British English Phonetic Transcription 2020051806, 2020051807, 9780367441364, 9780367441371, 9781003007890

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BRITISH ENGLISH PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION

British English Phonetic Transcription provides an accessible introduction to phonemic, phonetic and intonational transcription with a focus on British English. Featuring exercises, revision tasks and recordings to help students gain hands-​on practice, the book takes a learning-​by-​doing approach and ensures students gain practice using each new symbol or concept introduced before moving on to the next. Consisting of three parts, the book covers: • transcribing individual words, including consonants, vowels, primary stress, secondary stress, syllabic consonants and inflections; • transcribing phrases and sentences, including liaison, weak forms, elision and assimilation; • transcribing intonation, including the structure of English intonation and recognising pitch patterns. Ideally suited as a standalone workbook or for use alongside American English Phonetic Transcription, British English Phonetic Transcription is key reading for undergraduate students of linguistics as well as anyone teaching or learning English as a foreign language. Paul Carley has held posts at the University of Applied Sciences, Utrecht, the universities of Bedfordshire and Leicester, UK, and the Fakeeh College for Medical Sciences, Jeddah. He is a regular lecturer on the UCL Summer Course in English Phonetics and an examiner for the International Phonetic Association. Inger M. Mees is Associate Professor Emeritus at the Copenhagen Business School and a part-​time lecturer in the Department of English, Germanic and Romance Studies, Copenhagen University. She has formerly held lectureships at the universities of Leiden and Copenhagen. She is on the academic staff of the UCL Summer Course in English Phonetics.

BRITISH ENGLISH PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION

Paul Carley and Inger M. Mees

First published 2021 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2021 Paul Carley and Inger M. Mees The right of Paul Carley and Inger M. Mees to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-​in-​Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-​in-​Publication Data Names: Carley, Paul (Linguist), author. | Mees, Inger M., author. Title: British English phonetic transcription /​Paul Carley and Inger M. Mees. Description: Abingdon, Oxon; New York, N.Y.: Routledge, 2021. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2020051806 (print) | LCCN 2020051807 (ebook) | ISBN 9780367441364 (hardback) | ISBN 9780367441371 (paperback) | ISBN 9781003007890 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: English language–​Phonetic transcriptions. | English language–​Transcription. Classification: LCC PE1135.C275 2021 (print) | LCC PE1135 (ebook) | DDC 421/​.58–​dc23 LC record available at https://​lccn.loc.gov/​2020051806 LC ebook record available at https://​lccn.loc.gov/​2020051807 ISBN: 9780367441364 (hbk) ISBN: 9780367441371 (pbk) ISBN: 9781003007890 (ebk) Typeset in Times New Roman by Newgen Publishing UK Access the Support Material: paulcarley.com

To Jack Windsor Lewis, a great phonetic mind and a dear phonetic friend.

CONTENTS

Symbols for phonemic transcription  Phonetic symbols and diacritics  The International Phonetic Alphabet  Preface and acknowledgements  Before you start transcribing… 

xiii xiv xvi xvii xix

PART A

Transcribing words 

1

1 The familiar consonants /​p b t d k ɡ f v s z h m n w l r/​ and the vowels /​ɪ æ e ɒ ʌ ʊ/​ 

3

2 Primary stress, schwa /​ə/​and unstressed kit /​ɪ/​ 

9

1.1 Consonants with familiar symbols  3 1.2 The kit /​ɪ/​ vowel  4 1.3 The trap /​æ/​ vowel  5 1.4 The dress /​e/​ vowel  5 1.5 The lot /​ɒ/​ vowel  6 1.6 The strut /​ʌ/​ vowel  7 1.7 The foot /​ʊ/​ vowel  7 1.8 Chapter revision  8

2.1 Word stress  9 2.2 Schwa /​ə/​  9 2.3 The unstressed kit /​ɪ/​ vowel  11 2.4 Variation between schwa /​ə/​ and kit /​ɪ/​  11 2.5 Chapter revision  12

viii Contents

3 Consonants with unfamiliar symbols /ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ j ŋ θ ð/ 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8

4 The FLEECE /iː/ and GOOSE /uː/ vowels 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5

13

The unfamiliar consonant /ʃ/ 13 The unfamiliar consonant /ʒ/ 13 The unfamiliar consonant /ʧ/ 14 The unfamiliar consonant /ʤ/ 14 The unfamiliar consonant /j/ 15 The unfamiliar consonant /ŋ/ 15 The unfamiliar consonants /θ/ and /ð/ 16 Chapter revision 17

18

The FLEECE /iː/ vowel 18 The unstressed FLEECE /iː/ vowel 19 The GOOSE /uː/ vowel 20 The unstressed GOOSE /uː/ vowel 21 Chapter revision 22

5 The PALM /ɑː/, THOUGHT /ɔː/, NURSE /ɜː/ and SQUARE /ɛː/ vowels

23

6 The FACE /eɪ/, PRICE /aɪ/ and CHOICE /ɔɪ/ vowels

29

5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5

6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5

The PALM /ɑː/ vowel 23 The THOUGHT /ɔː/ vowel 24 The NURSE /ɜː/ vowel 26 The SQUARE /ɛː/ vowel 27 Chapter revision 27

The FACE /eɪ/ vowel 29 The PRICE /aɪ/ vowel 30 The CHOICE /ɔɪ/ vowel 30 FACE /eɪ/, PRICE /aɪ/ and CHOICE /ɔɪ/ before vowels 31 Chapter revision 31

7 The GOAT /əʊ/ and MOUTH /aʊ/ vowels

33

8 The NEAR /ɪə/ and CURE /ʊə/ vowels

36

7.1 The GOAT /əʊ/ vowel 33 7.2 The MOUTH /aʊ/ vowel 34 7.3 GOAT /əʊ/ and MOUTH /aʊ/ before vowels 34 7.4 Chapter revision 35

8.1 The NEAR /ɪə/ vowel 36 8.2 The CURE /ʊə/ vowel 37 8.3 Diphthong revision 37

Contents  ix

9 Syllabic consonants 

39

9.1 Syllabic consonants  39 9.2 Syllabic  /​l/​  40 9.3 Syllabic  /​n/​  41 9.4 Sequences of syllabic consonants  43 9.5 Syllabic /​m/​and /​ŋ/​  43 9.6 Desyllabification  43 9.7 Chapter revision  44

10 Secondary stress 

45

10.1 Secondary stress before the primary stress  45 10.2 Secondary stress after the primary stress  47 10.3 Word-​stress pairs  49 10.4 Sequences of unstressed syllables  50 10.5 Stressing of compounds  51 10.6 Chapter revision  52

11 Inflections and epenthesis 

54

11.1 The -​ed inflection  54 11.2 The -​s inflection  56 11.3 Epenthesis  58 11.4 Optional consonants  59 11.5 Chapter revision  59 PART B

Transcribing connected speech 

61

12 Connected speech and liaison 

63

12.1 Introducing connected speech  63 12.2 Liaison  65 12.3 Analogical /​r/​-​liaison  66 12.4 Liaison in Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL)  67 12.5 Chapter revision  68

13 Stress and weak forms  13.1 Transcribing stress in connected speech  69 13.2 Weak forms and contractions  70 13.3 Weak forms and contractions: personal pronouns  70 13.4 Weak forms and contractions: possessive adjectives  72 13.5 Weak forms and contractions: articles and quantifiers  73 13.6 Weak forms and contractions: prepositions  74

69

x

Contents

13.7 13.8 13.9 13.10 13.11 13.12 13.13

Weak forms and contractions: BE 75 Weak forms and contractions: auxiliary HAVE 76 Weak forms and contractions: auxiliary DO 78 Weak forms and contractions: modal verbs 80 Weak forms and contractions: conjunctions 81 Weak forms and contractions: miscellaneous 83 Use of strong forms 84

14 Elision 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 14.7 14.8 14.9 14.10 14.11 14.12 14.13 14.14

15 Assimilation 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 15.7 15.8 15.9 15.10 15.11 15.12 15.13 15.14 15.15 15.16

86

Elision 86 Elision of /t/ 87 Elision of /t/ in /st/ + consonant 88 Elision of /t/ in /kt/ + consonant 88 Elision of /t/ in /ft/ + consonant 88 Elision of /t/ in /pt/ + consonant 89 Elision of /t/ in /ʃt/ and /ʧt/ + consonant 89 Elision of /d/ 89 Elision of /d/ in /nd/ + consonant 90 Elision of /d/ in /ld/ + consonant 90 Elision of /d/ in /md ŋd bd ɡd ʤd vd ðd zd ʒd/ + consonant 91 Elision of /k/ in /sk/ + consonant 91 Elision of /p/ and /k/ in /mpt/ and /ŋkt/ 91 Chapter revision 92

Assimilation 93 Assimilation of /n/ to /m/ 94 Assimilation of /n/ to /ŋ/ 94 Assimilation of syllabic /n/ to syllabic /m/ or /ŋ/ 95 Assimilation of /d/ to /b/ 95 Assimilation of /d/ to /ɡ/ 96 Assimilation of /t/ to /p/ 97 Assimilation of /t/ to /k/ 97 Assimilation of /s/ to /ʃ/ and /z/ to /ʒ/ 98 Coalescent assimilation of /t/ and /j/ to /ʧ/, and /d/ and /j/ to /ʤ/ 98 Variable coalescent assimilation of /s/ and /z/ + /j/ 99 Assimilation or elision 100 Multiple assimilations, or elision combined with assimilation 101 Assimilation of /ð/ 104 Assimilation of /ən/ in happen, taken, etc. 104 Simplification of fricative clusters 104

93

Contents  xi

15.17 Voicing in obstruent + obstruent clusters  105 15.18 Irregular assimilations and elisions  105 15.19 Chapter revision  106

16 Connected speech: extended practice 

107

PART C

Transcribing intonation 

113

17 An introduction to intonation 

115

17.1 Transcribing intonation  115 17.2 The anatomy of intonation: the nucleus  116 17.3 The anatomy of intonation: nuclear tones  116 17.4 The anatomy of intonation: the tail  117 17.5 The anatomy of intonation: the head  117 17.6 The anatomy of intonation: the pre-​head  118

18 Nucleus and tail 

119

18.1 The nucleus and the nuclear tones  119 18.2 Short syllables  121 18.3 Tails  122 18.4 Chapter revision  125

19 Head and pre-​head 

126

19.1 Heads  126 19.2 Pre-​heads  128 19.3 Chapter revision  129 19.4 Intonation revision I  130 19.5 Intonation revision II  130

20 Intonation: extended practice 

132

Appendices A Summary of consonant and vowel theory 

136

A.1 The vocal tract  136 A.2 Consonants  136 A.3 Vowels  143

B Phonetic transcription  B.1 Phonemic and phonetic transcription  146 B.2 Accurate IPA symbols  146

146

xii Contents

B.3  Variation in length  148 B.4  Nasalisation  149 B.5  Aspiration and fricative /​r/​  149 B.6  Devoicing of obstruents  150 B.7  Glottal reinforcement, ejectives and glottal replacement  150 B.8  Fronting, retracting and lip-​rounding  151 B.9  Clear and dark /​l/​  152 B.10 Release stage of plosives  152 B.11 Voiced /​t/​, labio-​dental nasal [ɱ] and allophones of /​h/​  153 B.12 Chapter revision  154

References and suggested reading  Index 

155 157

SYMBOLS FOR PHONEMIC TRANSCRIPTION

Consonants

Vowels

/​p/​ /​b/​ /​t/​ /​d/​ /​k/​ /​ɡ/​

pie, spot, tip buy, rob tie, stop, bat dim, said cat, skip, pick go, pig

/​ʧ/​ /​ʤ/​

chin, nature, fetch gin, judge

/​ɪ/​ kit, busy, build, pretty, myth /​ʊ/​ foot, put, wolf, could /​e/​ dress, said, any, friend, bury /​æ/​ trap, gas, carry, bad /​ʌ/​ strut, come, country, blood /​ɒ/​ lot, want, squash, sausage /​ə/​ schwa, ago, era, later, actor

/​f/​ /​v/​ /​θ/​ /​ð/​ /​s/​ /​z/​ /​ʃ/​ /​ʒ/​ /​h/​

fan, rough, photo van, river, give thing, bath that, father, clothe sit, circle, miss zoo, cousin, rose ship, mission, nation treasure, vision hat, behind

/​m/​ /​n/​ /​ŋ/​

man, summer, hum not, run finger, singer, rang

/​j/​ /​w/​ /​r/​ /​l/​

yes, unit, yard wet, one, queen red, rare, roar lost, silly, bill

/​iː/​ /​uː/​ /​ɑː/​ /​ɔː/​ /​ɜː/​ /​ɛː/​

fleece ,

tea, be, brief, police do, two, lose, flew palm , heart, car, bath, ask thought , law, all, port, more nurse , first, herd, turn, work square , hair, vary, parent goose ,

/​eɪ/​ /​aɪ/​ /​ɔɪ/​

faint, they, day, break die, cry, high, buy choice , toy, noise, oyster

/​aʊ/​ /​əʊ/​

mouth ,

/​ɪə/​ /​ʊə/​

near ,

face ,

price ,

goat ,

cure ,

now, mouse, brown go, toe, flow, loaf, roll beer, hero, fierce, ear tour, poor, moor, pure

PHONETIC SYMBOLS AND DIACRITICS

/​ /​ [ ]‌

* [ː] [̯] [ˑ] [  ̃ ] [h] [˭] [˳] [ˬ] [ʔ] [̪] [̟] [̠] [̈] [ʷ] [ɫ] [ⁿ] [ˡ] [⁰] [˺] [ ̩]

phonemic transcription phonetic transcription spelling incorrect form long, e.g. flee [fliː] non-​syllabic, e.g. pie [päːɪ̯] half-​long, e.g. heat [hiˑt] nasalised, e.g. sing [sɪŋ̃ ] aspirated, e.g. pit [pʰɪt] unaspirated, e.g. spit [sp˭ɪt] devoiced, e.g. bit [b̥ ɪt] voiced, e.g better [ˈbet̬ ə] glottal plosive, as glottal reinforcement, e.g. background [ˈbæʔkˌɡraʊnd], or glottal replacement, e.g. at school [əʔ ˈskuːl] dental, e.g. tenth [ten̪ θ] fronted, e.g. keen [k̟ iːn] retracted, e.g. hunch [hʌṉʧ], score [sḵɔː] centralised, e.g. hard [hɑ̈ːd] labialised (lip-​rounded), e.g. twin [tʷwɪn] voiced velarised alveolar lateral approximant (‘dark /​l/​’), e.g. well [weɫ] nasal release, e.g. hidden [ˈhɪdⁿn̩] lateral release, e.g. little [ˈlɪtˡl ̩] unreleased, e.g. take care [ˈteɪk⁰ ˈkɛː] inaudible release, e.g. take part [ˈteɪk˺ ˈpɑːt] syllabic, e.g. Britain [ˈbrɪtn̩]

Phonetic symbols and diacritics  xv

[ˈ] [ˌ] [ʼ] [ɱ] [ɦ] [ç] [ɹ] [ɛ] [a]‌ [ʌ̈] [ɔ̞] [ɵ] [ ɪ ̝ːi̯ ] [ɑ̈ː] [o̞ː] [əː] [ɘ] [ʉː] [ɵːʉ̯] [e̞ːɪ̯ ] [äːɪ̯ ] [ɔːɪ̯ ] [əːʊ̯] [äːʊ̯] [ɪː] [ɪːə̯] [ɵː] [ɵːə̯]

primary stress, e.g. intend [ɪnˈtend] secondary stress, e.g. entertain [ˌentəˈteɪn] ejective, e.g. back [bækʼ] voiced labio-​dental nasal, e.g. invent [ɪɱˈvent] voiced glottal fricative, e.g. ahead [əˈɦed] voiceless palatal fricative, e.g. huge [çjuːʤ] phonetic transcription of /​r/​ phonetic transcription of dress /​e/​ phonetic transcription of trap /​æ/​ phonetic transcription of strut /​ʌ/​ phonetic transcription of lot /​ɒ/​ phonetic transcription of foot /​ʊ/​ phonetic transcription of diphthongal variant of fleece /​iː/​ phonetic transcription of palm /​ɑː/​ phonetic transcription of thought /​ɔː/​ phonetic transcription of nurse /​ɜː/​ phonetic transcription of retracted kit /​ɪ/​ phonetic transcription of monophthongal variant of goose /​uː/​ phonetic transcription of diphthongal variant of goose /​uː/​ phonetic transcription of face /​eɪ/​ phonetic transcription of price /​aɪ/​ phonetic transcription of choice /​ɔɪ/​ phonetic transcription of goat /​əʊ/​ phonetic transcription of mouth /​aʊ/​ phonetic transcription of monophthongal variant of near /​ɪə/​ phonetic transcription of diphthongal variant of near /​ɪə/​ phonetic transcription of monophthongal variant of cure /​ʊə/​ phonetic transcription of diphthongal variant of cure /​ʊə/​

THE INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET

PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

British English Phonetic Transcription is a comprehensive and thorough transcription course, consisting of three parts teaching the transcription of words, connected speech and intonation. Within each part, new symbols and concepts are systematically introduced, thoroughly practised and integrated into future practice. Revision exercises are included at the end of each chapter. Two appendices 1)  introduce the basics of English consonant and vowel theory, and 2) provide practice in narrow phonetic transcription for advanced learners. Further practice, recordings and a key to exercises are available online (at paulcarley.com). We’d like to thank Geoff Lindsey, Director of the University College London (UCL) Summer Course in English Phonetics (SCEP), for inviting us to lecture and teach at SCEP and for sharing his many valuable insights into current trends in British speech (collected in his English After RP, 2019). Another SCEP colleague whose phonetic work we’ve relied on during the writing of this book is Professor Jane Setter, co-editor of the Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary (2011), and author of the fascinating Your Voice Speaks Volumes (2019). A final SCEP colleague we’ve learnt much from and whose hospitality we’ve enjoyed over the years is our good friend Jack Windsor Lewis. In our many conversations we’ve benefited from his acute powers of observation and gained a lot pleasure from discussing phonetic matters. Thanks also go to Luke Nicholson (of improveyouraccent.co.uk) for giving us an insider’s view of the pronunciation of the younger generations, and for sharing his experience of improving the pronunciation of learners from numerous language backgrounds.

xviii  Preface and acknowledgements

Of our colleagues outside the UK, we’d like to thank Petr Rösel in Germany, Brian Mott in Spain, Alex Rotatori in Italy and Hiroshi Miura in Japan for their continuing support of our phonetic endeavours. A special note of thanks goes to Andrés Asiático for his meticulous reading of the manuscript and for his many perceptive comments. Finally, we’re grateful to our copy editor Rosemary Morlin for doing such a great job on what is such a difficult manuscript. Paul Carley and Inger M. Mees Pant Farm and Copenhagen, Bonfire Night 2020

BEFORE YOU START TRANSCRIBING…

Why transcribe? Transcription clarifies what the sounds of English are and how they combine to form words, something that both native and non-​native speakers have very confused ideas about because of the complex, irregular and misleading English spelling system. Without a clear understanding of the English sound system and what sounds occur in what words, it’s impossible to discuss, teach or learn English pronunciation effectively. The same is true of connected speech processes and intonation –​transcription provides a means of understanding what are otherwise confusing and misunderstood aspects of pronunciation.

The structure of the book This book consists of three parts, each part presenting a progressive, step-​by-​ step course in a different aspect of transcription: • • •

Part A will teach you how to make phonemic transcriptions of individual words, like those in a dictionary. Part B will teach you how to transcribe phrases and sentences, known as ‘connected speech’. Part C will teach you about the structure of English intonation and how to transcribe it.

You should study the parts in order. Part B in particular can’t be tackled without having mastered the contents of Part A.  The chapters within each part should also be studied in order because the practice material for each new topic includes and revises all the previous topics. Copious practice material is

xx  Before you start transcribing…

included, while a key to all exercises, further practice and recordings are available online (at paulcarley.com). Two appendices are also included. Appendix A consists of a concise summary of the phonetics of English consonants and vowels, and should be considered optional background reading. In particular, it’ll support your understanding of the connected speech processes met in Part B. Appendix B consists of an additional advanced chapter suitable for the most ambitious learners. It’ll teach you how to use the full resources of the alphabet of the International Phonetic Association to make detailed phonetic transcriptions of English sounds.

Phonemic transcription vs. phonetic transcription We use the term ‘phonetic transcription’ in the title of this book because that’s how non-​linguists usually refer to transcription and because we want people who are searching for a book like this to be able to find it easily. In linguistics, however, and especially in phonetics and phonology (the areas of linguistics that deal with sounds), the term ‘phonetic transcription’ is reserved for a specific kind of transcription, a kind of transcription that’s different from what non-​linguists usually have in mind when they think of ‘phonetic transcription’. In non-​ specialist usage, ‘phonetic transcription’ means using special symbols to indicate the sounds of English unambiguously without the irregularities and complexities of normal English spelling. In its purest form, this means having one symbol for each of the sounds in the English sound system. In linguistics, this one-​symbol-​per-​sound approach to transcription is called phonemic transcription, because the significant sounds in the sound system of a language are called phonemes. To linguists, phonetic transcription means using more than one symbol for each of the significant sounds in the sound system of a language. It means using extra symbols to indicate the subtle ways in which phonemes can vary in different contexts. It’s called phonetic transcription because it shows more phonetic details than are strictly necessary to distinguish one phoneme from another. The majority of this book is devoted to phonemic transcription (Parts A and B), while one chapter (Appendix B) deals with the rather advanced technical question of phonetic transcription. Note that phonemic transcriptions are enclosed within slanted brackets (i.e. /​/​) and phonetic transcriptions within square brackets (i.e. [ ]‌), and that when we quote spellings, we put them in angle brackets (i.e. ).

The type of practice Over the years, we’ve experimented with many different kinds of activity for teaching transcription and have come to the conclusion that the best way to learn to transcribe is by transcribing. Exercises that involve reading

Before you start transcribing…  xxi

transcriptions, matching them with words, grouping them in different ways, finding mistakes, etc., can be fun, but they tend to result in a vague, passive understanding of transcription. In practice, it’s far better for learners to transcribe words and/​or phrases with the newly introduced symbols and then to receive feedback either from an instructor or by checking the key. In fact, this is the essence of the learning process –​making an attempt at a transcription, and then immediately getting feedback which confirms or corrects the attempt. Learning to transcribe means going through this process of transcribing and checking again and again, and thereby building up an understanding of the sounds of English words and utterances.

Use of recordings Transcription can be done either from text or from dictation. When done from text, the aim is to produce one of perhaps many possible correct transcriptions. There can be more than one correct answer because many words can be pronounced in more than one way, especially longer words, and in connected speech, there are further equally correct alternatives. When transcribing from dictation, however, the aim isn’t only to show your knowledge of words and connected speech processes, but to show your ability to hear which particular variant is used on this particular occasion and to transcribe it correctly. In this book, we provide recordings for Part A  (transcribing words) and Part C (transcribing intonation). In the case of transcribing words, this provides the non-​native learner with the option of gaining additional exposure to English sounds while transcribing. When it comes to intonation, recordings are essential because this part of the book does more than just explain the structure of English intonation and provide symbols for its transcription –​it teaches you to recognise the pitch patterns that make up English intonation, and so it’s impossible to study this section without the recordings. In contrast, Part B on connected speech and Appendix B on phonetic transcription don’t require recordings because in these cases, transcription is more about demonstrating understanding of connected speech processes and English allophones than recognising them when heard.

Accent The accent we transcribe in this book is General British (GB), also known as Standard Southern British English (SSBE), which is the descendant of twentieth-​century RP, encompassing modern pronunciation tendencies and a wider range of variants. This is an accent familiar to everyone in the UK as the kind of English accent that’s common in broadcasting and which enjoys the most prestige. It’s also the accent used in dictionaries and as the British model for teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL).

xxii  Before you start transcribing…

Native and non-​native English speakers We expect this book to be used by non-​native students and teachers of English as well as by native speakers studying TEFL, speech and language therapy and drama. These two groups will approach this book in different ways. Non-​natives will be looking to improve and correct their pronunciation to make it more like the model provided, while native speakers will be learning about their own pronunciation through comparison with a well-​ known reference accent. This will sometimes make a difference to how you approach the transcription exercises. When there are equally acceptable alternative pronunciations and you are directed to transcribe your own usage, native speakers should transcribe the variant they themselves use. Non-​native speakers, on the other hand, should consider what variant they usually use and whether it’s an acceptable one, according to the guidance provided. If so, they should transcribe it. If not, they should adopt and transcribe one of the acceptable variants.

Symbols When transcribing, you should take care to get the shapes of the symbols just right because some of them are rather similar and tend to look the same when written in everyday handwriting. It’s best, therefore, to draw each symbol slowly and carefully, aiming to make it as close as possible to its printed form, and paying attention to the relative heights of symbols and how they extend above and below the line. See the following chart for examples.

Before you start transcribing…  xxiii

British pronunciation compared with American For the benefit of instructors using this book in combination with its General American (GA) counterpart (American English Phonetic Transcription), we include a concise comparison of the two accents, taking General British as our starting point. The two consonant systems are virtually the same, with the following exceptions: •

• •

• •

In GB, /​r/​only occurs before a vowel, i.e. not before a consonant or a pause, while in GA, /​r/​can occur before a vowel, consonant or pause, i.e. it’s pronounced wherever it occurs in the spelling. In GA, when syllable-​final /​t/​occurs between vowels (e.g. city), it is typically realised as voiced /​t/​, transcribed /​t̬ /​. Where GB has /​t d n/​+ /​j/​before the goose /​uː/​ (or cure /​ʊə/​) vowels (e.g. tune, duke, during, news), GA typically has no /​j/​. Furthermore, in modern GB, /​tj/​and /​dj/​tend to be replaced with /​ʧ/​and /​ʤ/​ respectively. Where GB varies between syllabic and non-syllabic /n/ after /t/ and /d/, GA usually has syllabic /n/ (e.g. kitten, sudden). Where GB can have syllabic /​n/​, GA has /​ərn/​in certain words (e.g. pattern).

There are more differences in the vowel systems of the two accents: •

•

•

• • • •

Where GB has the thought /​ɔː/​vowel spelt without an (e.g. law), some varieties of the GA accent also have the thought vowel (we call these ‘thought-​ful’ accents), while others have the palm vowel (we call these ‘thought-​less’ accents). Where GB has the thought /​ɔː/​vowel spelt with an (e.g. store), all varieties of GA have the similar-​sounding sport [o]‌vowel followed by /​r/​. In thought-​ful accents, the sport [o] vowel is analysed as the GA thought vowel, while in thought -​less accents it’s analysed as the GA goat vowel. Where GB has the lot /​ɒ/​vowel (e.g. rock), GA has the palm vowel. A subset of words which have the GB lot /​ɒ/​vowel, known as the cloth set of words (e.g. dog, long), have the thought vowel in some varieties of GA (alongside the palm vowel in the remaining lot words). Where GB has the lot /​ɒ/​vowel before intervocalic /​r/​(e.g. orange), GA varies between the sport [o]‌vowel and the palm vowel. Where GB has the near /​ɪə/​vowel (e.g. clear) or the kit /​ɪ/​ vowel + /​r/​ (e.g. mirror), GA has the fleece vowel + /​r/​. Where GB has the square /​ɛː/​vowel (e.g. scare), GA has the dress vowel  +  /​r/​. Where GB has the trap /​æ/​vowel + /​r/​(e.g. carry), GA usually has the dress vowel + /​r/​.

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xxiv  Before you start transcribing…

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Where GB has the strut /​ʌ/​vowel (e.g. bus), GA has stressed schwa /​ə/​. Where GB has the strut /​ʌ/​vowel + /​r/​(e.g. courage), GA has stressed schwa /​ə/​  +  /​r/​. Where GB has the nurse /​ɜː/​vowel (e.g. girl), GA has stressed schwa /​ə/​  +  /​r/​. Where GB has schwa /​ə/​, GA has unstressed schwa /​ə/​when there is no in the spelling (e.g. China), and unstressed schwa /​ə/​+ /​r/​when there is an in the spelling (e.g. manner). Where GB has the cure /​ʊə/​vowel, GA has stressed schwa /​ə/​ + /​r/​ in most words (e.g. sure) and the goose vowel + /​r/​in the remaining words (e.g. tour). Where GB has the unstressed /​ɪ/​ kit vowel (e.g. rocket), GA often has unstressed schwa. Where GB has the palm /​ɑː/​vowel in a set of words known as the bath words (e.g. grass), GA has the trap vowel. Where GB has the trap /​æ/​vowel in certain loanwords, GA has the palm vowel (e.g. pasta).

PART A

Transcribing words

1 THE FAMILIAR CONSONANTS /​p b t d k ɡ f v s z h m n w l r/​ AND THE VOWELS /​ɪ æ e ɒ ʌ ʊ/​

1.1  Consonants with familiar symbols Of the 24 English consonant phonemes /​ˈfəʊˌniːmz/​, 16 are transcribed with symbols which are the same as letters commonly used to represent the same phonemes in normal English spelling. They are: /​p/​ /​b/​ /​t/​ /​d/​ /​k/​ /​ɡ/​ /​f/​ /​v/​

post, top, happy big, job, hobby top, cat, matter dog, bad, ladder cut, look, lack, quit go, leg, maggot fit, phone, stiff van, give

/​s/​ /​z/​ /​h/​ /​m/​ /​n/​ /​w/​ /​l/​ /​r/​

sit, miss, city zoo, please, maze house, who moon, ram, hammer now, ten, dinner wet, when like, still run, very, hurry

It’s very convenient that so many of the phonemic symbols for English consonants are like the letters used in ordinary spelling, but there are still a number of potential pitfalls to be remembered when transcribing these consonants: 1) We don’t use the letters , or in English phonemic transcription. We don’t need them because they are used in English spelling to represent sounds which we already have phonemic symbols for:  is a spelling of /​k/​and /​s/​(e.g. cut, city), is a further alternative spelling of /​k/​ (e.g. queen), and usually represents /​ks/​(e.g. box, extra) or /​ɡz/​ (e.g. exam, exist). 2) We don’t use capital letters in phonemic transcription. The symbol for a sound remains the same at the beginning of sentences, names, place-​ names, etc. (e.g. Tim /​tɪm/​, London /​ˈlʌndən/​).

4  Transcribing words

3) The phonemic symbol /​s/​is only used for the /​s/​sound, but in ordinary spelling the letter is often used for /​z/​(e.g. his, these, noise, lose) as well as /​s/​. You must be careful when transcribing /​s/​that the word you’re transcribing really does have /​s/​, not /​z/​. 4) The digraphs (two-​letter spellings) and in words like back and phone represent single phonemes, /​k/​in back and /​f/​in phone. 5) In English, consonant letters are often doubled even though they represent a single consonant phoneme. For example, in happy, hobby, matter, ladder, stiff, hammer, dinner and hurry, the letters , , , , , , and represent single /​p/​, /​b/​, /​t/​, /​d/​, /​f/​, /​m/​, /​n/​and /​r/​. Sequences of the same phoneme, such as /​mm/​in roommate, /​dd/​ in midday and /​nn/​in unnamed, are rare in English words but when they do occur, they are clearly made up of separate word elements (room + mate, mid + day, un + named), each contributing one of the phonemes. 6) Naturally, there are no ‘silent’ letters in phonemic transcription as there are in normal English spelling. Knit, for example, is transcribed /​nɪt/​, and debt is  /​det/​. 7) We don’t use the letter shape in transcriptions. The phonemic symbol for the consonant at the beginning and end of gag is /​ɡ/​. On the subject of symbol shapes, note also that the symbol for the /​w/​phoneme has pointed bottoms and that this is also how we write it by hand in order not to confuse it with a similar IPA symbol with rounded bottoms, namely [ɯ]. The symbols for vowels are more difficult to learn than those for consonants, so first we’ll limit ourselves to these 16 familiar consonants in this and the next chapter before introducing the remaining eight unfamiliar consonants in Chapter 3. This way we’ll be able to concentrate on transcribing each of the new vowel symbols without the distraction of any unfamiliar consonant symbols.

1.2  The kit /​ɪ/​  vowel The first of the six vowels that we’ll be transcribing in this chapter is known as the kit vowel and has the phonemic symbol /​ɪ/​, a small version of the capital letter which is the same height as the letters . Be careful not to make this symbol too tall. Note that in the Times New Roman font, the [ɪ] symbol isn’t very satisfactory. The serifs /​ˈserɪfs/​, the additional small lines at the ends of the main line, are an essential part of this symbol and should be more prominent. When transcribing by hand, you should give the kit /​ɪ/​symbol the shape indicated on page xxii. In stressed syllables, the kit vowel /​ɪ/​is usually spelt with the letter (e.g. lip, tin) and sometimes with (e.g. cyst, gym). It is spelt in England,

Familiar consonants and short vowels  5

English and pretty, in sieve, in women and in busy and business (see Section 2.3 for kit in unstressed syllables). Homophones: which, witch /​wɪʧ/​; gilt, guilt /​ɡɪlt/​; gild, guild /​ɡɪld/​; in, inn /​ɪn/​; Finn, fin /​fɪn/​; sick, sic /​sɪk/​; tic, tick  /​tɪk/​.

Transcribe these words with the kit /​ɪ/​  vowel. 1 ) big, still, list, film, win, trip, pick, six, give, quick 2) kid, skin, hill, miss, hit, bit, risk, tip, bill, mix 3) sick, split, twin, fit, sit, hip, tin, kill, stick, lift The key and recordings for all exercises in Part A can be downloaded at paulcarley.com.

1.3  The trap /​æ/​  vowel The next vowel is known as the trap vowel and its phonemic symbol is /​æ/​. This can be tricky to write neatly, so you should practise writing it with a single stroke, starting at the top left and finishing at the bottom right. This kind of symbol, made by joining two letters together, is known as a ligature /​ˈlɪɡəʧə/​. Other ligatures used in the IPA alphabet include [œ] ( plus ), [ɶ] (small capital plus ) and [ɮ] ( plus ). The trap vowel /​æ/​is nearly always spelt with the letter (e.g. black, cat). In plaid and plait it’s spelt . Homophones: dam, damn /​dæm/​; rap, wrap /​ræp/​; ad, add /​æd/​; knap, nap /​næp/​; rack, wrack  /​ræk/​.

Transcribe these words with the trap /​æ/​  vowel. 1 ) man, back, tax, plan, mass, track, tag, add, van, fact 2) brand, fat, stand, act, vat, pack, tab, black, rant, snack 3) fan, wrap, gas, lab, ban, lack, cat, flat, hand, snap

Transcribe these words with the kit /​ɪ/ vowel or the trap /​æ/​  vowel. 1 ) tap, mat, trim, strand, tick, rack, lip, drag, pin, rim 2) lap, grin, lad, wig, scrap, grill, bat, wit, span, lid 3) valve, stiff, skim, wax, wrist, grip, trap, pill, knit, tram

1.4  The dress /​e/​ vowel The next vowel, the dress /​e/​vowel, is one of the easiest to transcribe because its phonemic symbol is the same as its most common spelling, . In fact, many words with the dress vowel look the same in phonemic transcription as

6  Transcribing words

they do in ordinary spelling (e.g. men /​men/​, test /​test/​, left /​left/​). The spelling is also common (e.g. dead, sweat). Exceptional spellings include in many, any, Thames and ate, in said and again(st), in jeopardy and leopard, in says, in leisure, in friend and in bury. Note that ate and again(st) have alternative pronunciations with the face vowel /​eɪ/​; see Section 6.1. The symbol [e]‌is used for the dress vowel in the two main specialist pronunciation dictionaries as well as in all the mainstream EFL materials that use a British model. However, there are some works not aimed at an EFL audience which use the symbol [ɛ], notably Oxford’s non-​EFL dictionaries and the Routledge Dictionary of Pronunciation for Current English. In recent years, internet browsers have begun to include a dictionary function based on Oxford’s non-​EFL dictionaries, and this has brought the [ɛ] symbol to the attention of a wider audience. Homophones: cell, sell /​sel/​; cent, scent, sent /​sent/​; bread, bred /​bred/​; lead (metal), led /​led/​; lent, leant /​lent/​; read, red /​red/​; rest, wrest /​rest/​; step, steppe /​step/​; whet, wet  /​wet/​.

Transcribe these words with the dress /​e/​  vowel. 1 ) best, next, web, help, set, well, press, red, let, end 2) bread, rent, text, pet, head, den, rest, friend, step, dress 3) bed, bell, neck, desk, spread, pen, wet, mess, hell, ten

Transcribe these words with the kit /​ɪ/​, trap /​æ/​ or dress /​e/​ vowels. 1 ) 2) 3) 4)

nest, wag, vet, lick, bent, limb, melt, flint, axe, pest drift, rag, drip, pram, sift, vent, fig, tract, skid, tread din, nip, sap, deck, gift, dam, frisk, crest, glint, ramp kilt, plaid, lilt, nick, glen, kit, damp, lag, sniff, crab

1.5  The lot /​ɒ/​  vowel The lot vowel has the phonemic symbol /​ɒ/​, which may look odd at first but is actually just , the handwritten form of the letter , turned upside down. You might find it easier to write if you think of it as the letter without the ascending line. The lot vowel /​ɒ/​is usually spelt with the letter (e.g. pocket, donkey). In a number of words it is spelt with the letter preceded by /​w/​spelt (e.g. warrior, swallow), (e.g. quarry, squander) or (e.g. what). Exceptional spellings include in cauliflower, laurel and sausage, in cough and trough, in bureaucracy, in (ac)knowledge and not preceded by /​w/​in yacht. Homophones: watt, what /​wɒt/​; knot, not /​nɒt/​; lock, loch  /​lɒk/​.

Familiar consonants and short vowels  7

Transcribe these words with the lot /​ɒ/​  vowel. 1 ) top, want, stop, log, stock, cost, rock, hot, golf, box 2) loss, bomb, spot, god, boss, block, crop, plot, dog, swan 3) rob, squad, bond, fox, cross, drop, lock, pot, what

Transcribe these words with the kit /​ɪ/​, trap /​æ/​, dress /​e/​ or lot /​ɒ/​ vowels. 1 ) 2) 3) 4)

quill, keg, sag, twig, silt, flock, crib, pact, sect, cleanse smack, mop, knock, limp, fad, whim, mend, fizz, amp, bib wand, squint, slack, scalp, fog, wren, cod, bless, bid, clamp guild, zap, splint, frill, elm, dock, wasp, cog, whisk, bend

1.6  The strut /​ʌ/​  vowel The strut vowel has the phonemic symbol /​ʌ/​, which is the letter turned upside down. The most common spelling of the strut vowel is (e.g. gutter), while the spelling occurs in a number of common words (e.g. cover). In a dozen or so words, strut is spelt (e.g. country, southern). Exceptional spellings include in flood and blood, and for /​wʌ/​ in one and once. The accents of the north of England have no strut vowel and instead have the foot vowel /​ʊ/​(see Section 1.7) in strut words. Homophones:  rough, ruff /​rʌf/​; son, sun /​sʌn/​; none, nun /​nʌn/​; one, won /​wʌn/​; done, dun /​dʌn/​; plum, plumb /​plʌm/​; scull, skull /​skʌl/​.

Transcribe these words with the strut /​ʌ/​  vowel. 1 ) up, run, love, son, plus, front, club, trust, rough, stuff 2) hub, drug, pub, cut, hull, tough, cup, hunt, plug, blood 3) bus, bump, fund, truck, bulk, gun, ton, sum, tub, puff

Transcribe these words with the kit /​ɪ/​, trap /​æ/​, dress /​e/​, lot /​ɒ/​ or strut /​ʌ/​ vowels. 1 ) 2) 3) 4)

dull, delve, hum, quack, crypt, lust, gloss, dove (n.), tusk swamp, trough, squat, scrub, when, scuff, snag, none, swill cuff, glove, cot, cyst, muck, swat, bulb, whack, tug, fob bud, stomp, buck, dread, blimp, trot, wok, wad, beg, hob

1.7  The foot /​ʊ/​  vowel The foot vowel has the phonemic symbol /​ʊ/​, which is the Latin alphabet version of the Greek letter upsilon . It’s a difficult symbol to write neatly, so make sure you practise until you get it just right.

8  Transcribing words

The most common spelling of the foot vowel is (e.g. wooden), followed by (e.g. cushion). Exceptional spellings include in bosom, wolf and woman, in courier, could, should and would, and in worsted. The foot /​ʊ/​vowel doesn’t occur in many words, but this doesn’t mean that it isn’t an important vowel because, as you can see from the practice material below, many of the words it occurs in are very common everyday words. Homophones: wood, would  /​wʊd/​.

Transcribe these words with the foot /​ʊ/​  vowel. 1 ) look, put, good, book, full, woof, hook 2) nook, wood, pull, took, wolf, stood, cook 3) foot, crook, hood, rook, brook, bull, wool

1.8  Chapter revision Transcribe these words with the kit /​ɪ/​, trap /​æ/​, dress /​e/​, lot /​ɒ/​, strut /​ʌ/​ or foot /​ʊ/​ vowels. 1) quit, ram, wolf, egg, trick, buzz, scant, swap, cliff, flood, quest, skull 2) guess, squid, helm, rub, scab, smog, peg, snug, quilt, crack, knot, bull 3) kick, strut, floss, scrum, book, sweat, cough, slam, duck, sieve, blob, twist 4) gulf, spell, doll, foot, clump, plait, scan, fix, twelve, blonde, hymn, drum 5) hook, knack, sculpt, whelk, bronze, frizz, gut, gram, quell, frost, swab, hem 6) stud, breast, smock, build, pat, milk, realm, blitz, pull, sulk, sob, ant 7) fib, crumb, stress, sock, spill, smell, pulse, frock, flex, clan, lapse 8) frog, mud, swim, hump, scamp, clock, wool, pond, cull, lamb, mock, zip 9) swift, stamp, pant, mob, kiss, weld, quip, script, dud, stood, sand, silk 10) slop, slab, sprint, plump, crust, whip, bog, disc, rook, rot, mill, gland

2 PRIMARY STRESS, SCHWA /​ə/ AND UNSTRESSED kit /​ɪ/​

2.1  Word stress In words of more than one syllable (polysyllabic /​ˌpɒliːsɪˈlæbɪk/​words), it’s noticeable that one syllable stands out from the rest because it’s stressed, i.e. pronounced with more force than the surrounding unstressed syllables. For example, the first syllable is stressed in RIVer and ABacus, and the second syllable is stressed in forGET, proFESSor and phoTOGrapher, while the remaining syllables are unstressed. All English words contain at least one stressed syllable. The IPA symbol for stress is [ˈ], known as the ‘stress mark’, and it’s placed before the stressed syllable, e.g. river /​ˈrɪvə/​, abacus /​ˈæbəkəs/​, forget /​fəˈɡet/​, professor /​prəˈfesə/​, photographer /​fəˈtɒɡrəfə/​. When transcribing words of only one syllable (monosyllabic /​ˌmɒnəsɪˈlæbɪk/​words) like those in Chapter 1, the stress mark isn’t usually used because it’s self-​evident that a word’s only syllable must be its stressed syllable. Most short words have only one stress, called the primary stress, while many longer words have one or sometimes more additional stresses known as secondary stresses. For the moment we’ll practise transcribing words with only primary stress before moving on to words with secondary stresses in Chapter 10.

2.2  Schwa /​ə/​ The vowel schwa /​ə/​has a special place in the sound system of English because, apart from a very small number of exceptions, it occurs only in unstressed syllables. In fact, schwa /​ə/​is so frequent in unstressed syllables that it’s the most common English vowel and the most common phoneme in English.

10  Transcribing words

Unlike the other English vowels, schwa /​ə/​doesn’t need a special keyword because the name ‘schwa’ /​ʃwɑː/​is so well established. Schwa has a wide range of spellings, for example in better /​ˈbetə/​, in oppress /​əˈpres/​, in amend /​əˈmend/​, in talent /​ˈtælənt/​, in actor /​ˈæktə/​, in vicar /​ˈvɪkə/​, in colour /​ˈkʌlə/​, in centre /​ˈsentə/​, in sulphur /​ˈsʌlfə/​, in borough /​ˈbʌrə/​, in figure /​ˈfɪɡə/​, in villain /​ˈvɪlən/​, in cupboard /​ˈkʌbəd/​. One consequence of schwa being spelt in so many different ways is that learners, both native and non-​native speakers, are not used to thinking of schwa as a vowel in its own right and tend to be influenced by the spelling. You should take extra care, therefore, when transcribing unstressed syllables and ask yourself whether you’re giving the normal, natural pronunciation of the word or a pronunciation that’s influenced by the vowel the spelling represents in stressed syllables. Don’t imagine, for example, that connect /​kəˈnekt/​has the lot /​ɒ/​vowel in the first syllable just because words like concert (n.) /​ˈkɒnsət/​ and conflict (n.) /​ˈkɒnflɪkt/​have the lot /​ɒ/​vowel in their first syllables. Schwa has the phonemic symbol /​ə/​, which is the letter turned upside down. It’s best written by starting in the middle, drawing a straight line to the left, then drawing almost a complete anti-​clockwise circle. Starting at the top and moving in a clockwise direction usually results in a symbol which is too ‘curly’ and is too easily confused with the symbol [a]‌(which is used in the phonemic symbols for two other English vowels). Some GB speakers have no strut /​ʌ/​vowel phoneme and instead have schwa in strut words, e.g. strut /​strət/​, mud /​məd/​. For such speakers, schwa isn’t restricted to unstressed syllables, but is common in stressed syllables too, e.g. above /​əˈbəv/​, summon /​ˈsəmən/​. Foreign learners are advised to use the strut /​ʌ/​vowel in their transcriptions. Homophones:  baron, barren /​ ˈbærən/​; censer, censor, sensor /​ ˈsensə/​; currant, current /​ˈkʌrənt/​; gorilla, guerrilla /​ɡəˈrɪlə/​; assent, ascent /​əˈsent/​; callous, callus /​ˈkæləs/​; cannon, canon /​ˈkænən/​; canvas, canvass /​ˈkænvəs/​; cellar, seller /​ˈselə/​; lumbar, lumber /​ˈlʌmbə/​; manner, manor /​ˈmænə/​; panda, pander /​ˈpændə/​; succour, sucker /​ˈsʌkə/​; tenner, tenor /​ˈtenə/​.

Transcribe these two-​syllable words with schwa /​ə/​in the unstressed syllable. Use the stress mark to show which syllable is stressed. 1 ) gallon, above, panda, villain, collapse, syrup, lemon, protect, extra, canal 2) arrest, tenant, parrot, alpha, campus, welcome, lapel, cactus, collect, bullock 3) stomach, buttock, correct, woollen, villa, husband, assess, heron, breakfast, atlas 4) Christmas, maggot, atom, cadet, felon, zebra, possess, melon, hammock, adopt 5) comma, gazette, gammon, dragon, column, salad, gallop, stigma, ballad, attract

Primary stress, schwa and unstressed /ɪ/  11

Transcribe these words which have the letter in the spelling of schwa /​ə/​. Use the stress mark to show which syllable is stressed. 1) doctor, lizard, terror, copper, butter, monarch, forgive, cover, hover, blizzard 2) figure, liquor, ponder, forget, rigour, grammar, actor, suffer, concert, offer 3) persist, whisper, sponsor, vulgar, sulphur, otter, centre, honour, enter, standard 4) plumber, collar, leopard, mirror, glamour, custard, timber, cupboard, effort, differ

Transcribe these three-​and four-​syllable words with schwa /​ə/​ in the unstressed syllables. Use the stress mark to show which syllable is stressed. 1 ) wilderness, professor, asparagus, customer, abacus, consider, vanilla 2) photographer, instrument, propeller, predator, savannah, charisma, surrender 3) conundrum, gorilla, hazardous, prospectus, adamant, astronomer, adaptor

2.3  The unstressed kit /​ɪ/​  vowel The kit /​ɪ/​vowel is also relatively common in unstressed syllables. In such cases, the spelling of kit /​ɪ/​is often (e.g. solid) or sometimes (e.g. larynx), just like in stressed syllables, but it can also be spelt with (e.g. jacket) and (e.g. cottage), or even with (in minute (n.)). Certain unstressed word elements commonly have unstressed kit /​ɪ/​, such as , , , , , and . Homophones: profit, prophet /​ˈprɒfɪt/​; practice, practise /​ˈpræktɪs/​; racket, racquet /​ˈrækɪt/​.

Transcribe the following words with unstressed kit /​ɪ/​. 1 ) 2) 3) 4)

comic, invest, rabbit, women, solid, rapid, visit, epic, biscuit, locket imposter, bucket, limit, cricket, minute (n.), attic, robin, coffin, rustic puppet, captive, intent, ticket, classic, profit, resin, haggis, bandit, tonic Latin, instructor, pocket, promise, plastic, comet, relic, lyric, goblin, statistic 5 ) habit, public, passive, cabin, laxative, picnic, rocket, gossip, narrative, olive

2.4  Variation between schwa /​ə/​ and kit /​ɪ/​ In English, the vowels in unstressed syllables are much more variable than those in stressed syllables. One type of variation that occurs in unstressed syllables is between schwa /​ə/​ and kit /​ɪ/​. There’s variation between speakers,

12  Transcribing words

with some using schwa /​ə/​in a certain word or set of words and others using kit /​ɪ/​, and variation within individual speakers, with the same person sometimes using schwa /​ə/​in a certain word and sometimes using kit /​ɪ/​. Note that for some speakers the superlative suffix -​est is /​ɪst/​, while for others it’s /​əst/​.

Transcribe the following words. In the underlined syllables, transcribe either schwa /​ə/​ or kit /​ɪ/​according to your own speech habits. 1) victim, select, lettuce, necklace, bullet, kebab, palace, anonymous 2) politics, honest, helmet, character, foreign, menace, magnet, mechanic, tablet 3) rivet, facet, wallet, minimum, solicitor, forest, tremendous, eldest, mallet 4) spirit, bannister, cement, maximum, pallet, specific, solace, captain, minister 5) terrace, pessimist, element, obstinate, philosopher, apprentice, heretic, neglect

2.5  Chapter revision Transcribe these words with schwa /​ə/​ or kit /​ɪ/​in the unstressed syllables as appropriate. 1) custom, matter, assessment, office, closet, primitive, carrot, puffin, mantra 2) pumpkin, plunder, phantom, offender, planet, calendar, moral, dollop, napkin 3) summer, dolphin, cylinder, packet, veranda, wagon, socket, occurrence 4) paddock, crevice, discipline, buzzard, balance, patella, pasta, ultimate, sinister 5) involvement, hammer, suspend, summon, positive, exodus, common,  sister 6) mollusc, topic, mustard, corrupt, compass, member, novice, negative, hospice 7) succumb, testament, tandem, configure, lobster, talent, attend, canvas, massacre 8) offend, pivot, cooker, hazard, splendour, pelvis, dollar, tractor, woman, across 9) borough, summit, placenta, problem, absolve, horror, ballot, dogma, analysis 10) syllabus, obstruct, clever, suppress, pilgrim, optimist, citrus, commit

3 CONSONANTS WITH UNFAMILIAR SYMBOLS /​ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ j ŋ θ ð/​

3.1  The unfamiliar consonant /​ʃ/​ The first of the consonants with unfamiliar symbols that we’ll be transcribing in this chapter is /​ʃ/​, the sound at the beginning and end of the word sheepish. The symbol for this consonant is known as ‘esh’ and is similar to the letter but with an additional short tail and no crossbar. The most familiar spelling of /​ʃ/​is , which occurs particularly at the beginnings (e.g. shop /​ʃɒp/​) and ends (e.g. fish /​fɪʃ/​) of words. Within words, there’s a much greater variety of spellings, including for example in station, in special, in pension, in session, in ocean, in conscious, in issue. Other notable spellings include in sugar and sure, and in relatively recent French loanwords, like chef and machine. In German loanwords, /​ʃ/​is spelt , but such words aren’t very common and we need only mention schwa, a very popular word among students of English phonetics and pronunciation! Homophones: cache, cash /​kæʃ/​; fisher, fissure /​ˈfɪʃə/​.

Transcribe the following words with the unfamiliar consonant /​ʃ/​. 1 ) 2) 3) 4)

shop, push, dish, pressure, shrub, finish, mesh, sugar, shipment, shun gnash, shin, sham, wish, shelter, radish, bush, shocker, shelf, squash Welsh, fetish, chef, washer, shepherd, fisher, lush, shell, posh, shatter ship, blush, shred, shove, wash, sheriff, shed, fissure, smash, cash

3.2  The unfamiliar consonant /​ʒ/​ The least common English consonant is the consonant in the middle of the word measure /​ˈmeʒə/​, which has the phonemic symbol /​ʒ/​, known as ‘ezh’ /​eʒ/​. This symbol is like the letter with a tail.

14  Transcribing words

/​ʒ/​typically occurs word-​medially, in which case it’s usually spelt (e.g. fusion) or (e.g. measure). It occurs at the beginnings and ends of words only in a small number of relatively recent French loanwords (e.g. genre, rouge) which often have alternative pronunciations with /​ʤ/​.

Transcribe the following words with the unfamiliar consonant /​ʒ/​. 1) pleasure, leisure, measure, treasure

3.3  The unfamiliar consonant /​ʧ/​ Our third consonant with an unfamiliar symbol is /​ʧ/​, the sound at the beginning and end of the word church. The phonemic symbol for this consonant is often written as two separate symbols, /​tʃ/​, which is the usual IPA approach to representing affricates, i.e. using the symbol for a plosive followed by the symbol for a fricative. We prefer to use the ligature form, where the two elements are joined together to make a single symbol. We do this to emphasise to learners that although affricates can be analysed phonetically as having plosive and fricative elements, /​ʧ/​is a single consonant phoneme in English and not a sequence of the /​t/​and /​ʃ/​phonemes. Strictly speaking the correct IPA usage to indicate an affricate is to connect the two symbols with a ‘tie-​bar’ [t͡ ʃ  ], but the ligature form is easier in word-​processing and typesetting. The usual spellings of /​ʧ/​are (e.g. chop, bachelor, lunch), (e.g. catch, butcher) and within words (e.g. nature) or even at the beginning of words (e.g. tube, see Section 4.3). Homophones: check, cheque /​ʧek/​; retch, wretch  /​reʧ/​

Transcribe the following words with the unfamiliar consonant /​ʧ/​. 1 ) chest, match, vulture, watch, hatchet, chip, rich, inch, lecture, signature 2) butcher, twitch, bunch, patch, which, chop, lunch, chimp, culture, notch 3) wrench, hatch, quench, chicken, itch, check, bachelor, scratch, touch, catch 4) sculpture, glitch, blotch, venture, pitch, batch, fracture, drench, zilch, crutch

3.4  The unfamiliar consonant /​ʤ/​ Our fourth consonant with an unfamiliar symbol is /​ʤ/​, the sound at the beginning and end of the word judge. Like /​ʧ/​, this consonant is an affricate and so it’s often written as two separate symbols, /​dʒ/​, which is the usual IPA approach to representing affricates, i.e. using the symbol for a plosive followed by the symbol for a fricative. We prefer to use the ligature form, where the two

Consonants with unfamiliar symbols  15

elements are joined together to make a single symbol. We do this to emphasise to learners that although affricates can be analysed phonetically as having plosive and fricative elements, /​ʤ/​is a single consonant phoneme in English and not a sequence of the /​d/​and /​ʒ/​phonemes. Strictly speaking the correct IPA usage to indicate an affricate is to connect the two symbols with a ‘tie-​bar’ [d͡ ʒ], but the ligature form is easier in word-​processing and typesetting. At the beginning of words, /​ʤ/​is usually spelt with (e.g. jar) or (e.g. gentle) (or even , e.g. duke, see Section 4.3). In other positions (e.g. bridge), (e.g. badger), (e.g. change, gorgeous) and (e.g. procedure) are also possible. Homophones: jam, jamb /​ʤæm/​; Jim, gym /​ʤɪm/​.

Transcribe the following words with the unfamiliar consonant /​ʤ/​. 1 ) 2) 3) 4)

badge, vintage, algebra, jet, suggest, jacket, gin, jab, package, binge hedge, digit, ninja, syringe, carriage, jazz, edge, spillage, wedge, jam singe, cottage, gadget, dodge, jump, fudge, plunger, image, register nudge, gist, cabbage, pledge, fidget, Japan, passage, sausage, smudge

3.5  The unfamiliar consonant /​j/​ The phonemic symbol for the voiced palatal approximant /​j/​isn’t completely new like those for /​ʃ ʧ ʤ/​, but its use is new. In English spelling, the letter stands for the /​ʤ/​consonant, as in joke. In the IPA alphabet, however, /​j/​is the consonant at the beginning of words like yes. In the minds of English speakers, the /​j/​consonant is associated with the letter and so you must be careful not to transcribe /​y/​when you mean /​j/​. In fact, we don’t use at all in English phonemic transcription, so you shouldn’t include it anywhere. Another difficulty with /​j/​is that it’s often represented by no consonant letter at all, as in the first sound of unit and the second sound of few, see Section 4.3.

Transcribe the following words with the unfamiliar consonant /​j/​. 1 ) yob, canyon, yoghurt, yap, yet, yelp, yonder 2) yacht, yak, yam, yell, yuck, yum, Yen, yes

3.6  The unfamiliar consonant /​ŋ/​ Our sixth consonant with an unfamiliar symbol is /​ŋ/​, the sound at the end of the word thing /​θɪŋ/​, and before the /​ɡ/​ and /​k/​ in finger /​ˈfɪŋɡə/​ and thinker /​ ˈθɪŋkə/​. The symbol for this consonant is known as ‘eng’ /​eŋ/​and is formed by combining the letter with the tail of the letter , which reflects the fact that the most common spelling of /​ŋ/​is (e.g. singing /​ˈsɪŋɪŋ/​). The

16  Transcribing words

other main spelling is when the following sound is /​k/​or /​ɡ/​, as in bank /​bæŋk/​, zinc /​zɪŋk/​, lynx /​lɪŋks/​, conquer /​ˈkɒŋkə/​, anchor /​ˈæŋkə/​, anger /​ˈæŋɡə/​. The words strength and length are often pronounced with /​n/​despite the spelling. The adjectives long /​lɒŋ/​, strong /​strɒŋ/​ and young /​jʌŋ/​ have a /​ɡ/​inserted in the comparative, i.e. /​ˈlɒŋɡə/​, /​ˈstrɒŋɡə/​, /​ˈjʌŋɡə/​and superlative, i.e. /​ˈlɒŋɡɪst/​, /​ˈstrɒŋɡɪst/​, /​ˈjʌŋɡɪst/​. In a few words where /​ŋɡ/​is followed by /​l/​ or /​w/​ (notably England, English, language, distinguish), a minority of speakers drop the /​ɡ/​, pronouncinɡ them with /​ŋ/​  only. Homophones:  ring, wring /​rɪŋ/​; conquer, conker /​ˈkɒŋkə/​; napping, knapping /​ˈnæpɪŋ/​; rapping, wrapping /​ˈræpɪŋ/​; resting, wresting /​ˈrestɪŋ/​; wetting, whetting /​ˈwetɪŋ/​; ranker, rancour /​ˈræŋkə/​; fungous, fungus /​ˈfʌŋɡəs/​.

Transcribe the following words with the unfamiliar consonant /​ŋ/​. 1 ) 2) 3) 4)

bank, pudding, sing, drunk, anchor, gang, song, link, rank, kink, ping tongue, king, twang, monk, wink, bring, honk, kingdom, flank, wrong bung, linger, tank, sibling, sarong, booking, wedding, punk, pang, yank finger, spring, clink, fling, drink, shilling, hang, hunger, conquer, prank

3.7  The unfamiliar consonants /​θ/​and /​ð/​ /​θ/​and /​ð/​are the two consonant sounds that are represented by the spelling. Because they share a spelling, English speakers are often unaware of the difference between them until it’s pointed out to them. /​θ/​is the sound at the beginning of the word thin and /​ð/​is the sound at the beginning of that. /​ð/​tends to occur at the beginning of grammatical words (e.g. the) and in the middle of Germanic words (e.g. mother) and is usually spelt at the ends of words (e.g. bathe). The symbol is the Greek letter theta in its lower-​case form. Be careful not to replace it with the upper-​case form, which is the same height but wider, i.e. . The symbol is called ‘eth’ /​eð/​and is taken from Old English. Don’t confuse it with the Greek lower-​case delta, i.e. . Homophones: weather, whether /​ˈweðə/​; wither, whither /​ˈwɪðə/​.

Transcribe these words with /​θ/​ or /​ð/​as appropriate. 1 ) 2) 3) 4)

this, with, other, weather, thatcher, health, thing, think another, together, thank, death, whether, smith, mother, leather, threat method, thumb, thread, brother, thick, nothing, thin, theft, that thriller, gather, thus, wealth, bother, thrill, depth, myth, thong

Consonants with unfamiliar symbols  17

3.8  Chapter revision Transcribe these words with the unfamiliar consonants /​ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ j ŋ θ ð/​. 1) breath, chapter, yet, wing, midge, flourish, tether, bulge, hush, filth, building 2) treasure, adventure, blemish, ginger, mammoth, anger, shimmer, college 3) challenge, bishop, Gothic, spelling, yonder, punch, shutter, plethora, junk 4) stricture, sponge, parish, winch, damage, meringue, feather, pleasure, thug 5) relish, scrunch, canyon, ligature, message, gangster, ethnic, wither, shrimp 6) belch, gender, measure, attachment, jogger, inkling, thorough, splash 7) smother, yak, stretcher, percentage, gong, chill, genetic, cloth 8) conjecture, fledgling, chunk, shopper, stealth, lung, ash, chick, yacht 9) lodge, attach, shrink, moth, yob, ranking, slither, shunt, jilt, pink, chin 10) rapture, marriage, bang, crotch, heather, yank, shrill, switch, lunge, string

4 THE fleece /​iː/​ AND goose /​uː/​  VOWELS

4.1  The fleece /​iː/​  vowel

The first of the two vowels introduced in this chapter is the monophthong /​ˈmɒnəfˌθɒŋ/​ fleece and its phonemic symbol is /​iː/​. This is the letter followed by the IPA length mark [ː], which is used to show that a vowel is long. The length mark is like a colon with triangles instead of dots. In fact, when transcribing by hand, we usually replace it with a colon because the two small triangles are difficult to write/​draw. We use the length mark as part of the phonemic symbol for fleece /​iː/​and a number of other vowels because they are longer than /​ɪ æ e ɒ ʌ ʊ/​in the same phonetic contexts. Common spellings for the fleece /​iː/​vowel include (e.g. deep), (e.g. seat), (e.g. meter), (e.g. chief) and (e.g. ceiling). In relatively recent French loanwords, occurs (e.g. litre), while in people and in quay are exceptional spellings. Homophones: heal, heel /​hiːl/​; key, quay /​kiː/​; leak, leek /​liːk/​; meat, meet, mete /​miːt/​; peace, piece /​piːs/​; peak, peek, pique /​piːk/​; scene, seen /​siːn/​; sea, see /​siː/​; seam, seem /​siːm/​; sweet, suite /​swiːt/​; weak, week /​wiːk/​; cede, seed /​siːd/​; freeze, frieze /​friːz/​; knead, need /​niːd/​; beach, beech /​biːʧ/​; bean, been /​biːn/​; ceiling, sealing /​ˈsiːlɪŋ/​; cheap, cheep /​ʧiːp/​; creak, creek /​kriːk/​; feat, feet /​fiːt/​; flea, flee /​fliː/​; be, bee /​biː/​; meter, metre /​ˈmiːtə/​; beat, beet /​biːt/​; geezer, geyser /​ˈɡiːzə/​; mean, mien /​miːn/​; peel, peal /​piːl/​; read, reed /​riːd/​; steel, steal /​stiːl/​; tea, tee /​tiː/​; team, teem /​tiːm/​.

Transcribe the following words with the fleece /​iː/​  vowel.

1) machine, please, litre, ski, seize, thief, police, squeeze, chief, ceiling, visa, scheme

fleece

and goose vowels  19

2) these, beef, field, beat, cheese, grieve, scene, week, fever, scream, key, gene, shield 3) league, meeting, team, peach, sheet, grease, teeth, vegan, green, each, fatigue, siege 4) queen, feast, plead, shriek, jeep, need, beak, leech, pizza, sleek, quay, keep, quiche 5) cheetah, marina, street, breathe, perceive, cease, squeak, sneeze, theme, freeze, niece

4.2  The unstressed fleece /​iː/​  vowel

Like kit /​ɪ/​, fleece /​iː/​is a vowel which is often found in unstressed syllables as well as stressed syllables. It occurs at the end of many common words (e.g. very /​ˈveriː/​, carry /​ˈkæriː/​) and also before vowels (e.g. react /​riːˈækt/​, media /​ˈmiːdiːə/​). Many dictionaries use a different symbol for the fleece vowel when it’s in unstressed syllables: the [i]‌symbol without the length mark. We don’t recommend this practice because it means using two different symbols for the same phoneme, which is confusing. Native speakers find it counter-​ intuitive, and it often misleads non-​native learners into thinking that the two different symbols represent two different phonemes, which they don’t. At the ends of words, unstressed fleece /​iː/​can be spelt (e.g. city), (e.g. money), (e.g. toffee), (e.g. babies), (e.g. taxi), (e.g. acne). Before vowels, the spelling is usually (e.g. serious), and occasionally (e.g linear). Homophones: berry, bury /​ˈberiː/​

Transcribe these symbols with unstressed fleece /​iː/​.

1) country, jelly, ready, carry, wealthy, body, bully, pity, honey, zombie, bury, easy 2) pretty, busy, cookie, hurry, frequency, agony, cherry, hobby, marry, belly, allergy 3) donkey, puppy, valley, taxi, thrifty, dummy, tyranny, coffee, study, property, filthy 4) whisky, parody, monkey, trolley, melody, pulley, comedy, tummy, poppy, jolly 5) penny, galaxy, berry, rally, energy, lily, envy, academy, treaty, brandy, apathy When a word contains an unstressed fleece /​iː/​vowel followed by schwa, there is often an alternative pronunciation with /​j/​instead of fleece /​iː/​. The more common a word is, the more likely the /​j/​variant is. The /​iː/​variant is more usual after /​r/​and certain consonant clusters.

20  Transcribing words

Transcribe the following words with either fleece /​iː/​ or /​j/​ according to your own speech habits. 1 ) 2) 3) 4)

media, idiot, million, India, senior, medium, onion, premium brilliant, immediate, warrior, champion, opinion, pedestrian, stallion genius, barrier, familiar, terrier, previous, courier, spaniel, industrial deviant, trivial, chameleon, tedious, comedian, convenient, linear

Unstressed , , , and at the beginning of words like evade, reply, prepare, decline and before can be pronounced with the fleece /​iː/​vowel, although schwa /​ə/​ or kit /​ɪ/​are more common.

Transcribe these words with unstressed fleece /​iː/​, schwa /​ə/​ or kit /​ɪ/​ in the first syllable according to your own speech habits.

1 ) event, belong, reject (v.), evolve, delete, eject, enough, depravity, befriend 2) remember, beneath, pretend, resolve, become, receipt, predict, begrudge, republic 3) reflect, effect, detract, repeat, elect, revenge, evict, believe, regret, deliver, release 4) between, resist, prevent, depend, degree, erect, bequest, detach, relax, relief, defend

4.3  The goose /​uː/​  vowel

The second vowel introduced in this chapter is the monophthong goose and its phonemic symbol is /​uː/​. This is the letter followed by the IPA length mark [ː]. Remember that when transcribing by hand, it’s not necessary to draw the length mark with triangle shapes; a colon is sufficient. Spellings for the goose /​uː/​vowel include (e.g. moon), (e.g. June), (e.g. who), (e.g. blue), (e.g. flew), (e.g. group), (e.g. shoe) and (e.g. juice). Homophones:  blew, blue /​bluː/​; flew, flu, flue /​fluː/​; loot, lute /​luːt/​; shoe, shoo /​ʃuː/​; threw, through /​θruː/​; too, two /​tuː/​; root, route /​ruːt/​; coo, coup /​kuː/​; shoot, chute /​ʃuːt/​; moose, mousse /​muːs/​.

Transcribe the following words with the goose /​uː/​  vowel.

1 ) 2) 3) 4) 5)

movement, soothe, super, blue, school, room, move, group, moon, suit pool, two, route, zoom, crude, true, saloon, tool, juice, roof, cool, snooker boost, cruise, approve, tooth, zoo, fruit, loose, scooter, proof, prove, doom lagoon, maroon, sue, crew, root, loser, lunacy, boom, soup, chew, June screw, tomb, fool, groom, prude, ooze, rooster, clue, shoe, canoe, bloom

fleece

and goose vowels  21

When there’s a or in the spelling of the goose /​uː/​vowel, there’s often a /​j/​in the pronunciation which you should be careful not to overlook. Food and feud, for example, don’t sound the same; feud /​fjuːd/​has a /​j/​and food /​fuːd/​doesn’t. The same is true of moot /​muːt/​ and mute /​mjuːt/​. Homophones: hew, hue /​hjuː/​; humorous, humerus /​ˈhjuːmərəs/​; mews, muse /​mjuːz/​; ewe, yew, you /​juː/​; knew, new /​njuː/​; cue, queue /​kjuː/​.

Transcribe these words with the goose /​uː/​vowel preceded by /​j/​.

1) human, computer, new, use (v.), view, queue, abuse (v.) nutrient, beauty, fuse 2) hue, user, feud, puma, mute, fuel, union, nuclear, skewer, amusement, cube 3) puke, future, commuter, nude, use (n.), muse, confuse, humour, accuser, yew 4) newt, eulogy, eunuch, mule, abuse (n.), consumer, continue, music, value, pew The /​tj/​and /​dj/​sequences that can occur before the goose /​uː/​vowel in words like tune /​tjuːn/​ and due /​djuː/​are nowadays very often replaced by /​ʧ/​ and /​ʤ/​respectively, i.e. tune /​ʧuːn/​, due /​ʤuː/​. The traditional forms /​tj/​and /​dj/​ tend to be retained in less common words, in formal speech styles and in the speech of older, more conservative speakers. Homophones:  dew, due, Jew /​ʤuː/​; duke, juke /​ʤuːk/​; dune, June /ʤuːn/​; deuce, juice /​ʤu:s/​; tuna, tuner /​ˈʧuːnə/​.

Transcribe these words with /​tj/​ and /​dj/​ or /​ʧ/​ and /​ʤ/​ according to your own speech habits. 1 ) duty, tube, duke, tuna, produce (v.), stupid, tutor, dew, tulip, dune 2) induce, Tudor, tumour, seduce, tunic, dubious, intuitive, astute, dupe 3) subdue, gratuitous, conducive, obtuse, reduce, steward, tuba, stew

4.4  The unstressed goose /​uː/​  vowel

Like the kit /​ɪ/​ and fleece /​iː/​vowels, the goose /​uː/​vowel also occurs in unstressed syllables. goose /​uː/​, however, is much less common in unstressed syllables than kit /​ɪ/​ and fleece /​iː/​. In the same way that many dictionaries use a special symbol for fleece /​iː/​when it’s in unstressed syllables (i.e. [i]‌ without a length mark; see Section 4.2), they also use a special symbol for goose /​uː/​when it’s in unstressed syllables:  [u] without a length mark. We don’t recommend using two different symbols for the same phoneme. Native speakers find it counter-​intuitive, and it often misleads non-​native learners

22  Transcribing words

into thinking that the two different symbols represent two different phonemes, which they don’t. One position in which unstressed goose /​uː/​occurs is before another vowel.

Transcribe these words with unstressed goose /​uː/​.

1 ) continuous, graduate (n.), jaguar, affluent, annual, genuine 2) conspicuous, manual, strenuous, sinuous, tenuous, vacuous When unstressed goose /​uː/​appears before a consonant, it can often be replaced by schwa /​ə/​. Common words are more likely to have schwa /​ə/​, while infrequent words tend to have goose  /​uː/​.

Transcribe the following words with goose /​uː/​or schwa /​ə/​in the underlined syllable according to your own speech habits. 1) 2) 3) 4)

executive, popular, accurate, deputy, monument, regular, curriculum immaculate, fabulous, occupant, document (n.), prejudice, ridiculous muscular, particular, succulent, jocular, stimulus, nebula, singular secular, vernacular, opulent, vascular, jugular, credulous, truculent

4.5  Chapter revision Transcribe these words with stressed and unstressed fleece /​iː/​ and goose  /​uː/​.

1) hoop, weave, theta, copy, emit, prune, glue, compete, cream, womb, numerous 2) three, platoon, canopy, baboon, belief, flu, empathy, huge, procedure, sleeping 3) complete, fantasy, begin, manoeuvre, achievement, smoothie, cheek, piggy, loot 4) creature, thesis, buffoon, jealousy, unit, heating, ferry, smooth, freedom, sweet 5) breeze, muddy, verruca, chimney, bruise, detect, bleach, lorry, balloon, leadership 6) mahogany, taboo, affluent, bunny, lean, treatment, felony, foetus, brew, cute 7) kidney, sheathe, conspiracy, salute, agreement, breed, raccoon, retrieve, dream, knee 8) few, balcony, demon, feature, teddy, ghoul, industry, defeat, teacher, stream, fluid 9) booze, therapy, booster, alley, remove, wreath, greeting, tease, succeed, rudeness 10) tweet, healthy, legacy, snooze, feeling, curry, crease, noose, calorie, cheap, ravine

5 THE palm /​ɑː/​, thought /​ɔː/​, nurse /​ɜː/​ AND square /​ɛː/​  VOWELS

5.1  The palm /​ɑː/​  vowel

The first vowel in this chapter is palm, which has the phonemic symbol /​ɑː/​. This is the handwritten form of the letter . As we shall see for price /​aɪ/​ and mouth /​aʊ/​(see Sections 6.2 and 7.2), in the IPA alphabet [a]‌and [ɑ] are separate symbols and should not be confused. The two most common spellings for the palm /​ɑː/​vowel are (e.g. car) and (e.g. father). Exceptional spellings include in aunt, draught and laugh, in heart and hearth, and in clerk and sergeant. Note that while there’s often a letter in the spelling of palm words, there’s rarely an /​r/​in the pronunciation. Homophones:  draft, draught /​drɑːft/​; farther, father /​ˈfɑːðə/​; spa, spar /​spɑː/​; alms, arms /​ɑːmz/​; aren’t, aunt /​ɑːnt/​; hart, heart /​hɑːt/​; larva, lava /​ˈlɑːvə/​; arc, ark /​ɑːk/​; bar, baa, bah /​bɑː/​; balmy, barmy /​ˈbɑːmiː/​; carve, calve /​kɑːv/​; cast, caste /​kɑːst/​; caster, castor /​ˈkɑːstə/​; lama, llama /​ˈlɑːmə/​; mar, ma /​mɑː/​; par, pa, pah  /​pɑː/​.

Transcribe the following words with the palm /​ɑː/​ vowel. Note there’s no letter in the spelling of the palm /​ɑː/​ vowel in these words.

1) palm, rather, lager, gala, half, moustache, lava, calm, vase, halve, qualm, can’t 2) schwa, father, spa, behalf, banal, calf, khaki, banana, psalm, bra, sonata, Nazi

24  Transcribing words

Transcribe these words which have an in the spelling but no /​r/​in the pronunciation. 1 ) 2) 3) 4)

part, star, carcass, car, farther, barber, bar, charge, mark, smart, park harbour, march, heart, start, card, sharp, shark, cart, farm, chart, starch bazaar, spark, arch, karma, guard, army, harm, barn, party, sergeant tart, marsh, art, farmer, spar, scar, marker, carbon, clerk, harmony, bark

Transcribe these words which have an in the spelling and an /​r/​in the pronunciation. 1 ) safari, Lara, starring, Ferrari, sparring, tiara, starry, marring 2) scarring, Tamara, aria, Sahara, jarring, guitarist, sari, barring Outside of the south of England, speakers tend to use the trap /​æ/​ vowel instead of the palm /​ɑː/​vowel in a set of words, known as the bath words, where the vowel is followed by a voiceless fricative (e.g. graft, bath, grass) or /​n/​or /​m/​plus a consonant (e.g. plant, dance, example). Non-​natives are advised to use the palm /​ɑː/​  vowel.

Transcribe these words with either the palm /​ɑː/​vowel or the trap /​æ/​vowel according to your own habits.

1 ) grass, nasty, draft, chant, answer, staff, glass, pasture, class, ranch, pass 2) cast, slander, task, plant, laugh, ask, bath, grant, demand, mask, blast, craft 3) branch, last, after, path, fast, brass, advantage, mast, chance, plaster, dance 4) grasp, aghast, raft, master, clasp, slant, draught, aunty, flask, shaft, basket

5.2  The thought /​ɔː/​  vowel

The second of the four vowels in this chapter is the thought vowel, which has the phonemic symbol /​ɔː/​. This is the letter written backwards and followed by the length mark. The thought /​ɔː/​vowel has a wide range of spellings. A number of them include the letter , for example (e.g. horn), (e.g. score), when preceded by /​w/​(e.g. warm, quarter), (e.g. door), (e.g. board) and (e.g. four). It is important to note, however, that thought words with the letter in the spelling don’t have an /​r/​in the pronunciation unless a vowel sound follows. For example, there is no /​r/​in store /​stɔː/​, but there is in story /​ˈstɔːriː/​. The same goes for words like bore /​bɔː/​ and boring /​ˈbɔːrɪŋ/​, store /​stɔː/​ and storage /​ˈstɔːrɪʤ/​, score /​skɔː/​ and scorer /​ˈskɔːrə/​, where the addition of the

palm , thought , nurse

and square vowels  25

-​ing /​ɪŋ/​, -​age /​ɪʤ/​and -​er /​ə/​suffixes, which all begin with a vowel, results in an /​r/​in the pronunciation. Spellings without the letter include (e.g. all), (e.g. cause), (e.g. saw). Note that when the thought /​ɔː/​vowel is followed by /​lt/​, there is often an alternative pronunciation with the lot /​ɒ/​vowel, for example alter, alternative, assault, exalt, falter, fault, halt, malt, salt, vault, waltz. In the words quarter, quartz and quartet where the thought vowel /​ɔː/​ occurs after /​kw/​, the /​w/​is very often not pronounced. In the following words where the thought /​ɔː/​vowel is followed by /​l/​ and then another consonant, the /​l/​is often not pronounced: already, almost, always, although, almighty. Homophones: awe, oar, or, ore /​ɔː/​; ball, bawl /​bɔːl/​; boar, bore /​bɔː/​; caught, court /​kɔːt/​; coarse, course /​kɔːs/​; flaw, floor /​flɔː/​; fort, fought /​fɔːt/​; gnaw, nor /​nɔː/​; hall, haul /​hɔːl/​; hoarse, horse /​hɔːs/​; morning, mourning /​ˈmɔːnɪŋ/​; pour, paw, pore /​pɔː/​; raw, roar /​rɔː/​; sauce, source /​sɔːs/​; saw, soar, sore /​sɔː/​; sort, sought /​sɔːt/​; stalk, stork /​stɔːk/​; war, wore /​wɔː/​; warn, worn /​wɔːn/​; caw, core, corps /​kɔː/​; chord, cord /​kɔːd/​; faun, fawn /​fɔːn/​; law, lore /​lɔː/​; mall, maul /​mɔːl/​; board, bawd /​bɔːd/​; boarder, border /​ˈbɔːdə/​; hoard, horde /​hɔːd/​; lord, laud /​lɔːd/​; storey, story /​ˈstɔːriː/​; talk, torque /​tɔːk/​; taught, taut /​tɔːt/​; yore, your, you’re  /​jɔː/​.

Transcribe the following words with the thought /​ɔː/​ vowel. Note there’s no letter in the spelling of the thought /​ɔː/​ vowel in these words.

1) shawl, small, call, law, talk, saucer, walk, wall, saw, slaughter, ball, fall, water 2) laundry, stalker, yawn, draw, fraud, jaunt, pauper, straw, sauce, lawn, pause 3) haul, stall, walker, crawl, hawk, August, paw, clause, chalk, prawn, thought

Transcribe these words which have an in the spelling but no /​r/​in the pronunciation. 1) corner, fourth, sport, source, order, scorch, reform, war, shore, four, store, torch 2) score, torture, chore, force, ward, form, court, thorn, porch, board, before, course 3) port, reward, horse, warm, afford, storm, border, floor, door, ford, thwart, sword 4) cork, porter, north, core, forty, former, norm, fort, wharf, horn, orchard, pour

26  Transcribing words

Transcribe these words which have an in the spelling and an /​r/​in the pronunciation. 1) glorious, chorus, memorial, story, thesaurus, historian, forum, Victorian, storage 2) Tory, oral, soaring, exploring, tutorial, storey, scoring, Laura, floral, boring, explorer 3) ignoring, restoring, aura, flooring, flora, roaring, scorer, emporium, porous, choral

5.3  The nurse /​ɜː/​  vowel

Our next vowel is the nurse vowel, which has the phonemic symbol /​ɜː/​. The first element looks a little like the number 3, but it is actually a reversed version of the Greek letter epsilon . The second element is the IPA length mark. Common spellings for the nurse /​ɜː/​vowel include (e.g. verb), (e.g. stir), (e.g. burn), (e.g. earn) and when preceded by (e.g. worth). There is almost always a letter in the spelling of nurse words, but two notable exceptions are colonel /ˈkɜːnl̩ / and milieu /miːlˈjɜː/. Homophones:  berth, birth /​bɜːθ/​; earn, urn /​ɜːn/​; pearl, purl /​pɜːl/​; heard, herd /​hɜːd/​; fir, fur /​fɜː/​; curb, kerb /​kɜːb/​; per, purr /​pɜː/​; serf, surf /​sɜːf/​; tern, turn /​tɜːn/​.

Transcribe the following words with the the nurse /​ɜː/​vowel. Note that they have an in the spelling but no /​r/​in the pronunciation.

1) murder, world, emerge, third, work, first, observe, term, learner, birth, turn 2) clergy, learn, word, thirsty, burglar, sir, urge, firm, converse, birth, girl, curtsy 3) worst, serve, merger, reserve, nurse, girth, skirt, jerk, pearl, earl, occur, purpose 4) surf, earn, sermon, search, bird, attorney, return, sperm, murmur, verge, purse 5) thirst, perch, earth, burn, hearse, worth, turkey, burglary, further, stern, nerve 6) church, stir, assert, verse, shirt, turf, fur, nurture, curve, spur, reverse, germ, urn

Transcribe these words which have an in the spelling and an /​r/​in the pronunciation. 1 ) referral, occurring, recurring, stirring, furry, preferring, erring, purring 2) inferring, whirring, spurring, deterring, blurry, slurring, conferring

palm , thought , nurse

and square vowels  27

5.4 The square /​ɛː/​  vowel There are two different symbols in common use for the square vowel. The traditional symbol is [eə], which reflects the fact that the square vowel used to be a diphthong. However, it is increasingly common to use the symbol [εː], the Greek letter epsilon followed by a length mark, because the square vowel is only very rarely a diphthong these days. In this work, we recommend transcribing /​ɛː/​, but you should bear in mind that /​eə/​is still used in many works, especially in materials for teaching English as a foreign language. Spellings associated with the square vowel include (e.g. dare), (e.g. vary), (e.g. hair), (e.g. bear) and (e.g. where). Homophones: air, heir /​ɛː/​; bare, bear /​bɛː/​; fair, fare /​fɛː/​, hair, hare /​hɛː/​; pair, pare, pear /​pɛː/​; there, their, they’re /​ðɛː/​; ware, wear, where /​wɛː/​; stair, stare /​stɛː/​; flair, flare /​flɛː/​; mare, mayor /​mɛː/​; tear, tare  /​tɛː/​.

Transcribe these words with the square /​εː/​vowel. Note that they have an in the spelling but no /​r/​in the pronunciation.

1 ) air, share, square, beware, there, prepare, care, fair, rare, chair 2) spare, mare, wear, scare, dare, bear, compare, pair, prayer, swear 3) repair, affair, heir, scarce, stair, aware, laird, hair snare, glare, declare

Transcribe these words which have an in the spelling and an /​r/​in the pronunciation. 1 ) hilarious, canary, various, variant, wary, dairy, parent, hairy, aquarium 2) prairie, malaria, scary, baring, aerial, fairy, garish, area, Mary, preparing 3) sharing, vary, carer, sierra, daring, caring, staring, swearing, rarity

5.5  Chapter revision Transcribe these words with palm /​ɑː/​, thought /​ɔː/​, nurse /​ɜː/​ and square  /​ɛː/​.

1) morale, char, author, dwarf, snoring, prefer, theirs, precarious, courtesy 2) autumn, France, pharmacy, drama, performance, swerve, impairment, airy 3) prepare, circus, solarium, quarter, laughter, nought, garment, mirth, warp 4) salami, daughter, parchment, observer, morgue, declare, warring, deserve 5) supporter, barium, alarm, trauma, journey, giraffe, curse, hoard, glory 6) fairest, squirm, performer, guardian, repair, award, birch, mercy, gnaw, verb 7) ornament, hearth, smirk, swarm, staunch, spurt, glaring, gorge, charm

28  Transcribing words

8) worthy, swarthy, cursor, yarn, Somalia, twirl, daunt, err, dirty, bastard, thaw 9) flaunt, suave, blaring, burp, organ, quirk, disaster, chirp, mourn, sprawl, purr 10) purge, despair, roar, maul, aren’t, corpse, yearn, broad, dancer, llama, scorn

6 THE face /​eɪ/​, price /​aɪ/ AND choice /​ɔɪ/​  VOWELS

6.1  The face /​eɪ/​  vowel The first of the three diphthongs we introduce in this chapter is the face vowel, which has the phonemic symbol /​eɪ/​. You might think that there’s a potential for confusion here between the face /​eɪ/​vowel and a sequence of the dress /​e/​ and kit /​ɪ/​vowels. In reality, however, this isn’t a problem because dress /​e/​is always followed by a consonant and so a sequence of dress /​e/​ and kit /​ɪ/​never occurs. The three most common spellings of the face /​eɪ/​vowel are (e.g. take), (e.g. say) and (e.g. paint). Less usual spellings include (e.g. beige), (e.g. break) and (e.g. grey). Homophones: place, plaice /​pleɪs/​; plain, plane /​pleɪn/​; rain, reign, rein /​reɪn/​; raise, raze /​reɪz/​; saver, savour /​ˈseɪvə/​; slay, sleigh /​sleɪ/​; stake, steak /​steɪk/​; vain, vane, vein /​veɪn/​; waist, waste /​weɪst/​; wait, weight /​weɪt/​; way, weigh, whey /​weɪ/​; brake, break /​breɪk/​; faze, phase /​feɪz/​; grate, great /​ɡreɪt/​; lain, lane /​leɪn/​; made, maid /​meɪd/​; main, mane /​meɪn/​; pain, pane /​peɪn/​; fate, fête /​feɪt/​; gait, gate /​ɡeɪt/​; maize, maze /​meɪz/​; ail, ale /​eɪl/​; bale, bail /​beɪl/​; bait, bate /​beɪt/​; faint, feint /​feɪnt/​; knave, nave /​neɪv/​; mail, male /​meɪl/​; nay, neigh /​neɪl/​; pail, pale /​peɪl/​; sail, sale /​seɪl/​; tail, tale /​teɪl/​; veil, vale /​veɪl/​; whale, wail /​weɪl/​; waive, wave /​weɪv/​.

Transcribe the following words with the face /​eɪ/​  vowel. 1) lady, name, shake, sailor, make, day, jade, space, scathing, persuade, take, baby, tailor 2) relate, maze, painting, rain, rate, stadium, complaint, bathe, play, grave, claim, age

30  Transcribing words

3) shade, case, stranger, break, race, eighth, state, swathe, trade, lake, date, wave, stay 4) faith, parade, taste, alien waist, await, container, cake, create, base, train, eight, ace 5) danger, flavour, shame, fate, radius, raise, array, navy, plain, tape, nature, waste, bay

6.2  The price /​aɪ/​  vowel Our second diphthong is price, which has the phonemic symbol /​aɪ/​. This is the letter followed by the symbol that we use for the kit /​ɪ/​vowel, which is the second element of the phonemic symbols of the diphthongs in this chapter. Note that the symbol for the first element is [a]‌and not [ɑ]. Although we usually think of these two symbols as variants of the same letter, in the IPA alphabet they are separate symbols representing different sounds. The price /​aɪ/​vowel is usually spelt with (e.g. time) or (e.g. cry), but note height and sleight with . Homophones:  right, rite, wright, write /​raɪt/​; rye, wry /​raɪ/​; thyme, time /​taɪm/​; whine, wine /​waɪn/​; buy, by, bye /​baɪ/​; cite, sight, site /​saɪt/​; die, dye /​daɪ/​; miner, minor /​ˈmaɪnə/​; aisle, isle /​aɪl/​; eye, I /​aɪ/​; knight, night /​naɪt/​; might, mite /​maɪt/​; climb, clime /​klaɪm/​; hi, high /​haɪ/​; lichen, liken /​ˈlaɪkən/​; pi, pie /​ paɪ/​; prise, prize /​praɪz/​; sign, sine /​saɪn/​; sleight, slight /​slaɪt/​; stile, style /​staɪl/​.

Transcribe the following words with the price /​aɪ/​  vowel. 1) shine, like, chide, provide, thine, time, oblige, site, Viking, style, advise, decline 2) type, child, night, find, thigh, shy, line, fighting, guide, writer, white, size, five, rely 3) chime, hiking, mind, shrine, writhe, bike, prize, kind, prime, ice, sky, rise, irony 4) ride, fight, China, surprising, smile, jibe, island, guy, nine, eye, strike, survivor 5) jive, spy, lightning, sight, lithe, pride, virus, item, supply, flight, hide, spice, ivy

6.3  The choice /​ɔɪ/​  vowel Our third diphthong is choice, which has the phonemic symbol /​ɔɪ/​. This is the symbol [ɔ], which is the letter written backwards, followed by the symbol that we use for the kit /​ɪ/​vowel and for the second element of the diphthongs in this chapter. The choice /​ɔɪ/​vowel is nearly always spelt (e.g coin) or (e.g. toy), usually within words and at the end of words. Homophones: boy, buoy  /​bɔɪ/​.

face , price

and choice vowels  31

Transcribe the following words with the choice /​ɔɪ/​  vowel. 1 ) point, boy, avoid, voice, toy, noise, coin, boiler, annoy, poise, noisy, deploy 2) oyster, ploy, hoist, toilet, loiter, appointment, foist, loin, moist, joy, join, buoy 3) coy, goitre, void, groin, embroider, employ, choice, moisture, enjoy, joist, joint

6.4  face /​eɪ/​, price /​aɪ/​ and choice /​ɔɪ/​before vowels When face /​eɪ/​, price /​aɪ/​ or choice /​ɔɪ/​are followed by a vowel (usually /ə/ or /ɪ/) in words like player, fire or employer, learners often make the mistake of transcribing a /​j/​between the diphthong and the following vowel (i.e. */​ˈpleɪjə/​, */​ˈfaɪjə/​, */​ɪmˈplɔɪjə/​; note that the symbol * indicates an incorrect transcription). This is because they mistake the glide of the diphthong, which is similar to a weak [j]‌sound, for a separate /​j/​phoneme. The correct transcription of such words is /​ˈpleɪə/​, /​ˈfaɪə/​and /​ɪmˈplɔɪə/​. Homophones:  liar, lyre /​ˈlaɪə/​; higher, hire /​ˈhaɪə/​; tire, tyre /​ˈtaɪə/​; choir, quire /​ˈkwaɪə/​; dire, dyer /​ˈdaɪə/​; friar, fryer /​ˈfraɪə/​; shire, shyer /​ˈʃaɪə/​.

Transcribe the following words with the face /​eɪ/​, price /​aɪ/​ and choice /​ɔɪ/​vowels before another vowel. 1) giant, riot, joyous, hire, inspire, layer, tyre, quiet, lawyer, iron, fire, buyer, conveyor 2) wire, diet, saying, liar, lion, voyage, choir, diary, portrayal, trying, prior, boyish 3) client, highest, paying, bias, society, soya, proprietor, variety, weighing, buying 4) supplier, annoying, shire, crying, displaying, squire, flying, buoyant, entire, priory

6.5  Chapter revision Transcribe these words with the face /​eɪ/​, price /​aɪ/​ and choice /​ɔɪ/​ vowels. 1) vacancy, combine, loiter, lying, cage, pine, skate, climb, moist, lay, scythe, wage 2) traitor, mileage, annoy, pyre, brave, stride, chamber, deny, rake, rhyme, noise 3) radiant, slight, voice, sleigh, mime, stage, faint, attire, pie, behave, mire, trait 4) die, neighbour, dire, oyster, arrange, bait, sigh, goitre, design, lathe, plague, ape

32  Transcribing words

5) placement, steak, point, acquire, gauge, jail, kite, groin, savour, spade, payment 6) employing, moisture, shave, fly, praise, blaze, pilot, hoist, aid, labour, diving 7) noisy, complain, major, subscribe, detain, appoint, blame, choice, sway, pariah 8) fake, waiter, knife, poise, attain, pipe, enjoy, favour, tray, hike, mining, scrape 9) embroider, hay, chain, driver, page, strain, laying, confide, brace, drain, avoid 10) behind, grain, boiler, trace, painter, minor, decide, spire, bribe, flake, phase, aim

7 THE goat /​əʊ/​ AND mouth /​aʊ/​  VOWELS

7.1  The goat /​əʊ/​  vowel The first of the two diphthongs we introduce in this chapter is the goat vowel, which has the phonemic symbol /​əʊ/​. This consists of the same symbols that we use for the phonemic symbols of the schwa and foot vowels. As in the case of the face /​eɪ/​vowel, there’s no danger of the goat /​əʊ/​vowel being confused with a sequence of the schwa /​ə/​ and foot /​ʊ/​vowels because the schwa /​ə/​ + foot /​ʊ/​sequence never occurs in English words. Spellings for the goat /​əʊ/​vowel include (e.g. bone), (e.g. toe), (e.g. low), (e.g. boat), (e.g. soul). Note in brooch and in sew. Homophones:  broach, brooch /​brəʊʧ/​; groan, grown /​ɡrəʊn/​; loan, lone /​ləʊn/​; pole, poll /​pəʊl/​; road, rode /​rəʊd/​; roe, row /​rəʊ/​; role, roll /​rəʊl/​; rota, rotor /​ˈrəʊtə/​; sew, so, sow /​səʊ/​; sole, soul /​səʊl/​; throne, thrown /​θrəʊn/​; yoke, yolk /​jəʊk/​; do, doe, dough /​dəʊ/​; know, no /​nəʊ/​; bow, beau /​bəʊ/​; bole, bowl /​bəʊl/​; bolder, boulder /​ˈbəʊldə/​; flow, floe /​fləʊ/​; moan, mown /​məʊn/​; moat, mote /​məʊt/​; oh, owe /​əʊ/​; Rome, roam /​rəʊm/​; wrote, rote /​rəʊt/​; slow, sloe /​sləʊ/​.

Transcribe the following words with the goat /​əʊ/​  vowel. 1) clothing, bonus, oak, own, evoke, close (adj.), moment, post, lotus, road, show, low 2) phone, whole, oath, hope, role, vote, hold, elope, doze, motor, load, soldier, stone 3) control, loathe, rose, mode, quote, below, focus, code, host, row, poster, roll, snow

34  Transcribing words

4) opium, coast, brooch, sofa, poll, growth, smoke, joke, loan, zone, corrode, Roman 5) throw, home, over, no, nose, remote, bolt, sober, soap, sodium, stroke, tone, choke

7.2  The mouth /​aʊ/​  vowel Our second diphthong is the mouth vowel, which has the phonemic symbol /​aʊ/​. The first part of the symbol is the same as that for the price /​aɪ/​ vowel, while the second part is the same as the foot /​ʊ/​vowel and the second part of the goat /​əʊ/​vowel. Remember not to confuse the [a]‌symbol with the [ɑ] symbol. In the IPA alphabet, they are separate symbols representing different sounds. The two main spellings for the mouth /​aʊ/​vowel are (e.g. sound) and (e.g. down). Homophones: foul, fowl /​faʊl/​; bow, bough  /​baʊ/​.

Transcribe the following words with the mouth /​aʊ/​  vowel. 1) lounge, south, house (n.), town, account, down, brown, scrounge, found, sound, foul 2) round, confound, ground, row, without, browse, pound, crowd, mouse, allow, crown 3) miaow, mouth, slouch, count, joust, bounty, bound, gown, county, shout, cloud, cow 4) out, owl, scout, blouse, surround, amount, shroud, hound, plough, crouch, brow, rowdy

7.3  goat /​əʊ/​ and mouth /​aʊ/​before vowels When /​əʊ/​ or /​aʊ/​is followed by a vowel in words like going or flower, learners often make the mistake of transcribing a /​w/​between the diphthong and the following vowel (i.e. */​ˈɡəʊwɪŋ/​, */​ˈflaʊwə/​; note that the symbol * indicates an incorrect transcription). This is because they mistake the glide of the diphthong, which is similar to a weak [w]‌sound, for a separate /​w/​phoneme. The correct transcription of such words is /​ˈɡəʊɪŋ/​and /​ˈflaʊə/​. Homophones: flour, flower /​ˈflaʊə/​.

Transcribe the following words with the goat /​əʊ/​ and mouth /​aʊ/​vowels before another vowel. 1) shower, flour, hour, knowing, poetry, power, mower, tower, sour, slower, boa

goat

and mouth vowels  35

2) lower, showing, snowing, grower, coward, ploughing, throwing, sewing, scour

7.4  Chapter revision Transcribe the following words with the goat /​əʊ/​ and mouth /​aʊ/​ vowels. 1 ) 2) 3) 4) 5)

folder, coat, drown, component, provoke, lout, trophy, robe, jolt, cower loaf, boulder, cobra, vouch, propose, folk, crow, frown, blowing, poach oppose, moat, ghost, patrol, howl, odour, toast, blow, composer, devour coma, shoulder, coach, compose, vogue, bone, voucher, toe, owe, scroll flowing, drone, goal, pony, snout, float, probe, cosy, pose, prowl, bowl

8 THE near /​ɪə/​ AND cure /​ʊə/​  VOWELS

8.1  The near /​ɪə/​  vowel The first of the two diphthongs we introduce in this chapter is the near vowel, which has the phonemic symbol /​ɪə/​. This consists of the same symbols that we use for the kit and schwa vowels. As in the case of the face /​eɪ/​ and goat /​əʊ/​vowels, there is no danger of the near /​ɪə/​vowel being confused with a sequence of kit /​ɪ/​and schwa /​ə/​because the kit /​ɪ/​+ schwa /​ə/​ sequence doesn’t occur in English words. Spellings for the near /​ɪə/​vowel include (e.g. fear), (e.g. mere), (e.g. hero) and (e.g. beer). The exceptional spelling occurs only in weir and weird. Homophones: cereal, serial /​ˈsɪəriːəl/​; dear, deer /​dɪə/​; hear, here /​hɪə/​; peer, pier /​pɪə/​; shear, sheer /​ʃɪə/​; tear, tier /​tɪə/​; we’re, weir  /​wɪə/​.

Transcribe the following words with the near /​ɪə/​vowel. Note that they have an in the spelling but no /​r/​in the pronunciation. 1) tier, beer, veer, pier, shear, cheer, ear, beard, spear, smear, weir, theatre, severe 2) jeer, peer, fear, gear, mere, pierce, here, queer, weird, fierce, leer, career, appear 3) near, sphere, clear, steer, year, dear, sheer, rear, sneer, deer, hear, veneer, sincere

Transcribe the following words, which have an in the spelling and an /​r/​in the pronunciation. 1) theory, imperial, superior, steering, material, appearance, query, clearing

near

and cure vowels  37

2 ) series, zero, weary, eerie, cheering, smearing, serial, period, dreary 3) cereal, hero, interior, spearing, mysterious, hearing, clearance, bleary 4) hysteria, shearing, delirious, experience, inferior, serious, nearer, era

8.2  The cure /​ʊə/​  vowel The least common English vowel is cure, which has the phonemic symbol /​ʊə/​. This is made up of the same symbols that we use for the foot /​ʊ/​and schwa /​ə/​vowels. As in the case of the face /​eɪ/​, goat /​əʊ/​ and near /​ɪə/​ vowels, there is no danger of the cure /​ʊə/​vowel being confused with a sequence of the foot /​ʊ/​and schwa /​ə/​vowels because the foot /​ʊ/​+ schwa /​ə/​ sequence doesn’t occur in English words. Spellings for cure include (e.g. lure), (e.g. tour) and (e.g. boor). More and more words which traditionally had the cure /​ʊə/​vowel are now pronounced with the thought /​ɔː/​vowel, especially at the end of words, and for some speakers the cure /​ʊə/​vowel might not exist at all.

Transcribe these words with the cure /​ʊə/​ or thought /​ɔː/​ vowels according to your own usage.

1 ) plural, during, moor, rural, poor, jury, pure, sure, tour, assure 2) contour, mature, obscure, procure, security, alluring, curious 3) cure, endurance, Europe, furious, insurance, neural, spurious

8.3  Diphthong revision Transcribe these words with face /​eɪ/​, price /​aɪ/​, choice /​ɔɪ/​, goat /​əʊ/​, mouth /​aʊ/​, near /​ɪə/​ and cure  /​ʊə/​. 1) opponent, saviour, ninety, boy, dying, clown, lower, zero, decay, vapour, daisy 2) Jamaica, psyche, noisy, loathing, noun, experience, pavement, query, mysterious 3) training, appearance, embroider, thrown, insurance, approach, thrive, beard, poor 4) zany, erase, piracy, destroyer, flounder, serious, why, appoint, aroma, desire, cheer 5) comply, oyster, podium, tower, inferior, radiant, basement, annoy, sphere, Europe 6) stadium, spider, straight, betray, avoid, suppose, doubt, clearance, require, gnome 7) tour, deflate, ache, remain, advice, enjoy, hoax, theatre, promote, career, pirate, cry

38  Transcribing words

8) sincere, degrade, chase, change, delight, thy, boiler, counter, smear, precise, retire 9) curious, maim, remind, loiter, sailing, brain, sire, throat, pouch, mower, both, hero 10) racing, choice, beer, razor, cone, height, grey, owner, rage, appear, phrase, sprayer

9 SYLLABIC CONSONANTS

9.1  Syllabic consonants For most practical purposes, particularly for learning and teaching English as a foreign language, it’s best to use a strictly phonemic style of transcription with only one symbol for each phoneme. We usually depart from this principle, however, in the case of syllabic consonants and use additional symbols for them even though they aren’t separate phonemes. In words like final /​ˈfaɪnəl/​, mission /​ˈmɪʃən/​ and blossom /​ˈblɒsəm/​, it’s common for the schwa /​ə/​to be lost from the syllables /​əl/​, /​ən/​and /​əm/​. The articulators move directly from the position for the preceding consonant to the positions for /​l/​, /​n/​and /​m/​without passing through the position for schwa /​ə/​. In such cases, the number of syllables in the word remains the same, the consonants [l]‌, [n] and [m] counting as alternative pronunciations of /​əl/​, /​ən/​and /​əm/​in these contexts. The IPA symbol to show that a consonant is syllabic is [ ̩ ], a small vertical line below the consonant symbol (or sometimes above if the consonant symbol has a tail), for example [l ̩ n̩ m̩  ŋ̍]. In a strictly phonemic style of transcription, words like final, mission and blossom would be transcribed /​ˈfaɪnəl/​, /​ˈmɪʃən/​and /​ˈblɒsəm/​even though the schwas would often not be pronounced. This is rather misleading and it is for this reason that we transcribe them /​ˈfaɪnl ̩/​, /​ˈmɪʃn̩/​and /​ˈblɒsm̩ /​. Strictly speaking, when we transcribe syllabic consonants, we should use non-​ phonemic square brackets, i.e. [ˈfaɪnl ̩], [ˈmɪʃn̩] and [ˈblɒsm̩ ], but in practice we don’t because it’s too much trouble to constantly switch from phonemic slanted brackets to non-​phonemic square brackets every time a syllabic consonant turns up in a transcription.

40  Transcribing words

9.2  Syllabic  /​l/​ We’ll start with syllabic /​l/​because it’s the most common of the syllabic consonants and occurs in the greatest range of contexts with the fewest restrictions. Syllabic /​l/​occurs freely after plosives /​p b t d k ɡ/​ (e.g. apple /​ˈæpl ̩/​, table /​ˈteɪbl ̩/​, total /​ˈtəʊtl ̩/​, model /​ˈmɒdl ̩/​, cycle /​ˈsaɪkl̩/​, eagle /​ˈiːɡl ̩/​), after affricates /​ʧ ʤ/​ (e.g. satchel /​ˈsæʧl̩/​, cudgel /​ˈkʌʤl̩/​), after fricatives /​f v θ ð s z ʃ/​ (e.g. rifle /​ˈraɪfl̩/​, travel /​ˈtrævl̩/​, lethal /​ˈliːθl̩/​, betrothal /​bɪˈtrəʊðl̩/​, fossil /​ ˈfɒsl̩/​, puzzle /​ˈpʌzl̩/​, social /​ˈsəʊʃl̩/​), and after nasals /​n m ŋ/​ (e.g. final /​ˈfaɪnl̩/​, camel /​ˈkæml̩/​, king’ll /​ˈkɪŋl̩/​). The fricative /​ʒ/​doesn’t occur before the syllable /​əl/​in English words except when the /​uː/​is dropped in the everyday pronunciation of words like casual /​ˈkæʒl̩/​ and usual /​ˈjuːʒl ̩/​. Syllabic /​l/​doesn’t occur after approximants /​r l j w/​(e.g. barrel /​ˈbærəl/​, molal /​ˈməʊləl/​, spaniel /​ˈspænjəl/​, equal /​ˈiːkwəl/​), and in any case, with the exception of /​r/​, approximants rarely occur before the syllable /​əl/​in English words. Note that syllabic /​l/​also frequently occurs as a realisation of the weak form of will (see Section 13.10). The /​əl/​syllable that’s realised as syllabic /​l/​is often spelt (e.g. people) or with preceded by a vowel letter such as (e.g. local), (e.g. panel), (e.g. pencil) or (e.g. faculty). Homophones:  bridal, bridle /​ ˈbraɪdl ̩/​; colonel, kernel /​ ˈkɜːnl̩/​; cymbal, symbol /​ˈsɪmbl̩/​; idle, idol /​ˈaɪdl̩/​; marshal, martial /​ˈmɑːʃl̩/​; medal, meddle /​ˈmedl̩/​; metal, mettle /​ˈmetl̩/​; muscle, mussel /​ˈmʌsl̩/​; naval, navel /​ˈneɪvl̩/​; pedal, peddle /​ˈpedl̩/​; principal, principle /​ˈprɪnsəpl̩/​; council, counsel /​ˈkaʊnsl̩/.​

Transcribe these words with syllabic /​l/​after plosives /​p b t d k ɡ/​and affricates /​ʧ ʤ/​. 1) burgle, breathable, frugal, apple, yodel, chuckle, crystal, jumble, sparkle, table 2) tribal, gospel, saddle, obstacle, ogle, circle, allowable, thimble, yokel, waddle 3) vegetable, purple, foible, startle, satchel, label, snorkel, legal, cobble, miracle 4) wearable, gentleman, rabble, poodle, theatrical, gobble, juggle, example, noble 5) vigil, avoidable, scruple, nautical, herbal, icicle, frontal, drinkable, feudal, local

Transcribe these words with syllabic /​l/​after fricatives /​f v θ ð s z ʃ/​and nasals /​m n/​. 1) kennel, shovel, thermal, awful, marvel, crucial, proposal, bushel, powerful, evil

Syllabic consonants  41

2) arrival, shrapnel, refusal, colossal, cheerful, lethal, arousal, normal, specialty 3) careful, tousle, novelty, flannel, betrothal, official, thistle, formal, phrasal, oval 4) dismissal, maternal, doubtful, hazel, partial, fossil, animal, chivalry, jostle, axle 5) fearful, brothel, journal, hustle, primal, nasal, shrivel, weasel, wonderful, useful

Transcribe these words with syllabic /​l/​after plosives /​p b t d k ɡ/​, affricates /​ʧ ʤ/​, fricatives /​f v θ ð s z ʃ/​and nasals /​m n/​. 1) Nigel, grovel, jungle, channel, verbal, carousal, brutal, social, throttle, optimal 2) council, myrtle, rehearsal, vehicle, spatial, immortal, angel, colourful,  cycle 3) vocal, approval, accountable, puzzle, raffle, uncle, marble, faithful, scribble 4) penalty, reprisal, bauble, facial, mingle, camel, sprinkle, commercial, notable 5) funnel, curdle, diesel, total, travel, gerbil, shingle, final, topple, harmful, noodle

9.3  Syllabic /​n/​ Syllabic /​n/​occurs in a narrower range of contexts than syllabic /​l/​. Like syllabic /​l/​it occurs after plosives /​p b t d k ɡ/​, fricatives /​f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ/​ and affricates /​ʧ ʤ/​, but not after approximants /​r l j w/​(e.g. parent /​ˈpɛːrənt/​, melon /​ˈmelən/​, canyon /​ˈkænjən/​, frequent /​ˈfriːkwənt/​). However, unlike syllabic /​l/​, syllabic /​n/​doesn’t occur after nasals /​m n ŋ/​ (e.g. salmon /​ˈsæmən/​, cannon /​ˈkænən/​, Tongan /​ˈtɒŋən/​). Syllabic /​n/​is also more variable than syllabic /​l/​. While syllabic /​l/​is the norm in the contexts in which it occurs, we can’t say the same about syllabic /​n/​. Pronunciations with /​ən/​commonly alternate with pronunciations with syllabic /​n/​, and their relative frequencies vary according to the consonant they follow. Syllabic /​n/​appears to be most common after alveolar fricatives /​s z/​ (e.g. listen /​ˈlɪsn̩/​, reason /​ˈriːzn̩/​), palato-​alveolar fricatives /​ʃ ʒ/​ (e.g. action /​ˈækʃn̩/​, vision /​ˈvɪʒn̩/​) and /​f/​ (e.g. soften /​ˈsɒfn̩/​). After the remaining fricatives /​v θ ð/​, the affricates /​ʧ ʤ/​, and the bilabial /​p b/​and velar /​k ɡ/​plosives, non-​ syllabic pronunciations seem to be more common (e.g. seven /​ˈsevən/​, python /​ˈpaɪθən/​, southern /​ ˈsʌðən/​, merchant /​ ˈmɜːʧənt/​, region /​ ˈriːʤən/​, happen /​ˈhæpən/​, ribbon /​ˈrɪbən/​, reckon /​ˈrekən/​, dragon /​ˈdræɡən/​). The case of the alveolar plosives /​t d/​is more complicated. Traditionally, syllabic /​n/​was practically obligatory after /​t/​(e.g. frighten /​ˈfraɪtn̩/​) and /​d/​ (e.g. hidden /​ˈhɪdn̩), but in recent decades pronunciations without a syllabic consonant (/​ˈfraɪtən/​, /​ˈhɪdən/​) have become more and more common

42  Transcribing words

alongside pronunciations with a syllabic consonant. In addition to this, syllabic /​n/​usually doesn’t occur after /​t/​or /​d/​when they are preceded by another consonant, excluding /​l/​(e.g. London /​ˈlʌndən/​, sentence /​ˈsentəns/​, reluctant /​rɪˈlʌktənt/​, piston /​ˈpɪstən/​) or when the preceding syllable is unstressed (e.g. skeleton /​ˈskelətən/​). The /​ən/​syllable that’s realised as syllabic /​n/​is often spelt (e.g. cotton), (e.g. worsen), (e.g. cousin), (e.g. ocean) and (e.g. certain). Homophones:  lessen, lesson /​ˈlesn̩/​; session, cession /​ˈseʃn̩/​; cousin, cozen /​ˈkʌzn̩/​; Britain, Briton /​ˈbrɪtn̩/​; tighten, titan /​ˈtaɪtn̩/​.

Transcribe these words with syllabic /​n/​after alveolar fricatives /​s z/​, palato-​alveolar fricatives /​ʃ ʒ/​ and  /​f/​. 1) frozen, fusion, oxen, isn’t, creation, excursion, cushion, arson, soften, musician 2) Russian, deafen, exertion, thousand, innocent, notion, auction, collision, ashen 3) occasion, magician, portion, assertion, dozen, infant, moisten, adoption, seclusion 4) decent, compulsion, poison, corrosion, mutation, hyphen, mustn’t, raisin, session 5) doesn’t, prescription, mason, delusion, compassion, worsen, contortion, Persian

Transcribe these words, according to your own usage, with either /​ən/​or syllabic /​n/​after affricates /​ʧ ʤ/​, dental fricatives /​θ ð/​ and  /​v/​. 1) driven, religion, marathon, haven’t, region, servant, congestion, agent, heathen 2) shaven, seven, legend, govern, merchant, raven, question, Devon, oven, surgeon 3) forgiven, solvent, emergency, python, heaven, suggestion, fervent, convent 4) eleven, sergeant, haven, dungeon, relevant, cavern, luncheon, even, urgent

Transcribe these words, according to your own usage, with either /​ən/​or syllabic /​n/​after alveolar plosives /​t d/​. 1) mutton, hadn’t, broaden, cotton, ardent, sweeten, prudent, wouldn’t, eaten 2) forbidden, tighten, maiden, curtain, couldn’t, threaten, deaden, rotten, needn’t 3) avoidance, pattern, student, important, shouldn’t, glutton, beaten, rodent

Syllabic consonants  43

9.4  Sequences of syllabic consonants Certain English words can have two syllabic consonants in a row (e.g. optional /​ˈɒpʃn̩l ̩/​). This is always in the order /​n̩/​ + /​l ̩/​because syllabic /​n/​doesn’t occur after  /​l/​.

Transcribe these words with a sequence of two syllabic consonants. 1) emotional, occasional, personal, traditional, seasonal, conditional, rational 2) professional, national, additional, arsenal, notional, confessional, optional

9.5  Syllabic /​m/​and /​ŋ/​ Syllabic /​m/​is a possibility after fricatives /​f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ/​, but apart from those formed with the ‘-​ism’ suffix (e.g. tourism, realism), very few words exist which demonstrate the required context, and the /​əm/​variant appears to be more usual. The most productive source of syllabic /​m/​is the weak form of some (see Section 13.5). Syllabic /​ŋ/​only occurs as a result of assimilation of syllabic /​n/​(see Sections 15.4 and 15.15).

Transcribe these words, according to your own usage, with either /​əm/​or syllabic /​m/​. 1) ransom, spasm, anthem, ovum, irksome, bosom, gruesome, cumbersome, chasm 2) bothersome, fearsome, blossom, dorsum, possum, gypsum, jetsam, prism, rhythm

9.6  Desyllabification When a syllabic consonant is followed by an unstressed vowel in the same word (e.g. travelling /​ˈtrævl̩ɪŋ/​, listening /​ˈlɪsn̩ɪŋ/​), it can become non-​syllabic (e.g /​ ˈtrævlɪŋ/​, /​ˈlɪsnɪŋ/​ ). The more common a word is, the more likely desyllabification /​ˌdiːsəˌlæbəfəˈkeɪʃn̩/​is to occur. Since the syllabic /​l/​in the sequence /​n̩l ̩/​is a realisation of the syllable /​əl/​, the syllabic /​n/​of /​n̩l ̩/​can also undergo desyllabification (e.g. national /​ˈnæʃnl̩/​).

Transcribe these words, according to your own usage, either with or without desyllabification. 1) gardening, reasonable, stapler, personal, gambling, poisoning, ticklish, prisoner

44  Transcribing words

2) wrestling, professional, conditioner, fashionable, sprinkler, seasoning, rambling 3) impressionable, commissioner, emotional, traveller, frightening, sweetener 4) poisonous, simpler, gardener, traditional, toddler, struggling, cycling, christening

9.7  Chapter revision Transcribe these words with or without syllabic consonants as appropriate. 1) orphan, barrel, needle, mammal, strangle, cousin, scalpel, woven, cudgel, station 2) parable, wrestler, explosion, shuffle, garden, recital, felon, person, ladle, spectacle 3) carnal, vital, waffle, stolen, injection, shuttle, positioning, cavalry, possession, feral 4) wooden, onion, hospital, fruition, faculty, nitrogen, eternal, vixen, foreign, possible 5) espousal, mongrel, horizon, wobble, dawdle, given, blatant, kettle, jackal, Rachel 6) southern, oracle, England, mumble, intelligent, vandal, projection, lingual, castle 7) probable, elephant, fathom, twinkle, ration, emotion, squirrel, Stilton, woodland 8) essential, mutant, attraction, woollen, forgotten, libel, carnival, indulgent, rural 9) morsel, quibble, certain, eloquent, bottle, didn’t, cannibal, referral, diffusion, able 10) tavern, trouble, burden, syphon, frequent (adj.), bobble, reaction, plural, focal 11) carton, squabble, swollen, easel, roughen, musical, bugle, viral, equation, turtle 12) doodle, global, Britain, infantry, Scotland, fatal, loathsome, spiral, pardon, wasn’t 13) island, assemble, tiresome, collusion, turbulent, shorten, mural, chronicle, erosion 14) scandal, delightful, warren, northern, beetle, awesome, chosen, gentle, affordable 15) kitten, pebble, villain, rivalry, distortion, modern, hurtle, tunnel, subsequent

10 SECONDARY STRESS

10.1  Secondary stress before the primary stress So far we have looked at words with only one stress, the primary stress, on either the first (e.g. lemon /​ˈlemən/​, syllabus /​ˈsɪləbəs/​) or second syllable (e.g. correct /​kəˈrekt/​, vanilla /​vəˈnɪlə/​, astronomer /​əˈstrɒnəmə/​) of a word. When the primary stress is on the third syllable or later, there will always be an additional less prominent secondary stress on one of the first two syllables. The IPA symbol for secondary stress, the secondary stress mark, is [ˌ], like a lower version of the primary stress mark [ˈ], and it’s also placed before the syllable it relates to. The English tendency is to alternate between stressed and unstressed syllables, so when the primary stress is on the third syllable, the secondary stress is usually on the first syllable (e.g. disappear /​ˌdɪsəˈpɪə/​).

Transcribe these three-​syllable words with primary stress on the third syllable and secondary stress on the first syllable. 1) kangaroo, persevere, afternoon, supersede, mountaineer, saboteur, solitaire, overwork (v.) 2) disappear, overlook, mispronounce, volunteer, reassure, rationale, reinforce, referee 3) submarine, souvenir, decompose, questionnaire, undercharge (v.), disappoint, interfere

Transcribe these four-​syllable words with primary stress on the third syllable and secondary stress on the first syllable. 1 ) disadvantage, panorama, circulation, motivation, automatic, correlation 2) constitution, education, supervision, conversation, population, academic

46  Transcribing words

3 ) ballerina, persecution, allegation, obligation, paramedic, publication 4) corporation, reproduction, disappointment, alcoholic, institution

Transcribe these five-​syllable words with primary stress on the third syllable and secondary stress on the first syllable. 1 ) 2) 3) 4)

university, hippopotamus, crematorium, methodology, vegetarian ambiguity, editorial, personality, ideology, inconvenience, jocularity auditorium, periodical, terminology, possibility, redevelopment ceremonial, sanatorium, territorial, bibliography, opportunity

When the primary stress is on the fourth syllable, the secondary stress is on the first (e.g. qualification /​ˌkwɒləfəˈkeɪʃn̩/​) or second syllable (e.g. accommodation /​əˌkɒməˈdeɪʃn̩/​).

Transcribe these words with primary stress on the fourth syllable and secondary stress on the second syllable. 1) interpretation, communication, pronunciation, appreciation, illumin ation, affiliation 2) examination, contamination, extermination, evaporation, consolidation, humiliation 3) hallucination, abbreviation, assassination, aperitif, evacuation, congratulation

Transcribe these words with primary stress on the fourth syllable and secondary stress on the first syllable. 1) organisation, aquamarine, characteristic, entrepreneur, qualification, interdependence 2) modification, interconnect, notification, specification, multiplication, justification 3) interconnection, verification, purification, magnification, simplification, classification It’s also possible, but less common, for there to be a secondary stress on the syllable directly before the one containing the primary stress. Such words are often compounds (e.g. upstairs /​ˌʌpˈstɛːz/​) or include a stressed suffix (e.g. attendee /​əˌtendˈiː/​) or prefix (e.g. malpractice /​ˌmælˈpræktɪs/​).

Transcribe these words with adjacent secondary and primary stresses. 1) headmaster, homemade, straightforward

outspoken,

lukewarm,

aboveboard,

Secondary stress  47

2 ) 3) 4) 5)

trainee, backdoor, malnourished, alongside, satsuma, archbishop, UK longstanding, outshine, retry, GP, bestseller, misjudge, postmodern backfire, reuse, cross-​country, mankind, prejudge, downgrade, offshore midsummer, nearby, malfunction, IQ, downhill, maltreatment, backyard

Transcribe these words with various stress patterns. 1) forthcoming, imagination, intermediate, memorandum, midday, abomination 2) tangerine, connotation, manipulation, operation, chandelier, masquerade 3) observation, elsewhere, capability, approximation, satisfaction, reputation 4) reservation, engineer, handwritten, overwhelm, disapprove, correspond, outdo 5) upfront, competition, reassess, recollect, uproot, preheat, calculation, etymology 6) fundamental, contravene guarantee, combination, trustee, contradiction 7) politician, reconsider, interruption, accusation, probability, understand, uphill 8) occupation, overrule, mismanagement, outweigh, comprehend, manufacture

10.2  Secondary stress after the primary stress When secondary stresses occur after the primary stress, they are less noticeable than pre-​primary secondary stresses. In fact, British dictionaries don’t usually indicate post-​primary secondary stresses, but American dictionaries do show them. This isn’t because there’s a difference in stress between the two types of English, but only reflects different traditions of transcription. Post-​primary secondary stresses often occur in compounds (e.g. eggshell /​ˈeɡˌʃel/​, paperback /​ˈpeɪpəˌbæk/​) but also in other kinds of words (e.g. index /​ˈɪnˌdeks/​, acrobat /​ˈækrəˌbæt/​).

Transcribe the following two-​syllable words with post-​primary secondary stress. 1) password, eggshell, teapot, countdown, contact, keyboard, anthrax 2) archive, website, mobile, backpack, toothache, warehouse, housebound 3) alloy, cowboy, hotdog, ambush, voodoo, nightmare, footprint, eyelash 4) welfare, farmyard, comment, airport, jawbone, thyroid, floorboard 5) essay, hallmark, suburb, mermaid, shoehorn, airfare, memoir, jigsaw 6) earthquake, footstool, passport, snowball, viewpoint, profile, sunburn 7) gateway, playground, headache, workshop, namesake, snowplough 8) outlook, lightweight, footpath, corkscrew, likewise, framework, contour 9) homework, aspect, thighbone, access, pylon, blowtorch, hormone

48  Transcribing words

10) eyebrow, punchbag, background, combat, suntan, forearm, programme 11) asset, shotgun, transport, tripod, cuckoo, lunchbox, cockroach 12) headline, email, crossword, mothball, surfboard, lifeboat, bookmark

Transcribe the following three-​, four-​and five-​syllable words with post-​primary secondary stress. 1 ) celebrate, kaleidoscope, motorcycle, collaborator, crocodile, boomerang 2) reservoir, paranoid, parasol, molecule, paradox, alphabet, aptitude, irritate 3) telephone, dialogue, thunderstorm, aeroplane, dynamite, monologue, occupy 4) motorway, seminar, communicate, suffocate, horoscope, diagram, magnitude 5) interview, microwave, activate, paradigm, infrastructure, episode, attitude 6) compromise, accelerator, manipulate, investigator, extrovert, commemorate 7) sabotage, unicorn, melodrama, accelerate, alcohol, diplomat, watermelon 8) parachute, memorise, latitude, solitude, multitude, constitute, destitute, isolate When a word ends with the goat /​əʊ/​vowel and the preceding syllable has primary stress, the syllable isn’t considered to have a secondary stress. Words like follow, therefore, are transcribed /​ˈfɒləʊ/​, not */ˈfɒlˌəʊ/, while words like radio are transcribed /​ˈreɪdiːˌəʊ/​, not */​ˈreɪdiːəʊ/​.

Transcribe these words with stressed or unstressed final goat /​əʊ/​as appropriate. 1) borrow, tobacco, photo, motto, bungalow, shallow, marrow, shadow, tomato 2) arrow, halo, limbo, patio, logo, fellow, ratio, echo, jumbo, follow, video 3) potato, elbow, hero, tempo, window, cello, judo, willow, polo, disco,  barrow 4) piano, cargo, audio, narrow, ego, radio, stereo, veto, rhino, sparrow, buffalo 5) yellow, bingo, mellow, casino, sorrow, solo, tango, cocoa, rainbow, pillow

Transcribe the following words with pre-​primary and post-​primary secondary stress where appropriate. 1 ) peppermint, facilitate, supervisor, snowball, wigwam, offbeat, malpractice 2) escapee, catwalk, investigation, consolation, misconstrue, recuperation, organise

Secondary stress  49

3) eyesore, climax, forecast, disobey, anagram, decorator, watchdog, demonstration 4) wardrobe, metropolitan, crossbow, outwit, consideration, introduction, platform 5) regularity, convoy, entertain, generation, undermine, recapitulate, appointee 6) network, backbone, misspell, introvert (n.), hesitation, revelation, execute, nylon 7) overheat, compensate, peacock, paradise, calculator, stockpile, accommodation 8) acrobat, catalogue, outline, speculation, showcase, cocktail, contradict, lunchtime

10.3  Word-​stress  pairs A number of words have different stressings depending on whether they are used as nouns, adjectives or verbs. As nouns or adjectives, the primary stress is usually on the first syllable, but as verbs it’s on the second syllable. Since there’s a close relationship in English between stress and vowel quality, the change in stress is often accompanied by a change in vowel. For example, as a noun contract is /​ˈkɒnˌtrækt/​, but as a verb it is /​kənˈtrækt/​.

Transcribe these words according to their word class. 1 ) desert (n.), rebel (v.), refuse (n.), convict (v.), upgrade (n.), affect (n.) 2) overlap (v.), fragment (v.), permit (n.), conduct (v.), project (v.), conscript (n.) 3) overflow (n.), compress (n.), console (n.), frequent (adj.), rebel (n.), construct (v.) 4) pervert (n.), progress (v.), contest (v.), incense (n.), commune (n.), insult (v.) 5) content (adj.), attribute (v.), insult (n.), overhang (v.), entrance (n.), subject (n.) 6) incline (n.), desert (v.), object (v.), produce (n.), present (adj.), attribute (n.) 7) record (v.), consort (n.), exploit (v.), proceeds (n.), progress (n.), commune (v.) 8) upgrade (v.), affect (v.), overlap (n.), fragment (n.), conduct (n.), overhang (n.) 9) conscript (v.), overflow (v.), compress (v.), frequent (v.), construct (n.) A number of words ending with -​ate have two pronunciations:  /​ət/​as a noun or adjective, and /​eɪt/​as a verb. The word estimate, for example, is /​ˈestəmət/​as a noun and /​ˈestəˌmeɪt/​as a verb. The /​eɪt/​pronunciation results in a post-​primary secondary stress.

50  Transcribing words

Transcribe the following words with /​ət/​ or /​eɪt/​ according to their word class. 1 ) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6)

elaborate (v.), animate (v.), predicate (n.), deliberate (v.), advocate (n.) appropriate (adj.), syndicate (v.), moderate (v.), delegate (n.) duplicate (v.), legitimate (adj.), articulate (adj.), subordinate (adj.) delegate (v.), separate (v.), intimate (adj.), degenerate (v.), intimate (v.) approximate (v.), animate (adj.), advocate (v.), appropriate (v.) subordinate (v.), graduate (v.), predicate (v.), syndicate (n.), graduate (n.)

A small number of words ending with -​ment behave similarly to those ending in -​ate. As nouns their -​ment suffix is /​mənt/​, but as a verb it is /​ment/​, with a post-​primary secondary stress. This is only a tendency, however, and while the nouns are always pronounced with /​mənt/​, the verbs are often pronounced with /​mənt/​as well as /​ment/​. Ornament, for example, is /​ˈɔːnəmənt/​as a noun, but /​ˈɔːnəˌment/​or /​ˈɔːnəmənt/​as a verb.

Transcribe the following words with /​mənt/​ or /​ment/​ according to their word class. 1 ) supplement (v.), complement (n.), document (v.), implement (n.) 2) document (n.), implement (v.), complement (v.), supplement (n.)

10.4  Sequences of unstressed syllables When a word contains a schwa /​ə/​followed by /​r/​and then another unstressed syllable, there’s often a pronunciation variant without the schwa. The word ivory, for example, can be pronounced /​ˈaɪvəriː/​, with three syllables, or /​ˈaɪvriː/​, with two syllables. The likelihood of the schwa being dropped depends on the frequency of the word, the sound preceding the schwa, and individual habits.

Transcribe the following words with or without a schwa before /​r/​according to your own habits. 1 ) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7)

barbarous, favourite, coverage, factory, nursery, desperate, discovery average, battery, mystery, beverage, ordinary, dangerous, elaborate (adj.) conference, glamorous, conqueror, general, adventurous, separate (adj.) accessory, reference, preferable, bravery, memory, camera, memorable emerald, history, boundary, documentary, dormitory, degenerate (adj.) military, miserable, delivery, corporate, recovery, admiral, honourable admirable, funeral, natural, emperor, different, boisterous, considerable

Secondary stress  51

When the sequence ‘/​ə/​+ /​r/​+ unstressed syllable’ is preceded by ‘consonant + /​r/​’, both the schwa /​ə/​and an /​r/​can be lost, e.g. library /​ˈlaɪbrəriː/​or /​ˈlaɪbriː/​, contrary /​ˈkɒntrəriː/​or /​ˈkɒntriː/​, arbitrary /​ˈɑːbətrəriː/​or /​ˈɑːbətriː/​. When the sequence ‘/​ə/​+ /​r/​+ unstressed syllable’ is preceded by ‘/​ə/​ + /​r/​’, either /​ər/​or /​ərə/​can be lost, for example temporary /​ˈtempərəriː/​ or /​ˈtempəriː/​or /​ˈtempriː/​, literary /​ˈlɪtərəriː/​or /​ˈlɪtəriː/​or /​ˈlɪtriː/​, contemporary /​kənˈtempərəriː/​ or /​kənˈtempəriː/​ or /​kənˈtempriː/​, itinerary /​aɪˈtɪnərəriː/​ or /​aɪˈtɪnəriː/​ or /​aɪˈtɪnriː/​.

10.5  Stressing of compounds As the practice material in Sections 10.1 and 10.2 demonstrates, there are many compound words in English, and the primary stress can be on either the first element (e.g. on head in headache /​ˈhedˌeɪk/​) or the second element (e.g. on master in headmaster /​ˌhedˈmɑːstə/​). All the compound words we have seen so far are written as one word, but many others are written as two words (e.g. bus stop /​ˈbʌs ˌstɒp/​), and some can be written with hyphens (e.g. sit-​in /​ˈsɪt ˌɪn/​). Compound words written as one word nearly always have the primary stress on the first element, but those written as two words are more variable, some having the primary stress on the first element (e.g. paper clip /​ˈpeɪpə ˌklɪp/​), and some on the second element (e.g. pork pie /​ˌpɔːk ˈpaɪ/​).

Transcribe these compound words with the correct stressing. 1) birthday cake, Christmas dinner, alarm clock, golf ball, pet food, swear word, pet cat 2) cottage cheese, blood pressure, brain scan, village idiot, field trip, bank robber 3) body language, boiling point, carrot cake, feather duster, book review, fountain pen 4) careers adviser, germ warfare, bath plug, polo shirt, city centre, jigsaw puzzle 5) skipping rope, bank manager, mother tongue, chess champion, lump sum, bath tap 6) fruit salad, case study, duck egg, dress rehearsal, chat show, pig farm, hard hat 7) Christmas present, carving knife, paper napkin, beauty contest, pressure cooker 8) cabbage patch, paint stripper, fridge freezer, bone marrow, ego trip, holiday cottage 9) Morse code, arson attack, peace treaty, tooth decay, tomato sauce, birthday card 10) art gallery, learner driver, cocoa powder, guard dog, banana skin, leather jacket

52  Transcribing words

11) soup spoon, gift voucher, frying pan, world war, love affair, garden path, bus pass 12) code word, childhood hero, life cycle, egg white, oven glove, pet hate, time bomb 13) birthday party, cash machine, jam tart, tennis coach, back pain 14) snooker player, jet fuel, harvest festival, gift shop, drug smuggler, spring weather 15) flame thrower, home address, book cover, goldfish bowl, fish soup, house husband

10.6  Chapter revision Transcribe these words and compounds with primary and secondary stress where appropriate. 1) showroom, disagreement, content (n.), banjo, simulator, legitimate (v.), murderer 2) entrance (v.), outlive, outsmart, scarecrow, cement mixer, foghorn, shooting star 3) surname, popcorn, domino, death threat, mousetrap, exploit (n.), crystal vase 4) commissionaire, bollard, incense (v.), picket fence, birthmark, celebration, ransack 5) leather armchair, coursework, disappearance, object (n.), muscle spasm, dictionary 6) present (n.), correspondent, blood loss, detective novel, airline pilot, toothbrush 7) assessment method, fascination, compost, drug habit, proceeds (v.), sheep shearing 8) fruit juice, surcharge, produce (v.), parking ticket, intervene, tin whistle, sugar cube 9) head injury, project (n.), love song, reappear, costume, massage (v.), best man 10) presuppose, herb garden, cookbook, record (n.), expert, deliberate (adj.), portfolio 11) refuse (v.), outrank, bicycle chain, primary, robot, apple pie, consort (v.), headset 12) oblong, bathtub, hollow, padlock, approximate (adj.), subject (v.), flash flood 13) canine, hippo, interject, conflict (n.), think tank, mango, war zone, folklore, zero 14) fanfare, duplicate (n.), century, category, invoice, present (v.), widow, airbag

Secondary stress  53

15) gas leak, pronoun, conflict (v.), bookworm, kilo, neon, telescope, apprehend 16) workforce, torso, cursory, articulate (v.), smoke alarm, convict (n.), kiosk 17) contest (n.), stairwell, memo, disregard, incline (v.), fresco, pervert (n.), hate mail

11 INFLECTIONS AND EPENTHESIS

11.1  The -​ed inflection The English -​ed suffix has three different pronunciations:  /​ɪd/​ (e.g. waited /​ˈweɪtɪd/​), /​d/​ (e.g. filled /​fɪld/​) and /​t/​ (e.g. pressed /​prest/​). These three variants depend on the sound at the end of the word that the -​ed suffix is added to: • •

•

When a word ends in /​t/​or /​d/​, the pronunciation is /​ɪd/​, e.g. stated /​ˈsteɪtɪd/​, landed /​ˈlændɪd/​; When a word ends in one of the remaining voiceless consonants (i.e. /​p k ʧ f θ s ʃ/​), the pronunciation is /​t/​, e.g. stopped /​stɒpt/​, parked /​pɑːkt/​, reached /​riːʧt/​, sniffed /​snɪft/​, berthed /​bɜːθt/​, forced /​fɔːst/​, wished /​wɪʃt/​; When a word ends in one of the remaining voiced consonants (i.e. /​b ɡ ʤ v ð z ʒ m n ŋ l/​) or a vowel, the pronunciation is /​d/​, e.g. rubbed /​rʌbd/​, dragged /​dræɡd/​, caged /​keɪʤd/​, saved /​seɪvd/​, breathed /​briːðd/​, gazed /​ɡeɪzd/​, massaged /​ˈmæsɑːʒd/​, formed /​fɔːmd/​, planned /​plænd/​, banged /​bæŋd/​, failed /​feɪld/​, showed /​ʃəʊd/​, stored /​stɔːd/​ weighed /​weɪd/​.

For some speakers, the form after /​t/​and /​d/​is /​əd/​not /​ɪd/​. Note the adjectives:  blessed /​ˈblesɪd/​, crooked /​ˈkrʊkɪd/​, dogged /​ˈdɒɡɪd/​, -​legged /​ˈleɡɪd/​, wicked /​ˈwɪkɪd/​, learned /​ˈlɜːnɪd/​, naked /​ˈneɪkɪd/​, wretched /​ˈreʧɪd/​, ragged /​ˈræɡɪd/​, rugged /​ˈrʌɡɪd/​, beloved /​bɪˈlʌvɪd/​, jagged /​ˈʤæɡɪd/​, aged /​ˈeɪʤɪd/​. Homophones:  aloud, allowed /​əˈlaʊd/​; bald, bawled /​bɔːld/​; band, banned /​bænd/​; bard, barred /​bɑːd/​; build, billed /​bɪld/​; board, bored /​bɔːd/​; bold, bowled /​bəʊld/​; braid, brayed /​breɪd/​; chord, cord, cawed, cored /​kɔːd/​; coward, cowered /​ˈkaʊəd/​; crude, crewed /​kruːd/​; duct, ducked /​dʌkt/​; find, fined /​faɪnd/​; fold, foaled /​fəʊld/​; guest, guessed /​ɡest/​; hold, holed /​həʊld/​; least, leased /​liːst/​; mind,

Inflections and epenthesis  55

mined /​maɪnd/​; mist, missed /​mɪst/​; mode, mowed /​məʊd/​; mood, mooed /​muːd/​; mustard, mustered /​ˈmʌstəd/​; ode, owed /​əʊd/​; pact, packed /​pækt/​; past, passed /​pɑːst/​; paste, paced /​peɪst/​; pride, pried /​praɪd/​; road, rowed /​rəʊd/​; side, sighed /​saɪd/​; sold, soled /​səʊld/​; staid, stayed /​steɪd/​; sword, soared /​sɔːd/​; tide, tied /​taɪd/​; toad, towed /​təʊd/​; told, tolled /​təʊld/​; trust, trussed /​trʌst/​; ward, warred /​wɔːd/​; wield, wheeled /​wiːld/​; word, whirred /​wɜːd/​; world, whirled /​wɜːld/​.

Transcribe these words with the /​ɪd/​variant of the -​ed suffix. 1) squirted, sorted, hunted, crowded, guarded, needed, decorated, paraded, quoted, melted 2) painted, promoted, provided, threaded, committed, sounded, surrounded, persuaded 3) voted, chatted, awarded, graded, skated, fainted, ended, shaded, hated, invited, minded 4) headed, yielded, hinted, looted, spouted, prodded, handed, welded, tended, coated, rotted

Transcribe these words with the /​t/​variant of the -​ed suffix. 1) helped, liked, watched, laughed, taxed, rushed, kidnapped, quacked, approached 2) stuffed, collapsed, abolished, wiped, panicked, thatched, garnished, launched, pierced 3) stepped, stopped, kicked, shocked, quenched, screeched, belched, chased, balanced 4) tripped, popped, sucked, mocked, poked, licked, dashed, flushed, missed, fixed

Transcribe these words with the /​d/​variant of the -​ed suffix. 1) robbed, hugged, charged, loved, squeezed, camouflaged, copied, chewed, ploughed 2) blurred, starred, stored, cared, sprayed, cried, toyed, snowed, covered, feared, toured 3) named, charmed, cleaned, rained, scared, bored, jeered, grabbed, sobbed, dragged 4) zoomed, streamed, harmed, ruined, snubbed, bribed, managed, barged, raved, craved

Transcribe these words with the /​ɪd/​, /​t/​ and /​d/​ variants of the -​ed suffix as appropriate. 1) worked, added, waved, addressed, washed, adored, warmed, agreed, wagged

56  Transcribing words

2) appeared, typed, approved, tugged, archived, tricked, argued, trapped 3) transcribed, astounded, attacked, throbbed, avoided, themed, axed,  glared 4) booked, studied, boxed, stored, caged, stirred, cared, starved, carried, stared 5) compared, sparred, concerned, snored, conferred, sniffed, coughed, sneered 6) drenched, shouted, dropped, served, commanded, seized, ducked, searched 7) queued, hoped, purchased, ignored, puffed, included, proved, intended 8) pocketed, joked, plugged, judged, pinned, landed, phoned, longed, packaged 9) occurred, marketed, observed, mopped, nodded, mugged, taped, saved 10) thawed, carved, crushed, jogged, marched, proposed, edged, astonished When -​ly is added to -​ed, the resulting -​edly suffix is pronounced /​ɪdliː/​ after a stressed syllable, e.g markedly /​ˈmɑːkɪdliː/​(but not after an unstressed syllable, e.g. biasedly /​ˈbaɪəstliː/​). The three most common words that this affects are alleged /​əˈleʤd/​, supposed /​səˈpəʊzd/​ and marked /​mɑːkt/​, which become /​əˈleʤɪdliː/​, /​səˈpəʊzɪdliː/​and /​ˈmɑːkɪdliː/​with the addition of the -​ly suffix. In fact, these three words are so frequently used with the -​edly ending that their -​ed forms (when used as adjectives) are often pronounced alleged /​əˈleʤɪd/​, supposed /​səˈpəʊzɪd/​ and marked /​ˈmɑːkɪd/​through analogy with the -​edly  forms.

Transcribe these words with /​ɪdliː/​for -​edly. 1 ) deservedly, unashamedly, unreservedly, avowedly, fixedly, professedly 2) confusedly, confessedly, shamefacedly, assuredly, advisedly, dazedly

11.2  The -​s inflection Like the -​ed suffix, the English -​s suffix has three different pronunciations depending on the sound at the end of the word that it’s added to. The three different uses of this suffix, also spelt or , are to form the plurals (e.g. churches) and possessives of nouns (e.g. Paul’s) and the third-​person singular in the present tense of verbs (e.g. eats). The three pronunciations are: • /​ ɪz/​after /​s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/​, e.g. kisses /​ˈkɪsɪz/​, Liz’s /​ˈlɪzɪz/​, wishes /​ˈwɪʃɪz/​, camouflages /​ˈkæməˌflɑːʒɪz/​, scratches /​ˈskræʧɪz/​, merges /​ˈmɜːʤɪz/​; • /​s/​after the remaining voiceless consonants /​p t k f θ/​, e.g. taps /​tæps/​, fits /​fɪts/​, Jack’s /​ʤæks/​, cliffs /​klɪfs/​, myths /​mɪθs/​; • /​z/​after the remaining voiced consonants /​b d ɡ v ð m n ŋ l/​and vowels, e.g. sobs /​sɒbz/​, needs /​niːdz/​, tags /​tæɡz/​, dives /​daɪvz/​, bathes /​beɪðz/​,

Inflections and epenthesis  57

farms /​fɑːmz/​, John’s /​ʤɒnz/​, lungs /​lʌŋz/​, bowls /​bəʊlz/​, days /​deɪz/​, cars /​kɑːz/​, goes /​ɡəʊz/​. For some speakers, the form after /​s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/​is /​əz/​ not  /​ɪz/​. Also, some speakers replace word-final unstressed /iː/ with /ɪ/ when the -s suffix is added, e.g. body /ˈbɒdiː/ vs. bodies /ˈbɒdɪz/, carry /ˈkæriː/ vs. carries /ˈkærɪz/. Some nouns, of course, have irregular plurals and this is usually reflected in the spelling (e.g. knives, wives). A small number of nouns, however, have irregular plurals which aren’t obvious from the spelling. These are houses /​ˈhaʊzɪz/​, mouths /​maʊðz/​, youths /​juːðz/​, paths /​pɑːðz/​, truths /​truːðz/​, baths /​bɑːðz/​, oaths /​əʊðz/​, sheaths /​ʃiːðz/​, wreaths /​riːðz/​. Homophones: adze, adds, ads /​ædz/​; baize, bays /​beɪz/​; booze, boos /​buːz/​; braise, brays /​breɪz/​; bruise, brews /​bruːz/​; browse, brows /​braʊz/​; cause, caws, cores /​kɔːz/​; clause, claws /​klɔːz/​; copse, cops /​kɒps/​; cruise, crews /​kruːz/​; daze, days /​deɪz/​; ease, Es /​iːz/​; flex, flecks /​fleks/​; freeze, frieze, frees /​friːz/​; graze, greys /​ɡreɪz/​; guise, guys, Guy’s /​ɡaɪz/​; hertz, hurts /​hɜːts/​; hose, hoes /​həʊz/​; jeans, genes, Jean’s /​ʤiːnz/​; lapse, laps /​læps/​; lax, lacks /​læks/​; laze, lays /​leɪz/​; lynx, links /​lɪŋks/​; minx, minks /​mɪŋks/​; missus, misses /​ˈmɪsɪz/​; nose, knows /​nəʊz/​; pause, paws, pores, pours /​pɔːz/​; phlox, flocks /​flɒks/​; phrase, frays /​freɪz/​; please, pleas /​pliːz/​; praise, prays /​preɪz/​; prose, pros /​prəʊz/​; quartz, quarts /​kwɔːts/​; raise, raze, rays /​reɪz/​; rose, rows /​rəʊz/​; rouse, rows /​raʊz/​; ruse, rues /​ruːz/​; seize, seas, sees /​siːz/​; size, sighs /​saɪz/​; tax, tacks /​tæks/​; tease, teas, tees /​tiːz/​; use, ewes, yews /​juːz/​; Wales, wails, whales /​weɪlz/​; wax, whacks /​wæks/​.

Transcribe these words with the /​ɪz/​variant of the -​s suffix. 1) touches, beaches, matches, doses, ceases, sinuses, pushes, finishes, bashes, pages 2) bridges, plunges, pleases, closes, sizes, George’s, Alice’s, Rose’s, horses, loses 3) patches, punches, guesses, losses, dishes, ambushes, changes, badges, pauses, hoses 4) torches, catches, dresses, places, radishes, mashes, fridges, binges, fuses, noses

Transcribe these words with the /​s/​variant of the -​s suffix. 1) keeps, shops, groups, fights, parents, profits, shuts, pilots, throats, marks, hooks, picks 2) chefs, giraffes, deaths, turnips, sprouts, looks, moths, surfs, experts, scoops 3) boots, belts, weeks, talks, sharks, smokes, ropes, stamps, kites, efforts, cooks, clocks

58  Transcribing words

4) secrets, mints, banks, cakes, bikes, aches, meets, rabbits, pipes, lumps, gates, rats, scouts

Transcribe these words with the /​z/​variant of the -​s suffix. 1) stories, continues, questionnaires, saboteurs, jigsaws, stars, disappears, problems 2) contains, tongues, absorbs, methods, catalogues, survives, soothes, Jane’s, Joe’s 3) teams, crimes, lines, stones, babies, cookies, crews, stairs, chores, jabs, tribes, pads 4) lessons, trees, swears, flaws, pubs, clubs, clogs, digs, thugs, drives, gives, moves

Transcribe these words with the /​ɪz/​, /​s/​ and /​z/​ variants of the -​s suffix as appropriate. 1) years, achieves, workshops, advises, woofs, affairs, affords, welcomes 2) orchards, lights, nodes, churches, souvenirs, invents, gloves, sleuths, whirrs 3) wars, announces, warns, armies, walks, arrives, wages, attaches, volunteers 4) relaxes, guitars, frees, raises, horoscopes, prizes, items, percentages, kebabs 5) bags, varnishes, barracks, varies, beaks, valves, bears, values, belches, turns 6) charities, splashes, cottages, cuffs, sleeves, ebbs, ships, screeches, browses 7) towns, blushes, topics, breaks, tissues, breathes, times, brews, thumbs, rocks 8) vases, blames, trades, blockages, things, budges, surfaces, carriages, storms 9) thanks, bugs, terms, bulges, taxis, bushes, targets, captives, sweeps, careers 10) nightmares, mazes, natives, memoirs, muses, menus, alarms, wears, avenges

11.3  Epenthesis When a nasal consonant (i.e. /​m n ŋ/​) is followed by a voiceless fricative (i.e. f θ s ʃ) in the same syllable, a voiceless plosive (i.e. /​p t k/​) with the same place of articulation as the nasal is usually inserted (i.e. /​p/​after /​m/​, /​t/​after /​n/​, /​k/​ after /​ŋ/​). Sense, for example, is usually pronounced /​sents/​, the same as scents or cents, a voiceless alveolar plosive /​t/​being inserted between the alveolar nasal /​n/​and the following /​s/​. The insertion of a sound in a word in this way is known as epenthesis /​ɪˈpenθəsɪs/​(or /​ɪˈpentθəsɪs/). Epenthesis is most common in /​ns/​because there are many words with this combination of sounds. Other combinations of nasal and voiceless fricative are rather rare, occurring in relatively few words. When /​t/​is inserted between /​n/​ and /​ʃ/​, it can result in /​ʧ/​ (e.g. ancient /​ˈeɪnʧn̩t/​).

Inflections and epenthesis  59

For a minority of speakers, /​t/​can be inserted between /​l/​and /​s/​(e.g. else /​elts/​). Homophones:  sense, scents, cents /​sents/​; prince, prints /​prɪnts/​; mince, mints /​mɪnts/​; presence, presents /​ˈprezn̩ts/​; patience, patients /​ˈpeɪʃn̩ts/​; incidence, incidents /​ˈɪnsədənts/​; dependence, dependents /​dɪˈpendənts/​; innocence, innocents /​ˈɪnəsn̩ts/​; adolescence, adolescents /​ˌædəˈlesn̩ts/​.

Transcribe the following words with epenthesis. 1) once, month, hamster, rinse, attention, sense, council, ninth, fancy, conscious 2) monster, difference, youngster, strength, cancer, experience, warmth,  dance 3) essential, panther, lymph, science, offence, invention, answer, pension, tenth 4) audience, conscience, sentence, millionth, currency, since, amongst, silence 5) hyacinth, balance, sequence, gangster, mention, influence, violence, plinth 6) prince, reference, response, nymph, tension, announce, cancel, assistance

11.4  Optional consonants When /​mp/​and /​ŋk/​are followed by /​t/​, /​ʃ/​or /​ʧ/​, the /​p/​and /​k/​are often not pronounced. For example tempt is /​tempt/​or /​temt/​, and junction is /​ˈʤʌŋkʃn̩/​ or /​ˈʤʌŋʃn̩/​.

Transcribe these words with or without /​p/​ and /​k/​depending on your own habits. 1) instinct, empty, exemption, function, punctuation, assumption, extinct, prompt 2) distinctive, temptation, plankton, sanction, sanctuary, anxious, sumptuous 3) attempt, precinct, puncture, distinction, symptom, extinction, consumption 4) juncture, contempt, sacrosanct, punctual, redemption, subjunctive,  exempt 5) presumptuous, conjunction, distinct, presumption, contemptuous, resumption

11.5  Chapter revision Transcribe these words with appropriate forms of the -​ed and -​s suffixes, epenthesis where appropriate, and with or without optional consonants according to your habits. 1) rogues, licence, suburbs, cars, practised, strikes, angst, causes, intrigued, streets

60  Transcribing words

2) opinions, length, limits, roses, opens, loads, involved, pre-​empt, maintenance, obtains 3) itched, sanctum, statues, cheers, polished, mansion, standards, chiefs, sacked, squats 4) gears, keys, generated, pegs, defunct, kings, rubbed, parishes, lakes, roared, chance 5) glued, cigars, speeches, rented, defence, cliffs, spears, guaranteed, cloths, sparks 6) robes, gossips, intention, raided, rises, gouges, heralded, ribs, grooves, guidance 7) exercised, songs, labyrinth, crabs, scratched, snatches, crashes, feared, snacks, cribs 8) relatives, hairs, filmed, scoffed, seventh, reeks, scarred, hangs, reasons, folded 9) advance, gazed, dodges, sleeps, staged, dogs, skips, appearance, challenged, doors 10) races, hues, stabbed, purrs, igloos, potential, charred, purposes, inches, triumph 11) celebrities, posed, notices, gangs, screamed, reservoirs, smears, draws, shoots 12) squashed, proverbs, scrumptious, clues, hatches, sides, loathes, choices, parasites

PART B

Transcribing connected speech

12 CONNECTED SPEECH AND LIAISON

12.1  Introducing connected speech So far, we’ve been transcribing only individual words, including compound words. When we transcribe words, we transcribe the pronunciation they have when we say them in isolation, i.e. with a pause before and after, and with stress. This is known as the citation form /​saɪˈteɪʃn̩ ˌfɔːm/​of a word and is the form found in dictionaries. In everyday connected speech, however, we don’t pause between words and we don’t stress every word. We speak in bursts of several words at a time without pausing, and certain types of words are frequently unstressed. Consequently, the connected speech forms of words can be different from their citation forms because of the influence of neighbouring words and because of lack of stress. Look at the following example of a transcription of connected speech. /​ˈθɪŋz əv ˈɡɒt ə ˈlɒp ˈbetər | ət ˈhəʊm ˈriːsn̩tliː || maɪ ˈeldɪs ˈdɔːtə | huːz ˈfɔːr | əz ˈstɑːtɪd ˈskuːl | ən ˈðæt ˈteɪks ə ˈlɒt ə ðə ˈpreʃər ˈɒf || ɪk ˈkiːps ər ˈɒkjəpaɪd | ˈməʊst ə ðə ˈdeɪ | ən ʃiː ˈlʌvz ɪt ˈðɛː || ɑːr ˈʌðə ˈdɔːtəz | ˈtuː ən ə ˈhɑːf || ˈnaʊ ðət ʃiːz ə ˈtɒdlə | ʃiː ˈteɪks ə ˈlɒt ˈles ˈlʊkɪŋ ˈɑːftə || ʃiː kŋ̍ ˈkʌm əŋ ˈɡəʊ əˈbaʊt ðə ˈhaʊs | ˈtel əs ˈwɒt ʃiː ˈwɒnts | əŋ ˈkiːp əˈself ˈbɪziː | wɪð ɜː ˈtɔɪz || ɪts ˈɔːl ə ˈlɒt ˈdɪfrənt | frəm ðə ˈlɑːs ˈfjuː ˈhektɪk ˈjɪəz || aɪv ˈɡɒp ˈmʌʧ ˈmɔː ˈtaɪm fə ˈwɜːk | ən əm ˈʤʌs ˈfɪnɪʃɪŋ ˈɒf | ˈðəʊz trænˈskrɪpʃm̩ bʊks aɪ ˈtəʊlʤuː əˈbaʊt/​ Things have got a lot better at home recently. My eldest daughter, who’s four, has started school, and that takes a lot of the pressure off. It keeps her occupied most of the day and she loves it there. Our other daughter’s two and a half. Now that she’s a toddler, she takes a lot less looking after. She can come and go about the house, tell us what she wants, and keep herself busy with her toys. It’s all a lot different from the last few hectic

64  Transcribing connected speech

years! I’ve got much more time for work and am just finishing off those transcription books I told you about. Notice that some of the conventions for transcribing connected speech are different from those for citation forms: 1) When transcribing the citation forms of monosyllabic words, we take for granted that the obligatory stress must be on the one and only syllable and so we don’t mark it. In connected speech, however, monosyllabic words aren’t always stressed and so it is necessary to use the stress mark to show whether they’re stressed or not. 2) When transcribing connected speech, we use only the primary stress mark [ˈ]. 3) When transcribing connected speech, we don’t use capital letters or punctuation marks. For the sake of legibility, however, we do put spaces between words even though we don’t pause after every word. 4) The text is divided up into intonation phrases (IPs) using the single | and double || intonation boundary markers. We’ll see in Section 17.2 what exactly an IP is, but for the moment it’s enough to treat the intonation boundaries as places where there’s a potential for a pause. We use the double marker at the end of sentences and the single marker in other positions. Our sample transcription also contains examples of four connected speech processes which can cause connected speech forms to be different from citation forms. They are: 1) Liaison /​liːˈeɪzn̩/​: when a sound that doesn’t occur in the citation form of a word is inserted in connected speech, for example better /​ˈbetə/​ vs. better at /​ˈbetər ət/​; pressure /​ˈpreʃə/​ vs. pressure off /​ˈpreʃər ˈɒf/​; our /​ɑː/​ vs. our other /​ɑːr ˈʌðə/​(see Section 12.2); 2) Weakening:  when a word has a different pronunciation in connected speech because of lack of stress, for example have /​əv/​, a /​ə/​, at /​ət/​, is /​z/​ or /​s/​, and /​ən/​, of /​ə/​or /​əv/​, the /​ðə/​, her /​ə/​or /​ɜː/​, that /​ðət/​, us /​əs/​, from /​frəm/​, have /​v/​, for /​fə/​, am /​əm/​(see Chapter 13); 3) Elision /​ɪˈlɪʒn̩/​: when a sound that appears in the citation form of a word is lost in connected speech, for example eldest /​ˈeldɪst/​ vs. eldest daughter /​ˈeldɪs ˈdɔːtə/​; last /​lɑːst/​ vs. last few /​ˈlɑːs ˈfjuː/​; just /​ʤʌst/​ vs. just finished /​ˈʤʌs ˈfɪnɪʃt/​(see Chapter 14); 4) Assimilation /​əˌsɪməˈleɪʃn̩/​: when a sound in the citation form changes into another sound in connected speech, for example lot /​lɒt/​ vs. lot better /​ˈlɒp ˈbetə/​; it /​ɪt/​ vs. it keeps /​ɪk ˈkiːps/​; can /​kn̩/​ vs. can come /​kŋ̍ ˈkʌm/​; and /​ən/​ vs. and go /​əŋ ˈɡəʊ/​; transcription /​trænˈskrɪpʃn̩/​ vs. transcription books

Connected speech and liaison  65

/​trænˈskrɪpʃm̩ bʊks/​; told /​təʊld/​ + you /​juː/​ vs. told you /​ˈtəʊlʤuː/​ (see Chapter 15).

12.2  Liaison When one of the vowels schwa /​ə/​, palm /​ɑː/​, thought /​ɔː/​, nurse /​ɜː/​, square /​ɛː/​, near /​ɪə/​ or cure /​ʊə/​is followed without a pause by another vowel, an /​r/​is inserted between them. We can see this within words when suffixes are added to words that have these vowels at the end, for example: schwa: palm : thought : nurse : square : near : cure :

murder /​ˈmɜːdə/​ + -​er /​ə/​ = murderer /​ˈmɜːdərə/​ star /​stɑː/​ + -​ing /​ɪŋ/​ = starring /​ˈstɑːrɪŋ/​ four /​fɔː/​ + -​ish /​ɪʃ/​ = four-​ish /​ˈfɔːrɪʃ/​ fur /​fɜː/​ + -​y /​iː/​ = furry /​ˈfɜːriː/​ care /​kɛː/​ + -​ing /​ɪŋ/​ = caring /​ˈkɛːrɪŋ/​ clear /​klɪə/​ + -​est /​ɪst/​ = clearest /​ˈklɪərɪst/​ pure /​pjʊə/​ + -​ist /​ɪst/​ = purist /​ˈpjʊərɪst/​

When this process occurs between words, which is the norm in the GB accent and many others, it is known as /​r/​-​liaison. For example: schwa: palm : thought : nurse : square : near : cure :

bitter /​ˈbɪtə/​ + anger /​ˈæŋɡə/​ = bitter anger /​ˈbɪtər ˈæŋɡə/​ far /​fɑː/​ + away /​əˈweɪ/​ = far away /​ˈfɑːr əˈweɪ/​ sore /​sɔː/​ + arm /​ɑːm/​ = sore arm /​ˈsɔːr ˈɑːm/​ fur /​fɜː/​ + allergy /​ˈæləʤiː/​ = fur allergy /​ˈfɜːr ˌæləʤiː/​ bare /​bɛː/​ + earth /​ɜːθ/​ = bare earth /​ˈbɛːr ˈɜːθ/​ ear /​ɪə/​ + infection /​ɪnˈfekʃn̩/​ = ear infection /​ˈɪər ɪnˌfekʃn̩/​ pure /​pjʊə/​ + evil /​ˈiːvl̩/​ = pure evil /​ˈpjʊər ˈiːvl̩/​

Note that from this point on, exercises will often include compounds and phrases side by side. The compounds should be transcribed following the conventions for citation forms, and the phrases transcribed according to the conventions for connected speech (see Section 13.1). In the examples of /​r/​-​liaison given above, fur allergy and ear infection are compounds (noun + noun), while the others are phrases (e.g. adjective + noun, adverb + adverb).

Transcribe these compounds and phrases with /​r/​-​liaison after word-​final schwa /​ə/​. 1) inner ear, printer ink, burglar alarm, Easter egg, sunflower oil, paper aeroplane 2) Treasure Island, leather armchair, under age, spoiler alert, upper arm, cover art

66  Transcribing connected speech

3) Westminster Abbey, killer instinct, flower arranging, solar energy, gather evidence The key for all exercises in Part B can be downloaded at paulcarley.com.

Transcribe these compounds and phrases with /​r/​-​liaison after word-​final palm /​ɑː/​.

1) star athletes, car alarm, bizarre ideas, far apart, bar owners, cigar ash, guitar amplifiers

Transcribe these compounds and phrases with /​r/​-​liaison after word-​final thought /​ɔː/​.

1) four hours, core ideas, war artist, core audience, more important, door alarm

Transcribe these phrases with /​r/​-​liaison after word-​final nurse /​ɜː/​.

1) occur often, confer ownership, deter intruders, defer action, infer information

Transcribe these compounds and phrases with /​r/​-​liaison after word-​final square /​ɛː/​.

1) tear apart, wheelchair access, square inches, spare energy, scare away, air inlets 2) compare information, care assistant, stare ahead, bare earth, pair up, wear earplugs

Transcribe these compounds and phrases with /​r/​-​liaison after word-​final near /​ɪə/​. 1) near impossible, clear English, ear infection, cheer up, severe acne, Near East

Transcribe these phrases with /​r/​-​liaison after word-​final /​ʊə/​ (or thought /​ɔː/​).

cure

1) obscure information, premature aging, mature attitudes, secure investment

12.3  Analogical /​r/​-​liaison Most words that contain the vowels that trigger /​r/​-​liaison have the letter in the spelling because historically there was an /​r/​in the pronunciation, which

Connected speech and liaison  67

has been lost, and /​r/​-​liaison is a remnant of this. However, some words with /​r/​-​liaison vowels are not spelt with because there was never an /​r/​in the pronunciation (e.g. sofa /​ˈsəʊfə/​, Utah /​ˈjuːˌtɑː/​, flaw /​flɔː/​, milieu /​mɪlˈjɜː/​, idea /​aɪˈdɪə/​). These words have also come to be pronounced with /​r/​-​liaison through analogy with those which historically had an /​r/​, for example sofa and chairs /​ˈsəʊfər ən ˈʧɛːz/​, our Utah office /​ɑː ˈjuːtɑːr ɒfɪs/​, flaw in /​ˈflɔːr ɪn/​, milieu of /​mɪˈljɜːr əv/​, idea of /​aɪˈdɪər əv/​. We call this analogical /​r/​-​liaison, and the same process can be found within words, e.g. drawing /​ˈdrɔːrɪŋ/​, cha-​chaing /​ˈʧɑːˌʧɑːrɪŋ/​, salsaing /​ˈsælsərɪŋ/.​

Transcribe these compounds and phrases with analogical /​r/​-​liaison. 1) pizza oven, cinema audience, yoga instructor, raw emotion, Barcelona Airport 2) jaw injury, visa application, vanilla extract, bourgeois attitude, asthma attack 3) Yamaha instruments, guerrilla army, media agency, law enforcement, India ink

12.4  Liaison in Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) In TEFL, liaison is referred to as ‘linking’, and ‘linking /​j/​’ and ‘linking /​w/​’ are included alongside ‘linking /​r/​’. Linking /​j/​is said to occur when words ending in fleece /​iː/​, face /​eɪ/​, price /​aɪ/​ or choice /​ɔɪ/​are followed by a word beginning with a vowel (e.g. see out, pay off, tie up, buoy up), while linking /​w/​is said to occur when words ending in goose /​uː/​, goat /​əʊ/​ and mouth /​aʊ/​are followed by a word beginning with a vowel (e.g. new era, go on, how easy). This, however, is merely a teaching device. There is no linking or liaison of /​j/​or /​w/​. This is demonstrated by the differences between the following pairs: three ears /​ˈθriː ˈɪəz/​ ≠ three years /​ˈθriː ˈjɪəz/​; they ooze /​ðeɪ ˈuːz/​ ≠ they use /​ðeɪ ˈjuːz/​; my awning /​maɪ ˈɔːnɪŋ/​ ≠ my yawning /​maɪ ˈjɔːnɪŋ/​; destroy earnings /​dɪˈstrɔɪ ˈɜːnɪŋz/​ ≠ destroy yearnings /​dɪˈstrɔɪ ˈjɜːnɪŋz/​; and: two eyes /​ˈtuː ˈaɪz/​ ≠ too wise /​ˈtuː ˈwaɪz/​; no awning /​ˈnəʊ ˈɔːnɪŋ/​ ≠ no warning /​ˈnəʊ ˈwɔːnɪŋ/​; now eight /​ˈnaʊ ˈeɪt/​ ≠ now wait /​ˈnaʊ ˈweɪt/​. The impression some people have of so-​called linking /​j/​and /​w/​is caused by the same misunderstanding that leads learners to mistakenly transcribe words like layer /​ˈleɪə/​, tyre /​ˈtaɪə/​, joyous /​ˈʤɔɪəs/​, lower /​ˈləʊə/​ and tower /​ˈtaʊə/​ as */​ˈleɪjə ˈtaɪjə ˈʤɔɪjəs ˈləʊwə ˈtaʊwə/​(see Sections 6.4 and 7.3).

68  Transcribing connected speech

12.5  Chapter revision Transcribe these compounds and phrases with /​r/​-​liaison. 1) mother earth, car accident, four eggs, stir emotions, air attack, Panama Airport 2) secure information, severe injuries, under oath, yoga expert, star attraction 3) bladder infection, raw ingredients, more efficient, heir apparent, severe illness 4) power adapter, cheetah enclosure, bizarre experience, sincere apologies 5) mature individuals, newspaper article, Far East, draw attention, war orphan 6) share information, bitter enemies, hair oil, deter aggression, gear oil, bear attack 7) letter opener, rare occurrences, bare essentials, career opportunities, clever ideas 8) hardware issues, disaster area, future action, rear end, wear armour, outer edge

13 STRESS AND WEAK FORMS

13.1  Transcribing stress in connected speech When we transcribe the citation forms of words, we indicate word stress as an essential part of the makeup of a word. In connected speech, however, stress is more variable, and words may or may not be stressed depending on such factors as speech-​rate, the stressing of surrounding words, and individual habits. When we transcribe connected speech, therefore, we indicate which words are likely to be stressed and which are not, while accepting that other stressings will be possible. Our approach to transcribing word stress in citation forms has been that we indicate all primary stresses (except for those in monosyllabic words) and all secondary stresses before the primary stress in a word. When it comes to secondary stresses after the primary stress, there’s variation in their treatment (see Section 10.2). So far, we have followed the convention of not indicating primary stress in the citation forms of monosyllabic words because we can assume that a word’s one and only syllable is stressed. In connected speech, however, we can’t make this assumption and have to use the stress mark to indicate whether monosyllabic words are stressed or not. Words like sheep, fly and can’t, for example, are usually transcribed /​ʃiːp/​, /​flaɪ/​ and /​kɑːnt/​as citation forms, but in connected speech (e.g. in Sheep can’t fly.) they are likely to be stressed and so would be transcribed /​ˈʃiːp/​, /​ˈflaɪ/​and /​ˈkɑːnt/​ accordingly (e.g. /​ˈʃiːp ˈkɑːnt ˈflaɪ/​). As we’ll see in Sections 17.2 and 17.5, the difference in prominence between primary and secondary stress is not really due to different degrees of stress,

70  Transcribing connected speech

but due to different types of intonation. When transcribing connected speech, therefore, we use only the primary stress mark to indicate stressed syllables. Words like communication and UK, for example, would be transcribed /​kəˌmjuːnəˈkeɪʃn̩/​and /​ˌjuːˈkeɪ/​as citation forms, while in connected speech they would be transcribed /​kəˈmjuːnəˈkeɪʃn̩/​and /​ˈjuːˈkeɪ/​. Furthermore, post-​ primary secondary stresses, like those in compost /​ˈkɒmˌpɒst/​ and analyse /​ˈænəˌlaɪz/​, are not marked in connected speech, and the same goes for those in compound words whether they’re written as a single word, like mousetrap /​ˈmaʊsˌtræp/​ and armchair /​ˈɑːmˌʧɛː/​, or as more than one word, like blood type /​ˈblʌd ˌtaɪp/​ and oven glove /​ˈʌvən ˌɡlʌv/​. In connected speech we would transcribe these words /​ˈkɒmpɒst/​, /​ˈænəlaɪz/​, /​ˈmaʊstræp/​, /​ˈɑːmʧɛː/​, /​ˈblʌd taɪp/​and /​ˈʌvən ɡlʌv/​. Such an approach is useful in a TEFL context (international students of English being the main consumers of phonemic transcriptions) because it makes clear that the last marked stress in a word or compound word is the primary stress, which is the most important stress for learners to be aware of.

13.2  Weak forms and contractions A number of monosyllabic words, mostly grammatical words, are usually unstressed in connected speech. Through being so frequently unstressed, many of these words have developed different pronunciations when unstressed, known as weak forms, from the pronunciations they have when stressed, known as strong forms. The modal verb can, for example, is usually unstressed and pronounced /​kən/​. It’s only in a small number of special contexts (see Section 13.13) that can is stressed and pronounced /​kæn/​. Some weak form words can be so weakened that they are reduced to a single consonant that attaches to a neighbouring word, usually the preceding word, to form a contraction. The modal verb would, for example, weakens to /​d/​ after I and combines with it to form the contraction I’d  /​aɪd/​.

13.3  Weak forms and contractions: personal pronouns The personal pronouns that have weak forms are:

he him her us them

Weak

Strong

/​iː/​ /​ɪm/​ /​ə ɜː/​ /​əs s/​ /​ðəm ðm̩ /​

/​hiː/​ /​hɪm/​ /​hɜː/​ /​ʌs/​ /​ðem/​

Stress and weak forms  71

Note: 1) He keeps its /​h/​after a pause, and so we can say that in this context he doesn’t have a weak form, the unstressed form being the same as the strong form. (In theory, the pronouns him and her also keep their /​h/​after a pause, but in reality they hardly ever appear unstressed at the beginning of an utterance after a pause.) For example: After a pause: He left. /​hiː ˈleft/​ Elsewhere: I bet he left. /​aɪ ˈbet iː ˈleft/​; Hit him. /​ˈhɪt ɪm/​; Tell her. /​ˈtel ə/​ 2) The weak form of her varies between /​ə/​and /​ɜː/​, with /​ə/​being more common. For example: They spotted her. /​ðeɪ ˈspɒtɪd ə/​or /​ðeɪ ˈspɒtɪd ɜː/​ 3) When he, him and her have their /​h/​-​less forms, /​r/​-​liaison occurs when they are directly preceded by a word ending in an /​r/​-​liaison vowel. For example: I swear he left. /​aɪ ˈswɛːr iː ˈleft/​; They fear him. /​ðeɪ ˈfɪər ɪm/​; We adore her. /​wiː əˈdɔːr ə/​ 4) When us occurs directly after let as the first-​person plural imperative, it reduces to /​s/​and combines with let to form the contraction let’s /​lets/​. In other contexts, us is /​əs/​. For example: Let’s go. /​ˈlets ˈɡəʊ/​; Let us go! /​ˈlet əs ˈɡəʊ/​; Tell us all. /​ˈtel əs ˈɔːl/​; Stop boring us. /​ˈstɒp ˈbɔːrɪŋ əs/​ 5) The /​əm/​ of them /​ðəm/​can be realised as a syllabic /​m/​, giving /​ðm̩ /​. For example: Release them now. /​rɪˈliːs ðm̩ ˈnaʊ/​ or /​rɪˈliːs ðəm ˈnaʊ/​ In more casual speech, the /​ð/​of /​ðəm/​is often dropped when the preceding word ends in a consonant. For example: Grab them! /​ˈɡræb əm/​or /​ˈɡræb ðəm/​ 6) Of the remaining personal pronouns (I, me, you, she, it, we, they), you has the occasional weak from /​jə/​before a word beginning with a consonant, especially in more casual speech. For example: Do it if you like. /​ˈduː ɪt ɪf jə ˈlaɪk/​or /​ˈduː ɪt ɪf juː ˈlaɪk/​

Transcribe these sentences with the appropriate weak forms. It surprised them. She knows him. We paid her yesterday. Tell them all. I told him. He drank it. She said he met him. He saw me. I found her. They followed us. We knew them. They like us. I  bought him dinner. You tricked us. We copied them. You think he likes us? He hardly noticed her. I believe he knows. Now he hates us. It suits him. We spotted them. He said he knows her. He fascinated her. She found us. I followed him.

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13.4  Weak forms and contractions: possessive adjectives The possessive adjectives that have weak forms are:

his her Note:

Weak

Strong

/​ɪz/​ /​ɜː ə hə/​

/​hɪz/​ /​hɜː/​

1) His and her keep their /​h/​after a pause. For example: After a pause: His boat sank. /​hɪz ˈbəʊt ˈsæŋk/​; Her leg hurt. /​hə ˈleɡ ˈhɜːt/​ Elsewhere: I heard his boat sank. /​aɪ ˈhɜːd ɪz ˈbəʊt ˈsæŋk/​; Then her leg hurt. /​ˈðen ɜː ˈleɡ ˈhɜːt/​ 2) The weak form of the possessive adjective her varies between /​ɜː/​and /​ə/​, with /​ɜː/​being more common in most contexts (compare this with the personal pronoun her, Section 13.3). After a pause, /​hə/​is possibly more common than /​hɜː/​, and before a vowel /​ər/​is more common than /​ɜːr/​ (note the /​r/​-​liaison). For example: Take her hand. /​ˈteɪk ɜː ˈhænd/​or /​ˈteɪk ə ˈhænd/​ Her back hurts. /​hə ˈbæk ˈhɜːts/​ or /​hɜː ˈbæk ˈhɜːts/​ Watch her eyes. /​ˈwɒʧ ər ˈaɪz/​or /​ˈwɒʧ ɜːr ˈaɪz/​ 3) When his and her have their /​h/​-​less forms, /​r/​-​liaison occurs when they are directly preceded by a word ending in an /​r/​-​liaison vowel. For example: Wear his hat. /​ˈwɛːr ɪz ˈhæt/​; She tore her dress. /​ʃiː ˈtɔːr ɜː ˈdres/​ 4) Of the remaining possessive adjectives (my, your, its, our, their), your often has the weak form /​jə/​alongside unstressed /​jɔː/​, and my occasionally has the weak form /​mə/​. For example: Take your time. /​ˈteɪk jə ˈtaɪm/​or /​ˈteɪk jɔː ˈtaɪm/​ Call my mother. /​ˈkɔːl maɪ ˈmʌðə/​or /​ˈkɔːl mə ˈmʌðə/​ 5) The two pronunciations of our, /​ɑː/​and /​ˈaʊə/​, are not a weak form/​strong form pair. The /​ɑː/​pronunciation is much more common than the /​ˈaʊə/​ pronunciation in both stressed and unstressed contexts. 6) The reflexive pronouns are myself /​maɪˈself/​ (occasionally /​məˈself/​), yourself /​jɔːˈself/​ or /​jəˈself/​, himself /​ɪmˈself/​ (/​hɪmˈself/​after a pause), herself /​ɜːˈself/​or /​əˈself/​ (/​hɜːˈself/​ or /​həˈself/​after a pause), ourselves /​ɑːˈselvz/​ (occasionally /​ˌaʊəˈselvz/​), yourselves /​jɔːˈselvz/​ or /​jəˈselvz/​, and themselves /​ðəmˈselvz/​. 7) The possessive pronouns (mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs) are usually stressed and don’t have weak forms.

Transcribe these sentences with the appropriate weak forms. His book bored her mother. Help yourself! Your dog bit her father. He wet himself. His wife knew his secret. She cut herself. Her friend did his work.

Stress and weak forms  73

I did it myself. It made his day. They look after themselves. His son broke his heart. Her boss crashed her car. Do it yourselves. His dog took your keys. Her brother gave me his number. His dog chased your cat. Her brother took her toy. Its tail hit our legs. Their pet ruined her skirt. We saw your show. Know your enemy. We made ourselves comfortable.

13.5  Weak forms and contractions: articles and quantifiers The articles and quantifiers that have weak forms are:

a an the some

Weak

Strong

/​ə/​ /​ən/​ /​ðə/​ /​səm sm̩ sə/​

/​eɪ/​ /​æn/​ /​ðiː/​ /​sʌm/​

Note: 1) The only has a weak form when the next word begins with a consonant. For example: Before consonants: Watch the game. /​ˈwɒʧ ðə ˈɡeɪm/​ Before vowels: Watch the end. /​ˈwɒʧ ðiː ˈend/​ 2) Some has a weak form when it means ‘an indefinite number or amount’ and is used with uncountable and plural nouns as the equivalent of the indefinite article a/​an. The /​əm/​ of /​səm/​is frequently realised as a syllabic consonant, resulting in /​sm̩ /​. The phrase some more is usually pronounced /​sə ˈmɔː/​. For example: Take some pictures. /​ˈteɪk sm̩ ˈpɪkʧəz/​or /​ˈteɪk səm ˈpɪkʧəz/​; Get me some water. /​ˈɡet miː sm̩ ˈwɔːtə/​or /​ˈɡet miː səm ˈwɔːtə/​; I want some more. /​aɪ ˈwɒnt sə ˈmɔː/​   Other uses of some have no weak form, for example: as a pronoun (e.g. Take some. /​ˈteɪk ˈsʌm/​), and with the meanings ‘a certain subgroup of the whole’ (e.g. Some people like it. /​ˈsʌm ˈpiːpl̩ ˈlaɪk ɪt/​), ‘a large number or amount’ (e.g. We slept for some time. /​wiː ˈslept fə ˈsʌm ˈtaɪm/​), ‘something or someone unknown or unspecified’ (e.g. He’s just some guy I know. /​hiːz ˈʤʌst ˈsʌm ˈɡaɪ aɪ ˈnəʊ/​), ‘an impressive instance of something’ (That was some night out! /​ˈðæt wəz ˈsʌm ˈnaɪt ˈaʊt/​).

Transcribe these sentences with the appropriate weak forms. A farmer planted an oak tree. I  found some money. A  boy smashed the windows. The teacher bought some chalk. Give the cat some more food. The author wrote the book. The thief stole an apple. Get some more water. A man drank some coffee. Is that the answer? Take some more time off. An elephant

74  Transcribing connected speech

crushed a nut. Pull the other one. I want some tea. It took an hour. The owner left in an instant. Is it a problem? We need some more sugar. Bring some more people. The actor learnt some lines.

13.6  Weak forms and contractions: prepositions The prepositions that have weak forms are:

to for from at of

Weak

Strong

/​tə/​ /​fə/​ /​frəm/​ /​ət/​ /​əv/​

/​tuː/​ /​fɔː/​ /​frɒm/​ /​æt/​ /​ɒv/​

Note: 1) To has a weak form both as a preposition and as the to-​infinitive, and also as part of into. For example: Preposition: Go to hell. /​ˈɡəʊ tə ˈhel/​, Drive to the end. /​ˈdraɪv tə ðiː ˈend/​, Fly to Paris. /​ˈflaɪ tə ˈpærɪs/​ To-​infinitive: Try to think. /​ˈtraɪ tə ˈθɪŋk/​, I hope to win. /​aɪ ˈhəʊp tə ˈwɪn/​, Help to lift him. /​ˈhelp tə ˈlɪft ɪm/​ Into: I crept into work. /​aɪ ˈkrept ɪntə ˈwɜːk/​; I fell into the sea. /​aɪ ˈfel ɪntə ðə ˈsiː/​ 2) To only has a weak form when the next word begins with a consonant. For example: Before consonants: I went to school. /​aɪ ˈwent tə ˈskuːl/​; I learnt to drive. /​aɪ ˈlɜːnt tə ˈdraɪv/​; I went into space. /​aɪ ˈwent ɪntə ˈspeɪs/​ Before vowels: I went to England. /​aɪ ˈwent tuː ˈɪŋɡlənd/​; I learnt to act. /​aɪ ˈlɜːnt tuː ˈækt/​; I went into action. /​aɪ ˈwent ɪntuː ˈækʃn̩/​ 3) There’s a tendency for the weak form of of to lose its final /​v/​when followed by a word beginning with a consonant. This is most common in high-​frequency phrases and when a function word beginning with /​ð/​ follows. For example: Phrase: a piece of cake /​ə ˈpiːs ə ˈkeɪk/​; a point of view /​ə ˈpɔɪnt ə ˈvjuː/​; hall of fame /​ˈhɔːl ə ˈfeɪm/​; sort of strange /​ˈsɔːt ə ˈstreɪnʤ/​; kind of music /​ˈkaɪnd ə ˈmjuːzɪk/​; lots of room /​ˈlɒts ə ˈruːm/​ Before /​ð/​: one of the best /​ˈwʌn ə ðə ˈbest/​; some of these /​ˈsʌm ə ˈðiːz/​; all of them /​ˈɔːl ə ðəm/​; most of theirs /​ˈməʊst ə ˈðɛːz/​; none of that /​ˈnʌn ə ˈðæt/​ 4) The remaining monosyllabic prepositions (e.g. with, on, in, by, etc.) are also usually unstressed, but have no regular weak forms.

Stress and weak forms  75

Transcribe these sentences with the appropriate weak forms. Go to work. Try to study. Buy it for Tom. Take it from Jack. Don’t sleep at work. Get a can of beer. Wait at the back of the queue. Is he from Spain? Is it for Bob? Walk to the top. Look at the side of the box. Stay at home for an hour. Get into the car. I spoke to him for ages. One of them left. I work from nine to five. Eat it for lunch. Be nice to others. Take a book from the pile. Stand at the back of the room. You fell from a roof ? Look into the future. I like to win.

13.7  Weak forms and contractions: BE The forms of BE that have weak forms are:

am are is was were

Weak

Strong

/​əm m/​ /​ə/​ /​z s/​ /​wəz/​ /​wə/​

/​æm/​ /​ɑː/​ /​ɪz/​ /​wɒz/​ /​wɜː/​

Note: 1) When am occurs directly after I, it reduces to /​m/​and combines with I to form the contraction I’m /​aɪm/​. In other positions, am is /​əm/​. For example: I’m waiting. /​aɪm ˈweɪtɪŋ/​; He knows I’m ill. /​hiː ˈnəʊz aɪm ˈɪl/​ Am I right? /​əm aɪ ˈraɪt/​; Where am I going? /​ˈwɛːr əm aɪ ˈɡəʊɪŋ/​ 2) The weak form of are is /​ə/​. When are occurs directly after you, we and they, it combines with them to form the contractions you’re /​jɔː/​ or /​jə/​, we’re /​wɪə/​(occasionally /wɛː/) and they’re /​ðɛː/​. Note that you’re has the same strong and weak forms as your (see Section 13.4). For example: Are you there? /​ə juː ˈðɛː/​; People are waiting. /​ˈpiːpl̩ ə ˈweɪtɪŋ/​; What are they doing? /​ˈwɒt ə ðeɪ ˈduːɪŋ/​ Now you’re ready. /​ˈnaʊ jɔː ˈrediː/​or /​ˈnaʊ jə ˈrediː/​; We’re winning. /​wɪə ˈwɪnɪŋ/​; They’re coming. /​ðɛː ˈkʌmɪŋ/​ 3) After a pause or a word ending in /​s/​, /​z/​, /​ʃ/​, /​ʒ/​, /​ʧ/​or /​ʤ/​, is doesn’t form a contraction, but remains /​ɪz/​, the same as the strong form. For example: Is John home? /​ɪz ˈʤɒn ˈhəʊm/​; Is that all. /​ɪz ˈðæt ˈɔːl/​ This is fine. /​ˈðɪs ɪz ˈfaɪn/​; The prize is huge. /​ðə ˈpraɪz ɪz ˈhjuːʤ/​; My fish is cold. /​maɪ ˈfɪʃ ɪz ˈkəʊld/​; A massage is nice. /​ə ˈmæsɑːʒ ɪz ˈnaɪs/​; The church is closed. /​ðə ˈʧɜːʧ ɪz ˈkləʊzd/​; The page is blank. /​ðə ˈpeɪʤ ɪz ˈblæŋk/​

76  Transcribing connected speech

After a word ending in one of the remaining voiceless consonants /​p t k f θ/​, is is /​s/​, which forms a contraction with the preceding word. For example: My soup’s cold. /​maɪ ˈsuːps ˈkəʊld/​; The hat’s black. /​ðə ˈhæts ˈblæk/​; My fork’s bent. /​maɪ ˈfɔːks ˈbent/​; The chef’s angry. /ðə ˈʃefs ˈæŋɡriː/; The moth’s grey. /ðə ˈmɒθs ˈɡreɪ/​ After a word ending in one of the remaining voiced consonants /​b d ɡ v ð m n ŋ l/​or a vowel, is is /​z/​, which forms a contraction with the preceding word. For example: Bob’s hungry. /​ˈbɒbz ˈhʌŋɡriː/​; The bird’s wet. /​ðə ˈbɜːdz ˈwet/​; My dog’s tired. /​maɪ ˈdɒɡz ˈtaɪəd/​; Dave’s here. /​ˈdeɪvz ˈhɪə/​; The scythe’s blunt. /​ðə ˈsaɪðz ˈblʌnt/​; My thumb’s sore. /​maɪ ˈθʌmz ˈsɔː/​; The bin’s empty. /​ðə ˈbɪnz ˈemtiː/​; The ring’s expensive. /​ðə ˈrɪŋz ɪkˈspensɪv/​; The bell’s loud. /​ðə ˈbelz ˈlaʊd/​; The key’s over there. /​ðə ˈkiːz ˈəʊvə ˈðɛː/​; The car’s slow. /​ðə ˈkɑːz ˈsləʊ/​; The door’s open. /​ðə ˈdɔːz ˈəʊpən/​ 4) The other monosyllabic forms of BE, be /​biː/​ and been /​biːn bɪn/​, are also frequently unstressed, but have no regular weak forms. Although been has two forms, they don’t constitute a strong form/​weak form pair, /​bɪn/​ being merely a less common variant.

Transcribe these sentences with the appropriate weak forms. That was that. Are you ready? I’m fine. They were there. We’re thinking about it. Is Jack here? Am I right? You’re wrong. What am I doing? Who’s coming? What was that? They’re waiting. Where are we going? He’s left. Were people complaining? We’re shocked. You’re awful. Which is which? They’re lost. I’m worried. What was wrong? They were gone. Is John at home? I’m certain. When are they coming? Now you’re talking. When am I speaking? The shop’s closed. Now we’re in trouble. I hope they’re safe. The rest are broken. When am I due? Some were stolen. Time’s running out. The judge is out. I said we’re finished. Pretend I’m not here. I think you’re mistaken. The job was done. It’s time they were stopped. I heard they’re fine. That’s right. Am I better? We’re slowing down. Is that enough? Where are the keys? Tomorrow I’m working. It was serious. You’re here at last. They’re all drunk.

13.8  Weak forms and contractions: auxiliary HAVE The forms of auxiliary HAVE that have weak forms are:

have has had

Weak

Strong

/​əv həv v/​ /​əz həz z s/​ /​əd həd d/​

/​hæv/​ /​hæz/​ /​hæd/​

Stress and weak forms  77

Note: 1) After I, you, we, they, who (relative pronoun) and there (existential there, see Section 13.12) auxiliary have reduces to /​v/​and forms the contractions I’ve /​aɪv/​, you’ve /​juːv/​, we’ve /​wiːv/​, they’ve /​ðeɪv/​, who’ve /​huːv/​ and there’ve /​ðəv/​. For example: I’ve never seen it. /​aɪv ˈnevə ˈsiːn ɪt/​; You’ve made a mess. /​juːv ˈmeɪd ə ˈmes/​; We’ve done our best. /​wiːv ˈdʌn ɑː ˈbest/​; They’ve turned it down. /​ðeɪv ˈtɜːnd ɪt ˈdaʊn/​; The people who’ve seen it /​ðə ˈpiːpl̩ huːv ˈsiːn ɪt/​; There’ve been loads. /​ðəv biːn ˈləʊdz/​ After other words, have is /​əv/​(which can result in /​r/​-​liaison), and after a pause have is /​həv/​. For example: People have complained. /​ ˈpiːpl̩ əv kəmˈpleɪnd/​; Times have changed. /​ˈtaɪmz əv ˈʧeɪnʤd/​; The deer have eaten it. /​ðə ˈdɪər əv ˈiːtn̩ ɪt/​ Have you done it? /​həv juː ˈdʌn ɪt/​; Have I passed? /​həv aɪ ˈpɑːst/​; Have we left? /​həv wiː ˈleft/​ Have sometimes loses its final /​v/​when followed by a consonant in the structure ‘modal verb + have + past participle’. This is more frequent when the past participle is been, and in more casual speech. For example: You must have been crazy. /​juː ˈmʌst ə biːn ˈkreɪziː/​; I should have known. /​aɪ ˈʃʊd ə ˈnəʊn/​; It might have been worse. /​ɪt ˈmaɪt ə biːn ˈwɜːs/​ 2) After a word ending in /​s/​, /​z/​, /​ʃ/​, /​ʒ/​, /​ʧ/​or /​ʤ/​, has is /​əz/​, and after a pause has is /​həz/​. For example: Chris has gone. /​ˈkrɪs əz ˈɡɒn/​; My size has changed. /​maɪ ˈsaɪz əz ˈʧeɪnʤd/​; My cash has gone. /​maɪ ˈkæʃ əz ˈɡɒn/​; Her rouge has run out. /​hə ˈruːʒ əz ˈrʌn ˈaʊt/​; My watch has stopped. /​maɪ ˈwɒʧ əz ˈstɒpt/​; The stage has collapsed. /​ðə ˈsteɪʤ əz kəˈlæpst/​ Has John left? /​həz ˈʤɒn ˈleft/​; Has the bus arrived? /​həz ðə ˈbʌs əˈraɪvd/​ After a word ending in one of the remaining voiceless consonants /​p t k f θ/​, has is /​s/​, which forms a contraction with the preceding word. For example: My soup’s gone. /​maɪ ˈsuːps ˈɡɒn/​; The hat’s been stolen. /​ðə ˈhæts biːn ˈstəʊlən/​; My fork’s fallen on the floor. /​maɪ ˈfɔːks ˈfɔːlən ɒn ðə ˈflɔː/​; The moth’s flown away. /​ðə ˈmɒθs ˈfləʊn əˈweɪ/​; The chef’s gone home. /​ðə ˈʃefs ˈɡɒn ˈhəʊm/​ After a word ending in one of the remaining voiced consonants /​b d ɡ v ð m n ŋ l/​or a vowel, has is /​z/​, which forms a contraction with the preceding word. For example: Bob’s gone. /​ˈbɒbz ˈɡɒn/​; The bird’s flown away. /​ðə ˈbɜːdz ˈfləʊn əˈweɪ/​; My dog’s disappeared. /​maɪ ˈdɒɡz ˈdɪsəˈpɪəd/​; Dave’s left. /​ˈdeɪvz ˈleft/​; The scythe’s got rusty. /​ðə ˈsaɪðz ɡɒt ˈrʌstiː/​; My thumb’s got infected. /​maɪ ˈθʌmz ɡɒt ɪnˈfektɪd/​; The bin’s fallen over. /​ðə ˈbɪnz ˈfɔːlən ˈəʊvə/​; The ring’s gone. /​ðə ˈrɪŋz ˈɡɒn/​; The bell’s started to crack. /​ðə ˈbelz

78  Transcribing connected speech

ˈstɑːtɪd tə ˈkræk/​; The key’s gone missing. /​ðə ˈkiːz ˈɡɒn ˈmɪsɪŋ/​; The car’s cooled down. /​ðə ˈkɑːz ˈkuːld ˈdaʊn/​; The door’s been painted. /​ðə ˈdɔːz biːn ˈpeɪntɪd/​ 3 ) After I, you, he, she, we, they, who and there (see existential there, Section 13.12), had reduces to /​d/​and forms the contractions I’d /​aɪd/​, you’d /​juːd/​, he’d /​hiːd/​, she’d /​ʃiːd/​, we’d /​wiːd/​, they’d /​ðeɪd/​, who’d /​huːd/​ and there’d /​ðəd/​. For example: I’d finished. /​aɪd ˈfɪnɪʃt/​; You’d gone. /​juːd ˈɡɒn/​; He’d lost. /​hiːd ˈlɒst/​; She’d left. /​ʃiːd ˈleft/​; We’d started. /​wiːd ˈstɑːtɪd/​; They’d forgotten. /​ðeɪd fəˈɡɒtn̩/​; Who’d resigned? /​ˈhuːd rɪˈzaɪnd/​; people who’d left /​ˈpiːpl̩ huːd ˈleft/​; There’d been an accident. /​ðəd biːn ən ˈæksɪdənt/​ After other words, had is /​əd/​, and /​r/​-​liaison occurs when had is preceded by a word ending in an /​r/​-​liaison vowel. After a pause, had is /​həd/​. For example: It’d helped. /​ɪt əd ˈhelpt/​; People had understood. /​ˈpiːpl̩ əd ˈʌndəˈstʊd/​; Those had gone. /​ˈðəʊz əd ˈɡɒn/​; The air had escaped. /​ðiː ˈɛːr əd ɪˈskeɪpt/​; My brother had known. /​maɪ ˈbrʌðər əd ˈnəʊn/​ Had he waited? /​həd iː ˈweɪtɪd/​; Had Sam arrived? /​həd ˈsæm əˈraɪvd/​

Transcribe these sentences with the appropriate weak forms. Have you tried it? My brother had left early. Paul’s stayed behind. I wish I’d known. Had you seen it? The boss has gone. The police have arrived. Has it happened yet? If only they’d listened. There’d never been a problem before. My mother’s fallen ill. His wife’s lost it. Our teacher had read it all. What have they done? The time had come. Where’s he gone? The others have escaped. I’ve never met him. They said she’d disappeared. My fear had vanished. The lights have gone out. The snow’s melted. The bar’s closed down. My children have eaten. The floor had been polished.

13.9  Weak forms and contractions: auxiliary DO The forms of DO that have weak forms are:

do does did

Weak

Strong

/​də d/​ /​dəz z s/​ /​d/​

/​duː/​ /​dʌz/​ /​dɪd/​

Stress and weak forms  79

Note: 1) Do only has a weak form before consonants. For example: Before consonants: Do they like it? /​də ðeɪ ˈlaɪk ɪt/​; Where do we go? /​ˈwɛː də wiː ˈɡəʊ/​ Before vowels: Where do I go? /​ˈwɛː duː aɪ ˈɡəʊ/​; Do ants sleep? /​duː ˈænts ˈsliːp/​ Before you, do can reduce to /​d/​and combine with you, forming the contraction d’you /​djuː/​, which readily becomes /​ʤuː/​(see Sections 4.3 and 15.10), and which can also be /​ʤə/​when the next word begins with a consonant. For example: D’you know what I mean? /​ʤuː ˈnəʊ wɒt aɪ ˈmiːn/​or /​ʤə ˈnəʊ wɒt aɪ ˈmiːn/​; What d’you think? /​ˈwɒt ʤuː ˈθɪŋk/​or /​ˈwɒt ʤə ˈθɪŋk/​; Why d’you ask? /​ˈwaɪ ʤuː ˈɑːsk/​ 2) Does is usually /​dəz/​, for exampleː Does it work? /​dəz ɪt ˈwɜːk/​; How does it work? /​ˈhaʊ dəz ɪt ˈwɜːk/​; What does he want? /​ˈwɒt dəz iː ˈwɒnt/​ After question words, does occasionally reduces to /​z/​and combines with the question word, forming a contraction. After what, does can reduce to /​s/​, the voiceless equivalent of /​z/​, matching the voiceless final /​t/​of what, and forming the contraction what’s /​wɒts/​. For example: How’s (does) it feel? /​ˈhaʊz ɪt ˈfiːl/​; Where’s (does) he get it? /​ˈwɛːz iː ˈɡet ɪt/​ What’s (does) that mean? /​ˈwɒts ˈðæt ˈmiːn/​; What’s (does) it look like? /​ˈwɒts ɪt ˈlʊk ˈlaɪk/​ 3) In more casual speech styles, did can reduce to /​d/​after question words ending in a vowel, forming the contractions how’d /​haʊd/​, where’d /​wɛːd/​, why’d /​waɪd/​ and who’d /​huːd/​. For example: How’d (did) it go? /​ˈhaʊd ɪt ˈɡəʊ/​; Where’d (did) he get it? /​ˈwɛːd iː ˈɡet ɪt/​; Why’d (did) she do it? /​ˈwaɪd ʃiː ˈduː ɪt/​; Who’d (did) he tell? /​ˈhuːd iː ˈtel/​ When you follows these contractions, the /​d/​combines with you to formː how’d’you /​ˈhaʊʤuː/​, where’d’you /​ˈwɛːʤuː/​, why’d’you /​ˈwaɪʤuː/​ and who’d’you /​ˈhuːʤuː/​. For example: How’d’you find it? /​ˈhaʊʤuː ˈfaɪnd ɪt/​; Where’d’you leave it? /​ˈwɛːʤuː ˈliːv ɪt/​; Why’d’you take it? /​ˈwaɪʤuː ˈteɪk ɪt/​; Who’d’you meet? /​ˈhuːʤuː ˈmiːt/​

Transcribe these sentences with the appropriate weak forms. What does he do? Where do they go? Do I need it? Does it matter? Where do they live? Where does it hurt? How does it work? Do animals dream? Why do they do it? Why does it happen?

80  Transcribing connected speech

13.10  Weak forms and contractions: modal verbs The modal verbs that have weak forms are:

will would can could shall should must

Weak

Strong

/​əl l̩ l wəl/​ /​əd d wəd/​ /​kən kn̩/​ /​kəd/​ /​ʃəl ʃl ̩ ʃə/​ /​ʃəd/​ /​məst/​

/​wɪl/​ /​wʊd/​ /​kæn/​ /​kʊd/​ /​ʃæl/​ /​ʃʊd/​ /​mʌst/​

Note: 1) After I, you, he, she, we, they, who and there (as existential there, see Section 13.12), will reduces to /​l/​and forms the contractions I’ll /​aɪl/​, you’ll /​juːl/​, he’ll /​hiːl/​, she’ll /​ʃiːl/​, we’ll /​wiːl/​, they’ll /​ðeɪl/​, who’ll /​huːl/​ and there’ll /​ðəl/​. For example: I’ll try. /​aɪl ˈtraɪ/​; You’ll forget. /​juːl fəˈɡet/​; He’ll stay. /​hiːl ˈsteɪ/​; She’ll go. /​ʃiːl ˈɡəʊ/​; We’ll stop. /​wiːl ˈstɒp/​; They’ll wait. /​ðeɪl ˈweɪt/​; Who’ll help? /​ˈhuːl ˈhelp/​; I know someone who’ll help. /​aɪ ˈnəʊ ˈsʌmwʌn huːl ˈhelp/​; There’ll be lots to eat. /​ðəl biː ˈlɒts tuː ˈiːt/​ After other words, will is /​əl/​, which is readily realised as syllabic /​l/​after every consonant except /​l/​and /​r/​(see Section 9.2). When preceded by a word ending in an /​r/​-l​iaison vowel, /​r/​-​liaison occurs. For example: /​l ̩/​: It will work. /​ɪtl̩ ˈwɜːk/​; This will help. /​ˈðɪsl̩ ˈhelp/​; Time will tell. /​ˈtaɪml̩ ˈtel/​; These will break. /​ˈðiːzl̩ ˈbreɪk/​; Not much will happen. /​ˈnɒt ˈmʌʧl ̩ ˈhæpən/​ /​əl/​: The school will be closed. /​ðə ˈskuːl əl biː ˈkləʊzd/​; The car will break down. /​ðə ˈkɑːr əl ˈbreɪk ˈdaʊn/​; Where will you go? /​ˈwɛːr əl juː ˈɡəʊ/​ After a pause, will is /​wəl/​ or /​wɪl/​. For example: Will that work? /​wəl ˈðæt ˈwɜːk/​ or /​wɪl ˈðæt ˈwɜːk/​; Will you do it? /​wəl juː ˈduː ɪt/​ or /​wɪl juː ˈduː ɪt/​ 2) After I, you, he, she, we, they, who and there (see existential there, Section 13.12), would reduces to /​d/​and forms the contractions I’d /​aɪd/​, you’d /​juːd/​, he’d /​hiːd/​, she’d /​ʃiːd/​, we’d /​wiːd/​, they’d /​ðeɪd/​, who’d /​huːd/​ and there’d /​ðəd/​. For example: I’d like it. /​aɪd ˈlaɪk ɪt/​; You’d need it. /​juːd ˈniːd ɪt/​; He’d find it. /​hiːd ˈfaɪnd ɪt/​; She’d know. /​ʃiːd ˈnəʊ/​; We’d go. /​wiːd ˈɡəʊ/​; They’d remember. /​ðeɪd rɪˈmembə/​; Who’d want it? /​ˈhuːd ˈwɒnt ɪt/​; Find somebody who’d know. /​ˈfaɪnd ˈsʌmbədiː huːd ˈnəʊ/​; There’d be too much. /​ðəd biː ˈtuː ˈmʌʧ/​

Stress and weak forms  81

3)

4) 5)

6)

After other words, would is /​əd/​. /​r/​-​liaison occurs when would is preceded by a word ending in an /​r/​-​liaison vowel, For example: It’d help. /​ɪt əd ˈhelp/​; People would understand. /​ˈpiːpl̩ əd ˈʌndəˈstænd/​; These would fix it. /​ˈðiːz əd ˈfɪks ɪt/​; The air would escape. /​ðiː ˈɛːr əd ɪˈskeɪp/​; My brother would know. /​maɪ ˈbrʌðər əd ˈnəʊ/​ After a pause, would is /​wəd/​ or /​wʊd/​. For example: Would he wait? /​wəd iː ˈweɪt/​ or /​wʊd iː ˈweɪt/​; Would Sam like to come? /​wəd ˈsæm ˈlaɪk tə ˈkʌm/​ or /​wʊd ˈsæm ˈlaɪk tə ˈkʌm/​ Shall has the weak form /​ʃəl/​, which readily becomes /​ʃl̩/​, and is /​ʃə/​ before we. For example: Shall I help? /​ʃl ̩ aɪ ˈhelp/​; What shall I say? /​ˈwɒt ʃl̩ aɪ ˈseɪ/​ Shall we try? /​ʃə wiː ˈtraɪ/​; Where shall we go? /​ˈwɛː ʃə wiː ˈɡəʊ/​ The /​ən/​ of can is readily realised as syllabic /​n/​. For example: You can try. /​juː kən ˈtraɪ/​ or /​juː kn̩ ˈtraɪ/​ Unstressed should and could vary between /​ʃəd/​and /​ʃʊd/​, and /​kəd/​ and /​kʊd/​respectively. For example: We should stay at home. /​wiː ʃəd ˈsteɪ ət ˈhəʊm/​ or /​wiː ʃʊd ˈsteɪ ət ˈhəʊm/​ They could take it all. /​ðeɪ kəd ˈteɪk ɪt ˈɔːl/​or /​ðeɪ kʊd ˈteɪk ɪt ˈɔːl/​ The weak form of must isn’t very common because must is so often stressed.

Transcribe these sentences with the appropriate weak forms. That will help. Jack would understand. I can swim well. Where shall we go? Should everybody go? You must go at once. He could die. He’ll see. The chair would collapse. We must try harder. The car will break down. When shall we start? That should do it. How can he do it? We’ll survive. That must take a lot of time. It would take all day. Will Luke help? That should help. Shall I tell him? Who could afford it? He can take his time. This will do it. Shall we give it a try? Would anybody care? Could Tom do it? Time will tell. How must he feel? You should stop smoking. Where can he go? Where will we go? Can Tom speak French? That would really hurt. How could I do it? Shall I open the window? There’ll be lots more. He’d like to go.

13.11  Weak forms and contractions: conjunctions The conjunctions that have weak forms are:

and but that as than

Weak

Strong

/​ən n̩ ənd/​ /​bət/​ /​ðət/​ /​əz/​ /​ðən/​

/​ænd/​ /​bʌt/​ /​ðæt/​ /​æz/​ /ðæn/

82  Transcribing connected speech

Note: 1) It’s sometimes said that the /​ənd/​weak form of and occurs before vowels while the /​ən/​variant occurs before consonants. In fact, while there may be a slight tendency towards this patterning, the /​ən/​variant is much more frequent in fluent conversational speech than the /​ənd/​form. Furthermore, /​ən/​readily becomes syllabic /​n/​when preceded by an appropriate consonant (see Section 9.3). For example: fish and chips /​ˈfɪʃ ən ˈʧɪps/​or /​ˈfɪʃ n̩ ˈʧɪps/​; knife and fork /​ˈnaɪf ən ˈfɔːk/​ or /​ˈnaɪf n̩ ˈfɔːk/​; food and drink /​ˈfuːd ən ˈdrɪŋk/​or /​ˈfuːd n̩ ˈdrɪŋk/​ 2) That has a weak form as a conjunction or relative pronoun, but not as a demonstrative. For example: Conjunction: She knows that I went. /​ʃiː ˈnəʊz ðət aɪ ˈwent/​; I think that they were right. /​aɪ ˈθɪŋk ðət ðeɪ wə ˈraɪt/​ Relative Pronoun: The man that I saw /​ðə ˈmæn ðət aɪ ˈsɔː/​; The dog that bit him /​ðə ˈdɒɡ ðət ˈbɪt ɪm/​ Demonstrative: I know that. /​aɪ ˈnəʊ ˈðæt/​; Shut that door. /​ˈʃʌt ˈðæt ˈdɔː/​; I can’t run that fast. /​aɪ ˈkɑːnt ˈrʌn ˈðæt ˈfɑːst/​ 3) As has a weak form not only as a conjunction, but also as a preposition or an adverb. For example: Conjunction: He stood as I entered the room. /​hiː ˈstʊd əz aɪ ˈentəd ðə ˈruːm/​ Preposition: He works as a teacher. /​hiː ˈwɜːks əz ə ˈtiːʧə/​ Adverb: He’s as big as a whale. /​hiːz əz ˈbɪɡ əz ə ˈweɪl/​ When as is a conjunction and occurs after a pause, it tends to be stressed and therefore have its strong form. For example: As I entered the room, he stood. /​ˈæz aɪ ˈentəd ðə ˈruːm | hiː ˈstʊd/​or /​əz aɪ ˈentəd ðə ˈruːm | hiː ˈstʊd/​ 4) Or occasionally has the weak form /​ə/​in certain high-​frequency phrases. For example: whether or not /​ˈweðər ə ˈnɒt/​or /​ˈweðər ɔː ˈnɒt/​; two or three /​ˈtuː ə ˈθriː/​ or /​ˈtuː ɔː ˈθriː/​; once or twice /​ˈwʌnts ə ˈtwaɪs/​or /​ˈwʌnts ɔː ˈtwaɪs/​

Transcribe these sentences with the appropriate weak forms. Go and try. It’s as cold as ice. That’s more than enough. I know that I’m right. I tried, but failed. This is the pen that I used. It’s less than that. He’s dressed as a pirate. I go now and then. It was small but powerful. I’m stronger than you. He kept it short and sweet. It’s not as bad as you think. She said that it

Stress and weak forms  83

was over. It ran, but didn’t make it. He came and went. It’s better than ever. They found the gun that he used. Be as quiet as a mouse. He’s the strong but silent type.

13.12  Weak forms and contractions: miscellaneous

there who saint sir just so

Weak

Strong

/​ðə/​ /​uː/​ /​sənt sn̩t/​ /​sə/​ /​ʤəst/​ /​sə/​

/​ðɛː/​ /​huː/​ /​seɪnt/​ /​sɜː/​ /​ʤʌst/​ /​səʊ/​

1) There has a weak form only in its existential use, not as an adverb. For example: Existential: There’s a chair in the corner. /​ðəz ə ˈʧɛːr ɪn ðə ˈkɔːnə/​; Is there a break? /​ɪz ðər ə ˈbreɪk/​; There are more. /​ðər ə ˈmɔː/​ Adverb: Sit there. /​ˈsɪt ˈðɛː/​; It’s over there. /​ɪts ˈəʊvə ˈðɛː/​; I said ‘here’ not ‘there’. /​aɪ ˈsed ˈhɪə ˈnɒt ˈðɛː/​ 2) Who has an occasional weak form only as a relative pronoun, not as an interrogative pronoun. For example: Relative: The man who left /​ðə ˈmæn uː ˈleft/​; The one who did it /​ðə ˈwʌn uː ˈdɪd ɪt/​ Interrogative: Who left? /​ˈhuː left/​; Who did it? /​ˈhuː ˈdɪd ɪt/​ 3) Saint and sir have weak forms as parts of people’s names, but not in other contexts. The /​ən/​ of /​sənt/​is often realised as a syllabic /​n/​, resulting in /​sn̩t/​. For example: Names: Saint George /​sn̩t ˈʤɔːʤ/​; Saint David’s Day /​sn̩t ˈdeɪvɪdz ˈdeɪ/​; Sir Tom Jones /​sə ˈtɒm ˈʤəʊnz/​; Sir Arthur Conan Doyle /​sər ˈɑːθə ˈkəʊnən ˈdɔɪl/​ Other: George is a saint. /​ˈʤɔːʤ ɪz ə ˈseɪnt/​; That saint was a martyr. /​ˈðæt ˈseɪnt wəz ə ˈmɑːtə/​; Call me ‘sir’. /​ˈkɔːl miː ˈsɜː/​; Thank you, sir. /​ˈθæŋk juː ˈsɜː/​ 4) Just and so are sometimes stressed and sometimes unstressed. When unstressed, they occasionally have the weak forms /​ʤəst/​ and /​sə/​. For example: I just don’t understand. /​aɪ ˈʤʌst ˈdəʊnt ˈʌndəˈstænd/​ or /​aɪ ʤʌst ˈdəʊnt ˈʌndəˈstænd/​ or /​aɪ ʤəst ˈdəʊnt ˈʌndəˈstænd/​; You shouldn’t drive so fast. /​juː ˈʃʊdn̩t ˈdraɪv ˈsəʊ ˈfɑːst/​ or /​juː ˈʃʊdn̩t ˈdraɪv səʊ ˈfɑːst/​ or /​juː ˈʃʊdn̩t ˈdraɪv sə ˈfɑːst/​

84  Transcribing connected speech

Transcribe these sentences with the appropriate weak forms. There’s a book on the table. So where are you staying? There are many saints. We met Sir John. I met a girl who can sing. There’ll be many sirs there. Saint David’s the patron saint of Wales. Just wait a minute. There were too many. They found the guy who did it.

13.13  Use of strong forms In the following contexts, the weak form words are stressed, resulting in the use of their strong forms: 1 ) When a word is cited or quoted: • A-​M spells ‘am’. /​ ˈeɪ ˈem ˈspelz ˈæm/​ • This is the word ‘at’. /​ ˈðɪs ɪz ðə ˈwɜːd ˈæt/​ • I said ‘from’ not ‘for’. /​aɪ ˈsed ˈfrɒm | ˈnɒt ˈfɔː/​ 2 ) When a word is stressed for emphasis or contrast: • It really was interesting. /​ ɪt ˈrɪəliː ˈwɒz ˈɪntrəstɪŋ/​ • He’s from the bank, not at the bank. /​hiːz ˈfrɒm ðə ˈbæŋk | ˈnɒt ˈæt ðə ˈbæŋk/​ • It’s for him, not her. /​ ɪts fə ˈhɪm | ˈnɒt ˈhɜː/​ • He has gone. /​hiː ˈhæz ˈɡɒn/​ 3 ) When prepositions are separated from the noun phrases they refer to: • He was stared at. /hiː wəz ˈstɛːd ˈæt/​ • Who are you looking for? /huː ə juː ˈlʊkɪŋ ˈfɔː/​ • It’s the man you stole from. /ɪts ðə ˈmæn juː ˈstəʊl ˈfrɒm/​ 4) When auxiliary verbs are used without their main verbs and BE is used without a complement: • Yes, I will. /​ ˈjes aɪ ˈwɪl/​ • Yes, we can. /​ ˈjes wiː ˈkæn/​ • They do. /​ ðeɪ ˈduː/​ • He was right. You know he was. /​hiː wəz ˈraɪt || juː ˈnəʊ iː ˈwɒz/​ • They’re lost. I’m sure they are. /​ ðɛː ˈlɒst || aɪm ˈʃɔː ðeɪ ˈɑː/​ But have can be weak when preceded by a modal verb: • Yes, he might have. /​ˈjes iː ˈmaɪt əv/​or /​ˈjes iː ˈmaɪt ˈhæv/​ • I think she should have. /​aɪ ˈθɪŋk ʃiː ˈʃʊd əv/​ or /​aɪ ˈθɪŋk ʃiː ˈʃʊd ˈhæv/​ 5 ) When auxiliary verbs and BE are used in tag questions: • He doesn’t like it, does he? /​hiː ˈdʌzn̩ ˈlaɪk ɪt | ˈdʌz iː/​ • He can’t swim, can he? /​hiː ˈkɑːnt ˈswɪm | ˈkæn iː/​ • She wasn’t late, was she? /​ ʃiː ˈwɒzn̩ ˈleɪt | ˈwɒz ʃiː/​

Stress and weak forms  85

6 ) When DO has its emphatic use: • They really do read a lot. /​ ðeɪ ˈrɪəliː ˈduː ˈriːd ə ˈlɒt/​ • It does cost a lot. /​ ɪt ˈdʌz ˈkɒst ə ˈlɒt/​ 7) At the ends of sentences, sequences of preposition + pronoun tend to have a stressed preposition if one or more unstressed syllables precede it, and an unstressed preposition if a stressed syllable precedes it: • Don’t look at it. /​ ˈdəʊnt ˈlʊk ət ɪt/​ • Don’t stop looking at it. /​ ˈdəʊnt ˈstɒp ˈlʊkɪŋ ˈæt ɪt/​ • I’ve got a book for him. /​aɪv ˈɡɒt ə ˈbʊk fər ɪm/​ • I’ve got a document for him. /​aɪv ˈɡɒt ə ˈdɒkjəmənt ˈfɔːr ɪm/​ 8) In yes/​ no questions, auxiliary verbs tend to be stressed in slower more deliberate styles and unstressed in freer, conversational speech. The stressing of the following syllables also has an effect. If multiple unstressed syllables follow, the auxiliary verb tends to be stressed. For example: • Can Tom come? /​kən ˈtɒm ˈkʌm/​ • Can he come? /​kən iː ˈkʌm/​ • Can he forget it? /​ ˈkæn iː fəˈɡet ɪt/​

Transcribe these sentences with the appropriate strong forms and weak forms. I can and I will. They’ve taken it from him. Did you say ‘can’ or ‘could’? They really do smell. ‘Were’ has a weak form. We’ve won, have we? He has done it and I will do it. This is the one I’ve been looking at. This does look tasty. ‘The’ is the definite article. I can. He has. Does he? He was laughed at. Who’s it for? Of course we are. I don’t know what he does. Do sit down. You’ve finished, have you? It’s worth waiting for. Can you believe it? I’ve been carrying it for her. So we do do it, do we?

14 ELISION

14.1  Elision Sounds which appear in the citation forms of words can be lost in connected speech. First, for example, can lose its /​t/​in the first signs /​ðə ˈfɜːs ˈsaɪnz/​, and second can lose its /​d/​in the second night /​ðə ˈsekən ˈnaɪt/​. This process is called elision /​ɪˈlɪʒn̩/,​ and we say /​t/​and /​d/​are elided /​ɪˈlaɪdɪd/​in such cases. Elision occurs not only in connected speech, but also in word formation. Sounds can be elided when suffixes are added to words, and when words are combined to form compounds. Exactly, for example, can be pronounced /​ɪɡˈzækliː/​without a /​t/​, and hands can be pronounced /​hænz/​ without a /​d/​; software can be pronounced /​ˈsɒfˌwɛː/​without a /​t/​, and childcare can be pronounced /​ˈʧaɪlˌkɛː/​ without  a  /​d/​. As our examples demonstrate, elision most commonly affects the alveolar plosives /​t/​and /​d/​. The general pattern is that elision can occur when they are preceded by a consonant in the same syllable and followed without a pause by another consonant (which may or may not be in the same syllable or word). The elided /​t/​or /​d/​can represent the -​ed ending, e.g. mixed pairs /​ˈmɪks ˈpɛːz/​, trained dogs /​ˈtreɪn ˈdɒɡz/​. Loss of the -​ed ending may seem potentially confusing, but in practice, when such elision does happen, it goes unnoticed and doesn’t interfere with communication. Not all elisions are equally likely to occur. They’re influenced by factors such as: • •

Frequency:  the more frequent a word or combination of words is, the more likely it is for elision to occur; -​ed suffix:  when /​t/​or /​d/​represent the -​ed suffix, elision is less likely to occur;

Elision  87

• •

Context: elision is less likely to occur after and before certain consonants, e.g. elision of /​d/​after /​l/​, and elision of /​t/​or /​d/​before /​h/​. Individual habits: the likelihood of various elisions can vary from person to person, speakers varying in how likely they are to elide in different contexts.

14.2  Elision of /​t/​ The consonants that can precede /​t/​in the same syllable without an -​ed ending are: /​s/ /​f/​ /​k/​ /​p/​

first floor left side perfect storm scriptwriter

/​ˈfɜːs ˈflɔː/​ /​ˈlef ˈsaɪd/​ /​ˈpɜːfɪk ˈstɔːm/​ /​ˈskrɪpˌraɪtə/​

In the case of the -​ed ending, in addition to /s f k p/, /​t/​can also be preceded by /ʃ/ or /ʧ/: /​s/​ /​f/​ /​k/​ /​p/​ /​ʃ/​ /​ʧ/​

sliced bread stuffed turkey smoked salmon chopped nuts mashed potato thatched cottage

/​ˈslaɪs ˈbred/​ /​ˈstʌf ˈtɜːkiː/​ /​ˈsməʊk ˈsæmən/​ /​ˈʧɒp ˈnʌts/​ /​ˈmæʃ pəˈteɪtəʊ/​ /​ˈθæʧ ˈkɒtɪʤ/​

When /​t/​is preceded by /​l/​or /​n/​, it isn’t elided. I felt down, for example, continues to be /​aɪ ˈfelt ˈdaʊn/​and doesn’t become /​aɪ ˈfel ˈdaʊn/​(which would sound the same as I fell down); and joint forces continues to be /​ˈʤɔɪnt ˈfɔːsɪz/​ and doesn’t become /​ˈʤɔɪn ˈfɔːsɪz/​(which would sound the same as join forces). Note that just because the /​t/​is often unreleased (see Appendix B.10), has inaudible release (see Appendix B10), has glottal reinforcement (see Appendix B.7) or is realised as a glottal stop (see Appendix B.7), it doesn’t mean that the /​t/​phoneme is elided. An exception to the exception that /​t/​in /​nt/​isn’t elided is the negative contractions (didn’t, couldn’t, won’t, can’t, shouldn’t, hadn’t, etc.), especially those with two syllables, which regularly lose their final /​t/​even though it is preceded by /​n/​, for example I didn’t know /​aɪ ˈdɪdn̩ ˈnəʊ/​, you shouldn’t say /​juː ˈʃʊdn̩ ˈseɪ/​. In fact, /​t/​can be dropped from these words even when a vowel follows, as in I couldn’t eat /​aɪ ˈkʊdn̩ ˈiːt/​ and it doesn’t open /​ɪt ˈdʌzn̩ ˈəʊpən/​. Before a pause, however, /​t/​is retained, as in I won’t /​aɪ ˈwəʊnt/​ and he wasn’t /​hiː ˈwɒzn̩t/​.

88  Transcribing connected speech

14.3  Elision of /​t/​in /​st/​+ consonant Transcribe these words, compounds and phrases with elision of /​t/​ in /​st/​+ consonant. the best part, chestnuts, coastguard, dustman, frostbite, investments, mostly, postcode, postman, restless, taste buds, tasteless, best practice, fast food, guest speaker, ghost town, next year, test drive, a lost cause, roast chicken, tests, wrists, a forced smile, mixed feelings, a boxed set, a last stand, my best friend

Transcribe these sentences with elision of /​t/​ in /​st/​+ consonant. I’m making some adjustments. She took his wristwatch. I’ve met her best friend. Do they live next to Sam? It’d fill the dustbin. We’ve got the same first name. You’re sending mixed messages. That was the last straw. Soon he’ll finish the first draft. That’d be my first thought. I sent a postcard. She shared her roast pork. It costs a fortune. My friend will buy the textbook. We were reading ghost stories. Have you got mixed feelings? There’s an increased risk of death. Beth’s always getting into fistfights. Joan’s suffering with chest pains. Fred’s a well-​dressed man. Be on your best behaviour. It’s a room for guests. There was a forest fire. We could eat some roast chicken.

14.4  Elision of /​t/​in /​kt/​+ consonant Transcribe these words, compounds and phrases with elision of /​t/​ in /​kt/​+ consonant. strictly, correctness, perfect condition, fact sheet, acts, products, backed down, a parked car, baked beans, the correct password

Transcribe these sentences with elision of /​t/​in /​kt/​+ consonant. Check the facts. We walked back to the car. I  can make an exact copy. He neglects his duties. Frank would like a baked potato. Our friends have booked tickets. My contact lenses are dirty. I’m one of the select few. Shall we go to the derelict cottage? We’re going directly home. It’s a locked door. There was a respectful silence.

14.5  Elision of /​t/​in /​ft/​+ consonant Transcribe these words, compounds and phrases with elision of /​t/​in /​ft/​ + consonant. softly, aircraft carrier, a soft-​boiled egg, lifts, a soft drink, gift vouchers, lift the lid

Elision  89

Transcribe these sentences with elision of /​t/​in /​ft/​+ consonant. She’s got a soft spot for me. We were working in the gift shop. You could buy a stuffed toy. He’s a craftsman. Does he work split shifts? We’d like some stuffed peppers. They were collecting driftwood. I got lots of gifts and presents. My mother’s interested in arts and crafts.

14.6  Elision of /​t/​in /​pt/​+ consonant Transcribe these words and phrases with elision of /​t/​in /​pt/​+ consonant. bankruptcy, a corrupt politician, a well-​kept secret, scripts, accepts, adopts, kept quiet, stopped breathing, striped pyjamas, chopped tomatoes, a slipped disc, a chipped tooth

Transcribe these sentences with elision of /​t/​ in /​pt/​+ consonant. Get some more whipped cream. Power corrupts. Can you give me something for chapped lips? They stopped abruptly. The mayor’s stepped down. The boy was kept busy. We stepped back from the edge. Ripped jeans are back in fashion. Her lies were stripped bare.

14.7  Elision of /​t/​in /​ʃt/​and /​ʧt/​+ consonant Transcribe these phrases with elision of /​t/​in /​ʃt/​ or /​ʧt/​+ consonant. a polished floor, an accomplished musician, a thatched roof, hunched shoulders, clenched teeth

Transcribe these sentences with elision of /​t/​in /​ʃt/​ or /​ʧt/​+ consonant. I crouched down. We rented a fully-​furnished flat. He’s as helpless as a beached whale. The twins switched places. It’s a well-​established tradition. He was a distinguished scholar. We’ve got some unfinished business.

14.8  Elision of /​d/​ The consonants that can precede /​d/​in the same syllable without an -​ed ending are: /​n/​ /​l/​

second time old man

/​ˈsekən ˈtaɪm/​ /​ˈəʊl ˈmæn/​

90  Transcribing connected speech

Note that elision of /​d/​is more common after /​n/​than after /​l/​. In the case of the -​ed ending, in addition to /​n/​and /​l/​, /​d/​can also be preceded by /​m ŋ b ɡ ʤ ð v z ʒ/​: /​n/​ /​l/​ /​m/​ /​ŋ/​ /​b/​ /​ɡ/​ /​ʤ/​ /​ð/​ /​v/​ /​z/​ /​ʒ/​

refined sugar pulled together armed guard prolonged drought barbed wire dragged down damaged goods breathed deeply received wisdom closed door massaged gently

/​rɪˈfaɪn ˈʃʊɡə/​ /​ˈpʊl təˈɡeðə/​ /​ˈɑːm ˈɡɑːd/​ /​prəˈlɒŋ ˈdraʊt/​ /​ˈbɑːb ˈwaɪə/​ /​ˈdræɡ ˈdaʊn/​ /​ˈdæmɪʤ ˈɡʊdz/​ /​ˈbriːð ˈdiːpliː/​ /​rɪˈsiːv ˈwɪzdəm/​ /​ˈkləʊz ˈdɔː/​ /​ˈmæsɑːʒ ˈʤentliː/​

14.9  Elision of /​d/​in /​nd/​+ consonant Transcribe these words, compounds and phrases with elision of /​d/​in /​nd/​+ consonant. blindness, friendly, handstand, landscape, mind set, soundtrack, hand signals, wind speed, the grand total, sounds, funds, a tree-​lined street

Transcribe these sentences with elision of /​d/​in /​nd/​+ consonant. He put the blindfold on. I’d have made thousands of dollars. I can see it in my mind’s eye. It was bound to happen. I thought that it was a blind date. I’m going round the bend. Thank you for your kindness. This watch is brand new. Dave’s a trendsetter. He spends too much. The two joined together. Stop and stand still. She works round the clock. It was a warm handshake. We were soundly beaten. They lost their hand luggage. It was theft on a grand scale. He was a famous band leader.

14.10  Elision of /​d/​in /​ld/​+ consonant Transcribe these words, compounds and phrases with elision of /​d/​in /​ld/​+ consonant. childbirth, cold-​blooded, gold-​dust, old-​fashioned, wildlife, world-​famous, wild card, World Cup, a bold plan, builds, held back, an old friend, childlike

Transcribe these sentences with elision of /​d/​in /​ld/​+ consonant. I’m getting a bald patch. It was spreading like wildfire. We’re worlds apart. Does he claim child support? You’re a dirty old man. She suffers from cold

Elision  91

sores. The fight will be no holds barred. They were kept in a sealed container. It was different in the good old days. Look at my goldfish. It was a bold move. It’s time we settled down. It’s nothing but a wild-​goose chase.

14.11  Elision of /​d/​in /md ŋd bd ɡd ʤd vd ðd zd ʒd/​ + consonant Transcribe these phrases with elision of /​d/​ in /md ŋd bd ɡd ʤd vd ðd zd ʒd/ + consonant. a condemned man, webbed toes, dragged down, a middle-​aged man, a double-​ edged sword, improved performance, organised crime, an enclosed space

Transcribe these sentences with elision of /​d/​in /md ŋd bd ɡd ʤd vd ðd zd ʒd/ + consonant. He says he’ll join the armed forces. A sheep’s got stuck in some barbed wire. Tom had flagged down a passing car. Claire will always get bogged down in details. You should buy a used car. It was a greatly improved performance. They’re selling damaged goods. There was a prolonged drought. Her uncle’s a confirmed bachelor. They hid behind closed doors.

14.12  Elision of /​k/​in /​sk/​+ consonant Other kinds of elision involving other consonants are less common because there are fewer words with the relevant phonetic contexts. When a word ends with /​sk/​, the /​k/​can be elided if a consonant follows in a suffix (e.g. ask /​ɑːsk/​, asked /​ɑːst/​) or at the beginning of the next word (e.g. ask /​ɑːsk/​, ask Tom /​ˈɑːs ˈtɒm/​). When /​skt/​is reduced to /​st/​, this can be further reduced to /​s/​when a word beginning with a consonant immediately follows, for example They asked me again /​ðeɪ ˈɑːs miː əˈɡen/​.

Transcribe these sentences with elision of /​k/​in /​sk/​+ consonant. We asked him again. He was whisked away. He was asked to leave. The seals basked in the sun. The spy was unmasked. I’m a real risk-​taker. She’s looking for a desk job. The masked gunmen opened fire. He’s a disc jockey.

14.13  Elision of /​p/​and /​k/​in /​mpt/​and /​ŋkt/​ Verbs ending in /​mp/​or /​ŋk/​can lose their /​p/​or /​k/​when the -​ed inflection is added (e.g. jump /​ʤʌmp/​, jumped out /​ˈʤʌmt ˈaʊt/​; link /​lɪŋk/​, linked up /​ˈlɪŋt ˈʌp/​). When a following consonant causes the /​t/​to be elided, however, the /​p/​ and /​k/​are retained (e.g. jumped /​ʤʌmt/​, jumped twice /​ˈʤʌmp ˈtwaɪs/​; linked /​lɪŋt/​, linked together /​ˈlɪŋk təˈɡeðə/​).

92  Transcribing connected speech

14.14  Chapter revision Transcribe these sentences with elision where appropriate. He’s a wild west cowboy. The water was waist-​deep. Don’t hold back. We need to build bridges. I’m covered in insect bites. Make an informed decision. Stay in the left lane. The students exchanged gifts. It was ripped to shreds. I’m pleased to hear it. That’s my most cherished possession. Do ducks have webbed feet? He won a landslide victory. I asked him again. My daughter’s afraid of noisy hand-​dryers. Diamonds are forever. Close the blinds. I’m out of funds. Hindsight’s a wonderful thing. You’re a second-​rate writer. He’s a world-​class player. Now that’s a firm handshake.

15 ASSIMILATION

15.1  Assimilation Sounds which appear in the citation forms of words can change into other sounds in connected speech. For example, /​n/​can become /​m/​in in bed /​ɪm ˈbed/​ , or /​ŋ/​ in in case /​ɪŋ ˈkeɪs/​; /​d/​ can become /​b/​ in bad breath /​ˈbæb ˈbreθ/​, or /​ɡ/​ in bad credit /​ˈbæɡ ˈkredɪt/​; /​t/​ can become /​p/​ in hot potato /​ˈhɒp pəˈteɪtəʊ/​, or /​k/​ in hot coals /​ˈhɒk ˈkəʊlz/​. This process is called assimilation /​əˌsɪməˈleɪʃn̩/​, and we say /​n/​, /​d/​ and /​t/​ assimilate /​əˈsɪməˌleɪt/​in such cases. Assimilation occurs not only in connected speech, but also in word formation. Sounds can assimilate when affixes are added to words, and when words are combined to form compounds. The /​ n/​of un-​, for example, can become /​m/​in unpack /​ˌʌmˈpæk/​, or /​ŋ/​ in unclear /​ˌʌŋˈklɪə/​; the /​t/​ of treat can become /​p/​before the suffix -​ment in treatment /​ˈtriːpmənt/​; the /​d/​ of head can become /​b/​ in headbut /​ˈhebˌbʌt/​, or /​ɡ/​ in headquarters /​ˌheɡˈkwɔːtəz/​. As our examples demonstrate, assimilation most commonly involves the alveolar nasal /​n/​, and the alveolar plosives /​t/​and /​d/​. These alveolar sounds change their place of articulation to match that of a following sound. So when /​n t d/​are followed by the bilabial sounds /​m p b/​, they become their bilabial equivalents, i.e. /​m p b/​, and when they’re followed by the velar sounds /​k ɡ/​, they become their velar equivalents, i.e. /​ŋ k ɡ/​. For some speakers, /​n t d/​can become their bilabial equivalents before /​w/​ as well as /​m p b/​, e.g. in Wales /​ɪm ˈweɪlz/​, white wine /​ˈwaɪp ˈwaɪn/​, red wine /​ˈreb ˈwaɪn/​. Note that in the contexts in which assimilation of /​t/​occurs (i.e. before /​m p b k ɡ/​), the use of the glottal allophone of /​t/​is an alternative possibility, e.g. [ˈweʔ ˈpeɪnt], phonemically /​ˈwet ˈpeɪnt/​(see Appendix B.7), and so is assimilation combined with glottal reinforcement, e.g. [ˈweʔp ˈpeɪnt], phonemically /​ˈwep ˈpeɪnt/​(see Appendix B.7).

94  Transcribing connected speech

15.2  Assimilation of /​n/​ to /​m/​ When the alveolar nasal /​n/​is followed by one of the bilabial consonants /​m p b/​, its place of articulation changes from alveolar /​n/​to bilabial /​m/​in anticipation of the following bilabial consonant. For example: lean meat brown paper a thin book

/​ˈliːm ˈmiːt/​ /​ˈbraʊm ˈpeɪpə/​ /​ə ˈθɪm ˈbʊk/​

Transcribe these words, compounds and phrases with assimilation of /​n/​ to /​m/​ before /​m p b/​. entertainment, gunpowder, rainbow, lawnmower, signpost, sunburn, Denmark, chickenpox, beanbag, man-​made, pinpoint, inbox, assignment, screenplay, cranberry, ten minutes, green peppers, broken bones, bone marrow, opinion poll, a clean break, fan mail, drainpipe, brown bread, stolen property, wine bottle

Transcribe these sentences with assimilation of /​n/​ to /​m/​ before /​m p b/​. Keep an open mind. I can earn money. It was wrapped in brown paper. He was dressed as an airline pilot. The town meeting finished early. I forgot to read the fine print. My mountain bike’s been stolen. It’s a down-​market area. I’m learning to play the pan pipes. It was merely a routine procedure. He can’t stand his twin brother. I’m saving for a fountain pen. We ran from a brown bear.

15.3  Assimilation of /​n/​ to /​ŋ/​ When the alveolar nasal /​n/​is followed by one of the velar consonants /​k ɡ/​, its place of articulation changes from alveolar /​n/​to velar /​ŋ/​in anticipation of the following velar consonant. For example: green covers twin girls

/​ˈɡriːŋ ˈkʌvəz/​ /​ˈtwɪŋ ˈɡɜːlz/​

Transcribe these words, compounds and phrases with assimilation of /​n/​ to /​ŋ/​ before  /​k ɡ/​. include, ingredient, pancake, sunglasses, painkillers, ungrateful, conclusion, machine gun, pine cone, wine glass, raincoat, green grass, a stolen car, stun gun, concussion, congratulate

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Transcribe these sentences with assimilation of /​n/​ to /​ŋ/​ before  /​k ɡ/​. Sit still and remain calm. He said that it’s a fun game. What’s the pollen count? Can I join the fan club? I applied a thin coat of paint. Jeff’s as nimble as a mountain goat. Those are stolen goods. Green grapes are her favourite. It’s time for the main course. There were some hairline cracks in it.

15.4  Assimilation of syllabic /​n/​to syllabic /​m/​ or /​ŋ/​ When a word ends with a syllabic /​n/​, the syllabic /​n/​can assimilate to syllabic /​m/​before /​m p b/​, or assimilate to syllabic /​ŋ/​ before /​k ɡ/​. For example: fashion model lesson plan prison break collision course session guitarist

/​ˈfæʃm̩ ˌmɒdl̩/​ /​ˈlesm̩ ˌplæn/​ /​ˈprɪzm̩ ˌbreɪk/​ /​kəˈlɪʒŋ̍ ˌkɔːs/​ /​ˈseʃŋ̍ ɡɪˌtɑːrɪst/​

For assimilation of syllabic /​n/​after /​t/​and /​d/​, see Section 15.13.

Transcribe these sentences with assimilation of syllabic /​n/​to syllabic /​m/​or syllabic /​ŋ/​. One person could do it. Please listen carefully. I’ll loosen my shoelaces. What’s the reason behind it? The prison guards were friendly. It’s his chosen profession. Buy some frozen peas. He’s afraid of poison gas. There were more than a dozen people there. We need a new action plan. The election campaign has just been launched. She’s changed her pension plan. He’s suffering from vision problems.

15.5  Assimilation of /​d/​ to /​b/​ When the voiced alveolar plosive /​ d/​is followed by one of the bilabial consonants /​m p b/​, its place of articulation changes from alveolar /​d/​to bilabial /​b/​in anticipation of the following bilabial consonant. For example: red meat a bad person a loud bang

/​ˈreb ˈmiːt/​ /​ə ˈbæb ˈpɜːsn̩/​ /​ə ˈlaʊb ˈbæŋ/​

96  Transcribing connected speech

Transcribe these words, compounds and phrases with assimilation of /​d/​ to /​b/​ before /​m p b/​. badminton, tadpole, feedback, admiral, blood pressure, a married man, woodpecker, blood bank, powdered milk, proud parents, a dead body, admire, a potted plant, road block

Transcribe these sentences with assimilation of /​d/​ to /​b/​before /​m p b/​. I never eat red meat. It’ll cost a hundred pounds. There was a loud bang. Red peppers are the best. Have you ever used a record player? I need some cardboard boxes. I’m surprised at his odd behaviour. Can you pass me the coloured paper? They live a hundred miles away. Let’s watch the speedboat race. She drives a hard bargain. He collects hardback books. Our birdbath was stolen from the garden. It was a mistake to press the red button. It’s a valid point.

15.6  Assimilation of /​d/​ to /​ɡ/​ When the voiced alveolar plosive /​d/​is followed by one of the velar consonants /​k ɡ/​, its place of articulation changes from alveolar /​d/​to velar /​ɡ/​in anticipation of the following velar consonant. For example: a bad cold a red gate

/​ə ˈbæɡ ˈkəʊld/​ /​ə ˈreɡ ˈɡeɪt/​

Transcribe these words, compounds and phrases with assimilation of /​d/​ to /​ɡ/​ before  /​k ɡ/​. vodka, floodgates, breadcrumbs, birdcage, mustard gas, weedkiller, solid gold, the Red Cross, mudguards, the United Kingdom, card game, crowd control, a wide grin, a good guess, broadcast, a married couple

Transcribe these sentences with assimilation of /​d/​ to /​ɡ/​ before  /​k ɡ/​. It’s a flawed concept. You should add garlic. He was a talented guy. Make an educated guess. We heard a bloodcurdling scream. Back on solid ground! Stop making rude comments. It’s true that he’s a bad guest. Peter’s had a varied career. They put frosted glass in the windows. They rolled out the red carpet for me. There was widespread concern.

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15.7  Assimilation of /​t/​ to /​p/​ When the voiceless alveolar plosive /​t/​is followed by one of the bilabial consonants /​m p b/​, its place of articulation changes from alveolar /​t/​to bilabial /​p/​in anticipation of the following bilabial consonant. For example: /​ˈwaɪp ˈmaɪs/​ /​ˈwep ˈpeɪnt/​ /​ˈʤep ˈblæk/​

white mice wet paint jet black

Transcribe these words, compounds and phrases with assimilation of /​t/​ to /​p/​ before /​m p b/​. nightmare, footprints, football, statement, outpatient, skateboard, department, footpath, whiteboard, treatment, notepad, heartburn, excitement, riot police, heartbeat, sheet music, rat poison, meatballs, bulletproof, white paint

Transcribe these sentences with assimilation of /​t/​ to /​p/​ before /​m p b/​. Her business will generate money. That’s one of my pet peeves. It’s time for a hot bath. He only drinks goat milk and water. He retired because of heart problems. Can I have a chocolate biscuit? What’s your favourite movie? Don’t sit on the wet paint. She’s a cute baby. They said Tim had attended a secret meeting. This is private property. That light bulb needs to be changed. Slot machines are a waste of money. It’s a great place to be. Throw it at the dartboard.

15.8  Assimilation of /​t/​ to /​k/​ When the voiceless alveolar plosive /​ t/​is followed by one of the velar consonants /​k ɡ/​, its place of articulation changes from alveolar /​t/​to velar /​k/​ in anticipation of the following velar consonant. For example: hot coffee quite good

/​ˈhɒk ˈkɒfiː/​ /​ˈkwaɪk ˈɡʊd/​

Transcribe these compounds and phrases with assimilation of /​t/​ to /​k/​ before  /​k ɡ/​. shortcut, shotgun, nightclub, suitcase, nightgown, outcast, secret garden, carrot cake, secret code, sweetcorn, pet cat, wet grass, credit card, gate-​crasher

98  Transcribing connected speech

Transcribe these sentences with assimilation of /​t/​ to /​k/​ before  /​k ɡ/​. I can’t join the yacht club. I ordered a hot curry. He was wearing a bright green shirt. The root cause will never be understood. Bright colours are attractive. The guide will meet us at the portrait gallery. The elaborate costume was ruined. The budget cuts will start soon.

15.9  Assimilation of /​s/​to /​ʃ/​and /​z/​ to /​ʒ/​ The alveolar fricatives /​s/​and /​z/​can also undergo assimilation, but not as frequently as /​n t d/​because the necessary contexts are less common. /​s/​can assimilate to /​ʃ/​, and /​z/​can assimilate to /​ʒ/​, when they are immediately followed by /​ʃ/​, for example a close shave /​ə ˈkləʊʃ ˈʃeɪv/​, his shoes /​hɪʒ ˈʃuːz/​. In theory, these assimilations can also occur before /​ʒ/​, but in practice, words beginning with /​ʒ/​are very rare, for example this genre /​ˈðɪʃ ˈʒɒnrə/​, these genres /​ˈðiːʒ ˈʒɒnrəz/​. These assimilations can occur within words as well as between words, for example spaceship /​ˈspeɪʃˌʃɪp/​, news-​sheet /​ˈnjuːʒˌʃiːt/​.

Transcribe these compounds and phrases with assimilation of /​s/​ to /​ʃ/​ and /​z/​ to /​ʒ/​ before  /​ʃ/​. horseshoe, skills shortage, a famous shipwreck, dangerous sharks, butcher’s shop, arms shipments, overseas shipping, men’s shoes, a sleeveless shirt, bus shelter, lion’s share, homeless shelter, Christmas shopping, cruise ship, cheese shop, quiz show, a nice shape, less sugar

Transcribe these sentences with assimilation of /​s/​ to /​ʃ/​ and /​z/​ to /​ʒ/​ before  /​ʃ/​. Where was she last seen? Are his shoes clean? Where was she living? Is his shoulder better? He’s sure. Was she late again? Where has she gone? He’s shopping for food. How was she able to do that? When was she hired? Has she finished it? Where has she been all day? She does as much as she can. These shoes don’t fit. When’s she coming? Those shops are closed. How’s she doing? It’s shocking. Who’s she meeting? Please share this information. Where’s she going? Peter’s shy. What’s she doing? They heard us shouting. Has she left? A cobbler fixes shoes. Does she know? He’s shown us. Is she here? Who has she told? This should do it. She’s shocked. Who was she talking to?

15.10  Coalescent assimilation of /​t/​and /​j/​to /​ʧ/​, and /​d/​and /​j/​ to /​ʤ/​ Two adjacent consonants can influence each other and combine to produce a third phoneme, a process called coalescent /​ˌkəʊəˈlesn̩t/​ assimilation. When a

Assimilation  99

word ending in /​t/​or /​d/​is followed without a pause by a word beginning with /​j/​, /​t/​ and /​j/​ can coalesce /​ˌkəʊəˈles/​to form /​ʧ/​ (e.g. got you /​ˈɡɒʧuː/​), and /​d/​ and /​j/​can coalesce to form /​ʤ/​ (e.g. did you /​ˈdɪʤuː/​). Since the two coalescing consonants are in different words, we are obliged to write the two words together, which can look a little odd. Note that the second word is nearly always one of the high-​frequency words you or your in their usual unstressed forms, and while coalescence is possible with other words beginning with /​j/​, this tends to be less common and the coalescence less complete.

Transcribe these sentences with coalescence of /​t/​ and /​j/​ to /​ʧ/​, and /​d/​ and /​j/​ to  /​ʤ/​. Couldn’t you go? Did you know? I’ll let you know. Would you help? Mind your head. Could you tell us? Can’t your brother come? I’ll send you a picture. I’ll get you a drink. I found your keys. We’re glad you could come. Didn’t your teacher know? I told you everything. I’ve heard a lot about you. Wouldn’t you do it? We need you. Shouldn’t you report it? I’ve read your book. They heard you. Is that your house? I’m surprised you remember. I want you to come. He said that you would. Look at your hands. I know what you mean. I can’t look at you. Haven’t you met him? I could but you won’t let me. Pleased to meet you. I need your help. Can’t you see? I heard about your accident. Didn’t you understand? Get your things. Won’t you give it a try? That’s what your friend said. Don’t you like it?

15.11  Variable coalescent assimilation of /​s/​and /​z/​ + /​j/​ When a word ending in /​s/​or /​z/​is followed without a pause by a word beginning with /​j/​, both simple assimilation and coalescent assimilation are possible. /​s/​and /​z/​can assimilate to /​ʃ/​and /​ʒ/​respectively before /​j/​(e.g. miss you /​ˈmɪʃ juː/​, cause you /​ˈkɔːʒ juː/​) or coalescent assimilation can take place, /​s/​ and /​j/​combining to make /​ʃ/​, and /​z/​and /​j/​combining to make /​ʒ/​ (e.g. miss you /​ˈmɪʃuː/​, cause you /​ˈkɔːʒuː/​).

Transcribe these sentences with either simple assimilation or coalescent assimilation of /​s/​ or /​z/​ before /​j/​according to your own habits. Take as much as you like. This year I’ve accomplished a lot. Is your brother at home? It allows you to work faster. Not unless you say so. It lets you relax. It means you make more money. It makes you sick. Sometimes you need it. Perhaps you forgot. Does your phone work? I guess you could. It keeps you fit. Do it because you can. Take it in case you need it. Of course you can! Don’t close your eyes. I suppose you could. Place your bets. Since you say so.

100  Transcribing connected speech

15.12  Assimilation or elision Since the contexts for assimilation and elision overlap, it is often possible for either to occur. When /​st kt ft pt ʃt ʧt/​or /​ld md ŋd bd ɡd ʤd vd ðd zd ʒd/​ are followed by a bilabial /​m p b/​or velar /​k ɡ/​consonant, /​t/​and /​d/​can either assimilate to /​p k/​and /​b ɡ/​respectively, or /​t/​and /​d/​can be elided. In such cases, elision appears to be more common than assimilation, except when the -​ed ending is involved (see Section 14.1). For example: the best part the World Cup a soft glow finished goods seemed better

/​ðə ˈbes ˈpɑːt/​or /​ðə ˈbesp ˈpɑːt/​ /​ðə ˈwɜːl ˈkʌp/​or /​ðə ˈwɜːlɡ ˈkʌp/​ /​ə ˈsɒf ˈɡləʊ/​or /​ə ˈsɒfk ˈɡləʊ/​ /​ˈfɪnɪʃk ˈɡʊdz/​or /​ˈfɪnɪʃ ˈɡʊdz/​ /​ˈsiːmb ˈbetə/​or /​ˈsiːm ˈbetə/​

Transcribe these compounds and phrases with assimilation or elision according to your own habits. childproof, cold-​blooded, wild mushrooms, informed consent, stained glass, a strict policy, a mixed bag, minced meat, a lost cause, chopped garlic, a civilised country, the finished product

Transcribe these sentences with assimilation or elision according to your own habits. They’ve made a detailed plan. It was gone the next morning. I’ll have a soft-​ boiled egg. I collect abstract paintings. He’s a postgraduate student. She only wears bold colours. They sell at fixed prices. We joined a protest march. She had a distinguished career. It’s made from recycled plastic. We’re coming under increased pressure. He’s making a fortune in pest control. An iced coffee will cool you down. I’m a very experienced player. The choice between elision and assimilation is similar in the case of coalescent assimilation. When /​st kt ft pt ʃt ʧt/​or /​ld md ŋd bd ɡd ʤd vd ðd zd ʒd/​ are followed by /​j/​(particularly in you and your, of course), /​t/​and /​d/​can combine with the /​j/​to form /​ʧ/​and /​ʤ/​respectively, or /​t/​and /​d/​can be elided. In such cases, coalescent assimilation is more common than elision. For example: Lift your arms. Finished your lunch? I told you. We informed you.

/​ˈlɪfʧɔːr ˈɑːmz/​or /​ˈlɪf jɔːr ˈɑːmz/​ /​ˈfɪnɪʃʧɔː ˈlʌnʧ/​or /​ˈfɪnɪʃ jɔː ˈlʌnʧ/​ /​aɪ ˈtəʊlʤuː/​ or /​aɪ ˈtəʊl juː/​ /​wiː ɪnˈfɔːmʤuː/​ or /​wiː ɪnˈfɔːm juː/​

Assimilation  101

Transcribe these sentences with assimilation or elision according to your own habits. He massaged your feet. At first you agreed. It caused you to miss. I expect you to come. It’s soothed your nerves. He stole the gift you gave me. I’ve carved your name on it. I’ve ripped your jacket. You’ve smudged your makeup. They’ve washed your car. Sorry I dragged you here. She watched you leave. Someone robbed you? He called you a fool. You’ve banged your head? She rammed your car.

15.13  Multiple assimilations, or elision combined with assimilation When words ending in /​tn̩/​ or /​dn̩/​are followed by bilabial /​m p b/​or velar /​k ɡ/​consonants, both the plosive and the syllabic consonant assimilate, /​tn̩/​ becoming /​pm̩ /​before /​m p b/​and /​kŋ̍/​ before /​k ɡ/​, and /​dn̩/​ becoming /​bm̩ /​ before /​m p b/​and /​ɡŋ̍/​ before  /​k  ɡ/​. written permission cotton coat a sudden movement hidden costs

/​ˈrɪpm̩ pəˈmɪʃn/​ /​ˈkɒkŋ̍ ˈkəʊt/​ /​ə ˈsʌbm̩ ˈmuːvmənt/​ /​ˈhɪɡŋ̍ ˈkɒsts/​

When /​nt/​is followed by bilabial /​m p b/​or velar consonants /​k ɡ/​, both consonants can assimilate, becoming /​mp/​before /​m p b/​, and /​ŋk/​ before /​k ɡ/​. For example: a giant monster a bent pin sent back instant coffee Covent Garden

/​ə ˈʤaɪəmp ˈmɒnstə/​ /​ə ˈbemp ˈpɪn/​ /​ˈsemp ˈbæk/​ /​ˈɪnstəŋk ˈkɒfiː/​ /​ˈkɒvəŋk ˈɡɑːdn̩/​

This is also true for /​nd/​, which can become /​mb/​before /​m p b/​and /​ŋɡ/​ before /​k ɡ/​. In the case of /​nd/​, however, a combination of the elision of /​d/​ and assimilation of /​n/​is more likely, except in the case of -​ed endings, where elision is less common and assimilation of both consonants more usual. For example: a kind message grand plans a round brush mind control stand guard

/​ə ˈkaɪm ˈmesɪʤ/​or /​ə ˈkaɪmb ˈmesɪʤ/​ /​ˈɡræm ˈplænz/​or /​ˈɡræmb ˈplænz/​ /​ə ˈraʊm ˈbrʌʃ/​or /​ə ˈraʊmb ˈbrʌʃ/​ /​ˈmaɪŋ kənˌtrəʊl/​or /​ˈmaɪŋɡ kənˌtrəʊl/​ /​ˈstæŋ ˈɡɑːd/​or /​ˈstæŋɡ ˈɡɑːd/​

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gained power turned brown a signed copy

/​ˈɡeɪmb ˈpaʊə/​or /​ˈɡeɪm ˈpaʊə/​ /​ˈtɜːmb ˈbraʊn/​or /​ˈtɜːm ˈbraʊn/​ /​ə ˈsaɪŋɡ ˈkɒpiː/​or /​ə ˈsaɪŋ ˈkɒpiː/​

Another possible variant is for syllabic /​n/​to be followed by /​t/​or /​d/​, giving /​n̩t/​ and /​n̩d/​, which assimilate to /​m̩ p/​ and /​m̩ b/​before bilabial /​m p b/​ consonants, and to /​ŋ̍k/​and /​ŋ̍ɡ/​before velar /​k ɡ/​consonants. For example: the present moment the recent past a pleasant beach sufficient cash a patient guy poisoned meat a seasoned professional a thousand bucks an old-​fashioned Christmas an old-​fashioned game

/​ðə ˈprezm̩p ˈməʊmənt/​ /​ðə ˈriːsm̩ p ˈpɑːst/​ /​ə ˈplezm̩ p ˈbiːʧ/​ /​səˈfɪʃŋ̍k ˈkæʃ/​ /​ə ˈpeɪʃŋ̍k ˈɡaɪ/​ /​ˈpɔɪzm̩ ˈmiːt/​or /​ˈpɔɪzm̩ b ˈmiːt/​ /​ə ˈsiːzm̩ prəˈfeʃnl̩/​or /​ə ˈsiːzm̩ b prəˈfeʃnl̩/​ /​ə ˈθaʊzm̩ ˈbʌks/​or /​ə ˈθaʊzm̩ b ˈbʌks/​ /​ən ˈəʊl ˈfæʃŋ̍ ˈkrɪsməs/​or /​ən ˈəʊl ˈfæʃŋ̍ɡ ˈkrɪsməs/​ /​ən ˈəʊl ˈfæʃŋ̍ ˈɡeɪm/​or /​ən ˈəʊl ˈfæʃŋ̍ɡ ˈɡeɪm/​

When /​n̩t/​ and /​n̩d/​are preceded by /​t/​or /​d/​(giving /​tn̩t/​, /​dn̩t/​, /​tn̩d/​, /​dn̩d/​), all three consonants can assimilate together. This results in /​pm̩ p/​, /​bm̩ p/​, /​pm̩ b/​ and /​bm̩ b/​before bilabial /​m p b/​consonants, and /​kŋ̍k/​, /​ɡŋ̍k/​, /​kŋ̍ɡ/​ and /​ɡŋ̍ɡ/​before velar /​k ɡ/​consonants. For example: an important part a potent cocktail a prudent person student group

/​ən ɪmˈpɔːpm̩ p ˈpɑːt/​ /​ə ˈpəʊkŋ̍k ˈkɒkteɪl/​ /​ə ˈpruːbm̩ p ˈpɜːsn̩/​ /​ˈsʧuːɡŋ̍k ˌɡruːp/​

a frightened kitten threatened by it saddened by it hardened glass

/​ə ˈfraɪkŋ̍ ˈkɪtn̩/​or /​ˈfraɪkŋ̍ɡ ˈkɪtn̩/​ /​ˈθrepm̩ ˈbaɪ ɪt/​or /​ˈθrepm̩ b ˈbaɪ ɪt/​ /​ˈsæbm̩ ˈbaɪ ɪt/​or /​ˈsæbm̩b ˈbaɪ ɪt/​ /​ˈhɑːɡŋ̍ ˈɡlɑːs/​or /​ˈhɑːɡŋ̍ɡ ˈɡlɑːs/​

In the case of /​tn̩d/​ and /​dn̩d/​, it’s more common for /​d/​to be elided and for /​tn̩/​ and /​dn̩/​to undergo assimilation than for all three consonants to be assimilated together. Although interesting, these assimilations of groups of three consonants are rather rare and only occur commonly with the high-​frequency negative contractions (wouldn’t, couldn’t, etc.), and even these often lose their /​t/​to become two-​consonant clusters. When /​st/​and /​zd/​are followed by /​ʃ/​, the /​t/​and /​d/​can be elided and the /​s/​and /​z/​assimilate to /​ʃ/​and /​ʒ/​respectively. For example:

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my first shot increased sharply a bruised shoulder

/​maɪ ˈfɜːʃ ˈʃɒt/​ /​ɪŋˈkriːʃ ˈʃɑːpliː/​ /​ə ˈbruːʒ ˈʃəʊldə/​

When /​st/​and /​zd/​are followed by /​j/​, the /​t/​and /​d/​can coalesce with /​j/​to form /​ʧ/​and /​ʤ/​ respectively (i.e. /​st/​ + /​j/​ = /​sʧ/​, /​zd/​ + /​j/​ = /​zʤ/​), or the /​t/​and /​d/​ can be elided (i.e. /​st/​ + /​j/​  = /​sj/​, /​zd/​ + /​j/​  = /​zj/​). If elision occurs, the /​s/​ and /​z/​can assimilate to /​ʃ/​and /​ʒ/​ respectively (i.e. /​s/​ + /​j/​ = /​ʃj/​; /​z/​ + /​j/​ = /​ʒj/​) or the /​s/​and /​z/​to coalesce with the /​j/​to form /​ʃ/​and /​ʒ/​respectively (i.e. /​s/​ + /​j/​ = /​ʃ/​, /​z/​ + /​j/​ = /​ʒ/​). When the /​st/​or /​zd/​cluster includes the -​ed ending, the first possibility is the most likely. For example: last year missed you caused you

/​ˈlɑːsˈʧɪə/​ /​ˈmɪsʧuː/​ /​ˈkɔːzʤuː/​

/​ˈlɑːs ˈjɪə/​ /​ˈmɪs juː/​ /​ˈkɔːz juː/​

/​ˈlɑːʃ ˈjɪə/​ /​ˈmɪʃ juː/​ /​ˈkɔːʒ juː/​

/​ˈlɑːˈʃɪə/​ /​ˈmɪʃuː/​ /ˈkɔːʒuː/

Transcribe these words, compounds and phrases with elision and/​or assimilation according to your own habits. giant pandas, grandparents, a quaint cottage, handbag, lost sheep, a brilliant mind, grandmother, handcuffs, currant bun, my best shoes, Saint Mary, handgun, a silent partner, sandpit, second class, windmill, the front page, background music, paintbrush, the largest university, handbrake, appointment, Saint Kevin, a closed shop, windpipe, rent collector, a frequent guest, a decent guy, a televised show, violent crime, sandpaper, handbook, resentment, landmark, ghost ship, a pleasant breeze, sandcastle, tent pole, hand grenade, Saint Paul, an oversized shirt

Transcribe these sentences with elision and/​or assimilation according to your own habits. He’s a stunt pilot. That’ll cost a thousand pounds. Breakfast shows are boring. He doesn’t care. How do you play handball? Please send money at once. It’s a profound question you’re asking. They’ve recognised you. He was found guilty and sentenced. Take your best shot. Look at the results of this recent poll. This is an excellent book. The silent majority have spoken. She’s a distant cousin. I suggest you leave. It’s the story of a peasant girl. I’m amazed she knew. Buy us some ground pepper. It isn’t Paul. The results were mind-​ blowing. It’s all handmade. The sound quality was very poor. I’m pleased you noticed. It happened in the distant past. He hasn’t brought it. This is the best show. She was mentioned in a recent book. I’ve been promoted to assistant manager. He’s been suffering from a persistent cough. He expected an instant cure. Can’t pay, won’t pay. She wasn’t gone long. That’s most useful.

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15.14  Assimilation of /​ð/​ When /​ð/​is directly preceded by /​n/​, /​l/​, /​s/​or /​z/​, it can assimilate and become identical to the preceding consonant. For example: in the end all the time across the road Is that it?

/​ɪn niː ˈend/​ /ˈɔːl lə ˈtaɪm/ /​əˈkrɒs sə ˈrəʊd/​ /​ɪz ˈzæt ɪt/​

Note that this kind of assimilation is quite different from the simple assimilation of /​n t d s z/​that we’ve seen so far. Here the direction of influence is different, a later sound changing under the influence of an earlier sound, and the type of change is different, the manner of articulation of the consonant changing (and the voicing too when /​ð/​becomes /​s/​). We only occasionally include this kind of assimilation in our transcriptions.

15.15  Assimilation of /​ən/​ in happen, taken, etc. When /​ən/​occurs after a bilabial /​p b/​or velar /​k ɡ/​plosive, the plosive can be released by lowering the soft palate (nasal release, see Appendix B.10), which results in syllabic /​m/​after /​p b/​and syllabic /​ŋ/​ after /​k ɡ/​, for example open /​ˈəʊpm̩ /​, urban /​ˈɜːbm̩ /​, taken /​ˈteɪkŋ̍/​, organ /​ˈɔːɡŋ̍/​. Not many words present the required context, and only the most frequent of them (i.e. open, happen, taken, broken, can) assimilate with any regularity. Can in its weak form is probably the most frequent example of this kind of assimilation, especially when it’s followed by a velar consonant /​k ɡ/​, as in I can go /​aɪ kŋ̍ ˈɡəʊ/​. When opened /​ˈəʊpm̩ d/​ and happened /​ˈhæpm̩ d/​assimilate in this way, the final /​d/​ doesn’t assimilate.

15.16  Simplification of fricative clusters The fricative clusters /​fs/​(e.g. laughs /​lɑːfs/​) and /​vz/​ (e.g. leaves /​liːvz/​) are stable, but other clusters of fricatives aren’t, and often undergo simplification processes. In /​θs/​and /​ðz/​, the dental fricatives tend to assimilate to the following fricatives, becoming /​ss/​and /​zz/​, and these tend to further simplify to /​s/​and /​z/​. These processes are most complete in the high-​frequency words months and clothes, which are usually pronounced /​mʌnts/​(note the epenthetic /​t/​, see Section 11.3) and /​kləʊz/​(the same as the verb close). Other words, such as maths, deaths, myths, births, moths for /​θs/​ and mouths, paths, smooths, truths, soothes for /​ðz/​, are more variable, alternating between /​θs/​, /​ss/​, /​s/​ and between /​ðz/​, /​zz/​, /​z/​depending on speaker, speech-​rate and speech-​consciousness.

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Other frequently simplified fricative clusters include fifth, sixth and twelfth, which are /​fɪθ/​(i.e. without the second /​f/​), /​sɪkθ/​(i.e. without the second /​s/​) or /​sɪks/​(i.e. without the final /​θ/​, and /​twelθ/​(i.e. without the /​f/​) in unselfconscious speech.

15.17  Voicing in obstruent + obstruent clusters When obstruents (i.e. plosives, affricates and fricatives) occur next to each other within the same syllable, they nearly always agree in voicing, either all voiced or all voiceless. In the few words where there’s a difference of voicing, voiced + voiceless, there’s an alternative voiceless + voiceless pronunciation which is as common or more common than the voiced + voiceless form suggested by the spelling. These few words are width /​wɪtθ/​ or /​wɪdθ/​, breadth /​bretθ/​ or /​bredθ/​, hundredth /​ˈhʌndrətθ/​or /​ˈhʌndrədθ/​, thousandth /​ˈθaʊzn̩tθ/​ or /​ˈθaʊzn̩dθ/​, and (a)midst /​mɪtst/​ or /​mɪdst/​ (/​əˈmɪtst/​or /​əˈmɪdst/​).

15.18  Irregular assimilations and elisions Certain phrases are so common that they have developed forms with idiosyncratic elisions and assimilations. When they mean ‘must’, have to, has to and had to are pronounced /​ˈhæf tə/​, /​ˈhæs tə/​and /​ˈhæt tə/​before consonants and /​ˈhæf tuː/​, /​ˈhæs tuː/​and /​ˈhæt tuː/​before vowels. This represents a kind of devoicing assimilation, which is otherwise unusual in English. When have got to is used with the meaning of ‘must’, the got to element is pronounced /ˈɡɒtə/​(or /ˈɡɒtuː/ before a vowel) with the loss of a /​t/​(except before a pause, e.g. I’ve really got to /​aɪv ˈrɪəliː ˈɡɒt ˈtuː/​). When it means ‘accustomed to’ or is used for the past, used to is pronounced /​ˈjuːs tə/​before consonants and /​ˈjuːs tuː/​before vowels (i.e. with loss of /​t/​and /​z/​ assimilating to /​s/​). Similarly, supposed to is pronounced /​səˈpəʊs tə/​ before consonants and /​səˈpəʊs tuː/​before vowels when it is used for obligations and expectations (but not when it means ‘believed to’). When used for the future, going to has a range of reduced pronunciations, the two most usual being /​ɡəʊnə/​and /​ɡənə/​ (/​ɡəʊnuː/​and /​ɡənuː/​ before vowels). Note that the ‘gonna’ spelling for going to is misleading as there is no lot /​ɒ/​vowel in the pronunciation. Before a pause, going to doesn’t reduce (except in the most casual speech), for example yes, I’m going to /​ˈjes aɪm ˈɡəʊɪŋ ˈtuː/​. The high-​frequency phrases want to, trying to, let me and give me also commonly have reduced pronunciations, namely /​ˈwɒnə/​, /​ˈtraɪnə/​, /​ˈlemiː/​ and /​ˈɡɪmiː/​. Want to and trying to are like going to in that they don’t reduce before a pause, for example I don’t want to /​aɪ ˈdəʊnt ˈwɒnt ˈtuː/​, and but I’m trying to /​bət aɪm ˈtraɪɪŋ ˈtuː/​.

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15.19  Chapter revision Transcribe these words with various kinds of assimilation (and/​or elision) according to your own habits. He’s very laid back. You have to request permission first. He’s a chess grandmaster. My watch is gold-​plated. They’re in a privileged position. We hunt wild birds. I got it for cheaper than the list price. I stepped on broken glass. You’re supposed to make a lesson plan. Where’s the rent money? This place is a gold mine! I promised you. She’s involved in organised crime. Have some chocolate cake. They’re out of alignment. I’m going to tell her everything. I  love roast pork. It’s nothing but a wild-​goose chase. I’m going to buy a treadmill. I’m a third-​class citizen. She lost a finger to frostbite. Start filling sandbags. I was sold damaged goods. Do people still have pen pals? I have to buy a lawn mower. It needs a new exhaust pipe. I want a dozen more. He was expelled for violent behaviour. See you next month. He used your idea. Don’t forget to send a postcard. It used to be unpopular. Get some peanut butter. Call the coast guard! It doesn’t taste good. It instantly became a cult classic. I was surprised she bothered. You’re not the target market. Give me a break! They built on a flood plain. I forgot to bring the tent pegs. That’s a common problem. I prefer instant coffee. You’re supposed to encourage me. I want to go first. They hired a servant girl. He collects Roman coins. Pass me that iron bar. The police found a loaded gun. You’re supposed to wear oven gloves. I’m almost sure he did it. It’s an interesting thought process. There were a thousand people there. It got better in the second quarter. I’m trying to do it.

16 CONNECTED SPEECH Extended practice

Transcribe the following jokes and humorous quotations. Remember to include liaison, weak forms, elision and assimilation where appropriate. The key to this exercise can be downloaded at http://paulcarley.com. 1) I’m going to make a long speech because I haven’t had time to prepare a short one. (Winston Churchill) 2) I’ve tried lately to read Shakespeare, and found it so intolerably dull that it nauseated me. (Charles Darwin) 3) Everybody’s a pacifist between wars. It’s like being a vegetarian between meals. (Colman McCarthy) 4) I’ve always wanted to write a book that ended with the word ‘mayonnaise’. (Richard Brautigan) 5) I knew I was going bald when it was taking longer and longer to wash my face. (Harry Hill) 6) There’s one advantage to being a hundred and two. No peer pressure. (Dennis Wolfberg) 7) When I hear a man preach, I like to see him act as if he were fighting bees. (Abraham Lincoln) 8) The difference between stupidity and genius is that genius has its limits. (Albert Einstein) 9) When I was born I was so surprised that I didn’t talk for a year and a half. (Gracie Allen) 10) A father’s a man who has photos in his wallet where his money used to be. (Anon)

108  Transcribing connected speech

11) The most effective way to remember your wife’s birthday is to forget it once. (Anon) 12) The second day of a diet is always easier than the first. By the second day, you’re off it. (Jackie Gleason) 13) My daughter thinks I’m nosy. At least that’s what she wrote in her diary. (Jenny Abrams) 14) Saying, ‘I apologise’, is the same as saying, ‘I’m sorry’. Except at a funeral. (Demetri Martin) 15) It isn’t necessary to be rich and famous to be happy. It’s only necessary to be rich. (Alan Alda) 16) When a man opens a car door for his wife, it’s either a new car or a new wife. (Prince Philip) 17) Always remember that you’re absolutely unique. Just like everyone else. (Margaret Mead) 18) They say cheese gives you nightmares. Ridiculous! I’m not scared of cheese. (Ross Noble) 19) When a woman behaves like a man, why doesn’t she behave like a nice man? (Edith Evans) 20) There are three kinds of people. Those who can count, and those who can’t. (George Carlin) 21) If we knew what it was we were doing, it wouldn’t be called research, would it? (Albert Einstein) 22) A bank’s a place that’ll lend you money if you can prove you don’t need it. (Bob Hope) 23) Paradise Lost is a book that, once put down, is very difficult to pick up again. (Samuel Johnson) 24) Real happiness is when you marry a girl for love and find out later she’s got money. (Bob Monkhouse) 25) If you think nobody cares if you’re alive, try missing a couple of bill payments. (Anon) 26) My conscience never stops me from doing anything. It just stops me from enjoying it. (Anon) 27) A classic is a book that everybody wants to have read and nobody wants to read. (Mark Twain) 28) Half the money I spend on advertising is wasted. The trouble is I don’t know which half. (Viscount (William) Leverhulme) 29) We must believe in luck. How else can we explain the success of people we don’t like? (Jean Cocteau) 30) A man loses his dog, so he puts an ad in the paper. And the ad says, ‘Here, boy!’ (Spike Milligan) 31) I went to buy some camouflage trousers the other day, but I couldn’t find any. (Anon) 32) Now I’m no longer President, I find I no longer win every game of golf I play. (George Bush Sr)

Connected speech: extended practice  109

33) I’m sure it was my two-​year-​old son who stole my pen. It’s written all over his face. (Anon) 34) When you said you went to university, presumably it was to be studied by others. (Anne Robinson) 35) I called my lawyer and said, ‘Can I ask you two questions?’ He said, ‘Yes. What’s the other one?’ (Anon) 36) Money isn’t the most important thing in the world. Love is. Fortunately, I love money. (Jackie Mason) 37) The restaurant was so bad that on the menu, there were even flies in the pictures. (Anon) 38) I used to play sports. Then I realised you can buy trophies. Now I’m good at everything. (Anon) 39) My neighbours love it when I play the piano. They break my windows to hear better. (Les Dawson) 40) I’ve been smoking for thirty years now and there’s nothing wrong with my lung. (Freddie Starr) 41) There are two kinds of statistics: the kind you look up, and the kind you make up. (Bob Mortimer) 42) If you steal from one author, it’s plagiarism; if you steal from many, it’s research. (Wilson Mizner) 43) Being powerful is like being a lady. If you have to tell people you are, you aren’t. (Margaret Thatcher) 44) A synonym is a word you use when you can’t spell the word you first thought of. (Burt Bacharach) 45) Everyone says forgiveness is a lovely idea, until they have something to forgive. (C S Lewis) 46) I had my car serviced the other day. The mechanic advised me to keep the oil and change the car. (Anon) 47) The only thing my husband and I have in common is that we were married on the same day. (Phyllis Diller) 48) Show me a man who enjoyed his schooldays and I’ll show you a bully and a bore. (Robert Morley) 49) Don’t worry about avoiding temptation  –​as you grow older it starts avoiding you. (Anon) 50) I was reading this book the other day, The History of Glue. I couldn’t put it down. (Anon) 51) It’s not enough to have every intelligent person in the country voting for me. I need a majority! (Adlai Stevenson) 52) When I was young, I was scared of the dark. Now when I see my electricity bill, I’m scared of the lights. (Anon) 53) English spelling would seem to have been designed chiefly as a disguise for pronunciation. (Jerome K Jerome) 54) For her birthday, my wife said she wanted to go somewhere expensive. So I took her to a petrol station. (Anon)

110  Transcribing connected speech

55) Two cannibals are eating a clown. One says to the other, ‘Does this taste funny to you?’ (Anon) 56) The only time a fisherman tells the truth is when he calls another fisherman a liar. (Anon) 57) I was so ugly as a kid that when I  played in the sand pit, the cat kept covering me up. (Rodney Dangerfield) 58) The old believe everything. The middle-​aged suspect everything. The young know everything. (Oscar Wilde) 59) My biggest worry is that my wife, when I’m dead, will sell my fishing gear for what I said I paid for it. (Koos Brandt) 60) There was no respect for youth when I was young, and now that I’m old there’s no respect for age. (J B Priestley) 61) No matter what diet you’re on, you can usually eat as much as you want of anything you don’t like. (Walter Slezak) 62) You can live to a hundred if you give up all the things that make you want to live to a hundred. (Woody Allen) 63) Photography isn’t art. It’s pressing buttons. People take it up because they can’t draw. (Lord Snowdon) 64) My friend’s in jail. He got five years for something he didn’t do. He didn’t run fast enough. (Daman Wayans) 65) In order to compose, all you need to do is remember a tune that no one else has thought of. (Robert Schumann) 66) If you lend someone twenty pounds and you never see them again, it was probably worth it. (Anon) 67) The average PhD thesis is nothing but a transfer of bones from one graveyard to another. (Frank Dobie) 68) The first half of your life is ruined by your parents, and the second half by your children. (Clarence Darrow) 69) I spent an hour fixing a broken clock yesterday. At least, I think it was an hour. (Anon) 70) What are we going to do about ignorance and apathy? I don’t know and I don’t care. (William Safire) 71) Falling asleep during a job interview is an excellent way to show you’re calm under pressure. (Anon) 72) Which painting in the National Gallery would I save if there was a fire? The one nearest the door, of course. (George Bernard Shaw) 73) Before I got married, I had six theories about bringing up children. Now I have six children and no theories. (John Wilmot) 74) Save a little money each month, and at the end of the year, you’ll be surprised at how little you have. (Ernest Haskins) 75) I loathe people who keep dogs.They’re cowards who haven’t got the guts to bite people themselves. (August Strindberg) 76) Television is very educational. Every time it comes on, I go into another room and read a book. (Groucho Marx)

Connected speech: extended practice  111

77) The less people know about how sausages and laws are made, the better they sleep at night. (Otto von Bismarck) 78) I never really mind bad service in a restaurant. It makes me feel better about not leaving a tip. (Bill Bryson) 79) My doctor gave me six months to live, but when I couldn’t pay the bill, he gave me another six months. (Walter Matthau) 80) The trouble with doing something right the first time is that nobody appreciates how difficult it was. (Anon) 81) Money doesn’t make you happy. I’ve got fifty million dollars, but I was just as happy when I had forty-​eight million. (Arnold Schwarzenegger) 82) Your manuscript is both good and original; but the part that’s good is not original, and the part that’s original is not good. (Samuel Johnson) 83) If in a hundred years, I’m only known as the man who invented Sherlock Holmes, then I’ll consider my life a failure. (Arthur Conan Doyle) 84) I’ve just bought a guard dog and he’s really good. I haven’t been able to get inside my house for the past three days. (Anon) 85) If my books had been any worse, I  wouldn’t have been invited to Hollywood, and if they’d been any better, I wouldn’t have come. (Raymond Chandler) 86) If you owe the bank a hundred dollars, that’s your problem. If you owe the bank a hundred million dollars, that’s the bank’s problem. (John Paul Getty) 87) Being in politics is like being a football coach. You have to be smart enough to understand the game, and dumb enough to think it’s important. (Eugene McCarthy) 88) A psychologist’s selling a video that teaches you how to test your dog’s IQ. Here’s how it works: if you spend twelve ninety-​nine on the video, your dog’s smarter than you. (Jay Leno) 89) To suppose, as we all suppose, that we could be rich and not behave as the rich behave, is like supposing that we could drink all day and keep absolutely sober. (Logan Pearsall Smith) 90) We spend the first twelve months of our children’s lives teaching them to walk and talk and the next twelve years telling them to sit down and shut up. (Phyllis Diller) 91) He does fifteen drafts of each of his books. If you read one and don’t think it’s very good, remember it’s been improved fifteen times. What must the first draft be like? (Paul Merton) 92) I’m trying to decide whether or not to have children. My time’s running out. I  know I  want to have children while my parents are still young enough to take care of them. (Rita Rudner) 93) I can win an argument on any topic, against any opponent. People know this and steer clear of me at parties. Often, as a sign of their great respect, they don’t even invite me. (Dave Barry)

112  Transcribing connected speech

94) I don’t believe people would ever fall in love or want to be married if they hadn’t been told about it. It’s like abroad: no one would want to go there if they hadn’t been told it existed. (Evelyn Waugh) 95) The tragedy of travelling first class is that however comfortable you are, and however many free drinks you get, you still arrive at your destination at the same time as the second-​class passengers. (Miles Kington) 96) I’ve lectured on campuses for a quarter of a century, and it’s my impression that after taking a course on The Novel, it’s an unusual student who would ever want to read a novel again. (Gore Vidal) 97) I was never married because there was no need. I have three pets at home which serve the same purpose as a husband. I have a dog that growls every morning, a parrot that swears all afternoon, and a cat that comes home late at night. (Marie Corelli) 98) A man walks past a table in a casino and sees three men and a dog playing cards. ‘That’s a very smart dog,’ says the man. ‘He’s not so clever,’ says one of the players. ‘Every time he gets a good hand, he wags his tail.’ (Anon) 99) Happiness is like a cat. If you coax it or call it, it’ll avoid you. It won’t come. But if you pay no attention to it and go about your business, you’ll find it rubbing against your legs and jumping into your lap. (William J Bennett) 100) At a job interview: Interviewer: Candidate: Interviewer: Candidate:

What would you say was your greatest weakness? Honesty. I don’t think honesty’s a weakness. I don’t care what you think.

For further practice transcribing connected speech in longer texts, you can also transcribe the passages in Chapter 20.

PART C

Transcribing intonation

17 AN INTRODUCTION TO INTONATION

17.1  Transcribing intonation Here’s an example of an English text marked for intonation: ˈSomething that happens a /​lot | when I’m ˈteaching pronunci/​ation | is that ˈlearners /​tell me | that what they ˅really need to learn | is ˈinto\nation. || They ↘ feel they’ve got their consonants and ˅vowels right, | but there’s ˈstill this vague /​thing | called ˈinto\nation | that’s ˈtripping them \up. || It’s ↘very difficult to get a˅cross to them | that their ↘into˅nation, | the ↘pitch of their ˅voices, | is ˈmore or less \fine. || ˅Often, | it’s ˈvery \good. || \Great! || The ˅real problem | is their ˈconsonants and \vowels. || But they ˈdon’t be\lieve it. The ˅essence of the problem | is that we ˈhear the sounds of a new /​language | in ˈterms of the sounds of our \first language. || ↘That’s why it’s ˅difficult | to ˈget them \right, | and ↘that’s why we can’t ˅hear | when we’re ˈgetting them \ wrong. || So ↘when I tell ˅learners | that the ˅difficulty they’re having | is the ˈcumulative e/​ffect | of the ˈdozens and dozens of little /​ways | in which their ↘ consonants and ˅vowels | are ↘mispro˅nounced, | and ↘not caused by a mysterious phe˅nomenon | called ↘into˅nation, | they ˈdon’t be\lieve me. || If they ↘ can’t ˅hear something, | they ˈdon’t believe it’s \there. || It’s ˈhuman \nature, | I su/​ppose. || One of the ˈfirst lessons they have to /​learn | is to ˈtrust their \teacher, | ˈnot their \ears. Notice that: 1) Our text isn’t in phonemic transcription. When focusing on intonation, we usually work with the ordinary spelling. 2) Our system of in-​text intonation marks requires only a small number of additions to the basic text, namely underlining and [ˈ], [↘], [\], [\], [/​], [/​], [˅].

116  Transcribing intonation

3) The text is divided into intonation phrases (see Section 17.2) by the intonation boundary symbols | and ||. The difference between the single and double boundaries isn’t a strictly phonetic one. We merely use the double boundary when the IP boundary coincides with the end of a sentence, and the single boundary in other positions.

17.2  The anatomy of intonation: the nucleus English utterances are divided into intonation phrases (IPs). The structure of an IP can be summarised as follows: (pre-​head) (head) nucleus (tail) The nucleus consists of a single syllable, and as the bracketing indicates, it’s the only obligatory element of an IP. In our sample text, for example, there’s one IP (\Great!) that consists of a nucleus alone. Such cases are common. The nucleus is the syllable on which a number of nuclear tones are realised or begin their realisation. To identify the nucleus, we underline it. Sometimes the nucleus consists of a monosyllabic word (e.g. lot, tell, thing), but often it is just one syllable of a polysyllabic word (e.g. pronunciation, really, intonation). Note that the nucleus always occurs on the primary stressed syllable of a word. In fact, we can define the primary stress in a word as the stressed syllable on which the nucleus occurs when the nucleus occurs on that word. This can either be in connected speech, where the word appears alongside others within an IP, or in the citation form of a word, where the word forms a complete IP. What we call primary and secondary stress, therefore, are not different degrees of stress, but stresses combined with different types of intonation, which make them appear more prominent than neighbouring stresses.

Identify the nucleuses of the 42 IPs in the sample text above. The first four have been done for you. 1) lot; 2)  the fourth syllable of pronunciation; 3)  tell; 4)  the first syllable of really The key to all exercises in this chapter can be downloaded at paulcarley.com.

17.3  The anatomy of intonation: nuclear tones The nuclear tones are a set of accents. We use the word ‘accent’ here in the sense of a significant pitch change. The five nuclear tones and their symbols are the high fall [\], the low fall [\], the high rise [/​], the low rise [/​] and the fall-​rise [˅] (other works may recognise a small number of additional, less important nuclear tones). We place nuclear tone symbols directly before the nucleus (e.g. ˅ ˅ /​lot, pronunci/​ation, really, a cross).

An introduction to intonation  117

Identify the nuclear tones of the 42 IPs in the sample text above. The first four have been done for you. 1) low rise; 2) low rise; 3) low rise; 4) fall-​rise

17.4  The anatomy of intonation: the tail Any syllables coming after the nucleus in an IP are known as the tail. If we take the first three IPs of our sample text, the first IP has no tail, the last syllable of the word pronunciation makes up the tail of the second IP, and the tail of the third IP consists of the word me.

Identify the tails of the 42 IPs in the sample text above. The first four have been done for you. 1) no tail; 2) the last syllable of pronunciation; 3) me; 4) last syllable of really + need to learn

17.5  The anatomy of intonation: the head The head of an IP consists of the first accented syllable and any syllables between it and the nucleus. The first syllable of the head is known as the onset of the head. The two types of head and their symbols are the high head [ˈ] and the falling head [↘] (other works may recognise a small number of additional, less important heads). The symbol for the onset of the high head is the same as the primary stress mark. We place the head symbol directly before the onset of the head. The head of the first IP in our sample text consists of something that happens a, the head of the second IP consists of teaching and the first three syllables of pronunciation, the head of the third IP consists of learners, and the fourth IP has no head. Note that the reason a secondary stressed syllable before the primary stress in a word is easy to identify is that such syllables are accented as the onset of a head when the word is given its citation form and pronounced as a single IP. The citation forms, for example, of intonation and mispronounce are /​ˌɪntəˈneɪʃn̩/​and /​ˌmɪsprəˈnaʊns/​, or in intonational terms ˈinto\nation and ˈmispro\nounce, with the secondary stresses receiving the onset accent.

Identify the heads of the 42 IPs in the sample text above. The first four have been done for you. 1) s omething that happens a; 2) teaching + the first three syllables of pronunciation; 3) learners; 4) no head

118  Transcribing intonation

Identify the head types of the 42 IPs in the sample text above. The first four have been done for you. 1) high head; 2) high head; 3) high head; 4) no head

17.6  The anatomy of intonation: the pre-​head The pre-​head of an IP consists of any unaccented syllables at the beginning of the IP. If the IP has a head, then the pre-​head ends with the last syllable before the onset of the head. If the IP doesn’t have a head (a pre-​head can occur without a head), then the pre-​head ends with the last syllable before the nucleus. We don’t have any special symbol for the pre-​head because there is only one common type and we can take any unmarked syllables at the beginning of an IP to be the pre-​head. In our sample text, the first IP has no pre-​ head, the second IP has the pre-​head when I’m, the third IP has the pre-​head is that, and the fourth IP has the pre-​head that what they.

Identify the pre-​heads of the 42 IPs in the sample text above. The first four have been done for you. 1) no pre-​head; 2) when I’m; 3) is that; 4) that what they

18 NUCLEUS AND TAIL

18.1  The nucleus and the nuclear tones The nucleus, a single syllable, is the most important and only obligatory element of an IP. The nucleus is the syllable on which one of a number of nuclear tones is realised or begins its realisation. When there are no syllables after the nucleus, i.e. when there’s no tail, the nuclear tones are realised completely on the nucleus, and involve the following pitch movements: High fall: a glide from a high pitch to a low pitch:

\

No.

Listen to these words pronounced with a high fall and transcribe them intonationally. The first is done for you. 1) \No. Who. Four. How. Fine. Now. Why. Stay. There. Five. 2) Go. More. Where. Nine. Free. Sure. Slow. Two. Far. Snow. The key and recordings for all exercises in Part C can be downloaded at paulcarley.com. Low fall: a glide from a mid pitch to a low pitch:

\No.

120  Transcribing intonation

Listen to these words pronounced with a low fall and transcribe them intonationally. The first is done for you. 1) \No. Who. Four. How. Fine. Now. Why. Stay. There. Five. 2) Go. More. Where. Nine. Free. Sure. Slow. Two. Far. Snow.

Transcribe these words with either a high fall or low fall according to how they are pronounced in the recording. 1 ) No. Who. Four. How. Fine. Now. Why. Stay. There. Five. 2) Go. More. Where. Nine. Free. Sure. Slow. Two. Far. Snow. High rise: a glide from a mid pitch to a high pitch:

/

No.

Listen to these words pronounced with a high rise and transcribe them intonationally. The first is done for you. 1) /​No. Who. Four. How. Fine. Now. Why. Stay. There. Five. 2) Go. More. Where. Nine. Free. Sure. Slow. Two. Far. Snow.

Transcribe these words with either a high fall, low fall or high rise according to how they are pronounced in the recording. 1 ) No. Who. Four. How. Fine. Now. Why. Stay. There. Five. 2) Go. More. Where. Nine. Free. Sure. Slow. Two. Far. Snow. Low rise: a glide from a low pitch to a mid pitch:

/No.

Listen to these words pronounced with a low rise and transcribe them intonationally. The first is done for you. 1) /​No. Who. Four. How. Fine. Now. Why. Stay. There. Five. 2) Go. More. Where. Nine. Free. Sure. Slow. Two. Far. Snow.

Nucleus and tail  121

Transcribe these words with either a high fall, low fall, high rise or low rise according to how they are pronounced in the recording. 1 ) No. Who. Four. How. Fine. Now. Why. Stay. There. Five. 2) Go. More. Where. Nine. Free. Sure. Slow. Two. Far. Snow. Fall-​rise: a glide from a high pitch to a low pitch and then to a mid pitch:

˅

No.

Listen to these words pronounced with a fall-​rise and transcribe them intonationally. The first is done for you. 1) ˅No. Who. Four. How. Fine. Now. Why. Stay. There. Five. 2) Go. More. Where. Nine. Free. Sure. Slow. Two. Far. Snow.

Transcribe these words with either a high fall, low fall, high rise, low rise or fall-​rise according to how they are pronounced in the recording. 1 ) No. Who. Four. How. Fine. Now. Why. Stay. There. Five. 2) Go. More. Where. Nine. Free. Sure. Slow. Two. Far. Snow.

Each word is said with the five nuclear tones in different orders. Transcribe them intonationally. 1) No. No. No. No. No. Who. Who. Who. Who. Who. Four. Four. Four. Four. Four. How. How. How. How. How. Fine. Fine. Fine. Fine. Fine. Now. Now. Now. Now. Now. Why. Why. Why. Why. Why. Stay. Stay. Stay. Stay. Stay. There. There. There. There. There. Five. Five. Five. Five. Five. 2) Go. Go. Go. Go. Go. More. More. More. More. More. Where. Where. Where. Where. Where. Nine. Nine. Nine. Nine. Nine. Nine. Free. Free. Free. Free. Free. Sure. Sure. Sure. Sure. Sure. Slow. Slow. Slow. Slow. Slow. Two. Two. Two. Two. Two. Far. Far. Far. Far. Far. Snow. Snow. Snow. Snow. Snow.

18.2  Short syllables Intonation depends on the vibration of the vocal folds, i.e. voicing. When there’s no voicing, there’s no sensation of pitch or intonation. So far we’ve practised the nuclear tones on syllables with long vowels and (mostly) voiced

122  Transcribing intonation

consonants because these demonstrate the nuclear tones in their fullest realisations. In syllables where the duration of voicing is shorter, there’s less time for the full pitch movements to take place and so they tend to be less extensive and sound a little different from the full variants.

First listen to these short-​syllable words each pronounced with the high fall, low fall, high rise, low rise and fall-​rise nuclear tones. Then listen to them each pronounced once and transcribe them intonationally. 1 ) Stop. Off. Check. Fix. Sit. Push. Cross. Kick. Catch. Fish. 2) Chat. Hat. Shut. Clock. Six. Fit. Hot. Test. Cost. Shock.

18.3  Tails Any syllables following the nucleus at the end of an IP are known as the tail. There are no special symbols for tails or names for different types of tail because the behaviour of the tail is entirely predictable from the nucleus. Note that in our diagrams we use large dots for stressed syllables and small dots for unstressed syllables. After a falling nucleus, the tail remains on the same low pitch reached by the nucleus:

\Nobody.

 

\Somebody.

\Baby

 

\

Baby

pictures.

 

formula.

If the nucleus has little voicing, then the glide down to the low pitch will be less extensive than shown in our diagrams and the pitch change will be realised as more of a step down to a low pitch on the first syllable of the tail with little or no glide. This is why we say the pitch movement of the nuclear tone is not always completely realised on the nucleus, but is sometimes only initiated on the nucleus. When there is a step down from the nucleus to the first syllable of the tail, the pitch movement occurs between the nucleus and the first syllable of the tail, not on the nucleus alone.

Nucleus and tail  123

\

 

Ticket.

\Ticketless.

\Ticket

\

 

Ticket office.

 

inspector.

In the case of rises, the tail takes part in and realises the pitch movement initiated on the nucleus. Again, this demonstrates that nuclear tones are not necessarily realised on the nucleus, but their pitch movement merely begins with the nucleus:

/

Nobody.

 

/Somebody.

The more syllables there are in the tail, the more gradual and spread out the rise will be. Learners often mistakenly identify the last syllable of the tail as the nucleus because it has the highest pitch, which makes it rather prominent. When it comes to rises, however, the nucleus is where the rise starts, which is not necessarily a very prominent syllable.

/

Baby

/Baby

formula

formula

ingredients.

 

ingredients.

Like the rises, the pitch movements of the fall-​rise nuclear tone are spread over the tail (when there is one). The fall takes place between the nucleus and the first syllable of the tail and then the pitch stays low before rising at the end.

124  Transcribing intonation

˅

Somebody.

If the tail has only one syllable, the rise occurs on that syllable. If the tail has many syllables, it stays low after the initial fall and only rises noticeably at the very end, which may be a long way from the initial fall. Again, this demonstrates that when an IP has a tail, the nucleus is the point at which the final pitch contour begins.

˅

Careful.

 

˅

Baby

formula

ingredients.

In the following exercises, listen first to the words, phrases and sentences pronounced with the 1) high fall, 2) low fall, 3) high rise, 4) low rise, 5) fall-​ rise nuclear tones. Then listen to them each pronounced once and transcribe them intonationally with the correct nuclear tone.

Exercise 1: one-​syllable  tails 1 ) 2) 3) 4)

Ticket. Take it. Tailor. Tell her. Eating. Larger. Find him. Basket. Ask him. Help me. Happy. Table. Later. Neighbour. Get it. Learner. Lazy. Meet us. Suitcase. Football. Armchair. Monday. Water. Maybe. Bus stop. Money. Pet food. Perfect. Music. Try it. Brain scan. Summer.

Exercise 2: two-​syllable  tails 1) Property. Carry it. Motorbike. Strategy. Follow him. Carrot cake. Saturday. 2) Open it. Analyse. Buffalo. Frying pan. Comfort her. Recipe. Goldfish  bowl. 3) Satellite. Marry me. Bus driver. Newspaper. Wonderful. Flatter him. 4) Energy. Capable. Overview. Boiling point. Visit us. Comedy. Tennis coach.

Exercise 3: three-​syllable  tails 1) Supervise it. Fire fighter. Innovative. Supermarket. Activate it. Energy drink. 2) Satisfying. Minimalist. Liberator. Complicated. Edinburgh. Counter attack.

Nucleus and tail  125

3) Mother-​ in-​ law. Agriculture. Helicopter. Irritated. Power failure. Exercise bike. 4) Lion tamer. Border control. Christmas presents. Powerlessness. Airline pilot.

18.4  Chapter revision Listen to the recordings and transcribe these IPs with the correct nuclear tones. 1) Better. Satisfied. Speak to him. Golf ball. Bone marrow. Childish. Messy. 2) Birthday party. Telescope. Peppermint. Friday. Rabbit. Arson attack. 3) Peer pressure. Bedtime story. Tasty. Yesterday. Swimming. Cocoa powder. 4) German. Calculator. Leave it. Measurement. Easy. Printer. Panic attack. 5) Railway station. Give it to him. Milkshake. Bank statement. Stamp  album. 6) Christmas presents. Pop music. Window cleaner. Smart. Swimming goggles. 7) Door handle. Calm. Monster. Variable. Grab it. Bubble gum. Nursing home. 8) Birthday party. Large. Confidence trickster. Have one. Bungee jumping. 9) Search. Questionable. Ironing board. Challenge us. Air conditioning unit. 10) Fireworks. Surface. Furniture. Wallpaper. Talk to me. Plumbing supplies.

19 HEAD AND PRE-​HEAD

19.1  Heads The head consists of the first accent in an IP (called the onset of the head) and any other syllables between it and the nucleus. If there’s no accent before the nucleus, there’s no head. We define an accent as a significant pitch movement, the onset accent of a head consisting of a step up to a high pitch. Even when there’s no pre-​head in an IP to step up from, the first syllable of an IP beginning with a head is still felt to be accented because a lowish pitch level is the norm at the beginning of an IP, and a high level beginning noticeably deviates from this. The most common type of head is the high head. It starts with an onset on a high pitch and any following syllables continue on more or less the same level. The symbol used to indicate the start of a high head is [ˈ], the same as the symbol used to indicate primary stress in phonemic transcriptions.

A ˈbeautiful

ˈWill

\picture.

it be ready

 

by /Friday?

He’s a

 

ˈvery

important

The Uˈnited

\

person.

 

States of A/merica.

Before the fall-​rise nuclear tone, a falling head typically occurs, which involves a fall from high to low spread out over the head. The more syllables

Head and pre-head  127

there are in the head, the more gradual the fall is, and the fewer syllables, the steeper it is. When there’s only one syllable in the head, the fall takes place on that syllable. The symbol for the falling head is [↘].

But I

↘

only

did what I thought was ˅best.

 

↘

Not a˅gain.

 

↘

Hold

˅

on!

In the following exercises, first listen to each of the words, phrases and sentences pronounced in the order 1) high head + high fall, 2) high head + low fall, 3) high head + high rise, 4) high head + low rise, 5) falling head + fall-​rise, and then listen to them pronounced once each and transcribe them intonationally.

Exercise 1: one-​syllable  heads 1) Mankind. Malnourished. Retry. Outspoken. UK. Not now. Misjudge. Get lost. 2) Reuse. Outshine. Upfront. Outsmart. Bestseller. Why not? That’s right. Red hot. 3) Come here. Stand still. IQ. Keep quiet. Downgrade. Take two. Get down. 3D.

Exercise 2: two-​syllable  heads 1) Entertain. Overweight. Rearrange. Disobey. Misbehave. Understand. Middle-​class. 2) Coincide. Tambourine. Referee. Trampoline. Japanese. Engineer. Kangaroo. 3) Take a break. Bring it back. Tell the truth. Have a go. Drive a car. Eat a meal.

Exercise 3: three-​syllable  heads 1) Interrelate. Carry the bag. Overreact. Go to the bank. Misunderstood. Aquamarine. 2) Overexcite. Stand at the back. Stop at the end. Take it in turns. Nevertheless. 3) Sleep on the floor. Interconnect. Four for a pound. Entrepreneur. Cover your eyes.

Exercise 4: four-​syllable  heads 1) Underrepresent. Take me to the door. Multimillionaire. When did he escape?

128  Transcribing intonation

2 ) Antipersonnel. Big dogs bury bones. Overrepresent. How did he survive? 3) Thousands of replies. Ask him to repeat. Buy a box of nails. Thirty yellow flags.

19.2  Pre-​heads The pre-​head consists of any unaccented syllables at the beginning of an IP and can be directly followed either by a head or the nucleus. Pre-​heads are usually on a mid to low pitch. In the following exercises, first listen to each of the words, phrases and sentences pronounced in the order 1)  pre-​head (+ high head) + high fall, 2) pre-​head (+ high head) + low fall, 3) pre-​head (+ high head) + high rise, 4)  pre-​head (+ high head) + low rise, 5)  pre-​head (+ falling head) + fall-​ rise, and then listen to them pronounced once each and transcribe them intonationally.

Exercise 1: one-​syllable pre-​head + nucleus (+ tail) 1) Away. Domestic. Astronomy. Suggest. Adventure. Photographer. Complain. 2) The end. An answer. It’s hazardous. A  crocodile. He’s ignorant. She’s popular. 3) At home. Surprise. A  bachelor. Some alcohol. The alphabet. It’s permanent.

Exercise 2: one-​syllable pre-​head + head + nucleus (+ tail) 1 Alongside. Apologetic. Pronunciation. Exaggeration. Materialistic. Availability. 2) Enthusiastically. Personification. Aromatherapy. Inevitability. He found it later. 3) I met them at the barbecue. So give them what they’re asking for. Apply later.

Exercise 3: two-​syllable pre-​head + nucleus (+ tail) 1) At a loss. In a minute. It’s an aeroplane. I was cold. I’m a teacher. It was terrible. 2) Is he here? He’s asleep. It was yesterday. Can we go? A  banana. It’s suspicious. 3) Shall we tell him? We can visit them. It’s a tragedy. Shall I demonstrate it?

Head and pre-head  129

Exercise 4: two-​syllable pre-​head + head + nucleus (+ tail) 1) I forgot to mention it. We can do it again. You remember doing it. I enjoy nothing. 2) Is it good to eat? I’m about to leave. So we left very early. It’s a great exercise. 3) He replied immediately. It was too big. She can swim well. I suggest we go.

Exercise 5: three-​syllable pre-​head + nucleus (+ tail) 1) I’m a survivor. You can forget it. It was a bargain. In a review. I  can return it. 2) I could repeat it. We were surprised. There was a problem. It was destroyed. 3) It’s for the best. You should appeal. Did he remember. Will you forgive me?

Exercise 6: three-​syllable pre-​head + head + nucleus (+ tail) 1) It’s a surprising fact. He’s an annoying little boy. We can at last relax a bit. 2) You should apply for a licence. It’ll provide a little shelter. It was a nice day. 3) It’ll begin to give us a healthy profit. It’s an abuse of power. In the exact way.

19.3  Chapter revision Listen to the recordings and transcribe these IPs with the appropriate combinations of pre-​head, head, nucleus and tail. 1) Surprise me. You did what? That’s the best I can do. Where did you get that idea? 2) This is as far as I can go. It hardly matters any more. I like it. Will you put it back? 3) Time to go back to the start. My account’s overdrawn again. Do it later. Who’s that? 4) Pass me the vinegar. I can’t comment. Is he ready? How many days till Christmas? 5) Another wasted journey! Don’t bother asking. I can’t get it wrong. Have they gone? 6) Don’t stop now. Now’s the time to make your move. I  can’t believe it. Forget it. 7) We should slow down. It’s your turn to cut the grass. I’ve had enough. Can I try?

130  Transcribing intonation

8) It’s a secret. I’m expecting a delivery. They’ve done it again. I’m under arrest? 9) I haven’t even unpacked yet. He’s always exaggerating. Not now. What’s that for? 10) It’s a case of mass hysteria. They can’t help themselves. Stand still. Which is it?

19.4  Intonation revision I Listen to the recordings and transcribe these IPs with the appropriate combinations of pre-​head, head, nucleus and tail. 1) I’ve been doing it for a while. You can see for yourself. Who do you think you are? 2) I missed it. Is it time to go? How does it work? He said it’s fine. Whose turn is it? 3) Who’s paying this time? This is the best book of its kind. The twins look different. 4) Peter’s the favourite grandchild. The country’s been brought to its knees. That’s it. 5) Trevor’s a controversial figure. He can do no wrong. The truth hurts. It’s not fair. 6) Chocolate tastes good. My kite’s crashed. Don’t forget to floss. He isn’t interested. 7) You can say that again. She drinks too much. It isn’t my fault. Can we sit here? 8) It doesn’t make sense. You’re joking! He married well. I’m tired. Good night. 9) Stop complaining. Have you tidied your room? It’s nearly over. It’s good news! 10) He’s a very charismatic leader. I  didn’t mean it that way. You speak in platitudes.

19.5  Intonation revision II Listen to the recordings and transcribe these IPs with the appropriate combinations of pre-​head, head, nucleus and tail. 1) I’m a happy man. He’s here? This might be it. Is it safe? Give me a minute. 2) What now? At least I  found something. Get it. We’ll get there before it gets dark. 3) I was here about a year ago. Is it working? It’s holding the chimney up. Try again. 4) Here you go. It sounds great. You never know. I  know. We’re close to the house.

Head and pre-head  131

5) It’s a piece of junk. Is it real? Look at that! That looks nice. It’s broken. It’s fun. 6) Is that you? What’s the time? Does he work there? It costs a lot. You’ll hurt yourself. 7) It’s better than nothing. At least it’s something. He’s a cool guy. Why does it matter? 8) It was the first time I met him. I was horrified. These are English words. Four more? 9) Here’s the real reason. I  find it utterly astonishing. It’s a bit late. Don’t panic. 10) That’s precisely what’s been happening. They’re leading. Where’s the entrance?

20 INTONATION Extended practice

Listen to the recordings and transcribe the following passages intonationally. The key and recordings for the passages can be downloaded at paulcarley. com.

Passage 1 Believe it or not, I used to be quite a good juggler in my younger days. I’m probably still pretty good now. It’s not the kind of thing you completely forget. You get rusty, but after a bit of practice, you’re back to your old self. I did a few different types of juggling, but preferred juggling with three balls. That was most satisfying, because there are endless variations and tricks you can do. And three balls are easier to carry around and practise with than a lot of other juggling gear. I’ve still got my juggling balls somewhere around the house. They’re mixed in with my daughters’ toys now, and sometimes I impress them with a simple three ball cascade. I think it’s the satisfaction I get from learning little tricks, repetitive practice and attention to detail that eventually led me to phonetics. Want to see how I can wiggle my ears?

Passage 2 Let me give you some tips for hitchhiking in the UK. First, it’s easier than you think. There are lots of people driving around the country for their work or recreationally who don’t mind doing someone a favour or wouldn’t mind a bit of company on their drive. Second, it isn’t dangerous. Often, the person picking you up is as concerned for their own safety as you are for yours. I wouldn’t

Intonation: extended practice  133

recommend women to hitchhike on their own, though. A lone woman should never get in a stranger’s car, except perhaps another woman’s car, and even then you never know. But two women, or a man and a woman, are ideal. Those are the best combinations. A man on his own looks a little threatening, and two men haven’t got a chance. Make sure you know where you’re going, so you’re facing the right way on the right road, and make a cardboard sign with your destination on it. Oh, and only wait at places where there’s a safe place for cars and trucks to stop, otherwise nobody’ll pick you up.

Passage 3 I did a shift at a factory once. It was just one shift because I  never went back. One shift was more than enough for me. The factory belonged to a well-​known Japanese electronics company, and they made televisions there, traditional televisions, not the modern flat-​screen ones. Maybe they made other things too, but I was working with televisions. It was a long time ago, so I can’t remember the details very clearly, but I think my job was to attach television screens to vacuum hoses before they went through some kind of oven. And then I had to detach them when they came back out. It was something like that. The line of televisions kept moving, and I had to keep up with it. It was horrible. It was hot, and I hate being hot. And boring. It was very boring. After the first hour, I’d learnt everything I had to learn, and had eleven more hours ahead of me. We had a couple of breaks, and I fell asleep during each one. Eventually the shift finished, and I managed to escape.

Passage 4 My two oldest and best friends are brothers. The older brother was in the same year as me at school, so I got to know him first. I didn’t get to know the younger brother –​he was just two years younger –​until we’d left school. Those boys have got interesting characters. I don’t think they mind me saying that the older brother was a bit of a rebel in his younger days and caused his family a lot of worry, while the younger brother was always quite conventional and a good student. But as time has gone on, their roles have reversed. The older brother has settled down, and the younger brother has gone off the rails a bit. I think we’ve all got a tendency to want to rebel, and if you don’t do it when you’re younger, you’ll end up doing it later in life.

Passage 5 Once, not long after I left school, I applied for a job farming leeches. These were medical leeches, and they were farmed in a lab at the local hospital. It was the only place in the country where they did it. It turns out, that leeches are very good for preventing blood clots during grafts and things like that. When

134  Transcribing intonation

they suck your blood, they produce a substance that keeps the blood flowing and stops it clotting, and that keeps the graft alive. The interview process took half a day because they wanted to make sure that the people applying weren’t squeamish. I got to see the whole process. It was very interesting, but in the end, I didn’t get the job. I suppose I was still young and shy, and didn’t make a very good impression.

Passage 6 I suddenly remembered yesterday that I once tried to join the navy. I’d completely forgotten about it. I was totally serious at the time. My plan was to join up, train as an engineer, spend a few years seeing the world, and then get a job as a marine engineer. So I had an interview at the recruiting office in the nearest big city. The guy I spoke to was very encouraging. He said there’s a whole range of careers in the navy. It’s like a world in miniature. And no doubt there’d be something for me. One thing I had to tell him, though, was that my eyesight isn’t very good. I’m short-​sighted and colour blind. He gave me a form for my doctor to fill in, and said that he’d get back to me about what kind of navy jobs were open to me. A couple of weeks later I got a phone call. It turned out that with my eyes, there was nothing I could do in the navy. I couldn’t be an engineer or anything else, not even a cook or deck-​scrubber. So that was the end of that.

Passage 7 For nearly two years, I’ve been regularly listening to audiobooks on my phone. It’s really made a big difference to my life. Before then, I hadn’t read anything for pleasure for years, but since then, according to my phone, I’ve spent one month, fourteen days, two hours and nine minutes listening to audiobooks. It’s so much easier to listen to books as I’m doing other things than to find time to sit down and read. And there are loads of audiobooks to choose from, these days. Personally, I prefer autobiographies read by the author. That way, I  get a chance to hear the voice of a real person, not an actor with a predictable standard accent. And people read better when they’re reading their own words. Apart from that, I tend to listen either to books that I read when I  was young, just for the sake of nostalgia, or to classic English literature, not because I’m a literature buff, but just because I like to hear about how people lived their lives in the past. I’m off to bed now. That’s another thing audiobooks are good for –​helping you fall asleep.

Passage 8 One problem with phonetics is that people always confuse it with phonics. Phonetics is the study of the sounds of speech, while phonics is a technique

Intonation: extended practice  135

for teaching children to read. It’s a bit like mixing up astronomy and astrology, but perhaps not as bad because phonetics is quite an obscure subject, and we can’t really blame people for not knowing what it is and for mixing it up with the better-​known and similar-​sounding phonics. And phonics isn’t like astrology, of course. Phonics is much more respectable, especially these days. It’s more popular than it’s ever been. There are lots of studies to support it, and it’s being used in schools all over the English-​speaking world, including at my daughter’s school.

Passage 9 One of the other things I was interested in as a teenager was metal detecting. I don’t know where I first got the idea from, but I suppose all kids are interested in buried treasure, and it was an extension of that. I found out all about it by reading books and magazines. There was no internet then. In the end though, I never got any further than reading about it. I just didn’t have the money for that kind of hobby. Metal detectors are expensive, and you have to have your own transport. You have to get permission from landowners too, and I was just a kid at the time, so there was no chance of that. Now that I’m older, I could do all that if I wanted to, but I prefer to watch videos of people metal detecting online. It’s really satisfying to see them wasting their time finding nothing instead of me.

Passage 10 I once experimented with a top-​down approach to teaching transcription. Instead of introducing and practising one new symbol at a time, I gave my students a presentation on the consonant and vowel symbols, and then set them the task of decoding some short sentences written in phonemic transcription. I thought that it might be an advantage for them to get an overall idea of the symbols and a passive familiarity with transcription before having to do it themselves. The experiment wasn’t a success. You might think it’s hard to read whole sentences in transcription, but actually it’s quite easy because most of the consonant symbols are the same as in the normal spelling. They provide the outline of the words, and you can guess the rest. It’s harder when you’re only given a single word. That way there’s no context to guess from, and you can only work out the word if you know the symbols. Sometimes the simple, logical, traditional way of learning something one step at a time from the bottom up really is the best way.

APPENDIX A Summary of consonant and vowel theory

In this chapter we give a brief summary of English consonants and vowels and how they’re formed. The fine details of articulatory phonetics are beyond the scope of this work. For further information, readers are advised to consult the phonetics textbooks in the References and Suggested Reading section.

A.1  The vocal tract Speech sounds are formed in the vocal tract (see Figure A.1), which extends from the larynx to the lips and nostrils, usually using airflow from the lungs.

A.2 Consonants Consonants are speech sounds that involve an obstruction to the airflow as it travels from the lungs and through the vocal tract. We describe and categorise consonants in terms of: 1) Voicing: the action of the vocal folds while the obstruction is being made; 2) Place of articulation: the place in the vocal tract where the obstruction is made; 3) Manner of articulation: the kind of obstruction involved. Voicing depends on the action of the vocal folds. The vocal folds are two lip-​like structures in the larynx, the lump at the front of the neck. These lips act like a valve in the windpipe to stop food and other matter entering the lungs when we swallow. The vocal folds are held apart for normal breathing,

Appendix A: Consonant and vowel theory  137

4

2

1

5

3 8 7

9

6 1

2

10

1. Lips 2. Teeth 3. Alveolar ridge 4. Hard palate 5. Soft palate (also termed ‘velum’) FIGURE A.1  

6. Tip of tongue 7. Blade of tongue 8. Front of tongue 9. Back of tongue 10. Larynx, containing vocal folds

The vocal tract

or held tightly together for swallowing. A  third possibility is to hold them lightly together and let them vibrate in the airstream leaving the lungs. The two possibilities for the voicing of consonants are: 1) Voiced: made with the vocal folds vibrating, i.e. /​b d ɡ ʤ v ð z ʒ m n ŋ l r j w/​ 2) Voiceless: made with vocal folds apart and not vibrating, i.e. /​p t k ʧ f θ s ʃ h/​ There are ten places of articulation for GB consonants: 1) Bilabial /​ˌbaɪˈleɪbiːəl/​: the two lips against each other, i.e. /​p b m/​; 2) Labio-​dental /​ˌleɪbiːəʊˈdentl̩/​: the lower lip against the upper front teeth, i.e.  /​f   v/​; 3) Dental /​ˈdentl̩/​:  the tip of the tongue against the upper front teeth, i.e. /​θ ð/​; 4) Alveolar /​ˌælviːˈəʊlə/​: the tip of the tongue against the alveolar ridge, i.e. /​t d n l s z/​;

138  Appendix A: Consonant and vowel theory

5) Post-​alveolar /​ˌpəʊstˌælviːˈəʊlə/​: the tip of the tongue against the rear of the alveolar ridge, i.e. /​r/​; 6) Palato-​alveolar /ˌpæləˌtəʊˌælviːˈəʊlə/: the tip, blade and front of tongue against the alveolar ridge and hard palate, i.e. /​ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/​; 7) Palatal /​ˈpælətl ̩/​: the front of the tongue against the hard palate, i.e. /​j/​; 8) Velar /​ˈviːlə/​: the back of the tongue against the soft palate, i.e. /​k ɡ ŋ/​; 9) Glottal /​ˈɡlɒtl ̩/​: the vocal folds against each other, i.e. /​h/​; 10) Labial velar /​ˌleɪbiːəlˈviːlə/​: the back of the tongue against the soft palate, and the two lips against each other, i.e. /​w/​. There are six manners of articulation for GB consonants: 1) Plosive /​ˈpləʊsɪv/​: a complete closure is formed in the vocal tract, blocking the airstream, and then released, i.e. /​p b t d k ɡ/​; 2) Fricative /​ˈfrɪkətɪv/​: a narrowing is formed in the vocal tract, causing turbulence and friction noise as the airstream is forced through, i.e. /​f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ  h/​; 3) Affricate /​ˈæfrɪkət/​: a complete closure is formed in the vocal tract and then released slowly, resulting in turbulence and friction noise, i.e. /​ʧ ʤ/​; 4) Nasal /​ˈneɪzl ̩/​:  a complete closure is formed in the oral cavity, the soft palate is in the lowered position, and air exits via the nose, i.e. /​m n ŋ/​; 5) Approximant /​əˈprɒksəmənt/​: a narrowing is formed in the vocal tract, but one not narrow enough to cause turbulence and noise as in the case of a fricative, i.e. /​r j w/​. 6) Lateral Approximant /​ˌlætrəl əˈprɒksəmənt/​: a closure is formed at a point along the midline of the vocal tract, diverting the airflow along one or both sides of it, without causing turbulence or noise, i.e. /​l/​. Plosives and affricates are grouped together and called stops because they involve a complete stoppage of the airflow. The plosives, fricatives and affricates, which involve the greatest degree of obstruction to the airflow, are known as obstruents /​ˈɒbstruːənts/​, while the nasals and approximants are known as sonorants /​ˈsɒnərənts/​, and involve a freer flow of air through the vocal tract (like vowels, which are also sonorants). The grid below summarises the three defining features of consonants, showing the place of articulation in columns, the manner of articulation in rows, and the voicing in the position of symbols within cells, voiceless consonants on the left and voiced consonants on the right.

Appendix A: Consonant and vowel theory  139

Bilabial Labio-​ Dental Alveolar Post-​ Palato-​ Palatal Velar Glottal Labial dental alveolar alveolar Velar Plosives

 p  b

 k  ɡ

 t   d   ʧ  ʤ

Affricates Fricatives Nasals

  f 

v

θ

  ʃ   ӡ

ð  s   z

   m

Approximants

 h

    n    

  ŋ

l     r

   j

  w

Combining the voicing, place of articulation and manner of articulation of GB consonants gives us the following three-​part labels for each consonant: /​p/​ /​b/​ /​t/​ /​d/​ /​k/​ /​ɡ/​ /​ʧ/​ /​ʤ/​ /​f/​ /​v/​ /​θ/​ /​ð/​

voiceless bilabial plosive voiced bilabial plosive voiceless alveolar plosive voiced alveolar plosive voiceless velar plosive voiced velar plosive voiceless palato-​alveolar affricate voiced palato-​alveolar affricate voiceless labio-​dental fricative voiced labio-​dental fricative voiceless dental fricative voiced dental fricative

/​s/​ /​z/​ /​ʃ/​ /​ʒ/​ /​h/​ /​m/​ /​n/​ /​ŋ/​ /​j/​ /​w/​ /​r/​ /​l/​

voiceless alveolar fricative voiced alveolar fricative voiceless palato-​alveolar fricative voiced palato-​alveolar fricative voiceless glottal fricative voiced bilabial nasal voiced alveolar nasal voiced velar nasal voiced palatal approximant voiced labial velar approximant voiced post-​alveolar approximant voiced alveolar lateral approximant

Now study the vocal tract diagrams for each of the consonants (Figures A.2–​A.17) and confirm the voice/​place/​manner labels given for each. Note

FIGURE A.2  

English bilabial plosives /​p/​ and  /​b/​

FIGURE A.3  

English alveolar plosives /​t/​ and  /​d/​

140  Appendix A: Consonant and vowel theory

FIGURE A.4  

English velar plosives /​k/​and /​ɡ/​

FIGURE A.5  

English palatoalveolar affricates /​ʧ/​and /​ʤ/​ showing closure stage

English affricates /​ʧ/​ and /​ʤ/​showing release stage FIGU RE A.6  

that in the diagrams voicing is indicated by a plus (+) at the larynx for voiced and a minus (−) for voiceless, while pairs of consonants that are distinguished by voicing alone (e.g. /​p b/​, /​ʧ ʤ/​, /​f v/​, etc.) are shown by a single diagram with the ‘plus or minus’ symbol ±.

Appendix A: Consonant and vowel theory  141

FIGURE A.7  

English labio-dental fricatives /​f/​ and  /​v/​

FIGURE A.8  

FIGURE A.9  

English alveolar fricatives /​s/​ and  /​z/​

FIGURE A.10  

FIGURE A.11  

FIGURE A.12  

English bilabial nasal /​m/​. The arrow indicates the escape of the airstream through the nose

English dental fricatives /​θ/​and /​ð/​

English palatoalveolar fricatives /​ʃ/​and /​ʒ/​

English alveolar nasal /​n/​. The arrow indicates the escape of the airstream through the nose

142  Appendix A: Consonant and vowel theory

English velar nasal /​ŋ/​. The arrow indicates the escape of the airstream through the nose FIGURE A.13  

FIGURE A.14  

English palatal approximant /​j/​: sequence /​jæ/​ as in yak

FIGU RE A.15  

FIGURE A.16  

FIGURE A.17  

English postalveolar approximant /​r/​. The arrow indicates the raising of the sides of the tongue towards the back teeth

English labial velar approximant /​w/​: sequence /​wɒ/​as in wash

English alveolar lateral approximant /​l/​. The arrow indicates the passage of the airstream along the lowered sides of the tongue

Appendix A: Consonant and vowel theory  143

A.3 Vowels Vowels are voiced speech sounds that involve no obstruction to the airflow as it travels through the vocal tract, different vowel qualities being formed by different combinations of tongue position and lip shape. We can describe vowel quality in terms of: 1) Tongue height: the extent to which the tongue is raised or lowered in the mouth, ranging from close /​kləʊs/​(or ‘high’), to mid, to open (or ‘low’); 2) Tongue frontness/​backness: the extent to which the tongue is pushed forward or drawn back in the mouth, ranging from front, to central, to back; 3) Lip shape: whether the lips are rounded or unrounded. Taking the vertical (i.e. height) and horizontal (i.e. frontness/​backness) positions of the tongue, we can create a four-​sided diagram, known as the vowel quadrilateral /​ˌkwɒdrəˈlætrəl/​to show the different tongue positions, and therefore qualities, of vowels. Figure A.18 shows the vowel quadrilateral from the chart of the IPA alphabet, which provides symbols for vowels of various combinations of vertical and horizontal tongue positions together with unrounded or rounded lips. The 20 GB vowels and the keywords used for them (based on Wells 1982) are: /​ɪ/​ /​ʊ/​ dress /​e/​ lot /​ɒ/​ trap /​æ/​ strut /​ʌ/​ schwa /​ə/​

/​iː/​ /​uː/​ nurse /​ɜː/​ palm /​ɑː/​ thought /​ɔː/​ square /​ɛː/​

/​eɪ/​ /​aɪ/​ choice /​ɔɪ/​ goat /​əʊ/​ mouth /​aʊ/​ near /​ɪə/​ cure /​ʊə/​

kit

fleece

face

foot

goose

price

FIGURE A.18  

Vowel quadrilateral from the IPA chart

144  Appendix A: Consonant and vowel theory

Note that vowel keywords are conventionally written in small capitals and that the schwa /​ə/​vowel doesn’t need a keyword because the name ‘schwa’ /​ʃwɑː/​is so well established. The GB vowels can be categorised in a number ways: 1) The vowels in the first column are short vowels because, all other things being equal, they are usually shorter than the long vowels in the other two columns. 2) The vowels in the first column, apart from schwa /​ə/​, are checked /​ʧekt/​ vowels, while the vowels in the other two columns are free vowels. The checked vowels are always followed by a consonant, while the free vowels can occur either with or without a following consonant. This distinction only applies to stressed syllables and for this reason schwa /​ə/​, which only occurs in unstressed syllables (apart from a small number of exceptions), isn’t included in this categorisation. 3) The vowels in the first two columns are monophthongs /​ˈmɒnəfˌθɒŋz/​, and the vowels in the third column are diphthongs /​ˈdɪfˌθɒŋz/​. During the pronunciation of monophthongs, the vowel quality doesn’t change, while for diphthongs, the tongue and lips move from one vowel position to another. This is why the symbols for diphthongs have two elements: the first shows the starting position, and the second shows the direction of movement. 4) face /​eɪ/​, price /​aɪ/​, choice /​ɔɪ/​, goat /​əʊ/​ and mouth /​aʊ/​ are closing /​ˈkləʊzɪŋ/​diphthongs, involving a movement towards the top of the vowel space that closes the gap with the roof of the mouth, while near /​ɪə/​ and cure /​ʊə/​ are centring /​ˈsentrɪŋ/​diphthongs, involving a movement towards the centre of the vowel space. 5) face /​eɪ/​, price /​aɪ/​ and choice /​ɔɪ/​ are closing-​fronting diphthongs, which move towards the front of the vowel space, while goat /​əʊ/​ and mouth /​aʊ/​ are closing-​backing diphthongs, which move towards the back of the vowel space. Now study the vowel diagrams for the GB short monophthongs, long monophthongs, closing-​ fronting diphthongs, closing-​ backing diphthongs, and centring diphthongs (Figures A.19–​A.23) and confirm their positions relative to each other and the movements of the diphthongs. In these diagrams, vowels with rounded lips are shown in circles and vowels with unrounded lips in squares. When a diphthong goes from unrounded to rounded lips, the left side of the shape is square and the right round, and vice versa.

Appendix A: Consonant and vowel theory  145

FIGURE A.19  

English short monophthongs

FIGURE A.20  

English long monophthongs

eɪ

əʊ ɔɪ aɪ

aʊ

FIGURE A.21  

English closing-​ fronting diphthongs

FIGURE A.22  

English closing-​ backing diphthongs

ɪə

FIGURE A.23  

English centring diphthongs

ʊə

APPENDIX B Phonetic transcription

B.1  Phonemic and phonetic transcription The two main kinds of transcription are phonemic transcription, which uses only one symbol per phoneme, and phonetic transcription, which uses extra symbols in order to show the different variants (called allophones /​ˈæləˌfəʊnz/​) of phonemes in different contexts. Phonemic transcription is also known as broad transcription, and phonetic transcription as narrow or allophonic /​ˌæləˈfɒnɪk/​transcription. The style of transcription we teach in this book is phonemic with one exception: we use the symbols [l ̩ n̩ m̩ ŋ̍] to indicate that the phoneme sequences /​əl ən əm əŋ/​are realised as syllabic consonants. In this appendix we will briefly explain, demonstrate and practise transcribing with the appropriate IPA symbols some of the most important allophones of the GB phonemes. Detailed articulatory descriptions of English sounds are beyond the scope of a book such as this. For further information, readers are advised to consult the phonetics textbooks in the References and Suggested Reading section.

B.2  Accurate IPA symbols It may seem surprising, but many of the phonemic symbols that are used for transcribing English are not used with their specific IPA values. There are two mains reasons for this:  first, some of the sounds, particularly vowels, have changed over time and the symbols haven’t been updated; second, when using IPA symbols for phonemic transcriptions, there’s a tradition of avoiding the more exotic symbols in favour of the nearest non-​exotic symbol in order to make phonetic works cheaper and simpler to publish.

Appendix B: Phonetic transcription  147

Our first step when making phonetic transcriptions, therefore, is to use IPA symbols which more accurately represent English sounds (see the IPA chart): /​r/​ /​ɜː/​

→ →

/​ʌ/​ /​ɑː/​

→ →

/​eɪ/​ /​aʊ/​

→ →

[ɹ] [əː]

/​e/​ /​ʊ/​

→ →

/​æ/​

[ɛ] [ɵ]

→

[a]‌

In some cases, we have to combine IPA symbols with IPA diacritics /​ˌdaɪəˈkrɪtɪks/​. These are marks added above and below the main symbol to modify the value of the symbol. We use the ‘opener’ [ ̞ ], ‘closer’ [ ̝ ] and ‘centralised’ [ ̈ ] diacritics in order to more precisely specify the qualities of the GB vowels: /​ɔː/​ /​ɒ/​

[ʌ̈] [ɑ̈ː]

→ →

[o̞ ː] [ɔ̞]

Note that the phonetic symbols for the kit, square and schwa vowels are the same as those used for phonemic transcription, i.e. /ɪ/ = [ɪ], /ɛː/ = [ɛː], /ə/ = [ə]. In the case of the diphthongs, we include the length mark after the first element to show that these are inherently long vowels, and add the IPA ‘non-​ syllabic’ diacritic [ ̯ ] to the second element to indicate that the [ɪ], [ʊ] and [ə] elements are glides and not syllables in their own right. And so in a more precise phonetic transcription, the diphthongs are written: [e̞ːɪ̯ ] [äːʊ̯]

/​aɪ/​ /​əʊ/​

→ →

[äːɪ̯ ] [əːʊ̯]

/​ɔɪ/​

→

[ɔːɪ̯ ]

In the case of the fleece, goose, near and cure vowels, the choice of phonetic symbols is more complicated because they commonly have both monophthongal and diphthongal variants. While fleece and goose have phonemic symbols that suggest that they are monophthongs, diphthongal variants are not unusual, and so fleece can be transcribed phonetically as either [iː] or [ɪ̝ ːi̯ ], and goose can be transcribed as either [ʉː] or [ɵːʉ̯]. The situation is reversed in the case of the near and cure vowels. These have phonemic symbols that suggest that they’re diphthongs, but monophthongal variants are nowadays very common. The monophthongal variants are transcribed [ɪː] and [ɵː], and the diphthongal variants are transcribed [ɪːə̯] and [ɵːə̯]. The monophthongal variants are more usual word-​internally before /​r/​, while the diphthongal variants are more usual elsewhere (though the thought vowel tends to replace the cure vowel in this context).

Transcribe these words phonetically, including all the phonetic details covered so far. 1) Superman. Thighbone.

Aberdeen.

Observation.

Elsewhere.

Disappearance.

148  Appendix B: Phonetic transcription

2) Cowboy. Snowplough. Forearm. Footprint. Engineer. Password. Toothbrush. The key to all exercises in Appendix B can be downloaded at paulcarley.com.

B.3  Variation in length There are more influences on vowel length than we can go into here, but three factors are worth integrating systematically into our phonetic transcriptions. First, there’s inherent length. All other things being equal, some GB vowels are longer (fleece, goose, square, nurse, thought, palm, face, price , choice , mouth , goat , near , cure ), and we indicate this with the length mark [ː], while others are shorter (kit, dress, trap, strut, lot, foot, schwa), and so we don’t use a length mark with them. Second, there’s the phenomenon known as pre-​fortis clipping, which means that GB vowels are shorter when followed by a voiceless consonant in the same syllable. In such cases, we indicate the shortening of the inherently short vowels by using the ‘extra short’ diacritic [ ̆ ] (e.g. [ɛ̆] in met), and indicate the shortening of the long vowels by using the IPA ‘half-​long’ symbol [ˑ] (e.g. [ɜˑ] in purse; [əˑʊ̯] in most). In the case of the fleece and goose vowels, there’s a tendency for their shortened realisations to be monophthongal and their long realisations to be diphthongal, so we recommend following this patterning in phonetic transcriptions, i.e. transcribing [ɪ̝ ːi̯ ] in bead, [iˑ] in beat, [ɵːʉ̯] in rude, [ʉˑ] in root. Pre-​ fortis clipping also affects sonorant consonants (i.e. nasals and approximants), and so in words like help and hint the sonorants are shortened together with the vowels. We show this shortening with the ‘extra short’ diacritic [ ̆ ], for example [l̆ m̆ n̆  ŋ̆]. The third factor affecting vowel length that we recommend including in phonetic transcriptions is stress, vowels being shorter when unstressed. Because of the distribution of English vowels in stressed and unstressed syllables, it’s really only the fleece and goose vowels of the inherently long vowels, and schwa and kit of the short vowels, that occur in unstressed syllables in the citation forms of words with any real frequency. We show this shortening with the half-​long mark [ˑ] for inherently long vowels (e.g. [iˑ] in happy, [ʉˑ] in supreme) and the extra short diacritic [ ̆ ] for the inherently short vowels (e.g. [ɪ̆ ] in bucket, [ə̆] in about).

Transcribe these words phonetically, including all the phonetic details covered so far. 1) Fleece. Kit. Goose. Foot. Scarce. Dress. Purse. Trap. Cart. Strut. Goat. 2) Lot. Face. Pricey. Choices. About. Pierce. Continuous. Thought. Meaty.

Appendix B: Phonetic transcription  149

B.4 Nasalisation When vowels or approximants (i.e. /​l r j w/​) are next to a nasal consonant, i.e. /​m n ŋ/​, they tend to be somewhat nasalised. This is particularly true when the nasal consonant follows, and so we usually indicate this nasalisation in phonetic transcriptions. The IPA diacritic for nasalisation is a tilde [ ̃ ] placed above the symbol(s) (e.g. kiln [kɪl̃ ñ ], coin [kɔ̞ ːɪ ̃ ̯ n]). ̃

Transcribe these words phonetically, including all the phonetic details covered so far.

1) Theme. Sing. Doom. Woman. Elm. Gong. Fame. Line. Coin. Cairn. Men. Fern. 2) Hand. Farm. Corn. Cunning. London. Morning. Moment. Mountain. Film.

B.5  Aspiration and fricative /​r/​ In certain phonetic contexts, the voiceless plosives /​p t k/​are aspirated, which means that voicing for the following sound begins with a slight delay, during which air from the lungs travels through the vocal tract giving the impression of a short [h]‌sound. The IPA diacritic for aspiration is [ʰ], and /​p t k/​are aspirated [pʰ tʰ kʰ] at the beginning of stressed syllables, as in pick, tea, car. When /​p t k/​are preceded by /​s/​in the same syllable, they are unaspirated, as in spot, stick, skin. There’s no IPA diacritic for ‘unaspirated’ because the default interpretation of the [p t k] symbols is that they are unaspirated. When dealing with English, however, phoneticians find it convenient to indicate more explicitly when [p t k] are unaspirated by using the non-​IPA diacritic [˭] and writing them [p˭ t˭ k˭]. At the end of syllables and at the beginning of unstressed syllables (as in mop, rat, lack; perform, tomorrow, career), /​p t k/​can be accompanied by a certain amount of weak aspiration, but we don’t usually indicate this because it’s of lesser importance. When aspirated /​p t k/​are followed by /​r l j w/​in the same syllable (as in cross, play, cute, twin), the aspiration takes place during the articulation of /​r l j w/​and takes the form of partial or complete devoicing of them. We indicate this devoicing using the IPA diacritic for voicelessness [ ̥ ], for example [kɹ̥ pl̥ kj̊ tw̥ ] (not *[kʰɹ̥ pʰl̥ kʰj̊ tʰw̥]). There’s no devoicing of /​r l j w/​, of course, when /​s/​precedes /​p t k/​(as in spray, splint, skew, square) because there’s no aspiration. Note, however, that the /​str/​cluster (as in street) is exceptional in that the /​r/​is devoiced despite the presence of the /​s/​. When transcribing /​r/​after /​t/​and /​d/​in the same syllable, it’s enough to transcribe /​tr/​phonetically as [tɹ̥ ] to show that the /​r/​is both voiceless and fricative since devoiced approximants are usually somewhat fricative. In the case of voiced /​dr/​, however, there is a significant distinction between voiced

150  Appendix B: Phonetic transcription

approximants and voiced fricatives, and so to specify that the /​r/​in /​dr/​is realised as a fricative, we use the ‘closer’ diacritic [ ̝ ], which in this context transforms the symbol for a voiced approximant into the next narrower (or ‘closer’) manner of articulation, which is a voiced fricative, giving [dɹ̝ ].

Transcribe these words phonetically, including all the phonetic details covered so far. 1) Stop. Drown. Support. Spin. Attain. Skid. Prop. Drip. Spew. Quit. Pin. Squint. 2) Cute. Drill. Top. Twin. Square. Plain. Screw. Kid. Cry. Spring. Account. Dry.

B.6  Devoicing of obstruents The voiced obstruents, i.e. /​b d ɡ ʤ v ð z ʒ/​, become somewhat devoiced when they are adjacent to a pause or a voiceless consonant, i.e. /​p t k ʧ f θ s ʃ h/​ (though this is less marked when the fricatives /​v ð z ʒ/​are preceded by a pause or a voiceless consonant). Devoicing is shown using the ‘voiceless’ diacritic [ ̥ ], for example [b̥ ] and [d̥ ] in bad. In clusters of voiced obstruents at the ends of words (e.g. /​ɡd/​ in begged, /​ʤd/​ in bridged), the first obstruent is partially devoiced and the second completely devoiced, both being shown with the voiceless diacritic (e.g. [ɡ̊d̥ ʤ̊d̥ ]).

Transcribe these words phonetically, including all the phonetic details covered so far. 1) Outdoors. Judged. Badge. Football. Dog. Breakdown (n.). Vase. Cheesecake. 2) Inkjet. Latvia. Bathe. Lobster. Rouge. Robbed. Hardship. Vegetable. Pleased.

B.7  Glottal reinforcement, ejectives and glottal replacement When the voiceless stops, i.e. /​p t k ʧ/​, occur at the end of a syllable, are preceded by a vowel, approximant or nasal, and are followed by a consonant or pause, they are often accompanied by a glottal stop (made by a complete closure of the vocal folds), a phenomenon known as glottal reinforcement. In the case of /​ʧ/​, glottal reinforcement is possible even if a vowel follows. We indicate glottal reinforcement with the IPA symbol for a glottal stop [ʔ], for example [ʔp ʔt ʔk ʔʧ]. Sometimes /​p t k ʧ/​are realised realised as ejectives at the ends of words, e.g. in stop, what, quick, catch, particularly in utterance-​final position. This

Appendix B: Phonetic transcription  151

means the vocal folds are held together while the closures are made for /​p t k ʧ/​, the larynx lifts, compressing the air between the larynx and the closure in the mouth, and then the closure is released with a noticeably sharper burst than usual. This most commonly occurs with /​k/​, but can be heard with the other voiceless stops as well. The IPA diacritic for an ejective is an apostrophe [’] added to the symbol for the voiceless stop, i.e. [p’ t’ k’ ʧ’]. In the case of /​t/​, glottal reinforcement often goes a step further and becomes glottal replacement, meaning that the /​t/​phoneme is realised as a glottal stop [ʔ]. We indicate glottal replacement by replacing [t]‌with [ʔ].

Transcribe these words phonetically, including all the phonetic details covered so far. 1 ) Hot water. Hop! Kept. Roots. Bitch! Football. Technical. Hatchet. 2) Start! Not that. Look down. Look! Locked. Upbeat. Walk! Flat tyre.

B.8  Fronting, retracting and lip-​rounding Certain consonants tend to be influenced by the place of articulation of surrounding sounds, particularly following consonants. When /​l n t d/​are followed by a dental consonant, i.e. /​θ ð/​, in either the same word or a following word, their alveolar place of articulation becomes a fronter, dental place of articulation. We show this with the IPA ‘dental’ diacritic [ ̪ ], for example [l̪ n̪ t̪  d̪ ]. When /​l n t d/​are followed by /​r/​, their place of articulation becomes post-​ alveolar, and when /​n t d/​are followed by /​ʧ/​or /​ʤ/​, their place of articulation becomes palato-​alveolar. Both changes involve a more retracted place of articulation and so we use the IPA ‘retracted’ diacritic [ ̠ ] to indicate this, for example [ḻ ṉ ṯ ḏ]. When /​k/​and /​ɡ/​are followed by /​j/​or a front vowel, i.e. fleece, kit, face, square , trap , their place of articulation moves forward a little. We indicate this with the IPA ‘advanced’ diacritic [ ̟ ], for example [k̟ ɡ̟]. When /​k/​and /​ɡ/​ are followed by a back vowel, i.e. thought, choice, lot, palm, their place of articulation moves back a little. We indicate this with the IPA ‘retracted’ diacritic [ ̠ ] for example [ḵ ɡ̠]. When consonants or consonant clusters precede the lip-​rounded phonemes /​w/​, /​ɔː/​, /​ɒ/​or /​ɔɪ/​, they become lip-​rounded in anticipation of the following sound. The technical term for lip-​rounding is labialisation and the IPA diacritic for ‘labialisation’ is [ʷ], for example [tʷ] in twin, tall, top and toy. The palato-​alveolar consonants /​ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/​and post-​alveolar /​r/​include lip-​ rounding as an inherent part of their articulation and are therefore transcribed phonetically as [ʃʷ ʒʷ ʧʷ ʤʷ ɹʷ].

152  Appendix B: Phonetic transcription

Transcribe these words phonetically, including all the phonetic details covered so far. 1 ) 2) 3) 4)

In June. Walrus. Eat this. Sunrise. Tall. Kiss. Bad results. Core. Lunch. Bloodthirsty. Geese. Well, then. Brown rice. Tenth. Quiz. Chitchat. Ten things. Godchild. Swim. Guard. Dwell. Good job. Children. Country. Get ready. Well read. Eighth. Fall. Hot chocolate. Healthy. Red thread.

B.9  Clear and dark /​l/​ Since /​l/​is articulated with the tip of the tongue, the rest of the tongue is able to take a variety of positions. When /​l/​is followed by a vowel or /​j/​, the tongue takes a rather neutral position merely anticipating the position of the following sound somewhat; this is known as clear /l/. When /​l/​is followed by a consonant or a pause, however, the back of the tongue is raised towards the soft palate, a process called velarisation. The IPA symbol for velarised /​l/​(also known as dark /l/) is [ɫ], as in belt. There’s a tendency for the tongue-​tip contact with the alveolar ridge to be lost during velarised /​l/​, a process known as /​l/​-​vocalisation, leaving the back of the tongue raised in an [ʊ] position. This is most common when velarised /​l/​is syllabic, and so we can transcribe [ʊ] for syllabic [ɫ] in phonetic transcriptions. The raising of the back of the tongue for velarised /​l/​affects preceding vowels. The front vowels kit, dress and trap (e.g. in pill, bell, pal) become retracted to more centralised positions, [ɘ], [ɛ̈] and [ä] respectively. The close central vowels, goose and foot (e.g. in cool, pull), have their more traditional back and more rounded qualities represented in their phonemic symbols, [uː] and [ʊ]. The strut vowel has a backer realisation [ʌ], while the goat vowel has an opener, backer, rounded starting point [ɔ̞ːʊ̯]. When velarised /​l/​follows the close front fleece vowel and the closing-​ fronting diphthongs face, price and choice, a brief non-​syllabic schwa tends to be inserted between the vowel and the velarised /​l/​. This process is known as breaking, and we transcribe it [iːə̯] or [ɪ̝ ːi̯ ə̯] for fleece, [e̞ ːɪ̯ ə̯] for face , [äːɪ̯ ə̯] for price , and [ɔːɪ̯ ə̯] for choice .

Transcribe these words phonetically, including all the phonetic details covered so far. 1) People. Fool. Meal. Pull. Pale. Still. Bell. Final. Coil. Pal. Mile. Castle. Coal.

B.10  Release stage of plosives Plosives involve a complete closure in the vocal tract, stopping the airflow from the lungs. The closure can be released in a number of ways. When a

Appendix B: Phonetic transcription  153

plosive is followed by a nasal, which can be syllabic, with the same place of articulation (i.e. /​p b/​+ /​m/​, /​t d/​+ /​n/​, /​k ɡ/​+ /​ŋ/​), it can be released by lowering the soft palate, a process known as nasal release. The IPA diacritic for ‘nasal release’ is [ⁿ], for example [pⁿ] in stop me, [dⁿ] in sudden. When /​t/​or /​d/​are followed by /​l/​, including syllabic /​l/​, they are released by lowering the sides of the tongue, a process known as lateral release. The IPA diacritic for ‘lateral release’ is [ˡ], for example [tˡ] in butler, [dˡ] in bad luck. When a plosive is followed by a stop (i.e. plosive or affricate) with the same place of articulation, the first plosive is not released and instead the two plosives share a single long closure. There is no IPA diacritic for ‘unreleased plosive’, but phoneticians often use a superscript zero [⁰], for example [p⁰p] in ripe pair, [d⁰t] in red tie, [ɡ⁰k] in big cat, [ḏ⁰ʧ] in hard cheese (note that in this last example, /​d/​has the same place of articulation as /​ʧ/​, see Section B.8). When a plosive is followed by a stop (i.e. plosive or affricate) with a different place of articulation, the release of the first plosive is masked by the closure made for the second plosive and therefore inaudible. The IPA diacritic for ‘inaudible release’ is [˺], for example [k˺t] in lack time, [k˺b] in thick book, [p˺ɡ] in cheap gift, [b˺ʤ] in superb job. Inaudible release of plosives can also occur word-​finally before pauses, for example [p˺] in stop, [d˺] in hide.

Transcribe these words phonetically, including all the phonetic details covered so far. 1 ) Sick. Submerge. Dig. Partner. Rub. Kidney. Hop. Slightly. Midday. 2) Padlock. Eggplant. Top pocket. Drugged. Nighttime. Big toe. Bad joke. 3) Bookcase. Sector. Egypt. Jukebox. Lapdog. Cockpit. Napkin. Sick child. 4) Scapegoat. Robbed. Inspect. Rugby. Weekday. Shipment. Subculture.

B.11  Voiced /​t/​, labio-​dental nasal [ɱ] and allophones of /​h/​ When /​t/​occurs between vowels at the end of a stressed syllable, both word-​ internally and across a word boundary (especially in high-​frequency words), it can be realised as a brief voiced [t]‌. The IPA diacritic for the voicing of a usually voiceless consonant is [ˬ], e.g. [t̬ ] in get it, what I, not if, pretty, etc. When /​n/​or /​m/​are followed by labio-​dental fricatives /​f v/​, they can be realised as a labio-​dental nasal [ɱ], e.g. in invent, symphony. When /​h/​is between vowels, as in ahead or a head, it can have a voiced allophone. The IPA symbol for a voiced glottal fricative is [ɦ]. When /​h/​is followed by /​j/​, as in huge, it can be realised as a voiceless palatal fricative [ç], i.e. [çjuːʤ], or the /​h/​and /​j/​can merge to form [ç], i.e. [çuːʤ].

154  Appendix B: Phonetic transcription

Transcribe these words phonetically, including all the phonetic details covered so far. 1) Human. Comfy. A  hat. Let him. Humid. Infant. A  hand. Humane. Influence. 2) In fact. Behind. A lot of. Humour. Emphasis. Hue. Warehouse. Pamphlet. Better.

B.12  Chapter revision Transcribe these words phonetically, including all the phonetic details covered so far. 1) Overwhelmed. Driving. Beauty. October. Thwarted. Hue. Squirming. Accept. 2) Victim. Sponge. Cold. Whilst. Jogged. Indulged. Cabbage. Sceptic. Plectrum. 3) Lightning. Popcorn. Imperial. Strategy. Traumatic. Atlas. Chipmunk. Proudly.

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING

Phonemic and phonetic transcription Abercrombie, David (1964) English Phonetic Texts. London: Faber & Faber. García Lecumberri, M. Luisa & Maidment, John A. (2000) English Transcription Course. London: Arnold. IPA (1999) Handbook of the International Phonetic Association. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Tench, Paul (2011) Transcribing the Sound of English. Cambridge:  Cambridge University Press.

Pronunciation dictionaries Jones, Daniel, Roach, Peter, Esling, John & Setter, Jane (2011) Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary. Eighteenth edn. Cambridge:  Cambridge University Press. Upton, Clive & Kretzschmar Jr, William A. (2017) The Routledge Dictionary of Pronunciation for Current English. Second edn. Abingdon: Routledge. Wells, J. C. (2008) Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. Third edn. Harlow:  Pearson Education.

Intonation Cruttenden, Alan (1997) Intonation. Second edn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. O’Connor, J. D. & Arnold, G. F. (1973) Intonation of Colloquial English. Second edn. London: Longman. Wells, J. C. (2006) English Intonation:  An Introduction. Cambridge:  Cambridge University Press.

156  References and suggested reading

English phonetics Carley, Paul, Mees, Inger M. & Collins, Beverley (2018) English Phonetics and Pronunciation Practice. Abingdon: Routledge. Collins, Beverley, Mees, Inger M. & Carley, Paul (2019) Practical English Phonetics and Phonology. Fourth edn. Abingdon: Routledge. Cruttenden, Alan (2014) Gimson’s Pronunciation of English. Eighth edn. Abingdon: Routledge. Crystal, David (2018) Sounds Appealing: The Passionate Story of English Pronunciation. London: Profile Books. Lindsey, Geoff (2019) English after RP: Standard British Pronunciation Today. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan. Roach, Peter (2009) English Phonetics and Phonology: A Practical Course. Fourth edn, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Setter, Jane (2019) Your Voice Speaks Volumes. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Wells, J. C. (1982) Accents of English 1:  Introduction. Cambridge:  Cambridge University Press.

General phonetics Ashby, Michael & Maidment, John (2005) Introducing Phonetic Science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ashby, Patricia (2005) Speech Sounds. Second edn. London: Routledge. Ashby, Patricia (2011) Understanding Phonetics. Abingdon: Routledge. Knight, Rachael-​ Anne (2012) Phonetics:  A Coursebook. Cambridge:  Cambridge University Press. Ladefoged, Peter & Johnson, Keith (2014) A Course in Phonetics. Seventh edn. Boston: Thomson Wadsworth.

INDEX

Note: References to figures are given in italics and tables in bold accent (variety) xxi, 7, 65, 116, 126, 134 accent(ed) (intonation) 116–​117, 126 affricate 14, 15, 40–​42, 105, 138, 139, 140, 153 allophone 93, 146, 153–​154 allophonic transcription 146 alveolar 41, 42, 58, 86, 93–​98, 137–​139, 151, 152 American English 47 approximant 15, 40, 41, 138, 139, 142, 148–​150 articles 68, 73, 85 aspiration 149–​150 assimilation 43, 64, 93–​106, 107 back vowel 151 backing diphthong 144, 145 bilabial 41, 93–​95, 97, 100–​102, 104, 137, 139 brackets xx breaking 152 broad transcription 146 central vowel 143, 152 centralised vowel 147, 152 centring diphthong 144, 145 checked vowel 144 citation form 63–​65, 69, 70, 86, 93, 116, 117, 148 clear /​l/​ 152 close vowel 49, 143, 144, 152

closing diphthong 144, 145, 152 closing-​backing diphthong 144 closing-​fronting diphthong 144, 145, 152 coalescent assimilation 98–​100 compound 46, 47, 51–​52, 63, 65–​68, 70, 86, 88, 90, 93, 94, 96–​98, 100, 103 conjunctions 81–​82 connected speech 63–​68, 69, 70, 86, 93, 107–​112 consonants: familiar 3–​8; unfamiliar 4, 13–​16 contraction 70–​81, 83, 87, 102 dark /​l/​ 152 dental 42, 104, 137, 139, 151 desyllabification 43–​44 devoicing (of obstruents) 150 diacritic 147–​151, 153 digraph 4 diphthong 27, 29–​31, 33, 34, 36–​38, 144, 145, 147–​149, 152 ejective 150–​151 elision 86–​92, 100, 101, 103, 105–​112 epenthesis 54–​60, 104 fall-​rise (intonation) 121, 122 falling head (intonation) 117–​118, 127, 128 free vowel 144

158 Index

fricative 14, 15, 24, 40–​43, 58, 98, 104–​105, 138, 139, 141, 149–​150, 153 front vowel 151, 152 fronting 144, 145, 151–​152 fronting diphthong 144, 145, 152 General American (GA) xxiii–​xxiv General British (GB) xxi, 10, 65, 137–​139, 143, 144, 146–​148 glottal 138, 139, 150, 153 glottal reinforcement 87, 93, 150–​151 glottal replacement 150–​151 head (intonation) 117–​118, 127 high fall (intonation) 116, 119, 122, 124, 127, 128 high head (intonation) 117, 127, 128 high rise (intonation) 116, 120, 122, 124, 127, 128 high vowel 74, 143, 144 homophone 5–​8, 10, 11, 13–​16, 18–​21, 23, 25–​27, 29–​31, 33, 34, 36, 40, 42, 54, 57–​59 inaudible release (of plosives) 153 inflection: -​ed 54–​56; -​s 56–​58 International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) 4, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18, 20, 23, 26, 30, 34, 39, 45, 143, 143, 146–​153 intonation 64, 70, 115–​18, 119–​122, 124, 127, 128, 130, 132–​135 intonation phrase (IP) 64, 116–​119, 122, 124, 126, 128 IPA see International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) /​l/​-​vocalisation 152 labial-​velar 138, 139 labialisation see lip-​rounding labio-​dental 153–​154 labio-​dental nasal [ɱ] 153–​154 lateral approximant 138, 139 lateral release 153 length mark 18–​21, 24, 26, 27, 147, 148 liaison: /​r/​-​liaison 65–​8; analogical /​r/​-​liaison 66–​67 ligature 5, 14, 15, 17 linking /​j/​ and /​w/​ 67 lip-​rounding 151–​152 low fall (intonation) 116, 119, 120, 122, 124, 127, 128 low rise (intonation) 116, 117, 120, 122, 124, 127, 128 low vowel 143

manner of articulation 104, 136, 138, 139, 150 mid vowel 143 modal verbs 70, 77, 80–​81, 84 monophthong 18, 20, 144, 145, 147, 148 monosyllabic 9, 64, 69, 70, 74, 76, 116 narrow transcription 146 nasal 40, 41, 58, 93, 94, 104, 138, 139, 141, 142, 148–​150, 152–​154 nasal release 104, 152–​153 nasalisation 149 non-​syllabic 41, 147 nuclear tones 116–​117, 119–​127 nucleus 20, 116–​118, 119–​126, 128–​130 obstruent 105, 138, 150 onset (intonation) 117 open vowel 143 palatal 15, 138, 139, 153 palato-​alveolar 41, 42, 138, 139, 140, 151 phoneme 3, 4, 9, 10, 14, 15, 19, 21, 22, 31, 34, 39, 87, 98, 146, 151 phonemic transcription xx, 3–​6, 15, 70, 115, 126, 135, 146 phonetic transcription xx, 146–​154 place of articulation 58, 93–​97, 136, 138, 139, 151, 153 plosive 14, 15, 40–​42, 58, 86, 93, 95–​97, 101, 104, 105, 138, 139, 139, 140, 149, 152, 153 polysyllabic 9, 116 possessive adjectives 72–​73 post-​alveolar 139, 151 pre-​fortis clipping 148 pre-​head (intonation) 118, 126–​131 prepositions 74–​75, 82, 84, 85 primary stress 9–​12, 45–​49, 51, 64, 69, 70, 116, 117, 126 quantifiers 73 /​r/​-​liaison vowel 67, 71, 72, 78, 80, 81 release stage of plosives 152–​153 retracting 151–​152 schwa 9–​12, 13, 19, 20, 22, 23, 33, 36, 37, 39, 50, 51, 65–​66, 111, 143, 144, 148, 152 secondary stress: pre-​primary 48–​49; post-​primary 47–​49 serif 4 sonorant 138, 148

Index  159

stress 9–​12, 45–​53, 63, 64, 69–​85, 116, 117, 126, 148 strong form 71, 72, 75, 76, 82 suffix: -ed 54, 55, 86; -​edly 56; -​s 56–​58; -​ment 93; ate 50 syllabic consonant 39, 41–​43, 73, 101 symbols xxii tail (intonation) 117 teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL) xx1, 27, 39, 67, 70 to-​infinitive 74 tongue height 143 transcription 3–​5, 10, 15, 31, 34, 39, 47, 63, 64, 70, 104, 115, 126, 135, 146–​154

velar 41, 93, 94, 96, 97, 100–​102, 104, 138, 139 velarisation 152 vocal folds 121, 136–​138, 150, 151 vocal tract 136, 137, 138, 139, 143, 149, 152 voiced 15, 54, 56, 76, 77, 95, 96, 105, 121–​122, 137, 138–​140, 143, 149–​150 voiced /​t/​ 153–​154 voiceless 24, 54, 56, 76, 77, 79, 97, 105, 137–​140, 148–​151, 153 voicing 104, 105, 121–​122, 136, 137–​140, 149, 153

unreleased plosive 153 unstressed 5, 9–​12, 19–​22, 42, 43, 45, 48, 50, 51, 56, 63, 70–​72, 74, 76, 81, 83, 85, 99, 122, 144–​149

weak form 40, 43, 69–​85, 104, 107 weakening 64 word stress 9, 49, 69