflict in Pentecostalism: The Assemblies of God in South Africa: Nicholas Bhengu and American Missionaries, and

Position of prophets in relation to Christology 123 the International Assemblies of God (1917–1964).” PhD thesis, University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2015. Pondani, Simbarashe. “‘Prophets of Doom’: The Phenomenon of Healing and Power Dynamics in Neo Pentecostal African Churches.” MA diss., University of Stellenbosch, 2019. Saayman, Willem. “Some Reflections on the Development of the Pentecostal Mission Model in South Africa.” Missionalia 21, no. 1 (1993): 40–56. Wouters, Jacqueline M. F. “An Anthropological Study of Healing Practices in African Initiated Churches with Specific Reference to a Zionist Christian Church in Marabastad.” MA diss., Pretoria, University of South Africa, 2014.

6

African neo-Pentecostalism’s emphasis on prosperity and its implications for its Christology An African Pentecostal hermeneutical consideration Marius Nel1

6.1 Introduction Africa has a unique way of thinking about prosperity that differs from that of the Western world, including neo-Pentecostalism in the USA with its influential prosperity theology. For that reason, it is essential to understand the anthropology and Christology of African neo-Pentecostal groups that promote prosperity views in terms of the unique African understanding of prosperity. In African traditional religion salvation is understood in holistic terms and includes body, soul and spirit as well as physical, spiritual and emotional healing, wholeness in relations and prosperity in material provisions. At the same time, prosperity is understood not in individual terms but in collective and communal terms, as provision for the larger group of kin. It is important to note that while the prosperity message has developed several of its theological loci its Christology is not well developed, and for good reason. The result is that the logical consequences of the prosperity gospel for the way Christians think about Christ are not clear at all. It argues in a certain manner about human beings, and for that reason Christ receives (and necessarily has to receive) less emphasis, being replaced by human beings to a critical extent. Who and what Christ was became a point of conflict in the early church. It was only resolved in the fourth century with the fourth ecumenical council of the Christian church, held in 451 CE in Chalcedon in modern day Turkey, that denounced the teaching of Nestorius which insisted on the unity of the divine and the human person in Christ as well as the monophysite doctrine that Christ had only one nature. The conference confirmed two distinct natures in Christ. 2 Today the Roman Catholic, Protestant, as well as Eastern Orthodox traditions abide by the doctrine that Christ had a divine and a human nature. Early Pentecostals accepted it, but when the unitarian debate led to a major split in 1914 and the unitarians broke away from the Assemblies of God, they supported a modalist doctrine of the trinity which states that there is only one God whose name is Jesus and who reveals Godself in three different forms.3 Although contemporary prosperity teachers subscribe to the traditional doctrine of the two natures DOI: 10.4324/9781003212973-6

African neo-Pentecostalism 125 of Christ and understand the person of Christ as one person who possesses two natures, their anthropological teachings contradict it. Traditionally the church accepted that each nature of Christ retained its unique properties while the two natures remained distinct, though inseparably united in Christ’s person. It implies that as the second person of the Trinity, Jesus, was divinely omniscient and omnipotent but according to his human nature, the incarnate Christ needed to eat food to survive, grow in knowledge, etc.4 It seems that in a part of the proclamation of the prosperity gospel a unitarian vision of Jesus as God that moves away from the traditional doctrine may be proclaimed.5 Prosperity teachers accept that Christ was divine but emphasise the superiority of the believer to such an extent that it may seem to threaten the divinity of Christ. This is demonstrated when they proclaim the “spiritual death” of Jesus, his rebirth and his continuing “incarnation” in human beings, popular doctrines widely held in prosperity circles.6

6.2 The prosperity theology’s view of Christ and humankind Other Pentecostal leaders and teachers picked up Kenyon’s views and expanded on them, including Fred F. Bosworth (1877–1958), Oral Roberts (1918–2009)7 and later Kenneth Hagin (1917–2003).8 Kenneth Hagin and Kenneth Copeland developed a christological perspective that differs in several respects from the traditional view, and that threatens the heart of the gospel of God’s love for human beings in Christ. They refer to the spiritual death of Christ and the influence of their publications made this doctrine widely popular, especially in African neo-Pentecostalism where it is taught widely, although not all prosperity teachers accept it. The doctrine originated with Essek William Kenyon’s metaphysical arguments.9 According to this doctrine, when Jesus became a human being he left his divine nature in heaven.10 That is why Jesus referred to himself as the “Son of man,” according to Charles Capps. This also serves as evidence that the second Adam (a popular concept used in the prosperity movement to refer to Christ) left the nature of God behind when he came to the earth and he took on the nature of a human being.11 The second Adam with his human nature was not viewed as a revelation of God to humans, as most Christians held, but he came to the earth with the intention to restore the first Adam.12 With the restoration of the first Adam, human beings are upgraded to the same level as God.13 They become super beings on a par with God, like Adam was. At creation he was a super being; he had the same light shining out of him as God had and he was clothed with light like God because he was the very image of God. The same light was revealed when Jesus appeared to the apostle John on the island of Patmos.14 While living on earth as a human being, Jesus was not God. He was only a man empowered by the Holy Spirit. The most outstanding thing that was recorded about him was that he was a lay reader in the synagogue (Luke 4:16).15 When he left heaven to come to the earth in his incarnation, he laid

126  Marius Nel aside all of his God-powers. He functioned on earth as a normal human being, like any other man. Should he had used his God-given powers during his life on earth, he could not have become the Saviour of the world. He would have forfeited that right. Like Adam who lost the rights and privileges of being a son of God when he sinned in the Garden, Jesus lived as a human being, indicated by his title, “Son of man.” To become the second Adam, he had to take on the same appearance as the sinful first Adam. That was the price he had to pay to win the right for believers to become sons of God.16 Partaking in the satanic nature, the image of God in Jesus was replaced by the image of humanity’s new father and master, Satan.17 The titles attributed to Jesus in the New Testament, “Son of man” and “second Adam,” serve for prosperity teachers as more than mere technical terms. They are used to explain that Jesus lost his deity and became a sinful human being in order that human beings may become deities.18 It is further taught that Jesus’ death on the cross did not end the work of salvation needed to restore humankind into the right relationship with God.19 Actually, it was not even the most important or crucial part of the process of the atonement. It only served to demonstrate how Jesus was finally defeated. He carried human sinful nature as well the nature of Satan on the cross and he had to struggle in hell for three days after his death to conquer his sinful nature as well as the powers of evil and victory. 20 Kenyon argues that none of the apostles knew what happened on the cross, or during the three days and nights before Christ’s resurrection. 21 For that reason, the New Testament does not contain any information about these issues. The knowledge about the real reason for the cross and what happened when Jesus died, until he was raised on the third day, was revealed to prosperity teachers. They were the first to share in this knowledge; for twenty centuries God did not reveal it to anyone. Now this knowledge is blazing a new path in the constructive interpretation of the New Testament and uncovers “many new veins of primary truth long covered by sense knowledge interpretation of the Word. Now we can know about these three days, for this is the thing that will build faith in us.”22 Two texts are used to shore up the notion that Christ suffered under Satan in hell: According to Matthew 12:40 Jesus stated that Jonah was in the belly of a huge fish for three days, and in like manner the Son of man would be in the heart of the earth for three days. It clearly refers to Jesus’ burial in the tomb of a rich man, Joseph of Arimathea. Another verse that teachers use is Ephesians 4:9–10, which states that the phrase “Jesus ascended” indicates that Christ first descended to our lowly world. The purpose of his descension to the earth was so that he might fill the entire universe with himself. It clearly refers to Christ’s incarnation on earth; no mention is made of Jesus’ incarceration in hell. 23 Prosperity theology interprets the text as references to Christ’s stay in hell, in order to explain that to realise one’s equality with Jesus, one needs to know why Jesus had to die on the cross and why he had to go to hell for three days. 24

African neo-Pentecostalism 127 By resurrecting Jesus from the dead, God made Jesus the first human being to be born again. Traditionally the Christian church interpreted the words in Psalm 2:7, “You are my son; today I have begotten you,” as referring to the conception of Jesus and his birth. However, Hagin explains that in actual fact the words refer to Christ’s resurrection. 25 It has to do with what happened during the three days in hell that ended when God accepted Jesus as a born-again man. That is also why Paul, in Acts 13:28–33, explains that the words, “today I have begotten you,” refers to Jesus’ resurrection from the dead. 26 However, Hagin continues that “born again” should be redefined. It does not only refer to being restored with God but especially points “to receive the nature of God.”

6.3 Evaluation of the prosperity theology’s view of Christ and mankind That Jesus should be born again in order to receive the nature of God is a strange idea and the question should be asked why it would be necessary for the Son of God to receive what was considered to be his in the first place. The church traditionally accepted that Jesus had two natures, as the Son of God from the foundation of the world and as the Son of man since his incarnation. Prosperity teachers differ from this doctrine and emphasise that when Jesus left heaven for the earth, he had to leave behind his divine nature, as God. He came to earth as a normal human being, like any other person. This was necessary for him to carry the sins of humankind on the cross. When he died there, he was carrying not only our sins (plural, referring to the individual deeds of sin) but also our sin (singular), that is, our sinful nature. If he only atoned for our sin, we would only have been saved from our sins but not from our propensity or inclination to sin, that is, our sinful nature. Then we would have remained the same kind of creatures, doomed to keep on sinning. To carry our sinful nature, however, implied that he had to become a sinner, like any other person. Only as a sinner subjected to a sinful nature himself could he carry the natural human inclination to sin. When he put away sin by his sacrifice, he changed the nature that caused us to sin. Now we have lost any ability to sin. It is impossible to sin anymore because Jesus died to his and our sinful nature. The implication is clear: prosperity believers now live “sinless lives.” This strange doctrine goes back to Kenyon who believes that Jesus actually received a satanic spirit and became obedient to Satan on the cross. He had to submit fully to Satan to die because Satan is the author of death. 27 To get to the cross, it was necessary that Jesus had to exchange his human nature for a sinful, satanic nature. During his earthly life his divine nature did not play any role because he had to leave it in heaven to reach God’s goal with his incarnation. This implies the internal division of the Godhead and the capability of God to change. 28

128  Marius Nel Gloria Copeland expands on the theme. She explains that Jesus experienced the same spiritual death that Adam experienced in the garden of Eden when he sinned. Both received a “sin nature” or “satanic nature.” The implication is that Jesus did not only die physically on the cross; he also died a second, spiritual death, as a sinner deserving to die before God.29 Christ experienced the same spiritual death that had befallen Adam. In “Dual Death,” Christ was cut off from the Father fully and descended “into the dreaded regions,” where he would have to stay and suffer until he had paid the full “penalty for our sinful nature.”30 It was as a sinner rejected by God that he went to hell. Because his nature was changed, he was condemned to the suffering of a condemned sinner in hell. Here he suffered for three days and eventually God shouted from heaven, “That satisfied the Supreme Court of heaven. He is justified!”31 By way of the resurrection, Jesus became born again and received the nature of God, which consisted in taking back his divine nature that he had left behind in heaven. Such teachings imply that our redemption did not take place on the cross. It only happened after the death of Jesus on the cross and for that reason his death was a double death. He did not only die for our sins; he died because he was a sinner deserving the wrath of God on his sinful nature. That is why he could also become our substitute in hell. According to Jacobsen, Kenyon’s theology of redemption had two foci.32 God’s provision of salvation had to include an appropriate recompense for Adam’s treason and its awful legacy of human sin and separation from God. But redemption also had to deal with Satan. Creation needed to be freed from his deadly grip. Because the devil obtained control of the world by legal means, in Kenyon’s argument, God could not simply grab the world back from Satan, even though God had the power to do so. Instead, God had to wait until Satan overstepped his bounds, leaving God room to legally intervene and reclaim control of the universe. So that became God’s strategy, to trick Satan into overstepping his legal rights. He did this through Jesus, the “Hero Christ, the Hero Man, our princely Saviour God.”33 Christ was the bait God used to lure Satan beyond his legal rights so that God could crush him. In the incarnation, the divine aspect of Christ was kept hidden and out of view so that Satan would think Jesus was merely another human being, a mere human. When Christ died on the cross, Satan thought he had finally defeated this pious individual, not realising that he had dragged a morally perfect man into hell.34 Nobody knew who Jesus was, not even his closest friends, and when Jesus was brought back to life from spiritual death, Satan found himself facing his most dangerous foe with no legal shield to protect him.35 It should also be noted that the teaching is based on knowledge hidden from all others and for all time, even from biblical authors as well, that is now revealed to a few individuals. It is reminiscent of the influential Gnostic movement in the second century that claimed secret knowledge (gnosis). Knowledge now becomes the way to become and be like God.

African neo-Pentecostalism 129 If one only knows this secret knowledge, that Jesus did not die on the cross to bear the price of one’s sins but that he had to die a second death because he hung on the cross as a Satanic figure, then one will be restored in one’s relationship with God, permitting one to become like the first Adam before the Fall. Because God intended for people to live like gods, as Adam did in the garden before the Fall, Jesus had to suffer in hell to restore the effects of the original Fall. At the moment of the Fall, humanity was “born again” in a negative sense. Adam and Eve’s almost-divine nature was taken away and was replaced by a satanic nature. “The moment Man sinned his nature underwent a complete change. This change has no parallel in Nature except in that which is known as the New Birth…Man was actually Born Again when he sinned. That is, he was born of the Devil. He became a partaker of Satanic Nature.”36 The result is that (a few number of) believers can be restored to be like Adam, and be united with and become like God. Traditionally, Jesus’ incarnation was interpreted in terms of the atonement of sinners. He died on the cross as a sacrifice for their sins. Because he was holy and sinless, he could serve as a substitute for all sinners, earning forgiveness for those who would have had to pay with their lives for the separation from God caused by their sins. He complied with all the requirements set for sacrifices in the Old Testament. The new doctrine stating that Jesus physically became sin and took on human satanic nature, as a consequence of Adam sinning in the garden of Eden, and that Jesus had to die and go to hell to conquer Satan there cannot be reconciled with either the New Testament’s identification of Jesus Christ as the saviour of humankind nor with the Old Testament concept of a holy sin-offering that reconciled humankind with God.37 The New Testament never identified Christ with human sinful nature. He died to pay the price of their sins. He died in sinners’ stead and thus acquired restoration in the relationship between human beings and God. His death did not imply that believers would never sin again or struggle with the inclination to sin. Romans 7:21–25 states clearly that Paul is still captive to the law of sin that keeps on dwelling in him. “Wretched man that I am! Who will rescue me from this body of death? Thanks be to God through Jesus Christ our Lord!” (Rom 7:24–25). In prosperity doctrine, Jesus was not a sinless substitute but a substitutive sinner.38 He received the satanic nature on the cross, which enabled him to die bodily and spiritually, to accommodate the extinction of his sinful nature. Because Jesus joined all human beings in Adam’s being born again when his almost-divine nature was taken away and was replaced by a satanic nature, Jesus had to identify with Satan to promulgate his spiritual death. That he died spiritually was the condition for him being born-again, which consists of receiving the divine nature. In this way we can be born again, and receive the divine nature, implying that we cannot sin anymore. The prosperity gospel teaches that as sinless creatures we enjoy the divine privileges of health, wealth, happiness and prosperity. Also, we are upgraded to the level of the divine. The cost to Jesus was that he had to

130  Marius Nel become sinner. However, Christian daily experiences illustrate that believers are simul justus et peccator, at the same time both righteous and sinners, rather than divine beings. Like most other Christian traditions, Pentecostals accepted that even though Jesus experienced subjectively that God had abandoned him to the extreme suffering of crucifixion (Mark 15:34), that was not the case. God’s Spirit did not leave him there, and it was the same Spirit within him who raised him from the dead. Jesus never was sinful, neither on the cross nor during the three days when he was dead. Death did not separate Jesus and the Father. Because God is one God, in three co-eternal consubstantial persons or hypostases, Jesus could not be separated from God, just as he as holy God could never be sinful. Though the three persons of the Godhead are distinct, they are also one “substance, essence or nature.”39 The only scriptural proof presented by prosperity teachers that Jesus would have died twice is found in the plural use of the noun “death” in the Hebrew text of Isaiah 53:9. However, the phenomenon occurs frequently in the Hebrew language that the plural does not signify numerical plurality but rather the wide extent of the association of the term. It does not imply that someone would die twice but that the person’s death would be so profound that it includes the experience in its full effects. Pentecostals would say that Jesus exorcised the demons of death when he died. For Jesus to have died a second death, in his spirit or “satanic nature,” implies that the Holy Spirit abandoned him. The problem with this teaching starts when the prosperity gospel states that Jesus left his divine nature in heaven when he was incarnated, something neither the New Testament nor the early church subscribed to. The biblical concept of “second death,” found in Revelation 2:11; 20:6, 14; and 21:8, refers to something else, to unbelieving sinners who are judged at the final judgment and thrown into the lake of fire (Rev 20:15). With this concept, however, prosperity teachers describe Jesus’ punishment for his satanic nature, implying that he could never have done anything else than what was sinful before God. Although they acknowledge that the doctrine is not found in the New Testament, they claim that their knowledge about it was revealed in a special, extrabiblical revelation. To question the validity of the doctrine is to doubt the abilities of the anointed prophet who had received the revelation knowledge from God, suggesting that the unbelieving Thomas might be sinning against the Holy Spirit, and anyone who blasphemes against the Holy Spirit will not be forgiven (Matt 12:32–32). The assumption that revelation knowledge surpasses what the New Testament teaches is unacceptable for believers because it opens the door for any alien doctrine to enter into the church. The hypothesis set by this chapter is that the prosperity gospel’s Christology has not been well developed. It is now clear why this is so, because the prosperity theology emphasises the effects of the atonement for the believer at the cost of the sacrifice of Christ. Christ became a mere

African neo-Pentecostalism 131 mortal and he had to die as a human being devoid of any divine nature, to change believers into divine creatures. However, in reality sin, sickness and poverty still exist in the church and this will be the case until the full and final realisation of the gospel at the parousia.40 Believers are neither as much an incarnation of God as Jesus Christ, nor gods.41 David Oyedepo writes, “God was duplicated in man, leaving a man with all divine attributes to operate like the true son of his father. If sons of man are men, then it follows that sons of God are gods. Like, [sic] beget like,” leading to the conclusion, “Ye are gods! This is the basis for the supernatural, that you are no longer an ordinary human being. You are superhuman, super extra-natural … The trust is that you are a son of God, so you are gods.”42 It is not true that Christians do not only have God living within them but that they are God-kind of creatures. They are not made God under God.43 Human beings are cast in prosperity theology as superheroes reigning victoriously over the earth and its evil powers, claiming the privileges of gods in the form of prosperity and wealth. In this respect, Psalm 82:6 is used widely, “I say, ‘You are gods, children of the Most High, all of you’,” quoted by Jesus in John 10:34. However, the full sentence is not quoted that continues in the next verse: “nevertheless, you shall die like mortals, and fall like any prince (or: fall as one man, o princes).” The term “gods” is qualified and explained in terms of the second denominator in the same sentence, “sons (or children) of the Most High,” implying that it refers to members of God’s chosen people. Prosperity theology claims that as God-people, believers are also destined to be creators, able to “speak” health, wealth and prosperity because their words and positive confessions contain the same power as God’s during the creation process (Gen 1:3–26). The prosperity message focuses on what people have and do not have, what they want and what they can get through faith, and little is said about hope for an eternal life in the presence of God. The emphasis is rather on hope for this life. The argument is that Africans suffer from poverty to such an extent that it is difficult to dream about a “pie in the sky” one day in heaven when you do not have enough on earth to feed your family.

6.4  Hermeneutical angle Many Pentecostals subscribe to some or all of the doctrines found in prosperity theology. It is argued that this is a hermeneutical challenge related to the way some, or perhaps the majority of Pentecostals, read and interpret the Bible. They consider that the Bible gets its authority from the assumption that it contains God’s words that are clear and understandable for the average person, and with each text on the same level as all other texts. The Baconian and Common Sense assumptions assert that it is possible to gain knowledge that is sure and certain by using one’s own rational capabilities. When this positive assertion of the certainty of knowledge is

132  Marius Nel combined with biblicism, that is, reading biblical texts at the expense of context and other biblical teachings, it leads to the idea that one can provide final answers to all religious questions.44 Anyone can understand the basic meaning and what the Bible teaches about different subjects. The Bible does not hold any contradictions or human mistakes. To understand the Bible, it is not required that one is able to do complex academic analysis or have specialised knowledge about the cultural facts that characterised the biblical world or the languages in which the Bible was written. The result is that Pentecostals as well as neo-Pentecostals tend to read the Bible at face value and in a common sense manner, ignoring the literary, social, economic, political and ideological contexts of specific texts, and interpret it literally,45 except where the text suggests that the author used allegory, parable, poetry or other literary instruments that require another reading. All texts are infallible and flawless, and given equal weight and value as words coming from the mouth of God. “The Bible is God’s word in human language and thought” became “the Bible is the authoritative word of God that is applicable in all situations without any exceptions.” Kenyon goes even further than the typical fundamentalist and coined the term “revelation knowledge” to refer to what he claimed to have received, as opposed to “sense knowledge.”46 Sense knowledge is gained through the five physical senses and serves as the source of all human observational, rational, as well as scientific knowledge. The physical senses are the “parents of all this knowledge.”47 Sense knowledge fails to answer the deepest and oldest questions of human existence and cannot satisfy the “God hunger” that all people share.48 “Sense knowledge cannot find God and would not know God even if it did find Him.”49 To know God, it is needed that the believer transcend sensory and scientific knowledge and acquire another type of knowledge that is transcendent, ultra-sensory, and supra-sensory.50 McConnell describes revelation knowledge as supernatural knowledge of God and the spiritual realm as revealed particularly in Paul’s epistles, which enables human beings to transcend the limitations of sense knowledge and act in faith.51 The doctrine of revelation knowledge forms the epistemology of the prosperity message and backbone of its hermeneutics. Kenyon’s distinction between sensory and revelation knowledge produces a radical dualism that reduces all of reality to two opposite principles, light and darkness, spirit and matter, good and evil. It also produces fideism, that is, the belief that religious truth is based solely on faith rather than reasoning or sensory evidence. Science and common sense are not sources of revelation knowledge at all. This betrays, according to McConnell, that Kenyon’s epistemology reveals strong parallels with metaphysical cults and creates a group of elite Christians in distinction from “ordinary” Christians by their superior knowledge of God.52 Pentecostal hermeneutics differ from the hermeneutics underlying the prosperity movement in the sense and to the extent that the prosperity

African neo-Pentecostalism 133 hermeneutic starts with the presupposition that God intends not only that all believers should be saved and restored in their relationship with God, but also to be healthy, wealthy, happy, and prosperous. Revealed knowledge, the hermeneutical angle from which they interpret the Bible, explains an origin and destiny of humankind hidden from most other believers. Revelation knowledge, according to prosperity theology, provides perfect knowledge of God not found in the Bible. In Kenyon’s words, “It goes without argument that God has the ability to give us exact knowledge in regard to spiritual things.”53 Revelation knowledge opens one to direct knowledge of God, making one’s spirit open to the unerring guidance from the Spirit. However, human beings cannot know God as God is. It is presumptuous to think that a created being can fully comprehend its Creator.54 God’s holiness, eternal existence and glory are symbols of God’s unknowability and human inability to comprehend the invisible One. Pentecostals traditionally guarded against knowledge perceivably received through revelation that could not be corroborated with the knowledge about the issue provided in the Bible. When this was not done the result was that heretical teachings entered the movement. In terms of the claims of prosperity theology this should still serve as a condition for any new teaching, that it is founded on the available knowledge provided in the Bible. For that reason, most of neo-Pentecostalism’s “revelation knowledge” cannot be accepted. What is true is that prosperity theology’s deistic god can be comprehended in terms of certain laws or principles according to which this god operates. When human beings apply these laws, their God is compelled to react in a prescribed way. When the name of Jesus or the Word of God is used, God is under obligation to respond. The arrogance of such claims is clear. Prosperity preachers teach that the believer does not only gain perfect knowledge of God as they learn to deny their physical senses, but they also transcend all physical limitations and walk in continual revelation. “I am no longer hemmed in by limitations because I am united with the limitless One.”55 They become infallible and no one may criticise them. They also have absolute control over their own environment; even the elements of nature obey them, as the wind and storm in Jesus’ day. They write their own ticket; God responds in predictable ways in providing for their desires and needs. They have transcended and conquered all evil and any form of deficiency in life. They are the supermen and superheroes, the miracle class. A few elect of them become “god men.”56 Revelation knowledge lifts believers out of the common place where other believers are into this superrealm, outside of the realm of the senses and sense knowledge. They live in the spirit realm, becoming gods and open to direct revelation. It is inappropriate, and even dangerous to oppose or criticise them, since it amounts to the “sin against the Holy Spirit” (see, e.g., Matt 12:31). They require uncritical acceptance of what they teach, even if it clearly contradicts what

134  Marius Nel the Bible teaches. It is as if the preacher contains saving knowledge resident in them, illustrating the clear messiah complex that characterises some of these figures. The classification of Christians into different classes should be rejected as unbiblical and affecting the dignity of persons. The concept that some believers could attain to the status of a saviour or redeemer is unbiblical. Moses and the prophets in the Old Testament as well as the apostles in the New Testament were only fallible harbingers of the revelation of God, demonstrated by the disciples’ forsaking of Jesus in his hour of greatest need. Prosperity epistemology is based on revelation knowledge, granted only to a select few, in contrast to Pentecostal epistemology that leaves room for extra-biblical revelation, but subject to the content and spirit of teaching in the Bible. One’s faith is not determined by one’s status while one’s status as a believer is not dependent on one’s reception of secret knowledge that even the New Testament apostles and Paul were not privileged to have known. In the Bible faith is not measured by knowledge, but love. The author of 1 Corinthians 8 addresses the issue of food that is sacrificed to idols, and some members in the church who rely on their knowledge about the issue that presumably provides them a superior position in the church. What they should remember, argues Paul, is that knowledge easily puffs up, but love builds up. “Anyone who claims to know something does not yet have the necessary knowledge; but anyone who loves God is known by him” (vv. 2–3). If knowledge about God does not lead to love, such knowledge is worthless. In the same manner, Galatians 5 states that in Christ Jesus neither circumcision nor uncircumcision counts for anything; the only thing that counts is faith working through love (v. 6). Love demands the democratic perspective that all believers have the same status in Christ, constituting the new creation intended to inherit the new earth. Pentecostals’ widespread acceptance of prosperity theology demonstrates their vulnerability to dangerous heretical teachings. It is submitted that their hermeneutics, of a biblicist nature, should be replaced by the vibrant new hermeneutics developed in theological circles during the past few decades, as an extension of early Pentecostal hermeneutics, to strengthen its abilities to resist such heretical teachings.57

6.5 Conclusion It was argued that, in their emphasis on the realisation of the presumed promises of health, wealth and prosperity for believers, prosperity believers neglect a proper Christology. Their Christology contains the doctrine of the spiritual death of Christ that originated with Essek William Kenyon. He taught that Jesus had to leave his divine nature in heaven when he became a human being, implying an internal division of the Godhead that was only healed after Jesus’ resurrection and that Jesus was only a human

African neo-Pentecostalism 135 being empowered by the Holy Spirit, subject to sin and the curse of a sinful nature like any other human being, as a descendant of Adam. Jesus’ death on the cross was also not God’s final work of atonement, like the church traditionally believed, but only served to demonstrate his defeat as a sinner. He had received the nature of Satan, as all sinners did, and had to struggle for three days in hell before he eventually conquered the powers of evil and God could declare him righteous. When he was resurrected from the dead on the third day, be became the first human being to be born again, receiving back the divine nature that he had left behind in heaven. Jesus was not a sinless substitute for sinners, as the New Testament suggests, but he served as a substitutive sinner. As a result of his death and victory, the believer now also receives the divine nature. They become gods, sinless creatures who enjoy the divine privileges of health, wealth, happiness, and prosperity. They are upgraded to the level of God, at the cost of Jesus that had to be downgraded to the level of a sinful human being while living on earth. He had to become sinner so that believers could become divine. Prosperity Christology is not well-developed because of its overemphasis on the effects of the atonement for the believer. The focus is not on Christ, but nearly exclusively on believers’ rights and privileges on earth. Their new identity allows believers into a complete union with God; they become as much an incarnation of God as Jesus Christ was. All Christians are gods. Such an heretical teaching is unacceptable to Pentecostals, and should serve as a clarion call to African Pentecostals who were influenced strongly by prosperity theology.

Notes 1 The author thanks the National Research Foundation of South Africa (NRF) for providing funding for this study. The views expressed do not necessarily reflect the view of the NRF. 2 https://www.britannica.com/event/Council-of-Chalcedon; accessed 2020– 05–19. 3 Walter Hollenweger, The Pentecostals (Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg, 1977), 311. 4 https://www.ligonier.org/learn/devotionals/scripture-and-two-natureschrist/; accessed 2019–12–16. 5 According to Dan R. McConnell, A Different Gospel: A Bold and Revealing Look at the Biblical and Historical Basis of the Word of Faith Ministries (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1988), 33; the transcendental and metaphysical movements arose in response to Unitarianism, and many Unitarians ended up in some form of New Thought. Essek William Kenyon regularly attended the services of Minot J. Savage, an outstanding minister and author in the Unitarian Church. Kenyon moved from Unitarianism to Transcendentalism to New Thought when he associated with a religious group that denied the fundamental doctrines of the Christian faith, such as the Trinity. 6 Nico J. Horn, From Rags to Riches: An Analysis of the Faith Movement and its Relation to the Classical Pentecostal Movement (Pretoria: University of South Africa, 1989), 96. There are some problems with the notion that

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human beings are an incarnation in the same way that Jesus was, according to Hank Hanegraaff, Christianity in Crisis 21st Century (Nashville, TE: Thomas Nelson, 2009), 192. One can only be incarnated if one existed prior to having a body; however, human pre-existence is foreign to biblical thinking. To state that we are as much an incarnation as Jesus was, is also to forge an unrealistic equality between creature and Creator. And the statement that God’s reason for creating Adam was God’s desire to reproduce Godself would indicate that God created a polytheistic planet with many gods living on earth. 7 For Oral Roberts’ role in the development of the prosperity gospel, see Kate Bowler, Blessed: A History of the American Prosperity Gospel (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 48. 8 Jeff Straub, “The Pentecostalization of Global Christianity: The Challenge of Cessationism in the 21st Century” (MacDonald Lectures, Central Baptist Theological Seminary, 10 February 2015), 45. 9 Especially in Essek William Kenyon, What Happened from the Cross to the Throne (Lynnwood, WA: Kenyon’s Gospel Publishing Society, 1969). 10 Horn, From Rags to Riches, 96. 11 Charles Capps, Authority in Three Worlds (Tulsa, OK: Harrison House, 1982), 91–4. 12 Kenneth Copeland, Walking in the Realms of the Miraculous (Fort Worth, TX: Kenneth Copeland, 1979), 90. 13 Horn, From Rags to Riches, 99. 14 Copeland, Walking in the Realms, 90. 15 David Oyedepo, quoted in John Ntui-Abung, The Chaos of the Prosperity Gospel: A Case Study of Two Prominent Nigerian Pastors (Bloomington, IN: WestBow, 2017), 28. 16 Robert Henderson, Operating in the Courts of Heaven: Granting God the Legal Right to Fulfil His Passion and Answer Our Prayers (Helderkruin: Ariel Gate Africa, 2013), 50. 17 Essek William Kenyon, The Father and his Family, 11th ed. (Seattle, WA: Kenyon’s Gospel Publishing Society, 1916), 41, 51, 85. 18 Henderson, Operating in the Courts of Heaven, 51. 19 Judith A. Matta, The Born Again Jesus of the Word-Faith Teaching (Fullerton, CA: Spirit of Truth Ministries, 1987), 35, 37. 20 See also Paula White-Cain, Something Greater: Finding Triumph over Trials (New York: FaithWords, 2019). She teaches that Jesus came to earth primarily to make humans wealthy, prosperous, and healthy, to bring abundant life to humankind, prosperity that consists of welfare, well-being, affluence, success, thrift, roaring trade, good fortune, smiles of fortune and blessings. The condition to share in these blessings is to tithe regularly. Only tithing can lead to a breakthrough in financial terms, or healing and good health, or other blessings. Jesus did not come to earth in the first place to reconcile humans to God by paying for sin. Paula White is a world-renowned prosperity preacher and serves as presidential spiritual advisor to Donald Trump. 21 Kenyon, What Happened from the Cross, 9, 12. 22 Kenyon, What Happened from the Cross, 9. 23 Hanegraaff, Christianity in Crisis, 182. 24 Matta, Born Again Jesus, 35. 25 Kenneth Hagin, Don’t Blame God! (Tulsa, OK: Faith Library, 1979), 8–11. 26 Hagin, Don’t Blame God!, 9. 27 Kenyon, What Happened from the Cross. 28 Kenyon, Father and His Family, 192. 29 Gloria Copeland, God’s Will for You is Healing (Fort Worth, TX: Kenneth Copeland, 1972), 5.

African neo-Pentecostalism 137 30 Kenyon, Father and His Family, 130, 132. 31 Hagin, Don’t Blame God!, 10; Kenneth E. Hagin, Zoe: The God-Kind of Life (Tulsa, OK: Faith Library, 1982), 35–6, 41, states that humankind were created on terms of equality with God, and the first people could stand in God’s presence without any consciousness of inferiority. God has made us as much like Godself as possible. God made us the same class of being that God is. The believer is also called Christ. This is who we are; we are Christs. 32 Douglas Jacobsen, Thinking in the Spirit: Theologies of the Early Pentecostal Movement (Indiana, IN: Indiana University Press, 2003), 330. 33 Kenyon, Father and His Family, 136, 192. 34 Gustaf Aulen, Christus Victor: An Historical Study of the Three Main Types of the Idea of Atonement, trans. A.G. Herbert (New York: Macmillan, 1957), 4. 35 Essek William Kenyon, The Wonderful Name of Jesus (Seattle, WA: Kenyon’s Gospel Publishing Society, 1927), 9. 36 Kenyon, Father and his Family, 48. 37 Lovemore Togarasei. “African Gospreneurship: Assessing the Possible Contribution of the Gospel of Prosperity to Entrepreneurship in Light of Jesus’ Teaching on Earthly Possessions,” Hermen Kroesbergen (ed.), In Search of Health and Wealth (Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2014): 111, perceptively remarks that the prosperity gospel has mainly the Old Testament as source book, while those who criticise the movement mainly base their arguments on New Testament teaching, particularly Jesus’ teaching on material possessions and the necessity of carrying one’s cross. 38 Horn, From Rags to Riches, 99. 39 See the Athanasian Creed or Symbol Quicunque (found at https://www. anglicancommunion.org/media/109017/Athanasian-Creed.pdf; accessed 2020– 05–30). 40 Dan R. McConnell, The Kenyon Connection: A Theological and Historical Analysis of the Cultic Origins of the Faith Movement (MA diss., Oral Roberts University, 1982), 34; McConnell has provided the seminal philosophical critique of the Word-Faith Movement, demonstrating its reliance on its founder’s (E.W. Kenyon) New Thought and Christian Science influences. 41 As asserted by Kenneth Copeland. Believers’ Voice of Victory (Fort Worth, TX: Kenneth Copeland, 1987), 9. 42 Quoted in Ntui-Abung, Chaos of the Prosperity Gospel, 38–9. See also Paul Gifford, “Expecting Miracles: The Prosperity Gospel in Africa.” Christian Century (10 July 2007): 21. 43 See Dave Hunt and T.A. McMahon, The Seduction of Christianity: Spiritual Discernment in the Last Days (Eugene, OR: Harvest House, 1985), 84 for more quotations and explanations of prosperity teachers that illustrate this dangerous teaching. 44 George M. Marsden, Understanding Fundamentalism and Evangelicalism (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1991), 117. 45 The difference between a literal and literalist reading is important. Literal comprehension consists of reading a text and understanding its reference as it is stated. It is the first and most basic level of comprehension in reading. A literalist reading of the Bible accepts that one interprets its statements as literal, except in cases where the author used another genre that is not supposed to be read literally, such as allegory or poetry. The literal sense requires one to read the text for its grammatical-historical sense. At most, Pentecostals apply the grammatical-historical method of exegeting the biblical text. The International Council on Biblical Inerrancy accepted at its meeting in Chicago in October 1978 the so-called Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy, that

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explains that the literal sense of a text is its grammatical-historical sense, that is, the meaning which the author expressed, implying that it does not accept the attributing of a meaning which the literal sense does not support, except in case of figures of speech (http://www.danielakin.com/wp-content/uploads/ old/Resource_545/Book%202,%20Sec%2023.pdf; accessed 2020–01–08). 46 Essek William Kenyon, The Two Kinds of Knowledge (Seattle, WA: Kenyon’s Gospel Publishing Society, 1942), is dedicated to this distinction. 47 Kenyon, Two Kinds of Knowledge, 11. 48 Kenyon, Two Kinds of Knowledge, 25. 49 Kenyon, Two Kinds of Knowledge, 34. 50 Kenyon, Two Kinds of Knowledge, 20. 51 McConnell, Different Gospel, 102. 52 McConnell, Different Gospel, 103. 53 Essek William Kenyon, The Hidden Man: An Unveiling of the Subconscious Mind (Seattle, WA: Kenyon’s Gospel Publishing Society, 1970), 167. 54 1 Cor 13:8–12 explains that while love never ends, prophecies, tongues, and knowledge that reveal God will come to an end because it represents only partial knowledge about God. “For we know only in part … but when the complete comes, the partial will come to an end … For now we see in a mirror, dimly, but then we will see face to face. Now I know only in part; then I will know fully, even as I have been fully known.” 55 Kenyon, Two Kinds of Life, 58. 56 It seems that Kenyon does not think that any women would ever reach this class; his gendered language suggests that it is limited to males. 57 See, e.g., Marius Nel, The Prosperity Gospel in Africa: An African Pentecostal Hermeneutical Consideration (Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2020).

References Aulen, Gustaf. Christus Victor: An Historical Study of the Three Main Types of the Idea of Atonement, trans. A.G. Herber. New York: Macmillan, 1957. Bowler, Kate. Blessed: A History of the American Prosperity Gospel. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013. Capps, Charles. Authority in Three Worlds. Tulsa, OK: Harrison House, 1982. Copeland, Gloria. God’s Will for You is Healing. Fort Worth, TX: Kenneth Copeland, 1972. Copeland, Kenneth. Believers’ Voice of Victory. Fort Worth, TX: Kenneth Copeland, 1987. Copeland, Kenneth. Walking in the Realms of the Miraculous. Fort Worth, TX: Kenneth Copeland, 1979. Gifford, Paul. “Expecting Miracles: The Prosperity Gospel in Africa.” Christian Century (10 July 2007), 21. Hagin, Kenneth E. Zoe: The God-Kind of Life. Tulsa, OK: Faith Library, 1982. Hanegraaff, Hank. Christianity in Crisis 21st Century. Nashville, TE: Thomas Nelson, 2009. Henderson, Robert. Operating in the Courts of Heaven: Granting God the Legal Right to Fulfil His Passion and Answer Our Prayers. Helderkruin: Ariel Gate Africa, 2013. Hollenweger, Walter. The Pentecostals. Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg, 1977. Horn, J. Nico. From Rags to Riches: An Analysis of the Faith Movement and its Relation to the Classical Pentecostal Movement. Pretoria: University of South Africa, 1989.

African neo-Pentecostalism 139 Hagin, Kenneth. Don’t Blame God! Tulsa, OK: Faith Library, 1979. Hunt, Dave and T.A. McMahon. The Seduction of Christianity: Spiritual Discernment in the Last Days. Eugene, OR: Harvest House, 1985. Jacobsen, Douglas. Thinking in the Spirit: Theologies of the Early Pentecostal Movement. Indiana, IN: Indiana University Press, 2003. Kenyon, Essek William. The Father and his Family. 11th ed. Seattle, WA: Kenyon’s Gospel Publishing Society, 1916. Kenyon, Essek William. The Hidden Man: An Unveiling of the Subconscious Mind. Seattle, WA: Kenyon’s Gospel Publishing Society, 1970. Kenyon, Essek William. The Two Kinds of Knowledge. Seattle, WA: Kenyon’s Gospel Publishing Society, 1942. Kenyon, Essek William. The Wonderful Name of Jesus. Seattle, WA: Kenyon’s Gospel Publishing Society, 1927. Kenyon, Essek William. What Happened from the Cross to the Throne. Lynnwood, WA: Kenyon’s Gospel Publishing Society, 1969. Marsden, George M. Understanding Fundamentalism and Evangelicalism. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1991. Matta, Judith A. The Born Again Jesus of the Word-Faith Teaching. Fullerton, CA: Spirit of Truth Ministries, 1987. McConnell, Dan R. A Different Gospel: A Bold and Revealing Look at the Biblical and Historical Basis of the Word of Faith Ministries. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1988. McConnell, Dan R. The Kenyon Connection: A Theological and Historical Analysis of the Cultic Origins of the Faith Movement. MA diss., Oral Roberts University, 1982. Nel, Marius. The Prosperity Gospel in Africa: An African Pentecostal Hermeneutical Consideration. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2020. Ntui-Abung, John. The Chaos of the Prosperity Gospel: A Case Study of Two Prominent Nigerian Pastors. Bloomington, IN: WestBow, 2017. Straub, Jeff. “The Pentecostalization of Global Christianity: The Challenge of Cessationism in the 21st Century.” MacDonald Lectures, Central Baptist Theological Seminary, 10 February 2015. Togarasei, Lovemore. “African Gospreneurship: Assessing the Possible Contribution of the Gospel of Prosperity to Entrepreneurship in Light of Jesus’ Teaching on Earthly Possessions,” Hermen Kroesbergen (ed.), In Search of Health and Wealth. (Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2014): 110–25. White-Cain, Paula. Something Greater: Finding Triumph over Trials. New York: FaithWords, 2019.

7

Insufficient to ransom Africans? The neo-Pentecostal fear of generational curses in Africa and Christ’s vicarious atonement Collium Banda

7.1 Introduction The aim of this chapter is to critically analyse the Christological paradigm that emerges from the African neo-Pentecostal belief in and fear of generational curses. Several studies have described the prominence of the belief in generational curses among African neo-Pentecostal Christians.1 This chapter adds to the previous study by that critiqued the belief in generational curses from a soteriological perspective. 2 As will be later described, at the heart of the African neo-Pentecostal belief in generational curses is that Christians continue to bear the guilt and evil state of their ancestors and their pre-conversion life. To fulfil the above stated aim, this chapter will interrogate and analyse the implications for Christ’s atonement death of the African neo-Pentecostal belief that curses and ancestral guilt remain alive on converted Christians. The chapter answers the question: What are the implications of the fear of generational curses in African neo-­ Pentecostalism on the atoning sacrifice of Christ? The subsequent question is: How can an understanding of the ransom sacrifice of Christ on the cross inform and enable African neo-Pentecostal Christians to deal meaningfully with their fear of generational curses? The focus of the chapter is limited to this belief in generational curses and the fear it causes for African neo-Pentecostal Christians. Substantiating whether generational curses are real or not falls outside the focus of the chapter. For the purpose of this chapter we are not interested in the question of whether generational curses exist or not, because the belief in generational curses in Africa is widespread, even among African traditional religions (ATR) and various Christian groups. For our purposes the important thing is the fact that African neo-Pentecostal prophets authoritatively teach this doctrine and conduct specialised intense programmes of delivering people from generational curses. In some cases, African neo-­Pentecostals are reported to charge a lot of money to render deliverance services to affected people. Christians often spend fortunes attending deliverance sessions and deliverance schools, and some can spend many days waiting to be helped by the prophets. 3 This shows that many African neo-Pentecostal Christians DOI: 10.4324/9781003212973-7

Insufficient to ransom Africans? 141 believe that generational curses exist, live in fear of them and seek ways to be liberated from them.4 Therefore, an urgent task is to challenge African neo-Pentecostals to consider what it means Christologically to be a bornagain Christian and yet live in fear of generational curses.

7.2  Generational curses in African neo-Pentecostalism The African neo-Pentecostal teaching on generational curses, also known as bloodline curses or ancestral curses, can be defined as the belief that people inherit the guilt and evil condition of their ancestors, resulting in a failure to achieve human flourishing.5 The belief in generational curses emphasises the principle of cause and effect; therefore, generational curses are “events from the past that affect the present in negative ways”.6 Pastor Hlompho Phamodi who pastors His Family Church in Cape Town, illustrates the priority given to fighting spiritual curses and demons in South African neo-Pentecostalism. Phamodi has published several books on demonology dealing with topics like witchcraft7 and spiritual spouses.8 He also operates a YouTube channel called Breakthrough Word,9 where he preaches extensively on demons and provides deliverance services for affected people. Phamodi defines generational curses as spiritual contracts made by parents that are passed on to the succeeding generations and bring suffering on people within the family line.10 Phamodi also says generational curses are evident when the same problems run through the family line to oppress family members by hindering them from living a good life.11 According to Zimbabwean neo-Pentecostal prophet Emmanuel Makandiwa,12 generational curses mean “going through problems because of what your parents did”.13 Important biblical texts in the formulation of a belief in generational curses include Exodus 20:4–5 and Deuteronomy 5:9–10 that all state that God punishes children for the sins of their fathers to the third and fourth generations.14 African neo-Pentecostals also define generational curses broadly, as the various prophets and pastors emphasise different strands. Broadly speaking, generational curses include inheriting the guilt of one’s ancestors, spiritual covenants established by one’s ancestors through their participation in African traditional religious ceremonies, the effects of evil spells or evil pronouncements made on one’s ancestors through statements such as “you will die poor”, inheriting a negative state of being such as biological and medical conditions that hinder people from attaining an optimum life, negative economic conditions such as poverty and negative personal habits such as financial recklessness.15 African neo-Pentecostal prophets handle generational curses as bloodline curses and place them within the category of demons.16 Phamodi states: “Curses are supervised by demons and they will make sure the following generation is under the same curse”. Concerning genetic diseases within families, Phamodi says that while the

142  Collium Banda medical world may be able to explain such diseases, “the root is often demonic”.17 African neo-Pentecostals thus solve the problem of generational curses in the same manner they do demons. According to Degbe, the Ghanaian neo-Pentecostal pastor Nicholas Duncan-Williams describes generational curses as negative spiritual forces released from the spirit world by sinful words, actions and attitudes.18 Degbe adds that Duncan-Williams has emphasised that people can inherit generational curses from their ancestors through their parents or the community they have been born into.19 Therefore, it is believed that an ancestor who divorced, was a thief, was diabetic or was told he or she will never prosper in life, may pass on that negative heritage to their descendants. If, for example, a person was cursed with poverty, it will result in a chain of poor descendants regardless of their hard work or access to a lot of economic resources.20 The teaching of generational curses functions as a primary explanation for people’s lack of human flourishing and certain behavioural disorders. 21

7.3 Generational curses and the affirmation of the power of evil spirits over Christian salvation Arguably, the African neo-Pentecostal teaching on generational curses promotes the belief that Christian salvation is limited, or even powerless, to effectively liberate Christians from the power of evil spirits in their lives. A contentious paradox in African neo-Pentecostalism is the prophets’ teaching that curses can be broken through Jesus Christ’s name, while also teaching that Christians must undergo post-salvation deliverance services under an “anointed woman or man of God” to be freed from generational curses. 7.3.1 Generational curses as powerful forces not easily overcome by Christians It is probably clear by now that our great concern in this chapter is the African neo-Pentecostal belief that generational curses are very powerful forces that cannot easily be overcome even by Christian conversion.22 Phamodi says that those who have accepted Jesus Christ are free from curses because Christ broke the curse in their lives.23 However, for Phamodi, “The fact that you are born again doesn’t stop the enemy from finding something to bind you”. 24 Phamodi further adds, The devil uses family curses sometimes to try and cage people, even Christians. Most of us come from backgrounds where our families or parents consulted [spirit] mediums, familiar spirits and sangomas (witch doctor). You have accepted the Lord but never broke that generational curse, and in the spirit realm contracts speak. As long as that contract is still tied to your name you will have difficulties. 25

Insufficient to ransom Africans? 143 In other words, Christians can still be bound by generational curses. However, declaring belief in the fullness of the work of Christ in liberating Christians from curses and yet believing that Christians remain bound by those curses unless they openly renounce them, leads to confusion that inevitably affirms the greater power of generational curses over the Christian’s blessedness in Christ. Further affirming the power of curses, Phamodi refers to the birth ritual in some traditional African cultures of applying the blood of a slaughtered goat to the umbilical cord of the newly born baby and burying it in the ground to dedicate the new family member to the family ancestral spirits. Phamodi says that when someone becomes a Christian they may become concerned about the lack of material progress in their lives: “The problem is the altar, the blood speaks against them and until you deal with this family altar, life will be struggle after struggle”. 26 Phamodi further adds, “Most Christians’ spiritual cords are not cut off”. 27 This leaves them vulnerable to evil family spirits because “[t]his blood connection can haunt you for the rest of your life if it is not dealt with”. 28 In this scheme of things, a person’s ATR past is given far greater power than their present state in Christ. Thus, a generational curse is considered as powerful enough to hinder the present work of Christ in the life of the Christian. This view of generational curses does not seem to realise the spiritual and covenantal power in the ritual of Christian conversion, because it suggests that the new connection with God established by Christian conversion is not powerful enough to break the Christian’s bonds with the traditional spirits. The old bonds with ancestral spirits are thus viewed as too powerful to be broken by the new bonds in Christ. Therefore, African neo-Pentecostal prophets’ emphasis is that born-again Christians need to undergo post-salvation deliverance rituals to dislodge generational curses from their lives and to be protected from them. The implication of this teaching is the diminishing of the power of Christian salvation, because it is ultimately powerless to provide the needed liberation and protection from curses. Indeed, African neo-Pentecostals do assertively proclaim the reversal of generational curses by “urg[ing] people to break decisively with the past, take their destiny into their own hands, and make personal choices regarding how they relate to the God of Christian salvation”. 29 However, the problem is that the delivered Christians continue to live in fear that if they fail to observe certain religious protocols, in addition to their faith in Christ, the spiritual curses may return to trouble them again. 7.3.2 Generational curses in promoting a Christian life regulated by fear of evil spirits To a large extent, the African neo-Pentecostal view of generational curses closely resembles what is believed about curses in ATR.30 In ATR it is believed that evil spirits within the ancestral line such as those that cause

144  Collium Banda people to be poor and to practice witchcraft are difficult to bring to an end.31 Therefore, much of the religiosity in ATR focuses on protection from evil spirits and appeasing them in order to withhold their destructive power from the people concerned.32 This leads to living a religious life dominated and regulated by the fear of evil family spirits. Even expelled evil spirits continue to maintain control in their former strongholds by causing people to be preoccupied with religious activities aimed at keeping these spirits at bay. It is unfortunate that many African neo-Pentecostal Christians, despite claiming to be born again, having been Christians for a long time and having undergone numerous deliverance services, continue to live Christian lives motivated and regulated by the fear of evil spirits such as generational curses.33 Prophet Makandiwa reinforces, Phamodi’s already noted insistence that Christians can remain with generational curses, by teaching that Paul’s thorn in the flesh mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:7 was a demon.34 In a sermon titled “The Voice of the Blood: Bloodline Curses”, Makandiwa states that generational curses are transmitted across generations through the blood.35 In the sermon, generational curses and demons are used interchangeably to indicate a view of generational curses as demons. Makandiwa proclaims that although Paul was born again, was anointed by God and could perform miracles such as healing the sick, there was a demon in his physical body.36 Makandiwa adds that the realisation that Paul had a demon help him …to understand that being a man of God, I would still have to deal with certain physical things because I can preach fire and be physically broke. I can be a prophet and die outside prosperity not because that is the will of God but because I have failed to understand the communication of the blood. Your blood can tell you something which is totally opposite to what God is saying.37 The gist of Makandiwa’s statement is that Paul had a demon despite being a Christian, because the power of Christian salvation only affected his spiritual life but did not affect what was in the blood of his fleshly body. Phamodi buttresses Makandiwa’s claim by saying: I know of a pastor who has divorced four times and this man of God is anointed and God is using him, somehow the enemy has found a door to destroy him. Now his marriage problem didn’t start with him, almost everyone in that family can’t stand marriage so a curse of divorce is upon this family and unless a curse breaker rises and addressed it, it will keep coming even upon the children to come [sic].38 These prophets unequivocally state that one can be saved and yet have demons and generational curses in their blood, thus indicating a view of

Insufficient to ransom Africans? 145 Christian salvation as limited in its power to liberate believers from generational curses, hence the need for salvation to be accompanied by post-conversion spiritual deliverance services. This view of Christian salvation as limited in its power to give the Christian complete liberation from generational curses intensifies the high uptake of extra-salvation rituals such as deliverance services and reliance on prophetic objects such as anointed oil and towels. 7.3.3 Generational curses and a Christian life controlled by one’s pre-conversion state Meyer describes the puzzling reality of African neo-Pentecostal Christians who firmly believe that Christian conversion is making a complete break with one’s past and entering into a new Christ controlled realm, teaching new converts to verbally denounce their ancestral past, but also surprisingly continue to live lives seemingly controlled by this very rejected ancestral past.39 In other words, despite having broken up with their ancestral past and verbally denouncing it, African neo-Pentecostals continue to feel an intense longing for spiritual deliverance. Meyer records an African neo-Pentecostal pastor who taught that “coming out of ancestral bondage is real business. It requires time, effort, perseverance and faith to overcome”.40 Statements like this fill Christians with fear, because they are often made with little reference to Christ’s victory over the devil on the cross. Meyer further records an African neo-Pentecostal woman who continuously sought deliverance from prophets claiming evil spirits possessed her and inflicted many tragedies in her life.41 Meyer then quotes the troubled woman as stating, “You see, spirits don’t die, thus when you invite one into your family he comes and stays. Only you [as an individual] can try to get out of it, but still he will be in there. He will be there until Jesus Christ comes”.42 It is contended that the “continuous need pentecostalists [African neo-Pentecostals] have for deliverance shows that secure control is difficult to achieve: all those ties that have been relegated to ‘the past’ actually still matter in the present”.43 Many African neo-Pentecostal Christians live in fear of their ancestral past which leads them to be very suspicious of the family ties with their blood relatives since it is believed that “the Devil operates through blood ties”.44 Phamodi is one example of South African Pentecostal pastors who are suspicious and antagonistic towards the African traditional family unit because of the blood corrupted by contracts to traditional spirits that runs through it. From this perspective the ancestral ties are viewed as “channels through which the Devil can influence a person, even without him or her being aware of it”.45 What emerges is the unfortunate feeling among Christians that their salvation has not provided them full liberation from undesirable ancestral spiritual ties. The notion of limited liberation can be seen in the incident narrated by Biri of a pastor who scolded a teenage Christian girl by telling her,

146  Collium Banda “You like your demon of witchcraft, why is it refusing to go? You are failing to maintain your deliverance. I am leaving you like that”.46 This reported incident points to a belief that Christian conversion does not totally separate a believer from evil spirits; they remain with the Christian who must seek deliverance from anointed prophets. This produces Christians who are controlled by a fear of the past and constantly blame it for their loss of human flourishing in the present. Limited liberation is evidenced by the fact on one hand a Christian can renounce the past, yet live warily of that very past, because it remains alive and cannot be totally redeemed. The next section will analyse the implications created by the African neo-Pentecostal fear of generational curses for the sufficiency of the power of Christ to fully liberate African Christians from their fear of generational curses.

7.4. The emerging paradigm of Christ with limited atoning power for Africans It is now necessary to analyse the Christological paradigm created by the African neo-Pentecostal teaching that born-again Christians remain vulnerable to generational curses. 7.4.1 A Christ with limited powers to redeem Africans from their spiritual problems The above identified problem of saved Christians who remain saddled with generational curses points to a paradigm of a Jesus Christ unable to completely deal with the generational curses of Africans – a Jesus Christ whose death on the cross must be complemented by neo-Pentecostal prophets and their anointed prophetic objects.47 In this we are faced with the old African Christianity problem of the African Christian failure to be secure in Christ. Almost six decades ago, Taylor raised this concern by pointing out that in traditional mainline churches, “Christ has been presented as the answer to the questions a white man would ask, the solution to the needs that western man would feel”.48 Bahemuka affirmed the African problem of not finding security in Christ by stating that “missionaries preached a foreign Christ to Africa”.49 She showed the seriousness of the problem by asking, “How then can the church make Christ real to the African?”50 Appiah-Kubi noted that the Jesus in Africa is “absent in several crisis situations of the African life – birth, puberty, marriage, illness and death”.51 From a Christological perspective, the African neo-Pentecostal teaching on generational curses and its prescriptions of deliverances in Jesus’s name and the application of the blood of Christ to one’s family bloodline represent attempts of making Christ relevant in people’s moments of crisis. The problem with the African neo-Pentecostal teaching on generational curses is that it creates a paradigm of a Jesus Christ with limited

Insufficient to ransom Africans? 147 liberating power to completely dislodge the evil spirits from the lives of African Christians. The prophets seem to function as instruments of complementing this “deficiency”. This statement is made despite much vehement preaching by African neo-Pentecostals about “reversing curses” and “breaking the yoke”. As Asamoah-Gyadu explains, in African neo-Pentecostalism healing and deliverance from generational curses involves confessing and renouncing the past followed by “invok[ing] the power of the blood of Christ to cover themselves, and enter into a new covenant with Christ”.52 Indeed, African neo-Pentecostals teach that when one “enter[s] into a new covenant with Christ, the delivered then become God’s property, as against remaining the property of any demon, god or deity”.53 In other words: “The belief is that as people walk in their new freedom in Christ, having renounced the past, no evil power would have any control over them anymore”.54 However, while some African neo-Pentecostal Christians do claim to be experiencing total liberation from evil powers, for some, and indeed many, this freedom is not permanent. For Biri points out, “In spite of the claims of being ‘born again’ and undergoing several deliverance sessions, many members still point to witchcraft activities, haunted by evil spirits even within the church”.55 Meyer’s study attests that African neo-Pentecostals believe that evil spirits continue to follow born-again Christians to haunt them and prevent them from flourishing in their lives unless they take extra steps to address this.56 7.4.2  A Christ who saves partially Despite the semblance of holistic salvation by emphasising that salvation must not be limited to salvation from sin but also include health and material prosperity, the African neo-Pentecostal teaching on generational curses actually presents a Christ who only saves partially. African neo-Pentecostal Degbe records Duncan-Williams as teaching that being “born again” does not set Christians free from the dangers of generational curses unless they consciously address the curses through applying the blood of Christ to their family bloodline.57 It can be rightfully argued that African neo-Pentecostal prophets’ use of the name of Jesus Christ to deliver people from generational curses indicates their belief in the sufficiency of Christ in the African context. However, the claim of the sufficiency of Christ is challenged by the already noted African neo-Pentecostal belief that Jesus Christ’s salvation only saves people from their sins, but leaves their umbilical cord to their former life unbroken until they consciously verbally renounce their ancestral past. Therefore, while the power of Christ’s blood is acknowledged, the saving power of his salvation received through faith in him is simultaneously undermined. The soteriological framework that emerges from Duncan-Williams’ teaching that a Christian must consciously apply the blood of Christ in their life in order to break the power of curses, disconnects God’s justification of the sinner and liberation from evil spiritual powers. The emphasis on the post-salvation application of Jesus’ blood

148  Collium Banda suggests that Jesus saves the African Christians but leaves them in a cursed state which contradicts the blessed nature of God’s salvation seen in passages such as Romans 5. It is therefore contended that this disconnect between soteriological justification and deliverance from spiritual powers perpetuates the old African Christian problem of a Jesus Christ who is absent, or irrelevant, or unable to save Africans from African life struggles. This is exacerbated by the fact that often, in African neo-Pentecostalism, the liberating power of Christ is experienced through the mediation of prophets and not the believer’s personal faith, hence the high demand for special prophetic one-on-one consultations and the use of prophetic objects like anointed oil.58 7.4.3  A transactional Christ The doctrine of generational curses leads to a transactional Christ who liberates people not by faith alone, but also through prophetic objects. It is therefore argued that the separation of Christian salvation and deliverance from spiritual curses continues to raise questions about Christ’s sufficiency to address African spiritual problems. The separation of salvation from sin and deliverance from spiritual curses leads to a changed view of Christian salvations as “[n]ew conditions for salvation are given, such as purchase of anointed products, allegiance, the use of certain sacraments and commitment to the organization. Members are thus obliged to fulfil these claims before they can be sure of salvation”.59 Similarly, Kgatle says that in African neo-Pentecostalism the “cross has acquired a power, which is almost magical. They offer prayers with persuasive, evocative and emotive language”.60 Deke and Kgatle’s observations show that African neo-Pentecostals rob Christ of his full liberating power and role in the life of believers and then implement their own systems to fill up what they have taken away from Christ. The changed nature of salvation in African neo-Pentecostalism leads to the question: Why does Christ not address the problem of generational curses at the point of conversion when he saves the sinners and turn them into a Christian? We can also ask: Why does the saved Christian have to look for anointed prophets to find deliverance from generational curses? The African neo-Pentecostal assertion that saved Christians can remain with generational curses because salvation only affects sins and only changes the Christian’s legal standing before God while leaving curses in the blood untouched, has no biblical justification. It also leads to a Christ whose salvation has no relevance to an African’s deepest fears. In their analysis of the role of prophets in African neo-Pentecostalism, Magezi and Banda argue as follows: Christ, as presented by the Pentecostal prophets, lacks sovereign power and independence, because he is either inadequate to stand alone or is

Insufficient to ransom Africans? 149 subject to the aid of magical charms in the form of anointed water and seeded offerings – to name but a few. Instead of a divine and omniscient Jesus Christ with a sovereign will who searches the intentions of all human beings, ‘the Jesus of Pentecostal prophets’ can be manipulated through anointed objects and rich tithes and offerings.61 African neo-Pentecostal prophets differentiate the standing of the person before God and the spiritual condition of a person in an unbiblical way that cripples believers’ confidence in Christ. In addition, it creates a belief that Christ is related to not by faith; rather, Christ is related to on transactional terms by purchasing the prophet’s latest anointed object. It also promotes the notion that Christ is related through the mediating of prophets. Furthermore, this also promotes the transactional view of relating to Christ since the prophetic “mediations attract various fees depending on the magnitude of the clients’ problem and his or her financial status”.62 The emphasis placed on renouncing one’s past contradicts the glorious new state and status of the Christian described in such terms as redeemed through the blood of Christ (Eph 1:7), delivered from the dominion of darkness and brought in to the kingdom of Christ (Col 1:13–14) and freed from all condemnation (Rom 8:1). The idea that one can be saved and yet remain in bondage to evil spirits casts doubt on biblical promises to Christians such as that whoever is set free by the Son shall be free indeed (Jn 8:36) and that there is no condemnation for those in Christ (Rom 8:1). Our contention is not with sanctification that comes progressively as the individual matures in their faith in Christ, but the liberation of the Christian from the chains of evil spirits which should accompany the reality of forensic salvation. It is also important to note that the Bible states that Christ has addressed the universal curse as a result of Adam’s sin and that while it affirms that Christians will indeed struggle with sin and various forms of suffering, the Bible describes Christians not as cursed, but as those magnanimously blessed by God. 7.4.4  A mediated Christ It is contended that the emphasis on extra requirements such as the need for Christians to consciously renounce their past in order to experience the full effect of Christ’s liberative power in their lives, undermines the saving work of Christ in the believer. The work of Christ is undermined by making its effectual power dependent on the conscious act of renouncing the past, often under guidance of a prophet. The message is that Christ’s act of freeing the Christian from evil spirits is determined by the person’s conscious renouncing of their past and not by entering into Christ and be recreated anew by their conversion. Rather than a biblical view, this view expresses an ATR perspective of using magical and medicinal charms to drive out and keep away evil spirits. It is an approach to spirits that is not

150  Collium Banda informed by the personal presence of Christ but uses the blood of Christ in a magical manner. Furthermore, the African neo-Pentecostal prophets’ emphasis on the practice of consciously renouncing one’s ancestral past to get freed from generational curses ultimately implies salvation or deliverance by one’s own efforts instead of through relational faith in Christ. The practice of renouncing the ancestral past is heavily influenced by ATRs where unwanted spirits are verbally identified and renounced. There is no dispute that African neo-Pentecostal prophets do indeed preach Jesus as the liberator of people from all spiritual bondages. They do however contradict the great liberating power they ascribe to Christ by preaching a Jesus Christ who acts in people’s lives through the mediation of prophets instead of through the individual Christian’s relationship with Christ. Ultimately, the African neo-Pentecostal belief in generational curses leads to a Jesus Christ with very limited powers in breaking people’s bondage by evil spirits. While the Bible teaches Christians to take the devil seriously and be on guard against his efforts to derail their faith in God, hence the need to fight and resist him, African neo-Pentecostals tend to fill their followers with a crippling fear of the devil and his works such as generational curses.

7.5 Towards a Christological framework of responding to the African Christian’s fear of generational curses The vicarious death of Christ which is foundational to the Christian faith challenges the African Christian’s fear of generational curses as promoted in African neo-Pentecostalism. In light of the above discussion of Christians’ fear of general curses in African neo-Pentecostalism we must ask and answer the question: How should the atoning sacrificial work of Christ on the cross be understood in order to enable African neo-­Pentecostal Christians deal meaningfully with their fear of generational curses? The Christological framework is informed by the fact that the Christian fear of generational curses ultimately challenges Christ’s power to save and liberate Christians from the power of evil spirits in their lives. It is therefore proposed that the Christological paradigm of the fear of generational curses be addressed with Christ’s vicarious death on the cross. 7.5.1 The affirmation of the vicarious death of Christ as a foundation of Christian life and experience What emerges from the above discussion is that the consuming fear of generational curses among African neo-Pentecostals is a foundational issue that reflects what one’s life has been built on. The Christian fear of generational curses reflects a religious life founded on and informed by the enchanted ATR worldview more than one founded on the sovereign Christ who conquered Satan and his evil principalities and powers of darkness.

Insufficient to ransom Africans? 151 A major problem among African neo-Pentecostal prophets is their tendency to instil a crippling fear in their followers by filling their Christian worldview with fearful and unbiblical speculations on the world of demons and curses. For instance, Makandiwa teaches that when the earth was created demons already existed and the earth was already under a curse because it is described as formless, void and covered with darkness in Genesis 1:2.63 Makandiwa says that demons are spirits of people who existed in the preAdamic period which he places between Genesis 1:1 and 1:2, but who rebelled against God and were destroyed by a flood (not Noah’s) that could only kill their physically bodies and could not kill their spirits, because water cannot kill spirits.64 Makandiwa further preaches that Noah’s flood only killed the bodies of rebellious people but failed to kill their spirits for the same reason, namely that water cannot kill spirits. According to Makandiwa, the demons that survived the pre-Adamic flood and those that survived Noah’s flood have multiplied and are now influencing the world to rebel against God. This form of magnifying the resilience and elusive power of evil spirits is not taught in the Christian Scriptures. Such teaching fills African Christians, especially those who are weak in the faith, with crippling fear of evil spirits and generational curses because it shows the power of evil spirits in outwitting God and eluding his efforts to destroy them. The narrative forces ordinary Christians to ask themselves: if demons could successfully outmanoeuvre God the Almighty what about us mere mortal human beings? As Banda pointed out, “There is a difference between acknowledging the reality of the power of evil and admiring the indestructibility of demons in a way that instils great fear among Christians”.65 A Christian life built on a foundation that magnifies the power of demons in the manner done by African neo-Pentecostals, destroys the spiritual confidence of African Christians because evil spirits are viewed as extremely powerful and therefore to be feared. Instead, African neo-Pentecostal prophets should teach African Christians to build their Christian life on the vicarious sacrificial death of the sovereign Christ, the foundation of Christian salvation. The apostle Paul demonstrates the importance of building one’s life and experience on the death of Christ. Paul declares that when he visited the Corinthians he did not come with eloquence or superior wisdom as he proclaimed to them the testimony about God after resolving to know nothing except Jesus Christ and him crucified (1 Cor 2:2). In this text, Paul affirms the cross as the essential foundation of the Christian life and experience. Dunn explains that the theology and gospel of the apostle Paul focused on the cross of Christ.66 Dunn adds that even where Paul’s Christology embraced the whole story of Christ’s life, the whole story was significant primarily because it brought out more fully the significance of the saving event of the cross and resurrection.67 Tidball avers that the “cross stands at the very heart of the Christian faith, manifesting the love of God, effecting salvation

152  Collium Banda from sin, conquering the hostile forces of evil and inviting reconciliation with God”.68 The significance of the cross in Christian salvation lies in the fact that it is God’s only solution to the problem of sin for there “was no other way for God to save us than for Christ to die in our place”.69 It can therefore be stated that the atoning work of Christ lies at the centre of biblical Christianity which means that the “Christian life is viewed primarily as a life that finds its origin in the cross and is lived in grateful response to it and humble imitation of it”.70 Therefore, our salvation “consists in the doctrine of the Cross, it is here that all wisdom of believers is comprehended and the inestimable goodness of God is displayed before the whole world”.71 7.5.2 The atonement should empower African Christians to live in a state of blessedness Instead of grounding their followers on the cursed nature of life, African neo-Pentecostal prophets must use the cross to ground their followers on the state of blessedness wrought by Christ’s death. They should teach their followers to experience life from the perspective of the vicarious death of Christ who broke the power of the universal curse. Essentially, Christ’s death on the cross calls Christians to approach life from a perspective of a liberated and blessed state and not from cursedness. Like ATR, African neo-Pentecostalism tends to be a religion of fear by its focus on evil spiritual powers. The teaching on generational curses often leaves many Christians feeling vulnerable and helpless to stand on their own, hence the immense reliance on prophets and the anointed prophetic objects they give to people. The cross challenges the teaching that Christians remain enslaved by generational curses because through the cross God broke the power of sin that resulted in God’s curse of the world (Gl 3:13). The biblical emphasis is that Jesus Christ as the sacrificial lamb of God took away the sins of the world in order to save it from its cursed state and to reconcile it with God who blessed it (Jn 1:29; 1 Cor 15:3; 1 Pet 3:18). The universal curse brought by Adam’s sin was broken by Christ’s death on the cross. Paul describes the victorious power of the cross by announcing that Christ “disarmed the powers and authorities” and “made a public spectacle of them, triumphing over them by the cross” (Col 2:15). As Horton points out, Sacrificial, judicial, and economic images of Christ’s atoning work combine with those of the battlefield. Christ’s cross is a military conquest. Christ is King not only in his resurrection and ascension but already at the cross – precisely at the place where Satan and his principalities and powers of death thought that they had triumphed. The event that in the eyes of the world appears to display God’s weakness and the failure of Jesus to establish his kingdom is actually God’s mightiest deed in all of history.72

Insufficient to ransom Africans? 153 The cross can be viewed as Christ’s military conquest that resulted in the liberation of his people from Satan by defeating him. Scripture teaches that, although the full reality of God’s blessed redemption is yet to be fully effected at the return of Christ, Christians must consider themselves as God’s blessed children (Eph 1:3–14). Furthermore, instead of magnifying the power of demons, African neo-Pentecostals must inform their view of Satan and his demons by the fact that the Bible describes them as already defeated by Christ’s incarnation and death on the cross (Heb 2:14). Paul also encourages the Roman Christians with a declaration that the “God of peace will soon crush Satan under your feet” (Rom 16:20). Although this verse does not tie directly into the atonement the important thing is that the Christian community are challenged to live in victorious confidence because God will prevail over Satan and his principalities. Therefore, Africans Christians should be challenged to live in a state of blessedness, not in a state of cursedness because at the cross Satan and his power to curse were destroyed. 7.5.3 The atonement should challenge the fear of guilt and rejection promoted in generational curses To say that Christians remain under generational curses is ultimately to say they are in a state of guilt and rejected by God. However, the cross should empower African Christians to live in a state of blessedness because their sins have been forgiven, their guilt has been erased and they have now been reconciled with God. We note that African neo-Pentecostal prophets are often heard preaching of God as a God who gives sinners a second chance. African neo-Pentecostal prophets do preach that people should not allow their past sins to keep them away from enjoying life. However, their ironic emphasis that born-again Christians remain susceptible to generational curses cancels and confuses their message of God’s second chance to sinners. Although some thinkers abhor the idea of the necessity of a bloody sacrifice in order to establish relationship between God and human beings, the Bible affirms that Christ’s sacrificial death was the only solution of redeeming humankind from the guilt of sin and its dreadful consequences.73 Paul says Christ’s death was our death because “God made him who had no sin to be sin for us, so that in him we might become the righteousness of God” (2 Cor 5:21). Hebrews 2:9 states that Jesus was made lower than the angels for a little while so that “he might taste death for everyone”. These biblical texts affirm that Christ’s death was the death of all humanity because Christ represented all humanity. Paul says, “God presented Christ as a sacrifice of atonement, through the shedding of his blood” (Rom 3:25). A major point on the Day of Atonement (Levi 16) was the scapegoat with the chief priest placing the sins of the nation of Israel on its head and then releasing it into the wilderness (Lev 16:20–22). The Greek hilasterion translated atonement/expiation/propitiation is sometimes taken

154  Collium Banda as referring to appeasing God. However, as Dunn insightfully explains, the idea of appeasing God distorts the fact that it is God himself who provided the hilasterion.74 Dunn adds that in the Jewish worship system God is never propitiated or appeased, because the purpose of the atoning act is the removal of sin by either purifying the person or object, or by wiping out the sin. In the atonement the sacrifice was given by God not the sinner, although it was given on behalf of the sinner.75 The atonement did not work on God, but on the sinners and their sins since it has been made for a person or for sin.76 However, by acting on the sin and the sinner, the atoning act ultimately removed the sin which provoked God’s wrath.77 Therefore, the imagery of the atonement “is more of the removal of a corrosive stain or the neutralization of a life-threatening virus than of anger appeased by punishment”.78 Instead of thinking of themselves as cursed, which means being rejected and judged by God, African Christians should be challenged to think of themselves as forgiven, reconciled to God and blessed by him. In the Bible the atonement death of Christ is a relational concept that provides for the mending of a broken relationship between God and humanity. Njibwakale points out the relational nature of the atonement by saying that it “involves God giving himself to his people and the people uniting with God, restoring the once broken relationship between human beings and God”.79 The atonement should challenge the fear of guilt and rejection promoted by generational curses by announcing that Christ’s death removed all the obstacles to reconciliation with God.80 7.5.4 The atonement challenges the incomplete liberation implied by generational curses The atonement challenges the problem of incomplete redemption promoted in the belief in generational curses and affirms Christ’s full redemption of believers. Paul declares, “For he [God] has rescued us from the dominion of darkness and brought us into the kingdom of the Son he loves, in whom we have redemption, the forgiveness of sins” (Col 1:13–14). Paul makes a similar point in Ephesian 1:7 where he states that in Christ “we have redemption through his blood, the forgiveness of sins, in accordance with the riches of God’s grace”. We have noted Grudem’s point that the atonement balanced God’s love and justice towards the sinner.81 According to Hebrews 9:22, “without the shedding of blood there is no forgiveness”. At the same time “it is impossible for the blood of bulls and goats to take away sins” (Heb 10:4). The direct implication is that Christ’s blood is the only sufficient blood to take away humanity’s guilt. According to Hebrews 10:18, the sufficiency of Christ’s sacrifice is stated by declaring that where the sins have been forgiven, “there is no longer any sacrifice for sin”. This means that

Insufficient to ransom Africans? 155 Christ’s sacrifice “is a unique and unrepeatable event, bringing to an end all scapegoats, all bloody sacrifices, all substitutions, and all attempts to reconcile ourselves to God by our own efforts”.82 African neo-­Pentecostals must realise that the extra-salvation requirements they impose on their followers are needless because Christ has given his people full liberation. Although the liberation will only be fully realised at the eschaton when Satan and his power have been finally vanquished, God regards us at the present as fully liberated. Therefore, whatever struggles Christians may face, they must be faced from a perspective of blessedness and not cursedness.

7.6 The need for a relational redeemer engaged in African daily struggles Africa is a continent filled with gratuitous pain and suffering. Many ordinary Africans “face high levels of economic and social vulnerability as … a daily reality”.83 Given the high levels of human suffering because of the worsening economic situation and the dreadful impact of the Covid-19 virus on the socio-economic situation it is possible for many Africans to feel cursed and consequently to be filled with hopelessness. These are situations of godforsakenness that plunge the poor and suffering into the abyss of despair and leave some Christians feeling spiritually cursed. The African neo-Pentecostal prophets unhelpfully attribute the various experiences of godforsakenness in the lives of people as resulting from generational curses. However, the curative answer for such challenging godforsakenness does not lie in telling people that they are carrying generational curses. Rather, the curative answer lies in a relational redeemer who has atoned for all the sins of the suffering Africans, liberated them from the power of Satan and sin and is engaged in their daily struggles as suffering people. It is important to emphasise the relational nature of Christ, his accompanying presence and his engagement in the daily struggles of ordinary African Christians. This is because the teaching that Christians continue to remain under generational curses unless they undergo special deliverance services led by prophets, promotes the notion of a distant, unengaged and insufficient Christ in the African context. As Magezi and Magezi point out: Christ decisively demonstrated his power over any evil or any spiritual threats through victory over death on the cross. The resurrection demonstrated the decisive victory of Christ over the spiritual forces of darkness. Therefore, by placing their hope and trust in Christ, African people should be confident that they are putting their trust in a saviour who is faithful and reliable in all circumstances. This, then, should stir practical hope.84

156  Collium Banda The authors affirm Christ’s sufficiency to redeem African people from the evil power that keeps them in bondage while he is also the ransom for their sins – therefore, they are now liberated and blessed. Moreover, this relational redeemer did not only liberate them and brought them into a state of blessedness; he is united with them in their godforsakenness. Magezi and Magezi add, Also, by being united with Christ who identifies with humanity, Christians are grafted to a saviour, who is qualified to minister faithfully and mercifully (Heb 1 & 2) to them. This means Jesus Christ is close to humanity as a true human being and closer to God than natural ancestors. In this way, there is no aspect of both humanity and God that is alien to him. This reality makes Christ a dependable person. Therefore, as indicated above, African Christians are assured that they have a superior, merciful and faithful Christ who sympathises with them in their African contextual challenges. African Christians can hold on to Jesus Christ with hope and a sense of security as he (Christ) supersedes the natural ancestors who are capricious.85 The doctrine of the atonement is important in the discussion about generational curses because it points to Christ’s work of mending people’s broken relationship with God and the liberation of believers from their bondage by Satan and his evil powers.

7.7 Conclusion This chapter evaluated the African neo-Pentecostal belief in and fear of generational curses in the light of the atoning sacrificial death of Christ. The chapter attempted to answer the question: What does the African neo-Pentecostal belief in generational curses communicate about the effect of the atonement sacrifice of Christ in the African context? To what extent is Jesus Christ’s sacrificial death sufficient to liberate Africans from their African spiritual sins as expressed in the neo-Pentecostal notion of generational curses? The focus of the chapter was to unravel the implications of the fear of generational curses in African neo-Pentecostalism on the atoning sacrifice of Christ. The chapter highlighted that the belief in generational curses in African neo-Pentecostalism promotes an intense spiritual fear among African Christians that drives a desire for deliverance from prophets. The atonement points to a Jesus Christ who identifies himself with the sin and pain of people in order to redeem them. The doctrine of the atonement is important in the discussion about generational curses because it points to Christ’s work of mending people’s broken relationship with God and the liberation of believers from their bondage by Satan and his evil powers.

Insufficient to ransom Africans? 157

Notes 1 J. Kwabena Asamoah-Gyadu. “Mission to ‘Set the Captives Free’: Healing, Deliverance, and Generational Curses in Ghanaian Pentecostalism.” International Review of Mission 93, no. 370–371 (2004): 389–406; Simon Kouessan Degbe. “‘Generational Curses’ and the ‘Four Horns’.” Journal of Pentecostal Theology 23, no. 2 (October 2014): 246–65; Collium Banda. “Regenerated without Being Recreated? A Soteriological Analysis of the African Neo-­Pentecostal Teaching on Generational Curses.” HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies 76, no. 3 (28 July 2020): 12; Birgit Meyer. “‘Make a Complete Break with the Past’: Memory and Post-Colonial Modernity in Ghanaian Pentecostalist Discourse.” Journal of Religion in Africa 28, no. 3 (1998): 316–49. 2 Banda, “Regenerated without Being Recreated?” 3 Mookgo S. Kgatle. “Reimagining the Practice of Pentecostal Prophecy in Southern Africa: A Critical Engagement.” HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies 75, no. 4 (26 September 2019): 2. 4 Kudzai Biri. “Health and Wealth in Zimbabwean Pentecostalism: The Case of the Zimbabwe Assemblies of God Africa (ZAOGA),” Lovemore Togarasei (ed.), Aspects of Pentecostal Christianity in Zimbabwe (Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2018): 83–84. 5 Asamoah-Gyadu, “Mission to ‘Set the Captives Free’,” 390; Meyer, “‘Make a Complete Break with the Past’,” 323. 6 Asamoah-Gyadu, “Mission to ‘Set the Captives Free’,” 390. 7 Hlompho Phamodi, Witchcraft Spirit Must Die!: Get Rid of Stubborn Witches for Good (Cape Town: Hlompho Phamodi, 2017). 8 Hlompho Phamodi, Disarm and Divorce Spiritual Spouses: Exposing, Disarming and Divorcing a Spiritual Husband or Wife in Just Three Days (Cape Town: Hlompho Phamodi, 2015). 9 Hlompho Phamodi, “Breakthrough Word,” 2020, https://www.youtube. com/channel/UClCWalorVJuSDug8Dc5NOTQ. 10 Hlompho Phamodi, Deliverance by Fire by Force: Receive Your Total Deliverance and Be Empowered by the Fire of His Spirit! (Cape Town: Hlompho Phamodi, 2018), 184; Hlompho Phamodi, I Am a Curse Breaker: Discover You Divine Assignment & Break Every Generational Curse in Your Life and Family (Cape Town: Hlompho Phamodi, 2015), 23. 11 Phamodi, I am a Curse Breaker, 7. 12 Prophet Emmanuel Makandiwa is founder leader of the United Family International Ministries, which has its headquarters in Harare, Zimbabwe and is emerging as one of the prominent faces of African neo-Pentecostalism in Southern Africa. 13 Emmanuel Makandiwa, Exemption from the Father’s Curse: Bloodline Curses (Harare: UFI Ministries, 2018). 14 Degbe, “‘Generational Curses’ and the ‘Four Horns’,” 255; Makandiwa, Exemption from the Father’s Curse: Bloodline Curses. 15 Birgit Meyer. “‘Make a Complete Break with the Past’: Memory and Post-­ Colonial Modernity in Ghanaian Pentecostalist Discourse.” Journal of Religion in Africa 28, no. 3 (1998): 323–24; Emmanuel Makandiwa, The Voice of the Blood: Bloodline Curses, Disc B (Harare: Harare City Sports Centre, 2018). 16 Biri, “Health and Wealth,” 83–84. 17 Hlompho Phamodi, How to Use the Holy Ghost Fire in Deliverance: Vol 1–8: Understand How to Use Holy Ghost Fire in Deliverance by Fire by Force (Cape Town: Hlompho Phamodi, 2015), 29. 18 “‘Generational Curses’ and the ‘Four Horns’,” 256.

158  Collium Banda 19 Ibid, 256. 20 Emmanuel Makandiwa, The Voice of the Blood: Bloodline Curses, Disc A: “Territorial Dominance” (Harare: City Sports Centre, 2018). 21 Biri, “Health and Wealth,” 83–84; J. Kwabena Asamoah-Gyadu. “Of ‘Sour Grapes’ and ‘Children’s Teeth’: Inherited Guilt, Human Rights and Processes of Restoration in Ghanaian Pentecostalism.” Exchange 33, no. 4 (2004): 342. 22 Meyer, “‘Make a Complete Break with the Past’,” 323–24; Biri, “Health and Wealth,” 84; Asamoah-Gyadu, “Mission to ‘Set the Captives Free’,” 390. 23 Phamodi, I Am a Curse Breaker, 13, 14. 24 Ibid, 14. 25 Phamodi, Deliverance by Fire by Force, 184. 26 Phamodi, I Am a Curse Breaker, 23. 27 Hlompho Phamodi, Dismantling Evil Altars and Witchcraft: Vol 7–8: Break the Power of Evil Altars and Witchcraft Operating in Your Life (Cape Town: Hlompho Phamodi, 2015), 8. 28 Ibid. 29 Asamoah-Gyadu, “Of ‘Sour Grape’s’ and ‘Children’s Teeth’,” 336–37. 30 Degbe (251–52) amplifies Abraham Akrong’s view that African neo-­ Pentecostals on the one hand overly reject African traditional religion as being demonic, but on the other hand, exploit its very philosophy and worldview in their messages and mediations. Degbe (252) adds that “the traditional religious cosmos keeps the Pentecostals and Charismatics in business, or otherwise, they would have lost their relevance, appeal, and popularity long ago.” 31 Biri, “The Silent Echoing Voice,” 3. 32 In the traditional African perspective, one of the difficult challenges when dealing with evil spirits is that some family or clan members may be benefitting from them, and therefore wanting to retain them within the family line. As Bhebhe in An African Culture of Multiple Religiosity: The Perspective of the Church of Christ in Zimbabwe (Saarbrucken: Lambert Academic, 2013), 55, explains, in ATR it is believed that certain crafts and skills are given by spirits and for one to say a skill is positive, negative or neutral depends on the moral code of the society. Some traditional people may look positively to “spirits” that bestow skills for “theft” and “prostitution,” because, although negative and undesirable, such skills bring money and wealth to the people involved. One finds that in ATR situations blamed on evil family spirits often result in counter accusations as some family members may be accused of “feeding” the troublesome spirit because they benefit from it. 33 Biri, “The Silent Echoing Voice,” 5. 34 Emmanuel Makandiwa, The Voice of the Blood: Bloodline Curses, Disc B (Harare: Harare City Sports Centre, 2018). 35 Ibid. 36 Ibid. 37 Ibid. 38 Phamodi, “I am a Curse Breaker,” 16 39 Meyer, “Make a Complete Break with the Past.” 40 Ibid, 324. 41 Ibid, 333. 42 Ibid. 43 Ibid, 340. 44 Ibid, 338. 45 Ibid. 46 Biri, “The Silent Echoing Voice,” 3. 47 Collium Banda. “Complementing Christ? A Soteriological Evaluation of the Anointed Objects of the African Pentecostal Prophets.” Conspectus Anvil

Insufficient to ransom Africans? 159



Talks Edition (2018): 55–69; Vhumani Magezi and Collium Banda, “Competing with Christ? A Critical Christological Analysis of the Reliance on Pentecostal Prophets in Zimbabwe,” In Die Skriflig/In Luce Verbi 51, no. 2 (2017): 1–10. 48 John Taylor, The Primal Vision: Christian Presence amid African Religion (London: SCM, 1963), 16. 49 Judith Bahemuka, “The Hidden Christ in African Traditional Religion,” J.N.K Mugambi and L. Mag (eds.), Jesus in African Christianity: Experimentation and Diversity in African Christology (Nairobi: Initiatives, 1989), 7. 50 Ibid, 7. 51 Appiah-Kubi, Kofi, “Christology,” J. Parratt (ed.), A Reader in African Christian Theology, new edition (London: SPCK, 1997), 65. 52 Asamoah-Gyadu, “Of ‘Sour Grapes’ and ‘Children’s Teeth’,” 343. 53 Ibid, 344. 54 Ibid, 344. 55 Biri, “The Silent Echoing Voice,” 3. 56 Meyer, “Make a Complete Break with the Past,” 337. 57 Degbe, “‘Generational Curses’ and the ‘Four Horns’,” 56. 58 Biri, “The Silent Echoing Voice,” 5–8; Mookgo S. Kgatle, “Reimagining the Practice of Pentecostal Prophecy,” 4. 59 A. Deke. “The Politics of Prophets and Profits in African Christianity.” Journal of Philosophy, Culture and Religion, 12 (2015): 7. 60 Kgatle, “Reimagining the Practice of Pentecostal Prophecy in Southern Africa,” 4. 61 Ibid, 4. 62 Degbe, “’Generational Curses’ and the ‘Four Horns’,” 264. 63 Emmanuel Makandiwa, Pre-Adamic Generation, Disc A: “Demonology” (Harare: UFI Ministries, 2018); Emmanuel Makandiwa, Pre-Adamic Generation, Disc B: “Demonology” (Harare: UFI Ministries, 2018). 64 In the sermon Demonology: Pre-Adamic Generation preached at a youth service on 20 May 2018 in Harare, Makandiwa says this information is “from other chapters that we don’t have in the Bible.” 65 Banda, “Regenerated without Being Recreated?,” 8. 66 James Dunn, The Theology of Paul the Apostle (Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans, 1998), 209. 67 Ibid. 68 Derek Tidball, The Message of the Cross: Wisdom Unsearchable, Love Indestructible (Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 2001), 20. 69 Wayne A. Grudem, Systematic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine (Leicester: IVP, 1994), 570. 70 Tidball, The Message of the Cross, 21. 71 Victor Nakah, “Evangelical Christianity and African Culture: A Critical Assessment of the Salvific Significance of the Cross of Christ in Shona Culture” (DTh Thesis, University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, 2007), 41. 72 Michael Horton, The Christian Faith: A Systematic Theology for Pilgrims on the Way (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2011), 500. 73 Dunn, The Theology of Paul the Apostle, 212. 74 Ibid, 212. 75 Ibid, 214. 76 Ibid. 77 Ibid. 78 Ibid, 214–15. 79 Wabomba Sychellus Njibwakale. “Atonement in African Pluralistic Context: Examples from the Luhya of Western Kenya.” Perichoresis 14, no. 1 (1 June 2016).

160  Collium Banda

80 Ibid, 24. 81 Grudem, Systematic Theology, 568. 82 Horton, The Christian Faith, 497. 83 Dion Forster, “Why South Africans Are Prone to Falling for Charlatans in the Church,” The Conversation, accessed 12 February 2020. https://theconver sation.com/why-south-africans-are-prone-to-falling-for-charlatans-in-thechurch-112879 84 Vhumani Magezi and Christopher Magezi. “Healing and Coping with Life within Challenges of Spiritual Insecurity: Juxtaposed Consideration of Christ’s Sinlessness and African Ancestors in Pastoral Guidance.” HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies 73, no. 3 (2017): 11. 85 Ibid.

References Appiah-Kubi, Kofi, “Christology,” J. Parratt (ed.), A Reader in African Christian Theology, new edition (London: SPCK, 1997): 65–74. Asamoah-Gyadu, J. Kwabena. “Mission to ‘Set the Captives Free’: Healing, Deliverance, and Generational Curses in Ghanaian Pentecostalism.” International Review of Mission 93, no. 370–371 (2004): 389–406. __________. “Of ‘Sour Grapes’ and ‘Children’s Teeth’: Inherited Guilt, Human Rights and Processes of Restoration in Ghanaian Pentecostalism.” Exchange 33, no. 4 (2004): 334–353. Bahemuka, Judith M. “The Hidden Christ in African Traditional Religion,” J.N.K. Mugambi and L. Magesa (eds.), Jesus in African Christianity: Experimentation and Diversity in African Christology. (Nairobi: Initiatives, 1989): 2–16. Banda, Collium. “Complementing Christ? A Soteriological Evaluation of the Anointed Objects of the African Pentecostal Prophets.” Conspectus Anvil Talks Edition (2018): 55–69. Banda, Collium. “Regenerated without Being Recreated? A Soteriological Analysis of the African Neo-Pentecostal Teaching on Generational Curses.” HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies 76, no. 3 (28 July 2020): 12. https://doi.org/10.4102/ hts.v76i3.5941. Bhebhe, Mchumayeli, An African Culture of Multiple Religiosity: The Perspective of the Church of Christ in Zimbabwe (Saarbrucken: Lambert Academic, 2013). Biri, Kudzai. “Health and Wealth in Zimbabwean Pentecostalism: The Case of the Zimbabwe Assemblies of God Africa (ZAOGA),” Lovemore Togarasei (ed.), Aspects of Pentecostal Christianity in Zimbabwe. (Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2018): 73–89. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-78565-3_6. __________. “The Silent Echoing Voice: Aspects of Zimbabwean Pentecostalism and the Quest for Power, Healing and Miracles,” August 2012. http://uir.unisa.ac.za/ handle/10500/6609. Degbe, Simon K. “‘Generational Curses’ and the ‘Four Horns’.” Journal of Pentecostal Theology 23, no. 2 (October 2014): 246–65. https://doi. org/10.1163/17455251-02301007. Deke, Augustine. “The Politics of Prophets and Profits in African Christianity.” Journal of Philosophy, Culture and Religion 12 (2015): 11–24. Dunn, James D.G. The Theology of Paul the Apostle (Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans, 1998).

Insufficient to ransom Africans? 161 Forster, Dion. “Why South Africans Are Prone to Falling for Charlatans in the Church.” The Conversation, accessed 12 February 2020. http://theconversation.com/ why-south-africans-are-prone-to-falling-for-charlatans-in-the-church-112879. Grudem, Wayne A. Systematic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine (Leicester: IVP, 1994). Horton, Michael. The Christian Faith: A Systematic Theology for Pilgrims on the Way (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2011). Kgatle, Mookgo S. “Reimagining the Practice of Pentecostal Prophecy in Southern Africa: A Critical Engagement.” HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies 75, no. 4 (26 September 2019): 8. https://doi.org/10.4102/hts.v75i4.5183. Magezi, Vhumani, and Collium Banda. “Competing with Christ? A Critical Christological Analysis of the Reliance on Pentecostal Prophets in Zimbabwe.” In Die Skriflig/In Luce Verbi 51, no. 2 (2017): 1–10. https://doi.org/10.4102/ids. v51i2.2273. Magezi, Vhumani, and Christopher Magezi. “Healing and Coping with Life within Challenges of Spiritual Insecurity: Juxtaposed Consideration of Christ’s Sinlessness and African Ancestors in Pastoral Guidance.” HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies 73, no. 3, (2017): 1–12. https://doi.org/10.4102/hts. v73i3.4333. Makandiwa, Emmanuel. Exemption from the Father’s Curse: Bloodline Curses. Harare: UFI Ministries, 2018. __________. Pre-Adamic Generation, Disc A: “Demonology”. Harare: UFI Ministries, 2018. __________. Pre-Adamic Generation, Disc B: “Demonology”. Harare: UFI Ministries, 2018. __________. The Voice of the Blood: Bloodline Curses, Disc A: “Territorial Dominance”. Harare: City Sports Centre, 2018. www.emmanuelmakandiwa.com. __________. The Voice of the Blood: Bloodline Curses, Disc B. Harare: Harare City Sports Centre, 2018. www.emmanuelmakandiwa.com. Meyer, Birgit. “‘Make a Complete Break with the Past’: Memory and Post-Colonial Modernity in Ghanaian Pentecostalist Discourse.” Journal of Religion in Africa 28, no. 3 (1998): 316–49. Nakah, Victor. “Evangelical Christianity and African Culture: A Critical Assessment of the Salvific Significance of the Cross of Christ in Shona Culture.” (DTh Thesis, University of Stellenbosch, 2007). Njibwakale, Wabomba S. “Atonement in African Pluralistic Context: Examples from the Luhya of Western Kenya.” Perichoresis 14, no. 1 (1 June 2016): 21–39. https:// doi.org/10.1515/perc-2016-0002. Phamodi, Hlompho. “Breakthrough Word,” 2020. https://www.youtube.com/ channel/UClCWalorVJuSDug8Dc5NOTQ. __________. Disarm and Divorce Spiritual Spouses: Exposing, Disarming and Divorcing a Spiritual Husband or Wife in Just Three Days. Cape Town: Hlompho Phamodi, 2015. __________. Dismantling Evil Altars and Witchcraft, Vol 7-8: Break the Power of Evil Altars and Witchcraft Operating in Your Life. Cape Town: Hlompho Phamodi, 2015. __________. Deliverance by Fire by Force: Receive Your Total Deliverance and Be Empowered by the Fire of His Spirit! Cape Town: Hlompho Phamodi, 2018.

162  Collium Banda __________. How to Use the Holy Ghost Fire in Deliverance, Vol 1-8: Understand How to Use Holy Ghost Fire in Deliverance by Fire by Force. Cape Town: Hlompho Phamodi, 2015. __________. I Am a Curse Breaker: Discover You Divine Assignment & Break Every Generational Curse in Your Life and Family. Cape Town: Hlompho Phamodi, 2015. __________. Witchcraft Spirit Must Die!: Get Rid of Stubborn Witches for Good. Cape Town: Hlompho Phamodi, 2017. Taylor, John V. The Primal Vision: Christian Presence amid African Religion. London: SCM, 1963. Tidball, Derek. The Message of the Cross: Wisdom Unsearchable, Love Indestructible. Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 2001.

8

Christ and the neo-Pentecostal preacher on the platform Catechists or celebrities? Kelebogile T. Resane

8.1 Introduction The intention of this chapter is to demonstrate that today Christology is at stake, especially within some neo-Pentecostal teachings. Sometimes one even wonders if it is Christ or a neo-Pentecostal preacher who is at the centre stage of ecclesial kerygmatic activities. The preacher under discussion here is not generally a Pentecostal preacher in a classical sense of the word, that is, someone that is part of the spiritual movement that has impacted Christianity deeply and has become the fastest growing Christian movement on the African continent,1 but rather a neo-Pentecostal or a neo-Charismatic one. It can be divided into two main waves, both referred to in this chapter. The first wave is classical Pentecostalism that emerged from the Azusa Street spiritual revival movement of 1906 in the USA; it then expanded to Europe, thereafter to Africa. The second wave of Pentecostalism is the charismatic movement that developed in the 1960s within mainstream Christian denominations such as the Roman Catholic, Anglican, Lutheran and Presbyterian Church. 2 Out of the classical Pentecostalism and Charismatic movement there developed the latest brand known as either neo-Charismatic or neo-Pentecostal movement that has dominated ecclesiastical and missiological dialogues in the past three decades. It is also called the third wave of Pentecostalism, indicating “Pentecostal renewal phenomena associated with transdenominational fellowships, prayer groups, ministries and independent churches, which came into existence or prominence from about the last three decades of the twentieth century”. 3 It is led mostly by preachers marked by their lavish lifestyle – clearly not a reflection of Jesus Christ, the catechist, who was an itinerant teacher living among his people following a very simple lifestyle. The catechetical approaches of Jesus Christ and of the neo-Pentecostal preacher will be compared, including their characters and lifestyles. The content of the teachings of Christ (authority, radicality and concreteness) are in juxtaposition to those of the neo-Pentecostal teacher which focuses on extra-biblical revelation such as personal prophecy; here there is also a lack of preaching on repentance and DOI: 10.4324/9781003212973-8

164  Kelebogile T. Resane holiness, commitment and ordinances. Marius Nel agrees that Pentecostals tend to place experience and extra-biblical revelation above the Bible, exposing themselves to heretical teachings as well as abuse by emotionally unstable people.4 While Jesus’ life was simple and contemporary to the culture of the day, the neo-Pentecostal preacher is often a celebrity who appears to be taking the “Messiah” position with the emphasis on what they can do (miracles) rather than what they say (oracles). This has led to some unfortunate situations where Christology has been compromised whilst the preacher has been elevated. As Mzondi claims, these preachers “are prepared to do the unusual to demonstrate that a) they possess faith and power to do more than what Jesus did, and b) they have private conversations with God”.5

8.2  Jesus the catechist The word catechesis comes from the root word katecheo which means to instruct, although in some cases it is used to mean recounting something. The apostle Paul uses the word scantily (1 Corinthians 14:19; Romans 2:18; Galatians 6:6) to stress the distinctive nature of Christian instruction. The word clarifies itself in the Book of Acts (18:25) where Apollos has been “instructed” in the way of the Lord.6 In a broader Christian context, it means passing on the doctrines in which one has been instructed. It is from this word that we get the word “catechist” to refer to the instructor, someone who teaches catechesis. The catechist is a teacher of the principles of Christian religion, especially one using a catechism. A catechist is expected to possess the supernatural charisma of knowledge, a special gift of being able to teach the faith with extraordinary effectiveness. In the mainline churches, the catechists prepare people for baptism or for confirmation. Catechesis has evolved over the years, and has been equated with Bible studies, membership classes, induction classes, etc., especially within the broader evangelical movement. By catechesis is meant the task of handing on the core beliefs and practices of the Christian tradition to every new generation of Christians and to Christian converts.7 It is not within the scope of this chapter to narrate the historical development of catechesis, but to demonstrate that Jesus as catechist operated in juxtaposition to some modern Pentecostal preachers who appear as celebrities instead of catechists exemplifying Jesus’ modus operandi. The characteristics of Jesus’ teachings are the truths that this argument hinges on. The synoptics point to the fact that Jesus’ public ministry began by preaching (Matthews 4:12–17; Mark 1:14–15; Luke 4:14–15). Luke uses the word “teach” instead of “preach” which shows how the two words could be used interchangeably in the New Testament with the final intention of passing on the mandate (catechesis). Jesus was regarded as a teacher (catechist), whose curriculum (catechism) was a Torah, which means instruction.8 The office of the teacher had a long and honourable history in

Christ and the neo-Pentecostal preacher 165 Israel, for instance, Moses (Deuteronomy 4:14; Exodus 24:12) was called to teach the law, the Levites’ ministry was basically that of teaching (Leviticus 10:11, Deuteronomy 33:10), and parents’ responsibility was the tutelage in the home (Deuteronomy 4:10; 6:7). The family was the primary setting for education. The efforts of the family were supplemented by the instruction that took place in the covenant community when it gathered, thus deepening people’s understanding.9 Sometimes the kings would take the position of being teachers, for example Solomon through proverbs, whilst Jehoshaphat commissioned certain princes to teach (2 Chronicles 17:7). Jesus’ catechetical responsibility is observed in the training of the Twelve. There are also a few words that were used to address Jesus as a teacher: −− Rabbi, meaning “my great one”: This was a natural title for Jesus to have, based on the fact of the Twelve having been gathered around him for instruction. That is why the same title was used for John the Baptist since he also had his disciples or trainees around him. −− Didaskalos, meaning “Teacher”, often translated “Master” in recognition of the peculiarly authoritative character of Jesus. Luke alone makes use of a term that strictly means “Master” (epistatēs), in addition to his use of the word “teacher” (Luke 5:5).10 Jesus delivered his teachings with authority. His authority was something people simply picked up when they encountered him, because he had made no formal claims to divine authority which they could have heard.11 Without any demonstrable activities or the magic of a great reputation Jesus held the audience spellbound with the irresistible force of his message. This authority did not reside in a dominance of personality. It was a God-given quality linked with his divinity and the fullness of the Spirit resting upon him. His authority balanced his words and deeds. He was very clear about his teaching: −− “My teaching is not my own. It comes from the one who sent me” (John 7:16). −− “When you have lifted up the Son of Man, then you will know that I am he and that I do nothing on my own but speak just what the Father has taught me” (John 8:28). Catechists teach with authority. They pass on what they have heard or received, without any adulteration along the way. They become the faithful stewards of what has been entrusted to them. The modern era of technology tends to confuse authority with power, but the two are not the same. Power works from the outside in, but authority works from the inside out. Authority comes from the word “author”. Authority is granted to people who are perceived as authoring their own words, their own actions, their own lives, rather than playing a scripted role far removed from their

166  Kelebogile T. Resane own hearts.12 Jesus was teaching beyond the technique, without validating points by some references to other scholars past or present. His teaching came from his identity and integrity. His very presence and his very authority empowered his followers to empower others. A catechist passes on the revelation of God and its implications for life. Catechism centres upon relationships with the triune God, other people, and the entire creation. Jesus’ teaching was radical. He called upon his audience to deny themselves in order to follow him. He made no attempts to adjust his ethical demands to the limitations of human nature. The loftiness of the standard did not allow any softening of the hard edge of requirement. There was no compromise regarding standards of holiness. Jesus knew that his testimony should be backed up by his deeds. Word and life are intertwined. Truth without life leads to dead orthodoxy. Life without truth leads to heresy. Teaching one without the other is not biblical and is not the stimulus needed for spiritual growth.13 Jesus’ teaching was simple, though radical. He did not overburden his listeners with traditions or theological baggage. Theological expressions were held to a minimum. He attracted the multitudes, not through miracles only, but especially through his simple teachings. Indeed, his teachings are as easy of comprehension and execution as the linguistic medium that conveys them to the ear.14 He used simple words stripped of all needless accessories but transmitting the truth in all its boldness and severity. He baffled the people by oracles, not only by miracles. Listeners, even for evil purposes, could exclaim: • •

“No one ever spoke the way this man does,’ the guards replied” (John 7:46). “Come, see a man who told me everything I ever did. Could this be the Messiah?” (John 4:29).

Reading the background of John 7:46, one sees Jesus as a catechist who is skilled in training his followers who listen intently to his oracles, to make them aware and interested in others outside their circle. “They are curious, hungry for knowledge, sensitive to what others think, retentive.”15 Jesus’ teaching was characterised by concreteness. No speculatives, no theoreticals. His teaching was epistemological, ethical and aesthetic. Spiritual truths were brought into touch with human realities through the power of illustration (parables) in a most beautiful way. He unveiled the heavenly by means of some earthly counterparts. For instance, the Father’s love was unforgettably etched in the story of the prodigal son; and of course, the duty of love to one’s neighbour was strikingly memorialised in the story of the good Samaritan. So, Jesus created a sense of connectedness with his listeners, for a good catechist possesses a capacity for connectedness. He can

Christ and the neo-Pentecostal preacher 167 weave a complex web of connections with contexts where students reside so that the very students are empowered to weave a complex world for themselves. Jesus touched their Sitz im Leben with his catechesis.16 People, especially believers, commune to share in one another’s lives, so that faith’s meaning can be perceived in a real-life setting. Most of what people learn about the Bible and the Christian faith happens in informal, unstructured, unintentional settings where they relate to one another in the context of congregational life and ministry.17 Jesus the catechist made connections beyond the methods straight into the hearts of people.18 Jesus was a catechist who played the role of, in a sense, a messenger. A messenger sends messages in one direction, from the source (teacher) to the receiver (learner/audience). A catechist is someone who helps facilitate communication between people who are otherwise unable to communicate with each other. He listens carefully, though he is familiar with the languages, the frames of reference, and the backgrounds of both parties. Jesus fit into this function. He could incarnate himself as both a Jew and a Gentile, without any form of discrimination. His message was clear and could address all parties in a very concrete manner. In humility, Christ as a village man was an itinerant catechist who didn’t need to spend money on advertising or campaigning. There were no heralds to run ahead to announce his coming to town. On a few occasions he had to slip through the crowds, and was almost stoned, not because of what he did, but for what he said, as recorded in some revelatory discourses in which he spoke of himself as God’s sole authoritative representative on earth. This is especially observed in the bread of life discourse in John 6. His ministry was not driven by the crowds, but by the people in need. If he had to put up the posters for his evangelistic crusades, they would carry the headlines such as COME AND HEAR THE GOOD NEWS, or COME AND HEAR HOW TO ENTER THE KINGDOM OF GOD, etc. Jesus the catechist was the man of the people for the people. Even though he was always among the people, still he wouldn’t be readily recognised everywhere. Hence, in order to be arrested, someone who knew him well had to identify him.

8.3  The neo-Pentecostal preacher, the celebrity The first consideration here is the neo-Pentecostal preacher’s catechesis. What is it that they pass on to those around them? Generally, slowly and subtly, the preacher is elevated more than Christ. This is also evident in the titles or names assigned to these preachers – either by themselves or their followers. One often hears of “divinely designated” titles such as “Papa”, “Major One”, “Man of God”, “Anointed one”, etc. Preachers, like many African politicians, have become “big men” or “women”. They distinctively hold the title “Man of God” which they use “extensively and exclusively either through self-propagating or by accepting the title when it is

168  Kelebogile T. Resane issued by their followers”.19 This obsession with titles was enhanced by the rising of the New Apostolic Reformation (NAR) founded in the USA in the eighties, with the emphasis on the fivefold ministry of Ephesians 4:11–12. This brought about the elevation of ministry titles such as “Apostle”, and “Prophet”. Consequently, a plethora of names like “apostles”, “prophets”, “pastors”, “evangelists”, “bishops”, “archbishops”, “Dr” or a permutation of “Dr” and “apostle” or “prophet”, surfaced amongst these leaders. This was mainly influenced by one’s forged relationship (with established networks), which adhered to either Pentecostal Episcopalianism, or mainstream (classical Pentecostalism or New Apostolic Reformation (NAR). 20 Their fame is enhanced by their faces on the posters, flyers and screens designed to promote their ministries. Their photographs hang on the walls of their faithful followers’ homes, car screens and bumpers. They sell gold pins that their followers attach to the lapels of their pin-striped suits. Artefacts and curios such as mugs, handkerchiefs, water bottles, etc., all carry their photographs; this comes at a cost with promises of anointing and blessings. Their designer suits and/or outfits reflect the regalia of royalty, and in some instances, they travel with a protocol fit for a head of state. Even Peter Wagner, a leader in the New Apostolic Reformation, decries these neo-Pentecostal preachers’ opulent display of their resultant prosperity by flaunting public status symbols such as Lincoln automobiles, Rolex watches, tailor-made silk suits, extravagantly furnished offices, luxury suites in hotels and other similar things.21 When they enter auditoria, congregations erupt into ululations as they are escorted to the platform by well-dressed attendants or ushers. Like some African political “Big men” these Neo-Pentecostal preachers “insist on being called ‘doctor’ or ‘conqueror’ or ‘teacher’ or ‘the number one’, ‘the miracle preacher’, ‘the most popular preacher in the world’.”22 The preacher is never part of praise and worship during the church service. He comes in just to preach, prophesy and perform miracles that are in many ways dubious and clearly orchestrated. He is a shepherd detached from the sheep, a pastor who does not know the conditions of the flock, a prophet who is ignorant of the concerns of the sheep, and a teacher who uses a hit-and-miss system. This is indeed a celebrity cult whereby success is used as a measure and first manifestation of spirituality. 23 Behind the scenes, in some unfortunate situations, womanising is the norm, and financial racketeering and the peddling of drugs, etc., are regular occurrences. For instance, Timothy Omotoso, a televangelist, is facing a string of charges including rape, and the alleged trafficking of more than 30 girls and women who were from various branches of his church to a house in Umhlanga, KwaZulu-Natal, where he allegedly sexually exploited

Christ and the neo-Pentecostal preacher 169 them. 24 He is behind bars and the court cases are in progress. His case sparked outrage on all levels of society, causing the feminist theologian, Fundiswa Kobo, to remark that black women’s bodies are like sacrificial lambs at Omotoso’s altar.25 Prophet Shepherd Bushiri (a Malawian national residing in South Africa) is another notorious preacher, someone who has “attracted controversies to himself ranging from sex scandals to lies”. 26 A well-known South African prophet is Mboro Paseka Motsoeneng of Incredible Happenings Church in Johannesburg. His ministry is cluttered with controversies such as him claiming to have gone to heaven, even taking some pictures there, him prophesying about the coronavirus pandemic, etc. He is sometimes nicknamed a “Biscuit Pastor” due to his personal prophecies always relating to women’s vaginal ailments or with abuses. Kgatle highlights that “The God of Paseka Motsoeneng, also known as pastor Mboro, would be called the ‘divine gynaecologist’ as he specialises in women’s reproductive organs”.27 Some journalists spotted him putting his fingers on women’s private parts, or putting his foot there. 28 The tabloids occasionally carry news headlines about Mboro’s questionable practices of healing or deliverance. In some cases, he would sprinkle holy water on his hand and rub the woman’s genitalia and ask for vitiated testimonies. The personal prophecies are mostly sexuality related, including about couples’ romantic practices, infertility, bewitched “biscuits”, men’s penile endowments, etc. All of this leaves a big question mark – maybe the man has some kind of sexual hang-up? The neo-Pentecostal preacher’s wife is usually the queen of the house. The pastoral couple dresses in matching outfits, and travels in different vehicles. He surrounds himself with a few close sycophants who usually pour large sums of money into his bank account. Those who occupy closer seats to him, do so at a stipulated price. The closer you are to the Man of God, the more the blessings, but it comes at a price of course. These preachers tend to be money focused. Churches like these often have a cultic pattern of being divided into exclusive rings: the all-powerful pastor perched at the centre, the inner ring of sycophants around the pastor consisting of his lieutenants and the church’s privileged class (the rich, the famous and the very pretty), and the outer ring of the ordinary folk who would love to be in the inner ring, but are not, since their low economic status and lack of social standing disqualify them for that position. The power of those in the inner ring is determined by the amount of favour the pastor bestows upon them. While Jesus taught with authority, the neo-Pentecostal preacher rarely does any expository preaching from the Bible. Kerygma is all about revelation received regarding a situation. Sometimes a motivational talk replaces expository preaching, followed by personal prophecies to some people who are clearly well prepared ahead of time. Personal prophecy has become a phenomenon among the neo-Pentecostal churches, and any church with claims of the gift of prophecy attracts multitudes. Prophecy and the

170  Kelebogile T. Resane title “Prophet” are very common. Personal prophecy comes at a cost, as Ramantswana asserts: The resurgence of prophetic charisma is a reality in our context; yet, it also presents challenges considering the practices within the current prophetic churches, which draws suspicion as to whether some of the prophets are praying for or preying on people’s longing for a personal divine word.29 This kind of prophecy is not associated with the written Word of God as divine revelation, but rather with direct divine revelation from God as channelled through the prophet. Its collusion with the broader cultural practices when it delves deeper into people’s personal lives, including invocations regarding witchcraft, sexuality, undergarments, and sedupe (Setswana name for the witchdoctor who does not use bones but sees deep secrets in people’s lives) approach like searching and seeing locations of ailments in someone’s body. At the end it is the prophet, not Christ, who receives glory. The prophetic ability is supplemented by the use of icons, fetishes or articles called points of contact. This is where this kind of prophecy becomes a bedfellow with African spiritism or African Traditional Religion (ATR) which some neo-Pentecostal preachers sometimes condemn or abhor. Indeed, Banda30 is correct that the use of various holy objects by African Pentecostal prophets, while condemning objects from ATR spiritual practitioners, raises some questions. Moriarty is correct that “personal prophecies given under the new covenant are unbiblical.”31 The bottom line is, “Africans enjoy prophecy. Prophets and prophecy play a big role in the religious life of the people of Africa”.32 It is again confirmed by Moriarty: Too many Christians are subjectivists and have a tendency to jump to any attractive prophetic bandwagon without even asking where it is headed. Magezi and Banda make an appealing response that a Christological framework which will meaningfully respond to this reliance on the mediatory role of the Pentecostal prophets, must realise the sufficiency of Christ in the African context and instil a Christ-controlled view of reality and empower Christians to put on the armour of the Lord instead of relying on anointed objects.33 Sadly thousands of neo-Pentecostal followers are robbed of vital knowledge of God’s Word. The emphasis on extra-biblical revelation by these preachers never trains listeners to search the Scriptures for themselves. The Christian testimony is thus vitiated, and generally, members do little more than “play church”. Preaching is mostly around health and wealth. This new message generally promises individuals a comprehensive solution to all their worries on condition that they become born again and give generously to the religious

Christ and the neo-Pentecostal preacher 171 leader in exchange for material and spiritual blessings in the form of healing, wealth, abundant life, success and earthly promotion.34 All these can be received if one follows the “Man of God’s” rudiments. These pastors talk about money and prosperity week after week – even though they are supposed to shepherd their congregation by feeding them the whole counsel of God. Also, these celebrities only preach on subjects that will motivate the congregation to give financially – and usually avoid biblical passages dealing with holiness, repentance and taking up one’s cross. If there is any reference to commitment, it will be commitment to the “Man of God”. Most of the neo-Pentecostal preachers do not preach against sin or even call people to repentance. The altar calls are for responding to the expected or promised blessings. Indeed, neo-Charismatic Christianity is usually understood as a miracles movement promising health and wealth benefits to those who commit themselves to the “Pastor”, “Apostle”, “Prophet”, “Man of God”, etc.35 Holiness is not part of their catechesis, and on many occasions, one hardly witnesses sacraments (ordinances) such as baptism or eucharist. It is for this reason that Wagner appeals to Pentecostals: Hold purity high. I do not see much change yet in biblical authority or doctrine, but I do detect some watering down of the Christian lifestyle as distinctly separated from the world around. Keep strict, and God will bless.36 Historically, there is some evidence that holiness was part of catechism. The New Testament writers made use of existing catechetical forms. They drew attention to two main features emerging from the literature previously studied. For instance, 1 Thessalonians 4 has some traces of a “holiness code” based on the holiness code in Leviticus 17–20. The consequent catechisms given to new converts included: abstinence from walking as the Gentiles walked, avoidance of certain sins, recognition of the call to holiness through the Spirit and exhortations to brotherly love.37 These commentaries of the canon, especially the New Testament, were presented as very simple catechetical instructions. Ambiguous theological terminology is common in their preaching. Most terms are biblical, but these preachers mystify them so much that the hearers get lost in interpretation. These include terms such as revelation, purpose, anointing, calling, etc. There seems to be some belief that a certain hoarse or baritone voice over the microphone on the elevated glass lectern is the ideal homiletics. Demanding feedback from the floor like “Say amen”, shouting “Hallelujah!”, etc., seem to be essential within kerygma. This is actually not different from Africans who consult a sangoma (witchdoctor), and then commanded or expected to respond by saying ngiya vuma (I agree). With a sangoma one can never say, “I disagree”. It must always be “Yes”, sometimes even if a listener does not understand or comprehend

172  Kelebogile T. Resane the incantation language employed during invocations or incantations. Mochechane points out that “The prophet ‘declares and decrees’, and the faithful ‘receive’, no questions asked”.38 It is all wrapped around gospel commercialisation. Resane refers to this as a celebrity cult: Celebrity cult in this context refers to the elevation of a leader to some high status of beauty, achievement, prestige and power. The Christian community is subtly and subliminally expected to blindly promote and embrace this personality or character. The success is based on properties such as auditorium, vehicles and personal adornment such as tailor-made outfits, jewellery, etc. The number of followers further enhances this appearance, and the leisure the leader enjoys because of contributions given by congregants.39 There is no calling for radical repentance where people are called to turn away from sin and embrace the love of Christ, because the content of their kerygma is the promise of material abundance which exploits the African socio-economic conditions.40 The absence of repentance accommodates the absence of holiness. The rationale behind the multitudes following neo-­ Pentecostal events is basically the fulfilment of 2 Timothy 4:3: For the time will come when people will not put up with sound doctrine. Instead, to suit their own desires, they will gather around them a great number of teachers to say what their itching ears want to hear. The multitudes are basically attracted by sophists who wander from city to city, offering to teach anything for money. They teach their faithful how to argue subtly and how to use words cleverly until they can make the situation worse.41 These celebrity preachers are not renowned for their ability to teach God’s Word with authority, but they seek after their own satisfaction. Their emphasis is on their personal whims. Guthrie is indeed correct: The absence of any serious purpose behind this amassing of teachers is ironically summed up in the description of the hearers as having itching ears, which means literally ‘having the hearing tickled’, as if what they heard merely scratched their eardrums without penetrating further.42 As mentioned earlier, it was not only what Jesus did that left the audience spellbound. It was specifically also what he said. Even the Samaritan woman after the revolutionary encounter with Jesus could exclaim: “Come, see a man who told me everything I ever did” (John 4:29). He is the prophet who could see the deep secrets in the hearts, including the hidden emotional illnesses of people. His exposure to these mysteries were verbal, yet could not be accused of whatever he said. In the discourses he rendered that which was apparent in his miracles intelligible to those who did not see him

Christ and the neo-Pentecostal preacher 173 merely as a miracle man.43 Even during his trials, the accusations revolved around what he said – that he can destroy the temple and rebuild it within three days. His popularity due to his miracles was overlooked, but his sayings prevailed over the accusations. It was the catechetical activities of Jesus that especially put him in the spotlight for his detractors. Any teacher, to this day, whose teaching underplays sin is a menace to Christianity and a menace to mankind. Any preaching that does not condemn sin and challenge people to repent just creates comfort zones for the multitudes.

8.4  Neo-Pentecostal preachers: character and lifestyle For our purposes we can examine the general character and lifestyle of neo-Pentecostal preachers. The neo-Pentecostal preacher is often a celebrity whose arrival is announced like that of royalty with their entourage. Moriarty asserts that these preachers act as if they have a special hotline to heaven while they arrogantly proclaim again and again, “God told me”. The same sentiment is expressed by Bill Hamon when he remarks that they prophesy in every service and on every television program, “Thus saith the Lord, if you will support His servant with a one-time gift of $1,000, He will surely bless you”.44 It is a popular saying, “You can question my prophecy, but you can never question the results”. Unfortunately, some of these ministries are governed by popularity, not integrity.45 Most of these preachers display their expensive attire and regalia. They dress in expensive specially designed suits, adorning themselves with gold and diamond jewellery such as chains, finger rings, wrist watches, necklaces, wrist belts, and sometimes with gold crowns on their teeth. Their crocodile leather shoes and belts are often specially designed. In many cases, their clothes are luxury imports. They have exclusive tailors and fashion designers, have special barbers and beauty therapists for their manicures and Botox treatments. Hamon rightfully cautions that there will always be charlatans, false ministers and those who are wrongly motivated who look for an opportunity to promote themselves and to profit from the movement.46 They often fly business class accompanied by a protocol team called armour bearers, and demand treatment befitting royalty at airports. Regarding themselves as royalty, they cannot possibly appear before the immigration or customs officers. Armour bearers do all that for them. Upon arrival at their destination, some of the faithful will be waiting at the arrivals hall of the airport with a red carpet leading straight to the waiting limousine; they will be flanked by a guard of honour and often presented with a bouquet of flowers. They often own fleets of the latest luxury cars. For instance, Alleluia Ministries International leader Alph Lukau, from Johannesburg, is known for his lavish lifestyle which can be seen on social media where he posts pictures of private jets and flashy cars. Among his collection of toys are a Range Rover, a Bentley, a Lamborghini,

174  Kelebogile T. Resane a Rolls Royce, a Ferrari and a three-wheeler custom bike. One online article describes these neo-Pentecostal preachers: Some speakers’ egos are so ripe that they demand business or firstclass flights, expensive chauffeured cars, five-star hotel accommodation, gourmet dining, and the right to bring a small entourage along with them (at the church’s expense). Their fees can be enough to buy a family car, and then they have the audacity to expect a special “love offering” to be made for them. The sales of their books and ‘DVDs’ are carefully planned, and the hosting pastors are expected to hype their products.47 They reside in upmarket suburbs, and travel to church in a convoy that even some heads of state cannot afford. In some big cities, even law enforcement officers are booked to accompany these pastor celebrities, especially when they go to special meetings or to church. A Sowetanlive article gives a good example of how Lukau enjoys VIP status‚ even being afforded a motorcycle escort when he gets driven to church.48 In the same article, the journalist, Zoe Mahopo, informs us that South African taxpayers are questioning the abuse of state funds for private protocol and protection. The Johannesburg Municipal Police Department (JMPD) together with the then Mayor, Herman Mashaba, crossed swords trying to argue for or against this service delivery. Civil service ethics are at stake here. Another example is Prophet Shepherd Bushiri of Enlightened Christian Gathering Church in Pretoria, who is reported to own luxury houses and cars, as well as a self-styled Gulfstream private jet which is parked in a private hangar at Lanseria Airport outside Johannesburg.49 His followers are willing to camp at the city gates for hours, waiting for his arrival regardless of the weather conditions, “even paying exorbitant amounts of money waiting for an opportunity to meet or to see the prophet.”50 At the church they are given a guard of honour by ushers specifically trained for the job. Ushers carry the Bibles for them, or a jug of water or fruit juice. They cannot even carry the Bible to or from the pulpit. These men of God cannot share the meals with ordinary church members, maybe for fear of being bewitched or for fear of lowering their standards. Expensive leased cars, holidays, clothing allowances, spending money, restaurant meals, hotels, flights, and expense accounts, are some of the perks demanded by these celebrity pastors.

8.5  Conclusion: balancing the equation There is no doubt that the majority of Pentecostals remain evangelical and truthful to the Bible and dogma. Pentecostal theology as part of Protestant theology is Christocentric and pneumatological. Their basis of pneumatic experience is Christ, as one is expected to receive Christ first, and

Christ and the neo-Pentecostal preacher 175 consequently, the baptism of the Holy Spirit. Kärkkäinen says the convergence point of Pentecostal theology and Lutheran theology is that theology is Christocentric, so also is pneumatology, always in a healthy trinitarian context.51 Therefore, Pentecostals generally still hold to the fundamental principles of Pentecostal theology which is couched in the Trinitarian God and the finished work of Christ on the cross. One of their own, Bill Hamon, affirms that the true prophetic minister will affirm the biblical teaching of the Church with regard to the nature of God and the salvation offered in Jesus Christ.52 They are of the conviction that the experience of the Holy Spirit is a necessity for holiness of life and boldness in evangelism. Their ecclesiastical outlook is that “…the Church must be built according to God’s ordained pattern”.53 This ecclesiastical phenomenon is a universal reality. Mochechane is correct that there is a rush to Pentecostal meetings that suggests the explosion of something spiritually powerful and relentlessly unfolding on the peripheries of human history.54 Their arrival at the rendezvous equals or outclasses that of a celebrity. All debates aside the neo-Pentecostal celebrity phenomenon is growing. Resane acknowledges this phenomenal growth: South Africa’s fast-growing religion is celebrity worship. From gossip magazines to entertainment TV, from blogs to adverts featuring famous faces, the stars; including pastors, prophets, apostles etc., are the new gods and goddesses. The Christian community is so quick to put them on pedestals; even more enthralled when they traverse and reverse the foundations of the Christian dogma.55 Christ the catechist, and the neo-Pentecostal preacher the celebrity, fight for the platform in the church. Christology and celebrity cult challenge ecclesiastical activities in the 21st century. Let the neo-Pentecostal church become Christocentric and pneumatic, embracing the eschatological journey ethically and apologetically. The modern generation knows what Christ can do for them, but far less about who he really is. The mediated nature of our knowledge of the New Testament’s witness, namely, the handing on (catechesis) of the gospel from generation to generation, is something to be celebrated rather than repudiated.56

Notes 1 Frederick Kakwata. “The progressive Pentecostal conception of development within an African context of poverty.” Stellenbosch Theological Journal (2017): 159–183, 164. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.17570/stj.2017.v3n1.a08. 2 Dena Freeman. Pentecostalism and development: Churches, NGOs and social change in Africa (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), 11. 3 Johnson Kwabena Asamoah-Gyadu. African charismatics: Current developments within independent indigenous Pentecostalism in Ghana (Leiden: Brill, 2005), 26.

176  Kelebogile T. Resane 4 Marius Nel. “Re-enactment leading to transformation: A critical assessment of the distinctives of Pentecostal preaching.” Stellenbosch Theological Journal (2017): 294. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.17570/stj.2017.v3n1.a13: 285–307. 5 Abraham Modisa Mkhondo Mzondi. Ubuntu Pentecostalism (Roodepoort: Anthony’s Fast Print, 2017), 135. 6 Geoffrey William Bromiley. Theological dictionary of the New Testament. Abridged in one volume (Grand Rapids: W.B. Eerdmans Publishing Co, 1985), 422. 7 Richard Osmer. “The teaching ministry in a multicultural world,” Max L Stackhouse, Tim Dearborn and Scott Paeth (eds.), The local church in a global era: Reflections for a new century (Grand Rapids: W.B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2000), 65. 8 Everett F. Harrison. A short life of Christ (Grand Rapids: W.B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1987), 94. 9 Robert W. Pazmińo. Foundational issues in Christian education: An introduction in evangelical perspective (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1997), 29. 10 Ibid, 96. 11 Ian Howard Marshall. New Testament interpretation (Carlisle: Paternoster Press, 1992), 336. 12 Parker Jay Palmer. The courage to teach: Exploring the inner landscape of a teacher’s life (San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons, 2007), 34. 13 Lois Emogene Lebar. Education that is Christian (Colorado Springs: Chariot Victor Publishing, 1995), 101. 14 Harrison, A short life of Christ, 99. 15 Howard Hendricks. “What makes Christian education distinct,” Earl Palmer, Roberta Hestenes and Howard Hendricks (eds.), Mastering teaching (Portland: Multnomah Press, 1991), 24. 16 Martin Dibelius. From tradition to Gospel (Cambridge: James Clark, 1971). This is a reference by Dibelius who implies that exhortations (Paranesen) are the teaching materials in the Gospels. Formally, the sayings of Jesus may be divided into maxims, metaphors, parabolic narratives, prophetic challenges, short commandments and extended commandments including motive clause. 17 Donald L. Griggs. Teaching today’s teachers to teach (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2003), 13. 18 Lawrence, O. Richards. A theology of Christian education (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1980), 251. 19 Masiwa Ragies Gunda and Francis Machingura. “The ‘Man of God’: Understanding biblical influence on contemporary mega-church prophets in Zimbabwe,” Ezra Chitando, Masiwa Gunda and Joachim Kügler (eds.), Prophets, profits and the Bible in Zimbabwe: Festschrift for Aynos Masotcha Moyo (Bamberg: University of Bamberg, 2013), 15–22. 20 Mzondi, Ubuntu Pentecostalism, 101 21 Peter Wagner. Churchquake! How the new apostolic reformation is shaking up the Church as we know it (Ventura: Regal Books, 1999), 252–253. 22 Andre Karamaga. Problems and promises of Africa: Towards and beyond the year 2000: A summary of the proceedings of the symposium convened by the All Africa Conference of Churches in Mombasa in November 1991 (Nairobi: Africa Church Information Service, 1993), 61. 23 Kelebogile Thomas Resane. “Commercialisation of theological education as a challenge in the Neo-Pentecostal Charismatic churches,” HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies (2017): 4. https://doi.org/10.4102/hts. v73i3.4548:1–7.

Christ and the neo-Pentecostal preacher 177 24 Raahil Sain. “Victim details sexual assault allegedly at the hands of Pastor Omotoso.” https://www.iol.co.za/news/south-africa/eastern-cape/victim-­ details-sexual-assault-allegedly-at-the-hands-of-pastor-omotoso-17483264, accessed 5 May 2020. 25 Fundiswa A. Kobo. “Spirituality trapped in androcentric celebrity cults in South Africa post-1994,” HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies (2019): 4. https://doi.org/10.4102/hts.v75i3.5593:1–7. 26 Google. “Malawi’s Prophet Bushiri caught with pants down, again.” https:// malawi24.com/2015/02/25/malawis-prophet-bushiri-caught-with-pantsdown-again/. Modified 25 Feb 2015, accessed 8 May 2020. 27 Mookgo Solomon Kgatle. “The unusual practices within some Neo-Pentecostal churches in South Africa: Reflections and recommendations,” HTS Teologiese Studies/ Theological Studies (2017): 5, https://doi.org/10.4102/hts. v73i3.4656:1–8. 28 “Pastor Mboro prays for underwear in church, helps couples to do it.” https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=QeXhMu3rYnQ, accessed 11 May 2020. 29 Hulisani Ramantswana. “Prophets praying for, or preying on people’s faith: A reflection on prophetic ministry in the South African context,” In die Skriflig/In Luce Verbi (2019): 1, a2495. https://doi.org/:1–8. 30 Collium Banda. “Managing an elusive force? The Holy Spirit and the anointed articles of Pentecostal prophets in traditional religious Africa,” Verbum et Ecclesia (2019): 3. https://doi.org/10.4102/ve.v40i1.2025:1–10. 31 Michael G. Moriarty. The new charismatics: A concerned voice responds to dangerous new trends (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1992), 237. 32 Mookgo Solomon Kgatle. “Reimagining the practice of Pentecostal prophecy in Southern Africa: A critical engagement,” HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies (2019): 4. https://doi.org/10.4102/hts.v75i4.5183:1–7. 33 Vhumani Magezi and Collium Banda. “Competing with Christ? A critical Christological analysis of the reliance on Pentecostal prophets in Zimbabwe,” In die Skriflig/In Luce Verbi (2017): 2. https://doi.org/10.4102/ ids.v51i2.2273: 1–10. 34 Asonzeh Franklin-Kennedy Ukah. African Christianities: Features, Promises and Problems. 2007. [Online] http://www.ifeas.uni-mainz.de/Dateien/AP79. pdf, accessed 3 May 2020. 35 Kelebogile Thomas Resane. “And they shall make you eat grass like oxen” (Daniel 4:24): Reflections on recent practices in some new charismatic churches,” Pharos Journal of Theology (2017): 1–17. 36 Peter Charles Wagner. “Characteristics of Pentecostal Church growth,” L.G. McClung (ed.), Azusa street and beyond: Pentecostal missions and church growth in the twentieth century (South Plainfield, NJ: Bridging Publishing Inc., 1986): 131. 37 Donald Guthrie. New Testament introduction (London: Inter-Varsity Press, 1968), 659. 38 Steve Mochechane. Bhengu and pan Africanism: Running with the horses (Lambert Academic Publishing n.d), 36. 39 Kelebogile Thomas Resane, Commercialisation, 4. 40 Ntozakhe Cezula. “Reading the Bible in the African context: Assessing Africa’s love affair with prosperity Gospel.” Stellenbosch Theological Journal (2015):141. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.17570/stj.2015.v1n2.a06:131–153. 41 William Barclay. The Letters to Timothy, Titus and Philemon (Edinburgh: The Saint Andrew Press, 1965), 238. Barclay quotes that Isocrates said of these teachers: “They try to attract pupils by low fees and big promises. They were prepared to teach the whole of the virtue for £15 or £20.” Plato

178  Kelebogile T. Resane







described them savagely: “Hunters after young men of wealth and position, with sham education as their bait, and a fee for their object, making money by a scientific use of quibbles in private conversation, while quite aware that what they are teaching is wrong.” 42 Donald Guthrie. The pastoral epistles: An introduction and commentary. In Tyndale New Testament Commentaries, edited by R.G.V. Tasker (Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 1977), 167. 43 J.C. De Klerk and Christoph Wilhelm Schnell. A new look at Jesus: Literary and sociological-historical interpretations of Mark and John (Pretoria: J.L. Van Schaik, 1987), 252. 44 Bill Hamon, Apostles, prophets and the coming moves of God: God’s endtime plans for his church and planet earth (Santa Rosa Beach: Christian International, 2002), 204. 45 Moriarty, 240. 46 Bill Hamon. Apostles, prophets and the coming moves of God: God’s endtime plans for his church and planet Earth, 189. 47 “How Pastors Get Rich,” https://www.cultwatch.com/howpastorsgetrich. html. 48 Zoe Mahopo. “Alleluia International Ministries leader Alph Lukau’s flashy lifestyle.” https://www.sowetanlive.co.za/news/south-africa/2019-02-26alleluia-international-­ministries-leader-alph-lukaus-flashy-lifestyle/, accessed 5 May 2020. 49 Abram Matshego. “Bushiri empire crashes – state looks to seize assets including luxury cars, private jet.” https://city-press.news24.com/News/bushiri-empirecrashes-state-looks-to-seize-­a ssets-including-luxury-cars-private-jet20190203, accessed 5 May 2020. 50 Mochechane, Bhengu and pan Africanism, 17. 51 Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen. Pneumatology: The holy spirit in ecumenical, international and contextual perspective (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic Books, 2002), 82. 52 Bill Hamon. Prophets and the prophetic movement: God’s prophetic move today (Santa Rosa Beach: Christian International, 1990), 159. 53 John Eckhardt. Moving in the Apostolic (Ventura: Regal Books, 1999), 136. 54 Mochechane, Bhengu and Pan Africanism, 20. 55 Resane, And they shall make you eat grass, 14. 56 Uche Anizor. How to read theology: Engaging doctrine critically and charitably (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic Books, 2018), 103.

References Anizor, Uche. How to read theology: Engaging doctrine critically and charitably. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic Books, 2018. Asamoah-Gyadu, and Johnson Kwabena. African charismatics. Current developments within independent indigenous Pentecostalism in Ghana. Leiden: Brill, 2005. Banda, Collium. “Managing an elusive force? The Holy Spirit and the anointed articles of Pentecostal prophets in traditional religious Africa,” Verbum et Ecclesia 40, no. 1 (2019), a2025. https://doi.org/10.4102/ve.v40i1.2025. Barclay, William. The letters to Timothy, Titus and Philemon. Edinburgh: The Saint Andrew Press, 1965. Bromiley, Geoffrey William. Theological dictionary of the New Testament. Abridged in one volume. Grand Rapids: W.B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1985.

Christ and the neo-Pentecostal preacher 179 Cezula Ntozakhe. “Reading the Bible in the African context: Assessing Africa’s love affair with prosperity Gospel.” Stellenbosch Theological Journal 1, no. 2 (2015):131–153. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.17570/stj.2015.v1n2.a06. De Klerk, J.C. and Christoph Wilhelm Schnell. A new look at Jesus: Literary and sociological-historical interpretations of Mark and John. Pretoria: J.L. Van Schaik, 1987. Dibelius, Martin. From tradition to Gospel. Cambridge: James Clark, 1971. Eckhardt, John. Moving in the apostolic. Ventura: Regal Books, 1999. Freeman, Dena. Pentecostalism and development: churches, NGOs and social change in Africa. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012. Google. “How Pastors Get Rich,” https://www.cultwatch.com/howpastorsgetrich. html, accessed 4 May 2020. Google. “Malawi’s Prophet Bushiri caught with pants down, again” (25 Feb 2015) https://malawi24.com/2015/02/25/malawis-prophet-bushiri-caught-with-pantsdown-again/, accessed 8 May 2020. Griggs, Donald, L. Teaching today’s teachers to teach. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2003. Gunda, Mawisa Ragies and Francis Machingura. “The ‘Man of God’: Understanding biblical influence on contemporary mega-church prophets in Zimbabwe,” Ezra. Chitando, M. Gunda and J. Kügler (eds.), Prophets, profits and the Bible in Zimbabwe: Festschrift for Aynos Masotcha Moyo. Bamberg: University of Bamberg, 2013, 15–22. Guthrie, Donald. New Testament introduction. London: Inter-Varsity Press, 1968. Guthrie, Donald. The Pastoral Epistles: An introduction and commentary. In Tyndale New Testament commentaries, edited by R.G.V. Tasker. Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 1977. Hamon, Bill. Prophets and the prophetic movement: God’s prophetic move today. Santa Rosa Beach: Christian International, 1990. Hamon, Bill. Apostles, prophets and the coming moves of God: God’s end-time plans for his church and planet Earth. Santa Rosa Beach: Christian International, 2002. Harrison, Everette, F. A short life of Christ. Grand Rapids: W.B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1987. Hendricks, Howard. “What makes Christian education distinct,” Earl Palmer, Roberta Hestenes and Howard Hendricks (eds.), Mastering Teaching. (Portland: Multnomah Press, 1991), 14–25. Kakwata, Frederick. “The progressive Pentecostal conception of development within an African context of poverty.” Stellenbosch Theological Journal 20173, no. 1 (2017): 159–183. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.17570/stj.2017.v3n1.a08. Karamaga, Andre. Problems and promises of Africa: Towards and beyond the year 2000: A summary of the proceedings of the symposium convened by the All Africa Conference of Churches in Mombasa in November 1991. Nairobi: Africa Church Information Service, 1993. Kärkkäinen, Veli-Matti. Pneumatology: The Holy Spirit in ecumenical, international and contextual perspective. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic Books, 2002. Kgatle, Mookgo Solomon. “The unusual practices within some Neo-Pentecostal churches in South Africa: Reflections and recommendations.” HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies 73, no. 3 (2017), a4656. https://doi.org/10.4102/hts. v73i3.4656.

180  Kelebogile T. Resane Kgatle, Mookgo Solomon. “Reimagining the practice of Pentecostal prophecy in Southern Africa: A critical engagement.” HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies 75, no. 4 (2019), a5183. https://doi.org/10.4102/hts.v75i4.5183. Kobo, Fundiswa A. “Spirituality trapped in androcentric celebrity cults in South Africa post-1994.” HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies 75, no. 3 (2019), a5593. https://doi.org/10.4102/hts.v75i3.5593. Lebar, Lois E. Education that is Christian. Colorado Springs: Chariot Victor Publishing, 1995. Magezi, Vhumani and Banda, Collium. “Competing with Christ? A critical Christological analysis of the reliance on Pentecostal prophets in Zimbabwe.” In die Skriflig/In Luce Verbi 51, no. 2 (2017), a2273. https://doi.org/10.4102/ids. v51i2.2273. Mahopo, Zoe. “Alleluia International Ministries leader Alph Lukau’s flashy lifestyle.” https://www.sowetanlive.co.za/news/south-africa/2019-02-26-alleluia-international-ministries-leader-alph-lukaus-flashy-lifestyle/, accessed 5 May 2020. Marshall, Ian Howard. New Testament interpretation. Carlisle: Paternoster Press, 1992. Matshego, Abram. “Bushiri empire crashes – state looks to seize assets including luxury cars, private jet.” https://city-press.news24.com/News/bushiri-empire-crashesstate-looks-to-seize-assets-including-luxury-cars-private-jet-20190203, accessed 5 May 2020. Mochechane, Steve. Bhengu and Pan Africanism: Running with the horses. Moldova: Lambert Academic Publishing, n.d. Moriarty, Michael G. The new charismatics: A concerned voice responds to dangerous new trends. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1992. Mzondi, Abraham Modisa Mkhondo. Ubuntu Pentecostalism. Roodepoort: Anthony’s Fast Print, 2017. Nel, Marius. “Re-enactment leading to transformation: A critical assessment of the distinctives of Pentecostal preaching.” Stellenbosch Theological Journal 3, no. 1 (2017): 285–307. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.17570/stj.2017.v3n1.a13. Osmer, Richard. “The teaching ministry in a multicultural world,” Max L. Stackhouse, Tim Dearborn and Scott Paeth (eds.), The local Church in a global era: Reflections for a new century. (Grand Rapids: W.B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2000), 63–74. Palmer, Parker Jay. The courage to teach: Exploring the inner landscape of a teacher’s life. San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons, 2007. Pazmińo. Robert. W. Foundational issues in Christian education: An introduction in evangelical perspective. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1997. Ramantswana, Hulisani. “Prophets praying for or preying on people’s faith: A reflection on prophetic ministry in the South African context.” In die Skriflig/In Luce Verbi 53, no. 4 (2019), a2495. https://doi.org/. Resane, Kelebogile Thomas. “Commercialisation of theological education as a challenge in the neo-Pentecostal Charismatic Churches.” HTS Teologiese Studies/ Theological Studies 73, no. 3 (2017), a4548. https://doi.org/10.4102/hts. v73i3.4548. Resane, Kelebogile Thomas. “‘And they shall make you eat grass like oxen’ (Daniel 4:24): Reflections on recent practices in some new charismatic churches.” Pharos Journal of Theology 98 (2017). http//:www.pharosjot.com1, accessed 17/01/2020.

Christ and the neo-Pentecostal preacher 181 Richards, Lawrence, O. A theology of Christian education. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1980. Ukah, Asonzeh Franklin-Kennedy. 2007. African Christianities: Features, promises and problems. http://www.ifeas.uni-mainz.de/Dateien/AP79.pdf, accessed: 23/01/2015. Wagner, Peter Charles. “Characteristics of Pentecostal Church growth.” L.G. McClung (ed.), Azusa Street and beyond: Pentecostal missions and church growth in the twentieth century. (South Plainfield, NJ: Bridging Publishing Inc., 1986), 131. Wagner, Peter Charles. Churchquake! How the New Apostolic Reformation is shaking up the church as we know it. Ventura: Regal Books, 1999.

9

From replacing Christ to crisis Rethinking Christology in some new religious ministries in South Africa Bekithemba Dube

9.1 Introduction The religious landscape in South Africa presents an interesting yet disturbing trend in terms of understanding and interpreting a Christology that attempts to address the lived realities of the African people. According to Maluleke, “[f]or nearly half a century, Africans have attempted to articulate their own brands of Christian theologies consciously and deliberately”1 – something which of course has brought with it a fair share of problems. In defining African Christology, new religious ministries have emerged, reconfiguring how Christ is understood and conceptualised in theory and praxis. Such configurations have often channelled the Christian faith into a terrain of ambivalence which has compromised its transforming ability to contribute to sustainable development. At the outset it needs to be acknowledged that everyone has a right to worship and the right to the religion of their choice. In fact, Section 15(1) of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa states, “Everyone has the right to freedom of conscience, religion, thought, belief, and opinion”. 2 In addition, Section 31(1) (a) states, “Persons belonging to a cultural, religious, or linguistic community may not be denied the right … to enjoy their culture, practise their religion, and use their language”. While everyone has a right to freedom of religion, it becomes a problem when religious leaders elevate themselves to abuse other people through religion. Thus, the problem that this chapter addresses is that Christ has in some religious groups been “replaced” by leaders in order to commit criminality and abuse their followers. Some religious leaders such as Alph Lukau, Shepherd Bushiri, among many others, project themselves as uniquely anointed by God; nothing they do can be questioned, so much so that they have, in fact, become like Christ. They place themselves closer to God than other people, 3 which unfortunately has often led to religious crises in post-colonial South Africa. Part of the problem emanates from the coloniality of power where religious leaders become a law unto themselves, not accountable to anyone and placing themselves on a pedestal where they cannot be questioned, ultimately replacing Christ. This has ignited a crisis in the South African DOI: 10.4324/9781003212973-9

From replacing Christ to crisis 183 religious landscape. Thus, the chapter aims to challenge this replacement of Christ, instead reclaiming Christ and his power and distribute it to all in order to ensure an undisputed Christology in post-colonial South Africa.4 Informed by Sabelo Ndlovu-Gatsheni, the chapter seeks to ignite “Africans [to be] vigilant against … the trap of ending up normalising and universalising coloniality [replacing Christ to abuse people] as a natural state of the world. It must be unmasked, resisted and destroyed because it produced a world order that can only be sustained through a combination of violence, deceit, hypocrisy and lies.5 The chapter associates replacing Christ with coloniality; it is something which has to be exposed and challenged since whenever Christ is replaced, abuse becomes inevitable. The following section discusses some of the Christological contestations and outlines the thinking in this chapter in discussing the Christology in post-colonial South Africa.

9.2 Theological contestations of Christology: Mapping the ideological approach of this chapter There are various debates on the doctrines of Christology that have influenced the thinking and praxis of Christianity in post-colonial South Africa. It is not the intention of this chapter to theorise about each ideology in light of its biblical interpretation but rather to give an overview of different kinds of thinking about Christology. As a point of departure, there is a widespread evidence that Jesus Christ holds a most prominent place in popular cultures across Africa south of the Sahara.6 In the midst of different theories, this chapter specifically looks at three theories on Christology with the main point of this chapter in mind, which is that some religious leaders have covertly or overtly replaced Christ which consequently resulted in various trajectories which will be discussed later. 9.2.1  Christ as a replacement of the expected Jewish Messiah The Jewish religion had from the Assyrian invasion and the destruction of Israel anticipated the coming of the Messiah who was to deliver them from the Roman Empire and consequently establish the everlasting kingdom of God. The expectation was that the Messiah was going to be a political figure and reconfigure world affairs.7 However, the message and the person of Jesus Christ of Nazareth, son of Joseph and Mary, was not in line with the Jewish expectations.8 As such, Jesus was a disappointment to many Jews; however, there were some Jews who embraced his message and consequently he founded one of the greatest religious movements ever. According to this view, there is nothing wrong with replacing Christ as he himself had replaced the Jewish expectations of his day. Thus, anyone

184  Bekithemba Dube can potentially replace Christ. This view is off course not really relevant for Christian believers, as Jesus in Christian doctrine and Christology is far more that the longed-for Jewish Messiah. According to the Christian perspective, when one replaces Christ, he or she ceases to belong to the Christian faith; however, as would be argued later, replacing Christ is not a one-off event and sometimes leaders are unaware that they have gradually replaced Christ, thus, they continue with their ministry as normal but with they themselves having assumed the place of Christ. According to this Christological view, from a philosophical and non-Christian viewpoint, whether one agrees with it or not, there is nothing wrong with Christ being replaced inasmuch as Christ himself became a replacement for Jewish expectations. 9.2.2  A religious leader as Messiah The second view is almost similar to the first one. In some Messianic movements such as the Twelve Apostles Church discussed below, the leader is known as a Messiah, which of course has a different premise compared to the Jewish anticipation of the Messiah. In this case, there is nothing wrong with someone replacing Christ since the church leader assumes the role of being a Messiah. To explain this view, the chapter refers to the Twelve Apostle Church and their Christ, Chief Apostle Caesar Nongqunga. The Twelve Apostles Church was founded in 1978 by the late Chief Apostle S. D. Phataki. In terms of its Christology, the Twelve Apostles Church believes that Christ is a spirit that can dwell in an apostle to perform the work of God. In this regard, the leader of the church is seen as Christ, basing this ideology on Luke 4:18: “The Spirit of the Lord is on me, because he has anointed me to proclaim good news to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim freedom for the prisoners and recovery of sight for the blind, to set the oppressed free” (NIV). Because the leader is considered anointed and having the spirit of Christ, they are often referred to as, “This one is the one” or “Isithixo sethu lesi” (“This is our god”). In a 2018 sermon, Nongqunga declared, “I am a spirit of love. I am not able to hate anyone; I am a spirit of love. I give life”.9 The fact that the leader “gives life” indicates that he is seeing himself as the one who has replaced Christ who said he is the way, the truth and the life (John 14:6). Christ has thus been replaced by a religious leader; since Christ is a spirit that will depart as soon as the current leader dies. In short, when Chief Apostle Caesar Nongqunga dies, he will be replaced by another leader who will in turn “become” Christ. 9.2.3  A Christian perspective on replacing Christ The third view on Christology represents the Christian perspective, which is centred on the notion to let Christ be Christ (Christ can never be replaced by anyone ever no matter the circumstances). Unlike the Jewish people in

From replacing Christ to crisis 185 general, the African Christian community generally believes, like millions of Christians around the world, that Jesus Christ was born in Bethlehem in Judea, died and rose again and became the redeemer of mankind. However, some accepting Christ as redeemer reject the imposition of Western ideas of Christianity10 (which is Christianity that should be practiced according to how missionaries presented it in Africa). However, the overarching belief is still that Christ is a divine being and cannot be replaced by design or default; he is the redeemer of mankind who has died for people’s sin and rose again. In traditional conservative Christianity anyone who assumes the role of Christ is considered blasphemous and a disgrace.11 This chapter thus follows this line of thinking that no individual can replace Christ; it problematises the issue and is opposed to Christ being replaced and the misuse of the name of Christ to commit criminality and abuse followers. What we are presenting here is decoloniality thinking which is against replacing Christ by forming what Chidester describes as a “deviant social organisation masquerading as religion, it is the opposite of legitimate religion, evil, dangerous, mind controlling, brainwashing, financially exploitative and politically subversive”.12 Cognisant of the Chidester observation, the chapter problematises the criminality by those who have replaced Christ in post-colonial South Africa and argues for the reinventing of a Christology that is devoid of oppression, violation of human rights and inequality perpetrated through religion.

9.3 The concept of ontological density with reference to Christology in South Africa The concept of ontological density is referred to in this chapter because many religious leaders (such as Shepherd Bushiri and Alph Lukau) have replaced Christ to commit criminality and abuse. These religious leaders see themselves as superhuman and endowed with special power. This has unfortunately often led to a negative view of the Christian faith, as these leaders have widely been seen as representing Christian movements that are a danger to society. Ontological density is a term that is commonly used within the decoloniality space that speaks to the coloniality of being motif. The term seeks to explain the distortion that has taken place because of colonisation where individuals enacted structures and a system which made them feel superior to others. They perceive their ontology as better than others based on their wealth, skin colour, power, ethnicity and/or language. In the case of the religious leaders discussed in this chapter, ontological density is constructed by them taking the place of Christ and seeing themselves as superior ontological beings. Thus, the term as used in this chapter refers to religious leaders assuming the position of Christ within the religious space with the intention to covertly or overly “misuse a position of power or leadership in order to control or dominate another person, or

186  Bekithemba Dube to influence the person to promote the selfish interests of someone other than the individual who needs help”.13 In this regard, ontological density can also be understood as a state characterised by feeling superior when seeing oneself in relation to others. When a religious leader sees themselves as Christ, he or she assumes an ontological density and subsequently often creates a “sense of hopelessness, which leads to dehumanisation and being disremembered”14 in those abused by this kind of religion. Those leaders who have replaced Christ therefore often induce among their followers a state of “purposelessness and disconnection from life coupled with unbearable loneliness, isolation and alienation”.15 With this in mind, the term “ontological density” would be used to critique the Christology of some in post-colonial South Africa, cognisant of decoloniality and the third view among the different Christological contestations discussed in Section 9.2 which represents the Christian perspective on replacing Christ. The chapter will now look at the theoretical framework for this chapter which is decoloniality, followed by a discussion of our methodology. We will then have a look at the trajectories in cases where Christ has been replaced, before concluding by showing how it can be challenged, leading to reinventing a Christology devoid of oppression that can contribute to social transformation, democracy and respect for human rights.

9.4  Theoretical framework: decoloniality Decoloniality is used as the theoretical lens through which to look at and interrogate Christology in South Africa. Decoloniality has its roots in Latin America with scholars such as Mignolo, Maldonado-Torres, Quijon, and Dussel.16 Within the African space, scholars such as Sabelo J. NdlovuGatsheni, William Mpofu, Tendayi Sithole and Siphamandla Zondi champion decoloniality. To expose the arguments of the theory, NdlovuGatsheni17 sees decoloniality as … part of marginalized but persistent movements that merged from struggles against the slave trade, imperialism, colonialism, apartheid, neo-colonialism, and underdevelopment. The decoloniality theory rejects modernity, which is located on the oppressed and exploited side of the colonial difference, in favour of a decolonial liberation struggle to achieve a world beyond Eurocentric modernity.”18 And in this case, one could add, a world where religious leaders do not replace Christ in order to commit criminality and abuse. In addition, the theory was “born out of a realisation that ours is an asymmetrical world order that is sustained not only by colonial matrices of power but also by pedagogies and epistemologies of equilibrium that continue to produce alienated Africans”.19 Thus, the theory seeks to “move the world towards a decolonial liberation struggle to a world beyond

From replacing Christ to crisis 187 eurocentered modernity”20 that creates crisis. The crisis is mainly manifesting itself at an ideological, theoretical and epistemological level. 21 I see the theory as very relevant for this chapter since it “questions the legitimacy and sanity of celebrating postcolonial thinking, while the majority of Africans remain mentally colonised”, 22 in this case through religious leaders who have replaced Christ and are perpetrating social injustice. To this end, using this theory in this context as Mignolo proposes, presents a seeking for “alternatives for (re)imagining and building a democratic, just”23 and non-repressive Christology in post-colonial South Africa. Decoloniality thus “allows for a new way of thinking about, building and imagining a better future”24 devoid of the oppressive structures of people who have replaced Christ in their religious space. In short: a decoloniality narrative comes into this conversation since those who have replaced Christ often commit criminality and abuse their followers, thus it seeks to challenge this by seeking to reinvent a better future where no one is exploited even through using religion. The following section discusses the methodology used for this chapter, namely participatory action research.

9.5  Participatory action research Participatory action research (PAR) falls within the transformative paradigm. PAR is a research methodology which “investigates the actual practices and not abstract practices and learning about the real, material, concrete, and particular practices of particular people in particular places”.25 It is “community-oriented research and action for social change to promote marginalized communities, where the quest is to unearth the causes of social inequality and consequently the solution to alleviate the identified problems”.26 PAR is a methodological approach that “identifies the rights of those concerned by the research, and empowering people to set their own schemas for research and development, thereby giving them tenure over the process”.27 PAR is a preferred approach since it promotes the adoption of techniques from multiple perspectives, voices and sources to solve challenges.28 Furthermore, I have chosen PAR since it is “democratic, unbiased, redemptive and life-­ enhancing”29 as one interrogates different trajectories of replacing and competing with Christ in post-colonial South Africa. Due to the Covid-19 regulations that didn’t allow people to gather, I formed WhatsApp group in order to implement the PAR and generate data. The WhatsApp groups were primarily formed for the purpose of discussing the issue of some religious leaders in South Africa competing with or replacing Christ, covertly or overtly. The group consisted of Christian believers from new religious movements (mainly believers who seemed dissatisfied and were contemplating leaving their churches), Seventh Day Adventists (very critical of new religious movements) and academics who taught theology at three different universities in South Africa (two of them were church leaders and professors of religion, thus of course knowledgeable about the

188  Bekithemba Dube various Christological traditions). The discussions were lively and interesting with participants very engaged since the issue of some religious leaders replacing Christ is topical in South Africa. There were 12 participants and the research was done in April 2020 during the height of Covid-19 pandemic. The participants responded to two questions, which were: (1) what are the trajectories of replacing Christ, and (2) what could be done to reinvent a Christology that champions justice, equity and social transformation devoid of ontological density tendencies? In the different sections below are some verbatim quotes from the participants as they responded to various aspects of the two research questions. To select participants for this study, I used the snowball or chain method where I identified knowledgeable participants who then later assisted me to recruit other participants to be part of the study. 30 The study adhered to ethical requirements such as the participants signing consent forms which were e-mailed to them, voluntary withdrawal and assurance that the findings were for academic purposes and as such, the participants’ identities were to remain anonymous, thus pseudonyms were used instead. In terms of analysing data, I followed the seven steps set out in Laws, Harper and Marcus which are presented below: Step 1: Reading and rereading all the collected data. Step 2: Drawing up a preliminary list of themes arising from the data. Step 3: Rereading the data. Step 4: Linking the themes to quotations and notes. Step 5: Perusing the categories of themes to interpret them. Step 6: Designing a tool to help discern patterns in the data. Step 7: Interpreting the data and deriving meaning.31 The data from the WhatsApp group discussions was transcribed, coded and arranged into themes following the suggestion of Laws et al.,32 ensuring that the analysed data responded to the research questions.33 To ensure validity of data, member checking was done, where the analysed data was returned to the participants to verify if the data to be presented in this chapter resonated with the content of the WhatsApp discussions and debates that took place. The following sections present the findings from the discussions informed by the two main research questions. 9.5.1 Replacing Christ to crisis: Mapping different trajectories in post-colonial South Africa 9.5.1.1 Religious leaders portraying themselves as superhuman beings Following the Christian perspective on Christology as praxis within the Christian space as discussed in Section 9.2 one cannot condone the mentality exhibited by some religious leaders, such as Shepherd Bushiri, who portray

From replacing Christ to crisis 189 themselves as superhuman beings and equate themselves with Christ. In this Christological perspective there is an emphasis to let Christ be Christ and to let a human being be a human being without swapping roles.34 However, the reality in some new religious movements in South Africa is that some religious leaders presume to become Christ by design or by default. In a discussion and with reference to Shepherd Bushiri (a Malawianborn preacher based in South Africa heading the Enlightened Christian Gathering Church, which has its headquarters in Pretoria), MaMpo and Fezile noted the following Christological issues. MaMpo stated: Bushiri is now a supernatural figure that unfortunately people overlook many of his faults. Because he positions himself within the same level as Christ, people follow whatever he says. Fezile added: In addition to what MaMpo has said, people like Prophet Bushiri have not only replaced Christ but have overshadowed him. The followers have more regalia with the name of the prophet than the name of Christ. In light of the above sentiments by two of the participants, it is clear that a section of the Christian society in South Africa believes that people like Prophet Bushiri have taken the place of Christ especially denoted by the fact that most of the believers seem to give him more respect than Christ. However, while the chapter appreciates the sentiments of these participants on this issue, I want to argue that prophets like Bushiri claim that they are fulfilling a divine mandate, which was commissioned by Christ. The response of the religious followers then, denotes the prophet as Christ and/or they view and treat him as a replacement of Christ, which of course can happen by design or by default. Having taken the place of Christ, Bushiri’s praxis was characterised by extortion, and rape allegations among many others (Bushiri and his wife are currently on trials for money laundering among other things).35 As indicated above, while it is entirely possible that a religious leader can presume to have replaced Christ (which of course the chapter is against) as is the case with Bushiri, it is important that values such as social justice, equality and respect for human rights are not compromised. Thus, as seen through a decoloniality lens, the chapter argues that any form of abuse by those who have presumed to have replaced Christ should be utterly condemned and radically challenged as it puts Christ in crisis in post-colonial South Africa. 9.5.1.2  Open to religious abuse Another aspect raised by the participants was that the individuals that have replaced Christ in their religious spaces become vulnerable to all forms of

190  Bekithemba Dube abuse by their prophets. During the discussion around replacing Christ, the participants drew attention to the Seven Angels Ministry in Ngcobo in the Eastern Cape. To put the readers into perspective, the Seven Angels Ministry became famous after some of their followers invaded the local police station and murdered five police officers and a soldier.36 Afterwards the church sheltered the alleged murderers. In this regard, Anderson notes that the Seven Angels Ministry was no stranger to controversy.37 Their behaviour as a religious movement has caused Evans to describe them as criminals in a satanic place masquerading as a church.38 Evans stated, “Those people are not praying for anything, but they have hypnotised abantu [people]. … There is no church there, but there is Satanism”.39 In addition, Jordaan and Mabuza describe the ministry as criminals hiding under religion and resisting human governments.40As such, Gregg argues that the Seven Angels leaders and followers were extremist, characterised by resistance to the political practices of the day, denying children their right to go to school, and refusing to account for finances and perpetrating criminal activities.41 The underlying issue which can be deduced from the Seven Angels Ministry, is that the ministry leaders saw themselves as angels, thus as more than human beings and actually as having replaced Christ in their ministry resulting in the abuse of religion. One can say that they saw their ontological density as higher than average human beings evoking a sense of themselves as divine and perhaps even as equal to Christ. In the discussion, Ndlovu and Dumeni noted the following about the Seven Angels Ministry and the replacing of Christ. To Ndlovu: The Seven Angels guys are something else? How can someone become an angel? However, their behaviour does not resonate well with Biblical teaching as they are involved in corrupt deals that threaten the peace for the people of Ngcobo. In fact there is nothing Christ- or angel-like here, they have made themselves gods. In addition, Dumeni noted: The seven angels is [sic] an example of religious and social misfits. Christ is no longer visible but thugs’ maundering as angels. The sentiments expressed by these participants reveal that a religious movement such as the Seven Angels Ministry uses religion for criminality. Seemingly, such religious leaders set up structures elevating themselves above the rest of the church making it easy for Christ to be replaced in their lives and the lives of their religious followers. As such, religious leaders like those of the Seven Angels Ministry present coloniality of power in terms of decoloniality thinking which leads to various trajectories on the terrain

From replacing Christ to crisis 191 of social transformation, democracy and development. I argue this way because they claim to be hearing from God, yet their conduct is contrary to the expected Christian conduct in society, thus bringing Christianity into disrepute. The chapter agrees with the observation by Sithole who argues that “abusive power is not visible and is hidden from religious adherents. It causes those who are subjected to it to become incapacitated, to see, name, describe and explain it as it institutionalised, naturalised and normalised in everyday existence”.42 As a way to reinvent Christ in the South African space, there is a need for abusive tendencies to be exposed and challenged from every possible space including academia. The following section discusses another challenge brought about by religious leaders replacing Christ, which is that it obscures the positive contribution of Christianity. 9.5.1.3  Obscuring the positive contribution of Christianity Informed by the third Christological view presented in 10.2.3 above, that Christ cannot be replaced, any view contrary to this overshadows the beauty of Christianity especially when there is evidence of criminality and abuse. Since the inception of the Christian faith, people who have assumed the place of Christ covertly or overtly have contributed to human crisis. Jim Jones of the Peoples Temple in the US is a tragic example of an individual who has presumed to have replaced Christ and ended up abusing their followers, in this case leading to the mass murder-suicide of 918 followers. In replacing Christ, Jones took his indoctrinated followers to Jamestown in the wilderness of north Guyana, abused them and later convinced them to commit suicide.43 This event is one of many that have haunted the Christian faith in contributing meaningfully to democracy, the social welfare of citizens and respect for human rights. Looking at the current South African religious landscape, some Pentecostal church leaders such as Alph Lukau obscure the beauty of Christianity by faking miracles, whilst praising themselves with comments such as, “I am Alph Lukau”.44 Generally, according to the third Christological view, Christians would much rather prefer an emphasis on Christ and not at all on the prophet. Any self-glorification by a religious leader is seen as heresy. In discussing the theme of replacing Christ with specific reference to Alpha Lukau, two research participants noted the following: Mzala said: I have watched Alpha Lukau several times and one cannot fail to notice that the pastor sees himself as a superhuman being, and the followers think the same. Whenever he does something, he reminds people of his name as a show-off of his abilities, which is problematic to Christian faith since his name appears to be more important than Christ, thus Christ is replaced by his name.

192  Bekithemba Dube Mzondi added: The story of resurrection which was denied by funeral parlours presents serious challenges of some pastors in South Africa. It became clear that the story was made up to convince people that Alph Lukau was a powerful preacher who has emerged in our lifetime. Such incidents, especially proven false, affect the reputation of the Christian faith. Commenting on issues related to the one raised by the participants, Themba Masongo, the secretary of a civic group called #notinm-yname, says the problem with replacing Christ starts when the so-called men of God invent schemes that dupe people through blatantly staged miracles and fake acts of healing.45 According to Forster, the staged “miracles” often serve to attract members, and to establish a hierarchical religious power structure, with the pastor at the apex.46 As such, the use of fake miracles to gain political and religious mileage out of replacing Christ compromises the legitimacy of the Christ faith. To conclude this point, the chapter agrees with Magezi and Banda that ultimately Christ’s soteriological prominence in the troubled believer is overshadowed and usurped by some unscrupulous prophets.47 Christianity should contribute to a healthy and equitably transformed society, leading to improvement and not deception and destruction in peoples’ lives. 9.5.1.4  Mental decapacitation of religious followers The chapter problematises the mental decapacitation of followers which happens when religious leaders replace Christ. Many religious movements with coloniality of power and abusive tendencies strive to mentally capture their followers, who then become incapable to see that their religious leader has replaced Christ thus opening them up for abuse. Chidester argues that mental decapacitation comes through strategically separating adherents, especially from the rest of their family and community, in order to make manipulation easier.48 Mental decapacitation is referred to as “a mental category of modernity”.49 In this context, religion does not always significantly and positively relate to an individual’s subjective well-being.50 During the discussion of this issue, the research participants made reference to Pastor Lesego Daniel of Rabboni Centre Ministries in Garankuwa, north of Pretoria, who instructed his followers to eat grass as an act of obedience to God.51 While this can be seen as abuse and unexpected Christian behaviour, some of the congregants were proud and happy with eating grass as instructed by the prophet. Gregg elaborates: “Often, members believe that their [leader’s] views are absolute and right, and a direct revelation from God, which is also one of the characteristics of fundamentalist religious groups. Under these auspices, the adherents of a religious mafia become extremist, characterised by resistance to the political practices of the day”.52 In this regard, the chapter agrees with Dube that some South African religious leaders and followers

From replacing Christ to crisis 193 suffer from mutual zombification manifested by lack of the critical inquiry of religion in both the public and the private space.53 As such, mutual zombification decapacitated religious followers to see, name and castigate those religious leaders who have replaced Christ by design or by default. During the discussion with reference to Pastor Lesego, the participants noted the following: Dlamz queried: Who in a normal state of mind can eat grass and believe that it is good food? Something is very wrong with this pastor and his followers. I wonder if they still think at all. Christ cannot require people do something dangerous, so this pastor has become Christ to these people. Sharing the same sentiments, Ntombi argued: These types of people are dangerous to our people and society. We have children going to their church and what kind of lessons are they giving our children? With characters like these, churches are becoming dangerous places that compromise people’s health and security. The sentiments passed by the participants paints a picture of a Christology that leaves people open to abuse while the religious leader claim to be following a divine mandate. Unfortunately, the religious followers often see nothing wrong with such an arrangement presenting a post-colonial crisis of religion in South Africa, where people are generally unable to see, name and challenge any form of abuse by those who appear to have replaced Christ. In the light of the foregoing, this chapter agrees with Catherine Walsh that the trajectories of our time are that religious leaders strive “[t] hrough strategies of manipulation, co-optation, division, and control”. 54 As a result, many of the religious leaders who replace Christ are often “legalistic, mind controlling, religiously addictive, and authoritarian”.55 They tend to capture people’s minds through various techniques to such an extent that the abused cannot see anything wrong and/or may continue to support the abuser because they assume he has been sent by God. To illustrate this, the Commission for the Promotion and Protection of the Rights of Cultural, Religious and Linguistic Communities (CRL Rights Commission) in South African has reported that it often has a torrid time with church members when they want religious leaders to account for their questionable actions as followers make it difficult for them to execute their mandate of holding religious leaders into account. The Commission stated: Difficulty in our tasks is manifested in several ways, among other things, attendance of an entourage of members or supporters and in certain cases armed bodyguards, undermining or defying and misunderstanding of the statutory objectives, powers and functions of the CRL Rights Commission.56

194  Bekithemba Dube With reference of the foregoing, I agree with Mpofu that the challenge society has is not only the distortion of the history of the colonised and the slaughtering of their knowledge systems, but also the emptying of their heads of self-confidence, making followers easy to abuse by a leader claiming to have received instructions from Christ, where the truth is that he has actually presumed to have replaced Christ.57 Therefore, a major Christological challenge in prophetic Pentecostalism is the proclamation of Christ as Lord while pursuing religious practices that ironically promote a practical life that is not at all dependent on him.58 9.5.2 Rethinking Christology in some of the new religious ministries in South Africa In light of the above challenges of Christ being replaced for abusive purposes, this section of the chapter seeks to suggest an alternative and an understanding of Christology devoid of abuse. The chapter engages in this struggle in decoloniality thinking since the ideology of replacing Christ to commit abuse “serves as an impediment to national and global mind-sets and development”.59 This chapter therefore agrees with the observation that, “[I]n the long run, society should find ways to protect people [against] religion-­ related abuse, and help religion evolve in the direction of the better treatment of people”.60 The goal is to unshackle oppressed religious adherents from oppressive leaders and allow the voices of those on the margins of our communities to be heard.61 This can be possible through adhering to a decolonial thinking that is geared to wage war against oppressive structures that exist in modernity and which manifest itself in some religious proponents in South Africa. Engaging in this space is an attempt to subvert imperial and colonial knowledge for action-oriented knowledging, grounded in the resistance of oppressive religious systems.62 In light of the Christology that Christ cannot be replaced, believers and scholars prone to social justice should continue to challenge those who want to replace Christ by consistently and persistently arguing for Christianity not be used for criminality and abuse.

9.6 Reconfiguring Christology: Challenging oppressive religious systems 9.6.1  A need for decolonial Christian thinking Replacing Christ in some new religious movements in South Africa presents various trajectories as indicated in the previous section. In light of this, the chapter suggests the need for decolonial Christian thinking that challenges an ontological density which renders some religious leaders to be more powerful than the rest of their religious constituency. Decolonial thinking can enable people to challenge any form of questionable Christianity through as proposed by Karkov and Robbins63 epistemic disobedience and through shifting the

From replacing Christ to crisis 195 geography of reason”.64 The mind of the Christian community has to change and appreciate the need to emancipate people to see, expose and question ontological density wherever it manifests in the oppression and violation of human rights. In line with this thinking, two participants noted the following: Juma stated: I think Christology can be rectified in South Africa if people resist oppression in church. We have a problem of people praising individuals although it is clear that the person is conflicting the Bible and makes himself or herself like Christ. In addition, Ntombi noted: Christians need to rethink their practices especially in churches were there are questionable practices. Decolonial thinking that refuses to be oppressed through religion is ideal in such contexts. From the comments above, one can see the need for a decolonial Christianity that can redress the challenges brought about by religious leaders who have replaced Christ in post-colonial South Africa. This would be possible if a dialogue could take place among Christians oriented towards social justice with the aim to challenge those who have replaced Christ in order to commit criminality. In this regard, the chapter agrees with Banda “There should be dialogue between Christian theology, religious freedom, human rights and the constitution, philosophy, and sociology of religion, to reflect on the essence of religion and freedom of religion in the context of undesirable and dangerous religious practices”.65 To this end, the individuals who have presumed to have replaced Christ are actually de-naturalised religious leaders with abused powers.66 In this regard, the chapter argues that there is a need for decolonial Christian thinking that is “rooted in the aspirations of oppressed peoples”.67 While this is a seemingly difficult task since religion is personal, that does not stop the struggle, which is necessary, needful and doable as an alternative to reinvent a Christology underpinned by decolonial thinking that is opposed to coloniality of mind. I conclude this point with the sentiments from Louis that, “[o]ur voices may have started out as a low murmur from the margin but it [can] become a distinct and unified cacophony of resistance and distrust”.68 Through this process our humanity can be restored together as a community, we can heal together “because we can only be fully human when we are human together [including those who have replaced Christ to commit criminality]”.69 Thus, Mashau argues that decoloniality in Christian thinking is a project that African churches should embrace and attend to as a matter of urgency.70 The second point discussed is individual resistance to religious leaders who have replaced Christ to commit criminality.

196  Bekithemba Dube 9.6.2  Individual resistance to criminality in religion While it is important to have a decolonial Christian thinking, there is also a need for individual resistance to those who have replaced Christ to commit criminality. One is aware of the difficulty cited by McClure when she notes that the “victims of spiritual abuse [may] continue to support the abusive leader because of their naïveté or loyalty to the leader”.71 The support of abusive leaders by those assumed to have been abused needs to be interrogated in order to establish why this phenomenon is so prevalent in the religious space. However, this chapter will not attempt to address this question. I do however concur with the question posed by Dube, Nkoane and Hlalele: “How can we find a crack code for those oppressed by religion so that they can see the abuse, which is sugar coated by narratives of obedience to the ‘Man of God’”?72 While all of this may be true, this does not imply that the chapter should not still call for individual resistance. In fact, it highlights the need for individuals to act decisively against those who have replaced Christ to commit criminality or abuse. To avert the challenges mentioned above, the chapter suggests that individuals should embrace the “communist thinking, which is opposed to oppressive regimes” (a thinking that continually challenges oppression).73 In addition, individual resistance enables the liberation of thinking and encourages delinking from religious imperialism.74 While in discussion relating to these issues, Ndlovu and Fezile noted the following: Ndlovu said: Any decolonial project starts with individuals who must refuse to be exploited by religious leaders who have replaced Christ. Unless individuals in churches take action, against the criminals who pretend to be superhuman, religion would be problematic in society. In this regard, Fezile noted: I am worried that church members are not challenging their pastors even if it is clear that something is amiss. Therefore, any progress to redress this problem begins with individuals. Despite the challenge at hand, it was made clear by the research participants that individuals have a role in reinventing a Christology that does not present colonial trajectories in post-colonial South Africa. Such acts of resistance would evoke a philosophy of liberation which would entail the re-humanisation of the dehumanised and provoke the courage to care and to love75 even for those who have replaced Christ to commit criminality. This chapter concludes by arguing that “unless the people of South Africa transform the way they perceive religion, we cannot make radical

From replacing Christ to crisis 197 interventions that will fundamentally alter our situation”.76 The following section discusses the regulation of religion to counter those who have replaced Christ to commit criminality and abuse in South Africa. 9.6.3  The regulation of religion Another solution suggested was the need for the regulation of religion. Like any other suggestion, there are “many scholars [who] reject the regulation of religion, and describe it as undemocratic and infringing on peoples’ rights”.77 Some further argue that, “the regulation has become a source of unending conflict between religious adherents and the state or among religious adherents”.78 Furthermore, scholars such as Henrico sees the “CRL Rights Commission proposal as unduly restricting and limiting the people’s right to religious freedom”,79 while Freedom of Religion South Africa sees it as “unnecessary, unworkable and unconstitutional”.80 However, it is not always true that when governments relax restrictions on religion and treat all groups equally, greater societal tolerance and civility ensue.81 While these scholars are entitled to their views, the chapter submits that the regulation of religion does not entail controlling what happens in church, but intervenes when practices and discourses are seemingly a danger to society. It should ensure that religious praxis is in line with the Constitution of the country and subscribes to upholding human rights. With this in mind, the chapter agrees with the observation by Marcos that such regulation should not be state-led, but led by religious leaders, scholars, lawyers and social workers prone to social justice and respect for human rights82 – those, according to Reginald, will be like-minded people able to combat evil influences.83 This chapter opposes state-led regulation since the state may lack the knowledge necessary to distinguish between what is right and what is wrong in a religious space. Again, this would avoid infringing on the freedom of religion while being sensitive to the need to ensure fairness and equality when interrogating the religious leaders who have replaced Christ to commit criminality. In the research discussion, two participants gave their opinions: In Mzala’s view: The only way out of this problem is regulating the church especially the leaders who misbehave. For Mdumeni: If the religious leaders are clean, why should they refuse regulation? This chapter asserts that the regulation of religion is necessary for public safety. It should be done to enhance the transformative power of Christianity in South Africa. As it stands, some of the religious leaders have compromised the Christian faith by assuming the place of Christ to commit

198  Bekithemba Dube criminality and abuse, thus sparking a need for people to be protected through the regulation of religion. This section concludes with an appreciation for the observation of Kaunda and Kaunda that a “regulated format in respect of human rights is repositioned as national spiritual capital, as critical assets in reimaging social reconstruction and transformation”.84 Regulation is necessary for the security of a large group of people in South Africa who are often incapacitated to name, expose and challenge those who have replaced Christ to commit criminality. Such regulation would not be for the purpose to control religion and its praxis.

9.7 Conclusion The chapter problematised religious leaders assuming the place of Christ in some of the new religious movements in order to commit criminality. The chapter began with a discussion on some of the views on Christology, and narrowed it down to the view that rejects the notion of religious leaders assuming the place of Christ to commit criminality and abuse their followers. Central to this crisis is the concept of ontological being, where some people see themselves as superhuman and thus able to replace Christ. In decoloniality, ontological density should tease and challenge this notion as a way of reinventing a new Christology that does not condone the misuse of religion. The chapter ended with suggestions on how Christology can be reconfigured towards promoting social justice, respecting human rights and enabling people to enjoy the beauty of the Christian faith in South Africa.

Notes 1 Tinyiko S. Maluleke. “Half a Century of African Christian Theologies: Elements of the Emerging Agenda for the Twenty-First Century.” Journal of Theology for Southern Africa, 99 (1997): 6. 2 The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996: As Adopted on 8 May 1996 and Amended on 11 October 1996 by the Constituent Assembly. Pretoria, Department of Justice and Constitutional Development. 3 Vhumani Magezi and Collium Banda. “Competing with Christ? A Critical Christological Analysis of the Reliance on Pentecostal Prophets in Zimbabwe,” In Die Skriflig/In Luce Verbi 51, no. 2 (2017): 1, https://doi. org/10.4102/ids.v51i2.2273. 4 John S. Sanni. “Religion: A New Struggle for African Identity.” Phronimon 17, no. 2 (2016): 1–13, https://doi.org/10.17159/2413-3086/2016/120. 5 Sabelo J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni. “Why Decoloniality in the 21st Century?” The Thinker for Thought Leaders 48 (2013): 10. 6 Diane Stinton. “Jesus – Immanuel, Image of the Invisible God: Aspects of Popular Christology in Sub-Saharan Africa.” Journal of Reformed Theology 1, no. 1 (2007): 6–40. 7 Richard Oxenberg. “Waiting for the Messiah: A Jewish-Buddhist Reflection on Fiddler on the Roof,” 2017, https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/321342845_Waiting_for_the_Messiah_A_ Jewish-Buddhist_ Reflection_on_Fiddler_on_the_Roof.

From replacing Christ to crisis 199 8 Susan Perlman. “Eschatology and Mission: A Jewish Missions Perspective.” International Bulletin of Missionary Research 33, no. 3 (2009): 124–29. 9 Except from a sermon by Chief Apostle Caesar Nongqunga the Christ, preached in Kings Park Stadium, Durban, 27 May 2018. 10 Barney Pityana. “Black Theology and the Liberation Struggle.” Index on Censorship 12, no. 5 (1983): 29. 11 Samuel Balc. “Christ: The Divine Solution to the Human Problem.” Proceedings of a Harvard Square Symposium. The Future of Knowledge 1 (2016): 260–68; Timothy Gombis. “The Triumph of God in Christ : Divine Warfare in the Argument of Ephesians.” (PhD diss., University of St Andrews, 2005); James McGarth, John’s Apologetic Christology: Legitimation and Development in Johannine Christology, Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series 11 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001); J.M. Sumo, “Christology: Divinity and Humanity of Christ.” (PhD diss., Beulah Heights University, 2016). 12 David Chidester. Salvation and Suicide. Jim Jones: The Peoples’ Temple and Jonestown (Indiana University Press, 2003), xx. 13 Stephan Pretorius. “Seemingly Harmless New Christian Religious Movements in South Africa Pose Serious Threats of Spiritual Abuse.” HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies/Theological Studies 63, no 1. (2007): 261–281. 14 Ngugi Thiong’o. Something Torn and New: African Renaissance (New York: Basic Civitas Books, n.d.). 15 Rich Damiani. “Spiritual Abuse within the Church: Its Damage and Recovery Process.” Evanel 20, no. 2 (2002): 46. 16 Sergio Wanderley and Amon Barros. “Decoloniality, Geopolitics of Knowledge and Historic Turn: Towards a Latin American Agenda.” Management & Organizational History 14, no. 1 (2018): 79–97. 17 Sabelo J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni. “Decoloniality in Africa: A Continuing Search for a New World Order.” The Australasian Review of African Studies 36, no. 2 (September 2015): 10. 18 Ramón Grosfoguel. “Decolonizing Post-Colonial Studies and Paradigms of Political-Economy: Transmodernity, Decolonial Thinking, and Global Coloniality.” Transmodernity: Journal of Peripheral Cultural Production of the Luso-Hispanic World 1, no. 1 (13 May 2011): 21, https://escholarship.org/ uc/item/21k6t3fq. 19 Ndlovu-Gatsheni, “Why Decoloniality in the 21st Century?,” 11. 20 Grosfoguel, “Decolonizing Post-Colonial Studies,” 12. 21 Ndlovu-Gatsheni, “Decoloniality in Africa,” 21. 22 Chammah Kaunda. “The Denial of African Agency: A Decolonial Theological Turn.” Black Theology 13, no. 1 (1 April 2015): 77, https://doi.org/10.1179/ 1476994815Z.00000000048. 23 Walter Mignolo. “Epistemic Disobedience, Independent Thought and de-­ Colonial Freedom.” Theory, Culture & Society 26, no. 7–8 (2009): 1–23, https://doi.org/10.1177/0263276409349275. 24 Ndlovu-Gatsheni, “Decoloniality in Africa,” 46. 25 Stephen Kemmis and Robin McTaggart. “Communicative Action and Public Sphere,” N.K. Denzin and Y.S. Lincoln (eds.), The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2007), 277. 26 Bronwyn T. Williams and Mary Brydon-Miller. “Changing Directions: Participatory Action Research, Agency and Representation,” Stephen Gilbert Brown and Sidney I. Dobrin (eds.), Ethnography Unbound: From Theory Shock to Critical Praxis (Albany: State University of New York, 2004), 245.

200  Bekithemba Dube 27 Andrea Cornwall and Rachel Jewkes. “What Is Participatory Research?” Social Science & Medicine 41, no. 12 (1 December 1995): 1674, https://doi. org/10.1016/0277-9536(95)00127-S. 28 R. Rogers. An Introduction to Critical Discourse Analysis in Education (New York: Routledge, 2011). 29 Candy Khan and Donna Chovanec. “Is Participatory Action Research Relevant in the Canadian Workplace?” Journal of Contemporary Issues in Education 5, no. 1 (2010): 35. 30 Anthony Onwuegbuzie. “A Typology of Mixed Methods: Sampling Designs in Social Science Research.” The Qualitative Report 12, no. 2 (2007): 281–316. 31 Sophie Laws, Caroline Harper and Rachel Marcus (eds.). Research for Development (London: Sage, 2003), 59. 32 Laws, Harper and Marcus, Research for Development, 32. 33 Linda Birt, Suzanne Scott, Debbie Cavers, Christine Campbell, and Fiona Walter. “Member Checking: A Tool to Enhance Trustworthiness or Merely a Nod to Validation.” Qualitative Health Research 26, no. 12 (2016): 18021811. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732316654870; Joko Gunawan. “Ensuring Trustworthiness in Qualitative Research.” Belitung Nursing Journal 1, no. 1 (2015). https://doi.org/10.33546/bnj.4. 34 Gombis, “The Triumph of God in Christ”; Sumo, “Christology”; Balc, “Christ.” 35 Cebelihle Bhengu. “Five Pastors Who Have Made Headlines for All the Wrong Reasons.” TimesLive, 28 February 2019, https://www.timeslive. co.za/news/south-africa/2019-02-28-five-pastors-who-have-made-headlinesfor-all-the-wrong-reasons/. 36 Jenni Evans. “Ngcobo Massacre: Mbalula Brands Shoot-out Church ‘Satanic.’” News24, 26 February 2018, https://m.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/ ngcobo-massacre-mbalula-brands-shoot-out-church-satanic-20180224. 37 Nic Anderson. “Ngcobo Police Shooting: Suspects Killed after Friday Night Church Shootout.” The South African, 2 March 2020, www.thesouthafrican. com/ngcobo-police-shooting-suspects-killed/. 38 Jenni Evans, “Ngcobo Massacre.” 39 Jenni Evans, “Ngcobo Massacre.” 40 Jordaan Nomahlubi and Enerst Mabuza. “Seven Angels Ministry, Site of a Deadly Shoot-out on Friday, is ‘Extremist.’” Business Day, 26 February 2018. 41 Heather Selma Gregg. “Three Theories of Religious Activism and Violence: Social Movements, Fundamentalists, and Apocalyptic Warriors.” Terrorism and Political Violence 28 (2016): 346. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553. 2014.918879. 42 Sithole Tendayi. “Achille Mbembe: Subject, Subjection, and Subjectivity.” (PhD thesis, University of South Africa, Pretoria, 2014), viii, http://uir.unisa. ac.za/bitstream/handle/10500/14323/thesis_sithole_t.pdf?sequence=1. 43 Jean-Marie Sanua. Let Us Prove Strong. The American Jewish Committee 1945–2006 (Waltham, MA: Brandeis University Press, 2007). 44 Lynsey Chutel. “A YouTube Lazarus is Raising: Questions on Regulating Churches in South Africa.” Quartz Africa, 27 February 2019, https:// qz.com/africa/1561173/south-africa-pastor-alpha-lukau-resurrection-to-be-­ investigated/; K. Nyoni. “Funeral Parlour Distances Itself from ‘Resurrection’ Stories,” SABC News, 25 February 2019, http://www.sabcnews.com/ sabcnews/funeral-parlour-distances-itself-from-resurrection-story/. 45 Jonisayi Moromo. “#NotInMyName Warns against ‘Fake Miracle’.” IOL News, 26 February 2019.

From replacing Christ to crisis 201 46 Dion Foster. “Why South Africans are Prone to Falling for Charlatans in the Church.” SowetanLive, 11 March 2019, www.sowetanlive.co.za/ news/2019-03-11-why-south-africans-are-prone-to-falling-for-charlatansin-the-church/. 47 Magezi and Banda, “Competing with Christ?,” 6. 48 Chidester, Salvation and Suicide. Jim Jones: The Peoples’ Temple and Jonestown. 49 Anibal Quiano. “Coloniality and Modernity or Rationality.” Cultural Studies 21, no. 2–23 (2007): 182. 50 Jan Eichhorn. “Happiness for Believers? Contextualizing the Effects of Religiosity on Life-Satisfaction.” European Sociological Review 28 (2011): 583–93, https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcr027; A. Leondari and V. Gialamas. “Religiosity and Psychological Wellbeing.” Journal of Contemporary Issues in Education 44 (2009): 241–48, https://doi.org/10.1080/00207590701700529. 51 Jill Reilly. “Lawn Again Christians: South African Preacher Makes Congregation Eat GRASS to ‘Be Closer to God’.” Daily Mail, 10 January 2014, https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2537053/Lawn-Christians-SouthAfrican-preacher-makes-congregation-eat-GRASS-closer-God.html. 52 Gregg, “Three Theories of Religious Activism and Violence: Social Movements, Fundamentalists, and Apocalyptic Warriors,” 346. 53 Bekithemba Dube. “Trajectories of Mutual Zombification in Contemporary Religion in Africa: A Need for Decoloniality Theology.” Acta Theologia 39, no. 1 (2019): 55–73. 54 Catherine Walsh. “Shifting the Geopolitics of Critical Knowledge: Decolonial Thought and Cultural Studies ‘Others’ in the Andes.” Cultural Studies 21, no. 2–3 (2007): 79, https://doi.org/10.1080/09502380601162530. 55 Donald Henze. Spiritual Abuse (London: Watchman Fellowship International, 1996), 1. 56 “CRL Rights Commission.” Report on the Hearings on the Commercialisation of Religion and Abuse of People’s Beliefs Systems, 2017: 16, https://www. crlcommission.org.za/docs/Final%20redesigned%20for%20office%20print. pdf 57 William Mpofu. “Decoloniality as Travelling Theory: Or What Decoloniality Is Not” (Seminar, Wits Institute for Social and Economic Research, 7 August 2017), https://wiser.wits.ac.za/content/decoloniality-travelling-theory-orwhat-decoloniality-not-12918. 58 Magezi and Banda, “Competing with Christ?,” 6. 59 UNESCO, Contemporary Issues in Human Rights Education (Paris: UNESCO, 2011), 17. 60 Bette Bottoms, Philip Shaver, Gail Goodman and Jianjian Qin. “In the Name of God: A Profile of Religion-Related Child Abuse.” Journal of Social Issues 51, no. 2 (1995): 109. 61 Thinandavha D. Mashau. “Unshackling the Chains of Coloniality: Reimagining Decoloniality, Africanisation and Reformation for a Non-Racial South Africa.” HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies 74, no. 3 (2018): 1–8, https://doi.org/10.4102/hts.v74i3.4920 62 George Sefa Dei. Reframing Blackness and Black Solidarities through Anti-Colonial and Decolonial Prisms (London: Springer, 2012). 63 Nicolay Karkov and Jeffrety Robbins. “Decoloniality and Crisis: Introduction.” Journal for Cultural and Religious Theory 13, no. 1 (2014): 1–10. 64 Gerrie Snyman. “Esther and African Biblical Hermeneutics: A Decolonial Inquiry.” Old Testament Essays 27, no. 3 (2014): 1035–61. 65 Banda Collium “The Impersonalisation of God? A Theological Analysis of the Expression of the Power of God’s Kingdom among Zimbabwean

202  Bekithemba Dube















Pentecostal Prophets,” In die Skriflig/In Luce Verbi 53, no. 1 (2019): a2395, https://doi.org/10.4102/ids.v53i1.2395. 66 Snyman, “Esther and African Biblical Hermeneutics,” 1036. 67 Santos Boaventura de Sousa, Epistemologies of the South: Justice against Epistemicide (Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers, 2014), 53. 68 Renee Pualani Louis. “Can You Hear Us Now? Voices from the Margin: Using Indigenous Methodologies in Geographic Research.” Geographical Research 45, no. 2 (2007): 10, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-5871.2007.00443.x. 69 Christian Gade. “What Is Ubuntu? Different Interpretations among South Africans of African Descent.” South African Journal of Philosophy 31, no. 3 (2013): 493, https://doi.org/10.1080/02580136.2012.10751789. 70 Mashau, “Unshackling the Chains of Coloniality.” 71 Jennifer McClure, AAC Proposal by Holy Trinity Orthodox Church (London: State College, 2014), 3. 72 Bekithemba Dube, Milton Molebatsi Nkoane, and Dipane Joseph Hlalele. “Ambivalence of Freedom of Religion and Unearthing the Unlearnt Lessons of Religious Freedom from the Jonestown Incident: A Decoloniality Approach.” Journal for the Study of Religion 30, no. 2 (2017): 319–38, https://doi.org/10.17159/2413-3027/2017/v30n2a14. 73 Leonard McKinnis. “I Am Black and Beautiful: An Examination of the Black Coptic Church as the Manifestation of Liberation Theology.” (PhD Diss, Chicago, Loyola University, 2010), 8, https://ecommons.luc.edu/luc_diss/33. 74 Madina Tlostanova and Walter Mignolo. “Pluritopic Hermeneutics, Transmodernity Thinking and Decolonial Philosophy.” Encounters 1, no. 1 (2009): 22. 75 Mpofu, “Decoloniality as Travelling Theory.” 76 Bel Hooks. Black Looks: Race and Representation (Boston, MA: South End Press, 1992). 77 Bekithemba Dube. “Can Religion (Un)Zombify? The Trajectories of Psychic Capture Theology in Postcolonial South Africa.” HTS Teologiese Studies/ Theological Studies 76, no. 3 (2020): a5902, https://doi.org/10.4102/hts. v76i3.5902. 78 Alice Donald and Erica Howard. “The Right to Freedom of Belief and Its Intersection with Other Rights.” Research paper for ILGA-Europe, January 2015, https://www.ilga-europe.org/sites/default/files/Attachments/ the_right_to_freedom_of_religion_or_belief_and_its_intersection_with_ other_rights__0.pdf. 79 Radley Henrico. “Proselytising the Regulation of Religious Bodies in South Africa: Suppressing Religious Freedom?” Potchefstroom Electronic Law Journal 22, no. 2019 (2019): 1–27, https://doi.org/10.17159/1727-3781/2019/ v22i0a5315. 80 Freedom of Religion South Africa, “Open Letter to the CRL Rights Commission on Its Final Report on the Commercialisation of Religion and Abuse of People’s Belief Systems.” For SA 2017, https://forsa.org.za/open-letter-tothe-crl-rights-commission-on-its-final-report-on-the-commercialisation-ofreligion-and-abuse-of-peoples-belief-systems. 81 Allem Hertzke. “Religious Freedom in the World Today: Paradox and Promise.” Acta 17 (2012): 1–12. 82 Santos Marcos. “Comunicado del CCRI-CG del EZLN. Y ROMPIMOS EL CERCO. “ Enlace Zapatista”.” de Agosto del 2019, https://enlacezapatista. ezln.org.mx/2019/08/17/comunicado-del-ccri-cg-del-ezln-y-rompimos-elcerco-subcomandante-insurgente-moises/. 83 Alva Reginald. “The Catholic Church Perspective of Human Dignity as the Basis of Challenges with the Secular World.” Stellenbosch Theological Journal 3 (2017): 221–41, http://dx.doi.org/10.17570/stj.2017.v3n2.a10

From replacing Christ to crisis 203 84 Chammah J. Kaunda and Mutale Mulenga Kaunda. “Mobilising Religious Assets for Social Transformation: A Theology of Decolonial Reconstruction Perspective on the Ministry of National Guidance and Religious Affairs (MNGRA) in Zambia.” Religions 9, no. 6 (2018): 176, https://doi. org/10.3390/rel9060176.

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Epilogue Mookgo Solomon Kgatle, Marius Nel and Collium Banda

This book has studied the paradigm shifts in Christology within the broader Pentecostal movement in South Africa with particular reference to New Prophetic Churches. The paradigm shifts in this book have been identified as complementing Christ, competing with Christ, removing Christ and replacing Christ. Senior and emerging scholars interested in South African Pentecostalism as contributors in this book have used numerous approaches to address these shifts. These approaches include but not limited to contextual, systematic theology, biblical, gender, missiological and decolonial perspectives. According to the findings in different chapters, these shifts are caused by the foreignness of Jesus Christ among some Africans, some believers’ focus on their leaders than Christ, prophets who have placed themselves in the position of Christ, the celebrity status of some prophets, the doctrine of the spiritual death of Christ and the fear of generational curses among some Africans. To deal with the foreignness of Jesus Christ among some Africans, we suggest that the abuse of religion that instigates the distancing of Christ from believers must be condemned among Pentecostals. The extreme religious practices, the criminal acts and fake or staged miracles in South Africa should be condemned as they suggest a focus on the performance of miracles than Christ. These practices also contradict the nature of Christ and his life-giving, human-liberating and human-dignifying soteriological work. Therefore, instead of abusing religion, there is a need for a new form of Christology that will promote social justice, respecting human rights and enabling people to enjoy the beauty of the Christian faith in South Africa. This type of Christology instead of focusing on the acts of the prophets will focus on the restorative power of Christ that will restore people’s dignity. There is also a need for believers to shift their focus from their leaders specifically the prophets who have taken the place of Christ. This is a strong call for Pentecostals in South Africa to become Christocentric where their practice of hermeneutics of experience and belief in the Holy Spirit will be balanced with ethics. Besides, it is a call for the genuine relationship with Christ as opposed to following Christ for the sake of receiving gifts from Him. In our view, it is the nature of the knowledge of Christ

Epilogue 209 among believers that will ensure a good foundation of Christology among Pentecostals in Africa. This knowledge will assist in helping believers to discern any form of deviation from Christ to the leader of Pentecostal churches in South Africa. The Pentecostal prophets in South Africa and elsewhere in the world should not become celebrities but rather embrace Christ’s catechism. Christ’s catechism was instruction through the spoken word whereby he crossed many social barriers, mingling with the tax collectors, the adulterers, and the prostitutes. His catechesis was authoritative, radical, simple and concrete. Thus, becoming part of the weak, sick and sinful is not a weakness but the real essence of being a leader within the context of Pentecostalism. Instead of living a luxurious lifestyle demonstrated by driving expensive cars, living in mansions and wearing designer clothes, the Pentecostal prophets should rather live a life of simplicity, humility, meekness and among their people where the majority of their followers will be able to access them. This kind of life is demonstrated by Christ who did not come to be served but to serve others. On the doctrine of the spiritual death of Christ that perceives Christ as a substitutive sinner, we suggest the vibrant new hermeneutics developed in theological circles during the past few decades, as an extension of early Pentecostal hermeneutics, to strengthen its abilities to resist such heretical teachings. The doctrine of the spiritual death of Christ must be evaluated from the perspective of the divinity of Christ and the many attributes that affirm his sovereign power over death. Finally, we believe that atonement of Jesus Christ is sufficient to deal with the challenges of poverty, sickness and others in Africa. The atonement points to a Jesus Christ who identifies himself with the sin and pain of people to redeem them. The doctrine of the atonement is important in the discussion about generational curses because it points to Christ’s work of mending people’s broken relationship with God and the liberation of believers from their bondage by Satan and his evil powers. African Pentecostals are included in the atonement of Christ which can deal with contextual challenges faced by Africans today.

Index

Abuse of religion 2, 11n6, 190, 208 Accountability 89 Adoption 20, 187 Adulterers 209 Advertising 167 Aesthetic 166 African: Christianity 7, 21, 23, 24, 26; 29, 49, 51–53, 113, 146–148, 150, 151–156, 185; Christology 1–2, 8, 20, 182; cosmology 22; cultures 21, 23, 85, 90, 143; Feminist 80, 87; Gender Discourses 81; identity 113, 116; Indigenous 21, 23, 24, 63, 107; Initiated Churches 2, 14n47, 107; milieu 106; monotheistic 23; people 2, 155–156, 182; societies 22, 70, 115; spiritualities 28; traditional 22, 24, 28–29, 48, 52–53, 88, 104, 113, 124, 140, 141, 145, 158n30, 170 Alexandra Township 80, 83–84, 86 Allegory 132, 137n45 Alleluia Ministries International 2, 19, 48, 173 Altar call 87, 171 Anachronism 40 Ancestor: bondage 145; proto 23; spirits 63, 143 Angels 4–5, 24, 153, 190 Anglican 111, 163 Anointed objects 1, 4, 6, 26, 28, 48, 149, 170 Anointing oil 48, 49 Anointing water 49 Anthropological studies 20, 70, 113, 124–125 Anti-Christ 21 Antiquity 39 Apartheid 3, 8–9, 47, 64, 75n17, 82–83, 186

Apostolic Faith Mission 2, 108 Apostolic movements 108 Arianism 20 Ascension 19, 152 Assemblies of God 2, 4, 105, 124 Atonement 126, 129, 130, 135, 140, 152–154, 156, 209 Authoritative position 94 Azusa Street revival 45, 63 Bantu Christians 23 Baptizer 46 Biblical: authority 62, 171; authors 62, 128, 171; canon 62; doctrines 114; hermeneutics 19, 50, 74; scholars 66–67; studies 2; teachings 132; testimony 8; theology 8; witness 72 Biblicism 132 Black consciousness 8; feminist theology 10, 80; population 8; women 79, 80, 81–84, 169 Black First Land First 3 Blessee 89 Blessers 89, 93 Born again 45–46, 82, 127–129, 135, 142–144, 146–147, 153, 170 Breaking the yoke 147 Bushiri, Shepherd 2, 5, 8, 48, 112, 169, 174, 182, 185, 188–189 Business 3, 29, 77n52, 110, 158n30, 173–174 Capitalism 81 Catechist 10, 163–167, 175 Celebrities 110, 164, 171, 174, 209 Celebrity: cult 168, 172, 175; worship 175 Charlatans 173 Charms 149

Index 211 Christ: biblical 1, 9, 55, 88, 152; competing 1, 3–5, 19, 46, 55, 187, 208; complementing 1, 3–4, 19, 47, 49, 55, 147, 208; death 10, 125, 134, 150, 151–152, 154, 156, 208–209; foreignness 23, 26, 49, 51–52, 56, 208; Liberator 3, 28, 30, 114, 150; removing 1, 3, 6, 208; replacing 46, 55, 105, 182–208; spiritual death 10, 125, 134, 208–209; sufficiency 9–10, 28, 147, 154, 170; sovereign 53, 149, 150, 151, 209 Christendom 7, 20, 22 Christian: community 153, 172, 175, 185, 195; denominations 50, 163; dogma 175; faith 20, 22, 24, 26, 29, 30, 43, 45, 49, 115, 135n5, 150, 151, 167, 182, 184–185, 191–192, 197, 198, 208; theology 25, 195; tradition 1, 39, 130, 164 Christian Apostolic Church 108 Christian Reformed Church 63 Christodicy 20, 30, 31n6 Christology: Anthropocentric 20; culture-oriented 22–23; deviations 39, 51, 55; epochal 20, 21; errors 51; guest 24–25, 30; heresies 39, 47, 54; missionary 20, 21–22; shift 3, 9, 39, 40, 43–47, 51, 54; Spirit 3 Church: Father 70; leadership 74; planting 103 Circumcision 39, 43, 47–49, 85, 88, 134 Classical dogmatic Christian mission 101 Clinical therapy 70 Colonialism 186 Colonialist 21, 24 Coloniality 10, 11, 182, 183–187, 189, 190, 192–195, 198 Colonisation 1, 3, 8, 23, 185 Commercialisation 11n6, 172, 202n80 Commission on Gender Equality 79 Commodification 28–29 Communalism 25 Communion 6 Constitution 105, 185, 195, 197 Constructionist theory 94 Council of Nicea 20 Courtship 90, 92 Covenant 141, 143, 147, 165, 170 Criminality 182, 185–187, 190, 191, 194–198

Critical Discourse Analysis 80 Curses: ancestral 141; bloodline 141, 144; generational 10, 13n40, 140–160; spiritual 141, 143, 148 Daniel, Lesego 2, 112, 192 Decapacitation 192 Decolonial: Christianity 195; liberation 186; motifs 2; thinking 194–195 Deity 105, 126, 147 Deliverance 3, 10, 29, 50, 54, 114, 140, 141–148, 150, 155, 169 Democratic 9, 83, 134, 187, 197 Demonology 141 Demons 5, 8, 10, 130, 141, 142, 144, 151, 153 Denominationalism 64 Descendants 27, 51, 108, 142 Deviant social organisation 185 Devil 3, 31n6, 41, 48, 52–54, 128–129, 142, 145, 150 Discursive strategies 92, 94 Disintegration 85 Dispensationalist 105, 114, 117 Divination 28, 104 Divine: creature 131; gynaecologist 169; mandate 189, 193; nature 10, 102, 125–129, 130–131, 134, 135; power 7, 27, 45; Spirit 68 Doctrinal coherence 7 Doctrines 9, 51, 71, 114, 125, 131, 135n5, 164, 183 Donatism 20 Draconian church regulations 67 Dreams 63, 114 Dualism 20, 132 Eastern Orthodox traditions 124 Ecclesial: historical praxis 61; imagination 74, 77n22; praxis 61–64, 71 Ecclesiastical 13n40, 163, 175 Economic resources 142 Ecumenism 166 Eisegesis 54 Elite: Christians 132; politicians 110 Elitism 10 Emotional intelligence 72 Emperor Constantine 20 Empire 20, 53, 61, 64, 67, 73 End Time Disciples Ministries 112 Enlightened Christian Gathering 2, 48, 112, 174, 189

212  Index Epistemological 21, 166, 187 Equality 3, 68, 79, 80, 91–93, 126, 136n6, 137n31, 185, 189, 197 Eschaton 53, 155 Ethical 13n40, 25, 61, 166, 175, 188 Ethiopian-type 108 Ethnocentrism 40 Eucharist 171 Eurocentric: Christ 20, 113; faith 20; modernity 186 Europeanised Christian faith 22 Evangelical: groups 105; mission 105; movement 164 Evangelicalism 11n7 Evangelical 46, 174 Evangelisation 21 Evangelism 103, 105, 175 Evangelistic crusades 105, 167 Evangelists 5, 30n1, 101, 104, 168 Evil: power 28, 131, 147, 156, 209; spirits 6, 7, 24, 29, 42, 47, 114, 142–147, 149–151 Exegesis 40, 54, 56, 61, 72 Exorcism 69, 70 Extra-biblical revelation 134, 163, 170 False ministers 173 Falsehood 28 Familiar spirits 8, 73, 142, 167 Family altar 143 Fear 4, 10, 24, 28–19, 51, 67, 101, 110, 140–162, 174, 208 Fellowship 8, 24, 103, 111, 163 Female agency 79 Female subordination 92 Femicide 91 Feminism 2, 93 Fetishes 170 Fideism 132 Financial status 145 Followers 3–4, 19, 20, 29, 51, 55, 71, 101, 108–110, 150–152, 155, 166– 169, 170, 172, 174, 182, 185–189, 190–194, 208 Formenism 82, 94 Forward in Faith Ministries International 4 Freedom 1, 47, 52, 65, 67–69, 71, 73, 91, 94, 103, 106, 147, 182, 184, 195, 197 Fruit of the Spirit 67–68 Full Gospel Church 2, 109, 111 Fundamental teachings 10 Fundamentalist 29, 112, 132, 192

Garden of Eden 91, 93, 128–129 Gender: hierarchies 80, 93 Genetic diseases 141 Global Reformed Christ 73 Gnostics 102 Gods 111, 129, 131, 133, 135, 175, 190 Good Samaritan 166 Gospel singers 71 Grace Bible Church in Soweto 8, 111 Great commission 21 Gullibility 51 Guti, Ezekiel 4–5 Healer 28–29, 30, 46, 52 Healing 4, 6, 18, 28–29, 45, 69, 70, 75n11, 103, 106, 114–117, 124, 136n20, 144, 147, 169, 171, 192 Health 3, 24–25, 28–29, 30, 44, 64– 64, 114, 129, 131, 133–135, 136n20, 147, 170, 171, 175, 192–193 Hegemonic: leaning 94; masculinity 83 Hegemony 83, 93 Hell 126–129, 135 Henotheism 52 Hermeneutics 19, 50, 61, 74, 132, 134, 208–209 Heterosexual 81 Hierarchical system 68 Historic Christian background 103 HIV/Aids 26, 81 Holiness code 171 Holistic salvation 147 Holy: objects 3, 10, 46–47, 49, 170; Spirit 13n28, 28, 39, 45–46, 63, 65–67, 71,103–106, 114–116, 125, 130, 133, 135, 175, 208; Trinity 21, 117, Homiletics 171 Homogenous identity 83 Hospitality 25 Human: flourishing 141–142, 146; rights 115, 185–186, 189, 191, 195, 197, 198, 208; suffering 7, 29, 155 Humanitarianism 21 Humanity 4–5, 9–10, 22–24, 46, 50, 102–103, 105, 112, 115, 117, 126, 129, 153–154, 156, 195 Humility 30, 167, 209 Imperial: distress 70; forces 68; power 68–69; rule 67; violence 70 Imperialism 24, 46, 68, 186, 196 Incantation 172 Incarceration 126

Index 213 Incarnate Word 102 Incarnation 10, 21–24, 102, 114, 125–129, 131, 135, 136n6, 153 Incredible Happenings 2, 112, 169 Independent denominations 8 Independent Pentecostal churches 14n47, 107 Individualism 20 Inspiration 30n1, 61, 104, 116 Institutional church structures 67–68 Institutionalisation 64 Interideologicality 92 Intimacy 49 ipsissima verba 18 Islam 7, 81, 85 Jewish 85, 154, 183–184 Judaizers 42–44, 47, 51, 54 Justice 3, 19, 64, 89, 92, 94, 103, 154, 187–189, 194–195, 197–198, 208 Justification 39, 40, 42–43, 46–47, 62, 92, 147–148 Kenyon, Essek William 125–128, 132–136 Kerygma 26, 163, 168–169, 171–172 knowledge: human observational 132; revelation 130, 132–134; scientific 132; supernatural 132; supra-sensory 132; transcendent 132, 135n5; ultra-sensory 132 Language 8, 48, 65, 79, 80, 85, 130, 132, 138n56, 167, 172, 182, 185 Liberation 3, 8, 64, 74, 80, 88, 93–94, 103, 143, 145–147, 149, 154–156, 186, 196, 209 Liturgies 71 Lordship 67, 69 Lower-class 62 Lukau, Alph 2, 48, 173, 182, 185, 191 Lutheran theology 175 Macro-textual positioning 84 Mainline churches 9, 19, 46, 63, 71, 106, 146, 164 Male: dominance 82, 92, 94; headship 80; leadership 83; power 87, 94 Marriage 29, 84, 90, 110, 144, 146 Masculinism 82, 93 Material objects 4 Material prosperity 3, 49, 62, 147 Materialism 20

McCauley, Ray 8, 111 Media 6, 49, 61, 75n2, 83, 89, 91, 173 Mediator 3–5, 28, 40, 51, 102–105, 115, 170 Medical world 142 Mediums 142 Men of God 1, 4, 11, 115, 174 Mercantilist economic theories 21 Messiah 30, 164, 183–184 Messianic: movements 184; type 108 Ministry 9, 18, 19, 21, 29, 66, 83–84, 104, 120n58 Misapplication 54 Missiology 8, 19 Mission churches 7, 105–109 Missio Dei 101, 103, 105, 115 Missionaries 20–22, 63, 107, 117 Mnguni, Penuel 112 Modalist doctrine 124 Money laundering 189 Monogamous 87 Monophysite doctrine 124 Motherhood 82 Motsoeneng, Paseka 2, 112, 169 Mount Zion General Assembly 112 Multiple personalities 84 Multivocality 19 Nala, HQ 3, 6 New: birth 129; millennium 73, 90 New Testament 1, 8, 22, 27, 52–53, 70, 71, 91, 106, 129, 130, 134–135, 164, 171, 175 Non-denominational 18 Occult circle 50 Old Testament 8, 104, 129, 134, 137n37 Omnipotent 125 Omotoso, Timothy 168 Ontological density 11, 185–186, 188, 190, 194–195, 198 Oppression 3, 73, 82, 88, 94, 104, 185–186, 195–196 Oral traditions 22 Parable 132, 166 Parousia 131 Participant observation 19 Participatory action research 187 Pastoral training 19 Patriarchy 10, 79, 80, 89, 90, 92–94 Peace 20, 67, 103, 116, 153, 190

214  Index Pentecostal: celebrity phenomenon 175; embodiments 81; Episcopalianism 168; hermeneutics 132, 134, 209; masculinity 83; mission 45, 101, 104–109, 115–117; praxis 117; spirituality 8 Pentecostalism: African 2, 45, 83, 101, 106, 116, 208; African Initiated Pentecostal Churches 2; classical 1, 9, 10, 18, 39, 45–46, 62–63, 67, 105, 107, 109, 110–111, 163, 168; neo 28, 30, 61, 63–69; 70–77, 107, 111–113, 124–125, 127, 129, 131–137, 140–142, 147–148, 150, 152, 156, 157n12; New Prophetic Churches 2, 7, 9, 18, 25, 75n21, 208; Pentecostal Charismatic Christianity 2, 80 Perpetual insecurity 52 Plantation of colonies 21 Pneumatic experience 174 Pneumatology 46, 70, 114, 175 Poetry 132, 137n45 Polarization 92 Political: authority 92; party 18 Politics 2–3, 81 Pop culture discourse 82 Populism 10 Post-colonial 182–183, 185–189, 193, 195–196 Poverty 3, 7, 18, 29, 31n6, 48, 51, 62, 64, 71, 115, 131, 141, 142, 209 Praise Tabernacle Church 107 Prayer 5–7, 18, 22, 26, 49, 63, 65, 114, 148, 163 Presbyterian Church 163 Promiscuity 82 Prophecy: accurate 50; approved 30; false 28; forensic 28, 50; humility 30; love 30; salvation 30 Prophetic: charisma 170; objects 4, 48–49, 145–146, 148, 152; office 10; voice 73 Prosperity: believers 127, 134; doctrine 129; gospel 3, 9, 46, 62–63, 83, 124–125, 129, 130, 136n7, 137n37; message 124, 131–132; movement 46, 125, 132; preachers 133; teachers 124; theology 124–127, 130, 131, 133–135 Prostitutes 209 Protestant theology 174 Protestantism 8 Psalmist 26, 102

Psycho-social 64 Public safety 127 Pulpit 54, 87, 111, 113, 174 Rabalago, Lethebo 112 Rabboni Centre Ministries 112, 192 Races: multi-ethnic 8; racial barriers 8 Ransom 140, 143–161 Reciprocity 65 Reconciliation 103, 152, 154 Redemption 20, 128, 153–154 Regulation of religion 6, 197–198 Religious: adherents 191, 194, 197; followers 189, 190, 192–193; freedom 47, 195, 197; geography 7; landscape 55, 182–183, 191; leaders 182–183, 185–189; 190–198; mafia 192; movement 71, 80, 183, 187, 189, 190, 192, 194, 198; schizophrenia 24; space 185, 187, 189, 196–197 Resurrection 10, 19, 52, 91, 126–128, 134, 151–152, 155, 192 Revelation knowledge 130, 132–134 Reversing curses 147 Rhema Ministries 8, 111 Righteous of God 102, 116 Rivers of Living Waters 3 Roman Catholic Church 7, 68, 72 Roman Emperor 67; Empire 83 Royalty 168, 173 Sacraments 63, 148, 171 Sacrifices 129, 155 Salvation 5, 6, 24, 30, 39, 42, 45, 48, 53, 55, 105, 113, 124, 126, 128, 142–145, 147–149, 150–152, 155, 175 Sanctification 149 Sanctifier 46, 65 Sangomas 142, 171 Satanic nature 126, 130 Saviour 6, 7, 21, 28, 45–46, 65, 101, 106, 114, 126, 128–129, 134, 155–156 Scientific: discoveries 21; theories 21 Second Adam 125–126 Secularized 25 Self: advancement 20; esteem 20; sufficiency 20 Sermons 3, 9–10, 72, 79, 80, 83–84, 89, 90, 92, 104, 106, 110

Index 215 Servant of God 1 Service 46, 50, 65, 67, 82–83, 103, 106, 111, 140–145, 155, 168, 173–174 Seven Angels Ministry 190 Seventh Day Adventists 187 Sexual abuse 79 Simonism 28, 30 Sin nature 128 Sinner 10, 74, 127–129, 135, 147–148, 153–154, 209 Slave trade 186 Slavery 1, 3, 23, 67 Social barriers 209 Societal tolerance 197 Socio-economic challenges 3 Socio-economic conditions 64, 172 Socio-political praxis 61, 64 Son of man 1, 125–127, 165 Sono, Mosa 8, 111 Soteriological perspective 140 Soteriology 6 South African Council of Churches 18 Sovereign power 148, 209 Speaking in tongues 63, 65, 114 Spirit-type churches 108 Spiritual: bondage 67, 150; cords 143; death 10, 125, 128–129, 134, 208– 209; gifts 71–73, 83; manipulation 6; power 6, 147–148, 152; security 49, 51; transformation 66; truths 166 Strongholds 144 Super extra-natural 131 Superheroes 131, 166 Superhuman beings 188–189 Supernatural: gifts 65; power 26, 65 Supremacist 21 Syncretism 23, 28, 30, 31n6 Ten Commandments 91 Testimonies 5, 26, 72, 169 Theism 52, 109, 113, Theology: African 113; education 51, ethics 8, incarnational 24; practical 8; relocation 73; systematic 2, 18–19, 208 Theophanic presence 24 Tithes and offerings 90, 92, 149

Titles: Anointed one 167; apostles 167; big men 167; big women 167; Major One 167; Man of God 167; Papa 167 Toronto blessing 63 Traditional: mainline churches 146; spirits 143, 145 Transdenominational fellowships 163 Transformational praxis 61 Transformative paradigm 19 Treatment Action Campaign 26 Trinitarian mission 103, 106, 115, 117 Trinity 10, 21, 30, 102–108, 117, 124–125, 135n5 Triune God 117, 166 Twelve Apostles Church 184 Ubuntu 24 Umbilical cord 143, 147 Underdevelopment 186, 209 Unitarian 124–125, 135n5 Universalism 20 Unorthodox 6 Utopian 53 Visions 114 Voicelessness 73 Voyages of exploration 21 Wealth 3, 18, 30, 65, 129, 131, 133, 134, 136n20, 158n32, 170, 171, 185 Western: denomination 109; missionaries 21 Witchcraft 101, 141, 144, 146, 147, 170 Witness 25, 45, 55, 72, 103, 171, 175 Womanhood 80 Word: faith 65; God 54, 62, 132–133, 170; wisdom 62 Workplace 3 World Council of Churches 116 Worship 4, 6, 31n6, 52, 65, 69, 71, 75n14, 87, 114, 116, 154, 168, 175, 182 Young academics 110 Zion Apostolic Church 108 Zion Christian Church 63, 108 Zionist 107–108 Zombification 193 Zondo, Stephen 3