Britannica concise encyclopedia [Rev. and exp. ed.] 9781593394929, 1593394926, 9781849726030, 1849726035

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Britannica

CONCISE ENCYCLOPEDIA

Front cover: (clockwise from top row, left) Vincenzo Pinto—AFP/Getty Images; Toni Angermayer; Hans Hinz, Basel; Sean Gallup/Getty Images; courtesy of the Schmuckmuseum, Pforzheim, Germany, John F. Shrawder/Shostal. Back cover: NASA/JPL; Goodshoot/Jupiterimages; Pramod Chandra; Anthony Mercieca from The National Audubon Society Collection/Photo Researchers; J.C. Allen and Son; Stephen Collins—Photo Researchers.

Britannica

CONCISE ENCYCLOPEDIA

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Chicago • London • New Delhi • Paris • Seoul • Sydney • Taipei • Tokyo

Britannica

CONCISE ENCYCLOPEDIA Encyclopædia Britannica First published in 1768, the Encyclopædia Britannica has long been the standard by which all other reference works are judged. It represents a tradition of excellence that was built, over the centuries, on meticulous scholarship and unmatched attention to detail. Today, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., produces a range of fine products for reference, education, and learning in different media and in many different languages. Wherever you see the Britannica name—in print, on the Internet, CD-ROM, or DVD—it is your guarantee of quality, accuracy, and authority. © 2006 BY ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA, INC. Copyright Under International Copyright Union All Rights Reserved Under International and Universal Copyright Conventions by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Library of Congress Control Number: 2006921235 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-59339-492-9

The original edition of this book, created in conjunction with Merriam-Webster, Incorporated, was published in 2000 as Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Encyclopedia. No part of this work may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Encyclopædia Britannica and other fine products are available on the Internet at http://www.britannica.com.

(Trademark Reg. U.S. Pat. Off.) Printed in Peru.

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Contents

Foreword

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Explanatory Notes

vii

Abbreviations

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Pronunciation Symbols

x

Guide to Plates and Map Legend

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Britannica Concise Encyclopedia

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Encyclopædia Britannica Corporate Page

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Merriam-Webster Editorial Staff

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Foreword

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he need for information and the craving for knowledge are timeless and universal. The Britannica Concise Encyclopedia satisfies the essence of both these needs. This volume represents the distillation of essential information into a compact and eminently useful single volume. This latest version of Britannica Concise Encyclopedia answers today’s need for a portable, convenient reference work covering history, geography, the sciences, religion, sports, entertainment, technology, and the arts. We hope it will become a favourite source for helping students with their homework, for background to news events, for writers and crossword-puzzle enthusiasts, for solving disputes, and for random browsing. This printing of Britannica Concise Encyclopedia has been broadly revised. Among the 2.8 million words that make up the nearly 28,000 entries are many new titles and many that have been updated. In the 16-page colour plates section, you will find the

newest versions of national flags as well as a world map, maps of world religions and population characteristics, a selection of World Heritage sites, and a useful world map depicting international time zones. More than 30 tables catalog everything from Nobel Prize winners to chemical elements to popes to the International System of Units of measurement and their U.S. equivalents. Many of the more than 190 maps have been revised, and all of the more than 150 illustrations have been redrawn. The more than 2,000 photographs enhance both the appearance and content of Britannica Concise. The editors of Encyclopædia Britannica are proud to present the Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. We hope that you will consult it often and that it will both satisfy your immediate need for information and lead you to the in-depth information of the 40 million words of the Encyclopædia Britannica. Creating the highest level of reference works has been our goal for 238 years, and we are pleased to welcome you to the Britannica family. Anita Wolff Editor

© 2006 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Explanatory Notes Alphabetization. The articles are alphabetized word by word, with further alphabetizing letter by letter within a word. A “word” is here defined as a unit of one or more characters set off from other words by spaces, dashes, hyphens, or other symbols. Entry titles consisting of more than one word are arranged in alphabetical order of the succeeding words. Titles with identical spellings are arranged in the order (1) persons, (2) places, and (3) things. The following list illustrates the word-by-word principle: horn Horn, Cape Horn of Africa hornbill Horne, Lena horned toad Hornsby, Rogers Further alphabetization rules include the following: (1) Diacritics, apostrophes, dashes, periods, and ampersands are ignored in alphabetization. (2) Names of monarchs and popes that are identical except for the Roman numeral following the name are ordered numerically. (3) Names beginning with Mac- and Mc- are ordered literally, all names beginning with Mac- preceding (by a number of pages) all names beginning with Mc-. (4) Entry headwords beginning with numbers are alphabetized as if they were spelled out. Entry headword style. Variant spellings or versions of the encyclopedia’s entry headwords are printed in boldface type when they are in common use; more obscure variants are printed in ordinary roman type. No effort has been made to be exhaustive in listing variants. Several italicized terms are used to discriminate among the variants. The label or simply indicates a common alternative name or spelling. The label orig. precedes the birth name of a person who is entered under a name that was adopted or acquired subsequently. When a person’s original surname is different from the name in the principal headword, the entire birth name is given, not enclosed in parentheses. The label known as precedes a common way of referring to a person that may never have had formal status. The label formerly indicates an © 2006 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

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older and generally discarded name for an entity, usually a geographical locale. The label officially indicates a formal or legal version of a name. The label in full precedes a fully spelled-out version of a name that is usually encountered in its shorter form. A label consisting of a language name precedes a native version or spelling of a name or term. Biographical entry headwords in particular may employ parentheses in several ways. Parentheses may enclose portions of a person’s name that are rarely used, a person’s original given name or names, a later addition such as a title, or translations of titles or epithets. drum or croaker Odin or Wotan Bacall, Lauren orig. Betty Joan Perske O’Connell, Daniel known as the Liberator Iqaluit formerly Frobisher Bay Latvia officially Republic of Latvia OCR in full optical character recognition fax in full facsimile Magellan, Strait of Spanish Estrecho de Magallanes Odysseus Roman Ulysses Connelly, Marc(us Cook) Doctorow, E(dgar) L(aurence) Hughes, (James Mercer) Langston Basil II known as Basil Bulgaroctonus (“Slayer of the Bulgars”) Pronunciations. Entries for terms and names whose pronunciation the encyclopedia’s likely users might hesitate over are supplied with pronunciations. Foreign names or terms that are pronounced in a markedly different way by native speakers and English-speakers are frequently provided with two pronunciations, one of them preceded by a language label (e.g., English, French, Spanish). Thus, for Hassan II we provide the pro. . nunciations \9ha-san, English ha-9sän\. The symbols employed and the sounds they represent are listed on page x. Romanization of foreign languages. Words from languages that do not use the Western (Roman) alphabet generally reflect the spellings most commonly seen in English-language contexts.

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Chinese names are almost always transcribed according to the Pinyin system. Where a Chinese name or term appears as a headword, the older Wade-Giles spelling is given as an or variant. Placenames and biographical names on Taiwan, however, are generally listed in their Wade-Giles spelling, with the Pinyin spelling as a variant. A few Chinese names widely used in English (e.g., Confucius) retain their traditional English spelling. Japanese names and terms are generally transcribed according to the Hepburn system but without macrons to indicate vowel length. Russian names and terms generally observe traditional Western spellings and follow the diacriticfree system employed by the U.S. Board on Geographic Names. Arabic names and terms generally follow the bestestablished Western usage. Except in a few wellestablished Western transliterations, the l in the article al- or el- (“the”) is not assimilated to a following consonant (thus, we employ the spelling Harun alRashid, not Harun ar-Rashid), even though such assimilation reflects Arabic pronunciation and is sometimes encountered in English sources. Cross-references. Cross-references to other articles are indicated by small capitals in sans-serif type for the alphabetized element of the term or name. Thus, “J. VON NEUMANN” sends the reader to the V’s, “J. W. von GOETHE” to the G’s; “CAPE BRETON ISLAND” sends the reader to the C’s, “Cape of GOOD HOPE” to the G’s; and so on. In the case of personal names in which

© 2006 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

there is no ambiguity as to alphabetical placement, the entire name appears in small capitals. A term is cross-referenced only when it is likely that the reader of the article within which the cross-reference appears would want to be notified about the additional article. Hence many terms for which there are corresponding entries are not highlighted as references. For instance, in the article on Tim Berners-Lee, we have cross-referenced “World Wide Web” (whose invention was his principal achievement) but not “Internet,” which is naturally crossreferenced within the “World Wide Web” article. Because cross-referencing of this kind is discretionary, readers should not assume that a noun lacks its own entry simply because it is not referenced within the article being read. For the sake of saving space, many people who receive their own entries have their given names abbreviated and their surnames in small capitals when they are mentioned in an article, regardless of how likely the reader of the article is to want to be alerted to the biographical entry. The names of countries, U.S. states, and Canadian provinces, by contrast, are virtually never referenced, regardless of their centrality to a given article, on the presumption that readers will correctly assume that the encyclopedia contains articles on all such entities. Some 3,000 cross-references are provided at their own alphabetical place, to direct the reader who has looked up a variant version of the name or has expected an entry to be alphabetized according to an element other than the one actually used.

Abbreviations AD Adm. Ala. Amer. Ariz. Ark. BC C c. Cal. Capt. cc cent. cm Co. Col. Conn. Corp. cu D.C. Del. Dr. E e.g. est. Eth. F fl. Fla. ft g Ga. Gen. Gov. i.e. Ill. in. Ind. Jr. K Kan. kg km kph Ky. La. lb, lbs m M.A. Maj.

anno Domini Admiral Alabama American Arizona Arkansas before Christ Celsius circa California captain cubic centimetre(s) century, centuries centimetre(s) Company, County Colorado, Colonel Connecticut Corporation cubic District of Columbia Delaware Doctor East exempli gratia (for example) estimate, estimated Ethiopia Fahrenheit flourished Florida foot, feet gram(s) Georgia General Governor id est (that is) Illinois inch(es) Indiana Junior Kelvin Kansas kilogram(s) kilometre(s) kilometres per hour Kentucky Louisiana pound, pounds metre(s) Master of Arts Major

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Mass. Md. Me. mi Mich. Minn. Miss. ml mm Mo. Mont. mph N N.C. N.D. NE Neb. Nev. N.H. N.J. N.M. NW N.Y. Okla. Ore. oz Pa. Ph.D. Pres. Queen. r. Rev. R.I. S S.C. S.D. SE Sen. sq St. SW Tenn. UN U.S. Va. vs. Vt. W W.V. Wash. Wisc. Wy.

Massachusetts Maryland Maine mile(s) Michigan Minnesota Mississippi millilitre(s) millimetre(s) Missouri Montana miles per hour North North Carolina North Dakota northeastern Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico northwestern New York Oklahoma Oregon ounce(s) Pennsylvania Doctor of Philosophy President Queensland reigned, ruled Reverend Rhode Island South South Carolina South Dakota southeastern Senator square Saint southwestern Tennessee United Nations United States Virginia versus Vermont West West Virginia Washington Wisconsin Wyoming

Pronunciation Symbols L L

Lr a @ ä # a> b ch d e % f g h i & j k _ l m n /

banana, collide, abut, humdrum preceding \l\, \n\, \m\, \=\, as in battle, mitten, eaten, lock and key \- L=-\; following \l\, \m\, \r\, as in French table, prisme, titre further, merger, bird mat, gag day, fade, aorta bother, cot, father, cart father as pronounced by speakers who do not rhyme it with bother; French patte now, loud, out baby, rib chin, nature \9n@-chLr\ did, adder bet, bed, peck beat, easy fifty, cuff go, big

¨ [ { ¨i p r s sh t th th
ue } v w y

hat, ahead tip, banish

saw, all, caught

German füllen, hübsch French rue, German fühlen vivid, give we, away yard, cue \9kyü\, union \9yün-yLn\

vision, azure \9a-zhLr\ precedes a syllable with primary (strongest) stress: \9pen-mLn0ship\

0

precedes a syllable with secondary (medium) stress: \9pen-mLn0ship\

-

marks syllable division

()

indicate that what is enclosed is pronounced by some but not by others: factory \9fak-t(L-)r%\

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Guide to Plates Flags of the World

Plates

1–9

World Political Map

Plates

10 – 11

World Religions Map

Plate

12

World Population Density Map

Plate

13

World Indigenous Skin Color Map

Plate

13

World Heritage sites

Plates

14 – 15

International Time Zones

Plate

16

Map Legend

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A Coruña
Abbado

A Coruña \0!-k+-9r-min-0ib-²n-#-9l%\ (b. 1094, T)gr), kingdom of the hamm)dids—d. 1163, Rabat, Almohad empire) BERBER caliph (1130–63) of the ALMOHAD DYNASTY. Around 1117 he fell under the sway of Ibn THmart, founder of the Almohad religious movement, and joined him in opposing to the ruling ALMORAVID DYNASTY. He succeeded Ibn THmart on the latter’s death in 1130 and for the next 17 years carried on the struggle against the Almoravids. After defeating them at Marrakech in 1147, he massacred many of the city’s inhabitants, made Marrakech his home base, and conquered all of North Africa west of Egypt. !Abd al-N)Æir, Jam)l See GAMAL ABDEL NASSER !Abd al-Ram)n \0ab-d²l-r!_-9m!n\ III (b. January 891—d. Oct. 15, 961, Córdoba, Andalusian Spain) First CALIPH and greatest ruler of the Umayyad Arab Muslim dynasty of Spain. He succeeded his grandfather !Abd All)h as emir of CÓRDOBA in 912. He set out immediately to subdue Muslim rebels in their mountain fortresses, which became an annual task until the Umayyad’s took Toledo in 933. Addressing the Christian threat to the north, he led the campaigns of Muez (920) and Navarra (924). In 928 he declared himself caliph. By 958 he had Christian kings paying him homage. During his rule, Córdoba was exemplary for its social, political, and cultural development; Christian and Jewish communities flourished, and the city’s fame rivaled that of the Byzantine capital, Constantinople. !Abd al-Íamad (fl. 16th century) Persian miniature painter. Born in Iran, he traveled to India and became one of the first members of the imperial atelier there. Through their teachings in India, he and fellow countryman MqR SAYYID !ALq played a strong role in the foundation of the school of MUGHAL PAINTING. !Abd al-Íamad supervised the majority of illustrations in the Mughal manuscript D)st)n-e Amlr hamzeh, or Hamzan-

A B

4 I !Abd All)h  Abelard

ama, which included about 1,400 paintings. Favoured at court, in 1576 he was appointed master of the mint, and in 1584 he was made dlw)n (revenue commissioner) of Multan.

A B

!Abd All)h \0!b-d>l-9l!\ (ibn Muammad al-Ta!l#ishl) or !Abdullahi \²b-0d>l-!-9h%\ (b. 1846, Sudan—d. Nov. 24, 1899, Kordofan) Political and religious leader who succeeded Mueammad Aemad (al-Mahdl) as head of the MAHDIST MOVEMENT in the Sudan in 1885. He launched attacks against the Ethiopians and invaded Egypt, securing his position by 1891. In 1896 Anglo-Egyptian forces began to reconquer the Sudan. !Abd All)h resisted until 1898, when he was forced to flee OMDURMAN. He died in battle one year later. Abd el-Krim \0ab-d²l-9kr%m\ in full Muammad ibn !Abd al-Karlm al-Kha$$)bl (b. 1882, Ajdir, Mor.—d. Feb. 6, 1963, Cairo, Egypt) BERBER resistance leader against Spanish and French rule in northern Morocco. He was chief Muslim judge for Morocco’s Melilla district. He became disillusioned with Spanish policies and eventually led a resistance movement with his brother. He set up the Republic of the RIF in 1921 and became its president. In 1926 he was forced to surrender when faced by a combined French and Spanish army. Exiled to the island of Réunion, in 1947 he received permission to live in France but took asylum in Egypt while en route. When Morocco became independent (1956), MUHAMMAD V invited him to return, but he refused because of the continued presence of French troops in North Africa. Abdelkader \0ab-d²l-9k!d-²r\ in full !Abd al-Q)dir ibn Muyl al-Dln ibn Mus$af) al-asanl al-Jaz)#irl (b. Sept. 6, 1808, near Mascara, Alg.—d. May 26, 1883, Damascus, Syria) Founder of modern Algeria and leader of its struggle against the French. His father had led a harassment campaign against the French, who invaded Algeria in 1830. Abdelkader succeeded his father as emir in 1832; by 1837, through battles and treaties, he had established his rule over most of Algeria’s interior, leaving the French in control of some port cities. He organized a true state, imposing equal taxes and suppressing the privileges of the warlike tribes. He fortified the interior towns, opened arsenals and workshops, and expanded education. The French overpowered his forces and arrested him by 1846. Upon his parole in 1853, he chose a life of exile, eventually settling in Damascus. Revered for his exemplary life and ideals, in 1860 he showed himself to be a model of decency and probity when, at great risk to his own safety, he sheltered thousands of Christians during a Druze uprising. He died respected by both French and Algerians (and by many others throughout the world), and he remains the Algerian national hero. Abdera \ab-9dir-²\ City of ancient THRACE on the Aegean Sea nearly opposite THASOS. First settled in the 7th century BC, it was colonized a second time c. 540 BC. A prosperous member of the DELIAN LEAGUE, it was crippled in the 4th century BC by Thracian invasions. It was the home of DEMOCRITUS and PROTAGORAS. abdominal cavity Largest hollow space of the body, between the DIAPHRAGM and the top of the pelvic cavity and surrounded by the spine and the ABDOMINAL MUSCLES and others. It contains most of the ALIMENTARY CANAL, the LIVER and PANCREAS, the SPLEEN, the KIDNEYS, and the ADRENAL GLANDS. It is lined by the peritoneum, a membrane covering the cavity’s inside wall (parietal peritoneum) and each organ or structure in it (visceral peritoneum). Disorders include ascites (fluid in the peritoneal cavity) and PERITONITIS. abdominal muscle Any of the muscles of the front and side walls of the ABDOMINAL CAVITY. Three flat layers—the external oblique, internal oblique, and transverse abdominis muscles—extend from each side of the spine between the lower ribs and the hipbone. The abdominal muscles attach to aponeuroses, connective tissue sheaths that merge toward the midline, sheathing the rectus abdominis muscle on each side of the midline. The abdominal muscles support and protect the internal organs and take part in exhaling, coughing, urinating, defecating, childbirth, and motion of the trunk, groin, and lower limbs. !Abduh \9ab-dr-&, d&-9!s-ky²-0r&\ or Castor and Pollux (from Greek dioskouroi, “sons of Zeus”) Twin gods of ancient Greece and Rome. They aided shipwrecked sailors and accepted sacrifices for favorable winds. Castor was mortal and Pollux was immortal; when Castor was killed, Pollux disowned his immortality to join his brother. Zeus later changed them into the constellation GEMINI. They were believed to have aided the Romans in an important battle early in their history, and a temple in their honour was built in the Roman Forum. dioxin \d&-9!k-s²n\ AROMATIC COMPOUND, any of a group of contaminants produced in making herbicides (e.g., AGENT ORANGE), disinfectants, and other agents. Their basic chemical structure consists of two benzene rings connected by a pair of oxygen atoms; when substituents on the rings are chlorine atoms, the molecules are particularly toxic. The best-known, usually called simply dioxin, is 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (2,3,7,8-TCDD). It is extremely stable chemically; it does not dissolve in water but dissolves in oils (and thus accumulates in body fat). The extent of its human toxicity is disputed and the subject of continuing research. diphtheria \dif-9thir-%-²\ Acute infectious BACTERIAL DISEASE caused by Corynebacterium diphtheriae. The bacterium usually enters through the tonsils, nose, or throat and multiplies there, forming a thick membrane that adheres to the tissues and sometimes blocks the trachea, requiring emergency treatment.The bacteria produce a TOXIN that spreads to cause other symptoms, including fever, chills, sore throat, and lesions in heart muscle and peripheral nerve tissue that may cause death from heart failure and paralysis. Diphtheria is treated with an ANTITOXIN that neutralizes the toxin and produces long-term IMMUNITY. Vaccination has greatly reduced its occurrence in Europe and North America. Diplodocus \d²-9pl!-d²-k²s\ Genus of SAUROPOD dinosaur found as fossils in Late Jurassic rocks of North America and related to APATOSAURUS. Diplodocus and its relatives (diplodocids) were some of the longest land animals that ever lived, some approaching 100 ft (30 m). It had a long neck and extremely small brain and skull. Most diplodocids weighed about 30 tons, and some as much as 80 tons. It was formerly thought that Diplodocus may have spent a good deal of time in water, but fossil evidence indicates it moved freely on land, where it apparently fed on soft vegetation. It may be the most commonly displayed dinosaur. diploidy See

PLOIDY

diplomacy Art of conducting relationships for gain without conflict. It is the chief instrument of FOREIGN POLICY. Its methods include secret negotiation by accredited envoys (though political leaders also negotiate) and international agreements and laws. Its use predates recorded history. The goal of diplomacy is to further the state’s interests as dictated by geography, history, and economics. Safeguarding the state’s independence, security, and integrity is of prime importance; preserving the widest possible freedom of action for the state is nearly as important. Beyond that, diplomacy seeks maximum national advantage without using force and preferably without causing resentment. diplomatic service See diplopia See

FOREIGN SERVICE

DOUBLE VISION

Dipo Negoro \9d%-p+-ne-9g+r-+\, Pangeran (Prince) (b. c. 1785, Jogjakarta, Java—d. Jan. 8, 1855, Macassar [Ujung Pandang], Celebes) Javanese leader in the 19th-century conflict known to the West as the Java War (1825–30). He was the son of the ruler of Jogjakarta, a sultanate created in 1755 by a Dutch treaty that dismembered the once-powerful Javanese kingdom of Mataram. Dutch land reforms undercut the economic position of the Javanese aristocrats, and Dipo Negoro became the aristo-

© 2006 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

crats’ leader against the Dutch. The Javanese saw him as a “just prince” come to save the people, and the conflict itself was seen as a Muslim holy war against the infidels. For three years Dipo Negoro’s guerrilla forces had the upper hand, but the Dutch triumphed in the end. Dipo Negoro was arrested at the peace negotiations and died in exile. dipole See

ELECTRIC DIPOLE, MAGNETIC DIPOLE

dipper or water ouzel \9r\ City, capital of ASSAM state, northeastern India. Following the administrative reorganization of the region in 1972, Dispur, a suburb of GUWAHATI, became the state capital. Disraeli \diz-9r@-l%\, Benjamin, earl of Beaconsfield (b. Dec. 21, 1804, London, Eng.—d. April 19, 1881, London) British politician and author who was twice prime minister (1868, 1874–80). Of Italian-Jewish descent, he was baptized a Christian as a child, which enabled his future career, because until 1858, practitioners of Judaism were excluded from Parliament. He first made his mark as a writer with Vivian Grey (1826– 27); later novels included Coningsby (1844) and Sybil (1845). He was elected to Parliament as a Conservative in 1837. In 1845 he made a series of brilliant speeches against SIR ROBERT PEEL’s decision to repeal the CORN LAWS, which helped him to become leader of the Conservatives. He served three stints as chancellor of the Exchequer (1852, 1858–59, 1865–68) and played a prominent role in passing the REFORM BILL OF 1867. He was prime minister briefly in 1868, then returned in his second ministry (1874–80) to promote social reform. An advocate of a strong foreign policy, he secured a triumph for imperial prestige with his acquisition of Suez Canal shares and won concessions for England at the Congress of BERLIN. A trusted friend of Queen VICTORIA, he introduced a bill conferring on her the title Empress of India. After the Conservatives were defeated in 1880, he kept the party leadership and finished his political novel Endymion (1880). dissociation Breaking of a chemical COMPOUND into simpler constituents as a result of added ENERGY, as in the case of gaseous molecules dissociated by heating; also, the effect of a SOLVENT on a dissolved polar compound (ELECTROLYTE), as in the case of an inorganic SALT, such as SODIUM CHLORIDE, dissolved in water. All electrolytes dissociate into IONs to a greater or lesser extent in polar solvents (in which the molecules are ELECTRIC DIPOLEs). The degree of dissociation can be used to determine the EQUILIBRIUM constant. Dissociation is used to explain electrical conductivity and many other properties of electrolytic SOLUTIONs. dissociative identity disorder formerly multiple personality disorder Rare condition indicated by the absence of a clear and comprehensive identity. In most cases two or more independent and distinct PERSONALITY systems develop in the same individual. Each personality may alternately inhabit the person’s conscious awareness to the exclusion of the others, but one is usually dominant. The various personalities typically differ from one another in outlook, temperament, and body language and might assume different first names. The condition is generally viewed as resulting from dissociative mental processes—that is, the splitting off from conscious awareness and control of thoughts, feelings, memories, and other mental components in response to situations that are painful, disturbing, or somehow unacceptable to the person experiencing them. Treatment is aimed at integrating the disparate personalities back into a single and unified personality. dissonance See

CONSONANCE AND DISSONANCE

dissonance, cognitive See

COGNITIVE DISSONANCE

distaff Device used in hand spinning in which individual fibres are drawn out of a mass of prepared fibres held on a stick (the distaff), twisted together to form a continuous strand, and wound on a second stick (the spindle). It is most often used for making LINEN; wool does not require a distaff (see CARDING). The first stage in mechanizing spinning was to mount the spindle horizontally in bearings to rotate with a large hand-driven wheel; the distaff, carrying the mass of fibre, was held in the left hand, and the SPINNING WHEEL slowly turned with the right. The Saxon, or Saxony, wheel incorporated a BOBBIN on which the YARN was wound continuously; the distaff holding the raw fibre became a stationary vertical rod, and the wheel was activated by a foot treadle, freeing both the operator’s

distance formula  diverticulum

hands. From 17th-century England, the word distaff became a synonym for maternal as most spinning was done by women in their homes. See also DOMESTIC SYSTEM. distance formula Algebraic expression that gives the distances between pairs of points in terms of their coordinates (see COORDINATE SYSTEM). In two- and three-dimensional EUCLIDEAN SPACE, the distance formulas for points in rectangular coordinates are based on the PYTHAGOREAN THEOREM. The distance between the points (a,b) and (c,d) is given by √(a − c)2 + (b − d)2. In three dimensional space, the distance between the points (a, b, c) and (d, e, f) is √(a − d)2 + (b − e)2 + (c − f)2. distemper Viral disease in two forms, canine and feline. Canine distemper is acute and highly contagious, affecting dogs, foxes, wolves, mink, raccoons, and ferrets. Most untreated cases are fatal. Infected animals are best treated with prompt injections of serum globulins; secondary infections are warded off by antibiotics. Immunity can be conferred by vaccination. Feline distemper causes a severe drop in the number of the infected cat’s white blood cells. It rarely lasts more than a week, but the mortality rate is high. Vaccines offer effective immunity. disthene See

KYANITE

distillation VAPORIZATION of a LIQUID and subsequent CONDENSATION of the resultant GAS back to liquid form. It is used to separate liquids from nonvolatile solids or solutes (e.g., water from salt and other components of seawater) or to separate two or more liquids with different BOILING POINTS (e.g., alcohol from fermented beers and wines). Many variations have been devised for industrial applications. An important one is fractional distillation, in which vapour from a heated liquid mixture is contacted by a series of trays and condensed liquid as it rises through a vertical column. The most volatile fraction of the mixture emerges from the top of the column, while less volatile fractions are withdrawn at lower points. In petroleum refining, this method is very efficient for removing naphtha, kerosene, and gas oils from crude oil.

distribution See

I

553

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION, NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

distributive law One of the laws relating to number operations. In symbols, it is stated: a(b + c) = ab + ac. The monomial factor a is distributed, or separately applied, to each term of the polynomial factor b + c, resulting in the product ab + ac. It can also be stated in words: The result of first adding several numbers and then multiplying the sum by some number is the same as first multiplying each separately by the number and then adding the products. See also ASSOCIATIVE LAW; COMMUTATIVE LAW. District Court, U.S. See UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT District of Columbia Federal district of the U.S. Coextensive with the city of WASHINGTON, it is bounded by Maryland and Virginia. Originally 100 sq mi (259 sq km), the territory was authorized by Congress in 1790 and granted by Maryland and Virginia; it now occupies 68 sq mi (176 sq km). The site was chosen by Pres. GEORGE WASHINGTON and became the seat of the federal government by 1800. Part of the district (ALEXANDRIA, Va.) was retroceded to Virginia in 1847. The slave trade was prohibited in the District in 1850 and slavery was abolished in 1862. The territorial government was abolished in 1874 in favour of government by a commission appointed by the president. Residents were granted suffrage in national elections in 1961 by the 23rd Amendment to the U.S. CONSTITUTION. The mayor-council form of government was established in 1967. Originally appointees of the president, the mayor and councilors became elected officials in 1973 and received local legislative powers in 1974. dithyramb \9dith-i-0ram(b)\ Choric poem, chant, or hymn of ancient Greece. Dithyrambs were sung by revelers at the festival in honour of Dionysus. The form originated about the 7th century BC in extemporaneous songs of banqueters; it was a recognized literary genre by the end of the 6th century BC. Dithyrambs were composed by ARION and PINDAR, among others. By c. 450 BC the form was in decline; most dithyrambs were bombastic and turgid. Ditters von Dittersdorf \9dit-²rs-0d|rf\, Carl orig. Carl Ditters (b. Nov. 2, 1739, Vienna, Austria—d. Oct. 24, 1799, Rothlhotta Castle, Neuhof, Bohemia) Austrian composer. A violin prodigy, he served as kapellmeister at the court of the prince-bishop of Breslau (1770–95). Though ennobled by the empress in 1773, he apparently declined the offer of the post of kapellmeister at the imperial court in Vienna. Extremely prolific, he wrote some 120 symphonies, some 40 concertos (many for violin), sacred choral works, and many chamber pieces. Most important are some 40 stage works, particularly his singspiels, including Doctor und Apotheker (1786) and Die Liebe im Narrenhause (1787). diuretic \0d&-y>r-9e-tik\ Any drug that increases the flow of URINE from the body. Diuretics promote removal of excess water, salts, poisons, and metabolic wastes to help relieve EDEMA, KIDNEY FAILURE, or GLAUCOMA. Most types act by decreasing the amount of fluid that is reabsorbed by the kidney’s NEPHRONs and passed back into the blood. Diuretics that allow the body to retain POTASSIUM are used for patients with HYPERTENSION or CONGESTIVE HEART FAILURE.

A laboratory distillation apparatus demonstrating desalination of water. In the distillation flask, salt water is boiled to produce water vapour, or steam, while the salt remains in the liquid solution. The vapour rises through the top of the flask and passes into the condenser, which consists of a glass tube within a larger tube. Cold water flows through the space between the tubes, cooling the vapour in the inner tube so that it condenses and flows into the receiving flask. © MERRIAM-WEBSTER INC.

distilled liquor ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGE obtained by distillation from WINE or other fermented fruit juice or from various CEREAL grains that have first been brewed. The essential ingredient is usually a natural sugar or a starchy substance that may be easily converted into a sugar. The distillation process is based on the different boiling points of water (212 °F [100 °C]) and alcohol (173 °F [78.5 °C]). The alcohol vapours that arise while the fermented liquid boils are trapped and recondensed to create a liquid of much greater alcoholic strength. The resultant distillate is matured, often for several years, before it is packaged and sold. See also AQUAVIT; BRANDY; GIN; LIQUEUR; RUM; VODKA; and WHISKEY.

© 2006 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Divali or Diwali \d²-9w!-l%, d²-9v!-l%\ In HINDUISM, a five-day religious festival in autumn. It honors LAKSHMI, goddess of wealth, or, in Bengal, the goddess KALI. During its celebration, earthenware lamps are lit and placed on the parapets of houses and temples or set adrift on rivers and streams. The fourth day of the festival marks the start of a new year, a time of gift-giving, visiting friends, decorating homes, and wearing new clothes. Divali is celebrated by Jains and Sikhs as well. diver See

LOON

divergence In mathematics, a DIFFERENTIAL OPERATOR applied to a threedimensional vector-valued FUNCTION. The result is a function that describes a rate of change. The divergence of a vector v is given by

div v =

∂v1 ∂v2 ∂v3 + + ∂x ∂y ∂z

in which v1, v2, and v3 are the vector components of v, typically a velocity field of fluid flow. diverticulum \0d&-v²r-9ti-ky²-l²m\ Small pouch or sac formed in the wall of a major organ, usually the ESOPHAGUS, SMALL INTESTINE, or LARGE INTESTINE (the most frequent site of problems). In the large intestine, feces pushed into a pouch can make it bulge out from the colon wall, a condition known as diverticulosis, which has no symptoms. In the more seri-

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ous condition called diverticulitis, those sacs become inflamed, causing pain and tenderness, chills, and sometimes fever. Mild cases need only bed rest and antibiotics. In severe cases, perforation or rupture of the colon wall at the diverticulum can cause PERITONITIS. Rupture may require COLOSTOMY. Meckel diverticulum, a congenital malformation of the upper intestine that causes bleeding and inflammation, may require surgical removal. divertimento \di-0v²r-ti-9men-t+\ Eighteenth-century CHAMBER MUSIC genre consisting of several movements, often of a light and entertaining nature, for strings, winds, or both. Though the name was applied (c. 1750–1800) to a confusingly varied range of works, it almost always referred to pieces with a single instrument to a part; this could include string quartets and even keyboard sonatas.

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dividend Individual share of earnings distributed among stockholders of a corporation or company in proportion to their holdings. Usually paid in cash, dividends may also be distributed in the form of additional shares of STOCK. Preferred stockholders receive a preferential dividend, usually at a fixed rate; common stockholders get a portion of what remains after payment of the dividends on preferred stock. dividing engine MACHINE used to mark off equal intervals accurately, usually on precision instruments. Georg Friedrich von Reichenbach (1772–1826), a German maker of astronomical instruments, designed an early dividing engine, and Jesse Ramsden (1735–1800), a British pioneer in the design of precision tools, designed dividing engines of great accuracy for both circles and straight lines and produced highly accurate SEXTANTS, theodolites (see SURVEYING), and vertical circles for astronomical observatories. divination Practice of discerning the hidden significance of events and foretelling the future. Divination is found in all societies, ancient and modern, though methods vary. In the West, psychics claim innate ability to predict the future, and HOROSCOPES, palm reading, and TAROT cards are popular methods of divination. Other methods involve or have involved interpreting dreams, discovering OMENS in natural events, reading the entrails of animals, casting lots, and consulting ORACLES. Divination has long been viewed as the province of specially gifted persons, such as PROPHETS, SHAMANS, and magicians. See also ASTROLOGY. Divine, Father orig. George Baker (b. 1880?, Georgia?, U.S.—d. Sept. 10, 1965, Philadelphia, Pa.) U.S. religious leader. Reportedly born on a plantation, he began preaching in 1899 in the South and later in Baltimore, Md., as “The Messenger.” He settled in New York City in 1915 and adopted the name Major J. Devine (later altered to Father Divine). In 1919 he established his first communal settlement in Sayville on Long Island, and he founded the Peace Mission movement. His predominantly black following expanded rapidly in the 1930s and ’40s, and his settlements, called “heavens,” eventually numbered about 170. He taught his followers to renounce personal property, and the strict moral code he preached included celibacy and a ban on alcohol and tobacco. Many of his followers, called “angels,” believed him to be God. divine kingship Religio-political concept that views a ruler as an incarnation, manifestation, mediator, or agent of the sacred. In some nonliterate societies, members view their rulers or chiefs as inheritors of the community’s own magical power. The ruler may exercise this power either malevolently or benevolently, but he is usually responsible for influencing the weather and the land’s fertility to ensure the harvest necessary for survival. In other societies, particularly those of ancient China, the Middle East, and South America, the ruler was identified with a particular god or as a god himself; in Japan, Peru (among the Inca), Mesopotamia, and the Greco-Roman world, the ruler was regarded as the son of a god. In either case—whether the ruler embodies his own magical power or that of the community—the ruler protects the community from enemies and generally feeds and cares for his people. A third form of divine kingship, one practiced in Europe, is that of the ruler as mediator or executive agent of a god. In this form it is the institution of kingship, more than an individual ruler, that bears the mark of the sacred. diving Sport of plunging into water, usually headfirst and often following the execution of one or more acrobatic maneuvers. It emerged as a competitive sport in the late 19th century and became part of the Olympic Games in 1904. Dives are performed from a firm platform 5 or 10 m (16.4 or 32.8 ft) above the water, or from a springboard 1 or 3 m (3.3 or 9.8 ft) above the water. In Olympic contests, only the 10-m platform and 3-m springboard are used. Contestants are required to do certain dives,

© 2006 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

as well as dives of their own choice, each rated according to its degree of difficulty. Judges score each dive, and the total score is multiplied by the degree of difficulty. diving duck Any DUCK that obtains its food by diving to the bottom in deep water rather than by dabbling in shallows (see DABBLING DUCK). Diving ducks prefer marine environments and are popularly called either bay ducks or sea ducks. Bay ducks (tribe Aythyini, family Anatidae), including CANVASBACK, redhead, SCAUP, and allied species, are found more frequently in estuaries and tidal lagoons than on the open sea. Sea ducks (20 species in tribes Mergini and Somateriini) include the bufflehead, EIDERS, GOLDENEYE, MERGANSERS, oldsquaw, and SCOTERS; some are also or mainly found on inland waters. division of labour Specialization in the production process. Complex jobs can usually be less expensively completed by a large number of people each performing a small number of specialized tasks than by one person attempting to complete the entire job. The idea that specialization reduces costs, and thereby the price the consumer pays, is embedded in the principle of COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE. Division of labour is the basic principle underlying the ASSEMBLY LINE in mass production systems. See ÉMILE DURKHEIM. divorce Dissolution of a valid MARRIAGE, usually freeing the parties to remarry. In societies in which religious authority is strong and the religion holds that marriage is indissoluble (e.g., ROMAN CATHOLICISM, HINDUISM), divorce may be difficult and rare. In the U.S. at the beginning of the 21st century there was about one divorce for every two marriages. The rate of divorce in the U.S. is greater than it is in most other Western countries, though divorce rates climbed in those countries in the last decades of the 20th century. The most common grounds for divorce are absence from the marital home, drug or alcohol addiction, adultery, cruelty, conviction of a crime, desertion, insanity, and nonsupport. See also ANNULMENT. Diwali See DIVALI Dix, Dorothea (Lynde) (b. April 4, 1802, Hampden, District of Maine, Mass., U.S.—d. July 17, 1887, Trenton, N.J.) U.S. social reformer on behalf of the mentally ill. She opened a school for girls in Boston in 1821, and in 1841 she began teaching Sunday school in a jail, where she was distressed to see the mentally ill imprisoned with criminals. For 18 months she toured mental institutions, and in 1843 she reported their deplorable conditions to the Massachusetts legislature. After improvements were made, she expanded her campaign to other states. Through her work, special mental hospitals were built in 15 states and in Canada. Dix, Otto (b. Dec. 2, 1891, Untermhaus, Thuringia, Ger.—d. July 25, 1969, Singen, Baden-Württemberg, W.Ger.) German painter and printmaker. He studied at the academies of Düsseldorf and Dresden and experimented with IMPRESSIONISM and DADA before arriving at EXPRESSIONISM with a nightmarish personal vision of contemporary social reality, depicting the horrors of war and the depravities of a decadent society with great emotional effect. He was appointed professor at the Dresden Academy in 1926 and elected to the Prussian Academy in 1931. His anti- “Parents of the Artist,” oil on canvas by military works aroused the wrath of Otto Dix, 1921; in the Öffentliche the Nazi regime and he was dis- Kunstsammlung, Basel, Switzerland COURTESY OF THE OFFENTLICHE KUNSTSAMMLUNG AND missed from his academic posts in THE EMANUEL HOFFMAN-STIFTUNG, BASEL, SWITZ.; 1933. His later work was marked by PHOTOGRAPH, HANS HINZ religious mysticism. See also NEUE SACHLICHKEIT. Dixiecrat or States’ Rights Democrat In the U.S., member of a right-wing Democratic splinter group in the 1948 election. Organized by Southerners who objected to the Democrats’ civil rights program, the Dixiecrats met in Birmingham, Ala., and nominated Gov. STROM THURMOND of South Carolina for president. He received more than one million votes in the 1948 election and won four states. Dixieland JAZZ played by a small ensemble featuring collective and solo improvisation. The term is often ascribed especially to the New Orleans

Dixon  DNA computing

pioneers of jazz, although many critics of popular music believe the term better describes the music of a later wave of white Chicago musicians including Jimmy McPartland, Bud Freeman, and Frank Teschemacher. The earliest jazz ensembles grew out of the RAGTIME and brass bands of New Orleans, incorporating elements of the BLUES. In early jazz ensembles, such as those led by KING OLIVER and JELLY ROLL MORTON, the trumpet or cornet plays the melody, with clarinet and trombone providing accompaniment. The tension created by soloists contrasts with the release of ensemble refrains. It is played with a distinctive two-beat rhythm, resulting in a joyous cacophony at fast tempos or slow, mournful dirges. Dixieland groups usually include banjo, tuba, and drums. Dixon, Joseph (b. Jan. 18, 1799, Marblehead, Mass., U.S.—d. June 15, 1869, Jersey City, N.J.) U.S. inventor and manufacturer. Largely selftaught, Dixon began his pioneering industrial use of GRAPHITE in 1827 with the manufacture of lead pencils, stove polish, and lubricants. He discovered that graphite crucibles withstood high temperatures, and he secured patents on graphite crucibles for making steel and pottery. He established a crucible steelworks in Jersey City in 1850. He also experimented with photography and photolithography and devised a technique for printing banknotes in colour to prevent counterfeiting. Dixon, Willie orig. William James Dixon (b. July 1, 1915, Vicksburg, Miss., U.S.—d. Jan. 29, 1992, Burbank, Calif.) U.S. musician who influenced the emergence of electric BLUES and ROCK MUSIC. In 1936 Dixon moved from his native Mississippi to Chicago, won an Illinois Golden Gloves boxing championship, and began selling his songs. He played double bass in several bands before joining Chess Records. His lively compositions, which he sold for as little as $30, included “Little Red Rooster,” “You Shook Me,” and “Back Door Man”; many were later recorded by MUDDY WATERS, ELVIS PRESLEY, and the ROLLING STONES. Dixon toured widely throughout the U.S. and Europe. Djakarta See JAKARTA Djibouti \ji-9b-9kl%-ik, d%-9!ksi-0r&-b+-ny>-9kl@-ik\ acid One of two types of NUCLEIC ACID (the other is RNA); a complex organic compound found in all living CELLs and many VIRUSes. It is the chemical substance of GENEs. Its structure, with two strands wound around each other in a double helix to resemble a twisted ladder, was first described (1953) by FRANCIS CRICK and JAMES D. WATSON. Each strand is a long chain (POLYMER) of repeating NUCLEOTIDEs: ADENINE (A), GUANINE (G), CYTOSINE (C), and THYMINE (T). The two strands contain complementary information: A forms hydrogen bonds (see HYDROGEN BONDING) only with T, C only with G. When DNA is copied in the cell, the strands separate and each serves as a template for assembling a new complementary strand; this is the key to stable HEREDITY. DNA in cells is organized into dense protein-DNA complexes (see NUCLEOPROTEIN) called CHROMOSOMEs. In EUKARYOTEs these are in the NUCLEUS, and DNA also occurs in mitochondria and CHLOROPLASTs (if any). PROKARYOTEs have a single circular chromosome in the CYTOPLASM. Some prokaryotes and a few eukaryotes have DNA outside the chromosomes in PLASMIDs. See also ROSALIND FRANKLIN; GENETIC ENGINEERING; MUTATION; MAURICE WILKINS. See illustration on following page. DNA computing Form of computing in which DNA molecules are used instead of digital logic circuits. The biological cell is regarded as an entity that resembles a sophisticated computer. The four AMINO ACID bases that are constituents of DNA, traditionally represented by the letters A, T, C, and G, are used as operators, as the binary digits 0 and 1 are used in computers. DNA molecules are encoded to a researcher’s specifications and then induced to recombine (see RECOMBINATION), resulting in trillions of

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556 I DNA fingerprinting  Doctorow

and a centre of the wheat trade, it has developed into one of the largest industrial cities of Ukraine, with a huge iron and steel industry. It is the site of institutes of higher education, and its cultural amenities include several theatres. Doberman pinscher \9d+-b²r-m²n-9pin-ch²r\ Breed of working dog developed in Apolda, Germany, by Louis Dobermann, a dog-pound keeper, in the late 19th century. This sleek, agile, powerful dog stands 24–28 in. (61–71 cm) high and weighs 60–88 lbs (27–40 kg). It has a short, smooth black, blue, fawn, or red coat, with rust markings on the head, throat, chest, tail base, and feet. Dobermans have a reputation for fearlessness, alertness, loyalty, and intelligence. They have been used in police and military work, as watchdogs, and as guide dogs for the blind. Döblin \9d{-0bl%n\, Alfred (b. Aug. 10, 1878, Stettin, Ger.—d. June 26, 1957, Emmendingen, near Freiburg im Breisgau, W.Ger.) German novelist and essayist. He studied medicine at the Universities of Berlin and Freiburg, specializing in psychiatry. His first novel, The Three Leaps of Wang-Lun (1915), describes the quashing of a rebellion in China. His best-known work, Berlin Alexanderplatz (1929; film, 1931; adapted for television, 1980), is written in an Expressionist vein and dramatizes the miseries of working-class life in a disintegrating social order. His Jewish ancestry and socialist views compelled him to leave Germany upon the Nazi takeover, and he fled to France (1933) and then to the U.S. (1940), resettling in Paris in the early 1950s.

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DNA double helix. A. Molecular model of DNA. The molecules include (1) hydrogen, (2) oxygen (3) carbon and nitrogen in the linked nitrogenous bases, (4) carbon in the sugar deoxyribose, and (5) phosphorus. B. Schematic representation of DNA. The twisted ladder shape consists of (6) nitrogenous base pairs joined by hydrogen bonds, on (7) a sugar-phosphate backbone. © MERRIAM-WEBSTER INC.

“calculations” simultaneously. The field is in its infancy and its implications are only beginning to be explored. See also QUANTUM COMPUTING. DNA fingerprinting Method developed by the British geneticist Alec Jeffreys (born 1950) in 1984 for isolating and making images of sequences of DNA. The procedure consists of obtaining a sample of cells containing DNA (e.g., from skin, blood, or hair), extracting the DNA, and purifying it. The DNA is then cut by ENZYMES, and the resulting fragments of varying lengths undergo procedures that permit them to be analyzed. The pattern of fragments is unique for each individual. DNA fingerprinting is used to help solve crimes and determine paternity; it is also used to locate gene segments that cause genetic diseases, to map the genetic material of humans (see HUMAN GENOME PROJECT), to engineer drought-resistant plants (see GENETIC ENGINEERING), and to produce biological drugs from genetically altered cells. Dnieper River \9n%-p²r\ Russian Dnepr \d²-9nyepr³\ ancient Borysthenes. River, eastern central Europe. One of the longest rivers in Europe, it rises west of MOSCOW and flows south through Belarus and Ukraine, emptying into the Black Sea after a course of 1,420 mi (2,285 km). More than 300 hydroelectric plants operate in the Dnieper basin, and it has several huge dams. Navigable for about 1,042 mi (1,677 km) during the 10 months of the year when it is not frozen, it is an important shipping artery for eastern Europe. Dniester River \9n%-st²r\ Russian Dnestr \d²-9nyestr³\ ancient Tyras. River, southern central Europe. Rising on the northern side of the CARPATHIAN MTNS., it flows south and east for 840 mi (1,352 km) to the Black Sea near ODESSA. It is the second-longest river in Ukraine and the main water artery of Moldova. It is navigable for 750 mi (1,200 km). Dnipropetrovsk \d²-0nye-pr²-p%-9tr|fsk\ formerly (1783–1926) Ekaterinoslav \i-0k#-ti-9r%-n²-0sl!f\ City (pop., 2001: 3,567,600), southcentral Ukraine. Located on the DNIEPER RIVER, it was founded in 1783 and named for CATHERINE the Great; it grew after the railroad arrived in the 1880s. In 1926 the Soviets gave it its current name. A railway junction

© 2006 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Dobrovský \9d|-br|f-sk%\, Josef (b. Aug. 17, 1753, Gyarmat, Hung.—d. Jan. 6, 1829, Brno, Moravia, Austrian Empire) Czech linguist. He was ordained a priest in 1786, but after 1791 noble patronage allowed him to devote himself to scholarship in Prague. His textual criticism of the Bible led him to study OLD CHURCH SLAVONIC and then the SLAVIC LANGUAGES as a group. An influential scholar of the CZECH LANGUAGE and its literature, he published such works as History of the Bohemian Language and Literature (1792). His grammar of Czech, Learning System of the Bohemian Language (1809), helped standardize literary Czech, and his grammar of Old Church Slavonic (1822) laid the foundation of comparative Slavic LINGUISTICS. dobsonfly Any insect of the family Corydalidae with four net-veined wings, found in North and South America, Asia, Australia, and Africa. The species Corydalus cornutus has a wingspread of about 5 in. (13 cm), and the male has very large jaws (mandibles) of about 1 in. (2.5 cm) or more. Females lay eggs near streams. Larvae live in the streams and, with their strong biting mouthparts, are ferocious predators on other aquatic insects and small invertebrates. Sometimes called hellgrammites or toebiters, they can inflict painful bites on humans; they are eaten by fish, especially bass, and are used as bait by fishermen. Dobzhansky \d²b-9zhan-sk%\, Theodosius orig. Feodosy Grigorevich Dobrzhansky (b. Jan. 25, 1900, Nemirov, Ukr., Russian Empire—d. Dec. 18, 1975, Davis, Calif., U.S.) Ukrainian-born U.S. geneticist and evolutionist. He immigrated in 1927 to the U.S., where he taught at the California Institute of Technology, Columbia University, and Rockefeller University. He laid the groundwork for a theory combining Darwinian evolution and Mendelian genetics by changing the then commonly held view that natural selection produced something close to the best of all possible results and that changes would be rare and slow and not apparent over one life span. He observed extensive genetic variability in wild populations of Drosophila, and he found that in a given population some genes would regularly change in abundance with the seasons of the year. dock Any coarse weedy plant of the genus Rumex, in the BUCKWHEAT family, that has a long taproot and is sometimes used as a potherb. Most docks are native to Europe but naturalized throughout North America. Examples include curly dock (R. crispus) and bitter dock (R. obtusifolius). The early basal leaves of patience-dock (R. patientia) are sometimes used in salads. The common weed R. acetosa is known variously as dock, common sorrel, or garden sorrel. See also SORREL. Doctorow \9d!k-t²-0r+\, E(dgar) L(aurence) (b. Jan. 6, 1931, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. novelist. Doctorow worked as an editor and has since taught at colleges and universities. His best-selling novels have often focused on the working class and the dispossessed of earlier decades in the U.S. The Book of Daniel (1971) concerned the Rosenberg spy case. Ragtime (1975; film, 1981) incorporates actual early 20th-century American figures. Loon Lake (1980), World’s Fair (1985), and Billy Bathgate

Doctors’ Plot  Doesburg

(1989; film, 1991) examine the Great Depression and its aftermath. City of God (2000), concerns the efforts of a New York City Episcopal minister to renew his faith. Doctors’ Plot (1953) Alleged conspiracy of prominent Soviet medical specialists to murder leading government and party officials. In January 1953, the Soviet press reported that nine doctors, at least six of them Jews, had been arrested and confessed their guilt. Because of JOSEPH STALIN’s death in March, no trial occurred. Pravda later announced that the charges against the doctors were false and their confessions obtained by torture. In his secret speech at the Communist Party’s TWENTIETH CONGRESS, NIKITA KHRUSHCHEV asserted that Stalin intended to use the doctors’ trial to launch a massive party purge. Doctors Without Borders French Médecins Sans Frontières \m@d-9sa/-s!/-fr+/-9tyer\ (MSF) World’s largest independent international medical relief agency. It was established by a group of French physicians in 1971. It aids victims of armed conflict, epidemics, and natural and man-made disasters and helps others whose lack of health care is due to geographic remoteness or ethnic or political marginalization. Teams provide primary health care, perform surgery, vaccinate children, rehabilitate hospitals, operate emergency nutrition and sanitation programs, and train local medical staff. Operating independently of governments, the organization depends on volunteer health professionals (more than 2,000 annually) and private donations. It received the 1999 Nobel Peace Prize. doctrine of the affections German Affektenlehre Aesthetic theory of music in the Baroque period. Under the influence of Classical RHETORIC, late Baroque theorists and composers held that music is capable of arousing a variety of specific emotions in the listener, and that, by employing the proper musical procedure or device, the composer could produce a particular involuntary emotional response in his audience. By the end of the 17th century, individual movements were customarily organized around a single emotion, resulting in the lack of strong contrasts and the repetitive rhythms characteristic of Baroque music. Several attempts at systematic lists of the emotional effects of different scales and figures were made, but to no general agreement. Doctrine of the Mean See ZHONG

YONG

documentary Fact-based film that depicts actual events and persons. Documentaries can deal with scientific or educational topics, can be a form of journalism or social commentary, or can be a conduit for propaganda or personal expression. The term was first coined by Scottish-born filmmaker John Grierson to describe fact-based features such as ROBERT FLAHERTY’s Nanook of the North (1922). Grierson’s Drifters (1929) and Pare Lorentz’s The Plow That Broke the Plains (1936) influenced documentary filmmaking in the 1930s. During the World War II era documentary filmmaking was a valuable propaganda tool used by all sides. LENI RIEFENSTAHL contributed to the Nazi propaganda efforts in the 1930s; the U.S. made films such as FRANK CAPRA’s series Why We Fight (1942–45); and Britain released London Can Take It (1940). CINÉMA VÉRITÉ documentaries, which gained notoriety in the 1960s, emphasized a more informal and intimate relationship between camera and subject. Television became an important medium for documentary films with goals that were more journalistic (such as CBS’s Harvest of Shame [1960]) and educational (such as Ken Burns’s Civil War [1990]). documentary theatre See THEFACT

ATRE OF

dodder Any of the leafless, twining, parasitic vines (see PARASITISM) that make up the genus Cuscuta (family Cuscutaceae), containing more than 150 species found throughout temperate and tropical regions. The stringlike stems may be yellow, orange, pink, or brown. Many species have been introduced with their host plants into new areas. Dodders contain no CHLOROPHYLL, instead Dodder (Cuscuta gronovii) absorbing water and food through RUSS KINNE—PHOTO RESEARCHERS

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rootlike organs called haustoria that penetrate the tissue of a host plant and may kill it. Dodder can do great damage to crops of CLOVER, ALFALFA, FLAX, HOPS, and BEANS. The best control is to remove the plant from fields by hand and to prevent its accidental introduction. Dodge, Mary Mapes orig. Mary Elizabeth Mapes (b. Jan. 26, 1831, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Aug. 21, 1905, Onteora Park, N.Y.) U.S. author. She began writing children’s stories when she was suddenly widowed with two small sons. Her first collection, Irvington Stories (1864), was followed by Hans Brinker; or, The Silver Skates (1865), which became a children’s classic. In 1873 she was named editor of the new children’s magazine St. Nicholas; its success stemmed from her high standards, which attracted such writers as MARK TWAIN, LOUISA MAY ALCOTT, ROBERT LOUIS STEVENSON, and RUDYARD KIPLING. Dodge, William E(arl) (b. Sept. 4, 1805, Hartford, Conn., U.S.—d. Feb. 9, 1883, New York, N.Y.) U.S. mining entrepreneur. He was a drygoods merchant in Hartford, Conn., before founding the metal dealership Phelps, Dodge & Co. with his father-in-law, Anson G. Phelps, in 1833. They soon established a prosperous metal-importing business. Dodge made numerous other investments in timberland, mills, and iron and copper mines. After purchasing the Copper Queen mine in Arizona in 1882, the company became a major U.S. mining concern. Further acquisitions and diversifications have made Phelps Dodge Corp. one of the world’s largest copper producers. dodo Extinct flightless bird (Raphus cucullatus) of Mauritius, first seen by Portuguese sailors about 1507. Humans and the animals they introduced had exterminated the dodo by 1681. It weighed about 50 lbs (23 kg) and had blue-gray plumage, a big head, a 9-in. (23-cm) blackish bill with a reddish hooked tip, small useless wings, stout yellow legs, and a tuft of curly feathers high on its rear end. The Réunion solitaire (R. solitarius), also driven to extinction, may have been a white version of the dodo. Partial museum specimens and skeletons are all that remain of the dodo. Dodoma \d+-9d+-m!\ City (pop., Restoration of a dodo (Raphus cuculla1995 est.: 189,000), Tanzania. Des- tus) OF THE PEABODY MUSEUM OF NATURAL ignated the national capital since COURTESY HISTORY, YALE UNIVERSITY 1974, it awaits complete transfer of official functions from DAR ES SALAAM, the current capital. Located in a sparsely populated agricultural region at an elevation of 3,720 ft (1,135 m), it is a market centre for the surrounding area. Industries produce wood and furniture, beverages, processed food, soap, and oil. Dodona \d+-9d+-n²\ Sanctuary of the Greek god ZEUS, located at EPIRUS. Mentioned by HOMER, it was the site of an ORACLE, where messages came through the rustling of leaves or other natural sounds. There was also a large bronze gong that vibrated in the breeze. Doe, Samuel K(anyon) (b. May 6, 1950/51, Tuzon, Liberia—d. Sept. 9/10, 1990, Monrovia) Liberian soldier and head of state (1980–90). A member of the Krahn ethnic group, Doe led a coup in 1980 that overthrew Pres. William R. Tolbert (b. 1913—d. 1980). He suspended Liberia’s constitution until 1984, and in 1985 he won a presidential election widely denounced as fraudulent. His regime was considered corrupt and brutal, and his life was continually threatened by assassination attempts. In the civil war that broke out in 1989, Doe was captured and killed. Doenitz, Karl See Karl DÖNITZ Doesburg \9d-h²\ City (pop., florida) J.C. ALLEN AND SON 1997: 264,009), capital of Qatar. Located on the east coast of the Qatar Peninsula, it contains about three-fifths of the country’s population. Long a centre of pirate activity in the PERSIAN GULF, Doha was a small village when it became the capital of newly independent Qatar in 1971. The city has been thoroughly modernized. Its Government House (1969) was built on reclaimed waterfront land; its water supply is obtained by distilling seawater. The deepwater port, built in the 1970s, accommodates oceangoing vessels. Doherty, Peter Charles (b. Oct. 15, 1940, Australia) Australian immunologist and pathologist. He earned a Ph.D. at the University of Edinburgh. With ROLF M. ZINKERNAGEL, he found that T CELLs from mice infected with a meningitis virus destroyed virus-infected cells only from the same strain of mice, and he showed that T cells must recognize two signals on an infected cell—one from the virus and one from the cell’s own antigens—to destroy it. For the new understanding of general cellular immune mechanisms enabled by their research, the two men shared a 1996 Nobel Prize. Dole, Bob in full Robert Joseph Dole (b. July 22, 1923, Russell, Kan., U.S.) U.S. politician. Seriously wounded while fighting in World War II, he recovered from near-total paralysis but permanently lost the use of his right arm and hand. He returned to Kansas, earned a law degree, and held state elective office as a Republican before serving in the U.S. House of Representatives (1961–69) and the Senate (1969–96). He was the running mate of Pres. GERALD R. FORD in 1976. In 1984 Dole became Republican Party leader in the Senate, and he twice served as majority leader (1984–86, 1994–96). After clinching his party’s nomination for president in 1996, he retired from the Senate to devote himself wholly to the campaign. He was defeated in the election by Democrat BILL CLINTON. His wife, Elizabeth Hanford Dole (born 1936), ran unsuccessfully for the Republican nomination in 2000 but was elected to the U.S. Senate from North Carolina in 2002. Dole, Sanford Ballard (b. April 23, 1844, Honolulu, Hawaiian Islands—d. June 9, 1926, Honolulu) Hawaiian politician. The son of U.S. missionaries, he served in Hawaii’s legislature (1884–87) and on its supreme court (1887–93). He led the committee formed by local sugar interests that overthrew Queen LILIUOKALANI (1893) and sought annexation by the U.S.; he then served as the first president of the Republic of Hawaii (1894–1900). Though U.S. Pres. GROVER CLEVELAND demanded the queen’s restoration, Dole pressed successfully for annexation (1900) and afterward served as governor of the Territory of Hawaii (1900–03). He later became a federal district judge (1903–15). dolerite See

DIABASE

Dolin, Sir Anton orig. Sydney F.P.C. Healey-Kay (b. July 27, 1904, Slinfold, Sussex, Eng.—d. Nov. 25, 1983, Paris, Fr.) British dancer

doline  domain name

and choreographer. In 1921 he joined the BALLETS RUSSES, where he created leading roles as a soloist. In the 1930s and 1940s he helped form several ballet companies; in 1949 he and his partner ALICIA MARKOVA founded the forerunner of London’s Festival Ballet, of which he was artistic director and premier dancer until 1961. He created leading roles in Le Train bleu, Job, and Bluebeard, choreographed works such as Capriccioso (1940), The Romantic Age (1942), and Variations for Four (1957), and wrote several books on dance. doline See

SINKHOLE

doll Small-scale figure of a human being or animal, used especially as a child’s plaything. The doll is perhaps humankind’s oldest toy. Some ancient dolls may have served religious or magical functions—as do voodoo (see VODUN) dolls in modern times. Dolls were buried in children’s graves in Egypt, Greece, and Rome and in early Christian catacombs. In Europe dolls have been commercially manufactured since about the 16th century. Doll heads were made of wood, terra-cotta, alabaster, and wax, while the bodies were made of carved wood or leather stuffed with sawdust. In about 1820 glazed porcelain (Dresden) doll heads and unglazed bisque (ceramic) heads became popular. These were supplanted in the 20th century by molded plastic. In Japan, dolls are used as traditional festival figures. In India, elaborately dressed dolls were given to child brides by both Hindus and Muslims. Today both antique and Painted wooden Egyptian doll, 2000 modern dolls are often collected. BC. Dollar Diplomacy U.S. foreign COURTESY OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM policy created by Pres. WILLIAM H. TAFT to ensure financial stability in a region in exchange for favourable treatment of U.S. commercial interests.The policy grew out of Pres. THEODORE ROOSEVELT’s peaceful intervention in the Dominican Republic, where U.S. loans had been exchanged for the right to choose the head of customs (the country’s major revenue source). Taft’s secretary of state, PHILANDER KNOX carried out Dollar Diplomacy in Central America (1909) and China (1910). Pres. WOODROW WILSON repudiated the policy in 1913. The term has become a disparaging reference to the manipulation of foreign affairs for economic ends. Dollfuss \9d|l-0f=-9sh=-9lin\ Chinese academy founded during the SONG DYNASTY and revived in 1604 by scholars and officials to protest the moral laxity and intellectual weakness undermining public life in the last years of the MING DYNASTY. Its members cultivated the antiabsolutist views of MENCIUS and rebuked the court for failing to uphold Confucian values. The court eunuch WEI ZHONGXIAN persecuted members and supporters of the Academy, practically wiping it out by 1627. It was rehabilitated after Wei’s death. Dongting Lake Chinese Dongting Hu \9d>=-9ti=-9h=\ (b. Nov. 7, 1612, Yenden, Manchuria—d. Dec. 31, 1650, Kharahotu) Prince of the MANCHU people, instrumental in founding the QING (MANCHU) DYNASTY in China. He joined his former enemy WU SANGUI in driving the Chinese rebel LI ZICHENG from Beijing, where Li had already unseated the last MING-DYNASTY emperor. Though some wanted to put Dorgon on the throne, he saw to it that his nephew Fu-lin was proclaimed emperor (Dorgon acted as regent); this loyalty and selflessness won him the high regard of future historians. Doria \9d|r-y!\, Andrea (b. Nov. 30, 1466, Oneglia, Duchy of Milan—d. Nov. 25, 1560, Genoa) Genoese statesman, mercenary, and admiral, the foremost naval commander of his time. A member of an aristocratic family, he was orphaned at an early age and became a soldier of fortune. In 1522 he entered the service of FRANCIS I, who was fighting Emperor CHARLES V in Italy. Doria later transferred his services to Charles and in 1528 drove the French out of Genoa. He became the new ruler of Genoa and reorganized its government into an effective and stable oligarchy. He commanded several naval expeditions against the Turks and helped Charles V extend his domination over the Italian pen- Andrea Doria, detail of a portrait by insula. Though greedy and authori- Sebastiano del Piombo; in the Doria tarian, Doria was also a fearless Palace, Rome. commander with outstanding tactical ALINARI/ART RESOURCE, NEW YORK and strategic talents. Dorian Any member of a major division of the ancient Greeks. Coming from the north and northwest, they conquered the PELOPONNESE c. 1100– 1000 BC, overran the remnants of the MYCENAEAN and MINOAN civilizations, and ushered in a dark age that lasted almost three centuries, until the rise of the Greek city-states. They had their own dialect and were organized into three TRIBEs. Patterns of settlement determined their alliances in later Greek conflicts. To Greek culture they gave the Doric ORDER of architecture, the tragic choral lyric, and a militarized aristocratic government. They assimilated into Greek societies in some cases, but in Sparta and Crete they held power and resisted cultural advancement.

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566 I dormer  double-aspect theory

dormer Window set vertically in a structure that projects from a sloping roof. It often illuminates a bedroom. In the late Gothic and early Renaissance periods, elaborate masonry dormers were designed. Dormers were used along with the mansard ROOF to defy a Parisian law limiting buildings to six stories; the seventh story was called a garret (or attic) and was made habitable by the dormer. See also GABLE.

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dormouse Any of 20 RODENT species (family Gliridae) found throughout Eurasia and northern Africa. Dormice have large eyes, soft fur, rounded ears, and a hairy (sometimes bushy) tail. They live in trees, bushes, and rock walls and in nests of plant material. They eat fruit, nuts, birds’ eggs, and some insects and small animals. Many species sleep for long periods, particularly in winter. The largest species, the edible dormouse (Glis glis), is gray and attains a maximum length of about 8 in. (20 cm), excluding the 6-in. (15cm) tail. Dornberger \9d|rn-0ber-g²r\, Walter Robert (b. Sept. 6, 1895, Giessen, Ger.—d. June 27, 1980, Baden-Württemberg) German-born U.S. engineer. From 1932, with WERNHER VON BRAUN, he began to perfect the ROCKET engine. During World Edible dormouse (Glis glis). War II he directed construction of the SCHUNEMANN/BAVARIA-VERLAG V-2 rocket, the forerunner of all postwar spacecraft. In the U.S. after the war, he worked as an adviser on GUIDED MISSILEs for the U.S. Air Force. In the 1950s he participated in the Air Force–NASA project Dyna-Soar, which eventually became the SPACE SHUTTLE program. Dorr, Thomas Wilson (b. Nov. 5, 1805, Providence, R.I., U.S.—d. Dec. 27, 1854, Providence) U.S. politician. From 1834 he served in the Rhode Island legislature, where he tried to introduce constitutional reform to expand white manhood suffrage. In 1841 he organized the People’s Party, which held elections and installed Dorr as governor in 1842. The existing government refused to recognize his authority, labeling the action “Dorr’s Rebellion.” The state had two governments until 1844, when Dorr was tried for treason; though given a life sentence, he was released in 1845. Dorset Administrative (pop., 2001: 390,986), geographic, and historic county, southwestern England. It is located on the ENGLISH CHANNEL; its county seat is DORCHESTER. Prehistoric peoples were active in the area and left abundant monuments dating from the Neolithic Period, Bronze Age, and Iron Age, including Maiden Castle, a huge earthworks just outside Dorchester. The area subsequently became part of the West Saxon kingdom. As Wessex, it appears in the writings of THOMAS HARDY. Dorsey, Thomas A(ndrew) (b. July 1, 1899, Villa Rica, Ga., U.S.—d. Jan. 23, 1993, Chicago, Ill.) U.S. songwriter, singer, and pianist, the “father of GOSPEL MUSIC.” Born the son of a revivalist preacher, Dorsey was influenced by BLUES pianists in the Atlanta area. After moving to Chicago in 1916, he appeared under the name of “Georgia Tom,” became a pianist with MA RAINEY, and composed secular “hokum” songs (those peppered with risqué double entendres). He wrote his first gospel song in 1919, and in 1932 he abandoned the blues completely and founded the Pilgrim Baptist Church in Chicago. His more than 1,000 gospel songs include “Precious Lord, Take My Hand,” “Peace in the Valley,” and “If We Ever Needed the Lord Before.” He recorded extensively in the early 1930s. Many of his songs were introduced by MAHALIA JACKSON. He founded and directed the National Convention of Gospel Choirs and Choruses. Dorsey, Tommy orig. Thomas Dorsey (b. Nov. 19, 1905, Shenandoah, Pa., U.S.—d. Nov. 26, 1956, Greenwich, Conn.) U.S. trombonist and band leader. Dorsey led the Dorsey Brothers Orchestra from 1934 with his brother, saxophonist and clarinetist Jimmy Dorsey (1904–57); they later separated to lead their own groups. Tommy Dorsey’s band combined smooth ballad performances with up-tempo jazz arrangements featuring some of the best musicians of the period, including BUDDY RICH,

© 2006 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

FRANK SINATRA, and arranger Sy Oliver. Dorsey’s trombone playing was technically impeccable, and his seamless phrasing and sweet tone were a major influence on singers and brass players alike. The Tommy Dorsey band was one of the most popular big bands of the SWING era Dortmund \9d|rt-0m>nt\ ancient Throtmannia City (pop., 2002 est.: 589,200), North Rhine–Westphalia, western Germany. First mentioned in AD 885, it became a free imperial city in 1220 and later joined the HANSEATIC LEAGUE. A prosperous trading centre in the 14th century, it declined after the THIRTY YEARS’ WAR and lost its imperial rights in 1803. The development of coal and iron ore mining and the completion of the Dortmund-Ems Canal in 1899 stimulated its regrowth. The city was largely destroyed in World War II but was extensively rebuilt. It is a major transportation and industrial hub of the RUHR area. Dorylaeum \0d|r-²-9l%-²m\, Battle of (July 1, 1097) Battle in which a combined force of crusaders and Byzantines defeated an army of SELJUQ Turks in Anatolia. The crusaders later captured Antioch. See also CRUSADES. Dos Passos \d!s-9pa-s²s\, John (Roderigo) (b. Jan. 14, 1896, Chicago, Ill., U.S.—d. Sept. 28, 1970, Baltimore, Md.) U.S. writer. Son of a wealthy lawyer, Dos Passos attended Harvard University. His wartime service as an ambulance driver and later work as a journalist led him to see the U.S. as “two nations,” one for the rich and one for the poor. His reputation as social historian, radical critic of American life, and major novelist of the postwar “lost generation” rests primarily on his powerful U.S.A. trilogy, comprising The 42nd Parallel (1930), 1919 (1932), and The Big Money (1936). Dostoyevsky \d!s-t²-9yef-sk%\, Fyodor (Mikhaylovich) (b. Nov. 11, 1821, Moscow, Russia—d. Feb. 9, 1881, St. Petersburg) Russian novelist. Dostoyevsky gave up an engineering career early in order to write. In 1849 he was arrested for belonging to a radical discussion group; sentenced to be shot, he was reprieved at the last moment and spent four years at hard labour in Siberia, where he developed epilepsy and experienced a deepening of his religious faith. Later he published and wrote for several periodicals while producing his best novels. His novels are concerned especially with faith, suffering, and the meaning of life; they are famous for their psychological depth and insight and their nearprophetic treatment of issues in philosophy and politics. His first, Poor Folk (1846), was followed the same year by The Double. The House of the Dead (1862) is based on his imprisonment and The Gambler (1866) on his own gambling addiction. Best known are the novella Notes from the Underground (1864) and the great novels Crime and Punishment (1866), The Idiot (1869), The Possessed (1872), and The Brothers Karamazov (1880), which focuses on the problem of evil, the nature of freedom, and the characters’ craving for some kind of faith. By the end of his life, he had been acclaimed one of his country’s greatest writers, and his works had a profound influence on 20th-century literature. Dou \9da>\, Gerrit or Gerard Dou (b. April 7, 1613, Leiden, Neth.—d. Feb. 9, 1675, Leiden) Dutch painter. From 1628 to 1631 he studied with REMBRANDT, adopting his subject matter, careful draftsmanship, and dramatic treatment of light and shadow. When Rembrandt left Leiden, Dou developed his own style, painting smooth, meticulously detailed, small-scale domestic interiors and portraits. He used the “frame within a frame” device of surrounding his figures by a window or curtain and excelled at scenes lit by candlelight. With JAN STEEN he was among the founders of the Guild of St. Luke at Leiden (1648). Douala \d\ or Guarauno Group of nomadic South American Indians who in modern times inhabit the swampy ORINOCO RIVER delta in Venezuela and areas eastward into Guyana. Some live in Suriname. They subsist mainly by fishing, hunting, and gathering, though they practice some agriculture in the drier regions. The Mauritia palm is a staple: they make a fermented drink from its sap and bread from its pith, eat its fruit, and fashion its fibre into clothing and hammocks. Their priestly ceremonies and complex social classes are unusual among hunters and gatherers. Warren Town (pop., 2000: 11,360), eastern Rhode Island, U.S. Located near PROVIDENCE, it was settled in 1632 and was originally part of Massachusetts. In 1747 Rhode Island annexed it. It was pillaged and burned by the British during the AMERICAN REVOLUTION. It is now a summer resort. Warren, Earl (b. March 19, 1891, Los Angeles, Calif., U.S.—d. July 9, 1974, Washington, D.C.) U.S. jurist and politician. He graduated from law school at the University of California, then served as a county dis- Earl Warren, 1953. trict attorney (1925–39), state UPI—EB INC.

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2030 I Warren  Warsaw Uprising

attorney general (1939–43), and governor of the state for three terms (1943–53). He was criticized for interning Japanese citizens in camps during World War II. His only electoral defeat came in 1948, when he ran for vice president on the Republican ticket with THOMAS DEWEY. In 1953 Pres. DWIGHT D. EISENHOWER appointed Warren chief justice of the SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES, a post he held until 1969. This was a period of sweeping changes in U.S. constitutional law. Under his leadership the court proved to be strongly liberal. Among Warren’s notable opinions are those in BROWN V. BOARD OF EDUCATION (1954), which held that segration in public education was unconstitutional; Reynolds v. Sims (1964), which declared the “one man, one vote” principle requiring state legislative reapportionment (1964); and MIRANDA V. ARIZONA (1966), which held that police must inform an arrestee of his right to remain silent and to have counsel present (appointed for him if he is indigent) and that a confession obtained in defiance of these requirements is inadmissible in court. After the assassination of Pres. JOHN F. KENNEDY, he chaired the WARREN COMMISSION. Warren, Harry orig. Salvatore Guaragna (b. Dec. 24, 1893, Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.—d. Sept. 22, 1981, Los Angeles, Calif.) U.S. songwriter. The youngest of 12 children, Warren was self-taught musically. He toured with brass bands and carnivals from age 15. After a few years as a song plugger in TIN PAN ALLEY, he began contributing tunes to Broadway musicals, including “You’re My Everything” and “I Found a Million Dollar Baby in a Five-and-Ten-Cent Store.” In 1932 he moved to Hollywood, where he collaborated on films such as Gold Diggers of 1933 (1933), 42nd Street (1933), Down Argentine Way (1940), and Sun Valley Serenade (1941; with “Chattanooga Choo-Choo”), and he received Academy Awards for the songs “Lullaby of Broadway,” “You’ll Never Know,” and “On the Atchison, Topeka and the Santa Fe.” Between 1935 and 1950 he wrote more top-10 hit songs than any other songwriter. Warren, Joseph (b. June 11, 1741, Roxbury, Mass.—d. June 17, 1775, Bunker Hill, Mass.) American Revolutionary leader. He was a physician in Boston. He was active in patriot causes after passage of the Stamp Act (1765) and helped draft the Massachusetts colonial grievances called the Suffolk Resolves (1774). As a member of the Massachusetts Committee of Public Safety, he sent PAUL REVERE on his ride to Lexington. He was made a major general in the Revolutionary army and died in the Battle of BUNKER HILL. Warren, Mercy Otis orig. Mercy Otis (b. Sept. 25, 1728, Barnstable, Mass.—d. Oct. 19, 1814, Plymouth, Mass., U.S.) U.S. poet, dramatist, and historian. The sister of JAMES OTIS, she received no formal education but nevertheless became a woman of letters and a friend and correspondent of leading political figures. She commented on the issues of the day in political satires, plays, and pamphlets. Though a defender of the American Revolution, she opposed the Constitution, arguing that power should rest with the states. Her most significant work, History of the Rise, Progress, and Termination of the American Revolution (3 vol., 1805), covered the period from 1765 to 1800. Warren, Robert Penn (b. April 24, 1905, Guthrie, Ky., U.S.—d. Sept. 15, 1989, Stratton, Vt.) U.S. novelist, poet, and critic. Warren attended Vanderbilt University, where he joined the Fugitives, a group of poets who advocated the agrarian way of life in the South. Later he taught at several colleges and universities and helped found and edit The Southern Review (1935–42), possibly the most influential American literary magazine of the time. His writings often treat moral dilemmas in a South beset by the erosion of its traditional rural values. His best-known novel is All the King’s Men (1946, Pulitzer Prize; film, 1949). The short-story volume The Circus in the Attic (1948) contains the notable “Blackberry Winter.” He won Pulitzer prizes for poetry in 1958 and 1979 and became the first U.S. poet laureate in 1986.

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Warren Commission offıcially President’s Commission on the Assassination of President John F. Kennedy (1963–64) Group appointed by Pres. LYNDON B. JOHNSON to investigate the circumstances surrounding JOHN F. KENNEDY’s slaying and the shooting of his assassin, LEE HARVEY OSWALD. It was chaired by EARL WARREN and included two U.S. senators, two U.S. congressmen, and two former public officials. After months of investigation, it reported that Kennedy was killed by Oswald’s rifle shots from the Texas School Book Depository and that Oswald’s murder by Jack Ruby two days later was not part of a conspiracy to assassinate Kennedy. Its findings were later questioned in a number of books and articles and in a special congressional committee report in 1979, though no conclusive contradictory evidence was found.

© 2006 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Warring States period Chinese Zhangou (475–221 BC) In Chinese history, a period in which small feuding kingdoms or fiefdoms struggled for supremacy. The period was dominated by seven or more small feuding Chinese kingdoms. It was the age of Confucian thinkers MENCIUS and XUNZI, the time when many of the government institutions and cultural patterns that would characterize China for the next 2,000 years were established. The term Warring States (Sengoku) is also used in Japan for a period (1482–1558) during the MUROMACHI PERIOD that was marked by almost constant warfare among rival DAIMYO seeking to consolidate and increase their landholdings. Wars of the Roses See Wars of the ROSES Warsaw City (pop., 2001 est.: 1,610,471), capital of Poland, on the VISTULA RIVER. Founded c. 1300, it flourished as a trade centre, came under Polish control in 1526, and became the capital in 1596. During the late 18th century it expanded rapidly, but it was destroyed in 1794 by the Russians. In 1807 it was made the capital of the Duchy of WARSAW by NAPOLEON. Taken by the Russians in 1813, it was the centre of Polish insurrections in 1830–31 and 1860. It was occupied by the Germans in WORLD WAR I and again in WORLD WAR II, when its large Jewish population revolted in the WARSAW GHETTO UPRISING (1943). The WARSAW UPRISING in 1944 was unsuccessful, and the Germans virtually destroyed the city. Modern Warsaw, rebuilt after the war, now houses government bodies, including the Sejm (parliament); it is also an industrial and educational centre. Among its historic buildings are a 14th-century Gothic cathedral and a medieval castle. Warsaw, Duchy of or Grand Duchy of Warsaw Independent Polish state (1807–15), created by NAPOLEON. Established by the Treaties of Tilsit in 1807 after the Poles had helped Napoleon defeat Prussia, it consisted originally of the major portion of the central Polish provinces that Prussia had taken in the 1790s. For Napoleon’s second war against Russia (1812), the Duchy of Warsaw supplied nearly 98,000 men, but Napoleon’s defeat in Russia also sealed the fortunes of the duchy. In 1813 the Russians assumed control of it. Later the Congress of VIENNA divided it into three parts: the Grand Duchy of Pozna&; the free Republic of Kraków; and the Congress Kingdom of Poland, which was joined to Russia by making the Russian emperor its king. Warsaw Ghetto Uprising (April 19–May 16, 1943) Revolt by Polish Jews under Nazi occupation against deportation to the TREBLINKA extermination camp. By July 1942 the Nazis had herded 500,000 Jews from surrounding areas into the ghetto in Warsaw. Though starvation killed thousands each month, the Nazis began transferring more than 5,000 Jews a day to rural “labour camps.” When word reached the ghetto in early 1943 that the destination was actually the gas chambers at Treblinka, the newly formed Jewish Fighting Organization (^OB) attacked the Nazis, killing 50 in four days of street fighting and causing the deportations to halt. On April 19 HEINRICH HIMMLER sent 2,000 SS men and army troops to clear the ghetto of its remaining Jews. For four weeks the ^OB and guerrillas fought with pistols and homemade bombs, destroying tanks and killing several hundred Nazis, until their ammunition ran out. Not until May 8 did the Nazis manage to take the ^OB headquarters bunker. Many of the surviving ^OB fighters took their own lives to avoid being captured. The battle raged until May 16, when the SS chief declared “The Warsaw Ghetto is no more.” During the 28 days of the uprising, more than 40,000 Jews were either killed or deported. Warsaw Pact or Warsaw Treaty Organization Military alliance of the Soviet Union, Albania (until 1968), Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Romania, formed in 1955 in response to West Germany’s entry into NATO. Its terms included a unified military command and the stationing of Soviet troops in the other member states. Warsaw Pact troops were called into action to suppress uprisings in Poland (1956), Hungary (1956), and Czechoslovakia (1968). The alliance was dissolved in 1991 after the collapse of the Soviet bloc, and Soviet troops departed. Several Warsaw Pact members later joined NATO. Warsaw Uprising (August–October 1944) Insurrection in Warsaw in WORLD WAR II that failed to prevent the pro-Soviet Polish administration from gaining control of Poland. In July 1944, as Soviet troops approached Warsaw, the Polish underground was encouraged to stage an uprising against the Germans. Though wary of Soviet promises of selfgovernment, the Polish home army of 50,000 troops attacked the weakened German force and gained control of most of Warsaw in four days.

wart  Washington

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German reinforcements then bombarded the city with air and artillery attacks for 63 days. The approaching Red Army halted, and the Soviets refused to allow aid from the Allies to the beleaguered Poles, who were forced to surrender when their supplies ran out in October; the Germans then deported the rest of the city’s population and destroyed most of the city itself. During the fighting, some 300,000 Poles died. By allowing the Polish home army to be eliminated, the Soviets diminished potential resistance to their establishing political domination of Poland in 1945.

formed a border zone between the kingdoms of WESSEX and MERCIA. During the Middle Ages two major centres grew up in the county, at Warwick and Kenilworth. Historical structures surviving in the area include Norman and early English churches, along with buildings at STRATFORD-UPONAVON associated with WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE. The Battle of Edgehill (1642), the first serious clash of the ENGLISH CIVIL WARS, was fought in Warwickshire near the OXFORDSHIRE border. Farming, dairy farming, fruit growing, market gardening, and coal mining are important economic activities.

wart or verruca \v²-9r=-sh%-9²n\ (b. 1568, Suning, Heibei province, China—d. 1627, Anhui province) EUNUCH who dominated the Chinese government in 1624–27. As a close companion to the nurse of the future Tianqi emperor (r. 1620–27), Wei captured the young prince’s trust. Once on the throne, the weak and indecisive emperor let Wei become the actual ruler. Wei levied crushing taxes on the provinces, ruthlessly exploited the population, hounded his enemies, terrorized the official class, and filled the government with sycophants and opportunists. He fell from power when the emperor died and hanged himself to avoid trial. He is considered the most powerful eunuch in Chinese history. Weidman \9w&d-m²n\, Charles orig. Charles Edward Weidman, Jr. (b. July 22, 1901, Lincoln, Neb., U.S.—d. July 15, 1975, New York, N.Y.) U.S. modern dancer, teacher, and choreographer. He studied at the Denishawn school and was a member of its company in the 1920s. In 1928 he cofounded with DORIS HUMPHREY the HumphreyWeidman school and dance company, for which he choreographed many works. His dances, often comic and satiric, employed an abstract, rhythmic pantomime. In 1945 he established his own school, and in 1948 he founded the Theatre Dance Company, for which he choreographed his major work, Fables for Our Time. He continued to teach, choreograph, and dance into the 1970s. Weierstrass \9v&-²r-0shtr!s\, Karl (Theodor Wilhelm) (b. Oct. 31, 1815, Ostenfelde, Bavaria—d. Feb. 19, 1897, Berlin) German mathematician. He taught principally at the University of Berlin (from 1856). After many years of working in isolation, an article in 1854 initiated a string of important contributions, which he disseminated mainly through lectures. He is known for his work on the theory of FUNCTIONs, and he is called the father of modern ANALYSIS. His greatest influence was felt through his students, many of whom went on to make important contributions to mathematics.

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weight Gravitational force of attraction on an object, caused by the presence of a massive second object, such as the Earth or Moon. It is a consequence of Isaac Newton’s universal law of GRAVITATION, which states that the force of attraction between two objects is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. For this reason, objects of greater MASS weigh more on the surface of the Earth. On the other hand, an object’s weight on the Moon is about one-sixth of its weight on Earth, even though its mass remains the same, because the Moon has less mass and a smaller radius than the Earth and therefore exerts less gravitational force. Weight W is the product of an object’s mass m and the acceleration of gravity g at the location of the object, or W = mg. Since weight is a measure of force rather than mass, the units of weight in the INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS are newtons (N). In common usage, weight is measured by the GRAM in the METRIC SYSTEM and by the OUNCE and POUND in the U.S. and British systems. weight lifting Sport in which barbells are lifted competitively or as an exercise. The two main events are (1) the snatch, in which the barbell is lifted from the floor to arm’s length overhead in a single, continuous motion; and (2) the clean and jerk, in which it is lifted first to the shoulders and then, after a pause, to arm’s length overhead. Contestants are divided into 10 body-weight categories ranging from flyweight to superheavyweight. Lifts may range to over 1,000 lbs (455 kg) in the heavyweight divisions. The origins of modern competition are to be found in 18th- and 19thcentury strongman contests. The first three Olympic Games (1896, 1900, 1904) included weight lifting, as have all games after 1920. weight training System of conditioning involving lifting weights, especially for strength and endurance. It may include the use of barbells and dumbbells, a Nautilus or similar machines, or a combination of these. Athletes use it to improve their performance, nonathletes use it for general conditioning or bodybuilding, and those recovering from an injury may use it as part of an overall rehabilitation program. weights and measures Standard quantities by which comparisons are made between an object to be measured and a known quantity of the same kind (see MEASUREMENT). Weights and measures are fundamental to the sciences, to engineering, building, and other technical matters, and to much everyday activity. See also FOOT; GRAM; INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS; METRE; METRIC SYSTEM; POUND. See table on following page. Weil \9vey\, Simone (b. Feb. 3, 1909, Paris, France—d. Aug. 24, 1943, Ashford, Kent, Eng.) French mystic and social philosopher. After graduating from the École Normale Supérieure, she taught philosophy in several girls’ schools from 1931 to 1938. To learn the psychological effects of heavy industrial labour, she took a job in 1934–35 in an auto factory, where she observed the spiritually deadening effect of machines on her fellow workers. She assisted the anti-Franco forces in the SPANISH CIVIL WAR and aided the French Resistance from London from 1942. Born Jewish, she converted to Roman Catholicism in the 1940s. She died at age 34 of tuberculosis complicated by self-imposed starvation undertaken out of sympathy for those suffering in occupied France. Her posthumously published works, including Gravity and Grace (1947), The Need for Roots (1949), Waiting for God (1950), and Notebooks (3 vol., 1951–56) explore her own religious life and analyze the individual’s relation to the state and to God, the spiritual shortcomings of modern industrial society, and the horrors of totalitarianism. Weill \9v&l\, Kurt (Julian) (b. March 2, 1900, Dessau, Ger.—d. April 3, 1950, New York, N.Y., U.S.) German-born U.S. composer. Son of a cantor, by age 15 he was working as a theatre accompanist. He studied composition briefly with ENGELBERT HUMPERDINCK, and a conductor’s post gave him wide experience. For a master class with FERRUCCIO BUSONI (1920), he wrote his first symphony. He gained attention with his one-act opera Der Protagonist (1925); its sparse and spiky style prefigured that of his greatest works. In 1927 he teamed with BERTOLT BRECHT to write The Threepenny Opera (1928) in a new “cabaret” style; the musical had enormous success in Berlin and elsewhere. In 1930 the two produced The Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny. When the Nazis took power in 1933, he fled to Paris with his wife, LOTTE LENYA, where he wrote The Seven Deadly Sins (1933). In 1935 the couple immigrated to the U.S.; there he collaborated on musicals such as Knickerbocker Holiday (1938) and Lost in the Stars (1949). Two of his songs, the “Morität” (“Mack the Knife”) from Threepenny Opera and “September Song” from Knickerbocker Holiday, have remained especially popular.

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Weights and Measurements1 (British Imperial System/U.S. Customary System) UNIT

ABBREVIATION OR SYMBOL

EQUIVALENTS IN OTHER UNITS OF SAME SYSTEM

METRIC EQUIVALENT

WEIGHT Avoirdupois2 ton short ton long ton hundredweight short hundredweight long hundredweight pound ounce dram grain

20 short hundredweight, 2000 pounds 20 long hundredweight, 2240 pounds

0.907 metric ton 1.016 metric ton

lb or lb avdp also # oz or oz avdp dr or dr avdp gr

100 pounds, 0.05 short tons 112 pounds, 0.05 long ton 16 ounces, 7000 grains 16 drams, 437.5 grains, 0.0625 pound 27.344 grains, 0.0625 ounce 0.037 dram, 0.002286 ounce

45.359 kilograms 50.802 kilograms 0.454 kilogram 28.350 grams 1.772 grams 0.0648 gram

pound ounce pennyweight grain

lb t oz t dwt also pwt gr

12 ounces, 240 pennyweight, 5760 grains 20 pennyweight, 480 grains, 0.083 pound 24 grains, 0.05 ounce 0.042 pennyweight, 0.002083 ounce

pound ounce dram scruple grain

lb ap oz ap dr ap s ap gr

12 ounces, 5760 grains 8 drams, 480 grains, 0.083 pound 3 scruples, 60 grains 20 grains, 0.333 dram 0.05 scruple, 0.002083 ounce, 0.0166 dram

cwt

Troy 0.373 kilogram 31.103 grams 1.555 grams 0.0648 gram

Apothecaries’ 0.373 kilogram 31.103 grams 3.888 grams 1.296 grams 0.0648 gram

CAPACITY U.S. liquid measure gallon quart pint gill fluid ounce fluid dram minim

gal qt pt gi fl oz fl dr min

4 quarts (231 cubic inches) 2 pints (57.75 cubic inches) 4 gills (28.875 cubic inches 4 fluid ounces (7.219 cubic inches) 8 fluid drams (1.805) cubic inches) 60 minims (0.226 cubic inch) 1 ⁄60 fluid dram (0.003760 cubic inch)

bushel peck quart pint

bu pk qt pt

4 pecks (2150.42 cubic inches) 8 quarts (537.605 cubic inches) 2 pints (67.201 cubic inches) ½ quart (33.600 cubic inches)

bushel peck gallon quart pint gill fluid ounce fluid dram minim

bu pk gal qt pt gi fl oz fl dr min

4 pecks (2219.36 cubic inches) 2 gallons (554.84 cubic inches) 4 quarts (277.420 cubic inches) 2 pints (69.355 cubic inches) 4 gills (34.678 cubic inches) 5 fluid ounces (8.669 cubic inches) 8 fluid drams (1.7339 cubic inches) 60 minims (0.216734 cubic inch) 1 ⁄60 fluid dram (0.003612 cubic inch)

mile rod yard foot inch

mi rd yd ft or ‘ in or “

5280 feet, 1760 yards, 320 rods 5.50 yards, 16.5 feet 3 feet, 36 inches 12 inches, 0.333 yard 0.083 foot, 0.028 yard

sq mi or mi2 rd or rd yd or yd2 ft or ft2 in or in2

640 acres, 102,400 square rods 4840 square yards, 43,560 square feet 30.35 square yards, 0.00625 acre 1296 square inches, 9 square feet 144 square inches, 0.111 square yard 0.0069 square foot, 0.00077 square yard

cu yd or yd3 cu ft or ft3 cu in or in3

27 cubic feet, 46,656 cubic inches 1728 cubic inches, 0.0370 cubic yard 0.00058 cubic foot, 0.000021 cubic yard

3.785 liters 0.946 liter 473.176 milliliters 118.294 milliliters 29.573 milliliters 3.697 milliliters 0.061610 milliliter

U.S. dry measure 35.239 liters 8.810 liters 1.101 liters 0.551 liter

British imperial liquid and dry measure 36.369 liters 9.092 liters 4.546 liters 1.136 liters 568.26 milliliters 142.066 milliliters 28.412 milliliters 3.5516 milliliters 0.059194 milliliter

LENGTH 1.609 kilometers 5.029 meters 0.9144 meter 30.48 centimeters 2.54 centimeters

AREA

W X Y

square acre square square square square

mile rod yard foot inch

sq sq sq sq

2

Z

2.590 square kilometers 0.405 hectare, 4047 square meters 25.293 square meters 0.836 square meter 0.093 square meter 6.452 square centimeters

VOLUME cubic yard cubic foot cubic inch 1

For U.S. equivalents of the metric unit see Metric System table.

© 2006 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

2

0.765 cubic meter 0.028 cubic meter 16.387 cubic centimeters

The U.S. uses the avoirdupois units as a common system of measuring weight.

Weimar Republic  welfare

Weimar Republic \9v&-0m!r\ Government of Germany 1919–33, so named because the assembly that adopted its constitution met at Weimar in 1919. In its early years, the Weimar Republic was troubled by postwar economic and financial problems and political instability, but it had recovered considerably by the late 1920s. Its major political leaders included presidents FRIEDRICH EBERT (1919–25) and PAUL VON HINDENBURG (1925–34), as well as GUSTAV STRESEMANN, who was chancellor (1923) and foreign minister (1923–29). With the GREAT DEPRESSION, its political and economic collapse enabled ADOLF HITLER to rise to power and become chancellor (1933), after which he suspended the Weimar constitution. weimaraner \0v&-m²-9r!-n²r, 9w&-m²-0r!-n²r\ Dog breed developed in the early 19th century by German nobles of the court of Weimar. First used to hunt big game, the breed was later used as a bird dog and retriever. A graceful dog, it has hanging ears; blue, gray, or amber eyes; and a short, sleek, mouse- or silver-gray coat. It stands 23–27 in. (58–69 cm) and weighs 70–85 lbs (32–39 kg). It is characterized by an alert, well-balanced stance and is valued as an aggressive hunter and a good companion and watchdog. Weingartner \9v&n-g!rt-n²r\, (Paul) Felix, lord von Münzberg (b. June 2, 1863, Zara, Dalmatia, Austrian Empire—d. May 7, 1942, Winterthur, Switz.) Austrian conductor and composer. After studies in Leipzig, he came to the attention of FRANZ LISZT, who arranged the premiere of Weingartner’s first opera at Weimar (1884). He held conducting posts at Danzig, Hamburg, and Mannheim, and he became conductor of the Berlin Opera in 1891. He succeeded GUSTAV MAHLER as conductor of the Vienna Opera (1908–11) and stayed on with the Vienna Philharmonic until 1927. He also directed the Basel Conservatory (1927–33) and was a distinguished writer on music. Weiser \9v&-z²r\, Johann Conrad (b. Nov. 2, 1696, near Herrenberg, Württemberg—d. July 13, 1760, Womelsdorf, Pa.) North American colonial Indian agent. He immigrated to New York in 1710 and lived briefly among the IROQUOIS before becoming a farmer and an Indian interpreter. In 1729 he moved to Pennsylvania, where he worked with the colony’s Indian agent. He arranged agreements between Iroquois tribes and colonial governments that helped form a British-Indian alliance against the French. Weisgall, Hugo (David) (b. Oct. 13, 1912, Eibenschutz, Moravia—d. March 11, 1997, Manhasset, N.Y., U.S.) Czech-born U.S. composer. Born into a musical family that had produced several generations of composers and cantors, he was raised in Baltimore, Md., U.S., from 1920. He studied composition with ROGER SESSIONS and conducting with FRITZ REINER, also earning a doctorate in German literature from Johns Hopkins University. He is considered one of the most important U.S. opera composers for the literary quality of his chosen texts and the individuality and effectiveness of his music; his works include the operas The Tenor (1950), The Stronger (1952), and Six Characters in Search of an Author (1956); his last completed opera, Esther (1993), won wide acclaim. Weiss \9v&s\, Peter (Ulrich) (b. Nov. 8, 1916, Nowawes, near Potsdam, Ger.—d. May 10, 1982, Stockholm, Swed.) German playwright. After fleeing Germany in 1934, his family settled in Sweden. Weiss painted and made avant-garde films in the 1950s, then turned to fiction and drama, establishing a reputation in Germany with his novel Exile (1962). He won international acclaim for his play The Persecution and Assassination of Jean-Paul Marat as Performed by the Inmates of the Asylum of Charenton Under the Direction of the Marquis de Sade (1964; usually referred to as Marat/Sade), which addressed themes of individualism, revolution, and violence. Associated with the THEATRE OF FACT movement, he also wrote the documentary dramas The Investigation (1965), The Song of the Lusitanian Bogey (1967), and Discourse on Vietnam (1968). Weissmuller \9w&s-0m²l-²r\, Johnny in full Peter John Weissmuller (b. June 2, 1904, Freidorf, near TimiÃoara, Rom.—d. Jan. 20, 1984, Acapulco, Mex.) U.S. freestyle swimmer and actor. He was reared in Chicago, where he attended the University of Chicago and developed into a champion swimmer. He won five Olympic gold medals (three in 1924, two in 1928) and set 67 world records. He later became even more famous as an actor, starring as Tarzan of the Apes in 12 films (1932–48) and later creating the role of the comic-book character Jungle Jim for film and television. Weizmann \9v&ts-m!n\, Chaim (Azriel) (b. Nov. 27, 1874, Motol, Pol., Russian Empire—d. Nov. 9, 1952, Reeovot, Israel) Russian-born Israeli chemist and first president of ISRAEL (1949–52). After studying in

© 2006 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

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Germany and Switzerland, he earned a doctorate in chemistry and patented several dyestuffs before moving to England to teach in 1904. His 1912 discovery of a bacterium that could convert carbohydrate to acetone proved of great value to the British armaments industry in World War I (1914–18), and in return the government aided his negotiations for the BALFOUR DECLARATION (1917). In 1919 he obtained an agreement on JewishArab coexistence in Palestine from FAYÍAL I, and in 1920 he became president of the World Zionist Organization, a post from which he was ousted in 1931. He settled in Reeovot, Palestine, in 1937. Despite conflicts with more extreme Zionists, he was sent to the U.S. to secure support for Israel in 1948, and in 1949 he was elected president. Welch, William Henry (b. April 8, 1850, Norfolk, Conn., U.S.—d. April 30, 1934, Baltimore, Md.) U.S. pathologist. He studied pathology in Germany before returning to the U.S. to open the nation’s first pathology laboratory, at Bellevue Hospital Medical College in New York City (1879). From 1893 he directed the rise of Johns Hopkins University, where he developed the country’s first true university department of pathology. He recruited WILLIAM OSLER and WILLIAM S. HALSTED for the faculty and was the medical school’s first dean (1893–98). His curriculum revolutionized U.S. medicine by demanding that students study physical sciences and be actively involved in clinical duties and laboratory work. Welch also demonstrated the effects of diphtheria toxin and discovered bacteria involved in wound fever and gas gangrene. Weld, Theodore Dwight (b. Nov. 23, 1803, Hampton, Conn., U.S.—d. Feb. 3, 1895, Hyde Park, Mass.) U.S. reformer. He left divinity studies to become an agent for the AMERICAN ANTI-SLAVERY SOCIETY (1834). His pamphlets The Bible Against Slavery (1837) and Slavery as It Is (1839) helped convert figures such as JAMES BIRNEY, HENRY WARD BEECHER, and HARRIET BEECHER STOWE to the antislavery cause. He married his coworker ANGELINA GRIMKÉ (1838), and they directed schools and taught in New Jersey and Massachusetts. In 1841–43 Weld organized an antislavery reference bureau in Washington, D.C., to assist congressmen seeking to repeal the GAG RULE restricting the consideration of antislavery petitions in Congress. welding Technique for joining metallic parts, usually through the application of heat. Discovered in the 1st millennium AD during attempts to manipulate IRON into useful shapes, the technique produced a strong, tough blade. Welding traditionally involved interlayering relatively soft and tough iron with high-carbon material, followed by hammer FORGING. Modern welding processes include gas welding, arc welding, and resistance welding. More recently, electron-beam welding, laser welding, and several solid-phase processes such as diffusion bonding, friction welding, and ultrasonic joining have been developed. See also BRAZING, SOLDERING. Welensky, Sir Roy (b. Jan. 20, 1907, Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia—d. Dec. 5, 1991, Blandford Forum, Dorset, Eng.) Rhodesian politician. He worked on the railways as a youth, later becoming head of the Railway Workers Union. He held the heavyweight boxing title for Rhodesia, 1925–27. He began his political career with election to Northern Rhodesia’s legislature in 1938. A strong supporter of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (now ZAMBIA, ZIMBABWE, and MALAWI), he was elected to its first parliament, became prime minister in 1956, and served until the federation broke up in 1963. Welf dynasty \9velf\ Dynasty of German nobles and rulers. They descended from Count Welf of Bavaria (early 9th century), whose daughters married LOUIS I THE PIOUS and Louis the German. The Welfs were linked to the House of ESTE in the 11th century. They supported the papal party against Emperor HENRY IV and were rivals of the HOHENSTAUFENS in central Europe and in Italy (where their name was Guelpho; see GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES). As part of the House of HANOVER, they became rulers of Britain. welfare or social welfare Any of a variety of governmental programs that provide assistance to those in need. Programs include PENSIONs, disability and UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE, family allowances, survivor benefits, and national health insurance. The earliest modern welfare laws were enacted in Germany in the 1880s (see SOCIAL INSURANCE), and by the 1920s and ’30s most Western countries had adopted similar programs. Most industrialized countries require firms to insure workers for disability (see WORKERS’ COMPENSATION) so that they have income if they are injured, whether temporarily or permanently. For disability from illness unrelated to occupational injury, most industrial states pay a short-term benefit followed by a long-term pension. Many countries pay a family allowance to reduce the poverty of large families or to increase the birth rate. Survivor

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2044 I welfare economics  Wellington

benefits, provided for widows below pension age who are left with a dependent child, vary considerably among nations and generally cease if the woman remarries. Among the world’s wealthy countries, only the U.S. fails to provide national health insurance other than for the aged and the poor (see MEDICARE AND MEDICAID). welfare economics Branch of economics established in the 20th century that seeks to evaluate economic policies in terms of their effects on the community’s well-being. Early theorists defined WELFARE as the sum of the satisfactions accruing to an individual through an economic system. Believing it was possible to compare the well-being of two or more individuals, they argued that a poor person would derive more satisfaction from an increase in income than would a rich person. Later writers argued that making such comparisons with any precision was impossible. A new and more limited criterion was later developed: one economic situation was deemed superior to another if at least one person had been made better off without anyone else being made worse off. See also CONSUMER’S SURPLUS; VILFREDO PARETO. Welfare Island See ROOSEVELT ISLAND Welfare Party See REFAH PARTY welfare state Concept of government in which the state plays a key role in protecting and promoting the economic and social well-being of its citizens. It is based on the principles of equality of opportunity, equitable distribution of wealth, and public responsibility for those who lack the minimal provisions for a good life. The term may be applied to a variety of forms of economic and social organization. A basic feature of the welfare state is SOCIAL INSURANCE, intended to provide benefits during periods of greatest need (e.g., old age, illness, UNEMPLOYMENT). The welfare state also usually includes public provision of education, health services, and housing. Such provisions are less extensive in the U.S. than in many European countries, where comprehensive health coverage and statesubsidized university-level education have been common. In countries with centrally planned economies, the welfare state also covers employment and administration of consumer prices. Most nations have instituted at least some of the measures associated with the welfare state; Britain adopted comprehensive social insurance in 1948, and in the U.S., sociallegislation programs such as the NEW DEAL and the Fair Deal were based on welfare-state principles. Scandinavian countries provide state aid for the individual in almost all phases of life. Welk, Lawrence (b. March 11, 1903, Strasburg, N.D., U.S.—d. May 17, 1992, Santa Monica, Calif.) U.S. bandleader and television performer. Born in a German-speaking village in North Dakota, he did not learn English until he was 21. He played the accordion and formed two musical groups that opened for bands and orchestras in the Midwest. Welk moved to Los Angeles, where his television program The Lawrence Welk Show (1955–71), which featured band music with vocalists, dancers, and instrumental soloists, became a huge success. The show was dropped by the network, but Welk continued it as Memories with Lawrence Welk (1971–82) after he was able to sign contracts with more than 250 independent television stations in the U.S. and Canada. Known for his unpretentious warmth and his trademark phrase “Wunnerful, wunnerful,” he played light, nostalgic “champagne music” and featured smiling performers such as the Lennon Sisters. well-field system Communal land organization supposedly in effect early in the ZHOU DYNASTY (1046–256 BC). It is mentioned in the writings of MENCIUS, who advocated it. In the well-field system, one unit of land was divided among eight peasant families. A shared field was surrounded by eight fields, each worked by an individual family. The field in the centre was worked jointly by the families for their lord. Later reformers referred to the concept to justify their land-redistribution systems or to criticize government land practices.

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well-made play French pièce bien faite Play constructed according to strict technical principles that produce neatness of plot and theatrical effectiveness. The form was developed c. 1825 by EUGÈNE SCRIBE and became dominant on 19th-century European and U.S. stages. It called for complex, artificial plotting, a buildup of suspense, a climactic scene in which all problems are resolved, and a happy ending. Scribe’s hundreds of successful plays were imitated all over Europe; other practitioners of the form included playwrights VICTORIEN SARDOU, GEORGES FEYDEAU, and ARTHUR WING PINERO, who brought the form to the level of art with The Second Mrs. Tanqueray (1893).

© 2006 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Weller, Thomas H(uckle) (b. June 15, 1915, Ann Arbor, Mich., U.S.) U.S. physician and virologist. He studied at Harvard Medical School. For culturing poliomyelitis virus, which led to the development of polio vaccines, he shared a 1954 Nobel Prize with John Enders (1879–1985) and Frederick Robbins (b. 1916). He was the first (with Franklin Neva) to culture rubella virus and to isolate chickenpox virus from human cell cultures. He served as director of Harvard University’s Center for the Prevention of Infectious Diseases (1966–81). Welles \9welz\, Gideon (b. July 1, 1802, Glastonbury, Conn., U.S.—d. Feb. 11, 1878, Hartford, Conn.) U.S. politician. Cofounder and editor the Hartford Times (1826–36), he founded one of the first Republican Party newspapers in New England, the Hartford Evening Press (1856). In 1861 he was appointed secretary of the navy by Pres. ABRAHAM LINCOLN, and in the American Civil War he built a large Union navy from a few ships, supported development of the IRONCLADs, and helped form the strategic naval blockade. His Diary of Gideon Welles (published 1911) contains valuable insights into the Civil War. Welles, (George) Orson (b. May 6, 1915, Kenosha, Wis., U.S.—d. Oct. 10, 1985, Los Angeles, Calif.) U.S. film director, actor, and producer. He began acting on stage at 16 and made his Broadway debut in 1934. He directed an all-African American cast in Macbeth for the Federal Theatre Project. In 1937 he and JOHN HOUSEMAN formed the Mercury Theatre, creating a series of radio dramas, attempting to mount MARC BLITZSTEIN’s The Cradle Will Rock in the face of determined opposition, and winning notoriety with their panic-producing broadcast of War of the Worlds (1938). Welles then moved to Hollywood, where he cowrote, directed, produced, and acted in the classic Citizen Kane (1941), noted for its innovative narrative technique and atmospheric cinematography and considered among the most influential movies in film history. His other films include The Magnificent Ambersons (1942), The Stranger (1946), The Lady from Shanghai (1948), Touch of Evil (1958), and Chimes at Midnight (1966). His problems with Hollywood studios curtailed future productions, and he moved to Europe. He was also notable as an actor in Jane Eyre (1944), The Third Man (1949), and Compulsion (1959). Wellesley (of Norragh), Richard Colley Wellesley, Marquess (b. June 20, 1760, Dangan, County Meath, Ire.—d. Sept. 26, 1842, London, Eng.) British statesman. He inherited his father’s Irish title as earl of Mornington and sat in the Irish House of Lords from 1781. He served in the British House of Commons (1784–97). As governor of Madras and governor general of Bengal (1797–1805), he used military force and annexation to greatly enlarge the British Empire in India, but he was recalled by the East India Co. for his vast expenditures. In 1809 he went to Spain to make diplomatic preparations for the Peninsular War; he served as foreign secretary (1809–12). As lord lieutenant of Ireland (1821–28, 1833–34) he tried to reconcile Protestants and Catholics. Despite his own achievements, he became increasingly jealous of his younger brother, the duke of WELLINGTON. Wellesley College Private women’s college in Wellesley, Mass., chartered in 1870. Long one of the most eminent women’s colleges in the U.S., it was the first to provide scientific laboratories. It grants bachelor’s degrees in humanities, including Chinese, Japanese, and Russian languages; in social science, including African studies, religion, and economics; and in science and mathematics, including computer science. Among its facilities are an advanced science centre and an observatory. Wellington City (pop., 2001 prelim.: 165,945), port, and capital of New Zealand. It is located at the southern shore of the NORTH ISLAND, on Port Nicholson. Founded in 1840, it became a municipality in 1853. In 1865 the capital was transferred there from AUCKLAND. It is the financial, commercial, and transportation centre of New Zealand. Wellington produces transportation equipment, machinery, metal products, textiles, and printed materials. It is the site of the major government buildings and the headquarters of many cultural, scientific, and agricultural organizations. Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st duke of (b. May 1, 1769, Dublin, Ire.—d. Sept. 14, 1852, Walmer Castle, Kent, Eng.) British general. Son of the Irish earl of Mornington, he entered the army in 1787 and served in the Irish Parliament (1790–97). Sent to India in 1796, he commanded troops to victories in the Maratha War (1803). Back in England, he served in the British House of Commons and as chief secretary in Ireland (1807–09). Commanding British troops in the PENINSULAR WAR, he won battles against the French in Portugal and Spain and invaded France to win the war in 1814, for which he was promoted to field marshal and

Wellman  Wen Zhengming

created a duke. After NAPOLEON renewed the war against the European powers, the “Iron Duke” commanded the Allied armies to victory at the Battle of WATERLOO (1815). Richly rewarded by English and foreign sovereigns, he became one of the most honoured men in Europe. After commanding the army of occupation in France (1815–18) and serving in the Tory cabinet as master general of ordnance (1818–27), he served as prime minister (1828–30), but he was forced to resign after opposing any parliamentary reform. He was honoured on his death by a monumental funeral and burial in St. Paul’s Cathedral alongside HORATIO NELSON. Wellman, William (Augustus) (b. Feb. 29, 1896, Brookline, Mass, U.S.—d. Dec. 9, 1975, Los Angeles, Calif.) U.S. film director. He was a flying ace in World War I and later a barnstorming stunt pilot. He acted in Knickerbocker Buckeroo (1919) with DOUGLAS FAIRBANKS before turning to directing. Known as “Wild Bill,” he made the aerial dogfight classic Wings (1929, Academy Award), setting standards for documentary realism, and he launched a gangster movie trend with Public Enemy (1931), starring JAMES CAGNEY. The Ox-Bow Incident (1942), considered one of his best films, examined frontier justice in the American West. In Track of the Cat (1954), Wellman experimented with the minimal use of colour. His other films include A Star Is Born (1937), Nothing Sacred (1937), Beau Geste (1939), The Story of GI Joe (1945), and The High and the Mighty (1954). Wells, H(erbert) G(eorge) (b. Sept. 21, 1866, Bromley, Kent, Eng.—d. Aug. 13, 1946, London) English novelist, journalist, sociologist, and historian. While studying science under T.H. HUXLEY in London, Wells formulated a romantic conception of the subject that would inspire the inventive and influential science-fiction and fantasy novels for which he is best known, including the epochal The Time Machine (1895), The Invisible Man (1897), and The War of the Worlds (1898). He simultaneously took on a public role as an agitator for progressive causes, including the LEAGUE OF NATIONS. He later abandoned SCIENCE FICTION and drew on memories of his lower-middle-class early life in works including the novel Tono-Bungay (1908) and the comic The History of Mr. Polly (1910). He had a 10-year affair with the young REBECCA WEST. World War I shook his faith in human progress, prompting him to promote popular education through nonfiction works including The Outline of History (1920). The Shape of Things to Come (1933) was an antifascist warning. Though a sense of humour reappears in Experiment in Autobiography (1934), most of his late works reveal a pessimistic, even bitter outlook. Wells, Ida B(ell) or Ida Bell Wells-Barnett (b. July 16, 1862, Holly Springs, Miss., U.S.—d. March 25, 1931, Chicago, Ill.) U.S. journalist and antilynching crusader. The daughter of slaves, she was educated at a freedmen’s school in Holly Springs and later at Fisk University in Nashville, Tenn. She was a teacher until the late 1880s, when she turned to journalism, writing articles for African American-owned newspapers on issues such as the limited education available to African American children. In 1892, after three of her friends were lynched by a mob, Wells began an editorial campaign against lynching that quickly led to the destruction of her newspaper’s office by whites. She continued her antilynching campaign as a lecturer and founder of antilynching societies and African American women’s clubs throughout the U.S. In 1895 she married Ferdinand Barnett and began writing for his newspaper, the Chicago Conservator. In 1910 she founded the Chicago Negro Fellowship League. She also founded Chicago’s Alpha Suffrage Club, perhaps the first African American woman-suffrage group. Wells, Kitty orig. Muriel Ellen Deason (b. Aug. 30, 1919, Nashville, Tenn., U.S.) U.S. COUNTRY MUSIC singer and songwriter. She sang GOSPEL MUSIC in church as a child. In the 1930s she made her radio debut and took her name from a CARTER FAMILY song. She married Johnny Wright in 1937, and they performed together off and on since. Her first major hit was the classic “It Wasn’t God Who Made Honky Tonk Angels” (1952). Her extensive repertory made her the top-ranking female country artist for some 15 years, paving the way for later stars such as PATSY CLINE and LORETTA LYNN. Wells Fargo & Co. Leading U.S. banking and financial services company formerly involved in express transport. Founded in 1852, Wells, Fargo transported gold between the west and east coasts in the wake of the California GOLD RUSH. By 1866 it had gained control of almost all stagecoach business in the West. In 1905 its banking operations were separated from its express operations. The express carrier disappeared by the mid 1920s, its domestic business taken over by the firm later known

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as the RAILWAY EXPRESS AGENCY and its foreign express business by AMERICAN EXPRESS CO. Its security services still exist under the name Wells Fargo Armored Service Corp., a subsidiary of Baker Industries. The Wells Fargo Bank’s holding company, Wells Fargo & Co., was established in 1968. Headquartered in San Francisco, the bank has subsidiaries and affiliates worldwide. In 1998 Wells Fargo & Co. merged with Norwest Corp. Welsh corgi \9k|r-g%\ Either of two breeds of cattle dogs. The Cardigan Welsh corgi was developed from relatives of the DACHSHUND that Celts brought to Wales c. 1200 BC. The Pembroke Welsh corgi is descended from sled-dog stock brought to Wales about 1100 by Flemish weavers. Both have short legs, a foxlike head, and erect ears, and both stand 10–12 in. (25–30 cm) tall and weigh 25–38 lb (11–17 kg). The Cardigan has a long tail and rounded ears; the Pembroke has a short tail and pointed ears. The Cardigan’s coarser coat can be solid-coloured, tricoloured, or mottled; the Pembroke is solid- or bicoloured. Welsh language CELTIC LANGUAGE of Wales. Besieged for centuries by the English language, Welsh continues to be spoken by 18–20% of the population of Wales, or more than half a million people, though estimates of the actual number of first-language speakers vary widely. Welsh is traditionally divided into three periods: Old Welsh (c. 800–1150), attested mainly in glosses and short textual passages; Middle Welsh (c. 1150– 1500), with a rich medieval literature including poetic texts originally composed much earlier; and Modern Welsh (from c. 1500). Modern literary Welsh was largely fixed by WILLIAM SALESBURY’s Bible translation. Vernacular Welsh, split along dialectal lines, has long been diverging from literary Welsh; many modern speakers cannot write or easily understand the traditional written language. The issue of an acceptable modern standard remains unresolved. Welsh literary renaissance Literary activity in Wales and England in the mid-18th century that attempted to stimulate interest in the Welsh language and in the classical bardic verse forms of Wales. It was centred on the Morris family of Welsh scholars, who preserved ancient texts and encouraged contemporary poets to use the strict metres of the ancient Welsh BARDs. The movement gave rise to many publications and helped reestablish local EISTEDDFODs and, in the early 19th century, the National Eisteddfod. A second revival began with the establishment of the University of Wales at the end of the 19th century. Welty, Eudora (b. April 13, 1909, Jackson, Miss., U.S.—d. July 23, 2001, Jackson) U.S. short-story writer and novelist. Welty focused her work on a small town that resembled her birthplace and the Delta country. Her main subject is the intricacies of human relationships. She first gained attention for the story collection A Curtain of Green (1941), containing the widely admired “Petrified Man” and “Why I Live at the P.O.” Other stories appear in The Wide Net (1943), The Golden Apples (1949), and The Bride of the Innisfallen (1955). Her novels include Delta Wedding (1946), The Ponder Heart (1954), and The Optimist’s Daughter (1972, Pulitzer Prize). Her works combine humour and psychological acuity with a sharp ear for regional speech patterns. She also published books of her photographs, including those she took while working for the Works Progress Administration during the Great Depression. Wen Jiabao (b. Sept. 1942, Tianjin, China) Premier of China (from 2003). While studying at the Beijing Institute of Geology, Wen joined the CHINESE COMMUNIST PARTY (CCP). In 1985 he was named deputy director of the General Office of the CCP Central Committee and the following year became director. While at the General Office, Wen also served as chief of staff to several general secretaries of the CCP, including Zhao Ziyang. The two men faced criticism after visiting Beijing’s TIANANMEN SQUARE during a series of pro-democracy demonstrations and being photographed talking with protestors. Although Zhao was placed under house arrest, Wen escaped any lasting political damage. In 1993 he became a full member of the Secretariat of the CCP Central Committee and four years later a member of the Political Bureau. In 1998 he was appointed one of China’s four vice-premiers. Aided by his experience in shaping agricultural policy, Wen succeeded ZHU RONGJI as premier in 2003. Wen Zhengming or Wen Cheng-ming (b. 1470, Suzhou, Jiangsu province, China—d. 1559) Chinese painter, calligrapher, and scholarly figure. Born to an established family, Wen Zhengming was by nature sensitive and withdrawn, and it was not until age 53 that he emerged from his scholarly isolation, receiving the recognition of the court with his appointment to the Hanlin Academy. He stayed there for only three years and then retired to produce his best-known works. He was expert at the

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four major styles of calligraphy: seal, official, regular, and “running.” In all his paintings there is a spirit of studied antiquarianism and cautious consideration. In technique, Wen Zhengming’s paintings range from the highly detailed to the more freely washed. Along with his teacher, Shen Zhou, he was a leading figure of the Wu school of scholar-artists. Wenceslas (b. Feb. 26, 1361, Nürnberg—d. Aug. 16, 1419, Prague) King of BOHEMIA (as Wenceslas IV, 1363–96) and German king and Holy Roman emperor (1378–1400). The son of the emperor CHARLES IV, he was a weak ruler whose reign was plagued by wars and princely rivalries. He spent most of his time in Prague to the detriment of Germany, which suffered a decade of anarchy until peace was established by the Diet at Eger (1389). He was deposed by rebellious princes in 1400. Wenceslas \9wen-s²-0sl|s\ I (b. 1205—d. Sept. 23, 1253) King of BOHE(1230–53). He prevented MONGOL armies from attacking Bohemia in 1241 but could not defend Moravia. He gained control of Austria and forced the Austrian estates to accept his son P¶emysl Otakar II as their duke in 1251. Bohemia prospered under his reign, and an influx of German colonists and craftsmen enriched the country.

MIA

Wenceslas II (b. Sept. 17, 1271—d. June 21, 1305) King of BOHEMIA (1278–1305). He inherited the throne from his father at age seven, but his cousin Otto IV of Brandenburg served as his regent until 1283. Wenceslas gained full control of the country only after suppressing a dissident faction and executing his ambitious stepfather in 1290. A capable ruler who extended the boundaries of his kingdom, he annexed most of Upper Silesia and occupied Kraków (1291). He became king of Poland in 1300 but declined to become king of Hungary in 1301, instead placing his son Wenceslas on the Hungarian throne (1301–04). Wend Any member of a group of Slavic tribes that by the 5th century AD had settled in the area between the ODER and ELBE rivers in what is now eastern Germany. They occupied the eastern borders of the domain of the Franks and other Germanic peoples. From the 6th century the Franks warred sporadically against the Wends; under CHARLEMAGNE in the early 9th century they began a campaign to subjugate the Wends and forcibly convert them to Christianity. German annexation of Wendish territories began in 929 but collapsed during a Wendish rebellion in 983. A German Crusade against the Wends in 1147, authorized by the church and led by Henry the Lion, inflicted great loss of life. The Wends thereafter offered little opposition to German colonization of the Elbe-Oder region; themselves enserfed, they were gradually assimilated by the Germans, except for a minority in the traditional region of Lusatia (in eastern Germany) who are now known as Sorbs. Wenders \9ven-d²rs\, Wim orig. Ernst Wilhelm Wenders (b. Aug. 14, 1945, Düsseldorf, Ger.) German film director. He directed short films from 1967 and made features from 1973, including Alice in the Cities (1974) and Kings of the Road (1976), which explored themes of alienation and anxiety that are typical of Wenders’s work. He won acclaim in the U.S. for Paris, Texas (1984) and Wings of Desire (1987). He later directed Far Away, So Close (1993), Lisbon Story (1994), The End of Violence (1997), and the documentary Buena Vista Social Club (1999). Wendi or Wen Ti \9w²n-9d%\ Chinese god of literature. His chief heavenly task is to keep a register of men of letters so that he can mete out rewards and punishments to each according to merit. He had 17 reincarnations, during the ninth of which he appeared on earth as Zhang Ya. His writing earned him canonization during the TANG DYNASTY. Wendi or Wen-ti \9w²n-9d%\ orig. Liu Heng (b. 203 BC, China—d. 157 BC, China) Fourth emperor of the Chinese HAN DYNASTY. His long reign (180–157 BC) was one of good government and peaceful consolidation of power. Under his rule, China’s economy prospered and its population expanded. To later ages Wendi epitomized the virtues of frugality and benevolence in a Chinese ruler.

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Wendi or Wen-ti orig. Yang Jian (b. 541, China—d. 604, China) Founder of the Chinese SUI DYNASTY, which reunified China after centuries of instability. He was born into a powerful family in northern China, an area controlled by the non-Chinese Northern Zhou dynasty (557–81). When the Zhou emperor died unexpectedly, Wendi seized the throne, overcame his rivals, and in 581 proclaimed the Sui dynasty. Intending to build a strong, centralized state, he designed a huge new capital at CHANG’AN and attacked entrenched local interests. Families with hereditary local power were replaced with officials selected by examination, who were forbidden to serve in the areas from which they came and were

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rotated frequently. Wendi conquered the dynasties of southern China and broke the power of the Turkish empires in Turkistan and Mongolia. He put the EQUAL-FIELD SYSTEM into practice and produced a new legal code. His government brought in tax revenues and maintained price-regulating granaries. In old age he became deeply involved with BUDDHISM, building shrines and dedicating relics. See also YANG DI. Wentworth, Thomas See Thomas Wentworth, 1st earl of STRAFFORD Wenwang or Wen-wang \9w²n-9w!=\ or Xibo (fl. 12th century BC, China) Father of WUWANG (founder of the ZHOU DYNASTY) and one of the sage rulers regarded by Confucian historians as a model king. He is traditionally credited as author of the divination formulas of the YIJING (I CHING), which he is supposed to have written during his imprisonment by the last ruler of the SHANG DYNASTY. See also CONFUCIANISM; FIVE CLASSICS. Wenzel Anton, prince von Kaunitz \9ka>-nits\ -Rietberg (b. Feb. 2, 1711, Vienna, Austria—d. June 27, 1794, Vienna) Austrian state chancellor (1753–92). He entered the Austrian foreign service in 1740 and was responsible for the foreign policy of the Habsburg monarchy, serving MARIA THERESA and her successors. He represented Austria at the 1748 Aix-la-Chapelle peace conference and was ambassador to Paris (1750– 52). A lifelong enemy of Prussia, he managed to reverse Austria’s alliances during the SEVEN YEARS’ WAR, bringing France and Russia into the Habsburg orbit and isolating Prussia. The FRENCH REVOLUTION terminated the system of alliances he had created, and he resigned in 1792. werewolf In European folklore, a man who changes into a wolf at night and devours animals, people, or corpses, returning to human form by day. Some werewolves are thought to change shape at will; others, who inherited the condition or acquired it by being bitten by a werewolf, are transformed involuntarily under the influence of a full moon. Belief in werewolves is found throughout the world and was especially common in 16th-century France. Humans who believe they are wolves suffer from a mental disorder called lycanthropy. Lon Chaney, Jr., as a werewolf in The Wolf Man (1941).

Werner \9ver-n²r\, Abraham COURTESY OF UNIVERSAL PICTURES; PHOTOGRAPH, CENTER LIBRARY OF THE PERFORMING ARTS, Gottlob (b. Sept. 25, 1750, LINCOLN NEW YORK PUBLIC LIBRARY Wehrau, Saxony—d. June 30, 1817, Freiberg) German geologist. In opposition to the Plutonists, or Vulcanists, who argued that granite and many other rocks were of igneous origin, he founded the Neptunist school, which proclaimed that all rocks resulted from precipitation from oceans that had, he theorized, once completely covered the Earth. He rejected UNIFORMITARIANISM. His brilliant lecturing and personal charm won him many students, who, though many eventually discarded his theories, would not renounce them while Werner lived. Wertheimer \9vert-0h&-m²r\, Max (b. April 15, 1880, Prague, Czech.—d. Oct. 12, 1943, New Rochelle, N.Y., U.S.) German psychologist. He taught at the Universities of Frankfurt and Berlin (1916–29) before immigrating to the U.S. to teach at the New School for Social Research (1933–43). With WOLFGANG KÖHLER and Kurt Koffka (1886–1941), he was instrumental in establishing Gestalt psychology. Much of his work dealt with perception, though he also explored thinking and problem solving. His Productive Thinking was published posthumously in 1945. Wertmüller \9vert-0m-g²-v²\ River, north-central EUROPE. It rises in Russia’s Valdai Hills and flows 632 mi (1,020 km) in a great arc south through Russia and into Belarus and then northwest across Latvia. It discharges into the Gulf of RIGA on the BALTIC SEA. An important water route since early times, connected in its upper reaches by easy portages to the DNIEPER, VOLGA, and Lovat-Volkhov river systems, it constituted part of the great trade route from the Baltic region to Byzantium and to the Arabic east. Rapids and the presence of dams have restricted navigation on it. Western Electric Co. Inc. Former U.S. telecommunications company. Founded in 1869 by Elisha Gray and Enos N. Barton, the firm was incorporated in Chicago, Ill., in 1872 as the Western Electric Manufacturing Co. It manufactured a series of new products, including the world’s first commercial typewriters and incandescent lamps. Bell Telephone bought a controlling interest in the company in 1881; the next year it was reincorporated as Western Electric Co., becoming part of the Bell System (see AT&T INC.). It became a major manufacturer of telephone equipment and communications satellites, in addition to producing radar and missile systems. In 1983, with the breakup of AT&T, the company was dissolved as a separate subsidiary and became part of AT&T Technologies (renamed Lucent Technologies). Western European Union (WEU) Association of 10 European countries to coordinate matters of European security and defense. The WEU was formed in 1955 as an outgrowth of the BRUSSELS TREATY of 1948. Composed of Belgium, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Luxembourg, The Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, and Britain, it works in cooperation with NATO and the European Union and is administered by a council of the foreign affairs and defense ministers of the member countries. There are also several associate members, observers, and associate partners. It is headquartered in Brussels. Western Hemisphere Part of Earth comprising North and South America and the surrounding waters. Longitudes 20° W and 160° E are often considered its boundaries.

Western Indian bronze  Westminster Abbey

Western Indian bronze Style of metal sculpture that flourished in India from the 6th to the 12th century and later, mainly in the area of modern Gujarat and Rajasthan states. Most of the bronzes are associated with JAINISM; they include representations of saviour figures and ritual objects such as incense burners and lamp bearers. Most are small, as they were intended for private worship. They were made by LOST-WAX CASTING, and the eyes and ornaments are frequently inlaid with silver and gold. Western Isles See HEBRIDES ISLANDS Western Ontario, University of Public university in London, Ontario, Canada, founded in 1878. It has faculties of applied health sciences, arts, business administration, dentistry, education, engineering, graduate studies, journalism, law, library science, medicine, music, nursing, science, and social science as well as a graduate school of jourRsabhanatha, Western Indian bronze nalism. from Chahardi, western Khandesh,

Western Reserve Tract of land, Maharashtra state, 9th century AD; in a northeastern Ohio, U.S. Located on private collection. the southern shore of Lake ERIE, it P. CHANDRA formed part of the western lands of Connecticut not surrendered to Congress in 1786. It covered about 3,500,000 ac (1,417,500 ha) and was sold in part to immigrants from Connecticut (1786–1800). Ceded in 1800 to Ohio, it was later divided into several counties. Western Sahara formerly Spanish Sahara Territory, North Africa. Area: 97,344 sq mi (252,120 sq km). Population (2002 est.): 256,000. Capital: LAAYOUNE. Little is known of the area’s prehistory, though rock engravings in southern locations suggest a succession of nomadic groups. In the 4th century BC there was trade across the Mediterranean Sea between the region and Europe; this did not last, and there was little European contact until the 19th century. In 1884 Spain claimed a protectorate over the RÍO DE ORO region. Boundary agreements with France were concluded in 1900 and 1912. Spain formally united the area’s northern and southern parts into the overseas province of the Spanish Sahara in 1958. In 1976 Spain relinquished its claim. The region then was divided between Mauritania, which relinquished its claim in 1979, and Morocco, which later occupied the whole territory. Separatists of the POLISARIO movement, based in Algeria, declared a government-in-exile called the Saharan Arab Democratic Republic in 1976; the issue of Western Sahara’s status remained unresolved. remained unresolved.Western Sahara has vast phosphate deposits and some potash and iron ore. Western Samoa See SAMOA Western Scheldt or Westerschelde \9ves-t²r-0s_el-d²\ Estuary, southwestern Netherlands. An inlet of the North Sea at the mouth of the SCHELDE RIVER, it flows west for about 30 mi (50 km) through the Delta Islands to the North Sea. It has been an important transportation route since the 16th century, when Holy Roman Emperor CHARLES V designated VLISSINGEN as his port of embarkation from the Netherlands. It continues to operate as an important shipping route to many destinations, including ANTWERP. Western Schism See Western SCHISM Western Union Former U.S. telegraph company and contemporary provider of electronic financial transactions. From its foundation in 1851 as a company formed to build a telegraph line from Buffalo, N.Y., to St. Louis, Mo., in 1856 the expanding business was reorganized as the Western Union Telegraph Co. By the end of 1861 Western Union had built the first transcontinental TELEGRAPH line. The company introduced singing telegrams in 1933. Western Union continued to grow, absorbing competitors such as Postal Telegraph Inc. in 1943. As telegraphy was superseded by other methods of telecommunication, Western Union diversified into teletypewriter services, money orders, and mailgrams. It launched the tele-

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communications satellite Westar 1 in 1974 and was operating five satellites by 1982. In 1988 the company was reorganized as Western Union Corp. to handle money transfers and related services. After declaring bankruptcy in 1993, it sold its financial services arm in 1994 to First Financial Management Corp., and in 1995 that company merged with First Data Corp. The renamed Western Union Financial Services, Inc., became a world leader in electronic (including Internet) transactions. Western Wall or Wailing Wall Place of prayer in the Old City of JERUSALEM sacred to the Jewish people. It is the only remnant of the Second Temple of JERUSALEM. Because it now forms part of a larger area— known as the Temple Mount by Jews and as al-haram al-Sharlf by Muslims—surrounding the Muslim DOME OF THE ROCK and al-AqÆ) Mosque, the two groups have often vied for control of it. When Israel captured the Old City in the SIX-DAY WAR (1967), the Jews once more gained authority over the site. Westernizers See SLAVOPHILES

AND

WESTERNIZERS

Westerschelde See WESTERN SCHELDT Westinghouse, George (b. Oct. 6, 1846, Central Bridge, N.Y., U.S.—d. March 12, 1914, New York, N.Y.) U.S. inventor and industrialist. He served in the American Civil War. His first major invention was an air brake (patented 1869), which was eventually made compulsory on all American trains. He developed a railway signaling system and later introduced many innovations in piping natural gas. His major achievement was the adoption by the U.S. of ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC) for electric power transmission. The electrical system being developed in the U.S. in the 1880s used DIRECT CURRENT (DC), though AC systems were being developed in Europe. Westinghouse purchased the patents for NIKOLA TESLA’s AC motor and hired Tesla to Westinghouse COURTESY OF WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC CORPORATION improve and modify the motor for use in his power system. In 1886 he incorporated the predecessor of WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC CORP. He eventually prevailed over powerful opposition from advocates of DC power, and in 1893 his company was hired to light the World’s Columbian Exposition at Chicago. He also obtained the rights to develop the great falls of the Niagara River with AC generators. See also ELECTRIC CURRENT. Westinghouse Electric Corp. U.S. television and radio broadcasting company, formerly an electrical equipment manufacturer. It was founded in 1886 as the Westinghouse Electric Co. by GEORGE WESTINGHOUSE to make and sell alternating-current electrical systems. The company became a major supplier to the electric-utility industry, producing machinery used to generate and distribute electricity. It adopted the name Westinghouse Electric Corp. in 1945. After World War II Westinghouse also manufactured nuclear reactors and defense electronics. In the 1990s it bought television and radio stations throughout the U.S., including the television network CBS Inc. in 1995 and Infinity Broadcasting Corp. in 1996. After selling its defense electronics unit to Northrop Grumman Corp. in 1996, the company changed its name to CBS Corp. in 1997 and sold its nuclear operations to British Nuclear Fuels PLC in 1998. CBS was purchased by media conglomerate Viacom Inc. in 1999 and renamed CBS TELEVISION NETWORK. Westminster, Statute of (1931) Parliamentary statute that effected the equality of Britain and the then-dominions of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Ireland, and Newfoundland. It confirmed declarations made at British imperial conferences in 1926 and 1930 that the selfgoverning dominions were to be regarded as “autonomous communities within the BRITISH EMPIRE.” United in their allegiance to the crown, the countries individually controlled their own domestic and foreign affairs as equal members of the British COMMONWEALTH of Nations. Westminster Abbey Church in London. It was originally a Benedictine monastery. EDWARD THE CONFESSOR built a Norman-style church (consecrated 1065) on the site of an older church there; this was pulled

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down in 1245 by Henry III (except for the nave) and replaced with the present Gothic-style abbey church. The rebuilding of the nave was begun by 1376 and continued intermittently until Tudor times. The chapel of Henry VII (begun c. 1503) is noted for its exquisite fan vaulting. ELIZABETH I refounded the church as the Collegiate Church of St. Peter in Westminster (1560). The western towers (1745), by Nicholas Hawksmoor and John James, were the last addition. Every British sovereign since William the Conqueror has been crowned in the abbey except Edward V and Edward VIII. Many are also buried there, and it is crowded with the tombs and memorials to other famous Britons. Part of the southern transept is known as the Poets’ Corner, while the northern transept has memorials to statesmen. Westminster Confession Confession of faith of English-speaking Presbyterians, representing a theological consensus of international CALVINISM. Produced by the Westminster Assembly, it was completed in 1646 and approved by Parliament in 1648. When the monarchy was restored in 1660, the episcopal form of church government was reinstated and the Confession lost official status in England, but it had already been adopted by the Church of Scotland (1647) and various other churches. Consisting of 33 chapters, it states that the sole doctrinal authority is scripture, restates the doctrines of the Holy TRINITY and JESUS, and gives reformed views of the SACRAMENTS, the ministry, and GRACE. See also PRESBYTERIANISM. Weston, Edward (b. March 24, 1886, Highland Park, Ill., U.S.—d. Jan. 1, 1958, Carmel, Calif.) U.S. photographer. A camera enthusiast from boyhood, Weston began his professional career by opening a portrait studio in Glendale, Calif. His early work was in the style of the Pictorialists, photographers who imitated IMPRESSIONIST paintings. In 1915 Weston saw an exhibition of modern art that inspired him to renounce his former work: he began to create sharp and realistic pictures that convey the beauty of natural objects through skillful composition and subtleties of tone, light, and texture. After traveling and meeting luminaries such as ALFRED STIEGLITZ and DIEGO RIVERA, in 1927 Weston made a series Edward Weston at Point Lobos, Carmel of monumental close-ups of sea- Bay, Calif., 1945 shells, peppers, and halved cabbages, IMOGEN CUNNINGHAM bringing out the rich textures of their sculpturelike forms. Two years later he made the first of many photographs of the rocks and trees on Point Lobos, Calif. In 1936 Weston began a series of photographs of nudes and sand dunes at Oceano, Calif., which are often considered his finest work. After being stricken by Parkinson disease, Weston realized he would soon be unable to work. He made his last photographs on Point Lobos in 1948. He is considered one of the most influential photographers of the 20th century. Westphalia Former province of PRUSSIA, now part of Germany. It comprises (with the former state of Lippe) the present German state of North Rhine–Westphalia and parts of the states of Lower Saxony and Hesse. Settled by Saxons called Westphalians c. AD 700, Westphalia was created a duchy (1180), which for several centuries was administered for the archbishop of COLOGNE. The Peace of WESTPHALIA (1648) was signed at MÜNSTER. In 1807 NAPOLEON created for his brother, JÉRÔME BONAPARTE, the kingdom of Westphalia; its capital was Kassel. Reorganized by the Congress of VIENNA in 1815, it became a province of Prussia in 1816, with its capital at Münster. Its cities suffered severe bombings in World War II.

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Westphalia, Peace of (1648) European settlements that ended the THIRTY YEARS’ WAR, negotiated in the Westphalian towns of Münster and Osnabrück. The deliberations began in 1644 and ended in 1648 with two assemblies that produced the treaty between Spain and the Dutch (signed January 30) and another between Emperor FERDINAND III, the other German princes, France, and Sweden (signed October 24). Territorial changes gave Sweden control of the Baltic Sea, ensured France a firm frontier west of the Rhine River, and provided their allies with additional lands. Independence was confirmed for the United Provinces of the Netherlands and for the Swiss Confederation. The treaties also confirmed the Peace of AUGSBURG and extended the religious toleration of Lutherans to include tolera-

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tion of the Reformed (Calvinist) Church. The Holy Roman Empire was forced to recognize its German princes as absolute sovereigns in their own dominions, which greatly weakened its central authority. Wetar \9we-0t!r\ Island, Indonesia. Lying 35 mi (56 km) north of EAST TIMOR, it is 80 mi (130 km) long, 28 mi (45 km) wide, and has an area of 1,400 sq mi (3,600 sq km). In its interior, rugged mountains covered with tropical rain forests rise to 4,632 ft (1,412 m). Subsistence farming and fishing are the main occupations of the few islanders. Weyden \9v&-d³n, 9v@-d³n\, Rogier van der (b. 1399/1400, Tournai, France—d. June 18, 1464, Brussels) Flemish painter. He seems to have begun his painting career at the rather advanced age of 27, when he entered the studio of ROBERT CAMPIN. In early paintings he combined Campin’s bold style with the elegance and subtle visual refinements he admired in the art of JAN VAN EYCK. By 1435 he moved to Brussels and the next year was appointed city painter. During that period (c. 1435–40) he executed the celebrated panel of the Descent from the Cross for the chapel of the Archers’ Guild of Louvain. His international reputation grew, his work being particularly admired in Italy. Though most of his work was religious, he produced secular paintings (now lost) and some sensitive portraits. His art affected generations of Flemish artists and introduced the Flemish style throughout Europe. Weyerhaeuser \9w&-²r-0ha>-z²r\, Frederick orig. Friedrich Weyerhaeuser (b. Nov. 21, 1834, Nieder Saulheim, Hesse—d. April 4, 1914, Pasadena, Calif., U.S.) German-born U.S. lumber magnate. He immigrated to the U.S. at age 18 and found work in an Illinois sawmill, which he and his brother-in-law bought in 1857. He traveled constantly to buy stands of timber and acquired an interest in many logging and milling operations. In 1872 he organized the Mississippi River Boom and Logging Co., a huge confederation that handled all the logs milled on the Mississippi. In 1900 he bought 900,000 acres of timberland in the Pacific Northwest and founded the Weyerhaeuser Timber Co. (now Weyerhaeuser Co.), centred in Tacoma, Wash. During his lifetime the company bought almost two million acres of land. Weygand \v@-9g!/\, Maxime (b. Jan. 21, 1867, Brussels, Belg.—d. Jan. 28, 1965, Paris, France) Belgian-born French army officer. He was educated in France and taught at the French cavalry school. He served as chief of staff to Gen. FERDINAND FOCH (1914–23), as high commissioner in Syria (1923–24), and as inspector general of the army (1931–35) before retiring in 1935. In May 1940 he was recalled to take command of the French armies; unable to prevent a German victory, he advised capitulation in June. After the Allied invasion of North Africa (1942) he sought to fly to Algiers but was caught by the Germans and imprisoned in an Austrian castle. Released by U.S. troops in 1945, he was arrested by the French under the orders of CHARLES DE GAULLE. He was exonerated by de Gaulle in 1948. whale Any of dozens of species of exclusively aquatic MAMMALs found in oceans, seas, rivers, and estuaries worldwide but especially numerous in the Antarctic Ocean. Whales are commonly distinguished from the smaller PORPOISEs and DOLPHINs and sometimes from NARWHALs, but they are all CETACEANs. See also BALEEN WHALE; TOOTHED WHALE. whale shark Species (Rhincodon typus) of gigantic but harmless SHARK found worldwide but mainly in the tropics. The largest of living fishes, it often grows to about 30 ft (9 m) long and may reach twice that size. It is gray or brown with a pale undersurface and is distinctively marked with small spots and narrow vertical lines of yellow or white. It has tiny teeth, and eats plankton and small fishes. A sluggish animal, it generally swims slowly near the surface and has been hit by ships. Whales, Bay of Former inlet of the Ross Sea, ROSS ICE SHELF, Antarctica. It was first seen by the British explorer James C. Ross in 1842. The bay was the continent’s most southerly open harbour in summer and was the site of several important bases for Antarctic exploration. More than 10 mi (16 km) wide in 1911, it gradually narrowed as advancing ice sheets collided. It disappeared entirely in 1987 when an iceberg 99 mi (159 km) long broke off from the Ross Ice Shelf. whaling Hunting of WHALES for food, oil, or both. Whaling dates to prehistoric times, when Arctic peoples used stone tools to hunt whales. They used the entire animal, a feat not accomplished by Western commercial whalers until the advent of floating factories in the 20th century. The Basque were the first Europeans to hunt whales commercially; when seaworthy oceangoing vessels began to be made, they took to the open seas

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(14th–16th century). They were followed by the Dutch and the Germans in the 17th century and the British and their colonists in the 18th century. In 1712 the first SPERM WHALE was killed; its oil proved more valuable than that of the RIGHT WHALE, which had hitherto been the object of whaling ventures. Whaling expeditions in pursuit of the free-ranging sperm whale could last for four years. The discovery of petroleum (1859), overfishing, the use of vegetable oil, and the substitution of steel for whalebones in corsets led to a steep decline in whaling in the later 19th century, but Norwegian innovations made hunting the hitherto “wrong” whales (RORQUALS, including the BLUE WHALE and the SEI WHALE; so called because they sank when killed) commercially feasible, and the number of whales killed rose from under 2,000 to over 20,000 between 1900 and 1911. The Norwegians and the British dominated whaling into the mid 20th century, when overfishing again made it unprofitable for most nations, though not Japan and the Soviet Union, which became the chief whaling nations. Concern over the near extinction of many species led to the establishment in 1946 of the International Whaling Commission. Commercial whaling was prohibited altogether in 1986, but several nations refused to comply. At the beginning of the 21st century, Norway and Japan continued to hunt hundreds of nonendangered whales annually. Wharton, Edith (Newbold) orig. Edith Newbold Jones (b. Jan. 24, 1862, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Aug. 11, 1937, Saint-Brice-sousForêt, near Paris, France) U.S. novelist and short-story writer. Born into upper-class society, she began writing a few years after her marriage in 1885. She lived in France after 1908 and was divorced in 1913. Her works examine the barriers of social convention, especially in the upper class, that stand in the way of individual happiness. Her close friendship with the older novelist HENRY JAMES did much to support and shape her work. The critical and popular success of her novel The House of Mirth (1905; film, 1918, 2000; for television, 1981) established her as a leading writer. She is perhaps best known for Ethan Frome (1911), which exploits the grimmer possibilities of New England farm life. Her other books include the novels The Custom of the Country (1913), The Age of Innocence (1920, Pulitzer Prize), and The Buccaneers (1938). wheat Any of various CEREAL GRASSES in the genus Triticum of the Poaceae (or Gramineae) family, one of the oldest and most important of the cereal crops. More of the world’s farmland is devoted to wheat than to any other food crop; China is the largest wheat producer. The plant has long, slender leaves, hollow stems in most varieties, and flowers grouped together in spikelets. Of the thousands of varieties known, the most important are T. aestivum, used to make bread; T. durum, used in making pasta; and T. compactum (club wheat), a softer type used for cake, crackers, cookies, pastries, and household flours. Winter wheat (sown in fall) and spring wheat (sown in spring or, where winters are mild, sometimes fall) are the two major types. The greatest portion of wheat flour is used for breadmaking. Small quantities are used in the production of starch, malt, gluten, alcohol, and other products. Inferior and surplus wheats and various milling by-products are used for livestock feeds. Wheatley, Phillis (b. c. 1753, present-day Senegal or The Gambia?, West Africa—d. Dec. 5, 1784, Boston, Mass., U.S.) African American poet and the first African American to publish a book. She was kidnapped, transported to America, and sold from a slave ship in 1761 to John Wheatley, a Boston merchant. The Wheatleys taught her to read and write English and Latin. At about age 14 she began writing poetry modeled on ALEXANDER POPE and other Neoclassical writers. Her verse—exceptionally mature, if conventional, poetry that was largely concerned with morality and piety—attracted much attention. Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral (1773), published in England, spread her fame to Europe. Freed in 1773, she married a free black man in 1778. She worked as a servant in her final years and died in poverty. wheel Circular frame of hard material capable of turning on an axle. Wheels may be solid, partly solid, or spoked. The oldest known wheel was a wooden disk of planks held together by crosspieces. A pottery wheel or turntable was developed c. 3500 BC in Mesopotamia. The spoked wheel appeared c. 2000 BC on CHARIOTS in Asia Minor. Later developments included iron hubs that turned on greased axles. Perhaps the most important invention in human history, the wheel was essential to developing civilizations, and has remained essential to power generation, transportation, industrial manufacturing, and countless other applications. wheel lock Device for igniting the powder in a firearm such as a MUSKET. Developed c. 1515, the wheel lock struck a spark to ignite powder in

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the pan of a musket by means of a holder that pressed a shard of flint or a piece of iron pyrite against an iron wheel with a milled edge; the wheel rotated and sparks flew. The principle was used in the design of the flintand-wheel cigarette lighter. See also FLINTLOCK. whelk Any marine SNAIL of the family Buccinidae, or a snail having a similar shell; found worldwide. Some whelks are called CONCHS. The sturdy shell of most species in the family is slender and has a wide opening in the first whorl. The animal feeds on other mollusks through its long proboscis; some species also kill fishes and crustaceans caught in commercial traps. Most are coldwater species; tropical species are Northern whelk (Buccinum undatum) smaller and more colourful. The INGMAR HOLMASEN common northern whelk (Buccinum undatum) has a stout pale shell about 3 in. (8 cm) long and is abundant in North Atlantic waters. Whewell \9hyk\ Town (pop., 1997 est.: 169,000), capital of Namibia. It is located in the central part of the country, in an area originally settled by African peoples. In 1890 the site of the present town was claimed for the German government. In 1915 South African forces occupied it and initiated their claim to the country, then known as South West Africa. When Namibia became independent in 1990, Windhoek became its capital. It is the country’s main commercial and transportation centre. Windischgrätz \0vin-dish-9grets\, Alfred, prince zu (b. May 11, 1787, Brussels, Austrian Netherlands—d. March 21, 1862, Vienna, Austria) Austrian field marshal. He entered the Habsburg imperial army as an officer (1804) and rose through the ranks to become military commander for Bohemia (1840). In the REVOLUTIONS OF 1848, he suppressed the Czech rebels in Prague and crushed the insurrection in Vienna, where he was noted for his harsh military rule. Appointed field marshal (1848), he occupied Budapest in 1849 and drove the Hungarian rebels beyond the Tisza River. Although he was given supreme command of all imperial troops outside Italy, his gifts as a commander were mediocre, and differences with his brother-in-law, the Habsburg prime minister, prince zu SCHWARZENBERG, resulted in his recall (1849). Thereafter Windischgrätz retired to Bohemia. windmill Machine for harnessing the energy of the wind using sails mounted on a rotating shaft. The sails are mounted at an angle or are given a slight twist, so that the force of wind against them has two components, one of which, in the plane of the sails, causes rotation. Like WATERWHEELS, windmills were among the original prime movers that replaced human beings as a source of power. Their most important traditional use was for grinding grain, though in certain areas their use in land drainage and water pumping was equally important. Windmill use became increasingly widespread in Europe (particularly the Netherlands) from the 12th century to the early 19th century, but thereafter slowly declined. Interest in windmills for generating electric power revived in the 1970s. See also WIND POWER. window Opening in the wall of a building for light and air, and sometimes for framing a view. Since early times, the openings have been filled with stone, wooden, or iron grilles, with panes of glass or other translucent material such as mica or, in East Asia, paper. A window in a vertically sliding frame is called a sash window: a single-hung sash has only one half that moves; in a double-hung sash, both parts slide. A casement window swings open on hinges attached to the upright side of the frame. Awning windows swing outward on hinges attached to the top of the frame; hopper windows swing inward on hinges attached to the bottom of the frame. Large, fixed (nonoperating) areas of glass are commonly called picture windows. A bay window (see ORIEL) is an exterior projection of a BAY of a building that also forms an interior recess, providing better light and view than would a window flush with the building line. See also DIOCLETIAN WINDOW; ROSE WINDOW; SH−JI. Windows Family of software products developed by MICROSOFT CORP., mainly for PERSONAL COMPUTERS and workstations, that began as a GRAPHICAL

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before it was renamed in 1836. With its strategic location opposite Detroit, it became an industrial centre, an important railway terminus, and a busy port in GREAT LAKES shipping. Its manufactures include motor vehicles and parts, foods and beverages, and medicines. It is Canada’s leading port of entry from the U.S. Windsor, house of formerly (1901–17) House of SaxeCoburg-Gotha Royal house of Britain, which succeeded the house of HANOVER on the death of its last monarch, Queen VICTORIA. The dynastic name of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha was that of Victoria’s German-born husband, Prince ALBERT. The dynasty has included EDWARD VII, GEORGE V, EDWARD VIII, GEORGE VI, and ELIZABETH II. In view of the anti-German atmosphere of World War I, George V proclaimed in 1917 that all British male descendants of Queen Victoria would adopt the surname of Windsor.

Matching a specific air temperature (columns) with a wind speed (rows) will show the wind chill equivalent and the approximate time to frostbite. ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA, INC.

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USER INTERFACE and developed into an OPERATING SYSTEM. Version 1.0 (1985) provided a graphical user interface, MULTITASKING, and virtual MEMORY management; it ran on top of MS-DOS and was supported on Intel-based personal computers. Version 3.1 (1992) sold over 3 million copies in its first two months and helped establish Microsoft’s dominance of the operatingsystem market for microcomputers. Windows 95 and Windows 98 (named for the years of their release) continued its success. Windows NT (1993), which can run on RISC-based computers as well as traditional Intel-based systems, is a high-end version of Windows intended for more powerful personal computers, workstations, and servers. Windows CE (1996) is an embedded operating system for PALM PCS and other handheld devices. Microsoft continues to release new versions of its operating system: Windows 2000 for corporate-oriented computers, Windows Me (2000) for consumer-oriented computers, and in 2001 a version for both environments, Windows XP. Today Windows runs on more than 90% of all personal computers.

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Windsor City (pop., 2001: 208,402), southern Ontario, Canada. Located on the southern bank of the DETROIT RIVER, opposite DETROIT, Mich., U.S., it was settled by French farmers shortly after 1701, when a fort was established at Detroit. It was known first as “the Ferry” and later as Richmond

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© 2006 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Windsor, Wallis Warfield, duchess of (b. June 19, 1896, Blue Ridge Summit, Pa., U.S.—d. April 24, 1986, Paris, France) U.S. socialite who became the wife of Prince Edward, duke of Windsor (EDWARD VIII), after the latter had abdicated the British throne in order to marry her. She had earlier married Earl Spencer in 1916. After their divorce (1927), she married Ernest Simpson (1928) and moved with him to London. As a member of fashionable British society, she met Edward, prince of Wales, and the two gradually fell in love. She filed for divorce in 1936 with the intention of marrying Edward (by then King Edward), but as a woman twice divorced, she was unacceptable as a prospective British queen. Edward renounced the throne, and after she received her divorce they were married in 1937. The two thereafter lived a wellpublicized international social life, residing mainly in France.

Windsor Castle Principal British royal residence, on the River Thames in Windsor, Berkshire, southern England. It comprises two quadrilateral building courts, or upper and lower wards, separated by the Round Tower (erected by HENRY II), a massive structure built on a mound and visible for many miles. The present-day complex has been reworked repeatedly since WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR first constructed a stockade on the site. The lower ward includes the Albert Memorial Chapel and St. George’s Chapel, the burial place of 10 sovereigns. The upper ward, part of which was damaged by fire in 1992, includes the monarch’s private apartments, visitors’ apartments, and the royal library. windsurfing Sport of riding a sailboard, a modified surfboard with a movable mast. Steered from a standing position, sailboards are capable of moderately high speeds and are usually used on lakes, or close to shore—sometimes within the surf zone—on the ocean. The sport originated in the U.S. in the late 1960s and quickly grew in popularity. It was introduced at the Olympic Games in 1984. Windward Islands Island group, Lesser ANTILLES, West Indies. Located at the eastern end of the CARIBBEAN SEA, they include DOMINICA (sometimes classified as part of the LEEWARD ISLANDS), MARTINIQUE, ST. LUCIA, ST. VINCENT, GRENADA, and the chain of small islands known as the GRENA-

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DINES. Though near the general area, TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO and BARBADOS are usually not considered part of the group.

wine ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGE made from the fermented juice of GRAPEs. Wine may also be made from various fruits and plant parts. Though known by the ancients, wine was not drunk in its matured form until the development of the bottle and cork in the late 17th century. In wine manufacture, grapes are crushed and strained, and the juice (called must) is sealed in vats along with YEAST (Saccharomyees ellipsoideus) and often sulfur dioxide, which suppresses wild yeasts and organisms. FERMENTATION continues for several weeks, and then the wine is drawn off (“racked”) into wooden barrels or other containers for a second fermentation (“aging”). It is clarified and bottled before undergoing final maturation. Wines may be classified according to colour as red, rosé (pink), or white; colour depends on whether the skins of red grapes are allowed to ferment with the juice. Wine taste is described as sweet or dry, sweet wines being high in sugar content and dry wines containing little or no sugar. Sparkling wines, such as CHAMPAGNE, contain suspended carbon dioxide, the result of bottling the wine before fermentation is complete. Fortified wines, such as PORT and SHERRY, contain added brandy. The leading wine-producing countries are France, Italy, Spain, the U.S., Argentina, Germany, Australia, South Africa, Portugal, and Romania. Winfrey, Oprah (b. Jan. 29, 1954, Kosciusko, Miss., U.S.) U.S. television talk-show host and actress. After enduring an impoverished and troubled childhood, she became a news anchor for a local CBS television station in Tennessee at age 19. After graduating from Tennessee State University, she worked as a television reporter and anchor in Baltimore, Md., where she cohosted her first talk show (1977–83), and moved to Chicago to host A.M. Chicago (1984), which became that city’s highestrated morning show. The renamed Oprah Winfrey Show was syndicated in 1986, making her the first African American woman to host a successful national daytime talk show. Initially sensationalist, the enormously popular show gradually took on an uplifting and therapeutic tone. In 1986 she also formed her own television production company, Harpo Productions. In 1996 she introduced “Oprah’s Book Club” to foster reading by endorsing certain books. She appeared in the movies The Color Purple (1985) and Beloved (1998). wing In zoology, one of the paired structures certain animals use for flying. Bat and bird wings are modifications of the VERTEBRATE forelimb. In birds, the fingers are reduced and the forearm is lengthened. The primary flight feathers propel the bird forward, and the secondaries (on the upper wing) provide lift. Bat wings consist of a membrane stretched over slender, elongated arm and hand bones. Insect wings are folds of integument (“skin”). Most insects have two pairs of wings; DIPTERANS (flies) have only one developed pair, and BEETLES have two but use only one for flying. The two wings on a side usually move together, but DRAGONFLY wings work independently. Winnebago \0wi-n²-9b@-g+\ North American Indian people who live in the Midwestern U.S., notably Iowa, Wisconsin, and Nebraska. Their language belongs to the Siouan language family, and their name is derived from a Fox name meaning “People of the Stinking Water.” They call themselves Hochungra, meaning “People of the Big Speech [or Parent Speech].” Before the 17th century, the Winnebago lived in what is now eastern Wisconsin. By the early 19th century, as a result of their participation in the fur trade, they had expanded into southwestern Wisconsin and northwestern Illinois. They lived in villages of dome-shaped wigwams; there they cultivated corn, squash, beans, and tobacco and hunted bison. Their major ceremony was the medicine dance, in which both men and women participated. Membership in the 12 CLANs was determined by the father, and the clans were important units in social life. The Winnebago were involved in the BLACK HAWK War of 1832, after which most of the tribe was removed to other Midwestern states. At the turn of the 21st century they numbered some 12,000. Winnemucca, Sarah Hopkins See Sarah Winnemucca HOPKINS Winnipeg City (pop., 2001: metro. area, 671,274), capital of Manitoba, Canada. Located at the confluence of the RED RIVER OF THE NORTH and the ASSINIBOINE RIVER, Winnipeg was settled as a French fur-trading post in 1738. In the early 19th century THOMAS DOUGLAS founded a Scottish settlement there. Development ensued with the arrival of Canada’s first transcontinental railroad in 1885. Following disastrous floods in 1950, much of the city was rebuilt. It is a cultural, financial, commercial, industrial, and government centre.

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Winnipeg, Lake Lake, south-central Manitoba, Canada. Fed by many rivers, including the SASKATCHEWAN, RED RIVER OF THE NORTH, and WINNIPEG, it is drained to the northeast by the NELSON RIVER. It is 264 mi (425 km) long, up to 68 mi (109 km) wide, and has an area of 9,416 sq mi (24,387 sq km). The Canadian explorer Pierre LA VERENDRYE visited the lake in 1733. With an average depth of 50 ft (15 m), it is important for shipping, commercial fishing, and recreation. Winnipeg River River, southeastern Manitoba and southwestern Ontario, Canada. It issues from the Lake of the WOODS and flows northwest for about 200 mi (320 km) before entering the southeastern part of Lake WINNIPEG. It served as a route for early European explorers and fur traders. There are numerous hydroelectric power plants along its course. Winnipegosis \0wi-n²-p²-9g+-s²s\, Lake Lake, western Manitoba, Canada. Located west of Lake WINNIPEG, it is a remnant of glacial Lake Agassiz. Numerous streams feed the 2,075-sq-mi (5,374-sq-km) lake, which drains southeastward into Lake MANITOBA. It is more than 150 mi (240 km) long, up to 32 mi (51 km) wide, and has a maximum depth of 833 ft (254 m). It was explored in 1739 by Pierre LA VERENDRYE and later served as part of a fur-trading route. It now is important for commercial fishing. Winnipesaukee \0wi-n²-p²-9s|-k%\, Lake Lake, east-central New Hampshire, U.S. New Hampshire’s largest lake, it covers an area of 71 sq mi (184 sq km) and is 20 mi (32 km) long by 12 mi (19 km) wide. It is dotted with 274 islands. Its outlet, the Winnipesaukee River, flows about 20 mi (32 km) southwest to enter the MERRIMACK RIVER. It is a popular summer recreation area. Winogradsky \vyin-²-9gr!t-sk%\, Sergey (Nikolayevich) (b. Sept. 1, 1856, Kiev, Russian Empire—d. Feb. 25, 1953, Brie-ComteRobert, France) Russian microbiologist. In studying the physiology of sulfur bacteria, he showed that the colourless ones oxidize hydrogen sulfide to sulfur and then to sulfuric acid in the absence of light (1887). He discovered two groups of microbes (1889-90), each involved in one step of nitrification (oxidation of ammonia to nitrites and nitrites to nitrates), and established a new genus for each. He also proposed new ways to study soil microorganisms, particularly those symbiotic with legumes. Winslow, Edward (b. Oct. 18, 1595, Droitwich, Worcestershire, Eng.—d. May 8, 1655, at sea, near Jamaica, British West Indies) BritishAmerican colonist. In 1620 he sailed on the Mayflower to New England, where he was a founder of the PLYMOUTH colony. He served on the governor’s council (1624–47) and was governor of the colony (1633–34, 1636–37, 1644–45). He traded with the Wampanoag Indians and won the friendship of their chief, MASSASOIT. As a commissioner of the United Colonies of New England, he often went to England to represent the interests of the Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth colonies. In 1646 he returned to England and held minor offices under OLIVER CROMWELL. He died aboard a ship on an expedition to the West Indies. Winslow, Josiah (b. c. 1629, Plymouth colony—d. Dec. 18, 1680, Marshfield, Plymouth colony) American colonist. The son of EDWARD WINSLOW, he succeeded MYLES STANDISH as commander of PLYMOUTH colony’s military forces in 1656. He was appointed assistant governor of the colony (1657–73) and served as a member of the directorate of the NEW ENGLAND CONFEDERATION. He was the first native-born colonial governor of Plymouth colony (1673–80) and established its first public school. In KING PHILIP’S WAR he was commander in chief of the confederation’s military forces (1675–76). Winsor \9win-z²r\, Justin (b. Jan. 2, 1831, Boston, Mass., U.S.—d. Oct. 22, 1897, Cambridge, Mass.) U.S. librarian and historian. A freelance writer in his native Boston, Winsor was appointed a trustee of the Boston Public Library and served as its superintendent (1868–77). He was a founder of the American Winsor, engraving by J.A.J. Wilcox Library Association (1876) and its COURTESY OF THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, WASHINGTON, D.C. first president. From 1877 he was

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librarian of Harvard University. He edited the Narrative and Critical History of America (1884–89) and wrote several books. Winston-Salem City (pop., 2000: 185,776), north-central North Carolina, U.S. With High Point and GREENSBORO it forms a tri-city industrial area. Salem was laid out by Moravian colonists in 1766. R.J. Reynolds founded his tobacco company there in 1875 (see R.J. REYNOLDS TOBACCO). Winston was founded in 1849 and named for an American Revolutionary War soldier. The two towns were consolidated as Winston-Salem in 1913. Tobacco dominates its diversified industries, which include the manufacture of cigarettes, textiles, beer, rubber, leather, and petroleum. Winter War See RUSSO-FINNISH WAR wintergreen Any of several evergreen plants in the HEATH order (Ericales). They grow as woodland wildflowers and are cultivated as garden ground cover. They are also grown as a source of oil of wintergreen, a volatile, pungent oil used to flavour candies and chewing gum and to soothe muscular aches. Wintergreen is an alternative common name for several woodland herbs: those of the genus Pyrola (shinleaf), comprising about 12 species of creeping PERENNIALs, and Wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens) ROGER AND JOY SPURR—BRUCE COLEMAN INC./EB INC. Gaultheria procumbens (also called teaberry and checkerberry; see also SNOWBERRY), with white flowers and spicy red berries. Winthrop, John (b. Jan. 22, 1588, Edwardstone, Suffolk, Eng.—d. April 5, 1649, Boston, Massachusetts Bay Colony) American colonial political leader, first governor of the MASSACHUSETTS BAY COLONY. In 1629 he joined the Massachusetts Bay Co., and he was elected governor of the colony that was to be established by the company in New England. An ardent Puritan, he envisioned a colony based on his religious beliefs. He guided the colonists on his arrival in North America in 1630 and was elected governor 12 times during the period from 1631 to 1648. Though widely respected, he was criticized for opposing the formation of a representative assembly (1634), and the John Winthrop, detail of an oil paintcolony’s limitations on religious ing, school of Sir Anthony Van Dyck, c. freedom were decried by ROGER WIL- 1625–49; in the collection of the LIAMS and ANNE HUTCHINSON. His son, American Antiquarian Society, John Winthrop (1606–76), was an Worcester, Mass. influential governor of Connecticut COURTESY OF THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETY, WORCESTER, MASS. (1659–76). wire drawing Making of wire, generally from a rod or bar. The wiredrawing process consists of pointing the rod, threading the pointed end through a DIE, and attaching the end to a drawing block. The block, made to revolve by an electric motor, pulls the lubricated rod through the die, reducing it in diameter and increasing its length. Fine wire is made by a multiple-block machine, because the reduction cannot be performed in a single draft. wire service See

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wireless communications System using radio-frequency, infrared, microwave, or other types of electromagnetic or acoustic waves in place of wires, cables, or fibre optics to transmit signals or data. Wireless devices include CELL PHONEs, two-way radios, remote garage-door openers, television remote controls, and GPS receivers (see GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM). Wireless modems, microwave transmitters, and satellites make it possible to access the INTERNET from anywhere in the world. A Wireless Markup Language (WML) based on XML is intended for use in such narrow-band devices as cellular phones and pagers for the transfer and display of text. Wisconsin State (pop., 2000: 5,363,675), northern Midwest, U.S. It covers an area of 56,153 sq mi (145,436 sq km), including part of Lake MICHI-

© 2006 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

GAN; its capital is MADISON. Wisconsin is bordered by the western portion of Lake Superior and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan to the north; Lake Michigan to the east; Illinois to the south; and Minnesota and Iowa to the west and southwest, with the upper MISSISSIPPI RIVER acting as border between these states and Wisconsin. With many unique landforms, including the DOOR PENINSULA between Lake Michigan and GREEN BAY, its northern area has one of the greatest concentrations of lakes in the world. The WISCONSIN River crosses the state. Forests cover about 45% of it. Originally inhabited by the ADENA, or Mound Builders, the region was home to several different Indian tribes, including the OJIBWA, MENOMINEE, and WINNEBAGO, when Europeans arrived. The French explorer JEAN NICOLET visited Wisconsin in 1634; the first permanent European settlement was established in 1717. The area remained under French control until 1763, when France ceded it to Great Britain after the FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. After the AMERICAN REVOLUTION the region was ceded to the U.S. The American settlers dispossessed the Indians of their land (see BLACK HAWK) and settled the region. It became the Wisconsin Territory in 1836. It was admitted to the Union as the 30th state in 1848. The Progressive movement (see PROGRESSIVE PARTY) began in Wisconsin c. 1900, resulting in the passage of legislation that made the state a leader in social reform. It is a major milk, butter, and cheese producer in the U.S. Tourism and recreation also are economically important. Wisconsin ports handle much of the GREAT LAKES domestic freight shipping.

Wisconsin River River, central and southwestern Wisconsin, U.S. It rises near the Wisconsin-Michigan border and flows south through central Wisconsin, then turns west and enters the MISSISSIPPI RIVER after a course of 430 mi (690 km). It is navigable for small craft for about 200 mi (320 km) from its mouth. Lake Wisconsin is formed by a hydroelectric dam on the river near Prairie du Sac. Wise, Isaac Mayer (b. March 29, 1819, Steingrub, Bohemia, Austrian Empire—d. March 26, 1900, Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.) Rabbi and organizer of REFORM JUDAISM in the U.S. After emigrating from Bohemia, in 1854 he accepted a pulpit in Cincinnati, a post he held the rest of his life. He propagandized tirelessly for centralized Reform institutions and was instrumental in the formation of the Union of American Hebrew Congregations and of the Central Conference of American Rabbis, both of which he presided over. In 1857 he compiled a standard Reform prayer book, Minhag America. Though he failed to unite American Jews of all persuasions, he did bring about unanimity among Reform Jews. Wise, Stephen Samuel (b. March 17, 1874, Budapest, Hung., Austria-Hungary—d. April 19, 1949, New York, N.Y., U.S.) Hungarianborn U.S. Reform rabbi, political activist, and Zionist leader. His family immigrated to the U.S. when he was an infant. He earned his Ph.D. at Columbia University in 1901 and was trained as a rabbi. In 1907, after declining a post at an influential congregation because of inadequate assurances of free speech in the pulpit, he founded the Free Synagogue. In 1898 he attended the Second Zionist Congress and helped found the Zionist Organization of America. A prominent member of the Democratic Party, he helped win U.S. government approval of the BALFOUR DECLARATION. In 1922 he founded the Jewish Institute of Religion, a seminary for liberal rabbis, which merged with Hebrew Union College in 1950. Wister, Owen (b. July 14, 1860, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.—d. July 21, 1938, North Kingstown, R.I.) U.S. novelist. A well-to-do Easterner who graduated from Harvard, he spent his summers in the West from 1885. After practicing law for two years, he devoted himself to a literary career. His novel The Virginian (1902), the story of a cattle-ranch foreman who depends for his life on a harsh code of ethics, was a great popular success and helped establish the cowboy as an American folk hero and stock fictional character; the novel became the basis of a play, numerous films, and even a television series. His other major work was Roosevelt: The Story of a Friendship, 1880–1919 (1930), detailing his long acquaintance with Wister COURTESY OF THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, WASHINGTON, his Harvard classmate THEODORE D.C. ROOSEVELT.

wisteria  Wittgenstein

wisteria or wistaria \wis-9tir-%-²\ Any of the twining, usually woody vines that make up the genus Wisteria, of the pea family (see LEGUME), native mostly to Asia and North America. The leaves are pinnately compound (feathery). They are widely cultivated for their attractive spreading growth and beautiful, profuse flowers (blue, purple, rose, or white), which grow in large, drooping clusters. American wisteria (W. frutescens) and Kentucky wisteria (W. macrostachya) are native to the U.S. witan \9wi-t!n\ or witenagemot \9wi-t³n-²-g²-0m+t\ Council of the Anglo-Saxon kings in medieval England. Usually attended by highranking nobles and bishops, the witan was expected to advise the king on all matters on which he chose to ask its opinion. It attested his grants of land to churches or laymen, consented to his issue of new laws, and helped him deal with rebels and disaffected subjects. Its composition and time of meeting were determined at the king’s pleasure. witch hazel family Family Hamamelidaceae, comprising 23 genera of shrubs and trees, native to tropical and warm temperate regions. The six species of the genus Hamamelis include such ornamentals as witch hazel, winter hazel, and Fothergilla, which are outstanding for their early flowering and fall leaf colour. Members of the family are characterized by simple leaves and by flowers with four or five petals and sepals each. American, or common, witch hazel (H. virginiana) flowers in fall and retains yellow, cuplike calyxes (collections of sepals) through the winter. The common name refers to the forked twigs that were sometimes used for water-witching, or DOWSING to locate underground water. The fragrant liniment witch hazel is made from the dried leaves and sometimes from twigs and bark. Brilliant autumn leaf colour is an outstanding trait of IRONWOOD (Parrotia persica). Another genus, Altingia, has seven species, all Asian and all valued for their timber. A. excelsa is one of the largest trees of the Asian tropics, sometimes reaching a height of 82 ft (25 m). witchcraft and sorcery Use of alleged supernatural powers, usually to control people or events. Sorcery is sometimes distinguished from witchcraft in that sorcery may be practiced by anyone with the appropriate knowledge, using charms, spells, or potions, whereas witchcraft is considered to result from inherent mystical power and to be practiced by invisible means. Modern witches, however, claim that their craft is learned, and therefore another distinction between witchcraft and sorcery is that sorcery is always used with evil intent. Controversies over witchcraft and sorcery have been especially prevalent in close-knit communities experiencing decline or misfortune and embroiled in petty social conflict and scapegoating. In ancient Greece, witchcraft was mentioned as early as Homer (see CIRCE). The best-known sorceress in Classical times was the legendary MEDEA. The Roman Horace describes two witches in his Satires. The Bible contains several references to witches, notably the Witch of Endor consulted by Saul (1 Samuel 28). The early Church Fathers held that witchcraft was a delusion and denounced its practice. In the Middle Ages, witchcraft was believed to involve demonic possession. It was also associated with heresy and so came within the scope of the INQUISITION. In the witch-hunts of the 16th–17th centuries, European courts frequently regarded witches and sorcerers alike as candidates for burning. Although estimates of the number killed vary widely, it is likely that between 40,000 and 60,000 people were executed and many more were tortured and imprisoned during the witch-hunts. In the 20th century the modern witchcraft movement, WICCA, was established and promoted respect for nature and a pantheistic worldview. Belief in witchcraft is apparent in traditional societies throughout the world. The Navajo protect themselves against witches with sand or pollen paintings, and in African societies people seek aid from medical doctors and witch doctors, the former for treatment of the “external” causes of the illness and the latter for the “internal”. See also MAGIC; SALEM WITCH TRIALS. Witherspoon, John (b. Feb. 15, 1723, Gifford, East Lothian, Scot.—d. Nov. 15, 1794, Tusculum, N.J., U.S.) Scottish-American clergyman. Ordained a Presbyterian minister (1745), he served in Scottish parishes until 1768, when he was sent to North America to become president of the College of New Jersey (later Princeton University). As president, he expanded the curriculum and increased enrollment. A supporter of colonists’ rights, he was a member of the local COMMITTEE OF CORRESPONDENCE (1775–76) and the Continental Congress (1776–79, 1780–82); he was the only clergyman to sign the DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. He helped organize the American Presbyterian Church as a national body (1785–89). Witt \9vit, 9wit\, Katarina (b. Dec. 3, 1965, Karl-Marx-Stadt, E.Ger.) German figure skater. She won the first of six European championships

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in 1983 and went on to win two Olympic gold medals (1984, 1988) and four World Championships (1984, 1985, 1987, 1988). She was popular with audiences, who prized her grace and elegance as much as her technical abilities. She turned professional in 1988. Witte \9vi-t²\, Sergey (Yulyevich), Count (b. June 29, 1849, Tiflis, Georgia, Russian Empire—d. March 13, 1915, Petrograd, Russia) Russian statesman and premier (1905–06). He entered the imperial administrative service in 1871 and served as minister of finance (1892–1903). He improved communications, promoted construction of the TRANSSIBERIAN RAILWAY, and planned to modernize the Russian Empire. He represented Russia in the negotiations that ended the RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR. Although opposed to constitutionalism, he persuaded Tsar NICHOLAS II to issue the OCTOBER MANIFESTO in 1905 and was appointed the first constitutional premier. He organized the repression of all the forces of disruption in 1905–06—e.g., the St. Petersburg Soviet, or workers’ council, the troop mutinies in the Far East, strikes in South Russia, and peasant uprisings in the Baltic provinces—and he concluded arrangements with European bankers for a series of loans that restored Russian finances. In 1906 the tsar, favouring a more conservative regime, replaced him with PYOTR STOLYPIN. He never returned to office, and in 1914–15 he vainly opposed Russian entry into World War I and was sympathetic to peace feelers put out by the German government through Witte’s own German banker. Wittelsbach \9vi-t²ls-0b!_\, house of German noble family that ruled in Bavaria from the 12th to the 20th century. In 1124 Otto V, count of Scheyern (d. 1155), moved the family residence to the castle of Wittelsbach and took its name. In 1180 his son Otto VI became Otto I, duke of Bavaria. In 1214 Otto II obtained the Palatinate of the Rhine. A descendant, LOUIS IV, as Holy Roman emperor, divided the lands and granted the PALATINATE to his nephew, Rupert, who obtained the title of elector (r. 1353–90). Several divisions of ducal Bavaria were reunited under Albert IV (d. 1508). The Bavarian dukes became electors from 1623, and the last direct line died out in 1777. The Palatine branch united with Bavaria in 1799 under Duke Maximilian IV Joseph, who became king of Bavaria (1806) as MAXIMILIAN I. His descendants (including LOUIS I and LOUIS II) were kings until the abdication of Louis III in 1918. Wittgenstein \9vit-g²n-0sht&n\, Ludwig (Josef Johann) (b. April 26, 1889, Vienna—d. April 29, 1951, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, Eng.) Austrian-born English philosopher, regarded by many as the greatest philosopher of the 20th century. He was born into an immensely wealthy and cultivated family. In 1908 he went to Manchester, Eng., to study aeronautics. He soon developed an obsessive interest in the philosophy of logic and mathematics, and in 1911 he went to Cambridge to study logic with BERTRAND RUSSELL. Within a year he had learned all Russell had to teach; he then went to Norway, where he worked on logic in isolation in a wooden hut he built by the side of a fjord. There he developed in embryo what became known as the “picture theory” of meaning, a central tenet of which is that a proposition can express a fact by virtue of sharing with it a common structure, or “logical form.” When World War I broke out he joined the Austrian army, winning several decorations for bravery while serving on the Russian front. During the war he worked on a manuscript that was later published as Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (1922). Believing that he had solved all the major problems of philosophy, he abandoned the subject after the war and spent the next 10 years as a schoolteacher and doing other odd jobs in a remote Austrian village. Meanwhile, the Tractatus had attracted the attention of philosophers in Cambridge and Vienna, including those of the VIENNA CIRCLE of logical positivists (see LOGICAL POSITIVISM), some of whose meetings Wittgenstein was persuaded to join. He returned to Cambridge in 1929. During the early 1930s his ideas changed rapidly, and he gradually abandoned the doctrines of the Tractatus; indeed, he began to conceive of philosophy in radically different terms, as not the construction of theories designed to answer philosophical questions but as the activity of clearing up conceptual confusions arising from inattention to or misunderstandings of ordinary uses of language. What became known as the works of the “later Wittgenstein”—including Remarks on the Foundations of Mathematics (1956), Philosophical Grammar (1974), Philosophical Remarks (1975), and especially Philosophical Investigations (1953)—can be considered attempts to refine and definitively express this new approach. Though he worked with fierce energy and wrote prodigiously, he would allow none of his work from this period to be published in his lifetime. In 1939 he was appointed to the chair in philosophy at Cambridge previously held by G.E. MOORE. Disliking professional philosophy, he resigned the post

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in 1947 to live in seclusion in Ireland and then with various friends. Diagnosed with terminal cancer in 1949, he continued working intensively until two days before his death. See also ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHY. Witz \9vits\, Konrad (b. c. 1400, Rottweil, Baden-Württemberg—d. c. 1445, Basel or Geneva, Swiss Confederation) German-born Swiss painter. In 1434 he entered the painters’ guild in Basel, where he worked most of his life. Little else is known of his life. His masterpiece, The Miraculous Draft of Fishes (1444), from an altarpiece for the cathedral of Geneva, exemplifies such precise realism that the light reflected off the water’s surface is carefully distinguished from the light reflected off the stones beneath the shallow water. “The Miraculous Draft of Fishes,” temHe was one of the first German pera on panel by Konrad Witz, 1444; painters to show the influence of in the Museum of Art and History, early Netherlandish art and one of Geneva the first European artists to incorpo- ©MUSEE D’ART ET D’HISTOIRE, GENEVA; PHOTOGRAPH, rate realistic landscapes into reli- YVES SIZA gious paintings. Władysław II Jagiełło \vl#-9dis-l#f...y#g-9yel-l+\ (b. c. 1351—d. May 31/June 1, 1434, Grodek, near Lwów, Galicia, Pol.) Grand duke of Lithuania (1377–1401) and king of Poland (1386–1434), founder of the JAGIELLON DYNASTY. He had to defeat rivals, including his cousin VYTAUTAS, in order to secure his rule in Lithuania. He married the Polish queen Jadwiga (1386) after agreeing to Christianize Lithuania and unite it with Poland. He regained Ruthenia from Hungary (1387) and made the prince of Moldavia his vassal. He signed a treaty (1401) recognizing Vytautas as duke on the condition that Poland and Lithuania pursued a common foreign policy, and together they broke the power of the TEUTONIC ORDER. Wobblies See INDUSTRIAL WORKERS

OF THE

WORLD

Wodehouse \9w>d-0ha>s\, Sir P(elham) G(renville) (b. Oct. 15, 1881, Guildford, Surrey, Eng.—d. Feb. 14, 1975, Southampton, N.Y., U.S.) English-born U.S. novelist, short-story writer, lyricist, and playwright. He lived for long periods in the U.S. and France after 1909, and he settled in the U.S. after World War II. He is best known as the creator of the character of the young bachelor Bertie Wooster and his effortlessly superior manservant, Jeeves, who appeared in comic stories and novels from “Extricating Young Gussie” (1915) to Much Obliged, Jeeves (1971). Wodehouse wrote more than 90 books and 20 film scripts and collaborated on many plays and musical comedies, writing lyrics for JEROME KERN (Leave It to Jane, 1917; Show Boat, 1927), GEORGE GERSHWIN (Oh, Kay!, 1926), and others. Wolcott, Oliver (b. Nov. 20, 1726, Windsor, Conn.—d. Dec. 1, 1797, Litchfield, Conn., U.S.) American public official. He was a member of the Connecticut council (1771–86), a delegate to the Continental Congress (1775–76, 1778, 1780–84), and a signer of the DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. He raised a local militia to fight in the American Revolution and led troops in the defense of Connecticut (1779). As a commissioner of northern Indian affairs, he negotiated the Treaty of FORT STANWIX. He served as lieutenant governor (1787–96) and later governor (1796–97) of Connecticut.

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wolf Any of three extant species of CANINE. The gray, or timber, wolf (Canis lupus) is the ancestor of all domestic dogs. It once had the largest distribution of any mammal except human beings, but it is now found primarily in Canada, Alaska, the Balkans, and Russia. Wolves are intelligent and social. Their primary prey are deer, moose, and caribou, though they feed on many smaller animals as well. Because wolves have killed livestock, they have been persecuted by farmers and ranchers. A male gray wolf may be 7 ft (2 m) long and weigh up to 175 lb (80 kg); it is the largest living wild canid. Gray wolves live in hierarchical packs whose territories cover at least 38 sq mi (100 sq km) and hunt mostly at night. The much smaller red wolf (C. rufus), once widespread in the southcentral U.S., has been bred in captivity and reintroduced. The Abyssinian wolf (C. simensis) of Ethiopia was formerly considered a JACKAL. See also DIRE WOLF. Wolf \9v|lf,\ English \9w>lf\, Christa orig. Christa Ihlenfeld (b. March 18, 1929, Landsberg an der Warthe, Ger.) German novelist, essay-

© 2006 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

ist, and screenwriter. She was reared in a middle-class, pro-Nazi family; after Germany’s defeat in 1945, she moved with her family to East Germany. Her work reflects her experiences during World War II and her postwar life in a communist state. Her novels include Divided Heaven (1963), which brought her political favour; The Quest for Christa T. (1968), severely attacked in East Germany; A Model Childhood (1976); Cassandra (1983), her most widely read book, linking nuclear and patriarchal power; and What Remains (1990), on government surveillance and her own links to the East German secret police. Wolf \9v|lf\, Hugo (Filipp Jakob) (b. March 13, 1860, Windischgraz, Austria—d. Feb. 22, 1903, Vienna) Austrian composer. He entered the Vienna Conservatory at age 15, but, as a rabid Wagnerian, he lost patience with his teachers’ conservatism and soon left. By age 18 he probably had contracted the syphilis that would make him mentally unstable and eventually kill him. His volatile personality made it difficult for him to keep private students. As a critic (1884–87), he attracted attention for his vituperative comments. His productivity came in bursts; in 1888–89 he produced the remarkable songs of the Mörike Lieder, the Eichendorff Lieder, the Goethe Lieder, and much of the Spanish Songbook—more than half his total output. After beginning the Italian Songbook in 1891, he wrote nothing for three years, then quickly composed the opera Der Corregidor (1896) and finished the Italian Songbook (1896). In 1897 he suffered a complete breakdown, and he thereafter lived largely in an asylum. wolf spider Name that originally referred to a species of southern European SPIDER (Lycosa tarentula) but now refers to more than 175 spider species (family Lycosidae) found in North America, Europe, and north of the Arctic Circle. The body of L. tarentula, the largest species, is about 1 in. (2.5 cm) long. Most species have a long, broad, hairy brown body; stout, long legs; and strong, prominent jaws. Wolf spiders chase and pounce upon their prey, hunting mostly at night. Most species build a silk-lined, tubular nest in the ground, which they dig with their heavy front legs. A few species spin webs. The bite of L. tarentula produces no ill effects in humans. Wolfe, Elsie de See Elsie

DE

WOLFE

Wolfe \9w>lf\, James (b. Jan. 2, 1727, Westerham, Kent, Eng.—d. Sept. 13, 1759, Quebec) British army commander. After a distinguished military career in Europe, in 1758 he helped lead Gen. JEFFERY AMHERST’s successful expedition against the French on Cape Breton Island. In 1759 he was appointed commander of the British army on its mission to capture Quebec from the French. In the ensuing Battle of QUEBEC, he defeated the French in a battle lasting less than an hour. Wounded twice early in the battle, he died of a third wound, but not before he knew Quebec had fallen to his troops. Wolfe \9w>lf\, Thomas (Clayton) (b. Oct. 3, 1900, Asheville, N.C., U.S.—d. Sept. 15, 1938, Balti- James Wolfe, painting attributed to more, Md.) U.S. writer. Wolfe stud- J.S.C. Schaak; in the National Portrait ied at the University of North Gallery, London OF THE NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY, Carolina and in 1923 moved to New COURTESY LONDON York City, where he taught at New York University while writing plays. Look Homeward, Angel (1929), his first and best-known novel, and Of Time and the River (1935) are thinly veiled autobiographies. In The Story of a Novel (1936) he describes his close working relationship with the editor MAXWELL PERKINS, who helped him shape the chaotic manuscripts for his first two books into publishable form. His short stories were collected in From Death to Morning (1935). After his death at age 37 from tuberculosis, the novels The Web and the Rock (1939) and You Can’t Go Home Again (1940) were among the works extracted from the manuscripts he left. Wolfe, Tom orig. Thomas Kennerly Wolfe, Jr. (b. March 2, 1930, Richmond, Va., U.S.) U.S. journalist and novelist. He earned a doctorate from Yale University and then wrote for newspapers and worked as a magazine editor, becoming known as a proponent of New Journal-

Wolff  Woman’s Christian Temperance Union

ism, the application of fiction-writing techniques to journalism. The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test (1968) chronicles the life of a traveling group of hippies. The Right Stuff (1979; film, 1983) examines the first U.S. astronaut program. Other controversial nonfiction books attacked fashionable 1960s leftism, modern abstract art, and international architectural styles. His novel The Bonfire of the Vanities (1987; film, 1990), a novel of urban greed and corruption, was a best-seller. Wolfe’s second novel, A Man in Full, was published in 1998. Wolff \9v|lf\, Christian, Freiherr (baron) von (b. Jan. 24, 1679, Breslau, Silesia—d. April 9, 1754, Halle, Prussia) German philosopher, mathematician, and scientist. He was educated at the universities of Breslau, Jena, and Leipzig and was a pupil of GOTTFRIED WILHELM LEIBNIZ. He wrote numerous works in theology, psychology, botany, and physics but is best known as a leading spokesman of German RATIONALISM. His series of essays, all beginning under the title Rational Ideas, covered many subjects and expounded Leibniz’s theories in popular form. Wölfflin \9v[lf-lin\, Heinrich (b. June 21, 1864, Basel, Switz.—d. July 19, 1945, Basel) Swiss art historian. He was educated at the universities of Basel, Berlin, and Munich, and his doctoral thesis already showed the approach he was later to develop: an analysis of form based on a psychological interpretation of the creative process. His chief work, Principles of Art History (1915), synthesized his ideas into a complete aesthetic system that was to become of great importance in art criticism. He eschewed the popular anecdotal approach and emphasized the formal stylistic analysis of drawing, composition, light, colour, subject matter, and other pictorial elements as they were handled similarly by the painters of a particular period or national school. wolfram See

TUNGSTEN

Wolfram von Eschenbach \9v|lf-r!m-f|n-9esh-²n-0b!_\ (b. c. 1170—d. c. 1220) German poet. An impoverished Bavarian knight, Wolfram apparently served a succession of lords. The epic “Parzival,” one of his eight surviving lyric poems, is one of the masterpieces of the Middle Ages; likely based on a romance by CHRÉTIEN DE TROYES, it introduced the theme of the Holy Grail into German literature. RICHARD WAGNER used it as the basis for his last opera, Parsifal (1882). Wolfram’s influence on later poets was profound, and, with HARTMANN VON AUE and GOTTFRIED VON STRASSBURG, he is one of the three great Middle High German epic poets. Wollaston \9w!-l²s-t²n\ Lake Lake, northeastern Saskatchewan, Canada. It is 70 mi (113 km) long and 25 mi (40 km) wide, with an area of 1,035 sq mi (2,681 sq km). It drains through two outlets—one northwestward through the Fond du Lac River to Lake ATHABASCA and the MACKENZIE RIVER system, the other northeastward via the Cochrane River to Reindeer Lake and the CHURCHILL RIVER system. The lake was used as a link between the two river systems after its discovery by Peter Fidler in about 1800. It is noted for its fishing. Wollstonecraft \9w²l-st²n0kraft\, Mary (b. April 27, 1759, London, Eng.—d. Sept. 10, 1797, London) English writer. She taught school and worked as a governess and as a translator for a London publisher. Her early Thoughts on the Education of Daughters (1787) foreshadowed her mature work on the place of women in society, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), whose core is a plea for equality in the education of men and women. The Vindication is widely regarded as the founding document of modern FEMINISM. In 1797 she married the philosopher WILLIAM GODWIN; she died days after the birth of their daughter, Mary (see MARY SHELLEY), that same year. Wolof \9w+-l|f\ Muslim people of Senegal, The Gambia, and Mauretania. They speak a language of the ATLANTIC branch of the NIGER-CONGO family. In the 14th–16th century the

© 2006 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Mary Wollstonecraft (Godwin), detail, oil on canvas by John Opie, c. 1797; in the National Portrait Gallery, London. NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY, LONDON

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Wolof maintained a powerful empire. Traditional Wolof society was highly stratified, consisting of royalty, an aristocracy, a warrior class, commoners, slaves, and members of despised artisan castes. Today most Wolof (numbering some 5 million) are farmers, but many live and work in Dakar, Senegal, and Banjul, The Gambia. Wolof women are renowned for their elaborate hair styles, abundant gold ornaments, and voluminous dresses. Nearly half the people of Senegal are Wolof. Wolsey \9w>l-z%\, Thomas, Cardinal (b. c. 1475, Ipswich, Suffolk, Eng.—d. Nov. 29, 1530, Leicester, Leicestershire) English prelate and statesman. He served as chaplain to HENRY VII and later HENRY VIII, for whom he organized the successful campaign against the French (1513). On Henry’s recommendation, the pope made Wolsey successively bishop of Lincoln (1514), archbishop of York (1514), cardinal (1515), and papal legate (1518). In 1515 Henry appointed him lord chancellor of England, which added to his power and wealth. Wolsey sought to bring peace to Europe, but in 1521 he allied with Emperor CHARLES V against France. Although he introduced judicial and monastic reforms, he became unpopular for raising taxes. In 1529 he failed to persuade the pope to grant Henry an annulment of his marriage to CATHERINE OF ARAGON, for which he soon lost favour and was stripped of his offices except the archbishopric of York. In 1530 he was arrested for treason for corresponding with the French court, and he died on his way to face the king. wolverine or skunk bear Solitary, voracious, nocturnal carnivore (Gulo gulo) that inhabits northern timberlands worldwide. Wolverines are 26–36 in. (65–90 cm) long and 14–18 in. (36–45 cm) high, and weigh 20–65 lbs (9–30 kg); the bushy tail is 5–10-in. (13–26-cm) long. They have short bowed legs, hairy soles, and long, sharp claws. Their long, coarse hair, used to trim parkas, is blackish brown, with a light horizontal strip. The anal Wolverine (Gulo gulo) glands secrete an unpleasant- ALAN G. NELSON/ROOT RESOURCES smelling fluid. A cunning, fearless predator, the wolverine will attack almost any animal, including sheep, deer, and small bears. woman suffrage Right of women by law to vote in national and local elections. Women’s voting rights became an issue in the 19th century, especially in Britain and the U.S. In the U.S. the woman suffrage movement arose from the antislavery movement (see ABOLITIONISM) and from the advocacy of figures such as LUCRETIA MOTT and ELIZABETH CADY STANTON, who believed that equality should extend to both women and African Americans. They organized the SENECA FALLS CONVENTION (1848), which issued a declaration calling for woman suffrage and for the right of women to educational and employment opportunities. In 1850 LUCY STONE held the movement’s first national convention. Stanton and SUSAN B. ANTHONY formed the National Woman Suffrage Association in 1869 to secure an amendment to the Constitution granting women the right to vote, while Stone founded the American Woman Suffrage Association to seek similar amendments to state constitutions; in 1890 the two organizations merged as the National American Woman Suffrage Association. Following Wyoming’s lead in 1890, states began adopting such amendments; by 1918 women had won suffrage in 15 states. After a woman suffrage amendment was passed by Congress, a vigorous campaign brought ratification, and in August 1919 the 19th Amendment became part of the Constitution. In Britain the first woman suffrage committee was formed in Manchester in 1865. In the 1870s suffragists submitted petitions bearing nearly three million signatures. Despite growing support, suffrage bills were continually defeated; in frustration, some suffragists became militant activists under the leadership of EMMELINE AND CHRISTABEL PANKHURST. Parliament finally passed the REPRESENTATION OF THE PEOPLE ACT in 1918, by which time women had already won voting rights in New Zealand (1893), Australia (1902), Finland (1906), Norway (1913), the Soviet Union (1917), Poland (1918), Sweden (1919), Germany (1919), and Ireland (1922). After World War II woman-suffrage laws were adopted in many countries, including France, Italy, India, and Japan. Woman’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) U.S. TEMPERANCE-MOVEMENT organization. Founded in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1874, it used educational, social, and political means to promote legislation. Its president (1879–98) was Frances Willard (1839–1898), an effective

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speaker and lobbyist who also led the World’s Woman’s Christian Temperance Union from its founding in 1883. The WCTU was instrumental in promoting nationwide temperance and in the eventual adoption of PROHIBITION. womb See

UTERUS

wombat Either of two species (family Vombatidae) of nocturnal Australian MARSUPIALS that are heavily built, 28–47 in. (70–120 cm) long, and tailless. The single newborn develops in the mother’s pouch for about five months. Wombats eat grasses, tree bark, and shrub roots. They make a grassy nest at the end of a long burrow. The common wombat (Vombatus ursinus) of southeastern Australia and Tasmania, considered a pest, has coarse dark hair and short ears. The rare Queen- Common wombat (Vombatus ursinus). sland hairy-nosed wombat (Lasiorhi- WARREN GARST-TOM STACK AND ASSOCIATES nus barnardi) has fine fur and longer ears; protected by law, the population lives principally in a national park. Women’s Army Corps (WAC) U.S. Army unit. It was established (as the Women’s Auxiliary Army Corps) by Congress to enlist women for auxiliary noncombat duty in WORLD WAR II. Its first head was OVETA C. HOBBY. By 1945 nearly 150,000 women had served. Women relieved thousands of men of their clerical assignments, and many performed nontraditional jobs such as radio operator, electrician, and air-traffic controller. After the war the government requested former servicewomen to reenlist to meet the staffing needs of army hospitals and administrative centres. The WAC became part of the regular army with the passage of the 1948 Women’s Armed Services Integration Act. The WAC remained a separate unit of the U.S. Army until 1978, when male and female forces were integrated. women’s movement Diverse social movement, largely based in the U.S., seeking equal rights and opportunities for women in their economic activities, personal lives, and politics. It is recognized as the “second wave” of the larger feminist movement. While first-wave FEMINISM of the 19th and early 20th centuries focused on women’s legal rights, such as the right to vote, the second-wave feminism of the “women’s movement” peaked in the 1960s and ’70s and touched on every area of women’s experience—including family, sexuality, and work. A variety of U.S. women’s groups, including the NATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR WOMEN, sought to overturn laws that enforced discrimination in matters such as contract and property rights and employment and pay. The movement also sought to broaden women’s self-awareness and challenge traditional stereotypes of women as passive, dependent, or irrational. An effort in the 1970s to pass the EQUAL RIGHTS AMENDMENT failed, but its aims had been largely achieved by other means by the end of the 20th century. Wonder, Stevie orig. Steveland Judkins later Steveland Morris (b. May 13, 1950, Saginaw, Mich., U.S.) U.S. SOUL-MUSIC singer, songwriter, and musician. Blind virtually from birth, he was a skillful performer on the piano and other instruments by age eight. The family moved to Detroit, and at 10 he signed with the fledgling MOTOWN label. His first hit, “Fingertips, Part 2” (1963), was followed by many top-selling singles, including “Up-Tight” and “I Was Made to Love Her.” After studying composition at USC, he continued to enjoy enormous success in the 1970s and ’80s with such albums as Talking Book (1972) and Songs in the Key of Life (1976) and such hits as “Superstition,” “Ebony and Ivory,” and “I Just Called to Say I Love You.” He has spoken out against nuclear war, worked to end apartheid in South Africa, and raised funds for his eyedisease facility, Wonderland. Wonders of the World, Seven See SEVEN WONDERS

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Wonhy Daisa \9w²n-9hy+-9da-0s!\ (b. 617, Korea—d. 686, Korea) Korean Buddhist priest. He was the first to systematize Korean Buddhism, bringing the various Buddhist doctrines into a unity that served both philosophers and laypeople. He advocated maintaining harmony between the real and the ideal in life in order to pursue spiritual goals. His works, mainly in the form of commentaries on MAHAYANA SUTRAs, had profound influence on Chinese, Japanese, and Korean Buddhists. He is considered the greatest of the ancient Korean religious teachers and one of the 10 sages of the ancient Korean kingdom of Silla.

© 2006 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

wood Hard, fibrous material formed by the accumulation of secondary XYLEM produced by the vascular CAMBIUM. It is the principal strengthening tissue found in the stems and roots of TREEs and SHRUBs. Wood forms around a central core (pith) in a series of concentric layers called GROWTH RINGs. A cross section of wood shows the distinction between heartwood and sapwood. Heartwood, the central portion, is darker and composed of xylem cells that are no longer active in the life processes of the tree. Sapwood, the lighter area surrounding the heartwood, contains actively conducting xylem cells. Wood is one of the most abundant and versatile natural materials on earth, and unlike coal, ores, and petroleum, is renewable with proper care. The most widely used woods come from two groups of trees: the CONIFERs, or SOFTWOODs (e.g., PINE, SPRUCE, FIR), and the broadleaves, or HARDWOODs (e.g., OAK, WALNUT, MAPLE). Trees classified as hardwoods are not necessarily harder than softwoods (e.g., BALSA, a hardwood, is one of the softest woods). Density and moisture content affect the strength of wood; in addition to load-bearing strength, other variable factors often tested include elasticity and toughness. Wood is insulating to heat and electricity and has desirable acoustical properties. Some identifying physical characteristics of wood include colour, odour, texture, and grain (the direction of the wood fibres). Some 10,000 different wood products are commercially available, ranging from lumber and plywood to paper, from fine furniture to toothpicks. Chemically derived products from wood and wood residues include cellophane, charcoal, dyestuffs, explosives, lacquers, and turpentine. Wood is also used for fuel in many parts of the world.

Cross section of a tree trunk. Wood is secondary xylem produced by growth of the vascular cambium tissue. Sapwood is xylem that conveys water and dissolved minerals from the roots to the rest of the tree. The darker heartwood is older xylem that has been infiltrated by gums and resins and has lost its ability to conduct water. Each growth layer is distinguished by earlywood (springwood), composed of large thin-walled cells produced during the spring when water is usually abundant, and the denser latewood (summerwood), composed of small cells with thick walls. Growth rings vary in width as a result of differing climatic conditions; in temperate climates, a ring is equivalent to one year’s growth. Certain conducting cells form rays that carry water and dissolved substances radially across the xylem. Bark comprises the tissues outside the vascular cambium, including secondary phloem (which transports food made in the leaves to the rest of the tree), cork-producing cells (cork cambium), and cork cells. The outer bark, composed of dead tissue, protects the inner region from injury, disease, and desiccation. © MERRIAM-WEBSTER INC.

Wood, Grant (b. Feb. 13, 1892, near Anamosa, Iowa, U.S.—d. Feb. 12, 1942, Iowa City, Iowa) U.S. painter. He was trained as a craftsman and designer as well as a painter. On a visit to Germany in 1928, he was strongly influenced by the sharp detail of 15th-century German and Flemish paintings, and he soon abandoned his IMPRESSIONIST manner for the detailed, realistic manner for which he is known. His American Gothic caused a sensation when exhibited in 1930. A telling portrait of the sober, hardworking Midwestern farmer, it has become one of the best-known icons of U.S. art, though it is often misinterpreted: the woman is not the man’s wife but rather the unmarried daughter designated to stay on the farm to assist her widowed father.

Wood  Woodhull

Wood, Leonard (b. Oct. 9, 1860, Winchester, N.H., U.S.—d. Aug. 7, 1927, Boston, Mass.) U.S. army officer. He studied medicine and became a contract surgeon with the U.S. Army. In the Spanish-American War he and his friend THEODORE ROOSEVELT recruited and commanded the volunteer ROUGH RIDERS. Promoted to brigadier general, Wood served as military governor of Cuba (1899–1902) and organized a modern civil government. After service in the Philippines, he was chief of staff of the U.S. Army (1910–14). Though he had advocated preparedness for war, as a Republican he was passed over for a command post in World War I by the Democratic administration. He later served as governor general of the Philippines (1921–27). Wood, Natalie orig. Natasha Gurdin (b. July 20, 1938, San Francisco, Calif.—d. Nov. 29, 1981, off Catalina Island, Calif.) U.S. film actress. She began appearing in movies at age five, and she won acclaim for her role in Miracle on 34th Street when she was only nine. A darkhaired beauty of Russian-French extraction, she moved easily into teenage and adult leading roles in Rebel Without a Cause (1955), Splendor in the Grass (1961), West Side Story (1961), Love with the Proper Stranger (1963), Inside Daisy Clover (1966), and Bob & Carol & Ted & Alice (1969). She drowned in a boating accident. wood alcohol See

METHANOL

Wood Buffalo National Park Park, western Canada. Situated between ATHABASCA and GREAT SLAVE lakes, it was established in 1922; it occupies an area of 17,300 sq mi (44,807 sq km). The world’s largest park, it is a vast region of forests and plains, crossed by the PEACE RIVER and dotted with lakes. The habitat of the largest remaining herd of wood buffalo (BISON) on the North American continent, as well as of bear, caribou, moose, and beaver, it also provides nesting grounds for the endangered WHOOPING CRANE. wood duck North American DUCK (Aix sponsa, family Anatidae); a popular game bird. Wood ducks, 17–21 in. (43–52 cm) long, nest in a tree cavity up to 50 ft (15 m) off the ground; they have long-clawed toes for perching. Both sexes have a head crest in winter. The beautifully coloured male has a purple and green head, red-brown breast flecked with white, and bronze sides; the female has a white eye ring and duller colouring. Ducklings eat aquatic insects and other small organisms; adults prefer acorns or other nuts. Hunted nearly to extinction for its flesh and feathers, it has been restored to healthy populations by Drake wood duck (Aix sponsa) GRANT HEILMAN strong conservation efforts. Wood family English family of Staffordshire potters, a major force in the development of Staffordshire wares from peasant pottery to an organized industry. Its most prominent members were Ralph Wood (1715–72), his brother Aaron (1717–85), and his son Ralph, Jr. (1748–95). Ralph, Jr., was related through his mother to JOSIAH WEDGWOOD, and the two names were often linked professionally. The elder Ralph became famous for his extremely well-modeled figures with coloured glazes, and he is credited with introducing the Toby mug. Ralph, Jr., produced a variety of figures, colouring them with enamel rather than glazes, and supplied some of them to Wedgwood. Aaron’s son William (1746–1808) was employed as a modeler by Wedgwood. His brilliant brother Enoch (1759–1840) apprenticed with Wedgwood but by 1783 was established as an independent potter in partnership with his cousin Ralph, Jr. In 1818 he continued his firm as Enoch Wood & Sons. Much of his earthenware was exported to the U.S. The firm closed in 1846. See also STAFFORDSHIRE FIGURE. wood louse See

PILL BUG, SOW BUG

wood mouse See

FIELD MOUSE

wood rat or pack rat Any of 22 species (genus Neotoma, family Cricetidae) of RODENTS that are nocturnal vegetarians of North and Central American deserts, forests, and mountains. Wood rats are buff, gray, or reddish brown, usually with white undersides and feet. They have large ears and are 9–19 in. (23–47 cm) long, including the 3–9-in. (8–24-cm)

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furry tail. The nest, up to 3 ft (1 m) across and usually built of twigs or cactus, is placed in a protected spot (e.g., under a rock ledge). Wood rats are sometimes called pack rats because they collect material to deposit in their dens. wood thrush One of the 11 species of THRUSHES (in the genus Hylocichla, or Catharus) called nightingale thrushes because of their rich songs. H. mustelina is common in eastern U.S. broadleaf forests; it is 8 in. (20 cm) long and has drab, spotted plumage and a rusty-colored head. wood warbler Any of about 120 species of lively North and Central American songbirds in the family Parulidae. Wood warblers superficially resemble the true WARBLERS of the Old World but are usually more brightly coloured (at least in the breeding season) and smaller (about 5 in. [13 cm] long). They commonly inhabit woodlands and sometimes marshes and dry scrub. Their songs are buzzy and monotonous. The usual nest is a tidy cup in a bush or tree. They lay two to five speckled eggs. See also BLACKPOLL WARBLER; CHAT; REDSTART. woodbine Any of many species of vines belonging to various flowering-plant families, especially the Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia, family Vitaceae) of North America and the Eurasian woodbine HONEYSUCKLE (Lonicera periclymenum, family Caprifoliaceae). The Virginia creeper, also called American ivy, attaches to walls, fences, and large tree trunks by means of disk-tipped tendrils. Its leaves display spectacular fall colour from yellow to red-purple. Woodbine honeysuckle has grayish green leaves and fragrant, yellowish white flowers. woodchuck or groundhog Reddish brown or brown species (Marmota monax) of solitary MARMOT inhabiting fields and forest edges in Alaska, Canada, and the eastern and central U.S. Woodchucks are 17–20 in. (42–52 cm) long, have a 4–6-in. (10–15-cm) tail, and weigh 4–14 lbs (2–6 kg). They are good diggers, swimmers, and climbers. Their burrows have a main entrance and an escape tunnel. See also GROUNDHOG DAY. woodcock Any of five species (family Scolopacidae) of plump, sharpbilled migratory birds of damp, dense woodlands in North America, Europe, and Asia. With eyes set far back on the head, a woodcock has a 360° field of vision. The buffy-brown, mottled plumage provides camouflage. A solitary bird, most active at dusk, it drums its feet to coax earthworms to the surface and then extracts them with its long, forceps-like bill; it may eat twice its weight in worms each day. The female American woodcock (Scolopax,or Philohela, minor) is about 11 in. (28 cm) long; the male is slightly smaller. The male’s striking courtship display includes a long, repeated spiraling and dropping sequence. Woodcocks have been popular game birds. woodcut Design printed from a plank of wood incised parallel to the vertical axis of the wood’s grain. One of the oldest methods of making prints, it was used in China to decorate textiles from the 5th century. Printing from wood blocks on textiles was known in Europe from the early 14th century but developed little until paper began to be manufactured in France and Germany at the end of the 14th century. In the early 15th century, religious images and playing cards were first made from wood blocks. Black-line woodcut reached its greatest perfection in the 16th century with ALBRECHT DÜRER and his followers. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, artists such as EDVARD MUNCH, PAUL GAUGUIN, and the German Expressionists rediscovered the expressive potential of woodcuts. Woodcuts have played an important role in the history of Japanese art (see UKIYO-E). Woodhull, Victoria orig. Victoria Claflin (b. Sept. 23, 1838, Homer, Ohio, U.S.—d. June 10, 1927, Norton Park, Bremons, Worcestershire, Eng.) U.S. social reformer. She and her sister Tennessee Claflin (1845–1923) were raised in a family of traveling spiritualists. After Victoria’s marriage (1853) to Canning Woodhull ended in 1864, the sisters opened a successful brokerage firm in New York. They founded Woodhull and Claflin’s Weekly (1870), which advocated equal rights for women, a single standard of morality for both sexes, and free love. A splinter group of radical suffragists formed a political party in 1872 and nominated Woodhull for president with FREDERICK DOUGLASS as vice president. In 1872 the sisters published the first English translation of the Communist Manifesto. For printing news of an alleged adulterous affair by HENRY WARD BEECHER, they were charged with libel but acquitted (1873). They moved to England (1877), where they lectured, worked for charities, and married wealthy Englishmen. Woodhull and her daughter published the eugenics journal Humanitarian (1892–1910).

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Woodland culture Any of the prehistoric cultures of eastern North America dating from the 1st millennium BC. The category includes cultures such as the ADENA and HOPEWELL. Woodland cultures were characterized by the raising of corn, beans, and squash, the fashioning of distinctive pottery, the use of the bow and arrow, and the building of burial mounds. Most of these cultures were replaced by the MISSISSIPPIAN CULTURE in the 1st millennium AD. woodpecker Any of about 180 species (family Picidae) of mostly nonmigratory, solitary birds found nearly worldwide. Woodpeckers spiral up tree trunks, probing for insects, and chisel nest holes in dead wood by means of rapidly repeating blows of the beak. Though they spend their entire life in trees, only the few ground-feeding species can perch. Some species eat fruits and berries or tree sap. Woodpeckers are usually silent, except in spring, when males call loudly and drum on hollow wood. Species range from 6 to 18 in. (15 to 46 cm) long. All have a straight, chisellike bill, and most are patterned in black, white, or yellow and bright colours. See also FLICKER; IVORY-BILLED WOODPECKER; SAPSUCKER. Woods, Lake of the Lake astride the Canadian-U.S. boundary, southwestern Ontario, southeastern Manitoba, and northern Minnesota. Irregular in shape, it is 70 mi (110 km) long and up to 60 mi (95 km) wide. It has an area of 1,727 sq mi (4,472 sq km), of which 642 sq mi (1,663 sq km) are in U.S territory. It has an estimated 25,000 mi (40,000 km) of shoreline and more than 14,000 islands. It receives the Rainy River from the southeast and drains north through the WINNIPEG RIVER into Lake WINNIPEG. Visited by French explorers in 1688, it became an important furtrading route between the GREAT LAKES and western Canada. The Northwest Angle, the northernmost point of the coterminous U.S., is separated from the rest of Minnesota by a part of the lake. Woods, Tiger orig. Eldrick Woods (b. Dec. 30, 1975, Cypress, Calif., U.S.) U.S. golfer. The child of a Thai mother and an African American father, Woods was a golf prodigy and won the first of three consecutive U.S. Junior Amateur Championships (1991–93) when he was 15 years old. In 1994 at age 18 he became the youngest winner of the U.S. Amateur competition, which he also won in 1995 and 1996. In 1997 Woods at age 21 became the youngest player and the first of African or Asian descent ever to win the MASTERS TOURNAMENT, winning by a record margin of 12 strokes. Winner of five other PGA tournaments in 1997, Woods became the youngest player ever ranked first in world golf competition. On July 23, 2000, Woods became the fifth player—after Gene Sarazen, Jack Nicklaus, Ben Hogan, and Gary Player—in golf history, and the youngest, to achieve a career grand slam of the four major championships (the Masters, U.S. Open, British Open, and PGA Championship). In 2005 he completed his second career grand slam. Woodson, Carter G(odwin) (b. Dec. 19, 1875, New Canton, Va., U.S.—d. April 3, 1950, Washington, D.C.) U.S. historian. Born into a poor family, he supported himself as a coal miner and was unable to enroll in high school until he was 20. He went on to receive a Ph.D. from Harvard University. In 1915 he founded the Association for the Study of Negro Life and History to encourage the study of African American history; he also edited the association’s Journal of Negro History. In the early 1920s he founded Associated Publishers to bring out books on African American life and culture. Among his works was the college text The Negro in Our History (1922). Woodstock in full Woodstock Music and Art Fair ROCK MUSIC festival held near Bethel, N.Y., U.S. (its site was to have been the nearby town of Woodstock), on Aug. 15–17, 1969. It attracted about 450,000 young rock fans and featured performers such as the GRATEFUL DEAD, Jefferson Airplane, JIMI HENDRIX, the Who, and JANIS JOPLIN. The festival, the participants of which exhibited extraordinary good feeling in the face of rain and organizational chaos, marked the high point of U.S. youth counterculture in the 1960s. It was documented in the film Woodstock (1970). The festival was revived with mixed success on its 25th and 30th anniversaries.

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Woodward, C(omer) Vann (b. Nov. 13, 1908, Vanndale, Ark., U.S.—d. Dec. 17, 1999, Hamden, Conn.) U.S. historian. He graduated from Emory University in 1930 and received his Ph.D. from the University of North Carolina. His writings on the American South and the Civil War, including The Strange Career of Jim Crow (1955) and The Burden of Southern History (1961), transformed the nation’s understanding of the region. He edited Mary Chesnut’s Civil War (1981, Pulitzer Prize) and The Oxford History of the United States. At his death he was professor emeritus at Yale University.

© 2006 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Woodward, Robert B(urns) (b. April 10, 1917, Boston, Mass., U.S.—d. July 8, 1979, Cambridge, Mass.) U.S. chemist. He attended MIT and taught at Harvard University (1938–79). Recognizing that physical measurement revealed molecular structure better than chemical reaction, in 1940–42 he developed “Woodward’s rules” for determining structure by ultraviolet spectroscopy. In 1945 his methods finally clarified the structure of penicillin and of many more complex natural products. He proposed the correct biosynthetic pathway of steroid hormones. He was the most accomplished synthesist of complex organic compounds, including quinine (1944) and vitamin B12 (1971, in more than 100 reactions), a task that led to the fundamental concept of conservation of orbital symmetry. He received a 1965 Nobel Prize, and in 1963 the new Woodward Research Institute in Basel, Switz., was named for him. woodwind instrument Any musical wind instrument that produces sound by either directing a stream of air against the edge of a hole or by making a reed or a double reed vibrate (see REED INSTRUMENT). In a BRASS INSTRUMENT, by contrast, the airstream passes directly from the player’s vibrating lips into the air column. The orchestral woodwinds include the FLUTE, piccolo, CLARINET, OBOE, ENGLISH HORN, and BASSOON. Other woodwinds include the SAXOPHONE, RECORDER, PANPIPE, SHAKUHACHI, and SHAWM. wool Animal fibre that is the protective covering, or fleece, of sheep or such other hairy mammals as goats and camels. Wool is readied by washing (lanolin is the by-product), CARDING, sometimes combing, then spinning. Coarser than such textile fibres as cotton, linen, silk, and rayon, wool is resilient after limited stretching or compression, so fabrics and garments made from wool tend to retain shape, drape well, and resist wrinkling. Wool is warm and lightweight and takes dyes well. Woolen YARNs, usually made from shorter fibres, are thick and full and are used for such items as TWEED fabrics and blankets. WORSTEDs usually are made from longer fibres. Woolf \9w>lf\, (Adeline) Virginia orig. Adeline Virginia Stephen (b. Jan. 25, 1882, London, Eng.—d. March 28, 1941, near Rodmell, Sussex) British novelist and critic. Daughter of LESLIE STEPHEN, she and her sister became the early nucleus of the BLOOMSBURY GROUP. She married Leonard Woolf in 1912; in 1917 they founded the Hogarth Press. Her best novels—including Mrs. Dalloway (1925) and To the Lighthouse (1927)—are experimental; in them she examines the human experience of time, the indefinability of character, and external circumstances as they impinge on consciousness. Orlando (1928) is a historical fantasy about a single character who experiences England from the Elizabethan era to the early 20th century, and The Waves (1931), perhaps her most radically experimental work, uses interior monologue and recurring images to trace the inner lives of six characters. Such works confirmed her place among the major figures of literary modernism. Her best critical studies are collected in The Common Reader (1925, 1932). Her long essay A Room of One’s Own (1929) addressed the status of women, and women artists in particular. Her other novels include Jacob’s Room (1922), The Years (1937), and Between the Acts (1941). She also wrote a biography of ROGER FRY. Her health and mental stability were delicate throughout her life; in a recurrence of mental illness, she drowned herself. Her diaries and correspondence have been published in several editions. Woollcott \9w>l-k²t\, Alexander (Humphreys) (b. Jan. 19, 1887, Phalanx, N.J., U.S.—d. Jan. 23, 1943, New York, N.Y.) U.S. author, critic, and actor. He joined the New York Times in 1909 and became its drama critic in 1914. Known for his acerbic wit, he became the self-appointed leader of the Algonquin Round Table, the informal luncheon club at New York’s Algonquin Hotel in the 1920s and ’30s that included GROUCHO MARX, DOROTHY PARKER, ROBERT SHERWOOD, and GEORGE S. KAUFMAN. He later contributed articles to The New Yorker and wrote such books as Two Gentlemen and a Lady (1928) and While Rome Burns (1934). He inspired the play The Man Who Came to Dinner (1939). woolly bear or wooly bear CATERPILLAR of a TIGER MOTH. The larva of the Isabella tiger moth (Isia isabella), known as the banded woolly bear, is brown in the middle and black at both ends. The width of the black bands is purported to predict the severity of the coming winter: the narrower the bands, the milder the weather will be. Woolworth Co. Historic U.S. merchandising company. F.W. Woolworth (1852–1919) founded his first “five- and ten-cent” store in 1879. By 1904 there were 120 stores in 21 states. The company’s New York headquarters, the Woolworth building (completed 1913), was the world’s tallest skyscraper from 1913 to 1930. By 1929 Woolworth had about 2,250

wootz  Workers’ Opposition

outlets. Its stores continued to proliferate in the U.S. and Britain, and it acquired other chains dealing in sportswear, shoes, and children’s wear. From 1992 it began closing hundreds of stores and selling off subsidiaries; in 1998 it changed its name to Venator Group, Inc., and announced its intention to focus on sporting goods. In 2001 the company name was changed to Foot Locker, Inc. wootz (steel) \9ws-t²r\ City (pop., 2000: 172,648), central Massachusetts, U.S. On the BLACKSTONE RIVER, the original settlement (1673) of Worcester was disbanded during KING PHILIP’S WAR (1675–76) and a later settlement was established in 1713. Textile manufacturing began in 1789; the first corduroy cloth in the U.S. was produced there. Industrial development occurred after the opening (1828) of the Blackstone Canal. An early abolitionist centre, Worcester became an important stop on the UNDERGROUND RAILROAD. It is a commercial and industrial centre and the state’s second largest city. Among its institutions of higher education are College of the Holy Cross and Clark University (1887). Worcester City and administrative district (pop., 2001: 93,358), administrative and historic county of Worcestershire, west-central England. Located on the River SEVERN, it was settled before AD 680. During the Middle Ages it was an important wool town and also became known for its glove making. OLIVER CROMWELL and his Parliamentarian army routed CHARLES II and his Scottish army in the Battle of Worcester, effecting an end to the ENGLISH CIVIL WARS. In 1751 John Wall founded the porcelain industry for which the town became famous, and in 1838 the condiment known as Worcestershire sauce was introduced there by Lea & Perrins. The town’s noted cathedral (11th–14th century) contains the tombs of King JOHN and Prince Arthur, the eldest son of HENRY VII. Cathedral Grammar School and Royal Grammar School were founded in the 16th century. word processing Preparation of textual documents on computer. A word-processing system typically consists simply of a PERSONAL COMPUTER linked to a computer PRINTER, but it may instead employ a terminal linked to a MAINFRAME computer. Word processing differs from typewriter typing in numerous ways. Electronic text can be moved around at will; misspelled terms can be corrected throughout the document by means of a single command; spelling and grammar CHECKERS can automatically alert the user to apparent errors of spelling, punctuation, and syntax; and the document’s format, layout, and type fonts and sizes can be changed repeatedly until a satisfactory design is achieved. Since all editing ideally occurs on-screen, word processing can result in decreased paper usage and simplified editing. When the final draft is ready, the document can be printed out (in multiple copies if necessary), sent as an E-MAIL attachment, shared on a computer NETWORK, or simply stored as an electronic file. Worde \9w|rd\, Wynkyn de orig. Jan van Wynkyn (b. Alsace—d. 1534/35) Alsatian-born British printer. He was employed at WILLIAM CAXTON’s press from its founding in 1476 until Caxton’s death, when he took over the concern. Unlike Caxton and many other contemporary printers, he did not edit or translate. An astute businessman, he published at least 600 titles after 1501, and he was the first printer in England to use italic type (1524). Wordsworth, Dorothy (b. Dec. 25, 1771, Cockermouth, Cumberland, Eng.—d. Jan. 25, 1855, Rydal Mount, Westmorland) English writer. An inspiring influence on her brother WILLIAM WORDSWORTH, she lived with him from 1795 onward. Her Alfoxden Journal 1798 (1897)—from the period when he and SAMUEL TAYLOR COLERIDGE produced Lyrical Ballads (1798)—and Grasmere Journals 1800–03 (1897) are intimate records of their lives. Both are appreciated for their imaginative descriptions of nature, their perfection of style, and their revelation of her personality as well as for the light they throw on her brother. In 1829 severe illness left her an invalid, and her mind was clouded in her last 20 years. Wordsworth, William (b. April 7, 1770, Cockermouth, Cumberland, Eng.—d. April 23, 1850, Rydal Mount, Westmorland) English poet. Orphaned at age 13, Wordsworth attended Cambridge University, but he

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remained rootless and virtually penniless until 1795, when a legacy made possible a reunion with his sister DOROTHY WORDSWORTH. He became friends with SAMUEL TAYLOR COLERIDGE, with whom he wrote Lyrical Ballads (1798), the collection often considered to have launched the English Romantic movement. Wordsworth’s contributions include “Tintern Abbey” and many lyrics controversial for their common, everyday language. About 1798 he began writing The Prelude (1850), the epic autobiographical poem that would absorb him intermittently for the next 40 years. His second verse collection, Poems, in Two Volumes (1807), includes many of the rest of his finest works, including “Ode: Intimations of Immortality.” His poetry is perhaps most original in its vision of the organic relation between man and the natural world, a vision that culminated in the sweeping metaphor of nature as emblematic of the mind of God. The most memorable poems of his middle and late years were often cast in elegaic mode; few match the best of his earlier works. By the time he became widely appreciated by the critics and the public, his poetry had lost much of its force and his radical politics had yielded to conservatism. In 1843 he became England’s poet laureate. He is regarded as the central figure in the initiation of English ROMANTICISM. work In economics and sociology, the activities and labour necessary for the survival of society. As early as 40,000 BC, hunters worked in groups to track and kill animals, while younger or weaker members of the tribe gathered food. When agriculture replaced hunting and gathering, the resulting surplus of food allowed early societies to develop and some of its members to pursue crafts such as pottery, weaving, and metallurgy. Historically, rigid social hierarchies caused nobles, clergy, merchants, artisans, and peasants to pursue occupations defined largely by hereditary social class. Craft GUILDs, influential in the economic development of medieval Europe, limited the supply of labour in each profession and controlled production. The establishment of towns led to the creation of new occupations in commerce, law, medicine, and defense. The coming of the INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION, spurred by technological advances such as steam power, changed working life profoundly. Factories divided the work once done by a single craftsman into a number of distinct tasks performed by unskilled or semiskilled workers (see DIVISION OF LABOUR). Manufacturing firms grew larger in the 19th century as standardized parts and machine tools came into use, and ever-more-specialized positions for managers, supervisors, accountants, engineers, technicians, and salesmen became necessary. The trend toward specialization continued into the 21st century, giving rise to a number of disciplines concerned with the management and design of work, including PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT, INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS, personnel administration, and SYSTEMS ENGINEERING. By the turn of the 21st century, automation and technology had spurred tremendous growth in SERVICE INDUSTRIES. work In physics, the measure of energy transfer that occurs when an object is moved over a distance by an external force, some component of which is applied in the direction of displacement. For a constant force, work W is equal to the magnitude of the force F times the displacement d of the object, or W = Fd. Work is also done by compressing a gas, by rotating a shaft, and by causing invisible motions of particles within a body by an external MAGNETIC FORCE. No work is accomplished by simply holding a heavy stationary object, because there is no transfer of energy and no displacement. Work done on a body is equal to the increase in energy of the body. Work is expressed in units called joules (J). One joule is equivalent to the energy transferred when a force of one newton is applied over a distance of one metre. workers’ compensation Program through which employers bear some of the cost of their employees’ work-related injuries and occupational illnesses or disabilities. It was first introduced in Germany in 1884. In Britain and the U.S. in the late 19th century, there was a movement to secure the right of injured workers to compensation and to improve working conditions through court decisions, employer liability statutes, and safety codes. By the mid-20th century most countries in the world had adopted some sort of workers’ compensation. Some systems take the form of compulsory SOCIAL INSURANCE; in others the employer is legally required to provide certain benefits, but insurance is voluntary. The system of workers’ compensation serves as an economic incentive for employers to prevent accidents and illness among employees, since liability for medical costs and the income lost by placing workers in hazardous environments can easily exceed the costs of establishing safe working conditions. Workers’ Opposition (1920–21) Group within the Soviet Union’s COMMUNIST PARTY that championed workers’ rights and trade-union control

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2076 I working dog  World Trade Center

over industry. It was formed in 1919 to resist the central party’s increasing control over local party units and trade unions. In 1920 it objected to LEON TROTSKY’s plan to transform trade unions into state organs. Led by ALEKSANDRA KOLLONTAY and others, the group insisted that the unions, as true representatives of the proletariat, should control the national economy. At the 10th Party Congress (1921), its platform was rejected and it was ordered to disperse. working dog Any of various breeds of dog bred as guard, herding, draft, or rescue animals. Breeds range from medium to large, but all are sturdy and muscular, intelligent and loyal. Guard breeds include the AKITA, BOXER, bullmastiff, DOBERMAN PINSCHER, giant and standard SCHNAUZERS, GREAT DANE, MASTIFF, and ROTTWEILER. Livestock guard breeds include the Great Pyrenees, komondor (Hungary), kuvasz (Tibet), and Pyrenean mountain dogs (Britain). Herding dogs include the GERMAN SHEPHERD, SHETLAND SHEEPDOG, and WELSH CORGI. Breeds developed for hauling and rescue work include the BERNESE MOUNTAIN DOG, Portuguese water dog, NEWFOUNDLAND, ST. BERNARD, and SLED DOG. Workingmen’s Party First labour-oriented U.S. political party. It was formed in Philadelphia (1828) and New York (1829) by craftsmen, skilled journeymen, and reformers who demanded a 10-hour workday, free public education, abolition of debtor imprisonment, and an end to competition from prison contract labour. Leaders included Thomas Skidmore, FANNY WRIGHT, ROBERT DALE OWEN, and GEORGE H. EVANS, who established the Working Man’s Advocate, the first labour newspaper, in 1829. Factional disputes split the party in the 1830s, and many in New York joined the reform LOCOFOCO PARTY. Works Progress Administration See WPA workstation Computer intended for use by one person, but with a much faster processor and more memory than an ordinary PERSONAL COMPUTER. Workstations are designed for powerful business applications that do large numbers of calculations or require high-speed graphical displays; the requirements of CAD/CAM systems were one reason for their initial development. Because of their need for computing power, they are often based on RISC processors and generally use UNIX as their operating system. An early workstation was introduced in 1987 by Sun Microsystems; workstations introduced in 1988 from Apollo, Ardent, and Stellar were aimed at 3D graphics applications. The term workstation is also sometimes used to mean a personal computer connected to a MAINFRAME computer, to distinguish it from “dumb” display terminals with limited applications. World Bank Specialized agency of the UNITED NATIONS system, established at the BRETTON WOODS CONFERENCE for postwar reconstruction. It is the principal international development institution. Its five divisions are the INTERNATIONAL BANK FOR RECONSTRUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT (IBRD; its main component), the International Development Association (IDA), the International Finance Corporation (IFC), the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), and the International Center for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID). The IDA (founded 1960) makes interestfree loans to the bank’s poorest member countries. The IFC (founded 1956) lends to private businesses in developing countries. The MIGA (founded 1985) supports national and private agencies that encourage foreign direct investment by offering insurance against noncommercial risks. The ICSID (founded 1966) was developed to relieve the IBRD of the burden of settling investment disputes. See also INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND.

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World Council of Churches (WCC) Christian ecumenical organization founded in 1948 in Amsterdam. It functions as a forum for Protestant and Eastern Orthodox denominations, which cooperate through the WCC on a variety of undertakings and explore doctrinal similarities and differences. It grew out of two post-World War I ecumenical efforts, the Life and Work Movement (which concentrated on practical activities) and the Faith and Order Movement (which focused on doctrinal issues and the possibility of reunion). The impetus for these two organizations sprang from the International Missionary Conference in Edinburgh in 1910, the first such cooperative effort since the REFORMATION. The Roman Catholic church, though not a member of the WCC, sends representatives to its conferences. The more fundamentalist Protestant denominations have also refused to join. World Court See INTERNATIONAL COURT

OF JUSTICE

World Cup Major international FOOTBALL (soccer) competition. The tournament brings together 32 qualifying national teams from around the world, culminating in a match between the two top teams. It has been

© 2006 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

held every fourth year since 1930 (except during World War II). Followed and watched by billions of people worldwide, it has by far the greatest audience of any single sporting event in the world. Several competitions in other sports also use the name “world cup.” World Food Programme (WFP) Organization established in 1961 by the UNITED NATIONS to help alleviate world hunger. The world’s largest food-aid organization (providing food aid to some 75 million people annually), the WFP aims to assist the approximately 15% of the world’s population that is hungry. Its Food-for-Life program aids victims of both natural and man-made disasters by collecting and transporting food to crisis areas. Contributions of commodities, cash, and services (primarily shipping) help beneficiaries to maintain balanced diets. Its Food-forGrowth programs are directed at vulnerable groups—including children, pregnant and nursing women, and the elderly—and its Food-for-Work program encourages self-reliance by providing food in return for labour. Its headquarters are in Rome. World Health Organization (WHO) Public-health agency of the UN, established in Geneva in 1948 to succeed two earlier agencies. Its mandate is to promote “the highest possible level of health” in all peoples. Its work falls into three categories. It provides a clearinghouse for information on the latest developments in disease and health care and establishes international sanitary standards and quarantine measures. It sponsors measures for the control of epidemic and endemic disease (including immunization campaigns and assistance in providing sources of pure water). Finally, it encourages the strengthening of public-health programs in member nations. Its greatest success to date has been the worldwide eradication of SMALLPOX (1980). World Heritage site Any of various areas or objects designated as having “outstanding universal value” under the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. This convention, adopted by UNESCO in 1972, provides for international cooperation in preserving and protecting cultural and natural treasures throughout the world. Each site on the list is under strict legal protection by the government of the nation in which it is situated. Among the cultural sites are many of the world’s most famous buildings. The ratio of cultural to natural sites on the list is roughly three to one. See table opposite. world music Musical genre incorporating diverse styles from Africa, eastern Europe, Asia, South and Central America, the Caribbean, and nonmainstream Western folk sources. The term was first coined largely in response to the sudden increase of recordings in non-English languages that were released in Great Britain and the United States in the 1980s, but by the early 1990s world music had become a bona fide musical genre and counterpoint to the increasingly synthetic sounds of Western pop music. Initially, African popular music and world music were virtually synonymous, and the genre’s biggest stars included the Nigerians King Sunny Ade and Fela Anikulapo Kuti and the Senegalese Youssou N’Dour. Moreover, one of its earliest advocates was the Cameroonian-born Frenchman FRANCIS BEBEY. By the 21st century world music encompassed everything from Pakistani singer Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan and the popflamenco of the French group the Gipsy Kings to “ambient-global” projects that merged so-called ethnic voice samples with state-of-the-art rhythm programming. World Series Annual championship of U.S. major league baseball, played between the top team of the AMERICAN LEAGUE (AL) and that of the NATIONAL LEAGUE (NL). First held in 1903, it was canceled the following year after the New York Giants (NL) refused to play Boston (AL). The series resumed in 1905 and continued annually until a players’ strike in 1994 forced its cancellation that year. A seven-game series has been standard since 1922. World Trade Center Complex formerly consisting of seven buildings around a central plaza, near the southern tip of Manhattan. Its huge twin towers (completed 1970–72) were designed by Minoru Yamasaki (1912– 86). At 1,368 ft (417 m) and 1,362 ft (415 m) tall, they were the world’s tallest buildings until surpassed in 1973 by the SEARS TOWER in Chicago. The towers were notable for the relationship of their simple, light embellishment to their underlying structure. In 1993 a bomb planted by terrorists exploded in the underground garage, killing several people and injuring some 1,000. A much more massive attack occurred on Sept. 11, 2001, when first One World Trade Center and then Two World Trade Center were struck by hijacked commercial airliners that were deliberately flown into them. Shortly thereafter both of the heavily damaged

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Selected UNESCO World Heritage sites site*

country

notes

Virunga

Egypt Ethiopia Tunisia Egypt Egypt Senegal Zimbabwe Ethiopia Egypt Tanzania Egypt Ethiopia Libya Egypt Morocco Egypt Kenya Tanzania Tanzania Egypt Egypt Tanzania Egypt Mali Zambia and Zimbabwe Congo (Kinshasa)

archaeological remains historic monuments remains of ancient city pyramids and funerary complex pyramids and funerary complex slave-trading depot ruins of Shona capital early hominid remains Theban temple ruins montane national park and reserve Theban necropolis rock-hewn medieval churches remains of Roman architecture Theban ruins historic medina remains of ancient city national park and forest reserve wildlife conservation area early hominid remains Nubian monuments step pyramid and funerary complex national park, wildlife refuge ruins of ancient Egyptian capital medieval center of Islamic culture national parks, cataracts, Zambezi River, rainforest, and wildlife national park, diversity of habitats

Asia Ajanta Caves Angkor Ayutthaya Baikal, Lake Borobudur Chogha Zanbil Damascus Delhi Elephanta Island Ellora Caves Everest, Mount Forbidden City Great Wall of China Ha Long Bay Hatra Hiroshima Horyu Temple Hue Jerusalem Kandy Khiva Kyoto Lahore Palmyra Petra Potala Palace

India Cambodia Thailand Russia Indonesia Iran Syria India India India Nepal China China Vietnam Iraq Japan Japan Vietnam Israel Sri Lanka Uzbekistan Japan Pakistan Syria Jordan China

rock-cut Buddhist monasteries archaeological remains ruins of capital complex unique freshwater environment Buddhist temple compound ruins of Elamite city historic city center historic monuments and tomb Hindu cave temple Hindu, Buddhist, Jaina cave temples montane national park imperial palace in Beijing extensive fortification picturesque island group ruins of Parthian city peace memorial Buddhist monuments imperial citadel Jewish, Islamic, Christian holy city sacred Buddhist city Islamic architecture historic imperial capital Mughal fortress, palace, gardens ruins of ancient city remains of ancient city former residence of the Dalai Lama, in Lhasa, Tibet archaeological site, terra-cotta army historic architecture national park (India), sanctuary, mangrove forest and wetlands monumental funerary complex ruins of three millennia of habitation national park and reserve on Java early hominid habitation

Africa Abu Ruwaysh Aksum Carthage Dahshur Giza Gorée Island Great Zimbabwe Hadar Karnak Kilimanjaro Kings, Valley of the Lalibela Leptis Magna Luxor Marrakech Memphis Mount Kenya Ngorongoro Olduvai Gorge Philae Saqqarah Serengeti Thebes Timbuktu Victoria Falls

Qin tomb San‘a’ Sundarbans Taj Mahal Tyre Ujong-Kulon Zhoukoudian

China Yemen Bangladesh and India India Lebanon Indonesia China

Australia and Oceania Great Barrier Reef Australia Lord Howe Island Australia Rennell Island Solomon Islands Shark Bay Australia Uluru (Ayers Rock) Australia

© 2006 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

marine national park diversity of habitats unique island ecosystem rare marine and terrestrial life-forms national park, sandstone monolith

site* Europe Acropolis of Athens Alhambra Altamira Amiens Cathedral Arles Auschwitz Avebury Bergen Bern Canterbury Chartres Cathedral Delphi Ferrara Florence Fontainebleau Giant’s Causeway Granada Hadrian’s Wall Herculaneum Istanbul Kraków (Cracow) Lascaux Grotto Lübeck Luxembourg city Metéora Mont-Saint-Michel Moscow Naples Olympia Palatine Chapel (Aachen Cathedral) Paris Pompeii Porto (Oporto) Prague Reims Cathedral Rhodes Rila Monastery Saint Petersburg Salzburg Samos Santiago Segovia Split Stonehenge Tallinn Toledo Transylvania Vatican City Venice Versailles Visby North America Banff Chaco Canyon Chichén Itzá Cocos Island Copán Glacier Bay Grand Canyon Havana Hawaii Volcanoes Jasper Kluane Kootenay L’Anse aux Meadows Mammoth Cave Mesa Verde Mexico City Palenque

country

notes

Greece Spain Spain France France Poland England Norway Switzerland England France Greece Italy Italy France Northern Ireland Spain England Italy Turkey Poland France Germany Luxembourg Greece France Russia Italy Greece Germany

complex of monuments Moorish palace and fortress prehistoric cave paintings Romanesque and Gothic styles Roman, Romanesque monuments Nazi concentration camp prehistoric megalith group Hanseatic wharf medieval city center cathedral and abbey Gothic architecture remains of sanctuary complex Renaissance architecture historic city center royal château and gardens coastal rock formations Moorish, Andalusian structures Roman fortification ruins of Vesuvius-destroyed town numerous historic sites medieval city center prehistoric cave paintings Hanseatic architecture fortifications and old city Orthodox Christian monasteries medieval village and abbey Kremlin and Red Square historic city center ruins of ancient sacred city imperial chapel of Charlemagne, Carolingian and Gothic styles banks of Seine River ruins of Vesuvius-destroyed town historic city center historic city center High Gothic architecture medieval city center cradle of Bulgarian “National Revival” historic city center and monuments historic city center ancient port and temple remains old city and pilgrimage route old town and Roman aqueduct Roman palace, other monuments prehistoric megalith group historic city center historic structures Saxon fortified churches, villages seat of Roman Catholic church island city and surrounding lagoon royal palace and park historic Hanseatic town

France Italy Portugal Czech Republic France Greece Bulgaria Russia Austria Greece Spain Spain Croatia England Estonia Spain Romania Vatican City Italy France Sweden

Canada United States Mexico Costa Rica Honduras United States United States Cuba United States Canada Canada Canada Canada United States United States Mexico Mexico

national park, Rocky Mountains historical park, Pueblo ruins Mayan-Toltec architecture national park, forest and marine life remains of major Mayan city subarctic national park, preserve national park colonial city center national park national park, Rocky Mountains subarctic national park national park, Rocky Mountains remains of medieval Norse settlement in Newfoundland cave system and national park prehistoric cliff dwellings historic city center national park, Mayan city

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Selected UNESCO World Heritage sites (continued) site*

country

notes

North America (continued) Santo Domingo Dominican Rep. Statue of Liberty United States Teotihuacán Mexico Tikal Guatemala Uxmal Mexico Wrangell-St. Elias United States Xochimilco Mexico Yellowstone United States Yoho Canada

colonial city national monument extensive pre-Hispanic ruins national park, Mayan ruins Mayan city and ceremonial center subarctic national park, preserve Aztec canals and floating gardens national park, geothermal formations national park, Rocky Mountains

South America Arequipa Brasília Cartagena Chan Chan Colonia del Sacramento

colonial architecture urban planning and architecture colonial port, fortresses, monuments ruins of pre-Inca Chimú capital Portuguese, Spanish colonial architecture

Peru Brazil Colombia Peru Uruguay

site*

country

South America (continued) Córdoba Argentina Coro Venezuela Cuzco Peru Easter Island Chile Galapagos Islands Ecuador Huascarán, Mount Peru Iguaçu (Iguazú) Brazil and Argentina Los Kaitos Colombia and Darién and Panama Machu Picchu Peru Nazca Lines Peru Pantanal Brazil Potosí Bolivia Quito Ecuador Valdés Peninsula Argentina

notes

Jesuit institutions and estates Spanish, Dutch, local architecture Inca and colonial architecture monumental sculptures national park, unique ecosystem montane national park national parks, waterfalls, subtropical rainforests national parks on the frontier, rainforest, wetlands Inca ruins extensive geoglyphs freshwater wetland ecosystem colonial industrial city colonial city center seals, whales

*The spelling or styling of place-names in this table may differ from those given on the World Heritage List; in addition, some place-names represent one or more constituent parts of larger World Heritage sites.

towers, as well as adjacent buildings, collapsed into enormous piles of debris. The attacks claimed the lives of some 2,750 people. Thousands more were injured. See SEPTEMBER 11 ATTACKS. World Trade Organization (WTO) INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION based in Geneva that supervises world trade. It was created in 1995 to replace the GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE (GATT). Like its predecessor, it aims to lower trade barriers and encourage multilateral trade. It monitors members’ adherence to GATT agreements and negotiates and implements new agreements. Critics of the WTO, including many opponents of economic GLOBALIZATION, have charged that it undermines national sovereignty by promoting the interests of large MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONs and that the trade liberalization it encourages leads to environmental damage and declining living standards for low-skilled workers in developing countries. By the early 21st century, the WTO had more than 145 members. world tree Centre of the world, a widespread motif in myths and folktales among various peoples, especially in Asia, Australia, and North America. There are two main forms. In the vertical tradition, the tree extends between and connects earth, heaven, and the underworld; oracles, judgments, and other prophetic activities are performed at its base. In the horizontal tradition, the tree is planted at the centre of the world and is protected by supernatural guardians; it is the source of terrestrial fertility and life.

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World War I or First World War (1914–18) International conflict between the CENTRAL POWERS—Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey— and the ALLIED POWERS—mainly France, Britain, Russia, Italy, Japan, and (from 1917) the U.S. After a Serbian nationalist assassinated Archduke FRANCIS FERDINAND of Austria in June 1914, a chain of threats and mobilizations resulted in a general war between the antagonists by mid-August. Prepared to fight a war on two fronts, based on the SCHLIEFFEN PLAN, Germany first swept through neutral Belgium and invaded France. After the FIRST BATTLE OF THE MARNE (1914), the Allied defensive lines were stabilized in France, and a war of attrition began. Fought from lines of trenches and supported by modern artillery and machine guns, infantry assaults gained little ground and were enormously costly in human life, especially at the BATTLES OF VERDUN and the SOMME (1916). On the Eastern Front, Russian forces initially drove deep into East Prussia and German Poland (1914) but were stopped by German and Austrian forces at the BATTLE OF TANNENBERG and forced back into Russia (1915). After several offensives, the Russian army failed to break through the German defensive lines. Russia’s poor performance and enormous losses caused widespread domestic discontent that led to the RUSSIAN REVOLUTION OF 1917. Other fronts in the war included the DARDANELLES CAMPAIGN, in which British and Dominion forces were unsuccessful against Turkey; the Caucasus and Iran (Persia), where Russia fought Turkey; Mesopotamia and Egypt, where British forces fought the Turks; and northern Italy, where Italian and Austrian troops fought the costly BATTLES OF THE ISONZO. At sea, the German and British fleets fought the inconclusive BATTLE OF JUTLAND, and Germany’s use of

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the submarine against neutral shipping eventually brought the U.S. into the war in 1917. Though Russia’s armistice with Germany in December 1917 released German troops to fight on the Western Front, the Allies were reinforced by U.S. troops in early 1918. Germany’s unsuccessful offensive in the SECOND BATTLE OF THE MARNE was countered by the Allies’ steady advance, which recovered most of France and Belgium by October 1918 and led to the November ARMISTICE. Total casualties were estimated at 10 million dead, 21 million wounded, and 7.7 million missing or imprisoned. See also Battles of CAPORETTO and YPRES; FOURTEEN POINTS; LUSITANIA; PARIS PEACE CONFERENCE; Treaties of BREST-LITOVSK, NEUILLY, SAINTGERMAIN, SÈVRES, TRIANON, and VERSAILLES; EDMUND H.H. ALLENBY, FERDINAND FOCH, JOHN FRENCH, DOUGLAS HAIG, PAUL VON HINDENBURG, JOSEPH-JACQUESCÉSAIRE JOFFRE, ERICH LUDENDORFF, JOHN PERSHING. World War II or Second World War (1939–45) International conflict principally between the AXIS POWERS—Germany, Italy, and Japan— and the ALLIED POWERS—France, Britain, the U.S., the Soviet Union, and China. Political and economic instability in Germany, combined with bitterness over its defeat in WORLD WAR I and the harsh conditions of the Treaty of VERSAILLES, allowed ADOLF HITLER and the NAZI PARTY to rise to power. In the mid-1930s Hitler began secretly to rearm Germany, in violation of the treaty. He signed alliances with Italy and Japan to oppose the Soviet Union and intervened in the SPANISH CIVIL WAR in the name of anticommunism. Capitalizing on the reluctance of other European powers to oppose him by force, he sent troops to occupy Austria in 1938 (see ANSCHLUSS) and to annex Czechoslovakia in 1939. After signing the GERMAN-SOVIET NONAGGRESSION PACT, Germany invaded Poland on Sept. 1, 1939. Two days later France and Britain declared war on Germany. Poland’s defeat was followed by a period of military inactivity on the Western Front (see PHONY WAR). At sea Germany conducted a damaging submarine campaign by U-BOAT against merchant shipping bound for Britain. By early 1940 the Soviet Union had divided Poland with Germany, occupied the Baltic states, and subdued Finland in the RUSSO-FINNISH WAR. In April 1940 Germany overwhelmed Denmark and began its conquest of Norway. In May German forces swept through The Netherlands and Belgium on their BLITZKRIEG invasion of France, forcing it to capitulate in June and establish the VICHY FRANCE regime. Germany then launched massive bombing raids on Britain in preparation for a cross-Channel invasion, but, after losing the BATTLE OF BRITAIN, Hitler postponed the invasion indefinitely. By early 1941 Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria had joined the Axis, and German troops quickly overran Yugoslavia and Greece in April. In June Hitler abandoned his pact with the Soviet Union and launched a massive surprise invasion of Russia, reaching the outskirts of Moscow before Soviet counterattacks and winter weather halted the advance. In East Asia Japan expanded its war with China and seized European colonial holdings. In December 1941 Japan attacked U.S. bases at Pearl Harbor and in the Philippines. The U.S. declared war on Japan, and the war became truly global when the other Axis Powers declared war on the U.S. Japan quickly invaded and occupied most of Southeast Asia, Burma, the Neth-

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erlands East Indies, and many Pacific islands. After the crucial U.S. naval victory at the BATTLE OF MIDWAY (1942), U.S. forces began to advance up the chains of islands toward Japan. In the NORTH AFRICA CAMPAIGNS the British and Americans defeated Italian and German forces by 1943. The Allies then invaded Sicily and Italy, forcing the overthrow of the fascist government in July 1943, though fighting against the Germans continued in Italy until 1945. In the Soviet Union the BATTLE OF STALINGRAD (1943) marked the end of the German advance, and Soviet reinforcements in great numbers gradually pushed the German armies back. The massive Allied invasion of western Europe began with the NORMANDY CAMPAIGN in western France (1944), and the Allies’ steady advance ended in the occupation of Germany in 1945. After Soviet troops pushed German forces out of the Soviet Union, they advanced into Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Romania and had occupied the eastern third of Germany by the time the surrender of Germany was signed on May 8, 1945. In the Pacific an Allied invasion of the Philippines (1944) was followed by the successful BATTLE OF LEYTE GULF and the costly Battles of IWO JIMA and OKINAWA (1945). Atomic bombs were dropped on HIROSHIMA and NAGASAKI in August 1945, and Japan’s formal surrender on September 2 ended the war. Estimates of total military and civilian casualties varied from 35 million to 60 million killed, including about 6 million Jews who died in the HOLOCAUST. Millions more civilians were wounded and made homeless throughout Europe and East Asia. See also ANTI-COMINTERN PACT; ATLANTIC CHARTER; Battles of EL ALAMEIN, the ATLANTIC, the BULGE, GUADALCANAL, and the PHILIPPINE SEA; CASABLANCA, POTSDAM, TEHRAN, and YALTA conferences; DUNKIRK EVACUATION; LEND-LEASE; MUNICH AGREEMENT; NÜRNBERG TRIALS; Siege of LENINGRAD; SINO-JAPANESE WARS; OMAR BRADLEY, WINSTON CHURCHILL, DWIGHT D. EISENHOWER, DOUGLAS MACARTHUR, BERNARD LAW MONTGOMERY, BENITO MUSSOLINI, GEORGE PATTON, ERWIN ROMMEL, FRANKLIN ROOSEVELT, JOSEPH STALIN, YAMAMOTO ISOROKU, GEORGY K. ZHUKOV. World Wide Web (WWW) or Web Leading information-exchange service of the INTERNET. It was created by TIM BERNERS-LEE and his colleagues at CERN and introduced to the world in 1991. The Web gives users access to a vast array of documents that are connected to each other by means of HYPERTEXT or hyperlinks. A hypertext document with its corresponding text and hyperlinks is written in HTML and is assigned an on-line address, or URL. The Web operates within the Internet’s basic CLIENT-SERVER ARCHITECTURE. Individual HTML files with unique electronic addresses are called Web pages, and a collection of Web pages and related files (such as graphics files, scripted programs, and other resources) sharing a set of similar addresses (see DOMAIN NAME) is called a WEB SITE. The main or introductory page of a Web site is usually called the site’s home page. Users may access any page by typing in the appropriate address, search for pages related to a topic of interest by using a SEARCH ENGINE, or move quickly between pages by clicking on hyperlinks incorporated into them. Though introduced in 1991, the Web did not become truly popular until the introduction of Mosaic, a BROWSER with a graphical interface, in 1993. Subsequently, browsers produced by Netscape and Microsoft have become predominant. World Wildlife Fund or World Wide Fund for Nature Largest privately supported international conservation organization in the world. Founded in 1961 by a small group of European scientists, naturalists, and business and political leaders, including PETER MARKHAM SCOTT, the organization raises funds and channels them to other conservation groups. It directs its efforts toward protecting endangered environments such as coral reefs, saving endangered species, and addressing global threats such as pollution. It has helped establish and manage parks and reserves, and was instrumental in saving the giant panda (whose image it uses as its symbol) and other endangered species. world’s fair Specially constructed attraction showcasing the science, technology, and culture of participating countries and enterprises. World fairs have often featured outstanding architectural designs and introduced significant inventions. The first was held in England in 1756; more than 300 have been held since. The most notable include the 1851 CRYSTAL PALACE Exhibition (London), the 1876 U.S. International Centennial Exposition (Philadelphia), the 1893 World’s Columbian Exposition (Chicago), the 1901 Pan-American Exposition (Buffalo, N.Y.), the 1904 St. Louis World’s Fair, the 1910 Brussels World’s Fair, the 1933–34 Century of Progress (Chicago), the 1939–40 Golden Gate Exposition (San Francisco), the 1939–40 New York World’s Fair, the 1964–65 New York World’s Fair, the 1967 Montreal Exposition, and the 1998 World Exposition (Lisbon).

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worm Any of thousands of species of unrelated INVERTEBRATE animals that typically have a soft, slender, elongated body with no appendages. The major phyla are Platyhelminthes (FLATWORMS), Annelida (ANNELIDS, or segmented worms), Nemertea (ribbon worms), Acanthocephala (spinyheaded worms), and Aschelminthes (NEMATODES and others). There are several minor phyla. Length ranges from microscopic (e.g., some aschelminths) to more than 100 ft (30 m) (some ribbon worms). Worms are found worldwide on land and in water. They may be parasitic or freeliving and are important as soil conditioners, parasites, and a link in the food chain in all ecosystems. See also FLUKE, PINWORM, POLYCHAETE, ROTIFER, TAPEWORM, TUBE WORM. Wormley Conference (Feb. 26, 1877) Meeting to resolve the disputed U.S. presidential election of 1876 between SAMUEL TILDEN and RUTHERFORD B. HAYES. Leaders of the Democratic and Republican parties met at Wormley’s Hotel in Washington, D.C., to reach a compromise that would forestall the Democrats’ protest of the ELECTORAL COMMISSION’s decision to award the disputed electoral votes from three Southern states to Hayes, enabling him to defeat Tilden 185 to 184. In return for the Democrats’ acquiescence in the decision, Republicans promised to withdraw troops from the South, end RECONSTRUCTION and Northern interference in Southern politics, and vote for railroad construction and other internal improvements in the South. The compromise satisfied the Southern Democrats, and Hayes was declared the winner on March 2, 1877. Worms \9v|rms,\ English \9w²rmz\, Concordat of (1122) Compromise between Pope CALIXTUS II and Emperor Henry V (r. 1106–25) to settle the INVESTITURE CONTROVERSY, reached at Worms, Germany. It marked the end of the first phase of conflict between Rome and what was becoming the HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE and made a clear distinction between the spiritual side of a prelate’s office and his position as a landed magnate and vassal of the crown. Bishops and abbots were to be chosen by the clergy, but the emperor was to decide contested elections. Those selected were to be invested first with the powers and privileges of their office as vassal (granted by the emperor) and then with their ecclesiastical powers and lands (granted by church authority). Worms, Diet of Meeting of the Diet (assembly) of the HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE at Worms, Ger., in 1521, where MARTIN LUTHER defended the principles of the REFORMATION. Luther had already been excommunicated by Pope LEO X, but Emperor CHARLES V granted him safe conduct to a hearing at the Diet. On April 17, 1521, Luther refused to recant his views. Disorder broke out, the emperor adjourned the proceedings, and Luther was obliged to go into hiding. In May the Diet issued the Edict of Worms, declaring Luther an outlaw and a heretic and banning his writings. worsted \9w>s-t²d, 9w²r-st²d\ WOOL YARN made of long-staple fibres that have been combed to remove unwanted short fibres and make them lie parallel. In the spinning operation, which gives the necessary twist to hold the fibres together, worsted yarns are more tightly twisted than are the bulkier woolen yarns. The soft, heavy yarn is strong and durable and is often used for sweaters. Worsteds are also used for fine dress fabrics and suit material. Worth, Charles Frederick (b. Oct. 13, 1825, Bourne, Lincolnshire, Eng.—d. March 10, 1895, Paris, France) British-born French fashion designer. In 1845 he left England, where he had been a bookkeeper, and worked in a Paris dress accessories shop. In 1858 he opened his own ladies’ tailor shop and soon gained the patronage of the empress EUGÉNIE. He was a pioneer of the “fashion show” (the preparation and showing of a collection), the first man to become prominent in the field of fashion, and the first designer to create dresses intended to be copied and distributed throughout the world. He became the dictator of Paris fashion and was especially noted for his elegant Second Empire gowns. He Charles Frederick Worth, detail of an invented the bustle, which became engraving standard in women’s fashion in the BBC HULTON PICTURE LIBRARY 1870s and ’80s.

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Wotan See ODIN Wouk \9w+k\, Herman (b. May 27, 1915, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. novelist. His experience serving aboard a destroyer-minesweeper in World War II provided material for The Caine Mutiny (1951, Pulitzer Prize; film, 1954), a drama of naval tradition that presented the unforgettable character Captain Queeg. The Winds of War (1971) and War and Remembrance (1978) together represent a two-volume novel of the war. His other novels include Marjorie Morningstar (1955) and The Glory (1994). wound or trauma Break in any body tissue due to external action (including surgery). It may be closed (blunt trauma) or open (penetrating trauma). Blood vessels, nerves, muscles, bones, joints, and internal organs may be damaged. A closed wound can be caused by impact, twisting, bending, or deceleration (as in a car crash). It can range from a minor bruise or sprain to a skull fracture with brain damage or a spinal-cord injury with paralysis. In an open wound, foreign matter such as bacteria, dirt, and clothing fragments entering through broken skin or mucous membrane may result in INFECTION. Other factors affecting severity include depth, surface area, degree of tearing, and structures damaged. Minor wounds need only first aid. For others, after examination and perhaps diagnostic imaging and exploratory surgery, treatment may include fluid replacement or drainage, sterilization and antibiotics, tetanus antitoxin, and repair of damaged structures. A closed wound may need to be opened or an open one sutured closed. See also BURN, COAGULATION, CRUSH INJURY, DISLOCATION, SCAR. Wounded Knee Hamlet and creek in southwestern South Dakota, the site of two conflicts between the SIOUX Indians and the U.S. government. In 1890 the Sioux had been inspired by the GHOST DANCE movement to take up arms and reclaim their heritage, but federal military intervention quelled the rebellion. On December 29 a young brave became involved in a scuffle while surrendering, and a trooper was killed. Soldiers fired at the Indians, killing more than 200 men, women, and children. Thirty soldiers also died. The so-called Battle of Wounded Knee is regarded as the final episode in the conquest of the North American Indian. In 1973 some 200 members of the AMERICAN INDIAN MOVEMENT took the reservation hamlet by force, declared it an independent nation, and vowed to stay until the government agreed to address Indian grievances; a siege by federal marshals ended when the Indians surrendered in exchange for a promise of negotiations. Wovoka \w+-9v+-k²\ (b. 1858?, Utah Territory, U.S.—d. October 1932, Walker River Indian Reservation, Nev.) PAIUTE religious leader. In 1889 Wovoka announced that during a trance God had told him that his people’s ancestors would rise from the dead, buffalo would return to the plains, and the white man would vanish if the people would perform a ritual dance. The GHOST DANCE cult arose and quickly spread to other tribes, notably the militant SIOUX, and Wovoka was worshiped as a new messiah. After the WOUNDED KNEE massacre, Wovoka’s following dissipated and the movement died out. Wozniak, Stephen G(ary) (b. Aug. 11, 1950, San Jose, Calif., U.S.) U.S. computer engineer. He designed electronic devices and games while still in his teens. In the 1970s he worked for Hewlett-Packard. In 1976 he and STEVEN JOBS founded Apple Computer, Inc. Badly injured in a 1981 plane crash, he took a leave from Apple, but he returned to work on the revolutionary Macintosh computer. He left Apple for good in 1985, the year he was awarded the National Medal of Technology. He has since taught in elementary school.

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WPA in full Works Progress Administration later (1939–43) Work Projects Administration U.S. work program for the unemployed. Created in 1935 under the NEW DEAL, it aimed to stimulate the economy during the GREAT DEPRESSION and preserve the skills and selfrespect of unemployed persons by providing them useful work. During its existence, it employed 8.5 million people in the construction of 650,000 mi (1,046,000 km) of roads, 125,000 public buildings, 75,000 bridges, 8,000 parks, and 800 airports. The WPA also administered the WPA FEDERAL ART PROJECT, the Theater Project, and the Writers’ Project, which provided jobs for unemployed artists, actors, and writers. In 1943, with the virtual elimination of unemployment by the wartime economy, the WPA was terminated. WPA Federal Art Project Extensive visual-arts project, part of the WORKS PROGRESS ADMINISTRATION established by FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT during the GREAT DEPRESSION. It employed artists with a wide range of expe-

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rience and styles and had great influence on subsequent U.S. movements. At its peak in 1936, it provided work for more than 5,000 artists from relief rolls. Over the eight years of its existence, its employees produced 2,566 murals, more than 100,000 easel paintings, about 17,700 sculptures, and nearly 300,000 fine prints. The project also developed an audience by establishing more than 100 community art centres and galleries in regions where art was generally unknown. The total federal investment was about $35 million. It was the first major attempt at U.S. government patronage of the visual arts. Wrangel, Pyotr (Nikolayevich), Baron (b. Aug. 27, 1878, NovoAleksandrovsk, Lith., Russian Empire—d. April 25, 1928, Brussels, Belg.) Russian general who led the anti-BOLSHEVIK forces in the RUSSIAN CIVIL WAR. A member of an old German baronial family, he served in the Russian imperial guards and commanded a COSSACK division in World War I. After the RUSSIAN REVOLUTION OF 1917, he joined the anti-Bolshevik “White” forces of ANTON DENIKIN. After capturing Tsaritsyn (now Volgograd) in 1919, he became commander of the Whites in April 1920 and tried to rally support from the peasants and Cossacks. He launched an offensive in Ukraine in June, but by November the RED ARMY had defeated the Whites and forced them to retreat to the Crimea. After evacuating his troops to Constantinople, he lived in exile in western Europe. Wrangel Island Island, northeastern Russia. Located in the Arctic Ocean, it is crossed by the 180th meridian. It has an area of some 2,800 sq mi (7,300 sq km). Although it reaches an altitude of 3,596 ft (1,096 m) at Sovetskaya Mountain, there are no glaciers. The Russian explorer Ferdinand P. Wrangel, for whom the island was later named, determined its location from accounts of Siberian natives but did not land there during his mapping of the Siberian coast in the early 1820s. Russian fur traders subsequently visited the island, and it was sighted by U.S. vessels in 1867 and 1881. Survivors of a sunken Canadian ship reached Wrangel in 1914, and the leader of the expedition created an international incident in the early 1920s when he claimed Wrangel for Canada without authorization. The Soviet Union then annexed the island, and permanent occupation began in 1926. Wrangel Island State Reserve, established in 1976, occupies 1,730,000 ac (700,000 ha). Wrangell Mountains Range, southern Alaska, U.S. It extends south for about 100 mi (160 km) from the Copper River to the SAINT ELIAS MOUNTAINS near the Yukon border. Many peaks exceed 10,000 ft (3,000 m); the highest are Mount Blackburn (16,390 ft [4,990 m]), Mount Bona (16,500 ft [5,029 m]), and Mount Sanford (16,237 ft [4,950 m]). Most of the summits are extinct volcanoes. Snowfields drain into glaciers as long as 45 mi (72 km). The range forms a major part of WRANGELL–SAINT ELIAS NATIONAL PARK. Wrangell–Saint Elias National Park National park, southeastern Alaska, U.S. Proclaimed a national monument in 1978, the area underwent boundary and name changes in 1980. The largest park in the U.S. national park system, it has an area of 12,318,000 ac (4,987,000 ha). At the convergence of the Chugach, WRANGELL, and SAINT ELIAS mountain ranges, it includes the largest assemblage of glaciers and the greatest collection of peaks above 16,000 ft (4,880 m) on the continent. wrasse \9ras\ Any of some 300 species (family Labridae) of slender, often brilliantly coloured, fishes, found worldwide in tropical and temperate seas, often on coral reefs. Species range from 2 in. (5 cm) to 7 ft (2 m) long. Wrasses have thick lips, large scales, long fins, and large, often protruding, canine teeth. Most eat invertebrates; some species, called cleaner wrasses, pick off and eat the external parasites of larger fishes. The tautaug (Tautoga onitis) is an edible species. wren Any of 59 species (family Troglodytidae) of chunky songbirds, found in the Western Hemisphere. One species, Troglodytes troglodytes, has spread to the Old World; typical of the family, it is about 4 in. (10 cm) long and dark-barred brown, with a short, slightly downcurved bill, short rounded wings, and short cocked tail. Common throughout the Western Hemisphere is the house wren. The largest U.S. species (8 in., or 20 cm, long) is the cactus wren of southwestern deserts. Wrens hunt insects in marshes, rocky wastes, or shrubbery, revealing their presence by chatter and loud song. They nest in holes, in thickets, or on ledges. Wren, Sir Christopher (b. Oct. 20, 1632, East Knoyle, Wiltshire, Eng.—d. Feb. 25, 1723, London) British architect, astronomer, and geometrician. He taught astronomy at Gresham College, London (1657–61) and Oxford (1661–73), and did not turn to architecture until 1662, when

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he was engaged to design the Sheldonian Theatre at Oxford. Though Classical in form, the theatre was roofed with novel wood trusses that were the product of Wren’s scholarly and empirical approach. As King’s Surveyor of Works (1669–1718), he had a hand in the rebuilding of more than 50 churches destroyed in the GREAT FIRE OF LONDON. Meanwhile, he was evolving designs for SAINT PAUL’S CATHEDRAL, a work that occupied him until its completion in 1710. Other works, generally in the English Baroque style, include the classical Trinity College library, Cambridge (1676–84), additions to Hampton Court (begun 1689), and Greenwich Hospital (begun 1696). Wren was buried in Saint Paul’s; nearby is the famous inscription: “Reader, if you Sir Christopher Wren, detail of an oil seek a monument, look around.” painting by Sir Godfrey Kneller, 1711; wrench or spanner Tool, usu- in the National Portrait Gallery, Lonally operated by hand, for tightening don.

OF THE NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY, bolts and nuts. A wrench basically COURTESY LONDON consists of a lever with a notch at one or both ends for gripping the bolt or nut so that it can be twisted by a pull at right angles to the axes of the lever and the bolt or nut. Open-end wrenches have ends with straightsided slots that fit over the part being tightened; box-end wrenches have ends that enclose the nut and have six, eight, 12, or 16 points inside the head. A socket wrench is essentially a short pipe with a square or hexagonal hole and either a permanent or a removable handle.

wrestling Sport in which two competitors grapple with and strive to trip or throw each other down or off-balance. It is practiced in various styles, including freestyle wrestling, in which contestants can use holds above and below the waist, and GRECO-ROMAN WRESTLING, which allows only holds above the waist. Sambo is a style of Russian origin employing judo techniques. SUMO wrestling is a specialized Japanese variety. U.S. professional wrestling is today among the most popular of all spectator sports, though it principally involves wildly flamboyant showmanship, including such nonclassical moves as kicks to the head that would be lethal if they were not actually pulled. Wright, Sir Almroth Edward (b. Aug. 10, 1861, Middleton Tyas, Yorkshire, Eng.—d. April 30, 1947, Farnham Common, Buckinghamshire) British bacteriologist and immunologist. While teaching at the Army Medical School in Netley (from 1892), he developed a TYPHOID immunization that used killed typhoid bacilli. It made Britain the only country with troops immunized against typhoid at the start of World War I, the first war in which fewer British soldiers died of infection than from trauma. He also developed VACCINEs against enteric tuberculosis and pneumonia. He was well known for advancing autogenous vaccines (vaccines prepared from a patient’s own bacteria). Wright, Frances known as Fanny Wright (b. Sept. 6, 1795, Dundee, Angus, Scot.—d. Dec. 13, 1852, Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.) Scottish-born American social reformer. After travels in the U.S., she published Views of Society and Manners in America (1821), which was widely read and praised. Returning to the U.S. in 1824, she bought and freed slaves and settled them at Nashoba, a socialist, interracial community she established in Tennessee (1825–28). She worked with ROBERT DALE OWEN in New York (1829) and defied convention by lecturing widely, attacking slavery, religion, traditional marriage, and the unequal treatment of women. She was a co-leader of the WORKINGMEN’S PARTY. After marrying and living in France (1831–35), she returned to the U.S. and became a supporter of ANDREW JACKSON and the Democratic Party. Wright, Frank Lloyd (b. June 8, 1867, Richland Center, Wis., U.S.—d. April 9, 1959, Phoenix, Ariz.) U.S. architect. After studying engineering briefly at the University of Wisconsin, he worked for the firm of Dankmar Adler (1844–1900) and LOUIS SULLIVAN in Chicago before opening his own practice there in 1893. Wright became the chief practitioner of the PRAIRIE SCHOOL, building about 50 Prairie houses from 1900 to 1910.

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Early nonresidential buildings include the forward-looking Larkin Building in Buffalo, N.Y. (1904; destroyed 1950), and Unity Temple in Oak Park, Ill. (1906). In 1911 he began work on his own house, TALIESIN, near Spring Green, Wis. The lavish Imperial Hotel in Tokyo (1915–22, dismantled 1967) was significant for its revolutionary floating cantilever construction, which made it one of the only large buildings to withstand the earthquake of 1923. In the 1930s he designed his low-cost Usonian houses, but his most admired house, Fallingwater, in Bear Run, Pa. (1936), is an extravagant country retreat cantilevered over a waterfall. His Johnson Wax Building (1936–39), an example of humane workplace design, touched off an avalanche of major commissions. Of particular note is the GUGGENHEIM MUSEUM (1956–59), which has no separate floor levels but instead uses a spiral ramp, realizing Wright’s ideal of a continuous space. Throughout his career he retained the use of ornamental detail, earthy colours, and rich textural effects. His sensitive use of materials helped to control and perfect his dynamic expression of space, which opened a new era in American architecture. Often considered the greatest U.S. architect of all time, his greatest legacy is “organic architecture,” or the idea that buildings harmonize both with their inhabitants and with their environment. Wright, Mickey orig. Mary Kathryn Wright (b. Feb. 14, 1935, San Diego, Calif., U.S.) U.S. golfer. Noted for her classic swing, her long drives, and her superior iron play, she won a record number of LPGA tournaments (82), including an unmatched 13 in one season (1963), and remains the only four-time winner of the LPGA Championship (1958, 1960, 1961, 1963). Twice named Woman Athlete of the Year by the Associated Press (1963, 1964), she has been called the greatest woman golfer of all time. Wright, Richard (b. Sept. 4, 1908, near Natchez, Miss., U.S.—d. Nov. 28, 1960, Paris, France) U.S. novelist and short-story writer. Wright, whose grandparents had been slaves, grew up in poverty. After migrating north he joined the Federal Writers’ Project in Chicago, then moved to New York City in 1937. He was a member of the Communist Party in the years 1932–44. He first came to wide attention with a volume of novellas, Uncle Tom’s Children (1938). His novel Native Son (1940), though considered shocking and violent, became a best-seller. The fictionalized autobiography Black Boy (1945) vividly describes his often harsh childhood and youth. After World War II he settled in Paris. He is remembered as one of the first African American writers to protest white treatment of blacks. Wright, Sewall (b. Dec. 21, 1889, Melrose, Mass., U.S.—d. March 3, 1988, Madison, Wis.) U.S. geneticist. He earned his doctorate at Harvard University. His earliest studies included investigation of the effects of inbreeding and crossbreeding on guinea pigs, animals he later used in studying the effects of gene action on coat and eye colour. With J.B.S. HALDANE and R.A. FISHER, he developed a mathematical basis for modern evolutionary theory using statistical techniques. He originated a theory that could guide the use of inbreeding and crossbreeding in livestock improvement. He is perhaps best known for his concept of GENETIC DRIFT. Wright, Wilbur; and Wright, Orville (respectively b. April 16, 1867, near Millville, Ind., U.S.—d. May 30, 1912, Dayton, Ohio; b. Aug. 19, 1871, Dayton, Ohio, U.S.—d. Jan. 30, 1948, Dayton) U.S. inventors who achieved the first powered, sustained, and controlled airplane flight. The brothers first worked in printing-machinery design and later in bicycle manufacturing, which financed their early experiments in airplane design. To test flight control, essential to successful powered flight, they built and flew three biplane gliders (1900–02). Propeller and engine innovations led to their first powered airplane, which Orville flew successfully for 12 seconds and Wilbur later flew for 59 seconds at Kill Devil Hills, N.C. (near the village of Kitty Hawk), on Dec. 17, 1903. Their flyer of 1905 could turn, bank, circle, and remain airborne for over 35 minutes. They demonstrated their planes in Europe and the U.S.; in 1908 Wilbur gave over 100 exhibition flights in France, setting a duration record of 2 hours and 20 minutes. They established an aircraft company and produced planes for the U.S. Army. After Wilbur’s death from typhoid, Orville sold his interest in the company, which later merged with the company of GLENN H. CURTISS. Wriothesley, Thomas See 1st Earl of SOUTHAMPTON writ In COMMON LAW, an order issued in the name of a sovereign or court commanding a person to perform or refrain from performing a specified act. It was a vital official instrument in Old English law. A plaintiff would

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commence a suit by choosing the proper form of action and obtaining a writ appropriate to the remedy sought; its issuance forced the defendant to comply or to appear in court. Writs were also constantly in use for financial and political purposes of government. Though the writ no longer governs civil pleading and has lost many of its applications, the extraordinary writs, especially of HABEAS CORPUS, mandamus (commanding the performance of a ministerial act), prohibition (commanding an inferior court to stay within its jurisdiction), and CERTIORARI, reflect its historical importance as an instrument of judicial authority. writing System of human visual communication using signs or symbols associated by convention with units of LANGUAGE—meanings or sounds— and recorded on materials such as paper, stone, or clay. Its precursor was PICTOGRAPHY. Logography, in which symbols stand for individual words, typically develops from pictography. Logography requires thousands of symbols for all possible words and names. In phonographic systems, the symbol associated with a word also stands for similar- or identicalsounding words. Phonographic systems may evolve to the point where symbols represent syllables, constituting a syllabary. An ALPHABET provides symbols for all the consonants and vowels. Writs of Assistance See Writs of ASSISTANCE Wrocław \9vr|t-0sw!f\ German Breslau City (pop., 2000 est.: 633,857), southwestern Poland. Located on the ODER RIVER, it originated in the 10th century at the crossroads of the trade route linking the Black Sea to western Europe. In 1138 it became the first capital of SILESIA. The Tartars destroyed Wrocław in 1241. Rebuilt, it passed to BOHEMIA with the rest of Silesia in 1335 and to the HABSBURGs in 1526. In 1741 it fell to Prussia under the rule of FREDERICK II (the Great), and it eventually became part of Germany. During World War II Wrocław was besieged (1945) by Soviet troops. The city was assigned to Poland by the POTSDAM CONFERENCE of 1945. Heavily damaged during the war, it was rebuilt and is now a major commercial city. wrought iron One of the two forms in which IRON is obtained by SMELTING. Wrought iron is a soft, easily worked, fibrous metal. It usually contains

less than 0.1% CARBON and 1–2% SLAG. It is superior for most purposes to CAST IRON, which is hard and brittle because of its higher carbon content. In antiquity, iron was smelted directly by heating ore in a forge with charcoal, which served both as fuel and reducing agent. While still hot, the iron-andslag mixture was removed as a lump and worked (wrought) with a hammer to expel most of the slag and weld the iron into a coherent mass. Wrought iron began to take the place of bronze (being far more available) in Asia Minor in the 2nd millennium BC; its use for tools and weapons was established in China, India, and the Mediterranean by the 3rd century BC. Later, in Europe, wrought iron was produced indirectly from cast iron (see PUDDLING PROCESS). With the invention of the BESSEMER PROCESS and OPEN-HEARTH PROCESS, STEEL supplanted wrought iron for structural purposes, and its use in the 20th century has been principally decorative. wu Fundamental Daoist philosophical concept. Wu (“not-being”), you (“being”), wuming (“the nameless”), and youming (“the named”) are interdependent and grow out of one another. Wu and you are two aspects of the DAO. Not-being does not mean nothingness but rather the absence of perceptible qualities; in LAOZI’s view, it is superior to being. It is the void that harbours in itself all potentialities and without which even being lacks its efficacy. According to the scholar He Yan (d. 249), wu is beyond name and form and hence is absolute, complete, and capable of accomplishing anything. See also DAOISM.

invited the MANCHU into China and helped them establish the QING DYNASTY. Though he had for many years battled the Manchu on China’s northeastern frontier, he turned to them for aid when the MING-DYNASTY capital at Beijing fell to rebel leader LI ZICHENG. The Manchu forces defeated Li and then set up their own dynasty, in which Wu served many years. Only when he was put in charge of eliminating the remnants of Ming resistance in southwestern China did he break away, creating his own state in the area of Yunnan and Guizhou. Two other commanders had set up similar states in neighbouring southern provinces; in 1673 Wu led the three in rebellion. After Wu’s death, his grandson continued the rebellion until 1681, when it was finally crushed. See also DORGON. Wu-ti See WUDI Wu Zetian See WUHOU Wuchang \9wr-+\, Cale in full William Caleb Yarborough (b. March 27, 1939, Timmonsville, S.C., U.S.) U.S. stock-car racer. He began racing STOCK CARS in the early 1960s. He was the first to win the NASCAR championships for three consecutive years (1976–78). He also won the Daytona 500 three times (1968, 1977, 1983) and the Atlanta 500 four times (1967, 1968, 1974, 1981). yard Unit of length equal to 36 INCHes, or 3 feet (see FOOT), in the U.S. Customary System or 0.9144 METRE in the INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS. A cloth yard, used to measure cloth, is 37 in. long; it was also the standard length for arrows. In casual speech, a yard (e.g., of concrete, gravel, or topsoil) may refer to a cubic yard. Yarm)k \y!r-9mn-9shin\ (b. April 28, 1545, Seoul, Korea—d. Dec. 16, 1598, off Noryang) Korean admiral and national hero. He worked on developing the k£buks£n (“turtle ship”), thought to be the first ironclad battleship. As a result of Yi’s preparations, his forces, unlike most of the Korean military, were ready to fight when the Japanese under TOYOTOMI HIDEYOSHI invaded in 1592. His sea victories effectively cut off the Japanese troops in Korea from their supplies. In 1597 he was falsely accused of disloyalty and demoted to the rank of common soldier. When the Japanese launched a second invasion and largely destroyed the Korean navy, Yi was reinstated and soon restored Korea’s control of the seas. He was killed by a stray bullet as he pursued the retreating Japanese. Yibin \9%-9bin\ or I-pin conventional Suchow \9sr, 0y!m-9ki-p²r\ English Day of Atonement Jewish religious holiday, observed on the 10th day of the lunar month of Tishri (in late September or early October). It concludes the 10 days of repentance that begin with ROSH HASHANAH. Its purpose is to purify the individual and community by forgiving the sins of others and by repenting one’s own sins against God. Before the destruction of the Temple of JERUSALEM, the high priest performed a sacrificial ceremony that concluded with the death of a SCAPEGOAT. Today it is marked by fasting and abstention from sex. Its eve, when the KOL NIDRE is recited, and the entire day of Yom Kippur, are spent in prayer and meditation. Yongding River or Yung-ting River River, northeastern China. It rises beyond the GREAT WALL in HEBEI province and flows southeastward through BEIJING municipality. It continues through TIANJIN municipality, where it becomes the principal stream forming the HAI RIVER, which flows from the Yongding’s junction with the GRAND CANAL to its mouth at the BO HAI. About 300 mi (500 km) long, it is navigable in its lower reaches. Yngjo \9y|=-j+\ (r. 1724–76) King of the Korean CHOSN DYNASTY. A reformer, Y£ngjo reinstated the universal military service tax but then

Yongle emperor  Yorktown

reduced it by half, making up the deficiency with other taxes. He adopted an accounting system and reduced an onerous cloth tax. Y£ngjo upgraded the status of the offspring of commoners, but his social reforms could not keep up with the speed of societal change. Yongle emperor or Yung-lo emperor \9y>=-9le\ orig. Zhu Di (b. May 2, 1360, Yingtian [Nanjing], China—d. Aug. 5, 1424, Yumuchuan, Inner Mongolia) Third emperor of China’s MING DYNASTY, which he raised to its greatest power. Son of the HONGWU EMPEROR, founder of the Ming, he was his father’s favourite. He was enfeoffed as the Prince of Yan (the region around present-day Beijing) and spent his youth patrolling the northern frontier and keeping the MONGOLs fragmented. When his nephew succeeded to the throne, Zhu Di rebelled and became emperor in 1402. As emperor, he worked to extend China’s sway. He sent out ships of exploration, most notably under ZHENG HE; these returned with envoys bearing tribute to acknowledge China’s overlordship. He became the only ruler in Chinese history to be acknowledged suzerain by the Japanese. A foray into Annam (now Vietnam), which he attempted to incorporate into China, led to years of guerrilla warfare. He five times led large armies north to the Gobi Desert, forestalling the creation of a Mongol confederation that might have threatened China. He transferred China’s capital from Nanjing to Beijing. He built the FORBIDDEN CITY and repaired the GRAND CANAL so that Beijing could be provisioned without relying on sea transport. He sponsored the compilation and publication of the Confucian Classics and the preparation of the Yongle dadian (“Great Canon of the Yongle Era”), an 11,000-volume compendium. yoni \9y+-n%\ In HINDUISM, a representation of the female sexual organ and feminine generative power, the symbol of the goddess Shakti (see SHAKTI). The yoni is often associated with the phallic LINGA, the symbol of the god SHIVA. The linga is depicted in art as resting in the yoni, their union representing the eternal process of creation and regeneration. Yonkers City (pop., 2000: 196,086), southeastern New York, U.S. It is located on the HUDSON RIVER north of NEW YORK CITY. Once the site of an American Indian village, it was part of a purchase made by the Dutch West India Co. from the Indians in 1639. In 1646 it was included in a grant of land made to “Jonkheer” Adriaen van der Donck. The southern portion of old Yonkers was annexed to what later became the BRONX in 1874. Industry is well diversified and includes printing and publishing and the manufacture of elevators, chemicals, electronic components, and clothing. Yonne \9y|n\ River River, north-central France. It flows north out of Nièvre département into the SEINE RIVER at Montereau-faut-Yonne. The Yonne is 182 mi (293 km) long and is navigable for 70 mi (113 km) downstream from Auxerre. Yorck von Wartenburg \9y|rk-f|n-9v!r-t²n-0b>rk\, Johann (David Ludwig), Count (b. Sept. 26, 1759, Potsdam, Prussia—d. Oct. 4, 1830, Klein-Öls, Silesia) Prussian army commander. After serving with the Prussian army (1772–79) and Dutch army (1779–87), he rejoined the Prussian army and fought in Poland (1794) and later in the war against France (1806). Promoted to major general, he helped reorganize the army, developing the tactics of the infantry scout and the line of skirmishes. In 1812 he led the Prussian contingent of NAPOLEON’s invading army into Russia. During the French retreat, he concluded an accord with Russia that opened the way for Prussia to join the Allied powers against Napoleon. He was made a count in 1814 and a field marshal in 1821. Yoritomo See MINAMOTO YORITOMO York Former city (pop., 2001: 150,255), southeastern Ontario, Canada. In 1998 it joined the cities of TORONTO, ETOBICOKE, SCARBOROUGH, and NORTH YORK and the borough of EAST YORK to become the City of Toronto. Occupying an area of 9 sq mi (23 sq km), York was established in 1967 through the amalgamation of the former township of York and the town of Weston. The original York township was formed in 1793. York ancient Eboracum City and unitary authority (pop., 2001: 181,131), geographic county of NORTH YORKSHIRE, historic county of YORKSHIRE, England. Located at the confluence of the OUSE and Foss rivers, it is the cathedral city of the archbishop of York and was historically the ecclesiastical capital of northern England. It was also the seat of the historic county of Yorkshire. York was a Celtic and then a Roman settlement. CONSTANTINE I was proclaimed Roman emperor in York in AD 306. It was conquered by the Danes in 867. York suffered severely in the Norman conquest of northern England in the 11th century. During the Middle

© 2006 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

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Ages it was a prosperous wool-trading town and the performance site of the YORK PLAYS. It has a manufacturing economy and a tourist industry fostered by its medieval sites. York, Alvin C(ullum) (b. Dec. 13, 1887, Pall Mall, Tenn., U.S.—d. Sept. 2, 1964, Nashville, Tenn.) U.S. World War I hero. He worked as a blacksmith and was drafted into the U.S. Army in 1917 after being denied conscientious-objector status. In the Meuse-Argonne offensive (October 1918), his patrol of 17 men was ordered to attack a German machine-gun nest. Pinned down behind enemy lines, he advanced alone to attack the enemy gunners, killing 25 and forcing the others to surrender. As he marched them back to U.S. lines, he captured more German soldiers for a total of 132 prisoners. He received the Congressional Medal of Honor, and his autobiography (1928) was the basis of the movie Sergeant York (1941). York, Cape Northern point of Cape York Peninsula, QUEENSLAND, Australia. Australia’s northernmost point, it is about 15 mi (25 km) long and 12 mi (19 km) wide; it juts into the TORRES STRAIT. Cape York was named in 1770 by Capt. JAMES COOK for the duke of York, brother of King GEORGE III. York, house of Younger branch of the PLANTAGENET dynasty, descended from EDWARD III’s fifth son, Edmund of Langley (1341–1402), 1st duke of York. In the 15th century the Yorkists took the throne from the house of LANCASTER; the Yorkist kings were EDWARD IV, Edward V, and RICHARD III. The Wars of the ROSES between the two houses continued until Richard’s death at the Battle of BOSWORTH FIELD in 1453. The marriage of HENRY VII, the first Tudor king, to the daughter of Edward IV, merged the house of York with the house of Tudor. York plays Cycle of 48 plays performed in the Middle Ages by craft guilds in York, Eng. The York cycle, which dates from the 14th century, is of unknown authorship; it covers the story of the Fall of Man and his redemption, from the creation of the angels to the Final Judgment. The plays, performed on the summer feast day of Corpus Christi, were given in chronological order, on pageant wagons proceeding from one selected place to another. See also MYSTERY PLAY. York University Privately endowed university in North York, Ont., Can., founded in 1959. It has faculties of administrative studies, arts, education, environmental studies, fine arts, and graduate studies as well as schools of law, business, and of pure and applied science. Among its research units are centres for the study of refugees, atmospheric chemistry, law and public policy, and computers in education. Yorke Peninsula Promontory, southeastern SOUTH AUSTRALIA. It is located between Spencer Gulf to the west and Gulf SAINT VINCENT and Investigator Strait to the east and south. It extends southward 160 mi (260 km) and is 20–35 mi (32–56 km) wide. Sighted by the English in 1802, it was named for Charles P. Yorke, first lord of the Admiralty. Yorkshire \9y|rk-0shir\ Historic county, northern England. Yorkshire was divided into three administrative counties—North Riding, East Riding, and West Riding—and the city of YORK. For most purposes the ridings were separate administrative units for a thousand years; Yorkshire and the ridings, comprising the country’s largest county, ceased to exist with the administrative reorganization of 1974. Yorkshire was an agricultural, fishing, and manufacturing centre. Its main cities and towns include LEEDS, SHEFFIELD, KINGSTON UPON HULL, BRADFORD, and WAKEFIELD. Yorkshire terrier or Yorkie Breed of TOY DOG developed in the mid19th century in Yorkshire and Lancashire, Eng. Its lineage appears to include TERRIERS such as the Skye and DANDIE DINMONT. Its outstanding feature is its straight, silky coat, parted on the back from nose to tail and long enough to sweep the ground. Its coat colour is dark blue-gray, with tan on the head and chest. It may grow to 9 in. (23 cm) tall and weigh up to 7 lb (3 kg). Yorktown, Siege of (1781) American-French land and sea campaign against the British that virtually ended the AMERICAN REVOLUTION. About 7,500 British troops under CHARLES CORNWALLIS occupied defensive positions at the coastal port of Yorktown, Va., on Aug. 1, 1781. They were opposed by a smaller American force under the marquis de LAFAYETTE, assisted by ANTHONY WAYNE and FREDERICK STEUBEN. From New York, GEORGE WASHINGTON ordered Lafayette to prevent Cornwallis’s escape by land. French troops under the count de ROCHAMBEAU joined Washington’s forces and marched south. Linking up with a French fleet at the head of Chesapeake Bay, they joined Lafayette’s forces on September 28, and the

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14,000 troops besieged the British position. Cornwallis waited for British reinforcements under HENRY CLINTON to arrive by sea; but now outnumbered, outgunned, and running low on food, he surrendered his 8,000 men and 240 guns on October 19. The siege ended fighting in the war and virtually guaranteed success to the American cause.

GERSHWIN and OSCAR HAMMERSTEIN on the Broadway musicals Wildflower (1923), No, No, Nanette (1925), Hit the Deck (1927), Great Day (1928), and the first FRED ASTAIRE-GINGER ROGERS vehicle, Flying Down to Rio (1933). His standards include “Tea for Two,” “More Than You Know,” “Time on My Hands,” and “Carioca.”

Yoruba \9y|r-²-b²\ One of Nigeria’s three largest ethnic groups, numbering more than 22 million. The many dialects comprising the Yoruba language belong to the BENUE-CONGO branch of the NIGER-CONGO family. The Yoruba states, including the OYO EMPIRE, were built in the 11th–16th centuries. Yorubaland remains divided into politically autonomous kingdoms, each centred on a capital city or town and headed by a hereditary king (oba), traditionally considered sacred. Most Yoruba men are farmers, growing yams, corn, and millet as staples; cocoa is a cash crop. Yoruba women control much of the complex market system. Craftsmen work in blacksmithing, weaving, leatherworking, glassmaking, bronze casting, and ivory- and wood-carving. Though some Yoruba are now Christians or Muslims, belief in their traditional religion continues, and it remains alive, too, in the New World countries to which may Yoruba were transported to work as slaves (see CANDOMBLÉ; MACUMBA; SANTERÍA; VODUN). The Yoruba language has an extensive literature of poetry, short stories, myths, and proverbs.

Young, Andrew in full Andrew Jackson Young, Jr. (b. March 12, 1932, New Orleans, La., U.S.) U.S. politician. He earned a divinity degree in 1955 and became a pastor at several African American churches in the South. Active in the civil rights movement, he worked with MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR., and RALPH ABERNATHY in the SOUTHERN CHRISTIAN LEADERSHIP CONFERENCE (1961–70). He served in the U.S. House of Representatives (1972–77). An early supporter of JIMMY CARTER, he was appointed U.S. ambassador to the UN (1977–79), the first African American to hold the post. He served as mayor of Atlanta (1982–90).

Yorubaland \9y|r->-b²-0land\ Area of western Africa, in present-day Nigeria. It once comprised several states headed by individual YORUBA kings. It flourished for centuries before disputes between minor rulers, difficulties in maintaining trade routes, and invasions led to its decline, beginning in the late 18th century. Oyo, Ife, Ibadan, and OSHOGBO are cities with historical Yoruba background. Yosemite \y+-9se-m²-t%\ Falls Two waterfalls, YOSEMITE NATIONAL PARK, central California, U.S. Formed by creeks tumbling into the Yosemite River valley, the upper falls drop 1,430 ft (436 m) and the lower, 320 ft (98 m). With the cascades between, the total drop from the crest of the upper to the base of the lower is 2,425 ft (739 m), one of the world’s longest cataracts. Yosemite National Park National preserve, central California, U.S. Made a national park in 1890, it encompasses 761,320 ac (308,106 ha) in the SIERRA NEVADA range. Its many features include giant REDWOOD groves with trees thousands of years old, YOSEMITE FALLS, Bridalveil Fall (620 ft [189 m]), and huge domes and peaks; the greatest of these is El Capitan, a granite buttress that is 3,604 ft (1,098 m) high. Yoshida Shigeru \9y+-sh%-d!-sh%-9ge-r>\ (b. Sept. 22, 1878, Tokyo, Japan—d. Oct. 20, 1967, −iso) Japanese prime minister after World War II. He served as ambassador to Britain in the 1930s. Late in the war (June 1945) he was arrested for attempting to force an early Japanese surrender; he was not freed until the start of the Allied occupation (September). He first became prime minister in 1946. Between 1946 and 1954 he formed five separate cabinets, guiding Japan back to economic prosperity and setting a course for postwar cooperation with the U.S. and Europe. In 1951 he negotiated the peace treaty that ended World War II; he also negotiated a security pact between Japan and the U.S. He retired from politics in 1955. See also SH−WA PERIOD. Yoshida Sh§in \9y+-sh%-d!-9sh+-%n\ (b. Sept. 20, 1830, Nagato province, Japan—d. Nov. 21, 1859, Edo) Japanese teacher of military tactics in the domain of CH−SHã. He studied “Dutch learning” (European studies) in Nagasaki and Edo (modern Tokyo) and was deeply influenced by the pro-emperor thinkers in the domain of MITO. His radical pro-emperor stance influenced young SAMURAI in Ch§shH to overthrow the Tokugawa shogunate. He was executed for an assassination plot against the SHOGUN’s representative in Ky§to. See also KIDO TAKAYOSHI; TOKUGAWA PERIOD. Yoshitsune See MINAMOTO YOSHITSUNE

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Youghiogheny \0y!-k²-9g@-n%\ River River in northeastern West Virginia, northwestern Maryland, and southwestern Pennsylvania, U.S. It rises in West Virginia, near the western edge of Maryland, and flows north through northwestern Maryland into Pennsylvania to enter the MONONGAHELA RIVER at McKeesport after a course of 135 mi (217 km). It is the only river in western Maryland that does not flow south into the POTOMAC RIVER. Youmans \9y-9!n-9shir-9k&\ (b. Sept. 16, 1859, Xiangcheng, Henan province, China—d. June 6, 1916, Beijing) Chinese army leader and president of the Republic of China (1912–16). He began his military career serving in Korea in the 1880s. In 1885 he was made Chinese commissioner at Seoul; his promotion of China’s interests contributed to the outbreak of the SINO-JAPANESE WAR (1894–95). The war destroyed China’s navy and army, and the task of training a new army fell to Yuan. When his division was the only one to survive the BOXER REBELLION (1900), his political stature increased. He played a decisive part in China’s modernization and defense programs and enjoyed the support of the empress dowager CIXI. On her death he was dismissed, only to be called back following the overthrow of the QING DYNASTY in 1911–12, when he became the first president of the new republic; SUN YAT-SEN had previously served as the provisional president. Impatient with the new National Assembly, he ordered the assassination of Song Jiaoren, leader of the NATIONALIST PARTY in 1913. He quelled a subsequent revolt, but his efforts to found his own dynasty (1915–16) failed. yuca See

CASSAVA

Yucatán \y