Body Fat: Composition, Measurements and Reduction Procedures : Composition, Measurements and Reduction Procedures [1 ed.] 9781620815120, 9781613243329

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Copyright © 2011. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Body Fat: Composition, Measurements and Reduction Procedures : Composition, Measurements and Reduction Procedures, edited by Julie

Copyright © 2011. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Body Fat: Composition, Measurements and Reduction Procedures : Composition, Measurements and Reduction Procedures, edited by Julie

NUTRITION AND DIET RESEARCH PROGRESS

BODY FAT: COMPOSITION, MEASUREMENTS AND REDUCTION PROCEDURES

Copyright © 2011. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

No part of this digital document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means. The publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this digital document, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained herein. This digital document is sold with the clear understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering legal, medical or any other professional services.

Body Fat: Composition, Measurements and Reduction Procedures : Composition, Measurements and Reduction Procedures, edited by Julie

NUTRITION AND DIET RESEARCH PROGRESS Additional books in this series can be found on Nova‟s website under the Series tab. Additional E-books in this series can be found on Nova‟s website under the E-books tab.

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Additional E-books in this series can be found on Nova‟s website under the E-books tab.

Body Fat: Composition, Measurements and Reduction Procedures : Composition, Measurements and Reduction Procedures, edited by Julie

NUTRITION AND DIET RESEARCH PROGRESS

Copyright © 2011. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

BODY FAT: COMPOSITION, MEASUREMENTS AND REDUCTION PROCEDURES

JULIE BIENERTOVÁ-VAŠKŮ EDITOR

Nova Science Publishers, Inc. New York Body Fat: Composition, Measurements and Reduction Procedures : Composition, Measurements and Reduction Procedures, edited by Julie

Copyright © 2011 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic, tape, mechanical photocopying, recording or otherwise without the written permission of the Publisher. For permission to use material from this book please contact us: Telephone 631-231-7269; Fax 631-231-8175 Web Site: http://www.novapublishers.com NOTICE TO THE READER The Publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this book, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained in this book. The Publisher shall not be liable for any special, consequential, or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or in part, from the readers‟ use of, or reliance upon, this material. Any parts of this book based on government reports are so indicated and copyright is claimed for those parts to the extent applicable to compilations of such works.

Copyright © 2011. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Independent verification should be sought for any data, advice or recommendations contained in this book. In addition, no responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property arising from any methods, products, instructions, ideas or otherwise contained in this publication. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information with regard to the subject matter covered herein. It is sold with the clear understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rendering legal or any other professional services. If legal or any other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent person should be sought. FROM A DECLARATION OF PARTICIPANTS JOINTLY ADOPTED BY A COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION AND A COMMITTEE OF PUBLISHERS. Additional color graphics may be available in the e-book version of this book.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Body fat : composition, measurements, and reduction procedures / editor, Julie Bienertova-Va ku. p. ; cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-62081-512-0 (eBook) 1. Adipose tissues. 2. Obesity. 3. Body composition. I. Bienertova-Va ku, Julie. [DNLM: 1. Adipose Tissue. 2. Body Fat Distribution. 3. Body Mass Index. 4. Obesity. QS 532.5.A3] QP88.15B63 2011 611'.01827--dc22 2011011460

Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. †New York Body Fat: Composition, Measurements and Reduction Procedures : Composition, Measurements and Reduction Procedures, edited by Julie

CONTENTS

Copyright © 2011. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Preface

i

Chapter 1

Conjugated Linoleic Acid (CLA) as a Body Fat Reducing Agent Cristina Mateus Alfaia, Susana Vargas Martins, Paula Alexandra Lopes and José A. Mestre Prates

Chapter 2

Measurements of Body Fat, Fat-Free-Mass and Fluid Volumes by Medical and Foot-to-Foot Impedancemeters Michel Y. Jaffrin, Helene Morel and Sana Bousbiat

1

35

Chapter 3

Body Composition Measurements: Principles and Practice Emmanuel Chidozie

Chapter 4

MSG Intake Suppresses Caloric Intake, Weight Gain, and Fat Deposition in Female Sprague-Dawley Rats Takashi Kondoh and Kunio Torii

79

Relationships of Body Fat, Gender, and Ethnicity to the Body Image Perceptions of Preadolescent Children Thomas M. Brinthaupt, Shannon L. McKee, and Minsoo Kang

97

Chapter 5

Chapter 6

Chapter 7

Chapter 8

Time Course of Changes in Body Fat, Blood Pressure, C-Reactive Protein, and Physical Function during 8-Month Exercise Training in Older Adults Flávia A. C. Wanderley, José Oliveira, Elisa Marques and Joana Carvalho Body Mass Index and Fat Distribution in Circumpolar Peoples: Implications for the Measurement of Obesity and for the Optimization of Lifestyle Roy J. Shephard Body Fat in Individuals with Down Syndrome: Measurement and Evaluation A. González-Agüero, H. Olmedillas, I. Ara, JP Rey-López, LA Moreno, JA Casajús and G. Vicente-Rodríguez

Body Fat: Composition, Measurements and Reduction Procedures : Composition, Measurements and Reduction Procedures, edited by Julie

61

113

129

139

vi Chapter 9

Contents Adipsin (Complement Factor D) as a New Biomarker of Body Fat Distribution in Extremely Obese Central-European Population Julie Bienertová-Vašků, Petr Bienert, Filip Zlámal, Josef Tomandl, Marie Tomandlová, Martin Forejt, Zlata Piskáčková, Martin Vavřina, Jana Kudělková and Anna Vašků

Copyright © 2011. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Index

Body Fat: Composition, Measurements and Reduction Procedures : Composition, Measurements and Reduction Procedures, edited by Julie

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163

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PREFACE A person's body fat percentage is the total weight of the person's fat divided by the person's weight and consists of essential body fat and storage body fat. Essential body fat is necessary to maintain life and reproductive functions. In this book, the authors present current research in the composition, measurement and reduction procedures of body fat. Topics discussed include body composition measurements; MSG intake suppresses caloric intake, weight gain, and fat deposition in female rats; body mass index and fat distribution among circumpolar people; body fat in individuals with Down Syndrome and adipsin as a new biomarker of body fat distribution. Chapter 1 - Increased consumption of highly energetic foods enriched in sugar and saturated fats, combined with a sedentary lifestyle, have led to raise threefold the obesity rates in industrialized societies. The obesity epidemic and associated metabolic and cardiovascular complications are escalating to endemic proportions and contributing to human morbidity and premature mortality. Facing this worldwide problem, with major costs for national health care systems, the scientific community, in particular nutrition researchers, is struggling for the discovery of new compounds, which could prevent or even reverse this scenario. Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is a natural dietary fatty acid studied in the last decades as a body fat reducing agent, allegedly devoid of harmful effects. CLA can be a single isomer or the collective term for several geometrical and positional isomers of linoleic acid (18:2n-6) with conjugated double bonds in either cis (c) or trans (t) configuration found in ruminant-derived foods. Synthetic CLA mixtures containing more than 80% of equal amounts of c9,t11 and t10,c12 isomers are commercially available for reducing weight purposes. These CLA isomers have been associated with a multitude of beneficial health effects including anticarcinogenic, anti-atherogenic, antidiabetogenic and immune modulating properties. The ability of CLA to interfere with body composition, has been attributed, in particular, to the t10,c12 isomer, by reducing body fat mass and increasing lean mass in mice models. CLA has also been reported to lower fat mass in different strains of rats from Sprague-Dawley to Zucker, and in humans, though in a much smaller magnitude. Yet, such unequivocal data supporting the efficacy of either of the CLA isomers or its mixture in humans are unavailable. In fact, some studies raise concern about harmful effects of t10,c12 isomer, specifically at lipid and glucose metabolism levels, whose consequences can seriously compromise insulin sensitivity and liver morpho-functional integrity. The purpose of this book chapter is to provide an updated literature review of the studies performed up till now in laboratory animal

Body Fat: Composition, Measurements and Reduction Procedures : Composition, Measurements and Reduction Procedures, edited by Julie

Copyright © 2011. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

ii

Julie Bienertová-Vašků

models and humans, as well as to describe the potential mechanisms of action accounted for CLA biological effects upon body weight, body fat composition and overall metabolism. Chapter 2 - This chapter presents the principles of fat-free-mass (FFM), body fat (BF) and total body water (TBW) measurements by single frequency impedance (BIA) and by multifrequency bioimpedance spectroscopy (BIS) which permits in addition to measure extra (ECW) and intracellular fluid volumes. It also discusses the limitations of empirical equations for FFM and TBW using the wrist-ankle resistance as the trunk accounts for 50% of tissue mass and water and only 5-6% of this resistance. Then it describes foot-to-foot impedancemeters (FFI) recently introduced first by Tanita Company (Japan) and later by Tefal Company (France), which measures simultaneously body weight and FFM or BF from the foot-to-foot resistance obtained in standing position with reusable plantar electrodes. In the case of Tefal FFI, which provides a low and high frequency resistance, it is also possible to measure ECW and TBW volumes, by analogy with BIS methods. The same BIS method has also been adapted to a BIA medical impedancemeter BodyExplorer (Juwell Medical, Germany) for expressing ECW. Clinical application of bioimpedance to refeeding monitoring of adolescents with anorexia nervosa is reported. Then a 8-electrode segmental method is described, which permits to measure sequentially the four limbs and trunk resistances with reusable electrodes located on both feet and hands and to calculate the regional distribution of BF and FFM in the body. This technique has been implemented in professional systems such as the Tanita BC 418, the Jawon X-Scan and the Biospace InBody. In conclusion, FFI, which are easier and faster to use than medical impedancemeters and much less expensive, are gaining acceptances in both the medical or sport oriented community, as well as with the general public. Chapter 3 - Body composition is a subset of anthropometry that assesses the ratio of fat to fat-free mass of the total body weight. Body composition consisting mostly of fat mass portends serious health hazards. The certain quantity of fat that is required for the healthy functioning of the body is referred to as essential fats and it exhibits gender specificity and relativity in quantity located in body cells, tissues, and organs. Essential fat stored in the body also varies according age, diet, heredity, metabolic functions and activity. Body fat can be assessed via the direct or indirect methods. The indirect method involving anthropometric, densitometric, electrical, radiation and nuclear-based and other high-tech approaches are commonly used among clinicians, exercise physiologist and fitness coaches. Measurement of body fat helps to determine overweight and obesity which are associated with high morbidity and mortality. It is recommended that every population should determine the body composition measurement tool(s) that will best screen general and visceral adiposity. This chapter summarizes different components of body composition and measurements, health implications of body fat and obesity and weight control. Chapter 4 - Monosodium L-glutamate (MSG), an umami taste substance, is a key molecule coupled to a food intake signaling pathway. Moreover, spontaneous ingestion of 1% MSG solution (the most preferred concentration of MSG for rats) was shown to reduce weight gain, body fat mass, and plasma leptin levels in male Sprague-Dawley rats. Here we adopted the same experimental paradigm in female rats fed diets of varying caloric density, fat and carbohydrate contents. Rats were given free access to a choice of a 1% MSG solution and water. Rats ingested two bottles of water acted as controls. Female rats showed a high preference (88-92%) for the MSG solution, regardless of the diet they consumed. Rats ingesting MSG had significantly smaller total caloric intake and body weight, and reduced

Body Fat: Composition, Measurements and Reduction Procedures : Composition, Measurements and Reduction Procedures, edited by Julie

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Preface

iii

abdominal (both intra-abdominal and subcutaneous) fat mass, compared to rats ingesting water alone. Interestingly, plasma leptin levels were not reduced by ingestion of MSG solution, regardless of their reduced weight gain and abdominal fat mass. Other parameters, such as blood pressure, blood glucose, and plasma levels of insulin, triglyceride, total cholesterol and albumin, were not influenced by the ingestion of the MSG solution. These results suggested that MSG ingestion in female rats reduces caloric intake, weight gain, and abdominal fat mass. The results also suggested the existence of gender differences on MSG effects. Chapter 5 - It is well-documented that childhood obesity rates are a serious concern in the U.S. and internationally (e.g., Pate and Sirard, 2000; Troiano, Flegal, Kuczmarski, Campbell, and Johnson, 1995). The 2007-2008 National Health and Nutrition Examination (NHANES) survey indicated that 19.6% of 6-11 year old children were obese, compared to a rate of 6.5% for this age group in the 1976-1980 data. Childhood obesity is a major risk factor for a number of health problems such as diabetes, hypertension, and asthma (e.g., Aye and Levitsky, 2003; Boreham and Riddoch, 2001). Overweight children and adolescents are more likely to have risk factors associated with cardiovascular disease (such as high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and Type 2 diabetes) than are other children and adolescents (Freedman, Dietz, Srinivasan, and Berenson, 1999). Chapter 6 - The adipose tissue is a regulatory organ that plays a key role in obesityassociated metabolic disorders such as dyslipidemia, hypertension and low-grade inflammation (Andersson, Gustafson, Hammarstedt, Hedjazifar, and Smith, 2008). The increasing prevalence of overweight and obesity in older adults (Ramsay, Whincup, Shaper, and Wannamethee, 2006) seems to contribute to the high cardiovascular disease morbidity observed in this age group. Therefore, the development and implementation of strategies to reduce body fat and its complications in elders is of paramount importance. Thus, this study aims to examine the effects of training on body composition (percentage of body fat, %BF, trunk fat and lean mass assessed by DXA); blood pressure (BP); systemic inflammatory biomarker (hs-CRP); and fitness (six-minute walk test, 6MWT, handgrip strength) as well as the time needed to observe such effects in older adults. Fifty subjects (68.5 ± 5.5years) of which 11 were male, were randomly allocated into the following groups: aerobic training (AT), resistance training (RT) or waiting list (WL). Older adults in AT (50-80% of the HRreserve) and RT (50-80% of the 1RM) took part in eight months of moderate to highintensity training, three times per week on non-consecutive days while subjects on WL were asked to not change their lifestyle during the 8-month observation period. Data was collected at baseline, after four and eight months of the intervention/observation. A one-way ANOVA was used to compare means across time. The 0.05 level of probability was accepted as significant. Data demonstrated that both AT and RT were able to reduce body fat, BP and improve fitness. Moreover, it was observed that four months of AT were enough to reduce %BF (-1.6%, P