At the Intersection of Education, Marketing, and Transformation 9781618113191

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At the Intersection of Education, Marketing, and Transformation

Touro College Press New York

At the Intersection of Education, Marketing, and Transformation Sabra Brock

NEW YORK  2013

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data: A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

ISBN 978-1-61811-312-2 (hardback) ISBN 978-1-61811-319-1 (electronic) ©Touro College Press, 2013 Published by Touro College Press and Academic Studies Press. Typeset, printed and distributed by Academic Studies Press. Cover design by Ivan Grave Touro College Press 43 West 23rd Street New York, NY 10010, USA [email protected] Academic Studies Press 28 Montfern Avenue Brighton, MA 02135, USA [email protected] www.academicstudiespress.com

Dedicated to all those in the midst of transformations

Ta b l e o f C o n t en t s Preface

8

Tools for Change: An Examination of Transformative Learning and Its Precursor Steps in Undergraduate Students

13

Creating a Learning Climate for the 21st Century: Applying Transformational Learning Methods in Business School

25

Gender Equality for Learning Leadership in Undergraduate Business Schools

44

Measuring the Importance of Precursor Steps to Transformative Learning

59

Empowering PowerPoint: Slides and Teaching Effectiveness

87

Library and Marketing Class Collaborate to Create Next Generation Learning Landscape

101

What Research Tells Us about the Utility of Team Projects in Post-Secondary Business Classes

110

German American Undergraduate Student Collaboration: Results and Reflections of an Authentic Peer Support Activity

116

Simulation in the College Classroom: Enhancing the Survey Research Methods Learning Process

124

Famous Gary’s/Famous Names

137

Elements of Successful Collaboration: An Overview

140

Can You Speak Marketing?

152

Index

158

Preface

There have been significant changes in the last decade in the fields of education and marketing. Both have been transformed by technology and globalization. The articles collected in this volume, which I have authored or co-authored, examine the foundations of these transformations and analyze emerging trends in marketing and post-secondary education. These essays may provide insights for educators and educational administrators, as well as business practitioners, especially marketers. The intersection between the education and marketing fields is not obvious. Certainly the path to each field is very different. Education requires grounding in curriculum design, student needs, learning styles, and the art and science of inculcating knowledge and skills to a diverse population that will allow them to act as good citizens and productive workers. Schools of education also provide content concerning the administration of education, in itself a vast business. The track to marketing expertise is more likely to require a broad grounding in business fundamentals, such as an MBA provides, the psychology of customers, and how to persuade them to buy a particular brand through convincing messages in the media, packaging, and in training front-line staff. But both fields require a deep understanding of human motivation and the tools and processes that can mold behavior. One might say that the silos of education and marketing have little in common. They differ in their aims, in their methods, and in their contexts, but there are underlying parallels. The end goal of education, particularly with adult and college populations, is changed behavior; students learn how to be good citizens and workers. The “communications” tools include textbooks, blackboards, lectures, websites, and the personal interaction of teacher and student. The end goal of marketing is to bring about changed brand purchasing behaviors through media such as advertising, direct mail, packaging, and interpersonal selling and service. Successful practitioners in both fields use similar targeting approaches: understanding the audience, segmenting the audience in smaller groups of similar people 8

Preface

so that a message and product can be designed specifically for them, and testing whether the knowledge has been inculcated or not. Both require the intended audience to pay attention and process information meaningfully in the face of many environmental distractions. Both fields have been radically affected by new technology and the globalization of communication. Education is rapidly shifting to being more online as opposed to the traditional classroom setting; and the media of marketing is also transitioning away from the traditional print and broadcast outlets toward digital ones. While the rates of these changes are different in different countries, the overall trend is worldwide. Marketers and educators can learn from each other. Each field is undergoing structural transformation while at the same time preparing for a world where their customers/students are facing tumultuous change. Hang on for the ride; practitioners in both fields need all the help, new perspectives, and innovative thinking they can get.  This collection of articles comes from a practitioner who has spent a lifetime in the fields of education and marketing, and the articles reflect the varied and broad experiences of the author. Section One, Transformation through Education, contains four articles. The underlying thesis is that the goal of education is to change lives. Techniques to change worldviews are explored. A successful education transforms and enriches; if the graduate emerges unchanged and merely with additional skills and knowledge, the investment has not been worthwhile. Proponents of vocational and possibly religious education are likely to argue differently, that education needs only to reinforce previously held values and views. The first article, Tools for Change: An Examination of Transformative Learning and Its Precursor Steps in Undergraduate Students, looks at which populations are more likely to have dramatically changing perspectives in an educational setting. When we are able to identify people on the brink of change, the appetite for learning is high as is the likelihood for adopting new behaviors. The second, Creating a Learning Climate for the 21st Century: Applying Transformational Learning Methods in Business School, provides researchbased recommendations that instructors can use to create a fertile climate for transformative learning in the classroom, e.g., to stimulate the 9

Preface

comparison of internal and external values, to encourage trying out work roles, to provide challenge, and to tie in the whole student life experience to the in-class work. Gender Equality for Learning Leadership in Undergraduate Business Schools reflects how male and female students show no significant differences in reporting transformative learning in undergraduate business school. Women enrolled in a highly competitive business school were just as likely to experience change, but it is pointed out that they may process competition differently as a stimulus. Men have an immediate and visceral reaction to competition and change to meet it, but women think more of differences in opinion and approach and allow that to drive change in themselves. The article Measuring the Importance of Precursor Steps to Transformative Learning looks at the process a student goes through in experiencing transformative learning. With a frame of the ten precursor steps proposed in the foundational 1978 article by Jack Mezirow, results found that the more steps respondents remembered experiencing, the more they also reported transformative learning. The highest incidence of reporting transformative learning was associated with the precursor step of critical reflection, followed by the steps of disorienting dilemmas and trying on new roles. Section Two turns to more applied tools to improve communication and marketing. Here too there is a dichotomy in what these tools are trying to achieve. For example, some think that the purpose of communication and marketing is to motivate and change minds. Others see them used most effectively when they reinforce attitudes already present. Empowering PowerPoint: Slides and Teaching Effectiveness looks at a much-used teaching technique and recommends that we must decrease the density of our slides for effective communication, no more than three bullet points per slide and fewer than 20 words. Marketers also have a rule of thumb that advertising messages need to focus to be effective in teaching consumers why to buy a particular brand. The sixth article, Library and Marketing Class Collaborate to Create Next Generation Learning Landscape, describes the use of marketing planning techniques for an important educational function, the college library. Student learning interest and engagement significantly increased with the opportunity to solve a real-world problem, such as writing a mar10

Preface

keting plan for a librarian, and nine suggestions for college libraries are advanced. The next article, What Research Tells Us about the Utility of Team Projects in Post-Secondary Business Classes, outlines a classroom method that can be used to develop team skills likely to transfer to the workplace. German American Undergraduate Student Collaboration: Results and Reflections of An Authentic Peer Support Activity is another specific example of using the contrast of the diverse points of view of two cultures to drive to a better educational outcome. The next article, Simulation in the College Classroom: Enhancing the Survey Research Methods Learning Process, underscores the value of practicing with real-world tools in the classroom. The subject, Survey Monkey software program, is designed to help create research instruments, serve as a collection center, and tally results. Using it in an assignment heightened learning. The fast feedback feature of the program was especially appreciated. In Famous Gary’s/Famous Names, the author’s section in The Best of the Best: The AMA Trainers’ Activity Book, a specific tool for teaching and memory is outlined and demonstrated. Elements of Successful Collaboration: An Overview discusses three important foundations for effective collaboration in an organization: institutional support, team skills, and technology. The final article, Can You Speak Marketing?, was written for an audience of designers. It summarizes and explains marketing terms essential to reading the literature on marketing and to practicing marketing in an informed way. In conclusion, observation at the intersection of marketing and education can stimulate creativity among educators and educational administrators, as well as business practitioners, especially those in the marketing field. 

Preface

About the Author Dr. Sabra Brock has spent a lifetime in the fields of education and marketing. Armed with an MS degree in advertising from the prestigious program at Northwestern University, she first worked on Madison Ave. She also provided education and training for Citicorp, Colgate-Palmolive, and Verizon, to name a few. After decades of adjunct teaching, she returned to school for a Ph.D. in business education at New York University. For her dissertation she studied what fosters transformative learning in undergraduate business students. Dr. Brock continues to expand that research to other student populations. She currently serves as a professor and Interim Dean of the Graduate Business School at Touro College.

Tool s for Ch a nge: A n E x a min at ion of Tr a nsform at i v e L e a rning a nd It s Precur sor St ep s in Undergr a duat e St uden t s * Sabra Brock, Ionut Florescu, and Leizer Teran

Abstract In this quantitative study of college students spanning three waves, the 10 theoretical precursor steps of transformational learning did predict its occurrence. The most consistent predictor was the step of reflection. Maturity and ethnicity also showed a predictive value, but college major was not a significant differentiator for transformative learning.

Introduction Given the turbulent economic and business conditions of today (Eisner, 2010), graduates will have to adapt to rapid change and exhibit leadership in their roles as entering professionals and managers. Transformative learning has been shown to be an effective component of leadership among teachers (Forrester, Motteram, & Bangxiang, 2006; Harris, Lowery-Moore, & Farrow, 2008), students (Glisczinski, 2007; Hanson, 2010; Kelly & Fetherston, 2007; Brown, 2006), and religious leaders (Forrester, Motteram, & Bangxiang, 2006; Clare, 2006), in the operating room (McNaron, 2009) and in executive education (Ciporen, 2009). Creating a climate designed to

*



From “Tools for change: An Examination of Transformative Learning and Its Precursor Steps in Undergraduate Students,” by Sabra Brock, Ionut Florescu, and Leizer Teran, 2012, ISRN Education, 2012, article ID 234125. Copyright Sabra Brock, 2012. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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maximize transformative learning may help undergraduate students adjust more readily to a fast-changing workplace (Wills, 1994) and provide tools for future leaders facing challenges in times of change. THEORET I C A L B A C K G ROUND Transformative learning has been an important conceptual model in the development of college and adult education for more than 40 years, since Jack Mezirow proposed it as a theoretical description of the steps learners undergo when changing their world views. From the educator’s perspective, transformative learning is when a learner is struck by a new concept or way of thinking and then follows through to make a life change; it supplements more common types of learning such as acquiring facts or learning new skills (Cranton, 2006). However, despite much qualitative research, little quantitative study has been made of the incidence of transformative learning or the 10 steps predicted by Mezirow to precede it (Taylor, 2007). These 10 steps are (1) a disorienting dilemma, (2) a critical assessment of assumptions, (3) recognition that one’s discontent and the process of transformation are shared and that others have negotiated a similar change, (4) exploration of options for new roles, relationships, and actions, (5) self-examination with feelings of guilt or shame, (6) provisional trying of new roles, (7) planning of a course of action, (8) acquisition of knowledge and skills for implementing one’s plans, (9) building of competence and self-confidence in new roles and relationships, and (10) a reintegration into one’s life on the basis of conditions dictated by one’s new perspective (Mezirow, 1978; 2000). These 10 steps may not necessarily be linear (Mezirow, 1994; Cranton, 1994), and a number of researchers have condensed the process into three or four steps (Taylor, 2007). One version included only the steps of critical reflection, discourse, and action (Merriman & Caffarella, 1999). Some researchers (Kilgore & Bloom, 2002; Kovan & Dirkx, 2003) have emphasized their “disproof ” of transformative learning because they have shown it not to require the first step of disorienting dilemma. Mezirow has stated that all steps are not required to experience transformative learning (Mezirow, 1978; 1994), although Brock (2010) showed quantitative evidence that the more of these steps remembered, the more likely transformative learning will occur. 14

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P UR P O S E The purpose of this paper was to confirm the value of the 10 precursor steps proposed by Mezirow (1978) in predicting transformative learning, especially in the college classroom. His original research was among adults, although other transformative learning researchers have explored the usefulness of this model in studying college students (Harris, LoweryMoore, & Farrow, 2008; Cranton, 2006; Brock, 2010). Additional knowledge about what precedes transformative learning may indicate that curricula designed to focus on the most relevant precursor steps may increase the rate of transformative learning in the college classroom. An understanding of which students may be most open to transformative learning and its precursor steps may also help curriculum design. RE S E A RCH Q UE S T I ON S The research questions being addressed include the following.  1) What is the relationship of the precursor steps to the report of transformative learning among college students?  2) Are some precursor steps better predictors of transformative learning than others? If so,what are these?  3) Are there differences in reported transformative learning among demographic groups of college students? If so, what are these?  4) Are there differences in transformative learning or its relationship to the precursor steps due to college major? If so, what majors appear to set more effective foundations for transformative learning?  5) What differences in incidences of transformative learning are observed in the samples of college students collected in three successive years: 2005, 2008, and 2010? M ETHOD A series of studies measured the incidence of transformative learning and each of the 10 precursor steps as well as demographics and college majors. Samples of undergraduate populations were gathered in 2005, 2008, and 2010 from two colleges in a large metropolitan area in the Northeast 15

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United States via a web survey. Total sample sizes for each year are 298, 454, and 468, respectively. The 2005 sample consisted of traditional age undergraduates (mean age 19), whereas the later two samples had mean ages of 26 and 27. Instrument Data describing students’ experiences were collected using a quantitative survey, previously validated through use of an expert panel and multiple pretests (King, 1998). It covered the 10 steps leading to transformative learning and the reporting of transformative learning, as well as questions on demographics and college major. Recall of each of these precursor steps was measured by check boxes and included the option to say “none,” followed by the question of whether or not transformative learning occurred while at this institution. Those respondents reporting transformative learning were asked to explain in their own words how they experienced it. These open-ended responses were used to confirm that students reporting transformative learning understood that it was not merely learning a new tool, such as SWOT. For this study, the instrument was modified to add class rank in the demographic section. This paper-based survey was first piloted to assure the original method would be replicable on the web. Procedures Participation in all three studies was voluntary and had been approved by the colleges’ Institutional Review Boards. In 2005, the Dean of the Undergraduate School helped recruit students. Recruitment invitations were included in four editions of the school’s weekly e-newsletter. Those students interested in volunteering were directed to a link for a website (surveymonkey.com) displaying the survey. In the 2008 and 2010 studies, undergraduate students were emailed directly and offered a link to the surveymonkey.com website. In the 2005 study, participants were offered participation in a $250 lottery as suggested by Dillman (2000) to increase response rate. No incentive was offered in the latter two studies, but in all three the offer was made to provide a summary of the completed results if an email address was provided. Response rate was 13% in the 2005 study, with the relatively low level being attributed to the invitation appearing at the end of the Dean’s letter and “below the fold” of this electronic communication (Lynch & Horton, 2001). In the latter two studies, the response rate to the 16

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more direct solicitation was 60% (2008) and 61% (2010). Split half reliability was checked between responders and nonresponders in each of the three samples. F I ND I N G S Research Question 1: What Is the Relationship of the Precursor Steps to the Report of Transformative Learning among College Students? Recalling the precursor steps predicted transformative learning in logistic regression modeling. The model used the following formula, where P is the percent answering “yes” to recalling an experience of transformative learning and β1− -β13 are measures of the individual precursor steps and epsilon (ε) is a Gaussian error term

 p  log =   = β 0 + β 1X1 + β kXk + ε .  1− p 

(1)

For the 2005, 2008, and 2010 samples, the respective Cragg Uhler 2 Nagelkerke pseudo R measures were 0.316, 0.231, and 0.357 and the 2 McFadden pseudo R measures were 0.196, 0.138, and 0.229, indicating a good fit in 2010 and a borderline good fit in 2005. Furthermore, using the model to predict from one sample to another showed large numbers for a logistic model. See Table 1. Ta b l e 1. Transformative learning prediction power of models using precursor steps 2005 Wave predicted transformative learning, %

2008 Wave predicted transformative learning, %

2010 Wave predicted transformative learning, %

Model using 2005 precursor step data

70.1

62.3

69.4

Model using 2008 precursor step data

64.1

67.6

72.9

Model using 2010 precursor step data

66.8

66.1

73.5

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Checking any of the precursor steps predicted transformative learning. Further, indicating having experienced none of the precursor steps predicted a “no” to experiencing transformative learning and improved the fit of the model. See Table 2. Ta b l e 2. Transformative learning prediction power adding “no” check to precursor steps 2005 Wave, %

2008 Wave, %

2010 Wave, %

Base = checked at least one precursor step and also reported transformative learning

61.4

64.0

62.5

Base = checked “none of the precursor steps remembered” and did not report transformative learning

79.5

70.4

80.7

Conbination of when precursor steps predicted either reporting transformative learning or not

64.1

67.2

72.6

Also the more of the precursor steps remembered, the higher the likelihood that students reported experiencing transformative learning. The β coefficients for the addition of the precursor steps to the logistic regression model were 0.33, 0.19, and 0.28 in 2005, 2008, and 2010, respectively. Saying “none of the precursor steps remembered” was a strong predictor of transformative learning in the 2008 and 2010 waves with negative β coefficients of −0.93 and −1.12. In other words, remembering none of the steps appeared to mean that transformative learning did not happen. Research Question 2. Are Some Precursor Steps Better Predictors of Transformative Learning Than Others? If So, What Are These? In order to address the relationship between specific precursor steps and transformative learning, likelihood ratio tests (Casella & Berger, 2001) were conducted between each of the 10 precursor steps and reported transformative learning. Associations were observed, but only one of the 18

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steps predicted transformative learning in all three samples: the step of reflection. Respondents could frame this step in one of two ways: reflecting by critically looking at existing assumptions or noncritically in staying with existing assumptions. In 2005 and 2010, critical reflection resulting in changed assumptions significantly predicted transformative learning; in 2005, this precursor step was much more important than other steps. In the 2008 and 2010 waves, reflection that occurred without changing assumptions also significantly predicted not reporting transformative learning. The precursor stop of a disorienting dilemma was predictive in the first two waves. Trying on new roles and acquiring skills/knowledge to implement plans significantly predicted transformative learning in the 2005 and 2010 waves. Building confidence was a significant predictor in the 2010 sample. The following steps showed no significant relationship to transformative learning in any of the waves: recognizing discontent shared, exploring new roles (as contrasted to trying new roles), self-examination with feelings of guilt/shame, planning a new course of action, and reintegrating to life. Research Question 3: Are There Differences in Reported Transformative Learning among Demographic Groups? If So, What Are These? Six demographic variables were examined for relationships to the recollection of transformative learning: class standing, semesters completed, age, prior education, gender, and ethnicity. The only demographic variables to have a significant relationship to transformative learning in all three waves of this paper were age and ethnicity. In the 2005 study, significant relationships to reported transformative learning were found in age with the more mature student reporting higher rates of transformative learning. Older students did report greater rates of transformative learning in the 2010 sample as did students who had qualified for college with the nontraditional GED (graduate equivalent diploma). Gender, class standing, and semesters completed did not have significant relationships with reported transformative learning in any of the three studies. Ethnicity had a significant relationship with transformative learning at the .05 level in 2008 and 2010 with Hispanics reporting it at a higher rate. Note that each of the three prior demographic measures was determined by checkboxes. Research Question 4. Are There Differences in Transformative Learning or Its Relationship to the Precursor Steps due to College Major? If So, What 19

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Majors Appear to Set More Effective Foundations for Transformative Learning? There were no significant differences in transformative learning or the 10 precursor steps and college major in any of the three samples. Research Question 5. What Differences in Incidences of Transformative Learning Are Observed between the Samples Collected in Three Successive Years: 2005, 2008, and 2010? The incidence of reporting transformative learning was 55.4% in the 2005 sample, 46.9% in the 2008 sample and 38.5% in the 2010 sample, indicating significant differences. These incidences fall within the range reported in the transformative learning literature (King, 1997; 2000). There are differences in the respondent bases with the 2005 sample being full-time business school undergraduates and the 2008 and 2010 samples being a combination of full and part time undergraduates of all majors at another college. King’s 1997 sample was of students enrolled in evening programs and her 2000 study was among ESL students. D I S CU S S I ON A ND RECO M M END A T I ON S In summary, incidences of transformative learning varied across time and samples, confirming the range found in the limited reporting of quantitative studies of transformative learning (Brock, 2010; King, 1997; 2000). The precursor steps to transformative learning proposed by Mezirow (1978) relate to the reporting of transformative learning. Checking any of them predicted transformative learning and checking none predicted not reporting transformative learning. The precursor step of reflection, as Mezirow has argued (1994; 1998), maybe the most important of the precursor steps although reflecting without a consciousness of changing assumptions appears not to create a fertile climate for transformative learning. These findings provide a foundation for assessing whether transformative learning has occurred in the classroom and the range that can be considered normative. It does support discussions in the educational literature that transformative learning is related to the maturation process. This finding is important in that educators are encouraged not just to celebrate the sudden “a-ha” type of learning but continue to stimulate the more gradual change of framework that occurs over time. The work of Perry and other stage theorists may be useful in framing how incremental 20

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transformative learning can be fostered (Baxter Magolda, 2000; Kegan, 1994; Perry, 1970). In looking back over a semester, learners can be surprised that life lessons have been learned. Reflecting on behavior and life can foster seeing the world in a new way. The study results seem to indicate that educational techniques that especially encourage five of the 10 transformative learning precursor steps may be most effective in fostering this type of learning. These are reflecting critically on assumptions, as well as experiencing disorienting dilemmas, trying on new roles, acquiring skills to make a change, and building confidence. Mezirow has strongly defended the inclusion of critical reflection as one of these steps (Mezirow, 2003) in reaction to suggestions to change his original definition (Kovan & Dirkx, 2003). Implications for practice point to more inclusion of reflective exercises such as learning journals, especially after incorporating new and challenging ideas into the classroom. The transformative learning process is enhanced as students can then be supported through the trying out of new roles these ideas imply, practicing skills necessary to implement them, and gaining confidence in their new world view. L I M I T A T I ON S A ND F UTURE RE S E A RCH This study was limited to two undergraduate colleges at three points in time in a major Northeastern city in the United States. Therefore, the results may be only generalized to similar contexts. Future research is recommended to extend this research to other schools and other populations of learners. The differences in lifestyle among the three waves of this paper may help to explain why the incidence of transformative learning varied. The highest rate was in the school where students were enrolled full-time (2005). Some of the students in the other two samples had full-time jobs and family responsibilities outside school, probably creating different dynamics for transformative learning. Although some research exists showing a connection between transformative learning and being prepared to manage change (Harris, Lowery-Moore, & Farrow, 2008; McNaron, 2009; Ciporen, 2009; Wills, 1994), more research, especially longitudinal research, is needed to strengthen this connection in times of change.

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Reference s

Baxter Magolda, M. (Ed.). (2000). Teaching to promote intellectual and personal maturity: Incorporating students’ world views and identities into the learning process. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Brock, S. E. (2010). Measuring the importance of precursor steps to transformative learning. Adult Education Quarterly, 60 (2), 122–142. Brown, K. M. (2006). Leadership for social justice and equity: evaluating a transformative framework and andragogy. Educational Administration Quarterly, 42 (5), 700–745. Casella, G., & Berger, R. (2001). Statistical inference. Pacific Grove, CA: Duxbury Resource Center. Ciporen, R. (2009). The role of personally transformative learning in leadership development: A case study examining the transfer of learning from an executive education program. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). New York: Columbia University. Clare, R. C. (2006). Putting faith into action: A model for the north American middle class. Religious Education, 101 (3), 368–389. Cranton, P. (1994). Understanding and promoting transformative learning: A guide for educators of adults. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Cranton, P. (2006). Understanding and promoting transformative learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Dillman, D. (2000). Mail and internet surveys. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Eisner, S. (2010). E-employment? College grad career building in changing and electronic age. American Journal of Business Education, 3 (7), 25–40. Forrester, G., Motteram, G., & Bangxiang, L. (2006). Transforming Chinese teachers’ thinking, learning and understanding via e-learning. Journal of Education for Teaching, 32 (2), 197–212. Glisczinski, D. J. (2007). Transformative higher education: A meaningful degree of understanding. Journal of Transformative Education, 5 (4), 317–328. Hanson, L. (2010). Global citizenship, global health, and the internationalization of curriculum: A study of transformative potential. Journal of Studies in International Education, 14 (1), 70–88. Harris, S., Lowery-Moore, H. & Farrow, V. (2008). Extending transfer of learning theory to transformative learning theory: A model for promoting teacher leadership. Theory Into Practice, 47 (4), 318–326.

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Kegan, R. (1994). In over our heads. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Kelly, R. & Fetherston, B. (2007). Conflict resolution and transformative pedagogy: A grounded theory research project on learning in higher education. Journal of Transformative Education, 5 (3), 262–285. Kilgore, D., & Bloom, L. (2002). “When I’m down, it takes me a while”: Rethinking transformational education through narratives of women in crisis. Adult Basic Education, 12 (3), 123–133. King, K. (1997). Examining activities that promote perspective transformation among adult learners in adult education. International Journal of University Adult Education, 36 (3), 23–37. King, K. (1998). A guide to perspective transformation and learning activities: The learning activities survey. Philadelphia: Research for Better Schools, Inc. King, K. P. (2000). The adult ESL experiences: Facilitating perspective transformation in the classroom. Adult Basic Education, 10 (1), 69–89. Kovan, J. T., & Dirkx, J. M. (2003). Being called awake: the role of transformative learning in the lives of environmental activists. Adult Education Quarterly, 53 (2), 99–118. Lynch, P., & Horton, S. (2001). Web style guide. New Haven: Yale University Press. McNaron, M. E. (2009). Using transformational learning principles to change behavior in the OR. AORN Journal, 89 (5), 851–860. Mezirow, J. (1978). Education for perspective transformation: Women re-entry programs for community college. New York: Center for Adult Education, Teachers College, Columbia University. Mezirow, J. (1994). Understanding transformation theory. Adult Education Theory, 46, 22–32. Mezirow, J. (1998). On critical reflection. Adult Education Quarterly, 48 (3), 185–193. Mezirow, J. (2000). Learning to think like an adult. In Learning as transformation: Critical perspectives on a theory in progress. San Francisco: J. M. Associates. Mezirow, J. (2003). Transformative learning as discourse. Journal of Transformative Education, 1 (1), 58–63. Merrimam, S. & Caffarella, R. (1999). Learning in adulthood. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Perry, W. (1970). Forms of intellectual and ethical development in the college years. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

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Taylor, E. W. (2007). An update of transformative learning theory: A critical review of the empirical research (1999–2005). International Journal of Lifelong Education, 26 (2), 173–191. Wills, S. (1994). 2001: A research odyssey—teaching different types of learning. The Journal of Management Development, 13 (1), 60–74.

Cre ating a Le arning Climate for the 21st Century* Sabra Brock, Amy Lui Abel

Abstract Students in an undergraduate business school reported incidences of transformative learning in this quantitative study of 256 students. Learning activities previously associated with transformative learning, e.g., writing and talking about concerns, deep concentrated thinking, personal journaling, internships, and self evaluation, were shown to foster transformative learning. A teacher’s challenge was demonstrated to be a significant element in creating an environment for high-level learning, and more important than the support of either a teacher or peer. Moving was the most significant life event contributing to transformative learning environments.

Key Words Transformative learning, undergraduate students, business school, learning activities.

I NTRODUCT I ON Given turbulent economic and business conditions of today, business school graduates will have to adapt to rapid change (Eisner, 2010) in their roles as entering professionals and organization managers. Within business schools, instructors need new tools and a broader understanding of how to prepare graduates for the dramatic changes occurring in the 21st century workplace. Transformative learning may be a valuable approach that instructors can use to support student development. Transformative *

From “Creating a Learning Climate for the 21st Century,” by Sabra Brock and Amy Lui Abel, April 2012, Transformative Dialogues: Teaching and Learning Journal, 5 (3), 1-16. Reprinted with permission.

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learning, defined as the “a-ha” experience that shifts one’s view of the world, is a concept drawn out of practical education (Mezirow, 2000; 2009) and may be a useful lens as teachers strive to create more participatory classrooms that place emphasis on how students learn (Nijhuis, Segers, & Gijselaers, 2007). The purpose of this study was to identify the educational factors that may foster transformative learning and answer these research questions:  1) What is the relationship, if any, between types of learning experiences reported and the indication of transformative learning?  2) Which reported learning activities appear to create a fertile environment for experiencing transformative learning? Educators may be interested in these findings, as they can help set priorities in selecting instructional design elements and lend insight into how to connect external learning experiences to the classroom. For example, incorporating work experience and cultural diversity may be an important part of the backdrop to transformative learning in the classroom. Recommendations are offered to practitioners seeking to support transformative learning in their classrooms. TR A N S F OR M A T I V E L E A RN I N G — THEORET I C A L B A C K G ROUND From the educator’s perspective, transformative learning occurs when a learner is struck by a new concept or way of thinking and then follows through to make a life change; it supplements more common types of learning such as acquiring facts or learning new skills (Cranton, 2006). Mezirow (2009) most recently defined it as “learning that transforms problematic frames of reference to make them more inclusive, discriminating, reflective, open, and emotionally able to change” (22). His initial example was a study of housewives returning to employment outside the home and how their worldviews shifted (Mezirow, 1978). Factors Contributing To Transformative Learning Factors contributing to transformative learning can be divided into three areas: (a) personal support factors, (b) learning activities, and (c) life changes. Researchers have identified personal support factors that foster 26

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transformative learning, such as trusting and authentic relationships (Taylor, 2009), perception of empowerment (King, 1997), a nonthreatening educational environment (Earley & Mosakowski, 2000), and social interaction (Baumgartner, 2002). Other scholars underscore the value of support from other students, classmates, advisors, and teachers (Merriam, Mott, & Lee, 1996; Kegan, 1994), presence of faculty (Smart & Fledman, 2003), and peer support (Kuh, 1995). King summarized the personal support factors that have appeared in the literature as fostering transformative learning (King, 1998; 2005). They included another student’s or classmates’ support, a challenge from a teacher, a teacher’s support, and an advisor’s support. Recommended classroom activities included: class/group projects; verbally discussing your concerns; writing about personal concerns; term papers/essays; personal journals; self-evaluations in a course; nontraditional structure of a course; class activity/exercises; internships; lab experiences; deep, concentrated thought; personal reflection; prior learning assessments; and assigned readings (King, 1998; 2005). Other researchers further identify classroom factors that promote transformative learning as those stimulating reflection and class discussion (Harris, 2002) inner dialogue (Kovan & Dirkx, 2003), emotion-laden images (Dirkx, 2006), talk (Carter, 2002), as well as a holistic orientation, awareness of context, and authentic practice (Taylor, 2009). Changes outside of the classroom, such life events as marriage, divorce, moving, and job change or loss, play an important part in creating the stimulus for transformative learning (Cranton 2006) as do immigration, changing jobs, and/or residence (King, 2000), role transitions (IsopahkalaBouret, 2008) and out-of-classroom college activities (Terenzini & Pascarella, 1996). There are continued calls for more research to assist the practitioner in bringing about transformative learning (Cranton, 2006; Ruth-Sahd, Beck, & McCall, 2010, Taylor, 2009). Extensive qualitative literature exists about transformative learning (Aleman, 1997; Carter, 2002; Christopher, Dunnagan, Duncan, & Paul, 2001; Cragg, Plotnikoff, Hugo, & Casey, 2001; Kovan & Dirkx, 2003; Maybury, 2001), but sparse quantitative research has been conducted (Taylor, 1997). Based on the literature, we would expect that challenge and personal support from instructors and peers, classroom assignments that encourage contrasting internal values with external 27

Creating a Learning Climate For The 21st Century

events, and life events such as moving away from home to be related to the occurrence of transformative learning. M ETHOD S Sample and Data Collection The target sample for this study was undergraduate business students at a large Northeastern university in a major metropolitan area. Permission had been granted by the school’s Institutional Review Board for the research. To collect data, the Dean of the Undergraduate Business School agreed to recruit students in autumn 2005. Recruitment invitations were sent out in four editions of the undergraduate business school’s weekly e-newsletter to approximately 2000 students, inviting them to participate in a webbased survey. The email headline asked, “Interested in participating in a study on how students learn in undergraduate school?” and mentioned confidentiality and a chance for a $250 lottery ticket redeemable at the school’s bookstore. The newsletter also featured school activities occurring that week, opportunities for community volunteering, and details about yearbook photographs. It is estimated that majority of the students did not read the research request, as it occurred at the end of a 4-page email. Information occurring “below the fold” has shown in prior studies to have significantly depressed readership (Lynch & Horton, 2001). By the end of 10 weeks, 356 responses had been received and 256 of these were usable (71.9%). Incomplete surveys were the largest reason for removing 100 questionnaires from the analysis. The remaining 256 usable questionnaires were sufficiently robust and varied for informative analysis, which included Chi-square and t-testing. The 256 usable responses did exceed the requirement shown in power analysis to test with an alpha set at .05 (Elashoff, Dixon, Crede, & Fotheringham, 1995-2002). There were also observable standard deviations on most of the questions asked, indicating differences among responders. For example, Table 1 shows the range of standard deviations in the incidence of the 30 possible answers to the question on learning activities experienced, which was a yes/no question. Most of the standard deviations to these answers were .4 or higher. Therefore, in this exploratory study, the 28

Creating a Learning Climate For The 21st Century

data were sufficient to expect that findings could prove useful in answering the three research questions posed. Sample Characteristics Females represented most (64.2%) of the total sample, compared to a population equally divided between sexes. Over half (52.7%) of the total respondents were Asian, and half (49.5%) of the total consisted of finance majors. Each class rank was well-represented with freshmen as the biggest group (32.8%), followed by juniors (26.2%), sophomores (23.4%), and seniors (17.2%). Instrument Data describing students’ experiences were collected using a quantitative survey with two open-ended questions developed by King (1998) and used with her permission. She had previously validated the survey through use of an expert panel and multiple pre-tests (King, 1998). The two open-ended questions were:  1) Since you have been taking courses at this institution, do you believe you have experienced a time when you realized that your values, beliefs, opinions or expectations had changed? If yes, briefly describe what happened.  2) Thinking back to when you first realized that your views or perspective had changed, what did your being in school have to do with the experience of change? The instrument also covered the ten steps leading to transformative learning, the reporting of transformative learning, activities contributing to it, as well as questions on demographics and learning activities encountered through personal interaction, classroom assignments, and life events. Those respondents reporting transformative learning were asked to explain in their own words how they experienced it and the impact of school life and activities on their learning experience. For this study, the instrument was modified to add class rank and learning techniques often used in business school. This paper-based survey was first piloted to assure the original method would be replicable on the web. Further piloting showed comparable results between the paper-based instrument and a web-based version of the survey.

29

Creating a Learning Climate For The 21st Century

Data Analysis Statistical testing was used to answer the research question of what fosters transformative learning among this group of undergraduate business students. Three series of Chi-square tests were performed; one for each of the three types of learning activities: personal support, class assignments, and life events. One-tailed testing was used because prior literature indicated a positive relationship between the learning activities listed on the questionnaire and the report of transformative learning (King, 1997; 2000). As a check for data reliability, a comparison was also made to determine if there was a difference between early and late responders. A twotailed Chi-square analysis indicated there was no significant difference on transformative learning or on any of the key demographics between these two sections of responders. F I ND I N G S The incidence of transformative learning reported was 48.8% of the total sample. Transformative learning can be fostered in at least three discrete ways: by other people, by classroom activities, and by life events themselves. The proportions of the sample reporting each of these categories and subcategories can be found in Table 1. Operationally, each of the three categories was defined by the closed end responses listed underneath it. The answer choice was “yes” or “no” to each of the categories, as described in the following table, so each respondent created any definition needed beyond the minimal-word description. Respondents did have the opportunity to write in additional activities but fewer than 10% did so. The people who support transformative learning include classmates, other students, advisors, and teachers. The relationship between the occurrence of transformative learning and various types of interaction with another individual at school was examined. Only one of these interactions, a challenge from a teacher, showed a significant positive relationship (x2 = 4.01, p.05 in one-tailed chi-square test

and other (diverse) life events (x2 = 14.289, p < .001). These other life changes were varied and included joining a new social group and illness. See Table 4. 33

Creating a Learning Climate For The 21st Century

Ta b l e 4. Relationship of life events to incidence of transformative learning Reported

Reported ransformative learning n = 125 %

Did not report transformative learning n = 131 %

Chi- square (with Yates correction)

1-tailed p

Moving

70.4

57.3

4.229

.020**

Other life event**

16.8

2.3

14.189

>.001*

Parent’s change of job

12.0

2.3

7.800

.002*

6.4

1.5

2.853

.054**

11.2

7.6

.584

.223

Marriage

1.6

0.0

.553

.237

Birth

1.6

0.0

.553

.237

Parent’s divorce/ separation

2.4

1.5

.003

.478

Parent’s retirement

1.6

0.8

.002

.482

Parent’s job loss Death of loved one

*  Difference significant at >.01 in one-tailed chi-square test **  Difference significant at >.05 in one-tailed chi-square test

D I S CU S S I ON To answer the research questions about the relationship of learning activities with transformative learning, findings showed specific learning activities were more often mentioned by those who also reported transformative learning. Those activities were a teacher’s challenge, writing about and verbally discussing concerns, deep, concentrated thought, self-evaluation, personal reflection and journaling, term papers, and internships. In addition to these learning activities, life events such as moving residence and a parent’s change or loss of job may foster transformative learning. It may be useful to note that the importance of challenge from an instructor is in line with what students expect from this highly competitive business school, a honing of their abilities to compete in a business career. Challenge may play a critical role in promoting change and growth in college 34

Creating a Learning Climate For The 21st Century

students (Cranton, 2006; Perry, 1970; Morris, 1981; Smart & Fledman, 2003). And the lack of significance of support from either peer or adult is consistent with the expression of “each person out for his or her own interests” noted in the competitive culture of this school (Lavalle, Gerdes, Jespersen, Gloeckler, & Symonds, 2006). These results would seem to indicate that peer support was not as important a factor to this respondent base as it might have been to college students in other schools. The value of peers to learning has been frequently reported in the literature (Aleman, 1997; Baxter Magolda, 1999; 2000; Cranton, 2006; Harris, 2002; Merriam, Mott, & Lee, 1996; Stage, Muller, Kinzie, & Simmons, 1996). A possible condition operating in this study was the acknowledged competitiveness of this school, both in difficulty in getting accepted (39% acceptance rate) and in the atmosphere of the school and environment. The students in this study may have been less likely to expect personal support especially from peers given the environment of competitiveness. The current results appear to confirm what has been recommended in the transformative learning literature as important to changing worldview: writing and talking about concerns as an extremely important way to integrate what is happening in an educational institution with one’s internal worldview. Also consistent with the literature was the impact on transformative learning of deep concentrated thought, self evaluation, personal reflection, and a non-traditional class structure (Cranton, 2006; King, 1997; 2005; Stage, Muller, Kinzie, & Simmons, 1996). Insofar as active learning was important to transformative learning (Revans, 1971), these results do indicate that working in an internship was more strongly related to transformative learning than analyzing case studies in the classroom. Moving to a large metropolitan city was the life event having the biggest impact on these undergraduates in terms of reported transformative learning. Moving has been cited in the transformative literature as being a strong motivator for transformative learning (King, 2000). Results suggest that changing the four walls of one’s residence also allows one’s mind to be open for “redecorating.” The move of a student from a parental home to a different kind of living condition is likely to emphasize the transformative impact of change. Also, it comes as no surprise that changes in a parent’s job would especially impact these undergraduate business students who were likely to be preparing for a business job. These repercussions may be true whatever the student’s major. 35

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Delimitations and Limitations This survey is limited to undergraduates in one business school in a major Northeastern city in the United States. The school has a low acceptance rate and the students selected are highly competitive. Therefore, the results may be only generalized to similar contexts. It is also limited by having been conducted at only one point in time. The results are cross-sectional and causality cannot therefore be implied. Other questions must be posed in interpreting this research. One important concern is that the occurrence of transformative learning was determined by one question and it was left to the student to decide whether it had occurred. In interpreting the usefulness of various learning experiences, there may have been confounding in that students predisposed to transformative learning may have also been more attuned to certain learning experiences. Additionally, the instrument was based on King’s Learning Activities Survey (King, 1998) that was validated among adult learners in parttime college programs. In this sample, respondents were traditional aged undergraduate students. The difference is that the mean age in the current study was 19.3, whereas King typically used the Learning Activities Survey among populations where 75% of participants were 18-29 and the rest 3059 (King, 2000). Some change was made in collecting demographics to reflect this difference. For example, retirement and job loss were framed in terms of parents and not the individual respondent. Nonetheless, this difference delimits study interpretation. RECO M M END A T I ON S TO P R A CT I T I ONER S Transformative learning entails internal awareness, and it has been found previously that those classroom activities that encourage examination of differences between the external world and a student’s individual values fostered transformative learning (Cranton, 2006). The results of this study were consistent with the literature in showing that the strongest positive relationship to transformative learning were classroom assignments such as: talking and writing about concerns; deep, concentrated thought; selfevaluation; personal reflection and journaling; and, a non-traditional structure in a class (King, 1997; 2000). Therefore, such teaching techniques would appear to be associated with transformative learning for business 36

Creating a Learning Climate For The 21st Century

school undergraduates. Consideration of future roles also has been a key concept in transformative learning (Cranton, 2006). In these results, activities that helped students explore work roles such as internships were supported as relating positively to transformative learning and therefore are an important tool in preparing students for the 21st century workplace. Among the personal support activities thought to provide a positive learning environment, it was only a challenge from an instructor that was significant in predicting transformative learning. Since transformative learning requires a change of perspective, challenge, not the more passive concept of support, is associated with it. With undergraduates, many factors outside of the school foster transformative learning; therefore, instructors may need to think about the whole person and make sure that what is done in the classroom supports the transformative learning process created by factors such as moving away from home, trying on adult roles and undergoing a process of maturation. Understanding the whole student may be an important consideration in how the undergraduate business school environment is designed. Based on this study, previous scholarship in the field, and the authors’ experience, specific recommendations are offered for instructors. Four themes emerged as important for the practitioner to consider in creating an environment conducive to transformative learning:  1) Encouraging comparison of students’ internal values and the new world they inhabit;  2) Creating opportunities to try on work roles;  3) Providing challenge by setting high standards, questioning opinions, and surfacing alternative viewpoints;  4) Enhancing the whole student’s experience of new ideas, people, and behaviours. These four areas all showed statistical significance in the study results. Recommendations are presented in Table 5, considering the statistical significance to reported transformative learning, verbatim comments, and our experiences in teaching undergraduate business students. The first recommendation for practitioners is to encourage students to compare their internal values with the world of new ideas, attitudes, and behaviours they encounter in undergraduate business school. To do that, instructors could incorporate learning activities that encourage students to compare their internal values with the new ideas, people, and behaviours 37

Creating a Learning Climate For The 21st Century

Ta b l e 5. Variables that foster transformative learning with examples Transformative learning factors in undergraduate life

Examples that may foster transformative learning

Comparing internal and external values

Providing and encouraging disparate points of view and facilitating their discussion. Assignments to compare personal beliefs and values with others’ in discussion and writing.

Trying out work roles

Discussions of the various and oftenconflicting roles played in a business career, as well as internships and simulations.

Challenge by setting high standards, questioning opinions and surfacing alternative viewpoints

Giving voice to diversity in and outside of the classroom, creating intellectual debate, high expectations and provocative subject frames. Ethics, politics, and role definitions are especially fertile ground.

Enhancing the whole student experience

Extracurricular activities related to class learning objectives, competitions, case creation, in-market student primary research, outside speakers, and site visits.

they are encountering. Thinking and writing about and verbally discussing concerns had strong connections to transformative learning in these results. In general, introducing disparate points of view and encouraging students to discuss their perspectives in class appears to foster transformative learning. Assignments that require these activities and encourage students to set aside time for them may be among the most important components of an instructor’s repertoire. Other useful instructional tools that encourage comparison of internal and external values could be self-evaluation and personal reflection. Where possible, instructors could give students the opportunity to grade themselves and reflect on how their view of the world is changing since coming to undergraduate business school. Term papers and essays could be used as stimuli for transformative learning, especially insofar as they encourage students to write about their concerns and 38

Creating a Learning Climate For The 21st Century

engage in deep, concentrated thought. Non-traditional structures in a class may also create stimuli for transformative learning. Decreasing emphasis on traditional business school formats such as lectures may create a richer environment for transformative learning. Create Opportunities to Try on Work Roles The second recommendation for the practitioner is to create opportunities for students to try out work roles and understand the many different role definitions that might lead to success in the workplace. Discussions about the many conflicting roles of a business person appear to stimulate transformative learning. These results suggest that internships stimulate transformative learning; although this study was not specific about the type of internship, results suggest that assuming the role of worker did help students look at the world differently. Also, the trend toward incorporating live business problems in the undergraduate business school classroom for students to solve (Lavalle, Gerdes, Jespersen, Gloeckler, & Symonds, 2006) and providing external work experience for students along with studies may be effective in increasing the chance for transformative learning. Provide Challenge The third recommendation for practitioners is to encourage instructors to challenge their students as a stimulus for transformative learning. To do this, the instructor could challenge individual student’s ideas in verbal or written discussion, provide more thought-provoking materials in instructional design, and communicate high expectations. The instructor’s challenge may be a key tool in the instructional repertoire of transformative learning. Other personal learning activities that were examined, such as the support of instructors, advisors, and peers, need not be discounted, but emphasis on challenge could more directly stimulate change in perspective for students. Enhance the Whole Student’s Experience of New Ideas, People, and Behaviours The last recommendation for practitioners has to do with considering the student as a whole person with many experiences both inside and outside the classroom. Instructors could repeatedly remind themselves that the entire experience of undergraduate business school and the age of the student are 39

Creating a Learning Climate For The 21st Century

important elements in fostering transformative learning. What happens in the classroom can be one specific stimulus. Class assignments may be more likely to precipitate transformative learning if they align with the whole of the student’s experiences and encourage change of perspective. Many students hold part-time jobs or summer internships. In the classroom, instructors can facilitate discussion amongst students to share their working experiences and connect them to the class lecture. Additionally, a student’s participation in volunteering, community, and family events can also be incorporated to support classroom lessons. Facilitating the connection between what happens inside and outside the classroom can help integrate a student’s learning experiences. Creating a school club and extracurricular menu that allows students to explore ethics, politics, and community diversity may help students make the comparison between internal values and external reality that sets the stage for transformative learning. The instructors who have recognized transformative learning experiences in their own lives have an advantage in creating a climate for transformation in their students. However, even those instructors who have not been able to recognize transformation in their own lives can use examples of other people who have experienced a change in world view because of education. Furthermore, Centers for Teaching Excellence can assist instructors in using more sophisticated techniques to increase transformative learning in the classroom (Shroyer & Yahnke, 2007). The reflection techniques inherent to transformative learning can also be used to make sure that the transformation is a positive and not a negative one. Part of the building of these skills would include ways to build trust in the classroom, as this has been shown to be a correlate of positive transformative learning (Eisen, 2001; Kilgore & Bloom, 2002). F UTURE RE S E A RCH A potentially fertile area of future research could be further exploration of the connection of transformative learning with other developmental models, such as the stage theory of learning (Baxter Magolda, 1999; 2000). Future longitudinal research can aid understanding of how transformative learning builds throughout the undergraduate school experience. Further research, both qualitative and quantitative, could explore how transformative learning is accommodated by students in other kinds of 40

Creating a Learning Climate For The 21st Century

professional education and by employees in the workplace. Continued exploration of what types of instructional methods, the role of the faculty, and the learning environment in fostering transformative learning is recommended.

Reference s Aleman, A. (1997). Understanding and investigating female friendship’s educative value. The Journal of Higher Education, 68 (2), 119-143. Baumgartner, L. (2002). Living and learning with HIV/AIDS: Tranformational tales continued. Adult Education Quarterly, 53 (1), 44-70. Baxter Magolda, M. (1999). Creating contexts for learning and self-authorship: Constructive-developmental pedagogy. Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press. Baxter Magolda, M. (Ed.). (2000). Teaching to promote intellectual and personal maturity: Incorporating students’ world views and identities into the learning process. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Carter, T. (2002). The importance of talk to mid-career women’s development: A collaborative inquiry. The Journal of Business Communication, 39 (1), 55-91. Christopher, S., Dunnagan, T., Duncan, S., & Paul, L. (2001). Education for selfsupport: Evaluating outcomes using transformative learning theory. Family Relations, 50 (2), 134-142. Cragg, C., Plotnikoff, R., Hugo, K., & Casey, A. (2001). Perspective transformation in RN-to-BSN distance education. Journal of Nursing Education, 40 (7), 317-322. Cranton, P. (2006). Understanding and promoting transformative learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Dirkx, J.M. (2006). Engaging Emotions in Adult Learning: A Jungian Perspective on Emotion and Transformative Learning. In E.D. Taylor (Ed.), Teaching for Change: Fostering Transformative Learning in the Classroom: New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass. Earley, P., & Mosakowski, E. (2000). Creating hybrid team cultures: An empirical test of transnational team functioning. Academy of Management Journal, 43 (1), 26-49. Eisen, M. (2001). Peer-based professional development viewed through the lens of transformative learning. Holistic Nursing Practice, 16 (1), 30-42.

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Eisner, S. (2010). E-employment? College grad career building in changing and electronic age. American Journal of Business Education, 3 (7), 25-40. Elashoff, J., Dixon, W., Crede, K., & Fotheringham, N. (1995-2002). NQuerry advisor (Version 5). San Rafael, CA: Fair Isaac Corporation. Harris, C. (2002). The experience of support for transformational learning. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Isopahkala-Bouret, U. (2008). Transformative learning in managerial role transitions. Studies in Continuing Education, 30 (1), 69-84. Kegan, R. (1994). In over our heads. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Kilgore, D., & Bloom, L. (2002). “When I’m down, it takes me a while”: Rethinking transformational education through narratives of women in crisis. Adult Basic Education, 12 (3), 123-133. King, K. (1997). Examining activities that promote perspective transformation among adult learners in adult education. International Journal of University Adult Education, 36 (3), 23-37. King, K. (1998). A guide to perspective transformation and learning activities: The Learning Activities Survey. Philadelphia: Research for Better Schools, Inc. King, K. (2000). The adult ESL experiences: Facilitating perspective transformation in the classroom. Adult Basic Education, 10 (1), 69-89. King, K. (2005). Bringing transformative learning to life. Melbourne, FL: Krieger Publishing Company. Kovan, J., & Dirkx, J. (2003). Being called awake: The role of transformative learning in the lives of environmental activists. Adult Education Quarterly, 53 (2), 99-118. Kuh, G. (1995). The other curriculum: Out-of-class experiences associated with student learning and personal development. Journal of Higher Education, 66 (2), 123-155. Lavalle, L., Gerdes, I., Jespersen, F., Gloeckler, G., & Symonds, W. (2006). The Best Undergraduate B-Schools. Business Week, 3983, 64-76. Lynch, P., & Horton, S. (2001). Web style guide. New Haven: Yale University Press. Maybury, R. (2001). Perceptions of transformation change: Eight corporate education workshop participants reflect on their perceived life changing self awareness related to their Jungian personality types. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation.) Santa Barbara, CA: Fielding Institute. Merriam, S., Mott, V., & Lee, M. (1996). Learning that comes from the negative interpretation of life experience. Studies in Continuing Education, 18 (1), 1-23.

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Mezirow, J. (1978). Education for perspective transformation: Women re-entry programs for community college. New York: Center for Adult Education, Teachers College, Columbia University. Mezirow, J. (2000). Learning to think like an adult. In Learning as transformation: Critical perspectives on a theory in progress. San Francisco: J.M. Associates. Mezirow, J. (2009). Transformative Learning Theory. In J. Mezirow & E. W. Taylor, Transformative learning in practice (pp. 18-31). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Morris, W. (Ed.). (1981). The American heritage dictionary of the English language. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. Nijhuis, J., Segers, M., & Gijselaers, W. (2007). The interplay of perceptions of the learning environment, personality and learning strategies: A study amongst international business studies students. Studies in Higher Education, 59-77. Perry, W. (1970). Forms of intellectual and ethical development in the college years. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Revans, R. (1971). Developing effective managers: A new approach to business education. London: Praeger Publishers. Ruth-Sahd, L. A., Beck, J., & McCall, C. (2010). Transformative learning during a nursing externship program: The reflections of senior nursing students. Nursing Education Perspectives, 31 (2), 78-83. Shroyer, G., & Yahnke, S. (2007). Introduction, collaborative reconstruction and simultaneous rewal: The impact of professional development schools. The Journal of Educational Research , 100 (4), 195-197. Smart, J., & Fledman, K. E. (2003). Educational and organizational implications of Holland’s theory in higher education settings. In F. Stage, D. Carter, D. Hossler, & E. St. John (Eds.), Theoretical perspectives on college students: ASHE reader series. Boston: Pearson Custom Publishing. Stage, F., Muller, P., Kinzie, J., & Simmons, A. (1996). Creating learning centered classrooms: What does learning theory have to say? Washington, DC: George Washington University Press. Taylor, E. (1997). Building upon the theoretical debate: A critical review of the empirical studies of Mezirow’s transformative learning theory. Adult Education Quarterly, 48 (1), 34-47. Taylor, E. (2009). Fostering transformative learning. In J. Mezirow, E. Taylor, & Associates, Transformative learning in practice (pp. 3-17). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Terenzini, P., & Pascarella, E. (1996). Student’s out-of-class experiences and their influence on learning and cogitive development: A literature review. In F. Stage, D. Carter, D. Hossler, & E. St. John (Eds.), Theoretical perspectives on college students (pp. 357-373). Boston: Pearson Custom Publishing.

43

Gender Equalit y for Learning Le adership in Undergr aduate Business Schools*

Abstract Some scholars suggest that business schools are failing the challenge of providing 21st century skills, and in particular, they are failing women. As a conceptual model of how people can better adapt to change, the lens of transformational learning was used to shed light on whether women are at a disadvantage compared to men in transformational learning when exposed to the same experiences at undergraduate business school. Transformational learning occurs when a student’s worldview is challenged and when the learner moves beyond old assumptions to see things in a new way. In this quantitative study of 256 undergraduate business students, women experienced comparable rates of transformational learning to their male counterparts and reported experiencing the same learning stimuli in personal relations, class room activities, and life events. It would appear that when exposed to the same stimuli, female undergraduate students are not at a disadvantage to male undergraduate students in learning how to be business leaders through transformational learning.

Key Words Undergraduates, business women’s learning

schools,

transformational

learning,

I NTRODUCT I ON The face of business school is changing, reflecting changes in both education and the workforce, notably in technology, global reach, and the

*

From “Gender equality for learning leadership in undergraduate business schools,” by Sabra Brock, 2010, Advancing Women in Leadership Journal, 30 (9). Reprinted with permission.

44

Gender Equality for Learning Leadership

proportion of women (Jarvis, 2006). Business school graduates are future professionals and organization managers; in these roles they will have to “adapt to changing work environments and demands” (O’Connor, Bronner, & Delaney, 2002, 5) in a workplace where both men and women are nearly equally represented (Wellington, 2001). Business school, the traditional means of preparation for a leadership role in a business career, reflects an increased proportion of women (Merritt, 2004). Women now account for nearly half of undergraduate business major graduates, up from 48.6% in 1998 to 49.2% in 2007 (Planty, et al., 2009). Some writers have suggested that the nearly equal balance of men and women in undergraduate business schools may be a more positive environment for teaching 21st century business leadership skills than a predominance of either because it better emulates the workplace (Tanton, 1992; Lewis & Fagenson, 1995). Transformational learning has been shown to be an effective component of leadership among teachers (Harris, LoweryMoore, & Farrow, 2008), in the operating room (McNaron, 2009), and in executive education (Ciporen, 2009). Undergraduate college students have been found to demonstrate gender differences in learning styles with women more likely to display listening behaviors and value peers as collaborators, while men show an active approach to learning and to use peers for testing achievement, but these differences may diminish with maturity (Baxter Magolda, 1992). However, women in mid-career have shown more receptivity to learning elements such as talk and reflection (Carter, 2002) and females, in general, may benefit from more social support than males (Taylor, Klein, Lewis, Gruenwald, Gurung, & Updegraff, 2000). Undergraduate female students have also indicated less receptivity to learning through competitive activities (Gneezy, Niederle, & Rustichini, 2003), making competition a negative factor insofar as workplace promotion is based on competition (Schrage, 2008), and women tend to benefit from a more cooperative atmosphere (Mason, 2009). Students expect that investment in a business school education will change the way they look at the world, as well as provide the specific capabilities demanded for leadership in an increasingly complex and changing workplace (Gammie, 1994). At the same time, the workplace calls on business education to provide capabilities once thought to be more characteristic of women, such as teamwork and collaboration (Buttner, 45

Gender Equality for Learning Leadership

2001; Gardner & Korth, 1998; Tschannen-Moran, Uline, Woolfolk Hoy, & Mackley, 2000), relationship building (Gersick, Bartunek, & Dutton, 2000; Rojewski, 2002), and communication skills (Whetton & Cameron, 2006). Some scholars have indicated that business schools are failing the challenge of providing 21st century skills (Pfeffer & Fong, 2001; Vinten, 2000), especially in improving interpersonal ability and communication skills (Pfeffer & Fong, 2001), and in particular failing women (Bilimoria, 1999; Bilimoria, Joy, & Liang, 2008; Mavin & Bryans, 1999). Specifically, females are disadvantaged at organizational, faculty, and curricular levels of business schools: (a) an organizational structure that may inculcate habits and practices of inequality like the unconscious expectation that males are student council presidents, the assumption of the gendered vocabulary of business, and the belief that equality has been achieved (Cavanaugh, 2000); (b) systemic discrimination, artificial performance criteria, and stereotyping for female faculty (Orser, 1992); and (c) curricular gaps like the low number of women represented in case studies and few readings by female authors (Bilimoria, 1999). To study whether women are still disadvantaged in undergraduate business schools, a particularly promising thread to follow is transformational learning, defined as a theoretical description of the steps learners undergo in changing their world views (Mezirow, 1985). From the educator’s perspective, transformational learning occurs when a learner is struck by a new concept or way of thinking and then follows through by making a life change; it can supplement more common types of learning such as acquiring facts or learning new skills (Cranton, 2006). Numerous learning activities that foster transformational learning have been researched, including personal support activities, classroom assignments, and life events (Choy, 2009; King, 2000; Merriam & Ntseane, 2008; Meyers, 2008; Taylor E., 2008). Differences in transformational learning between men and women have been reported among traditional-aged college students in qualitative research (Harris, 2002; Taylor E., 1997). However, Mezirow, the father of transformational learning, never studied gender differences in transformational learning and expressed interest in research pursuing a quantitative measurement of the area (personal communication February 7, 2006). Curricula designed to maximize transformational learning may help undergraduate business students adjust more readily to a fast-changing 46

Gender Equality for Learning Leadership

workplace (Wills, 2001). Transformational learning theory may shed light on how business schools can adapt to serve these needs in the context of a nearly proportional percentage of male and female students (Planty, et al., 2009). Therefore, quantitative research was undertaken surveying students, using an instrument validated to measure transformational learning (King, 1998). RE S E A RCH Q UE S T I ON S  1) What is the relationship of gender and the report of transformational learning in undergraduate business school?  2) Do male and female undergraduate business school students indicate having the same types of learning experiences?  3) Among those reporting transformational learning, what is the relationship between exposure to different types of learning experiences and gender? M ETHOD This study was conducted in Fall 2005. The population surveyed was undergraduates in a large northeastern United States business school. The school has an urban campus located in a large metropolitan area. The school itself is ranked in the top 10 undergraduate business schools in the United States (Lavalle, Gerdes, Jespersen, Gloeckler, & Symonds, 2006). The study included a survey delivered via a web site. It had 16 questions, covering closed-end questions about 28 different learning activities found in business school, and included two open-ended questions asking those who reported transformational learning to describe the experience. The Dean of the Undergraduate Business School recruited students to participate in four editions of the school’s e-newsletter over the fall semester. Women, Asians, and freshman responded at higher rates than their representation in the population. These factors place limitations on the use of the study findings because these segments may not represent the population’s behaviors and attitudes. However, weighting was performed to balance the sample to their real proportions in the population, and no significant changes in study results were found. 47

Gender Equality for Learning Leadership

The incidence of transformational learning was measured by a “yes” answer to the survey question: “Since you have been taking courses at this institution, do you believe you have experienced a situation when you realized that your values, beliefs, opinions or expectations had changed?” Positive answers were omitted if the open-ended descriptions of the experience did not confirm to the definition of transformational learning found in the literature. F I ND I N G S A key focus was to examine whether and how students experienced transformational learning in undergraduate business school. The primary research question was, “What is the relationship of the respondent’s gender and the report of transformational learning in undergraduate business school?” A one-tailed Chi-square test was used to examine possible differences in reported incidences of transformational learning between the two genders in this undergraduate business school. Since previous research indicated that women may be disadvantaged in business school (Bilimoria, 1999; Cavanaugh, 2000; Mavin & Bryans, 1999), a one-tailed test was used, predicting lower incidence of transformational learning among women. The outcome of the significance testing was a Chi-square value of