Asia in the making of Europe, Vol. 3, Book 2 9780226466972, 9780226467672, 9780226467542

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IN THE MAKING OF EUROPE |

BLANK PAGE

IN THE MAKING OF EUROPE DONALD F. LACH and EDWIN J. VAN KLEY VOLUME

lil A Century of Advance

BOOK TWO: SOUTH ASIA

en

www Ni.

AUliignainees

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS CHICAGO AND LONDON

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS, CHICAGO 60637

The University of Chicago Press, Ltd., London © 1993 by The University of Chicago All rights reserved. Published 1993 Paperback edition 1998 Printed in the United States of America

98 5 4 3 2

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data (Revised for volume 3)

Lach, Donald F. (Donald Frederick), 1917Asia in the making of Europe. Vol. 3—by Donald F. Lach and Edwin J. Van Kley. Includes bibliographies and indexes. Contents: v. 1. The century of discovery. 2.v.— v. 2. A century of wonder. Book 1. The visual arts.

Book 2. The literary arts. Book 3. The scholarly disciplines. 3. v.—v. 3. A century of advance. Book 1. Trade, missions, literature. Book 2. South Asia. Book 3. Southeast Asia. Book 4. East Asia. 4 v. 1. Europe— Civilization— Oriental influences. 2. Asia—History. 3. Asia—Discovery and exploration. I. Van Kley, Edwin J. II. Title.

CB203.L32 303.48'2405'0903 64-19848

ISBN 0-226-46765-1 (v. 3. bk. 1) ISBN 0-226-46767-8 (v. 3. bk. 2)

ISBN 0-226-46768-6 (v. 3. bk. 3) , ISBN 0-226-46769-4 (v. 3. bk. 4)

This publication has been supported by a grant from the National Endowment for the Humanities, an independent federal agency.

The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48—1992.

Contents

| BOOK TWO

List of Abbreviations x1 Note to Illustrations xi List of Illustrations XV1l

List of Maps xxix

, PART III |

Introduction 601 The European Images of Asia

Chapter IX: THe MuGHUL EMPIRE BEFORE AURANGZIB 603

1. The English and Dutch Profile: First Generation 604

2. MughulUnveiled Court to 1618644 629 3.The Gujarat 4. Shah Jahan (r. 1627—58) and His Empire 672

5. Shah Jahan and His Sons 696 Chapter X: THE EMPIRE OF AURANGZIB 706

2. The Provinces 728 1. The Court, the Nobility, and the Army | 709 [v]

3. Surat | | | 739 Contents — ;

4. Bombay and the Portuguese Ports 756 5. The Deccan Wars, Rajputs, and Sivaji | 763

6. Religious Beliefs and Practices _ oe 779

7. Economy and Society a , 799 Chapter XI: From Goa TO CAPE COMORIN | | 838

2. 855 3. Bijapur Kanara_ |863

1. Goa, the Metropole a | 840

4. Malabar and the Portuguese 874 5. Malabar and the Dutch QgIO

Chapter XII: INSULAR SOUTH ASIA 933 1. The Maldive and Laccadive Archipelagoes 934

2.A.Ceylon 945 Sources 946

B. The Land and Its Products 958 C. Government and Society 970 Chapter XIII: COROMANDEL 998

1. The Jesuit Enterprises 1OOI 2. The Advent of the Dutch and English 1017

3. Hinduism at Pulicat (Tamilnadu) 1029

4. The Downfall of Two Empires: Vijayanagar and Golconda 1057

Index XXX1 Appendix: The Castes of South Asia in the Seventeenth

Century (According to European Authors) 1102

[vi]

Contents | (Contents of other books in Volume III) BOOK ONE PART I

Introduction — , 3 The Continuing Expansion in the East

Chapter I: EMprrE AND TRADE 5 1. The Iberian Maritime Empire of the East 10 2. Iberia’s Shrinking Trade 25 3. The Dutch Empire 40

4. Jan Company's Trade | 62 5. The English East India Company | 73 6. The Lesser Companies 88 7. European-Asian Economic Relations at Century’s End 105

Century 118 |

Appendix: Spice Prices and Quantities in the Seventeenth

Chapter II: THE CHRISTIAN MIssION | 130 |

1. The Friars of the “Padroado”’ 135

2. The “Padroado” Jesuits in South Asia 145 3. The “Padroado” Jesuits in East Asia 168 | 4. The Spanish “Patronato” of the East 200

and the Jesuits | 222 6. The Protestant Missions , 269 5. “Propaganda Fide”’ (1622), “Missions Etrangéres”’ (1664),

, Century © 298

| Appendix: The Archbishops of Goa in the Seventeenth

PART II |

Introduction | 301 The Printed Word

Chapter III: THe IBERIAN LITERATURE 306

1. Exploration, Conquest, and Mission Stations 307,

2. A Nervous Era of Peace, 1609—21 326 3. Imperial Breakdown in Europe and Asia, 1621-41 335

4. The Restoration Era, 1641-1700 348 —fvn] ,

Contents

Chapter IV: THE ITALIAN LITERATURE | 367

1. The Jesuit Letters to Mid-Century 368 2. New Horizons and Old Polemics 379 Chapter V: THE FRENCH LITERATURE 390 1. The Jesuit Letters and the Pre-Company Voyages 391

3.India SiamCompany and China 407 420

2. The Paris Society of Foreign Missions and the French East

Chapter VI: THE NETHERLANDISH LITERATURE 435

1. Early Voyages to the East Indies, 1597-1625 437 2. Penetrations beyond the East Indies to 1645 450 3. Isaac Commelin’s “Begin ende Voortgangh”’ (1645) 461

, 4. New Horizons and Dimensions, 1646-71 A473

, 5. Fin de siécle: Decline 493 Chapter VII: THE GERMAN AND DanisH LITERATURE $09

I. Jesuit Letterbooks and Relations to Mid-Century 510

2. Travel Collections to Mid-Century $15

3. A Limited Revival, 1650-1700 $25 Chapter VIII: THE ENGLIisH LITERATURE 547

1. The First Generation, 1600-1626 549

2. The Turbulent Middle Years, 1630-80 569

3. A Late Harvest, 1680-1700 $76 BOOK THREE (PART Il] CONTINUED)

Chapter XIV: CONTINENTAL SOUTHEAST ASIA: MALAYA,

1. Malaya | I1I3 2. Pegu and Arakan 1122 3. Cambodia and Laos 1146 PrEGu, ARAKAN, CAMBODIA, AND LAOS IIII

Chapter XV: Siam | 1168

1. Iberian and Dutch Accounts 1169 2. Narai (r. 1656-88) and the French 1185 3. The Physical Environment ‘1197 [ viii

Contents

4. State Service and Administration | I2II 5. Society, Culture, and Buddhism 1222

Chapter XVI: VIETNAM 1248

I. First Notices 1250 2. The Nguyén and the Christians 1266 3. Tongking under the Trinh | 1276

I. Java 1302 Chapter XVII: INSULINDIA: THE WESTERN ARCHIPELAGO — 1300

A. Development of the Literature 1302 B. Geography and the Landscape 1306

C. Batavia, the Metropole and Its Hinterland 1313 D. Character, Customs, Society, and Culture 1329

E. PoliticalandLife 1341 F. Economics Trade 1348

2. Bali | 1356 3. Sumatra 1360 A. Placement, Climate, and Products 1362

B. Acheh and Other Towns 1366 C. Populace, Customs, and Beliefs 1369

and Polity 1374 4.D. Economy Borneo 1384 Chapter XVIII: INsutinp1a: THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO

AND THE AUSTRAL LANDS 1396

1.Amboina The Moluccas 1397 | 2.3. (Ambon) 1416 The Bandas 1427 4. Celebes , 1436 5. The Lesser Sundas 1455 6. Insular Southeast Asia’s Eastern and Southern Periphery:

New Guinea, the Pacific Islands, and Australia 1466

A. New Guinea and Neighboring Islands 1467

B. Australia and New Zealand 1476 Chapter XIX: THE PHILIPPINES AND THE MARIANAS

(LADRONES) 1491

1. “Indios” (Filipinos) and Spaniards 1493 2. Deeper Penetrations IS11 3. Mindanao and Jolo 1$31 4. Guam and the Marianas (Ladrones) 1$44 [ 1x ]

Contents |

BOOK FOUR

(PART III CONTINUED)

Chapter XX: Cuina: THE LATE Minc DyNASsTy 1563

1. Jesuit Letterbooks, Ethnohistories, and Travelogues 1564

2. Geography, Climate, and Names I§7I 3. Government and Administration 1579 ,

4. Economic Life 1593 5. Society and Customs 1619 6. Intellectual Life 1634 7. Religion and Philosophy 1648 Chapter X XI: CHINA: THE EARLY CH’ING DYNASTY 1662

1. The Manchu Conquest 1663 2. The Post-Conquest Literature 1676 3. The Land and Its People 1687 4. Government and Administration 1707

5. Intellectual Life 1717 6. Religion and Philosophy 1731

I. Inner Asia 1755 Chapter X XII: CHINA’S PERIPHERY 1754

2. Tibet 1773 3. Korea 1783 4. Formosa (Taiwan) | 1797 A. Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, and Eastern Siberia 1759

B. Mongolia and Central Asia | 1767

Chapter XXIII: JAPAN 1828 1. Missionary Reports to 1650 1829

2. English and Dutch Descriptions before 1650 1848

3. Post-16s50 Reports | 1873 Chapter XXIV: Eprtocue: A Composite PICTURE 1889

Reference Materials IQIQ Source Materials 1932 Jesuit Letterbooks 1983 Chapter Bibliographies 2000

General Bibliography

Cumulative Index XXX [x]

Abbreviations AHSI Archivum Historicum Societatis Iesu Annales. Annales: Economies, sociétés, civilisations; revue trimestrielle E.S.C.

Asia Earlier volumes of this work: D. Lach, Asia in the Making of Europe, Vols. I and II (Chicago, 1965-77)

BR Blair, Emma H., and Robertson, James A. (eds.), The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898 (55 vols., Cleveland, 1903-9)

BTLV Bijdragen tot de taal-, land- en volkenkunde van NederlandschIndié

BV |[Commelin, Isaac (ed.)], Begin ende voortgangh van de Vereenighde Nederlantsche Geoctroyeerde Oost-Indische

Compagnie .. . ([Amsterdam], 1646). (First edition published 1645. Facsimile edition published in Amsterdam, 1969. The facsimile edition has volumes numbered I, II, II, and IV, corresponding to vols. Ia, Ib, IIa, and IIb of the 1646 edition.)

CV {Churchill, Awnsham and John (eds.)], A Collection of Voyages and Travels, Some Now First Printed from Original

Manuscripts . . . (4 vols.; London, 1704)

“HS” “Works Issued by the Hakluyt Society”’ JRAS Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society

[ xi |

Abbreviations

NR L’Honoré Naber, Samuel Pierre (ed.), Reisebeschreibungen von deutschen Beamten und Kriegsleuten im Dienst der Niederlandischen West- und Ost-Indischen Kompagnien, 1602—1797 (The Hague, 1930-32)

NZM Neue Zeitschrift fiir Missionswissenschaft

PP Purchas, Samuel, Hakluytus Posthumus, or Purchas His Pilgrimes: . . . (20 vols.; Glasgow, 1905-7. Originally published 1625.) SCPFMR Sacrae Congregationis de Propaganda Fide Memoria Rerum (Freiburg, 1971)

Streit R. Streit, Bibliotheca Missionum (30 vols.; Miinster and | Aachen, 1916-75)

Ternaux- H. Ternaux-Compans, Bibliothéque asiatique et africaine

Compans (Amsterdam, 1968; reprint of Paris, 1841-42 ed.)

TR Thévenot, Melchisédech, Relations de divers voyages curieux qui n’ont point esté publiées, ou qui ont esté traduites d’Hacluyt, de Purchas & d’autres voyageurs anglois, hollandois, portugais, allemands, espagnols; et de quelques Persans, Arabes, et autres

auteurs orientaux (4 vols.; Paris, 1663-96)

“WLV” ‘““Werken uitgegeven door de Linschoten Vereeniging” ZMR Zeitschrift fiir Missionswissenschaft und Religionswissenschaft

[ x11 |

A Note to the Illustrations

Study of the illustrations of Asia published in seventeenth-century Europe

shows that the artists and illustrators tried in most cases to depict reality | when they had the sources, such as sketches from the men in the field or the portable objects brought to Europe—plants, animals, costumes, paintings, porcelains, and so on. Many of the engravings based on sketches and paintings are convincing in their reality, such as the depiction of the Potala palace

in Lhasa (pl. 384), the portrait of the “Old Viceroy” of Kwangtung (pl. 323), and the drawings of Siamese and Chinese boats. A number of Asian objects—Chinese scroll paintings, a Buddhist prayer wheel, and small animals—appeared in European engravings and paintings for the first time. Asians, like the Siamese emissaries to France, were sketched from life in Europe and their portraits engraved. When sources were lacking, the illustrators and artists filled in the gaps in

, their knowledge by following literary texts, or by producing imaginary depictions, including maps. The illustrations of Japan, for example, are far more fantastic than those depicting other places, perhaps because Japan so stringently limited intercourse over much of the century. Printing-house

engravers frequently “borrowed” illustrations from earlier editions and often “improved” upon them by adding their own touches which had the effect of Europeanizing them.

Illustrations were “translated” along with texts in various ways. If the publisher of a translation had close relations with the original publisher or printer he might borrow the original copperplate engravings or have the original publisher pull prints from the original plates to be bound with the translated pages. Engraved captions could be rubbed out of the plate and redone in the new language, although many printers did not bother to do © [ xii |

A Note to the Illustrations

so. Lacking the cooperation of the original printers, new engravings could still be made from a print. The simplest method was to place the print face down on the varnished and waxed copper plate to be engraved and then to rub the back of the print causing the ink from the print to adhere to the waxed surface of the plate. The resulting image was then used to engrave, or etch with nitric acid, the new plate, and being reversed it would print exactly as the original version printed. If the engraver wanted to avoid damaging the print, however, which he might well need to finish the engraving, he would use a thin sheet of paper dusted with black lead or black chalk to transfer the image from the print to the new copper plate. He might further protect the print by putting oiled paper on top of it while he traced the picture. This procedure worked whether the print was face down or face up against the plate. In fact it was easier to trace the picture if the print were face up, in which case the new plate would be etched in reverse of the original plate. For a seventeenth-century description of the ways in which new plates could be etched from prints see William Faithorne, The Art of Graveing and Etching (New York, 1970), pp. 41-44 (first edition, London, 1662). See also Coolie Verner, “Copperplate Printing,” in David Woodward (ed.), Five Centuries of Map Printing (Chicago, 1975), p. 53. We have included a number of illustrations that were “borrowed” by one printer from another: see, for example, plates 113 and 114; 117, 118, 121; 174; 312 and 313; 412 and 413; 419—2I.

Most of the following illustrations were taken from seventeenth-century books held in the Department of Special Collections in the Regenstein Library at the University of Chicago. Others have been obtained from libraries and archives in Europe and the United States, which have kindly granted us permission to reproduce them. Wherever possible, efforts are made in the captions to analyze the illustrations and to provide relevant collateral infor- | mation whenever such was available. Almost all of the four hundred or so illustrations were reproduced from the photographs taken (or retaken) by Alma Lach, an inveterate photographer and cookbook author. We were also aided and abetted by the personnel of the Special Collections department—especially the late Robert Rosenthal, Daniel Meyer, and Kim Coventry—1in locating the illustrations and in |

preparing them for photography. Father Harrie A. Vanderstappen, professor emeritus of Far Eastern art at the University of Chicago and a man endowed with marvelous sight and insight, helped us to analyze the illustrations relating to East Asia. C. M. Naim of the Department of South Asian Languages at the University of Chicago likewise contributed generously of his skills, particularly with reference to the Mughul seals (pls. 117, 118, and 121) here depicted. The China illustrations have benefited from the contributions of Ma Tai-loi and Tai Wen-pai of the East Asian Collection of the Regenstein Library and of Zhijia Shen who generously gave freely of her time and knowledge. The captions for the Japan illustrations have been im[ xiv |

A Note to the Illustrations proved by the gracious efforts of Yoko Kuki of the East Asian Collection of the Regenstein Library. Tetsuo Najita of Chicago’s History Department lent a hand in the preparation of the caption for pl. 432. Ann Adams and Francis Dowley of Chicago’s Art Department helped us to analyze some of the engravings, especially those prepared by Dutch illustrators. To all of these generous scholars we express our sincere gratitude for their contributions to the illustration program.

[ xv |

BLANK PAGE

Illustrations BOOK ONE FOLLOWING PAGE 338

1. Mid-seventeenth-century map of Asia 2. Willem Blaeu’s map of Asia 3. Map of the Mughul Empire, from Dapper’s Asia, 1681 4. South and Southeast Asia, from Johan Blaeu’s Atlas major, 1662 5. Ceylon and the Maldives, from Sanson d’Abbeville’s L’Asie, 1652 6. Continental Southeast Asia, from Morden’s Geography Rectified, 1688 7. Course of the Menam, from La Loubére’s Du royaume de Siam, 1691 8. Malacca and its environs, from Dampier’s Voyages, 1700 9. The Moluccas, from Blaeu’s Atlas major 10. Asia from Bay of Bengal to the Marianas, from Thévenot’s Relations,

| 1666 |

11. Japan and Korea, from Blaeu’s Atlas major

12. Harbor of Surat 13. Dutch factory at Surat 14. Market at Goa 15. English fort at Bombay 16. Harbor and wharf of Arakan 17. Batavia, ca. 1655

18. Amboina and its inhabitants | 19. Dutch factory at Banda 20. Tidore and its fort 21. Dutch envoys in Cambodia 22. Fort Zeelandia in Taiwan 23. Dutch ambassadors in Peking, 1656

, [xvi |

Illustrations

24. Macao 25. Canton 26. Dutch factory at Hirado 27. Dutch factory on Deshima 28. Palanquins 29. Merchants of Bantam 30. Man and woman of Goa 31. Chinese merchant couple 32. Dutch fleet before Bantam in 1596 33. Thee (tea), or cha, bush 34. King of Ternate’s banquet for the Dutch, 1601 35. Coins of Siam

36. 1601 Malay-Latin vocabulary 37. 1672 Oriental-Italian vocabulary 38. Warehouse and shipyard of Dutch East India Company in Amsterdam 39. Old East India House in London 40. East India House in Amsterdam AI. East Indian birds

42. Japanese converts suspended head down ,

43. Execution of three Japanese converts 44. A Japanese crucifixion 45. Preparation for an execution by suspension 46. Persecution of Christians in Japan 47. Christians being burned alive 48. Suspension of a Christian 49. Torture of Christians at Arima 50. Portrait of Johann Adam Schall as court mandarin 51. Miraculous cross of Thomas the Apostle at Mylapore $2. Portrait of Matteo Ricci and his convert Paul

53. Portrait of Nicolas Trigault ,

$4. Frontispiece, Gian Filippo de Marini, Delle missioni, 1663 55. Title page, Trigault, Christiana expeditione, 1615 56. Title page, Trigault, Christianis triumphis, 1623 57. Title page, Luis de Guzman, Historia de las missiones, 1601 58. Title page, Declaration Given by the Chinese Emperour Kam Hi in the Year 1700

59. Title page, Nicolas Pimenta, Epistola, 1601 60. Title page, Johann Adam Schall, Historica relatio, 1672 61. Title page, Trigault, Vita Gasparis Barzaei, 1610 62. Title page and another page from Antonio de Gouvea, Innocentia

victrix, 1671

63. Portrait of Philippus Baldaeus 64. Portrait of Wouter Schouten 65. Portrait of Johann Nieuhof

[ xviii |

Illustrations

66. Portrait of Alvarez Semedo | 67. Portrait of Jean de Thévenot 68. Frontispiece, Olfert Dapper, Asia, 1681 69. Frontispiece, Johann Nieuhof, Gesandtschafft, 1666 70. Frontispiece, J. T. and J. I. De Bry, India orientalis, 1601 71. Frontispiece, Johann von der Behr, Diarium, 1669 72. Title page of Regni Chinensis descriptio, with Chinese landscape painting, 1639

73. Title page, Edward Terry, Voyage to East India, 1655 | 74. Title page, Johan van Twist, Generale beschrijvinge van Indien, 1648 75. Title page, Johan Albrecht von Mandelslo, Ein Schreiben, 1645 76. Title page, Philippe de Sainte-Trinité, Orientalische Reisebeschreibung, 1671

77. Frontispiece, ibid. , 78. ‘Title page, Giuseppe di Santa Maria Sebastiani, Seconde speditione, | 1672

79. Title page, Giovanni Filippo Marini, Historia, 1665

80. Title page, Louis Le Compte, Memoirs and Observations, 1697 | 81. Title page, Robert Knox, Historical Relation of the Island ceylon, 1681 82. Title page, Adam Olearius, Offt begehrte Beschreibung der cewen

orientalischen Reise, 1647 ,

83. Title page, Bernhard Varen, Descriptio Regni Japoniae et Siam, 1673 84. Title page, Simon de La Loubére, Du royaume de Siam, 1691 85. Title page, Gabriel Dellon, History of the Inquisition at Goa, 1688 86. Title page, Athanasius Kircher, China illustrata, 1667 87. Portrait of Athanasius Kircher 88. Title page, Johann Jacob Saar, Ost-Indianische funfzehen-jahrige KriegsDienste, 1672

89. Title page, Abbé Carré, Voyage des Indes Orientales, 1699 , 90. Title page, Pietro Della Valle, Travels, 1665 g1. Title page, Johann von der Behr, Diarium, oder Tage-Buch, 1668 92. Title page, Gotthard Arthus, Historia Indiae Orientalis, 1668 93. Title page, David Haex, Dictionarium Malaico-Latinum et LatinoMalaicum, 1631

94. Title page, Nicolaas Witsen, Noord en Oost Tartarye, 1692 | 95. Title page, Thomas Herbert, Some Yeares Travels, 1638 96. Title page, A. and J. Churchill, Collection of Voyages and Travels, 1744 97. Frontispiece, Arnoldus Montanus, Die Gesantschaften an die Keiser van Japan, 1669 98. Title page, Willem Lodewyckszoon, Premier livre, 1609 99. Malay-Latin phrases from Haex’s Dictionarium 100. Malay-Latin wordlist (ibid.) tor. German-Malay wordlist from Dapper’s Beschreibung, 1681 102. Portrait of Edward Terry [ xix |

Illustrations

103. Portrait of Giovanni Francesco Gemelli Carer 104. Portrait of Sir Thomas Roe 105. Portrait of Joris van Spilbergen 106. Portrait of Ove Gjedde

BOOK TWO , FOLLOWING PAGE 756

Introduction: The Mughul Empire on European Printed Maps 107. Map of the Mughul Empire, from Terry’s Voyage, 1655 108. Map of the Mughul Empire, from Sanson d’Abbeville’s L’Asie, 1652 109. Map of the Mughul Empire, from Blaeu’s Asia major, 1662 110. Map of the Mughul Empire, from Melchisédech Thévenot’s Relations, 1663

111. Map of Kashmir, from Bernier’s Voyages, 1723

112. Portrait of Akbar | 113. Indian paintings of Jahangir, Khurram, and slave 114. The same Mughul miniatures in a French translation © 115. Prince Salim, or Jahangir 116. Nur Mahal, Jahangir’s empress 117. Seal of Jahangir, from Purchas 118. Seal of Jahangir, by a French engraver I19, 120, 121. Portrait, standard, and seal of Jahangir

122. Aurangzib in camp | 123. Mughul court at Agra 124. Woman and man of Surat 125. Court and throne of “Great Mogul” at Lahore 126. Wrestlers of Surat 127. Fakirs under a banyan tree

128. Means of transport in Sind ,

129. Elements of Sanskrit 130. Hook-swinging 131. Yogi austerities 132. Festival of Hassan and Hossein 133. Brahma, the Creator Introduction to seventeenth-century printed maps of South India 134. Map of South India 135. Map of places in India 136. South India and its periphery 137. Frontispiece,. Hendrik Adriaan van Rheede, Hortus indicus malabaricus,

1658 , 1678

138. Frontispiece, Willem Piso, De Indiae utriusque re naturali et medica,

[ xx ]

Illustrations

139. Malabar (Tamil) alphabet 140. Malabar vowels 141. Malabar cyphers 142. Letter from Brahmans of Malabar in the Malayalam language 143. Letter of Emanuel Carneiro in Malayalam 144. Letter of “Ittt Achudem”’ in Malayalam 145. Portrait of John Fryer 146. Title page, Fryer, A New Account, 1698

147. Specimen of “Malabar” script | | 148. The Zamorin’s palace at Calicut

149. The Zamorin and his palace 150. “Ixora’”’ (Siva) I§1. Ganesha, son of Siva | 152. Ten avatars of Vishnu

153. ‘“Nareen,” first avatar according to Kircher | 154. “Ramchandra,” the Embodiment of Righteousness 155. “Narseng,”’ the Man-Lion avatar 156. The goddess “Bhavani,” the ninth avatar 157. The horse avatar 158. Vishnu: the fish incarnation, from Baldaeus 159. The tortoise incarnation

160. Boar incarnation , 161. Man-Lion incarnation

162. The Dwarf, or fifth avatar | 163. Rama-with-the-Ax 164. Ravana in Lanka: Ramachandra, the Embodiment of Righteousness 165. Eighth avatar: Krishna 166. Buddha as ninth avatar 167. Kalki, or tenth avatar 168. Frontispiece, Baldaeus, Afgoderye der Oost-Indische heydenen, 1672

169. Portrait of Hendrik Adriaan van Rheede tot Drakestein 170. The Indian tamarind and papaya 171. Arabian jasmine 172. Snake-charmer of Malabar 173. Learning to write the alphabet in the sand 174. Map of Ceylon, ca. 1602 175. Map of Jaffna and adjacent islands 176. Map of Kandy on Ceylon 177. Map of the Maldives and Ceylon 178. Spilbergen and the king of Kandy 179. City of Kandy in 1602 180. Arms and seal of the king of Ceylon 181. The god of the king of “Matecalo” on Ceylon © 182. Raja Sinha (Lion-King) of Kandy [ xxi |

Illustrations

183. Noble of Kandy

184. Cinnamon harvesting in Ceylon ,

185. Butter making in Ceylon 186. Sinhalese preparing for rice planting 187. On smoothing their fields 188. Treading out the rice 189. Treading out the rice indoors 190. Execution by elephant 191. Cremation in Ceylon 192. Drinking custom in Ceylon 193. Sinhalese pond fishing 194. Wild man of Ceylon 195. Talipot parasol of Ceylon

196. Title page, Abraham Roger, De open-deure tot het verborgen heydendom, 1651

197. Frontispiece, Roger, French translation, 1670 198. Title page, Daniel Havart, Op en Ondergangh van Cormandel, 1693 199. Hook-hanging 200. Brahman austerities 201. Sepulchre of the kings and princes of Golconda 202. Portrait of Sultan Muhammed Qutb

203. Portrait of Sultan Abdullah Qutb Shah |

204. Portrait of Sultan Abu’l Hasan 205. Persian miniature portrait of Abu’l Hasan 206. Portrait of Akkana of Golconda 207. Sultan Abu’l Hasan visits the Dutch church at Masulipatam 208. Laurens Pit and the sultan BOOK THREE FOLLOWING PAGE 1380

209. French map of Siam, 1691 210. King Narai of Siam on the royal elephant 211. Imperial three-tiered vase of gold filigree 212. Crocodile of Siam: anatomical description 213. Title page, Observations physiques et mathematiques, 1688 214. Mandarin’s “‘balon’”’ (galley)

215. Noblemen’s “ballon” 216. Water-pipe smoked by the Moors of Siam 217. Siamese rhythmic musical instruments 218. Siamese song in Western notation 219. Siamese alphabets, Pali alphabets, Siamese numbers 220. Buddhist monastery in Siam [ xxii |

Illustrations

221. Siamese images of the Buddha 222. The three Siamese envoys to France, 1686 223. Second Siamese emissary

224. Third Siamese emissary | 225. Reception of the Siamese emissaries by Louis XIV

226. Title page, Histoire de la revolution de Siam, 1691 227. Title page, Abbé de Choisy, Journal du voyage de Siam, 1687 228. Title page, Pierre Joseph D’Orleans, Histoire . . . de la revolution, 1692 229. Title page, Alexandre de Chaumont, Relation de l’ambassade, 1686

230. Audience hall of the king of Siam 231. Illustrative plate of 1693 showing maps of Ayut’ia and Bangkok,

Siamese trees, plough, insect, and golden imperial vase |

232. Map of India extra Gangem |

233. Insulindia: Western archipelago 234. Map of Borneo, 1601 235. Map of the Moluccas, 1688 236. Map of the Moluccas, from Blaeu’s Atlas major, 1662 237. Map of Banda, 1609 238. Dutch map of Vietnam and Hainan Island, ca. 1660 239. Frontispiece, Vremde reyse inde coninckrycken Cambodia ende Louwen, 1669

240. Daniel Tavernier’s map of Tongking 241. Map recording the gradual uncovering of the Austral lands 242. Map of the Philippines and the Ladrones 243. Mrauk-u, royal capital of Arakan, in 1660 244. Procession of the queen of Patani 245. Royal palace of Tuban 246. French-Malay-Javan vocabulary, 1609 247. Makassar soldiers with blowpipes

248. Sketch of Bantam , 249. Foreign merchants at Bantam ,

250. Javanese of Bantam on the way to market 251. Principal Chinese merchants at Bantam 252. Muslim legate from Mecca with governor of Bantam 253. Chinese shrine in Bantam 254. King of Bali in royal chariot drawn by white oxen 255. Gentleman of Bali on the move 256. Sumatran chief and his people 257. Javanese gong orchestra 258. Javanese dancers 259. Takraw, Malay football 260. Javanese cockfight 261. Mosque of Japara in Java 262. Harbor of Gamulamo in Ternate

[ xxii |

Illustrations

263. The “Tygers Graft,” a canal street of Batavia 264. Batavia: betel and pynang garden 265. Batavia: Fort Ryswick 266. Soldier of the imperial guard in Tongking 267. Mandarin of Tongking 268. Fishing at Ternate 269. Indian salamander or gecko 270. A strange bat, or the flying fox 271. The melon tree, or the papaya 272. Close-up of the durian fruit 273. The Javanese rhinoceros 274. The dodo 275. Animals of the Indian Ocean islands

276. Emu, or cassowary |

277. The Orang-Utan 278. Durians, banyan, and bamboo

279. Title page, Antonio de Morga, Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas, 1609

280. Market at Bantam 281. Title page, Christophoro Borri, Cochin-China, 1633 282. Title page, Vremde geschiedenissen in de koninckrijcken van Cambodia en Louwen-lant, 1669

283. Title page, Sebastian Manrique, Itinerario de las missiones, 1653 BOOK FOUR FOLLOWING PAGE 1730

284. Purchas’ map of China

285. Map of China and its eastern periphery (1652) | 286. Martini’s map of China and its periphery 287. Map of China dated 1654 288. Map of China dated 1655 289. Couplet’s map of China 290. Kircher’s map of China 291. Nieuhof’s map of China 292. Map with route of Dutch embassy from Canton to Peking 293. Route of Dutch ambassadors in China 294. Frontispiece, Blaeu, Atlas major, Vol. X 295. Frontispiece, Martini, Novus atlas sinensis 296. Title page, Kircher, Chine illustrée 297. Title page, Blaeu, Atlas major, Vol. X

298. Portrait, Johann Nieuhof

299. Mysterious flying bridge of Shensi | 300. The Great wall myth

[ xxiv |

| Illustrations 301. Mountains of the Five Horses’ Heads 302. Map of Metropolitan Peking 303. Peking with Great Wall in the distance 304. City plan of Peking 305. Imperial city at Peking

306. Imperial throne in Peking 307. Observatory at Peking 308. ‘Tartar Gate in the Great Wall near Hsi-ning 309. Confucius in the Imperial Academy 310. Johann Schall in Mandarin dress 311. Shun-chih, the first Manchu emperor

312. Portrait of the K’ang-hsi emperor published 1697 | 313. Portrait of the K’ang-hsi emperor published 1710 314. Reception of emissaries at the imperial court

315. Mughul envoys to Peking | 316, 317. Two Chinese noble ladies 318. Nanking Province 319. Vista of Nanking 320. Street in Nanking, 1656 321. Porcelain Pagoda of Nanking 322. Banquet in honor of Dutch emissaries 323. Portrait of “Old Viceroy” of Kwangtung

324. Xaocheu, or Sucheu

325. Chinese map of Chekiang Province 326. “‘Nangan” (Nan-an) in Kiangsi Province 327. Different types of Chinese vessels 328. Floating village 329. ““Tonglou” (Dong-liu), a Yangtze town

330. Dragon boat 331. Dutch Fort Zeelandia on Taiwan

332. Macao 333. Celestial, terrestrial, and infernal gods of the Chinese 334. Temple of “Sang-Won-Hab”

335. Chinese idols 336. Various types of Chinese priests 337. Chinese priests or monks 338. Chinese temple and pagoda 339. Chinese sepulchre

340. Chinese costumes |

341. Chinese ladies 342. “Porcelain” couple 343. Title page, Magalhaes, History 344. Magalaes’ Chinese commentary on Confucius 345. Title page, Confucius Sinarum philosophus [ xxv |

Illustrations

346. Title page, Martini, Decas prima, official Jesuit version 347. Title page, Martini, Decas prima, Blaeu version 348. Martini’s hexagrams of the I Ching, published 1658 349. The sixty-four hexagrams, from Confucius Sinarum philosophus, 1687 350. “Letters” invented by Fu-hsi, the first emperor

351. Examples of the Chinese writing system __ 352. Attempt to alphabetize Chinese 353. Sample page from Chinese-French dictionary 354. Title page, Couplet, Tabula chronologia 355. Chung yung, or Doctrine of the Mean 356, 357, 358. Parts of the body, pulses, and acu-points in Chinese

medicine | 359. Title page, Boym, Clavis medica

361. Chinese farmers 360. Draag Zetel, or palanquin

362. Ruffian and his prize 363. Chinese actors in costume 364. Popular performers

365. The mango 366. The phoenix and the “forest chicken” 367. Cormorant, or fishing bird 368. Chinese fruit trees: persimmon, custard, and a nameless fruit 369. Chinese fruit trees: cinnamon, durian, and banana 370. “Giambo” and litchi trees and fruit 371. Title page, Palafox, History of the Conquest of China by the Tartars 372. Map of Great Tartary from the Volga to the Strait of “Iessu’”’ (Yezo) 373. Title page, Foy de la Neuville, Relation de Muscovie

374. Emissary of the Lamas

375. Kalmuks and their habitations 376. ‘Tanguts 377. Emissaries from South Tartary to Peking 378. Costume of a Tartar archer

379. Costume of a Tungusic warrior :

380. ‘Tartar cavalier and Tartar woman 381. Tartar (Manchu) women 382. ‘Tartar (Manchu) men 383. Woman in the dress of northern Tartary

384. The Potala 385. The Dalai Lama and “Han,” revered king of Tangut 386. The idol “Manipe” in Lhasa

387. ““Pagodes,” deity of the Indians, with “Manipe”’ | 388. Title page, Semedo, History 389. Title page, Baudier, Histoire

390. Map of Japan | [ xxvi |

Illustrations

391, 392. Title page and frontispiece, Montanus, Ambassades

393. Miyako (Kyoto) 394. Title page, Varen, Descriptio regni Japoniae

395. Imperial palace at Miyako 396. Daibutsu temple and its idol 397. Buddhist temple of a thousand images — 398. Idol at “Dubo” near Miyako 399. Rich carriage of a lady-in-waiting 400. Edo (Tokyo) 401. The Tokaido (road from Osaka to Edo) 402. Shogun’s castle at Edo 403. Part of the shogunal castle 404. Shogunal audience in Japan 405. Sepulchre at Nikko, grave of Tokugawa Ieyasu 406. Temple of the Golden Amida in Edo 407. Shaka (Buddha) in an Edo temple 408. Japanese Buddhist priest 409. Bonze preaching 410. Japanese god with three heads and Buddha Amida 411. Wandering Buddhist priests 412. Temple of “Vaccata’” in Kyushu 413. Temple of “Vaccata’”’ in Kyushu, in reverse image

414. Temple of Kannon in Osaka 415. Chateau and pleasure house near Fisen (Hizen) 416. Japanese cross 417. Costumes of Japanese women in Edo 418. Dress of women of quality

419. Urban costume of “Suringa”’ (Suruga) | 420. Daimyo and wife 421. Japanese clothing 422. Noble Japanese woman and her entourage 423. Japanese men of substance 424. Seppuku—ritual suicide in Japan 425. ‘“‘Faisena,” a Japanese pleasure yacht or flyboat 426. Japanese emblems and decorations 427. Japanese writing instruments 428. Two types of “Tzudtzinsic” trees 429. Japanese prostitutes of a pleasure quarter 430. Wandering players 431. Japanese fisherman and wife 432. Japanese charter of privileges granted the English by the ““Emperour of Japan,” 1613

433. Japanese beggars of the road [ xxvii |

BLANK PAGE

Maps BOOK ONE following page 1. Principal centers of European activity in Asia 9 BOOK TWO

2. The Mughul Empire and South India 601

3. Eastern Gujarat 642

4. West Deccan and the west coast of India from

Gujarat to the Goa area 642 5. From Goa to Cape Comorin (around 1680) 838

6. Insular South Asia ca. 1680 838 7. Southeastern India ca. 1670 838 BOOK THREE

8. Continental Southeast Asia III!

9. Insulindia: the western archipelago 1301 10. Insulindia: the eastern archipelago 1397

islands 1467

11. Australia, New Guinea, and the surrounding

BOOK FOUR

12. and its periphery 1563 13.China Tokugawa Japan | 1829

, [ xxix |

BLANK PAGE

Il The European Images of Asia

, BLANK PAGE

Introduction

The images of Asia that had evolved in the sixteenth century became, during the seventeenth century, more numerous, sharper, and much richer in detail. In particular, the Portuguese profile of India inherited from the previous century was filled in by missionaries and merchants who penetrated al- most every sector of the subcontinent from the Himalayas to Cape Comorin. Much that was “discovered” in the sixteenth century, such as Hinduism, was rediscovered and studied by the Jesuits and the Protestant pastors of the seventeenth century. The Mughul state, which governed north India, admitted and employed Europeans, and its subjects traded with them through the port of Surat and in Bengal. The Jesuits were even encouraged by the Mughuls to investigate Tibet and the overland route to China. In politically divided south India, the Portuguese and Dutch established commercial enclaves in which their merchants lived on a semi-permanent basis and from

which their missionaries and merchants were able to push into the hinterlands and the archipelagos of South Asia. In Coromandel the Europeans witnessed the demise of the Hindu empire of Vijayanagar and of the Muslim state of Golconda. Across the Bay of Bengal the traders and missionaries advanced into the remotest reaches of insular and continental Southeast

Asia. From the Dutch, Europe learned in detail about Indonesia, from _ the Dutch and the French, especially, about Siam and its satellites, from the

French about Vietnam, and from the Spanish about the Philippines and the Marianas. A rosy image of China was delineated by the Jesuits who penetrated into its court, into many of its interior cities, and even into its periphery. The Jesuits studied and translated Confucian texts to deepen their understanding of China’s ancient civilization. Because China possessed a

[ 601 |

“, / . ;

64° 68° 72° 76° 80° 84° . UZBEK y \ k , 'a. \, KHANATEHISSAR = / \ As MERV ON. -~ a j 4G Wi \ he Sorta v 7 A A

Ordinary dwellings are generally poor, except in the cities where there are “many faire Piles.’”’ Better houses “‘are built high and flat on the toppe,”

the roof being used as a veranda in the cool of the day. Since they use

"7 Ibid., pp. 24-29. ,

"Reservoirs. On the debate regarding the etymology of the word “tank” see H. Yule and A. C. Burnell, Hobson-Jobson (new edition of W. Crooke; London, 1968), pp. 898-900.

’° PP, IX, 21. In his edition of 1655 (op. cit. [n. 7], p. 106) Terry uses the word “coffee,” thus clearly indicating that this beverage and its English name had by then become familiar to him and his readers. Indeed, in 1652, three years before the publication of his book, London had its first coffee house. On beverage drinking in north India, see P. N. Ojha, North Indian Social Life during the Mughal Period (Delhi, 1975), pp. 11-13. 7° PP, TX, 20-21.

[ 608 |

The English and Dutch Profile: First Generation . heat only for cooking, their houses have no chimneys. Their upper rooms have many windows without glass as well as doorways to let in the air. In “Amadavar” (Ahmadabad), for example, the buildings are well-constructed of brick and stone. This “most spacious and rich Citie’”’ is surrounded by a stone wall pierced by “twelve faire Gates.”” Around their houses, whether in

town or country, they plant many trees for shade. The trees are planted so thickly “that if a man behold a Citie or Towne from some conspicuous _ place, it will seeme a Wood rather than a Citie.”

The main export products of the Mughul Empire are cotton, cotton goods, and indigo. Cotton seeds are planted which grow into shrubs that produce yellow blossoms. When the blossom falls off, a “cod [pod] remains

_ about the bigness of a man’s thumb,” in the’interior of which there is a _ moist, yellow material. As this capsule ripens it swells and finally breaks “and so in short time becomes white as Snow, and then they gather it.” These plants bear for three or four years before being replaced.** From the cotton wool they make a “pure white cloth, some of which I have seene as

fine, if not purer than our best Laune [lawn].’’” The coarser cotton cloth they dye in various colors “or else in it steyn [stain] varietie of curious [intricate] Figures.” * Indigo or “Nill” (nil, the common name for indigo in India is derived from Sanskrit, nila meaning “blue”’) is a shrub not more than one yard high, and with a stalk about the diameter of a man’s thumb. It produces a pod about one inch long, which holds a seed that becomes ripe for gathering and planting in November. Shrubs used to make blue dye are

pulled up at the end of the rainy season and soaked in water. After the shrubs rot, they press out the juice and put the pasty substance on a cloth to dry in the sun. Once it is somewhat hard, they roll it by hand into little balls

which are put on sand to dry. When dry, these balls become the indigo of commerce.** The empire also produces a “good store of Silke, which they weave curiously [skillfully], sometimes mingled with Silver or Gold [threads].”» They also make a hard wax from “gum-lac” (shellac).*> The earth yields lead, iron, copper, and brass (?) “and they say Silver, which, if true, they neede not open, being so enriched by other Nations.” *° "This is the Gossypium neglectum which was extensively cultivated in India as a field crop. Lawn was at this time a linen fabric. It probably got this name from Laon, a weaving town in northern France. 3 PP, IV, 21-22. This description of the wet plant process is from William Finch in PP, IV, 45-46. In some places indigo grows as a wild shrub. Finch, however, is clearly talking about the plant as cultivated in northern India. In his edition of 1655 (op. cit. [n. 7], pp. 113-14) Terry reports that they dry and soak the leaves only; he is here adverting to the dry leaf process. Cf. Tavernier’s account in V. Ball and W. Crooke (trans. and eds.), Travels in India by Jean-Baptiste Tavernier

_ (2d ed.; 2 vols.; London, 1925), II, 8-9, and below, p. 618. For the wet plant process see G. Watt, A Dictionary of the Economic Products of India (10 vols.; reprint; Delhi, 1972), IV, 428-34. *>For a contemporary description of the manufacture of hard or Spanish wax in Goa, see

~ Yule and Burnell, op. cit. (n. 18), p. 500. , © PP, TX, 24. Actually India had no silver mines of consequence. [ 609 |

The Mughul Empire before Aurangzib

Silver streams into the empire from all over the world in exchange for Indian commodities. The huge pilgrim ships plying annually between Surat and the Red Sea usually return with great supplies of precious metals. Silver remains in the empire, for it is “a Crime not lesse than Capitall, to carry any great summe thence.” Bullion imports are melted, refined, and made into coins “and then the Mogols stampe (which is his Name and Title in Persian

Letters) put upon it.” Their silver coins are the purest known “without any allay [alloy], so that in the Spanish Rial [the purest money of Europe] there is some losse [in exchange].” Silver “Roopees” (riipaya or rupees), the basic coins of the realm, are minted in several denominations, and are “either round or square, but so thicke” that they never break or wear out. In Gujarat there is a coin of inferior value called ““Mamoodies” (mahmudis). For petty payments they use “brass” (actually copper) coins called ‘‘Pices”’ (Hindi, paisa) which are large and heavy.” The people of Hindustan are “called in general Hindoos” but ever since Tamerlane subdued them they “have been mixed with Mahometans.” The population also includes many Persians, Tartars, Ethiopians, and Armenians, as well as a few of almost “every people of Asia, if not of Europe.” While some Jews live there, the “very name is a. . . word of reproch.” The Indians are tawny or olive in color with straight black hair and erect posture. They do not admire white or fair-skinned people because they look like lepers to them.** Most Muslim males, except for “Moolaes” (mullahs) and the aged, shave their chins “but suffer the haire on their upper lip to grow as long as Nature will feed it.” They shave their head bare except for a lock on the crown which Muhammed will use “to pull them into Heaven.” People of all persuasions wash their bodies often and anoint themselves with sweet-smelling oils. Men and women dress in similar fashion in white cotton gowns which fall below the knee. Underneath they wear tight pants from the waist to the ankles which are wrapped “like the boots on the smal of their legs.” On their bare feet, they wear slippers, which they remove indoors. Floors are covered with carpets (“made in that Kingdom, good as any in Turkie or Persia’) or something similar, upon which they sit like tailors to visit, to

conduct business, or simply to eat. The men wrap a long, thin band of cloth, either white or colored, around their heads which they call a “Shash” (Arabic, shdsh, turban cloth). When saluting superiors they do not bare their

heads but bow and put the right hand to the top of the head; equals exchange greetings by grasping the chin or the beard of each other. To wish a friend well they use many expressions such as “Greeb-a Nemoas” (Hindi, *7 Ibid., p. 23. For the coins and their circulation in the Mughul Empire see T. Raychaudhuri and I. Habib (eds.), The Cambridge Economic History of India (2 vols.; Cambridge, 1982), I, 260-66. The basic silver rupee “weighed 178 grains troy in which the alloy was never allowed to rise above 4 percent” (ibid., p. 360). **On the Mughul preference for light-skinned people see below, p. 724.

[ 610 | ,

The English and Dutch Profile: First Generation

gharib nawaz), or “I wish [for you] the Prayers of the Poore.””? Muslim women of quality, who rarely are seen outdoors, cover their heads with veils, tie silks in the long hair that hangs down their backs, bedeck their necks and wrists with jewelry, and wear ornaments in their ears and in one nostril. Women of all classes have an easy time in childbirth.*°

When traveling, men and women of the lower classes usually ride on oxen, horses, mules, camels, or dromedaries. They are sometimes borne in two-wheeled coaches covered on the top and back, with the front and sides open. Drawn by oxen, these coaches will easily carry two riders and a coachman. The oxen are guided by lines which are run through their nostrils, between their horns, and into the coachman’s hands. These conveyances can

traverse twenty miles in a day at a good speed. More important travelers ride elephants or are carried in covered palanquins. Inns are found only in large towns and cities. These hostels called “Sarray” (Persian, sardy) are open and free to travelers. The individual is required only to supply his own

bedding and food. Where there are no inns, travelers pitch the tents they usually carry in their baggage." Among the Englishmen of the early years of the century, one of the most experienced in India travel was William Finch, the indigo merchant based in Surat from 1608 to 1611. He gives in detail the names of the towns through which the trade routes ran from Surat to Agra (via Burhanpur), from Agra to Ahmadabad, and from Lahore to Kabul.?? His other itineraries as well are, in Purchas’ somewhat extravagant words, “supplied in substance, with more accurate observations of Men, Beasts, Plants, Cities, Deserts, Castles,

_ Buildings, Regions, Religions, than almost any other, as also of Waires, Wares, Warres.’’ 3? Finch left Surat in January, 1610, for Agra. Besides giving

a description of the port of Surat itself, he notes the towns in its immediate vicinity and observes that in ““Ranele” (Rander) live the ‘“Naites” (Konkani (?), Nawayit), a seafaring people who speak another language.* Of the cities on the road, he describes in some detail the “beastly” city and fortress of Burhanpur, the ruined city of Mandu, and the “pleasant” city and adjacent fortress of Gwalior. Arrived in Agra on April 4, Finch describes the devas-

tating fires which swept the city in May and part of June. During July, news reaches the capital of the setbacks suffered by Jahangir’s armies in the

Deccan. Finch reports on the arrival of Father Manuel Pinheiro in Agra © *°In his 1655 edition (op. cit. [n. 7], pp. 213-14) Terry gives additional examples of salutations. , 3° PP, TX, 29-31. *Ibid., p. 33.

For a convenient listing of the towns on each of these routes see M. A. Ansari, European

Travellers under the Mughals (1580-1627) (Delhi, 1975), p. 32. 3 PP, IV, I. 34Muslim seafarers, probably Arabs, who had intermarried with the local women of India’s west coast. Etymology of the word “‘Naites” is uncertain. See Yule and Burnell, op. cit. (n. 18), p. 620; and for further discussion see V. S. D’Souza, The Navayats of Kanara (Dharwar, 1955), pp. 12-20.

[ 611 |

The Mughul Empire before Aurangzib

and the christening of three nephews of the emperor, the sons of his dead brother Danyl. Leaving Agra on November 1 for Bayana, Finch notes that the road to Ajmer is lined with stone pillars marking each “coss.” *> Akbar’s unfinished city of Fatehpur-Sikri is totally devastated and depopulated, with “much of the ground now being converted to Gardens.” All that remains standing are the city’s stone walls with their four gates. Its tanks, like those of Agra, are covered with “Hermodactyle,” a weed that produces a soft and tender fruit, “white and of a mealish taste, much eaten in India.” 3° The city of Bayana where Finch went to purchase indigo is also in ruins except for two inns and a bazaar.*’ After returning to Agra, Finch was again quickly on the road, this time to Lahore. At Delhi he describes Humayun’s tomb and asserts that in the successive cities of Delhi “the Kings of India are crowned.” He digresses on the rebellion of Salim and notes that Akbar had mulberry trees planted on both sides of the six-hundred-mile highway from Agra to Kabul to commemorate the defeat of the prince.** Lahore, “now to be inclosed with a strong wall,” is one of the greatest cities of the East. It was first made into an imperial center by Humayun. Lahore’s fortress and royal abode is situated on the Ravi, a river that empties into the Indus. Ships transport goods down this river system to Thatta in Sind, passing by Multan and Bhakkar on their way southward. Within a retiring room of the imperial residence are mural portraits of Jahangir and other Mughul notables. In a small sitting room overlooking the river there are murals of Akbar and Prince Salim as well as other

portraits. The women of the court, to the number of two hundred, are lodged in a new palace whose end walls are covered with portraits “of the King in state sitting amongst his women.” In the emperor's own, sumptuous apartment are paintings of his ancestors from Babur onward. On the east side of the palace-fortress outside the wall is a beautiful garden and on the west a ferry which connects with the highway to Kabul. On May 17, 1611, news arrives in Lahore of the sack of Kabul by Pathan rebels from the surrounding mountains. Finch follows this with a list of the routes into the Mughul Empire through the mountain passes of the north.*

From his friend Nicholas Uphet, Finch learned of another route from Agra to Surat via Ajmer and Gujarat. The city of Ajmer is famous for the sepulchre of “Hoghee Mundee” (Khwaja Muinuddin), a “saint much re35 Cos, the common measure of distance in India, the exact length of which varies consider_ ably from region to region. ° A reference to the caltrop (Hindi, singhdra) or the water chestnut. 37 PP, IV, 29-45.

38On the rebellion see below, pp. 631-32. They are ash trees that are planted, in later reports; see below, p. 792.

| °His descriptions of the trade routes to Central Asia, probably obtained from merchants at Lahore, are remarkably clear and accurate. See Aurel Stein, “Note on the Routes from the Panjab to Turkestan and China Recorded by William Finch (1611),” Journal of the Panjab Historical Society, Vol. VI, No. 2 (1917), pp. 144-48.

[ 612 |

The English and Dutch Profile: First Generation | spected by the Mogols,” to whose tomb Akbar made a pilgrimage on foot from Agra. At Jalor there stands a great mountain-top fortress, which Finch describes in some detail, that is called the Gate to Gujarat.*° After crossing ‘a deepe sandy Desart [in Rajasthan],” the traveler arrives at Ahmadabad, a city whose buildings are “comparable to any citie in Asia or Africa.” Within this walled city the streets are wide and well paved, its merchants rich, and

its artisans “excellent for Carvings, Paintings, Inlayd Workes, imbroydery | with Gold and Silver.’’ Since the emperor’s authority in Gujarat is constantly being threatened, persons entering or leaving Ahmadabad are required to obtain passes.** South of Ahmadabad is Cambay, the mart of Gujarat and the haunt of the Portuguese merchants. On the road to Surat there is a great agate mine at Broach, a city also renowned for its rich “Baffatas” (Persian, bafta, woven), or white cotton textiles.” From Agra eastward the route leads into the Ganges valley. Thirty rivers flow into the Ganges making it normally three-quarters of a mile in width. When rains are heavy it floods the whole valley before falling into the Bay of Bengal. On one of its eighteen distributaries stands Lucknow, an important linen center. At Awadh, an ancient city and once an important Pathan center, are ruins in which Brahmans live who record the names of all Hindus who bathe in its river. Pilgrims from all parts of India come here and carry away with them tokens of remembrance in the form of grains of black rice.

The route then goes to Jaunpur, a commercial town on a small river (the Gumti) “over which is a bridge with Houses like London Bridge, but — nothing so good.” * A second route from Agra to Jaunpur runs through a continual forest to Allahabad. This Ganges city, anciently called “Praye’’ (Prayaga), is one of the

wonders of the East.** The construction of its fort was begun by Akbar forty years ago at the point where the Jumna river flows into the Ganges. For many years, twenty thousand persons were assigned to its construction, and it is still unfinished. Its walls, like the fort at Agra, are of red, square stone. Prince Salim (later Jahangir) stayed here after he rebelled against Akbar and before he became emperor. In its first courtyard stands a tall stone pillar which is sunk so deeply into the ground “that no end can be found.” It _ seems to have been erected “by Alexander or some other great Conqueror, °Both Jalor and Ajmer had famous fortresses. Ajmer was annexed by Akbar in 1556. "On the economic importance of Ahmadabad see B. G. Gokhale, “Ahmadabad in the Seventeenth Century,” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient (Leyden), XII (1969), 187-97. ” PP, IV, 47-65. * This bridge, begun around 1564, was one of the great construction works of the Mughuls. It was designed and built by workmen from Hazara in Afghanistan. For a modern photograph of it see H. H. Dodwell (ed.), The Cambridge History of India (6 vols.; Cambridge, 1922-53), Vol. IV, pl. 14. “4 Prayag, or “place of sacrifice,” is the Hindu name for this old and holy city. Akbar named it

Allahabad or Ilahabad after he began construction of the fort.

| [ 613 | |

The Mughul Empire before Aurangzib

who could not pass further for Ganges.” ** In an inner courtyard the emperor sits on an elevation to hold court or to watch animal fights. Immediately beneath this dais is a vault which contains idols representing “Baba Adam and Mama Havah (as they call them) and of their Progenie, with Pictures of Noah and his Descent.” The Hindus believe, as these idols indicate, that the first humans lived here. Thousands of pilgrims come here to bathe

in the Ganges and to revere these relics.*° In another richly paved court the emperor holds his “Derbar” (durbar) or court. Beyond it is another in which there is an entry into the great ““Moholl” (mahal, palace). The palace _ has forty-eight richly decorated living and sleeping rooms for the emperor and sixteen of his wives as well as their attendants and slaves. The palace has also within its confines a “curious Tanke” and tree known as the “Tree of Life.” This tree, which defied all efforts of previous Muslim rulers to kill it, is now protected by Jahangir, and it continues to enjoy “no small esteeme with the Indians.” *” On the river side of the palace there are several large ‘“Devoncans” (from Arabic, diwan, and Persian, khana, audience hall, and

referring in this case to balconies), where the emperor and his women can | take their ease while watching the Jumna river “pay tribute to the Ganges.” . Between the palace and the river is a pleasant garden which includes a “faire Banquetting House, with privie staires to take Boate.”’ *

Finch follows his tour of the Ganges valley with a catalog of the towns and principalities of the north, stretching eastward from Lahore to Arakan. Among the most important of these places are “Serenegar” (Srinagar) in cold and snowy Kashmir and “Camow” (Kumaun), a source of musk and small horses called “Gunts”’ (Hindi, ghiint, hill pony), renowned for their ability to climb hills. To the east the authority of the Mughuls ends at the land of Mugh (Arakan), an unstable frontier in Bengal north of the Ganges where Jahangir maintains an army. Further south, Mughul rule extends to the mouth of the Ganges where “the Portugall Out-laws hold a small Fort, and doe much mischiefe.”’ *

Akbar, who was forced to abandon Fatehpur-Sikri by the lack of fresh, unsalty water in its vicinity more than fifty years ago, turned his attention to Agra, a village before his time.*° Built in crescent shape and facing the ‘S'The famous pillar (lat) of Asoka of the third century B.c. On it are inscribed the edicts of Asoka.

Finch appears to be confused about the beliefs of the Hindu pilgrims. Prayag is a holy site because they believe that it was here that Brahma, the creator, performed the horse sacrifice in memory of his recovery of the four Vedas.

“The “curious Tanke” is a deep octagonal well at the entry to an underground passage which leads to the Akshai Vata, or undying banyan, still revered by Hindus. # PP, IV, 65-69.

4 PP, IV, 69-71. ,

° Ibid., p. 43. This reason for Akbar’s desertion of Fatehpur-Sikri, while common in the seventeenth century, is now questioned. Its decline began in 1585, when Akbar left to defend the northwest frontier. Its real destruction began with the rise of the Jats around 1680. See S. A. A. Rizvi, Fatehpur Sikri (New Delhi, 1972), pp. 9-11.

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The English and Dutch Profile: First Generation Jumna river, Agra is now so heavily populated that people can hardly pass one another in its narrow, dirty streets. The city and suburbs are seven miles long and three wide. The houses of nobles and merchants are built of brick and stone with flat roofs; the houses of commoners are simple mud walls covered with thatch “which cause often and terrible fires.”” Most of the nobles’ houses are on the riverside.** The Jumna itself is “broader than the Thames at London.” On the banks of the river stands its fort-palace, “one of the fairest and admirable buildings of the East, some three or foure miles in compasse.”’ It 1s surrounded by a strong wall of “squared stone” and a moat crossed by drawbridges. The fort has four gates. The north gate leads

to the “Rampire” (rampart). The west gate near the bazaar is called the “Cichery” (Kacheri or court gate), within which is situated the Kacheri of Rolls, where the emperor’s chief minister every morning for three hours handles “all matters of Rents, Grants, Lands, Firmans, Debts etc.” The south gate, which leads to the emperor’s durbar (council chamber), is always chained; it is called ““Arabar Drswage” (Akbar Darwaza), and within it is

the compound (chawk) where hundreds of whores constantly await a call from the palace. The east gate, on the river side, is called the “Dersane” (Darshani), in the court of which the emperor every morning receives “Tessilam”’ (taslim, a ceremonial salutation) from his nobles. Every noon he watches animal fights in this courtyard; on Tuesdays he also witnesses executions of condemned persons here. Behind the third, or south, gate is a spacious court with “Atescanna’s [Persian, atishkhana, artillery park] round about like shops or open stalls, wherein his Captaines according to their degrees, keep their seventh day Chockeis [Hindi, chauki, guard duty].” Still further inward is a railed court where none may enter on pain of whipping except the imperial ‘“Addees” (ahadis, gentlemen troopers). Following this there is another small railed court covered with rich “Semianes” (shamidnah, or awnings) to keep the sun off. Above, in a gallery, the emperor sits in his chair of state in the company of his children, chief minister, and fan bearers. On the wall behind the emperor hang pictures of Christ and the Virgin Mary. Nobody under the rank of “foure hundred horse” may come within these rails. On the opposite side of this court hang the golden bells of justice. If anyone is unable to obtain justice from the imperial officials, he may ring these bells when the emperor is holding court and be heard. Usually court is held between three and four

o'clock each afternoon. Later in the evening, two hours after the durbar ends, the emperor comes to the small inner court near the palace to socialize with a select company of nobles who are admitted by ticket only. Not far from Agra at Sikandra on the road to Lahore is Akbar’s tomb, still unfinished “after tenne yeares worke.” It stands in the middle “‘of a large Garden enclosed with brick walls neere two miles in circuit.” Only one of * See below, pp. 620-21.

[ 615 |

| The Mughul Empire before Aurangzib the four gates planned for this wall is in place. Nearby is a spacious palace which houses Akbar’s wives, “each enjoying [the revenues from] the lands they before had.” The square tomb itself, ‘about three quarters of a mile

in compasse,’’ is approached by way of a small terraced garden, “foursquared” and enclosed by a railing. This is the lowest of five planned terraces. On each corner of the cut-stone mausoleum rises a small marbled “turret,” with identical “turrets” exactly in between the corner “turrets.” In a great hall with spacious galleries on each side, the body of Akbar lies in a “faire round coffin of Gold.’ By his head stands “his Sword and Target [shield], and on a small pillow his Turbant, and thereby two or three faire gilded bookes.” At his feet stand his shoes as well as “a rich Bason [basin] and Ewre [pitcher].”” The coffin, at Finch’s departure, is covered only with a tent and awning. Around three thousand workers are still employed in completing this great memorial. The stone brought from a quarry near Fatehpur they “cut in length and forme, as Timber with sawes, and Plankes and seelings [wainscoting| are made thereof.”” Muslims and Hindus alike worship at this tomb, for both consider Akbar to be a saint.” Roe had warned London in 1618 that the Dutch “maggots” were well entrenched in Surat and enjoyed almost as good a position there as the English. Two years later Pieter van den Broecke (1585-1640) became Director of the Dutch factory and supervisor of trade for the VOC in its “Western Quarter.”’ He retained these offices until 1629. In the meantime Francisco Pelsaert (d. 1630) of Antwerp acted as Dutch factor at Agra from 1620 to — 1627. Near the end of his stay in Agra, Pelsaert wrote a ““Remonstrantie” (1626), or a commercial report, for the Dutch Company. He also collected materials, presumably from Persian chronicles, for a history of Hindustan. These two documents were forwarded to Van den Broecke, who sent them on to Amsterdam. While the name of Van den Broecke is associated with the chronicle, it appears to be primarily the product of Pelsaert’s efforts. The “Remonstrantie’ and what came to be called Van den Broecke’s “Fragment of Indian History” were entrusted by the VOC to Joannes de Laet (15931649), a Flemish geographer and naturalist. Using these and other published and unpublished materials on the Mughul Empire, De Laet compiled and issued his De imperio magni mogolis sive India vera commentarius e varijs auc-

toribus congestus (Leyden) in 1631. This book, written in Latin for more general distribution, constitutes the first effort to provide a systematic description and history of the Mughul Empire for European readers. * PP, IV, 72-77. For a modern description of Akbar’s tomb see The Cambridge History of India (see n. 43), IV, 549-51. On the working of the red sandstone of Fatehpur see ibid., p. 539. For an English translation of Pelsaert’s entire ““Remonstrantie” see W. H. Moreland and P. Geyl (trans. and eds.), Jahangir’s India: The Remonstrantie of Francisco Pelsaert (Cambridge, 1925); for an English translation of Pelsaert’s chronicle see B. Narain and S. R. Sharma (trans. and eds.), A Contemporary Dutch Chronicle of Mughul India (Calcutta, 1957); for an English translation of De Laet’s compilation see J. S. Hoyland and S. N. Banerjee (trans. and eds.), The

[ 616 |

The English and Dutch Profile: First Generation Part I of De Laet’s compilation details the geography and administration of the Mughul Empire. This description is pieced together from the Cologquios (1563) of Garcia da Orta,** the history of Persia (1610) by Pedro Teixeira _ (not Texeira as in De Laet),** the appropriate writings in Purchas’ Pilgrimes (1625), and the ““Remonstrantie”’ (1626) of Pelsaert. De Laet’s topography of

the empire, its boundaries, and the list of its provinces are taken directly from Terry and Roe. His itineraries and his remarks on towns and monuments owe much to Finch, Withington, and Hawkins. He also refers to the Jesuit letters, many collections of which circulated in the Low Countries while he was preparing his compendium. Most of what is new in Part I of De Laet’s work derives from the “Remonstrantie”’ of Pelsaert and whatever else he was able to extract from unpublished letters and reports in the archives of the VOC.* De Laet is, of course, best on northwestern India. He provides a clear description of the boundaries of Gujarat, notes that its territory used to stretch much further to the east and south, and lists thirteen of its chief ports. Ships of a moderate size can ascend the Tapti river as far as Surat, a medium-sized port protected by an adjacent fort and by earthen ramparts and a dry moat. Close to the town there is a large and elegant tank cut out of the living rock,

called Gopi Talao, or tank of Gopi.*’ Gujarat’s port of Cambay, a place greatly frequented by the Portuguese, is twice as big as Surat and is enclosed

within “a triple wall of brick.” Its inhabitants, mostly Banyans, operate three large markets in the middle of the town. Robbers prey on trade and travelers on the roads leading out of town. The gates of Cambay are locked each night, presumably to prevent raids on the town itself. Ahmadabad, the capital of Gujarat, is almost as large as London, is situated on a plain, and is surrounded by a strong wall. Every ten to twenty days its Banyan merchants send two hundred carts to Cambay loaded “with every description of merchandise.” Its gates are strongly guarded, and passes from Empire of the Great Mogol: A Translation of De Laet’s “Description of India and Fragment of Indian History” (Bombay, 1928). ‘4D e Laet extracts from this varied work a list of Indian kings. See Hoyland and Banerjee, op.

cit. (n. $3), pp. 119-22. On Orta see Asia, I, 192-94. 5s Teixeira, a Portuguese Jew, traveled overland from Ormuz to Antwerp in 1604—5. On the urging of friends in Antwerp he prepared in Spanish, rather than in his native Portuguese, the Relaciones . . . d’el origen, decendencia y succession de los Reyes de Persia, y de Hormuz, y de un viage

hecho . . . desde la India Oriental hasta Italia por tierra (Antwerp, 1610). De Laet uses Teixeira, (ibid., pp. 91-92) in his descriptions of Cutch and Kabul, territories formerly in Persian hands. He also uses his description of Gujarat (ibid., pp. 93-98) and extracts from Teixeira’s text the names of the Indian rulers descended from Tamerlane. * Much of what De Laet takes from the Dutch archives is to be found in the Gujarat Report, a manuscript relating to the various Gujarati markets in the years before 1630. It is No. 28 of the W. Geleynssen de Jongh Collection at The Hague. See W. H. Moreland, From Akbar to Aurangzeb. A Study in Indian Economic History (London, 1923), p. 201, n. I. 57On the Gopi tank see B. G. Gokhale, Surat in the Seventeenth Century (Copenhagen, 1979), pp. 18-20. This reference is missing from the list of such allusions compiled in M. S. Commissariat, Studies in the History of Gujarat (Bombay, 1935), p. 97, n. I.

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The Mughul Empire before Aurangzib

the governor are required to leave or enter the city. No duties are paid on goods leaving or entering. Six thousand horsemen are maintained to insure the city’s safety from the brigand “Badur” (Bahadur), whose stronghold lies east of the capital. This robber chieftain has successfully stood off the Mughul forces, and even had the temerity to plunder Cambay.* Other insurgents called “Collees” (Koli) “live in solitary places” in the mountains between Ahmadabad and ““Trape”’ (Traj); periodically they make raids upon

roads and settlements. Another raja, a vassal of “Gydney Caun” (Ghazin Khan of Jalor), lives further to the east in “an impregnable fortress situated on a deserted plain.” He can raise ten thousand horsemen and frequently refuses to pay tribute to his overlord.” Ahmadabad is headquarters for thirty-five large rural districts which together contain 2,995 villages. Revenues from the villages are funneled to the

capital by local collection offices; practically all public funds come from agriculture, for no duties are charged on internal trade. Governor “ChanSzan” (Khan Jahan Lodi), the most powerful of Jahangir’s vassals, commands in 1621 an unusually large contingent of fifteen thousand horsemen, more than twice the number ordinarily maintained in the city. North of Ahmadabad is the large village of “Sarques or Sirhesa” (Sarkhej), where the former kings of Gujarat are buried.” Indians come from all directions to

visit these tombs as well as a nearby palace and garden constructed by “Chou-Chin-Nauw” (Khan-khanan, the title of Mirza Abdurrahim), the Mughul general who defeated the last king of Gujarat at this place and established Mughul control in Gujarat.* Sarkhej produces much indigo, “great mountains” of which are exported to Europe even though it is inferior to that originating in Bayana.° The Gujarati city next in importance to the capital is “Barocke or Brochia”’ (Broach), located between Surat and Cambay. This city is built on a high hill; it is surrounded by a high wall and overlooks a beautiful river (the Narbada). | At the foot of the hill is a town, almost as large as the city itself, which is inhabited by artisans and sailors. In the fertile surrounding region on the road

to Surat is the place where agates are dug. To a certain town between Ahmadabad and Broach pilgrims come from all over India to visit the tomb of a Muslim saint called ““Polle Medonu” (Pir Ali Madani). Some of the pil* Bahadur (d. 1615), son of the last Gujarati king, headed the anti-Mughul forces in Gujarat. In 1606 he held Cambay for two weeks. *® A tribal people, the Koli operated mainly in the well-wooded country between Ahmadabad and Cambay.

° Hoyland and Banerjee (trans. and eds.), op. cit. (n. $3), pp. 19-21. °*'Father Manuel Pinheiro had earlier commented on these fifteenth-century tombs. See Asia, I, 461. ) ° Khan-khandn or Khanan Khan (the honorific title means Khan of Khans) defeated Muzaffar II in January, 1584, and thereafter converted the battlefield into this magnificent garden. °3 Sarkhej indigo, known to European merchants as “flat,” was prepared in the form of cakes; _ the indigo of Bayana, prepared as balls, was called “round”’ in the trade. On the Bayana type see above p. 609.

[ 618 |

, The English and Dutch Profile: First Generation grims wear chains on their legs or muzzles on their faces which they believe will be struck off after they have offered their prayers to the saint.“ South of Broach is the beautiful inland town of “Brodera” (Baroda) built on a sandy plain near a small river called the ““Wassah” (Vishva-mitri). It is surrounded on all sides by a wall and its people are mainly “Banians.”’ In the 210 surrounding villages lac is collected, indigo produced, and textiles woven. The fortress of “Jelour” (Jalor) stands on the boundary between Rajasthan and Gujarat. It is built on a high mountain to whose peak runs a broad road

paved with stone interrupted by guarded gates. Within the gates of the fortress there is a beautiful mosque, the governor’s palace, and a temple built by

the Hindu forefathers of Ghazin Khan. Here is also the tomb of “King Hassuard” (Husain Khangsawar) “who was respected. . . during his lifetime for his warlike courage and after his death for his supposed saintliness.”’ Between Ajmer and Ahmadabad are the impassable mountains of “Maroa”’

(Mewar). On one of their rocky ridges stands the great fortress of “GurChitto” (Garh-Chittor), the stronghold ofa ruler who has successfully maintained his independence against both Pathans and Mughuls. All the entrances to his mountain fastness are protected by strong fortifications. The Hindus “have from ancient times”’ revered this ruler as the “Roman Catholics venerate the Pope of Rome.” * East of Gujarat is the province of ““Chandies” (Khandesh) directly upriver

from Surat through territories infested by brigands. Its first large town is “Nacanpore” (Narainpur), the seat of a local princeling named ‘‘Pectosphavus” (Pratap Sah) who holds control over the surrounding country. Two of his most important towns and citadels are “‘Saleri” (Salher) and “Mulere”’ (Mulher). In Mulher the Gujarati coins called ““Mamudies” (mahmidis) are minted. Akbar spent seven years besieging these strongholds and ended by agreeing to let Pratap Sah remain in power as a tributary ruler providing he would refrain from molesting trade and travelers.% “Barampore or Bram-

port” (Burhanpur), the capital of the province, is a very large but poorly built city with a well-fortified citadel. In the Tapti River at Burhanpur stands a rock elephant which the common people worship. A road shaded on either side by trees leads from the city to the enclosed park (Lal Bagh) of

Khanan Khan, the great Mughul noble and general. Other worthwhile sights in Khandesh are the fortresses of Asirgarh and the ancient city of **This is probably a reference to the village of Pirana ten miles southeast of Ahmadabad. Imam Shah from Medina, the founder of its monastery, is said to have converted many Hindus in the sixteenth century by a display of his miraculous powers. See M. R. Majumdar, Cultural History of Gujarat (Bombay, 1965), pp. 254-55. °> For the Portuguese view of the Rajput fortress of Chitor see Asia, I, 422. The above materi~ als on Gujarat extracted from De Laet’s account in Hoyland and Banerjee (trans. and eds.), op.

cit. (n. $3), pp. 16-27. * A reference to Rana Pratap of Mewar who held out against Akbar’s forces until his death in 1597. His successor, Rana Amar Singh (d. 1620), became a tributary of Delhi in 1615 and was required to send his eldest son as a hostage to the Mughul court. See B. S. and J. S. Mehta,

Pratap the Patriot (Udaipur, 1971), p. 65. | [ 619 |

The Mughul Empire before Aurangzib ‘“Mandoa” (Mandu). The mountain fortress of Mandu 1s entirely in ruins “with the exception of a few tombs and temples.” The new city of Mandu, while far smaller than the ancient citadel, “has many fine buildings cut out of the living rock,” as well as “lofty gateways” of a unique type. It boasts a splendid mosque and tower near which stands a magnificent palace housing the tombs of four kings.” North of mountainous Khandesh is the fertile province of Malwa, a great producer of opium, grain, and wine made from the “Meira” (Hindi, Mahwa; _ Latin, Bassia latifolia). East of Malwa is the province of “Gualiar’’ (Gwalior) with a capital city of the same name which was at one time a frontier outpost between the kingdoms of Mandu and Delhi. It is famous for its hilltop fortress which stands to the west and above the city proper. A stone pathway protected by four successive and strongly guarded gates leads uphill to the

citadel. In front of the final gateway, which is made of green and blue marble, there stands a stone elephant.“ The governor dwells in an adjacent palace which also serves as a prison for erring nobles. The Mughuls have three such prisons, the other two are at “Rantipore” (Ranthambor) in Jaipur

and at “Rotas” (Rohtas) in Bengal. Those condemned to death are imprisoned at Ranthambor for two months. On the day of execution they are given a drink of “milk” (i.e., posto, poppy juice, which gradually renders them insensible) and then cast down on the rocks from a wall above. Those sentenced to confinement at the remote and desolate fortress of Rohtas are prisoners for life.” De Laet’s description of the province of Agra derives mainly from the English authors and from Pelsaert, who spent most of seven years there. This province is separated from Gwalior by the river “Cambere’’ (Chambal). Akbar, who reportedly made Agra his capital in 1566, had five gateways con-

structed “for its defense and adornment.”” De Laet lists the names and ranks (in number of horse cavalry) of the noble owners of the great residences which line the river bank. From these data it is possible to identify most of the nobles listed.” The Agra fort, which is also the imperial abode, “stands on rising ground. . . and is most beautiful to look at. . . especially from the river bank.” The imperial “Gussal-can” ( ghusl-khana), or audience chamber, “is a magnificent building, square in shape, and constructed of alabaster covered with gold plates.” Beneath it are the quarters (called the ma* Hoyland and Banerjee (trans. and eds.), op. cit. (n. $3), pp. 28-33. The mosque of Mandu, the Jami Masjid, was completed around 1454; it is a fine specimen of Afghan architecture. The tombs are those of the Khalijis of Malwa, the rulers of Mandu during most of the fifteenth and the early years of the sixteenth century. This is the Hathiya Paur, or Elephant Gate built by Man Singh in the sixteenth century. It forms part of the palace. °° Hoyland and Banerjee (trans. and eds.), op. cit. (n. 53), pp. 33-36. ”Pelsaert gives their names; four of them survive in modern street names. See ibid., p. 37,

nN. . Ibid., Pp. 37-39, n. $0.

[ 620 |

The English and Dutch Profile: First Generation hal) belonging to “Nourzian Begem” (Nur Jahan Begam), Jahangir’s favorite wife.” Of the other buildings in the fort the most important are those which house the rest of the women. Three of these palaces are reserved for the imperial concubines. They are called “Lethevar’”’ (Sunday), “Mongrel” (Tuesday), and “Zenisser” (Saturday), “for on these days the king is wont to visit

the said palaces.” Another palace called “Bengaly Mahal” houses the emperor’s foreign concubines. Outside the fort are the palaces of many leading

nobles. And on the opposite side of the river is the “finely built city” of “Secundra” (Sikandra) which is mainly inhabited by “Banians” who import

products from eastern India. Sikandra also boasts magnificent palaces, such as that of Prince Parviz, as well as lovely pleasure-grounds. The impressive

tomb of “Etham Doulat’ (Itimad-ud-daula, d. 1618) is now being built there at a very high cost in rupees.

In this same province, twelve cos (twenty-three miles) from Agra, is Fatehpur-Sikri, the splendid city built by Akbar. To the name of the original village of Sikri, Akbar had added the word “‘Fetipore, i.e. the wish fulfilled” after the birth of Salim, his son and heir.73 Now it is deserted and it is dan-

gerous to walk through the city’s ruins at night. Within its “north gate” (Agra gate to the northeast), a stone-paved market place still stands, at the end of which a palace and mosque are to be seen. Through a gateway one ascends twenty-five or thirty steps to “the most glorious mosque in the whole East.” Near the gate in the courtyard of the mosque is the splendid tomb of a “Mahometan saint” who “is said to have built this mosque at his own expense.” Outside the city’s walls towards the northwest is a great swamp replete with fish and birds. The marsh is covered by plants which produce ““Hermodactylus” (water chestnuts) and “Camolochacheri” (Hindi, kanwal kakri, or lotus root). The latter produces a fruit “shaped like a small ladle, and contains inside six or eight kernels, which are joined together by a white membrane.”

Further to the southwest of Agra is the indigo-producing region centering on Cannova and Bayana. The road from Agra to Ajmer which passes through this region is lined with stone columns marking each cos. At every eight-cos post, Akbar had a hostel erected able to accommodate sixteen ladies and their servants. The one near Cannova is a square building with the imperial bedroom at the center surrounded by the sixteen bedrooms of In 1622 she was given the title of Badshah Begam (the first lady of the realm), hence Palsaerts use of ‘“Begem.” See C. Pant, Nur Jahan and Her Family (Allahabad, 1978), p. 46. Also ee This is incorrect. It was given the joint name after Akbar’s conquest of Gujarat in 1573. The word “Fatehpur” means “victory town.” See Hoyland and Banerjee (trans. and eds.), op. cit.

Fike inaasoleum of Shaikh Salim Chishti to whom the mosque was dedicated by Akbar. Ibid., p. 43, n. §6. This holy man (pir) was of the Chisti order introduced into India at Ajmer. He was revered by Akbar for prophesying the birth of Salim and his other sons. Salim was named for the holy man. For a color photograph of his tomb see Rizvi, op. cit. (n. 50), pl. ix.

[ 621 |

The Mughul Empire before Aurangzib

the concubines. The building also includes spacious audience halls. Bayana, a ruined town, and Cannova, a village, are collection centers for the indigo produced in their vicinities, as well as headquarters of local taxing units. Northwest and south of Bayana are sites of impressive ruins, particularly those of “Seanderbad” (Sikandarabad). On the craggy summit of a mountain near Sikandarabad stands the ruins of a royal palace, once the residence

of “a most powerful Pathan King.”’> Now that the Mughuls rule Sikandarabad, it is inhabited only by shepherds called “Goagers”’ ( gujars).7° From Agra to Lahore the route passes through the famous old “kingdom of Dely, or Delhi.”” On the way to the present city are the ruins of the an-

cient city of Delhi; it is said that it once had nine fortresses and fifty-two gates.”” Not far from here a stone bridge across the Jumna runs into a broad shaded avenue which leads to Humayun’s tomb. Delhi itself is a great city, but many of its walls and houses are in ruins. Outside its walls stand about twenty well-built tombs of the Pathan kings. A bit further out is a hunting palace which, it is said, was built by “Sultan Berusa” (Firoz Shah, r. 135188). In that place is also seen “a very lofty obelisk” with an inscription on it said by some to be in Greek.” Similar obelisks reportedly exist in other places in India, one such having been discovered recently buried in the earth _ near Fatehpur. While being conveyed to Agra, it was carelessly broken and presumably destroyed. The route from Delhi to Lahore, capital of the Punjab, runs through a fertile country which is a haunt of robbers who prey on travelers. At “Siryna”’

(Sirhind) there is a beautiful tank in the middle of which “is a temple approached by a stone bridge of 15 arches.” Close by is a huge park square in shape and enclosed by a brick wall. In the middle of the park stands a royal palace surrounded by an impressive colonnade.” Along the road, “every 5 or 7 cos,” there is a “saray” where travelers may find lodgings for themselves and stables for their animals. These inns, “built by the king or some noble,’”’ provide spaces for the traveler from which he may not be evicted once he has occupied them. Upon arriving in Lahore, the traveler is within

“by far the largest city in the East.”” Most of what De Laet reports about | Lahore is derived directly from Finch and other English writers published in Purchas’ collection.*° Most of what he has to say of Kabul, Kashmir, and other northern places is extracted from the English authors and the itinerary of Brother Bento de Goes. There are also bits of new material on what De >A reference to Sultan Sikandar Ghazi (1489-1517), the second ruler of the Lodi dynasty. ” Hoyland and Banerjee (trans. and eds.), op. cit. (n. 53), pp. 41-47. ”Probably a reference to the ruins of Tughlakabad, five miles east of the Qutb, built by Ghiyassuddin Tughlug Shah (r. 1321-25). Ibid., p. 47, n. 62. ™ This is a lat erected by Asoka; it is not by Alexander as a number of European commentators surmised. The inscriptions are in Brahmi and not in Greek. Ibid., p. 48, n. 64. Probably a reference to the garden of Hafiz Rakhnah, a noble of Humayun’s court. See ibid., p. 49, n. 65. *° Ibid., pp. 51-55; see above, p. 612.

[ 622 |

The English and Dutch Profile: First Generation Laet calls the province of “Purropia” (purab, meaning east) which begins at Allahabad and continues down the Ganges. Somewhat more original, but also very limited, is De Laet’s description of Bengal, which “has only recently been conquered by the Mogols and brought under their control.” ** Watered by the Ganges from the northwest, Bengal

_ produces “quantities of rice, wheat, sugar, ginger, pepper, cotton, and silk.” Its chief cities are ““Gowro” (Gaur) and “Bengala,” both of which are rich, well-built places.** Other Ganges towns are Tanda, a “famous center of

trade”; “Banaras” (Benares), “whose inhabitants are .. . hardened idolaters”; ““Patanow”’ (Patna), whose houses are built of sod, and very poor; and “Chatigan” (Chittagong), a fine town served by the ports of “Ugeli” (Hugli) and “Angeli” (Hijili) in Orissa. “Orixa” (Orissa) belongs to Bengal province, though it was formerly an independent kingdom before being subdued by the Pathans and again by the Mughuls.* The natives of Orissa are subtle and depraved; in religion they are Muslims.** Clearly the northern

Europeans knew very little about Bengal at the end of the first generation of

the seventeenth century.*° |

In his chapter on the character and customs of the Indians, De Laet summarises Terry’s account and includes additions from Pelsaert’s and Teixeira’s

descriptions of their manner of life. Indians hunt game with trained dogs and leopards.* In catching water fowl they are ingenious. They stuff the skin of a bird of the kind they wish to catch and immerse themselves up to the neck and cover their heads with the sham bird. So disguised they mingle

with the wild birds whom they catch by seizing their feet beneath the water.*? Their archers make bows of buffalo horn and arrows of dried, light reeds. At home they play chess and card games, but with cards “very difterent from ours.” ** They enjoy the shows put on by snake-charmers and revel in the antics of apes and monkeys. In most large towns and cities, markets are held each day before sunrise and again before sunset. During the heat of the day the rich Indians sit at ** Akbar’s forces ended the Afghan dominion over Bengal in 1576.

**Gaur, much better known to the Portuguese in the sixteenth century than to the northern Europeans of the early seventeenth century, was already in decline when De Laet wrote. See Asia, I, 414-15. “Bengala” is a designation commonly used by European writers for the Ganges city or cities most frequented by traders, perhaps Chittagong or Sonargaon at this

time. Also see below, pp. 712-13. |

*3 Man Singh crushed Orissa in 1590 and brought it under Mughul authority. *4Orissa was fundamentally a Hindu kingdom with a few influential Muslims. See Asia, I, 411. Cf. below, pp. 673-78. "5 Hoyland and Banerjee (trans. and eds.), op. cit. (n. $3), pp. 71-73, 77-78. >On how they hunted with leopards (cheetahs) see M. A. Ansari, Social Life of the Mughal

_ Emperors (1526-1707) (Allahabad, 1974), p. 121. ;

*7For a similar idea see the engraving of Philippe Galle after Stradanus entitled “Hunting for Wild Ducks in China” in Asia, II, Bk. 1, pl. 47. Also see below, pp. 819-20. *’ Muslims as well as Hindus commonly played a form of chess. Playing cards (ganjfah) seem to have been introduced into India by the Mughuls. Humayun, Akbar, and Jahangir were all

cardplayers. See Ansari, op. cit. (n. 86), pp. 177-78. ,

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The Mughul Empire before Aurangzib

home while servants fan them with “large leather fly-flops” or massage “their arms and other members.” The common diseases of India are dysentery, fevers, and venereal complaints. Praise is owed by travelers to those low-paid Hindus and Muslims who guide and protect them on their journeys everywhere. Indians show great devotion to their parents, “preferring to die of famine rather than that their parents should suffer hunger.”’ Certain Hindus and Muslims exhibit remarkable boldness and courage, notably the “Baloches or Boloohes”’ (Baluchs) of “Haiaca” (Hajikhan or Chachgan) on

the Persian. frontier and the Pathans of Bengal. Only one of the Hindu groups, the “Rasboots” (Rajputs), are infamous for brigandage and for preying upon and murdering travelers. The other Indians are “cowardly, and love quarreling rather than fighting.” The language of the common people is easy to pronounce and is written from left to right. The educated use Persian or Arabic. They have but few books and manuscripts in these languages, although they know several of the lesser works of Aristotle (whom they call “ Aplis”) in Arabic and are acquainted with the teachings of Avicenna. They cultivate astronomy, and everyone, including the emperor, believes in auspicious and inauspicious days. While they like music and have both string and wind instruments, “they are ignorant of true harmony.” They also compose verses and annals. Their huge ships which annually carry the Muslim pilgrims to the Red Sea are carelessly built and inadequately armed. They worship cows as the recipients of the best souls and great sums are expended, especially by the Jains, in caring for sick animals. In Gujarat, according to Teixeira,” the Hindu sects are almost infinite in number, the three most important being the “Lonkah” (Lonka, a Jain gaccha, or subsect), the ““Mexery” (Maheshri), and the “Baman” (Brahmans). The Maheshri worship idols while the Lonka do not, but they intermarry and eat together.” The Brahmans of Gujarat, who sacrifice to the idols and perform marriage and other rites, are centered at “Bysantager” (Visalnagar), around which thirty thousand of them live in villages. Throughout their lives these Brahmans take but one wife. Formerly they were poverty-stricken, but are now rich from agriculture and the rearing of animals. The “Rasboots” (Rajputs) are Hindus who arm themselves with a javelin, a sword, and “a small shield made in the fashion of a beehive, so that they can carry in it drink for

their camels and grain for their horses.” Their strong and agile horses,

which they learn to ride at a tender age, are never shod. The Hindus who | *9 Aristotle is usually called “Arastu.”’ This may be a reference to him as “the philosopher,” al

failsuf. Avicenna (Abu Allah Ibn Sina), the genius of Bukhara who lived A.D. 980-1037, composed works in medicine, law, and philosophy. *° Op. cit. (n. $5), pp. 93-98. **On the Lonka sect and its aversion to religious images see H. von Glasenapp, Der Jainismus (Berlin, 1925), pp. 69-70.

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The English and Dutch Profile: First Generation live to the north of Ajmer are unorthodox, for they eat both fish and meat.

They remain naked to pray, and eat their food in a circle within which others may not enter. Their women wear rings of gold, brass, and iron, and armbands of ivory.” In India the condition of the common people is miserable. Its numerous and poorly paid artisans rarely rise in social status. They teach their handicrafts to their children. No entire piece of work is done by the same worker but by several different ones. The whole family eats from the same vessel. The most usual dish is called “Kitsery” (kichri, or kedgeree in Anglo-Indian). It is made of peas (dal, split peas) and rice boiled in water. Generally it is eaten hot with a little melted butter poured over it. In their low mud and thatch huts they have very little furniture. Aside from a few earthen vessels, they have a bed for the husband and another for his wife. Their scanty and

thin bedding is inadequate in cold weather. They try to keep warm by building a fire of dried cow dung in front of the house. Since they never light a fire indoors, their towns and villages are polluted by the smoke and smell from the many outdoor fires. Servants and slaves are very numerous, and persons of substance usually keep several. They are well trained, attentive to their own tasks, and unwilling to touch the job of another servant. Each type of servant has a distinctive name and set of duties. “Seluidares” (salotri) work only with horses; the “Billewani” (bahliwani) take care of the carts and carriages for travel; the “Frassi” (farrash) attend to tents and curtains; the “Serriwani” (sarban) look after camels; the “Mahauti” (mahauti) tend the elephants; and the “Zantelis” (jalabdars?) are runners. Imperial officials are often lazy because they have so many low-paid servants at their beck and call. The servants usually increase their income by demanding a little for themselves when they make purchases for the master. While the masters are well aware of this petty sraft, they seem not to realize that “they themselves have to pay more’ as a

consequence. As a class, merchants are better off than most other nonnobles, but they must always keep their wealth hidden to avoid being

squeezed unmercifully by the officials. | Nobles live extravagantly and dedicate themselves to pleasure. Most have three or four wives at a time, who live magnificently in the women’s quarters or mahal. Within the mahal each wife lives separately in her own apartment with her personal servants. She receives a monthly allowance from her husband for her personal and domestic expenses; such stipends vary according to the wealth of the husband and may be adjusted as his favor changes. While their houses are large and roomy, they are generally of one story with a flat roof. Houses are often built around a courtyard where they have a tank and trees to help keep them cool. Because these people use no lime in constructing walls, their buildings readily fall into disrepair. Sometimes they * Hoyland and Banerjee (trans. and eds.), op. cit. (n. 53), pp. 82-88.

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wash the walls with lime and cover them with a plaster which they polish “till the walls shine like a mirror.’’ While furnishings are generally sparse, gold and silver vessels are often numerous in the mahal. Persian carpets are spread on the floors in the men’s sitting room called “Diwan-Gana” (diwankhana) where they receive visitors. Inferiors greet superiors by bowing low with the right hand on the head; equals simply bow. Visitors are seated on either side of the host “in order of precedence.” In conversation they are modest and polite, never talking loudly or gesticulating. Ordinary callers leave once they have accomplished what they came for; relatives and good friends remain until the host rises “or goes to a meal.” At a meal, guests sit on a carpet and the “zattersu”’ (sharbatdar or butler) places before each one a

round dish of food. Napkins are not used and the food is eaten with the right fingers. To use the left hand or to lick the fingers is considered bad manners. Nothing is drunk until they finish dining.” De Laet in chapter iv gives a summary description of political and civil government based on Roe, Terry, and Paelsaert. He emphasizes that there are no written laws, the will of the absolute emperor being the law. The emperor is also the supreme judge in both civil and criminal cases, though provincial governors are granted farmans by which they share his judicial powers. The chief ministers of the court and empire are the treasurer, the chief eunuch (who is also master of the court), the secretary, the master of the elephants, and the guardians of the tents, the wardrobe, and the jewels. A “Cutwall” (kotwal) governs the palace and similar officers superintend the chief cities and towns. The “Cadeae” (kazi) imprison debtors and govern the prisons. All affairs of state are discussed in public and well-placed bribes and gifts will open the mouth of any official. To obtain an audience with the emperor requires a gift. The ruler gives and takes away at will. Even the common folk live insecurely on their land never knowing when they will be required to move. Peasants are required to tell the royal official what and how much land they intend to sow and where they will pasture their animals. Very little or nothing is paid for the use of pasture land. About threequarters of the peasant’s harvest is taken by the state. As a result “the whole country is carelessly cultivated.” » The emperor alone bestows all titles and promotions. Ranks and income of officials and dignitaries are reckoned in terms of the number of horses each commands. The imperial sons and the four highest nobles are ranked at a level of twelve thousand horses. Below this number there are many grades down to the level of twenty. It is not necessary for the individual actually to keep the number of horses of his rank. His title merely indicates that he has * Ibid., pp. 88-92. Cf. the descriptions of upper-class Muslim and Hindu eating customs in Ojha, op. cit. (n. 19), pp. 5-9. ** Hoyland and Banerjee (trans. and eds.), op. cit. (n. 53), pp. 93-95. On the oppressive land taxes of the seventeenth century see I. Habib, The Agrarian System of Mughal India (1556—1707) (Bombay, 1963), pp. 240-42, and The Cambridge Economic History of India (see n. 27), I, 172-73.

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been assigned properties large enough to support the requisite number of horses.**> When a noble dies, the grants from the emperor as well as his own

acquisitions revert to the emperor. The heirs usually receive only “the horses and furniture” of the deceased along with a “title of dignity.”

De Laet proceeds, in what amounts to a tour de force, to estimate the wealth of the “Great Mogul” who controls an empire “larger than that of Persia and equal to, if not greater than, that of Turkey,” who owns everything in it, and who regularly receives gifts from abroad. Starting from the inventory made of Akbar’s treasure at the time of his death, De Laet adds to it the estimate made by William Hawkins of Jahangir’s hoard. To this figure he adds the tribute paid by provincial governors and cities. Finally, he notes

that while the empire has no silver and gold mines of its own, imports of gold, and especially of silver, are vast and reexport is prohibited. While De Laet gives precise figures for Akbar’s and Jahangir’s treasure troves, this is at best an impressionistic estimate of the wealth of the Mughul rulers. Nonetheless it is still cited by recent scholars, who even accept De Laet’s precise figures, as a prime example of the wasteful hoarding of the Mughul ruling class.°° And it let European readers of the time know in quantitative terms that the real wealth of India might genuinely be as great as it was fabled to be.®? At a more practical level De Laet provides a brief but accurate set of remarks on the coins and weights of the Mughul Empire which was of use to European traders. And from the works of Pelsaert and Hawkins he com_ piled a list of the empire’s military forces during Jahangir’s early reign which _ gives the number of officers holding mansab as well as a census of the ahadi, or gentlemen volunteers. He also emphasizes that the Mughuls are “almost

powerless on the sea” and that the Portuguese compel them to purchase passes to leave their own ports.” Part II of De Laet’s book reproduces “A Fragment of the History of India,

Gathered from Dutch Sources,”’ probably the work of Pelsaert.” This is a chronicle of the Mughul rule from the reign of Humayun (d. 1556) to the accession of Shah Jahan in 1628. The period to the death of Akbar in 1605 1s based exclusively on certain chronicles in Persian which Pelsaert consulted °° Stated as a military rank (mansab) in terms of horses commanded. See T. Raychaudhuri in The Cambridge Economic History of India (see n. 27), I, 183. ” Cf. the discussion of contemporary European ideas on the wealth of India in W. H. Moreland, India at the Death of Akbar: An Economic Study (London, 1920), pp. 282-86.

* Hoyland and Banerjee (trans. and eds.), op. cit. (n. 53), pp. 104-18. The materials on Akbar’s treasures and military strength were taken from an unpublished Hindu Chronicle in the

Dutch archives. See Narain and Sharma (trans. and eds.), op. cit. (n. 53), pp. 33-35. These materials in turn were extracted from the imperial account books and registers by Pelsaert or his associates. On the ahadi see A. Aziz, The Mansabdari System and the Mughul Army (Delhi, 1972), pp. 200-201. For lack of other sources, most modern students of the military forces of Mughul India must continue to rely on the materials in De Laet and Hawkins for the early years of Jahangir’s reign. De Laet is also used as a respectable source for naval history. See A. C. Roy, A History of Mughal Navy and Naval Warfares (Calcutta, 1972), pp. 52-55, passim. See the preface to Narain and Sharma (trans. and eds.), op. cit. (n. $3).

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The Mughul Empire before Aurangzib or had translated for his own use. Most of this earlier section deals with the conquests of Akbar, but it is flawed by many omissions and inaccuracies. The account of Jahangir’s reign is more authoritative in that it is a compilation of events by contemporary European observers as well as a chronicle based on local records. To Europe the chronicle published by De Laet presented for the first time a systematic treatment of recent and contemporary Indian history. In what follows we shall summarize the final part of “A Fragment” which complements and continues the historical accounts of the English writers,

for the period from 1612 to 1628.

Especially novel are the materials on the revolts in Bengal from 1612 to 1620 and the efforts of the Mughuls to suppress them. Contemporaneously Jahangir dispatched an embassy (1613-29) to Persia under “Chan Azem”’ (Azam Khan) to negotiate frontier questions. The chronicle describes the campaign in the Deccan from 1617 to 1622, during part of which time Ambassador Roe was attached to the imperial entourage.’ It tells of the surrender of Qandahar to Persia in 1622 after a brief war and siege. In connection with this loss and because of political divisions in the court, Shah Jahan tried

in 1623 “to seize the reins of government whilst his father was still alive.” While this revolt was being quelled by those loyal to the emperor, the supporters of Shah Jahan in Gujarat undertook a revolt which quickly proved to be abortive. Defeated in both the north and west, Shah Jahan fled to the south and east and finally wound up in Bengal. After a series of debilitating campaigns in the east, Shah Jahan returned to the region of Burhanpur, headquarters of the imperial Deccan army under Prince Parwiz. In 1626 Parwiz died at Burhanpur, and in the next year the emperor became ill and died while in Kashmir. Although efforts were made to abrogate Shah Jahan’s claim, certain leading officers of the army turned their backs on his enemies and called for the prince to assume the throne. Throughout this stark outline of events, the reader is overwhelmed by the names of numerous persons and places, most of which were certainly unknown to contemporaries in Europe. Modern students of Indian history, however, have but few problems

in identifying the actors who crowd this drama of Jahangir’s last years. | In his conclusions De Laet summarizes the impressions conveyed to him by his sources regarding conditions in the Mughul Empire. It is most evident, from all recent reports, that the Mughul Empire is “exceedingly large,” and its rulers wealthy and militarily powerful. A closer inspection “of the affairs of each province” reveals, however, that it suffers widely from internal unrest and disorder as well as external pressures and assaults. Within the imperial family itself, as well as within the nobility, there exists a “spirit eager and ripe for insurrection and revolution.” This spirit of revolt which

'° Hoyland and Banerjee (trans. and eds.), op. cit. (n. 53), pp. 189-241. , "1 See below, pp. 636-44.

[ 628 |

The Mughul Court to 1618 exists in all social classes is inflamed by an absolutism approaching tyranny, by a wide diversity in religious beliefs, and by the ability of petty princes to defy imperial authority from their mountain strongholds and forest retreats.

Even those Hindu princelings who pay formal tribute to the Mughuls will revolt at the first opportunity and raze those regions closest to their fortresses. “Radias’’ (rajas) prey upon travelers, generally incite unrest, and tenaciously uphold Hindu traditions despite Mughul pressure. It is disunity, inefficiency, and debilitating luxury which produce the instability and weakness of the empire. | To protect and extend their empire, the Mughuls are required to employ foreign mercenaries. The greatest external threats come from Persia and “the Tatars and Usbeks” on the northern frontier. No threat exists from the east or from the Deccan in the south. But most frustrating is the empire’s inability to conquer and annex the independent kingdoms of the Deccan. The Portuguese and the northern Europeans are not direct threats to the empire’s integrity, but are constant reminders of Mughul weakness on the _ seas. Since opening some ports to the English and Dutch, the Mughuls no longer are at the mercy of the Portuguese for European trade. Already the Portuguese have suffered setbacks and could be permanently excluded from the empire if the Mughuls would determinedly carry forward a program of expulsion. It is the avarice and venality of the emperor and his nobles which permit the Portuguese to retain their privileged position in foreign trade and to control their coastal outposts by the ready and constant payment of petty bribes called “gifts.”” The Mughul Empire for all its obvious wealth and power remains essentially unstable and weak. The “probable explanation is to be found in the sloth, cowardice, and weakness of the last emperor Selim [Jahangir], and in the domestic discords of his family.” *”

2

THE MUGHUL CouRT TO 1618 , _ Two great Jesuit compilations of the early-seventeenth century focused Europe’s attention upon the Mughul Empire and its court. Fernao Guerreiro’s Relacam annual, a compendium and summary in Portuguese of Jesuit contemporary reports on the Eastern mission for the years 1600 to 1608, was published in five volumes (or parts) between 1603 and 1611.’ Much more widely circulated, probably because it was written in French and in a livelier '? Hoyland and Banerjee (trans. and eds.), op. cit. (n. $3), pp. 241-46. On the character of Jahangir see I. Prasad, The Mughal Empire (Allahabad, 1974), pp. 454-60. "3 See above, pp. 315-18, for complete data on this work. The references which follow are to

the modern reprint prepared by Artur Viegas and published in three volumes at Coimbra (1930— 31) and Lisbon (1941).

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The Mughul Empire before Aurangzib

style, was the retrospective magnum opus of Pierre Du Jarric called Histoire | des choses plus memorable advenues tant ez Indes Orientales (3 vols. [parts], Bor-

deaux, 1608, 1610, 1614).'* Most of the materials on northern India in these two compilations have appeared in modern English translations and have _ been incorporated into recent special and general studies."** Consequently, in what follows, we shall cite wherever possible the translations and summaries rather than the original editions of Guerreiro and Du Jarric. At the beginning of the seventeenth century Akbar is pictured as being master of most of Hindustan between the Indus and the Ganges and as de-

termined to extend his authority southward over the Deccan states, Goa, Malabar, and Vijayanagar. After an initial setback, he takes over control of Ahmadnagar and “Breampur” (Burhanpur). On his approach to Burhanpur its “Miram” (Miran, or Bahadur Khan of Khandesh) abandons the city and flees to the nearby fortress of “Syr” (Asirgarh), his chief stronghold. Unable to take by siege or assault this virtually impregnable mountain fortress, Akbar requests Father Jerome Xavier and Brother Bento Goes “who were in his camp” to write to the Portuguese at Chaul asking for artillery and munitions. When they refuse this appeal as requiring an action contrary to their Christian faith, the Jesuits temporarily fall out of favor. Akbar then “bom-

bards” the fortress with gold and silver to corrupt and undermine its defenders. In January, 1601, Asirgarh finally falls to Akbar and as a result he controls both Khandesh and Ahmadnagar.**

Before leaving the Deccan, Akbar receives Father Manuel “Pignero” (Pinheiro) at the camp. The Jesuit came from his post in Lahore to complain about the ill treatment he and his converts were experiencing there. Among the many gifts the Jesuits bring to Akbar there is a picture of “our Lady of Lorete, painted on gilded calaim.”*” In the meantime Akbar determines to '* For complete bibliographical detail see above, p. 396. '°s Father H. Hosten, S.J., inaugurated the process of translating into English the Jesuit reports on northern India. For a listing of his numerous writings published between 1906 and 1927 see Sir Edward Maclagan, The Jesuits and the Great Mogul (London, 1932), pp. 391-94. C. H. Payne (trans. and ed.), Akbar and the Jesuits (London, 1926), puts into English the matter on the “Great Mogul” from Du Jarric (II, 429—93; III, 27-97) which the French Jesuit derived from Peruschi, Guzman, the Annual Letters, and Guerreiro. Payne has also published, in his Jahangir and the Jesuits (New York, 1930), the materials in Guerreiro (Viegas [ed.], op. cit. [n. 103], I, 310—14; II, 366-86; III, 6—30) on the Mughul Empire from 1605 to 1609, the overland journey to China of Bento Goes, and the Portuguese advent in Pegu. Maclagan’s thorough general study of the Jesuits in the Mughul Empire to 1734 has been amplified by Arnulf Camps, O.F.M., in his Jerome Xavier, S.J., and the Muslims of the Mogul Empire: Controversial Works and Missionary Activity (SchOneck-Beckenried, 1957). Camps supplements the old Jesuit compilations and histories with unpublished materials from the Roman Archives of the Society and from other European libraries and archives.

‘Payne (trans. and ed.), Akbar (n. 105), pp. 102-9; and Maclagan, op. cit. (n. 105), pp. 57-58. For the eyewitness account of Father J. Xavier see H. Heras, “The Siege and Conquest of the Fort of Asirgarh by the Emperor Akbar,” Indian Antiquary, LIII (1924), 33-41.

Also see Appendix A in I. Prasad, op. cit. (n. 102), pp. 286-88. Prasad was evidently unacquainted with the Xavier letter earlier translated and edited by Heras. '°7 Guerreiro explains in Payne (trans. and ed.), Akbar (n. 105), p. ui: “Calaim is a metal which

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The Mughul Court to 1618 send an embassy to Goa, which he orders Brother Goes to accompany. The emperor's letter of accreditation requests a political alliance, the dispatch of skilled craftsmen, and facilities for the acquisition of precious stones and other rare objects.’* Because he always has conquest of the Estado da India

in view, the emperor frequently sends his agents to Goa when the ships from Europe arrive to determine the military strength of the Portuguese and

to find out what new and exotic merchandise is available. This embassy reaches Goa in May, 1601, where its Gujarati ambassador and his retinue are

received “with great magnificence” and treated significantly to “a terrific salute of artillery.” While in Goa, Goes receives orders from his superiors to undertake an overland journey to Cathay (China). Unsatisfactory conditions in his own realm brought on by the misconduct of Prince Salim forces Akbar to return to Agra in May before completing the conquest of the Deccan. Leaving certain of his captains behind to carry on the war against Biyapur, the “Great Mogul” retires to Agra accompanied by Xavier and Pinheiro “who usually traveled in his suite.”’ In the following year (1602) the Jesuits are joined in Agra by Goes and Father Antonio Machado (1561-1627), a Portuguese Jesuit. The four Jesuits again complain to Akbar about the mistreatment of the Christians in Lahore and request from him a farman granting a general permission to his subjects to become Christians. While the ruler had previously granted liberty of worship orally, the Jesuits want a new royal command in writing to let all his subjects know that they are free to become Christians “without any person being able to hinder them.” The Muslim officers at the court, especially “Agiscoa” (Aziz Koka) the first minister, and at Lahore try to obstruct the issuance of these letters patent as being prejudicial and offensive to their faith and its believers. Akbar nonetheless insists on their proclamation in 1602.’ With Akbar’s permission Pinheiro then leaves for Lahore to rejoin Francisco Corsi (1573-1635) who had been carrying on the mission there alone." And with Akbar’s financial and moral support Brother Goes sets off at the beginning of 1603 on his memorable overland journey that will take him from Lahore to Su-chou in northwestern China.‘ Throughout most of 1602 Akbar continues to have serious problems with Prince Salim, his impatient heir apparent. While Akbar was busy in the Deccan, Salim had begun “to assume the name and to exercise the precomes from China. Though it resembles tin, it is a different metal, and contains a large proportion of copper. Nevertheless it is white, and in India they make it into money. It can also be gilded, like silver.”’ On the confusion in Europe over this metal see Asia, II, Bk. 3, pp. 426-27. '§ For the text of this letter of March 20, 1601, as reproduced by Guerreiro, see Viegas (ed.), op. cit. (n. 103), I, 11; and Payne (trans. and ed.), Akbar (n. 105), pp. 115-17.

‘For the text of the farman as relayed to Rome by Pinheiro in Portuguese translation see Camps, op. cit. (n. 105), p. 201. © Payne (trans. and ed.), Akbar (n. 105), pp. 152—59. Payne (trans. and ed.), Jahangir (n. 105), Pt. Il, for the travels of Goes as told by Du Jarric and Guerreiro.

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The Mughul Empire before Aurangzib

rogatives of a king.’ On the sovereign’s return to Agra, Salim repeatedly refuses his father’s summons to appear at court and instead raises a large ‘army to support his rebellion. While civil war appears to be in the offing, the father and son are finally reconciled peacefully “though they continued to live apart, and to hold separate courts.” At his court in “Alahabech” (Allahabad) Salim favors the Jesuits and their religion even more than his father does at Agra. Still the Jesuits and their converts continue to be persecuted at Lahore, and even in Agra, by officials bold enough to defy the imperial edict granting freedom to the Christians. While Akbar lies dying in October, 1605, a minor succession crisis ensues, from which Salim emerges the victor. On his promising to defend Islam the court nobility and “groups of the common people” uphold Salim’s right to succeed his father. Akbar died in October, 1605, attended only by a few of his retainers and without acknowledging either the Muslim or the Christian God. In the eyes of the Jesuits he had been a prince beloved of all, firm with the great, kind to those of low estate, and just to all

men, high and low, neighbor or stranger, Christian, Saracen [Muslim], or Gentile; so that every man believed that the King was on his side.*”

Although he could neither read nor write," Akbar was informed by regular monthly reports from “his captains” about everything that occurred. They were read to him “after he had finished his other business, or before he re-

tired to sleep.” During the half century of his reign, Akbar, “one of the most fortunate monarchs of his time,’ extended the territories inherited from his father by his conquests of Kashmir, Sind, Gujarat, Khandesh, Bengal, and a great part of the Deccan. But in spite of all his achievements in this world, the Jesuits report that Akbar was “unable to escape everlasting

torment,” for he died without knowledge of the “true God and His only Son Jesus Christ.” ‘4

Eight days after Akbar’s death, the new ruler takes formal possession of his realm. Gifts are showered upon him, and the people shout “Pad Iausalamat!” (Persian, Padshah salamat), or “Hail, King!” as he enters the fortress of Agra. Anxious to build his new regime on Muslim support, Salim takes the name “Nurdim mohamad Jahanuir” (Persian, Nur-ud-din Muhammad Jahangir) which means “The Splendour of the Law of Mafamede, Conqueror of the World.” He orders the mosques to be cleaned and restores in the royal palace the Islamic fasts and prayers discountenanced by his father. While Jahangir does not deprive the Jesuits of their privileges, they report that “of '? Ibid., p. 205. 3 On the debate over Akbar’s alleged illiteracy see Ojha, op. cit. (n. 19), pp. 101-5.

''4Payne (trans. and ed.), Akbar (n. 105), pp. 207-8. Akbar was buried at Sikandra about five miles from the fortress of Agra. For the differing viewpoints of contemporary Europeans about the faith in which he died see Maclagan, op. cit. (n. 105), pp. 64-65. For a portrait of Akbar see pl. 112.

[ 632 | |

The Mughul Court to 1618 | the Fathers he took no more notice than if he had never seen them before” even though he had earlier been considered “almost a Christian.” ** That the new “Mogul” needed a loyal following is best illustrated by the revolt of his son and heir, Prince Khusru. On the night of Saturday, April 15, 1606, Khusru “left the fortress with a number of his friends and adherents”’ allegedly “to visit the tomb of his grandfather.” Once outside the royal confines, Khusru’s friends begin to call him “Soltam Ia,” or “King Soltam” and to recruit an army. As he flees toward Lahore, Khusru manages to garner money and support from certain apparently disaffected “Captains.”” With these monies he is able to raise “‘a considerable force.’’ He besieges Lahore for eight days but fails to take the city. On hearing that his father’s army is in hot pursuit and closing in, he gives up the siege and “‘turns to encounter his pursuers, hoping to prevent them from crossing the river [the Beas].” After a violent battle, Khusru flees northward towards Kabul and is captured en route by a royal governor. Chained hand and foot, the rebellious prince is led into his father’s presence at Lahore along with his two chief supporters, both of whom are important imperial officials. After brutal public punishment, one of the officials is beheaded and the head sent to Agra where it is displayed on the city’s gate. The other official, after diverse punishments and the payment of a huge fine, is set free and restored to his office. Two hundred of the lesser followers of the prince are impaled or hanged on either side of the route by which Jahangir enters Lahore. Khusru is deprived of his titles and his claim to the throne is given to Jahangir’s second son. The hapless prince is kept in chains, and constantly shown off to the public. One of those

who supported Khusru is a highly venerated person “whom the Gentiles call Goru [guru], a title equivalent to that of Pope amongst the Christians.” When Jahangir learns that the ‘““Goru” had dignified his son’s rebellion with approbation, he imprisons the holy man and releases him only after a heavy fine is paid by one of his followers.** Once this uprising is quelled, Jahangir turns his attention to admuinistration. He eliminates many internal transit tolls illegally imposed by local authorities. He restores to certain noble heirs the properties which Akbar had confiscated for the state on the death of the owner." To placate the Muslims

he seeks to force some of his officials and their families in Lahore to acknowledge Islam. The Jesuits, constantly on the defensive in “this Moorridden land,” continue to work quietly in 1606 to regain Jahangir’s support. 5 Payne (trans. and ed.), Jahangir (n. 105), p. 3. 6 Tbid., pp. 4-12. One of the “Captains” supporting Khusru was Husain Beg Badakshi, an - official in charge of Kabul; the other was Abdur Rahim, diwan of Lahore. See ibid., p. 90. The “Goru” was Guru Arjun, the fifth of the Sikh gurus. See ibid., p. 93. "17 Men were not born nobles, but chose state service as a career. Hence, on the death of a noble, most of his accumulated property reverted to the state. This law of escheat, most stringently enforced by Akbar, was liberalized by Jahangir and later rulers. See The Cambridge History of India (see n. 43), IV, 472.

[ 633 |

The Mughul Empire before Aurangzib They translate Christian works into Persian and present them to him. When Jahangir leaves for Kabul in 1607, they remain in Lahore celebrating with the other Christians the “times and feasts of the Church,” often with “many kinds of fireworks, which they make very well in this country.” As Jahangir solidifies his power, he begins “to show himself much less of a Moor than at first” and “to follow in his father’s footsteps.” In short, the Jesuits conclude he “continued to show himself worthy of the name “The Just King,’ which he had taken at the commencement of his reign.” *® After a stay of several months in Kabul, Jahangir returns to Lahore in De-

cember, 1607. He is met at the outskirts of the capital by his four Jesuit admirers. Back in Lahore, Jahangir decides to send an embassy to Goa. He appoints as his emissary “an officer of very high authority.” ° Father Manuel Pinheiro is chosen to accompany the embassy, which leaves just before Christmas. The object of the embassy is to cement friendly relations with the Portuguese and to acquire “rare and curious objects” designed to tickle Jahangir’s fancy. After Christmas, Jahangir decides to return to Agra and requests that two of the Jesuits follow him there. Machado remains in Lahore while Xavier and Corsi accompany Jahangir. The ruler and his army make a leisurely progress toward Agra as Jahangir hunts on the way. When the procession reaches the site of the battle between Jahangir and Khusru, the ruler orders his son, still in chains, and a rebellious official to be blinded as punishment for their disobedience. *”°

Returned to Agra and their small flock early in March, 1608, Xavier and Corsi take the first opportunity offered “to dispute with the Moors before the King.” Jahangir, who is fascinated by the “colored pictures of sacred subjects” which the Jesuits present to him, asks the priests to explain their meaning. The interpretations of the Jesuits and Jahangir’s questions provoke a debate with the Muslims of the court. The king’s reader, a learned Muslim well versed in history and a man held in high esteem by both Akbar and Jahangir for being “of the lineage of the Prophet,” is the Jesuits’ chief rival. Called “Nagibusco” (Nagib Khan, the title of Ghiyas-ud-din Ali), the reader

denounces the Christian scriptures as corrupt and denies the divinity of Christ. In their turn the priests denominate Mohammad a false prophet and the Koran a collection of nonsense. Jahangir, who apparently delighted in

these acrimonious disputes, enjoys taunting the Muslims by speaking “strongly in favor of the use of pictures, which, amongst the Moors, are regarded with abhorrence.” Himself a connoisseur of paintings, Jahangir has his palaces in Agra adorned with pictures, many of them illustrating Christian subjects. The Jesuits even supply him with portraits “of the Pope, "Payne (trans. and ed.), Jahangir (n. 105), pp. 13-36, passim. Jahangir was called adil padsha; the Arabic word adil meaning “just” is in common use with Indian Muslims. Ibid., p. 98. "?Mugarrib Khan of Panipat, at one time Jahangir’s personal physician and at this period governor of Cambay. See Maclagan, op. cit. (n. 105), p. 177. ° Payne (trans. and ed.), Jahangir (n. 105), pp. 43-48.

[ 634 ]

The Mughul Court to 1618 the [Holy Roman] Emperor, King Philip, and the Duke of Savoy.”’ While Jahangir prides himself on his knowledge of Christianity and Europe, he 1s held back in the Jesuits’ view from accepting the Christian faith “because it

forbids a man to take more than one wife.” The embassy to Goa dispatched from Lahore arrives at Cambay in April, 1608. Its leader, the governor of Cambay named ‘“‘Mocarebecam”’ (Mugar-_ rib Khan), decides to wait in Cambay until news reaches there of the new viceroy’s arrival in Goa. Pinheiro takes advantage of this break in the jour-

ney to carry on Christian work. But the Jesuit is soon recalled to Goa to report on the arrival at Surat and Agra in 1608 of the Englishman William Hawkins, who “styled himself the ambassador of his King.”” Hawkins had brought with him a letter from King JamesI written in Spanish, and he “conversed with the King [Jahangir] in Turki [Turkish], for he could speak and understand this language.” Jahangir had immediately assented to Hawkins’ request for permission to trade at his ports. As an additional mark of his favor, the emperor took Hawkins into his own service, which bound the Englishman “so that he could not return to his own country without permission.”” While Hawkins was still basking in the imperial favor at Agra, other Englishmen were shipwrecked on a sandbank at Surat. When news of the advent and successes of the English reached Goa, its viceroy held that the peace between Goa and Agra had been breached and let the Mughul ambassador in Cambay know that he would not be welcome in

Goa. The Portuguese viceroy also issued orders “prohibiting all persons from entering Cambaya,” an action which produced discontent among merchants of all nationalities and resulted in seizures of goods at Damao. ‘To bring an immediate end to these warlike conditions, Goa sent Pinheiro as its envoy to Cambay to inform the Mughuls that peace depended on exclusion

of the English from the empire. Jahangir, urged on by Mugarrib Khan, agreed to the Portuguese proposal and revoked the permission earlier given to the English to establish a factory at Surat. Hawkins thereafter fell out of

favor at court and was sent to Bengal “where he had not opportunity of communicating with his countrymen.”’’” Pinheiro returned to Goa as the official emissary of Jahangir and as the bearer of peaceful tidings.” Like the Jesuit letter-writers, Sir Thomas Roe was preoccupied with the Mughul court, its personalities, and intrigues. As the first fully accredited English ambassador to Jahangir’s court, Roe was regularly in the company of the emperor and his entourage from January, 1616, to August, 1618. The abridged version of the Journal published by Purchas in 1625 preserves most of Roe’s reactions and reflections on the emperor and his court while dist Ibid., pp. 49-67, passim. °2NJot true. Hawkins left Agra for Cambay in 1611. He died on the return voyage to England in 1613.

, 3Payne (trans. and ed.), Jahangir (n. 105), pp. 77-87, passim. On Hawkins’ mission see above, p. 604.

[ 635 |

The Mughul Empire before Aurangzib carding his complaints about the governor of Surat and his tedious negotia-

tions with various Mughul officials and the English merchants in India. Because of his preoccupation with diplomacy and court politics, Roe’s com-

ments on Indian social and religious customs are at best casual and perfunctory. His travels, like that of the court during Roe’s years in India, were

limited to the region between Surat and Ajmer, or to Gujarat, Khandesh, | Malwa, and Ajmer provinces.'* He evidently acquired a smattering of the | Persian spoken at court, but was generally dependent upon interpreters. Consequently, even though Roe was learned and perspicacious in his own right, he was never able fully to appreciate the learning and sophistication of the milieu in which he was working. His observations, sometimes impar-

tial and sometimes bigoted, tend to be more Europocentric than those of the less-educated English commentators. In part, this can be explained by Roe’s dedication to his assignment of winning equality of treatment for his countrymen; and in part it can be attributed to a personal unwillingness to admit the validity of ideas, premises, and practices differing from his own. Roe’s Journal is nonetheless an important source for the study of Jahangir and Mughul court life, and a subject of consuming interest to Purchas’ readers in Stuart England where king and court were being closely watched

(see pl. 113). |

On his way to “Adsmeere” (Ajmer), where Jahangir was holding court,

Roe stopped over at “Brampore” (Burhanpur), the headquarters of the Mughul army of the Deccan.’* Here he was met by the “Cuttwall” (kotwal, or general superintendent of the city), who escorted him to the local public inn. The official nominally in command of the Deccan army is “Sultan Per-

vies’ (Parwiz), Jahangir’s second son; the real commander is “Channa Channa” (Khdan-khanan, an honorific title meaning Khan of Khans), “the greatest subject of the Mogall, Generall of his Armies.” '”° After a few days’ rest, Roe is received at the prince’s court. Unacquainted with Mughul court etiquette, Roe makes demands for privileges of the sort granted to ambassadors in European courts. Here, as in his earlier negotiations with the gov-

ernor of Surat, Roe shows himself to be a determined representative of his king and country. His perseverance finally pays off, and he receives a jarman from the prince granting the English the right to establish a factory in Burhanpur. On January 10, 1616, Roe made his first appearance at Jahangir’s durbar in the palace of Ajmer. By this time he had learned something of the emperor’s 24 See the map of his routes in Foster (ed.), op. cit. (n. 6; 1926 ed.), facing p. 66. Also see ~ Michael Strachan, Sir Thomas Roe: A Life (Salisbury, 1989), p. 83.

*5On Burhanpur as an example of the medium-sized Indian city of the period see B. G. Gokhale, “Burhanpur. Notes on the History of an Indian City in the XVIIth Century,” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient (Leyden), XV (1972), 316-23.

°° Mirza Abdurrahim, who was given this title for his role in reconquering Gujarat and subjugating Sind. See Foster (ed.), op. cit. (n. 6; 1926 ed.), p. 69, n. 2.

| | 636 |

The Mughul Court to 1618

daily routine. After rising in the morning, Jahangir shows himself to his —_ subjects by appearing in a window called the “jarruco”’ (jharokha, or interview window). At noon he returns to this window and “‘setts some howers”’ watching animal fights. Every Tuesday he sits there in his role as judge of complaints. Then “he retires to sleepe among his woemen.” At 4:00 P.M. he

convenes his durbar at which he greets strangers, receives petitions and presents, and issues commands. After supper, or at about 8:00 P.M., he appears in the “guzelcan” ( ghusl-khana, or privy chamber) where he and a se-

lect company of courtiers review “all matters with much affabilitie.” Important affairs of state are discussed and often resolved at the durbar or in these evening sessions. This daily schedule is “unchangeable, except sicknesse or drink prevent it, which must be knowne: for as all his Subjects are slaves, so 1s hee in a kind of reciprocall bondage.”’ Should he fail to follow

this daily routine and no explanation for the lapse be given, his subjects would mutiny. In his first appearance before the durbar, Roe is permitted to follow whatever courtly etiquette he knows. On approaching the imperial dais he makes three reverences in the English style. After Jahangir’s welcome, Roe presents to the emperor a translation of King James’ letter, his own commission, and the expected gifts. After receiving the presents graciously, the emperor asks

Roe a few questions and offers him the services of his physicians. Pleased by | this cordial reception, Roe quickly asks for an appointment with “Prince Sultan Coronne” (Khurram), Jahangir’s favorite son (see pl. 113) and the recently appointed governor of Surat whose favor the ambassador especially needs if he is to work out a commercial treaty. On January 22 he is received cordially by the prince and is assured that conditions at Surat for Englishmen will improve and that a farman in their favor will be forthcoming. Two days later Roe returns to the durbar to ask justice of the emperor. He complains about the treatment of the English merchants stationed at Ahmadabad and about the new internal transit taxes being laid “at every Towne” on goods “passing to the Port.” After expressing his regrets, Jahangir issues orders to the governor of Ahmadabad to treat the English fairly and to cease demand-

ing internal customs payments.’ _ These business matters resolved, Roe turns his attention to unofficial activities. On March t he visits Jahangir’s house of pleasure outside of Ajmer “given him by Asaph Chan [Asaf Khan, the title of Mirza Abu’l Hasan, an important courtier and the father-in-law of Prince Khurram].” Located between “two mighty rockes,” this elegant house cut into the rock is in a little

garden graced by fine fountains and two large tanks.’ On his return to Ajmer, Roe witnesses the beginning of the “norose” (Naw-roz, or New 27 Cf. Terry, op. cit. (n. 7), p. 389; and above, p. 615. , 28 DP TV, 323-31. 9 This spot was one of Jahangir’s favorite resorts. It is known as the fountain of Hafiz Jamal.

[ 637 |]

The Mughul Empire before Aurangzib | | Year’s] Day), ‘“‘a custom of solemnizing the new yeare” which was instituted “in imitation of the Persian feast, and signifies in that language nine

days.” But now the celebration is doubled in length."° In the “Durbar Court” (Diwan-i-Am) a great rectangular tent is erected which is covered all around with rich canopies and laid underneath with large Persian carpets. Under this canopy the courtiers assemble before the emperor’s elevated throne at the back of the hall. Included among the displays are portraits of the King and Queen of England, of several English notables, and of “‘a Citizens wife of London.” At the left side of the throne Prince Khurram has his own pavilion, the supports of which are covered with silver. Before the | throne the principal courtiers have tents of their own in which they show off their rich possessions. In earlier times the emperor visited these tents himself and took whatever pleased him. Now he sits at the usual hour of his durbar to receive the New Year’s gifts they offer him. In return he bestows titles and promotions. Roe himself participates in the festivities by offering Jahangir a present which is received with “extraordinary consent.” Among those attending _ this same durbar is “the son of Ranna, his new tributary.” 3 On March 13, Roe attends the ghusl-khana “where is best opportunitie to doe businesse.” Here, despite the wily machinations of Asaf Khan and his faction, Roe complains directly to the emperor about the procrastination he is experiencing in working out a permanent treaty and about the continuing bad treatment of his countrymen in India. Although repeatedly given farmans authorizing trade, Roe is unwilling to accept additional permits of this sort since they are

“temporary commands, and respected accordingly.” Ordered by Jahangir to submit a draft treaty for his consideration, Roe is confronted by a con_ spiracy to thwart his mission. Prince Khurram, Asaf Khan (the prince’s father-in-law), and “Zulpheckarcon” (Zulfakar Khan, the title of Muhammad Beg, the prince’s favorite and the former governor of Surat) head a faction which argues against Roe’s treaty and advocates better relations with the Portuguese. Jahangir, ever on the lookout for expensive and novel gifts, wearles of Roe’s inability to accompany his requests with appropriate presents and is highly pleased with the rich gifts of the Portuguese. Discouraged by this turn of events, Roe notes that the Portuguese have wealth, influence, and power, in contrast to the English who “for our trade or any thing. . . [are] not at all respected.” " Conditions at court begin to change in June, 1616, as a result of the failure of Prince Parwiz to wind up the Deccan war. Jahangir determines to replace

Parwiz with Khurram despite the objections of the generals in the field. '°'This vernal festival was instituted by Akbar and was celebrated by Jahangir for nineteen days. Roe is incorrect in translating Naw-roz as “nine days.” See R. C. Prasad, op. cit. (n. 5),

P “Karan, eldest son of Amar Singh, Rana of Udaipur. "3? PP, IV, 331-39.

[ 638 |

The Mughul Court to 1618

Roe, who trusts Khurram more than his minions, seeks unsuccessfully to persuade the prince before his departure of the importance of trade with the English. The emperor continues cordial in his relations to Roe and boasts to him about the skills of Mughul painters. Jahangir has one of his painters copy a Western painting; it is done so skillfully that Roe is not able to tell the difference between the original and the imitations. As a sign of his favor, the emperor presents Roe with “a Picture of himselfe set in Gold, hanging at a

Wire Gold Chaine with one pendant foule Pearle” (cf. pl. 113). When the courtiers demand that Roe should follow custom and perform “Size-da” (sijdah, or prostration) as a sign of thanks, Jahangir himself excuses the proud Englishman from making such an obeisance. Even though Roe’s gift from Jahangir is small, it is “five times as good”’ as the portrait medallions which the emperor awards to his own servitors. While Roe dances attendance to the emperor in the summer of 1616, he

seeks also to establish good relations with men of influence at the court. Among those whom he seeks to cultivate is “Abdala Hassan” (Khwaja Abul Hasan), commander of the imperial bodyguard and paymaster-general of the armies. He corresponds with “Mahobet Chan” (Mahabat Khan, the title of Zamana Beg), an enemy of Prince Khurram who 1s effectively in charge

at Burhanpur. From him Roe receives a farman granting the English the right to trade freely and securely at “Barooch” (Broach). The English ambassador also strikes up a friendship with “Gemal-din-ussin” (Mir Jamal-uddin Husain), the seventy-year-old “Vizeroy of Patan and lord of four cittyes in Bengala.’’**? A cosmopolitan and hospitable gentleman, Jamal informs

Roe about court personalities, customs, laws, and the history of the empire. He shows Roe his private journal and outlines for him the financial administration of the empire. Annually, he explains, each province pays an assessment to the crown. Anything in excess of this tribute belongs to the governor. He entertains Roe at the imperial pleasure house of Hafiz Jamal, and explicitly advises Roe to find an English interpreter “which the King would grant mee if I could fynd any.” Jamal suggests quite seriously that he would like, if it is permissible, to send a “Gentleman” to England with Roe “to see the Country.” Shortly after being made the new governor of Sind, Jamal is entertained at a banquet prepared by a Muslim cook in Roe’s house. The guests refuse to touch meat prepared in the English style, but Jamal asks that dishes of these strange baked meats be sent to his house and says “that

he would dine on them in private.” On August 20 at the end of the rainy season Roe experiences the “Oliphant” (Portuguese, elephante, a translation of Hindi, hathiya), a storm so violent that his house is almost flooded out. “Thus,” he writes, ““were we in 33He was at this time sibadar (governor) of Patna or Bidar. Shortly hereafter he was ap- __ pointed governor of Malwa, and later of Sind. 34 PP, IV, 340-50. [ 639 ]

The Mughul Empire before Aurangzib every way afflicted; fires, smokes, floods, stormes, heats, dust, flyes, and no temperate or quiet season.”’ Even worse, the emperor is considering moving the court southward to Mandu to be at hand to supervise the replacement of Parwiz by Khurram as commander of the Deccan armies. To avoid a war between the two princely brothers, Parwis with his entourage is ordered to Bengal. Jahangir goes to Mandu personally to support Khurram against the generals who resist his elevation. As for Roe, he worries that if he follows

the court to Mandu, “a castell neer Bramport [Burhanpur] wher is no town,” he will have to build a new residence at “extreme trouble and cost.” On September 2, Jahangir returns to Ajmer to celebrate his birthday. On this occasion the emperor is “weighed against some Jewels, Gold, Silver, stuffes of Gold, Silver, Silke, Butter, Rice, Fruit, and many other things of every sort a little, which is given to the Bramini.”” While Roe accidentally misses the weighing ceremony, he is witness to a parade of the richly ca-

parisoned imperial elephants and of their bows before the emperor. That night, after Roe is in bed, Jahangir sends a message asking the ambassador to

bring him the picture which “hee heard I had . . . [but] which I had not » shewed him.” Roe takes two portraits to the emperor, one being a picture of a woman and the other a French oil painting."** The emperor, while sitting cross-legged ona little throne, examines the pictures and requests the woman’s portrait as a gift. Once Roe finally agrees to present it to him, Jahangir relents and states that he will be happy with a copy. Then he asks Roe to participate in a drinking bout to celebrate his birthday. The emperor presents Roe with a golden drinking cup studded with gems. Despite Jahangir’s generosity and affability, Roe continues to be vexed by those “faithless people” whose promises relating to the treaty seem never to be kept. Finally, after much delay, he receives an acceptable farman from Khurram ordering payment for goods purchased from the English merchants of Surat.'* The power struggle for command of the Deccan army continues to disrupt the court. Abdullah Khan, general and governor of Gujarat and oppo-

nent of Khurram, is summoned to appear at court on October 10, 1616. Accused of insolently defying the imperial authority, Abdullah Khan appears before the emperor in bare, chained feet. After making his reverence, the general is forgiven and restored to favor. Prince Khurram, whose appointment had been even more staunchly opposed by Khanan Khan, now decides to replace Khanan Khan with Abdullah Khan as field commander of the Deccan army. Khanan Khan, who has secretly been in league with Bijapur, arranges for the dispatch of a peace mission to Ajmer. Jahangir, who

is well aware of Khurram’s ambitions, lets him decide whether or not to accept this peace overture. The imperial father, knowing well the rivalry

which exists between Khurram and his eldest brother “Corsoronne”

'35'‘The portrait of the woman was possibly that of Roe’s wife. See Foster (ed.), op. cit. (n. 6; 1926 ed.), pp. 223-24, n. I. 36 PP IV, 352-58.

| [ 640 | |

The Mughul Court to 1618

(Khusru), nourishes “division and emulation betweene the brethren.” Jahangir favors Khurram for the moment but does not intend to let him inherit the throne. Khusru, who, blind and imprisoned, is as much loved by the courtiers as Khurram is hated, is not favored at the moment by the emperor, who thinks that “his liberty would diminish his [the emperor’s] owne glory.” Roe believes that when Jahangir “shall pay the debt to Nature” the country will be destroyed by civil war.

A history of the Mughul Empire would be worth writing, Roe observes, | if it were not so remote and if its people were not thought to be so barbarous. Even if few will believe it, there is much to learn from Mughul history about “rare and cunning passages of State, subtill evasions, policies, and adages.’’ For example, a conspiracy to kill Khusru is planned by Khurram with the aid of “Normahall’” (Nur Mahal, or Nur Jahan, who is the empress and aunt to Khurram’s wife), Asaf Khan (Khurram’s father-in-law and brother to the empress), and ““Etiman Dowlett [Itimad-ud-Daula], father to them both.” One night, while the emperor slept in a drunken stupor, an effort is made by this cabal to dupe “Anna Rah” (Anup Ray), Khusru’s faithful Rajput bodyguard, to release the prince into his brother’s custody. On the following day Anup Ray informs the emperor of what has transpired and they both agree to preserve discreet silence and watch the conspirators work. Khurram, who fears that his brother will take advantage of his absence in the Deccan to win over the emperor, finally persuades Jahangir to dismiss Anup Ray; Khusru is placed in the custody of Asaf Khan as part of an effort to reassure the Deccan generals of the emperor’s unqualified support of Khurram. While it is rumored that Khusru’s days are numbered, the

prince is restored from time to time to the favor of his father. Thus, he escapes death at the hands of the faction, at least for as long as Roe remains in India. *?”

On October 19, 1616, the Persian ambassador “Mahomet Rosa Beag” (Muhammad Riza Beg) arrives at court with “about fiftie Horse well fitted in coats of cloth of Gold . . . and some two hundred ordinary Peons, and attenders on baggage.” Roe’s secretary, sent by the ambassador to observe the Persian’s reception, notes that the newcomer submissively prostrates himself and knocks his head on the ground in a reverence Roe had refused to perform. The Persian, in Roe’s estimation, is under orders to be obsequious and generous in his gifts because he is seeking Jahangir’s support for Persia

in its war against the Turk. Roe is embarrassed by the Persian’s gifts, far richer than those he had presented, but contents himself with the observation that his own reception was more cordial and respectful. At a durbar Roe meets his Persian colleague who, in presenting his gifts to Jahangir, appears 37 Khusru died in 1622, possibly at the hands of this faction. Four years later Parwiz followed him in death. See Foster (ed.), op. cit. (n. 6; 1926 ed.), p. 247, n. I. In 1627 Khurram became emperor as Shah Jahan, with the support of the army and Asaf Khan.

[ 641 |

The Mughul Empire before Aurangzib to be “rather a Jester or Jugler, then a person of any gravity.” Nonetheless the emperor awards expense money to the Persian envoy; he then promptly recovers it by fining his nobles for drunkenness. To obtain the dispatch of his business in this hectic and greedy court, Roe is finally forced to present Khurram with a gift of “two Pluriaes [?] and two Birds of Paradice.” "3 On November 1, Khurram finally makes his departure for the south. His _ entourage includes six hundred richly caparisoned elephants and an estimated ten thousand horsemen. After being embraced by his father, Khur-

ram himself departs in a coach made in imitation of the English coach presented by Roe to Jahangir. On the following day Jahangir and the court

begin their stately progress towards the Deccan. After receiving the accolades of his subjects, the beyjeweled emperor enters his own coach (a mod-

ified version of Roe’s English coach), its four horses being driven by an English coachman. Nur Jahan, the empress, rides behind in the original English coach “new covered and trimmed rich.” She is followed by the emperor’s younger sons, who ride in an Indian cart, by his nobles on foot, and -

by his wives perched like parakeets on the backs of their elephants. This procession moves three miles southward to a “Leskar” (Persian, lashkar, an army camp), a city of tents already set up. The prince and his retinue lodge in a similar tent city nearby.**° Here they wait for about two weeks to allow time for the people of Ajmer to follow. On November 16, Jahangir orders his artillery to bombard Ajmer “to compell the people to follow.” The En-

glish and Persian ambassadors, as well as other foreigners, are likewise forced to leave the desolate city and to follow the imperial entourage." Roe, after winding up his affairs at Ajmer, finally finds enough transport to follow the emperor on December 1. Five days later he catches up with Jahangir at the walled town of “Todah, in the best country I saw since my landing.” * The town itself had been the seat of a “Raza Rasboote” (Raja Rajput) until it was conquered by Akbar. In this well-built town, “a banished Englishman might have beene content to dwell’ were it not for the Mughul law of escheat. Nobody maintains or repairs properties, since everything reverts to the crown. Thus “ruine and distruction eates up all.” Still Roe finds admirable the efficiency displayed by the Mughuls in setting up orderly tent cities within four hours’ time. In his “atasckanha”’ (yatashkhana, or audience chamber) in this military camp the emperor is closely guarded. He appears in public only in the morning, the durbar being omitted. All business is concluded in the ghusl-khana during the evening. Despite

camp conditions, court intrigues continue over the fate of Khusru, and 38 PP IV, 358-72. '39On the English coach and the imitations see Terry, op. cit. (n. 7), p. 385. ‘This first halting place was at Dorai, the locale of Aurangzib’s victory in 1659. See Foster

(ed.), op. cit. (n. 6; 1926 ed.), p. 286, n. I. '4" The Jesuit then in residence was Father Corsi. See above, p. 634. ‘Toda is sixty-five miles southeast of Ajmer in Jaipur state (Rajasthan).

[ 642 |

71° 72° 73° 74° 75°

25° 25° e Jalor

(Gate to Gujarat)

oof 3; ON. o4e

Cl 4 \\“}!;fr ffoe” “N,;:

Si &©Patan Sidhpur //‘ N. y Sar vi Visalnagar AGNES fie VJ A =, A ne») ~,. O16 BD < toms. yi 7 SAB t On his illness see above, pp. 709-10.

| [729 |

The Empire of Aurangzib cause Aurangzib strictly limited the numbers taken to Kashmir to keep from imposing too heavy a strain upon its feeble economy.

, Arrived at Srinagar at the end of March, 1665, Bernier spends the next three months in what he calls “the Terrestrial Paradise of the Indies.” His ninth and last letter, written from there, provides “‘an accurate description of the Kingdom of Kachemire.” According to the histories of its “ancient Kings,” the countryside of Kashmir was originally covered by a vast lake. — The land emerged when an outlet for its waters was opened by a cut in the mountain of “Baramoulé” (Baramula) made by an aged saint named “Kacheb.” * This story is told in the abridgment of the chronicles of the ancient Hindu kings made at Jahangir’s command, which Bernier is “now translating from the Persian.’”’”” No longer a lake, Kashmir is a “beautiful country, diversified by a great many low hills.”’ Situated to the north of Lahore, it is

enclosed by mountains which belong to the neighboring rulers of “Great Tibet” (Ladakh) and of “Little Tibet” (Baltistan) and to the “Raja Gamon”’ (Raja of Jummoo). The lower mountains which surround its meadows are covered with trees and pasture lands. While small game is plentiful, there exist here few or no “serpents, tigers, bears, or lions.”” Very unusual are the

vast numbers of bees which, with the cows, make this a veritable land of milk and honey. The distant mountains, whose summits are always crowned with snow, “gush forth innumerable springs and streams” which are channeled into the valley to irrigate its rice fields. After wandering through the

tablelands, thousands of these rivulets join to form a beautiful river (the Jhelum) “navigable for vessels as large as are borne on our Seine.” After gently winding around Kashmir, it passes between “two steep rocks”’ at Baramula. Thereafter it is joined by several smaller mountain streams and flows in the direction of “Atek” (Attock) to become part of the Indus.” The whole “kingdom” looks as green as “‘a fertile and highly cultivated garden’ with its luxuriant fields of rice, wheat, hemp, saffron, and many vegetables. Its tablelands are dotted with hillocks, intersected by trenches, rivulets, and canals, and brightened by several small lakes. In the private gardens of villages and hamlets grow most of the flowers, fruits, and vege* This is a Hindu tradition. “Kacheb” is the Persian form of Kasyupa, the rishi or sage who reputedly opened the passage or cascade at Baramula. This Sanskrit historical record written in verse is called Rajatarangini or “River of Kings.” It was composed in A.D. 1148—50 by Kalhana, whose father, Chanpaka, was a minister to King Harsha (r. 1089-1101). It was gradually translated into Persian after the beginning of Muslim rule in 1339. At Jahangir’s command, a Persian version in eight books was epitomized and continued in 1617—20 by Haidar Malik, son of a noble Kashmiri family. This abridged and ex-

tended version covers Kashmir’s history from its beginnings until the conquest by Akbar. Bernier, according to his Address to the Reader, promised to undertake a translation of Haidar Malik’s work. An English translation of Kalhana’s Rajatarangini was published at London in 1900 by Aurel Stein. Another English translation by R. S. Pandit was published at New Delhi

south of Multan. See map 2.

” 8 Actually the Jhelum is first joined by the Chenab and the Ravi before falling into the Indus

[ 730 ]

The Provinces

tables common to Europe, as well as others native to India. Their fruits, while good, are inferior to those of Europe “for they do not understand the culture and grafting of trees as we do in France.” The capital city of Kashmir “bears the same name as the kingdom.” ” An unwalled city, the capital is built on a freshwater lake (Dal Lake) in the midst of a plain (“Happy Valley”) behind which stands a semicircle of mountains. The lake is linked by a canal to the river (Jhelum) coursing through the center of the city. Two wooden bridges cross the river to connect the two parts

of this city of well-built and several-storied wooden houses. Most of the houses along the river boast gardens, while other houses have their own canals on which “the owner keeps a pleasure-boat.”’ An “isolated hill” called “Harajperbet”’ (Hari Parbat), or what Bernier calls the ““Verdant Mountain,” rises “‘at the end of the town,” on the sides of which stand handsome houses; near its tree-crowned summit stand a “Mosque and Hermitage.” '” Opposite this mountain rises another on which there is a small mosque and an ancient “temple for idols” named ‘“Tact-Souliman” ( Takht-i-Suliman) or the Throne of Solomon.'” The lake is crowded with cultivated islands “covered with fruit trees, and laid out with regular trellised walks” which are surrounded by tall and stately large-leafed aspens planted at two-foot intervals.'” The slopes bordering the lake are replete with houses and flower-gardens. Of all the gardens of Kashmir the most beautiful is the imperial garden of “Chah-limar” (Shalimar, or the “Abode of Love’). From the lake it is entered by a “spacious canal, bordered with green turf, and running between

two rows of poplars.” It leads to a large summer house surrounded by a garden. Another canal paved with stone blocks runs to a second summer house at the end of the garden. In the center of the canal is a long row of regularly spaced fountains and from nearby circular reservoirs arise “other fountains formed into a variety of shapes and figures.” The summer houses themselves are situated between the canals and are flanked by poplar trees. They are domed and “encircled by a gallery into which four doors open”;

two of these lead to bridges which connect the buildings to the opposite * Srinagar was its Hindu name. During Muslim times it was dropped and the city was called simply Kashmir. When the Sikhs captured it in 1819, they restored the Hindu name which is still in use.

Nn. : . ;

100 Hari Parbat, “Mountain of Lord Hari” (5,671 ft.), north of the city, is surrounded by a wall built by Akbar at the end of the sixteenth century. See Murray (publ.), op. cit. (n. 40), p. $22. The fortress now on the hill’s summit was built in the eighteenth century. See Ferguson, op. cit.

ok Pe Hindu temple was erected here in the eighth century by the sage Shankar Acharya. Part of it was converted into a mosque by the invading Muslims in the early eleventh century. According to Bernier the Muslims believed that it was the creation of King Solomon when he visited Kashmir, a tradition which the learned French physician doubts. Today it is called Shankar Acharya Hill. See Murray (publ.), op. cit. (n. 40), p. 522. '2'The famous “floating gardens”’ lie among certain of these islands in the Dal Kotwal. By “‘aspens”’ it is probable Bernier here refers to the chenar or the oriental plane tree.

[731]

The Empire of Aurangzib

banks. These valuable doors are made of stone, each being supported by two beautiful pillars. Each house consists of a large center room with small apartments at each corner. The interiors are “painted and gilt” and Persian inscriptions decorate the walls of all the chambers.’ Kashmiris are generally adjudged to be wittier and more ingenious than other Indians, and the equal of the Persians in poetry and the sciences. They are active, industrious, and intelligent, and their manufactures “are in use in every part of the Indies.” They are great workers in wood and masters in the arts of varnishing and inlaying. Their unique and valuable textile industry

produces a “prodigious quantity of shawls” for export. The weaving of these large, soft shawls “gives occupation even to the little children.” In India they are worn in winter as head coverings and mantles by both sexes. These shawls are made of both local wool and “touz” (tus, or shawl goat), the hair-like wool of a wild goat native to Tibet. Shawls of this softer Ti-

betan wool are more expensive and require more care than those woven from Kashmir wool. Imitation shawls produced elsewhere in India are never equal in “delicate texture and softness” to the shawls of Kashmir. Admittedly charmed by the vale of Kashmir, Bernier admires equally the

beauty of its women. The Mughul courtiers recruit their wives and concubines from Kashmir so that the “children may be whiter than the Indians and pass for genuine Mughuls.” These cherished brunette women with “their fine and slender shapes” are kept as “hidden treasures.” To obtain a glimpse of them Bernier resorts to various strategems. On the advice of a Persian friend, he poses as a Persian looking for a wife. Following his coconspirator about, he goes from house to house distributing sweetmeats to the women and children to indulge his curiosity about the female faces of

Kashmir." | At the request of his patron, Bernier makes three short excursions into

other parts of the valley to report on alleged ““wonders.”” Accompanied by a native and escorted by a trooper, he pays a visit to “‘a certain fountain” to investigate the wondrous ebb and flow of its waters. At the side of its reservoir the Hindus have a small temple called “Send-brary” (Sunda-Brari), or

water of Brari, to which pilgrims come to bathe."* After deciding that the

ebb and flow is produced by the periodic melting of the snows on the mountain, Bernier visits nearby “Achiavel” (Achabal), where the rulers of Kashmir have maintained a country estate since antiquity. Built to enclose a spring, this house is surrounded by canals fed by its gushing waters.**° He 3 Built by Jahangir, Shalimar Bagh fell into ruin; Bernier’s description of 1665 preserves for us a memory of its former glory. Cf. Ferguson, op. cit. (n. 94), pp. 120-22. It was restored and is still maintained by the government of India, though of course not in the Mughul style. 4 Of. ibid., pp. 156-57. '°S This is a spring in the eastern end of the valley. Ibid., p. 157. 16 Cf. ibid., pp. 126-27. See S. C. Koul, Srinigar and Its Environs (3d ed.; Srinagar, 1962), pp. 53-55, for a detailed description of the modern Achabal garden.

— [£732]

The Provinces . then proceeds to another similar and nearby imperial garden renowned for its tame fish reputedly placed there by Nur Mahal, the wife of Jahangir.'” After returning to Srinagar, Bernier is sent on an expedition to Baramula to observe a “genuine miracle.’”’ There he is supposed to investigate the miraculous cures effected at a mosque by a dead dervish whose tomb reposes in its interior. This Muslim saint is renowned for using his powers to enable eleven men to lift a heavy stone with the tips of their fingers. Bernier proves —

to his personal satisfaction that this miracle is but another pious fraud and that the pilgrims are attracted to Baramula more by the free food handed out there than by the much vaunted miracles of its saint.’ Leaving Baramula in a hurry, Bernier visits the gorge through which the Jhelum leaves

the valley. He then leaves the high road to see a large lake that is “well stocked with fish, particularly eels, and covered with ducks, wild geese, and many other water birds.” In its center stands a hermitage which allegedly

floats on the water. Through the middle of this lake runs the river which disgorges at Baramula.*” From here he climbs the adjacent mountain to see a large lake in which the winds pile up so much ice that it never completely melts.'"° At this point Bernier is recalled to Srinagar by his patron. While traveling, Bernier continues to gather information from merchants about Kashmir’s mountainous dependencies and its neighboring states. He learns that the valley peoples pay their taxes in leather and wool and that those who live in distant inaccessible regions refuse to pay any taxes at all. He is told stories about the polyandry prevailing in some of these remote valleys." A few years before, when a succession crisis occurred in “Little Tibet” (Baltistan), the governor of Kashmir interfered on behalf of one of the parties. The successful claimant was thereafter required to pay to the Mughul Empire a tribute of crystals, musk, and wool. This puppet raja of Baltistan visits Srinagar to offer his respects to Aurangzib. Invited to dinner by Bernier’s patron, the raja explains that his land is bounded on the east by “Great Tibet” (Ladakh), that it is basically a poor country without gold, and that he and most of his subjects are Shiites. He refers also to the attempt of Shah Jahan of “seventeen or eighteen years ago, to conquer Great Tibet, a country frequently invaded by the Kings of Kachemire.” '” Fearful that Au07 The garden of Vernag or Nila Nag was built by Jahangir in 1620 around one of the largest springs in India. Close by is the source of the Jhelum River. For its history and present condition see Ferguson, op. cit. (n. 94), pp. 128-29, and Koul, op. cit. (n. 106), pp. 58-59. 18 Cf. Ferguson, op. cit. (n. 94), pp. 157-58. 9 This is the Wular Lake through which the Jhelum flows. For a modern description see Koul, op. cit. (n. 106), pp. 45-46.

eal one of the Gungabal lakes which were originally formed by the surrounding ° "In this form of polyandry the brothers of a family have. one wife in common. Cf. P.N. Chopra, Ladakh (New Delhi, 1980), p. 48. For a study of modern Tibetan fraternal polyandry see Nancy E. Levine, The Dynamics of Polyandry (Chicago, 1988).

nor of Kashmir. ,

| [733 ]

'? Probably a reference to the attack of 1638 on Ladakh when Ali Mardan Khan was gover-

The Empire of Aurangzib rangzib’s presence in Kashmir might herald the onset of new invasions, a Tibetan embassy is sent from Lhasa to Srinagar in 1665 to investigate the situation. As gifts it presents crystals, musk, yaks’ tails, and a large piece of highly valued green jade. The ambassador’s retinue includes “three or four cavaliers, and ten or twelve tall men, dried-up looking and lean, with very scanty beards like the Chinese, and common red caps, such as our seamen wear.’ ** By treaty the emissary promises Aurangzib that a mosque will be built in Lhasa, that Tibetan coins will be imprinted on one side with the emperor’s portrait, and that annual tribute will be paid to Delhi. No one doubts, however, that this treaty will be swiftly abrogated or simply ignored once Aurangzib leaves Kashmir. One member of the ambassador’s suite is a physician of the Lama “tribe” of Lhasa. These Lamas form a spiritual caste similar to the Brahmans of India; they differ in that they respect a supreme pontiff while the Brahmans do not. Their Grand Lama is honored and revered as a “divine personage” throughout Tibet and “all Tartary.’” When he is on the point of death, the Grand Lama tells his council that his soul will pass to the body of a recently born infant. When the child reaches six or seven years of age, he establishes his legitimacy as Grand Lama by identifying his own belongings from a melange of furniture and clothes placed before him. The Tibetan physician has with him “a book of receipts,” which he will not be induced to sell, that is written in a script “something like ours.’’ On request he agrees to write down the alphabet, but his efforts fail to meet muster since “his writing is so wretchedly bad in comparison with that in his book.” Although Bernier learns from the Tibetan that “Great Tibet”’ is covered with snow five months of the year and that it is frequently at war with the Tartars, he decides that

, the man is an ignoramus with whom he has wasted his time and energies.'™ Until about 1640 caravans regularly made annual trips from Kashmir to China which took about three months each way." The “extremely difficult road” which they followed across the mountains of “Great Tibet” and “Tartary” is rendered doubly perilous by “impetuous torrents that can be crossed

only by means of cords extended from rock to rock.”'’* Ordinarily these caravans returned with musk, China-wood or root, rhubarb, and “‘mamiron’ (mamiran-i-Chini), a small root “in great repute for the cure of bad eyes.”"'? From Tibet they brought musk, crystals, jade, and fine wool of

Tibet. , "3 Members of the Red Cap sect of the Tibetan Buddhists called Dukpa or Shammar. "4 For the Tibetan embassy see Constable (ed.), op. cit. (n. 1), pp. 421-25. From 1643 to 1716 central Tibet was a dependency of Mongolia. The fifth Dalai Lama contested with the Mughuls to bring Ladakh and Baltistan within their respective spheres of influence. See Chopra, op. cit.

(n. III), pp. 26-27. Also see below on Tibet, pp. 1773-83.

"5 Of. C. Wessels, S.J., Early Jesuit Travellers in Central Asia 1603-1721 (The Hague, 1924),

. 13.

° “Rope suspension bridges called jholas are common in the high mountains of Kashmir and

"7 Still sold in the markets of the Punjab and Kashmir, mamiran is ground up and mixed with rose water before being applied to the eyes.

[734 |

The Provinces

two kinds: ordinary sheep’s wool and “touz” (tis). But ever since Shah Jahan’s invasion (ca. 1640) of “Great Tibet” (Ladakh), the merchants and caravans of Kashmir are interdicted from entering Ladakh. Consequently the trade between China and the Mughul Empire is now carried on by caravans which avoid Ladakh and proceed directly from Patna on the Ganges to Lhasa.'" From merchants of “Kacheguer” (Kashgar) who were in Srinagar, Bernier learns about the route to Kashgar which avoids Ladakh. It runs northeastward via “Gourtche” (Gurez), the last town of Kashmir, to “Eskerdou”

(Skardu), the capital of “Little Tibet” (Baltistan), to the small town of “Cheker” (Shigar) on a river “celebrated for its medicinal waters,” and ultimately to the town of Kashgar, the former capital of the rajas of Kashgar

who now reside at “Jourkind” (Yarkand)."? Caravans run annually from Kashgar to China “not more than a two months’ voyage.”’ On returning from China these caravans proceed to Persia via Uzbek.’ Bernier continues his discourse with responses to a set of inquiries directed to him from Paris by Melchisédech Thévenot, the celebrated French collector and publisher of travel literature. The first asks whether it is true that Jews have long resided in Kashmir. Bernier responds in the negative, adding that there seems to be “ground for believing that some of them were

formerly settled in these countries”: similar facial features and manners, prevalence of the name of “Mousa” (Moses), the tradition that Moses died in Srinagar, and the common belief that Solomon had visited Kashmir. Ber-

nier reinforces this surmise by reference to the existence of Jews in surrounding places: China, Persia, Ethiopia, and Cochin. After asking for Bernier’s observations on the monsoon and the ocean currents of India, Thévenot asks whether Bengal is really “as fertile, rich, and beautiful as is commonly reported.” Bernier, who had made two visits to Bengal, is “inclined to believe that the pre-eminence ascribed to Egypt 1s

rather due to Bengal.” In this “finest and most fruitful country in the world,” rice and sugar are produced in such abundance that they are both exported to neighboring places and to places as far away as Ceylon and Arabia. The Portuguese in Bengal prepare sweetmeats and preserved fruits which are also exported. While wheat is not exported, enough is raised locally to satisfy domestic needs. Poultry, fish, goats, and sheep are abundant and cheap, while pork is so plentiful that the Portuguese resident in Bengal live “almost entirely” on it. The Europeans provision their ships '’ This route ran from Patna through Nepal, to Shigatse, and into Lhasa. “9 Actually this route ran almost directly northward from Srinagar. 9 Cf, the excellent general map of Central Asian trade routes appended to Wessels, op. cit. ms the date of his first visit is not known. His second tour came in 1665 after his return from Kashmir while on his way to Golconda. For the responses of Bernier on Bengal see Constable (ed.), op. cit. (n. 1), pp. 437-46.

[735 |

The Empire of Aurangzib with salt pork and the “excellent and cheap sea-biscuits”’ made locally. It is because of this abundance that the Europeans and Luso-Asians who have been driven “from their different settlements by the Dutch” seek asylum in Bengal. The Jesuits and Augustinians, “who have large churches and are permitted the free and unmolested exercise of their religion,”’ claim eight to _ nine thousand Christians in Hugli alone and over twenty-five thousand in other parts of Bengal. In no other part of the world is the foreign merchant able to find such a variety of “valuable commodities.” In addition to sugar and confections, vast quantities of silk and cloths of every sort are available. While the silk textiles are not as fine or as delicate as those of Persia and the Levant, they are much lower in price. The Dutch alone sometimes employ as many as

“seven or eight hundred natives in their silk factory at “Kassem-Bazar’ [Qasimbazar],” and the English and other merchants “‘a proportionate num-

ber.” Saltpeter sent down the Ganges from Patna is readily purchased in Bengal for export. Also available in its markets are the best lac, opium, wax, civet, long pepper, various drugs, and ghee.'’? While the English and Dutch at first had very high mortality rates in Bengal, they now live with greater

caution and their health has improved. Masters do their best to keep their subordinates away from the local women and from dealers in arrack and tobacco; they especially try to limit their workers’ consumption of “Bouleponge,’”’ a drink made of arrack mixed with lemon juice, water, and nutmeg,

which is particularly “hurtful to body and health.” Bernier expatiates on the beauty and complexity of the Ganges delta from Rajmahal to the Bay of Bengal. This land is divided by an infinite number of channels through which the sacred waters of the Ganges run into the sea. On both sides, these channels are lined with Hindu towns and villages in whose surrounding fields grow rice, sugar, grain, vegetables, mustard, sesame for oil, and small mulberry trees on whose leaves the silkworms feed.

Innumerable islands fill “the vast space between the two banks of the Ganges,” all extremely fertile, on which fruit trees and pineapples thrive. Certain of the islands closest to the sea have been abandoned because of the ' Tavernier was in Qasimbazar in February, 1666. He lodged there with Arnold van Wachtendonck, provisional director of Dutch operations in Bengal, whose headquarters was in Hugli. '3"The European ships carried ghee from Bengal mainly to other Indian ports. It was transported in dried skins called kuppah.

4“Bouleponge” is a curious combination of the name of the beverage and the vessel in which it is brewed. Bowle is still the German word for punch. English “punch” possibly derives from Persian panj, or Hindu panch, both words meaning “five” because this drink, despite Bernier’s recipe, usually is made of five ingredients: arrack, sugar, lime juice, spice, and water. See H. Yule and A. C. Burnell, Hobson-Jobson (London, 1886; new ed., edited by W. Crooke, London, 1903, reprinted New Delhi, 1968), pp. 737-39. But the Oxford English Dictionary (under “punch”) pronounces as uncertain the origin of this word. Its editors, like the French traveler De La Boullaye le Gouz (ca. 1653), claim that “Bouleponge”’ was originally an English word. The OED sees it as “an imperfect echo of the English ‘bowl 0’ punch’, a phrase already common in the seventeenth century.” [ 736 |]

The Provinces attacks of the Arakan pirates. Most are now desolate and left to the animals,

the most ferocious of which are the tigers “which sometimes swim from one island to the other.” Bernier makes a nine-day voyage through these islands and channels up the delta from Pipli to Hugli in a seven-oared “‘scallop.” 5 On the way he is particularly enthralled to see a “lunar rainbow” on several successive nights. On a quiet, suffocating night he observes that “the bushes around us are so full of glow-worms that they seem ignited.” '*° Gujarat, the province best known to the Europeans, includes nine sarkdrs

and one hundred and ninety parganas.’” Ahmadabad is its capital and the headquarters of its provincial governor. Ordinarily the governor is a son of the emperor, but at present a great noble called “Muhabtat Can’ (Mahabat Khan) holds that office. The city is situated on a lovely plain and is watered by a shallow river called the “Sabremetly”’ (Sabarmati), which floods in the rainy season. In its southeastern suburbs Ahmadabad boasts many large gardens enclosed in brick walls, as well as clusters of houses and tombs. A large

reservoir stands here, in the middle of which there is a garden. One approaches the garden over a bridge “four hundred paces long.” ™ The city itself is enclosed by brick and stone walls pierced by twelve gates and surmounted by great round towers. Its wall and garrison are well maintained to ward off the incursions of neighboring rajas, especially the raja of ““Badur”’ (Bhadwar) whose residence is in the province of “‘Candich” (Khandesh)."” The lesser towns of Gujarat are about thirty in number, the largest being

located near the sea. “Broudra” (Baroda), situated between Broach and Cambay, is a big, modern town in the center of a fertile but sandy country near “Rageapour” (Rajapur).*° It has more than two hundred towns and villages within its jurisdiction, one of which is ‘“Sindiguera” (Sindkheda). Baroda produces lac and the finest silks made in Gujarat. Between Baroda and Ahmadabad are the medium-sized towns of “Nariad” (Nadiad) and ‘“Mamadebad” (Mahmudabad). Both make textiles, and the latter is famous

for the cotton thread it exports. On the east side of the gulf is “Goga”’ (Gogha), a town peopled mainly by Banyans and sailors. Further to the south on this coast is Patan, a center of trade and silk production which boasts a beautiful Hindu temple that has been converted into a mosque. Offshore is the island and town of Diu, which commands the entry to the gulf. This strategic island, long battled over by the Portuguese, Egyptians, Turks, 5Pipli was then the most important port on the Orissa coast. Because of changes in the course of the river, it has since disappeared utterly. '° Constable (ed.), op. cit. (n. 1), pp. 429-31, 437-46. 7 Ibid., p. 456. *'This is a reference to the polygonal Hauz-i-Qutb or Kankariya tank, one of the largest in India; its area is seventy-two acres. It is said to have been completed in 1451. Murray (publ.), op. cit. (n. 40), p. 165. 9'Thévenot in Sen (ed.), op. cit. (n. 2), pp. 11-12. "3° As Thévenot indicates, modern Baroda was built on or near the site of the ancient city of

Rajapur. ,

[737]

The Empire of Aurangzib and Gujaratis, now has three fortresses and is governed by the Portuguese. It is also a center for the production of the cobra stone (snakestone).*

In Dr. Fryer’s time the province of Gujarat is governed by “Mahmud Emier Caun” (Muhammad Amin Khan), the son of the Mir Jumla who put Aurangzib on the throne.” Although he has vast wealth and armed forces, the viceroy at Ahmadabad is not able to keep the “Coolies” (Kolis) from stealing and robbing, Sivaji from plundering, or the outlaw Rajputs from descending from their mountains to despoil whenever they please. As a con-

sequence soldiers must be hired to convoy caravans through Gujarat. If these problems could be firmly handled, Surat would readily become the greatest emporium in the world. Nature has provided it with a central position on land and sea routes and its inhabitants have no equals in business acumen. The abundant resources of India’s interior provide Surat with exports which enable it to enjoy constantly a favorable balance of payments. The emperor, depending as he does on the wealth of his own country, is content to leave control of the seas to others. He can consequently enjoy the fruits of international trade without spending vast sums to maintain a navy.‘ The provinces in the vicinity of Gujarat receive small mention in the European accounts. Thévenot reports that Aurangabad, capital of “Balgate”’ (Balaghat),"** is a wall-less town. Its governor, usually a prince, maintains a residence there. During the reign of Shah Jahan, Aurangzib acted as governor and had his headquarters there. His first wife died in Aurangabad and in

her memory the emperor erected a “lovely mosque” of white, polished stone.'5 The city boasts other mosques, caravanserais, baths, and numerous

public buildings. These low stone buildings stand on streets lined with trees, or in the midst of pleasant gardens." “Telenga” (Telingana), a territory which had previously belonged to Byapur, has “Beder’”’ (Bidar) as its capital."?7 Encompassed by brick walls, battlements, and towers, Bidar is

protected by an important frontier “Garrison of Three thousand Men, half Horse and half Foot, with Seven hundred Gunners.” Its governor resides in '3* Sen (ed.), op. cit. (n. 2), pp. 44-46. "3? As thirty-sixth viceroy of Gujarat, Muhammad Amin Khan ruled from 1672 to 1682. 33 Fryer in Crooke (ed.), op. cit. (n. 4), I, 300-303. Actually the Mughuls began under Aurangzib to build a west-coast navy. Cf. A. D. Roy, A History of Mughal Navy and Naval Warfares (Calcutta, 1972), chap. vii. '4The Balaghat, as used here, refers to the hilly country in the western part of the present state of Hyderabad. In Thévenot’s day, it was at the center of Mughul-Biapur hostilities in the Deccan. See Y. M. Khan, The Deccan Policy of the Mughuls (Lahore, 1971), p. 263. 35From 1636 to 1644, and again from 1652 to 1658, Aurangzib was viceroy of the Deccan with his seat at Aurangabad. Dilras Banu Begam, his first wife, died here on October 8, 1657. Her tomb was apparently built in 1660.

3°Thévenot in Sen (ed.), op. cit. (n. 2), p. 103. |

'37'Telingana was one of the four provinces of the Mughul Deccan. These provinces were created for the better administration of this hotly contested region during Aurangzib’s first period as viceroy. See Y. M. Khan, op. cit. (n. 134), pp. 187-88.

[738 ]

Surat a castle outside the town and enjoys “a rich Government.” ** The province of Sind, “which some call Tatta” after its chief town, is famous for its palan-

quins and two-wheeled carts.° Ponda (Phonda), northeast of Goa, is another frontier province of the southward-expanding empire. Situated in the - mountains, it is ruled by a shahbandar (or subahdar) who receives revenues from the more than seven hundred villages within his jurisdiction." _

3

SURAT

Administration and justice at Surat are in the hands of a number of local officials appointed by the emperor. Exempt from all but imperial jurisdiction, Surat derives its revenues from thirty-six villages in its vicinity."** A “Mufty” (Arabic, mufti) supervises the Muslims in religious affairs and a “Cady” (kazi) acts as a judge of their suits. An official called ‘“VacaNevis” (wagi ‘a-navis, or news recorder), who is responsible to the emperor alone, informs the court about everything that occurs within his assigned jurisdiction. At Surat there are two independent governors (nawabs) who re-

port only to the emperor, one commanding the fortress and the other the town. The city’s governor is in charge of civil justice and usually renders his

decisions quickly. If one person sues another for a debt, the plaintiff must produce a contract, or two witnesses, or take an oath. Christians are re_ quired to swear on the Bible, Muslims on the Koran, and Hindus on the | cow. Most Hindus would rather lose a case than to swear upon a cow. Those who plead before the governor first give him out of respect a giftof money, | “everyone according to his Quality.” Criminal matters are attended to by a “Cotoual” (kotwal), the chief of police and jailer.**# This “Governor of the Night” patrols the city on horseback

- accompanied by an armed retinue on foot; they make three rounds each ''Thévenot in Sen (ed.), op. cit. (n. 2), pp. 113-14. The governor’s residence was built by Ahmad Shah-al-Wali between 1428 and 1432. On the fortifications of Bidar see S. Toy, The Strongholds of India (London, 1957), chap. viii. . Also see G. Yazdani, Bidar: Its History and Monuments (Oxford, 1947).

39 Thévenot in Sen (ed.), op. cit. (n. 2), pp. 75-76. See pl. 128. ‘#Careri in ibid., p. 211. By 1691 the Mughuls had advanced southward to Tanjore and Trichinopoly. 4" Seaports were constituted as independent units of government within the Mughul administration. Surat, its most important port at this time, was designated as a sarkdr, or revenue district, which included the city itself and the surrounding territory. See Saran, op. cit. (n. 90), pp. 198-200. It was subdivided into mahdls (subdistricts). See Gokhale, op. cit. (n. 15), p. $1. '#? See Thévenot in Sen (ed.), op. cit. (n. 2), pp. 26-27. The mufti expounds Islamic law and supplies the kazi with the legal grounds for his decisions in criminal suits involving Muslims. ‘8 Ibid., pp. 27-28. Technically this official was in charge of internal defense, health, sanitation, and all other municipal functions. See Saran, op. cit. (n. 90), p. 158.

[ 739 |

The Empire of Aurangzib night looking for fires, debtors, thieves, and prostitutes. Persons found illegally in the streets at night are thrown in jail and are seldom released without first being whipped. The kotwal dispenses punishments in summary fashion, many offenders being whipped in his presence, in the street, or on the spot of the crime. While justice is rapid and severe, neither the kotwal nor the governor may put anyone to death. The kotwal is held responsible by the emperor for preventing thefts and for capturing criminals. If a robbery is committed, all members of the suspect’s household are taken into custody and beaten severely. No examination is made of the accused’s household or effects, but the beatings are continued until a confession is obtained, innocence determined, or the lost goods returned. In the territory outside of the city the public peace is maintained by a subordinate official called the “Foursdar” (faujdar).'** Land taxes are collected locally by the “Desie” (Mah-

ratti, desai, headman of a district), who squeezes the cultivator as much as the governor does the city-dweller. He distributes seed to each cultivator, the amount being based on the size of the plot. At harvest three-quarters of the crop is taken for taxes. The rest of Surat’s revenues comes from customs and tolls.‘ If the custodians of justice call out “Doa-padecha” (Duhai-Padshah, or roughly, “Here is the emperor’’), a suspect must heed this invocation on pain of being brought before the magistrate as a criminal. Still, despite the harshness of Mughul justice, few penalties are actually imposed in Surat so “the People live there with freedome enough.” "* Despite his great police pow-

ers, the governor of Surat is unable to control the fakirs who terrorize the public and take whatever they want. He and his minions are best at suppressing the poor, impressing craftsmen into service, and extorting money from merchants and artisans. It is only occasionally that exemplary punishments are meted out to lawbreakers and tyrannical officials, just frequently enough to make a show of justice. '” While the kotwal’s office is one of great trust, it is not as honorable or profitable as that of the “Shawbundar” (shahbandar, or stibahdar), who is “King of the Port, or Chief Customer.” The revenues of this official have recently fallen, since the emperor in a burst of “Religious Vanity”’ excused Muslims from paying duties.‘* At certain specified times the shahbandar marks goods being exported and clears those being brought in. Persons suspected of smuggling are whipped until a confession is obtained. Smugglers are subjected to bodily punishment but not to confiscation of their goods. The customhouse itself is crowded with porters and other attendants who 4 On the faujdar-i-gard see Saran, op. cit. (n. 90), p. 164. 45 Cf. Gokhale, op. cit. (n. 15), pp. 67-68. '#°'Thévenot in Sen (ed.), op. cit. (n. 2), pp. 28-29. ‘47 Fryer in Crooke (ed.), op. cit. (n. 4), I, 241-46. ‘Custom duties for Muslims were abolished in 1667.

[ 740 ]

Surat

: delay deliveries of merchandise until a deal has been struck between the shahbandar and the merchants. Across from the customhouse stands the mint, behind whose “stately Entrance” there is a “large Town of Officers.”’ Shroffs and bankers come to these offices to have their silver assayed which,

like their gold, “is the most refined, and purest from Ollay [alloy], in the World.” Between the mint and the customhouse is a crowded bazaar with stalls on either side where textiles are bought and sold.‘ Father Manoel Godinho, a Portuguese Jesuit, visited Surat just before its first sack by Sivaji. Godinho, who had been in India since 1655, was dispatched by the governor of Goa from Bassein to Lisbon in 1662. He was in Surat from December 20, 1662, to February 5, 1663, before beginning his overland trip to Europe. Two years later he published at Lisbon his Relagao in which he tells the story of his embassy.**° Surat, previously a poor town and an unfrequented port, had become by Godhino’s time “the major em-

porium of India” thanks to the Dutch and English. This “rather narrow” city “surpasses our Evora in grandeur” and in numbers of people “which I reckon to be more than 100,000.” "** People from all over the world reside

there “or frequent that port on business.”” While most of its houses are humble dwellings with thatched roofs, the “chief lords” of the city live in “noble and stately houses.” The exteriors of the better Moorish houses are purposely left unimposing, while their interiors are “like paradise’’ since they are built “as apartments for their women.” The Banyans, on the contrary, pay greater attention to the exterior “than to the comforts within.” - The bottom stories of their houses are built of stone and lime, above which “there is nothing else but works carved in relief on teak, interspersed with enamels and lacquers of variegated hues.” ** The city has many mosques, the chief one of which is a “majestic structure” which stands outside the gates. In an imposing house adjoining its minaret lives the “Sheriff”’ (Arabic, sharif, eminence) who is “universally respected and venerated.” '* Surat also boasts two caravanserais and a publicly maintained bathhouse stafted by servants paid by the city. The city has no proper wall “but has a low en49 Crooke (ed.), op. cit. (n. 4), I, 246-48. Cf. M. S. Commissariat, A History of Gujarat (2 vols.; Bombay, 1938, 1957), II, 375-76. '8° The latest edition (Lisbon, 1944) of the Relacao do novo caminho que fez por terra e mar, vindo da India para Portugal, no ano de 1663 . . . has an introduction by A. R. Machado. For an English translation of the chapter on Surat see G. M. Moraes (trans.), “Surat in 1663 as Described by

Manoel Godinho,” JRAS, Bombay Branch, XXVI (1952), 121-33. Father John CorreiaAfonso, S.J., has in preparation an English-language edition of the entire text. For further bibliographical detail see above, p. 354. 'S' Cf. on Surat’s population Gokhale, op. cit. (n. 15), pp. 10-11. Gokhale does not cite Godinho. Also see below, p. 744. ‘Sor a contrasting view of the Banyan houses as “simple structures” see ibid., pp. 15, 41. Since Gokhale’s observation stems from the comments of Thévenot and other later writers, it possibly reflects the devastation effected by Sivaji’s sack of the city in 1664. ‘S83 Probably the Sairyad Idrur mosque built in 1639.

[741 |

The Empire of Aurangzib closure pierced by four gateways.’ '* The guards at these gates escort all entrants to one of the city’s two customhouses which “are close to the river

and face each other.” Maritime goods go through customs at the larger of these buildings and inland merchandise at the smaller. Exports are checked at a special bureau in the customhouses and no one may leave the city without showing a receipt from the assessor of customs. According to Godinho, duties are normally 5 percent, but the Dutch since 1661 receive a rebate of

I percent given “by the present Emperor [Aurangzib] in consideration of a rich exquisite present . . . made to him in the name of the Company [| VOC].” "5

The defense of the city is left to the fortress on the river. It has three bulwarks and twenty pieces of iron and bronze artillery, mostly in bad condition. The moat of the fortress is very deep but narrow. Its garrison numbers two hundred “native soldiers” under a Mughul captain who reports only to the emperor and is independent of the governor. The captain is also in charge of

the funds deposited in the fortress: “the revenues of the province, the customs : dues and most of the coins that are struck in the city continuously.” These coins, the finest in India, are minted from the European and Persian coins which are melted down and refined here. Drums are beaten at the fortress at sunrise and sunset. There are no houses around the fortress to “stand in the way of the artillery.” Rather it is surrounded by a “beautiful open square in

which a fair is held every evening.” | |

Goods arrive at Surat by land and sea. The English and Dutch bring merchandise from Europe, the ships of the Red Sea carry the products of Africa, and the native (Indian) merchants import the merchandise of Asia Minor. The Indian merchants of Surat are rich and they have “fifty ships of their own going out to all the countries.” Goods from inland production centers are carried into Surat by caravans, bullocks, and camels “which enter its gates every hour.” The country around Surat produces wheat, pulses, and rice, as well as the date palm, from which a wine is produced by the Parsis. These white-skinned refugees from Persia worship the sun, the moon, and fire. Ifa house is on fire, they will not put the fire out “because that would amount to killing God.” '* Outside the city to the west are the tombs of the Muslims which are “separated from one another by stones at the head of each grave.” A bit further out are the English and Dutch cemeteries where the fine mausoleums of the chiefs 's¢ Twenty-five years earlier Mandelslo had reported that the city had but three gates. See above, p. 669. The earlier walls had possibly been destroyed by Murad’s invasion in 1657. See Tavernier in Ball and Crooke (trans. and eds.), op. cit. (n. 1), I, 262-64. ‘Ss Mandelslo reported in 1638 that duties on merchandise were 3¥% percent and on gold and silver 2 percent. See above, p. 668. Others claim that the general duty on merchandise was

2¥%2 percent. See below, p. 754. | |

‘5 This is acommon tale repeated by many European writers of the seventeenth century. The sacred writings of the Parsis advise believers to extinguish fire with water in cases of necessity.

, [ 742 ]

Surat

of their factories stand.” There is a separate graveyard for Catholics, in which crosses are planted on the graves. Also outside the city are two wells

which supply drinking water.’ The gentry of Surat, both Muslim and Hindu, ride beautiful Arab horses but without the “‘solar hats”’ worn as “the royal headgear” in the Mughul Empire." Some travel about in luxuriously appointed carriages drawn “‘by stately and swift-footed bullocks of beautiful colours.”

At Surat “the Dutch Commodores and the English Presidents fly their national flags from masts .. . higher than . . . all the towers in the city.” The Dutch, since their victories in south India, no longer send as many ships to Surat as formerly. But the English, since they have no usable port in India except for Madras on the inhospitable Coromandel Coast, continue to center their commerce at Surat. The European factors purchase cargoes for the expected ships in the local market or in the other ports to which they send coasting vessels. Formerly there was a Jesuit house in Surat whose fathers ministered to its Christians and carried on a mission. It was abandoned be- _ cause its priests were too often taken as hostages by the emperor when an issue arose with the Portuguese viceroy at Goa. The Jesuits since have been replaced by “two bearded French Capuchins”’ sent by the Propaganda who have a chapel inside their house. At the time of Godinho’s visit in 1663, the governor of Surat is a highly regarded Persian “much given to hunting leopards.””» When the emperor hears of his addiction to the chase he is removed from office and replaced.” The emperor learned of this governor’s neglect of duty through a Muslim

agent he maintains at Surat to keep him informed in the minutest detail about the nabob and his aides.*** These nabobs, who are treated with great

deference, appear in public only in the company of a grand entourage. Whenever an imperial dispatch is expected, the governor goes outside the city to meet the messenger. On accepting the letter brought by the mes-

opened to his palace." |

senger, the nabob respectfully touches it to his head and returns with it un-

Thévenot also went to Surat, traveling by sea. On his way there, he passes

by the Portuguese fortress of Diu, which he describes." On January 10, *57The English and Dutch cemeteries are still maintained by the government of India as historical sites. '88Probably another reference to the Gopi Talao, which actually consisted of two cisterns. See above, pp. 617, 652, 661, and below, pp. 746, 751. ‘Probably a reference to the chirah, the imperial turban reserved to the use of the emperor and the high nobles on whom it had been bestowed as a mark of favor. See Ansari, op. cit.

ey ovemor’s name was Mustafa Khan. See Gokhale, op. cit. (n. 15), p. 71. ‘* On the harkaras as intelligence agents see Saran, op. cit. (n. 90), pp. 184-86. '? All the foregoing is based on the translation of Godinho’s chapter on Surat in Moraes, loc. cit. (n. 150). '3Jn his Travels into the Levant (London, 1687), Pt. II, p. 196.

[743].

The Empire of Aurangzib 1666, he arrives at the “Bar of Surrat” where the ships must unload. On the following day he and his fellow passengers slowly proceed upriver with the tide in the ship’s boat to the customhouse. Thévenot then gives a valuable

and detailed description of the entire procedure required of a ship by the customs. The passengers’ names are inscribed in a register one by one. The person and baggage of each is closely searched for contraband. If gold and silver are found on the person, a 2¥%2 percent duty is charged. The passengers are

_ then permitted to enter the city, but they must return the following day to | collect their goods and to pay whatever duty is owed. On merchandise, foreigners are required to pay 4 percent and natives 5. In spite of all precautions and high fines, jewels are often smuggled in successfully by friends of the

Dutch commander." Thévenot notices that the earthen walls of Surat are in ruins thanks to Sivaji’s invasion of the city two years before (1664). New and thicker brick walls are now being built to protect the city against invasions by land. The new wall encloses a smaller part of the city and is built, in Thévenot’s opinion, too close to the fortress. '** The owners of the “cane houses” now outside the confines of the city are asking the government for fair compensation. The fortress, which survived Sivaji’s invasion, stands at the south end of the city right on the river and is designed to defend the city from seaborne attacks.*® Of moderate size and square, it has a large tower on each corner, and several cannons are mounted in its embrasures. The moats on its three land sides are | filled with sea water. It is entered on the land side through “‘a lovely Gate” which opens into the city’s principal bazaar. The provincial revenues kept in the fortress are “never sent to Court but by express Orders.”

The size of Surat’s population is difficult to determine, since it varies | greatly from season to season. During the fair-weather months of November to April, when the ships normally arrive, lodgings are hard to find even in the city’s three suburbs. While many foreigners congregate there, Chris-

tians are relatively few in number. Its “usual population” is made up of those who profess another faith: Muslims both native and foreign, Hindus, and Parsis, who are also called ‘““Gaures” (Persian, gabr) and ““Atechparest”’ (Atash-parast, or fire-worshippers).‘” Many of the local merchants are very

wealthy, especially a Banyan named “Vargivora” (Virji Vora).’** The En-

"4 Sen (ed.), op. cit. (n. 2), pp. 1-4. ,

*s'The new walls, long known as Sheherpanah (the Protection of the City) or the inner walls, were apparently under construction for more than a decade. They fell into ruins early in the - mineteenth century. See M. S. Commissariat, Studies in the History of Gujarat (Bombay, 1935), pp. 82-83. Also see Gokhale, op. cit. (n. 15), pp. 11-12. But also see L’Estra’s assertion about their good condition, below, p. 748. ‘°° The fortress was built in 1540 by Khudawand Khan, the governor of Surat from 1538-46, to protect the city against intrusions by the Portuguese. '*7 Gabr, meaning “infidel,” is a term of opprobrium. ‘On this merchant prince see Gokhale, op. cit. (n. 15), chap. viii. In religion he was a Jain and a lay leader of his community. Thévenot claims him as a friend, but fails to mention any-

thing about his religion. , [ 744 |

Surat glish and Dutch factors have “very pretty Apartments,” and there are about

one hundred Catholic families in the town. |

Housing is expensive in Surat, since there is no local stone. Buildings are generally made of “brick and lime” or wood imported by sea from Damio. The flat houses of the rich are fairly well built and “covered with Tiles made half round,” which are white because they are not well baked. These poor tiles but one-half inch thick are laid in double rows on lathes of bamboo. ~ The wooden frame that supports all this “is only made of pieces of round timber.” *® Most building takes place during the rainy season because the scorching sun of the dry season forces the masonry to dry too fast, causing “cracks and chinks in a trice.” In rainy weather the masons merely cover

their work with “a Wax-cloath” to let it dry slowly. While the streets of Surat “are large and even,” they are unpaved. Within the town proper there are no large public buildings, and the homes of the poor are built of bamboo covered with palm fronds.”

Christians and Muslims commonly eat beef in Surat. It is the flesh of cows rather than oxen, since the latter are customarily used to pull plows and heavy loads. They also eat mutton, pork, pullets, chicken, pigeons, and all kinds of wild birds. Two types of edible oil are available, from the “wild

saffron” and the “Sesamum,” the former being better than the latter.” Grapes are available from February to April, from which the Dutch make a

bitter wine. Large white grapes are brought to Surat from “Naapoura”’ (Navapur), a small town near Bombay. Local liquors are no better than the wines, a judgment which Thévenot follows with a lengthy discourse on “Tary’ (tari, or toddy of the tar, or the palmyra). Because it is a great international emporium, the weights, measures, and currencies used at Surat are | of many kinds.*” While in Surat Thévenot learns that its governor is inquiring about the desirability of permitting the newly formed French East India Company to trade there.‘ Seaport gossip, as well as the enemies of the French, had led him to think the French were pirates. The governor finally presents his misgivings about the French to Father Ambrose of Preuilly, the head of the Ca-

puchin mission in Surat. Satisfied himself that the French are legitimate traders, the governor asks the priest to write his comments down in Persian for forwarding to the emperor. The imperial court, evidently content with the Capuchin’s declaration, ordains that the French should be welcomed. 9 Cf. Gokhale, op. cit. (n. 15), pp. 15-16. Thévenot explains that local wood is not used because of the high cost of land transport. ‘7° Thévenot in Sen (ed.), op. cit. (n. 2), pp. 22-23. '™ Thévenot’s “wild saffron” is a common Indian thistle cultivated for its oil-producing seeds. The other is Sesamum indicum whose seeds yield sesame oil. See George Watt, A Dictionary of the Economic Products of India (7 vols. in 10; Calcutta, 1885-96), II, 378; VI, $02. '7? Sen (ed.), op. cit. (n. 2), pp. 23-26. Tavernier is far better on these commercial matters. See Ball and Crooke (trans. and eds.), op. cit. (n. 1), I, 7-32. ‘73 On the formation of the French East India Company in 1664 see above, p. 96.

[745 |

The Empire of Aurangzib _ When the two French envoys arrive, they are received with “extraordinary kindness.” Even the English president, a good friend of Father Ambrose, extends his hospitality to “Sieurs de la Boullaye and Beber” on their arrival

in Surat.” Surat’s cemeteries are just outside the “Baroche” (Broach) gate. The English and Dutch like to build tombs over their graves of “Pyramids of Brick

whitened over with Lime.” The Indian Christians have square plaster tombs, some topped with domes or pyramids and all with a little window on one side through which the grave may be seen. The Banyans burn their dead on the riverside at a special place also outside the city and beyond the cemeteries. The ashes are left there to be carried away by the sacred waters of the Tapti River. Children who die before becoming two years of age are not burned but buried. “‘Vartias” (Jains) and Yogis are likewise buried following the orders of “Madeo” (Mahadeoa or Siva), “one of their great Saints.” '” Near the English cemetery there is a great oblong well built by the charity of a Banyan for the refreshment of travelers. In the direction of the “Daman” (Damao) gate there is a greater reservoir. The gate itself is “covered and en-

compassed” by a huge banyan tree under which visitors to the tank find repose. The reservoir has sixteen sides, each one hundred paces long. Its bottom is paved with large stones. Stone steps leading “from the brim to the bottom of the Bason” almost completely surround the tank, giving it the appearance of an amphitheater. Where no steps are laid, there are slopes which run into the water, three of which are reserved for animals. In the middle of the tank stands a stone pleasure house which can be reached only by boat. In the rainy season water from the surrounding fields is channeled into the basin. Built by a rich Banyan named “Gopy” (Gopi), this reservoir formerly supplied Surat with water; at present the city is supplied by five wells dug long after the reservoir. The great tank was begun “at about the Same time’’ as the fortress (i.e., around 1546) and reputedly both cost about the same amount to construct. Now this work, worthy of the Romans, is in danger of being silted up for lack of proper maintenance.'”’ Just beyond the reservoir is the Garden of the Princess, “so-called because it belongs to the

Surat. Great Mogul’s sister.” ‘7’ It includes great plots of trees and shrubs, pleasant walks which form a cross, a small canal, and a square pleasure house.*” Near

'4Sen (ed.), op. cit. (n. 2), pp. 29-31. Francois de La Boullaye Le Gouz and “a M. Beber” were sent by Colbert to obtain permission from the Mughul emperor to trade at Surat. Le Gouz, the official emissary to Agra, had visited India ca. 1648 and had published in 1653 the travelogue of his experiences in the East as Les voyages et observations. He arrived at Agra in August, 1666, and obtained from Aurangzib the necessary permission. Beber remained in Surat to lay the groundwork for French commerce there. Two years later the French began to trade at

‘75 Sen (ed.), op. cit. (n. 2), pp. 33-34. On the “Vertias” or “Vartias” see Asia, I, 459-60.

‘On the Gopi Talao cf. Commissariat, op. cit. (n. 165), pp. 97-108, and above,

pp. 617, 652, 661, 743. This tank has now all but completely disappeared. '7 Probably one of the gardens owned by Jahanara Begam, the sister of Aurangzib. ‘7? Cf. Commissariat, op. cit. (n. 165), p. 93.

[ 746 |

Surat the garden stands another great banyan tree which the Hindus worship and bedeck with banners (see pl. 127). Under the tree is a temple dedicated to “Mamera” (Mahamaya) or “a representation of Eve.” '” A Brahman sits at this temple who receives alms from the devout and in return paints a red mark on their foreheads. Here a man (a Jain) is also to be seen who feeds flour to the ants. The fields around Surat are brown in color and so rich that they never are manured. After the rainy season the people sow their grain in September, and they harvest after February. Sugarcane is planted in deep furrows fertilized with small fish. Good profit is made from the cultivation of rice and palm trees. The Dutch water their fields with well water carried in skins by oxen. The river water is too brackish for watering or drinking; it is used only for bathing. While the Tapti is but a stream in the dry season, it overflows its banks in the rainy months to cause extensive flood damage. Its source is at “Gehar-Conde”’ (Gahara Kunda?, meaning “deep tank”) in the Deccan mountains near “Brampour” (Burhanpur)."®° Trading ships are forced to discharge their cargo at the Bar of Surat because banks of sand prevent their going upriver. They must await the spring tide to go to Surat for careening and repairs. Small barks easily go upriver with all incoming tides. The true port of Surat for oceangoing vessels is at “Soualy”’ (Suwali) where they ride safely at anchor behind the sand bar." But since it is difficult to control the customs there, no foreign ships have been permitted to land there since 1660 except those of the Dutch and English. Here these two powers have warehouses and are provided with an opportunity to smuggle items of small size. These Europeans have their own harbors for small craft, as well as gardens and houses at Suwali. At the Bar there are always a great many vessels of other nations. At the customhouse in Surat the master is a Muslim appointed by the governor, the clerks are Banyans, and the guards, porters, and other lesser servitors are Muslims known as the “Pions” (peons) of the customhouse. '” By the time Thévenot left for Persia in February, 1667, his French coun-

trymen had begun to establish a factory at Surat. Francois Caron,’* the Dutch director of the French East India Company, arrived at Surat early in 1668 with a grandiose scheme in hand designed to establish new French trading outposts at Masulipatam and in Bengal, Siam, China, and Japan. Almost immediately he and his French colleagues began to quarrel over the proper trading program to follow. In France itself, perhaps because of the ‘79 Mahamaya is the name of a mother-aspect of Parvati, chief wife of Siva. See G. Liebert, Iconographic Dictionary of the Indian Religions (Leyden, 1976), p. 159.

*°'The Tapti rises near Multai in Betul district of Madhya Pradesh. Its name derives from Sanskrit “tap” meaning “heat.” See B. C. Law (ed.), Mountains and Rivers of India (Calcutta,

1968), p. 271. | ,

'*t Suwali is about twelve miles from the city. See plate 12. ‘8 Thévenot in Sen (ed.), op. cit. (n. 2), pp. 34-38. ‘3On Caron’s role see above, pp. 97-99.

[747 |

The Empire of Aurangzib crown’s deep involvement in this Asian enterprise, very little was published

contemporaneously on the problems of the Company in India. The only work of significance was by Francois L’Estra (1650-97), a young undermerchant of the Company, who landed in Surat in 1671, joined De La Haye’s southern expedition in 1671-72, and was captured by the Dutch late

in 1672 on the Coromandel Coast. From here he was taken to Bengal, where he waited one month for transport to Batavia. Two years after his return to France, he published at Paris in 1677 his Relation ou journal of his | experiences in the East." This book, the work of a young and enthusiastic traveler, is mainly important for what it reports about Surat, Sivaji, the progress and activities of De La Haye’s fleet, and the city of Batavia as a commercial center. L’Estra

arrived in Surat on October 26, 1671, and stayed there for exactly two months before departing with Caron in the fleet of De La Haye. His observations about the people of Surat are ill-informed and naive. He was there, however, just one year after Sivaji sacked the city for the second time in October, 1670. L’Estra was told that Sivaji headed twenty thousand Mahrattas, who extorted money from Surat’s merchants, including the Dutch and English factors, and pillaged the town for eight days. Caron and the French frightened the Mahrattas off by aiming their cannons at the delegation sent to their factory at Suwali."*s A year after the sack, Surat’s walls are in good condition and mounted with artillery."° The governor and garrison never leave its fortress, so the factors go there to visit. Europeans of all nationalities feel strongly the hostility of the Muslims. In sum, L’Estra has little that is novel to report about India. His descriptions of the cities of the Coromandel Coast and the Ganges delta are somewhat better, but hardly of special interest. It was not until 1688, after several successive defeats of the French at San Thomé and in Siam, that the troubles of the Company in Asia were revealed in print to the general public. In that year was published the Histoire des Indes orientales (Paris) by Urbain Souchu de Rennefort, a servant of the Company

during its early and ill-fated venture in Madagascar.'*” While this book is primarily an attack upon the Company for its abandonment of Madagascar, it contains a journal by an unspecified author (certainly not the author of the

book itself) on French activities in India during 1669-70." Rennefort apparently had access to the files of the Company, for he publishes the French ‘**For bibliographical data and full title, see above, p. 418. *ST’Estra, Relation ou journal, pp. 53-57. This is contrary to the reports of the English, who claim that the French bought Sivaji off and that the English and Dutch defended themselves.

See Gokhale, op. cit. (n. 15), p. 25. °TEstra, op. cit. (n. 185), p. 38. Again this runs counter to the assertions of other contem-

porary and later observers. "*7See above, p. 422.

“Pt. Il, Bk. 2. Rennefort added materials to the original journal appropriated from Thévenot and possibly other French writers.

[ 748 |

Surat version of Aurangzib’s farman of September 4, 1666, granting the French permission to set up a factory at Surat, as well as Caron’s letter to the “king

of Ceylon” of December 29, 1667. He also provides, without citing his sources, a wealth of detail on the relations of the French merchants with Caron, Father Ambrose (their interpreter), and the governor of Surat. He

reports on the departure in May, 1669, for Golconda of the two merchants : “Macara” and “Roussel,” who hoped to obtain permission to establish a French factory at Masulipatam.'® Despite its title there is actually very little material in this book on India or its people. At the end of the rainy season of 1674, Dr. Fryer is ordered to take a ship from Bombay to Surat. Arrived at Suwali, he is lodged in the English compound, a collection of tiled wooden houses, warehouses, and stables, with as much of a garden “‘as this sandy soil will allow.’ Here he is plagued by

fleas and leech-like Banyan brokers who are licensed by the governor of Surat to act as intermediaries in the trade. The nearby villages of “Damkin”

(Damka) and “Mora” (Mora) are “two Nursies for Stews [prostitutes].” The ten miles to Surat is traversed in the Company’s “Indian Hackery” (Hindi, chhakra), a “two-wheeled Chariot [cart] drawn by swift little Oxen.” Transported across the Tapti River in the Company’s barge, Fryer is greeted by a roll of drums and a blare of trumpets emanating from the fortress. His carriage is not examined at the customhouse because it is accompanied by an enclosed coach carrying women. The president of the Company, like the women, is not subject to their ordinarily strict inspections.

The “English House” at Surat is “partly the King’s [Emperor’s] Gift, _ partly hired.” ’” It is strongly built of stone and timber with heavy and thick cemented floors. Following the “Moorish” (Mughul) style it has “upper and

lower Galleries” and neat and convenient places for outdoor dining. The president has “spacious Lodgings” with special rooms for meetings and entertainments. During the shipping season, the whole place is “in a continual hurly-burly” with Banyans, packers, and warehouse men coming and going all day. Besides the president, the English have four principal officers: the accountant of the Company’s entire India trade and its treasurer, the keeper of the warehouse, the marine purser, and the secretary. These officials all report directly to the president, for without his approval they cannot “act or do anything.” In order of rank, the lesser servants of the Company include merchants, factors, writers, and apprentices." Senior merchants usually become chiefs of the factories subordinate to Surat where they live in “like Grandeur’; then they return to Surat as resident members of the president’s

council, which usually consists of five men in addition to the president. "9 Aurangzib’s farman is on pp. 286—88 of the Histoire, Caron’s letter on pp. 313-14. For the efforts to establish a French factory at Masulipatam see below, p. 1076, n.291

'° Cf. below, pp. 754-55. |

'* Fryer calls the apprentices “Blewcoat Boys.” These are charity children who wear the al- , moner’s blue coat.

[ 749 |

The Empire of Aurangzib From this council is selected the deputy governor of Bombay and the agent

of Persia. The twenty resident Englishmen who work in the factory are served by a minister, a physician, and a small contingent of English soldiers.

, Banyans usually act as interpreters, since the Company’s servants, despite official encouragement to do so, rarely learn enough of the local languages to carry on business. The presidency of Surat is in charge of all the English factories in India and Persia.’ Subordinate inland factories are at Ahmadabad, where silks are purchased, and at Agra, which provides indigo, lac, and textiles. The coastal factories of Bombay and Rajapur buy “Salloos” (Hindi, salu, Turkish red cotton cloths), Karwar purchases ““Dungarees” (Dutch, dongerijs, a strong, coarse calico), and Calicut collects spices, ambergris, garnets, opium, and saltpeter. No cloth is purchased at Calicut even though its name is used in Europe for all Indian textiles; this misnomer evolved because Calicut was the port at which European merchants first purchased Indian textiles or calicoes. After the ships from Europe are unloaded, the merchandise from the coastal ports is brought to Surat by ship and that from the inland factories by caravan. In the places near Surat the factors oversee the weavers to make certain that a supply of textiles is on hand when the ships arrive from Europe. “On these Wheels moves the Traffick of the East,” Fryer concludes. The Restoration Company has been far more successful than any of the earlier chartered companies in bringing benefits to England. As for the trade of Surat itself, “for some years lately passed [it] has hardly balanced Expenses,” even though the English have a far larger share than the Dutch or French. The Dutch sell spices at Surat, purchase small quantities of cheap, coarse cloth, and leave with money in their pockets. The French factory has

more merchants than cash; they “live well, borrow money, and make a Shew.” The Company indulges its servants by letting them carry on a private trade in diamonds and other precious stones so that they grow rich without harming the Company. French and Dutch jewelers, like Tavernier and his

, associates, purchase jewels here which they take to Europe for cutting and setting; then they return to India to sell them to the nobles at a profit. ‘3 The walls and moat of Surat ordered by Aurangzib in 1664 after Sivaji’s

first sack are still being built ten years later. The completed portions are | high and of well-baked brick. The fortress, while old, is moated by the | | river, protected by thirty or forty pieces of heavy artillery, and manned by | three hundred soldiers. Its independent governor (the killedar) is confined to

the fortress and dares not enter the town on pain of losing his head. The ruins left by Sivaji in 1670 are still not repaired, and the city lives in fear of a '? The Presidency of Bantam, founded in 1603, had become independent of Surat by this time. It governed the English factories in the East Indies, the Bay of Bengal, and the Coromandel Coast of India. ‘Fryer in Crooke (ed.), op. cit. (n. 4), I, 210-27. Cf. Commissariat, op. cit. (n. 149), II, 371-74, on the Surat factory.

[750 ]

| Surat renewed attack. ‘Io hurry the reconstruction of the wall and to prepare the city’s defenses the authorities are collecting a hundred thousand rupees. Seven hundred men are assigned to protect the wall, with Europeans delegated to defend its six gates. On each of its thirty-six bastions six great guns

are mounted. Spiked timbers are piled on top of the wall to repel scalers. , Every gate is barbed with iron spikes to break an elephant charge. The city’s

governor has at his command an infantry unit of fifteen men armed with matchlocks, swords, and javelins, as well as two hundred cavalrymen armed with bows and arrows, lances, and swords. The governor keeps forty camels and six elephants armed for war. In his booth-like stables of haircloth, each horse is attended by a personal groom who feeds and courts it “with all the gentleness and kind Speeches imaginable.” When troubles develop in 1674 between the governor and the Dutch, the Mughul official issues a ““Deroy’ (Mahratti, durahi, a decree) forbidding all Europeans to leave the city without his special permission. *” At the “Broach gate” of Surat, as at all of its other gates, stands a “Chocky” (Hindi, chauki, toll station) at which tolls are collected for the emperor; the Rajputs likewise collect tolls at Surat’s gates which are really payments to

keep them from preying upon the surrounding villages and roads. The Broach road is lined with Muslim tombs near which is the grave of Tom Coryate (d. 1617), whom the natives call the “English Fakier.” Adjoining the Dutch cemetery is a garden in which the Armenians bury their dead and erect “Monuments Coffin-Fashion with a place to burn Incense at the Head.” Most impressive is the mausoleum of Sir George Oxenden in the English cemetery. About one mile out of the city on a hill are sepulchers of “Muanny Pilgrims,” probably a reference to local Yogis. Further out is the town

of “Pulparra” (Phulpara) which is set apart as a Hindu holy place on the river where they have a seminary for Brahmans. Its two remaining temples have been defaced by the Muslims. As a Hindu place of cremation, Phulpara also has sati shrines along the sacred river as well as many emaciated Yogis

who look like “walking Skelitons.”” The road from Phulpara to Surat is lined with shade trees and crowded with all sorts of people. All that remains of Hindu grandeur near Surat is a great empty tank one “mile in Circumference” with rich mausoleums on its brink. Originally it had been filled by

aqueducts but is now dry, so that it looks like a huge amphitheater with descending steps.‘ Pleasant gardens surround Surat in which the people of the town take the air and feast in summerhouses. From step-wells, water is raised in leather

bags by oxen and spilled into ditches to water these gardens. Here grow “the Silk Cotton-tree” (Bombax malabarica, or the simal tree), the hemp-like

plant from whose seeds bhang is made, and the beloved “Alluh” (?) tree,

ruined by 1717. } [751] oe

‘4 Crooke (ed.), op. cit. (n. 4), I, 248-52. Cf’ Commissariat, op. cit. (n. 149), I, 376-77. '5"The Gopi Talao was apparently already dry and neglected in 1674. It was completely __

The Empire of Aurangzib

whose bark is used as medicine. Instead of flowers the people here grow vegetables in their gardens: potatoes, “yawms” (yams), ““Berenjaws” (brin-

jal, or eggplant), pumpkins, cucumbers, and gourds. While roses would grow here, they choose only to cultivate “some wall-flowers” (possibly Dianthus caryophyllus), ““Culga” (Hindi, kalgha, cockscomb), the ‘“Tree Mallow” (Hibiscus mutabilis), and several kinds of jasmines. In the fields outside the city grow the “humble Sensitive Plant” (Mimosa pudica), tobacco, and sugarcane. The “tree of roots” is called the banyan tree because the Banyans

hold it sacred, worship it daily, and make offerings of rice to it. Beside hedges and lanes grow two kinds of bushes used as fences: “Milk trees” (Euphorbia tiruncalli) and a kind of privet.

The Tapti River “glides by the Town in swift Tides” and in the spring is deep enough to permit unloaded ships of one thousand tons to come up to Surat’s walls. As many as one hundred “good ships’? and smaller vessels

then lie thickly on the river down to its mouth. The Dutch and English think it unwise to instruct the natives in the art of navigation at sea. Even though the Indians have merchant vessels armed with thirty or forty cannons, these are mostly for show. The emperor also maintains four war vessels and four great ships which carry the pilgrims to Mecca free of charge. The pilgrim ships are “huge unshapen things, and bear both the Name and Model of their old Junks.”’ But for all their preparations, the Indians dare not venture out to sea without European pilots and passes. Their name for a soldier is “Luscar” (ldscar), for a sailor “lascar” (lascdr), for a ship’s captain ““Nucquedah” (Persian, nd-khudd), and for a boatswain ‘Tindal’? (Malayalam, tandal).*°°

_ Trading ships arrive at Surat from the Persian Gulf in February and from the Red Sea in August. Like the European ships they buy indigo and textiles; in the main they bring precious metals and pearls as well as lesser-valued dates, drugs, and horses. Most of the world’s gold supply ends up in India because of the need for its textiles. Even the proceeds from the spice trade are used to pay for Indian textiles. Surat also profits from the jewel trade. Its artisans cut stones with many fewer tools than the gem-cutters of Europe. All stones except diamonds are cut on a wheel made of lac and a stone obtained only at Cochin.” Diamonds are cut “with a Mill turned by Men,” but they are mostly sent to Europe for cutting and setting. Although wealthy from trade, Surat is a “very nasti” city. Since it has no “Privies,’’ every door is a “dunghill.” Waste is left to evaporate or to be washed away by the rains. Still, Surat has never suffered from the plague.” Common ailments are coughs, catarrhs, tumors of the mouth and throat, ‘Fryer in Crooke (ed.), op. cit. (n. 4), I, 252-69. On the confusing history of the Persian word lashkari (soldier) see Yule and Burnell, op. cit. (n. 124), pp. 507-9. ‘97 More recently, powdered corundum was mixed into the melted lac. Crooke (ed.), ibid. (n. 4), p. 284, n. 2. ‘Plague later broke out, ca. 1685, and raged for six years in Surat. See below, p. 755.

[ 752]

Surat |

rheumatism, and intermittent fevers. Young people contract smallpox “as in all India.” Certain diseases prevail seasonally. In the dry and hot months, cholera breaks out sporadically and inflammation of the eyes is common. In the rainy season, cases of dysentery, hemorrhages, and “Distempers of the Brain, as well as Stomach” multiply. The natives use “Hing [Hindi, hing], a sort of liquid Assa Foetida,” as a medicine; it has a repulsive odor that makes __ them “smell odiously.” For disorders characterized by sleepiness or drowsiness, garlic and ginger are given orally in butter or oil. They use as vesi-

cant a liquid derived from “a certain Nut,” which is also employed in making inks and dyes.*” Cauteries are applied “unmercifully” in cases of cholera and violent fevers.

The English are well treated at Surat because they have received successive farmans from the emperor and possess sufficient naval power to protect their freedom. They are regarded much more highly than those who are “harness’d with the Apron-strings of Trade” and who have no special legal status. Private merchants who carry on a trade equal to the European companies enjoy a lower status because they are only “Vackeels” (Arabic, wakil, an authorized representative) or factors for rich merchants in the interior.

The Europeans fortify their houses, have their own docks and yards, and cultivate their own gardens in the European way.” The Portuguese “might — have Subdued” India’s coastal region had not the English and Dutch come upon the scene. Although from a “Commonwealth” in Europe, the Dutch governor of Batavia behaves like a monarch in the East. The Dutch of neces-

sity maintain a “Tyrannical Government in India” to terrorize the Indians | who cannot “be won by any other way then Force.” The English, content with their Bombay colony and peaceful trade, “command not that Awe by which these people are best taught to understand themselves.” *” John Ovington officiated as chaplain of the English factory from September, 1690, to February, 1693. On arriving at Suwali he learns that only European vessels are permitted to anchor in its harbor. Indian ships are required to enter the Tapti River or to berth at its mouth. Close by Suwali harbor stand

three wooden rest-houses reserved for the use of the English, French, and Dutch factors when they come down from Surat.” The greatest strength of Surat is its fortress, which commands both the river and land approaches. | The city’s wall, “flankt at certain Distances with Towers and Battlements,”’ now has six or seven gates at which sentinels are posted constantly. In the evening the streets of the city, especially those near the bazaar, are more crowded than those of “‘any part of London.” The governor of the fortress © "99 This is indeed asafoetida, a gum resin commonly used in India still as medicine and condiment. See Yule and Burnell, op. cit. (n. 124), pp. 418-19. 20° An astringent derived possibly from the marking-nut tree (Semecarpus anacardium). °' Fryer in Crooke (ed.), op. cit. (n. 4), I, 288-89. 22 Ihid., II, 114-15. °3 Rawlinson (ed.), op. cit. (n. 3), p. 100.

[753]

The Empire of Aurangzib usually holds office for no more than three years, a long time when it 1s realized that he may never leave its confines and must be “continually upon his Guard.” ** All imports and exports of precious metals and foreign currencies pay at Surat 2 percent duty and “other Goods pay more.”’ In all the

marts of Asia the Armenians “are as universal Merchants . . . [and] their Language is one of the most general in all Asia.” The Dutch alone supply Surat with fine spices and share only the pepper trade with the English.” The civil governor of Surat receives and decides upon petitions and appeals in his residence. About matters of moment he consults and makes decisions jointly with the city’s other officials: the kazi, the vakiahnavis (or wagiah-navis, news-writers), and the kotwal. The kazi is a judge who is well informed on the “Civil Customs” of the empire and on municipal law. The news-writer prepares a weekly report about Surat for the emperor. Another officer, called the harkara, reports to the court on all local news and happenings, “whether true or false . . . of moment or of no account.” The kotwal, “somewhat resembling a Justice of the Peace,” tours the city from nine in

the evening until five in the morning to maintain order and to seek out offenders. Although the city hosts many foreigners in addition to its own populace, very few untoward events or minor crimes occur. Indeed over the

last twenty years nobody has been punished for a capital crime in Surat. Peace and order are maintained in the country and on highways by a faujdar

and his aides.” Two miles from Surat on the Tapti is the beautiful town called “Pulparrock” (Phulpara), where many “Santones” (Gujarati, santa, ascetics) pleasantly while away the time.” According to Ovington, the English factory at Surat is maintained at an annual cost of one hundred thousand pounds. Its factors, who keep the other Europeans from cornering the city’s trade, must live in style to be content themselves and to impress the natives and the other merchants with England’s wealth and strength. The factory itself is provided by the emperor and “‘is fitted with the best Accommodations of any in the City.” Its president, officers, and factors are paid good annual salaries by the Company, which they supplement by engaging in private trade, a legal privilege which the Dutch factors envy. The factory and the trade are ruled by a council of

four which includes in order of rank the president, the accountant, the storekeeper, and the purser mariner; the president has a double vote in making decisions. Factors, secretaries, and apprentices have three- to fiveyear terms, “or as many as they and the Company have agreed upon at their first coming out.” All enjoy free lodging and board and are served by native employees in their business and private affairs. The many native servants, _ This assertion about the length of the governor’s tenure is correct. See Gokhale, op. cit. (n. 15), pp. 70-71. *°5 Rawlinson (ed.), op. cit. (n. 3), pp. 129-34.

°° Ibid., pp. 136-39. *°7 Ibid., p. 210. Cf. above, p. 740.

[754]

Surat |

who are noted for their honesty, live outside the factory. All members of the factory are required to obtain the president’s permission to leave the factory or to take a trip. Daily at noon a sumptuous meal is served on silver plates. At supper the council meets alone to discuss business and the affairs of the Company. Within the factory English customs and manners are followed, though Portuguese and Indian dishes are served. On holidays the president ©

and “his Lady” invite all factory members to an outing. The Company pro- | vides an Indian physician, an English surgeon, and a Christian chaplain to attend to the physical and spiritual needs of its servants. Attendance is required by Company orders at the daily prayers and Sunday services held in the factory’s chapel. The chaplain supplements his annual salary with the generous gratuities he receives for officiating at marriages, baptisms, and burials, as well as the income he earns by his private trading activities. While life at the factory is generally placid, the English are confined to its precincts by Surat’s governor for brief periods in 1691 and 1692 when falsely charged with conspiring to pirate Turkish vessels. When the Danes prove to be the culprits, the emperor quickly orders the release of the English.**

“Six years” ago (ca. 1685) the plague broke out among the Indians of Surat and it continues to recur intermittently. Outbreaks are most common just before and immediately after the wet season. At these times as many as three hundred Hindus and Muslims die daily; on one morning alone more than one hundred were carried out of the city to be burned. Just before the onset of the plague, the city suffered a small earthquake which caused alarm

but produced no damage or death. The English, who suffered from neither | of these natural calamities, are regarded with awe by the natives who believe “that God is among us.” At ‘“‘Balsera’”’ (Bulsar) a short violent attack of the plague killed “Two Hundred Thousand People in Eighteen Days time.”’ Fe-

vers of various kinds are common and Europeans often suffer from them after a “strong Debauch.” Cholera, caused most frequently “by an Excess in Eating, particularly of Fish and Flesh together,” claims a few victims. Europeans sometimes suffer from “Barbeers” (beriberi), a disease which paralyzes their limbs.”°° Fevers are cured by Indian physicians by administering a “White Powder” or prescribing “Congy” (Hindi, kanji, rice gruel). “White powders” against fevers sent to England have been successfully used there as well."° On a brief visit to Surat in February, 1695, Careri, the Neapolitan world traveler, stays in the house of the French director. Located at the entrance to the Bay of Cambay, Surat is “not large” and is enclosed by “‘a weak wall”

built after it was plundered by Sivaji. Its fortress is “no better,” though it does command the sea and land approaches to the city. The governor of the fortress commands only its garrison, the city itself being ruled by a nabob , 8 Ibid., pp. 225-44; and see the engraving of the English factory as of 1638 facing p. 226. | °° Probably caused by a deficiency of vitamin Br. *°Ovington in Rawlinson (ed.), op. cit. (n. 3), pp. 203-5. Probably mercury powders.

[755] |

The Empire of Aurangzib “who receives the King’s Taxes throughout the whole Province.” *" The city boasts only one dozen “good houses,” those belonging to the French, English, Dutch, and Muslim merchants. The Capuchins have a church with a house nearby that is built “after the manner of Europe.” The merchants of “the prime Mart of India” are so well furnished with rich goods that they can “load any great Ship out of one of their Ware-Houses.’’ Under the banyan tree of Surat are four Hindu temples, one being a lodging for holy men. In a hospital for birds and beasts a naked man is bound hand and foot so that the bugs may feed on his body. Before the shop of a “Pagan Marchant,” a

rogue threatens to kill a hen, in order to extort money from the pious Banyans.””

4

BOMBAY AND THE PORTUGUESE PORTS

In a lengthy letter of about 1674, Fryer discusses Bombay and its surroundings and provides a sketchy map of its seven islands.**? These islands “arising as so many Mountains out of the Sea,” lie off the ““Canarick Coast” (Kanara Coast) midway between Surat and Goa. The island of Bombay itself is the

_ farthest out to sea and faces the Portuguese outposts of Chaul and Bassein on the “Conchon” (Konkan) or low-country coast. A natural bay exists between Bombay island and the mainland, from which is derived the name “Bombaim, quasi Boom Bay.” "* On the north side of the bay are the islands of “Canorein” (Kanheri), “Trumbay” (Trombay), and “Munchumbay” (°). Between these islands and the mainland lie the small islands of “Elephanto”’ (Elephanta), ‘““Kerinjau” (Karanja or Uran Island), and “Putachoes” (Portuguese, Ilha de Patecas, or ““watermelon island”’). The harbor between these islands and the mainland is “the most notable and secure Port on the Coasts of India.” The general name for this cluster of islands is “Salset” (Salsette), a word whose etymology is unclear.** "The imperial governors of the sarkar of Surat collected the taxes of the mahdls (revenue subdistricts) into which the sarkar was subdivided. See Gokhale, op. cit. (n. 15), p. 51.

> Careri in Sen (ed.), op. cit. (n. 2), pp. 163-66. ,

3 Cf. the map as of 1660 in M. D. David, History of Bombay, 1661-1708 (Bombay, 1973), facing p. 9. Fryer’s map (in Crooke [ed.], op. cit. [n. 4], I, facing p. 131) is incorrect in details. ?*4BEryer’s misapplication of certain general terms, such as Kanara, reflects the uncertainty of Europeans about the extent of the common geographical divisions of the mainland. The old travelers commonly derive the name Bombay from Portuguese “Bom” meaning “good” and “Bahia” meaning “‘bay.”’ It actually derives from the name of the goddess Mumba Devi, a deity of the Koli fisherfolk. See David, op. cit. (n. 213), p. 6. 715Salsette, actually a separate island, derives from Mahratti, shashti, “sixty-six,” for it was supposed to have that number of villages. Fryer’s description of the islands, like his map, is incorrect in numerous details. The seven islands are Bombay, Salsette, Trombay, Elephanta, Khanderi, Underi, and Henery. In the seventeenth century they were all separate islands; they

are not so now. Kanheri (Kenery or Kennery) is on Salsette Island. | [756 |

THE MUGHUL EMPIRE ON}| |ee EUROPEAN PRINTED MAPS. oe

~ Wilham Baffin and Thomas Roe col- Pilgrimes (1625).? Elstrack corrected sev- | laborated to prepare the first modern eral errors on the original plate but

map of northern India, which they added nothing substantive. He dropped -

called “A Description of East India Con- the cartouche in the lower left-hand corteyning the Empire of the Great Mo- ner, but in the essentials his new map is goll.” Baffin, the draftsman, was master’s an accurate copy of the original. For ex- ,

mate on the ship “Anne,” on which Roe ample, both show prominently “The | ,

returned to England. While in India, | Longe Walke”’ or the lines of trees be-

Roe had collected materials on the prov- tween the palacesof Agraand Lahore,a inces, chief towns, and major rivers and _ feature that was long to remain on Eu- |

- routes of the Mughul Empire. In Lon- ropean maps of the Mughul Empire. . don, Baffin based his map on these and a The Baffin-Roe map remained the few other available materials and issued — standard on which most subsequent de-

a sheet map engraved by Renold pictions of the Mughul Empire were ,

Elstrack which first appeared in print in based throughout the seventeenth cen- coe

1619." , tury. Names were changed over time _ -

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, published six years later in Purchas His gravers to the Baffin-Roe map, and a

: , , particularly to the version printed in 7

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II0. THE MUGHUL EMPIRE .

rom e€ichiseaec evenot comp.), me ations de aivers voyages .

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|| || Of Biol Namely, OF tictHealth, Goveroricar, Religion, Laws Cultoms| theCounies: Soil, Climates, Seafons, Dileafes. Of the Animals, Vepeta-|| || 26), 1 1 r-Pp. | 52. _ | | | Bis Miners, Jewels’ Of her Houing, Cloathing, Manafadues, Trate,| |, sPbarenUy indecipher | | Commodities. And of the Coins, Weights, and Meafures, nfed ia the Prin-| | 2D1€, US specimen

| | opal Places of Trade im thofe Pars = 0 0 ss ( ss~—s_ {seems to be written in

filoy - a7 oe - — §.#©=—h} Professor | | By JOHN BB Rs M12.§Cattelrs||) Old Kannada. OO —t—“‘“#AS UUniversity of Chicago, |

lle. 1QOUN FRYER MOD few. || semblance to Kanarese or _

cation): “This certainly

LI ptcceccecn ccc once oe a ee oe, ||) (writes (private communi- ,

1 | Qlutrated with (daps, figures, and Cicful Cabies. | | SopL

VO ———C CCTs = | | looks like Kannada to

i LhUrUrhmrr iC Ced.), A New Account of , | [Prineed by R Rfor Ri. Cuiswer, atthe RofeandGrum| | East India and Persia. ©. || in Se-Panl’s Church-Yard. MDCXCVUL = | | by John Fryer (3 vols.; i rtrtrts—~—sr—i‘_O.CizsV«si«C_i‘i‘C(i‘i‘NSSC§ AA London, 1909, 1912,

Fa acraeaeaschmcccecaaneteanceg eT tc cease nccnsammeeauasamaaiagsooscustinoaeesenontin an vec omechooit aeons Sinise eee NE :

| Nn. 45-136, n. 4. |

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mee eNCR saarnke+ 3 a a CL 148. SKETCH OF THE ZAMORIN S ee |

.6

190 The Travels of Peter Della Valle,

PALACE AT CALICUT |_¢ : From G. Havers (trans.), The Travels of io

Sig. Pietro della Valle, A Noble Roman, 10 p| into East-India and Arabia Deserta (Lon- a 6 lo don, 1665), p. I90. 000000000 “T will here present to your view a 0000000 | | rough and unmeasur’d Plat-form of the —P——P___D__B ‘o 0000000000 | 12

°9 79 | | 150 170 |

|5

3] (p 9) 3 4 7 3

Samori’s [Zamorin’s| Palace, and the tg 120 40 ~=20 place where he gave us Audience [in a 1623]|” (p. 189). ,

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149. THE ZAMORIN OF CALICUT |

AND HIS PALACE |

From BY (facsimile ed., Amsterdam, 2 , 3 3 , 1969), III, ““Beschryvinghe van de | tweede Voyagie. . . onder. . . Steven ne 20 | van der Hagen,” between pp. 8from and 9.this ; DS Plates 174 and 179 are also , ——

book. |I.a.The fttle Piazza without the firft Gate of the Palace. The firft Gate guarded with Balifters. This i . 3. A great Court within the firft Gate, which fhould be 5 1S p resumably a p ortrait of the longer in proportion to the bredth, but is drawn thus in re-

bar” h led i 6 he d f veral places. . Zamorin (called also the “king of Mala- gard of the fcantnefs ofthe paper, it hath lodgings about it in fe-

ar ) who ruied 1n I 04, the ate O 4. The King’s Houfe, and the Apartment of his Women.

Steven van der Hagen’s advent in Fhe ernok the laid Houte.

Calicut 7 A dark Room lock'd u

This is probably the same palace | 8. ADoos

where Vasco da Gama was received in — 1498. It is said that two pillars still remain of the palace where Da Gama was

received See J Murray, A Handbook for Samorin vaa Calicutt,

,Ceylon ; ers (18th in Ined.;ia,London, Pakistan, 1959), Burma p. 441. and Coninckyaz Malabar. pene

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I1§2. THE TEN AVATARS OF VISHNU : ae

From Abraham Roger, Le thédatre de _ Engraved sketches of Indian gods had V’idolatrie, ou la porte ouverte (Amsterdam, . appeared on the title page of Roger’s 1670), between pp. 366 and 367. Plates Open-Deure (1651) (pl. 196, below). Jean 197, 199, and 200 are also from this Schipper of Amsterdam, the publisher of

book. its French translation, inserted the collec- _

, tion of avatar pictures shown here. They - were sketchily copied from the French , edition (1670) of Kircher’s work. For a

detailed discussion see E. Schierlitz, Die

: bildlichen Darstellungen der indischen — Gottertrinitat in der dlteren ethnographischen —

Literatur (Munich, 1927), pp. 9-15.

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