Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation 9350142856

Table of contents :
Contents......Page p0001.djvu
1.1.1. Measurement......Page p0010.djvu
1.3. Significance of Measurements......Page p0011.djvu
1.4. S.I. Units and Conversion Factors......Page p0012.djvu
1.5. Mechanical Measurements......Page p0016.djvu
1.7. Modes of Measurement......Page p0017.djvu
1.8. Generalised Measurement System and its Functional Elements......Page p0018.djvu
1.9.2. Classification of Instruments......Page p0019.djvu
1.9.4. Functions of Instruments......Page p0021.djvu
1.10. Input-Output Configurations of Measuring Instruments and Measuring Systems......Page p0022.djvu
Highlights......Page p0023.djvu
2.2. Definitions Relating to Measuring Instruments......Page p0024.djvu
2.3.1. Accuracy, Errors and Correction......Page p0025.djvu
2.3.4. Scale Readability......Page p0027.djvu
2.3.8. Sensitivity......Page p0028.djvu
2.3.9. Linearity......Page p0029.djvu
2.3.11. Threshold and Resolution......Page p0030.djvu
2.3.13. Loading Effects......Page p0031.djvu
2.4.3. 'Dynamic' Analysis of Measurement Systems......Page p0033.djvu
2.4.2. Dynamic Characteristics of a Measurement System......Page p0034.djvu
2.4.4.2. First-order Systems......Page p0035.djvu
2.4.5. First-order System Responses......Page p0036.djvu
2.4.6. Second-order System Responses......Page p0039.djvu
Highlights......Page p0050.djvu
3.2. Limiting (or Guaruntee) Errors......Page p0052.djvu
3.3. Types of Errors......Page p0058.djvu
3.3.2. Systematic Errors......Page p0059.djvu
3.3.3. Random Errors......Page p0060.djvu
3.5. Statistical Analysis of Test Data......Page p0061.djvu
3.5.1. Statistical Averages......Page p0062.djvu
3.5.2. Dispersion from Mean......Page p0063.djvu
3.5.3. Best Value from a Sample of Readings......Page p0064.djvu
3.5.4. Normal or Gaussian Curve of Errors......Page p0068.djvu
3.5.5. Probability Tables......Page p0070.djvu
3.5.8. Confidence Interval and Confidence Level......Page p0080.djvu
3.5.10. Rejection of test Data - Chauvenet's Criterion......Page p0081.djvu
3.5.11. Method of Least Squares......Page p0083.djvu
Highlights......Page p0088.djvu
4. Metrology......Page p0090.djvu
4.1.2. Objectives of Metrology......Page p0091.djvu
4.1.5. Precision Measurement - Its Need......Page p0092.djvu
4.1.6. Quality Control - Metrology as a means to Achieve......Page p0093.djvu
4.1.7.1. Line Standard......Page p0094.djvu
4.1.7.2. End Standard......Page p0096.djvu
4.1.7.3. Wavelength Standard......Page p0097.djvu
4.1.7.5. Relative Characteristics of Line and End Standards......Page p0098.djvu
4.1.8.3. Definitions......Page p0099.djvu
4.1.8.5. Systems of Specifying Tolerances......Page p0102.djvu
4.1.8.6. Designation of Holes, Shafts and Fits......Page p0103.djvu
4.1.8.10. Types of Fits......Page p0104.djvu
4.1.9. Methods of Achieving Precision and Accuracy......Page p0105.djvu
4.1.10. Sources of Errors......Page p0106.djvu
4.1.11. Classification of Measuring Instruments......Page p0108.djvu
4.1.14. Standardising Organisations......Page p0109.djvu
4.1.15. Internationsl System of Units (SI)......Page p0110.djvu
4.1.16.2. Description of Some Commonly Used Gauges......Page p0112.djvu
4.2.1. Definitions......Page p0116.djvu
4.2.2. Classification of Measuring Equipments......Page p0118.djvu
4.2.3. Technical Specifications of Measuring Instruments......Page p0119.djvu
4.2.4. Principles of Mechanical Measuring Instruments......Page p0120.djvu
4.2.4.2. Vernier Method......Page p0121.djvu
4.2.4.3. Screw and Screw-nut Method......Page p0122.djvu
4.2.5.1. Reflection......Page p0123.djvu
4.2.5.2. Refraction......Page p0124.djvu
4.2.5.4. Interference......Page p0125.djvu
4.2.5.5. Optical Prism......Page p0126.djvu
4.2.5.6. Optical Projectors......Page p0127.djvu
4.2.6.1. Transformation of Energy......Page p0129.djvu
4.2.6.3. Electrical Measuring Strain Gauges......Page p0132.djvu
4.2.7. Principles of Pneumatic Measuring Instruments......Page p0135.djvu
4.3.1. Engineer's Steel Rule......Page p0136.djvu
4.3.3.1. Introduction......Page p0138.djvu
4.3.3.2. The Vernier Principle......Page p0139.djvu
4.3.3.3. Types of Vernier Calipers......Page p0140.djvu
4.3.3.4. Errors in Calipers......Page p0141.djvu
4.3.4. Vernier Height Gauge......Page p0142.djvu
4.3.6.1. Description of a Micrometer......Page p0144.djvu
4.3.6.3. Precautions in using the Micrometer......Page p0146.djvu
4.3.6.4. Types of Micrometers......Page p0147.djvu
4.3.7. Advantages and Limitations of Commonly used Precision Instruments......Page p0150.djvu
4.4.1.2. Instruments for Angular Measurement......Page p0151.djvu
4.4.2.1. Gauges for Tapers......Page p0163.djvu
4.4.2.2. Taper Measuring Instruments......Page p0165.djvu
4.5.1. Introduction......Page p0167.djvu
4.5.2. Classification of Threads......Page p0168.djvu
4.5.4. Specifications of a Screw Thread......Page p0169.djvu
4.5.5. Forms of Threads......Page p0170.djvu
4.5.7. Measuring Elements of a Screw Thread......Page p0173.djvu
4.5.7.1. External Screw Thread Measurements ......Page p0174.djvu
4.5.7.2. Internal Screw Thread Measurements......Page p0182.djvu
4.5.8. Screw Thread Gauges......Page p0185.djvu
4.6.2. Types of Gears......Page p0188.djvu
4.6.4. Sources of Errors in Manufacturing Gears......Page p0190.djvu
4.6.5. Forms of Gear Teeth......Page p0191.djvu
4.6.7. Gear Tooth Terminology......Page p0192.djvu
4.6.8.1. Measurement of Tooth Thickness......Page p0196.djvu
4.6.8.2. Measurement of Tooth Profile......Page p0199.djvu
4.6.8.3. Measurement of Pitch......Page p0201.djvu
4.6.9. Gear Errors......Page p0202.djvu
4.7.3. Types of Irregularities of a Circular Part......Page p0203.djvu
4.7.4.1. V-block and Dial Indicator......Page p0206.djvu
4.7.4.2. Precision Measuring Instruments......Page p0208.djvu
4.7.5. Measurement of Roundness of Machined Shafts......Page p0209.djvu
4.8.2. Desirable Features of a Comparator......Page p0211.djvu
4.8.4. Types of Comparators......Page p0212.djvu
4.8.5.1. Dial Indicator......Page p0213.djvu
4.8.5.3. Sigma Comparator......Page p0214.djvu
4.8.5.4. Johanson 'Mikrokator'......Page p0216.djvu
4.8.6.1. Introduction......Page p0217.djvu
4.8.6.2. Optical Lever......Page p0218.djvu
4.8.6.4. Cooke Optical Comparator......Page p0219.djvu
4.8.6.6. The Zeiss Ultra-Optimeter......Page p0220.djvu
4.8.7. Electrical and Electronic Comparators......Page p0221.djvu
4.8.7.1. Electrical Comparators......Page p0222.djvu
4.8.7.2. Electro-mechanical Comparator......Page p0223.djvu
4.8.7.4. Electrichek auge......Page p0224.djvu
4.8.7.7. The Electronic Comparator ......Page p0225.djvu
4.8.8.1. Solex Pneumatic Comparator......Page p0226.djvu
4.8.8.3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Pneumatic Comparators......Page p0227.djvu
4.8.9. Limit Gauges......Page p0228.djvu
4.8.10. The Toolmaker's Microscope......Page p0229.djvu
4.9.1. Introduction......Page p0231.djvu
4.9.2. Surface Texture......Page p0232.djvu
4.9.3.1. Surface Inspection by Comparison Methods......Page p0233.djvu
4.9.3.2. Direct Instrument Measurement......Page p0236.djvu
4.9.4. The Sample Length or Cut-off Length......Page p0243.djvu
4.9.6. Indication of Surface Roughness Symbols Used......Page p0244.djvu
4.9.7. Adverse Effects of Poor Surface Finish......Page p0250.djvu
4.10.3. Microscopes......Page p0251.djvu
4.10.3.2. General OpticaI System of Microscope......Page p0252.djvu
4.10.3.3. Types of Microscopes......Page p0253.djvu
4.10.5.1. Principle of an Astronomical Telescope......Page p0255.djvu
4.10.5.2. Alignment Telescopes......Page p0256.djvu
4.10.6. Collimator......Page p0257.djvu
4.11.2. Straightness......Page p0258.djvu
4.11.2.2. Stright Edge......Page p0259.djvu
4.11.2.3. Measurement of Straightness......Page p0260.djvu
4.11.3.1. Definition......Page p0261.djvu
4.11.3.2. Flatness Measurement......Page p0262.djvu
4.11.4.1. Engineer's Square......Page p0266.djvu
4.11.4.2. Indicator Method......Page p0267.djvu
4.11.5. Parallelism......Page p0268.djvu
4.11.5.1. Different Cases of Parallelism of Lines and Planes......Page p0269.djvu
4.11.6.1. Case of Parallel Motion......Page p0272.djvu
4.12.1. Introduction......Page p0273.djvu
4.12.3. Instruments Required for Alignment Test......Page p0274.djvu
4.12.4.1. Levelling of the Machine......Page p0275.djvu
4.12.4.2. Parallelism of the Spindle Axis and Bed......Page p0276.djvu
4.12.4.6. Cross-slide Perpendicular to Spindle Axis......Page p0277.djvu
4.12.4.7. Accuracy of Pitch of Lead Screw......Page p0278.djvu
4.12.5.1. Alignment Test on Pillar type Drilling Machine ......Page p0279.djvu
4.12.5.2. Alignment Tests on Radial drilling Machines......Page p0283.djvu
4.12.6.2. True Running of Internal Taper......Page p0284.djvu
4.12.6.3. Work Table Surface Parallel with Arbor Rising towards Overarm......Page p0285.djvu
4.12.6.6. Central T-slots Parallel with Longitudinal Movement......Page p0286.djvu
4.12.6.8. Test on Column......Page p0287.djvu
4.12.7. Aceptance Tests for Surface Grinders......Page p0288.djvu
4.13.2. Co-ordinate Measuring Machine (CMM)......Page p0289.djvu
4.13.4. Surface Plate......Page p0291.djvu
4.13.5.3. Height Gauge......Page p0292.djvu
4.13.5.7. Gauges......Page p0293.djvu
4.13.6. Miscellaneous Gauges......Page p0294.djvu
4.13.7.1. Materials of Gauges......Page p0296.djvu
4.13.7.2. Manufacture of Gauges......Page p0298.djvu
4..13.7.3. Manufacture of Slip Gauges......Page p0302.djvu
5.2. Mechanical Detector-Transducer Elements......Page p0304.djvu
5.4. Classification of Transducers......Page p0305.djvu
5.5. Electro-mechanical Transducers......Page p0306.djvu
5.7.1. Linear and Angular Motion Potentiometers......Page p0308.djvu
5.7.2. Thermistors and Resistance Thermometers......Page p0310.djvu
5.8.1.2. Electrodynamic Type......Page p0311.djvu
5.8.2.1. Variable Reluctance Transducer......Page p0312.djvu
5.8.2.3. Linear-variable-differential Transformer (LVDT)......Page p0313.djvu
5.9. Capacitive Transducers......Page p0314.djvu
5.9.2. Capacitive transducer - Using Change in distance Between the Plates......Page p0315.djvu
5.10.2. Desirable Properties of Piezoelectric Materials......Page p0317.djvu
5.10.4. Advantages and Disadvantages of Piezoelectric Transducers......Page p0318.djvu
5.11.2. Hall Effect Transducers......Page p0319.djvu
5.13.4. Photoemissive Cell......Page p0321.djvu
5.14.2.1. Wire-wound Strain Gauges......Page p0322.djvu
5.14.2.3. Semiconductor Strain Gauges......Page p0323.djvu
5.14.3. Theory of Strain Gauges......Page p0324.djvu
Highlights......Page p0328.djvu
6.2. Functions of Signal Conditioning Equipment......Page p0329.djvu
6.6. Fluid Amplifiers......Page p0330.djvu
6.8.2. Electronic Amplification Gain......Page p0331.djvu
6.8.6, Operational Amplifiers (Op-amp)......Page p0332.djvu
6.8.7. Attenuators......Page p0334.djvu
7.6.2. Strip Chart Recorders......Page p0335.djvu
7.6.4. Ultraviolet (U.V.) Recorders......Page p0336.djvu
7.6.6. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)......Page p0337.djvu
8.1. Definition of Pressure......Page p0339.djvu
8.2. Units of Pressure and Measuring Instruments......Page p0340.djvu
8.3.1. Simple Manometers......Page p0341.djvu
8.3.2. Differential Manometers......Page p0344.djvu
8.3.3. Manometric Liquids......Page p0346.djvu
8.5.2. Pressure Gauges......Page p0347.djvu
8.6. Electrical Pressure Transducers......Page p0349.djvu
8.6.3. Inductance-type Pressure Transducer......Page p0350.djvu
8.6.7. Photoelectric Pressure Transducers......Page p0351.djvu
8.8. Measurement of Low Pressure (Vacuum)......Page p0352.djvu
8.8.1. McLeod Gauge......Page p0353.djvu
8.8.2.2. Pirani Vacuum Gauge......Page p0354.djvu
8.9.2. Dead eight Testers......Page p0355.djvu
8.11. Introduction to Flow Measurement......Page p0357.djvu
8.13.1. Venturimeter......Page p0358.djvu
8.13.2. Orifice Plate Meter......Page p0360.djvu
8.13.4. Pitot Tubes......Page p0362.djvu
8.13.5. Weirs and Flumes......Page p0364.djvu
8.14 Variable Head Meters for Compressible Fluids......Page p0365.djvu
8.15.1. Rotameter......Page p0367.djvu
8.15.2 Elbow Meter......Page p0368.djvu
8.17. Hot Wire Anemometers......Page p0369.djvu
8.18.2. Turbine Meter......Page p0370.djvu
8.21. Nutating Disc Meter......Page p0371.djvu
8.24. Flow Visualisation Methods......Page p0372.djvu
Highlights......Page p0373.djvu
9.1. Introduction......Page p0374.djvu
9.2. The International Practical Temperature Scale......Page p0375.djvu
9.3. Temperature Measuring Instruments......Page p0376.djvu
9.4.1. Liquid-in-glass Thermometer......Page p0377.djvu
9.4.2. Bimetallic Thermometers......Page p0378.djvu
9.5.2. Liquid-filled Thermometer......Page p0379.djvu
9.5.5. Response Speed of Filled-Systems......Page p0380.djvu
9.6. Electrical Resistance Thermometer or Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)......Page p0381.djvu
9.7. Thermistors......Page p0382.djvu
9.8.1. Thermoelectric Effects......Page p0383.djvu
9.8.2.Thermocouple and Thermoelectric Pyrometer......Page p0384.djvu
9.8.4. Advantages and Disadvantages of Thermocouples......Page p0385.djvu
9.9.1. Introduction to Thermal Radiation......Page p0386.djvu
9.10. Optical Pyrometers......Page p0388.djvu
9.13. Calibration of Temperature Measuring Devices......Page p0390.djvu
Highlights......Page p0391.djvu
10.1.1. Measurement of Linear Displacement......Page p0392.djvu
10.2.1. Measurement of Linear Velocity......Page p0393.djvu
10.2.2.1. Mechanical Tachometers......Page p0394.djvu
10.2.2.2. Electrical Tachometers......Page p0395.djvu
10.3.1. Piezoelectric Accelerometer......Page p0396.djvu
10.4.3. Proving Rings......Page p0397.djvu
10.4.4.3. Strain Gauge Load Cell......Page p0398.djvu
10.5.2. Torque Measurement Methods......Page p0400.djvu
10.6.1.1. Prony Brake Dynamometer......Page p0402.djvu
10.6.2. Fluid Friction (Hydraulic) Dynamometer......Page p0403.djvu
10.6.4. Belt Transmission Dynamometer......Page p0404.djvu
Highlights......Page p0405.djvu