Bell Beakers of the Western Mediterranean, Parts i and ii: Definition, Interpretation, Theory and New Site Data. The Oxford International Conference 1986 9781407388410, 9781407388427, 9780860544265, 9781407346038

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Bell Beakers of the Western Mediterranean Definition, Interpretation, Theory and New Site Data

The Oxford International Conference 1986

Part i

edited by

William H. Waldren and Rex Claire Kennard

BAR International Series 331 (i) 1987

B.A.R.

122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR -S331 (i). 1987: 'Bell Beakers in the Western Mediterranean', Part i

©

The Individual Authars,1987.

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407388410 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407388427 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860544265 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407346038 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860544265 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

T ab le o f C on ten t s * **** P r ef ace ***

D ef in i t ion , I n terpre ta t ion a nd T heor y **********

B eaker S tud ie s a nd B eaker C onf erence s : a n I n t roduc t ion R obe r tW . C hapman ,D epar tmen to fA r chaeo logy , U n ive r s i ty o fR ead ing , R ead ing , RG6 2 AA ,E ng land .

1

T he P rob lem o f Def in i t ion L aw r ence H . B a rf ie ld ,D epa r tmen to fA r chaeo logy , U n ive r s i ty o fB i rm ingham , B i rm ingham ,B 1527 1 ' ,E ng land .

5

On t h e B e l l B eaker P rob lem W il iam H . Wa ld ren ,R e sea r ch A s soc ia te , D epa r tmen to fE thno logy a nd P r eh i s to ry , U n ive r s i ty o fO xfo rd , O xfo rd , OX2 6 PN , E ng land .

9

F ur ther C ons idera t ions o f t h e B eaker P henomenon C e l ia T opp , A r cha eo log i ca l Mu seum o fI b iza , I b iza ,B a lea r e s , S pa in .

1 9

E l S ign if icado d e l C ampan if orme d e C iempozue los? G e rman D el ibe s , D epa r tmen to fP r eh i s to ry a nd A r chaeo logy , U n ive r s i ty o fV a l lado l id , V a l lado l id ,S pa in .

2 3

Ob serva t ions C oncern ing t h e B eaker P henomenon LM . Gome s L i sboa D epa r tmen to fA r cha eo logy U n ive r s i ty o fC amb r idge , C amb r idge ,E ng land .

2 5

D ie G lockenbecherku l tur T homa sB ubne r , T o r fb ruch s t ra s se ,4 9 D -4000 D u sse ldo r f4 2 ,Ge rmany .

2 7

T he B raud e l ian B eak er : aC ha lco l i th ic C on jonc ture J ames G . L ew thwa i t e , S choo lo fA r chaeo log ica lS c ien ce s , U n ive r s i ty o fB rad fo rd , B rad fo rd , BD7 I DP ,E ng land .

3 1

O nce U pon aT ime i nt h e We s t : O b ser va t ion s o nB eaker S tud ie s R obe r tW . C hapman , D epa r tmen to fA r cha eo logy , U n ive r s i ty o fR ead ing , R ead ing , RG6 2 AA ,E ng land .

6 1

C ups T ha t C heered A nd rew S he r ra t t , D epa r tmen to fA n t iqu i t ie s , A shmo lean Mu seum , O xfo rd , OX1 2 PH , E ng land .

8 1

P o s t s ce t : O xf ord I n t erna t iona lW e s tern Med i t er ranean B e l lB eak er C onf er ence H umph rey J .C a se , F o rme rK eepe r , A shmo lean Mu seum , O xfo rd , E ng land .

15

N ew S i te Da ta * ***** N ew B e l lB eaker D i scover ie s i nt h eS ou thea s tI ber ian P en in su la A n ton io A r r iba sP a lau a nd F e rnando Mol ina .

1 29

C opper a nd S i lver i n B ronze A ge S pa in 1 47 D .R . Hook , AA r r iba sP a lau ,P .T . C raddock , F . Mo l ina a nd B . R o thenbe rg . S ob r el aS upue s ta Dua l idad Mega l i t i smo lC ampan i f orme : Mese ta S uper ior E sapanp la G e rman D e l ib e sa nd Manue lS an ton ja .

1 73

AB a lear i cB eak e r Mod e l : F er rande l l -O leza , V a l ldemosa , Ma l lorca , S pa in W i l l iam H . Wa ld ren .

2 07

I nc i sed v s . B eaker Ware s i n t h e B a lear ic I s land s C e l ia T opp .

i i

2 67

O x f ord I n t er na t iona lW e s t ern Med i t e r ranean B e l lB eak e rC onf e r enc e

F l in tI mp l imen t so ft h eS on O le za B e l lB eaker S e t t l emen t : B a lear ic I s land o f Ma l lorca , S pa in C a r lo s Mo r el O r land i sa nd Al i c ia Q ue ro lS aga s ta .

2 83

P o t t er yD i s t r ibu t ion S t a t i s t ic s : F er rande l l -O leza C opper A ge O ld S e t t lemen t J o sep E n sena tA lcove ra nd W il iam H . Wa ld r en .

3 07

AR o se b yA ny O ther N ame : T he Q ue s t ion o fB a lear ic B eaker s Wi l l iam H . Wa ld r en .

3 69

t h e E v idence

L "Hab i ta tC ampan i f orme d e sC a lad e s aO rgon , B ouch ed u -Rhone : Decouver te d ' un N ouveau D ecor C eram ic e n P rovence H e lene B a rge - Ma th ieu .

4 83

T he I t a l ian D imen s ion o f t h e B eaker P rob lem L aw rence H .B a rf ie ld .

4 99

T he B e l l B eaker i n S ic i ly , I t a ly S eba s t iano T u sa .

5 23

B e l lB eak e rS i t e sa tS e s to F io r en t ino : N ear F lorence , I t a ly L uc ia S a r t i .

5 51

R eg iona lA spec t so fB e l lB eak e rC u l tu r e : Wes tern S ic i ly , I t a ly Ma r co P ac c i .

5 65

B e l l B eaker S herd s i n Z ambu ja l , P or tuga l M icha e lK un s t .

5 91

T he T agu s B eaker : S oc ie t y , F orm a nd C on ten t I s abe lM . G ome sL i sboa .

6 11

T he B e l l B eaker F o lk o ft h e I ber ian P en in su la T homa sB ubne r .

6 37

C oncern ing t h e B e l l B eaker C u l ture W lodz im ie r z Wo jc iechow sk i , K a ted ra A r cheo logü , u l . Sw idn ick , P L . 5 0 -068 , Wa r saw , P o land .

6 83

T he B e l lB eaker C u l ture i nS ou thern P o land : O r ig in a nd E vo lu t ion W lodz im ie r z Wo jc iechow sk i .

6 85

P reface **** The p roceed ing s o ft h e O xfo rd I n ter na t iona l We s te rn Med i te r ranean B e l l B eake r C onf e rence a r eo rgan i sed i ns eve r a ls e c t ion s ,t h ea r rangemen to fw h ich o ve r lap sa s f o l low s :D ef in i t ion ,I n t e rpr e ta t ion , T heory a nd N ew S i t e Da ta . T he s e c t ion so nD ef in i t ion ,I n terpre ta t ion a nd T heor ya r ee spec ia l ly i n te r r e la ted a s t h ey p a r t icu la r ly e xp r e s s t h e s a l ien t f a c to r s t oh ave eme rged f r om t h e c onf e rence p rope r : t h a to f an eed f o r ag ene r a lr e eva lua t ion o fB eake rt h ink ing . A tt h e s ame t ime , t h e v a r iou s s e c t ion s a r e i nd ica t ive o f t h e r i ch v a r ia t ion s o f t hough t a nd c oncep t s c u r ren t ly a f oo t a mong i n ve s t iga to r s . F o ro u to ft h ese mo re i n te l lec tua l ly c ha l leng ing s e c t ion s ,s ome c a ta ly s t w i l le me rge ,p e rhap s ,t h a tw i l ls t imu la te i nt ur n t h e a pp l ica t ion o f n ew a pp roache s . Wh i le n ew s i te e v idence i se s sen t ia l t o t h e g row th a nd u nde r s tand ing o ft h e i mmed ia te p rob lem s a th and , i ti sp a radox ica l ly b o th p o lem ic a sw e l la sd i agno s t ic o ft h en eed f o rt h ec on s ide ra t ion a nd a pp l ica t ion o fn ew a pp roa che s t og ene ra l i n te rpe ta t ion . I n s ho r t , n ew t h ink ing i s an ece s sa ry r equ i s i te t ob el i nked t ot h ee mp i r ica le v idence o fa r tef ac ta nd p hys ica la na ly se s ; a m a r r iage , s ot os peak ,o fd ef in i t ion ,i n te rp re ta t ion ,t h eo ry a nd n ew s i te d a ta . A no the ri mpo r tan tf a c to r ,e qua l ly p a ramoun t , s e em st oh ave e me rged a s ar e su l to f t h e O xfo rd C onf e rence . T h is i s t h e n eed - n ow t h a t c ommun ica t ion among r e sea r che r sh a sb een s e tu pa new -f o ri n ve s t iga to r st of o rm a nd m a in ta in c l o se rl i nk s o f c on tac t , s uppo r t ing a mo re f r equen t a nd b e t te r o rgan i sed i n te rexchange o f i n fo rma t ion a nd i d ea s r e la ted t oC ha lco l i th ic f i nd ing s i ng ene ra l a nd t h e B eake r p rob lem i np a r t icu la r ;t h roughou tt h e We s t er n Med i te r ranean a nd t h er e s to fE u rope . R ega rd le s s o f w ha t d i rec t ion o u r i nd iv idua l - h ence p e r sona l - e nqu ir ie s t a ke , i t b ecome s e v iden t t h a t t h e n ex t d ecade o fr e sea r ch w i l l s i gn if ican t ly c en t r e o n t h e s ea rch f o r mo re c omp rehen s ive a t t i tude s a nd u nde r s tand ing o f t h e B e l l B eake r p rob lem , a l ong w i th as e r iou sr e a s se s smen to ft h eB eake rq ue s t ion a si tw a sw ide ly s p read t h roughou tE u rope d u r ing t h eC oppe rA ge . F o ri ta ppea r st ob et h ec a se , a s d emons t ra ted d ur ing t h e O I WMBBC , t h a t t h e re a r e s e r iou s d i f f e rence s a nd d i f f icu l t ie s i nt h e i n te rp r e ta t ion a nd e va lua t ion o ft h e e v idence t oda te ; a nd s ome c r i te r ia mu s t b e e s tab l i shed i nt h e n ea r f u tu r eby w h ich t h e se p ro ce s se s c an o ccu r mo re s i gn if ican t ly . I fs ho r tcom ing sc an b es a id t oe x i s ti nt h ep r e sen tO IWMBBC p ub l ica t ion - a nd Ia m s u re t h ey d o e x i s t - i ti st h e s i ng le l a ck o f mo re p ape r s f r om t h e s ou the rn F rench q ua r te r , w he re t h ei n c lu s ion o fv i ta li n fo rma t ion a nd d a ta i sf a u l t ing . T he S ou the rn F rench c onnec t ion c on ta in s al a rge s phe re o fe v idence w h ich mu s t b e t a ken i n to c on s ide ra t ion i na ny c u r r en to rf u tu re a s se s smen to ft h eB eake rp rob lem . F o rw i th in t h i sa r ea c an b ef ound p o ten t ia l ly c r i t ica ld a ta ,e s sen t ia lt ot h eu nd e r s tand ing o fs u ch p rob lem sa sB eake rd emog raph ic d i s t r ibu t ion , e conom ic a nd s o c ia ld eve lopmen t s , a sw e l l a sr ega rd ing e nv i ronmen t a nd n a tu ra l r e sou rce s . I ti st h e re fo re ap i ty t h a t

mo r e p ape r s b y e xper t s f r om t h i s a r ea o ft h e We s ter n Med i te r ranean a r e n o tt ob e f ound i nt h ep r e sen tp ub l ica t ion . T he re a r e a l so o ther c onsp icuous a b sence s o f e xpe r t s w ho se i n c lu s ion a nd c on t r ibu t ion s a l so w ou ld h ave m ade t h ep re sen tv o lume sr i che rf o rt h e i rr e spec ted v i ew s a nd e xpe r ience s i nt h e We s ter n Med i te r ranean ( among t h em A . G i lman , R . H a r r ison a nd C . Ma the r s , t om en t ion o n ly af ew ) . H oweve r , Is uppo se o ne c anno t e xpec te ve ry th ing a nd c i r cum s tance sf o ro ne r e a son a nd a no the ro f ten p r even ta sf u l l at u rn o u ta sw ou ld h ave b een o t he rw i se d e s i red . A se mpha s i sed f r om t h eb eg inn ing ,t h e c en t ra l mo t ive b eh ind t h e O IWMBBC w a s t of o rm as ound ing b oard f o rB eake rp rob lem sa st h ey a pp ea red c u r ren t ly i n1 986 . I b e l ieve t h a ta ss u ch i th a s s e rved i t sp u rpo se ; c e r ta in ly ,i fn o th ing e l se , s ot os p eak , s t i r r ing u p t h e c a lde ron o fB eake r t h ink ing ; a sw e l l a s af ew B eake r s o re s po t s t h em se lve s . A so rgan i sa t iona lc ha i rman , Iw ou ld l i ke t ot h ank a l t h ep a r t ic ipan t sf o rt h es u cce s s o ft h eO xf ord I n t erna t iona l We s tern Med i ter ranean B e l lB eak er C onf er ence: t h o se w ho d e l ive red p aper s a sw e l la st h o se w ho w e re o n ly o b se rve r s . S pec ia lt h ank sa r e e x tended R obe r t C hapman a nd J ame s L ew thwa i te f o r t h e i r a dv ice a nd a l l a r ound h e lp a nd t oH umph r ey C a se f o rh i s mo re t h an i n t e r e s t ed p a r t ic ipa t ion . A pp re c ia t ion i sa l so g i ven t oB a r r ie J un ipe ra nd t h es t a f fo fS t . C a the r ine ' sC o l lege ,U n ive r s i ty o f O xfo rd f o rt h ee xcelen tf a c i l i t ie so ft h e Ma ry S un ley B u i ld ing . F inanc ia l a s s i s tance f o rt h ec onf e rence c ame f r om t h e DA MARC F ounda t ion I n c . a nd t h e C en te rf o rF i e ld R e se ar ch i nt h eU n i ted S t a te s , a sw e l la sd ona t ion sb y Mr a nd Mr sG eo rge N . B a r r ie a nd Mr T homa sD . C abo to ft h eC abo tC o rpo ra t ion f o r t h i sp u rpo se ;f o rt h e se my s i nce re s tg r an t i tude i se x tended .

W .H .W . O x f o rd 1 987

B eaker S tud ies a nd B eaker C onf erences : a n I n troduc t ion * *******

R obe r tW . C hapman

The B eake r p rob lem i so ne o f t h e o lde s t , a nd mos t c e leb ra ted , i n E uropean p reh is to r ic a r chaeo logy . T hroughou t t h e t wen t ie th c en tury , t he w ide s pread d i s t r ibu t ion o fB eake rp o t tery , a nd t h e a r tef ac t s a s soc ia ted i nB eake ra s semb lages , h a s p rovoked d eba te , r e sea rch a nd s yn the s is . R esea rch h a s a l te rna ted b e tween r eg iona l s urveys , w i th t he d e ta i led p resen ta t ion a nd c l a ss if ica t ion o f t he a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd , a nd p an -Eu ropean s yn the ses wh ich h ave a t temp ted t ob r ing t oge the rt h er eg iona ls t ud ies i n au n if ied f r amewo rk . T h is f r amewo rk h a sb een o ne b a sed p redom inan ta l ly u pon c u l tu ra lh i s to ry a nd t h ee qua t ion o fB eake ra s semb lage s w i th p opu la t ion movemen ts o rc u l tu ra l d i f fu s ion . I ndeed , i fo ne i sl ook ing f o r a n e xemp l if ica t ion o ft h ec u l tu ra lh i s to ry a pp roach i nE u ropean a r chaeo logy , t h en t h e B eake rp rob lem o u t sh ines a l lo the r s , w i th t h ep o ss ib le e xcep t ion o ft h em ega l i th ic t ombs . T he h i s to ry o f B eake r s t ud ies h a s b een r ev iewed e l sewhe re ( mos t r e cen t ly b y H a r r i son 1 980 ) ,f r om t h ei n t i t ia lt y po log ies a nd s yn these so f Abe rc romby , C a s t i l lo a nd o the r s , t h rough t ot h ec u r ren tq ue s t ion ing o ft h ec u l tu re h i s to ry mode l . Wha ti s o fp a r t icu la r i n te re s t a sf a r a st h i s v o lume i sc once rned , i st h a t t h ep rom inence o f B eake r s t ud ies h a s n o tb een r ef lec ted i ne xc lu s ive ly f ocused c onf e rence s u n t i l t h e l a s t t wo d ecades . A s t h er e ade rg oe s t h rough t h ep ape r sf r om t h is c onf e rence , i ti s s a lu to ry t o c ons ide r w hy t h is i st h e c a se , w ha t w a s a ccomp l ished i n p rev ious mee t ing s , a nd w he the r t h e re a r e a ny i n te re s t ing p a t terns i nt h e g row th o fr e sea rch a nd k now ledge . T he i mpe tus f o rc u r r en tB eake rr e sea r ch h a sb een t r aced f r om t h ep ub l ica t ion o ft wo p ape r s , t he f i r s t b e ing t h e s yn thes is o f D u tch B eake r s b y v an d e r Waa l s a nd G la sbe rgen ( 1955 ) a nd t h e s e cond b e ing t h e s t a temen t o f t h eR ef lux mode l f o r E uropean B eake r o r ig ins b y S angme i s te r ( 1963 ) . T he f i r s t p o in ted t h e w ay f o r s y s tema t ic ,r eg iona ls t ud ie so ft h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd o fB eake ra s semb lage s ,a nd t h e n eed f o r mode rn c o rpo ra o n w h ich s uch s t ud ie s s hou ld b eb a sed. A l so i tb egan t wo d ecade s o fr e sea r ch w h ich w a s t or e su l ti n as t rong c a se f o rc u l tu ra lc on t inu i ty f r om p re -Beake rt oB eake ra s semb lage si nt h eL owe rR h ine a r ea . T h i sr e sea rch t h en p rov ided ay ard s t ick a ga ins t w h ich t h e a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd o fo ther a r ea s c ou ld b ec ompa red . S angme i s te r 's p ape rw a s as yn the s i s o n aE u ropean s c a le , l o ok ing t o a n e xp lana t ion o ft h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fB eake r si nt e rm so ft h ec u l tu ra lh i s to ry mode l a nd t h e t h en c ur ren t k now ledge o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd i nd i f f e ren tr eg ions . T oge ther t hese p ape r s s t i mu la ted r e sea rch f o r a nd a ga ins t t he i r i nd iv idua l p ropo s i t ions . 1

R .W . C hapman

A t t h e s econd A t lan t ic C o l loqu im , o n t h e O r ig ins a nd I n terr e la t ions o f t he N eo l i th ic C ul tures o f Wes tern Europe , h e ld i n G ron ingen i n 1 964 , t h ree B eake rp ape r s s howed t h e e f f ec t s o ft h is s t imu lus . Two p ape r s , b y B u t le ra nd v an d e r Waa ls a nd b y C a se , f o cused a t ten t ion o n t h e a s soc ia t ion b e tween B eake r s a nd m e ta lwo rk ing i nt h e N e the r land s a nd I r e land r e spec t ive ly . T h i s w a s p a r t icu la r ly i mpo r tan tg iven t h er e con s t ruc t ion b ys ome B eake rm e ta l lu rg is t s , s ea r ch ing f o rr aw ma te r ia ls , a st h ee xp lana t ion f o rt h ew ide s p read B eake ra s semb lage i nE u rope .T he t h i rd p ape r , b y D av id C la rke , p re sen ted h i s r e c la ss if ica t ion o f B r i t ish B eake r p o t tery , b a sed o n t he c o rpus c omp i led f o r h i s d oc to ra l t h e s is i n C amb r idge ( p ub l ished a sC la rke 1 970 ) . L ike t h eD u tch b efo re h im , C la rke a s semb led am a s s ive a moun to fd a ta o nv a r iab i l i ty i nB eake rs t y le sa nd a s semb lage s ,w h ich i nt u rn w a si n n eed o fe xp lana t ion . Wha tever t h e d e ta i led h i s to ry o f s t ud ies i n d i f f e ren t p a r ts o f E urope , t h e se p ub l ica t ions a nd t h er e sea r ch c onduc ted i nt h el a te 1 960 s a nd e a r ly 1 970 sr evea led t h ee x i s tence o f ac r i t ica l mas so fp reh i s to r ians s uf f ic ien tt o me r i ta s semb l ing f o ra c onf e rence . T h is c onf e rence w as t h e G lockenbecher sympos ion , h e ld i n 1 974 a nd p ub l i shed t wo y ea r sl a te r( Lan t ing a nd v an d e r Waa l s 1 976 ) . I nt h e ma jo r i ty o f c a ses , t h e p aper s s u mma r i sed t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd o fc on tex t s , a s soc ia t ion s a nd d a t ing o fB eake ra s semb lage s ,a nd e mp loyed t y po logy a nd t h ec u l tu ra lh i s to ry a pp roach t oc l a ss ify t h e ma te r ia l sa nd e xp la in i t so r ig in si nt e rm so fl o ca lc on t inu i ty o rd i scon t inu i ty . I np a r t icu la rt h e c a se f o rb eake rp o t tery o r ig in s , a nd f o r c u l tu ra l c on t inu i ty i n t h e L owe r R h ine w a s s t reng thened . Among t h e o the r r eg ion s , i ti s n o t iceab le t h a tt h e We s te rn Med i te r ranean m e r i ted e i gh tp ape r s ,n ea r ly o ne t h i rd o f t ho se p ub l ished ; t wo p ape r s w e re o n t h eI ber ian P en in su la . T he l a s to ft h ese a r ea s w a s a l so t h en t h e s ub jec to ft h e f i r s t mode l s yn the s i s , t ob e p ub l i shed e l sewhe re a y ea rl a te r( Ha r r ison 1 977 ) .I na l lc a se st h eg row th o fd a ta c o l lec t ion w a sp rov id ing a mo re c omp lex p a t te rn ing a nd v a r iab i l i ty i nt h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd . T he G lockenbeche r sympo s ion a l so r evea led ama jo rg row th i na t temp t s t oe xp la in t h is v a r iab i l i ty w i thou tr e cour se t ot h e c u l tu ra l h i s to ry mode l . S uch e xp lana t ions w e re , o fc ou r se , i nl i ne w i th w ide r c hange s i np reh is to r ic a r chaeo logy . T he ma in f ocus w as a ga ins t u n i ta ry mode ls o f B eaker o r ig ins , a nd i n f avour o f • r e concep tua l i s ing t h e B eake rp rob lem a s as er ies o fp rob lems . O fi n i t ia l i n te res t w a st h ep o ss ib le r o le o fB eake rp o t te ry a sh av ing ap re s t ige v a lue i nt h ec u l tu re si n w h ich i tw a s a dop ted ( whe the r l o ca l ly o r n o t ) a nd a s b e ing c i rcu la ted w i th in t h e i n terac t ion s phere ( s ee t h e p ape r s b y C la rke , C a se , S hennan a nd N eu s tupny ) . I t w a s a rgued t h a t t h e v a r iab i l i ty i n B eake r p o t te ry a nd a s semb lge f r om r eg ion t o r eg ion w a s s ub s tan t ia l ly w i thou te xp lana t ion i nt h ec u l tu re h i s to ry mode l ,a nd t h a ti t r equ i red a pp l ica t ion o fa l ter na t ive mode l s ; s oc ia l ,e conom ic a nd t e chno log ica l ( f o r t h e l a s t , s e e p ape r s b y v an d e r L eeuw ) . Am a jo r c l a sh o f a pp roaches w a s c l ea r . I ndeed t he v ery g ene ra t ion o f l a rge amoun ts o f d a ta b y emp i r ica l ly -ba sed p reh is to r ians d evo ted t oc u l tu re h i s to ry s e rved a so ne s p r ingboa rd f o rt h er e jec t ion o ft h e i r mode l s . Two mo re B eake r c onf e rences f o l lowed w i th in t wo y ea r s : i n N ice i n 1 976 , o ne s ympos ium o f t h e U ISPP C ong re ss w as d evo ted t o B eake r s ( l a ter p ub l ished s epa ra te ly b yG u i la ine 1 984 ) , w h i le i nE d inbu rgh amuch s ma l le rg a the r ing l o oked a t We s te rn a nd S ou th Wes te rn E u rope , I t a ly , C en t ra l E u rope a nd t h e B r i t i sh I s le s ( Me r ce r 1 977 ) .T he N ice s ympo s ium i n c luded m any o ft h e s ame c on t r ibu to r sa st h e

2

O x f ord I n t e rna t iona l We s t ern Med i t e r ranean B e l lB eak e rC onf e r enc e

G lockenbeche r sympo s ion a nd p re sen ted much t h e s ame e v idence r ega rd ing t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd o fB eake r a s semb lage s i nd i f f e ren t r eg ion s . P ape r s o n t h e We s te rn Med i te r ranean i n c luded t wo o n I t a ly , o ne o n S ou the rn F rance , t h ree o n I be r ia ( now i n c lud ing H a r r ison 's r e sea r ch ) a nd o ne o n Mo rocco . U n l ike t h e G lockenbeche r sympo s ion , t h e c u l tu re h i s to ry mode l w a s v i r tua l ly u ncha l lenged , w i th o n ly N eu s tupny c r i t ic i s ing i tf r om a na r chaeo log ica lp e r spec t ive a nd C za rne tzk i c on tr ibu t ing amo re moder n a na ly s is o ft h e p hys ica l a n th ropo logy . T he p re s t ige mode l ,a nd t h ei mp l ica t ion so fB eake rv a r iab il i ty w e r e mo r ev i s ib le i nt h eE d inbu rgh c onf e rence . Wha t g ene ra l p a t te rn s c ome o u t o f t h e se c onf e rence s , a nd t h is h i s to ry o fr e cen t r e sea rch , a nd h ow d o t h ey r e la te t ot h e c onf e rence p ro ceed ing s p ub l i shed h e re? F i r s t , o ne c an s e e c yc le s o f g row th i n k now ledge o f t h e c ha rac te r i s t ics o f t h e a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd a nd o fa t temp t st ou nd e r s tand t h a tr e co rd a nd d e f ine n ew t y pe s o fv a r iab i l i ty w i th in i t .S econd ly ,i ti sc l ea rt h a tt h ec u l tu re h i s tory mode lh a sb een c ha l lenged i nB eake r s t ud ie s , a s i na r chaeo logy i n g ene ra l , s i nce t h e 1 960 s a nd 1 970s . T h i rd ly , t h e o n se t o f mode rn b eake r s t ud ie s , s i nce t h e m id 1 950 s , h a s s t imu la ted t h e d eve lopmen t o f s yn the ses a nd a na ly se s i n e ve ry a r ea i n w h ich B eake r so ccu ri nE u rop e .T h i sc on f e rence i st h ef i r s tt ob ed evo ted e n t i r e ly t oB eake r a s semb lage i nt h e We s te rn Med i te r ranean ,a nd t h eg ene ra lp a t te rn sn o ted a bove a r e a l so i ne v idence h e re . T he g row th i nd a ta i sc l ea r , a sa r e i t si mp l ica t ion s ,a s Ih ave t r ied t oi nd ica te i n my o wn p ape r . T he c onf l ic t b e tween t h e a pp roach o fc u l tu re h i s to ry a nd t h a to fv a r iab i l i ty a nd i n te ra c t ion i sa l so b o th i mp l ic i ta nd e xp l ic i t . T he r o le o fi n te ra c t ion i nt h ep e r iod o fB eake ra s semb lage sa nd i nr e la t ion t oe a r l ie ra nd l a te rp e r iod s a l so d e se rve sf u l le ra t ten t ion , a sd o mode l so fa r te f ac ti n nova t ion a nd a dop t ion , a nd i n te r -se t t lemen t a na ly se s o f B eake r a r tefac t s . A s i n t h e o the r c on f e r ence s , t h ee xam ina t ion o fl o ca le conom ic c on tex t s , a nd t h e i rp o s s ib le r e la t ion s t oi n te rac t ion ( a s p ropo sed i nR enf rew a nd C he r ry 1 986 ) , a r e l i t t le d i scu s sed . S o w h i le t h ee xc lu s ive g eog r aph ic f o cu so ft h i sc on f e rence i sn ew ,a nd much o fi t sd a ta o r ig ina l ,t h ea pp roache sa dop ted t oB eak e rs t ud ie sf i nd t h e i rs e t t ing c l ea r ly w i th in a l o nge rt r ad i t ion o fd eba t eo ve rt h el a s tt h i r ty y ea r s .

3

R ef erences * ***** C larke , D .L . , 1 970 . B eake r P o t te ry o f G rea t B r i ta in a nd I r e land ‚ Cambr idge U n iver s i ty P re ss . Gu i la ine , J .( ed ) , 1 984 . L 'Age d u C u iv re E u ropeen , C .N .R .S , P a r i s . H a r r i son , R .J . , 1 977 . T he B e l l B eake r C u l ture s o fS pa in a nd P o r tuga l , Amer ican S choo l o fP reh is tor ic R esearch B u l le t in 3 5 , P eabody Museum , C amb r idge , Ma s sachuse t te s . H a r r i son , R .J . . , 1 980 . T he B eake r F o lk . C oppe r A ge A rchaeo logy i n We s te rn E u rope ,T hame sa nd Hud son ,L ondon . L an t ing , J .N . a nd v an d e r Waa l s , J .D . ( ed s ) , 1 976 . G lockenbechersympos ion . Obe r re id 1 974 ,B u s sum ,H aa r lem . Me r cer , R . ( ed ) , 1 977 . B eake r s i n B r i ta in a nd E u rope , B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica l R epor t s , S upp l imen ta ry S e r ie s2 6 , O xfo rd . R enf rew , C . a nd C he r ry ,J .( e d s ) , 1 986 . P ee rP o l i ty I n te rac t ion a nd S oc ia lP o l i t ica l C hange , C ambr idge U n iver s i ty P re s s . S angme is te r ,E . , 1 963 .' La C iv il i sa t ion d uV a se C ampan i fo rme ' ,A c te sd uP r em iere C o l loque A t lan t ique , B res t , 1 961 , L abo ra to i re d ' A n th ropo log ie P reh i s to r ique , R enne s . V an d er Waa ls , J .D . a nd G la sbe rgen , W . , 1 955 . ' Beake r T ypes a nd t h e ir D i s t r ibu t ion i nt h eN e the r land s ' ,P a laeoh i s tor ia 4 .p p .5 -46 .

T he P rob lem o f D ef in i t ion * ****** L aw ren ce B a rf ie ld

The d eba te b e tween Wa ld ren a nd T opp r a i sed t h ew ho le q ue s t ion o ft h ed ef in i t ion o ft h eB eake rC u l tu r e . I ni t sp u r ef o rm t h e re i su sua l ly n op rob lem ; t h eb e l lb eake r c omb ined w i th i t s d i s t inc t ive r ange o fh a rdwa re i t em s i se a s i ly r e cogn i sab le a nd c ha ra c te r ise s av e ry mono the t ic c u l tu re . I ti sa tt h e b eg inn ing a nd t h e e nd o ft h e d eve lopmen tt h a tw e mu s tw o r ry a bou tw ha tw em ean b yt h eB eaker C u l tur e a nd w ha ts pec i f ic t r a i t s a r et h e mo s ti mpo r tan to ri ndeed w he the rt h ei d en t if i ca t ion o fa p r ec i se b eg inn ing a nd e nd t ot h ec u l tu re i si ni t se lf n o tj u s t ad e lu s ion c r ea ted b yt h e n eed o fa r cha eo log i s t st ow o rk w i th in ac l ea rt y po log ica lf r amewo rk . T he t e rm B eaker C u l ture , o r e ven mo re r e s t r ic t ive ly ,B e l l B eaker C u l tur e i mpo se si n i t ia l ly i t so wn l im i ta t ion s s ot h a tw e mu s ta cknow ledge t h a tw hen u s ing t h i st e rm t od esc r ibe ,f o re xamp le ,t h ec omp lexe so n Ma l lo rca w ea r ed i s to r t ing t h e t e rm ino logy , s i nce s t r ic t ly n ob eake r s a ss u ch a r e f ound t h e re . Whe re t h en d ow e d raw t h el i ne w hen o n ly t h en on p o t te ry e l emen t so ft h eB eake rt r ad i t ion s u rv ive i n to t h e B ronze Age ( e .g . A spae s a nd F a san i 1 976 ) w hy s hou ld n o t s uch t h ing s a s w r i s tgua rd s , b u t ton se t c . b yt h em se lves a l so b eu sed t oc ha rac te r i se t h ec u l tu re? I n o the r wo rd s w ha t make s t h e b eake r v e s se l s o s pec ia l? I s i tj us t i t s e a se i n r e cogn i t ion . L e tu s s uppo se t h a tt h e b eake rh ad n o tb een i nu se d u r ing t h i sp e r iod , t h en c e r ta in ing t h ea s semb lage sw ou ld h ave b een t a cked ,a sa ne a r ly s t age ,o nt ot h e s t a r to ft h e i rr e spec t iv eE a r ly B ronze A ge c u l tu r e s . T he p rob lem o fd e f in i t ion o ft h es t a r to ft h eB eake rC u l tu re d i f f e rf r om t h o se a tt h e e nd . A t t h e s t a r t B e l l B eake r s a l one o f ten o ccu ri ni s o la t ion i nt h e c on tex t o fa n e a r l ie re s tab l i shed l a te N eo l i th ic o r C ha lco l i th ic c u l tu re . T he q ue s t ion h e r e a r i se s h ow many b eake r s h ave t ob ep re sen tb e fo re i tb ecome s aB eake r s i te . ( c f . C la rke 1 976 ) . A t t h e e nd o ft h e B eake rc u l tu r e w e f i nd o n t h e o the rh and an umbe ro fi t em s o f B eake r l e gacy w h ich a r e e v idence o f c on t inu i ty . T he se t a ke s eve ra l f o rm s . T he c on t inu i ty c e ram ic d eco ra t ion i so ne p a r t icu la ra spec tw h ich m ay b ef ound o nn ea r B eake rf o rm s ( e .g . Moa rda i nS i c i ly ) o rt o ta la l ien f o rm s ( e g . E BA c i ne r a ry u rn si n B r i ta in ) . I n t h e c a se o f t h e B a lea r ics w e h ave b ow l s , w h ich a r e a s soc ia ted w i th B eake r so ft h e ma in land ,b u tn o to nt h ei s land st h em se lve s .E l sewhe re i ti st h ep l a in a s soc ia ted p o t te ry , t h eB eg l e i tkeram ik w h ich o u t l ive s t h e d eco ra ted b eake r . T hen w e h ave t h e o the r m a ter ia l c u l tu re s u rv iv ing w i thou t t h e p o t te ry , w r i s tgua rd s , a r rowhead s , vp e r fo ra ted b u t ton s . A s Ih ave s ugge s ted ( Ba rf ie ld i nt h i sv o lume ) i n s ome a r ea s t h ese m ay h ave b een i n t roduced f r om a no the rE a r ly B ronze A ge a r ea a f te rt h eb eake r st h em se lve sh ave d i sappea r ed i nb o th a r ea s .

5

L .H .Ba tf ie ld

S uch ar agged e nd t o ac u l tu re ,h oweve r , mu s tb ee xpec ted a sp a r to ft h ep roce s so f t r an s i t ion f r om o ne p e r iod t oa no the r . A rchaeo log ica l c u l tu r e sa r eo u ro wn c r ea t ion a nd t h e re l im i t s mu s t b ed e f ined b y mu tua l a g reemen ta bou td ef in i t ion s i nce t h e re w i l l b e n o c l ea r b ounda ry w a i t ing t o b e d i scovered. I ft h e B eake r C u l tu r e h ad b een c a l led a f te r at y pe s i t et h en ar ede f in i t ion w ou ld b ee a s ie r . A si ti s ab eak er i sa b eaker i s ab eak er b u tt h ed ef in i t ion o f aB eake rc u l tu re i su p t ou s . T he a r t if i c ia l i ty o fo u rt y po logy c an b es hown b yt h ee xamp le so ft h e AOC i mp roved a nd c ombed i mp re s s ion f r om B a thga te W . L o th ian , S co t land , ( C la rke 1 970 , v o l2 , p 1 .1 )o rt h eb ow lw i th B eaker d eco ra t ion o nt h eo u t s ide a nd M i l la ran d eco ra t ion o n t h e i n s ide f r om L o s M i l la re s ( A r r iba s i n t h i s v o lume ) . B u t w e n eed c u l tu r es t o a r t icu la te o u rt h ink ing a bou tt h ep a s ta nd t h ey r ema in i n e scapab le b o th d i a ch ron i ca l ly a nd g eog raph ica l ly ( Hod son 1 980 ) . T he i r u sefu lne s s d oe s d epend h oweve ro n a l l w ho u se t h e t e rm a g ree ing t o as t anda rd d ef in i t ion a nd w he the r o r n o t s uch a d ef in i t ion s hou ld b el o o se ly o rr i g id ly a pp l ied .

6

R ef erences * ***** A spes ,

A .

a nd F asan i , L . , 1 976 . E inf lusse d e M i te leuropae ischen G lock enbeche rku l tu r i nd e r P l adaku l tu r , i nJ .N . L an t ing a nd J .D . V an d e r Waa l s ( e d s ) G lockenbechersympos ion , O be r re id 1 974 . B u s sum , 3 23 -332 .

C la rke ,D .L . , 1 970 .B eake rP o t t er yo fG rea tB r i ta in a nd I r e land . ,C amb r idge . C la rke , D .L . , 1 976 . T he B eake r N e two rk - S o c ia l a nd E conom ic Mode l s , i nJ .N . L an t ing a nd J .D . V an d e r Waa l s ( e d s ) G lockenbecher sympos ion , O be r r e id 1 974 , B u s sum , 4 59 -477 . Hod son , F .R . , 1 980 . C u l tu re s a sT ype s ? S ome E lemen t so fC la s s if ica t ion T heo ry . B u l le t in o ft h eI n s t i tu te o fA r chaeo logy o fL ondon , 1 7 , 1 10 .

On t he B e l l B eaker P rob lem * ******

W i l l iam H . Wa ld r en

i nr e t ro spec t ,n ow ,t h a tt h eO xfo rd I n te rna t iona l We s te rn Med i te r ranean B el B eak e r C onf e rence h a s b een r ea l i sed , i tb ecome s a l l t h e mo re e v iden t f r om t h e p ape r s d e l ive red a nd s ub sequen t d i scu s s ions t h a t t h e re i sa n eed f o r amo re c ohe ren t e xp lana t ion o ft h i se n igma t ic c h rono log ica ls t age i nt h ed eve lopm en to ft h eE u ropean C oppe rA ge , a nd t h a tt h i sl a ck o f as a t i s f a c to ry e xp lana t ion i st h e s a l ien tf a c to rt o h ave e me rged a s ar e su l to ft h a ts ympo s ium . T h i si st os ay ,t h e r ei s mo re t h an e ve r t h en eed f o r amo r eu n iver sa l ly a ccep ted d ef in i t ion a nd e xp lana t ion f o rt h a tw h ich i sg ene ra l ly a sw el a ss p ec if i caly m ean ta nd i d en t if ied -c o r r ec t ly o ri n co r r ec t ly -b ya B el B eak e rc u l tu ra lt e rm ino logy . L i t t le c ou ld i te ve r h ave b een p red ic ted a tt h e f i r s t i n t roduc t ion o ft h e t e rm B e l l B eak er C u l tur ei n to t h ea r chaeo log ica lv o cabu la ry t h a ti tw ou ld b ecom e ap rob lem u n to i t se lf , c au s ing n o e nd o f c omp l ica t ions i n i t s i n te rp re ta t ion a s w e l l a s a n i mped imen t t ot h e u nde r s tand ing o ft h e m echan i sm s a nd p roce s se s w h ich w ou ld b e s t d e sc r ibe t h eB eaker p henomenon . I n i t ia l ly ad e sc r ip t ive t e rm ,c o ined w i th t h eb e s to fi n t en t ion st or i dt h ev o cabu la ry o f t h et ime o fe ven mo r ea wkwa rd n omenc la tu re ,t h a to fD r ink ing Cup o r Anc ien t B r i t i sh f i c t i l ia , t h e B e l l B eake r c oncep t h a s r un t h e g amb i t a nd f a sh ion o fw ha t a r e n ume rous p o s s ib le e xp lana t ions , a s se s smen t s a nd d ef in i t ions ( e .g . G i lman 1 981 , H a r r ison 1 974 , S angme i s te r 1 963 a nd S heenan 1 976 ) . I n s ho r t , w e h ave g one t h rough m e tamo rpho s is u pon me tamo rpho s i s .o f t hough t , r ega rd ing t h e i nd iv idua l s , t h e s oc ie t ie s , t h e i r movemen t a nd d eve lopmen t a nd t h e ma te r ia l man if e s ta t ion s mak ing u p t h e B eake rp henomenon o rp e rhap s s t i l l b e t te r ,B eaker w or ld , h av ing t h em f i l l s uch r o les a s w ande r ing t i nke r s , t r ade r s , p ro spec to r s , membe r s o f e l i tes , w ar r io r c l a sses , t r an shuman t s hephe rds , r evo lu t iona ry a g r icu l tu r i s t s a nd m anage r ia le xpe r t s , m ake r so fs pec if i c a r te f ac t s a nd a s semb lage s e t c . F rom t h e r ange o f p o s tu la t ions u nde r taken , i tw ou ld s e em t h a t s ome n ea r s a t i sf a c to ry e xp lana t ion s hou ld h ave l o ng h en ce b een a r r ived a ti nt h ep roce s s . A nd y e tv e ry l i t t le i sg ene ra l ly a g reed u pon c once rn ing t h ec h rono log ica lp e r iod ,i t ss o c ia l a nd e conom ic o rgan i sa t ion s o r f o r t h a t m a t te r a n u nde r s tand ing o f i t s m a te r ia l r ema in s . Whe the r o r n o t w e h ave e spec ia l ly b enef i ted o ve r t h e p a s t t e n y ea r s s i nce t h e Oberre id G lockenbechersympos ion f r om a ny s pec ia l e n l igh tenmen t e ncoun t e r ed i nt h ec ou r se o ft h er unn ing , i ti ss t il f o rt ime t ot e l l . F o rt h e mo s tp a r t r ega rd le s s o ft h e n ume rou s h ypo the se s o ve r t h e y ea r s a nd t h e eme rgence o fn ew e v idence - w e a r e s t i l l f a r f r om a s a t isf ac to ry h ypo the se s o r g ene ra l ly a ccep ted

9

W .H . Wa ld ren

u nde r s tand ing o ft h e m echan i sm s a nd p ro ce s se s t h a tw e re a tw o rk d u r ing t h e t ime s pan w e h ave c ome t o i d en t ify w i th t h e B eake r i d ea a nd w h ich h a s b ecome s ynonymous w i th t h e E u ropean C oppe r A ge i t se lf . I n t r u th , w e c anno t e ven g ene ra l ly a g ree o n t h e t r ue e x ten t o f i t s g eog raph ica l d i s t r ibu t ion ( e .g . t h e T opp Wa ld ren a rgumen t , t h i sv o lume ) . S ince t h e p resen ta t ion o f t h e D u tch Mode l a t t h e O be r re id m ee t ing i n 1 974 , ( pub l ished L an t ing a nd v an d e r Waa ls 1 976 ) many o f u s i n t h e Wes te rn Med i te r ranean h ave b een t r y ing t o a pp ly t h e s t anda rd s p re sen t i n t h i s n o r the rn E u ropean e xamp le t ot h eB eake rp rob lem i nt h e s ou th . . . . o ro b se rve s ome th ing t h a t m igh ta pp rox ima te t h eD u tch Mode l . . h oweve r , w i th a sy e tn oa ppa ren t s u cce s s . T he f a i lu re t od o s o , i ne ven amode s t w ay , w e l l m ay b e i nd ic ta t ive o fn o s u ch p o s s ib i l i ty f o r amode l b e ing a va i lab le h e re i n t h e s ou th . . . . as ho r tcom ing t h a t a mong o t he rt h ing sc au se s an umb e ro fi mpe ra t ive q ue s t ion st oa r i se . A l though If o r o ne c anno t a ccep tt h e f a c t t h a t s ome s o r to fs imp le o rc omp l ica ted mode l d id n o t e x i s ta nd t h a tw eh ave j u s tn o tc ome t ou nde r s tand i t s mak eup . O nt h eo the rh and w em ay w el a sk q ue s t ion s s u ch a s : I st h e r ea ny s ound r e a son f o r t h ee conom ic , s oc ia la nd r e sou r ce c ond i t ion so fa ny s p e c i f ic t im eo rl o ca le d u r ing t h e C oppe rA ge t oh ave b e en e ven r ough ly t h es ame o ve re x ten s ive g eog r aph ic a r ea s ?I s t h e re a ny g ua ran tee t h a t t h e d emog raph ic d i s t r ibu t ion s o fc ommun i ty g roups o r s o c ia lu n i t sw e re w ide ly s p r ead i n an o rma lo ro t he rw i se a c cep tab le p a t te rn ?O ne t h a t i sa ccep ted u n ive r sa l ly ?E ven a sw ea c cep t aE u rop ean c u l tu r a ls phe r et od ay ,d e sp i te t h e i n co rpo ra t ion o fd i f f e ren t r e l ig ious , e conom ic , p o l i t ica l a nd s oc ia l p rac t ice s . E ven a s w e d o a n Amer ican c u l tu ra l s phe re , i n co rpo ra t ing a s i td oe s ar a the r h omogeneous s t a te o r i en ted b a s i s o fi n te rp r e ta t ion . I si tn o t mo re r e a sonab le t o r e ga rd d ive r se v a r ia t ion so ft e rm sa nd c ond i t ion sp re sen ti nw ide a sw el a sp e rhap s e ven n a r row g eog raph ic r eg ion s? T ha ti st os ugge s ts i ngu la r , e vo lv ing , s ma l l a nd l a rge n i che so fs e t t lemen t ,p roduc t ive a nd s u cce s sf u li nv a ry ing a nd i nd iv idua l i sed d eg rees . . . . e ven i ndependen t ly e vo lved ; a l though w i th s ome d i s t ingu i shab le t h r ead o fc on temporar y ,c ommon c u l tu ra l , e conom ic a nd s o c ia lc on t inu i ty r unn ing t h roughou tt h es um . S hou ld n o te mpha s i sb ep l a ced o nt h es t udy o fs p ec i f ic s i t e sw h ich h ave s hown c l ea r p a t te rns a nd c on t inu i ty i nt h e i rc h rono logy , s e t t lemen t a nd d eve lopmen t , w i thou t g eog raph ic s t udy p re f e rence b u t w i th i n te re s ted a nd e mpha s ised r ega rd t ot h e i r p a r t icu la ro f f e r ing w i th in t h e i rp a r t icu la rg eog raph ic l o ca le a nd r e sou r ce s ,a nd a tt h e s ame t ime r e ta in ing ar e ga rd f o rt h es pe c ia lw ay t h e se p o s s ib ly r e la te f a r the ra f ie ld ? I tw a s g ene ra l ly a g reed a tt h e e nd o ft h e O IWMBBC t h a t , p e rhap s , i tw ou ld b e a c on s t ruc t ive a nd wo r thwh i le move o n t h e p a r t o ft h e c onf e rence p a r t ic ipan t s t o p repa re s epa ra te a nd i nd iv idua l p ape r s o n w ha t e ach p e rce ived a s t h e B eake r C oncep t . T h is w a s t ob e d one a s ama t te r o fi n t roduc t ion t ot h e i r mo re l e ng th ly r e po r t s . I tw a s s ugge s ted t h a ti ns od o ing t h e se p e r sona lm an if e s to so rd ec la ra t ion s f r om an umbe ro fi ndependen ta r ea sm igh tb r ing t o ge the rf o ra s se s smen ta nd o t he r c on s ide ra t ion p e r sona lo b se rva t ion s , e xper ience s a nd i n te rp re ta t ion s o fw ha tt h ey s e e i n t h e i r i mmed ia te g eog raph ic a r ea s a s t h e B eake r p rob lem ; o the rw i se n o t a t ta inab le , a nd r e su l t ing p e rhap si nn ew h ypo the t ica la pp roa che s ,o rt h er e ca s t ing o f t h eb e t te rp a r t so fs ome o ft h eo l de rh ypo the se s .

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O x f ord I n t e rna t iona l We s t e rn Med i t e r ranean B e l lB eak e rC onf e r ence

N o o ne i n vo lved i nt h e q ue s t ion o fB eak e r s t oa ny e x ten t c an b e t o ta l ly d ivo r ced f r om f o rmu la t ing s ome p e r sona lv i ew sr ega rd ing t h em ean ing o fs uch ac oncep to f c u l tu re b a sed o no ne se xpe r ience i nt h ef i e ld o ro t he ra cadem ic s ou r ce s .I ti sd i ff i cu l t t ob e l ieve t h a t o u r h ypo the se s , t h eo r ie s a nd o the r p o in t s o fv i ew c once rn ing t h e B eaker p rob lem w i l l e ve r b e t o ta l ly f r ee o f p e r sona l p o in t s o f c on ten t ion , f l avou red b yo u ro wn f i nd ing s ,r e sou r ce sa nd e xpe r ience si no u rp ar t icu la rr e g ion s . S uch a ni d ea i sj u s tn o ts e em ing ly p o s s ib le .V e ry much i nt h e s ame w ay ,a nd b yt h e s ame p roce s se s , p e rhaps , a s o ccu r red i n t h e p a s t w i th t h e s pec ia l a nd o f ten i nd iv idua ld eve lopemen t sa sr e f lec ted i nt h en ume rou sr e g iona lv a r ia t ion sa nd t h a t c an b e o b ser ved i n t h e v ar iou s a nd e v id en t ly many b ranches o ft h e B eaker C omp lex . . d eve lopmen t s w h ich h ave b rough t a bou t mo s t o ft h e d i ff icu l t ie s w e a r ee xpe r ienc ing a tp r e sen t . G o ing o ve r my c on f e r ence p ape rd e l ive r ed a tt h et ime o ft h eO IWMBBC a s semb ly I f i nd - a pa r t f r om b e ing e n sconced p e r sona l ly , d eep ly i n t h e a rgumen t o f w ha t c on s t i tu te s B eake r s i n my p a r t icu la rg eog raph ic a r ea - t h a t Ih ad p a r t ly f u lf i l led t h e e xp res s ion o f my v i ews , s pecu la t ion a nd e xp lana t ion i n a n i n t roduc t ion t o my c ommun ica t ion . R ev iew ing t h i s s e c t ion o f my p ape r , If i nd t h a t a pa r t f r om t h e a dd i t ion o f af ew d e ta i ls a nd a f te r though t s , s t imu la ted b y t h e c onf e rence a nd d i scus s ion a f terwa rd , a s w e l l a s af ew o f t h e p ape r s p ub l i shed a tp re sen t , my o r ig ina lo u t l ine a nd o b se rva t ion so nt h em a t te rw i l ls t i l ls e rve a sa ni n t roduc t ion a nd p e r sona l man i f e s to o nt h e s ub jec to fB eake r su n ive r sa l ly ( no tj u s tr e g iona l ly r e la ted t oB a lea r ic I s land B eake r s ) ,w h ich t od a te h a sp reo ccup ied t wen ty f i ve y ea r so f my l i f eh e r ei nt h eB a lea r ic s . T he refo re , b efo re Ig o i n to a ny d i scus s ion o f t h e B a lear ic B eaker Que s t ion o r t h e s i tes , p hy s ica l m a te r ia l a nd s uppo r t ing d a ta t h a t Ib e l ieve b e s t e xemp l ify t h e p ropo s i t ion , Is hou ld l i ke t o r e cap i tu la te b r ief ly i n d ef in ing w ha t Ip e r sona l ly p e rce ive t o b e t h e B eaker p henomenon . Iw ou ld l i ke t o d o t h is q u i te i ndependen t ly o f t h e p resence o r l a ck o f as i ng le p o t t y pe . . .. t he b e l l s haped b eaker . I n my p e rcep t ion , t h e B eake r p henomenon w a s b a s ica l ly t h e r e su l t o f h uman a dvancemen t i n t h e a r eas o f t e chno logy , e f f ec t ive p roduc t iv i ty a nd s oc ia l d eve lopmen ta nd e n l igh t enmen t . . , a nd n o ta r te f a c tua lr ema in sa l one . A l though ,s i n ce w hen c an w e c on s ide r t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o f ac u l tu r e w i thou t t h e p roduc t s ( a r te f ac t s ) w h ich r e f lec t i t s t h ink ing , e conomy , s o c ia l a nd r e l ig ious c onduc t , d emog raph ic g row th a nd a ny n umbe r o fo t he rq uand r ie s c once rn ing t h e p eop le s o ft h e p a s t o r p re sen t? A l l t h e s ame , r ega rd ing t h i s a spec t , o ve r -s imp l if ied o r n o t i nt e rm s o f a r t ef a c t sa l one , Ic an o n ly a ccep tt h ev e ry f i r s to ve r tone so f ac u l tu ra ld ef in i t ion a nd t h a tc er ta in ly n o tc omp le te ly as ensu s t r ic to C h i ldean o ne : " ar e cu r ren ta s semb lage o fa r chaeo log ica lt y pe s a l lt y pe st h u sa s soc ia t ed s hou ld t h en h ave t h e s ame c h rono log ica lc o -o rd ina te B u tr e pea t ed a s so c ia t ion sr equ i r e n ol e s st h a tt h ey s ha l lb eu sed b yt h es ame s o c ie ty ,t h a ti sb yp e r son si n sp i red b yt h e s ame c ommon t r ad i t ion o f wood -wo rk ing ,f i gh t ing ,d r e s s ,d ome s t ic a r ch i tec tu r ea nd b ur ia l r i te s . T ha t mus t b e w hy a l l c on s t i tuen t i t em s o f ac u l tu re b ea r t h e s ame c h rono log ica lc o -o rd ina te " ( Ch i lde 1 957 ) . N o ri si tt o ta l ly c onfo rm ing w i th :

1

W .H . Wa ld ren

" I fa na s semb lage r e cu r sc on s i s ten t ly o ve r ar e s t r ic ted a r ea a nd w i th in ag i ven p e r iod ( i . e .h a sl im i ted d i s t r ibu t ion si ns pa ce a nd t ime )i ti sd e sc r ibed a s ac u l tu re a nd t a ken t ob e c ha rac te r i s t ic o f ap a r t icu la r h uman s oc ie ty C u l tu re s a r e t h e b r ick s o f w h ich P r eh i s to ry i sb u i l ta nd i tmu s tb ec onceded t h a tt h eb r ick sa r en o ta ss ound a s c ou ld b ew i shed . " ( The P engu in D ic t iona ry o fA r chaeo logy ( 1 972 ,p .6 8 ) I n my o p in ion s pa t ia l r e s t r ic t ions a nd t empo ra l l im i ta t ion s a r e j u s t n o t t o ta l ly a ccep tab le i n ag ood m any c a se s , a nd a r e g r ea t ly b a sed o n d eg ree s a nd s t age s o f s oc ia l , e conom ic a nd r e l ig iou s d eve lopmen t . A nd i n deed t h e b r ick s a r e n o t a s s ound a sc ou ld b e w i shed . O n as im i la r b as i s , t h e d ive r se a r tef ac t s , a s semb lages a nd o the r ma te r ia l man if es ta t ions , t h a t w e h ave c ome t o k now a nd a ccep t , u p t o t h e p re sen t , a s b e long ing t ot h e B e l l B eaker c omp lex a nd a s p a r t o f t h e B eaker p ackage , i n my o p in ion ,a r e s pec if i ca l ly t h er e su l t so rp roduc t so f ap a r t icu la rp r eh i s to r ic p e r iod o ft ime , a nd n o tp a r t icu la r ly o f ap eop le i nt h ec onven t iona ls e n se . Ap e r iod o ft ime t h a t Ib e l ieve c an b ea nd w i l lb e ,e ven tua l ly ,f r om g eog r aph ica la r ea t og eog raph ica l a r ea ,a ccu r a te ly d ef ined a nd c h ronom e t r ica l ly d e l inea t ed . T he p ape r s p re sen ted a r e a n a t temp t t od ef ine a nd c a r ry o u t s u ch ag eog r aph ic , c h ronome t r ic d e l inea t ion i nt h es i te sc ove r ed h e r ei nt h eB a lea r ic s .A l though ,i ta l so a t temp t s t o d emon s t ra te a nd c o r re la te b o th t h e c h rono log ica l f i nd ing s a nd t h e a r tef ac t s t h em se lve s i n t e rm s o f p a ra l le ls f ound w i th in a w ide r a nd p a r t icu la r g eog raph ica ls phe r eo fi n f luence ,d u r ing a ne qua l ly s p ec i f ic t ime . T he p a r t icu la r p reh is tor ic p e r iod o f t ime , c i rca 2 200 b . c . t oc i r ca 1 300 b c ( unca l ib ra ted d a te s ) a s r ep re sen ted i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l s t a t ion s e xam ined a nd r e f er red t o ,h e re ,a sb e long ing t ot h eB eake rP henomenon i ng ene ra l , Ip e r ce ive a sa d ef in i t ive ,n a tu r a ld eve lopmen ta nd a no u tg row th o fw ha tc ou ld b ec a l led : ap er iod o f t he a ppearance o f t he f i r s t s er ious ma ter ia l s urp lus . T hus i tc ons t i tu te s a nd make sp o s s ib le t h ef i r s tc l ea rs t ra t i f ica t ion o fs o c ie ty i nw h ich w ea l th i nt h ef o rm o fp rope r ty a nd o t he rm a te r ia l p o s se s s ion s c ou ld b e a ccumu la ted , m a in ta ined a nd w e re man if e s ted . I ti st h e se m a te r ia lm an i f e s ta t ion st h a th ave o ccup ied t h e c u l tu re h i s to ry mode lf o rs ol o ng a nd w h ich c on t inue st op reoccupy mo s to fu si no ne w ay o r a no the r a nd t od i f f e ren t d eg ree s . S o i ti sn o t o n t h e b a s i s o fa r te f ac t e v idence a l one b u tc h rono log ica l , s o c ia l , e conom ic a nd t e chno log ica lf ounda t ion sf o rw h ich my a r gumen ti sf undamen ta l ly o f f e r ed . Id o h oweve r b e l ieve t h a t t h e o u tcome o f s uch p ro spe r i ty a nd t h e a dvan tage s i t o f f e red t oC oppe ra nd E a r ly B ronze A ge m an w e r et h a to ft h eg r adua ld eve lopm en t o f n ew s oc ia l a nd e conom ic s t a tu s a nd d i f f e ren t ia t ion t h a t m an if e s ted i t se lf b y d eg ree s a nd i nn ume rous w ay s f r om f o rme r t ime s ; d epend ing o n t h e i nd iv idua l r e spon se s t oi t s b a ckg round , t h e i mmed ia te l o ca le , t h e l a rge rg eog raph ic a r ea , t h e e nv i ronmen ta nd r e sou r ce sw i th in w h ich i tf ound i t se l f . I n s ho r t Ib e l ieve , t h a t r a the r t h an a c u l tu re i n a n e xp l ic i t s en se , t h e B eaker c omp l ex t oh ave b een as oc ia l a nd e conom ic d i f f e ren t ia t ion t h roughou tm any l o ca l c u l tu res w h ich b yd eg r ee s ,d epend ing o n t h er eg ion , e me rged o u to ft h ep reced ing N eo l i th ic s oc ie t ie s . . . a nd c on t inu ing i n to t h ef u l lB ronze A ge ;a l though i n co rpo ra t ing a nd m a in ta in ing m any o ft h ec ha ra c te r i s t ic so ft h ee a r l ie rp e r iod . T he d i f f e r en t ia t ion c an b e e xp la ined i nt e rm s o ft h e d eve lopmen t o f n ew t e chno logy a nd t h e d i r ec t

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O xf ord I n t e rna t iona lW e s t e rn Med i t e r ranean B e l lB eak e rC on f e r ence

r e su l t s o fs u rp lu s , l a nded p roper ty a nd t h ep r iv i lege s s u ch o ppo r tun i ty o f f e r ed . I n many i n s tance s ,i fn o t a l l , Ib e l ieve t h a ts uch p r iv i lege o nm any o cca s ion sf o s te r ed t h e a ppea rance o fe l i te s w i th in t ho se v a r iou sr eg ions a ss ugge s ted i nt h e S FO -OS s i te : e . g . c on t ra ry t ot h e f i nd ing s o fB a rf ie ld i nI t a ly ( s ee t h i s p ub l ica t ion ) . Ia l so b e l ieve t h a t i n many c a se s t h e se e conom ic c once rns mo t iva ted m ig ra t ion a nd i mm ig ra t ion ( movemen t so fp eop le sf r om p l a ce t op l a ce ) . Ia l so b e l ieve ,a l ong s uch l i ne s , t h a t t h e e x ten t o fd eve lopmen t s i nt h ese s oc ie t ie s v a r ied ag r ea t d ea l f r om g eog raph ic a r ea t o g eog raph ic a r ea t h roughou t t h e f u l l l e ng th o f t h e p e r iod , t r an s i t iona l ly u nde rgo ing p e r iod ic p ro spe r i ty a nd r e ce s s ion . T he l a ck o f ac l o se r c ons ide ra t ion o f s uch v ar ian t f a c to r s a nd c ond i t ion s , u n t i l n ow , h ave r e su l ted i n a nd a r e r e spon s ib le f o r , Ib e l ieve , many o f t h e e x i s t ing d i f f icu l t ie s o fi n te rp re ta t ion a sw e l l a st h a to ff a u l ty n omenc la tu re i ng ene ra l . T he c r ux o f many a r gumen t s ( e .g .t h ep r e sen tT opp - Wa ld r en a r gum en t s )r e ly ing o ns u ch f ounda t ion sa st h el a ck o rp r e sence o fs ome e x io t i ca r t e f a c tt h a tm ay o rm ay n o th ave s u rv ived t h er avage so ft ime ,o rr e a ch d own t h rough a l l s t ra ta o fs o c ie ty t ot h ev e ry p oo r e s t . Much l e s sc on s ide r a t ion i sg i ven t ot h eq ue s t ion sa st ow he the ro rn o t ap o t f orm m ay b ef r om g eog r aph ic a r ea t og eog r aph ic a r ea i s am a t t e ro fs t y le ( c apr ice ) o rf unc t ion ( need ) . T he se a r e f a c to r s a nd c ond i t ion s , b eg inn ing t oe nd , t h a t a st h ey s t and a tp re sen t e i the ri gno red o r l i t t le c on s ide red make c l o se a g reemen t o n p o in t s o fc on ten t ion , i n te rp re ta t ion a nd a s se s smen t a mong i n ve s t iga to r s a st ot h e s o c ia l , e conom ic a nd o the rr e la t ion sh ips t h a t a c tua l ly e x i s ted b e tween w ide ly d i spe r sed , o re ven c l o se ly r e la ted s e t t lemen tg roup s ,d i f f icu l ti fn o ta l toge the ri mpo s s ib le .T he f a c tr ema in st h a t i nm any a spec t s w e a l so h ave b een s t r iv ing t oa r r ive a ts ome s i ng l e e xp lana t ion w h ich w i l l g ene ra l ly d e f ine t h e p henomenon o ve r aw ide t empo ra l a nd s pa t ia l p e r spe c t ive f u r the rc ompl i ca t e sm a t te r s ; s i gn if i can t ly a dd ing t ot h e s ed i ff i cu l t ie s . I na l le ven t s , Ib e l ieve t h a tt h i st r an s i t iona lp e r iod o ft h eC oppe rA ge ,a nd e spec ialy t h e B e l l B eake r c omp lex s ynonymous w i th i t . . . . w a s b y a l l i nd ica t ions o f c on s ide rab le c h rono log ica l d u ra t ion ; at ime d u r ing w h ich m e ta l w o rk ing a nd n ew t e chno logy a nd e xpe r ience i nt h ep roduc t ion o fs ub s i s tence o u tpu to ccu r red ; at ime f o r w h ich i n c rea s ing d emog raph ic c on s ide ra t ion s a nd movemen t s ( m ig ra t ion a nd •i mm ig ra t ion ) o f p eop le , i n s ma l l n umbe r s o r i n l a rge r g roups , s t imu la t ing t e chno log ica li n te rexchange a nd ap e r iod o fg r ea tv a r iab il i ty , m u s ta l so b em ade . Whe the ro r n o t i tc an b e g ene ra l ly a ccep ted t h a t t h e C oppe r A ge a l so i n c luded a s pec if ic p e r iod o ft ime i nw h ich a n a c ce le ra ted a nd a c tua lc oncen t ra ted i n te re s ti n , a s w e l l a s w ide s p read p ro spec t ion f o r , r aw m a ter ia ls t o ok p l ace , Ip e r sona l ly b e l ieve t h a ts uch ap e r iod o ft ime d i de x i s t .A l though ,t h eq ue s t ion i ss t i l ln o ta sy e t a mp ly e nough d e l inea ted , a nd c e r ta in ly w ou ld h ave v a r ied i ni n ten s i ty o fa c t iv i ty f r om g eog raph ic z one t og eog r aph ic z one , d epend ing o n n a tu ra lr e sou r ce s . I ta l so s eem s l o g ica l t o a s sume t h a t s uch a p er iod o f p ro spec t ion w ou ld h ave b een i n co rpo ra ted a l ong s i de t h ee ver yday n eed so fe f f ec t ive o rs u cce s sf u la n ima l , l a nd a nd w a te r m anagemen t . I n r e a l i ty , t h i s l a t te r q ues t ion o f s ub s i s tence e conomy , b e ing b o th e s sen t ia la nd o fp r io r i ty ,w ou ld h ave b een c e r ta in ly ad ay b yd ay c once rn o ve r a ny u rgen t q ue s t f o r a nd e xp lo i ta t ion o f r aw ma te r ia ls . T he refo re , t h e m a in tenance a nd a s su r ance o fs u ch s ub s i s tence l e ve l sa sw e l la st h ea c cumu la t ion o f s u rp lu sb e ing d ependen to na nd r e su l t ing i na dd i t iona l s o c ia ls t ruc tu r ing .T he r i se o f s pec ia l isa t ion a nd s pec ia l i s t i nt h e v a r ious f i e ld s o fl a nd , c rop , a n ima l a nd w a te r

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m anagemen t , a s w e l l a s o the r t e chno log ica l b reak th roughs a r e , t h e refo r e , a l so a ccep tab le a sh av ing b een a n i n c r ea s ing a nd n a tu ra l o u tg row th o fb o th p ro spe r i ty a nd e xpe r t i se d u r ing t h i sp e r iod ( Copp e r /Ea r ly B ronze A ge ) . A tt h e s ame t ime , c er ta in ly , a tt h e b e s t o ft ime s a nd o n ly o n r a re o cca s ion s c ou ld l a rge n umbe r s i nd iv idua ls h ave b een i n vo lved i nt h e q ue s t o fr aw m a te r ia l s a nd e xc lu s ive p roduc t ion o fp re s t ige i t em s , s uch a sm e ta l g ood s a nd f i ne p o t te ry ( e .g . L o sM i l la r e se t c . ) H ence , t h ea ccumu la t ion o fw ea l th e xc lu s ive ly f r om t h i sq ua r t e r a l one w ou ld h ave b een l im i ted t o t ho se g eog raph ica l a r ea s w i th a mp le n a tu ra l r e sou r ce s . B e s ide s mo s to ft h e se l a t te rt e chno log i ca lo ccupa t ion sp robab ly s t a r t ed a s h ome i ndus t r ie s a nd c on t inued a s s uch i n s ome r eg ion s i n to al a te d a te . O the r s u cce s sfu l i nd iv idua l s l i ke a g r icu l tu r i s t s w e re e qua l ly c apab le , i fn o t mo re s o , o f a ma s s ing w ea l th i na r ea sw i th l ow y i e ld o fs u ch r aw m a te r ia l sa so r er e sou r ce sa nd a s ar e su l t s t imu la te t r ade f l ow a nd i n c rea se i nt h e a qu i s i t ion o f s t a tu s p roduc t s p r inc ipa l ly o n t h eb a s i so fs ub s i s tence c ommod i t ie s , s uch a sf ood s t u f f s , h i de sa nd o t he r p roduc t s , wh ich p roduc t ive s pec ia l i s t s r equ i red . S uch s i te s ( agr icu l tura l p roduc t ion i s t s ) c e r ta in ly o u tn umbe rt h o se n a tu ra l ly r i ch i nr aw m a te r ia l s Ic on s ide rt h a tw ha tw ea r ea bou tt oo b se rve i nt h eq ue s t ion o ft h eF e r rande l l -O leza P re ta layo t ic C oppe r A ge O ld S e t t lemen t , i t s ma te r ia l e v idence a nd c h ronome t r ic d e l inea t ion sa r ee xemp la ry a nd amode l ( a l though a dm i t ted ly as ma l lo ne )o ft h e se c oncep t s , c on s ide r a t ion s a nd a spec t s w h ich Id ef ine a s aB a lear ic B ranch o f t h e European B eaker C omp lex . H oweve rb efo re t h ee v idence i ns uppo r to fs u ch aB a lea r ic B ranch o ft h eE u ropean B eak e rC omp lex i sp r e sen ted , af ew s t a tem en t sc once rn ing t h eo l de ra rg umen t sa nd i d ea s o fP eop l e sa nd C u l tur e s h ave t ob em ade . I ti sn od oub t s t a t ing t h e o bv iou s , t os ay , b u ti th a s mor ef r equen t l y b een t h e ( s pec ia l i s t s? ) i nd iv idua l s o f ag r oup o r s o c ie ty w ho h ave b een t h e mo s t i n s t rumen ta l i n s e t t ing l i f e -s ty le s a nd w ay s o f p roduc ing t h ing s i n d emand ; t h e p hys ica l m an i f e s ta t ions t h a t w e a rden t ly a nd l a bou rou s ly s t udy ; a nd w h ich w e i n te rp re ted a nd d ef ine a cco rd ing t oC h i lde a nd o t he rs ou r ce s ( s ee q uo ta t ion s a bove ) a sp eop le ( s ) a nd c u l tu re ( s ) . T he re fo r e , i fw e c an a c cep tc u l tu ra lc oncep t sa so ccu r r ing o na ny l e ve la ta la l ong t h e se c onven t iona l l i ne s ,w e mu s ta ccep tt h a ti tw a si n d iv idua l se n sconced i n as o c ia la nd c u l tu ra lg r oup t h a tc r ea ted , c i r cu la ted a nd m a in ta ined t h ep hys ica lm an if e s ta t ion sw h ich w e h ave c ome t oi d en t ify a nd r e f e rt oa sB eake rp roduc t s o ro t he rc u l tu ra l h and le i no r ig in ; a nd t h a t t h e a b i l i t ie s a nd r e sou rce s o ft h e se i nd iv idua l s v a r ied t og r ea te ro rl e s se r d eg ree f r om g eog raph ic a r ea t og eog raph ic a r ea a nd i nt h e v a ry ing t e chno log ica l f i e ld s . A nd i nt u rn , t h es t udy o ft h e se r equ i re t h a tw er e la te t h em - b e ing B eake ro r o t he rw i se ly n amed - t ot h ed i f f e r en tc on tempo ra ry l o ca lg eog raph i c a r ea s ,a sw e l la s o t he r z one s o fd i s t r ibu t ion f a r the r a f i e ld i nw h ich t h ey a ppea r a sb e ing s im i la ro r c on tempo ra ry . R ega rd le s s o ft h e s t ance w e t a ke i nt h e B eake r a r gumen t o rh ow w e d ef ine i t ,w e c anno td eny t h ef a c tt h a tt h e se p roduc t sw e re r e a l i sed b yi nd iv idua l sw ho w e re p a r t o f i nd iv idua l s oc ia lg roups w i th f o rme rb ackground s ; b ackg round s c e r ta in ly , d i f f e r ing w i th v a ry ing i n ten s i t ie sa nd i nf luence sa sw e l la sg eog r aph ic s u r round ing s . C e r ta in ly u nde rt h ec i r cum s tance s ,w ec an e xpec tt h ee nd p roduc t sa nd t h er e su l to f s u ch c ond i t ion s , t ov a ry c on s ide rab ly i ns t y le ,t e chn ique ,c ompo s i t ion a nd e mpha s i s o fi mpo r tance f r om g eog raph ic a r ea t og eog raph ic a r ea . T he e t hno log ica lr e co rd i s f u l lo fi n c idence sw he r ep o t te ry s t y le s ,d eco r a t ion s , mo t if sa nd p o t te ry s i gn i f icance s 1 4

O xf ord I n t e rna t iona lW e s t e rn Med i t e r ran ean B e l lB eak er C onf e r enc e

v a ry o ve rs ho r td i s tance s ,s u ch a sa na d jacen tt r ib e ,h av ing t o ta l ly d i f f e r en tm ean ing a nd s i gn if i cance ( e .g . A f r ican a nd N o r th Ame r ican a nd C en t ra l Ame r ican I nd ian T r ibe s , S hepa rd 1 965 ) . O ne n eed h ave o n ly as ma l l d eg r ee o ff i r s t h and i n fo rma t ion o r f am i l ia r i ty t ob e s t ruck b y t h e o u t s tand ing h omogene i ty o f t h e B a lea r ic w a re s ( i nc lud ing t h e B eg le i tkeram ik ) f r om s i te t os i te o n Ma l lo r ca . I n many a spec t s t h e s ame p o t te ry h omogene i ty e x i s t s f r om i s land t oi s land . T ha t s ame h omogene i ty t oa n a maz ing d eg ree e x i s t sf r om w i th in t h ea u tho r 's a r co fi mmed ia te i n f luence a sc an b ed ef ined t ot h ea d ja cen t Ma in land ( t h i sv o lum e ) . Id o n o t t h ink a nyone c an r e a sonab ly a r gue c once rn ing ac oncep t o f ap eop le o r s oc ie ty , made u p o fi nd iv idua l s ; r ega rd le s s o ft h e s i ze a nd i mpor tance o f s u ch a s oc ia l u n i t . P eop le w ho a r e , o f ten , i nd i s t inc t ive w ays a nd t od i f f e ren t d eg ree s s k i l led i nt h er e a l i sa t ion ( a s i nt h ec a se o ft h eB eake re l emen t s ) o fh i gh ly s t y l i sed a nd p e r sona l i sed w o rk s i n c l ay , s t one , b one o r m e ta l w h ich h ave ac u l tura l b ackground t h a t c an , d e sp i te o f ten s t rong p r ima ry s im i la r i t ie s , v a ry i nn uance c on s ide rab ly o ve re ven s ho r t d i s tance s f r om g eog raph ic a r ea t og eog raph ic a r ea , a nd t h a tw ep r eh i s to r ian s i n te rp re te a sb e ing B eake ro ro the rw i se i no r ig in ; s e t t ing o u r se lve su pa sj udge so ft h o se n uance s .A ga in ,t h i sp a r t icu la ra r gumen t ,b ecau se o f t h es t rong e l emen to fh omogene i ty , i na l l b u t o ne a r tef ac t , a pp l ie s l e ss t h an w ha t m igh tb ee xpec ted . Howeve r i n t h e f i na l a na ly s is , i tb o i l s d own t oh ow w e p e r sona l ly t h eo r i se a nd e nv is ion t h e se i nd iv idua l s t h rough t h e e v idence o ft h e p roduc t s t h ey c r ea ted a nd l i ved w i th , h e ld i ne s teem a nd h i gh ly v a lued a nd o f ten b u r ied w i th t h e i rd ead . I ti s t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e se p roduc t s a sm an if e s t ion s o fw ande r ing t i nke r s , t r ade r s , p ro spec to r s , e l i tes , w a r r io r s , t r an shuman t s hephe rd s , r evo lu t iona ry a g r icu l tu ra l is t s e t c .t h a th ave l e du st h rough t h ev a r iou sB eake rm e tamo rpho se so rt r an s fo rma t ion s . C on f ron ted b ys uch ab a r rage o fh ypo these s ,w h ich a ppea ra tt ime sl i ke aq uagm i re t o a ny mo re f o rwa rd a pp roach , i ti sl i t t le wonde r t h a t w e h ave d i f f icu l ty i n i d en t i fy ing , b y as e to fa r tef ac t s ,r e la t ive t ime p e r iod o ro t he rv i sua l o rn on -v i sua l r e su l t , t h a tw h ich m igh th ave b een ap eop le ( s ) ,c u l tu r e ( s ) ,c omp lex (e s ) ,p henom ena o r o the r a l te rna t ive . T he s e lec t ion o nce a ga in b o i l ing d own t op e r sona l c ho ice i n a cco rdance t oo u rf i nd ing sw i th in ap a r t icu la rg eog raph ic s phe r e . I te ven h a s b een s ugge s ted o f l a te t h a t w e d i spo se e n t i re ly t h e i d ea o f aB eake r C oncep to nt h eb a s i st h a tt h e r en eve rw a so ne i n i t ia l ly i nS pa in . " AB eake rc u l tu re d oe s n o te x i s t i nS pa in : i th a s o n ly e x i s ted d ue t ot y po logy a nd e x t reme m a te r ia l i sm . T oday ( 1 951 )o ne c an n eve rs peak o ft h eB eake ra s ac u l tu r e t h roughou t t h e I be r ian P en in su la . I ti sm e re ly a n a cc iden t d ue t o a gr icu l tu ra l e vo lu t ion i nS pa in a nd t ot h em e ta l lu rg ica lr e vo lu t ion " . ( S an ta O la l la 1 951 ) T he f i r s t p a r t o f t h e s ugge s t ion Ip e r sona l ly c anno t a ccep t , a s i ta ppea r s t o b e c los ing t he b arn d oor l ong a f ter t he h or se h as g one , s o t o s peak . A l though t h e re i s ag r ea td ea lo ft r u th i n much o ft h el a t te rp a r ta so ccu r r ing t h rough n a tu ra la genc ie so fe vo lu t ion o rr e vo lu t ion . A l though a ga in i nt e rm so fr e vo lu t ion a s ap o ss ib le p r ima ry c a ta lys to fc hange , p l ague , f am ine o rp ro spe r i ty i t se lf c ou ld i n t h em se lve sb ec a ta ly s t so fc hange t a k ing p l a ce s imu l taneou s ly i nd i f f e r en tt empo ra l

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W .H . Wa ld ren

a nd s pa t ia l s phe re s . We mus t d ea l l o g ica l ly a nd h one s t ly w i th t h e t e rm ino log ica l l im i ta t ion s t h a t a r e s o w e l l e n t renched i nt h e w r i t ten l i t e ra tu re I na l l e ven t s , a r ose b y a ny o ther n ame w ou ld s me l l a s s wee t . I ti sh oweve ro fs ome i mpo r tance t h a tw e t r yt oc on so l ida te e x is t ing e v idence a nd t h eo r ie si n to s ome p r em i se o rp e r spec t ive t h a ti si mmed ia te ly mo r em anageab le a nd o rgan ic i ns ome r e spec t st h an h a sb een d one s of a r . T h i si ss ay ,t h a tw h i le w eh ave t o c omm i t o u r se lve s i n mo re d i rec t t e rm s t ow ha t e ach o fu s m ean s b y B eake r c u l tu re , i t s a r tef ac t s , a s semb lage s , a nd c h rono log ica l d e l inea t ion s e t c , i ti sa l so n ece s sa ry t oa t temp tt ol i f tt h el e ve lo fa r gumen ta bove t h a to ft h ep ro sa nd c on so f a ny s i ng le l o ca l a r gumen tf o rt h ep re sence o rn on -p re sence o fw ha t w e e ach o fu s c a l lt h eB e l lB eake rp henomenon i na na t t emp tt or e la te i tf a r the ra f ie ld . T h is h a s b een t h e ma in p u rpo se o f t h i s We s te rn Med i te r ranean B e l l B eake r C onf e rence . I nt h a tt h eB eake rp rob lem o fi n te rp re ta t ion ,d ef in i t ion a nd d i spe r s ion a si te x i s t si nt h eB a lea r ics a nd t h eP i t iu ssea a ppea r st ob et y p ica la nd t h es ame t ime d i agno s t ic o fw ha t e x i s t s i no the r a r ea s o f t h e c on t inen t . T he re i s ar e s t le s sne s s a f oo t . I ti se spec ia l ly e ncou rag ing w hen t h e p rob lem s a st h ey e x i s t i n ah i the r to t r ea ted b ackwa te r r eg ion o f We s tern Med i te r ranean E u rope , r ea r s i n i mpo r tance t o e xemp l ify t h e i lne s s e x i s t ing u n ive r sa l ly . A s Ib e l ieve w i l l b e d emon s t ra ted , w i th t h er e cen t eme rgence o f ar ema rkab le f und o fB a lea r ic C oppe rA ge e v idence ,d a ta a nd i n fo rma t ion f r om t h e se i s land s p re sen ted i n t h e a u tho r 's a nd o the r p ape r s e v idence i n t h e f o rm o f e x tens ive r ad ioca rbon d a ta , a r ch i tec tu ra l , a r tef ac t a nd t e chno log ica le v iden ce ,t h e re i sa ne xamp le o rg round f o rr e th ink ing o n aw ide rt h an i n su la rs c a le . Mo re e xa c t ing a nd o na no the rl e ve l ,i fn o th ing e l se r e su l t sf r om t h i sc onf e r en ce o t he r t h an t h a te ach o fu s ,i sf o r ced t oc l a r if y ,e va lua te -pe rhap se ven r eva lua te - a sb e s tw e c an t oo u r se lves , o u r c o l league s a nd t h e s c ien t if ic a nd a cadem ic c ommun i ty i n g ene r a lw ha tw e ,p e r sona l ly ,i n te rp re ta st h ep r eh i s to r ic t ime p e r iod a nd t h em ean ing o ft h ea r t ef ac t sa nd o t he r man if e s ta t ion st h a tr e p r e sen t si ti no u rg eog r aph ic a r ea so f r e sea rch , t h e e f fo r t a nd t ime p u t i n to t h e O IWMBBC w i l l h ave b een w e l l s pen t . H ope fu l ly , t h i s c an b e d one ; t r y ing t ow iden n a r row p o in t s o fv i ew a nd r educ ing t h o se g rando i se o ne sw he reve rt h ey e x i s t . I no rde rt od o s o , h oweve r , w e mu s t a s se s s a nd i n te rp r e t t h ee v idence i nt h e mo s t d i r ec tt e rm sp o s s ib le ; i nt h ec ou r se ,f o rmu la t ing aw o rk ing h ypo the se so rf r amewo rk o f s ome s o r t . F o r Ib e l ieve i tw a s C h i lde h im se lf w ho t owa rd t h e e nd o fh i s l i f e r ema rked t h a t i tw a s n ece ssa ry t o f o rmu la te h ypo the se a nd c h rono log ica l f r amewo rk s f o r p reh is to ry ; o t he rw i se a l l i sc hao s e ven i ft hose f ramework s a re l a ter p roven w rong . We mu s t d o t h i s ( I mus t d o t h i s i nt h e my o wn i n su la r a r ea ) e ven - i fi ti so n ly i nt h e e nd af o rm o fi n te l lec tua le xe r c i se c a r r ied o u ti no u r o wn p a r t icu la rg eog r aph ic z one st os t imu la te i d ea sc oncer n ing t h eB eake r c omp lex o rp henomenon a nd d i s tr ibu t ion i ng ene ra l . A t t h e s ame t ime - a par t f r om t h e s t ra igh t fo r th r e co rd ing o f s uch p e r sona l e xper ience s , o b se rva t ions a nd i d ea s a s r e f e r ence i np r in ted f o rm - s uch p e r sona l e xp lana t ions c ou ld r e su l t i nt h e r e ca s t ing o f t h e b e t te r p a r t s o f s ome o f t h e o l d

1 6

O xf ord I n t e rna t iona lW e s t e rn Med i t e r ranean B e l lB eak e rC onf e r ence

h ypo the se sa nd e xp lana t ion si n to c l ea r e rf o rma t sf r om w h ich n ew b eg inn ing sm igh t o ccu re i the rl o ca l ly o rf u r the ra f ie ld . .

1 7

R ef erences *****

C h i lde ,V .G . , 1 905 . P i ec ing T oge the rt h eP a s t ,R ou t l edge a nd K egan P au lL t s . L ondon . C h i lde ,V .G . , 1 957 . T he Dawn o fE uropean C iv i l i sa t ion . 6 t he d . R ou t ledge a nd K egan P au l . L ondon . G i lman ,A . , 1 981 ' T he D eve lopmen to fS oc ia lS t ra t if i ca t ion i nB ronze A ge E u rope ' , C ur ren tA n thropo logy 2 2 ,p p . 1 69 -224 . H a r r i son , R .J . 1 974 . ' O r ig in o ft h e B e l l B eake r C u l tu re s ' . A n t iqu i ty , L ondon , p p . 9 9 -109 . H a r r i son , R .J . . , 1 980 . T he B eake rF o lk . C oppe rA ge A rchaeo logy i n We s te rn E u rope ,T hame sa nd Hud son , L ondon . L am ing , J .N . a nd v an d e r Waa l s , J .D . ( e d s ) , 1 976 . G lock enbecher sympo s ion . O be r re id 1 974 ,B u s sum ,H aa r lem . Ma r t inez S an ta O la l la , J . , 1 951 . I n t h ed i scu s s ion a f te r Wu r s tmache r 's p ape r , ' Un M6 todo d eT raba jo A p l icado a lE s tud io d e lV a so C ampan ifo rme e n E spar ia ' . IC ongre so N ac iona ld eA rqueo log ia , Mad r id .p .1 33 . S angme i s te r ,E . , 1 963 . ' L aC iv i l i sa t ion d uV a se C ampan ifo rme ' ,A c t e sd uP rem iere C o l loque A t lan t ique ,B re s t , 1 96 1 ,L abo ra to i re d 'A n th ropo log ie P reh i s to r ique , R enne s . S hennan , S . , 1 976 . S ome C ommen t s o n t h e E u ropean E v idence . S e t t lemen t a nd E conomy i n t h e T h ird a nd S econd M i l lenn ia B .C . ( ed s . C o l in B u rge ss a nd R oge r M ike t ) . B r i t i sh A r chaeo log ica l R epo r t 3 3 , p p . 3 24 -26 .

Fur ther C ons id era t ions o f t he B eaker P henomenon /Prob lem E spec ia l ly I n R e la t ion t o Wares o f t he B a lear ic A rch ipe lago . **********

Ms . C e c il ia T opp

I f t h e w o rd p henomenon i s h e re u sed i n i t s o r ig ina l m ean ing o fa t h ing p erce ived t h en i to bv ious ly c an c o r rec t ly b e a pp l ied t o B eake r s s i nce t h ey a r e n umbe red i n h und reds a nd c ons t i tu te i ndeed , t o q uo te T he C onc i se Oxf ord D ic t ionar y " immed ia te o b jec t so fp ercep t ion" . B u t t h i s w r i te rc on s ide r s t h e w o rd p rob lem a s af a r mo re a p t a pp l ica t ion t ot h e w a re s u nde r d i scu s s ion . A s t ime a dvance sa nd c oncep t ion sa l te rt h ei d ea o fb o th aB eake rF o lk a nd aB eake rc u l tu r e p er s eh a s a l ready l o s t many a dhe ren t s . T oq uo te C o l in B u rge s s ( 1975 ,p .3 09 ) : " Seve ra lr e cen tw r i te r sh ave w o r r ied t h a tb eake r si nn os en se s a t i s fy t h ec r i te r ia t h a t d eno te ac u l tu re i nC h i lde 's o r ig ina ls e n se " . H ec on t inue s , q uo t ing S hennan , " Beake r s a sa n a l te rna t ive h ypo the s i s , w ou ld n ow b e s e en a s s ome th ing e x t ra -cu l tu ra l " -i . e . t he B eaker p ackage . C once rn ing b eake r s , R oge r Me rce r ( 1977 , p . 1 3 ) a p t ly n o te s " t h e r egu la r a s so c ia t ion o ft h e p o t te ry w i th ac on s i s ten t ( t h i s w r i te r 's empha s i s ) g roup o fo t he r n on -ce ram ic a r t e f a c t s " . A nd i nt h es ame v o lume B ar f ie ld ( 1977 ,p .2 7 ) , w r i t ing o f T he B eaker C u l tur e i n I t a ly , wonde r s : " how f a ri tr ep re sen t s a n a s semb lage a cqu i red b y , a nd i n teg ra ted w i th , i n d igenou s L a te N eo l i th ic a nd C oppe r A ge g roup s r ema ins o ne o f t h e mo s t c on t rove r s ia l q ue s t ions " Go rdon C h i lde , ( 1 956 ,p .1 6 )i nh i s s o -o f ten -s ince r e pea ted w o rd s ,d ef ine s ac u l tu re a s : " ar e cu r ren ta s semb lage o fa r chaeo log ica lt y pe s a l lt y pe st h u sa s so c ia t ed s hou ld t h en h ave t h e s ame c h rono log ica lc o -o rd ina te B u tr e pea ted a s soc ia t ion sr equ i r e n ol e s st h a tt h ey s ha l lb eu sed b yt h es ame s o c ie ty ,t h a ti sb yp e r son si n sp i red b yt h e s ame c ommon t r ad i t ion o f wood -wo rk ing ,f i gh t ing ,d r e s s ,d om e s t ic a r ch i t ec tu r ea nd b ur ia l r i te s . T ha t mus t b e w hy a l l c on s t i tuen t i t em s o f ac u l tu re b ea r t h e s ame c h rono log ica lc o -o rd ina t e " .

1 9

C .T opp

T he P engu in D ic t ionary o fA rchaeo logy ( 1972 ,

P .

6 8 ) f u r the r a dds :

" I fa na s semb lage r e cu r sc on s i s ten t ly o ve r ar e s t r ic ted a r ea a nd w i th in ag i ven p e r iod ( i . e . h a sl im i ted d i s t r ibu t ions i ns pa ce a nd t ime )i ti sd esc r ibed a s ac u l tu re a nd t a ken t ob e c ha rac ter is t ic o f ap a r t icu la r h uman s oc ie ty C u l tu re s a r e t h e b r ick s o f w h ich P reh is to ry i sb u i l ta nd i tmu s tb ec onceded t h a tt h eb r ick sa r en o ta ss ound a s c ou ld b ew ished ." S ince B eake r s a r ed i spe r sed f r om P o land t oP or tuga l ; s i nce t h ey d o n o tc ons is t o f a s semb lage so fs im i la ro b jec t s , n e i the ra r et h ey a s soc ia ted w i th p e r son si n sp i red b y t h e s ame c ommon t r ad i t ions e t c . , n o r w i th p eop le p rac t is ing t h e s ame s pec if ic a c t iv i ty ,t h ey a ppea ru nab le t oc omp ly w i th C h i lde 's d ef in i t ion o f ac u l tu r e . T he f a c ti su nden iab le t h a tt h et ime -span o ft h e se v e s se ls i so fl o ng d u r a t ion a nd a l so o f w ide d i s t r ibu t ion a nd t hey l a ck b o th c hrono log ica l a nd c hrono log ica l c onco rdance ,t h us f a i l ing t of u lf i l ly e tf u r the rc r i te r ia o ft h eC h i ldean c oncep t ion o fa c u l tu re s ensu s t r ic to . I t mus ta l so a lway s b e b o rne i nm ind t h a tt h e l o ng -accep ted e qua t ion o ft h el i nk b e tween b eake r sa nd m e ta l lu rg ica la c t iv i t ie sh a sb een d i sp roved n o to n ly a tt h e B a lea r ic s i te o fS on Me rce rd e B a ix i n Meno r ca b u ta l so i nv a r iou s o the r s i n S pa in a nd F rance , e . g . E l P e rche l , t oq uo te b u t as i ng le i n s tance o ft h e d i cho tomy e x i s t ing a l so o nt h e ma in land . I nt h eB a lea r ic a r ch ipe lago w he re t h is w r i te rh a s wo rked f o ro ve rt h ep a s tt e ny ea r s , n ot r ue b eake rh a se ve ra ppea red . B ow ls o fo u ra ccep ted i n c ised w a re o fc l a s se sA a nd B , w r i s tgua rd s , vp er fo ra ted b u t tons ( u sua l ly o fl a te t y po logy ) , a w l s o fb one , c oppe ra nd b ronze , c ruc ib les , p l a in o ri n c ised -a sa tS on Me rcer d e B a ix a nd S on Ma tge -a l l i t em s o f t h e B eake r p ackage -h ave o ccu r red o n many s i tes i n t h e B a lea r ics . B u t w here a r e t h e t a nged a nd b a rbed f l in t a r rowhead s , c ons ide red i n B r i t tany , t h e B r i t ish I s le s ( Brad ley a nd H a r t , 1 983 , p . 1 88 -" i t i sa ppa ren t t h a t b a rbed a nd t a nged a r rowhead sf i r s te me rge w i th t h ea dop t ion o fb eake r s " ) ,a nd o t he r l o ca t ions a sa ni n teg ra lf e a tu r eo ft h eB eake rc u l tu re? Whe re a r et h et yp ica lt a nged c opper d agge r s? Whe re , a bove a l l , a r e t h e b eake r s t h em se lves? D r . Wa ld ren 's d e l igh tfu l f r on t isp iece o f h i s Ma l lorcan O lez ian B e l l B eaker A ssemb lage ( Ba lea r ic B eaker Wa res , 1 985 ) i s mo re r em in iscen t o f an ine teen th c en tu ry i lu s t ra t ion t h an o f ar e a l i ty i nt h et wen t ie th a nd h a so cca s ioned s ome l i f ted e yeb row s a nd s c ep t ica ls m i le sa mong l o ca lw o rke r si nt h ef i e ld o fB a lea r ic a r chaeo logy . O u rs uppo sed ( by D r . Wa ld ren ) t wo m inu te b eake rs he rd sf r om C an aC o s ta ,b yo u r r e ckon ing b e long ing t oR os se l lö -Bo rdoy 's i n c ised w a re s o fc l a ss A , h ave a so n ly p o ss ib le b eake r s a s soc ia t ions , t h i r teen v p e rfo ra ted b u t tons o f l a te t ype a nd a f r agmen ta ry w he t s tone o rw r i s tgua rd w i th t h r ee p e r fo ra t ion s . T he Meno r can i n c i sed w a res o f c l ass B a r e i ndeed a s soc ia ted w i th me ta l lu rgy b u t a r e i nnocen t o f a ny B eake ra f f i l ia t ion . T he b eau t i fu lb l ack a nd b u rn ished w a r e so fc l a s s Af r om ac ave o nF o rmen te ra h ave n ov i s ib le a s soc ia t ion w i th a ny m e ta l . V e ry r e cen t ly a ni n c i sed s he rd o fs im i la rn a tu re , a sy e tu n s tud ied a nd u npub l i shed , h a s c ome f r om t h es ame c ave a nd p robab ly b e longs t o t h e s ame v esse l . T he a w l s o f a l l v a r ie t ie s a nd ma ter ia ls c on s t i tu te av e ry a nc ien t a nd l ong la s t ing f e a tu re o fp rac t ica l ly u n ive r sa l d i s t r ibu t ion . L ong a go Ma rga re t Sm i th ( 1953 , p . 1 03 ) r ema rked t h a t " Beake r s p a ssed a l ong a s f a sh ion d i rec ted " a nd B u rges s ( op . c i t . p .3 10 ) w hen h e s e e s b eake r s a sp ar to fa n

2 0

O xf ord I n t e rna t iona lW e s t e rn Med i t e r ranean B e l lB eak e rC onf e r ence

a r tef ac t a s semb lage r a the rt h an a s ac u l tu ra l a s semb lage p e rs e s ugge s t s t h a tt h ey m igh t " r ep resen t n o mo r e t h an af a sh ion " ; h e d raws av e ry i mp re s s ive a na logy b e tween t h eo ccu r r ence o fb eake r s a nd t h e 'sp read o ft h eb u t t -b eake r so ft h eG a l lo B e lg ic wo r ld b e tween t h ef i r s tc en tu ry B .C . a nd t h ef i r s tc en tu ry A .D . H ec ogen t ly a dd st h a tb eake r sc ou ld w e l lb er e ga rded a s ag loss o n e x i s t ing c ommun i t ies ( op c i t , p .3 14 ) ; o ra sj u s t a no ther v e s se l a nd s ugge s t s ( o p . c i t . p .3 19 ) t h a t t h ey w e r es ome th ing a cqu i red b yl o ca lc ommun i t ie sa nd n o tt h ep rope r ty o fi n t rude r s . I n f a c t , t h a t b eake r s w e re a b so rb ed i n to l o ca l t r ad i t ion s , n o t o n ly i nt h e i n s tance h e q uo te s , n ame ly C ahe r -Gu i l lamo re , C o . L ime r ick , b u t a l so o n c oun t le s s o the r E u ropean s i te s . " One s wa l low d oe s n o t m ake a s ummer " . B e fo re m any o f u s c an a ccep t D r . Wa ld ren 's , O lez ian B e l l B eaker A s semb lage a nd a l so h i s c oncep t ion o f T he B a lear ic P en tapar t i te D iv i s ion o f P reh i s tory ( B .A .R . , 1 986 ) many o the r s i te si nt ho se i s land s mu s tb el o ca ted a nd s c ien t if ica l ly e xcava ted i no rde rt op rove h i s a s se r t ion s . F o ri n s tance t h eh ab i ta t ion s i te o fC ap d eB e rbe r ia o nF o rmen te r aw he r ew o rk p roceed sa nnua l ly u nde rt h ed i rec t ion o fI b iza Mu seum a nd t h er e su l t s o fe a ch c ampa ign a r er e co rded a nd s e n tt ot h ec en t ra la u tho r i ty c on ce rned -w i l lh ave t ob et o ta l ly e xcava ted ,p l anned a nd p ub l i shed . I t sr e su l t sw i l lh ave t ob ec a re fu l ly c ompa red w i th t ho se f r om S on F e r rande l l -O leza b e fo re a ny s udden a nd s omewha t d ogma t ic c onc lu s ion s ,a sw e l la s an ew n omenc la tu r e ,b ea c cep t ed b yo t he rw o rke r s i nt h es ame f i e ld . E ven s o ,t wo o rt h r ee s wa l low sm ay n o tp rov ide s u ff i c ien tp roo ft os ub s tan t ia te D r . Wa ld ren 's a s se r t ion o ft h e e x i s tence o fa n i n t ru s ive B eake rc u l tu re i nt h e B a lea r ic a r ch ipe lago . Many mo r ey ea r so fh a rd w o rk a nd p a t ien te xcava t ion o fo t he rh ab i ta t s o ft h e s ame p e r iod m ay s o lve t h e c on t inuou s p rob lem o fi n c i sed v e r su s s uppo sed B eake rw a r es i nt h e se i s land s . B yt h en t h e r ei sa lway st h ep o s s ib i l i ty t h a tt h ev e ry c oncep t o f aB eake r c u l tu re m igh t n o l onge r p rove a ccep tab le t o f u tu re a r chaeo log i s t s . Wha t a tp r e sen tr un s a sH o ly Wr i t i nD eyä m ay w e l l n o tr e ce ive a pp rova l i n P a lma , Mahön , I b iza , Mad r id a nd B a rce lona . O n ly t h e f u tu re c an p rov ide t h e a n swe r a nd Wha t ' s t o c ome i ss t i l l u nsure -q u i v i vra , v erra !

2 1

B ib l iography ****** B a r f ie ld , L . , 1 977 . T he B eake rC u l tu r e i nI t a ly , i nR oge r Me r ce r( e d . ) B eak er si n B r i ta in a nd E urope. B .A .R . S upp lemen ta ry S e r ie s2 6 .P P . 2 7 -49 . B rad ley , R . a nd H un t , C . , 1 983 . P reh i s to r ic S e t t lemen ti nt h e P eak D i s t r ic t . P roc . P reh i s t . S oc . 4 9 , p p . 1 77 -93 . B u rge s s , C . , 1 976 . S e t t lemen t s a nd E conomy i nt h e T h ird a nd S econd M i l len ia B .C . ( e d s . C o l in B u rge s s a nd R oge rM ike t ) . B .A .R . 3 3 . C h i lde , V .G . , 1 956 . P iec ing T oge ther t h e P a s t , R ou t ledge a nd K egan P au l L t s . L ondon . Me r ce r , R . , 1 977 . B eak er s i nB r i ta in a nd E urope . ( e d . R oge r Me r ce r ) . B .A .R . S upp lemen ta ry S e r ie s2 6 . S hennan , S . , 1 976 . S ome C ommen t s o n t h e E u ropean E v idence . S e t t lemen t a nd E conomy i n t h e T h ird a nd S econd M i l lenn ia B .C . (ed s . C o l in B u rge ss a nd R oge rM ike t ) . B .A .R . 3 3 ,p p . 3 24 -26 . Sm i th , M . , 1 953 . I b e r ian B eake r s . P roc . P reh i s t . S oc . ,N ew S er ie s , V o l . X IX , P t . 1 ,p p . 9 5 -107 . Wa ld r en ,W . 1 985 . B a lear ic B eak er s War e s . DA MARC ,D eyä , Malo r ca . Wa ld ren , W . 1 986 . T he B a lear ic P en tapar t i te D iv i s ion o fP reh i s tory . B .A .R . I n ter na t iona lS e r ie s2 82 . No te : ( Af a r mo r ea mp le b i b l iog raphy i si n c luded i na na r t ic le o nt h e s ame s ub jec td ue t o a ppea ri n af u tu re n umb e ro ft h e B u l le t in o ft h e U n ive r s i ty o fL ondon I n s t i tu te o f A r chaeo logy . )

i E l S ign if icado d e l C ampan if orme d e C iempozue los *********

G e rman D e l ibe s

Ca sa v ez m e s i en to m ä si n cömodo , s egu r amen te p o rl ae x t rao rd ina r ia c omp le j idad d e l t ema yp o r l ap a rquedad d e l ai n fo rma c iön d i spon ib le , al ah o ra d e d ef in i rme s ob re e l s i gn if icado d e l V a so C ampan ifo rme . E n t odo c a so , r ehuyo d e p iano a bo rda r e lp rob lema d e lf enömeno c ampan if orme e n t o da s u e x ten s ion e u ropea , ya pena sm ev oy ap e rm i t i ri n s inua rc i er ta sc onv icc ione s eh i pö te s i s m in imamen te r a zonada s e n r e lac iön c on e se p a r t icu la r g rupo c ampan ifo rme d e l a Me se ta o C iempozue lo s , ac uya i d en t i f icac iön h ed ed i cado a l guno st r aba jo sa n te r io re s . D e l a s t umba s i nd iv idua le s C iempozue lo s , c omo l ad e V i l labuena d e l P uen te , e n Z amo ra , d i jo e lP ro f . Ma luque r d e Mo te s q ue c on s t i tu fan e ld i s t in t ivo d e u na c i v i l i zac i6n d e lB ronce A n t iguo c l a ramen te d e sconec tada d e lf enömeno m ega l i t ico d e l v a l le d e l D ue ro , l oc ua l d e te rm in6 q ue d u ran te t i empo s e i d en t i f ica se al o s i nhumados e n t a le s t umba s , q ue s e a compar iaban d e u n t i p ico a j ua r c e räm ico c on s t i tu ido p o rv a so ,c azue la yc uenco ,c on u ng rupo 6 t n ico , a j eno p o rc omp le to a l s u s t ra to i nd igena , q ue h ab r ia l egado muy p robab lemen te d esde e lo t ro l a do d e l P i reneo . A lguno s a pun tes d e a n t ropo log ia f i s ica , p o r l o d emä s d e d i scu t ib le f undamen to ,p a rec ian r a t if i ca re s ta i mp r e s iön . E n l aa c tua l idad s on v a r io s l o s i nd ic io s q ue n o s o b l iga r ar ep lan tea r e lc a rac te r n ovedo so d e l o c ampan ifo rme . V e rdade ramen te l a i mp lan tac iön d e l a t umba i nd iv idua l f r en te al ac o lec t iva d o lm6n ica p od r ia s e r t omada c omo u n a r gumen to f avo rab le a l a r up tu ra e n t re ambo s mundo s , p e ro n o e s meno s c i e r to q ue p rec isamen te e sa s f o sa s i nd iv idua le s q ue s i rv ie ron a Ma luque r p a ra d e f in i r C iempozue lo su n icamen te s ed o cumen tan e ns e c to r e sn oh o l lado sa n te r io rmen te p o r p ob la c ione s m ega lf t ica s , c omo l a s c amp ir ia s m e rd iona le s d e l D ue ro . E n z ona s d e mega l i tos , c a so d e l a s p en i l lanu ra s s a lman t ina s , e lC ampan ifo rme s e e ncuen t ra s i emp r ee s t r echamen te v i ncu lado e ne la spec to f une r a r io al o ss e pu lc ro sd o lm6n ico s , l oq ue p a rece s uge r i ra l guna c l a se d ec on t inu idad e n t re a mba s man if s ta c ione s . S ia e l lo s eu ne e ld e tale d eq ue e na l guno sy a c im ien to sd eh ab i tac iön d e li n te r io r ,c omo e lm ad r i ler io d eE lV en to r ro ,e x i s te an i ve ld el ac e rä rn ica s a lvo e nl oc once rn ien te , p o r s upue s to , al a s e spec ie s d eco rada s d e C iempozue lo s - c l a ra c on t inu idad p recampan i fo rme / campan i fo rme ,p a r ece n ece sa r io v a lo r a rl ah ip6 te s i si nd igen i s ta y d e l ae vo luc iön d e l a s p ob lac ione s l o ca les a l ah o ra d e e n ju ic ia r e l a u t6n t ico s i gn if icado d e lm undo d eC iempozue lo s . T odo e l lo n od ebe s upone r ,s i ne mba rgo ,n ega rt a jan temen te a l gun v i ncu lo f o räneo . L ac onex iön e s t i l i s t ica d el o sv a so sc ampan ifo rme sd el a Mese ta c on r e spec to al o s p i rena ico s od e l B a jo R ödano s en o s a n to ja i n con te s tab le . L a r e la t iva u n idad d e

2 3

G . D e l ib e s

e s t i lo s c e räm ico s , s i n emba rgo , n o s i rve p a ra v e r mä s d e e sa m e ra s im i l i tud d eco ra t iva ; an op e rm i te a s egu ra rl ae x i s t enc ia d eu nc on tac to c u l tu ra lr n ä sp ro f undo . R e f le ja t a n s o lo l ac o inc idenc ia e n muy p a r ec ido sg u s to s ,r e su l tando p r ema tu ro p o r e l momen to i n ten ta r e s tab lece r d önde b ro ta ron e spon täneamen te e sa s manb if e s tac ione s q ue h oy n o sp a recen t a n t i p ica s yd onde r e su l ta ron s imp lemen te a dop tada s . P o r ü l t imo , a unque l o s t e s t imon ios a rqueo l6g ico s s e an p oco s , n o p odemo s s u s t rae rno s al at e n tac iön d e u n c omen ta r io d e c a ra c te r s oc ia l e n r e lac iön c on l a s t umba sC iempozue lo s . N op a sa d e sape r c ib ida l ar i queza d e s u sa j ua rea a bundan te c e rä rn ica , c ob re h ab i tua l , o ro b a s tan te c omun , l oc ua l , ad e specho i n c lu so d e d e sconoce r o t ro s e n ter ra tn ien to s s egu ro s d e e s ta 6 poca , n o s i nduce ac r ee r q ue c o r re sponden au na e l i te . C omo r ef lex iön f i na l s ob re C iempozue lo s , ap a r t i r d e l o s d a to s a n tyer io re s , a r r ie sga r iamo s ad ec i r q ue l o s e l emen to s q ue h ab i tua lmen te h an s e rv ido p a ra s u d ef in ic iön a d ec i r q ue l o s e l emen to s q ue h ab i tua lmen te h an s e rv ido p a ra s u d ef in ic iön s on i nsuf ic ien tes c omo p ara p erf i lar p or s i s o los u na c iv i l izac iön . E l c ampan ifo rme a qu i s ip a rece h abe r s i do d e a l gun o do u n s imbo lo d e p od er . N o h ab r i a s i do , e n e s te s en t ido , t a n s 6 lo e lf 6 s i l -gu ia d e u na 6 po ca , s i no e lf ö s i ld eu nd e te r rn inado e s tamen te s o c ia le nu na e t apa muy c onc r e ta d e l aP r eh i s to r ia .

2 4

Ob serva t ions C oncern ing t he B eaker P henomenon ********** I .M . G ome sL i sboa At c e r ta in p o in t si nt ime a nd s pa ce , a r te f a c t sa ppea rt oh ave al i f eo ft h e i ro wn : w h i le s ome s e em t or ema in mo r eo rl e s sc on s tan ti nf o rm o ve rt ime ,o t he r ss e em t oc hange i na d rama t ic manne r , s ot h a tt h ey a ppea ra nd d i sappea rf r om t h e a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd i n s uch s hor te r p e r iod s o f t ime , i n s ha rp c on t rac t w i th t h e o the r c l a ss o f a r tef ac t s m en t ioned . T rad i t iona l ly , a r chaeo log i s t s h ave b een c once rned w i th c h rono logy a nd c on sequen t ly h ave f o cu sed t h e i ra t ten t ion o nt h o se a r te f a c t sw h ich l e nd t h em se lve st oa r e la t ive ly p rec ise c h rono log ica l d ef in i t ion , t h a t i s t ho se . wh ich a ppea r i n t h e a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd f o rr e la t ive ly s ho r tp e r iod so ft ime ,t h u sa low ing t h ea r chaeo log i s t t oc on s t ruc t ac h rono log ica ls e r ia t ion ,f o l low ing t h ee xamp le s e tb y Mon t e l iu s . T he B eake r p arapherne l ia f a l l s w i th in t h e l a s tc a tego ry ; b yv i r tue o ft h e i r s hape a nd d eco ra t ion t h ey a ppea rt ob r eak w i th t h e p a s t . Wh i le t h ey m ay h ave h ad ar e la t ive ly s ho r tt ime s pan ,t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o ft h ed i f f e r en tc omponen t so ft h ep a r apher ne l ia s p read f a ra nd w ide t h rough We s ter na nd C en t ra l E u rope i n ar e la t ive ly s hor tp e r iod o ft ime . Y e t , a se ven aq u ick c ompa r i son b e tween t h eb eake rv e s se l so ft h eB r i t i sh I s le s( C la rke 1 970 ) o n o ne h and a nd t h a to f We s ter nI b e r ia ( H a r r i son 1 977 ) , s how s , t h e re a r e w ide d i f f e r ence s a sr ega rd st h e s hape , f i e ld so fd eco r a t ion a nd d eco ra t ive mo t if sf o rt h et wo s e t s , s ot h a to ne m ay w onde r . Mo reove ra st h e t wo s t ud ie s q uo ted a bove s how , t h e r e • a r e a l so s i gn if ican tr eg iona l d i f f e r ence s w i th e ach s e t . Wi th I b e r ia , w i th w h ich Ia m c oncer ned ,t h ef e a tu re sw h ich c ha ra c te r i se t h eI b e r ian b eake r ss e em t oo we much t op r e e x i s t ing f o rm s ,e spec ia l ly t h a to fd eco r a t ion ( i nc i s ion a nd c omb ing ) . T he p ro to typ ic v e s se l sc ha r ac te r i s ing b o th f une r a ry a nd s e t t lemen tB eake r Wa re t h ough i n c lud ing B e l l B eake r Ma r i t ime Wave , e xc lude s AOC . I th oweve r i n c ludes m any d eco r a t ive c omb ina t ion sa nd d e s ign sw h ich a r ep a r t icu la rt ot h i sg eog r aph ica la r ea ,t h u s s ugge s t ing ad eg ree o fe mu la t ion c omb ined w i th l o ca l i n nova t ion , w he reby e x i s t ing d e s ign sa r ec omb ined w i th t h en ove lf o rm so fp o t te ry . T he d i f f e rence e ven b e tween t h e ma in s e t s , t h e B r i t i sh a nd t h e We s ter n I be r ian b eake r s , l e ad s o ne t o q ue s t ion t h e i r a ma lgama t ion i n to as i ng le c l a s s . When o ne c on s ide r s t h e m embe r sh ip o f o t he r i t em s o f t h e B eake r p a raphe rne l ia , w r is tgua rd s , vp er fo ra ted b u t tons , o n ly t om en t ion t h e mo s t w ide sp read i t em s , t h e c on t ra s tw iden s . A t ad e ta i led l e ve l ,w ha ti sa nd i sn o ti n c luded i na s soc ia t ion w i th t h e b eake rw a re v a r ie se no rmou s ly f r om p l ace t op l ace . E ven t h e mode o fd epo s i t ion v a r ie s : w h i l s ts ome a r ef ound i nd ome s t i co pen -a i rs i te so n ly a nd w he r en oo t he rt y pe so ft h e se

2 5

I .M . G ome sL i sboa

s i tes a r e k nown , o the r s a r e a s soc ia ted w i th f o r t if ied s e t t lemen t s w h ich c omp lemen t s ma l le r , u nfo r t if ied s i te s , a nd w h i ls t m ega l i th ic s t ruc tu re s a r e u sed i ns ome p a r t s o f We s te rn E u rope ( Br i t tany , M id i , We s ter nI b e r ia ) , t h e s i ng le f l a t g r ave s o rc i s t sa r et h e r u le f o rt h er e s to f We s te rn a nd C en t r a lE u rop e . T he c on ten t a nd c on tex t o f t h e B eake r p arapherne l ia t h rough E u rope i st h us t o o d ive r se t op e rm i tt h ei n f e r ence o ft h eu n i fo rm i sa t ion o fm ean ing a nd u se t h a ti si mp l ied b yt h eu se o fb eake r sa s ac r o s s -cu l tu r a lc h rono log ica lm a rke ri mp l ied b y many s t ud ie s ( Ha r r i son 1 978 ) . D raw ing t y po log ica l t r ee s o ft h e ma in t y pe s o fp o t s , t r ac ing t h e i r d e r iva t ion a nd u se t h e se a sr e if ica t ion o ft h e s ame t y pe o fs o c ie ty i sn o th ing b u t t h e s ub s t i tu t ion o fp o t sf o rs oc ia lr e la t ion s ; i ta s sume st h a tp o t so fv ague ly t h e s ame s hape a nd d eco ra t ion c an o n ly b eu sed b yo ne t y pe o fs oc ie ty . I nv i ew o ft h ev a r ia t ion o ft h e e v idence c once rn ing t h e a s so c ia t ion s a nd c on tex t o fb eake r w a re , s uch r e if ica t ion i s m i s lead ing a nd i na ny c a se l e ave st h em a in q ue s t ion o f ,w hy d oB eak e r sa ppea ri nm any l o ca t ion sw i th al o ca l i sed t a s t e ,u nan swe red . B eake r s a r e t h en as e t o f a r te f ac t s o fd i f f e ren t t ype s , t h e mo s t w ide sp read b e ing t h e d eco ra ted d r ink ing v e s se l s , w r i s tgua rd s , b u t tons a nd w i th l e s s u n ifo rm i ty , p e r sona l w eapons . T he e v idence t ha t l e nd s i t se lf a s c h rono log ica l ma rke r s f o r t h e c ha rac te r i sa t ion o ft h eB eake rp e r iod i s ,t h ough d i s t inc tb yt h e i rf o rma lp rope r t ie s( f o rm , m a te r ia l ,d eco ra t ion ,f i n i sh ) ,r e p r e sen t s as mal p a r to ft h eo ve ra l la r t e f ac tua le v idence i n l i v ing s i te s . T he i r c on tex t o f d epo s i t ion s how s h oweve r t h a t t h ey mu s t h ave b een i mpo r tan t s i nce t h ey a r ea s so c ia ted i nt h e i rf i ne s tf o rm w i th f une ra ry c on tex ta nd h i gh r ank ing s e t t lemen t s ,w he r et h e se e x i s t ,a nd e mu la ted i nt h el e s se rd ome s t ic c on t ex t s . T h i s a ppa ren t a s so c ia t ion o ff i ne b eake r s w i th ma jo r c on tex t s s hows t h a t t h ey w e re g i ven much i mpo r tance b yt h o se w ho m anu f a c tu red a nd u sed t h em . I n We s ter nI b e r ia , t h e se c on tex t sr e la ted t o as ma l l , d i s t inc t , h i gh s t a tu s g roup a nd i ti sp o s s ib le t h a tt h i s a pp l ied e l sewhe re . T h i s f a c to r w ou ld e xp la in w hy t h e B eake r p a rapher ne l ia s p read r a p id ly t h roughou tE u rope : t h ee x i s tence o fe l i te sw ho t r y ing t od i s t ingu i sh t h em se lve s f r om t h er e s to ft h e i rs oc ia lg roup ,l e ad ing t ot h ep ro ce s so fi d en t if ica t ion w i th o u t s ide m embe r so fp ee rg roup sr a the rt h an i d en t if ica t ion w i th t h e i ro wn g roup ( Cohen 1 974 ) . Ma te r ia lg ood s ,w h i ch a r ep e r ce ived a sr e levan tt ot h o se i n t e r e s ted i nt h e man ipu la t ion o f t h e se a r te f a c t st oa s se r tt h e i rd i s t inc t ion ,a r et h u sa dop ted a nd u sed ,s ob ecom ing p a r to f a ne xc lu s ive f a sh ion . T he B eake rp arapherne l ia ,b yv i r tue o ft h e i rf o rma lc ha rac te r i s t ic s w e re d i s t inc tf r om t h e r e s t o f ma te r ia l c u l tu re a nd s o p rov ided a n o ppo r tun i ty f o r t h e a s se r t ion o f a s ub cu l tu r ew i th in as o c ia lg roup , as ubcu l tu re w h ich a s so c ia ted w i th o u t s ide r so fs im i la r r ank r a the rt h an t h er e s to ft h e i ro wn g eog r aph ica lg roup , mod i fy ing i ta cco rd ing t ot h e i r o wn p e r cep t ion . T he f a c tt h a to n ly w i th b eake rt h i sp henomenon i sp r e sen ti st h er e su l t o ft h ef a c tt h a tb e fo re n op rop i t iou ss o c ia lc ond i t ion se x i s ted .

2 6

D ie G lockenbecherku l tur * *******

T homa sB ubne r

Auf B i t te v on D r . Wa ld ren möch te i c h h i e rk ur z e i ne a l lgeme ine D a r s te l lung u n se re s Wissen ss tandes u nd ü be rF o r schung sp rob leme d e rG lo ckenbeche rku l tu rg eben , wobe i w i r d en i b e r i schen R aum b esonde r s e rö r ter n wo l len . A nges ich t s d er i n u nse rem Z usammenhang h öchs t l eh r re ichen " S tud ien z ur E thnogenese" s o l len d ie d o r t g eb rach ten E rö r te rungen a uch h i e r a uf i h re Gü l t igke i t i m H inb l ick a uf d i e G locken b eche rku l tu rb e sonde r sd i sku t ie r tw e rden . D ie b i sher igen Un te r suchungen b zw .Speku la t ionen ü be r d a s U r sp rungs -geb ie t d e r G lo ckenbeche rku l tu rw a ren m .E .h äuf ig z uv e re inf achend u nd l i eßen w ich t ige F ak to ren u nbe rück s ich t ig t . S o w urde z .B .n ich t b each te t , d aß d ie S te i lkop f leu te , d i e j a i m Z usammenhang m i td e rG locken -beche rku l tu re r s tma l si nE u ropa e r sch ienen ,v on e i nem R aum a uße rha lb d e sV eb re i tung sgeb ie te sd e rG lockenbeche rku l tu rs t amm ten , w ie v on K . Ge rha rd t s chon 1 953 a ufgeze ig t wo rden i s t . D ie se u nd a nde re P rob lem -s te l lungen wurden a l lzu h äuf ig v e rd räng t , um s oe i nf ache V e rb re i t -ung smode l le e rmög l ichen z u k önnen . P o s i t iv f e s tzu s telen i s t ,d aß d i eG lockenbeche rku l tu ra l ss o lche , s ow ie w i rs i e k ennen ,a l so e i nb e s t imm te rK omp lex v on h äuf ig m i te inande rk o imb in ie r ta nge t rof f enen E lemen ten , w ie G lockenbecherkeram ik , A rmschu tzp la t ten , Knochen -knöpfe , K upe ra r tefake u sw . ,e i ne e uropä i sche K u l tu re r sche inung i s t . I h rU r sp rung sgeb ie t ,a l so d a sG eb ie t , wo d i eT räge rd e rG lockenbeche rku l tu rd i e se F o rmen , b zw .e in inge d avon , e r s tma ls s chufen , muß i nnerhalb d es s pä teren V erb re igungsgeb ie tes d er G lockenbeche rku l tu r , a l so i nne rha lb v on M i t te l ,S üd -o de r We s teu ropa z uf i nden s e in . D abe i i s t e s f ü r u ns u ne rheb l ich , o b b e t imm te A r tef ak te , w ie A rm schu tzp la t ten o de r K upf e r -do lche , i nw e i te rö s t l ich g e legenen G eb ie ten s c hon v o rd e rG locken -beche rze i t i n G eb rauch w a ren u nd man s o m i t g roßer Wah r sche in l ichke i t a uf k u l ture l le V e rb indungen z w ischen d e r G lockenbeche rku l tur u nd d iesen a nderen K u l tu ren s ch l ießeen k ann . D ie G lockenbeche rku l tu r a l s s o lche w u rde i nj edem F a l l i ni h rem s pä te ren V e rb re i tung sgeb ie ta u sge fo rm t , s e lb s tw enn ,o de r : g e rade w e i lT e i le d e rT räge r d iese r K u l tu r a us d em O s ten o den S udos ten E uropa s o de r a ng renzende r G eb ie te s t amm ten . D ie b i s lang p l au js ibe ls ten A rgumen te f ü rd i eE rm i t t lung d e sU r sprung sgeb ie te sw u rden v on d en h o l länd ischen F o r sche rn L an t ing u nd v an d e r Waa ls ( 1976 ) g e l ief e r t . N ach i hnen s che in te s s o a mw ah r -sche in l ichs ten ,d aß d i e ä l tes te G lockenbeche rku l tu ri h r en Anf ang i m u n te ren R he ingebe i t n ahm , a uch w enn i h re B ehaup tung , d i e G locken b eche rku l tu r h ave s i ch a us d e r S chnurke ram ikku l tu r h e raus e n tw icke l t , j üngs t a uf

2 7

T .B ubner

b erech t ig te Zwe ife l s t öß t , z uma l d iese T heo ir ie d ie a n th ro -po log i schen F o r schung se rgebn i s se g anz u nbe rück s ich t ig t l ä ß t . U ng lück l iche rwe i se a be r s i nd d i e E rha l tungsbed ingungen f ü r K nochen i n H o l land s o u ngüns t ig , d aß d o r t s e l ten S ke le t tfunde g emach t w e rden , w a s f ü ru ns b edeu te t , d aß n i ch tm eh rü be rprüf tw e rden k ann , o b d i e d i e T räge r d e r G lockenbeche rku l tu r s i ch r a s sen typo log isch v on d en E inhe im i schen u n te r sch ieden . I n D eu t sch land , i n d e r C SSR u nd i n P o r tuga l g e lang d egegen d e r N a chwe i s v on p l anocc ip i ta len S t e i lköp f en u n te rd en T räger nd e rG lo ckenbeche r -ku l tu r ,d i e ,w ie s c hon g e sag t ,e r s tma l si nZ u sammenhang m i td e rG lo cken -b eche rku l tu ri nE u ropa e r s che inen . D am i t g e lang d enn a uch t a t säch l ich d e r N achwe i s , d aß d i e V erb re i tung d e r G lockenb eche rku l tu rm i td e rV e rb re i tung e i ne sb e sonde ren Menschen typ se i nhe rg ing , d aß a l so t a t säch l ich e i n Wande rn v on Men schen n achgew ie sen w u rde . I n w e i ten B e re ichen d e sV e rb re i tung sgeb ie te sd e rG lo ckenbeche rku l tu rk onn ten d i e se S t e i lköpf e b i s lang n o ch n i ch tn a chgew ie sen w e rden ,w ie i nE ng land ,f r an I c r e ich o de rI t al i en ,d och l i eg td i e sm .M .nach e he ra ms c h lech ten F o r schung s s tand . Wa sn un d en N achwe i sv on p l anocc ip i ta len S t e i lköpf en i n P or tuga l b e t r if f t , s o w i rd d am i t i nd i rek t a uch d a s V o rkommen v on S t e i lköpf en i nF rank re ich u nd S pan ien a gendeu t t , d enn w ie , w enn n i ch t d u rch F rank re ich u nd S pan ien , h ä t ten p lanocc ip i ta le S te i lkopf leu te v on M i t te leu ropa h e rn a ch P o r tuga lg e langen k önnen? D ie B edeu tung d e rS t e i lkopf l eu te i n ne rha lb d e rG lockenb eche rge se l l scha f ti s tn och n i ch t v ö l l ig g ek lä r t : w a ren d i e s l e d ig l ich ' M i t läuf e r ' , d i e i m L auf e d e r E n tw ick lung d e r G lockenb eche rku l tu ri nd i e se m i te inbezogen w u rden ,o de rh ande l te ss i ch b e id i e sen um d en f es ten K ern , a l so um e i nen T rad i t ionskern ( H .v . P e t r ikov i t s 1 985 ) o de r G lockenbeche r leu te , um d i e jen igen a l so ,d i ed u r ch i h rV e rha l ten u nd i h re E n tw ick lung ü be rhaup te r s tz u rE n tw ick lung d e rG lo ck enb eche rku l tu rA n s toß g aben ? A ls G e rha rd t ( 1953 ) s e ine U n te r suchung ü be r d i e G lockenbeche r leu te D eu t sch land s v o r leg te , w u rde d eu t l ich , d aß d i e T räge r d i ese r K u l tu r v om p a läan th ropo log i schen G e s ich t spunk th e re i nT ypengemenge d a r s t e l len ,d aß d i eS t e i lkopf l eu te s e lbe rn u re i ne k l e ine M inde rhe i td a r s te l len . W ie s chon H .v . P e t r ikov i t s ( 1985 ) , s od enke i c ha uch d a a n d i e v i e len Z ufä l le , d i e d i e se s R a ssengemenge z u s tande g eb rach t h aben k önn ten : s t ießen d a e i nhe im i sche F rauen , K r ieg sgef angene , H ö r ige o der S k laven z u d e r G lockenbeche rku l tu r ? O de rw a ren e sp o l i t i sche V e rbünde te , H änd le r , N achbar n , d i e s i ch d ad en G lockenbeche r leu ten a n sch lo s sen , um m i ti h nen i h rG lück z us u chen u nd z u t e i len? A us d e r G e sch ich te k ennen w i r m eh re re B e isp ie le d i e se r A r t , w ie z .B .d ie F ranken ,d i eA lemannen o de rH unnen . S i che ri s t a l so , d aß w i r a uch b e i d e rG lockenb eche rku l tu r , a u s w e lchem G a rund a uch i mme r , d en s chon a nde r swo b eoba ch te ten S chneeba l l ef f ek tb eoba ch ten : i mL au f ed e r Z e i t w ächs t d as Men schenpo ten t ia l d e r T räge r d e r G lockenbeche rku l tu r d u rch E inbez iehen s t amme sf r emde rE lemen te , u nd d am i tf a nd e i ne Umvo lkung d i e se rn euen E lemen te s t a t t . H ie rzu e i n Z i ta t v on W .E . Müh lmann ( 1985 , 1 5 ) : " D ie A s s im i la t ion F remde r [ k ann ] s o w e i t g ehen , d aß d e ren K opf zah l a m E nde g röße r w a r a l s d i e d e s W i r t ss tamme s " . Wa rd i e s a uch s ob e id en G lo ckenbeche r leu ten ,w od i ep l ano cc ip i ta len S te i lköpf e j a a uch n u r c a . 1 0% a usmach ten? D ie se F rage müs sen w i r v o re r s t

2 8

O xf ord I n t erna t iona lW e s t ern Med i t er ranean B e l lB eaker C onf er ence

u nbean two r te t l a ssen , a uch w enn w i ro ben s chon v on Umvo lkung ( Müh lmann 1 985 , 1 0 ) s p rachen . Und w ie s chon Müh lmann , s o l l ten a uch w i r n un f r agen , o b d i ese Umvo lkung u n te r p o l i t ischewm D ruck g e schah o de r n i ch t . Um p o l i t ischen D ruck a usüben z u k önnen , h ä t ten d i e G lockenbech le r leu te d i e f üh renden p o l i t i schen P o s ten e robe r t h aben müssen , u nd d a s b edeu te t w iede r rum : e s h ä t te e ine A r t I mpe r ium b e s tanden , um s o a uch S tammesf remde u n te r p o l i t i schen D ruck s e tzen z u k önnen . T a t säch l ich b eobach ten w ir a be r n i ch t s o lche A nze ichen e i nes Imper iums , d i e G lockenbeche rku l tu rd om in ie r te z wa rk u l tu r e l l ,o de rz um inde s te r sche in tu n sd i e sh eu te s o ,d och u n te rd rück te s i en och td i ee i nhe im i schen K u l tu ren i ni h r e rs pez if ischen A r t . I n d em Augenb l ick , i nd em d i e k u l tu r spez if ischen A r tefak te d e r G lockenbeche rku l tur A l lge -me ingu t w e rden , s o w ie d ie A rm schu tzp la t ten , v e r ssch iedene K upfe r - u nd Go ldar tefak te o der Knochenknöpfe u r A rgarze i t , v erschw inde t d ie G lockenbeche rku l tur , s o w ie w i r s i e k ennen . Wi r w issen n i ch t , w a s z u d iesem Z e i tpunk t , a l so z u B eg inn d e r B ronzeze i ti nI be r ien , a be r a uch a nde r swo , s i ch i nd e r G lockenbeche rgese l l scha f ta b sp ie l te : e r re ich te s i ed ad i ep o l i t i sche Dom inanz ü be rd i e E inhe im i schen , muß te d a fü ra be rd en P re i sd e rA ufgabe i h re s Monopo l sü be rb e s t imm te P roduk te u nd T echn iken a ufgeben? Ode rw a re s umgekeh r t ,d aß d i eT o le ranz , d i ed i e E inhe im i schen j ah rhunder te lang d en G lockenbecher leu ten e n tgegen -b rach ten , i n I n to le ranz u nd p o l i t ische Konf l ik te m i t d iesen umsch lug , w as z um E nde d e r G lockenbecherku l tu r b e i t rug u nd d iese z u r v o l ls tänd igen A ss im i l ie rung a n d ie Wi r t sku l tu ren z wang? Wie s chon S angme is te r ( 1972 ) f e s th ie l t , k önnen w i r d avon a usgehen , d aß d ie G lockenbeche r leu te i nk le inen G ruppen u n te r d en E inhe im i schen l eb ten . I n v i e len S ied lungen , s o s ahen w i r , b e legen d i e f e s tge s te l l ten Mengen a n G lockenbeche r leu te a nsä ss ig w a ren , i na nde ren S ied lungen i s ti h r V o rkommen e he r s po rad i sch , w as e he r f ü r k urze Anwesenhe i t v on G lockenbeche r leu ten s pr ich t . Wenn S angme is te r d i e G e se l l scha f td e rG lo ckenbeche r leue g er ne m i td e rd e rZ igeune rv e rg l ich ,d a ch te e rw oh l a n d ie b e i b e iden VUo lkern f e s tges te l l te k le ine G ruppengröße u nd d ie . Wande rbe re i t schaf t d iese r G ruppen . D ie G ründe f ü r d a s Wande rn s i nd b e i d en Z igeune rn i ra t ione l le rA r t , w ähr end w i rd i ed e rG lo ckenbeche r leu te n och n i ch tk ennen . Wa ren s i e w i r t schaf t l icher N a tu r , e twa r , w ie S angme is te r v e rmu te te , d aß d a Wande r schm id ie m i ti h e re F am i l ien umhe rzogen b zw .s ich n eue Mä rk te s uch ten? D ie se Hypo these k önn te a uch m i t d em o ben f e s tges te l l ten S chneeba l lef fek t i n Übe re in s t immung s t ehen u nd e rk lä ren ,w a rum d i eG lockenbeche r -Ku l tu r t räge ri nr e la t iv k u rze r Z e i t e i ne g ro ' se K opf zah l a n I nd iv iduen g ewannen . H ande l t e s s i ch b e i d en ' M i t läuf e rn ' d e rG lockenbeche rku l tu r um n i ch t s a nde res a l s um I nd iv iduen , d i e i nd en g ew innbr ingenden u nd modernen Ma rk t d e r Me ta l lu rg ie e i ndr ingen wo l l ten u nd s o g ezwungen w a ren , d i e S i t ten u nd G ewohnhe i ten d er G lockenbeche rgese l lschaf t a nzunehmen?

2 9

T he B raud e l ian B eaker : aC ha lco l i th ic C on jonc ture i n Wes tern Med i terranean P reh i s tory .

D r . J ames G . L ew thwa i te S choo lo fA r chaeo log ica lS c ience s , U n ive r s i ty o fB rad fo rd , B r ad fo rd BD7 1 DP , E ng land . Ab s trac t * *****

The a r t ic le s ke tche s a n a pp l ica t ion t o ap reh i s to r ic c on tex t o ft h e h i s to r iog raph ic i n nova t ion o f mu l t ip le t empo ra l i t ie sp ionee r ed b yt h el a te F .B raude l( evenemen t , c on jonc tur e , s t ruc tur e ) . I ti ss ugge s ted t h a t s uch ad i sc r im ina t ion o f t empo ra l l e ve l s w i l l a s s i s t o u ru nde r s tand ing o ft h e B eake rp henomenon , w h ich i ng ene ra l a pp rox ima te st ot h ec on jonc tur e . I np u re ly f o rma lt e rm s ,i ti sp o s s ib le t or e cogn i se t h eB eake rc on jonc ture p rope r( t he i n t roduc t ion o fw e s t -cen t ra lE u ropean c u l tu ra l t r a i t si n to t h e We s te rn Med i te r ranean ) a si mmed ia te ly c on sequen tu pon ap rev iou s c on jonc tur eo fi n ten s if ied i n t e ra c t ion t h roughou tt h e Med i te r ranean . A na log ie sf o r s uch c oup led c on jonc tur e sc an b er e cogn i sed i nl a te rp r eh i s to ry a nd i nt h eh i s to r ic p e r iod a nd t ot h i s e x ten tr e if ied a s as t ruc ture : t h e s pec ia l i n te re s t o ft h e B eake r p henomenon c on s i s t s o fi t s b e ing t h e f i r s t o ft h i s s e r ies . A l though n o s o lu t ion i s o f f e red a s t o t h ec on ten t o f t h e p henomenon , r e cen t t h eo r ie s c once rn ing t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween e conom ic , s oc ia l a nd c ogn i t ive v a r iab le s a r er ev iewed i nt h e l i gh to ft h er e levan tl o ca le v id en ce .

3 1

I n troduc t ion ****** The c on t inu ing l a ck o fa g r e emen to ve rt h em ean ing o ft h eB el B eake rp henomenon i s at e l l ing i nd ic tmen t o ft h e s t a te o fa r chaeo logy g ene ra l ly , w h ich aq ua r te ro fa c en tury o f t h e s o -ca l led N ew A r chaeo logy ( t ak ing a s t e rm inus a q uo B info rd 's 1 962 e s say A rchaeo logy a s An thropo logy ) h a s d one l i t t le t o a me l io ra te . O ne r e a son f o rt h i sh a sb een t h ep e r s i s tence o fa t t emp t st oe mu la t et h es u cce s so ft h eh a rd s c ience s t h rough a n a b s t ra c t ion o f f o rma l p rocedu re f r om s ub s tan t ive p rac t ice ; a no the ri st h es y s t ema t ic a l iena t ion o fa r cha eo logy f r om h i s to r i ca ls c ience s ,e xcep ti n t h e g u i se o fi t sp a r t icu la ra h i s to r ica le xc re scence ,s oc ia ls c ience . Wha ts o r to fs c ience i sa r chaeo logy? I ti sn ow c l ea rt h a tt h eK uhn ian r e p r e sen ta t ion o fs c ien t if ic a c t iv i ty a sa n a l te rna t ion o fl o ng p e r iod s o fn orma l s c ience - p uzz le s o lv ing w i th in t h e c onf ine s o f ap a rad igm - a nd e p isod ic e rup t ion s o ft h eo re t ica l a nom ie , s een i n h inds igh t a s s c ien t if ic r evolut ions , a pp l ie s o n ly t o t h e ma thema t ico -phy s ica l p o le o f ac on t inuous s pec t rum o f s c ien t if ic p rac t ice . S omewhe re i nt h em idd le l i e t h eb i o log ica la nd e a r th s c ience s , i nw h ich t h e a l l -o r n o th ing q ua l i ty o fK uhn 's c a tego r ie sd i s so lve ; p a r ad igm f i x i ty i sr a r e ,d i sag r eemen t mo re n o rma l , c r ea t iv i ty mo re c on t inuous , p rog res s a ch ieved t h rough p icco l i p a s sL A tt h ef a rp o le w ou ld b el o ca ted p o l i t ica ls c ience ,c ha ra c te r i sed ,a c co rd ing t o Wo l in ( 1 968 )b ya ne x t r eme r e lu c tance t oe ngage i nn o rma ls c ience ,t ot i nk er w i th a g i ven p a r t ia l s o lu t ion t h rough s ucce s s ive , f i n i te a pp rox ima t ion s t owa rd ab e t te rf i t w i th o b se rved r e a l i ty ; o nt h ec on t r a ry ,t h ep ol i t ica ls c ien t i s tt o u t sh i so wn p a r ad igm wh i le d e c ry ing a l o t he r s ,a c commoda t ing r e a l i ty t h rough d i r e c tp ol i t ica la c t ion r a the r t h an v i ce v er sa . T he re c an b ev e ry l i t t le d oub tt h a tp reh i s to ry i np ra c t ice b e long s c l o se rt ot h ep o l i t ica l at h an t h e p h i lo soph ica lp o le , w i th t h e o bv iou s p rov i so t h a t p r eh i s to r ian sc anno td i s to r tr e a l i ty a ss u ch ,m e r e ly t h o se c olec t ive r e p r e sen ta t ion so f t h ep a s tw h ich e ve ry s o c ie ty s e c re t sa sa na d junc to fi tc on tempo ra ry s e l f image ( c f McNe i l 1 986 ; Wh i t e 1 984 ) . Why d o t h ese d i f f e rence s e x i s t? S u re ly n o t b e cause o fd i f f e r ence s i nt h e s ub jec t m a t te ro ri nt h ec ompe tence o ft h e s c ien t i s t s , b u tb ecau se o ft h ed eg r ee o fs y s tem s c l o su re a t ta inab le b y t h e l e ade r s o fe a ch s c ien t if ic c ommun i ty , t h a t i st os ay t h e e x ten t t ow h ich ah i e ra r chy c an c ry s ta l l i se a r ound t h e l a t t ice o fc ap i ta l i n tens ive s c ien t if ic t e chno logy ( t o p a raphrase G i lman ) , monopo l is ing a ccess t o l a bo ra to ry , l i b ra ry o rf i e ld r e sou rce s , r e c ru i t ing t a len ted s t uden t s i n to ar e sear ch s choo l ( Ge i son 1 981 ) , w ie ld ing p lacemen t p ower o r o ld -f a sh ioned p a t ronage . S uch ah i e ra r chy , h ence s u ch ad eg ree o f s y s tem s c l o su re f o r n orma l s c ience , d eve lop s mo r er a p id ly i nt h ec i r cum s tance o ft h el a bo rm ed ica ls c hoo lt h an i nt h a to f t h ea r t sf a cu l ty o f au n ive r s i ty ,o rs oi ts e em st om e . S uch e nfo r ced h omogene i ty i s u nusua l w i th in t h e h uman i t ies o r s o c ia l s c iences b u t n o t e n t i re ly u na t te s ted : s ucce s s ive g ene ra t ion s o fF r ench a cadem ic h i s to r ian s h ave a ch ieved p r ec i se ly t h i s h i gh d eg re o fs c ien t if ic c on s i s t ency s i nce t h ei n s t i tu t iona l i sa t ion o ft h es ub jec ti nt h e l a t te r h a lf o ft h e n i ne teen th c en tu ry , t h rough a n a d ro i t man ipu la t ion o ft h e h i gh ly c en t ra l i sed s y s tem o fh i ghe re duca t ion i ng ene ra la nd o f as u cce s s ion o fi d eo log ica l i s sue s t ow h ich r e pub l ican g over nmen t s h ave b een s en s i t ive i np a r t icu la r ( Key lo r

3 3

J .G .L ew thwa i t e

1 975 ) ; t h e Anna l is te t r iumph i sb u t t h e mo s t r e cen t e xamp le ( Cou tau -Bega r ie 1 983 ) . I nc ompa r i son a r chaeo logy i sa na r ch i c . O fc ou r se t h i s i sn o t t os ay t h a t s c ien t i s t sd o n o tr e so lve t h eo r e t ica l c on t rove r s ie s t h rough c on sensua l a g reemen t ; i ndeed , C o l l in s ( 1981) h a s o u t l ined amode l o f s c ien t if ic a c t iv i ty , f o l low ing w h ich ac onc re te p rob lem o r h o t -spo t f o cu s se s t h e a t ten t ion , a tl e a s tf o r as ho r tw h i le , o fs c ien t i s t s f r om s eve ra lc on t iguou s d oma in s , t h us g ene ra t ing a t r an s ien t n e two rk o f c r ea t ive i n te rac t ion , o f w h ich t h e w ide r s c ien t if ic c ommun i ty may r ema in u nawa re b u t o f w h ich i ti su l t ima te ly t h e b enef ic ia ry t h rough t h et h eo re t ica la dvance t h u sa cc id en ta l l yo cca s ioned ; o ne s u ch i n s tance d rawn f r om t h e h i s to ry o f g eo log ica l s c ience - t h e G rea t D evon ian c on t rove r sy - h a s b een d e sc r ibed i n ma s te r ly f a sh ion b y R udw ick ( 1985 ) . T he r e la t ive i mmun i ty o f a r chaeo logy t o s uch c oagu lan t c on t rove r s ie s - t h e B eake r p henomenon b e ing ap a r t icu la r ly o bv iou sc and ida te - i so ne o ft h ed i sc ip l ine ' s mo s t o bv ious d ef ic ienc ies ; much o f t h i s d ue t ot h e t r ad i t ion o fs ena tor ia l c our te sy , w he reby p a r t icu la rs cho la r sa r er e ga rded a sp rop r ie to r so ft h ek now ledge p r e ta in ing t o ag i ven r e g ion ,p e r iod a nd p e rhap st o p ic .I nc on sequence ,t h ed i sc ip l ine r e a c t st o t h e o b tru s ion o f at h eo re t ica l h o t -spo t w h ich a l l t h e p r ec i s ion a nd c e le r i ty o fa n a sbe s to s ma t . T o s um u p , a r chaeo log i s t s h ave b een d e lud ing t h em se lve s i n to t h e b e l ief t h a t b y a dop t ing t h e s uppo sed f o rma l l og ic o f s c ience -cove r ing law e xp lana t ion s ,h ypo the t ico -deduc t ive r e a son ing , s t rong i n f e r ence , mode l s ,w ha t eve r t h ey c an g r a sp t h ep h i lo sophe r 's s t one ; i nf a c t ,t h em a la i se i s mo r ed eep ly r oo ted i n t h ei n s t i tu t iona ls t ruc tu r eo ft h ed i sc ip l ine a nd i ni t sa r t i sana ls ub s tan t ive p r a c t ice s . A mo re r e a l i s t ic , em inen t ly s c ien t if ic b luep r in tf o rp rog r e s s w ou ld b e t h en a r row ing o f t h e r e sea r ch f r on t t o af ew h igh -p r io r i ty i s sue s - a mong w h ich t h e B eake r p henomenon c ou ld w el c l a im ap l a ce -i no rde rt oc oncen t ra te c e reb ra lc and lepowe r t ot h e max imum e f f ec t . T he a r chaeo logy i ss c ien t if ic i nt e rm s o fm e thodo log ica l r i gou r d oes n o t mean t h a t i t s g oa l i st h e p roduc t ion o ft h e t ime le s s e qua t ion s o f c a sua l e qu iva lence t yp ica l o f t h e m a thema t ico -phy s ica l s c ience s , u nde r w h ich p a r t icu la re ven t sc an b e s ub sumed t h rough d educ t ive r e a son ing . T he e a r th a nd l i f e s c ience s a r eh i s tor ica l ,c op ing w i th e ven t s w h ich a r eu n in te l l ig ib le w hen a t tached f r om p a r t icu la r t empo ra l , g ene t ic o r e vo lu t iona ry s equence s o r c a sua l c ha in s , w i thou t b e ing a ny l e s ss c ien t if ic ; i ndeed , n i ne teen th c en tu ry a r chaeo logy w a s d om ina ted f r om i t si n cep t ion b y ag eo log ica l -pa la eon to log i ca lp a r ad igm ( w i th r e ga rd t ot h eP a laeo l i th ic )a nd b yi t se t hno log ica la ppend ix ( i nr e spec tt ot h el a t te rp e r iod s ) , r e su l t ing i n av e ry h igh s t anda rd o fe xcava t ion , a na ly s i s a nd p ub l ica t ion ( R .M . J a cob i ,p e r sc omm ) .H i s to r ica ls t ud ie sa ss u ch h ave h ad v e ry l i t t le i mpa c to nB r i t i sh p reh is t ro ic a r chaeo logy ( a l though R .G . C o l l ingwood o f c ou r se made an o tab le c on t r ibu t ion t o R oman -Br i t ish a r chaeo logy f r om a b ackg round i n h i s to r ic i s t p h i lo sophy ) a nd e ven l e s s o n t h e Ame r ican N ew A r chaeo log i s t s . T he s o c ia l s c ience s , i nc on t ra s t , h ave b een w e lcomed , a l though , a sK napp ( 1984 ) h a sp o in ted o u t , s oc ia l s c ien t i s t s o r t h eo r i s t s a r e m e re ly g ene ra l i s ing c on tempo ra ry h i s to r ian s b l ind t o t h e h i s tor ic i ty o f t h e c on t ingen t p henomena f r om w h ich t h ey a b s t rac t u n ive r sa lt h eo r ie s . T he re i si n suff ic ien ts pa ce i nt h i se s say t od e f end i nd e ta i la na l te rna t ive ,h i s to r ic i s t , a l ignmen tv i s -a -v is t h e s c ien t i sm o fN ew A r chaeo logy ; s ome p re l im ina ry t h ough t s m ay b ef ound i n al o nge ra nd mo r ed i scu r s ive a r t ic le e l sewhe re ( Lew thwa i te 1 986a ) . H e re Ic an o n ly s t a te t h e b a ld p r em i se s o n w h ich t h e s ub sequen ta r gumen ta t ion i s b a sed ,l e av ing t h er e ade rt oa c cep to rr e je c tt h em a sh ew i l l :

3 4

O xf ord I n t e rna t iona lW e s t e rn Med i t e r ranean B e l lB eak e rC onf e r ence

( i )P r eh i s to r ian sh ave e xagge ra ted t h es i gn i f icance o ft h ep u r e ly a rchaeo log ica l o r e xcava t iona la nd a na ly t ica lc omponen to ft h e i rp ro f e s s iona la c t iv i ty a tt h ee xpen se o f t h e d i a lec t ica l a nd h i s to r iog raph ic . T op u r sue t h e a na logy w i th h i s to r ica lp rac t ice , t h is i s r em in iscen t o f t h e e xce ss ive empha s i s p laced o n t h e r e cove ry a nd r e con s t r uc t ion o fo r ig ina lt e x ts ou r ce sb yp o s i t iv i s t i ch i s to r ian so ft h el a t e rn i ne teen th c en tu ry , p r io r t ot h ef in d e s i ec l e N ew H i s tor ie s ; ( i )B yt h ed i scu r s ive o rd i a lec t ica ld imen s ion o fp r eh i s to ry Im ean t h ep re sen ta t ion o fs t a temen t sa bou tt h ep a s t ,w he the ro rn o td e r ived f r om a r chaeo log ica la c t iv i ty ,f o r p ub l ic d i scu ss ion among p ee r s , ap rocedu re w h ich c anno t b e r educed t o t h e o b jec t ive r epo r t ing o f u namb iguous f a c tua l o b se rva t ions ; s ub jec t ive a nd i n te r s ub jec t ive i n te rp r e ta t ion a nd r h e to r ica lp e r sua s ion a r ei n ex t r icab ly i n te rwoven i n to f ab r ic o fs uch v e rba lo rl i t e ra ry p r e sen ta t ion s . P reh i s to r ian s a r eo fc ou r se p e r f ec t ly w el a wa re o ft h i sb u td on o tc a r et oa dm i ta sm uch ; ( i i ) Above a l l ,p r eh i s to r ian sn eed t op ay mo r ea t t en t ion t ot h eh i s to r iog raph ic a spec t o ft h e i rd i sc ip l ine - t ot h ec ommun ica t ion o ft h e i rr e sea r ch t oo t he rp reh i s to r ian s ,t o r e sea rche r s i n n e ighbo r ing f i e ld s , t o s t uden t s a nd t o t h e i n te re s ted l a y p ub l ic . P reh i s to r ian s h ave f o rgo t ten t h a t t h e n a r ra t ive i s mo re t h an ame re c h ron ic le o f e ven t s (Wh i te 1 984 ) ;n a r ra t ive i n vo lve sc e r ta in h i s to r iog r aph ic s k i l l s . O ne o ft h e mo s tc r i t ica lp rob lem si st h a tc ommun ica t ing mo r eo rl e s ss imu l taneou s ly i n fo rma t ion a bou tp roce s se sw h ich o ccu ra tv e ry d i f f e r en tt ime -s ca le s :f o ri n s tance , w h i le t h er e la t ion sh ip b e tween h uman s e t t lemen ta nd e nv i ronmen ta ld ynam ic s may b ep e r cep t ib le o n ly a tt h el e ve lo fm i l lenn ia ,c hange si n ma t e r ia lc u l tu re ,b u r ia lr i te s o r t h e o ccupa t ion o f i nd iv idua l s i tes may r equ i re a s e cu la r t ime -f rame a nd i n te rp r e ta t ion o ff e a tu re s w i th in o r a r ound ap a r t icu la rs t ruc tu re may d emand s t i l l f i ne rc h rono log ica lr e so lu t ion . T h i sp rob lem h a sb een a dd re s sed i nt h ef i r s ti n s tance n o t b y a n a r chaeo log is t b u t b y t h e h i s to r ian s F e rnand B raude l i nh i s s ucces s ive t r ea tmen t s o ft h e s i x teen th c en tu ry Med i te r ranean w o r ld a nd o f ma te r ia l ism a nd c ap i ta ll i f e( Braude l 1 949 , 1 972 , 1 981 -4 ) . B raude l 's i n nova t ion s ome f o r ty y ea r sa go w a st od i sc r im ina te b e tween t h r ee l e ve l s : as upe rf ic ia l l e ve l o fm ere h i s to r ica l e ven t s - t h e K ing s -and - b a t t le s h i s to ry o ft h e l a s t c en tu ry w h ich P au l L acombe c h r is tened l ' h is to ire e venemen t ie l le , -a m idd le l e ve l o fc yc l ica l p henomena , c on jonc tu re s , a nd ab a sa l l e ve l o fp e r s i s ten t s t ruc tur es , c hange sw h ich o ccu rv e ry s l ow ly o rn o ta ta l l , t h ep henomena o fl ong d uree . S uch as cheme h a s n o t p roved i n vu lne rab le t oc r i t ic i sm ( e g H ex te r 1 972 ; H un t 1 986 ; I gge r s 1 975 ; K e l lne r 1 979 ; K in se r 1 981 ; Makka 1 983 ; S an ta rna r ia a nd B a i ley 1 983 ) ,w h ich a r el a rge ly f o cu s sed o nt h ef olow ing i s sue s : ( i )t h ea r t if i c ia l i ty o f t r icho tomy ; ( i ) t h e o ve r iden t if ica t ion o f p a r t icu la r t ime s ca le s w i th s pe c if ic c a tego r ie s o fp henomena , s u ch a st h e m idd le l e ve l w i th s o c ioeconom ic c yc le so r t h e b a sa l l e ve l w i th e nv i ronmen ta l d e te rm inan t s a nd g enre s d e v i e ; ( i i ) t h e s eg rega t ion s o f t h e t ime -sca le s , s u ch a s t h a t o f a n e ven t f o r i n s tance , i sn eve r r ega rded a sh av ing d eepe r s t ruc tu ra l r e pe r cu s s ion s , o ra sr ep re sen t ing t h ep o in t o f i n f lec t ion o ss ome c yc le o rt r end . O bv iou s ly i ti sn o tf o rt h ea r chaeo log i s tt of o l low s uch as c heme s l av i sh ly i nt h el o ng r un ; h oweve r ,s imp ly i no rde rt oi n t roduce s uch mu l t ip le t empo ra l i t ie s i n to p reh i s to r iog raphy , i ti s e a s ie s t t o b eg in w i th a n e s tab l i shed a pp roa ch , r e se rv ing f u r the rt i nker ing f o rt h ef u tu r eo nce t h eb a s ics a r e a ccep ted .

3 5

J .G .L ew thwa i te

T imes o f C hange , C hange s o f T ime ********

P an -European P rem i se s B efo re d i scu s s ing i nd e ta i l t h e We s te rn Med i te r ranean r eg ion , i ti sa pp rop r ia te t o e xp re ss a p e r sona l j udgemen t o n t h e o ve ra l l B eake r p henomenon , s i nce i ti s i n ev i tab le t h a ta t t i tude st ot h eo ne a s sume a t t i tud e st ot h eo t he r ,w h ich a r eb e s tm ade m an i f e s ta tt h eo u t se t . Iw ou ld a r gue t h a tt o om any s c ho l ar sh ave a t t emp ted t oa s s ign a ne xp lana t ion t ot h i ss i ngu la r ly c omp lex p henomenon b yp roceed ing d i re c t ly f r om t h eb a s ic d a ta t ot h e mo s ta mb i t iou sa nd a l l inc lu s ive a s se r t ion s ,w i thou tp ay ing d ue r e ga rd t ot h ei n te rmed ia te l e ve l so fu nde r s tand ing , s u ch a st h ef o rma ld imen s ion so f s pa ce a nd t ime : t h a ti st os a y ,t empo ra ld u ra t ion a nd s p a t ia ld i s t r ibu t ion sa r er e ga rded a sf a c t sg iven ,t ob ef i t ted i nw i th s ome j u s t -so s t o ry ,r a the rt h an a sw o r thy i n te r e s t i nt h e i r o wn r i gh t a nd t h e reby c apab le o f s hedd ing i n d i rec t l i gh t o n t h e p r ima ry p uzz le . Aga in , t h e re a r e g round s f o r i nve r t ing t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e g eoh i s to r ica lb a ckg round a nd t h ep henomena h ab i tua l ly p ro jec t ed t h e reon -t h eu sua l c u l tu re -h i s to r ica l s ub jec t s - i ne f f ec t o u t l in ing t h e i n te rac t ion o fd i s t inc t r eg iona l p er sona l i t ie s t h rough t h em ed ium o ft h ea r chaeo log ica ld a ta . S i nce Ia mn oe xpe r t i nt h i s w ide rf i e ld , Iw i l l l a rge ly c onf ine my o b se rva t ion s t ot e r t ia ry r ef l ec t ion so n R icha rd H a r r i son 's ( 1 980 ) e xce l len t s yn the s i s T he B eaker F o lk , a l though h ei s n ' t o fc ou r se t ob eh e ld r e spon s ib le f o r my e r ro r si ni n te rp r e ta t ion ! ( i )T he o bv iou sp o in to fd epa r tu re i st h a to f ag enea log ica l a pp roach t ot h eB eake r c u l ture , w i th i t s a rb i t ra ry p ref e rence f o r c e ram ic s t y le s a s t h e ma in s t ream o f h i s to ry . d e sp i te D av id C la rke ' s s t r ic tu re s i n h i s c on t r ibu t ion t o t h e O be r re id G lockenbeche r sympo s ion ( C la rke 1 976 )t h e re i sn ow p r e t ty g ene r a la g reem en tt h a t t h e Du tch Mod e l o ft h eo r ig in sa nd d eve lopmen to ft h eB eake rc u l tu ra lt r ad i t ion s h o ld s g ood , t h a ti st os ay t h a tL an t ing a nd v an d e r Waa l sa r ec o r rec ti ni d en t ify ing t h ec l a s s ic B e l l B eake ra s semb lage s a sd eve lop ing o u to fo ne o ft h e many r eg iona l g roups o f t h e w idesp read C o rded Wa re -Ba t t leaxe -S ing le g raves c u l tu re g roup s p raw l ing a c ro s s t h eN o r th E u rope P l a in f r om R u s s ia t ot h eR h ine ; s pec if ica l ly ,t h e P FB c u l tu re o f t h e L owe r R h ine . W i th in as pace t ime e nve lope s t re tch ing f r om My rho j i nJ u t land t o Mo ro cco , f r om H ung ry t ot h e H eb r ide s a nd S i le s ia t oS i c i ly , b e tween 2 200 a nd 1 500 b c , t h ef o l low ing h i s to r ica l s equence u nfo ld s : F i r s t ly ,d u r ing as t i l lp u re ly N eo l i th ic s t age i d en t i f ied b yt h e A00 B eake r ,t h es t y le z one e xpand s o n t h e o ne h and t h rough t h e N o r th S ea c oa s t land s ( i nc lud ing t h e B r i t i sh I s le s )a nd w e s twa rd a l ong t h ec on t inen ta lA t lan t i c s ho r e sa sf a ra st h eB a sque c oun t ry ,o nt h eo t he rh and u pt h eR h ine a nd d own t h eR hone t ot h e Med i te r ranean , r ea ch ing t h e n o r the rn L levan t ; ar e c ip roca l movemen t o f G rand P re s s igny f l in t d agge r sf r om t h ev a l ley o ft h eL o i r ei sa t t e s t ed . S econd ly , ma r i t ime B eake r s emba rk o n ma r ine e xpan s ion t h roughou t s ou thea s t E u rope , e ven tua l ly e x tend ing a sf a r a s Mo rocco , S a rd in ia a nd S i c i ly , w i th m a jo r c oncen t ra t ion si nB r i t tany , s ou th -cen t ra lP o r tuga la nd t h el i t to r a la r cf r om C a ta lunya t ow e s ter nP roven ce ; h a rd ly a ny s p ec imen sr e a ch e a s to f al i ne l i nk ing t h e mou th so f t h eE lb ea nd t h eP o . T h i rd ly , amax imum o f c omp lex i ty i sr e ached b e tween 2 000 a nd 1 500 b c : t h e B eake rd i s t r ibu t ion r e ache s L i t t le P o land a nd B udape s t i nt h e e a s t , w h i le w e s te rn 3 6

O x f ord I n t e rna t iona l We s t e rn Med i t e r ranean B e l lB eak e rC on f e r ence

a s semb lage sa b so rb e a s ter n -de r ived t r a i t s ,i n c lud ing m e ta la r t e fa c t sf o rt h ef i r s tt ime i n many r e g ion s . S imu l taneou s ly ,u n i fo rm i ty d i s so lve si n to r eg iona lf a c ie s ,g r ouped i n to t h ree m a jo rp rov ince s (We s t e rn ,E a s ter na nd S ou ther n ) . F ina l ly , t h e B eake r p henomenon d eve lops i r regu la r ly , i n s ome a r ea s f ad ing a s r ap id ly a s i tf l owe red ( no tab ly i nt h e e a s te rn p rov ince a s t h e E a r ly B ronze A ge U ne t ice a nd r e la ted c u l tu re s d eve loped ) w h i le p e r s i s t ing i nt h e B r i t i sh I s le s , t h e I b er ian P en insu la a nd t h e V e luwe d i s t r ic t i nt h e L owe r R h ine h ome land d own t o c i rca 1 500 b c . Wha ti sn o tewo r thy a bou tt h i s s t ra igh t fo rwa rd s aga ? S imp ly t h a tt h ea symme t ry o f t h ep henom enon a tt h eE u ropean s c a le a ppea r st oh ave a r ou sed l i t t le s u rp r i se ,d e sp i t e t h eo bv iou sd i f f e r ence sb e tween r e g iona lt r a jec to r ie s ,o r , o t he rw i se p u t ,d e sp i te t h e d i spa r i t ie s i n t h e r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t h e B eake r h ome land a nd t h e s eve ra l p rov ince so rr eg ion sw h ich l o g ica l ly c a l lf o rd i s t in c t ive ly t a i lo r ed e xp lana t ion s . ( i )T he re fo r e , as e cond a pp roa ch m ay b ea t temp ted ,o ne c on s i s t ing o f ac ompa r i son o fc o re -pe r iphe ry r e la t ion sh ips m ea su red a l ong r ad ia l a xe s o r t r ansec t s ; t h e f i ve w h ich i mmed ia t e ly s ugge s tt h em se lve sa r et h o se b e tween t h el owe rR h ine a nd B a l t i c ( LR /B ) , t h eB r i t i sh I s le s ( LR /B I , t h eS aa legeb i e t , B ohem ia - Mo rav ia a nd H unga ry ( LR /SB MH ) ,B r i t tany a nd t h eT agu se s tua ry ( LR /BT )a nd t h eU ppe rR h ine ,R hone , L anguedo ca nd L levan t( LR /URRLL )r e spec t ive ly . T he f i r s tt r an sec t( LR /B )s e em st ob e ac l e a rc a se o ft he d og t ha t d idn ' t b ark i n t he n igh t ! T he p auc i ty o fB eake ra na log ie sb eyond t h eE lbe ( Ha r r i son 1 980 :pp .35 7 ) , i n s ome o f t h e b es t r e sea r ch r eg ions o f E u rope , h a s a rou sed l i t t le e xp l ic i t c ommen t , d esp i te t h eo bv iou s s u i tab i l i ty o ft h eB a l t ic l a t to ra l f o rt h e s o r to fr a p id ma r i t ime d i spe r sa lo fa r che r s ,p edd le r so rs m i th se nv i saged o no lde rt h eo r ie so ri t s p o ten t ia l f o re conom ic c hange ( amb e r ,f u r se t c )o fr e levance t oi n te ra c t ion s phe re mode ls . T he a nswer t ot h i s c onund rum , Is u spec t , i st h e i mp l ic i tr e cogn i t ion t h a t t h ei n te rven ing l o ca lf a c ie so ft h eC o rded Wa r eC u l tu r eg roup h ad a l ready b egun a p a t t e rn o fn o r thea s twa rd e xpan s ion d u r ing t h ep e r iod o ft h el a te rP FB c u l tu re o nt h e L owe rR h ine ( Ha r r i son 1 980 :p . 17 ) : al i ve ly d i scu s s ion c an b ef ound i nt h ep age so f t h e Norweg ian A r chaeo log ica l R ev iew a nd e l sewhe re c oncer n ing t h e s t a tu s o f B a t t leaxe f i nd spo t sa s ,v a r iou s ly ,t h ed ome s t ic d eb r i so fp ionee rf a rme r s ,c a che so f g ood s t r aded f o r f o re s t r e sou r ce s o r ( Zve leb r i l 1 981 ) , t h e ma te r ia l t r aces o f i mm ig ran t sw ho h ad i n te r s t i t ia l ly i n f i l t ra ted t h eo p t ima lf o rag ing t e r r i to r ie s a l r eady o ccup ied b y n a t ive ( Comb War e g roup s ) . I f Ia mc o r rec ti nt h i si mp re s s ion , t h en t h e r e levance o f s uch b oundary c ond i t ion t o ac o r rec t u nde r s tand ing o f t h e p roce s s u nde r ly ing t h e a syme t r ic e xpan s ion o f t h e B eake r a s semb lage i no t he r d i rec t ion si sa ppa r en t ; i np l ace o fu n re la ted j u s t -so s t o r ie s w e wou ld h ave au n i ta ry p henomenon r oo ted i n N or the rn E u rope r ad ia t ing c oncen t r ica l ly o ve r aw ide p er iphe ry . I nt h e c a se o ft h e s e cond ( LR /B I ) t r ansec t w ha t i s mo s t s t r ik ing i st h e t o ta l i ty o ft h ec on t ra s tw i th w i th t h ed i ame t r ica l ly o ppo sed LR /SB MH a x i s ; w he rea s t h e l a t te r l i nkage i st r an s ien t b u t i mmen se ly p roduc t ive i nt e rm s o f t h e f r u i t fu l i n te rac t ion b e tween t r ad i t ion s o f a tl e a s t e qua l s oph is t ica t ion , t h e f o rme r i sl o ng e ndu r ing ( down t o1 500 b c ) b u tp roduc t ive ly o n ly i nt e rm so ft h e s hee rn umb e ro f B eake rf i nd spo t si nB r i ta in a nd I r e land - t h ec u l tu ra lt r a f f ic a ppea r st ob ee n t i re ly a o ne -way f l ow . T he re s e em st ob eg ene ra l a g reemen tt h a tw h i le D av id C la rke e r r ed w i ld ly i ns pec ify ing n ol e s st h an s even s e pa ra te a nd s ucce s s ive i mm ig ra t ion sf r om t h ec on t inen t , s ome s o r to ft r an s f e ro fp opu la t ion d id t a ke p l a ce a c ro s st h eN o r th S ea 3 7

J .G .L ew thwa i te

( Ha r r i son 1 980 :pp .7 1 -3 )f o l low ing C a se 's ( 1 976 )t r ipa r t i t ie s c heme ,w h ich r e ad si n p r a c t ice l i ke a na n t ic ipa t ion o ft h eZ ve l -Row ley -Conwy ( 1 984 )A va i lab i l i ty Mod e lo f t h et r an s i t ion o ff ood p roduc t ion , w i th t h ep ionee rf a rme r so ft h eo r ig ina lr e p laced b yB eake r -u s ing a g r ipa s to ra l s e t t le r sa nd t h ef o rage r sb yt h eL a t eN eo l i th ic n a t ive s . T hu s ap reBeake rA va i lab i l i ty P hase o fc on tac t s a nd e xchange d u r ing t h e l a te r t h i rd m i l lenn ium b c w ou ld h ave b een f o l lowed b y aS ubs t i tu t ion P hase - t h e a c tua li mm ig ra t ion o fm e ta l -u s ing m ixed f a rme r sw ho u nde r took af r e sh l andnam i n t u rn s ucceeded b y ak ind o fC onso l ida t ion P hase a s t h e se l a t te r i mpo sed a n ew o rde ri n to t h e e s tab l i shed r i tua l c en t re s l i ke S tonehenge o rt h e u ppe r -henge s , m e rg ing w i th t h e l o ca l t r ad i t ion s t og i ve r i se t ot h e f u l l B ronze A ge . O nce a ga in , c ha l lenge s t ot h e o r thodox a s sump t ion s a bound : i ft h e AOC s t y le c on t inued t ob e p roduced i np e r iphe ra l n or ther nr e g ion s s imp ly b ecau se t h e ma r i t ime s t y le w h ich r e p laced i te l sewhe re l a rge ly b ypa s sed t h eB r i t i sh I s le s ,w ha td oe st h i st e l lu sa bou t t h e f unc t ion a nd i nnova t ion p ro ce ss i nvo lved? Why i ndeed d id t h e Ma r i t ime p henomenon h a rd ly e f f ec tB r i ta in ,w h i le s t r ik ing r oo ti nB r i t tany a nd P o r tuga l? Wa s B r i ta in , r e la t ive ly s peak ing , a ne mp ty l and scape r i pe f o rs e t t lemen t , o r ar e su l to f af a i lu re t ok eep u p w i th c on t inen ta l r a te so fp opu la t ion g row th a nd t e chno log ica l d eve lopmen td u r ing t h ep ha se o fi s o la t ion i nt h eT h i rd M i l lenn ium b c ?H ow c an a p rest ige o r c u l t p ackage o r i deo log ical s ymbo l mode l c ope w i th t h e v a r iab i l i ty o f B eake r s i te c on tex t s , r ang ing f r om B a l lynag i l ly , B e l le T ou t a nd Gw i th ian t oS tonehenge I -I I Io r Moun tP l ea san t? T he i nvas ion h ypo thes i sp ace J .G .D . C la rk ,a ppea r st or e ta in al o ca ll im i ted u t i l i ty . Wha ti sr ema rkab le a bou tt h et h i rd a x i s( LR /SB MH ) a nd t h eg ene s i so ft h eE a s te rn P rovence s t y le a nd a s semb lage s ,a sp r ev iou s ly n o ted ,i st h ec on t ra s tb e tween o nt h e o ne h and i t st r an s ience a nd ,o nt h eo t he r , t h ee x ten tt ow h ich t h ec l a s s ica lr eg iona l f a c ies o f t h e Wes te rn a nd S ou ther n P rovence s i n co rpo ra ted i t em s o f E a s te rn d e r iva t ion ( v p er fo ra ted b u t tons , b a rbed a nd t a nged a r rowhead s , a r che r s w r i s tgua rd s , c oppe r t a nged d agge r s , p o lypod b ow l s . . .e tc ) . We a ppea r t oh ave a n a b so lu te ly a r che typa lc a se o fi n te ra c t ion b e tween d i s t inc tb u tc ompa tab le t r ad i t ion s r e su l t ing i n t h e s yn the s i s o f amo r e i n c lu s ive u n i ty , e ven i ft h e c l a s s ic B eake r a s semb lage s o f t h e E a s t w e re n eve r mo re t h an s ub cu l tu ra l e l emen t s o f amo re g ene ra lp henom enon ,i et h et r an s fo rma t ion o fl o ca lC o rded Wa r e -Vucedo lf a c ie si n to t h e E a r ly B ronze Age U ne t ice -Nagy r ev . Wha t i sa ga in n o tab le i st h er ap id i ty a nd t o ta l i ty o ft h er ep la cemen to ft h eB eak e rc u l tu ra ls t y le i nt h e se r eg ion sa nd i no t he r s a d jacen t s uch a s B ava r ia , t h e U ppe r R h ine land , Sw i tze r land , B u rgundy a nd N o r the rn I t a ly -b yp rec i se ly t h i se xpan s ive E a r ly B ronze A ge t r ad i t ion . I ne f f ec t , i f t h e e xc lu s ion o ft h e B eake r s t y le f r om t h e n o r thea s te rn q uad ran t a ppea r s t oh ave b een d ue t oc ompe t i t ion f r om g ene r ica l ly s im i la rs t y l i s t ic t r ad i t ion s , t h ee pheme r a l n a tu re o f t h e B eake r p re sence i nt h e h ea r t o fg ene ra l E u rope s e em s t os ugge s t a d eepe r i n compa tab i l i ty . I n e f f ec t , t h e B eaker q ues t ion i n C en tra l Europe m igh t b e s e en a s f undamen ta l ly e r roneou s , g i ven t h e d e r iva t ion o f t h e U ne t ice , N agy rev a nd P o lada s t y le s f r om t h e s o -ca l led B eg le i tkeram ik ( Shennan 1 976 : p p .234 -5 ) ; t h er e a ls i gn if i cance o ft h i sp e r iod w ou ld a c co rd ing ly l i ei nt h ef o rma t ion o fa ne a s twa rd -o r ien ted c u l tu r a l s phe re e x tend ing a sf a ra st h eM idd le R hone w i th i mpo r tan tc on sequence sl a te ri nt h eB ronze A ge ,r a the rt h an i nt h em e re ly c a ta ly t ic p r e sence o f af a ncy c e ram ic s t y le d eve loped o nt h ep e r iphe ry o ft h i st y p icaly mo r e d ynam ic c o r e . T he f ou r th a nd f i f th t r an sec t s ( LR /BT ,LR /URRLL ) o ugh ti nt h ef i r s ti n s tance t ob e r ega rded t oge the r , s i nce t h ey c an b e r educed t o a l te rna t ive c hanne ls o f

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O xf ord I n t e rna t iona lW e s t ern Med i t e r ranean B e l lB eak e rC onf e r ence

c ommun ica t ion w i th t h eI b e r ian P en in su la s e pa r a ted b yw ha ta ppea r st ob e az one o f r e s i s tance c en t r ed o nt h e S -O -M c u l tu re p ha se o fN o r the rn F rance .I ne ach c a se t h e AOC s t y le e x tend sn of u r the rt h an t h eh i the rp rov ince so fS pa in ( t he B a sque c oun t ry a nd j u s t a c ro s s t h e E b ro r e spec t ive ly ) , w h i le t h e ma r i t ime s t y le g i rd le s t h e e n t i re c i rcum f e r ence o ft h eI b e r ian P en in su la ,c onve rg ing o nt h ee nv i ron so fL i sbon , w i th o u t l ie r s i nN o r the rn Mo rocco a nd s ome i nf i l l ing o ft h e N or the rn Me se ta . I ndeed , H a r r ison 's m ap ( Ha r r i son 1 980 : F igu re 6 ) b r ing s o u t t h e e x ten t t o w h ich t h e ma jo r i ty o f f i nd s l i e s b eyond a n i mag ina ry l i ne l i nk ing t h e C o ten t in a nd I s t r ian P en in su la s , ad i s t r ibu t ion c en t r i fuga l w i th r e spec tt ot h e L owe rR h ine . I ts e em s t o m et h a tt h e re a r ea tl e a s tt h r ee c omponen t st ot h i sp henomenon ,w h ich Iw ou ld c a l l p r imary r ad ia t ion , s ys tema t ic l i nkage a nd g oa l -d irec ted l i nkage . B yt h ef i r s t Im ean t h e s ame s o r to fs imp le r ad ia ld i spe r s ion o ft h eB eake rs t y le sa s u nde r l ie st h e AOC p henomenon e l sewhe r e , ad i spe r s ion t y p ica l ly e xp la ined i nt e rm s o f a c tua l n uc le i o f em ig ran t s , B eaker F o lk , s e t t l ing a mong t h e n a t ives : t hu s V e r ron ( 1 976 : p . 398 )r e f e r r ing t ot h ec oa s to fN o rmandy ,e nv i sage s : ' u ne s sa image d ep e t i t e sc o rnmunau t e sc ampan i fo rme s ,v enue sp a rv o ie m a r i t ime ,l e l o ng d e sc o te se td an sl av alee d ef l euve s , s u iv ip robab lemen td ' une o smo se r ap ide a vec l e sp opu la t ion sd e ja i n s ta l le s s u rp l ace ' , a n i n te rp re ta t ion s ha red b y G u i la ine w i th r ega rd t ot h e M id i ( Gu i la ine 1 976 ) a nd H a r r i son ( 1980 :p . 147 )f o rt h eL levan t . S ys tem l i nkage , o n t h e o the r h and , wou ld r e f e r t o t h e i n te ra c t ion b e tween t h e B eake rc o re a r ea a nd v a r iou sc u l tu r es phe re sw h ich c an b et r a ced b ack t ot h eE a r ly N eo l i th ic o re ven t h e Me sol i th ic a ne xamp le w ou ld b et h er e g ion e x tend ing f r om t h e C o s ta B lanca t o t h e C o te d 'Azu r , w h ich a ppea r s t o h ave b een s o i n ten se ly n e two rked i n te rna l ly t h a ta ni n nova t ion i n t roduced a to ne p o in to ni t sc i r cum f e rence r e la t ive ly r a p id ly c ome st ob ea dop ted t h roughou tt h ee n t i r es y s tem .T he i n t roduc t ion o fd ome s t ica ted s heep o fu l t ima te ly A s ia t ic o r ig in a nd o fc e ram ic so ft h eI mp r e s sed Wa re c u l tu re g roup i n to t h es o -ca l led P rovenca lf ocus , r e su l t ing i nt h e f o rma t ion o ft h e c l a s s ic C a rd ia l E a r ly N eo l i th ic c u l tu re , c on s t i tu te s t h e c l ea re s t c a se o ft h i s p henomenon ( Lew thwa i te 1 986 ) : t h et r an sm i s s ion o fB eake r st oS a rd in ia a nd S i c i ly w ou ld s imp ly r eve r se t h ed i r ec t ion o ft r ave lo ft h ei n nova t ion , w i thou ta l te r ing t h e p a t te rn o fi n t e r r eg iona ll i nk s .T he n ove l ty o ft h eB eake rP henom enon w ou ld c on s i s t s imp ly i nt h el i nkage o fs om any r eg iona l s y s tem si n to as i ng le c onf igu ra t ion f o rt h e f i r s tt ime . A s i nt h e c a se o ft h e B eg le i tkeram ik s t y le z one , t h e S ou the rn P rovence , o nce s yn the s i sed , s e em st ob ei n te ll ig ib le a s al a rge ly a u tonomou si n t e ra c t ion s phe re ,t h e r e a lc u l tu ra ld ynam ic so fw h ich w ou ld b ec ouched i nt e rm so ft h e VNSP ,M i l la ran , V e raz ien , F e r r ie r ien -Fon tbux ien a nd o t he r L a te N eo l i th ic -Cha lco l i th ic c u l tu r e s . I ndeed , s uch i st h ed en s i ty o fb eake rf i nd si nt h e VNSP c i tade l sa nd t omb s a nd s o c l o se ly d oe st h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fP a lme la p o in t s( Ha r r i son 1 980 :F igu re 9 9 )c onfo rm t ot h a to fS ou ther n -s ty le B eake r s ,t h a tt h ei n te rac t ion s phe r ec ou ld a sw e l lb ec a l led t h eP ame la p rovence ,a nd u nde r s tood i nt e rm so f af o cu so nt h ee s tua ry o ft h eT agu s r a the r t han t h e R h ine . E ven t h e f i gu re , l o ng t hough t i n ter red , o f t h e I be r ian p e r ipa te t ic c oppe r sm i th -p ro spe c to rm ay h ave t ob er e su r r ec ted ,i ft h ec on c lu s ion so f Ambe r te ta l( 1 986 )a st ot h eo r ig in so fs oph i s t ica ted a r sen ica lc oppe rs me l t ing i nt h e H e rau l ta r ea ccep t ed ; h a rd ly as u rp r i se ,s i nce a sA lmag ro G o rbea ( 1 978 )h a sp o in ted o u t , t h e d en se s t f i nd s o f t h e p re -Beake r me ta lwo rk i n I be r ia o ccu r i n C en t ra l

3 9

J .G .L ew thwa i t e

P o r tuga l , t h e A lga rve a nd A lme r ia , r a the rt h an i nt h e o re -r ich r eg ion s o fH ue lva , T ra s -o s - Mon te so rA s tu r ia s ,i n d ica t ing t h ee x i s t ence o fl o ca l i sed r e sou r ce e x t ra c t ion s y s tem sp r io rt ot h ei n t r us ion o ft h eB eake rs t y le . B yg oa l l inked l i nkage Ih ave i nm ind p rec i se ly t h ep o s s ib i l i ty o fa n e xp lana t ion f o r t h e e x t reme ly e ccen t r ic e x ten s ion o f t h e B eake r s t y le i n t h i s s ou thwe s twa rd d i rec t ion i nt e rm s o fs ucce s s ive d r ive s t oo b ta in s pec i f ic r e sou r ce s , r a the r t h an t o mu l t ip ly s y s tem ic l i nkages p er s e , g u i l ty t hough t h is i s o f u nf a sh ionab le t e leo log ica l r e a son ing . T hu s , t h e s chwerpunk t o ft h e AOC e xpans ion m igh t b e d i rec ted t owa rd s t h e s ou r ce o ft h e g rand P re s s igny f l in tn ea rt h eL o i re , t h ed en s i ty p eak o f A rmo r ica a nd t h e p enumb ra l d i s t r ibu t ion d own i n to t h e A qu i ta ine b e ing e p iphenomena ,w h i le t h e Ma r i t im ed i a spo ra c ou ld b ea imed a ta c ce s st os oph i s t ica ted VNSP c oppe rw o rk ing , r a the rt h an , a sH a r r i son s ugge s ted e a r l ie r( Ha r r i son 1 977 : p p .90 ,96 ) a f te r c a l la i s . T he p o in t Iam t r y ing t o make i st h a tr eg iona l s p ec ia l i s t s c an i nd iv idua l ly r ema rk o np a r t icu la ri n t e rac t ion sw h ich m igh tc r ude ly b ee xp la ined i nt e rm s o f as t ra tegy o fp o t s fo r -coppe r , b u t t h a tt h e o ve ra l lp henomenon may b e e xp l icab le o n ly i nt e rm so f as ucce s s ion o fs u ch s t r a teg ie s , s ome o fw h ich f a i led o r p ro spe red o n ly v e ry b r ief ly ,o t he r sb ecom ing s o l id ly e mbedded i nt h eg eopo l i t ic so f t h eC ha lco l i th ic . A s ac o r ro l la ry ,o ne m ay r ema rk o nt h ec i rcum s tance st h a tB eake r a s semb lage s a ppea r t oh ave r e a ched S a rd in ia - as ou r ce o fc oppe r n ow k nown t o h ave a t t rac t ed t h ea t ten t ion o fC yp ro - Mycenaean sl a t e ri nt h e s e cond m i l lenn ium b e ( Fe r ra re se C eru t i 1 979 ) -no to n ly f r om t h e s ho re s o ft h eG u lf o fL ion s a si nd ica ted b y t h e i rr e semb lance s t i o t h e f i nd s a tL a B a lance , A v ignon o ri nt h e A ude ( Bray 1 964 ) b u tf r om a n u l t ima te ly E as t ern P rov ince s ou r ce a l ong t h ea x i so ft h eT i ro l , A d ige a nd T u scany ( c f . V ig l ia rd i 1 980 ) - a no the rp e r s is ten t p reh i s to r ic r ou teway . F ina l ly , s uch ag oa l -d irec ted s t ra tegy w ou ld e xp la in t h e p uzz l ing g ap s i n t h e d i s t r ibu t ion : t h e r es i s tence o fo r l a ck o f i n ter es t i n t h e S -O -M c u l tu re o f N o r the rn F rance ( on t h e a s sump t ion t h a tt h e re w e re n o c omp lemen ta ry r e sou r se s a va i lab le )o rt h er eg ion o fC o r s ica a nd t h el i t to r a lo ft h eG u lf o fG enoa ( i nt e rm so f i t si r re levance e i the ra s ar ou teway o r as ou r ce o fr e sou r ce s ) . T o s um u p ,t h es pa t ia lp a t te rn ing o ft h eB eake rp henomenon c an b e made t oy i e ld a c er ta in i n te l l ig ib i l i ty u nde r i n te r roga t ion . T ran s la t ion o ft h e se p a t te rn s i n to mo r e i mmed ia te t a ng ib le mode ls r ema in s a s p rob lema t ic a s e ve r . I n r e spon se t o t h e h ypo the s i so fm ig ra t ion w e m ay j u s t if iab ly a sk : w hy t h ence a nd t h en a nd t h i the r ? Wha te v idence i st h e r eo f ap opu la t ion r e sou r ce d i sequ i l ib r ium o fc r i t ica lp ropo r t ion s a tt h a tj un c tu re? Wi th r ega rd t ot h es ugge s t ion t h a tB eake ra s semb lage sr e p r e sen ted p r es t ige g ood s w e m ay w onde r w he the rc e ram ics o ft h e L a te N eo l i th ic d en izen s o f V laa rd ingen a nd Mo lenaa r sg raa f i n t h e O ld R h ine - Maa s d e l ta r eg ion r ea l ly embod ied p r es t ige f r om t h e p o in t o fv i ew o f t h e s omewha t mo re s oph i s t ica ted , c oppe r -u s ing c ommun i t ie s ( e l i tes? ) o f Z ambu ja l o r L o s M i l la re s . Iw i l l h a rd ly c r ea te a ny r i pp le s w i th t h e s ugge s t ion t h a t , l i ke t h ep henomenon o fA nc ien t g r eek c o lon i sa t ion , many c oncu r ren t a nd s equen t ia l s t ra teg ie s w e re i nvo lved - t r ade , p i racy , s e t t lemen t ,t h ed i f f u s ion o f as t y le o fc u l tu re ,p e rhap se ven a ni d eo logy ( c f . S hennan 1 982 ) f o rm ing a c omp lex p a l impse s t a t t h e l e ve l o fl ' h is to ire e venemen t ie l le . B y w ay o f ac onc lu s ion t ot h i s s e c t ion , Iwou ld l i ke t oi n t roduce ac ompa r i son p e rhap ss oa ppa r en t ly r emo t ea nd i n tang ib le a ss c a r ce ly t ow a r ran tt h e t i le o fa na logy .

4 0

Or f ord I n t e rna t iona lW e s t e rn Med i t e r ranean B e l lB eak e rC onf e r ence

T he h uman i s t ic g eog raphe r S ophe r ( 1 978 p p .257 -61 ) , a t temp t ing t oe xp la in t h e a dop t ion b y t h eR omance f am i ly o fl a nguage so f as pec if i caly E ng l i sh s e to ft e rm s f o rt h ec a rd ina ld i r ec t ion sh a ss ugge s t ed t h a t : ' t he p o lyg lo tm a r i t im ec u l tu r et h a tw a sb e ing e l abo ra ted i nA t lan t ic E u rope i nt h el a t e M idd le A ge s t ook t h em i n to t h e I b e r ian P en in su la t owa rd t h ee nd o ft h e f i f teen th e n tu ry . . . t h eN o r th S ea sc o r eo fi t sd i s t r ibu t ion i n v i te sa t ten t ion t ot h ep o s s ib i l i ty t h a t s ome c u l tu r a le co log ica lf a c to rr e la ted t om a r i t ime e xpe r ience m ay h ave f o s te red t h e eme rgence o f ad i f f e ren t h ab i t o f t h ink ing a bou t s pace M igh t n o t , t h en , t h e e xpe r ience o fs ea f a r ing h ave e ngende red ag ene ra l a wa r ene s s a nd r e la t iv i ty i nt h e c oncep tua l i sa t ion o f s pace . " , r e f e r r ing t o ' t he c on s tan t d ynam i sm o f m ig ra t ion , c o lon i sa t ion , a nl i v ing o f fo fs e t t lemen t st h a ta r ei n t r in s ic t ot h eE ng l i sh t o ponym ic p rac t ise . ' Wh i le t h ep hy s ica li n t ru s ion o fn o r the rn s h ipp ing f r om t h el a te rs i x teen th c en tu ry o n h a s b een r e cogn i sed b y h i s to r ian s o f t h e m ed i te r ranean s uch a s B raude l ( 1972 : p p .119 -20 , 1 34 , 1 40 ) a s a n e ven t o f u l t ima te ly w o r ld -h is to r ica l s i gn if icance , h e ra ld ing t h es h if ti nt h eb a lance o fp owe rt ot h en a t ion so ft h eA t lan t ic ,t h i se a r l ie r d i f fus ion h a s l e f t n o t r ace i nt h e c ommon h i s to r ica l c on sc iou sne s s , p re sumab ly b ecau se i to ccu r red s og r adua l ly a st oh ave b een i mpe r cep t ib le a nd a bove a l ld evo id o fp o l i t ica lu p sho t . Iw ou ld l i ke t ou se S ophe r 's s t udy s imp ly a s ag amb i ti nt h e g r ea te rg ame o f Wha t I f : w ha t i ft h e R hen i sh f oye ro ft h e N o r th S ea h ad a c ted a s an u r se ry w he re in a n e a r l ie rc omp lex o fs e a f a r ing a nd n av iga t iona l s k i l l s w e re a cqu i red , w ha t i fi th ad b rough t f o r th a n e a r l ie r s wa rm o fs ea b eggar s? I fw e a s sume t h a t p eop le t ur nt o t h e s ea e i the r a s ad i rec t s ou rce o f l i ve l ihood ( f ish ing , t r ad ing , p i racy ) o r a s a med ium o f r e se t t lemen t i n p ropo r t ion t o t h e i nadequac ie s o f t h e t e r re s t r ia l e nv i ronmen t f o r as e cu re l i v ing , t h en t h e ma rg ina l i ty o f t h e O ld R h ine - Maa s e s tua r ine z one f o r i n tens ive a g r icu l tu re w ou ld c er ta in ly s eem l i ke ly t o h ave p readap ted i ti n hab i tan t sf o r an i che inva s ive a dap ta t ion .T he r ei s al o g ica lc ohe r en ce b e tween t h i s s ugge s t ion a nd t h eg row th i nt h ev o lume , magn i tude a nd d i rec t ional i ty o fm a r i t ime a c t iv i ty a st h eB eake rc u l tur ed eve lop s ,w i th aq uan tum l e ap d u r ing t h e Ma r i t ime s t age ; t h u st h ep ha se o ff am i l ia r i sa t ion w h ich C a se e nv i sage sa sp r eced ing t h ea c tua li nf i l t ra t ion o fs e t t le r sf r om a c ro s st h eN o r th S ea i sc on s i s ten tw i th s u ch a mode lo ft r ia l -and -e r ro re xpe r imen ta t ion w i th s e a f a r ing , t h i sp u l lu la t ion o rp r ima ry r ad ia t ion i nt u rn ap r eadap ta t ion f o rt h ei n c rea s ing ly l i nea r ,l o ng -d i s tance ,s e em ing ly g oa l -d i rec ted t e nd r i l s o f t h e Ma r i t ime s t age . O bv iou s ly t h i s s ugge s t ion f a i l s t o e xp la in t h ec oncu r r en ta c t iv i ty d eep w i th in t h eE u ropean Ma in land ,t h ough e ven t h i s a ppea r s t ob e l i gh t ly c o r re la ted w i th t h e r i ve r s y s tem , b u t a ny b roaden ing o f t h e s omewha ts l ende rr a nge o fh ypo the se sa tp re sen to nh and wou ld s e em t ob eu se fu l . H oweve r ,s uch a ni n te rp r e ta t ion o ft h ep r ima ry r a d ia t ion a nd s ub sequen tl i nkage si n t e rm s o f t h e t r an sf e rence o f s e aman sh ip s k i l l s , b oa t -bu i ld ing t e chno logy , e ven p e rhap sS ophe r 's s o r to fc ogn i t ive s c hema ta w i th u t i l i ta r ian a dvan tage sc ou ld b es a id t or e trod ic t t h e o t he rw i se p uzz l ing l o s s o f c en t r ic i ty i n t h e d eve lopmen t o f t h e B eake r p henomenon a l ready a ppa ren t i nt h e s pa t ia l ly s kewed d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e ma r i t ime s t y le a l ready n o t ed ( e g . H a r r i son 1 980 ,F igu r e6 ) . T he p rob lem ,o fc ou r se , w i th a l l s uch a rgumen t s ( e g . C amp s 1 976 ) l i e s i nt h e d emon s t r a t ion t h a ta ny s uch q uan tum l e ap i ns e aman sh ip o r ma r i t ime t e chno logy h a s i nf a c t t a ken p l a ce a tt h e h o r izon s pec if ied ,g i ven t h ee x t reme p auc i ty o fd i rec te v idence a nd t h et e ndency t o s uccumb t ot h e f a l lacy o fp e t i t io p r inc ip i i . 4 1

J .G .L ew thwa i t e

S uch i n t erpre ta t ions o ft h e p a t io tempo ra lb ehav iour o ft h e B eake rp henomenon c an o fc ou r se b e mu l t ip l ied e nd le s s ly ,w i thou tc on t r ibu t ion ing t ot h e ma in t h ru s to f t h i sp ape r . O ne a l ter na t ive t ot h i sp a r t icu la r mode o fp uzz l ing a c t iv i ty i st h a to fa n i n ve r s ion o ft h er e la t ion sh ip b e tween a c t ive m a te r ia l -cu l tu ra lp henomenon a nd t h e p a ss ive g eog raph ica l a pp roach t or eg iona l a nd n a t iona l g eog raphy o fy e s t e ryea r , a l be i t e mp i r ica l ly s ub s tan t ia ted w i th a r chaeo log ica l d a ta . T he f l uc tua t ion s i nt h e o r ien ta t ion o fw es ter nL anguedoc n o ted i nt h er e cen tp ub l ica t ion so ft h eT ou lou se r e sea r ch s choo l( e g ,B a rbaza e ta l1 984 )p rov ide a ni n s tance o ft h i sr e tu rn t of a vou r o f a n a pp roach l ong r e lega ted t o o b l iv ion a s me tageography . S een f r om t h i s p e r spec t ive , t h e t r age to ry o ft h e B eake r p henomenon c ou ld b e i n te rp r e ted a st h e i mpo s i t ion o f a n a noma lous l i nkage o f r eg iona l s y s tem s i n to ap a t tern ing o f m u l t i secu la rd u ra t ion ,f o l lowed b y ap ro ce s so fe n t i r e ly p r ed ic tab le r e laxa t ion i n to t h e mo r et y p ica le qu i l ib r ium o ft h es e ve ra lP rov ince sa nd t h ee ven tua le me rgen ce o f t h e T umu lu s a nd U rnf ie ld p henomenon w i th t h e i r c en t re o f g rav i ty r e loca ted i n Mi t te leuropa . I fw ea ccep t ,f o l low ing P a s smo r e( 1 962 ) ,f o ri n s tance ,t h a t e xp lana t ion i se voked b y as urp r i se ,t h en t h ep auc i ty o fe xp lana t ion sb e long ing t ot h i sg en re mu s tb ed ue t ot h e l a ck o fs u rp r i se o cca s ioned a mong g eoh i s to r ica l ly in sen s i t ive a r chaeo log i s t s b yt h es pa t ia le ccen t r ic i ty a nd h i s to r ic a noma ly o ft h eB eake rp henom enon ;i ne f f ec t , n o t h av ing a s uf f ic ien t ly c onc re te mode l o f e xpec ta t ion s i n t h e f i r s t p lace , p reh is to r ians h ave n o t b een a wa re o f a ny b adnes s o f b i t o n t h e p a r t o f t h e c ha lcol i th ic r e a l i ty .T he t r oub le w i th t h et r ad i t iona lc oncep to f ar eg iona lp e r sona l i ty , t h er e a son w hy i th a st ob en uanced i ni t sa pp l i ca t ion t op reh i s to ry mo re t h an i ni t s o r ig ina l g eog raph ic c on tex t , i sp rec i se ly i t s i nf lex ib i l i ty w i th r ega rd t o b o th d i re c t iona lc hange ( i e .d eve lopmen t si nk now ledge a nd t e chno logy )a nd s ho r t te rm , s ome t ime sp u re ly s t ocha s t ic ,v a r ia t ion sa r ound t h em ean .T he c oncep to f ar eg iona l p e r sona l i ty i sp u r e ly a nd s imp ly a pp l icab le t ot h e l ongue d ur ee , t op henomenon o fs u ch a no rde ro f magn i tude t h a tm e re ly s e cu la rf l uc tua t ion sa r es wamped ,w i th a n a t tenden tl o s s o fd e ta i l ; w o r se , t h ec oncep t make s n o a l lowance f o rd eve lopmen t s w h ich a f f ec ts u ch k ey v a r iab le sa st h er e la t ive e ff i c iency o fl a nd a nd s e at r an spo r to r t h e s upposed i mpermeab i l i ty o fr eg ion sp e rhap s m a rg ina l t os e t t lemen ti nr e spec t o fo ne l e ve l o fa g r icu l tu ra l i n ten s if i ca t ion a nd /o rl e ve l o fp opu la t ion d en s i ty b u t a menab le t oa tl e a s t t empo ra ry i nf i l l ing u nde r o the r s . I n t h e s ub sequen t s e c t ion , t h e re fo re , Id on o tw i sh t oa s c r ibe as t a t ic p e r sona l i ty t oa ny o ne r eg ion o rp rov ince , b u t r a the r c a l l a t ten t ion t o amo re d ynam ic r e cu r r ence o fc oup led c on jonc tures i n vo lved i ne a ch c a se ,f i r s t ly a ni n ten s if ica t ion o fi n t e r reg iona li n t e ra c t ion w i th in t h e Med i te r ranean b a s in ( s ome t ime sa s ar e su l to ft h ed i f fu s ion o fa n i n nova t ion f r om t h eE a s t ) a nd , s ub sequen t ly , ak i nd o fr e spon se o r ig ina t ing i nt h e h ea r t land o ft h e E u ropean p en in su la a nd i mp ing ing o nt h ei n land s e a . A C on j ec ted C onjonc tur e ********* Ac on jonc tur ei nB raude l ian u sage i s ap henomenon n o tm e r e ly o fm oyenne d u r ee b u t o f w ave l ike s hape , t h a t i st o s ay , c ompa rab le t o t h e b u s ine s s c yc les o f e conom i s t so rD av id C la rke ' s b a t t lesh ip -shaped c u l tu ra l e qu iva len t s ; i nt e rm s o f a b so lu te t ime i ti sa pp l icab le t os pan s o f af ew d ecade s , ah a lf o r aw ho le c en tu ry . Mu l t i secu la rw ave sb e long t ot h el o ng d u r ee ; t h ey a r e s t ruc tu re s ( Hex te r 1 972 : p p . 4 2

e a xf ord I n t e rna t iona l We s t ern Med i t e r ranean B e l lB eake rC onf erence

4 98 -512 ) . I no rde rt or e ta in t h eB aude l ian h i e ra rchy w h i le e f f ec t ing ac a l ib ra t ion t o p reh i s to r ic l e ve l so fc h rono log ica lr e so lu t ion ,i n so f a ra s me re m in ima l e vents s uch a s b u i ld ing -pha ses o n ac omp lex s i te o r as t y l i s t ic h o r izon l a s t a s l ong a s t h e h i s to r ians ' c on jonc tures , t h e l a t te r mus t i nt u rn t a ke o n amu l t isecu la r d uree . I n f a c t ,t h eo ve ra l lp l an o ft h eB eake rp henomenon a ppea r st ob eo ft h ec o r rec to rde ro f magn i tude ( c i rca 2 200 t o 1 800 /1500 b c , i e . 4 00 t o 7 00 1 4C o r u p t o 1 000 s i de ra ly ea r s )a nd w ave l ike s hape : t h us at y p ica lr eg iona ls equence o nt h ep e r iphe ry c ons is t s o f at r ick le o f AOC /Ma r i t ime v a r ian t s i n to t omb s , t h en ac rescendo a sa l o ca l s t y le eme rges , a s semb lages f ea tur ing t h e f u l l p anop ly o f w eapons a nd o rnamen t s ,d o cumen ted n o to n ly i ns epu lch re sb u ts e t t lemen t sa nd a te l ier s ; f i na l ly , ad im inuendo i n to t h el o ca lE a r ly B ronze A ge . G iven t h ef a c to fa l loch thonou so r ig in ,s uch s imp le m a te r ia l -cu l tu ra ld ynam ic sh ave t ob eu nde r s tood a sh av ing mo re t or e la te t h an m e r e ly s t ocha s t ic c hange si nf a sh ion : t h e p ro l if e ra t ion o f l o ca l ly -made d er iva t ives , t h e e x ten s ion o f B eake r mo t if s t o t r ad i t iona lv e s se lf o rm s , may n o th ave h ad me re ly t e chn ica ls i gn if i cance . F o l low ing R ow land s ' i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h eL a te rB ronze A ge ,w e may w onde ri fi ns ome a r ea s a tl e a s t ( e g . P o r tuga l , S a rd in ia ) s oc ia l s t a tu sw a s a l ready s uff ic ien t ly d i f fe ren t ia ted f o rr e s t r ic t ion st oh ave g ove rned a cce s st op r e s t ige laden a r tef ac t s( Row land s 1 980 : p p .25 -7 ) ; f o l low ing B rad ley ( 1984 : p . 72 ; c f . M i l le r 1 982 : p . 92 ) w e may a n t ic ipa te t h e i re ndem ic t e ndency t owa rd sf a i lu re ,i mpe l l ing t h eh igh ly ranked t or enew t h e i r s t ock o f s uch d eprec iab le s y mbo ls t h rough t h e c ons tan t s ub s t i tu t ion o f f r esh n ove l t ies ; t h e K ing 's R oad s ynd rome o f t h e 6 0 's . S uch a n i n te rpre ta t ion o f t h e B eake rc on jonc ture , i tmay b e s uspec ted , d oe s n o mo r e t h an s c ra tch t he s u r f ace . T he r ea l mean ing o ft h eB eake rf l o ru i ti nP ie r re V i la r 's C a ta lunya , R ene B aeh re l 's P rovence , J ohn D ay 's S a rd in ia o r t h e L anguedoc o f Emmanue l L e R oy L adur ie mu s ts u re ly b es ough ti np rec i se ly t ho se d emog raph ic a nd e conom ic v a r iab le sw h ich t h ese em inen t Anna l i s te sh ave r e sea rched a nd f o rw h ich t h et e rm c on jonc tu re w a s o r ig ina l ly c o ined : B eake r sa ss uch w ou ld h ave b een a ne p iphenomenon .T ot a ke t h e b es tk nown o ft h e se - L eR oy L adu r ie 's T he P easan t s o f L anguedoc - aGreat Agrar ian C yc le w ou ld h ave o ccu r red b e tween c i rca 1 500 a nd c i rca 1 700 AD , d iv ided i n to t h ef olow ing p ha se s( Le R oy L adu r ie 1 974 :p .2 89 -96 ) : ( i ) p recond i t ions o f g row th - l ow p opu la t ion d ens i ty , a bundance o f r e sources , c onso l ida t ion o fc l an sa nd h o ld ings , g ood d i e ta nd h ea l th ; ( i ) t h e a dvance - as u rge i np opu la t ion a nd g ro s sp roduc t ion a ch ieved e x ten s ive ly ,r e su l t ing i nw age a nd l a nd r a t ion ing a nd p aupe r isa t ion ; ( i i ) ma tu r i ty - a f te r 1 600 AD d ea th c lo s ing o n b i r th r a te s , s t agna t ion a nd p a ra s i t i sm , al e ve l l ing -of fo fg row th b y 1 650 a nd c o l lapse b y 1 680 ; ( i v ) al ong r e cess ion - d ec l in ing a g r icu l tura l p roduc t ion a nd p opu la t ion , u nder nou r i shmen t ,e p idem ics a nd em ig ra t ion . T he p ropo s i t ion a dvanced h e r ei sq u i te s imp ly t h a ts u ch ac onjonc ture o ccur red i n many E u ropean r eg ions d u r ing t h e l a te r t h ird m i l lenn ium b c , a lbe i t w i thou t u b iqu i tous e v idence o f r e cess ion . T he B eake r p henomenon w ou ld h ave b egun s imp ly a s t h e ma ter ia l man if es ta t ion o f s uch ap r ima ry g row th a nd r ad ia t ion o f p opu la t ion f r om i t sD u tch h ea r th ,w ou ld h ave f u r the rd eve loped t h rough s e conda ry s ys tema t ic l i nkage sw i th o the rc on jonc ture s( d e r iv ing n o to n ly ma ter ia lb u th uman i n c remen t s -s uch a st h ec e leb ra ted p l ano -occ ip i ta l s t e i lkopf e l emen t s - f r om C en t ra l E u rope ) a nd i ns ome c a se s ,p a r t icu la r ly i nt h e We s te rn Med i te r ranean ,a ppea r ing t o c o inc ide w i th t he r eg ress ive p ha se , w i thou t i mpu t ing , a s i tw e re , a ny c ausa l s i gn if icance t ot h el a t te rc i r cum s tance . 4 3

J .G .L ew thwa i t e

T o d emon s t ra te t h e e x i s tence o f s uch ac on jonc ture w ou ld b e d i ff i cu l t e nough e ven w he re s u rvey h ad b een c a r r ied o u t s y s tema t ica l ly a nd i n ten s ive ly , b u t t h e i n s tances o f t h i s r ema in t h e e xcep t ion r a the r t h an t h e r u le i n t h e Wes tern Med i te r ranean ( c f . K e l le ra nd R upp 1 953 ) .E ven i nr e g ion sa sw e l lr e sea r ched a st h e M id i , t h eq ua l if ica t ion so fd emog raph ic t r end s i ss imp ly n o tf e a s ib le ; q uan t i ta t ive , s ome t ime si mp r e s s ion i s t ic i n f e r ence h ave t os u ff i ce . ( i ) D i rec t e v idence o f ad emog raph ic c yc le s pann ing t h e p e r iod 2 500 /2200 t o 1 800 b e i sa mb iguou s . C our t in 's s t udy o f t h e e nv i ron s o f t h e E tang d e B e r re i n w e s ter nP rovence b r ing so u tt h eg r ea te rd en s i ty o fF ina l -Cha lcol i th ic s i te sc ompa r ed w i th b o th t h ep reced ing M idd le N eol i th ic a nd t h es ub sequen tE a r ly -M idd le B ronze A ge ( Cou r t in 1 978 : p p . 1 0 -18 , F igu re s 4 -6 ) ; b u t s u ch ac r ude i ndex i so pen t oa l l s o r t so fc r i t ic i sm ( non c ompa r ib i l i ty o fs i t e s ,d i f f e r en t ia lc hance so fd i scove ry ,e t c ) . I nt h ec a se o ft h eL anguedo c ,M i l l s h a sr epea ted ly e mpha s i sed t h e s i gn if i cance o f p reh is to r ic e po sode s o f t h el andnam o f ma rg ina l a r ea s s uch a s t h e G a r r ique s ( l imes tone p l a teau s , h i s to r ica l ly d evo ted t o e x tens ive p a s to ra l ism ) (M i l l s 1 983 : p p .119 -24 , F igu re s3 6 -7 ; 1 985 : p p . 1 87 -91 )p a r t icu la r ly t h et r an s ien to ccupa t ion i n s t reng th b y t h eh am le t so ft h e F on tbou i s se ( Fon tbux ien ) c u l tu r ep r ec i se ly b e tween 2 200 a nd 1 800 b e : T he se a r e c on s i s ten t w i th t h e h ypo the s i s t h a t t h e p a l teau s a r e e x ten s ive ly o ccup ied o n ly a f te rt a k ing u pa l lt h ea va i lab le a r ab le l a nd i nt h eb a s in . T h is i nt u rn t i e si nw i th t h ee v idence o fn ume rou sF on tbou i s se s e t t lemen t so ve rt h e G a r r ique s a nd s ugges t s t h a t ap ha se o f p opu la t ion i n c rea se a nd s pread o n to s u r round ing ma rg ina l l a nd o ccu r red d u r ing t h e C ha lco l i th ic , a na logou s t o t h e h i s to r ica lc y c le s( M il s 1 985 :p .1 90 ) . ( i ) T he d i rec t e v idence a dduced b y M i l l s c an b e s upp lemen ted w i th o the r l e s s t a ng ib le b u t i nt h e m a in c ons i s ten t i nd ica t ion s o f ab u i ld -up o fp opu la t ion a nd o f s oc ia lc omp lex i ty r e ach ing ac l imax a to rj u s tb e fo r et h e t ime o ft h eB eake r s . O ne s uch i nd ica t ion i st h a t o f t h e d i f f e ren t ia t ion o f ap a s to ra l g enr e d e v i e a nd t h e c oncur ren t , p o s s ib ly c oncom i tan t , a ppea rance o f s i te s w i th c l ea r ly s pec ia l ised f unc t ion s . T hu s M i l l s a r gue s t h a t o v icapr ine d en s i t ie s i nt h e l ow land s , af or t ior i t he Ga r r igue s , e xceeded t h e l o ca l c a r ry ing -capac i ty , i mpo s ing t h e o b l iga t ion o f t r anshumance t ot h e d i s tan t C aus se s ( M i l l s 1 983 : p p .138 -9 ; b u tc f . D e lano Sm i th 1 972 , L o rb lanche t 1 965 ) . Now , t r an shumance i sh i s to r ica l ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h e h i gh r u ra lp opu la t ion d en s i ty , ah i gh l e ve lo fe xchange a nd e n t r ep r eneu r ia la c t iv i ty a nd ap re s su re o n l a nd a nd l a bou r t oy i e ld p ro f i t s ; o n t h e o ne h and , t h e mo r e t h e p easan t s c oncen t ra ted , t h e mo re t h ey n eeded t o e n t rus t t h e i r f ew s heep t o p rof e s s iona l s hephe rd s f o r t r anshumance , w h i le b e ing l o th t ol o se a cce s s t ot h e v a luab le m anu r e ;o nt h eo t he rh and ,t h el o ca ln ob i l i ty a nd e n t r ep r eneu r ia lb u t che r so r g raz ie r s p u r sued ac ommon s t ra tegy o fb u i ld ing u p f l ock s a nd h e rd s a su sefu l o r m e re ly v i s ib le w ea l th ( Br i seba r re 1 978 , C ou le t 1 978 , D e l ano Sm i th 1 979 : p p .239 5 6 , G rama in 1 977 ) . O ne i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e e nce in tes w h ich a r e b e ing d i scove red i n i n c rea s ing n umb e r s i ne a s te rn L anguedoc a nd w e s te rn P rovence ( e .g . i nt h e f o rme r , L ebous a nd B ous sa rgue s ; i nt h e l a t te r , L a C i tade l le a nd L e s L auz ie re s ) i st h a t t h ey w e re b erger ies ( Camps -Fab re r e ta l 1 984 , D 'Anna a nd G u the rz 1 985 ) . T he c on t ra s t w i th t h e o pen h am le t s o ft h e F on tbux ien c u l tu re s u ch a sC ambou s ( V io l s le -For t ) e xcava ted b y R oud i l a nd C ane t ( 1981) o r E sca lon d e F on ton 's e ponymous C ou ronn ien f a rm o fC o l le t -Redon a rL a C ou r rone ( Ma r t igue s ) i sn o tewo r thy ; t h e 4 4

Ox f ord I n t e rna t iona lW e s t e rn Med i t er ranean B e l lB eak e rC onf e r ence

r e la t ive l a ck o fe ff i c iency o ft h e w a l l s a nd t ur r e t s m ay d ef ine ap u r e ly s ymbo l ic s eg rega t ion o f p a s to ra l g roup s a nd a c t iv i t ies f r om o the r s e c to r s o f s oc ie ty . T he r e la t ive f r equency o ff i nd s o fa cor n s , p re sumab ly f unc t ion ing a sg r a in s ub s t i tu te s ( Lew thwa i te 1 982 ) wou ld b ec on s i s ten tw i th t h i si n te rp re ta t ion . T he k ey q ues t ion s t ob e a sked o ft h i s mode l a r e t h e se : a r e w e t oe nv i sage t h ep a s to ra lp opu la t ion a s a u tonomou sa nd a u toch thonou s? I no t he rw o rd s ,a lway sa s sum ing t h a tt h ee nce in t e b e rger ie i d en t if i ca t ion h o ld su p ,a r ew ed eal ing w i th a n i n s i tu d i f f e ren t ia t ion o fa n i n te r s t i t ia le conom i cn i che c onf ined t ot h es i lva a nd s a l tu sa st h ee qu i l ib r ium w i th t h e a ge r w a s d i srup ted ( c f . D e lano Sm i th 1 972 , G a sco 1 979 )? O r w i th p rog re s s ive s oc ia la sw el a so ccupa t iona ld i f f e r en t ia t ion ,i e ,t h ef o rma t ion o f as ubo rd ina te c l a s s o fl a nd le s sh i r e l ing se s t ranged f r om t h ea g r icu l tu ra lc ommun i t ie sa nd d ependen to n t h ec h ief s b e l ieved b y s ome t oh ave eme rged i nt h e c ou r se o ft h i sc on jonc ture ( G i lman 1 981 , L ew thwa i te 1 984 )? O r w i th t h e i n tru s ion o f g roup s o f mon tane d e scen t , a s s o o f ten i nt h e h i s to ry o ft h e Med i te r ranean , i nw h ich c a se w e m igh t a n t ic ipa te ac e r ta in p r io r i ty o fi nver se o ve rn orma lt r an shumance? ( i i ) T he o the r i nd ica t ion o f ag row ing d i sequ i l ib r ium b e tween p opu la t ion a nd r e sou rce s , t o wh ich t he e nce in te s a r e a ga in r e levan t , i s t he e v idence f o r i n te rcommuna l s t re s ses , s t ra in s , e ven v io lence . T hus C our t in o b se rve s o f t h e e nv i ron so ft h eE tang d eB e r re : " I lf au tn o te rq ue p l u s ieu r sd e s s i te sh ab i te sp a rl e sC ampan i fo rme sp r e sen ten tu ne c a rac te re d e f en s i f ,p a re xamp le S tB la i se ,q u id ev iend ra u ni mpo r tan to pp idum d e s l eV I Ie s i e c le , e ts u r tou tl eC ha teau -V i ran e tl eF o r t in -duSau t , v e r t i tab le s d in jon s n a tu re l sd ' acce s ma la i se p ro tege sp a rd e s a p ics s u rt ou te l e u rp e r iphe r ie ( Cou r t in 1 978 : p .1 4 ) , w h i le J ean A ra ! ( p . c omm . ) c on t inue st od ef end w i th v igou rh i si n te rp r e ta t ion o f t h e e nce in tes a sC ha lco l i th ic c i tade ls o rc a s t le s . T he b es t -known e v idence o ft h e t r oub le s o ft h e t ime i sp rov ided b y t h e s uppo sed w argrave c on s t i tu t ing t h e u ppe r l e ve l o f t he r ock -cu t t omb a tR oa ix i n t h e V auc lu se , c on ta in ing a r row p ie rced s ke le ton s d a ted t o2 090± 1 40 b e ( Cou r t in 1 974 : p p . 1 81-4 ) a l though o ne h a s t o g o a s f a r a f ie ld a s L og rono t o f i nd ac ompa rab le c a se , t h a t o f L a A ta layue la ( Ha r r ison 1 977 : p . 57 ) . F o rt h e h i s tor ian , ac on jonc tu re h a s o n ly t wo d imen s ions , t h e o ne h o r izon ta l , t h e o the r v e r t ica l : t h e f o rme r t h a t o ft ime ' s a r row , t h e l a t te r o ft h e a mp l i tude o ft h e p henomenon u nde r s t udy . A h i s tor ica l g eog raphe r o r g eog raph ica l ly -a t tuned p reh i s to r ian wou ld s u re ly a dd f u r the r , s pa t ia l , d imen s ion s ; i si tl i ke ly t h a t s uch a c yc le l a cked ac en t r eo ro ccu r r ed i nd i f f e r en t ,e ven n e ighbo r ing ,r e g ion si nc omp le te s ynch rony? A c u r sory g l ance a t t h e ,h i s to r ica l g eog raphy o f F rance i sh igh ly i n s t ruc t ive a s amod e lo fe xpec ta t ion s .T he mo s ta u tho r i ta t ive r e cen to ve rv iew i st h a t o fB onnaud ( 1 977 )w ho r e ache st wo m a jo rc onc lu s ion s : ( i ) " The re w e re . . . impo r tan tr eg iona ld i f f e r ence si np opu la t ion p re s su r e . S ome a r ea s p rov ided a lmo s t c on t inu ing s upp l ie s o f o u t tn ig ran t s . O the r s f unc t ioned a lmo s t e xc lu s ive ly a sr e cep t ion a r ea s .F ina l ly , at h i rd g roup o fr eg ion se xpe r ienced d rama t ic f l uc tua t ion st h roughou tt ime " ; ( i ) " F rom t h ev e ry e a r l ie s to ft ime s ,e t hn ic g roup sd id n o tp o s se s s a l lt h e i rd i s t inc t c ha rac ter is t ics . T hese w er e a cqu i red p rog re ss ive ly i n s pec if ic h i s tor ic a nd

4 5

J .G .L ew thwa i t e

g eog raph ic e nv i ronmen t s .. . each a g ra r ian c u l tu re d oe s n o t f l oa t i n t h e a i r b u t o r ig ina ted i n ap a r t icu la rg eog raph ic e nv i ronmen t ,i sc apab le o fi mp rovem en tw i th in t h a te nv i ronmen t , a nd w h i le s t i l l b ea r ing t h ei nde l ib le i mp r in to fi t se a r l ie rh i s to ry , m ay b ed i s to r t ed o rf a l li n to d ecl ine i ft r an s f e r r ed t oa no the re nv i ronmen t " ( Bonnaud 1 977 : p p .24 -26 ) . T he s ub s tan t ia t ion o f t h e se c onc lu s ion s i sf o r o u r p u rpo se s mo re i n s t ruc t ive i n r e spec t o f t h e a nc ien t , m ed ieva l a nd moder n h i s to r ica l p e r iod s t h an a s r ega rd s p reh i s to ry , s i nce t h e d a ta a nd i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e l a t te r c a se a r e d rawn f r om a p rev iou s g ene ra t ion o f a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch . A t ten t ion m ay b e d rawn t ot h e p a t te rn ing a t am in imum o ft wo t empo r a ls c a le s :

( i )F i r s t ly , t h a t o f t h e r eve r sa l o f t h e r e la t ive p ropens i ty f o r p opu la t ion g row th b e twe en t h ep l a in sa nd t h eh i l lcoun t ry o fO cc i tan ia b e fo r ea nd s i nce c i r ca 1 000 AD : "B y t h e e nd o f t h e E a r ly M idd le A ge s H au te -P rovence w a s r i che r a nd mo re p opu lou s t h an B a s se -P rovence . . . I nt h e C evenne s . . the se s ma l l v i l lage tz r i to r ie s h ad e xpe r ienced a n i mpo r tan t i n c rea se i nt h e i r p opu la t ion b efo re AD 1 000 . . . . In s im i l ar f a sh ion ad en se n e two rk o f s ma l l p a r ishe s a l so i nd ica te s t h a t p opu la t ion d ens i t ies w e re o nce h igh i n t he g ar r iques a nd s oubergues o f B as L anguedoc . . .W ide sp r ead e v idence e x i s t so fi mpo r t an tp opu la t ion g row th d u r ing t h e E a r ly M idd le Age s i nt h e P y r enean v a l ley s a nd t h e mo la sse h i l l s lope s " ( Bonnaud 1 977 : p . 51 ) . Whe rea s : "I n s ou ther n F rance t h e re w a s much g r ea te r v a r iab i l i ty . F ew r eg ion s f unc t ioned c on s i s ten t ly a sr e cep t ion a r ea so ra sr e se rvo i r so fh uman i ty d i spa tch ing m ig ran t s t o o the r p a r ts o f F rance t h roughou t t h e med ieva l a nd mode rn p e r iod s . . .On ly t h e P y renean moun ta in s a nd t h e s ou the rn Ma s s if C en t ra l t e nded t o e s cape t h e r avages o f e p idem ics a nd f unc t ioned a s q ua s i -pe rmanen t r eg ion s o f o u tm ig r a t ion ,w i th movemen t sf r om t h eP y renee st owa rd sG a scony a nd S pa in ,a nd f r om t h es ou the rn Ma s s if C en t r a lt oB a s -Languedoc ,A lb igeo i sa nd t h el owe rR hone V a l ley . S ome p a r t so ft h e S ou th r epea ted ly r equ i r ed i mm ig r a t ion ( s ic ) t om a in ta in t h e i r p opu la t ion n umbe r s . T he se a r ea s i n c luded t h e w e s te rn s e c t ion o f B a s se P rovence , p a r t s o f t he R hone P la in , ma r shy a r ea s o f B a s -Languedoc a nd B o rde la i se " ( Bonnaud 1 977 : p . p5 9 -60 : F igu re 2 . 4 ) .

( i )S econd ly , t h a to ff l ow so fp opu la t ion b e tween F rance p rope r ,t h e P ays d 'o i l , a nd O cc i tan ia , t h eP ay sd ' oc e a ch t h ef oyer o fa sw e l ld ef ined a g ra r ian c i v i l i sa t ion ( P r ince 1 977 :p p . 1 39 -53 ) ,a sr e vea led b yd i a lec to logy a nd t o ponyma s t ic s . T hus : " I nt h e w e s t , a f te rn o r thwe s te rn P o i tou h ad b een c onque r ed b y o i l -speake r s , p robab ly b ecause o f a n i nf lux o f l a nd c l ea re r s f r om A n jou , p opu la t ion moved s ou thwa rd s f r om t h e se p oo r a r ea s m igh t e a s i l ty b ecome o ve rpopu la ted . . , a nd t h e s ou thwa rds s p read o fo i l -speake r sh a sc on t inued a lmo s tw i thou ti n te r rup t ion t ot h e p r e sen t d ay . A f te r t h e t e r r ib le d eva s ta t ion s o ft h eF ranco -Eng l i sh w a r s ( e spec ia l ly t h e H und red Y ea r s ' Wa r ) , t h e p opu la t ion o f S a in tonge a nd w es te rn A ngoumo is c hanged a lmo s t c omp le te ly . . . i n t h e S ix teen th C en tury t h e G avaches o r n or therner s f r om P o i tou a nd S a in tonge , h ad s p read a c ro s s t h e o c /o i l l i ngu i s t ic d i v is ion a nd h ad e s tab l i shed t h eP e t i te G avache r ie d e Mon t segu ri nt h ee a s ter np a r t o fE n t re -Deux - Me r s . I nt h e moder np e r iod o i l -speake r s h ave b ecome i n c rea s ing ly n ume rous i n Aqu i ta ine a nd b ecause t h ey l i ve i n l e s s c on tac t g roup s t h an t h e i r

4 6

0 . xf ord I n t erna t iona lW e s t ern Med i t er ranean B e l lB eak er C onf erence

p redece sso r s h ave b een a s s im i la ted i n to t h e l o ca l p opu la t ion " ( Bonnaud 1 977 : p p .55 , F igure 2 . 3 ) . O fp a r t icu la rs i gn if i cance f o re co log ica l ly -m inded a r chaeo log i s t si st h eo b se rva t ion t h a t " t he se r e cep t ion a r ea sw e r en o tt h ep oo re ra r ea si nF rance b u tt ho se w h ich h ad b een a f f ec ted b y c a ta s t rophes o r b y e a r ly d emog raph ic a nd s oc io -econom ic c hange s w h ich l e ad t op opu la t ion d e c l ine " ( Bonnaud 1 977 :p . 57 ) . T he h i l l s lope so fG a scony a nd t h eb a s in o fA qu i ta ine ,f o re xamp le ,n eve rr e cove red f r om t h eH und red Y ea r s ' Wa ra nd t h e Wa ro fR e l ig ion : " F rom t h e S even teen th C en tu ry o nwa rd st h er eg ion s t a r ted t os t agna te a nd e ven t o d ec l ine , f o rr e a sons a sy e ti mpe r f ec t ly u nde r s tood . D emog raph ic d e c l ine r ema in s a p ermanen t f e a tu re t h rough t ot h e p re sen t d ay , s o t h a t G a scony a nd o the rp a r t s o f Aqu i ta ine s ou th o ft h eD o rdogne f unc t ioned a sr e cep t ion a r ea sf o rn o r the rne r sb efo r e r e ce iv ing m ig ran t s f r om I t a ly a nd S pa in i nt h e p resen t c en tu ry " ( Bonnaud 1 977 : p .60 -1) . T hese i mp l ica t ions o f B onnaud 's w ork s eem t o me t o d eserve p a r t icu la r c on s ide ra t ion f r om p r eh is to r ian s : ( i ) F i r s t ly , t h e q ue s t ion o ft h e o ccu r rence o fw ar fa re i nn on -s ta te s oc ie t ie s m e r i t s r e app ra isa l . Wou ld w eb er i gh tt or e jec tt h ea ppl i cab i l i ty o ft h e se h i s to r ica le xamp le s o fl ong te rm ,l a rge sca le t r auma t ic e ven t st ot h ep reh i s to r ic s i tua t ion s imp ly o nt h e g round s t h a tc ompa rab le h uman a nd ma te r ia l l o se sc ou ld n o t h ave b een i nf l ic ted ? Does t h i sn o ta moun tt od angerous ly c i r cu la rr e a son ing , s i nce w eh ave n or e a li d ea o f t he c omp lex i ty o f c ha lco l i th ic s oc ie ty? A re w e n o t m is led b y o ur l i nger ing s ub serv ience t ot h eT h r ee A ge s y s t em i n to n a ive ly e qua t ing t e chno log ica la nd s o c ia l e vo lu t ion h ence i n to t he a s sump t ion t h a t t h e c ha lco l i th ic s oc ie t ies o f 2 000 b c w e re n ece s sa r i ly s imp le ri na l l r e spec t t h an , s ay t h e C e l t s o rG erman s o ft h e i r on A ge . P e r sona l ly , Iw ou ld n o tb e s u rp r ised i fs ome s o r to fW a f l e i nw es t -cen t ra l E u rope h ad s ca t te red B eake r -us ing c ommun i t ie s a sf a ra nd w ide a st h eN ine teen th C en tu ry Ngun i - l ' evenemen t , p ar e xce l lence! S hou ld w e n o t a tl e a s t r e cogn i se t h is v a r iab i l i ty a nd c on s ide rt h ea r chaeo log ica lp a t te rn ing w ew ou ld e xpec tt of o l low s uch amode l? ( i ) S econd ly , t h e q ues t ion o fo u r e xpec ta t ions t h a t t h ese a r ea s o f g rea t p o ten t ia l f e r t i l i ty wh ich n ow s uppor t d ense r u ra l p opu la t ions t h rough h igh ly i n tens ive a g r icu l ture h ave a lways s eemed s o f avou red i n t h e p a s t : d ev ia t ions f r om t h i s s uppo sed n o rm a r ea l lt o of r equen t ly e xp la ined a way b ya dh oc a ppea ls t oh i s to r ica l c on t ingency . E ve rs i nce t h ea ppea rance o fD ef fon ta ine s ,c l a s s ic o fV idak ian r eg iona l g eog raphy ( Def fon ta ines 1 932 ) t h e e x ten tt ow h ich t h e m idd le G a ronne b a s in h a s f a i led t op roduce i t sr u ra l p opu la t ion w i thou td raw ing o n n e ighbo r ing h i l lfa rme r s , i ndeed t h e r eg ion s s t i l l f u r the r a f ie ld , h a s b een k nown ; H igoune t h a s t r aced t h e v i c i ss i tude s o fi t s s e t t lemen t b ack i n to t h e e a r ly M idd le A ges ( H igoune t 1 975 ) ; i f B onnaud i sc o r r ec ti na t t r ibu t ing t h i sf a i lu r et ot h er en tt o rn i nt h ed emog raph ic f a b r ic b yl o ng -d is tance w a r s , s hou ld t h i sn o ta l e r tu st ot h ef r ag il i ty n o to n ly o fa na g ra r ian c u l ture b u t o f t h e a s sump t ion t h a t p opu la t ion i s am e re d e te rm ina te f unc t ion o f r e sour ce p o ten t ia l? I ti sn o t o n ly F ebv re 's p o ss ib i l ism w h ich i sb e l ied , b u t t h e 4 7

J. G. L ew thwa i t e

p rem ises o n wh ich s o many s o id isant s c ien t if ic a r chaeo log i s t s r e s t t h e i r c a lcu la t ion s . S uch s u sp ic ions a r e f u e l led b y t wo o the rr eg iona l c a se s t ud ie s . I nt h e f i r s tp l ace , D e l i l le ( 1977 )a t t r ibu te st h ec ompa rab le f a i lu re o ft h eg r ea tp l a in so ft h eE igh teen th a nd N ine teen th C en tu ry K ingdom o f N ap le s t or ep roduce t h e i r r u ra l p ro le ta r ia t , d epend ing i n s tead o n ac ons tan t m ig ran t f l ow f r om t h e h i l l d we l l ing p a t r ia rcha l p o lycu l tu ra l p ea san t ry , t ot h e h uman h aemo r rhage i nf l ic ted b y l a t ifund i s t c e rea l monocu l tu re . P reh i s to r ian s , h oweve r , c an h a rd ly f a i l t on o t ice t h e p r io r i ty o ft h e l o ng s tand ing p uzz le o ft h ee a rl i e rn eol i th ic o ft h eT avol ie r e -o ne o ft h e se v e ry p l a in s c e leb ra ted f o r t h e d en s i ty o fi t s s e t t lemen t d u r ing t h e s i x a nd f i f th m i l lenn ia b c , b a ff l ing o n a ccoun ti fi t sp rec ip i ta te , n ea r to ta ld ec l ine i nt h ef ou r th ( Ca s sano a nd Manf re c l in i 1 983 ; D e lano Sm i th 1 978 ; S a rgen t 1 985 ; T ine 1 983 ; T ine e ta l1 975 ; Wh i tehou se 1 968 a nd 1 986 ) ; s u ch ac on jonc tur ec an h a rd ly b ee xp la ined i nt e rm s o fD e l i l le 's mode l . I si tn o tr a the ra n i nv i ta t ion t ot a ke al e s s s angu ine v i ew o ft h e l o ng te rm c on sequence so ft h et r an s i t ion t of ood r e p roduc t ion ,r e cogn i s ing c a se so f e nv i ronmen ta l d eg rada t ion a nd e ven tua l a bandonmen t f r om t h e v e ry s t a r t o ft h e p roces s? S he r ra t t 's r e sea r che r s i nt h e A lfo ld ( She r ra t t 1 982 , 1 983 ) s e em t op o in t t owa rd s s im i la rc onc lu s ion s : d i sequ i l ib r ium may b ea ni n he ren tf e a tu r eo fa g ra r ian c u l tu re s ,r a the rt h an t h ee f f e c to fa ne x t raneou sv a r iab le , ah i s to r ica lc on t ingency , i mp ing ing o n a ni n na te ly h ea l thy s y s tem . D ay 's r e sea r che s i nS a rd in ia ( Day 1 975 , 1 976 )r a i se f u r the rp rob lem s : ar e g ion h and icapped b ya ne ndem ic f a i lu r et og ene ra te ap opu la t ion s u ff i c ien t t of l e sh o u t t h e s ke le ta l d i s t r ibu t ion o fs e t t lemen t s , w h ich w e re i nc on sequence p a r t i cu la r ly v u lne rab le t od i s so lu t ion a nd a bandonm en t . O nce a ga in ,t h eh i s to r iog r aph ica lt r ad i t ion h a se voked c on t ingen tv a r iab le s -p l ague s , p i ra cy a nd w a r f a re b o th i n te rna la nd i mpe r ia l i s t ,b u tD ay c onc lude st h a tt h ea g ra r ian c u l tu r eo fS a rd in ia w a si n he r en t ly p r eca r iou s , ac oun te r - Ma l thu s ian p a rad igm .

( i i )T h i rd ly a nd f i na l ly ,t h es c a le a nd v o lume o ft h e se f o lk movemen t s ,o ve r looked i nc ommon h i s to r ica lc on sc iou sne s sb e cau se o ft h e i re s sen t ia l ly p ea ce fu ln a tu r ea nd l a ck o fp o l i t ica ls i gn if icance . C u l tu ra ls i gn if i cance ,o fc ou r se ,t h e r ei sa p len ty ; o ne o n ly h a s t oa sk o ne se lf w hy t h e t r a c t o f Aqu i ta ine b e tween t h e P y renee s a nd t h e G a ronne h a s c ome t o b e G a scony , i fn o t t h rough m ig ra t ion o f t h e V ascones ( Ba sque s ) o r w hy t h e l i ngu i s t ic f r on t ie r b e tween G erman ic a nd R omance i nt h e A lp ine r eg ion i sa s c omp lex a s i ti s , w i th i s o la te s l i ke R hae to -Ruman sch i nt h e E ngad ine a nd L ad iono i nt h e D o lom i te s o n t h eo ne h and , w i th t h e Wa lze r s o ft h e Mon te R o sa o rt h eG e rman i cc ommun i ty i nt h eS udT i ro la nd f o rme r ly e ven f u r the r s ou th , o n t h e A s iago P la teau , o n t h e o the r . B lame f o r t h i s s i tua t ion mu s t b e a t t r ibu ted t ot h eg u lf s e p a ra t ing t r ad i t iona lp o l i t ico -m il i ta ry s t aa tsgesch ich te f r om t h e d i sc ip l ine wh ich s e em s t oe x i s t o n ly i nG e rman - v o lk skunde - r ep re sen ted e l sewhe re b y ac onf u sed a nd f r agmen ted f i e ld i n c lud ing E u ropean e t hnog r aphy a nd e t hno logy ,r u ra ls oc io logy ,f o lk lo re s t ud ie sa nd d i a lec to logy .T he c on sequence sf o r E u ropean p r eh i s to ry h ave n o tb een t r iv ia l . F o l low ing J .G .D . C la rk ' sj i be s a tt h er o le o ft h e i nvas ion h ypo thes i s i n B r i t i sh p reh is tory ( C la rk 1 966 ) t h e w ho lesa le d ebunk ing o f V o lkerwanderungen a nd i n deed o ft h ev e ry e x i s t ence o fr e a lf o lk i np reh i s to ry , h a s b ecome a n o r thodoxy : I c an w e l l r e ca l l f r om u nde rg radua te d ays t h e a dmon i t ions o f D av id C la rke , c on t ra s t ing t h e h i s to r ica l i mpac t o ft h e N o rman C onque s t w i th t h a t o ft h e much g r ea te ri n f lux o fD u tchmen a nd F l em ing s i n to t h e E a s tA ng l ian F en s , a nd o fJ ohn

4 8

O r f ord I n t e rna t iona lW e s t e rn Med i t e r ranean B e l lB eak e rC onf e r enc e

A lexande r p o in t ing o u t t h a t t h eA lemann i w e re q u i te l i te ra l ly a l l men - a n o ppo r tun i s t ic s wa rm o fa dven tu re r s r a the r t h an a ne thnos . Mo s tr e cen t ly L indne r ( 1982 ) h a s d emo l i shed e ven t h e my th o f A t t i la 's Hun s ; s o f a r f r om b e ing a n i n v inc ib le h oa rd o f mongo lo id h o r se -a r che r st h ey a ppea rf r om c on tempo ra ry t e x tt o h ave b een a p o lyg lo t r ab id o f p i l lage r s ; b oo ty lade b r igand s , f oo t s logge r s a nd w agon -d r ive r s , i n c lud ing i nt h e i r r ank s n o t o n ly Go ths a nd G ep id s b u t t u rncoa t R oman n ob le s w i th a n e ye o n t h e ma in c hance ( L indne r 1983 ) . N o d oub t al o ng o ve rdue d emy th if i ca t ion ; b u tr eve la t ion so ft h ed i sp ropo r t iona te i mpa c tw rough to n t h eh i s to r ica li mag ina t ion b ys u ch e vane s cen tp ol i t ico -m i l i ta ry e venemen ts s hou ld n o tb ea l lowed t oo b scu re t h ev e ry r e a l i ty o fi n con sp icuou si nf i l t ra t ion so ccu r r ing a t much s l owe rr hy thm s , o re ven l e f tf o rt h e c u l tu re h i s to r ian o re t hno log i s tt oi n f e r f r om c hanged d i s t r ibu t ion sa f te r ap e r iod e n t i r e ly l a ck ing d o cumen ta t ion . T os umma r i se a nc omp lex a rgum en t , Ib e l ieve t h a tt h ec oncep to ft h e c onjonc ture , d e r ived f r om B raude l ian h i s to r iog raphy ,w hen p rope r ly d e l im i ted i ns pa ce a sw el a s t ime , c an h e lp u s t ou nde r s tand t h e B eake rp henomenon . I ne f f ec t , It h ink w e c an s e e an umbe ro fl o ca lc ha lco l i th i ch o t spo t si nt h el a te rt h i rd m i l lenn ium b c ,o ne o f w h ich w a s t h e B eake r h ea r t land o n t h e L owe r R h ine , b ecom ing i n te r l inked a t d i f f e r en tp o in t s i nt h e i r g row th c yc le - h ence i ti sn o s u rp r i se t h a tt h ew e s te rnmo s t p er iphe ry , i n P o r tuga l a nd S ou thea s te rn S pa in , t h e B eake r a s semb lage s hou ld a ppea r l a te i nt h e l o ca lc on jonc tur e , e ven d u r ing i t s r eg re s s ive p ha se . Howeve r , h i s to r ica lc ompa r i son s ugge s t st h a tl a te ra lf l ow so fp opu la t ion a nd a g ra r ian c u l tu re o u twa rd f r om s uch n ode so rh o t spo t si n to a r ea so fr e la t ive s t agna t ion s hou ld n o tb e u nexpec ted .

T oward s a n A rchaeo logy o f Med i terranean S truc tur es * ********* I n t h e p reced ing p age s Ih ave o u t l ined ac a se f o r t h e q ua l if i ca t ion o ft h e B eake r p henomenon a sb o th ac on jonc tur ei ni t so wn r i gh ta nd a s ah o r izon o re ven e ven t ( e venemen t ) i mp ing ing u pon c ha lco l i th ic c on jonc tures i nt h ev a r iou s r eg ion s o f t h e We s te rn Med i te r ranean ; If u r the rb e l ieve i tp o s s ib le t oi d en t ify s t i l l s hadow ie r p a t te rn s , s t i l l s l owe r r y thym s o f l ongue d ur ee w h ich may j u s t if iab ly b e t e rmed s t ruc tu r e s .A tt h eo n se to ft h ew r i t ing o ft h i se s say , many mon th sa go , Ih ad i nm ind t h ef olow ing s imp l i s t ic b i na ry p o s i t ion : S truc ture A l - s i tua t ion o f h igh p r e s sure , p an - Med i te r ranean i n nova t ion a nd i n te rac t ion , f r equen t ly ma rked b y a c tua l d i f fu s ion a l ong a n e a s t -wes t a x is , e xemp l if ied b y t h e c omme rc ia l a nd c o lon ia l h egemon ie s o fP hoen ic ian s , G reek , C a r thag in ian s ,R oman sa nd e a r ly Med ieva l Mu s l im s ; S truc ture B l - l ow p ressure s i tua t ions o f c on t inen ta l i mp ingemen t o n t h e Med i te r ranean ,n o tab ly t h rough t h ei r r up t ion so fC e l t sa nd G a la t ian s ,t h eG e rman ic I nva s ions o f t h e v olkerwanderungsze i t , t he r e su rgence o f Med ieva l C h r is tendom c u lm ina t ing i n t h e C ru sade s ( pa r t icu la r ly t h e R econqu i s ta o f A l A nda lu s a nd t h e s u cce s s ive s e izu re s o f S i c i ly b y t h e N o rmans a nd t h e Swab ian H ohen s tauf en ) ,n o tt o men t ion t h e mo re r e cen tc omme r c ia la nd c o lon ia ld om inance b yn o r ther np owe r s s u ch a sG rea tB r i ta in .

4 9

J .G .L ew thwa i te

My t h e s i sw a st wofo ld : f i r s t ly ,t oi d en t ify t h eB eake rp henomenon a sa ni n s tance o f B 1 ( i ndeed , m irab i le d ic tu , t h e f i r s t o f i t s k ind ) ; s e cond ly t o a rgue t h a t t h e s i tua t ions b e l og ica l ly l i nked i np a i r s w i th in ad i a lec t ica l h i s to ry , s uch t h a t t h e Med i te r ranean h em icyc le i n e ach p a i r ing s omehow d e te rm ined t h e c on t inen ta l r e sponse . How s o? P e rhaps t h rough i mp rovemen t s i nt h e s t andard o fl i v ing o r l i f es ty le mak ing t h e Med i te r ranean mo re a t t ra c t ive f o r s e t t lemen t b y n o r the rn b a rba r ian s ; p e rhap s , mo re mundane ly ,t h rough am e r el a gi nt h er a te o fd i f f u s ion o f i n nova t ion si nt h ee conom ic s ub s tra te , s u ch t h a ti ne a ch i n s tance t h e Med i te r ranean w ou ld h ave p eaked a nd r eached a p l a teau e ven a s t h e i nnova t ion w a s j u s t b eg inn ing t os t imu la te p opu la t ion g row th o rp o l i t ica l d ynam i sm i nt h e t empe ra te N o r th .A sw r i t ing p rog re s sed ,h oweve r ,i tb ecame mo r ea nd mo re o bv iou st h a ts u ch a no ppo s i t ion w a sn o to n ly d i ff i cu l tt os ub s tan t ia te b u ti n t r in s ica l ly a ni l though to u t mudd le : e conom ic , d emog raph ic , c u l tu ra l a nd m i l i ta ry -po l i t ica l p henomena w e re b e ing p udd led t oge the ra nd p ou r ed i n to t h i s p roc rus tean p a i r ing : mo re m i sp la ced c onc re tene s s . Mo reove r , S he r ra t t 's p ape r ( t h i s p ub l ica t ion ) r em inded m e t h a t t h e d eve lopmen t si nM idd le E u rope w e r e ,a so f ten a sn o t ,a tl e a s ti np reh i s to ry ,n e i the r i nd igenous n o r r e sponses t o s t imu l i o r ig ina t ing i n t h e We s te rn o r C en t ra l Med i te r ranean , b u tw e re d ue t o ap a ra l le lp ro ce s so fd i f fu s ion o fu l t ima te ly A s ia t ic v a r iab le s a l ong t h e B a lkan -Danub ian o rC auca so -Pon t ic a xe s . F ina l ly , t h en eed t o r e f lec to nt h ep re -B ronze Age d ynam ic so ft h e Med i te r ranean i na n t ic ipa t ion o fy e t a no the rc onf e rence ( Lew thwa i t ei np r epa ra t ion )c a ta ly sed t h e s yn the s i so f as l igh t ly d i f f e ren td yad ,t h i st im ed i s t iled f r om e a r l ie rp r eh i s to r i c ,p r e -Beake rp a t te rn ing s : S truc ture A 2 - c onve rgence o r c en t r ipe ta l i ty , t h e Med i te r ranean a c t ing a s a m a r i t ime i n te rac t ion s phe r e ,f o cu sed i nwa rd ly o ni t se l f . S truc ture B 2 -c en t r i fuga ls i tua t ion si nw h ich c i r cum f e ren t ia lr eg ion s ,t u rn ing t h e i r b a ck s o n to t h e m idd le s e a , w e re mo re i n te r l inked w i th t h e i rr e spec t ive c on t inen ta l h i n te r land s . I ne f f ec t ,t h e Med i t e r r anean s c a r ce ly e x i s t ed a ss u ch ,d i s so lv ing i n to i t s c ons t i tuen tb a s in s a nd p en in su lae . T o my c on s ide rab le s u rp r i se , A 2 , t h e mode lo f t h e Med i te r ranean f avou r ed a nd p ropaga ted b y B raude l a nd o t he r h i s to r ian s a nd g eog raphe r s , t u rned o u t t ob e t h e e xcep t ion r a the rt h an t h e r u le p r io r t ot h e t h i rd m i l lenn ium b e :i ndeed ,p r a c t ica l ly t h eo n ly p r ev iou si n s ta t ia t ion a ppe a r st oh ave b e en t h e 6 000 b c h o r izon o ft h e d i spe r s ion o fd ome s t ic o v icapr ine s a nd c e ram ic s . B 2 , o nt h eo t he rh and ,a ppea r st oh ave b e en t h es t ab le s t a t et h roughou te a r l ie rp r eh i s to ry :

( i ) Du r ing t h es even th m ilenn ium b e ,i s land s e t t lemen ta c t iv i ty a nd S auver ter r ian i n nova t ion s i nl i th ic i ndu s t r ie s ( whence t h e s i x th m i l lenn ium b e T ard eno i s ian ) w e re c oncen t ra ted i nt h e mo re h um id ,t empe r a te w e s te rn b a s in . ( i ) D u r ing t h ef ou r th a nd e a r ly t h i rd m i l lenn ium b e ,t h e ma te r ia lc u l tu r e s t y le sa nd s ub s is tence -se t t lemen t s y s tem s o ft h e g r ea te r p a r t o ft h e w e s te rn b a s in a nd I t a ly a ppea rt oh ave b een e x tens ion so ft ho se o ft h ew e s te rn , C en t ra l a nd e ven n o r ther n E u rope ( Cha s seen -M iche l sbe rg -TRB c on t inuum ,c a t t le h u sband ry ,e t c ) ; ( i i ) I ndeed , ac a se c an b e made f o rt h eI mp re s sed Wa r ec u l tu r eg roup ( c i r ca 6 000 t o 4 000 b e ) b e ing a n a dap ta t ion t o t empe ra te r a the r t han e u romed i te r ranean e nv i ronmen t s , b ea r ing i nm ind t h e c ompa ra t ive r a p id i ty w i th w h ich t h i s c u l tu re p e rmea ted t h eP oP la in , A qu i ta ine a nd t h eA t lan t ic c oa s t l ine o fF r ance ,c on t ra s t ing w i th t h e s l ugg i sh r e spon se n o to n ly o ft h e Magh reb , b u t t h e v e ry A egean t h rough w h ich N eo l i th i ci n nova t ion s mu s tn eed sh ave p a s sed ;

5 0

Ox f o rd I n te r na t iona l We s te rn Med i te r r anean B e l l B e ake rC onf e r ence

( i v )I ne f f ec t ,t h et r ans i t ion t ov i l lage f a rm ing i nt h en o r ther na nd w e s ter nr eg ion so f t h eI b e r ian P en in su la e f f ec t ive ly o ccu r red n oe a r l ie rt h an i nt h et h i rd m ilenn ium b e , i . e . i n t h e g u ise o f t he C ha lco l i th ic c onjonc tures w i th w h ich t h e B eake r p henomenon i t se lf i n te rac ted . S een i nt h i sl i gh t , t h eB eake rp henomenon a ppea r so nce mo re a sa ne pocha lt u rn ing p o in tb e tween a ne a rl ie re r ac ha ra c te r i sed b yt h ep r eva lence o fS truc ture B 2 a nd a l a te rp e r iod i n c rea s ing ly t y p if ied b yA 2 ,a s a Med i terranean isa t ion o f l a nd scape s a nd w ay s o fl i f e ( g enres d e v i e ) t ook p l ace i n as pura l o r s t ep l ike p rog re ss ion f r om e a s tt ow es t . A l though q u i te c l ea r ly t ob ec l a s sed a s aB 2 s i tua t ion l i nk ing t h e w e s te rn b a s in w i th We s t -Cen t ra lE u rope a nd h av ing mo re i nc ommon w i th t h el a te r Me so l i th ic a nd l a te r N eo l i th ic p a t ter n s ( con t inen ta l c ore , p en insu la rp er ipher ies ) t h e B eake rp henomenon i si nd iv idua l ised b y af e a tu re o fc on s ide rab le i mpo r t f o r l a te rp reh i s to ry : t h e a ch ievemen to f as t rong c u l tu ra lp er sona l i ty i nt h e s ou th a nd w e s t o fI ber ia ( a nd t o al e sse r e x ten t i n Ma l lo rca a nd S a rd in ia ) , w h ich may h ave b een a ne s sen t ia lp r econd i t ion f o rt h e m i se e n s cene o f A2 a s t h e s t ruc tu ra l n o rm u nde r ly ing t h ee ven t so fl a te rp reh i s to r ic a nd h i s to r ic p e r iod s . C onc lus ions * ****** ( 1 ) T he p o in t o ft h i s e s say h a s n o t b een t h e o f f e r o fy e t a no the r s o lu t ion t ot h e p uzz le o ft h eB eake rp henomenon b u tt h e s ugge s t ion t h a ta r chaeo log i s t sd evo te a s much a t ten t ion t ot h e s t ra t if ica t ion o ft h e i r ( p re ) h i s to r iog raphy a s t ot ha t o ft h e i r s i tes . T he t r iad o ft empo ra l i t ie s al aB raude l i so pen t oa n o bv iou s o b jec t ion : i si t i mp l ied t ob ea na t t r ibu te o fr ea l i ty o rm e re ly amo re o rl e s sa rb i t ra ry i mpo s i t ion o f t h er e sea r che r , ac onven ience f o rt h eo rde r ing o fr aw p henomena? Whe the ro rn o ti n c onfo rm i ty w i th t h eB raude l ian o r thodoxy , Iw ou ld b eh app ie rd ef end ing t h el a t te r p o s i t ion i n p r inc ipa l , t he r e sea rche r s hou ld a t temp t t o o p t im ise t h e t empo ra l s t ra t ig raphy b y e xpe r imen ta t ion w i th e ach s pec if i c h i s to r ica lp rob lem ; i np rac t ice , t h is i sl i ab le t ob e ac ounse lo fp e r f ec t ion . A tt h ee nd o ft h ed ay , t h e who le p o in to f t h ee xe r c ise i ss imp ly t of r ac t iona te t h e w h i te l i gh t o fu n s truc tured a r chaeo log ica l p henomena i n to as pec t rum o fd i f f e ren t w ave leng ths , t h e b e t te r t oa pp rec ia te t h e c o lour s o ft h e p a s t . ( 2 ) A s e conda ry amb i t ion h a s b een t h a t o f d ef lec t ing t h e f u r ther i nves tmen t o f e ne rgy i n p rema tu re a nd p a r t ia l mode ls o f t h e i nne r c ontent o f t h e B eake r p henomenon ( i e . a sp e r ipa te t ic c oppe r sm i ths , p r es t ige a s semb lages o ri d eo log ica l mes sages ) t owa rd s i t s i nne rf orm i ns pace a nd t ime . F o ro ne t h ing ,i ti sc l ea rt h a t t h eD u tch Mode li sn o mo r et h an ap a r t ia ld e sc r ip t ion o ft h e ma te r ia lc u l tu ra la spec t s , s i nce t h e a ccre t ion s t ot h e c e ram ic c o re a r e a tl e a s t a s s i gn if ican t a st h e B eake r s t h emse lves ; i ndeed , t h e B eaker p eop le ( P lano -occ ip i ta l s t e i lkopfe ) a nd t h e B eake r sp rope ra ppea rt oh a i lf r om d i f f e ren th ome s . Wh i le a ccep t ing t h ep r ima cy o f t h ec on jonc ture o n t h e L owe rR h ine , w e a r e s t i l l al ong w ay f r om u nde r s tand ing h ow a nd w hy t h is c ame t oi mp inge u pon t h e c on jonc tures o f t h e l owe r R hone o r l owe rT agus o r l owe rT i r so . Am e teo ro log ica l a na logy s ugge s t s i t se lf : w e d o n o t u nde r s tand a l l a bou tt h ea tmo sphe r ica lc ond i t ion so b ta in ing o ve r aw ide a r ea , a ta l l a l t i tude s , i no rde r t o p o s td ic t i t s t r ack a nd t h e b u i ld -up o fi t s f u l l a mp l i tude . I n a r chaeo log ica l t e rm s , i ti ss t r ik ing h ow t h e B eake r p henomenon c ompa res a nd c on t ra s t s w i th as l igh t ly e a r l ie rB 2 s i tua t ion : t h e e s tab l ishmen t i nt h e l a t te rf our th

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J .G .L ew thwa i t e

m i l lenn ium b co f at e r re s t r ia li n te ra c t ion s phe re l i nk ing Med i te r ranean F rance w i th t h e No r th E u ropean P l a in a sf a ra st h e s ho re so ft h eB a l t ic ( Cha s seen -M iche l sb e rg TRB c on t inuum ) , T he mo rphogene s i s o f as y s tem o fr ou te s a nd n ode s s t re t ch ing s ou th -we s t t o P o r tuga l a nd s ou th t o S a rd in ia , o n t h e o the r h and , t e s t if ie s t o a q uan tum l e ap i nc ommun ica t ion s : at r ue m a r i t ime i n te ra c t ion s phe r e ,a sd ir ec t iona l a si t sp r edece sso rw a sd i f f u se .T he e x i s tence o ft r ad i t iona l ly i n exp l icab le b l ank so n t h e map o f t h e l a te r t h i rd m i l lenn ium b c i st h e refo re e n t i re ly p red ic tab le : t h e i n nova t ion o ft h e B eake rp henomenon c on s i s t sp r ec i se ly o ft h i s h i e r a r ch i sa t ion o f s pace . ( 3 ) T he v a r iou s e xp lana t ions o ft h e B eake r p henomenon s ha re a n u nm i s takab le f am i l y l i kene ss w i th t h e n ume rou s c oncre t ions w h ich h ave r e cen t ly c rowded t h e C ha lco l i th ic , s uch a s S he r ra t t 's S econda ry P roduc t s P a s to ra l R evo lu t ion , G i lman 's c oncep t o f a n a gg rand i s ing e l i te e xp lo i t ing t h e s oc ia l c on sequence s o f c ap i ta l in ten s ive s ub s i s tence t e chno logy ,R enf r ew ' sr a t iona l ly b u r eauc ra t ic M inoan manage r so rH a l s tead 's e s say si n to t h ep r eh i s to ry o fc o l lec t ive s o c ia l s e cu r i ty . A l l t h e se c on s t ruc t sb ea rw i tne s st ot h eu b iqu i ty o ft h ei n tu i t ion t h a tr evo lu t ion a ry w e r e u nde rway d u r ing t h e l a te rt h i rd a nd e a r ly s e cond m i l lenn ia b c ; e ach f a l l s s ho r ti n e i the ro ve r ex t rapo la t ing as ene r io w h ich i sa tb e s tl o ca l ly v a l id o ri na t t r ibu t ing t h e g ene s i s o f au n ique p henomenon ( t he P a lace c i v i l i sa t ion o fB ronze A ge C re te ) t o c au sa lf a c to r so fp an - Med i te r ranean ,i fn o tp an -Eu rop ean ,g ene ra l i ty .T he w eakne s s o f my o wn p o s i t ion i st h a t Ih ave n o tg o t amode lt oc on t r ibu te w h ich ,i nb e ing v a l id a tl e a s tf o rt h e ma jo rw e s te rn Med i te r ranean i s land s ,S a rd in ia i np ar t icu la r ,w ou ld a c t a s ac o r rec t ive w i th r e spec t t o mode l s d e r ived f r om o the rr eg ions . F o r Wha t i ti s w o r th , Ic an o n ly s ay t h a t Ih av e ah unch t h a tc on t ro lo ft h ee ne rgy -mu l t ip l ie re f f ec t o f b ov ine t r ac t ion i n ap lough -u s ing f a rm ing s y s tem s e em s t o h o ld t h e g r ea te r p rom i se f o rf u tu r er e sea r ch . ( 4 ) O ne f i e ld o fh i s to r ica l a na log ie s w h ich Ih ad h oped t of i nd t ime t or e sea r ch b efo re t h e c omp le t ion o ft h i s e s say , b u t w h ich mu s t n eed s b e h e ld o ve rt o an ew o cca s ion o r , p e rhaps , w a rm ly c ommended t oi n te re s ted s cho la r s , i st h a t o f t h e i n t roduc t ion o ff euda l i sm i n to t h e c oun t r ie s o ft h e n o r th -we s te rn Med i te r ranean a nd i n p a r t icu la r i n to i t s a r chaeo log ica l ly -v i s ib le r am if ica t ion s i n t e rm s o f t h e s e t t lemen tp a t te rn s a nd a r ch i tec tu re ( i ncas te l lamen to ) , w i th p a r t icu la ra t ten t ion t o t h e s t ud ie s o fB onna s s ie o n C a ta lunya , P o ly o n P rovence a nd T oub e r t o n L az io ( w i th r ega rd t ot h e l a rge rq ue s t ion ) a nd t h e B azzana a nd G u icha rd i nt h e L levan t , C oma a nd S e t t ia i nP iedmon t( w i th r e spec tt ot h ea r chaeo logy o ff o r t i f ied s i te s ) . I n t h e c a se o ff euda l i sm , a s i nt h a t o f t h e B eake r p henomenon , t h e q ue s t ion i sa s much o ne o f d ef in ing t h e e xp lanandum a s o ft h e u nea r th ing o fe xp lanans ( i s f euda l i sm amode o fp roduc t ion , aw ay o fl i f e , as y s tem o ft e nu r ia l r e la t ion s , a n i d eo logy , e t c . . . . ) a nd o fd i sc r im ina t ing b e tween h i s to r ica l ly c on t ingen te ven t s a nd l o ng te rm p roces se s . Acknow ledgement s * ******* T hank sa r ed ue i nt h ef i r s tp l ace t ot h es c ho la r s ,t o on ume rou st om en t ion ,w ho h ave g i ven o f f p r in t so ve rt h ey ea r s . Ia mg ra te fu l t oD av id S ho t te ro ft h ed epa r tmen to f C la ss ics a nd A rchaeo logy , o f t h e U n ive r s i ty o f L anca s te r , f o r a pp rov ing t h e e xpen se sw h i ch m ade p o s s ib le m ya t tendance a tt h ec on f e r ence ,d u r ing my t e nu r eo f at empo r a ry l e c tu re sh ip ,a nd t o Mr . A rno ld A sp ina l lo ft h eS choo lo fA r cha eo log ica l

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O xf ord I n t e rna t iona lW e s t e rn Med i t e r ranean B e l lB eak e rC onf e r en ce

S c ience s ,o ft h eU n ive r s i ty o fB rad fo rd ,f o rt h ea ppo in tmen tt oa nh ono r a ry r e sea r ch a s s i s tan t sh ip wh ich e nab led t h e p ape r t ob e r e sea r ched a nd w r i t ten u p . Io we a p a r t icu la r d eb t o f g ra t i tude t o Mr . M ike H eywor th , a l so o f t h e U n ive r s i ty o f B rad fo rd , f o ru nder tak ing t h e wo rd -p roce s s ing o f my s c raw l . L a s t b u tn o tl e a s t , I wou ld l i ke t oe xp re s s my t h ank s t oD r . W .H . ( B i l l ) Wa ld ren f o r t h e i n v i ta t ion t o p a r t ic ipa te ,f o rh i sp a t ience i na wa i t ing ap a r t icu la r ly t a rdy c on t r ibu t ion ,a nd f o rt h e w a rm th o fh i sf r iend sh ip o ve rt h ep a s td ecade .

5 3

B ib l iography ******* A lmag ro G o rbea , M . 1 978 . ' P rob lems o f t h e O r ig in o f Me ta l lurgy i n t h e I be r ian P en in su la ( p re -Beake r Me ta l lu rgy ) ' i nM . R yan ( e d ) . T he O r ig in s o f Me ta l lurgy i nA t lan t ic E urope . P roc . o ft h e5 th A t lan t ic C o l loqu ium ,p p .1 -6 ,T he S t a t iona ry O f f ice ,D ub l in . Amber t , P .B ou rh i s , J .R . a nd H ou le s , N . 1 986 . ' Une P o in te d e P a lme la p r e s d e s M ines d e C ab r ie r e s ( He rau l t ) ' B u l le t in d e l aS oc ie te P reh i s tor ic F ranca i se 8 3 ( 4 ) ,p p .125 -128 . B a rbaza , M . , G u i la ine , J .a nd V aque ra , J .1 984 . ' F ondemen t s C h rono -Cu l tu ra l d u Me sol i th ique e nL anguedo cO cc iden ta le ' ,L 'An th ropo log ie ( Par i s )8 8 ( 3 ) , p p .345 -365 . B onnaud ,P .1 977 . ' P eop l ing t h eO r ig in so fS e t t lemen t ' i nH .D . C lou t( e d ) .T hemes i n H i s tor ica l G eography o fF rance , p p . 2 1 -72 , A cadem ic p re s s , L ondon . B r ad ley ,R . 1 984 .S oc ia lF ounda t ion so fP r eh i s tor ic B r i ta in .L ongman ,L ondon . B raude l , F . , 1 949 . L a Med i ter ranee e tl e Monde Med i ter raneen a l ' Epoque d e P h i l ippe I . L ib . A . C o l in , P a r i s . B raude l , F . , 1 972 . T he Med i t er ranean a nd t h e Med i ter ranean Wor ld i nt h eA ge o f P h i l ip I ( Eng l . T r . o f a bove b y S .R eyno ld s ) , C o l l in s , L ondon ( 2 v o ls . ) B raude l , F . , 1 981-84 . C iv i l isa t ion a nd C ap i ta l i sm ( 3 v o l s . ) ( Eng l . T r . b y S . R eyno ld so fF r . O r ig . ) B ray , W . , 1 964 . ' S a rd in ian B eake r s ' , P roceed ings o ft h e P reh i s tor ic S oc ie ty 3 0 , p p . 7 5 -99 . B r i seba r r e ,A . -M . , 1 978 . B e rge re sd e s C evenne s , B e rge r -L ev r au l t ,P a r i s . C amp s , G . , 1 976 . ' L a Q ue s t ion d e s N av iga t ions P reh is to r ique d an s l eB a s s in O cc iden ta l d e l a Med i te r ranee ' , C omp tes -Rendus , C ongres P reh i s tor ique d eF rance , XXe S e s s ion , P rovence 1 974 ,p p .53 -65 . C amp s -Fab re r , H . , C o lme r , A . , C ou la rou , J . , C ou r t in , J . , C ou te l , R . , d 'Anna , A . a nd G u the rz , X . , 1 984 . ' L e s E nce in te s d u N eo l i th ique al ' Age d u B ronze d ans l e S udE s t d e l aF rance ' , i n W . H . Wa ld ren , R .W . C hapman , J .G . L ew thwa i te a nd R . C . K enna rd ( e d s ) , T he D eya C onf erence o f P reh i s tor y , ( i ) , p p . 3 39 -366 , BAR I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s2 29 ,B r i t i sh A r chaeo log ica lR epo r t s ,O xfo rd .

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O xf ord I n t e rna t iona l We s t ern Med i t er ranean B e l lB eak er C onf erence

C a se , H . , 1 976 . ' Con texua l A rchaeo logy a nd t h eB eake r C u l tu re ' , i nJ .N . L an t ing a nd J .D . V an d e r Waa l s ( ed s ) G lockenbecher sympos ion ( Oberr ied , 1 974 ) . p p . 4 53 -458 , F ibu la -van D i shoek , B ru ssum ( Ne th .$ ) . C a ssano , S .M . a nd Manf red in i , A . , 1 983 . S ard is u lN eo l i th ico d e lT avo l iere d e l la P ug l ia , BAR I n te rna t iona l S e r ies 1 60 , B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epor t s , O xfo rd . C la rk , J .G .D . , 1 966 . ' The I nva s ion H ypo the s i s i nB r i t ish A rchaeo logy ' , A n t iqu i ty 4 0 ( 3 ) , N o .159 , p p .172 -189 . C la rke , D .L . , 1 976 . ' The B eake r N e two rk - S oc ia l a nd E conom ic Mode l s ' , i nJ .N . L an t ing a nd J .D . V an d e r Waa l s ( e d s ) G lockenbecher sympos ion ( Oberre id , 1 974 ) , p p . 4 59 -476 . F ibu la -van D ishoek , B ussum ( Ne th .$ ) . C ou tau -Bega r ie , H . , 1 983 . L e P henomene " Nouve l le H is to ire" . S tra teg ie e t I deo log ie d e sN ouveaux H i s tor ien s ,E conom ica ,P a r i s . C o l l ins , H .M . , 1 981 . ' The P lace o f t h e " Co re -Se t ' i n Mode rn S c ience : S oc ia l C on t ingency w i th Me thodo log ica lP rope r ty i nS c ience " ,H i s tory o f S c ience 1 9, p p . 6 19 . C ou le t , N . , 1 978 . " Sou rce e tA spec t s d e l ' H i s to i re d e l aT ran shumance d es O v ine e nP rovence a uB a s Moyen A ge " , L a Monde A lp ine e tR hodan ien 6 ( 4 ) , p p . 2 13 -247 . C ou t in , J . , 1 974 . L e N eo l i th ique d e l a P rovence ( Memo ires d e l a S oc ie te P reh i s tor ique F ranca i se , 1 ) ,K l inck s ieck ,P a r i s . D 'Anna , A . , a nd Gu the rz , X . , 1 985 . ' L e s E nce in te s P reh i s to r ique d u S udEs td el a F rance ' ,L e s Dos s ier s , H i s to ire e tl ' Archeo log ie 9 9 ,p p . 8 12 . Day , J . , 1 975 . ' Ma t thus D emen t i? S ous -Peup lemen t C h ron ique e t C a lam i tes D emog raph iques e n S a rda ignwe a u B a s Moyan Age ' , A nna les : E conom ie s , S oc ie tes , C iv i l i sa t ion s3 0 ( 4 ) ,p p . 6 84 -702 . Day , J . , 1 976 . ' L 'Insed iamen to P recar io i nS a rdegna n e i S eco l i X I I -XVI I ' i nA t t i d e l C o l loqu io I n ternaz iona le d iA rcheo log ia Med ieva le ( Pa lermo 1 974 ) , V o l ,I , p p . 2 28 -242 , I s t i tu to d i S to r ia Med ieva le d e l l ' U n ive r s i ta ,P a le rmo . D ef fon ta ine s , P . , 1 932 L es Hommes e tL eur T ravaux d an sl e sP ays d el a Moyenne Garonne ( Agena is , B as Quercy ) . F acu l tes C a tho l iques , L i l le r ep r in ted L ib ra r ie Q ue s seveu r ,A gen s , 1 978 . D e lano Sm i th , C . , 1 972 . ' L a te N eo l i th ic S e t t lemen t , L and U se a nd Gar r igue i nt h e Mon tpe l l ie rR eg ion , F rance ' , Man n . s . 7 ,p p . 3 97 -407 .

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J .G .L ew thwa i te

D e lano Sm i th , C . , 1 978 . Daun ia V e tus . T erra , V i ta eMu tamen t i s u l le C os te d e l T avo l iere , Amm in i s t raz ione P rov inc ia le d iC ap i tana ta ,F ogg ia . D e lano Sm i th ,C . , 1 979 . W e s tern Med i ter ranean E urope . A cadem ic P re s s ,L ondon . D e l i l le ,G . , 1 977 .A gr ico l tura eDemograf ia n e !R egno d iN apo l in e iS eco l i XV I I Ie X IX , Gu ida e d . , N ap les . F er rarese C eru t i , M .L . , 1 979 . ' Ce ram ica M icenea i n S a rdegna ( No t iz ia P r e l i tn ina re ) ' ,R ev i s ta d iS c ienze P re i s tor iche 3 4 ,p p . 2 43 -253 . G a sco , J . , 1 979 . ' L 'O rgan isa t ion E conom ique e t S pa t ia le d ' une C ommunau te P aysanne P reh is to r ique : l e G roupe d e F onbou isse e n B as L anguedoc ' , E tudes R ura le s 7 5 ,p p .5 -16 . G e ison , G .L . , 1 981 'S c ien t if ic C hange , Eme rg ing S pec ia l i t ies a nd R esea rch S choo l s ' , H i s to ry o fS c ience 1 9 , p p . 2 0 -40 . G i lman , A . , 1 981 ' The D eve lopmen t o f S oc ia l ; S t ra t if ica t ion i n B ronze Age E u rope ' , C ur ren tA n thropo logy 2 2 ( 1 ) ,p p . . 1 23 . G rama in , M . , 1 977 . ' L e s F ormes d 'E levage e n B a s -Languedoc O cc iden ta l a ux X I I Ieme e t X IVeme S iec les ' , i n L 'E levage e n Med i terranee O cc iden ta le ( Ac te s d u C o l loque I n terna t iona ld e S enanque 1 976 ) . CNRS , P a r i s . G rama in , M . , 1 976 . ' L a C iv i l i sa t ion d e V ases C ampan ifo rmes d an s l eM id i d e l a F rance ' . , i n J .N . L an t ing a nd J .D . V an d er Waa ls ( eds ) G lockenbecher sympos ion ( Ober r ied 1 974 ) , p p . 3 51-70 . F ibu la -van D ishoek , B u ssum ( Ne th .$ ) . Gu i la ine , J . , 1 976 . ' L a C iv i l isa t ion d e s V ase s C ampan ifo rme d ans l eM id i d e l a F rance ' , i n J .N . L an t ing a nd J .D . V an d e Waa ls ( eds ) G lock enbecher sympo s ion ( Obe r r e id 1 974 ) .,p p . 3 51- 7 0 , F ibu la -van D ishboek , B u ssum ( Ne th .$ ) . H a r r ison , R . , 1 977 . T he B e l lB eaker C u l ture s o fS pa in a nd P or tuga l ( Amer ican S choo l o fP reh i s tor ic R esearch , B u l le t in 3 5 ) , P eabody Museum , H arva rd U n ive r s i ty , C amb r idge , Ma s sachuse t te s . H a r r ison , R . , 1 980 . T he B eaker F o lk , T hame s a nd H ud son , L ondon . 972 . ' F ernand B raude l a nd t h e Monde B raude l l ien ' , J ourna l o f H ex ter , J .H . , 1 Mod ern H i s tory 4 4 ,p p . 4 80 -539 . ,1 975 . P aysage e t V i l lages N euf d u Moyen A ge , F edera t ion H igoune t , C. H i s to r ique d u S ud -Oue s t , B o rdeaux .

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O xf ord I n t erna t iona l We s t e rn Med i t e r ranean B e l lB eak e rC onf e rence

H un t , L . , 1 986 . ' F rench H i s to ry i nt h eL a s t Twen ty Y ea r s : t h eR i se a nd F a l lo ft h e Anna les P a rad igm ' J ourna l o fC on temporary H i s tory 2 1 , p p . 2 09 2 24 . I gge r s , G .G . , 1 975 . ' The Anna les T rad i t ion - F rench H is to r ian s i n s ea rch o f a S c ience o f H is to ry ' , i n G .G . I gge r s ( ed ) N ew D irec t ions i n E uropean H is tor iography , p p . 4 3 -79 , We s leyan U n ive r s i ty P re ss , M idd le town ( Conn . ) . K e l le r , D .R . a nd R upp , D .N . , 1 983 .A rchaeo log ica lS ur vey i nt h e Med i ter ranean A rea , BAR I n te rna t iona lS e r ie s 1 55 ,B r i t i sh A r chaeo log ica lR epo r t s , O xfo rd . K e l lne r , H . 1 979 . ' D iso rde r ly C onduc t : B raude l 's Med i te r ranean S a t i re ' , H i s tory a nd T heory 1 8 , p p . 1 9 1222 . K ey lo r , H . , 1 975 . A cademy a nd C ommun i ty . T he F ourda i on o f t h e F rc ich H is to r ica l P rofess ion . H a rva rd Un ive r s i ty P ress , C amb r idge ( Ma ss . ) . K in se r , S . , 1 981 . ' Anna i i s te P a rad igm? T he G eoh i s to r ica lS t ruc tu ral i sm o fF er nand B raude l ' , Amer ican H i s tor ica lR ev iew 8 6 ,p p . 6 3 -105 . Knapp , P . , 1 984 . ' Can S oc ia l T heory E scape f r om H is to ry? V iews o fH i s tory i n S oc ia lS c ience ' , H i s to ry a nd T heo ry 2 3 ( 1 ) ,p p . 3 4 -52 . L ew thwa i te , J .G . , 1 982 . ' Aco rns f o rt h e A nces to r s : t h eP reh i s to r ic E xp lo i ta t ion o f Wood land i nt h e Wes t Med i te r ranean , i nM . B e l l a nd S .L imb rey ( ed s ) A rchaeo log ica l A spec t s o f Wood land E co logy , BAR I n te rna t iona lS e r ie s 1 46 ,B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica lR epo r t s ,O x fo rd . L ew thwa i te , J .G . , 1 984 . ' P a s to re , P ad rone : t h e S oc ia l D imen s ion s o fP a s to ra l i sm i n P rehurag ic S a rd in ia ' , i n W .H . Wa ld ren , R .W . C hapman , J .G . L ew thwa i te a nd R .C . K enna rd ( ed s ) T he D eya C onf erence o f P reh is tory ( i ) , p p . 5 2 -87 , BAR I n terna t iona l S er ies 2 29 , B r i t i sh A r chaeo log ica lR epo r t s ,O xfo rd . L ew thwa i te , J .G . , 1 986a . A rchaeo log is ts i n A cademe : a n I ns t i tu t iona l C onf inemen t? ' , i nJ . L . B in t l if fa nd C .F . C af fney ( e d s ) A r chaeo logy a t t h e I n te rf ace , p p . 5 2 -87 , BAR I n te rna t iona l S er ies 3 00 , B r i t ish A r chaeo log ica lR epo r t s ,O xfo rd . L ew thwa i te , J .G . , 1 986b . ' F rom Men ton t o t he Mondego i n T hree S teps : A pp l ica t ion o f t h e A va i lab i l i ty Mode l t o t h e T rans i t ion o f F ood P roduc t ion i n O cc i tan ia , Med i ter ranean S pa in a nd S ou the rn P o r tuga l ' ,A rqueo log ia ( Opo r to ) 1 3 ,p p .95 -119 . L e R oy L adur ie , E . , 1 982 . ' Wha t i s aNomad ic T r ibe? ' C ompara t ive S tud ie s i n S oc ie ty a nd H i s to ry 2 4 ,p p . 6 89 -711 .

5 7

J .G .L ew thwa i te

L o rb lanche t , M . , 1 965 . 'C on t r ibu t ions a l ' E tude d u P eup lemen t d es G rands C au s se s ' ,B u l le t in d el aS oc ie te P reh i s tor ique F ranca i se 4 3 ,p p . 6 67 7 12 . Makk i , L . , 1 983 . ' A r s H i s tor ica : O n B raude l 'R ev iew 6 ( 4 ) , p p .435 -453 . McNe i l , W .H . , 1 986 . ' My th is to ry , o r T ru th , My th , H is to ry a nd H is to r ians ' , Amer ican H i s tor ica lR ev iew 9 1 ( 1 ) ,p p . 1 10 . M i l le r , D . , 1 982 . ' Exp lana t ion a nd S oc ia lT heo ry i nA r chaeo log ica lP rac t ice ' ,i nC . R enf r ew , M .J . R ow land s a nd B . Abbo t t S eg rave s ( e d s ) T heor ya nd E xp lana t ion i nA rchaeo logy . T he S ou th Hamp ton C onf erence , p p . 8 3 -95 ,A cadem ic P re ss , L ondon . M i l ls , N .T .W . , 1 983 . ' The N eo l i th ic o f S ou thern F rance ' , i n J .C . S ca r re ( e d ) , A nc ien tF rance -Neo l i th ic S oc ie t ies a nd T he ir L and scapes 6 000 2 0000 b c ,p p . 9 1 -145 , E d inbo rgh P re s s , E d inbu rgh . M i l ls , N .T .W . , 1 985 . ' Reg iona l S urvey a nd S e t t lemen t T rend s : S tud ie s f r om P reh i s tor ic E urope ' i n G . B a rke r a nd C . G amb le ( ed s ) B eyond Dome s t ica t ion i nP r eh i s tor ic E u rope, p p . 1 81-203 . A cadem ic P res s , L ondon . P a s smo re , J . , 1 962 . ' Exp lana t ion i n E ve ryday L if e , i n S c ience a nd i n H is tory ' , H i s to ry a nd T heory 2 ( 2 ) ,p p . 1 05 -123 . P r ince , H . , 1 977 . ' Reg iona l C on t ra s t s i n Ag ra r ian S t ruc tu res ' , i nH .D . C lou t ( e d ) T hemes i n t he H is to r ica l G eog raphy o f F rance , p p . 1 29 -184 , A cadem ic P res s ,L ondon . R oud i l , J .L . a nd C ane t , H . , 1 981 . ' Cambous . V i l lage P reh is tor ique . ' V io l s e n L ava lH e rau l tG u ide N o 1 ,S oc ie te L anguedoc ienne d eP reh i s to i re ) . N op ub l ishe ro rp l ace o fp ub l ica t ion g i ven . R ow lands , M .J . , 1 980 . ' K insh ip , A l l iance a nd E xchange i nt h e E uropean B ronze A ge ' i nJ .B a r r e t ta nd R . B rad ley ( e d s ) S e t t lemen ta nd S oc ie ty i nt h e B r i t i sh L a ter B ron ze A ge ( i ) , p p . 1 5 -55 , BAR I n te rna t iona l S er ies 8 3 , B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica lR epo r t s , O xfo rd . JS . , 1 985 . T he G rea tD evon ian C on t rover sy , U n ive r s i ty o fC h icago R udw ick , M. P res s , C h icago & and L ondon . . a nd B a i ley , A .M . , 1 983 . ' A No te o n B raude l 's S t ruc ture a s Sa n tam a r ia , V D u ra t ion ' , H i s tory a nd T heo ry 2 3 ( 1 ) ,p p . 7 8 -83 . 985 . ' T he C a rbon 1 4 C h rono logy o ft h e E a r ly a nd M idd le N eo l i th ic S a rgen t , A . , 1 o fS ou the rn I t a ly ' ,P roceed ing so ft h eP reh i s tor ic S oc ie ty 5 1 ,p p . 3 1 4 0 .

5 8

O xf ord I n te rna t iona l We s t e rn Med i t er ranean B e l lB eaker C onf e rence

S hennan , S . J . , 1 976 . ' Be l l B eake r s a nd T he i r C on tex t i nC en t ra l E urope ' , i nJ .N . L an t ing a nd J .D . V an d e r Waa l s ( ed s ) G lockenbecher sympos ion ( Ober re id , 1 974 ) p p . 2 31-239 , F ibu la -van D ishboek , B ussum ( Ne th .$ ) . S he r ra t t , A .G . 1 982 . ' T he D eve lopmen to fN eol i th ic a nd C oppe rA ge S e t t lemen ti n t h e G rea t H ungar ian P la in . P a r t I :T he R eg iona l S e t t ing ' , O xf ord J ourna lo fA rchaeo logy 2 ( 1 ) ,p p . 1 3 -41 . S he r ra t t ,A .G . , 1 983 . 'T he D eve lopmen to fN eo l i th ic a nd C oppe rA ge S e t t lemen ti n t h e G rea te r H unga r ian P la in . P a r t I : S i te S u rvey a nd S e t t lemen t D ynam ics ' ,O xf ord J ourna lo fA rchaeo logy 2 (1) ,p p . 1 3 -41 . S ophe r , D .E . , 1 978 . ' The S t ruc tur ing o f S pace i n P lace N ames a nd Wo rd s f o r P lace ' , i n D .R . S todda r t ( ed ) G eography , I deo logy a nd S oc ia l C oncern ,p p . 2 51-268 ,B a s i l B lackwe l l ,O xfo rd . T ine , S . , 1 983 . P as so d i C orvo e l aC iv i l ta N eo l i t ica d e l T avo l iere . SAGEP e d , G enoa . T ine , S .e ta l . , 1 975 . ' IN eo l i t ico ' , i nC iv i l ta P reh i s tor ische eP ro tos tor iche d e l l Daun ia , p p . 9 9 -222 , I n s t i tu to I t a l iano d e P re is to r ia e P ro tos to r ia , F lo rence . V e r ron ,G . , 1 976 . ' L e sC iv i l i sa t ion s N eo l i th ique se nN o rmand ie ' i nJ .G u i la ine ( ed ) L a P reh is tor ie F ranca ise I C iv i l isa t ions N eo l i th iques e t P ro toh i s tor ique s ,p p . 3 87 -401 , CNRS , P a r i s . V igl ia rd i ,A . , 1 980 . ' Rappo r t it r a s S a rdegna eT o scana n e l l 'E neol i t ico F ina le -P r imo B ronzo : l aG ro t ta d e l F on t ino n e l G ros se tano ' , i n A t t i d e l l XX I I R iun ione S c ien t if ica ( Sa rdegna C en t ropSe t ten t r iona le 1 978 ) ,I n s t i tu to I t a l iano d iP re i s to r ia eP ro to s t i to r ia ,F lo rence . Wh i te , H . , 1 984 . ' The Q ues t ion o fN a r ra t ive i nC on tempo ra ry H is to r ica l T heory ' , H i s tory a nd T heory 2 3 ( 1 ) ,p p . 1 33 . Wh i tehouse , R .D . , 1 968 . S e t t lemen t a nd E conomy i n S ou the rn I t a ly i n t he N eo the rma l P e r iod ' , P roceed ings o ft h e P reh i s tor ic S oc ie ty 3 4 , p p . 2 67 -310 . Wh i tehouse , R .D . , 1 986 . S i t icu lo sa A p iu l ia R ev i s i ted 'A n t iqu i ty 6 0 .p p . 3 6 -44 . Wo l ins , S . , 1 968 . ' P a rad igm s a nd P o l i t ica l T heo r ie s ' , i nP .K ing a nd B .C . P a rekh ( e d s )P o l i t ic sa nd E xper ience :E s say sP re sen t ed t oP rof e s sor M ichae l Oakesho t t o n t h e O ccas ion o f H is R e t iremen t , p p . 1 25 -152 . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re ss , C amb r idge . Z ve lebr i l , M . , 1 981 . F rom F orager t oF armer i nt h eB orea lZ one :R econs t ruc t ing E conom ic P a t terns t h rough S i te C a tchmen tA na ly s i s i nP reh i s tor ic

5 9

J .G .L ew thwa i te

F ina lnd , BAR I n te rna t iona l S er ie s 15 , B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epor t s , O xfo rd . Z ve lebr i l , M . a nd R ow ley -Conwy , p . , 1 984 . ' T ran s i t ion t oF a rm ing i n No r the rn E u rope : aH un te r -Ga the re rP e r spec t ive ' ,N orweg ian A rchaeo log ica l R ev iew 1 7 ( 2 ) , p p . 1 04 -128 .

6 0

' Once U pon a T ime i n t he Wes t ' : S ome O b serva t ions o n B eaker S tud ies

D r .R obe r tW . C hapman D epa r tmen to fA r chaeo logy , F a cu l ty o fL e t te r sa nd S oc ia lS c ience s , U n ive r s i ty o fR ead ing , Wh i tekn igh t s , R ead ing RG6 2 AA ,E ng land .

Ab s trac t * ****** Par t ic ipan t si nt h i sc on f e rence w il d oub t le s sp r e sen t much n ew B eake rm a te r ia l ,a s w e l la sn ew a s soc ia ted m a te r ia l sa nd c h rono log ica ld a ta . S uch p r e sen ta t ion sw i l lb e o fg r ea tu se a nd a r ee age r ly a wa i ted . A tt h es am et ime ,t h e r ew i l lb ed i s cu s s ion so n t h em ean ing o ft h i sm a te r ia l ,p a r t icu la r ly i t sd i s t r ibu t ion t h rough m a in land a nd i s land a r ea s . T h is p ape r w i l l a rgue t h a t s uch d i scu s s ion s o f mean ing mu s t i n c lude t h e f olow ing e l emen t s : ( 1 ) Af o rma lc on s ide ra t ion o fi n te ra c t ion a nd i n nova t ion mode l s , ( 2 ) p ropo sa l s a st oh ow w e c an d i s t ingu i sh b e tween d i f f e ren t mode l s w i th a r chaeo log ica ld a ta , ( 3 ) a na wa rene s so fl o ng te rm p a t ter n so fi n te r ac t ion i nt h ep r eh i s to ry o ft h e We s te rn Med i te r ranean . A l l t h ree w i l l b e d i scus sed i n t h e h ope o f b roaden ing d eba te b eyond f o rma l c ompa r i son o fo ne c l a s so fa r chaeo log ica ld a ta a to ne p a r t icu la rp e r iod o ft ime .

6 1

I n troduc t ion ****** My p u rpo se i nw r i t ing t h i sp ape ri sn o tt op r e sen tn ew f i nd s o fB eake rp o t te ry o r a s so c ia ted a r tef a c t sf r om as i te o r ar e g ion o ft h e We s t Med i te r ranean . T ha tt a sk i s t a ck led w i th a u tho r i ta t ive d e ta i lb ym any o ft h es cho la r sw ho se r e cen tf i e ldwo rk i s s umma r i sed i np ape r si nt h i sv o lume . I n s tead ,a nd w i th t h ec on sen to ft h ee d i to r s ,I h ave d ec ided t or a ise i s sue s w h ich a r e o f mo re g ene ra l c once rn i no u ra t temp t s t o u nde r s tand t h e p a s t . T he se i s sue s c once rn t h e w ay s i n w h ich w e o rgan i se a r chaeo log ica l d a ta , a nd h ence d ef ine p rob lems wo r thy o f s t udy , t h e n eed t o e xp la in v a r iab i l i ty i nt h i sd a ta a nd t h eu t i l i ty o fp a r t icu la rs o c ia la nd e conom ic mode l s t oa i dt h e se a t temp t sa te xp lana t ion . L e tu sb eg in b yr emembe r ing t h a tt h eB eake ra r te f ac t se xam ined a nd d eba ted i nt h i s c on f e rence ,f r om t h e ma in land a nd i s land so ft h ew e s t Med i te r ranean ,d i dn o te x i s t i ni s o la t ion . T hey f o rmed p a r to f amuch w ide rc en t ra la nd w e s tE u ropean c omp lex k nown t o many a s t h eB eaker c u l ture . U n l ike m any o the r s uch c u l tures , a s d ef ined b y Go rdon C h i 1de a nd h i s c on tempo ra r ie s , i td id n o t h ave al o ca l i sed , r eg iona ld i s t r ibu t ion . I nf a c tB eake rp o t te ry a nd a s soc ia ted a r tef ac t s c an b e f ound f r om s ou the rn S cand inav ia t o n o r th -we s t A f r ica , a nd f r om I r e land t o P o land ( Ha r r ison 1 980 , F igu re 1 ) . T he s ha red p o t te ry s t y le s a nd a r tef ac t a s soc ia t ion s a c ro s s t h i s v a s t a r ea l e d a r chaeo log i s t s , n o t u n rea sonab ly , t os e a r ch f o r a n a r ea o f o r ig in f o rw ha tw a s a r gued b y many t ob e ar ap id s p r ead o f as e pa ra te p opu la t ion ; t he B eaker Fo lk . I ti sw o r th r em ind ing o u r se lve s , a tt h is s t age , t h a t t h e w e s t Med i te r ranean i n c ludes t wo o ft h e c and ida te s f o r aB eake r h ear th land , n ame ly s ou the rn P o r tuga l ( Ha r r i son 1 977 ) a nd s ou ther nF rance ( C la rke 1 970 ) . A l so i ti s wo r th n o t ing t ha t , e ven i f w e n eg lec t t h e w ide r E u ropean c on tex t o f o u r Med i te r ranean d a ta , w e s t i l l h ave t oe xp la in t h e s ha red s t y le s a nd a r tef a c t s f r om L i sbon t ot h eP ov a l ley a nd f r om t h eR hone v a l ley t o Mo ro cco . Wha ti s mo r e , t h e ma jor i ty o ft h e se a r ea s h ave n o c onv inc ing l o ca l p ro to type s e i the rf o rt h ep o t te ry s t y le s o r f o r t h e s ma l l r ange o f a r tef ac t s i n t h e B eäke r ' p ackage ' ( Bu rges s a nd S hennan 1 976 ) . B u tc on s ide r ing t h ef u l lE u ropean c on tex t ,t h ei n i t ia lq ue s t ion s Ip o se a r ea sf o l low s : ( 1 ) s hou ld w el ump t o ge the rB eake ra s semb lages f r om a l lo ve rw e s ter na nd c en t ra l E u rope , i n c lud ing t h e w e s t Med i te r ranean , a nd s e a r ch f o r as i ng le a r ea o fo r ig in a nd as i ng le e xp lana t ion f o rt h eB eake rd i s t r ibu t ion? a nd

( 2 ) s hou ld o u re f fo r t s b e d evo ted s o le ly t ot h e c o l lec t ion o fa r chaeo log ica l a nd c h rono log ica l d a ta w h ich w i l l r evea l a r ea s o f o r ig in a nd r ou te s o f d i f fu s ion?

My a n swe rt ob o th q ues t ion s i st h e s ame : NO ! T o b eg in e xp la in ing t h i s p o in to f v i ew , Ic an d o n o b e t te rt h an c i te t h e a r gumen t sp r e sen ted b y D av id C la rke i nh i s b r i l l ian tp ape rt ot h eF r e ibu rg c on f e rence i n1 974 . H i sf i r s tm a in p o in tw a st h i s :

6 3

R .W . C hapman

' T he B eake rp rob lem i sl i k eo t he rp rob lem si na r chaeo logy . I ta ppea r st ob e m e re ly am a t te ro ff a c t , s imp ly r equ i r ing mo r ed a ta , af i ne rc l a s s if ica t ion a nd amo re d e ta i led c h rono logy f o ri t su l t ima te s o lu t ion . T h i sp rom i sed s o lu t ion t ot h eB eake rp rob l em h a sb een i mm inen tf o ra lmo s th a l f ac en tu ry n ow a nd y e tr e cede sf r om o u rg r a sp . I nr e a l i ty ,t h ep rob lem i sn o t am a t te ro fd a ta b u t am a t te ro fa l te rna t ive a s sump t ion sa nd a pp roache s , a l te rna t ive mode l s a nd c oncep t s , a l ter na t ive q ue s t ions a nd e xp lana t ions -i n s ho r t am a t te r o f t h eo ry . ' ( C la rke 1 976 , p .4 60 ) H ew en to nt oa r gue t h a t , ' t he d a ta t h a t w e t a ke i sa l ready t h eo ry laden a nd ap roduc t o fo u r s e lec t ion mod if ied b y t h el im i ta t ion s a nd o b scu r i t ie s o ft h e a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd , o u r me thod s o fr e cove ry a nd e xam ina t ion , a nd b y o u r l a nguage s o fe xp re s s ion ' ( 1976 , p . , 4 60 ) . T h i sl e dh im t os t a te t h a tw es hou ld b el e s sc oncer ned w i th s e a r ch ing f o ro r ig ins o n aE u ropean w ide s c a le , t h an w i th t r y ing t od i scove rr e a son s f o r v a r ia t ion s i nt h e B eake rp r e sence f r om r e g ion t or e g ion . N o to n ly c an t h ea r te f a c tua lf r equenc ie sa nd a s soc ia t ion s b e s hown t o v a ry r eg iona l ly , b u t a l so t h e i r s o c ia l a nd e conom ic c on tex t s . I fw e w i sh t of i nd ac onv inc ing a l te rna t ive t ot h ep an -Eu ropean B eake r f o lk , t h en i ti s i mpor tan t t o u nde r s tand t h e se c on tex t s a nd w hy t h e B eake r a s semb lage w a s a ccep ted i ns ome r eg ion s a nd n o ti no the r s . T h i s a l so d emand s a c l o se r e xam ina t ion o f t h e c au se s o f i n nova t ion a nd a dop t ion o f c e ram ics ( why s hou ld s ome l o ca lp opu la t ion s w an tt op o s se s s B eake r s? ) a nd o ft h e f unc t iona lo r s o c ia lr e a son sf o rs t y l i s t ic v a r ia t ion b e tween p o t te ry s t y les . C lea r ly , t h en ,w en eed mode ls a nd h ypo the ses t o a ccoun t f o r v a r iab i l i ty i n B eake r s a nd B eake r a s semb lage s ,a sw e l la st h ea r chaeo log ica ld a ta o nw h ich t ot e s tt h em . S ot h ef i r s tg ene ra lp o in t Iw ou ld l i ke t om ake i st h a t' t r ad i t iona l ' a pp roaches t ot h e B eake r p rob lem wo rk o n ac on t inen ta l , r a the r t h an al o ca l , s c a le o fa na ly s i s . A s s u ch t h ey empha s i se h omogene i ty r a the rt h an v a r iab i l i ty i nc u l tu ra l a s semb lage s . S econd ly t h e se a pp roache sn eg lec ted t h ec hange st h rough t ime i nl o ca la nd r eg iona l i n te rac t ion , o fw h ich t h eB eake r' p ackage ' w a s a n i n teg ra lp a r t . T h i rd ly , a sC la rke h im se lf p o in ted o u t , t h ey c onfu sed t h ep eop le w ho u sed B eake r s w i th t h e ' B eake r F o lk ' . T he empha s i s o n r eg iona l v a r ia t ion i nB eake r a s semb lage s l e d C la rke t ot r y a nd d i s t ingu i sh d i f f e ren tt y pe so fr eg iona la nd d ome s t ic p resence ( 1976 , p p . 4 72 -74 ) . F i r s t h e a r gued t h a t t h e re w e re t wo t y pe s o fr eg iona l B eake r p re sence . T ype 1 r e g ions w e re c ha rac te r i sed b y ' ah i gh d en s i ty a nd f r equency o fd eco ra ted b eake r s i t e s ( 100 s -1000 so fs i te sw i th f i ne d eco ra ted b eake r s ) ; m any d ome s t ic s i te sk nown ( 1 00 s ) ; c on s ide rab le l o ca lb eake rc on t inu i ty a nd t ime d ep th ( C14 3 00 -500 y r s ) . ' E xamp le s o f t h e se r eg ion s i n c luded t h e L ow C oun t r ies a nd , i n a n a r ea w h ich c once rns u s h e re , c en t ra l P or tuga l ( wh ich C la rke r e f e r red t o a s Nor thwes tern I ber ia ) . H i s t ype 2 r eg ion s w e re c ha rac te r ised b y al ow d ens i ty a nd l ow f requency o f s i te s w i th d eco ra ted b eake r s ( 10 s -100 s ) ; f ew d ome s t ic s i te s w i th d eco ra ted b eake r s ( 10 s ) ; c on s ide rab le n on -beake rc on t inu i ty w i th l i t t le e v idence o f b eake r t ime d ep th ( C14 1 00 -300 y r s ) . E xamp le s i n c luded s ou the rn S cand inav ia ,

6 4

O xf ord I n t e rna t iona lW e s t ern Med i t e r ranean B e l lB eak e rC on f e r enc e

c en t ra lE u rope a nd ,i no u ra r ea ,I t a ly , S .E . S pa in ,N o r th - We s tA f r ica a nd t h ei s land s o ft h e We s t Med i te r ranean . S econd ly C la rke t r i ed t od i s t ingu i sh t wo t y pe s o fB eake r d ome s t ic a s semb lage s . T ype A a s semb lage s h ad ah igh p ropor t ion o f d eco ra ted B eake r s ( 15 -30% ) , a s i gn if ican t n umbe r o fd eco ra ted B eake r s i nu se ( 10 s -100 s ) a nd B eake rd ome s t ic w a res . T ype B a s semb lage s h ad al ow p ropo r t ion o f d eco ra ted B eake r s i nt h e p o t te ry a s semb lage s ( 1 -10% ) , as ma l ln umbe ro fB eake r s i nc on tempo ra ry u se ( 1 1 0 ) a nd l o ca ld ome s t ic w a re s . T en ta t ive ly C la rke s ugge s ted t h a tt h eT ype 1r e g ion s c ou ld b ec o r re la ted w i th t h eT ype A d ome s t ic a s semb lage s ,a nd t h eT ype 2r eg ion s w i th t h eT ype B a s semb lage s . I n mak ing t h e se d i s t inc t ion s , C la rke t o ok a b rave f i r s t s t ep i n i s o la t ing l o ca l v a r ia t ion si nB eake ra s semb lage s ,v a r ia t ion sw h ich w e re i nn eed o fe xp lana t ion ,j u s t a s much a st h el o ng r e cogn i sed d i scon t inuou sd i s t r ibu t ion o fB eake ra s semb lage si n E u rope . I ft h e B eake r a s semb lage s w e re a l l d ue t o t h e m ig ra to ry a c t iv i t ie s o f B eaker F o lk , t h en w hy d id t h ey n o to ccu ri n ac on t inuou sd i s t r ibu t ion p a t te rn , a nd w hy w a s t h e re m a rked v a r ia t ion f r om o ne a s semb lage a nd o ne r eg ion t oa no the r ? I ndeed a ny s a t i s f a c to ry e xp lana t ion o ft h ed i s t r ibu t ion n eed st oa c coun tf o rt h ea r ea s w i thou tB eake ra s semb lage s , a s much a sf o rt h o se w i th t h em . O fc ou r se , i tc ou ld b e a r gued t h a t t h e a va i lab le a r chaeo log ica l e v idence i sb i a sed t owa rd s s ome r eg ion s a nd p e r iod s , a nd t h a t g aps o r v a r ia t ions i n t h e B eake r p re sence a r et h er e su l to ft h ed i f f e r ing i n ten s i ty o fd a ta c o l lec t ion . C la rke c e r ta in ly a ccep ted t h i s p o s s ib i l i ty f o r s ome p ar t s o f c en t ra l a nd w e s ter n E u rope ( 1 976 , p . 4 73 ) . O nt h eo t he rh and ,H a r r i son h a sa r gued t h a t ' mo s to ft h en ew B eak e rd i scove r ie st h a ta r em ade a r eo ft h es ame k i nd a sa l r eady a bound ; i . e . t h ey s e rve t oa ugmen t t h e t o ta l b ody o f f i nd s w i thou t g r ea t ly e x tend ing e i the rt h eq ua l i ty o rr ange o fo u rk now ledge ' ( 1 980 ,p . 15 ) . I t s eem s t o me t h a t b o th p o in t s o f v i ew c an b e s us ta ined w i th in t h e We s t Med i te r ranean ,a sc an b es e en f r om t h ep ape r sp r e sen ted t ot h i sc onf e r ence . L e tu sl ook f i r s ta tI b e r ia . S i te s a nd f i nd sr e po r ted a tt h i sc on f e rence b o th s uppo r t a nd c hange o u re x i s t ing k now ledge o ft h ed i s t r ibu t ion a nd d en s i ty o fB eake rf i nd s . I n s uppor t , t h e re a r e t h e e xcava t ions b y A r r iba s a nd Mo l ina , p r inc ipa l ly a tL o s M i l la re s ( e .g . A r r iba s e ta l . 1 979 ; A r r iba s e ta l . 1 981 ; A r r iba s a nd Mo l ina 1 982 , 1 984 , t h i s v o lume ) , E l Ma lag6n ( A r r iba s e ta l . 1 978 ; A r r iba s a nd Mo l ina , t h i s v o lume ) a nd L a s P e f ia s d e l o s G i tano s , Mon te f r io ( A r r iba s a nd Mo l ina 1 979a , 1 979b , t h i s v o lume ) , w h ich s how t h e l ow f r equency a nd d en s i ty o ff i nd s a l ready k nown f r om o the r s i te s , s uch a s C e r ro d e l a V i rgen , i n s ou th -ea s t S pa in ( e .g . H a r r i son 1 977 , p p . 7 2 -5 ) , H e re w ec an h ave c onf idence i no u rc u r ren tk now ledge o ft h eB eake rp re sence . L e s sc on f idence m ay b ee xp r e s sed a bou tt h r ee o t he ra r ea so ft h ep en in su la d i scu s sed a tt h i s c onf e rence , n ame ly t h e G uada lqu iv i r v a l ley , s ou the rn P or tuga l a nd t h e B a lea r ic i s land s . I nt h el owe rG uada lqu iv i rv a l ley , s t r a t ig r aph ic e xcava t ion sa ts u ch s e t t lemen t s a s L a Me sa d e S e tef i l la a nd E l B e r rueco h ave b egun t op rov ide t h e c u l tu ra l s equence f o rt h e s e cond m i l lenn ium b c w h ich p rev ious ly d epended u pon t ypo log ica l a rgumen t a nd f une ra ry c on tex t s ( e .g . H a r r i son 1 977 , p p . 6 9 -72 ) . 6 5

R .W . C hapman

Whe rea s al a te s u rv iva lo fB eake r s ,i nt h ef o rm o fH a r r i son 's C armona c omp lex , h ad b een a rgued t ot ake t h e p l ace o f al o ca l B ronze A ge c u l tu re i nt h i s a r ea , t h e r e cen ts e t t lemen te xcava t ions d ocumen tt h ed eve lopmen to ft h a tB ronze A ge c u l tu re a nd p lace t h eC a r rnona B eake r sn ol a te rt h an c .1 600 b e I ns ou the rn P o r tuga l ,J o se A rnaud 's e xcava t ions a tF e r re i ra d o A len te jo r a i se i mpor tan t q ue s t ions a bou t t h e B eake rp re sence , a sw e l la se a r l ie rp ha se so ft h eC oppe rA ge ,i ns ou the rn P o r tuga l , when c ompa red w i th t h e T agus e s tua ry , w h ich h a s h i ther to b een t h e f o cu s o f r e sea rch i n to l a te r t h ird a nd e a r ly s e cond m i l lenn ium b c c u l tures . T hus t h e d i s t r ibu t ion maps p ub l i shed b y H a r r ison f o r a l l B eake r s i tes , Ma r i t ime B eake r s ( h er r ingbone v a r ie ty ) a nd V -pe rfo ra ted b u t tons ( 1977 , F igu re s 4 0 , 1 ,p p . 3 5 -37 ) s how m a rked c on t ra s t s b e tween t h eT agus a nd t h eA len te jo /A lga rve , a l though h i s map f o rP a lme la p o in t s ( 1977 ,F igu re 2 4 ) make st h i sp o in tl e s se mpha t ica l ly . Doe s A rnaud 's r e sea r ch s i gna l ar educ t ion i nt h i sr eg iona lc on t ra s t? T he c e ram ic s e quence f r om p re -Beake r t o B eake r o ccupa t ion p ha ses a t F er re i ra e nab les A rnaud t o c ha l lenge t h e c on t inu i ty mode l b a sed o n t h e T agu s e s tua ry s i tes ( e .g . H a r r i son 1 974 ) . I n a dd i t ion h i s f i gu re s f o r t h e h igh f r equency a nd d ens i ty o fd eco ra ted B eake rs he rd sa r eq u i te r evea l ing w hen c ompa red ,a sh ed oe s ,w i th T agus s i t e s s u ch a s Z ambu ja l a nd V i la Nova d e S äo P ed ro . L a s t ly , a no the r ma jo r s i te , S on F e r rande l l -O leza , h a s c hanged d rama t ica l ly o u rs amp le o fp o t te ry d eco ra ted i nt h e B eake rs t y le i nt h eB a lea r ic i s land s (Wa ld ren ,t h i sv o lume ) . I nt he r e s to ft h e I ber ian p en in su la , t h e re s t i l l s e em s t ob e ama jo rq ue s t ion m a rk h ang ing o ve rt h eB eake rp re sence o nt h e Me se ta s . H a r r ison ( 1977 ,p .5 7 )h a sn o ted t h e b ia s i nd i s tr ibu t ion s c aused b y t h e h eavy g rave l a nd s and e x t rac t ion f r om t h e t e r race s o ft h e Manzana re s a nd H ena r es v a l ley s , a sw e l l a st h e i mba lance i nf i nd s b e tween t h en o r the rn a nd s ou ther n Me se ta s . I nt h en o r th ( De l ibe sa nd S an ton ja ,t h i s v o lume ) ,t h ec l us te ro ff i nd sc en t r ed o nt h eT agu s a nd Mad r id i sc omp lemen ted b y a no the rc l u s te rc en t r ing o nt h eD ue ro b a s in . E ven h e re B eake r ma te r ia li sn o te ven ly d i s t r ibu ted : f o re xamp le P a lme la p o in t s h ave am a in ly p e r iphe ra l d i s t r ibu t ion ( s ee D e l ibe sa nd F e rnandez -M i randa 1 981 ,F igu re 6 ) . I st h i s ar ea l g ap ,o rt h er e su l to f u neven f i e ldwo rk o rp re serva t ion c ond i t ion s? T he s ame q ue s t ion may b ea sked o f t h e s ou ther n Me se ta , w h ich h a sl o ng a ppea red t ob et o ta l ly d evo id o fB eake rf i nd s , f r om A lbace te i nt h e e as t t oB ada joz i nt h e w e s t ( e .g . H a r r i son 1 977 , F igu re 4 0 ) . T he r e cen ti n c rea s ing ly i n ten s ive f i e ldwo rk i nA lbace te a nd L a Mancha h a sr evea led t h e u nsuspec ted p e rmanence a nd d ens i ty o fB ronze A ge s e t t lemen t o ft h e se a r ea s ( e .g . N ä je ra 1 984 ; Ma r t in Mo ra le s 1 983 ) . P re l im inary p ub l ica t ion so fe xcava t ions o nt h e mo t i l la s e t t lemen t so fL a Mancha ( e .g . Mo l ina a nd N ä je ra 1 978 ; N ä je ra e ta l . 1 979 ; N ä je ra a nd Mo l ina 1 977 ) r evea l t h ep re sence o fi n c i sed B eake rp o t te ry , b u t o n ly i nm in ima l n umbe r s . T h i sm igh t s ugges t t h a tw eh ave t or e cogn i se aB eake r p re sence i nt h es ou th -ea s t Me se ta ,b u tt h a tt h i sw a so fC la rke 's t y pe sB /2 a nd make s n od i f f e rence t oo u rk now ledge o ft h e ma jor c oncen t ra t ions w i th in t h ep en insu la a s aw ho le . Mov ing o u ts ide I be r ia , I wou ld a l so l i ke t o d raw a t ten t ion t o t h e c en t ra l Med i te r ranean , w he re t h e re h a s b een ama rked i n c rea se i nt h e n umbe r s o fB eake r s i te s / f ind s( s uf f ic ien tf o rB arf ie ld ,p e r s . c omm . t oe l eva te t h ed ome s t ic a s semb lage t oC la rke 's t ype A ) , b u t n o ma jo r c hange s i nt h e d i s t r ibu t ion p a t te rns . B a rf ie ld 's ( 1976 )p ape rt ot h eF re ibu rg c on f e rence i n1 974 r epor ted ad rama t ic i n c r ea se i nf i nd s i nt h e p rev ious t wen ty y ea r s . T he ma in c l us te r s w e re i nt h e I t a l ian A lp s , t h e P o v a l ley a nd L igur ia , w i th a s ma l le r , mo re d i spe r sed s ca t te r i nT uscany , e x tend ing s ou th t ot h ei s o la ted B eake r sf r om t h er ock -cu tt omb a tF o s so C on icch io i nV i te rbo .

6 6

O xf ord I n t e rna t iona lW e s t e rn Med i t e r ranean B e l lB eak e rC onf e r ence

Wh i le B a r f ie ld 's p ape rt ot h i sc on f e r ence s how s af u r the ri n c r ea se i nB eake rs i t e so n t h e ma in land ( f rom 2 4 i n 1 974 t o6 4 n ow ) , t h e o ve ra l l d i s t r ibu t ion s how s l i t t le c hange : t h ee x i s t ing c l u s te r sa r ec onf i rmed ,e spec ia l ly w i th n ew s i te si nt h eT u s can a r ea , o n ly o ne s i te t ot h e s ou th o ft h eT ibe ra nd n one t ot h ee a s to ft h eA penn ine s . I n a dd i t ion i ti sw o r th n o t ing T u sa 's p ape r ( t h i s v o lume ) , i nw h ich t h e p r ev iou s ly k nown l im i ta t ion o fB eake rs i te st ot h ew e s ta nd n o r th -we s to fS i c i l iy i sc onf i rmed . T he i n c rea se o fT u scan s i te s i sp a r t icu la r ly i mpo r tan t , a st h i s p a r to fc en t ra l I t a ly w ou ld h ave p rov ided t h ec l o se s tc r o s s ing t oS a rd in ia a nd t h eB eake r ma t e r ia lk nown t h e re s i nce B ray 's ( 1964 ) p ape r o ve r t wen ty y ea r s a go . A t t h e s ame t ime , t h e c on t inued a b sence o f B eake r s f r om C o r s ica r ema in s a s s u rp r i s ing a s t h a t o f Mycenaean ma te r ia l at hou sand y ea r s l a te r ( e .g . V agne t t i 1 982 ) . D a re w e s u spec t t h a to ne g ood s e t t lemen te xcava t ion , l i ke B a rf ie ld 's a t Mon te C ovo lo ,o r Wa ld ren 's a tS on F e r randel -O leza ,m igh tf i l lt h i sg ap? S umm ing u p s of a r ,i ts e em st om et h a to ne o ft h ei mpo r tan tt a sk so ft h i sc on f e r ence o ugh t t ob e t o t a ke s t ock o f t h e B eake r p re sence i nd i f f e ren t p a r t s o f t h e We s t Med i te r ranean . H ow much i s o u r k now ledge o f i t s c on ten t s , c on tex t s a nd d i s t r ibu t ion s c hanged o rc onf i rmed ? H ow h ave o u r s amp le s b een b i a sed? Wh ich a r ea s r equ i re mo re s y s tema t ic r e sea r ch t ot e s t t h e i r a ppa ren t d ens i t ie s o fB eake r a r te f ac t s? I no the rw o rd s , w ha tv a r iab i l i ty c an b eo b se rved b e tween d i f f e r en tp a r t s o ft h ew e s t Med i te r ranean? S uch v a r iab i l i ty i s ,o fc ou r se , a t ar eg iona ls c a le o fa na ly s i s ,c ompa r ing a s semb lage s w i th in a nd b e tween r e g ion s . E qua l ly i mpo r tan t ,a nd n o t ap a r to fC la rk e ' s mode lo f B eake r v a r iab i l i ty , i sp a t ter n ing w i th in i n d iv idua l s i te s . Ou r o b se ss ion w i th t h e p rob lem o fB eake ro r ig ins h a su ndoub ted ly l e du st of o cu so nt empo ra lr a the rt h an s pa t ia la t t r ibu te so fB eake rs i t e s . Y e ta tt h i sc onf e rence t h e r ea r eg ood e xamp le so f a na ly se sd e s igned t os e a r ch f o rp a t te rn ing i nt h es pa t ia lc on tex t sa nd d i s t r ibu t ion so f B eake r sa nd t h e i ra s so c ia ted a r tef ac t s ( whe the rp a r to ft h ep ackage o rn o t ) . A tS on F e r rand e l l -O lez a , Wa ld ren i sa t t emp t ing t oi s o la te t r end si np o t te ry c l u s te r ing w i th in t h e e nc losed s e t t lemen t ( t h i s v o lume ) . A t Z ambu ja l , K un s t h a s d ef ined ac en t ra l l o ca t ion f o rB eake rs h e rd s ,a s soc ia ted w i th e v idence f o rc oppe rm e talu rgy ( a l so t h i s v o lume ) . F ina l ly , a tL o s M i l la re s ,t h ea b sence o fB eake r ma te r ia lf r om F or t 1 ,i n c on t ra s tt ot h e ma in s e t t lemen ta r ea ,m ay h i ghl igh ts o c ia lo rf unc t iona ld i f f e rence s , a st h ef i r s tr ad ioca rbon d a te f o rt h ef o r ti sc on tempo ra ry w i th t h eB eake ro ccupa t ion p ha se o nt h es e t t lemen tb e low ( A r r iba sa nd Mo l ina ,t h i sv o lum e ) . T he o b se rva t ion o fi n t ra - a nd i n te r -s i te ,o ri n te r reg iona l ,v a r ia t ion i so n ly t h ef i r s t p ar t o fo u r t a sk : w e w ou ld a l so w i sh t oe xp la in t h e o b se rved p a t te rn ing . N ow i t c ou ld b ea rgued t h a ts u ch a na mb i t iou sa im o ugh tt ob ep o s tponed u n t i l b e t ter d a ta i sc o l lec ted : u nfo r tuna te ly p roponen t so ft h i sp o s i t ion n eve rt e l lu sa tw ha tp o in tt h e d a ta b ecome ss uff ic ien tf o r a t temp t s a ti n te rp re ta t ion . We a lway s wo rk w i th t h e a va i lab le d a ta ,o u re xp lana t ion sa lway sa r ep r esen ted w i th t h i sp rov i so ,a nd t h eu se o f t h eo re t ica l mode l s a nd h ypo the se s a l low s u s t o s t ruc tu re o u r a na ly se s o f t h e a r cha eo log ica lr e co rd i ns u ch aw ay a st or e vea ln ew d a ta . A s as t a r t ing p o in t ,i ts e em sc l ea rt om et h a tw en eed t oc on s ide r mode l so fp o t te ry p roduc t ion , i fw e a r e t oa pp roa ch a n u nde r s tand ing o fv a r ia t ion i nB eake rp o t te ry f o rm s a nd s t y le s . O ne c ommon a s sump t ion i s t h a t c hange s i n p o t tery a r e a ccompan ied b y o t he r k ind s o f c u l tu ra l c hange , f o r e xamp le i n e conomy o r p opu la t ion . T h i si s ,o fc ou r se ,a ni n teg ra lp a r to ft h en o rma t ive v i ew o fc u l tu r e s . I n 6 7

R .W . C hapman

ar e cen t p ape r , R ice ( 1984 ) h a s c ha l lenged t h i s v i ew , a r gu ing t h a t p o t te ry i sn o t c r i t ica lt oh uman a dap ta t ion s ( a nd t h e r efo re s u rv iva l ) ,t h a tp o t te ry a nd p o t t e r s h ave v a r iab le s t a tus i n d i f f e ren t c u l tu re s , a nd t h a t t h e r e may b e at ime d e lay i n t h e r e spon se o fp o t te ry p roduc t ion t oo t he rc u l tu ra lc hange s( p ar t icu la r ly i fp o t te r sh ave al ow s t a tu s i ns oc ie ty ) . E ven i fp o t te r s a nd t h e i rp roduc t s h ad ah i gh s t a tu s , a si s a s sumed w i th o u r B eake r p o t te ry ( ap o in t t ow h ich Ir e turn b e low ) , t h e r e i sn o g ua ran tee t h a tt h ep roduc t s w ou ld h ave b een a cce s s ib le t o mo re t h an al im i ted e l i te s egmen t o f s oc ie ty . G iven R ice 's c l ea r ly a r gued p o in t s , i ti si mpo r tan t t h a t w e c o l lec td a ta r e la t ing t op r eh i s to r ic s o c ia l ,p o l i t ica la nd e conom ic c hange s ,r a the rt h an a s sume t h em t ob e a u toma t ica l ly c o r r e la ted w i th c e ram ic c hange . I nt h i sc on tex tI r eg re t t h a t t h e c onf e rence d oe s n o th ave mo re p ape r so n t h e se t o p ics , p a r t icu la r ly t ho se c oncerned w i th s ub s i s tence s t ra teg ies b efo r e , d u r ing a nd a f te r t h e B eake r p e r iod . H av ing d i sposed o f t he a ssu mpt ion o f c hange , h ow c an w e p roceed t o d emon s t ra te a nd u nde r s tand i t ? Ag ood s t a r tc an b em ade b yc on s ide r ing B eake r s , a nd t h e i rc on tempo ra ry p o t s , a st h e o u t come o fp o t te ry p roduc t ion s y s tem s : t h e se c on s i s t o f wha t R ice ( 1984 , p p . 2 39 -40 ) d i s t ingu i she s a s t echn ica l c omponen t s ( e .g . t h e a va i lab le r e sou r ce s s uch a s c l ay s , t empe r s , p a in t s e t c . ; t h e a va i lab le t e chno logy , s uch a s t h e w hee l , k i ln t y pe s e t c . ) a nd s oc ioeconom ic c omponen t s ( e .g . t h e c on tex t s o fu se , t h e a c t iv i t ie s f o r w h ich t h e p o t s a r e u sed , t h e s t a tu s a nd r o le so fp o t te ry p roduce r sa nd p o s se s so r s ,t h ed i s t r ibu t ion n e two rk se t c . ) . T h i s f o cu s o n p o t te ry p roduc t ion s y s tem si sn o t n ew t oB eake r s t ud ie s i nE u rope . A t t h e F re ibu rg c onf e rence , S ande r v an d e r L eeuw ( 1976 ) d emon s t ra ted , q u i te s t unn ing ly a tt h e t ime , h ow ad e ta i led a na ly s i s o fp o t te ry c on s t ruc t ion a nd f i r ing c ou ld c on t r ibu te t o o u r u nde r s tand ing o f s ucce ss ive C o rded Wa re a nd B eake r p o t te ry t r ad i t ions i n t h e N e the r land s . A t t h e s ame s ympo s ium D av id C la rke e xam ined s oc ioeconom ic r a the rt h an t e chn ica l c omponen t s o fp o t te ry s y s tem s : h e u sed e t hnog raph ic a nd e xpe r im en ta l mode l st oa r gue t h a t ' Beake r f i ne w a re s w e re m a jo rv eh ic le s o fr ank , p re s t ige , a nd s t a tu s d i sp lay , v e ry e xpens ive t op roduce b o th i n man h ou r s a nd i n c on tempo ra ry v a lue t e rm s , a nd t h e refo r ee xchanged o ve rc on s ide rab le d i s tance s , b e tween v a r iou s c ommun i t ies , i n ac on tex t w he re t h e i ru t i l i ta r ian a nd f unc t iona l v a lue s w e re s e conda ry ' ( 1976 , p .4 62 ) . Whe r ea sv an d e rL eeuw w a sc once rned w i th c on t inu i ty i np o t te ry t r ad i t ion s ,C la rke a imed t od i s t ingu i sh t h er o le t h a tB eake r sp l ayed w i th in c on tempo ra ry p roduc t ion s y s tem s . B o th a pp roache s r equ i re r a the r d i f f e ren t a na lyse s t o t h e t y po log ica l a pp roache s t r ad i t iona l ly p re f e r red b y B eake r b uf f s . N ow w e a r e c oncer n ed w i th c ha rac te r i s ing c l ay s , d e te rm in ing s ou r ce s f o rc l ays a nd t empe r s , m ea su r ing f i r ing t empe ra tu re s , e xam in ing p hy s ica l p rope r t ie s o f p o t s ( i . e . p e rmeab i l i ty , t h e rma l c onduc t iv i ty -s e e S t epona i t i s 1 984 )w i th av i ew t od e te rm in ing t h e i rs u i tab i l i ty f o r d i f f e ren tf unc t ion s ,e t c . O u t s ide t h e We s t Med i te r ranean , s u ch a na ly se s h ave b een u sed t ot r y a nd a n swe r f ou r ma jo rq ues t ion s a bou tB eake rp o t te ry . Wa s t h e c l ay s ou r ce l o ca l? We re t h e c l ay sa nd t e chn ique so fp roduc t ion t h es ame a st h o se u sed i nn on -Beake rp o t te ry o f t h e s ame o r d i f f e ren t p e r iod s? I si tp o s s ib le t od i s t ingu i sh f i ne ,e veryday a nd h eavy d u ty w a re s , a ss ugge s ted b y C la rke ( 1976 )? L a s t ly i st h e re a ny e xc lu s ive

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O x f ord I n te rna t iona l We s t ern Med i t er ranean B e l lB eak er C onf erence

r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t h e r aw m a ter ia l s a nd t h e i n tended v e s se l f unc t ions? I ti s i n s truc t ive t ou se e xamp le so ft h e se a na ly se sa si nd ica t ion so ft h er e sea r ch w h ich c an b e p ur sued , a nd i ndeed i n s ome c a ses i s i n i t s e a r ly s t ages , i n t he Wes t Med i te r ranean . T he mo s t o u t s tand ing r e cen t p ub l ica t ion i st h a t o f R ose C lea ry 's a na ly s is o ft h e B eake r p o t te ry f r om N ew G range ( 1983 ) , i n w h ich a v ar ie ty o f t e chn ique s , i n c lud ing p e t ro log ica l e xam ina t ion , X -ray d i f f rac t ion , t h erma l a na lys is a nd m ic rop robe a na lys is ,a r eu sed . T he c l ay s u sed i nt h ep o t tery c ame f r om l o ca lr i ve r b ank s i l t . T he re w a sl i t t le d i f f e r ence i nt h e manufac tur ing t e chn iques b e tween t h e B eake r a nd n on -Beake r p o t tery , a nd C lea ry a l so a rgues f o r ac on t inu i ty i n t e chno logy a nd r aw m a ter ia ls f r om p reced ing L a te N eo l i th ic p o t te ry s t y le s . F ine p a s te s d o n o t o ccu r e xc lus ive ly i nB eake r p o t te ry . L a s t ly t h e re i sn o e xc lu s ive r e la t ion sh ip , w he the ri nB eake ro rn on -Beake rp o t te ry ,b e tween t y pe sa nd i n tended f unc t ions : t hus t h e s ame t y pe o fv e s se l m ay b e u sed f o r f unc t ions a s d i f f e ren t a s c ook ing o r s t or ing l i qu id s . S uch a n o bserva t ion mus t r a ise d oub t s a bou t a ny e xc lus ive e qua t ion b e tween t h e s p read o fB eake rp o t te ry a nd n ew d r ink ing h ab i t s ( Sher ra t t , t h is v o lume ) . I ta l so s ugges t s ar o le f o r t e chno log ica l a na lyses i n d e te rm in ing c hang ing u se s ,f r om t h ep re s t ig iou st ot h e mo re mundane ,i nc ore a nd mo re p er iphera l a r ea so fB eake rp re sence ( J .G . L ew thwa i te ,p e r s . c omm . ) . A t temp t s t or e la te B eake r s t oc l ay s ou rces a r e k nown i na tl e a s t t h ree o the rc a se s t ud ies . A tt h es e t t lemen to fB e l le T ou t ,i ne a s tS us sex ,n eu t ron a c t iva t ion a n lay s i s d emon s t ra ted t h a ts ome v e s se l sw e re m ade f r om t h e s ame ma te r ia la ss queezes o f f i red c l ay w h ich w e re f ound c l o se t oh ea r th so nt h e s i te ( Brad ley 1 982 , P . 6 6 ) . I n a dd i t ion t h e re w a s mo re t h an o ne c l ay s ou r ce i nu se a nd n oc l ea rc o r re la t ion c ou ld b e o b served b e tween t h ec l ay t y pe s a nd t h e s u r f ace a ppea rance o ft h ep o t te ry f abr ics . L e ss d i rec ts ucce s s w a s a ch ieved i n as ma l lp rog ramme o fp e t ro log ica l a na ly s i so f N eo l i th ic a nd B eake rs he rd s f r om t h e E s sex c oa s t ( C lea l 1 985 , p p . 7 51-99 ) . H e r e t h e ma in o b se rva t ions w e re o n t h e h e te rogene i ty o fB eake rv e sse ls a nd t h e c l o se r r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t h e c oa r se r B eake r s a nd t h e i nd igenous N eo l i th ic p o t te ry t r ad i t ions . L a rger -sca le f ab r ic a na lyses s uppo r ted t hese p a t terns , w h i le c on s ide ra t ion o ff i l le rd en s i ty a l ong s ide a t t r ibu te so ff o rm a nd d eco ra t ion a lowed t h e d i s t inc t ion o ff i ne , e ve ryday a nd h eavy d u ty w a re s . T h i rd ly ad i f f e ren tt e chn ique , t h a t o fd i a tom a na ly s is ( wh ich i sb e s t s u i ted t o ma r ine c l ay s i nc oa s ta l a r ea s ) , h a s s hown e xamp les o f t h e u se o f l o ca l a nd f ore ign c l ays a td i f f e ren t s i te s i n t h e w es tern N e the r land s ( e .g . J an sma 1 977 ) . C ompa rab le r e sea rch i n to p o t te ry t e chno logy i sq u i te e v iden t ly n eeded i nt h e w e s t Med i te r ranean . I nI be r ia t h ef i r s tr e su l t so ff ab r ic a na lyse so n u ndeco ra ted p o t te ry f r om p re -Beake r a nd B eake r l e ve l s a tC er ro d e l aV i rgen h ave b een p ub l i shed b y U l re ich ( 1981 , 1 984 ) . H is p r inc ipa l o b serva t ion c once rns t h e c hange i np o t te ry c l asses ( d ef ined o n t h e b a s is o fs u r f ace t r ea tmen t , c l ays a nd f i r ing ) a tt h e s t ar t o f t h eB eake ro ccupa t ion p ha se s ( a l though c l ay sc on ta in ing c a lc ium c on t inue i nl a rge q uan t i t ie s t h roughou t ) . F rom t h i s h e g ene ra l ise s t h a t t h e re w a s ac hange i nt h e s e t t lemen t 's p opu la t ion . G iven t h el a ck o fs t udy o ft h ed eco ra ted B eake r s , a sw e l l a sR ice 's a r gumen t sc i ted a bove ,t h is w ou ld s e em ad ub ious h ypo the s is . E l sewhe re S chü le ( 1980 , p . 5 5 ) h a s p o in ted o u t t h a t c oa r se s he rds f r om V irgen c on ta in i n c lus ions s uch a sm ica , t h e n ea re s t g eo log ica l s ou r ce s o fw h ich a r e a tl e a s t2 0 -30 kms . t ot h e s ou th . U nfo r tuna te ly i ti sn o t s t a ted w he the r t h e i d en t if ica t ion o ft h e

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i n c lu s ion s h a s b een m ade b y ap e t ro log i s t , a sv i sua l i d en t if ica t ion i sl e s s r e l iab le ( S .E . v an d e rL eeuw , p e r s . c omm . ) . O n Ma l lo r ca , Wa ld ren h a sb een u nde r tak ing am a jo rp rog ramme o fp o t te ry a na ly se s i nr e cen t y ea r s ( e .g . Wa ld r en 1 983 ) o n m a te r ia l f r om a l l p reh i s to r ic p e r iod s o f o ccupa t ion i n t h e n or th o f t h e i s land . A l though much o f t h i s w o rk i sc u r r en t ly u npub l i shed , t wo o b se rva t ion sa r ew o r thy o fn o te i nt h ec on tex to ft h i sp ape r . A sa • r e su l to ft h in -sec t ion ing , Wa ld r en a r gue st h a tt h ed eco ra ted a nd u ndeco r a ted B eak e r p o t te ry f r om h i si mpo r tan ts e t t lemen ta tS on F e r rande l l -O leza a r ea l ike i nf a b r ic a nd f i r ing , w h i le t h ey d i f f e r i n t h e se r e spec t s f r om t h e c on temporary i nd igenous w are s o ft h e i s land ( 1 979 , p .4 7 ; 1 983 , p .1 3 ) . A pa r tf r om t h e se e xamp le s , Ia mn o ta wa r eo fa ny m a jo rp ub l ica t ion so fa na ly se so f B eake r p e r iod p o t te ry t e chno logy i n t h e We s t Med i te r ranean . B a r f ie ld ( p e r s . c omm . ) h a s a rgued f o r l o ca l p roduc t ion o fn o r th I t a l ian B eake r s o n t h e b a s i s o f v i sua l e xam ina t ion , w h i le ap rog ramme o ft h in -sec t ion ing o fS i c i l ian b eake r s h a s j u s tb egun ( Tu sa ,t h i sv o lume ) . No t o n ly d o t h e se k ind s o f a na ly se s a im t o a n swe r q ue s t ions a bou t B eake r p roduc t ion i nr e la t ion t oa va i lab le r e sou r ce s a nd t ot h e p roduc t ion o fo t he r , l o ca l p o t ter yt r ad i t ion s ,t h ey a l so d e f ine a na dd i t iona lr a nge o fv a r iab i l i ty w h ich r equ i r e s e xp lana t ion . O ne w ay o fc on s ide r ing v a r iab i l i ty i np o t te ry , a nd o ne w h ich w ec an mea su re w i th a r chaeo log ica l d a ta , i s t o e xam ine c o s t s o f p roduc t ion a nd t r an spo r ta t ion . T h i s i sv e ry much p a r to f af o rma le conom ic mode l . C la rke m ade t h e c oncep to fp roduc t ion c o s t se xp l ic i ti nh i s F r e ibu rg p ape r( 1976 ) . T he se c o s t s i n c lude n o t o n ly t h e t ime t a ken t op roduce B eake r s , a so ppo sed t oo t he r p o t te ry s t y le s , b u ta l so t h et ime t a ken t oo b ta in t h er aw m a te r ia l s -i no t he rw o rd st h ec o s t s o ft r anspo r t . B o th p roduc t ion a nd t r an spo r t c o s t s c an b e c hanged t oa ccoun t f o r c hange s i n t h e d emand f o r p o t te ry . I ft h i s d emand i n c rea se s , t h en p o t te r s m ay i n c rea se t h ep roduc t ion o fp o t te ry n o tn ece s sa r i ly b yd evo t ing mo r e t ime t oi t ,b u t q u i te o f ten b yc hang ing p roduc t ion m e thod ss ot h a t mo re p o t sa r e made i nt h es am e a moun to ft ime . S t anda rd i sa t ion i np o t te ry f o rm sa nd s t y le si so ne r e spon se t ot h i s t y pe o f p rob lem ( e .g . v an d e r L eeuw 1 983a , p .4 3 ) . A l te rna t ive ly i tm igh t b e d e c ided t ou se mo r el o ca l i sed c l ay a nd t emp e rs ou r ce s ,o rt os h if tp rodu c t ion c en t r e s c l o se rt ot h ese r e sou r ce s . I nt h ec a se o f ap o t te ry s t y le w h ich i se xchanged i n to a n a r ea , l i ke o the r c ommod i t ie s , t h en a n i n c rea se i nl o ca l d emand c ou ld l e ad l o ca l p o t te r s t oc opy t h e p o t s a nd t h e reby c ap tu re t h e m a rke t , b ecause , o fc ou r se , t h e i r t r an spo r tc o s t sw e re l owe r( c f .p ap e r si nK napp a nd S t e ch 1 985 ) . T he se s imp le t h eo re t ica l e xamp le s s ugge s t w ays i n w h ich w e c ou ld a na ly se a r chaeo log ica l d a ta . F o re xamp le , i nt h o se a r ea si nw h ich B eake r s f o rm p a r t o fa m a jo rp o t te ry t r ad i t ion w i th l o t so fd eco r a ted p o t s ,d om e s t ic a s semb lage sa nd s i t e s , c an w e t r ace c hange s i nd emand t h rough t ime ( f o rw h ich w e w ou ld r equ i r e af i nd c on t ro l o f c h rono logy ) a nd r e spon se s s u ch a s i n c rea sed s t anda rd i sa t ion o f r aw m a te r ia l s a nd d eco ra t ion? A l so , i n t h o se a r ea s i n w h ich B eake r s a ppea r a s a n i n t ru s ive p o t tery s t y le , i si tp o s s ib le t od i sce rn ac hange f r om t h e e a r l ie s t t y pe s , w h ich i n c lude n on loca l c l ay s a nd /o rt empe r s , a nd t h e l a te rt y pe s f o rw h ich mo r e l o ca l i sed r e sou r ce s a r eu sed? I nb o th c a se s a n e conom ic mode lp rov ide st h eb a s i s f o ra r chaeo log ica l a na ly s i s , t h ep ro spec t s f o rw h ich a r eb yn om ean se xhau s ted b y t h e se t wo s ugge s t ion s . O fc ou r se t h e r em ay w e l lb ep rob lem si nc o l lec t ing d a ta w i th as u f f ic ien t ly f i ne c h rono logy . T h i s i sw he re o u r i mpo r tan t , s t ra t if ied s e t t lemen t

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O xf o rd I n t e rna t iona lW e s t e rn Med i t e r ranean B e l lB eak e rC onf e r ence

e xcava t ion ss u ch a sa tZ ambu ja la nd C e r ro d el aV i rgen o ugh tt ob ee xp lo i ted t ot h e f u l l . I na dd i t ion Iw ou ld a r gue t h a tt h e se e conom i c mode l sp rov ide ab e t te rr a t iona le f o r t h e t ime a nd e f fo r t d evo ted t o d a t ing B eake r a s semb lage s t h an t h e u sua l j u s t if ica t ion o ft h es e a r ch f o ro r ig ins . T h i s d i scu s s ion a bou t e conom ic f a c to r s , s uch a s ma rke t d emand a nd p roduc t ion e ff i c iency , h a s s of a r made t h ea s sump t ion t h a tt h ey a r et h eo n ly o ne sw h ich m igh t p romo te s t ab i l i ty o r c hange i np o t te ry p roduc t ion . O the r f a c to r s , i n c lud ing t h e a va i lab i l i ty o fr e sou rce s , c hange s i nd i e t ( s ee S he r ra t t , t h i s v o lume ) , c hange s i n r i tua lo rc e r emon ia lb ehav iou r ,c hange si nv a lue s y s tem s ,a nd c hange si nt h es oc ia l a nd e conom ic s t a tu s a nd o rgan i sa t ion o fp o t te r s , c an a l l c on t r ibu te t o , o rc on s t r a in c hange i np o t te ry s t y le s / a s semb lage s ( R ice 1 984 , p p . 2 41 -50 ) . T he a c t ion , a nd i n te rac t ion ,o ft h e se f a c to r sp rov ide st h ec u l tu r a lc on tex tw i thou tw h ich e xp lana t ion s o f t h e v a r ious f o rm s t a ken b y B eake r p o t te ry a nd a s semb lages i n t h e w e s t Med i te r ranean ( l e ta l one c en t ra la nd w e s te rn E u rope )w i l lb ei n comp le te . T he i n t roduc t ion o fB eake r si n to d i f f e r en tp a r t so ft h ew e s t Med i te r ranean i so n ly a p a r t icu la re xamp le o ft h e mo r eg ene ra la r cha eo log ica lp rob lem o fi n t e rp r e t ing c u l tu ra l i nnova t ions. H e re a ga in w e s hou ld b ea wa re o f aw ide rb ody o ft h eo ry a nd c a se s t ud ie s ,i na n th ropo logy , g eog raphy ,e conom ics a nd r u ra ls o c io logy . T he p r inc ipa l t h eo re t ica l s ou rce h a s b een g eog raph ica l d i f fu s ion t h eo ry , a s p ionee red b y H age r s t rand . F o re xamp le , C la rke ( 1968 ) t u rned t ot h i s s ou r ce w hen a t temp t ing t o mode ld i f fu s ion t r end s . H oweve ri th a sr e cen t ly b een mo re w ide ly a cknow ledged t ha t s uch d i f fus ion mode ls make t h e w rong a s sump t ion t h a t t h e s p read o f i n fo rma t ion i se qu iva len t t ot h e s p read o fa n i n nova t ion . A s O ve r ton ( 1 985 ) h a s p o in ted o u t , s u ch mode l sa l so a t t r ibu te ab a s ic p a r to ft h ea dop t ion p roce s st oc hance f a c to r s , w h ich i sf i ne i fd ea l ing w i th , f o r e xamp le , i n f ec t iou s d i sea se s , b u t l e s s u se fu lf o rc u l tu ra li n nova t ion ( c f . R en f rew 1 978 ) . When d ea l ing w i th i n nova t ion s i nt h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd ,s u ch mode l sd on o te xp la in w hy c e r ta in i n nova t ion sa r e a dop ted , w hy t h ey may b e a dop ted mo re w ide ly a nd mo re r ap id ly t h an o the r i nnova t ions , a nd w hy t h e i nnova t ion a nd a dop t ion r a te s s hou ld v a ry f o rt h e s ame a r tef ac tf r om o ne r e g ion t oa no the r . O nce a ga in , w e h ave t oa ccoun tf o ro b served v a r iab i l i ty .T he r ei s ar a p id ly e xpand ing f i e ld o fi n nova t ion a nd a c cu l tu r a t ion s t ud ie s t ow h ich f u r the rr e f e rence c ou ld b e m ade ( e .g . S p ra t t 1 982 ; d i s cu s s ion i nv an d e r L eeuw 1 983b ; G r een a nd P e r lman 1 985 ) . R enf r ew ( 1 978 )h a sm ade t h ed i s t inc t ion b e tween a ne a r ly p ha se o fi n nova t ion a nd a l a te rp ha se o fw ha t h e c a l l s ' w ide sp read a dop t ion ' . I nt h e c a se o fe a r ly E u ropean m e ta l lu rgy , t h i s i s au sefu l d i s t inc t ion a nd h i gh l igh t s d i f f e r ence s i nt h e f r equency a nd , b y i n f e r ence , p roduc t ion r a tes o fc oppe rm e ta l lu rgy t h rough t ime , b u t i td oe s r a i se p rob lem s o ve rt h e s e cond o fR en f rew ' sp ha se s ( Chapman 1 984 , p . 143 ) . I s w ide spread a dop t ion t ob e d ef ined a s t h e a va i lab i l i ty o f a n i n nova t ion t oa l l s e c to r s o f s oc ie ty , o r a l l t h o se i n d iv idua l s o fp a r t icu la r s e c to r s ( e .g . e l i te s )? T he f r equency , s t y l i s t ic d i ve r s i ty a nd d u r a t ion o fB eake r sv a r ie s , a sw eh ave s e en ,f r om a r ea t oa r ea ,a nd ,b yi mp l ica t ion , s od oe st h ed eg r ee o ft h e i ra dop t ion . F o re xamp le w em igh te xpec t amo r ew ide spread a dop t ion i nC la rke 's t y pe 1r eg ion st h an i nh i s t y pe 2r e g ions . I na dd i t ion ,i fw ei n c lude t h es o c ia lc on tex to fi n nova t ion a dop t ion , a nd r e cogn ise t h a t i n d iv idua l /g roup s d id n o t a dop t B eake r s s imp ly b ecau se t h ey w e re t h e re , b u t mo re l i ke ly b ecau se o ft h es o c ia la dvan tage st h e i rp o s se s s ion m igh t c onf e r , t h en w e h ave a n i n s igh t i n to w hy v a r ia t ion s i n a dop t ion o ccu r b e tween d i f f e ren t a r ea s a nd w hy s ome a r ea s h ave n o B eake r s a ta l l . A ga in , t h i s p u t s t h e 7 1

R .W . C hapman

empha s i s f i rm ly u pon u nde r s tand ing t h e l o ca l s o c ia l a nd e conom ic c on tex t s o f B eake ri n nova t ion a nd a dop t ion ,t h e se c on tex t st h em se lve sh e lp ing t od e t e rm ine t h e v a r iab le a nd d i scon t inuou sd i s t r ibu t ion o fB eake r st h rough t h ew e s t Med i te r ranean a nd e l sewhe re i nE u rope . O ne w o rd w h ich h a s b een l a rge ly a b sen t f r om t h i s d i scu s s ion o ft h e c on tex t s o f i n nova t ion i ss t y le . T he r ei s ,a f te ra l l , much b e ing w r i t ten a bou ts t y le s ,w he the ro f p o t tery o r l i th ics , t h e i r f unc t ion a nd d ef in i t ion ( e .g . Wob s t 1 977 ; H odde r 1 982a ; W ie s sne r 1 984 ) . A cco rd ing t o P log ( 1980 ) , t h e re a r e f i ve t h eo r ie s o f s t y l i s t ic v a r ia t ion i np o t t e ry : n o rma t ive ,s t y l i s t ic d r if t ,s o c ia li n t e r ac t ion , mo to rh ab i tv a r ia t ion a nd i n fo rma t ion e xchange . A rgumen t s o ve r t h e se t h eo r ie s c on t inue , w h i le s ome a u tho r s a rgue f o r t h e n eed f o r ad eepe r t h eo ry o fs t y le e ncompa s s ing t h e se mo re s pec i f ic t h eo r ie s ( W ie s sne r 1 984 ) . I na dd i t ion t h e r eh a sb een al o ng s t and ing d eba te a bou t c o r rec t a na ly t ica l m e thod s f o r t h e d ef in i t ion o f p o t te ry s t y le s , a nd s uch m e thod s a r e c l ea r ly s e lec ted w i th p a r t icu la rp rob lem si nm ind . T h i s i sw hy t h e re e x i s td i f f e r en tt y po log ie sf o rt h es ame m a t e r ia l . S ow ha th a st h ed eba te o ve rs t y le c on t r ibu ted t oB eake rs t ud ie s? Ir eg r e tt os ay t h a t t h e a n swe r t o t h i s q ue s t ion i sa lmo s t n o th ing . T ypo log ie s h ave b een m a in ly d i rec ted t owa rds c u l tu ra l a nd c h rono log ica l q ue s t ions . E ven h e re t h e re i sl i t t le d e ta i led d i scu s s ion a s t o why a nd h ow ap a r t icu la r t y po logy i sd ef ined . W i th in E u ropean B eake r s t ud ie s o ne c an e xemp t af ew a u tho r s s uch a s C la rke ( 1970 ) . W i th in t h ew e s t Med i t e r ranean ,o n ly H a r r i son ( 1 977 ,p p . 6 -23 )h a sc l ea r ly s t a ted h i s a im sa nd h ow t h e se r e la te t oh i st y po logy ; h i sa im sa r ec u l tu r eh i s to r ica l ,t h en a tu r e o ft h e a va i lab le d a ta l e ad s h im t of avou rt h eu se o ft h ec u l tu re a r ea mode l a nd h i s c ho sen t y po logy i st h et y pe -va r ie ty s y s tem . H a r r i son 's c l a r i ty i sl a udab le a nd s e rve s a s amode lf o ro t he r s . B u ta r ec u l tu ra lh i s to r ica lq ue s t ion st h eo n ly o ne sw ew i sh t o a sk? J udg ing f r om r e cen tp ubl i ca t ion so nt h ei d eo log ica ls i gn if i cance o ft h eB eake r a s semb lage ( e .g . S hennan 1 982 ; T ho rpe a nd R icha rd s 1 984 ; C la rke , C ow ie a nd F oxon 1 985 ) , a sw e l l a st h e mo re g ene ra l l i t e ra tu re o n s t y le a s ar ef lec t ion o fs u ch f a c to r sa ss o c ia li n te rac t ion o ri n fo rma t ion c ommun ica t ion ,i tw ou ld a ppea rt h a tt h e r e a r e many o the r q ues t ion s w h ich w e c ou ld a sk o fo u r B eake r s , a s w e l l a s o t he r a pp roache st ot h e i rt y po logy ( e .g . H odde r 1 982b ; Wa shbu rn 1 983 ; K en t 1 983 ) . A s f a ra s Ik now t h e re a r en op ub l ica t ion so fs u ch a na ly se s , a nd i no n ly o ne c a se h a sa n a t temp tb een made t oe xam ine s uch f a c to r s a sa s semb lage s im i la r i ty a nd i n te r s i te d i s tance w i th in r eg iona l s t y le s ( C lea l 1 985 ) . T he n ea re s tw e g e t t ot h i s i np o t te ry s t ud ies i st h e p reced ing TRB a nd P FB c u l tu re s i nH o l land ( Vo s s 1 982 ; H odde r 1 982b ) . H e re , t h en , i s at o p ic f o r d i scu s s ion a nd ad i f f e ren t r a nge o fq ue s t ions , w i th d i f f e ren ta na ly se sa nd d i f f e ren tv a r iab i l i ty . T h i si sy e t af u r the re xamp le o ft h er e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h ep rob lem sw et h ink t ob e w o r thy o fs t udy a nd t h ek i nd so fa na ly se sw ep e r fo rm o no u ra r chaeo log ica ld a ta . I h ave o ne f i na le xamp le o ft h i sr e la t ion sh ip b e fo re d raw ing t o ac l o se . T h i se xamp le c oncern s s oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion , a nd i ni t s mo s tr e levan tf o rm f o rt h e s ub jec to ft h i s p ape r , t h e s oc ia lc on tex t ( s ) i nw h ich t h eB eake ra s semb lage c i r cu la ted . I n ev i tab ly t h i sg i ve sr i se t od eba te o ve rt h el im i ta t ion so fa r chaeo log ica li n f e rence ,l e ta l one t h e mode l so fs o c ia lo rgan i sa t ion o ne w i she st ou se . J udg ing b y ar e cen tr ev iew o fw e s t Med i te r ranean p r eh i s to ry ( Chapman 1 985 ) ,s o c ia lo rgan i sa t ion i sc u r r en t ly a t t ra c t ing ac ompa ra t ive ly s ma l la moun to fr e sea r ch i n te re s t . T he s o c ia le vo lu t ion mode l so f t h e a n th ropo log is t s E lman S erv ice a nd Mor ton F r ied h ave b een p ar t icu la r ly p rom inen t ( e .g . C hapman 1 981 ; B a rke r 1 981 ) , w i th a t temp t s t or e cons t ruc tt r iba l ,

7 2

O xf ord I n t e rna t iona lW e s t e rn Med i t e r ranean B e l lB eak e rC on f e r ence

r anked o rc h ie fdom s o c ie t ie s i nt h eN eo l i th ic , C oppe ra nd B ronze A ge s . W i th t h e i n t roduc t ion o f d i scuss ion a bou t p res t ige , s ta tus a nd e xchange , n o t o n ly r e f e r r ing t ot h eB eake ra s semb lage ,i tw a so n ly am a t t e ro ft ime b e fo r e B ig Men a s k nown f r om h igh land N ew G u inea , w e re r e cons t ruc ted f r om t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd ( Ba rke r 1 981 , p p . 1 83 -86 ) . My p o in th e re i sn o t s o much c once rned w i th as pec if i cr e con s t ruc t ion o fB eake r u s ing s oc ie t ie s , b u t w i th t h e s e lec t ion o f a pp rop r ia te mode ls t o a pp ly t o a r chaeo log ica ld a ta . F i r s t , ar e cen tr ev iew o fe t hnog raph ic n on -s ta te s o c ie t ie si nt h e Ame r ica s( Fe inman a nd N e i tze l 1 984 ) a dd st ot h eg row ing n umbe ro fs t ud ie sw h ich q ue s t ion t h e u t i l i ty o f s oc ia l t ype s s uch a s ' c h iefdom s ' i n a n th ropo logy a nd a r chaeo logy . T he re a r et h r ee m a jo rp o in t s . A r chaeo log i s t su s ing t h e se t y pe s t a ke t h er e cogn i t ion o f as i ng le a t t r ibu te ( e .g .r ed i s t r ibu t ion )t od emon s t ra te t h ep r e sence o fa l l t h e o the ra t t r ibu te st h a td e f ine t h e t y pe . When t h ee t hnog raph ic l i t e ra tu r ei s r ev iewed f o r f ou r ma jo r a t t r ibu te s o fp r e -s ta te s oc ie t ie s , n ame ly t h e f unc t ion s o f l e ade r s , s o c ia ld i f f e ren t ia t ion ,t h e s t ruc tu r ea nd c omp lex i ty o fp o l i t ica lo rgan i sa t ion a nd d emog raphy ,t h ey a r ef ound t ov a ry c on t inuou s ly b e tween t h e s o c ie t ie ss t ud ied . I no t he rw o rd s ,t h e r ew e re n om a jo rb r eak sb e tween t ype so fs oc ie ty . I na dd i t ion i t w a sf ound t h a tt h ese a t t r ibu te s c o r re la ted w i th e a ch o the ri nd i f f e ren tw ay s . Wha t t h i s mean s i st h a t t h e d e te rm ina t ion o f p a s t s o c ia l o rgan i sa t ion i s am a t te r f o r a r chaeo log ica l a na lys is , wo rk ing o n i nd iv idua l a t t r ibu tes , s uch a s s oc ia l d i f f e ren t ia t ion o r s t ra t if ica t ion , a nd t h e i r d eg ree s o fc o r re la t ion w i th e ach o t he r , r a ther t han t h e p ro jec t ion i n to t h e p a s t o f i d ea l t y pe s w h ich t h em se lve s l a ck e mp i r ica lv e r if i ca t ion i ns t ud ie so fc on tempo r a ry s o c ie t ie s . S econd ly w e mu s tl o ok c r i t ica l ly a ta no the rf a vou r i te mod e l ,t h eB ig Men , w ho a r e b eg inn ing t oc o lon i se p reh i s to r ic E u rope ,p a r t icu la r ly a tt h ei n te r f ace b e tween w ha t a r e t hough t t ob ee ga l i ta r ian s oc ie t ie s i nt h e N eo l i th ic , a nd u nequa l s o c ie t ie s w i th i n he r i ted w ea l th a nd s t a tu si nt h eB ronze A ge . T ot a ke o ne e xamp le ,a ni mag ina t ive p ape r o n t h e i n t roduc t ion o fB eake r s i n to t h e B r i t ish I s le s ( Tho rpe a nd R icha rd s 1 984 ) a r gued t h a ti n We s sex i tw a si nd iv idua l s o n t h ep e r iphe r ies o ft h e l o ca l l a te N eo l i th ic r i tua l a u tho r i ty a r ea w ho w e re f i r s t t o a dop t t h e n ew p o t tery a nd i t s a s soc ia ted a s semb lage . A s ar e su l to ft h e i rc on t ro lo f ,a nd c l o se p a r t ic ipa t ion i n ,t h i s p re s t ige g ood s e conomy , t h e se B ig Men p romo ted as t rugg le b e tween r i tua l a nd s e cu la ra u tho r i ty u l t ima te ly l e ad ing t ot h ec o l lapse o ft h el a t te r a f te r 1 800 b c B u t h ow a r eB ig Men t ob er e cogn i sed i nt h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd? I fw et u rn t ot h e i r h ome , i n h igh land N ew G u inea , Wh i te ( 1985 ) h a s r e cen t ly d emon s t ra ted t h e i r a r chaeo log ica li n v i s ib i l i ty . A l though t h ey c an b ee t hnog r aph icaly d ocumen ted ,t h e i r h ouse s a nd a s soc ia ted r e fu se d o n o t ma rk t h em o u t f r om n on -B ig Men . Wh i te p o in t so u tt h a tt h eB ig Men d on o tn eed l a rge h ou se s ,b ecau se t h e i rs o c ia lp o s i t ion i s b a sed u pon t h e i r u se o f w ea l th , r a the r t h an i t s d i sp lay i n i mmovab le c ap i ta l i nve s tmen t . I fB ig Men l a ck s uch a r chaeo log ica lc o r r e la te si nN ew G u inea ,o ne i s t emp ted t oa sk w he the r t h e re i sa ny p o in t i na s se r t ing t h e i r e x is tence i nB eake r u s ing , o ra ny o t he rC oppe rA ge s oc ie t ie si nE u rope . T he mo ra l , i ts e em st om e , i s t h a t w e s hou ld e xam ine v e ry c a refu l ly t h e mode l s o fs oc ie ty w h ich w e u se i no u r a na ly se so fa r cha eo log ica ld a ta . Ib egan t h is p ape r b y s t a t ing my a im t od i scu s s g ene ra l i s sue s i nB eake r s t ud ie s . Wha t h a s c ome o u t o f t h i s d i scu ss ion? O n t h e n ega t ive s i de , Ih ave s t a ted my r e jec t ion o ft h e ma in c once rn so ft r ad i t iona la pp roa che st oB eake rs t ud ie s . Id on o t b e l ieve i n aB eake r c u l tu re o r af o lk ma raud ing a c ro s s E u rope a nd t h e w e s t 7 3

R .W . C hapman

Med i te r ranean . Id o n o t b e l ieve s o le ly i nt h e s e a rch f o r B eake r o r ig in s , o r t h a t t h e re i s as i ng le e xp lana t ion f o r t h e e n t i re B eake r p henomenon . Id o n o t e ven b el i eve t h a tt h e re i s as i ng le B eake r p rob lem . E ven i ft h e re w e r e , Id o n o tb e l ieve t h a tt h ea ma s s ing o f mo re a nd mo re d a ta w ou ld s o lve t h a tp rob lem . I nc on t ra s t , a nd t ob ep o s i t ive , Ib e l ieve t h a tt h e re a r e an umbe ro fB eake rp rob lem s t ob es t ud ied a td i f f e r en ts ca le so fa na ly s is a nd w i th d i f f e ren tt e chn iques . C u r r en t ly t h e re i ss t i l l much e f fo r tb e ing d evo ted t oo rgan i s ing B eake ra s semb lage sw i th in t h e d imen s ion so ft ime a nd s pace . Whe re p r eh i s to r ian sa r ee xp l ic i ta bou tt h e i ra im sa nd me thod s , t h e se r evo lve a round q ue s t ion so fc u l tu re h i s to ry . Much o ft h ec u r ren t ly o bse rved v a r iab i l i ty i nB eake r a s semb lage s i sv iewed , a nd i ndeed d ef ined , w i th t h e se q ues t ion s i n m ind . My ma in p o in t i st h a t t h e re a r e o the r c omp lemen ta ry q ue s t ions a nd mode ls t h a t c ou ld b e u sed i n B eake r s t ud ies , a nd o the r k ind s o f v a r iab i l i ty t h a tc ou ld b ed ef ined . I nt h is p ape r Ih ave o u t l ined ,o rr e f e r red t o mode ls o f p o t te ry p roduc t ion , i nnova t ion mode l s , e conom ic mode ls , s oc ia l mode ls a nd mode ls o fs t y le . T h i sl i s tc ou ld b ee x tended t oi n c lude i n te ra c t ion a nd i n ten s if ica t ion mode l s ( e .g . R enf rew a nd C he r ry 1 986 ; L ew thwa i te , t h is v o lume ) , a s w e l l a s g ene t ic a nd b io log ica l mode ls ( a tl e a s t mo re u p t od a te e xamp le s t h an a r e u sua l ly emp loyed i nt h e s t udy o fB eake r a s soc ia ted s ke le ta l ma te r ia l ) . P reh is to r ians w ho u se t hese d i f fe ren t mode ls a pproach t h e a r chaeo log ica l r eco rd w i th d i f f e ren t p rob lem si nm ind a nd a ni n te r e s ti nd i f f e ren tt ype so fv a r iab i l i ty . T h i s It a ke t oh ave b een t h e me s sage b eh ind D av id C la rke 's p ape ra tt h eF re ibu rg c onf e rence . Whe re p o s s ib le , Ih ave c i ted e xamp les o fa r chaeo log is t sw ho h ave , s i nce t h ep ub l ica t ion o f C la rke 's p ape r , a t temp ted t op ur sue r e sea rch w h ich d i f f e r s f r om c u l tu re h i s to ry . T he se e xamp le s s hou ld s e rve a sa ni n sp i ra t ion t ot a ke t h e se l i ne so fr e sea r ch f u r the r , n o to n ly i nt h e We s t Med i te r ranean , b u t t h roughou tt h e a r ea s o fw es t a nd C en t ra l E u rope whe re B eake ra s semb lage so ccu r . A tt h es ame t ime ,w e mus tc on t inua l ly t r y t oe n su re t h a to u r mode l sc an b eo pe ra t iona l i sed o na r chaeo log ica ld a ta . O therw i se o ur i n te rp re ta t ions , w he the r c u l tura l , e co log ica l , e conom ic , s oc ia l o r i d eo log ica l , w i l lb en o mo re t h an i n te l lec tua l ly p l ea s ing s t o r ie s ,p e rhap sd i f f e ren ti nc on t en t ,b u t a l l b eg inn ing t h e s ame : ' o nce u pon a t ime i n t he We s t . . . '

A cknow ledgemen t s . ********

Iwou ld l i ke t ot h ank S ande rv an d e rL eeuw ,J im L ew thwa i te , R icha rd B rad ley a nd L aw rence B a r f ie ld f o r r ead ing a d raf t o f t h is p ape r a nd o f f er ing m any u sefu l c ommen t s . H umph rey C a se d i rec ted me t ot h e i mpor tan t w o rk o fR o se C lea ry o n t h e N ew G range B eake r s . T he u l t ima te s t imu lus f o r my v i ews o n B eake r s t ud ie s c ome s f r om D av id C la rke , w hose w i l l ingne ss t oq ue s t ion a ccep ted i d ea s , h i s o wn i n c luded ,i ss t i l lm i ssed . L a s t ly It h ank D i r eS t ra i t s ( no tt h a ti tw i l l ma t te rt ot h em ) f o rt h et i le o ft h is p ape r !

7 4

O xf ord I n t e rna t iona l We s t ern Med i t er ranean B e l lB eak e rC onf erence

B ib l iography * ******* A r r ibas ,A . a nd Mo l ina ,F . , 1 979a . E lP ob lado d e ' L os C as t i l le jos" e nl a sP er ta sd e l o s G i tanos ( Mon tef r io , G ranada ) . C ampa r ia d e E xcavac ione s d e 1 97 1 . E lc or te n o . 1 , U n ive r s idad d eG ranada ,G ranada . A r r iba s ,A . a nd Mo l ina F . , 1 979b . ' Nueva sA po r tac ione s a lI n ic io d el a Me ta lu rg ia e nl aP en in su la IM r ica . E l p ob lado d e l o s C a s t i l le jo s d e Mon tef r io ( G ranada ) ' i nM . R yan ( ed . ) , T he O r ig in s o f Me ta l lurgy i nA t lan t ic E urope ,p p . 7 -32 , S ta t ione ry O f f ice ,D ub l in . A r r iba s , A . a nd Mo l ina F . , 1 982 . ' Los M i l la res . N eue A usg rabungen i n d e r K upf e rze i t l ichen S ied lung ( 1 978 -1981 ) ' , Mad r ider M i t te i lungen 2 3 , p p . 9 -32 . A r r iba s , A . a nd Mo l ina F . , 1 984 . ' The L a tes t E xcava t ions o f t he C oppe r Age S e t t lemen t o fL o s M i l la re s , A lmer ia , S pa in ' , i nW .H . Wa ld ren , R . C hapman , J . L ew thwa i te a nd R -C . K enna rd ( eds . ) , T he Deya C onf erence o f P reh is tory , p p . 1 029 -1050 , B .A .R . I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s 2 29 , Oxfo rd . A r r iba s , A . , Mo l ina , F . , d e l aT o r re , F . , N ä je ra , T . a nd S äez , L . , 1 978 . ' E lp ob lado d e l a E dad d e l C ob re d e ' E l Ma lagön ( Cu l la r -Baza , G ranada ) . C ampa r la d e 1 975 ' , C uadernos d eP reh i s tor ia d el aU n iver s idad d e G ranada 3 ,p p . 6 7 -116 . A r r iba s , A . , Mo l ina , F . , S äez , L . , d e l aT o r re , F . , Aguayo , P . a nd N ä je ra , T . , 1 979 . ' E xcavac ione se nL o sM i l la re s ( San ta F e ,A lme r ia ) . C ampa t ia s d e 1 978 y 1 979 ' , C uadernos d e P reh i s tor ia d e l a U n iver s idad d e G ranada 4 ,p p . 6 1 -110 . A r r iba s , A . , Mo l ina , F . , S äez , L . , d e l aT o r re , F . , Aguayo , P . a nd N ä je ra , T . , 1 981 . ' Excavac iones e n L os M i l la res ( San ta F e d e Mondü ja r , A lme r ia ) . C ampa t ia d e 1 981 ' , C uadernos d e P reh is tor ia d e l a U n iver s idad d eG ranada 6 ,p p . 9 1 -12 1 . Aube t , M .E . , S erna , M .R . , E scacena , J .L . a nd R u iz , M .M . , 1 983 . L a Mesa d e S e tef i l la . L ora d e lR io ( Sev i l la ) . C ampa r ia d e 1 979 , E xcavac iones A rqueo lög ica se nE spa r la 1 22 ,M in i s te r io d eC u l tu ra , Mad r id . B a r f ie ld , L . , 1 976 . ' The C u l tu ra l A ff in i t ie s o fB e l l B eake r s i nI t a ly a nd S i c i ly ' , i n J .N . L an t ing a nd J .D . v an d er Waa ls ( eds .) , G lockenbecher sympos ion . O ber r ied 1 974 , p p . 3 07 -22 , F ibu la -van D i shoek ,B ussum /Haa r lem . B a rke r , G . , 1 981 . L and scape a nd S oc ie ty . P reh i s tor ic C en t ra l I t a ly , A cadem ic P re s s , L ondon .

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B rad ley , R . , 1 982 . ' Be l le T ou t -Rev is ion s a nd R ea s ses smen t ; , i nP .D rewe t t , T he A rchaeo logy o f B u l lock Down , E as tbourne , E as t S ussex : t h e d eve lopmen t o f al and scape , p p . 6 2 -71 , S ussex A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty Monog raph 1 ,L ewe s . B ray , W . , 1 964 . . ' S a rd in ian B eake r s ; , P roceed ings o ft h e P reh i s tor ic S oc ie ty 3 0 , p p . 7 5 -98 . B urgess , C .B . a nd S hennan , S . , 1 976 . ' The B eaker P henomenon : S ome S ugge s t ions ' i n C . B u rgess a nd R . M ike t ( ed s . ) , S e t t lemen t a nd e Eonomy i n t h e T h ird a nd S econd M i l lenn ia BC , p p . 3 09 -31 , B .A .R . , 3 3 , O xfo rd . C hapman ,R .W . , 1 984 . ' E a r ly Me ta l lu rgy i nI be r ia a nd t h e We s te rn Med i te r ranean : I nnova t ion , Adop t ion a nd P roduc t ion ' , i n W .H . Wa ld ren , R . C hapman , J . L ew thwa i te a nd R -C K enna rd ( ed s . ) , T he Deya C onf erence o f P reh is tory , p p . 139 -1165 , B .A .R . I n terna t iona l S er ie s2 29 , O xfo rd . C hapman , R .W . , 1 985 . ' The l a te r p reh i s to ry o f Wes ter n Med i te r ranean E u rope : r e cen t a dvance s ' , i nF . Wendo r fa nd A . C lo se ( e d s . ) , Advance s i n Wor ld A rchaeo logy 4 ,p p . 15 -87 , A cadem ic P re ss , N ew Yo rk . C la rke , D .L . , 1 968 .A na ly t ica lA rchaeo logy , Me thuen ,L ondon . C la rke , D .L . , 1 970 . B eaker P o t tery o fG rea t B r i ta in a nd I r e land , C ambr idge U n ive r s i ty P res s . C la rke , D .L . , 1 976 . ' The B eake r N e two rk -Soc ia l a nd E conom ic Mode l s ' , i nJ .N . L an t ing a nd J .D . v an d e r Waa l s ( ed s . ) , G lockenbecher sympo s ion . O berr ied 1974 ,p p . 4 59 -76 , F ibu la -van D i shoek ,B u ssum iH aa r lem . C la rke , D .V . , C ow ie , T .G . a nd F oxon , A . , 1 985 . S ymbo l so fP ower a tt h e t i me o f S tonehenge , H .M .S .O . , E d inbu rgh . C lea l , R .M .J . , 1 985 . T he L a ter N eo l i th ic i nE a s tern E ng land , u npub l ished P h .D . t h e s i s ,R ead ing U n ive r s i ty . C lea ry , R .M . , 1 983 . ' T he C e ram ic A ssemb lage ' , i nM .J . O 'Ke l ly , R .M . C lea ry a nd D . L ehane , N ewgrange , C o . Mea th , I r e land . T he L a te N eo l i th ic l B eaker p er iod s e t t lemen t , p p . 5 8 -117 , B .A .R . I n te rna t iona l S er ies 1 90 , O xfo rd . D e l ibe s d e C a s t ro , G . a nd F e rnändez -M i randa , M . , 1 981 . ' L aT umba d e C e lada d e R ob lecedo ( Pa lenc ia ) yl o s I n ic io s d e l B ronce A n t iguo e n e lV a l le Med io yA l to d e l P i sue rgo ' ,T raba jos d eP reh i s tor ia 3 8 ,p p . 1 54 -92 . F e inman , G . a nd N e i tze l , J . , 1 984 . ' Too Many T ype s : a n O verv iew o f S eden ta ry P re s ta te S oc ie t ie si nt h e Ame r ica s ' ,i nM .B . S ch if f e r( e d . ) ,A d vance s i nA rchaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heory 7 ,p p . 3 9 -102 , A cadem ic P re ss , N ew Y o rk .

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O xf ord I n t erna t iona lW e s t ern Med i t er ranean B e l lB eak er C onf e rence

G reen , S .W . a nd P e r lman , S .M . ( ed s . ) , 1 985 . T he A rchaeo logy o fF ron t ier s a nd B oundar ie s ,A cadem ic P r es s ,N ew Y o rk . H ar r i son , R .J . , 1 974 . ' O r ig ins o f t h e B e l l B eake r C u l tu re s : S ome S pecu la t ion s ' , A n t iqu i ty 4 8 ,P . 9 9 -109 . H a r r ison ,R .J . , 1 977 .T he B e l lB eaker C u l ture so fS pa in a nd P or tuga l, B u l le t in 3 5 , Amer ican S choo l o f P reh is to r ic R esea rch , H arva rd , C ambr idge , Ma ss . H a r r ison , R .J . , 1 980 . T he B eaker F o lk , T hame s a nd H ud son , L ondon . Hodde r , I . , 1 982a . S ymbo l s i nA c t ion , C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re ss . Hodde r , I . , 1 982b . ' S equences o fS t ruc tu ra l C hange i nt h e D u tch N eo l i th ic ' , i nI . Hodde r ( ed . ) , S ymbo l ic a nd S t ruc tura l A rchaeo logy , C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re ss . J an sma , M .J . , 1 977 . ' D ia tom A na ly s is o fP o t te ry ' , i nB .L . v an B eek , R .W . B rand t a nd W . G roenman -van Waa ter inge ( ed s . ) , E x Horreo , p p . 7 7 -85 , U n ive r s i ty o f Am s te rdam . K en t , K . , 1 983 . ' T empo ra l S h if t s i n t h e S t ruc tu re o f T rad i t iona l S ou thwes tern T ex t i le D es ign ' , i nD .K . Wa shbu rn ( ed . ) , S t ruc ture a nd c ogn i t ion i n a r t ,p p . 13 -37 , C ambr idge U n iver s i ty P res s. Knapp , A .B . a nd S tech , T . ( ed s ) , 1 985 . P reh i s tor ic p roduc t ion a nd e xchange .T he A egean a nd E as tern Med i terranean , Monog raph 2 5 , I n s t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy ,U .C .L .A . Ma r t in Mo ra les , C . , 1 983 . ' La s F echa s d e l Q u in tana r ( Mane ra , A lbace te ) yl a C rono log ia A b so lu ta d el a Me se ta S u r ' , i n Ho r nena je a lP rof . Mar t in A lmagro B a sch I ,p p . 2 3 -35 ,M in i s te r io d eC u l tu ra , Mad r id . Mo l ina , F .a nd N ä je ra , T . , 1 978 . ' D ie Mo t i l la sv on A zue ru nd l o s P a lac io s ( P rov . C iudad R ea l ) . E in B e i t rag z ur B ronzeze i t d e r Mancha ' , Madr ider M i t te i lungen 1 9 ,p p . 5 2 -74 . N ä je ra ,T . , 1 984 .L aE dad d e lB ronce e nl a Mancha O r ien ta l, T e s is D oc to ra le si t e l a U n ive r s idad d eG ranada 4 58 ,G ranada . N ä je ra , T . a nd Mo l ina , F . , 1 977 . ' L aE dad d e lB ronce e nl a Mancha . E xcavac ione s e n l a s Mo t i l las d e l A zue r yl o s P a lac ios ( Campa i la d e 1 974 ) ' , C uad ernos d eP reh i s tor ia d el aU n ive r s idad d eG ranada 2 ,p p . 2 513 00 . N ä je ra , T , Mo l ina , F . , d e l aT o r re , F . , A guayo , P .a nd S äez , L . , 1 979 . ' L a Mo t i l la d e A zue r ( Da im ie l , C iudad R ea l ) , C ampar ia d e 1 976 ' , N o t ic iar io A rqueo lög ico H i spän ico 6 ,p p . 2 1-50 .

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R .W . C hapman

O ve r ton , M . , 1 985 . ' The D if fus ion o f A gr icu l tu ra l I nnova t ions i n E a r ly Modern E ng land : T urn ips a nd C love r i nN or fo lk a nd S uf fo lk 1 580 -1740 ' , T ransac t ion so ft h eI n s t i tu t eo fB r i t i sh G eographer s 1 0 ,p p . 2 05 -21 . P log , S . , 1 980 . S t y l i s t ic V ar ia t ion i nP reh i s tor ic C eram ic s , C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P ress . R enf ew , C . , 1 978 . ' The Ana tomy o fI nnova t ion ' , i nD . G reen , C . H a se lg rove a nd M . S p r iggs ( ed s . ) , S oc ia l O rgan i sa t ion a nd S e t t lemen t , p p . 8 9 -117 , B .A .R . I n ter na t iona l S e r ie s4 7 , O xfo rd . R enf rew , C . a nd C he r ry , J . , 1 986 . P eer P o l i ty I n t erac t ion , C amb r idge U n iver s i ty P ress . R ice , P .M . , 1 984 . ' Change a nd C onve r sa t i sm i n P o t te ry -P roduc ing S y s tems ' , i n S .E . v an d er L eeuw a nd A .C . P r i tcha rd ( eds . ) , T he Many D imen s ions o fP o t tery ,p p . 2 31 -88 ,U n ive r s i ty o f Am s te rdam . S chü le ,W . , 1 980 . O rce u nd G a lera . Zwe iS i ed lungen a us d em 3 .b i s1 .J ahr tau send v .Chr . i mS udö s ten d er I ber i schen H a lb in se ll , P h i l ipp v on Z abe rn , Ma inz a mR he in . S e rna , M .R . , E scacena , J .L . a nd Aube t , M .E . , 1 984 . ' Nuevos D a to s p a ra u na D ef in ic i6n d e lB ronce A n t iguo yP leno e ne lB a jo G uada lqu iv i r ' , i n W .H . Wa ld ren , R . C hapman , J .L ew thwa i te a nd R -C . K enna rd ( ed s . ) ,T he D eya C onf erence o fP reh i s tory, p p . 1 051 -1083 , B .A .R . I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s2 29 ,O xfo rd . S hennan , S . , 1 982 . ' I deo logy , C hange a nd t h eE u ropean B ronze Age ' , i nI .H odde r ( e d . )S ymbo l ic a nd S t ruc tu ra lA rchaeo logy, p p . 1 55 -61 , C amb r idge U n iver s i ty P res s . S pra t t , D .A . , 1 982 . ' The Ana lys is o f I nnova t ion P rocesses ' , J ourna l o f A rchaeo log ica lS c ience 9 ,p p . 7 9 -94 . S tepona i t is , V .P . , 1 984 . ' Techno log ica l S tud ies o f P reh is to r ic P o t te ry f r om A labama : P hys ica l P roper t ies a nd V e sse l f unc t ion ' , i nS .E . v an d e r L eeuw a nd A .C . P r i tcha rd ( e d s . ) ,T he Many D imens ions o fP o t t e ry, p p . 7 9 -122 , U n ive r s i ty o f Am s te rdam . T ho rpe , I . J . a nd R icha rd s , C .C . , 1 984 . ' The D ec l ine o f R i tua l A u tho r i ty a nd t h e I n t roduc t ion o fB eaker s i n to B r i ta in ' ,i nR . B rad ley a nd J .G a rd ine r ( e ds . ) , N eo l i th ic S tud ies : aR ev iew o fS ome C urren tR e search , p p . 6 7 -84 , B .A .R . 1 33 , ! Oxfo rd . U lre ich ,

H . ,

1 981 . ' Un tersche idung u nd S ta t is t ische Un ter suchung d er K e ram ikk la s sen d e s C e r ro d el aV i rgen , O rce ( G ranada ) , Mad r id er M i t te i lungen 2 2 ,p p . 8 9 -126 .

7 8

O x f ord I n t e rna t iona l We s t e rn Med i t er ranean B e l lB eaker C onf erence

U lre ich , H . , 1 984 . ' Def in ic iön Emp f r ica y Ana 'N i s E s tad i s t ico d e C lases d e C e räm ica ' i nP r imeras J ornadas d e Me todo logia d eI nve s t igac iön . S o r ia 1 981 , p p . 2 29 -34 . V agne t t i , L . , ( ed . ) , 1 982 . Magna G rec ia e Mondo M iceneo . Nuov i Documen t i , I s t i tu to P e rl aS to r ia el ' A r cheo log ia D ela Magna G rec ia ,T a ran to . V an d e rL eeuw , S .E . , 1 976 . ' Neo l i th ic B eake r s f r om t h e N e the r lands : t h e P o t te r 's P o in t o f V iew ' , i n J .N . L an t ing a nd J .D . v an d e r Waa ls ( eds . ) , G lockenbecher sympos ion . O berr ied 1 974 , p p . 8 1 -140 , F ibu la -van D is hoek ,B us s um /Haa r lem . V an d e r L eeuw , S .E . , 1 983a . ' P o t te ry D i s t r ibu t ion S y s tem s i n R oman No r th w es tern E u rope a nd o n C on tempo ra ry N egros , P h i l l ip ines ' , A rchaeo log ica lR ev iew f rom C ambr idge 2 :2 ,p p . 3 7 -47 . V an d e r L eeuw , S .E . , 1 983b . ' Accu l tu ra t ion a s I n fo rma t ion P rocess ing ' i n R . B rand t a nd J . S lof s t ra ( eds . ) , R oman a nd N a t ive i n t he L ow C oun t r ie s ,p p . 1 -41 , B .A .R . I n ter na t iona l S e r ie s 1 84 ,O xfo rd . Vo ss ,J .A . , 1 982 . ' AS tudy o f We s te rn TRB S oc ia lO rgan isa t ion ' ,B er ich ten v an d e R i jk sd iens t v oor h e t Oudhe idkund ig B odemond erzoek 3 2 , p p . 9 1 02 . Wa ld ren , W .H . , 1 982 . ' A B eake r Wo rk shop A rea i n t h e R ock S he l te r o f S on Ma tge , Ma l lo r ca ' , Wor ld A rchaeo logy 1 ,p p . 4 3 -67 . Wa ld ren , W .H . , 1 983 . P reh i s tor ic P o t tery : S imp le A pproaches t o A na lys is , DA MARC s e r ies 1 4 , D eya A rchaeo log ica l Museum a nd R e sea rch C en t re ,D eya , Ma l lo r ca . Wa shburn , D .K . , 1 983 . ' S ymme t ry A na lys i s o fC e ram ic D e s ign : Two T e s t so ft h e Me thod o nN eo l i th ic Ma te r ia lf r om G reece a nd t h eA egean ' ,i nD .K . Wa shbu r n ( ed . ) , S truc ture a nd C ogn i t ion i n A r t , p p . 1 38 -64 , C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re ss . • Wh i te , J . P . , 1 985 . ' D igg ing O u t B ig - Men? ' , A rchaeo logy i nO cean ia 2 0 , p p . 5 7 6 0 . Wies sne r , P . , 1 984 . ' Recon s ider ing t h e B ehav io ra l B a s i s f o r S ty le : aC a se S tudy Among t h eK a laha r i S an ' ,J ourna lo fA n thropo log ica lA rchaeo logy 3 ,p p . 1 90 -234 . Wobs t , H .M . , 1 977 . ' S ty l is t ic B ehav io r a nd I n fo rma t ion E xchange ' , i n C .E . C le land ( e d . ) ,F or t h eD irec tor :R e search E s say si n Honor o fJ ame s B . G r if f in , p p . 3 17 -42 , A n thropo log ica l P ape r s 6 1 , U n ive r s i ty o f M ich igan Mu seum o fA n th ropo logy .

7 9

Cups T ha t Cheered " 0f o r ab eake r ,f u l lo ft h ew a rm s ou th " K ea t s , Od et o aN igh t inga le ( 1 )

D r , And r ew S he r ra t t D epa r tmen to fA n t iqu i t ie s As hmo lean Mu seum Oxfo rd OX1 2PH , E ng land .

Abs trac t * ***** The mo s to bv iou sf e a tu re o ft h eB e l lB eake rc omp lex i si t se ponymou sv e s se l ,t h e d eco ra ted d r ink ing c up . I n d i f f e ren t f o rm s , t h i s i sa n i mpo r tan t e l emen to f many t h i rd m i l lenn ium c u l tures i n E urope . Two g roups i n p a r t icu la r s ha re e s sen t ia l f ea tu res o f t he b e l l b eake r p a t te rn : av e ry w ide g eog raph ica l s p read , a n i n i t ia l a ppea rance i nl o ca l ly c oncen t ra ted a r ea s -a ppa r en t ly s i de b ys i de w i th p re -ex i s t ing i nd igenou sg roups ,a nd i np ar t icu la ra s soc ia t ion w i th o the re l emen t so f ma le d i sp lay e qu ipmen t . T he se t wo g roup s ,b o th o fw h ich may b ed e sc r ibed a s ac omp lex , a r e c a l led a f te rC o rded Wa re b eake r sa nd G lobu la r Ampho rae r e spec t ive ly . R ad ioca rbon d a t ing h a sd emon s t ra ted ab road ly s ucce s s ive p a t te rn o fa ppea rance o f t h e se t h ree g roups . G lobu la r Ampho rae ,c en t red i nP o land , s p read c i r ca 1 600 b ct o a f fec t a n a r ea s t re tch ing f r om e a s tern D enma rk t o t h e D n ies t r . C o rded Wa re , b eg inn ing c i rca 2 400 b c , r e ached a n a r ea f r om t h e R h ine t o Mo scow a nd b eyond , f r om ac o re a r ea i nn or th -cen t ra lG e rmany . B eake r s , s how ing s ome c on t inu i ty f r om C o rded Wa re g roups i nt h e R h ine d e l ta , s p read e spec ia l ly b y c oa s ta l a nd r i ve r ine r ou te sf r om 2 200 b co nwa rd s ,a ch iev ing ad i s t r ibu t ion f r om S co t land t oS i c i ly . T he se s ucce ss ive e xpan s ion s , mov ing f r om e a s tt ow es ta c ro ss t h e n o r th E u ropean P la in a nd t h en i n to A t lan t ic E u rope , may b e c ons ide red a s p a r t s o f as i ng le p henomenon . T hey mu s tb er e la ted t oa no the r ma jo rc u l tu ra lb loc ,c en t ra lt oa l lo f t h em -t h eB aden c u l tu re o ft h eC a rpa th ian B a s in a nd t h er e la ted E ze ro a nd A egean EBA c u l tu re s . T he se a r ea l so c ha rac te r ised c e ram ica l ly b ya ne mpha s i so nd r ink ing v e sse l s ,o f amo re s oph is t ica ted k i nd a nd a r guab ly c l o se ly i m i ta t ing t h em e ta lv e s se l s p roduced a tt h a tt ime i nA n to l ia a nd t h eA egean . T he a ppea rance o ft h ese a s semb lage s ma rk s t h e b eg inn ing o f af e a tu re w h ich h a s c ha rac te r ised E u ropean c u l ture e ve r s i nce : a n empha s is o n ma le d r ink ing r i tua l s . E u ropean s oc ie t ie sg ive ap a r t icu la rs i gn if i cance t oa l coho l -ba sed h o sp i ta l i ty w h ich c an b e b road ly c ompa red w i th t h a t b a sed o n o the r ( m i lde r ) s t i mu lan t s i ns eve ra l 8 1

A . G .S h er ra t t

w o r ld c u l tu re s : t e a ( Ch ina ) ,c of f ee ( A rab ia ) ,c hoco la te ( Mesoame r ica ) . B ecau se o f i t si n tox ica t ing p rope r t ie s , a l coho li s ap a r t icu la r ly p owe r fu ls oc ia ll ub r ican t ,c apab le o fs u s ta in ing b o th s e cu la r( u sua l ly e l i te ) a nd r e l ig ious s ymbo l i sm . A l though mo re t h an o ne t ype o fd r ink mu s th ave b e en i n vov led ,i tc an b ea r gued t h a t a l coho l w a s ac ruc ia l c ommon e l emen t i nt h e e xpan s ion o f an ew c u l tu ra lp a t te rn a c ro ss E u rope i nt h eT h i rd M i l lenn ium .

8 2

I n troduc t ion ******* The s t udy o fp o t te ry f o rm s al a rge p a r to ft h ew o rk o ft h ea r chaeo log i s t : mo s to ft h e e n t i t ie sw i th w h ich w ep opu la te p r eh i s to r ic E u rope a r en amed a f t e rt h e i rp o t s .U n l ik e m any o t he re xp re s s ive e l emen t so fm a te r ia lc u l tu re s u ch a sc l o th ing ,i th a s s u rv ived i n l a rge e nough q uan t i t ie s t o p e rm i t s ome a t temp t t o s t udy i ta s as y s tem o f c ommun ica t ion . E v en s oi ti so n ly p a r to ft h e l a nguage o fc u i s ine :t h es ymbol i sm o f t h ec on ta ine r si sc l o se ly c onnec ted w i th t h es i gn i f ican ce o ft h e i rc on t en t s . O ne o ft h ec h ara c te r i s t ic so ft h el a te rN eo l i th ic o rc oppe rA ge c u l tu re so fE u rope i s t h e a ppea rance o fs p ec ia lt y pe s o fp o t te ry i nd ica t ing ap a r t icu la rc once rn w i th t h e p re sen ta t ion o f f ood a nd d r ink , p re sumab ly f o r c onsump t ion i n s pec if ic s oc ia l c on tex t s . R ecen t e xp lana t ion s f o r t h i s k ind o fp henomenon , a ppea l ing t os oc ia l s t ress o f t h e f i ne p o t te ry a s s ome k ind o f p res t ige g ood s , h ave c o r rec t ly p e r ce ived t h e i mpo r tance o ft h e se a s semb lage s b u ta r e u nhe lpfu li nu nde r s tand ing t h e i rm ean ing . I nc oncen t ra t ing o n t h e e x te rna l a spec t s o ft h e s u rv iv ing e v idence , t h ey d ea lw i th t h ep ackag ing r a the rt h an w i th t h ep rodu c t . U n l ike i t em si np r eh i s to r ic m e ta lwo rk , w h ich a r e u sua l ly o b jec t s i n t h em se lve s , p o t s w e re c on ta ine r s f o r c ommod i t ie s . Wha teve rp re s t ige a t tached t op o t te ry i s mo re l i ke ly t oh ave b een d e r ived f r om t h es pec ia ln a tu re o fw ha tw a sc on sumed f r om i tr a the rt h an f r om a ny i n he r en tv a lue i nt h ep o t s t h em se lve s : t h e i re l abo ra t ion w a s s imp ly a pp rop r ia te f o r t h en a tu re o fw ha tw a sp rov ided i nt h em . Wh i le t h ep o t sm ay h ave b een a dm i red ,i t w a s t h e i r c on ten t s o n w h ich t h e mea l w a s j udged . We h ave b een v e ry s l ow i n a pp rehend ing t h e i mpo r tance o f c u l ina ry c u l tu re i n e a r ly s oc ie t ie s : t oo o f ten d i scuss ion r ema in s a t t h e l e ve l o fs ubs i s tence . T he r epe t i t ive l i s t s o f c e rea l v a r ie t ie so rs pe c ie so fd ome s t i ca ted a n ima l sf r om a r chaeo log ica ls i t e sg i ve n oc l ue t o t h ec r ea ted v a r ie ty o fp r eh i s to r ic d i e t ,Y e t much o ft h ev a r ie ty w h ich w es t udy i nt h e p o t te ry mus t r e la te t o h ow t h e p roduc t s o f t h e f i e ld s w e re c onve r ted i n to t h e a pp rop r ia te k ind s o ff ood a nd d r ink , a nd h ow t h e se w e re p r epa red a nd s e rved . B y s h if t ing t h ef o cu so fi n ve s t iga t ion f r om t h et a b lewa r e t oi t sc on ten t s ,w em ay c ome n ea r e rt ou nde r s tand ing t h ea s semb lage sw h ich h ave s u rv ived t oa r ou se o u ri n te re s t . Ac l a s s ica l a r chaeo log ica l p uzz le i st h e s i gn if icance o ft h e t h i rd m i l lenn ium B e l l B eak er c omp lex . I t s mo s t o bv ious f e a tu re i si t s e ponymou s v e s se l , t h e d eco ra ted d r ink ing c up . T he p u rpo se o ft h i sp ape ri st os ugge s tt h a tt h ea s so c ia t ion b e tween s u ch ac on ta ine r a nd a ni n te rna t iona ls t y le o fo s t en ta t ion i sn o tf o r tu i tou s ;a nd i n deed t h a ti tf o rm sp a r t o f aw ide r p a t te rn w h ich m ay b e d i sce rned t h roughou t t h e c on t inen t o f E u rope . D iscu s s ion o f t h is a s ser t ion i n t h e f o l low ing p ape r f a l ls i n to f ou r s e c t ion s , o f d i f f e r ing c ha rac te r : t h ef i r s tc oncer n sc h rono logy , t h e s e cond d ea l s w i th t h e a r r iva l o ft e chno log ica li n nova t ion si nl a te rN eo l i th ic E u rope , t h et h i rd l o ok sb r ief ly a tt h e s o c io logy o fs t imu lan t s , a nd t h ef our th t r ie st oa pp ly t h e se i d ea st ot h ed e ta i lo ft h e a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd .

8 3

A . G .S her ra t t

Europe i n t he F our th a nd T h ird Mi l lenn ia b c * ******* E u rope a tt h eb eg innng o ft h ef ou r th m ilenn ium w a s al a nd o fc on t ra s t s . A l though i ni t s s ou th -ea s te rn p ar t t h e re w e re v i l lage c ommun i t ie s w hose a nces to r s h ad b een f a rme r s t h e re f o rt wo t hou sand y ea r s , o n t h e n o r th -we s te rn m a rg in o ft h e c on t ine t t h ea ppea rance o fs t one t omb si ns ma l lc l ea r ing sm a rked ar e la t ive ly r e cen ts h i f tt oa n a gr icu l tu ra l w ay o fl i f e b yp eop le s w ho h ad p rev iou s ly l i ved b y f i sh ing , f o rag ing a nd f ow l ing . A long t h eA t lan t ic c oa s t land ,t h ec onve rgen td eve ipmen to fm ega l i th ic a r ch i tec tu re p i cked o u t az one o fc ommun i t ies , w i th v a r ied b ackg round sb u to f ten l o ca ted i nt h eh ea r t land so fe a r l ie r , Me so l i th ic p opu la t ion ,w h ich f o rmed ad i s t inc t ive d eve lopmen t o n t h e w es te rn e dge o f E urope . A l though t h e l a te r b u i lde r s o f c o l lec t ive t omb sa ts i te sl i ke L o sM i l la re si nI be r ia w e re t oa cqu i re s ome s k i l l sf r om c on tac t sa l ong t h e Med i te r ranean i n amo r ea dvanced p ha se o ft h e i rd eve lopmen t( 2 ) , t h e o r ig in o fE u ropean m ega l i ths w a s e s sen t ia l ly al o ca l o ne . No th ing sp o in t s u p mo re c l ea r ly t h ec on t ra s tb e tween o u rp re sen tp i c tu re o fE u ropean p reh i s to ty a nd t h a t p re sen ted b y Go rdon C h i lde t h an t h ei n te rp re ta t ion o ft h em ega l t h ic monmen t sa nd t h e i r make r s . F a r f r om b e ing r e cen t i mm ig ran t s o r c onve r t s t o n ea r E a s te rr r e l ig ion s ,t h em ega l i th ic c ommun i t ie so f We s te rn E u rope c an n ow b es e en a se qualy i fn o t mo re i s o la ted ,a r cha ic a nd r u ra lt h an t h ep ea san t so ft h ec en t ra lE u ropean l o e s s -t h emse lve s u nsoph is t ica ted b y t h e s t anda rd s o ft h e e a r ly -se t t led r eg ion s o ft h e s ou th -ea s t . Y e te ven t h eB a lkan a nd C a rpa th ian a r ea s ,t e chn ica l ly a nd p e rhaps s oc ialy t h e mo s t a dvanced r eg ions o ft h eE uo rpean l a ndma s s ,h ad ac u r iou s ly i s o la ted a ppea rance b y c ompa r ison w i th t he t e chno log ica l k oine w h ich e x is ted o ve r much o f t h e c on tempo ra ry N ea rE a s t( Renf rew 1 969 ) . I tc oppe ra nd g o ld m e ta l lu rgy , a l though t y po log ica l ly d i s t inc t ive ,w a sn eve r the le s ss t i l lb a sed o nu na l loyed me ta ls haped y j r s i ng le -mou ld c a s t ing a nd h amme r ing . A f te rt h ec l o se l i nk sw i th A na tol ia i nd ica te ( ' b yt h e ma te r ia lc u l tu re o fi t sp ionee rf a rme r s , B a lkan a nd C a rpa th ian E u rope s eem s t o h ave p u r sued t h e i r own , i ndependen t c our se ; w h i le i n t h e a d jacen t c ent rd E u ropean l o e s sb e l tt h ep ionee ru n i ty o fB andkeram ik s im i la r ly g ave w ay st o mo re l o cal i sed g roup ing s . T he se t e ndenc ie st owa rd sd i sun i ty ,h oweve r , w e re b eg inn ing t ob er eve r sed ;a nd t h e c o re o ft h is p roce ss w a st h eC a rpa th ian B a s in . T he c u l tu re so ft h eC oppe rA ge s e em t os how n ew p roper t ies n o t p o ssessed b y t h e ir p redece sso r s . T he a ppea rance o f d i sp lay g ea r i n m e ta l , e spec ia l ly s haf tho le a xe s , w a s p a ra l le led n o t o n ly b y n ew f o rm so ff l in two rk ing ( no tab ly l o ng f l in td agge r -b lade s : S he r ra t t 1 986b )w h ich h ad t o b e b rough t f r om g rea t d i s tance s , b u t a l so b y n ew c onven t ions o f d i sp lay ing w ea l th o rs t a tu sa td ea th -t h ea ppea rance o fr i ch ,d i f f e ren t ia ted c eme te r ie sl i ke t h a to f T i szapo lga r( Bogna r -Ku tz ian 1 963 ) . T h i sp a t te rn o fi nd iv idua lo s ten ta t ion ,a nd t h e l o ng -d is tance t r ade n eeded t os uppo r t i t ,w a s t h e mo to rf o r s p read ing i n nova t ion s l i ke t h ed ome s t ic h o r ses f r om t h eP on t ic s t eppe sw h ich a ppea red i nH unga ry a tt h i s t ime ( Bokony i 1 978 ) . S uch d eve lopmen t sw e re r e ach ing t h e i rc l imax a r ound 3 700 -3600 BC ( 2900 -2800 b e ) , w hen t h e c ha r t ( F igu re 1 )b eg ins ; f o rc onven ience o fr e f e rence Ih ave t e rmed t h is t h eL inkup p ha se ( Map 1 ) . I ti sm a rked b y t h r ee r e la ted p henomena : ( 1 ) t h e

8 4

O xf ord I n t e rna t iona lW e s t e rn Med i t e r ranean B e l lB eak e rC onf e r enc e

e x tens ion o f t r ade r ou te s c a r ry ing c oppe r f r om t h e C a rpa th ian B a s in ( a l ready r e a ch ing t h eR u s s ian s t eppe s ,p e rhap si ne xchange f o rh o r se s )t ot h en ew ly e me rged f a rm ing c ommun i t ie s o f D enma rk i nt h e TRB C p e r iod ( Bygho lm , S a i ten , e t c . : R and sbo rg 1 979 ) ; ( 2 ) ap a t te rn o f s t y l i s t ic c onve rgence a mong a d jacen t c u l tu re s , f o rm ing ac ha in f r om B u lga r ia t oP o land a nd c h a ra c te r i sed b yf r ayed b ounda r ie sa nd m ixed g roup s( Bod rogke re sz tu r /Sa lcu t sa I V : L engye l -Po lga r ) ; ( 3 ) t h e eme rgence o f c e r ta in i n te r -cu l tu ra l c e ram ic t y pe s , n o tab ly t h o se c once rned w i th s e rv ing f ood o r d r ink . A l lt h r ee a r ea spec t so f ap roce s so fi n c r ea s ing c onnec t ion b e tween r eg ion s , i nw h i ch t h e movem en to fr a re c ommod i t ie sl i k em e ta l sw a sa s soc ia ted w i th ad eg r ee o fc u l tu ra lc onve rgence ,b eg inn ing w i th c ommon c onven t ion sf o rr i tua l ly i mpo r tan t a c t iv i t ie s . T he f i r s t r ep resen t s a n i n te re s t ing e xamp le o f d i rec t iona l d r if t i n c ommod i t ie sb e tween t wo d emog raph ica l ly i mpo r tan tc en t r e so fs e t t lem en t ,a l ong a n a x i s t h a tw a s t ob eo fc r uc ia li mpo r tance i nl a te rp reh i s to ry . T he s e cond p robab ly r e la te st on ew p a t te rn so f mob i l i ty i nm a t ing n e two rk sa nd t h ef o rma t ion o fk i n sh ip l i nk s o fg r ea te r g eog raph ica l s cope ( She r ra t t 1 984 , 1 33 n o te 8 ) . T he t h i rd , mo s t r e levan tf o rp re sen tp u rpo se s ,o f f e r si ne mb ryo ap henomenon n o td i s s im i la rt ot h a t l a te rr e p re sen ted b yt h eB el B eake r st h em se lve s . Two i n te r -reg iona l p o t te ry t ype s p re sen t t h em se lves : a n e as tern f o rm a nd a w es tern o ne ( 3 ) . T he e a s te rn t y pe i st h et wo -hand led v e s se lt h a td i s t ingu i she s t h e l a te s t p ha se ( IV i nB e r c iu 's t e rm ino logy ) o fG ume ln i t sa a nd S a lcu t sa , a ppea r s i n e a s te rn H unga ry w i th t h e d i s t inc t ive s che ibenhenke ln o f l a te r B od rogke re sz tu r ( Hunyad iha lom ) , a nd i sk nown f r om l a te rL engye l -Po lga rc on tex t si ns ou ther na nd c en t ra l P o land , s uch a s t h e c oppe r r ich g raves o f J o rdanowa ( F igu re 2 ) . T he w e s ter nt y pe h a s as i ng le h and le ,a nd a ppea r si nt h ef o rm o f ac up o rt a nk a rd a mong t h ec on s t i tuen tg roup so ft h el a te rL engye lc omp lex : t h eB a la ton g roup i nH unga ry , A ichbuh l a nd S chus sen r ied i nB ohem ia a nd t h e e a s t A lp ine f o re land , B aa lb e rg i n C en t ra lG e rmany ( F igu r e 3 ) .I f ma te r ia lc u l tu re i sf o s s i l i sed b ehav iou r ,i tmay b e p o s s ib le t oi n f e rt h ea ppea rance o fc onven t ion so fh o sp i ta l i ty o ra tl e a s tt h e s oc ia l d i spen s ing o fl i qu id s( e .g . f r om t h eS chu s sen r ied j ug ) a mong t h ei n te ra c t ing g roup s a round t h e C a rpa th ian B a s in ( 4 ) . I tm ay n o tb e c o inc idence t h a to ne o ft h e mo re d i s t inc t ive ( a nd a ga in , e ponymou s ) s hape s a mong t h ep o t te ry o ft h e f i r s tn o r the rn f a rme r s , t h e f unne l -necked b eake r , s hou ld a ppea r a t t h is t ime i n a n a r ea d emon s t rab ly l i nked t o t h a t o f t h e C a rpa th ian B a s in b y t r ade i n c oppe r . C on tempo ra ry e a r ly f r am ing c u l tu re s i nA t lan t ic E u rope h ad n o s uch d i s t inc t ive d r ink ing v e sse l : t h ey w e re b ow l c u l tur e s . T h i sp a t te rn o fg row ing c onnec t ion sw i th in a nd a r ound c en t r a : .E u rope ,c en te red a n t h e p rope rou s , c oppe r -us ing g roups o ft h e C a rpa th ian B a s il b u t r e ach ing o u t t o i n c lude b o th s t eppe g roup s t ot h ee a s t a nd n ew f a rm ing c ommun i t ie si nt h e N o r th E u ropean P la in , w a s t h e n uc leu s f r om w h ich mo re e x ten s ive n e two rk s o ft r ad ing a nd c u l tu ra lc on tac tw e re t od eve lop . I nt h en ex tp ha se , l a s t ing f r om 3 500 -3000 BC ( 2700 -2400 b c ) , t h i s n e two rk w a s d ec i s ive ly l i nked t ot h a to fA na to l ia ( a nd t h u si n d i rec t ly t ot h er e s to ft h eu rban i s ing n ea rE a s t ) b y w ay o ft h e A egean : i t s mnemon ic i st h us t h eA egean p ha se . T he se i n f luence sa r eu namb iguou si nB a lkan a nd C a rpa th ian E u rope , b u tt h e i re choe sc an b e t r aced i n to c en t ra l G e rmany a nd P o land . A n i mpor tan t f e a tu r e o f i n te rna l d eve lopmen t w a s t h e u n if ica t ion o ft h e e as tern ( Bod rogke re sz tu r ) a nd w e s tern ( Lengye l )w ing so ft h eD anub ian p rov ince i n to as i ng le e n t i ty ,t h eB aden c u l tu r e( 5 ) . B aden p o t tery s how s l i t t le c on t inu i ty w i th t h a t o f e i the r g roup ( t hough p e rhap s 8 5

A . G .S her ra t t

ow ing mo re t oL engye l t h an t oB od rogke re sz tu r ) , b u ti n s tead i ti sc ha rac te r i sed b y a n e n t i re ly n ew a s semb lage o ff o rm s a nd d eco ra t ive s yn tax . T he s hape s i n c lude many h and led v esse ls f o r d i spens ing a nd c onsum ing l i qu id s , o f ten c omb ine i n g r ave sa s as erv ice o rs e to fv e sse ls o fc omp lemen ta ry t y pe s ( l ike o u rd ecan te ra nd g l a s se s ) ,e i the rf o rp e r sona le n joymen t( F igu r e4 )o rs oc ia le n te r ta inmen t( F igu re 5 ) . T he s y l is t ic a nd mo rpho log ica lf e a tu r e so ft h i sa s semb lage , s uch a st h eu se o fs t r ap h and le s , ompha lo s b a ses a nd c hanne l led d eco ra t ion , a r ei nd ica t ive o ft h ei mpac to f m e ta lp ro to type s ( Map 2 ) . N ando rK a l icz l o ng a go ( 1963 )a s semb led a ni mpr e s s ive l i s t o ff ea ture s o fB aden p o t tery w h ich h ave t h e i r o r ig ins i nt h e t ype o fp rec ious me ta l v esse ls t han e x is t ing i n A na to l ia . T h is me ta l i mpac t i sv e ry c l ea r i nt h e B eycesu l tan s equence ,a nd Ih ave d e scr ibed i t( She r ra t t 1 986a )i nt h en o r th A egean a tS i tag ro i , w i th t h e a ppea rance o ft h e se me ta l -re la ted f e a tu re s i np ha se I V t h e re . T he s ame i st r ue f o rE ze ro ( w i th s pec if ic p a ra l le l s a tT roy ) a nd a l so C ernavoda I I a nd B aden ( Ch rpov sky 1 973 ) . I t si mpac tc an b et r aced l e s sd i rec t ly f u r the rn o r th ,i n s ome S a lzmunde t ypes i nc en t ra l G ermany , a nd mo re g ene ra l ly t h e reaf te r w i th B er nburg a nd e a r ly G lobu la r Ampho rae , w h ich h ave t h er ounded , s ou the rn s hape s o f t he B aden me ta l s t y le a s o pposed t o t he a ngu lar , No rd ic p rof i les o f Wa l te rn ienburg . T o s u mma r ise t h ep a t ter no ft h is p ha se , t h e refo re , w ec an s e e t h ee s tab l i shmen t , i n t h eC a rpa th ian B a s in a nd S ou th E a s tE u rope ( w i th s ome e choe sf u r the rn o r th ) , o fa ma jo r c u l tura l b lock w i th c l ose s y l i s t ic c onnec t ions t o t h e a d jacen t a r ea s o f t h e A egean a nd A na to l ia . T h i s s t y le i st yp ica l ly e xp re ssed i ns e t so fd r ink ing v e s se l s , w ho se f o rm sw e re i n sp i red b ym e ta lo r ig ina l s . O u rn ex tp ha se i s mo re c omp lex , a nd i n vo lve se a s twa rd sc on tac tw i th t h ea r ea t ot h e n or th o ft h e B lack S ea . F o r t h is r ea son Ih ave c a l led i tt h es t eppe p ha se ( 3000 2 500 BC ) ( 2400 -2000 b c ) ; a nd i tf a l l s i n to t wo p a r t s . A s t r ik ing f e a tu re o fi t s e a r l ie rp a r t i st h e e xpans ion o ft h e G lobu la r Ampho ra c omp lex (W is lansk i 1 970 , N age l 1 985 ) , o ve r a n a r ea f r om s ou th D enma rk t o K iev ( Map 2 ) . I t s e s sen t ia l f e a tu re i st h el i qu id -con ta ine r ,t h ee ponymou sg lobu la ra mpho ra ( F igu re 6 ,l e f t ) . A c omparab le f o rm o fv esse l o ccu r s i nt h e a r ea s mo re i mmed ia te ly i nf luenced b y A egean p ro to types , i n c lud ing b o th t h e B aden a r ea a nd I t a ly . I ti ss ome t imes a ccompan ied , i n at r ue d r ink ing s e t , b y h and led c ups ; b u t t h is i s n o t t r ue e ve rywhe re . T he G lobu la r Ampho ra c u l tu re p i cked u p , o n i t se as tern f ron t , t h e p rac t ice o fi mp ress ing p o t te ry w i th c o rd d eco ra t ion w h ich w a sa l ready p rac t iced b y P on t ic S t eppe g roup s( Te leg in 1 973 , Me rper t 1 974 ) ; a nd i t sb u r ia lp r ac t ice sw e re a n e c lec t ic m ix tu re o fs ou ther np a i red -ox b u r ia l s ,w es ter nm ega l i th ic c i s t s ,a nd e a s te rn t umu l i . A t a bou t t h e s ame t ime , t h e re w a s as ho r t , t empo ra ry f a sh ion f o r c o rd d eco ra t ion i nt h eB a lkans ( e .g . a tM iha l ich a nd S i tag ro iV a ; f o r ag ene ra ls u rvey s e e R oman 1 974 ) , a nd w ha t s e em s t ob e a n a c tua l s t eppe i n t rus ion o fo ch re -g rave ( = P i t -g rave , Kurgan o rt umu lu s -bu i ld ing )g roup si n to t h eL owe rD anube a nd e a s te rn H unga ry f r om t h e P on t ic s t eppe s ( Ecsedy 1 979 ) . T h is w a s t h et ime w hen 2 -p iece mou ld c a s t ing a nd a r sen ica l a l loy ing s t a r ted i ns ou th -ea s t E u rope . T he G lobu la r Ampho ra d i a spo ra h ad i t s o wn i mpac t o n TRB , mos t c l ea r ly s e en i n MN I V i n D enma rk ( E2 i n t h e N e the r land s ) , w hen t h e c o rd d eco ra t ion w a s i m i ta ted r a the r l a bo r ious ly i nl o ca lt v aer s t ik -s t ab a nd d rag or namen t( Bakke r 1 979 ) . A s as e cond s t age o ft h i sp roce s s ,t h eC o rded Wa r ec omp lex ( Beh rens a nd S ch le t te 1 969 , S chnu rke ram ik S ympo s ium H a l le 1 979 ) c ry s ta l l ised a round af u r the rs e to f i n ter na t iona l ( and t yp ica l ly ma le ) e qu ipmen t . T h is c ons is ted e s sen t ia l ly o f t h e 8 6

O xf ord I n t e rna t iona lW e s t e rn Med i t e r ranean B e l lB eak e rC onf e rence

s ha f tho le s t one b a t t l e -axe , t h ef l in td agge r , a nd t h ec o rd -deco ra ted b eake r( al a rge d r ink ing c up w i th w rapped round d eco ra t ion : F igu re 6 ,r i gh t )o f ten a s so c ia ted w i th al a rge rl i qu id -con ta ine r , t h e g l obu la ra mpho ra -a nd u sua l ly o ccu r r ing w i th s i ng le b u r ia l si nt h et umu l i t h a tn ow b ecame t h es t anda rd f o rm o fb u r ia l monumen t . T he c o re a r ea o ft h eC o rded Wa r ec omp lex l a yt ot h ew e s to ft h a to fG lobu la r Ampho rae , b u tC o rded Wa re t o ok o ve rt h ew e s te rn p e r iphe ry o ft h el a t te r ,a nd e xpanded w id e ly b eyond i tt ot h ee a s t( Map 2 )( 6 ) . T he w e s te rn w ing o ft h i sc omp lex e x tended f r om Sw i tze r land t oS cand inav ia ; t h ee a s te rn w ing a sf a ra s Mo scow a nd b eyond . Il e ave o n o ne s i de whe the r t h i s w a s ap opu la t ion ( e .g . a ccu l tu ra ted r emnan t h un te r s ) , a s pec ia l ised m ino r i ty ( e .g . p a s to ra l i s t s ) , o r m e re ly as e t o f s ymbo l s i nd ica t ive o f s oc ia lc onve rgence o n ac ommon f o rmu la : f o rt h e momen t Im e r e ly w an tt oc l a r ify t h es p a t io tempo ra lp a t ter n . T he l a s tp a r to ft h i sp ro ce s s ( Map 2 ) , a tt h ef a rw e s te rn e nd ,w a st h ef o rma t ion o fa f u r the ri n te rna t iona lc omp lex w i th m a r i t ime a nd r i ve r ine l i nk st ow e s te rn a nd s ou th w e s tern E u rope : h ence i t s d e s igna t ion a s t h e Mar i t ime p ha se ( 2500 -2000 BC ) ( 2000 -1700 b c ) . T he B e l l B eake r s equence ( C la rke 1 976 , H a r r i son 1 980 ) , b eg inn ing w i th AOC ( A l l -ove r -Co rd ) b eake r si nt h e No r th S ea b a s in , w a si n i t ia l ly c l o se t ot h eC o rded Wa r e mod e l ;i ts ub s t i tu ted a r che ry e qu ipm en tf o rb a t t le a xe s ,b u t c on t inued t h ed agge r s ,s i ng le b u r ia lu nd e r at umu lu s ,a nd e spec ia l ly t h ee mpha s i so n ac o rd -deco ra ted d r ink ing v e s se l . T h i s w a s f o l lowed b y t h e Mar i t ime o rP an European p ha se , i nw h ich t h ec o rd o rnamen tw a s t r an s la ted i n to z one s o fc omb s t amped d eco ra t ion a nd b eake r s s p read e ven mo re w ide ly -p e rhap s m e sh ing w i th p re -ex is t ing ma r i t ime t r ade n e two rk s t o b r ing n o r the rn n ove l t ie s z o t h e w e s t Med i t e r ranean ,i ne xchange f o rc oppe r . T he s c a le o ft h i sB e l lB eake rd i a spo ra w a s t oe xceed e ven t h a t o f G lobu la r Ampho rae a nd C o rded Wa re ; f r om S co t land t o S i c i ly , C o rnwa l l t o Mo rav ia . N eve r the le s s i t s p o s i t ion p e r iphe ra l t o ac on t inu ing B aden l ike c o re s hou ld s t i l lb en o ted (Wod jc iechow sk i ,t h i sv o lume ) , a ss hou ld t h e c on t inu ing i r rad ia t ion o f t h is p e r iphe ry b y m e ta l insp i red f o rm s : t h e s o -ca l led B eg le i tkeram ik . T h i s i n te ra c t ion -i nw h ich N agy rev j ug s a nd c ups s p read i n to t h e l o e s s land s a nd t h e n o r th A lp ine f o re land , w h i le d eco ra ted b eake r s s p read i n to c en t ra l E u rope f r om t h e w e s t -w a s a l so ma rked b y t h e t r an sf e ro ft e chno log ica l s oph i s t ica t ion t ot h e p e r iphe ry : c oppe r ( a nd t h en c oppe r -a l loy ) d agge r s b egan t o r ep lace f l in t o ne s i n B e l l B eake r g r ave s ( Bu rge s s a nd S hennan 1 976 , S hennan 1 977 ) . C ompa r ing t h i ss equence o fe ven t so nt h em ap ,o ne m ay d i scer n ap a t ter nu n fo ld ing o ve r t h e c ou r se o f am i l lenn ium , a nd c on s i s t ing o f t h e f o l low ing f e a tu re s : t h e e s tab l ishmen t o f aC a rpa th ian /Ba lkan b r idgehead o fA egeo -Ana to l ian s t y le s ; t wo s u cce s s ive d i a spo ra si nt h eN o r th E u ropean P la in -o ne i nt h ee a s t ,o ne i nt h ew e s tc r ea t ing ac ha in o fc ommon c onven t ions f r om t h e s t eppe s t ot h e R h ine land ; a nd f i na l ly amo re s e le c t ive l i nk ing u po ft h em a in c en t r e sw i th in t h eg r ea ta r co fw e s t er n E u rope . T he w ho le p roce s s t h u s t ook t h e f o rm o f a n a n t i -c lockw i se movemen t a round t h e E u ropean l a ndma s s , c om ing f u l l c i r c le i nt h e Med i te r ranean : I t a ly i n g ene ra l , a nd S i c i ly i np a r t icu la r ,r e ce ived i mpu l se sf r om b o th d i rec t ion s -f r om t h e e a s t ,o r ig ina t ing i nt h eA egean ,a nd f r om t h ew e s t ,a l ong t h eB eake rs e a lane s . E ach o f t h e se m a jo r , i n te r reg iona l c u l tu ra l c omp lexe s h ad a ti t s h ea r t as e t o f d i s t inc t ive d r ink ing v e s se l s ,u sua l ly c l o se ly a s so c ia t ed -i nt h et y p ica lb u r ia lf o rmu la , a nd p u ta t ive ly t h e r e fo re i nt h em ind so ft h e i ru se r s -w i th a ne qua l ly d i s t inc t ive k i to f

8 7

A . G .S her ra t t

p e r sona l w eapon ry , a nd mo re g ene ra l ly ( a s w e s ha l l c on s ide ri nt h e n ex t s e c t ion ) w i th a no the ri mpo r tan tn ove l ty : t h eu se o ft h eh o r se . Europe i n T rans i t ion : S ome K ey I nnova t ions * ********* T he se v e ry l a rge -sca le p henom ena d emand e qua l ly l a rge sca le e xp lana t ion s ; s ol e tu s c on s ide rs ome o ft h em a jo rc hange st h a tw e re t a k ing p l a ce a tt h i st ime o rj u s tb e fo r e ( F igur e7 ) ,w h ich w e r et h er e su l t so f as e cond g ene ra t ion o fr e vo lu t iona ry c hange s w i th in O ld Wo r ld f a rm ing p rac t ice s ( 7 ) . T he b o t tom l i ne o ft h i s d i ag ram i st h e s p r ead o fa g r icu l tu re i t se lf : t h eo t he rf e a tu re sr e p r e sen ti n nova t ion s t h a t a ppea red d u r ing t h e s ucceed ing m i l lenn ia i nd i f f e ren t p a r t s o ft h e N ea r E a s t a nd a d jacen t s t eppe s . T he p a t te rn t h a t Ih ope i se v iden t i so ne o fa n e a r ly eme rgence o ft h e se f e a tu re s( a nd ac omp lex i n te ra c t ion b e tween t h em )i nt h ec o r er e g ion o ft h ew e s ter n O ld Wo r ld ,t h ea r ea a r ound t h eF e r t i le C r e scen t ; a nd t h e i rl a te r ,s e lec t ive a pp ea rance ( I wou ld a r gue , b y d i f fu s ion ) i nE u rope . T oge the r , t h ey p roduced af undamen ta l a l te ra t ion i ns o c ia lo rgan i sa t ion , s e xua lr o le s ,a nd s e t t lemen tp a t te rn s . H o r ses a r r ived e a r ly i n t h e o pen s t eppe s o f e a s te rn H unga ry , b u t f o r a no the r m i l lenn ium s p read n of u r the ri n to ac on t inen ts t i l ll a rge ly f o re s ted . T he e x i s ten ce o f t h e p lough , d emon s t rab le f r om c .3 500 BC ( 2700 b e ) o nwa rd s , w a s t h e m a in i n cen t ive f o r a n a cce le ra ted p ace o f f o re s t c l ea rance , a nd p r epa red t h e w ay i n n o r the rn a nd w e s te rn E u rope f o ro t he ri n nova t ion sr equ i r ing o pen c oun t ry , s u ch a s h o r se -rea r ing , o r t h e k eep ing o f s heep i n s uf f ic ien t n umbe r s f o r woo l . Ih ave a r gued t h a t t h e i n t roduc t ion o ft h e l i gh tp lough ( a rd ) , a sp a r to f al a rge rt r ac t ion c omp l ex ; t h a ta l so i n c luded w hee led v eh ic le s ,c an b ed a ted t ot h eb eg inn ing o ft h e Aegean is ing p ha se t h a tf o l lowed t h e g r ea t C oppe rA ge l i nkup ; t h a ti s , B aden i n H unga ry a nd e a r l ie s tM idd le N eo l i th ic i nD enma rk . T he a s so c ia t ion b e tween t h e t r ac t ion c omp lex a nd n ew f e a tu r e so fc e ram ic s t y le i nc en t ra la nd s ou th -ea s tE u rope ( i nc lud ing t h ec o inc idence o fc h ink ing s e t sa nd p a i r ed -ox b u r ia l si nt h eA l sonemed i c eme te ry ) s ugges t s ac ommon o r ig in ; a nd p e rhap s , t h e refo re , as im i la r r ou te o f s p r ead v i aA na to l ia . A n ima lt r a c t ion w a sc l ea r ly av e ry s i gn if i can ti n nova t ion , a nd I e nv i sage t h ep lough a ss p read ing a l ong t h e Med i te r ranean a tt h es ame t ime a si td i d a l ong t h ec en t ra lE u ropean a x i s ,t ob ep r e sen ti nM i l la ran S pa in ( a long w i th b a s t ion f o r t if ica t ion s )j u s t a si ti sk nown t oh ave b een i nM idd le N eo l i th ic D enma rk o rt h e B r i t i sh I s le s . T he s ame w ou ld p robab ly b e t r ue o f w hee led v eh ic le s , t h e o t he r a pp l ica t ion o f a n ima l t r ac t ion . T h is i s my mag ic h o r izon o f 2 700 b e r ad iocarbon , 3 500 BC i nc a lenda ry ea r s ,m aybe ac oup le o fh und red y ea r sl a t e ri n t h e We s t Med i te r ranean ,w h ich c o r re spond st or ad ica lc hange si ns e t t lemen tp a t ter n a nd o rgan i sa t ion i nm any a r ea s -t h ough i t sf u l li mpac tw a so n ly t ob ecome e v iden t w hen t h e f u l l s u i te o fi n nova t ion s w a sp r e sen tt om ake u se o ft h e n ew c ond i t ion s . O ne c on t inu ing e f f ec t , h oweve r , w a s ar e la t ive e n la rgemen to ft h ep a s to ra l s e c to r , a nd ac onconmi tan te nhancemen to fm a le d om ina t ion o ft h e s y s tem o fp roduc t ion . T h i s c on t inued at r end f i r s te v iden ti nt h e C a rpa tho -Ba lkan C oppe rA ge , b u tn ow much mo re w ide ly o ccu r r ing a nd e spec ia l ly ma rked i nt h en o r th E u ropean P l a in a s s e t t lemen tr a p id ly e xpanded o n to t h ee a s i ly -de fo r e s t ed o u twa sh s a nd si nt h eC o rded Wa r ep e r iod . L ink s w i th mo re o pen a r ea s t ot h e e a s t , b o th t h rough t h e C a rpa th ian B a s in a nd a c ro ss t h e n o r th E u ropean P la in , c on t inued t o h ave a c ruc ia l e f f ec t o n t h e 8 8

O xf ord I n t e rna t iona l We s t ern Med i t er ranean B e l lB eak er C onf erence

d eve lopmen to ff o re s ted t empe ra te E u rope . D ome s t ic h o r se sh ad b o th a no r ig in a nd ac on t inu ing r e se rvo i r o n t h e P on t ic S teppe s : a nd Is uspec t t h a t woo l -sheep may h ave a r r ived i nc en t ra la nd n o r ther nE u rope b yt h es ame r ou te al i t t le l a te r ,t or ep lace t h ee x i s t ing h a i ry v a r ie t ie s t h a th ad c ome i nw i th t h e N eo l i th ic . T he u se o fh o r se s f o rr i d ing c an b et r a ced n o to n ly b yt h eo ccu r rence o ft h e i rb one so ns e t t lemen t sa n : : i ng rave s ,b u ta l so b yt h ea n t le rc heekp iece so fb r id le -b i t s ,w h ich o ccu ri nn or the rn E u rope i nc on tex t sc on tempo ra ry w i th G loubu la r Ampho rae . T hey wou ld t hu sh ave b een c a r r ied s ucce ss ive ly f u r the rw e s ta nd s ou th o no u rs e r ies o ff l o re scence s , f i r s t w i th C o rded Wa re a nd t h en w i th B e l l B eake r s . T he i r a s soc ia t ion w i th e a r ly Med i te r ranean B e l l B eake r s , i nI ber ia , I t a ly , a nd n ow o n Ma jo rca , i ss t r ik ing ( 8 ) . T he k eep ing o fh o r se s f o rr i d ing mu s ta tt h i s s t age h ave b een c onf ined t o al im i ted e l i te , s i nce t h ey w ou ld h ave b een v e ry e xpens ive t o ma in ta in o nt h el im i ted a r ea so f g raz ing t h en a va i lab le . N ever the le ss t h ey mus t h ave b een a n i mpress ive s i gh t t o c ommun i t ie s w h ich h ad n eve r s e en r i dden h o r se s b e fo re , a nd mus th ave c onf e r red g rea tp r e s t ige o nt h e i ro wne r s :p robab ly t h e s ame p eop le w ho f i gu re p rom inen t ly i n t h eg rave sa sp o s se s so r so ff i ne s t one o rc oppe rw eapon ry a nd d r ink ing e qu ipmen t . T hey wou ld h ave b een d e s i rab le i t em s o f t r ade ; a nd , a s a means o f t r anspo r t t h emse lve s wou ld h ave f a c i l i ta ted t r ave l a nd t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fo the r h igh -va lue i t em s . T hey w ou ld a l so h ave h ad a n i mpor tan t r o le i n mo re o pen a r ea s i n t h e e n la rged s c a le o ff l ock -a nd h e rd -managemen t . S ince l i nen w a st h eu n ive r sa lf i b re o ft h eN eol i th ic ( l oca l ly s upp lemen ted b yn e t t le o r e spa r to g ra ss ) t h e i n t roduc t ion o f woo l -bea r ing s heep m ean t t h e a ppea rance o fa n ew , p re s t ige c ommod i ty t h a t c ou ld b e made i n to a w ide r r ange o f g a rmen ts , p o ten t ia l ly mo re c o lou r fu lt h an b efo re ( 9 ) . A l though i tw a sl a te rt ob ecome ama jo r i t em o ft r ade , w oo l i sl i ke ly t oh ave b een ar a the rr a re , e l i te c ommod i ty f o r many c en tu r ie s a f te r i t s f i r s t a ppea rance -a nd p e rhap s e ven l onge r i nh eav i ly f o res ted r eg ion s . T he i n t roduc t ion o f woo l s heep i sr a the r h a rde r t od a te t han t h a t o ft h e h o r se , a nd mu s tb ei n f e r red f r om am ix tu re o fd i f f e ren tt ype so fe v idence i n c lud ing me t r ica l d a ta o n s heep b ones , t h e t r an s i t ion f r om b u t tons t op ins , a nd o n t h ev ery i n f requen tf i nd so ft h ef i b re sa nd t h e i rt e x t i le s . T he c omb ined e v idence f o rt h ef i r s t u se o fw oo ls ugge s t s ad a te i nt h el a te rp a r to ft h e s t eppe p ha se , a nd a s l ow s p read w e s twa rd s :p e rhaps l a te rB aden i nH unga ry ,l a te rC o rded Wa r ei nG e rmany ,m idd le B eake r i n t h e f a r w es t . T he g eome t r ica l , z one -f i l l ing mo t if s o f ma tu re b eake r s s ugges ta no bv iou si n sp i ra t ion f r om t e x t i le s -p e rhaps g a rmen t sl i ke t h ew oven b e ; : s ( 10 )o nt h e Sw i s s /no r th I t a l ian s t a tue -menh i r s ; w h i le mo re e l abo ra te c l o th ing m igh t •b eo ne r e a son f o rt h e s h if tf r om c rouched t ol a id -ou tb ur ia l s , t od i sp lay t h e i rf i ne ry i nt h eg rave . Woo l len t e x t i le sa r et h e refo re l i ke ly t oh ave b een c a r r ied t on ew a r ea s o ve rt h eB eake rn e two rk , a l though a ni ndependen t s p read a l ong t h e Med i te r ranean w a sp robab ly t a k ing p l a ce a tt h es ame t ime . T o s umma r ise : t h e s p read o ft h ed r ink ing c omp lex -ac ommon empha s i s o n s e t s o f v e sse ls , o f ten c omb ined i n g rave s , w h ich i n s eve ra l c a ses a r e s o d i s t inc t ive s t y l is t ica l ly a s t oh ave g i ven t h e ir n ame t o w ho le c u l tu res -t ook p lace d u r ing a p er iod o fu nusua l ly r ap id s oc ia l , c u l tu re a nd e conom ic c hange . D ur ing t h is t ime , E u rope w as o pened u p -b o th l i t e ra l ly , i nt e rm s o ft h e f u r the r d efo re s ta t ion o fi t s l andscapes , a nd me tapho r ica l ly , i n t e rms o f i t s n ew c on tac t s a nd s oc ia l o ppo r tun i t ies . F undamen ta l t o t h is p rocess w a s t h e i n c rea s ing i mpo r tance o f l i ve s tock , a nd t h e eme rgence o f ma le w a r r io re l i te sw ho se s ub -cu l tu re w a sp o r t rayed i n t h e c ha rac te r is t ic c omb ina t ion o f w eapon ry ( 11 ) a nd d r ink ing v esse l s i nt h e i r g rave s . T he ir d i s t inc t iveness w a s e nchanced b y t h e i r p o sses s ion o f h o r ses , a nd 8 9

A . G .S her ra t t

p robab ly o f woo l len c l o th ing . T he p rog re ss o fm e ta l lu rgy , k eep ing p ace w i th t h e n eed f o r me ta l e qu ipmen t f o r f i gh t ing a nd d i sp lay , w a s s ho r t ly t o c ross t h e t e chno log ica lt h re sho ld w h ich a l low su st os p eak o ft h eB ronze A ge . T he p a t te rn t ha t w e h ave s o f a r r ecogn ised i s e ncou rag ing ly c ong ruen t : t h e i n t roduc t ion o f ma jo r i nnova t ion s i n a n ima l h u sband ry , a nd t h e n ew l i f es ty le s a s soc ia ted w i th t h em ,d os e em t oc o inc ide w i th t h em a in c u r ren t so fc u l tu ra lc hange a st h ey c an b er e cons t ruc ted f r om t h ec eram ic i nven to r ie so ft h eg roups c oncerned . B u tc an w eb e mo re s pec if ic? Wha tw a s t h e s i gn if icance o fC o rded Wa re , o rB e l l B eake r s? C an t h e se f e a tu re s b et i ed t oge the ra sc omp rehens ib le e l emen t so fs o c ia l p rac t ice? T os ay mo re w i l li nvo lve u si n ab r ief e xcu r s ion . S ympos ia : Dr ink ing T oge ther * ******* O u r t ime tab le -i nc onf e rences o ra tw o rk -i ss t ruc tu r ed b y d r ink ing -even t s . T he d ay i sp unc tua ted b y s oc ia lo cca s ions w h ich d i f f e rf r om o ne a no the ri nt h e i rs c a le , c ha rac te r a nd a pp rop r ia te b eve rage . I n E ng land , 1 o ' c lock m eans c of f ee t ime ; w a ter wou ld s a t isfy o u rt h i r s t , y e th osp i ta l i ty w ou ld b e l a ck ing w e re t h a tt ob et h e o n ly d r ink p rov ided . Am i ld s t imu lan t i sr equ i red . S ymme t r ica l ly , t h e B r i t i sh p rov ide t e a a t4 . A t l unch t ime i ti s ac ommon p rac t ice t od r ink ag l a s s o fb ee r ; a mo re f o rma l , e ven ing d inne r w ou ld b e a ccompan ied b y w ine . None o ft h e se i s s t r ic t ly n ece ssa ry f o rp hy s ica l w e l l -be ing . Wha tt h ey d oi st op a r t i t ion t h ed ay i n to u n i t s , s epa ra ted b ye ven t sa tw h ich g raded l e ve l so fs o c ia li n te rac t ion t a ke p l ace ( 12 ) -e ach s t age a nd l e ve lm a rked b yi t sa pp rop r ia te d r ink ( c f . D oug la s 1 975 , 1 982 ) . S o t oo w i th t h e c on ta ine r s ( V in tne r s 1 933 ) . Ie xpec t my w ine i n ag l a ss , a nd o fa d i f f eren t s hape f r om t ha t i n w h ich Iw ou ld d r ink my b ee r . I t may e ven b e s pec if ica l ly a pp rop r ia te f o r t h e t ype o f w ine , w he the r i ti si mpor ted f r om t h e R h ine land , C hampagne o r P o r tuga l . T he h o t b eve rages a r e mo re a pprop r ia te ly p resen ted i np o t te ry ; t h et e a ,e spec ia l ly ,i ng ood c h ina -w i th a n u nnece s sa ry s auce r . I fi ti sn o t as oc ia lo cca s ion -t r ave l l ing ,f o ri n s tance ,b yt r a in -Im ay b ec on ten tw i th ap la s t ic b eake r ; a nd i fIr e lax a tt h ee nd o ft h ed ay w i th ap r iva te d r ink o fc ocoa ,i ti s t a ken u np r e ten t iou s ly ,i n amug . E ach o ft h ese modes t s t i mu lan t s t h us h a s i t s own c on ta iner , i t s own e t ique t te , i t s own r i tua l . O the r r i tua ls s ur round s uch m i ld n a r co t ics a s t obacco , c on sumed b y s mok ing ( 13 ) . E ach o ft h e n on -a lcoho l ic d r ink s , i n te res t ing ly , h a s i t s o r ig in i na d i f f e ren t p a r t o f t h e w o r ld ( Hobhouse 1 985 ) a nd o n ly a r r ived i n B r i ta in i n t h e s i x teen th c en tury ( 14 ) ; a nd mo reove r e ach w a s p a r t o f at r ad i t ion o f s oc ia l e n te r ta inmen ti ni t sa r ea o fo r ig in . T ea i nC h ina a nd J apan -t h et e ac e remony .T h i s b eve rage b rough tw i th i ti t s own m a te r ia l c u l ture , t h e p o rce la in c h ina t e a -se rv ice , s ub t ly t r ansfo rmed f o rw e s te rn u se . C of f ee i nA rab ia : a nyone w ho h a se xcava ted i n t h e A rab w o r ld i sf am i l ia rw i th t h e s e em ing ly e nd les s s equence o fc ups o fc of f ee , w i thou t w h ich f o rma l n egoc ia t ion i si mpo ss ib le . C ocoa -k akao -w a s t h e e l i te d r ink o ft h e Maya a nd t h eA z tecs . T obacco ,i n Ame r ican I nd ian c u l tu re ,w a se qua l ly s oc ia l a nd c ommuna l : t h e p ipe o fp eace , p a s sed a r ound t h e f i re . S o t oo w e re t h e r a the r s t ronge r n a r co t ics : c annab is i n t h e I s lam ic w o r ld , a nd o p ium ( wh ich w e a s soc ia te w i th s ou th -ea s tA s ia ,b u ti so n ly s oc ha rac te r i s t ic o ft h is a r ea b ecau se w e p romo ted i tt h e re ) . A l l o f t h ese d rugs s t a r ted o f fi nw e l l d ef ined a nd c on t ro l led 9 0

O xf ord I n t erna t iona l We s t ern Med i t er ranean B e l lB eak er C onf e rence

s oc ia l o ccas ions -r a re , s pec ia l a nd e s sen t ia l ly c ommuna l . I ti so n ly w i th t h e a t om i sa t ion o fs oc ie ty t h a th a sf o l lowed i ndus t r ia l i sa t ion t h a tp ub l ic u se h a s g iven way t op r iva te u se , a nd h ence t o u ncon t ro l led i ndu lgence , a buse a nd a dd ic t ion . O r ig ina l ly t h ey w e re s oc ia ll ub r ican t s ,a gen t so fh o sp i ta l i ty . S ot oo w a sa l coho l . T hey a r e a l so , o fc ou r se , s ymbo l s . Don ' t a sk f o r a l choho l i nR iyad ; d on ' t s moke c annab is i nt h e s t ree t s o fO xfo rd . I nt h eA rab w o r ld c annab i s -a nd l a te rc of f ee t o c omp lemen ti t ,a s as o c ia ld r ink -s ymbo l i sed t h ev i c to ry o fI s lam a nd c ame l -r id ing d eser t p as to ra l is t s , w i th t h e i r b ra ss d r ink ing -ve sse l s , o ve r t h e p opu la t ion s w h ich t h ey c onque red : t h eC h r i s t ian ,w hee l -go ing ,w ine -d r ink ing , s i lve r -ve s se lu s ing t own dwe l le r s . T he p l ace o fw ine i nN ea rE a s ter na nd e spec ia l ly C h r i s t ian r i tua ln eed sn o e xpos i t ion : H ic e s t c a l ix n ovum t e s ta tmen tum i n s angu ine meo -t h e b lood o f t h e N ew T es tamen t s hed f o r t h e f o rg ivene ss o f s i ns , t h e c ha l ice , t h e c up o f s a cr if ice ; a ni mage t h a tg oe sb ack t ol i ba t ion sp ou red f r om a n ima lh ead r hy ta i nt h e e a r ly B ronze A ge . T he se a r ep owe r fu ls ymbo l s ,a nd p eop le h ave d i ed f o rm isus ing t h em . A lcoho li se spec ia l ly s ugge s t ive ,w i th i t sp o ten t ia lf o re upho r ia a nd e cs ta sy : o ne t h ink so fc ou r se o ft h ec u l to fD iony su s ,b u td on ' tf o rge tt h ev u lga te v e r s ion o f t h e 2 3rd p sa lm : c a l ix meus i nebr ians e s t -my c ha l ice i n eb r ia te th me . S oa l lo ft h ese s t imu lan t s , a nd mo s te spec ia l ly a l coho l ,a r el i ke ly t oh ave h ad s t r ic t s oc ia lc on tex t sa nd p rofound s ymbo l ic a nd s oc ia li mp l ica t ion sw hen t h ey w e re f i r s t i n t roduced . L e t u s c oncen t ra te f i r s t o n a l coho l , a nd t r y t o t i e i ti sw i th s ome a r chaeo logy . A lcoho l d epends o n s uga r , t r ansfo rmed b y t he f ungus S accharomyces c erev is iae ( o therw ise k nown a sy ea s t ) t h rough t h e p rocess o f a nae rob ic g l yco s is ( o the rw i se k nown a sf e rmen ta t ion ) . When w a si td i scove red? N o t , Is uspec t ,i nt h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic . A l lt h ee ncyc loped ia e n t r ie so na l coho ls t a r tb ys ay ing t h a ti tb egan w ay b ack i np reh i s to ry . Ia m n o t s o s u re . It h ink i ti s mo re l i ke h o r se s ,p loughs a nd woo l ly s heep -as e cond g ene ra t ion d eve lopmen to ft h ef a rm ing t r ad i t ion , w i th i t so r ig ins i nt h e s ou th ( She r ra t tn p ) . T he s uga r s a va i lab le t op reh is to r ic man w e re g luco se ,f r uc to se , ma l to se a nd l a c to se , a va i lab le f r om h oney ,f r u i t s , s p rou t ing g ra in a nd m i lk r e spec t ive ly , t op roduce mead , w ine , b ee r a nd k oum ish . F ew o ft h ese s ou r ces o fs uga rw e re a bundan ti np r imeva lt empe ra te E u rope , a nd o u ro wn , s uga r s a tura ted e nv i ronmen t i s ap oo r g u ide t o t h e c ond i t ion s t ha t o b ta ined t h em . F e rmen ta t ion i sc on s tan t ly h appen ing a cc iden ta l ly n ow -i ns ome l o ng -fo rgo t ten b ag o ff r u i ti nt h ek i tchen -b u to n ly b ecause o ft h eh igh ly s e lec ted , s uga r -r ich v a r ie t ie s o ff r u i t t h a t a r e n ow s oe a s i ly a va i lab le o n t h e s upe rma rke t s he lve s . Wi ld f r u i ts a nd t h i s i n c ludes t h e w i ld g rape V i t i s i s y lves tr i s -s imp ly d on ' t h ave e nough s uga rt of e rmen t . G iven t h a tt h ep ro ce ss a l so i n c lude sl e ng thy p r epa ra t ion i nc l o sed c on ta ine r s w i th t h e a pp ropr ia te v a r ie ty o fy ea s t , It h ink i te n t ire ly p robab le t h a t a l coho lw a sn o ti nven ted i nN eo l i th ic E u rope . T ha ti sn o tt os ay t h a tt h ey w e re c omp le te ly w i thou ts t imu lan t s : s eed so ft h eo p ium p oppy , P apaver s omn if erum a r e w e l l k nown f r om B andke ram ik c on tex t s i n G e rmany , f r om N eo l i th ic Sw i tze r land , a nd f r om t h e l a te r N eo l i th ic l e ve ls o f L a C ueva d e L o s Mu rc ie lago si nG ranada . Wh i le i ti su n l ike ly t h a to p ium w a sh i gh ly p repa red a nd s moked ,i ti sq u i te p o ss ib le t h a ti tm igh th ave b een c hewed o ri n fu sed ( Me r l in 1 984 ) . B i r ch -ba rk c hew ing g um ,i t se lf m i ld ly n a rco t ic ,i si n c iden ta l ly a l so k nown f r om al a ke s ide s i te i ns ou ther nG e rmany .

9 1

A . G .S her ra t t

S o whe re w a s a l coho ld i scove red? T he mo s tl i ke ly o r ig in , Is u spec t , i si nt h e t r ee c rops c u l t iva ted f r om t h ef ou r th m i l lenn ium o nwa rd si nt h ee a s t Med i te r ranean a nd a round Me sopo tam ia ( Zoha ry a nd S pe ige l -Roy 1 975 ) . T he d a te p a lm , b o th i ni t s f r u i t s a nd i t s s ap , i so ne o ft h e mo s t c oncen t ra ted n a tu ra l s our ce s o fs uga r (Wer th 1 954 , p p . 2 33 -41) ; S amue l son 1 898 ) . C u l t iva ted v ines , V i t i s v in if era , c a r ry b o th s uff i c ien ts uga ra nd n a tu ra ly ea s t s . Med i te r ranean p o lycu l tu re , a sp rac t iced i n t h ee a s t Med i te r ranean , w a sc l o se ly a s soc ia ted ( a s C o l in R enf rew p o in ted o u tl o ng a go )w i th t h ee l i te c onsump t ion o fw ine ( Se ren i 1 981 ) ,r e f lec ted i n aw ho le r a nge o f p our ing a nd d r ink ing v e s se l sw h ich s i gn if i can t ly a l lh ave m e ta lp ro to type s( Renf rew 1 972 ) . T he d epas amph ikype l lon a tT roy , t h e s auceboa t i n E a r ly H e l lad ic G reece , a nd t h e t e apo ti n EM C re te , a r e a l l r eg iona l v a r ian t s o fc ra f t sman -made , e l i te d r ink ing v e s se l ss u r e ly c oncer ned w i th t h ec onsump t ion o fw ine . T he i n t roduc t ion o fa l coho l ic d r ink s , w i th t h e i rp roper t ie s o fi n tox ica t ion a nd t h e g ene ra t ion o fc onv iv ia l i ty -as oc ia l ly a ccep ted a l te ra t ion o fc onsc iousne s s -i sa ma jo re ven tf o ra ny s oc ie ty ( Ma lco lm 1 971 ) . T he r e l ig ious a nd e l i te o ver tones o f w ine i nl a te r E uropean a nd n ea r E a s tern s oc ie t ies p o in t t oi t s f undamen ta l s oc ia l i mpor tance , a nd i t su se i np reh i s to r ic t ime s i sl i ke ly t oh ave b een a ccompan ied b y c u l t a nd c e remony ( Lu tz 1 922 ; K o s sack 1 964 ; G oody 1 982 ) . T he p repa ra t ion o f a l coho l ic d r inks r equ i red i nves tmen t a nd t h e a b i l i ty t o c oncen t ra te s urp lus f o r c onsp icuous c on sump t ion , a sd id a l so t h e manu fac tu re o fa pp ropr ia te ly o s ten ta t iou s v e sse l s . S uch p r iv i leges may h ave b een a va i lab le o n ly t ot h ef ew . S uch as oc ia l ly v i s ib le f o rm o fe n joymen ta nd d i sp lay i sh i gh ly l i ke ly t ob ee mu la ted b ye l i te g roups i nc on tac tw i th t ho se a l r eady p rac t i s ing a l coho l c on sump t ion : t h er e cen th i s to ry o f Nor th Ame r ican I nd ian si nc on tac tw i th w h i te s e t t le r so f f e r sa ni n s truc t ive ,i f mo re c oncen t ra ted e xamp le -i n te res t ing ly p a ra l le led b yt h ea dop t ion o ft h e h o r se i nt h e s ame c on tex t . Now l ook a tt h e c h rono log ica l r e la t ion sh ip o ft h e v a r ious c u l tura l ly empha s ised d r ink ing v esse l s t h a t w e h ave b een c on s ider ing i nl a te r N eo l i th ic o r C oppe r Age E urope . E a s t Med i te r ranean d eve lopmen t s ( w ine a nd p rev ious me ta lv e sse l s ) , a nd t h e i rB a lkan /Ca rpa th ian i m i ta t ions , w e re c l ear ly a tt h e b eg inn ing o ft h e s equence B aden , G lobu la r Ampho rae , C o rded Wa re , B e l l B eake r s . A re w e n o t w i tne ss ing t h e s p read o ft h ea l coho lc u l t( 15 ) , t h e s oc ia l ly d e s i rab le u se o fi n tox ica t ing d r ink w i th e l i te a nd p e rhap sr e l ig iou ss i gn if i cance? B u tt h ink a ga in a bou tt h eB aden c a se . H e re i s as e to fd r ink ing e qu ipmen t ,c l ea r ly e qu iva len tt ot h a ti nu se i nt h eA egen ,c opy ing s im i la rm e ta l mode ls . Y e tB aden i s a l ready b eyond t h el im i t so fv i t icu l tu re ( j u s ta si tw a sb eyond t h e a r ea o fa dvanced t e chno logy i nw h ich m e ta l v e sse ls c ou ld b e p roduced ) . C u l t iva ted v ine s w e re n o t g rown i nc en t ra l E u rope b efo re t h e l a te r l i on A ge o rt h e R oman p er iod ; a nd w i ld o nes d on ' t f e rmen t . S o w ha t w e mus t b e w i tne s s ing i s as ubs t i tut ion -t h e d eve lopmen to f al o ca l a l coho l ic d r ink a ss ub s t i tu te f o rw ine -mo s tp robab ly m ead . It h ink t h is i s ap a t tern t h a t w e c an s e e t ime a nd t ime a ga in , o n ag loba l b a s is . A lcoho l u l t ima te ly b ecame v e ry w ide sp read , b u tl a rge ly b yi m i ta t ion o fi n t roduced d r ink s ( a s Is ha l l a rgue b e low i n t h e c a se o f k oum ish ) . I n t h e s ame w ay , t h e p res t ige t e chno log ies a s soc ia ted w i th t h e s e rv ing o f a l coho l ic d r ink s w e re a l so i m i ta ted . L ook ing a head , t h rough l a te r E u ropean p reh is to ry , w e c an s ee h ow t h e t e chno logy c augh tu pw i th i t si m i ta t ions : f i r s tp rec ious m e ta ld r ink ing v e s se ls ,t h en b ronze o ne s , a nd f i na l ly b u lk i mpor ted w ine a nd t h en v i t icu l tu re i t se lf , u nde r t h e R omans ( She r ra t t a nd T ay lo r i np re s s ) . Wha t w e s e e i nn or th -wes t E u rope i sa

9 2

O xf ord I n t erna t iona l We s t ern Med i t e r ranean B e l lB eak er C onf erence

l ong -d rawn o u t s e r ies o f s ub s t i tu tes , b o th f o r t h e d r ink a nd f o r i t s o r ig ina l Med i te r ranean s t y le o fs e rv ing . We c an a pp rec ia te , t h en , why i nt h e t h i rd m i l lenn ium t h ere s hou ld b e as e r ie s o f i n ter na t iona ld r ink ing s e t s , s p r ead ing b e tween d om inan tg roup si nd i f f e r en ta r ea sa s p a r to f ac omp lex o fn ew s ub s i s tence t e chno logy a nd a sp a r to fn ew mode so fs oc ia l i n te rac t ion . Wha tw e a r e a c tua l ly l ook ing a ti st h eo r ig in o f at r ad i t ion o fa l coho l b ased h osp i ta l i ty t ha t w e w i l l s ee l a te r o n , i n t he C lass ica l wo r ld , a s t h e s ympos ium ( 16 ) : mo re t h an j u s t ad r ink ing p a r ty o r af o rum f o r p h i lo soph ica l d i scuss ion ( f o r t h a t i s wha t i tb ecame , a nd w hy w e u se t he wo rd t oday ) , b u t o r ig ina l ly af undamen ta l s oc ia lm echan i sm ,t h ef eas t o f mer i t , t h e g a the r ing o f a f o l low ing o fw a r r io r -compan ions , l i ke t h e Mannerbund o fe a r ly G erman ic h i s to ry ( Mu r ray 1 982 , 1 983 ; Q u i l le r 1 981 , n p ) . 1A s Mo r ton F r ied ( 1967 , p . 178 ) r e ca l l s , r anked s oc ie t ies a r e p a r t icu la r ly c ha rac te r ised b y t h e i r f r equen t ' i n te rcommun i ty a c t iv i t ie s , mo s tn o tab ly f e a s t s ,p a r t ie s ,c e remon ie sa nd o the rc e remon ie sp red ica ted o no rgan ised h o sp i ta l i ty ' . I ti s ac ommon a nd f undamen ta lf e a tu re o fl a te rp re -a nd p ro toh i s to r ic s oc ie t ies i n E u rope . A s k in sh ip n e two rk s b ecame l a rge r a nd l e ss l i nked t oi mmed ia te c ommun i t ie s , s ot h ep o s s ib i l i t ie so fc r ea t ing a nd o rgan i s ing a n a rmed b ody o fs uppo r te r sb ecame g r ea te r ,a nd t h ee mpha s i so nw a r r io rf e a s t ing a nd h osp i ta l i ty b ecame mo re p ronounced ( 17 ) . I ti st h e g enes is o ft h i s f undamen ta l ly n ew s oc ia lf ab r ic t h a tw ea r ew i tnes s ing i nt h et h i rd m i l lenn ium ,b eh ind t h es p read o fd r ink ing e qu ipmen ta nd w eapon ry w h ich i st h ee l u s ive c ha rac te r i s t ic o ft h eb eake r c omp lex t h a tw ea r et r y ing t ot i ed own . A nd t h es o c ia ll ub r ican to ft h i sp roce ss w a s , Ib e l ieve a l coho l . T ha ti sw ha tt h eb eake r sw e re f o r . "Wha t B eer t he B eaker F o lk Were Won t t o B rew" ( 18 ) * ********* T he q ue s t ion o fw ha tk ind o fd r ink m igh th ave b een c onsumed f r om B e l lB eake r si s a no ld o ne , w h ich c an b e t a ken f u r the ro n ly b yc omb in ing e v idence , a rgumen ta nd s pecu la t ion . S ince s ou rces o fs uga rw e re r e la t ive ly r e s t r ic ted , t h ep o s s ib i l i t ie s a r e l i kew i se l im i ted . B ee ri sc l ea r ly ap o s s ib i l i ty a nd w i l l b ed i scus sed f u r the rb e low . We may s e t a s ide k oum ish , w h ich r equ i res l a rge q uan t i t ies o f s u rp lus m i lk ( e spec ia l ly t h e s uga r -r ich ma res ' m i lk ) a nd i su n l ike ly t oh ave b een p roduced i n f o re s ted t empe ra te E u rope a tt h i sd a te . L ikew ise t r ee -sap a nd n a t ive f r u i t so rb e r r ie s ; t h e re a r ef ew t empe ra te e qu iva len t st ot h e s uga r -r ich p a lm s ,a nd a l though b i r ch -sap c an b et a pped ( l ike map le s y rup i nN o r th Ame r ica )i ti sn o tv e ry s wee t . F ru i tw ine s r equ i re a dded s uga r( f o re xamp le f r om h oney ) a nd a r e b e s tc ons ide red a st y pe s o f f l avou red m ead ( Gay re 1 948 ) . B ee ro rm ead a r et h us t h eb e s tc and ida te s . On ag l oba l s c a le ,o n ly af r ac t ion o fc e rea l -cu l t iva to r sc onve r tt h e i rg ra in i n to b ee r . I nt empe ra te N o r th Ame r ica ,f o re xamp le ,n oa l coho l ic b eve rage sw e re p roduced i n p re -con tac tt ime sd e sp i te t h ee x ten s ive c u l t iva t ion o f ma ize -e ven t hough t h i sg ra in w a su sed f u r the rs ou th ( i n Mex ico a nd P eru )t o make b ee r( Ha t t 1 953 ,p .1 58 ) . I ti s u n l ike ly , t h e refo re , t h a tb ee r -mak ing ( a nd l e avened b r ead ) w as p a r to ft h eo r ig ina l w ay i nw h ich d ome s t ica ted g ra ins w e re u t i l i sed ( Bra idwood e t . a l 1 953 ) . E a r ly c e rea l -ba sed d i e ts a r e mo re l i ke ly t o h ave u sed p a rched a nd c racked g ra ins f o r p o r r idge ( g r i t s ) o r , -i fg round -f o r c oa r se , u n leavened b read ( Mau r i tz io 1 932 , 1 933 ; F o rbes 1 954 , 1 955 ) . f o r f e rmen ta t ion , c onve r s ion f r om s t a rch t o s uga r i s n eces sa ry ; a nd v a r iou sm e thod sh ave b een u sed . T he mo s tp r im i t ive i st oc hew t h e 9 3

A . G .S her ra t t

g r a in , mak ing u se o ft h ee nzyme p ya l in i nt h es a l iva -aw ide sp read t e chn ique ,u sed b o th w i th g ra ins a nd r oo t s ( e .g . t o make t h e k aya b ee r o fP o lyne s ia ) . I n t h e r i ce g row ing a r ea o fs ou th a nd e a s tA s ia , af e rmen t ing f ungus ( Asperg i l lus o r yzae )i s u sed , t h a ta ccomp l i she sb o th s a ccha r if ica t ion a nd f e rmen ta t ion . T he mo s tc ommon m e thod t oday i nE u ra s ia a nd A f r ica i sm a l t ing ,u s ing t h en a tu raly p roduced e nzyme d i a s ta se w h ich o ccu r sd u r ing s p rou t ing . T h i sl a s tm e thod may n o tb ea sa nc ien ta s t h ef i r s tb ee rp roduc t ion i nE u rope ,h oweve r : f i nd so fs p rou t ing g ra in a r en o tk nown t o me b efo re t h eR oman p e r iod ( t hough t h e re m ay b em any r e a son sf o rt h i s ) ,a nd t h e c hew ing m e thod m ay h ave b een t h eo r ig ina lo ne i nE u rope ( w i th m a l t ing c onf ined t o t h e N ea r E a s t ) . I th a s c er ta in e choes i nf o lk lo re : b ea r -sp i t t le w a s u sed t oi nduce f e rmen ta t ion i no ne e p i sode i nt h eF inn i sh K a l eva la e p ic . Ag ood d ea l i sk nown a bou t t h e p roduc t ion o fb ee ri nt h e a nc ien t c i v i l i sa t ion s o f E gyp t a nd Me sopo tam ia ( Lu tz 1 922 , O ppenhe im 1 950 , F o rbes 1 954 ) . Wr i t ten e v idence i nd ica tes t ha t b ee r w a s m ade i n b o th a r ea s f r om t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e h i s to r ic p e r iod , a nd b r ew ing v a t sa r es hown i nP redyna s t ic E gyp t ian f i gu r ine s . No t o n ly b a r ley w a s u sed , b u t a l so emme r . D ry ma l t loaves ( s ome t ime s s p iced ) w e re o f ten made a s ad u rab le c ommod i ty t h a tc ou ld b ec onve r ted i n to e i the rb r ead o rb e e r . T he y eas ts -p e rhaps o r ig ina l ly g ra ined f r om mak ing p a lm -w ine -s u rv ived i nt h e b rew ing v a t s , o r f r om t h e r ema ins o f ap rev ious ma sh ; a nd t h e m ix tu re c ou ld b e s t reng thened b yt h ea dd i t ion o fh oney o rd a te j u ice . T he g ra in sw e re n o td e -hu sked , a nd t h e b ee rw a s e i the r s t ra ined o rd runk t h rough s t raw s . T he f i r s ti lus t ra t ion o f s uch s t raws o ccu r s i nt h e P ro to l ie ra te ( J amda tN a s r ) p er iod , a r ound 3 200 BC a nd t h ec us tom w a s s t i l le ncoun te red b yX enopohn ( Anabas i sI V ,5 ,2 6 )i nA s ia M ino r i n4 00 b c B y t h is t ime i tw a sp robab ly ar a the rr u s t ic s u rv iva l : i nl ow land a r ea s a s t rong d r ink ( shekhar ) -l a rge ly m ade f r om d a te s -h ad b ecome mo re c ommon . P e rhaps s u rp r is ing ly , b ee rw a sn o tp roduced i nt h e A egean i nC la ss ica lt ime s , a nd t h e o n ly t e n ta t ive i nd ica t ion o fi t se a r l ie ru se i sa n MM I Ij ug f r om Kno s so s w i th w ha t r e semb le b a r ley -ear s mou lded i nr e l ief . I ti sn o tc l ea r , t h e refo re ,w he the rt h e p roduc t ion o fb ee rw a s aw ide sp read e a r ly h ab i tt h a tw a s o u s ted i nt h eA egean b y w ine ,o rw he the r -a si sp e rhaps mo re l i ke ly -w ea r ed ea l ing w i th t wo q u i te s e pa ra te r eg iona lt r ad i t ions t h a tg r ew u pi ndependen t ly i nt h eN ea rE a s ta nd E u rope ,a nd may h ave u sed q u i te d i f f e ren tm e thod s . T he b ee ro fE gyp tw a s s u f f ic ien t ly u nf am il ia rt o t h e G reeks t o b e t hough t wor thy o f r ema rk s b y H e rodo tus ( H is tor ies , I ,2 6 ) ; wh i le t h e g od D ionysu s w a s s a id t o h ave f l ed t oG reece f r om Mesopo tam ia i n d i sgus t a t i t s i nhab i tan t s ' l i k ing f o r b ee r . O n t h e o ther h and , t h e G reek s a nd R omans a l so a s soc ia ted b ee r w i th t h e C els : P l iny ( Na tura l H i s tory X IV , 2 9 ) r e co rded t h a tt h en a t ive so fw e s ter nE u rope ( p r inc ipa l ly G au la nd S pa in )i n tox ica ted t h em se lves w i th a d r ink made f r om c o rn a nd w a te r , w h i le D ionys ius o f H a l ica rna ssus ( Roman An t iqu i t ies X I I I , 1 0 ) s nobb ish ly n o ted t h a t " t he G au l s a t t h a t t ime h ad n o k now ledge o fw ine . . .bu t u sed af ou l -sme l l ing l i quo r made f r om b a r ley r o t ted i nw a te r ' . T he l a t in w o rd f o rb ee r , c erev i s ia , i sr e la t ive ly l a te a nd i s i t se lf ac ompound o ft h el a t in f o rc e r ea lp l us aC e l t ic e l emen tm ean ing ' wa ter ; a nd s u rv iv ing t oday i nt h ew o rd w h isky . T ac i tus ( German ia XX I I I ) r e co rd s t h e u se o fb eer amongs t t h e G e rmans , a nd b o th h e a nd o the r w r i te r s m en t ion t h e u se o f w hea ta sw e l la sb a r ley t o make b ee ri nt h en o r th . We c an a l so t u rn t ot h ek ind so fc e rea l s g rown i nl a te rp reh i s to r ic E u rope t os e ei f t h ey c on ta in a ny c l ue s . T he mo s t u sefu l s u rvey ( f o r n o r the rn E u rope ) i sb y H opf ( 1983 ) , a nd t h er e su l t sa r e s omewha ts u rpr i s ing . Mode rn b rewe r sp ref e rt h eh u l led

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O xf ord I n t erna t iona lW e s t e rn Med i t er ranean B e l lB eak er C onf erence

f o rm o f t h e t wo -row b a r ley ( Hordeum d i s t ichum ) ; b u t t h e re w a s n o t wo -row b a r ley i n p reh i s tor ic E u rope , o n ly t h e s i x row f orm ( H . h exas t ichum ) ; a nd t h e n aked f o rm -i nc on t ra s tt ot h eN ea rE a s ta tt h i st ime -w a st h ep redom inan to ne d own t ot h eU rnf ie ld p e r iod . S ince t h en aked f o rm h a sn oa dvan tage f o rb r ew ing ,i ts e em s u n l ike ly t h a ti t s ma jo ru se w a sf o rb ee r -w ho se p roduc t ion o na ny s ca le may h ave b een o ne o ft h e many i n nova t ion so fU rnf ie ld t ime s . T hus t h eo f t -c i ted g ene ra lt r end t owa rd sb a r ley i nt h el a te rN eo l i th ic a nd E a r ly B ronze A ge i su n l ike ly t ob er e la ted t o b ee r mak ing , a nd mo s t p robab ly i ts imp ly r e f lec t s t h e s p read t os e conda ry s o i l s . T he re a r e s ome i nd ica t ion s , i nf a c t , t h a t emme rw a st h ec e rea l u sed f o rb rew ing i n n o r the rn E u rope : w e s ha l l r e tu rn t ot h is p o in t a f te r c ons ide r ing t h e e v idence f o r mead . T en ta t ive ly , h oweve r , w e may c onc lude t h a t b ee r a s s uch p robab ly o n ly g a ined i t sp rom inence i nc on t inen ta lE u rope i nt h eL a te B ronz eA ge o rh on A ge ,a nd may o n ly h ave b ecome p redom inan ti nt h eM idd le A ge s ,b yw h ich t ime i tc onsumed 2 0 -30% o ft h et o ta lc e rea lc rop . We may n ex tc on s ide rh oney a nd i t s p roduc t , mead ( Gay re 1 948 ) . H oney w a st h e mo s tc oncen t ra ted s ou rce o fs uga ri np reh i s to r ic t empe ra tu re E u rope ,a nd n od oub ta v a luab le a nd much t raded c ommod i ty ( Fo rbes 1 957 ) . Q u i te h ow much w a s a va i lab le , h oweve r , i sa n i mpo r tan tq ues t ion . ' The c o l lec t ion o fw i ld h oney mu s t h ave b een al a bor ious b u s ine ss i nvo lv ing movemen to ve rw ide a r ea s " ( C la rk 1 942 , p .2 10 ) ; a nd E van C rane ( 1983 ) h a s u sefu l ly s ummar ised t h e w ay s i nw h ich t h e n a tu ra lp roduc t ion o fh oney c an b ei n c rea sed b yh uman i n te rven t ion . O ne s y s tem o f d omes t ic b ee k eep ing e x i s ted a mong t h e a nc ien t c iv i l isa t ions , a nd s hown o n E gyp t ian O ld K ingdom r e l ief s . I tw a sb a sed o nt h eu se o f ah o r izon ta lh ive ,o ft h e t ype k nown e t hnog raph ica l ly f r om many p a r t so fA f r ica ,a nd i nE gyp tu sed i ns t ack s o fs eve ra lh ive s . H o r izon ta lh ive s ( i n ap o t tery f o rm s t i l lu sed i nt h eC yc lade s )a r e k nown f r om C la ss ica l t ime s i nG reece , a nd wood o rw icke ro ne s a r ed e scr ibed i n R oman I t a ly b y C o lume l la . T h is a nc ien t t ype o ff o rma l b ee k eep ing , t yp ica l o f u nfo res ted a r ea s a nd c ha rac te r i sed b y t h e h o r izon ta l h ive , d id n o t s p read t o t empe ra te , T ransa lp ine E urope . I n s tead , t h e t r ad i t ion o f f o res t b ee k eep ing manag ing w i ld p opu la t ions i nl i v ing t r ees -l a s ted d own t oh i s to r ic t ime s . I ti s k nown f r om E ng land i nt h eM idd le A ge s , a nd r ema ined t h es o le me thod i nt h eS lav l a nd s ( i n c ompe t i t ion w i th t h eb ea r s ) d own t of a i r ly r ecen tt ime s . T he e r ec t ion o f a r t i f ic ia lb eeh ive s ,i nt h ef o rm o fv e r t ica ll og sm im ic ing t h et r ee s ,i sk nown f r om t h e e a r ly c en tu r ie sA .D . o nt h en o r th G erman h ea th land s a nd may b eo lde ri ft h e mo r e d oub tfu le xamp le f r om a n Um f ie ld c on tex tn ea rB e r l in i sa ccep ted a s ab eeh ive . T he f i r s tw icke rs kep -t h et y p ica l Med ieva lf o rm o fw e s tE u ropean b eeh ive -a ga in d a te s t ot h e e a r ly c en tu r ie s A .D . , a tF edde r sen Wie rde . ( A l l r e f e rences i nC rane 1 983 ) . T he k eep ing o f d omes t ic b ees , t h e refo re , a l though o f s ome a n t iqu i ty i n t h e Med i te r ranean ,w a sl a rge ly ad eve lopmen to ft h eh i s to r ica le r ai nt empe ra te E u rope . T he q uan t i t ie so fh oney a va i lab le t oe a r l ie rB ronze A ge p opu la t ion sa r el i ke ly t oh ave b een n e i the r l a rge n o r e a s i ly i n crea sed ; h oney wou ld h ave b een a p res t ige c ommod i ty . A l though i n B ronze A ge G reece m ead may h ave b een a ma jo r c ompe t i to r o f w ine , a nd e ven p receded i ti n g ene ra l u se ( a s s ome o f t h e my ths i nd ica te : Z af i ropu lo 1 966 ) , i t mus t h ave b een much mo re r e s t r ic ted f u r the r n o r th . T he s upp ly o fh oney i nt empe ra te E urope i sn o t l i ke ly t oh ave s us ta ined ama ss p roduc t ion o fm ead , w h ich e ven i nt h e M idd le A ge s w a s f our t imes a sv a luab le a s a l e . No t s u rpr is ing ly , t h e refo re , t h e f i r s te v idence f o r ap u re mead i nt empe ra te E urope d a te st ot h eh on A ge , a nd c omes f r om t h eH a l l s ta t tp r ince ly w aggon -bu r ia ld a ted t o

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a round 5 00 b c a t Hochdo r fn ea r S tu t tga rd ( Ko rbe r -G rohne 1 985 ) . I n a n i mpor ted b ronze c au ld ron s e t i no ne c o rne r o f t h e g rave -chambe r w a s a n o rgan ic d epo s i t c ons i s t ing l a rge ly o f p o l len g ra ins a nd b eeswax . T he t i de -mark o n t h e v es se l i nd ica te s ac apac i ty o fc .3 50 l i t re s ,a nd t h em a s so fp o l len i nd ica te s a1 5 -60% h oney c on ten t -av e ry h igh q ua l i ty m ead . S ome 6 0d i f f e r en tp l an t sw e re r e p re sen ted i nt h e p o l len , c ove r ing aw ide v a r ie ty o fe co topes i n c lud ing h ea th land w i th w i ld t h yme , p a s tu re s ,m eadow sa nd b ean f i e ld s : s eve ra lh oney so fd i f f e ren to r ig in ( p e rhap sf ou r o rf i ve b yc ompa r ison w i th mode rn s amp les ) w ou ld h ave b een u sed . T h is c l ea r ly r epre sen t s -l i ke t h e e l abo ra te ma ter ia l f i t t ing s o ft h e t omb -av ery c on s ide rab le c oncen t ra t ion o f w ea l th . I ta l so t e s t if ie s t o ar a the r o pen l a nd scape , w i th m any c ommun i t ie so fh oney -bee s ,u s ing f i e ld sa nd p a s tu r e : l o ok ing t owa rd st h e Med ieva l p a t te rn r a the rt h an t y p ica lo ft h ec ond i t ion so fe a r l ie rp r eh i s to ry . T he mo s td i r ec ti nd ica to ro ft h ek ind o fh oney k nown i nB eake rt ime si st h em a te r ia l f r om a s p l i t S 4 B eake r i n ac i s t -bu r ia l o n A shg rove F arm , Me th i lh i l l , F i f e , a s soc ia ted w i th af i ne m e ta l d agge r ( C la rke 1 970 , F igu re 1 016 ; D ick son 1 978 ) . P o l len s amp les f r om ama s so fl e aves a nd mo s sn ex tt ot h er e cumben tv e sse lg ave a p o l len s pec t rum ma tch ing t h es ma l le rq uan t i t ie s s t i l la dhe r ing t ot h ev e s se lw a l l ,a nd p resumab ly r ef lec t ing i t s o r ig ina l c on ten t s . I ti sd om ina ted b y s ma l l l e aved l ime ( Ti l ia c orda ta ) a t5 4% , f o l lowed b y meadowswee t ( F i l ipendu la c f . u lmar ia ) a t1 5% , a nd w i th C a l luna h ea the r a nd r i bwo r t p l an ta in ( P . l anceo la ta ) a r ound 7% e ach . P e rhap st wo h oney sw e re u sed ;c e r ta in ly s eve ra le co tope sa r er ep r e sen ted : l ime f i r s t( i . e . m ixed o ak f o re s ts e lec t ive ly s amp led b yt h eb ee s ) , a nd much s ma l le r a r ea so fp a s tu re a nd h ea th -av e ry d i f f e ren tp i c tu re f r om H o chdo r . I n te re s t ing ly ,t h e f i nd l i e s a tl e as t 1 00 km . n o r th o f t h e b ounda ry o f T . c orda ta a tt h a t t ime , a nd mus t r ef lec t ah oney t r aded f r om n o r thern E ng land . T he meadowswee t ( medeswee te = mead -swee t ) s e em s l i ke ly t oh ave b een a dded a s af l avou r ing , a nd i sk nown f r om o the rB ronze A ge f i nd s . S ince t h ec on ten t so ft h ev e sse la s aw ho le w e re n o te xam ined , i twou ld b ew rong t oc onc lude t h a tt h is w a sn eces sar i ly ap u re m ead ; w ec an o n ly b ec e r ta in t h a t( no d oub tf e rmen ted )h oney w a s ac omponen t . T he b e s t g u ide t ot h e n a tu re o fB ronze A ge b rew s i ss t i l l t h e f amou s b i rch b a rk c on ta ine r f r om ao ak c of f in b u r ia l i nt h e t umu lus a tE g tved , D enma rk ( Thom sen 1 922 , p . 1 84 ) . T he r e s idue i n t h is v esse l h ad t h ree c omponen t s : ( 1 ) h oney , i nd ica ted b yp o l len o fl ime ,m eadow swee ta nd c l ove r , ( 2 )f r u i t sa nd l e aves u sed f o r f l avou r ing , n o tab ly V acc in ium ( c f . c r anbe r ry )f r u i t s , a nd l e ave so fs wee tg a le ( s ee b e low , n o te 2 2 ) , a nd ( 3 ) c e rea l g ra ins , i d en t if ied a s w hea t ( a nd t h e re fo re mo s t p robab ly emme r ) . P rec ise ly t h e s ame m ix tu re w a s f ound i nt h e D an i sh J ue l l inge f i nd o ft h eR oman I r on A ge . T h i si s am ead , a na l e ,a nd af r u i tw ine a li no ne ! S uch am ix tu re w a s a lmos t c er ta in ly mo re t yp ica l o f e a r ly t empe ra te E u ropean a l coho l ic d r inks t han t h ep ure f o rm s w h ich p robab ly b egan t oa ppea r d u r ing t h e f i r s tm i l lenn ium BC B efo re t h a t ,a l l s ou r ce so fs uga rw e re p r es sed i n to s e rv ice ,a nd t e chn ique so fa l coho lw e re p robab ly much l e s se f f ec t ive t h an t h o se i nu se a tt h a tt ime i nt h eN ea rE a s t . T he a n swe rt ot h eq ue s t ion o fw ha td r ink w a sc on sumed f r om B e l l B eake r sc anno tb e g iven i n as i ng le w o rd . A lcoho lw a s ap rec iou s s ub s tance ,h a rd w on ( no d oub tw i th much r i tua l a nd mys t ique ) f o rm at empe ra te e nv i ronmen t , a nd o f ten a du l te ra ted w i th o the r t h ing s . I t s e f fec t s w ou ld h ave b een ar ema rkab le e xper ience , p erhaps n o t a va i lab le t o s oc ie ty a tl a rge , a nd monopo l ised b y t h e p ower fu l .

9 6

O xf ord I n t e rna t iona lW e s t e rn Med i t e r ranean B e l lB eak e rC onf e r ence

A F ina l C l ew ****** I tr ema in s t o e xp la in o ne i mpo r tan t t h read i n t h e a r gumen t w h ich Ih ave j u s t d i scu ssed , t h e s i gn i f icance o fw h ich h a so ccu r red t om eo n ly r e cen t ly . T he t h r ead i s , o f c ou r se , t h e s t rand o f t w i s ted c o rd t h a t l i nked t h e s oc ie t ie s o f t h e No r th E u ropean P l a in ,f r om t h eP on t ic s t eppe st ot h eB r i t i sh I s le s ,a nd w a s af undamen ta l f e a tu re o ft h ef i r s tg ene r a t ion o fB e l lB eake r ,t h eA l l -ove r -Co rd t y pe . Why w a sc o rd d eco ra t ion s op rom inen t ,a l be i tt empo ra r i ly ,i nt h a ta r ea ?C an w ef o l low t h el o g ic o f o u re xp lana t ion f u r the r ? Ib el ieve t h a tw ec an . C o rd o rnamen t s t a r ted e a r l ie s t o n t h e s t eppe s , i n S redn i S tog a nd P i t G rave s ( Te leg in 1 973 ; Me rpe r t 1 974 ) . I tw a sa l so w ide sp read i ne a s tA s ia f r om q u i te e a r ly N eo l i th ic t ime s ; b u tn o ti nt h en o r the rn f o re s tb e l to fE u ra s ia ,w he re r a the rs im i la r , c oa r se , i mp re s sed p o t tery w a s n eve r the le ss d eco ra ted o n ly w i th p i t a nd c omb o rnamen t , n o t c o rd i mp re s s ion s . C o rd d eco ra t ion s p read w e s t w i th G lobu la r Ampho rae , a nd t h en w i th C o rded Wa re , a nd i tw a sp a in s tak ing ly i m i ta ted a sf a l se c o rd a nd s t amped c omb d eco ra t ion s . Why? T h ink a bou t t h e s t eppe s . T he d r ink ing c omp lex -j ug s a nd c ups r e la ted t om e ta l f o rm s , o re ven d i s t inc t ive d r ink ing v e s se l so fa ny t y pe -d idn ' tp ene t ra te u n t i lv e ry l a te ; n o tt i l lG r eek c o lon ia li n f luence i nS cy th ian t ime s . T ha ti sp robab ly w hen t h e s t eppe t r ib e si n ven ted k ou tn i sh -l i k em ead , al o ca lw ine s ub s t i tu te . S oh ow d id t h ey amuse t h em se lve s? T he a n swe ri si nH e rodo tu s , s uppo r ted b yt h e a r chaeo logy o f t h eP azy ryk t omb s( F igu re ) . " On af r amewo rk o ft r ee s t ick s , m ee t ing a tt h e t o p , t h ey s t re t ch p i ece s o f w oo l len c l o th . I n s ide t h i s t e n t t h ey p u t ad i sh w i th h o t s t one s o n i t . T hen t h ey t a ke s ome h emp s e ed ,c r eep i n to t h et e n t , a nd t h row t h es e ed o nt h eh o t s t one s . A to nce i tb eg in st os moke , g i v ing o f f av apou ru n su rpa s sed b y a ny v apou rb a th o ne c ou ld f i nd i nG reece . T he S cy th ian se n joy i ts o much t h ey t h ey h ow lw i th p l ea su re " ( 19 ) P oo r H e rodo tu s : h e t hough t i tw a s a n a l te rna t ive t ow a sh ing . Y ea r s b efo re , t h e i nhab i tan t s o f t h e s t eppe s h ad d i scove red t h e j oys o f t h e n a t ive h emp p lan t , C annab i ss a t iva , t h a tt h ey c u l t iva ted f o ri t s f i b r e s , a nd c onve r ted i ti n to as oc ia l ly a pp roved i n tox ican t( Me r l in 1 972 ) . It h ink t h a tt h o se p eop le w e re t h e S redn i S tog g roup ,a nd t h a tt h ey c e leb ra ted i t si mpo r tance b yi mp r in t ing i to nt h e i rp o t te ry ( 20 ) . T hey p a s sed o n t h e i rk now ledge , a nd t h e i rc u l t igen ( 2 1 ) , t ot h e i r n e ighbou r s , t h e e a s te rn w ing o ft h eG lobu la r Ampho ra c u l tu re , w ho i n co rpo ra ted i ti nt h ec omp lex o f ma le -a s so c ia ted p a rapher na l ia i n sp i red b yt h es ou ther na l coho l ic t r ad i t ion . T hey may h ave e ven m ixed t h em i n s ome amaz ing c omb ina t ion ( 22 ) -t h e t r ick , a ppa ren t ly , i st oh ea tt h e h emp l e ave s i nb u t te r -a nd p a s sed o nt h e i rs e c re tt ot h e i r C o rded Wa re s u cce s so r s . D id t h e A l l -ove r -Co rd b eake r -l i ke t ho se L a te B ronze A ge C ypr io t o p ium j ug s i nt h e s hape o f ap oppy -a c t ive ly a dve r t i se i t s c on ten t s t h rough i t sc e ram ic f o rm a nd d e co ra t ion? I ti sa na tr a c t ive t h ough t . C o rd d eco ra t ion r ema ined t y p ica l o f n o r thern B ronze A ge p o t te ry w e l l i n to t h e s e cond m i l lenn ium . H emp w a s p robab ly o us ted , a s af i b re b y w oo l , a nd a s a n i n tox ican t b y b e t te rb r ew so fa l coho l , p e rhaps b ee r . I ts u rv ived o n t h e s t eppe s , o f 9 7

A . G .S her ra t t

c ou r se , a nd i tw a s p a ssed o n , v i a t h e P e r s ian s , t ot h e A rab s . T he r e s t y ou k now . B u tw ha to fb eake r s? H emp s eem s t oh ave r ema ined an o r the rn p l an t , u n t i l i tw a s i n t roduced i n to t h e Med i te r ranean f r om A na to l ia b yH e l len i s t ic G r eek sa nd R oman s ,w ho w an ted i tf o r r opes . A s B e l l B eake r s s pread s ou th , t h ey l e f t t h e ir c o rd d eco ra t ion ( a nd p re sumab ly t h e i rh emp b eh ind t h em . F o r as ho r tt ime i t sm emo ry w a sk ep ta l ive b y i m i ta t ive c omb d eco ra t ion , b u tt h en i n c i sed p ane l s , d raw ing t h e i ri n sp i ra t ion f r om w oo l len t e x t i le s ,t ook o ve r . A nd t h eb eake r st h em se lves d im in i shed i ns i ze a st h ey s p read f u r the r s ou th . Il i ke t ot h ink t h a t a l coho l 's l o ng j our ney , t h rough r emo te n o r ther nr eg ion sw he re i tw a sa du l te ra ted b yo the ri n fu s ions ,w a sc om ing t oa ne nd . I nt h e w es t Med i te r ranean , t h e a l coho l ic t r ad i t ion f ound o nce a ga in s un sh ine , a nd s uga r , a nd s t reng th (Wa lke r 1 985 ) . I tw a sl i ke c om ing h ome . Ep i logue : d as G lockenbecher sympos ion * ******* T he s pec if i ci n te rp r e ta t ion o f f e red a bove m ay o rm ay n o tb et r ue . T he g ene ra lp o in t r ema ins : b eake r s w e re f o rd r ink ing , a nd mo s tp robab ly f o rd r ink ing a l coho l . T h i s f o rm o f( u sua l ly ma le ) e n te r ta inmen th a sb een ac ha rac te r i s t ic f e a tu re o fE u ropean c u l tu re e ve rs i nce ,a nd i ss t i l l af am i l ia rp a r to ft h ep a t te rn o fs oc ia ll i f e . I ti sb a s ic t o a nu nde r s tand ing o fo u re ve ryday mode so fi n te rac t ion . T he f ab r ic o fs oc ia lr e la t ion si sh e ld t o ge the rb yk no t so fh o sp i ta l i ty : s oc ia lo cca s ion s a t wh ich t h ep a r t ic ipan t sc ome t oge the ri nl a rge rn umbe r st h an u sua lt od i sp lay t h e i r a ch ievemen t s ,t oc omp le te w i th t h e i rn e ighbou r s , c hoo se t h e i rp a r tner s a nd c emen t t h e i ra l l iance s . T he c ha rac te ro f ac u l tu re t a ke si t st o ne f r om t h e se e ven t s . T ha tw e c an u nde r s tand t hese a spec ts o f B eake r s oc ie ty -f a r b e t ter t han w e c an t h ink o u r se lve si n to t h ew ay so ft h e i rm ega l i th ic p redece s so r s -i sb ecause t h e se mo t ive s a r es t i l lw i th u s . O u rc up ss t il c hee r ; o u rc onf e rence sa r es t i l ls ympo s ia .

9 8

O xf ord I n t erna t iona lW e s t ern Med i t e r ranean B e l lB eak er C onf erence

No tes * ******* ( 1 ) O nt h e s ub jec to fd r ink ing , i ti sh a rd t oa vo id l i t e ra ry a l lu s ion s : h ence b o th t h e t i le , a nd t h e q uo ta t ion w h ich f o l lows i t . Wi l l iam C owpe r 's i n te res t w a s i n t empe rance : t h e" cups /T ha tc hee rb u tn o ti n eb r ia te " ( A W in ter E ven ing ; 1 785 ) w e re p a r to ft h en ew , m idd le -c la s st e ac e remony . J ohn K ea t s ' i n ten t ion s ( Od et oa N igh t inga le ; 1 818 ) w e re a l coho l ic , b u t m i sgu ided . H i s b eake r " f u l l o ft h ew a rm s ou th , /F u l lo ft h et r ue , t h eb l u shfu lH ippoc rene , /Wi th b eaded b ubb les w ink ing a t t h eb r im ,/ And p u rp le -s ta ined mou th " c ou ld h ave b een n o mo r e t h an am i rage -f o r t h e H ippo c rene w a s i nf a c t as p r ing , t h eh or se ' s s pr ing s uppo sed ly c r ea ted w he re t h ef oo to fP ega su s s t ruck Moun tH e l icon i nB oeo t ia . A l though t h ew e l lw a ss a c red t ot h e Muse sa nd s a id t ob et h ei n sp i ra t ion o fp oe t s ,K ea t s may h ave f ound r ed w ine e qua l ly e f f ec t ive i nh i sq ue s t" /T ha t Imay d r ink , a nd l e ave t h ew o r ld u n seen . " ( 2) T he M i l la ran Kuppelgraber s eem t o r epresen t as o mewha t d i f feren t p henomenon f r om t h eo the r , t r u ly m ega l i th ic b ur ia l monumen t s w h ich o ccu rf r om I be r ia ,t h rough B r i t tany a nd B r i ta in t oS cand inav ia a nd n o r th G e rmany . T he f o rme r a r ed i s t inc t ive n o to n ly i nt h e i r mo re s oph i s t ica ted a r ch i tec tu r e a nd t h eq ua l i ty a nd q uan t i ty o f t h e i r g rave -good s , b u t a l so i nt h e i r a s soc ia t ion w i th l a rge , n uc lea ted s e t t lemen t s ( l ike L o sM i l la re si t se l f ) . T he mo re n o r the r ly m ega l i th ic t omb s ,w h i le t h ey may i nc e r ta in p ha se sb ea s soc ia ted w i th r i tua le nc lo su re s , s e em t ob ei ns ome w ay a na l terna t ive t on uc lea ted s e t t lemen t o n t h e p a t te rn o fc ent ra l a nd s ou ther n E urope . T he s oc ia l u n i t s r epre sen ted b y t h e t wo s or t s o f m ega l i th ic c o l lec t ive t omb s , a nd t h e s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion a nd i d eo logy u nde r ly ing t h em , may t h us h ave b een v e ry d i f f e r en t . ( 3 ) Whe the r t h is d eve lopmen t w a s ap u re ly E u ropean p henomenon , o r w he the r t h ere w a s a l ready s ome c onnec t ion w i th t h e L a te C ha lco l i th ic c u l tu re so fA na to l ia ( wher e h and led j ug s a nd c up s w e re p rom inen t f e a tu res o fp o t te ry a s semb lages ) i s u nc lea r :u nfo r tuna te ly t h is p ha se i sn o ty e tr e p re sen ted i nw e l l -excava ted l e ve l si nt h e c en t ra l B u lgar ian t e l ls ( e .g . D ips iska Mog i la , E ze ro , wh ich h a s ah ia tus a tt h is p o in t ) . N e ighbour ing a r ea s , i n c lud ing b o th G reece a nd Mo ldav ia , s e em mo re c onse rva t ive i n t h e i r c u l ture a tt h i s t ime , a nd t h e i r a s semb lages c on t inue t o b e d om ina ted b yp a in ted p o t te ry ,f i gu r ine s , a nd o t he ra r cha ic e l emen t s . T he C a rpa th ian b a s in ( a nd , o n as ma l le r s ca le , a r ea s l i ke T h race ) h ad t h ec omb ined a dvan tages o f d en se p opu la t ion s , c oppe ra nd g o ld s our ce s , a nd o pen l a nd f o rs t o ck -ra i s ing . T h i s a r ea t h us b ecame t h ef o cu so fE u ropean d eve lopmen t s ; a nd i ti sp o s s ib le t h a ta l ready b yt h is s t age i th ad l i nk st oA na to l ia . T he r i ch f i nd sa tt h ec eme te ry o fV a rna s ugge s t t h a tt h eD anube /B la ck S ea t r ade r ou te t on o r the rn o rw e s ter nA na to l ia w a sa l ready i n u se . T he se l a t te ra r ea s ,h oweve r ,a r ev ery p oo r ly k nown a tt h i sp er iod . ( 4 ) S ince t h ey a r eo pen , h and led s hape s t h en t h e a l te rna t ive e xp lana t ion , t h a tt h ey w e re c on ta ine r s f o rt r aded o rgan ic c ommod i t ie s , s e em s l e ss l i ke ly ( a l though s ome l a te ri n te r reg iona ls hape s ,l i ke t h e TRB c o l la red f l a sk ,a lmo s tc e r ta in ly w e re ) . ( 5 ) : o ne r e a son f o rt h i si s al a rge s c a le i n te rna lr ed i s t r ibu t ion o fp opu la t ion ( p robab ly c onsequen t o n u se o f t h e p lough ) , w h ich p roduced a move t o t h e f oo th i l ls a nd i n ter f luve s , f i l l ing i nt h e D anube -T i sza i n te r f luve w h ich f o rme r ly s epa ra ted t h ese 9 9

A .S h er ra t t

b locs . O n al a rge s ca le , t h i s i st yp ica l o f t h e s h if t f r om r i ve r ine t o i n te r f luv ia l p a t tern s o f s e t t lemen t , a nd t h e c hanged t opo logy o fi n te rac t ion wh ich i tb rough t a bou t . ( 6 ) A l though t h e C o rded Wa re c omp lex s e em s t oh ave s p read i n i t ia l ly i na r ea s f o rme r ly i nf luenced b yt h eG lobu la r Ampho ra c omp lex ,t h et wo c omp lexe se x i s ted i np a ra l le lf o rs ome c en tur ie si nd i s t r ibu t ions w h ich w e r et o al a rge e x ten t mu tualy e xc lus ive ( K ruk 1 980 ) . T he G lobu la r Ampho ra h ear t land i n K u jav ia a nd t h e m idd le V i s tu la r e s is ted t h e p a t te rn o f C o rded Wa re e xpans ion ( wh ich e ngu lf ed s u r round ing a r ea s )d own t ot h e eme rgence o ft h eC h lop ice -Ve se le g roup . ( 7 ) F o rt h ee v idence b eh ind t h ese a s se r t ions , s e eS he r ra t t 1 981 , 1 983 , 1 986 c . ( 8 ) T he u se o fd omes t ica ted h o r se s i nt h e w es t Med i te r ranean s e em s t os how a s t r ik ing a s soc ia t ion w i th t h eB e l lB eake rc u l tu re ,e ven i ft h ey t h en b ecame v e ry r a re b efo re b ecom ing mo re c ommon i nt h eB ronze A ge . T he a s soc ia t ion w i th B eake r s w a sf i r s tp o in ted o u tf o rS pa in b y S chu le ( 1969 ) ,c onf i rmed f o rI t a ly b yt h e s i te o f S es to F io ren t ino n ea rF lo rence , a nd n ow f o r Ma jo rca b y Wa ld ren ( t h is v o lume ) a t h i s F e r rande l l -O leza s i te o n Ma l lo rca . T he s ame p i c tu re s e em s a l so t oa pp ly t o I r e land , a nd p robab ly t h e B r i t i sh I s le s a s aw ho le . It h ank L aw rence B a rf ie ld a nd B i l l Wa ld ren f o rt h e i rc ommen t so nt h e se f i nd s . ( 9 ) Woo l h a s av e ry h igh a f f in i ty f o rd ye s , a nd t a ke s t h e c o lou rw e l l a nd e ven ly ; l i nen h a s av e ry p oo ra ff in i ty ( wo r se t h an c o t ton )a nd i t ss t ruc tu re p r even t sa ne ven p ene t ra t ion o fd yes tuf f s . Ia m much i ndeb ted t o Mr s . B ea t r ice C lay re ( Bea t r ice B lance ) f o r c onf i rm ing t h is p o in t a nd p rov id ing m e w i th ap ho tocopy o fF rom F ibr e t oF abr ic ( 1946 ) , ah andbook p r in ted f o rt h e s t af fo fG .& R . Wi l l s . ( 10 ) I ti s , o f c ou r se , s i gn if ican t t h a t w e d esc r ibe b eaker or namen t a s b e ing o rgan i sed i nz one s , u s ing t h eG reek w o rd z one m ean ing ab e l t . T he a s soc ia t ion o f b e l t s a nd w a r r io r p rowess i sa n o ld -e s tab l ished o ne . T he e l i te t r oop o f G reek s o ld ie r s a r e t h eE vzones , t h e ' we l l -be l ted o nes ' ; a nd t h e v a r ious c o lou r o f b e l t ( B lack B e l t , e t c . ) a r e s t i l l u sed t od eno te g rades o fa t ta inmen ti nt h e ma r t ia l a r to f j udo . T he b one b e l t -f a s tene ri s ac ha rac te r i s t ic f e a tu r eo fr i ch ma le C o rded Wa r ea nd B e l l B eake r g rave s ( C la rke 1 970 , p p .265 a nd 2 99 , F igu re 1 44 ) , a nd t h e t a ng less b uck le s urv ive st oday i nE ngl i sh h e ra ld ry i nt h ei n s ign ia o ft h eO rde ro ft h eG a r te r . T he b e l t so nt h eA o s ta s t a tue -menh i r sa r ep a r t icu la r ly e mpha s i sed a nd d eco ra ted w i th ( po s s ib ly woven )g eome t r ic mo t i f s . T hey m ay h ave b een w o rn w i th l e a the ra rmou r . ( 11 ) I ti sp os s ib le t od ef ine d i f f e ren tr eg iona l t r ad i t ion s i nw eapon u se ( o r , mo re o f ten ,d i sp lay ) . T he a xe w a sc ha rac te r i s t ic o fc en t ra lE u rope , s upp lemen ted b yt h e d agge r( p e rhaps f o ry ounge rm a le s ,a sh i n ted b yt h eg r ave f i nd s ) ;i nw e s ter nE u rope t h e b ow a nd a r row w a s mo re c ommon , w i th t h e d agge r b e ing s omewha t r a re r p e rhaps e qu iva len tt ot h e a xe f u r the re a s t . S eve ra lo ft h e c ha rac te r i s t ic f e a tu re s o f t h e B eaker c omp lex r e la te t oa r che ry ( a nd p e rhaps t ol e a the r a rmour ) . D agge r s b ecame t h es t anda rd p e r sona lw eapon so ft h ee a r ly B ronze A ge t h roughou tE u rope , s upp lemen ted i nt h el a te rp ha se b yp o le a rm s : h a lbe rd a nd s pea r . ( 12 ) A s Ma ry Doug la sh a sr ema rked ( Doug la sa nd I s he rwood 1 980 ) : " The u l t ima te o b jec to fc on sump t ion a c t iv i ty i st oe n te r as oc ia lu n ive r se who se p roce s se sc on s i s t o f ma tch ing g ood st oc l a sse so fs oc ia lo cca s ion s " .

10 0

O xf ord I n t e rna t iona lW e s t ern Med i t er ranean B e l lB eak e rC onf e rence

( 13 )T obacco i s ap a r t icu la r ly p r iv i leged s ub s tance ,w i th i t so wn s oc ia lc onven t ion s : i f Ic adge ac i ga r e t te i ti sp o l i te a l so t oa ccep t al i gh tf o ri t-t ol i gh to ne 's o wn i ns uch c i rcum s tances i st od eny t h ee s sen t ia l ly s o c ia lc ha rac te ro ft h et r an sac t ion b yt r ea t ing o ne 's p a r tne ra s am ach ine . ( 14 ) T ea , c of f ee a nd d r ink ing -choco la te a l l a r r ived i nL ondon i n1 657 ; b u tc of f ee w a s a l ready b e ing d runk i n B a l l io l C o l lege , O xfo rd t wen ty y ea r s b efo re , wh i le O xfo rd h ad i t s f i r s tc o f f ee -house ( t he Ange l ) i n 1 650 . ( 15 ) D i rec t c ompa r ison w i th t h e d rug -ba sed c u l t s o f t h e n ew Wo r ld s uch a s Mesca l in ism (P eyo te C u l t ) i n Nor th Amer ican i sm i s lead ing , s i nce t h i s w a s r e la ted t ot h e b reakdown o fn a t ive c u l tu res i nt h ep o s t -con ta c tp e r iod . I ndeed , i n s o me a spec t s t h is c u l t m im ics t he C h r i s t ian E ucha r i s t , a nd i tf o rm s p a r t o f a n i d eo logy o f a ccommoda t ion t o Wes tern c u l tu re , a f te r t h e r ebe l l ion o f t h e Ghos t D ance . Wha t i si n te re s t ing , h oweve r , i st h e w ay i n wh ich t h e u se o ft h e p eyo te c ac tu s d id n o t s p read i n to t h e G rea t B a s in , b ecause o f t h e e x i s t ing u se t h e re o f J imsonweed . T he re may b e s ome a na logy h e re w i th t h e a ppa ren t f a i lu re o ft h e d r ink ing c omp lex t os p read o n t h e P on t ic s t eppe s i nt h e t h i rd m i l lenn ium b c ( Fo r d i scuss ion o fh a l luc inocen ic s ub s tances a nd t h e i rc u l t s i gn i f icance s e eF u r s t 1 976 , H a rne r 1 973 a nd L aB a r re 1 972 ) . ( 16 ) S ee A thenaeus f o r e x tended d escr ip t ion o ff e a s t ing , a nd e spec ia l ly d r ink ing ( Book X I ) , i nt h eG raeco -Roman w o r ld . T he b ook i t se lf i sc a s ti nt h ef o rm o fa n a f te r -d inne rd i scu ss ion ,a nd i t sv a r ious p a r t ic inan t si n t roduce q uo ta t ion sf r om o lde r w r i ter s a nd i n fo rma t ion f r om t h e i r o wn e xpe r ience t o p rov ide a n e x tens ive e thno taxonomy o fd r ink s a nd d r ink ing -cu l tu re i nt h eA nc ien t Wo r ld . ( 17 )c f . C .A . Wi lson ( 1973 ,p .3 31) o ne a r ly Med ieva lE ng land : "Mead w a s aw a r r io r 's d r ink , t h e d r ink o ft h e a r is tocracy b o th C e l t ic a nd S axon . N o t f o r n o th ing w a s t h e g rea t h a i l o ft h e S axon p a lace c a l led t h e mead n a i l . I nt h e h igh land z one mead d r i r ng h ad as pec ia l s i gn if i cance . T he b odygua rd w ho s u r rounded aC e l t ic c h ief o rp r ince l ing c onsumed h i s mead , b u ti nr e compense f ough th i s b a t t les , as e rv ice k nown a s' p ay ing f o r mead ' . When 3 00 c e l t ic w a r r io r sm e tt h eE ng l ish a tC a t rae th i nt h el a te s i x th c en tury , ' t he p a le m ead w as t h e i rf e a s t a nd t h e i rp o i son ' ; f o ra l le xcep to ne g ave t h e i rl i ve si nb a t t le i np aymen tf o rt h e i rm ead ." ( 18 )T he q uo te i sf r om S tua r tP iggo t t 's f amous B a l lade t oG o rdon C h i lde , w r i t ten i n1 935 : " A l l s e c re t so ft h ep a s ta r eh e re l a id b a re Wha tb ee rt h eB eake rF o lk w e re w on tt ob r ew , T he a nswe rt o aL aus i tz m a iden 's p raye r s T he r e c ipe f o r Mag lemo se f i sh g l ue . . . Y ou ' l l f i nd t h em a l l i nf oo tno te si nT he Dawn ." T he r e f e rence i st o af oo tno te o fw ha t b ecame p .2 23 o ft h e s even th e d i t ion o ft h e Dawn ( Ch i lde 1 957 ) , w he re m i l le t g ra in s a r e r epor ted f r om ab eake ri nP o r tuga l ( I n te rna t iona l ' Ä n s t i tu te o fA n th ropo logy C ong re ss 1 930 ,P o r tuga l ,p .3 56 ) .

0 1

A .S h e r ra t t

( 19 ) H e rodo tus , H i s tor ies I V , 7 5 . ( 2 0 ) I ti sw o r th n o t ing t h a tt h ee a r ly u se o fc o rd imp re s sed p o t te ry i nC h ina -t h es o c a l led S heng -wen h o r izon -w a s a s soc ia ted w i th a n e a r ly u se o f h emp a nd a n a pp r e c ia t ion ( e xpl i c i ti nt h ee a r ly h i s to r ica lr e co rd s )o fi t sn a r co t ic p rop e r t ie s . ( 21 ) T he f i r s t c e r ta in i d en t if ica t ion o f h emp i n E u rope i st h e H a l l s ta t t -per iod F ur s tengrab o f Hochdo r fn ea r S tu t tga r t , d a ted t oc .5 00 B C . T he r epo r t o n t h e o rgan ic r ema in s ( Ko rbe r -G rohne 1 985 ) i st h e mo s tt h o rough s umma ry o fd a ta o n t h e q ue s t ion o f t h e i n t roduc t ion o fC annab i s s a t iva . I tc o r rec t s t h e l i s t o ff i nd s r e po r ted b yW ile rd ing ( 1 970 )a nd r emove sa su nce r ta in a l t h ec l a imed p r e I ron A ge o ccur rences ; a nd i tp rov ides a p ionee r ing s e t o f c r i te r ia f o r m icro scop ic i d en t if ica t ion . T he se n ow n eed t ob e s y s tema t ica l ly a pp l ied t ot h e w e l l -p r e se rved f i b r e sf r om S w i s sl a ke v i l lage t e x t i le s , u sua l ly i d en t if ied ma c ro scop ica l ly a sl i nen . My s u sp ic ion i st h a th emp w a s i n t roduced t oE u rope i nt h e t h i rd m i l lenn ium , b u t l a rge ly d i ed o u ta nd o n ly b e came c ommon a ga in u nd e rS cy th ian i nf luence . ( 22 ) T h i s m ay s e em f a r -f e tched ; b u t d o w e n o t e ven t oday f l avou r o u rb ee r w i th l u pul in f r om a no the rm embe ro ft h eC annab ia cea e : t h eh op , Humu lus l upu lus , a c l o se r e la t ive o fh emp? ( O the rh i s to r ica l ly r e co rd ed E u ropean b ee r -f lavou r ing p l an t s w e re t h e s wee t g a le , Myr ica g a le , a nd m embe r s o f t h e g ene ra S alv ia , A r tem i s ia a nd L auru s -s e e B eh r e 1 984 , H a r t ley , 1 954 , 1 964 . T he re a r e r e co rd s a l so o fT amar ix g erman ica a nd V i tex a gr ius -cas tus among t h e G e rman s a nd y a r row ,A ch i l loea m i l lef o l ium i n I c e land . I n a nc ien t E gyp t , l up in ,L up inus t e rm in is , a nd s k ir re t ,S ium s i sa mm , w e re a ppa ren t ly u sed : L u tz 1 922 . I n Me sopo tam ia t h ew o rk o ft h eb r ewe ri nt h e Akkad ian p e r iod ' c on s i s t ed m a in ly i nt h e g r a t ing o fa r oma t ic s ub s tance s a nd t h e i rm ix ing i n to l i qu id o rf a t ty c ar r ie r sf o rt h e p r e se rva t ion o ft h e i rs pec if i c s me l lo rt a s te ' : O ppenhe im 1 950 ,p .9 . T he m e thod o f h ea t ing h emp leave si nb u t t e rt om ake ag anga -d r ink w a su sed i nP ak i s tan e a r ly t h i s c en tu ry .

1 02

A cknow ledgemen t < > Iw ou ld l i ke t ot h ank t h eT rus tee so ft h e Mun ro L ec tu re F und o ft h eU n ive r s i ty o f E d inbu rgh f o rt h e i ri n v i ta t ion t od e l ive rt wo l e c tu re so nt h i s a spec to fB ronze A ge l i f e , a nd t h e s t a f f a nd s t uden t s o ft h e D epa r tmen t o fA r chaeo logy t h e re ( no tab ly R oge r Me rce ra nd E dd ie P e l tenbe rg ) f o rt h e i rc ommen t s i nd i scus s ion a f te rwa rd s . T he se l e c tu re sa r eb e ing r ev i sed f o rp ub l ica t ion . Ih ave a l so r e ce ived many h e lpfu l c ommen t s f r om S t eve S hennan a nd J im L ew thwa i te , a nd f r om my A shmo lean c o l league s R oge r Moo rey a nd M ichae l V icke r s : t oa l l o fw hom Imu s tr e co rd my t h ank s . Iw ou ld l i ke t oo f f e rt h i ss ma l lc on t r ibu t ion t oB eake rs t ud ie st ot h em emo ry o f my t e a che r ,D av id C la rke ,w ho d i ed t e ny ea r sa go .

1 03

L i s t o f I l lus tra t ions * *******

F igure 1 . T he o r ig ins a nd s p read o f e l emen t s o f s e conda ry f a rm ing ( t he s e cond ra ry p roduc t sr e vo lu t ion ) , s how ing t h e i r mu l t ip le o r ig in si nt h eN e a rE a s ta nd t h e a ppea rance i nr a p id s ucces s ion o ft h e p lough , h o r se a nd w oo l i nE u rope . T he v e r t ica ls c a le i si nc a l ib ra ted r ad io ca rbon y ea r s . F igure 2 . Map s how ing t h e s p read i nE u rope o ft h e d r ink ing c omp lex i ni t s t h ree r eg iona l man if e s ta t ion ; s ou thea s t E u rope w i th v e s se l s i ns hape i n sp i r ed b y m e ta l o r ig ina l s ; n o r thea s tE u rope w i th amo re r u s t ic s t y le i n co rpo ra t ing c o rd d eco ra t ion ; a nd A t lan t ic E u rope w i th in w h ich g roups o ft h e B e l l B eake r C u l tu re made t h e i r a ppea rance . B e l l b eake r a r rows d i s t ingu i sh b e tween AOC b eake r s ( h a tched ) , Ma r i t ime b eake r s ( s t ipp led ) , a nd b eake r s a ppea r ing i nf o rme r C o rded Wa re a r ea s ( b lank , b roken o u t l ine ) . B ounda r ie sh ave b een s imp l if ied f o rc l a r i ty . D rawn b yP a t J acob s . F igure 3 .T op : I n te r reg iona l p o t te ry f o rm s o f t h e e a s te rn l a te L engye l -Po lga r c on t inuum . R igh t : B u lga r ia ( Gume ln i t sa I V ) ; C en t re : S lovak ia ( Lengye l V ) ; L ef t : S i le s ia ( J o rdanow ) . V a r iou ss c a le sa nd s ou r ce s . F igure 4 .B o t tom : I n te r reg iona l p o t te ry f o rm s u sed f o r s e rv ing l i qu id s : w e s ter n l a te L engye la nd r e la ted g roup s . B o t tom R ow : S lovak ia ( Fu rdhens t ichke ram ik ) ; T op R ow , C en tre : B ava r ia (Wa l le rf ing ) ; T op R ow ,R igh ta nd L ef t : C en t ra lG e rmany ( Baa lbe rg ) . V a r iou s s c a le sa nd s ou r ce s . F igure 5 .B aden C u l tu re g r ave a s semb lage si lu s t ra t ing d r ink ing e qu ipmen t , s ome r ef le c t ing m e ta lp ro to type s . P o t te ry f r om t h et wo e l i te ma le b u r ia l sa ccompan ied b y p a i r so fc a t t le i nt h ec eme te ry o fA l sonem ed i ,H ung ry . D rawn f r om p ho tog raph si nJ . Banne r ,D ie P ece ler K u l tur , 1 956 . F igure 6 .E u rope i nt h e ' L inkup P hase p reced ing t h e s p read o fd r ink ing v e s se l s b a s ed o n m e ta l ic p ro to type si ns ou thea s tE u rope . F igure 7 .T ime -char t ( i n r ad ioca rbon y ea r s ) f o r t h e a r ea f r om t h e R h ine t ot h e A egean ,t o ge the rw i th t h ep e r iod i sa t ion u s ed i nt h i sa r t ic le . F igure 8 .C ha rac te r is t ic p o t te ry t y pe sw i th aw ide d i s t r ibu t ion i nn o r thea s tE u rope . L ef t : G lobu la r Ampho rae ( e a s te rn P o land ) ; R igh t C o rded Wa re b eake r s ( we s te rn P o land ) .

1 05

A . G .S her ra t t

F igure 8 . Two c on tempo ra ry p o t te ry d r ink ing -se t s , i n sp i r ed b ym e ta lf o rm s , f r om c en t ra lE u rope a nd t h eA egean . ( a ) B aden C u l tu re a s semb lage f r om D rev ice n ea r B randy s i nB ohem ia ( Pravek C eskos lovenska , 1 960 , p la te 1 7 ) ; ( b ) E a r ly C yc lad ic g rave a s semb lage f r om s ou thea s tN axo s ( f rom A .C . R enf rew , T he Emergence o fC iv i l i sa t ion , 1 972 , P la te 1 6 ) . D rawn f r om p ho tog raphs .

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P os t scr ip t ****** Oxf ord I n terna t iona l Wes tern Med i terranean B e l l B eaker C onf erence H umph rey J .C a se

Th ree ma in r e la ted h ead ing s s ugge s ted t h em se lve s f o r t h e p os t scr ip t , w h ich B i l l Wa ld ren k ind ly i nv i ted m et ow r i te ,t ot h ep roceed ing s o ft h e O xfo rd I n te rna t iona l B e l l B eake r C onf e rence ( 1985 ) : ( 1 )C hrono logy ; ( 2 ) Wha t d o w ep erce ive a s Be l l Beaker? ( t o u se D r . Wa ld ren 's words ) ; a nd ( 3) How c an o ur p ercep t ions b e i n terpre ted?

Chrono logy * ***** S pecu la t ions o n e conom ic , s oc ia l , i d eo log ica l o r d emog raph ic d eve lopmen t s i nvo lved u nde rh ead ing ( 3 ) a r ep o ten t ia l ly m ean ing le s su n le s sp r e sen ted i nt e rm so f c a l ib ra ted r ad ioca rbon c h rono logy . F u r the rmo re , p reh is tor ian s who p re tend t o s c ien t if ic s t a tus s hou ld w o rk t o9 5% c onf idence l im i t s . T hu s t h e b es t h i s to r ica l p rec i s ion t h a t o ne c an g ene ra l ly g i ve a tp resen t ( f o l low ing K le in e ta l . 1 982 ) t o e ven t so ft h ef ou r th ,t h i rd a nd e a r ly s e cond m i l lenn ia BC i st os pans o f aq ua r te ro fa m i l lenn ium o r s o , t hus a round t he m id th ird m i l lenn ium o r i n t he f ir s t q uar ter o ft he s econd . T he i n c redu lou s may n o te t h a te ven w i th 7 0r ad ioca rbon d a tes a va i lab le f r om t h e l a te r -f i r s t m i l lenn ium BC h i l lfor t a tD anebury , H an t s , E ng land , w h ich p resen ted o ppo r tun i t ies o f s t ra t if ica t ion , e x ten t a nd q uan t i ty o f ma ter ia l l i ke ly t o b e o b ta inab le a tf ew i fa ny b e l l b eake r a s soc ia ted c on tex t s , d u ra t ions o fp o t te ry p ha se s c ou ld o n ly b e a s se ssed v e ry r ough ly a sc en tu r ie s , o ri n o ne i n s tance h a lf ac en tu ry ( Cun l i f f ea nd O r ton i nC un l if f e 1 984 ,p .1 97 . ) T he v e ry i nf luen t ia lp re sen ta t ion b yL an t ing a nd V an d e r Waa ls ( 1976 ) s ugge s ted a c on t inuou s ly e vo lv ing s equence a tt h e L owe rR h ine f r om P ro t rud ing F oo t B eake r ( PFB )t oB e l lB eake r( BB ) . T he P FB c u l tu r ea nd t h eS epa ra te G rave c u l tu re ( EGK ) o fS ou th S cand inav ia c an b eg rouped t o ge the rc h rono log ica l ly a sa spec t so ft h eg r ea t C o rded w a re c omp lex o f c u l tu res e x tend ing i n to e a s te rn E u rope . C o rded w a re d eve lopmen t i n n or th -wes t E u rope , a nd t o s ome e x ten t e l sewhe re , i sg ene ra l ly e xp ressed i n t h e t h ree -fo ld s ou th S cand inav ian a s soc ia t ion -sequence o f U nde r , G round a nd U pper G rave s ( f o l low ing G lob 1 944 ) , b u t r ad ioca rbon c h rono logy ( r e levan t d a te s mo s t ly i n Ma lm ro s a nd T aube r 1 975 ; L an t ing a nd V an d e r Waa l s 1 976 . C p a l so B i l l 1 976a ; P ape 1 979 , 1 981 ) s ugges t s t wo m a in s t age s : Af i rs t s tage w i th a n i n te r -reg iona l a spec t ( i nc lud ing e l emen ts o f t he s o -ca l led ( E inhe i t shor izon t ) e s tab l i shed e a r ly i nt h e f i r s t q uar te r o ft h e t h i rd m i l lenn ium ; 115

H . .J . C a se

a nd as econd s t age d a t ing f r om t h e s e cond q ua r te r , i nw h ich i n te r reg iona la spe c t s p e r s is ted b u t w h ich w a s m a in ly c ha rac te r i sed b y l o ca l d eve lopmen t s . A l l o ve r o rnamen ted ( A00 ) b eake r s , f a l l ing t y po log ica l ly b e tween C o rded w a re a nd b e l l b eake r sa tt h eL owe rR h ine ( i nL an t ing 's a nd V an d e r Waa l s ' s cheme , 1 976 )c an b e s e en c h rono log ica l ly a s a b so lu te ly c on tempo ra ry w i th t h is s e cond s t age , n o t a s s u cceed ing f r om i t . A l so w i th in t h i ss e cond s t ag e ,a r ound t h em id th i rd m i l lenn ium , a r ea s s ignab le Ma r i t ime b eake r sa tt h eL owe rR h ine a nd o t he re a r ly b e l lb eake r si n n o r th -we s ta nd much o fs ou the rn E u rope ( f o re xamp le ,i nn o r th I t a ly : B a rf ie ld , t h i s v o lume ) ; a nd i n af i na l p ha se o ft h i s s e cond s t age o fC o rded w a re d eve lopmen t , a p ha se d a t ing t ot h et h i rd q ua r te ro ft h et h i rd m i l lenn ium ,b e l lb eake r sw e r ei n af u l l r a nge o fa s soc ia t ion st h roughou tr e levan tp a r t so fE u rope . W i th in t h e Med i te r ranean a r ea , t h e n or th I t a l ian R emede l lo c u l tu re ( Ba rf ie ld , t h i s v o lume )w a sc on tempo ra ry w i th t h ef i r s tC o rded w a r es t age t ot h en o r th . Ma r i t ime b e l lb eake rp o t te ry i sg ene ra l ly h e ld t ob et h ee a r l ie s tb eake rp o t te ry i nt h eI b e r ian p en in su la . A t t h e Z ambu ja l f o r t if ied s e t t lemen t , c en t ra l -we s te rn P o r tuga l ( Sangme is te r 1 976 a nd r e f s . ; S angme is te r a nd S chuba r t 1 981 ) , Ma r i t ime p o t te ry w a sv i r tua l ly t h eo n ly b e l lb eake rt y pe r ep re sen t ed ,w a sc e r ta in ly p r e sen tb yp ha se 3 o ft h e 5b u i ld ing p ha ses a nd t h ep o s s ib i l i ty c anno tb ee xc luded t h a ti to ccu r red i n p ha se 2( Kun s t ,t h i sv o lume ) . T he 6r ad ioca rbon d a te sf r om p ha se 3f a i lt oo ve r lap a tt wo s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s ,b u te xc lud ing 2f r om l e s sc er ta in c on tex t s( Sangm e i s te r 1 976 ,p .4 34 ) t h er ema inde ri n d ica te t h e s e cond q ua r te ro ft h et h i rd m i l lenn ium . I t s e em s r e a sonab le t o a ccep t t h is a s t h e f i r s t a ppea rance o f b eake r p o t te ry t h e re , b a lanc ing t h ep o s s ib i l i ty o ft h e s amp le sc on ta in ing ap ropo r t ion o fo lde rc ha r coa l a ga in s tt h a to fb eake rp o t te ry a ppea r ing i np ha se 2 . T hu si ts e em sv e ry p o s s ib le t h a t Ma r i t ime p o t t e ry a tZ ambu ja lw a ss om ewha te a r l ie rt h an s im i la rb eake r sa tt h eL owe r R h ine a nd a se a r ly t h e r ea s A00 b eake r s . I nt h i sc on tex ti tmay b es i gn if ican tt h a t a l l -ove r or namen ted p o t te ry d id n o t a ppea ru n t i l p ha se 4a tZ ambu ja l ( Kun s t , t h i s v o lume ) . S ou th S pan i sh Ma r i t ime s a r e g ene ra l ly h e ld t ob e l a te r t h an P or tuguese . Ad a te a r ound t h em id th i rd m i l lenn ium o re a r ly i ni t st h i rd q ua r te r( t hu si n sepa rab le f r om t h a to ft h e L owe rR hen i sh Ma r i t ime s ) w ou ld b ec on s i s ten t w i th t h e a ppea rance o f Ma r i t ime s he rd s a tE l Ma lag6n , G ranada a nd t h i sm ay h ave b een t h e i rd a te a tL o s M i l la re s ,A lme r ia ( A r r iba sa nd Mo l ina ,t h i sv o lume ) . Am id th i rd m i l lenn ium d a te f o r Ma r i t ime p o t te ry i nS ou the rn S pa in w ou ld b ec on s i s ten t w i th t h e t h i rd q ua r te r s e r ie s o b ta ined a tC e r ro d e l aV i rgen , G ranada ( Schu le 1 976 a nd r e f s . ) f o r a n a s semb lage p redom ina te ly o fv a r ian t s i nt h e C iempozue lo s s t y le , a nd t h i s t h i rd q ua r te r d a te s e em s c onf i rmed b y ar ad ioca rbon d a te f r om t h e s ucceed ing e a r ly A rga r ic l a ye r V I I I a t Mon tef r io , G ranada ( 1890 b c ±3 5 y r s , q uo ted i nA r r iba s a nd Mo l ina 1 980 , p .2 8 ) . No r thwa rd s , ad a te i n sepa rab le f r om t ho se o ft h e s ou th S pan i sh a nd l owe r R hen i sh Ma r i t ime s a nd d e r iva t ive s i se n t i re ly p o s s ib le f o r Ma r i t ime v a r ian t s i nt h e F rench c en t re -we s t ( L 'Anse d e l aR 6pub l ique , V end6e ; J oussaume 1 981 , p . 4 86 : 1 970 b c ±1 00 y ear s , l oan he 1 1IA :T r : , nif f l/U , 3 829 , p a ss ing o ve ro lde rd a te s f r om o t he r s i te s , G if -3 761 , 4 181 , 3 4 17 , o n a c coun to fs amp le u nce r ta in t ie s ) . I nN o rmandy a nd t h eP a r i sB a s in , Ma r i t ime sa nd v a r ian t sm ay b ea tl e a s ta se a r ly ( a l though a va i lab le d a te sa r ee ven l e s ss a t i sf a c to ry : P o r te -Jo ie ,E u r e , a s soc ia ted w i th SOM m a te r ia l , 2 090 b . c ± 1 80 y r s , L y -703 ; A ugy , Y onne , 2 100 b c ±1 80 y r s , L y -896 ) .

116

Oxford International Western Mediterranean Bell Beaker Conference

Thus it seems possible that Maritime beakers at the Lower Rhine lay at the end of an extended series of connections from the west Mediterranean, where the series originated at least as early as the Rhenish AOO beakers at the start of the second stage of Corded ware development. The further possibility that west Mediterranean Maritime bell beakers are earlier still and contemporary with the first stage of Corded ware development in north-west Europe is kept open by a late fourth/early fifth millennium be radiocarbon date for zonally decorated comb-and cord-impressed late Neolithic pottery from Atlantic Morocco (information J.-P. Daugas); and that this possibiliity is not fantastic seems indicated by dates associated with the Pyrenean group of bell beakers and associated pottery (Guilane 1967, 1976; Bahn 1984). This group would normally be regarded as typologically secondary to groups associated with Maritimes, but its radiocarbon dates (Guilane 1976, Martin et al. 1981) suggest that its origins were even earlier than AOO and developed in the first quarter of the third millennium, possibly contemporary with the first stage of north­ west European Corded ware. Finally bell beaker associated radiocarbon dates from Provence are not very informative (Guilane 1976, Bill 1976b) but suggest a phase there a little later in the second quarter. Thus bell beakers appear to have shown diversity of development in the west Mediterranean by the time AOO beakers appeared in the north. (In this discussion, radiocarbon dates CSIC - 68, 69 referable to the Ciempozuelos group at Reina Mora, Soria, Spain are left aside on account of sample uncertainty: Bandarian 1976). A question now remains concerning the dating of tanged copper knives, stone wristguards and V-bored buttons. They are absent from AOO and Maritime associations at the Lower Rhine and appear in third quarter Maritime derivative and other Locally Developed bell beaker contexts (Ede-Ginkelse Heide, Lanting and Van der Waals 1976, Figure 25; Lunteren, 1840 be ± 35 yrs., GrN - 6332; Wageningen I, 1925 be± 35 yrs., GrN - 7099, possibly over-estimating age). In southern Spain the tanged knife and V-button are represented in later Maritime but pre-Ciempozuelos layers VI a and b at Montefrio, Granada (Arribas and Molina 1980, Figure 9, h; Figure 11, i);' and a knife is in Maritime association at the Miguel Ruiz single grave, Madrid (Harrison 1980, p.140). In the Pyrenean style area, a V­ button is represented at Fort Juvenal 2b, Aude 2240 be ± 90 yrs., 2210 be± 90 yrs.; (MC - 567, 568) and a wristguard and V "7button at Cova del Frare, Barcelona (2040 be ± 100 yrs., MC - 2296). Provencal dates are at least - consistent: for a tanged knife at La Balance, Vaucluse (2155 be ± 120 yrs., Gif -: 705) and a wristguard at the Grotte Muree, Basse-Alpes (2010 be ± 175 yrs., GSY - 116). None of these dates is entirely satisfactory but their clear trend is that these major associations were earlier in the west Mediterranean than at the Lower Rhine. In short, a traditional view is by no means high and dry. It is still an open question whether the west Mediterranean was not the cradle of the bell beaker. It may have been contemporary there with the first stage of Corded ware development to the north; and the classic bell beaker association pattern of wri�tguard, tanged knife and V-button may have appeared there before the mid-third millennium.·

117

H.J. Case

What Do We Perceive as Bell Beaker?

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In most European regions where they occur, bell beakers are in closed or somewhat looser association with stone wristguards, tanged copper knives and -buttons of various materials. These associations recur in funerary contexts,_ but in some regions these elements are in settlement association (more specifically generally in midden or trash deposits) with distinctive pottery of other general forms (e.g. bowls, cups, jars, sometimes dishes); like the beakers themselves, some of these forms or examples of them have characteristic bell-beaker decoration, others not (being e.g. finger-impressed, cordoned, undecorated). These forms occur also sometimes in graves; they are distinctive in not being normally found regionally in non-beaker association, but may themselves vary from region to region. Bone and other metal objects and to some extent flint industries may be similarly distinctive. In varying degrees such regions in question are: Britain, Ireland, the Netherlands, southern Spain, (Arribas and Molina, this volume) , Portugal (Arnaud; Kunst, this volume), Languedoc and the Pyrenean regions, and apparently Provence (Barge­ Mahieu, this volume) and Italy (Barfield, this volume). In such cases, it is appropriate to refer to regional Beaker Cultures, employing the term culture in a modified Childean sense as a recurrent assemblage of archaeological types (as argued in Hodson 1980). In contrast, in some contexts within these regions, and on present knowledge throughout other major regions themselves such as south Scandinavia and central Europe (e.g. Wojciechowski, this volume), beakers and some of their related material culture are associated, especially in settlement context, with pottery and other material which are indeed fully characteristic of regional non-beaker cultures. In these cases, the term beaker presence is appropriate. In other contexts still, assemblages appear to show beaker culture affinity, although characteristic beakers themselves and some of the other major elements appear to be missing. Such assemblages may be termed Beaker influenced. Judging by the evidence which it was possible within the available_ time to present to the Conference, the material from the Ferrandell-Oleza Old Settlement, Mallorca (Waldren; Ensefiat and Waldren; Orlandis and Sagasta, this volume) appears to be of this type. Not surprisingly, affinities here (as seen in cordoned jars, the prevalence of incised decoration, and shouldered bowls) appear to be closer to the Pyrenaean­ Languedoc region than to southern Spain. Full presentation will no doubt clarify the affinities of this rich material and may indeed show that here too a beaker culture is involved. Finally, before leaving questions of general classification, it will not escape notice that this threefold division into culture, presence and influence depends on empirical judgement. However, attempts to present it statistically by scoring - say 5 points for a beaker, one point for a non-beaker pot with beaker-type decoration, and so on would seem unlikely to produce more objective results, in view of the varying size and quality of the pan-European sample and subjective decisions involved in allotting points.

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N ex t , af ew c ommen t s s e em sa pp rop r ia te o nt h ef unc t iona lp o s s ib i l i t ie so fb eake r s , w r i s tgua rd sa nd k n ive s -t a k ing t h ep an -Eu ropean e v idence ,p a tchy a si ti si ns ome r e g ion s . T he T eu ton ic t e rm b eaker s ugge s t s as pec ia l i sed d r ink ing v e s se l , b u t e xpe r ience s how s t h a tn o ta l lb e l lo ra l ied b eake r s a r ee a sy t od r ink o rs i pf r om ; t h eR omance t e rm ( e .g . v ase c ampan if orme ) i s mo re o b jec t ive . S ome b e l l b eake r s f r om f une ra ry a nd e spec ia l ly s e t t lemen tc on tex t s s e em t oo l a rge f o rd r ink ing p o t s ( e .g . o ne a tL o s M i l la re s s ome 3 0 c m s . i nd i ame te r : A r r iba s a nd Mo l ina , t h i s v o lume ) ; a dhe r en t so fa ne xc lu s ive d r ink ing f unc t ion c ou ld a s se r tt h a tt h ey w e r ep unch -bow l s o r l ov ing -cups , b u t s t o rage s eem s a mo re l i ke ly g ene ra l f unc t ion . H a rd ly s u rp r i s ing ly n od i r ec te v idence e x i s t st os how t h a tb eake r sc on ta ined l i qu id s . S ome i nf une r a ry c on tex t sp l a in ly d i dn o t ,h av ing b een d epo s i ted i n ve r t ed o ro nt h e i rs i d e s ; s ome w e re c on ta ine r s o r c ove r s f o r o t he r g r ave g ood s s uch a s a r rowhead s . T he s ub s tance w h ich h ad s p i l led f r om t h e b eake ri nt h er i ch g r ave a tB a rna ck , C amb s , E ng land w a s v i scou s n o t l i qu id ( Dona ld son 1 977 ) ; v i scous s ub s tance s m ay b e a s a l coho l ic a nd c onv iv ia la sl i qu id s ,b u tl ime p olen r e cove r ed f r om ag r ave b eake ra t A shg rove ,F i f e , S co t land ( D ick son 1 978 ) s ugge s t sh oney a sr e ad i ly a sm ead . B el b eake r sb e ing o f ten i nf une ra ry c on tex t sh a se ncou raged r e la t ed a s se r t ion st h a t t h ey h ad a no ve ra l lr i tua lf unc t ion ; b u tt h ey o ccu ri n as i gn if i can tn umbe ro fr e g iona l s e t t lemen ta s semb lage s ,w h ich c ou ld o n ly b es e r iou s ly i n te rp r e ted a sr i tua lb yf a ll ing b a ck o nt h et r u i sm t h a ts ome r i tua lp r e sc r ip t ion u nde r l ie sa l ls ub s i s tence o re conom ic a c t iv i ty . B eake r s w i th b road r ange s o fs i ze a nd f ab r ic r e cu ri nt h e se c on tex t s w i th p o t te ry o fo t he r g ene ra lf o rm s l i kew i se r a ng ing i ns i ze a nd f ab r ic . Wha t l i t t le h a s b een d one o n f ab r ic a na ly s i st e nd s t oc onf i rm t h ee v idence f r om f une ra ry c on tex t s t h a tb eake r sh ad s eve ra l f unc t ion s . C lea ry r e cogn i sed an umbe ro ff ab r ics a mong t h e f i nd s f r om t h e N ewg range s e t t lemen t , Mea th , I r e land ( 1980 ; s umma ry p re sen ta t ion i nO 'Ke l ly e ta l .1983 ) : c l o sed f ab r ic s s u i tab le f o rd r ink ing p u rpo se so r c on ta in ing d ry g ood s ; o pen o ne s s u i tab le f o re vapo ra t ing c on ta ine r sa nd l e s s s of o r d r ink ing ; a nd f ab r ics w h ich w ou ld r e s i s t t h e rma l s hock a nd w e re t h u s s u i tab le f o r c ook ing . D eco ra ted b eake r sw e r ei nb o th o pen a nd c l o sed f a b r ics ,a nd u ndeco ra ted o ne s ( a nd b ow l sa nd l a rge j a r s )i na l lt h r ee . T h i si si nl i ne w i th H u l th6n 's a s se r t ion t h a te ven s ma l l a nd w e l l made S can ian N eo l i th ic f unn e l -necked b eake r s s e rved a s c ook ing p o t s ( 1 977 , p p . 6 7 , 8 1 , a nd 1 02 ) a nd w i th o b serva t ion t h a t ZZb eake r s a t A a r t swoud , F r i s ia , N e the r land s ( Van I t e r son S chu l ten a nd d eV r ie s - Me tz 1 981 , p . 1 28 )c on ta ined c a rbon i sed s o l id s . T he b eake rt h u s a ppea r s a s ar a the ru n spec ia l i sed f o rm i n ar a nge o fp o t te ry w h ich may i n c lude f o rm s ( e .g . l a rge j a r s ) o fr a the r mo re s pec ia l i sed f unc t ion t h an i t se l f . Wha t d i s t ingu i she s t h e b eake r i st h a t i tw a s n o rma l ly s e lec ted f r om t h i s r a nge t o s e rve a s af une ra ry p o t ; b u th e r ea ga in a nu n spec ia l i sed f unc t ion i ss ugge s t ed b yi t s r e cu r rence w i th w omen 's a nd c h i ld r en 's a sw e l la sm en 's b u r ia l s . I ns ho r t , t h e b e l l b eake rw a s amu l t i -func t ion p o t . I tw a si ndeed u sed b y m en a nd p o ss ib ly f o r d r ink ing ( She r ra t t , t h is v o lume ) b u t i tw a s n o t s pec ia l ised f o r t h e se p u rpo se so rf o ra ny o t he rr i tua l ,e ven b u r ia l . I nc on t ra s t ,s t one w r i s tgua rd sa nd t a nged c oppe rk n ive sa r ec onv inc ing ly s p ec ia l i sed o n a ccoun to ft h e i rn o rma l ly h i gh w o rkman sh ip ,c ompa r a t ive r a r i ty a nd r e cu r rence w i th m en 's b u r ia l s . S tone w r is tguard s s eem b e s t s een a s s ymbo l ica l a nd

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l u xu r iou sv e r s ion s( e spec ia l ly g o ld -f i t ted e xamp le sa sa tB a rna ck :D ona ld son 1 977 ) o f mo r eu se fu la nd c ommonp la ce l e a the re xamp le s . T anged a nd r i ve t tanged c oppe r k n ives a r e i n app rop r ia te ly t e rmed d agge r s . Many a r e u n su i tab le f o r s t abb ing a nd t h e i r p o ten t ia l ly r a zo r -sha rp e dge s s ugge s t c u t t ing f unc t ion s . T he se c ou ld h ave i n vo lved s hav ing o re l abo ra te h a i rs t y l ing . T h i s s ugge s t ion i sm ade mo re r e levan t b y s t r ips o fg o ld s hee ti nb eake ra s so c ia t ion s , s ome i n te rp re ted a sd i adem s ; a nd b y S he r ra t t 's s ugges t ion ( 1986 ) t h a t b aske t -shaped e arr ings ( ano the r m a le a s so c ia t ion ) w e re h a i ro rnamen t s . How C an Our P er cep t ions B e I n terpre ted? * ********* T he r e cu r ren t B e l l B eake r ma le b u r ia l a s soc ia t ion p a t te rn o fp o t te ry -w r is tgua rd k n i f e -a r rowhead c an b e t a ken t or ep re sen t af o rm o f s oc ie ty i nw h ich a r che ry e spec ia l ly w a s s ymbo l ica l o fl e ade r sh ip . T h i s c on t ra s t s w i th t h e c o r re spond ing n o r th -we s tE u ropean C o rded w a re p a t te rn o fa s so c ia t ion o fb a t t le -axe -p o t te ry -a xe -f l in t k n if e a r rowhead i nr ough ly d e scend ing o rde r ( 5 1% o f EGK g rave s w e re a ccompan ied b y b a t t le -axe s a cco rd ing t oG lob ( 1944 ) , b u t o n ly 1 4% b y p o t te ry ) . T h is C o rded w a re p a t te rn i si n an o r th -we s t E u ropean p r imeva l N eo l i th ic b u r ia l t r ad i t ion , i nw h ich p e r cu s s ive i mp lemen t s( f l in ta xe s a nd m acehead so fo t he rr o ck ) f i gu re s p rom inen t ly . T he b e l l b eake rp a t te rn c on t ra s t s s t rong ly , empha s i s ing t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o f a n i ndependen t o r ig in f o r t h e b e l l b eake r c u l tu re i n t h e w e s t Med i te r ranean r e g ion . H ow d id i tc ome t o s p read s o w ide ly? F i r s t , Is ugge s t t h a t ar e levan t c on t ra s t b e tween t h e t h i rd m i l lenn ium a nd t h e f i f th o r e ven f our th w a s a n e nv i ronmen t g ene ra l ly mo re c onduc ive t o movemen t b y l a nd , a nd p o s s ib ly s e a . E v idence i s p a tchy , b u t b y t h e m id th i rd m i l lenn ium p robab ly mo s t s u i tab le p a r t s o fw e s te rn E u rope h ad b een f a rmed f o r mo r et h an m i l lenn ium , a l though i np l ace sl a nd tak ing s h ad b een a bandoned . I tm ay b ed oub t f u lw he the rs e conda ry r e gene ra ted v ege ta t ion o n p oo re r s o i l s ( e .g . G roenman - v an Waa te r inge 1 983 ) w a s i nva r iab ly al e s s f o rm idab le b a r r ie rt h an l i t t le a l te r ed p r ima ry f o re s t , b u ti n many p a r t so f We s te rn E u rope as ub s tan t ia lb r eak th rough m ay h ave o ccu r red i ne s tabl i sh ing o pen g r az ing ( e .g . l o c . c i t . ) b y t h e l a te f ou r th m i l lenn ium ; a nd s ub s tan t ia l c l ea r ing s i mp ly e s tab l i shed t r ackways . F ur the rmo re t h e m id th i rd m i l lenn ium may h ave b een c ompa ra t ive ly f r ee o fs t o rm si nA t lan t ic E u rope ( P iggo t t 1 972 , L amb 1 974 ) . T hu s a n e nv i ronmen t mo re c onduc ive t o movemen t m ay h ave g i ven s oc ia lr e s t le s sne s s a nd t h e s p read o f i d ea s an ew d imens ion -u n re s t ra ined a s y e t b y r e s t r ic t ion s i mpo sed b y s t rong , e ndu r ing , h omogenou s a nd e x ten s ive p o l i t ica l s y s tem s . T he s p read o f G rooved Wa re mo re o r l e s s t h roughou t B r i ta in i n t h e e a r l ie r t h i rd m i l lenn ium a nd t h e mo r eo rl e s sc on tempo r a ry e x ten to ft h eA r t ena c ian c u l tu r eo ri t s i n f luence i nw e s te rn , c en t ra l , n o r the rn a nd t os ome e x ten t s ou the rn F rance s e em t o i lus t ra te i n c r ea s ing ly f r ee r p o s s ib i l i t ie s f o r movemen t a nd c on t ro l o fr e sou r ce s ( Rou s so t -La r roque 1 983 , 1 984 a nd 1 985 ) . Wha tt h en i si mp l ied b y t h e s p read o ft h e b eake rc u l tu re o ro fb eake rp r e sence o r i n f luence i nw e s ter n E u rope a nd b eyond , f r om a round t h e m id th i rd m i l lenn ium? T he a dvance o f an ew r e l ig ion? O ro fn ew t e chno logy? O rs imp ly t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o ft r aded g ood s? O rd oe si ts how t h es p r ead o f an ew p o l i t ica li d eo logy?

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F une ra ry e v idence d oe sn o tp rov ide s t rong i nd ica t ion so fb eake rc u l tu r e r e l ig ious i nnova t ion . O n t h e o ne h and , f u rn ished s i ng le g rave b u r ia l ( aB eake r c u l tu re s t e reo type ) h ad h ad al o ng i fi n te rm i t ten tt r ad i t ion i nw e s te rn E u rope . C onve r se ly , c o l lec t ive b u r ia lw a s ar e cu r ren tb eake r -a s soc ia ted p r ac t ice e ven i nn on -mega l i th ic r eg ion s ; a nd b eake r u se r s , f a r f r om s hunn ing m ega l i th ic t omb s , i n many p a r t o f w e s te rn E u rope u sed t h em c on s i s ten t ly . S im i la r ly t h ey w e re a s soc ia ted e ven tua l ly w i th r e fu rb i sh ing t h e t r ad i t iona l h enge monumen t s o fs ou ther nE ng land a nd e ven b u i ld ing n ew e xamp le s . A st on ew t e chno logy , a l though b eake ru se r s m ay o f ten a ppea rc l o se ly a s soc ia ted w i th m e ta l lu rgy ( e .g . a tZ ambu ja l : K un s t , t h is v o lume ) , ac onv inc ing b ody o f e v idence s how s t h a t t h ey w e re n o t t h e f i r s t u se r s o re x t rac to r s o fc oppe ri n mo s t p a r t so fw e s ter nE u rope . B r i ta in a nd I r e land r ema in p o s s ib i l i t ies . G o ld i sa no pen q ue s t ion . Wha ti sk nown o fB eake rc u l tu re f a rm ing p rac t ice i nn o r th -we s tE u rope s ugge s t s as t rong d ependence o nc a t t le a nd p ig a nd t r ad i t iona lN eo l i th ic c r op s ; t h e p lough w a sp r e -beake r . H a rd ly s u rp r i s ing ly t h e re w e r ev a ry ing r e g iona ls ub s i s tence p a t te rns , f o l low ing m a in ly t r ad i t iona l l i ne s . H a r r i son ( 1985 ) c on t ra s ted t h e t r ad i t iona l s t ock ra i s ing p a t te rn a tZ ambu ja l w i th t h a ta tC e r ro d el aV i rgen w he r e p lough o xen , h or se s a nd g oa t s f o r m i lk w e re a l l v i s ib le i n t he f auna l s pec trum -a l so p o s s ib ly s heep r a i sed f o rw oo l ( l oc . c i t . ,p p . 1 00 , 9 2 ) . O v icap r id s may b ee xpec ted t ob ep rom inen ti n Med i te r ranean a s semb lage s ,b u tn oc on s i s ten t e v idence i nw e s te rn E u rope a s soc ia te s b e l l b eake r s w i th i n c rea sed f l ock s o fs heep a nd t h u sw i th as u rge i nw oo l len t e x t i le s . H a r r i son c onc luded t h a tt h ee x i s tence o f s heep p a s to ra l i sm i nt h e S pan i sh B ronze A ge h ad s t i l lt ob e d emon s ta ra ted ( 1985 , p . , 9 3 ) . B eake r u se r s i n t roduced t h e h o r se t oI r e land a nd a r e f a i r ly c on s is ten t ly a s so c ia ted w i th t h ea n ima lt h roughou tt h e i rE u rop ean e x ten t ,b u th o r se managem en t i nw e s ter nE u rope may h ave b een p re -beake r ( L icha rdu s 1 980 ) a si tu ndoub ted ly w a s t ot h e e a s t . No r c an t h e c ompound b ow ( h igh ly e f fe c t ive i no pen c oun t ry c omb ined w i th h o r se r i d ing )n o rt h ew hee led v eh ic le b ec l a imed o np o s i t ive e v idence a s b eake r -a s so c ia ted i nnova t ion s i n w e s ter n E u rope . ( The s ugge s t ion i sw or th mak ing a sa n a s ide t h a t ap re -beake ro b se s s ion i nI b e r ia w i th f o r t if ica t ion ,s e en f o r e xamp le a tL o sM i l la r e s a nd Z ambu ja l ,c ou ld p a r t ly b e ar e a c t ion t ot h ec ompound b ow ) . L i t t le w o rk h a sb een d one o ni d en t if ica t ion o fp o t te ry c l ay sa nd f i l le r s ,b u ti tw ou ld b e s u rp r i s ing i fC lea ry 's c onc lu s ion t h a tt h eN ewg range b eake rm a te r ia lw a sl o ca l ly made ( 1980 ; O 'Ke l ly e ta l . 1 983 ) w a s n o t f ound t ob e t r ue g ene ra l ly ; a nd t hus s u rp r i s ing i ft h ep an -Eu ropean d i s t r ibu t ion o fb eake r sr ep r e sen ted ap o t te ry t r ad ing n e two rk t oa ny s i gn i f ican te x ten t . A l though t r ad ing n e two rk sa r el i ke ly t op rov ide a ma jo r e xp lana t ion f o r t h e d i s t r ibu t ions o f t a nged c oppe r k n ives a nd s t one w r i s tgua rd s a nd o fg o ld a nd o t he ro b jec t s , n one o ft h e se n e two rk si sl i ke ly t oh ave a pp roached t h e s c a le o fd i s t r ibu t ion o ft h et y pe s t h em se lve s ; f a rl e s st h a to fb eake r p o t te ry . F u r the rmo re , t r ad ing n e two rk s w e re s t rong ly c ha rac te r i s t ic o fp r e -beake r t h i rd -m i l lenn ium E u rope ( e .g . R ou s so t -La r roque 1 983 ) a nd a r ei nn ow ay ab eake r a s soc ia ted i n nova t ion . T he re r ema ins t h e q ue s t ion o f p o l i t ica l i d eo logy . I n B r i ta in , b eake r c u l tu r e b u r ia l s a r e t h e f i r s t t os how c ons i s ten t r i ch t op oo r g rad ing a nd s im i la r g rad ing s e em s d i scer n ib le i nc on t inen ta l E u rope , a l though t h e e v idence f r om i t s i nhe ren t n a tu re i sn o t c l ea r -cu t . Ih ave s ugge s ted ( Ca se 1 977 a nd i np repa ra t ion ) t h a t t h i s g r ad ing r e p re sen t st h eh e r ed i ta ry c a s te s y s tem o f as t a te l ike o rgan i sa t ion o fs oc ie ty .

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S uch o rgan isa t ions w e re e s tab l ished a nd p owe r fu l ly d eve loped i n t h e e a s t Med i te r ranean b y t h e s t a r to ft h e t h i rd m i l lenn ium BC ; a nd t h e e a r l ie r s pan o ft h e b eake rp e r iod l i es w i th in t h a to ft h e E gyp t ian O ld K ingdom , p o s s ib ly f r om w i th in t h e T h i rd D yna s ty o nwa rd s . I tw ou ld n o t b e s u rp r is ing i fs uch a n i d eo logy d eve loped i n t h e w e s t Med i te r ranean e a r ly i n t h e t h i rd m i l lenn ium , a nd i ti s s ugge s ted h e re t h a ti ss p r ead n o r thwa rd s ,c onf ron t ing a tt h eL owe rR h ine as im i la r i d eo logy d e r ived f r om c en t ra la nd e a s te rn E u rop e . S uch i d eo log ie s may h ave f a vou red i nd iv idua l a s se r t ivene s s i nt h e i rr u l ing c a s te s r a the r t han c o l lec t ive c o -ope ra t ion ( Row land s 1 980 ) . A pa r t f r om ma rg ina l e xcep t ion s , s t r ik ing ly a b sen tf r om t h e b e l l b eake rc u l tu re 's r epe r to i r e a r e t h e l a rge e nc lo su re s c ha rac te r i s t ic o ft h e l a te N eo l i th ic w h ich p r eceded i ta nd w i th w h ich i t o ve r lapped , f o re xamp le i ns ou th -we s tI b e r ia , s ou the rn a nd c en t ra lw e s te rn F r ance a nd s ou the rn E ng land -c oope ra t ive ly b u i l t e nc lo su res v a r iou s ly i n terp re ted r eg iona l ly a sf o r t if ica t ion s , s t ock c ompound s , a nd r i tua l monumen t s . Whe re t h e b eake r c u l tu re i sp re sen t a t t h e se e nc lo su re s , i ti sn o rma l ly ma rg ina l ( e .g . a t Z ambu ja l a nd L o s M i l la re s : K uns t : A r r iba s a nd Mo l ina , t h i s v o lume ) , o r o n ly s t rong ly i nvo lved a t ar e la t ive ly l a te s t age o fb eake r c u l tu re d eve lopmen t , a si n B r i ta in a nd p o s s ib ly I r e land . I tw ou ld n o t b e s u rp r i s ing i ft h e b ea re r s o fa n a s se r t ive m ino r i ty i d eo logy c a r r ied w i th i tt h roughou t i t s e x ten t s ome o ft h e p a raphe rna l ia a nd c ha rac te r i s t ics o fi t s o r ig ina l w e s t E u ropean e xponen t s , i n c lud ing t h e w r i s tgua rd s ymbo l i s ing t h e i r e xce l lence a ta r che ry ,t h eb e l lb eak e ra st h e i rg ene r a lp u rpo se p o ta nd a nd t h er a zo r s h a rp c oppe rk n i f ei n s t rumen ta li nt h ed i s t inc t ive a ppe a rance o ft h e i rr u l ing c a s t e . E nv i ronmen ta l ly , s oc ia l ly a nd e conom ica l ly l a te rt h i rd -m i l lenn ium w e s ter nE u rope wou ld h ave b een a p t f o r t h e s p read o f s uch a n i d eo logy , b efo re i n c rea s ing ly e f f ec t ive l i nk so ve rw ide ra r ea sb yt h em id s e cond -m ilenn ium ( d u r ing t h ef ul e a r ly B ronze A ge ) h ad c on so l ida ted s t r ing so fl o o se ly c onnec ted s t a te l ike o rgan i sa t ion i n to s t ronge ra nd mo r ee f f ec t ive p o l i t ica ls y s tem s ,c apab le o fc on t ro l l ing movem en t s a nd l im i t ing t h e i rn a tu r e . H i s to ry a nd e t hnog raphy p rov ide i n nume rab le e xamp le sa s . to h ow s u ch a ni d eo logy m igh th ave b een s p read ,f o re xamp le b y : 1 . O ccupa t ion o fn ew t e r r i to ry ( unoccup ied , o rw i th c on sen to fo ccupan t s , o r b y t h rea t o r f o r ce ) . S ome r eg iona l B eaker c u l tures s e em p o ten t ia l ly t h u se xp la inab le . 2 . A dop t ion o fn ew ma te r ia lc u l tu r e ( i n emu la t ion , i m i ta t ion e t c . ) ,c apab le o f e xp la in ing B eaker c ul tures a nd i nf luence . E ven w i th much i mp roved c h rono logy , s uch c hange s i nm a te r ia l c u l tu re w ou ld b e l i ke ly t o a ppea ri nt h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd a sj ump -mu ta t ions ( t o u se ab io log ica l a na logy ) o rc a ta s t roph ic . A moder nE u ropean e xamp le m ay b e s e en i nt h e a bandonmen t o f t r ad i t iona l a r t a nd a r tef ac t s i nH unga ry a s soc ia ted w i th s oc ia l a nd e conom ic c hange s i n t h e 1 9 th c en tu ry A .D . a nd l a te r , a n a bandonmen t c ompa rab le t o " t he e nd o f as t age p erf ormance w hen t he l i gh t s w ere s w i tched o f f ' ( Hof e r a nd F 6 1 1 979 , p . 1 9 ) .

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O xf ord I n t e rna t iona lW e s t e rn Med i t e r ranean B e l lB eak e rC onf e rence

3 . T rad ing a c t iv i ty ( r ang ing f r om d own the l ine e xchanges t o t r ad ing e xped i t ion s ) . T hu s B eaker p r e sence i n e a s te rn E u rope c ou ld b e p a r t ly e xp la ined b y t r ad ing e xped i t ion s f o r h o r ses o f d e s i rab le q ua l i t ie s . T hus p resence c ou ld b e s e en p a r t ly a s af o s s i l i sed e a r ly s t age o fc u l ture o r i nf luence . S uch i n te r lock ing p roce s se s , w i th n ume rou s a nd c omp lex p o ten t ia lv a r ia t ion s , a r e f r om t h e i rn a tu r e mo s tu n l ike ly t oh ave b een e xc lu s ive ly u nd i r ec t iona l ,f r om s ou th t o n o r th , o r w e s t t oe a s t . F o r e xamp le , t h e b eake r c u l tu re a ppea r s t oh ave r e ached n o r th I t a ly f r om t h e n o r th a c ro s s t h e A lp ine p a s ses ( Ba r f ie ld , t h i s v o lume ) , t h e R emede l lo c u l tu re o fC o rded w a re a f f in i ty h av ing a l r eady b een e s tab l i shed t h e re d u r ing t h ef i r s tC o rded w a re s t age i nt h en o r th . T he B e l l B eake rc u l tu re , i t s i n f luence a nd p r e sence c an t hus b e s e en a sp a r t so fa B raude l ian l ike c yc le s pann ing t h e c en tu r ie s ( Lew thwa i te , t h i s v o lume . E .g . B raude l 1 972 ,p .1 02 ; 1 984 ,p p . 7 1 -88 ) , e ven t h ough many e ven t sw i th in t h ec yc le r ema in o b scu r e -f o rt h i rd m ilenn ium p r eh i s to ry r e l ie st o taly ,u n l ike moder nh i s to ry o n ly p a r t ia l ly , o n " anonymous c arr ier s " t h rough a n " immense b aggage h a l l i n p erpe tua l c onf us ion " ( B raude l 1 973 , p .7 61 ) .

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B ib l iography * ****** A r r iba s , A . a nd Mo l ina , F . , 1 980 . N ueva s A po r tac ione s a lI n ic io d e l a Me ta lu rg ia e n l aP en in su la I be r ia . E l P ob lado d e l o s C a s t i l le ro s d e Mon tef r io ( G ranada ) , i nM . R yan ( ed . ) , T he O r ig ins o f Me ta l lurgy i nA t lan t ic E urope , p p . 7 -34 . B ahn , P . , 1 984 . T he N eo l i th ic o ft h e F rench P y renee s , i nC . S ca r re ( ed . ) , A nc i en t F rance ,p p . 1 84 -222 . B anda r ian ,I . ,1 976 . D ie G lockenbeche rd e rH öh le R e ina Mo ra , S oma6n , S o r ia , i n J .N . L an t ing a nd J .D . V an d er Waa ls ( eds . ) , G lockenb echer smpos ion : O ber r ied 1 974 ,p p . 3 71-89 . B i l l , J . , 1 976a . D ie G lockenbeche r sche rben v on Hochdo r f LU B a ldegg , i nJ .N . L an t ing a nd J .D . V an d e r Waa l s ( ed s . ) , G lockenbecher -sympos ion : O ber r ied 1 974 ,p p . 2 71 -75 . B i l l , J . , 1 976b . D ie F rüpha se d e r G lockenbeche rku l tu ri nO s t -F rank r e ich i nJ .N . L an t ing a nd J .D . V an d e r Waa l s ( ed s . ) , G lockenbecher -sympo s ion : O berr ied 1 974 ,p p . 3 33 -49 . B raude l ,F . , 1 972 -73 .T he Med i ter ranean a nd t h eA ge o fP h i l ip I , Vo ls .I , I( t rans . S . R eyno lds ) . B raude l , F . , 1 984 . C iv i l i sa t ion a nd C ap i ta l ism 1 5 th -18 th C en tury , Vo l . 3 :T he P er spec t ive o ft h e Wor ld ( t rans . S .R eyno ld s ) . C ase , H . , 1 977 . T he B eake r C u l tu re i nB r i ta in a nd I r e land , i n R . Me rce r ( ed . ) , B eaker si nB r i ta in a nd E urope ,p p .7 1 -101 . C lea ry , R .M . , 1 980 . T he L a te N eo l i th ic /Beaker P er iod C eram ic A s semb lage f rom N ewgrange , C o . Mea th -A S tudy , ( MA T hes i s , U n ive r s i ty C o l lege , C o rk ,I r e land ) . C un l if f e , B . , 1 984 . Danebury , V o l . I . D ick son , J .H . , 1 978 . B ronze A ge Mead ,A n t iqu i ty , 5 2 ,p p . 1 08 -13 . Dona ld son , P . , 1 977 . T he E xcava t ion o f aMu l t ip le R ound B a r row a tB a rnack , C amb r idge sh i re , 1 974 -1976 ,A n t iquar ie sJ ourna l , 5 7 ,p p . 1 97 -231 . G lob , P .V . , 1 944 . S tud ie ro ve rd en J ysk E nke l t sg ray sku l tu r ,A arbOger , 1 944 . G roenman -Van Waa ter inge , W . , 1 983 . T he E a r ly A g r icu l tu ra l U t i l isa t ion o ft h e I r i sh L and scape : T he L a s t Wo rd o n t h e E lm d ec l ine , i nT .R eeve s -

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H .J . C a se

Sm i th a nd F .H ammond ( e ds . ) ,L and scape A rchaeo logy i nI r e land . p p . 2 17 -32 . Gu i lane , J . , 1 967 . L a c Cv i l i sa t ion d u V ase C ampan if orme d ans l e s P yrd rWes F rança i se s . G u i lane , J . , 1 976 . L a C iv i l isa t ion d e s V a ses C ampan ifo rmes d an s l eM id i d e l a F rance , i n J .N . L an t ing a nd J .D . Van d er Waa ls ( eds . ) , G lockenbecher sympos ion : O ber r ied , 1 974 ,p p . 3 51 -70 . H a r r ison , R .J . , 1 980 . T he B eaker F o lk , T hame s a nd H ud son , L ondon . H a r r ison , R .J . , 1 985 . T he ' P o l icu l t ivo G anadero ' , o r t h e S econda ry P roduc t s R evo lu t ion i n S pan ish Ag r icu l ture , 5 000 -1000 b . c . , P roceed ings P reh i s tor ic S oc ie ty , 5 1 ,p p . 7 5 -102 . Hod son , F . ,R . , 1 980 . C u l tu res a s T ypes? S ome E lemen t s o f C la ss if ica t ion T heo ry ,B u l le t in U n iver s i ty o fL ondon I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy, 1 7 , p p . 1 10 . Hof e r , T . a nd F e ! , E . , 1 979 . Hungar ian F o lk A r t . H u l then , B . , 1 977 . O n C eram ic T echno logy d ur ing t h e S can ian N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge . T he ses a nd P ape r s i n N or th -Eu ropean A rchaeo logy , S tockho lm . J ou ssaume , R . , 1 981 . L eN eö l i th ique d e l ' Aun i s e tP o i tou O cc iden ta le d an s s on C ad r eA t lan t ique . K le in , J . , L e rman , J .C . , D amon , P .E . a nd R a lph , E .K . , 1 982 . C a l ib ra t ion o f R ad ioca rbon D a te s : T ab les B a sed o n t h e C on sensus D a ta o f t h e Wo rk shop o fC a l ib ra t ing t h eR ad ioca rbon T ime S ca le , R ad iocarbon , 2 4 , p p . 1 03 -50 . L amb , H .H . , 1 974 . C l ima te , V ege ta t ion a nd F o res t L im i ts i n E a r ly C iv i l ised T i me s ,i nF .R . Hod son ( e d . ) ,T he P lace o fA s t ronomy i nt h eA nc ien t Wor ld , p p . 1 95 -230 . L an t ing , J .N . a nd V an d e r Waa ls , J .D . , 1 976 . B eake r C u l ture R e la t ions i n t h e L owe rR h ine B a s in , i nJ .N . L an t ing a nd J .D . V an d e r Waa l s ( e d s . ) G lockenbecher sympo s ion : O ber r ied 1 974 ,p p . 1 80 . L icha rdus ,J . , 1 980 . Z ur F unk t ion d e rG ewe ihsp i tzen d e rT ypus O s to r f , G e rman ia , 5 8 p p . 1 24 . Ma lm ros , C . a nd T auber , H . , 1 975 . Ku ls tof -14 D a ter ingen a f D ansk E nke l t sg raysku l tu r ,A arboger , 1 975 ,p p . 7 8 -95 . Ma r t in , A . ,G u i lane ,J .a nd T homme re t ,J .a nd Y . , 1 981 . E s tra t ig ra f f a yD a tac ione s C 14 d e l Y ac im ien to d e l aC ova d e l F ra re d e S t . L lo ren9 d e l Mun t ( Ma tadepe ra , B a rce lona ) ,Z ephyru s ,2 2 123 ,p p . 1 01-11 .

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O xf ord I n t e rna t iona l We s t ern Med i t er ranean B e l lB eake rC onf erence

O 'Ke l ly , M .J . , C lea ry , R .M . a nd L ehane , D . , 1 983 . N ewgrange , C o . Mea th , I r e land :T he N eo l i th ic B eak er P er iod S e t t lemen t . P ape ,W . , 1 979 . H i s tog ramme N eo l i th ishe r 1 4CDa ten , G erman ia , 5 7 ,p p . 1 51 . P ape , W . , 1 981 . Z u rr e la t iven C h rono log ie d e rS chnu rke ram ik , J uh res -Sch r if tf ür M i t te ld eu t sche V orge sch ich te , 6 4 ,p p . 2 3 -50 . P iggo t t , S . , 1 972 . AN o te o n C l ima t ic D e ter io ra t ion i nt h eF i r s tM i l lenn ium B .C . , S co t t i sh A rchaeo log ica lF orum ,4 ,p p . 1 09 -13 . R ousso t -La r roque , J . , 1 983 . L e ' Reseau ' d u N eö l i th ique F ina l : Mu ta t ions E conom iques e tI n te r re la t ions O ue s t -Es t e tE s t -Oues t e n F rance e t d ans Q ue lque s R eg ion sV o i s ine s , G od i sn jak , 2 1 ,p p . 1 85 -220 . R ou s so t -La r roque ,J . , 1 984 . A r tenac A u jou rd 'hu i : p ou ru ne N ouvele A pp roche d e l ' Eneo l i th i sa t ion d el aF rance , R evue A rch & log ique d uC en t re d el a F rance , 2 3 , p p . 1 35 -96 . R ousso t -La r roque , J . , 1 985 . S e ine -O ise - Ma rne , A r tenac , G o rd , e tl e s A u t res . . . . R evue A rchgo log ique d eP icard ie , 3 / 4 ,p p .9 -25 . R ow land s , M .J . , 1 980 . K insh ip , A l l iance a nd E xchange i nt h e E u ropean B ronze Age , i nJ .B a r re t t a nd R . B rad ley ( ed s . ) ,The B r i t i sh L a ter B ronze A ge , p p . 1 5 -56 . S angme is ter , E . , 1 976 . D er V e rhä l tn is d e r G lockenbeche rku l tur z u d en E inhe im ishe rK u l tu ren d e rI b e r i schen H a lb in se l ,i nJ .N . L an t ing a nd J .D . V an d e r Waa l s ( ed s . ) , G lockenbecher sympos ion : O berr ied 1 974 , p p . 4 23 -58 . S angme i s te r ,E .a nd S chuba r t ,H . , 1 981 . Z ambu ja l , ( Mad r ider B e i t räge , 5 ) . S chü le ,W . , 1 976 . D ie F rühme ta l lze i t le iche S i ed lung a uf d em C e r ro d el aV i rgen i n O rce ( Granada ) , i n J .N . L an t ing a nd J .D . V an d e r Waa ls ( ed s . ) , G lockenbecher sympos ion :O berr ied 1 974 ,p p .4 19 -21 . S her ra t t , A . , 1 986 . T he R ad ley ' Ear r ings ' R ev ised , O xf ord J ourna l o f A rchaeo logy , 5 ,p p . 6 1-66 . V an I t e r son S chu l ten ,F .R . a nd d eV r ie s - Me tz , 1 981 . AL a te N eo l i th ic S e t t lemen ta t A a r t swood 1 ,H e l in ium , 2 1 , p p . 1 05 -36 .

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New B e l l B eaker D i scover ies i n t he S ou theas t I ber ian P en insu la

D r .A n ton io A r r iba sP a lau U n ive r s i ty o f Malo r ca , P a lma , Malo r ca , B a lea r e s , S pa in . D r .F e rnando Mo l ina U n ive r s i ty o fG ranada , G ranada , S pa in . Ab s t rac t * ***** Desde 1 978 v en imo s r e a l izando e xcava c ione s e n e lp ob lado yn ec r6po l i s d e L o s M i l la re s ,c en t rado se ne le s tud io d el o s s i s t ema sd e f en s ivo s . E ne la r ea d e lp ob lado s e h a i nve s t igado e lt r azado d e l a mu ra l la e x te r io r c a s i e n s u t o ta l idad y s e h a r e a l izado u n b uen n t ime ro d e c o r tes e n l a s d o s e l evac ione s d e l t e r reno i n te r io r e s d onde s eh an d e scub ie r to d o s n ueva s l i nea sd e f o r t if i cac iön p a ra le la s al ap r ime ra . E n 1 985 h emo so b ten ido d a to s s ob re o t ra l i nea d e mu ra l la e nl ac i udade la i n te r io r . A s im i smo s eh an l o ca l izado v a r io sf o r t ine s q ue ,j un to al o sd e scub ie r to sp o rS i re t , f o rman u na l i nea d e d e f en sa s a vcanzada s q ue p ro tegen e ly a c im ien to e n t odo s u c on to rno m e r id iona l ys udo r ien ta l ,h ab iendo se e r np r end ido c on g r ande sr e su l tado s , l ae xcava c iön d e lm ayo rd ee s to sf o r t ine s . D e sde s i emp re s eh ab ia v en ido c on s ide rando q ue e lp ob lado d eL o sM i l la r e se r ap re c ampan ifo rme . L ad i v i s iön r e a l izada ab a se d el o sc on tex to sd el a ss epu l tu ra s( una s c on c ampan ifo rme yo t ra s s i n e l ) p o rl o s L e i sne r ( M i l la re s IyM i l la re s I ) h a s i do p ue s ta ap rueba p o rC hapman ,e s tud iando l aj e ra rqu iza c iön e spa c ia ld el a ss e pu l tu ra s ya unque r equ ie r el ae l abo rac iön d e mode lo sa l ter na t ivo s ,e si n dudab le q ue n op uede man tene r se t a i yc omo f u ee nunc iada s ob r eb a se sp u r am en te t i po lög ica s . E l C ampan ifo rme e n L o s M i l la re s e s u n e l emen to r e s t r ing ido , u no mä s d e l o s e l emen to s e xö t ico s q ue h a l egado d e sde e la r ea d e l T a jo . A qu i s o lo h a l lamo s C ampan ifo rme ma r i t imo y e lt i p ico C iempozue lo s n o a pa rece , p o r l oq ue d ebe r e p r e sen ta ru nh o r izon te d e lC ampan i fo rme A n t iquo . E n e ls e c to r d e l ac i udade la q ue h emo s e xcavado e n 1 985 h an a pa rec ido v a r io s f r agmen to sq ue c o r re sponden ac ua t ro oc i nco v a so s . A s im i smo l o sh emo sh a l lado e n l af a se f i na l d e l a mu ra l la e x te r io r , e n l ab a rba cana q ue c o r re sponde al af a se a n te r io r al ad es t rucc iön d e l a mu ra l la , r ep re sen tando s ö lo u n 1 % d e l ma te r ia l c e rä rn ico . E nl ap rop ia mu ra l la e x te r io r ,e ns us e c to re x t remo N o r te ,l oe ncon t ramo s

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A .A r r iba s P a lau a nd F . Mo l ina

t amb i6n e n n üme ro e s ca so , e n c on t ra s te c on e la l to p o r cen ta je d ec e ram ica s l i sa s y c on d eco ra c iön s imbö l ica . E lF o r t in*1 p o s ib lemen te c o r re sponde al af a se d e lC ampan i fo rme m a rf t imo ( a unque n o h emo s h a l lado n iu n s o lo f r agamen to ) aj uzga r p o r l a s f e cha s C 14 o b ten ida s r e c ien t em en te . E n d ef in i t iva e n L o s M i l la re s l a s n ueva s d a tac ione s C 14 h acen s upone r q ue l a e n t rada d e lC ampan i fo rme m a rf t imo e sp o s t e r io r as uc l imax e ne lT a jo yn oa n te r io r a l2 000 a c , s i endo u na c e räm ica d ei mpo r tac iön ,d el u jo . Q u izä a qu is ec r ean t i po s q ue n o p a recen t e ne r r e lac iön c on l o s d e l T a jo , c omo s on l o s p la to s d e b o rde b i se lado yc on d eco rac iön i n te r io r . E l h echo d eq ue e lC ampan ifo rme n o t e nga l a a mp l ia a cep ta c iön q ue ( ) cu m e ne lT a jo oe ne lC e r ro d el aV i rgen d eO r ce ( G r anada ) h ace p en sa rq ue s uf unc iön h ub ie ra s i do s up lan tada p o rl ac e räm ica s i tnbö l i ca ,d el a q ue s eh ah alado u np o r cen ta je r e la t ivemen te c r ec ido e ne lp ob lado . O t ro p ob lado d e l ar eg ion q ue h emo s e s tud iado e n l o s u l t imo s a r io s e s e ld e l Ma lagön ( Cü l le r -Baza , G ranada ) , c on f ondo s d e c abana s upe rpue s to s , i nd icando v a r ia sf a se sd ec on s t rucc iön ye nce r rado se nu nr e c in to a mu ra l lado yq ue h ab iamo s v en ido c on s ide rando p re -campan ifo rme . P e ro e n 1 983 s e h an h a l lado a l guno s f r agmen to sd e lt i po m a rf t imo e nl a sf a se sd eo cupa c iön m ä sr e c ien te s . U nf r agmen t° d ep o s te d em ade ra d eu nn i ve ld eh ab i tac iön ,q ue h ab fa d ado d o sf e cha sa n t igua se n e lL ab . UGRA h as i do d en uevo e s tud iado p o re lB r i t i sh Mu seum ( BM 2 347 )d ando u na d a tac iön d e l4 020± 6 0b p . ( 2070 b c ) . O t ro f r agmen to d e c a rbön , d e l i n te r io r d e u n p ozo -s i lo h a d ado l af e cha d e 3 870± 6 0 b p . ( 1920 b c ) a lr n i smo L ab . d e l B r i t i sh Mu seum . E ne lC e r ro d el aV i rgen ( O r ce ) ,c e r cano aE l Ma lagön ,l al egada d e lC ampan i fo rme e sg r adua ly aq ue l ae s t ra t ig r a f i ar e ve la u no si n ic io se ne l Ma r i t imo yp o s te r io rmen te l ae n t rada d e lt i po C iempzue lo s . E n e l y ac im ien to d e l C e ro d e l a E nc ina ( Monach i l , G ranada ) , q ue v en imo s e xcavando d e sde 1 968 , h an a pa rec ido u na d ecena d e f r agmen to s d e l t i po C iempozue lo se n u nh o r izon te c o r r e spond ien te al a s t e r raza si n f e r io re sd e lB ronce A n t iguo q ue o f rece e l emen to s t r ad ic iona le sd e l aE dad d e l C ob r e ( p la to sd e b o rde b i se lado p . e j . ) . E s to s h a l lazgo s s eh an r e a l izado p o r d eba jo d e l p ob lado c on l a s e s t r uc tu r a st i p icamen te a r gä r ica s . U nh o r izon t e s im i la r yc on tempo r äneo l eva r i al a f e cha a l1 800 -1700 a c S egu imo s man ten iendo l a s c onc lu s iones a dop tada s d e n ue s t ro e s tud io s ob re e l C ampan ifo rme d e P er ia s d e l o s G i tano s d e Mon tef r io ( G ranada ) e n e spec ia l s u c a räc te r i n t ru s ivo , d eb ido al o s c on tac to s c on l az ona d e l B a ja G uada l -qu iv i r , a t r av6 s d e l ac uenca d e l G en i i . Ae s te r e spec to e s i l u s t r a t iva l ap re senc ia d en l o s n i ve le sd el aE dad d e lC ob r ed e lp ob lado d e l Manzan i l ( Lo ja ,G ranada )d e Ma r i t imo ( f a se I I ) yC iempozue lo s ( f a se I V ) , s i tuado e n u n p un to d er e lac iön e n t re l aB a ja A nda luc ia yl ar e g iön o r ien ta l . Al af a se V d e Mon tef r fo ( Cob r eT a rd fo yF ina l ) s ec o r re la c ionan l a sf a se s IyI d e l p ob lado d e C a s te l lone s d e L abo r c i l la s ( G ranada ) c on C ampan ifo rme i mp re so e i n c i so t i po C iempozue lo s , s i nd uda i n t ru s ivo se nu na mb ien t ed ea u to c ton fa c u l tu ra l . O t ro s y ac im ien to s d e l a r eg iön p erm i ten s 6 lo a l guno s a t isbo s a cer ca d e l a

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O x f ord I n t e rna t iona l We s t e rn Med i t e r ranean B e l lB eak er C onf e r ence

i n t roducc iön d e l o s t i po s . E s te e se lc a so d e lp ob lado d e L a s A ngo s tu ra s d e G o r , c on e lc ampan ifo rme a lp a rece re s t ra t if i cado , p e ro p end ien te d ep ub l ica c iön ; d el a C ova cha d e l aP re sa ( Lo ja ) c on c ampan ifo rme m a rf t imo y C iempozue lo s e n u na m i sma f a se ( I I ) ; d e l aC ueva d e l C e r ro d e C a s te l lön d e C ampo t6 ja r ( G ranada ) , s e pu l tu ra c o l lec t iva e nl aq ue a pa r ec iö u nc uenco d et i po m a rf t imo d es egu ra r e la c iön c on e lB a jo G uada lqu iv i r , d e l H aza d e O cön ( P i l la r , G ranada ) d onde a pa r ecen e l c ampan i fo rme m a r f t imo ye ld eC iempozue lo s ,a s ic o rm e lp ob lado d eT o r r eC a rd e la c on c ampan ifo rme t i po C iempozue lo se nu na mb ien t ep a ra le l izab le a ld e lC e r ro d el a V i rgen E nc onc lu s iön p odemo ss e n ta rl o ss i gu ien t e sr e su l tado s : ( 1 ) E ne lS ude s te e lC ampan i fo rme m a rf t imo d ebe r eba ja r se e nu nc en tena rd ea io s ( ha c ia 1 900 a c ) ( 2 ) L a s epa rac iön d e l C ampan ifo rme Ma r f t imo c on e ld e C iempozue lo s a pa r ece a ho ra c on m ayo rc l a r idad q ue e ne lC e r ro d el aV i rgen d eO r ce . ( 3 )L as upue s ta c on tempo rane idad d e lC ampan i fo rm et i po C iempozue lo sc on l af a se d e lB ronce A n t iguo p uede d a r se a ho ra c omo s e gu ra .

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B e l l B eaker s i n L os M i l lar e s * ******* T he B e l lB eake rp rob lem i nt h eU ppe rA ndu lu s ia a nd t h eS ou thea s ta r ea sh a sb een s umme r i sed b yH a r r i son ( 1 ) w h ich i sb a sed o nt h ec u l tu ra l s equence a se n coun te red i nC e r ro d e l aV i rgen , O rce , G ranada a ss y s tem i sed b y S chu le ( 2 ) a nd t h a to fL o s C a s te l le jo sd e Mon te f r io ,G ranada ( 3 )w he r et h es t ra t ig raphy h a sb een d e sc r ibed b y A . A r r iba sa nd F . Mo l ina . As umma ry o ft h eC e r ro d el aV i rgen i sa sf o l low s : ( 1 )P r e B eaker P ha se d ef ined a s b e long ing t ot h e M i l lar ian Hor izon . ( 2 )B e l l B eaker P ha se w i th c ombed a nd i n c ised w a re o f C iempozue lo s t y pe , d a ted b e tween 2 000 b e a nd 1 850 b c ( 3 )B ronze Age P hase b e long ing t o t h eA rgar ian Hor izon . I n Mon te f r io t h ec u l tu ra ls equence h a st h ef o l low ing d eve lopm en t : ( 1 )T he a ppea rance o ft h ef i r s tc omb d eco ra ted Ma r i t im eB eake r s . ( 2 )T he t r an s i t iona lp ha se w i th mo r ef r equen tB eake r( i nc lud ing t h ei n c i sed t y pe s ) . ( 3 ) H o r izon s u n t i l t h e A nc ien t B ronze A ge w i th C iempozeu lo s s t y le , d a ted c i r ca 1 900 b c t oc i r ca 1 800 b c . I n r e spec t t o L o s M i l la re s , R . H a r r i son h a s p o in ted o u t t h e s ca r ce n umbe r o f B eake r sa sb e ing r e p r e sen ted b yt h o se c om ing f r om t e ng rave sa nd s ome f r agmen t s f r om t h ed we l l ing t h em se lve s ;n ea r ly a l o ft h em c omb d e co ra ted . F o rt h i sr e a son ,L o sM i l la re sc an b et r ea ted a s ar e s t r ic ted e l emen t , a ne xo t ic o b jec t o fe xchange f r om t h eT ago a r ea o fP o r tuga l , a nd i nt u rn , a cco rd ing t oH a r r i son , t o b e s i gn if i can t ly c ompa red i nn umbe rt oP o r tuga l . H a r r i son a t temp t st oe xp la in t h i s s c a rc i ty a nd s uppo sed l a ck o ft h e l o ca l B eake r C u l tu re ( l ike i no the r a r ea s o ft h e P en in su la ) a s ar e su l to fa n a s sump t ion t h a tt h eB eake ra r ei nt h i sc a se o ne mo re o f t h eg roup sa s s imu la ted b yt h i se l i te o ft h e s ou thea s t . F o rH a r r i son , t h eG i lman mode l ( 4 ) e xp la in st h e s t a tu s a nd p owe rc on t inu i ty a st o L o s M i l la r e s , t h e B eake r s a nd A rga r ians , w h ich a r e s ugge s ted b y c hange s i nt h e b u r ia l p a t te rns a l ong w i th t h e i n c rea se i n t h e d iv is ion o f c l a sse s w i th in t h e c ommun i ty . A tt h e s ame t ime ,t h i sw ou ld a l so h e lp t oe xp la in t h e s c a r ce n umb e ro f B eake r si nA lme r ia .T h i s mode lw ou ld a dd i t iona l ly e xp la in w hy t h ew e tr e g i ion so f t h e w e s t a nd c en t re o fA nda lu s ia h ave l e s s r i ch b u r ia l s ( a s w e l l a sl e s s i mpo r tan t ) d u r ing t h eB ronze A ge . T he mo r ef a vou rab le e nv i ronmen t sw ou ld n eed l e ss ' c ap i ta l

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A .A r r iba s P a lau a nd F . Mo l ina

i n ve s tmen t 'i no rde rt og ua ran tee f i e ld p roduc t ion a nd r e su l t ing i n at e ndancy t owa rd al e s si n t en s ive s o c ia ls t ra t i f ica t ion . N eve r the le s s ,t h er e su l to b ta ined i no u r 1 985 e xcava t ion ,i no pe ra t ion s i nce 1 978 a t L o sM i l la re s , h a sp roduced n ew d a ta w h ich o b l ige su st or e con s ide rt h er o le o ft h e B eake r si nt h eS ou thea s t . O u re xcava t ion su nde rgone i nt h ev i l lage a nd t h ec em en t e ry o fL o sM i l la r e sh a sb een c en te r ed i nt h es t udy o ft h ed e f en s ive s y s tem s . I nt h ea r ea o ft h ev i l lage o u ri n ve s t iga t ion sa lmo s tc omp le te ly t r a ce t h ee x t e r io ro ft h e w a l l a nd ag r ea tn umbe ro ft r enche sh ave b een r e a l i sed i nt wo e l eva ted a r ea si nt h e i nne r z one s , w he re t wo n ew l i ne s o ff o r t if i ca t ion s h ave b een d i scove red r unn ing p a rale lt ot h ef i r s to ne .I n1 985 ,w eh ave o b ta ined d a ta o na no the rl i ne o fw a l li nt h e i n ne rc i tade li nw h ich w eh ave d i scove red s eve ra lf or t s t h a tt o ge the r w i th t h e o ne s d i scove red b y L . S i re t f o rm a n a dvanced d e f ense l i ne t h a tp ro tec t s t h e s i t e i ni t s s ou ther na nd s ou thea s ter nc on tou r s . E xcava t ion sr e sumed i nt h el a rge ra r ea so ft h e f o r t h ave g iven u s s pec tacu la r r e su l t s . A l though w e h ave i nf o rme r y ea r s f ound s ome r a re f r agmen t s o fB e l l B eake r p o t te ry i nt h e e x te r io r w a l l i t se lf , u nde r t h e d eb r i s o ft h e l a te r p ha se i nt h e f a r n o r the rn s e c to r a nd t h eb arbacan o ft h e s ame d ef ens ive l i ne c o r re spond ing t o t h e p ha se p r io r t o t h e d i s t ruc t ion o f t h e w a l l ( r epre sen t ing I% o f t he c eram ic ma ter ia l ) , t h e mo s t s pec tacu la r f i nd ings h ave t a ken p l ace i nt h ec i tade ls e c to ri n1 985 .T he se f i nd ing sh ave b een m ade i nt h e h i ghe s ta nd i n ne r mo s ta r ea so ft h es i te i nw h ich w eh ave m ad et h el a te s ts ound ing s . T he se a r ea sa r ef ound i nt h ee a s ter ne x t r eme o re dge o ft h es pu ro nw h ich t h eh ab i ta t i ss i tua ted a nd w h ich i sa lmo s tq uad rangu la ri nf o rm i ni t sh i ghe s tp a r t . H i the r to , a l though i th a sn o tb een t h eo b jec to fo u re xcava t ion s ,t h et o pog r aphy o f t h ea r ea sm en t ioned a bove g i ve s ,f r om t h ea r chaeo log ica lp o in to fv i ew ,e v idence o f t wo h i gh ly s i gn if ican tc ha r ac te r i s t ic s : ( a ) ag en t le e l eva t ion r unn ing a l ong t h e w ho le p e r ime te r o f t h e h e igh t . T h i s i s e spec ia l ly a ppa ren t i nt h e s ou thwe s te rn f l ank w he re t ot h ec on t ra ry i td om ina te s a m a jo rd e scen t . ( b ) t h e p re sence o f ah a l low , i n te rp re ted a nd n amed b y L . S i re t a sc i s terna , i s f ound s ou th o ft h em e se ta . A l though t h e B e lg ium s cho la r n amed t h i s m e se ta a s t h e v i l le a nc ienne o fL o s m i l la re s , t h i s c on ten t ion i sc ha l lenged b y t h e f a c t t h a t s upe rf i c ia l ma te r ia l s i nt h e s am ea r ea h a sp roduced s ome f r agmen t so fB el B eake rp o t te ry a nd o t he ra r te f a c t so f mo r er e cen tt y po logy . I na l lc a se s , t h e se f i nd ing sd emon s t ra te t h a ti nt h i sa r ea i np a r t icu la rw ec an s e et h e l a s t momen t s o ft h e o ccupa t ion o ft h e s i te a nd p o s s ib ly o b ta in t h e mo s tc omp le te s equence . T h is h ypo the s is h a sb een c onf i rmed i nt h er e su l t so b ta ined f r om t h es t ra t ig r aphy o f T renche s * 90 ,9 1 a nd 9 7 . T he se t r enche sw e re o pened i nt h ec ampa ign o f1 985 a nd a r es i tua ted i nt wo p a ra l le la xe st h a tt r ave r se t h en o r thea s te dge o ft h em e se ta . 1 34

O xf ord I n t e rna t iona lW e s t e rn Med i t e r ranean B e l lB eak e rC onf e r ence

T he f i r s to ft h e se a xe si st wen ty f i ve m e te r sl o ng a nd c on s i s t so fT r enche s * 90 a nd 9 7 .T ot h en o r th ,t h ew a l lt h a tw ec a l l ,L inea I V ,i sa l r eady u nea r thed a nd r e p re sen t s t h ei n ne r mo s to ft h ef o r t if i ed w a l le x cava t ed a r ea so nt h es i t e . I nt h es e c t ion t h a tw ek now , Wa l lI Vc on s i s t so ft wo p a ra l le lf a ce st h a tf o rm ad eep a nd n a r row p a ssage . I n r e spec t t ot h e e dge o f t h e m e se ta i tr un s i n a n o b l ique d i r ec t ion , p ene t ra t ing i n to i t s i n te r io r , p e rm i t t ing u s t op ro jec t t h ep r e sence o fa n a cce s s i n to t h ei n ne ra r ea sa tt h i sp o in t . O nt h ee x te r io ro ft h ew a l lt h e re i s ab a s t ion a t tached ,t h ei n te r io ro fw h ich t h e re i sp re se rved l i ne o fp o s t sp a ra l le lt ot h ef a ce o f t h ew a l l . T he s equence o ft h ei n ne ra r ea h a sb een w e l ld o cumen ted i nT rench * 97 w he r et h e e xcava t ion sh ave r e a ched b ed ro ck . T h i ss equence c on s i s t so fa tl e a s tn i ne c on s t r uc t iona lp ha se s s upe r impo sed o fw h ich t h el owe rf i ve c o r r e spond t op re -Beake rd eve lopmen to ft h ev ilage d u r ing t h ee a r ly a nd f u l lB ronze A ge . T he s upe r io r l e ve l s o f t h e d epo s i t s c an b e d e f ined a s ac omp lex i nw h ich t h e r e a ppea r t h e f i r s t B eake r f r agmen t s w i th i mp re s sed d eco ra t ion s , s ome o f t h em o f Ma r i t ime s t y le . T he c on s t ruc t iona l p ha se i mmed ia te ly a f te rwa rd c o r r e spond t oH u t * EB t h a t h a s p roduced ab i gge rn umbe ro fB eak e rf r agmen t so fs im i l a rc ha r ac t e r i s t ic s . T he n ex tp ha se i sd ef ined b y al a rge h u to fc i r cu l a rp l an ( Hu t* FB )h a l fo fw h ich h a s b een s t ud ied . I ni t ,t h eB eake rc on tex ta l r eady s how s af u l le rd eve lopmen t . O ne i n w h ich w ec an c on s ide ra tt h i s momen ta sb e ing t h e mo s tc ha ra c te r i s t ic c e ram ic t y pe o ft h ev i l lage . I tt ypo logy h a s s pec if ic s hape sa nd p a t ter n so fd eco r a t ion t h a ta l low u s t od ef ine a tL o sM i l la r e sa sd i agno s t ic w i th t h er e s to ft h e s ou thea s ter nP en i su la f o r al o ca lB e l lB eak e rh o r izon . T he l a s tp ha se d ocuman ted i nt h i sa r ea i sr e p re sen ted b y an ew a r ch i tec tu ra lf e a tu re ( Hu t* GB )t h a ti ss upe r impo sed o ve rH u t* FB ,a nd p re sen t s as im i la rr e co rd a st h a t r ega rd ing t h ef o rme rp ha se . O n t h e o t he rh and , T rench * 91 o pened n o r thwa rd o ft h e a f o remen t ioned t r enche s , m an if e s t ing t h ei n c rea s ing a mp l i tude o ft h ei n ne rf o r t if i ca t ion sa nd d emon s t ra t ing a g r ea t d ea l o fr e info r cemen t i ni t s u l t ima te momen t s , r e ach ing at h ickne s s o f s i x m e te r s . T he f a s t a b so rp t ion o ft h e b e l l b eake r s i n to t h ed ome s t ic w a r e s o fL o s M i l la re s i s a ppa ren t a s s e en b y t h e a pp l ica t ion o f i t s d eco ra t ive p a t te rn s o n t h e i nd igenou s s hape s , s u ch a s t h e b i se l l ipped p l a te s a nd t h e u se o fq u i te d i f f e ren t s hape s t h an t h o se f ound i nt h er e s to ft h eB e l lB eake ra s semb lage so ft h eP en in su la .T h i si ss e en i n t h e l a rge , r ough p o t s t h a t f i r s t s t a r ted w i th c omb i mp re ss ions a nd l a te r w i th i n c i sed mo t if s . I n t h e mo s t mode rn p ha se o f L o s M i l la r e s ( I I ) w e a r e p re sen ted w i th a h igh p ropo r t ion o fb e l l b eake r si nt h ep o t te ry a s semb lage . W i thou te xac t ly q uan t i fy ing ,

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A .A r r iba s P a lau a nd F . Mo l ina

t h e u ppe rmos t s t ra ta o f t h e c i tade l p roduced aq uan t i ty o f d eco ra ted f r agmen t s a ppa r en t ly s im i la rt ot h o se o ft h eB e l lB eake rs t ra ta a tC e r ro d el aV i rgen ( O r ce ) .I n t h ei n ter io ro fH u t* FB ,i nw h i ch h a l ft h ea r ea h a sb een e xcava ted ,w eh ave l o ca ted f r agmen t so fa bou tt wen ty b e l lb eake rp o t s , a mong t h em t h ree l a rge , s e rv ing d i she s a nd t h ree a lmo s t c omp le te b ow l s . T he se h ad b een e v iden t ly d epo s i ted o n t h e o ccupa t iona lf l oo ro ft h eh u ta ta bandonmen t . O ft h e 1 22 B e l l B eake rp o t s i n ven to r ied t o da te i nt h ev i l lage o fL o s M i l la re s , 12 c ome f r om t h ec i tade l , 6f r om t h e mo s tr e cen td epo s i t ,l o ca ted i nt h eo u te r mo s tw a l l a r ea a nd 2a r ep re se rved i nt h e A r chaeo log ica l Mu seum o fA lme r ia a ss upe rf i c ia l f i nd sw i thou ts pec if y ing t h ev i l lage a r ea f r om w h ich t h ey w e r ec ole c ted . T he mo s tc ommon s hape sa r ed r ink ing v e s se l s( 3 7% ) ,b ow l s( 36% )a nd b i se l -l ipped p l a te s ( 14% ) . I n al e sse rn umbe rt h e re a r el a rge c ommon w a r ev e s se l s a nd i no n ly t wo i n s tance sf r agmen t so fc a r ina ted p o t sw ho se c omp le t ef o rm sa r e n o tc omp le t e ly d i sce rnab le . T he d eco ra t ive t e chn ique s u t i l i sed a r e : c omb i mp re s s ion ( 6 7% ) ,c omb i mp r e s s ion s w i th z i g -zag mo t if s made b y s ho r t i mp re s sed l i ne s ( 8% ) , i n c i s ion s ( 16% ) a nd i n c i s ion sw i th s ho r ta pp l ied z i g -zag l i ne s( 3 1% ) . T he s imp le s t mo t if s a r e r e p re sen ted b y : ( 1 ) f i l led b and s w i th d i agona l s t r ia t ion s , v e r t ica l s t r ia t ions , c r i ss -c ro ss s t r ia t ion s ( bo th h o r izon ta l a nd d i agona l ) a nd c heve ron s , ( 2 ) z i gz ag s , ( 3 ) f i l led t r iang le sw i th d i agona la nd c r i s s -c ro s s s t r ia t ion s ( s ome t ime s w i th a l te rna t ing f i l li no rd e rt op roduce ap o s i t ive z i g -zag b and , ( 4 )l i ne s o fp o in t s , ( 5 )schema t ic mo t if s , b o th s ymbo l ic a nd f i gu ra t ive ( ? ) . D u r ing t h e mo s t r e cen t p ha se , t h e re a r e d eve lopmen t s o f i n c ised t h eme s . . . in a s en se mo re c omp l ica ted ( ame topado ) . T he t r enche so pened i nt h ec i tade ls how t h ef o l low ing s e quence : t h e O ld es t P hase w i th B e l l B eake r ( Hor izon g amma II a nd Hu t*EB ) h a s p roduced 2 7 f r agmen t s ( c omb w a re 8 9% c ompa r ed t o 1% i n c i sed ) .T he Ma r i t ime p o t sr e p r e sen t 3 0% o ft h e t o ta l . T hey a r eo fv e ry g ood q ua l i ty , h av ing t h in w a l l sa nd ac ompa c t , o x id i sed f ab r ic o range i nc o lou ra nd i no n ly o ne c a se c ove red b y ad a rk s l ip . T he c omb d eco ra ted b ow l sa r ev e ry n ume rou s . I n t h e n ex t p ha se ( Hu t * FB ) , b a sed o n 4 6 w e l l s t ra t if ied e xamp le s , w e c an s e e a s l igh t d ec rea se i nt h e p e rcen tage o ft h e c omb i mp re s sed t e chn ique ( 6 1% ) , w i th a c on t ra s t ing i n c r ea se o ft h ef r agmen t st h a th ave i n c i sed mo t if s( 3 9% ) .T he p e r cen tage o f ma r i t ime v e s se l s a l so d ec r ea se s ( 39% ) . T he re a l so a ppea r s ag r ea t n umbe r o f b i se l r immed p o t sw ho se i n ne rp a r ti sd eco r a ted . B ig , c ommon v e s se l s a r et y p ica l o f t h i s p er iod w h ich w e re p o s s ib ly u sed f o r s t o rage . T hey a r e d eco ra ted w i th i mp re s sed t h eme s ,d e s igned i n to t wo l a rge b and st h a tc ove rt h er im a nd t h eb ody o f t h ev e s se l . T he l a rge b ow l sa r ev e ry n ume rou sa nd t h a ts ome t ime sg i ve u s s ymbo l ic o rs c hema t ic d eco ra t ion o nt h ei n t e r io rs u r f ace s . F o rt h ef i r s tt ime ,t h e r ea pp ea rc up s a nd b ow l s d eco ra ted w i th i n c i sed t e chn ique s s im i la rt ot h o se i nC e r ro d e l aV i rgen ( O r ce ) ,d e sc r ibed a sC iempozue lo s s t y le . F ina l ly , t h e n ex t c ons truc t ion p hase ( Hu t * GB ) i sv e ry e roded , b e ing t h e mo s t moder nt o da te a tL o sM i l la re s .I th a sp roduced 1 7 s t ra t i f ied f r agmen t so fw h ich o n ly o ne i s ma r i t ime , a nd w h ich p robab ly o r ig ina tes f r om t h e f o rme r p ha se , d ue t o

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O xf ord I n t e rna t iona l We s t e rn Med i t er ranean B e l lB eak er C onf e rence

e ro s ion . T he i n c ised t e chn ique o ccur s i n7 6% o ft h e c a se s , o ppo sed t o2 4% w i th c ombed i mp re ssed mo t if s . T he b i se l -r immed p l a te s s t i l l a ppea r , a l though t h ey a r e n ow a l so d eco ra ted w i th i n c i sed mo t if s .T he i n c ised t e chn ique i se xc lu s ive ly u t i l i sed i nt h el a rge c ommon w a re sa sw el . I nc onc lu s ion i ti se v iden tf o rt h e momen tt h a tt h ese c ombed i mp res sed d eco ra t ive t e chn ique s ,i mp re s sed p o in t s made b ya na w la nd s ho r tz i g -zag l i ne si mp re s sed w i th t h e e dge o f as pa tu la . B ise l r immed b ow l s a nd p l a te s w h ich s ome t imes a l te rna ted u s ing t h ese t e chn iques . N ever the le ss c on t inuous i n c i s ion i su sed i n v ery f ew e xamp le s i nt h e o lde s t p ha ses , whe rea s t h ey a r e mo re f r equen ti nt h e mo s tr e cen t p ha ses . F rom t h ep o t te ry a s semb lage s t ud ied i ts e em se v iden tt h a tt h eB e l lB eake ro fi n c i sed a nd i mp re s sed z i g -zag s t y le ,n ume rous i nC e r ro d el aV i rgen f r om i t sP ha se IA a nd i n te rp re ted a sC iempozue lo s , a r e r e a l ly av a r ia t ion o ft ho se t ha t u sed t h e c ombed i mp re s sed t e chn ique a nd w e re c a r r ied o u to ve r av e ry s ho r tp e r iod o ft ime .T he r efo r e t h e re a ppea r s t ob e l o ca l d eve lopmen t f r om t h e f i r s t i mpor t o ft h e ma r i t ime a nd i mp res sed s t y le t h a t b rough t a bou t t h er ap id f o rma t ion o f al o ca lc omp lex w h ich c ou ld b e c a l led ' Be l lB eaker o ft he S ou th E as t ' . H ence w e c an p ropo se al o ca l e vo lu t iona ry p henomenon s im i la r t o t ho se t ha t t ook i n o the r r eg ions o f t h e P en insu la ; e . g . T agu sE s tua ry o rt h e Me se ta .T h i si st os ay w i thou tu s ing t h ec on tac t a nd i n t rus ions f r om t h em e se ta a sa ne xp lana t ion f o rt h e a ppea rance o ft h er i ch B e l l B eake ra s semb lage si ns i te sl i ke L o sM i l la re so rC e r ro d el aV i rgen .

T he R ad iocarbon Chrono logy f or L os Mi l lares a nd E l Ma lagon * ******* I n1 983 w eh ave e xam ined s ome c ha r coa ls amp le so r ig ina t ing f r om L o sM ila r ea nd E l Ma lagon a nd wh ich h ave a na lysed a tt h e B r i t i sh Museum ( t o b e p ub l ished i n R ad ioca rbon ) . D ue t ot h ei n te re s ted t h e se r ead ing h ave a r ou sed ,w ep re sen th e re as umma ry o ft h e r e su l t si no rde rt oi lu s t ra te o u rp o s i t ive a ff i rma t ion . T he r ea r et h ree d a te sf o rL o sM i l la re sa nd t wo f o rE l Ma lagon . 1 .T he f i r s to ft h e se : L os Mi l lare s : 6 0 15 , BM -2343 , c omes f r om t h e a na lys i s o f c ha r coa lo f ap o s tf r om t h e( l a te )e x te r io rr e info r cemen tw a l l , Wa l l * I I .T he s amp le s a na lysed a r e l a rge p i ece s o fc ha r coa l , b u to n ly 2 10 t r ee -r ing s . T he s amp le c ome s f r om Q uadran t * 6 a nd i t s l o ca t ion s how s t h a t i tb e longs t ot h e f i na l momen t o f d i s truc t ion o ft h e w a l l . T he d a te o b ta ined i s : 4 150± 4 0 BP , 2 200 b c . T he B r i t ish Museum u t i l ise s t h e d a te r ange o fK le in : 2 925 -2550 , t h a t o fP ea r son : 2 880 -2550 a nd t h a to f 2s i gma : 2 890 -2590 . 2 .L os Mi l lares: 1 7042 , BM -2344 , c ome s f r om Wa l l * I( e x ter io r ) . T h is i s made u p o f as p read o fc ha rcoa l f r agmen t sf r om ah ab i ta t iona l l e ve l ,i nf r on to fa ni nne r p a r t ion w a l l i nt h e i n ter io r o ft h e b a rbacan , u nde r t h e l e ve l o fd i s t ruc t ion , a lmo s t i mmed ia te ly b enea th t h el owe rc ou r se o ft h eb a rbacan . H ence i tmu s tc o r re spond t o t h ei n i t ia lc ons t ruc t ion ,o r ab i tl a te r . 1 37

A .A r r iba s P a lau a nd F . Mo l ina

T he d a te o b ta ined i s4 110± 10 B P , 2 160 b e . T he d a te r ange o fK le in i s : 2 530 2 125 , t h a to fP ea r son : 2 450 -2150 , a nd t h a to f2 + s i gma : 2 460 -2140 , t h a to fK le in : 2 945 -2410 ,t h a to fP ea r son : 2 800 -2500 a nd t h a to f 2s i gma :2 925 -2490 . 3 .L os Mi l lares : 6 2305 , BM -2345 , c omes f r om t h e d epos i t o ft h e i n ter io ro ft h e T owe r( Ba s t ion * V )o fF o r t* 1 . T he s amp le w a sf ound i n al e ve lc l o se t ob ed rock ,a t a bou t 2m e te r sf r om t h ew a l lo ft h ei n te r io ro ft h eb a s t ion . T he s amp le c on s i s ted o f l a rge p i e ce so fc ha r coa lt h a th ad mo r et h an 1 0t r ee -r ing s . T he r ead ing o b ta ined i s : 3 820± 4 0B P , 1 870 b e . T he d a te r ange o fK le in i s : 2 530 2 125 , t h a to fP ea r son i s : 2 450 -2150 ,t h a to f 2s i gma : 2 460 -2140 . T h i s d a te s eems t o u s t oo l a te , b ecause t h e b a s t ion d oes n o t h ave B e l l B eake r c on tex t s . 4 .E l Ma lagon : C -B 1 0213 , BM -2347 . T he s amp le i sc ha r coa l f r om ap i to rd i tch o u t s ide o ne o ft h eh u t s . T he r ead ing o b ta ined i s : 3 870± 6 0BP , 1 920 b e . T he d a te r ange o fK le in : 2 620 -2395 ,t h a to fP ear son : 2 450 -2210 , a nd t h a to f 2s i gma : 2 500 2 145 . 5 .E l Ma lagon : C -B 5 130 , BM -2348 . T he s amp le af r agmen t o f awooden p o s t f r om ab u rn th ab i ta t iona ll e ve li nt h ei n te r io ro fo ne o ft h eh u t s . T he r ead ing o b ta ined i s : 4 020± 6 0 B P , 2 070 b e . T he d a te r ange o fK le in : 2 850 2 395 ,t h a to fP ea r son 2 650 -2470 a nd t h a to f 2s i gma : 2 870 -2460 . T h is d a te c o r respond s w i th a no the r f r om t h e UGRA ( 12 ) , 4 065 + 1 50 BP , 2 115 b c . ( on t h eo the rh and UGRA ( 1 3 )f r om t h e s ame s amp le p roduced ad a te o f4 515± 2 15 BP , 2 565 b e ; t h i sw ec anno tt a ke i n to a ccoun t . I ns yn the s is ,t h e se d a te so fL o sM i l la re sa nd lE l Ma lagon j o in t h ed a ta t h a th a sb een p roduced b yt h e s t ra t ig raph ic s i tua t ion o ft h ef r agmen t sa nd B e l lB eake rp o t te ry . I t a l so d emons t ra te t h el ow f r equency o ft h is t y pe o fp o t te ry .i nt h ec emen ta ry ( f ac to r s w h ich wou ld s ugge s ta l te rna t ive e xp lana t ion s ) . I ta l so a ppea r st h a tt h ei n t roduc t ion o f Mar t ime B e l l B eake r a tL o s M i l la re s i sl a te rt oi t s c l imax i nt h e T agu s a nd n o t b efo re 2 000 b e - 1 900 b e ; b e ing i ni t s f i r s t momen t s ai mpo r ted , l uxury i t em . A l i t t le a f te r t h e i n t roduc to ry p ha se , w e f i nd n ew mode l s a r e c r ea ted w h ich s e em t o h ave n o r e la t ion w ha t soeve r w i th t h e p reced ing o ne s ; f o r e xamp le , b i se l -r immed p l a te sw i th i n te r io rd eco ra t ion . T he o p in ion t h a tt h eB el B eake rd id n o th ave aw ide a ccep tance ,a si to ccu r r ed i nt h e T agu so rC e r ro d el aV i rgen ( O r ce ) ,c anno tb e ma in ta ined a f te rt h er e su l t so b ta ined a t t h ec i tade lo fL o sM i l la re s . U l t ima te ly , t h e s equence t h a t w eh ave e s tabl i shed i nL o sM i l la re sa nd E l Ma lagon c onf irm s t h e k nown r e su l t s a tC e r ro d e l aV irgen , w he re in Ma r t ime B e l l B eake r f l ou r ished i ni t sr e la t ionsh ip w i th t h eC iempozue lo sh o r izon .

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No tes **** ( 1 ) H a r r i son ,R .J . , 1 977 .T he B e l lB eak er C u l ture so fS pa in a nd P or tuga l, B u l le t in 3 5 , Ame r ican S choo l o f P reh is to r ic R e sea rch , H a rva rd , C amb r idge , Ma s s . ( 2 ) S chü le ,W . , 1 980 . O r ce u nd G a l era . Zw e iS i ed lungen a u sd em 3 .b i s1 .J ahr tau send v .Chr . i mS udö s t en d er I ber i schen Ha lb in se l l , P h i l ipp v on Z abem , Ma inz a mR he in . ( 3 ) A r r iba s , A . , Mo l ina , F . , T o r re , F . d e l a . , N a je ra , T .Y . a nd S aez , T . , 1 978 . ' E l p ob lado d e l a E dad d e l C ob re d e l ' E l Ma lagon ' ( Cu l la r -Baza , G ranada ) ' , i n C uadernos d e P reh i s tor ia d e l a U n iver s idad d e G ranada 3 ,p p . 6 7 -116 . ( 4 ) G i lman , A . , 1 981 ' T he D eve lopmen t o f S oc ia l : S t ra t if ica t ion i n B ronze A ge E u rope ' , C ur ren tA n thropo logy 2 2 ( 1 ) ,p p . . 1 23 .

( 5 ) S i re t , L . , 1 983 . ' L 'E spagne P reh i s to r ique ' i n R ev . d e Q ue s t ions S c ien t if ique , B rus se l s , p . 3365 . L e isne r , G . a nd V . , 1 943 . ' D ie Mega l i thgraber d er I ber i schen Ha lb in se l , J .d e r L e iden ,B e r l in .

L i s t o f F igure s *****

F igure 1 . L os M i l lar e s : B eake r Wa re . Ma r i t ime b eake r s ( A t oE ) w i th c omb i mp re s sed d eco ra t ion s . F igure 2 . L os M i l lar e s : B eake r Wa re . P la te s w i th b i se led b o rde r s w i th c omb i mp re s sed d eco ra t ion s( b , a nd d ) ,i n c i sed ( a ) a nd s pa tu la i mp r e s sed ( c ) . F igure 3 . L os Mi l lares : B eake r Wa re . B ow l s w i th s chema t ic mo t if s , c omb i mp re s s ion so ri n c i sed ( d -0 ; F r agmen t sw i th i n c i sed a nd a w li mp re s s ion s( a -c ) . F igure 4 . L os Mi l lar es : B eake r Wa re . i mp re s s ion s .

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A B eake r o f l a rge s i ze w i th c omb

0 !

w i A B g c

F IGURE

0 1 W MBBC

F IGURE

2

0 ! WN IBBC

F IGURE

3

C M W MBI ld s :

F IGURE

4

C opper a nd S i lver i n B ronze Age S pa in

D r . D . R . H ook B r i t i sh Museum R e sea r ch L abo ra to ry , L ondon WC1B 3 DG ,E ng land . D r .A . A r r iba sP a lau Un ive r s i ty o fP a lma , P a lma , Malo rca ,B a lea re s , S pa in . D r . P .T . C raddock B r i t i sh Mu seum R e sea r ch L abo ra to ry , L ondon WC1B 3 DG ,E ng land . D r . F . Mo l ina Un ive r s i ty o fG ranada , G ranada , S pa in . D r . B . R o thenbe rg I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy , L ondon WC1H OPY ,E ng land

Abs trac t * **** Th is p ape r r epor t s 1 68 f u r ther a na lyse s o f aw ide r a na ly t ica l p rog ramme o n t h e •d eve lopemen to fm e ta l lu rgy i nS ou th -ea s tS pa in . T he a na ly se so fa r tef ac t sr epo r ted h e re g r ea t ly i n c rea se t h en umbe ra va i lab le o fw e l lp rovenanced ma te r ia l ,e spec ia l ly o ft h ee a r ly S pan i sh B ronze Age . T he c hanges i na l loy t ype w i th r e spec tt op e r iod a nd o b jec tt ype a r ed i scus sed . E v idence f o rt h ep roduc t ion o fa r sen ica l c oppe rb y t he a dd i t ion o f a r sen ic -r ich m ine ra l s t o c oppe r r a the r t h an t he u se o f a r sen ic c on ta in ing c oppe ro r e si sp re sen ted . T he A rga r ic c u l tu re w a sr e spons ib le f o rt h ef i r s ts ub s tan t ia lp roduc t ion o fs i lve ri n Wes ter nE u rope . T he a na ly t ica lr e su t ls a nd p o s s ib le m e thod so fp roduc t ion o ft h e s i lve ra r ed i scu s sed .

1 47

I n troduc t ion ****** Th i sp ape ri se s sen t ia l ly a ni n te r im r e po r to nt h ew o rk b e ing c a r r ied o u tt oe x tend t h ep rev iou s wo rk o fH a r r i son a nd C r addo ck ( 1 981 )o nt h es t udy o ft h eB ronze A ge m e ta lwo rk f r om t h eI b e r ian p en in su la . Mo s to ft h e i rm a te r ia lw a sA rga r ic ( M idd le B ronze A ge )o rL a te B ronze A ge ,w i th r e la t ive ly l i t t le f r om t h ee a r l ie rM i l la r ia re r e B eake rp e r iod . A l so , much o ft h e i rm a te r ia ll a cked p rec i se p rovenance s ,a nd s ome o b jec t t ype s , e spec ia l ly t h e s ma l le r a r tef ac t s w e re p oo r ly r ep re sen ted . T he o ppo r tun i ty a r o se t of i l l s ome o ft h e g ap sw i th w e l lp rovenanced m a te r ia lf r om t h e e xcava t ion s o f A r r iba s e ta l . ( 1977 , 1 978 a nd 1 979 ) i n S ou th - e a s t S pa in . T he l o ca t ion o fs ome o ft h es i te sc on s ide red h e re a r es hown i nF igu re 1 .C omb in ing t h e a na ly se s o ft h e t wo g roup s o fm a te r ia l r e su l t s i n ac o rpu s o fa pp rox ima te ly t h ree h und red a na ly se s , w h i ch t o ge the rw i th t h ew o rk o ft h e S AM t e am ( J unghan se ta l . 1 960 , 1 968 a nd 1 974 ) , a l low s t h e s t udy o ft h e d eve lopmen t o fm e ta l lu rgy o ve ra p e r iod o ft wo a nd ah a lf m i l lenn ia i no ne o ft h e f o rma t ive a r ea s o fm e ta l lu rg ica l d eve lopmen t . T he c hange i nc ompo s i t ion o ft h ea loy su s ed f r om c oppe rt oa r sen ica l c oppe rt h rough t ob ronze a nd l e aded b ronze c an b e s t ud ied i n mo re d e ta i lt h an h a s h i the r to b een p o s s ib le . T he o r ig in o fa r sen ic i ne a r ly c oppe ra r te f a c t sh a sb een t h e s ub jec to f much d eba te ( e g . R enf rew 1 967 ; C ha r le s 1 967 ; McKe r re l a nd T y leco te 1 972 ; T y leco te 1 976 ; H a r r i son a nd C raddo ck 1 981 ; G a le a nd S to s -Ga le 1 981a ) . T he a na ly s i s o ft h e r e cen t ly e xcava ted m a te r ia l f r om t h e M i l la r ian s i te o fE l Ma lagon , C u l la r -Baza , G ranada h a s r evea led a lmo s t c onc lu s ive e v idence f o r t h e p roduc t ion o fa r sen ica l c oppe rb yt h ed e l ibe ra t ea dd i t ion o fa na r sen ic r ich m ine r a lt oc oppe rr a the rt h an t h e u se o fa na r sen ic r ich c oppe ro r e . T he A rga r ic c u l tu re w a sr e spon s ib le f o rt h ef i r s ts ub s tan t ia lp roduc t ion o fs i lve ri n We s te rn E u rope . Twen ty f i ve o b jec t s h ave b een a na ly sed , t h e r e su l t s s ugge s t ing t h a tt h em e thod so ft h ep roduc t ion u sed i nl a te rt ime sm ay n o th ave b e en e mp loyed . T he A rchaeo log ica l S i tes ******* L os M i l lar es ( San ta F ed e Mondu ja r ,A lme r ia ) I nt h eA nda rax r i ve rb a s in t h eo n ly s i t et h a th a sb een s y s tema t ica l ly e xcava ted i st h e v i l lage a nd c em en ta ry o fL o sm i l la re s . I t s i nve s t iga t ion s t a r ted i n 1 881 -82 w i th t h e e xcava t ions l o ca ted i n t h e f amou s c eme tery o fc o rbe l led d omed g r aves b y t h e B e lg ium e ngenee rL ou i s S i re t a nd h i s f o reman P ed ro F lo re s . S i re t n eve r p ub l ished amonog raph o f t h e s i te , a nd t h e d o cum en ta t ion t h a th eo b ta ined d u r ing h i si n ve s t iga t ion sw a sr e lea sed a f te rh i sd ea th

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DR .H ook e ta l

b yt h eL e i sne r s( 1 943 ) .T he se w e re i n c luded b yt h eL e i sne r si nt h e i rl a rge m ega l i th ic c o rpu s o n t h e s ou the rn P en in su la . B e tween 1 953 a nd 1 958 , M . A lmag ro a nd A . A r r iba s u nder took t h e e xcava t ion s o ft h e c eme te ry a nd s t a r ted t h a t o ft h e v i l lage , p ubl i sh ing a s ar e su l t al a rge monog raph ( A lmag ro a nd A r r iba s 1 963 ) . Twen ty y ea r sl a te r ,t h eD epa r tmen to fP r eh i s to ry o ft h eU n ive r s i ty o fG ranada b egan al o ng te rm e xcava t iona lp rog r amme a tL o sM i l la r e s .T h i sr e sea r ch p rog ramme w a s f o cu sed a l ong t h el i ne s o fe a r ly m e ta l lu rgy i nt h e s ou thea s t a nd t h eb eg inn ing a nd d eve lomen to ft h el a rge d e f ended s e t t lemen t s ;o fw h ich t h e mo s ts i gn if i can te xamp le i sL o sM i l la r e si t se l f . T he e xcava t ion o ft h ev i l lage a nd c eme te ry o fL o sM i l la re sh a sb een p rog r amm ed i n t h ree c on sequa t ive p ha ses ( Ar r iba s , Mo l ina , S aez , T or re , A guayo a nd N a je ra 1 979 ,1981 a nd 1 983 ) . T he f i r s t p ha se , s t a r ted i n 1 978 , h a s b een f o cu sed o n t h e s t udy o ft h ev ilage 's d ef en s ive s y s tem i na ne ndeavou rt oo b ta in aw ide rk now ledge o f t h e s e t t lemen t 's s pac ia l o rgan i sa t ion . I th a s i n c lude s f i ve c ampa ign s a nd w i l l f i n i sh w i th t h e s i x th w h ich i sb e ing c a r r ied o u ta tt h ep re sen tt ime ( Oc tobe r 1 985 ) . T he t wo f u tu r ep ha se s , s t a r t ing f r om 1 987 , w i l lu nde r take t h es t udy o ft h ed i f f e r en t s e c to r si nt h eh ab i ta t ion a r ea sa nd t h o se d ea l ing w i th m a jo rc ommuna ld eve lopmen t s s i tua ted w i th in t h e s e t t lem en t , s u ch a st h ew a te rc hanne l ,w a te rr e se rvo i ra nd p ub l ic b u i ld ing s . We w i l l a l so moun ta ne xhaus t ive i n ve s t iga t ion o ft h ec eme te ry , w h ich a l though a l ready v e ry d i s tu rbed b y f o rme r e xcava t ions c an s t i l l p rov ide u s w i th s i gn if ican t d a ta i n r ega rd t o t ypo logy a nd b u i ld ing t e chn iques o f t h e m a jo r monum en t sf o rm ing i t ;a sw el a st h ec h rono log i ca l / spa c ia lo rgan i sa t ion ,b u r ia lr i tua l a nd s e ve ra li n f e r ence o fs o c ia ls i gn if ican ce . T he s e t t lemen t a r ea p a ra l le l a nd p a r t ly c on tempo ra ry w i th t h e a nc ien t l i nes o f f o r t if ica t ion h a sb een s t ud ied d u r ing t h ep r e sen tc ampa ign a nd af ou r th d e f en se w a l l h a sb een d ocumen ted i nt h ei n ne r mo s tm e se ta o ft h es pu ro nw h ich t h es e t t lemen ti s s i tua ted . T h i sa ppa r en t ly w a s af o r t i f ied a r ea i nt h ef o rm o f ac i tad e l . A t t h e s ame t ime , u p t on ine f o r t s ( f ou ra l ready d i scove red b y S i r e t ) h ave b een d i scove red a nd f o rm a na dvanced d e f en s ive l i ne t h a tp ro tec ted t h es i te i ni t s s ou the rn c on tou r s . F o r t * 1 wh ich i so f c on s ide rab le m agn i tude i su nde rgo ing s t udy , a nd p o in t s o u t t h e c omp lex i ty o ft h e se d ef ense s a sw e l l e n l igh ten ing n ew a spec t s a st ot h e u se o fi t s i n ne rs pa ce . I nt h ei n te r io ro ft h e s e t t lemen ta nd a t ta ched t ot h ew a l l ,t h e re a r e s eve ra ld wel ing s t h a th ave b een s t ud ied a nd c an b e d i sce rned a sh av ing h ad r ound s t one b a s i s w i th h ea r th s a nd s eve ra ld ome s t ic s t r uc tu r e si nt h e i ri n te r io r , a sw e l la so t he rp l a ce sw i th r e c tangu la ro rt r apezo ida lp l an a nd d i ve r s ef unc t iona lc ha r ac te r . U n t i l t h ep re sen t , b ecau se o fc e r ta in a spec t s t h e e xcava t ion p l an , t h ew o rk c a r r ied o u ta tL o sM i l la re sh a sf o cu sed o nt h e s t udy o ft h ed ef en se s y s tem s ; u nfo r tuna te ly , r e su l t ing i n t h e s equence p roduc ing p oo r i n fo rma t ion a s r ega rd s t h e e conom ic s t ruc tu re o f t h e p opu la t ion . H oweve r , t h e re i sl i t t le d oub t a bou t t h e e x i s tence o f a c t iv i t ie sr e la ted t om e ta l lu rg ica lp roduc t ion i nt h ei n ne ra r ea so ft h ev i l lage . S ome e v idence h a s b een l o ca ted i n ar e fu se c on tex t s ( e .g . af ew f r agmen t s o fm ine ra l s , c oppe rd rop le t s ,f r agmen t so fc r uc ib le s ) ,o u t s ide t h ed wel ing sa nd e spec ia l ly i nt h e i n te r io ro fs ome o ft h eb a s t ion sa nd t owe r st h a tf l ank t h ee x te rna lw a l lo ft h ev ilage . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t t h e i n i t ia l s t age o fp roduc t - t h i s i st os ay , t h e r educ t ion o f t h e m ine ra l - w a sm ade o u t s ide t h es e t t lemen t ; i np l a ce sw he r et h ef ume sc ou ld n o th a rm

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t h e i nhab i tan t s . A t t h e p re sen t t ime t h e re i sa n e xcep t iona l c oncen t ra t ion i nt h e i n ter io ro fo ne d we l l ing ( Hu tA )o fv a r iou s manufac tu red o b jec t s( as l ende rc h ise l ) , p i ece so fr e cyc led o b jec t s( f ragmen t so ft h ree d i f f e ren ta xe s )a nd c oppe rd rop le t s . T he t ypo log ica la s semb lage o ft h ea r te fa c t sf ound i nt h ev ilage i n c lude st r apezo ida l , f l a t a xes , c h i se l s , ( s ome t imes w i th av e ry o pen c u t t ing e dges ) , b u r ins a nd a w l s , s t ra igh tb l aded s aw a nd ,f i na l ly , s t ra igh tk n if eb l ade s . A s a n u l t ima te r e sea r ch o b jec t ive , w e i n tend t h a t t h e s u r round ing a r ea s w i l l b e p ro spec ted s y s tema t ica l ly f o rt h ec oppe ro re s . E l Ma lagon ( Cu l la r -Baza ,G ranada ) . *******

T he v ilage o fE l Ma lagon , s i tua ted i nt h e P a s i l lo d eC h i r ive l , i nt h en o r thea s to ft h e P rov ince o fG ranada h a sb een t h eo b jec to ft wo e xcava t iona lc ampa ign si n1 975 a nd 1 983 ( Ar r iba s , Mo l ina , T o r re , N a je ra a nd S aez 1 978 ; T o r re 1 984 ) . T he se h ave s uppo r ted t h ei n fo rma t ion o b ta ined b yW . S chu le ( 1980 )i nt h en e ighbou r ing s i te o f C e r ro d el aV i rgen ,O r ce . T he v i l lage i sl o ca ted o n ag en t le h i l lock a tt h ef oo to f al ime ma ss i f ,w he r e r ema in s o f h igh ly e roded c on s t ruc t ions c an b e o b served a nd t h a t s eem t oc o r respond t o s eve ra l f o r t if ied w a l l s w h ich w ou ld h ave b een b ound b y a tl e a s t t wo c oncen t r ic a r ea s ; t hus , emu la t ing t h e d ef en s ive mode l o fL o s M i l la res . T hese r ema ins w e re f ound d u r ing t h e 1 983 c ampa ign a nd i np r inc ipa ls uppo r tt h e p ropo sed a mp l if ica t ion o ft h es e t t lemen t . T he w o rk o fe xcava t ion h a sc oncen tra ted o n as ma l lh ummock ,s i tua ted a tt h ef oo to f t he h i l l r e f e r red t o a bove , a nd wo rk h a s u nea r thed a s ma l l f o r t if ied a r ea whe re s eve ra lr ound h u t so fs ma l ld i ame te r ( g ene ra l ly n o tl a rge rt h an 4m e te r ) h ave b een l o ca ted i nt h e i n ter io r . I ti s made u p o f mud w a l ls b u i l t o n ama son ry b a se t ha t a ugmen ti nh e igh ta nd c on s i s tency t h roughou tt h es equence a nd w h ich w ou ld h ave b een r oofed w i th b ranches s mea red w i th mud . T he mo s t c ha rac te r is t ic i nne r dwe l l ing s t ruc tu r es w e re c on t inuous b enche s s t re tched a l ong t h eb a se a nd t ho se o f l a rge r ound h ea r th sb ounded b y amud r i ng . T he s equence h a s t h ree p ha se s w i th s upe r impo sed d we l l ing s b e long ing t ot h ep re B eake r P er iod . N eve r the less t wo f r agmen t s o fB eake r p o t te ry o f Ma r i t ime s t y le w e re f ound i nt h el a te o ccupa t iona ll e ve lo ft h es e t t lemen t ,d u r ing t h e 1 980 c ampa ign wh ich o b l iged u st or e a s se s st h ed a te o fa bondonmen to ft h ev i l lage . A sf o rt h e 1 4C d a te st h a tw e re o b ta ined a tE l Ma lagon ,w eh ave b een a b le d a te i t so ccupa t ion a tc i r ca 2 300 b e a nd c i rca 1 900 b c , t hus r e -eva lua t ing a d a te o f 2 545 b c , a l ready p ub l i shed a nd w h ich w e c on s ide ri ne r ro r . T he a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd s of a rs how s t h a tt h e re i sl i t t le d oub ti nr ega rd t ol i nk ing t h es i t et ot h eL o sM i l la re sc u l tu re . F rom t h e d a ta o b ta ined , w e c an d e te rm ine t h a tt h e i nhab i tan t s a l so i nE l Ma lagon d evo ted mos t o f t h e i r a t ten t ion t o c oppe r m in ing , a s t h e re i s much e v idence s uppor t ing t h e i mpo r tance o f m e ta l lu rg ica lp roduc t ion . T he f i r s t s t age u nde r taken d ur ing t h ec ur ren ta r chaeo /me ta l lu rg ica li nves t iga t ion p rog ramme , i nc o l labo ra t ion w i th t h eJ A MS , h a s l e dt ot h el o ca t ion o f ma lach i te o r eo n t h e s ou the rn h i l lo ft h e 1 51

D

Hook e ta l

p l a teau o n w h ich t h e f o r t r e s s i sl o ca ted , h av ing b een e xp lo i ted b y m ean s o fs ma l l s t in t s ;f a c to r sw h ich e xp la in t h el o ca t ion o ft h ev i l lage . T he m a te r ia l sf ound i nt h ev ilage 's c on tex tc ove rt h ew ho le p roce s so fm e ta l lu rg ica l p roduc t ion . Two p i e ce o fr aw m ine r a lw e r ef ound c l o se t ot h eh u t sa sw e l la ss l ag i n t h e i r i mmed ia te s u r round ing s a nd t h e p re sence o f c r uc ib le s a nd mou ld s . T h i s e v idence s hows t h a t t h e m ine ra l e x t ra c t ion a nd m e l t ing w ou ld h ave h ad t ob een d one i no ven so fr ud imen ta ry t y pe , m ade o fo pen a i rh o le s n ea rt ot h ev i l lage , a nd t h a tt h ep roduc t ion o ft h eo b jec t sc ou ld h ave t a ken p l a ce i nt h eh ab i ta t st h em se lve s . A l l t h e c a s ted m e ta l o b jec t s m ade o u t o fc oppe r h ave af unc t iona l c ha ra c te r a nd c ons i s t o f k n ive s w i th t o ngue s haped h af t s a nd s ome t ime s w i th c u rved b l ade s , s t ra igh to rc u rved b l aded s aw s ,t r apazo ida l ,f l a ta xe s ,b ur in sa nd a w l s . T he p r inc ipa la im o ff u tu r er e sea r ch a tE l Ma lagon w i l lb ec en t e r ed o nt h ee xcava t ion o f t h e m ine s m en t ioned a bove , l o ca ted i n t h e s ou the rn h i l l o f t h e f o r t if ied l ime p la teau tha t a r e o pen a l ong t h e l e ng th o f t h e ma lach i te r i ch d epo s i t s ; w hose e xp lo i ta t ion p e r iod m ay w e l lh ave s t a r ted i nt h eE a r ly C oppe rA ge .

L o s C as t i l le jos ( Mon tef r io ,G ranada ) . ********

I nt h e Mega l i th ic v ilage so ft h ed ep re s s ion sa nd moun ta inou sa r ea so ft h eP rov ince o fG ranada t h e m e ta l lu rgy h a s l i t t le i mpo r tance , c on t ra r i ly t ow ha th appen si nt h e c u l tu re o ft h eL o sM ila r ean s e t t lemen t s ,a st h i sa c t iv i ty a ppea r sn o tt oh ave b een p a r t o ft h eb a s ic e conom i c s t r uc tu r e . We w el k now t h e Megal i th ic C omp lex o fP er ia sd el o sG i tano sw he re t h es e t t lemen t o fL o sC a s t i l le jo si sl o ca ted , w h ich a f te rs eve ra lf o rme re xcava t ion sw a st h eo b jec t o ft wo c ampa igns i n 1 971 a nd 1 974 b y t h e D epa r tmen t o fP reh is to ry o fG ranada ( A r r iba s a nd Mo l ina 1 978 a nd 1 979 ) . O ur w o rk , w h ich w a s o rgan ised i n f i ve p ha se so fi n ve s t iga t ion ,p roduced ac on t inua lc u l tu ra ls equence f r om t h eN eo l i th i ct o t h eE a r ly B ronze. P ha se I Iw a s s uppe r impo sed o nt wo c omp lex N eo l i th ic s t ra ta , w h ich h a s b een d a ted i nt h eE a r ly C oppe rA ge , v e r if ied b y t h ep re sence o fc oppe r s l ag a nd af ew m anuf ac tu red o b jec t s , a nd s how s t h e a ppea rance o f mode s t l o ca l m e ta lw o rk ing t e chn ique s . P roduc t ion a ppea r s t oh ave b een ma in ta ined i nt h en ex t p ha ses w i th s ome o b jec t s wo r th men t ion ing ( e .g . l ong , f o l l ia ted , t a nged a r rowhead s , c u rved b l aded k n ives , s o l id c h i se l s one h a s b een h a f ted w i th d ee r a n t le r - b u r in sa nd a w l s ) . S eve r a lt a nged a r rowhead sa nd s ome r i ve ted d agge r sf ound i nt h e Mega l i th ic g r aves o ft h e n ea rby c eme te ry s e tt h e mo s tr e cen t momen to ft h e p r eh i s to r ic s i te ,a l ready i nt h eE a r ly B ronze A ge . C er ro d e l a Enc ina Monach i l ,G ranada ) * ******* C e r ro d e l aE nc ina , o fa l l t h e B ronze A ge s i te s e xcava ted d u r ing t h e l a s t y ea r s i n e a s ter nA ndu lu s ia ,i st h e mo s to u t s tand ing . I ti sl o ca ted i n an a r row v a l ley t h a tc u t s t h rough t h ef oo to ft h eS i e r ra N evada a bou ts even k i lome te r sa way f r om t h ec i ty o f G ranada . I th a s ap r iv i leged l o ca t ion w h ich c on t ro l led t h e o u t le t o f t h e me ta l

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e xp lo i ted i nt h e s u r round ing s pu r s o ft h e S i e r ra sa sw e l l a st h ep a s teu rl a nd so ft h e h i gh moun ta in sa nd o ft h e e x ten s ive s t eppe so fL aV ega a l ong w i th t h ee s tabl i shed Monach i l V a l ley a nd i t s h igh ly a r ab le s o i l s . A s i th a s b een r evea led b y t h e e xcava t ion s , t h e v i l lage d eve loped i ni mpo r tance f r om t h e E a r ly B ronze t oL a te B ronze A ge ,w h ich h ave b een c a r r ied o u ts i n ce 1 968 ( Mo l ina 1 983 ) T he A rga r ic h ab i ta t so ft h es i t ew e r eo rgan i sed a r ound af o r t if ied a r ea ,l o ca t ed i nt h e c en t ra lp l a teau o ft h ec omp lex a nd w e r er ebu i l ts eve ra lt ime s . T he re t h ed we l l ing s w e re c on s t ruc ted a r ound t h e f o r t if ied a r ea a nd a l ong t h e t e r ra ce s c u ti n as e r ie s o f s t eps d own t h e p l a teau a nd h i l l s ide s , e x tend ing t ot h e a d ja cen t r i ve r b ank . T he b u r ia l sa r el o ca ted u nde rt h ef l oo ro ft h ed we l l ing s ' i n te r io ra nd p r e sen tu sw i th r i ch g r ave g ood s ,c on s i s t ing o fm e ta lp i ece so fc opp e r , s i lve ra nd g o ld . T he A rga r ic v i l lage s how s l i t t le e v idence o fm e ta l lu rg ic a c t iv i ty , m a in ly s l ag a nd c r uc ib le f r agmen t s ,t o ge the rw i th r a re m anu f a c tu red o b jec t s ,l i ke b u r in sa nd a w l s . I n t h e c eme te ry , t h e re i sb oun ty o fr i ve ted d agge r s , b ur in s , p in s , r i ng s , e a r r ing a nd s p i ra lb r a ce le t s made i nc oppe r ,s i lve ra nd g o ld , a l ong w i th c oppe ra nd s i lve rb ead s . An ew v i l lage c on s i s ted o fi s o la t ed h u t so fo va la nd r e c tangu la rp l an ,c on s t ruc ted o n s mal s t one f ounda t ion sw i th mud w a l l s ,p a r t ly d eco ra ted w i th p l aque so fp l a s t e ra nd w h ich s how mo t if so ff l u ted ( s t r ia ted o rg rooved ) g eome t r ica ld eco ra t ion s . T he e conom ic s t ruc tu r ea l so s how s as t rong c on t ra s ti nr e la t ion sh ip t ot h ep reced ing p ha se . A tp re sen t , f r om am e ta l lu rg ica lp o in to fv i ew , me ta l o b jec t s a ppea rw i th a v e ry d i f f e ren tt y po logy ( c o i led c ape -need le s ,b rooche sa nd r i ng se t c . )i n c lud ing t h e d i scove ry o f ac oa r se , s a ndy mou ld f r agmen t . T he l a t te rd emon s t ra tes t h ep re sence o fl o ca l m e ta l lu rgy ,a l though o f mode s te x t en t . C ues ta d e l N egro ( Pu ru l lena ,G ranada ) ********

T he s i te o fC ue s ta d e l N eg ro i sl o ca ted i nt h e G uad ix D ep re s s ion o n as t eep s l ope t h a td e scend s t h rough ag roup o fb ad land s d own t h e R ive r s F a rde s V a l ley . T h ree c ampa ign so fe xcava t ion sc a r r ied i n1 971 a nd 1 972 h ave g i ven u st h eo ppo r tun i ty t o s t udy t wo s upe r impo sed s e t t lemen t s : t h el owe rA rga r ic w i th af o r t if ied l o ca t ion i n t h ec en t ra lm e se ta , a nd as ma l lf o r tt h a td ef end sa cce s st ot h ev i l lage .T he l a t te rh a s d we l l ing s t h a t h ave w a l l s o fp oo r c on s i s tency a nd t h a t a r e d i ff i cu l t t od e l inea te . T he r ea r ea l so ag r ea tm any p i tg r ave sw i th s ma l ll a te ra lv au l t su nde rt h ef l oo r s .T he u ppe rv i l lage d a ted i nt h eL a te B ronze a nd F ina l B ronze A ge c o r re spond ing t ot h e C ogo ta s Ic u l tu ra lh o r izon ; a c co rd ing t ot h ea r te f a c tm a te r ia l s( d eco ra ted p o t te ry w i th b oqu ique ,e xc i s ted a nd c omb t e chn ique s )a nd c l o se ly r e la ted t ot h eC en t ra l Me se ta p opu la t ion . T h i sp ha se p r e sen t si s o l ted h u t sw i th r e c tangu la rp l an ,a l igned a l ong t h e h i l l s a nd t h e w a te r cou r se s t h a t f o rm t h e l o ca le ( Mo l ina a nd P a re ja , 1 975 ; Mo l ina , C a r ra sco a nd T o r re ,1975 ) . I n t h e A rga r ic v i l lage , d a ted b e tween 1 800 a nd 1 500 b e , t h e re i se v idence o f a r e la t ive ly d eve loped m e ta l lu rgy b a sed o nt h ee v idence o f am e l t ing t r iva lve mou ld ,a s w e l l a sc ommon ly m anuf a c tu red o b jec t s l i ke b u r in s , i ngo t s a nd a w l s ; w he rea s , b y c ompa r i son t h ec emen te ry i sr i ch i nr i ve ted d agge r s ,b u r in sa nd p i n s ,r i ng s ,e a r r ing s

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DR .H ook e ta l

a nd s p i ra l b race le t s made i nc oppe r , s i lve r a nd o ne m ade i ng o ld a nd c oppe r a nd s i lve rb ead s . I nt h e u ppe rh ab i ta t , 1 4C d a ted b e tween 1 300 a nd 1 000 b c , t h e re i sn oe v idence o f m e ta r l lu rgy a c t iv i ty , f r om t h e o b jec t s f ound w e c an p o in t o u t o ne c h i se l , s e ve ra l b u r ins , o ne b race le t o r r i ng w i th s qua re s e c t ion a nd s ome t a nged a nd s t a lked a r rowhead s . L a T err era d e l R e lo j ( Dehe sa d eG uad ix ,G ranada ) ********

T h i s i s as e t t lemen t l o ca ted i nt h e s l ope o f as t eep h i l l , t h a t s t and s w he r e t h er i ve r F a rde rj o in st h er i ve rG uad iana Meno ra nd i sn ea r am a jo rc ommun ica t ion r ou te t h a t c on t ro l s t h e a cce ss t ot h e A l to Guada lqu iv i rV a l ley . I n 1 980 s ome ma te r ia l s w e r e c o l lec ted f r om s eve ra lg r ave sd e s t royed b yt h ew o rk so f aq ua r ry , w h ich f o r ced t h e D epa r tmen to fP reh i s to ry o ft h eU n ive r s i ty o fG ranada t od oa nu rgen te xcava t ion i n t h es umme ro f1 983 ( Mo l ina ,A guayo ,F re sneda a nd C on t re ra s ,i np r e s s ) . O ne h ab i ta ta r ea i sn o tewo r thy .I ti sl o ca ted a l ong s e ve r a lt e r ra ce sw h ich a r ec u ti na s e r ie so fs t ep s ,t h ed we l l ing sb e ing f o rmed o fs e ve ra lr oom so fr e c tangu la rp l an . P i t g r ave sw e r eb u i l tu nde rt h e i rf l oo r sa nd c ove red w i th mou lded m a son ry o rw ooden p l ank ing .T he s i te 's c h rono logy i sb e l ieved t oc o r r e spond w i th t h ef u l lA rga rc u l tu r e p ha se . T he re a r e many a r chaeo log ica le l emen t so b ta ined f r om t h ei n te r io ro ft h ed wel ing s t h a t a r e r e la ted t o m e ta r l lu rgy p roduc t ion ( m ine r h amme r s , p i ece s o f m ine ra l c up r i te - s l ag ,c oppe rd rop le t s a nd c r uc ib le f r agmen t s ) . T he manuf ac tu red m a te r ia l s s how as im i la ra s semb lage t ot h o se o ft h eA rga rc u l tu r ed e sc r ibed a bove . C as te l lon A l to ( Ga le ra ,G ranada ) ********

A s af i na lo b se rva t ion , t h eA rga r ic v i l lage o fC a s te l lon A l to ,l o ca ted i nt h eH ue sca r d ep re s s ion n ea rt h ev i l lage o fG a le ra a nd d own s t ream f r om t h eh omonymou sr i ve r , w a se xcava ted i n1 983 d u r ing a ne me rgency c ampa ign s im i la rt ot h eo ne c a r r ied o u t a tt h e T e r re ra d e R e lo j . T h i s w a s b rough t a bou t b y t h e s po l ia t ion t h e s i te w a s u nde rgo ing ; s pec ia l ly t h e g r ave s , f o r ty o fw h ich w e re a l ready d e s t royed ( Mo l ina , A guayo , F r e sneda a nd C on t re ra s , i np r e s s ) . T he h ab i ta t s how s as im i la r s e t t lemen tp a t te rn t ot h a to f many o t he rA rga r ic s i te s , b e ing b u i l to n as t eep s pu r ,w i th t h ed we l l ing sa l igned a l ong t e r race sc u ti n as e r ie s o fs t ep sa nd w i th p i tg r ave sa nd l i t t le v au l t su nde rt h e i rf l oo r s . T hey c an b ed a ted a t a n l a te s t age o ft h e A rga rc u l tu re ,p robab i ly c i r ca 1 500 b c a nd c i r cal300 b e . T he r ema in so fm e ta l lu rg ica l a ct iv i ty a r e s c a r ce . H e re , m e ta lp roduc t ion mu s th ave b een o fm in ima l i mpo r tance i nt h e e conom ic s t ruc tu r eo ft h ep opu la t ion ; a l though

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manufa c tu red o b jec t sa r ec ommon i nt h eg rave g ood st h a ta r er epe t i t iou so ft h et y pe s a l ready d e sc r ibed f r om C ue s ta d e lN eg ro a nd C e r ro d el aE nc ina .

Ana ly t ica l * ***** C opper -based a r tefac ts T he me thod u sed h e re , a nd b yH a r r i son a nd C raddock ,f o l low st h a to fH ughe se ta l . ( 1976 ) . A pp rox ima te ly 1 0 m i l l ig ramme s amp le s w e r e r emoved f r om e ach o b jec t u s ing aj ewe l le r s d r i l l f i t ted w i th a 1mm . d iame te r s t ee l b i t . T he s amp les w e re a ccu ra te ly w e ighed ,d i s so lved i na qua r eg ia a nd made u pt ov o lume . T he r e su l t ing s o lu t ion sw e re a na ly sed f o rf our teen e l emen t su s ing a t om ic a b so rp t ion s pec t ropho to me t ry ( AAS ) . S i lver -based a r tefac ts S amp le s w e re t aken b y t h e s ame me thod a s f o r t h e c oppe r -based a r tef ac t s . r e su l t ing m e ta ld r i l l ing sw e re d i sso lved i nw a rm 1 : 1 n i t r ic a c id i n ac en t r ifuge T he s upe rna tan tl i qu id w a st h en r emoved a nd made u pt ov o lume f o ra na lys i s . b l ack r e s idue c on ta ins g o ld a nd p o s s ib ly s ome t i n . T h i sw a sd i s so lved i na qua t of o rm as e cond s o lu t ion f o ra na ly s i s .

T he t ube . A ny r eg ia

A tom ic a b so rp t ion s pec t ropho tome t ry s hou ld h ave ap rec i s ion o fa pp rox i -ma te ly 2% f o rt h e ma in a l loy c omponen t , w h ich r educe st oa pprox ima te ly 1 0% f o rt h e m ino r e l emen t sa nd a pp rox ima te ly 3 0% f o rt r ace e l emen t s . F igu re s f o re l emen t s b e low t h e i rr e spec t ive d e tec t ion l im i t s h ave b een r ep laced b y b l ank si nt h eT ab le s f o rt h e s ake o fc l a r i ty . T he f o l low ing f i gur es a r ee s t ima te so f t h er e spec t ive d e tec t ion l im i t s : S n 0 . 2% ; A s 0 . 05% ; S b0 .02% ; C u , F e , P b , Ag , B i 0 .01 % ; C o , Z n , N i , A u 0 .005% ; Mn , C d 0 .001 % . ( No g o ld o r c adm ium w a s f ound i na ny o ft h ec oppe r -ba sed m e ta lwo rk a nd t h e r efo re t h e se e l emen t sh ave b een om i t ted f r om T ab le s 1t o5 ) . Many o f b o th t h e c oppe r a nd s i lve r a r tefac t s w e re s ma l l , a nd a lmos t a l l w e re c or roded t o s ome e x ten t . T h is r e su l ted i n l ow s amp le w e igh t s ( l e ss t h an f i ve m i l l ig ramme si ns ome c a se s ) a nd t h e o cca s iona li n c lu s ion o fc o r ro s ion p roduc t s i n t h ef i na l s o lu t ion s . X -ray f l uo re scence ( XRF ) w a s a l so u sed t oo b ta in s em i -quan t i ta t ive a na lyse s o n o b jec t s w h ich w e re u n su i tab le f o r AAS , s uch a sc ruc ib le f r agmen t s o r e x t reme ly c o r roded o b jec t s . S ec t ion sf r om as ma l ln umbe ro fo b jec t sw e r ee xam ined u s ing t h e s cann ing e l ec t ron m ic ro scope ( SE M ) . T h i s w a s t oe nsu re t h em e ta lwo rk w a s h omogeneous a nd a l so t o make s u re t ha t t h e a r sen ic i nt h e c oppe r -ba sed m e ta lwo rk w a s i ns o l id s o lu t ion a nd n o tm e re ly p re sen ti nt h ei n c lus ions .

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R esu l t s a nd D i scus s ion * ******* M i l lar ian /Copper A ge Me ta lwork T he r e su l t so ft h e AAS a na ly s i so fi t em sr e cen t ly e xcava ted f r om t h eM ila r ian s i t e s a r es hown i nT ab le 1 .A lmo s ta l lt h ea r te f a c t sw e r ef ound t ob eo fa r sen ica lc oppe r ( w i th a r sen ic c oncen t ra t ion so fu pt o3 . 8% , i lu s t ra ted i nF igu re 2 ) . E lemen t s s u ch a sn i cke la nd a n t imony w e r ep r e sen to n ly i nt r a ce a moun t s ,w i th t h ee xcep t ion o ff l a t a xe f r agmen t CB -6 . N o c o r re la t ion b e tween a r sen ic c on ten t a nd o b jec t t y pe w a s f ound f o r t h e M i l la r ian m e ta lwo rk . T in w a s b enea th t h e d e tec t ion l im i t i na l l t h e M i l la r ian m e ta lwo rk a na ly sed . A tt h e M i l la ran s i te o fE l Ma lagon , ( A r r iba se ta l . 1 978 ) , a n o u tc rop o ft h ec oppe r o re ma lach i te o ccu r s w i th in m e t r e s o ft h e s e t t lemen t . Many f r agmen t s o ft h i s o r e w e re f ound i n t h e e xcava ted l a ye r s . XRF a na ly s i s s howed t h e o re t o h ave n o d e tec tab le a r sen ic ( i . e . l e s s t h an 0 . 05% ) . Howeve r , t h e s u r f a ce o f al a rge c l ay mou ld / cruc ib le e xcava ted a tt h e s i te ( i l lu s t ra ted i nE gna ra s ( 1 983 ) , a nd s hown i n P la te 1 )w a s f ound t ob e r i ch i nb o th c oppe r a nd a r sen ic . A l so t h e f ou r teen m e ta l a r tef ac t s a na ly sed f r om t h e s i te w e re f ound t ob e o fa r sen ica l c oppe r . T hough n o r ema in s o fc oppe r s me l t ing f ur naces h ave y e t b een f ound a tE l Ma lagon , i ts e em s l i ke ly t h a tt h ea r sen ic -f ree c oppe ro r ef ound o nt h es i te w a st h e s ou r ce o ft h em e ta l u sed . T hu si ti sc l ea rt h a ta r sen ic i nt h ea r te f ac t sw a sb e ing d el ibe ra t e ly i n troduced . T he re i sn o e v idence t o s ugge s t t h a t a r sen ic -r ich c oppe r o re s w e re b e ing u sed . T hese d i s t inc t ive o r e sh ave n o tb een f ound o no rn ea rt h e s i te , a nd t h eo the rm e ta l s u sua l ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h e se o re s ( s uch a s S b , N i , Ag , P b , e t c . ) h ave n o t b een d e tec t ed i nt h ev a s tm a jo r i ty o ft h em e ta la r t ef ac t si ng r ea t e rt h an t r ace a moun t s . T he c oppe r -a r sen ic a l loy sc ou ld h ave b een p roduced b yt h ea dd i t ion t o mo l ten c opp e ro f t h e mo s tc ommon a r sen ic o r e s ,o rp imen to rr e a lga r ,w h ich r e ad i ly d ecompo se a bove 8 009-C . I ft h ea r sen ic m ine r a lw a sm ixed w i th mo l ten c oppe ru nde rc ha r coa l , t h en much o ft h ea r sen ic v apou rw ou ld b ed i s so lved i nt h ec oppe rr a the rt h an b e ing l o s t a sa r sen iou s o x ide , ( a l though , o fc ou r se , t h eo pe ra t ion w ou ld h ave b een e x t r eme ly h aza rdou sf o rt h es m i th ) . B eaker Me ta lwork T he B eake r m e ta lwo rk a na ly sed h e re ( s hown i n T ab le 2 ) w a s f ound t o b e o f a r sen ica lc oppe r ; n one w a sf ound t ob et i nb ronz e . T he t wo P a lme la p o in t sa na ly sed h ave a r sen ic c on ten t s o f3 . 9% a nd 4 . 0% r e spec t ive ly . T he se a na ly se s a g r ee w i th t h o se o fs im i la rm e ta lwo rk c a r r ied o u tb yH a r r i son a nd C raddo ck . A rgar ic a nd Mo t i l lan Me ta lwork A s w i th t h e M i l la r ian a nd B eake rm e ta lwo rk , a r sen ica lc oppe ra l loys w i th a r sen ic c on ten t s o fu p t o 4% w e re e x ten s ive ly u sed ( Tab le s 3a nd 4 ) . H oweve r , a n a l loy w i th mo re a r sen ic ( 4 .7% A s ) w a s a l so u sed f o ro b jec t s s uch a sd agge rb l ade s a nd p o in t s w he re ah a rd , s ha rp c u t t ing e dge w a s e s sen t ia l ( t he h i ghe r a r sen ic c on ten t p roduce s ah a rde r a l loy a f te rw o rk ing ) . T he u se o ft h e se t wo a l loy s f o rd i f f e ren t o b jec tt y pe si si lu s t r a ted i nF igu r e s 3a nd 4 ,w h ich u s e ac omb ina t ion o ft h ed a ta o f

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H a r r i son a nd C raddock , t h en ew a na ly se s a nd t h e a na ly se so fd agge r sf r om F uen te A lamo , ( by k ind p e rm i ss ion o f P rofe sso r S chuba r t o f t h e D eu tches I n s t i tu t , Mad r id . ) I n mo s tc a se s , t h e a r sen ic c on ten t s o ft h er i ve t s w e re f ound t of o l low t ho se o ft h e b l ade s , b u tw e re g ene ra l ly s omewha tl owe r . McKe r r e la nd T y leco te ( 1972 ) s howed e xper imen ta l ly t h a t h o t wo rk ing o f a r sen ica l c oppe r r e su l ts i n al o ss o f a r sen ic c ommensu ra te t ot h a t o b served h e re . T h is s ugge s t s t h a t u sua l ly b o th r i ve t s a nd b l ade c ame f r om t h es ame p i ece o fm e ta l ,b u tt h eh eav ie rh o tw o rk ing t ow h ich t h e r i ve t s wou ld h ave b een s ub jec tr e su l ted i n ag r ea te rl o s so fa r sen ic . A s w a s a l so f ound b y H a r r ison a nd C raddock , t i n b ronze w a s o n ly r a re ly u sed i n t h eA rgar ic p e r iod . L a te B ronze A ge me ta lwork T he b u lk o f t h e m e ta lwo rk a na lysed b y H a r r ison a nd C raddock w a s o f t h e L a te B ronze A ge ; r e la t ive ly f ew n ew a na ly se so ft h is p e r iod a r er epo r ted h e re ( s hown i n T ab le 5 ) . A r sen ica l c oppe rw a s r a re ly u sed i nt h e L a te B ronze Age , h av ing b een r ep laced b yt i nb ronze a nd l e aded t i nb ronze . I ti si mpor tan t t on o te t h a t w hen t i n i sp resen t i nA rgar ic o r LBA a r te fac t s , t h e c o r re spond ing a r sen ic l e ve ls a r e l ow ( u sua l ly l e ss t h an 0 .2% A s ) . T h is a ga in i nd ica te st h a tt h en a tu ra ll e ve l so fa r sen ic i nt h ec oppe ro re so fS ou th E a s tS pa in a r e a l so l ow , a nd t h e r efo re t h is i sf u r the re v idence f o rt h ep roduc t ion o fa r sen ica lc oppe r b yt h ed e l ibe ra te a dd i t ion o fa r sen ic -r ich m ine ra l st oc oppe r . A rgar ic s i lver T he r e su l t so ft h ea na ly se so ft h eA rga r ic s i lve ra r tef ac t sa r es hown i nT ab le 6 . T he s i lve r u sed a ppea r s t oh ave b een o fh i gh p ur i ty , t h e l e ad l e ve ls b e ing s u rpr is ing ly l ow . T h is i ss i gn if ican ta s mo s to ft h e a nc ien tm e thod so fs i lve r s me l t ing i nvo lved l e ad . E i the r s i lve rw a s e x t rac ted f r om a r gen t if e rous l e ad o re s , o ri ft h e s i lve rw a s n o t a s soc ia ted w i th l e ad , s uch a s s ome o ft h e a rgen to ja ro s i te o re s f ound i nS pa in ( eg . a tR io T in to ) , t h en l e ad w a s u sed t oe x t rac t t h e s i lve r . Mo s t o ft h e l e ad w a s t h en r emoved b y c upe l la t ion , b u t ar e s idua l l e ve l o f g rea te r t h an 0 .05% u sua l ly r ema ined i nt h e s i lve rs op roduced , ( Ga le a nd S to s -Ga le 1 981b ) . I ndeed , McKer re l ( 1972 ) f ound g rea t d i f f icu l ty i nr educ ing t h e l e ad c on ten t t ob e low 0 . 5% i n h i s c upe l la t ion e xpe r imen t s . T he A rga r ic s i lve r u sua l ly c on ta in s l e ss l e ad t h an t h is , s ugge s t ing c upe l la t ion w a sn o te mp loyed . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a tn a t ive s i lve rw a sb e ing u sed ( a l though t h e g o ld c on ten t s a r e l owe rt h an o ne w ou ld e xpec ti ft h is w e re t h e c a se ) o r t h a t d epo s i t s o fh o rn s i lver ( s i lve r c h lo r ide ) w e re b e ing e xp lo i ted . T h is c on t ra s ts w i th t h e E a s te rn Med i ter ranean , w he re c upe l la t ion w a s a l ready b e ing p rac t i sed , ( Ga le a nd S to s -Ga le 1 981a ) . T he c oppe rl e ve l s ( w i th t h ree e xcep t ion s ) a r eb e low 1 % , a nd a r eo f ten b e low 0 .2% . T he se a r el ow e nough t oh ave h ad l i t t le e f f ec to nt h ep hy s ica lp roper t ie so ft h es i lve r , a nd a r e t h e refo re u n l ike ly t oh ave b een d e l ibe ra te a dd i t ions . I ti sc l ea rt h a tf u r the r wo rk o nt h e a va i lab le s i lve rs ou rces i nS ou th -ea s tS pa in i sr equ i red t or e so lve h ow t h es i lve rw a sp roduced .

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C onc lus ions * ******* T he q uan t i ta t ive a na ly s i so f al a rge n umbe ro fa r tef ac t sf r om c on t ro l led e xcava t ion s i n ar e la t ive ly s ma l la r ea h a sg r ea t ly i n c rea sed t h eu nde r -s tand ing o ft h ed eve lopmen t o fc oppe ra l loys . T he c hang ing a l loy u sage f r om C oppe rA ge t oL a te B ronze A ge i s i lu s t ra ted i nF igu re 5 . A tc ha lco l i th ic c oppe rp roduc ing s i tes s uch a sE l Ma lagon , i th a s b een p o s s ib le t o i n teg ra te t h e a na ly t ica l r e su l ts o f t h e me ta lwo rk w i th o the r ma te r ia l f r om t h e e xcava t ion a nd d emon s t ra te b eyond r e asonab le d oub tt h ed e l ibe ra te p roduc t ion o f a r sen ica lc oppe ra l loy s . B yt h eM idd le B ronze A ge t h em e ta l sm i th sw e re a b le t oc on t ro lt h ea r sen ic c on ten t o ft h e i ra l loy s s uf f ic ien t ly t op roduce ah a rd , h igh a r sen ic c on ta in ing a l loy , w h ich w a su sed f o rd agge rb l ade sa nd p o in t sw he r e as ha rp c u t t ing e dge w a so fp a ramoun t i mpo r tance . A r sen ica l c oppe rc on t inued t ob e u sed u n t i l t h e L a te B ronze A ge , w hen t h e re i sa d rama t ic c hangeove rf r om a r sen ica lc oppe rt ot i nb ronze a nd l e aded t i nb ronze . T he v i r tua l e c l ipse o fa r sen ica l c oppe r a tt h e e nd o ft h e A rga r ic p e r iod i ss t r ik ing a nd s ugge s t st h a tw hen t i nb ronze b ecame a va i lab le ,t h eh aza rdou sp roduc t ion m e thod s o fa r sen ica lc oppe ra loy sw e r eg r a tefu l ly a bandoned . I n a dd i t ion t oc oppe r , s i lve rw a s a l so p roduced a ta n e a r ly d a te b y t h e p recoc iou s me ta lsm i th so fS ou th -ea s tS pa in . T he c ompo s i t ion o ft h e s i lve rs ugge s t si tw a sn o t made b yt h eu sua l me thod so fs i lve rs me l t ing u sed i na n t iqu i ty . A l so , mo s to fi tw a s o fh i gh p u r i ty ; c oppe rw a sn o tu sua l ly a dded t od eba se i t . T he c omb ina t ion o fd e ta i led s c ien t if ic s t udy o f ma ter ia l f r om c a refu l ly c on t ro l led e xcava t ion s hou ld r evea l much mo re o ft h e m e ta l -mak ing p roce sses i no ne o ft h e f o rma t ive a r ea so fB ronze A ge m e ta l lu rgy .

Acknow ledgements ********

We w ou ld l i ke t ot h ank t h eS t i f tung V o lk swagenwe rk , Wo lf sbu rg f o rt h e i rg ene rou s a s s is tance w i th t h is p ro jec t , C a i t l in B uck , M ike C owe l l a nd N ige l Meek s f o r a na ly s ing s ome o ft h e a r tef ac t s r epor ted h e re a nd M ike H ughes f o r many h e lpfu l s ugge s t ions .

1 58

B ib l iography ******* A r r iba s , A . , 1 977 . ' E l I do lo d e ' E l Ma lagon ' ( Cu l la r -Baza , G ranada ) ' , i n C uad ernos d eP r eh i s tor ia d el aU n iver s idad d eG ranada 2 ,p p . 6 3 8 6 . A r r iba s , A . , Mo l ina , F . , T o r re , F . d e l a . , N a je ra , T .Y . a nd S aez , T . , 1 978 . ' E l p ob lado d e l a E dad d e l C ob re d e l ' E l Ma lagon ' ( Cu l la r -Baza , G ranada ) ' , i n C uadernos d e P reh i s tor ia d e l a U n iver s idad d e G ranada 3 ,p p . 6 7 -116 . A r r iba s , A . , Mo l ina , S aez , T . F . , T o r re , F .d e l a , A guayo , P .Y . a nd N a je ra , T .Y . 1 979 . ' Excavac iones e n l o s M i l la res ( San te F e , A lmer ia ) i nCuad erno sd eP r eh i s to r ia d el aU n ive r s idad d eG ranada 4 ,p p . 6 110 . C ha r le s , J .A . , 1 967 . ' E a r ly A r sen ica l B ronze s ' -A Me ta l lu rg ica lV iew ' , Amer ican J ourna lo fA r chaeo logy 7 1 ,1 ,p p . 2 1 -26 . E gna ra s , A .M . , 1 983 . ( e d . ) , ' E l Ma lagon , ( Cu l la r -Baza , G ranada ) ' i nB e l la sA r t e s 8 3 , p .4 1 , G ranada . G a le , N .H . a nd S to s -Ga le , Z .A . , 1 981a . ' Cyc lad ic L ead a nd S i lve r Me ta l lu rgy ' ; i n A nnua lo ft h eB r i t i sh S choo lo fA r chaeo logy a tA then s 7 6 , p p . 1 69 2 24 . G a le , N .H . a nd S to s -Ga le , Z .A . , 1 98 l b . ' Anc ien t E gyp t ian S i lve r ' , J ourna l o f E gyp t ian A r chaeo logy , 6 7 ,p p . 1 03 -15 . H a r r i son , R .J . a nd C raddo ck , P .T . , 1 981 . ' A S tudy o ft h e B ronze A ge Me ta lwo rk f r om t h eI b e r ian P en in su la i nt h eB r i t i sh Mu suem l , Ampur ia s LX IV , p p . 13 -79 , B a r ce lona . Hughe s , M .J . , C owe l l , M .R . a nd C raddock , P .T . , 1 976 . ' A tom ic A b so rp t ion T echn ique si nA r chaeo logy ' ,A rchaeome t r y 1 8 ,p p . 1 9 -37 . J unghan s , S . , S angme i s te r , E . a nd S ch rode r , M . , 1 960 , 1 968 a nd 1 974 . S tud ien z ud en A nf angen d er Me ta l lu rg ie , Mann V e r lag ,B e r l in . McKe r re l , H . a nd S t even son , R .B .K . , 1 972 . ' S ome A na ly se s o fA ng lo -Saxon a nd A sso c ia ted O r ien ta l S i lve rC o inage ' , i nE .T . H a l l a nd D .M . Me tca l f ( ed s . ) , Me thod s o f C hem ica l a nd Me ta l lurg ica l I nve s t iga t ion o f A nc ien tC o inage , p p . 1 95 -209 , RNS , L ondon .

1 59

DJ ? . Hook e ta l

McKe r r e l , H . a nd T y leco te , R .F . , 1 972 . ' T he Wo rk ing o fC oppe r -A r sen ic A l loy si n t h e E a r ly B ronze A ge a nd t h e E f f ec t o n t h e D e term ina t ion o f P rovenance ' ,P roceed ing so ft h eP reh i s tor ic S oc ie ty 3 8 ,p p . 2 09 -18 . R enf rew , C . , 1 967 . ' Cyc lad ic Me ta l lu rgy a nd t h e A egean E a r ly B ronze A ge ' , Amer ican J ourna lo fA rchaeo logy 7 1 ,p p . 1 20 . T y leco te , R .F . , 1 976 . AH i s tor yo f Me ta l lurgy ,p p . 7 10 , L ondon .

1 60

T 3ble

1

M illarian m etalwork

l lentIty

0 esertptInr .

P rovenance

L M-10146

S aw

L ox M 1118 1 .35

C u

A m

S n

P b

A g

N i

9 7.3

. 65

L M-12045

R od

L na M illares

9 3.6

1 .76

. 014

L M-12054

R od

L os M tllares

9 8.2

. 19

L M-12088

A xe f ragment

L os M illares

9 6.5

1 .29

L M-12096

A xe f ragment

L os M illares

9 6.2

1 .30

L M-12097

A xe f ragment

L os M illares

9 9.1

1 .22

C M-13073

L arge n eedle

L oa M illares

L M-30004

l i , jd

L os M 1115r53

L M-60003

C hisel

L M-61025 L M-80005

7 n

F e

3 6

. 108

. 079

. 139

. 039

. 013

. 116

. 047

. 017

. 009

. 143

. 020

. 019

. 150

. 020

. 018

. 152

. 023

. 015

. 058

9 5. 6 3 .76

. 048

. 064

. 015

. 010

. 084

9 4.3

3 .12

. 010

. 027

. 008

. 003

. 023

L os M illares

9 3.7

3 .10

S pill

L os M illares

8 6.9

1 .65

. 045

. 165

. 020

. 087

R Od

L os M illares

9 1.1

. 43

. 017

. 092

. 018

. 019

. 058

L M-Sup-2

R od

L os M illares

9 6.5

. 79

. 016

. 082

. 009

. 020

. 105

. 06

C B-6

F lat a xe f ragment

E l M alagon

9 1.9

1 .60

. 044

. 44

1 .13

M n

C o

. 027 . 018

. 095

. 024

. 119

. 029

2 .16

. 11

C B-2137

B lade

E t M alagon

8 9.8

C B-213 1 1

A wl

E l M alagon

9 9.0

1 .28

. 045

. 049

. 010

. 061

C A-3382

` : 4 1, )

F l M alagon

9 3.6 2 .05

. 008

. 104

. 137

. 164

C B-4051

D agger

E l M alagon

9 8.3

1 .01

. 039

. 044

. 011

. 012

C B -4 054

S aw

E l M alagon

9 3.8

1 .56

. 045

. 049

. 064

. 045

. 13

P b

A g

Z n

F e

S b

. 010

. 106

T able

P I

. 0013 . 029

. 723

. 11

. 045

. 0011

1 :M illerlen m etalwork ( Continued)

I dentity

D escription

P rovenance

C D-4149

C urved

E l M alagon

8 2.3 2 .85

. 029

C B-4269

S quare-sectioned r od

E l M alagon

9 5.8

. 48

. 009

. 018

. 006

C H-4399

F lat b lade

E l M alagon

9 1.7

. 56

. 009

. 071

. 02B

C D-5101

F lat t ang o ed d agger

E l M alagon

8 7.2 3 .31

C B-6086

B lade f ragment?

E l M alagon

9 2.6 2 .51

C B-8500

S aw

E l M alagon

8 9.2

1 .13

C B-9143

S quare-sectioned r od

E l M alagon

9 4.1

. 87

C D-12144

S aw

E l M alagon

8 9.9 2 .65

B M-SBA 3 39

P oint

C erro d e L os C anteras

9 6.1

f ragment

C u

A a

S n

N i

. 044

B i

M n

C o

. 0016

. 029 . 005

. 078

. 005

. 059

. 0031

. 036 . 058

. 016

1 .62

. 148

. 020

. 099

. 0016

. 052

. 025

. 063

. 0009

. 101

. 052

. 064

. 196

A g

N I

. 027

. 007

. 014

. 027

. 013

. 063

. 07

. 0013

. 013

. 07

. 030

F e

S b

E a

T able 2 : B eaker m etalwork I dentity

D escription

P rovenance

M F-694

R od

L os C astillejos

9 6.9

1 .19

M F-787

P almela p oint

L os C astillejos

9 4.1

4 .02

. 006

. 009

M F-2035

P oint

L os C astillejos

9 6.7

1 .33

. 013

. 057

. 114

M F-2090

C hisel i n b one h andle

L os C astillejos

9 9.3

1 .16

. 043

. 009

M F-2169

C hisel

L os C astillejos

9 1.1

2 .37

M F-3590

P almela p oint

L os C d3t1113 , 103

9 0.5 3 .93

M 1-3681

S quare-sectioned p oint

L os C astillejos

9 3.8 3 .42

. 008

M F-7140

T anged d agger

L os C astillejos

9 0.8 2 .69

. 012

0 1 W MBBC

C u

TABLE

1 61

A s

S n

P b

. 010

. 012

Z n

. 012 . 06

. 021 . 005

. 035

. 07

. 027

. 020

. 052

. 005

. 103

. 08

. 004

. 062

. 10

M n

1 . ,

T able 3

2

A rgarlc m etalwork

I dentity

D escription

P rovenance

P -161

D agger

C uents d el

P -3596

A wl

C uesta d el N egro

9 7.2 2 .98

. 008

P -3676a

T hree-rive ted d agger ( Blade)

C uesta d el N egro

9 4.3 4 .25

. 008

P -3676b

T hree-riveted d agger

C uesta d el N egro

9 6.1

. 005

F ragment

( Rivet)

C u N egro

8 2.8

A s

P b

A g

N i

Z n

F e

S b

1 .78

. 052

. 041

. 008

. 024

. 08

2 .96

P -3700a

T hree-riveted d agger

( Blade)

C uesta d el N egro

7 1.0 5 .10

P -1700b

T hree-riveted d agger

( Rivet)

C uesta d el N egro

9 1.3

P -4168a

R iveted d agger

C uesta d el N egro

9 2.6 2 .29

( Blade)

S n

. 15 9 .90

. 017

. 023

. 205

. 020

. 006

. 042

. 107

. 093

. 016

. 021

. 022

. 032

. 015

. 007

P -4168b

R iveted d agger ( Rivet)

C uesta d el N egro

9 5.1

2 .94

B racelet

C uesta d el N egro

9 6.1

. 96

. 093

. 022

P -4571

S quare-sectioned a wl

C uesta d el N egro

9 0.7 2 .97

. 011

. 114

P -9219

S quare-sectioned a wl

C uesta d el N egro

9 7.4

1 .06

. 008

. 030

P -9783

A wl

C uesta d el

9 6.5 3 .70

. 051

. 053

P -I1202

A wl

C uesta d el N egro

9 4.9

P -11203 1 %

T wo-riveted d agger ( Blade)

C ueata d el N egro

9 2 .5 5 .70

P -11203b

T wo-riveted d agger

C uesta d el N egro

9 6.8

P -11213a

T hree-riveted d agger

( Blade)

C uesta d el N egro

P -11213b

T hree-riveted d agger

( Rivet)

C ueata d el N egro

9 1.2 8 .29

. 021

. 016

P -12106a

T wo-riveted d agger

C uesta d el N egro

8 8.9

1 .29

. 029

. 026

C u

A s

T able 3

( Rivet)

1 .21

. 014

C o . 003

. 016

P -4169

N egro

M n

. 044

. 008

1 .60

B i

. 028

. 055

. 011

. 008

. 016

. 017

1 .40

. 014

. 002

. 008

9 6.2 3 .36

. 009

. 03

. 04

. 026

. 0011

. 03

. 020 . 049

A rgaric m etalwork ( Continued)

I dentity

D escription

P rovenance

S n

P b

N i

Z n

F e

P -13164

T wo-riveted d agger

C uesta d el N egro

8 8.1

. 024

. 113

. 024

P -31128

A wl?

C uesta d el N egro

9 5.6 2 .84

. 012

. 004

. 052

P -37214

A wl

C uesta d el N egro

8 2.0 4 .31

. 036 . 022 . 050 . 167

P -37106

A wl

C uesta d el N egro

9 1.1

. 107

. 001

P -390I3

D agger

C uesta d el N egro

9 4.3 6 .86

P -39014

A wl

C uesta d el N egro

9 7.7 4 .38

. 006

. 008

. 010

P -45209a

T wo-riveted

C ueeta d el N egro

9 7.8 3 .05

. 024

. 0?4

. 022

. 014

. 023

J agger

( Blade)

( Blade)

. 10 7 .14 4 .32

A g

. 67

. 019

R iveted d agger

C uesta d el N egro

8 8.3 6 .71

C uesta d el N egro

9 8.5

. 80

. 052

. 004

. 160

P -65011a

T wo-riveted d agger ( Blade)

C uesta d el N egro

9 0.1

3 .76

. 039

. 014

. 017

1 .56

I wo-riveted d agger ( Rivet)

C uesta d el N egro

9 7.0

C uesta d el N egro

6 0.8

P -69074

A wl

C uesta d el N egro

9 5.4 3 .04

P -6908)

B lade?

C uesta d el N egro

7 1.9

C o . 006

. 029

. 03

. 316

. 052

. 03

D agger f ragment?

B racelet?

M n

. 073

p -45507a

P -65011b

B i

. 025

P -60002b

P -65012

S b

. 023

. 363

. 006

1 2.2 . 030

. 214

. 079

9 .50 . 035

. 145

. 020

. 107

. 016 . 016

. 030

. 014

. 021

. 03

. 041

4 ,

1 W IM BBC

TABLE

3a 1 62

A T ab le 3 s A rgaric m etalwork

( Continued)

I dentity

D escription

P rovenance

P -13164

T wo-r1ve 1nd d agger

C uesta d el

P -31128

A wl?

C uesta d el N egro

9 5.6 2 .84

. 012 . 004

P -32214

A wl

C uesta d el N egro

8 2.0 4 .31

. 036

. 022

P -37106

A wl

C uesta d el N egro

9 1.1

. 107

. 001

P -39013

D agger

C uesta d el N egro

9 4.3 6 .86

P -39014

A wl

C uesta d el N egro

9 7.7 4 .38

. 006

. 008

. 010

P -45209a

T wo-riveted d agger

C uesta d el N egro

9 7.8 3 .05

. 024

. 024

. 022

. 014

P -45507e

R iveted d agger

C uesta d el N egro

8 8.3 6 .71

. 023

P -60002b

D agger f ragment?

( Blade)

( Blade)

'C ueeta

C u N egro

A m

8 8.1

d el N egro

S n

P b

. 10 7 .14 4 .32

. 67

9 8.5

. 80

P -65011e

T wo-riveted d agger

( Blade)

C uesta d el N egro

9 0.1

3 .76

P -65011b

T wo-riveted d agger ( Rivet)

C uesta d el N egro

9 7.0

1 .56

P -65012

B racelet?

C uesta d el N egro

6 0.8

P -69074

A wl

C uesta d el N egro

9 5.4

P -69081

B lade?

C uesta d el N egro

7 1.9

k g

N i

. 024

. 113

Z n

F e

S b

B i

M n

. 024 . 052 . 050

C o . 006

. 029

. 167 . 019

. 03 . 073

1 2.2

. 316

. 052

. 03 . 107

. 052

. 004

. 160

. 039

. 014

. 017

. 023

. 363

. 006

. 016

. 030

. 214

. 079

3 .04 9 .50

. 025

. 035

. 145

. 016

. 030

. 014

. 021

. 020

. 03

. 041

T able 3 : A rgaric m etalwork ( Continued) I dentity

D escription

P rovenance

D G-1024

B ead?

T errera d el R eloj

C u

D G-1043

S quere-eectioned r od

T errera d el R eloj

9 2.7

. 64

. 011

. 982

D G-1044

S quare-sectioned r od

T errera d el

R eloj

8 2.3

. 81

. 007

. 070

D G-3133

F lat a xe

T errera d el

R eloj

9 9.0

1 .49

. 023

. 054

8 0.9

A ß

S n

. 59

. 75

P b

k g

N i

Z n

F e

. 041

1 .75

. 006

. 014

. 034

. 003

. 079

. 019

. 018

R iveted d agger

( Blade)

T errera d el

R eloj

7 6.1

2 .17

. 020

. 042

. 009

. 118

D G-31356

, Riveted d agger

( Rivet)

T errera d el

R eloj

6 7.7

1 .96

. 011

. 017

. 011

. 081

D agger?

T errera d el

R eloj

7 9.2

. 44

. 006

D C-4265

S quare-eeetioned a wl

T errera d el

R eloj

8 9.8 3 .13

. 017

B i

M n

C o

. 027 . 007

D C-3135a

D G-4262

S b

. 005

. 0009 . 0017

. 026 . 009

T hree-riveted d agger

( Blade)

T errera d el

R eloj

8 8.6

1 .22

. 220

. 056

D G-4297b

T hree-riveted d agger

( Rivet)

T errera d el

R eloj

9 0.7

. 9?

. 019

. 019

D G-4298

T wo-riveted d agger

T errera d el

R eloj

9 6.3 3 .0 4

. 027

. 012

D G-4299

S quare s ectioned a wl

T errera d el R eloj

8 2.6

. 80

. 019

. 007

D C-6304

F lat a xe

T errera d el R eloj

9 9.5 2 .11

. 022

. 039

. 010

. 112

. 026

D G-4207a

. 002

. 0013

. 028

. 0010

. 03

. 195 . 009

. 008

. 012

V

0 1 W MBBC

TABLE

r 3 71 63

T able 3 I dentity

A rgaric m etalwork ( Continued) D escription

P rovenance

C u

A s

S n . 75

P h

A g

N i

Z n

F e

. 006

. 014

. 034

. 007

. 079

. 019

. 018

D G-1024

B ead?

T errera d el R eloj

8 0.9

. 59

. 041

1 .75

D G-1043

S quare-sectioned r od

T errera d el

R eloj

9 2.7

. 64

. 011

. 982

D G-1044

S quare-sectioned r od

T errera d el R eloj

8 2.3

. 81

. 007

. 070

D G-3133

F lat a xe

T errera d el

9 9.0

1 .49

. 023

. 054

R eloj

. 003

R iveted d agger

( Blade)

T errera d el R eloj

7 6.1

2 .17

. 020

. 042

. 009

. 118

D G-31356

‚ Riveted d agger

( Rivet)

T errera d el

R eloj

6 7.7

1 .96

. 011

. 017

. 011

. 081

T errera d el R eloj

7 9.2

. 44

D G-4262

D agger?

D C-4265

S quare-sectioned a wl

T errera d el

R eloj

8 9.8 3 .13

. 017

D G-4297a

T hree-riveted d agger ( Blade)

T errera d el

R eloj

8 8.6

1 .22

. 220

. 056

D C-42976

T hree-riveted d agger

T errera d el R eloj

9 0.7

. 92

. 019

. 019

D G-4298

T wo-riveted d agger

T errera d el R eloj

9 6.3 3 .04

. 027

. 012

D G-4299

S quare s ectioned a wl

T errera d el

8 2.6

. 80

. 019

. 007

D G-6304

F lat a xe

T errera d el R eloj

9 9.5 2 .11

. 022

. 039

( Rivet)

R eloj

R I

M n

C o

. 027

P G-3135a

. 006

S b

. 005

. 0009 . 0017

. 026 . 009

. 002

. 0013

. 010

. 112

. 026

. 028

. 0010

. 03

. 195 . 009

. 008

. 012

T able 3 i A rgario m etalwork ( Continued) I dentity

D escription

P rovenance

C u

A s

S n

P b

A g

. 015

. 068

M -21292

R iveted d agger

( Blade)

C erro d e l a E ncina

8 2.6 5 .62

M -22149a

R iveted d agger ( Blade)

C erro d e l a E noina

9 5.1

1 .87

. 009

. 007 . 007

. 006

M -221496

R iveted d agger ( Rivet)

C erro d e l a E ncina

9 3.1

. 99

. 020

M -52172

D roplet o f w a i st*

C erro d e l a E nclna

9 3.6 2 .96

. 009

M -53027

S piral r ing

C erro d e l a E noina

9 1.6

1 .67

. 012

. 039

M -53028

B racelet

C erro d e l a E nclna

9 6.8

1 .37

. 008

. 153

M -Sup-3a

R iveted d agger

C erro d e l a E noina

9 1.4 4 .26

. 029

( Blade)

N i

Z n

F e

. 012

. 091

. 005

. 035

S b

B i . 018

. 056

. 014

. 076 . 003

. 054

. 011

. 005

. 042

. 014

. 012

. 030

. 124

. 003

. 006

. 12

M -Sup-36

R iveted d agger ( Rivet)

C erro d e l a E noina

9 4.7

1 .73

. 014

. 009

M -Sup-4

A rrowhead

C erro d e l a E ncina

9 6.5

1 .84

. 021

. 012

. 022

1242a

R iveted d agger

( Blade)

P uerto L ope

9 2.3 4 .41

. 029

. 207

. 113

12426

R iveted d agger

( Rivet)

P uerto L ope

9 4.9 3 .16

. 039

. 006

. 013

. 067

1243a

R iveted b ar f ragment?

( Bar)

P uerto L ope

9 6.5 2 .31

. 032

. 014

. 015

. 688

12436

R iveted b ar f ragment?

( Rivet)

P uerto L ope

9 5.4 3 .33

. 006

. 009

. 027

. 019

. 016

. 058

B M-SBA 3 45

F lat a xe

L a L oma d e l a B alunca

9 3.9 4 .49

. 008

. 121

B M-SBA 3 46

C hisel

L a L oma d e l a B alunca

9 6.8 2 .06

. 009

. 033

D M-SBA

P iano-convex

L a L oma d o o l a B alunoa

9 4.1

. 65

. 008

. 17f l

C erro d e L os C astellones 9 5.5 3 .09

. 006

. 015

L B-4058

3 47

Axe

' f anged a rrowhead

O I W MBBC

f ragment

TABLE

3c 1 64

. 018

. 005

. 045

. 07

. 017 . 0 1 ' 18

. 005

. 02 . 4 . 018

. 08

M n

C o

• T able 4

M otillan m etalwork

I dentity

D escription

A -2024

A rrowhead

0 _4009

H od

D -4113

F lat a xe

P rovenance

C u

A s

S n

M otilla d e L os P alacios

9 4.5

3 .72

. 066

M otilla d el A zuer

8 8.8 3 .90

. 115

. 01/

M otilla d el A zuer

9 6.1

1 .80

. 034

. 046

. 074

D -16352

R od

M otilla d el A zuer

9 4.4 2 .46

D -22132a

R iveted d agger ( Blade)

M otilla d el A zuer

9 1.3 5 .13

D -22132b

R iveted d agger

M otilla d el A zuer

9 1.6 3 .26

( Rivet)

P G

A g

N i

Z n

F e

. 081

. 279

. 033

. 070

. 006

. 015

. 069

. 080

. 024

. 018

. 031

. 026

. 010

M n

C o

. 0031

. 036 . 024

. 0018

. 04;

0 -23049

A xe

M otilla d el A zuer

9 7.2 2 .39

. 005

. 021

. 002

A rrowhead

M otilla d el A zuer

9 5.7

. 017

. 014

. 007

. 030

D -29014

A rrowhead

M otilla d el A zuer

9 1.7 2 ./5

. 021

. 012

. 040

0 -Sup-1

A rrowhead

M otilla d el A zuer

9 2.3 4 .51

. 059

8 1

. 018

D -23183

. 97

S b

. 081

. 022

. 024

. 037

T able 5 : L ate B ronze A ge m etalwork I dentity

D encription

P rovenance

P -279

W aste?

C uesta d el N egro

9 2.1

C u

P -5492

A wl

C uesta d el N egro

8 3.6

P -17064

A wl

C uesta d el N egro

9 7.5

P -45087

S quare-nectIoned r ing?

C uesta d el N egro

9 0.2

. 13 7 .14

. 435

. 053

. 040

P -58005

S quare-sectioned r od?

C uesta d el N egro

8 7.9

. 16 7 .31

3 .98

. 021

. 052

P -60002a

A rrowhead

C uesta d el N egro

8 8.6

1 0.2

. 603

. 036

. 049

P -67006

A wl

C uesta d el N egro

9 6.6

4 .84

. 067

. 097

. 003

P -Sup-1

C hisel

C uesta d el

8 8.6

. 07 9 .36

1 .78

. 061

. 014

. 018

. 032

M -97

P oint

C erro d e l a E ncina

8 8.8

. 24 6 .73

. 178

. 050

. 065

. 005

. 042

M -1044

T anged a wl

C erro d e l a E ncina

8 9.6

8 .24

. 077

. 033

. 139

M -1084

B lade f ragment

C erro d e

l a E ncina

7 6.9

. 17 9 .65 7 .46

. 057

. 033

. 051

. 05

M -1466

R od

C erro d e l a E ncina

8 6.4

. 52 2 .43

. 206 2 .00

. 028

. 019 . 110

. 17

. 027

N egro

A s

S n

. 31

. 83

P b

A g

N I

Z n

F e

. 172

. 070

. 036

. 011

. 073

1 0.4 4 .26

. 026

. 015

. 031

. 036

. 021

. 001

. 010

. 051

. 008

. 223

. 06

. 178

. 03

1 .85

M -4018

P in w ith r olled e nd

C erro d e l a E ncina

8 8.0

M -15006

S mall

C erro d e l a E nclna

9 7.3

1 .02

9 1.2

. 21

6 .86

9 2.6

. 41 5 .89

t anged p oint

. 056 . 016

. 031 . 016

. 088

. 046

. 106

. 032

. 06

. 122

. 058

. 041

. 054

. 08

C erro d e

F uonte d Al

C R-TC-2-1

D ouble

E l

E mbocadero

8 9.4

7 .39

. 016

. 0:7

. 008

. 004

. 016

C R-TC-2-2

T runnion a xe

E l

E mbocadero

8 8.6

8 .97

. 030

. 011

. 005

. 003

. 014

TABLE

4 -5 1 65

. 42

. 047

F ibula

0 1VV IV IBBC

C o

. 03

. 040

T runni ,, a xe

1 . 1 1• 1• 1 1.

M n

. 011

. 013

. 045

c r i0_ ,„1

1 .1amon

B i

. 039

M -Sup-1

l ooped a xe

l a E ncina

4 .72 4 .93

. 019

S b

. 009

f r T ail' . 6 : A rgarie s ilver o bjects I dentity

D escription

P rovenance

P -40026

R ing

C uesta d el

N egro

P -41 ' ;1

R ing

C uemta

S ei

N egro

9 9.4

. 19

P -11200

R ing

C uesta d el

N egro

9 6.9

. 20

. 04 .

P -11201

S piral

C uesta d el

N egro

9 5.5

. 09

. 03

P -12087

S piral o r w ire

C uesta d el

N egro

8 7.9

. 20

. 16

P -12091

S piral

C uesta d el N egro

9 4.8

. 09

. 08 . 08

r ing

r ing

A g

C u

8 4.3

. 95

P -12096

S piral

r ing

C uesta d el

N egro

7 6.9

. 17

P -14100

S piral

r ing

C uesta d el

N egro

9 9.9

. 08

1 1f ,111

S piral

r ing

C uesta d el

N egro

9 3.2

. 20

P -16116

S piral

r ing

C uesta d al

N egro

9 7.9

. 36

P -37107

S piral

r ing

C uesta

d el

N egro

3 8.0 2 8.5

P -371106

S piral

r ing

C uesta d el

N egro

6 3.1

P -4 W ,076

D agger r ivet

C uesta d el

N egro

7 8.6 9 .81

P -45510

R ing

C uesta d el

N egro

9 6.3

. 17

P -455Il

R ing

C uemta d el

N egro

9 3.3

P -45512

R ing

C uesta d el

P -45513

S piral

r ing

P -45514

S piral

r ing

T able 6 : A rgaric s ilver o bjects

. 47

. 36

P b

B i

S n

. 16

. 05

. 05 . 03

. 04

. 34

. 02

. 02

N egro

9 4.0 3 .10

. 11

. 03

C uesta d el

N egro

7 5.1

. 87

. 05

. 06

C uesta d el

N egro

9 1.1

. 71

. 05

. 02

A g

C u

A u

P b

. 23

. 07

. 02

. 03

( Continued) P rovenance

I dentity

D escription

P -45516

D racelet

C ueata d el

N egro

4 4.4

P -65013a

R ing

C uesta d el

N egro

9 4.9

. 06

P -65014

B racelet

C uesta d el N egro

9 9.8

. 84

n r , . . .10b3

W ire

T errera d el

R eloj

9 9.8

. 12

D G-6326

R ing

T errera

R eloj

6 5.5

. 12

G CA-18109

R ing

C astellon A lto

9 7.2

. 33

M -53035

W ire

C erro d e

9 5.6

WI N IBBC

A u

d el

l a E ncina

TABLE 6 1 66

. 03

. 02

R I

S n

0 1 WN IBBC

F IGURE

1 67

0 1 WI 9 IBBC

F IGURE

2

1 68

0 ! WIJBBC

F IGURE

3

1 69

0 I W MBBC

F IGURE

4

1 70

%

0 ! W MBBC

F IGURE

1 71

0 I'WL IBBC

PLATE

S obre l a S upues ta Dua l idad Mega l i t i smo lCampan if orme e n l a Mese ta S uper ior E spano la

D r . G e rman D e l ibe s D r . Manue lS an ton ja D epa r tmen t o fP reh i s to ry a nd A r chaeo logy , F acu l ty o fP h i lo sophy a nd L e t te r s , U n ive r s i ty o fV a l lado l id , V a l lado l id ,S pa in . Abs trac t * ***** La s t i e r ra sd el a Me se ta N or te E spa r io la - f undamen ta lmen te l aC uenca d e lD ue ro c onocen d e sde e li n ic io d e lS egundo M i len io u na f l o rec ien te c i v i l izac iön ,l amada d e C iempozue lo s ,c uyo m ä sb r i l lan te yd ef in ido re xponen te s on c i er to se n te r ram ien to s i nd iv idua les e n f osa c on r i co y t i p ico a j ua r c e räm ico c ons t i tu ido p o r V a so C ampan ifo rme , C azue la yC uenco ( V i l labuena d e lP uen te ,F uen te -O lmedo oP a ja re s d e Ada ja ) . E l lo h ad ado p i e as e f ia la re nv a r ia so ca s ione sq ue c on C iempozue lo s s e t r unca e ld e sa r ro l lo d eu nv i e jo mundo i n d igena ,i d en t if i cado c on l o se n te r ram ien to s c o lec t ivo sm ega l i t ico s , ys ea b re p a so o t ro d en uevo s i gno c a rac te r izado p o rn ueva s f ö rmu la s f une ra r ia s , s egu ramen te i n sp i rada s e n l o s o t ros g rupo s C ampan ifo rmes E u ropeo sc on tempo räneo s . E ne s te t r aba jo p re tendemo s l ama rl aa t enc iön s ob re l an o tab le f r ecuenc ia c on q ue a pa recen d epö s i to sf une r a r io sd e l g rupo C iempozue lo se n l o sd ö lmene sm e se t ao s , l o q ue s upone u n s e r io i n conven ien te p a ra s egrega r d rä s t icamen te amba s man if e s tac ione se n e lp i ano c u l tu ra l . N ue s t ra i mp r e s iön , al av i s ta f undamen ia lmen te d e l a n o to r iedad d e l o s d epös i tos C iempozue los e n e l s epu lcro d e c o r redo r s a lman t ino d e G a l isancho , e s d e q ue e n a l gunos s ec to res d e l a Mese ta l o s C ampan ifo rmes n o s on m e ra s i n t rus iones a cc iden ta les d e l o s d ö lmene s , s i no muy p robab lemen te u na g ene rac iön m ä s ,l at i l t ima d ec i er ta e n t idad ,e ne lu so s i s temä t ico d el o sm ega l i to s .

1 73

I n troducc ion * ****** La v a lo rac iön d e l V a so C ampan iforme e n l o s med io s c i en t i f ico s c omo e l emen to c u l tu ra l p rop io d e l C a lco l i t ico , a unque u nän ime , h a s i do al ol a rgo d e l o s t i empos , b a s tan te d i f eren te . E n l a s p r ime ra s s i n tes is s ob re e lt e rna e s ta c e räm ica p a saba p rac t icamen te p o r s e r u n e l emen to mäs , i nd if e renc iado , d e l a s p r ime ra s c u l tura s me ta lü rag ica s p en in su la res . A lgo d e spues e lm a tr imon io L e isne r , a poyändo se e n a l guna so b servac ione sr e a l izada se nl o sg r ande s s epu lc ro sd ec o r r edo rd el az ona d e G andu l ( 1943 ) ,p ropon ia d i s t ingu i rd o sf a se sc a lco l i t ica se nl aP en in su la ,l ap r ime ra a n tecampan ifo rme y l as egunda c o inc iden te c on e le sp lendo r d e t a l c e räm ica , l a s c ua le s t e n ian e n e lS u re s te , d onde s e c on taba c on e li ngen te v o lumen d e d a tos c onsegu ido p o rL . S i re t , s u mä s g enu ina r e p re sen tac iön : f a ses d e L o s M i l la re s Iy L o sM i l la re sI . C on l ar ev i ta l izac iön d e l a s t e or ia s d i fus ion is tas e n l o s a ios 6 0 , q ue t e nd ian a e xp l ica rl ae x tens ion c ampan ifo rme c omo c onsecuenc ia d ei nf lu jo sf o räneo s yh a s ta s eguramen te d e l ae x i s tenc ia d e u na p a r t icu la re t n ia c ampan ifo rme , s i n d uda muy d inäm ica , e s ta c e räm ica s e c onv ir t iö e n e le xponen te d e u na c u l tura n ueva , d i s t in ta , q ue s e s upe rpon ia al a s i nd igena s p rev ia s , ma rcando u na c l a ra r up tura r e spec to ae l la s . E ne s ta l i nea ,e lh a l lazgo d el af o sa d ee n te r ram ien to i nd iv idua ld e V i l labuena d e l P uen te ( Zamo ra ) ,c on s u t i p ico a j ua rd e C iempozue lo s , f ué t o rnado p o r Ma luque rd e Mo te sc omo i n equ ivoca p rueba d ed i cha r up tu ra e n l a Me se ta , l o c ua l ,p o ra r iad idu ra , s upu so r e conoce rq ue e la j ua rd ep a rec ido s i gno r e cupe rado e n u n mega l i to s a lman t ino n oe xce s ivamen te d i s tan te d ea que l la l o ca l idad z amo rana ,e l d e A ldeav ie ja d e T o rmes , d eb ia r eves t i r , an o d uda r lo , u n c a räc te r i n t rus ivo , r e su l tando d e u na d epo s ic iön mucho mä s t a rd ia q ue l ad e l o s a j ua res p rop iamen te d o lm& i ico s . C ampan ifo rme ym ega l i to p a saban p o rs e r ,p ue s ,r e a l idade sc u l tu ra le s d e l t odo i ndepend ien te s , yl ap re senc ia d e a que l e n e le spac io f i s ico d e l ü l t imo n o c ons t i tu ia s i no u na m e ra c o inc idenc ia , e xen ta d e mayo r c on ten ido ( Ma luque r d e Mo te s 1 960 ) . E s ta ü l t ima ö p t ica d e lp rob lema ,r e cog ida s i n g r ande sc amb io sp o rn o so t ro sm i smo s ( G .D .C . ) e n d i f e ren te s t r aba jo s ( De l ibes 1 977 ) , m e rece s i n e mba rgo s e rs ome t ida a r e v is ion v i s ta s , p o re j emp lo , l a sd i f icu l tade sq ue e ne lS u re s te e x i s ten p a ra s eg rega r c u l tu ra lmen te M i l la re s IyI ,o ,a s im i smo ,l ap o s ib le c on t inu idad p r ecampan ifom ie c ampan ifo rme c on t ra s tada e n y ac im ien to sc omo e lm adr i lef lo d eE l V en to r ro . P o r e l lo , h ab ida c uen ta d e l e l evado n üme ro d e s epu lcros mega l i t ico s d e l i n te r io r p en insu la r e n l o s q ue s ep roducen h a l lazgo s r e lac ionado s c on C iempozue lo s , n o s h emos p ropue s to e n e s te t r aba jo a bo rda re le s tud io d e t a l c onve rgenc ia , a na l iza rs u a u ta t ico a l cance , t omando p a ra e lo c omo p r inc ipa l r e f e r enc ia l o sr e su l tado sd el a s e xcavac ione s l evada s ac abo p o r u no d e n o so t ro s ( S .G . ) e n e ls epu lc ro d o lm6n ico d eL aE rm i ta d eG a l isancho ,e n l ap r ov inc ia d e S a lamanca . At r av6 sd et o do e lo ,e n d ef in i t iva , g ua rdamos l a e spe ranza d e a l canza r ad i scu t ir s e r iamen te s i l o s c ampan iformes d e sempe f ian f r en te al o s m ega l i to s u n p ape l ,e n e f ec to , i n t rus ivo , o 1 75

G .D e l ibe s

s i , p o r e lc on t rar io , e s p rec iso r e iv ind ica r u na mayo r c on t inu idad c u l tu ra l e n t re a mba sm an if e s tac ione s .

Ha l lazgos C ampan if ormes e n Monumen tos Do lmgn icos d e l a Mese ta e l A l to E bro . * ****** E n e s te e spac io g eog räf ico s ue len i nd iv idua l iza r se c omunmen te t r es f ocos d o lmdn ico s d e c i e r ta e n t idad e l d e l a s p en i l lanura s s a lman t ina s yz amo rana s , e l b urga ld s om ese ter io o r ien ta l , ye lr i o jano - q ue j uzgamos o por tuno r e spe ta r a qu i t amb idn c on v i s ta s ap re sen ta rl o sh a l lazgo sc ampan i fo rme sp roduc ido se nc ada u no d ee l lo s . ( a ) G rupo m ega l i t ico d e l a s p en i l lanura s o cc iden ta les : s ep l iega al a s t i er ra s d e S a lamanca y ,e nm eno r med ida ,d eZ amo ra ,r e conoc idndo se e nl aa c tua l idad c e r ca d e 7 0 monumen to s e n l ap r ime ra d el a sp rov inc ia s c i tada s ya pena s 7u8e nl aü l t ima ( De l ibe s yS an ton ja 1 986 ) . L o sd a to ss ob re c ampan ifonne se nd i cho e spac io n os on muy f r ecuen te s , a unque p ud ie ra e l lo e s ta r d e a l guna m ane ra c ond ic ionado p o rl a e s ca sez d e a t enc iön p res tada al ag ran m ayo r ia d e l o s monumen to s -s epu lc ros d e c o r redo re n c a s i s u t o ta l idad -d e sde q ue f u e ron d e scub ier to s ap r inc ip io s d e e s te s i g lo p o r Gömez - Mo reno ( 1967 ) ye lP ad re Mo rän ( 1931 y 1 935 ) . D e h echo e l c i tado a bandono s o lo p uede c ons ide ra r se s upe rado p o rn o mä sd em ed ia d ocena d e s epu lc ro s , o b je to d e e xcavac ione s moder na s p o rp a r te d e e qu ipo s d e l Mu seo yl a U n ive r s idad d eS a lamanca . S ign if i ca t ivamen te s i nd uda ,l a sm e jo r e sc o lecc ione sd e c ampan ifo rme d e l a c tua l s o la r s a lman t ino p roceden d e e s ta s p oca s e xcavac ione s r e c ien te s . L a sp r ime ra sn o t ic ia s s ob re h a l lazgo sd ee s te t i po , s i ne mba rgo , a pa recen y ae n l o s t r aba jos d e l P . Mo rän p ub l icados e n 1 931 . Mf s e r ecogen , e n e f ec to , e l d e scub r im ien to d e d o s f r agmen to s d e c ampan ifo rme m a r i t imo e n E l T er ir iue lo d e S a lva t ierra d e T ormes y ,s ob re t o do , e lr i co a j ua rc on c e räm ica d e C iempozue lo s ya l gün f r agmen to t amb idn m a r i t imo ,q ue s ea compar iaba d eu np ur ia ld el e ngüe ta y d o sp un ta sP a lme la d ec ob re , a s ic omo d ed o s a domo s -u na c i n ta od i adema yu na p equer ia c uen ta d e c o l la r -d e o ro , r e cupe rado e n e l s epu lcro d e c o r redor d e A ldeav ie ja d e T ormes , ae sca so s k i löme t ros d e l a n te r io r . E n u no y o t ro c a so , a unque Ma luque r ( 1960 ) d ef iende e lc a räc te r i n t rus ivo y t a rd io d e , s ob re t o do , e l s egundo c on jun to r e spec to a l o s h or izon tes p r ima r io s d e u t i l izac iön d o ln i dn ica , Mo rän n i ega c ua lqu ie ra i s lam ien to e s t ra t ig rä f ico e nr e la c iön al o sa j ua re sm ega l i t ico s ( c uch i l lo s yp un ta sd e s i lex ; a l gün h acha p u l imen tada ; c e räm ica s l i sa s oc uen ta sd e c o l la r ) , ei n te rp re ta t odo s l o s m a te r ia le s , p o r ' a pa rece re n e lf ondo d e l d o lmen ( . . . ) t o do sm ezc lado s , l o sü t i le sd ep i ed ra , l o sd em e ta l yl o sc acha r ro s ' ( Mo rän 1 931 ,p . 5 3 ) ,c omo d eu nm ismo momen to . P rec i sando i n c luso e s te e x t r emo ,e sd ec i rq ue e l p resun to c on jun to c ampan ifo rme n o r eposaba c l a ramen te p or e nc ima d e l , l amdmo s le ,m ega l i t ico ,i g ua lmen te a no ta e lc i tado a gu s t ino q ue l a sp i eza sd eo ro ' S c h a l laron a l f ina l d e l a e xp lorac iön( . . . ) e n tre d os p iedras d e l a c ämara ' ( p . 5 8 ) . T odo s l o s d a to s p a recen d a r ae n tende r , p ue s , q ue l ad epo s ic iön d e l a j ua r c ampan i fo rme e nA ldeav ie ja t u vo l u ga rf undamen ta lmen te e ne li n te r io rd el ac äma ra ,

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a unque n op ueda d e sca r ta r se ,p o rq ue n o s el egö ae xcava r ,q ue a f ec ta ra t amb i6n a l p a s i l lo ,c omo o cur re c on f r ecuenc ia e n l o s monumen to sd eo t ra sa r ea s . R ec ien temen te s e h an p roduc ido o t ro s d escub r im ien to s r e levan tes d e c e räm ica c ampan ifo rme e n d ö lmenes s a lman t ino s , p e ro , p o r d e sg rac ia , n o h ay t o dav ia d e e l los b uena d ocumen tac iön , l oc ua l n o s r e duce al e van ta ra c ta d e s ue x i s tenc ia , s i n p ode rm a t iza rl a sc i r cun s tanc ia sd el o sh a i lazgo s . E ne ls epu lc ro d e C o to A l to , e n l aT a la , d e lq ue s eh ad i cho p odr ia h abe rs i do u n t ümu lo d ee n te r ram ien to c o lec t ivo n o mega l i t ico , L opez P laza ( 1 .84 , P . 6 7 s . ) h a r e cog ido r e s tos d e a lm eno s d o s v asos , d os c uencos y u na c azue la c on l a t i p ica d eco rac iön C iempozue los , a pa rec iendo t odos e l los f o rmando p a ne d e u n ü n ico n ive l a rqueo lög ico muy s upe r f ic ia l , c on s i lex ( pun ta s d e f l echa c r uc ifo rmes , g eo rne t r ico s , h o ja s ) , h acha s p u l imen tada s ,c uen ta sd ec o l la r yu na g r an v a r iedad d ec e räm ica se n s um ayo rp a r te a n te -campan ifo rme s . L am i sma s i tuac iön s er e g is t ra e n L a V egu i l la , u n s epu lcro d ec o r redo rc on c äma ra c i rcu la rd e l a sp rox im idade sd e A lba d eT o rme s , e n e lq ue B ene t , Ma r t in y S o le rh an r e cupe rado e n 1 982 , d en t ro d e l ac äma ra ye n u n ü n ico l e cho e s t ra t ig räf ico c ons ide rab lemen te r evue l to , d os v a sos c ampan iformes , u n c uenco y u na c azue la d e e s t i lo C iempozue los , a demä s d e u n t o rque s ä u reo d e p a le ta s , u na p un ta P a lme la d e c ob re a r sen ica l yd o s f r agmen to s d e c ampan ifo rme m ix to , p un t i l lado -co rdado ( Bene t 1 984 ) . S on , p o r ü l t imo , t amb i6n d igno s d e menc iön a l gunos o t ro s h a l lazgo s r ea l izados e n s uper f ic ie e n l o s m ega l i to s d e G e jue lo d e l B arro y P rado d e l a Nava d e S a lva t ier ra ( De l ibe s yS an ton ja 1 986 ) , ye l lo n o t a n to p o r e li n te rs i n t r in seco d e l a s p i eza s r e cupe rada s uno s m i sero s f r agmen to s d e c e räm ica - c omo p o r l oq ue p ueden s uponer d e i nd ic io d e d epö s i to sm ä si mpo r tan te sd ea que l momen to . P a rece p o s ib le s ub raya r , p ue s , c omo c o lofön d e e s te a pa r tado q ue p rac t icamen te t odo s l o s t e s t imon io s f une ra r io s c ampan ifo rmes d e l a r ea s a lman t ina p roceden d e d ö lmene s . U n icamen te s eh a e specu lado c on q ue u na c azue la c omp le ta r e cog ida c erca d e l ap resa d eL a Maya c ons t i tuye ra p ane d e l a j ua r d e u na f o sa s imp le , a nä loga al a sd el a sc amp if ia sm e r id iona le sd e lD ue ro ( Ma r t in V a l l s yD e l ibe s 1 978 ) , ya s im i smo c on l ae x i s tenc ia d eu no sp equef lo st ümu lo sc on m a te r ia lC iempozue lo s , s o lo c i tado s s upe r f ic ia lmen te , d e l al o ca l idad d eP ed raza d e A lba ( Lopez P laza 1 978 ,p .1 8 ) . L af a l ta d ec on t ra s te d ee s to sd a to sp o re l momen t ( )h ace ,e nc ua lqu ie r c aso , muy f a c t ib le l ah i pö te s i sd eq ue e n t i e r ra sc ha r ra s l a sd epo s ic ione sf une ra r ia s C iempozue lo ss ep ra c t ica ran s i s temä t icamen te e nl o s monumen to sm ega l i t ico s . ( b ) F oco d o lm&f ico d e l o r ien te d e l a Mese ta : A unque s e d ocumen ten a l guno s monumen tos d i spe r sos , c omo e l d e P o r t i l lo d e l a s C o r tes e n G uada la ja ra , l o s s i emp re c onfuso s d e L a V id ye ld e C ub i l le jo d e L a ra e n e lS u rd e l ap rov inc ia d e B u rgos , oe ls o r iano r e c ien temen te d e scub ie r to d e C a r rasco sa d e l aS i er ra , a ho ra m ismo s o spechamo sq ue l am ayo rc oncen t rac iön p r im i t iva d em ega l i to se ne lo r ien te d el ac uenca d e l D ue ro s ep rodu jo a lN o roe s te d el a st i e r ra sd eB u rgo s ,e nL a sL o ra s ( De l ibe s yS an ton ja 1 985 ) . S e h an d ocumen tado h as ta e l momen t° ,e f ec t ivamen te , e n t o rno al al o ca l idad d e S edano a l go m ä sd eu na d ocena d ed ö lmene s -c a s it o do s s epu lcros d e c o r redo r,d e l o sc ua les o cho h an s i do o b je to t o ta l op a rc ia lmen te d e e xcavac iön , p ropo r c ionando l am i tad d ee l lo sa l gün i n d ic io d ee ncon t ra r se e nu so e n 6 poca c ampan ifo rme . E n e lc a so d eL a M ina , e n e lp rop io t &m ino d e S edano , e l t e s t imon io e n e se s e n t ido s el im i ta a lh a l lazgo i n& l i to , d e u na P a lme la e n e ls e c to r o cc iden ta l d e l t ümu lo ,f u e ra a pa r en temen te d ec ua lqu ie re s tr uc tu ra ;e ne ls e pu lc ro d e

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c o r redo r d e P o rque ra d e B u t rön s e a t isba u na s i tuac iön s im i la r ap a r t i r d e l d escub r im ien to d e u n b raza l d e a rque ro d e a r en i sca e n u n s e c to r r evue l to d e l a c ä ma ra d e l monumen to , b a s tan te p o re nc ima d e l n ive l o r ig ina l d e e n te r ram ien to s d o lmdn icos ( O saba e ta l . 1 971a , p .9 5 ) ; e nC ie l la , t amb idn e n S edano , s o lo t r es f r agmen to sd ec e räm ica C iempozue lo sr e cupe rado se nl ae n t rada d e lp a s i l lo , s e l lada c on p eque f ia sp i ed ra sd i spue s ta se ns e co ,c e r t if i can l ai n c idenc ia c ampan ifo rme e ne l m ega l i to ( De l ibe s e ta l . 1 982 , p oo , 1 53 y 1 65 ) , ys o lo e n l ac äma ra e n s u f ondo r evue l to - d e l t amb idn s epu lcro d e c o r redo r d e L as A rn i l las , e n Mo rad i l lo , s e a l canzö ar e coge ru na c o lecc iön a l go mä s n u t r ida d e c e räm ica s d e C iempozue lo s , j un to ad os b o tones d e a s ta p e r fo rado s e n vq ue s egu ramen te f o rma ron p a r te , c on a que l la s ,d e la j ua rd ea l gün e n te r r am ien to ( De l ibe s ,R o jo yS anz 1 986 ) . L a i n fo rmac iön d i spon ib le e n e s to s y ac im ien to s n or e su l ta , c omo p uede v e r se , d e g ran c a l idad ,c omo t ampoco l oe se ne ld o lmen , m ä sm e r id iona l d e Cub i l le jo d e Lara e n e l q ue s e a no ta e l h a l lazgo d e u n t i n ico f r agmen to d e c e räm ica C iempozue lo s e n c l a ra p os ic iön s e cundar ia ( Osaba e ta l . 1 971b , p . 1 21) ; s i n emba rgo s íc abe d e s taca rq ue a lm enos e l5 0% d el o sd ö lmene s e xcavado s e ne s te t e r r i to r io c onoc ie ron e li mpac to C iempozue lo s ,l oq ue p one d e man if ie s to q ue d i cha c i r cuns tanc ia n o t e n fa e n a b so lu to u n c a räc te re xcepc iona l . C on t o do , e s p rec i so i g ua lmen te r e co rda rl ae x i s tenc ia e nl az ona d eL a sL o ra s ,e np l eno s e c to rm ega l i t ico , d eu na p eque f ia t umba t umu la rn od o lmdn ica c on ,a lp a rece r ,d o si n humac ione s ,q ue s ea compa t lan d ev a r ia sv a s i ja sc ampan ifo rme sd et i po C iempozue lo s ya l gün b r aza l d e a rque ro . N o sr e f e r imo s a ly ac im ien to e xcavado r e c ien temen te p o rC amp i l lo e n T ab lada d e Rudrön ( Boh iga s e t a l . 1 984 , p p . 2 1-22 ) , q ue c ons t i tuye u na i ndudab le a l te rna t iva a l a s i n t rus iones c ampan ifo rme s e n d ö lmenes a n tes menc ionada s , ya demä s u na s e r ia a dve r tenc ia p a ra n o i n cu r r ir e n l at e n tac iön d e c ons ide ra r al o s m ega l i to s d e e s ta z ona i n ev i tab le p a rade ro d e l at o ta l idad d e l o s d epö s i to sf üneb re sc ampan ifo rme s . ( c ) N uc leo d o lm6n ico r i o jano : F ue d ado ac oncoce r ap ar t i rd el o sa l io s5 0p o rD on J o sé M igue l d e B a rand ia rän y D on D om ingo F e rnandez Med rano ( 1958 , 1 962 y 1 964 ) , q u ienes d escub r ie ron y e xcava ron u n a b iga r rado c on jun to d e s epu lc ro s d i s t r ibu ido se nt o rno al al o ca l idad a l ave sa d eL agua rd ia . P o s te r io rmen te A pe l län iz i n c luye t a le sm an if es tac ione se n t re l o s monumen to sf une ra r io sd e lg rupo e neo l i t ico d e L o s H usos , l amando l aa t enc iön s ob re l ad en s idad d e t a les c on s t rucc ione s a l No r te d e l E b ro y s u r a reza a lS u r , e n L og ro r io , c omo s ie ld o h ub ie ra c ons t i tu ido p r im i t ivamen te u na a u t& i t ica b a r re ra n of ä c i ld ef r anquea r( 1973 ,p .3 67 ) . H oy , s i n emba rgo ,m e rced al o st r aba jo sd ep ro specc iön d e Nrez A r rondo ( 1983 )e nl aa c tua l p rov inc ia d eL aR io ja p a rece c l a ro q ue t amb idn e n l a st i e r ra sd e l am a rgen &recha e x is t iö u n n o tab le g rupo d e d ö lmenes , l o s c ua les t e s t imon ian u na v incu lac iön g end t ica c on r e spec to a l o s r e f er idos m ega l i to s a l ave se s t a n to e n s us e squema s a r u i tec tön ico s -s et r a ta t amb idn d es epu lc ro sd ec o r redo r -c omo e ns u sa j ua r e s . L a p re senc ia e n e s te g rupo d o lm& l ico q ue g loba lmen te d enom inamo s r i o jano d e ma ter ia le sc ompan ifo rme se si mpo r tan te . C ua t ro d e l o s s i e te s epu lc ro sd ec o r redo r l o ca l izados e n t o rno aL agua rd ia , e s to e s , a lN o r te d e l E b ro , h an d epa rado a l gün e l emen to c o r respond ien te ae sa 6 poca , ye n e lS ur , d e c i nco t umba s d o lmdn ica s p l enamen te d ocumen tada s -n o s ei n c luyen H e r rame l lur i , d e l aq ue s ö lo q ueda u na n o t ic ia e s cue ta , n i Pa la G ue r ra I I , b a s tan te p rob lemä t ica c ua t ro ,l a sc ua t ro ü n ica s e xcavada s me töd icamen te , e ncer raban n o tab les h a l lazgos d e C iempozue los .

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P rec isamo s , e n t o do c a so , d e a mp l ia r yp o rmeno r iza r l ai n fo rmac iön , p a ra i n ten ta r u na v a lo rac iön c o r rec ta d ee s to sc ampan iforme s ,p ue se la l cance d el o sh a l lazgo se n l o sd i s t in to sy ac im ien to sn op a rece h abe rs i do ,d e sde l u ego , s i emp re e lm ismo . L as t umbas a l avesas m ega l i t ica s d e l g rupo e n e s tud io q ue d epa ran a j ua re s c ampan ifo rmes s on t r e s , S an Ma r t in , S o t i l lo y C habo la d e l aH ech ice ra . E n l a p r ime ra d ee l la sl o sm a te r ia le sr e sca tado s ,d eu na c i e r ta r i queza ,c ons is ten e nv a r io s f r agmen to s d e c e räm ica d e C iempozue lo s ( a l meno s u na c azue la y u n c uenco ) , c a to rce b o tone s h em is fe r icos d e h ue so p er fo rado s e n v ,u n e sp lend ido p u t ia l d e l e ngüe ta d ec ob re yd o s p un ta sd ea l e ta s yp edüncu lo , e n s i lex , d e g r an p e r f ecc iön , p roceden te s t odo se i lo s d e l ac äma ra d e l monumen to , d onde a pa rec ian a soc iados a u n ü n ico max i la ri n f er io r yo t ro sh ue so sh umano s . L ac a sua l idad h aq ue r ido e ne s te c a so q ue u no d e l o s o r to s ta tos d e l a c i tada c äma ra c aye ra s ob re e l n ive l d e e n te r ram ien to p rop iamen te d o lmen ico c on u na t r e in tena d eg eome t r ico s yc uch i l lo s d e s i lex , b e l lo s i do lo s - e spä tu la d e h ue so , h acha s p u l imen tada s , c uen ta s d e c o l la r , e t c . - c ubr iendo lo c a s i e n s u t o ta l idad , l o c ua l d e te rm inö q ue e l d epö s i to C iempozue lo sp e rmanec ie se p o re nc ima yp e r f ec tamen te a i s lado r e spec to aa que l . D e t a l modo , s e f ia lan l o s e xcavado res , r e su l ta p o s ib le d i s t ingu i rd o s e t apa s d u ran te e l t i empo e nq ue e ld o lmen e s tuvo e n u so ' ( Ba rand ia rän yF e rnändez Med rano 1 964 ) . E nE lS o t i l lo e lm a te r ia lc ampan ifo rme d e tec tado -c e räm ica si n c i sa s ,e n t re e l la su n c uenco y t a l v ez u na c azue la , v a r ia s p un ta s d e a l e ta s yp edüncu lo , u n b raza l d e a rque ro , a l guna l e zna b i apun tada y ,p robab lemen te , u na p un ta d ef l echa d eh ue so p arece i g ua lmen te h abe r se d epo s i tado o r ig ina lmen te e nl ac äma ra ,y aq ue a unque e l r e l leno d e l monumen to s eh a l lö r emov ido , t o da s l a sp i ezas r e se f iada s s er e cog ie ron e ne lm enc ionado s e c to rd e ls epu lc ro ( Ba rand ia rän , F ernändez Med rano yA pe l län iz 1 964 ) . P o r ü l t imo , e n C habo la d e l a Hech icera A pe l län iz yMed rano ( 1978 , p . 1 88 ) a no tan e ld escub r im ien to d e d i ve r so s r e s tos h umano s , j un to c on 3 1 p i eza s c e räm ica s c o r respond ien te s au n v aso C iempozue lo s , e n e l s ec tor E s te d e l t ümu lo , d i rec tamen te b a jo l ac apa s upe r f ic ia l d ee s te , l oq ue l e s h ace s upone rq ue e nt a ll u ga rd e scansö u ne n te r ram ien to . E n e l s epu lc ro d e L a C a sca ja , e n P ec if ia l og ro f ies q ue n os i n te re sa a l No r te d e l E b ro - l ai n c idenc ia c ampan ifo rme s e r educe a u n p eque t io p u r ia l d e l e ngüe ta ( i , ov ar ian te d ep un ta P a lme la? )r e cupe rado e ne lc o r redo r( Ba rand ia rän y F er nändez Med rano 1 958 p p . 5 8 -61 ) , a unque , v i s ta l ar i queza d e l o s d epös i tos d e e s ta e poca e no t ro sd ö lmene sr i o jano s , n ada n o se x t raf ra r ia q ue l ac i tada a rma f ue ra s o lo u na m in ima mue s t ra d eu n a j ua ro r ig ina lmen te m ayo r , c omo ,p o re j emp lo ,l o s d e l a s z ona s d e N a lda yV igue ra , y a al ad e r echa d e ld o . P aw Guerra Iy P ef ra G ue r ra I ,a lS u res te d e l al o ca l idad d e N a lda , s on s epu lcro s d e c or redo t q ue , e n e f ec to , h an d epa rado a j ua res e neo l i t ico s , c on c ampan iforme , n o s o lo i mpor tan te s d esde e l p un to d e v i s ta n umer ic° , s i no s ob re t odo muy b i en i nd iv idua l izados r e spec to a l o s n i ve les d o lmen icos mä s a n t iguo s , l o q ue p one d e man if ie s to s u c a räc te r t a rd io . E n e l p r ime ro d e e s tos monumen tos , q ue c omo l o s r e s tan tes a l ud idos e n e s te a pa r tado r e sponde a l a moda l idad d e l s epu lcro d e c or redo r , l a c äma ra ,e xpo l iada d e sde a n t iguo ,n od epa rö h a l lazgo ss i gn if ica t ivo s , p e ro e nc amb io e l p as i l lo d e e n t rada , a b ier to a l S u res te , man ifes tö u n c on jun to d e o cho i r humac ione sc on tempo ränea s ,c uyo sa j ua r e se s taban c ons t i tu ido sp o rv a r io sv a so s i n c iso s t i po C iempozue lo s -p o r l om eno s u n c ampan ifo rme s t r ic to s ensu y d o s c uenco s u n c ampan ifo rme l i so , t r e s b o tone s c ön icos yo t ro e n t o r tuga p e r fo rado s e n V , d o s l e zna s d e c ob re b i apun tada s y muy n ume roso s c o lgan tes y c uen ta s d e

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c o l la r d e h ueso ( Pe rez A r rondo 1 982 , p p . 1 23 -24 ) . P e r ia G uerra I , ad i f e renc ia , p e rm i t iö a dve r t i rd o sn i ve le sd eo cupac iön e n l ap rop ia c äma ra ,c o r re spond iendo e l mä s b a jo d e e i lo s au n momen to n eo l i t ico f i na l , c on m a te r ia le s a nä logo s al o s d e l mä s p r im i t ivo o sar io d e S an Ma r t in , ye ls uper io r , s epa rado n f t idamen te d e l m ä s b a jo p o r u n c ons ide rab le n i ve l d e p i ed ra s , a b so lu tamen te e s ter i l , au n momen t° e neo l i toco a vanzado ,c on c ampan ifo rme . L o s e n te r ram ien to sd ee s ta ü l t ima e poca , c oncen t rado s e n e lS u roe s te d e l ac äma ra , c or r esponden ae n t re 6y 8i nd iv iduo s , c uyo a j ua r ,e nc on jun to , a s c iende aa lm eno s 1 2v a s i ja sC iempozue lo s yu na c azue la l i sa ,c on c a rena med ia -a l ta ( Pe rez A r rondo yR odane sV icen te , 1 979 ,p p . 8 5 -88 ) . Mucho mäs i mprec isamen te , p o r ü l t imo , t e nemos t amb ien c ons tanc ia d e a provecham ien tos c ampan ifo rmes e n l o s s epu lc ros d e c or redo r d eC o l lado P a lomero I ,e n V igue ra , yd e t h iön XX e n C lav i jo . A l l ie lm a te r ia l q ue p o s ib i l i ta t a la f i rmac iön s er educe aa l gün f r agmen to c e rä tn ico i n c i so ,d o sa do rno se nc hapa d e o ro yo t ra st a n ta sp un ta sp eduncu lada sd es i lex ,c on a l e ta s muy ma r cada s ; e n U r-i on l a sp i eza sr e cupe rada s s on d o sv a so sl i so s ,u na a r ande la d e h ue so a nä loga al ad el a f o sa z amo rana C iempozue lo sd eV i l labuena d e lP uen te , ys endo sr e c ip ien te sc azue la yv a so c ampan i -fo rme s t r ic to s ensu - c on d eco ra c ione s i n c isa s p rop ia s d e l e s t i lo c ampan i -fo rme d el a Me se ta ( Ma r co sP ou s 1 973 ,p .3 9 ) . E na mbo sy ac im ien to sl o s ma te r ia les c i tados a pa recen e n p o s ic iön s ecundar ia , p ues to q ue s e t r a ta d e e n te r ram ien to s r epe t idamen te v io lado s . N o o bs tan te , p ese ae sa s l im i tac ione s , n o r e co r tan l om ä sm in im° e lv a lo rd eu na s e r to d eP e rez A r rondo ( 1983 ,p .5 7 )q ue ,e n n ue s t ra o p in ion , s i n te t iza p er f ec tamen te e ls i gn if icado d e l c ampan ifo rme e n l o s d ö l menes r eg iona les : ' Todos l os s epulcros d olminicos f ueron a provechados e n e l Eneo li t ico ' . S e r e f iere , p o r s upues to , al a e poca c ampan i fo rme . E s ta p resenc ia s i s temä t ica e n l az ona d ed epös i to sf une ra r io s C iempozue lo sd en t ro d e l o s mega l i to sp a rece d a rno s ae n tende rq ue e sa f ue l af ö rmu la d e e n te r ram ien to t i p ica d e l o s g rupos c ampan iformes l oca les , y s i n embargo s abemos g a ran t izädamen te q ue n o f uee l aü n ica . L a c i s ta i nd iv idua l ( ? ) d e l A l to d e L a s C ampana s , e n R incon d e S o to , e nsomb rece d i cha u n iform idad ( Ma rco s P ous 1 970 ) , yo t ro t a n to p erm i te d ec i r e lo sa r io d e L a A ta layue la e n Agonc i l lo un t ümu lo d e e n ter ram ien to c o lec t ivo n o d o lmen ico c on , e n t re o t ro s , ma te r ia les c ampan i fo rme s - a unque a qu il ad epo s ic iön i n s tan tänea d el o sc e r ca d e8 0i n humado s h ace p ensa r aI .B a rand ia rän ( 1978 , p . 4 17 ) , s u e xcavado r , q ue s e t r a ta d e u n y ac im ien to e xcepc iona l , s egu ramen te i mprov i sado p an teön a n te u na e x tensa mo r tandad p rovocada p o r a l gün c a tä s t rof e , l oq ue h ace n o s e c onv ie r ta e n s e r ia o b jec iön p a ra p ensa rq ue o rd inar iamen te l a s g en tes c ampan ifo rmes a p rovedha ron l o s d ö lmenes c on f i nes f une ra r ios , d e f o rma a nä loga a c omo l o h i c ie ron l a s p ob lac iones l o ca le s q ue e r ig ie ron t a le s monumen to s c erca d e u n m i len io ym ed io a n te s . L os Ma ter ia les C ampan if ormes d e l S epu lcro Mega li t ico d e L a E rm i ta d e G a l i sancho ( Sa lamanca ) *********

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L amen tab lemen te l am ayo r p a r te d e l o s h a l lazgo s C iempozue los r e ser iado s e n e l p un to a n te r io r s e h an p roduc ido e n e l t r anscur so d e r ebusca s o ca s iona les , d e i nves t igac iones a rqueo lög ica s p oco s i s temä t ica s , o ,e n e l me jo r d e l o s c a sos , d e e xcavac ione s q ue h an a f ec tado s o lo p a rc ia lmen te al o s monumen to sm ega l i t ico se n q ue a pa recen ,l oc ua ls upone u na s e r ia c o r tap isa p a ra c ap ta re la u ten t ico a l cance d el a p re senc ia c ampan ifo rme e ne l lo s . D ea h fq ue c on s ide remo sd eu nv a lo re xcepc iona l p re sen ta r , s i qu ie ra s ome ramen te , l o sr e su i tado sd el a se xcavac iones e f ec tuada se ne l s epu lcro d e G a l isancho , d onde l o s t r aba jos t uv ie ron u n c a räc te r p räc t icamen te e xhaus t ivo ,a f ec tando al ag ran m ayo r fa d e le spac io t umu la r . L levada s ac abo e n t re 1 981 y 1 982 p o rp a r te d eu ne qu ipo d e l Museo d eB e l la sA r te sd eS a lamanca ,d i cha s e xcavac iones p us ie ron a ld e scub ie r to l ae x i s tenc ia d e u n s epu lc ro d e c o r redo r , d e c äma ra mä s om eno sr e donda yp a s i l lo b i en d i f e renc iado ,f o s i l izado e n s ut o ta l idad p o r u n f ue r te a mon tonam ien to , d e p lan ta p räc t icaman te c i rcu la r , c ons t i tu fdo p o r t i e r ra yc an to s ( De l ibe s yS an ton ja 1 986 ) . L ae s t ruc tu ra d e l monumen to ,a s fc omo l a ma te r ia p r ima -g ran i to -d el o so r to s ta to sq ue s ee mp lea ron p a ra s uc ons t rucc iön , s on c omunes a l ag ran mayo r fa d e l o s d ö lmenes d e l ap en i l lanu ras s a lman t ina s ; n o o bs tan te , d a p i e ai nd iv idua l iza r e ld e G a l i sancho l ae x is tenc ia d e v a r ia s c o rona s c oncen t r ica sd ep i ed ra q ue s ed i sponen e nt o rno al ac äma ra ,l a sc ua le sb i en p ud ie ran h abe r t e n ido u na s imp le f i na l idad c ons t ruc t iva conf er ir mayo r c ons is tenc ia a l c on jun to a r qu i tec tön ico p r inc ipa l , a li g ua lq ue p a rece o cu r r i re nl o sm ega l i to se lE l Guada lpe ra l ( Cäce res ) oA zu tän ( To ledo ) , a mbo s ye n e lv a l le d e l T a jo ( Le i sne r 1 960 ) . L o s a j ua re sd eG a l i sancho n ada d e sd icen c ua l i ta t ivamen te d el o sd eo t ro sm ega l i to s c ha r ros e xcavados p o r e l P ad re C . Mo rän , p e ro s ic uan t i ta t ivamen te , yq ue e l n üme ro d ep i eza sr e cupe rada se ne s te monumen to e s mucha sv ece ss upe r io ra ld el a s d e c ua lqu ie ro t ro d e l ar eg iön , s i endo e l lo , muy p robab lemen te , s o lo r ef le jo d e l a p rec ip i tac iön d e l o s t r aba jos d e l i n s igne a gus t ino . L a s c uen ta s d e c o l la r , l a s e s cud i l la sd ec e räm ica ,p ref e ren temen te l i sa s ,l a sh a cha sp u l imen tada s yl o sü t i le sd e s f lex , c omo h o ja s -cuch i l lo ,p un ta s og eome t r ico s , s ec ons ta tan p o rc en tena r es t a n to e ne li n te r io rd e l ac äma ra c omo e n e lp a s i l lo q ue s i rve d ea cce so ae l la , l oc ua ln o s h ace p ensa r q ue s e t r a ta -j un to c on o t ra s p i eza s m äs e xcepc iona les h a l lada s e n c i rcuns tanc ia s p a rec ida s , c omo c i er ta s p un ta s d e a l aba rda od o s p lacas d e p iza r ra ( v ido los ' a lente janos '?) -d e l a j ua rprop iamen te d oln ign ico , e s d ec ir d e l a j ua rd e q u ienes c on s t ruye ron e ls epu lc ro yd e s u s u suf ruc tua r ios i nmed ia tamen te p o s te r io re s . L os ma te r ia les c ampan ifo rmes d e L a E rm i ta d e G a l isancho , t amb ien muy n ume ro sos , a sc ienden a 1 8 v a s i ja s o ,p o r l o m enos , af r agmen to s d e 1 8 p i eza s d i s t in ta sy aq ue n ot o da se s tän c omp le ta s , s i endo s ud e sc r ipc iön l as i gu ien te : No . 1-C azue la . 3 61 mm . d i äme t ro b oca X 1 29 d e a l tu ra . R ecupe rada e n 3 7 f r agmen to s d i spe r so s e n t re E 4 yE 5 , ap rofund idades q ue n o s upe ran n unca e lm e t ro , e sd ec i r muy p o re nc ima d e l n i ve l d e l f ondo d e l ac äma ra . F orma c l äs ica d e l o s a j ua res C iempozue lo s , p e ro p oco e s t rangu lada e n t re p anza y b o rde . F ondo a mp l io y p i ano . D eco rac iön i n c isa e n d os a ncha s f a ja s ,p o re nc ima d e lc ue l lo yb a jo e l , ab a se d ez i gz ag s yf r iso sm e topado s , c omp le tada c on u n mo t ivo c r uc ifo rme e ne lf ondo .

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No . 2-V aso C ampan if orme . 1 76 X 1 59 mm . 3 2 f r agmen to s m ezc lado s v i r tua lmen te c on l o s d e l N o . 1 , yt amb ia a l go mä s b a jo s . D eco rac iön e n t r es f a jas a decuada s ab o rde , c ue l lo y p a r te b a ja d e l a p anza , m as u n c ruc ifo rme b a sa l , e n l a s q ue p redom inan mo t ivos p seudoexc iso s ab a se d e p un to i mp re so s . P eque r io umbo p l ano . No . 3 -C azue la . 1 99 X mä s d e 6 7 mm . 1 6 f r agmen tos c oncen t rado s p r inc ipa lmen te e n z ona m ed ia d e l c o r redo r y muy s ome ros ( 20 -60 cm . ) . D eco rac iön e nd o sf a ja s , s ob re b o rde yp anza ,c on t ema s a nä logo sd ef r i so s c on i n c is iones v e r t ica les j a lonando c o rdone s p seudoexc iso s q ue d i scu r ren p o rm ed io d el o sm i smo s . E ne li n te r io rd e lb o rde c ua t ro z i gz ag si n c i so s . No . 4 -V aso C ampan if orme . 1 32 X 13 mm . 2 6 f r agmen to s b a s tan te d i spe r sos , s a lvo u na n e ta c oncen t rac iön e n E 5 , am ed io me t ro d e l a s upe rf ic ie , q ue t omamos c omo r e f e renc ia v ä l ida d e s u p o s ic iön o r ig ina l . D eco rac iön e n t r es f a ja s bo rde , h omb ro y z ona i n f er io r d e l ap anza - c on i d 6n t ico t ema d e c o rdones p seudoexc isos d e l im i tados a r r iba y a ba jo p o r f r iso sd er e t i cu la i n c isa r e c ta . Umbo a mp l io ymuy p l ano . No . 5 -Cuenco . 1 43 X 6 0 mm . 2 0 f r agmen tos c o inc iden tes e n s u d i spe r s iön c on Nos . 1y 2 . D eco rac iön e n d os f a ja s d e f i nos f r iso s me topados , d e l m ä s b a jo d e l o s c ua le s c ue lgan s e r ie s d e ä ngu lo s i n scr i to s , t amb ia i n c isos , q ue o r ig inan u n mo t ivo c ruc ifo rme e manando d e l f ondo . Umbo p eque i l i to ymuy p rofundo . No . 6 -V aso C ampan if orme . A p rox imadamen te 1 45 X 1 35 mm . 2 0 f r agmen tos muy d i sper sos , e n tre 5 0 y 1 00 cm . d e p rofund idad , mayo r i ta r iamen te r e cupe rados e n l az ona o cc iden ta l d e l ac äma ra , m a s s i n g rande s c oncen t rac ione s q ue c on t r ibuyan af i ja r s up o s ic iön o r ig ina l . D o s f a ja s d eco ra t iva s e n b o rde y p anza , ab a se d e f r iso s n o muy a nchos d e r e t i cu la o b l i cua r egu la rmen te e spac iado s ,l oq ue l ec onf ie re u nc i e r to p a rec ido c on l a s f ö rmu la s ' mar i t imas ' . N o o bs tan te , s e t r a ta s i n d i scus iön d e u n n uevo e spec imen C iempozue lo s . No . 7 -Cuenco . 17 ( ? ) X m äs d e 5 0 mm . 6f r agmen tos e n M5 , c a s i s upe rf ica les . . .pe ro n o s c abe l a s ospecha d e q ue s u p o s ic iön o r ig ina l s e e ncon t ra ra a l go mä s a lO es te . U na s ö la c i n ta d eco ra t iva , ab ase d er e t i cu la i n c isa o b l i cua , b a jo e lb o rde . No . 8 -C azue la . 2 51 X m ä s d e 1 00 mm . 5 1 f r agmen to s , c oncen t rados f undamen ta lmen te e nF 5 , amuy e s ca sa p rof und idad . P anza muy c a renada y e s t rangu lam ien to f u e r te e ne lc ue l lo l ed i s tanc ian f o rma lmen te d eN o s . 1y3 . D eco rac iön e n d o s f a ja s , s ob re b o rde y c ue l lo , c on u n mo t ivo c en t ra l d e g randes z i gz ags i n c isos , e nma rcado s p o r f r iso s mä s e s t rechos d e t r azos v er t ica les . E n e l f ondo , e l a r ranque d e u n g ran mo t ivo c ruc ifo rme i g ua lmen te i n c is o . N o . 9-C uenco . S ö lo d os f r agmen to s , yn ada i nd ica t ivo s ob re s up o s ic iön p r im i t iva . A l m enos u na f a ja d eco ra t iva , c on f r isos m e topados a r r iba y

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a ba jo , ye ne lc en t ro u n mo t ivo ,e lp r inc ipa l ,d ez i gz ag sj a lonado sp o rt r azo s c o r to sv e r t ica le s . N o . 1 0 -C azue la ( ? ) . 19 X 7 5 mm . 2 8 f r agmen to s d i spe r so s e n t re G 5 y H 5 , a5 0 c m . d e l as upe r f ic ie , c on u na c oncen t rac iön mayo re n e ll im i te d e a mbo sc uad ro s ,d onde p ensamo sh ubo d ed epo s i ta r se e no r igen . D e co rac iön i n c isa e nt r e sf a ja s -c ue l lo ,h omb ro yz ona i n f e r io rd el ap anza -c on u nt ema d er e t i cu la o b l i cua c en t ra l e n l o st r e sc a so s , yf r i so sd ei n c is ione sv e r t ica le s c er i ido sp o re nc ima yd eba jo d e e l lo s . L a s p ropo rc iones yl af o rma n o s on l a si d ea le sd el a sc azue la sC iempozue lo s ,m a st ampoco l a sd el o sv a so s ,p o r l oq ue m ä sp a r ece u nh i b r ido d ea mba sf o rma s . N o . 1 1 -C uenco . 1 30 X m ä s d e 5 8 mm . 1 0 f r agmen to s e n p os ic iön muy s upe rf ic ia l ,e ne le x t r emo e x te r io rd e l p a s i l lo . P o s ic iön o r ig ina l p oco c l a ra , s ia ca so , aa soc ia r c on N o s . 3y4 . U na e spe sa f a ja d eco ra t iva c on u n c o rdön p seudoexc iso c en t ra l yf r isos d e c or tas i n c is iones v er t ica les j a lonändo lo . E ne lf ondo u np o s ib le mo t ivo c r uc ifo rme . No . 1 2 -C azue la ( ? ) . 8 6 X mä s d e 6 0 mm . T res ü n icos f r agmen tos r ecupe rado s e n p o s ic iön s e cunda r ia , l o q ue i mp ide e l ucub ra r s ob re s u emp lazam ien to o r ig ina l . D os b anda s d eco ra t iva s : u na j un to a lb o rde , muy e s t recha ,d er e t i cu la o b l i cua , yo t ra mä sa ncha d ez i gz ag sc on t r azo si n c i so s v er t ica le s l enando l o s e spac io s q ue q uedan e n t re e l lo s . E n n ada c o inc ide , d e sde l u ego ,c on l a sf o rma sc l ä s ica s ,a unque s ec onozcan p i eza s s im i la re se n o t ro sa mb ien te sc ampan i -forme s . N o . 1 3 -C uenco . 4f r agmen tos e n z ona muy r emov ida ( E5 /E6 /D5 /D6 ) , a u no s5 0c m . d ep rofund idad . U na f a ja c on d eco rac iön i n c isa , ab a se d e z i g z ag sc en t ra l yf r i so s ma rg ina le sd ep equer io st r azo si n c iso s . N o . 1 4 -C uenco . 1 27 X 4 7 mm . S e h a l lö c omp le to e n E 4 , am eno s d e u n me t ro d el as upe rf ic ie yc on u na l e zna d ec ob re e n s ui n te r io r ,l oq ue i n duce a s upone rs ee ncon t raba t a l yc omo f ué d epo s i tado o r ig ina lmen te . U na c i n ta d eco ra t iva c on d o s z i gz ag sc en t ra les yf r isos c on t r azo s v e r t ica le s a r r iba y a ba jo . Umbo b a s tan te p ronunc iado . No . 1 5 -V aso C ampamf orme . 1 28 X 10 mm . H a l lado j un to aN o . 1 4 , ei gua lmen te c omp le to . N o s h ace p ensa r c ons t i tuye ra c on jun to c on e iy , a ca so , c on u na t e r ce ra p i eza i l oca l izada , p e ro q ue p od r ia r epo sa r a ün e n e l t e s t igo r e spe tado e n E 3 . C ua t ro f a jas d ed eco rac iön , d o sa ncha se n b o rde y h omb ro , yo t ra s d os mucho mäs e s t recha s e n p a r te i n f er io r d e l ap anza . Mo t ivo s e n t o do s e l lo s i n c iso s , m e topado s , yf o rmando r ombo s s o lo e n l a s mäs a ncha s . Umbo p i ano d i shed ompha l los - ya mp l io . No . 1 6 . V aso C ampamf orme . 18 X 9 5 mm . H a l lado c omp le to , c a s i e n s upe rf ic ie ,e n F 5 . E lh echo , s i n e mba rgo ,d ee s ta ra compar iado p o r mu l t i tud d e f r agmen to s d eo t ro sv a so s , s i n d uda d esp lazado s , n o so b l iga ap ensa rn o f u6 e sa s up o s ic iön p t ima r ia . D o se spesa sf a ja sd eco ra t iva s . E n l am ä sa l ta , j un to a lb o rde ,v a r io sz i gz ags a pa recen e nma r cado sp o rf r iso sc on p equer ia s i n c is iones v e r t ica le s ; e n e li n f er io r , q ue a f ec ta at o da l ap anza , s e s uceden

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f r i so sd er e t i cu la ,m e topado s yd et r azo so b l i cuo s , s i emp re i n c iso s ,c o lgando d e l ü l t imo d el o sm ismo s t r iängu lo sc uyo sv e r t ices i n f e r io re s a pun tan h a c ia u n umbo a mp l io yr e la t ivamen te m a r cado . No . 1 7 -V aso C ampa mf orme . 1 29 x 1 40 mm . S e r e cupe rö c omp le to y e n i den t ica p os ic iön q ue e l No . 1 6 , p o r l o q ue s e b enef ic ia d e s u i n te rp re tac iön . Muy a l to yc on umbo r educ ido ,p e ro p rofundo . D o sa ncha s f r an ja s d e d eco rac iön , e n b o rde yp anza ; a mba s c on d o s a mp l ia s s e r ies d e z i gz ag s e n t re i n c is iones h or izon ta le s , c o lgando d e l am ä s b a ja u n mo t ivo c ruc iforme , c uyas a spas n o t e rm inan d e s e r e xac tamen te r ad ia les , e l c onve rge rd e scen t rada se ne lo nf a lo s . No . 1 8 - V aso C ampan if orme l i so . 1 26 X 1 07 mm . H a l lado c omp le to e n l a s p rox im idades d e l ac oncen t rac iön d e l o s N o s . 1 2 -5 . A f a l ta d e l e s tud io d e l r e s to d e l a s c e räm ica s l i sa s p re sun tamen te mega l i t ica s - d e l s epu lc ro , n op odemo sg a ran t iza rn oe x is tan o t ro sr e c ip ien te s s u scep t ib le sd e a soc ia r ae s te . F ondo p i ano , muy a mp l io . C on p o s te r io r idad al ar edacc iön d e e s te t r aba jo s eh an i d en t if icado e n e ll a bo ra tor io d o s c e ram ica s m a s d e f i l iac iön c ampan ifo rme , n oi nven ta r iada sp e ro s ir e cog ida se n l a sc a r ta s d e d i s t r ibuc iön ye nl a si l u s t rac ione sd em a te r ia le s . E v iden temen te l o s ma te r ia le sr e lac ionado sr e su l tan muy n ume ro so sp a ra l oq ue n o s t i enen a co s tumb rados l o s h a l lazgo sc ampan ifo rme se no t ro sd ö lmene s ,p e ro o cun r e a demä s q ue s u p o s ic iön e n e l monumen to , c uando h a s i do p o s ib le f i ja r la c on u n m in im° d e r i go r b ien p o r p roduc i r se l o s h a l lazgo s e n s ue los i n tac tos , b i en d ee f o rma a prox ima t iva m ed ian te u n t r aba jo d e d i s t r ibuc iön p lan ime t r ica d e l o s f r agmen tos d e c ada r e c ip ien te , s ue le s e r t amb ien b a s tan te d i s t in ta al ad e l a j ua r d o lmen ico mä s e s t r ic to , y a q ue y acen h ab i tua lmen te l o s m a ter ia les e n c o ta s muy s upe r io res al a s d e l n ive l d e b a se d e l s epu lc ro y ,s ob re t odo , s egün v emo s e n e l r epa r to r epresen tado a c on t inuac iön , d esbo rdan f r ecuen temen te l o s l im i tes d e l e spac io d e s t inado e no r igen ao sa r io : I n ter ior S epu lcro C äma ra No . 4 No . 6 No . 1 3

To ta les 1 8

3

E x ter ior Ub icac iön I nc ier ta

C o r redo r

P ro long . c o r r .

N o . 3 No . 1 6 No . 1 7

N o . 7 N o . 1 0 N o . 1

3

3

N o . N o . N o . N o . N o . N o .

1 2 5 1 4 1 5 1 8

7

N o . 9 N o . 1 2

2

A p a r t ir d e l o s d a tos e xpues tos , c abe c a l if ica r d e i mpo r tan te l a p resenc ia c ampan ifo rme e ne ld o lmen d eG a l isancho ,p e ro s i nq ue e l lo s i g if ique q ue p odamo s c ons ide ra rc l a r if icada s uf i na l idad c u l tu ra l . S ö lo v a lo rando q ue e lm ega l i to e sp o r

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n a tu ra leza u nr e c in to s e pu lc ra l ; q ue e ne lt r anscu r so d el a se xcava c ione sn os ec ap tö i n d ic io a l guno q ue h i c ie ra p en sa re nu nl u ga ro ca s iona ld eh ab i tac iön ; yq ue v a r ia sd e l a s c e räm ica s d e l c o r redo rs ee ncon t raban s upues tamen te v incu lada s ar e s to s d e a l m eno s d o s i nhumac ione s ( s e h a l la ron s endo s c r äneo s ymu l t i tud d e a s t i l la s ö sea s , c a lc inada se np a r te ) , n o sp a rece l i c i t° a ven tu ra rq ue l ap re senc ia d et a le sm a te r ia le s c ampan ifo rme sd ebe e s ta rr e lac ionada c on r i to sf üneb re s , ym ä sc onc re tamen te q ue d eben c or responde r al o s a j ua res d e u nos e n ter ram ien tos q ue , c omo o cur re n orma lmen te e n l o s m ega l i to s s a lman t inos , n o d e jan , a ca so p o r l aa c idez d e l o s s ue lo s ,o t ro t i po d eh ue l la e ne lt e r r eno q ue n os e an l o sp rop io sa j ua re s . P o r o t ra p a r te , d ando p o r b ueno q ue l a s m enc ionada s c e räm ica s c ampan iformes t u v ie ron u na f i na l idad f une ra r ia , e s p r ic iso t e ne r e n c uen ta t amb i6 1 s u e sca sa a g rupac iön d en t ro d e l monumen to . C on e l lo , e n e f ec to , p a rece p roba r se q ue n o f u e ron e la j ua rd eu nü n ico c on jun to d ee n te r ram ien to ,d eu nm i smo o sa r io c o lec t ivo , s i no mä s b i en , a l c on t rar io , e xponen te s d e v ar ios d epös i to s f üneb res d e t i po i nd iv idua l , e n t re l o s q ue e x is t ia p resum ib lemen te u na r e lac iön d i acrön ica . E so s upone ,e n tonce s ,q ue l ap re senc ia c ampan ifo rme e nG a l isancho n oe sr e su l tado d e u n s imp le r ap to momen täneo , e s ca samen te d e l ibe rado , s i no , muy d i s t in tamen te , d e u na p räc t ica c on t inuada yh a s ta c i e r to p un to c onsue tud ina r ia . D i r im i re nq u6 g rado t a lp räc t ica r e su l taba h ab i tua li mp l ica d i f icu l tade s mucho mayo re s ,a ca so i n sa lvab le s d e momen to ,p e ro q ue p a san al af u e rza p o rc uan t if ica rp rev iamen te e n n üme ro d e t umba sc ampan ifo rme sd e lc on jun to m ega l i t ico e s tud iado . A l c onsum i r se t o ta lmen te c ua lqu ie rr e s to o rgän ico c omo y a s ed i jo - e n l o s s ue lo s d o lm&f ico s s a lman t ino s , l a s p o s ib i l idade s d e e s tab lece r c uän tos e n ter ram ien tos c ampan ifo rme s s ep r ac t ica ron e xac tamen te e nG a l isancho s on m uy l im i tada s . E s tän s uped i tada sc a s ia b so lu tamen te ,d eh echo ,a le s tud io d el ad i spe r s iön -ag rupac iön d e h a l lazgo s y ,e n meno r m ed ida , al ap o s ib i l idad d e a p l ica r c i er to s p resupues tos t e ö r ico sd educ ido sd e la nä l is i sd eo t ra st umba sC iempozue lo sc uyo sa j ua r e s ,d ada s u c ond ic iön d e e n ter ram ien tos s imp les , l ega ron a i nd iv idua l iza r se s i n m ayo re s p rob lema s . L aF igu ra 4 ,q ue n o so f r ece l ad i spe r s iön d e t o do sl o sm a ter ia l s c ampan ifo rme sd e l s epu lcro , p e rm i te a prec ia r b i en a l a s c l a ra s l a g ran e x tens ion a f ec tada p o r l o s h a l lazgo s , y al av ez l a s e no rmes d i f icu l tade s q ue e n l am ayo r p a r te d e l o s c a so s e x is ten p a ra f i ja rl ap o s ic iön o r ig ina ld e l o sm ismo s . E s te p rob lema ,q ue p odr ia s e r m eno re n e lc a so d e c i nco v a so s c omp le ta l o s n üme ro s 1 4 , 1 5 , 1 6 , 1 7 y1 8 d e l a r e lac iön f a c i l i tada e n n o ta 1 , e ss i n emba rgo n o to r io c on l o s r e s tan te sr e c ip ien tes , c on s i t i tu ido s av ece sp o rv a r ia sd ecena sd ef r agmen to s ,q ue h an p od ido c a sä r se e ne l l a bo ra tor io s i np rob lema ,p e ro c uyo h a l lazgo s eh ap roduc ido e no ca s ione s amucho s m e t ro s d ed i s tanc ia ( c er ca d e 1 0 , p o re j emp lo , p a ra f r agmen to sd el o s n ume ro s 3o 1 0 ) . C on e l lo s e p one d e man if ies to q ue a lm eno s c i e r tas p i eza s h an s u f r ido u n t r a s lado , s ee ncuen t ran e nu na p o s ic iön s e cunda r ia q ue r e su l ta d em uy e s ca so i n te rs p a ra n ue s t ra sa sp i rac ione sd ec onoce rl ap r im i t iva d i s t r ibuc iön ye ln üme ro e xac to d e l o se n te r ram ien to s . E su ni n ten to d ep a l ia re s te i n conven ien te s eh ac onf e cc ionado l aF igu ra 5 ,e nl aq ue , s ob re e lm ismo p i ano u t i l izado e n l aa n te r io r , s eh an e ng lobado d en t ro d ec i rcu lo s r ea l izado sc on t r azo c on t inuo l a sc oncen t rac ione sm ä sa b iga r rada sd ef r agmen to sd e u n m ismo v a so , p re sc ind iendo d e l o s p un tos m ä s a i s lado s , d e t a l s ue r te q ue , c on

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b a s tan te sv i so sd eq ue f u e ra c i er to , n o sc abe p ensa rq ue l ap o s ic iön o r ig ina ld e lv a so c omp le to s e e ncon t ra ra d en t ro d e l o s l im i tes d e d i cho c i rcu lo . P e se ae l lo , s i n emba rgo , e s e v iden te q ue l a s a g rupac iones d e v a s i ja s n o s on e xces ivamen te s i gn if ica t iva s , p o r mä sq ue s ea dv ie r ta u na e n e lc o r redo r ; o t ra e n t re e le x t remo d e e s te y l ap e r if er ia t umu la r ; u na m ä s a lS ur d e l ac äma ra , p räc t icamen te s obre l a d ema rcac iön e n t re e s ta ye lt ümu lo , yo t ra ,m uy c l a ra ,a lS u rd el ap a red m e r id iona l d el ac äma ra yaa p rox imadamen te t r es m e t ro sd ee l la ,e np l eno t ümu lo ,q ue p od r ia s e r l a ü n ica r ea lmen te b i en i nd iv idua l izada . E xcep to p a ra l a ü l t ima , l amen tab lemen te , n ada n o sp e rm i te d educ i rq ue s ei r a te ,g a ran t izada -men te d eo t ra s t a n ta s t umba s . P o r o t ra p a r te , l ae xper ienc ia n o s i nd ica q ue e x i s te u na c i e r ta e s te reo t ip ia e n l a s t umbas d e C iempozue lo s , yq ue c on much f r ecuenc ia e n e l la s s ed ocumen ta u n m ismo yr e pe t ido a j ua rc e rä rn ico c ons t i tu ido p o rv a so c ampan ifo rme e s t r ic to ,c azue la yc uenco ( De l ibes 1 977 ) . E s te e s u n h echo p e rfec tamen te p robado e n l o s e n ter ram ien tos s imp les d e V i l labuena d e l P uen ta ( Zamo ra ) , F uen te -O lmedo ( Va l lado l id ) , P a ja res d e Ada ja ( Av i la ) yl ac ueva d e L a V aque ra d en T o r re ig le s ia s ( Segov ia ) , yq ue p a rece a d iv ina r se i gua lmen te e n o t ro s h a l lazgo s p eo r c onoc ido s , c omo l ap rop ia n ecröpo l is e pön ima d e l ac u l tura , C iempozue los ( Madr id ) , l o s s epu lc ros d o lmen ico s d e S an Ma r t in ( A lava ) oP er ia G uer ra ( R io ja ) , yl a s f o sa s i nd iv idua les ( ? ) d e S amboa l ( Segov ia ) yV i l la r d e l C ampo ( So r ia ) . S on d e ta l le s s uf ic ien temen te s i gn if ica t ivo s c omo p a ra t e ne r lo s e n c uen ta e n n ue s t ro i n ten to d e r e con s t ru i re ln üme ro yl a sc a räc ter i s t ica sd e l o sd epö s i to sf üneb r e sc ampan ifo rme s e nG a l i sancho ,y aq ue e s muy p robab le q ue c ada u no d ee l lo sc on ta se o r ig ina lmen te t amb ien c on l a st r e sv a s i ja st i p ica s . E n t a l s en t ido h emos e nfocado n ues t ro s e s fue rzo s ac omproba r e n q ue c a so s s e p roducen c oncen t rac iones q ue h agan p o s ib le l ai d en t if i cac iön d el o s m enc ionado s a j ua res s t andard ,o b servando p o re j emp lo q ue e l lo e sp e r f ec tamen te v e ro s im i le n t re E 4 yE 5 ,d onde s eh a l la ron a g rupado sd ef o rma b a s tan te i n con te s tab le e lv a so n o . 2 l ac azue la 1ye lc uenco 5 , oe ne le x t remo S u rd eE 4 ,d onde s ed o cumen tan u nv a so ( 1 5 ) yu n c uenco ( 14 ) , s o spechändo se q ue l ac azue la r e s tan te p e rmanece a im s i n e xhuma re n e lt e s t igo r e se rvado e n E 3 , ae sca so s c en t ime t ro s d e l p un to d onde s e p rodu jo e lh a l lazgo d el a sd o sc e räm ica sr e cupe rada sd e lp r e sen to a j ua r . A p l ica rr i g idamen te e nl o sr e s tan tes c a so sl at e o r ia d e lt r io c e räm ico C iempozue lo s p o r t umba r e su l ta c i e r tamen te mucho mä s a ven tu rado , p e ro l ac onven ienc ia d e c ompag ina r e sa r e fe renc ia t e ö r ica c on l ad i s t r ibuc iön r ea l d e l o s h a l lazgo s e n e l t ümu lo d eL aE rm i ta n o si nduce aa dop ta r , as ab ienda sd e move rno se nt e r r eno p oco f u me ,e ls i gu ien te r e pa r to : Vaso No .

4 ? 6 1 5 1 6 ( 17? ) 2

C azue la

C uenco

3 1 0 1 2 8 1

1 7 9( ? ) 1 4 1 3 5

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1 7 ( ? ) 1 8 To ta les

7( 1l i so )

5

6

E l lo d epa rada u nn ü rne ro t n in imo a p rox imado d e5 1 7c on jun to s , ot o do l om ä sd e 8 , q ue s e c o r responde r fan c on o t ros t a n tos e n ter ram ien tos , s ib i en n o n os p a sa d e sape rc ib ido q ue l a sd i s t in ta sp i eza sd ec ada t r io p ropue s to n og ua rdan e n t re s it a n ta a f in idad e s t i l i s t ica c omo l aq ue p uedan o s ten ta r l a s c e räm ica s d e L a V aque ra o r V i l labuena d e lP uen ta , ya s fm ismo q ue n oe nt o do sl o sc a so ss ec ump le e la x ioma i r reve r s ib le , s ie lp r ime ro h a d e d epo s i ta r se e n e li n te r io r d e l aü l t ima - d e q ue e l c uenco t e nga u nd i äme t ro i n f e r io i ra ld el ac azue la ( De l ibe s 1 977 ) . E n f i n , c abe a po s t i l la r q ue s i endo mucho s l o s p rob lema s a ün p l an teado s p o r l o c ampan ifo rme e n G a l isancho , t amb ien e s c i e r to q ue l a e xcavac iön d e e s te monumen to a mp l ia n o tab lemen te l a se xpec ta t iva sp a ra i n ve s t iga re la u ten t ico a l cance d e C iempozue lo s e n e l mundo d o lmen ico . E n s i n te s i s , s u s p r inc ipa le s e n se r ianza s s on l a s s i gu ien te s : ( a ) L a i n c idenc ia d e l V a so C ampan iforme e n e lm ega l i t i smo r eg iona l f ue g rande . T odo p a rece s uge r i r q ue l o s d ö lmenes s i guen d esempe l iando s us o r ig ina les f unc iones f une ra r ia s ac om ienzos d e l I M i len io o , a l meno s , q ue l a s r ecupe ra ron S i e s q ue h ubo a l gün p a ren tes is a n ter io r •c o inc id iendo c on l ap l en t i tud d eC iempozue lo s . ( b ) E lv o lumen d ep i eza sc ampan ifo rme sr e cupe rado p od r ia h ace rp en sa re n u nü n ico c on jun to ,i n s tan täneo ,d eg ran e nve rgadu ra . L ae x ten sa d i spe r s iön d e l o s ma te r ia les , e n c amb io , p a rece r eve la r q ue h ubo v a r ia s t umbas , p o s ib lemen te e n t re 6y8 ,l oq ue i mp l ica u na c i er ta c os tumbre e n e l u so d e ld o lmen p o rp ane d e l a s g en te s d e C iempozue lo s . ( c ) L a sd epo s ic ione sc ampan iforme se nl o sm ega l i to s s a lman t ino sn od eben c ons ide ra r se , p ue s , t a n e xcepc iona les c omo a l guna v ez s el a sj uzgö . Mä s b i en ,a lc on t ra r io ,p e se al oq ue p ueda i n s inua r se p a ra e lh a l lazgo p röx imo d e L a Maya ,t amb ien e ne lv a l le d e lT o rme s , s ed i r fa q ue s et r a ta d el af ormu la c omün d e e n terram ien to e n t re l a s g en tes c ampan ifo rme s d e l az ona .

A lgunas C ons iderac iones * ******* ( 1 ) . U na a prox imac iön e n t e rm ino s n ume r ico s al ai n c idenc ia c ampan iforme e n l o s mega l i to sd el a Mese ta . A unque n ues t ra i n tenc iön s ea a bo rda r e s te a spec to e n t e rm ino s d e s i n tes is , d e t a l f o rma q ue l a sc onc lu s ione sq ue s eo f r ezcan r e su l ten v ä l ida sp a ra t o do e lm ega l i t i smo m ese te t io , n o s v emos f o rzado s aj rp r esen tando l o s d a to s i n depend ien temen te p a ra c ada f oco d o lmen ico , ye l lo n ot a n to p o rs ub raya rs u , a penas d i s t in ta ,p e r sona l idad ,

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c omo p o re l muy d i f e r en te g r ado d ea t enc iön q ue mode rnamen te l e sh as i do p r e s tada p o rl aA rqueo log f a . E n e lb ro te s a lman t ino l o s s epu lcro s m ega l f t icos q ue s abemo s c on s egur idad i mpac tado sp o re lc ampan ifo rme s on p o r cen tua lmen te m uy p oco s ,a pena s 7d ea l go m äs d e 6 0 monumen to s r e conoc idos , l o c ua l p od r fa d a rno s ae n tende r q ue l a p resenc ia d e t a n p a r t icu la res e spec ies c e räm ica s t i ene u n c a räc te r m e ramen te a cc iden ta l e n l o s d ö lmenes . S in e mba rgo v ar ios h echo s n os i nv i tan ac on s ide ra r s o lo p rov i s iona l ya l ea to r ia e sa i d ea ,c omo a s fm i smo e sa l ea to r io q ue s ean s o lo 7l o s s epu lc ro sc ha r ro se nl o sq ue s ec on s ta tan m ic ro l i to sg eom6 t r ico s ,c uando n ad ie p one e n d uda q ue e s a s s on p rec isamen te l a s mon tu ra sc a räc ter f s t ica sd e l momen to e nq ue d eb ie ron e r ig ir se l a mayo r fa d el o s monumen to sm ega l f t ico sd el ar eg iön . B a jo e sa ö p t ica , s i e l p orcen ta je d e g eom& r icos e n r e lac iön a l n üme ro d e t umbas v e ro s im i lmen te n or e sponde al ar e a l idad ,i g ua ls o specha e sl f t ico a l be rga rr e spec to a l o s c ampan ifo rmes , mäx ime c uando , s i gn if ica t ivamen te , e n n inguno d e l o s d ö lmene so b je to d ee xcavac iön r e c ien te Ga l isancho , L aV egu i l la oC o to A l to - h an f a l tado n il o su no sn il o so t ro s . P o re l lo s omo sc on t ra r io s aa cep ta rs i n mä sq ue l o s c ampan ifo rmes n o f ue ron e l emen tos h ab i tua les e n l o s a j ua res d e l o s d ö lmene s c ha r ro s , yae sa i mp re s iön c on t r ibuye , s i nd uda ,e ld e ta l le d eq ue e nl a sp en i l lanu ra s o cc iden ta le sd e lD ue ro n op a recen h abe re x i s t ido o t ra sm an if e s ta c ione sf une ra r ia sd e s i gno C iempozue lo sq ue n os e an l a sd ee s to ss epu lc ro s monumen ta le s . E n e lo t ro e x t remo d e l a Mese ta l ap re senc ia c ampan ifo rme e n l o s d ö lmenes e s mucho mä s a cusada yf ä c i l d ep e rc ib i r , s ob re t odo e n l aR io ja d onde p a sa p o r s e r p rac t icamen te u na c ons tan te . E n L as L oras u no d e c ada t r es monumen to s m ega l f t ico sc onoc ido so f rece a l gün m a te r ia ld ee s ta e t apa , a umen tando l ap ropo r c iön i n c luso uno d ec ada d os - s ec er i imo s l ae s tad f s t ica as ö lo l o s s epu lcro se xcavado s . Yp a ra e lb ro te r i o jano l a s c i f ra s , c omo a de lan täbamos , r e su l tan a ün mä s c onc luyen te s , y aq ue ,d eu na d ocena d ed ö lmene sr e lac ionado s ,o cho os e al a sd o s t e r ce ra sp a r te s - f a c i l i ta ron a j ua re sb a s tan te i mpo r tan te sc o r re spond ien te sa lh o r izon te C iempozue lo s , n o d e sca r tändose q ue t a l p o rcen ta je a t in a umen te e n u n p l azo d e t i empo muy b r eve ,p ue s to q ue c a recemo sd en o t ic ia sd el a se xcavac ione sd el at umba N o . 2d e C o l lado P a lome ra e n V igue ra , i n c lu fda c omo s i n c ampan ifo rme e n l a e s tad f s t ica . E nr e sumen ,e li n ten to d ec uan t if ica rl ap r e senc ia c ampan ifo rme e nl o sd ö lmene sn o s p e rm i te e s tab lece rq ue é s ta t a lv ez n of u e s i s temä t ica , n ie xcepc iona l . N ot o do sl o s d ö lmene s , n i mucho m eno s , d epa ran c ampan ifo rme s ;p e ro i g ua lmen te i mpo r tän te e s r e conoce r q ue 6 s tos t ampoco s on t a n r a ro s e n a que l lo s c omo p a ra c ons ide ra r lo s a cc iden ta les . L as e v idenc ias ae s te n i ve l , p ues , n o r e su l tan c onc luyen te s p o r s f m isma s c omo p a ra e s c la rece rl ar e lac iön c u l tu ra l e n t re m ega l i tos yC iempozue lo s . B usquemo sp o re l lo u na n ueva ö p t ica p a ra a bo rda re lp rob lema . ( 2 ) . S ob r el am agn i tud d e l o sc on jun to sc ampan ifo rme sd e s i gno d o lm& l ico . L a t r anscendenc ia d e e s te a spec to s e n o s a n to ja e x t rao rd inar ia , p o r m ä s q ue a p r ime ra v i s ta p ueda p a rece rt r iv ia l . D ebemo sp a r t i rd eh echo d emo s t rado d eq ue e l d o lmen e su n l uga rd ee n ter ram ien to c o lec t ivo d eu so n os imu l täneo ,e ne lq ue ,p o r t a n to ,e x is ten d epö s i to s f une ra r io sd i a c rön ico sc uya a n t igüedad d ec rece c on fo rme s e

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a l e jan d e l momen to f undac iona ld e l monumen t° . L o sc ampan i fo rme s ,e np r inc ip io , p a san p o r s e r l o s a j ua res d e u na f a se d e u t i l izac iön d o lm6n ica b a s tan te r e c ien te f r en te ,p o re j emp lo , al ai n ic ia lc a räc te r izada p o rl o sm ic ro l i to sg eom& r ico s ; ys ob re e sa b a se r eve s t i r ia u na e no rme i mpo r tanc ia e s tab lece rl am agn i tud d es u sd epö s i to sy l ega r ac ompa ra r la c on l ad e l o s mä s p r im i t ivos , c on o b je to d e d i c tam ina r m ä s o b je t ivamen te s ob re s is up resenc ia e n l o s d ö lmene s e s , c omo mucha sv eces s eh a d i cho , m inor i ta r ia y a cc iden ta l , o ,p o re lc on t ra r io , p e r f ec tamen te p ropo rc iona l a l mä s b i en c o r to p e r iodo d e t i empo e n q ue c ua jö l a moda d e l a s c e räm ica s d e C iempozue lo s . A cep tando q ue l o s m ega l i to s m e se te f ios e n g ene ra l s ec ons tr uye ron h ac ia 3 300 o 3 200 a .d e J C ; s upon i ndo lo s i n ter rump idamen te e n u so d esde e n tonces h a s ta l a d epos ic iön d e l o s c ampan ifo rme s , yd ando , g ene ro samen te , p o r b ueno q ue n o s e a l te rö d e mane ra s u s tanc ia l l ad emog ra f ia n il ae spe ranza d e v ida d e l o s g rupo s h umanos l o ca les a l o l a rgo d e l c i tado p e r iod° , t e nd r iamo s u na u t i l izac iön a n tecampan ifo rme d el o s monumen to sp röx ima a1 250 a f io s ( 3250 -2000 ) ,f r en te al a d e6 poca C iempozue lo sr educ ida a lp r ime rc ua r to d c li iM i len io . E l lo s i gn if ica q ue s il a s g en tes c ampan ifo rme s s ee n te r raban o rd inar iamen te e n l o s d ö lmene s , s u s d epö s i to sd ebe r ian e ncon t ra r se e nu na r a t io d e 1 : 5r e spec to al o sa n te r io re s . L a s d i f icu l tades p a ra c omproba r s is e c ump le r ea lmen te e sa p ropo rc iön s on g i gan t esca s . Av ece se lc a räc te rr e vue l to ye no rmemen te f r agmen ta r io d el o so sa r io s i mp ide c ua lqu ie r c ä lcu lo s i qu ie ra s ob re e l n üme ro t o ta l d e i nhumac iones d e l d epö s i to ; e n o t ra s o ca s iones e sj u s to r e conoce rq ue l o s t r aba jo s d e e xcavac iön n o p re s ta ron l a s d eb ida s a t enc ione s ae s te a spec to , ya un e n o t ros c a so s , c omo o cur re e n S a lamanca , l ae va luac iön s e h ace i mpo s ib le a lh abe r se d e s in teg rado , c omo d i j imo s , t odo s l o s r e s to s o rgän ico s d e l a s s epu l tu ras . S i , c omo v emo s , d e p o r s i r e su l ta y ad i f i c i ll ar e a l izac iön d eu nc ömpu to g l oba ld el o si n d iv iduo se n te r rado se n l o sd ö lmene s ,n op a rece n ece sa r io i n s i s t i r mä se nl a sb a r re ra si n te rpue s ta s al ah o ra d es eg rega rd ee n t re e l lo sl o sd e s i gno c ampan ifo rme . No o bs tan te , a l gunas e s t imac iones d e c i e r tos monumen tos p os ib i l i tan u na a p rox imac iön a lp rob lema . E n P e f ia G ue r ra I ,a s i , l a s i nhumac ione s d e l n i ve l I , c ampan iforme e r an 6 / 8 , p o r l a s 1 / 115 d e l n i ve l a n te r io r oI ,d e s i gno m ega l i t ico a r ca ico ; e n G a l i sancho e ln üme ro d e e n ter ram ien tos c ampan iformes s e r ia , s egün n ues t ro sc ä lcu lo s , d ee n t re 6y8 ,b a s tan te c ons ide rab le , p ue s , a unque s egu ramen te b a jo r e spec to a lt o ta l d e l o sa r io al al u z d e l aa bundanc ia d e a j ua re s d o lm& i ico s ( m icro l i to s , h o ja s -cuch i l lo ,h acha s ,p un tas d e s i lex ,c uen ta sd ec o l la r ,e t c . ) ; e n Pa la G ue r ra Ie ld epö s i to C iempozue lo s ,l o ca l izado e xc lus ivamen te e ne lc o r r ed6 r ,e s taba c ons t i tu ido p o r o cho e sque le tos , a l guno d e e l lo s i n f an t i l , l o q ue s e n os a n to ja i g ua lmen te u n c on jun to i mpo r tan te , e t c . F ren te ae l lo , e mpero , t ampoco p a rece o b je t ivo s i lenc ia r q ue l o s h a l lazgo s d e S an Ma r t in o C habo la d e l aH ech ice ra , a j uzga rp o r l o s a j ua res y s u a g rupac iön e n z ona s m uy l o ca l izada s d e l o s s epu lc ro s , d eb ie ron s e r muy r educ ido s ,d eu n s o lo i n d iv iduo e n C habo la yd eo t ro o al os umo d o s ,e ni n tuc iön d eH a r r ison - e n S an Ma r t in . E n s uma , l aa m ic ionada p ropoc iön d e 1 : 5e n t re l o se n ter ram ien to sc ampan ifo rme sy p recampan iforme s d e l o s d ö lmene s m e se te l io s n o t e rm ina d e v e r se c l a ra , p o rm ä s q ue c i e r to s monumen to s h ayan d epa rado c on jun to s n o tab les ( Pe i ia G ue r ra IyI ,o G a l isancho ) . P e ro n o p o r e l lo d ebe v e r se i n ter rump ido a h i e l h i lo d e n ues t ra

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a r gumen tac iön e np ro d ec on s ide ra rl o sd ö lmene se ll u gar d ee n te r ram ien to h ab i tua l d el a s g en te sd eC iempozue lo s . H ay ,e n e f ec to , u na n ueva p o s ib i l idad d ej u s t i f ica r e np a r te e ldesde l u ego r e la t ivo - b a jo n r ime ro d ei n humac ione sa t r ibu ib le sa lc i tado mundo C iempozue lo s : s il ac e räm ica c ampan ifo rme e s e ld i s t in t ivo d e u na e l i te c ab r fa q ue l a st umba sd el a sg en te sm eno ss i gn if icada sd es um isma d po ca c a r ec ie ran d et a ld i s t in t ivo , b i en p o re n te r ra r se d e spo jado sd ec ua lqu ie ra j ua r , b i en p o rs e rd s te e x t remadamen te p ob re yv u lga r( p .e . c e räm ica sl i sa s ) . A lgo a s fd esde l u ego p a rece r e f le ja re ly ac im ien to d eL aA ta layue la d eA gonc i l lo e nL og ror io ,e ne lq ue p a ra c e r ca d e 8 0 i nhumac iones s imu l tänea s a pena s s ih ay m ed ia d ocena d e r e c ip ien te s e s tr ic tamen te c ampan iforme s , m enudeando e n c amb io l o sc uenco s s imp le s , l i so so c on mame lonc i l los , muy d i f f c i les c a s i s i emp re d e d i f e renc ia r d e l o s d e d poca p recampan ifo rme ( Ba rand ia rän 1 978 ) . Yl ao b se rvac iön a t in p odr fa e x tende r se a l d epö s i to d e lp as i l lo d eP er ia G ue r ra I ,c on o cho i n humado s . . . .y t r es oc ua t ro v a s i ja s C iempozue lo s r i n icamen te . A p l icando e s to m ismo s b a remos d e L a A ta layue la o P er ia G ue r ra I .ac uän to se n te r ram ien to sp ud ie ron c o r re sponde rl o s 17 r e c ip ien te s c amp in ifo rme s d e G a l isancho? z Podemo s s egu i r a segu rando , c omo s uge r famos mäs a r r iba , q ue l a s i nhumac ione s d e e se momen to e n l a t umba s a lman t ina s e r educ fan a6 ,t o do l om ä s 8 ? At r avd sd ee s to sd a to s ,q ue n ol egan as e rd ef in i t ivo s , a c recen tamo sn oo b s tan te l a i mp re s iön d eq ue l ap re senc ia d em a te r ia le sc ampan ifo rme se nl o sd ö lmene s ,c on s e r i mpo r tan te n umdr icamen te p o r s fm isma , n o r e f le ja e n s u a u tdm ica d imens iön l a m agn i tud d el o sd epö s i to sd e li n ic io d e l IM i len io e nt a le s monumen to s . ( 3 ) z Un h i a tus e n t re l o sd epö s i to sp rop iamen te d e lmdn ico s yl o sc ampan ifo rme s? L ao b se s iön p o rs ub raya re lc a rä c te ri n t ru s ivo d e lc ampan ifo rme e nl o s monumen to s mega l f t ico s o r ig in6 e n s u momen to c i e r ta p roc l iv idad aa f irma rq ue l o s d epö s i to s C iempozue lo s s eh ab fan r e a l izado s o lo c uando l o sd ö lmene ss ee ncon t raban f u e ra d e u so , c ua l s is et r a ta ra d e m e ro sa p rovecham ien to sd eu na sr u ina s ,e sbozändo se c on e l lo ,i nd i rec tamen te ,l ad i s tanc ia c rono lög ica yt amb idn c u l tu ra l -q ue e x i s t fa e n t re l o d o lmdn ico yl oc ampan ifo rme ( Ma luque rd e Mo te s9 74 ,p .8 7 ) . E l c i tando p ano rama , s i n emba rgo , s e n o s a n to ja i n comp le to y ,p o r e nde , n o d e l t o do a ce r tado . C ie r to q ue e n S an Ma r t in oP e l la G ue r ra I l ae s t ra t ig raf fa d e s l inda n f t idamen te d o sn i ve le s , u no c on m a te r ia ld o lmdn ico yo t ro c ampan ifo rme ,p e ro t a l c i rcuns tanc ia n o p uede h ace r se e x tens iva a lr e s to d e l o s m ega l i to s e s tud iado s . E n a que l la sd o st umba ss ec on s ta ta e ne f ec to e lb rusco c on tac to e n t re u na j ua rn eo l f t ico f i na l c on e l emen to s m icro l f t ico s g eomd t r icos , m uy t f p ico d e l a s mä s a nst i gua s c ons t rucc iones d o lmdn ica s , yo t ro d e l p l eno e neo l f t ico , y a c on m e ta l , q ue p r e sum imo sd ec om ienzo sd e l IM i len io ; e n t r ea mbo sd epö s i to se x is t iö s i nd uda u n p ro longado v ac io , d emo s t rado e n P e l la G ue r ra p o rl af o rmac iön d e u n n i ve le s tdr i l i n te rmed io , ye n S an Ma r t in p o re ld e ta l le d e h a l la r se ya lc äma ra e n u n e s tado d e r u ina b a s tan te a vanzado c uando s ep rac t ican l a s i n humac ione s C iempozue los . E n e s to s d o s m ega l i to s , p o r t a n to , n o s ep uede d i scu t i re lc a räc ter d i scon t fnuo d e l o s d os d epö s i to sq ue e nc ier ran . i u empu rgo , n ues t ra t e s is m an t iene q ue P e f ia G uer ra I y S an Ma r t in n o s on e j emp lo s o r p a rad igmas d e u na s i tuac iön t f p ica , s i no mä s b i en , a l c on t rar io , e xcepc iones q ue c on t rav ienen l o q ue d eb iö s e r l an o rma . E n b a s tan tes d e l o s

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dolmenes de la Rioja Alavesa -recordemos, p.,e., una vez mas, Chabola de la Hechicer- ademas de los dos horizontes de cultura material mencionados se vislumbra claramente otro caracterizado por la presencia de puntas de flecha antecampaniformes de retoque plano, bien romboidales, bien mas explfcitamente pedunculadas. Ese mundo de signo incontestablemente dolmenico a juzgar por su buena representacion en muchos otros monumentos del Pafs Vasco, falta un tanto incomprensible-mente en San Martin o Pena Guerra II, lo que demuestra que determinados dolmenes en ciertas epocas dejaron de utilizarse, sin que tal abandono responda en absolute a una crisis general y definitiva de la religiosidad funeraria megalftica. Con el reconocimiento de esta fase intermedia en la utilizacion de los dolmenes vascos - que por lo menos alcanzarfa al inicio de la segunda mitad del III Milenio segun las fechas de C14 de Kurtzebide (Vegas 1981) adquiere una nueva dimension la antigua propuesta sobre el aislamiento cronologico de los materiales campaniformes. Se entreve tras ello, ciertamente, un posible continuum de todas las manifestaciones dolmenicas, incluidas las campaniformes, llegando a ser lfcito, por aii.adidura, cuestionar si estas ultimas no podrfan ser simplemente una generacion mas, la ultima, de un mismo grupo de poblacion. La precaria definicion de la cultura material del llamado 'grupo de Los Husos' entre 2500 a. de JC -fecha de Kurtzebide- y 2000 a. de JC -datacion del mas antiguo Ciempozuelos del propio covacho de Los Husos (Appellaniz 1973, p. 337)­ impide redondear por complete nuestro argumento favorable a la continuidad entre dolmenes y campaniformes del oriente meseteii.o; en tierras salmantinas, sin embargo, donde la documentacion es algo mas rica y precisa, creemos encontrar argumentos decisivos para negar la existencia de un hiatus o vacio entre ambas manifestaciones. Hay, en efecto, en numerosos sepulcros como La Ermita de Galisancho, Coto Alto, La Veguilla o Rabida II materiales inspirados en el horizonte colonial del curso inferior del Tajo (Delibes y Santonja 1986), que segun fechas de C 14 inedita de la estacion zamorana de Las Pozas, en Casaseca de Las Chanas, se escalonan entre 2400 y 2175 a. de JC Ello pone de manifiesto que los dolmenes en esta region siguen acogiendo inhumaciones a lo largo de toda la segunda mitad del III Milenio, viendo incluso completada su secuencia ante­ Ciempozuelos en algunos casos por ciertas especies campaniformes marftimas y mixtas (p.e. de La Veguilla, Aldeavieja or Salvatierra) que gustosamente situarfamos en fecha inmediatamente anteriores al 2000. (4) Epilogo: De las observaciones anteriores pretendemos se deduzca nuestra conviccion de que los dolmenes siguieron en pleno uso, con fines funerarios, durante el periodo campaniforme, lo cual invalida que los depositos de ese memento tuvieron solo un caracter secundario, intrusive, en dichos monumentos. En nuestra opinion, ]as gentes Ciempozuelos allf inhumadas manifiestan en la simple eleccion de estos sepulcros una gran dosis de indigenismo y de continuidad, delatando el expreso deseo de no interrumpir una solida tradicion -la del ritual dolmenico- con varios milenios de historia. De tal manera, no manifestamos en contra de cualquier ruptura etnica precampaniforme/campaniforme, pese a la novedad que evidentemente supone la aparicion de las pintorescas ceramicas de Ciempozuelos.

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E nt o do c a so , s omo sc onsc ien te sd eq ue c on e s ta i n te rp re tac iön q uedan s i nr e spue s ta i n cögn i ta se v iden te s ,e n t re l a sq ue n o sc abe d e s taca ru na p o rl am agn i tud d es u r e l ieve : z aq u6 a t r ibu i re lc a räc te ri nd iv idua l ,a lm a rgen d el om ega lf t ico ,d el a s t umba sd eT ab lada d eR ud rön ,R incön d eS o to ol a sf o sa sd el a sc amp ir ia s m e r id iona le sd e lD ue ro? . P a ra l o sd o sp r ime ro sy ac im ien to sc a recemo sd ec ua lqu ie r e xp l ica c iön c onv incen te ,m äx ime c uando t a le st umba sc oex i s ten e ne lm i smo t e r r i to r io c on o t ra sd o lm& l ica sc on d epö s i to sc a rnpan i fo rme s ; p a ra l a sf o sa sd e l D ue ro Med io ,e nc amb io ,n op uede o cu l tä r seno su nh echo i mpor tan te c omo e sq ue e nd i cha r eg iön ,e n t re e lC ega ye lG ua r er ia ,p ra c t f camen te n oe x i s ten monumen to s m ega l f t ico s . . .y s f ,c ur io samen te ,a l guna t umba i n d iv idua lp r ecampan i fo rme ,t amb ién e nf o sa ,c omo l a sd eC an tazo r ra se nD onh ie r ro ( Segov ia ) . z No s i gn if ica t o do e lo t amb i6n v igenc ia e n l az ona ap a r t i rd e l2 000 a .de J C d euna t r ad ic iön f une ra r ia i n d fgena , a n te -C iempozue lo s ,e nv ez d ei mpo s ic iön d eu nr i to f üneb re d ef u e ra , c omo a l guna v ez h as i do p ropue s to ? .

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A ppe l län iz , J .M . , 1 973 . E l g rupo d e L os Husos Duran te l a P reh is tor ia c on C er&am ica , E s t . d eA rqu . A lave sa , N o .7 . A ppe l län iz , J .M . yF dez - Med rano , D . , 1 978 . E lS epu lcro d e G a l ler ia S egmen tada d e l a C habo la d e l aH ech iucera ( E lv i l lar , A lava ) . E xcavac iön y r e s taurac iön , E s t . A rqu . A lavesa , N o . 9 .p .1 41s s . B a rand ia rän ,I . ,1 978 .L aA ta layue la ,F o sa d eI nhumac iön C o l lec t iva d e lE neo l io t ico e ne lE bro Med io ,P r inc ipe d eV iana , 1 52 -3 ,p .3 81s s . B a rand ia rän , J .M . yF dez - Med rano , D . , 1 958 . E xcavac iones e nA lava , B ISES , B a rand ia rän , J .M . yF dez - Med rano , D . , 1 962 . E xcavac iones A rqueo lög icas e n A lava e n 1 957y 1 958 , B ISES , V I . B a rand ia rän , J .M . yF dez - Med rano , D . , 1 964 . E xcavac iön d e l Do lmen d e S an Mar t in ( Laguard ia ) ,B ISES ,V I I I , 1 2 ,p .4 1s s . B a rand ia rän , J .M . , F dez - Med rano , D . yA pe l län iz , J .M . , 1 964 . E xcavac iön d e l Do lmen d eE lS o t i l lo ( R io ja A lave sa ) , B ISES , V I I I , 1 2 , p .2 9 ss . B ene t ,N . , 1 984 . E ld o lmen d eL aV equ i l la e nA lba d eT orme s( Sa lamanca ) :E s tud io d el aC eräm ica Mem .d eL icenc ia tu ra l e ida e nl aU n iv . C omp lu tense d e Mad r id . B oh igas , R . , C amp i l lo , J . yC hur ruca , J .A . 1 984 . C ar ta A rqueo lög ica d e l a P rov inc ia d e B urgos ( Par t . J ud . d e S edano y V i l larcayo ) , K ob ie , X IV , p .7 s s . D e l ibes , G . , 1 977 . E l V a so C ampan if orme e n l a Mese ta N or te E spa i io la , S tud ia A r chaeo log ica ,4 6 ,V a l lado l id . D e l ibe s , G . , R odr iguez Ma rco s , J .A . , S anz M inguez , C . yD e l V a l R ec io , J . , 1 982 . Dö lomenes d e S edano .I . E l S epu lcro d e C orredor d e C ie l la , NAH isp . , 1 4 p . 1 49 ss . D e l ibes , G . , R o jo , M .A . yS anz , C . , 1 986 . Dö lmene s d eS edano . I . E lS epu lcro d eL as A rn i l la se n Morad i l lo , NAH i sp . ,e np r ensa . D e l ibes , G . yS an ton ja , M . , 1 986 . E l F enömeno Mega l i t ico e n S a lamanca , S a lamanca . Gomez Mo reno , M . , 1 967 . C a tä logo Monumen ta l d e E spa t ia . P rov inc ia d e S a lamanca , S a lamanca . H a r r ison , R .J . , 1 980 . T he B e l lB eaker F o lk . C opper A ge A rchaeo logy i n We s tern E urope . L ond re s .

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L e isne r , G . u nd V . , 1 960 . E l G uada lpera l , Mad r . M i t t . , 1 ,p .2 0 s s . L e i sne r ,G . u nd V . , 1 963 .D ie Mega l i thgräber d er I be r i schen H a lb inse l .D er S üd en, R .G .F . , 1 7 , B e r l in . L opez P laza , M .S . , 1 978 . C om ien zos d e lE r ieo l i t ico P ro tourbano e ne lS uroe s t ed e l a Me se ta N or te , S a lamanca . L opez P laza , M .S . 1 984 . C o to A l to , L a T a la ( Sa lamanca ) :N uevo Y ac im ien to c on C eräm ica C ampan if orme y d e l B oqu ique e n l a Mese ta N or te E spa r io la , A rqueo log ia ( G .E .A .P . ) , 9 ,p .5 9s s . Ma lquer d e Mo tes , J . , 1 960 . Nuevos Ha l lazgos d e l a C u l tura d e l V aso C ampan if orme e nl a Me se ta ,Z ephy ru s ,X I ,p . 19s s . Ma lque rd e Mo te s ,J . , 1 974 . E nTorno al aC u l tura Mega l i t ica d el aR io ja A lave sa, E s t . A rqu . A lave sa , N o . 6 ,p .8 3ss . Ma rco s P ous , A . , 1 970 . E xcavac iön d eu na C i s ta c on D ob le I nhumac iön d e lV a so C ampan if orme e n R incön d e S o to ( R io ja d e B a ja , L ogro l io ) , NAH isp . , X I I I -X IV , p .3 84 ss . Ma r cos P ous , A . , 1 973 , T raba jos d e lS em inar io d eA rqueo logi ad el aU n iver s idad d eN avarra e n l aP rov inc ia d e L ogro i io Duran te l o sA r tos 1 965 y 1 966 , e n ' M i sce lanea d e A rqueo log ia R io jana ' , L og ro f io ,p .9 ss . Ma r t in V a l ls , R . yD e l ibes d e C a s t ro , G . 1 978 . U na P equel ia C azue la C amp[an if orme P roceden te d e l Emba l se d eS an ta T ere sa ,L a Maya ( Sa lamanca ) ,B SAA , XL IV ,p .4 26 ss . Mo ran , C . , 1 931 . E xcavac iones e n l o s Dö lmene s d e S a lamanca , Mem JSEA , No . 13 , Mad r id . Mo ran , C . , 1 935 . E xcavac iones e n Dö lmenes d e S a lamanca y d e Z amora , Mem JSTA , N o . 1 35 , Mad r id . O saba , B . , A ba so lo , J .A . , U r ibar r i , J .L . yL iz , C . , 1 971a . E lD o lmen d eP o r :quera d eB u t rön e n l aP rov inc ia d eB urgos , NAH i sp . , XV ,p .7 7s . O saba , B . , A baso lo , J .A . , U r iba r r i , J .L . yL iz , C . , 1 97 l b . E lD o lmen d eC ub i l le jo d eL ara d eL os I nf an te s ( Burgo s ) , NAH i sp . , XV , p .1 09s s . P e rez A r rondo , C . , 1 982 . L az ona Do lmb l ica d eN a lda ( R io ja ) C ampa i ia d e 1 980 . A c ta s XV I CNA rq . , Mu r c ia , p .1 21s s . P e rez A r rondo , C . , 1 983 . L a C u l tura Mega l i t ica e n l a Margen D erecha d e lE bro , C uade rno s d e I nve s t igac iön , I X , 1 ,L og ro f io , p .5 1s .

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P e rez A r rondo , C . yR odane s V icen te , J .M . 1 979 . E scavac iones e n l a Z ona Do lmgn ica d e Pa la Guerra ( Na lda , R io ja ) , C uade rnos d e I nve s t igac iön , V ,2 , L og ro i io , p .7 5ss . V ega s , I . ,1 981 .T ümu lo -Do lmen d eK ur t zeb ide ( Le tona ) ,E s t . A rqu . A lave sa , N o . 1 0 , p . 1 9ss .

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Ab s trac t * **** C i rca 2 000 b c , a n e x tended f am i ly g roup o r c l an o f 1 6 t o 2 4 i nd iv idua ls s e t t led a l ong as l ope s i tua ted o nt h ew e s te rn p e r ime te ro f aP l iocene a l luv ia lp l a in k nown a s t h eP la d e lR e i , n ea rt h ev i l lage o fV a l ldemo sa i nt h e N o r the rn J u ra ss ic L i me s tone S i e r ra so ft h eB a lea r ic I s land o f Ma l lo rca . H e r e ,i nt h eF e r rande l l -O leza C oppe rA ge O ld S e t t lemen t , t he i nhab i tan t s c ons t ruc ted a p ermanen t , w e l l b u i l t a nd h igh ly o rgan ised e s tab l ishmen t wh ich p rospered , a cco rd ing t o ar ecen t s e r ies o f u nca l ib ra ted r ad ioca rbon d a te s , f o r a7 00 y ear p e r iod o fo ccupa t ion u n t i lc i r ca 1 300 b c . T he F er rande l l -O leza C oppe r Age O ld S e t t lemen t , t h e s ub jec t o ft h i s r epo r t , w a s f o rmed b y al a rge s t one ,r e c tangu la rc ompound w a l l 2 46 me te r sl ong , e nc lo s ing a n a r ea o f3 606 s qua re me te r s ( F igu re s 3a nd 4 ) . T he w a l l so ft h ec ompound , w i th t h e i r w e l l p rese rved 2 . 5 me te r w ide f ounda t ions , o r ig ina l ly r o se t oa n e s t ima ted h e igh t o f 3me te r s , i n co rpo ra t ing at owe r l ike ma in e n t rance . T he d iv i s ion o ft h e w a l led c ompound a r ea i n to c l ea r ly d ef ined r e s iden t ia l a nd wo rk z ones i sb o th d i sce rnab le a nd q u i te r ema rkab le . T he re a r ef ounda t ions o ft h ree l a rge w e l l c ons t ruc ted a b s ida l h ouse s i nt h e w e s te rn s e c to r s . A lso n o tab le , w i th in t h e p rec inc t s o ft h e c ompound w a l ls i s as oph is t ica ted , i n te rna l w a te r s ys tem , c ons is t ing o fw ha t w a s ac ove red , a l igned s t one s l ab , w a te rc hanne l o fs ome 6 0m e te r s l e ng th . T he w a te rc hanne l h ad a c a tch -ba s in w a te rd epo s i td own h i l l , s upp l ied b y a n u ph i l l r e servo ir o fa n e s t ima ted 4 0 c ub ic me te r s t o rage c apac i ty ; as ys tem d emons t ra t ing b o th e f f ic iency a nd e xce l len te ng ineer ing i nt h em anagemen to fw a te r . D ur ing t h e p e r iod o fo ccupa t ion , t h e i n hab i tan ts c a r r ied o u t e x tens ive a gr icu l tura l a c t iv i t ie s i nt h ea d jacen ts u r round ing f i e lds , a sf i e ld c o l lec t ion s u rvey sa nd e xcava ted e v idence o f s eve ra l h und red s e r ra ted , t a bu la r f l in t s i ck les d emons t ra te . I n te r io r o ccupa t iona l z one s a nd e x te r io rr e fu se a r ea s h ave p roduced a bundan ta n ima lr ema in s o f g oa t , s heep , p i g , d og , s ma l l c a t t le a nd b y r e cen t i n d ica t ion h o r se ; s how ing t h e

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e x ten t o f t h e ir d ome s t ica ted l i ves tock w ea l th a nd v a r ied e xpe r ience i n a n ima l m anagemen t . T he s t a t ion 's ma te r ia l a s semb lage s , h oweve r , a r e o f s pec ia l p e r t inence . T he se a r e made u p o fl a rge q uan t i t ie s o fB e l l B eake ra r tef ac ts i nt h e f o rm o ff i ne ly d eco ra ted p o t te ry a sw e l l a s ar i ch v ar ie ty o fa ccompany ing c ommon w a re ( Beg le i tkeram ik ) , vp er fo ra ted b one , i vo ry , s he l l a nd s t one b u t tons o r n eck lace e l emen t s a nd w r i s tgua rd -whe t s tone sf ound a s soc ia ted w i th t h ea r ch i tec tu ra le l emen t s . T he p resence o f n ume rous e xamp le s o f c l ay s p ind le -who r ls a nd c heese -s t ra ine r b ow ls s peak f o r t h e o n -s i te p roduc t ion o f w oo l a nd d a iry p roduc t s . T he f i nd s o f many , t a bu la rf l in tc u t t ing b l ade s a nd b each -cobb le , p ound ing a nd p o l ish ing s t one s , a pa r t f r om t h e O lez ian f l in t s i ck le s , s t rong ly s ugges t a n ima l h ide p roduc t ion . L im i ted c oppe r wo rk ing i ss hown i nt h e r e t r ieva l o f an umbe ro fc oppe r a w ls a nd c oppe ri ngo t s , a l ong w i th s ome p o t te ry c r uc ib le s he rd e v idence . Howeve ro fp a r t icu la ri n te re s ti nt h eF e r rande l l -O leza C oppe rA ge O ld S e t t lemen ti s t h e e v idence o f wha t c an b e c on s ide r ed aw e l l d ef ined B a lea r ic B eake r mode l . A mode l w h ich man if e s t s a nd d emon s t ra te s as e to fd e te rm ined r e spon se s b y as ma l l g roup o fi nd iv idua l s , o ve r al ong p e r iod o fo ccupa t ion , t ob o th l o ca l r e sou rce s a nd e nv ironmen t . T h is l ong d u ra t ion o f o ccupa t ion i s d ocumen ted e x tens ive ly . I nf luence s , o r ig ins a nd p a ra l le l s a r e t r aced t h rough t h e a r ch i tec tu ra l , a r tef ac t a nd c hronome t r ic a s semb lages . I n f ac t , w e l l i lu s t ra ted b y t h is ma ter ia l a nd o the r e v idence a r e s t rong i nd ica t ions o f s oc ia l a nd e conom ic d i f f e r en t ia t ion a nd t he d ec la ra t ion o f p ropr ie tor ia l d oma ine , a s w e l l a s wha t A . G i lman c a l ls i n tens if ied c ap i ta l i nves tmen t . A l l o f t h ese a r e c er ta in ly i nd ica t ions o f as ma l l a l though h igh ly s ucce s sfu lc ommun i ty , a l ong w i th e xemp l ify ing al o ca ld eve lopmen t o fs t a tu si ns oc ia l a nd e conom ic t e rm s . T h i sp ape rp re sen t st h ed a ta a nd o the ru p to -da ted i n fo rma t ion d emons t ra t ing al o ca l B eake r h ypo the se s t ot h e a r chaeo log ica l c ommun i ty a tl a rge f o rc ons ide ra t ion a nd a s se ssmen t . I ti st h e a u tho r 's b e l ief t h a t i ti st ime t o g ive t h e B a lea r ic B eake r e v idence t h e r e cogn i t ion a nd p lace i tr i gh t ly d e serve s w i th in t h e c on tex t s o ft h e E u ropean B e l l B eake rC omp lex , a nd n o l o nge rc onf ine i tt ot h e b ackwa te rr eg iona l r e l iga t ion i th a sr e ce ived t od a te . I na l le ven t s , t h e s um o ft h ee v idence p re sen ted h e re i sb ya ny s t anda rd e xemp la ry i n t h er i chne s so fi t s C oppe ra nd E a r ly B ronze A ge a r tef ac ta s semb lages ,c h ronome t r ic d a ta a nd a r ch i tec tu ra ld ec la ra t ions . I tc e r ta in ly o f f e r su s an ew a nd i mpo r tan tf und o f e v idence f r om w h ich w e c an r e cons t ruc t af i rm b a s is o fi n terp re ta t ion f o r as ma l l C ha lco l i th ic /Bronze A ge s e t t lemen to ve ra n a pp rox ima te 7 ( X )y ea rp er iod o ft ime ; a s w e l l a s p resen t ing u s w i th a r ema rkab ly c l ea r p i c ture o ft h e e x ten t t ow h ich t h e i nhab i tan t s o f t h e F er rande l l -O leza P re ta layo t ic O ld S e t t lemen t d eve loped t h e i r p a r t icu la r s ub s is tence e conomy , t e chno logy a nd s oc ia l d i s t inc t ion d ur ing t h e t h ird a nd s e cond m i l lenn ia b c .

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F oreword ***** T he p urpose o f t h e f o l low ing p ape r s i s m an ifo ld . I n t he f i r s t o f t h e t wo c ommun ica t ion s p re sen ted , t h e a im i s( 1 ) t op l ace i n to p rope r c h rono log ica l a nd c hronome t r ic p er spec t ive t he o ccupa t iona l d ura t ion o f t h e F e r rande l l -O leza C ha lco l i th ic O ld S e t t lemen to nt h eI s land o f Ma l lo r ca a s as ma l l ,b u ti mpo r tan t , a nd r evea l ing ly , s i gn if ican t C oppe r a nd E a r ly B ronze A ge c ommun i ty . I td oe s t h is , h e re , b ye xam in ing t h ee mp i r ica le v idence i nt h ef o rm o fa r ch i tec tu ra lf e a tu re s a nd p re sen t ing t h e r ad ioca rbon d ocumen ta t ion a va i lab le i nt h e d a t ing o f t h e v a r ious b u i ld ing e l emen t s ,d i scu s s ing t h ea r tef ac t so n ly i nt h e mo s tc u r so ry s t a t i s t ica lt e rms a s t h ey a r e r ep resen ted i n n umbe r a nd w e igh t . F o r c on t inu i ty a nd c o r re la t ive r e a sons , h oweve r , i td oe s t h is b y d i scu ss ing a nd r e la t ing , p e r t inen tc on tex t s , a l ong w i th s uppo r t ing e v idence f r om t h e i s land s ' o n ly v e r t ica l ly d eep s t ra t ig raphy , t h e R ock S he l te ro fS on Ma tge ,w he re t h e re i sl i t t le d oub to fd i s t r ibu t iona lo rde ro ra ge . I ta l so e xam ine s a nd u se s as ma l l s e lec t ion o fo t he r s i te s w i th r e l iab le d a ta , w he re p a ra l le lr e la t ionsh ips e x i s t . A s aB a lea r ic mode lo fa no the rs o r tt h an t h eo ne p resen ted b yt h eF e r rande l l -O leza O ld S e t t lemen ts i te ,t h ed epo s i to ft h e Ma tge R ock S he l te rh a sl o ng b een a ccep ted a s b e ing t h e mo s ti mpor tan ta nd b e s t s t ud ied B a lea r ic c u l tura ls t ra t ig raphy , c ove r ing a si td oe si ni t s 3 6l e ve ls a nu n in t er rup ted p reh is to r ic s equence f r om c i r ca 5 000 b c t o t h e R oman C o lon isa t ion o f t h e i s land s i n t h e 2 nd C en tu ry BC ( Fernandez M iranda a nd Wa ld ren 1 978 a nd Wa ld ren 1 982 ) . A s s uch , t h e c ompa r ison a nd c o r re la t ion o ft h e se t wo p r ima ry l o c i a nd o t he rs e conda ry o ne s a r ee s sen t ia l t oa ny a rgumen t o n B a lea r ic B eake r s . B e s ides o n i t s own t h e Ma tge c l osed s t ra t ig raphy a c tua l ly i n c ludes t h e w ho le o ft h e c hrono log ica l s equence u nde r d i scus s ion . I ti s d oub ly i mpo r tan t f r om t h e c h rono log ica l a nd c h ronome t r ic a spec t s i nce t oge the r t h ese t wo p r ima ry s i te sr e p r e sen tt h e b a s i sa nd f r amewo rk f o rt h et ime p e r iod w h ich t h e a u tho r d ef ines a s e xemp l ify ing t h e B a lear ic B ranch o f t he European B eaker C omp lex . I n t h e s e cond c ommun ica t ion , i ti st h e a im ( 2 ) t op lace b efo re t h e a r chaeo log ica l c ommun i ty f o ri t sc ons ide ra t ion o t he re mp i r ica le v idence c ons is t ing o ft h e mo s tu p d a ted a r tef ac te v idence f r om t h e se p r ima ry a nd s e conda ry s i te s u sed i ns uppo r t ing t h el a rge rc oncep to f aB a lea r ic B ranch o ft h eE u ropean B eake rC omp lex , a sw e l la s e xam in ing t h eq ues t ion o fB a lea r ic B eake r si t se l f . I td oe st h is b yu s ing a l l, t he s i tes t o d e l inea te t he p er iod i n t e rms o f t h e a r tefac t e v idence , e spec ia l ly t he g eome tr ica l ly d ecora ted p o t te ry a nd o t he r d a ta , w he re a p o lem ic a s w e l l a s t r oub le some l o ca lp rob lem o fi n te rp r e ta t ion e x is t s . I ti st h e se p ropos i t ions a l ong w i th t h ee v idence f ound i nt h e a r ch i tec tu ra l a r tef ac t s , t h e i rc on tex t sa nd r a d io ca rbon d o cumen ta t ion i nt h ef i r s tp ape rt h a t as i ng lua rm od e l o fB eake rs e t t lemen ti sp r e sen ted .T h is c oncep to f aB a lea r ic B ranch o ft h eE u ropean B eake r C omp lex i sf u r the r d emons t ra ted i nt h e s e cond p ape r a s w e l l , p re sen t ing a r tef ac te v idence f o rt h e mode l t h a ti se nsconced s ot os peak w i th in t h el im i ted a nd r eg iona l p reh is to r ic c on tex ts o f t h e l o ca l P re ta layo t ic P er iod , c i rca 2 000 b e t o 1 300 b e (Wa ldren 1 978 , 1 980 , 1 981 , 1 982 , 1 984 , 1 985 a nd 1 986 ) .

2 09

W .H . Wa ld ren A se ven t s s t and a tp re sen t , t h es e cond o ft h et wo p r ima ry s i te s , t h eC ha lco l i th ic O ld S e t t lemen to ft h eF e r rande l l -O leza ,h a st h ed i s t inc t ion o fb e ing t h eo n ly s y tema t ica l ly s t ud ied , c hronome t r ica l ly s u rveyed , o pen -a i r s e t t lemen t o f P re ta layo t ic o r ig in t o p roduce a bundan t a r tef ac t a nd a s soc ia ted e v idence o fw ha tt h e a u tho rh a s c ome t o l ook o n a s B eake r i n a s semb lage . I n h av ing e s sen t ia l ly t h is u n ique s t a tus , t h e F e r rande l l -O leza O ld S e t t lemen th a sb een o fl a te t h es ub jec to fc on s ide rab le ,r eg iona l c on ten t ion ; e spec ia l ly a st ot h ea u tho r 's i n te rp re ta t ion a nd e va lua t ion o fi t sm a t er ia l s a s b e ing r e la ted i n o r ig in c u l tu ra l ly t oB eaker c on tex t s ( Topp 1 985 a nd t h is p ub l ica t ion ) . I ndeed , p a r to ft h er e s i s tance t ot h ep ropo sa l o f aB a lea r ic B ranch o ft h e E u ropean B eake rC omp lex i su nde r s tandab le s i nce C ha lco l i th ic a nd E a r ly B ronze A ge c on tex t s i nw e l l d ocumen ted o pen -a ir s e t t lemen t s i tua t ions a r e a tp resen t e xc lus ive t ot h e F er rande l l -O leza s i te . A no ther p a r t o f t h e p rob lem r e s t s i n t h e f a c t t h a t t h e F e r rande l l -O leza C ha lco l i th ic O ld S e t t lemen th a s au n ique n a tu r ei nt h a ti th a sy i e lded n o th ing b u ta r tef ac t so fP re ta layo t ic t y po logy ( t ype s l o ca l ly d i agnos t ic o ft h e l o ca l c u l ture o ft he c aves , a nd u n t i l r e cen t ly f ound , e xc lus ive ly , i n c aves a nd r ock s he l te r s ) . U nde rt h e se c i r cum s tance ss u ch m a te r ia ls h ave al o ng e s tab l ished t r ad i t ion o f b e ing t hough t a nd a pp roved o f i n t h a t r o le . H ence , t h e a u tho r b e l ieve s , t h e r e t icence t owa rd t h e i ra ccep tance a se v idence o ft h e a r r iva lo rp re sence o fe x te rna l i nf luence o fB eake ro r ig in i n to t h ei s land s ; i n f luence st h a ta r en o to n ly c on tempo ra ry i n a ge b u t p a ra l le l i n t ypo logy a nd a s semb lage t o a r ea s w i th in a n e xp l icab le g eograph ic a rc o fi mmed ia te i nf luence . A l though i tw ou ld a ppea ro n ly n a tu ra la sw e l la so bv ious t h a t ag eog raph ic s i tua t ion s uch a st h a t o fa n i s land w ou ld b e d i rec t ly d ependen t o n t h e a r r iva l o fi n f luences f r om a d jacen t a r ea s a b road t os hape a ny i n su la r ly mod if ied c u l ture t h a t o ccu r red . S t i l l a no the r l o ca l r e serva t ion i s ac e r ta in r eg iona l c au t ion b rough t a bou t b y t h e r e la t ive p over ty o fs im i la r ,a r te fac tr i ch a nd e x ten s ive ly d a ted c on tex t si no t he rl o ca l s i te se xcava ted b yt h o se i no ppo s i t ion t ot h ea r gumen t sg i ven h e r e ;p e rhap se ve ry b i t a s w e l l a s a n a lmo s t c omp le te u nf am i l ia r i ty w i th t h e s i te s , ma ter ia ls a nd o the r e v idence f ound t oda te ; d esp i te t h e f a c t t h a t c ons ide rab le p ub l ished d a ta a nd i n forma t ion d oe se x i s t (Wa ld r en 1 981 , 1 983 , 1 984 , 1 985 a nd 1 986 ) I ti sa rgued h e re t h a tw hen l i nked w i th t h ed eep o rc l osed s t ra t ig raphy o ft h e R ock S he l te ro f S on Ma tge , t h e F e r rande l l -O leza O ld S e t t lemen t f i nd ing s ( Tab les 2 -4 ) b ecome s a dd i t iona l ly s i gn if ican t i n f o rm ing p ar t o f av e r i tab le c hronome t r ic y ard s t ick f o r b o th c ave a nd o pen -a i r B a lear ic C ha lco l i th ic a nd E a r ly B ronze A ge c on tex t s (Wa ld ren 1 986 ) , a s w e l l a s f o r o the r i mpor tan t c on tex t s p r io r t o a nd f o l low ing t h e se p e r iod s . . A n a dd i t iona la dvan tage - a nd a ne xcep t iona l ly i mpo r tan to ne f r om as t ra t ig raph ica l v i ewpo in t -i nt h es i te 's i n te rp re ta t ion e x i s t si nt h ef a c tt h a tt h eS FO -OS a r tef ac t sa nd t h e c on tex ts i n w h ich t h ey h ave b een f ound h ave n o t b een s ub jec ted t o l e ve l i n te rm ix ing , a so f ten o ccu r sw he re s ucce ss ive c u l tu ra lo ccupa t ion o rh eavy moder n a gr icu l tu ra l a c t iv i t ies h ave t a ken p lace w i th in ar e s t r ic ted g eog raph ic z one . S i te s t ra t ig raphy a nd t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fm a te r ia ls t h roughou t t h ev a r ious a r ea s a r e s uch t h a tt h ev er t ica ld epo s i t ion o ft h el o cus i ss imp l if ied ,c ons i s t ing o f ah or izontal o r l i near d epo s i t ion , mo re o f ten o f as i ng le c hrono log ica l p e r iod t h an a s ucce s s ive o ne . I n s o d o ing , i tf o rms t h roughou t b o th t h e O ld a nd Y ounge r S e t t lemen t . a

2 10

O xf ord I n t erna t iona lW e s t ern Med i t er ranean B e l lB eaker C onf e rence d i s t ingu ishab le l i near s e t t lemen t c omp lex w i th ah or izon ta l ly d i s tr ibu ted s t ra t igraphy (Wa ld ren 1 982 , 1 984 ) . I ta l so l e nd s i t se lf t oc ompu ter i sed s t ud ies o f t h en a tu re o ft h o se p re sen ted e l sewhe re i nt h is p ub l ica t ion (Wa ld ren a nd E n sena t ) . T he e s sen t ia l h ypo thes is t h e refo re p u t f o r th i n t h e f o l low ing p ape r s i st h a t t h e F e r rande l l -O leza O ld S e t t lemen t a r tef ac t s , e spec ia l ly t h e g eome t r ica l ly d eco ra ted w a re s , w h i le c e r ta in ly P re ta layo t ic i nt h el o ca l n omenc la tu re c an b ec ha rac te r i s t i sed a nd i d en t if ied a sb e ing o fE u ropean C oppe ra nd E a r ly B ronze A ge s t y l i s t ic o r ig in a nd s ynonymous w i th B eake r t ypo logy , a s semb lage a nd a r ch i tec ture , a s w e l l a s c h ronome t ry ( Tab le s 2a nd 3 ) .I tw i l l b e f u r the r a r gued a nd d emons t ra ted t h a t s t rong p a ra l le ls e x is t t o t h ese B a lea r ic B eake r a r tef ac t s , a r ch i tec tu re a nd o the r a ccompany ing e v idence - s i gn if ican t ly s uppo r ted b y t h e c h ronome t r ic d a ta c i ted b e low - a sb e ing c o r re la t ive a nd c ompa ra t ive w i th in aw ide g eog raph ic z one o nt h e I b er ian P en insu la a nd S ou the rn F rance ( Wa ld ren 1 978 , 1 982 , 1 984 a nd T ab le 4 ) .

2 11

T he Mode l S i te S i tua t ion a nd G enera l Descr ip t ion ********

E v idence o f C oppe r A ge o pen -a i r s e t t lemen t , a s w e k now , t h roughou t Wes te rn E u rope i sr e la t ive ly r a re , a s mo s to fo ur k now ledge o ft h ea ge s t em sf r om b u r ia ls i n c ave s , r ock s he l te r sa nd v a r ious s o r t so ft omb s . Mo s to pen -a i rs e t t lemen ts i te s t h a t d oe x is ti nt h e n o r th o fE u rope a r eu sua l ly b ur ied b enea th m any m e te r so fd ecayed v ege ta l o ver b u rden , r e nde r ing d e tec t ion ad i f f icu l t m a t te r . Wh i le i nt h e s ou the rn c l ime so ft h e Med i te r ranean b a s in -w he re v a s tg eog raph ic a r ea sa r es t i l lu nexp lo red mo s tC oppe rA ge s i te sh ave b een b ad ly e roded b yt housand so fy ea r so fn a tu ra la nd h uman a c t iv i ty t h e w a l led s e t t lemen t c ompound o f F er rande l l -O leza C ha lco l i th ic O ld S e t t lemen ti ss u ch a ne xamp le o fa ne r oded a r cha eo log ica ls t a t ion .

F errand e l l -O leza O ld S e t t lemen t * ******* D e sp i te i t s s i ze a nd g ene ra l a ppea rance , t h e F er rande l l -O leza C ha lco l i th ic O ld S e t t lemen t b yi n te rp re ta t ion i sn o tc ons ide red af o r t if ied v i l lage o rt own . I td oe so n t h eo the rh and r ep re sen t af o rm o fw a l led c ompound w i th r e s idence b u i ld ing sf r om wh ich o ccupa t ion a nd e xp lo i ta t ion o ft h e a r ea w e re s ucce ssfu l ly c a r r ied o u t f o r a l ong ,p eacefu la nd p roduc t ive d u ra t ion b y as ma l l g roup o fi n d iv idua ls ; a ne s tma ted 1 6 t o 2 4 i nhab i tan t s , p robab ly f o rm ing a n e x tended f am i ly c l an o r t r iba l s oc ia l s t ruc tu re . T he e v idence s ugge s t st h a tt h eg roup a ccumu la ted w ea l th a nd s t a tu so ve r t h a tp e r iod ,e s tab l ish ing t h em se lve ss oc ia l ly a nd e conomy -w i se ; s e ta pa r tf r om o t he r g roups o n t h ef e r t i le , a l luv ia l , P l iocene s o i ls o ft h eP la d e lR e i( F igu re 1a nd 2 ) T he f a c t t h a t t h e g roup n o t o n ly e xp lo i ted t h e a r ea s uccessfu l ly d ur ing a l ong d u ra t ion o fo ccupancy - a se s tab l i shed b yr ad ioca rbon a na ly s i s - b u te ven p ro spe red c an b e amp ly d emon s t ra ted i nt h e s i gns o fw ea l th a nd s t a tus a ppa ren tf r om t h es i te s r ema in ing a r ch i tec tu re ,a r te f a c t sa nd a g r icu l tu ra la nd l i ve s to ck w ea l th . A long w i th t h ei mp res s ive c ompound w a l l s a nd w e l l b u i l td we l l ing s ( P la te s 1 : 1 t o 1 : 3 ) , t h ere i ss o l id e v idence o fq u i te s oph is t ica ted w a te r managemen tp r e sen ti nt h e a r ch i tec tu ra lr ema ins o f ar ema rkab ly e f f ic ien t look ing w a te rs y s tem f ound w i th in t h e w a l led c ompound ( P la te s 1 : 2t o2 : 3 ) . I n a dd i t ion , t h e re i ss t rong e v idence o f e x tens ive a gr icu l tura l u se o f t h e f i e lds a d jacen tt ot h e E a s t a nd S ou th C ompound Wa l ls ; a si n d ica ted b y t h e p re sence o fa h i the r to u nknown , t e chn ica l ly a dvanced , l i t h ic i n dus t ry m ade u po fp r e s su re -f laked , s e r ra ted t a bu la r f l in t b l ades a nd s i ck le s ( Wa ldren , C onesa C o l l a nd S ande r s 1 984 a nd Mo re 1 1 O r land is ,t h is p ub l ica t ion ) R ega rd ing t h e q ues t ion o f e conom ic w ea l th , t h e re i sc ons ide rab le e v idence o f e x tens ive a n ima l h usbandry , s hown b y t h e r i ch v a r ie ty o f d omes t ica ted a n ima l r ema ins o fs heep , g oa t , p i g ,c a t t le ,d og , a nd , b y s ome i n d ica t ions i nr e cen tf i nd ing s ,

2 13

W .H . Wa ld ren

t h ep o s se s s ion o ft h eh o r se t h a t a r er ep re sen ted i nt h ea bundan tb one r ema in sf ound o n s i te ( C lu t ton -Brock 1 984 , S ande r s , p ub l ica t ion p repa ra t ion ) . I n f a c t , t h e c ompound w a l ls s e rve a s n o t o n ly p roper ty d e l inea t ion b u t a l so a s aw e l l b u i l t , p ermanen t a n ima l c orra l . S uch c ons ide ra t ion s a s i n tens if ied c ap i ta l i nves ted e f fo r t si nt h ec ons t ruc t ion o fs uch s uch aw e l l b u i l te nce in te (D 'Anna a nd G u the rz 1 985 ) h ave t ob et a ken i n to a ccoun ti nt h es i te 's i n te rp r e ta t ion . T he i n hab i tan t 's a cce s st oo rm anufac tu r eo ff i ne p o t te ry i sd emon s t ra ted i nb o th t h e q ua l i ty a nd q uan t i ty o ft h eg eome t r ica l ly d eco ra ted w a re s ( n ea r ly 1 000 s he rd sh ave b een s o f a r r e t r ieved ) , i n c lud ing s ome e v idence o f e a r l ier c ord impressed d eco ra ted w a res , a l ong w i th w e l l -made , u ndeco ra ted , d ome s t ic , c ommon p o t te ry f ound o n s i te ( s ee f o l low ing p ape r i n t h is p ub l ica t ion ) . T he re a r e p o t tery c hee se s t ra ine r sa nd c e ram ic s p ind lewho r ls ( t e s t ify ing t oc hee se a nd w oo lp roduc t ion a l ong w i th s o -ca l led a r che r 's w r i s tgua rd s , c oppe r a w ls a nd t wo c oppe r i ngo t c u t t ing s ) . T he re a r eb one , s t one a nd e ven i vo ry vp e r fo ra ted b u t ton o rn eck lace e l emen t s a nd o the rs t a tu sp i ece so fa ccep ted B eake ra s semb lage a nd o r ig in ,e ncoun te red i ne ve ry t r ench a nd a r ea o ft h es i te ; a sw e l la sr e cen t ly s t ud ied r e fuse a r ea s ,f ound i n as e c to r a d jacen tt ot h ew a l led c ompound ( a l so s e ef o l low ing p ape r ) . Wha ti se ven mo re i mpor tan ti nt h e F e r rande l l -O leza mode li st h e f a c tt h a tw ec an o b serve i nt h ec omb ina t ion o ft h ev a r ious a r ch i tec tu ra le l emen t s ,a r tef ac t sa nd o the r s uppo r t ing e v idence s t rong i nd ica t ion o fn o to n ly t h eq ua l i ty b u t t h et y pe o fs oc ia l a nd e conom ic o rgan isa t ion p resen t . W i thou t t oo much g uesswo rk , w e c an r e cons truc tc e r ta in a spec ts a nd make c er ta in o b ser va t ions -e ven i fo n ly c u r so ry o ne s a nd o n ar eg iona l b a s is - r ega rd ing t h e d emog raphy , r e sponses t oa nd s ucces s i n s ub s is tence ma t te r s ; l i ke w a te r , a n ima l a nd l a nd m anagemen t ; a l ong w i th i n s igh t s i n to t h el e ve lo ft e chno logy i nl i t h ic ,m e ta l lu rgy a nd o t he ri n du s t ry . I n s hor t , w hen w e c ons ide r t h e c omb ined e v idence o f t h e F e r rande l l -O leza O ld S e t t lemen ta r ch i tec tu ra le xamp le a sw e l la st h eo t he rm a te r ia l man i f e s ta t ion sa nd a ge d e te rm ina t ion d a ta , aB a lea r ic B eake r Mode lo fs e t t lemen tb eg in st ot a ke s hape . One i n w h ich , a s G i lman ( 1979 ) d escr ibes , i n tens if ied c ap i ta l i nves tmen t i s p resen t , a l ong w i th w ha t w e c an d ef ine a s t h e d e l inea t ion a nd d ec lara t ion o f p ropr ie tor ia l d oma ine . F u r thermo re , mode rn e xp lo i ta t ion o ft h eP la d e lR e i a r ea o ft h e p la in b ea r s v e ry s im i la r p rocedu re p a ra l le ls t ot hose o f a nc ien t t ime s i nt h e m anne r i n w h ich t h e p re sen t i n hab i tan t so ft h ep l a in e xp lo i ted t h er i ch a luv ia l s o i l s . T h is i sr ef lec ted i n t h e p resen t d ay a g r icu l tu ra l l a nd d iv is ion i nt h a t u n t i l v e ry r e cen t ly t h e a r ea w a s e xp lo i ted b y f ou rf am i ly p rope r t ies : S on F er rande l l , S on O leza , S on Ma rague s a nd S on Ma s ( F igu re s 1a nd 2 )a nd w h ich e ach o ft h e se mode rn p rope r t ie sh ave a nc ien t s e t t lemen ta r ea s w h ich c omp le te ly s u r round t h ef e r t i le s o i ls o ft h ep l a in . T h i sf a c to r o f f e r s af u tu re o ppo r tun i ty o fe x tend ing t h ea nc ien t mode lp r e sen ti nt h eF e r rande l l O leza S e t t lemen t C omp lex w i th i t s O ld a nd Y ounge r S e t t lemen t s i n to an ew s t udy d imens ion :o ne r e p r e sen t ing amode rn c oun te rpa r t . Ma tge R ock S he l ter * ******* F o rt h e s ake o fo ve ra l lc on t inu i ty , s ome b r ief c ons ide ra t ions a r eg iven b e low t ot h e c l osed s t ra t ig raphy o ft h e Ma tge R ock S he l te r , r ega rd ing i t s g eograph ic l o ca t ion ,

2 14

O xf ord I n t e rna t iona lW e s t ern Med i t er ranean B e l lB eak er C onf e rence

s t ra t ig raphy a nd r a d ioca rbon d ocumen ta t ion a nd s ome o ft h ea c company ing p er t inen t a r tef ac te v idence .T he se , i ti sb e l ieved , i l us t ra te t h ec on tempo raneou s a spec t so ft h e t wo s i te s . A tt h es ame t ime ,t h ey b e s td emons t ra te t h ec l o se c o r re la t ion t h a tc an e x i s t u nde rp rope rc ond i t ions b e tween ac l o sed o rd eep s t ra t ig raphy s uch a s Ma tge a nd t h a to ft h es ha l lowe rF e r r ande l l -O leza o pen -a i rs i tua t ion . T he Ma tge R ock S he l te r ( ABS M ) i ss i tua ted i na n a r ea k nown a st h e L 'E s t re t ( t he n ar rows ) s ou th o f t h e n o r thwes te rn e nd o f an ar row p a s s , b e low t h e t own o f V a l ldemo sa ( F igu re 1a nd 2 )a nd l e ad ing u pb ya cce s sr oad i n to t h eN o r the rn S i e r ra s f r om t h eC en t ra lP l a ins a nd t h eC ap i ta lC i ty o fP a lma , s ome 1 8k i lome te r sa way . B yf oo t , i ti se a s i ly a cce s sab le f r om t h eF e r rande l l -O leza ( SFO -OS ) s i te t ot h ee a s ta t aw a lk ing d i s tance o fa bou t 4k i lome te r s b y t wo r ou tes : o ne l e ad ing t h rough t h e V i l lage o fV a l ldemo sa a nd t h eo t he rt h rough amoun ta in p a s s s k i r t ing o rb y -pa s s ing t h ev i l lage . T he g eog raph ica lp rox im i ty o ft h e t wo s t a t ion s a sw e l l a st h ea r tef ac te v idence a nd d a t ing s f r om t h e s t ra t ig raph ie sr e a sonab ly a s su re st h ec on tempo raneou sne ss o ft h e l o c i ( Tab le 3 ) ; a l though t h ea r ch i tec tu ra lp o la r i ty g r ea t ly d i f f e r s . T he se f a c to r sa l so make t hem p a r t icu la ry a t t rac t ive f o r e x tens ive r e sea rch a nd s pec ia l ised s t udy ; p a r t icu la r ly w hen f u r the r l i nked w i th o the r n ea rby s t a t ion s s uch a s t h e Muer to s G a l la rd r o ck S he l te r( AB SM ) a nd t h ec ave o fS on Ma r ro ig ( S MRG ) ( s ee F igu re 1 ) . H oweve r ,i ti sp r ima r i ly t h ec h ronome t r ic a spe c t sr e la ted t ot h ea r ch i tec tu ra le l emen t s o ft h e F e r rande l l -O leza C ha lco l i th ic O ld S e t t lemen t w i th w h ich w e a r e e s sen t ia l ly c oncerned w i th i nt h i s p a r t icu la r c ommun ica t ion A B a lear ic B eaker Mod e l. A l though t h e Ma tge s equence h a s c ons ide rab le b ea r ing o n t h e mode l a s aw ho le . O ther r e la ted a r gumen t s a r e p re sen ted i n mo re d e ta i l w i th t h e a r tef ac t s a nd o t he r s uppo r t ing e v idence , s uch a s l o ca l i n t ra s i te c ompa r isons m en t ioned a bove a nd e x is t ing ma in land p a ra l le l s a nd a r e o f f e red i nt h e s ub sequen tc ommun ica t ion T he Ques t ion o f B a lear ic B eaker s . . t he E v idence A R ose b y Any O ther Name .

2 15

C ARBON 1 4 R ESULTS F OR T HE BALEARIC PRETALAYOTIC P ERIOD A S R ELATED T O T HE B ELL B EAKER C ULTURE S ITE/AREA

CONTEXT

b c 1 4C DATE

t p DATE

LAB .

T HE E ARLY S ETTLEMENT P ERIOD ••• • •• •• • •• • • 44. 1 1. 1 1.0 • •• • • • • • • • •• • • • •

1 . ABS1 1

E SP

4 730± 1 20 b c

2 . S I 1

E SP

3 985± 1 09 t i c

6 680 y rs . 5 935 y rs .

3 . AB M

E SP

3 870 ± 3 60 b e

5 820 y rs .

C S IC-176

4 . AB M

E SP

3 800± 1 15 b e

5 750 y rs .

1 -5516

Q L-29 KBN-640c

T HE PRETALAYOTIC P ERIOD T HE NEOL ITH IC EARLY C ERAMIC PHASE

5 .A I 1G 6 . AB M 7 . ABS1 1

E SP E SP E SP

2 810± 5 0 b e 2 700±120 b e 2 143±398 b c

1 ... . 1 . 1

4 760 y rs . 4 650 y rs . 4 093 y rs .

... B 1 1-1994 Q L-988 B 1 1-1408

THE EARLY B EAKER PHASE 8 . ABS1 1 .

E BP

2 070 ± 5 0 b e

•4 020 y rs .

9 . A Bsr x 1 0 . ABS1 1

E BP E BP

2 030 ± 120 b e 2 020 ± 100 t i c

3 980 y rs . 3 970 y rs .

1 1. S FO-OS 1 2 . S I I 1 3 . ABS1 1

E BP E BP E BP

2 000 ± 6 5 b c 1 960 ± 120 b c 1 870 ± 120 b c

3 950 y rs .

1 4 . S FO-OS 1 5 . A I 1G

E BP E BP

1 840 ± 9 0 t i c 1 840 ± 8 0 b c

37 90 y rs . 37 90 y rs .

1 6 . C X 1 7 . S FO-OS

E BP E BP

1 800 ± 120 b c 1 770 ± 3 5 b c

37 50 y rs . 3 720 y rs .

1 8 . S FO-OS

E BP

1 750 ± 3 0 t i c

3 700 y rs .

1 9 . ABS1 1

E BP

1 720 ± 100 b c

3 670 y rs .

3 910 y rs . 3 820 y rs .

Q L-23 C SIC-178 Q L-5b B 1 1-1843 Y -2389 Y -2389

Q L-1636 Y -1789 1 5515 B r i-1981 Q L-1592 Q L-24

T HE LATE B EAKER PHASE 2 0 . 2 1. 2 2 . 2 3 . 2 4 .

ABS11 S FO-OS S FO-OS ABS1 1 S / 1RG

± ± ± ± ±

8 0 8 0 3 0 8 0 8 0

b c b c b c b c

3 620 y rs . 3 490 y rs . 3 490 y rs . 3 480 v rs . 3 470 y rs .

L BP L BP L BP L BP L BP

1 620 1 540 1 540 1 530 1 520

2 5 . ABS1 1 2 6 . AB M

L BP L BP

1 470 ± 8 0 t i c 1 430 ± 5 0 l a c

3 420 y rs .

2 7 . ABS1 1 2 8 . S FO-OS 29 . CNC

L BP L BP L BP

1 400 ± 6 0 h i l 1 330 ± 1 20 b e 1 320 ± 8 0 t i c

3 350 Y rs .

30 . S FO-OS 3 1 . AB M

L BP-EBA

1 260 ± 8 0 b c

L BP-EBA

1 250 ± 100 I n

32 -S FO-OS 3 3 . S FO-OS

L BP-EBA L BP-EBA

1 140 ± 7 0 b c 1 120± 5 0 t i c

' DC

3 380 y rs . 3 280 y rs . 3 270 y rs . 3 210 y rs . 3 200 y rs . 3 090 y rs . 3 070 y rs .

T ABLE

C S IC -1 79 Q L- 4 042 Q L- 1 859 C SIC 180 Y -1856 Q L-5a B 1 1-1995 O L-5 Q L-1896 1 -1667 B 1 1-2312 Y -2667 B / 1-1698 HAR-3490

1

BALEAR IC B ELL B EAKER RAD IOCARBON C HRONOLOGY M ALLORCA

M AT E

F ERRANDELL—OLEZA

r ock s h e l ter s t ra t ig raphy

o pen -a ir s t ra t ig raphy

2 700 ± 1 20 y rs . ( pre beaker ) 2 070 2 030 2 020 1 870 1 720 1 470 1 430 1 400 1 250

± 5 0 ±1 20 ±1 00 ±1 20 ±1 00 ± 8 0 ± 5 0 ± 6 0 ±1 00

2 000 1 840 1 770 1 750 1 540 1 540 1 330 1 260 140 120

y rs . y rs . y rs . y rs . y rs . y rs . y rs . y rs . y rs .

M UERTOS—GALLARD r ock s h e l ter s t ra t ig raphy

±6 5 ±9 0 ±3 5 ±3 0 ±3 0 ±8 0 ± 120 ±8 0 ±7 0 ±5 0

y rs . y rs . y rs . y rs . y rs . y rs . y rs . y rs . y rs . y rs .

C OTIER .A o pen -a ir s t ra t ig raphy

2 810 ± 5 0 y rs . ( pre beaker )

1 800 ± 15 y rs .

1 840 ± 8 0 y rs .

FOR MENTERA

M ARRO W,

CA NA C OSTA

c av e s t ra t ig raphy

1 520 ± 8 0 y rs .

o pen -a ir s t ra t ig . raphy

*a l l 1 4C d a tes =ca l ibra ted

1 320 ± 8 0 y rs .

T F IBLE

2

A S ELECT ION O F I BER I AN B EAKER RAD IOCARBON DATES S ITE

1 . Z ambuga l I Vb 2 . L os M i l lases 3 . Z ambuga l I Ib 4 . Z ambuga l I Vb 5 . E re ta d e l P edrege C 6 . L os Huesos 7 . V irgen d e O rce 8 . Mon tefr io V 9 . V irgen d e O rce 1 0 . V irgen d e O rce 1 . T er l inques 1 2 . L os l y i l lares 1 3 . P ra ia d es Maces 1 4 . C abezo R edondo 1 5 . P ic d e ls C orbs 1 6 . C a t i F orada 1 7 . Ma s d e Abad 1 8 . C abezo R edondo

1 4C DATE

2 075 ± 9 5 2 070 ± 6 0 2 040 ± 3 5 2 000 ± 6 5 1 980 ±2 50 1 970 ± 1 00 1 970 ± 6 0 1 890 ± 3 5 1 887 ± 3 5 1 850 ± 3 5 1 850 ±15 1 820 ± 6 0 1 700 ±1 00 1 600 ± 5 5 1 581 ±1 00 1 552 ± 5 0 1 460 ± 9 0 1 350 ± 5 5

D P DATE

b .c . b .c . b .c . b .c . b .c . b .c . b .c . b .c . b .c . b .c . b .c . b .c . b .c . b .c . b .c . b .c . b .c . b .c .

4 025 4 020 3 990 3 950 3 930 3 920 3 920 3 840 3 847 3 800 3 800 3 870 3 650

y rs . y rs . y rs . y rs . y rs . y rs . y rs . y rs . y rs . y rs . y rs . y rs . y rs . 3 550 y rs . 3 53 1 y rs .

3 393 y r s .

3 410 y rs . 3 300 y rs .

A S ELECT ION O F S OUTHERN F RENCH RAD IOCARBON DATES

1 7 . 1 8 . 1 9 . 2 0 .

L ebo w B o is S acre C amp L aure C amp L aure

1 940 + 1 40 b .c . 1 710 + 1 00 b .c . 1 550 + 6 0 b .c .

3 930 y rs . 3 660 y rs . 3 500 y rs .

T ABLE

3

-

T he R ad iocarbon Da t ing a nd A rch i tec tura l E lemen t s ********

P er t inen t Ana lyses T he re a r e a tp re sen t a pprox ima te ly 2 5 k nown B a lea r ic s i tes t h a t h ave p roduced g eome t r ica l ly d ecora ted p o t te ry e v idence ( F igu re 7 ,T ab le5 ) .T he e a r ly d i scove r ie s a r e t h e l e as t w ea l thy i n ma te r ia l a s w e l l a s p oo res t d ocumen ted , h ence l e as t i n fo rma t ive (Wa ld ren 1 986 ) . L ike H a r r i son 's ( 1978 ) o b serva t ions o fC a ta lan a nd L evan ts i te s ,o n ly af ew o ft h eo ve ra l ln umbe ro fs i te sc an b e s a id t ob e long t o ar i ch c a tego ry ; s i te s d i agno s t ic b ecau se o ft h en a tu re o ft h e i rm a ter ia l s , s y s tema t ic s t udy a nd c h ronome t r ic d ocumen ta t ion f r om w h ich r e l iab le i n fo rma t ion c an b ed rawn .T he t wo l e ad ing B a lea r ic s ou rce sf o rs uch d a ta a nd i n fo rma t ion a r et h ep r ima ry r e sea rch s i te s o ft h e R ock S he l te ro fS on Ma tge a nd t h e F e r rande l l -O leza C ha lco l i th ic O ld S e t t lemen t . A l though a f ew s e condary s i te s l i ke t h e R ock S he l te r o f Mue r tos G a l la rd , C ave o f S on Ma r ro ig a nd t h e S e t t lemen t o f C o txe ra a r e i n fo rma t ive a s s uppo r t ive e v idence , t h e se t wo p r imar yo ne s b e s td emon s t ra te t h ev a r ied w ea l th o f t h ee v idence a va i lab le f r om Ma l lo r ca a nd t h eB a lea r ic I s land si ng ene ra l .A tt h es ame t ime , i ti s ama t te r o f f a c t , n one the les s , t h a t f ew B eake r s t ra t ig raph ic s equences e l sewhe re i nE u rope s how s uch c on t inu i ty i nt h e i ra r te fac ta nd a r ch i tec tu ra lc on tex t s o r r ad ioca rbon d ocumen ta t ion a st ho se e xemp l if ied i nt h e Ma tge a nd F e r rande l l O leza c o rpus . A par tf r om f our o the rs i te s w i th o ne 1 4C d a te e ach , Ma r ro ig ( S MRG ) : 1 520± 8 0 b c ( Y -1856 ) (Wa ld ren a nd K oppe r 1 967 ) , Muer tos G a l la rd ( AB MG ) : 1 840± 8 0 b e ( Y -1789 ) (Wa ld ren a nd K oppe r 1 967 ) , C a N a C o txe r (CX ) : 1 800 1 -1 20 b c ( I 5 515 ) ( Can ta re l la sC amp s 1 972 )o n Ma l lo r ca a nd C aN a C o s ta ( CNC ) : 1 320± 8 0 b e ( BM -1667 ) ( Fe rnandez , P lan ta lamo r a nd T opp 1 978 ) o n t h e i s land o f F ormen te ra , t h e r ema inde r o ft h e 2 7 d a te s a va i lab le f o r t h e B a lea r ic P re ta layo t ic P er iod ( Tab les 2 t o3 ) a l l o r ig ina te f r om Ma tge a nd F e r rande l l -O leza ; f o rm ing a s i gn if ican tp ar t o ft h e o ve ra l l i nven tory o f mo re t h an 1 55 d a t ings a va i lab le f o rt h e i s lands . T he p er t inen t r ad ioca rbon d a tes f o r t h e B eake r c on tex t s a r e l i s ted i nt h e T ab le s b e low , a nd h ave b een p ub l i shed p r io rt ot h ep re sen tc ommun ica t ion i no ne f o rm o r a no the r a nd i n much l a rge r c h ronome t r ic s urveys (Wa ldren 1 979 , 1 981 ,1983 a nd 1 986 ) . T he c on t inu i ty a nd c o r re la t ive v a lue p r e sen ti nb o th t h eF e r rande l l -O leza C ha lco l i th ic O ld S e t t lemen to pen -a ir r ad ioca rbon s e r ie s a nd t h a to ft h e Ma tge r o ck s he l te rs e r ie s i sr e la ted t o an umbe r o fd i f f e ren t , mo re t h an o f ten , o ppo s ing a nd y e t i n te r re la ted f a c to r s : ( 1 ) t h eg eo log ica la nd g eog raph ic d i s s im i la r i ty o ft h et wo s i tes i so ne f a c to r t h a t e nhances t h e i r c or re la t ive v a lue ( a l though , h e re , o ne w ou ld e xpec t , p e rhaps , s ome d i sco rd b e tween t h e s i tes o n ab as is o f g eo log ica l a nd g eograph ic d i s s im i lar i ty , b u tt ot h ec on t ra ry c l o se a g reemen te x is t s b e tween b o th t h e l o c i ) . ( 2 ) T he a ppa ren tr e l iab i l i ty o ft h e s t ra t ig raph ica l o rd epo s i t iona l c on tex t s f r om w h ich t h ey w e re c o l lec ted a r eo t he rf a c to r st h a ta r ee v iden t f r om t h ec h rono log ica l ly c l o se 2 21

W .H . Wa ld ren

c or re la t ions p resen t i nt h e s i tes ( a l though , h e re t oo , d i s s im i la r i ty o r p o la r i ty a l so m igh tb e n o rma l ly e xpec ted , d ue t ol a rge d i f f e rence s i nt h e t y pe so fs t ra t ig raph ica l d epo s i t ion ; e . g . o pen -a ir v e r sus c l osed c ond i t ions ) . ( 3 ) P rese rva t ion f a c to r s a l so p l ay a n i mpor tan tr o le ( l inked w i th t h e a bove s i tua t ions a nd c ond i t ions a nd ( 4 ) t h e s pec ia l s amp l ing s t ra tegy a nd s amp le c o l le c t ion m e thods t h em se lve s ; ( a ) w h ich h ave e n ta i l led t h er emova lo fs e c t ions o ft h ev a r ious f o unda t ion so ft h es i te 's a r ch i tec tu ra l f e a tu re s i no rde r t oc o l lec t d a t ing s amp le s r ep re sen t ing c ons t ruc t iona l p ha se s a nd t h o se o fe a r l ie rp r econ s t ruc t iona lo r ig in ; a nd ( b )t h eu se o f b lanke t s u rvey a na ly ses c a r r ied o u to nt h e ma ter ia ls f r om t h ev a r ious d epo s i t iona l a nd a r ch i tec tu ra lc on tex t s o f b o th l o c i , a s w e l l a s t ho se d i rec t ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h e a r tefac t s , p robab ly a l so a ccoun t i np a r t f o r t h ep a t te rn o fc on t inu i ty . ( 5 ) T he u se o fc ompu te rr e co rd ing o n t h eb a s is o f as qua re m e te rb ys qua re m e te rd i s t r ibu t ion o fa r tef ac t sa nd a n ima l b one s u rvey t h roughou tt h es i te a r em e thodo log ica lf a c to r s ; m e thod sw h ich h ave e nab led a c l ea re ri n te rp re ta t ion a nd o t he rs t a t is t ica li n s igh t sf r om s i te a r ea t os i te a r ea ( Wa ldr en a nd E nsena t 1 986 a nd t h is p ub l ica t ion ) , a sw e l l a st h e f a c to r s l e ad ing t ot h e f i na l i n te rp re ta t ion i t se lf . T he s e r ies o f d a tes i n t h e f o l low ing l i s t s ( Tab le s 2a nd 3 ) s how t h e i nd iv idua l r ad ioca rbon r e ad ing s f o rt h e w ho le o ft h e l o ca l P re ta layo t ic P er iod a nd t h er e la ted B eake r c on tex ts . T he re i sa l so a d i ag ramme ( Tab le 3 ) w h ich s hows t h e l o ca l i n te r s i te -co r re la t ion b e tween t h e s t a t ions p roduc ing b o th B a lea r ic B eake rd a te sa nd r e la ted c on tex t s . O f f e red t oo a r e an umb er o fI b e r ian a nd S ou thern F rench d a te sf o r c ompa r ison w i th t h e B a lea r ic I s land s ' l i s t ( Tab le 4 ) a nd d emons t ra te t h e c on tempo ranousne s so ft h eB a lea r ic d a te sw i th t h o se o ft h e Ma in land a r ea s . A l l t h e l o ca ld a te sa r eu nca l ib ra ted a nd a r ed i rec t ly a s soc ia ted w i th w ha tt h ea u tho r i n terpre ts a s B eake r a r tef ac t s a nd c on tex t s . T hey o r ig ina te f r om r e l iab le a nd s y s tema t ica l ly e xcava ted c ave ,r o ck s he l te ra nd o pen -a i rs i te s i tua t ions a nd r e p r e sen t i np a r t t h ed a te sa va i lab le f o rt h ef i ve p e r iod so ft h eB a lea r ic p r eh i s to r ic s equence . . . b eg inn ing w i th t ho se o f t h e P re se t t lemen t P er iod ( 8 -6 m .y .a . t o c i rca 5 000 b c ) , E a r ly S e t t lemen t P er iod ( c irca 5 000 b e t o c i rca 3 000 b c ) , P re ta layo t ic P er iod ( c irca 3 000 b c t o c i rca 1 300 b c) , T a layo t ic a nd P o s tT a layo t ic P e r iod (c i rca 1 300 b c t o c irca 8 00 b .c- a nd c irca 8 00 b e t o 1 23 BC , r e spec t ive ly ) ( Wa ld ren 1 986 ) . B a lear ic B eaker R ad iocarbon C hrono logy ************ I nt h e c a se o f t h e Ma tge r ock s he l te r , w i th i t s f i ve a nd ah a lf m e te r s o fc u l tura l d epo s i t ion , t h e re i sa n u nb roken c on t inu i ty o f s ome 5 000 y ea r s i nt h e s i te 's E a s t E nc lo sure . T he s i te h a s ac ur ren ti n ven to ry o f3 6r a d ioca rbon d a ted l e ve ls ; ap a r to f w h ich c an b e s e en t ob r acke t t h e B a lea r ic B eake r h o r izons f r om c i r ca 2 100 b et o 1 300 h e . C e r ta in ly o n i t s o wn , t h is d eep s t ra t ig raph ica l s equence h o lds ar o le o f m a jo r i mpo r tance a nd i n te res t c once rn ing a ny i n terpre ta t ion o ft h e l o ca l B a lea r ic B eake rp rob lem o rr e s t o ft h e p r eh is to r ic s e quence p r io rt oo rf o l low ing t h eB eake r c on tex t s , a sw e l l a sb e ing h i gh ly i n fo rma t ive i no t he ra spec t sf a r the ra f ie ld ( Wa ld r en 1 98 1) . N o r a r e t h e re f o r t h a t m a t te r m any o pen -a ir s i tes l i ke F er rande l l -O leza w h ich d emons t ra te s oc l ea r ly , w i thou t t h e i n te rm ix ing o fl a te rc on tex t s , t h e f u l l e x ten to f

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O xf ord I n t erna t iona lW e s te rn Med i t er ranean B e l lB eaker C onf e rence

t h e i r o ccupa t ion a nd e xp lo i ta t ion o r , f o r t h a t m a t te r , c on t inu i ty o fm a te r ia ls . T he c u l tu ra ls equence sa tF e r rande l l -O leza l i ke t h a to ft h e Ma tge d epo s i tc an b es hown t o r ep resen t a n u n in ter rup ted d u ra t ion o f o ccupa t ion ; o ne w h ich e x tends f r om t h e C oppe r A ge t h rough t h e B ronze A ge , c i rca 2 000 b c t oc i rca 1 300 b e a nd e ven l a te ri n to t h eI r on A ge a sm an if e s ted i nt h e s i te 's Y ounge rS e t t lemen t. E spec ia l ly n o tab le i st h ee xcep t iona l ly c l o se c o r r e la t ion b e tween 1 4C r e ad ing sf r om t h ed eep s t ra t ig raphy o ft h e Ma tge r o ck s he l te ra nd t ho se o ft h eh i gh ly e roded ,o pen a i r , h o r izon ta lo rl i nea rs t ra t if ied c on tex t so ft h eF e r rande l l -O leza O ld S e t t lemen t ; a p a r t icu la r ly c l o se c o r re la t ion t h a tc an b ed emon s t ra ted i n an umbe ro fw ay s . I ndeed , a l l a venue s f o r c ompa r isons b e tween s i te s s o f a r h ave b een q u i te o u t s tand ing f o r t h e i ra g reemen ta nd c on tempo raneou sa spec t s . A s n o ted e a r l ie r , s ome c o r re la t ive a nd c hronome t r ic d i ss im i la r i t ie s b e tween s uch s i te s m igh t w e l l b e e xpec ted o n t h e b a s is o ft h e d i f f e rence s i nt h e g eog raph ic a nd g eo log ica lc ha rac te r is t ics o ft h e s i te s . I ti st h e re fo re e ncou rag ing t ok now t h a ts uch c l ose h omogene i ty b e tween s i tes w i th d eep s t ra t ig raphy a nd t hose o f e roded o pen -a i r s e t t lemen t sa r ep o ss ib le . A nd i ti sa l so t ob en o ted t h a tt h is i nt u rn s hou ld e nab le u st op u ti n to p rope rp e r spec t ive o the rl o ca l s i te s , w he re f ewe r ma ter ia ls a r e e ncoun te red a nd w he re l i t t le o r n o r ad ioca rbon d ocumen ta t ion i sp resen t . A t t h e s ame t ime , i ts hou ld a l so make t h ej ob o fc ompa r i son a nd a s se ssmen t o ff i nd ing s r e la ted t ot h o se a b road a ne a s ie rt a sk . U nde rt h ec i rcum s tance s , i ti sv ery d i f f icu l tf o rt h ea u tho rt ot r ea tt h eB a lea r ic d a ta a nd i n fo rma t ion s imp ly a s ar eg iona l p henomenon ,b u t r a the r a s a n e ven t s ugge s t ing amo re w ide ly o ccu r r ing o u tcome ; a si ti sp e r f ec t ly l o g ica l t os pecu la te t h a tc l o se r e la t ion sh ips o fs ome s o r te x is ted b e tween s i te s ,i f ac on tempo ra ry n a ture w a s p re sen t i nt h e f i r s t p l ace . A t t h e s ame t ime , u nfo r tuna te ly , i ti se qua l ly t ob e e xpec ted t h a t i n many g eog raph ic a r ea s c l ose a g reemen t b e tween c h rono logy ( a b so lu te d a te s ) , c on tex t s a nd t h ea r tefac t st h em se lve s a r eo rw i l ln o tb ef r equen t ly p resen t f o r o ne r e ason o r a no ther ; c ond i t ions r e su l t ing i n p a r t f o r t h e c ur ren t i n te rp re t ive d i f f icu l t ie s . O n t h ec h rono log ica la spec ta l one ,t h eu nden iab le f a c te x i s t s t h a t t h e re a r ej u s t n o t e nough k nown B eake r s i tes a nd c on tex t s w h ich h ave b een e x ten s ive ly d a ted b yr a d ioca rbon m e thod . I ber ian a nd S ou thern F rench R ad iocarbon Da tes * ******* I n T ab le 4 , w e h ave a s e lec ted n umbe r o f r ad ioca rbon r e ad ings f o r t h e I ber ian P en insu la ( Po r tuga la nd t h eL evan t ine S pan i sh c oa s ta lr eg ion s ) . A lso i lus t ra ted a r ea s e lec t ion o ft h o se a va i lab le f r om s ou the rn F rench s i te s . We c an s e et h a ta l o ft h ese d a te s c over t h e s ame t ime r ange a s t h e B a lea r ic s e r ie s , a nd a r e t yp ica l o f t ho se a ppea r ing f r om t h e B eake r c on tex t s o f t h e se r eg ions a s w e l l a s i no the r s ; t h us , e s tab l ish ing t h e c hronome t r ic b a s is f o r t h e B a lea r ic B eake r a r gumen t a s o ne o f c on temporane i ty . A t t h e s ame t ime , a s w i l l b e s e en i nt h e s ub sequen t p ape r , i n t h em a jor i ty o fi n s tance s , t h ea r tef ac t s t h emse lve s b ea rr ema rkab le p a ra l le ls t ot ho se o f t h e B a lea r ics . Meanwh i le , t h e a r ch i tec tura l a spec ts w i l l b e s e en t o b ea r o u t s im i la r i n te rp r e ta t ion a nd c onc lus ions .

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W .H . Wa ld ren

T he A rch i tec tura l E lemen t s * ******** T he F e r rande l l -O leza C ha lco l i th ic O ld S e t t lemen tc on s i s t so f aw a l led c ompound m ade o fl a rge s t one so nb o th i n ne ra nd o u te rf a ce s( u n i t so fa pp rox ima te ly 1 . 25m b y . 6 5m b y . 5 0m ) w i th 2 . 5 m e te r w ide f ounda t ions , a nd w h ich r o se o r ig ina l ly t oa n e s t ima ted h e igh t o f 3m e te r so r mo re . T he c en t re s e c t ion o ft h e S ou th C ompound Wa l li n co rpo ra te s aC en t ra lT owe rS t ruc tu r ea nd Ma in E n t rance ; t h ef ou rC ompound Wa l ls ,a pp rox ima te ly 2 50 m e te r si ne x tens ion ,e nc lo s ing ar e c tangu la r ly s haped a r ea o f3 606 s qua re m e te r s ( F igu re s 3a nd 4 ) . Wh i le t h e s e t t lemen ta r ea o f3 606m 2 i st yp ica l o fm any C oppe rA ge c ommun i t ie s , b o th i nt h e s ou th o fF rance a nd t h e I ber ian Ma in land ( e .g . L ebous a nd C abezo d e l P lomo ) , t h er e c tangu la r s hape o ft h e F e r rande l l -O leza O ld S e t t lemen ti s a t yp ica l : mo s tk nown s e t t lemen t so ft h i sa ge b e ing b u i l tt of o l low t h en a tu ra lc on tou r so ft h e l a nd o nw h ich t h ey w e re c on s t ruc ted . A l though t h e re i ss ome g rad ien tb e tween t h e n o r thwe s tz one s a nd t ho se o ft h es ou thea s t( a bou t 9m e te r sd i f f e rence i ne l eva t ion ) , t h er egu la rs hape o ft h e S FO -OS s i te i sp robab ly d ue t ot h e se l ow c on tou r s a sw e l l a st h e r e la t ive ly f l a t a r ea o ft h e e a s te rn z one s . T he r egu la rg eome t r ica l p l an o ft h e c ompound i sf u r the r empha s ised b y t h ef a c tt h a tt h ec ompound h a s t wo e n t rance s : o ne i nt h eS ou th Wa l l ,m id -d is tance a l ong i t se x ten s ion ,a nd t h es e cond m id -d i s tance a l ong t h e l e ng th o ft h e N o r th Wa l l ; b o th e n t rance a r ed i rec t ly o ppo s i te o ne a no the r ( F igu re 4 ) . H oweve r ,t h et wo e n t rances c omp le te ly d i f f e ri nf unc t ion a nd c ha rac te r : t h a to ft h e S ou th Wa l l E n t rance b e ing t h e ma in a cce s s i n to t h ed ome s t ic a r ea s a nd t h a to ft h eN o r th Wa l l E n t rance g i v ing a cces si n to t h ee a s ter nw o rk o rc o r ra l z ones . T he S ou th Wa l l E n t rance w a s c ove red , b e ing i n corpo ra ted i n to t h e t owe r l ike s t ruc tu re o ft h e S ou th C ompound Wa l l , a nd w a st h en a r rowe ra nd b e t te rb u i l to ft h e t wo . T he N o r th Wa l l E n t rance w a s p robab ly au t i l i ta r ian a cce ss u sed f o rb r ing ing a n ima ls i n to t h ee a s ter nc o r ra lo rw o rk z one s . T he O ld S e t t lemen t Wa l led C ompound c an b e d iv ided i n to t wo ma in a r ea s : ( 1 )t h e D ome s t ica ted Z ones t ot h e w es t a nd ( 2 ) t h e C o r ra l a nd Wo rk A rea s f ound i nt h e e a s t ;e ach h av ing a pp rox ima te ly 1 800m2.T he D ome s t ic a r ea c on ta in sa lmo s ta l t h e i mpo r tan t a r ch i tec tu ra le l emen t s s of a re xcava ted w i th in t h e C ompound Wa l l s ( s ee R econs t ruc t ion : F igu re 3 ) . E ach o f t h ese i sd escr ibed b e low a l ong w i th o t he r p er t inen tc h ronome t r ic d a ta a nd p er t inen tp o t te ry d i s t r ibu t ion i n fo rma t ion . S ou th C ompound Wa l l a nd C 2 C en tra l T ower S truc ture * ******* T he S ou th C ompound Wa l l e x tend s f o r ad i s tance o f5 6 m e te r s ( P la te 1 : 1) . O ft h e f our c ompound w a l ls t h is o ne i st h e mo s ti mpo r tan t , a pa r tf r om i t sp re serva t ion , i n t h a t i ti n c ludes s eve ra l a r ch i tec tu ra le l emen t s a nd f o rm s ab a s is i ni t se lf f o r aw ide r a nge o fs t ud ie s , i n c lud ing i n d ica t ions o ft h e s i te 's c ons t ruc t iona l s t age s a sw e l l a s t h ec h rono log ica ls equence o ft h e s i te . R ecen te xcava t ion a tt h ew e s te nd o ft h e S ou th C ompound Wa l l l e ad su st ob e l ieve t h a t ar e c tangu la rr ebu tmen t , r e info rcemen to rt owe r l ike s t ruc ture w a s c ons t ruc ted w he re t h e s ou th e nd o f t h e Wes t C ompound m ee ts t h e w es t e nd o f t h e S ou th

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O xf ord I n t erna t iona lW e s t ern Med i t er ranean B e l lB eake rC onf erence

C ompound Wa l l . As im i la r s t ruc ture m ay a l so h ave b een i ne x is tence a tt h e o t he r ( e a s t ) e nd o ft h e S ou th C ompound Wa l l , a nd i t sj unc t ion w i th t h e E a s tC ompound Wa l l ( s ee s i te r e cons t ruc t ion , F igu re 3a nd 4 ) . T renche se xcava ted a l ong t h ef u l le x ten to ft h ei n te r io ro ft h eS ou th C ompound Wa l l a nd a r ea sa d ja cen tt oa nd n o r th o ft h ew a l lh ave p rov ided u sw i th v e ry l a rge a moun t s o f C oppe r A ge p o t te ry o f a l l c a tego r ies i n c lud ing many B eake r s he rd s . I n a n e xcava ted a r ea o f 1 25m 2 s o me 1 2 ,834 f r agmen t s ( 50 ,958 gm s ) o f p o t te ry w e re r e t r ieved , w i th ap o t te ry d i s t r ibu t ion o f 1 03 f r agmen t s m2. T h is h igh n umbe r o fp o t tery f r agmen ts i sp robab ly d ue t ot h e p rox im i ty o ft wo s t ruc tu res u sed f o rl i v ing ; a sw e l l a st h e n ea rby w a te rc a tch b a s in ( F igu re 5 ) . O ne o ft h et wo s t ruc tu re sw a s ah u t l ike c ons t ruc t ion ,o rs hed ( P la te s 1 : 1 a nd 2 : 2 ) , s e ti n l e an to f a sh ion a ga ins tt h ei n s ide f a ce o ft h e S ou th C ompound Wa l l a nd t h eo t he r a d we l l ing i nt h eo pen a r ea i nwa rd f r om t h ew a l l . At owe r l ike s t ruc tu re w a sb u i l ti n to t h ec en t re o ft h ew a l lw h ich i nt u rn i n co rpo ra te s t h e c ove red S ou th Wa l l E n t rance a nd t h e a r ea s k nown a st h e G ua rd 's R ece ss A rea ( F igures 5 a nd 6 ) . T oge the r t h ese l a t te r t h ree c ons t ruc t iona l e l emen ts f o rm a n i n te re s t ing c omb ina t ion a r ch i tec tu ra l ly . ( 1 )T he c en t ra lt owe r l ike e l emen t ,k nown a s t h e T ower S t ruc ture ( C2 ) i s b u i l t i n to a s em ic i rcu la r w iden ing o f t h e S ou th C ompound Wa l l , w h ich i n t u rn i n co rpo ra tes t h e ( 2 ) c ove red S ou th Wa l l Ma in E n t rance ( 1 .25 m w ide ) t h a tr un s t h rough t h e t h ickened T owe r S t ruc tu re ( C2 ) a nd ( 3 ) t h e Gua rd 's R ece ss A rea , s ome 2m l o ng b y 1 . 25 m w ide ( P la tes 3 : 1 , 3 : 2 a nd 6 : 1 . ) . A sw ew i l le ven tua l ly s e e , t h i sc omb ina t ion c r ea te sa ni mp re s s ive a r ch i tec tu ra l f e a tu re w hen s e en i nc on juc t ion w i th s t i l lo t he ra r ch i tec tu ra le l emen t s . A n ima l b one s f r om t h e s i te 's a bandonmen tl e ve l ( 0 -10cm s ) i nt h is a r ea h ave g i ven u s ar ad ioca rbon r e ad ing o f ( 1 1) 1 140 1 - 7 0 b c ( BM -1698) .

P o t te ry f r om a n a r ea

o f2 5m 2 g ave 1 551 f r agmen t s( 4 781 gms ) , ad i s t r ibu t ion o f6 2f r agmen t s m2. T ot h ee a s to ft h i sc omb ina t ion o fs t ruc tu re s al ow t e r ra ce l i ke p l a t fo rm k nown a tt h e A nc ien tT e r race A rea s ( AT 1 -3 ) ( P la te 1 : 1 ,r i gh tf o reg round )i sc onnec ted b o th t ot h e i n ter io ro ft h e S ou th C ompound Wa l l a nd t h eT owe rS t ruc tu re . T he f unc t ion o ft h e A nc ien tT e r race A rea si sn o tc l ea r , b u tt h e re a r ei nd ica t ions t h a ti te x tended w e l l t o t h e n or th , f o rm ing at e r race l ike p l a tfo rm o r f ounda t ion f o r aw a l l d iv id ing a nd s epa ra t ing t h eC o r ra l Wo rk A rea sf r om t h o se o ft h e w e s ter nD ome s t ic A r ea s . A n ima l b one sf r om t h ec ons t ruc t ion f i l l ( 30 c m s )o ft h e se AT 1-3 z one sh ave r e cen t ly g iven u s ad a te f o r t h is e l emen t o f ( 6 ) 1 540 -± 8 0 b e ( QL -1859 ) . A l though a ccoun t ing f o ra n a r ea o fo n ly 1 8m 2,i th a s p rov ided u sw i th 1 282 f r agmen t s ( 5 725 gm s ) o fp o t te ry ; ad i s t r ibu t ion o f7 1 f r agmen ts m2.I na n i n f er io rl e ve l ,i nr ed e a r th w ea the red i n to b edrock c r ev ice s s eve ra l p i eces o f c o rded , i mp ressed w a re w e re f ound ( s ee f o l low ing c ommun ica t ion ) .

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Abs ida l Hab i ta t ion H4 * ********* A cce s st oa na b s ida lo rn av ifo rmed d we l l ing ,t h e A b s ida lH ab i ta t ion ( H4 ) , w i th 2m w ide , l a rge s t one f ounda t ions ( e lemen t s 1 . 50m x 1 . 00m x . 7 5m ) , ( P la tes 1 : 3 a nd 4 : 1 . ) w h ich mus th ave r i sen t on ea r ly 3m h e igh ti sg a ined l e ad ing d i rec t ly f r om t h e S ou th C ompound Wa l l E n t rance . I ti sa t tached o nt h ew e s ts i de t oa no the rd we l l ing , t h e C en tra l S tone S t ruc tu re ( CSS ) . O ne wou ld h ave b een s t ruck w i th t h is l a rge w e l lm ade b u i ld ing ,o nce h av ing g a ined a cces si n to aSma l lC our tya rd A rea , t h rough t h et u nne l l ike S ou th C ompound Wa l l E n t rance w i th i t sG ua rd sR ece s sA rea ( s ee F igure a nd , s i te r e cons t ruc t ion , F igu re 3 ) . S t ruc tu res s uch a st h is A b s ida lH ab i ta t ion ( H4 ) ( F igu re 5a nd P la te 1 : 3 ) w i th t h e i r t wo me te r w ide f ounda t ions a nd t h e w a l led s t ruc tu res t h emse lves a r e s t rong ly r em in iscen t o ft h e l ong h ouse s o ft h e S ou the rn F rench s i te s o fC ambous , L ebous a nd B ous sa rgues . T he f l oo rl e ve l sf r om t h ei n te r io ro ft h el a rge ,r e c tangu la rr oom ( 10m l o ng b y2 . 5m w ide ) p roduced s ome 2 804 f r agmen t s ( 1 1 ,610 gm s ) i na n a r ea o f3 9m 2;ap o t tery d i s t r ibu t ion r ange o f7 4 f r agmen t m 2.A n umbe ro fB eake r s he rds a r e i n c luded i n t h is d i s t r ibu t ion . C en tra l S tone S truc ture CSS * ********* T he C en t ra l S tone S t ruc tu re ( CSS ) ( F igure 4a nd 5 )( P la tes 4 : 1 a nd 4 :2 ) a ccoun t s f o rt h e s e cond m a jo rd we l l ing s e tj u s to f ft h e Sma l l C ou r tya rd A rea a nd c onnec ted o n i t se a s t s i de b y t h eA b s ida l H ab i ta t ion ( H4 ) . T he C en t ra l S tone S t ruc tu re h a sa f l oo ra r ea o fa bou t 1 8m l o ng b y 5m e te r sw ide i nt h ei n ter io r , f l anked b y t h ew a ter c hanne lo nt h ew e s ts i de .T h i sw e s ts i de i n co rpo ra te st h er a ised w a te rc hanne l ; a bou t w h ich mo re w i l l b e s a id s ub sequen t ly . I ta ppea r s t h a t t h e t wo d we l l ing ( H4 a nd C SS ) h ad t h e i r a b s ida l e nds o ppo sed ; t h e H 4 o n i t s n o r th e nd a nd t h e C SS o n i t s s ou th e nd . T he re h ave b een s eve ra l s t age o fb u i ld ing a nd r e nova t ion c once rn ing t h is b u i ld ing a nd t h ea d jo in ing w a te rc hanne l . I th a s b een o ne o ft h ee xcava t iona l s t ra teg ie si nt h e l a s tf ew s e a sons t oa t temp tt od a te t h ev a r ious s t age so fc ons t ruc t ion a nd r enova t ion o ft h ev a r ious a r ch i tec tu ra le l emen t s . L ike a l l t h e o pen a r ea s a nd f l oo r l e ve ls o f , i na nd a r ound t h is n uc leus o fb u i ld ing e l emen t s , t h e p o t te ry d i s t r ibu t ion h a s b een q u i te d ense . I nt h e z one s o ft h e C en t ra l S tone S t ruc tu re i na n a r ea o f 1 5 1 m 2,p o t te ry f i nds h ave b een e s tab l ished a t1 0 ,432 f r agmen t s ( 42073 gm s ) , ap o t te ry d i s tr ibu t ion o f7 0 f r agmen t s m2. A n umbe ro f B eake r s he rds a r e c oun ted i nt h e p o t t ry d i s t r ibu t ion . S eve ra l r ad ioca rbon d a tes a r e p end ing f r om t h e se a r ea s . O ne r a d ioca rbon d a te : ( 7 ) 1 330± 1 20 b e ( QL -1896 ) i s a va i lab le f o r az one c l o se t ot h er a ised w a te rc hanne l a nd i sb e l ieved t or ep re sen ta l a te o ccupa t iona l d a te c l o se t ot h e s i te 's f i na l a bandonmen t .

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Wa ter C hanne l , WC * ********* T he Wa te r C hanne l (WC ) ( P la te s 1 : 2a nd 2 : 1) i sw i thou t ad oub t o ne o ft h e ma jo r a r ch i tec tura l f ea ture s o f t h e F e r rande l l -O leza C ha lco l i th ic O ld S e t t lemen t . I n t h e a u tho r 's k now ledge , t h e re a r e o n ly t wo e xamp les o f s uch as t ruc tu re : o ne i si nt h e C ha lco l i th ic S e t t lemen t o f C e r ro d e V i rgen ( O rce ) a nd L os M i l la re s ( A lme r ia ) . N e i the ro ft h ese o n t h eo t he rh and a r ef o rt h e momen tq u i te a sc omp le te o re l abo ra te . T he Wa te r C hanne l h a s b een e xcava ted t ot h e p r esen t l e ng th o f4 0 me te r s . I ti sa s t one a l igned c hanne l , l m w ide , w i th v e r t ica l s l ab u n i t s mea sur ing a pp rox ima te ly lm l ong a nd . 7 5m h igh , r unn ing i n an o r th t o s ou th d i rec t ion a nd a to ne t ime c ove red w i th s t one s l ab s a nd l i ned w i th c l ay t op reven t e vapo ra t ion , g ene ra l w a te r l o s sa nd c on tam ina t ion ( s ee s i te r e cons t ruc t ion , F igu re 4a nd 5 ,P la te s 1 : 2a nd 2 :2 ) . I tw a s s o c ons t ruc ted i n g rad ien t a s t o a s sure a nd c on t ro l as l ow f l ow o f w a te r , r a the r t han af l ood ing . T h is w a s d one b y i t s g radua l s l ope a s w e l l a s as e r ies o f s t one s l ab , w a te r t r aps a ti n terva ls a l ong i t s d ownwa rd c ou r se . T he f a c t t h a t t h e w ho le s t ruc tu re w a se l eva ted o n al a rge s t one f ounda t ion , t h us c on t ro l l ing t h ew a te r c ou r se o ve rt h en a tu ra li n c l ine o ft h et e r ra in i nt h ea r ea ,a s su red t h i sc on t ro l . A t t he e x t reme s ou the rn e nd , t he c hanne l e nd s i n aR un -Of f Gu l ley f o rmed b y a n e n la rged f i s su re i nb ed rock , a nd f r om h e re i n to aC a tch B a s in ( P la te s 2 :2 a nd 2 : 3 ) . T h is a r ea u sed f o rw a te rs t o rage w a s a l so p robab ly c ove red b y aw ood a nd t h a tched r oof t op reven t s t o rage l o ss a nd c on tam ina t ion . H eavy c oncen t ra t ion s o fr ed c l ay w e re f ound w ea the red i n to t h e C a tch B a s in ; s o me p robab ly t h e c hanne l 's o r ig ina l c l ay l i n ing . A s ec t ion o f t he w a te r c hanne l s ys tem i n t he n o r thern h a lf o f t h e s e t t lemen t c ompound c ons is ted o f e n la rged , b ed rock f i ssures , l e ad ing i n to t h e s t one s l ab a l igned h a lf o ft h ew a te rc ou r se . Ac ons ide rab le s e c t ion o ft h i s n o r the rn s e c to ri ss t i l l t ob ee xcava ted , e spec ia l ly t h ea r ea sl e ad ing i n to t h e Wa te rR e se rvo i r , l o ca ted o n t h e e x ter io r o f t h e n o r the rn e nd o ft h e We s t C ompound Wa l l . Mo re a bou t t h i s Wa te r R eservo i ri so u t l ined b e low . S i te a bandonmen td eb r is i nt h e f o rm o fa n ima l b one s f r om i n s ide t h ew a te rc hanne l a tt h e s ou thern e nd o f t h e C a tch B a s in h a s g iven u s ad a te o f ( 8 ) 1 260± 8 0 b c ( BM -2312 ) . A no the rd a te a l so e x is t sf o ra n u ppe rl e ve l ( 0 -10 cm )j u s to u t s ide C a tch B a s in h a s g iven ad a te o n a n ima l b one o f( 9 ) 1 120± 5 0 b c ( HAR 3490 ) . T hese t wo r ad ioca rbon d a te s a nd t h e o ne f r om t h e a r ea o f t h e C 2 T owe r S t ruc ture ( 1 1) ( 1 140±70 b c , BM -1698 ) ( 0 - Mcm ) r ep resen t t h e l a s t u se o f t h e s i te , p robab ly ma rk ing a d a te o f i t s f i na l a bandonmen t , o n t h e b a s is o f t h e l a te d a tes a nd t h e s t ra t ig raphy . I n 1 984 , as urvey s t udy d es igned t o d e te rm ine t h e a ge o f t h e Wa te r C hanne l c ons t ruc t ion a nd t h e i n f e r io rl e ve ls o n w h ich i tw a sb u i l tw a s u nde r taken , a l ong w i th

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o t he ra r ch i tec tu ra le l emen t s t h roughou tt h e s i te . O rgan ic ma ter ia ls f r om w i th in t h e c on s t ruc t ion f i l lo ft h e Wa te rC hanne lp l a t form a sw e l l a sf r om t h ee a r th b e tween t h e b ed rock c r ev ices o ft h e p recons t ruc t ion l e ve l o n w h ich i tw a s b u i l tw e re e xcava ted ( P la te s 7a nd 8 ) . O rgan ic m a te r ia ls ( a n ima l b one s ) w e re c o l lec ted . T he r ad ioca rbon a na lyse so ft h ese s amp le sa r ec u r ren t ly i np rog re s sa nd s hou ld g i ve u sd a te sf o rt h e c ons t ruc t ion o ft h e Wa te rC hanne l ,a sw e l l a s ap r econs t ruc t ion d a te . A na r ea , E xp lo ra to ry T rench We s t( EX W ) ,o f 15m 2 s t re tch ing , n o r th -sou th ,a l ong t h e o u t s ide o f t h e Wa te r C hanne l h as y i e lded 1 5 ,633 f r agmen ts ( 54 ,312 gm ) o f p o t tery , ad i s tr ibu t ion r ange o f1 36 f r agmen t s m2.S uch ah igh f r equency o fp o t te ry w ou ld i nd ica te c on s ide rab le d ome s t ic a c t iv i ty i na nd a round t h el e ng th o ft h ew a te r c hanne l . S eve ra l r ad ioca rbon d a te s f r om i n f e r io r l e ve ls a r e p end ing f r om t h ese z ones . R ecen te xcava t ions h ave a l so u nea r thed t h ef ounda t ion so fw ha tw a s at h i rd d we l l ing i na na r ea a tt h ee nd o ft h e EX W , b e tween t h eC a tch B a s in a nd t h e We s tC ompound Wa l l ( F igures 4 a nd 5 ) . Ar ad ioca rbon d a te i sa va i lab le f o r t h is t h i rd d we l l ing . C ha rcoa lt a ken f r om ao ccupa t iona lz one a nd d ea l ing w i th t h ec on s t ruc t ion l e ve lh a s g i ven u s ad a te o f ( 5 ) 1 540± 8 0 b e ( QL -4042 ) .I n a n a r ea o f 5 1 m 2,at o ta l o f 3 558 f r agmen ts ( 15 ,254 gm ) o fp o t te ry w e re f ound ; af r equency o f7 0 f r agmen t s m 2 .

E as t C ompound Wa l l * ******* T he E a s t C ompound Wa l l e x tend sn o r th -sou th f o r6 9 .5m ( F igu re 4a nd P la te 6 : 2 ) . T h ree e xcava t ion a r ea s : ( 1 )o ne i nt h es ou the rn z one so nt h ei n s ide o ft h ec ompound w a l l ( EW ) , ( 2 ) a l so a no the r a l ong at wo m e te r w id th o ft h e o u t s ide f a ce s ou the rn z one s o ft h ec ompound w a l l ( E WX ) a nd ( 3 ) t h en or the rn z one so nt h ei n s ide o ft h e c ompound w a l l ( E WN )E ach o ft h e se h ave p roduced l a rge p o t te ry d i s t r ibu t ion s . T he EW s e c to r , i na n a r ea o f 3 24m 2 at o ta l o f 1 3 ,525 f r agmen ts ( 32 ,961 gm ) o f p o t te ry : ad i s tr ibu t ion r ange o f4 1 f r agmen t s m2.T he EWX s e c to r , i na n a r ea o f 5 6m 2 ac o l lec t ion o f9 310 f r agmen t s ( 36 ,490 gm ) w a sf ound ; af r equency r a nge o f 1 66 f r agmen t s m2.T h is h igh c oncen t ra t ion o f s he rd s o u t s ide t h e c ompounä w a l l c ou ld i n d ica te a nd a r ea o fo ccupa t ion o ni t se x te r io r . T he EWN s e c to r ,i na na r ea o f 1 05 m 2 ,a t o ta l o f 5 713 f r agmen ts ( 22 ,519 gm ) o f p o t tery w as c o l lec ted , a d i s t r ibu t ion r a nge o f5 4f r agmen t s m2.Among t h is c o l lec t ion f r om t h e 3a r ea sw e re a bou t4 00 B eake rs he rds r ep re sen t mo re t h an as co re o fv e s se ls . As ma l l f i re z one d i rec t ly a s soc ia ted w i th 1 8 f r agmen t s o f B eake r p o t tery a tt h e i n s ide f ounda t ion o ft h e s ou th s e c t ion o ft h eE a s tC ompound Wa l lw a sd a ted b yt h e B r i t ish Museum a t ( 1 ) 2 000± 6 5 b e ( BM -1843 ) . S eve ra l o the r 1 4C a na lyses r e su l t sa r ep end ing f r om a l lt h ree a r ea s ,e spec ia l ly f r om w i th in t h ew a l lf i l la sw e l la s b enea th t h ef ounda t ions o ft h ew a l l .

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O x f ord I n t erna t iona lW e s t e rn Med i t er ranean B e l lB eak er C onf e rence

Nor th C ompound Wa l l ********

T he N o r th C ompound Wa l l ( P la te 5 : 2 )i st h eb e t te rp re se rved o ft h ef ou rc ompound w a l l s a nd e x tend s t o af u l l l e ng th o f4 3 .5m . T h i s i sc ons ide rab ly s ho r te r i nl e ng th t h an t h eo t he rt h r ee w a l ls a nd i sr e spons ib le f o rt h eu nequa la te ra lr e c tangu la rs hape o ft h ec ompound . O n ly s ma l la r ea so ne m e te rw ide h ave b een e xcava ted t o da te ;b o th a l ong t h ei n s ide a nd o u t s ide f a ces o ft h e w a l l . T he s e cond N or th C ompound Wa l l E n t rance ( 2m w ide ) i sf ound i nt h e m idd le o ft h e N o r th C ompond Wa l l a nd l e ad s d i r ec t ly i n to t h en o r thea s te rn z one so ft h ec ompound 's Wo rk A rea s . T he p r eserva t ion o ft h e N o r th C ompound Wa l l i st h eb e s to ft h ef ou r . I no ne s e c t ion i nt h e n o r thwe s tc o rne r , t h ef ounda t ions a r e p r ese rved t o ah e igh to f l m ( 2c ou r se s o fs t one ) a nd s e tt h ec ha rac te ro fw ha tt h ey mus th ave o r ig ina l ly l ooked l i ke . H e re , t h ey a r e a bou t 2m w ide a tt h et o pa nd i n d ica te t h a to r ig ina l ly t h ey s t ood a tl e a s t 3m h igh . T he w ay t h ec ompound w a l ls c ame t oge the ra tt h e i rj unc t ion i sd emons t ra ted i nt h e j unc t ion o f t h e N o r th a nd E a s t C ompound Wa l ls t ot h e e a s t . H e re , t h e n o r thea s t c or ne ri sp er f ec t ly p r eserved o n t h e e x ter io ra nd t h e c o rne r s t one ( 1 .25m l ong a nd . 6 0m h i gh ) i sw e l lc u ta nd p l aced i ng ood a l ignmen tw i th s eve ra l a d jo in ing o ne si n b o th d i rec t ion s ( P la te 9 ) . T he re a r en of i n ished p o t te ry d i s t r ibu t ion s t a t is t ics f o rt h e se z one s . H oweve r ,i nt h e e n t rance , n ea r t h e o u t s ide f a ce o ft h e w a l l , ac a tch o fB eake r p o t te ry w a s f ound . A no the rC 14 d a te o nc ha rcoa l a s soc ia ted w i th t h e se B eake rs he rd sf r om t h eb a se o f t h e w a l l , d a ted b yt h eQ ua te rna ry R e sea rch C en t re o ft h e U n ive r s i ty o f Wa sh ing ton a tS ea t t le , h ave g i ven ad a te o f( 2 ) 1 840± 9 0 b c ( QL -1636 ) U ph i l l Wa ter R eservo ir * ******* T he U ph i l l E x ter io r Wa te r R ese rvo ir ( UHX WR ) ( P la te s 1 0 :1 a nd 1 0 :2 ) i sl o ca ted a t tached t ot h ee x ter io rf a ce o ft h en o r thea s tc o rne ro ft h e We s tC ompound Wa l l . I t h a s a n i n s ide mea suremen t o f 5m x 4m , w i th l m w ide f ounda t ions . T hese f ounda t ions r o se t oa n e s t ima ted 2m e te r s h e igh t a nd w hen f u l l w ou ld h ave s t o red a bou t4 0c ub ic m e te r so fw a te r . T he f a c tt h a tt h e w a te rr e servo i ri sc onnec ted t ot h ee x ter io ro ft h ew a l li se v idence f o rt h en on -def ens ive c ha rac te ro ft h eC ompound Wa l l si ng ene ra l . F o rs u re ly ,i ft h e w a l ls w e re d ef ens ive , t h is w a te rr e se rvo ir w ou ld n o th ave b een c ons t ruc ted o n t h e e x ter io ro ft h ec ompound w a l l , b u to nt h ei n s ide ; s imp ly a s ap recau t ion a ga in s ta ny e nemy i n te r f erence w i th t h ew a te rs upp ly . T he l a rge , u n re inefo r ced , s e cond N o r th C ompound Wa l l E n t rance a l so s ugge s t st h e n on -def ens ive n a tu re o ft h ew a l l s . T he g a te t ot h is e n t rance w ou ld h ave b een o fw ood a nd i t sw id th make i te a s ie rt oa t tack a nd l e ss e a sy t od ef end . T hese f a c to r s a nd t h e l a ck o f a ny w eapons a ta l l o n s i te s peak f o r a no the r f unc t ion o f t h e c ompound w a l ls o the r t han d efens ive i n t h e c onven t iona l s ense . . . t h a t o f ad ec la ra t ion o f p ropr ie tor ia l d oma in o r p rope r ty d e l inea t ion . 2 29

W .H . Wa ld ren

S i te

P lan a nd R econs truc t ion ************

T he p re serva t ion o ft h ef ounda t ion so ft h ev a r ious a r ch i tec tu ra le l emen t so ft h eO ld S e t t lemen t a r e e xce l len t i n t h a t t h ey c l ea r ly d e l inea te t h e f l oo r p l an o f t h e s i te , o u t l in ing t h e n ume rous a r ch i tec tu ra l e l emen ts . T he p rese rva t ion f a c to r i n t u rn f a c i l i ta tes t h er e cons t ruc t ion o ft h e i n d iv idua l a r ch i tec tu ra l f e a tu re s , e nab l ing u st o a s s ign d imens ions t o t h ese d i f f e ren t s t ruc tures . T he ma in f a c to r i n t h e s i te 's p reserva t ion t h rough t ime r e s t s i n t h e f a c t t h a t t h e f ounda t ions o f t h e v a r iou s e l emen t s h ave b een p rese rved u nde r c o l lec ted f i e ld s t one g a the red b y l o ca l a g r icu l tur i s t st h roughou tt h ec en tur ie s a nd a ccumu la ted o ve rt h ef ounda t ion so ft h e a nc ien ta r ch i tec tu ra lr ema in s . T he d iv i s ion o ft h ec ompound a r ea i n to c l ea r ly d ef ined r e s iden t ia la nd w o rk z one si s q u i te r ema rkab le . T h i s c an b e s a id a l so f o r t h e w e l l p re se rved a nd s oph i s t ica ted , i n te rna l w a te r s y s tem c ons i s t ing o fw ha t w a s ac ove red , l a rge , a l igned s t one s l ab , w a te r c hanne l . 7 5 m e te r w ide a nd o f s ome 6 0 m e te r s l e ng th , w i th ac a tch -ba s in s y s tem d own h i l l , s upp l ied b ya nu ph i l lw a te rd epo s i to fa ne s t ima ted 4 0c ub ic m e t e r s t o rage c apac i ty ; d emons t ra t ing w e l l p l anned w a ter s t o rage a nd e v iden t ly e f f ic ien t managemen t . T he l o ca t ion o ft h e w a te rc hanne l d iv ide s a nd s epa ra tes t h e d ome s t ic a r ea s o ft h e c ompound a nd i t sr e se rvo i r s f r om t h ea n ima lc o r ra l so ft h ee a s ts e c to r sa nd a s su re s t h e i r p ro tec t ion a l ong w i th e a sy a cce s s c l o se t o t h e d we l l ings f o r p rac t ica l a nd f unc t iona l p urpo ses . T ha t t h e c hanne l 's c our se w a s c ove red t o a s sure a ga ins t e vapo ra t ion a nd c on tam ina t ion o ft h e w a te r s upp ly s e em s l i ke ly a s s eve ra l s t one s l ab s w e re f ound i n t h e c hanne l d u r ing e xcava t ion . A ccumu la ted c l ay s ed imen t e xcava ted f r om t h el owe rc a tch b a s in a l so s ugge s t st h a tt h ew a te rc hanne lm ay h ave b een o r ig ina l ly c l ay l i ned . T he s i te p l an ( F igu re 4 )i s as u rveyed v i ew o ft h eO ld S e t t lemen ts how ing t h em a jo r a r ea s o fc oncen t ra ted e xcava t ion u p t o 1984 . S ince t h a t t ime t h e se a nd o t he ra r ea s h ave b een e x tended c ons ide rab ly . F o r e xamp le t h e f u l l e x tens ion o f t h e Wes t C ompound Wa l l h a s b een c u r ren t ly e s tab l ished a nd as e c t ion e xcava ted t os how i t s c ha rac te r is t ics ( P la te 4 :2 ) . Two h u t l ike s t ruc tu re s , b u i l t i nl e an to f a sh ion a ga ins t t wo o f t h e w a l ls ( Sou th a nd Wes t C ompound Wa l ls ) h ave b een e xcava ted a nd i n d ica t ions o f at h ird f ound a ga ins t t h e n o r th e nd o ft h e E a s t C ompound Wa l l . A t h ree m e te r e x tens ion o f t h e m idd le s e c t ion o ft h e Wa te r C hanne l h as a l so b een e xcava ted a nd f i l l r emoved t oc o l lec t m a te r ia ls f o rd a t ing b enea th t h e c ons t ruc t ion l e ve l . O n t h e b a s is o ft h ee s tab l ished b u i ld ing a nd w a l l f o unda t ions , ar e con s t ruc t ion o ft h e s i te h a s b een p os s ib le ( F igure 3 ) . T he r e cons t ruc t ion g i ve s u s t h e i mp res s ion o fa w a l led p roper ty w i th a tl e as t t h ree d we l l ing s a nd s ma l le r b u i ld ings a ga in s t t h e c ompound w a l ls . T he c ompound w a l ls c e r ta in ly r o se t oa tl e as tt h r ee m e te r so n t h e b a s is o f t h e l a rge f a c ing s t one o ft h e i n ne r a nd o u te r s u r f aces a nd o ve r t wo m e te r w ide f o unda t ions .

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O x f ord I n t e rna t iona l We s t ern Med i t er ranean B e l lB eak er C onf erence

T he w e s te rn z one s h ave t h e c oncen t ra t ion o fd omes t ic a c t iv i ty a nd c on t ro l o ft h e w a te rr e sou r ce s , w h i le t h ee a s te rn z one sa r eo pen w o rk a r ea sa nd a r es ugge s t ive o fa c o r ra l a r ea f o r l i ves tock . T he re a r e i nd ica t ions f r om r e cen t p o t tery d i s t r ibu t ion s t ud ies t h a t t h e n o r the rn z one a s w e l l a s t h e s ou the rn o ne h ad s ma l l s hed s o r d we l l ing s . B a sed o n t h ee xcava t ion a nd h eavy c oncen t ra t ion so fp o t te ry f r agmen t s , t h e re a ppea r sa l so t oh ave b een s ome d ome s t ic a c t iv i t ie so u t s ide t h es ou the rn z one s o ft h eE a s tC ompound Wa l l . A cces s w a s m ade t h rough t wo e n t rance s . T he p r inc ipa l o ne b e ing t h e n a r rowe ro f t h e t wo a nd w h ich l e ad s t h rough t h e c ove red m a in e n t rance b u i l t i n to t h e c en t ra l t owe r s t ruc tu re w i th i t s g ua rd 's r e ce ss a r ea . T h is ma in a ccess i n to t h e s e t t lemen t w ou ld h ave b een a n i mpre ss ive o ne , l e ad ing a s i td oe s t h rough t h e t unne l l i ke e n t rance i n to af o recour to rs ma l ly a rd i mmed ia te ly f a c ing t h es e t t lemen t 's p r inc ipa l d we l l ing .T he i n co rpo ra t ion o ft h ec en t ra lt owe rs t ruc tu re a nd g ua rd 's r e ce s si n to t h e s ou th c ompound w a l lr e su l t si n av e ry i n te re s t ing a r ch i tec tu ra lc omb ina t ion ,i n deed ; o ne wh ich i n i t s h ayday mus t h ave c ommanded a t ten t ion . E ven t oday , t he f ounda t ions o f t h ese a r ch i tec tu ra l f ea tures a r e r ema rkab ly i mpo s ing , g iv ing t h e i mp re s s ion o fp re s t ige a nd s t a tus . T he s e conda ry o ne t h a to ft h eu np ro tec ted ,w ide r e a re n t rance i so f af unc t iona lo rde r i nt h a t i t s u ncomp l ica ted s t ruc ture s ugge s t s ag a te t op e rm i t a n ima l f l ock s t op as s t h rough i nr ou te t ot h ec o r ra l a r ea so ft h ee a s ts e c to r . T he f i e ld s o n a tl e a s tt wo s i de s , t ot h ee a s ta nd s ou th o ft h e s e t t lemen tc ompound , w e re u sed f o ra g r icu l tu ra l a c t iv i t ie sa st e s t if ied t ob y f r agmen t so fo ve r7 00 q ua l i ty t a bu la rf l in tt oo ls ( s ick les a nd b l ade s )c o l lec ted f r om t h ef i e ld sa nd w h ich s t i l lh ave h igh s i ck le g lo ss p o l i sh ; as i gn o fa gr icu l tu ra l u se i nt h e h arve s t ing o fg ra in (s e e f o l low ing p ape r ). W i th t h ec l o se p rox im i ty o ft h ese a g r icu l tu ra lf i e ld s t ot h e s e t t lemen tc ompound , i t w ou ld h ave b een c e r ta in ly an eces s i ty t oh ave e f f ic ien t c on t ro l o fl i ve s tock f o r a g ood p o r t ion o f t h e y ea r , w h i le c rops w e re b e ing g rown . T he c ompound w a l ls w ou ld h ave a s su red n o t o n ly t h e p ro tec t ion o fl i ve s tock d ur ing t h e n igh t s a ga in s t t h ef t b u t a l so t h e c rops f r om t h e l i ves tock . T hese f a c to r s s how ac ons ide rab le a t ten t ion p a id t o at i gh t m anagemen t r equ i red o ve r t h e b e t te r p a r t o ft h e g row ing s e a son d ur ing b o th t h e se s ub s is tence a c t iv i t ie s.

T he P r imary S i tes o f Ma tge a nd F errande l l -O leza C on temporary S tra t igraphy a nd Chronome try **********

A s p o in ted o u t e a r l ie r , i nt h e f i r s t o ft h e t wo p r ima ry s i tes , t h e Ma tge r ock s he l te r ( ABS M ) , a s ac losed s i te h as g i ven u s ar ema rkab le s equence o f s t ra t ig raph ica l l e ve ls a nd m a te r ia ls ,e spec ia l ly i nt h ec on tex t so ft h el o ca lP r e ta layo t ic P e r iod . I ni t s 3 6 l e ve ls a nd u n in te r rup ted 0 00 y ea rp r eh is tor ic c u l tu ra l s equence ) ( F igu r e 8 ) , t h e p e r t inen t l e ve ls f o rt h e P re ta layo t ic P e r iod a r e S t ra tum 1 0t oS t ra tum 2 8 . O ft h e se , S t ra tum 1 0o ft h eE a r ly B eake rP ha se ( EBP ) t oS t ra tum 2 4o ft h eL a te B eake rP ha se ( LBP ) a r et h el e ve l sr e la ted t oB eake rc on tex t s( Wa ld r en 1 982 ) .T he se B eake rl e ve l s

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b racke t ap er iod o f t ime f r om c i rca 2 100 b e t oc i rca 1 400 b e ( Tab le 3 ) . I ti s a p a r to ft h i s s equence w h ich i sp a r t icu la r ly i n fo rma t ive , s how ing u sh e r e a7 00 y ea r d ura t ion o fo ccupa t ion f o rt h e Ma tge r o ck s he l te r . I nt h es e cond o ft h et wo p r ima ry s i te s ,t h eF e r rande l l -O leza O ld S e t t lemen t - a l though a n o pen -a ir s i te w i th ah o r izon ta l r a the r t h an v e r t ica l s t ra t ig raphy - w e a l so h ave a s t ra t ig raph ica l s i tua t ion e qua l ly w e l l d ocumen ted b y r ad ioca rbon d a t ing a nd s how ing at i gh t7 00 y ea ro ccupa t iona ld u ra t ion ,c i r ca 2 000 b e t o c i r ca 1 300 b e , c l ea r ly ,d emon s t ra t ing t h ec on tempo ra ry c ha rac te ro ft h et wo s i t e s . C ons ide r ing t h ea bundance a nd t h eh omogeneou sc ha ra c te ro ft h ea r tef a c t sa nd o t he r d a ta a nd t h ep o ten t ia lt h e se o f f e rt ol o ca li n te ra s i te c o r re la t ion , w ec an a l so c ompa re t h em i t em f o ri t em w i th t h o se f a r the ra f ie ld a nd f i nd q u i te r ema rkab le C on t inen ta l E u ropean c oun te rpa r t s f o r t h e B a lea r ic e v idence . S uch ap rocedu re , h oweve r , a t p resen t wou ld b e b o th t ime a nd s pace c onsum ing a s w e l l a s r epe t i ta t ive . C ompa r i sons o ft h is o rde ra r er e served f o rc ons ide ra t ion i nt h ep ape rt of o l low . I t w i l lb ecome p l a in e nough t h e r e ;w he re w en eed o n ly l o ok a tt h eq uan t i ty a nd q ua l i ty o ft h ei nd iv idua la r tefac t sa nd o t he ri t em sd e scr ib ed , t od emon s t ra te t h e i rd i agno s t ic c ha rac te r a sp roduc t s w i th s t rong B eake r i n f in i t ies , a nd t ob e a b le t op l ace t h en f i rm ly w i th in t h ep e r spec t ive o ft h eC on t inen ta lE u ropean B eake rC omp lex ,a nd n o t m e re ly a sa be r ran t ,r e g iona l ,p r e s t ige i t em s . F rom t h e s t andpo in t o fi t s a r tef ac t e v idence a l one , a s w e w i l l s e e , t h e Ma l lo rcan F e r rande l l -O leza O ld S e t t lemen to f f e r su sa ne ven mo re i mpo r tan ta nd i n te re s t ing ; a s e cond c on tempo ra ry C ha lco l i th ic l e gacy ; t h i st ime o ne w h ich i sf ounded o nm a te r ia l e v idence i n f ina te ly mo re a bundan t t h an t h a t o f Ma tge . A cco rd ing t o ar e cen t c ompu te r b a sed i nven to ry o ve r 1 85 ,000 p i eces o fC oppe r A ge c ommon w a re a nd n ea r ly1000 d eco ra ted B eake rf i ne w a re p i eces a r e a va i lab le f o rs t udy ; r ep re sen t ing many h und red s o fC oppe rA ge p o t s a nd s eve ra l s co re s o fg oeme t r ica l ly d eco ra ted B eake rv e sse l s . F ew s i tes a pa r t f r om t h ose o f t h e o rde r o fZ ambu ja l , L os M i l la re s a nd C e r ro d e V i rgen a nd p e rhaps af ew o t he r sc an o f f e rp a ra l le l q uan t i t ies o fa r tef ac t e v idence . O the r a r tef ac t s l i ke t h e vp er fo ra ted b one , s t one a nd i vo ry e l emen t s ( t hese l a t te r i t em s , t h e vp er fo ra ted e l emen t s ,a r ei nw ide v a r ie ty a nd l a rge n umbe ra tb o th s i t e s ) a nd r ema rkab ly r i ch l i t h ic i n du s t ry a sw e l la so t he ri t em so ft h eB eake rt y pe f r om t h e S FO -OS s i te , i nt h e i ro wn r i gh t , g i ve s i gn if icance t ow ha t w e h ave c ome t oe xpec t f r om a n a s semb lage o fB eake rb ackg round . Q u i te o n i t s o wn , t h e F e r rande l l -O leza O ld S e t t lemen t a r ch i tec tu ra l ly o f f e r s u s a n e spec ia l ly i n te res t ing a s w e l l a s af i rm b a s is f o r C oppe r A ge c ompar isons f r om w h ich w ec an d r aw c onc lus ion sa st ow ha tw es e er ef lec ted t h e r e . I tb ecome sp l a in ly e v iden t t h a tt h e s i te - a l though u n ique i ns ome w ays t oe xac tp a ra l le ls b ecause o fi t s r e c t angu la rp l an - h as s t rong a f f in i t ie sa nd c oun te rpa r t sa l t h e s ame , f o re xamp le , t o s u ch C ha lco l i th ie s i t e s a st h o se o fL ebous ( a sr e cogn i sed b yt h e F r ench P reh i s tor ian J .A rna l ; p e r s . c o r respondence ) , C ambous a nd C amp L au re i nt h e s ou th o fF rance o rI b e r ian s i te s l i ke C abezo d e l P lomo , C e r ro d e V irgen ,o rL o s M i l la r es i t se lf . A nd a s af i na l a r gumen t , t h ese c ompa r isons a nd c o r re la t ions b ecome s t i l l mo re a t t ra c t ive i nv i ew o fv e ry s im i la rc h ronome t r ic p a ra l le l sp r esen t i nt h e s i t e s .

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O xf ord I n t erna t iona lW e s t ern Med i t er ranean B e l lB eak er C onf erence

E xam ina t ion o ft h er ad ioca rbon r e su l t s p re sen ted i nT ab le s 2 -3 f i rm ly f i x t h e t wo p r ima ry B a lear ic s i tes w i th in af r amewo rk o f a b so lu te d a te s r ang ing f r om c i rca 2 100 b ct oc i r ca 1 300 b e ; u nca l ib ra ted d a te se xac t ly c ompa rab le t oa ny n umbe ro f C ha lco l i th ic s i te so nt h e Ma in land a nd C on t inen ta lE u rope ( Tab le 4 ) . H e re , Im igh t a dd , as e r ious e r ro r o fa s se s smen t a ppea r s i nC . T opp 's p ape r ( t h is v o lume ) .T oq uo te : ' I ti so fi n te re s tt on o te t h a ta l lt h ec a l ibra ted C14 d a tes o ft h e i n c ised w a re s f r om C a n a C o txe ra , S on Ma tge , S on G a l la rd a nd C a n a C os ta f a l l w i th in t h e s ame b r acke t : t h ef i r s th a l fo ft h es e cond m i l lenn ium , ( Topp t h i sv o lume ) . T h is i ss imp ly n o t s of o rt h e Ma l lo rcan 1 4C d a te s , a l lo fw h ich a r eu nca l ibra t ed i n t h ef i r s tp l ace ,r ang ing f r om c i rca 2 000 b ct oc i r ca 1 300 b e ; a nd s e cond ly e ven t h e r oughe s to fc a l ib ra t ion so fe x i s t ing d a te sw ou ld p l ace a l lo ft h e EBP ( Ea r ly B eake r P ha se ) ( 2000 b et o 1 700 b c ) (Wa ld ren 1 980 a nd 1 986 )d a te s ( t ho se a s soc ia ted w i th T ype A Ma l lo r can i n c ised w a re sa cco rd ing t oT opp e ta l )i nc a l ibra ted t e rm s c i rca 2 500 -2100 BC . Id o n o t s ee h ow s uch a n e r ro r c an b e c ons ide red , a s t h ey a r e c l o se rt o t h eb eg inn ing o rm idd le o ft h et h i rd m i l lenn ium BC . N o rd oes t h i sc on s t i tu te , t of u r the rq uo te my g ood f r iend C e l ia T opp , an eces sa r i ly l a tene s so fo u ri n su la rc on tex t s . : ' I n t h e B a lea r ics w e h ave many s i te s w h ich c on ta in i t em s o ft h e s e cond p ackage . A l l o ur v p e r fo ra ted b u t tons a r e o f l a te t ypes a s a r e a l so t h e t r iangu la r r i ve t ted d agge r s , a nd t h e C 14 d a te s f r om b o th F o rmen te ra , a nd I b iza i np a r t icu la r , c onf i rm n o to n ly t h el a tene ss o fo u ri n su la rc on tex t sb u ta l so al o ng p e rdu ra t ion , s i nce b o th s hape sa nd e ven o cca s iona l ly d eco ra t ion p e r s is tu pt oa nd i n to t h eT a layo t ic p e r iod . ' : ( Topp t h i sv o lume ) . O n t h e c on t ra ry , t h e c on tempo ra ry f a c to r o f a l l t h e many B a lea r ic C ha lco l i th ic ( Beake r ) d a tes , b o th o f t h e E BP a nd LBP , ( Tab les 2 a nd 3 ) d emons t ra te a f orm idab le b as is f or c hronome tr ic a ssessmen t , r ef lec t ing a r e ma rkab le c on tempo rane i ty . T he c l os ea g reemen to ft h et wo Ma l lo r can s e r ie s -a pa r tf r om b e ing e xemp la ry -l e ave s l i t t le d oub t a s t o t h e c h rono log ica l d u ra t ion o f t h e Ma l lo rcan C oppe r a nd E a r ly B ronze Ages , a l ong w i th e s tab l i sh ing t h e c on tempo rane i ty o f t h e Ma tge R ock S he l te rC ha lco l i th ic l e ve l sw i th t ho se o ft h eF e r rande l l -O leza O ld S e t t lemen t ; a nd ,i n t u rn , s ugge s t ing t h e i rc on tempo ra ry r e la t ionsh ips a b road . A rc o f I mmed ia te I nf luence a nd C onc lus ions *******

I n e xam in ing t h e B a lear ic B eake r e v idence s o f a r , i tb ecomes a ppa ren t t ha t c ompar isons a nd p a ra l le ls c an b e made w i th t h eC on t inen ta lB eake re v idence f ound w i th in a c e r ta in a rc o f i mmed ia te i nf luence ( F igure 1) . T he se c ompa r isons

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W .H . Wa ld r en

a nd p a ra l le ls c an b e d emons t ra ted f r om w i th in aw ide ma in land g eog raph ic z one e x tend ing f r om t h er eg ions o fA lme r ia i nt h es ou th ,l e ad ing n o r thwe s twa rd a l ong t h e c oa s to fV a lenc ia i n to C a ta lui i ia a nd P y renee s a nd n o r thwa rd i n to t h e L anguedo c , P rovence a nd B ouchedu -Rhone o fS ou the rn F rance . T h is i st os ay , t h e se a r e t h e a r ea sa nd d i rec t ion sf r om w h ich w ec an t r ace v e ry s t rong a r ch i tec tu ra l , a r tef ac ta nd c h ronome t r ic p a rale l sb o th i nc ompa ra t ive a nd s t a t is t ica lt e rm sb e tween t h e se I b e r ian a nd F rench Ma in land a r ea s a nd t hose o f t h e B a lear ic I s land s . H oweve r , d esp i te t h e se o f ten r ema rkab le p a ra l le l s ,t h e r ea r e many p rob lem si nb o th t h ei n su la ra sw e l l a sc on t inen ta li n te rp re ta t ions c once rn ing ag ene ra l ly a ccep ted B eake rd ef in i t ion . A l though w e c an p e rhap s c l o se ly c ompa re t h e e v idence o n ad i s t r ibu t iona l b a s is f r om t h ese r eg ions - a s t h e se p re sen t s t ud ies s eek t od o , s t a t i s t ica l ly s peak ing h oweve r , t h e a pp roaches l e ave much t ob e d e s i red , a nd w e mus t ma in ta in s ome r e serva t ion i ni n te rp re t ing t h es t a t i s t ica le v idence a nd c ond i t ion sa st h ey a r ef ound i n many o ft h e se c on t inen ta la r ea s . F o re xamp le , s ome d i s tu rb ing s t a t i s t ica lo verv iew s d oe x i s t . One s uch e xamp le h a sb een s ummed u pi nt h ef o l low ing s t a temen tb yo ne I be r ian s pec ia l i s t ( Ha r r ison 1 975 ) . A cco rd ing t oR . H a r r i son , o u to f6 9r e co rded B eake r s i te s f r om C a ta lu i l ia a nd a no the r 1 6 f r om t h e L evan t , n o mo r e t h an 2 0 o f t h ese ( 85 t o ta l ) h ave p roduced mo re t h an a s ing le s he rd t o r epresen t B eake r c on tex t s ,a nd t h a tt h en umbe ro fw ha to ne c an c a l lr i ch s i te sw i th in t h a tt o ta ln umbe r o f8 5 B eake rs i te s ,o n ly , al i t t le mo re t h an ad ozen c an b ec oun ted . O u to ft h e se s t i l l l e ss a r e f i rm ly e s tab l i shed s e t t lemen t s i tes , w he re t h e e v idence g i ves u s a ny c l ea r i n s igh ta st ot h es oc ia la nd e conom ic c ond i t ions e x i s t ing i nt h em. N o ri si tn o ted b y H a r r ison j us t h ow many o ft h ese h ave p roduced w ha t a r e c a l led p an European B eake r p o t te ry t ype s . ; a n i s sue t h a t s e ems p rone t or a ise i t s h ead a s h av ing a n i n c rea s ing ly i mpo r tan tr o le i nt h ea s se s smen to fB eake rc on tex t sa nd i n te rp r e ta t ion . O ne i sa l so p rone t o a sk a tt h i s p o in t : s hou ld t h e a s ses smen t o f s uch ac u l tu ra l c omp lex r e s to nt h el i ke so f ar e s tr ic ted a nd s i ngu la rp o t te ry s he rd o rp o tp o tf o rm ? I nt h ef i na l a na ly s i s ,i si tn o tb e t te rt h a t ,p e rhap s ,w es hou ld l ook f o r ac omb ina t ion o ff a c to r so fw h ich d i s t r ibu t iona l s t a t is t ics a r eo n ly o ne c ons ide ra t ion , a l though a n i mpo r tan t o ne -f or t here i sn o s moke w i thou tf i re - a nd o ne i n wh ich n umbe r s hou ld p l ay s ome r o le i no u re va lua t ion o fw ha ti s aB eake rs i te , b u ta l so o no t he r f a c to r so ft r ad i t iona lB eake re l emen t s a nd c h ronome t r ic c ons ide ra t ion st h a ts hou ld e qua l ly p lay a n i mpo r t an tr o le i no u re va lua t ion o fw ha tw e u l t ima te ly d ef ine a sa B eake rl o cu s . I fa sa n e xamp le , w e a ccep t as t a t is t ica l c r i te r ia f o r t h er epr esen t ive d a ta f r om t h e k nown B a lea r ic B eake r s i tes , a nd c ompa re i t s q uan t i ta t ive e v idence w i th t h e E u ropean d a ta a si te x i s t s ,w ew i l lo b se rve t h a tt h eB a lea r ic B eake re v idence s imp ly o nt h eb a s i so fa r ea d i s t r ibu t ion ,q ua l i ty ,q uan t i ty a nd v a r ie ty -t a ke so n as omewha t d i f feren t p e r spec t ive ; i ndeed , e xemp l ify ing i t se lf b y a ny c on t inen ta l s t a t is t ica l s t anda rd s ; s t and ing s hou lde rt os hou lde rw i th t h e r i che r C ha lco l i th ic l o c i l i ke L o s M i l la re s ,C e r ro d el aV i rgen a nd e ven Z ambu ja l . T he c rux t h en o ft h e S FO -OS a rgumen t i sa so u t l ined a bove : C an w e e va lua te a c u l tu ra lc omp lex s uch a st h eB eake r ' so nt h eb a s i so ft h ep re sence o rl a ck o f as i ng le p o t tery f o rm , t h a t o ft h e b e l l s haped p o t? C an w e d o t h is b y d i s rega rd ing a l l t h e s uppor t ing e v idence o f ac h ronome t r ic ,a r ch i tec ton ic a nd a r tef ac ta s semb lage n a tu r e ( t he l a t te ri nt h ef o rm o f vp e r fo ra ted b one , s t one a nd i vo ry e l emen t s , c oppe ra w l s , p o in t s a nd b l ades , w r is tgua rds , t a bu la r f l in t b l ades , p o t te ry d eco ra t ion mo t if s a nd 2 34

O xf ord I n t erna t iona lW e s t e rn Med i t er ranean B e l lB eak er C onf erence

o f t h is p resence o ra bsence o f t h e b e l l s haped B eake r a nd n o t t h e w ide r a s semb lages o fd a t ing , a r ch i tec tu re a nd a r tefac t s . We a l lk now w ha ts u ch a na c t ion w ou ld e n ta i l : t h ee l im ina t ion o fa l l s i te st h roughou t We s te rn E u rope n o th av ing b e l l s haped p o t tery f o rms o r o the r l a ck ing e l emen t o f t h e B eake r p ackage ; a n r e a s se s smen to rr e -eva lua t ion b a sed o n av e ry n a r row a nd d i s tor ted c r i te r ia . Wha tt h en i st h ec r i ter ia , e mp i r ica lo ro t he rw i se , b y w h ich w ec an a s se ss aB eake r s i te ; e spec ia l ly o ne d ea l ing w i th t h ec omp lex i t ie so fs e t t lemen t a sw e l l a sf une ra ry p rac t ice s? B yl a rge ,t h eB a lea r ic B eake r ss um su pa nd e xemp l i f ie st h ee no rm i ty o ft h e p rob lem o fB eake rc u l tu ra l a f f in i t ies i no ve ra l l t e rm s , a sw e l l a se xemp l ify ing t h er ange o f e nqu i r ie sa nd r e sponse so f mo s ti n ve s t iga to r st ot h a tp rob lem . R ega rd le ss - i nt h e m ind o ft h e p re sen t a u tho r - s uch s i tes a st h e F e r rande l l -O leza C ha lco l i th ic O ld S e t t lemen ta nd Ma tge r o ck s he l te r mee te ve ry a spec ta nd r equ i s i te o f B eake rs e t t lemen t ; e xcep tf o r ar i ch i n ven to ry o fp an -Eu ropean b el s haped p o t s . H oweve r ,a sw i l lb e s ub sequen t ly p o in ted o u t , c a r ina ted f o rm sd oe x i s t( s ee F igu re f o l low ing p ape r ) s im i la rt ot ho se r e cogn i sed a nd i nven to r ied b yD av id C la rk 1 970 i n T he B e l l B eaker s o f G rea t B r i t ian a nd I re land wh ich w e c an c on s ide r a s s qua t b eaker s . C er ta in ly , t h is l a t te r s qua t b e l l s haped v e s se l i sp resen t i nt h e B a lea r ic g eome t r ica l ly d eco ra ted p o t te ry a s semb lage ( F igu re 9 )a nd c an b e s e en t o b ea rg rea ts im i la r i ty t oS ou the rn F r ench a nd C a ta lan t y pe sa sw e l la sf a r the ra f ie ld i n G erman ic t ypes ( F igu re 1 0 ) a nd e ven a s f a r e as t a s S ic i ly a s r epo r ted a nd d emon s t ra ted b yS .Tu sa ( t h i sv o lume ) . O u t s ide t h ec on s ide ra t ion o f as i ng le l a ck ing e l emen ti ni t sa r tefac ta s semb lage ,t h e c omb ined B eake r d a ta a nd o the r i n fo rma t ion - p rov ided b y t h e B a lea r ic p r ima ry , s e conda ry , a nd t e r t ia ry s i te sa sw e l l -a r eo fp a r t icu la rv a lue a si n te rp re ta t ive s ou r ce s o f at h eo re t ica l n a ture a s w e l l a sa n emp i r ica l o ne . T h i s i sn o to n ly i lu s t ra ted i n t e rm so ft h ee x ten to fB eake ri nf luence sa nd t h ew ea l th o fe v idence d i sp layed i nt h e B a lea r ics , b u t i n p a r t icu la r d e ta i ls r e la ted t o t h e p oss ib le e conom ic a nd s oc ia l c ond i t ions r ep resen ted a nd d eve loped b y i t s i nhab i tan t s o ve r a7 00 y ea r d u ra t ion t h roughou tt h eB a lea r ic C oppe ra nd I n i t ia lB ronze A ge so n Ma l lo r ca . P e rhaps t h e mo s tf o remo s ta nd i n te re s t ing t h eo re t ica la spec t s , s ugge s t ing e conom ic a nd s oc ia lc ond i t ions , a r et ho se t h a tr ep re sen t as oph is t ica ted a sw e l la ss ucce s sfu l s oc ie ty ; o ne c apab le o fh igh ly d eve loped t e chn ica l s k i l l s ; s uch a sw a te r , l a nd a nd a n ima l managemen t . A t t h e s ame t ime , a l so p resen t a r e t h e h eavy o ver tones o f s oc ia l d i f f e ren t ia t ion b e tween t h ei nhab i tan t so ft h e s e t t lemen ta nd t ho se o ft h er e s to ft h e a l luv ia lp la in ; s ay ing much f o r t he t ype o f s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion p resen t . I n d eed , s oc ia l d i f f e ren t ia t ion s eem s t ob ev e ry much i ne v idence f r om t h eF e r rande l l -O leza s i te 's w a l led c ompound , w he re in ad ec lara t ion o fp ropr ie tor ia l d oma ine a ppea r s t o eme rge ,e s t ab l ish ing i t se lf w i th in p rec ise g eog raph ic z one s . E v idence f o r e l i te s t a tus o ft h is g roup o f i nhab i tan t s i se qua l ly s ugge s ted b y t h e t e r ra to r ia ld e l inea t ion a sw e l la st h ee l abo ra te p o s se s s ion si nt h ef o rm o fr i ch a r tef ac t e v idence . F o r c e r ta in ly , t he p resence o f w ea l th a nd p res t ige c an b e s een

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c ompa ra t ive ly e xpressed i n t e rm s o f s ucces sfu l a n ima l h usband ry , a gr icu l tura l p rac t ices a nd p e rmanen t a r ch i tec tu ra l e ndeavou r , a s w e l l a s i n t h e a r tefac ts t h em se lves . F o r , a pa r tf r om t h ea r ch i tec tu ra la b i l i t ie s ,f i ne p o t te ry t e chn ique sa nd o the rp re s t ige i t em s , t h e re a ppea r s a l so t oh ave b een c on s ide rab le t e chno log ica l k now ledge i n t e rm so fh yd rau l ic e ng inee r ing a nd m e ta la nd f l in tw o rk ing . I n c onc lus ion , a l l o f t h ese a spec t s s t rong ly s uppo r t t h e c oncep t o f aw o r thwh i le B a lear ic B eake r mode l a nd w h i le t h ese f a c to r s a r e b a s ica l ly r ef lec ted i n o the r c on t inen ta l ma in land s e t t lemen ts , l i ke C e r ro d e V i rgen , L os M i l la re s a nd o the r s , c i rca 2 000 b c t oc i rca 1 300 b e , t h ey p a r t icu la r ly d i s t ingu ish t h em se lves a s e v idence o fB a lea r ic l a ison s a nd i n f luence s w i th m a in land s ou r ce s , g eog raph ica l ly l o ca ted w i th in t h e p roposed a rc o fi mmed ia te i nf luence .

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B ib l iography * ****** A lmag ro Go rbea , M . 1 978 . ' C14 y P reh is to r ia d e l aP en in su la I ber ica ' . U n iver s i tar ia ,F undac ion Ma rch , Mad r id .

S er ia

C lu t ton -Brock ,J .1 984 . C amps C an ta re l la s , C . 1 972 . ' Ce räm ica I nc i sa e n Ma l lo r ca ' . C a ja d e A horros y Mon te P iedad d el a sB a leare s , P a lma d e Ma l lo r ca . C a s t i l lo , Y ur r i ta , A . 1 928 . " La C u l tu ra d e V a so C ampan ifo rme ' . U n iver s idad d e B ar ce lona , B a r ce lona . C la rke , D .L . , 1 970 . B eaker P o t te ry o f G rea t B r i ta in a nd I r e land , C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re ss . C o lom ina s , R oca , J . 1 915 . ' Sob re L 'Edad d e B ronce a Ma l lo rca ' . A nuar i d e l ' In s t i tu td 'E s tud i sC a ta lans 5 ,B a r ce lona . D 'Anna , A . , a nd Gu the rz , X . , 1 985 . ' L e s E nce in te s P reh i s to r ique d u S udEs td el a F rance ' ,L e s Dos s ier s ,H i s to ire e tl ' Archeo log ie 9 9 ,p p . 8 12 . F e rnandez Gomez ,J . ,P lan ta lamo r Ma ssane t ,L .a nd T opp ,C . 1 974 . ' Excavac ione s e n e lS epu lco r Mega l i t ico d e C a N a C os ta . F o rmen te ra ' . E s tud io s d e P reh is tor ia B a lear 1 , P a lma d e Ma l lo rca . F e rnandez ,J . ,P lan ta lamo r Ma ssane t ,L .a nd T opp ,C . , 1 976 . E xcavac ione se ne l S epu lco r Mega l i t ico d eC aN aC o s ta ,S epa ra ta d e Mayudga , 1 5 . E s tud io sd eP r eh i s tor ia B a lear . M in i s te r io rd eE ducac iön yC ienc ia , P a lma d e Ma l lo rca ,p p . 1 09 -138 . F e rnandez Gomez , J .a nd T opp , C . 1 984 . ' P reh i s to r ic A c t iv i ty i n t h e P i t iu ssae I s land s ' . T he D eya C onf e rence o fP reh is to ry . .Ea r ly S e t t lemen ti n t h e We s ter n Med i te r ranean I s land sa nd t h e i rP e r iphe ra lA rea s ' ,W .H . Wa ld ren , R .W . C hapman , J .G . L ew thwa i te a nd R .C . K enna rd , B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epo r t s BAR I n terna t iona l S er ies 2 29 , O xfo rd . v o l . i , p p .763 -783 . F ernandez -M i randa , M . a nd Wa ld ren , W .H . , 1 974 . ' E l Abr igo d e S on Ma tge , ( Va l ldemosa ) yl a P e r iod izac iön d e l a P reh is to r ia Ma l lo rqu ina med ian te l a s A nä la s is d e C a rbon 1 4 ' . T raba jos d e P reh i s tor ia 3 1 . Mad r id , p p . 2 87 -304 .

2 37

W .H . Wa ld ren

F e rnandez -M i randa , M . a nd Wa ld ren , W .H . , 1 979 . ' P e r iod if icac i6n C u l tu ra l y C rono l6g ia A b so lu ta e n l aP r eh i s to r ia d e Ma l lo r ca ' . T raba jos d e P reh i s tor ia 3 6 . Mad r id ,p p . 3 49 -377 . G i lman ,A . , 1 981 ' T he D eve lopmen to fS o c ia lS t r a t if i ca t ion i nB ronze A ge E u rope ' , C ur r en tA n thropo logy 2 2 ,p p . 1 69 -224 . Gu i la ine , J . 1 967 . ' L a C iv i la t ion d u V a so C ampan ifo rme d ans l e P y rennee s F ranca i se ' . C en t r eN a t iona ld eR e sear che S c ien t if ique , C a r ca s sone . G u i la ine , J . 1 970 . ' L ' Age d u B ronze e n L anguedo c O cc iden ta le , P ous i l lon , A r iege ' . K l inck s ieck , P a r is . G u the rz , X . 1 978 . ' I nfo rma t ion s A r cheo log ique s ' G a l l ia P r eh i s to ire 2 1 , p p . 6 78 6 90 . G u the rz ,X . a nd H ugue s , C . . , 1 980 , ' L aC u l tu re d u V a se C ampan i fo rme d an sl e D epa r t emen td uG a rd E c re A n t ique d eN ime s , N ime s ,p p . 5 -26 . H a r r i son , R .J . 1 980 . ' The B eake r F o lk , C oppe r A ge A rchaeo logy i n We s te rn E u rope ' . T hame sa nd Hud son , L ondon . H a r r i son , R .J . 1 974 . ' O r ig in o ft h e B e l l B eake r C u l tu r e s ' . A n t iqu i ty , L ondon , p p . 9 9 -109 . P l an ta lmo r Ma s sane t ,L .a nd Wa ld ren ,W .H . 1 976 . ' Campana d eE xcava c ione se n e lA b r igo d e S on Ma tge .N .A .H .P r eh i s tor ia 5 , Mad r id ,p p . 2 43 2 52 . P lan ta lamo r Ma s sane t , L . 1 981 ' A lguna s C on s ide rac ione s S ob re l o s S epu lc ro s Mega l i t ico s d e Meno r ca ' . S epa ra ta d e S au tuo la I , T raba jos d e l Mu seo d e Menor ca . Mahon d e Meno r ca . R o sse l lo B o rdoy , G . 1 958 . ' Ce räm ica I n c isa e n Ma l lo r ca ' . S tud i S ard i , XV a nd XV I , C ag l ia r i . R o s se l lo B o rdoy , G . , K oppe r , J . S . a nd Wa ld ren , W .H . 1 967 . C omp le jo N o rde d e S on F igue ra l d e S on R ea l , S an ta Ma rga r i ta , Ma l lo rca . XC ongre so I n t ernac iona le d eA rqueo log ia , Mahon yS a rago sa ,p p . 8 3 -85 . R o sse l lo B o rdoy , G . a nd Wa ld ren , W .H . 1 973 . ' Excavac ione s e n e lA b r igo d e B o sque d e S on Ma tge , V a l ldemo sa ' . N .A .H . P reh i s tor ia 1 , p .1 8 6 . R os se l lo B o rdoy , L . , P lan ta lamo r Ma ssane t , L . a nd P ons L opez , A . 1 980 . ' Excavac ione s A rqueo lög ico s e n T or re d en G aumes , A layo r , Meno rca . L a S epu l tu ra Mega l i t ica d e S e s R ogue s L l i se s ' , N .A . H . P reh i s tor ia 8 , Mad r id ,p p . 7 1 -138 .

2 38

O xf ord I n te rna t iona lW e s t e rn Med i t er ranean B e l lB eak er C onf erence

S chu le , W . , 1 981 . ' E l C er ro d e l a V i rgen , O rce ( G ranada ) , E xcavac iones A rqueo log ica se nE spa i ia 4 6 , Mad r id

Wa ld ren , W .H . 1 967 . ' I nfo rme P re l im ina r S ob re A na l is is d e R ad ioca rbono e n Ma l lo rca ' . X C ongreso Nac iona l d e A rqueo log ia . Mahon y Z aragossa ,p p . 7 5 -82 . Wa ld ren ,W .H . 1 968 . ' Ma l lo r can C h rono logy f o rP reh i s to ry B a sed o nR ad ioca rbon Me thod ' .P yrenae 3 ,B a rce lona ,p p . 4 5 -65 . Wa ld ren ,W .H . 1 969 . ' Beake r Wa re f r om t h eI s land o f Ma l lo r ca ' . DAMARC S er ies N o . 6 ,D eya d e Ma l lo r ca ,B a lea re s . Wa ld ren , W .H . 1 972 . ' Age D e te rm ina t ion b y R ad ioca rbon Me thod ' . S oc iedad d e H i s tor ia N a tura ld el a sB a leare s ,P a lma d e Ma l lo r ca ,p p . 3 4 -50 . Wa ld ren , W .H . 1 973 . ' Excava t ions o f t he R ock S he l ter o f S on Ma tge , V aldemo sa ' .P reh i s tor ia I , Mad r id . Wa ld ren ,W .H . 1 979 . ' AB eake r Wo rk shop A rea i nt h eR ock S he l te ro fS on Ma tge , V a l ldemosa , Ma l lo rca ' Wor ld A rchaeo logy , R ou t ledge a nd K egan P au l , L ondon , V o l 1 , N o . 1 ,p p . 4 3 -67 . Wa ld ren , W .H . 1 980 . ' Rad ioca rbon D e term ina t ion i n t h e B a lea r ic I s land s ; An I nven to ry ' , Dona ld B aden P owe l l Q ua ternary R esearch C en t re , O xf ord U n iver s i ty , O xfo rd . Wa ld ren , W .H . 1 980 . ' The S e t t lemen t C omp lex o f F e r rande l l -O leza , A B eake r S e t t lemen t f r om t h e B a lea r ic I s land o f Ma l lo rca ' , Dona ld B aden P owe l lQ ua ternar yR e search C en t re , O xf ord U n iver s i ty , O xf ord a nd DA MARC S er ie s8 ,D eya d e Ma l lo rca ,B a lea re s , S pa in . Wa ld ren , W .H . 1 981 . ' P re l im ina ry R epo r t o n t h e S e t t lemen t C omp lex o f F e r rande l l -O leza ,V a l ldemo sa , Ma l lo rca . ( i np repa ra t ion ) DAMARC S er ie s1 0 , D eya d e Ma l lo rca ,B a lea re s . Wa ld ren ,W .H . 1 982 . A spec t so fB a lea r ic P reh is to r ic E co logy a nd C u l tu r e . O x f ord Doc tora lT he s i s , U n ive r s i ty o fO x fo rd ,O x fo rd . Wa ld ren , W .H . 1 982 . ' Ba lea r ic P reh i s to r ic E co logy a nd C u l tu re : T he E xcava t ion a nd S tudy o fC e r ta in C ave s , R ock S he l te r sa nd S e t t lemen t s ' ,B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica l R epo r t sB AR I n terna t iona lS er ie s 1 49 ( i )A ppend ix 3 A , p p . 6 75 -711 . O xfo rd . Wa ld ren , W .H . 1 983 . ' Ea r ly P reh is tor ic S e t t lemen t i n t he B a lear ic I s land s ' . DA MARC S er ies 1 3 , D eya A rchaeo log ica l Museum a nd R esea rch C en t r e ,D eya Ma l lo r ca .

2 39

W .H . Wa ld ren

Wa ld ren , W .H . 1 984 . 'C ha lco l i th ic S e t t lemen t a nd B eake r C onnec t ion s i n t h e B a lea r ic I s land s ' . T he D eya C onf erence o f P reh is tory . .Ea r ly S e t t lemen ti nt h e We s te rn Med i te r ranean I s land sa nd t h e i rP e r iphe ra l A rea s . W .H . Wa ld ren , R .W . C hapman , J .G . L ew thwa i te a nd R .C . K enna rd ( e d s ) , B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epo r t s , BAR I n terna t iona l S er ies 2 29, O xfo rd . v o l . i i ,p p .911 -965 . Wa ld ren , W .H . , C one sa C o l l , J .a nd E .A .0 S ander s 1 984 . ' The L i th ic I ndu s t ry o f t h eB a lea r ic I s land s . . . . i t sO lez ian T rad i t ion o fT abu la rF l in tB lade s ' . T he D eya C onf e rence o f P reh is to ry . .Ea r ly S e t t lemen t i n t he We s tern Med i te r ranean I s land s a nd t h e ir P er iphe ra l A rea s . W .H . Wa ld ren , R .W . C hapman , J .G . L ew thwa i te a nd R .C . K enna rd ( ed s ) , B r i t i sh A r chaeo log ica lR epor t s ,B AR I n t erna t iona lS er ie s2 29 ,O xfo rd . v o l . i , p p .859 -909 . Wa ld ren , W .H . 1 985 . ' Ba lea r ic P en tapa r t i te D iv is ion o fP reh i s to ry . . R ad ioca rbon a nd O the r A ge D e term ina t ion I nven to r ie s , ' B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica l R epo r t s , BAR I n terna t iona lS er ies 2 82 , O xfo rd .

2 40

L i s t o f I l lus tra t ions *********

F igure 1 . Map : : E u ropean B eake r C on tex t s s how ing t h e a rc o f i mmed ia te i nf luence a nd B eake rd i s t r ibu t ion i nr e la t ion sh ip t ot h eB a lea r ic I s land s . F igure 2 . Map : T he I s land o f Ma l lo r ca s how ing t h e p r ima ry r e sea rch s i te s ( c i rc led ) , s i te s w i th a nd w i thou t r ad ioca rbon d a t ing a nd r e la t ion sh ip t o mode rn t own s . F igure 3 . Map : T he g ene ra l g eog raph ic l o ca t ion a nd t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fa d ja cen t k nown s i t e s .T he P la d e lR ey a nd t h eF e r randel -O leza O ld S e t t lemen ts i t ei sc i r c led . F igure 4 . Map : P r ima ry R e sea r ch S i tes ; t h eP la d e lR ey a nd F e r rande l l -O leza O ld S e t t lem en t( SFO -OS ) s i t ei nr e la t ion sh ip t ot h e Ma tge R o ck S he l te r( ABS M ) ,t h e Mue r to sG a l la rd R ock S he l te r( A MG ) a nd C ave o fS on Ma r ro ig ( S MRG ) , a l l s i te s w h ich h ave p rov ided r a d io ca rbon d a t e so nB a lea r ic B eake rm a te r ia l s( s ee T ab le s 2t o 4 ) . F igure 5 . Map : Ar e con s t ruc t ion o f t h e F e r rande l l - O leza C ha lco l i th ic O ld S e t t lemen tb a sed o nt h er ema in ing a r ch i tec tu ra lw a l lf ounda t ion sa nd o t he rs t ruc tu ra l e l emen t s . T he a s sump t ion o fa g r icu l tu ra l a c t iv i t ies i nt h ef o rm o fg r a in g row ing i s t e s t if ied t ot h e i nven to ry o fo ve r7 00 q ua l i ty f l in t s i ck le s a nd b l ade s f ound i nt h e a d jacen tf i e ld a r ea ss hown ,a sw e l la st h es i ck le g l o s sp o l i sh f ound o na l lt h es i ck le s a nd b l ade s . F igure 6 .P lan : G ene ra l p lan o f t h e F e r rande l l -O leza O ld S e t t lemen t w a l l f ounda t ion s a nd o the r a r ch i tec tu ra l s t ruc tu ra l e l emen t s , e xcava ted z one s a nd s how ing t h ea r ea sd a ted b yr ad io ca rbon m e thod i nt h eo rde ro fa ge ( s ee T ab le s 2a nd 3 ) . F igure 7 .P lan :G ene ra lp l an o fC en t ra l S tone S t ruc tu re C omp lex : as e c t ion o ft h e S ou th C ompound Wa l l ( SW ) c on ta in ing t h e C en t ra l T owe r S t ruc tu re ( C2 ) , Ma in E n t rance , A b s ida l H ab i ta t ion ( H4 ) , t h e C en t ra l S tone S t ruc tu re ( CSS) w i th t h e E leva ted Wa te rC hanne l (WC ) a nd Wa te rC a tch B a s in a nd R un -O f fG u l ly a nd t h e Anc ien t T e r race ( AT 1 -3 ) . T he p l an a l so s hows t h e r e la ted r ad ioca rbon s amp le l o ca le s . F igure 8 .P lan : G ene ra lp l an o ft h e w e s te rn s e c t ion o ft h e S ou th C ompound Wa l l w i th t h eT owe rE n t rance C omp lex ; G ua rd ' sR ece s sa r ea a nd A nc ie rn tT e r r ace w i th r e la ted r a d ioca rbon s amp le l o ca le s . F igure 9 .S ec t ion : A We s t E a s t s e c t ion o f t h e Ma tge R o ck S he l te r f ou r m e te r d eep E a s tE nc lo su re s t ra t ig r aphy . F igure 1 0 .S ec t ion : Ma tge R ock S he l te r a nd r e la ted f e a tu r e s e x tend ing w e s t t o e a s t .

2 41

L i s t o f P la te s * ******

P la te 1 : 1 . Av i ew o f af o r ty m e te re x ten s ion o ft h et wo m e te rw ide f ounda t ion so f t h eS ou th C ompound Wa l l , s how ing t h e Ma in E n t r ance i n to t h eC 2T owe rS t ruc tu r e a nd t h eG ua rd 's R ece s s . A l so s e en i nt h ef o reg round i st h e AT1 -2 ,A nc ien tT e r race . R ad ioca rbon a na ly s i s o fa n ima l b one t a ken f r om t h e f i l lo ft h i s AT 1 -2 a r ea g ave a d a te o f1 540 ±8 0b cT h i si sa na lmo s ti d en t ica ld a te g i ven f o rs im i la rt e s tm a t e r ia l s ( d a ted a s 1 540± 3 0 b c ) f r om t h e c ons t ruc t ion f i l l i nt h e f ounda t ion s o ft h e s em i c i rcu la r w a l l o f ah u t ( HT1 ) , b u i l t i nl e an to f a sh ion a nd s e en t ot h e r e a r o ft h e G ua rd 's R ece ss . T he p ho to s hows t h e e xce l len t p reserva t ion o f t h e S ou th C ompound Wa l l 's f ounda t ion s . P la te 1 : 2 . T h i s p ho to s how s at h ir ty m e te rn o r th t os ou th s e c t ion o ft h e e l eva ted Wa te rC hanne lw i th i t sa l igned s t one s l ab s . T he S ou th C ompound Wal f ounda t ion s a nd Ma in E n t rance c an b es e en i nt h ef a rb a ckg round . P la te 1 : 3 . T he t wo m e te rw ide f ounda t ion so ft h eH 4 A b s ida l H ab i ta t ion w i th i t s r e c tangu la rc hambe ra r ec l ea r ly s e en i nt h i sp ho to . T he e l eva ted Wa te rC hanne la nd C en t ra l S tone S t ruc tu re c an j u s t b e s e en i n t h e u ppe r r i gh t h and c o rne r o f t h e p ho tog r aph . P la te 2 :1 . A no the rv i ew o ft h e t h ir ty me te rn o r th t os ou th s e c t ion o ft h ee l eva ted Wa te rC hanne l , s how ing w ha t may h ave b een al a te rr enova t ion i nt h e f o rma o fa s e cond w a te rc ou r se . T he C en t ra l S tone S t ruc tu re a nd t h e C 2T owe rS t r uc tu re a nd Ma in E n t rance c an b es e en i nt h eu ppe rl e f th and m idd le o ft h ep ho tog r aph . P la te 2 :2 . Av i ew o ft h e s ou th e nd o ft h e Wa te r C hanne l w i th t h e Wa te r C a tch B a s in .T he f l oo ro ft h eC en t ra l S t one S t ruc tu r ei ss e en t ot h el e f to ft h eC a t ch B a s in . T he Ma in E n t rance a nd C 2T owe rS t ruct u re a nd HT 1 f o unda t ion sa r ea l so v i s ib le i n t h eb ackg round . P la te 2 :3 . A G ene ra l e l eva ted v i ew t o t h e n o r th s how ing t h e c en t ra l f n a jo r s t ruc tu r es w i th in t h e Wa l led C ompound . T he Wa te rC a t ch B a s in a nd s ou the rn e nd o ft h e Wa te rC hanne lc an b ec l ea r ly s e en i nt h ep ho tog r aph ,a l ong w i th t h eC en t r a l S tone S t ruc tu re a nd t h eH 4A b s ida lH ab i ta t ion w h ich a r ev i s ib le i nt h ec en t r ea nd t o t h er i gh t , a l ong w i th t h e f o recou r t t ot h e H 4 A b s ida l H ab i ta t ion i nt h e l owe rr i gh t h and c or ne r . P la te 3 :1 . We s t a spec t o f t h e Ma in E n t rance a nd t h e C 2 T owe r S t ruc tu re f ounda t ion s , i n co rpo ra ted i nt h e S ou th C ompound Wa l l , w i th t h e s t one p av ing o f t h e e n t rance a nd t h e G ua rd 's R ece s s a r ea . T he Ma in E n t rance w a s at u nne l l ike p a ssage t h rough t h e C 2TS l e ad ing i n to t h e f o recour t i nf r on t o f t h e H 4 A b s ida l H ab i ta t ion .

2 42

O x f o rd I n t e rna t iona lW e s t e rn Med i te r ranean B e l lB eak e rC on f e r ence

P la te 3 :2 . V iew l o ok ing e a s ti n to t h eG ua rd 's R ece s s a r ea a nd t h e Ma in E n t rance s how ing t h e s t one p av ing . A n ima l b one r ema ins f r om b e tween t h e p av ing s t one s s howed s i gn s o fg naw ing b y ad og . P la te 4 :1 . Av i ew t o t h e s ou th w i th t h e H4 A b s ida l H ab i ta t ion a nd i t s l o ng r e c tangu la rr oom ,l e ad ing o u tt h rough t h e Ma in E n t rance o ft h eC 2T owe rS t ruc tu re a nd E a s tC ompound Wa l li nt h em idd le b ackg round .T ot h er i gh ti nt h ep ho tog raph a r et h eC en t ra lS t one S t ruc tu r e( CSS )a nd t h ee l eva ted Wa te rC hanne l . P la te 4 :2 . Av i ew t o t h e n o r thwe s t a c ro s s t h e s e t t lemen t 's i nne r a r ch i tec tu ra l s t ruc tu re sw i th t h ef o r cou r to ft h eH 4A b s ida lH ab i ta t ion a nd t h ed wel ing i t se lf w i th t h e C en t ra l S tone S t ruc tu re a nd e l eva ted Wa te r C hanne l i n t h e m idd le o f t h e p ho tog raph . A n e xcava ted s e c t ion o f We s tC ompound Wa l lc an b e s e en i nt h el e f t r e a ro ft h ev i ew . P la te 5 :1 . Af i f teen m e te r s e c t ion o ft h e i n s ide f a ce a tt h e n or th e nd o ft h e E a s t C ompound Wa l l , l o ok ing e a s t a c ro s s t h e a l luv ia l p la in . H e re t h e f ounda t ion s a r e w e l lp re se rved t ot h eh e igh to fa bou to ne m e te rw i th t wo s u rv iv ing c ou r se so fl a rge w a l ls t one s ,g i v ing ag ood i d ea o ft h e i rc on s t ruc t ion a nd t h e i ro r ig ina lh e igh to ft h ree m e te r so r mo r e . P la te 5 :2 . A n e xcava ted f i ve m e te r s e c t ion o ft h e o u t s ide f a ce a tt h e n o r thwes t c o rne r o f t h e N o r th C ompound Wa l l a l so s how ing t h e g ood p re serva t ion t oo ne m e te r h e igh t o fa tl e a s t t wo c ou r se s o ft h e f ounda t ion s t one s . Ar ad ioca rbon d a te a s soc ia ted w i th c ha r coa l a nd 1 2p i ece so fB eake rw a re f ound n ea rt h eN o r th Wa l l a nd N o r th E n t rance h ave g i ven u s ar e ad ing o f1 840 ±9 0b e( QL -1636 ) . P la te 6 :1 . A e r ia l v i ew o ft h ec en t ra l s e c t ion o ft h e S ou th C ompound Wa l l , Ma in E n t r ance , C 2T owe rS t ruc tu re a nd f ounda t ion so ft wo h u t sa nd f o r ecou r to ft h e H4 A b s ida lH ab i ta t ion . P la te 6 :2 . Av i ew a l ong t h e i n s ide f a ce o ft h e t wo m e te rw ide f ounda t ion s o ft h e E a s t Wa l l , l ook ing n o r th t ot h e f ounda t ion s o ft h e N o r th C ompound Wa l l i nt h e b a ckg round . M id d i s tance a l ong t h ei n s ide f a ce o ft h i sw a l l ,c ha r coa lc o l lec ted w i th 1 8p i ece so fB eak e rd eco ra ted p o t te ry g ave ad a te o f2 000 ±6 5b e( BM -1843 ) . P la te 6 :3 . A n a e r ia l v i ew f r om t h e e s ca rpmen t a bove t h e F e r rande l l -O leza O ld S e t t lemen t s e en t ot h e e a s twa rd a c ro s s t h e a l luv ia l P la d e l R e i p l a in . Mo s t o ft h e 3 606 m2 i n te r io ro ft h ew a l led c ompound c an b es e en f r om t h i sv an t age p o in t . P la te 7 .A na e r ia lv i ew o f af ou rm e te rs e c t ion o ft h ee l eva ted Wa t e rC hanne l .T h i s s e c t ion w a sr e cen t ly r emoved i no rde rt od a te i t sc on s t ruc t ion a nd p r econ s t ruc t ion l e ve l s b y d a t ing o rgan ic m a te r ia ls f r om w i th in i t s f i l l a nd u nde r t h e f ounda t ion s . Two o t he rd a te sa va i lab le f r om af i na lo ccupa t iona l a nd a bandonmen tp ha se n ea rby h ave g i ven u sd a te so f 1 260± 8 0b e ( BM -2312 ) a nd 1 330± 1 20 b e ( QL -1896 ) .T he s u rvey g r id i sn i ne s qua re m e te r a nd w a s u sed t op l an t h e s t one s r emoved i nt h e s ur vey f o rl a te rr e con s t ruc t ion .T he s t one s l ab a l igned w a te rc hanne li sa l so c l ea r ly d ef ined .

2 43

W. H . Wa ld ren

P la te 8 :1 . T he e a s t , o u t s ide b a se o f t h e e l eva ted w a te r c hanne l i ss e en i n t h i s p ho tog raph . As ma l l s e c t ion o ft h ef ounda t ion so ft h e We s tC ompound Wa l lc an b e s e en i nt h er e a ro ft h e s c ene . P la te 8 :2 A v i ew o ft h eo u t s ide w e s tf a ce o f at h r ee m e te re x ten s ion o ft h ec en t ra l s e c t ion o ft h ee l eva t ed Wa te rC hanne l .T he w a te rc hanne li t se l fc an b es e en w i th i t s l a rge s t one s l ab s . I tw a s t h i s s e c t ion t h a t w a s r emoved t empo rar i ly t oc o l lec ted d a t ing m a t e r ia l .

2 44

O I W ME IBC

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2 45

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2 46

BALEARIC B ELL B EAKER S ITES

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Ms . C e l ia T opp A r chaeo log ica l Mu seum o fI b iza , I b iza , B a leares , S pa in . Abs trac t * **** The ma in p urpose o f t h i s p ape r i st od eny t h e e x i s tence o f as uppo sed B eake r c u l tu re a nd i t s w a re si nt h e B a lea r ic A r ch ipe lago , e spec ia l ly i nt h ec a se o fi t s s ub g roup o f t h e P i t ius sae : I b iza a nd F ormen te ra -a s a l so , u p t ot h e p re sen t , i n t h e I s land o f Meno rca . T he re e x i s t s n op o s i t ive p roof f o re i the ra ni n t ru s ive B eaker F o lk o rf o r aB eaker Cu l ture i n t he se i s land s . S ince t h e ma jor i ty o f t h e c e ram ic s hapes a r e e i the r c ar ina ted o r h em ispher ica l b ow ls , t h e t e rm B ow l Cu l ture a ppea r s f a r mo re a ppropr ia te ; t h i s i si n a g reemen t w i th s uch a u tho r i t ies a s C an ta re l la s C amp s , H a r r ison e ta l . T he h i s to ry o f t h e se e a r ly d eco ra ted w a res i sb r ief ly g iven , b eg inn ing w i th t h e c on t rove r s ia l s he rd f r om F e lan i tx i n Ma l lo rca , a nd men t ion made o f t h e mo s t i mpor tan t s i tes e xcava ted d u r ing t h e l a s t t h i r ty y ea r s . T he i n c ised -befo re -f i r ing p o t te ry c once rned w a s d iv ided i n to t wo c l a sses , Aa nd B , b y R os se l lo -Bo rdoy i n 1 960 a nd a dm i rab ly c ola ted a nd d i scu s sed b yC an ta r e l la sC amp si n1 972 ; t h ep la in w a r e sa ccompany ing i ta r ea l so m en t ioned h e re a sw el a sb eake r si ng ene ra l . I n a g reemen t w i th H a r r ison a nd many o t he r a u tho r i t ies , t h e w r i te r b e l ieves i n a g radua l d eve lopmen t o f t h e l o ca ll uxury w a res u nde r p os s ib le s l igh t e x ter io r i n f luence s ,e spec ialy i nt h ec a se o f Ma l lo rca . T he f a c tt h a t Meno r ca c er ta in ly k new a nd p rac t ised m e ta l lu rgy i ns i tu i ns o -ca l led P re ta layo t ic t ime s -i . e .d u r ing t h ef i r s t h a lf o ft h eS econd m i l lenn ium b . c . -w i thou ta ny t r ace o fs uppo sed B eake r Wa re ,a s i sa l so t h e c a se i ns ome e ven e a r l ie rI be r ian P en in su la ra nd S ou thern F rench s i te s , r e info r ce st h ea r gumen ta ga in s tm e ta l lu rgy a nd B eake r sb e ing n ece s sa r i ly l i nked . T he m an if es tc on t inu i ty o fn ume rous s i te s i nt h e I be r ian P en in su la , t h e M id i a nd t h e I s lands -a sa l so l o ca l v a r ia t ions o n ab a s ic d eco ra t ive t h eme -a r e s ub sequen t ly d i scussed . T he s im i la r i t ie s b e tween t h e i n c i sed C la ss A a nd t h ea l leged b eake rw a re s a r en ex t i lus t ra ted a nd s ugge s t ions p u tf o r th a st ot h ep o ss ib le r eg ion sa nd i n f luence sw h ich p roduced t h e p seudo -Beake r s o f Ma l lo rca . Al a te d a te i sa rgued f o r t h e e x is t ing l o ca l i t ems o ft he B eaker P ackage a nd t h ep ape re nd s w i th a n u rgen tp l ea f o rt h e

2 67

C .T opp

r e ten t ion o f t h e c u r ren t ly a ccep ted n omenc la tur e o f i nc i sed w ar es f o r t h e e a r ly d eco ra ted c e ram ic so ft h eB a lea r ic A r ch ipe lago .

2 68

" Bronze Aw l s Do N o t aC u l ture Make Nor I nc i sed S herd s aB eaker" * ******** I ti sw i th a po log ie st oL ove lace t h a tt h i sp ape rb eg in sa nd i tw i l lu ndoub ted ly e nd i n ah ea ted d i scu s s ion w i th my o ld f r iend , D r . Wa ld ren ! I tr ef lec t s t h e v i ews o ft h e v a s t ma jo r i ty o f S pan i sh a r chaeo log i s t s w o rk ing i nt h e B a lea r ics a nd , Ih ave a s h rewd s u sp ic ion , a l so t h a to fm any B r i t i sh c o l league s a tp re sen te xcava t ing t h e re . Al a te r a nd l o nge r p ape r o n t h e s ame s ub jec t , w i th f u r the r a na log ie s a nd amo re e x tens ive b ib l iog raphy , s hou ld a ppea r s ome t ime i n af o r thcom ing B u l le t in o f L ondon U n ive r s i ty ' sI n s t i tu te o fA r chaeo logy . A t t h e D eyä I n te rna t iona l C onf e rence i nS ep tembe r , 1 983 , D r . Wa ld r en e nqu i red w he the r , s i nce Ir e jec ted t h ee x i s t ence o f aB eak er F o lk ,w ou ld In o ta tl e a s ta dm i t t h a t o f aB eake rC u l ture? It h ink t h a t n owaday s mo s t o fu s , g ran t ing o fc ou r se s ome em inen te xcep t ion s , h ave r e lega ted t h e f o rme r , i nc ompany w i th m ega l i th ic m i s s iona r ie s ,o r ien ta lm e ta lp ro spec to r s ,e a s ter nc o lon i s t s , t h eC h i ld ren o ft h e S un a nd v a r iou so t he r my th ica lf a vou r i te so ft h ed ay so ft h eA r chaeo logy o fI nnocence , e i the rt oP ro f e s so rD an ie l 's c ha rne l -hou se o rt os ome l imbo o fo u te rs pace . A sf a r a st h el a t te rq ue s t ion i sc oncer n ed my a n swe ri s ar o tund NO a nd , t h ough n a tu ra l ly m any w il d i sag r ee w i th t h ev i ew se xp r e s sed h e r e ,t h i sp ape rw i l la tl e a s te ndeavou r t oc a s ts ome d oub t s -a l ready s ha red b y many -o nt h ee x i s tence o fs u ch ac u l tu re ( i f c u l tu r e sw es t il mu s th ave ) . R ecen t ly A nd r ew L aw son , i nc on junc t ion w i th m any o t he ra r chaeo log i s t s , h a sp u t f o rwa rd t h es ugge s t ion t h a ti d ea so nt h eB eake rp henomenon /p rob lem r equ i r e s ome r e v i s ion -h i sa c tua lw o rd sa r e : " A l though i d ea s o n t h e B eake r p henomenon a r e i n' as t a te o f f l ux a nd n ew ly d i scove red ma te r ia li sb e ing a s se s sed , ab a ck c lo th a ga in s tw h ich t h en ew i d ea sc an b ev i ewed i sn ece s sa ry " . As ma l l a r ea s uch a s t h e B a lea r ic A r ch ipe lago , w he re n ew f i nd s a r e c ons tan t ly a ppea r ing ,c an w e l lp rov id es u ch ab ack c lo th -a l be i ta dm i t ted ly av e ry l im i ted o ne . R o s se l lö -Bo rdoy w ro te i n 1 960 t h a t t h e i n c ised w a res o f Ma jo rca h ave a lways p rovoked a r gumen t sf r om e ve ry c once ivab le a ng le . S ad ly ,t wen ty -f ive y ea r sl a te r , h i sw o rd sr i ng mo r et r ue t h an e ve ra nd t h et im eh a sc ome t ot r yt os epa r a te t h ew a r e s a nd t h e w ay s -i td oe s i ndeed s e em t h a tw e a r ep i l ing P e l ion u pon O s sa w hen w e h ave r e ached t h e s o r ry s t age w hen i n c i sed w a re sf r om S on F e r rande l l -O leza c an b e d esc r ibed b y L ew thwa i te a s ,C dram ique i nc i sde d p icampan if orme . S ince t h is c onf e rence c once rn s B eake r s i td oes n o t s e em i r re levan t h e re t o a sk o u r se lve se xa c t ly w ha tt h a tt e rm m ean s . L ong a go G o rdon C h i lde ' sw ro te :

2 69

C .T opp

" of t h e i n ev i tab le d r ink ing c up . . .no rma l ly m ixed , s ave p e rhaps i nc en t ra l S pa in , w i th r ema in so fo the rd i s t inc t ive g roups " . H e a l so p e r sp icac ious ly n o ted t h e c on t inuous p re sence o fp la in w a res f ound i n c on junc t ion w i th d eco ra ted o ne s a nd w h ich h ad a l l too -of ten b een d i sca rded o r i g no red d ur ing e a r l ie r e xcava t ions . P e rhaps w e e a ch i nd iv idua l ly h ave o u r own p er sona l -e ven i fn eve r a dm i t ted a l oud ! -c oncep t ion o f s uch a n i d ea l v es se l . P rof es so rD an ie lq ua l if ied t h eR i l la ton G o ld C up a s ab eake r ; s i nce h and led b eake r s e x is ted t h en . I fs hape b e t h e e s sen t ia lc r i te r ion , h e i se n t i re ly c o r r ec t . I ff ab r ic b e t h e b a s ic d e term inan t -mo s to ft h ep o t sw ea ccep ta sB eake r sa r eo fc l ay -t h en w e c anno ta dm i tt h eR i l la ton c up a s am embe ro ft h eb eake rf am i ly . N o rc an w ed os oi f d eco ra t ion i st ob ec on s ide red a st h ev i ta l f a c to r : b eake r s , w he the ro ft h e b eau t ifu l Ma r i t ime t ype o ro ft h e m any o the rl e ss a t t rac t ive v a r ian t s , h ave r egu la r ly s pa ced p a ra l le l z ones o fd eco ra t ion , e xecu ted b y d i f f e ren t m eans , a l te rna t ing w i th p la in s paces . A nd w ha t s hou ld w ed o w i th t h ep l a in u ndeco ra ted b eaker s f r om K now th a nd P er ia Gue r ra I ,t om en t ion j u s tt wo o ft h e s pec ie s? N e i the ra r eg r i t sn o rc o lou ra d i s t ingu i sh ing t r a i ts i nce i n c lus ion s a nd f i r ing d i f f e r . I ti sa lway s amy s te ry t ot h i s w r i te r h ow m ise rab le m inu te f r agmen t s f r om n ume rous e xcava t ions h ave b een d i agno sed a sb eake r sa nd c l a s s if ied a ss uch . B u ta l t h i sd oe sn o tc ons t i tu te t h e ma in p rob lem o ft h is p ape ra ny mo re t h an d oe s t h e o the rp e renn ia lo ne o ft h e ir p lace o f o r ig in . T he l a te a nd l amen ted D av id C la rke , maybe i n aw ea ry a nd c yn ica l mood , o b served : " Peop le a nd p o t sh ave b een o b scu re ly f u sed -t h eB eake rp henomenon i s ad i f f e ren t p henomenon i n d i f f e ren t a r ea s . I ti si n s hor t am a t te r o f t h eory . .p e rhap s a p rob lem n o t wo r th t h ee f for to fs o lu t ion " . T he f i r s tp a r to fh i s s t a temen ti si na g reemen tw i th t h ev i ews o fH a r r i son ,B u rge s s , R oge rM ike ta nd p robab ly t h o se o f many o the ra u tho r s . F i r s ta nd f o remo s ti ts hou ld b er e al ized t h a tn os uch v e s se la sa ni d ea lb eake rp er s e h a se ve rb een f ound i nt h eB a lear ics . D r . Wa ld ren 's i lu s t ra t ion i nt h en o t ice so ft h i s c onf e rence wou ld mo re s u i tab ly b e d escr ibed a s ad ecora ted in -Beaker -s ty le c ar ina ted b ow l -o f t he s hape k nown a s ac azue la b i troncön ica i n S pan ish t e rm ino logy . I twou ld s e em f a r mo re a pp rop ia te t os peak o fs ome d eco ra ted s he rd s a so fB eaker s t y le -at e rm f avou red b y Mo reno L opez a nd v a r iou s o the ra u tho r s . I n a ny c ase , e spec ia l ly i n t h e i s lands i n q ues t ion , i t wou ld b e mo re s u i tab le t o d escr ibe o ur d eco ra ted s he rd s a s b e long ing t o t h eb ow l c u l tu re s i nce t h a t i st h e p redom inan t f o rm o f c e ram ics h e re . A s w e l l a s s ome f l owe r p o t a nd c a r ina ted s hape s w e h ave a p le tho ra o f b o th p l a in a nd i n c ised b ow ls w ho se s hape a nd d eco ra t ion a r eo ft ime i mmemo r ia la nd u n ive r sa ld i s t r ibu t ion . As he rd i lu s t ra ted i n t h el a tes tn umbe ro ft h eP .P .S . ( 1983 ) i nt h ep ape re n t i t led Bouqras R ev i s i ta ted h as t h e i d en t ica l p a t tern o fi nc i sed t r iang le s i n f i l led w i th d o t s a s h ave s o many C ha ss6en a sw e l l a sB a lea r ic w a r e s -t h ough i nt h el a t te rt h et r iang le sa r e mo r eo f ten i nf i l led w i th r e t icu la ted l i nes -a nd t h e B ouqra s s he rd t a ke s u s b ack t ot h e s even th m i l lenn ium a nd t ot he Mo s t Anc ien t E as t ! -S ad ly , Id o n o t h ave a n i lu s t ra t ion o f t h e B ouq ra s s he rd b u t i tf i gu res i n b l ack a nd w h i te ( P .P .S . V o l . 4 9 , p . 3 53 , F igure 9 ,n o . 1 4 ) . Ih ad t hough t u n t i l t h en t h a t at r anspa rency o f ac yc la s d ic p o t , B .M . No . A 3 01 w i th i n c ised d eco ra t ion v e ry s im i la r t oo ur l a tes t s he rds f r om F o rmen te ra ,w ou ld i lus t ra te t h ep o in to fp lus e a c hange , p lus c ' es t l a meme

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O xf ord I n t e rna t iona lW e s t e rn Med i t e r ranean B e l lB eak e rC onf e r ence

c hose w h ich i st h e l e i t -mo t i fo ft h i sp ape rw ho se a im i s ap l ea f o rt h er e ten t ion o f t h et e rm i nc i sed w ar e sf o rt h ed eco ra ted c e ram ics o ft h eB a lea r ic I s land s . T he f i r s t f r agmen t o ft h i s w a re , t h e f amous c on t rove r s ia l s he rd f r om F e lan i tx i n Ma jo r ca , w a s d i scove red a r ound 1 915 b y D a rde r , al o ca l g eo log i s t w ho h anded i t o ve rt oC ab r6 , w ho i nt u rn d ona ted i tt ot h e Mad r id Mu seum o fN a tu ra l S c ience s w he re i td i sappea red . T h is w r i te r o p t im i s t ica l ly s ugge s ted t ot h e c u ra to r o ft h e Mu seum o f Ma jo rca t h a ts he m igh tt r yt or ed i scove ri to nh e rn ex tv i s i tt o Mad r id : a f t e ra l l ,t h ec on t rove r s ia ll o s tc yc lad ic b eaked j ug d id e ven tua l ly r e appea r ! B u th e r o p t im ism w a s mo s t e f f ec t ive ly q uenched b y h i s r ep ly w h ich r e f e r red t o t h e p rove rb ia l h ay s tack n eed le ! I n c iden ta l ly , D r . Wa ld ren , i n 1 982 , s peak s o f : " t he d i scove ry o ft h ef i r s tf ew F e lan i tx B eake rs he rd si nt h e C ova d e l sB ou s " -ar a the r r a sh s t a temen t n o t o n ly i nr ega rd t ot h e n umbe r b u t a l so a st ot h e e xac t l o ca t ion w h ich r ema in s i mp rec i se a nd i so n ly m en t ioned a sf ound " i n o ne o ft h e c ave s o f S an tue r i " . B o sch G impe ra i n1 920 c on s ide red i taB eake rs he rd : q ue ry ,d i dh ee ve r s e e a nd h and le i t ? C o lom ina sm e re ly c on s ide r ed i t as t ray f r eak a nd r e f ra in sf r om f u r the rc ommen t . C a s t i l lo h oweve r ,i n1 928 ,d ef in i te ly c l a s s if ied i ta sB eake rw a r e a nd g oe s t ot h e e x ten t o fc r ea t ing as pec ia l B a lea r ic B eake r g roup b a sed o n t h i s s i ng le s pec imen : a lmo s t t h e p e r f ec t e xamp le o f b u i ld ing a c u l tur e o n t he s l igh tes t c lue ! B o th E n se f ia t a nd R os se l lö -Bo rdoy d e scr ibe t h e f r agmen t a s i n c i sed w a re . Y e tl a te r ,i n1 968 ; V eny c on s ide r si ta sB eak e r . A ni lu s tra t ion o ft h e s t i l l r e ign ing c u r ren tc on fu s ion o fn omenc la tu re i sp rov ided b y t h ef a c tt h a t a tt h e s ame c onf e rence i n1 960 E n se r ia tr e f e r st ot h ed eco ra ted s he rd sf r om S on T o rela a s o f B eake r n a tu re w he rea s R o s se 1 16 -Bo rdoy d e scr ibed t h a t f r om S on S unye r a s i n c i sed w a re . T he b e s t a u tho r i ty o ft h e l a s td ecade , C a ta l ina C an ta re l la s C amp s , d ef in i te ly s t a te s t h a tt h eF e lan i tx s he rd h a sf o rl ong b een a ccep ted a si n c i sed w a re , t h a t n o o ne n owadays d oub t s i t s i d en t ify a s s uch a nd t h a t i tb e long s t o a h em i sphe r ica lb ow l , as hape a k in t oa lmo s ta l ls he rd so fs im i la rd eco ra t ion -a sa l so t oc oun t le s sp l a in o ne s -f ound i n Ma jo r ca . U n t i l 1 951 t h eF e lan i tx s h e rd r ema ined amy s te r iou sf r eak o fl i t t le i mpo r tb u tf r om t h a td a te o nwa rd si n c i sed s h e rd sh ave i n c rea sed a nd mu l t ip l ied o nn ume rou s s i te so f w h ich t h e b e s t k nown a r e V e rn i s sa , S a C anova , S on Ma io l , S on T o re l la , S on G a l la rd , S on Ma r ro ig , S on Ma tge a nd C an aC o txe ra ( mo s t ly b u r ia l s i te s ) a nd S on F e r rande l l -O leza , a l l i n Ma jo r ca . T he t wo m inu te f r agmen t s f r om C an a C os ta , a m ega l i th ic c hambe rt omb i nF o rmen te ra ,a nd t h et wo b eau t ifu lb l a ck i n c i sed s he rd s f r om t h eC ova d e sF um i nt h es ame i s land ( a l li lu s t ra ted a tt h eD eyä C on f e r ence )a r e t h e l a te s t -a nd s o f a rt h e o n ly - f r agmen t s o fi n c i sed w a r e f r om t h eP i t iu s sae a nd t h ese a r e s ome o f t h e c e ram ics w h ich D r . Wa ld ren p ub l i shed a s B eake r w a re , c on t ra ry t ot h eo p in ion o ft h ee xcava to r sa nd t ot h a to f many o t he r s . I ti so fi n te r e s t t on o t et h a ta l lt h ec a l ib ra ted C 14 d a te so ft h ei n c i sed w a r e sf r om C an aC o txe ra ,S on Ma tge , S on G a l la rd a nd C a n aC o s ta f a l lw i th in t h e s ame b ra cke t : t h ef i r s th a lf o f t h e s e cond m i l lenn ium ,a nd t h a tt h eg r ea te rm a jo r i ty o ft h e s he rd sb e long t ob ow l s . We mu s th oweve rb ea ri nm ind t h ew ar n ing o fC an ta rela s -Camp s s t r e s s ing t h eg r ea t d i ff icu l ty o fr e cons t i tu t ing s hape s f r om mo s t ly s ma l l s he rd s -ar ema rk e choed b y D r . E ogan w hen w r i t ing o ft h ef r agmen t s o fB eake rn a tu r e f r om K now th -b u tt h e f a c t r ema ins t h a t s he e mpha s ises t h e p redom inance o f b ow ls a nd , i n l e sse r p ropo r t ion ,t h a to ff l owe r -po ts hape s .

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R o s se 1 16 -Bo rdoy 's g en ia l a nd p ionee ri d ea i n1 960 o fd i v id ing t h e e ve r inc rea s ing a nd a lway s c on t rove r s ia l w a re s i nt wo c l a s se s , Aa nd B , w a s r e ad i ly a ccep ted b y mo s to fh i sc o l league s . T he re a ppea r st ob eu nan imou sa g reemen tt h a tb o th t h ep l a in w a re s a nd t ho se b e long ing t oC la s s Ba r eo fl o ca lo r ig in . T he se l a t te ra r eu sua l ly , a l though n o t a lway s , t h icke r , r ough ly g r i t ted a nd o fc oa r se r manufa c tu r e . T he d eco ra t ion , a lway s e xecu ted b efo re f i r ing , mo s t ly c on s i s t s o f s t abb ed i n c i s ion s , s ome t ime s made b y ab lun t p o in t o r b y f i nge r t ip , u sua l ly a r ranged i n l i ne s o r • s ome t ime so n ly as i ng le l i ne o re ven i ni n cohe r en tp a t t e rn s . A ne xamp le o ft h el a s t m en t ioned i ss he rd Ma jo r ca Museum n umbe r4 6 19 f r om S aC anova w h ich i sv e ry r em in i scen to fs he rd n umbe r5 979 f r om S on Ma tge . D r . Wa ld ren i n1 982 r e f e r st o t h ed eco ra ted w a re sf r om t h eM ino r can m ega l i th s . T he se s he rd sa l lb e long t oC la s s Bo ft h ei n c i sed w a re sa nd s od on o tc oncer nu sh e re s i n ce n oo ne h a se ve ry c l a imed t h a tC la s s Bb ea r sa ny r e la t ion t oB eake rn o rd i spu ted t h ef a c tt h a t ,l i ke a l lt h ep l a in b eg l e i tkerdm ik , i ti s al o ca lp roduc t ion a nd n o ta ni mpo r t . I ti st h e c e ram ics b e long ing t oC la s s Aw h ich c on s t i tu te t h e b one o fc on t en t ion . T he se , a l so a lway s d eco ra ted b e fo re f i r ing , a r ef i ne -wa l led , w e l l -f i r ed , s moo thed e ven s ome t imes b u rn ished -a nd t h e i r i n c i sed d e s ign s f i ne ly e xecu ted , r e su l t i n p lea s ing a nd c ohe ren t p a t te rn s . Many e xamp le s o f D r . Wa ld ren 's B eaker ma t er ia l ma tch t h e se i n c i sed w a re s o fC la s s At op e r f ec t ion . I tw a si n te re s t ing t o n o te ,w hen s t udy ing t h e ma te r ia l sf r om S on Ma tge , S on Ma io la nd S on F e r rande l l O leza i nt h e Mu seum o f Ma jo r ca ,h ow s ome s h e rd so fs im i la rn a tu re a nd d e co ra t ion a r e i nd isc r im ina te ly c l a ssed , w i th in t h e s ame b ag o r b ox , a s e i the r B eaker o r i nc i sed w a re -f o ri n s tance , t h es he rd sf r om t h el a s t s i te , n umbe r s 8 1 -5100 a nd 8 1 5 200 -s o t h a t i t wou ld s e em t h a t a sr e cen t ly a s 1 981 D r . Wa ld r en h im se lf w a s u ndec ided r ega rd ing t h e i ra pp rop r ia te n omenc la tu re . S peak ing o fS on Ma tge , D r . H a r r i son h a sr ema rked : " The re i sa l so as pec ie so fi n c i sed p o t te ry o ft h es ame d a t ea st h a to fC an aC o txe ra . T hough i th a sb een l i kened t oB eake r si nS pa in much o fi ti sn o tB eake rw a r ea ta l l , b e ing c l o se rt ot h e Moa rda s t y le o fp o t te ry " . Ar ema rk w h ich a ppl ie sp a r t icu la r ly t ot h ec e ram ic so ft h eB a le a r ic I s land s . S u re ly t h e a n swe rt ot h e i n su la rp rob lem i st h a t s ome v e sse l s ( i . e . , t ho se o fC la s s A )w e re m ade f o r ad ef in i te p u rpo se o rf o r ap r iv i leged c l a s so fp eop le a nd t h a tb o th t h e p la in a nd C la s s Bw a re s ( poo r r e la t ions o f C la s s A ) s e rved f o r e veryday p u rpo se s o r f o r t h e h o ip o l lo i . When e xcava t ing i nt h e n ave t ifo rm h ab i ta to fS on Me r ce rd eB a ix e n M ino rca w e f ound u ndeco ra ted c r uc ib le s w i th d rop s o fm e ta l s t i l l a dhe r ing t ot h e c l ay . T he se p l a in c r uc ib le su ndoub ted ly s e rved t h es ame p u rpo se a st h ed eco ra ted o ne sf r om S on Ma tge . T he f a c tt h a tt h e se l a t te rw e re d eco ra ted c anno tn ece s sa r i ly i mp ly t h a tt h ey w e re u sed t o manuf ac tu re r i tua lo r mag ica l o b jec t s e spec ia l ly s i nce n one s u ch w e re f ound i nc on junc t ion w i th t h em . I n a ny c a se , d eco ra ted c ruc ib le s a r e a l so k nown f r om s i t e si nt h eI b e r ian P en in su la -f o ri n s tan ce a tE lA cebucha l ,E lV en to r ro a nd C e r ro d e l aV i rgen . A t S on Me r ce r d e B a ix w e f ound a n i ngo t w h ich w hen a na ly sed p roved t ob e p u re c oppe r a nd s i nce w e a l so f ound ab ronze b ra ce le t , a b ronze a w l a nd ac h ise l , i ta ppea r s o bv iou s t h a t t h e se o b jec t s w e r e p roce s sed i n s i tu ; w hence t h e t i n c ame f r om i ss t i l l o fc ou r se u nknown . S ince am id a l l o u r p r e ta layo t ic p o t t e ry f r om t h a ts i te t h e r ee x i s ted n o t as h e rd o fe i the rB eake ro rC la s s 2 72

O xf o rd I n t e rna t iona lW e s t e rn Med i t e r ranean B e l lB eak e rC on f e r ence

Ai n c ised w a re s , i ta ppea r s o bv iou s t h a t m e ta l lu rgy w a s k nown a nd p rac t i sed i n M ino r ca w i thou tt h ep re sence o fe i the r aB eake rf o lk o r aB eake rC u l tu re -a sa l so n o ted a tv a r iou so the re a r ly s i te si nC a ta luna a nd S ou the rn F rance . I na ny c a se , a s H a r r i son p o in t so u t , t h ei n s i s tence o fl i nk ing B eake r sw i th m e ta l lu rgy i sd i sp roved a sf a ra sg o ld i sc oncer ned a nd c oppe rw o rk ing w a sk nown -a nd p ra c t i sed -i nt h e L anguedoc b e fo r eB eake r sm ade t h e i ra ppea r ance t h e r e . T h i sa r gumen ti sr e in fo r ced b y s i te ss u ch a sE lP e r che li nS o r ia w he r eB eake rw a r ew a sp r e sen tb u tn o t at r ace o f m e ta l o ccu r r ed . T he re e x i s ti n s tance so fi n c ised p re -Beake rd eco ra t ion i nv a r iou s s i tes o f t h e I be r ian P en in su la w h ich l a ck m e ta l a nd a tL a s Mo re re s ( Va lenc ia ) . Gonza lez P ra t s f ound ac oppe r a w l o f q uad rangu la r s e c t ion , a s a l so ad rop o f c oppe r , i n ap re -Beake rc on tex t . L e rma A leg r ia n o te s t h a tt h e re a l so e x i s ta w l s o f q uad rangu la r s e c t ion i np re -Beake r c on tex t s d a ted t ot h e s e cond h a l fo ft h e t h i rd m i l lenn ium . H e h a s r e cen t ly s ugge s ted t h a t w ha t w e c a l l t h e B eaker p ackage c on s i s t so ft wo g roup s : T he f i r s tc on ta ined t a nged d agge r s ,P ame l la p o in ta nd a w l s o fq uad rangu la r s e c t ion t ow h ich w e s hou ld a dd b eake r s , b ow l s a nd t h ep o s s ib le w r i s tguard . T he s e cond h ad a w l s , c h i se l s a nd r i ve t ted d agge r s a si t s m e ta l t y pe s a nd , Iw ou ld s ugge s t , a l so t h e s o -ca l led v p e r fo ra ted b u t tons , w r i s tgua rd s a nd d eco ra ted b ow l s . I nt h eB a lea r ics w e h ave m any s i te s w h ich c on ta in i t em s o ft h e s e cond p ackage . A l l o u r v -pe r fo ra ted b u t ton s a r e o f l a te t ype s a s a r e a l so t h e t r iangu la rr i ve t ted d agge r s , a nd t h e C 14 d a te s f r om b o th F o rmen te ra , a nd I b iza i n p a r t icu la r , c onf i rm n o t o n ly t h e l a tenes s o f o u r i n su la r c on tex t s b u t a l so al ong p e rdu ra t ion , s i nce b o th s hape s a nd e ven o cca s iona l ly d eco ra t ion p e r s i s tu p t oa nd i n to t h eT a layo t ic p e r iod . Aw l s ,c h i se l s a nd s u ch l i ke a r et o oc ommon w ide sp r ead a nd a ge le s so b jec t st om e r i t s p ec ia lm en t ion . T h i sp ape rw ou ld b e come a l toge the r t o op a ro ch ia li fa l t h es i t e sc once rned w e r en am ed a nd d e ta i led b u tt h ey a r ea l ll i s ted i nC an ta r e l la s -Camp s . O ve r t h i r ty y ea r s a go Ma rga r e t Sm i th c ons ide red t h a t , " Beake r s p a s sed a l ong a s f a sh ion d i rec ted b e tween g roup s w ho se c onnec t ion s w e re a l ready a dequa te ly a t te s ted " . T he B a lea r ics mo s t c e r ta in ly w e re i nc onne c t ion f r om v e ry e a r ly t ime s w i th t h e I b e r ian P en insu la , S ou the rn F rance , S a rd in ia , N o r the rn I t a ly a nd S i c i ly . H e re D r . Wa ld ren 's a r c o f i mmed ia te i nf luence i sp roved t o t h e h i l t a nd i t s a pp l ica t ion t ot h et h eme o ft h i sc on f e rence i so fv i ta li mpo r tance . L e tu s s uppo se , l i ke Ma rga re t Sm i th , t h a t t h e r e e x i s ted b o th t r ade a nd a n i n te r change o f i d ea s b e tween a l lt h e se a r ea s . As uppo s i t ion w h i ch c an n o to n ly p rove a ccep tab le b u tc an a l so b e p roved -a s c an t ha t o f c on t inu i t y . Mo re a nd mo re i ti sb ecom ing e v iden t t h a t a t many s i te s c a rd ia l , i mp re s sed a nd i n c i sed w a re s c o -ex i s ted -f o r i n s tance a tL aC ove ta d e lO r ,d a ted t ot h ef i f th m i l lenn ium ,L aC ueva d ea lC angüe la w he re c on t inuou sc h rono logy r un sf r om t h ef ou r th m i l lenn ium w e l li n to t h eB ronze A ge w i thou ta ny f o re ign i n t ru s ive i nf luence s , t om en t ion b u tt wo o f many S pan i sh c ave s i te s . H e r e Iw ou ld l i ke t on o te amo s ti mpo r tan tp o in tr e cen t ly mad eb y Ma r t i O l ive r a nd G i l S ancho w ho a t tes t t h e p re sence o f B eake r a nd c a rd ia l w a re s i n C a s te l le tt oge the rw i th n eo l i th ic b u r ia l s -ap o in tw h ich c ou ld w e l lr e info r ce t h eo l d t h eo ry o fc a rd ia lw a re b e ing t h ep r ecu r so ro fB eake r s . T he t h eme o fc on t inu i ty i ss t r ik ing ly i mpo r tan t . I te xp la in ss o much s os imp ly a nd s o many i n s tance s -L a sP er ia sd el o sG i tano s , R o tu ra ,E lP romon to r io d e l E lche . . a l l t h e se r e cen t ly a nd s c ien t if ica l ly e xcava ted s i te s s how c on t inua l o ccupa t ion w i thou t s t er i le l e ve l s o r a ny e v idence o f v io len t i n t rus ion o f t h e B eake r w a re s .

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C on t inu i ty i sp e rhap sb e s ti lu s t ra ted b y t h er ema rk so fP ro f e s so rA r r iba so nC e r ro d el aV i rgen , "I ti si n te re s t ing t on o te h ow t h ec e ram ic t r ad i t ion p e r s i s t s t h roughou tt h ed u ra t ion o f t h e s e t t lemen t e vo lv ing i n as l ow , g radua l w ay . C er ta in ly s ome t y pe s o ft h e l owe r l e ve l s d i sappea r , e spec ia l ly t ho se o fb e t te rq ua l i ty , a nd B eake r s a ppea ra nd d i sappea r " . C on t inu i ty a nd v a r ia t ion so n ab a s ic t h eme . T he r ei s as h e rd , a mong o t he r s , w h ich D r . Wa ld ren w ou ld v e ry p robab ly c on s ide ro fB eake r n a tu r e b u t i ta ppea red i na n eo l i th ic c on tex ti nt h e C ueva d e l F o r con , ab u r ia l c ave i nt h e A l to A ragön -a nd B a lde l lou f ound t h e r e f r agmen t s w i th i n c i sed d eco ra t ion c on s i s t ing o fh o r izon ta l b and so fl i ne -i n f iled t r i ang le sb e long ing t o al a t eN eol i th ic o rv e ry e a r ly E neol i th ic . S o many o the r S pan i sh c ave s s uch a s t ho se o f E l A sno , N e r ja , E l P a ra le jo , L a D ehe s i l la , w h ich d a te b a ck t ot h e s i x th a nd f i f th m i l lenn ia , h ave p roduced i n c i sed r e t icu la ted p a t te rn sw i th r e c t i l inea ra nd c u rv i l inea r mo t if sw h ich P eR ice ra nd A co s ta n o te a ppea rv e ry s im i la rt oB eake rp ro to type s . T he se a na log ie s a r e f u r the r r e info r ced b y v a r iou s S ou ther n F rench s i te s w he re g roup s s uch a st h a to fF e r ne re s , s e em t ou nde r l ine c on t inu i ty f r om t h e C ha s sen t o t h eC ha lcol i th ic . A rna l ,a l though b e l iev ing t h a tp o t te ry c am ef r om t h eE a s t ,s t r e s se s t h e f a c t t h a tt h ep a t ter n s a r ed e c rea t ion i nd igene . H ee ven i lus t ra te sb a se sv e ry l i ke t ho se o fD r . Wa ld ren 's B eake r s -b u t i n f in i te ly o lde r -w he re l i ne s f o rm r a y s e mana t ing f r om ac i r c le . . O bv ious c onnec t ions w i th S i c i ly 's Moa rda w a re s -w h ich B a rf ie ld c on s ide r s a sa h ybr id s t y le i nf luenced b y B eaker a nd o ther s t y les h ave a l ready b een m en t ioned . I ti s mo s t i n te re s t ing a nd p e r t inen th e r e t on o te t h a t h e t h ink s a l l t h e S i c i l ian B eake r sw e re p robab ly manu f a c tu red o nt h ei s land a nd a r eo n ly c on s ide r ed a sf o r e ign b e cau se o ft h e i rm in ima lp e r cen tage . As t r ik ing l i k ene s sw i th s om eo ft h e i n c i sed f r agmen t s f r om B i ra i -w he re i mp re s sed a nd i n c i sed w a re s a l so c o -ex i s t i lu s t ra ted b y C a s ta ld i , p rov ide s ac l o se l i nk b e tween S a rd in ia a nd t h e B a lea r ics . T he a na log ie sc ou ld c on t inue f o rf a rt o ol o ng b u tt h eu nden iab le f a c ti st h a tt h ey e x i s t -a nd a f u r the r u nden iab le f a c t i st h a t , a s H a r r ison (w ho a l so e nv i sages a n e s sen t ia l c u l tura l c ommun i ty ) s e e s t h a t t h e re i s : " no n eed t os e ek f o r ah ec t ic c u l tu r ec hange " . Ar ema rk e choed b yD o sS an to sw ho ,c once rn ing R o tu r a , s e e s : " a v i s ib le l o ca l e vo lu t ion i n t h e d eco ra t ive s t y le s , p roo f o f c on t inu i ty o f t h e p opu la t ion w h ich p rov ide s n o mo t ive s f o r a ny p o s s ib le v io len t i n t ru s ion o f t h e B eake r s " . A sA ud ibe r ts ay s , " S il em o t if d ec hev ron sa ppa r a i tf r eque rnmen ts u rc e r ta in sv a se s c a l ic ifo rme s in ' y ac epandan ta ucune p r euve q u ' i le nd e r ive " . S o h av ing w e h ope p roved b o th t h e a n t iqu i ty a nd t h e u b iqu i ty o fo u r p a r t icu la r i n c i sed p a t t e rn s -a sa l so t h et h eme o fc on t inu i ty -c ou ld w en o te nv i sage t h a ta ts ome t ime as a i lo r -t rade r s e t s a i l f o ra ny o ne o ft h e a bove m en t ioned c onnec t ed r eg ion s a nd r e tu rned t oh i s i s land , e i the rw i th ab ow ld eco ra ted i nB eake rs t y le -o rw i th a w oman v e r sed i nt h em anuf ac tu r eo fs uch p o t s -o re ven ,t oq uo te T ay lo ra nd mo r e

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r e cen t ly G e rman D el ibe s ,t h e i d ea o f s u ch av e s se l . T h i s t h e s a i lo r d e sc r ibed t oa l o ca lp o t te rw ho t r an s la ted i ta c co rd ing t oh i s s k i l la nd u nde r s tand ing a nd i n i t ia ted a n ew s t y le o fl uxury p o t tery w h ich c augh t o n a nd p rospe red , w i th l o ca l v a r ia t ion s , o ve r al ong p e r iod . T h i s i s a n e cho o f H a r r ison 's t h eo ry when c on s ide r ing B eake r si nr e la t ion t ol o ng -e s tabl i shed r e g iona lp a t t e rn s -h ee nv i sage s : " an e s sen t ia l c u l tu ra l c on t inu i ty f u rn i shed b y t h e s t ab i l i ty a nd l ongev i ty o fo t he r r e sou r ce p rocu r emen tn e two rk s " a nd t h er e su l t sc ou ld w e l lb e ,t oq uo t eA rna l : " l er 6 su l ta td ec ou ran td i f f 6 r en t sb i en q ue c on tempo r 6en s " . D a r ew ea g r ee w i th Ma r t inez S an ta O la l la t h a t : " aB eake rc u l tu re d oe s n o te x i s t i nS pa in : i th a s o n ly e x i s ted d ue t ot y po logy a nd e x t reme ma te r ia l i sm . T oday ( 1 951 )o ne c an n eve rs peak o ft h eB eake ra s ac u l tu r e t h roughou t t h e I be r ian P en in su la . I ti sm e re ly a n a cc iden t d ue t o a g r icu l tu ra l e vo lu t ion i nS pa in a nd t ot h em e ta l lu rg ica lr e vo lu t ion " . T ha ts e em ss omewha ta no ve r s ta temen to ft h ec a se -A nd rew L aw son 's w o rd sf i tt h e s i tua t ion b e t te r : " A l l t h e se p o t s o f v a r ious s t y le s d emons t ra te t h e c u l tu ra l c on t inuum , f r om t h e N eo l i th ic t ot h ef u l lB ronze A ge . T he se p o t sc ou ld b et h e wo rk o fd i f f e ren tg roup s i nt h e s ame c ommun i ty , d i f f e ren t p ha se s o ft h e s ame c ommun i ty , o ro fd i f f e ren t c ommun i t ie se n t i re ly a l f r equen t ing t h es ame s po t " . Wha t a pp l ie s t ot h e B r i t i sh I s le s c an j u s t a s s u i tab ly b e a pp l ied t oo the r i n su la r r eg ion s . T o s um u p : C ou ld w e w ho w o rk i nt h ree o ft h eB a lea r ic i s land sp l ea se b ea l lowed t oc on t inue t ol a be l o u r i n c i sed s he rd s b y t h e s ame n ame . T h i s s o lu t ion wou ld a f fo rd g r ea ts a t i s f a c t ion ,n o to n ly t ou sw ho w o rk mo re e spe c ia l ly i nt h et wo s ma l le r i s land s ,b u ta l so t oo u rS pan i sh c o l league so ft h el a rge ro ne s . S o much d epend so n s ub jec t ive i n te rp re ta t ion ,o nt h ee ye o ft h eb eho lde r ,o nt h ea va i lab le m ean s . . .I nt h e w o rd so f Mo reno L opez , : " The t e chn ica ll i ne d i v id ing t h et wo c e ram ic t y pe s -i nt h i sc a se i n c i sed a nd B eake r w a r e s -d epend s o nt h ec r i te r ion o ft h ei n ve s t iga to r. .a sw e l l a so nt h es k i l lo ft h e p o t te r " .

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B ib l iography * ******** Ake rman , P . , e ta l . 1 983 . ' Bou ra s R ev is i ted ' . P .P .S . 4 9 . p p . 3 35 -72 A rna l , G .B . 1 976 . ' L a C e ram ique N eo l i th ique d ans l eH au t L anguedoc ' . L odgve . I mp r ime r ie d e sB eaux A r t s -H e rau l t . A r r iba s , A . , 1 976 . ' L a s B a ses A c tua le s p a ra e lE s tud io d e E neo lf t ico y E dad d e l B ronce e n e l S udes te d e l a P en in su la I be r ica t . C uadernos d e P reh i s tor ia d el aU n iver s idad d eG ranada , s e r ie monog ra f ica N o . 1 . A r r iba sA . a nd Mo l ina , F . , 1 975 . ' E l P ob lado d el o sC a s t i l le jo se nl a sP er ia sd el o s G i tano s ( Mon tef r io ,G ranada ) . R e su l tado sd el a sC ampa i ia sd e 1 971 y1 974 . . ' X IV C ongre so A rque lög ico N ac iona l ( V i tor ia , 1 975 ) , p p . 3 89 -405 . Z a ragoza 1 977 . A r r iba sA . a nd Mo l ina , F . , 1 978 . ' E lP ob lado d el o s C a s t i l le jo se nl a sP er ia sd el o s G i tanos ( Mon tef r io , G ranada ) . . E l C o r te 1 ( Campar ia d e 1 971) . ' C uad .P reh i s t . d el aU n iv . d eG ranada , s e r . monog . No . 3 . Aud ibe r t ,J . , 1 962 . ' L aC iv i l i sa t ion C hako l i th ique d uL anguedoc O r ien ta l' . I n s t i tu t I nerna t iona l d 'E tudes L igu res - C o l lec t ion d e Mono -graph ie s P reh i s to r iques e tA r cheo log ique s :B o rd ighe ra . Mon tpel ie r 1 962 . B a lde l lou , V . , 1 981 . ' E lN eol i t ico d e l aC e räm ica I mpr esa e n e lA l to A ragon ' . L e N go l i th ique A nc ien Med i ter rangen . A c te sd uC o l loque I n te rna t iona l d e P reh is to ire , p p . 1 65 -80 . Mon tpe l l ier 1 981 . A rcheo log ie e n L anguedoc , n umero s pec ia l 1 982 . R evue d e l a F edera t ion A rcheo log ique d el ' He rau l t . B a rf ie ld , L . , 1 977 . ' The B eake r C u l tu re i nI t a ly ' . B eaker s i nB r i ta in a nd E urope ( ed . R oge r Me rce r ) , p p . 2 7 -49 . B .A .R . S upp lemen ta ry S e r ie s 2 6 , O xfo rd . B e rnab6 B rea ,L . , 1 954 .L aS i c i l ia P reh i s tor ica yS us R e lac ione sc on O r ien t e yc on l a P en insu la I ber ica . C onse jo S uper ior d e I nves t igac iones C ien t i f ica s ,S e r ie A rqueo log ia 1 , Mad r id . S epa ra ta d e Ampu r ia s XV XV I . B e rna rb6 B rea , L . , 1 957 .S i c i ly . T hame s a nd H ud son . L ondon . B o sch G impe ra , P . , 1 920 . ' L a A rqueo log ia P re romana H ispän ica ' . A pend ice al a H i span ia d eS chu l ten . B a r ce lona . B o sch G impe ra , P .a nd C o lom ina s R oca , J . , 1 935 . ' L es F ou i l le s d e Ma jo rque e tl a P reh is to i re d es I l e s B a lea res ' . C om is s ion I n terna t iona le p our l a

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P r gh i s to i r ed el a Med i t e r rang eO cc id en ta le .C on f e r en ce d eB a r ce lone , 1 935 , . p p . 1 7 -24 . B a r ce lona 1 935 . B u rges s , C . , 1 976 . ' An E a r ly B ronze A ge S e t t lemen t a tK i le l lan F a rm , I s lay , A rgyl ' . S e t t lemen ta nd E conomy i nt h eT h ird a nd S econd M i l l enn ia B .C . ( e d s . C o l in B u rge s s a nd R oger t M ike t ) , p p . 1 81 -207 . B .A .R . 3 3 , O xfo rd . B u rges s , C . , 1 976 . ' T he B eake rP henomenon : S ome S ugge s t ion s ' . P a r t 1 :' Gene ra l C ommen t sa nd t h eB r i t i sh E v idence ' . S e t t lemen ta nd E conomy i nt h e T h i rd a nd S econd M i l lenn ia BC ( e d s . C o l in B u rge s s a nd R oge r M ike t ) , p p . 3 09 -23 . B .A .R . 3 3 , O x fo rd . C an ta re l la s C amp s , C . , 1 972 . C erdm ica I nc isa e n Ma l lorca . C a ja d e Aho r ro s y Mon te d eP i edad d el a sB a lea r e s .P a lma d e Ma l lo r ca . C a s ta ld i , E . , 1 981 . V i l lag io c on S an tuar io aB ira i ( O l iena -Nuoro ) . IR e la z ione P re l im inare . E s t ra t to d e R ev is ta d i s c ienze p reh i s to r iche , v o l . XXXV I . , F a sc icu lo 1 2 . C a s t i l lo , A . d e l , 1 928 .L aC u l tura d e lV a so C ampan i f orme :s uO r t gen yE x t ens ion e nE u ropa .U n ive r s idad d eB ar ce lona . C a s t i l lo , A . d e l , 1 954 . ' E l V a so C ampan i fo rme ' . I V C ongre so I n t ernac iona l d e C ienc ia s P reh i s tor ica s yP ro toh i s tor ica s . Mad r id , 1 954 . ( Ac ta s . .Za ragoza 1 956 ) , p p . 4 45 -58 . C h i lde , V .G . , 1 957 . T he Dawn o fE uropean C iv i l i sa t ion . 6 t h e d . R ou t ledge a nd K egan P au l . L ondon . C la rke , D . , 1 958 .A na ly t ica lA rchaeo logy . Me thuen . L ondon . C la rke ,D . , 1 970 .B eak er P o t t er yo fG r ea tB r i ta in a nd I r e land . . C .U .P . C la rke , D . , 1 974 . " The B eake r N e two rk - S oc ia l a nd E conom ic Mode ls ' . G lockenbeche rS ympo s ium -O ber e id 1 97 4 ,p p . 4 60 -76 . F ibu la v an D i shoeck -Bu r sum -Haa r lem , 1 976 . C o lom ina s R oca , J . , 1 915 . , " L 'Eda t d e l B ronze aMa l lo r ca ' . A nnuar i d e l ' I n s t i tu t d 'E s tud i sC a ta lan s( 1915 -20 ) . B a r ce lona .p .5 56 . C oomb s , D . , 1 975 . ' Beake r s f r om C a l l is Wo ld , B a r row 2 75 , H umbe r s ide ( An i n te r im r e por t ) ' . S e t t lemen ta nd E conomy i nt h e T h ird a nd S econd M i l lenn ia BC ( e d s . C o l in B u rge s s a nd R oge r M ike t ) , p p . 1 43 -47 . B .A .R . 3 3 , O xfo rd . D an ie l , G . , 1 984 . R ev iew o f' T he A rchaeo logy o fD ea th ' . ( e d s . R ober t C hapman , I an K inne s a nd K lau s R andsbo rg ) . C .U .P . 1 981 . A n t iqu i ty , V o l . LV I I I , N o . 2 22 , Ma r ch 1 984 .p .6 9 . D an ie l , G . , 1 985 . E d i to r ia l .A n t iqu i ty , V o l . L IX , N o . 2 25 , Ma r ch 1 985 , p . 2 .

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E ogan , G . , 1 9786 . ' Beake r Ma te r ia l f r om K now th , C o . Mea th -P re l im ina ry N o te s ' . S e t t lemen ta nd E conomy i nt h e T h ird a nd S econd M i l len ia BC . ( e d s . C o l in B u rge s s a nd R oge rM ike t ) , p p . 2 51 -66 . B .A .R . 3 3 , O xfo rd . E i roa , J . , 1 981 . ' Avance S ob re l aP r ime ra C ampa f ia d e E xcavac ione s e n l aC ueva d e l A sno d e l o s R abano s ( So r ia ) ' . L e N go l i th ique A nc ien Mgd i t er r angen . A c t e sd uC o l loque I n te rna t iona la ld eP r 6h i s to i r e . Mon tp el ie r 1 981 . A r chaeo log ie e nL anguedoc ,n um6 ro s p6 c ia l 1 982 .R evue d e l aF 6d6 ra t ion A r chaeo log ique d el ' H6 r au l t ,p p . 3 01 -04 . E nsef ia t B . , 1 960 . ' No t ic ia s s ob re e n H a l lazgo e n Ma l lo r ca d e u na s C e räm ica s I n c i sa sd e lE s t i lo d e lV a so C ampan i fo rme ' . V I IC ongre so N ac iona l d eA rqueo log ia ,B ar ce lona . Z a r agoza 1 962 ,p p . 1 84 -87 . G o f l lve s d o s S an to s , V . , 1 971 . 0C a s t ro d o R o tura eo V a so C ampan i -f orme . J un ta D i s t r i ta ld eS e taba l 1 971 . Gon sa lez P ra t s , A . , 1 984 . ' E l P ob lado C a lco lf t ico d e L a s Mo r e re s e n l aS i e r ra d e C r ev i l len t e ,A l ican t e ' . C omun icac iön a lC o loqu io s obr ee lE neo l i t ico e ne lP a i sV a l enc iano .A lcoy 1 984 -e np r en sa . Gu the rz , X . ,

1 981 . ' Le G roupe d e F er ne res ' . L e N go l i th ique A nc ien Mgd i terrangen . A c te s d u C o l loque I n te rna t iona l d e P r6h i s to i re . Mon tepe ll ie r 1 981 .A r ch6o log ie e nL anguedoc n um6 ro s p6c ia l 1 982 . R evue d el aF 6d6 r a t ion A r ch6o log ique d el ' H6 rau l t ,p p . 2 17 -2 1 .

H a r r i son , R . , 1 974 . ' O r ig ins o f t h e B e l l B eake r C u l tu re s : S ome S pecu la t ion s ' . A n t iqu i t y , XLV I I I , p p . 9 9 -109 . H a r r i son , R . , 1 977 . ' Beake r C u l tu re s o f I be r ia , F rance a nd t he Wes tern Med i te r ranean I s land s , 2 200 -1 500 B .C ' . B eaker s i nB r i ta in a nd E urope ( ed . R oge r Me r ce r ) . B .A .R . S upp lemen ta ry S e r ie s 2 6 . O xfo rd , p p . 5 -26 . H a r r i son , R . , 1 977 . T he B e l lB eak er C u l ture s o fS pa in a nd P or tuga l . Amer ican S choo l o f P reh i s to r ic R e sea rch - P eabody Museum . H a rva rd U n ive r s i ty B u l le t in 3 5 . H a r r i son , R . , 1 980 . T he B eaker F o lk . T hame sa nd H ud son ,L ondon . H a r r i son , R . 1 984 . ' B eake rC u l tu re so fI b e r ia ,F rance a nd t h e We s tI s land s ' . L 'Age d u C u iv re E u rop6en . C iv i l iza t ion s aV a se s C ampan iforme s , E d . CNRS . P a r i s , p p . 1 87 -207 . K a lb . F . , 1 959 . ' E l P ob lado d e l C e r ro d e l aV i rgen d e O rce ( G ranada ) ' . C ong re so N ac iona ld eA rqueo log ia X , Mahon . Z a r agoza , 1 969 p p . 2 16 -25 .

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L aw son , A . , 1 982 . P ref ace t o' B eake r D ome s t ic S i te s i nt h e F en E dge a nd E a s t A ng l ia ' . E a s t A ng l ian A rchaeo logy R epor t N o . 1 6 , N o r fo lk . N o r fo lk A r chaeo log ica lU n i t . N o r fo lk Mu seum sS e rv ice : 3a nd 4 . L e rma A leg r ia , J . , 1 981 . ' Lo s O r ig ine s d e l a Me ta lu rg ia e n e lP a i s V a lenc iano ' . A r ch ivo sd eP r eh i s tor ia L e van t ina ,V o l . XV I . I n s t i tu to d eA l fon so e l Magnän imo , C o se jo S . I .P . V a lenc ia ,p p . 1 29 -140 . L ew thwa i te , J . , 1 982 . A r chaeo log ia C or sa . E tude s e t MJn zo ire sN o s . 6 -7 . 1 981 1 982 . D i rec t ion d e s A n t iqu i te s d e l aC o r se , 1 9 C ou r s N apo leon 2 000 A ja cc io . L uca sP e l l i ce r , Ma R . yB la sco B o squed , C . , 1 980 . ' E lh ab i ta tC ampan i fo rm ed eE l P e r che l e n A r co s d e l J a lön ( So r ia ) ' . N o t ic iar io A rcheo lög ico H i span ico 8 ,p p . 9 -68 . Ma r t i O l ive r , B . , 1 977 . ' Cova d e l ' O r ( A l ican te ) ' . T raba jo s V ar io s d e l S . I .P . N o . 5 1 .D ipu ta c iön d eV a lenc ia ,V a lenc ia 1 977 . Ma r t i O l ive r , B . yG i l S ancho , J . , 1 977 . P e r la s d e A le ta s yG lobu lo s d e l C au R abo se r( Ca r ca ixen t ,V a lenc ia ) ' .A rch ivo sd eP reh i s tor ia L evan t ina V o l . XV . I n s t i tu to d e A lfonso e l Mangän imo , C on se jo S . I .P . V a lenc ia , 1 977 . p p . 4 7 -68 . Ma r t inez S an ta O la l la , J . , 1 951 . I nt h e d i scu s s ion a f te r Wu r s tma che r 's p ape r , ' Un Me todo d eT r aba jo A p l icado a lE s tud io d e lV a so C ampan ifo rme e n E spana ' . IC ongr e so N ac iona ld eA rqueo log ia , Mad r id .p .1 33 . Mo r eno L opez , G . , 1 972 . ' Ce räm ica C ampan ifo rme e nl aC ueva A l ta yMed ia d e l E b ro y P rov inc ia s Adyacen tes ' . C aesar A ugus ta 3 5 -36 . P ub l icac iones d e l S em ina r io d e A r cheo log ia y N um ismä t ica A ragone sa s , p p . 2 9 -51 . P e l l ice r , M . , 1 954 . E lN eo l i t ico ye lB ronce d e l aC ueva d el aC ar igüe la d e lP inar ( Granada ) . T raba jo s d e P r eh i s to r ia d e l S em ina r io d e H i s to r ia P r im i t iva d e l H omb re d e l aU n ive r s idad d e Mad r id yd e l I n s t i tu to E spar io l d e P r eh i s to r ia d e l C onse jo S uper io r d e I nve s t igac ione s C ien t if i ca s , XV . P e l l ice r ,M . yA co s ta , P . , 1 981 . ' E lN eo lf t ico A n t iguo e nA nda luc ia O cc iden ta l ' . L e N Jo l i th ique A nc ien M6d i t er ran&n . A c te sd uC o l loque I n t e rna t iona l d e P reh i s to i re . Mon tpe l l ie r 1 981 . A r cheo log ique e n L anguedo c N ume ro S pec ia l 1 982 . R evue d e l aF ede ra t ion A r cheo log ique d e l ' He rau l t , p p . 4 9 -50 . P e rez A rando ,C . , 1 982 . ' L aZ ona D o lmen ica d eN a lda ( R io ja ) ; C ampar ia d e 1 980 ' . XV IC ongre so N ac iona ld eA rqueo log ia , Murc ia , 1 982 ,p p . 1 2 1 -34 . R amo s F e rnandez , R . , 1 981 . ' E l P romon to r i d e l A igua D o l a iS a la d e E lche . A vance d eS uE s tud io ' . A r ch ivo d eP reh i s tor ia L evan t ina V o l . XV I .

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Ox f ord I n t e rna t iona l We s t e rn Med i t e r ranean B e l lB eak e rC onf e r ence

1 981 . S e rv ic io d e I nve s t iga c iön P r eh i s tö r ica d e l aE xce len t i s ima D ipu tac iön P rov inc ia l d e V a lenc ia . C onse jo S uper ior d e I nve s t iga c ione s C ien t if i ca s . I n s t i tu to d eA lfon so e l Magnän imo ,p p . 1 97 -222 . R amo s F e rnandez , R . , 1 982 . ' P rec is ione s E vo lu t iva s S ob re C e räm ica s d e T ipo C ampan i fo rme ' . XV IC ongr e so N ac iona l d eA rqueo log ia , Murc ia , 1 982 . Z a ragoza 1 983 ,p p . 13 -21 . R amo s F e rnandez , R . , 1 984 . ' Memo r ia d e l a s E xcavac ione s R ea l izada s e n e l P romon ta r io d e E lche D u ran te l a s C ampar ia s 1 980 -81 ' . N o t icar io A rqueo l6g ico H i spän ico 1 9 . M in is te r io d e C u l tu ra , D i recc iön G ene ra l d e B e l la s A r tes y A rch ivo s , S ub -d i recc iön G ene ra l d e A rqueo log ia yE tnog raf ia , Mad r id 1 984 ,p p . 1 -33 . R os se l lö -Bo rdoy , G . , 1 960 . ' Ce räm ica s I n c i sa s d e l Ma l lo rca ' . S tud i S ard i v o l . XV I . S a s sa r i p p . 3 00 -15 . R o sse 1 16 -Bo rdoy , G . , 1 960 . ' Cueva s A r t if ic ia le s Ma l lo rqu ina s d eP lan ta S enc i l la ' . V I I C ongre so N ac iona l d e A rqueo log ia e n B arce lona . Z a ragoza 1 966 , p p . 1 78 -82 . S chuba r t , H . yP a scua l , V . , 1 966 . ' Da ta c iön p o re lC a rbon C a to r ce d e l o s E s t ra to s c on C e räm ica C a rd ia ld el aC ove ta d el ' O r ' . A rch ivo sd eP r eh i s tor ia L evan t ina V o l . X I . S erv ic io d e I nve s t igac iön P reh is tö r ica d e l a E xce len t i s ima D ipu ta c iön P rov inc ia ld eV a lenc ia , C on se jo S upe r io r d e I nve s t igac ione s C ien t if i ca s . I n s t i tu to d e A lfon so e l Magnän imo , p p . 5 3 -73 . S chü le ,W . a nd P e l l ie rC a ta län M . , 1 966 .E lC er ro d el aV i rgen d eO rce ( Granada ) . E xcava c ione sA rqueo log ica se nE spa i ia ,4 6 . S hephe rd , C . , 1 976 . ' B eake r S e t t lemen t a tR u s in i sh , B enbecu la ' . S e t t lemen t a nd E conomy i nt h eT h i rd a nd S econd M i l l enn ia BC ( e d s . C o l in B u rge s s a nd R oge rM ike t ) . B .A .R . 3 3 , O x fo rd ,p p . 2 09 -20 . Sm i th , M . , 1 953 . ' I ber ian B eake r s I .P .P .S . n ew s e r ie s v o l . X IX p t . I ,p p . 9 5 -107 . T opp , C . , F e rnandez , J .a nd P lan ta lamo r , L I . , 1 975 . ' Cana C o s ta , aMega l i th ic C hambe r T omb o n F ormen te ra , B a lea r ic I s land s ' . B u l le t in o f L ondon U n iver s i ty I n s t i tu t eo fA rchaeo logy N o . 1 3 , p p . 1 39 -74 . T opp , C . , F e rnandez , J . a nd P lan ta lamo r , L l . , 1 978 . ' Recen t A rchaeo log ica l A c t iv i t ie s i nI b iza a nd F o rmen te ra ' . B u l le t in o fL ondon U n iver s i ty I n s t i tu t eo fA rchaeo logy N o . 1 6 , p p . 2 15 -31 . V eny , C . , 1 968 . L a s C uevas S epu lcra les d e l B ronce A n t iguo d e Ma l lorca . B ib l io teca P r eh i s to r ica H i spana ,I X . Mad r id .

2 8 1

C .T opp

Wa ld ren , W . , 1 979 . ' A B eake r Wo rk shop A rea i nt h eR ock S he l te ro fS on Ma tge , Ma l lo rca ' . Wor ld A rchaeo logy V o l . In o . I .R ou t ledge a nd K egan P au l , L ondon , p p . 4 3 -67 . Wa ld ren , W . , 1 981 . R ad iocarbon D e term ina t ion i n t h e B a lear ic I s land s . A n I nven tory 1 962 -1981 . T he Dona ld B aden -Powe l l Q ua te rna ry R esea rch C en t re , P i t t R ive r s Mu seum , U n ive r s i ty o f O xfo rd . O xfo rd . Wa ld r en ,W . , 1 982 .E ar l yP r eh i s to r ic S e t t l emen ti nt h eB a lear ic I s land s . S e r ie s 1 3 . D eya , Ma l lo r ca .

DAMARC

Wa ld r en ,W . , 1 983 .P r eh i s tor ic P o t t e ry :S imp l eA pproache st oA na ly s i s . DAMARC S e r ie s 1 4 . D eya , Ma l lo r ca .

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F l in t I mp lemen t s o f t he S on O leza B e l l B eaker S e t t lemen t i nt he B a lear ic I s land o f Ma l lor ca

M r . C a r lo s Mo r el O r land i s D eya A r cha eo log ica l Mu seum a nd R e sea r ch C en t r e D eya , Ma l lo r ca ,B a lea r e s ,S pa in Ms .A l ic ia Q ue ro lS aga s ta U n ive r s idad C en t r a ld eB a r ce lona B a r ce lona ,S pa in Abs trac t * ** **** As i sw e l l k nown , s i gn if ican t s oc ia l c hange s a nd e conom ic r evo lu t ion s h ave a lways f o l lowed i nt h e f oo t s teps o ff undamen ta l c hange s i nl i f e s t y le a nd s oc ia l s t ruc tu re .T h i sw a sp a r t icu la r ly e v iden ti n p reh i s to r ic t ime sw hen ,f o re xamp le ,t h e d i scove ry o fn ew a nd b e t te r ma te r ia l s c ou ld s t imu la te c hange f r om o ne e conom ic s y s tem t oa no the r ,a nd c on sequen t ly c au se at r ad i t iona ll o ng s t and ing s o c ia ls t ruc tu r e t oe vo lve i n to s ome th ing q u i te n ew a nd d i f f e r en t . A cco rd ing t o t h i s h ypo the s is , t h e b eg inn ing o f me ta l lu rg ica l t e chno logy , w a s e s sen t ia l a nd i n s ome d eg ree r e spons ib le f o r t h e e vo lu t ion o ft h e o lde r a nd l e s s c omp l ica ted N eol i th i cc u l tu r e s ,r e su l t ing i n mo r es t ra t if ied o ne s . A t t h e s ame t ime , t h e d i f f icu l t ie s i nt h e s e a r ch f o r n ew s ou r ces o fr aw ma ter ia l s b rough ta bou ts i gn if i can tm ig ra t ion so fp eop le w h ich s p r ead t h en ew t e chno logy a nd l i f e s t y le i na l l d i rec t ions . I n a dd i t ion , a sp ro spe c t ing a nd m e ta l w o rk w e re n ew e conom ic a c t iv i t ie s , i tw a s p o s s ib le f o r s pec ia l is t s t o eme rge f r om w i th in t h e c ommun i ty . I n t u rn t h i s r e su l ted i nm ak ing i tp o s s ib le f o r t h e se i nd iv idua l s t o c on t ro la ni mpo r tan tb r anch o ft h ee conomy ,a nd w i th t h ep a s s ing o ft ime b ecome a n p o ten t ia l ly s t rong n ew s o c ia lu n i tw i th in t h ec ommun i ty . T he p eop le o ft h eB e l l B eake rc u l tu re w e re t y p ica lo ft h i s p e r iod o ft ime . A nd t h i s c u l tu ra lp e r iod w a st h ef i r s tt od eve lop m e ta lw o rk ing t e chn ique si n We s ter nE u rope . T he d emog r aph ic e xpan s ion o ft h ep e r iod w a s ,w i thou t ad oub t , mo t iva ted i np a r tb y t h en eed t op ro spec tf o rr aw m a te r ia l ; s ome t ime sv e ry d i ff i cu l tt of i nd .T he s p read o ft h i sc oncep ta lo ve rt h em a in land a nd t h e We s t e rn I s land sr e vo lu t ion i sed t h eo l d s o c io -econom ic i d ea so ft h ep r eced ing N eo l i th ic c ommun i t ie s . A round 2 000 b c , t h eB e l lB eake rc u l tu r ea r r ived o nt h eB a lea r ic I s land o f Ma l lo r ca a nd e s tab l ished p e rmanen t s e t t lemen t s w i th a s ub s i s tence mode ls b a sed o n

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C . Mor e 1 1O r land i s &A .Q ue ro lS aga s ta

a gr icu l tu ra l a nd l i ve s tock e conomy . d i agno s t ic o ft h eB el B eake rP e r iod : 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 .

Wi th i ta r r ived t h e t y p ica l a s semb lage s

B eake rp o t te ry ( d eco ra ted a nd u ndeco r a ted ) Me ta l wo rk ( aw l s , c oppe ri ngo t s ,e t c . ) Vp e r fo ra ted b one b u t ton s A r che rw r i s tgua rd s ( i n s t one a nd o ne i nb one ) H igh q ua l i ty f l in ta nd l ime s tone b ea ch -cobb le l i th ic i n du s t ry

A l though a tt h ep re sen tt ime , a bundan tl o ca lm ine ra lr e sou r ce s a r en o tk nown , t h e m e ta l lu rg ic t e chn ique sp r e sen tw e r ea sd eve loped a so nt h e Ma in land . T he r e fo r ew e c an a sume t h a t t h e c on tac t s b e tween t h e t wo a r ea s w e re q u i te f r equen t . T h i s i s p o s s ib le t od emon s t ra te w i th t h e s t rong f l in t t y pe p a ra l le l s b e tween t h e B a lea r ic B eake ra nd t h o se o ft h e Ma in land , e spec ia l ly f r om t h eI b e r ian S ou th E a s t ,L evan t , C a ta lon ia a nd t h es ou th o fF rance . W i th t h i s p ape r w e p resen t t h e i nven to ry o f o ne i mpo r tan t i t em i n t h e B a lea r ic B eake ra s semb lage , t h e f l in ti mp lemen t s w h ich h ave b een f ound i nt h e S on O leza C oppe r A ge O ld S e t t lemen t , t h e f i r s t a nd mo s t i mpo r tan t o pen -a i r a g r icu l tu ra l s e t t lem en tk nown i nt h eB a lea r ic I s land s . T he h i gh q ua l i ty t a bu la rf l in ti ndu s t ry i n c lude s as i gn if i can tq uan t i ty o fb if a c ia l ly w o rked s i ck le sa nd b l ade s . T he se a r et h ep r inc ipa lc omponen t so ft h e O lez ian f l in t i ndus t ry , a nd i s i n d i rec t r e la t ionsh ip w i th t h e m a jo r e conom ic a c t iv i ty a g r icu l tu r e . A l so ,w eh ave f ound s ome f l in tf l ake s c r ape r sa nd o t he rt oo l sw h i ch a r e mo r ed i f f icu l tt oi d en t if y . I ti sv e ry i n te re s t ing t oo b serve h ow t h e se i nd iv idua l s s e lec t ed t h e t a bu la rf l in ti n p r ef e r ence o ve ro the rf o rm s .T he r e a son i sp robab ly d ue t ot h ef a c tt h a tt h i st y pe o f m a te r ia ld oe sn o tn eed t ob ep r epa r ed o rw o rk ed t oa ny g r ea td e t a i l t h es o le p rob lem c on s i s t ing o ff i nd ing ap i ece w i th t h ea pp rop r ia te p ropo r t ion sa nd t h ickne s s . Un t i l n ow , w e h ave n o t k nown t h e p lace f r om w h ich t h e f l in t o r ig ina ted Howeve r , i n t h e c ou r se o f t h e l a s t y ea r , t h e p rob lem o f f l in t s ou rce s h a s b een r e so lved w i th t h ed i scove ry o f al a rge d epo s i t2 0 km . f r om t h e s i te ; o pen ing an ew p e r spe c t ive i nt h eh i s to ry o ft h eB a lea r ic f l in ti n du s t ry .

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I n troduc t ion * ******* As i sw e l lk nown , s i gn if i can ts oc ia lc hange so re conom ic r evo lu t ions h ave a lway s g one h and i nh and w i th f undamen ta lc hange si nl i f e s t y le a nd s oc ia ls t ruc tu re . T h i s w a s mo r ee v iden ti np reh i s to r ic t ime s when ,f o ri n s tance ,t h ed i scove ry o fn ew a nd b e t te r ma te r ia l sc ou ld c hange o ne e conom ic s y s tem i n to a no the r , a nd c on sequen t ly h e lp a l ong s t and ing s oc ia l s t ruc tu re t o e vo lve i n to s ome th ing q u i te n ew a nd d i f f e ren t . A cco rd ing t ot h is t h e s i s , t h eb eg inn ing o fm e ta l lu rg ica l t e chno logy w a s e s sen t ia l i nt h e d eve lopmen to ft h e o lde r a nd l e ss c omp l ica ted N eo l i th ic c u l tu re s , f o rm ing t h em i n to mo re s t ra t if i ed o ne s . A t t h e s ame t ime , t h e d i f f icu l t ie s o f s ea rch ing f o r n ew s ou rce s o fr aw m a ter ia l s b ough t a bou t s i gn if i can tm ig ra t ion s o fp eop le w h ich e x tended t h en ew t e chno logy a nd s t y le o fl i f ei na l ld i rec t ion s . B e s ide s , a sp ro spe c t ing a nd m e ta l wo rk w e r en ew a c t iv i t ie s , i tw as n ece ssa ry t o s e t a pa r t ag roup o f s pec ia l i s t s f r om t h e r e s t o ft h e c ommun i ty . T he se p eop le w e re g o ing t oc on t ro lo ne o ft h e mo s ti mpo r tan tb ranche s o ft h ee conomy a nd w i th t h ep a s s ing o ft ime ,t h ey b ecame a na u then t ic a nd p owe r fu l s oc ia lc l a ss w i th as t rong c oncep to fp r iva te p rope r ty . B e l l B eake rp eop le w e r e t yp ica l o ft h is p e r iod o ft ime . T hey w e re o ne o ft h e f i r s t c u l tu re st od eve lop m e ta lw o rk ing t e chn ique si n We s ter nE u rope . T he i re xpan s ion w a s , w i thou td oub t , mo t iva ted i np a r t b y t h e n eed t op rospec tf o rn a tu ra l c oppe r , s ome t ime sv ery d i ff i cu l tt of i nd . T he movemen to ft h e se e t hn ic g roups a l lo ve rt h e ma in land a nd t h ew e s tern i s land sr evo lu t ion ized t h eo ld s oc io -econom ic mode ls o f t h ep reced ing Mesol it h ic a nd N eol i th ic c ommun i t ie s . A tt h e momen ti ti sr a the rd i ff i cu l tt oe s tab l i sh t h ee xac tp ropo r t ion sa nd e xpan s ion o f t he B e l l B eake r p henomenon . H oweve r a s ac onsequence o f r ecen t a r chaeo log ica ld i scove r ies i th a s b een p o ss ib le t oe x tend t h e i ra r ea o fi n f luence t o n ew g eog raph ica l r eg ions . N ea r ly 4 ,000 y ea r s a go a s ma l l g roup o f p eop le b e long ing t ot h eB e l lB eake rh o r izon a r r ived a tt h eB a lea r ic I s land o f Ma l lo r ca a nd e s tab l i shed ap ermanen t s e t t lemen t w i th a n e conom ic mode l b a sed o n i n tens ive a g r icu l tu ra l a nd l i ve s tock a c t iv i ty . W i th t h em t h ey b rough tt h et yp ica li mp lemen t s wh ich a r ep a r to ft h eB a lea r ic B el B eake rp e r iod : 1 .B e l lb eake rp o t te ry :d eco ra ted a nd u ndeco ra ted . 2 . Me ta lw o rk : a w ls ,p o in t s a nd c oppe ri ngo t s . 3 .Vp e r fo ra ted b one b u t ton s 4 .A rche rw r i s tgua rd s : s t one a nd b one . 5 .H igh q ua l i ty f l in ti ndus t ry . T hough a tt h ep re sen t momen t , w ea r en o tc e r ta in i ft h ey f ound t h em ine ra ls ou r ce s , w er e a l ize t h a t t h e i rm e ta l lu rg ic t e chn iques w e re a sd eve loped a so n t h em a in land . T herefo re , w e c an d educe t h a t c on tac t b e tween t h e t wo a r ea s w a s q u i te f r equen t . T h is i se a s i ly d e te rm ined f r om t h e c e ram ic p a ra l le l s b e tween t h e B a lea r ic B eake r

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e v idence a nd t h a tc om ing f r om t h e ma in land ,e spe c ia l ly f r om t h eI b e r ian L evan t ,t h e s ou th -ea s ta nd t h es ou th o fF rance ( s ee Wa ld ren t h i sv o lume ) . Wi th t h is p ape r w e p resen t a n i nven to ry a nd p re l im ina ry s t udy o f t h e f l in t i mp lemen ts wh ich h ave b een f ound i n t h e o pen -a i r S on O leza C oppe r Age S e t t lemen tw h ich i st h ef i r s ta nd mo s ti mpo r tan ti nt h eB a lea r ic I s land si n c luded i n t h eb roade rB el B eake rc u l tu re ( F igu re s4 11 ) .

G eograph ic C ons idera t ions ********

T he B a lea r ics a nd P i t iu s sa sa r e as ma l lg roup o fi s land s s i tua ted a tt h ee x t r em i t ie so f t h e Wes te rn Med i te r rean S ea ,f a c ing t h eI b e r ian P en in su la . T he d i s tance sb e tween t h e e as t c oa s t o f S pa in a nd t h e i s lands a r e s o s hor t t h a t t h ey h ave a lway s b een c ons ide red ag eog raph ic a nd h i s to r ica l u n i t , w i th t h e s ame c l ima to logy a nd aq u i te s im i la rc u l tu ra ld eve lopmen t . W i th am ean d i s tance o f2 00 km .f r om S pa in a nd 4 00 km . f r om t h e s ou th o f F rance ( F igu re l a ) , t h ey h ave b een e xposed t o t h e ir i nf luence s s i nce p reh i s to r ic t ime s . T he re a r et wo p r inc ipa lg eo log ica lc omponen t s i nt h e B a lea r ics . T he f i r s ti n c lude s Ma l lo rca , I b iza a nd F o rmen te ra a s ac on t inua t ion o ft h e moun ta in r anges o f t h e p en insu la . T he o t he ri n c lude st h ei s land o f Meno r ca w h ich i si nd i r ec tr e la t ion t ot h e moun ta in s y s tem o fC a ta lur ia a nd t h e Ampu r ian m a s s if . T he B a lea r ic I s land o f Ma l lo r ca , t h e p r inc ipa l s ub jec t o ft h is p ape r , i n c lude s f ou r p r inc ipa l g eog raph ic d iv is ions : t h e No r thern S ier ra s , t h e C en t ra l P la in , t h e S ou thea s te rn H i l ls a nd t h e N o r thea s te rn R ange . A l lo ft h em h ave t h e i re co log ica l a nd c l ima t ic p ecu l ia r i t ie s . T he S on O leza C oppe rA ge S e t t lemen ti sl o ca ted i n as ma l l v a l ley i n c luded i nt h e J u ra ss ic S ier ra o f t h e n o r th o f t h e I s land c a l led : P la d e l R e i , c l o se t ot h e s ma l l t own o fV a l ldemo ssa . We c an c on s ide rt h i s a r ea a so ne o ft h er i che s to ft h ew ho le S i e r ra whe re v ery l i t t le a gr icu l tu ra l a c t iv i ty c an b e f ound , B ecau se o fi t sr i chnes s a nd s t ra teg ic s i tua t ion , i tw a s p robab ly s e lec ted b y t h e B eake r P eop le t os e t u p a p ermanen t s e t t lemen t . T he re t h ey f ound ag ood p lace t od eve lop t h e i re conom ic a c t iv i t ie s ; ap l ace t h a t c ou ld b e e a s i ly d ef ended a nd f r om w h ich i tw a sp o ss ib le t o c on t ro lb o th l a nd a nd s e a( F igu r e2 ) . T he P re ta layo t ic P er iod a nd t he S on O leza C opper Age O ld S e t t lemen t ********

T he t e rm P re ta layo t ic h a s b een u sed b y l o ca l p reh is to r ians t od ef ine t h e l o ng p er iod o ft ime w h ich p receded t h e B a lea r ic B ronze A ge T a layo t ic c u l ture . I no ur o p in ion , t h i s t e rm m igh t b e q u i te c onfus ing b ecause i ti n c ludes a tl e a s t t h ree w e l l d i f f e ren t ia ted p e r iod s o ft ime . A cco rd ing t ot h e s cheme s e t u p b y W .H . Wa ld ren ( 1982 ) b a sed o n t h el a rge s t r a t ig raphy o fS on Ma tge , a sw e l la st h ei n tense s t udy o f o t he ri mpor tan tp laces s uch a s Mu le ta C ave , Muer to sG a l la rd a nd S on F e r rande l l O leza ,w ec an d iv ide t h e s o -caled P re ta layo t ic P e r iod i n to t h ree p ha se s :

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O x f ord I n t e rna t iona lW e s t e rn Med i t e r ranean B e l lB eak e rC onf e r enc e

-N eo l i th ic E a r ly C e ram ic P ha se ( NECP ) ,w i th t h ef i r s te v id ence o fc e ram ic t e chno logy , c i r ca 3 000 b c 2000 b c -E a r ly B eake r P ha se ( EBP ) , c i r ca 2 000 b e 1700 b c -L a te B eake r P ha se ( LBP ) , c i r ca 1 700 b c -1300 b c T h i sd i v is ion i ss uppo r ted b y al a rge c o l lec t ion o f C1 4 d a te sr e la ted n o to n ly t ot h e S on O leza C oppe rA ge s e t t lem en tb u tw i th s eve ra lo t he ri mpo r tan ts i te s , s u ch a st h e r o ck s h e l te ro fS on Ma tge a nd t h e Mu le t aC ave ( F igu r e l b ) . T he S on O leza C ha lco l i th ic s e t t lemen ti st h e mo s ts i gn if i can te xamp le o ft h eB eak e r i nf luence f ound i nt h eB a lea r ic I s land su n t i lt h ep r e sen t . I t sr ad ioca rbon d a te s ,f r om c i rca 2 000 b e t o c i rca 1 300 b e , c o inc ide w i th t h e t wo l a s t p er iod s d e sc r ibed a bove , a nd s how am in imum o f7 00 y ea r so fu n in te r rup t ed B eake ro ccupa t ion . T he a r ch i tec tu ra ln uc leu so ft h e s i te c on s i s t so f al ime s tone w a l led c ompound w i th a n i n te rna l a r ea o f3 606 m .2 a nd t wo e n t rance s . T he i nne r a r ch i te c tu ra l f e a tu r e s i n c lude f ou rp r inc ipa le l emen t s : AC en t ra l S tone S t ruc tu r e ,H yd rau l ic S y s tem w i th aWa te rB a s in a nd aC hanne l ,a nH ab i ta t iona la r ea a nd aT e r ra ce P la t fo rm . A l though s ome o ft h e b e t te rp re se rved p i eces o ff l in t w e re f ound i n s ide t h e w a l l c ompound , i ti sr ema rkab le t h a t t h e ma in c on t ingen t o ft h e O lez ian I ndu s t ry w a s f ound i nt h es u r round ing f i e ld sw he re t h ea g r i cu l tu ra la c t iv i t ie sw e re d eve loped ( s ee I nven to ry ) . T he O r ig in o f t he S our ces * ******* T he f i r s tp rob lem w e e ncoun te red w hen w e s t a r ted t h e s t udy o ft h e O lez ian l i th ic i ndu s t ry w a st od e te rm ine t h eo r ig in o ft h er aw m a te r ia l : We h ad av e ry s pe c ia lk i nd o fi ndu s t ry i n wh ich av ery s pe c ia l k ind o fr aw ma te r ia l h ad b een s e lec ted : t h e t a bu la r f l in t . B u t w e d id n o t k now f r om w he re i to r ig ina ted . T h i s l a ck o f i n forma t ion made u s c on s ide r t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o f t r ade f r om t h e ma in land , b u t i t s e emed r a the ra b su rd b e cau se w ek new o ft h ee x i s tence o fo t he rn on tabu la rs ou r ce s a nd i ndu s t r ie sa r ound t h ei s land ( F igu re 2 ) . F o r tuna te ly , i nt h ec ou r se o ft h el a s ty ea ra ne no rmou s d epo s i to fn a tu ra lf l in tw a s f ound , t h e l a rge s t f i nd i nt h e B a lea r e s t od a te . I tw a s l o ca ted i nt h e m idd le o ft h e I s land ,c l o se t ot h ev ilage o fS ance l la s a nd i n c luded t h ek i nd o ft a bu la r ma t e r ia lw e w e r el o ok ing f o r , a sw e l la ss ome s amp le so ft h es ame i n du s t ry i nd i f f e r en ts t age so f i t sw o rk ( F igu r e2 ) . T hen w ef ound n o to n ly ap o s s ib le o r ig in o ft h e s ou r ce sb u ta w o rk a r ea ,a t ad i s tance o fa bou t2 0l am s .f r om o u rs e t t lemen t . U nfo r tuna te ly d u r ing a nc ien ta nd moder nt ime st h i sz one h ad b een u nde ri n ten s ive a g r icu l tu ra la c t iv i ty a nd i tw a sn o tp o s s ib le t os t a r t as y s tema t ic s t udy o ft h es i te i t se l f .

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C . Mor e l !O r land i s &A .Q uero lS aga s ta

T he t a bu la r f l in t w a s s e lec ted f r om t h e o the r s , a l so a va i lab le i nt h e s ame p l ace , b ecause i tw a se a s ie rt ob ew o rked . T of i nd ap i ece w i th t h ea pp rop r ia te p ropo r t ion s w a st h e ma in p rob lem b u t , i fw ec ons ide r t h ed imen s ion so ft h ed epo s i t ,i tw a sn o t ab i gp rob lem .T hen i t st r ansfo rma t ion i n to at o o lw a sq u i te s imp le s i nce t h em a te r ia l d i dn o tn eed a ny p re l im ina ry p repa ra t ion . A cco rd ing t ot h ef i nd ing s ,w ec an s ay t h a tt h em a te r ia lw a s wo rked b o th i nS ancela s a nd S on O leza i t se lf w he re s ome b roken p i eces h ave b een f ound w h ich h ad b een t h rown o u t a nd n ever b ecame t oo ls , a s w e l l a s al a rge q uan t i ty o fs ma l l r e s idua l f l ake s . B u t u n t i l w e h ave b e t te r i n forma t ion a bou t S ance l la s a nd i t s c u l tura l c omponen t s ,i tw i l l n o tb ep os s ib le t ok now i ft h e s i te b e longed t ot h e s ame p eop le o ri ft h e re w a s s ome k ind o ft r ade b e tween d i f f e ren te t hn ic g roups . I nf a c tw eh ave f ound a tl e a s tt wo d i f f e ren ti ndus t r ie si nt h e s u r round ing so fS ance l la sw h ich s e em t ob e long t od i f f e ren tc u l tu ra lt r ad i t ion s . T heor e t ica l S tages o f t he S hap ing F l in t * ******* We h ave n o t iced ,e xpe r imen t ing w i th t a bu la rf l in tc om ing f r om S ancela s ,t h a tt h e r e a r e t h ree d i f f e ren t s t ages o ff l ak ing w o rk f o r t h e b l ade s o fS on O leza . T he mo re s oph i s t ica ted o ft h e se ,t h es i ck les , s u f f e red t h e se t h ree p ha se so ft r an sfo rma t ion ,b u t s ome o the r s s u f f e red o n ly o ne o rt wo . A t f i r s t i tw a s n ece ssa ry t oc hange t h e s hape o f t h e n a tu ra l ly s e lec ted p iece i n to s ome th ing mo re r e la ted t ot h ed es i red t oo l ( F igu r e 1 2 ) . F o rt h is p re l im inary w o rk , s t rong h a rnme r s tone s made w i th f l in t ,q ua rz i te o ro the rm a te r ia ls w e re u sed . S ome o ft h e se h amme r ss how ing t h ee f f ec t so ft h eb l ow sw e r ef ound i nt h ee nv i ron so ft h e s i te . T he r e su l tw a s ap i ece w i th as im i la rs hape a nd p ropo r t ions o ft h ed e s i r ed t oo l w i th a b i fac ia l ly wo rked c rude e dge . T he f l akes r emoved i n t h is w ay h ave p rom inen t a nd c oncen t ra ted b u lbs o f p e rcu ss ion a nd t h e f u tu re c u t t ing e dge o r w o rk ing s i de o f t h e t oo ls s hows a pp rox ima te a ng le s o f 4 52 w i th r e spec t t o t h e p r inc ipa lp l ane ( F igu re 3 ) . S ome t imes t h e p i ece w a s b roken i n t h is p re l im ina ry s t age b e ing t h rown o u t o r t r ansfo rmed i n to ad i f f e ren to ne . S ome s amp le so ft h e se r e jec ted p i eces h ave b een f ound s how ing n ot r aces o fu sage w h ich m igh ts ugge s to t he rp o s s ib le f unc t ion s . I n s ome c a ses t h ese b roken u n i ts w e re u sed a s s c rape r s , s ma l l k n ives o r t o make c ompo sed s i ck le s . As of th amme rs t age o fs hap ing f l in tg ave t h ei n s trumen ti t sd ef in i te f o rm . N ow i t w a s n eces sa ry t oc on t ro lt h ei n tens i ty o ft h e f l ak ing b l ows a sw e l l a st h e a ng le so f p e r cu ss ion . I tw a s i mpe ra t ive t og i ve a l te rna t ive b lows o fc on s tan t f o rce o n b o th s i de o ft h e l am ina w i th as t roke r o fb one , w ood o r s o f t s t one s . S amp le s o ft h e se h amme r s w e re f ound m ade f r om d i f f e ren t k ind s o f s ands tone c om ing f r om t h e n ea rby c oa s t . I n t h is c a se t h e b u lbs w ere mo re d i f fused a nd s ome t ime s a lmo s t i nv is ib le t ot h ee ye . W i th t h is t e chn ique i tw a se a s ie rt og i ve t h et oo l aq u i te s ha rp c u t t ing e dge . K n ives a nd i n c iso r s n eeded o n ly t h ese t wo s t ages o f w o rk b u t s i ck les s uf f e red a no the r a nd d ef in i t ive t r ansfo rma t ion : t h e d en t s o f i t s wo rk ing s i des w e re

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O xf ord I n t e rna t iona l We s t e rn Med i t e r ranean B e l lB eak e rC onf e r ence

a c cen tua ted b y p r e s su r ei no rde rt og i ve t h em ap e r f ec tu n i fo rm i ty a nd t om ake t h e e dge s t ra igh te r . T h is l a s t d ress ing w o rk w a s p robab ly d one b y t a pp ing w i th a p i ece o fb one , h a rdwood o rs t one ( F igu r e3 ) . When at o o l w a sb l un ted b yt h ee f f ec to fi t su se ,i tw a sr e -edged b o th b yp e r cu s s ion a nd p r e s su r e f l ak ing . S ome o ft h e f l in ti mp lemen t sc om ing f r om S on O leza s how t h is r e -edg ing , e spec ia l ly t ho se w h ich w e re u sed o ve r al ong p e r iod a nd c on sequen t ly w e r e mo r ed amaged . T he P rob lem o f P a t ina t ion ********

A s ac on sequence o ft h en a tu ra lc ond i t ion so ft h es e t t lemen t ,l o ca ted i n av e ry h um id z one w i th ah i gh d eg ree o fp luv io s i ty , a nd h av ing as t ra t ig r aph ica lc apa c i ty o fo n ly 5 0 cm . a pp rox ima te ly , t h e f l in to fS on O leza h ad b een e xpo sed f o r al o ng t ime t o a tmo sphe r ic e f f ec t s . T he a c id i nr a in w a te rc omb ined w i th o the re a r th a nd v ege ta l c omponen t sh ad c hanged t h ec hem ica lc ompo s i t ion o ft h el i n t . A l lt h em a t e r ia l sh ave s u f f e red t o al e sse r o r g r ea te r d eg ree t h i s p henomenon o fp a t ina t ion w h ich h a s c hanged t h eo r ig ina ls u r f a ce si n to o paque w h i te c r u s t s mak ing m i c rowea rs t udy o fa l a rge p a r t o ft h e i ndu s t ry a lmo s t i mpo s s ib le . I n s ome p i ece s t h e p a t ina t ion i ss o a dvanced t h a tt h ew o rk ing e dge sh ave b een a lmo s td e s t royed a nd i ti sv e ry d i f f icu l t t od educe t h e o r ig ina l f unc t ion o ft h e t o o l . F o r tuna te ly s ome o ft h e p i e ce s a r e i n q u i te ag ood s t a te o f c onse rva t ion a nd h ave h e lped i n t h e e s tab l i shmen t o f a n O lez ian F l in tT ypo logy w h ich h e lp s i nt h e s t udy o ft h e mo re s t rong ly d e te r io ra ted o ne s . T he L i th ic T ypo logy o f t he S on O leza A ssemb lage *********

T he f l in tt o o la s semb lage f r om t h eS on O leza C oppe rA ge s e t t lem en t( F igu r e s4 11 ) c on s i s t s ma in ly o fb i f ac ia l ly w o rked b l ade s m ade w i th t a bu la rf l in t . T he p r inc ipa l e l emen t o f t h is i ndus t ry i s al a rge c o l lec t ion o f s i ck les f ound b o th i n s ide t h e c ompound w a l l s y s tem a nd i nt h ea d jacen tf i e ld s . B e s ide s ,d i f f e r en tk i nd so fo t he r t o o l s h ave b een f ound s uch a sk n ive s , i n c i so r s , p o s s ib le b l ade s c rape r s a nd o t he r s mo re d i f f icu l t t oc l a s s ify . F o r c l a s s if ica t ion i n to d i f f e ren t g roup s w e h ave p a id s pec ia la t ten t ion t ot h ec a ref u lo b se rva t ion a nd s t udy o ft h ed amage i nc u t t ing e dge s a nd w o rk ing s i de s o ft h e t oo l s . I nt h e b e t te rp rese rved o ft h em i tw a s p o s s ib le t o f i nd m ic rowea rt r a ce so fu sage b u ti to n ly h e lped t od ef ine a nd c onf i rm t h e n ew ly e s tab l i shed t y po logy . F o r d ep ic t ing t h i s n ew t y po logy w e h ave t r i ed s ome o ft h e mo s t s i gn if ican t a nd b e t te rc on se rved p i ece sf r om t h ew ho le i n ven to ry a nd c r ea ted at y po log ica lf i le . I n e ve ry c a se , w eh ave d e sc r ib ed mo rpho logy a nd s t a te o fc on se rva t ion o ft h ep o s s ib le t o o la nd t h en d e te rm ined i t sp o s s ib le e conom ic f unc t ion .

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B ib l iography * ****** G enera l H is tory F e ranandez -M i randa , M . a nd Wa ld ren , W . , 1 974 . ' E l A b r igo d e S on Ma tge yl a P e r iod iza c i6n d el aP reh i s to r ia Ma l lo rqu ina Med ian t ee lA nä l i s i sd e l C a rbono 1 4 ' ,T raba jo sd eP r eh i s tor ia 2 1 ,P a lma d e Ma l lo r ca . R o s se l lo B o rdoy , G . , 1 975 . ' L a P reh is to r ia d e Ma l lo r ca ' ,T raba jo s d e l Mu seo d e Ma l lor ca 1 ,P a lma d e Ma l lo r ca . Wa ld ren , W .H . , 1 982 . ' Ba lea r ic P reh is to r ic E co logy a nd C u l tu re ' , B .A .R . I n t . S er ie s 1 49 ,B r i t i sh A r chaeo log ica lR epo r t s , O x fo rd . L i th ic T echno logy B e rgman , C .A . , B a r ton , R .N .E . , C o l lcu t t , S .N . a nd Mo r r i s , G . 1 986 . ' I n t en t iona l B reakage i n aL a te U pper P a laeo l i th ic A s semb lage f rom S u ther s , E ng land , O x fo rd . C ook , J .a nd Meek s , N .D . , 1 982 . ' G lo s s a nd U se -wea r T race s o n F l in t S i ck le s a nd S im la r P henomena ' , J ourna l o f A rchaeo log ica l S c ience 9 , L ondon , p p . 3 17 -40 . K ee ley , L .H . a nd N ewcome r , M .H . , 1 977 . ' M ic rowea r A na ly s i s o fE xpe r imen ta l F l in t T oo l s : AT es t C a se ' , J ourna l o fA rchaeo log ica l S c ience 4 , L ondon , p p . 2 9 -62 . Know le s , B . , 1 976 . ' S tone Wo rke r 's P rog re s s . AS tudy o fS tone I mp le -men t s i n t h e P i t t R ive r s Mu seum ' , i nT .K . P enn iman a nd B .M . B lackwood ( e d s . )O cca s iona lP aper so nT echno logy 6 ,O x fo rd . O ak ley , K .P . , 1 975 . ' Man t h e T oo l Make r ' , T he T ru s t ee s o ft h e B r i t i sh Mu seum • ( Na tu ra lH i s tory ) , L ondon . P i t t s , M . , 1 980 . ' L a te r S tone I mp lemen t s ' , S h ire A rchaeo logy , S e r ie s No . 1 4 , L ondon . S emenov , S .A . , 1 981 . ' T ecno log ia P reh is tor ica ( E s tud io d e l a s H e r ram ien ta s a T rave s d e l a s H ue l la s d e U so ) ' , AKAL IUn iver s i tar ia No . 6 . , Mad r id . U nge r -Ham i l ton , R . , 1 985 . ' M ic ro scop ic S t r ia t ion s o n F l in t S i ck le B lade s a s a n I nd ica t ion o f P lan t C u l t iva t ion : P re l im ina ry R esu l t s ' , Wor ld A rchaeo logy , V o l . 1 7 , N o . 1 ,L ondon ,p p . 1 21 -26 .

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C . Mor e 1 1O r land i s &A .Q ue ro lS aga s ta

Wa t son , W . , 1 975 . ' F l in t I mp lemen t s ' , T he T rus tee s o f t h e B r i t ish Mu seum . L ondon . B a lear ic F l in t P ons Moya , J . , C o l l C onesa , J .a nd C a rbone l l , E . , 1 982 . ' L a I ndu s t r ia e n Hex d e lJ ac imen t al ' A i re L l iu r e d e l az ona d e lR af a ld e s P o rc -Cova d e s D rac ( San tany - Ma l lo rca ) ,E nd in s8 ,D e se cmb re . P ons Moya , J .a nd C o l l C one sa , J . , 1 984 . ' L e s I ndus tr ies L i t ique s d e l J ac imen t s a l ' A i re L l iu re d e l aZ ona d e S an tany ( Ma l lo rca ) ' i nW . Wa ld ren , R . C hapman , J . L ew thwa i te a nd R -C . K enna rd ( ed s . ) , T he D eya C onf erence o fP reh i s tory , B .A .R . I n t . S e r ie s2 29 ( i i ) . O xfo rd . Wa ld ren , W . , S ande r s , E .A .C . a nd C o l l C onesa , J . , 1 984 . ' The L i th ic I ndus t ry o f t h eB a lea r ic I s land s . . . I t sO lez ian T rad i t ion o fT ab lu la rF l in tB lade s ' , i n W . Wa ld ren , R . C hapman , J .L ew thwa i te a nd R -C . K enna rd ( eds . ) , T he Deya C onf erence o fP reh is tory , B .A .R . I n t . S e r ie s 2 29 ( i i ) . O xfo rd .

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L i s t o f I l lus tra t ions * ****** F igure

l a .

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Map : D i s t r ibu t ion o fB a lea r ic B eake rS t a t ion s

F igure 2 . F igure 3 . F igure s

Map : F l in tD i s t r ibu t ion i n Ma l lo rca . O lez ian L i th ic I ndus try : R en tab i l i ty C ha r t

4 -1 . O lez ian L i th ic S hape s

F igure 1 2 .

Hypo the t ica l R econs truc t ion : aF l in t S i ck le .

T he B a lear ic ! I o lando a nd t he ARC O F I MMED IATE I NFLUENCE i n Re la t ionsh ip t o t he D ietribu t ion o f I ber ian .B el l B eaker C u ltura l G roup.

D is tr ibut ion o f B a learic B eaker S ta t ior u 3 w ith a nd w ithou t R ad iocarbon _ D ocu m en ta t ion . *14c S ite'

0 1 WI NABBC

F IGURE 1

2 95

F lint Imp le ments o f t he Ba lear ic I s land o f Mallorca

°

0 TO 338 13 Y erds

A lcud ia

°Son T orre I la °

Mu le ta G ran

°S on O leza

S ance l les

o C I

O lez ian t rad it ion M eso l ith ic t rad it ion

oE s V e lar R afa l d e l

P orcs a °Cova B runo j ° on v ives S an tany I

Ns t e

S an tany I

C o mment :There a re two ma in f l int c oncentrat ions o nt he I s land , T he f irst a nd more i mportant i s l ocated i n t he n orthern S ierras a nd t he s econd i n t he e xtre me s outh . B etween t hese , j ust i n t he m idd le o f t he I s land i s f ound t he f l int f ie ld o f S ance l les where p oss ib le o r ig in o f t he s ources h as r ecent ly b een f ound .

F IGURE 2 2 96

O lez ian L ithic I ndustry R entability C hart

T ota l

T ota l I ndustry 4 2%

2 500 -

2 000 —

i v

3 0%

2 8%

c o

5 498 .48 g rn-ti

g rm -

C ores

1 536 .50

T ab .Cor

2 328 .05 g rm -

F lak :es

1 633 .93 g rm .

1 500 —

1 000

-

5 00 15 36 .50 g .

1 633 .93 F lakes

2 328 .05 q .

C ores

T ab .Cor -

g .

T ota l

3 271.30 g rm .

T ab .Cor

2 078 .33

F lakes

L c °res

2 078 .33 g . T ab .Cor

7 38 .47 g . F lakes

g rm .

7 38 .47 g rrn .

I 454.50

g rm .

4 54 .50 g .

C ores

C omment : A s d ep icted i n t hese two c har ts , t he ma in e lement o f t he O lez ian i mp le ments were made w ith t abu lar f l int . We must a ssume t hat

al arge p art o f t he f lakes were r emoved f rom

t abu lar c ores a nd t he c ore g roup i tse lf i s ma in ly c o mposed o f f l int h ammerstones .

F IGURE 3 2 97

O lezian L ithic I ndustry

S HAPE

1

T ec :hn ica l D ata n /0

F0 548 •1 3 .10

mw m. t . wt .

:3 .70 :1 .30 5 0 . 1 30 gm .

D escr ipt ion C ore T abu lar c ore F lake C or tex V . N at .Co lour B lack G rey B rown Y e l low O ther P at inat ion H igh L ow ' Work H ard h am i l le r • S oft h a m mer c omment : T h is t ype r epresents t he most c omp lete s ick le f ound i n t he S on O leza C opper A ge S ett lement .

O ne o f t he

P ressure

•

M f

L I •

L uster

most r e markab le c haracter ist ics o ft h is mode l i s i ts

P o l ish

l ustrous c utt ing e dge

F ragment .

f ound i n c erea ls

c aused

a nd o ther c u lt ivated p lants .

a lso i mportant t o o bserve t hat d a mage we

t he n atura l s i l icon

f ound

i ti s

p o lish i s t he k ind o f

o n t he work ing

s ides

i nstruments .

o f t hese

O ld N ew N atura l I n tent iona l A natom ic

F IGURE 4 2 98

O lez ion L ithic I ndustry

2

S HAPE

T ec :hn ica l D ata n io

F0 548 : 1 3 .10

M. W .

:

3 .70

M .t .

:

1 .30

Wt .

:5 0 .00

D escr ipt ion C ore T abu lar c ore F lake

E l

C : ortex V . N at .Co lour B lack G rey B rown Y e l low

E l E l • E l

O ther P at inat ion H igh L ow Work H ard h a mmer • S oft h am mer P ressure M t O f L uster P o l ish F ragment . C omment : Th is t ype s hows s ome c harac ter ist ics f ound i n s ick les s uch a s i ustrous ity a nd p o lish o n work ing s ides . U n like t he f irst mode l„ b oth s ides o f t he l am ina h ave b een u sed a nd

a re more

d amaged . P robab ly t h is

s ick le was u sed f or a l ong p er iod o f t i me . FI GURE 5 2 99

O ld N ew N atura l I n tent iona l A n

O lezion L th ic I n dustrg

S HAPE-

3

T echn ica l D ata n io

1 51 0 038

Mi . M. W .

3 .90 : 2 .90

M .t . :

1 . 370

t. • 1.10 D escr ipt ion C ore

T abu lar c ore F lake C or tex V . N at C o lour 5 1a ck G reg B rown Y e llow O ther P at inat ion H igh C o mment : T h is i so ne o f t he most c o mmon t ypes r ound i n t he S on O leza C opper A ge

S ett lemen t . S evera l e xamp les o f

t h is mode l h ave b een f ound b oth i ns ide t he c ompound wa l l s ystem a s we ll a s t he

a djacent

sma l l p ieces h ave a l l t he t yp ica l

f ie lds . T hese

c haracter ist ics o f

s ick les a nd p robab ly r epresent sma ll f ragments u sed t o make c o mposed

s ick les a nd

s o met i mes u sed a s

sma l l s crapers . T h is mode l

E l

L ow

i s

f ound

Work H ard h a mmer .1 1 S oft h a mmer • P ressure M f 5 1 L uster P o lish F ragment .

i n a l most a l l

t he s ett lements

w ith t abu lar f l int l ocated o nt he i s land o f M a llorca .

O ld N ew N atura l I n tent iona l A natom ic

F IGURE 6 3 00

•

O lezion L ithic I ndustry

S HAPE

4

T echn ica l D ata F0 310 9 .70 • 3 .40 : 1 .40 :4 3 .50

D escr ipt ion C ore . r abu lar

c ore

F lake C ortex V . N at .Co lour B lack G rey B rown Y e llow O ther P at inat ion H igh

L ow

E l

C omment : We h ave d ef ined t h is p iece a s ' Super ior S ick le e xtreme ' t ipe b ecause i t

s eems t o h ave b een c u t

o ne o f i ts e xtremes t o f ac i litate o r b one h and le . A lthough a bout t h is

o n

a ssemb l ing t o e i wood

we a re n ot a bso lute ly c er ta in

p oss ib le f unct ion , s uccessfu ll

e xper i ments

h ave b een made u s ing e xact c op ies o f t h is p iece . I n s p ite o f aq u ite

i mportant

d egree o f p at inat ion „ t h is i s o ne

o f t he b etter p reserved p ieces

o f t he

who le c o l lect ion

a nd o ne o f t he k eystones o ft he s tudy o f t he work p rocess o f t he O lez ian t abu lar f l int .

H ard h a mmer S oft h am mer P ressure M f O f L uster P o l ish F ragment . 0 1d N ew N atura l I n tent iona l A n

F IGURE 7

3 01

N. 1E1 11 111 1

Work

g lezian L ithic I ndustry

S HAPE T echn ica l D ata n /o

F SF 0 068

1 . 1 .

5 .20

M .w

2 .40

Mt .

1 . 10 1 2 .60

D esch t C ore T abu lar c ore F lake C or tex V . P 4 at .Co lour Hack G rey B rown Y e l low O ther P at inat io n H igh L ow H ard h a mmer

C o mment : T h is mode l

11 1 111 EN I ZIO

Work

c o mp le ments

S hape 4 a nd

d ef ined a s ' I nfer ior S ick le E xtreme

t h is

h as b een

o r a sse mb l inp p iece .

I n a sma l l a rea o f t he s uper ior e xtre me o ft h is f ragment we f ound t he s ame l uster

a nd p o lish

c haracter ist ic o f

t he s ick les . B ut i n t he i nfer ior a rea , two b ig mort ises h ad b een s truck o ut t o f ac ilitate t he a sse mb lage t o a h and le

S oft h ammer P ressure M I O f L uster P o lish F ragment .

w ith p erhaps a s tr ing .

O ld N ew N atura l I n tent iona l A natom ic

F IGURE a

3 02

O lezian L ithic I ndustry

S HAPE

6

T echn ica l D ata

D escr ipt ion C ore t at iu lar c ore F lake C or tex V . N at .C oI o ur B lack G rey B rown Y e l low O ther P at inat ion H igh C omment :

L ow n ot f ind

t he

l uster

a nd p o lish

s o c o mmon i n t he i mp lements r e lated w ith a gr icu ltura l a ct iv it ies . I n t h is c ase t he work ing a rea h as b een made b y s harpen ing o ne o f i ts e xtre mes . We b e lieve t hat t h is k ind o f i nstrument

were

u sed a s i nc isors o r p erhaps

sma l l k n ives . T here a re

s amp les o f

t h is mode l

n ot o n ly i n t he S on

O leza C opper A ge S ett le ment b ut i n

M u leta C ave . I t i s

r emarkab le t hat t he c utt ing e dge i s v ery we l l p reserved a nd t he work b reakage r e lates t he t oo l more w ith s oft mater ia ls t han h ard o nes .

Work H ard h a mmer S oft h ammer P ressure M f D f L uster P o l ish F rac iment . O ld N ew N atura l I n tent iona l A n

F IGURE 9

3 03

33 IE l3 1 3I

I n t h is mode l we d o

O lezian L ithic i ndustry

S HAPE

7

T echn ica l D ata n /o

:F0 311

M . 1 .

:6 .00

Mt .

5 .30 :1 . 70

W t .

:6 0 .0O

D escr ipt ion C ore T abu lar c ore F lake C or tex V . N at .Co lour B lack G rey B rown Y e l low O ther P at inat ion H igh

•

L ow I v sork H ard h ammer • C o mment : f ound

Al arge q uant ity o f b ig f lakes h ave b een

i ns ide a nd i n

t he s urround ings o f S on O leza .

S oft h ammer D P ressure

T hey a re p robab ly r ejected f lakes o f t he h ard h ammer

I i i

s tage o f

O f

were

t he f l int

work ing .

H owever , s ome o f t hem

t o ac erta in d egree more o r l ess r etouched a nd

u sed a s s crapers , sma ll k n ives - o r

o ther i nstru ments .

L uster P o l ish

i n t h is mode l t he p at inat ion i s a dvanced a nd i ti s q u ite

F ragment

d iff icu lt t o d educe h ow t he t oo l was u sed .

o ld N ew N atura l i n tent iona l A n

F i6URE

3 04

L I L i E I L I

O lezian L ithic I ndustry

S HAPE

8

T echn ica l D ata n /o

-F SF 0 074 : 4 .65

Mw .

3 .40

M .t . : Wt .

2 .00

:2 8 .70

D escr ipt ion C ore T abu lar c ore F lake C or tex V . N at .Co lour B lack G rey E lm e i tn Y e l low O ther P at inat ion H igh C omment : T h is mode l i s

t he o n ly o ne f ound u nt il t he

L I

I . ow Work

k now t he f unct ion o f t he p iec . :e , i t must t ypo log ica lly

H ard h a mmer

b e d ef ined a s a sma l l b roken h and a xe .

S oft h am mer P ressure [ i f L uster F ragment O ld N ew N atura l I n tent iona l A n

F IGURE 11 3 05

DS I EEJLJ U

p resent i n S on O leza . A lthough i t i s v ery d iff icu lt t o

C omment F or t h is r econstruct ion we u sed two o f t he b etter p reserved u n its a nd t hen c omputer L ater

we made a h ypotet ica l d es ign o f a h and le .

e xper i ments w ith c op ies

made w ith p laster s howed u s t hat s uch a sse mb lages were make .

F IGURE

3 06

e asy t o

T he P o t tery D i s tr ibu t ion S ta t i s t ics f rom t he F errand e l l -O leza C opper Age O ld S e t t lemen t

S r . J o sep F .E n se f ia t D r .W i l l iam H . Wa ld ren D eya A r chaeo log ica l Museum a nd R e sea r ch C en t re D eya , Ma l lo rca , B a lea re s , S pa in . Abs trac t * ***** The a r tefac ts , t h e i r n umbe r , v a r ie ty a nd d i s t r ibu t ion , t h roughou t t h e d i f fe ren t a r chaeo log ica ls e c to r so ft h e F e r rande l l -O leza C oppe rA ge O ld S e t t lemen t ,r e po r ted o n e a r l ie r i nt h i s v o lume , d o w e l l i nl e nd ing t h em se lves t oc ompu te r ised s t udy . T h is i ss o f o r an umbe r o f r e la ted f a c to r s : ( 1 ) b ecause o f t h e s i te 's p a r t icu la r s t ra t ig raph ica lc ond i t ions , ( 2 ) t o po log ica l g rad ien t s , ( 3 ) a r ch i tec tu ra l a r rangemen t s a nd g ene ra l g eome t r ica lp l an o ft h e s i te . Wh i le s im i la rs t a t i s t ica l a pp roache sh ave b een c a r r ied o u t e l sewhe re ( e .g . Wa ld r en 1 982 , K un s t t h is c onf e rence a nd G a su l l , L u l l a nd S anahu ja 1 984 , ar e cen t B a lea r ic s t udy ) , t h is i st h e f i r s t s uch r e sea rch c onduc ted o nB a lea r ic C oppe rA ge m a te r ia l s . D iscussed h e re a s ap r e l im ina ry r epo r t ,t h ec u r ren ts t udy i st h ef i r s t s t age i n al a rge r s e r ies o f c ompu te r b a sed s t a t is t ica l d i s t r ibu t ion s t ud ies o f t h e p o t te ry a nd o the r F e r rande l l -O leza C oppe rA ge a r tef ac t ; i n c lud ing t h ec ompu te r ised s t a t i s t ica lc oun t s o n t h e a n ima l b ones f r om t h e s i te . T he e xamp les e xam ined h e re c on s is t o f mo re t h an 1 30 ,000 C oppe r Age c ommon w a re p o t te ry f r agmen t s , r ep resen t ing many h und red so fv e s se l s ,i n c lud ing a pp rox ima te ly 8 50 d eco ra ted B eake rf r agmen t s . T he n a tu re o f t h e p o t te ry d epo s i t ion , a l ong w i th t h e o the r a r tefac ts a nd a n ima l r ema ins i n t h e F er rande l l -O leza O ld S e t t lemen t i s s uch t ha t t h e ir d i s t r ibu t ion t h roughou t t h e s i te a r ea s c an b e a ccoun ted f o ri n an umbe ro fw ay s , t h e o r ig ins o f w h ich a r et h er e su l to fb o th n a tu ra l a sw e l la s man -made d epo s i t ions . T he se n a tu ra l a nd a r t if ic ia l a genc ies r ef lec t an umbe ro fd epo s i t iona l o r ig in s , s uch a s( a ) e ro s ive r e su l t si nt e rm so fg ene ra le l emen ta le xpo su re ( r a inf a l l , w ind a nd s un l igh t ) , ( b )p l an t a nd r oo ta c t ion ( g row th a nd c hem ica l s y s tem s ) , ( c ) a g r icu l tu ra l a c t iv i t ie s( p low a nd g ene ra l t r af f ic ) a nd f i na l ly ( d ) h ab i ta t ion a nd b u i ld ing a c t iv i t ies ( i n t i t ia l a nd s ucce s s ive a l te ra t ions ) . T he ma in p hy s ica l c ha rac te r is t ic o ft h e S FO -OS s i te , h oweve r , i so ne o f ah igh ly e roded c ha rac te r ,p i tched g rad ien ta nd l i nea l o rh o r izon ta ld epo s i t ion ,r a the rt h an a v e r t ica lo ne . T h is i nt u rn h a sb een l e f tu ncomp l ica ted b yt h ei n t rus ion o rd i f f icu l t ie s

3 07

J .E n se f i a ta nd W . Wa ld ren

i nr e ad ing as ucces s ion o fs t ra ta o fw ide ly d i f f e ren tc h rono log ica l h o r izons ; w he re s uch c ond i t ions m igh t h ave r e su l ted i n l e ve l i n te rm ix ing d ue t o e ro s ion o r w ea ther ing d own o f t h e s t ra ta i n to o ne a no the r o ve r t ime . Ar e su l t t h a t s o o f ten o ccur s , f o r e xamp le , i n s ou the rn F rench s i tes . T h i s i st o s ay t h a t t h e m a ter ia ls c o l lec ted f r om t h e v a r ious s e c to r s a nd z ones o f t h e s i te b e long t o as i ng le a r chaeo log ica lc on tex t ; a l though o ne o fe x tens ive o ccupa t iona ld u ra t ion a nd o ne i n w h ich i ti sp o ss ib le t oo b serve a tl e a s t t h ree a nd p o s s ib ly f ou rd i s t ingu i shab le t ime p hases : a l l w i th in t h e B a lea r ic P re ta layo t ic C oppe r a nd I n i t ia l B ronze A ge s , c i rca 2 000 b c t oc i rca 1 300 b e . T he m e thodo logy u sed c ons is t s o fe xcava t iona l a nd c ompu te r i sed r e co rd ing o n a s qua re m e ter q uad ran t b y s qua re m e te r q uad ran t b a s is a nd u t i l is ing a c t iv i ty z one c ompar isons a s w e l l a s s upe r q uad ran t c ompar isons - p o t tery f r agmen t s i nt h is i n s tance - f e a tu re a nd b ody s he rds c oun ts a nd w e igh t s o f a r tefac ts . T e r ra in g r ad ien t s , n a tu ra l o r a r ch i tec tu ra l f e a tur e o b s tac le s a nd o the rn a tu ra l a nd a r t if i c ia l a genc ies a r e s t ud ied a nd d i scu ssed i nr e la t ionsh ip t oi nd iv idua l a r ea s a nd o ve ra l l d epo s i t ion , a sw e l l a sa r t ifac tp re serva t ion f a c to r s . I tp r esen t s t h i sd a ta i nc ompu te r p r in t -ou tg r aph ics a si lu s t ra ted b y s pec ia l s t a t i s t ica lc ompu te rp rog ramme s a nd o n t h e b a s is o ft h e se p roposes c e r ta in o b se rva t ions a nd p rov is iona l c onc lus ion s . I ti s b e l ieved t ha t t he me thodo logy u sed h as b een t h e b es t s t ra tegy u nde r t h e c u r cum s tance s ; e spec ia l ly w he re s e ve re e r o s ion o ft h es i te h a st a ken p l ace .

Two s epa ra te e xcava t iona la r ea sa nd c on tex t sa r ec on s ide red i nt h i s s t udy w h ich a r e a sf o l lows : ( 1 ) As e lec ted n umbe ro fi nd iv idua l s i te s e c to r sw i th in t h e w a l led c ompound a nd i t s i nne r a r ch i tec tura l s t ruc tures , g ene ra l ly d ef ined a s t h e O ld S e t t lemen t ( OS ) . ( 2 ) T he a r ea k nown a s t h e Wes t O ld S e t t lemen t (WOS ) ; ar e fuse a r ea s i tua ted t ot h es ou thwe s to ft h ep r inc ipa ls e t t lemen t .

3 08

I n troduc t ion ****** As e xam ined e a r l ie r i nt h is v o lume , t h e l a rge n umbe r , v a r ie ty a nd g ene ra l a nd s p ec if i cd i s t r ibu t ion o ft h ea r t e f ac t st h roughou tt h ed i f f e r en ta r chaeo log ica ls e c to r so f t h eF e r rande l l -O leza C oppe rA ge O ld S e t t lemen t l e nd t h em se lve sp a r t i cu la r ly w el t o c ompu te r i sed s t udy . T h is i s s o f o r an umbe r o f i n te r re la ted f a c to r s f u r the r e l abo ra ted o nh e re o ve rt h o se s t a ted mo re s imp ly i nt h ea b s t rac ta bove .T he i rs pec ia l a pp l icab i l i ty i sd ue t ot h ef olow ing f a c to r s : ( 1 )B ecau se o ft h es i t e 's s t ra t ig r aph ica lc ond i t ion s ,u ncomp l ica ted a st h ey a r e b y t h e d i ff i cu l t ie s o fi n te rm ix ing f ound i nt h e mo re n o rma l s ucce s ion o f s t r a ta r ep re sen t ing w ide ly d i f f e ren tc h rono log ica lh o r izon s , t h es t udy o ft h e s i te 's a r tefac t d i s t r ibu t ion i sg rea t ly s imp l if ied . T h i s i st o s ay t h a t t h e ma te r ia l sc o l lec t ed f r om t h ev a r iou ss e c to r sa nd z one so ft h es i te b e long t oa p r ima r i ly s i ng le a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t ; a l though o ne o f e x tens ive o ccupa t iona ld u ra t ion ,a nd o ne i nw h ich i ti sp o s s ib le t od i s t ingu i sh c e r ta in ly t h ree p ha se sa nd p o s s ib ly f ou rd i f f e r en tc h rono log ica lp ha se s ; a l lw i th in t h e B a lea r ic P r e ta layo t ic C oppe ra nd I n i t ia lB ronze A ge ,c i r ca 2 000 b c t oc i rca 1 300 b e . ( 2 ) T opo log ica l g r ad ien t s : t h e ma in p hy s ica l c ha ra c te r i s t ics o ft h e s i te a r e t ho se o f ah i gh ly e r oded c ha rac te r , w i th ap i tched g rad ien t a nd l i nea l o r h o r izon ta l d epo s i t ion . T he o r ig in s a nd n a tu re o f t h e p o t tery d i s t r ibu t ion , a l ong w i th o t he ra r tef ac t s a nd a n ima lr ema in s ,a r et h er e su l to fb o th n a tu ra l a sw el a sm an -made d epo s i t ion .T hey r ef l ec t an umb e ro fd i f f e ren t ,a l though i n te r re la ted a c t ion s , much o fw h ich a r er edepo s i t iona l a nd r e spon s ib le f o r p re se rva t iona l f a c to r s : s uch a s ( a ) e ro s ive r e su l t s i n t e rm s o f g ene ra l e l emen ta l e xpo su re ( r a in f a l l , w ind a nd s un l igh t ) , ( b )p l an ta nd r oo ta c t ion , ( c ) a g r icu l tu r a la c t iv i t ie s ( p low a nd g ene ra lt r aff ic ) ,a nd f i na l ly ( d )b u i ld ing a nd o t he ro ccupa t iona la c t iv i t ie s( i n t i t ia la nd s u cce s s ive a l te ra t ion s ) . ( 3 ) T he s i t e ' sa r ch i tec tu ra la r rangemen t sa r eb e l ieved t oh ave h ad much t o s ay i nt h eo r ig ina la nd f i na ld epo s i t ion o ft h es h e rd a nd b one m a te r ia l s t h rough o u tt h el o cu s ; a f f ec t ing a st h ey d i dt h eo ve ra l lp r e se rva t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion . ( 4 ) T he a c tua l g eome t r ica lp l an a nd a r ch i tec tu ra l a r rangemen to ft h e s i te ' s v a r iou sb u i ld ing e l emen t sh ave o nt h ew ho le f avou red t h ep a r t icu la rw ay i n w h ich t h ee xcava t iona ls t ra t egy h a sb een p l anned a nd c a r r ied o u t .T hey h ave b een i nm any r e spec t sr e spon s ib le f o rt h ep l acemen to ft h e s upe rg r id s , t h e e xcava t ion a r ea s a nd i nd iv idua l q uad ran t s ; t h u s , mak ing t h er e co rd ing a nd c ompu t e r i sed p ro ce s s ing o fe xcava ted m a te r ia l se a s ie ra nd mo r ee ff i c ien t . I ts hou ld b e t a ken i n to a ccoun t t h a t t h e d i s t r ibu t iona l s t udy p re sen ted h e re , w h i le f undamen ta l ly ag r aph ic o ne i st h ef i r s ts u ch r e sea r ch c onduc ted o nB a lea r ic C opp e r 3 09

J .E n se l ia ta nd W . Wa ld r en

A ge ma te r ia l s , a nd u nde rt h a t a u sp ice s w i l l b e t r ea ted a s ap re l im ina ry r e po r t . A s s u ch , t h e s t udy i st h e f i r s t s t age i n al a rge r s e r ie s o fc ompu te r b a sed s t a t i s t ica l d i s t r ibu t ion s t ud ie so ft h ep o t te ry a nd o t he rF e r r ande l l -O leza C oppe rA ge a r te f ac t s . T he c u r ren t s t udy w i l l e ven tua l ly b e e n la rged t oi n c lude c ompu te r ised s t a t i s t ica l c oun t s o n t h e a n ima l b one s o ft h e s i te . T he p re sen t s amp le c on s i s to f mo re t h an 1 30 ,000 C oppe rA ge c ommon w a re p o t te ry f r agmen t sr ep re sen t ing m any h und red s o fd ome s t ic p o t s , i n c lud ing n ea r ly 8 50 d eco ra ted B eake r f r agmen t s , r e p r esen t ing s e ve ra ls co re so fi nd iv idua lf i ne w a re v e s se l s . C oncern ing t he Me thodo logy U sed * ******* T he m e thodo logy u sed c on s i s t s o fe xcava t iona l a nd c ompu te r i sed r e co rd ing o n a s qua re m e te r q uad ran t b y s qua re m e te r q uad ran t b a s i s ; u t i l i s ing a c t iv i ty z one c ompa r i son s a sw e l l a ss upe rq uad ran ta r te f ac tc ompa r i son s - p o t te ry f r agmen t si n t h i s i n s tance - f e a tu re a nd b ody s he rd s c oun t s a nd w e igh t s . T he se z one a nd t y pe c ompa r i son sa r ec a r r ied o u tw i th t h ep ro spec to fe ven tua l ly d e te rm in ing ( a )s i t ea r ea u se a sw e l l a s( b )p o tt y po log ica li n c idence t oe s tab l i sh f unc t ion sa nd t od e te rm ine o t he r a c t iv i ty p rocedu re s , d ea l ing w i th t h e g ene r a l i n te rna le conom ics , s o c ia l a nd p e rhap se ven r el ig iou s p ra c t i ce sw i th in t h es e t t lemen ta nd ( c ) t o u se t h ese f i nd ing s i n ab roade rp e r spe c t ive r e la ted t oi n te r se t t lem en tt r ade a nd o t he rs o c ia lr e la t ion sh ip s . A l though , at h i rd g eog raph ica l z one , t h e Y ounger S e t t l emen t( YS ) , c on s i s t ing o f L a te B ronze a nd I r on A ge c on tex t s , i sp resen t i nt h e F e r rande l l -O leza S e t t lemen t C omp lex ,t h e se a r en o te xam ined i nt h i sp a r t icu la rs t udy . T he a r te f a c td i s t r ibu t ion s o ft h e se l a te rs e t t lemen ta r ea sw i l l u nde rgo s e pa ra te s t udy i n as ub sequen ts e r ie sa nd w i l l b e e ven tua l ly l i nked w i th t h e c u r ren t e f for t t o f o rm a g ene ra l ly mo re c omp r ehen s ive o ne . T he refo re , o ft h e t h ree a c t iv i ty z one s t h a t a c tua l ly d o e x i s t w i th in t h e s e t t lemen t c omp lex ( s ee F igu r e 4 ) , o n ly t wo g eog raph ic a r ea c on tex t s a r ec on s ide red i nt h i s s t udy . T he se t wo i n dependen ta r ea sa r ea sf olow s : ( 1 )O ld S e t t lemen t ( OS) : as e lec ted n umb e r o f i nd iv idua l s i te s e c to r s w i th in t h e w a l led c ompound a nd f r om w i th in a nd a round i t s i nne r a r ch i tec tu ra ls t r uc tu r e s . ( 2 ) Wes t O ld S e t t lemen t (W OS ) : ag eog raph ic a nd c on tempo ra ry a r ea , b e l ieved t ob e ar e fu se z one ,o u t s ide a nd s ou thwe s to ft h ep r ec inc to ft h eo l d s e t t lem en tc ompound . T he c u r r en tp re l im ina ry r epo r te xam ine si ns t a t i s t ica lc oun t sa nd m ea su r e s ,d en s i ty d i s t r ibu t ion a nd d imen s iona l c on t ro l o fp o t te ry f r agmen t s a s w e l l a s s ugge s t ing c e r ta in r e la t ion sh ips t h ough tt oe x i s tb e tween t h e se s t a t i s t ica lc oun t sa nd m ea su re s a nd t h en a tu re o ft h ea r ea sl i s ted a bove . I tp r e sen t st h i sd a ta u s ing A pp le Mac in to sh c ompu te r p r in t o u t g raph ic s a s i lus t ra ted a nd p rov ided b y s t anda rd , a va i lab le s t a t is t ica l a nd g raph ic m icrocompu te r p ackage p rog ramme s a dap ted t o o u r a r chaeo log ica ln e ed s .

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O x f o rd I n t e rna t iona l We s t e rn Med i t e r ranean B e l lB eak e rC on f e rence

T he m e thodo logy u sed w i l lb ed e sc r ibed s t ep b ys t ep t h roughou tt h ep ape ri no rde r t ob e t te ru nde r s tand t h em e thod s a nd s t ra tegy u t i l i sed a sw e l la st od emon s t r a te t h e s t age a tw h ich t h ec u r ren to n -go ing p rog ramme h a sp rog r e s sed . T he Me thod a nd R e su l t s ******* F igure 1 . Map : S how s a2 2 k i lome te r s t re t ch o ft h e N o r the rn J u ra ss ic Ma l lo r can c oa s t l ine w i th t h ef ou rm a jo rs i te c a t chmen ta r ea sa nd p r ima ry r e sea r ch s i te sw h ich r ep re sen t t h e h ighe s t l e ve l o f p reh is to r ic a c t iv i ty . ( 1 ) Mu le ta , ( 2 ) Ma tge , ( 3 ) G a l la rd IMa r ro ig a nd ( 4 )F e r rand e l l -O l e za . F igure 2 . Map : A mo re d e ta i led a nd l a rge r s ca led m ap o f t h e p r ima ry r e sea rch s t a t ion sm en t ioned i nt h i sr e po r t .A rea 4:t h eP l ad e lR ey i sw he re t h e s i t eo b jec to f t h i sr epo r ti sl o ca ted . A rea 3: Son G a l la rd a nd S on Ma r ro ig s i te s a nd A rea 2 : t h e S on Ma tge s i t e . F igure 3 .P lan : Ad e ta i led S u rvey a nd P o t te ry D i s t r ibu t ion P lan o ft h eF e r rande l l O leza C ha lco l i th ic ( P re ta layo t ic ) O ld S e t t lemen t s how ing t h e e xcava ted a r ea s , q uad ran t d i s t r ibu t ion , l o ca t ions o f r ad ioca rbon s u rvey d a te s a nd t opog raph ica l c on tou r s . F igure 4 .S chema t ic P lan : T h i s s hows t h e g eog raph ic p rox im i t ie s a nd r e la t ive s pa t ia l i ndependence o f t h e m a jo r a r ea s a nd d imens ion s o f e ach o f t h e se t h ree i n d iv idua lg eog raph ica lz one so fw h ich t h es e t t lem en tc omp lex i sc omp r i sed : ( I ) t h e O ld S e t t lemen t , ( I I ) Wes t O ld S e t t lemen t , a bou t 1 00 m e ter s s ou th -we s t o f t h e O ld S e t t lemen t a nd ( I II ) t h e Y ounger S e t t lemen t w i th t h e B ronze a nd I r on A ge s t a t ion s( t he l a t te rl i on A ge c ompr i s ing c l a s s i ca lc on tex t s ) . F igure 5 . S chema t ic P lan : T h is s hows t h e f ou r ma jo r S urvey S ta t ion s ( A ,B ,C ,D ) f o rm ing t h e S upe r S t a tG r id S u rvey A rea ( 5 104 m 2)a nd t h ei nd iv idua l S upe rG r id s ( 1 -9 ) . E ach o ft h e se S upe rG r id sm ea su re s2 1 b y2 7 m e te r so r5 67 m 2 i n a r ea . I ti sb a sed o n a n a l um in ium D raw ing G r id ( s ee P la tes 7 a nd 8Wa ld ren p reced ing p ape rt h i sv o lume )d e s igned a nd u sed b yt h e DAMARC R esea r ch G roup o f 3X 3m e te r sw he r ee ach S upe rG r id i sc omp r i sed o f 9D raw ing G r id sa l ong s ide a nd 7 a c ro s s . T h i s S upe r S t a tg r id o fi nd iv idua l D raw ing G r id s h a s b een d es igned f o rf u tu re e xpan s ion o ft h ee xcava t ion a r ea a nd a l so a sp a r to fa na r te f a c tc ompu te r r e co rd ing p rog ramme . F igure 6 .S chema t ic P lan : T h i s s how s t h e f ou rC a rd ina l S i te S u rvey S ta t ion s ( NE ,N W ,SE ,S W ) t h a t w e re s u rveyed w i th in t h e S upe r S ta tG r id S u rvey A rea , e a ch d e s igna t ing ac o rne ro ft h e S e t t lemen t C ompound Wa l l s . T he se r ep re sen tt h e o u t s ide p e r ime te r so ft h e Wa l led C ompound . F igure 7 .S chema t ic P lan : T h is s how s t h e p o ten t ia l a r ea s i n s qua re me te r s a va i lab le t oe xcava t ion w i th in S upe rG r id s 1 9a nd i nt ur nw i th in t h ep e r ime te r so f t h e S e t t lemen t C ompound 's C a rd ina l S i te S u rvey S t a t ion s ( NE ,N W ,SE ,S W ) c omp r i s ing a ni n te r io ra r ea o f3 , 309 m2.

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J .E n se l ia ta nd W . Wa ld r en

F igure 8 .S chema t ic P lan : T h is s how s t h e e x tens ion o ft h e v a r ious S e t t lemen t E xcava t ion Z one s w i th in t h e S upe r S ta tG r id S urvey A rea a nd S upe r G r id s a nd p e r ime te r so ft h e C a rd ina l S i te S urvey S t a t ion so ft h e S e t t lemen tC ompound a so f 1 986 . F igure 9 .S chema t ic P lan : T h i s s how s t h e a bb rev ia ted n omenc la tu re o f t h e v a r ious S e t t lemen tE xcava t ion Z one sw h ich a r ea sf olow s : WW : EW : EWN : EWX : EWNX : NW : SW : C 2 : AT : H 4 : C SS : EX W :

We s tC ompound Wa l l E a s tC ompound Wa l l E a s tC ompound Wa l l N o r th E a s tC ompound Wa l l E x te r io r E a s tC ompound Wa l lN o r th E x te r io r N o r th C ompound Wa l l S ou th C ompound Wa l l C en t ra lT owe rS t ruc tu re A nc ien tT e r r ace A b s ida lH ab i ta t ion C en t ra lS tone S t ruc tu re E xp lo r a to ry T r ench We s t

F igure 1 0 .S chema t ic P lan : T h is s how s t h e S e t t lemen t E xcava t ion Z one s a nd t h e i re xcava ted a r ea so rT r ench A rea si ns qua r em e te r su pt o1 986 ,i nr e la t ion sh ip t o t h ep o ten t ia l e xcava t ion a r ea s w i th in t h e S upe rS t a tG r id s a nd C a rd ina l S i te S u rvey S t a t ion s . T he f o l low ing s e r ie so fT ab le s ( 1t o3 1 )r e p r e sen tt h e s t a t i s t ica ld a ta a na ly se s o ft h e c ommon w a re f ound i nb o th t h e F e r r ande l l -O leza O ld S e t t lemen t a nd We s t O ld s e t t lemen t . T h i s i n c lude s t h e b ody s he rd s a nd f e a tu re f r agmen t s , t h e i rn umbe ra nd w e igh ti np e r cen tage sa ss e en i nt h ev a r iou sp i ec ha r t s .T h i sa l so i n c lude ss t a t i s t ica l b a r c ha r t s a nd h i s tog ram s . Af i na l a l though b r ie f a na ly s i s o f t h e g eome t r ica l ly d eco ra ted B eake rs he rd si sa l so r e p r e sen ted . T he c ompa r i son o f t h e d a ta t h roughou t t h e d i f f e r en t a r ea s u nde r s t udy s how s a n umbe r o fi mpor tan t f a c to r s t h a t a r e n o t n o rma l ly t a ken s u ff i c ien t ly i n to a ccoun t d u r ing e xcava t ion o ri nt h ef i na li n te rp r e ta t ion o fa ne xcava t ed a r ea . R ep re sen ted a s s epa ra te c ha r t s i nt h e f o l low ing s e r ie s o f 3T ab le s ( 1 -3 ) t h e se t a b le s a r e p u rpo se ly o u to fn ume r ica l o rde r a st h ey a r e p a r t o ft h e l a rge r s t udy i n p rog re s s . T hey a r eo f f e red h e re i nt h ep re sen t s equence i n d i rec tr e la t ion sh ip t ot h e c on tex t sf ound i n t h ep r eced ing S chema t ic P lan so fF igu r e s ( 3 -10 ) . A nd t h er e ade r s hou ld b ea rt h i sf a c ti nm ind w hen t h ey a r e s t udy ing t h ew ho le s e r ie s ,r e tu rn ing t o t h em t o c on t inue t h e s equenc ia l o rde r . D emons t ra ted h e re a r e s e lec ted t a b le s r ep resen t ing b o th C ommon Wa re f r agmen t s a nd F ea tu re P i ece s f i nd s f r om t h e d i f f e r en ts i te a r ea s .

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O xf ord I n t e rna t iona lW e s t e rn Med i t e r ranean B e l lB eak er C on f e r ence

C ommon Ware F ragmen t s :T ab les ******* T ab le 1 .P ie Char t 8A . T h is c ha r t i sr ep re sen ta t ive o f a l l t h e e xcava ted a r ea s w i th in t h e S uper G r id o ft h eO ld S e t t lemen t a s w e l l a s t h e a r ea k nown a s t h e We s t O ld S e t t l emen t. T he P i e C ha r t r e p r e sen t s t h e p e r cen tage s o fa l l t h e a r ea s e xcava ted o nt h es i te .N o t ice t h a ta l though WOS i st h el a rge s ts i ng le e xcava ted a r ea o ft h e s i te ( 26 1 m2 ) , i to n ly r ep re sen t s 2 0% o ft h e t o ta le xcava ted a r ea s a tp re sen t , v e r su s 8 0% f o rt h e O S . Y e ta sw e s ha l l s e e t h i s l ow p e r sen tage d oe s n o th o ld t r ue f o rt h e e xcava t ed m a t e r ia l s . S ta t i s t ica lC har t : 8 A s how s t h e s t a t i s t ic s r e la ted t oP i e C ha r t 8 A . T h is i s i n c luded h e r ef o rt h ei n te r e s ted r e ade ra nd i se s sen t ia lt ot h e mo r ee x ten s ive s t udy i n p rog re s s . T ab le 2 .P ie C har t 8 B . T h is c ha r t i sr ep resen ta t ive o f t h e e xcava ted a r ea s w i th in t h e S uper G r id o ft h eO ld S e t t l emen t . o n ly . I nt h e l a rge rt r enche s w h ich a r e EW , C SS , EX W ,H 4 . Wi th t h eC SS , EX W & H 4 ,t h e re i s ac o r re la t ion b e tween t h ec en t ra l , ma in ly d ome s t ic a r ea ; i n c lud ing t h et wo ma in h ab i ta t ion b u i ld ing sa nd t h ew a te rc hanne la r ea t h em se lve s .T he E a s t Wa l la r ea c o r r e la te sw i th t h el owe rp a r t o ft h es e t t lem en ti n c lud ing t h el a rge e xcava ted ,f l a ta r ea o f2 75m2 ,r e f e r r ed t oa st h e c o r ra lz one . A s t o t h e r e s t o f t h e a r ea s r ep re sen ted h e re , s ome a r ea s a r e s ma l l e xp lo ra to ry t r enche s , t h e r e su l t o f e xcava t iona l w o rk c a r r ied o u t t o d e l in ia te t h e O ld S e t t lement , wh i le o the r mo re e x tens ive ly c a r r ied o u t e xcava t iona l wo rk c oncen t ra tes i n t h e k nown d omes t ic a r ea s i n t h e w e s te rn h a lf o f t h e w a l led c ompound t od e te rm ine t h ei n ne rb u i ld ing sa nd a c t iv i ty z one s . T he t o ta l a r ea e xcava ted w i th in t h e O ld S e t t lemen t Wa l led C ompound i s 1 039m 2 a nd r ep re sen t s3 1 .39% o ft h es i te s u rvey a r ea o f3 309m 2 o r2 0 .35% o ft h e S uper S ta tgr id s u rvey a r ea o f5 104m 2) . O n t h e s t a t i s t ic s c ha r t , w e f i nd t h e l a rge s t a r ea i st h eC en tra l S tone S t ruc tur e ( CSS , 1 51m2 ) . T he t o ta ln umbe ro fp o in t so re xcava ted s e c to r sw i th in t h ew a l led c ompound a nd r ep re sen ta t ive o f t h e O ld S e t t lemen t a r e 1 2 l o ca les ( s ee l i s t ing a bove ) , t h e 1 3 th l o ca t ion i st h e We s t O ld s e t t lemen t . . T he p re sen t p rog re ss r epo r t b e ing i ni t s f i r s t s t age s , o f f e r s t h e se c ha r t s i nl i eu o f f u tu r eu se a nd i ti ss hown h e r eo n ly a s as amp le o n -go ing p a r to ft h ew ho le p ro je c t . T ha ti st os a y , ac hang ing s t a t i s t ic a se x cava t ion c on t inue s . S ta t i s t ica l C har t : 8 A s how s t h e s t a t i s t ics r e la ted t oP i e C ha r t 8 A . T h i s i s i n c luded a l so f o rt h ec on s ide ra t ion b yt h ei n te r e s ted r e ade r . T ab le 3 .C o lumn C har t s : 8A t h is h i s tog ramme s s how t h e a b so lu te n ume r ica l c oun t s i nt e rm s o f c u r ren t ly e xcava ted s qua re m e te r s f o r a l l t h e s i te a r ea s i nP i e C ha r t s8 Aa nd f o rt h ei n ne ra r ea so ft h ew a l led c ompound ,P i eC ha r t8 B .

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J .E nse i ia ta nd W . Wa ld r en

T ab le 4 .P ie C har t : 4A s how s t h e p e r cen tage o f t h e t o ta l n umbe r o fc ommon w a re p o t tery f r agmen t s f ound i nt h e i nne r a r ea s o f t h e O ld S e t t l emen t Wa l led C ompound ( e .g . C en t ra l S tone S t ruc tu re : C SS , S ou th Wa l l : SW e t c ) . U nde r t h i s d enom ina t ion w ei n c lude a lk i nd so fd ome s t ic p o t te ry a nd t a ke si n to a c coun tt h ef a c t t h a tw e a r ed ea l ing w i th o ne a r chaeo log ica lc on tex t ; w he the rw ea r e w o rk ing w i th b ody s he rd so rf e a tu re p i ece s . T he d a ta f o r C SS a nd EX W i lu s t ra te t h a t t h e se s a r ea s h ad c on s ide rab ly mo re d omes t ic a c t iv i ty a nd t h a t t h e a r ch i tec tu ra l f e a tu re s t h em se lve s w e r e i mpor tan t f a c to r s i nt h e f i na l a r tef ac td i s t r ibu t ion ; s e rv ing a sr e se rvo i r s o rb a r r ie r s , c heck ing t h e movemen to ft h ea r cheo log ica lm a te r ia l s . F o re xamp le t h e se t wo z one sc on ta in t h e e xcava ted a r ea s i na nd a r ound t h e f ounda t ions o ft h e Wa ter C hanne la nd t h e C en tra l S tone S truc ture , a nd o ne w ou ld e xpec t h igh a c t iv i ty a nd a ccumu la t ion i n a nd a r ound t h i s i mpo r tan t d ome s t ic s e c to r o f t h e s e t t lemen t ; t h us t h e h igh p e rcen tage o fp o t te ry . N o tab le h e re i sa l so ah i gh p e r cen tage o ff r agmen t sf ound i na nd a r ound t h eE as t Wa l l a r ea , i n c lud ing f ou r d i f f e ren t t r enche s ( EW , EWX , EWN a nd EWNX ) , s how ing o nce a ga in t h e s pec ia l n a tu re o ft h e se a r ea s , a sw e l l a st h o se c once rn ing t h et o po log ica lg rad ien tm en t ioned e a r l ie r .T he EW s e c to r sa r es i tua t ed i nt h el owe r p a r t o f t h e s i te ( F igure 3 ) a n w e may p r esuppo se a n a tu ra l movemen t o f t h e f r agmen t s d ownh i l l ; s u ch a c t ion p re sumeab ly b e ing b rough t a bou tb y t h e g ene ra l e xpo su r et ot h ee l emen t s a nd o t he ri n te rven t ion ,e spe c ia l ly r a inf a l la nd a g r icu l tu ra l a c t iv i t ie s . T h i s s how s u p c l ea r ly i nt h e P ie C ha r t . I ta l so s how s t h e e f f ec t s o ft h e a r ch i tec tu ra l a r rangemen t s , e spec ia l ly a l ong t h e S ou th Wa l l ( SW ) w h ich d emons t ra tes t h e t h i rd h ighe s t p e r cen tage o f c o l lec t ion ( 16% ) . I t may a c tua l ly i n d ica te o t he r e a r l ie rd om e s t i ca ted a c t iv i t ie sa si n d i ca ted b y t h er a d io ca rbon d a t eo f c i rca 2 000 b c o f t h e i n te r io r f ounda t ion o f t h eE as t Wa l l , a l though n o s i gn o f d ome s t ic c on s t ruc t ion sa r ev i s ib le i nt h ea r ea . T he r e s t o f t h e s e c to r s p re sen t v e ry s ma l l p e r cen tage s o f d i s tr ibu t ion a nd a r e , p ropo r t iona lt ot h ea r ea st h ey r e p r e sen t ,b u ta l so s e rv ing t os how t h a th uman a c t iv i ty t ov a ry ing i n tens i t ie s t o ok p l ace a l l o ve rt h e s i te ( s ee Wa ld ren , AB a lea r ic B eake r Mode l ,t h i sv o lume f o rs i te p l an s ) . S ta t i s t ica l C har t : 4 A s how s t h ev a r iou s , r e la ted s t a t is t ica l r e su l t s f o rP i e C ha r t4 Ap re sen tf r om h e re o nf o rt h ei n te r e s ted r e ade r . F u r the ra na ly t ica l s t ud ie s , u s ing mo re s oph is t ica ted t e chn ique s , a r e p ar t o f a mo re c omp le te s t a t i s t ica l d i s t r ibu t iona lp rog ramme i np rog r e s s . Wh i le t h e se s t a t i s t ic sa r en o tc l o se ly p e r t inen t t o t h e p re sen t s t udy , t h ey e ven tua l ly w i l l h ave mo re i mpo r tance i n t h e f i na l d i s t r ibu t iona ls t udy . T ab le 5 .P ie C har t : 4 B s how s t h e p e r cen tage o f t h e t o ta l w e igh t o f c ommon w a re p o t te ry f r agmen t s f ound i nt h e i n ne r a r ea s o f t h eO ld S e t t lemen t Wa l l ed C ompound ( e .g . C en t ra l S tone S t ruc tu re : C SS , S ou th Wa l l : SW e t c ) . A t ten t ion s hou ld b e g iven t o t h e c l o se r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h is w e igh t c ha r t a nd t h a t r e p re sen t ing t h e n umb e ro ff r agmen t s , w h ich s e em st os how ad i rec tr a t io b e tween n umb e ra nd w e igh to ff r agmen t s . Ar e la t ion sh ip ,t h ec au se o fw h ich w ea r eu nab le a sy e tt oe s tab l i sh . T h i sr e la t ion sh ip m ay a c tua l ly d ea l w i th t h ec ompo s i t ion o ft h e c l ay u sed i n t h e p o t tery o r m ay r ep re sen t p o t s i ze o r ad epo s i t iona l p a t te rn . A t p r e sen t ap rog ramme o ft h in a nd s l ab s e c t ion ing a l ong w i th c hem ica la na ly s i so fc l ay

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O xf ord I n t e rna t iona lW e s t e rn Med i t e r ranean B e l lB eak er C onf e r ence

f a b r ics i si np rog re s st od e te rm ine t h en a tu re o ft h ec l ay f a b r ic so f as e lec t ion o ft h e f r agmen t sc o l lec ted . S ome p re l im ina ry r ema rk sc once rn ing t h ep u rpo se a nd r e su l t s a t ta ined s o f a r a r e p r e sen ted e l sewhe re i n t h is v o lume ( A Q ue s t ion o f B a lea r ic B eake r s , Wa ld r en ,t h i sv o lume ) . A l so ac u r r en t c ompu te r i sed s t udy o ft h e t h ickne s s o fp o t te ry f r agmen t s i sb e ing c a r r ied o u ta sp a r to ft h i sp rog ramme . I nt h a tp rog ramme f r agmen tt h ickne s se sa r e c ons ide r i n f ou r c a tego r ie s ; t h in , med ium t h in , med ium t h ick a nd t h ick . T he t h icknes sc ompu te ra na ly s i so ft h i sd a ta i sc a r r ied o u ta nd c on s ide r ed s i gn if i can ti n t e rm so fn umbe ra nd w e igh to ff r agmen t s ,c ompa r ing t h ed i f f e r en ta r ea su nde rs t udy a sw e l l a st h e i rr a t io sb e tween n umbe ra nd w e igh to ff r agmen t si nl i eu o ft r y ing t o d e te rm ine p o ts i za a nd f unc t ion . U n fo r tuna te ly ,w ed on o th ave as i gn if i can ts amp le a sy e tr e co rded a tt h et ime o ft h i s c u r ren tp ub l ica t ion ,w h i ch w ou ld e nab le u st oi n c lude t h em f o rc ompa r i son w i th t h e p e r cen tage so fn umbe ra nd w e igh to ff r agmen t s a nd s qua r em e te ra r ea s e xcava ted . H oweve r ,t h ei n te r e s ted r e ade rs hou ld b ea ri nm ind t h a tt h e se a r ei np r epa r a t ion . S ta t i s t ica l C har t : 4 B s hows t h e v a r iou s , r e la ted s t a t i s t ica l r e su l t s f o r P ie C ha r t 4 B w e igh t s o ff r agmen t s p resen t h e re f o rt ho se i n te r e s ted. H e re a ga in , f u r the ra na ly t ica l s t ud ie s ,u s ing mo re s oph i s t ica ted t e chn ique s , a r ep a r to ft h e mo re e x t en s ive s t a t i s t ic a ld i s t r ibu t iona lp rog ramme i np rog r e s s . T ab le 6 . C o lumn C har t : 4A s hows a h i s tog ram o f a bso lu te n umbe r o f c ommon w a re s he rd s f r om w i th in t h e O ld S e t t lemen t Wa l led C ompound ' s i n ne ra r ea s .T he ma in c oncen t ra t ion o fp o t te ry f r agmen t sw i th in t h ed ome s t ic z one s c l ea r ly s hows i n t h i s h i s tog ram . T he h i s tog ram a l so s how s a n a dd i t iona l h igh c oncen t ra t ion i nt h e a r ea s o f t h eE as t Wa l l w h ich i nd ica tes t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o f a s e cond l e s sa c t ive w o rk a r ea . C o lumn C har t 4 B s how s t h e a b so lu te c oun t s f o r a l l t h e i nne r a r ea s o f t h e c ompound , i n t h i s c a se f o r t h e f r agmen t s ' w e igh t s i n k i log ramme s . P a r t icu la r ly n o tab le i st h es im i lar i ty o ft h ep a t ter n so ft h eh i s tog ram s wh ich s how a r e la t ion sh ip b e tween n umbe r a nd w e igh t ; s ugge s t ing s ome a s soc ia t ion . A l so o fi mpo r tance i st h e t wo h i gh c oun t s amp le s i nt h e se d ome s t ic a r ea s a s w e s ha l l s e e i nt h e i r c ompa r i son t oa r ea s l i ke t h eN or th Wa l l s e c to r ; a n a spec td i scu ssed b e low . T ab le 7 .P ie C har t : 5A s how s t h e p e r cen tage o ft h e t o ta l n umbe r o fc ommon w a re p o t te ry f r agmen t s f ound i nt h e b o th t h e i nne r a r ea s o ft h e O ld S e t t l emen t Wa l l ed C ompound ( e .g . C en t ra l S tone S t ruc tu re : C SS , S ou th Wa l l : SW e t c ) a nd t h e r e fu se a r ea k nown a st h e Wes t O ld S e t t lemen t (WOS ) . T he c ha r t s how s t h e c ommon w a re , i n c lud ing b ody a nd f e a tu re p i eces , i n n umbe r o f f r agmen t s a s d i s t r ibu ted i n a l l a r ea s . T he mo s t r ema rkab le a spec t o f t h e c ha r t i st h e h igh p e r cen tage o ft h e WOS a r ea w h ich r ep re sen t s 3 5% o fa l l t h ef r agmen t se xcava ted a nd o n ly 2 0% o ft h e t o ta l a r ea e xcava ted . T h i s i sd ue t ot h e v e ry h i gh d ens i ty o f p o t te ry f r agmen t si nt h e We s tO ld S e t t lemen t ; ac ond i t ion o ne w ou ld e xpec tf r om a r e fu se a r ea ( s ee We s tO ld S e t t lemen tp o t te ry d i s t r ibu t ion s e r ie s ) .T he c ompa ra t ive ly h igh p e r cen tages o ff r agmen t s f ound i nt h e d omes t ic a r ea s a r ound C SS a nd EX W a r ed ue i ti sb e l ieved t ot h ef a c to r sa l r eady m en t ioned i nT ab le 1 ,P i eC ha r t4 A . S ta t i s t ica lC har t : 5 A a ga in , s hows t h ev a r iou s , r e la ted s t a t i s t ica l r e su l t s f o rP i eC ha r t5 An umb e ro ff r agmen t s .

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J .E n se l ia ta nd W . Wa ld r en

T ab le g .P ie C har t : 5 B s how s t h e p e r cen tage o f t h e t o ta l w e igh t o fc ommon w a re p o t te ry f r agmen t s f ound i n t h e b o th t h e i n ne r a r ea s o f t h e O ld S e t t lemen t Wa l led C ompound ( e .g . C en t ra lS tone S t ruc tu r e : C SS , S ou th Wa l l : SW e t c )a nd t h e r e f u se a r ea k nown a st h e We s tO ld S e t t lemen t (WOS ) . Wh i le t h e re i sa na ppa ren t ly s i gn if ican ti n cr ea se i nt h ep e r cen tage so fw e igh to ve rt h en umb e ri nt h e WOS a r ea ( 42% ) , t h e re i s as l igh td ec rea se i np e r cen tage s i nt h e d ome s t ics a r ea s . T h i s c ou ld h ave s ome th ing t od o w i th t h e t h ickne s se so ft h ep i e ces g ene r a l ly , i nw h ich c a se i t m ay b e ap re se rva t ion f a c to r : a l though , i tc ou ld b ea s sumed t h a tl a rge ra nd t h icke r p i ece sf r om mo re r obu s t ,d ome s t ic w a re sw ou ld n a tu ra l ly p r e se rve b e t te rt h an f r ag i le o ne s f r om s ma l le rp o t s . O ri tm ay a l so h ave s ome b ea r ing o n t h e f unc t ion o ft h e WOS z one sa s ar e fu se a r ea g ene ra l ly . S ta t i s t ica l C har t : 5 B a ga in , s how s t h e v a r ious , r e la ted s t a t is t ica l r e su l t s f o rP i eC ha r t5 Bn umbe ro ff r agm en t s . T ab le 9 .C o lumn C har t :5A s how s ah i s tog ram o fa b so lu te n umbe ro fc ommon w a re s he rd s f r om b o th t h eO ld S e t t lemen t Wa l l ed C ompound ' si n ne r a r ea s a s w e l l a st h e We s tO ld S e t t l emen t . . H e r e , w e s e e t h e e x t reme ly h i gh c oncen t ra t ion o fp o t te ry f r agmen t si nt h er e f u se a r ea k nown a st h e We s tO ld S e t t lem en t ,o ve rt w i ce i nn umbe ra nd t h ree t ime s i nw e igh to ve ri t s n ea r e s tg r ea te s tc oun t s i nt h eC en t ra l S tone S t ruc tu re , a s s e en i nT ab le 4 ,P ie C ha r t 5 A . O nce mo re , w ha t o ne w ou ld e xpe c ti n ar e fu se a r ea r a the rt h an ah ab i t iona lz one .C o lumn C har t 5 B s hows t h e a spec t s o ft h e a b so lu te w e igh tc oun t s o fa l l t h ep o t t e ry f r agmen t s a sn o ted a bove , a nd t h ef am i l ia rs i tua t ion o ft h ea ppa r en ti n t e r r e la t ion sh ip o fn umbe rt ow e igh t s . T ab le 1 0 .P ie C har t : 6A s how s

t h e n umbe r o f f r agmen t s i n p e rcen tage s o f

p o t te ry f ound p e r m2 a st ot h e m2 o ft h ev a r iou ss e c to r se xcava ted w i th in t h ei n ne r a r ea o f t h e O ld S e t t lemen t . Wh i le n o t p a r t icua l r ly p e r t inen t h e re , t h i s i sa n i mpor tan t s t a t i s t ic i n t h e f i na l a na lys is o f t h e f unc t ion o f t h e d i f f e ren t a r ea s ; e spe c ia l ly w hen l i nked t ot h ef o l low ing w e igh ts t a t i s t i ci nP i eC ha r t6 B . S ta t i s t ica lC har t : 6 A a ga in , s how s t h e v a r iou s , r e la ted s t a t i s t ica l r e su l t s f o rP i eC ha r t6 Aa st ot h en umb e ro ff r agm en t sp e r m2 a nd t h e m2 e xcava ted i nt h e v a r iou s s e c to r s o f t h e O ld S e t t lemen t . T ab le 1 1 .P ie Char t : 6 B s how s t h e w e igh t o f f r agmen t s i n p e r cen tage s o f p o t te ry f ound p e r m2 a st ot h e m2 o ft h ev a r iou ss e c to r se xcava ted w i th in t h ei n ne r a r ea o ft h eO ld S e t t lemen t . T h i sP i eC ha r ta ga in l i nk si t s e lf w i th t h ep reced ing o ne . H e r et h ei d ea o ft h ef i r s tt h r ee d ome s t i cz one sb e ing t h ec en t r e so fa c t iv i t ie si sf u r the r s ugge s ted . S ta t i s t ica l C har t : 6 B

a ga in , s how s t h e v a r ious , r e la ted s t a t i s t ica l

r e su l t s f o rP i e C ha r t 6 B w e igh to ff r agmen t s p e r m2 a nd t h e m2 e xcava ted i nt h e v a r iou s s e c to r s o f t h e O ld S e t t lemen t . T ab le 1 2 . C o lumn C har t s : 6 A & 6 B t h e se h i s tog ram s s how t he a b so lu te n ume r ica lc oun t si nt e rm so fn umb e ro ff r agmen t sp e r m2 a nd t h ep e r cen tage so f m2

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O xf ord I n t e rna t iona l We s t e rn Med i t e r ranean B e l lB eak er C onf e r ence

e xcava ted a sw e l l a sw e igh t s p e r m2 a nd t h ep e r cen tage s o f m2 e xcava ted f o rt h e d i f f e ren t s e c to r s e xcava ted i nt h e O ld S e t t lemen t. T ab le 1 3 .P ie Char t : 7A

s hows t h e n umbe r o f f r agmen t s i n p e r cen tage s o f

p o t te ry f ound p e r m2 a st ot h e m2 f ound i nt h ev a r iou ss e c to r se xcava ted w i th in t h e i n ne r a r ea o ft h eO ld S e t t lemen t . , a sw e l l a st h o se o ft h e Wes t O ld S e t t l emen t r e fu se a r ea . T he se a r e i mpo r tan t i nf u tu r e c ompa r i son s b e tween t h e t w i z i ,s e pa ra te a r ea s . A ga in i ti si n te re s t ing t on o te t h e 1 % o rl e s sd i f f e rence sb e tween t h ev a r iou s O ld S e t t lemen t s e c to r s ; w h i le t h e re i s a 5% d i f f e rence b e tween n umbe r a nd w e igh t p e r m2 a s p re sen t i nt h e m2 i nt h e Wes t O ld S e t t lemen t. A l though , t h e re i sl e s sd i f f e r ence si nt h ep e r cen tage so fn umb e ro ff r agmen t sb e tween s e c to r s , w i th a1 0% d i f f e rence i nw e igh ti nP i eC ha r t7 8 ,T ab le 1 4 . S ta t i s t ica l C har t : 7 A a ga in , s hows t h e v a r ious , r e la ted s t a t is t ica l r e su l t s f o rP ie C ha r t 7A n umbe ro ff r agmen t s p e r m2 a nd t h e p e r cen tage s o f m2 e xcava ted i ne ach s e c to r . T ab le 1 4 .P ie Char t : 7 B

s how s t h e w e igh t o f f r agmen t s i n p e rcen tage s o f

p o t te ry f ound p e r m2 a st ot h e m2 o ft h ev a r iou s s e c to r se xcava ted w i th in t h ei n ne r a r ea o f t h e O ld S e t t lemen t . , a s w e l l a s t ho se o f t h e Wes t O ld S e t t lemen t r e fuse a r ea . S ta t i s t ica l Char t : 7 B a ga in , s how s t h e v a r ious , r e la ted s t a t i s t ica l r e su l t s f o r P ie C ha r t 5 A We igh t o ff r agmen t s p e r m2 a nd t h e p e rcen tage s o f m2 e xcava ted i ne ach s e c to r . T ab le 1 5 . C o lumn Char t s : 7A & 7 B t h ese h i s tog ram s s how t h e a bso lu te n ume r ica lc oun t si nt e rm so ft h en umbe rf r agmen t sp e r m2 e xcava ted i ne ach s e c to r f o r a l l t h e s i te a r ea s o f b o th t h e O ld S e t t lemen t a s w e l l a s t h e Wes t O ld S e t t lemen ti nP ie C ha r t s7 A a nd f o rt h ew e igh to ff r agmen t sp e r m2 i n ne ra r ea so f t h e w a l led c ompound o f t h e O ld S e t t lemen t o n ly a s w e l l a s t h e Wes t O ld S e t t lemen t ,P ie C ha r t7 B . F ea ture P iece s : T ab le s * ****** T ab le 1 6 .P ie Char t : 2 0A s hows t h e n umbe r o f f e a tu re p i eces f r om t h e e xcava ted s e c to r s w i th in t h e i nne r a r ea o f t h e O ld S e t t lemen t . H e re w e s e e t h e r a t io o fd i s t r ibu t ion o ft h ef e a tu re p i ece s ( r im s a nd b a se s ) t h roughou tt h ed i f f e r en t a r ea si np e r cen tage so ft o ta ln umbe ro fp i ece sf ound .T he se s hou ld b ec ompa red t o t h e n umbe ro fb ody s he rd s f r om t h e s ame a r ea s . T he a spec t so ft h e se c ompa r i son s a r eu nde rs t udy a tt h ep r e sen tt ime . S ta t is t ica l C har t : 2 0A s how s t h e v a r ious r e la ted s t a t is t ica l r e su l t sf o rP i eC ha r t2 0A i nn umbe ro ff r agmen t sf o rt h ei n t e r e s ted r e ad e r . T ab le 1 7 . P ie C har t : 2 0B s hows t h e w e igh t o f f e a tu re p i eces f r om a l l t h e e xcava ted s e c to r s w i th in t h ei n ne ra r ea o ft h eO ld S e t t lemen t. T h i sc ha r ta si nt h e p reced ing o ne s hows t h e r a t io s i np e r cen tage s o f t h e t o ta l w e igh t o ft h e f e a tu r e

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J .E n seha ta nd W . Wa ld r en

p i eces . A s w i th t h e r e la t ionsh ip o fw e igh t t on umbe r f ound i nt h e c ommon w a re s h e rd s , t h es t a t i s t ic sh e re a l so s how ac l o se r e la t ion sh ip t oo ne a no the r . S ta t i s t ica l C har t : 2 0B s how s t h e v a r iou s r e la ted s t a t i s t ica l r e su l t s f o r P i eC ha r t2 0B a st oa b so lu te w e igh to ff r agmen t sf ound i ne a ch s e c to r . T ab le 1 8 . C o lumn C har t : 2 0A a nd 2 0B s how t h e a b so lu te n umbe r a nd w e igh t o f f e a ture p ieces f r om t h e i nne r a r ea s o f t h e O ld S e t t lement Wa l led C ompound . When c ompa r ing t h e h i s to rg ramme s f r om t h i s t a b le w i th t h o se o f T ab le 6( c ommon w a r e ) , w e s e e t h a tt h e c onf igu r a t ion f o rmed b y t h e c o lumns f o r t h ed ome s t ic a r ea si si n ve r ted .T he e xa c ti mp l i ca t ion sf o rt h i si n ve r s ion a r ea tp r e sen t b e ing a na ly sed . A sf o rt h er e s to ft h ea r ea st h ey f o l low amo r es im i la ru n ifo rm i ty t o o ne a no the r .T h i su n i f o rm i ty i sa l so p r e sen tb e tween t h eh i s to rg ramme sf o rn umbe r s a nd t h o se f o rw e igh t s . T ab le 1 9 .P ie Char t : 2 1A s how s t h e n umbe r o f f e a tu re p i eces f r om a l l t h e e xcava ted s e c to r sw i th in b o th t h ei n ne ra r ea o ft h eO ld S e t t l emen ta sw el a st h o se o ft h e Wes t O ld S e t t lemen t. O f s pec ia l i n te re s t i st h e f a c t t h a t a pp rox ima te ly h a l f (4 7% )o ft h ef e a tu re p i ece sf ound t h roughou tt h es i te c ome f r om t h e We s tO ld S e t t lemen t r e fu se a r ea s . T h i sc ou ld b ee xpec t ed o nt h eb a s i st h a tt h er ubb i sh a r ea s w ou ld h ave u nde rgone l e s s t r a f f ic a nd a tt h e s ame t ime b reakage w ou ld a l so s e em ing ly b e l e s s w i th t h e mo re r e info r ced f e a tu res o f t h e r im s a nd b a ses . E xpe r imen t si n to b r eakage a nd r e su l t ing f r agmen ta t ion o fv e s se l so fa l ls o r t sw ou ld b ep e rhap si n fo rma t ive a st ot h e se p re se rva t ion f a c to r s ; a sw e l la st h ed i s tr ibu t ion o f t h ep i e ce st h em se lve st h roughou tt h es i te o ve rt ime a nd s pace . S ta t i s t ica l C har t : 2 1A s hows t h e v a r iou s r e la ted s t a t i s t ica l r e su l t s f o rP i e C ha r t2 1A a st oa b so lu te n umbe r so ff r agmen t sf ound i ne a ch s e c to ro ft h e O ld S e t t lemen t a nd Wes t O ld S e t t lemen t . . T ab le 2 0 .P ie Char t : 2 1B s how s t h e w e igh t o f f e a tu re p i ece s f r om a l l t h e e xcava ted s e c to r sw i th in t h ei n ne ra r ea o ft h eO ld S e t t l emen ta sw e l la st h a to ft h e We s t O ld S e t t l emen t. A ga in , w e s e e t h a t t h e d i s t r ibu t ion i nt e rm s o fw e igh t o f f r agmen t sf o rt h e We s tO ld S e t t lemen tr e f use a r ea si si nt h i sc a se s l igh ly o ve rh a lf ( 5 3% )o ft h ep o t te ry f ound o ns i t e . T h i si st ob ee xpec ted o nt h eb a s i so ft h en umbe r w e igh tr e la t ion sh ip . T h i s i sa l so r ema rkab le f o rt h e d ome s t ic a r ea s , whe re t h e r e i s o n ly i n mo s tc a se ad i f f e r ence o f1 %o rl e s s . S ta t i s t ica l C har t : s how s t h ev a r iou sr e la ted s t a t i s t ica lr e su l t s f o rP i e C ha r t 2 1B a s t oa b so lu te w e igh t s o f f r agmen t s f ound i ne ach s e c to r o f t h eO ld S e t t lement a nd We s t O ld S e t t lemen t . . T ab le 2 1 . C o lumn C har t : 2 1A a nd 2 1B s how t h e a b so lu te n umbe r a nd w e igh t o f f e a tu re p i ece s f r om t h e i n ne r a r ea s o f t h e O ld S e t t lemen t Wa l l ed C ompound. T he re t h e h i s tog ramme c onf igu ra t ion h a s n o t c hanged much f r om t h a to ft h eo t he rg r aph sf o rc ommon w a re s .

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O xf ord I n t e rna t iona l We s t e rn Med i t e r ranean B e l lB eak er C onf e r enc e

t ot h e f a c t t h a t t h e WOS z one s h a s h ad f o rt h e momen t t h e l a rge s t a r ea ( 2 6 1 m2) e xcava ted t h roughou tt h e s i te . T he c l o se c ompa r i son o ft h em ed ian t ot h ea ve rage s how s amo re o rl e s se ven d i s t r ibu t ion . St a t i s t ica l C har t : s how s t h e v a r iou s r e la ted s t a t i s t ica l r e su l t s f o r P i e C ha r t 2 3A a st oa b so lu te n umbe ro ff r agmen t sp e r m2 f ound i ne ach s e c to ro ft h e O ld S e t t lemen t a nd We s t O ld S e t t lemen t . . T ab le 2 3 .P ie C har t : 2 3B s how s t h e w e igh t o f f e a tu re p i ece s f r om a l l t h e e xcava ted s e c to r s w i th in t h ei n ne ra r ea o ft h eO ld S e t t lemen ta sw e l la st h a to ft h e Wes t O ld S e t t lemen t . H e re , a ga in t h e r ema rkab le c l o se r e la t ion sh ip o fn umbe r s t ow e igh t s ( 1% )e x i s t sf o rt h e WOS z one sa sw e l la st h eo t he ra r ea s . S ta t i s t ica l C har t : s how s t h e v a r ious r e la ted s t a t i s t ica l r e su l t sf o r t h e i nne r a r ea s o f t h e w a l led c ompound , P ie C ha r t 2 3B a s t o a b so lu te w e igh t o f f r agmen t s p e r m2 f ound i n e ach s e c to r o f t h eO ld S e t t lemen t a nd Wes t O ld S e t t lement . . T ab le 2 4 . C o lumn C har t :2 3A a nd 2 3B s how t h e a b so lu te n umbe r a nd w e igh t o f f ea tu re p iece s p e r m2 f r om t h e i n ne r a r ea s o f t h e O ld S e t t lemen t Wa l led C ompound .T he re i s ab i t mo re f u lcua t ion i n t h e h i s tog ra t rune s t h an i n o the r c a se s .T he c au se o ft h i si sb e ing c on s id e red a sb e ing r e la ted t ot h et h ickne s se so ft h e f e a tu r ep i ece s ; as t udy n o ti n c luded h e re , b u to ne w h ich i si np r epa ra t ion f o rf u tu r e p ub l ica t ion . T ab le 2 5 .P ie Char t : 2 4A s how s t h e n umbe r o f f e a tu r e p i ece s f r om a l l t h e e xcava ted s e c to r s w i th in o n ly t h e i n ne r a r ea o f t h eO ld S e t t lemen t . N o tab le i s t h e f a c tt h a tt h e h i gh d ens i ty p e r cen tage i nt h e C 2NX a nd AT 1 -2 a sw e l l a s EWX s e c to r s a r e t h e c au se o f t h e p a r t icu la r ly s ma l l e xcava ted a r ea s o f t h e se s e c to r s . O the rw i se t h e P i eC ha r t w ou ld r e p r e sen t aq u i te d i f f e r en td i s t r ibu t ion . S ta t i s t ica l C har t : s hows t h e v a r ious r e la ted s t a t i s t ica l r e su l t sf o r t h e i nne r a r ea s o f t h e w a l led c ompound , P ie C har t 2 4A a s t o a b so lu te n umbe r o f f r agmen t s p e r m2 f ound i nt h eO ld S e t t lemen t. T ab le 2 6 . P ie C har t : 2 4B s how s t h e w e igh t o ff e a tu re p i ece s p e r m2 f r om a l l t h ee xcava t ed s e c to r sw i th in o n ly t h ei n ne ra r ea o ft h e O ld S e t t lemen t .H e re , t h e s ame r ef lec t ion o fc ond i t ion s o fe xcava ted a r ea a nd t h ickne s se s o ff r agmen t s a r e mo re o rl e s sr e pea ted f r om P i eC ha r t2 4A . S t a t i s t ica lC ha r t : s how st h ev a r iou sr e la ted s t a t i s t ica lr e su l t sf o rt h ei n ne r a r ea so ft h ew a l led c ompound ,P i eC ha r t2 4B a st oa b so lu te w e igh to ff r agmen t sp e r m2 f ound o n ly i nt h e O ld S e t t l emen t. B eaker S herd s : T ab le ****** T ab le 2 7P ie C har t : 1 2A s hows t h e p e rcen tage o f B eake r s he rd s f ound i n r e la t ion t ot h ec ommon w a r e st h roughou tt h e O ld s e t t lemen t a s w e l l a s t h e Wes t

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J .E n se l ia ta nd W . Wa ld r en

O ld S e t t l emen t . . T h i s i s as t a t i s t ica l c ond i t ion f ound i n t h e ma jo r i ty o fB eake r s i te s , w he re t h e re i so n ly av e ry s ma l l r a t ion o fd eco ra ted m a te r ia l s c ompa red t o c ommon w a re s f ound i ns e t t lemen t s i tua t ion s . F o re xamp le o u r s t a t i s t ic s a r e v e ry c ompa rab le t o t ho se o f Z ambu ja l ( s ee K un s t , t h i s v o lume ) o r t o t ho se o f L o s M i l la re sw h ich i sa l so l e s st h an 1% ( s ee A r r iba sa nd Mol ina ,t h i sv o lume ) Wes t O ld S e t t lemen t P o t ter D i s tr ibu t ion ******* T he n ex ts e to ft a b le s ( 2 8 t o3 1 )a nd f i gu r e s( 1 1 t o1 2 )r e p r e sen tt h es t a t i s t ica ld a ta o f t h e Wes t O ld S e t t lemen t (WOS ) a r ea , s i tua ted 1 00m s ou th -we s t o f t h e O ld S e t t l emen t( OS ) . T he a r ea i ss t ud ied a s as epa ra te s i te . T h i si sd ue t ot h ep a r t icu la r n a tu re o fi t sd epo s i t ion a nd c ond i t ion sp re sen ti nt h i sz one : ( 1 ) t h em a te r ia l sf ound t h e re a r e c on tempo ra ry w i th t ho se o f t h e O ld S e t t lemen t , ( 2 ) t h e re i so n ly o ne a r chaeo log ica l l e ve l p resen t , ( 3 ) t h e a r ea , w h ich h ad n o a r ch i tec tu ra l t r ace s w ha t soeve r , c on ta ined a ne xcep t iona l ly l a rge a ccumu la t ion o fa r te f ac t s ; e spec ia l ly p o t te ry . A sw eh ave d one i nt h e O ld S e t t lemen t , w e w i l l s how t h rough s t a t i s t ica l c oun t s a nd mea su re s o ft h e p o t te ry t h e f unc t ion o ft h e a r ea . H oweve r i nt h e c a se o ft h e W e s t O ld S e t t lemen t w e c an b u i ld a t r id imen s iona l mode l b y u s ing p o t te ry d i s t r ibu t ion c on t ro l t oe s tab l i sh t h a tf unc t ion . T ha t i st os ay , w e h ave p lo t t ed b o th l e ng thw ise /downh i l l a nd c ro s s -sec t ion /uph i l l p o t te ry d i s t r ibu t ions m2 b y m2 , b o th , i n t e rm s o f n umbe r a nd w e igh t o f t h e f r agmen t s t o c on s t ruc t t h is t r id imen s iona l mode l . Wh i le f o ri lu s t r a t ive p u rpo se so n ly s amp le g r aph s( Quad r an t s Ia nd M ,d ownh i l la nd Q uad ran t s 1a nd 5 ,u ph i l l ) a r es hown h e re ,t h i st ype o fm e te r b y m e te r r e co rd ing d ownh i l l a nd u ph i l l h a s b een c a r r ied o u t t o b u i ld t h e t r id imen s iona l mode l o ft h e w ho le a r ea . T o c ove r t h e a r ea c omp le te ly s ome 2 88 i n d iv idua lg r aph sw ou ld h ave t ob ei lu s t r a ted h e r e . T h i sh oweve rh a sb een d one f o r t h e mo r ec omp le t ep ubl i ca t ion o ft h es t a t i s t ic si nt h ef i na lr e po r t . W i th t h e u se o fs qua re m e te rb y s qua re m e te rr e co rd ing a nd t h e c on s t ruc t ion o fa t r id imen s iona l mode l , w eh ave b een a b le t od ef ine w ha tw e b e l ieve t oh ave b een a r e f u se o rd i spo sa la r ea ,a ccumu la ted t h roughou tt h eo c cupat iona ld u ra t ion o ft h eO ld S e t t lemen t b y d i sca rded m a ter ia l s , t h e r e su l t o ft h e p er iod ic c l ean ing o u t o ft h e i n ne r a r ea s o ft h e Wa l led C ompound . T he e x t reme ly h eavy c oncen t ra t ion s o f s he rd ma te r ia l , i n s ome c a ses u p t o 1 400 s he rd s p e r m2 ,w e b e l ieve t o b e r ep re sen ta t ive o f a c tua lp i le s o fr ubb i sh a nd n o ta ccumu la ted o ccupa t iona ld eb r i s s u ch a sw ou ld h ave h appened w i th t h el i v ing f l oo r so fd we l l ing s . F igure

1 1 . P o t tery S ta t i s t ics Dens i ty D i s tr ibu t ion

G r id :WOS S upe r

G r id , C ommon Wa re : N umbe ro fF r agmen t sp e r m2. T h i si s ap l an o ft h et o ta le xcava ted a r ea ,w he r e Row* 1 ,C o lumn * Do ft h es e r ie so f c ro s s -sec t ion /uphi l lq uad ran t s c o r re spond t ot h e w e s te rn u ppe rg rad ien t . R ow*2 1 , C o lumn * Di st h ee a s te rn l owe rs e r ie so fc ro s s -sec t ion /uph i l lq uad ran t s . T he s e r ie s o fq uad ran t se xcava ted ( l eng thw i se /do w nh i / / )a r e f r om R ow# 1 t oR ow#18 a nd t h e s e r ie s o fq uad ran t s e xcava ted ( c ro s s s e c t ion s /uph i / / )a r e f r om C o lumn*D t o C o lum r i*S ; c on s t i tu t ing as u rveyed g round a r ea o f2 6 1 m2.

3 20

O xf ord I n t e rna t iona l We s t e rn Med i t e r ran ean B e l lB eak er C onf e r en ce

T h i s Dens i ty D i s tr ibu t ion G r id r ep re sen t s t h e t o ta l n umbe r o f 4 4 ,428 p o t te ry f r agmen t s , e xcep t B eake r , f ound i nt h e q uad ran t a r ea s ( a l so s e e C o lumn C har t S A ) . A s s e en h e re i nF igu re 1 a nd 1 2 , t h e re a r e t wo , e xcep t iona l ly h i gh d en s i ty , a ccumu la t ion s o n t h e s i te f o rn umbe r a nd w e igh to ff r agmen t s ; a n u ppe ro ne a nd o ne i nt h e c en te r . A s n o ted a bove s ome q uad ran t s h ad ad i s t r ibu t ion o fu p t o1 400 s he rd s m2 .Whe rea s , t h e r e s t o f t h e q uad ran t s h ave a mo re e qua l d ens i ty d i s t r ibu t ion ,b u tr e la t ive t ot h eh i gh p o in t s . I np a r t icu la r ,t h ec oncen t ra t ion so fs u ch q uan t i t ies o f ma te r ia l s i ss i gn if ican t w hen w e c on s ide r t h a t t h e o ve ra l l v e r t ica l s t ra t ig raphy a nywhe re i nt h e s u rvey a r ea s e ldom r e a ched mo re t h an 2 0t o3 0 cm i n d ep th . T he f a c t t h a t t h e s u rvey a r ea i ss i tua ted o n ac on s ide rab le i n c l ine i sa l so s i gn i f ican t ,i nr e ga rd t ot h e movemen to f ma t e r ia l sd ownh il . T he t wo d en se a r ea sc an o n ly b et h er e su l to fa na r t if i c ia la gency ; t h i st os a y , man made d epo s i t ion s . U nde rt h e c i r cum s tance s , o ne w ou ld e xpec t mo re movemen to f t h e ma te r ia ls t oh ave t a ken p l ace o ve r t ime , s imp ly b ecau se o ft h e t opog raph ica l g rad ien t s o r n a tu ra l i n c l ine o f t h e s i te ( a bou t a3 me te r d ec l ine i n aw e s t -ea s t d ownh i l l d i rec t ion ) a s w e l l a s n a tu ra l e ro s ive a c t ion a nd o the r c ause s , s uch a s a g r icu l tu ra la c t iv i ty . D e sp i te t h ese f a c to r s ,d ownh i l l movemen to fa r te f ac t sa c tua l ly d oe sn o ts e em t oh ave t a ken p l a ce o ri n f luenced t h ep o t te ry d i s t r ibu t ion ag r ea td ea l . E ven t h e p re sen t d ay s ha l low v e r t ica l s o i l h a s n o t much e f f ec ted t h e g ene ra l movemen to rd i sp la cemen to ft h ea r t e f a c t s ,f r om t h eh i gh c oncen t ra t ion so fm a t e r ia l s a c tua l ly p re sen t . A no the rn o t iceab le f a c to ri st h a tt h eh igh d en s i ty a r ea sa r el o ca ted u ph i l l a nd a r ound s pec if ic q uad ran t s , w h i le t h ee x t reme d ownh i l lq uad ran t sh ave a d i s t inc t ive l ow d en s i ty d i s t r ibu t ion ( Row s * 16 t o* 18 ) . F igure 1 2 . P o t te ry S ta t i s t ic s Dens i ty D i s t r ibu t ion G r id :WOS S upe r G r id A ,C ommon Wa re : We igh to fF ragmen t sp e r m2. T h is D i s tr ibu t ion G r id c o r re spond t ot h e w e igh t o ft h e f r agmen t s s hown i nt h e p rev iou st a b le . A sw e s e eh e re t h e r ei s ac o r re la t ion b e tween n umbe ra nd w e igh t ,a s o ccu r s i n t h e O S a r ea s . T he D i s tr ibu t ion G r id c l ea r ly c l ea r ly s hows t h e h igh d ens i ty q uad ran t s t h a t w e re p resumab ly d i spo sa l a r ea s . H e re w e igh t d ens i ty d i s t r ibu t ion c an b e s e en t ob el e s s s p read o u tt h an t h en umbe rd en s i ty d i s t r ibu t ion . T h i s wou ld f u r the rs ub s tan t ia te t h e f a c tt h a tt h e movemen to ft h e ma te r ia l s o n t h e g r ad ien th ave b een l e s st h an w ha tw ou ld n o rma l ly b ee xpe c ted . T ab le 2 8 . C ommon Ware P o t tery D i s tr ibu t ion WOS Q uad ran t# 4U ph i l lN umbe ro fF r agm en t s Q uad r an t# 4U ph i l l We igh to fF ragmen t s T h i s i sa n e xamp le o ft h e t r id imen s iona l p o t te ry c on t ro l g r aph s . I nt h i s p a r t icu la r c a se t h ey a r e ac r o s s -sec t ion o fq uad ran t R ow#4 u ph i l li n n umbe ra nd w e igh to f f r agmen t s . R ema rk t h a t q uad ran t s f r om C o lumn*D t oC o lumn*J d ownh i l l w hen v i ewed w i th F igu re s 1 a nd 1 2c o r r e spond t oo ne o ft h eh i gh d en s i ty z one sr e f e r red t oa sd i spo sa l a r ea s . I nt h i sp i c tu r e w ec l ea r ly s e e w ha tw er e f e rt oa se v idence o f s uch ar e f use a ccumu la t ion . When w e l o ok a tt h e s hape o ft h e g raph s , w e s e e t h a t t h ep eak sf o rb o th n umbe ra nd w e igh t mo r eo rl e s sc o inc ide .H e re t oo ,t h en ,t h e r ei s ac o r r e la t ion b e tween d a ta s t a t i s t ic so fn umb e ra nd w e igh t .

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I n c iden t ly , t h e h igh p eak f ound i ne a ch g r id i nt h e U -V c o lumn a nd i nt h e 1 8 -19 r ow i s as t anda rd o f 1 400 s he rd s , u sed t og ua ran tee ac on s tan t r e f e rence f o r t h e g r aph ic r e p r e sen ta t ion s . T ab le 2 9 . C ommon Ware P o t tery D i s tr ibu t ion WOS Q uad ran t# 12 U ph i l lN umbe ro fF ragmen t s Q uad ran t# 12 U ph i l l We igh to fF r agmen t s T h i s i sa no the re xamp le o ft h ed i s t r ibu t ion d en s i ty o fc ommon w a re p o t te ry s h e rd s f r om al owe rq uad ran t ,R ow# 12 u ph i l l ,i nw h ich w es e ep a r to ft h ec en t ra l ly l o ca t ed h i gh d en s i ty a r ea w hen w ec ompa re i tt oF igu re s 1 a nd 1 2 ,a sw el a st h ei r r egu la r d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h ep o t te ry f r agmen t sa c ro s st h es i te . N o te t h a tt h eg r aph f o rn umbe r o ff r agmen t si ss t eepe rt h an t h a tf o rw e igh t . T ab le 3 0 . C ommon Ware P o t tery D i s tr ibu t ion WOS Q uad ran t# ID ownh i l lN umbe ro fF ragmen t s Q uad ran t# ID ownh i l l We igh to fF ragmen t s T h i s i s al e ng thw i se o rd ownh i l l s e c t ion o fq uad ran tC o lumn * Ia sc omb ined w i th t h ec ro s s -sec t ion q uad ran t s ; c omp le t ing t h ed ownh i l lt r id im en s iona lp o t te ry c on t ro l g r aph . A s i nt h ep rev iou s e xamp le s , t h e d a ta s e en i sr e pr e sen ta t ive o fn umbe ra nd w e igh t ; a ga in w i th ac o r re la t ion e x is t ing b e tween t h e t wo . No t ice t h a t q uad ran t s f r om R ow# 1 t o R ow#5 u ph i l l r ep resen t t h e u ppe r d ens i ty a r ea . A nd w hen w e c omb ine t h i ss e c t ion o ft h eg r aph ic w i th t h ec r o s s sec t ion o fq uad r an tR ow#4 u ph i l l , w e s e e h ow t h e p rof i le o f q uad ran t s C o lumn*F t oC o lu tnn*J d ownh i l l f o rm s a t r id imen s iona l v i ew o ft h e p o t te ry d en s i ty i nt h a t a r ea ; a c tua l ly s how ing p i le s o f r e fuse . T ab le 3 1 . C ommon Ware P o t ter y D i s tr ibu t ion WOS Q uad ran t #M D ownh i l lN umbe ro fF ragmen t s Q uad ran t #M D ownh i l l We igh to fF ragmen t s A no the re xamp le o fl e ng thw i se o rd ownh i l l s e c t ion , t h a to fq uad ran t C o lumn *M d ownh i l l , w h ich s how st h ec en t r a ld en s i ty a r ea t h a tc omp r i se sq uad ran t sf r om R ow # 9 t oR ow # 13 u ph i l l a nd t oC o lumn* I t o C o lumn * Nd ownh i l l . B yc on t inu ing t o g r aph e ach r ow a nd c o lumn ,m e te rb ym e te r ,w ec an g r adua l ly b u i ld u pa na c cu r a te t r id imens iona lr ep re sen ta t ion o r mode l o ft h e w ho le a r ea . A sp o in ted o u t a bove , a p ro jec t wh ich n ece s s i ta te s 2 88 g raph s , b u t w h ich c onc lus ive ly s how s t h e h i gh a c cumu la t ion a r ea s . T h is t y pe o fr e co rd ing o ft h ev a r iou so t he ra r tef ac t s , s uch a sB eake rp o t te ry a sw e l l a st h e c ommon w a re f e a tu re p i ece s , f l in t s , vp er fo ra ted e l emen t e t c i sa l so b e ing c a r r ied o u t a sp a r t o f al a rge rs t a t i s t ica l d i s t r ibu t iona l s t udy ; o ne w h ich d e se rve s a m uch mo r ee x ten s ive c ove r age t h an i sa t temp ted i nt h i sp r e sen tp ape r .T he r e fo r e ,t h e r e ade r s hou ld a ccep t t h ep re sen td a ta o n t h i s s t anda rd a s ap re l im ina ry s t udy o n ly ; a l though o ne w h ich h a s e ve ry p o ten t ia lo fd eve lop ing i n to amuch mo re e x ten s ive r e sea r ch p rog ramme .

3 22

O xf ord I n t e rna t iona lW e s t e rn Med i t e r ranean B e l lB eak er C onf e r ence

C onc lus ions ***** R eco rd ing a r tef a c t su s ing p e r sona lc ompu t e r sa nd t h e i rs o f twa r ei s ar e la t ive ly n ew d i sc ip l ine . T he s t a t i s t ica l s t udy a sp re sen ted a bove c on s t i tu te s i nt h em ind 's o ft h e a u tho r s t h e mo s t e f f ec t ive a nd p roduc t ive m e thod t ot r ea t ah igh ly e roded s i te . H oweve r , i tc an e qua l ly a dap tab le t o mo re c omp lex s t ra t ig raph ie so ra ny s i te w i th a bundan tm a t e r ia le v id ence .I na lc i r cuma tance s ,i tp r e sen t su sw i th h i the r to u nhea rd o f o ppo r tun i t ie s f o r t h e s t udy o f s i te m a te r ia l s a nd t h e i r d i s t r ibu t ion ; h ence , f a c i l i ta t ing m any d i f f icu l t ie s ,n o to n ly o fr e co rd ing b u ta l so o fi n t e rp r e ta t ion . A s ap o ten t ia lt o o l ,a l b e i t ay oung o ne ( bo th u n ive r sa l ly a sw e l la sp a r t icu la r ly i nt h i s p r e l im ina ry i n ten t ) ,f o ri n te rpe t ing as i te a r ea 's p o s s ib le f unc t ion ,i t sp opu la t ion a nd s o c io /econo rn i cc ond i t ion s ,e t c , t h ec ompu te ri s ap r ice le s si mp lemen ta sp a r to ft h e a r chaeo log i s t 's t o o l k i t . T he u se o ft h e p e r sona l c ompu te ri nt h e F e r r ande l l -O leza O ld S e t t lemen t a nd i t s o the r a d jacen t a r ea s h a s o pened t h e d oo r f o r s ome e xcep t iona l ly n ume rou s a nd i n te re s t ing i n te rp re ta t ion s a nd g ene ra l a s se s smen t so f t h e s i te , i t s a r tef ac t s a nd p hy s ica l c on tex t s ; w h ich f o r t h e f i r s t t ime a r e made p o s s ib le t h rough i t sa u sp ice s . . A sb ecome se v iden tf r om t h i sp r e l im ina ry p rog re s sr e po r to nt h ep o t te ry d i s t r ibu t ion i nt h eF e r rande l l -O leza O ld S e t t lemen t ,t h en ew t o o lo fc ompu te rb a sed r e sea r ch c an h e lp u st ob e t te ru nde r s tand t h ep henomenon o fo n -s i te a r tef ac td i s t r ibu t ion sa l ong w i th t h ee f f e c t so fs o i l ,t o pog raphy ,h uman a nd e l emen ta la c t iv i t ie so nt h e se . I tc an a l so b e h e lpfu l i nd e te rm in ing t h e f unc t ion o fs i te a r ea s w he re t h e se a r e n o rma l ly o t herw i se u nc lea r . I tc an a l so h e lp u s t o d e te rm ine c hange s a nd t r end st h roughou t t h ee vo lu t ion o ff o rm s , a sw e l la ss pec if i cf unc t ion so ft h e ma t e r ia l s . Wh i le w ha ti sp re sen ted h e r et o day i si ni t sp r el im ina ry s t age s ,w ed ob e l ieve s ome i n te re s t ing o b se rva t ion sh ave b een p o s s ib le . T he r e a lv a lue o fa ny s uch p i lo ts t udy a s t h i s w i l l c ome o f a ge w hen r e su l t s c an b e c ompa red w i th t ho se o fo the r s i te s . O the rw ise s t a t is t ics l a bou rou s ly g a ined s uch a s t h e se w i l l r ema in j u s t c u r iou s s t a t i s t ic s a nd n o t much mo re . We s hou ld a l so b e c on sc iou s o f t h e f a c t t h a t a l l s t a t i s t ic s c an b e d ange rous j u s t a s a l l e xcava t ion c an .b e d e s t ruc t ive . Howeve r , d e sp i te t h e d ange r s , s uch a s t udy mu s t t a ke o n as y s tema t ic a pp roach a nd a ny i n t e rp r e ta t ion sc a r e fu l ly m ade a nd s ub jec tt oc hange a sn ew d a ta b e come sa va i lab le . I ns ho r t ,w eh ave n o tp r e sen t ed t h i sp ape ra sa ny d e f in i t ive w o rk o nt h e s ub jec ta nd a r ew e l la wa r eo ft h ea spec t ss t i l ll e f tu ndone .T he re r ema in many p rob lem sd eal ing w i th t h e s t a t i s t ica l a nd p hy s ica la t t r ibu te so ft h e a r te f a c tm a te r ia l st ob ec on s ide r ed a nd w o rked w i th b efo re a ny l e g i t im i te c onc lu s ion s c an b e a r r ived a t . I ti sq u i te n o t iceab le t h a ts uch a t t r ibu te sa sf r agmen tt h ickne s se s ,p o t te ry r im d imen s ion sa nd v e s se l f o rm s h ave n o tb een i n c luded . T h i s i sn o tb ecau se o fa ny o ve r s igh t , b u t a s m en t ioned b efo re r a the r aq ue s t ion o f t h e s t age a tw h ich t h e p re sen t r e sea r ch p rog r amme h a sp rog re s sed . T he c ompu te ra s at o o lr equ i re sm a s te ry a si na l lt h ing s ,b u ti t sp o ten t ia lf o rg e t t ing a j ob s t a r ted a sw e l l a sc omp le ted , b r ing s u s t o an ew b eg inn ing i nt h e s o lu t ion o f a r chaeo log ica lp rob lem st h a t h i the r to w e re n o tp o s s ib le .

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S FO -OS &WOS POTTERY D ISTR IBUT ION : E XCAVATED AREAS M 2

1 3%

G 2

4%

C 2NX

a l H 4

6 9 v w v 1 2%

1 % 2

EW

[ 1 ] EWX EWN B MX V I NW SQUARE METERS E XCAVATED

P ERCENTAGES ALL AREAS 1 0%

S ta t is t ics o n P IE CHART ' 8B

SQUARE METERS E XCAVATED :I NNER AREAS

0 .2739147881

5 9 .233679507

S td . D ev ia t ion

X

Med ian

1 05

A ve rage

8 6 .563333333

1 5

M in imum

1 70

Max imum

* o f p o in ts

I II I 1 2

l i 20

# o

2 0

I 4 0

i

I

6 0

8 0

I

f

f

1

I

1 00

1 20

1 40

1 60

1 80

Y

,

0 1 W MBBC

TAB L E

3 37

•'•

G I WIABBC

TABLE

3 38

S ta t is t ics o n P IE CHART ' 4A COMMON WARE BODY SHERDS : NUMBER SHERDS I NNER AREAS

0 .691826496 1

S td . D ev ia t ion

6 915 .7746099

4 . Med ian

A verage

M in imum

5 905

f

6 913 .5

1 47

2 0490

Max imum

# o f p o in ts 1 12

4 5000

o

5 000

1 0000 Y

C o l WIABBC

TAB L E

4

3 39

1 5000

2 0000

2 5000

S ta t is t ics o n P IE CHART ' 4B

C OMMON WARE BODY SHERDS : WE f G 14 1-SHERDS :I NNER AREAS

0 .671522225

S td .

2 6 .782519491

D ev ia t ion

Med ian

X

2 3 .464

2 7 .671916667

A verage

M in imum

10 .6

7 8 .846

Max imu m

* o f p o in ts

-1 0

( D I W MBBC

1 2

0

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

TAB L E

3 40

5 0

6 0

7 0

8 0

COLUMN CHART ' 4A S FO -OS POTTERY D ISTR IBUT ON : I NNER AREAS 2 5000

. . COM PJON WARE BODY S HERDS 2 0490

2 0000

. . 1 7890

1 5000

. .

1 3525

1 2975

s H s r t yr ee t ER 1 0000

8 661

5 905 5 000

. . 2 804 1 283

3 559

1 552 1 52

1 47

0 I NNER AREAS

C SS

E XW

9N

AT 1-2

C 2NX

H4

WW

BW

B A IX

E VVN

Be e


w .w .Y ., ,, , , e ,e eme cee ee e eee ce eeze r ",weem ee se»me meeer».

s ef l $2 2,5 92 W 5Re ee2 2 : 591

S ta t is t ics o n P IE CHART 2 0 *B S FO -OS POTTERY D ISTR IBUT ION : I NNER AREAS

F EATURE P IECES 0 .446781908 ) f f .

S td . D ev ia t ion

2 .0128561100

Med ian

X

2 .64

A verage

M in imum

2 .5805833333

0 . 5

6 .878

Max imum

1 2

# o f p o in ts 1 2

0 1 WIABBC

2

4

6

TABLE

1 7

3 52

8

1 0

1 1 2

s e . x e .eNe g sx

. em e cemee me e t e me«e me r , COLUMN CHART ' 20A S FO -OS POTTERY D ISTR IBUT ION : I NNER AREAS

7 00

—

F EATURE P IECES 6 07

6 00

5 00 4 13 4 00

3 88

—

NO . SHERDS 2 96

2 79

3 00

2 37 2 00

—

1 00

. .

1 29

1 14

7 0

6 9 5

7

0 CSS

E XW

SW

AT1-2

C 2NX

H 4

WW

EW

EWX

EWN

BAN D