Byzantine Ornaments in Stone: Architectural Sculpture and Liturgical Furnishings 9783110690477, 9783110688535

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Philipp Niewöhner Byzantine Ornaments in Stone

Philipp Niewöhner

Byzantine Ornaments in Stone

Architectural Sculpture and Liturgical Furnishings

This publication was printed with financial support of the Gertrud-und Alexander-Böhlig-Stiftung.

A parallel German edition of the same book is published as „Byzantinische Bauskulptur und liturgische Ausstattung. Ein Handbuch“, ISBN 978-3-11-068852-8.

ISBN 978-3-11-068853-5 e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-069047-7 e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-069052-1 Library of Congress Control Number: 2021938964 Bibliographic Information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the internet at http://dnb.dnb.de. © 2021 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston Cover image: Corinthian pilaster capital (below) and a fragment of a middle Byzantine templon epistyle (above), historic centre of Antalya © Philipp Niewöhner Printing and binding: CPI books GmbH, Leck www.degruyter.com

| In Memoriam Claudia Barsanti (1941–2017) Annie Pralong (1943–2017) Joachim Kramer (1936–2018) Urs Peschlow (1943–2018)

Preface Architectural sculpture and liturgical furnishings are key genres of Byzantine archaeology and art history. They were equally widespread in town and country, have survived in great numbers, and provide relatively precise dating. They are highly significant in terms of settlement archaeology as well as indicative of provincial or regional traits in art and liturgy. They also permit a detailed reconstruction of workshops, their organization, the building process, and the marble trade. Until now, this host of information was available only to few specialists, because the extensive material is dispersed across countless publications and requires much study and expertise, not least owing to a fragmentation into many national schools and languages. This volume seeks to change this and to enable everybody to engage with Byzantine architectural sculpture and church furnishings. Such a manual is long overdue. When I was a student, Urs Peschlow played with the idea of extending his article on “Kapitelle” in Reallexikon für Antike und Christentum 20 (2004) 57–123, adding colour illustrations, and turning it into a book. His sudden death and the care for his colour slides, the digitization of which began as part of the Bildarchiv Christliche Archäologie und Byzantinische Kunstgeschichte at Mainz University, when I was teaching there in 2018/2019, provided impetus to deliver what the master had not been able to do. In addition, Joachim Kramer, who died in the same year, had also made his photographs available. Claudia Barsanti and Annie Pralong had both died in the previous year, and other representatives of the same generation of scholars, who were so important for the study of Byzantine architectural sculpture, had discontinued academic teaching. Time seemed ripe to gather their knowledge and make it available in a form that facilitates access even when one can no longer study with the old generation. It was my luck that I was still able to do so, and I would like to also remember Otto Feld (†2011) and to thank Christine Strube. Otherwise, special thanks are due to Martin Dennert for much advice and many corrections. Further improvements, especially concerning inscriptions, are owed to Georgi Parpulov. The Bildarchiv Christliche Archäologie und Byzantinische Kunstgeschichte at Mainz University and its custodian Klaus Weber played a key role in obtaining the all-important illustrations. The volume would not have been possible without him and his expert co-

workers. Thanks are also due to numerous other photo archives listed in the image credits, as well as to Robert Nelson, Robert Ousterhout, and Richard Posamentir. If there are no blatant gaps in the bibliography, this is owed to the excellent library for Christliche Archäologie und Byzantinische Kunstgeschichte that Achim Arbeiter maintains at Göttingen and that Jon C. Cubas Díaz helped me to access. The book was originally conceived in German, and most of the previous scholarship on Byzantine architectural sculpture and liturgical furnishings is also not in English. In fact, the bibliography is poor in English titles, and a goodly number of those that do exist have not been written by native speakers. As a result, numerous technical terms have been coined in other languages and are still without an established English translation or equivalent. This volume attempts to start changing this, but it will take more English publications to eventually establish a full-fledged English terminology. My preliminary efforts would be a lot more faulty without the help of Lucy Audley-Miller and Alexander Sarantis. The final challenge, appropriate publication in full colour, in two editions, one German and one English, and in book form as well as online, was thankfully met by the publisher and a publication grant from the Gertrud and Alexander Böhlig-Foundation.

Contents Introduction  Organization and Layout | 2  History of Research | 4  Monographs | 5  Museum Catalogues | 6  Corpora | 6  Terminology | 8  Chronology and Topography | 9  Early Byzantine Period | 10  Middle and Late Byzantine Periods | 11  Architectural Sculpture | 12  Liturgical Furnishings | 13  Column Capitals – Earlier Fourth Century  Emperor Constantine the Great | 16  Honorific Columns | 17  Humpy/Spiky Fine-Toothed Leaves | 18 Fat/Jagged Fine-Toothed Leaves | 19  Docimium | 20  Stiff-Pointed Leaves | 21  Syria | 22  Schematic Capitals | 23  Soft-Pointed Leaves | 24  Medallion Capitals | 25  Broad-Pointed (Mask) Leaves | 26  Touching Leaf Tips | 27  Narrow-Pointed Leaves | 28  Many-Pointed Leaves | 29  Varietas | 30  Rome | 31  Re-Use and Spoliation, early | 32  Re-Use and Spoliation, later | 33  Column Capitals – Later Fourth and Fifth Century  Emperor Theodosius I and His Dynasty | 36  Constantinople | 37  Proconnesus | 38  Corinthian Capitals, early | 39  Lyre Capitals | 40  Corinthian Capitals, later | 41  Lycia | 42  Cilicia | 43  Blattkelch Capitals | 44  Fluted Capitals | 45  Western Asia Minor (Western Turkey) | 46  Emblem Capitals | 47  Head Capitals | 48  Figured Capitals, early | 49 

X | Contents

Animal Capitals | 50  Animal Capitals with Two Zones | 51  Eagle Capitals | 52  Peacocks | 53  Sivec | 54  Central Balkans | 55  Figured Capitals, later | 56  Capitals with Addorsed Birds | 57  Reed Leaf Capitals and Reed Leaves | 58  Greece | 59  Imposts | 60  Central Anatolia | 61  Ionic Capitals | 62 Ionic Impost Capitals | 63  Crosses | 64  Christograms | 65  Composite Capitals | 66  Composite Capitals with Fleshy Fine-Toothed Leaves | 67  Capitals with Olive Branches | 68  Theodosian Capitals | 69  Wind-Blown Leaves | 70  Butterfly Leaves | 71 Double Leaves | 72  Rimmed Leaves | 73  Vine-Like Leaves | 74  Outer Gate Capitals | 75  Capitals with Zoning | 76  Animal Capitals with Two Zones and Fillet or Basket | 77  Egypt | 78  Griffins | 79  Green Men and Gorgoneia | 80  Capitals with Cornucopias and Concave Abacus | 81  Capitals with Tendrils and Concave Abacus | 82  Garland Capitals | 83  Openwork | 84  Scrollwork | 85  Column Capitals – Sixth Century  Church of St Polyeuctus | 88  Pilastri Acritani | 89  Sasanian Influence | 90  Split Palmettes | 91  Impost Caitals, early | 92  Impost Caitals, later | 93  Framed (Panelled) Impost Capitals, early | 94  Framed (Panelled) Impost Capitals, later | 95  Melon Capitals, early | 96  Melon Capitals, later | 97  Hagia Sophia | 98  Kettle Capitals | 99 

Contents | XI

Impost Capitals with Paired Branches, early | 100  Impost Capitals with Paired Branches, later | 101  Cabochons (Bosses), early | 102  Cabochons (Bosses), later | 103  Armenia | 104  Impost Capitals with Green Men | 105  Impost Capitals with Tendrils, early | 106  Impost Capitals with Tendrils, later | 107  Impost Capitals with Cornucopias, early | 108  Impost Capitals with Cornucopias, later | 109  Impost Capitals with Vine Leaves and Pine Cones, early | 110  Impost Capitals with Vine Leaves and Pine Cones, later | 111  Basket Capitals, early | 112  Basket Capitals, later | 113  Monogram Capitals, early | 114  Monogram Capitals, later | 115  Other Architectural Elements  Attic Column Bases | 118  Simplified Column Bases | 119  Column Bases, Shafts, and Capitals with Stepped Profiles or Striation | 120  Pedestals | 121  Mullions | 122  Window Capitals | 123  Entablatures | 124  Rows of Standing Leaves | 125  Semi-Cylindrical Mouldings | 126  Peopled Scrolls | 127  Soffits | 128  Consoles/Corbels/Brackets | 129  Door Frames | 130  Overdoors | 131  Window Frames | 132  Water Spouts | 133  Liturgical Furnishings  Altars | 136  Reliquaries | 137  Ciboria/Canopies | 138  Canopies above Icons and Arcosolia | 139  Constantinopolitan Ambos | 140  Carian Ambos | 141  Flanking Ambo Slabs, early | 142  Flanking Ambo Slabs, later | 143  Ambo Platforms | 144  Central Anatolian Ambos | 145  Supporting Ambo Slabs | 146  Engraving and Champlevé | 147  Other Ambos | 148  Syrian Bemas | 149 

XII | Contents

Templon Posts, early | 150  Templon Colonnettes, early | 151  Templon Posts, later | 152  Knotted Columns | 153  Templon Colonnettes, later | 154  Impost Capitals with Bevelled Edges | 155  Barrier Slabs, early | 156  Transennae | 157  Barrier Slabs, later | 158  Framed Impost Capitals with Interlace | 159  Templon Epistyles | 160  Impost Capitals with Repeat Patterns | 161  Cathedras | 162  Baptismal Fonts | 163  Miscellaneous  Production and the Building Process | 166  Mason’s Marks | 167  Marble Trade | 168  Workshops | 169  Archaeometry | 170  Quarries | 171  Coloured Marbles | 172  Painting and Colouration | 173  Donor and Votive Inscriptions | 174  Grave Stelae | 175  Press Weights with Crosses | 176  Leaved Crosses | 177  Mortars | 178  Settlement Archaeology | 179  Byzantium and the West | 180 Backmatter  Bibliographical Abbreviations | 182  Image Credit Abbreviations | 183  Topographical Map | 184 Index of Places | 186  Index of Subjects | 187 

 

Introduction

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110690477-001

2 | Introduction

Organization and Layout The key to understanding Byzantine stone carvings is their ornamentation; it must take pride of place in this volume. Other aspects are secondary, because they become apparent only through the ornamentation. Such secondary aspects, for example workshops or provincial/regional traits, are presented after and, where possible, following upon, the relevant ornamentation. This organization of the subject is also a matter of presenting the images in a meaningful order, because any understanding of the ornamentation depends almost entirely on the images. The accompanying text can do little more than provide guidance as to how to view the images. This book requires the readers to become viewers and thereby to make connections that cannot be adequately described with words. Thus, the book offers two alternative ways of access, via technical terms and via illustrations. It can serve as dictionary, if a term requires explanation and illustration, or as a visual gazetteer for the research of individual pieces of architectural sculpture or church furnishings. In addition, the volume can also be read from front to back and serve as an academic textbook. This purpose in particular profits from a thematic and chronological, rather than alphabetical, arrangement of the lemmas. (For a listing in alphabetical order, see the indices.) Each page forms a self-contained entry for a technical term, an epoch or emperor, a marble quarry, a city or monument, a province, or a region. Closely related lemmas and images are placed on facing pages. In addition, cross-references to other lemmas and illustrations encourage reading back and forth in accordance with previous knowledge and particular queries. Each lemma is illustrated by two to four figures, and two or more bibliographical entries reference more specialised further reading. Wherever possible, each figure also comes with a bibliographical entry that relates the context of the depicted artefact. The latter bibliography is often as important as the specialised further reading listed above, and the various references on each page should be viewed as a single bibliography. The bulk of the volume is dedicated to column capitals as the best documented and most important index fossils of the period. Second comes a more summary treatment of all other architectural sculpture, and then, thirdly, church furnishings. These genres have so far mostly been treated separately, but are combined here in one volume because they were carved by the same or closely related workshops, distributed through the same

channels, and thus complement each other also in terms of art history and settlement archaeology. This holistic approach makes it possible to characterize and differentiate marble quarries and associated workshops, places, and provinces or regions both on the basis of architectural sculpture and on that of church furnishings. Both genres show the provinces or regions of the early Byzantine empire to have been quite independent of, and distinct from, each other, more so than during Roman times on the one hand and the middle Byzantine period on the other. The middle and late Byzantine periods were again more closely integrated with, and focused on, the capital city of Constantinople, which may have been owing to a lack of large provincial workshops. However, the later carvings are included in this volume (rather than relegated to a separate study as in most previous publications), because they related closely to, and emulated, the early Byzantine period, as if that more glorious time had continued without rupture until the Turkish conquest. In order to bring this out, the later carvings are depicted and discussed alongside their early Byzantine models, and in some cases this requires two entries, an “early” as well as a “later” one. Some later capitals do not seem to be inspired by earlier capitals but by church furnishings. These capitals are therefore presented in that section, next to their models, even if they themselves were not part of church furnishings (→ impost capitals with bevelled edges, → framed impost capitals with interlace, → impost capitals with repeat patterns). For the same reason, the sequence of the lemmas depends on when a form or a workshop became manifest for the first time rather than on the whole period during which they continued to be attested. The latter often extended through centuries, for example leaf types that emerged in the fourth century and are therefore addressed in that context, but remained current until and beyond the sixth century and continued to be imitated still later, throughout the middle and late Byzantine periods. The same applies to lemmas on places, provinces, and regions: they are placed in chronological and thematic contexts that are characteristic of them or vice versa. This includes placing the illustrations associated with the lemmas in such a way that facing pages reveal similarities or opposites, for example between → varietas and → Rome, → reed leaves and → Greece, or between → ambo platforms and → central Anatolian am-

Introduction | 3

bos, etc. The lemmas are thus organized with an eye to individual objects and ornaments. Alternatively, numerous cross-references provide other paths through the book, for example for those who wish to read systematically on technical issues like → quarries, → workshops, and the → marble trade, on provinces and regions, or on the middle and late Byzantine periods, etc. Some headwords are included although they seem to make little sense, for example the distinction between → broad-pointed, → narrow-pointed, and → many-pointed leaves. However, these terms are well established and in wide use throughout the scholarly literature and thus require explanation. The choice of illustrations or case studies is more or less arbitrary, since a leaf form or a type of capital is often attested in hundreds or more specimens that can be distributed across the entire Mediterranean region and beyond. The selection is based on the availability of good, possibly coloured, and ideally unpublished images. This explains why a disproportionately high number of case studies is from Asia Minor.

4 | Introduction

History of Research Byzantine architectural sculpture became a subject of scholarly interest in the later nineteenth century, in the wake of oriental archaeology, when it transpired that the eastern Roman empire, unlike the West, returned to prosperity after the crisis of the third century. Following upon various individual publications, especially in museum catalogues, the art historian Rudolf Kautzsch (1868–1945) undertook a fundamental compilation, description, and German terminology of early Byzantine column capitals (1936). After the Second World War, Friedrich Wilhelm Deichmann (1909–1993) extended this line of research to the decor of entire buildings and all architectural sculpture, in particular → entablatures. André Grabar (1896–1990), once again an art historian and compiler of individual artefacts, also included the later Byzantine periods and church furnishings. Herein he may have followed the example of Anastasios Orlandos (1887–1979) and other Greek colleagues, who, in studying local monuments, had started relatively early to include the entire Byzantine era as well as church furnishings. Following Alois Riegl (1858–1905), Panagiotis Michelis (1903–1969) and Ernst Kitzinger (1912–2003) attempted to conceptualize Byzantine architectural sculpture as an expression of 'Zeitgeist' and as part of a teleological development of Christian 'Kunstwollen', but this approach has not led to any tangible results. Further developments, since the last third of the twentieth century, have been characterised by the publication of numerous corpora. They focussed either on individual buildings or on regional workshop clusters, i.e. always on practical, manual aspects of stonemasonry. Led by, or following the example of, the older Deichmann, the next generation of scholars described and researched different regions of the Byzantine Empire in their development: Otto Feld (1928–2011), Joachim Kramer (1936–2018), Claudia Barsanti (1941–2017), Annie Pralong (1943–2017), Urs Peschlow (1943–2018), and Eugenio Russo (*1946) mainly the workshop complex of → Proconnesus/Constantinople and its Mediterranean exports as well as the local production of → Asia Minor; Christine Strube (*1943) and Jean-Pierre Sodini (*1940) also → Syria; Hans-Georg Severin (*1941) → Egypt. Most studies are concerned with column capitals that have survived in great numbers and are particularly significant. Beyond capitals, a general overview of, and investigation into, all architectural sculpture, including

entablatures etc., is provided only occasionally. Church furnishings have been recorded even more rarely; they were generally late in receiving scholarly attention, but by now are understood to have often been produced by the same or closely related → quarries and → workshops as the architectural sculpture, and to have been → distributed jointly. In accordance with the greater amount of surviving monuments, most research concentrated on the early Byzantine period. In addition, especially Barsanti, Peschlow, Sodini, and Hans Buchwald (1933–2013) also addressed later developments of the middle and late Byzantine periods. One generation later, some scholars have elected the later period as their main field of research, in particular Martin Dennert (*1962) and Catherine Vanderheyde (*1969). At the turn of the twenty-first century, → archaeometric provenance analysis became available as a new heuristic tool to scientifically assess the origin of white marble. The new technology has made it possible to distinguish different workshops even if they employed similar white marbles as well as the same repertoire and workmanship. Research into quarries has thus also gained renewed interest. || Bibliography: A. Riegl, Spätrömische Kunstindustrie ²(Vienna 1927) 70–79; A. K. Orlandos, Aρχείoν των Βυζαντινών Μνημείων της Eλλάδoς 1–12 (1935–1973); P. A. Michelis, An Aesthetic Approach to Byzantine Art (London 1955) 96–98; E. Kitzinger, Byzantine Art in the Making. Main Lines of Stylistic Development in Mediterranean Art, 3rd–7th Century (London 1977) 76–80

Introduction | 5

Monographs In chronological order W. von Alten, Geschichte des altchristlichen Kapitells (Munich 1913) G. de Jerphanion, La voix des monuments: notes et études d’archéologie chrétienne (Paris 1930) R. Kautzsch, Kapitellstudien. Beiträge zu einer Geschichte des spätantiken Kapitells im Osten vom 4. bis ins 7. Jh., Studien zur spätantiken Kunstgeschichte 9 (Berlin 1936) A. K. Orlandos, Η Ξυλόστεγος Παλαιοχριστιανική Βασιλική της Μεσογειακής Λεκάνης, Βιβλιοθήκη της εν Αθήναις Αρχαιολογικής Εταιρείας 35 (Athens 1952–1956) F. W. Deichmann, Studien zur Architektur Konstantinopels im 5. und 6. Jahrhundert nach Christus, Deutsche Beiträge zur Altertumswissenschaft 4 (Baden Baden 1956) I. Nikolajević-Stojković, Ranovizantiska architektonska dekorativna plastika u Makedoniji, Srbiji i Crnoj Gori / La décoration architecturale sculptée de l'époque Bas-Romane en Macédoine, en Serbie et au Monténégro, Srpska akademija nauka – Posebna izdanja 278 = Vizantološki institut 5 (Belgrade 1957) E. von Mercklin, Antike Figuralkapitelle (Berlin 1962) A. Grabar, Sculptures byzantines de Constantinople (4e–9e siècle), Bibliothèque archéologique et historique 17 (Paris 1963) J. Kramer, Skulpturen mit Adlerfiguren an Bauten des 5. Jahrhunderts n. Chr. in Konstantinopel (Cologne 1968) T. Ulbert, Studien zur dekorativen Reliefplastik des östlichen Mittelmeerraums. Schrankenplatten des 4. bis 10. Jhs., Miscellanea byzantina monacensia 10 (Munich 1969) J. J. Herrmann, The Schematic Composite Capital. A Study of Architectural Decoration at Rome in the Later Empire (Diss. New York 1973) F. W. Deichmann, Die Spolien in der spätantiken Architektur, Sitzungsberichte – Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Philosophisch-Historische Klasse Jahrgang 1975 Heft 6 (Munich 1975) A. Grabar, Sculptures byzantines du Moyen Âge 2 (11e–14e siècle), Bibliothèque des Cahiers archéologiques 12 (Paris 1976) W. E. Betsch, The History, Production, and Distribution of the Late Antqiue Capital in Constantinople (Diss. Philadelphia 1977) C. Strube, Polyeuktoskirche und Hagia Sophia. Umbildung und Auflösung antiker Formen, Entstehen des Kämpferkapitells, Abhandlungen Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Philosophisch-Historische Klasse neue Folge 92 (Munich 1984) P. H. F. Jakobs, Die frühchristlichen Ambone Griechenlands, Habelts Dissertationsdrucke. Reihe Klassische Archäologie 24 (Bonn 1987) L'acanthe dans la sculpture monumentale de l'antiquité à la Renaissance, Mémoires de la Section d'archéologie et d'histoire de l'art 4 = Histoire de l'art 6 (Paris 1993) C. Barsanti, Capitello, area bizantina, in: Enciclopedia dell'arte medievale 4 (1994) 200–214 J. Kramer, Korinthische Pilasterkapitelle in Kleinasien und Konstantinopel, Istanbuler Mitteilungen Beiheft 39 (Tübingen 1994) A. Liveri, Die byzantinischen Steinreliefs des 13. und 14. Jahrhunderts im griechischen Raum (Athens 1996)

M. Dennert, Mittelbyzantinische Kapitelle, Asia Minor Studien 25 (Bonn 1997) S. Möllers – U. Peschlow (ed.), Spätantike und byzantinische Bauskulptur, Forschungen zur Kunstgeschichte und Christlichen Archäologie 19 (Stuttgart 1998) I. Stoufi-Poulimenou, Το Φράγμα του Ιερού Βήματος στα Παλαιοχριστιανικά Μνημεία της Ελλάδος, Πανεπιστήμιον Αθηνών. Θεολογική Σχολή. Εκδόσεις Κληροδοτήματος Βασιλικής Δ. Μωραϊτου 2 (Athens 1999) U. Peschlow, Kapitell, in: Reallexikon für Antike und Christentum 20 (2004) 57–123 C. Vanderheyde, La sculpture architecturale byzantine dans le thème de Nikopolis du Xe au début du XIIIe siècle: Epire, Etolie-Acarnanie et Sud de l'Albanie, Bulletin de correspondance hellénique. Supplément 45 (Athens 2005) J. Kramer, Justinianische Kämpferkapitelle mit einem Dekor aus Paaren von Zweigen und die Nachfolgekapitelle im Veneto, Spätantike – frühes Christentum – Byzanz B/22 (Wiesbaden 2006) P. Niewöhner, Aizanoi, Dokimion und Anatolien. Stadt und Land, Siedlungs- und Steinmetzwesen vom späteren 4. bis ins 6. Jh. n. Chr., Aizanoi 1 = Archäologische Forschungen 23 (Wiesbaden 2007) R. Brüx, Faltkapitelle, Schriften des Zentrums für Archäologie und Kulturgeschichte des Schwarzmeerraumes 12 (Langenweißbach 2008) C. Vanderheyde – V. Penna (ed.), Sculpture byzantine. 7e–12e siècle, Bulletin de correspondance hellénique. Supplément 49 (Athens 2008) S. Kalopissi-Verti – M. Panayotidi-Kesioglou (ed.), Multilingual Illustrated Dictionary of Byzantine Architecture and Sculpture Terminology (Heraklion 2010) M. Kontogiannopoulou, Τα Μαρμάρινα Τέμπλα στη Βόρεια Ελλάδα και στη Θεσσαλία κατά τη Μέση Βυζαντινή Περίοδο: Κατασκευή – Μορφή – Διάκοσμος (Diss. Athens 2014) (https://phdtheses.ekt.gr/eadd/handle/10442/35186) J. J. Herrmann, Capital: Latin West, in P. C. Finney (ed.), The Eerdmans Encyclopedia of Early Christian Art and Archaeology (Grand Rapids MI 2017) 257–265 F. Coden (ed.), Minima Medievalia = Atti della Accademia roveretana degli Agiati 9/8 A, 2018 G. Marsili, Archeologia del cantiere protobizantino. Cave, maestranze e committenti attraverso i marchi dei marmorari (Bologna 2019) D. Moreau et al. (ed.), Archaeology of a World of Changes, BAR International Series 2973 (Oxford 2020) C. Vanderheyde, La sculpture byzantine du IXe au XVe siècle (Paris 2020)

6 | Introduction

Museum Catalogues

Corpora

In chronological order

In chronological order

G. Mendel, Catalogue des sculptures grecques, romaines et byzantines du Musée de Brousse (Athens 1908) O. Wulff, Königliche Museen zu Berlin. Beschreibung der Bildwerke der christlichen Epochen 3. Altchristliche und mittelalterliche byzantinische und italienische Bildwerke 1 (Berlin 1909) G. Mendel, Musées Impériaux Ottomans. Catalogue des sculptures grecques, romaines et byzantines (Constantinople 1912–1914) O. Wulff – W. F. Volbach, Königliche Museen zu Berlin. Beschreibung der Bildwerke der christlichen Epochen. Ergänzungsband. Die altchristlichen und mittelalterlichen byzantinischen und italienischen Bildwerke (Berlin 1923) N. Fıratlı, La sculpture byzantine figurée au Musée archéologique d’Istanbul (Paris 1990) A. Effenberger – H.-G. Severin, Das Museum für spätantike und byzantinische Kunst (Mainz 1992) D. Β. Grammenos – G. Knithakis, Κατάλογος των Αρχιτεκτονικών Μελών του Μουσείου Θεσσαλονίκης, Μακεδονική Βιβλιοθήκη 81 (Thessaloniki 1994) M. Sklavou Mauroeidi, Γλυπτά του Βυζαντινού Μουσείου Αθηνών (Athens 1999) C. Barsanti, The Iznik-Nicaea's Archaeological Museum, in: I. Akbaygil – H. Inalcık – O. Aslanapa (ed.), Iznik throughout History (Istanbul 2003) 267–301 C. Barsanti – A. Guiglia, The Sculptures of the Ayasofya Müzesi in Istanbul (Istanbul 2010) V. Ruggieri, La scultura bizantina ad Antiochia di Pisidia, Orientalia christiana analecta 288 (Rome 2011) S. Durugönül (ed.), Silifke Müzesi Taş Eserler Kataloğu (Mersin 2013) S. Durugönül et al., Tarsus Müzesi Taş Eserleri. Heykeltıraşlık ve Mimari Plastik Eserler (Istanbul 2016) F. Aytekin, Bursa Arkeoloji Müzesi Bizans Dönemi Mimari ve Litürjik İşlevli Yapısal Elemanları (Yüksek Lizans Tesis Anadolu Üniversitesi Eskişehir 2019) (https://tez.yok.gov.tr/UlusalTezMerkezi/giris.jsp)

W. Salzenberg, Alt-christliche Baudenkmale von Constantinopel vom 5. bis 12. Jahrhundert (Berlin 1854) H. C. Butler, Publications of an American Archaeological Expedition to Syria in 1899–1900: Architecture and Other Arts (New York 1903) A. Van Millingen, Byzantine Churches in Constantinople (London 1912) S. Guyer – E. Herzfeld, Meriamlik und Korykos. Zwei christliche Ruinenstätten des Rauhen Kilikiens, Monumenta Asiae Minoris antiqua 2 = Publications of the American Society for Archaeological Research in Asia Minor 2 (Manchester 1930) E. Mamboury – T. Wiegand, Die Kaiserpaläste von Konstantinopel zwischen Hippodrom und Marmara-Meer (Berlin 1934) E. Dyggve – R. Egger, Der altchristliche Friedhof Marusinac, Forschungen in Salona 3 (Vienna 1939) A. M. Schneider, Die Grabung im Westhof der Sophienkirche zu Istanbul, Istanbuler Forschungen 12 (Berlin 1941) G. Α. Sotiriou – M. Sotiriou, H Βασιλική του Αγίου Δημητρίου Θεσσαλονίκης, Βιβλιοθήκη της εν Αθήναις Αρχαιολογικής Εταιρείας 34 (Athens 1952) R. L. Scranton, Mediaeval Architecture in the Central Area of Corinth, Corinth 16 (Princeton NJ 1957) P. Angiolini Martinelli – R. Olivieri Farioli, Corpus della scultura paleocristiana bizantina ed altomedievale di Ravenna (Rome 1968–1969) F. W. Deichmann, Ravenna. Hautstadt des spätantiken Abendlandes (Wiesbaden 1969–1989) L. Bouras, Ο Γλυπτός Διάκοσμος του Ναού της Παναγίας στο Μοναστήρι του Οσίου Λουκά, Βιβλιοθήκη της εν Αθήναις Αρχαιολογικής Εταιρείας 95 (Athens 1980) F. W. Deichmann, Corpus der Kapitelle der Kirche von San Marco zu Venedig, Forschungen zur Kunstgeschichte und Christlichen Archäologie 12 (Wiesbaden 1981) N. Harrazi, Chapiteaux de la grande mosquée de Kairouan, Bibliothèque archéologique 4 (Tunis 1982) K. Kolokotsas – J.-P. Sodini, Aliki 2. La basilique double, Études thasiennes 10 (Athens 1984) R. M. Harrison, Excavations at Saraçhane in Istanbul 1 (Princeton NJ 1986) J. Wilkinson, Column Capitals in al Haram al Sharif (from 138 AD to 1118 AD) (Jerusalem 1987) V. Vemi, Les chapiteaux ioniques à imposte de Grèce à l’époque paléochrétienne, Bulletin de correspondance hellénique. Suppl. 17 (Athens 1989) E. Russo, Sculture del complesso Eufrasiano di Parenzo, Pubblicazioni dell’Università degli studi di Cassino. Sezione di studi filologici, letterari, storici, artistici e geografici 1 (Napoli 1991) F. Guidobaldi – C. Barsanti – A. Guiglia Guidobaldi, San Clemente. La scultura del 6 secolo, San Clemente Miscellany 4, 2 (Rome 1992) A. Naccache, Le décor des églises de villages d'Antiochène du 4e au 7e siècle, Bibliothèque archéologique et historique 144 (Paris 1992) C. Strube, Baudekoration im Nordsyrischen Kalksteinmassiv 1. 2, Damaszener Forschungen 5. 11 (Mainz 1993. 2002)

Introduction | 7

N. Duval – E. Marin – C. Metzger, Salona 1. Catalogue de la sculpture architecturale paléochrétienne de Salone, Collection de l'École française de Rome 194 (Rome 1994) T. Zollt, Kapitellplastik Konstantinopels vom 4. bis 6. Jahrhundert n. Chr. Mit einem Beitrag zur Untersuchung des ionischen Kämpferkapitells, Asia Minor Studien 14 (Bonn 1994) Y. Ötüken, Forschungen im nordwestlichen Kleinasien. Antike und byzantinische Denkmäler in der Provinz Bursa, Istanbuler Mitteilungen Beiheft 41 (Tübingen 1996) J. Kramer, Spätantike korinthische Säulenkapitelle in Rom. Bei S. Paolo fuori le Mura, in S. Maria in Domnica und andere, Spätantike – frühes Christentum – Byzanz B/3 (Wiesbaden 1997) G. Roux, La basilique de la Campanopétra, Salamine de Chypre 15 (Paris 1998) T. Pazaras, Τα Βυζαντινά Γλυπτά του Καθολικού της Μονής Βατοπεδίου (Thessaloniki 2001) E. Parman, Ortaçağda Bizans Döneminde Frigya (Phrygia) ve Bölge Müzelerindeki Bizans Taş Eserleri, T. C. Anadolu Üniversitesi Yayınları 1347 = Edebiyat Fakültesi Yayınları 11 (Eskişehir 2002) G. Brands, Die Bauornamentik von Resafa-Sergiupolis, Resafa 6 (Mainz 2002) N. V. Drandakis, Βυζαντινά Γλυπτά της Μάνης, Βιβλιοθήκη της εν Αθήναις Αρχαιολογικής Εταιρείας 222 (Athens 2002) P. Grossmann – H.-G. Severin, Frühchristliche und byzantinische Bauten im südöstlichen Lykien, Istanbuler Forschungen 46 (Tübingen 2003) K. Krumeich, Spätantike Bauskulptur aus Oxyrhynchos, Spätantike – frühes Christentum – Byzanz A/12 (Wiesbaden 2003) A. Guiglia Guidobaldi – C. Barsanti, Santa Sofia di Costantinopoli. L’arredo marmoreo della grande chiesa giustinianea, Studi di antichità cristiana 60 (Rome 2004) S. Filipova, Ranovyzantiskite Kapiteli vo Republika Makedonija (Skopje 2006) A. H. S. Megaw (ed.), Kourion. Excavations in the Episcopal Precinct (Washington DC 2007) M. Büyükkolancı – E. Russo, Sculture della prima basilica di San Giovanni a Efeso, Quaderni della Rivista di bizantinistica 15 (Spoleto 2010) E. Russo, Le decorazioni di Isidoro il Giovane per S. Sofia di Costantinopoli (Rome 2011) M. Beykan, Ionische Kapitelle auf Prokonnesos. Produktion und Export römischer Bauteile, Istanbuler Forschungen 53 (Tübingen 2012) A. Degasperi, Die Marienkirche in Ephesos. Die Bauskulptur aus frühchristlicher und byzantinischer Zeit, Österreichische Jahreshefte. Ergänzungshefte 14 (Vienna 2013) T. N. Pazaras, Μελέτες για τα Βυζαντινά Γλυπτά του Αγίου Óρους (Thessaloniki 2014) M. Çavdar, Kirklareli Vize’den Geç Antik – Bizans Dönemi Mimari Plastik Taş Eserler (MA-diss. Istanbul Teknik Uni 2014) E. Keskin, Küçük Asya’da Kutsal Kent Euchaita ve Bizans Dönemi Taş Eserleri ²(Ankara 2015) C. Barsanti – R. Flaminio – A. Guiglia, Corpus della scultura altomedievale 7. La diocesi di Roma. La 3 regione ecclesiastica (Spoleto 2015) P. Niewöhner, Die byzantinischen Basiliken von Milet, Milet 1, 11 (Berlin 2016)

K. Raptis, Αχειροποίητος Θεσσαλονίκης. Αρχιτεκτονική και Γλυπτός Διάκοσμος (Diss. Thessaloniki 2016) Ε. Militsi-Kechagia, Παλαιοχριστιανική Γλυπτική Κῶ, Δωδεκάνησος. Επίσημον Δελτίον των εν Δωδεκανήσω Επαρχιών του Οικουμενικού Θρόνου 9/17, 2017, 17–494 I. Matejčić – S. Mustač, Scultura dal IV al XIII secolo, Il patrimonio artistico della chiesa istriana (Parenzo 2017) A. Ç. Türker, Byzantine Architectural Sculpture in C̣ anakkale, Research into the Early Christian and Byzantine Periods on the Valleys that Reached the Hellespont 1 (Ankara 2018) K. Golan, Architectural Sculpture in the Byzantine Negev, Archaeology of the Biblical Worlds 3 (Berlin 2020)

8 | Introduction

Terminology Initially, Byzantine architectural sculpture followed the ancient tradition, and the same technical terms apply. A general modification that is employed throughout this volume concerns hook- or loop-shaped outer helices: they are distinguished from spiral volutes, as the former represented the tradition of the → Corinthian order, whilst the latter, in the Byzantine era, mostly related to the → Ionic order. New leaf types that emerged in the fourth century were first described in German, and Kautzsch‘s „Kapitellstudien“ (1936) established a systematic terminology. Kautzsch’s terms are widely employed, both in the original and in various translations, and thus are essential for an understanding of the scholarly literature. Therefore, they are here referenced in translation as well as in the original, including cases that do not seem to make much sense, e.g. the distinction between → broad-, → narrow-, and → many-pointed leaves. As to numerous new types of capitals that emerged following the gradual dissolution of the ancient canon, from the fifth century and especially in the sixth century, there are often several terms available for one and the same capital. For example, some → Outer Gate capitals may also be described as → Blattkelch capitals, → capitals with zoning, or → animal capitals. Other examples are → monogram capitals that may also be termed → kettle capitals, → impost capitals with paired branches, or → (framed or panelled) impost capitals. The choice of terminology may be informed by a focus on form or on decor, on tradition or on innovation, or on the intended contextualization with other capitals. Some decorative elements such as → green men, → cornucopias, and → tendrils are used both in combination with traditional concave abaci and on square → impost capitals. So far, it is often not clear whether the different variants were manufactured simultaneously or one after the other, what should be considered a generic term and what a sub-group, or whether one should instead think of a pool of different types and decorative elements that could be combined variously. The order in which the terms and capitals are presented in this volume is therefore only one possible reading, and numerous crossreferences to other terms and figures indicate various alternatives. Relatively recent research into the middle and late Byzantine periods has identified new developments, and the terminology is still in the process of being estab-

lished. The work of Dennert (1997) is fundamental, and his terms are here employed and translated, albeit with some simplifications that help to group the capitals with their models. For example, 'capitals with five cabochons' (German: Fünfbuckelkapitelle) and 'capitals with pentaomphalon decor' are here categorised as → framed impost capitals with interlace in order to bring out their close relationship to the decor of → barrier slabs. When it comes to church furnishings, ancient tradition played a minor part, and the terminology has been newly and specifically coined for Byzantine artefacts. Some of it is well-established, but other terms are more recent, with no previous English translation, e.g. → supporting ambo slabs (German: Ambotreppenstirnen) or → ambo platforms with 'ears'. As to German terms, the German edition of this book may be consulted for additional clarification. || Bibliography: Kautzsch, Kapitellstudien 1936; Dennert, Mittelbyzantinische Kapitelle 1997; Peschlow, Kapitell 2004; Niewöhner, Aizanoi 2007; J. J. Herrmann, Capital: Latin West, in P. C. Finney (ed.), The Eerdmans Encyclopedia of Early Christian Art and Archaeology (Grand Rapids MI 2017) 257–265

Introduction | 9

Chronology and Topography Architectural sculpture may be called Byzantine from the fourth century, when → Emperor Constantine the Great (306–337) established his residence at the ancient city of Byzantium that was henceforth called → Constantinople, modern Istanbul. This starting point makes sense, because the previous, Roman tradition had been disrupted during the crisis of the third century, and because, starting from the fourth century, new and especially Eastern influences came into play. The eastern part of the Roman empire prospered in the early Byzantine period, eastern workshops set the trends in Byzantine stone carving, most importantly → Docimium in → central Anatolia and → Proconnesus near Constantinople, and the East has also preserved the greatest amount of monuments. Therefore, the East takes centre stage in this volume, while → Rome and the upper Adriatic mainly occur as recipients of eastern influences and imports (Fig. 41, 112, 180, 181, 198, 204,

205, 236, 242–245, 288, 319, 323, 359, 360, 397, 404, 426, 428, 451). Other western provinces such as Spain, which did not play any major part in the Byzantine development, neither as contributor nor as recipient, are not taken into consideration. The Byzantine millennium is here subdivided into the early period from the fourth to the seventh century and a 'later' period up to the Turkish conquest of Constantinople in 1453. During the early Byzantine period, formal development was continuous and can thus be further subdivided into the earlier fourth, the later fourth and fifth, as well as the sixth century. The 'later' Byzantine period after the seventh century, which historians usually subdivide into the middle and late Byzantine periods before and after the Latin conquest of Constantinople (1204), has produced relatively little new architectural sculpture. It shows no stringent chronological development suitable for further subdivision. Instead, early Byzantine forms and in particular the sixth century were regurgitated at all ‘later‘ times, for example → impost capitals with Cornucopias and → impost capitals with vine leaves and pine cones. Alternatively, some later sculpture appears to have adopted decorative schemes from church furnishings, e.g. → impost capitals with bevelled edges, → framed impost capitals with interlace, and → impost capitals with repeat patterns. In order to make these relationships visible, the 'later' capitals are discussed and illustrated next to their models, either early Byzantine capitals or church furnishings.

As to church furnishings themselves, early Byzantine carvings can be distinguished from 'later' works. A more precise typo-chronology does not seem possible yet, but may emerge, once a greater number of precisely dated monuments becomes available. In contrast, their topographical distribution is already well known; it reveals significant differences for the early Byzantine period, when the liturgy appears to have varied in different regions of the vast empire. This seems to be reflected in different liturgical furnishings, e.g. → Syrian bemas versus → ambos. Moreover, some church furnishings, whilst functionally equivalent, differed in decor only, for example various early Byzantine ambos with two flights of stairs, each of a particular provincial type; the conclusion must again be that, in the early Byzantine period, church furnishings were even more varied from province to province than architectural sculpture. || Bibliography: J. J. Herrmann, Capital: Latin West, in P. C. Finney (ed.), The Eerdmans Encyclopedia of Early Christian Art and Archaeology (Grand Rapids MI 2017) 257–265; F. Schlimbach, Die Kapitelle in Reccesvinths Basilika. Zur Verwendung von Spolien im 7. Jahrhundert, in: S. Panzram (ed.), Oppidum – Civitas – Urbs, Geschichte und Kultur der iberischen Welt 13 (Berlin 2017) 519–534

10 | Introdduction

Early B Byzantine P Period

Fig. 1: Left fragm ment of a fine-toothed frieze of sta anding leaves witth a flanking pair o of eagles, from Esskişehir/Dorylaeu um in Phrygia (central Anatolia a), Museum Kütahya inv. 1096 (Niewöhner 2001)

Fig. 2: Right frag gment of the sam me frieze as in Fig. 1 (Niewöhner 200 01)

The earrly Byzantine period from tthe fourth to the t seventh ceentury set in w with the Tetra archs and the → Constantiniian dynasty. Their rule co onstituted a turning point aw way from the p preceding Rom man period in so s far as the prod duction of arcchitectural scu ulpture was disscontinued, ma arble → quarrries were aban ndoned, and → workshop tra aditions lapsed (→ Proconneesus, → Sivec)). When a new b building boom m set in under → Emperor Th heodosius I and d his dynasty, starting in th he late fourth century, c → Rome no longer p played a leadiing role. Insteead, the new ca apital → Consttantinople wass styled in a fashion that ha ad been estab blished by pro ovincial quarriies and workshops at → Docim mium in → cen ntral Anatolia. Later, in the fifth h and 6th centu uries, Constan ntinople and thee neighbourin ng quarry isla and of Procon nnesus, which h had been re-acctivated in the late fourth cen ntury to furnish the new capital, took the lead; they prroduced many in nnovations an nd exported larrge quantities of marbles forr imperial and d other founda ations through hout the Mediterrranean region n. This influeenced provinciial production n, has led to ccountless Procconnesian marrbles in museum m collections a around the anccient world, an nd dominates tthe → history o of research. Ass a result, the ProconP nesian//Constantinopo olitan producttion usually seerves as a standard point of reeference. At tthe same time,, the early Byzzantine period was also charracterised by a great variety of more or lesss independen nt provincial sttyles, for exam mple in → Greeece, the → centtral Balkans, → western A Asia Minor, → Lycia, → Ciliciia, → Syria, an nd → Egypt. P Provincial disttinction appearss to have been n important and sought afterr, e.g. in the casee of → Carian and of → centtral Anatolian ambos. This wa as not least beccause most architectural scu ulpture, as welll as liturgicall furnishings, was now ma ade for churchees that did no ot strive to em mulate the capiital city but their respective p provincial mettropolis or som me such focal po oint of local relligiosity. || | Bibliogra aphy: T. Ulbert, Untersuchungen n zu den byzanttinischen Reliefplatten des 6. bis 8. Jahrhunderts,, Istanbuler Mittteilungen 969/70, 339–357 7; Strube, Polyeuktoskirche 1984 19/20, 19

Fig. 3: Pair of su upporting ambo slabs, s each with a shell and a heraldic eagle, b between two mulllions, re-used at a Turkish fountain, all local ma arbles, Kureyşlerr near Aezani in P Phrygia, central Anatolia (Niewöhner 2002)

Fig. 1–2: Niewöhner, Steinmetzarbeiten K Kütahya 2006, 458 cat. 89 fig. 52 f. Fig. 3: N Niewöhner, Aizanoi 2007, 215 ff. 253. cat 97. 98. 308 pl. 11. 31

Introduction | 11

M Middle and LLate Byzanttine Periodss Th he middle Byyzantine perio od followed up pon a hiatus du uring the Perrsian and Ara ab Wars (seveenth to ninth ceenturies), afteer which it reesorted to earrly Byzantine fo orms, especiallly those of th he sixth centu ury. This may no ot least have b been owing to the fact that cchurches had beecome relativeely small, and d their limited requirements fo or architectura al sculpture were w often met with re-used ca arvings from th he early Byzan ntine period. Probably fo or the same reeason, there w was no further sttylistic develop pment, and la ate Byzantine ccarvings from th he period afterr the Latin rulee (1204–1261) ccan hardly be diistinguished ffrom middle Byzantine B pieeces. Instead, id dentification sseems to havee remained w with the early Byyzantine heyd day that contin nued to be em mulated at all times. In contrast to the early Byzantine B perio od, provincial marginal roless (→ Greece and → central sttyles played m A Anatolia), possiibly because th he provinces h had lost some off their former iimportance an nd provincial b building activityy was much reduced. Mid ddle Byzantinee → templon ep pistyles form a an exception in i that they w were carved in la arge numbers and apparentlly without direect early Byzan ntine models, but many may y only have replaced wooden n predecessorss.

Fig. 4: Eagle e and head capital, bearded, Musseum Konya in ce entral Anatolia, in nv. 1980.12.1 (Nie ewöhner 2008)

| || Biibliography: Grabar, Sculptures Moyen M Âge 1976; E. Barsanti, La sccultura mediobizantina fra tradizione e innovazio one, in: F. Conca – G. Ficcadori (ed d.), Bisanzio nelll’età dei Macedo oni, Quaderni di 007) 5–49 Accme 87 (Milan 20 Fig. 4: Dennert, M Mittelbyzantinische Kapitelle 199 97, 217 cat. 325 pll. 58 Fig. 5: A. Ödekan n (ed.), The Remnants. 12th and 13th Centuries Byyzantine Objects in Turkey (Istanb bul 2007) 245 Fig. 6: A. Papalexa androu, The Church of the Virgin o of Skripou (Diss. Prrinceton 1998) Fig. 5: Barriier slab with interrlace and heraldiic eagle clawing a rabbit, Musseum Iznik in wesstern Asia Minor, inv. 4748 (Weber 200 05)

Fig. 6: Grapevine sscroll with flankin ng eagles that ho old snakes in theiir beaks, Theotok kos of Skripou in Boeotia (central Greece), 873/874 4 AD Kramer 1966) (K

12 | Introdduction

Archittectural Scu ulpture

Fig. 7: Pilaster ccapital with kanth haros, caules with h bird heads es, corner leaves, and flowers on the abacus, from m instead of helice Basilica C at Nea a Anchialos/Theb bes in Thessaly (ccentral Greece), Byzantine Muse eum Athens inv. ΒΜ Β 2552, T 37 (Pe eschlow)

Byzantiine architectu ural sculpture was principa ally focused u upon the deccoration of column capita als. The → Consttantinian era stands out forr the developm ment of new lea af types and ttheir combinattion according g to the principlle of → varieta as, all of whicch seems to ha ave disseminatted from → D Docimium in → central Anatolia. Later, iin the → Theo odosian era, D Docimium wass apparently a also instrumen ntal in revivin ng the producction at → Proco onnesus/Consttantinople tha at thereafter to ook over as geneerator of innova ations. Thee main tasks w were church in nteriors with arcades a and difffuse light. This can explain why → column bases and → entablatures d declined, as th hey were ill-su uited to such a an environment. In contra ast, → impossts and → openwork emerged d as suitable in nnovations. Ev ventually, the ancient orderss became mea aningless and,, by the sixth ceentury, were ssuperseded byy → melon and d → impost cap pitals. Mid ddle and late Byzantine ch hurches were smaller and req quired less arcchitectural scu ulpture that wa as often → re-ussed from the eearly Byzantine period. Perh haps for the sam me reason, new w carvings tend ded to also imiitate the earlier p period, especia ally the sixth ccentury. || | Bibliogra aphy: Vanderheyyde – Penna, Scculpture 2008; J. J. Herrmann, Scculpture and Orna ament: Architectural, in: P. C. Finn ney (ed.), The Eerdmans Encycloped dia of Early Chrisstian Art and Arch haeology 81–484 (Grand Rapids MI 2017) 48

Fig. 8: Impost ca apital with herald dic eagle, Ayasofyya Museum Istan nbul inv. 157 (Kramer 1970/71)

Fig. 7: M M. Sklavou Maurroeidi, Γλυπτά το ου Βυζαντινού Μουσείου Μ Αθηνών ((Athens 1999) 80 cat. 109 Fig. 8: Ba arsanti – Guiglia,, Ayasofya Müzessi 2010, 103 f. fig.. 112 Fig. 9: Scchneider, Grabun ng Westhof Sophiienkirche 1941, pl. 17, 1

Fig. 9: Architrave block with a frieze of lambs, from the Theodosia an portico of Hagiia Sophia at Istan nbul, inaugurated d in 415 AD (Niewöhner 200 07)

Introduction | 13

Liturgical Fu urnishings Ch hurch furnishiings included the → altar, a surrounding ch hancel barrierr, the so-called d templon and d predecessor off the iconostassis, i.e. → ambo os that served as pulpits for th he reading of tthe gospel, as well w as – in so ome regions – m monolithic → ba aptismal fontss. Their decor w was essentiallyy a new inventtion of Christia an times. It wa as influenced frrom architectu ural sculpture, e.g. → soffits (Fig. 11, 341, 3778), and from other church h decor, e.g. flloor mosaics. Sttylistic dating is rarely posssible, for exam mple through da atable elemen nts of architeectural sculptture such as → semi-cylindriical moulding gs (Fig. 335, 384, 389) or → rows of stand ding leaves (F Fig. 335, 366). → Donor insccriptions and figural decorr with anima als (→ eagles [F Fig. 3, 5, 11, 119 9, 122, 128], → peacocks [Fig. 25, 374, 382, 4228]), rarely witth human figu ures, may also have chronolo ogical significa ance. Differencess between provinces could reflect differen nt liturgical prractices, e.g. ambos a and → S Syrian bemas. O Other features changed overr time: the introduction of ch hild baptism made large baptismal b fontts redundant, an nd the smallerr size of middlee Byzantine ch hurches led to th he eventual ab bandonment off large stone a ambos. In this an nd other wayys, later-period d church furn nishings were m more experimeental and inn novative than n later-period arrchitectural scculpture, for ex xample → kno otted columns an nd the decor o of → barrier slabs s as well a as → templon ep pistyles (Fig. 12).

Fig. 10: Barrier slab with lozenge, hen, and h handrail with donor inπερί ευχ)ής Ευκαρ ρπίου κ(αι) Ε…..ΙΟ ΟΥΕΠΙΚΛ…, Museu um scription (π Afyon in cen ntral Anatolia (Niewöhner 2020)

| || Biibliography: Sto oufi-Poulimenou,, Φράγμα 1999; Kontogiannopo oulou, Τέμπλα 20 014 Fig. 11: F. Önengutt – P. Serdar, Sto oneworks with An nimal Motifs, in: H. Öniz (ed.), Soma 11, BAR Interrnational Series P.. M. Militello – H 26 695 (Oxford 2015) 865–869 fig. 2 Fig. 12: A. H. S. Megaw, The Skripou Screen, Annu ual of the British 61, 1966, 1–32 pl.. 1 d Scchool at Athens 6 Fig. 11: Tem mplon posts with a soffit and an Atttic column base (left) as well as w with a cross, a rossette, a pair of birds, and a huntin ng eagle (rightt), Museum Side in Pamphylia, southern Asia Mino or (Kramer)

FFig. 12: Templon e epistyle block with medallions, winged quadrupeds, and d a pair of ntral kantharos, broken b on birds with a cen the right, Theoto okos of Skripou in Boeotia (ccentral Greece), 8 873/874 AD (Kram mer 1966)

Column Capitals – Earlier Fourth Century

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110690477-002

16 | Colum mn Capitals – Earrlier Fourth Centu ury

Emperror Constan ntine the Grreat

Fig. 13: Constantine’s Christ Chu urch, today San Giovanni, at the e, built with ancie ent column shaftss and various reLateran in Rome used capitals, detail of a fresco by b Filippo Gagliarrdi (ca. 1606– 1659) in San Ma artino ai Monti in Rome (Wikimedia a Commons)

The reiign of Constan ntine the Grea at (306–337) and a his successsors was poor iin new marblee carvings. Thiss is true both for → Rome and d for the new imperial resid dence at → Consttantinople as well as for old d provincial metropom lises in → western Asiia Minor. Marb ble → quarries such as → Procconnesus and → Sivec mayy have ceased d operations. H However, somee provincial → workshops ev vidently continu ued production n, notably in → Syria and at a → Docimium m in → central A Anatolia. Thee Constantinian churches at Rome were bu uilt with → re-ussed ancient ccolumns (Fig. 13). They combined differen nt capitals, wh hich may partlyy have been owing to a lack o of uniform series, but was alsso in accordan nce with a new ffashion that is called → varietas and know wn from Syria (F Fig. 14) and D Docimium (Fiig. 15), where it was applied d to newly mad de carvings. al sculpture su Wh hat architectura urvives from th he Constantiniian era appea ars to have m mostly been made m or influencced by Eastern n provinces. T This may not least l be owing tto a lack of old d stocks there that could be re-used like at R Rome, meanin ng that the Eastern provincess had to carve an new and thus iinevitably produced innovattions. || | Bibliogra aphy: Strube, Baudekoration Kalk ksteinmassiv 199 93. 2002, vol. 1; H. Brandenburg, TThe Use of Older Elements in the Architecourth- and Fifth-C n: R. Brilliant – D. D Kinney ture of Fo Century Rome, in (ed.), Reuse Value. Spoliia and Appropria ation in Art and Architecnham 2011) 53–73 ture (Farn

Fig. 14: Basilica church of Musha abbak among the e Dead Cities in th he ne Massif (cf. Fig. 462) with variou us newly-carved Syrian Limeston column capitalss (Wikimedia Com mmons)

Fig. 13: A A. B. Sutherland, The Decoration o of San Martino ai Monti 2, The Burlington Magazine 106/732, 1964, 1114–121, at 121 fig g. 21 Strube, Baudekorration Kalksteinm massiv 1993. 200 02, vol. 2 Fig. 14: S p. 189–19 95 pl. 135–141 Fig. 15: N Niewöhner, Steinm metzarbeiten Küttahya 2006, 455 f. cat. 84 fig. 49

Fig. 15: C Corinthian pilaste er capital with a fiine-toothed midd dle leaf and soft--pointed corner le eaves, from Emiig gazi in Phrygia (ccentral Anatolia)), Museum Kütahya inv. 6789 (Nie ewöhner 2001)

Column Capitals – Earlier Fo ourth Century | 17

H Honorific Co olumns M Monumental co olumns in hon nour of early B Byzantine empeerors stood att → Constantin nople (Fig. 16, 18, 56, 107) an nd occasionallly also in pro ovincial cities (Fig. 17, 304, 30 06). They werre colossal in size, typicallyy crowned by sttatues, and offten had special shafts and capitals. The sh hafts could be distinguished d by noble materials such as po orphyry (Fig. 16) or granitte (Fig. 18) as well as by w wreaths (Fig. 16 6) or striation (Fig. ( 17). The column n capitals stan nd out through h size and asso ociated formall peculiarities (Fig. 56, 107),, and some of th hem have or h had → monogra ams (Fig. 17). For the same reeason, some sttray finds can also be attribu uted to honoriffic columns (Fiig. 304, 306). | || Biibliography: P. Y Yoncacı Arslan, To owards a New Ho onorific Column: th he Column of Co onstantine in Earrly Byzantine Urb ban Landscape, M METU Journal of tthe Faculty of Arrchitecture 33/1, 2016, 121–145; U.. Peschlow, Am K Kai von Konstantiinopel, in: M. Korres – S. Mamalo oukos – K. Zampas – P. Mallouch hou-Tufano (ed.)), Ηρως Κτίστης. Μ Μνήμη Χαράλαμπο ου Μπούρα (Athens 2018) vol. 2 p.. 439–458

Fig. 16: Hon norific column fo or Constantine the e Great at Istanbu ul, erected in 3 328, the porphyryy shaft with laure el wreath, the marble top with insscription of empe eror Manuel I Kom mnenos (1143–118 80) (Niewöhnerr 2010)

Fig. 16: C. A. Mango, Constantine e's Column, in: id., Studies on Co onstantinople, Variorum Collecte ed Studies 394 (A Aldershot 1993) ch hapter 3 Fig. 17: A. Taddei, A chi attribuire la cosiddetta ‚co olonna di Giuliao‘ ad Ankara?, in n: S. Cosentino – M. E. Pomero – G. Vespignani no (e ed.), Dialoghi con n Bisanzio, Quaderni della Rivista a di bizantinistica a 20 (Spoleto 20119) 1039–1052 Fig. 18: M. Jordan--Ruwe, Das Säulenmonument (Bo onn 1995) 170 f. pll. 20, 1 f.

Fig. 17: Honorific ccolumn at Ankara, the capital with a middle meallion and soft-po ointed corner leavves, the shaft witth striation, da prrobably sixth cen ntury (Peschlow)

Fig. 18: Hon norific column forr emperor Marcia an at Istanbul, mid-fifth century, gra anite shaft, Corin nthian capital with narrow-pointed d leaves, the statue base abovve with heraldic e eagles (Wikimediia Commons)

18 | Colum mn Capitals – Earrlier Fourth Centu ury

Humpy/Spiky Fin ne-Toothed Leaves Humpyy or spiky fin ne-toothed (Geerman: buckeel- oder dornenfförmig feingezzahnt) leaves differ from → fat or jagged ffine-toothed leeaves in that th heir outline is formed by roun nd drill holes and thorny teeeth. In additiion, the surface of the blade is typically sm mooth and un nmoved, except ffor a deep centtre groove or m midvein. Succh leaves weree carved at → D Docimium on th he Anatolian p plateau and a are best know wn from late Roman column nar sarcophagii (Fig. 19) and pilaster capitals that were ex xported to the Mediterranea an basin. The producp tion of columnar sarrcophagi endeed in the lateer third centuryy, but pilaster capitals contiinued to be ex xported through hout the early Byzantine period, typically as a parts of wall revetment, ffor which Doccimium remained famous. Oth her architecturral sculpture and church furnishf ings wiith this type o of leaf were prrimarily markeeted regionallyy in → central Anatolia (Fig.. 20). In the co ourse of the fourrth century, th he humpy or sp piky fine-tooth hed leaf was rep placed by the fa at or jagged va ariant. || | Bibliogra aphy: Kramer, P Pilasterkapitelle 1994, 26; J. Rohmann, R Einige Be emerkungen zum m Ursprung des feingezahnten Akanthus, A Istanbule er Mitteilungen 4 45, 1995, 109–1211 Fig. 19: H H. Wiegartz, Klein nasiatische Säule ensarkophage, Isstanbuler Forschun ngen 26 (Berlin 19 965) 156 f. Fig. 20: I. H. Mert – P. Nie ewöhner, Blattka apitelle in Konya, Istanbuler Mitteiilungen 60, 2010, 373–410, at 396 6 f. cat. 8 fig. 21

Fig. 19: Column capital and span ndrel of a late Rom man columnar sarSidamaria/Amba ar in Lycaonia (central Anatolia), cophagus from S Museum Istanbu ul inv. 1179 (Niew wöhner 2008)

Fig. 20: Late e Roman Corinthiian column capita al with wind-blow wn leavves from Sidamarria/Ambar, Muse eum Konya inv. 27 78 (Niewöhner 2008)

Column Capitals – Earlier Fo ourth Century | 19

Fa at/Jagged FFine-Toothe ed Leaves Th he fat or jagg ged fine-tootheed (German: ffett/zackig feingezahnt) lea af reeplaced its preedecessor, the → humpy or spiky fine-tooth hed leaf, in thee co ourse of the ffourth century y. The new lea af was chiselleed rather than n drrilled, and thee teeth do not appear a thorny any more, but fat, thus add din ng up to a jagged contour. The chisel w work also inclludes the surfface of the bla ade that is now w tyypically alive w with veins, an nd lobes or lea aflets may app pear as if overrla apping one an nother. Lower lobes in particcular are often n split and fan n ou ut into several fingers (Fig. 21, 24, 174, 1775). The inner teeth of loweer lo obes sometimees curve upwa ards and encllose ‘eyes’ (Fiig. 21, 24) likee → pointed mask k leaves. In the fourtth century, thee new type of lleaf was first d developed from m its humpy or sp piky predecessor at → Docimium in → ceentral Anatolia a (F Fig. 1, 2, 15, 21,, 24, 26, 44, 50, 349, 402, 4077). Starting in tthe fifth centu uryy, it was also a adopted by → Proconnesus/C P Constantinoplee (and by → Siiveec [Fig. 119, 1224, 127, 128]), where w it was then enriched with new variian nts, i.e. → win nd-blown, → bu utterfly, → dou uble, → rimmeed, and → vineelik ke leaves. All rremained in usse throughout the sixth century. Early carvings from fourrth-century Do ocimium, wheere production n ru uns were loweer than later att Proconnesus,, typically stan nd out through h pa articularly deeep relief and hiigh plasticity ((Fig. 349, 402)..

n capital, Museum m Fig. 21: Composite column ntral Anatolia (Pe eschlow 1998) Afyon, cen

| || Biibliography: J. Sttrzygowski, Die Akropolis A in altbyyzantinischer Zeiit, Athener Mitteiilu ungen 14, 1889, 271–296, at 280; P. Niewöhnerr, Production an nd Distribution o of Do ocimian Marble in the Theodosian n Age, in: I. Jacob bs (ed.), Productio on and Prosperity in n the Theodosian n Age, Interdiscip plinary Studies in n Ancient Culture e and Religion 14 4 –271 (LLeuven 2014) 251– Fig. 21 and 23: Nie ewöhner, Aizanoi 2007, 288. 291 ccat. 448. 461 pl. 555. 57 useum 2003, 274 4 fig. 27 Fig. 22: Barsanti, Iznik-Nicaea's Mu

Fig. 22: Co orinthian pilaster capital with con ntrariwise wind d-blown fine-tooth hed leaves, Muse eum Iznik, wesstern Asia Minor ((Peschlow 1983)

Fig. 23: Co orinthian pilasterr capital and, abo ove, a fragment of a middle Byzantine templon ep piused as key stone e in the historic centre style, re-u of Antalya a (Niewöhner 200 01)

20 | Colum mn Capitals – Earrlier Fourth Centu ury

Docim mium

Fig. 24: Large Co orinthian pilasterr capital with fine e-toothed leaves,, Docimian marble, Museum Istanbul (Niewöhner 2 2009)

g ambo slab with peacock and cha amplevé, from Fig. 25: Flanking Aezani in Phrygiia (central Anatollia), Museum Kütahya inv. 7652 (Niewöhner 200 01)

The anccient marble → quarries of D Docimium in → central Anatolia were famou us for coloureed marbles tha at were highly vvalued for walll revetment an nd exported near and far, inclluding to the M Mediterranean n basin. The co olourful revetmeent came with h white pilasteers, also from DocimiD um, an nd their capittals are distributed equallly wide (Fig. 15,, 24, 28, 29, 4 44, 48, 50, 10 04). Otherwisee, white Docimia an marble wa as seldom exp ported as far as the Mediterrranean Sea, where other white marblees were more reeadily availablle, but served mostly to sup pply the Anatolian plateau. Thu us, Docimium produced relatively small am mounts, but to a high standarrd, and, durin ng the fourth century, c created several new leaf types: → stiff- (Fig. 27, 28, 29) and → ssoft-pointed (F Fig. 15), → fine-toothed (Fig. 1, 2, 15, 21, 24, 226, 44, 50, 349 9, 402, 407), → broad- (Fig. 29, 44, 46, 4677) and → narrrow- (Fig. 46 6, 48, 51) as well as → manyy-pointed (Fig g. 104). All bu ut the first kin nd were later ad dopted at → Prroconnesus/Co onstantinople, where, starting g from the → T Theodosian perriod, they were massproduceed, vulgarised d, and distrib buted throughout the Mediterrranean region n. In the fifth and sixth centuriees, Proconnessus was leading g, and Docimiu um followed suit, e.g. → com mposite (Fig. 21) and → Theodosian capitalls (Fig. 175), → windblown, → butterfly (F Fig. 187), → do ouble, and → rimmed r leaves ((Fig. 187), as w well as → Outeer Gate, → corn nucopia (Fig. 2122, 286), and vvarious → impo ost capitals (F Fig. 286, 306). Th he exact conccordance of ca arvings from the t two → work kshops suggestts close relatio ons, possibly because b they weere both admin nistrated by thee imperial esta ate. In contrast, churrch furnishing gs of Docimiu um and central Anatolia rem mained indep pendent. They y were charactterised by a sp pecial type off → central An natolian ambo, b by → champleevé (Fig. 25, 36 65, 393, 395), and by small D Docimian capiitals that werre employed even e in rural arreas (Fig. 26, 407, 467), wh here they werre combined w with colonnettees of local marrble (Fig. 403). || | Bibliogra aphy: J. C. Fant, C Cavum Antrum Ph hrygiae. The Orga anization and Operations of the Ro oman Imperial Marble Quarries in n Phrygia (Oxford 11989); Niewöhnerr, Aizanoi 2007

Fig. 26: Small Corinthian column n capital with fine e-toothed leaves,, from Pullar nearr Aezani in Phrygiia, probably part of liturgical furnishings, Museu um Kütahya inv. 854 8 (Niewöhner 2 2002)

Fig. 24: P. Niewöhner – W. Prochaska a, Ein frühbyzan ntinischer Großbau mit Wandverkleiidung aus dokim mischem Marmor, Istanbuler Mitteiilungen 59, 2009 9, 453–458 Fig. 25–2 26: Niewöhner, A Aizanoi 2007, 271 cat. 364. 381 pl. 42. 45

Column Capitals – Earlier Fo ourth Century | 21

S Stiff-Pointed d Leaves Sttiff-pointed (G German: starrza ackig) leaves a are characterissed by stiffly fa anned out leaff tips or ‘pointss’. The tips do no ot abut as in tthe case of → soft-pointed leeaves, nor do th hey enclose ‘eyyes’ as do → broadb and → n narrow-pointed d leaves. Outer tips of adjjacent leaves are typically → touching (Fig g. 27–29). Stiff-pointeed leaves appeear to have continued from th he standard leeaves of Roma an times (Fig. 30) and were tyypically emplo oyed, where earlier e worksh hop traditions co ontinued into the fourth cen ntury, including on → Corinth hian capitals w with reduced apparatus a (no inner helices ettc.) and in parrticular at → Docimium D in → central Anato olia (Fig. 27–229). Initially, the t use of th he older stiffpo ointed leaf an nd newly-inven nted soft-, bro oad-, and narro ow-pointed lea aves overlapped in time, an nd they were em mployed nextt to each oth her on the sa ame carvings (F Fig. 29 → varietas). Later, only the stiff-poiinted leaf was no ot adopted by → Proconnesu us/Constantin nople and was co ompletely aban ndoned by thee fifth century.

Fig. 27: Corrinthian column ccapital, Museum Konya in central Anatolia, inv. 62 (Niewöhner 2008)

| || Biibliography: P. P Pensabene, La decorazione d arch hitettonica, l'impiiego del marmo e l'importazione di manufatti orie entali a Roma, in Ita alia e in Africa (2 2–6 d.C.), in: A. Giardina, (ed.), Le merci, gli inse ediamenti (Laterzza 1986) 285–429; J. Kramer, Die e beiden spätantik ken Kapitelle in S St. Gereon zu Kö öln, Kölner Jahrbu uch für Vor- und Frrühgeschichte 24 4, 1991, 297–349 Fig. 27: I. H. Mert – P. Niewöhner, Blattkapitelle in Konya, Istanbuer Mitteilungen 60 0, 2010, 373–410 0, at 398 f. cat. 111 fig. 24 le Fig. 28: Niewöhner, Aizanoi 2007, 269 2 cat. 355 pl. 4 41 Fig. 29: P. Niewöh hner, Der frühbyzzantinische Rundbau beim Myrela aion in Konstantiinopel. Kapitelle e, Mosaiken und Ziegelstempel, Istanbuler Mitteilu ungen 60, 2010, 411–459, 4 at 448 ccat. 4 fig. 26

entral Fig. 28: Corrinthian pilaster ccapital, from Aezani in Phrygia (ce Anatolia), M Museum Kütahya inv. 8559 (Niewö öhner 2001)

Fig. 29: Pila aster capital with h stiff-pointed mid ddle leaf and bro oadpointed corrner leaf (left), bro oken on the rightt and on top, Doccimian marble, from m the Theodosian palace rotunda a at the Myrelaion n in Istanbul, Museum Istanbul iinv. 6071 (Niewöh hner 2009)

22 | Colum mn Capitals – Earrlier Fourth Centu ury

Syria

Fig. 30: Corinthiian column capita al, limestone, Baptistery of Qalat Siman (Gloc 198 85)

Local → workshops of Syria and – closely related – northerrn Mesopotam mia employed llimestone, con ntinued in unbrroken tradition n from the Rom man period, and a displayed a high degreee of regional au utonomy. Likee → Cilicia and d → Lycia, theey developed their own ty ypes of leaves iin accordancee with local tra aditions (Fig. 31, 32), with th he same tendeency towards → touching leeaf tips and → sscrollwork, bu ut independenttly of → Docim mium or → Proco onnesus. Neith her → impostss nor → Ionic or o other → impo ost capitals werre adopted. Furrther regional peculiarities a are attested alrready in the fou urth century or in Roman trradition, earlier than comparrable features in other regions that had no o intact ded on reviva tradition and depend alist influencees from Proconn nesus/Constan ntinople. Syria a thus stands out for traditional → varieta as (Fig. 14), → wind-blown n leaves (Fig. 31), → rows of sstanding leavees (Fig. 449), → schematic ca apitals (Fig. 34 4), and so-calleed Tuscan capitals. Thee liturgical furn nishings had ssimilarly auton nomous and ind dependent tra aits, for exam mple → Syrian bemas instead of → ambos. || | Bibliogra aphy: C. Strube, Die Kapitelle von n Qasr ibn Warda an. Antiochia und d Konstantinopell im 6. Jahrhund dert, Jahrbuch fü ür Antike und Christentum 26, 198 83, 59–106; A. Na accache – J.-P. Sodini, S Le décor arcchitectural en Syyrie byzantine, in: J.-M. Dentzer – W. Orthmann (ed.), Archéologie et histoire de la Syrie 2 (Saarbrücken 1989) 477–490; Brands, B Bauornamentik R Resafa-Sergiupoliis 2002 Fig. 30: Cf. Strube, Baudekoration Kalksteinmassiv 199 93. 2002, vol. 1 p. 2 243 pl. 109 a Fig. 31–3 32: Strube, Baudekoration Kalkssteinmassiv 1993. 2002, vol. 1 p. 2 205–252 pl. 86 a;; 108 d

Fig. 31: Wind-blo own Corinthian column capital, lim mestone, northerrn basilica of the cross church at Qa alat Siman (Kaffe enberger)

Fig. 32: Impost (cornice) a at the northern sp pringing of the ap pse vault in the eastern basilica of the cross church at Qalat Siman, limeeschlow) stone (Pe

Column Cap pitals – Earlier Fo ourth Century | 23

S Schematic C Capitals O Originally, scheematic capitalss seem to have been unfinisshed carvings,, and at Consttantinople theey were often em mployed in ciisterns (Fig. 36). 3 However, by the early Byyzantine perio od, the schema atic rendering of leaves had beecome a style in its own rig ght, as also ha appened with → simplified column bases. Schematic capittals were particularly well-su uited to coarsse materials su uch as basalt th hat did not leend itself to the t carving off filigree leaf sttructures. At Rome, scchematic capittals had been ccommon from th he Imperial peeriod and conttinued to be p produced into th he fifth centu ury. Some adh hered to the → Corinthian orrder, others w were → composite, and all w were typically em mployed in ssecondary possitions (Fig. 333). In Syria, no orthern Mesop potamia, and beyond, b schem matic capitals w were wide-spread, continued d to be carved until the seven nth century, a and were used for the nave ccolonnades of m major churchess (Fig. 34), e..g. St Catherin ne on Mount Siinai.

Fig. 33: Com mposite schematic column capital, at San Paolo fuori le murra in Rome (Kramer 1966)

| || Biibliography: Herrmann, Schematic Composite Capital 1973; A.. Guiglia Guidoba aldi, I capitelli della d basilica giu ustinianea della Th heotokos, oggi die S. Caterina, su ul Monte Sinai, in n: F. De Maffei – C.. Barsanti – A. G Guiglia Guidoballdi (ed.), Costanttinopoli e l'arte de elle province orie entali, Milion 2 (R Rome 1990) 265–3 342 Fig. 33: H. Brande enburg, Die Architektur und Bauskulptur von San Pa aolo fuori le mu ura, Römische Mitteilungen M 115, 2009, 143–201 fig g. 3–6. 34–37 is 2002, 30–34 Fig. 34: Brands, B Bauornamentik Resafa-Sergiupol R pll. 11 d Fig. 35: A. Pralon ng, Remarques sur les chapitea aux corinthiens ta ardifs en marbre de Proconnèse, in: L'acanthe da ans la sculpture monumentale de l'antiquité à la Re enaissance (Pariss 1993) 133–146, att 145 fig. 25 Fig. 36: Betsch, History 1977, 50–59 fig. 3 f.

apital (with v-leatthery leaves) Fig. 35: Schematicc (lyre-) column ca an nd central cross, Museum Silifke in i Cilicia (Niewöh hner 2002)

Fig. 34: Corrinthian schematic column capitall with dedicatory inscription below the abacus, limestone, Bassilica A in Resafa/ Sergioupoliis in northern Me esopotamia (Weber)

Fig. 36: Sch hematic column ccapital and imposst, cistern no. 8 in Istanbul (Peschlow)

24 | Colum mn Capitals – Earrlier Fourth Centu ury

Soft-P Pointed Leavves

Fig. 37: Theodossian column capital (left, upside d down) and Corinthian pilaster ca apital with a central double leaf an nd a soft-pointed d corner leaf (on the right, the left one broken off), Ayathekla/MeSeleucia/Silifke in Cilicia Trachea a (Peschlow) riamlik outside S

Soft-poiinted (German n: weichzackig) leaves diffeer from → stiff-,, → broad-, an nd → narrow-p pointed leaves in that they ha ave swelling tip ps or ‘points’ tthat abut and enclose narrow slits (rather th han round ‘eyyes’ as do broa ad- and narrow--pointed leavees). Outer tips o of adjacent lea aves are typicallly → touching. Sofft-pointed leavves occur alm most exclusiv vely on → Corin nthian capitalss with reduced d apparatus (n no inner helices etc.). They arre not attested d for the navee colonnade off any church, only in secon ndary positionss, porticoes an nd the like, whiich suggests a relatively low status. Thee leaf type seeems to have been derived frrom the stiff-poiinted leaf in th he fourth centtury, and the distinction is n not always cleear. At fourth-ccentury → Doccimium, both tyypes as well a as broad- and narrow-pointted and → fine-ttoothed leavess were used alo ongside each other o in accorda ance with thee principle off → varietas (Fig. 15. Cf. Fig. 37). Starting frrom the → Theeodosian perio od, softpointed d leaves were adopted by → Proconnesu us/Constantino ople (Fig. 39, 40, 42, 69) an nd widely disttributed through hout the Meditterranean basin n (Fig. 41, 43). || | Bibliogra aphy: Kautzsch, Kapitellstudien 11936, 27. 32. 50–53. 67– 69; J. Kra amer, Spätantike e korinthische Sä äulenkapitelle in Rom. Bei S. Paolo fuori le Mura, in S. Maria in Domnica und andere, Spätanühes Christentum m – Byzanz B/3 (W Wiesbaden 1997) tike – frü

Fig. 38: Corinthiian column capita al with bust and iinscription of St Thecla on the e abacus, Museum m Adana in Cilicia a Pedias (Peschlow)

Fig. 38: A A. Aydın, Adana vve Mersin Müzele eri’ndeki Figürlü Başlıklar, B Olba 22, 2014, 369–391 ccat. 1 astik Konstantino opels 1994, 119 cat. 307 Fig. 39: Zollt, Kapitellpla pl. 38

Fig. 39: C Corinthian column capital, Istanbu ul-Saraçhane (Weber 2 2005)

Column Cap pitals – Earlier Fo ourth Century | 25

M Medallion Ca apitals M Medallion capiitals are → Co orinthian capiitals with redu uced apparatu us, no inner helices, h but ca aules that encllose a rounded d boss under the abacus kno ob. Especially in n smaller capitals with onlly one ring o of leaves, the bo osses are someetimes carved as medallionss, with a cross (F Fig. 43), a flora al motif or, rareely, a pair of fiish. The round boss or medalllion only occu urs in combina ation with → soft-pointed leaves. As is u usual with all kiinds of soft-p pointed capita als, medallion n capitals are reelatively small and only atttested in seccondary positions, for exam mple the flankiing porticoes ((Fig. 40), but no ot the central porch (Fig. 722), of the Theo odosian Hagia So ophia in Istanb bul. The type w was manufactured in the w workshops of → Proconnesus//Constantinop ple (Fig. 40, 422) and exported d to the Mediteerranean as weell as the Black k Sea (Fig. 41, 433), for examplle for colonnad ded streets at Side in Pamph hylia.

Fig. 40: Corrinthian column ccapital with soft-p pointed leaves an nd rounded bo oss under the (bro oken) abacus kno ob, portico flanking the porch of the e Theodosian Hag gia Sophia in Ista anbul, inaugurate ed in 415 (Peschllow)

| || Biibliography: J. K Kramer, Spätantike korinthische Säulenkapitelle in n Rom (Wiesbade en 1997); C. Barrsanti, Capitelli corinzi del tipo co osiddetto ‚a meda aglione‘ con inse erti decorativi, in: Decor. Decorazione e architetturra nel Mondo Rom mano (Rome 2017 7) 391–400 e 1941, pl. 12, 2 Fig. 40: Schneiderr, Grabung Westhof Sophienkirche Fig. 41: Deichmann n, Ravenna 1969– –1989, vol. 2, 2 p p. 347 f. fig. 202 Fig. 42: cf. A. Pralong, Remarquess sur les chapite eaux corinthiens ta ardifs en marbre de Proconnèse, in: L'acanthe da ans la sculpture monumentale de l'antiquité à la Re enaissance (Pariss 1993) 133–146, att 145 fig. 21 Fig. 43: C. Barsan nti, Capitelli corrinzi del tipo cosiddetto ‚a meaglione‘ con inserti decorativi, in: i Decor. Decorrazione e archida te ettura nel Mondo Romano (Rome 2017) 2 391–400, a at 393 fig. 3 Fig. 41: Corinthian column capital with soft-p pointed leaves an nd oss under the aba acus knob, Santa a Maria Maggiore in rounded bo Ravenna (W Weber 2007)

Fig. 42: Corinthian n column capital with w soft-pointed d leaves and ounded boss under the abacus knob, Museum Ista anbul (Kramer) ro

Fig. 43: Corrinthian column ccapital with soft-p pointed leaves an nd cross underr the abacus knob, Museum Side in Pamphylia, so outhern Asia Minor (Niewöhner 2 2020)

26 | Colum mn Capitals – Earrlier Fourth Centu ury

Broad d-Pointed (M Mask) Leave es

Fig. 44: Corinthiian pilaster capital with a fine-too othed middle leaff and two broad-p pointed corner leaves, Docimian m marble, from the Thedosian rotun nda at the Myrela aion in Istanbul, M Museum Istanbull inv. 6076 (Niewö öhner 2010)

Broad-p pointed (German: großgezacckt) leaves hav ve three tips or ‘points’ per lo obe. The innerr- and top-mosst tip is curved upwards and encloses a so o-called eye. As A each leaf hass at least two ‘eyes’, they a are also called d ‘mask’ leaves. The lower tipss of lower lobes are often red duced to mere ou utlines (Fig. 4 44, 45, 73, 74 4, 467). Outer tips of adjacen nt leaves are tyypically → toucching. Following Roma an precursorss (Fig. 55), broadpointed d leaves are firsst attested from m → Docimian marble in the fo fourth century (Fig. 44, 46, 4 467); according to the principlle of → varieta as, they were combined with → stiff(Fig. 29 9) and → soft--pointed as weell as → fine-ttoothed leaves (Fig. 44). In tthe Theodosia an period, the broadpointed d leaf was also o adopted by → Proconnesu us/Constantino ople (Fig. 76– –78), where it was much em mployed (Fig. 110 0, 117, 146) an nd widely exp ported (Fig. 45,, 73–75, 79–81, 1166) until the ssixth century. Thee scholarly litterature tradittionally distinguishes broad-p pointed leavess from → na arrow-pointed leaves with fo our tips or ‘p points’ and fro om → many-p pointed leaves, but the difference seems bllurred and irreelevant, consideering that som me capitals h have narrow-p pointed lower leeaves and bro oad-pointed u upper leaves (F Fig. 74, 75, 78), and some lea aves have both h narrow-pointted and broad-p pointed lobes ((Fig. 46, 53). || | Bibliogra aphy: Kautzsch, Kapitellstudien 1936, 53–64; Peschlow, P Kapitell 2 2004, 93 f.

Fig. 45: Corinthiian column capita al, Museum Iznik k, western Asia Minor (Niewöhner 2008)

Fig. 44: P P. Niewöhner, De er frühbyzantinissche Rundbau be eim Myrelaion in Konstantinopel. Kapitelle, Mosa aiken und Ziegellstempel, er Mitteilungen 6 60, 2010, 411–459 9, at 450 cat. 10 fig. f 32 Istanbule Fig. 45: B Barsanti, Iznik-Nicaea's Museum 2 2003 Fig. 46: I. H. Mert – P. Nie ewöhner, Blattka apitelle in Konya, Istanbu6 f. cat. 22 fig. 355 ler Mitteiilungen 60, 2010, 373–410, at 406

Fig. 46: C Corinthian column capital with narrow-pointed low wer and broad-po ointed upper leavves, from Kurşunllu near Sarayönü in Lycaonia a (central Anatolia a), Museum Konyya inv. 894 (Niewöhn ner 2008)

Column Cap pitals – Earlier Fo ourth Century | 27

TTouching Leaf Tips In n the early Byyzantine period d, various typ pes of leaves w were offten placed wiithout gaps so that their outeer tips, ‘pointss’, or ‘teeeth’ touch (G German: Spitzeenberührung).. This also app plies to o upper lobes, which for thiss purpose had d to fan out wiidely ra ather than tapeer, as had otheerwise been cu ustomary. Touching tiips are charactteristic of the m majority of → sstiff(F Fig. 27–29), → soft- (Fig. 15, 37, 39–43, 47,, 69, 85), → brroad(F Fig. 29, 44, 455, 49, 72–74, 76, 7 77, 79, 80, 113, 114, 117, 166, 3226, 467), → na arrow-, and many-pointed leeaves (Fig. 18,, 46, 48 8, 51, 53, 74, 8 81, 107, 120, 14 48, 404) and ssometimes also o occu ur in → fine-to oothed leaves (Fig. ( 50, 145, 3335). In the forrmer ca ases, touching g tips result in darkly shaded d negative pattterns off rectangles, trrapezoids, and d lozenges betw ween the leavees. In all cases, touching tipss made the sin ngle leaf and itts orga anic representtation stand out o less and in nstead resulteed in sm maller-scale reepeat patternss across severa al leaves. Thiss favo oured → open nwork and led to → scrollwo ork in order to o fill an ny remaining g gaps.

Fig. 47: Corinthian pila aster capital with h soft-pointed lea aves and spiral volutes, Mu useum Iznik, westtern Asia Minor (Niew wöhner 2002)

| || Biibliography: Kau utzsch, Kapitellsttudien 1936, passsim; Peschlow, Kapite ell 2004, 91–96 Fig. 47: Barsanti, Iznik-Nicaea's Mu useum 2003, 272 2. 275 fig. 17 er, Blattkapitelle in Konya, Istanbuler Fig. 48: I. H. Mertt – P. Niewöhne M Mitteilungen 60, 2 2010, 373–410, att 402 f. cat. 17 fig g. 30 Fig. 49: K. T. Rapttis, The Marble Pilasters P and The eir Pilaster-Capita als at th he Meridional Pro opylon of the Acheiropoietos Bassilica in Thessalo oniki, Attti della Accadem mia roveretana de egli Agiati 9/8 A,, 2018, 70–77 fig g. 3 f. 4c c 357 pl. 41 Fig. 50: Niewöhnerr, Aizanoi 2007, cat.

apital with pointe ed leaves and wid de egg-and-dart o on Fig. 49: Pilaster ca he base, southern n porch of the Ach heiropoietos Bassilica in Thessalon niki, th lo ocal carving, seve enth(?) century (P Peschlow 1988)

Fig. 48: Corinthian pila aster capital with h narrow-pointed leavess, from Iconium in Lycaonia (centrral Anatolia), Musseum Konya a inv. 1976.13.1 (N Niewöhner 2008))

Fig. 50 0: Corinthian pila aster capital with h fine-toothed lea aves, from A Aezani in Phrygia a (central Anatolia), Museum Küta ahya inv. 10 047 (Niewöhner 2001)

28 | Colum mn Capitals – Earrlier Fourth Centu ury

Narrow w-Pointed LLeaves

Fig. 51: Corinthia an column capita al, Alaeddin Camiii at Konya, centrral Anatolia (Niewöhner 2020)

Narrow w-pointed (Germ man: kleingeza ackt) leaves ha ave four tips or ‘‘points’ per lob be. The inner-m most tip is currved upand inw wards and enccloses a so-callled eye. The next n following tip may also p point upwardss. Lower tips of o lower lobes are often reducced to mere outlines. Outerr tips of adjacen nt leaves are tyypically → toucching. Thee narrow-poin nted leaf sharees the history y of the closely--related → broad-pointed va ariant: it is first attested for ffourth-centuryy → Docimium m (Fig. 46, 48 8, 51) in → centrral Anatolia, w where it was paired with → stiffpointed d leaves accord ding to the principle of → varietas. v In the T Theodosian peeriod, the narrrow-pointed leeaf was adopted d by → Procon nnesus/Constan ntinople (Fig. 52, 70), where iit continued to o be carved un ntil the sixth century (Fig. 18, 53, 74, 75, 78, 107, 120). Thee scholarly litterature tradittionally distinguishes narrow--pointed leavees from broad d-pointed leav ves with only thrree tips per lob be as well as ffrom → many-p pointed leaves, but the differeence seems to o have been meaningless. Neeither chronollogical, nor geeographical, nor n any other im mplications a are apparent. Some capitalls have narrow--pointed leavees below and d broad-pointeed ones above ((Fig. 74, 75, 78 8), and some lleaves have bo oth narrow- an nd broad-pointted lobes (Fig. 46, 53). || | Bibliogra aphy: Kautzsch,, Kapitellstudien n 1936, 64; Peschlow, P Kapitell 2 2004, 94–96

he Myrelaion in Fig. 52: Corbel ffrom the Theodossian rotunda at th Istanbul (D-DAI-IST-R382)

Fig. 51: I.. H. Mert – P. Nie ewöhner, Blattkapitelle in Konya, Istanbuler Mitteiilungen 60, 2010, 373–410, at 404 4 f. cat. 19 fig. 32 2 Fig. 52: P P. Niewöhner, De er frühbyzantinissche Rundbau beim Myrelaion in Konstantinopel. Kapitelle, Mosa aiken und Ziegellstempel, er Mitteilungen 6 60, 2010, 411–459 9, at 416 fig. 4 Istanbule Fig. 53: JJ. Wilkinson, Column Capitals in al Haram al Sha arif (from 138 AD to o 1118 AD) (Jerusa alem 1987) 154 ca at. 105

Fig. 53: C Corinthian column n capital with thrree to four tips pe er lobe, Proconne esian marble, Isla amic Museum on the Temple Mou unt in Jerusalem m (McKenzie 200 09)

Column Cap pitals – Earlier Fo ourth Century | 29

M Many-Pointe ed Leaves Po ointed leaves with upturned d inner ‘pointss’ or tips that en nclose 'eyes' (→ mask leaves) most often have three or fo our tips per lo obe and may accordingly a bee classified as → broad- or → narrow-pointted. However, broad- and na arrow-pointed d lobes also occur on th he same leaf (F Fig. 46, 53), an nd broad- and d narrow-pointted leaves on th he same piecee of architectu ural sculpture (Fig. 74, 75, 78 8). Yet other llobes have fivee and more ‘p points’ or tips (F Fig. 54–56, 104, 148, 157, 18 84, 196, 223, 2268, 327, 343, 40 04, 459) and m may thus be called c many-p pointed. Howevver, the numbeer of tips seem ms to have been n flexible and deepended on th he size of a leaf and on the sp pace that was avvailable or neeeded to be filleed. Beyond tha at, the distinction between brroad-, narrow--, and many-p pointed leaves orr lobes seems tto be meaning gless. | || Biibliography: Kautzsch, Kapitellstu udien 1936, 64. 9 92 Fig. 54: K. Dark – J. Kostenec, Hagia Sophia in C Context (Oxford 20 019) 19 fig. 8 Fig. 55: S. Mägele e – J. Richard – M. Waelkens, A Late-Hadrianic Nyymphaeum at S Sagalassos, Istanbuler Mitteilun ngen 57, 2007, 46 69–504 Fig. 56: U. Pesch hlow, Eine wiede ergewonnene byyzantinische Ehre ensäule in Istanb bul, in: O. Feld – U. Peschlow (ed.), Studien zur sp pätantiken und ffrühbyzantinischen Kunst F. W. Deichmann gewidmet (Bonn 1986 6) vol. 1 p. 21–33 3

Fig. 55: Frieze with h three to five tipss per lobe, Hadria anic Nymphaeum m at Sagalassos in Pisidia, centra al Anatolia (Wikim media Commons)

Fig. 54: Corrbel with four to ffive tips per lobe,, Theodosian sacristy (skeuophylakion) of Hagia S Sophia in Istanbu ul (Peschlow 2007 7)

post with four, fivve, and more tips per lobe, from a ?honFig. 56: Imp orifc column of emperor Leo o I. (457–474)?, Isstanbul, Topkapı Saray (Niewöhnerr 2006). For the capital of the sam me column, see Fig g. 107

30 | Colum mn Capitals – Earrlier Fourth Centu ury

Variettas

Fig. 57: Handrail of a barrier, from m the Episcopal B Basilica at Stobi in entury, Museum S Skopje northern Macedonia, mid-fifth ce (Niewöhner 20111)

Fig. 58: Handrail of a barrier, from m the Episcopal B Basilica at Stobi, mid-fifth centuryy, Museum Skopjje (Niewöhner 20 011)

Fig. 59: Frame of a transenna, broken right and be elow, from the Episcopal Basilica at Stobi, mid-fifth century, Museum Skopje (Niewöhner 20111)

Varietass, a loan word d from Latin ph hilology, is in modern m scholarly parlance a applied to Byzantine archittectural sculptu ure in order to describe comb binations of different d forms that emerged a as an alternattive to the trad ditional orders. In particular,, B. Brenk em mployed the teerm for regular and often rh hythmic comb binations of different d column n capitals. Acco ording to the ssame aestheticc principle, diffferently colou ured column shafts and different d architra aves or friezes (Fig. 64) as w well as → barrieer slabs and → ttransennae weere also varied,, including theeir outer frames and handrails (Fig. 57–60). In tthe East, the ccombination o of different details already o occurred on R Roman taberna acle façades. Starting S from the fourth centu ury, any architeectural order could c be varied, as is attested for → Syria (F Fig. 14) and fo or carvings fro om → Docimiu um in → centrral Anatolia, some s of which vvaried the lea aves of one a and the same capital (Fig. 15,, 29, 44). In th he fifth centu ury, varietas was w also adopted d by → Procon nnesus/Constan ntinople (Fig. 181 and at Paren ntium/Poreč: Fig. 198, 242– –244) and by → Sivec (at Stob bi: Fig. 57–60, 118, 121, 124, 1227). In a addition to neewly carved seeries, → re-useed parts or spoliia were also a arranged accorrding to the prrinciple of varieetas, both in tthe East (Fig. 64) and at → Rome (Fig. 13)). At Rome, this is first attessted for Consta antinian churchees and may ha ave compensa ated for a lack k of uniform seeries. A similarr combination n of different fo orms in other genres of earlyy Byzantine in nterior decoration has becomee known as jew welled style. || | Bibliogra aphy: B. Brenk, S Spolien und ihre Wirkung auf die Ästhetik der Variietas. Zum Pro oblem alterniere ender Kapitelltyypen, in: J. Poesch hke (ed.), Spolien n in der Architek ktur des Mittelallters und der Rena aissance (Munich h 1996) 49–92; P. Niewöhner, Varietas, Spolia, a and the End of A Antiquity in East and West, in: I.. Jevtic – S. Yalman (ed.), Spolia Re eincarnated (Istan nbul 2018) 237–2 257 60: L. Audley-Milller – P. Niewöhn ner – W. Prochasska, MarFig. 57–6 bles, Qu uarries, and Wo orkshops on the e Highlands of Northern Macedon nia, Archäologisccher Anzeiger 2013/1, 95–145, at 136–138 cat. 47–550

Fig. 60: Frame o of a transenna, broken right and b below, from the Episcopal Basilica at Stobi, mid-fifth century, Museum Skopje (Niewöhner 20111)

Column Capitals – Earlier Fo ourth Century | 31

R Rome Rome’s rich an ncient heritagee as well as th he city’s dram matic decline in n late antiquity y led to a situa ation in which → re-use of arch hitectural scullpture became normal practice. In part, th his did not hap ppen directly ffrom building to o building, but indirectly fro om stocks of o old materials. Sh hortage of un niform series appears a to havve been compeensated by co ombinations of o different ancient column ca apitals accordiing to the Byza antine princip ple of → varieta as (Fig. 13). Th he fashionable arrangementss suggest that th he antiquities w were not recog gnised as such h and thus not peerceived as re--used spolia. Owing to th he closure of pagan p temples in the → Theod dosian period d, more uniforrm series beca ame available fo or re-use in a cclassicising ma anner (Fig. 61)). In contrast, neewly carved b building material remained rare, for exam mple → schem matic capitals (Fig. 33). Rellatively small nu umbers of imp ports came mo ostly from Tha asos (→ Ionic ca apitals) and fro om → Proconn nesus (Fig. 62, also → Corinth hian capitals). Church furnisshings that weere not availablle for re-use w were sometimees also importted from Proco onnesus/Constantinople. As a result of the re-use,, Rome retaineed an ancient flair that distin nguished it fro om most other early Byzantine cities. Thiss seems to hav ve been cultivvated as a rem minder of form mer privilege an nd importancee, same as in otther large old d cities, for ex xample in → western Asia M Minor, and unliike the new cap pital → Consta antinople.

nta Sabina in Rom me, nave arcades with a uniform series Fig. 61: San of re-used a ancient columns, looking northwe est, second quartter of the fifth cen ntury (Wikimedia Commons)

| || Biibliography: J. J. Herrmann, The e Ionic Capital iin Late Antique Ro ome (Rome 1988)); C. Barsanti – A. A Guiglia, Capitelli di manufattura a Costantinopolitana a Roma e la scultura di arred do liturgico nelle ch hiese di Roma. Ill momento bizantino, in: A. Guigllia Guidobaldi – F. Guidobaldi (ed.)), Ecclesiae Urbiss, Studi di antich hità cristiana 60 (R Rome 2002) vol. 3 p. 1443–1534 Fig. 61: P. Pensab bene, Roma su Roma. R Reimpiego o architettonico, re ecupero dell’anticco e trasformazio oni urbane tra il 3 e il 13 secolo (R Rome 2015) Fig. 62: H. Brande enburg – J. Pál, Santo S Stefano Ro otondo in Roma (W Wiesbaden 2000)) 59

Fig. 62: Ionic column capital and plane impo ost, apparently a TheoT workmanship tha at was dosian carvving of Proconnessian marble and w later, in the e 460s, employed d in the outer arca ade of Santo Steffano Rotondo in Rome (Kramer 19 966/67)

32 | Colum mn Capitals – Earrlier Fourth Centu ury

Re-Usse and Spoliiation, early y

Fig. 63: Colonna aded street at Aezzani in Phrygia (ccentral Anatolia), built in the Theo odosian period with ancient colum mns and no basess, re-used from a ttemple of Artemiss (Denkinger)

Re-use of ancient carrvings was com mmon in early y Byzantine tim mes, as manyy ancient builldings had lost their function ns and were in n ruins (Fig. 633). In some citiies with a lot off ancient build dings, re-use w was the rule and new carving gs were rare, ffor example a at → Rome. Ree-use of contem mporary Byzan ntine carvingss typically occurred during reconstruction n after an earrthquake or fiire, e.g. the sixtth-century Epiiscopal Basilicca at Stobi (F Fig. 118, 121, 124 4, 127) and thee seventh-centtury church off St Demetriuss at Thessaloniiki, in the provvinces of Maced donia. Re-use occurred directly from building to building b or indiirectly from sstocks of old materials (Fig. 62). Shortag ge of uniform series appearrs to have beeen compensateed by combina ations of diffeerent ancient column capitalss according to o the early Byyzantine princciple of → varietas, e.g. ancieent column capitals at Consstantinian → R Rome (Fig. 13) and Byzantin ne column cap pitals in the mid d-sixth centurry Euphrasian n basilica at ParentiP um/Porreč in Istria (Fig. 198, 242–24 44). Thee fashionable arrangementss suggest that the reused ca arvings were n not recognised as such and thus not perceived as old or a ancient spolia. This may hav ve been differen nt in the case o of various anciient architravee blocks that forrm a low outer frieze around the apse of th he sixthcenturyy church of the Apostles at Anazarbus in Cilicia, where tthe unusual prresentation at eye level has a museum effeect (Fig. 64). || | Bibliogra aphy: H. Brande enburg, Die Arch hitektur und Bau uskulptur von San Paolo fuori le mura. Baudekoration und Nutzzung von Magazinm material im spätteren 4. Jh., Röm mische Mitteilun ngen 115, 2009, 14 43–201; C. Barssanti, Le cistern ne bizantine di Istanbul. Nuovi da ati sulla scultura a dal 5 al 7 seco olo. La cisterna n. 9, in: O. Brandt (ed.), Acta 15 C Congressus interrnationalis archa aeologiae heologiju christianae, Studi di anticchità cristiana 655 = Vjesnik za arh u dalmatinsku su uppl. 87–89 (Rom me 2013) 1481–1496 i historiju

Fig. 64: Central part of a low oute er frieze around tthe apse of the hurch of the Aposstles at Anazarbus in Cilicia Pediass, sixth-century ch limestone: a Byzzantine centre piece has been taillored to connect two different Ro oman architrave blocks b on left and d right (Posamentir 200 05)

Fig. 63: K K. Rheidt, Aizanoi und Anatolien (M Mainz 2010) 15–117 Fig. 64: I. Engelmann – P. Niewöhner, Bauen nach der Krise. K Die Spolieng galerie an der Ap psis der Apostelk kirche von Anaza arbos, in: D. Kreike enbom – K. U. M Mahler – T. M. We eber (ed.), Krise und Kult (Wiesbad den 2010) 109–13 37

Column Cap pitals – Earlier Fo ourth Century | 33

R Re-Use and S Spoliation, later In n later times, rre-use was less systematic th han in earlier times, probablyy because old building mateerial was less avvailable. As in n earlier times, ancient spo olia could be Ch hristianised b by crosses (Fig g. 65). Howeveer, most later ree-use was of ea arly Byzantinee carvings, both h architecturall sculpture an nd church furn nishings (Fig. 108, 115, 177, 19 92, 234). Thesse earlier pieces were proba ably not perceeived as antiqu uities, but as quasi-contemp q porary, as the ea arlier style and d in particular the sixth centtury remained no ormative throu ughout the lateer Byzantine p periods. | || Biibliography: A. Papalexandrou, The Architectural Layering of Hiistory in the Med dieval Morea, in: S. E. J. Gerstel (e ed.), Viewing the M Morea (Wasington n DC 2009) 22–54 4; L. V. Geymona at, The Syntax of Sp polia in Byzantin ne Thessaloniki, in: M. J. Johnson – R. G. Ousterho out – A. Papalexxandrou (ed.), Approaches to Byzantine Architectu ure and Its Decora ation: Studies in Honor of Slobod dan Ćurčić (Farnha am 2012) 47–65; N. Melvani, Latte, Middle, and Early Byzantine Scculpture in Palaiologan Constanttinople, in: I. Jevvtić – S. Yalman (e ed.), Spolia Reincarnated (Istanbu ul 2018) 149–169 Fig. 65: H. Saradi, The Use of Anccient Spolia in B Byzantine Monunal Journal of the Classical Tra adition 3, 1997, ments, Internation 39 95–423 Fig. 66: Cf. A. Con nze, Altertümer von Pergamon 1 (Berlin 1913) 314 at. 31 (other fragm ment of the same e epistyle) ca Ab bb. 67: A. M. Sch hneider – W. Karrnapp, Die Stadtm mauer von Iznik (N Nicaea), Istanbule er Forschungen 9 (Berlin 1938) 52 cat. 37 fig. 20

Fig. 65: Anccient relief (left), partly erased and d replaced with a double crosss (right), high up p on the northern n corner of the we est façade of th he Panagia Gorgo oepikoos in Athen ns (Peschlow)

Fig. 66: Middle Byzantine templon epistyle (fragment) with two supe erimposed recessses for column ca apitals on the low wer side, the la arger recess being g secondary and cutting into a spiral rose, ?from he Theatre Terrace at Pergamum?, Museum Bergam ma (Kramer) th

Fig. 67: Re-used ancient arcaded relief with a Laskarid buildin ng inscription (thirteenth centu ury), facing the city on tower 104 of o the Byzantine ccity walls at Nicae ea/Iznik in weste ern Asia Minor (Niewöhnerr 2010)

Column Capitals – Later Fourth and Fifth Century

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110690477-003

36 | Colum mn Capitals – Later Fourth and Fiftth Century

Emperror Theodossius I and H His Dynasty Byzantiine architecturral ornament ttook a new turrn when Theodo osius I (379–39 95) chose → C Constantinoplee as the sole cap pital of the Byzzantine empiree as well as deeclaring Christia anity exclusive state religio on. As a resu ult, the urban a area of Consttantinople dou ubled, and co ountless churchees were built tthere and in th he provinces. This T led to masss production n of architectural sculptu ure and church furnishings, iin particular ffrom → Procon nnesian marble.. || | Bibliogra aphy: P. Niewöh hner, Production and Distribution of Docimian M Marble in the Theo odosian Age, in: II. Jacobs (ed.), Prroduction and Prossperity in the The eodosian Age, Interdisciplinary Studies in Ancient C Culture and Relig gion 14 (Leuven 2 2014) 251–271; A. A Taddei, Hagia So ophia before Hag gia Sophia. A Study of the Great Church C of Constanttinople from its Origins to the N Nika Revolt of 53 32 (Rome 2017) 69: R. Naumann,, Neue Beobachtungen am Theod dosiusboFig. 68–6 gen und Forum Tauri in Isstanbul, Istanbuller Mitteilungen 26, 2 1976, 117–141, at 117–136

Fig. 68: Fragmen nt of a Herculean club column from m the Arch of Theodosius in Isstanbul, inaugura ated in 393 AD (P Peschlow 1983)

Fig. 69: Entablatture of the Arch of o Theodosius in Istanbul; an arch hitrave with three e fascias is surmo ounted by an emp pty frieze, a row of o standing soft-pointed d leaves, and a flu uted sima, inaugu urated in 393 AD (Peschlow 1983)

Co olumn Capitals – Later Fourth and Fifth Century | 37

C Constantino ople Th he architectural sculpture off Constantinop ple is tangible on nly from the → Theodosian period onwarrds, when the ciity became th he sole capitall of the Byzan ntine empire, do oubled its urb ban area, and d underwent a long-lasting bu uilding boom.. This resulted d in a brand n new city that w was newly fitteed out with arrchitectural scculpture from th he neighbouriing marble qu uarries of → Proconnesus, w which seem to h have been reviived for this pu urpose. Thanks to a high producttivity, the form mal repertoire an nd stylistic d development of o the metrop politan worksh hops can be trracked over tw wo centuries. C Countless expo orts are scatteered througho out the Mediteerranean and Black Sea regions, and closely y related marb ble → quarries an nd → workshops at → Docim mium in Phrygia and at → Siveec in Macedo onia distributeed the same style also in → central Anato olia and in the → central B Balkans. Howevver, early Byza antine Constan ntinople did no ot become the geeneral role mo odel that impeerial Rome useed to be, and th he early Byzan ntine provincees developed ttheir own arch hitectures and d stone carving gs independenttly of the new ca apital, for exa ample → westtern Asia Min nor, → Lycia, → Cilicia, → Syrria, and → Egyp pt. | || Biibliography: Zolllt, Kapitellplastik k Konstantinopells 1994; C. Barsa anti – A. Paribenii, La scultura in funzione architetttonica a Costantin nopoli tra 5 e 6 se ecolo, Acta ad archaeologiam et a artium historiam pe ertinentia 30 (N.S S. 16), 2018, 23–7 72

Fig. 70: Mullion with Corinth hian capital, narrow-pointed leave es, and impostt, from the Theodosian rotunda at the Myrelaion in Istanbul, Ayyasofya Museum (Niewöhner 2008)

Fig. 70: P. Niewöh hner, Der frühbyzzantinische Rundbau beim Myrela aion in Konstantiinopel. Kapitelle e, Mosaiken und Ziegelstempel, Istanbuler Mitteilu ungen 60, 2010, 411–459, 4 at 414–416 fig. 3 Fig. 71–72: Schn neider, Grabung Westhof Sophienkirche 1941, pll. 14, 1–2

Fig. 71: Pediment o of the Theodosian n porch of Hagia Sophia in Istanbul, inaugura ated in 415 AD (Pe eschlow)

Fig. 72: Corrinthian column ccapital with broad d-pointed leaves,, from the Theodosian porch of Hag gia Sophia in Ista anbul, inaugurate ed in ewöhner 2007) 415 AD (Nie

38 | Colum mn Capitals – Later Fourth and Fiftth Century

Proconnesus

Fig. 73: Corinthian pilaster capita al with three row ws of broad-point-en on the left, Mu useum Manisa/M Magnesia in wested leaves, broke ern Asia Minor, inv. 9095 (Niewö öhner 2006)

Fig. 74: Compossite column capita al with narrow-po ointed leaves be-low and under th he volutes as well as broad-pointe ed leaves under the egg-and-darrt, Şeyh Kutbeddiin Camii at Iznik//Nicaea (D-DAI-IST-3649 9)

Proconn nesus is the old name of today's Marmara Adası in the P Propontis, closse to → Constan ntinople. Much h of the island cconsists of grrey-veined wh hite marble. Ex xploitation seeems to have peetered out at tthe end of the Roman period, but was resum med when → E Emperor Theod dosius I chose C Constantinoplee as capital cityy and initiated d a lasting buillding boom th here. The preciise locations of o workshops – on the island and/or insid de or near thee city of Constan ntinople – are unknown. At first, the stylee and formal repertoire of fourthcenturyy Proconnesus/Constantinop ple was adopteed from → Docimium in → central Anatoliia. Thereafter,, in the fifth an nd sixth centu uries, the mettropolitan worrkshops develop ped on their ow wn terms: masss production appears a to havee led to simpliifications, and d some forms seem s to have beeen adapted to church intteriors (→ opeenwork, → scrolllwork). Other changes incllude recourse to ancient → figured and → composite ccapitals, new types t of leaves (→ butterfly, → double, and → rimmed leaves), l → Sasan nian influencee, as well as → melon and → impost capitalss. Exp ports of finish hed products distributed th he new Proconn nesian style and repertoire of the fifth an nd sixth centuriees throughoutt the Mediterra anean and Bla ack Sea regions. In addition, the closely related marble → quarries and d → workshopss of Docimium m and → Sivec brought b Proconn nesian influen nce to bear alsso in central Anatolia A and in the → centrall Balkans. Fina ally, productio on died down in n the later sixth h century. || | Bibliogra aphy: N. Asgari, The Proconnesia an Production of Architectural Elements in Late An ntiquity, in: G. D Dagron – C. Man ngo (ed.), dershot 1995) 263–288; 2 Constanttinople and Its Hinterland (Ald C. Barsan nti – A. Guiglia Guidobaldi – J..-P. Sodini, La sculpture s architectturale en marbre au 6e siècle à Co onstantinople et dans les régions sous influence constantinopolitaine, in: N. Cambi C – Congressus interrnationalis archa aeologiae E. Marín (ed.), Acta 13 C christianae, Studi di anticchità cristiana 54 4 = Vjesnik za arh heologiju i historiju u dalmatinsku su uppl. 87–89 (Rom me 1998) 301–376 6 Fig. 73: P. Niewöhner, U Urbanism, in: P. Niewöhner (ed.), The Archaeolog gy of Byzantine Anatolia (New Y York 2017) 39–3 39, at 49 fig. 3.2 Fig. 74: K K. Otto-Dorn, Dass islamische Iznik k, Istanbuler Forsschungen 13 (Berlin n 1941) 33 f. pl. 20 0, 2

Fig. 75: C Corinthian column n capital with narrrow-pointed leavves below an nd broad-pointed leaves above, Ca aesarea Maritima a in Palestine e (Forschungsarchiv für antike Pla astik 1978/79)

Column Capitals – LLater Fourth and Fifth Century | 39

C Corinthian C Capitals, early Co orinthian cap pitals remained d important iinto the fifth ceentury, but changed in ch haracter as th he relief was ad dapted to flat repeat pattern ns with → toucching leaf tips an nd in → open nwork. Such carving resultted in strong co ontrasts between light surrfaces and sh hadowy backgrround, which w was better suited for diffusee lighting condiitions inside ch hurches. Caules (Fig g. 15, 27, 28, 39 9, 44, 46–48, 550, 51, 53, 73, 10 09, 113, 114) an nd inner helicees (Fig. 20, 22, 39, 45, 46, 51, 76 6–78, 107, 1133, 114) becamee redundant, a and the calath hus could insteead be filled with w scrolls (Fig g. 91), rows of sttanding leavess (Fig. 78), or egg-and-dartss (Fig. 18, 77) ass in → compossite capitals, or, alternativelyy, by a downabacus knob w ward extension n of the fleu uron on the a (F Fig. 38, 108, 114–116), e.g. in n → lyre capitalls. Outer helicees were typically hook- or lo oop-shaped, bu ut occasionallyy and especiallly on → head capitals c (Fig. 106, 107, 109), sp piral volutes w were also employed (Fig. 4 47, 101, 189). (W Where this diffference is irreleevant, all outeer helices may bee called volutees in the schollarly literaturee, even if they arre hook- or loo op-shaped.) If none of th he above was the t case, the liip of the calath hus sometimess formed a hallf-funnel shapeed protrusion (F Fig. 20, 46, 4677), which R. Kautzsch called d "Abdeckung deer Kernmasse". From the la ater fifth centu ury onwards, Co orinthian capiitals became less l common, whilst other tyypes gained in n importance, in particular → composite ca apitals, → cap pitals with zo oning, and, from the sixth ceentury, → melo on and → impo ost capitals. | || Biibliography: J. K Kramer, Spätantike korinthische Säulenkapitelle in n Rom. Bei S. Pa aolo fuori le Murra, in S. Maria iin Domnica und ndere, Spätantike e – frühes Christentum – Byzanz B/3 (Wiesbaden an 19 997); A. Pralong, Les chapiteaux corinthiens c tardifs en marbre de Prroconnèse. Une nouvelle typolog gie, Association pour l’antiquité ta ardive. Bulletin 13 3, 2004, 46–53 Fig. 76: E. Russo, Per la datazione della porta aurea di Costantinopo oli e dei suoi capitelli, Bizantinistica 2/11, 2009, 1– –32 Fig. 77: Schneider,, Grabung Westhof Sophienkirche e 1941, pl. 15–16 Fig. 78: J. Kramer, Zu den Methode en der Klassifizie erung und Datieru ung frühchristlich her Kapitelle, in: Möllers – Pesch hlow, Spätantike Ba auskulptur 1998,, 43–58 pl. 10, 1

Fig. 78: Corinth hian column capittal with partly na arrow- and partly broad-pointed leaves that do not touch, and witth a row of reeds above the calathus lip, Musseum Istanbul invv. 5072 (Kramer)

ointed leaves at the t Fig. 76: Corrinthian pier capital with broad-po Golden Gate of the Theodosian land walls of Constantinople (Peschlow 11990)

Fig. 77: Corinthian pier capittal with broad-po ointed leaves and d eggand-dart be etween the cauless, Theodosian po orch of Hagia Sop phia in Istanbul, inaugurated in 4155 AD (Niewöhner 2 2007)

40 | Colum mn Capitals – Later Fourth and Fiftth Century

Lyre C Capitals

Fig. 79: Lyre column capital with broad-pointed le eaves, Museum ponnesus in Gree ece (Ronczewski) Corinth on Pelop

Lyre ca apitals are → C Corinthian cap pitals withoutt caules and inn ner helices, bu ut with outer helices that con nnect in a ‘lyre’-- or v-shape beelow a large fle euron on the abacus knob. S Sometimes, the 'lyre' looks llike the contou urs of a second,, additional seet of leatheryy leaves that seem s to stand b behind the corrner leaves (Fiig. 35) and to be distinct fro om the helicess (Fig. 81). R. Kautzsch has categorised th hese ‘lyres’ separately as ‘leatthery leaves’. How wever, all cap pitals under co onsideration here h are relativeely simple carvvings, mostly w with → broad-p pointed leaves, small leaf heads that droop little, if at all, a and low reliief (but see Fig g. 35 for a → scchematic capittal with v-‘leath hery leaves’). O Of medium sizze, lyre capita als were produceed in large nu umbers during the fifth an nd sixth centuriees, mainly fro om → Proconnesian marble and for export to the provincces, where th hey furnished smaller basilica as, e.g. at Raveenna, and posssibly also colonnaded streets, e.g. at Miletuss in Caria. || | Bibliogra aphy: Kautzsch, Kapitellstudien 11936, 59–61; Deiichmann, Ravenna 1969–1989, vol.. 2, 2 p. 279–282 2; A. Pralong, Oriigine des chapiteaux-corbeilles ‚à côte de melon‘, in: Mélanges Jean-Pierre Sodini, TTravaux et Mémoires 15 (Paris 200 05) 317–328 Fig. 79: K Kautzsch, Kapitelllstudien 1936, 755. 246 cat. 226 pll. 16 Fig. 80: J. B. Ward-Perkinss – R. G. Goodchild, Christian Mo onuments of Cyrenaica, Society forr Libyan Studiess Monographs 4 (London 2003) 250 fig. 188 Fig. 81: G. Roux, La basilique de la Cam mpanopétra, Sala amine de Chypre 155 (Paris 1998) 186–188. 202 fig. 2 236. 238

Fig. 80: Lyre column capital with broad-pointed le eaves and impost with cross, Procconnesian marble e, West Church off Erythron/Latrun n in Cyrenaica, Lib bya (Burns 2010)

Fig. 81: LLyre column capittal with partly bro oad- and partly manym pointed lleaves and separate helices, Basilica of Kampanop petra near Sala amis on Cyprus (K Kaffenberger 200 08)

Co olumn Capitals – Later Fourth and Fifth Century | 41

C Corinthian C Capitals, latter Regular → Corin nthian capitalls were rare in n later Byzantine times, butt various → workshops w useed individual Co orinthian (or ''Corinthianisin ng') elements such as rings off leaves (Fig. 82, 239), hellices (Fig. 83)), or concave ab baci with kno obs (Fig. 82, 84). Next to these, other, no one-Corinthian n elements arre also alwayss present, for ex xample palm mettes (Fig. 84, 239), eegg-and-darts (F Fig. 82), 'embllematic' mono ograms (Fig. 84) or other m medallions (Fig g. 239), spirall volutes (Fig g. 83, 84), or sq quare tops (Fig g. 83, 239). Acccording to theese elements, th he same capittals may alterrnatively be ca ategorised as → composite (F Fig. 82), → monogram (Fig. 84), or → impo ost capitals (F Fig. 83, 239), to name onlyy some examplles. As to foliag ge, palmettes (Fig. 84, 239) or palmettelik ke 'overgrowth h' with additio onal lobes (Fig g. 82) became od. Helices or m more frequent in the middle Byzantine B perio th he stems of vo olutes are som metimes mergeed as in early Byyzantine → lyrre capitals (Fig. 83). They m may extend as sttrings over th he entire capittal (German: bandförmig), in nclude loops, and enclose 'emblematic' m middle motifs (F Fig. 269) as in → framed impo ost capitals wiith interlace.

Fig. 82: Corrinthian/composiite column capita al with many-poin nted leaves and egg-and-dart, Mu useum Bursa in w western Asia Minor, inv. 2682 (N Niewöhner 2006))

| || Biibliography: Den nnert, Mittelbyza antinische Kapite elle 1997, 4–25; Ş.. Yıldırım, Philom melion‘daki Orta Bizans Dönemi S Sütün Başlıkları, in n: S. Doğan – M M. Kadıroğlu (ed d.), Bizans ve Č Čevre Kültürler, Prrof. Dr. Yıldız Ötü üken’e Armaǧan (Istanbul 2010) 37 78–384 Fig. 82: Aytekin, Bursa Müzesi 2019 9, 80 cat. 6 fig. 7 Fig. 83: P. Niewö öhner, Mittelbyza antinische Templonanlagen aus An natolien. Die Sam mmlung des Arch häologischen Mu useums Kütahya un nd ihr Kontext, Isstanbuler Mitteilu ungen 58, 2008, 285–345, at 314 ca at. 8 fig. 8 Fig. 84: Dennert, Mittelbyzantinissche Kapitelle 19 997, 180 cat. 9 pll. 2

apital with monog gram medallion, Fig. 84: Corinthian column ca at Fındıklı Ruşen palmettes, and spiral volutes, from Kızlar Saray a near Inegö öl in western Asia a Minor, Museum Bursa inv. 2693 Niewöhner 2006) (N

Fig. 83: Corrinthianising impost capital with ccauliculus in the shape of a twin co olumn, a drop-sha aped motif in the spandrel, cornerr leaves, and d spiral volutes, frrom Akmonia/Ah hat in Phrygia (cen ntral Anatolia), M Museum Kütahya inv. 40 (Niewöhn ner 2001)

42 | Colum mn Capitals – Later Fourth and Fiftth Century

Lycia

Fig. 85: Corinthiinan pier capital with w soft-pointed d leaves, limestone, Church D at Andriake (Nie ewöhner 2008)

Lycia, llike the neighb bouring provin nces of → Cilicia and → Syria a, employed llimestone and d produced an a early Byzantiine style of itss own (Fig. 85,, 95). This inclluded a distinctt type of filigreee foliage (Fig g. 88, 144) tha at, however, reeflects the gen neral tendencyy towards → to ouching leaf tipss and → scrollw work. Thee influence of → Proconnesu us/Constantino ople became ap pparent in thee sixth centuryy, e.g. → capita als with zoning (Fig. 87, 179,, 197, 406), → wind-blown n leaves (Fig. 1776, 179, 197),, and → rowss of standing g leaves (Fig. 34 48, 350). Howeever, rather tha an simply cop pied one to one, the metropollitan fashion w was adapted and incorpora ated into the Lycian reperto oire. This cou uld take the sha ape of baroquee-style opulencce, particularly y in the provincce’s mountainous hinterland d (Fig. 86, 1779, 197, 348, 36 66, 406). || | Bibliogra aphy: Grossmann n – Severin, Bautten Lykien 2003;; B. Işler, Orta Likyya Bölgesi'nde Yeni Bir Kesif. Gü ünağı Kilisesi, Pa amukkale Üniversittesi Sosyal Bilimller Enstitüsü Derg gisi 25, 2016, 363 3–392 Fig. 86: G Grossmann – Sevverin, Bauten Lyk kien 2003, pl. 8 c Fig. 87: U U. Peschlow, Tradition und Innovvation. Kapitellsk kulptur in Lykien, in n: Möllers – Peschlow, Spätantik ke Bauskulptur 19 998, 67– 76, at 73 pl. 23, 27

Fig. 86: Compossite impost capita al with concave a abacus (cf. Fig. 153, 302 2) similar to the Ju ustinianic kettle ccapitals of Hagia Sophia in Istanb bul (Fig. 257), limestone, Alakilise e in the Lycian Taurus (Peschlo ow 1999)

Fig. 87: Compossite column capita al with zoning, lim mestone, Episcopal Basilica at Limyra (Nie ewöhner 1999)

Fig. 88: C Corinthian pier ca apital, limestone,, Episcopal Basiliica at Limyra (P Peschlow 1993)

Column Capitals – Later Fourth and Fifth Century | 43

C Cilicia Ciilician stonem masons emplo oyed local lim mestone, but coastal ciities sometimees also imported marbles ffrom → Procon nnesus/ Co onstantinople (Fig. 37, 38 8), which imp pacted on th he local → workshops a and their form mal repertoire and style (F Fig. 188, 29 99). Thus, lik ke the neighb bouring provin nces of → Lycia and → Syria, Cilicia a cultivated itts own type o of filigree folia age but fo ollowed the g general trend towards → to ouching leaf tips and → scrollwork (F Fig. 89–91). | || Biibliography: A. G Geyer, Aspekte der d Bauornamentik von Alahan M Monastir, Ja ahrbuch für Antik ke und Christentu um 27/28, 1984//85, 151–170; J.-P P. Sodini, Scculpture architeccturale, briques, objects metalliq ques d'epoques paleochre etienne et byzan ntine, in: G. Dag gron – D. Feissel, Inscriptions d de Cilicie, Trravaux et mémoiires. Monograph hies 4 (Paris 198 87) 231–258; G. Mietke – S.. Westphalen, Sttudien zur frühbyyzantinischen Ba auornamentik im m Rauhen Kiilikien, Istanbuler Mitteilungen, 56, 2006, 371–405

Fiig. 89: Corinthian n pier capital in th he Grave Church extra m muros at Corycus in Cilicia, limesto one (Peschlow)

Fig. 89: S. Guyer – E. Herzfeld, Meriamlik und K Korykos. Zwei christliche uinenstätten dess Rauhen Kilikiens, Monumenta Asiae Minoris a antiqua 2 Ru (M Manchester 1930)) 127. 138–140 fig g. 131. 147 Fig. 90: G. Mietke e, Die Apostelkirche von Anazarrbos und Syrien, Olba 2, 999, 227–239, at 231 pl. 62 fig. 12 2 19 Fig. 92: I. Engelma ann – P. Niewöhner, Bauen nach d der Krise. Die Spo oliengalee an der Apsis der Apostelkirch he von Anazarbos, in: D. Kreikenbom – rie K.. U. Mahler – T. M M. Weber (ed.), Krise K und Kult (W Wiesbaden 2010) 109–137, att 119. 137 fig. 17

Fiig. 90: Corbel from the southern ffaçade of the Chu urch of th he Apostles at An nazarbus in Cilicia a Pedias, limesto one, m mid-sixth century (Posamentir 200 05)

Fig. 91: Corinthian column capital, limestone, Canba azlı in Cilicia Tracchea Schiele 1967) (S

ndow, limestone,, Church of the Ap postles at Fig. 92: Voussoir of the apse win Anaza arbus in Cilicia Pe edias, mid-sixth ccentury (Posamen ntir 2005)

44 | Colum mn Capitals – Later Fourth and Fiftth Century

Blattk kelch Capita als Blattkellch capitals – a German loan n word – havee one or two ring gs of mostly → stiff- (Fig. 95)) or → narrow-p pointed leaves ((Fig. 93, 96) beelow and a rin ng of deeply un ndercut hollow leaves (Fig. 9 96, German: H Hohlblätter, originally Egyptia an palm leavves) or simp ple, grooved ‘flutes’ (Fig. 93 3–95) above. A Alternatively tto a concave abacus (Fig. 933, 96), the top p may also be square (Fig. 94, 9 95), which o originally goees back to anccient Egyptian n prototypes. In A Asia Minor, B Blattkelch capitals had been n widespread during the Ro oman imperial period, and th his continued iinto early Byzantine times. L Later, the typee seems to have gradually giveen way to simp pler → fluted capitals. Fig. 93: Blattkelch column capita al with narrow-po ointed leaves and d bacus knobs, the right head with ffull beard, local heads on the ab production, Side e in Pamphylia, southern s Asia Min nor (Peschlow)

|| | Bibliogra aphy: C. Börker, Blattkelchkapite elle. Untersuchungen zur kaiserzeiitlichen Architek kturornamentik in Griechenland (Diss. Berlin 19 965); P. Liljenstolpe, The Roman B Blattkelch Capitall. Typology, Origin, and Aspects o of Employment, O Opuscula Roman na 21–23, 1996–199 98, 91–216 Fig. 94: H.-G. Severin, K Konstantinopler B Bauskulptur und die Provinz Ägyypten, in: Möllers – Peschlow, Spätantike Bau uskulptur 1998, 93–104, pl. 30, 11 Fig. 95: H H. Canbilen – P. LLebouteiller – J.-P. Sodini, La bassilique de l'acropole haute de Xanth hos, Anatolia antiiqua 4, 1996, 2011–229 A. K. Beard, A Gro oup of Seven Colu umn Capitals from m Roman Fig. 96: A Ancyra (M MA diss. Ankara 2 2016) 62 fig. 8

Fig. 94: Blattkellch column capita al with rimmed le eaves and square top, Museum of Islamic Art Cairo o inv. 181 (Roncze ewski)

Fig. 95: Blattkelch column capita al with vine scrolll and square top, Christian basilicca on the upper acropolis a of Xanth hos in Lycia (Wikimedia Commo ons)

Blattkelch column n capital with narrrow-pointed leavves Fig. 96: B below an nd with lancet lea aves as spacers b between the hollo ow leaves above, M Museum Bergama a in western Asia Minor (Niewöhne er 2008)

Co olumn Capitals – Later Fourth and Fifth Century | 45

Fluted Capitals Flluted capitals have a simplee ring of flutes. This is combiined with a sq quare top (Fig g. 98, 469) mo ore often than w with a concave abacus (Fig. 99). 9 The flutes may be twisted d and/or overllaid with crossses (Fig. 97, 99). In the early Byyzantine perio od, the type was w popular wiith provincial → workshops iin → western Asia Minor and → central A Anatolia, wheree it may have come about ass a simplified fo orm of → Blatttkelch capital. In central An natolia, it was offten combined d with an unu usually high a and variously deecorated squa are top (Fig. 98 8), apparentlyy for use with litturgical furnisshings, as is also a suggested d by small dim mensions. In the seven nth and ninth h centuries resp pectively, the ch hurches of St Michael at Miiletus and of S St Clement at A Ankara combin ned fluted cap pitals with flutted friezes on th he architrave ((Fig. 330) or co ornice. At Mileetus, this correesponded with h neighbourin ng Roman mon numents that w were also decorrated with fluteed friezes. | || Biibliography: M. C C. Styan, The Use e of Pipe Orname ent in Late Antiqu ue Architectural Sculpture, in: Fo ondation europé éenne de la scien nce. Activité byza antine. Rapports des missions effe ectuées en 1983 (1987) vol. 2 p. 344 4–376; E. Keskin n, Çorum Ili ve Çe evresinde Bulunn Bizans Dönem mine Tarihlenen Taş Eserler Üzzerinde Görülen an Be ezemler, in: A. Ö Özüdoğru (ed.), Çorum ve Kültür, TT.C. Çorum Valiliğ ği Kültür ve Turizzm Müdürlüğü Yayınları Y 9 (Çorum m without year) 23 33–239

Fig. 97: Flutted pier capital w with cross and corrner flowers, church of St Michael at Miletus in Cariia (western Asia M Minor), early seve enth century (Nie ewöhner 2013)

Fig. 98: Small fluted column n capital with reed d leaves as space ers between the flutes, with a sq quare top, and w with a central crosss in a wreath, broken on the left, Museum Çorum m in central Anatolia (Niewöhnerr 2012)

Fig. 97: Niewöhnerr, Milet 2016, 114 4 f. 178 f. cat. MK1105 Fig. 98: E. Keskin, Küçük Asya’da Kutsal Kent Eucchaita ve Bizans Dö önemi Taş Eserle eri ²(Ankara 2015)) Fig. 99: Niewöhnerr, Aizanoi 2007, 206 2 f. cat. 42 pl. 4

Fig. 99: Collumn capital with h twisted fluting, cross, and conca ave abacus, Öre encik near Aezani in Phrygia, centtral Anatolia (Niewöhnerr 2001)

-

46 | Colum mn Capitals – Later Fourth and Fiftth Century

Weste ern Asia Min nor (Westerrn Turkey)

Fig. 100: Compo osite column capiital with broad-po ointed leaves and d intermediary ree ed or lotus leavess, martyrium of S St Philip at Hierapolis in Phrygia (Weber)

Western n Asia Minor w was characterizzed by large olld cities that, irrespective of Christianisation, held on to t their outstan nding ancient m monumentalitty. Each city fo ollowed its own n local tradition n even when b building new churchc es. A ccorrespondinglly large numb ber of local → workshops ccame up with h as many diffferent solution ns, and western n Asia Minor, unlike the so outhern proviinces of → Lycia a and → Ciliccia, did not p produce any uniform u provinccial style. Insttead, and notw withstanding great variety of local solution ns, a general ttrend emergess in so far as western w Asia Miinor tended to o adhere to rettrospective sty yles and forms, ee.g. → fluted a and → reed leaff capitals. Thiss was in marked d contrast to co ontemporary → Constantinople and → Proco onnesus, and an exception like emperor Justinian’s chu urch of St John n at Ephesus ((second quarteer of the sixth ceentury) confirm ms this rule. As a new genre w without ancien nt roots, liturgiical furnishing gs were more up to date in n style and dissplayed some reegional uniform mity, for exam mple → Carian ambos. a || | Bibliogra aphy: F. W. Deicchmann, Zur spä ätantiken Baupla astik von Ephesos,, in: Mansel’e A Armağan – Mélanges Mansel, Tü ürk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları 7/60 (Ankara 1974) 5549–570; P. Nie ewöhner, of Ancient Monum ments at Miletus in Caria. Byzantine Preservation o Christian n Antiquarianism m in Western Asiia Minor, in: J. Borsch B – O. Gengler – M. Meier (ed d.), Die Weltchron nik des Johanness Malalas ext spätantiker M Memorialkultur, M Malalas Studien 3 (Stuttim Konte gart 2018 8) 191–216

hian column capittal with spiral vollutes, pre-JusFig. 101: Corinth tinianic first chu urch of St John at Ephesus (Niewöhner 2014)

Fig. 100: G. Gümgüm, Il M Martyrion di Hierrapolis di Frigia (Turchia), ( BAR Interrnational Series 2 2385 (Oxford 20112) 73–76 Fig. 101: M. Büyükkolancı – E. Russo, Scu ulture della prima a basilica Rivista di bizantin nistica 15 di San Giovanni a Efeso, Quaderni della R (Spoleto 2010) Fig. 102: Niewöhner, Mile et 2016, 130 cat. G GK31

Fig. 102: Corinthian colum mn capital with lo ong cauliculus and pointed leaf in n the spandrel ab bove, Great Churcch at Miletus in Caria, sixth cen ntury (Feld 1979). Cf. Fig. 452

Co olumn Capitals – Later Fourth and Fifth Century | 47

Emblem Cap pitals Em mblem capitalls are named after a middle m motifs that can ha ave an emblem matic characteer, but more offten consist of fo oliage. They fiill a gap betweeen the helicees and corner leeaves that typiically results from f low and wide proportions with a sin ngle row of wid dely spaced leaves. An eggan nd-dart undern neath the midd dle motif is an nother characteeristic feature o of these capita als. Early Byzan ntine emblem capitals c are rarre and mostly atttested in placces with an ancient tradition n of the same, e..g. in → westerrn Asia Minor (Fig. 103, 105). Single cases arre also known from the midd dle Byzantine p period.

Fig. 103: Em mblem pier capita al with narrow-po ointed foliage, fro om a ‘stepped street’ to the south h and above the llower Embolos att Ephesus in western Asia Min nor (F. Miltner)

| || Biibliography: E. R Russo, La scultura a a Efeso in età p paleocristiana e biizantina, in: R. Pillinger et al. (ed d.), Efeso paleocrristiana e bizantin na, Österreichissche Akademie der Wissensch haften. Philosoph hisch-historische e Klasse. Denkschriften 282 = Archäologische Fo orschungen 3 (Viienna 1999) 26– –53, at 37–40 pl.. 9–12; G. Theoch haris, Ένα Μεσοβυζαντινό Κιονόκρανο με Έμβλη ημα στο Μεγάλο Μ Μετέωρo, Byzantin na 30, 2010, 277– –298 Fig. 103: F. Miltnerr, 20. Vorläufigerr Bericht über die e Ausgrabungen in n Ephesos, Österreichische Jahresshefte 42, 1955, Beiblatt cl. 23– 60 0, at 31 f. fig. 10 Fig. 104: M. Akok, Ankara Şehrinde eki Roma Hamam mı, Türk Arkeoloji ergisi 17/1, 1968,, 5–37, at 10. 23 fig. f 26 De Fig. 105: G. A. Pllattner, Die Kapitelle der Herak klidenpfeiler, in: E Die Herrmen, ForschunR.. Hanslmayr, Die Skulpturen von Ephesos. ge en in Ephesos 10,, 2 (Vienna 2016) 89 f. pl. 71 f. Fig. 106: I. H. Merrt – P. Niewöhner, Blattkapitelle in Konya, Istanuler Mitteilungen n, 60, 2010, 373–410, at 408 cat. 2 25 fig. 38 bu

Fig. 105: Emblem p pier capital with broadb and narrow w-pointed le eaves, early Byzan ntine addition to a set of herm pie ers that already ha ad other, ancientt emblem capitalss, Heracles Gate o on the Embolos att Ephesus, western Asia Minor (Krramer)

Fig. 104: Em mblem pilaster ca apital with many-pointed leaves and scrollwork, from a fourth-century renovation of a shop on the e east entral Anatolia side of the Baths of Caracallla at Ankara in ce (M. Akok)

Fig. 106: Em mblem column ca apital with broad--pointed corner le eaves and a bust o on the abacus kn nob, local conglom merate, from Zind dankale in Lyca aonia (central Ana atolia), Museum Konya inv. 97 (Niewöhnerr 2008)

48 | Colum mn Capitals – Later Fourth and Fiftth Century

Head C Capitals

Fig. 107: Monum mental Corinthian n column capital w with narrow-pointed leaves and head on the abacu us knob, ?honoriffic column for em mperor Leo I (457– –474)?, Istanbul,, Topkapı Saray (N Niewöhner 2006)). For the impost o of the same colum mn, see Fig. 56

Byzantiine capitals w with heads or faces on the abacus knobs a are rare and tyypically singlee pieces. Somee heads have th he wide-open mouths of theeatre masks (F Fig. 93, 109). Head capitals ccan take the sh hape of → Corrinthian (Fig. 10 07, 109), → com mposite (Fig. 165), or → Bla attkelch capitalss (Fig. 93). All head capitalss typically hav ve spiral volutes (Fig. 107, 109 9) instead of h hook- or loop--shaped outer heelices that werre otherwise m more common in early Byzantiine times. Asia Minor had a Roman tradittion of head capitals, c and varrious local worrkshops contin nued to producce them through hout the early (Fig. 93, 109) a and middle By yzantine periodss (Fig. 4, 131). T They may havve set the exam mple for head ca apitals from → Proconnesuss and at → Con nstantinople (Fig. 107). R Rare statuettees instead off heads (Fig. 108, also Mary with Child) ccould have in nformed early Byyzantine → fig gured capitalss (cf. Fig. 110) or vice versa. || | Bibliogra aphy: E. von M Mercklin, Antike Figuralkapitelle e (Berlin 1962); J. Dresken–Weiland, Maria mit dem m Kind. Ein Figura alkapitell in Heraklleia Pontike, in: H H. Grieser – A. Me erkt (ed.), Volksg glaube im antiken C Christentum (Darrmstadt 2009) 27 75–290. Cf. N. Hirrschland, The Head d-Capitals of Sardis, Papers of th he British School at Rome 35, 1967,, 12–22 Fig. 107: U. Peschlow, E Eine wiedergewonnene byzantinische Ehrensäule in Istanbul, in: id. – O. Feld (ed.), Studien zur spä ätantiken und früh hbyzantinischen Kunst F. W. Deicchmann gewidmet (Bonn 1986) voll. 1 p. 21–33 Fig. 108: A. K. Orlandos, Η Αγία Θεοδώρα α της Άρτης, Aρχχείoν των ης Eλλάδoς 2, 11936, 88–104, at a 96–99 Βυζαντινών Μνημείων τη fig. 8 Fig. 109: Niewöhner, Mile et 2016, 269 f. catt. ST166

Fig. 108: Corinth hian column capital with narrow-p pointed leaves an nd statuette, on the e right side a fine e-toothed butterffly leaf, re-used in n Hagia Theodora at Arta in Epirus, northwestern Greece (Peschlow))

mask on the abacu us Fig. 109: Corinthian pier capital with theatre m ed leaves, and eg gg-and-dart below w, Miletus in Caria, knob, pointe we estern Asia Minorr (Niewöhner 2012)

Column Capitals – LLater Fourth and Fifth Century | 49

Figured Capiitals, early Fiigured capitalls were at first rare in earrly Byzantine times. Only → head capitalss can be traced back to an ea arlier Roman ttradition in Assia Minor. Sim mple → animal ca apitals in the same region may go back k to the same trradition; animals are also co ommon on ch hurch furnishin ngs and may h have been depiicted as a Chriistian alternativve to heads o or theatre massks that derivee from pagan an ntiquity. → Animal ccapitals with two t zones tha at emerged at → Proconnesus and → Consttantinople in the fifth-centu ury revived an n earlier ancient format with hout immediatte Roman precursor. As in the case of siimple animal ca apitals, the sellection of mosst animals and d in particular th he depiction off → eagles and d → peacocks w was probably in nformed by ch hurch buildin ngs, especiallyy since many sm mall animal ca apitals with tw wo zones seem m to have belo onged to churcch furnishingss. The new typ pe was taken up p by → Docimiium and → Siv vec and thus sp pread beyond th he Mediterraneean basin to → central Ana atolia and the → central Balka ans. The represeentation of hu uman figures (Fig. 108) or bu usts such as a angels (Fig. 110, 111), evangelists or their syymbols (Fig. 112), and saints (Daniel in th he lion's den, Th hecla Fig. 38) was equally rare r in architeectural sculptu ure and in churrch furnishing gs. | || Biibliography: N. Lemaigre Demesn nil, Sculptures fig gurées d’époque pa aléochrétienne en Cappadoce, Cahieres archéologiques 50, 20 002, 41–50; J. Drreksen-Weiland, Maria mit dem K Kind. Ein Figuralka apitell in Herakle eia Pontike, in: H. Grieser – A. Me erkt (ed.), Volksgllaube im antiken Christentum (Darmstadt 2009) 27 75–290 Fig. 110–111: Fıratlı, Musée Istanbul 1990, 122. 178 cat. 230. 362 pll. 74. 107 Fig. 112: Deichman nn, Ravenna 1969 9–1989, vol. 2, 1 p. 11 f.; vol. 2, 3 p.. 295

FFig. 112: One of tw wo pilaster capita als with contrariw wise wind-blown fine-toothed le eaves, symbolic representations o of Mark and Matthew, and a dono or inscription of bishop b Peter II (494–519), Museo Arcivescovile at Ravenna (Fellbermeyer 1938)

Fig. 110: On ne of two window capitals with two o zones, broad-pointed leaves, grifffins, and angel on a (broken) folia age corbel, from the t Mangana quarter of Constan ntinople, Museum m Istanbul inv. 39 902 87) (Schiele 198

Fig. 111: One of two figured ccolumn capitals w with inscription †Άγιος † aiah 6,2), cherub bim at the cornerss, and fine-toothe ed Σαβαώθ (Isa seraph in th he centre, Museu um Istanbul inv. 9 925 (Sebah um 19 900)

50 | Colum mn Capitals – Later Fourth and Fiftth Century

Anima al Capitals

Fig. 113: Corinth hian column capittal with broad-po ointed leaves and d lion, local marblle, from Kotyaeio on in Phrygia (cen ntral Anatolia), Museum Kütahyya inv. 8151 (Niew wöhner 2002)

Corinth hian (Fig. 113, 114, 116) and d composite capitals c (Fig. 115) with singlee animals on or under the abacus knob w were common n in early Byyzantine Asia a Minor (Fig. 1133, 114, 116) and d beyond (Fig. 115). They ma ay have been co onceived as a Christian alteernative to thee pagan tradition of → head capitals with h theatre mask ks from Roman Asia Minor. IIn addition, th he new Consttantinopolitan type of → an nimal capital w with two zonees could also havve played a pa art in so far ass simple anim mal capitals ma ay have served d as a provincial variant of th he metropolita an fashion. Thee choice of an nimals (→ peaccocks [Fig. 1155], lions [Fig. 113], → eagles [Fig. 114], dovves [Fig. 116])) is the same ass on church fu urnishings (e.g g. Fig. 3, 5, 10, 11, 25, 365, 374 4, 393, 397), and small anim mal capitals ap ppear to have beelonged to tem mplon barriers ((Fig. 116). || | Bibliogra aphy: M. Pinard,, Les chapiteauxx à béliers et à aigles a de Damous--el-Karita, Cahierrs de Byrsa 9, 1960–61, 37–48; M. Panagiotidi, Βυζαντινά Κιοννόκρανα με Ανάγγλυφα Ζώα, Δελλτίον της Χριστιανιικής Αρχαιολογικής Εταιρείας 4/6 (1970–1972) 82– –129

Fig. 114: One of several Corinthia an column capitals with broad- an nd es, local marble, from Doğanaslan nnarrow-pointed leaves and eagle Museum Kütahya inv. 667 (Niewöh hner 2002) lar in Phrygia, M

Fig. 115: Compossite column capittal with fine-tooth hed as well as pointed leaves a and with peacock ks instead of egg-and-dart, re-use ed in the late Byzan ntine Church of th he Apostles at Th hessaloniki (Peschlow 1995))

Fig. 113– –114: Niewöhner,, Steinmetzarbeiten Kütahya 200 06, 427– 429 cat. 9 9. 12 fig. 5. 7 Fig. 115:: J.-P. Sodini, La sculpture arrchitecturale à l'époque paléochrrétienne en Illyriccum, in: Actes du u 10e Congrès in nternational d'archéologie chrétienne 1. Rapports, Studi di antichittà cristiaome 1984) 207–2 298, at 232 fig. 14 4 na 37 (Ro Fig. 116 6: Niewöhner, S Steinmetzarbeite en Kütahya 200 06, 468 cat. 107 ffig. 70 f.

Fig. 116: Small Corinthian n column capital w with a bird (dove)) that grape, sandstone and part of the liiturgical furnishings of a picks a g church att Altıntaş near Ge ediz in Phrygia (central Anatolia), Museum Kütahya inv. 10305 (Niewöhner 2002)

Co olumn Capitals – Later Fourth and Fifth Century | 51

A Animal Capittals with Tw wo Zones Ca apitals with a ring of leav ves and anima als or animal prrotomes at tthe corners (German: Zw weizonen-Tierka apitelle) have no immediatee Roman pred decessors, but w were newly crea ated in the fifth century, pro obably followin ng examples frrom earlier anttiquity. They a are made with va arious → broa ad- and → narrrow-pointed ((Fig. 117, 120, 1221) as well as → fine-toothed leaves (Fig. 118, 119, 122, 1224, 125, 127, 1228, 183). According to the preserved monum ments, → Proconnesus/Con nstantinople seeems to have beeen leading in n their inventio on (Fig. 117, 1220, 183), with → Docimium, → Sivec (Fig. 118, 1 119, 121, 1124, 127, 128), an nd various prrovincial work kshops (Fig. 122) following su uit. The choicee of animals seems s to havee been determ mined by whatt was otherwiise customaryy in churches (rrams [Fig. 118 8, 119, 128], → eagles, → p peacocks), for ex xample on ch hurch furnishings, where ssmall animal ca apitals were ttypically emplloyed. Related d capitals are ussually not ideentical, but → mixed in foliiage and anim mals according g to the aestheetic principle of → varietas (ccf. Fig. 118, 121, 124, 127). A variant, → animal capiitals with two zones and filleet or basket, w was probably y developed la ater, together w with → Outer G Gate capitals and → capitals with zoning, allthough it also o reverts to an ncient models, in particular → griffins, → grreen men, and d gorgoneia. S Some capitals w with → tendrils have animalss at the corners, too, but no zo oning (Fig. 2133). | || Biibliography: E. Kitzinger, The Horrse and Lion Tape estry at Dumbarto on Oaks, Dumbartton Oaks Papers 3, 1946, 1–72; F.. W. Deichmann, Zu ur Entstehung de er spätantiken Zw weizonen-Tierkapitelle, in: Χαριστή ήριον εις Αναστάσ σιον Κ. Ορλάνδονν, Βιβλιοθήκη τηςς εν Αθήναις Αρχα αιολογικής Εταιρε είας 54 (Athens 19 965) vol. 1 p. 136–144 Fig. 117: J.-P. Sod dini, Marble Cap pitals from the H Hippodrome, in: B.. Pitarakis (ed.), Hippodrom/Atme eydanı (Istanbul 2010) 185–192, att 185–187 fig. 10.1 Fig. 118: G. Mano o-Zisi, Die Ausgrrabungen in Sto obi. Fundbericht 933/34, Starinar 10–11, 1935–1936, 145–170, at 16 65 fig. 33 19 Fig. 119: Filipova, K Kapiteli Makedon nija 2006, pl. 59, 2

Fig. 119: Small ra am capital with eagle e (Fig. 128, sa ame capital) and fine-toothed leaves, Episcopa al Palace at Heracclea Lyncestis in northe ern Macedonia (N Niewöhner 2013)

Fig. 117: Column capital with h winged horses and broad-pointe ed m the Hippodrome at Constantinople, Museum Ista anbul leaves, from inv. 2404 (B Betsch 1970)

Fig. 118: Ram capital with laurel wreath, ivy ttendril, and finetoothed lea aves, Episcopal Basilica at Stobi in n northern Maced donia (G. Mano-Ziisi)

52 | Colum mn Capitals – Later Fourth and Fiftth Century

Eagle Capitals

Fig. 120: Eagle ccapital with two zones, z narrow-pointed leaves below, and fine-toothed leaflets ab bove, between the e eagles, from Istanbul-Kadıkö öy, Museum Istanbul inv. 5436 (Be etsch 1970)

Fig. 121: Eagle capital with two zones and pointed d leaves, Sivec marble, from Čiččevo, probably from the Episcopal Basilica at Stob bi in northern Maccedonia, Museum m Skopje (Niewöhner 2011)

Eagles o often appear o on capitals, bo oth singly on or o under the aba acus knob, forr example as the sole figurre of an → anim mal capital (Fig g. 114) or as an n additional fig gure on an → a animal capital with two zon nes (Fig. 128, 199), 1 or repeateedly below thee corners of eearly Byzantin ne eagle capitalss with two zon nes (Fig. 120–1122, 183, 198, 216) 2 and of later eagle capitals (Fig. 4, 8, 1331). Eagles bellow the cornerss typically havee open wings (heraldic stan nce) and can thu us be distinguisshed from dovves (Fig. 186, 19 92–194, 200, 2133, 221). Eagless on or under the abacus kn nob are sometim mes also dep picted in proffile and with closed wings (F Fig. 114, 128). Herraldic eagles a are reminiscentt of secular triu umphal symboliism, e.g. on late Roman and early By yzantine arches and gates. H However, hera aldic eagles are a also depicted on church ffurnishings (F Fig. 3, 5, 11), and a numerouss eagles are sh hown hunting g (Fig. 1, 2, 5,, 11), in particullar killing snakes (Fig. 6, 128 8), which sym mbolised victory of good over evil. All thesse eagle figurees were common in synagogu ues, too. Com mbinations of heraldic h eagles w with the letterrs A and Ω and d correspondin ng comments b by church fath hers indicate that eagles co ould be understtood as symbo ols of Christ. E Eagles were th hus imbued w with apotropaicc and Christian n meaning and d in this are com mparable to dovves (Fig. 116, 1133, 151, 186, 19 92–194, 200, 2133, 221) and → p peacocks that are also often n shown on capitals. || | Bibliogra aphy: J. Kramer, Skulpturen mitt Adlerfiguren an n Bauten des 5. Ja ntinopel (Cologne 1968); ahrhunderts n. Chr. in Konstan H. Maguiire, An Early Christian Marble Rellief at Kavala, Δελτίον της Χριστιανιικής Αρχαιολογικ κής Εταιρείας 4 4/16, 1991/92, 283–295; 2 H. Maguiire, Profane Icons. The Significan nce of Animal Vio olence in Byzantine Art, Res 38, 20 000, 19–34, at 22 2 f. fig. 4 f.; E. Ka arabacak, Bir Orta Bizans Dönemi Sütun Başlığı vve Kullanım Yerii Üzerine 0, 2019, 29–40 Tartışmalar, TÜBA-KED 20 Fig. 120: Fıratlı, Musée Isttanbul 1990, 108 f. cat. 195 pl. 63 Fig. 121: L. Audley-Miller – P. Niewöhner – W. Prochaska, Marbles, Quarries, and Workshopss on the Highland ds of Northern Ma acedonia, Archäolo ogischer Anzeigerr 2013/1, 95–145,, at 134 cat. 42 Fig. 122: Kautzsch, Kapite ellstudien 1936, 1161 cat. 514 pl. 311

Fig. 122: Small eagle capiital with two zone es and fine-toothed Museum Konya in n central Anatolia (Kramer 1970/1) leaves, M

Column Capitals – Later Fourth and Fifth Century | 53

P Peacocks Peeacocks are no ot attested on ancient → figu ured capitals, an nd it was onlyy in the Byzanttine era that th hey started to bee depicted on n architectural sculpture. Th he innovation reequires explan nation, becausee the elongated d proportions off peacocks aree ill-suited for the decor of ccapitals. They ussually assumee a central possition and are either shown frrontally with eerect train (Fig g. 115, 123) or in n profile with a long tail (Fig. 124, 125, 127, 203). 2 They occcur as the sole an nimal on variious types of capitals (Fig. 123–125, 212) an nd in combination with oth her creatures on → animal ca apitals with tw wo zones (Fig. 127, 1 203). The introdu uction of peaco ocks to architeectural sculptu ure may have been preceded by, and folllowed the exam mple of, chu urch furnishin ngs, where peeacocks were sttandard. Erect trains lend th hemselves to th he decoration off niches, and llong tails are suitable s for triiangular panells of → flankin ng ambo slabs (Fig. ( 25, 374, 382). Peacocks w were associated d with paradise and common n in all Christian contexts (F Fig. 337, 397, 4228, 469, 481). Pairs of peeacocks on eith her side of a central founain, kanthaross, or chalice (Fig. 354) aree well-known ta frrom early Byzzantine mosaicc floors and, starting from th he middle Byyzantine period, were also depicted on ba arrier slabs (Fiig. 431). | || Biibliography: C. Barsanti, Scultu ure mediobizanttine di Monemva asia, in: S. Pasi (e ed.), Studi in memoria di Patrizia Angiolini Martine elli, Studi e sccavi, nuova serie 10 (Bologna 2005) 49–73; H.. Özyurt Özcan, E Examples of Architectural Sculptu ure with Figurative e and Floral Decoration of the Byzantine Period at Muğla, Bodrum, an nd Milas Archaeo ological Museumss, Olba 19, 2011, 389–418 Fig. 123: Fıratlı, Mu usée Istanbul 199 90, 115 f. cat. 215 pl. 67 Fig. 124: L. Audleyy-Miller – P. Niew wöhner – W. Prochaska, Marbles, Quarries, and Workshops on the Hiighlands of North hern Macedonia, Arrchäologischer Anzeiger 2013/1, 95–145, 9 135 cat. 4 44 Fig. 125: Sotiriou – Sotiriou, Βασιλλική Αγίου Δημητρίου 1952, 166 pll. 42 a

p two zon nes, tendril, and Fig. 125: Pilastter capital with peacocks, fine-toothed leavves below, broken below, crypt off St Demetrius in Thessalo oniki (Peschlow)

nic impost capita al with peacock, vvine, and angled ‘corFig. 123: Ion ner volutes’, Museum Istanb bul inv. 2655 (Kra amer)

Fig. 124: Pe eacock capital witth two zones, ivy, pine cones at th he corners, and double leaves belo e, Episcopal Basillica at ow, Sivec marble Stobi in norrthern Macedonia a, National Museum Belgrade (Belgrade)

54 | Colum mn Capitals – Latter Fourth and Fift fth Century

Sivec

Fig. 126: Ionic im mpost capital witth continuous ech hinus without volutes, Sivec m marble, from the Episcopal E Basilica a at Stobi in northern Macedonia, Museum Sk kopje (Niewöhner 2011)

olumn capital with two zones, pea acocks, ivy, and Fig. 127: Ram co double leaves below, Sivec marb ble, from the Episscopal Basilica att useum Skopje (Niewöhner 2011) Stobi in northern Macedonia, Mu

Sivec iss the modern n name of an anccient marble qu uarry in the → ccentral Balkan ns, to the westt of Stobi, the provincial cap pital of northerrn Macedonia.. Sivec marble is finegrained d white dolom mite and most suitable for in nteriors. Coarse-grained calcite with grey veeins that is also available in the same geneeral area is harrder and moree weather-resistant and was tthus given preeference when it came to exterrior parts (Fig. 130). Thee surviving mo onuments or tthe lack of such suggest tha at exploitation n of Sivec marb ble lapsed in late l Roman/latte antique tim mes, only to be resumed in the → Theodosian period d. The Theodo osian productiion employed the same rep pertoire, style, and quality as contempora ary → Proconn nesus and → D Docimium, whiich suggests th hat the three quarries weree connected, possibly p through h the imperiall estate. Sivec provided the central Balkanss with marble carvings of th he same standa ard that Mediterrranean cities would procurre from Proco onnesus and tha at Docimium su upplied to → ceentral Anatolia a. In tthe second ha alf of the fifth century, explo oitation of Sivecc marble appea ars to have sto opped again, th his time for good d and probablly owing to devvastating Hun nnic and Ostrogo oth invasions iin 447 and 4779 respectively y. It follows th hat carvings fro om Sivec marb ble must pre-d date the later fiffth century. Th his establishes an early termiinus for the firstt appearance o of → animal ca apitals with tw wo zones (Fig. 118, 119, 121, 124, 127, 128), → composite capitals, c → Theodosian capitals, and → dou uble leaves (F Fig. 124, 127). || | Bibliogra aphy: L. Audley--Miller – P. Niew wöhner – W. Prochaska, Marbles, Quarries, and W Workshops on th he Highlands of Northern nia, Archäologischer Anzeiger 20113/1, 95–145; W. ProchasMacedon ka, A Scu ulptural Marble of Prime Quality in n Antiquity. The Dolomitic D Marble o of the Sivec Moun ntains in Macedo onia, Archaeome etry 55/2, 2013, 179 9–197 Fig. 126– –127: L. Audley-M Miller – P. Niewöh hner – W. Prochasska, Marbles, Qua arries, and Work kshops on the Hiighlands of Northern Macedonia, Archäologische er Anzeiger 2013 3/1, 95–145, at 133–135 cat. 39. 4 43 Fig. 128: Filipova, Kapiteli Makedonija 200 06, pl. 59, 2

al (Fig. 119, same capital) with two o zones, Fig. 128: Small ram capita eagle cla awing a snake, an nd fine-toothed le eaves, Episcopal Palace at Heracllea Lyncestis in n northern Macedon nia (Niewöhner 2013)

Column Capitals – Later Fourth and Fifth Century | 55

C Central Balk kans Th he central B Balkans, like the → centrral Anatolian pllateau, were cut off from thee import of → P Proconnesian m marble becausee of a lack of navigable n rivers. Instead, an eq quivalent qua ality and stylee of marble ccarvings was prrovided by the quarry an nd workshop complex of → Sivec that, in n the Theodosian period, pla ayed the same ro ole for the ceentral Balkanss as → Docim mium did for ceentral Anatolia. In addition n, the central Balkans also em mployed num merous local marbles, m in p particular for la arge parts and d relatively sim mple carvings,, because the lo ocal marbles w were available close to buildiing sites, had deecorative figu ure, and/or weere more weatther resistant an nd thus better suited for exteerior use (Fig. 130). Later, the rregion was deevastated by H Huns and Ostrrogoths in 44 47 and 479 respectively, and the explloitation of S Sivec came to an end. Thee ensuing reco onstruction in the sixth century was donee mainly with → re-used carviings. Where th his was not possible, as in th he case of tthe newly founded city o of Justiniana Prrima/Caričin G Grad, new partts were carved d on site from lo ocal sandstonee (Fig. 129). On nly → coloured d marble wall reevetment (Fig.. 457), → transsennae (Fig. 4 455, 456), and otther relativelyy light fittingss were importted from afar an nd in a finisheed state.

olumn capital with zoning, contrarriwise wind-blow wn fineFig. 129: Co toothed lea aves, and volutes, local sandstone e, from Justiniana a Prima/Cariččin Grad in Dacia, second third of the sixth centuryy, Museum Le eskovac (Niewöhn ner 2010)

| || Biibliography: J.-P. Sodini, La scullpture architectu urale à l'époque pa aléochrétienne en Illyricum, in: Actes A du 10e Con ngrès internationa al d'archéologie chrétienne 1. Rap pports, Studi di a antichità cristiana a 37 (Rome 1984)) 207–298; Filipova, Kapiteli Make edonija 2006 Fig. 129: J.-P. Caille et et al., Caričin Grad G 3. L' acropole, Collection de l’É École française d de Rome 75/3 (R Rome 2010) 327– –331 cat. A 166 fig g. V 12–13 Fig. 130: L. Audleyy-Miller – P. Niew wöhner – W. Prochaska, Marbles, hern Macedonia, Quarries, and Workshops on the Hiighlands of North 9 at 132 ca at. 34 Arrchäologischer Anzeiger 2013/1, 95–145,

Fig. 130: Pe edestal with staurrogram medallion n and Attic colum mn base, local marble, narthex of the Episcopal Basilica at Stobi in northern Macedonia (Niewöhner 2011)

56 | Colum mn Capitals – Latter Fourth and Fift fth Century

Figure ed Capitals,, later

Fig. 131: Eagle and head capital, Museum Istanbu ul inv. 4722 (Kramer)

Later Byyzantine figureed capitals aree mostly small in size, have no rings of lea aves, and ma ay have belon nged to church furnishings. H Heraldic eagless with open wiings are depicted often, someetimes singly (Fig. 8), but mostly pairwise at the corn ners and typiccally in comb bination with a cconcave abacu us and a human head on th he knob (Fig. 4, 131), apparen ntly a combina ation of early Byzantine → eeagle and → heead capitals. Excceptional → im mpost capitals with busts of archana gels at the Chora Mon nastery in Ista anbul have a concave c calathu us with a discc-shaped 'aba acus knob’ th hat protrudes a above the busst and also seeems to reference the earlier h head capitals ((Fig. 132). Occa asionally, anim mals are shown in profile (Fig g. 133) as in ea arly Byzantinee → animal cap pitals. In contrrast, → capitalss with addorseed birds appear to have been n newly created in the middlee Byzantine perriod. || | Bibliogra aphy: Dennert, M Mittelbyzantiniscche Kapitelle 199 97, 143– 168; N. M Melvani, Late Byyzantine Sculpture, Studies in th he Visual Cultures of the Middle Ag ges 6 (Turnhout 2 2013); M. Eda Arm mağan, A Byzantine Eagle e-Decorated Capital from Hierap polis ArMiddle B chaeolog gical Museum, Attti della Accadem mia roveretana degli Agiati 9/8 A, 20 018, 102–109; E. Karabacak, Bir O Orta Bizans Dönemi Sütun Başlığı, TTÜBA-KED 20, 20119, 29–40 Fig. 131: Fıratlı, Musée Istanbul 1990, 123 cat. 232 pl. 75 umbarton Fig. 132: Ø. Hjort, The Sculpture of the Kariye Camii, Du Oaks Pap pers 33, 1979, 199 9–289, at 237–246 Fig. 133: Y. Ötüken, Neue e Aspekte zur Dattierung der mitte elbyzantiBauplastik in Kle einasien, in: Vand derheyde – Penna, Sculpnischen B ture 2008 8, 105–121 fig. 4

Fig. 132: Impostt capital with busts of archangels (faces mutilated)), concave calathu us, disc-shaped 'a abacus knob’, an nd a row of stand-ing leaves on top, re-used(?) in the late Byzantine e outer narthex of astery/Kariye Cam mii at Istanbul (W Wikimedia Comthe Chora Mona mons)

Fig. 133: Small impost capital with w bevelled edg ges and dove, fro om the church of St Nicholas at Myra in Lycia a, Museum Antalyya (Niewöhner 2020)

Column Capitals – Later Fourth and Fifth Century | 57

C Capitals with h Addorsed d Birds Ca apitals with ad ddorsed birds differ in severral ways from → eagle capitalls: (a) through h closed wingss, (b) because th he birds usuallly stand on orb bs, (c) their taiils often cross (F Fig. 134), and ((d) they may lo ook at each oth her with their heeads turned back. As oppossed to most oth her → figured ca apitals, those with addorsed d birds are typ pically → impo ost capitals w with a square top, t without h human heads on n the abacus knobs, but offten with lion heads at the co orners or in thee middle (Fig. 134, 136). Capitals wiith addorsed birds thus ap ppear to be a neew middle Byzzantine creatio on. Their mod dels are found no ot in earlier ccarvings, but in silk fabricss with a long trradition of similar pairs of birrds. | || Biibliography: E. Kitzinger, The Horrse and Lion Tape estry at Dumbarto on Oaks, Dumbarrton Oaks Paperss 3, 1946, 1–72; Dennert, Mittelbyyzantinische Kap pitelle 1997, 153–166 Fig. 134: Deichman nn, Corpus San Marco M 1981, cat. 2 203 pl. 12 an (ed.), The Rem mnants. 12th and d 13th Centuries Fig. 135: A. Ödeka Byyzantine Objects in Turkey (Istanb bul 2007) 224 Fig. 136: Dennert, Mittelbyzantinissche Kapitelle 1997, 216 cat. 316 pll. 56

Fig. 135: Small pier capital with add dorsed bids on orrbs, various oliage, and on top p a row of standin ng leaves, Museu um Istanbul fo in nv. 2810T (Peschlo ow)

Fig. 134: Im mpost capital with h pine cones and lion heads at the e corners as well as, facing them, addorsed bids o on orbs, with various d with a lotus-pallmette frieze on ttop, re-used in the foliage, and thirteenth-ccentury porch of S San Marco in Ven nice (D-DAI-ROM M-66.332)

Fig. 136: Sm mall impost capital of a knotted co olumn (cf. Fig. 414) with lion he eads and bird pro otomes at the corrners as well as a rose and a palme ette in the middle e, from Kidyessos/Çayhisar in Phrygia (central Ana atolia), Museum A Afyon inv. E1589– –3930 (Kramer)

58 | Colum mn Capitals – Latter Fourth and Fift fth Century

Reed LLeaf Capitals and Reed d Leaves

Fig. 137: Impost with staurogram m medallion, reed d or lotus leaves, e in Thrace and broad-pointted corner leavess, Museum Edirne (Niewöhner 2016)

Pure reeed leaf capitalls with a simplle ring of reed,, lancet, or lotuss leaves were rrare in the Byza antine era. At Miletus in Caria a, where theyy occur more ffrequently (Fig g. 140), this is probably owiing to direct imitation of ancient forerun nners and indiccative of a retrrospective orieentation common among loca al → workshop ps in → westeern Asia Minor. Morre common are reed leeaves as filleers between/b behind flutes (Fig. 98) and acanthus leav ves that are not → touching (F Fig. 100). Occassionally and esspecially in → Greece (Fig. 1138, 139, 143), individual reeed, lancet, or llotus leaves ap ppear as indep pendent motifs and on an equa al footing with h acanthus leavves (Fig. 137, 19 96). Row ws of (staggered) reed leavees continued to t decorate → eentablatures (F Fig. 336) or, ra arely, column capitals c (Fig. 78, 194), as had b been ancient ttradition. || | Bibliogra aphy: Kautzsch, Kapitellstudien 1936, 211; Nie ewöhner, Milet 20116, 115 Fig. 138: Vemi, Les chapiiteaux ioniques à imposte de Grè èce 1989, 90 f. cat. 18 pl. 7 Fig. 139: C. Tsigonaki, La a basilique du Lé échaion (Corinthe): étude des sculp ptures architectu urales, in: Moreau u, Archaeology of a World of Chang ges 2020, 243–2552 Fig. 140: Niewöhner, Mile et 2016, 257 cat. S ST88

Fig. 138: Ionic im mpost capital with canalis, cross, reed or lotus leaves, and narrrow-pointed corner leaves, Skripo ou in Boeotia, central Greece (Kramer 1966/7)

Fig. 139: Ionic im mpost capital with pointed middle e leaf and reed leaves at the corners, broken at the t back, Basilica a of Leonidas at Lechaion near C Corinth, second half of the fifth century (Thiel)

Fig. 140: Mullion capital w with reed or lotuss leaves, Miletus Museum in Caria, western Asia Min nor (Niewöhner 2 2012)

Column Capitals – Later Fourth and Fifth Century | 59

G Greece Co oastal cities built early Byzantine ch hurches with im mported marbles from → Prroconnesus (F Fig. 145, 174). So ome of the same churchees also obserrved specific prrovincial cusstoms, for ex xample addittional, small am mbos with a single flight of stairs that were locally m made in Maced donia (Fig. 39 98). Other pro ovincial traits in nclude adheren nce to traditio onal forms in → Ionic capita als and → imp posts in centra al Greece (Fig. 138, 154) as w well as a generral popularity of → reed lea aves (Fig. 138, 1339, 143). In later Byzantine times, Attica,, Boeotia, the Peeloponnese, a and in particular the Mani ea ach displayed so ome local repeertoire and style of their own n. Often, such lo ocal repertoiree was first esta ablished by an n outstanding bu uilding project that could in nvolve foreign stonemasons frrom Constantin nople or elsew where and was later imitated byy local worksh hops, typically in lesser qualiity.

Fig. 141: Ion nic impost capital with cross and sstanding fleurs-d de-lis, from Basilicca D at Amphipolis in Macedonia, Museum Amphip polis (Niewöhnerr 2014)

| || Biibliography: J.-P. Sodini, Remarques sur la scu ulpture architectu urale d’Attique, de Béotie et du Péloponnèse à l’époque pa aléochrétienne, B Bulletin de corre espodance hellén nique 101, 1977, 42 23–450; Kontogiannopoulou, Τέμ μπλα 2014; A. Oh hnesorg, ‚Byzantin nischer Archaism mus‘ auf Paros un nd Naxos, in: M. Korres – S. Mamaloukos – K. Zampas – P. Mallo ouchou-Tufano (e ed.), Ηρως Κτίστη ης. Μνήμη Χαράλλαμπου Μπούρα (Athens ( 2018) vol. 2 p. 273–286; G.. Pallis, Παρατηρ ρήσεις στην Εξέλιιξη της Αρχιτεκτο ονικής Γλυπτικής σττην Πελοπόννησο ο κατά τον 12ο Αιώνα, in: M. Mitssi-Anagnostou – A.. Morakis – A. Ba artzoka (ed.), Πελλοπόννησος. Πρα ακτικά Ημερίδας για τον Νίκο Μπιργγάλια (Athens 202 21) 209–224 Fig. 141: Vemi, Less chapiteaux ioniques à imposte de Grèce 1989, 1554 cat. 182 pl. 54 Fig. 142: C. Tsigon naki, La basilique du Léchaion (C Corinthe): étude de es sculptures arcchitecturales, in: Moreau, Archaeo ology of a World off Changes 2020, 243–252

Fig. 142: Mu ullion capital and d impost with staurogram medaillon, Basilica of LLeonidas at Lechaion near Corinth h, second half of the fifth centuryy (Thiel)

Fig. 143: Architrave e with three fasciias and a frieze o of alternately poin nted leaves and p pairs of reed or lo otus leaves and w with a cross on the rig ght, Agora of Athens (Peschlow)

60 | Colum mn Capitals – Latter Fourth and Fift fth Century

Impossts

Fig. 144: Monoliithic combination n of Thodosian co olumn capital and d impost, limestone, Andriake in Lycia, L Church C (N Niewöhner 2020)

Fig. 145: Impostt with fine-toothed foliage, Basilicca A at Nea Anchialos/Thebes in Th hessaly (central Greece), G second h half of the fifth century (Wrede 11933)

Impostss have a squarre bottom and a deeper, oblo ong top. The deeeper top corressponds to the greater depth h of masonry-b built arcades tthat were deeeper than mon nolithic architra aves and wou uld thus not fiit on top of capitals. c Impostss emerged in tthe fourth cen ntury, when Ch hristian basilica as started to bee mostly built with arcades instead of colon nnades that ha ad prevailed in n Roman archittecture. By the fifth centu ury, imposts h had become sttandard where cchurches weree built with brricks or with doubleshell ru ubble and limee mortar maso onry. In contra ast, they were un nknown in → S Syria, where siingle-shell ash hlar masonry w without mortarr allowed for th hinner walls th hat had place on n simple capitals without im mpost (Fig. 14). Thee decor of imp posts is focused d on the moree visible short siides, especiallyy the sides tha at face inside (in ( windows) o or the nave (in n basilicas) and d often have sy ymbolic middle motifs (→ cro osses, → Christograms) or → monograms ((Fig. 137, 142, 183, 184, 186 6, 198, 223, 24 42–244). Foliage is generally b borrowed from m contempora ary Byzantine ccapitals, with southern → Greek imposts displayd ing a prreference for R Roman forms and style. Lon ng sides are som metimes also d decorated (Fig. 145, 183). Thee necessary ad daptation of th he decorative sschemes to thee trapezoidal ssurfaces of all sides will havee worked towa ards the develop pment of → op penwork, → sccrollwork, and d → impost cap pitals. || | Bibliogra aphy: A. Frantz, Geography and P Politics in Early Christian Ornamen nt in Greece, in:: Byzantine Eastt, Latin West. Fe estschrift K. Weizm mann (Princeton 11995) 41–47; E. R Russo, Il pulvino o sopra il capitello a cesto, Bizantiinistica 2/7, 200 05, 23–45 and 2//9, 2007, 15–40 Fig. 144: N. Öztürk – M. Çekilmez, 2014 Yılı Myra-Andriak ke Liman Yerleşimi A Kilisesi Kazıı Çalışmaları, Attatürk Üniveriste esi Güzel 209, at 197 fig. 2 f. Sanatlar Enstitüsü Dergissi 36, 2016, 192–2 pl. 9, 39 Fig. 145: Strube, Polyeukttoskirche 1984, p Fig. 146:: Zollt, Kapitellplastik Konstantin nopels 1994, 73 cat. 163 pl. 32 Fig. 147: P. Niewöhner, »Hagios Antonioss« – eine Reiche mittelbyzantiniscche Stiftung, Ista anbuler Mitteilun ngen 57, 2007, 125–129. 178, at 17 78 fig. 56 f.

Fig. 146: Impostt with central fruit basket and broa ad-pointed corne er leaves, from the e Palace of Justice e, now the Great Palace excavation, in Istanbull-Sultanahmet, Museum M Istanbul iinv. 5117 (Feld 1969)

Fig. 147: Middle Byzantine impost with zigzag-sscroll of palmette es, from Kızlarr Saray at Fındıkllı Ruşen near Ineg göl in western Assia Minor, Museum Bursa inv. 245 (Niewöhner 2006)

Column Capitals – Later Fourth and Fifth Century | 61

C Central Anattolia Ea arly Byzantinee marble carviing in central Anatolia was sttrongly influen nced by the reg gion’s most im mportant quarryy and worksho op complex at a → Docimium m in Phrygia. M Many local → workshops th hat employed various local m marbles all seem m to have folllowed the exam mple of Docim mium. This and d the region’s remoteness r fro om sea-routes an nd external in nfluences resu ulted in a disttinct regional reepertoire and sstyle; examplees for this repertoire include → fluted capita als (Fig. 98, 99 9), → central A Anatolian ambo os, → press w weights with cross decor (Fiig. 476, 477), an nd basilicas bu uilt with → mu ullions instead of columns. Generally speaking, marb ble was used a lot in central A Anatolia wherever it was loca ally available, including for la arge parts thatt were normallly built otherwise in other reegions of the early Byzantin ne empire, forr example arch hitraves even for rural churrch buildings (Fig. 149) as w well as monoliithic → baptissmal fonts (Fiig. 446–448), → cathedras, an nd → window frames f (Fig. 150). The extensiive ruins of Bin nbirkilise in Lycaonia are a sp pecial case in that the locally available bu uilding materiial is not marb ble, but basalt, the coarse grrain of which reequired simpliffications in forrm and style.

Fig. 148: Ion nic impost capita al with many-poin nted foliage, in th he municipal g garden at Altıntaşş near Kütahya in n Phrygia (Niewöhnerr 2002)

| || Biibliography: E. Parman, Ortaça ağda Bizans Dön neminde Frigya (P Phrygia) ve Bölge Müzelerindeki Bizans B Taş Eserleri, T. C. Anadolu Ün niversitesi Yayınları 1347 = Edebiyat Fakültesi Y Yayınları 11 (Eskişehir 2002); P. Niewöhner, Phryygian Marble and d Stonemasonry Regional Distincttiveness in Late e Antiquity, in: ass Markers of R P.. Thonemann (ed..), Roman Phrygia a (Cambridge 20113) 215–248 Fig. 149–150: Niew wöhner, Aizanoi 2007, 230. 267 7 cat. 208. 343 pll. 23. 39

Fig. 149: Architrave, probably from a rural ch hurch building, Sa aray wöhner 2001) near Aezani in Phrygia (Niew

Fig. 150: Ma arble window fram me with cruciform m grid, re-used in na Turkish fountain at Pazarcık k near Aezani in P Phrygia (Niewöhnerr 2001)

62 | Colum mn Capitals – Latter Fourth and Fift fth Century

Ionic C Capitals

Fig. 151: Echinuss of a large Ionic column capital w with Christogram medallion, flank king doves with palm p branches, ivvy leaves, and lila ac colouration, volutes broken off, Museum M Kütahya a in central Anato oewöhner 2001) lia, inv. 463 (Nie

Fig. 152: Ionic co olumn capital witth Christogram m medallion and flanking palmettes, Museum Elm malı in Lycia (Niew wöhner 2020)

Ionic co olumn capitalss played imporrtant parts in → Rome (Fig. 622) and North Affrica, where, u until the fifth century, c they weere employed as nave capiitals in major church buildings. In additio on to various local → work kshops, large m marble → quarrries on Thasoss and → Proco onnesus exporteed Ionic capita als to Rome a and elsewhere, until this lin ne of productiion was aban ndoned and reeplaced with → Ionic impost capitals in th he course of the fifth centuryy. Easstern Mediterranean or Byzzantine church hes had little usse for Ionic ca apitals. Greateer numbers aree, however, atttested in the B Balkans. → Grreek specimen ns stand out for their tradition nal style and forms, includ ding the canalis (cf. Fig. 138, 1154). Elsewherre, simplificatiion and reductio on was the ru ule (Fig. 151, 152, 272), for example e limestone capitals iin the Syrian n Limestone Massif (Fig. 1533) and in rurall Palestine. || | Bibliogra aphy: J.-P. Sodinii – J. J. Herrmann n, Exportations de marbre thasien à l'époque paléo ochrétienne. Le cas des chapiteaux ioniques, Bu ulletin de corresp pondance hellén nique 101, 1977, 471–511; M. Beyka an, Ionische Kap pitelle auf Proko onnesos. Produk ktion und Export rö ömischer Bauteile, Istanbuler Fo orschungen 53 (TTübingen 2012); I. Taxel, Late Antiique Ionic Colum mn Capitals in th he Counte Antiquity 2/1, 2018, 84– ryside off Central Palestine, Studies in Late 125 Fig. 151:: Niewöhner, Stteinmetzarbeiten n Kütahya 2006 6, 454 f. cat. 83 fig. 48 oration Kalksteinmassiv 1993. 200 02, vol. 2 Fig. 153: Strube, Baudeko p. 198 f. pl. 144 a–e; 145 c

Fig. 153: Ionic column cap pital with long neck, cross instead d of eggand-dart, and with a comb bination of squarre top and concavve abacus (cf. Fig. 86, 302), wesstern portico of th he Church of the Virgin V (sixth cen ntury) at Sheikh S Suleiman in the S Syrian Limestone e Massif (Burns 20 005)

Collumn Capitals – LLater Fourth and Fifth Century | 63

Io onic Impostt Capitals Io onic impost cap pitals are a com mbination of → Ionic capitals an nd → imposts ((Fig. 62). They emerged e soon a after the latter w were invented in n the fourth ceentury and serrved the same pu urpose, i.e. to o provide a deeep rectangula ar top for the acccomodation off masonry arcad des. Starting in the fifth centu ury and wheree masonry arca ades were comm mon – not in → Syria – Ionic im mpost capitals w were often emplloyed in second dary positions,, especially on ga alleries. In the provinces, theey are also atteested as main na ave capitals, e..g. emperor Jusstinian I’s basillica of St John att Ephesus in thee province of Asia. A The decor of Ionic impo ost capitals reesembles, and deeveloped para allel to, that of imposts. Volutes were reeduced in size ((Fig. 139, 148, 317, 3 327), the eg gg-and-dart on th he echinus wass replaced by fo oliage (Fig. 148, 317), and the Io onic element beecame altogeth her less promin nent. → Greece sttands out thro ough a traditio on of its own,, for example th hrough maintaiining the canallis (Fig. 138, 154 4) long after it ha ad been abando oned elsewheree. Some sixth-century Ionic im mpost capitals at → Constantin nople have ang gled ‘corner vo olutes’ (German n: Eckvoluten, Fiig. 123, 155, 26 61, 318). The capitals are deccorated on all siides, have a square top, and a thus com mpare to conteemporary → im mpost capitals whilst forego oing the functio onal advantag ge of normal Io onic impost ca apitals with a deeep rectangularr top.

Fig. 154: Ion nic impost capita al with canalis as well as cross me edallion and narrow-pointed corrner leaves on the e impost, Skripou u in Boeotia, central Greece (Pesschlow)

| || Biibliography: B. S Sythiakaki-Kritsim malli, Κιονόκρανα α από τη Βασιλική ή των Δαφνουσίω ων Λοκρίδας, in:: Αρχαιολογικό Έ Έργο Θεσσαλίας κα αι Στερεάς Ελλά άδας (Bolos 200 06) 1131–1148; C C. Barsanti, Un ca apitello ionico a ad imposta di ep poca ortobizantiina reimpiegato ne ella Ulu Camii dii Manisa, in: „A mari usque ad m mare“. Scritti in memoria di Gianclaudio Macchiarella (Venice 2016)) 49–61 Fig. 154: Vemi, Less chapiteaux ioniques à imposte de Grèce 1989, 89 9 f. cat. 17 pl. 6 Fig. 155: Zollt, Kapitellplastik Konsttantinopels, 20 f.. cat. 26 pl. 9 Fig. 156: F. K. Ye egül, The Bath-G Gymnasium Com mplex at Sardis, Sa ardis Report 3 (Ca ambridge MASS 1986) 1 35 f. fig. 611 f.

Fig. 156: Ioniic impost capitals, to the e left with sscroll and fluted frieze, to er capital the right a corne with a corner vo olute and lo otus-palmette frie eze, early Byzantine reno ovation of the Marble Cou urt in the b bath-gymnasium at Sardis in Lydia, western Asia Minor (Niewöhn ner 2020)

Fig. 155: Ion nic impost capital with angled ‘corner volutes’, foliage on the echinus, and split palmettes on the im mpost, gallery of Sts d Bacchus at Istanbul, second qua arter of the sixth cenSergius and tury (Peschlow)

64 | Colum mn Capitals – Latter Fourth and Fift fth Century

Crosse es

Fig. 157: Ionic im mpost capital with h central basket on the echinus, with cross, and with many-pointe ed foliage, Perge e in Pamphylia, Minor (Peschlow) southern Asia M

Crossess are common on Byzantinee architecturall sculpture, pa articularly on → imposts (F Fig. 98, 138, 14 41, 154, 157, 186 6, 236, 242, 24 43) and → impost capitals (F Fig. 173, 241, 269 9, 306, 435, 44 40, 441), as w well as on churrch furnishing gs, → grave steelae, and → press weights. Crosses above doors (Fig. 1159, 349, 350,, 351) and windows w (Fig. 3522) will have seerved as apotro opaic symbols.. Cro osses are often surrounded b by medallions (Fig. 11, 154, 159 9, 241, 244, 306 6, 334, 351, 406, 426, 435, 44 40, 444, 476, 4777), occasionallly also by folia age (Fig. 157, 223, 2 224, 268, 349 9, 428, 446) orr wreaths (Fig. 98, 350), the latter l in particullar on the abacus knob (Fig.. 190, 200, 2022). However, un nlike later → leeaved crosses, most early By yzantine crosses were distinct from, i.e. nott organically connected to, any surroundin ng foliage. || | Bibliogra aphy: J.-P. Sodini, La sculpture a architecturale des églises de Jordanie, in: N. Duva al (ed.), Les églises de Jordanie et leurs mosaiques (Beirut 2003 3) 123–146; Ν. Κ. Moutsopoulo os, Σταυρωμένοι Κίονες (Athens 2 2004); S. Pedone, Una singolare e bottega di lapicidi bizantini attivva a Hierapolis, Efeso e Sardi, Acta ad archaeologiam et artium h historiam pertine entia 300, 2019, 217–236 2

Fig. 158: Middle Byzantine barrie er slab with interllace medallions, drail, Museum Miletus in Caria (we estern Asia Minorr), cross, and hand inv. 2073 (Niewö öhner 2012)

Fig. 157: M. Dennert, ‚Ü Übersehene‘ Kap pitelle. Anmerkun ngen zur mittelbyzzantinischen Arcchitekturplastik aus Konstantinopel, in: Vanderhe eyde – Penna, Scculpture 2008, 555–67 fig. 9 Fig. 158: P. Niewöhner, Ne eue spät- und na achantike Monum mente von Milet, Arrchäologischer Anzeiger 2013/2, 165–233, at 202 2 cat. 28 fig. 63 f. darin, das antike e Androna, Monographien Fig. 159: C. Strube, Al And des Röm misch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums 121 (Main nz 2005) 241 f. pl. 134, 1

Fig. 159: Door lin ntel with cross medallion m and flan nking Φως Zωή- respectively Θωμά ά-crossor Christogram-monograms, bassalt, castron of An ndrona in Syria (N Niewöhner 1998)

g. 160: Pier capita al with large stau urogram Fig an nd small cross me edallions as well as lea aves, limestone, Museum Hama in n Syria (Le eatherbury 2010))

Collumn Capitals – Later Fourth and Fifth Century | 65

C Christogram ms Ch hristograms arre less commo on than → crosses, but more offten set in wrreaths (Fig. 16 61–164, 184, 216). They are tyypically depictted on architeectural sculptu ure (Fig. 151, 1552) rather than n on → grave stelae. This could indicate hiigher status, which would d correspond to the direct reeference to Chrrist instead of just j the cross. Staurogram ms are relativelly rare and norrmally carved leess elaboratelyy, with less deccorative effect (Fig. 130, 137, 14 42, 160, 349, 469, 471). Φω ως Zωή-cross- and christogrram-monogram ms are com mmon in thee Near East (F Fig. 159).

Fig. 161: Ion nic impost capital with fine-toothe ed Christogram medalm lion surroun nded by many-po ointed leaves, witth ivy leaves abovve, and with do ouble leaves at th he corners, Museum Istanbul inv. 5532 (Niewöhnerr 2006)

| || Biibliographiy V. Sythiakaki, Κορινθιάζοντα Κ Κ Κιονόκρανα με Στταυρούς Εγγεγρα αμμένους σε Κύκλλο. Η Συμβολή τω ων Εργαστηρίων τη ης Μαγνησίας, in n: L. Kypraiou (ed.), ( Θωράκιον. Αφιέρωμα στη Μ Μνήμη του Παύλο ου Λαζαρίδη (Atthens 2004) 179 9–196; C. Breyte enbach – C. Zimm mermann, Early Christianity in Lyccaonia and Adjace ent Areas, Ancie ent Judaism and d Early Christian nity 101 (Leiden 20 017) 15–18 Fig. 161: Zollt, Kapitellplastik Konsttantinopels 1994 4, 13 cat. 10 pl. 4 History 1977, 422 fig. 81 Fig. 162: Betsch, H Fig. 163: E. Russo,, Considérations sur la sculpture architecturale à Niicée à l'époque p paléochrétienne,, Bizantinistica 2 2/4, 2002, 1–11, att 5 fig. 19 Fig. 164: Barsanti, Iznik-Nicaea's Museum M 2003, 28 81 fig. 50

Fig. 162: Im mpost with Christo ogram inside a la aurel wreath with ivy binding, Mu useum Istanbul (Betsch 1970)

Fig. 163: Ro ound marble with Christogram insside a laurel wrea ath and flanking g palmettes, from m Nicaea/Iznik in w western Asia Min nor, Museum Bu ursa inv. 2710 (Krramer)

er slab with ChrisstoFig. 1164: Early Byzanttine double barrie gram ms in wreaths (ivyy binding), handra ail, and a leaved cross (later Byzantine addittion), from the Ch hurch of the Dorm mition mesis) at Nicaea iin western Asia M Minor, Museum Izznik (Koim inv. 2 2484 (Peschlow 11991)

66 | Colum mn Capitals – Latter Fourth and Fift fth Century

Composite Capita als

Fig. 165: Compo osite head capitall with broad-poin nted leaves, Doğa an Pension in Antalya (Peschlow 199 91)

A seam mless tradition n from Roman n to later com mposite capitalss is only know wn from → scheematic capitalls in the city of R Rome (Fig. 33).. Later, when, after a hiatus of more than a ccentury, → Pro oconnesus sta arted to producce more regular composite cap pitals again in the fifth centu ury, this seems tto have been part of a con nscious, playfful, and varied rrevival of moree ancient form ms, same as in the t case of → an nimal capitals w with two zoness. → Composite ccapitals with fleshy fine-ttoothed leaves a appear to con nfirm the retro ospective chara acter of the reviival. Other com mposite capitals are simplifieed in so far as th hey have no p palmettes flank king the egg-a and-dart and em mploy ordinaryy → fine-tooth hed (Fig. 21, 167) or → broad d- (Fig. 165, 166), → narrrow- (Fig. 74 4), and → manyy-pointed, or → butterfly leavves (Fig. 180, 181). 1 A n new fine-tooth hed variant wiith foliage insstead of egg-and d-dart is know wn as → Theeodosian capittal, but seems tto date from affter the end off the Theodosia an period, wheen in the seco ond half of thee fifth century y it was used in n the naves of major church h buildings. Yeet other compossite capitals w with foliage insstead of egg-a and-dart have po ointed leaves (F Fig. 182, 326). Pro obably followiing the exam mple of Procon nnesus, compossite capitals w were also produced at → Docimium in → ceentral Anatolia a, at → Sivec in the → centtral Balkans, an nd in various Mediterranean n provinces (F Fig. 100, 144, 459 9). || | Bibliogra aphy: Herrmann n, Schematic Composite Capital 1973; Deichmann, Ravenna 1969–1989, vol. 2, 3 p. 284–287

Fig. 166: Compo osite mullion and window capital w with broadhner 2016) pointed leaves, Museum Edirne in i Thrace (Niewöh

Fig. 167: Harrazi, Chapiteaux Kairouan 198 82, 141 cat. 291

Fig. 167: Composite colum mn capital with fine-toothed leave es, Great Mosque a at Kairouan in Tu unisia (Peschlow)

Collumn Capitals – Later Fourth and Fifth Century | 67

C Composite C Capitals witth Fleshy Fin neTToothed Lea aves O Over a dozen siingle → compo osite capitals a are characterizzed by a combiination of flesh hy fine-toothed d leaves (with an nd without → touching leaff tips) and volu uminous eggan nd-darts with h flanking pallmettes. Most fleshy lobes co onsist of a single finger thatt does not spliit and fan out bu ut has a deep p groove or vein and enclo oses an 'eye', sa ame as → poin nted mask leav ves. The deep relief emphasiizes the individ dual form agaiinst the Byzanttine tendency to owards flat reepeat patternss (→ openwork, → scrollw work), and palm mettes were ottherwise not cu ustomary any m more in Byzanttine compositee capitals, all o of which suggeest a retrospecctive orientatio on to ancient m models. Composite capitals with fleshy fine-to oothed leaves seeem to have b been made excclusively from → Proconnesiian marble. One small capiital has a tong gue frieze insttead of the egg g-and-dart (Fig. 170). Simila ar fleshy fineto oothed leaves with deep grrooves and 'eyyes' occur on veery few → Corrinthian capittals, and the sstyle of some → Outer Gate ca apitals (Fig. 19 94) may also bee informed by th he same.

Fig. 168: Co omposite column capital with fleshy fine-toothed leaves, Museum Ed dirne in Thrace, in nv. 1759 (Niewöhn ner 2016)

| || Biibliography: J. Krramer, Zu den Methoden der Klasssifizierung und Da atierung frühchriistlicher Kapitelle e, in: Möllers – P Peschlow, Spätan ntike Bauskulptu ur 1998, 43–58, at 56 f.; P. Niew wöhner, Feingeza ahnter Akanthus mit fleischigem Blatt, in: I. Eichn ner – V. Tsamakda a (ed.), Syrien un nd seine Nachbarn von der Späta antike bis in die islamische Zeit, S Spätantike – Früh hes Christentum – Byzanz B/25 Wiesbaden 2009)) 113–127 (W Fig. 168: P. Niewö öhner, Feingezah hnter Akanthus mit fleischigem ( Syrien und seine Nachbarn Bllatt, in: I. Eichnerr – V. Tsamakda (ed.), vo on der Spätantike e bis in die islam mische Zeit, Spättantike – Frühes Ch hristentum – Byzzanz B/25 (Wiesbaden 2009) 113–127, cat. 4 fig. 1 Fig. 170: E. Weigand, Neue Untersuchungen über d das Goldene Tor in n Konstantinopell, Athener Mitteilungen 39, 1914, 1–64, at 48 pll. 6, 5

Fig. 170: Small composite column n capital with flesshy fine-toothed le eaves and tongue e frieze instead off egg-and-dart, M Museum Bursa in weste ern Asia Minor, in nv. 290 (Kramer)

Fig. 169: Co omposite column capital with fleshy fine-toothed leaves, Museum Isttanbul inv. 3908 (Betsch 1970)

68 | Colum mn Capitals – Latter Fourth and Fift fth Century

Capita als with Olivve Branche es

Fig. 171: Window w capital, to the le eft composite witth olive branchess, to the right with h cornucopias, pin ne cones, vine-lik ke leaves, and olive branch on the abacus (cf. Fig. 210), Museum m Istanbul inv. 94 42 (Schiele 1978)

A ring o of upright olivee branches forrms the main decor d in a seriess of early Byzzantine → com mposite capita als from → Proco onnesus/Consttantinople (Fig g. 171 left). A considerable n number of succh capitals rea ached → Egyptt, where they weere imitated byy local worksho ops. Oth herwise, olive branches occu ur more often n on the base (Fiig. 204, 207, 20 08, 213, 216, 2117, 244, 276, 28 81, 300) or on th he abacus (Fig g. 210) of variious types of capitals c from th he later fifth an nd sixth centurries. On → fram med impost cap pitals (Fig. 1722, 173) and corrnices (Fig. 220 0), olive branchees may decora ate the compllete frame, including the verttical sections. In early Byzantiine carvings, olive branch hes are clearly recognisable b by fleshy and pointed leafleets. This is not sso in later, mid ddle and late B Byzantine piecces, but as theyy appear to im mitate early B Byzantine tem mplates, analogyy suggests thatt the later folia age may also be b identified ass olive branchees (Fig. 283, 28 85). || | Bibliogra aphy: H.-G. Seve erin, Kapitelle m mit einem Blattkranz aus hinterleg gten Ölblattzweig gen, Jahrbuch fürr Antike und Chrristentum 32, 1989 9, 151–160; H.-G G. Severin, Ägyp ptische Spätantike. Marmorne Vo orbilder in Kalksttein kopiert, Easttern Christian Artt 7, 2010, 91–96 Fig. 171: FFıratlı, Musée Istanbul 1990, 120 f. cat. 226 pl. 72 Fig. 172: Brüx, Faltkapitellle 2008, pl. 31, 3 32 Fig. 173: Aytekin, Bursa M Müzesi 2019, 92 ccat. 39 fig. 65–66 6

Fig. 172: Framed d impost capital with w monogram m medallion, tendril, and olive branch hes on the frame, Museum Istanbul (Niewöhner 200 06)

Fig. 173: Framed impost capital with crosss (left), disc (rightt), and me, from Mesudiyye near Mudanya a in olive branches on the fram western A Asia Minor, Muse eum Bursa inv. 27 727 (Niewöhner 2006) 2

Collumn Capitals – LLater Fourth and Fifth Century | 69

TTheodosian Capitals → Composite ccapitals with → fine-toothed d leaves and fo oliage instead of egg-and-dart are traditiionally called 'T Theodosian', b but more receent dates sugg gest that the tyype was only iinvented after the end of the Theodosian dyynasty. In thee second half of o the fifth cen ntury, several im mportant churrches employeed the type a as main nave ca apitals. They are also moree common tha an composite ca apitals with → pointed leav ves and foliag ge instead of eg gg-and-dart (F Fig. 182, 326). The earliesst and most im mportant seriees of Theodosiian capitals arre made of → Proconnesian P m marble. Some off them are parrticularly elabo orate, with → d double leaves (F Fig. 184, 185) or with a sop phisticated ten ndril of alterna ately standing g and hanging g leaves instead of egg-andda art (Fig. 185). Probably u under the influ uence of Proco onnesus/Consttantinople, Th heodosian cap pitals were a also made at → Docimium in n → central Anatolia and in vvarious Mediteerranean proviinces (Fig. 176)).

Fig. 174: Theodosian column n capital, Basilica a of Leonidas at ear Corinth, seco ond half of the fiftth century Lechaion ne (Kramer 196 66/7)

| || Biibliography: Kau utzsch, Kapitellsstudien 1936, 1115 f.; Peschlow, Ka apitell 2004, 96 ff. Fig. 174: C. Tsigon naki, La basilique du Léchaion (C Corinthe): étude de es sculptures arcchitecturales, in: Moreau, Archaeo ology of a World off Changes 2020, 243–252 Fig. 175: Niewöhner, Steinmetza arbeiten Kütahya a 2006, 454 f. at. 81 fig. 46 ca Fig. 176: N. Ç. Tem mple, Demre Aziz Nikolaos Kilise esi’nde Bulunan Ajjur Tekniğinde „TTheodosian“ Tipinde Sütun Başlıkları, in: S. Doğa an – M. Kadıroğlu (ed.), Bizans ve Čevre Kültürlerr. Prof. Dr. Yıldız Öttüken’e Armaǧan n (Istanbul 2010) 352–358, 352 f. ccat. 1 fig. 1

Fig. 175: Theodosian column n capital, from Ak kpınar near Gedizz in Phrygia (central Anatolia), M Museum Kütahya inv. 1151 (Niewöhnerr 2001)

Fig. 176: Theodosian column n capital with win nd-blown fine-too othed estone, church off St Nicholas at M Myra in Lycia, inv.. 317 leaves, lime (Peschlow)

70 | Colum mn Capitals – Latter Fourth and Fift fth Century

Wind--Blown Leavves

Fig. 177: Corinth hian column capiital with wind-blo own fine-toothed leaves, re-used in the northern nave n arcade of St Sophia in Thessa aloniki (Peschlow w 1995)

Leaves that look as if they were blow wn and turned d by the wind w were particularrly widespread d in Roman → Syria, where tthey continued d to be carved throughout th he early Byzantiine period (Fig g. 31). Smaller numbers are attested a from Ro oman and earlly Byzantine → Docimium in n → central Ana atolia (Fig. 20). Following th he Theodosian n influx of Docimian workm manship, → P Proconnesus/Constantinople adopted the type in the fiffth century. Itt occurs almost exclusively w with → fine-toothed leavess, most often on n → Corinthian (Fig. 22, 1777, 178), and lesss often on → composite (Fig g. 176) and oth her capitals (F Fig. 112, 129, 179 9, 197). Thee leaves of thee lower and th he upper ring can be blown iin opposite dirrections (Fig. 222, 112, 129, 1779, 197), and som metimes the leeaves of one rring are wind-blown, whilst tthose of the o other are not. A special forrm with neighbo ouring leaves that are blow wn in oppositee directions is called → buttterfly leaf, and d this form was sometimes allso applied to → pointed leavves. Wid despread distrribution in th he Mediterran nean region is likely due to o Proconnesian n/Constantino opolitan exportss. This is pro obably how tthe wind-blow wn leaf reached d → Lycia, wh here it was tak ken up and va aried by local w workshops (Fig g. 176, 179, 19 97). Numerouss specimens on n the central A Anatolian platteau are proba ably due to Docim mium. || | Bibliogra aphy: S. Pelekan nidis, Χριστιανικ κά Κιονόκρανα με μ Ανεμιζόμενα Φ Φύλλα, Makedon nika 2, 1941/52, 167–178; E. Grrabiner – L. Presso ouyre, Chapiteau ux à feuilles d’a acanthe fouettée es par le vent, in: L'acanthe dans lla sculpture monumentale de l'an ntiquité à la Renaisssance, Mémoires de la Section d d'archéologie et d'histoire d de l'art 4 = Histoire de l'art 6 (Paris 1993) 3 357–382

Fig. 178: Corinth hian capital with wind-blown w fine--toothed leaves, Museum Iznik in n western Asia Minor, inv. 665 (Niewöhner 2008)

μος της Αγίας Σοφίας στη Fig. 177: A. Mentzos, Ο ΓΓλυπτός Διάκοσμ Θεσσαλο ονίκη, in: K. K. Ka alamartzi (ed.), Α Αφιέρωμα στη Μννήμη του Σωτήρη Κ Κίσσα (Thessaloniki 2001) 315–334, at 321–323 fig g. 8 Fig. 178: Barsanti, Iznik-N Nicaea's Museum 2003, 274 fig. 26 6 adition und Innovvation. Kapitellsk kulptur in Fig. 179: U. Peschlow, Tra n: Möllers – Peschlow, Spätantik ke Bauskulptur 19 998, 67– Lykien, in 76, at 74 pl. 23, 29

Fig. 179: Theodosian column capital with ttwo zones and co ontrariwise wind-blown fine-tootthed leaves, lime estone from Lycia a, Museum Antallya (Niewöhner 20 020)

Co olumn Capitals – Later Fourth and Fifth Century | 71

B Butterfly Lea aves So o-called butteerfly leaves seem to have come about th hrough a pla ayful combina ation of two contrariwise → wind-blown leaves. Datable specimens indicate that bu utterfly leavess were invented d at fifth-centu ury → Proconneesus/Constanttinople. Examples in → cen ntral Anatolia (F Fig. 187) prob bably derive from f → Docim mium, where Prroconnesus w was imitated during d the fiffth and sixth ceenturies. Unlike sim mple wind-blow wn leaves, bu utterfly leaves occcur mainly, but not exclu usively (Fig. 1108, 187), on → composite ca apitals, and th he complicated d form is not on nly attested fo or → fine-tooth hed (Fig. 180), but also for → pointed leavees (Fig. 182, 3226), including ccombinations off both types on n the same cap pital (Fig. 108, 181). | || Biibliography: Kautzsch, Kapitellstu udien 1936, 148– –150; N. PoulouPa apademetriou, Π Παλαιoχριστιανικó ó Κιoνóκρανo με ε Άκανθα Πεταλo oύδα απó τη ΣΣάμo, Δελτίoν της Xριστιανικής Aρχαιoλoγικής Eτταιρείας 14, 1987 7–88, 151–158

Fig. 180: Co omposite column capital with fine-toothed butterflly leaves and monogram of the e Ostrogoth king Theodoric (†526)), Proconnesian marble, Piazza del Popolo in R Ravenna (Weber 2007) 2

Fig. 180–181: C. Ba arsanti, Ravenna a. Gli arredi archiitettonici e liturgiici negli edifici di età teodericiana, in: C. Barsantii – A. Paribeni – Rex Theodoricuss. Il medaglione d'oro di Morro S.. Pedone (ed.), R d'Alba, Espera. Arccheologia 2 (Anco ona 2008) 185–202 anti, Una ricerca a sulle sculture in opera nelle Fig. 182: C. Barsa cisterne bizantine di Istanbul. La Ipek I Bodrum Sarrnici (la cisterna n.. 10), in: A. Rigo – A. Babuin – M. M Trizio (ed.), Vie per Bisanzio, Du uepunti 25 (Bari 2 2013) 477–508 fig. 13

Fig. 181: Composite column capital with partly fine-toothed and partly pointted butterfly leavves, Piazza del Po opolo in Ravenna (Weber 200 07)

Fig. 182: Wiindow capital, on ne side composite e with broad-poin nted butterfly lea aves and leafletss instead of egg-a and-dart, the othe er Corinthian, Ipek Bodrum cisstern (no. 10) at Isstanbul, column no. n 9 (Peschlow)

72 | Colum mn Capitals – Latter Fourth and Fift fth Century

Doublle Leaves

Fig. 183: Eagle ccapital with two zones z and double e leaves, from Istanbul, and, above, an unrelate ed impost with m many-pointed foliage in the ce entre and double leaves at the corners, from a window of St Joh hn Stoudios in Isttanbul, mid-fifth century, Bodemuseum Berlin inv. 3237 (capital) and 3226 (impo ost) (Peschlow)

So-calleed double lea aves (German n: Doppelblättter) are → fine-ttoothed leavess with a secon nd, outer row of o lobes that do oubles the wid dth of each leeaf. Alternativeely, the same ca an be describeed as a narrow w leaf that sta ands in front off, and hides, m most of a wide lleaf except its lateral, outer lo obes. Howeverr, double leavees served to fiill large capitalss and were so ometimes onlyy used for thee upper ring of lleaves. Dou uble leaves occcur mainly on n large → Theo odosian capitalss of the second half of the ffifth century, be it at →Consttantinople (Fig g. 185) or elsew where in the MediterM ranean basin (Fig. 184 4). In addition n, they are also o attested on p pilaster capita als (Fig. 37), → capitals with w two zones (Fig. 124, 1277, 183), → Io onic impost capitals c (Fig. 1611, 327), and → imposts (Fig. 1183). Mosst known speccimens are mad de of → Procon nnesian marble,, and the typee appears to h have been creeated at Constan ntinople and eexported from there to the MediterM ranean region. Follow wing the exam mple of the capital city and wo orkshops, → Do ocimium and → Sivec (Fig. 124, 1 127) provideed the same forr → central An natolia and thee → central Balk kans. || | Bibliogra aphy: Kautzsch, Kapitellstudien 1936, 133–137; Kramer, Pilasterk kapitelle 1994, 355–38 Fig. 183: Effenberger – Se everin, Museum 11992, 118–119 catt. 37 a/b Fig. 184: K. T. Raptis, The Sculptural Decoration of the Acheiropoietos Basillica (Thessalonik ke), in: Moreau, A Archaeology of a World of Changes 2020, 253–268 ulpturen mit Adle erfiguren an Bauten des Fig. 185:: J. Kramer, Sku 5. Jh. n. C Chr. in Konstantin nopel (Cologne 19 968) 36–39 fig. 8–10 8

Fig. 184: Theodo osian column cap pital with double leaves and impost with Christogram m medallion and many-pointed co orner leaves, Proconnesian m marble, Acheiropo oietos Basilica in Thessaloniki, second half of th he fifth century (N Niewöhner 2014)

Fig. 185: Theodosian column capital with d double leaves, na arthex of St John S Stoudios in Istanb bul, mid-fifth century (Peschlow)

Column Capitals – Later Fourth and Fifth Century | 73

R Rimmed Lea aves Rimmed leaves (German: gerä änderte Blätter) compare to → double leaves in so far as both b kinds com mbine → fineto oothed inner or front leav ves with an o outer or rear co ontour. Altern natively, the relatively narrrow rimmed leeaves may be d described as → reed or lanceet leaves with fine-toothed intterior. Rimmed leaves were em mployed for lower (Fig. 94) nd/or upper riings as well as a in place of eegg-and-darts an (F Fig. 186) on va arious types of o capitals and d on cornices. A Also notable arre combinatio ons with → bu utterfly leaves (F Fig. 187) and double leaves. Like the llatter, rimmed d leaves willl have been crreated at fifth--century → Pro oconnesus or a at → Constantinople, wheree new carving gs are attested until the seecond half of the sixth cen ntury. → Centrral Anatolian sp pecimens (Fig.. 187) probably y derive from → Docimium, w where Proconn nesus was imitated at thatt time. Other prrovincial exam mples, e.g. in Cilicia C (Fig. 18 88) and Egypt (F Fig. 94), werre likely inflluenced by P Proconnesian im mports. | || Biibliography: Kau utzsch, Kapitellsstudien 1936, 13 37–139; M. Dervişbey, İstanbul'da Küçük Bir Bizans Buluntusu. Ali Fakih Camii ğı, in: Semavi Eyice Armağanı Avvlusundaki Bizans Sütun Başliğ (Isstanbul 1992) 97– –100

Fig. 186: Co omposite mullion n capital with rimm med leaves below w, above, and in place of the eg gg-and-dart, with h doves at the corrners (in place of volutes), and witth a cross on the impost, exterior apse window of S St Demetrius in TThessaloniki (Niew wöhner 2014)

Fig. 186: Sotiriou – Sotiriou, Βασιλική Αγίου Δημη ητρίου 1952, 165 pll. 39 d Fig. 187: Niewöhne er, Aizanoi 2007, 289 cat. 454 pl. 56 ney Through Ciliccia and Lycaonia Fig. 188: G. L. Bell,, Notes on a Journ gique Ser. 4 vol. 7, 1906, 385–414 4, at 411 fig. 26 II,, Revue archéolog

Fig. 187: Large column capittal with rimmed le eaves and fine-to oothed aves, Museum Uşşak in Phrygia, ce entral Anatolia butterfly lea (Niewöhnerr 2002)

Fig. 188: An nta capital with rimmed leaves, lim mestone, narthexx of Basilica 4 a at Kanytelis/Kanlıdivane in Cilicia Trachea (Peschlo ow)

74 | Colum mn Capitals – Latter Fourth and Fift fth Century

Vine-LLike Leaves

Fig. 189: Corinth hian column capital with vine-like leaves and spira al volutes, Gülhane Park in Istanbu ul (Niewöhner 200 06)

Vine-lik ke leaves are h here distinguisshed from mo ore ordinary → fine-toothed d leaves, beca ause they hav ve freestandin ng stems typica al of vine leavves (Fig. 198, 211, 2 213, 337), w while the stem ms of ordinary acanthus lea aves are flanked d and enclosed d by lateral lobes. The lower lobes l of vine-lik ke leaves sit hiigher up on th he stem, and they t are also cu urved, which n normal acanth hus lobes are not. It makes no difference whether the llobes in questtion are split in nto several fin ngers (Fig. 18 89, 190, 192) or not (Fig. 1711, 191, 210, 211)). Sim milarly shaped d leaves, bu ut without drrooping heads, occur on → im mpost capitals with vine leav ves and pine co ones and weree depicted mo ore often in th he sixth centuryy (Fig. 198, 211,, 213, 337 and m more). Vin ne-like leaves a are found on vvarious capitalls, such as → C Corinthian (Fig g. 189), → Th heodosian (Fig g. 190), → Outerr Gate (Fig. 1922), and capitalls with → cornu ucopias (Fig. 1771, 191, 210, 2111). It seems liikely that all of o them date fro om the sixth ccentury, which may thus apply a to vine-lik ke leaves in gen neral. || | Bibliogra aphy: Strube, Po olyeuktoskirche 11984; K. Krumeicch, Spätantike K Kämpferkapitelle mit Weinblatt- und Pinienzapfe en-Dekor, Istanbule er Mitteilungen 4 47, 1997, 277–314 4 Fig. 189: Zollt, Kapitelllplastik Konstan ntinopels 1994, 216–218 cat. 623 pl. 45 Fig. 191: Fıratlı, Musée Isttanbul 1990, 120 f. cat. 226 pl. 72

osian column cap pital with vine-like leaves and a Fig. 190: Theodo cross inside a w wreath below the abacus knob (bro oken), Museum Istanbul (Peschllow 1998)

Fig. 191: Window capital with cornucopias, split palmettes, (brroken) pine coness at the corners, and vine-like leaves, the other sid de with olive branches (cf. Fig. 17 71); a central thea atre mask was later an inscription nam ming emperor He eraclius (610–6411); replaced with a Proconnesiian marble, Muse eum Istanbul inv. 942 (Weber 200 05)

Co olumn Capitals – Later Fourth and Fifth Century | 75

O Outer Gate C Capitals O Outer Gate capiitals are nameed after two sp pecimens that arre re-used at th he late Byzantiine outer gate of the Golden G Gate in the Theeodosian land walls of → Co onstantinople (F Fig. 192). Theyy each have a ring of → vin ne-like leaves beelow and two rings of → poiinted leaflets a above, as well ass doves at the corners. Gapss below the rin ngs of pointed leeaflets leave m much of the callathus bare, but this would ha ave hardly beeen visible if the capitals were placed high up p and seen fro om below (cf. Fig. F 194). Outer Gate capitals can be b explained a as a combination of → Blattkelch (flutes)), → Theodossian (rings of leeaflets), and → animal capita als with two zzones (doves). Th he gaps below w the rings of leaflets and in n some cases an n additional riing of flutes (Fig. 193, 194) alllowed for tall prroportions and d high capitalss. A chronolo ogical fixed point p is provid ded by Outer G Gate capitals off the domed ch hurch at Ayath hekla/Meriamlik k near Seleuccia/Silifke in → Cilicia Tra achea, which em mperor Zeno (474–491) bu uilt with impo orted marbles frrom → Proconn nesus. Few speecimens in → ccentral Anatolia a suggest that the type was first f invented a at → Constantinople and on nly later adopted by → Doccimium. Rare prrovincial carviings are attesteed in → Lycia.

Fig. 192: Ou uter Gate capital with vine-like lea aves, re-used on the t late Byzantine outer gate of the Golden Gate in Istanbul (D-DAI-IST-2 2301)

| || Biibliography: Kau utzsch, Kapitellsstudien 1936, 12 21–125; Strube, Po olyeuktoskirche 11984, 36 f. Fig. 192: J. Strzyygowski, Das Go oldene Thor in Konstantinopel, Ja ahrbuch des Deuttschen Archäologischen Institutss 8, 1893, 1–39, att 27 fig. 1 Fig. 193: G. Mietke e, Das Museum fü ür Byzantinische Kunst im BodeM Museum (München n 2006) 31 Fig. 194: Deichman nn, Corpus San Marco M 1981, 87 ca at. 352 pl. 22

Fig. 193: Ou uter Gate capital with fluting and ffine-toothed leaflets, Bodemuseu um Berlin inv. 639 92 (Weber 2006)

Fig. 194: Ou uter Gate capital with fluting and rreed leaves, re-used on the thirteenth-century façade of San Marcco at Venice (Niewöhnerr 2010)

76 | Colum mn Capitals – Later Fourth and Fiftth Century

Capita als with Zon ning

Fig. 195: Small ccomposite capital with zoning, po ointed calyces, fillet, foliage insstead of egg-and--dart, and spiral vvolutes, found together with th he architrave Fig. 332, probably fro om a Justinianic(??) portico at the He ebdomon outside e Constantinople, Museum Istanbul inv. 4137 (Krramer)

Horizon ntal zoning, w which in → Bla attkelch and → Outer Gate ca apitals with riings of flutes or leaflets seeems to come a about more or less accidenta ally, was clea arly and purposeefully stressed d, where filleets were app plied as spacerss (Fig. 195, 221)). This is the ca ase in → anim mal capitals witth two zones and fillet orr basket, but also in variouss other varian nts that have not been defiined as types off their own (Geerman: Mehrzo onenkapitelle). Thee lower zones a are decorated with simple (F Fig. 196, 197) or → wind-blow wn leaves (Fig. 129, 179, 1977), with scrolls, or otherwise ((Fig. 195, 196, 221). The top is often formed in → composiite or → Theod dosian mannerr with a ring off leaflets (Fig. 129, 179, 19 95, 197) and volutes (Fig. 1955) or doves (F Fig. 221), but → Corinthian n corner leaves ((Fig. 196) and d hook- or loo op-shaped heliices are also attested. Datted monumen nts show tha at zoning was done through hout the sixth century (Fig. 129, 195). It seeems to have beeen invented by → Proconn nesian or → Constantinopoliitan workshop ps. Provinciall examples are a rare except sixth-centuryy limestone ccarvings from m Lycia (Fig. 179 9, 197). || | Bibliogra aphy: Peschlow, Kapitell 2004, cl.. 100–102 Fig. 195: Zollt, Kapitellpla astik Konstantino opels 1994, 222 f.. cat. 638 pl. 45 Fig. 196: J. Wilkinson, Co olumn Capitals in n al Haram al Sha arif (from 138 AD to o 1118 AD) (Jerusa alem 1987) 67 catt. 30 Fig. 197: Grossmann – Se everin, Bauten Lyk kien 2003, pl. 12 a

Fig. 196: Column n capital with zon ning, many-pointted reed leaves, basket, a ring off small calyces, more m many-pointe ed reed leaves, and helices, from m the Mosque al Aqsa, Islamic Mu useum on the Temple Mount a at Jerusalem (McK Kenzie 2009)

Fig. 197: Column capital with zoning, three rin ngs of leaflets, an nd two rings off contrariwise win nd-blown fine-too othed leaves, limestone, church at Muskar/Belören in n the Lycian Tauru us (Niewöhner 2000)

Co olumn Capitals – Later Fourth and Fifth Century | 77

A Animal Capittals with Tw wo Zones an nd Fillet or B Basket N Numerous anim mal capitals with two zones a are divided by filllets (German: Zweizonen-T Tierkapitelle m mit Trennleisteen) same as o other → capita als with zonin ng. The upper zo one with anim mals is the sam me as in → an nimal capitals w with two zones without fillet,, but may now w also include m mythological figures like → griffins g (Fig. 2204, 205, 207, 20 08), → green m men (Fig. 207)), and gorgoneeia (Fig. 208). Th his may be ow wing to, and indicative of, a llater date and m more distance from pagan antiquity, a as eearlier pagan/ m mythological a associations were w apparentlly of no conceern any more. In small ca apitals, the lo ower zone is ttypically decorrated with a riing of leaflets (Fig. 199, 207, 208). Bigger ca apitals have llower zones with w scrolls ((Fig. 198), in pa articular vine scrolls (Fig. 202, 204, 205), or in the sh hape of woven n baskets (Fig. 200, 203, 216).. The existin ng monumentss suggest thatt animal capitals with two zo ones and fillett or basket werre invented at → Proconnesus or → Constanttinople. The tyype is attested th hroughout thee sixth centurry (Fig. 198) a and was also ad dopted by provvincial worksh hops (Fig. 199,, 202, 203). As in n the case of animal capita als with two zzones without diividing fillet, small specim mens typically belonged to ch hurch furnishiings. Related capitals c are no ot completely allike, but foliag ge as well as animals a may va ary according to o the principle of → varietas.

Fig. 198: Ea agle capital with ttwo zones, kantharos with hangin ng vine leaves, fille et, alternately sta anding and hanging pointed calyces, and impostt with monogram of bishop Euphra asius, marble from Proconnesus, n nave arcade of Eu uphrasius’ Basilicca (third quarter of the sixth century) at Parentium//Poreč in Istria (K Kaffenberger 2006)

| || Biibliography: E. Kitzinger, The Horrse and Lion Tape estry at Dumbarto on Oaks, Dumbarrton Oaks Paperss 3, 1946, 1–72; J. Kramer, Frühch hristliche Kapitellle mit Taubenfig guren an San Ma arco in Venedig un nd ihre Verwendung, in: U. Lange – R. Sörries (e ed.), Vom Orient biis an den Rhein. Peter Poscharsk ky zum 65. Gebu urtstag, Christlich he Archäologie 3 (Dettelbach 1997 7) 101–122 Fig. 198: A. B. Terrry, The Sculpture e at the Cathedra al of Eufrasius in Po oreč, Dumbarton Oaks Papers 42,, 1988, 13–64, ca apital 10 Fig. 199: P. Lemerrle, Chapiteaux chrétiens c à proto omes de béliers, Αρ ρχαιολογική Εφημ μερίς 1937, 292– –299, pl. 1 Fig. 200: U. Peschlow, Tradition un nd Innovation. Kapitellskulptur in pätantike Bausku ulptur 1998, 67– Lyykien, in: Möllerss – Peschlow, Sp 76 6, pl. 20, 13

h two zones, bask ket, and crosses Fig. 200: Small dove capital with useum Antalya (N Niewöhner 2020) below the abacus knob, Mu

mall ram capital w with two zones, h heraldic eagles on n and Fig. 199: Sm below the a abacus knobs, filllet, and a ring of pointed leaflets, local stone, Museum Philippi in M Macedonia (Niewö öhner 2014)

78 | Colum mn Capitals – Later Fourth and Fiftth Century

Egypt Egypt h has no marble, but the north hern or Mediterrranean region attracted conssiderable amo ounts of early Byzantine ma arble imports from → Proco onnesus/Consttantinople (Fig g. 300). They w were imitated m more or less clo osely by local Eg gyptian worksh hops that used d limestone insstead of marble.. Examples incclude → composite column capitals c with ollive branches and → anim mal capitals with two zones a and vine scrolls or baskets (Fig. 202, 203)). Some capitalss with vine leeaf decor (Fig g. 201) seem to t have adopted d a vertical zo oning with cha ains of medalllions at the corn ners and in th he centre, und der the abacus knob, from → melon capitals.

Fig. 201: Column n capital with vine scrolls, limesto one, from Bawit?,, Bodemuseum Berlin inv. 4720 (W Weber 2006)

|| | Bibliogra aphy: H.-G. Severin, Konstantinopler Bauskulpturr und die Provinz Ä Ägypten, in: Mölllers – Peschlow, Spätantike Bau uskulptur 1998, 93–104; A. Pralong g, La typologie de es chapiteaux corinthiens exandrie, tardifs en marbre de Proconnèse et la production d’Ale 00, 81–101; K. Krrumeich, Spätanttike BauRevue arrchéologique 200 skulptur aus Oxyrhyncho os, Spätantike – frühes Christentum – By2 (Wiesbaden 2003) zanz A/12 Fig. 201– –202: Effenberge er – Severin, Mu useum 1992, 172 2 cat. 85; 175 cat. 8 88 Fig. 203:: E. Kitzinger, Th he Horse and Lion Tapestry at Du umbarton Oaks, Du umbarton Oaks Pa apers 3, 1946, 1– –72, at 65 cat. 32 fig. 75

Fig. 202: Lion ca apital with two zo ones, vine scrollss, fillet, and a cross inside a la aurel wreath on th he abacus knob, limestone, from Bawit?, Bodemuseum Berlin n inv. 6159 (Webe er 2006)

Fig. 203: Small ram capita al with two zoness and basket, a crross on, acock below the abacus knob, loccal workmanship, Coptic and a pea Museum Cairo inv. 7351 (W Wikimedia Comm mons)

Co olumn Capitals – Later Fourth and Fifth Century | 79

G Griffins G Griffins had allready appearred on ancien nt → figured ca apitals as hyb brids of eagless and lions. A After a hiatus, th hey returned a at the corners of o early Byzanttine → animal ca apitals with tw wo zones and d fillet (Fig. 204, 205, 207, 20 08). Their re-a appearance su uggests and cconfirms that th he Byzantine animal capittals with two o zones were in nspired by th he example off ancient figu ured capitals. Fu urther confirm mation seems to be provideed by various co ombinations w with equally ancient a → greeen men and go orgoneia (Fig. 207, 208). Griffins alsso occur in co ombination w with Christian m motifs, such as angels (Fig. 1110), and insidee churches. In th he middle and d late Byzantin ne periods, grriffins and/or siimurghs, similar hybrids with Persian n roots, also ap ppeared on ch hurch furnishin ngs. Their mean ning may in alll cases have beeen apotropaicc, both in co ombinations with w other ap potropeia like grreen men, gorg goneia, and lio ons (cf. → watter spouts), as w well as inside ch hurches and on o liturgical furrnishings. | || Biibliography: J.-P.. Sodini, Chapiteaux à griffons et autres marbres prrotobyzantins, in n: S. T. Stevens – A. V. Kalinowsski – H. vanderLe eest (ed.), Bir Fto ouha. A Pilgrimag ge Church Complex at Carthage, Jo ournal of Roman n Archaeology. Supplement S 59 (Portsmouth RI 20 005) 257–269; C. Vanderheyde, Réflexions R sur l’iconographie du sé émourve et sa diiffusion dans l’art byzantine, Revvue des archéolo ogues et historien ns d’art de Louvain 27, 1994, 35–4 40 Fig. 204: Angiolin ni Martinelli – Olivieri O Farioli, C Corpus Ravenna 19 968–1969, vol. 3 p. 35 f. cat. 50 fig g. 49 Fig. 205: W. Gerber, Die Bauten im nordwestliche en Teil der Neusttadt von Salona,, Forschungen in Salona 1 (Vienna 1917) 75 f. fig g. 143 Ab bb. 206: H. C. E Evans (ed.), Byza antium – Faith a and Power (New Ha aven CONN 2007 7) 111–112 cat. 58

Fig. 206: Later Byzantine slab with h griffin inside a ffloral medallion, Metropolitan Museum New York accesssion no. 2000.81

Fig. 204: On ne of two griffin ccapitals with two zones, lion and ram r protomes, ffillet, grapevine sscroll, as well as an olive branch on o the base, Muse eum Ravenna (Wikimedia Common ns)

Fig. 205: Grriffin capital with two zones, crosssed cornucopias and a hanging vin ne leaf, fillet, as w well as cornucopiias with vine scro oll, from the po orch of the baptisstery of the Episco opal Basilica at Salona in D Dalmatia (Niewöhner 2000)

80 | Colum mn Capitals – Later Fourth and Fiftth Century

Green n Men and G Gorgoneia

Fig. 207: Griffin capital with two zones, green ma an, gorgoneion h on the base, (Fig. 208), fillet,, pointed leaves, and olive branch Museum Istanbu ul inv. 6268 (Harttmann 1971)

Byzantiine green men n and gorgoneeia occur in place p of the aba acus knob on → griffin cap pitals with two o zones (Fig. 20 07, 208), the fo ormer also in tthe centre and d on the cornerss of → imposts (Fig. 275) and → green men capitals c (Fig. 20 09, 276, 277), g gorgoneia also on the → enta ablature (Fig. 332). Earlier on, green men, go orgoneia, and griffins used to people ancien nt → figured ca apitals and originated from pa agan mytholo ogy. This coulld explain wh hy they appeareed relatively la ate in Byzantin ne carvings. They T are not yet attested for th he earlier typee of → animal capitals c with tw wo zones witho out fillet. Theiir Byzantine meaning m was pro obably apotrop paic. Greeen men capita als without an ny ring of leaves have no horiizontal divisio on and are in this respect comparable to o capitals with h → cornucop pias, → tendriils, and → garla ands, as well ass to → melon ccapitals. None of them is likelyy to predate, and all mayy well postda ate, the second half of the ffifth century, when the trad ditional → Corin nthian and → ccomposite orders were slowlly eroding. || | Bibliogra aphy: E. von M Mercklin, Antike Figuralkapitelle e (Berlin 1962); F. W. Deichmann, Zu einigen späta antiken Figuralka apitellen, Eταιρείας 4, 1964 4–65, 71– Δελτίoν ττης Xριστιανικής Aρχαιoλoγικής E 81 Fig. 207– –209: Fıratlı, Mu usée Istanbul 199 90, 114 f. 119 f. cat. 212. 225 pl. 66. 72

Fig. 208: Griffin capital with two zones, gorgoneion, fillet, pointed d leaves, and olive e branch on the base, b other side o of Fig. 207 (Hartmann 1971))

Fig. 209: Green men wind dow capital with ccornucopias and hanging vine leaf on the abacus kn nob, the other sid de Corinthian witth broadpointed lleaves, from Mud danya on the soutthern shore of the e Propontis, M Museum Istanbul inv. 599 (Betsch 1970)

Co olumn Capitals – Later Fourth and Fifth Century | 81

C Capitals with h Cornucop pias and Con ncave A Abacus Rare capitals w with cornucop pias are named for large, pa aired motifs th hat dominate the t decor and replace rings off leaves (in pa art or completeely) so that theere is no horizo ontal division. Capitals with concave abacus are distinct from → im mpost capitals with the samee decor (separa ate lemma). Seeveral capitalss have theatre masks under th he abacus knob (Fig. 210) that compare to → head capita als (Fig. 93, 10 09) and, like the t cornucopiias, will have beeen inspired b by ancient mod dels. Capitals with cornucopia as share a lack of horizontal diivision with ca apitals with → tendrils and → garlands, as w well as with → g green men and d → melon cap pitals. None of th hem is likely to o predate, and d all may well postdate, the seecond half of the fifth cen ntury, when th he traditional → Corinthian an nd → composite orders weree slowly erodin ng. Details like → split palmeettes (Fig. 171, 191, 210) and ha anging vine leeaves (Fig. 211)) have parallells in the sixth ceentury (Fig. 19 98, 205, 209), when w the sam me motifs were in ncluded in → im mpost capitalss with cornucopias. Several of tthe few known n capitals with h cornucopias beelonged to → windows (Fig g. 171, 191, 2110), and their la arge motifs as well as their deep relief ap ppear suitable fo or, and would h have profited from, f direct su unlight. In addition n to → Procon nnesian/Consta antinopolitan ca arvings, capita als with cornuccopias are also o known from → central Anattolia (Fig. 212,, cf. Fig. 286)), where they w were likely mad de from → Dociimian marble. | || Biibliography: Stru ube, Polyeuktosk kirche 1984, 53– –58; Ş. Yıldırım, Ph hilomelion Erken Bizanz Dönemi Sütun Başlıkları,, in: A. C. Erel et all. (ed.), Anadolu Kültürlerinde Sü üreklilik ve Değişşim. Dr. A. Mine Ka adiroğlu’na Arma ağan (Ankara 2011) 613–632, at 615. 617. 621 f. 63 30 f. cat. 6. 15 fig g. 6. 15 Fig. 210: Barsanti – Guiglia, Ayasoffya Müzesi 2010, 97 fig. 105 f. Fig. 211–212: Stru ube, Polyeuktoskirche 1984, pl. 12, 46 f.; 13, 49; 14 4, 53

n capital with corrnucopias, vase, ivy tendrils, and Fig. 212: Column p picking peacockss, Museum Eskişe ehir in Phrygia (central Anatolia), Niewöhner 2011) inv. A77.68 (N

Fig. 210: Wiindow capital witth cornucopias, theatre mask, split palmettes, pine cones at the e corners, vine-lik ke leaves, and olive branch on tthe abacus; the o other side is comp posite with olive branches (ccf. Fig. 171), Ayaso ofya Museum Ista anbul inv. 331 (Peschlow)

h cornucopias, (b broken) theatre mask, m Fig. 211: Column capital with ne leaves, pine co ones at the corne ers, and vine-like hanging vin leaves, Musseum Damascus (Peschlow 2000))

82 | Colum mn Capitals – Later Fourth and Fiftth Century

Capita als with Ten ndrils and C Concave Aba acus

Fig. 213: Large ccolumn capital wiith grapevine, piccking doves at the corners, garland d or festoon, grifffin protomes on tthe abacus knobss, and olive branch h on the base, fro om the Golden Ho orn, Museum Istanbul inv. 72..40 (Weber 2005))

Capitalss with tendrilss and concavee abacus are here h distinguish hed from → im mpost capitals with the sam me decor (separa ate lemma). Th he (rare) capittals under con nsideration herre dispense wiith rings of lea aves or zoning and are instead completely co overed by natu urally wild gra apevine. Animals at the cornerrs and on the a abacus knob (F Fig. 213) comparre to → animall capitals with h two zones (Fiig. 118), where vvine or ivy ten ndrils may also o occur, either in the upper zzone (Fig. 118, 124, 125, 1277) or as sole decor d of the low wer zone (Fig. 2202, 204, 205). Cap pitals with ten ndrils as sole d decor are know wn from → Consstantinople (Fig. 213), have been exporteed from there (F Fig. 214), and were imitated d by provincia al workn the sixth century (Fig. 2155). They also occur shops in o in the → ccentral Balkan ns, where theyy probably consist of → Sivecc marble and d date from the fifth century. A variant with h laurel garlan nds instead off grapevines ha as been classifieed separately a as → capitals w with garlands. Ten ndrils were alsso employed ffor the decora ation of → impo osts (Fig. 223, 2275) and for six xth-century → impost capitalss with tendrils, but these ten ndrils are not naturaln ly wild as on the cap pitals under co onsideration heere, but symmettrically arrang ged around som me middle mottif. || | Bibliogra aphy: N. Fıratlı, D Deux chapiteaux rrares à décoratio on animale trouvé és à Istanbul, Ca ahieres archéolo ogiques 23, 1974 4, 41–46; P. Niewöhner, The Prilep p Region in Late Antiquity, Sivecc Marble, mal Capitals, in:: M. Popovic – S. Smolcic-Makuljevic – and Anim G. Tirnan nic (ed.), Urban and Sacred Topog graphy of Prilep. A Byzantine Tow wn in the Balkan ns, Studies in H Historical Geogra aphy and Cultural H Heritage (Novi Sa ad – Vienna) in prress

Fig. 214: Small ccolumn capital with grapevine as sole decor, reused under the Dome of the Clocck at the Umayyad d Mosque in Damascus (Wikiimedia Commonss)

Fig. 213: Fıratlı, Musée Isttanbul 1990, 121 cat. 227 pl. 73 pl. 21, 83 Fig. 214: Strube, Polyeukttoskirche 1984, p Fig. 215: Dennert, Mittelb byzantinische Kap pitelle 1997, 11–113. 180 f. cat. 11 pl. 3

Fig. 215: Column capital w with standing ivy leaf, split palmettte, and diverse tendrils in symme etrical arrangeme ent, limestone, Cu umanın Camii in A Antalya (Niewöhn ner 2000)

Column Capitals – LLater Fourth and Fifth Century | 83

C Capitals with h Garlands So ome (rare) ca apitals are co ompletely and d exclusively deecorated with laurel garlan nds (Fig. 217, 2218). This exclludes rings of lleaves or any other o horizonta al zoning and co ompares to capitals with → tendrils. In the ancient tradiition, garlandss or festoons had h been employed on capita als, if only as a additional ado ornment, particcularly below th he abacus (Fig g. 213, 216, 459 9), and in → Syria this continued througho out the early Byzantine B perio od. The transfeer of garlands to the entire capital c may ha ave been conceeived in analog gy to a transfeer of tendrils frrom the upper zo one of → anim mal capitals wiith two zones (Fig. 118, 124, with tendrils 1225, 127) to ca apitals entirelly decorated w (F Fig. 213, 214). The garland ds tend to folllow the outlin ne of the abacu us and, simila ar to → melon n capitals, bullge out under th he knob and a at the corners. The bulges o often enclose ro ound or lozenge-shaped pan nels that mayy contain speciial leaves (Fig. 217, 237) or medallions m tha at were possiblly filled with → crosses or → monograms (F Fig. 218). So far, capiitals with garllands are onlyy known from → Constantinop ple and from → Proconnesia an marble. In th he sixth centu ury, the samee decoration w with garlands w was also applieed to → impostt capitals, wheere the square to op did not requ uire any bulgin ng and the reliief could thus bee flattened (Fig g. 237).

agle capital with ttwo zones, baske et, garland or festtoon, Fig. 216: Ea Christogram m medallion on th he abacus knob, and olive branch h on the base, Cathedral Treasuryy Lyon (Kramer)

| || Biibliography: Stru ube, Baudekoration Kalksteinmasssiv 1993. 2002, pa assim; E. Russo, Ricerche su S. Sofia S di Costantinopoli (Bologna 20 018) 58–64. 273– –278 fig. 77–88 Fig. 216: F. Guidobaldi, Origine co ostantinopolitana a e provenienza omana di quattro capitelli del 6 se ecolo oggi a Lion ne, Mélanges de ro l'É École française de Rome – antiquiité 101, 1989, 317 7–364 Fig. 217: Strube, Polyeuktoskirche 1984, pl. 19, 77 p 29, 17 Fig. 218: Brüx, Falttkapitelle 2008, pl.

Fig. 218: Small ccolumn capital wiith garlands and (broken) medallions, Museum Istanbul inv. 546 60 (Betsch 1970)

arland capital witth vine leaves and d olive branch on n the Fig. 217: Ga base, Muse eum Istanbul inv. 2791 (Betsch 197 70)

84 | Colum mn Capitals – Later Fourth and Fiftth Century

Openw work

Fig. 219: Cornice e with dentils, asstragal, egg-and-d dart, astragal, an nd alternately standing and hanging g leaves or calyce es, Museum Is32 (Niewöhner 2007) tanbul inv. 90.13

Fig. 220: Cornice with filigree de ecor of various mo ostly floral ornands that are fram med by astragals ments arranged in horizontal ban hes, Museum Ista anbul inv. 2320 ((Niewöhner 2007 7) and olive branch

Flat, bu ut deeply undercut openwork (à jour) cha aracterized ea arly Byzantinee architecturall sculpture to o an increasing g extent. Earlly examples in nclude the leeaves of capitalss with → tou uching leaf tip ps, → many-p pointed leaves, and filigree reepeat patternss that lent them mselves to undeercutting (Fig. 28, 47–50, 773, 74, 76, 77). ) Later, the tren nd was contin nued in the llower zones of o some → capitals with zoning (Fig. 195, 221), in pa articular → anim mal capitals wiith two zoness and fillet (Fiig. 198, 199, 202, 204, 205) orr basket (Fig. 2200, 203, 216), as well as on ca apitals with → tendrils (Fig. 213, 214). In th he sixth centuryy, openwork beecame a defin ning feature of → melon and → impost capitals. An ana alogous develo opment can be seen on cornices (Fig. 2119, 220) and → door frames (Fig. 347). Thee increase of openwork wentt hand in hand d with a decreasse in volume and a flatten ning of the surface, s which d differed in prin nciple from th he deeply undeercut as well ass highly pro otruding relieefs of earlierr times (Fig. 34 49, 350, 402).. The later teendency towarrds flat openwo ork finds an explanation iin the decora ation of church interiors with h diffuse lightiing rather than n sunlit exteriorr façades of an ncient temples. Churches were w too dark fo or the full effeect of deep an nd complex relief. Instead, o openwork pro ovides a stron ng, binary bla ack and white ccontrast betweeen light surfa ace and shaded background, which stand ds out under, and profits frrom, reduced llighting condiitions (Fig. 2211, 255, 256), but b may be canccelled out by diirect sunlight. || | Bibliogra aphy: A. Aydın, Der Ambon der Kirrche A in Tapureli, Olba 8, 2003, 83 3–91; M. Özyıldırım – Y. Yegin, Olba Manastırı 2018 Yılı Kazı Çalışmaları ve Sonuçları, Seleucia 9, 2019, 11–28, at 17 f. 23 fig. 4 f. Fig. 219– –220: Niewöhnerr, Decline Afterliffe Entablature 20 017, 283. 290 f. fig g. 104. 117–121 Fig. 221:: A. Guiglia, Ancora sui capitelli della Medrese di d Davud Baratte et al. (ed d.), Mélanges Jean-Pierre Paşa a Istanbul, in: F. B 05) 455–464 Sodini, TTravaux et Mémoires 15 (Paris 200

Fig. 221: Dove capital with h zoning, crossess, and floral ornaments, at the Davut Paşa a Mescidi in Istan nbul (Peschlow 19 983) re-used a

Co olumn Capitals – Later Fourth and Fifth Century | 85

S Scrollwork Th he term ‘scrolllwork’ is heree employed to o describe the teendency of ea arly Byzantine stone mason ns to enlarge, leengthen, and connect indiv vidual acanth hus leaves in orrder to compleetely fill and co over a given su urface as if by a tendril (Germ man: Rankisieerung). This ttendency appeears to respon nd to a preferen nce for flat filiigree that lent itself to → open nwork and wa as well-suited tto the diffuse lig ghting conditiions inside chu urches. Scrollwork is particularlly common on → imposts w with trapezoida al sides (Fig. 126, 1 145, 148, 157, 161, 183, 2222, 275) that could not bee filled with conventional leeaves. The sam me applies to various v sixth-ccentury innova ations, includiing → melon capitals c and vvarious → impo ost capitals (F Fig. 234, 245), especially → k kettle capitals an nd → impost ca apitals with pa aired branchess. The point o of scrollwork is i underscored d by compariso on with (typically vine or iv vy) tendrils tha at were alterna atively employed to decora ate both impo osts (Fig. 123, 2223) and impost capitals (Fig. 172, 236–238,, 277, 328), as w well as → animal capitals witth two zones w with (Fig. 198, 20 02, 204, 205) and withoutt fillet (Fig. 1124, 125) and → capitals with tendrils.

Fig. 222: Im mpost with cornerr leaves, middle lleaf, and two exte ended calyces that fill all remaining space (cf. Fig. 2 275), Museum Istanbul (Peschlow 11994)

Fig. 223: Im mpost with cross, many-pointed co orner leaves, and d illdefined ten ndrils that fill all rremaining space,, from the Süleym maniye Camii, Museum Istanbul invv. 7243 (D-DAI-ISTT-R6069)

| || Biibliography: Stru ube, Polyeuktosk kirche 1984; Barrsanti, Capitello 19 994, 200–204 Fig. 223: Zollt, Kap pitellplastik Konstantinopels 199 94, 59 f. cat. 134 pll. 28 Fig. 224: S. Eyicce, İstanbul Ark keoloji Müzesinde Bizans-Türk Çe eşmesi, Belleten 39, 1975, 429–446

ear façade of a fo ountain with kantharos, (partly era ased) Fig. 224: Re cross, and ttwo many-pointed leafy tendrils, M Museum Istanbul inv. 3217 (N Niewöhner 2006)

Column Capitals – Sixth Century

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110690477-004

88 | Colum mn Capitals – Sixth Century

Church of St Poly yeuctus

Fig. 225: Framed d pier capital with h egg-and-dart on the base, split palmettes and sspiral roses in the e centre panel, ass well as a frieze of split palmette es on top, followe ed by a top mould ding, from St Polyeuctus, M Museum Istanbul inv. 5679 (Pesch hlow 1997)

The chu urch of St Polyyeuctus that A Anicia Iuliana built in honour of that marrtyr in Istanb bul-Saraςhane before 527 AD manifests a p profound chan nge in Byzantin ne marble carrving. Its novvelty included the employm ment of piers (F Fig. 225–227, → Pilastri Acrritani) and → impost capitalss (Fig. 233) as well as their strange decorr in two dimensions only and d with → split palmettes an nd other foreign ornaments, ap pparently of → Sasanian oriigin. All this wa as alien to, and d seemed to fiinally break with, w the ancientt tradition. Thee originality of the churrch extended to its architeccture and mayy have been in nspired by the idea of rebuildiing the templle of Solomon n as described d in the Old Tesstament, which h would accou unt for the imitation of Eastern n (Sasanian) m models. This ccan also expla ain why some iinnovations rremained uniique (Fig. 2225–230). Others entered the standard rep pertoire of By yzantine stonemasonry and re--appear in man ny later buildin ngs. || | Bibliogra aphy: Strube, P Polyeuktoskirche 1984; J. Bardilll, Église Saint-Pollyeucte à Constantinople. Nouvellle solution pour l’énigme de sa recconstitution, in: M. Spieser (ed.)), Architecture pa aléochrétienne (G Gollion 2011) 77–1103 Fig. 2255–226: Harrison, Excavations S Saraçhane 1986 6, 131 f. cat. 5 a i.. 5 b i pl. 141 f. 147 f. Fig. 227: Strube, Polyeukttoskirche 1984, p pl. 22, 89

Fig. 226: Framed d pier capital with egg-and-dart on the base, date palms, geometric medallions, an nd ivy tendrils in tthe centre panel,, as well as a friezze of three-lobes on top, from St P Polyeuctus, Muse eum Istanbul inv.. 71.111 (Peschlow w 1983)

Fig. 227: Framed pier capital with a combination of geomettric knotd with foliage as w well as a frame off tendrils and row ws of ted band leaves, frrom St Polyeuctu us, Museum Istanbul (Peschlow)

Collumn Capitals – S Sixth Century | 89

P Pilastri Acrittani Th he Pilastri Acrritani in front of o the south fa açade of San M Marco in Venicee arre named afterr an alleged origin from Acree in Palestine. IIn fact, the two o piiers belonged to the → churrch of St Polyeeuctus (before 527) at → Con nsttantinople and d were brough ht to Venice ttogether with other marbles (F Fig. 134, 233, 2294, 466, 485)), following th he Fourth Crussade and Latin n ca apture of Consstantinople in 1204 1 AD. | || Biibliography: C. B Barsanti – M. Pilutti Namer, Da Costantinopoli a Venezia. Nuove sp poglie della chiessa di S. Polieucto o, Nea Rhome 6, 2009, 133–156; R. S. Nelson, The Hiistory of Legends and the Legen nds of History. TThe Pilastri Acrita ani in Venice, in n: H.. Maguire – R. S S. Nelson (ed.), San S Marco, Byza antium, and the Myths of Venice (W Washington DC 20 010) 63–90 Fig. 228–229: F. W. Deichmann, I Pilastri Acritani, Atti della pontificia accademia omana di archeologia. Rendiconti 50, 1977/78, 75– –89 ro

Fig. 228: Left pane el of the left pier with w chalyx, vase e, grapevine, and pomegranate (N Niewöhner 2010)

Fig. 229: FFront of the left p pier with framed capital c (Niewöhne er 2010)

90 | Colum mn Capitals – Sixth Century

Sasan nian Influen nce

Fig. 230: Detail of an almost plan ne entablature in openwork with ead of egg-and-d dart, flat corbels w with split palvine leaves inste mettes alternatiing with monogra am medallions, and split palmette es instead of a conventional frieze, from the church of St Polyeuctus (before 527 AD) (M. Harrison)

Fig. 231: Impostt capital with a ge eometric pattern of granular trian-gles alternating g with various florral motives, Muse eum Istanbul inv. 2730 (Betscch 1970)

Sasania an influence iss manifest in th he marble carv vings of the → church of St Po olyeuctus (befo ore 527 AD) at → Constantino ople. Typical a are filigree pattterns in → op penwork that, in n addition to o traditional ffoliage (Fig. 227 2 –229, → scrolllwork), also eemploy variou us → split pa almettes and oth her strange mo otifs (Fig. 225, 2226, 230, 233). Equally strangee are combinattions of geomeetric and flora al forms (Fig. 227, 229, 230) on n various → fra amed impost capitals c (Fig. 2333), in particullar combinatio ons of diamon nd patterns an nd leaves (Fig.. 229 above). S Such were com mmon in Sasania an stucco, bu ut not in earlier Byzantinee stone carving g. Figured → water spouts of St P Polyeuctus weere likewise neew to Byzantin ne architecturee and may also o reflect Sasania an influence, a as comparablee animal proto omes go back mu uch longer in tthe Sasanian w world (Fig. 355). Thee strange effecct of all this w was surely inteentional in the ccase of St Pollyeuctus, but p probably not in later stone carvings for otther churches that continueed some of the in nnovations as part of a new B Byzantine repeertoire. || | Bibliogra aphy: E. Russo, La scultura di S.. Polieucto e la presenza della Perrsia nella cultura a artistica di Cosstantinopoli nel 6 secolo, in: La Pe ersia e Bisanzio, Atti dei convegni Lincei 201 (Rom me 2004) 737–826 6; G. Brands, Perrsien und Byzanzz – eine Annähe erung, in: F. Pirson – U. Wulf-Rheid (ed.), Austausch h und Inspiration, Diskushen Bauforschun ng 9 (Mainz 200 08) 244– sionen zzur Archäologisch 256; M. P. Canepa, The Two Eyes of the e Earth. Art and Ritual of Kingship an (Berkeley CALLIF 2009) p between Rome and Sasanian Ira 208–223 3 Fig. 230:: Harrison, Excavvations Saraçhan ne 1986, 121 f. cat. c 2ai pl. 111 f. –232: Strube, Pollyeuktoskirche 19 984, pl. 19, 76; 23 3, 92 Fig. 231–

Fig. 232: Small impost capital with a comb bination of interw woven n gypsum, lamp post p on lozengess and leaflets, leftt side restored in the weste ern gallery of Hag gia Sophia in Ista anbul (cf. Fig. 324 4), inaugurate ed in 537 AD (Niew wöhner 2008)

Column Capitals – S Sixth Century | 91

S Split Palmetttes Sp plit palmettes occupy centrral positions in the marble ca arvings of the → church of Stt Polyeuctus (b before 527AD) att → Constantinople. Characcteristically, fl oral half-palm mettes are ‘spliit’ by spiral ro oses and simiilar, round or cllub-shaped geeometric formss (Fig. 225, 229 9 above, 230, 2333). Byzantine m models from th he fourth and ffifth centuries arre missing, bu ut Sasanian buildings b employed similar m motives in earliier late antiqu uity and will h have informed Stt Polyeuctus. In the Sasan nian world, sp plit palmettes w were equally co ommon in ston ne and in stucco. Later in th he sixth centurry, split palm mettes became sttandard in Byzzantium, too (Fig. ( 155, 191, 210, 215, 234, 24 42, 283), conttinued to be reproduced in n the middle Byyzantine perio od (Fig. 235, 24 46), and were also integrated d by stucco decoration.

amed impost cap Fig. 233: Fra pital with split pa almettes, from the e church of St Polyeuctus (beffore 527 AD), re-u used at the southwest corner of Sa an Marco in Venicce (Niewöhner 20 010)

| || Biibliography: A. Riegl, Stilfragen n. Grundlegunge en zu einer Gescchichte der Orna amentik (Berlin 1893) 1 279–301; L. Pasquini, La de ecorazione a stucco in Italia fra tardo t antico e altto medioevo, Le te essere 5 (Ravenna a 2002) Fig. 233: Deichman nn, Corpus San Marco M 1981, 92 ca at. 373 pl. 24 Fig. 234: M. Ka ampoure, Δύο Κιονόκρανα της Αγίας Σοφίας Θεσσαλονίκης, Επιιστημονική Επετη ηρίς Πολυτεχνικής Σχολής ΑΠΘ 6, 19 973, 65–80 Fig. 235: Barsanti, Iznik-Nicaea's Museum M 2003, 28 81 fig. 47

Fig. 234: Im mpost capital with h split palmettes,, originally for a winw dow, re-use ed in St Sophia att Thessaloniki (Pe eschlow 1997)

Fig. 235: Ba arrier slab with te endril, hanging vvine leaf, and four split palmettes, from the Church of the Dormition (Koimesis) at Niccaea Asia Minor, Muse eum Iznik inv. 749 9 (Peschlow 1987 7) in western A

92 | Colum mn Capitals – Sixth Century

Impost Ca apitals, earlly

Fig. 236: Impostt capital with a co ombination of intterwoven lozenges and tendrils, above an impost with a cro oss, Proble, Atrium of Eup phrasius’ Basilica a (third connesian marb quarter of the siixth century) at Parentium/Poreč iin Istria (Peschlow 1995))

Fig. 237: Impostt capital with garlands in low relie ef, Museum Fethiye, southerrn Asia Minor (Nie ewöhner 2020)

Impost capittals are named d after→ impo osts, with which they share a recctangular top instead of a concave aba acus in → Corinthian n tradition. Ho owever, the reectangular top p of impost capitalss is square, no ot oblong as in n the case of im mposts. Impost capittals are thus n no more suitab ble for the accomodation of the d deep masonry--built arcades in most early Byzantine churchees than traditiional capitals with a conca ave abacus. In conseequence, impo ost capitals weere also provid ded with imposts (Fig g. 236, 242–24 44, 262, 288), and some pro ovincial workshops ccombined the fashionable impost shape with a traditionallyy concave abaccus above (Fig.. 86, 153, 302). The recttangular top off impost capita als had an adv vantage over a conca ave abacus in so far as it reduced and sim mplified the work off the stonema asons. In addition, impost capitals c were suitablle for filigree d decor in → open nwork that wa as better suited to thee diffuse lightin ng-conditions inside churchees. Impost capitals are ffirst attested in the → chu urch of St Polyeuctu us before 527 AD. Rectangu ular pillar cap pitals of that church (Fig. 225–229)) may have suggested the esschewal of a concavee abacus in co olumn capitalss, too (Fig. 233). This appears to b be confirmed b by the transferr of → Sasania an style decor with a combination of geometric a and floral motiifs from the pillar capitals onto o column cap pitals, in pa articular → framed im mpost capitals. Later, im mpost capitalls were includ ded in the sttandard repertoire off → Proconnessus and → Do ocimium and became b common thrroughout the B Byzantine emp pire, but not in n → Syria. Tradition nal Romano-Byyzantine capittal and imposst decor was also tran nsferred to imp post capitals, iin particular → monograms, → p paired branchees, → green m men, → cornu ucopias, → garlands ((Fig. 237), and → tendrils (Fig g. 238). || Bibliography: Strube, Polyeukttoskirche 1984; Peschlow, Kapite ell 2004, cl. 107–111 Fig. 236: A. B. Terry, The Sculptture at the Cathedral of Eufrasius in Poreč, Dumbarton Oaks Papers 42, 1988, 13–64, capita al 23 Fig. 237: E. Russso, Ricerche su S. Sofia di Costa antinopoli (Bolog gna 2018) 63 f. 277 fig. 855 Fig. 238: J. Wilkinson, Column C Capitals in al Harram al Sharif (from m 138 AD 20 cat. 155 to 1118 AD) (Jerrusalem 1987) 22

Fig. 238: Imposst capital with eg gg-and-dart (base e), miniature pairred cornucopias, a and vine, re-used under the Dome of the Chain on the t Temple Mount in Jerusalem (MccKenzie 2009)

Collumn Capitals – S Sixth Century | 93

Im mpost Capittals, later M Most later Byza antine capitals are impost capitals, and m many are more or less closely y based on ea arly Byzantine m models. Examp ples include im mpost capitalss with crosses an nd corner leavves, except tha at the early aca anthus leaves arre later often replaced with h palmettes (F Fig. 241, 419), sa ame as in lateer → Corinthia an capitals (Fig. 84). Later → framed impo ost capitals, → monogram ca apitals, → impo ost capitals wiith paired bran nches, with → tendrils, and w with → vine lea aves and pine cones c are also based directlyy on early Byza antine models.. Various new w creations ran nge from comp plex interpreta ations of the C Corinthian cap pital (Fig. 239) to disjointed ju uxtapositions of exceedinglly simplified and stylized floral and geom metric ornamen nts (Fig. 240). A different new approach h was followed d by → impost apitals with b bevelled edgess, with → rep peat patterns, ca an nd by → frameed impost capitals with interrlace: They all seeem to have a adopted their decor d from ch hurch furnishin ngs, whether th hey were part of o them or not. The overalll picture is diiverse and incconsistent. So fa ar, no chronolo ogical develop pment or topog graphical distrribution has beeen revealed. This T may be ex xplained by a la arge number o of small local workshops, w eacch with a low ou utput, and witthout the trend-setting influ uence of early Byyzantine → Do ocimium or → Proconnesus. P

Fig. 239: Monolithic combin nation of a Corinth hian impost capital with palmetttes and of an impost, Church of tthe Mother of God d (mid-tenth century) at the m monastery of Hosios Lukas in Boeo otia, ece (Peschlow) central Gree

| || Biibliography: Barssanti, Capitello 1994, 1 207–213; Dennert, Mittelbyyzantinische Kap pitelle 1997, 35–134 Fig. 239: Bouras, Δ Διάκοσμος Οσίου Λουκά 1980, 66– –79 Fig. 240–241: De ennert, Mittelbyzzantinische Kapitelle 1997, 201 ca at. 191. 194 pl. 355

Fig. 240: Im mpost capital with h spiral rose and narrow corner leaves, from the Theatre Terrace at P Pergamum in wesstern Asia Minor,, ergama (Niewöhn ner 2008) Museum Be

Fig. 241: Im mpost capital with h cross cabochon and corner palm mettes, Museum Izn nik in western Assia Minor, inv. 681 (Niewöhner 200 08)

94 | Colum mn Capitals – Sixth Century

Frramed (Panelled) Impo ost Capitalss, early

Fig. 242: Framed d impost capital with w split palmetttes (cf. Fig. 233) and impost with cross, Proconnesian ma arble, Euphrasius’ Bassilica (third quarter of the sixth century) at Parentium/Po oreč in Istria (Kafffenberger 2006)

Frramed → impost capitals h have a framed d trapezoid pa anel on ea ach side. The type seems to o have been n newly created for the → church of St P Polyeuctus beffore 527 AD (Fig. 233), wheree it may ha ave been inspiired by numero ous framed pilllar capitals (Fig. 225– 2229). The framess have geomettric or (more offten) floral deccor. The pa anels of St Pollyeuctus conta ain → split palmettes and aree based on n → Sasanian n models. Thee Sasanian influence includ des the co ombination off geometric pa anels and pattterns with ind dividual flo oral motifs, w which was alieen to the Rom mano-Byzantine traditio on. Later, impost capitals were includeed in the sttandard reepertoire of → Proconnesuss and → Docim mium and became a co ommon featuree of Byzantine architecture in n general. In addition a to o Sasanian spllit palmettes ((Fig. 242), the panels now also a included divers R Romano-Byzan ntine motifs (F Fig. 172, 243– –245) as well as → mono ograms (Fig. 1172, 306). The frames starteed to be deecorated with conventionall → fine-tooth hed foliage (Fig. 242, 24 43) as well as with → olivee branches (Fig. 172, 173) an nd split pa almettes (Fig. 2245). | || Bibliography: U. P Peschlow, Dekorrative Plastik auss Konstantinopel an San arco in Venedig, in: Aφιέρωμα σττη Μνήμη Στυλιαννoύ Πελεκανίδη, MakedoMa nika 5 (Thessaloniki 1983) 406–4117; C. Di Bello, I capitelli imposta a del tipo co osiddetto a pannelli nell’ambito d della produzione e scultorea postg giustiniane ea, in: Moreau, Arrchaeology of a W World of Changess 2020, 267–276 Fig g. 242–244: A. B. Terry, The Scculpture at the C Cathedral of Euffrasius in Po oreč, Dumbarton Oaks Papers 42, 1988, 13–64, capitals 2. 3. 9 Fig g. 245: Deichman nn, Ravenna 1969 9–1989, vol. 1 p. 67 f. fig. 50

Fig. 243: Framed d impost capital with w staggered branches (cf. Fig. 257) and d impost with cro oss, same as Fig. 242

Fig g. 245: Framed im mpost capital with a tendril and sp plit palmettes on the fra ame, from San Michele in Africisco o, Museo Nazionale di Ravenna (W Weber 2007)

Fig g. 244: Framed im mpost capital witth tendrils, paired d cornucopias, crross me edallion, olive brranch on the base e, and impost witth Euphrasius’ mo onogram, same materiial and location a as Fig. 242

Collumn Capitals – S Sixth Century | 95

Framed (Pan nelled) Impo ost Capitalss, later So ome framed im mpost capitalss of later timess adopted the deecor from earlly Byzantine models, m such a as → split palm mettes (Fig. 246 6), → crosses (Fig. ( 247, 479)), or → monogrram medallion ns. In some casses, the later ccarvings differ on nly in detail from earlier speecimens. Other framed impost cap pitals with new w decor seem to o have adopteed this from church furniishings, most im mportantly → framed impo ost capitals w with interlace. Th he decor of yeet other, singlee capitals cannot be traced ba ack to any pa articular modeel, but can nevertheless be asssigned to lateer times accord ding to the styllisation of the fo oliage and to in ndividual motiifs (Fig. 248). Overall, no o homogeneou us type or gro oup emerges; on nly single mottifs such as pallmettes (Fig. 246, 434, 435), → cabochons (F Fig. 248, 434, 435), or a fram me of twisted ba ands (Fig. 248, 433–435) app pear more frequently.

Fig. 246: Frramed impost cap pital with split pa almette, Museum Iznik in western A Asia Minor, inv. 11545 (Niewöhner 2008)

| || Biibliography: Barrsanti, Capitello 1994, 207 f.; M M. Dennert, Zum Vo orbildcharakter jjustinianischer Bauplastik B für die mittelbyzantiniische Kapitellproduktion, in: Mölllers – Peschlow, Spätantike Bausk kulptur 1998, 119 9–131 Fig. 246: Barsanti,, Iznik-Nicaea's Museum M 2003, 27 76 f. fig. 33 Fig. 248: Dennert, Mittelbyzantinissche Kapitelle 19 997, 192 cat. 110 pll. 19

Fig. 247: Fra amed impost cap pital with erased monogram meda allion and leaved cross, Komotini in Thrace (Christe ern)

med impost capita al with rose, Muse eum Bergama in Fig. 248: Fram weste ern Asia Minor (Niewöhner 2008)

96 | Colum mn Capitals – Sixth Century

Melon n Capitals, e early

Fig. 249: Melon capital with mon nogram of empero or Justinian I, navve of Sts Sergius and Bacchus in Isttanbul, second quarter of the sixth ow) century (Peschlo

Melon ccapitals are laiid out vertically like melonss, rather than ho orizontally in the → Corinth hian tradition. Like in → capittals with garla ands, the calathus bulges ou ut at the cornerss and under thee abacus knob b, which in thee case of melon ccapitals resultts in vertical ‘ffolds’ (hence the t German terrm Faltkapitellle). Again as in capitals with garlands, tthe bulges can n contain medallions with → monograms o or leaves. As allso in→ capita als with tendrills, there are no rings of leavees or other ho orizontal featu ures. Instead, the calathus is completely ovvergrown with h foliage that forrms flat filigreee patterns, oftten through → scrollwork an nd always in deeply undercu ut → openwork k. Thee earliest know wn capitals off this kind beelong to the chu urch of Sts Serg gius and Bacch hus at → Consttantinople and d date from thee second quartter of the sixth h century (Fig. 249, 342). Thee type appearss to have been invented by metropolitan workshops th hat employed → Proconnesiian marble. Later, it wass widely disttributed through hout the Meditterranean regiion (Fig. 251, 460). 4 In → Egyp pt, local worksshops produceed diverse varriations, includin ng with vine leeaves. || | Bibliogra aphy: A. Pralong,, Origine des chapiteaux-corbeille es ‘à côte de melon n’, in: Mélanges Jean-Pierre Sodin ni, Travaux et Mém moires 15 (Paris 20 005) 317–328; E E. Russo, La vera a origine del ca apitello a cesto polilobato, Bizantin nistica 2/8, 2006 6, 61–84; C. Barssanti, Un apitello polilobatto costantinopolitano, in: L. C. Schiavi S – nuovo ca S. Caldan no – F. Gemelli (ed.), La lezione e gentile. Scritti di storia dell'arte per Anna Maria S Segagni Malacartt (Milano 2017) 47 7–58

Fig. 250: Melon window capital with w monogram o of (?) emperor –565), in 1970 at Istanbul-Saraçha I ane (where photo oJustinian I (527– graphed by Betssch), now Museum m Istanbul (Niew wöhner 2006)

–251: Brüx, Faltk kapitelle 2008, 2555–258. 265 f. ca at. 4. 24. Fig. 249– 57 pl. 1. 4 4. 13

Fig. 251: Small melon cap pital, re-used und der the Dome of the t Clock at the Um mayyad Mosque in Damascus (Haa ag 1985)

Collumn Capitals – S Sixth Century | 97

M Melon Capitals, later La ater melon cap pitals are rare. Some imitatee the decor of → early melon capitals, others deviate and d vary greatly (F Fig. 252, 253). In particular, some later m melon capitals ha ave a rectangu ular top (Fig. 253), although h their ‘folds’ ap ppear to have originally beeen conceived in n response to a concave abaccus with knob in the → Coriinthian tradition. However, such combin nations of trad ditional decor w with new formss, in particular those of → im mpost capitals, occcurred more ffrequently in later times (Fig g. 83, 132, 136, 2339, 284). | || Biibliography: C. B Barsanti, Un capiitello polilobato mediobizantino co onservato nel mu useo di Nicopoliss, in: Nικóπoλις A A’. Πρακτικά τoυ Πρ ρώτoυ Διεθνoύς Συμπoσίoυ για τη η Nικóπoλη (Prevveza 1987) 349– 36 60; M. Dennert, Z Zum Vorbildcharrakter justinianisscher Bauplastik fü ür die mittelbyzan ntinische Kapitelllproduktion, in: M Möllers – Peschlo ow, Spätantike B Bauskulptur 1998 8, 119–131; F. Co oden, Capitelli a ce esto polilobato nella diocesi di Ve erona (11–13 sec..), in: P. Artoni – E. M. Dal Pozzolo – M. Molteni – A. A Zamperini (ed d.), Il tempo e la osa. Scritti di storria dell'arte in on nore di Loredana Olivato, Festina ro le ente. Indagini d'arte e cultura. Misscellanea 2 (Treviso 2013) 90–93

he Fig. 252: Melon capital with leaved and plaited cross, from th St Donatus at Eurroea/Glyki in Epirus, northwestern Basilica of S Greece, Mu useum Ioannina (P Peschlow)

Fig. 252: C. Vanderheyde, Les reliefs de l'église Saint-Donat à Glyki (É Épire), Bulletin de e correspondancce hellénique 1211/2, 1997, 697– 7119, at 712 f. cat. 3 fig. 3 Fig. 253: M. Denn nert, ‚Übersehen ne‘ Kapitelle. An nmerkungen zur mittelbyzantinisch hen Architekturp plastik aus Konsstantinopel, in: Va anderheyde – Penna, Sculpture 2008, 55–67 fig. 11–2

arge impost (wind dow?) capital with h zoning, a ring of o Fig. 253: La leaves, a ba asket zone, a melon zone with corrner and central ‘folds’ ‘ in the shape of foliage that a alternate with ad dditional ‘folds’ in n the form of basskets, and a tall to op with a row of sstanding leaves, Museum Istanb bul (Peschlow 1983)

98 | Colum mn Capitals – Sixth Century

Hagia Sophia

Fig. 254: Galleryy: green columns with kettle capittals, mosaic soffits, inlayed spa andrels, and a corrbeled frieze

After a Theodosian prredecessor had d burnt down (Fig. 9, 40, 54, 71, 72, 77, 3229), the church h of Hagia So ophia in Istanbu ul was rebuilt and re-inaug gurated in 5377 AD by Justinia an I (527–565) in competitio on with Aniciia Iuliana’s reccent → church h of St Polyeu uctus (before 527 5 AD). As in th he latter case, tthe architecturral sculpture of o Hagia Sophia was newly dessigned, but thiis time not in an a exotic style, but with tra aditional Roma ano-Byzantinee forms. This applies in particu ular to → kettlle capitals in th he nave and on the galleries ((Fig. 254, 256), but also to cornices c with → rows of stand ding leaves. B Both the capitals and the corn nices were imiitated by other church build dings in and outside the Byza antine empire, including by y → impost cap pitals with pa aired branches and, for exam mple, in → Armeenia (Fig. 273, 2274). In contrast, an eelaborate marrble revetmentt of the ground floor arcadess that is chara acterized by → scrollwork an nd → openworrk remained u unique (Fig. 2555, 256). The gallleries and thee narthex are iinstead revetteed with inlay th hat provides p particularly strrong black-and-white as well as colour con ntrasts and wass not repeated d, either (Fig. 254 4). || | Bibliogra aphy: Guiglia Gu uidobaldi – Barsa anti, Santa Sofia a Costantinopoli 2004; E. Russo,, Ricerche su S.. Sofia di Costantinopoli a 2018) (Bologna

Fig. 255: Ground floor sp pandrel: marble rrevetment with openwork o friezes and tendrils and with a red disc;; above a corbeled frieze with acan nthus leaves

Fig. 256: Southern arcade; green columnss with kettle cap pitals and marble soffits, on the gro ound floor followe ed by arcades witth carved marble revetment (cf. Fig g. 255); on the ga allery with mosa aic soffits and inlayyed spandrels (ccf. Fig. 254) (all three figures Wikimedia W Commons)

Collumn Capitals – S Sixth Century | 99

K Kettle Capita als A new composite type of → impost capita al that is first atttested in thee nave (Fig. 256) 2 and on the galleries (F Fig. 254) of em mperor Justin nian’s → Hagia Sophia at → Constantinop ple (inaugurateed in 537 AD) is called kettle capital beca ause it does no ot form angula ar corners like otther impost ca apitals, but is rounded like a kettle. The front is decorated with a pair of → manypo ointed leaves tthat ‘branch’ out o with → scrollwork as on m many earlier → imposts (Fig g. 56). The lea aves form, as w well as enclosee, a central → cabochon with h an imperial → monogram m medallion (Fig. 257). The sidees each have a ceentral row of knotted florall medallions w with flanking brranches simillar to the deecor of → meelon capitals (F Fig. 249). → Io onic volutes with w floral cush hions are follo owed by → an olive branch and a top mou ulding with a teendril of altern nately standing g and hanging leaflets. Kettle capittals are compo osed exclusiveely of earlier, Romano-Byzanttine elements and shunned d the → Sasaniian novelties tthat had recen ntly been intro oduced by the → church of S St Polyeuctus (before 527 A AD), possibly beecause Justinian’s Hagia Sophia was mea ant to outrival th he earlier foun ndation by a competing aristocratic familyy. Later, the IIonic element became the d distinguishing m mark of full keettle capitals in n direct refereence to Hagia So ophia, for ex xample elsewh here at → Co onstantinople (F Fig. 258), but also in → Greece G (Fig. 2559), → Lycia (F Fig. 86), and → Armenia (Fig. 273). In co ontrast, other ellements of ketttle capitals occcur also on → impost capita als with paired d branches and d on → framed d impost capita als with knotteed floral medalllion and flank king branches (F Fig. 243). | || Biibliography: E. Russo, Sulla lavorrazione dei capite elli di S. Sofia di Co ostantinopoli, Bizantinistica 18,, 2017, 45–113; F. Stroth, Die M Monogrammkapite elle der Hagia Sophia, S der Serrgios- und Bakhoskirche und de er Irenenkirche, Spätantike S – Früh hes Christentum ch – Byzanz B/45 (Wiesbaden 2021) mer, Kämpferkapitelle 2006, 25–3 33 pl. 1–4 Fig. 257–259: Kram

Fig. 259: Kettle capital, Ba asilica B at Philippi in Macedonia (Peschlow)

Fig. 257: Ke ettle capital with monogram meda allion (the A resto ored in gypsum) on n the northern gallery of Hagia Sophia in Istanbul, inaugurated in 5537 AD (Niewöhner 2012)

Fig. 258: Ke ettle capital from Basilica A in Ista anbul-Beyazit, Mu useum Istanbul (W Weber 2005)

100 | Coluumn Capitals – Siixth Century

Imposst Capitals w with Paired Branches, early

Fig. 260: Impostt capital with paired branches and d monogram medallion, Muse eum Istanbul inv. 96.17 (Peschlow w 1997)

Impost capitals with p paired branch hes have two → manypointed d leaves thatt cover the entire surfacce with → scrolllwork. This d decor is know wn from → imposts i (Fig. 56, 183, 261) an nd pier capitalls (Fig. 267), but the column n capitals undeer consideratio on here appea ar to be modeled on the → keettle capitals o of Justinian‘s → Hagia Sophia (Fig. 257) and d may be desccribed as their simplified cop pies (Fig. 458). → Ionic volutees are left out, and all four sid des look alike. → Monogram medallions (F Fig. 260) and horizontal → oliive branches o on top (Fig. 26 60, 262) were op ptional. Exa amples in → ceentral Anatolia a are probably y due to indirectt metropolitan n influence via a → Docimium m. Other specimeens elsewheree are likely direct copies off → Proconnesiian/ Constantiinopolitan imp ports (Fig. 262). || | Bibliogra aphy: Kramer, Kämpferkapitelle 2006 Fig. 260: C. Barsanti – A. Guiglia Guidobaldi – A. Paribeni, Le officine d dell'imperatore: marmora byzanttina, in: A. C. Qu uintavalle (ed.), Me edioevo. Le officine, I convegni d di Parma 12 (Milan 2010) 118–151, at 130 fig. 13 Fig. 261: Kramer, Kämpferkapitelle 2006, 49 pl. 11, 43 e a l'époFig. 262:: P. Lemerle, Phiilippes et la Maccédoine orientale que chré étienne et byzantine, Bibliothèqu ue des Écoles frrançaises d'Athène es et de Rome 158 8 (Paris 1945) 500 0–502 pl. 46 f.

Fig. 261: Ionic im mpost capital witth angled ‘corner volutes’ and paired branchess, southern gallerry of Hagia Sophiia in Istanbul, inaugurated in 5537 AD (Niewöhne er 2007)

Fig. 262: Re-erected colum mns and an anta ca apital with paired d branches and cornucopias on the imposts, northern a aisle of Basilica B at Philippi in Ma acedonia, lookin ng southwest (Niew wöhner 2014)

Colu umn Capitals – Sixth Century | 101

Im mpost Capittals with Pa aired Brancches, later Ju ustinianic → k kettle capitals or → impost capitals with pa aired branches were often im mitated in lateer times. This in ncluded variations with otheer foliage and other middle m motifs (Fig. 2655), some in th he shape of ca abochons and so ome flat. Most of thee later carving gs have a lower relief than th heir early Byza antine modelss that are disttinguished by deeeply undercu ut → openworrk. The same difference in w workmanship iis also characcteristic of otther types of ea arly and later carvings, i.e. → monogram capitals with ziigzag pattern ((cf. Fig. 305 an nd 308), → ba asket capitals, → melon capita als, → impost capitals with cornucopias, an nd → capitals w with vine leavees and pine co ones. Another peeculiarity of many m later worrks are lotuspa almette friezess on top of imp post capitals (Fig. 264, 303, 46 68), where theey had not beeen customaryy in the early Byyzantine perio od.

Fig. 263: Un nfinished impostt window capital w with paired brancches and Θεοδώρου monogram, A Ayasofya Museum m Istanbul (Ronczewsk ki)

| || Biibliography: M. Dennert, Zum Vorbildcharakter V justinianischer Ba auplastik für die mittelbyzantiinische Kapitellproduktion, in: M Möllers – Peschlo ow, Spätantike Bauskulptur B 1998 8, 119–131; Kramer, Kämpferkapittelle 2006 Fig. 263: Kramer, K Kämpferkapitelle e 2006, 50–52 pl.. 11, 44 Fig. 265: Dennertt, Mittelbyzantinische Kapitelle 1997, 108–109. 20 05 cat. 225 pl. 41

Fig. 264: Un nfinished impostt capital with pairred branches, middle medallion, and lotus-palmettte frieze on top, Museum Edirne in Thrace (Niewöhner 2016)

FFig. 265: Impost capital with pairred astragal branches, octagram, ed base, Museum Edirne inv. 30 (N Niewöhner 2016) and eight-side

102 | Coluumn Capitals – Siixth Century

Cabocchons (Bossses), early

Fig. 266: Fragme ent of a ciborium m with interlace an nd cabochon in the spandrel, lim mestone, from Lyycia, Museum Anttalya (Peschlow)

Caboch hons or bossees were exceeedingly comm mon in middle and late Byza antine reliefs, but started to appear alreadyy in the early Byzantine perriod, in particcular in the sixtth century. Early cabochonss occurred most often in the ccentre of → im mposts and → im mpost capitalss. Some have th he form of org ganically bulg ging foliage (F Fig. 183) with or without (Fig. 267) a centrall → cross (Fig. 268) or monogrram medallio on (Fig. 257, 260). Otherrs form separatte laurel wrea aths or medalllions with → ChristoC grams ((Fig. 161, 162, 1184) or → mono ograms. Cab bochons in thee shape of intterlace that prredominated iin later times were rare in the early By yzantine period ((Fig. 266). Mosst early caboch hons did not co onsitute originall forms, but were merely more laborio ous and sumptu uous variants o of motifs thatt were also an nd more commonly rendered in flat relief (cf. Fig. 257 and a 260 with 1772 and 278; 26 68 with 157; 2267 with 56 an nd 261). Caboch hons were thu us dispensablee and remaineed rare. They arre mainly attessted on sumpteous → Procon nnesian marble carvings (Fig.. 257, 260, 267, 268) and on equally ambitio ous limestone ccarvings of → L Lycia (Fig. 266 6). || | Bibliogra aphy: Kautzsch, Kapitellstudien 1936, 168 f. 172. 1 195; P. Niewöhner, Mittelbyzantinische Templo onanlagen aus Anatolien. A Die Sam mmlung des Arch häologischen Mu useums Kütahya und ihr Kontext, Istanbuler Mitteiilungen 58, 2008 8, 285–345, at 300 f. Fig. 266:: Grossmann – Se everin, Bauten Lyykien 2003, pl. 36 6e Fig. 267: Kramer, Kämpfe erkapitelle 2006, pl. 33, 91 Fig. 268: Zollt, Kapitellp plastik Konstantinopels 1994, 53 3 cat. 113 pl. 26

Fig. 267: Pier ca apital with paired branches and ca abochons, northern aisle of Hagiia Sophia in Istan nbul, inaugurated d in 537 AD (Niewöhner 2012 2)

Fig. 268: Pier capital with central cabochon in the shape off a nd with many-pointed corner leave es, from the Tahttaleaved cross an kale Ham mamı, Museum Isstanbul inv. 5262 (Niewöhner 2006)

Colu umn Capitals – Siixth Century | 103

C Cabochons ((Bosses), la ater Ca abochons tha at had started d to appear in the early Byyzantine perio od and initially had looked d like organica ally bulging fo oliage or wrea aths, later beca ame independeent motifs in their own rig ght, often in the shape of crrosses (Fig. 24 41, 269, 334, 435 4 ) or roses (F Fig. 248, 270, 4333, 434, 441). As far as co olumn capitalss are concerneed, cabochons occcur singly as main middle motifs of vario ous → impost ca apitals (Fig. 2241, 248, 269 9, 270), as paarts of repeat pa atterns, typica ally in the form m of interlace (F Fig. 441), and on n 'capitals with h five cabocho ons' (Fig. 434, 4 435). Cabochons were also widely w used on n → templon ep pistyles. Someetimes, as in some s capitals, they are embeedded in inteerlace medallio ons (Fig. 297,, 334), sometimes they form m independen nt motifs undeer or between arrcades (Fig. 29 97). In contrast to the capita als that would seeem to depend d on the bulgin ng cabochons ffor decorative efffect, some tem mplon epistylles dispensed with bulging ca abochons and d filled interlacce medallionss and arcades w with the same m motifs in flat reelief (Fig. 66, 4 437, 438).

Fig. 269: Im mpost capital with h ‘banded volutess’ (German: Band dvoluten), ‚emble ematic‘ cross-me edallion (partly errased), and palme ettes at the corne ers, Ulu Camii at A Akşehir/Philome elium in Pisidia, central c Anatolia (Niewöhner 2020)

| || Biibliography: Kau utzsch, Kapitellsstudien 1936, 206 f.; Dennert, M Mittelbyzantinisch he Kapitelle 1997, 53–59 Yıldırım, Philomelion‘daki Orta Bizans Dönemi Fig. 269: Cf. Ş. Y Sü ütün Başlıkları, in n: S. Doğan – M. Kadıroğlu (ed.), Bizans ve Čevre Kü ültürler. Prof. Dr. Yıldız Ötüken’e e Armaǧan (Istan nbul 2010) 378– 38 84, at 381 Fig. 270: Barsanti, Iznik-Nicaea's Museum M 2003, 27 76 f. fig. 33 öhner, Mittelbyza antinische Temp plonanlagen aus Fig. 271: P. Niewö natolien, Istanbu uler Mitteilungen 58, 2008, 28 85–345, at 342 An ca at. 58 fig. 62

Fig. 270: Fra amed impost cap pital with rose-sh haped cabochon, Museum Iznik in western Asia M Minor, inv. 1885 ((Niewöhner 2008 8)

Fig. 271: Templon e epistyle with don nor inscription an nd cabochons, thirteenth century, Museum Manisa a in western Asia Minor, inv. 264 (N Niewöhner 2006)

104 | Coluumn Capitals – Siixth Century

Armen nia

Fig. 272: Feathe ered Ionic capital,, Palace of the Ca atholicos at Dvin,, seventh centuryy (Wikimedia Com mmons)

Armeniian architectu ure and ornam mentation is closely related to Byzantium m through imittation and app propriation, forr example → k kettle capitals ((Fig. 273, 274). Another simillarity between n Armenia and d Byzantium co oncerns the tendency of laterr periods to reepeat and regu urgitate the stylle of the early period that w was viewed as classic, lasting, and ongoing g. Examples in nclude kettle capitals c from th he eleventh cen ntury (Fig. 273)) that imitate those t of the seveenth century ((Fig. 274). As a result, later ArmeniA an carvvings can app pear as timelesss as later By yzantine forms. || | Bibliogra aphy: P. Donabéd dian, Les métamo orphoses de l'aca anthe sur les chapiiteaux arménienss du 5e au 7e siè ècle, in: L'acanthe e dans la sculpture e monumentale d de l'antiquité à la a Renaissance, Mémoires M de la Secction d'archéolog gie et d'histoire de l'art 4 = Histoirre de l'art 6 (Paris 1993) 147–174; C C. Maranci, Byza antium through Armenian A ultural Appropriation and the Church of Zuart'no oc, Gesta Eyes. Cu 40, 20011, 105–124 Fig. 272:: P. Donabédian,, L'âge d'or de l'architecture arm ménienne: VIIe sièclle (Marseille 2008 ) 213 fig. 425 Fig. 273: P. Cuneo et al., A Ani (Milan 1984) 44 fig. 22 piteaux de Zvart’’nots, in: Fig. 274:: D. Piguet-Panayyotova, Les chap B. l. Zekiiyan (ed.), Atti del quinto simpossio internazionalle di arte armena ((Venice 1991) 279 9–291

Fig. 273: Kettle ccapital, basalt, St S Gregor at Ani, b built by Gagik I in n 1001–1005 in im mitation of Swartn noz (cf. Fig. 274) ((Niewöhner 1997 7)

Fig. 274 4: Kettle capitals with basketss, basalt, St Gregor at Swartnozz, mid-seventh ce entury (Wikimedia Commons)

Colu umn Capitals – Siixth Century | 105

Im mpost Capittals with Grreen Men G Green men coulld be expanded d at will (→ scrrollwork) and w were thus as suitable for the decoration o of → imposts (F Fig. 275) and → impost capitals (Fig. 276) as other leaf m motifs (cf. Fig. 1126, 145, 148, 157, 161, 183, 2222, 234, 245). Originally, green men go g back to an ncient figured ca apitals. They w will have reacched Byzantium m first in the sh hape of → griffi ffin capitals wiith two zones ((Fig. 207) and → green men ccapitals with concave c abacu us (Fig. 209), beecause these types are clo oser to the an ncient models th han imposts an nd impost capiitals. The latter sseem thus to have h adopted a pre-existing ause it lends m motif from earllier Byzantinee capitals beca itself to the deccoration of tra apezoidal form ms, same as in th he case of → impost capittals with pairred branches. W Whether green men were still considered a apotropaic, as seeemed likely iin the earlier combinations with griffins an nd → gorgoneeia (Fig. 207, 208), appearss doubtful. A co ombination wiith seraphim suggests s in ana alogy to other Ch hristian → fig gured capitals (Fig. 111) tha at green men d understood co ould be refram med in a Chrisstian sense and ass cherubim (Fiig. 277). | || Biibliography: Kautzsch, Kapitellstu udien 1936, 213 Fig. 275–276: Fıra atlı, Musée Istanbul 1990, 117–1119 cat. 219. 223 pll. 70 f. Fig. 277: O. Feld, Beobachtungen an spätantiken und frühchristlicchen Bauten in K Kilikien, Römisch he Quartalschriftt 60, 1965, 131– 14 43, at 142 f. pl. 8; C. Mango, Byyzantine Architeccture (New York 19 976) 99 pl. 107

Fig. 275: Im mpost with green man, flanking ten ndrils, and corne er leaves (cf. FFig. 222), Museum m Istanbul inv. 51188 (Niewöhner 2006) 2

Fig. 276: Im mpost capital with h green man and olive branch on the t base, Muse eum Istanbul inv. 2253 (Schiele 19 987)

Fig. 277: Im mpost window cap pital with four- (in nstead of six-?) winged w seraphim? m medallions and Ά Άγιος Σαβαώθ? M Monogram, green men (cherubim?)) at the corners (ccf. Fig. 111), pointted tendril, and finef toothed basse, Gebze in Bithynia, western Asia Minor (Feld 1968)

106 | Coluumn Capitals – Siixth Century

Impost Ca apitals with h Tendrils, e early

Fig. 278: Ionic im mpost capital witth central kantharos and flanking vines, b broken at the bacck, local marble, Goeleon/Kayakent ne ear Germia in Gala atia (Niewöhner 2 2011)

Most → impo ost capitals wiith tendrils aree decorated sym mmetrically and wiith a middle m motif. This disttinguishes theem from → capitals w with tendrils a and concave ab bacus that rep produce naturally wiild growth witthout a middlee motif while order o is instead provvided by abaccus corners a and knobs. Liikewise, → Ionic impo ost capitals wiith tendrils an nd no middle motif m on the impost reeceived some sstructure from m the Ionic elem ment. In the case of impost capitals, ordeer and an eye--catcher had to be p provided by th he tendril and d the middle motif m – often a vase (Fig. 278–280)) or cornucopiias (Fig. 238, 28 87, 288) – if the view wer's eye was to o be held and n not slip from arbitrary confusion. A majorrity of tendrills are vines (Fig. 238, 278 8, 279), which, like pomegranate (Fig. 281), ma ay have been chosen because of C Christian symb bolism. Howevver, vines weree generally popularr in sixth-centu ury stone carviing and also provided opportunitiees for the display of grapes an nd picking birds. Capitalss of the typee under conssideration herre were carved from m → Proconnessian marble (F Fig. 280, 281) and by various provvincial workshops (Fig. 278, 2279). || Strube, Polyeuktoskirche 1984 Bibliography: S

Fig. 279: Impostt mullion capital with w a central kantharos, flanking grapeviines, and picking g birds, broken right and back, Goeleon/K Kayakent near Ge ermia (Niewöhner 2010)

Fig. 280: Impostt capital with a ce entral vase and vvine, re-used in the basilica o of San Salvatore at a Brescia

Fig. 278: P. Nie ewöhner, Bronze e Age Hüyüks, Anatolian Studies 63, 6 2013, 97–136, at 117 fig. 22 Fig. 279: P. Niewöhner – K. R Rheidt, Die Micha aelskirche in Germia, Archäologischer Anzeiger 2010, 1137–160, at 153 fig. 23 Fig. 280: M. Ibsen, Scultura architettonica e arredo liturgico o in San Salvatore e nel complesso mon nastico, in: G. P. B Brogiolo (ed.), Da alla corte regia al monasstero di San Salvvatore – Santa Giulia di Brescia (Mantova ( 2014) 269–340 0 Fig. 281: Zollt, Kapitellplastik K Konstantinopels 11994, 88 cat. 219 pl. 34

Fig. 281: Imposst capital with intterlace monogram m medallion Iouσ στείνου (? Justin II 565– –578), pomegranate tendril, and o olive branch on th he base, from Çiftlikköyy near Yalova in B Bithynia, Museum m Istanbul inv. 6280 (Niewöhner 20 006)

Colu umn Capitals – Siixth Century | 107

Im mpost Capittals with Te endrils, late er La ater → impostt capitals with tendrils may employ simila ar vases as mid ddle motifs as their early Byyzantine modells (Fig. 284), b but the later capitals c are u usually distingu uished by a higher degree of o symmetry a and by corner m motifs such ass leaves (Fig.. 283, 285) orr pine cones (F Fig. 282, 284). Alternatively,, later carving gs more comm monly employ other middle motifs such as → crosses (F Fig. 282) and → split palmettees (Fig. 283). Whilst vinee continued to o be carved (F Fig. 282), palm mettes (Fig. 2833, 284) and varrious other lea aves (Fig. 285) arre now also attested. The symmetry off the tendrils so ometimes resu ults in heart--shaped or otther patterns (F Fig. 284, 285).

Fig. 282: Im mpost capital with h double cross on n a stepped base e, tendril, and d stylised pine co ones at the cornerrs, from Didyma in i Caria (western Asia Minor), Museum Miletus inv. 2354 (Niewöhnerr 2012)

| || Biibliography: Barsanti, Capitello 1994, 1 209 f.; De ennert, Mittelbyza antinische Kapite elle 1997, 122–124 Fig. 282: A. Ödeka an (ed.), The Rem mnants. 12th and d 13th Centuries Byyzantine Objects in Turkey (Istanb bul 2007) 255 Fig. 283: S. Feist, Die byzantinisch he Sakralarchitek kur der Dunklen Ja ahrhunderte, Spä ätantike – frühe es Christentum – Byzanz B/46 (W Wiesbaden 2019) 56 pl. 27 fig. 57 Fig. 284: Barsanti,, Iznik-Nicaea's Museum M 2003, 27 77 f. fig. 38 Fig. 285: Dennert, Mittelbyzantinissche Kapitelle 199 97, 202 cat. 197 pll. 36

Fig. 283: Im mpost capital with h split palmette, diverse tendrils in i symmetrica al arrangement, a and olive branch o on the base, lime estone, Cumanın Camii in Anttalya (Peschlow)

Ab bb. 284: Impost ccapital with kanth haros, tendril witth palmettes, an nd stylised pine ccones at the corners, from the gra ave yard of a Tu urkish village in tthe vicinity, Muse eum Iznik in westtern Asia Minor, in nv. 1901 (Niewöhn ner 2008)

Fig. 285: Im mpost capital with h a symmetrical tendril in the centtre and olive brranches at the co orners, Museum B Bursa in western Asia Minor, inv. 2718 (Niewöhnerr 2006)

108 | Coluumn Capitals – Siixth Century

Imposst Capitals w with Cornuccopias, earlly

Fig. 286: Imposst capital with corrnucopias, ivy ten ndrils, kantharoi, and paired birdss, from Amorium in Phrygia (centrral Anatolia), Museum Afyon iinv. 1433 (Niewöh hner 2002)

Impost capitals with h paired cornu ucopias adopted the decor o of → capitals w with cornucopiias and conca ave abacus. Th he latter stand out for their high relief, an nd their imitatio on can explain n why some o of the former are a also carved in higher rellief (Fig. 286) than was oth herwise customary in → impo ost capitals tha at were best su uited to flat → o openwork. Corrnucopias orig ginally go bacck to ancient figured capitalss, and the capiitals with corn nucopias and concave c abacus had adopted them alongsid de theatre massks and a rudim mentary ring o of leaves (Fig. 210), but thesse latter elements no longer a appear on imp post capitals. Instead, I some im mpost capitals show kantharroi or vases (F Fig. 286) that w were generallyy popular in n the sixth century (cf. Fig.. 198, 228, 278–280) and, ex xceptionally, are a also depicted on a capita al with cornu ucopias and concave c abacus (Fig. 212). Typ pically, impostt capitals with h cornucopias are reduced tto flat openwo ork (Fig. 287, 28 88), for which h impost capitalss are best suitted, in particu ular → framed impost capitalss with such deecor (Fig. 244)). However, th he plane cornuco opias have litttle effect, and d the capitalss lack a striking g motif or patteern that would d catch the eye. || | Bibliogra aphy: Strube, Pollyeuktoskirche 19 984, 53–58

Fig. 287: Impostt capital with corn nucopias and pointed foliage, from the Blachernae quarter, Museum m Istanbul inv. 44 485 (Weber 2005))

Fig. 286: Strube, Polyeuk ktoskirche 1984, p pl. 14, 52 nopels 1994, 87 cat. 214 Fig. 287:: Zollt, Kapitellplastik Konstantin pl. 34 Fig. 288:: A. B. Terry, The Sculpture at the Cathedral of Euffrasius in Poreč, Du umbarton Oaks P Papers 42, 1988, 13–64 cat. 26

Fig. 288: Impost window capital with cornucopias, pointed d foliage, ost, Proconnesian n marble, atrium of Euphrasius’ Basilica and impo (third quarter of the sixth century) at Paren ntium/Poreč in Isstria erger 2006) (Kaffenbe

Colu umn Capitals – Siixth Century | 109

Im mpost Capittals with Co ornucopias,, later Im mpost capitalss with cornucopias were imittated relativelyy often in lateer Byzantine tiimes. Their fla at relief compa ares to many of their → early models, but the later sp pecimens lack k the deeply un ndercut → opeenwork of the ea arly period. Th he cornucopiass tended to deccrease further in n prominence,, moved to thee corners, and d made room fo or tendrils and d foliage, especcially for paireed leaves as a neew middle motif (Fig. 290, 29 91). | || Biibliography: M. Dennert, Zum Vorbildcharakter V justinianischer Ba auplastik für die mittelbyzantinissche Kapitellprod duktion, in: Mölle ers – Peschlow, S Spätantike Bausk kulptur 1998, 119– –131; C. Vandereyde, La sculptu ure byzantine du IXe au XVe sièccle (Paris 2020) he 18 85–186

Fig. 289: Im mpost capital with h cornucopias, te endrils, and lotuss-palmette frieze e on top, re-used in the parecclesion (ca. 1310 AD) of the Pammakaristos Monastery/Fethiye Camii in Istanbul (Niewöhnerr 2007)

Fig. 289: H. Belting – C. Mango – D. Mouriki, Th he Mosaics and Frrescoes of St. M Mary Pammakarisstos (Fethiye Cam mii) at Istanbul, Du umbarton Oaks S Studies 15 (Washiington DC 1978) p pl. XI. 10. 93 Fig. 290–291: Den nnert, Mittelbyza antinische Kapite elle 1997, 203 f. 2111 cat. 210. 274 p pl. 38. 49

Fig. 290: Im mpost capital with h cornucopias and stylised vine, from f the monasttery of Galakrenai (tenth century) in Erenköy-Suadiiye on the Asiatic shore of the Bosp porus, Ayasofya M Museum Istanbul inv. 289 (Pe eschlow 1984)

Fig. 291: Impost window capittal with cornucop pias and stylised v leaves and pine cones), from grapevine (the other side with vine the Pantocrator M Monastery/Zeyrek k Camii (twelfth ccentury) in Istanbul, Bodemusseum Berlin inv. 6 6270 (Peschlow)

110 | Coluumn Capitals – Siixth Century

Imposst Capitals w with Vine Le eaves and Pine P Coness, early

Fig. 292: Impostt capital with vine e leaves, pine cones, and a row off standing leaves on top, Bodemuseum Berlin inv. 1/92 (Weber 2006)

A decorr with mostly → fine-toothed d (Fig. 292–294 4 right), rarely p pointed (Fig. 2294 left, cf. Fig g. 297), vine leeaves in the cen ntre and long-sstemmed pine cones at the corners occurs only on small → impost cap pitals and wass apparently deevised especia ally for them. A full middlee leaf is flanked d by half a lea af on each sidee, same as on n earlier pilasterr capitals (Fig.. 15, 23, 28, 29 9, 44, 47–50), except that thee traditional accanthus is repllaced by vine. Thee preference ffor vine correesponds to a general trend o of the sixth ccentury, when n vine becamee widespread in all kinds off column capittals (cf. Fig. 19 98, 204, 205, 209 9, 211, 213, 214 4). Similar pinee cones appea ar under the aba acus corners of some → anim mal capitals with w two zones (Fig. 124) and some → capittals with cornu ucopias (Fig. 1711, 191, 210, 211)). Thee peculiar cap pitals with vin ne leaves weree apparently in nvented at → Proconnesus or → Constan ntinople and weere in any casee exported fro om there. Theiir small dimensions appear su uitable for chu urch furnishing gs, such as temp pla or → ciboriia, and this usse is actually attested a for laterr Byzantine copies (Fig. 297). || | Bibliogra aphy: G. A. Sotiriou, Παλαιοχρ ριστιανικά και Βυζαντινά Β Κιονόκρα ανα μετά Φύλλωνν Αμπέλου, Επετη ηρίς Εταιρείας Βυ υζαντινών Σπουδώνν 11, 1935, 449–457; K. Krumeich, Spätantike Kämpferkapitelle mit Weinblatt- und Pinienzapfen-Dekor, Istanbuler MitteilunM gen 47, 11997, 277–314

e leaves, pine cones, and a row off Fig. 293: Impostt capital with vine standing leaves on top, Great Mo osque of Kairouan in Tunisia (Peschlow)

Fig. 292: C. Stiegemann (ed.), Frühchrisstliche Kunst in Rom und e und ByKonstanttinopel. Schätze aus dem Museum für Spätantike zantiniscche Kunst Berlin ((Paderborn 1996)) 108 f. cat. 14 Fig. 293: Harrazi, Chapite eaux Kairouan 198 82, 168 fig. 384 orpus San Marco o 1981, 110 cat. 474–476 Fig. 294:: Deichmann, Co pl. 34

ointed and with fiine-toothed vine leaves, pine cone es, and rows of standing leaves on top, re-used on n the Fig. 294: Impostt capitals with po thirteenth-centu ury façade of San Marco in Venice (Niewöhner 2010 0)

Column Capitals – S Sixth Century | 111

Im mpost Capittals with Viine Leaves a and Pine C Cones, later Sm mall impost ccapitals with vine v leaves an nd pine cones arre frequently a attested in lateer Byzantine tim mes, typically ass parts of church furnishing gs (Fig. 297). T They occur in va arious forms tthat are often reduced in co omparison to th heir early Byza antine models, e.g. with a m middle medallio on (Fig. 295), w with less or wiithout any flan nking foliage, w without pine cones or with some that aree stylized beyo ond recognitio on (Fig. 296), and a without a row of standin ng leaves on to op (Fig. 296, 29 97). | || Biibliography: M. Dennert, Zum Vorbildcharakter V justinianischer Ba auplastik für die mittelbyzantinissche Kapitellprod duktion, in: Mölle ers – Peschlow, S Spätantike Bausk kulptur 1998, 119– –131; C. Vandereyde, Le ciborium m de l’église de la Dormition de la Vierge à Kahe la ambaka, in: Mélanges Jean-Pierre Sodini, Travaux et Mémoires 15 (P Paris 2005) 427–4 442 Fig. 295: Barsanti – Guiglia, Ayasoffya Müzesi 2010, 97 f. fig. 107 Fig. 297: C. Vanderheyde, The Carvved Decoration off the Middle and La ate Byzantine Templa, Mitteilung gen zur Spätantik ken Archäologie un nd Byzantinischen Kunstgeschicchte 5, 2007, 7 77–111, at 88 f. fig g. 18

Fig. 296: Sma all impost capitall with vine leavess, Museum Iznik, w western Asia Minor (Weber 2005)

Fig. 297: Imposst ccapital with pointed vine leavess, p pine cones, and a an egg-and-dart o on top, below th he te emplon epistyle o of tthe middle Byzan ntine catholicon a at the monastery o of Hosios Loukas iin Boeotia, centra al Greece (Foto Marburg 1919/19211)

Fig. 295: Sm mall impost capittal with vine leave es, middle medallion, pine cones at the corners, and a row of standing leaves on to op, Museum Istanbul iinv. 290 (Betsch 1970) Ayasofya M

112 | Coluumn Capitals – Siixth Century

Baske et Capitals, early

Fig. 298: Baskett capital with two o zones, grapevin ne, picking birds, and (broken) concave abacus, Ch hurch of the Trinity (inaugurated monastery of St Simeon Stylites the Younger in the 551 AD) at the m hinterland of An ntiochia/Antakya (Peschlow 2000))

Variouss different ca apitals are larrgely decorateed with wickerw work and may thus be called d ‘basket’ capiitals. If, on the other hand, the wickerwo ork is subordiinate to some otther, more dom minant featuree, the capitals will be named after the latteer, for example → animal capitals c with tw asket. wo zones and ba Thee wickerwork or ‘baskets’ llikely go back k to the vine ha arvest that wa as itself displa ayed on archittectural sculptu ure and church h furnishings, iincluding wick ker baskets (Fiig. 337). Baskets and grapeevines are thu us often depicted together, eiither small ba askets with surrounding grap pevines (Fig. 3340) or whole b basket capitalss with a calathu us that appearrs to consisit o of wickerwork k and to be filled d with grapevin nes (Fig. 298). In addition, baskets also app pear as singlee motifs indepen ndently of gra apevines and their harvest.. Examples incclude small baskets in the ceentre (Fig. 146)), below the aba acus knob, or o on the echinuss (Fig. 157) of various capitalss. In basket capitals with hout grapevin nes, the wickerw work is often combined with elements of o other types o of capitals (F Fig. 196), for example med dallions (Fig. 20 00) as in → mo onogram capita als, or trapezo oid panels (Fig. 300) as in → fframed impostt capitals. Bassket capitals a are not known n to date from m before the sixtth century and probably ca ame about as part of that cen ntury’s fable ffor the depictio on of grapevin nes and their ha arvest. || | Bibliogra aphy: Niewöhnerr, Aizanoi 2007, 187; Niewöhner, Decline Afterlife E Entablature 2017 7, 311–313

Fig. 299: Baskett capital with two o zones, medallio on, helices, and broad-pointed le eaves (on the oth her sides), Museu um Adana in Ciliccia Pedias, inv. 101 (Niewöhner 20011)

Fig. 298:: W. Z. Djobadze e, Archeological Investigations in n the Region Wesst of Antioch-on n-the-Orontes, Fo orschungen zur Kunstgeschichte und Christliche en Archäologie 13 (Stuttgart 19 986) 106 cat. II 34 pl. 39, 154 nscriptions grecq ques et latines du d musée Fig. 299:: R. Mouterde, In d'Adana,, Syria 2/4, 1921, 280–294, at 282 2 f. cat. 14 Fig. 300: Cf. J. McKenzie, The Architecture e of Alexandria and a Egypt (New Havven 2007) 316

Fig. 300: Basket capital w with trapezoid pa anel following the e exampPolyeuktos (cf. FFig. 233, 242) and with olive bran nches on le of St P the base e, Proconnesian m marble, graveyarrd of Anfoushy in n Alexandria, Egypt (McKenzie 20119)

Colu umn Capitals – Sixth Century | 113

B Basket Capittals, later Th he later Byzan ntine periods produced p a sim milarly broad sp pectrum of bassket capitals ass the → early o one. However, tw wo main group ps of later bask ket capitals sta and out, plain ba asket capitalss on the one hand, h and → capitals with tw wo zones and b basket on the other. Plain ba asket capitals arre mostly → impost capita als with a recctangular top (F Fig. 303). Capittals with two zones z and basket may have a concave aba acus (Fig. 3022) and can bee categorized diifferently depeending on the upper zone, fo or example as → composite capitals with h two zones and basket (F Fig. 301) or as m melon capitalss (Fig. 253). In general, the later pieces mostly mak ke do without → openwork, while early Byzantine B basskets can be allmost complettely undercut (Fig. 200, 216). | || Biibliography: Kau utzsch, Kapitellsttudien 1936, 201. 231; M. Denne ert, Zum Vorbilldcharakter justinianischer Bauplastik für die mittelbyzantinisch he Kapitellproduktion, in: Möllers – Peschlow, pätantike Bausku ulptur 1998, 119– –131 Sp

Fig. 301: Co omposite column capital with two zones and baske et, reused in the Ulu Camii at Mag gnesia/Manisa in n western Asia Minor (Niewöhnerr 2006)

Fig. 301: Dennert, Mittelbyzantinissche Kapitelle 1997, 196 cat. 153 pll. 28 Fig. 302: N. Pekerr, Kaunos’ta Geç Antik Çağa ait b bir Sütun Başlığı er et al. (ed.), Basileus. 50. Yılınd da Kaunos. MehÜzzerine, in: A. Dile met Cengiz Işık’a A Armağan (Ankara a 2017) 309–314 Fig. 303: Dennert, Mittelbyzantinissche Kapitelle 1997, 195 cat. 144 pll. 26

Fig. 302: Co omoposite imposst capital with con ncave abacus (cf. Fig. 86, 153), wicker worrk, rose, and corn ner leaves, urch at Kaunos in Caria, western A Asia Minor Domed Chu (Niewöhnerr 2000)

Fig. 303: Ba asket capital with h dentils and lotu us-palmette frieze e on top and ano other frieze on the base, from the church of the Theotokos Chalkoprateia in Istanbul, Museum Istan nbul (Peschlow)

114 | Coluumn Capitals – Siixth Century

Monog gram Capitals, early

Fig. 304: Large iimpost capital with monogram me edallions of emperor Justinian I (527–565, on the e other side) and d his wife Theodora († 548), and with h pointed corner leaves, Germia in n Galatia, centrall Anatolia (Niewöhner 2010)

Fig. 305: Impostt capital with Κύρ ριε βοήθει monog gram medallion and undercut zig gzag pattern, re-used in the wall o of the middle Byzantine churcch of Panagia Kap pnikarea at Athen ns (Kramer 1966)

Monogrrams on capitals mostly refer the names of founderrs that are oftten paired witth an invocatiion like Κύριε β βοήθει (Fig. 30 05). Monogram ms were typiccally inscribed in medallionss and becamee particularly popular p in the ssixth century. T They occur on n → imposts (F Fig. 198, 244) an nd → Ionic imp post capitals, where they reeplaced → crossses or → Christtograms, but a also on the → Pilastri Acritani, on → melo on capitals (Fiig. 249, 250), on the abacus knob (Fig. 18 80), on → ketttle capitals (Fiig. 257), and on → capitals witth paired bran nches (Fig. 260 0). However, m monograms aree most common n as central motifs m of variouss other → impo ost capitals (Fiig. 172, 277, 28 81, 304– 306) tha at may therefo ore be termed m monogram cap pitals. Imp post capitals a are particularlly well suited for the presenttation of mono ograms. The leetters lend them mselves to filigrree → openworrk, which was the standard form of surface decor on imp post capitals, a and unlike on n melon capitalss, impost capiitals are spacio ous enough fo or large and eassily legible mon nograms. || | Bibliogra aphy: J. Kramer, Kämpferkapitelle e mit den Monog grammen Kaiser Ju ustinus’ II. und sseiner Gemahlin,, der Kaiserin So ophia, in Yalova Ka aplıcaları (Terma al), in: M. Restle ((ed.), Festschrift für Klaus Wessel zzum 70. Geburtstag, Münchene er Arbeiten zur Kunstgeschichte und Archäologie e 2 (Munich 1988)) 175–190; A. Delll’ Acqua, erkapitelle con m monogrammi dal S. Sepolcro di GerusaI Kämpfe lemme, in: F. Ciliberto (ed d.), Tra servizio ccivile e missioni estere. Il eni culturali della a Terra Santa (Rom me 2018) contributto dell’Italia ai be 79–102; F. Stroth, Die Mo onogrammkapite elle der Hagia Sophia, der Sergios- und Bakchoskirrche und der Ire enenkirche, Spättantike – Frühes Christentum – Byzzanz B/45 (Wiesb baden 2021) Fig. 304: C. Di Bello, Sullle tracce di un nu uovo schema com mpositivo per i capitelli imposta, Attti della Accadem mia roveretana degli Agiati 9/8 A, 20 018, 33–40, at 38 8 f. fig. 3 Fig. 3055: J.-P. Sodini, La sculpture arrchitecturale à l'époque paléochrrétienne en Illyriccum, in: Actes du u 10e Congrès in nternational d'archéologie chrétienne 1. Rapports, Studi di antichittà cristiana 37 (Ro ome 1984) 207–2 298, at 248 fig. 17 7 Fig. 306:: N. Asutay, Ein u unbekanntes Ehre enmonument dess Kaisers Phokas in Synada bei Ak kronion (Afyon), Byzantinische Zeitschrift 95, 2002 2, 417–421

Fig. 306: Large fframed impost ca apital with cross monogram meda allion of emperor Phocas (602–610 0), from Synada iin Phrygia (centra al öhner 2002) Anatolia), Museum Afyon (Niewö

Colu umn Capitals – S Sixth Century | 115

M Monogram C Capitals, latter M Monogram capitals remained d in use in latter Byzantine times, although h not as frequeently and num merously as in th he sixth centu ury. The laterr works typiccally adopted ea arlier forms, in n particular → impost capitalls with corner leeaves (Fig. 307), with zig gzag patternss (Fig. 308), → framed impo ost capitals (Fiig. 247, 310), a and → impost ca apitals with p paired branch hes (Fig. 263). In addition, so ome later → C Corinthian cap pitals also havve monogram m medallions (Fig g. 84). As in th he early perio od, the monogrrams mostly n name donors and a invoke thee help of God (F Fig. 308). | || Biibliography: Rea allexikon zur byza antinischen Kunsst 6 (2005) 598– 6114 s.v. Monogramm (W. Seibt), at 603–606; E. S. Moutafov, A Byyzantine Monogrram of a Lady on n a Marble Capita al from the Louvrre, Revue roumaiine d'histoire de l'art. Série beau ux-arts 51, 2014, 16 69–175

Fig. 307: Im mpost capital with h monogram med dallion and pointe ed corner leaves, from Milas in we estern Asia Minorr, Museum Bodrum (Niewöhnerr 2016)

Fig. 307: Dennert, Mittelbyzantinissche Kapitelle 199 97, 209 cat. 254 pll. 46 Fig. 308: G. Mend del, Musées Impé ériaux Ottomans. Catalogue des ues, romaines et byzantines (Constantinople scculptures grecqu 19 912–1914) vol. 2 p p. 552 cat. 752 Fig. 309: R. Ouste erhout, Two Byzantine Churches o of Silivri/Selymerhout – A. Papalexandrou (ed.), brria, in: M. J. Johnson – R. G. Ouste Ap pproaches to Byzzantine Architectture and Its Deco oration: Studies in n Honor of Slobod dan Ćurčić (Farnh ham 2012) 239–2 257, at 239–242 g. 12.2 fig Fig. 310: Dennert, Mittelbyzantinissche Kapitelle 19 997, 189 cat. 87 pll. 15

Fig. 308: Im mpost capital with h two monogram medallions Κύριε βοήθει | Θεοδώ ώρω πατρικίω and d zigzag pattern, Museum Istanbu ul inv. 943 (Kleiss 1965)

Fig. 309: One of eight impost capita als with monogra am of Alexios PoKauCHos, corn nucopias, and poiinted leaf tips, fro om his church AP off St John at Selym mbria/Silivri in Th hrace, ca. 1328, M Museum Istanbu ul inv. 763 (Betscch 1970)

Fig. 310: Framed impost capital with Κύριε βο οήθει monogram meda allions, Museum Istanbul inv. 408 83 (Betsch 1970)

Other Architectural Elements

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110690477-005

118 | Otheer Architectural Elements E

Attic C Column Basses

Fig. 311: Attic co olumn base with boss, b Basilica of Leonidas at Lechaion near Corinth, second halff of the fifth centu ury (Thiel)

Fig. 312: Reduce ed Attic column base, b Örencik nea ar Aezani in Phryg gia, central Anato olia (Niewöhner 2001) 2

Fig. 313: Attic, simplified, and reduced Attic colum mn bases at a S in Pisidia, central fountain on the Lower Agora of Sagalassos Anatolia (Niewöhner 2020)

In the a ancient traditio on, Attic colum mn bases had consistc ed of p plinth, torus, ffillet, scotia (trochilus), filllet, and torus. In Byzantine times, this com mplicated proffile was typicallly reduced in ssuch a way th hat the lower to orus no longer fforms a semi-ccircular profile but a quarteer circle and thee upper torus only extendss slightly beyo ond the upper ffillet ( Fig. 311, 313). In a seecond step, thee upper torus co ould be furtheer reduced to a simple ring, which appearss to duplicate the upper filleet (Fig. 312, 313). This form is attested in → P Proconnesian marble from the later fifth cen ntury onwardss. All these reductio ons betray disrregard for the column base, w which could ssometimes bee omitted com mpletely (Fig. 63). This devellopment may have respon nded to poorly llit church inteeriors – the sta andard architeccture of the Byzzantine era – w where column n bases on floor level have much less effectt than on the h high and sun-lit exterior tem mple platforms of old. Man ny column ba ases have eitheer bosses (Fig.. 311) or groovess in the middlee of one or mo ore sides. Whilst bosses had to be planned d from the outsset, grooves co ould be added llater. Both servved to seamlesssly connect → barrier slabs an nd thus to pa artition off the sanctuary, aiisles, or galleriees. || | Bibliogra aphy: J. Kramer, Attische Säulenb basen des 5. und d 6. Jahrhundertss n. Chr. und ihre e Rohform, Bonn ner Jahrbücher 17 70, 1970, 271–278; U. Peschlow, D Dividing Interior Space in Early Byzantine B Between the Navve and Aisles, in n: S. E. J. Churchess. The Barriers B Gerstel (e ed.), Thresholds of the Sacred (Washington 2006) 53–71 Fig. 311: J. Kramer, Attische Säulenbasen n des 5. und 6. JahrhunChr. und ihre Roh hform, Bonner Jahrbücher 170, 19 970, 271– derts n. C 278, at 272 fig. 2 Fig. 312: Niewöhner, Aizanoi 2007, 201 cat. 7 pl. 1 of Water, in: G. Wiplinger W Fig. 313: M. Waelkens, Sagalassos. City o (ed.), De aquaeductu atqu ue aqua urbium Lyciae Pamphylia ae Pisidiae, Babesch Suppl. 27 (Le euven 2016) 323– –336

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S Simplified C Column Base es Siimplified colu umn bases ty ypically consiist of plinth, cyylinder, trunccated cone, and a smaller ccylinder. The su urface is often n only serrated d, not smooth hed (Fig. 313– 3115). Originally,, they go back to an intermeediate stage in th he production of → Attic collumn bases (hence the Germ man term Bosssenbasen), and d rare early ex xamples from th he late Roman n period have probably rem mained unfinisshed. Howeverr, by the early y Byzantine peeriod, simplified bases werre in general use, and som me specimens w with smooth su urfaces and ch hisel-draft con nfirm that the Byyzantine basess were finished d final productts (Fig. 315). Additional confirmation is provided byy further simpllification, by which the tru uncated cone was omitted an nd the two cyllinders follow directly one a above the otherr (Fig. 316). This basic form m does not ressult from the prroduction process of Attic column c bases,, but appears to o have come a about through reduction of the aforesaid siimplified basees, thus imply ying their pree-existence as finished produccts. | || Biibliography: N. Asgari, Observations on Two Tyypes of QuarryIte ems from Proconnesus. Column n-Shafts and Collumn-Bases, in: N.. Herz – L. Moenss – M. Waelkens (ed.), ( Ancient Sto ones. Quarrying, Trrade, and Provenance, Acta archa aeologica Lovanie ensia. Monograph hiae 4 (Leuven 19 992) 73–80; U. Quatember, Q Der sogenannte Hadrrianstempel an d der Kuretenstrassse, Forschungen in Ephesos 11, 3 (V Vienna 2017) 102 cat. 016B pl. 222 2–225

Fig. 314: Sim mplified column base in the narth hex of St John Sto oudios in Istanbul, mid-fifth centuryy (Peschlow 1978 8)

mplified column base with chisel--draft, Saray nearr Fig. 315: Sim Aezani in Ph hrygia, central An natolia (Niewöhner 2000)

und 6. JahrhunFig. 314: J. Krame er, Attische Säule enbasen des 5. u de erts n. Chr. und ihre Rohform, Bonner Jahrbücher 170, 1970, 271– 27 78, at 273 fig. 3 Fig. 315: Niewöhne er, Aizanoi 2007, 202–204 cat. 12 fig. 22 pl. 1

Fig. 316: Re educed simplified d column base, in ncluding the lowe er end of the colum mn shaft, limesto one, Germia in Ga alatia, central Ana atolia (Niewöhnerr 2009)

120 | Otheer Architectural Elements E

Colum mn Bases, Shafts, and C Capitals witth Stepp ped Profiles or Striation n

Fig. 317: Unfinisshed Ionic impostt capital with step pped impost, Museum Istanbu ul inv. 4968 (Betssch 1970)

Column n bases, shaftss, and capitals with stepped profiles or striattion are rare a and so far onlyy known from m → Proconnesu us or → Con nstantinople a and from Ank kara in → centrral Anatolia. An unfinished → Ionian impo ost capital (Fig. 317) suggestss that the step pped profile originally goes ba ack to an interrmediate produ uction stage, same s as in the ccase of → sim mplified colum mn bases. A → melon capital with stepped profile at Istan nbul makes an n unfinished im mpression, too o. Ano other Ionic im mpost capital m must be a finisshed final prod duct, because the → impost with striation n is concave lik ke an abacuss and could n no longer hav ve been worked d into a norma al, rectangularr impost (Fig. 318). A → hono orific column w with striated sshaft in Ankara a is undoubted dly also a finisshed product (F Fig. 17). Thee column bases with stepped d profile are co omparatively ccomplex, roun nd, hexagonall, and octagon nal finished p products (Fig. 319). They m may have beeen conceived as more soph histicated varriations of sim mplified column n bases. || | Bibliogra aphy: A. Pasınlı – C. Soyhan, Ma anganlar Bölgesin nde 1976 Yılında K Kurtarma Kazısına Ait Rapor, Aya asofya Müzesi Yılllıkları 9, 1983, 54–66 fig. 5 (melon n capital); Harrison, Excavations Saraçha62 (hexagonal ba ase); U. Peschlow w, Ankara ne 1986, 137 pl. 76–78. 16 (Vienna 2 2015) 131–138 pl.. 69 f.

Fig. 318: Ionic im mpost capital with angled ‘corner volutes’, the impost with striation and concave like l an abacus, back side broken, from the tip of Isstanbul’s historicc peninsula (Pescchlow 1982)

Fig. 317: Zollt, Kapitellpla astik Konstantino opels 1994, 30. 3114 cat. 51 pl. 15 Fig. 318:: U. Peschlow, A Am Kai von Kon nstantinopel. Resste einer Repräsen ntationsarchitekttur an der Sarayyspitze, in: M. Korres – S. Mamaloukos – K. Zam mpas – P. Mallou uchou-Tufano (ed d.), Ηρως που Μπούρα (Ath hens 2018) vol. 2 p. 439– Κτίστης. Μνήμη Χαράλαμπ g. 5–8 458, at 441–443 cat. 2 fig enna 1969–1989, vol. 2, 2 p. 92–9 Fig. 319: Deichmann, Rave 95

Fig. 319: Octagonal colum mn bases with sttepped profile, ProconneP sian marrble, nave of San Vitale in Ravenn na, inaugurated in 547 AD (Mainz)

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P Pedestals Sttandard churcch building did not require columns to sttand on n pedestals, bu ut they were nevertheless n w widespread in ssome reegions of the B Byzantine emp pire, i.e. in → w western Asia M Minor an nd → central Anatolia as well as in → Constantino ople, → Greece, and tthe → central Balkans B (Fig. 1330). Square peedesta als were often eemployed betw ween the naves (Fig. 323), forr the trribelon, or for tthe triumphal arch in front o of the apse. Po olygon nal pedestals were more common in ccentrally plan nned bu uildings (Fig. 319, 321) and → ciboria. Pedestals could also prrovide greater length, e.g. to o re-used ancieent column sha afts. Church buildings in old cities c likely re--used ancient pedesstals, but the countryside and a new foun ndations like C Consttantinople willl have requirred new Byza antine carving gs. A Byyzantine date is sometimes indicated by Christian sym mbols (F Fig. 130) or orn namental deco or similar to Byyzantine → ba arrier sllabs (Fig. 320, 323), or by thee profile of collumn bases on n top off the pedestalss (Fig. 320–3233). Lateral groo oves (Fig. 320)) or bosses (Fig g. 321) provided d for a seamless con nnection of barrrier slabs bettween aisles or for th he partition of the sanctuary.

Fig. 320: Octagonal pe edestal with flora al decor, column base, b and la ateral groove, Ayasofya Museum IIstanbul (Weber 2005) 2

| || Biibliography: Orla andos, Ξυλόστεγο ος Βασιλική 1952 2–1956, vol. 2 p. 266– 26 68; Niewöhner, A Aizanoi 2007, 172 2 Fig. 321: A. Van M Millingen, Byzanttine Churches in Constantinople (Londo on 1912) 83 fig. 30 Fig. 322: Cf. E. Russso, Le decorazio oni di Isidoro il G Giovane per S. So ofia di ostantinopoli (Ro ome 2011) fig. 2355–244 Co Fig. 323: Deichman nn, Ravenna 1969 9–1989, vol. 2, 2 p. 241 fig. 119 f. Fig. 321: Octagonal pe edestals with reduced Attic column base ateral boss, Sts S Sergius and Bacchus in Istanbul, secs and la ond q quarter of the sixtth century (Pesch hlow)

Fig. 322: Pilaster pedestal with reduced Attic pilasster base, nave off Ha agia Sophia in Isttanbul (Niewöhner 2007)

Fig. 323: Square pedestal with lozenge es and Attic colum mn marble, San Apolliinare in Classe ou utside base, Proconnesian m nna, inaugurated in 549 AD (Mainzz) Raven

122 | Otheer Architectural Elements E

Mullio ons Mullion ns are oblong in plan, but both ends lo ook like semi-co olumns. They are distinguished from columns c with a square plan in that, with tthe same widtth, they reach a greater depth, depending on the depth h of the middle part between n the two sem mi-columns. Mullions M are thuss comparable to → imposts: both are suita able for the sup pport of thick w walls, such as resulted from the use of brick ks or double-sh hell rubble and d lime mortar masonry. Mullions were standard in arcched windows, where column ns would havve been unneecessarily thick and blocked d most of the opening. In the majority of cases, these w window mullio ons are monoliithic, includin ng base, shaft, a and capital (Fig g. 325). Larrge mullions more often h have separatee bases (Fig. 454) and capita als (Fig. 166, 4 469). They weere also used for arched passa ages and insteead of columns in the nave an nd on galleriess. In the nave,, the smaller width w of mullion ns resulted in wider intercolumniations and a better com mmunication w with the aisless. Mullions weere also easier to o carve than co olumns. Roun nded corners su uffice to recall th he idea of a rround column n, although th he semicolumn ns of mullions are hardly ever actually y semicircularr in plan. How wever, in som me regions, mullions m rather tthan columns w were standard d in the naves of early Byzantiine basilicas, ffor example in → central Ana atolia. Fig. 324: Paired columns of verde antico with Ionic impost capitals gallery of Hagia Sophia S in Istanbu ul, inaugurated in n on the western g 537 AD (Niewöhner)

|| | Bibliogra aphy: Niewöhnerr, Aizanoi 2007, 1177–179; S. Mam maloukos, Observattions on the Doorrs and Windows iin Byzantine Arch hitecture, in: R. Oussterhout – R. Hollod – L. Haselberg ger (ed.), Masonss at Work (Philadellphia 2016) 1–38 Fig. 324: R. J. Mainstone, Hagia Sophia (Lo ondon 1988) 61 fiig. 74

hematic capital, M Museum Yalvaç/A Antiochia Fig. 325: Mullion with sch in Pisidia a, central Anatolia a (Niewöhner 200 01)

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W Window Cap pitals Co olumn capitalls for arched windows w are d divided in two byy central bosses on two opp posite sides, w where the windo ows or the wiindow frames could connecct seamlessly (ccf. Fig. 186). Th he bosses thu us separate insside and outsiide (Fig. 183, 2210, 234, 277, 288, 2 458) that a are often decorrated (Fig. 166 6, 171, 182, 209 9, 326, 327, 469 9) and/or finisshed (Fig. 328) differently. Th his is why such capitals are allso called 'double', 'doublee motif', or 'tw wo-type capita als'. More sophiisticated carviing on the insside reflects a geeneral Byzantiine tendency to decorate th he interior, in pa articular of ch hurches, moree elaborately than exterior fa açades. In ad ddition, diversse lighting co onditions and diifferent visibillity may also have been ta aken into acco ount, for exam mple where galleries g proviided close-up viiews on the in nside, whilst th he outside wa as high above floor level and tthus visible on nly from afar. However, ccapitals with two different sides are of pecial significa ance for the history h of art, because they sp deemonstrate w what types of capitals, leavves, etc. were cu urrent at the sa ame time. | || Biibliography: J.-P P. Sodini, Un chapiteau mixte d d’époque paléoch hrétienne à Delp phes, in: L. Hade ermann-Misguich h – G. Raepsaet (e ed.), Rayonnemen nt grec. Hommag ges à Charles Delvvoye, Université lib bre de Bruxelles. Faculté de phillosophie et lettre es 83 (Bruxelles 19 982) 325–340; H.-G. Severin, Kap pitelle mit einem m Blattkranz aus hiinterlegten Ölbla attzweigen, Jahrb buch für Antike u und Christentum 32 2, 1989, 151–160 Fig. 326: Zollt, Kapitellplastik Kon nstantinopels 199 94, 221 cat. 634 pll. 45 Fig. 327: Betsch, H History 1977, 423 fig. 84 Fig. 328: Zollt, Kap pitellplastik Konsstantinopels 1994, 84 f. cat. 207 pll. 34

ost window capita al with ivy tendrils and staggered Fig. 328: Impo co ornucopias, the ((outer) right side partly unfinished d and with holes ffor bars, former ssouthern exit of Sts S Sergius and B Bacchus in Istanbul, seen ffrom the west, second quarter of the sixth century (N Niewöhner 2011)

Window capital witth pointed leavess, the left side Co orinFig. 326: W age thian, the riight side compossite with butterflyy leaves and folia instead of e egg-and-dart, from Istanbul-Beyazzit, Museum Istan nbul inv. 5209 (K Kramer)

Fig. 327: Ionic impost windo ow capital, the lefft side with flute,, many-pointted corner leaf, and pointed cushiion, on the right a many-pointted leaf, a double e leaf at the corne er, and a fine-toothed cushion, Museum Istanbul ((Betsch 1970)

124 | Otheer Architectural Elements E

Entablatures

Fig. 329: Architrrave with three fa asciae separated by astragals, egg gand-dart, Lesbia an cyma, pointed scroll, and egg-a and-dart, from th he Theodosian porttico of Hagia Sop phia at Istanbul, inaugurated in 415 AD (Niewöhn ner 2007)

The stylistic developm ment of entabllatures was sim milar to that of ccolumn capita als. In the fourrth century, neew early Byzantiine leaves (Fiig. 331, 350) a and the princciple of → varietas was adopted from → D Docimium. At → Constantino ople and startiing from the → Theodosian period, this wa as followed byy simplificatio on (Fig. 69, 329), 3 in particullar with respect to forms off high relief th hat were replaced by flat → op penwork (Fig. 230, 255, 256) and by inlay (F Fig. 254) with sstrong light-da ark or black an nd white contrasts, which werre better suited d to the diffusse lighting con nditions insidee churches. Fo or the same reasons, r the bala anced traditional compositions were in th he sixth centuryy replaced by sstriking individ dual elements,, in particular b by → rows of standing leavees (Fig. 332, 3336) and by → seemi-cylindricall mouldings (F Fig. 332, 336, 34 42). Outtside the capiital, entablatu ures became ra are, because sstone carvingss were mainlyy made for ch hurches that were normally bu uilt with arcad des. Some locall exceptions h had local causses, e.g. a prrovincial church that aspired d to the style off neighbouring g ancient mon numents (Fig. 14 43, 330); a refe ference to Con nstantinople iss not in evidencce (Fig. 149). || | Bibliogra aphy: M. Milella,, I propilei della Santa Sofia teo odosiana, in: C. Ba arsanti (ed.), Bisanzio e l’Occid dente. Arte, arch heologia, storia. Studi in onore di Fernanda de’Ma affei (Rome 1996 6) 61–78; C. Barsan nti – A. Paribeni, La scultura in funzione architettonica a Costantin nopoli tra V e VI secolo, Acta ad archaeologiam et e artium historiam m pertinentia 30 ((NS 16), 2018, 23–72

Fig. 330: Fluted architrave with crosses, c St Micha ael at Miletus in Asia Minor), earlyy seventh centuryy (Niewöhner 2013) Caria (western A

Fig. 329: Schneider, Grab bung Westhof Sop phienkirche 19411, pl. 19 Milet 2016, 44. 1180–184 cat. MK115–137 Fig. 330: Niewöhner, M fig. 59 Fig. 331:: Niewöhner, De ecline Afterlife E Entablature 2017 7, 245 f. fig. 12

Fig. 331: Entabla ature of a wall revvetment with thre ee fasciae separa ated by astragalss, Lesbian cyma, ffine-toothed scro oll, egg-and-dart, dentils, corbels, Lesbian n cyma, and lotuss-palmette frieze, from the Balaba an Ağa Mescidi in n Istanbul, Museu um Istanbul inv. 4 42.91 (Niewöhnerr 2007)

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R Rows of Stan nding Leave es Rows or friezess of standing leaves were d depicted with in uency in the early Byzantin ncreasing frequ ne period, on → entablatures (Fig. 69, 143, 256, 2 332), cornices (Fig. 333, 3335, 449), → overdoors (F Fig. 348, 350), → ciboria (F Fig. 366), and atop → imposst capitals with h vine leaves an nd pine cones (Fig. 292–294)). This applies to → Proconneesus (Fig. 69, 256, 292–294, 332, 336) as w well as to variou us provincial w workshops, e.g g. in → Lycia (Fig. 348, 350, 36 66) and in thee → Syrian Limestone Masssif (Fig. 449). Th he types of lea aves vary in accordance a witth local traditions, and they can be paired to form calyxees (Fig. 332). In the courrse of the fifth century, a row w of standing d the traditio onal lotus-pa almette frieze leeaves replaced (F Fig. 331) as th he Constantin nopolitan stan ndard for the deecor of the siima atop the entablature (F Fig. 256, 333, 3335). From the ssixth century onwards, o a row w of standing

Fig. 332: Architra ave with two fasciae separated b by astragals, a se emi-cylindrical eg gg-and-dart, a frrieze of paired leaves or calyxes, a gorgoneion, gether with colum mn capital Fig. and dentils, tog 195 from a Justinianic(?) portico at the Hebdom mon outside Constantinople, Musseum Istanbul inv. 6305 (Niew wöhner 2008)

FFig. 333: Cornice with leaved corb bels, egg-andow of standing na arrow-pointed dart, and a ro le eaves on the sima a, northwestern nave n corner of Basilica B at Ph hilippi in Macedonia, mid-sixth century (Niewöhner 2014)

Fig. 334: Templo on epistyle with a row of standing leaves, a cross-shaped ca abochon, and, be elow, a panel witth interlace, midd dle Byzantine, Mu useum Konya, ce entral Anatolia (Niew wöhner 2008)

leaves could be the on nly remaining floral element and main deccor (Fig. 332), thus replacin ng the scroll of o old (Fig. 329, 331). In latter Byzantine times, rows of standing leaves continued d to be carved d (Fig. 334, 36 69, 370), inclu uding atop vario ous → impost capitals (Fig. 132, 135, 253, 295). The latterr often took th he shape of lottus-palmette frriezes (Fig. 134, 264, 289, 3033), and an oth herwise uncom mmon combination with denttils (Fig. 303)) suggests tha at the friezes ato op capitals imiitated cornicess. || Bibliograph hy: Strube, Baudekoration Kalkstteinmassiv 1993. 2002; Niewöhner,, Decline Afterlife e Entablature 20117 Fig. 332: Fırratlı, Musée Istan nbul 1990, 133 ca at. 261 pl. 82 Fig. 333: P. Lemerle, Philipp pes et la Macédoine orientale a l'é époque chrétienne et byzantine (Parris 1945) pl. 71

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Semi-Cylindrical Mouldingss Arm-thiick, semi-cylin ndrical mould dings appeareed as a prominent new elem ment on numeerous → Consttantinopolitan entablatures a and cornices in n the Justinian nic period. Thee mouldings co ould be undeccorated (Fig. 3336, 384, 389) or take the shap pe of a scroll (Fig. 335, 3422) or an egg-and d-dart (Fig. 332), always a about arm-thiick and semi-cyylindrical in forrm. Thee mouldings sstand out from m otherwise fllat profiles. Th hey may havee been intended to catch th he light and throw a shadow eeven under thee diffuse lightiing conditions inside churchees. Sim milar semi-cylin ndrical mould dings continueed to be carved iin later Byzanttine times. || | Bibliogra aphy: Niewöhner, Decline Afterlife e Entablature 20117 Fig. 335: Fıratlı, Musée Isttanbul 1990, 96 ff. cat. 178 pl. 56 f. f Fig. 336:: E. Mamboury – T. Wiegand, Die e Kaiserpaläste von v Konstantinop pel zwischen Hip ppodrom und Ma armara-Meer (Berrlin 1934) 5–6 fig. 3 pl. 19

Fig. 335: Ambo from the R Rotunda of St Ge eorge in Thessalo oniki, the oll followed by de entils and upper cornice with a semi-cylindrical scro useum Istanbul inv. i 1090 a row of standing fine-toothed leaves, Mu (Dumbartton Oaks)

Fig. 336: Two blocks of an architrave with three fa asciae, semi-cylindrical moulding g, a row of reed le eaves, and a monogram medallion n of an I (527–565), re e-used at the Bou ukoleon Gate in th he sea walls of Co onstantinople (D-DAI-IST-2749) emperor Justinia

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P Peopled Scro olls Sccrolls that are enlivened by animals a and h human figures w were common in various media m througho out antiquity an nd the Byzan ntine era. In Byzantium, B th hey appeared m mainly on corn nices (Fig. 337–340), → ovverdoors, and → window fram mes (Fig. 92), ass well as on ch hurch furnishin ngs (Fig. 57, 3393, 394), wheere they were more visible th han as part of tthe → entablatture high up on n the wall. Occasional → crosses, a new preferen nce for vines (F Fig. 57, 337, 39 93), and the sa ame figural rep pertoire as on ch hurch furnishiings reflects th he influence off Christianity. In n fact, most peeopled scrolls were w probablyy intended for th he decoration o of churches. Stylisticallyy, the scrolls became b increasingly simple an nd geometric over time and d, by the midd dle Byzantine peeriod at the la atest, could tak ke the form off axially symm metric repeat pa atterns (Fig. 3339, 340. Cf. 2355, 290, 291). | || Biibliography: J. M M. C. Toynbee – J. B. Ward Pe erkins, Peopled Sccrolls, Papers of the British Scchool at Rome 118, 1950, 1–43; C.. Dauphin, The D Development of the t Inhabited Sccroll in Architectu ural Sculpture an nd Mosaic Art frrom Late Imperia al Times to the Se eventh Century A A. D., Levant 19, 19 987, 183–205; D. Matetić Poljak, Le e motif du rinceau peuplé dans le e palais de Dioclé étien à Split, in: S.. Bourdin – J. Dub bouloz – E. Rosso o (ed.), Peupler e et habiter l’Italie ett le monde roma ain. Études d’histtoire et d’archéo ologie offertes à Xa avier Lafon (Aix-e en-Provence 2014 4) 149–156 Fig. 337–338: Effenberger – Severin, Museum 1992, 120 f. cat. 38 f. erhout – Z. Ahun nbay – M. Ahunbay, Study and Fig. 339: R. Ouste Re estoration of the e Zeyrek Camii in n Istanbul, Dumb barton Oaks Pape ers 63, 2009, 2355–256, at 247 fig.. 16 Fig. 340: C. Barsanti – A. Guiglia Guidobaldi – A. Paribeni, Le offficine dell'imperratore. Marmora byzantina, in: A A. C. Quintavalle (e ed.), Medioevo. LLe officine, I convegni di Parma 12 (Milan 2010) 1118–151, at 147 fiig. 22; Niewöhne er, Decline Afterrlife Entablature 20 017, 314 fig. 169

Fiig. 340: Large cornice with axiallyy symmetric pomegrana ate scroll, basket (left, broken), rabbit, an nd duck (? right, trimmed), t b below a crack tha at has been stabilised with a clamp, re-used d older part, from IstanbulEminönü, M Museum Istanbul inv. 95.91 ner 2008) (Niewöhn

Fig. 337: Co ornice with grape evine scroll, peacock (left, trimmed d), rabbit, and winegrower with h basket, from the e Dardanelles, Bo odemuseum Be erlin inv. 3064 (Liiepe 1981)

Fig. 338: Co orner piece of a cornice with dentiils, astragal, and scroll with beastss of prey, from the e vicinity of a chu urch of St Andrew w in Istanbul, Bo odemuseum Berllin inv. 6132 (Liep pe 1992)

Fig. 339: Co ornice with axiallyy symmetric pom megranate scroll and a dove, upper cornice of the n northern church (a after 1124 AD) of the nbul (Ousterhout 2004) Pantocratorr Monastery/Zeyrrek Camii in Istan

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Soffitss The terrm soffit orig ginally refers to the underrside of architra aves and arcad des, but is also o used for a geometric motif th hat commonlyy decorates thee undersides of o architraves ((Fig. 9, 149, 3330, 332). In thee Byzantine erra, such decorattive soffits beecame widesp pread on → templon posts, too, both in → Constantinople and in n many provincces (Fig. 11, 3411). Occcasionally, thee same motif a also decorates plinths of earlyy Byzantine ccolumn bases, undersides of o early Byzantiine corbels (Fig. 345), and flanking amb bo slabs (Fig. 3772, 373, 378, 3379). In contra ast, the underrside of architra aves could be decorated diffferently in th he sixth centuryy (as had been the casee already in n ealier antiquitty), for examp ple with lozen nges and med dallions (Fig. 271, 342) that aree commonly kn nown from By yzantine → barrrier slabs (Fig g. 422, 423). Examples aree again attested d both at Constantinoplle and in various provincces.

Fig. 341: Two diffferent templon posts p with a deco or of soffits and with reduced Atttic column basess, Museum Kütahya in central Anatolia, inv. 27 7 (Niewöhner 200 02)

|| | Bibliogra aphy: Niewöhne er, Aizanoi 2007 7, 180 (architra ave). 183 (templon n posts); A. B. Yallçın, I soffitti deco orati degli architrravi delle finestre, in: A. Guiglia Guidobaldi – C. Barrsanti, Santa Sofiia di Cosoli. L’arredo marrmoreo della gra ande chiesa giusstinianea, tantinopo Studi di a antichità cristiana 60 (Rome 2004 4) 233–289 Fig. 341: Niewöhner, Stteinmetzarbeiten n Kütahya 2006 6, 440 f. cat. 49 f. Fig. 342: C. Barsanti – A. Paribeni, La scultura in funzione architettonica a Costantinopoli trra V e VI secolo, A Acta ad archaeollogiam et artium hiistoriam pertinen ntia 30 (NS 16), 20 018, 23–72

Fig. 342: Melon capitals and enta ablature with varrious soffits, fascciae, egg-and-darrt, semi-cylindrica al pointed scroll,, building inscription, p cornucopia as on the sima, n nave of Sts Sergiu us and Bacchus in n Istanbul, secon nd quarter of the sixth s dentils, corbels,, and a frieze of paired century (Peschlo ow)

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C Consoles/Co orbels/Bracckets In n Byzantine tim mes, the decorr of corbels, wh hich may also bee called conssoles or brack kets, developeed along the sa ame lines as arrchitectural sculpture in gen neral, whether th he corbels form med parts of an a → entablatu ure (Fig. 230, 2555, 331, 333, 34 42) or whetheer they were siingle (Fig. 52, 54 4, 90, 343–346 6). Their decor with leaves (F Fig. 52, 54, 90, 2555, 333, 343), → openwork (F Fig. 230, 344), and → crossess (Fig. 346) reflected curren nt fashions. Occcasional anim mal protomes a are comparab ble to → waterr spouts with su uch decor and probably had apotropaic meeaning. | || Biibliography: Fıra atlı, Musée Istanb bul 1990, 129–13 32 cat. 251–252. 2556–258 pl. 80–8 81; U. Peschlow,, Observations in n the So-Called Sk kevophylakion off Ayasofya in Istanbul, Araştırma a Sonuçları Topla antısı 26/2, 2008, 391–396

Fig. 343: Co orbel with many-p pointed leaf, Ephesus in western Asia A Minor (Niew wöhner 2000)

o, La scultura di S. Polieucto e la a presenza della Fig. 344: E. Russo Pe ersia nella culturra artistica di Costantinopoli nel 6 secolo, in: La Pe ersia e Bisanzio,, Atti dei convegni Lincei 201 (Ro ome 2004) 737– 82 26, at 785 fig. 55 Fig. 345: G. Kayma ak, Die Cumanın Camii C in Antalya, Adalya suppl. 8 Antalya 2009) 288 8 (A

Fig. 344: Brroken corbel with h (broken) pointed d leaf and scrollss, Ayasofya M Museum Istanbul iinv. 111 (Weber 2005)

Fig. 345: Corbel wiith soffit and a flo oral frieze, limesttone, southern oor of the Cuman nın Camii in Antalya (Peschlow 199 91) do

Fig. 346: Co orbel with cross a and volute, local marble, Museum m Kütahya in central Anatolia, inv. E97 (Niewöh hner 2010)

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Door FFrames With a few notable eexceptions (Fiig. 347), most marble door fra ames from → P Proconnesus a and → Constan ntinople continu ued an ancient tradition of bulging profilles well into thee later Byzantiine periods. Th heir exception nal conservatissm may at lea ast partly go b back to the ree-use of ancientt parts, which h was comm mon for marblle door frames. This was diffferent in → L Lycia (Fig. 348 8, 350), → Ciliciia, and the → Syrian Limeestone Massif,, where door frames and → overdoors weere most often n newly carved from limeston ne. These new w limestone do oors relate to the other buiilding decor a and reflect th he same fashion ns as Byzantinee architectural sculpture in general. g || | Bibliogra aphy: A. Geyer, Aspekte der Bauornamentik von n Alahan Monastırr, Jahrbuch für An ntike und Christe entum 27–28, 198 84–1985, 151–170; A. Özügül, The Doorframes in LLate Antique Perriod BuilD. B. Erciyas (ed.), Marmadings in Istanbul and Its Hinterland, in: D es Symposium Proceedings (Istanbul 2008) 97–114 4 ra Studie Fig. 347:: Niewöhner, Deccline Afterlife En ntablature 2017, 291–293 fig. 125–1127 Fig. 348: Grossmann – Se everin, Bauten Lyykien 2003, pl. 17 7b

Fig. 347: Door frrame from a Medrrese at the Koca M Mustafa Paşa Camii in Istanbu ul, sixth century, Museum Istanbu ul inv. 16344– 16346 (Niewöhn ner 2006)

Fig. 348: We estern door of the e south aisle, see en from southwesst, limestone, Mon nastery of St John n at Akalissos/Ka arabel/Asarcık Ba atı in the e Lycian Taurus, mid-sixth m centuryy (Niewöhner 200 01)

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O Overdoors O Overdoors increeased the proffile of the → do oor frames by m means of higher and more protruding co ornices. Their fo ormal repertoiire was the sa ame as on → entablatures, bu ut usually in reduced form m and withou ut corbels. In ch hurches, overd doors typicallly distinguisheed main porta als, often witth a Christia an symbol in n the centre (F Fig. 349, 351). They were particularly ccommon and ellaborate in thee limestone arrchitectures off early Byzantine → Lycia (Fiig. 348), → Cilicia, and the → Syrian Limesttone Massif.

|| hy: Strube, Baudekoration Kalkstteinmassiv 1993. 2002; Bibliograph J.-P. Sodini, Les portes cen ntrales de la Bassilique Est (Cathé édrale) de Xanthoss, in: S. Doğan – M. Kadıroğlu (ed.), Bizans ve Čevre Kültürler. P Prof. Dr. Yıldız Ötüken’e Armaǧan n (Istanbul 2010) 319– 331 Niewöhner, Declin ne Afterlife Entab blature 2017, 24 48–250 Fig. 349: N fig. 20–22 Fig. 351: P.. Niewöhner, Mitttelbyzantinische e Templonanlage en aus Anatolien. Die Sammlung d des Archäologisch hen Museums Kü ütahya und ihr Kon ntext, Istanbuler M Mitteilungen 58, 2008, 285–345, at 301 fig. 3

Fig. 349: Overdoorr(?) with fine-tootthed cornucopia-scroll, staurogram, and donor insscription, broken on the left, from Bozhüyük in Phrrygia (central Anatolia), Museum Istanbu ul inv. 5329 (Kram mer)

Fig. 350: Door linte el with scrollwork k, a central cross medallion, leave ed corbels, and an overdoor in the e shape of a row o of soft-pointed sttandin ng leaves, Museum Elmalı in Lycia, southern Asia M Minor (Niewöhnerr 2020)

Fig. 351: Door linte el with central cro oss medallion and d overdoor in the e shape of an arca ade with spiral co olumns and a scrratched inscriptio on, lim mestone, re-used d as a corner blocck of the Sadettin n/Zazadin Han ne ear Konya in Lyca aonia, central Ana atolia (Niewöhnerr 2000)

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W Window Fra ames B Byzantine win ndow frames o of marble or sttone are less ccommon than → door fframes, and elaborate decor is exceptionall (Fig. 92). Thiss may be owin ng to the h high positionss of many churrch windows, w which made a any window fra ame, let a alone its decorr, hard to view w. Profiles an nd decor, for eexample with → peopled scro olls, could hav ve been a adopted from cornices (Fig. 92). Bars ma ay have been for glazing, because b g glass panes weere available o only in small fformats. Bars ccould be cut frrom the ssame piece of marble or sto one as the outeer frame (Fig. 353), and som metimes ttook the shapee of crosses (Fiig. 150). | || B Bibliography: E. Russo, La transe enna di finestra nella rampa sud-ovest di S. Sofia di Costtantinopoli, Bizan ntinistica 13, 20111, 17–22; S. Mam maloukos, Obserrvations on the Doors and W Windows in Byza antine Architectu ure, in: R. Ouste erhout – R. Holod – L. Haselberg ger (ed.), M Masons at Work ((Philadelphia 20116) 1–38 FFig. 352: One of several arched w window frames w with cross in the apex, Proconnessian mard-fifth century (P b ble, north aisle of St John Stoudio os in Istanbul, mid Peschlow)

FFig. 353: One of two arched wind dow frames with h bars, limestone e, re-used in the türbe of G Gecek near Germ mia in Galatia, cen ntral Anatolia (Nie ewöhner 2009)

Fig. 3554: Monolithic win ndow archess with kantharos and a peacoccks, Museum Kon nya in central Anatolia öhner 2020) (Niewö

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W Water Spoutts So ophisticated B Byzantine foun ntain spouts o often took the sh hape of lion h heads (Fig. 3557), as had b been common siince earlier an ntiquity. Alterrnatively, som me more basic fo ountains in th he shape of op pen channels with tapered sp pouts, which helped with h filling conttainers, were deecoraed in low relief, for example e with h a grapevine (F Fig. 358; cf. Fig g. 224). h century, a new, larger ttype of spout In the sixth sttarted to be ca arved with a long l channel, probably for th he drainage o of vaulted roo ofs that weree then newly in ntroduced into o church building. Some o of these large sp pouts were deecorated with lion heads (F Fig. 355), and th his became standard in thee middle Byza antine period (F Fig. 356). All ro oof-top lions bare their teeth h as if snarling an ngrily, probab bly with apotro opaic meaning..

Fig. 355: Wa ater spouts from St Polyeuctus (before 527 AD), Museum Istanbul (Krramer)

| || Biibliography: Bouras, Διάκοσμος Οσίου Λουκά ά 1980, 43–45 fig g. 74–83; P. N Niewöhner, Zoom morphic Rainwatter Spouts, in: B.. Shilling – P. Sttephenson (ed.), Fountains and W Water Culture in Byyzantium (Cambrridge 2016) 163–1181 Fig. 355: Fıratlı, Mu usée Istanbul 199 90, 214 cat. 502– –506 pl. 128 e, Altertümer von n Pergamon 1 (B Berlin 1913) 320 Fig. 356: A. Conze ca at. A Fig. 357: F. Dirimte ekin, Les fouilles faites en 1946–11947 et en 1958– 960 entre Sainte-Sophie et Saiinte Irène, à Isttanbul, Cahiers 19 arrchéologiques 13, 1962, 161–185, at 173. 181 fig. 19 9 Fig. 358: Cf. P. Nie ewöhner, Ein byzzantinischer Löw wenkopf-Wasserpeier aus der Geg gend von Milet, in: A. Paribeni – S. Pedone (ed.), sp “D Di Bisanzio dirai ciò che è passatto, che passa e che sarà”. Scritti in n onore di Alessa andra Guiglia (Ro ome 2018) 187–2 203, at 191–195 g. 2–5 fig

Fig. 356: Lion-headed waterr spout, marble, m middle Byzantine e, from Agora of Pergamu um in western Asiia Minor, Museum m the Lower A Bergama (N Niewöhner 2008)

Fig. 357: Distributo or and fountain with w lion-headed sspout, marble, ea arly Byzantine, so outh of Hagia Iren ne in Istanbul (Pe eschlow 1983)

Fig. 358: Fo ountain head with h grapevine, Museum Pessinus in Galatia (central Anatolia), inv. A4 44 (Niewöhner 20 010)

Liturgical Furnishings

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110690477-006

136 | Liturgical Furnishinggs

Altarss Early Byyzantine altarr tables have rarely survived d intact, but theiir distinctive ta able tops and base slabs witth holes for tab ble legs attesst to their fo orms and fu unctions (Fig. 361), e.g. in Asia a Minor, → Grreece, and the → central Ballkans, where such altars w were the norm m. Many tables a are decorated with → crossses, and severral base slabs ha ave holes for the accommod dation of → reliiquaries (Fig. 361). Earrly Byzantine altars in the shape of a bo ox or a monolitthic block that is called sstipes have survived numero ously in the upper Adria atic. The stip pes can 9), or pretend (Fig. 359 d to (Fig. 360), have a fenesstella or window w for the depossition of relics. Mid ddle Byzantinee altars are leess well attestted and did nott have elaborate decor, pro obably because they were leess visible to lay people beehind ever more m exclusive sanctuary ba arriers and beccause they weere normally co overed with clloths.

Fig. 359: Front o of an altar box witth fenestella and donor inscription of bishop Euphrrasius (third quarrter of the sixth ce entury), Proconnesian marble, E Euphrasius’ Basilica at Parentium m/Poreč in Istria (Kaffenberger 20 006)

|| | Bibliogra aphy: U. Peschlo ow, Altar und Relliquie. Form und Nutzung des früh hbyzantinischen Reliquienaltars in Konstantino opel, in: p – C. Nauerth (e M. Altripp ed.), Architektur und Liturgie (Wiiesbaden 2006) 17 75–202; A. Arslan n, Konya Çevresiinde Bulunan Bizans Dönemi Litü ürjik Elemanlar. A Altar ve Altar Tab banları, Selçuk Ün niversitesi Sosyall Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi 31, 20 014, 39–47; K. T. Raptis – S. D. Vasssiliadou, Early Christian Marble TTables in Cyprus, in: A. Jacobs – P.. Cosyns (ed.), Cyypriot Material Cu ulture Studies fro om Picrolite Carviing to Proskynita aria Analysis (Bru ussels 2015) 257 7–285; G. Pallis, Middle Byzantine Altars with Sculpted Decoration,, AURA 1, 9–126 2018, 119 Fig. 359: A. B. Terry, The Sculpture at the Cathedral of Euffrasius in umbarton Oaks P Papers 42, 1988, 13–64, at 46 f. ca at. 49 Poreč, Du Fig. 360: Angiolini Marttinelli – Olivieri Farioli, Corpus Ravenna 1968–1969, vol. 1 p. 19 f. cat. 8

Fig. 360: Altar b block with feneste ella that does nott open, room to the south of the sanctuary of San n Giovanni Evang gelista in Ravenna a (Peschlow 1984))

our-legged altar ttable with centra al relic Fig. 361: Base slab for a fo container, southern apse of Basilica E at K Knidos in Caria ner 2020) (Niewöhn

Liturgical Furnishings | 137

R Reliquaries Ea arly Byzantine marble or stone reliquaries typically ha ad the shape o of miniature sarcophagi s of vvarying sizes, deepending on w whether they stood under or inside the → altar (Fig. 359 9, 361, e.g. in Asia Minor, → Greece, and th he → central Balkans), in sid de rooms (e.g. in the Middle Ea ast), or in reliq quary chapels ( e.g. in → Lyciia). The lids offten have holees, either for libation or, in co ombination with outflows on o the boxes ((Fig. 363), for oiil that would be sanctified d through contact with the reelics and bottled in so-called d pilgrim flask ks to be taken ho ome by the vissiting faithful. Most marblle or stone reliiquaries have ssimple decor, fo or example → ccrosses (Fig. 362), 3 but they ccould contain ad dditional meta al capsules witth more sophissticated decora ation. | || Biibliography: A. A Aydın, Reliquariess of the Sarcopha agus Type (Antalya 2011); M.-C. C Comte, Les reliq quaires du Proch he-Orient et de Ch hypre à la période protobyzantine (4e–8e siè ècles) (Turnhout 20 012); G. Kazan, A Arks of Constanttinople, the New w Jerusalem. The Origins of the Byyzantine Sarcoph hagus Reliquary,, Byzantion 85, 20 015, 77–125; S. Ladstätter, Ein frühchristlichess Reliquiar aus Ep phesos und sein topographischer Kontext, in: J. D Drauschke et al. (e ed.), Lebenswelte en zwischen Arcchäologie und Ge eschichte. Festscchrift für Falko Da aim, RGZM Monographien 150 (Ma ainz 2018) vol. 2 p.. 749–762

Fig. 362: Sm mall sarcophaguss reliquary with ccrosses and clamp holes, from under the altar o of St Sophia at Niicaea in western Asia Minor,, Museum Iznik (N Niewöhner 2008))

Fig. 362: H. Buscchhausen, Die sp pätrömischen Metallscrinia und frü ühchristlichen R Reliquiare, Wien ner byzantinistissche Studien 9 (V Vienna 1971) 296 f. cat. C 36 pl. C 19 1 Fig. 363: G. Mietke e, Das Museum für Byzantinische e Kunst im BodeMuseum (Munich 2 2006) 30 M ofer, Das frühe Christentum C im kilikisch-isauriFig. 364: P. Pilho scchen Bergland, TTexte und Unterrsuchungen zur Geschichte der alltchristlichen Lite eratur 184 (Berlin 2018) 146 fig. 4..7

Fig. 363: Medium-sized sarccophagus reliqua ary with outflow for f oil, Near Easterrn type, Bodemusseum Berlin inv. 11/88 (Peschlow)

Fig. 364: Sm mall sarcophaguss reliquary of St Z Zechariah, from ÇaltıÇ bozkır in Cilicia Trachea, Mu useum Silifke inv. 3155 (Peschlow))

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Ciboriia/Canopiess Byzantiine marble or sstone ciboria o or canopies aree attested main nly above → reliquaries, → altars, → ba aptismal fonts, a and, from the middle Byzan ntine period on nwards, also abo ove icons. Typ pically, they co onsisted of fourr monolithic arrches that cou uld sometimes enclose and support s a mono olithic dome. Thee decor adhereed to the same regional tradittions as the restt of the church h furnishings and the archittectural sculptu ure, e.g. → row ws of standin ng leaves in → Lycia (Fig. 366) and → Syriia, → engravin ng and champ plevé in → centrral Anatolia (Fig. 365), and d opulent folliage in Lycia an nd Pisidia (Fig g. 266, 366).

Fig. 365: Left fra agment of a ciborrium with engraviing and chample-vé, Doğancılar n near Aezani in Phrygia, central Ana atolia (Niewöhner 200 01)

|| | Bibliogra aphy: C. Vanderh heyde, Le ciborium m de l’église de la Dormition de lla Vierge à Kalambaka, in: Méla anges Jean-Pierre e Sodini, Travaux e et Mémoires 15 ((Paris 2005) 427 7–442; B. Işler, Likya L Bölgesinde, Doğu Asarcık Kilisesi Kiborium K Kemeri, in: A. C. Erel E et al. nadolu Kültürlerinde Süreklilik vve Değişim. Dr. A. Mine (ed.), An Kadiroğlu u’na Armağan (A Ankara 2011) 283–294; D. Peirano o, Il ciborio della basilica dell'acro opoli, Bollettino d dell'Associazione e Iasos di Bogdanović, The Framing of Sacre ed Space. Caria 18, 2012, 25–32; J. B The Cano opy and the Byzantine Church (New York 2017) Fig. 365: Niewöhner, Aiza anoi 2007, 270 ca at. 359 pl. 41 Fig. 366: Grossmann – Se everin, Bauten Lyykien 2003, pl. 36 6d Fig. 367: N. Fıratlı, Découverts d’une églisse byzantine à Se ebaste de Phrygie, Cahiers Archéolo ogiques 19, 1969, 151–166, at 156 f. fig. 12

Fig. 366: Ciboriu um with arm-thick, semi-cylindrical moulding, a row of standing leaves, and opullent foliage, limestone, Museum a, inv. E414.91.74 4 (Niewöhner 202 20) Burdur in Pisidia

Fig. 367: Fragment of a m middle Byzantine ciborium with a champlec vé bust of Gregory the Illuminator (of A Armenia), from Sebaste/ S Selçiklerr in Phrygia (centrral Anatolia), Musseum Uşak (Niewöhn ner 2020)

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C Canopies ab bove Icons and a Arcosollia In n the middle B Byzantine perio od, following tthe Iconoclast co ontroversy, so-called prosky ynetaria icons became comm mon on both ssides of the teemplon, and ssome of them w were framed wiith marble can nopies, in parrticular in the la ate Byzantine p period (Fig. 36 69). The framess are decorated d with → knottted columns, → rows of standing leaves, an nd → cabocho ons similar to templa t and → templon episttyles and weree undoubtedly made by the ssame → worksh hops. Figural representatio ons and → painting match th heir function a as frames for iccons. Similar can nopies were so ometimes also o provided for arrcosolia tomb bs common in n later Byzanttine churches (F Fig. 370). Heree too, the marbles are usua ally part of a deecoration thatt also includeed figural mossaics or fresco oes.

Fig. 368: Marble tympanum with bust of Chriist, fine-toothed d palmette tendrill, Greek Orthodoxx Patriarchate Isttanbul leaves, and (Niewöhnerr 2006)

| || Biibliography: H. Buchwald, The Carved Stone Ornament of the Hiigh Middle Ages in San Marco, Venice, V Jahrbuch der österreichiscchen Byzantinistik 13, 1964, 137–170, at 156–159 9; U. Peschlow, Sk kulptur in Konsta antinopel vor und d nach der Lateine erherrschaft, in: A.. Ödekan et al. (e ed.), Change in th he Byzantine World in the Twelfth an nd Thirteenth Ce enturies (Istanbul 2010) 587–603 3; C. Vanderheyde e, La sculpture byyzantine du IXe au a XVe siècle (Parris 2020) Fig. 368–370: Ø. H Hjort, The Sculptu ure of the Kariye Camii, Dumbarto on Oaks Papers 33, 1979, 199–289 9 Fig. 369: Marble canopy with defaced bust o of Christ, above a prosn to the right of th he sanctuary, Cho ora kynetarion icon of the Virgin WikiMonastery//Kariye Camii in Istanbul, late Byzzantine period (W media Commons)

Fig. 370: Painte ed marble canopy witth bust of Chrisst above arcosolium m tomb D on th he south wall, pareccclesion of th he Chora Monasstery/Kariye Cam mii in Istanbul, latte Byzantine perio od (Wikimedia Com mmonss)

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Constantinopolittan Ambos While ffew ambos or their parts survive at → Constantinople (Fig. 373), many more exporrts can be traceed back to the m metropolitan → workshops (Fig. 371, 3722). They typicallly had high → platforms with h two oppositee flights of stairs, → flanking slabs (Fig. 3772, 373), and → cross decorattion (Fig. 371–3373). In additio on to → Procon nnesian marble (Fig. 371, 3722), various coloured marblees were also em mployed (Fig. 373). Fig. 371: Ambo p parapet slabs witth Christogram m medallion and cross, from Kum mbaba in Thrace, Museum Istanbu ul (Peschlow 1982 2)

|| | Bibliogra aphy: W. Djobad dze, Remains off a Byzantine Am mbo and Church FFurnishings in H Hobi (Georgia), A Archäologischer Anzeiger 1984, 62 27–639; D. Michaelides, The Ambo of Basilica A at Cape Drepanon n, in: J. Herrin – M. Mullett – C. O Otten-Froux (ed.),, Mosaic. Festschriift for A. H. S. M Megaw (London 2 2001) 43–56; I. Ia aţcu, The Ambos o of the Christian Basilicas within the Province of Scythia, Studia An ntiqua et Archaeo ologica 19, 2013, 49–78 Fig. 371– –372: U. Peschlow w – A. Peschlow-B Bindokat – M. Wö örrle, Die Sammlun ng Turan Beler in n Kumbaba bei Ş Şile, Istanbuler MitteilunM gen 27/2 28, 1977/78, 310 0–362 and 52, 2 2002, 429–522, at 358 f. cat. 96 fig. 16 pl. 124, 6 an nd p. 508 f. cat. 1188 fig. 31 urches of Consta antinople Fig. 373:: T. F. Mathewss, The Early Chu (Universiity Park 1971) 70 ffig. 56 f. Fig. 372: Flanking ambo sslab with Christogram medallion, from the region off Akςaova in Thrace, Museum Istanbul (Peschlow 1999) 1

Fig. 373: Ambo o of Basilica A in Isstanbul-Beyazit, ssixth century, fau ulty reconstructio on without the pla atform that rested d on the semi-collonnettes of the flankin ng slabs, carried the parapet slab bs, and bridged th he originally free e space undernea ath, Ayasofya Musseum Istanbul (Peschlow)

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C Carian Ambo os In n southwestern n Asia Minor, especially e in th he provin nce of Caria an nd on the nearb by island of Co os, local → workshops produced a distinct d type o of early Byyzantine amb bo. It had two opposite fliights of sttairs and servved the same purpose as th he functionally equivallent → ambos of o Constantino ople and ceentral Anatolia a, but differed d in constructtion and deecor. Special Ca arian featuress include mo onolithic sttaircases with h three often shell-shaped niches ea ach, two on tthe sides of th he stairs and a third niiche under th he → platform. The niches rreduced th he weight of tthe monolith and a had a decorative asspect, too. Aro ound the nich hes, the stairca ases are tyypically carveed with vines, ivy tendriils, and → peacocks. Sp pecial fittings that are not attested ellsewhere conn nected to the platform, p which h usuallyy rested on its o own set of sup pports (colonneettes). Single pieces in → Proconnesian/Constantinopo olitan or → ccentral Anato olian style (Fiig. 390) sh how that thesee were also kno own to Caria a and Cos, w where the local workshops wo ould surely ha ave been ab ble to imitatee them. Instea ad, the Carian n ambos seeem to have co onsciously beeen chosen overr metropo olitan and otther fashions and thus ap ppear as m markers of an independent provincial ideentity, a co ounterpart to tthe idiosyncra asies of centrall Anatolia a and other prrovinces. | || Biibliography: A. A Acconci, Gli amb boni Cari, in: V. Ruggieri (e ed.), La Caria bizzantina (Soveria Mannelli 2005) 232–241; I. Baldini – C. Lam manna, The Early Byzantine Archittecture in Ko os and the Interractions with the e Nearby Regions of Asia M Minor, in: B. Poulssen – P. Pedersen n – J. Lund (ed.), Karia and he Dodekanese: Cultural Interrelations in the S Southeast th Ae egean 2 (Oxford 2 2021) 229–246 Fig. 374: S. Westphalen, Die Basilika von Priene. Arrchitektur un nd liturgische A Ausstattung, Ista anbuler Mitteilun ngen 48, 19 998, 279–340, att 305–308 fig. 15 pl. 37, 1. 2 Fig. 375: O. Feld, Christliche Denk kmäler aus Milet und Umge ebung, Istanbule er Mitteilungen 25, 2 1975, 197–20 09, at 199 su uppl. 1 pl. 35, 1–3 3 Fig. 376: Z. Merca angöz, Izmir Arke eoloji Müzesi’nde eki Priene Tipi Ambon Parçalları, in: B. Mahir (ed.), Celal Esad d Arseven An nısına Sanat Ta arihi Semineri Bildirileri B (Istanb bul 2000) 2559–265

FFig. 376: Monolithic ambo staircase, trimmed left a and right, hner 2015) Museum Izzmir, western Asiia Minor (Niewöh

hic ambo staircasse, Basilica of Prie ene, western Asia a Fiig. 374: Monolith M Minor (Niewöhnerr 2012)

Fiig. 375: Monolith hic ambo staircase, Beςin Kalesi near Milas in Caria a, w western Asia Mino or (Niewöhner 2008)

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Fllanking Ambo Slabs, e early M Most early Byza antine ambo sttaircases were flanked by ma arble or stone slabs with h a characterisstic decoration n in two parts: a lower triiangular (Fig. 377, 395) or po ointed panel (F Fig. 372, 373, 378) and an n upper panel in the shape of a parallelo ogram. Origina ally, the lo ower triangle reevetted and hiid the stairs, w whilst the uppeer parallelogram serveed as banisteer and could d contain op penwork (F Fig. 395). The lower triangle is oftten extended downwards to t complletely cover th he stairs (Fig. 3372, 373, 378). The upper pa arallelogrram, on the oth her hand, is often reduced iin height (and limited to o a decor of → soffits, Fig. 3372, 373, 378),, probably beccause a ra ailing was disp pensable, given n the low eleva ation of many ambos. → Proconnesian n marble slabss from → Consttantinople ofteen have atttached posts a at one end (Fig g. 372) and sem mi-colonnettess for the su upport of the → platform at th he other (Fig. 3373).

Fig. 377: Flankin ng ambo slab with crosses, local m marble, Museum Kütahyya in central Anattolia (Niewöhner 2001)

| || Bibliography: S. B Başaran et al., Aiinos 2016 Yili Ça alişmalari, Kazı Sonuçları S To oplantısı 39/3, 2017, 31–51 fig. 112–14; I. Baldinii, Produzione e tipologie de egli amboni nelle e isole egee tra 5 e 8 secolo, Rivista di studi bizantini e ne eoellenici n. s. 55, 2018, 155–176 Fig g. 377: Niewöhne er, Steinmetzarbe eiten Kütahya 2006, 451 cat. 73 fig g. 40 f. Fig g. 378: N. Fıratlı,, Découverts d’un ne église byzantiine à Sebaste de Phrygie, Ca ahiers Archéologiiques 19, 1969, 151–166, at 154 f. fig. 5 Fig g. 379: Niewöhne er, Aizanoi 2007, 110–113 fig. 4

Fig. 378: Flankin ng ambo slab with cross medallion and soffit, from Seba aste/Selçikler in Phrygia (central Anatolia), Museum Uşak (Niewöh hner 2020)

Fig g. 379: Schematic reconstruction of various early B Byzantine ambo stairs s an nd flanking slabs (Niewöhner)

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Flanking Am mbo Slabs, later N Newly made am mbos from latter Byzantine times are rarre. Instead, ea arly Byzantinee pieces were re-used, or the smaller churcches of later times made do w without large stone s ambos in n the earlier tra adition. Later flankiing slabs reach h down to floor level and havve a matchng decor of a rrectangular pa anel below and a triangularr one above in (F Fig. 380–382), which distinguishes them from earlier → flanking sllabs with differrently shaped panels. | || Biibliography: J.-P. Sodini, Les am mbons médiévauxx à Byzance, in: Θυμίαμα. Στη Μ Μνήμη της Λασκαρίνας Μπούρα (A Athens 1994) 303–307; M. Dennert, Mittelbyantinische Ambon ne in Kleinasien, Istanbuler Mitteilungen 45, 1995,, 137–147 za Fig. 380: E. Parm man, Ortaçağda Bizans B Döneminde Frigya (Phryg gia) ve Bölge Müzelerindeki Biza ans Taş Eserleri (Eskişehir ( 2002) 1143 f. cat. U28 pll. 67 fig. 83 M andos, Χριστιανικ κά Γλυπτά του Μο ουσείου Σμύρνηςς, Αρχείον των Fig. 382: A. K. Orla Βυ υζαντινών Μνημε είων της Ελλάδος 3, 1937, 128–152 2, at 140–142 cat. 16 fig. 14

Fig. 380: Flank king ambo slab w with leaved cross (erased) and p peacock, Museum m Uşak in Phrygia a (central Anato olia), inv. 33173 (N Niewöhner 2020))

Fig. 381: Flanking ambo slab s with stepped d cross and lozen nge, Aphrodisias in Caria, we estern Asia Minorr (Niewöhner 200 00) Fig. 38 82: Flanking amb bo slab with (brok ken) peacock, Museum Izzmir inv. 144 (Niewöhner 2015)

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Ambo Platforms

Fig. 383: Ambo p platform with she ell-shaped nichess, pierced and reused as wellhea ad, Hacımahmut near n Aezani in Ph hrygia, central Anatolia (Niewöhner 2001)

As a rulle, ambo platfo forms rested on n the stairs (Fiig. 387). Their en nds are formed d accordingly ((Fig. 385; in → central Anatolia with 'ears')) and may h have vertical grooves g (Fig. 384, 388) for th he fastening of → flanking g slabs. Holes o on top of plattforms can serrve to dowel parapet p slabs. The undersid des are hollo owed out to reduce weight. For the same reason, some platforms are divided lengthw wise into two p parts (Fig. 385, 386). Seeen from the sid des, the platforrms appear circcular or polygon nal and are decorated eiither like a cornice (Fig. 384, 385, 388, 389) or with shell-shaped niches (Fig. 38 83). The hollow wed-out undeersides are oftten also shell-sh haped (Fig. 38 83, 385–389) and may con ntain a → crosss (Fig. 384) or a Christogram m, frequently inside i a medalliion (Fig. 388, 3389). New w ambo platfo orms from later Byzantine tim mes are rare. On n the one hand d, older pieces were re-used, and on the other hand, laterr churches weere smaller and d made do with hout large marb ble or stone am mbos. || | Bibliogra aphy: Jakobs, Am mbone 1987; M. Dennert, Mittelb byzantinische Amb bone in Kleinasie en, Istanbuler Mitteilungen 45, 19 995, 137– 147; I. B Baldini, Produzio one e tipologie d degli amboni ne elle isole egee tra V e VIII secolo, Rivista di studi b bizantini e neoellenici 55, 2018, 1555–176

m-thick, semiFig. 384: Ambo platform (broken) with cross, arm al groove for the ffastening of a cylindrical moullding, and vertica flanking slab, M Museum Çorum in central Anatolia (Niewöhner 2012 2)

Fig. 383: Niewöhner, Aiza anoi 2007, 259 f. cat. 323 fig. 121 pl. p 34 Fig. 385: P. Niewöhner, Bronze Age Hüyük ks, Iron Age Hill Top T Forts, Roman P Poleis, and Byzantine Pilgrimage iin Germia and Itss Vicinity, Anatolian n Studies 63, 20113, 97–136 fig. 23 3 Fig. 386:: M. Dennert, Mittelbyzantinische Ambone in Kle einasien, Istanbule er Mitteilungen 4 45, 1995, 137–147 7, at 138 f. pl. 49, 3

Fig. 385: Half a p polygonal ambo platform with she ell-shaped niche below, Goeleon//Kayakent near Germia G in Galatia, central Anatolia a (Niewöhner 2010 0)

Fig. 386: Half an ambo pla atform with shelll-shaped niche be elow, from a middle Byzantine cchurch on the Terrrace of Athena at a Pergamum in w western Asia Minor, Museum Berg gama (Peschlow 1983) 1

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C Central Anattolian Ambo os O On the → centra al Anatolian plateau, church h furnishings, lik ke architecturral sculpture, were not ob btained from → Constantinop ple or → Pro oconnesus, wh herefrom the lo ong overland ttransport wou uld have been prohibitively ex xpensive, but from → Docim mium in Phryygia and from va arious local w workshops. Am mbos were typiically tall and ha ad two flights of stairs as in n the capital, w with the same fu unctional prop perties, but theey could differr in constructional and deco orative details. These includ de → supportin ng slabs and fflanking 'ears' at the ends o of the → platfo orm (Fig. 387– –389), as welll as a decor with various an nimal figures ((Fig. 395) insteead of only witth → crosses. Protruding 'ears' make the ends of the platform w wider, thus p providing add ditional room for vertical grrooves (Fig. 3388), into wh hich the → fl anking slabs w would slot and like this be fasstened in placee (Fig. 387). | || Biibliography: C. Tssigonaki, L’ambo on de la basilique e de „Saint-Tite“ à Gortyne, in: Méla anges Jean-Pierre e Sodini, Travauxx et Mémoires 15 Paris 2005) 499–5519; Niewöhner, Aizanoi A 2007, 108–115 (P

art-reconstruction n of a typical centtral Anatolian am mbo Fig. 387: Pa with supporting slabs and ‘e ears’ at the ends of the platform (Thiel 2002)

Fig. 387: P. Niewö öhner, Productio on and Distributiion of Docimian Marble in the The eodosian Age, in:: I. Jacobs (ed.), Production and M Prrosperity in the Theodosian Ag ge, Interdisciplin nary Studies in An ncient Culture an nd Religion 14 (Le euven 2014) 251– –271, at 264–271 fig g. 13 Fig. 388: P. Niew wöhner, Phrygian n Marble and Sttonemasonry as Markers of Region nal Distinctiveness in Late Antiquity, in: P. ThoM emann (ed.), Rom man Phrygia (Cam mbridge 2013) 215–248, at 245. ne 24 47 fig. 10.26

Fig. 388: Polygona al ambo platform with shell-shape ed niche below an nd with ‘ears’ and d vertical groovess for the fastening of flanking slabs, Hacıkebir ne ear Aezani in Phrrygia, central Ana atolia (N Niewöhner 2001)

olygonal ambo pllatform with arm--thick, semi-cylin ndrical Fig. 389: Po moulding, ‘‘ears’, and shell-sshaped niche witth cross medallio on below, Musseum Eskişehir in n central Anatolia a (Niewöhner 20111)

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Suppo orting Ambo o Slabs Two supporting slabss per ambo ca arried the → platform p and revvetted the ends of the staircases (Fig. 387)). Quarter pillars (Fig. 390, 391) or, rarrely, corner pilasters p (Fig. 392) visualize th he load-bearin ng function an nd connected to the → flank king slabs. The centre of ea ach supporting slab is hollow wed out to red duce weight an nd typically ha as a decorativee shell-shape. Witth few exceptions (Fig. 39 90, 392), sup pporting slabs arre known onlyy from → centtral Anatolia and a appear to have been a sp pecific regiona al trait.

Fig. 390: Supporting ambo slab, from Balat near Miletus in Caria Minor), Museum Miletus M inv. 2532 ((Niewöhner 2012 2) (western Asia M

|| | Bibliogra aphy: C. Tsigonak ki, L’ambon de la a basilique de „Sa aint-Tite“ à Gortyne e, in: Mélanges Je ean-Pierre Sodini, Travaux et Mém moires 15 (Paris 20 005) 499–519; P.. Niewöhner, Phrrygian Marble an nd Stonemasonry as Markers of R Regional Distinctiiveness in Late Antiquity, A onemann (ed.), Roman Phrygia (Cambridge 2013) 215–248, 2 in: P. Tho at 242–2 246 Fig. 390: Niewöhner, Mile et 2016, 274 cat. S ST178 D Fig. 391: P. Niewöhner, Production and Distribution of Docimian Marble in n the Theodosian Age, in: I. Jaco obs (ed.), Producction and Prosperitty in the Theod dosian Age, Inte erdisciplinary Sttudies in Ancient Culture and Religion 14 (Leuven n 2014) 251–2711, at 269 fig. 14

Fig. 391: Supporrting ambo slab, Musalla Camii att Sivrihisar in Galatia, central Anatolia (Niewöh hner 2010)

Fig. 392: Supporrting ambo slab(??), Hepta apyrgion of Thesssaloniki (Peschlow w)

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Engraving an nd Chample evé A certain kind of engraving (Fig. 393), occcasionally in co ombination wiith reliefs (Fig g. 395) and som metimes with in nlay or champ plevé (Fig. 25, 365), appearss like a trade m mark of church h furnishings frrom → Docimiium in → centrral Anatolia. The example of this lead ding regional → workshop seeems to have inspired simiilar, but less reegular and sta andardized decor on elemen nts of church fu urnishings fro om local work kshops in the same region (F Fig. 394). Elsewhere in the early Byzantine em mpire, compara able decor is also associateed with certa ain provincial w workshops and d traditions, e.g. on Cyprus and at Anticarvings and occh. It is unknown from → Proconnesian P atttested at → Constantinop ple only from m the middle Byyzantine perio od onwards. | || Biibliography: S. Pedone, La scultura a chample evé negli edifici medio-bizantini. G Gli esempi di Hossios Loukas e di D Dafní, Rivista on lin ne di Storia delll‘Arte 5, 2006; S. S Boyd, The Ch hamplevé Revetments, in: A. H. S. Megaw (ed.), Kourion. K Excavations in the Episopal Precinct (W Washington DC 2007) 235–320 0; C. Barsanti, co Sccultura dipinta a Bisanzio, in: P. P A. Andreuccettti – D. Bindani (e ed.), Il colore nel m medioevo (Lucca 2016) 61–85 Fig. 393: B. Levicck, Monuments from f the Upper Tembris Valley, Co otiaeum, Cadi, S Synaus, Ancyra,, and Tiberiopollis, Monumenta Assiae Minoris antiiqua 10 = Journal of Roman Studiies Monographs 7 (London 1993) 66 6 cat. 213 pl. 23 wöhner, Steinme etzarbeiten Kütah hya 2006, 442– Fig. 394–395: Niew 44. 464 f. cat. 57. 102 fig. 24. 62 f. f 44

ng Fig. 395: Flankin ambo slab with a sttag and engravin ng iinside and around el, the lower pane and with openworrk in the broke en upper panel, Mu useum Kütahya iin central Anatolia a, inv. 553 (Niewöhner 2002 2)

Fig. 393: Po ost with engravings an nd champlevé, Zemme in P Phrygia, central Ana atolia (Niewöhnerr 2001)

Fig. 394: Posst with engraving gs, from Altıntaşş near Gediz in Phrygia (cen ntral Anatolia), Museum Küttahya inv. 10299 (Niewöhner 2 2002)

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Other Ambos Variouss early Byzanttine provinces and regions were w as autonom mous in the d design of theirr ambos as → central Anatolia and → Caria a. Small ambo os with a singlle flight of stairrs were, for example, co ommon in Pa alestine (Fig. 396) and Maced donia (Fig. 39 98). The Maceedonian specimeens are know wn to have been produced locally. They w were typically p placed inside, or connected d to, the sanctua ary, whilst a seecond, large a ambo with two o flights of stairss (Fig. 335) stoo od in the navee. On the upper Adrriatic, in Raven nna and Istria a, where some ch hurches were built entirelyy with importeed marbles fro om → Proconn nesus/Constan ntinople (Fig. 41, 112, 180, 1811, 198, 204, 20 05, 236, 242–24 45, 288, 319, 323, 359, 404, 4226, 428), numeerous sixth-cen ntury ambos, some s of which b belong to the ssame churchees, instead adh hered to a region nal tradition th hat, among other peculiaritiies, features a cassette-like d decor with ma any small panels that typicallly contain anim mal figures (Fig g. 397).

Fig. 396: Parape et slab of a small ambo with a sing gle flight of stairss, local stone, Chu urch of Theodoross at Khirbet Beit S Sila in Palestine, Good Samaritan n Museum (Wikim media Commons)

|| | Bibliogra aphy: Jakobs, Am mbone 1987; P. Ch hevalier, L’ambon n à Poreč et en Istrrie, Hortus artium m medievalium 1, 1995, 128–135; A. Aydın, Der Ambon der Kirche A iin Tapureli, Olba a 8, 2003, 83–91; I. Dossbos on the Territo ory of Present-Da ay Bulgaeva, Early Byzantine Amb B ria, in: E. Bakalova – M. Dimitrova et al. (ed.), Medieval Bulgarian Art and LLetters in a Byzan ntine Context (Soffia 2017) 50–68 Fig. 396: S. Batz, A Byzantine Church at Khirbet Beit Sila, in: N. Carmin n (ed.), Church hes and Monassteries in Sama aria and Northern Judea (Jerusalem m 2012) 373–408 8, at 394–397 fig. 30–32 9, vol. 2, 3 p. 328 Fig. 397: Deichmann, Ravvenna 1969–1989 Fig. 398: K. Raptis, Αχε ειροποίητος Θεσσ σαλονίκης. Αρχιττεκτονική και Γλυπττός Διάκοσμος (D Diss. Thessaloniki 2016) 668–674

Fig. 397: Ambo p platform, donated by archbishop Agnellus (†570), Basilica Ursiana a in Ravenna (Web ber 2007)

Fig. 398: Monolithic ambo o with a single fliight of stairs, Ach heiroBasilica, Byzantin ne Museum Thesssaloniki inv. AΓ77 74 poietos B (Niewöhn ner 2014)

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S Syrian Bema as In n → Syria and d northern Messopotamia, early Byzantine ch hurches normally had so-ca alled Syrian bemas instead off → ambos. Th hese bemas or elevated platfo orms stood in th he centre of th he church, werre rounded offf in the west, an nd typically had seats for th he entire clerg gy. The clerics m may thus havee attended thee reading from m the bema, w where they were in any casee closer to the community an nd more visib ble than on any synthron non or bench (F Fig. 400) insidee and behind the t sanctuary sscreen. | || Biibliography: J. P.. Sodini, Archéologie des églises et organisation sp patiale de la liturrgie, in: F. Cassin ngena-Trévedy (ed d.), Les liturgies syyriaques, Études syriaques 3 (Pa aris 2006) 229–2 266; E. Loosley, Th he Architecture and Liturgy of the Bema in Fourth-tto-Sixth-Century Syyrian Churches (LLeiden 2012) Fig. 399: E. Baccacche – G. Tchalenko, Eglises de villlage de la Syrie u nord, Bibliothèque archéologiqu ue et historique 1105 (Paris 1979– du 19 990) vol. 1 pl. 183 3 Fig. 400: T. Ulberrt, Die Basilika des d Heiligen Kreuzes in Resafaergiupolis, Resaffa 2 (Mainz 1986) 25–32 Se

Fig. 399: Re econstruction of tthe columnar bassilica of Sts Paul and Moses in Da ar Qita in the Syrrian Limestone Massif; the bema and a additional b barrier slabs divided the church a along a north-sou uth axis, and bo oth parts were en ntered from the south (G. Tchalenko)

Fig. 400: Bema, no orthern arcade (originally wide arccades on piers, th he columns were inserted later), a and apse with syn nthronon, Basilicca A at Re esafa/Sergioupolis in northern Mesopotamia (Stru ube)

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Templlon Posts, e early

Fig. 401: Post wiith bust and semicolonnette in the shape of a vine e, broken below, M Museum Iznik in western Asia Minor (Peschlow 19 983)

Posts w with lateral gro ooves for the in nsertion of slab bs were part off the templon n or sanctuarry screen and d other → barrieers, for examp ple on the galleries (Fig. 3224) and sometim mes also betw ween the aisless. Some early templa were lo ow, for example at → Rome and in → Greeece. In → Syria a, low templa rremained the norm through hout the early B Byzantine peeriod. Elsewh here, particula arly in → Consttantinople, high templa witth colonnettess on top of the p posts are attested from the fiffth century onw wards. Thee Constantinopolitan stand dard that was widely exporteed throughoutt the Mediterranean basin was a monolitthic post with h a colonnettte and a cap pital all carved from a singlee piece of → P Proconnesian marble (Fig. 40 04). In contrasst, → central A Anatolian postts often had seeparate colonn nettes (Fig. 4 403) and/or capitals c made o of different ma arbles (Fig. 26 6, 407, 467). At A Constantino ople, this wass customary o only for posts of coloured cconglomerate with inclusio ons too large for the filigree decor of capita als (Fig. 232, 3224). Thee majority of posts are decora ated with → so offits on one or more sides (Fiig. 11, 341). Allternatively, th he front could ta ake the form o of a floral cand delabra or onee or two (semi-) colonnettes ((Fig. 401, 402)), but it is un nknown whether these more decorative sp pecimens belon nged to churchees or to secula ar buildings. T The former seem ms particularlyy doubtful in the case of ssuch posts from Constantino ople and Asia a Minor that also have portrrait-like busts (F Fig. 401), beccause figural images were rare in early Byyzantine churcches of that reg gion. || | Bibliogra aphy: U. Peschlo ow, Zum Templo on in Konstantin nopel, in: Αρμός. ΤΤιμητικός Τόμος σ στον Καθηγητή Ν Ν. Κ. Μουτσόπουλλο (Thessaloniki 1990–91) 1449– –1475; A.-B. Yallçin, An Early Byzantine B n: Mélanges Jean-Pierre Chancel-Screen Piece frrom Istanbul, in Sodini, TTravaux et Mémoires 15 (Paris 200 05) 401–406 Fig. 401: Barsanti, Iznik-N Nicaea's Museum 2003, 286 fig. 27 Fig. 402 2: Niewöhner, Steinmetzarbeiten n Kütahya 2006 6, 458 f. cat. 90 fig. 54 anoi 2007, 233 ca at. 228 pl. 26 Fig. 403: Niewöhner, Aiza Fig. 403:: Post with profilles at the base a and at the top, Attic A base and stub of a colonnette, as well as mortisses for a barrier slab s with similar p profiles, Ağarı n near Aezani in P Phrygia, central Anatolia (Niewöhn ner 2000)

Fig. 402: Large p post with kantharos, fine-toothed florral candelabrum,, column base, an nd groove on the left side, Museum K Kütahya in central Anatolia, inv. 30 0 (Niewöhner 200 00)

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TTemplon Collonnettes, early e Sm mall colonnettes mostly satt on → posts a and belong to hiigh templa or sanctuary barriers. Often, tthe shaft, the ca apital, and no ot infrequently y also the posst are carved frrom a single p piece; this was customary for example at, an nd widely exp ported from, → Proconnesus//Constantinoplle (Fig. 404), where the ca apitals of succh posts plus co olonnettes usu ually had poiinted leaves. A An exception arre posts and colonnettes of colourful cconglomerate w with inclusions too large for the t filigree deccor of capitals (F Fig. 232, 324). In → centra al Anatolia an nd especially in n rural areas, po osts and colon nnettes of vario ous local marb bles (Fig. 403) w were often com mbined with imported i capiitals of white → Docimian ma arble (Fig. 26,, 407, 467). T These capitals w were mostly → fine-toothed and a obviously more sophisticated and disttinguished tha an the relativelly simple and pllain posts an nd colonnettess. The small capitals thus seeem to have seerved as statuss symbols by w which a modesst church build ding could asp pire to the high hest standard w without having g to buy and transport larg ger and more ex xpensive amou unts of importeed marble.

Fig. 404: (TTemplon post with) co olonnette and Corinthian capital with ointed leaves, many-po Proconne esian marble, from San n Vitale in Ravenna, rre-used at the fountain n of San Francesco (Pe eschlow 1983)

| || Biibliography: U. Peschlow, Zum Templon in Konstantinopel, in: Αρ ρμός. Τιμητικός ΤΤόμος στον Καθη ηγητή Ν. Κ. Μουττσόπουλο (Thessa aloniki 1990–91)) 1449–1475; Duval – Marin – M Metzger, Salona 19 994, 195–234; Nie ewöhner, Aizanoi 2007, 128 f. 1955 f. Fig. 404: Deichm mann, Ravenna 1969–1989, 1 vol.. 1 fig. 72–76; vo ol. 2, 2 p. 114 f. Fig. 405: Niewöhne er, Milet 2016, 1551 cat. GK109 Fig. 406: cf. Grossmann – Severin, Bauten Lykien 20 003, 27–33 Fig. 407: Niewöhne er, Aizanoi 2007,, 271 cat. 365 pl. 4 42

Fig. 405: Co olonnette and capital, local marble, n of the Great templon Church h at Miletus in Caria, western Asia wöhner 2010) Minor (Niew

Fig. 406: Capital w with zoning and cross medallion attop a colonne ette, limestone, M Muskar/Belören in i Lycia (Peschlow w 2000)

Fig. 407 Sm mall Corinthian colon nnette capital with h fine-toothed leaves, D Docimian marble, from m Yalnızsaray near Aeza ani in Phrygia (central A Anatolia), Museum Küta ahya inv. 8525 (Niew wöhner 2001)

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Templlon Posts, later In laterr Byzantine times, templa o or sanctuary screens were geenerally high, and their postts were crowned with colonneettes. Measureed by the largee amount of su urviving middle and late Byzzantine → tem mplon epistylles, the numberr of later postss is low. Instea ad, → early By yzantine posts p probably contin nued in use. A Alternatively, regular column ns as well as → knotted collumns were also employed. In comparison tto most earlyy Byzantine templon posts w with stereotypical → soffits, tthe decor of th he later posts ap ppears highly diverse. As on n later → barrieer slabs, the new w decor includ des interlace (F Fig. 413) that was w formerly common on mo osaic floors, bu ut not in early y Byzantine ma arble carvings. Later posts with a lateral tong gue that serveed as a stop forr the door of tthe templon arre relatively common (Fig. 40 09). Their high frequency is p probably due to t many short teempla that weere limited to the west sidee of the sanctua ary, which req quired only two o posts on eith her side of a cen ntral door. On ne of these two o doorposts – that is, every seecond – would d have had a sttop.

Fig. 408: Post off a knotted templon column n with soffit, interlace, rose, a and champlevé bust of St S Stephen, from Sebaste/Selçikler in Phrygia (centrall Anatolia), Museum Uşak (Niewöhner 2020)

Fig. 409: Door post with leaved d cross (partly erased), roses, and lateral tongue (door stop, on th he right side) with h a scroll, Fatih Camii at Ainos/Enez in Thrace (Peschlow)

|| | Bibliogra aphy: C. Vanderh heyde, The Carved d Decoration of the Middle and LLate Byzantine Templa, Mitteilun ngen zur Spätantiken Archäologie und Byzantinischen Kunstgeschichte 5, 2007, 77–111; onanlagen aus Anatolien. A P. Niewöhner, Mittelbyzantinische Templo mmlung des Arch häologischen Mu useums Kütahya und ihr Die Sam Kontext, Istanbuler Mitteiilungen 58, 2008 8, 285–345 Fig. 408: N. Fıratlı, Uşak k-Selçikler Kazıssı ve Araştırmala arı 1966– 1970, Türk Arkeoloji Derg gisi 19/2, 1970, 1109–160, at 114. 116. 135 fig. 28 Fig. 410: P. Niewöhner, Mittelbyzantiniscche Templonanla agen aus Anatolien n. Die Sammlung g des Archäologischen Museums Kütahya und ihr K Kontext, Istanbule er Mitteilungen 558, 2008, 285–34 45, at 311 cat. 1 fig.. 5 Fig. 411: Niewöhner, Milett 2016, 278 cat. S ST198

Fig. 410 ((on the left): Postt with interlace and column stub, cut off below w, Museum Kütah hya in central Ana atolia, inv. 36 (Niewöhn ner 2001)

Fig. 411: Post showing a fluted colonnettte with a leaved d capital, used in an early m modern church a at Akköy in Caria,, western once re-u Asia Minor, Museum Mile etus (Niewöhner 2 2012)

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K Knotted Colu umns Knotted column ns can be divid ded into two (F Fig. 413), four (F Fig. 408, 414, 4 485), or more shafts s (Fig. 4122) that form a ceentral knot and d may have seeparate capitalls (Fig. 413) or sh hare a single o one (Fig. 136, 412). 4 Such colu umns are first atttested in the middle Byzantine perio od and were em mployed for th he templon orr sanctuary ba arrier, on the frrames of proskyynetaria icons, and in arched d windows. Flat knotted d columns witth only two sh hafts and two sm mall capitals appear best suited for th he frames of prroskynetaria iicons on both sides of th he sanctuary (F Fig. 413). Imag ges of knotted columns appeear in numerou us miniaturess and in thee arcaded reliiefs of some teemplon epistylles (Fig. 297). Later, knottted columns also appeareed in Romaneesque churchees. These Westtern medieval cases may go ba ack to importeed Byzantine specimens, fo or example at Sa an Marco in V Venice (Fig. 485) 4 and elsew where in the up pper Adriatic region. A pa air of knotted d columns at W Würzburg in G Germany has an a inscription n that relates th hem to the paiir of columns on the porch of Solomon’s Teemple, but such a referen nce makes litttle sense in Byyzantium, wh here knotted columns werre often emplloyed in greateer numbers (Fiig. 412). | || Biibliography: I. Kalavrezou-Maxeiner, The Byzantine Knotted Co olumn, in: S. Vrryonis Jr. (ed.), Byzantine Studiies in Honor of M Milton V. Anastoss (Malibu 1985) 95–103; M. Altrripp, Geknotete äulen in der byza antinischen und romanischen Arcchitektur, MediSä ae evistik 19, 2006,, 9–19, at 11–13;; J. S. Ćirić, Tying the Knot. The Kn notted Column in n the Architecturre of King Milutin, Atti della Acca ademia roveretan na degli Agiati 9/8 A, 2018, 133–14 45 Fig. 412: I. H. Merrt – P. Niewöhner, Blattkapitelle in Konya, Istanuler Mitteilungen n, 60, 2010, 373–410, at 381–384 fig. 4 f. bu Fig. 414: Dennert, Mittelbyzantinissche Kapitelle 1997, 216 cat. 316 pll. 56

Fig. 414: Underside of an impost ca apital (cf. Fig. 136 6) for a knotted co olumn with four b broken shafts, fro om Kidyessos/Ça ayhisar in Phrygiia (central Anatollia), Museum Afyo on inv. E1589–39 930 (Kramer)

Fig. 412: On ne of five knotted d columns with arcaded pedesstal, eight sh hafts, and one capital, Alaeddin Camii at Konya, centtral Anatolia (Niewöhnerr 2008)

Fig. 413:: Knotted column with two shaffts and vine capittals, Museum m Edirne in Thrace e, inv. 17 (N Niewöhner 2016)

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Templlon Colonne ettes, later Middle and late Byza antine colonneettes for high → templon po osts are relativvely rare. Insttead, early By yzantine chancell → barriers probably contin nued in use. AlternaA tively, regular colum mns and → kn notted column ns were also em mployed. As in early Byzan ntine times (cff. Fig. 404–406, 467), newly m made capitals often have p pointed leaves,, but in contrasst to the earlierr examples, thee later leaves are a typically pa aired and form m calyxes (Fig. 4 416). Octtagonal shaftss (Fig. 416–418 8) emerged ass a new alternattive to round columns and d are often deecorated with → crosses (Fig. 416). Octagon nal shafts also appear to havee led to a new type of → imp post capital wiith bevelled ed dges and an occtagonal base ((Fig. 415, 417). || | Bibliogra aphy: H. Özyurt Ö Özcan, Muğla, Bodrum ve Milas Arkeoloji Müzeleri'ndeki Orta Biza ans Dönemine aiit Bir Grup Litürjjik İşlevli elvani, The Middlle ByzanTaş Eser,, Olba 20, 2012, 427–452; N. Me tine Sancctuary Barriers off Mount Athos, in n: P. Petrides – B.. Phoskolu (ed.), Δασκάλα. Απόδο οση Τιμής στην Κ Καθηγήτρια Μαίρ ρη ΠαναΚεσίσογλου, Βιβλλιοθήκη Σ. Σαριπ πόλου 122 (Athe ens 2015) γιωτίδη-Κ 305–335 agonal shaft with h Fig. 416: Octa cross and po ointed calyx on the capital, Muse eum Kütahya in central Anato olia (Niewöhner 2 2001)

Fig. 415: Monolithic templon osses and column with cro impost capital w with bevelled and leaved edge es, cut at the bottom, from Ba anaz in Phrygia, Museum Uşa ak inv. 38 (Niewöhner 2020)

Fig. 417: Octa agonal shaft, recttangular block k with soffit, and impost capita al with bevelled edges and crross, Museum Konya in central Anatolia 2008) (Niewöhner 2

Fig. 415: E. Parman, Ortaçağda Bizans Dö öneminde Frigya (Phrygia) ve Bölge Müzelerindeki B Bizans Taş Eserle eri (Eskişehir 200 02) 118 f. cat. U6 p pl. 39 fig. 33 a–c Fig. 416:: P. Niewöhner, Mittelbyzantiniscche Templonanla agen aus Anatolien n. Die Sammlung g des Archäologischen Museums Kütahya und ihr K Kontext, Istanbule er Mitteilungen 558, 2008, 285–34 45, at 312 cat. 3. fig g. 7

Fig. 418: Octagonal shaft and impost capittal with palmette e, flankm Elmalı ing pointted leaves, and pine cones at the corners, Museum in Lycia ((Niewöhner 2020)

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Im mpost Capittals with Be evelled Edg ges In n addition to, and possibly following thee example of, la ater Byzantinee → templon colonnettes c wiith octagonal sh hafts and impo ost capitals wiith bevelled ed dges (Fig. 415, 4117), other, larrger → impost capitals weree also carved w with bevelled eedges in laterr Byzantine tim mes. Alternativvely to such ccapitals with octagonal o bases for use on occtagonal shaftts (Fig. 133, 419 9), bevelled ed dges were also co ombined with round bases fo or use on ordin nary columns (F Fig. 415, 420, 4 421), thus crea ating a new tyype of capital th hat was no lon nger tied to th he special casee of octagonal sh hafts. Some such h column cap pitals have rounded edges th hat gradually fflatten out and d form a smoo oth, seamless trransition to th he round capittal base (Fig. 420, 421). In so ome cases, thee motif of the edge is taken n up again in th he decor and re-appears ass a sharp dividing line betw ween middle a and corner leeaves that ma ay be stylised beeyond recogniition (Fig. 415, 421). Otherwise, impost capita als with bevellled edges are offten decorated d with → leaved d crosses and → medallions (F Fig. 419, 420).

Fig. 419: Occtagonal impost ccapital with bevelled edges, leave ed cross, and rroses, 1956 from Mesudiye near M Mudanya in weste ern Asia Minor,, Museum Bursa iinv. 2696 (Niewöhner 2006)

| || Biibliography: Den nnert, Mittelbyza antinische Kapitelle 1997, 135– 14 42 Fig. 419: Aytekin, B Bursa Müzesi 20119, 93 f. cat. 44 fiig. 75 f. Fig. 420: C. Vanderheyde, Les reliefs de l'église Saint-Donat à Glyki (É Épire), Bulletin de e correspondancce hellénique 1211/2, 1997, 697– 7119, at 710 f. cat. 1 fig. 1

Fig. 420: Im mpost capital with h leaved and step pped double crosss, from the Ba asilica of St Donatus at Euroea/Glyyki in Epirus, norrthwestern Gre eece, Museum Ioannina inv. 21.20 06.20 (Peschlow))

Fig. 421: Impost capital with hanging middle leaves and standing co orner leaves thatt are all highly styylised, later hollo owed out and reused as a basin, Gelib bolu/Gallipoli on the Dardanelles (A. Peschlow)

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Barrie er Slabs, early

Fig. 422: Barrierr slab with lozeng ge and two partlyy erased crosses on globes, with a handrail above e, on the gallery o of Hagia Sophia in urated in 537 AD (Niewöhner ( 2000 0) Istanbul, inaugu

Early Byyzantine barriier slabs are m mostly decorated with → crossses or → Christtograms (Fig. 1164, 424) or wiith geometric ornaments, especially with h lozenges (Fiig. 422, 423). Th he slabs slotteed into, and w were held in pllace by, grooved d → column bases (Fig. 320, 422) or → posts (Fig. 324 4, 401–403). Some slabs h had handrails, either carved from the samee piece of marb ble or stone (F Fig. 164) or addeed separately (F Fig. 57, 58, 4222). Lon ngitudinal slab bs, some of wh hich had twicee the ordinary llength (Fig. 16 64), were emplloyed on the templon or sancctuary barrier,, on galleries,, and sometim mes between n nave and aisless. Short, verticcal (Fig. 371 rig ght, 373, 396, 424 4), and curved d slabs (Fig. 3771 left, 373) seerved as parapetts on → ambo p platforms. A sspecial group of slabs is decorated with h colonnades a and arcades (F Fig. 425). Simillarly arcaded decor d is known from façades, sarcophagi, a and middle By yzantine → temp plon epistyles (Fig. 436), bu ut in the case of o slabs with such decoration no special con ntext is known n. || | Bibliogra aphy: Duval – M Marin – Metzger,, Salona 1994, 235–278; 2 Stoufi-Po oulimenou, Φρά άγμα 1999; A. Metsane, Το Παλαιοχριστιανικό Τέμπλο της Κ Καταπολιανής Πάρ ρου, Δελτίον τηςς Χριστιανικής Αρχχαιολογικής Εταιρ ρείας 27, 2006, 7 75–90

Fig. 423: Barrierr slab with lozeng ge and three-lobe es in the spandrels, cropped b below, Museum Izznik in western A Asia Minor (Niewöhner 2010 0)

Fig. 424: Vertica al barrier slabs with w Christogram medallion and three-lobes in th he spandrels, the e left one with handrail, Museum Konya in centrall Antatolia (Niewö öhner 2020), the right slab local stone, Museum Tirana in Albania a (Parpulov 2020))

Fig. 422: Guiglia Guidoba aldi – Barsanti, Santa Sofia Costantinopoli 2004, 40 01 cat. GS.18 Fig. 423: C. di Bello, La sccultura postgiusttinianea oltre Costantinoecalupo et al. (ed.), RACTA 2018 8 (Oxford poli: le llastre, in: C. Ce 2019) 76-82, at 82 fig. 4 anoi 2007, 267 ca at. 344 pl. 39 Fig. 425: Niewöhner, Aiza

Fig. 425: Relief slab with ttwo-storeyed colonnade/arcade, Gökar Aezani in Phryg gia, central Anato olia (Niewöhner 2000) 2 ağaç nea

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TTransennae Trransennae or o openwork slab bs are among the most preciious and fragiile fittings of the Byzantinee era and acco ordingly rare. Most known examples aree carved from → Proconnesian n (Fig. 426–428, 456) and → Docimian m marble (Fig. 4555, cf. 395). Ow wing to their hiigh value and reelatively low w weight, they were w sometimees transported lo ong distances not only by y ship but a also overland (F Fig. 455, 456). The openw work required a decoration with filigree pa atterns, some of which inccluded interlacce already in th he early Byzan ntine period (F Fig. 428), altho ough interlace iss otherwise on nly attested in later Byzantin ne stone carvin ng. Animal fig gures and even n human bustss are also occa asionally depiccted. | || Biibliography: C. B Barsanti, Le transenne, in: A. Guig glia Guidobaldi – C.. Barsanti (ed.), S Santa Sofia di Costantinopoli. L’arrredo marmoreo de ella grande chiesa giustinianea, Studi di antichità cristiana 60 (R Rome 2004) 489– –529; G. Theocha aris, Μέτωπο Αγίας Τράπεζας (;) απ πό την Αγία Σοφία Θεσσαλονίκηςς, in: A. Semoglou – I. P. Arvaniitidou – E. G. Gounari (ed.), Lepe etymnos: Studiess in Archaeology an nd Art in Memoryy of Georgios Gounaris (Thessaloniki 2018) 383– 39 94; E. Chalkia, Transennae from Nikopolis, in: Moreau, Archaeolo ogy of a World of C Changes 2020, 303–316

Fig. 426: Trransenna with Ma aeander pattern, jewelled cross, and a smaller cross medallions an nd interlace crossses, Sant‘ Apollin nare avenna (Wikimed dia Commons) Nuovo in Ra

Fig. 426: Deichma ann, Ravenna 1969–1989, vol. 1 p. 71 fig. 62 f.; vo ol. 2, 3 p. 324–32 26 Fig. 427: C. Barsa anti, Le transenne, in: A. Guigliia Guidobaldi – C.. Barsanti (ed.), S Santa Sofia di Costantinopoli. L’arrredo marmoreo de ella grande chiesa giustinianea, Studi di antichità cristiana 60 (R Rome 2004) 489– –529, at 494 f. cat. TN Fig. 428: Deichma ann, Ravenna 19 969–1989, vol. 2 2, 3 p. 324–326 g. 42 f. fig

Fig. 427: Ba ack view of a tran nsenna with swasstika medallions and a a central porp phyry disk, gallerry of Hagia Sophiia in Istanbul (Peschlow)

enna with interlacce, cross, a pair o of peacocks, and Fig. 428: Transe various foliage, from San Michelle in Africisco at R Ravenna, Museo Nazzionale di Ravenn na (Weber 2007)

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Barrie er Slabs, latter

Fig. 429: Barrierr slab with geome etric decor and crrosses, from a Byzantine churcch at Notion in Assia (western Asia Minor), Museum Izmir inv. 908 (D Dennert 2019)

From tthe middle Byyzantine period onwards, barrier slabs w were mostly deecorated with h interlace in various geometric shapes, in particular larrge and small medallions an nd lozenges. The medallionss can contain → crosses and diverse ornam ments. Simila ar interlace ha ad long since been employed d on early Byzantine floor mosaics, m but not on earlier → b barrier slabs. Nu umerous otheer later Byza antine slabs depict animalss, for examplee → eagles (Fig g. 5), lions (Fig g. 478?), or → peeacocks (Fig. 431). Peacock ks typically ap ppear in facing p pairs on both h sides of a ceentral cross, chalice, c kantharros, or fountaiin, which prob bably alludes to o Christian litu urgy and relattes to a use on n the templon, which would iin any case seeem to be the m most likely function of all laterr Byzantine sla abs. || | Bibliogra aphy: T. Ulbert, Untersuchungen n zu den byzanttinischen Reliefplatten des 6. bis 8. Jahrhunderts,, Istanbuler Mittteilungen 19/20, 19 969/70, 339–357 7; M. Büyükkolan nci – G. K. Öztaşşkin, Selçuk-Efes Müzesi’nde Serrgilenen St. Jean n Kilisesi’ne ait Korkuluk kkale Üniversitessi Sosyal Levhalarıı ve Templon Arşşitravları, Pamuk Bilimler E Enstitüsü Dergisii 7, 2010, 39–49; J.-P. Sodini, A Slab S with Opposed d Peacocks in the e Xanthos Easterrn Basilica, in: N. AsutayEffenberg ger – F. Daim (ed d.), Φιλοπάτιον. FFestschrift für A. Effenberger, RGZM M Monographien n 106 (Mainz 2012 2) 135–145 Fig. 429:: T. Macridy, Alte ertümer von Nottion, Österreichissche Jahreshefte 8, 1905, 155–173 3, at 159 fig. 44

Fig. 430: Barrierr slab with interla ace medallions an nd roses, Museum Yalvaç in Pisidia a, central Anatolia a (Niewöhner 202 20)

Fig. 43 31: Barrier slab wiith interlace cross, roses, peap cocks, and handrail, fro om Adagüme/Konaklı in Lyydia (weste ern Asia Minor), Museum M Ödemiş (Niewöhner 2020)

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Framed Impo ost Capitalss with Interrlace Sttarting in the middle Byzan ntine period, → framed impo ost capitals w were commonly y decorated w with interlace, an nd the motifs a are comparablle to those fou und on middle Byyzantine → ba arrier slabs (Fig g. 430). The sla abs with their la arge, rectangullar panels seem m better suited d to interlace, w which makes it likely that theey came first, a and the decor w was only later transferred to t the smallerr, trapezoidal siides of column n capitals, po ossibly becausse some slabs an nd capitals bellonged to the same s templon.. Impost cap pitals with a la arger interlace medallion in th he centre and four smaller loops in the sspandrels are reelatively comm mon and have become know wn as 'capitals w with pentaomp phalon decor'' (Fig. 433), because this hiistoric term is attested for an a opus sectilee marble floor w with the same pattern. If thee medallions o or loops take th he forms of bu ulging → cabocchons, one speaks of 'capita als with five ca abochons' (Fig. 434, 435).

Fig. 432: Framed impost cap pital with knotted d interlace and leafamii at Manisa/M Magnesia, western n lets in the sspandrels, Ulu Ca Asia Minorr (Niewöhner 2006)

| || Biibliography: Kau utzsch, Kapitellsstudien 1936, 206 f.; Dennert, M Mittelbyzantinisch he Kapitelle 1997, 53–63 Fig. 432: Dennert, Mittelbyzanttinische Kapitellle 1997, 192 f. ca at. 116 pl. 20 Fig. 433: G. Bele enes, Ο Γλυπτόςς Διάκοσμος τηςς Παναγίας των αλκέων στη Θεσ σσαλονίκη, in: Va anderheyde – Pe enna, Sculpture Χα 20 008, 231–247, att 232–239 Fig. 434–435: Den nnert, Mittelbyza antinische Kapitelle 1997, 192– 94 cat. 123. 130 p pl. 22 f. 19

amed impost cap pital with interlacce and rose, Pana agia Fig. 433: Fra Chalkeon in n Thessaloniki, 10 028 AD (Kramer 11966/7)

Fig. 434: Framed im mpost capital witth five cabochonss in the shape off roses, Ulu Camii at Manisa/Magnesia, western Assia Minor (N Niewöhner 2006)

Fig. 435: Fra amed impost cap pital with five cab bochons, the centtral one in the sshape of a cross, the others roses, Museum Bergam ma in western A Asia Minor, inv. 2 2194 (Niewöhner 2008)

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Templon Epistyles Marble or ston ne templon ep pistyles have su urvived in grea at numbers, butt almost exclu usively from th he later Byzan ntine periods, with very few w early Byzanttine specimen ns. Earlier templlon epistyles were likely m made of wood d, possibly with h revetments frrom metal and d other perciou us materials, no one of which h would havve suvived th he invasion perio od (seventh to o ninth centuriees). The laterr marbles and stones were ccheaper as weell as more durrable. Their decor d appearss new, even if lozenges (Fig g. 271) had alreeady been emp ployed on earlly Byzantine → ssoffits (Fig. 34 42), → rows of sstanding leavees (Fig. 334) on eearly → entabllatures (Fig. 69 9, 332, 333, 3355), arcades (Fig. 297, 436, 438) 4 on earlyy → overdoorrs (Fig. 351), and d interlace (Fiig. 66, 297, 334 4, 437) on earlly → transennaee (Fig. 428).

her with A typological order iss not (yet) disccernable, neith ology, which suggests respect to geography nor to chrono a large n number of sma all local worksshops. || | Bibliogra aphy: H. Buchwald, Chancel Barriier Lintels Decora ated with Carved A Arcades, Jahrbucch der österreich hischen Byzantin nistik 45, 1995, 23 33–276; C. Vand derheyde, The C Carved Decoratio on of the Middle a and Late Byzantine Templa, Mitte eilungen zur Spä ätantiken Archäolo ogie und Byzantin nischen Kunstgesschichte 5, 2007 7, 77–111; G. Palliss, Inscriptions on Middle Byzzantine Marble Templon Screens, Byzantinische Zeitschrift 106, 20 013, 761–810 e, La sculpture b byzantine du IXe e au XVe Fig. 437:: C. Vanderheyde siècle (Pa aris 2020) 168 fig g. 96 Fig. 438:: U. Peschlow, M Materialien zur K Kirche des H. Nik kolaos in Myra im Mittelalter, Istan nbuler Mitteilung gen 40, 1990, 207 7–258, at 226 fig. 4 pl. 43, 3

Fig. 436: Two fra agments of the sa ame templon epistyle with arcade e, palmettes, and d donor inscriptio on ΕΛΕΝΗC Δ.ΡΑΠ Π..Ο.ΚΟΠΟΥ ΤΟΥ ΔΟΥΛΟΥ Δ ΤΟΥ Θ(Ε)ΟΥ.Π… …(Π)ΑΝΤΑ ΚΑΝΚ ΚΕΛΑ ΤΙC ΑΓΙΑC, M Museum Konya in central Anatolia (Niewöhner 2008)

Fig. 437: Middle e Byzantine templon epistyle with interlace medalllions, roses, and donor inscription n, Museum Izmir in western Asia Minor M (Niewöhner 20155)

Fig. 438: Severa al fragments of a templon epistyle e with arcade, cro osses, Solomon’ss knots, palmette es, and roses, St N Nicholas at Myra in Lycia, southern Asia M Minor (Niewöhner 2020)

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Im mpost Capittals with Re epeat Patte erns So ome middle Byyzantine → im mpost capitals a are decorated w with repeat pattterns that cou uld have been a adopted from → templon epistyles, for ex xample arcad des with palm mettes (Fig. 4339. Cf. 436, 4338) or interlacce with roses (F Fig. 440–442. C Cf. 437). The analog gies may origin nally have com me about beca ause capitals a and epistyles belonged to th he same templlon, which is particularly likely l in the ccase of small ca apitals (Fig. 4339, 440). Capiitals and epistyles could be deecorated unifo ormly as early y as the sixth h century, for ex xample what w was probably a Justinianic p portico on the seea shore of thee Hebdomon district, d at the seventh mile sttone outside → Constantinop ple (Fig. 195, 3332).

mall impost capittal with continuous arcade, palme ette, Fig. 439: Sm and stylised d pine cones at th he corners, from Oysu near Altınta aş (Kütahya) in n Phrygia (central Anatolia), Muse eum Kütahya inv. 10025 ((Niewöhner 20011)

| || Biibliography: Dennert, Mittelbyzan ntinische Kapitelle 1997, 72–80 Fig. 439: P. Niewö öhner, Mittelbyzantinische Temp plonanlagen aus An natolien. Die Sam mmlung des Arch häologischen Mu useums Kütahya un nd ihr Kontext, Isstanbuler Mitteilu ungen 58, 2008, 285–345, at 314 ca at. 7 fig. 11 Fig. 440: O. Kundu uracı – I. M. Mimiiroğlu, Byzantine e Stone Works in he Private Koyuno oğlu City Museum m of Konya Metro opolitan Municith pa ality, in: H. Oniz – E. Aslanhier (ed.), SOMA 2009,, BAR Internationa al Series 2200 (O Oxford 2011) 165-1170, at 166. 170 fig. 13 Fig. 441: Aytekin, B Bursa Müzesi 20119, 95 cat. 49 fig.. 85–87 997, 192 cat. 113 Fig. 442: Dennert, Mittelbyzantinissche Kapitelle 19 pll. 20

Fig. 440: Sm mall impost capittal with continuous interlace medallions, crosss, and stylised pin ne cones at the corners, Koyunoğlu Museum Ko onya in central An natolia, Inv. 56/6 698 (Kramer)

Fig. 441: Impost ca apital with two zo ones, a frieze of in nterlace peltas with palmettes, a ccross, rose-shape ed cabochons, in nterlace, and co orner leaves, Musseum Bursa in we estern Asia Minorr, inv. 2683 (N Niewöhner 2006)

Fig. 442: Impost capital witth roses and inte erlace, from Phocaea/Eski Foςa in we estern Asia Minor, Museum Izmir ((D-DAI-IST-5009)

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Cathedras Cathedrras or throne seats for the bishop or prresiding cleric w were probably always made mostly of woo od, and only a ffew marble specimens have survived. Som me were built fro om marble slab bs like many a synthronon or bench for the clergy (Fig. 400), the centrre of which th hey normally o occupied. Several monolithicc cathedras aree attested in A Asia Minor (Fig g. 443, 444), siimilar to → ba aptismal fonts th hat are also oftten monolithicc in Asia Minorr, whilst other reegions norma ally built them m from mason nry and only revvetted them wiith marble or m mosaic. Reg gardless of ma aterial and con nstruction, ca athedras typicallly had the sha ape of armchaiirs with armreests and were th hus distinguish hed from the syynthronon ben nches of more ordinary clericss. In addition n, cathedras allso had carved decor, for example → crossses. Some ca athedras contain ned a receptaclle that may ha ave been used d for the deposition of relics an nd/or for storin ng the gospel. || | Bibliogra aphy: P. Androud dis, Sur les fragm ments d’une cha aire épiscopale b byzantine à Episkopi (Anô Voloss), Βυζαντιακά 22, 2002, 143–168; Reallexikon fürr Antike und Chriistentum 20 (200 04) 656– a. Marmor und a anderer Stein (J. Dresken658 s. v.. Kathedra B.III.a Weiland)) Fig. 443: Cathed dra with crosses and a foliage, the ttop of the back rest broken off, Museum Çorum in central Anatoliia (Niewöhner 2012 2)

v Bizans Fig. 443:: E. Keskin, Küçük Asya’da Kutsal Kent Euchaita ve Dönemi TTaş Eserleri ²(Ank kara 2015) 88 f. Fig. 444: H. Tezcan, Top pkapı Sarayı ve Çevresinin Biza ans Devri 9) 369 fig. 537 Arkeolojiisi (Istanbul 1989

Fig. 444: Cathedra with crross medallions, Museum Konya 7 (Niewöhner 202 20) in central Anatolia, inv. 87

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B Baptismal Fo onts La arge early Byyzantine fonts for the baptiism of adults w were often ma asonry-built, but b → Constantinople and A Asia Minor stan nd out as a reg gion with larg ge numbers of m monolithic basiins. Most fonts were partly embedded in th he ground (Fiig. 447), so th hat the catech humen inside sttood below thee priest outside. This is also why the lowerr outer perimeeter that woulld be buried h has only been ro oughed out (Fiig. 448). On the outtside, most fon nts are rectan ngular, round (F Fig. 445), polyygonal, or crucciform (Fig. 44 46, 447). The in nterior shape iis often more sophisticated,, for example g. 446, 447) or teetraconchs (Fig o a combinatiion of several fo orms (Fig. 448). Steps on op pposite sides provide access to o and exit from m the font (Fig. 447, 448). The outside is sometimees decorated, in particular w with → crosses (Fig. 446). Morre (metal?) cro osses could be em mbedded in cross-shaped recesses on the upper edge (F Fig. 448). Wheen children sta arted to be bap ptised in later Byyzantine timess, large baptism mal fonts beca ame obsolete.

Fig. 445: Ba aptismal font from m Harran in north hern Mesopotamiia, limestone, Museum Urfa (Pe eschlow 2000)

| || Biibliography: S. Watta, Spätantiike monolithisch he Taufpiscinen au us konstantinopo olitanischer Prod duktion, Jahrbuch h für Antike und Ch hristentum 51, 20 008, 152–187; C. Arıkan, Bursa Müzesi'nden Yeni Biir Yazıtlı Vaftiz Te eknesi, in: Eskiça ağ Yazıları 11 = Ak kron 14 (Istanbul 20 017) 201–216; S. Westphalen, Zum m Fund an der Ku uppelbasilika in M Meriamlik, in: B. J. Diebner et al. (ed.), ( Vom Iteru-M Maß bis zu Miriam m bei Marc Chag gall. Festschrift fü ür Claudia Nauerrth (Berlin 2020) 18 89–203 Fig. 445: M. Falla a Castelfranchi, L’edificio L battesiimale a Costantin nopoli, in: I. Fole etti – S. Romano o (ed.), Fons vita ae (Rome 2009) 10 01–120, at 118 fig g. 6 Fig. 447: O. A. Alp, The Newlyy Discovered Middle Byzantine hurches from Phrygia, in: Archite ecture of Byzantium and Kievan Ch Ru us from the 9th to o the 12th Centurries (St Petersburrg 2010) 9–20 Fig. 448: Niewöhner, Aizanoi 2007,, 264 f. cat. 337 fig. 129 pl. 38

Fig. 447: Baptisma al font embedded d in a marble floor, Baptistery off the South Churcch at Başara in Ph hrygia, central An natolia (N Niewöhner 2010)

Fig. 446: Ba aptismal font with Φως Zωή-crosss from Korkuteli in n Lycia (south hern Asia Minor),, Museum Elmalı inv. 2010/345 (Niewöhnerr 2020)

Fig. 448: Ba aptismal font in ttwo fragments, th he lower outer sections that are onlly roughed out we ere to be inserted d in the ground, KalK falar near A Aezani in Phrygia,, central Anatolia a (Niewöhner 200 01)

Miscellaneous

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110690477-007

166 | Misscellaneous

Produ uction and B Building Pro ocess

Fig. 449: Arch above the apse of the basilica at Q Qalb Loze in the Syrian Limeston ne Massif, limesto one, fifth centuryy AD (Wikimedia Commons)

If → qu uarries and → workshops w were available locally, architecctural sculptu ure could be ccarved on site during the con nstruction proccess, for examp ple from limesstone in → Lycia a, → Cilicia, an nd → Syria. Th his made it posssible to preciselly execute co omplicated decorational schemes across m multiple block ks, for examplee on arches (F Fig. 348, 449) or entire facadess (Fig. 450) that were in succh cases typicallly built with asshlars. Oth herwise, the arrchitectural scu ulpture had to o be imported b before constru uction could sttart. The imporrts were typicallly finished fiinal products, for examplle from → Proco onnesus/Consttantinople. Su uch imports were w for the most part limited d to columns that were theen integrated w with local bricck or double-sshell rubble an nd lime mortar masonry. The mortar joints of any such masonry m provideed flexibility an nd made it po ossible to comp pensate for considerable irreg gularities amo ong the prefab bricated marble imports (Fig.. 451). The finished marbles may have va aried in size, b because the bllanks probably y did so alreadyy, depending o on what dimen nsions happeneed to be available in the quarrry; cutting them m down to a common minimu um would havee meant wastin ng precious ma aterial. || | Bibliogra aphy: A. Pariben ni, Modalità di assemblaggio e messa m in opera de elle membrature e architettoniche e nei cantieri romani r e bizantini (I–VI sec. d.C.), in: Decor. Decorrazione e archite ettura nel mondo rromano, Thiasoss monografie 9 (Rome 2017) 743–752; 7 A. Paribe eni, Marble Masons on Stage, in: Moreau, Archaeo ology of a World of Changes 2020, 2 221–230

Fig. 450: Chapell of Burğ ed Deiru une in the Syrian Limestone Massif, northwesterrn elevation with continuous profiles above and surrounding the e windows, limesttone (Wikimedia Commons)

Fig. 449: Strube, Baudeko oration Kalkstein nmassiv 1993. 2002, vol. 1 p. 95 pl. 3 39 f. Fig. 450:: A. Naccache, LLe décor des égllises de villagess d'Antiochène du u 4e au 7e siècle ((Paris 1992) pl. 257 f. Fig. 451: Deichmann, Rave enna 1969–1989, vol. 2, 2 p. 89

Fig. 451: Varying g dimensions of the t imported Procconnesian marble bases (Fig. 319) and columns ass well as of the arrcades above them, San Vitale in Ravvenna, inauguratted in 547 AD (F. W W. Deichmann)

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M Mason’s Ma arks M Mason‘s marks in the shapee of Greek lettters (Fig. 452, 4553) and their ccombinations (Fig. 454) mayy be found in in nconspicuous places or wheere they woulld be hidden, on nce a part wass in place, for example on top of column ba ases or capita als. They are best attested for the large w workshop comp plex of → Proconnesus. In co ontrast, small → workshops ha ardly needed them. t The marks were always meant m to alloccate the carvin ngs, but the p purpose of thee allocation co ould vary: (a) ba anker marks id dentified the master m mason and his crew w who would be paid accordin ng to their worrk; (b) assemblly marks alloccated a carving g or one lot of carvings to a pa articular placee within the bu uilding under construction; (cc) shipping m marks attributeed pieces to a client or a bu uilding projectt. Shipping m marks have beeen identified am mong Proconneesian/Constan ntinopolitan ex xports to dista ant construcould seem to tion sites. In co ontrast, assem mbly marks wo reequire spatial proximity of → workshop and building siite, e.g. locallyy made parts for f the church hes of Miletus in n Caria (Fig. 4 452–454). Bank ker marks ma ay reveal how m many master m masons could be involved in n one project an nd even in thee carving of a single column n capital, e.g. in n the case of → Hagia Sophia. Banker ma arks may also in ndicate that diifferent buildin ngs were built at the same time because th he same stonem masons were in nvolved. | || Biibliography: E. Russo, Sulla lavorrazione dei capite elli di S. Sofia di Co ostantinopoli, Byyzantinistica 18, 2017, 2 49–113; G. Marsili, Archeolo ogia del cantiere p protobizantino (B Bologna 2019) Fig. 452–454: Niew wöhner, Milet 20 016, 30. 130. 133 3. 177 cat. GK31. GK K41. MK100

Fig. 453: Base of a pier marked Δ on top, St Michaell at Miletus, arly seventh centtury (Niewöhner 2013) 2 ea

Fig. 452: Co orinthian column capital marked P on top, Great Ch hurch at Miletus in Caria (western Asia Minor), sixth century (MüllerrWiener). Cf.. Fig. 102

Fig. 454: Simplified base of a mullion marked d IB on top, Great Miletus, sixth century (Niewöhner 2008) Church at M

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Marblle Trade Pre-mod dern overland d transport w was impracticcal and expensiive, so heavyy marble and stone carving gs were normallly sourced locally, unless a sea route wass available. Hu uge amounts o of finished → P Proconnesian marble carving gs were thus sh hipped to the Black, Aegean n, Mediterranea an, and Adriatic Seas during the early By yzantine period. This marble ttrade included d architecturall sculpture as w well as church h furnishings, as evidenced by b shipwrecks with relevant loads as welll as by corresp ponding finds on n land. →C Coloured marb bles and speciial carvings th hat were not ava ailable locally, but were hiighly prestigio ous and desirable, were transsported over lo ong distances also by land, iin particular relatively lig ght fittings such as → transsennae (Fig. 4 455, 456), colo ourful wall rev vetment (Fig. 4557), and whitee pilasters that also formed part of the reveetment (Fig. 24 4, 29, 44).

Fig. 455: Figurall openwork fragm ments (fish, a wing g, a right hand and arm with wrrinkled dress), Do ocimian marble, a acropolis of Justiniana Prima/Caričin Grad in Dacia a (central Balkanss), second third o of ovac in Serbia (Niiewöhner 2010) the sixth centuryy, Museum Lesko

|| | Bibliogra aphy: J.-P. Sodini, Le commerce des marbres en Méditerranée, 5 Reunio d’arqu ueologie cristian na hispanica (B Barcelona 2000) 42 23–448; E. F. Casstagnino Berlingh hieri – A. Pariben ni, Byzantine Mercchant Ships and Marble Trade, S Skyllis 11/1, 20111, 64–75; J. Leidwa anger, New Investtigations of the 6 6th c. A.D. ‚Churcch Wreck‘ at Marza amemi, Sicily, Jo ournal of Roman n Archaeology 31, 3 2018, 339–356 Fig. 455– –457: P. Niewöhner – W. Procha aska, Die marmo orne Ausstattung.. Herkunft und Fu unktion, in: B. Ba avant – V. Ivanise evic (ed.), Caričin G Grad 4. Catalogu ue des objects d des fouilles anciennes et autres éttudes, Collection n de l’École française de Rome 75 7 (Rome 2019) 334 4–348

Fig. 456: Floral o openwork fragme ents, Proconnesia an marble, acropolis of Justinian na Prima/Caričin Grad in Dacia (central Balkans), second third of tthe sixth centuryy, Museum Leskovvac in Serbia (Niewöhner 2010 0)

Fig. 457: Fragment of a sla ab, greco scritto from Cap de Gard de in Algeria, llower city of Justiniana Prima/Carričin Grad in Dacia (central Balka ans), second third of the sixth cen ntury, excavation depot (Niewöhn ner 2010)

Misscellaneous | 169

W Workshops Ea arly Byzantinee marble work kshops seem to have been tied to a particu ular → quarry (Fig. ( 461), wheere they manuffactured finish hed products that t were then n distributed, fo or example → Docimium, → Proconnesus//Constantinoplle, and → Sivvec. (Occasiona ally, unfinisheed pieces are allso attested: F Fig. 458–460.) The aforemen ntioned quarriies and worksshop complex xes were disttinguished in teerms of qualityy both of the marbles m and off the carvings. Th hey produced architectural sculpture s as w well as church fu urnishings and d, not least tha anks to imperia al orders, had su upra-regional n normative sign nificance. Whilst goo od white marb ble is relativelly rare, limesttone of corresp ponding quality is more wid dely available an nd was quarrried and carveed by a largeer number of sm maller worksh hops, normally y on or near the construction site, which h facilitated th he → building g process and sa aved the very considerable cost of pre-m modern transpo ort, e.g. in → S Syria (Fig. 462), → Cilicia, and d → Lycia. The large a and normative marble quarriies and worksh hops stopped w working by thee end of the ea arly Byzantine peeriod. Later, m marble, too, was w processed by small and prrobably short-lived itineran nt workshops without norm mative influencce. Quality and style could differ greatly frrom building to o building, an nd a stringent cchronological deevelopment iss not in eviden nce. This, again, applies to bo oth architecturral sculpture and a church furrnishings. | || Biibliography: C. Bouras, Unfinisshed Architecturral Members in M Middle Byzantine Greek Churches, in: J. J. Emerick – D. M. Deliyanology in Architeccture. Studies in Honor of Cecil niis (ed.), Archaeo L. Striker (Mainz 2 2005) 1–9; C. Barsanti – A. Guigllia Guidobaldi – A.. Paribeni, Le offficine dell'imperratore. Marmora a byzantina, in: A.. C. Quintavalle ((ed.), Medioevo. Le officine, I con nvegni di Parma 12 2 (Milan 2010) 118 8–151; O. Karagio orgou, An Early B Byzantine Stonemason and His Wo orkshop: New Evvidence from Amo orium, in: P. Peou (ed.), Δασκάλλα. Απόδοση Τιμη ης στην Ομότιμη tridis – B. Foskolo αθηγήτρια Μαίρη Παναγιωτίδι-Κ Κεσίσογλου (Athe ens 2015) 177– Κα 19 98; A. Paribeni, M Marble Masons on o Stage, in: Morreau, Archaeologyy of a World of Ch hanges 2020, 2211–229

Fig. 458: Un nfinished impost window capital w with paired brancches, German Arcchaeological Institute Berlin (Pescchlow)

Fig. 459: Un nfinished compossite capital with m many-pointed lea aves and garland d or festoon, Phillippi in Macedoniia (Niewöhner 20 014)

Fig. 458: W. Hoepffner – F. Neumeyyer, Das Haus Wie egand von Peter Be ehrens in Berlin--Dahlem, Das De eutsche Archäolo ogische Institut. Ge eschichte und Do okumente 6 (Main nz 1979) 182 fig. 215 Fig. 459: M. Panayyotidi, Quelques chapiteaux inach hevés de Philipes, Byzantion 42,, 1972, 423–430 pe Fig. 460: Brüx, Falttkapitelle 2008, 273 f. cat. 99 pl. 21

Fig. 460: Un nfinished melon capital with squa are top, from a po ortico along the S Sacred Way at Did dyma in Caria (we estern Asia Minorr), er 2012) Museum Miiletus (Niewöhne

170 | Misccellaneous

Archaeome etry Archaeometriic provenancce analysis iis a scientiffic method to distinguish between diffferent marblle → quarries a and artefacts (Fig. 461). T The method is negative: the provenance of a given artefa act from certaiin quarries can b be definitively y excluded, but not absolutelly proven. The m method is well established for white ma arbles that aree analysed forr their isotopee contents an nd various otherr chemical pro operties, all of which are theen evaluated sta atistically in order to excclude as man ny potential provvenances as po ossible. Afterward ds, the (positiv ve) identificattion of artefacts with quarriess and/or → workshops must proceed on th he basis of art h historical criterria (style, repeertoire, qualityy) as well as log gistical consid derations, beca ause the limita a-

ade played a decisive d tions off pre-modern → marble tra factor in n the sourcing g of Byzantine m marbles. || | Bibliogra aphy: C. Vanderh heyde – W. Proch haska, Le marbre e en Bulgarie à lla période byzan ntine. L’apport d de l’étude des scculptures architectturales de Sozopo ol, Bulletin de co orrespondance he ellénique 135/1, 20 011, 351–375; V. Barbin – J. J. Herrmann – A. Mentzos – A. van de en Hoek, Calciticc Marble from Thasos and Procon nnesos in Nea Ancchialos (Thessaly) and Thessa aloniki (Macedonia), in: D. Matetiić Poljak – K. M Marasović (ed.), A ASMOSIA 11 (Sp plit 2018) 311–320 ks, Iron Age Hill Top T Forts, Fig. 461: P. Niewöhner, Bronze Age Hüyük Roman P Poleis, and Byzantine Pilgrimage iin Germia and Itss Vicinity, Anatolian n Studies 63, 20113, 97–136, at 103 3 f. 117 fig. 24

Fig. 461: Statistical provenance analysis a of ancient and Byzantine e marble artefactss from the vicinityy of Germia in Ga alatia (central Ana atolia); half the artefactts (blue dots) can n be attributed to a local quarry (Gecek, blue ellipse, cf. Fig. 463, 46 64); the other hallf (red dots) appe ears to originate from a different quarry that has not yet been identified ((right bubble); diffferences in repertoire and style cconfirm that the two different marble es were worked by b two different w workshops (Prochaska 2013)

Miiscellaneous | 171

Q Quarries In n addition to tthe availability y of the raw m material, location and conn nectivity weree also importtant for prem modern quarriees, because overland transport was imprractical and ex xpensive. On the coast, sup pply was thus m mostly by sea, for example from → Proco onnesus/Consttantinople. In contrast,, inland sites mainly m employyed local mateerial. Typical in nland quarriess are thus rela atively numerou us, small, and close to bu uilding sites ((alternatively, cllay was used in constructiion). Limeston ne, which in so ome regions iss practically ubiquitous, u wa as often quarriied on the buillding site itsellf, which avoid ded transporta ation costs, fa acilitated the → building process, and co ould serve a additional purposes like llevelling the grround or diggiing cisterns (Fiig. 462). Hard materrials such as marble preseerve traces of prre-modern quarrying (Fig. 463). 4 Characteeristic are for ex xample large, oblong blockss that were firsst cut out with piickaxes and th hen broken offf (Fig. 464). Ea arly Byzantine m marble quarriess typically sup pplied a singlee → workshop (F Fig. 461) or wo orkshop compllex, for examp ple → Docimium m, Proconnesu us, and → Siveec. White marrble quarries on the Aegean island of Th hasos as well as various qu uarries for → ccoloured marblles were also o of inter-regiional importa ance. In later Byyzantine timess, most quarry ying died down n, and marble w was mainly → ree-used from ea arlier, ruined b buildings.

Fig. 462: Limestone quarry//cistern and basillica church (cf. Fig. 14), Mushabbak k in the Syrian Lim mestone Massif ((Wikimedia Comm mons)

| || Biibliography: J. C.. Fant (ed.), Ancie ent Marble Quarrrying and Trade, BA AR International Series 453 (Oxfo ord 1988); T. Kozzelj – M. WurchKo ozelj, Les carriè ères de marbre e à Thasos à ll’époque protobyyzantine, in: F. B Baratte et al. (ed.), Mélanges Jea an-Pierre Sodini, Trravaux et Mémoirres 15 (Paris 20055) 465–486

Fig. 463: Trraces of pre-mode ern quarrying, an ncient marble qua arries at Gecek ne ear Germia in Galatia, central Anattolia (Niewöhner 2010)

Fig. 462: W. Zakkour, La chiesa di Mushabbak nell’area del Masorphyra 4/10, 200 07, 52–68, at 66 fig. 13 siccio Calcareo, Po Fig. 463–464: P. N Niewöhner, Bronzze Age Hüyüks, Iron Age Hill Top Fo orts, Roman Pole eis, and Byzantin ne Pilgrimage in Germia and Its Viicinity, Anatolian Studies 63, 2013 3, 97–136, at 103 3 f. 117 fig. 25

Fig. 464: Top vview of a pit wherre oblong blocks have been quarrie ed, as Fig. 463 (N Niewöhner 2010)

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Coloured Marbless

Fig. 465: Colourred marble wall-re evetment in Hagiia Sophia at Istan nbul, at the botto om verde antico, on o top inlay (Niew wöhner 2007)

Coloureed marbles weere especiallyy coveted, exp pensive, and preestigious, whicch is why it wa as not uncomm mon for these m materials to bee transported long distancees overland (e..g. Fig. 457). T The materials are often cong glomerate with h large inclusio ons that did n not lend themselves to the carvving of colum mn capitals and d other filigreee architecturall sculpture. Hence, such co oloured marblees were primariily used as floo oring (also opu us sectile) and for wall revetmeent (Fig. 465, 4 466). In the ea arly Byzantine period, wide-sp pread types in ncluded green n verde anticco from Thessally, blue graeco o scritto from A Algeria (Fig. 4557), and red porrphyry from Eg gypt. Some ma arbles had figu ure and were arrranged symmetrically for th he additional patternp ing of flloors and wallss (Fig. 466). Colloured column ns were even rarer and morre difficult to come by. Diffferently colou ured shafts co ould be combin ned according to the princip ple of → varietas and with ba ases and capittals of white marble (Fig. 13, 1 155, 254, 256, 322, 324). C Coloured → tem mplon posts (iin combination n with white capitals Fig. 26, 407, 4677) were relativeely widespread d (Fig. 403). → Ambos weere also sometim mes made en ntirely or partially from co oloured marbless. || | Bibliogra aphy: V. Melfos, Green Thessalian Stone. The Byzantine B Quarries and the Use of a Unique Archite ectural Material from the ord Journal of Arcchaeology 27, 2008, 387– Larisa Arrea, Greece, Oxfo 405; G. P Pallis, Πολύχρωμα α Μάρμαρα σε Μεσοβυζαντινά Τέ έμπλα της Ελλάδας,, ΑURA 3, 2020, 2 255–278 Fig. 465:: J. J. Herrmann – A. van den Hoek, Paul the Silentiary, Hagia So ophia, Onyx, Lydia, and Breccia C Corallina, in: ASM MOSIA 11 (Split 20118) 345–349 Fig. 466 6: O. Karagiorgo ou, „... και Ατρα ακίς Οππόσα (Μ Μάρμαρα) Λευροίς Χθων Πεδίοις Ελόχευσε...“: ττο Λατομείο του Ομορστη Βυζαντινή Τέχνη, Τ in: φοχωρίου Λαρίσης και η Συμβολή του σ ογικά Τεκμήρια Β Βιοτεχνικών Εγκα αταστάσεων κατά τη ΒυΑρχαιολο ζαντινή Ε Εποχή (Athens 20 004) 183–219. 385–386, at 190– –192. 217 note 29

Fig. 466:: Southwest corner of the treasuryy of San Marco at a Venice, clad in co oloured marble w wall revetment brought from Constantinople follow wing the Latin conquest in 1204; ssome marbles ha ave figure and are a arranged symmettrically (Niewöhner 2010)

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P Painting and d Colouratio on O Owing to inclusions, → colou ured marble w was generally no ot suitable fo or the filigreee carving of architectural scculpture, whicch was sometim mes painted in nstead, either w with figures (Fiig. 469; rare) or o with overalll colouration. So o far, the evid dence is scarcce, however, and it is not cllear whether tthat is becausse of poor preservation or w whether coloura ation was actu ually rare. Principally,, colouration took one off two forms. Co omplete colou uration with a single colou ur or gilding co ompares to preecious metal revetments r of w wooden cores th hat are varioussly attested forr church furnisshings. It may th hus be no coiincidence thatt some gilded d capitals are sm mall and proba ably belonged to the templon n (Fig. 467). Alternatively, different colouration could be emplloyed on the surface and on o the backgrround of any reelief. A light ssurface or a dark d backgrou und could enha ance the relieef in a similarr way as → op penwork with deeeply shaded background (F Fig. 370, 468. Cf. 289 withou ut colouration n). Sometimes, only the surrface or foregrround was colo oured (Fig. 1511).

Fig. 467: Sm mall Corinthian capital with broad d-pointed leaves and traces of gilding, from Pappa/Tiberiupolis/Yunuslar in Lycaon nia (central Ana atolia), Museum Konya inv. 1119 (Niewöhner 2008))

| || Biibliography: M. A Altripp, Beobachttungen zur Polycchromie byzantiniischer Bauplastik k in Griechenland d, Jahrbuch der ö österreichischen Byyzantinistik 52, 2002, 259–270; C. Barsanti, Scu ultura dipinta a Biisanzio, in: P. A A. Andreuccetti – D. Bindani (ed d.), Il colore nel M Medioevo, Collana a di studi sul colo ore 5 (Lucca 2016)) 61–86 Fig. 467: I. H. Merrt – P. Niewöhner, Blattkapitelle in Konya, Istanbu uler Mitteilungen n 60, 2010, 373–4 410, at 406 f. cat.. 23 fig. 36 Fig. 468 H. Beltin ng – C. Mango – D. Mouriki, Th he Mosaics and Mary Pammakarisstos (Fethiye Cam mii) at Istanbul, Frrescoes of St. M Du umbarton Oaks S Studies 15 (Washiington DC 1978) p pl. 9 Fig. 469: S. Blaževska, Early Chrristian Wall Pain ntings from the piscopal Basilica in Stobi (Stobi 2012) 18 Ep

Fig. 468: Im mpost capital with h cornucopias, te endril, lotus-palm mette frieze on top, and dichromattic colouration, re e-used in the parrecclesion (ca. 1310 AD) of the Pam mmakaristos Mon nastery/Fethiye Camii C in Istanbul (Niewöhner 2007 7)

Fig. 469: Fluted mu ullion capital from m the apse windo ow of the early Byyzantine Episcop pal Basilica at Sto obi in Northern Macedonia; on the e right nterior) sinopia p paintings of a staurogram with a p peacock and trace es of gilding; to the left traces of w white mortar whe ere the window was w (in atttached (Niewöhn ner 2011)

174 | Misccellaneous

Donorr and Votive e Inscription ns Donor iinscriptions co ould be planneed from the sttart and carved at an early sta age of a build ding project, e.g. over doors ((Fig. 471) and on → monog gram capitals.. Other, smallerr inscriptions, for example o on frames and d fillets (Fig. 1122, 349, 359, 436 6, 437), may have been addeed later, possiblyy by local sto onemasons. Th he latter shou uld also apply to o votive inscriptions or invvocations that occupy variouss free spaces iin churches, o often in the sh hape of graffiti, but occasion nally also in elaborate ex xecution (Fig. 4770). || | Bibliogra aphy: G. Pallis, M Messages from a Sacred Space. The T Function of tthe Byzantine S Sanctuary Barrie er Inscriptions (9th–14th Centuriess), in: I. Berti et al. (ed.), Writing g Matters, Materiiale Textkulturen 14 (Berlin 2017) 145–159; F. Stro oth, Die Monogra ammkapider Sergios- und d Bakchoskirche und der telle der Hagia Sophia, d e – Frühes Christentum – Byza anz B/45 Irenenkirrche, Spätantike (Wiesbad den 2021) Fig. 470: Cross o on a stepped basse and votive insccription Κ(ύρι)ε βοίθη το σο δούλο Γεoργίο επεισ στίκοντος “God he elp your servant George the overrseer”, left colum mn shaft in front o of the central door to the south aislle of St John at Ep phesus in westerrn Asia Minor (Niewöhner 200 00)

Fig. 470:: S. Pedone, Una singolare botttega di lapicidi bizantini attiva a H Hierapolis, Efeso e Sardi, Acta ad d archaeologiam et artium historiam m pertinentia 300 0, 2019, 217–236, at 223 fig. 14, 2 Fig. 471: C. Strube, Al An ndarin, das antik ke Androna, RGZM Monographien n 121 (Mainz 20055) 33–37 pl. 22, 1

Fig. 471: Door lin ntel to the south of the main church (background) of Androna in Syyria with staurogrram medallion an nd donor inscriptiion: Αυτή η πύλη του υ Κυρίου δίκαιοι εισελεύσονται ε εν αυτή (LXX Psalm m 117:20) του αγίο ου Μιχαήλ “This g gate of the Lord, iinto which the rig ghteous shall enter (in th he name) of St Miichael”, basalt (N Niewöhner 1998)

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G Grave Stelae e G Grave stelae arre typically lo ocal products and attest to lo ocal craftsman nship and lang guage skills. In n → Constantinople and in n northwestern Asia A Minor, they were often crross-shaped (F Fig. 472). Elsew where, they m might only be deecorated with → crosses (Fig g. 473, 474). T They could be ellaborately carrved, smootheed, and round ded (Fig. 472, 4773) or retain th heir natural forrms (Fig. 474).

Fig. 472: Cross-sha aped early Byzan ntine grrave stele with inscription: † Ενθά άδε κα ατακίτε Λαπετία γγυνή Θεόδορος κο ουβίτορος ετελιόθη μη(νί) Δεκεβρ ρίου ινδ(ικτιώνος) α † “H Here rests Lapetia, wife off Theodor the surrveyor(?); she died in the month of Decembe er in the first indiiction”, M Museum Istanbul iinv. 5885 (N Niewöhner 2007)

|| hy: S. Altun – Ö Ö. Altun, Isaura Antik Kentindeki Haç Bibliograph Temalı Mezzar Stelleri, Selçuk Üniversitesi E Edebiyat Fakültessi Dergisi 36, 20116, 481–496; E. Ivison, Funerary A Archaeology, in: P. Niewöhner (ed d.), The Archaeo ology of Byzantin ne Anatolia (New w York 2017) 160–1175 Fig. 472: H.. Kalkan – S. Şah hin, Epigraphisch he Mitteilungen aus a Istanbul 2. K Kreuzförmige Gra abstelen aus Kon nstantinupolis, EpigraE phica Anato olica 24, 1995, 13 37–148, at 140 f. ccat. 4 Fig. 474: Cff. K. Bittel, Christliche und jüdisch he Grabsteine, in: id. et al. (ed.), Boğazköy 5. Fund de aus den Grab bungen 1970 und d 1971 (Berlin 19755) 108–113

Fig g. 473: Rounded e early Byzantine g grave ste ele with cross and d inscription: Éνθ θα καττάκιτε το της μακ καρίας μνήμης πη ηδίον Στέ έφανος “Here ressts the child of bllessed me emory, Stephen”,, Museum Antak kya/Antiochia (Niiewöhner 2001)

Fig.. 474: Semi-work ked early Byzantin ne gravve stele with crosss, roses, and insscription n: Μνήμα Τιβερίου “In memory of Tiberioss”, Boğazköy/Hatttuşa in central AnatoA lia ((Niewöhner 2009 9)

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Press Weights with Crossess Large stone weights that anchored d the lifting bo ooms of screw p presses for oil a and wine are iidentified by a central rotating g pan for the sspindle and byy flanking dov vetailed sockets that served to o attach the th hread (Fig. 4776, 477). Such w weights were co ommon in the wider Mediterrranean region and are mostly plain, butt in Asia Min nor and → Consttantinople theey can be deco orated with → crosses, c cross m medallions (Fig. 476, 477), crosses on globes (Fig. 4775), and floral m motives. The d decor often goees hand in hand d with specia al polygonal fforms, sometiimes in combin nation with niches (Fig. 475). Thee crosses may simply have been inspired d by the Christia an use and m meaning of oil and wine, but they might a also indicate that the pressses belonged d to the church or to monasterries.

Fig. 475: Broken n octagonal marb ble press weight w with central rotating pan, aediculle niches, and cro osses on globes, Museum Istanbu ul (Niewöhner 200 07)

|| | Bibliogra aphy: E. Ayalon – R. Frankel – A. K Kloner (ed.), Oil and a Wine Presses in Israel from th he Hellenistic, Ro oman, and Byzan ntine Periods (Oxxford 2009); P. Niewöhner, The Riddle of the Anatolian A Cross Sto ones – Press Weights for Church or Monastic Esta ates?, in: Moreau, Archaeology off a World of Changes 2020, 327–336; 3 S. Mitche ell – P. Niewöhne er – A. Vardar – L. E. Vardar, Chu urch Building and d Wine Making Ea ast of Ankara. Re egional Aspects of o Central Anatolia in the Early Byza antine Period, Gep phyra 21, 2021, 199-229 Fig. 475– –477: P. Niewöh hner, Das Rätsel der anatolische en Kreuzsteine, in n: A. Külzer and M. Popović (ed.), Space, Landsca apes and Settleme ents in Byzantium m. Studies in Hisstorical Geograph hy of the Eastern M Mediterranean P Presented to Johannes Koder, Sttudies in Historica al Geography and d Cultural Herita age 1 (Vienna 20 017) 251– 264 fig. X XIII 1–3

Fig. 476: Marble e press weight wiith key-hole shap ped combination of central rotatin ng pan and flanking dovetailed so ockets, with crosss medallions, Musseum Çorum in ce entral Anatolia (N Niewöhner 2012)

Fig. 477: Marble press we eight with centrall rotating pan, fla anking dovetaile ed sockets, and vvarious crosses, M Museum Çorum in central Anatolia (Niewöhner 2012 2)

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Leaved Crosses Crrosses in orga anic connection with foliagee were rare in th he early Byzan ntine period (Fig. 157, 268),, but became th he rule thereaffter in later Byzzantine times, especially on arrchitectural scculpture (Fig. 252, 2 480, 481) a and in particullar on → impo ost capitals (Fiig. 247, 419, 4 420, 479), less co ommonly on lliturgical furniishings (Fig. 164, 380, 409, 4778). Typically,, the foliage su uch as palmetttes (Fig. 164, 24 47, 252, 409, 4 419, 480) or iv vy (Fig. 479, 4 481) connects w with tendrils to the base of thee cross. | || Biibliography: Reallexikon zur byza antinischen Kunsst 5 (1995) 224– 24 40 s.v. Kreuz II.B.II.a Architektur und u Dekoration (G G. Galavaris) Fig. 479: Dennert, Mittelbyzantinische Kapitelle 199 97, 190 cat. 98 b pll. 17 Fig. 480: C. Barsanti – A. Guiglia Guidobaldi – A. Paribeni, Le A. C. Quintavalle offficine dell'imperratore. Marmora byzantina, in: A (e ed.), Medioevo. LLe officine, I convegni di Parma 12 (Milan 2010) 1118–151, at 141 fig.. 4 Fig. 481: A. Papallexandrou, The Church C of the Viirgin of Skripou Diss. Princeton 19 998) (D

Fig. 479: Framed im mpost capital witth cross and flank king threeobes, Museum Bu ursa in western Assia Minor, inv. 27 725 lo (N Niewöhner 2006)

Fig. 481: Corne er cornice w with ivy crosses in arcades w with spiral colum mns, flanking ivy tendrils,, and peacocks, The eotokos of S Skripou in Boeotiia (central Greece), 873/87 74 AD (Peschlow)

Fig. 478: Ba arrier slab with in nterlace, leaved ccrosses, roses, an nd hunting (?) quadrupeds, bro oken below, Muse eum Konya in cen ntral Anatolia (Niewöhner 2020)

Fig. 480: Ba ase of a window p pier with leaved ccross and flankin ng half-palmetttes, northern chu urch of the Lips M Monastery/Fenari Isa Camii in Istanbul, inauguratted in 908 AD (Nie ewöhner 2006)

178 | Misccellaneous

Morta ars

Fig. 482: Hand-h held mortar with flat bottom and ffour handles, one e with spout, two others with engrraved letters Φ an nd X, the fourth hing, on the uppe er rim the Christia an invocation with cross-hatch Κύριε βοήθι Ευγγένιω Τούπλα, loccal marble, Museum Kütahya in central Anatolia, inv. 65 (Niewöhner 2001)

Mortarss in the shape of thick-walleed stone bowlss with a flat botttom on whicch to stand w were in comm mon use through hout antiquityy. Some smalller, movable mortars m had handles that pro ovided a firm grip and cou uld also serve ass spouts (Fig. 482, 483). A symmetrical arrangea ment off four handles made optimall use of a cubicc blank, as is evvidenced by so ome unfinisheed pieces that still retain thee original blocck shape; the handles found d space in the corners that wo ould otherwisee go to waste. Som Christian inscrriptions me hand-held mortars have C and date from the B Byzantine perio od (Fig. 482). Others were found at or in Byyzantine churcches, where th hey may have seerved to shred d incense. Altternatively, Ch hristian invocattions on morta ars would also seem to makee particular sen nse in the prep paration of med dicines. Succh mortars aree well-attested throughout th he Eastern Med diterranean an nd typically m made from harrd local stone, eespecially from m marble. || | Bibliogra aphy: A. Tzitziba assi, Marble Bow wls for Everyday Use, Museum forr Byzantine Cultu ure 7, 2000, 18– –31; T. Korkut, Steinerne S Mörserscchalen aus Patara a, Archäologischer Anzeiger 2002 2/1, 233– 245; C. V Vanderheyde, Objjets et éléments décoratifs en pie erre issus d’Apamé ée, Bulletin des M Musées royaux d’a art et d’histoire 74, 7 2003, 63–106; A. Çalιk-Ross, Marble Vessel Frag gments, in: C. S. Lightfoot (ed.), Am morium Reports 2 2, BAR Internatio 0 (Oxford onal Series 1170 2003) 11–23; Niewöhner,, Aizanoi 2007, 2 200; M. Gwiazda a, Marble Vessels ffrom Jiyeh (Porphyreon), Polish A Archaeology in the Mediterranean n 23/1, 2014, 527 7–542 Fig. 482– –483: Niewöhnerr, Steinmetzarbeiten Kütahya 200 06, 472 f. cat. 76 f.

held mortar with flat bottom and ffour handles, one e Fig. 483: Hand-h with spout, the o others with x-sco oring (for better g grip?), local marble, Museum Kü ütahya in central Anatolia, A inv. 237 75 (Niewöhner 200 01)

Misscellaneous | 179

S Settlement A Archaeolog gy W Whilst temples and other anccient marble b buildings had m mostly been resserved for citiies, Byzantine architectural scculpture and liturgical furn nishings were employed in ru ural church bu uildings, too. Thus, T the quality, numbers, an nd distribution n of → amboss or → baptism mal fonts may atttest to, date, and evaluate rural churchees and settlem ments even wh here no buildin ngs survive, b because these w were made of p perishable ma aterials like wood and clay (F Fig. 484). As, for exam mple, a small fragment of a an ambo may atttest to the ex xistence, quality, and date of a church, evven small num mbers of such artefacts a acrosss a wider ter-

ritory can n be highly sign nificant in term ms of Byzantin ne settlement h history. || hy: B. Brenk, Die e Christianisieru ung der spätrömischen Bibliograph Welt. Stadt, Land, Haus, Kirrche und Kloster in frühchristliche er Zeit, Spätantike – frühes Christentum – Byzanz B/10 (Wiesbaden 2003); er anatolischen K Kreuzsteine. Evide enz für P. Niewöhner, Das Rätsel de Kirche und Mönchtum als FFaktoren der byza antinischen Sied dlungsgeographie e?, in: A. Külzer – M. Popović (ed d.), Space, Landsscapes and Settlem ments in Byzantium. Studies in H Historical Geography of the Eastern n Mediterranean Presented to Jo ohannes Koder (V Vienna 2017) 251–2 264 Fig. 484: Niiewöhner, Aizano oi 2007, foldout

Fig. 484: Vicinity o of Aezani in Phryg gia (central Anato olia) with ancient and early Byzanttine settlements and churches ass attested by marb ble ca arvings (Niewöhn ner 2007)

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Byzan ntium and th he West The queestion of an interaction bettween Byzantiine and Western n stone carvin ng arises with h the division n of the Roman Empire. In C Carolingian Fu ulda and in Ottonian O Essen a and Magdeburg g, all in Germa any, Byzantine architecturall sculpture wass imitated or ree-used. Mid ddle Byzantinee stonemasonss were involved d in the eleventh h-century re-b building of Sa an Marco in Venice, and after the Fourth Crusade and the conquest of Constantino ople in 1204, tthe porch of S San Marco wa as decorated ovver and over w with Byzantinee spolia (Fig. 1334, 194, 228, 229 9, 233, 294, 466 6, 485). Westerrn → knotted columns c could g go back to Byza antine modelss, and the same might apply to lion-headed d → water spou uts that arriveed from Byzantiium to Genoa iin the thirteentth century (Fig g. 486). Con nversely, a neew late Byzan ntine predilecttion for heraldicc emblems can n be traced ba ack to the exam mple of the cru usaders and other travelllers from thee West (Fig. 48 87).

Fig. 485: Middle e Byzantine knottted column, re-ussed at the southwest corner of th he balustrade above the thirteentth-century porch of San Marco in Venice (Wikimed dia Commons)

|| | Bibliogra aphy: O. Feld, FFrühchristliche Kapitelle in Fulda a?, in: P. Pergola ((ed.), Quaeritur inventus colitur. Miscellanea in onore di Padre Um mberto Maria Fa asola, B., Studi di antichita crisstiana 40 (Rome 19 989) 267–278; C C. Meckseper, Ma agdeburg und die Antike. Zur Spolienverwendung iim Magdeburgerr Dom, in: M. Puh hle (ed.), Otto der Große 1. Essayss (Mainz 2001) 3 367–380; C. Bou uras, The Impact o of Frankish Architecture on Thirtteenth-Century Byzantine B Architectture, in: A. E. Laio ou – R. P. Mottah hedeh (ed.), The Crusades C from the e Perspective of Byzantium a and the Muslim m World (Washing gton DC 2001) 24 47–262; H. Horn, Ein spätantikess Kapitell in der Esssener Domschattzkammer, Bonner Jahrbücher 2114, 2014, 181–192 byzantinische Ka apitelle 1997, 199 9 cat. 178 Fig. 485: Dennert, Mittelb pl. 32 Fig. 486:: P. Niewöhner, B Byzantine Water Spouts with Zoo omorphic Head and d Channel, Cahie ers archéologique es 55, 2013–2014 4, 79–90, at 84–87 7 fig. 16 Fig. 487: R. Ousterhout, B Byzantium between East and West and the of Heraldry, in: C.. Hourihane (ed.), Byzantine Art (P Princeton Origins o 2009) 153 3–170

Fig. 486: Middle e Byzantine lion-h headed water spo out, re-used on the western faça ade of the Palazzo di San Giorgio in Genoa in 1262 AD (Nelson n)

Fig. 487: Inlay with herald dic lions, marble,, parecclesion of the 1 AD Pammakaristos Monasterry/ Fethiye Camii in Istanbul, ca. 1310 (Niewöhn ner 2007)

Back Matter

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110690477-008

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Bibliographical Abbreviations Alphabetical list of publications that appear abbreviated (author, short title year) in the bibliography F. Aytekin, Bursa Arkeoloji Müzesi Bizans Dönemi Mimari ve Litürjik İşlevli Yapısal Elemanları (Yüksek Lizans Tesis Anadolu Üniversitesi Eskişehir 2019) P. Angiolini Martinelli – R. Olivieri Farioli, Corpus della scultura paleocristiana bizantina ed altomedievale di Ravenna (Rome 1968–1969) C. Barsanti, Capitello, area bizantina, in: Enciclopedia dell'arte medievale 4 (1994) 200–214 C. Barsanti, The Iznik-Nicaea's Archaeological Museum, in: I. Akbaygil – H. Inalcık – O. Aslanapa (ed.), Iznik throughout History (Istanbul 2003) 267–301 C. Barsanti – A. Guiglia, The Sculptures of the Ayasofya Müzesi in Istanbul (Istanbul 2010) W. E. Betsch, The History, Production, and Distribution of the Late Antqiue Capital in Constantinople (Diss. Philadelphia 1977) L. Bouras, Ο Γλυπτός Διάκοσμος του Ναού της Παναγίας στο Μοναστήρι του Οσίου Λουκά, Βιβλιοθήκη της εν Αθήναις Αρχαιολογικής Εταιρείας 95 (Athens 1980) G. Brands, Die Bauornamentik von Resafa-Sergiupolis, Resafa 6 (Mainz 2002) R. Brüx, Faltkapitelle, Schriften des Zentrums für Archäologie und Kulturgeschichte des Schwarzmeerraumes 12 (Langenweißbach 2008) F. W. Deichmann, Corpus der Kapitelle der Kirche von San Marco zu Venedig, Forschungen zur Kunstgeschichte und Christlichen Archäologie 12 (Wiesbaden 1981) F. W. Deichmann, Ravenna. Hautstadt des spätantiken Abendlandes (Wiesbaden 1969–1989) M. Dennert, Mittelbyzantinische Kapitelle, Asia Minor Studien 25 (Bonn 1997) N. Duval – E. Marin – C. Metzger, Salona 1. Catalogue de la sculpture architecturale paléochrétienne de Salone, Collection de l'École française de Rome 194 (Rome 1994) A. Effenberger – H.-G. Severin, Das Museum für spätantike und byzantinische Kunst (Mainz 1992) S. Filipova, Ranovyzantiskite Kapiteli vo Republika Makedonija (Skopje 2006) N. Fıratlı, La sculpture byzantine figurée au Musée archéologique d’Istanbul (Paris 1990) A. Grabar, Sculptures byzantines du Moyen Âge 2 (11e–14e siècle), Bibliothèque des Cahiers archéologiques 12 (Paris 1976) P. Grossmann – H.-G. Severin, Frühchristliche und byzantinische Bauten im südöstlichen Lykien, Istanbuler Forschungen 46 (Tübingen 2003) A. Guiglia Guidobaldi – C. Barsanti, Santa Sofia di Costantinopoli. L’arredo marmoreo della grande chiesa giustinianea, Studi di antichità cristiana 60 (Rome 2004) N. Harrazi, Chapiteaux de la grande mosquée de Kairouan, Bibliothèque archéologique 4 (Tunis 1982) R. M. Harrison, Excavations at Saraçhane in Istanbul 1 (Princeton NJ 1986) J. J. Herrmann, The Schematic Composite Capital. A Study of Architectural Decoration at Rome in the Later Empire (Diss. New York 1973)

P. H. F. Jakobs, Die frühchristlichen Ambone Griechenlands, Habelts Dissertationsdrucke. Reihe Klassische Archäologie 24 (Bonn 1987) R. Kautzsch, Kapitellstudien. Beiträge zu einer Geschichte des spätantiken Kapitells im Osten vom 4. bis ins 7. Jh., Studien zur spätantiken Kunstgeschichte 9 (Berlin 1936) J. Kramer, Justinianische Kämpferkapitelle mit einem Dekor aus Paaren von Zweigen und die Nachfolgekapitelle im Veneto, Spätantike – frühes Christentum – Byzanz B/22 (Wiesbaden 2006) J. Kramer, Korinthische Pilasterkapitelle in Kleinasien und Konstantinopel, Istanbuler Mitteilungen Beiheft 39 (Tübingen 1994) S. Möllers – U. Peschlow (ed.), Spätantike und byzantinische Bauskulptur, Forschungen zur Kunstgeschichte und Christlichen Archäologie 19 (Stuttgart 1998) D. Moreau et al. (ed.), Archaeology of a World of Changes, BAR International Series 2973 (Oxford 2020) 221–338 P. Niewöhner, Frühbyzantinische Steinmetzarbeiten in Kütahya, Istanbuler Mitteilungen 56, 2006, 407–473 P. Niewöhner, Aizanoi, Dokimion und Anatolien. Stadt und Land, Siedlungs- und Steinmetzwesen vom späteren 4. bis ins 6. Jh. n. Chr., Aizanoi 1 = Archäologische Forschungen 23 (Wiesbaden 2007) P. Niewöhner, Die byzantinischen Basiliken von Milet, Milet 1, 11 (Berlin 2016) P. Niewöhner, The Decline and Afterlife of the Roman Entablature. The Collection of the Archaeological Museum Istanbul and other Byzantine Epistyles and Cornices from Constantinople, Istanbuler Mitteilungen 67, 2017, 237–328 A. K. Orlandos, Η Ξυλόστεγος Παλαιοχριστιανική Βασιλική της Μεσογειακής Λεκάνης, Βιβλιοθήκη της εν Αθήναις Αρχαιολογικής Εταιρείας 35 (Athens 1952–1956) U. Peschlow, Kapitell, in: Reallexikon für Antike und Christentum 20 (2004) 57–123 A. M. Schneider, Die Grabung im Westhof der Sophienkirche zu Istanbul, Istanbuler Forschungen 12 (Berlin 1941) G. Α. Sotiriou – M. Sotiriou, H Βασιλική του Αγίου Δημητρίου Θεσσαλονίκης, Βιβλιοθήκη της εν Αθήναις Αρχαιολογικής Εταιρείας 34 (Athens 1952) I. Stoufi-Poulimenou, Το Φράγμα του Ιερού Βήματος στα Παλαιοχριστιανικά Μνημεία της Ελλάδος, Πανεπιστήμιον Αθηνών. Θεολογική Σχολή. Εκδόσεις Κληροδοτήματος Βασιλικής Δ. Μωραϊτου 2 (Athens 1999) C. Strube, Polyeuktoskirche und Hagia Sophia. Umbildung und Auflösung antiker Formen, Entstehen des Kämpferkapitells, Abhandlungen Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Philosophisch-Historische Klasse neue Folge 92 (Munich 1984) C. Strube, Baudekoration im Nordsyrischen Kalksteinmassiv 1. 2, Damaszener Forschungen 5. 11 (Mainz 1993. 2002) C. Vanderheyde – V. Penna (ed.), Sculpture byzantine 7e–12e siècle, Bulletin de correspondance hellénique. Supplément 49 (Athens 2008) V. Vemi, Les chapiteaux ioniques à imposte de Grèce à l’époque paléochrétienne, Bulletin de correspondance hellénique. Suppl. 17 (Athens 1989) T. Zollt, Kapitellplastik Konstantinopels vom 4. bis 6. Jahrhundert n. Chr. Mit einem Beitrag zur Untersuchung des ionischen Kämpferkapitells, Asia Minor Studien 14 (Bonn 1994)

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Image Credit Abbreviations Further details concerning the image credits that are contained in brackets at the end of the captions and typically name the photographer and, if known, the year, in alphabetical order A. Peschlow: German Archaeological Institute Istanbul, D-DAI-IST-R4667 Belgrad: Institute of Archaeology, Belgrade Betsch: William Earl Betsch, Photographs of Architectural Capitals in Istanbul, 1970, Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University, Washington DC Burns: R. Burns, Manar al-Athar photographic archive, Oxford University Christern: J. Christern, German Archaeological Institute Istanbul, D-DAI-IST-R32.448 Denkinger: J. Denkinger, Aezani-Excavation, German Archaeological Institute Berlin Dennert: M. Dennert, Freiburg, private archive Dumbarton Oaks: Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University, Washington DC, PHBZ0001 Felbermeyer: J. Felbermeyer, German Archaeological Institute Rome, D-DAI-ROM-1938.1506 Feld 1968: O. Feld, German Archaeological Institute Istanbul, D-DAI-IST-R2027 Feld 1969: O. Feld, German Archaeological Institute Istanbul, D-DAI-IST-R2230 Feld 1979: O. Feld, Miletus-Excavation, Hamburg University, R7914-15 Forschungsarchiv für antike Plastik 1978/79: Institute of Archaeology, Cologne University, FA1674/47 Gloc: J. Gloc, Foto Marburg Haag: P. Haag, Foto Marburg Hartmann: T. Hartmann, German Archaeological Institute Istanbul, D-DAI-IST-R4383 and R4386 Kaffenberger: T. Kaffenberger, Bildarchiv Christliche Archäologie und Byzantinische Kunstgeschichte, Mainz University Kleiss: W. Kleiss, German Archaeological Institute Istanbul, D-DAI-IST-KB-2981 Kramer: J. Kramer, bequest, German Archaeological Institute Berlin Leatherbury: S. Leatherbury, Manar al-Athar photographic archive, Oxford University Liepe: J. Liepe, Bodemuseum, Berlin Mainz: Bildarchiv Christliche Archäologie und Byzantinische Kunstgeschichte, Mainz University McKenzie: J. McKenzie, Manar al-Athar photographic archive, Oxford University Müller-Wiener: W. Müller-Wiener, Miletus-Excavation, Hamburg University Nelson: R. Nelson, Yale, private archive Niewöhner: P. Niewöhner, Göttingen, private archive Ousterhout: R. Ousterhout, Philadelphia, private archive Parpulov: G. Parpulov, Göttingen, private archive Peschlow: U. Peschlow, bequest, Bildarchiv Christliche Archäologie und Byzantinische Kunstgeschichte, Mainz University Posamentir: R. Posamentir, Anazarbus-Survey, Tübingen University Prochaska: W. Prochaska, Leoben, private archive

Ronczewski: K. Ronczewski, bequest, German Archaeological Institute Berlin, D-DAI-Z-NL-RZW-2150, 2220 and 2273 Schiele: W. Schiele, German Archaeological Institute Istanbul, D-DAI-IST-R767, R701, R25.559, R25.560 and 78.043 Sebah: J. Sebah, German Archaeological Institute Istanbul, D-DAI-IST-9934 Strube: C. Strube, Heidelberg, private archive Thiel: A. Thiel, Bildarchiv Christliche Archäologie und Byzantinische Kunstgeschichte, Mainz University Weber: K. Weber, Bildarchiv Christliche Archäologie und Byzantinische Kunstgeschichte, Mainz University Wieczorek: R. Wieczorek, Germia-Survey, Cottbus University Wrede: W. Wrede, German Archaeological Institute Athens, D-DAI-ATH-Thessalien-0099

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Index of Places Bold print indicates lemmas. Adagüme/Konaklı in Lydia (western Asia Minor) 158 Adana in Cilicia 24, 112 Adriatic Sea 9, 136, 148, 153, 168 Aegean Sea 171 Afyon in Phrygia, museum 13, 19, 57, 108, 114, 153 Ağarı near Aezani in Phrygia (central Anatolia) 150, 179 Aezani in Phrygia 20, 21, 27, 32, 179, → Ağarı, → Doğancılar, → Gökağaç, → Hacıkebir, → Hacımahmut, → Kalfalar, → Kureyşler, → Örencik, → Pazarcık, → Pullar, → Saray, → Yalnızsaray Akköy in Caria (western Asia Minor) 152 Akmonia/Ahat in Phrygia (central Anatolia) 41 Akpınar near Gediz in Phrygia (central Anatolia) 69 Akşehir/Philomelion in Pisidia (central Anatolia) 103 Alakilise in the Lycian Taurus 42 Alexandria in Egypt 112 Altıntaş near Gediz in Phrygia (central Anatolia) 50, 147 Altıntaş near Kütahya in Phrygia (central Anatolia) 61, → Oysu Amphipolis in Macedonia 59 Anazarbus in Cilicia Pedias 32, 43 Andriake in Lycia 42, 60 Androna in Syria 64, 174 Ankara (central Anatolia) 17, 45, 47, 120 Antalya in Pamphylia (southern Asia Minor) 19, 66, 82, 107, 129 Antalya, museum 56, 70, 77, 102 Antiochia/Antakya 112 Antiochia/Antakya, museum 175 Armenia 104 Arta in Epirus (northwestern Greece) 48 Athens 33, 59, 114 Athens, museum 12 Ayathekla/Meriamlik near Seleukia/Silifke in Cilicia 24, 75 Balkans 55 Başara in Phrygia (central Anatolia) 163 Bawit (Egypt)? 78 Bergama, museum 33, 44, 93, 95, 133, 144, 159, → Pergamum Berlin, museum 72, 75, 78, 109, 110, 127, 137 Berlin, DAI 169 Boğazköy/Hattuşa (central Anatolia) 175 Burdur in Pisidia (central Anatolia), museum 138 Burğ ed Deirune in the Syrian Limestone Massif 166 Bursa, museum 41, 60, 65, 67, 68, 107, 155, 161, 177 Caesarea Maritima in Palestine 38 Cairo (Egypt), museum 44, 78 Çaltıbozkır in Cilicia Trachea 137 Canbazlı in Cilicia Trachea 43 Čičevo in northen Macedonia 52 Cilicia 43 Constantinople 37, → Istanbul, museum Corinth on Peloponnesus (Greece) 40, → Lechaion Çorum (central Anatolia), museum 45, 144, 162, 176 Corycus in Cilicia Trachea 43 Cotyaeum in Phrygia (central Anatolia) 50, → Kütahya, museum Damascus, museum 81 Damascus, Umayyad Mosque 82, 96

Didyma in Caria (western Asia Minor) 107, 169 Doğanaslanlar in Phrygia (central Anatolia) 50 Doğancılar near Aezani in Phrygia (central Anatolia) 138, 179 Docimium 20 Dorylaeum/Eskişehir in Phrygia 10, → Eskişehir, museum Edirne in Thrace, museum 58, 66, 67, 101, 153 Egypt 78 Elmalı in Lycia, museum 62, 131, 154, 163 Emiigazi in Phrygia (central Anatolia) 16 Ephesus (western Asia Minor) 46, 47, 129 Erythron/Latrun in Cyrenaica (Libya) 40 Eskişehir, museum (central Anatolia) 81, 145, → Dorylaeum Euroea/Glyki in Epirus (northwestern Greece) 97, 155 Fethiye, southern Asia Minor, museum 92 Gecek near Germia in Galatia (central Anatolia) 132, 170, 171 Gelibolu/Gallipoli on the Dardanelles 155 Genoa (Italy) 180 Germia in Galatia 114, 119, 170, → Gecek, → Goeleon Gökağaç near Aezani in Phrygia (central Anatolia) 156, 179 Goeleon/Kayakent near Germia in Galatia 106, 144 Greece 59 Hacıkebir near Aezani in Phrygia (central Anatolia) 145, 179 Hacımahmut near Aezani in Phrygia 144, 179 Hagia Sophia 98 Hama in Syria, museum 64 Harran (northern Mesopotamia) 163 Heraclea Lyncestis in northern Macedonia (Balkans) 51, 54 Hierapolis in Phrygia (central Anatolia) 46 Hosios Lukas in Boeotia (central Greece) 93, 111, 133 Iconium/Konya in Lycaonia 27, 153, → Konya, museum Ioannina in Epirus (northwestern Greece), museum 97, 155 Istanbul, museum 12, 18, 20, 21, 25, 26, 37, 39, 49, 51–53, 56, 57, 60, 65, 67, 68, 74, 76, 80–85, 88, 90, 96, 97, 99–102, 105, 106, 108, 109, 111, 113, 115, 120, 121, 123–127, 129–131, 133, 140, 175, 176, → Constantinople Izmir (western Asia Minor), museum 141, 143, 158, 160, 161 Jerusalem 28, 76, 92 Justiniana Prima/Caričin Grad in Dacia (Balkans) 55, 168 Kairouan (Tunesia) 66, 110 Kalfalar near Aezani in Phrygia (central Anatolia) 163, 179 Kampanopetra near Salamis on Cyprus 40 Kanytelis/Kanlıdivane in Cilicia Trachea 73 Kaya in Lycia 92 Kidyessos/Çayhisar in Phrygia (central Anatolia) 57, 153 Kızlar Saray in Fındıklı Ruşen near Inegöl (western Asia Minor) 41, 60 Komotini in Thrace 95 Konya in Lycaonia (central Anatolia), museum 11, 18, 21, 26, 27, 47, 52, 125, 132, 154, 156, 160–162, 173, 177, → Iconium Korkuteli in Lycia 163 Kütahya, museum 10, 16, 20, 21, 27, 41, 50, 62, 69, 128, 129, 142, 147, 150–152, 154, 161, 178, → Cotyaeum in Phrygia Kureyşler near Aezani in Phrygia (central Anatolia) 10, 179 Kurşunlu near Sarayönü in Lycaonia (central Anatolia) 26 Lechaion near Corinth on Peloponnesus 58, 59, 69, 118 Leskovac in Serbia, museum 55, 168 Limyra in Lycia 42 Lycia 42 Lyon 83 Magnesia/Manisa (western Asia Minor) 113, 159

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Manisa, museum 38, 103 Mesudiye near Mudanya (western Asia Minor) 68, 155 Miletus in Caria (western Asia Minor) 45, 46, 48, 58, 124, 146, 151, 167 Miletus, museum 58, 64, 107, 146, 152, 169 Mudanya on the southern shore of the Propontis 80 Mushabbak in the Syrian Limestone Massif 16, 171 Muskar/Belören in the Lycian Taurus 76, 151 Myra in Lycia 56, 69, 160 Nea Anchialos/Thebes in Thessaly (central Greece) 12, 60 New York, museum 79 Nicaea/Iznik (western Asia Minor) 33, 38, 65, 91, 107, 137 Nicaea/Iznik, museum 11, 19, 26, 27, 65, 70, 91, 93, 95, 103, 107, 111, 137, 150, 156 Notion in Asia (western Asia Minor) 158 Örencik near Aezani in Phrygia (central Anatolia) 45, 118, 179 Oysu near Altıntaş in Phrygia (central Anatolia) 161 Pappa/Tiberiupolis/Yunuslar in Lycaonia 173 Parentium/Poreč in Istria (Adriatic) 32, 77, 92, 94, 108, 136 Pazarcık near Aezani in Phrygia (central Anatolia) 61, 179 Pergamum (western Asia Minor) 33, 93, 133, 144, → Bergama, museum Perge in Pamphylia (southern Asia Minor) 64 Philippi in Macedonia 77, 99, 100, 125, 169 Phocaea/Eski Foςa (western Asia Minor) 161 Proconnesus 38 Pullar near Aezani in Phrygia (central Anatolia) 20, 179 Qalat Siman in Syria 22 Qalb Loze in the Syrian Limestone Massif 166 Ravenna 25, 49, 71, 79, 94, 120, 121, 136, 148, 151, 157, 166 Resafa/Sergioupolis in northern Mesopotamia 23, 149 Rome 31 Sadettin/Zazadin Han near Konya in Lycaonia 131 Sagalassos in Pisidia (central Anatolia) 29, 118 Salona in Dalmatia (Adriatic) 79 Saray near Aezani in Phrygia (central Anatolia) 61, 119, 179 Sardis in Lydia (western Asia Minor) 63 Sebaste/Selçikler in Phrygia 138, 142, 143, 152 San Marco in Venice 57, 75, 89, 91, 110, 153, 180 Selymbria/Silivri in Thrace 115 Sheikh Suleiman in the Syrian Limestone Massif 62 Sidamaria/Ambar in Lycaonia (central Anatolia) 18 Side in Pamphylia (southern Asia Minor) 13, 25, 44 Silifke/Seleucia in Cilicia Trachea, museum 23, 137 Sivec 54 Skopje in northern Macedonia, museum 30, 52, 54 Skripou in Boeotia (central Greece) 11, 13, 58, 63, 177 Stobi in northern Macedonia (central Balkans) 30, 32, 51–55, 173 St Polyeuctus, Church of 88 Syria 22 Thessaloniki 27, 32, 50, 53, 70, 72, 73, 91, 126, 146, 148, 159 Tirana (Albania) 156 Urfa (northern Mesopotamia), museum 163 Uşak in Phrygia, museum 73, 138, 142, 143, 152, 154 Western Asia Minor (western Turkey) 46 Xanthos in Lycia 44 Yalnızsaray near Aezani in Phrygia (central Anatolia) 151, 179 Yalvaç/Antiochia in Pisidia, museum 122, 158 Central Anatolia 61 Zindankale in Lycaonia (central Anatolia) 47

Index of Subjects Bold print indicates lemmas. Altars 136 Ambo platforms 144 Animal capitals 50 Animal capitals with two zones 51 Animal capitals with two zones and fillet or basket 77 Archaeometry 170 Attic column bases 118 Baptismal fonts 163 Barrier slabs, early 156 Barrier slabs, later 158 Basket capitals, early 112 Basket capitals, later 113 Blattkelch capitals 44 Broad-pointed (mask) leaves 26 Butterfly leaves 71 Byzantium and the West 180 Cabochons (bosses), early 102 Cabochons (bosses), later 103 Canopies above icons and arcoslia 139 Capitals with addorsed birds 57 Capitals with cornucopias and concave abacus 81 Capitals with olive branches 68 Capitals with tendrils and concave abacus 82 Capitals with zoning 76 Carian ambos 141 Cathedras 162 Caules 12, 25, 39 Central Anatolian ambos 145 Christograms 65 Ciboria/canopies 138 Coloured marbles 172 Column bases, shafts, and capitals with stepped profiles or striation 120 Composite capitals 66 Composite capitals with fleshy fine-toothed leaves 67 Consoles/corbels/brackets 129 Constantinopolitan ambos 140 Corinthian capitals, early 39 Corinthian capitals, later 41 Crosses 64 Donor and votive inscriptions 174 Door frames 130 Double cross 33, 107 Double leaves 72 Dove 50, 56, 62, 73, 75, 77, 82, 84, 127 Eagle capitals 52 Egg-and-dart 27, 38, 39, 41, 47, 48, 63, 66, 67, 69, 84, 88, 90, 92, 124, 125, 128 Emblem capitals 47 Engraving and champlevé 147 Entablatures 124 Fat/jagged fine-toothed leaves 19 Festoon 82, 83, 169 Figured capitals, early 49 Figured capitals, later 56

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Flanking ambo slabs, early 142 Flanking ambo slabs, later 143 Flanking palmette 41, 62, 66, 67 Fluted capitals 45 Framed impost capitals with interlace 159 Framed (panelled) impost capitals, early 94 Framed (panelled) impost capitals, later 95 Garland 82, 83, 169 Garland capitals 83 Grave stelae 175 Green men and gorgoneia 80 Griffins 79 Handrail 13, 30, 64, 65, 142, 150, 156, 158 Head capitals 48 Honorific columns 17 Humpy/spiky fine-toothed leaves 18 Impost capitals, early 92 Impost capitals, later 93 Impost capitals with bevelled edges 155 Impost capitals with cornucopias, early 108 Impost capitals with cornucopias, later 109 Impost capitals with green men 105 Impost capitals with paired branches, early 100 Impost capitals with paired branches, later 101 Impost capitals with repeat patterns 161 Impost capitals with tendrils, early 106 Impost capitals with tendrils, later 107 Impost capitals with vine leaves and pine cones, early 110 Impost capitals with vine leaves and pine cones, later 111 Imposts 60 Ionic capitals 62 Ionic impost capitals 63 Ivy 51, 53, 54, 62, 65, 81, 82, 88, 108, 123, 141, 176, 177 Kantharos 12, 13, 77, 85, 106–108, 132, 150 Kettle capitals 99 Knotted columns 153 Leaved crosses 177 Lion 50, 57, 78, 79, 133, 180 Lotus 46, 58, 59 Lotus-palmette frieze 63, 101, 109, 113, 124, 173 Lozenge 13, 121, 128, 143, 156, 158 Lyre capitals 40 Many-pointed leaves 29 Marble trade 168 Mason’s marks 167 Medallion capitals 25 Melon capitals, early 96 Melon capitals, later 97 Monogram capitals, early 114 Monogram capitals, later 115 Mortars 178 Mullions 122 Narrow-pointed leaves 28 Openwork 84 Other ambos 148 Outer Gate capitals 75 Overdoors 131 Painting and colouration 173 Palm tree 88 Peacocks 53

Pedestals 121 Peopled scrolls 127 Pier base 167, 177 Pier capital 39, 42, 43, 45, 47, 48, 57, 64, 88, 89, 102 Pilaster capital 12, 16, 19–21, 24, 26, 27, 38 Pilastri Acritani 89 Pine cone 53, 57, 74, 81, 107, 110, 111, 154, 161 Press weights with crosses 176 Production and the building process 166 Quarries 171 Rabbit 11, 127 Ram 51, 54, 77–79 Reed leaf capitals and reed leaves 58 Reliquaries 137 Re-use and spoliation, early 32 Re-use and spoliation, later 33 Rimmed leaves 73 Rose 13, 33, 57, 95, 103, 155, 158–161, 175, 177 Rows of standing leaves 125 Sasanian influence 90 Schematic capitals 23 Scrollwork 85 Semi-cylindrical mouldings 126 Settlement archaeology 179 Shell-shaped niche 10, 144–146 Simplified column bases 119 Snake 11, 54 Soffits 128 Soft-pointed leaves 24 Spiral rose 33, 88, 93, 155, 158, 159, 161 Split palmettes 91 Staurograms 55, 58, 59, 64, 131, 173, 174 Stiff-pointed leaves 21 Supporting ambo slabs 146 Syrian bemas 149 Templon colonnettes, early 151 Templon colonnettes, later 154 Templon epistyles 160 Templon posts, early 150 Templon posts, later 152 Theatre mask 48, 74, 81 Theodosian capitals 69 Touching leaf tips 27 Transennae 157 Varietas 30 Vase 81, 89, 106 Vine 44, 53, 78, 79, 82, 89, 91, 92, 106, 109, 112, 127, 133, 150 Vine leaf 77, 79–81, 83, 90, 91, 110, 153 Vine-like leaves 74 Water spouts 133 Wind-Blown leaves 70 Window capitals 123 Window frames 132 Workshops 169 Wreath 17, 45, 51, 65, 78