Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina: Settlement Patterns and rituality around Lake Puruhuay Ancash Peru 9781407311999, 9781407341699

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BAR S2576 2013 ORSINI & BENOZZI ARCHAEOLOGY OF AN ANDEAN PACARINA

B A R

Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina Settlement patterns and rituality around Lake Puruhuay, Ancash, Peru

Carolina Orsini Elisa Benozzi

BAR International Series 2576 2013

Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina Settlement patterns and rituality around Lake Puruhuay, Ancash, Peru

Carolina Orsini Elisa Benozzi with contributions from Luigi Capezzoli, Alessandro Capra, Cristina Castagnetti, Alessandro Corsini, Nicola Masini, Luigi Mazzari, Marta Porcedda and Enzo Rizzo

BAR International Series 2576 2013

ISBN 9781407311999 paperback ISBN 9781407341699 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407311999 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

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PUBLISHING

CONTENTS Introduction: aims of research Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi.................................................................…….....……...5 1 . Pre-Hispanic settlement systems in high Andean lakes contexts. Some antecedents Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi ..7 2. Recording systems. GPS satellites for archaeology: surveying around the Puruhuay Lake Cristina Castagnetti, Alessandro Capra..............................................................................................................................…….................……..9 2.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………...……………..9 2.2 Survey methods and data processing…………………………………………………………………………………9 2.3 Discussion of results………………………………………………………………………………………………….12 2.4 Final considerations…………………………………………………………………………………………………..14 3. Environment Luigi Mazzari, Marta Porcedda, Alessandro Corsini……………………………......…………………15 3.1 Geographical setting..........…………………………………………………....…………………..………………….15 3.2 Origin of the lake: the hypothesis of a giant landslide………………………………………….......………………..18 4. Site descriptions Elisa Benozzi, Carolina Orsini, Enzo Rizzo, Nicola Masini, Luigi Capozzoli……...……......….21 4.1 Llamacorral...................................................................................................................................................................21 4.2 Ishla Ranra....................................................................................................................................................................33 4.3 Ñawpamarca..................................................................................................................................................................44 4.4 Awilupaccha..................................................................................................................................................................75 4.5 Antaragá........................................................................................................................................................................79 4.6 Pukaranra or María Jiray...............................................................................................................................................81 4.7 Ñawpamarca de Acopalca.............................................................................................................................................81 'HVFULSWLRQRI¿QGV Marta Porcedda, Luigi Mazzari, Carolina Orsini………………………......…………………91 5.1 Ceramic assemblage from Puruhuay…………………………………………………………......…………………….91 5.2 Ceramic assemblage from Awilupaccha…………………………………………………………….....………………95 5.3 Ceramic assemblage from Llamacorral………………………………………………………….....………………….96 5.4 Ceramic assemblage from Ishla Ranra……………………………………………………………...…………………96 5.5 Lithic artefacts from Puruhuay: an introduction…………………………………………….………………………….98 5.6 Textiles remains at Ishla Ranra…………………………………………………………………….....………………111 6. Conclusions: population dynamics of the area Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi ……………………………………..113 6.1 Puruhuay: 200 B.C. – 1650 A.D.……………………………………………………………………………………113 6.2 Life and death at Puruhuay………………………………………………………………………………………….117 6.3 From pacarina to tourist attraction………………………………………………………………………………….117 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………………….……………………119 Appendix A : Ceramics…………………………………………………………………..………………………………..125 Appendix B: Synopsis of the faunal remains……………………………………………………………………………..148 Appendix C: Radiocarbon Dates………………………………………………………………………………………..149 Acknowledgments………………………………………………………………………………...…………………….151 Index of names and places………………………………………………………………………...…………………….153

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Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina

Figure 1. Map of the Ancash Region and the Huari Province.

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«Al pie de un gran cerro, en una laguna de agua caliente, entraban los indios y allí celebraban sus VDFUL¿FLRVGHDQLPDOHV\KXHVRVGHGLIXQWRV\ VDQJUiQGRVHHQPHGLRGHOHVWDQTXHVDFUL¿FDEDQVX sangre al demonio que en forma humana se les apareció con una vara en la mano, exortándolos a no creer en el FUXFL¿FDGRª (ARSI, Annuae Peruana 16, fol. 189 in Bernand C. 2008). INTRODUCTION: AIMS OF RESEARCH Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi The foundation myth of Huari (Ancash Sierra, Peru) narrates that a very long time ago four siblings originally lived the area:1 Juan Huarín from Yacya, María Jiray from Huari (sister and wife of Juan Huarín), María Rupay from Acopalca and María Jagay from the village of Cajay. One day, María Jiray saw a young woman with a child wondering around the mountains surrounding the Puruhuay Lake (Figure 1); it was the Virgin Mary searching for a place to stay. The four siblings made a bet with each RWKHUWKH¿UVWRIWKHIRXUZKR¿QLVKHGEXLOGLQJDFKXUFK would have had the privilege of hosting the Virgin in their community. María Jiray made the people in her village work day and night, providing them with food, drink and music in order WRJLYHWKHPVWUHQJWK,QWKLVZD\VKHPDQDJHGWR¿QLVK building the church of Huari before her siblings. Having won the bet and having managed to host the Virgin in Huari, crying for joy for having accomplished her great mission, María Jiray left her husband Juan Huarín and threw herself in the waters of the Puruhuay Lake. The Puruhuay cocha,2 a two hour walk from Huari, capital of the homonymous province situated along the eastern slope of the Cordillera Blanca in Peru, is considered to be a miraculous and powerful place, subject to rituals and offerings in the past as in the present. It is a magical setting at the centre of numerous stories that narrate many different kinds of extraordinary events. It is seen as the cradle of fertility, so much that it is considered a place of origin for the animals and people who live in the region.3 People have visited this area since antiquity due to the extraordinary properties that it possesses. It is, in fact, surrounded by numerous archaeological sites: the cerro Pueblo Viejo is situated along the eastern slope and is where the archaeological sites of Ñawpamarca de Huamantanga (from now on simply Ñawpamarca), Awilupaccha and Antaragá are located; the cerro Ventanilla is situated along the western slope and is where the site of Ñawpamarca de Acopalca is located. Along its slopes are the sites of Llamacorral and Ishla Ranra (Figure 2).

The settlement known as Pukaranra or “María Jiray”4 (Figure 2) is situated a few kilometres from here, and rises on a plateau in front of the homonymous waterfall. Unlike the others, this site does not look upon the Puruhuay Lake. However it is extraordinarily similar to Ishla Ranra, and is part of an analogous ecosystem in that the river that feeds the waterfall, the Shashal, is connected to another sacred stretch of water, called “La Lagunita”. Since 2006 a group of Italo-Peruvian scholars have been working on an archaeological research project in this extraordinary area, continuing the surveys carried out by the archaeologist Bebel Ibarra Asencios (2003, 2009). The aims of their research were to study human presence in the lake area, understand how settlement systems have changed and to analyze the relationship between man and this important sacred area over the centuries. Systematic surveys were carried out around the area of the lake and on the surrounding mountains during this period. Various settlements and archaeological remains were LGHQWL¿HG )XUWKHUPRUH H[FDYDWLRQV ZHUH XQGHUWDNHQ LQ selected contexts within four archaeological complexes, two of which rise on the banks of the lake and two are situated on one of the mountains that overlooks Puruhuay. A multidisciplinary team analyzed the data and material obtained from the excavations and surveys (see the Appendix). In 2006 research focused on the area immediately surrounding the lake and, in particular, on the sites of Llamacorral and Ishla Ranra.5 In 20076 systematic work commenced in the mountainous area situated to the east of the lake. Two settlements were LGHQWL¿HGKHUHWRJHWKHUZLWKYDULRXVVSDUVHDUFKDHRORJLFDO remains, both on the mountain slope – cerro Pueblo Viejothat goes down towards the lake and also in the opposite direction towards the Huari Valley. During the same year excavations began in the main site of cerro Pueblo Viejo, the ancient settlement of Ñawpamarca, and also in a small ceremonial site connected to 4 The waterfall of María Jiray is today an impressive leap with a strong ÀRZRIZDWHUGXHWRWKHGHYLDWLRQRIWKH6KDVKDOULYHU±ZKLFKGLYHUJHV from the above Chonta lake – to feed a hydroelectric power plant. During pre-Hispanic times there was only a small natural waterfall. 5 Excavation permit: Resolución Directoral Nacional 965 of 26 June 2006. 6 Excavation permit: Resolución Directoral Nacional 1622 of 3 December 2007.

7KHVXPPDUL]HGDQGVLPSOL¿HGYHUVLRQRIWKHP\WKLVWDNHQDIWHUWKH GRFWRUDOWKHVLVRI6R¿D9HQWXUROL  2 “Lake” in quechua. 3 That is a pacarina from pacari: dawn - place of the dawn. Typically, where mythical beings/ancestors appear in a geographical space and where they return. See Chapter 6 and Orsini et al. 2012 for a detailed analysis regarding Puruhuay as pacarina. 1

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Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina vertical complementarity (a pattern where members of a group scattered in a vertical territory take advantage from differentiated production of micro ecological niches, Murra J. 1980), in this case practiced on a microscale. Ñawpamarca, Ñawpamarca de Acopalca, Antaragá and Awilupaccha are located in a puna ecosystem, whilst Llamacorral, Ishla Ranra and Pukaranra are located in the suni area. Finally Huamantanga Jirca (PR07), Fragua Jirca (PR08) and Yamllipitec/Jatunjirca (PR09), sites subject to survey in 2008 are not analysed in this volume, are located in the quechua area. The populations of these sites exploited all local ecological levels, as demonstrated not only by the material culture (see Chapter 5), but also by palaeobotanical analysis carried out during the project (see Chapter 3). This study, therefore, focuses on another fundamental subject: the relationship between man, territory and water resources in this part of the Andes; this area, particularly that of Huari, is rich in cochas, each of which has a special place in the local ancient and modern history. Highly specialized hydraulic structures were found in many of the sites investigated during the course of this research, suggesting that water carried out an important role in the area of Huari. Keeping aside a strictly economic DQDO\VLVVWXGLHVUHYHDOHGWKDWVSHFL¿FULWHVGHYHORSHGLQ the area surrounding Puruhuay lake. During the pre-Hispanic past, access to Puruhuay and the perpetuation of ritual activities carried out at this stretch of water became an important factor for constructing the prestige and identity of the populations who lived in this area. This factor persists in the present.

Ñawpamarca called Awilupaccha. Awilupaccha is situated approximately one kilometre away from Ñawpamarca on a promontory with a view over Puruhuay. Awilupaccha is a smaller version of the site of Llamacorral mentioned above, situated on the lake’s banks. In 2008 and 20097 excavations focused on the site of Ñawpamarca, whilst other investigations led to a wider understanding of the sites of Antaragá and Pukaranra. The latter mapped some of the sites on the northeastern slope of the cerro Pueblo Viejo. In 2010 excavations in Ishla Ranra and Llamacorral8 recommenced and were extended. In 2011 a geological analysis was carried out in order to examine the origins of the lake; the site of Llamacorral was analysed with the help of georadar, and a survey was carried out at Ñawpamarca of Acopalca, along the southwestern side of the lake. The strong ties that connected the settlements of the 3XUXKXD\DUHDZHUHFOHDUULJKWIURPWKHYHU\¿UVWVWDJHVRI research, together with the aim of establishing a physical, symbolic and economic relationship with this magical place. The connections amongst the sites were emphasized by the exchange of goods carried out between the different ecological levels, according to the Andean practice of 7 Excavation permit: Resolución Directoral Nacional 1411 of 9 October 2008 and variant 226 of 16 February 2009. ([WHQVLRQRIH[FDYDWLRQSHUPLWRI)HEUXDU\2¿FLR of 18 June 2010.

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CHAPTER 1 PRE-HISPANIC SETTLEMENT SYSTEMS IN HIGH ANDEAN LAKES CONTEXTS. SOME ANTECEDENTS Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi The Andes are characterized by rich water resources: natives believe the mountains to be a receptacle within which fertility is conserved (Bastien J. 1985; Walter D. 2002). The mountains are considered to be a true and proper water reserve connected to the sea by means of rivers (Molina C. de 2011 [1575]: 71). Most of the water that fertilizes the area derives from the Andean mountains; numerous are the lakes scattered along the main Cordillera mountain range. Lakes, together with other elements of the landscape, particularly mountains, were often subject to veneration for they were characterized by areas with an extremely high concentration of fertility: it is not surprising therefore that their veneration coincided with constructions of various different types of sanctuaries and, in general, with the performance of rituals. The most famous example is that of Lake Titicaca: an area with strong anthropic occupation since the most remote times of Andean prehistory and subject to veneration over the centuries up to modern times (Bauer B. - Stanish C. 2001). However, there are many stretches of water in the Andes that have been venerated as places of origin and areas of extreme fertility, above all for herds of animals.1 If we omit the literature on the Palaeo-Indian2 period that regards lakes as the most frequented areas since the most ancient period of American history, not many archaeological studies have been carried out on high Andean lake contexts, apart from the Titicaca Lake, especially in the area of the central Andes. Studies focusing on rituals carried out at lakes are better developed in the northern Andes, even if there are few publications in regards (in particular, of great interest is the study currently underway in the Ayllón Lagoon in Ecuador3, whilst surveys have also been carried out in the area of Chimborazo, where, unfortunately, no excavations were undertaken, see Moreno Yáñez S. 2009). In the area of the Laguna Brava in Argentina, Costanza María Ceruti studied rituals carried out at a lake associated with an Inka settlement that could have been used as a base for ascending the Morado and Pilar mountains during

rituals of the capac hucha (Ceruti C. M. 2003). Therefore, no systematic studies have been carried out in the area subject to this research, an area characterized by an abundant number of high Andean lakes. The few studies published are commented upon below. The settlement of Keushu, in the Callejón de Huaylas, is situated in the area of the nevado Huandoy, together with Huascarán the highest peak of the peruvian Cordillera Blanca. It is located on the banks of a seasonal water reserve known as Keushucocha, directly connected to the nevado ZKLFK LV FRQVLGHUHG WKH SHWUL¿FDWLRQ RI DQ important ancestral divinity, “wife” of the main local sacred mountain, Huascarán. Keushu is a settlement that presents an extremely long period of occupation (2000 B.C. to A.D. 1600), with numerous ceremonial and funerary domestic structures, some of which have been looted since antiquity (GerdauRadonic K. - Herrera A. 2007). Scholars believe that this settlement is strictly connected to the fertility celebration of the cocha (Herrera A. 2008). Whilst the site of Keushu is characterised by a long VWUDWL¿FDWLRQ RI KXPDQ RFFXSDWLRQ WKH VLWHV DURXQG WKH lake subject to our research date to different epochs. Only in the case of Ishla Ranra is there evidence for human occupation covering a long time span (about a thousand years). Puruhuay is not the only lake that can boast of human occupation in the Huari province. Ibarra (2003, 2009) recorded a formative site in the Reparin cocha, in the Cajay district, in the valley of the Huaritambo river, not distant from Puruhuay, that rose on the banks of a lake, together with cave paintings. As mentioned in the Introduction, apart from the sites recorded along the banks of the lake, a series of residential sites also form part of the Puruhuay ecosystem. These settlements are situated on the high mountain area that overlook the stretch of water. They date to the Late Intermediate Period (A.D. 1000 – 1480) and are organized irregular agglomerates of circular and semi-circular structures that rise upon promontories in well defendable and panoramic locations. This type of settlement is commonly found in various Andean regions during this period; for example in the Sierra of Ancash (Herrera A. 2003, 2005; Ibarra B. 2003; Lane K. 2005: 109; Orsini C. 2005; Mantha A. 2006; Bazán F. 2012), in the area of the Tantamayo river in the Huánuco province (Bonnier E. et al. 1983), in the central Andes and in particular in the area of the Mantaro river (Earle T. - D’Altroy T. - LeBlanc C. 1978: 643; Bonnier E. - Rozenberg C. 1978, 1988; Lavallée D. - Julien M. 1983; Parsons J. - Hastings C. 1988; Parsons J. - Hastings C. Matos Mendieta R. 2000: 132), in the province of Cusco (Ravines R. 1994; Bauer B. 2004: 81 et passim), and

,WLVLPSRVVLEOHWRVXPPDUL]HWKHYDVWVFLHQWL¿FHWKQRJUDSKLFDQGDQthropological literature on this subject. Analyses vary from documentary studies on the extirpación de idolatrías (see for example Duviols P. 1976, 1986, 2003; Polia Meconi M. 1999) up to classic ethnographies (Carrión Cachot R. 1955; Isbell B. J. 1978; Soldi A.M. 1980; Bastien J. 1985; Gose P. 1993; Sherbondy J. 1995; Gelles P. 2000). 2 The high Andean lakes during this period were often visited by hunter-gatherer bands due to the mild climate and wide range of fauna and ÀRUDWKDWFRXOGEHIRXQGKHUH 3 These studies are carried out by Alden Yépez of the University of Bonn. $Q XQSXEOLVKHG ¿HOG REVHUYDWLRQ XSRQ WKLV VXEMHFW ZDV ¿UVW SURYLGHG in 2010 (Yépez A. 2010). We thank this scholar for having allowed us to use it. 1

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Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina ¿QDOO\LQWKHDUHDRI/DNH7LWLFDFD$UNXVK( MXVW to mention the main sites. We will refer to these sites when

analyzing settlement patterns at Ñawpamarca, Antaragá and Ñawpamarca de Acopalca.

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CHAPTER 2 RECORDING SYSTEMS. GPS SATELLITES FOR ARCHAEOLOGY: SURVEYING AROUND THE PURUHUAY LAKE Cristina Castagnetti, Alessandro Capra 2.1 Introduction This chapter deals with the various surveying methods that have been applied to the Puruhuay area. For the study of ancient settlement systems, it is essential to integrate archeological, topographic and geodetic applications, which provide essential geographic information for the archeological interpretation of settlement systems (Capra A. et al. 2002). The contribution of surveyors, engineers and geologists within the team of archaeologists increased WKH DPRXQW RI GDWD FROOHFWHGGXULQJ HDFK ¿HOG FDPSDLJQ by mapping all the excavations along with the study of the environment. GPS (Global Positioning System) technology has been SURYHQ WR EH DQ HI¿FLHQW DQG VXFFHVVIXO WRRO IRU LQFUHDVLQJ information and knowledge in archaeological investigations (Bitelli G. - Vittuari L. 2000; Capra A. et al. 2002; Bitelli G. et al. 2004). GPS may be applied to archaeology in several ways: it may be used for georeferencing the investigated area in order to collect all information in a GIS (Geographic Information System) (Chapman H.P. Robert Van de Noort R. 2001); for surveying the area in order to obtain a DTM (Digital Terrain Model) (Capra A. et al. 2002); for providing an overview of the whole area and also for mapping the excavation together with all the features uncovered. A good and carefully planned GPS survey also allows a three-dimensional reconstruction of the structures and remains together with a description of WKHHQYLURQPHQW7KH¿QDO'60'LJLWDO6XUIDFH0RGHO  proves to be very helpful for all types of measurements, such as calculating the height of preserved walls, the depth of wells, and dimensions of door frames, just to mention a few of the ways this tool was used in the current project. 7KH¿UVWJRDORIWKLVUHVHDUFKZDVWRSURYLGHWKHFRUUHFW positioning of the archaeological sites investigated in an absolute reference frame, so as to have a complete and homogeneous idea of the valley’s and lake’s settlements. The locations of the different settlements were analyzed LQ RUGHU WR YHULI\ ZKHWKHU WKHUH ZHUH VSHFL¿F VWUDWHJLHV behind their geographical positioning. Relationship and rules in settlement distribution is an interesting aspect, particularly when studying social landscapes through settlement systems. The intention to provide coordinates on the Peruvian reference system was soon abandoned for there was no VXI¿FLHQWO\GHWDLOHGFDUWRJUDSK\RUWULJRQRPHWULFYHUWLFHV available for the area that had been investigated. Therefore, the use of GPS technology which provided an absolute global reference frame immediately appeared to be the best option for georeferencing the archaeological sites. The second aim of this research was to survey the excavations and the landscape. GPS was essential for a detailed description of the structure’s geometry and distribution in relation to the area’s morphology. The landscape features, indeed, are of great concern when

studying settlements that developed at high altitudes EHFDXVH WKH KDUVK HQYLURQPHQW LQÀXHQFHV WKH IRUP DQG location of the structures. GPS is crucial for reconstructing the natural landscape together with that of the built environment, for it provides the key for gaining a better understanding of settlement systems. Mapping and reconstructing the topography of the area in 3D aids in understanding how the settlement was conceived and organized. For example, knowing the inclination of the slope provides information regarding how movement took place on the site and how the hydraulic structures worked. For settlements located at high altitudes, the inclination of the slope is an essential parameter for interpreting how the built environment adapted to the natural morphology of the landscape: the sites rely on the mountain and the natural HQYLURQPHQWLVPRGL¿HGVRWKDWWKHVWUXFWXUHVPD\¿WRQWR the natural landscape. Therefore it is important to study and understand the natural setting in order to understand the built environment. In these types of settlements it is necessary to understand the strong connection between the built and the natural environment, and study this connection in its three-dimensional complexity. The main reason why GPS was chosen in this context is linked to the opportunity of computing the three-dimensional model of land and structures in their complexity. The goal is to describe the settlement in order to understand the issues and choices made in the past. In the following paragraphs, methods of GPS surveying DQG GDWD SURFHVVLQJ ZLOO EH EULHÀ\ GHVFULEHG LQ RUGHU WR specify how coordinates were obtained. The results are now ready to be analyzed in order to create useful data for archaeological research and further interpretations (maps of the sites are included in the presentation of the singles sites in Chapter 4). 2.2 Survey methods and data processing Several GPS surveys were carried out around the Puruhuay Lake using different approaches according to the objective. First of all the static survey method was used for positioning archaeological sites: long tracking sessions were undertaken in order to collect a redundant amount of data. ,Q D VWDQGDORQH FRQ¿JXUDWLRQ WKH *36 V\VWHP SURYLGHV coordinates (both geocentric and geographic solutions) on the global reference frame with 5÷10 m accuracy, not suitable for the applications under discussion. These data need to be processed with respect to a static survey that is performed at the same time over a known position. Usually, the correct approach consists of a survey (GPS raw data FROOHFWLQJ  RYHU VRPH RI¿FLDO FDUWRJUDSKLF YHUWLFHV RI the national network (where cartographic coordinates are known); in case no such benchmarks are available, the closest GPS permanent stations may be successfully used. These stations are included within the ITRF (International Terrestrial Reference Frame) computation (Capra A. et al. 9

Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina

two geodetic receivers, model Trimble 5700, which were connected by cables with two double frequency antennas, model Trimble Zephyr 7KH VDPH FRQ¿JXUDWLRQ was provided on both receivers: 1s logging rate was set together ZLWK D  GHJUHH FXWRII DQJOH 'LI¿FXOWLHV ZHUH PDLQO\ encountered in charging the batteries: a big car battery was used for operating the master station (no charge was UHTXLUHGGXHWRWKHKLJKFDSDFLW\DQGSRZHU ZKLOHÀH[LEOH solar panels were added to the equipment for the portable

Figure 2. Map of Puruhuay lake valley, Ancash (Peru), with locations of investigated archaeological sites (WorldView2 LPDJHU\'LJLWDO*OREH,QFEURZVHGLJLWDOJOREHFRPLPDJH¿QGHU 

2002) so that they have known coordinates obtained by a precise processing. Unfortunately no ITRF permanent stations were available close to the investigated area. The only option was to compute coordinates by means of a single point positioning which provided an accuracy of about several meters (absolute positioning). The resulting set of coordinates positioned the investigated archaeological sites (Figure 2) on the same reference frame and generated the map. In addition to georeferencing, the second fundamental goal of the above static survey was to provide a reference station for processing all other survey data carried out at the same site, related to all existing structures and remains within each site and to the morphology of the landscape. Taking into account the working conditions, which were PDGHGLI¿FXOWDQGFRPSOLFDWHGGXHWRWKHODFNRIR[\JHQ caused by the high environmental altitude, and the short WLPHDYDLODEOHIRUSODQQLQJDQGFDUU\LQJRXW¿HOGZRUNDQ HI¿FLHQW WHFKQLTXH ZDV HVVHQWLDO 'LIIHUHQWLDO NLQHPDWLF GPS provides a very productive and highly accurate (up to a few centimeters) methodology when dual-frequency GPS receivers are employed. GPS raw data collection was performed by means of Figure 3. Equipment at Ñawpamarca site (4300 m): Trimble 5700 geodetic receiver with Trimble Zephyr double frequency antenna. The reference station at the top and the rover receiver at the bottom.

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Cristina Castagnetti, Alessandro Capra, Recording systems

terms, which means that all measurements, concerning distances, height of elements, structures and so on, have a good accuracy. Concerning the coordinates in an absolute IUDPHZRUN WKH ¿QDO DFFXUDF\ ZDV · P EHFDXVH QR coordinated reference points or permanent stations were used. As a consequence, the data are intrinsically very good but the absolute georeferencing has an error of several meters. This is inevitable but does not affect the measurements or results of interest. Solutions are referred to the WGS84 (World Geodetic System 1984) reference frame with ellipsoidal heights. GPS raw data processing was computed by means of the /HLFD*HR2I¿FH&RPELQHGY software (short baselines ZLWKDPELJXLW\¿[LQJE\FRPELQDWLRQRIERWKIUHTXHQFLHV  (Figure 4 on the left). Details on processing parameters are listed on the left in Figure 4. Results are provided in terms of both geocentric and geographic coordinates with respect to WGS84 reference frame. The UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator) projection for zone 18, southern hemisphere, was added in order to provide cartographic coordinates for all surveyed objects. Concerning the height value, the geoid correction was applied to ellipsoidal heights in order to obtain elevation with respect to mean sea level (height referred to the geoid, see Figure RQWKHULJKW $VSHFL¿FYDOXHIRUJHRLGVHSDUDWLRQZDV

Figure 4. Processing parameters (on the left). Global geoid separation model EGM08 for height transformation (on the right).

batteries of the moving receiver (Figure 3). One receiver, considered the reference station, was placed in a static mode over a known position within the area of interest for continuous satellite tracking (a tripod was used for supporting the antenna). The second receiver, considered the rover receiver, was installed on a pole and continuously moved (kinematic mode) in order to map the area, the excavation and all details that were of interest. 7KH DFFXUDF\ RI WKH ¿QDO *36 VROXWLRQV REWDLQHG E\ WKH rover receiver basically depends on the distance to the reference station. In many cases, it ranges from 1cm, if very short distances are involved, to tens of centimeters when longer vector baselines are calculated for positioning. The post-processing of the kinematic surveys was performed E\ XVLQJ WKH 27) RQ WKH À\  DOJRULWKP DV WKH VROYLQJ strategy. OTF affords high accuracy because of its ability to solve the carrier phase integer ambiguity of signals belonging to a rover receiver. Ambiguity resolution is the determination of full carrier cycles over two frequencies, and it is essential for high-precision positioning (Leick $   $V D ¿QDO UHVXOW WKH *36 GDWD SURFHVVLQJ furnished the three-dimensional coordinates of all the surveyed objects within the investigated sites, rigorously preserving all information regarding metric aspects (scale and distance) of the tagged points and structures in a ZHOOGH¿QHG FRPPRQ UHIHUHQFH V\VWHP 7KH UHVXOWLQJ FRRUGLQDWHVKDGD¿QDODFFXUDF\RIDIHZFPVLQUHODWLYH

Figure 5. Trajectory and baselines resulted by post-processing /HLFD*HR2I¿FH&RPELQHGY ZLWKUHVSHFWWRWKHUHIHUHQFH station (on the left). From the resulting coordinates to the archaeological map: detail of Ñawpamarca site (on the right).

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Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina

used depending on the horizontal mean position of each archaeological site; geoid undulations were computed by using the global EGM08 (Earth Gravitational Model) (http://geographiclib.sourceforge.net/cgi-bin/GeoidEval). 7KH¿QDOFRRUGLQDWHVZHUHWKHUHIRUHDQDO\]HGLQRUGHUWR obtain data used for achieving the aforementioned aims. The most useful element for describing the settlement was the detailed archaeological map containing all features and objects found within the excavation. Suitable products were: í DUFKDHRORJLFDO PDSV ERWK IRU WKH ZKROH LQYHVWLJDWHG area and details of excavations); í*,6IRUMRLQLQJDOOFROOHFWHGGDWDIRUWKHDUHDRILQWHUHVW In order to do this properly, coordinates were imported in the ESRI ArcGIS v.9.2 software. The creation of a GIS unites all collected data within the same database; some features also had geographical information and that revealed different aspects to be analyzed. Several archaeological maps were extracted, both for the whole investigated area and for each excavation. The right hand side of Figure 5 is an example of an archaeological map illustrating Ñawpamarca terraces.

Figure 6. Orthographic view of Ñawpamarca DTM (datum UTM WGS84, height referred to EGM08 geoid): on the left the overlay of 1m contours and on the right the superimposition of slope vectors.

í WKH '60 ZDV FKRVHQ ZKHQ WKHUH ZHUH ZHOOSUHVHUYHG structures whose characteristics were to be analyzed (e. g. the case of Llamacorral). The DTM surface was generated by using the large number of points acquired, adopting kriging or natural neighbor as the scattered data interpolation method (Golden Software Surfer v.9.0); in regards to the DSM surface, the TIN (Triangulated Irregular Network) method was chosen (ESRI ArcGIS v.9.2). Further analyses and related maps are available in Chapter 4. The description of 3D models of Ñawpamarca and Llamacorral are treated in the followings paragraphs.

2.3 Discussion of results One helpful product was the three-dimensional reconstruction of the surface obtained by all points acquired. This allows the observer to create views in which the presence of the third dimension helps the interpretation by virtually making the object as much as it is in reality. The three-dimensionality helps the mind to focus and rebuild the scenario: at this point, the overlap of the twodimensional archaeological map of the settlement on the three-dimensional surface provides a more understandable description and helps to correctly interpret the population’s everyday life. Depending on the peculiarity of each archaeological site, two different surface were created: íWKH'70ZDVJHQHUDWHGZKHQWKHPRVWLPSRUWDQWDVSHFW to focus on was the landscape and the morphology of the area (that was the case of Ñawpamarca, a large dimension site with strong connection between the landscape and the anthropic structures);

Figure 7. Orthographic view of Ñawpamarca DTM (datum UTM WGS84, height referred to EGM08 geoid): the overlay of archaeological map on the “shaded relief” DTM.

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Cristina Castagnetti, Alessandro Capra, Recording systems two-dimensional archaeological map was superimposed, the distribution and shape of the individual structures appeared more clearly. This is just the beginning of a study that needs to be developed in the future: particularly useful for this context were the contours extraction and the slope vectors analyses. The former (see left hand side of Figure 6) represents in a two-dimensional way the three-dimensionality of the area: this allowed a quick and better interpretation of the geomorphology through the exaltation of discontinuities. The latter (see right Figure 6 and 8) consisted of a more detailed study of the slopes: the framework of the mountain was summarized by slope vectors whose direction and module also described the settlement itself, having been built in accordance with rules and constraints imposed upon by the morphology.

Figure 8. Perspective view of Ñawpamarca DTM (datum UTM WGS84, height referred to EGM08 geoid): the overlay of 0.5m contours map on the “shaded relief” DTM. Note that outside the boundary of the site the kriging algorithm does not provide reliable interpolation due to the absence of data.

Llamacorral The site of Llamacorral (described in paragraph 4.1) had very well preserved structures that are still visible; this characteristic made it perfect for the creation of the threedimensional surface of structures. Llamacorral was strongly connected to the natural environment, not so much on account of the way the built environment had been adapted to the morphology of the mountain but due to the presence of the lake and the element of water. These considerations suggested the use of the DSM, which allowed a number RI VSHFL¿F DQDO\VHV WR EH FDUULHG RXW RQ WKH FRQVWLWXHQW elements of the site: measuring the height of preserved walls, orientation and size of doors (height and width), characteristics of the well, location and mutual orientation of concentric circular structures with respect to the lake (see right hand side of Figure 9). Contours extraction in WKLV FDVH ZHUH DOVR KHOSIXO EHFDXVH WKH VWUXFWXUH SUR¿OHV

Ñawpamarca The main feature at the site of Ñawpamarca (see paragraph 4.3 for a general description) is the large size of the settlement and the strong relationship with the mountain that controlled and constrained the way it was built; consequently the most suitable product for interpretation was the DTM. See Figure 6, 7 and 8 for the whole view of WKH'70JULGFHOOUHVROXWLRQP $¿UVWYLVXDOLQVSHFWLRQ revealed how the natural landscape blended in with the built structures: the boundaries of the terraces were clear and corresponded to different levels of the settlement, decreasing towards the top of the mountain. Once the Figure 9. Orthographic view of Llamacorral DSM (datum UTM WGS84, height referred to EGM08 geoid): (left) overlay of 0.1m contours and (right) measurements of constituent elements.

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Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina clearly appeared by focusing on discontinuities (left hand side of Figure 9). This information was designed to provide purely technical interpretations on the function and organization of the site. It combines a double advantage: the three dimensional rendering (Figure 10) obtained from DSM allowed the creation of virtual navigation tools on the site that can be used in future to promote tourism in the area. The three dimensional rendering shown in Figure 10 is obviously less regular than it could be after KDYLQJSURFHVVHGLWE\PHDQVRI¿OWHULQJVPRRWKLQJDQG interpolations. However, these computations cannot be FRQ¿UPHGXQWLODGGLWLRQDOVXUYH\VDUHFDUULHGRXWXWLOL]LQJ different techniques such as terrestrial laser scanning or photogrammetry. The obtained DSM was based on points that were actually surveyed by GPS so that it is reliable DQG KLJKO\ DFFXUDWH EXW QRW FRQWLQXRXV 1R UH¿QHPHQWV RUPRGL¿FDWLRQVZHUHSHUIRUPHGLQRUGHUWRLPSURYHWKLV aspect; we opted to provide a product that was accurate in terms of geometry.

Figure 10. Perspective view of the virtual three dimensional rendering obtained by Llamacorral DSM.

2.4 Final considerations 7KH LQWHJUDWLRQ EHWZHHQ VFLHQWL¿F DQG KXPDQLVWLF VNLOOV allowed a more detailed study of the sites and a full comprehension of them by understanding issues such as the way the population built their settlements and how they adapted their life to the environment in an almost complete manner. Analyzing the surrounding area, slopes and remains of structures helped to understand the ancient people along with their customs. GPS survey applied to the archaeological research under discussion provided excellent results. The quality and productivity of the information obtained were very high: GPS allowed the georeferencing of all investigated sites within a common reference frame. At the same time, the detailed metric description of structures and remains for each settlement was achieved with a high accuracy level of coordinate values (few cms). Furthermore, the available data was immediately transformed into thematic maps that has been used for integration into a Geographic Information System (an intra-site GIS, see maps of excavations in Ñawpamarca and in Ishla Ranra, Chapter 4) application. In addition, three-dimensional models regarding the morphology of the area and the structures were created. The virtual surface chosen was a proper

DQG FRKHUHQW UHIHUHQFH SODQH IRU WKH ¿QDO UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ of Ñawpamarca and Llamacorral sites, thus immediately SURYLGLQJDQLPDJHRIWKHWUXHVLWXDWLRQRQWKH¿HOG7KH superimposition of the DTM with a preview of settlement structures provided a large amount of useful information for the reconstruction of the archaeological data and interpretation of the population’s everyday life. All products mentioned helped in the interpretation: indeed, mapping all excavation details by means of GPS was very useful in order to analyze and study in detail all new information in a correct metric description, once the excavation had ended. As soon as one leaves the site, indeed, a lot of questions arise. In this way, answers can be given thanks to GPS solutions, which reconstruct the site and make this data available for any further doubts or requirements. This information is permanently available and can be used for future analyses as soon as it is required. For future developments, efforts will focus on post-campaign data processing, with the aim of organizing information in the easiest way for archaeological interpretation and dissemination. Moreover, photogrammetry and/or terrestrial laser scanning could be added to GPS surveys in order to improve the three-dimensional DSM in case of well-preserved structures.

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CHAPTER 3 ENVIRONMENT Luigi Mazzari, Marta Porcedda, Alessandro Corsini winter, with a broad range of temperature between day and night. It is well-known, however, that these parameters vary VLJQL¿FDQWO\ LQ FRQMXQFWLRQ ZLWK WKH niño2 that occurs periodically every 5 years (in reality this phenomenon is not so consistent or precise and may vary from 3 to 7 \HDUV DQGZKRVHHIIHFWVLQÀXHQFHWKHFOLPDWHRIWKH$QGHV VLJQL¿FDQWO\DQGFRQVHTXHQWO\WKHOLYHVRIWKHFRPPXQLWLHV who live there. Geophysical surveys carried out in recent years in some areas of Peru according to different methodological approaches3, have developed important hypotheses related to the palaeoclimate of this region. Particularly useful for the purposes of our research are the analyses carried out on the ice sheets recovered in Huascarán (6.768m above sea level; just 50km away from the Puruhuay Lake) and in Quelccaya (5.470m above sea level, near Cuzco), which establish changes that occurred over the entire Holocene period (Thompson L.G. et al. 2006). 7KH JUDSK LOOXVWUDWLQJ WKH į18O values recovered from Huascarán reveals that during the Early Holocene (11 to WKRXVDQG\HDUVDJR WKHUHJLRQKDGDVLJQL¿FDQWO\KLJKHU WHPSHUDWXUH ZLWK D KLJKHU FRQFHQWUDWLRQ RI į18O) than that recorded during the Late Holocene (Figure 11A); WKHZDWHUVRIWKHWURSLFDO3DFL¿FZHUHDSSUR[LPDWHO\ – 2° warmer in respect to the current temperatures, and the high concentration of dust recovered also reveals how precipitation must have been rather scarce. 7KHQ DERXW ¿YH WKRXVDQG \HDUV DJR WKH WHPSHUDWXUH EHJDQ WR IDOO WKH FRQFHQWUDWLRQ RI į18O decreases). Data reveals how this fall in temperature persisted with a certain continuity until the so-called Little Ice Age (LIA: A.D. 1400-1820) – which, according to the trend recorded at Huascarán, represents the coldest period of the entire Holocene – and, in second place, how this fall in temperature occurred abruptely. Proof of this sudden change was the discovery on the extremity of the Quelccaya of a Distichia muscoides (Juncaceae) specimen – a plant that still grows in this area today and that adapts well to the extreme daily temperature ranges – which had remained trapped in

3.1. Geographical setting Luigi Mazzari, Marta Porcedda The department of Ancash is characterized by the presence RI WZR &RUGLOOHUDV WKDW UXQ SDUDOOHO WR WKH 3DFL¿F FRDVW just a few dozen kilometres apart. The most famous and impressive cordillera, whose peaks exceed 6000 metres above sea level, is known as the Cordillera Blanca, or nevada, situated to the east of the department. It constitutes WKH ZDWHUVKHG EHWZHHQ WKH ULYHUV WKDW ÀRZ GRZQ WR WKH 3DFL¿F2FHDQDQGWKRVHWKDWÀRZWRZDUGVWKHselva. The second Cordillera, know as Cordillera Negra, is located along the western side of the Cordillera Blanca. The valley created between the two mountain ranges is called the Callejón de Huaylas, whilst that which arises to the east of the Cordillera Blanca is the less well known Callejón de Conchucos, it is here that Huari is situated.1 The rivers that descend the glaciers of the Cordillera Blanca – the western boundary of Conchucos – delineate the geographical border of the region and of its provinces: the Chukicara to the north, the Junin plateau and the Mosna ULYHUWRWKHVRXWKDQG¿QDOO\WKH0DUDxRQULYHUWRWKHHDVW within which many water courses of the valley converge (except for río6DQWD DQGZKLFKWKHQÀRZLQWRWKH$PD]RQ river, therefore into the Atlantic. Once again, yet another river, the Yanamayo river, marks the boundary between high and low Conchucos. The territory of Huari, in particular, is also characterized by WKHSUHVHQFHRIDULFKÀXYLDOQHWZRUNZLWKWKH0RVQDDQG Huaritambo rivers crossing the region and conveying their waters into the rio Puccha (Solís Benites J. F. 2001). This remarkable abundance of water, generated by the glaciers of the Cordillera and increased by the precipitations that occur regularly during the rainy season, constitutes one of the major incentives of exploitation of the land on behalf of humankind. In the area of Huari alone, there are nearly one hundred small lakes. This research focuses upon the human presence and exploitation of a laguna area. 3.1.1 Climate The climate, as often occurs in the Andean regions, varies considerably according to altitude. The Callejón de Conchucos is characterized by the alternation of summer seasons (from October to April), which are rainy and humid with particularly intense rainfalls from February onwards, with dry winter seasons (from May to September). The temperature tends to maintain similar maximum values throughout the whole year (between 18° and 19°), whilst minimum values reach 6° in summer and go below 0° in

2 Although scholars do not all agree on certain aspects of this phenomenon, it is possible to state that “el niño” develops as a result of the water RYHUKHDWLQJ LQ WKH FHQWUDO DUHD RI WKH 3DFL¿F 2FHDQ IURP DW OHDVW ƒ XS WR D PD[LPXP RI ƒ IRU DW OHDVW ¿YH PRQWKV:LWKRXW JRLQJ LQWR too much detail, we will simply emphasize how these changes give rise to a series of ripple effects that usually ultimately result in heavy rains, KXUULFDQHVDQGVXEVHTXHQWÀRRGLQJDORQJWKHZHVWHUQVKRUHRIFHQWUDO south America. 3 The most successful method in the Andean regions consists of the FDOFXODWLRQ RI į18O concentration – that is the resulting ratio between stable oxygen isotopes O18O16° - in the layers present within the cores extracted from some glaciers of the Cordillera Blanca; this operation determines the temperature of precipitations required to assess air temperature and its changes over time, since the concentration of this isotope varies in direct proportion to these changes.

6LQFHWKH¿UVWVWKHUHJLRQZDVGLYLGHGLQWRWZRSURYLQFHV/RZ Conchucos in the north and High Conchucos in the south, of which Huari was the capital. Then, when the department was divided into districts, the number of the provinces increased and today Huari, with its 16 districts, is only one of the 20 provinces in Ancash. 1

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Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina for Quelccaya reveals that temperatures in this area of the Andes at this time reached the current values (Figure 11B). The results of a study conducted by a team of U.S. researchers (Bird B. et al. 2011) in the Pumacocha Lake (Peru, 170km approx. south of Huari) were published in an article only a few months ago. Their study aimed to reconstruct the degree of precipitation in this area over WKH SDVW  \HDUV7KH FRQFHQWUDWLRQ RI į18O revealed that there was a negative peak in the intensity of rainfall during the summer months between A.D. 900-1100, unlike what happened in the LIA, when precipitation occurred abundantly over an extended period of time. In order to enrich the climatic framework of this era, we ZLOO ¿QDOO\ FLWH WKH LQYHVWLJDWLRQV FDUULHG RXW E\ %HUW Rein, Andreas Lückge and Frank Sirocko of the German Universities of Mainz and Hannover on the seabeds of the Peruvian coast. The aim of their research was to establish when and how the effects of the niño were more or less intense over the past 12 thousand years, by analyzing a core carried out 80km off the coast of Lima.4 The results that emerged from this study revealed that between A.D. 800 to 1250, the accumulation of debris on the seabeds, and thus the continuation of torrential rains along the coast, reached minimum levels during this period, the lowest ever recorded throughout the whole of the Holocene (Figure 11C). According to the authors of this research, these results demonstrate that the MCA coincided with a prolonged phase within which the effects of the niño were extremely weak, and that it was preceded and followed by LQWHQVHÀRRGV5HLQ%et al. 2004). Ultimately, in regards to the Andean panorama, the centuries that straddle the I-II millennium (A.D. 800-1300) appear to be characterized by high temperatures (especially between A.D. 1100 to 1300) and by a long period of scarce rainfall, with a peak of drought recorded between A.D. 900 to 1100 (which was undoubtedly brought about by the limited effects of the niño). This phase was followed by a gradual drop in temperature until it reached, around A.D. 1400 – 1500, the minimum values ever recorded throughout the Holocene. In the followings chapters we will try to investigate if conditions of drought and high temperatures played a role in the economic strategies of the ancient inhabitants of Puruhuay area. It is probable that these phenomena contributed, in a certain period, to increase fertility and water veneration.

Figure 11. $3DWWHUQRIį18O concentration during the Holocene, in the ice sample extracted from Huascarán (Thompson L.G. et al. 2006). %3DWWHUQRIį18O concentration over the last thousand years, found in the ice sample extracted from Quelccaya (Thompson L.G. et al. 2006). C - Record of annual deposition of river debris, recorded in a core extracted from the Peruvian coasts and related to the last 12 thousand years (Rein B. et al. 2004).

the glacier which was rapidly progressing, even before it had time to decompose. C14 tests carried out in two different laboratories dated the plant to 5.138 (+ 45) B.P. This discovery was used by Thompson to demonstrate how the drop in temperature was sudden at the time, as was its sudden reversal during the last decades, and also how the FXUUHQWZDUPLQJKDVQRSUHFHGHQWLQWKHODVW¿YHWKRXVDQG years (Thompson L.G. et al. 2006). )XUWKHUPRUHWKHUHGXFHGDPRXQWRIGXVWLGHQWL¿HGLQWKH levels associated with the Late Holocene indicates that this phase was characterized by a greater abundance of rainfall, a factor that has undoubtedly contributed to the economic and social development of the communities of this entire period. Of further interest are the analyses regarding what has EHHQ GH¿QHG DV WKH Medieval Climate Anomaly (MCA), given its temporal proximity to the archaeological sites investigated near the Puruhuay Lake. It consists of a phase ZLWKXQGH¿QHGFKURQRORJLFDOOLPLWVEXWEDVLFDOO\GDWHGWR the Late Middle Ages) during which climatic anomalies have been detected worldwide. Thompson L.G. et al. LGHQWL¿HG D SHULRG RI ZDUPLQJ LQ WKHOHYHOVRIį18O recorded at Huascarán that he bracketed to A.D. 1100 to 1300, in contrast to the trend that took place during the whole of the Late Holocene. The graph

3.1.2 Ecological levels and use of soil ,QDWHUULWRU\FKDUDFWHUL]HGE\VXFKVLJQL¿FDQWGLIIHUHQFHV in height between one area and another, not only will climatic conditions vary, but also, in relation to these, the ecological contexts. The territory of the department of Ancash, and in particular the region of Conchucos, is characterized by steep slopes. The fundamental premise upon which this research is based is that the storms and hurricanes that accompany the niño swell the rivers that, in turn, intensify the erosion of riverbanks and riverbeds, thereby increasing the transport of debris towards the sea. It is therefore clear that the stronger the rains, the greater the accumulation of debris present on the coastal seabeds. 4

16

Luigi Mazzari, Marta Porcedda, Alessandro Corsini, Environment Calamagrostis8 genera, with shrubs and few trees. Carpological analyses reveals that the wood used to OLJKW¿UHVZDVDYDLODEOHLQWKHYLFLQLW\RIWKHVLWHDWOHDVW during the Late Intermediate Period, to which the remains examined in the area of Ñawpamarca date: eight different types of shrubs/trees were analyzed. In the area, as a matter of fact, there are some shrubs that belong to the Asteraceae family of the Baccharis and Parastrephia genera, and some trees, although rare, such as Quenual (Polylepis sp.)9 or the Buddleja plant. Considering the area is currently characterized by the complete absence of trees in a fairly desolate and inhospitable area, it appears that in antiquity there were more trees in the vicinity of the site. Perhaps this can be explained by a more favourable climate at least during the ¿UVWSDUWRIWKH/DWH,QWHUPHGLDWH3HULRGZKLFKFRLQFLGHV with the construction phase of the site of Ñawpamarca, as described in the paragraph concerning the climate. The area closest to the lake is, on the other hand, characterized by a high presence of shrubs, and the YHJHWDWLRQÀRXULVKHVWKDQNVWRWKHPLWLJDWLQJHIIHFWRIWKH lake and to its rich water supply. In addition to the analysis regarding the remains of vegetation, a study was also carried out at Ñawpamarca on a series of cultivated plants (the very few specimens that were found on site): in particular on some specimens of legume (from area C, structure 10, SU30), from the Phaseolus family (bean), of the dicotyledon species, which suggests that the inhabitants of the site used lands at lower altitudes for cultivating different kinds of food, which would not have survived the austerity of the high Andean climate. It is therefore very likely that the location of the hamlets on the mountaintops overlooking the Puruhuay Lake are related of the possibility on behalf of its inhabitants to use and exploit environmental resources from two different

The differences in altitude are so high that the change from one ecological zone to another is very rapid. According to the terminology most frequently used 3XOJDU9 IRXUPDLQDUHDVDUHLGHQWL¿HGZKLFKLQ ascending order starting from the lowest in altitude, are: the yunga area, under 2300m, the quechua area, between 2300 and 3500m, the suni area, between 3500 and 4000m DQG¿QDOO\WKHpuna, between 4000 and 4500m. The area DERYH WKLV OHYHO LV GH¿QHG DVjalca, mostly characterized by perennial snow. Each of these areas has different types of ecosystems with a wide variety of habitats and biological diversity that makes Peru one of the countries with the richest biodiversity in the world. In addition, the zone of Conchucos is situated in an area which acts as a natural transit towards the lowlands of the ceja de selva and towards the true and proper jungle, FRQQHFWHGWKURXJKWKHEDVLQRIWKH0DUDxRQULYHUWKDWÀRZV next to the area and of which the Mosna and Wacheqsa rivers are tributaries (see above). $UHFHQWVWXG\RQWKHÀRUDDQGYHJHWDWLRQRIWKH&RUGLOOHUD Blanca in the puna (Cano et al KDVLGHQWL¿HGXSWR the present, 126 species of vascular plants, grouped into 65 genera and 26 families. In particular, two classes have been distinguished: the Liliopsida (monocotyledons) with 97 different species, whose highest concentration is found in the Poaceae family, commonly known as Gramineae (especially in the genera of Calamagrostie, Festuca and Poa), and the Magnoliopsida (dicotyledons) with 36 different species, whose highest concentration is found in the Asteraceae5 family (mostly present in the Senecio genus). Limited information is available for the ancient past. We know from archaeobotanical studies (Cottini M.- Ravedoni C.- Di Martino S. 2008) that in the area of Ñawpamarca and its surroundings (therefore in a puna environment, the site is situated over 4000m) there was predominantly a grass type of vegetation, of the Stipa6, Festuca7 and

Also called ichu in the local quechua language, used in the past in its variants of grueso or contado for various purposes, amongst which for the preparation of the roofs of houses, for temporary shelters near the ¿HOGV DQG IRU WKH tambo D NLQG RI RYHQ LQ WKH IRUP RI D SLW IRU ¿ULQJ ceramics. 9 Trees with a typical red bark that comes off the trunk characterized by intricated shapes. 8

A large family of dicotyledonous plants of the Asterales order. It consists of a Spermatophyta family with the greatest number of species. 6 A perennial grass, known also as the “grass of the Pampas”, used as fodder. 7 This grass is also often used as fodder. 5

Figure 12. Geology of the studied area

17

Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina

Figure 13. Accumulation of arch-shaped blocks damming the lake downstream (up). Detail of blocks (down).

in correspondance to one major overthrust, where tectonic movements associated with earthquakes are very likely. Slopes around Puruhuay are made of Meta-Sedimentary rocks of the Cretaceous, representing a marine facies. The Laguna is bonded (dammed) downstream by an DUFKVKDSHGGHSRVLWRIODUJH¿QHJUDLQHGPHWDVDQGVWRQHV angular blocks (Figure 13, above). These blocks measure several meters, and the complete absence of a rounded VKDSH DV ZHOO DV WKH OLWWOH RU QR DPRXQW RI ¿QHJUDLQHG matrix excludes a glacial origin of the deposit (i.e. morain ridge). The analysis of terrain morphology on the slopes overlooking the blocks deposit (based on hillshades

ecoregions (puna and suni), which would have provided a larger variety of plants and animal species. 3.2 Origin of the lake: the hypothesis of a giant landslide Alessandro Corsini The Laguna de Puruhuay is situated in the area east of Huaraz, where a number of compressive tectonic lineaments (overthrusts) are reported in the Mapa Geologico del Peru (Figure 12). The Laguna de Puruhuay is actually located

18

Luigi Mazzari, Marta Porcedda, Alessandro Corsini, Environment obtained by reprocessing 90m SRTM topographic data) KDV LGHQWL¿HG PDUNHG VFDUSV FORVH WR WKH GLYLGH RI WKH surrounding mountain tops, at more tham 4000m altitude. The most prominent one is to the SW of the deposit, while a minor one is to the NE (Figure 14). The one to the SW, in particular, stretches for more than 1 km in length, and bounds to the top a large concave-shaped slope, that can be interpreted as the depletion area of a possible ancient landslide event. From a geomorphological perspective, these features can be interpreted as landslide scarps and detachment niches. The landslide accumulation resulted in the blocks deposit damming the Laguna de Puruhuay. A schematic cross section running SW to NE explaining the inferred landslide mechanism (i.e. roto-traslational rock slide evolving into a rock avalanche) is presented in Figure 15 together with an illustration in perspective of the landslide deposit. The interpretation given, is that the rototraslational rock slide evolved into a rock avalanche that ramped up the opposite slope (as commonly happens in that type of catastrophic failure).

Figure 14. Hillshade and terrain maps, with outline of landslide scarp and deposit.

Figure 15. Picture of the landslide deposit and cross section explaining the rock slide to rock avalanche mechanism.

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Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina landslide can be put forward by analyzing the position of the detachment scarp with respect to geology (Figure 16). It is evident that the landslide has been triggered basically in correspondance to an overthrust tectonic line. Active tectonics along this lineament cannot be excluded and, actually, a left-strike-slip active mechanism is suggested E\WKHQHFNHGFRXUVHRIWKHLQÀRZVWUHDPORFDWHGDERXW km north of the landslide scarp area. Considering the high seismicity of the whole region, what probably triggered such a large scale landslide event was actually high magnitude earthquake shaking. As mentioned above, the large landslide that formed the lake occurred during the Holocene, probably before 2300 B.P. (period in which the site of Ishla Ranra was also probably built; the site arises on the area covered by the collapsed rocks and which, as discussed in the relevant chapter, was occupied at least from the third century A.D.). The landscape at the time of this catastrophic event must KDYHEHHQYHU\GLIIHUHQWIURPWKDWRIWKHSUHVHQWGD\WKHÀDW areas that are currently situated towards the southern part of the lake – immediately uphill behind the accumulation of stone blocks caused by the landslide upon which the site of Ishla Ranra developed – may have been submerged by the lake, whose water level was subsequently reduced due to the progressive partial incision of the barrier threshold (incision that produced the current day depression in the central area of the landslide accumulation). We must imagine, therefore, that in antiquity, the sites currently situated at a distance from the shores of the lake were probably located immediately next to the very lake, and WKDWWKHUHZHUHQRZLGHÀDWDUHDVWRWKHVRXWKZKHUHWKH house of the ranger of Huascarán Park is now situated and which is also the camping and parking area.

Figure 16. Landslide features vs. tectonic lineaments.

Provided the relatively fresh aspect of the blocks, and the generally well preserved overall morphology of the landslide accumulation and of the detachment scarp, it is quite likely that the landslide occurred as one single large scale event triggered in the Holocene or, perhaps, even in historic-times. Dating of the landslide deposition by means of “surface exposure dating” methods is necessary in order to time-constrain the landslide event. Considering the high destructiveness of these types of landslides, the archaeological site of Ishla Ranra which is located (see Chapter 4, paragraph 2) in the accumulation area is certainly to be considered posterior to the landslide event, so dating the landslide event would circumscribe the GDWHRIWKH¿UVWVHWWOHPHQWDWOHDVW%3  Finally, some speculation about the causes of the destructive

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CHAPTER 4 SITE DESCRIPTIONS Elisa Benozzi, Carolina Orsini, Enzo Rizzo, Nicola Masini, Luigi Capozzoli 4.1 Llamacorral Elisa Benozzi

RIIRXU¿HOGFDPSDLJQVUHVSHFWLYHO\LQ and 2012. The site is situated on the property of the Acopalca community and is subdivided into lots, which the community council assigns for the use of agricultural practice. Furthermore, the area is located in the territory of the Huascarán National Park. The area on the southern shore of the lake slopes slightly from NE to SW. The slope is terraced with a retaining wall, whose construction is probably contemporary with that of the site. The manner in which this slope was utilized for construction will be discussed below. The site has a main circular structure with a total diameter of 12m, formed by three concentric walls. The internal spaces of these structures are connected to the exterior through various openings. Each of the walls, in fact, is provided with a door. The three doors are aligned and have an average height of 55cm and a width of 50cm. They consist of two imposts, a threshold and a stone lintel connected to the wall (Figure 18). A circular pit is placed within the inner circle with an average diameter of 80cm and a depth of 1.50m, and has been interpreted as a dry well. The innermost circle of the structure has a diameter of nearly 3m, whilst between the WKLUGDQGVHFRQGZDOODQGEHWZHHQWKHVHFRQGDQG¿UVWZDOO there is a round shaped corridor with an average width of PLQWKH¿UVWFDVHDQGPLQWKHVHFRQG The width of the structure’s walls varies from a maximum of 60cm to a minimum of 35cm and are made of square stone blocks, bound together with earth and gravel. The walls are built using the huanca pachilla technique, which has both a constructive use, giving greater solidity to the walls, and a decorative use, an important element in structures with ceremonial characteristics. One example may be that of the famous Black and White Staircase of Chavín de Huántar. In 20061 the site was in quite a good state of preservation, the elevation of the walls was conserved in their integrity DOPRVWHYHU\ZKHUHDQGVRPHRIWKHURR¿QJVODEVZHUHVWLOO in their original position. It was therefore possible to establish that the walls had three different heights, descending from the exterior to the interior, from a maximum of 1.70m to a minimum of 0.70m. Based on this observation it was hypothesized that the roof of the structure had a funnel shaped inclination towards the centre, perhaps to direct the water towards the well. The well has an helicoidal structure which can be compared to the ceremonial well found in the northwestern area of the site of Huaca Cao, for which scholars hypothesized a VWUXFWXUHGHVLJQHGVSHFL¿FDOO\WRUHÀHFWWKHVXQDQGPRRQ beams in the water of the well (See Mujica Barreda E.

4.1.1 Description of the site On the southern shore of the Puruhuay Lake, at a height of 3532m above sea level, lies the archaeological site known as Llamacorral (Benozzi E. 2009) (Figure 17). Llamacorral has been subject to the investigation of the Antonio Raimondi archaeological project over the course

Figure 17. Map and photo of the site of Llamacorral and its relation with Puruhuay Lake. Photo by Giulia Garra.

,QGHHGRQRFFDVLRQRIWKH¿UVWH[FDYDWLRQFDPSDLJQFDUULHGRXWE\WKH team of the Raimondi project. 1

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Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina

Figure 18. The three aligned doors of Llamacorral. Photo by Luciano Bitelli.

2007: 78 and Figure 19). These are the only Pre-Hispanic examples of helical wells of our knowledge (excluding those in the south coast area with uncertain dating). It is worth noting that the comparison between the two is problematic: they are located in different ecosystems and they date to different periods. $QRWKHUZDOOZDVLGHQWL¿HGDURXQGWKHPDLQFRQVWUXFWLRQ that enclosed an area of 23x9m around the structure itself, which included a 2x1m stone, placed in front of the main entrance, which in pre-Hispanic times may have been considered a huanca DSHWUL¿HGDQFHVWRU  6LQFHDIWHUWKH¿UVWDUFKDHRORJLFDOH[FDYDWLRQVWKH Municipality of Huari started a project in which the site was turned into an open-air museum by carring out a series

Figure 19 . Above: helicoidal well of Llamacorral (photo by Luciano Bitelli). Left: a similar well - but bigger - from Huaca Cao site, after Mujica Barreda E. 2007: 78. See also Quilter J. et al. 2012.

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Elisa Benozzi, Carolina Orsini, Enzo Rizzo, Nicola Masini, Luigi Capozzoli, Sites descripion

Figure 20. Llamacorral, map and location of test tips.

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Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina of restorations, including the consolidation of the walls and the removal of the architectural elements that had collapsed from the roofs and which cluttered the interior of the structure. During 2010, these interventions brought to light the presence of a small underground chamber in the second circle of the structure, which, as described below, was subject to investigation during the same year.

Trench E, on the other hand, was placed to the exterior of the structure in correspondence to the large stone, situated almost right in front of the entrance. The size of this trench was 2.35x1.40m. Its length corresponded to that of the VWRQHDQGLWVZLGWKZDVGHHPHGVXI¿FLHQWVRDVWRH[FOXGH the presence of offerings or other activities. The location of the different trenches aimed to identify the DPRXQWRIÀRRUVZLWKLQWKHVWUXFWXUHWRJHWKHUZLWKWKHLU GLUHFWLRQ DQG WKH SRVVLEOH SUHVHQFH RI VSHFL¿F DFWLYLWLHV carried out within or outside the structure. In 2010 a Trench (L) was placed in the second circle, to the south of the trench excavated in 2006, with the aim of establishing the relationship that the small subterranean VWUXFWXUHKDGZLWKWKHÀRRUVDQGZKDWLWFRQWDLQHG In 2012 a Test pit, denominated M, was placed in the southwestern area of the square in front of the structure. The area covered by the test pit (5x8m with a 3x1m extension in one portion) was not fully excavated. Investigations focused on the southwestern corner of the test pit, indicated as square 1 (see Figure 22) with a 2x2m area, and on the eastern half, indicated as squares 2 and 3 (see Figure 23), with a new total excavated area of 22m2. The excavation provided much new data of great interest that will be analysed below.

4.1.2 Excavation method During the four excavation campaigns that aimed to study and understand this site, several excavation and recording DFWLYLWLHVZHUHFDUULHGRXWZLWKVSHFL¿FREMHFWLYHV 7KH REMHFWLYH RI WKH  FDPSDLJQ WKH ¿UVW DQG PRVW extensive one, aimed to comprehend the function of the site, to determine the frequency and duration of its occupation, to identify a possible cultural framework and to carry out a preliminary topographic survey. To this end, nine test pits were excavated, eight within the interior of the main structure of the site and one situated in the exterior; samples were collected for radiocarbon dating and the artefacts found within these excavations were UHFRYHUHGFOHDQHGDQGFODVVL¿HG The 2009 campaign was conducted in collaboration with the department of topography of the University of Modena and Reggio Emilia with the aim of creating a new topographic plan of the site complete with a threedimensional reconstruction thanks to the use of a 3D satellite GPS (see Chapter 2, paragraph 3). The aim of the 2010 campaign, as mentioned below, was to investigate more thoroughly the adjacent site of Ishla Ranra and only a small excavation was carried out at Llamacorral in order to understand and contextualize the new evidence that had come to light during the recent works of restoration. Georadar mapping was carried out in 2011 (see paragraph at the end of this section) in the area of the square immediately to the south of the structure, where some anomalies could have been indicative of human intervention in the subsoil. Taking into consideration the results of these investigations, another excavation campaign was carried out in 2012 in order to verify the nature of such interventions (see below). It should be noted that no excavations had been undertaken outside of the structure itself, with the exception of Test pits E, C and M (see Figure 20).

4.1.4 Stratigraphic sequence 7KH VWUDWLJUDSKLF XQLWV  DQG  ZHUH LGHQWL¿HG LQ DOO trenches excavated in the interior of the structure of Llamacorral, A, B, C, D, F, G, H, I and L. Stratigraphic unit 1 represented a layer of abandonment composed of medium and large sized stones and slabs embedded in loose brown soil. The stones were probably part of the collapsed VWUXFWXUH7UDFHVRI¿UHFKDUFRDOURRWVDQGEXUQWOXPSVRI soil were also found in this layer. It was likely that these ZHUH WUDFHV RI ¿UHV VHW LQ WKH VXUURXQGLQJ ¿HOGV IRU WKH agricultural practice known as slash and burn, which was also practiced in antiquity (see radiocarbon results below). Stratigraphic unit 2 was a very compact, light brown layer, whose surface was cleaned and levelled. It has been LQWHUSUHWHGDVDÀRRUOHYHOLQEHDWHQHDUWKDQGLWVGLUHFWLRQ roughly corresponded to the natural inclination of the slope where the site was situated, as has been demonstrated by FRPSDULQJWKHKHLJKWVRIWKHÀRRUVLQWKHGLIIHUHQWWUHQFKHV $V D PDWWHU RI IDFW WKH ÀRRU RI 7UHQFK ' ZDV QHDUO\ 1m lower than that found in Trench G and F, which were situated in the same circle but to the northeastern H[WUHPLW\RIWKHVWUXFWXUH7KLVZDVIXUWKHUFRQ¿UPHGE\ WKH GLIIHUHQFH LQ KHLJKW EHWZHHQ WKH ÀRRUV RI 7UHQFK + and I. The two trenches were situated more or less in the same position, but in two different circles: H was located LQWKHPLGGOHFLUFOHDQG,LQWKHH[WHUQDORQHDQGWKHÀRRU of Trench I was approximately 50cm higher than that of Trench H. Excavation in Trench C also revealed a depression in the ÀRRU68 FPZLGHDQGFPGHHSLQFRUUHVSRQGHQFH to the three entrances, more or less at the centre, that suggested the existence of a drain. 7KHOD\HURIVLOWLGHQWL¿HGDV68DOVRFRYHUHGWKHZDOOVRI the inner well and seeped out towards the bottom, probably as a result of water activity.

4.1.3 Excavations: location of test pits The eight test pits carried out within the interior of the structure in 2006 was situated in the following way (Figure   7UHQFK$ ZDV SODFHG EHWZHHQ WKH GRRUV RI WKH ¿UVW and second circle, with a length of 1.76m, corresponding precisely to the distance between the two doors, and an initial width of 1m, then enlarged to 2m. Trench B completely occupied the inner circle. Trench C was placed in the second circle at the entrance, extending also to the exterior area in front of the entranceway itself, with a length of 0.85m and a width of 3.5m. Trench H was also SODFHGLQWKH¿UVWFLUFOHDQGPHDVXUHG[P7UHQFKHV' F, G and I were placed in the second circle and measured respectively 1x2m, 1.25x1m, 0.70x2m and 1.5x2.5m.

24

Elisa Benozzi, Carolina Orsini, Enzo Rizzo, Nicola Masini, Luigi Capozzoli, Sites descripion 6WUDWLJUDSKLF XQLW  ZDV DOVR LGHQWL¿HG RXWVLGH RI WKH structure in the area in front of the main entrance, investigated in Trench C. 8QIRUWXQDWHO\LWZDVGLI¿FXOWWRLGHQWLI\WKHFRQWLQXDWLRQ of the drainage towards the exterior of the structure as distance from the entranceway became larger. Even the attempt to establish a connection between the drainage and the huanca situated in front of the entrance with Test pit E did not yielded the desired results considering it was not possible to identify any stratigraphic units of clear anthropic origin with any certainty. )LQDOO\WKHEHDWHQHDUWKÀRRUZDVH[FDYDWHGLQVLGH7UHQFK F where it already appeared in a bad state of preservation. Its excavation revealed a new context denominated SU3, a layer composed of medium sized stones with scarce VRLO WKDW FRQVWLWXWHG WKH ÀRRU¶V IRXQGDWLRQ7KH SUHVHQFH RI WKH ÀRRU IRXQGDWLRQ ZDV SDUWLFXODUO\ LPSRUWDQW ZKLOVW DQDO\]LQJWKHLQFOLQDWLRQRIWKHÀRRUVIRULWGHPRQVWUDWHG DEVROXWH LQWHQWLRQDOLW\ 7KH ÀRRU GLG QRW IROORZ WKH inclination of the hillside because it was not laid directly above the natural bedrock, but was supported by a foundation, that intentionally reproduced the inclination. It would have been, in fact, relatively simple, if not even simpler, to use the foundational layer for levelling the ground, as was done in the square outside of the structure (see below, Trench M). During the restoration of the structure, as mentioned above, some of the slabs which had collapsed from the URRIDQGWKDWKDGSDUWLDOO\GDPDJHGWKHXQGHUO\LQJÀRRU were removed, revealing, once again, the presence of D VWRQH FLVW XQGHU WKH ÀRRU RI WKH VHFRQG FLUFOH )LJXUH 21). Detailed investigations conducted during the 2010 campaign established that the construction of the cist was contemporary to that of the structure. The stone slabs that covered the cist were, in fact, sealed by the preserved SRUWLRQ RI WKH ÀRRU DQG WKHUH ZHUH QR WUDFHV RI FXWV RU other intrusive events. The cist contained numerous camelid bones. Preliminary analysis2 established a minimum number of 16 specimens in the cist, and an age that ranged from 1 to 9 months.3 Furthermore, it showed D SUHGRPLQDQFH RI VSHFL¿F SDUWV RI WKH VNHOHWRQ LQ particular long bones were more numerous in comparison to those of the axial skeleton and cranium. The absence of whole portions of the skeleton would seem to indicate that the animals were butchered elsewhere. No evidence was found that was indicative of how the animals were killed. 7UDFHVRIEXWFKHULQJZHUHLGHQWL¿HGRQWKHERQHVZKLOVW DOWHUDWLRQV IURP ¿UH ZHUH ODFNLQJ ZKLFK LQGLFDWHG WKDW these animal parts may have been deposited raw. They were probably slaughtered for ritual purposes.4 As we shall see below, it is likely that the butchering of the animals together with a possible ritual feast were carried out in the Carried out by Maria Ysela Leyva Velazco of the Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos de Lima. 3 The MNI and the age of the individuals were established by using the UHFRUGV RI WD[RQRPLF LGHQWL¿FDWLRQ DQDWRPLF LGHQWL¿FDWLRQ ODWHUDOLW\ bone portion, estimated age and state of epiphyseal fusion. 4 The cultural importance of these types of offerings will be analysed in detail in the conclusions. 2

Figure 21. Stone cist found in the context of test pit L. Above: the covered cist. Below: the open cist revealing the bones.

25

Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina very structure. In square 3 of Test pit M the presence of DKHDUWKZDVLGHQWL¿HGGHQRPLQDWHG68LWSUREDEO\ represented a single event and was not continuously used over time. The feature covered SU116 and 117, which were probably of natural origin (see below). We believe WKDWLWFRXOGKDYHEHHQD¿UHXVHGWRFRRNWKHPHDWRIWKH llamaRIIHUHGLQVDFUL¿FHDQGWKDWLWWKHUHIRUHEHORQJHGWR the same phase. 7KLV VHHPV WR EH FRQ¿UPHG E\ WKH IDFW WKDW WKH VRXWKHUQ half of the ash lens was sealed by SU114, which, as was VHHQ DERYH ZDV D ÀRRU OD\HU UHODWHG WR WKH ODVW SKDVH RI FRQVWUXFWLRQDWLPHZKHQWKHEHDWHQHDUWKÀRRUVZHUHODLG LQWKHZKROHVWUXFWXUHWRJHWKHUZLWKWKHFDQDOLGHQWL¿HGLQ Test pit C. The continuation of the canal in the exterior area was LGHQWL¿HG DOEHLW ZLWK GLIIHUHQW FRQVWUXFWLYH IHDWXUHV ,Q fact, the excavation of square 2 of Test pit M revealed the presence of a partially conserved stone structure, SU119, made out of four vertically placed slabs, that created a conjunction between two outcrops of natural bedrock (Figures 23, 24). Our interpretation is that their function was to contain the water that seeped out of the structure, with the purpose of conveying it towards the lake. The presence of a thin sandy deposit, SU120, concentrated at WKHEDVHRIWKHVWRQHVDSSHDUVWRFRQ¿UPWKHSUHVHQFHRID ÀRZRIZDWHUDQGWKHGHSRVLWLRQRIWKHKHDYLHUVHGLPHQW 7KHQHHGWRFUHDWHDQDUWL¿FLDOGLNHFRXOGKDYHGHSHQGHG

area of the square in front of the aligned entranceways of the site. 7KUHH FKURQRORJLFDO VWDJHV KDYH EHHQ LGHQWL¿HG DW Llamacorral on the basis of the data yielded from this VWUDWLJUDSKLF VHTXHQFH 7KH ¿UVW LV DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK WKH creation of a higher level in the interior area, the second ZLWKWKHRIIHULQJDQGWKHWKLUGZLWKWKHOD\HULQJRIWKHÀRRU 7KHVWUDWLJUDSKLFVHTXHQFHLGHQWL¿HGLQLQ7HVWSLW0 also revealed substantially the same constructive phases. The excavation of square 1 provided important data regarding the nature of the area between the structure and the external perimeter wall that enclosed the square, HPSKDVL]LQJLWVDUWL¿FLDOQDWXUH7KHH[FDYDWLRQRI68 WKHVXUIDFHOD\HULGHQWLFDOWR68LGHQWL¿HGLQWKHWHVWSLWV of previous campaigns, highlighted the presence of a layer of selected, yellow silt, denominated SU111 in square 1 DQG68LQVTXDUHVDQG,WZDVSUREDEO\DÀRRUOD\HU similar to SU2, but characterized by a different colour. 7KLV ÀRRU OD\HU UHVWHG XSRQ DQ DUWL¿FLDO VWRQH ¿OO WKH stones were larger in size towards the bottom and smaller towards the top, and was denominated SU1125 (Figure 22). Its function was to extend and level the area around the VWUXFWXUH7KH¿OOZDVFRQWDLQHGE\WKHSHULPHWHUZDOORI the square. In regards to the construction of the site, both the interior and exterior levelling activities were probably carried out at the same moment in time. As mentioned above, a second constructive stage was represented by the offering found in the foundation of the

Figure 22. Excavation of square 1, illustrating the large layer of rocks (SU112 A and B) used to level the square. The rocks are concentrated towards the external wall of the square, that can be seen on the left hand side of the photo, where the inclination is more accentuated.

The layer was subdivided into A at the top and B at the bottom. SU112 is the same as SU115 of squares 2 and 3; SU112 B was not found here, very probably because the more elevated height of the natural bedrock in this area made it unnecessary. 5

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Elisa Benozzi, Carolina Orsini, Enzo Rizzo, Nicola Masini, Luigi Capozzoli, Sites descripion

The analysis regarding the conceptual value of this choice and the properties of the watercourse are discussed in the conclusions. ,Q UHJDUGV WR WKH ÀRRU OD\HU 68  LW PXVW EH emphasized how SU118 constituted its northern limit, towards the structure. This would explain why it had GLIIHUHQWFKDUDFWHULVWLFVFRPSDUHGWR68WKHÀRRUOHYHO inside the structure). The different colour could, in fact, mark the difference between the interior of the structure and its features, from the exterior, between an area that was accessible to everybody and one designated for a more UHVWULFWHG QXPEHU RI SHRSOH SURWHFWHG IURP WKH ÀRZLQJ water.

Figure 23. Birds eye view of squares 2 and 3 of test pit M. Note WKHVWRQHGLNHWKDWFRQQHFWVWKHWZRQDWXUDOURFNVDQGWKHÀRRU layer SU114 in the southern half of the square (top of photo).

RQ WKH VWUXFWXUDO PRGL¿FDWLRQ WKDW DIIHFWHG WKH H[WHUQDO area and that changed its morphology. In fact, as was seen DERYHWKHÀRRUIRXQGDWLRQZLWKLQWKHVWUXFWXUHIROORZHG the natural inclination, whilst outside of the structure, a higher level was created together with the extension of the area. This change would have prevented the watercourse to follow its natural direction, as indicated by the georadar analysis situated about 1.5m above the current surface, requiring thus human intervention that aimed to recreate WKH QHFHVVDU\ FRQGLWLRQV IRU WKH ZDWHU WR ÀRZ WKLV W\SH of intervention was carried out above the naturally carved water channel in the natural deposit. It is also important to draw attention to the fact that the hearth, SU118, was placed along the watercourse. The ¿UHZDVYHU\SUREDEO\OLWGXULQJWKHGU\VHDVRQZKHQWKH natural deposits, SU116 and 117, had lost their moisture. SU117 had similar characteristics to that of SU120 and most likely had the same origin. The burnt area coincided in part with SU117, which due to its sandy matrix was at WKHWLPHGULHUWKDQ68DQGWKXVPRUHVXLWDEOHIRU¿ULQJ

4.1.5 Associated artefacts and dating Not many artefacts were found during the excavations DW /ODPDFRUUDO EXW VRPH DUH FHUWDLQO\ YHU\ VLJQL¿FDQW 7KHPRVWLPSRUWDQW¿QGZDVXQGRXEWHGO\WKHYDOYHRID Spondylus sp.VKHOOUHFRYHUHGIURPXQGHUQHDWKWKHÀRRU SU2, in Trench F (see Figure 126 in Chapter 5, paragraph 5.3). 7KH FXOWXUDO LPSOLFDWLRQV RI WKLV ¿QG ZLOO EH DQDO\]HG below. The shell most likely represented an offering, just like the llama bones.

27

Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina

Figure 24. Detail of the stone dike that closes off the natural EHGURFNDIWHUWKHH[FDYDWLRQRIWKHÀRRUOD\HU681RWHWKH ¿UHDUHD68 XSRQZKLFKWKHVWRQHGLNHZDVEXLOW

Ten necklace beads in hard stone were found an addition to the Spondylus valve, associated with the interface between WKHOD\HURIDEDQGRQPHQWDQGWKHÀRRULQ7UHQFK$VHH Chapter 5, paragraph 5.4). The presence of ceramics was particularly poor. The only VLJQL¿FDQWIUDJPHQWVIRXQGFRQVLVWHGRIWKHEDVHRIDFXS in Trench H, coming from, however, surface collection, and the rim of a cántaro associated with the abandonment layer in Trench A. A circular stone artefact was found in the same context in Trench H. It had a 20cm diameter and a thickness of 3/4cm. It was not possibly to identify its function with precision but the two main hypotheses are that it was a lid of a ceramic olla or a ceramists plate, locally denominated tilla6 (see Figure 127 in Chapter 5, paragraph 5.4). Camelid bone samples were taken from the subterranean chamber in order to obtain a date that would determine the period of construction of the main structure. Radiocarbon analysis7 dated these samples to A.D. 650 – A.D. 810, which should correspond to the founding of the VLWH7KHDUHDZDVWKHQDIIHFWHGE\VHYHUDO¿UHVLQDSHULRG between the pre-Hispanic era (A.D. 1460 – 1650) and the Colonial period, revealed by radiocarbon analysis carried out on some of the burnt plants found in various areas of

Figure 25. Above, graph and table summarizing the results of radiocarbon dating carried out on a sample taken from the offering in the cist found in the foundation of Llamacorral. Below, graph and table summarizing the results of radiocarbon dating carried out on a sample of plants collected in trench F at Llamacorral.

Thanks goes to Gabriel Ramon Jeoffrey for this suggestion. The analyses were carried out with the authorization of the Instituto Nacional de Cultura del Perú n/1411. 6 7

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Elisa Benozzi, Carolina Orsini, Enzo Rizzo, Nicola Masini, Luigi Capozzoli, Sites descripion

Figure 26. Localization of the two investigated areas A and B with GPR.

the site (Figure 25).

open door. GPR was undertaken only along the second ULQJ$ EHFDXVHWKHUHZHUHQRVWRQHVODEVRQWKHÀRRU Moreover, a GPR map was carried out outside the circular archaeological structure (B), see Figure 26. The GPR survey was carried out by using Subsurface Interface Radar (SIR) 3000 manufactured by Geophysical Survey Systems Incorporation (GSSI). The SIR 3000 had a digital control unit with keypad, VGA video screen and connector panel. The unit was backpack portable, requiring one or two operators, and the antenna used was of the monostatic type 400 MHz (by GSSI). The GPR acquisitions were acquired in continuous mode with a two-way time range of 60ns, and an interval band pass ¿OWHU RI  QV 7KH VXUYH\ ZDV DFTXLUHG ZLWKRXW D “wheel accessory” but a reference metre rule was located DORQJ HDFK SUR¿OH DQG PDUNHG DW HDFK PHWHU7KHUHIRUH a distance normalization (DN) to mitigate uncertainties RQ WKH DQWHQQD SRVLWLRQV ZDV DGRSWHG 7KH 5HÀH[: software (Sandmeier K.J. 2000) was used to process the data. The high quality of the traces only requires standard analysis techniques for data processing and for reducing background noise (normalization, zero time correction, background removal processing). The circular radargramm, an estimated average electromagnetic wave velocity of about 0.13m/ns, was HVWLPDWHGE\K\SHUERODDQDO\VLV7KHUHIRUHE\H[SORLWLQJ the estimated e.m. velocity, for the 400 MHz antenna, WKH WLPH UDQJH RI QV FRUUHVSRQGHG WR D PD[LPXP investigated depth of around 4m.

4.1.6 GPR investigation at Llamacorral Enzo Rizzo, Nicola Masini, Luigi Capozzoli 4.1.6.1 GPR prospections The ground penetrating radar (GPR) method has been used for a variety of purposes, and has had a lot of success in archaeology (Rizzo E. et al. 2005; Chianese D. et al. 2010; Rizzo E. et al. 2010). The GPR is an electromagnetic method that uses a transmitter that emits pulses of highfrequency electromagnetic waves into the subsurface. The penetrating electromagnetic waves are scattered at changes in the dielectric permitivity of the investigated subsurface. The dielectric parameter is a property of the subsurface material dependent primarily upon the bulk density, clay content and water content of the subsurface. 7KHHOHFWURPDJQHWLFHQHUJ\LVUHÀHFWHGEDFNWRWKHVXUIDFH receiving antenna and is recorded as a function of time. All these recorded signals produce an image (radargramm) ZKHUHWKHUHÀHFWHGVXUIDFHVDUHYLVLEOH 4.1.6.2 Field data acquisition and processing GPR was applied at the archaeological site of Llamacorral in order to investigate the construction techniques of the site together with the presence of other cavities such as the cist containing the bone remains found in Trench L. The geophysical technique was applied both inside and outside the archaeological circular structure (Figure 26). The aim of using such techniques was to identify structures below WKH ÀRRU ZLWKRXW GDPDJLQJ LW DQG WR SURFHHG ZLWK VPDOO micro-stratigraphic digs. Inside the structure, three circular stone walls stand at a distance of about 1m: each ring is connected by a small

4.1.6.3 Results )LJXUHLOOXVWUDWHVWKH*35SUR¿OHVFDUULHGRXWLQVLGHWKH

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Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina

amount towards the south (where a greater accumulation of material was needed to level the mountain slope) contribute to the hypothesis that the square upon which /ODPDFRUUDOVWDQGVLVDUWL¿FLDO Another interesting feature that emerged from this analyses was the presence of a cavity in the ground, perhaps caused E\ WKH ÀRZ RI JURXQGZDWHU WKDW UDQ GLDJRQDOO\ LQ WKH GLUHFWLRQRIWKHODNH:KHQWKHDUWL¿FLDOVTXDUHZDVEXLOWWR DFFRPPRGDWHWKHVWUXFWXUHWKHGLUHFWLRQRIWKLVÀRZZDV in some ways taken into consideration by building a dike in the same direction as that indicated by the subterranean cavity. It was not possible to understand whether and how this watercourse continued towards the lake, which, we recall (see Chapter 3) was probably once much closer to the site than it is today.

Figure 27. Radargramm carried out inside the circular archaeological structure.

DUFKDHRORJLFDO VWUXFWXUH RQ WKH ÀRRU RI WKH VHFRQG ULQJ (A, Figure 26). The radargramm was 19m long and the investigation GHSWK ZDV DURXQG P ZLWK Y PQV  7KH *35 SUR¿OHV FOHDUO\ SRLQWHG RXW VHYHUDO K\SHUERODV XS WR QV (about 0.30m). From these hyperbola the e.m. velocity was estimated. In detail, three main zones (black circular lines) were localized where an intense number of the hyperbola were sketched. These could indicate the presence of the ÀRRUWKDWFRQVLVWVRISODQHVWRQHV Moreover, an e.m. absorbed area was visible between 5ns and 25ns, which depicted the presence of an homogeneous layer with a high water content, which was probably DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK WKH PDWHULDO XVHG WR PDNH WKH ÀRRU )LQDOO\EHORZQVDFOHDUUHÀHFWHG]RQHZDVKLJKOLJKWHG 7KLV OD\HU VKRZHG VHYHUDO PDLQ UHÀHFWHG ]RQHV WKDW ZDV possibly associated with the cavity inside the stone area. Figure 28 shows the radargramms carried out outside the archaeological circular structure along eight 5m long SDUDOOHOSUR¿OHVDQGZLWKLQWHUOLQHVRIP%)LJXUH  The radargramms had an investigation depth around 3m ZLWKY PQV  7KHUDGDUJUDPPVVKRZHGD¿UVWOD\HUXSWRQV ZKHUH QRVWURQJUHÀHFWRUVZHUHYLVLEOH7KLVOD\HUZDVDVVRFLDWHG with shallow wet soil. Moreover, the contact between the wet soil and the deep layer had an immersion along the GLUHFWLRQRIWKHDFTXLVLWLRQ7KLVGH¿QHGDVPDOOHUWKLFNQHVV towards the North and a larger thickness towards the South. On the contrary, the deep layer highlighted strong UHÀHFWLRQV 7KH\ KDYH EHHQ DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK EHGURFN stones. Moreover, it was possible to distinguish a stronger UHÀHFWHGDUHDLQDOOSUR¿OHVZKLFKFRXOGEHLQWHUSUHWHGDV the presence of a natural drainage in the direction of the lake (Figure 29). As a preliminary conclusion we may state that the lower amount of deposit in the northern part and the larger

4.1.7 Conclusions Elisa Benozzi, Carolina Orsini The site of Llamacorral is, according to our current knowledge, unique in the area of Conchucos and, in general, in the central Andes. It consists of a ceremonial structure connected to water and fertility with strong ties to the world of farming. This is apparent by the clear association with factors such as the proximity to the lake, the offering found in the foundation (young llamas which had been offered after a ritual consumption) and the recovery of offerings that are associated, in the Andean world, with water. However, the context in which this structure was built is less clear. There are very few possible comparisons, apart from the ceremonial centre of Chavín de Huántar and even in this case it is only possible to compare the offerings discovered (Spondylus and lama) and not carry out comparisons with the structure itself. In particular, the main evidence regarding archaeological ¿QGVRIRIIHULQJVFRPSRVHGRISDUWVRIFDPHOLGVLQULWXDO contexts, most likely the result of celebratory feasts, consists of a large mass of bones deposited (probably repeatedly over time) in the Gallery of Offerings of Chavín

30

Elisa Benozzi, Carolina Orsini, Enzo Rizzo, Nicola Masini, Luigi Capozzoli, Sites descripion

RUQHZERUQVSHFLPHQVRIVDFUL¿FHGllamas discovered at the Huaca del Pueblo at the site of Batán Grande (Shimada I. 1985: 14-15). Another example along the northern coast DUH WKH WUDFHV IRXQG RI VDFUL¿FHG llamas in the Huaca Julupé at the site of La Leche (ibid.). In regards to the site of Pampa Grande, evidence indicative of llama and human VDFUL¿FHVWRWKH+XDFD)RUWDOH]DVWUXFWXUHZHUHIRXQGWKH bones were discovered in the postholes). ,QWKHFDVHVRXWOLQHGDERYHDOOFRQWHPSRUDU\WRWKH¿QGV at Llamacorral, although distant from the area of our LQWHUHVWWKHFXVWRPRIVDFUL¿FLQJVPDOOSDUWVRIllama to

Figure 28. Radargramms carried out outside the circular archaeological structure.

de Huántar, excavated by Luis Guillermo Lumbreras (Bonavia D. 2008: 115). It is fairly well documented along the Andean coast that ODPD VDFUL¿FHV ZHUH FRPPRQ WKURXJKRXW WKH 0LGGOH +RUL]RQ ZKHUH VDFUL¿FHG llamas were often found both LQFHUHPRQLDODQGEXULDOFRQWH[WV6RPHVDFUL¿FHVFDUULHG RXW GXULQJ WKLV SKDVH DUH SDUWLFXODUO\ VLJQL¿FDQW IRU WKH analysis of Llamacorral: for example that of 14 foetuses

31

Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina

Figure 29. The black squares indicated the surface location of WKHPDLQGHHSUHÀHFWRUV

sample. None of the other residential settlements situated on the hilltops surrounding the lake nor those situated downstream are characterized by settlement patterns that can be dated to this period.8 Furthermore, Llamacorral remains the only site of the

ceremonial structures appears to be widespread. However, no comparisons have been found for the type of structure at Llamacorral. Furthermore, Llamacorral is the only site that has been securely dated to the Middle Horizon in the area of Puruhuay although with a single

This statement is reliable in regards to the sites excavated, whilst the possibility of error is higher for the other sites even if the type of settlement pattern of the Middle Horizon is easily recognizable in the area of the Sierra of Ancash (see Orsini C. - Benozzi E. - Porcedda M. Sartori F. 2012). 8

Figure 30. View of the southern shore of the lake illustrating the two sectors of Ishla Ranra and the site of Llamacorral.

32

Elisa Benozzi, Carolina Orsini, Enzo Rizzo, Nicola Masini, Luigi Capozzoli, Sites descripion

residents to build structures in such an inhospitable place. 7KHGLI¿FXOWORFDWLRQKDUGO\DOORZVDQXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKH structure’s interior or a complete vision of the enclosures submerged amongst large boulders. The very conformation of the site is so inaccessible that it ZDVGLI¿FXOWWRUHODWHWKHVWUDWLJUDSK\LQWKHGLIIHUHQWSDUWV of the site investigated. Only one of the two areas was investigated in depth: Ishla Ranra A (see Figure 33). This site covers a total area of nearly four acres and is mainly composed of a large number of different shaped and sized structures. Structures can be oval, square, rectangular and also irregular in shape due to the uneven ground. Dimensions of the structures vary from a maximum of 20x15m, to a minimum of

Figure 31. General map of Ishla Ranra A and B.

Middle Horizon in the lake area that completely lacks a residential type of settlement. In these preliminary conclusions it is possible to observe how the site was undoubtedly the most important ceremonial structure of the area, proving that also in the Middle Horizon, although chronologically much earlier to the construction and occupation of the other site situated on the shores of the lake, Ishla Ranra (see following paragraph), the need was felt to build a place of worship, that notwithstanding its small dimensions, was built DFFRUGLQJWRVLJQL¿FDQWHQJLQHHULQJHIIRUWVDQGUHPDLQHG a structural model in the following periods (see description of the site of Awilupaccha, Chapter 4, paragraph 4).

Figure 32. Structure I immersed in the mass of stones and, in the background, the lake of Puruhuay (photo by Luciano Bitelli).

4.2 Ishla Ranra Elisa Benozzi 4.2.1 Description of the site Ishla Ranra is located on the southern bank of the Puruhuay Lake at an altitude of 3.532m above sea level. The preHispanic remains are located in two different areas (Ishla Ranra A and B, see Figures 30 and 31), both hidden amongst the great heap of stones situated to the south of the lake (Figure 32). The area is located behind the building that houses the local seat of the Huascarán National Park. The hypotheses regarding the origin of this large area of stones have been mentioned in the previous chapter. ,W LV YHU\ GLI¿FXOW WR HVWDEOLVK WKH UHDVRQV WKDW OHG ORFDO

33

Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina

The presence of formal entranceways have been LGHQWL¿HG RQO\ LQ VRPH VWUXFWXUHV DOWKRXJK WKLV YHU\ probably depends on the status of preservation. The only recognizable type of access is that which required a large stone, or smooth slab, placed horizontally and utilized as a threshold, associated with two large stones placed upright and used as abutments. Lintels are completely absent, at least those made in stone. This type of entranceway, except for the lack of lintels, is the most common type in the Puruhuay Lake area, as revealed also by the description of other sites. The inability to recognize a settlement pattern, due to the co-existence of different typologies, has made the study of WKHVLWHYHU\GLI¿FXOWDQGKDVUHTXLUHGYDULRXVH[FDYDWLRQ campaigns, over 2006, 2009 and 2010, and the study presented here is only a general description.

Figure 33. Partial map of the site of Ishla Ranra A illustrating the excavated structures. The stars indicate the hypogean structures.

5x4m. Some have internal subterranean chambers, others have smaller subterranean chambers situated along the external perimeter, approximately half have none at all. Furthermore, there are some small hypogean structures which are not associated with any surface structures. In most cases the hypogean rooms were built by exploiting subterranean spaces of natural origin. Furthermore, in addition to the large variety of structures, there is also considerable variability in the types of associations amongst the structures. Structures may lean against each other, sharing walls or parts of walls, or they may be completely isolated, without any recognizable plan or pattern. At present it is not possible to determine whether complex structures were connected amongst themselves. Walls were built by utilizing stones from the heap of rocks upon which the site is situated, in some cases large outcrops of natural bedrock were included within the walls themselves, especially in the corners. Stones are squared DQG KHOG WRJHWKHU E\ VRLO DQG ¿QHO\ IUDJPHQWHG VWRQHV The width of the walls vary from a minimum of 40cm to a maximum of 60cm, whilst preserved heights rarely H[FHHGPDQGWKHUHLVQRHYLGHQFHRIURR¿QJ7KLVPD\ be due, not only to the bad state of preservation, but also to the fact that the standing walls and roofs were made out of perishable material, sun-dried bricks for the walls and straw, ichu the grass of the puna, or due to their total absence.

4.2.2 Excavation method $V ZDV WKH FDVH DW /ODPDFRUUDO WKH WKUHH GLIIHUHQW ¿HOG campaigns dedicated to the analysis and comprehension of the site of Ishla Ranra focused on different issues. The 2006 campaign aimed to understand the typology of the site by analyzing the different types of structures. One hypogean structure was chosen together with four epigean structures. Of these, two were complex and two were isolated. One of the isolated structures had a square plan, whilst the other had an oval-shaped plan, although it was not totally regular. The two complex types of structures also had an oval plan. The hypogean structure had a rectangular plan. Six test pits were carried out within the ¿YHVWUXFWXUHV$SUHOLPLQDU\WRSRJUDSKLFSODQRIWKHVLWH

34

Elisa Benozzi, Carolina Orsini, Enzo Rizzo, Nicola Masini, Luigi Capozzoli, Sites descripion

)LJXUH/RFDWLRQRI¿YHRIWKHVL[WHVWSLWVLQYHVWLJDWHGLQWKH 2006 excavations.

35

Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina 1x2m. 6WUXFWXUH ,9 KDG DQ LUUHJXODU SODQ JHQHUDOO\ LGHQWL¿DEOH as a semi-circle. It is 8m long and 3m wide. Test pit E was placed in the northeastern corner of the structure and measured 3x2m. The last Test pit, denominated F (Figures 35, 36), was placed in Chamber I, situated to the east of the site on a large oval platform upon which some enclosures were situated. Chamber I was situated in an open area, outside of the enclosures. It consisted of a small rectangular shaped hypogean structure. At the time of its discovery the chamber was already open, suggesting that the context within it had probably been altered, but the easy access and safe conditions made its investigation favorable together with a general clearing of the room. The entrance was rectangular and measured 1x0.80m, the room had made use of a pre-existing gap, three of the walls had been built from the heap of stones themselves, whilst the east wall was a dry-wall in un-worked stone. On the exterior, around the entrance, there were large slabs which probably were what remained of the chamber’s closure. Another slab, part of the covering of the tomb, had collapsed inside the chamber above a textile offering (see below and Figure 36). Few non-diagnostic ceramic fragments were recovered from inside the cist. There were no traces of bones inside or in the surrounding area. The 2010 excavation analyzed a structure denominated Tomb 810 (Figure 37), which had a quadrangular plan and that measured 5x6m, situated to the southwest of Structure I, and which was investigated in its complete extension.

Figure 35. Chamber I and location of test pit F.

was carried out contemporary to the excavations. The 2009 campaign aimed to complement and improve the ¿UVW SODQ E\ XVLQJ D VDWHOOLWH WKHRGROLWH 7KLV ZDV PDGH possible by the collaboration of the University of Modena and Reggio Emilia.9 Finally, the objective of the 2010 campaign, was to excavate a new hypogean context and all of the structures connected to it, in the hope of obtaining more data regarding their function.

4.2.4 Stratigraphic sequence Considering the stratigraphic units had no direct physical relationship between themselves, the stratigraphic sequence will be analyzed separately for each structure. 2QO\RQHVWUDWLJUDSKLFVHTXHQFHZDVLGHQWL¿HGZLWKLQWKH Test pits A and B in Structure I. This sequence consisted of four stratigraphic layers: SU1 represented a partial  7KH XVH RI WKH WHUP 7RPE WR LQGLFDWH WKLV VWUXFWXUH LV MXVWL¿HG E\ the preliminary hypothesis that hypogean structures were burials, XQIRUWXQDWHO\ LW KDV QRW EHHQ SRVVLEOH WR FRQ¿UP VXFK D K\SRWKHVLV considering no hypogean structure has been found intact and due to the total absence of human remains.

10

4.2.3 Excavations: location of test pits In 2006 the six excavatoins were located as follows: A and B in Structure I, C in Structure II, D in Structure III, E in Structure IV and F in Chamber I (Figure 34, 35). The structure denominated I had an oval plan. It measured 20x13m and was subdivided into 6 rooms. Two Test pits, A and B, were carried out in the northern room, the largest in size. Test pit A measured 1x1m and was placed in the corner formed by the perimeter wall with one of the internal divisions, in order to verify the relationship between the two walls. Test pit B was placed against the northern wall and measured 2x2m. Structure II had a rectangular plan and measured 3.6x4.6m and consisted of a single room. Test pit C was placed in the northern hall of the room and measured 2x2m. Structure III had a semicircular plan with a diameter of 3.4m. Test pit D was placed in its interior and measured

Figure 36. The open chamber with, under the arrow indicating North, the textile offering.

Cristina Castagnetti and Emanuele Boni carried out the adjustments on the preliminary map of 2006. 9

36

Elisa Benozzi, Carolina Orsini, Enzo Rizzo, Nicola Masini, Luigi Capozzoli, Sites descripion

Figure 37. Location of structure VIII, denominated also Tomb 8 due to the presence of two subterranean chambers within the enclosure.

37

Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina

collapse of the structure and was composed of the stones that formed the structure itself and of a scarce amount of loose soil, which very probably accumulated here after the wall had collapsed. Below this layer a fragment of EHDWHQHDUWKÀRRUZDVUHFRUGHGGHQRPLQDWHG68FP thick and conserved only in Test pit B. This was the only ÀRRUOD\HULGHQWL¿HGLQUHODWLRQWRWKHVWUXFWXUH7ZRRWKHU FRQWH[WVZHUHLGHQWL¿HGLQWKHDUHDVZKHUHWKHÀRRUZDV lacking, stratigraphic units 3 and 4. These have been LQWHUSUHWHGUHVSHFWLYHO\DVVRPHVRUWRIÀRRUUHODWHGWRWKH construction of the structure and as a layer that served to OHYHOWKHDUHDDQGXSRQZKLFKWKHÀRRUDVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKH construction of the structure was created. The sequence in Test pit C was analogous to that found in Test pits A and B. Only one level of occupation was LGHQWL¿HG 68  UHSUHVHQWHG E\ D EHDWHQ HDUWK ÀRRU covered by a level of abandonment (SU5). A small underground structure (Figure 38) was brought to light whilst excavating Test pit C, denominated SU9. It had a circular plan, approximately 70cm in diameter, that could have been used as a silo. 7KH SUHVHQFH RI D VLQJOH ÀRRU OD\HU 68 FRYHUHG E\ D OD\HURIFROODSVHDQGDEDQGRQPHQWZDVLGHQWL¿HGLQ7HVW pit D in Structure III. It is important to emphasize how WKLVFDVHDOVRDSSHDUHGWRFRQ¿UPWKHSUHVHQFHRIDVLQJOH phase of occupation. The stratigraphic sequence in Test pit E also revealed the presence of a single layer of occupation, SU12, that was placed on an internal levelling of the structure, SU20,

Figure 38. Small hypogean structure, perhaps a silos for the conservation of foodstuffs, recovered in the excavation of structure II.

whilst the most recent layer, SU10, probably a layer that was created during post-abandonment of the structure, was a layer that showed clear traces of modern disturbance. It was not possible to establish any type of stratigraphic sequence in Trench F within the chamber, which, as was mentioned above, was already open when it was discovered. Only SU11 was assigned to the level within the room, that contained anthropic material even if it had been disturbed, above all remains of textiles, that will be analyzed in more detail in Chapter 5, paragraph 6. The excavation carried out in 2010 in the structure denominated Tomb 8 (Figures 37, 39) added a lot of new data for the interpretation of the site of Ishla Ranra, but it also posed new questions. This structure was chosen during the 2009 survey due to the presence of two subterranean rooms, the excavation of which, as mentioned above, aimed to help in gaining a clearer picture regarding the function of these types of structures, or at least of some of them. The stratigraphy of this structure was more articulate (see Figures 40 and 41 for a general view of the enclosure and its internal structures) due to the presence of three additional enclosures (see Figure 40, numbers 3,4,5) and WR WKH UHOD\HULQJ RI WKH LQWHUQDO ÀRRULQJ 7KH FXUUHQW K\SRWKHVLVLVWKDW¿UVWRIDOOWKHSHULPHWHUZDOOVZHUHEXLOW together with the hypogean chambers and the additional

38

Elisa Benozzi, Carolina Orsini, Enzo Rizzo, Nicola Masini, Luigi Capozzoli, Sites descripion natural cavity that was subdivided by inserting a dry built wall, which will be referred from now onwards as North (Figure 42) and South (Figure 43) rooms. The rooms of the structures were completed by inserting a structured entrance in the North room and by covering both rooms with stone slabs. The whole subterranean structure has been denominated SU32. Due to the state of its preservation it was not possible to establish whether the South room had a structured entrance analogous to that found in the North room. The same stones, whose juxtaposition formed the subterranean cavity, had been exploited in the area where they surfaced from the ground, especially in the northeastern corner, so as to support the perimeter walls of the structure, SU31. Two additional structures were connected to these walls in the southeastern corner, SU42 (Figure 40, number 4), and in the southwestern corner, SU38 (Figure 40, number 5), whose functions remain uncertain due to their bad state RI SUHVHUYDWLRQ $ VLOW FRDWLQJ XVHG DV D EHDWHQ ÀRRU completed the structure, denominated SU34, that was conserved in good condition in the northwestern corner, whilst it appeared patchy or absent in all other areas. $V PHQWLRQHG DERYH WKH ÀRRU OD\HU KDG EHHQ FXW E\ SU43, approximately in correspondence to the entrance of the North room, halfway across the wall (see Figure 40,

Figure 39. Plan of the external perimeter of structure VIII. Drawing by Rita Giacomello.

structures; this was then followed by a re-utilization of WKHÀRRULQDVHFRQGSKDVHLQWKHDUHDFRUUHVSRQGLQJWR the entranceway of the northern room and is therefore probably related to a period when the room was re-opened and a third structure added. The building sequence began with the construction of the two chambers (Figure 40, numbers 1, 2) which exploited a

Figure 40. General view of enclosure VIII and its internal structures. South Chamber (1), North Chamber (2), additional structures (3,4,5).

39

Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina

Figure 41. General map with a palimpsest of the stratigraphic units (drawing by Rita Giacomello).

4.2.5 Associated artefacts and dating Ceramic material was collected during excavations carried out in the 2006 campaign, in different proportions. Test pits A, B and D yielded a scarce amount of ceramics, nothing in the case of Test pit A, 12 fragments from Test pit B, of which only one was diagnostic and nine in the case of Test pit D, with no diagnostic fragments. Test pits C and E yielded approximately one hundred fragments each, even if, of the one hundred and four fragments from Test pit E, only ten were diagnostic and of the one hundred and three fragments from Test pit C only RQH ZDV GLDJQRVWLF 7KHVH ¿QGLQJV FRXOG EH LPSRUWDQW for they may indicate different uses of the four structures. The diagnostic fragments will be examined in detail in the relevant Chapter. A stone tool was found in context 5 in Test pit C, probably an arrowhead (see Chapter 5, paragraph 5.5). Test pit F yielded twenty eight fragments, none of which

number 2). 7KHSLWKDGEHHQ¿OOHGZLWKDOD\HURIVWRQHV68DQG with soil and rubble, SU47 that had been used to seal the North room. The insertion of an additional structure, SU45 (Figure 40, QXPEHU DQGWKHFUHDWLRQRIDQHZÀRRUIRUUHFRQVWUXFWLQJ WKH ÀRRU 68 FRPSOHWHG WKH UHFRQVWUXFWLRQ RI WKH enclosure. Although there was probably one single phase of occupation, it was possible to distinguish two different stages within the structure. It was not possible to determine with certainty the main function of this structure, although the presence of two large subterranean chambers and the absence of domestic activities would favour a ritual interpretation. However, the assumptions of such a hypothesis will be analyzed in more detail below.

40

Elisa Benozzi, Carolina Orsini, Enzo Rizzo, Nicola Masini, Luigi Capozzoli, Sites descripion were diagnostic, and at least six different types of textile (see Chapter 5, paragraph 6). As mentioned above the textiles were recovered from a disturbed context and it was therefore not possible to establish their origin with certainty. A textile sample was used for C1411 dating that belonged to the Colonial period, A.D. 1460-1650. A similar result, A.D. 1460-1680, was yielded, from a sample taken from SU11, the layer associated with the textile. This may indicate that the entire contents of Chamber I are intrusive elements within the site context, although other hypotheses cannot be excluded, such as some type of occasional visit at Ishla Ranra during the Colonial period. Few ceramics was found during the 2010 excavations (Structure VIII), whilst stone tools were much more numerous, some of which were associated with the structural collapse, but most were recovered from the ÀRRUOHYHOVDQGIURPWKHVWUXFWXUHV7KHVHDUWHIDFWVDUHRI two main typologies: stone pestles and arrowheads, very similar to the artefacts from SU5 in Test pit C investigated in 2006 (see Chapter 5, paragraph 5 sub-section 5). Various samples were collected during the excavation of Structure 8 for their analysis and dating. In particular VDPSOHV FKRVHQ IRU & DQDO\VLV ZHUH WDNHQ IURP ÀRRU layers, SU34, from the subterranean structure, SU32 and IURPDK\SRWKHWLFDOÀRRUUHODWHGWRWKHFRQVWUXFWLRQRIWKH structure, SU37.

Figure 42. Internal view of North room.

The analyses were carried out with the authorization of the Instituto Nacional de Cultural del Perú n/1411.

11

Figure 43. Internal view of South room.

41

Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina on a small hill covered with large stones, about 500m to the east of Ishla Ranra. The morphological features of the hill’s summit had drawn our attention due to its remarkable similarity with the area occupied by the site of Ishla Ranra. As a matter of fact, the survey revealed the presence of structures analogous to those of Ishla Ranra, a kind of satellite site, denominated Ishla B (see Figures 30, 31). Two small, circular structures (see Figure 45) with a GLDPHWHURIPZHUHLGHQWL¿HGDERXWKDOIZD\GRZQWKH northern side of the hill slope, that which descends towards the Puruhuay lake. Two stones had been placed next to these structures, about 1.5m high, 30cm wide and with a maximum depth of 40cm, in an upright position, one next to the other. Two oval shaped enclosures were situated on the very hilltop, leaning one against the other. They measured respectively 12mx13m and 11mx9m. The complex was denominated Structure III, due to its similarity with Structure I at Ishla, with which it has considerable concurrences. Three circular planned structures were situated on the southern side of the slope, descending towards the valley: Structures IV, V and VI. These had been built by making use of the presence of large natural rocks (Figure 46). Their diameters were respectively 4.5m, 4m and 3.5m. A small subterranean chamber was discovered in Structure V, whose entranceway was found open. It was not possible to identify any features inside this chamber indicative of its functions. By comparing this structure to that of Structure VIII at Ishla it has been hypothesized to be a burial chamber. Another subterranean chamber was visible also in the area in front of Structures V and VI. The construction technique utilized at the site of Ishla B was identical to that used at the main site, with local hewn stone held together by mud and crushed stone mortar. No further investigation was carried out at this site a part from the initial survey and a rough plan. 4.2.7 Conclusions Ishla Ranra is the only known case of a settlement built amongst the remains of a large landslide. We do not know the reason that led people in antiquity to choose this location, which is clearly unsuitable for human settlement due to WKH GLI¿FXOWLHV LQYROYHG LQ PRYLQJ DFURVV VXFK D URXJK VXUIDFH)XUWKHU¿HOGFDPSDLJQVDUHQHFHVVDU\IRUDPRUH complete interpretation of the site and of its chronology. At the moment, it is only possible to make assumptions concerning the nature of the site. We know that it was built in a period in which the landslide was already a historical fact and we may imagine that the association landslideZDWHUPD\KDYHFRQVWLWXWHGDVLJQL¿FDQWELQRPLDOIRUWKH local population from a symbolic point of view. In fact, both elements are of great importance to Andean cultures: the landslide had produced the detachment of large blocks of stone, which had then been driven in the ground next to the laguna (at the time the level of the lake’s water was probably higher and reached the northernmost area of the site) forming a sort of forest of huancasWKDWLVRISHWUL¿HG ancestors (Duviols P. 1979), even if in this case they had been embedded in the ground naturally and not by man. The water of the laguna, on the other hand, represented a

Figure 44. Radiocarbon dating results carried out on three samples taken from structure VIII of Ishla Ranra

These new data emphasize how the so-called Tomb 8 dates to a period between the end of the Formative and the beginning of the Early Intermediate Period. These dates and those analyzed in 2006 cover a period of over 1500 years, a period in which the site was occupied, but we do not know if in a continuous or in an occasional way. 4.2.6 Ishla Ranra B 'XULQJWKH¿HOGVHDVRQRIDVXUYH\ZDVFDUULHGRXW

42

Elisa Benozzi, Carolina Orsini, Enzo Rizzo, Nicola Masini, Luigi Capozzoli, Sites descripion

Figure 45. Sketch of the structures of Ishla Ranra B.

place of worship as a pacarina. Marco Curatola (2002) writes: “Most of the sanctuaries ZHUHVLWXDWHGDWVSHFL¿FQDWXUDOVLWHVDFDYHDVSULQJWKH FRQÀXHQFHRIWZRZDWHUZD\VDURFNDODNHRUDPRXQWDLQ WRS  ZKLFK ZHUH LGHQWL¿HG ZLWK WKH JRGV WKH SODFH DQG the god were consubstantial and were generically called huacas. The divinity was often represented by a huanca, a large oblong stone, either worked or un-worked and placed vertically in the ground”. The association between huaca (the lake) and huanca WKH VWRQHV  EHFRPHV HYHQ PRUH VLJQL¿FDQW LI ZH DFFHSW Duviols’ thesis according to which the huancas are the double minerals of the founding ancestors (1979). This aids in explaining why the site is characterized, at least in part, by cavities-deposits, that may have functioned as ossuaries.

Nowadays they are empty: it is unlikely that this is due to the systematic action of predators. Probably in antiquity burials of the ancestors were removed intentionally. Thus, the re-opening of the subterranean chambers of Structure VIII in antiquity and the deposit of colonial textile (a votive offering that substituted the bones contained in the subterranean chamber, in which only a small fragment of ceramic was found that could have belonged to the original burial offering) are more easily contextualized. Finally, we must consider one last factor: if the huancas ZHUHWKHVWRQHFRSLHVRIWKHGHL¿HGDQFHVWRUVIRXQGHUVRI the ethnic group, the structures built here that would have housed and celebrated these remains were a symbolic act 43

Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina

Figure 46. Sketch of a modern corral, oval and circular enclosures, and two subterranean chambers in Ishla Ranra B.

shall see when discussing the other settlements, both in the ceremonial and residential areas of Puruhuay, the dead are largely lacking in the archaeological record. Not one burial has been found in the whole area. This absence is also a matter of great importance and will be discussed in the conclusions.

indicative of taking possession of Puruhuay, providing thus D¿UVWterminus ante quem for creating the sacredness of the place. Therefore, at least since the end of the Formative Period, the area was considered a place of worship. It is VLJQL¿FDQWWKDWWKHROGHVWSODFHRIZRUVKLSIRXQGQH[WWKH lake is situated in the forest of the huancas and that it was still visited in modern times, although intermittently. Nonetheless these suggestions, however fascinating, still remain simply a working hypothesis that cannot be securely GH¿QHGZLWKRXWIXUWKHUH[FDYDWLRQ7KHVHH[FDYDWLRQVZLOO hopefully prove the presence, even if only a transitory presence, of human burials within the structures. As we

4.3 Ñawpamarca Carolina Orsini 4.3.1 Introduction The site of Ñawpamarca (Orsini C. - Ibarra B. 2006, 2007; Orsini C. - Benozzi E. - Debandi F. 2009; Orsini C. - Debandi F. - Sartori F. 2009; Ibarra B. et al. 2010; Orsini C. et al. 2012) is situated on the cerro Pueblo Viejo

44

Elisa Benozzi, Carolina Orsini, Enzo Rizzo, Nicola Masini, Luigi Capozzoli, Sites descripion

mountain, at 4300m above sea level, and is partially within in the National Park of Huascarán. The environment surrounding the site is characterized by the páramo subandino (ONERN 1975), commonly known as the puna, whose climate is suitable for pastoralism. Nowadays, apart from the area that is located within the National Park, the archaeological site is placed within the lands of two local communities, that of Acopalca in the Valley of the Shashal River, which joins the Puruhuay river in the vicinity of the community, and that of Huamantanga, in the Huaritambo Valley to the east of the lake (Figure 47). The site, in fact, is situated on the summit of an isolated elliptical ridge that divides the two valleys. This dominant position permits a wide visual control over the valleys, and of course over Puruhuay, which is situated on the western slope, opposite Huamantanga. The ruins cover an area of about 10 hectares, with a

Figure 47. Panoramic view of the site of Ñawpamarca situated on the summit of cerro Pueblo Viejo, that divides the valley of the Puruhuay river from that of the Huaritambo river. The photo is taken after the site of Antaragá.

perimeter of 1.309,44m (Figure 49). ([FDYDWLRQV FDUULHG RXW GXULQJ WKH ¿HOG FDPSDLJQV IURP 2007 to 2010 have established that the site had a primarily residential function. 4.3.2 Spatial organization The settlement is characterized by a main area consisting of three concentric terraces built on an irregular slope that conform to the morphology of the main summit. Figure 48. Photostitch of the second circle of walls at Ñawpamarca (edited by Fabio Sartori).

45

Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina

Figure 49. Map of the site illustrating the location of the test pits.

46

Elisa Benozzi, Carolina Orsini, Enzo Rizzo, Nicola Masini, Luigi Capozzoli, Sites descripion

Large walls and pits delimit the terraces (see Figure 48). One of the most impressive walls is situated in the northeastern area of the settlement; it functioned both as a retaining wall for one of the residential terraces and also as a defensive wall due to its proximity to the ancient preHispanic paved road that descended to the Huaritambo Valley. The residential structures are situated on the terraces and built directly on the bedrock. The majority of the structures are concentrated within the three concentric Terraces denominated A, B and C (from the top downwards). 6SDWLDODQDO\VLVRIWKHVLWHKDVLGHQWL¿HGVRPHGLIIHUHQFHV amongst the areas investigated. Terrace A (Figures 49, 51), located on the highest part of the site, is characterized by larger structures with a series of different shaped and sized enclosures and a central area; this area may have been a square or an area designated for communal use. Unfortunately, it has been largely disturbed both by structural collapse and by the continuous grazing RIJRDWVEURXJKWWRWKLVSDUWLFXODUO\ÀDWDUHDE\VKHSKHUGV The buildings in Terrace A were built in an irregular and variable manner without an apparent predetermined plan, and the only open areas, apart from the square, are the passageways between the buildings. Rectangular shaped structures characterize Terraces B and C, where the sides of the structure that coincide with the terrace wall are often at a right angle, whereas the opposite side tends to assume a more rounded shape. In particular, the structures in Terrace B, due to this terrace’s

Figure 50. In the foreground a ditch that crosses terrace D and in the background the circle of walls that contain terrace C at Ñawpamarca (photo by Raul Zambrano Anaya).

smaller size, are placed right next to the terrace wall. The restricted amount of space prevents these structures from including larger spaces such as patios. Structures in the wider Terrace C, on the other hand, appear to be organized DFFRUGLQJ WR D VSHFL¿F SDWWHUQ ZKLFK ± DOWKRXJK QRW unique – includes residential structures that open up onto communal spaces, suggesting the existence of extended nuclei of cohabitation (Figure 52). The distribution of the structures situated outside of the three main concentric walled areas also differ: area D is characterized by the presence of scarce enclosures that lean against a discontinuous large wall (Figure 49: external wall 1) that together with another wall (Figure 49: external wall 2) with the same orientation about 60 metres to the north, appears to have primarily defensive functions. A water reservoir is situated in the area between e.w. 1 and e.w., whilst two large ditches are situated between e.w. 1 and Terrace C. Finally in the southernmost area of the settlement, in correspondence to a low clearing over the ridge, denominated area E, scattered circular enclosures have been interpreted as domestic structures with a low level RI SODQQLQJ +\GUDXOLF VWUXFWXUHV ZHUH DOVR LGHQWL¿HG LQ this area, such as a ditch, a well, which is now dry (Figure 49: puquio seco), together with traces of a possible cistern

47

Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina

Figure 51. View of terrace A looking towards the southeast.

centuries it was only used for ritual activities or on behalf RIWKHVKHSKHUGVZKRZRXOGIHHGWKHLUÀRFNVRQWKHQDWLYH shrubs of this high mountainous area. The existence of the paved road mentioned above dates to the pre-Hispanic period: this road begins at an entranceway with a stairway (Figure 53) in the eastern part of the site, next to the site walls, and continues towards the valley in direction of the town of Colcas.

(Figure 49: reservoir). Large quadrangular and circular structures have been LGHQWL¿HGLQWKLVDUHD7KHVWDWHRISUHVHUYDWLRQLQWKLVZLGH DUHD GRHV QRW SHUPLW WKH LGHQWL¿FDWLRQ RI WKH VWUXFWXUH¶V plan without systematic excavation. The morphology of the site today is very distinctive: as will be seen afterwards, Ñawpamarca was abandoned at the end of Late Intermediate Period; during the last

4.3.3 Defensive structures As in other settlements contemporary to Ñawpamarca, the site was well defended not only due to its geographical location but also due to the presence of structures built by the inhabitants: mainly two concentric walls (Figure 49 e.w. 1 and 2) that were, in turn, interrupted by a ditch, together with the high retaining walls occupied by residencial structures.

Figure 52. Photostitch of a residential complex with patios in terrace C (investigated with tests pits G, I, L, M, N. See below). Note the circular structure on the right and the area of the patio that is interrupted by small additional structures. The photo was taken from the containing wall of terrace B (editing by Fabio Sartori).

48

Elisa Benozzi, Carolina Orsini, Enzo Rizzo, Nicola Masini, Luigi Capozzoli, Sites descripion fairly strongly during the dry season. 4.3.4 Hydraulic structures It is well known that the habitat of the Andean area is characterized by periods of extreme dryness during the season that runs from May to September. Ñawpamarca is situated at a higher altitude than the area of Puruhuay and at an even higher level (over 1000m) in respect to the valley of the Huaritambo river. However, water could have been collected in small quantities in certain areas close to the site, both on the northeastern and western side of the site. A well, which is currently dry, could have constituted another water supply. It is situated immediately to the southeast of sector E in the vicinity of the pathway that leads to the site of Awilupaccha (see Figure 49: puquio seco). There were two types of hydraulic structures within the site that were used to collect rainwater or groundwater: WKH ¿UVW FRQVLVWHG RI D ODUJH reservorio located to the north of the site between two external walls (see Figure UHVHUYRLU DQGWKHVHFRQGFRQVLVWHGRIVSHFL¿FDUHDV situated within certain domestic units used to convoy rainwater (see below). The reservorio was characterized by a small canal that convoyed the waters and that exploited the natural slope of the land in direction of the great basin. It measured approximately 150 square metres, and was one and a half PHWUHVGHHS7KHUHIRUHLWVPD[LPXPZDWHUÀRZKDVEHHQ calculated to be 225m³. The water canal instead was about a hundred metres long and 1 to 2 metres wide and was not very deep.

Figure 53. Stairway that was part of the paved road that connected Nawpamarca with the Huaritambo Valley towards the east (photo by Florencia Debandi).

These large walls are located along the western and northern side of the site, and were built with pirca type architecture with large stone blocks bound with soil mortar. Where it is best preserved, the outer circle of the walls reaches a height of 1.80m and the inner wall reaches 1.60m. The ditch (Figure 50) is situated immediately next to the interior of the large wall of sector D and is an area almost devoid of enclosures. $QRWKHU DUWL¿FLDO GHSUHVVLRQ ZDV LGHQWL¿HG LQ WKH VDPH area and represents what appears to be two different FRQQHFWHGVWUXFWXUHVLQWKH¿UVWVHFWLRQZKHUHLWUXQVQH[W to the retaining wall of Terrace D it looks like a ditch or a protected pathway (it has been deeply excavated in this area and only one person may walk along it here without EHLQJVHHQ WRWKHQFRQWLQXHDVDVPDOOWUDFNÀDQNHGE\ a low wall that continues in the direction of Awilupaccha (Figure 49). The ditches or trenches may have also functioned as water reservoirs, animal traps etc. such as those in use in the Amazon region of Bolivia (Erickson C. - Álvarez P. Calla S. 2008) and in other pre-Hispanic areas of South America (Arkush E. 2011). Furthermore, the empty and slightly uphill spaces between the various walls could have weakened the enemy in case of attack, placing the enemy in a particularly disadvantageous position when throwing weapons. However, these spaces may also have been used to house animals in times of peace, separating machos y hembras (see Arkush E. 2011: 111). Finally, the high walls would have been useful for protection against the winds, which sweep across the peak

4.3.5 Construction techniques and general characteristics of the domestic units In most cases, the enclosures at Ñawpamarca were houses or patios with a broadly structured pattern situated next to each other, occupying all the empty spaces. The walls of the buildings within the settlement – whether these be large walls, houses or parapets – were pirca walls, composed of medium (80x40cm) and large (200x180cm) sized selected stones which were well cut and smoothed. 7KHHPSW\JDSVZHUHFDUHIXOO\¿OOHGZLWKVPDOOHUVWRQHV held together with a soily mortar, allowing thus an external ¿QLVK WKDW UHYHDOHG D IDLUO\ HYHQ DQG UHJXODU VXUIDFH ,Q some of the more external areas of the settlement, for example in Terrace C and even more so in Terrace E, HQFORVXUHZDOOVZHUHPDGHRXWRIVWRQHVZLWKQR¿OO 6RIDULWKDVEHHQGLI¿FXOWWRHVWDEOLVKKRZWKHURRIVZHUH made. However, in the cases where the total height of the walls are conserved, mainly in the houses that use the natural rock of the promontory as walls (Figure 54), it appears likely that they had a single sloping and inclined URRIHQVXULQJWKXVDJUHDWHUÀRZRIZDWHULQFDVHRIUDLQ or snow towards one end of the house where it could then be collected or drained towards the outside (Figure 55). 3RVWKROHV KDYH EHHQ LGHQWL¿HG LQ VHYHUDO FDVHV LQ IDFW which must have been used to support the roof and that were presumably constructed in perishable materials, such as straw and mud.

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Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina

Figure 56. To the right: photoplan of structure I in area C: on the opposite side walls (east and west) are the symmetrical holes (seen on the eastern wall in the photo above) that probably held the posts that created partitions in perishable material and adobes (now dissolved and visible in the clearer soil in proximity of the well-shaped structure) (see also the reconstruction in Figure 55).

Figure 54. Sketch and drawing illustrating the natural rock wall of structure I in area C completed with a wall. Note the natural outcrop of rock that acts as a natural bench (sketch by Luigi Mazzari, drawing by Fabio Sartori).

Structures within the domestic units were possibly built of adobe. These structures could have functioned as small rooms, or as small walls used to create separate areas within the unit and at the same time used to support the roof. Further internal divisions could have been made out of palisades made out of plants. ,W LV YHU\ GLI¿FXOW WR ¿QG DUFKDHRORJLFDO WUDFHV RI WKH elements described above, but internal partitioning and doors certainly existed and are clearly indicated by symmetrical indentations on opposite walls (Figure 56), which were probably used to hold horizontal posts for walls built in perishable material and that have not survived the

archaeological record. As will be seen in the analysis of the different domestic units, selected accumulations of a clayey type soil have been found, similar to that utilized to construct adobes, FRQFHQWUDWHG LQ VSHFL¿F DUHDV SRVVLEO\ HYLGHQFH RI decomposed adobe walls (Figure 56) in these areas. Figure 55. Reconstruction of a possible sloping roof that exploits the natural inclination of the ground at Ñawpamarca. Note the well placed on the exterior façade of the house in order to collect the water that would drip off the roof. The artistic reconstruction is based on the observation of structure I in area C (drawing by Luigi Mazzari).

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Elisa Benozzi, Carolina Orsini, Enzo Rizzo, Nicola Masini, Luigi Capozzoli, Sites descripion

)LQDOO\ D ÀRRU FRPSRVHG RI FRPSDFW HDUWK ZLWK D FKDUDFWHULVWLF UHGGLVK EURZQ FRORXU ZDV LGHQWL¿HG LQ DOO the domestic units investigated. The domestic units that have been studied do not differ ODUJHO\ H[FOXGLQJ WKRVH ZKRVH ZDOOV KDYH QR ¿OO DQG which were found mainly in sector E and in some areas of C. The larger domestic units are concentrated in the higher

Small stone structures have been found within some of the excavated units, which have been currently interpreted as small silos (Figure 56), perhaps used seasonally as areas for collecting rainwater (Figure 55). 1RZLQGRZVRUQLFKHVZLWKLQWKHKRXVHVZHUHLGHQWL¿HGVR far during excavation, a custom that tends to characterize the local construction techniques of the previous periods (e.g. in the site of Tayapucru, see Orsini C. et al. 2012). 51

Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina considered to be “sacred” (Orsini C. et al. 2012). Considering where Ñawpamarca is situated, like Antaragá and Ñawpamarca de Acopalca, and many other sites of the Late Intermediate Period, in an area with a critical problem regarding water supply, excavations, especially during the ¿HOGFDPSDLJQDLPHGWRXQGHUVWDQGKRZZDWHUZDV managed at the site during antiquity and whether the site was inhabited permanently or only seasonally. Finally, excavations investigated the relationship of Ñawpamarca with the sites of Awilupaccha and Antaragá situated close to Ñawpamarca, on the ridge of cerro Pueblo Viejo. 4.3.7 Excavation: location of test pits In order to answer the questions discussed in the previous SDUDJUDSK PRUH HI¿FLHQWO\ HQWLUH HQFORVXUHV ZHUH investigated and, in one case, an entire patio group (in area & DVZHOODVRWKHUVSHFL¿FDUHDVRIWKHVHWWOHPHQWVXFKDV the pathway found in area E. The map (Figure 49) illustrates the location of the trenches that are discussed below. The enclosures excavated were distributed on the main terraces of the site: recinto I (pit A), IV (pit D) and V (pit E) were excavated on the high terrace, denominated A, Structure I (pit B) was excavated in Terrace B, Structures I (pit C), X (pit G), Xb (pit I), Xc and Xd (pit L), XI (pit M and N) were investigated in Terrace C, Structure I (pit F) in Terrace E and part of the path that was found in this area and that leads to Awilupaccha (pit H) was also excavated, resulting in a total of 12 investigated contexts. Figure 57. Table summarizing the structures drawn in map Figure 49 and their sizes.

4.3.8 Stratigraphic sequence and dating The stratigraphical analysis together with that of the associated artifacts revealed that the site had at least two FRQVWUXFWLRQSKDVHVWKH¿UVWZDVFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\DYHU\ VLPSOHFRQVWUXFWLRQWHFKQLTXHZDOOVZLWKQR¿OO WKDWZDV LGHQWL¿HGDQGVWXGLHGLQ7HVWSLW+LQVHFWRU(DVORSLQJ plain situated outside the retaining/defensive walls of the site in the southwestern area of the promontory), where most of the structures exhibited this type of building technique, and where the most ancient dates had been recorded for the settlement (Figure 59). A second technique (double walls) was observed in most of the structures on the promontory, in the construction of the retaining walls of the terraces and in some of the more complex constructions carefully planned together with retaining walls and where, as is discussed below, more recent dates have been recorded (see below). Some of the more simple enclosures, which have the same construction technique as that found in E, were possibly built also in some areas of the promontory and not only on the southwestern plain of the site. Some of these have EHHQ LGHQWL¿HG IRU H[DPSOH LQ DUHD & DQG PD\ KDYH subsequently been incorporated in the later phases of construction at the site; therefore resulting in the survival of only a few of these types of structures. Amongst the structures analyzed it does not appear that VSDFHVZHUHPRGL¿HGEXWDVZDVPHQWLRQHGDERYHVRPH enclosures were built together with the perimeter walls whilst others were created by utilizing previous walls and

sector, A, as can be seen in the following table (Figure 57). 4.3.6 Excavation method Excavations aimed to investigate the nature of the enclosures, to understand the activities that were carried out there and the relationships that existed between the various units and to analyse the spatial organization of the site, in particular the external areas associated with each enclosure. Finally it aimed to understand the relationships (and non-relationships) between the domestic units. These objectives appeared crucial from the start for it is well known that associations amongst structures in various Late Intermediate Period Andean settlements– and also of SUHYLRXV SHULRGV ±KDYH EHHQ LGHQWL¿HG DV EHLQJ VWULFWO\ related to the existence of extended families or to the existence of corporate economic groups (Stanish C. 1989; Aldenderfer M. - Stanish C. 1993; Bawden G. 1993: 4254; whilst for Ancash see also Lau G. 2011: 67 et passim). Indeed the Colonial literature that refers to the last part of the pre-Hispanic history of Ancash describes a local organization based on extended families amongst which were the primus inter pares (Zuloaga Rada M. 2008; Herrera A. - Amaya A. - Aguilar M. 2012: 165-218). 7KLVW\SHRIVRFLDORUJDQL]DWLRQPXVWKDYHLQÀXHQFHGWKH spatial organization of the settlements, and, on a larger scale, the occupational dynamics and exploitation of the land, especially in an area as important as that of Puruhuay,

52

Elisa Benozzi, Carolina Orsini, Enzo Rizzo, Nicola Masini, Luigi Capozzoli, Sites descripion

Figure 59. Sample collected in the structure I of sector E.

Various structures looked onto the high square, two of which have been excavated (pit A and E), together with another (pit D) which did not face the square but which had a wide entrance with a stairway that distinguished it from the other structures. Another feature that characterized area A was the presence of a small promontory at the highest point of the site. It dominated the square and was delimited by small retaining walls. Structures may have been situated within the tiny promontory, which have been severely damaged by looters. The promontory was connected to a stairway that followed a southwestern direction towards Terrace B. As mentioned above, three structures were investigated in area A: two structures were connected to the square and were investigated in order to understand their function, and one other structure was investigated due to its unique architectural features.

Figure 58. Radiocarbon result on a sample collected in the structure I of sector C (Ñawpamarca ) calibrated with software Ox Cal 3.10 (above) and with ShCal04 (below).

by leaning against them. These could have been built in a later phase. The stratigraphic sequence within each enclosure consisted of a layer of abandonment found throughout the whole VLWH WKDW XQLIRUPO\ FRYHUHG D ÀRRU WKDW ZDV JHQHUDOO\ IRXQGLQYHU\JRRGFRQGLWLRQ7KHÀRRUZDVPDGHRXWRI beaten earth with abundant remains of cultural material. Furthermore, in various cases traces of architectural HOHPHQWVKDYHEHHQIRXQGRQWKHÀRRUVXFKDVSRVWKROHV indicative of posts used for supporting roofs made out of perishable material, together with traces of adobe walls, which have not survived due to the rainy climate of the sierra; there were also traces of sliding doors. Due to the amount of data available for each structure, we will describe each excavated context preceded by a general description of the area in which each structure is located IROORZHGE\DGLVFXVVLRQRIWKHDVVRFLDWHG¿QGV According to radiocarbon dating carried out on samples from different areas of Ñawpamarca, the settlement chronologically belongs to the Late Intermediate Period, between A.D. 1150-1400 (Figures 58, 59).

Pit A (A1 and A2, Structure I) Investigations were carried out in a planned square structure (denominated I – 5.4x5.5m) whose northwestern wall leant against the small promontory at the highest point of the site. The entranceway, on the opposite side, leant onto the square that was located at a lower level. $ VPDOO VWUXFWXUH ZDV LGHQWL¿HGRQ WKH QRUWKHDVWHUQVLGH of Structure I consisting of a closed enclosure with no entranceways and whose continuous and semi-curving wall leant against the northeastern wall of I. It could have

4.3.9 Description of areas, excavations and associated artefacts 4.3.9.1 Description of area A Area A corresponds to the truncated summit of the mountain upon which the site of Ñawpamarca is situated. 7KLV DUHD ZDV DUWL¿FLDOO\ PRGL¿HG WR DFFRPPRGDWH WKH structures and was characterized by very small constricted spaces within which a series of enclosures were placed in a rather chaotic manner situated around an open central area that has been called the high square.

Figure 60. Table summarizing the enclosures in terrace A and their sizes.

53

Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina

RXWVLGH$WULDQJOHLQGLFDWHGWKHSRVLWLRQRIWKH¿QG+YLVLEOHLQ the photo in Figure 62.

Figure 61. Test pits carried out in structure I of terrace A: one was situated inside the structure and the second in square

54

Elisa Benozzi, Carolina Orsini, Enzo Rizzo, Nicola Masini, Luigi Capozzoli, Sites descripion of stones placed in a semicircle (SU49) separated an area where specialized activities were probably carried out. An overturned mortar was found in this area (H52, Figure 115), together with what appeared to be a partially made mace head or a percussion surface (H51, see section 5.5.2.4 and Figure 123A). A complete mace head (H45, Figure 65) was found in the same enclosure in the layer of DEDQGRQPHQWLQFRQWDFWZLWKWKHÀRRU&HUDPLFIUDJPHQWV on the other hand, were scarce (a minimum number of eight vessels were calculated). In the southwestern and northeastern part of the structure, an enclosure (SU21) was uncovered that was raised above WKH ÀRRU OHYHO DQG WKDW ZDV FRPSRVHG RI PHGLXP VL]HG stones (circa 20x30cm). The enclosure contained an earthwork that leant again an intermediate wall dividing Structure V from Structure IV, formed by a light coloured soil (SU46) within which a drainage (SU47) had been excavated, covered by removable slabs of stone (SU48). The shallowness of the structure indicates that it could have been a small deposit (ceramic fragments were found next to the structure) or it could have been a structure for domesticated animals. The lighter soil (SU46) was compact and could have resulted from the decomposition of an adobe wall that may have completed the stone wall that created the small deposit.

)LJXUH3KRWRUHFWL¿FDWLRQRIWKHQRUWKHUQSDUWRIWHVWSLW$ LQVWUXFWXUH,1RWHWKH¿QG+LQVLWXRQWKHOHIWKDQGVLGHRIWKH photo.

consisted of a structure connected to the main enclosure. It was not excavated. An L shaped test pit was excavated in Structure I (the longer sides measure 4x4.6m, Figure 61). The test pit covered the entire northern area and a small part of the southern area of the structure. The interior of the enclosure was covered with stones from the collapsed walls mixed with earth and roots (SU1), which, in turn, covered a layer of beaten earth FRUUHVSRQGLQJWRWKHW\SLFDOW\SHRIÀRRUIRXQGWKURXJKRXW the site (SU2) and which in Structure I was generally found intact throughout the whole area of the test pit. As ZLOOEHVHHQLQRWKHUH[DPSOHVHDUWKHQEDVHGÀRRUVZLWKLQ the site normally leant against the perimeter walls of the structures and usually yielded the richest cultural material: in structure I only a few fragments of ceramics, a pestle (H1, Figure 62 and 116) and half a spindle whorl were found. The following layer (SU4, Figure 61) was excavated over a smaller area of the enclosure (1x1m), so as not to destroy WKH ÀRRU ([FDYDWLRQ ZDV FDUULHG RXW RQ WKH SDUW RI WKH ÀRRUWKDWKDGDOUHDG\EHHQGDPDJHGE\VWUXFWXUDOFROODSVH XQGHUQHDWK ZKLFK D OD\HU RI ¿OO FKDUDFWHUL]HG E\ ODUJH stones was uncovered. This layer functioned to raise the structure and probably also to level the ground, following a widely used technique throughout the site. Excavations were carried out in the area in front of the structure (A2, Figure 61) in order to identify the conformation of the entranceway to this enclosure and the type of activities that were carried out in front of Structure I. Therefore a 3x3m test pit was excavated that brought to light a layer of structural collapse (SU9) belonging to the retaining wall of Structure I (SU10) and whose removal DOORZHGWKHLGHQWL¿FDWLRQRIWKHÀRRURIWKHVTXDUH68  similar to that found within the enclosures. Very little material culture was found in Structure I and in front of it.

Pit E (Structure IV) Another domestic unit, denominated Structure IV, is situated next to Structure V with which it shares its western wall (Figure 66). ([FDYDWLRQV DFURVV WKLV HQFORVXUH [P  LGHQWL¿HG D residential structure with a quadrangular plan, delimited by double stoned walls with an entranceway consisting of a stairway and a small corridor leading to the exterior. $UFKDHRORJLFDOH[FDYDWLRQV)LJXUHVDQG LGHQWL¿HG  GLIIHUHQW FRQWH[WV $ ÀRRU 68  FRYHUHG DQ DUHD of 14.65m² upon which traces of a partition wall were found made out of decomposed adobe (SU50). This wall HQFORVHG DQ DUHD XVHG IRU ¿UH WKDW ZDV FRQFHQWUDWHG LQ the southwestern sector of the structure. Various traces of EXUQLQJZHUHLGHQWL¿HGERWKRQWKHVWRQHVRIWKHSHULPHWHU wall of the structure and those (SU51) that delimited a hearth.12 In this area there was also a thick layer of ash DQG FKDUFRDO 68  WKDW FRYHUHG WKH HQWLUH ÀRRU 7KH slabs (SU51) associated with the layer of ash and some FHUDPLFIUDJPHQWVZLWKHYLGHQFHRI¿UHWKHSUHVHQFHRI two air ducts in the form of holes in the southwestern and southeastern perimeter walls suggested the presence of a structured hearth that had been destroyed. The holes (Figures 69, 70, 71, 72) measured circa 17x17cm and allowed the passage of air through a small duct and were planned simultaneously with the construction of the structure’s wall that coincided in this area with the retaining wall of the entire terrace.

Pit D (Structure V) This small enclosure (internal measurement 4.8x3.5m, Figures 63, 64) is situated on the main square of Terrace A: the perimeter wall (SU26) was composed of rubble PDVRQU\ DQG WKH HQWUDQFHZD\ ZDV QRW LGHQWL¿HG GXH to its poor preservation. The southern wall had a small QLFKHDQGWKHÀRRU 68  ZDV LQEHDWHQHDUWK$VHULHV

Carpological remains from this structure and from other areas of the site were studied by Michela Cottini, whilst Gilberto Artioli analysed FKDUFRDOIURPWKH¿ULQJDUHDRI6WUXFWXUH,9DQGKDVSURYLGHGLPSRUWDQW GDWD UHJDUGLQJ WKH WHPSHUDWXUH UHDFKHG E\ WKH ¿UH DQG XSRQ ZKDW ZDV being burnt. We would like to thank these two colleagues for their contribution to the research. 12

55

Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina

Figure 63. Test pit in structure V on terrace A: the two WULDQJOHVLQGLFDWHWKHSRVLWLRQRIWKH¿QGV+DQG+

56

Elisa Benozzi, Carolina Orsini, Enzo Rizzo, Nicola Masini, Luigi Capozzoli, Sites descripion

This suggests that Structure IV had been planned as such IURPWKHYHU\¿UVWRFFXSDWLRQRIWKLVDUHDRIWKHVHWWOHPHQW The presence of a structured hearth of large dimensions within the enclosure is unique at Ñawpamarca: charcoal is rarely found in the enclosures investigated. This enclosure yielded the highest concentration of ceramics from within this sector (MNV 18), together with a large variety in form and decoration (adapt to serving and cooking vessels), and specialized lithic instruments for processing foodstuffs. In addition, the analysis carried out on samples of scorched earth around the hearth have HVWDEOLVKHG WKDW WKH ¿ULQJ FDUULHG RXW LQ WKLV DUHD ZDV compatible with large-scale food production and not with economic activities such as the melting of metals or the production of ceramics. Finally, in this layer a few remains of animal long bones were found, perhaps camelids. In the past we assumed (Orsini C. – Benozzi E. – Debandi F. 2009) that this enclosure was a sort of communal location, SUREDEO\XVHGDVDNLWFKHQVHHEHORZ 7KH¿QGLQJLQWKLV enclosure of the only two spindle whorls in the whole of area A indicate the presence of females in this structure, WKDWFRXOGFRQ¿UPWKHDIRUHPHQWLRQHGK\SRWKHVLV

)LJXUH3KRWRUHFWL¿FDWLRQRIVWUXFWXUH9RQWHUUDFH$

situated here (see Figure 57). Without having excavated the area completely, it is impossible to determine whether this residential area carried out a particular function. However, it should be noted that the enclosures in this area have, without doubt, yielded less artefacts than in sector C (in proportion 1:2). Furthermore, it is characterized by a different type of material culture. No other differences have been observed in the type of construction technique. The presence of artefacts was not uniform within the Figure 65. Mace head (H45) found in enclosure V, in the layer of abandonment of the structure.

Summary: the occupation of Terrace A Terrace A was characterized by a series of different sized enclosures that were concentrated in a relatively narrow area, with little free open spaces. However, the only open VSDFHRQDÀDWDUHDintra moenia was found on this very terrace. This is the square in front of Structure I of A. Furthermore, some of the larger buildings of the site were

57

Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina

An even greater difference can be seen in the distribution of lithic artefacts, which are rare in Terrace A. Furthermore Enclosure AI and AIV were the only enclosures investigated throughout the site that did not yield any weapons, at least amongst the enclosures situated on the terraces of the promontory. Even lower densities of ceramics were found in Structure I, it was evidently an area kept very clean throughout its lifetime. On the other hand, Enclosure AV yielded various weapons, the presence of an internal structure (that furthermore left little space for moving around the enclosure) and a low GHQVLW\ RI FHUDPLFV 7KLV VXJJHVWV WKDW LW KDG D VSHFL¿F function, and was not only a simple residential structure. In summary, all three enclosures of A, but above all IV and V appear to have been used for a special purpose: Structure V was perhaps utilized as a specialized deposit, and Structure IV as a communal kitchen, maybe used only on ceremonial occasions, as indicated by the unusual quantity of different types of decorated ceramics. Furthermore, it should be noted how food preparation was probably carried out here in the last phases of food processing due to the fact that no remains of slaughtered animals, or specialized tools for butchery, or even tools for the basic preparation RIÀRXUVXFKDVbatán (with the exception of a mano, H57), were found within this enclosure. All these data suggest WKDWIRRGZDVEURXJKWKHUHDVDVHPL¿QLVKHGSURGXFWDQG was only cooked in this enclosure. :H FHUWDLQO\ FDQQRW DI¿UP WKDW 6WUXFWXUH ,9 ZDV XQLTXH throughout the site: what we can assume is that, having been accurately planned since the beginning of the construction of the retaining walls of the terrace, it was

Figure 66. The excavation of the two adjacent structures V and IV on terrace A. The two structures share a wall.

various buildings of A. The enclosure with the highest density of ceramics was Enclosure IV, where a MNV was calculated to be of 18 vessels13, in the other enclosures the MNV drops sharply to 8 vessels. If one considers that the average lifetime of a vessel was around ten years14 of age and that the site was occupied for at least 200 years, in the enclosures of A with less than 8 vessels, each vessel would have had an average lifespan of 11 to 25 years, passing from generation to generation amongst the several occupants that tread the HQFORVXUHÀRRUV15 The number of vessels is very low, and it is probable that the limited amount of ceramics is due, in certain enclosures, to the fact that these had not been used for domestic functions, or that they had been carefully cleaned from the remains of the activities, including sherds of broken vessels, that were being carried out inside. The fragments found are very small, indicating that they had been trampled over for a long period of time. The largest fragments were found along the sides of the enclosure, next to the walls, see also following footnote. 14 This calculation is based on ethnographic data upon the use of ceramic vessels made with traditional techniques in the area of Acopalca de Puruhuay carried out within the ArTS (Arti Tradizionali per lo Sviluppo – Traditional Arts for the Development) project. The pottery is very similar to that of the site of Ñawpamarca both in technique and in decoration. There is much debate on the life span of ceramic vessels, see for example Orton C. – Tyers P. – Vince A. 1993: 207. 15 For some of the methodological considerations concerning the presence of ceramics within the Late Intermediate contexts, see Lavallée D. - Julien M. (1983). 13

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Elisa Benozzi, Carolina Orsini, Enzo Rizzo, Nicola Masini, Luigi Capozzoli, Sites descripion

XVHGIRU¿UHZLWKLQWKHVWUXFWXUH

Figure 67. Test pit in structure IV on terrace A. Most of the most LPSRUWDQW¿QGVLQGLFDWHGE\WKHWULDQJOHV ZHUHIRXQGLQWKHDUHD

59

Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina

)LJXUH3KRWRUHFWL¿FDWLRQRIWKHÀRRUOD\HURIVWUXFWXUH,9

19.98m². $IWHU UHPRYLQJ WKH VXSHU¿FLDO YHJHWDWLRQ H[FDYDWLRQV brought to light a layer of structural collapse covered by a layer of soil and roots (UE3). The excavation of this layer XQFRYHUHGDÀRRUOD\HU8()LJXUHV WKHVDPHDV that found in pit A, which corresponded to the ancient layer RI RFFXSDWLRQ7KH ÀRRU H[WHQGHG HYHQO\ WKURXJKRXW WKH structure, it was characterized by a dark colour and leant against the walls which delimited it. In the southern part of the structure (Figures 74,75), the stratigraphic unit was formed by a clearer and more compact soil (UE44), where a rectangular structure was situated (UE15), formed by two rows of a single sided wall that was probably covered with stone slabs that rested on the top row. This structure probably carried out an analogous function to the structure described above recovered in AV or as an external area used to house domestic animals or for storage and UE44 probably represented the remains of decomposed adobes. $ UHFWDQJXODU VKDSHG KROH ZDV LGHQWL¿HG DW WKH SRLQW ZKHUH WKHVH WZR ÀRRUV PHW DQG RQ ERWK VLGHV RI WKH structure (eastern and western walls), (Figure 76). The hole was probably used for a door (very probably built in perishable material) that separated the roofed part of the structure (to the south) from the unroofed part. Ceramic fragments, various pestles (H6, H9; Figure 74 and 116), whetstones (H8, H11 Figure 121) and one IUDJPHQWRIDFRSSHUWXSXV+ ZHUHIRXQGRQWKHÀRRU of the structure (UE5), measuring approximately 20m².

certainly an important place connected to the different activities that were carried out on the platform.16 4.3.9.2 Description of Area B Terrace B has the lowest construction density of the site. It is squeezed between Terrace A and C and has an irregular surface, the result is that it was not ideal for FRQVWUXFWLRQ+RZHYHUZLGHÀDWDUHDVZHUHOHIWHPSW\ZLWK no constructions. A test pit was excavated in this area, in a wide enclosure situated in the northern part of the terrace. Test pit B (Structure I) Test pit B (Structure I, Figure 74, 75) was situated in a well preserved structure in the northern area of the platform. Interestingly, the location of the structure occupies the whole extension of the platform, utilizing the walls that delimit the platform to the north and south as the boundaries of the domestic unit. As in the case of Test pit A, the best preserved wall was that which leant against the natural slope of the hill (North wall), which in turn formed part of the terrace. On the other hand, the southern wall delimits Terrace V with a slope that overlooks Terrace C. The test pit measured approximately 5.3x4m, corresponding to the internal size of the structure, and covered an area of See the conclusions for the different hypotheses that regard the various functions of the platform. 16

60

Elisa Benozzi, Carolina Orsini, Enzo Rizzo, Nicola Masini, Luigi Capozzoli, Sites descripion

)LJXUH3KRWRUHFWL¿FDWLRQRIWKHZHVWHUQZDOORIVWUXFWXUH,9 illustrating the aeration duct. Figure 70. Drawing of the wall photographed in Figure 69.

61

Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina

only metal artefact found on site comes from this terrace.

)LJXUH3KRWRUHFWL¿FDWLRQRIWKHHDVWHUQZDOORIVWUXFWXUH,9 illustrating the aeration duct.

4.3.9.3 Description of area C With its 3400 square meters that were occupied fairly systematically, area C must have been the most populated area of the site. The width of the terrace permitted the construction of enclosures with large areas for communal activities (patios). The structures of this area have mixed architectural styles, with well-planned enclosures such as those in Terraces A and B and others that appear to be less accurate. Several different contexts were investigated here, most of which were situated in the northeastern area of the terrace. Apart from the group of enclosures that were already investigated (Test pits C, G, I, L, M, N), the most important architectural elements were: a stairway that connected the area with the overlying Terrace B (see Test pit N) and a door from which a partially paved pathway began and which descended towards the valley of

Summary: occupation of Terrace B Little can be said regarding the occupation of this terrace for it was not extensively investigated due to the time constraints. In general terms, the nature of the domestic structures, regarding the shape and constructive technology, appear to be similar to those found in Terraces A and C, even if there are fewer enclosures, and these are on DYHUDJHVPDOOHUWKDQWKRVHLGHQWL¿HGRQWKHRWKHUWHUUDFHV with the exception of the enclosure that was excavated. This, however, as was mentioned above, may be due to the topographical nature of the mountain where the site is situated, that was obviously narrower in the area where it ZDVFUHDWHGZLWKWKHDUWL¿FLDOOHYHOOLQJRIWKHWHUUDLQ7KH Figure 72. Drawing of the wall photographed in Figure 71.

62

Elisa Benozzi, Carolina Orsini, Enzo Rizzo, Nicola Masini, Luigi Capozzoli, Sites descripion

Figure 73. Table summarizing the enclosures of terrace B (above) and of terrace C (to the right) and their size.

the Huaritambo river (see map, Figure 49). Pit C (Structure I) In Test pit C (Structure I, Figure 77) a very well preserved structure was excavated in the southwestern area of the platform. As in the cases of Test pits A and B, the best preserved wall was that which leant against the natural slope of the hill. The wall (SU14) was mostly built out of bedrock and was completed with medium sized stones (Figure 54). The HQWUDQFH WR WKH VWUXFWXUH ZDV LGHQWL¿HG RQ WKH RSSRVLWH southern wall. The southern wall was situated along the boundary of the platform where the slope that overlooks the lower part of the mountain begins. The test pit measured approximately 4.8x6.2m and was situated along the whole length of the structure. 6WUDWLJUDSKLFDOO\ D OD\HU RI VRLO DQG URRWV ZDV LGHQWL¿HG which covered a layer of structural collapse (SU6), XQGHUQHDWKZKLFKWKHÀRRUZDVXQFRYHUHG68)LJXUH 77), which constituted the most ancient layer of occupation of the unit. Radiocarbon analysis carried out here dated WKH ÀRRU OD\HU WR$'  )LJXUH  7KH ÀRRU layer was characterised by compact soil that extended evenly throughout the structure, abutting against the walls analogously to that found in the test pits described above. Similarly, in the southern part of the structure, a clearer DQG PRUH FRPSDFW FOD\H\ VRLO ZDV LGHQWL¿HG LQGLFDWLQJ a distinct layer (SU45) contemporary to a semi-circular

structure (SU13), composed of one row of stones, which created a double sided wall (Figure 78). The absence of a roof for that semi-circular structure, together with the clayey soil, suggested that it could have been used to collect water or as a silos in the dry season. As in Test pit B, a rectangular hole was found along the eastern wall of the structure at the point of conjuncture EHWZHHQWKHWZRÀRRUV68DQG68 )LJXUH WKDW probably was used for a door that separated the roofed part of the structure from the unroofed part. In this case, a hypothetical (see reconstruction in Figure 55) single roof that sloped towards the south (where the semi-circular structure would have been situated) would have facilitated the collection of rainwater within ollas or others recipients.

63

Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina

)LJXUH  7HVW SLW LQ VWUXFWXUH , RQ WHUUDFH % 7KH ¿JXUH illustrates the areas of dispersion of charcoal and the most LPSRUWDQWPDWHULDOFXOWXUHIRXQGRQWKHÀRRUOD\HU

64

Elisa Benozzi, Carolina Orsini, Enzo Rizzo, Nicola Masini, Luigi Capozzoli, Sites descripion

A high percentage of large-sized ceramic fragments were found within the structure, together with wide mouthed ROOD in the vicinity of the semi-circular structure, probably used for collecting water (Figure 79). On the other side of WKHÀRRUOLWKLFWRROVZHUHIRXQG++)LJXUH  a EROHDGRUD+)LJXUH DPRUWDUDQGSHVWOH+ )LJXUH DIUDJPHQWRIDVWRQHD[H+)LJXUH  ZKHWVWRQHVIRUZRUNLQJFHUDPLFV++)LJXUH DQGDVSLQGOHZKRUO+ 

)LJXUH3KRWRUHFWL¿FDWLRQRIWKHÀRRUOD\HUDQGWKHDGGLWLRQDOVWUXFWXUHRIHQFORVXUH,RQWHUUDFH%

investigate a group of structures associated with a patio, ZKLFK ZHUH H[FDYDWHG RYHU WZR DUFKDHRORJLFDO ¿HOG campaigns. The group to which Structure X belonged to was well preserved and was situated in the northeastern part RIWKHVLWH)LHOGZRUNVWDUWHGKHUHE\H[FDYDWLQJ6WUXFWXUH ;HQWLUHO\7KLVVWUXFWXUHZDVTXDGUDQJXODU[P DQG WKH FKDUDFWHULVWLF ÀRRU OD\HU 68  FRYHUHG WKH DUHD IRU DSSUR[LPDWHO\ Pð 7KH ÀRRU ZDV GHOLPLWHG E\ DGRXEOHVLGHGVWRQHZDOO68 WKDWHQFORVHGWKHÀRRU along the edge of the slope, utilizing the terrace wall as

Pit G (Structure X) ([FDYDWLRQV )LJXUH   LQ WKLV HQFORVXUH DLPHG WR 

For a description of these artifacts see Chapter 5.

65

Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina collapsed inside the domestic area. The structure was in a poor state of conservation and the lack of preserved standing walls (unlike the other enclosures), which, furthermore, partially consisted of pirca walls with no mortar, suggested that this enclosure could have been partially dismantled after its use, so as to re-utilize the stones for the construction of other houses (see below). ([FDYDWLRQVEURXJKWWROLJKWDÀRRU68 WKDWFRYHUHG an area of approximately 8m², delimited by a doublesided stone wall (SU38). Bedrock had been used within the structure (to the south) as a structural element in LWV FRQVWUXFWLRQ $Q HQWUDQFHZD\ ZDV LGHQWL¿HG LQ WKH northeastern corner of the unit. A dispersion of ceramic IUDJPHQWVZDVLGHQWL¿HGRQWKHÀRRUWRJHWKHUZLWKDSHVWOH (H68, Figure 83 and 117) and charcoal. In general, remains of domestic activities were abundant in this structure, as in the other enclosures of Terrace C. Other excavations (Figure 85) in the patio (Pit XC and XD) uncovered the foundations of a wall (SU39) with an oblong horse-shoe shape. The foundations were denominated XC: they consisted of a single row of badly preserved stone, apparently previous to the wall of Structure X and to Structure XB. Its shape did not seem suitable for a domestic unit, but rather for delimiting a passageway or a corridor, that possibly existed before the construction of X and XB. Considering that the height of this wall has not been preserved, and considering that no structural collapse was uncovered in the vicinity, it seems likely that it had been dismantled so as to re-utilize its stones. This resembles the context where the foundations of a circular structure were found, denominated XD (SU42). Neither of these contexts have been excavated, but the area was accurately cleaned in order to locate the two structures in the general plan of the site. This also permitted the LGHQWL¿FDWLRQRIDÀRRUOD\HUZLWKLQWKHSDWLR68 

Figure 76. Hole in the wall of structure I on terrace B next to the additional structure that held the posts that closed off the partitions made out of perishable material.

an integral part of the domestic unit. Some of the stones corresponding to the perimeter walls have been dislodged but it is still possible to identify the entrance to the structure along the southern wall. $VLQWKHFRQWH[WVGHVFULEHGDERYHDQDUHDZDVLGHQWL¿HG WKDW ZDV FKDUDFWHUL]HG E\ D FOHDU FRORXUHG ÀRRU 68  (probably decomposed adobe) and a rectangular shaped stone structure (SU30) with an internal empty space. This empty space or interior room was covered with removable stone slabs. Two large ceramic fragments were found within this room (H75, H76) that could have been used to store foodstuffs. $ VFDWWHU RI FHUDPLF IUDJPHQWV ZDV LGHQWL¿HG LQ FRUUHVSRQGHQFH WR ÀRRU 68 WRJHWKHU ZLWK WZR SHVWOHV (H58, H59 see Figure 119B) and a fragment of worked stone.

Stairway to Structure XI (Pit M and N) The clearing of the patio area brought to light a stairway (SU41, Figure 85) that connected the area of the patio (in proximity of Structure XI – SU43) with platform B. At least 8 steps were preserved, and the stairway was at least 4 metres long, even if the part next to platform B was badly preserved due to structural collapse of the retaining wall of B towards C. It is possible that it was originally double in length. Pit L was a large excavation that covered an area of 76m². The whole area of the patio, which included Test pits L, M and N, yielded very little material culture.

Patio (Pit I, Structure XB; Pit L, Structures XC, XD) Test pit I (2.8x3.5) aimed to investigate the use of open space found just outside the southeastern-northwestern wall of Structure X. 2QFH WKH DUHD ZDV FOHDUHG RI WKH VXSHU¿FLDO YHJHWDWLRQ some stones were found that located the Structure (XB). The structure had a slightly rounded shape (Figure 83) and a wall which it shared with a group of structures that have been denominated IX. Situated on the terrace slope, between platform C and B, the southern wall of Structure XB was composed of bedrock, and completed by square stones that had partially

Summary: occupation of Terrace C One of the dates that we have for the site of Ñawpamarca comes from area C (A.D. 1297 – 1412). This date belongs to a rather complex structure in C (Structure I), which, according to the type of building technique – presence of an internal enclosure, quantity and quality of artefacts – is similar to Structure I of B and to Structure X of C. All these structures are similar and presumably contemporary. In general, there are several types of these structures LQ 7HUUDFH & WKDW FDQ EH GH¿QHG DV WKH SURWRW\SH RI WKH domestic unit during the Late Intermediate Period of

66

Elisa Benozzi, Carolina Orsini, Enzo Rizzo, Nicola Masini, Luigi Capozzoli, Sites descripion

Figure 77. Test pit in structure I on terrace C.

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Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina

we cannot exclude. 4.3.9.4 Description of area D Area D is the last area situated within the solid walls that SURWHFW WKH VLWH ,W FRQVLVWV RI D ZLGH VHPLÀDW SODWIRUP that slopes down to the north and where a large trench was excavated (another was situated immediately outside the large wall that surrounds D). Few isolated structures in a wide empty space were found, all of which leant against the city walls and which probably served as outlook stations according to a common model of this period (see Arkush E. 2011: 88 et passim and Bazán F. 2012). Furthermore the slope of the land would have undoubtedly helped in defending this side of the citadel, being in a dominant position in respect to the enemy. Excavations were not carried out in this area.

Figure 78. Panoramic view of structure I on terrace C after excavation. Note the clearer area, SU45, next to the structure SU13.

Ñawpamarca. This is also the area of the site where the highest percentage of remains associated with productive activities, with food processing and domestic ceramics were found. It is also the area that was most suitable for production, with its wide spaces used as patios and its proximity to the sources of water within the site (the canals and the reservoir) but still protected by the city walls. On the other hand, simple structures were also found in the same area, probably dismantled in antiquity to construct more complex structures that are visible today amongst the vegetation. This suggests the existence of different occupational phases of the terrace, phases which have not been recorded on the other platforms, but whose existence

4.3.9.5 Description of area E Area E was investigated less due to time constraints. This area is characterized by the presence of numerous )LJXUH*HQHUDOYLHZRIWKH¿QGVLQVWUXFWXUH,RQWHUUDFH&

68

Elisa Benozzi, Carolina Orsini, Enzo Rizzo, Nicola Masini, Luigi Capozzoli, Sites descripion structures, nearly all of which are poorly preserved, perhaps because they were not made to last as were the solid walls of the platforms and the structures described above. Thirty similar, irregular and circular shaped enclosures were situated in this slightly descending area. They were distributed rather chaotically and have an average diameter of 11m. There were, furthermore, incomplete walls that could have originally been used as corrales (with a diameter of over 60m), some of which were adjacent to the circular structures; however these types of structures DUHVLJQL¿FDQWO\VPDOOHULQQXPEHU In the higher part of this area there was a narrow pathway bordering the edge of the terrace where the inclination begins and where most of the structures of this peripheral sector are situated at Ñawpamarca. It was partially protected and delimitated by a small wall that functioned also to retain this side of the slope (the southwestern side). This pathway continued south up to a dry well in direction of the site of Awilupaccha, to then end abruptly. Other remains of a pathway in direction of the small ceremonial centre described in the following paragraph are visible on the general map of cerro Runtuy (Figure 91). A circular structure and a small part of the pathway were investigated in Area E.

Figure 80. Boleadora (H18) found in structure I on terrace C.

Pit F (Structure I) The circular Structure (I) where Test pit F was placed is one of the best preserved structures of the area. Unlike the domestic enclosures investigated in other areas, the external wall of this oval shaped structure was composed of a single row of medium sized stones. The structure had an opening (a door) along its southeastern wall and delimitated an internal layer (SU22) that was covered by a layer of structural collapse (SU18). The ÀRRU RI WKLV GRPHVWLF XQLW 68  ZDV RQO\ SDUWLDOO\ investigated by means of a test pit (SU54) that yielded few, poorly preserved (but with an interesting paste type, see section 5.1) ceramic fragments with traces of blackening and a spindle whorl.

Figure 81. Mortar fragment (H23) found in structure I on terrace C.

Summary: occupation of Terrace E Before excavations were carried out, it had been hypothesized that Terrace E was a productive sector, with no residential enclosures. Its position, whereby it was protected from wind together with the absence of a plateau (the area slopes downhill) that would have made the area not suitable for the constructions of houses, and the presence of some large-sized enclosures, suggested that this area was used for rearing animals. However, excavations revealed that, even though these structures were poorly planned, they do consist of domestic structures, constructed with low work power and technique. Their dimensions were not, in average, smaller than those of platform B. Unfortunately no investigations were carried out in the large corrales, which we can thus only assume were used for animals. The low level of construction technique of the houses and their location outside the walls could indicate that this area was inhabited by people who had less privileges and possibly lower status than the inhabitants of the higher area. However, in reality, it was a well protected area, next to water sources and situated along a portion of the mountain that evidently did not need particular protection,

Pit H (Pathway) 'XULQJ WKH  ¿HOG FDPSDLJQ WKH WRSRJUDSKLF VXUYH\ LGHQWL¿HG DQG WUDFHG D ORQJ GLWFK WKDW UDQ SDUDOOHO WR WKH site in a southeast-northwest direction. Initially it was thought to be a canal, but the differences in height ruled out this hypothesis. Therefore, a test pit was placed here to investigate the presence of a paved road or any other IHDWXUHWKDWZRXOGSHUPLWLWVLGHQWL¿FDWLRQDVDSDWKZD\ Test pit H was placed 15m to the south of a large rock that divided the pathway/ditch in two. The test pit was 3.45m long and 2.45m wide. A compact layer was brought to light (SU32) after having excavated the surface layer (SU31), but it did not have any stone slabs. It was assumed that the wall (SU33) that delimitated and was associated with this compact layer was used to demarcate an informal pathway that was commonly used. This would explain the absence of stone slabs on the pathway. The wall may also have been used to limit erosion, clearly evident in different sections of the ditch/pathway.

69

Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina

Figure 82 Test pit in structure X in area C.

70

Elisa Benozzi, Carolina Orsini, Enzo Rizzo, Nicola Masini, Luigi Capozzoli, Sites descripion

)LJXUH3ODQRIWHVWSLW,VWUXFWXUH;% LQGLFDWLQJWKH¿QGV and the stratigraphic units.

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Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina

phenomenon that has been discussed for several years now, and which, we believe, can be seen also at Ñawpamarca. However, by analyzing the site in more detail, it is possible to state that, even considering there a remarkable KRPRJHQHLW\WKHUHDUHDOVRVLJQL¿FDQWGLIIHUHQFHVEHWZHHQ the enclosures. For example, the high area, A, is the sector with the largest enclosures, which, however, do not yield a lot of evidence indicative of intense domestic activities: ceramic fragments are not abundant and in some cases are actually very scarce. The area was densely inhabited but there were no areas suitable for production due to the scarcity of open areas. Although the structures at the site are irregularly distributed, some enclosures appear to have been planned: for example structure IV, sector A, had been planned together with the large retaining walls of the platform with openings used as air ducts, that has been interpreted as a communal kitchen where food was cooked that had already been semi-processed elsewhere. We may hypothesize that the inhabitants of this area desired to take advantage of a structure where the preparation of food could be controlled, and we may assume that this food was prepared especially for the inhabitants of the higher area of the settlement, that probably had access to public feasting. Furthermore, in the aforementioned structure, the only spindle whorls of area A were found: this supports the hypothesis of an area used by women. This does not mean that area A was inhabited by people with a higher social status or that the inhabitants were

Figure 84. Structure XB, test pit I, photo of SU36. Note the wall in bedrock and stones of terrace B delimiting the different levels in the lower part in the photo.

due to the impressive walls that were located to the north of the settlement. Furthermore, it is interesting to note that this area was located next to the route that led to the site of Awilupaccha. The only C14 analysis carried out on a charcoal sample WDNHQIURPWKHÀRRURI6WUXFWXUH,\LHOGHGWKHROGHVWGDWHRI the site (A.D. 1150-1270. 95.4%, Figure 59): it is possible, WKHUHIRUHWKDWDUHD(ZDVZKHUHWKH¿UVWVWUXFWXUHVRIWKH settlement of Ñawpamarca arose, constructed, perhaps, ZKLOVWZDLWLQJWRRFFXS\WKHDUWL¿FLDOO\PRGL¿HGVXPPLW that now constitutes the most important part of the settlement. 4.3.10 Conclusions Ñawpamarca is undoubtedly a good example of a Late Intermediate Period settlement of the central Andean Highlands: it embodies various characteristics that are typical of the inhabitants of this phase, above all regarding its location, the presence of defensive and hydraulic structures and the way the structures are chaotically planned whereby domestic enclosures and wide patios are crowded together with a low level of differentiation. The lack of hierarchy between the enclosures within WKH VHWWOHPHQW DV UHÀHFWLQJ D SRVVLEOH ODFN RI VRFLDO differentiation in the Late Intermediate Period is a

72

Elisa Benozzi, Carolina Orsini, Enzo Rizzo, Nicola Masini, Luigi Capozzoli, Sites descripion )LQDOO\ LW LV FOHDU IURP WKH ¿QGLQJV WKDW$UHD & ZDV WKH area where most of the domestic and productive activities WRRNSODFHLQWKHFKDSWHUGHGLFDWHGWRWKH¿QGVRIWKHVLWH it is clear that the vast majority of the ceramics comes from this area, where numerous agricultural implements were also found. Weapons and hunting tools have been found, on the other hand, widely distributed across the site, indicating that both activities were a central concern of the population. How did people live at Ñawpamarca? The site is undoubtedly located in a puna ecosystem, suitable for grazing activities: nearby there were several possibilities for the supply of water, which, however, must have been quite critical during the dry season. The population had paid great attention in organizing the collection of water, both by building a large reservorio in the northern area of the site, and by constructing wells, now dry, that were found nearby. Finally, they also GH¿QLWHO\XVHGVHDVRQDOO\FROOHFWHGUDLQZDWHUDVLQGLFDWHG by the construction of sloping roofs that declined towards small stone structures where large vessels were found in situ for the collection of seasonal waters (see description of Test pit B, C and G above) and may have been used also for storage during the dry season (they consisted of small structures annexed to single residential enclosures situated in very open areas overlooking the valley). The inhabitants of Ñawpamarca undoubtedly practiced agriculture, revealed by the uncovering of numerous agricultural implements, and also by the discovery of a few small seeds that survived in a climate that tends to be particularly unsuitable for the conservation of organic material at the site. The abundant amount of charred wooden remains used for lighting the hearth in Structure IV in Area A that we were able to analyze, suggests that in antiquity the forest covered a wider area (see section 3.1.2) and that the inhabitants gathered wood from the area of Puruhuay, due to the fact that the most abundant type of wood was the Alnus sp., a species found in areas with abundant water (Cottini M. – Ravedoni C. – Di Martino S. 2008). The inhabitants were clearly travelling to different ecological niches in the areas around the lake in the attempt to maximize the productive potential of the land. Finally, although the climate was probably milder, at least GXULQJWKH¿UVWSKDVHRIWKH/DWH,QWHUPHGLDWH3HULRGDQG the environment more fertile, we do not know whether the site was occupied all year round or only seasonally. The site was inhabited over a long period of time, at least 250 years, thus approximately six generations (Austin Alchon S. 1997), and not much evidence of reconstruction or remodeling was found, indicating that it was used only for short periods. It was probably built in several stages (at least two) as indicated by at least two different constructive techniques (see above). It may have been inhabited throughout the whole year but not continuously, and the population used seasonal structures located in agricultural areas further away due to the fact that the area immediately adjacent to the site surely was not large enough to feed the population of the large sites situated around the lake, of which Ñawpamarca was not even the largest (the other two sites contemporary are Ñawpamarca de Acopalca and

necessarily divided into neighbourhoods. There are not, in fact, large differences amongst the domestic units of A, B and C. But it is likely that activities were differentiated amongst the different areas of the settlement. Furthermore, Terrace A has the only planned area for public gatherings of small groups of people18, apart from a small raised tower that is in such a state of degradation that it could not be studied in any detail, but which was undoubtedly connected to the open square by means of a stairway. The square of Area A would have been able to accommodate an entire village for feasting: we had a practical demonstration of this during a ¿HOGFDPSDLJQZKHQWKHLQKDELWDQWVRIWKHVPDOOYLOODJHRI+XDPDQWDQJD situated at the foot of the mountain of Ñawpamarca in the direction of the Valley of Huari, came to celebrate the archaeological excavations with us, bringing food and drink. On this occasion, the population led by the Alcade (mayor) prepared an improvised table in the very square of Ñawpamarca, without us having suggested it, believing this to be the most appropriate place to celebrate a public event. 18

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the structures XD, XC and the stairway. The walls in the lower part of the photo belong to platform B.

Figure 85. General map of the patio and of the structures of platform C where test pits G and I (in structures X and XB) were carried out and where these structures were cleaned so as to map

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Elisa Benozzi, Carolina Orsini, Enzo Rizzo, Nicola Masini, Luigi Capozzoli, Sites descripion

Figure 86. Stairway connecting the patio of platform C in proximity of structure XI (the horizontal arrow indicates the entranceway to structure XI) and platform B.

No funerary area has so far been found in association with the settlement. This subject will be dealt with in the conclusive chapter.

Antaragá, see below). Furthermore Ñawpamarca is situated at an extremely short distance from Antaragá, a site similar in construction although smaller and less important. If one compares Ñawpamarca to neighboring sites - this will be discussed in more detail below – it is not very different from other settlements of this period in that it is associated with a smaller site situated close by with which it inevitably must have lived in symbiosis (see Bazán F. 2012). A symbiosis that perhaps was not always peaceful, considering the most important defensive structures point directly to the north, in the direction of Antaragá. Whilst Ñawpamarca is more impressive than Antaragá and it enjoys access to the important sanctuary of Awilupaccha (see Chapter 4 SDUDJUDSK   LW DSSHDUV WR KDYH ÀRXULVKHG OHVV WKDQ WKH large settlement of Ñawpamarca de Acopalca (see below). The three sites share, in addition to a series of constructive features and the choice of similar ecosystems, the fact that they are in close relation with the lake, enclosing it in a sort of crown that seems to express protection/possession. We may hypothesize that the families of the two larger settlements shared power according to a model of primus inter pares, which is well documented locally during the Colonial period (Zuloaga Rada M. 2008; Herrera A. – Amaya A. – Aguilar M. 2012: 165-218).

4.4 Awilupaccha Elisa Benozzi 4.4.1 Description of the site $ZLOXSDFFKD ZDV ¿UVW LQYHVWLJDWHG RYHU WKH  ¿HOG campaign during a survey that was carried out on cerro Runtuy, which looms to the east of the Puruhuay Lake. The aim of the survey was to undertake a preliminary analysis of the sites of Awilupaccha and the aforementioned Ñawpamarca. Both had been recorded by Ibarra Asencios in his 2003 article (Ibarra B. 2003). What was most striking about the site of Awilupaccha was its remarkable resemblance with the site of Llamacorral and the place name itself, which in the modern quechua language of Ancash means “source of the ancestors”: the site wassubject of a topographic19 survey and to excavation in 2007. As at Llamacorral, the site of Awilupaccha is composed of a single, circular shaped structure, formed by three concentric walls and three aligned entranceways (Figure The preliminary topographic plan of Awilupaccha was carried out thanks to the collaboration of the topographic team of the Instituto Nacional de Cultura del Perú, located at Huaráz. Some of this topographic data was integrated in the 2009 campaign with that carried out by the University of Modena team (see Appendix for the list of the mission’s participants and their roles in the project). 19

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Figure 87. Plan of pit F (in the southern portion of structure I) indicating the stratigraphic units.

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Elisa Benozzi, Carolina Orsini, Enzo Rizzo, Nicola Masini, Luigi Capozzoli, Sites descripion

93). Unfortunately its state of preservation is much worse than that of Llamacorral, none of the walls are preserved LQ WKHLU IXOO KHLJKW DQG WKH VWUXFWXUDO FROODSVH ¿OOV PRVW of the structure. The exterior circle has a diameter of 8m, whilst the diameter of the middle circle is of 3.5m and the interior diameter is of 1m. The inner wall delimitates a circular pit, about 40cm deep, possibly the remains of the water source that gave rise to its place name. This source is now dry and is most likely the point around which, and for which, the small temple was built. Two abutments, at WKH EDVH RI ZKLFK D ÀDW VWRQH ZDV SODFHG DQG XVHG DV D threshold, constitute the entranceways; none of the lintels are preserved. The widths of the entranceways are, from the exterior towards the interior, 60cm, 50cm and 35cm, denoting a considerable decline that may have had the purpose of obtaining a greater effect of visual depth (Figure 92).The height of the walls are conserved for a maximum RI FP DQ HOHYDWLRQ WKDW ZDV GH¿QLWHO\ LQIHULRU WR WKH RULJLQDOKHLJKWFRQ¿UPHGE\WKHDEVHQFHRIWKHOLQWHOVDQG E\WKHIDFWWKDWQRURR¿QJHOHPHQWVDUHYLVLEOHin situ. The space between one wall and the other measures on average 70cm; the walls have an average thickness of 50cm and were built in hewn blocks bounded with soil DQG¿QHO\JURXQGVWRQHV,QWKHEHVWSUHVHUYHGSDUWVLWLV possible to identify the huanca pachilla technique, which, although rudimentary, was used also at Llamacorral. The stones used for the construction of the building are probably of local origin.

Figure 88. Panoramic view of Structure I, test pit F

4.4.2 Excavation method and location of test pits A single test pit was excavated so as to minimize the impact on the structure due to its poor state of preservation. The test pit was placed in correspondence to the entranceways and was 1m wide and 3.5m long (Figure 93). 4.4.3 Stratigraphical sequence $ÀRRULQEHDWHQHDUWKZDVEURXJKWWROLJKW68EHORZ the layer of structural collapse, SU1, which in this part of the structure had a north to south gradient. We believe that the reduced width of the test pit, imposed by the need not to damage the already highly compromised structure, did QRW SHUPLW WKH IXOO HYDOXDWLRQ RI WKH ÀRRU¶V LQFOLQDWLRQ which was probably NE-SW, as at Llamacorral. However, an important difference between these two structures consists of the absence of any type of channelization at Awilupaccha in correspondence to the entranceways.20 :KHUH WKH ÀRRU OD\HU ZDV LUUHSDUDEO\ FRPSURPLVHG investigation proceeded in order to verify the stratigraphical VHTXHQFH([FDYDWLRQUHYHDOHGWKDWWKHÀRRUOD\HUKDGEHHQ SODFHG XSRQ D W\SH RI ÀRRU IRXQGDWLRQ 68 FRPSRVHG of different sized stones, which had been used to level WKHODQG1RRWKHUW\SHRIÀRRUOD\HUDVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKH structure was found a part from SU2. Possibly, at the time of construction, the channel at Llamacorral was not visible, explaining thus its absence at Awilupaccha. 20

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Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina

At the base of SU1, at the interface with SU2, a charcoal sample was collected that was used for reliably dating the occupation of the site. The result of the analysis, A.D. 1215-1300, is compatible with those coming from the nearby residential site of Ñawpamarca.

)LJXUH3DQRUDPLFYLHZRIWKHÀRRULQVWUXFWXUH,WHVWSLW)

4.4.4 Associated artefacts and dating The artefacts found at Awilupaccha are all associated with the interface between the layer of abandonment and WKHÀRRUDQGDUHYHU\VLPLODUWRWKRVHIURP/ODPDFRUUDO ceramics, stone beads and shells. Ten necklace beads in hard stone were found, six were intact (Figure 94) and 4 were partially intact, and another twenty fragments were discovered that belonged to the same type of stone, very probably chrysocolla. The latter VKRZHG WUDFHV RI FRQWDFW ZLWK ¿UH ZKLFK FRXOG KDYH been the cause of their fracture. The size of these beads when whole must have been larger than that of the beads UHFRYHUHG LQWDFW )XUWKHUPRUH WKUHH REVLGLDQ ÀDNHV DQG VL[TXDUW]ÀDNHVZHUHIRXQG $V DW /ODPDFRUUDO WKH VLJQL¿FDQFH RI WKH UHFRYHU\ RI four sea-shell fragments cannot be stressed enough; one of these was of a distinct pink colour and therefore very probably belonged to a Spondylus shell. Awilupaccha yielded a higher quantity of ceramics FRPSDUHG WR /ODPDFRUUDO DPRQJVW ZKLFK LW KDV ¿YH diagnostic fragments. There were twenty body fragments, ten had a yellow paste and ten a grey paste; diagnostic fragments consisted of a handle fragment with traces of red paint, the rim of a small jar also with traces of red paint, two handles and a neck fragment with rim belonging to a small jug. These artefacts will be analyzed in detail in Chapter 5.

4.4.5 Structures near Awilupaccha 'XULQJ WKH  ¿HOG FDPSDLJQ VPDOO VWUXFWXUHV ZHUH mapped (Figure 96) situated to the right of the pathway that led towards Awilupaccha, 4.3km away from the site (E258815, N8972252, masl 4249). These consiste of two elliptical shaped buried structures placed one next to another. They measure about 1.20x0.60m. Internally, WKH\DUHOLQHGZLWK¿QHO\VTXDUHGVWRQHV7KH\ZHUHIRXQG clean with no covering. This led to the hypothesis that these small subterranean structures could have had a similar function to chiles21 (with some differences, see footnote 21) or wells for water sources that have been found in the Highlands of &KLOHVDUHDUWL¿FLDOFRQVWUXFWLRQV7KHLUFRQVWUXFWLRQGLIIHUVVXEVWDQWLDOO\ compared to the wells at Awilupaccha, in that the builders surrounded the VXPPLWRIWKH&HUUR$PDUXZLWKZLGHZDOOV¿OOHGZLWKFRPSDFWVRLOWR VHUYHDVDUHVHUYRLURIUDLQ7KLVUHVHUYRLUZDV¿OOHGZLWKORRVHVRLODQG the chiles were built in this matrix. Despite using a different technology WKDWSHUPLWWHGWKHVHWKUHHZHOOVWREHSHUPDQHQWO\¿OOHGZLWKZDWHULWLV possible that the stone structures, that are also located at the summit of a high mountain in connection with a place of worship of water, functioned to contain water, perhaps on a seasonal basis. The chiles of Cerro Amaru were a sacred place of worship of water.

21

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Elisa Benozzi, Carolina Orsini, Enzo Rizzo, Nicola Masini, Luigi Capozzoli, Sites descripion

northern Peru in the area of Cerro Amaru next to the site of Marcahuamachuco and already known to the explorers of the 19th and 20th century (Uhle M. 1900). Also two caves (E259181, N8971383 masl 4230) have been recorded not far from the site, in the area surrounding the cliff right below the site of Awilupaccha along the eastern slope of the ridge in the direction of the modern village of Huamantanga. These could have been chullpas machay (Figure 97) inhumation type burials, common in the Late Intermediate Period of the area.

Figure 90. Area E, pit H: part of the possible pathway (ditch) that demarcates Area E. Excavations brought to light a compact layer of soil. Note the retaining/delimitating wall of the pathway in its southwestern sector (in direction of the slope in the sector).

vegetation. However, the layout of the structures appeared similar to that recorded at Ñawpamarca; some buildings leant against and exploited others and some structures were characterized by communal areas or passageways which divided them. The stones used, very probably of local origin, were squared and bounded with a soil and stone grit mortar. Circular planned structures were situated on the natural terrace that corresponded to the peak of the mountain, unfortunately almost completely destroyed. The ceramics collected were mostly plainware and very probably belonged to the Late Intermediate Period. In conclusion to this brief description one must keep to mind that the site of Antaragá is only 3km away from Ñawpamarca. As was mentioned above, it is not uncommon during the pre-Hispanic phase in the Sierra RI$QFDVK WR ¿QG VLWHV WKDW DUH FRHYDO DQG FKDUDFWHUL]HG by similar constructions that are situated close by and in view of one another (see Bazán F. 2012). Due to the fact that these are settlements and not vanguards, it is too simplistic to consider these sites as structures used for garrisons and less so as structures used to exploit different environmental characteristics, considering they are situated in the same ecosystem. The hypothesis suggested

4.5 Antaragá Elisa Benozzi The site of Antaragá (Figures 98, 99) is situated to the north of Ñawpamarca, on the summit of the rocky ridge immediately adjacent to Ñawpamarca, at 4310m above sea level. Antaragá was subject to a survey in 2008 that included surface collection and photographic documentation. The site covered an area of about 1.5 hectares. Access to the site was by means of a wide platform, whose surface was obtained thanks to the construction of a retaining wall, which was up to three metres high (Figure 100). The site ZDV FRPSRVHG RI DQRWKHU WZR DUWL¿FLDO WHUUDFHV WRJHWKHU with a natural terrace. Most of the structures were situated on these three terraces. Quadrangular buildings with rounded corners, measuring FLUFD[PFKDUDFWHUL]HGWKHWZRDUWL¿FLDOWHUUDFHV,WZDV QRWSRVVLEOHWRGH¿QHWKHVHWWOHPHQWW\SHGXHWRSUHVHQFHRI

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Figure 91. Location of the site of Awilupaccha on Cerro Runtuy. Note the remains of the walls and pathways between the two sites.

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Elisa Benozzi, Carolina Orsini, Enzo Rizzo, Nicola Masini, Luigi Capozzoli, Sites descripion

Figure 92. View of the three aligned entranceways at the temple of Awilupaccha, seen from the South. Note the shrub, sole example in the area suggesting the presence of a humid layer in the underground, probably used by the well within the structure.

here is that these sites consist of settlements founded by related groups for socio-political reasons according to a model already recorded in others contexts (e.g Tambiah S. 2002 [1985]). This hypothesis is particularly interesting when the political implications regarding the control of the area of Puruhuay are considered. This interpretation should be developed more in detail through further studies.

are circular in plan, with an average diameter of 80cm and a depth of about 1m. Squared stones were used for their construction and were bounded by a soil and gravel mortar, the same type of mortar recorded at other sites and which is commonly known as pachilla. It is currently not possible to create any kind of hypotheses regarding the chronology of the site. It is necessary, however, to call attention to some features shared by the site of Puka Ranra and that of Ishla Ranra. Firstly, the place name ranra that occurs in both, and that in the quechua language of Ancash means many stones. They then share a similar environmental context, both sites are built on stony grounds – possibly the result of avalanches – which would explain the place name they have in common. They are DOVR ERWK EXLOW QH[W WR ZDWHU DQG ¿QDOO\ WKH\ ERWK KDYH subterranean structures. For a discussion of this subject please refer to the conclusions.

4.6 Pukaranra or María Jiray Elisa Benozzi Our team carried out a brief survey at Pukaranra in 2009, when the site was subject to a project for the creation of an open air museum on behalf of the team of Bebel Ibarra Asencios, which began in 2008 (Chirinos Portocarrero R. – Borba Harumi L. 2009). Pukaranra (Figures 101, 102) is situated about 2km to the east of the community of Acopalca. The site covers an area of about 1 hectare and is delimitated to the north by the mountain ridge, to the south by the Shashal River and to the east and west by the natural slopes of the mountain. In proximity to the site, the river forms a loop that creates a stretch of water that the locals call pequeña laguna, associated with numerous tales and stories. Most of the structures that form the site have a circular or rounded plan, even if the unevenness of the stony ground often confers these structures an irregular shape. Sizes vary from a maximum of 6 to a minimum of 2m in diameter; most of the buildings include subterranean structures, which

4.7 Ñawpamarca de Acopalca Elisa Benozzi A survey and a preliminary topography22 (Figure 104) of 22

81

It consists of a plan carried out with the help of a palm GPS.

Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina

Figure 93. Plan of Awilupaccha indicating the trench excavated and the stratigraphic units.

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Elisa Benozzi, Carolina Orsini, Enzo Rizzo, Nicola Masini, Luigi Capozzoli, Sites descripion

the site known as Ñawpamarca de Acopalca (4300m above VHDOHYHO ZDVFDUULHGRXWGXULQJWKH¿HOGVHDVRQRI Ñawpamarca de Acopalca was probably a residential VHWWOHPHQW ,W LV VLWXDWHG RQ D KLOOWRS RI GLI¿FXOW DFFHVV and covers a large area - about 3 hectares. The settlement dominates a plateau with rich water sources, currently used by the local inhabitants as pasture in the dry season. The site occupies the cerro Muchay ridge that extends along the eastern side of the lake, characterised by a small hilltop at the foot of which are two natural terraces, interrupted by a vertical rock wall. A large wall is conserved along this area, which very probably carried out a defensive function. Puruhuay is visible from the site. The higher part of the site, corresponding to the peak of the hill, appears to have been conceived as an isolated and protected area: access was restricted thanks to the presence of a wall and a small door (Figure 105). The structures in this part of the site developed vertically along the slope and rooms were connected by narrow staircases (Figure 106). Most of the other structures, probably either residential or functional, made use of the natural terraces. Their plan appears to have followed the type of settlement pattern DOUHDG\ LGHQWL¿HG DW fDZSDPDUFD GH +XDPDQWDQJD although it is impossible to state this with certainty solely on the basis of a preliminary survey. The site could be entered both from the north and the south. The southern entrance provided direct access into the residential area. But the slope was steep, subject to ODQGVOLGHVDQGKDGWKLFNYHJHWDWLRQPDNLQJLWYHU\GLI¿FXOW

Figure 94. One of the necklace beads in chryoscolla found in the test pit at Awilupaccha.

to enter this area directly. Access to the site was easier from the north, which was probably the main entrance. It was located at the area that presumably provided restricted access to the site, which, by virtue of its vertical development, provided better opportunities for controlling and defending the land, IRUPLQJDVRUWRIIRUWL¿HGFLWDGHO

Figure 95. Radiocarbon results of the sample collected in Awilupaccha. The date is compatible with those coming from the nearby residential site of Ñawpamarca.

83

Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina The terraces joined towards the southern end of the site, FUHDWLQJDODUJHÀDWDUHD5HVLGHQWLDOEXLOGLQJVZHUHVFDUFH in this part of the settlement, whilst it was possible to identify structures with defensive functions. The main structure was the eastern city wall, which is unfortunately poorly preserved and that is associated with other similar FRQVWUXFWLRQV LQ WKLV DUHD $OWKRXJK LW ZDV GLI¿FXOW WR access the site from the south, it was not impossible and this probably created the need to form a line of defence along this side. During times of peace, this wide, open space was possibly used for other purposes; the presence of small circular structures suggests that these were simple domestic enclosures similar to those located on the eastern terrace of Ñawpamarca de Huamantanga, which were not included within the main residential complex. The amount of buildings on the terraces gradually increases from south to north, and are mostly concentrated in the central part of the site to then decrease in number again. The buildings were mostly located along the exterior edges of the terraces, grouped into small clusters of 4-5 structures. Between the buildings and the end of the terrace was an open area, that could have been used as a communal space, where various productive activities were carried out, similar to that seen in other residential settlements of the area. The buildings were mainly quadrangular and measured 5x5m on average. There were some larger buildings that measure 10x5m. Locally hewn stone was used for their construction. The blocks were held together by mud and

Figure 96. Small structures found near the site of Awilupaccha. Figure 97. One of the two caves in the area of Awilupaccha.

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Elisa Benozzi, Carolina Orsini, Enzo Rizzo, Nicola Masini, Luigi Capozzoli, Sites descripion

rubble mortar. Niches were visible along some of the walls. $ PRUH UH¿QHG FRQVWUXFWLRQ WHFKQLTXH ZDV XVHG IRU WKH buildings located on the higher part of the site, which utilized the huanca pachilla. Doors were built with two abutments and a lintel, as was seen at Llamacorral. On the basis of these observations it is possible to assume this area was used for a different purpose. It must, however, be kept to mind, that all these

Figure 98. General view of the promontory where the site of Antaragá is situated.

observations are only preliminary hypotheses. As a matter of fact, the very topographic plan should be considered as a rough outline. For a detailed analysis of the site a more thorough investigation must be carried out accompanied by archaeological excavations.

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Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina

Figure 99. Circular structures at the site of Antaragá.

)LJXUH  5HWDLQLQJ ZDOOV DORQJ WKH DUWL¿FLDO WHUUDFHV DW WKH site of Antaragá.

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Elisa Benozzi, Carolina Orsini, Enzo Rizzo, Nicola Masini, Luigi Capozzoli, Sites descripion

Figure 101. Sketch of the site of Pukaranra based on Chirinos Portocarrero R. – Borba Harumi L. (2009). The circles indicate the subterranean structures similar to those at Ishla Ranra found during our surveys.

87

Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina Figure 102. View of the site of Pukaranra: the ruins are situated QH[W WR DQ DUWL¿FLDO ZDWHUIDOO NQRZQ DV &DWDUDWD 0DUtD -LUD\ The waterfall may have existed also in antiquity but with a lower ÀRZRIZDWHU

Figure 103. View of the structures of Pukaranra. Structure X contains undergound chambers XIII and XIV

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Elisa Benozzi, Carolina Orsini, Enzo Rizzo, Nicola Masini, Luigi Capozzoli, Sites descripion

Figure 104. Sketch of the structures at the site of Ñawpamarca de Acopalca. The sketch is based on a drawing carried out with Palm GPS on site (structures with empty polygons) and on a preliminary drawing kindly given to us by Bebel Ibarra Asencios and )HUQDQGR*XWLpUUH]+RQRUHVVWUXFWXUHVZLWK¿OOHGSRO\JRQV 

89

Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina Figure 105. Wall and a small door protecting the access to the higher sector of the site of Ñawpamarca de Acopalca.

Figure 106 . Staircases connecting the structures located along the slope of the mountain in the higher sector of Ñawpamarca de Acopalca.

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CAHPTER 5 DESCRIPTION OF FINDS Marta Porcedda, Luigi Mazzari, Carolina Orsini W\SHRILQFOXVLRQVDQGW\SHRI¿ULQJ The most common type of vessel belongs to group P1, and is constituted by 90% of the entire sample. This group is represented by vessel fragments with a very coarse paste of a Dark Grey colour (Munsell: Grey 2 4/1; Grey 1 5/1; Grey 1 3/1) with medium to large shashal inclusions, associated, in some cases, with calcite, red stone and rarely muscovite. The slip, which can be exterior and interior or only exterior, has a Reddish Yellow or Light Brown colour (Munsell: 7.5YR 6/6; 7.5YR 6/4). Group P2 is characterized by a brown paste in different tonalities (Munsell: 7.5YR 6/4; 10YR 6/3). It may have slips in various colours: Light Red, Grey or different tonalities of Brown (Munsell: 2.5YR 6/6, 7.5YR 5/1). It GLIIHUVIURP3DOVRGXHWRLWV¿QHUZDUHDQGDERXWRI the ceramics belong to this group. *URXS 3 LV FKDUDFWHUL]HG E\ FHUDPLFV ZLWK D ¿QHU ZDUH when compared to P1. Although its paste is similar in colour to P1 (see Munsell P1), its exterior surface is more uniform in colour and is in different tonalities of Red (Munsell: 5 YR 6/8, 5YR 6/4, 7.5YR 7/4, 2.5YR 6/6). It is the second group with the highest percentage of ceramics after P1, even if it constitutes only 3.5% of the entire sample. Group P4 is characterised by a Very Pale Brown paste (Munsell: 10YR 7/4) and by evident calcite inclusions, in some cases it also has shashal and mica2 inclusions. Additional, often single, fragments belong to other sample groups, separated from the above due to particular characteristics, such as the type of inclusions or consistency of the paste. However these fragments tend to be isolated cases, often of small dimensions and frequently nondiagnostic. They are described here as follows: Group P5 is characterised by shiny mica inclusions, with a Brown paste (Munsell: 7.5YR 4/3) and a Dark Brown slip (Munsell: 7.5YR 3/2). Few fragments belong to this group, all of which come from terrace C. Group P6 is composed of very few fragments from terrace A, none of which is diagnostic. They have a Reddish Yellow colour (Munsell: 5YR 6/6) with calcite inclusions and an interior slip with a Reddish Brown colour (Munsell 5YR 5/4). Group P7 is represented by a single fragment from terrace C, Structure 1: it consists of a spindle whorl with a Dark Grey paste (Munsell: Gley 1 4) and a Brownish Yellow coloured slip (Munsell: 10 YR 6/6). All other fragments from this type come from the site of Awilupaccha (see below). Finally, four non-diagnostic ceramic fragments belong to JURXS3FKDUDFWHUL]HGE\DYHU\¿QHDQGFRPSDFWSDVWH with thin walls and a Grey coloured paste with shashal inclusions (Munsell: 10YR 5/1 and 6/1). The exterior and interior slip has a Dark colour (Munsell: 10YR 3/1).

5.1 Ceramic assemblage from Puruhuay Marta Porcedda Archaeological research around the Puruhuay Lake carried RXW RYHU WKH ODVW ¿YH \HDUV KDV HQULFKHG WKH UHJLRQDO ceramic collection along the eastern side of the area of Ancash, especially of the Late Intermediate Period. A strong ceramic production continues today in the region where the archaeological sites are situated, especially in the communities of Mallas, Yacya and Acopalca – all situated in the area of Puruhuay – where the ceramic tradition resists against time and modernity. There are, in fact, various similarities with the archaeological vessels, so much so that these suggest a continuum between the ceramic production of the Late Intermediate Period, through the colonial period and into the modern era (see Figure 107). One of the features that the vessels have in common is undoubtedly the raw materials, including raku, a quechua WHUPWRGH¿QHDFOD\H\EULFNFRORXUHGVRLODQGshashal1, a local black-coloured mineral with a graphite basis used as temper. 7KH ¿QGV UHFRYHUHG IURP fDZSDPDUFD $ZLOXSDFFKD Llamacorral and Ishla Ranra will be described below in an attempt to correlate the artefacts with the occupation SKDVHVLGHQWL¿HGGXULQJH[FDYDWLRQ 5.1.1 Fabric analysis of the Ñawpamarca assemblage The ceramic pastes at the site of Ñawpamarca are composed mainly of two elements: raku and shashal but with some variants and exceptions. $¿UVWDQDO\VLVRIWKHFHUDPLFPDWHULDOZDVFDUULHGRXWE\ dividing the whole ceramic sample in main groups (P) by using parameters such as composition, colour of paste, 1 There are quarries in the vicinity of the Acopalca-Puruhuay area. The custom of using this mineral as ceramic temper dates back to 100 B.C. (Druc I. 2001: 169-170).

Figure 107. To the left: a modern vessel made in the community of Acopalca, near Puruhuay. To the right, a jar fragment of the Late Intermediate period from the site of Ñawpamarca.

For the presence of this mineral in the composition of eastern Sierra de Ancash pottery see Druc I. 2001: 169.

2

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Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina Fragments that belong to this group were found in terrace A, Structure IV. 5.1.2 Site distribution 1683 fragments were found at the site of Ñawpamarca. $OOGLDJQRVWLFIUDJPHQWVIUDJPHQWV ZHUHFODVVL¿HG GUDZQ DQG SKRWRJUDSKHG HDFK ZDV LGHQWL¿HG ZLWK a nomenclature that associated it with an area of the excavation, with the architectural structure and with the stratigraphical unit within which it was found. 6RPHFHUDPLFIUDJPHQWVRQWKHRWKHUKDQGZHUHLGHQWL¿HG as hallazgos+±WKDWLVDV¿QGV GXHWRWKHFRPSOHWHQHVV of their form and manufacture of the artefact; however these consisted of few ceramic fragments (indicated on the maps of the single excavation units with triangles– see Chapter 4) and some spindle whorls a part of many lithic objects described in Chapter 5 paragraph 5. 1RQGLDJQRVWLFVKHUGVZHUHFODVVL¿HGDQGSKRWRJUDSKHGLQ groups and contributed to the general overview regarding the distribution of artefacts found in the excavations. Nearly 70% of the total ceramic sample comes from terrace C, in particular from structure I, and just over 22% from terrace A, in particular from structure IV, whilst the remaining fragments come from area E and B respectively (Figure 108). The highest density of diagnostic sherds is also found in Area C (nearly 60%), above all in structure I, where different types of jars, spindle whorls and body fragments FKDUDFWHUL]HGE\KROHVZHUHLGHQWL¿HGDVVKDOOEHGLVFXVVHG below. Once again, these proportions correspond to terrace A when analyzing the general distribution of artefacts (whereby A is the second area where there is major density of diagnostic artefacts after C). Most fragments belonging to jars, some spindle whorls and decorated body fragments in area A were found in structure IV.

Figure 109. Distribution of different types of jar in the areas of the site.

the ceramics. 6HYHUDO EDVHV ZHUH DOVR UHFRYHUHG VRPH LGHQWL¿HG DV belonging to bowls, others to jars. These bases permitted their comparison, based on their dimensions and forms, with other forms from nearby sites, in particular with jar forms, as shall be discussed below. The jars, in particular, were the most frequent type of form in the assemblage, such that it was possible to classify them into different types on the basis of the fragment’s morphology. )LYHW\SHVZHUHLGHQWL¿HGWZRZLWKDVKRUWQHFNDQGWZR with a longer neck, whose distribution is better emphasized in the diagram (Figure 109). There are also some “particular” cases of jar forms, which FRQVLVWRILVRODWHGIUDJPHQWVWKDWGRQRW¿WLQWRWKHRWKHU typologies. Jars Type A Type A (see appendix, Plate I) has a short, straight neck, separated from its rounded body suggesting a globular shaped body (an unproven assertion due to the fact that a whole vessel has never been found). The body walls are medium to thick (between 6 and 9 mm) and the diameter varies from 8 to 24cm.3 Most of these fragments belong to group P1. They have shashal inclusions of large dimensions and an exterior and interior slip; some fragments have exterior traces of soot. This type constitutes about 9% of the total amount of jars and is found above all in various structures of terrace C.

&ODVVL¿FDWLRQ An initial analysis of the ceramic sample indicates that the YHVVHOVZHUHQRWFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\DUH¿QHGPDQXIDFWXUH The vessels were probably used to cook, serve and store foodstuffs. 6RPHIRUPVZHUHLGHQWL¿HGDPRQJVWWKHYHVVHOVVXFKDV bowls and jars, indicative of the mainly utilitarian use of

Type B Type B (see appendix, Plates II, III) has a short neck, which is slightly everted and separated from the slightly oblique, thick-walled (5mm – 1cm), body. The diameter varies from 8cm to 18cm and it has a rounded lip. Also in this case, most vessels belong to group P1, with some It is not a very common form throughout the site, but is found in other fragments in nearby sites, such as in the case of a small late vessel from San Marcos-Runtu Ama: jar PR/SM/01-34 with a 20cm diameter, grey paste, light red slip and shashal inclusions. It has a small vertical handle applied to the rim. This vessel belongs to an assemblage gathered from the surface in 2009, still under analysis. 3

Figure 108. Distribution of ceramic sherds in the different areas of the site of Ñawpamarca.

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Marta Porcedda, Luigi Mazzari, Carolina Orsini, 'HVFULSWLRQRI¿QGV IUDJPHQWVKDYLQJD¿QHUSDVWHRUEHORQJLQJWRJURXS3 with shashal and calcite inclusions. All vessels have a slip, mostly an exterior slip, and only one decorated fragment was found (PR 03C/X-19/6, Plate III) with traces of interior and exterior brick-coloured paint on the rim. It is undoubtedly the most common type of jar, constituting nearly 27% of the total jar assemblage, and is present predominantly in terrace C, especially in Structure X.

rim (PR03E/I-18/2 and PR03C/X-30/2), whilst others have DÀDULQJULPDQGORQJQHFNZLWKVWUDLJKWERG\ZDOOVRQH of these has an appliqué handle (PR03C/XB/35-1; PR03/ CI6/6). In particular, there is a marked similarity for these latter forms with the Inka aribalos. All, except from one from Area E (PR03E/I-18/2), were found in Area C. Bowls Few bowl fragments have been found on site (see appendix, Plate XI). Most belong to group P1, with mainly shashal inclusions; few other fragments belong to group P3 and P4, where shashal is found with mica. All fragments have a slip, a part from one bowl fragment that belongs to group P4, characterized by thin walls (PR03A/IV-24/2). They were mostly found in Area C, a part from one fragment that was found in Area A and another one from Area B.

Type C This type (see appendix, Plates IV, V) is characterized by a long and slightly oblique neck. Its body walls are medium to thick (between 5 and 8mm), it often has a slip and some fragments have traces of soot. The paste types mostly belong to P1, and also to P3 and 37KHODWWHUKDYHFDOFLWHLQFOXVLRQVZLWKPHGLXPWR¿QH ware and traces of exterior or interior red brick-coloured decorations at the height of the rim. It is more common than type A, but represents only 16% of the total jar assemblage and is found mainly in various structures of Area C. It is the only type present in area E.

Spindle whorls 11 spindle whorls were found on site (see appendix, Plates XII, XIII), most of which in Area C, Structure I; others were found in Area A, Structure IV. Most spindle whorls EHORQJ WR JURXS 3 D SDUW IURP VRPH WKDW KDYH ¿QHU pastes (P7 and P2). As was noted in the chapter regarding excavations at Ñawpamarca, this distribution coincides with two areas of specialized production.

Type D Type D (see appendix, Plates VI, VII) is characterized by WKHQHFN¶VJUHDWHUFRQYH[LW\ZLWKDVRPHWLPHVÀDULQJULP Its diameter varies from 26cm to 13cm, sometimes also less, and has medium to thick body walls (from 6mm to 1cm). Most Type D fragments belong to group P1, with some ¿QHUSDVWHVWKDWFDQEHDWWULEXWHGWRRWKHUJURXSV As a matter of fact, a decorated fragment with traces of red paint on the exterior part of the rim belongs to P2, whilst another fragment is attributable to P3 and is characterized by an appliqué decoration with a concave central form with a tapped hole. It is the second most common type, constituting nearly 23% of the jar assemblage, but in this case most fragments are found in various structures of Area A, and a slightly lower amount in Area C. Type E This type (see appendix, Plates VIII, IX) has a particularly HYHUWHGQHFNZLWKÀDULQJULPZKLFKLVVKDUSO\VHSDUDWHG from the straight body walls. Diameters vary from 14 to 20cm, with thick body walls (from 5mm to 1.5cm). All fragments have a slip which can be exterior or interior, whilst shashal tends to be the main inclusion and in some cases calcite was also used. In fact, most fragments belong to P1, and in a few cases to P3 and P4. Some fragments have traces of soot. It constitutes nearly 19% of the total jar assemblage and is found in terraces C and A and in some cases also in terrace B.

5.1.4 Decoration Most of the decorative motifs (see appendix, Plates XIV, XV, XVI) come from body walls and in some cases from diagnostic jar rim fragments. They consist of simple geometric motifs (lines, undulations, zig-zags, horizontal bands), for the most part painted in red or in rare cases they are incised. On the rim fragments, it is possible to note painted decoration next to the lip, both on the interior and the exterior, always of a brick-red colour. The appliqué is another decorative element, which can still be seen in modern vessels, but which is strictly connected to the Late Intermediate Period decorative style. This type of decoration can be seen in two jar fragments from Area A, which are characterized by a circular shaped appliqué decoration with a smaller circular tapped excision (Plate XIV: PR03A/IV-24/7 and Plate VII: PR03A/IV24/10).4 $QRWKHUDSSOLTXpKDVEHHQLGHQWL¿HGRQDERG\IUDJPHQW coming from the same area (Plate XIV: PR03A/IV-20/ H47), similar to a handle, as well as a rope-shaped appliqué with a series of excised holes (Plate XIV: PR03A/I-1/3).5 Whilst closely related to modern manufacture, it is impossible not to include here a fragment (Plate XV: 35$9DQG)LJXUHD ZLWKDÀRZHUFORYHUOHDI shaped appliqué.6

Rare jar forms There are six isolated fragments (see appendix, Plate X), which do not fall under any of the types described above and all of which belong to group P1, with a grey colored paste and coarse grained ware. Amongst these, two fragments have a particularly everted

)RUFRPSDULVRQVVHH7HUDGD.SSODWH¿JDD See fragment from the nearby and correlated site of Ishla Ranra with circular shaped excised decorated motif on appliqué (PR01/Tb8/30-8, ¿JE RI¿QHUZDUH 6 See Lane K. 2005: Appendix C, Section 3, n.2; for the continued use of this type of decoration: Terada K. 1979: p. 118, plate 56 n.d.; plate 57 n. 1-13 (Caserones Orange). 4 5

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Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina -DU SUR¿OHV IURP fDZSDPDUFD DOVR KDYH VLPLODULWLHV with some forms from Warmi Ware B: the very Chakwas ceramics, although there are substantial differences with the previous phase, also show strong similarities in jar and bowl forms.10 Equally valid comparisons can be made with the more adjacent ceramics of the eastern area of the Sierra of Ancash, such as with the Chacas ceramics, in particular with the jars coming from the chulpa tomb I of sector Q of Jatungaga Pirushtu (Orsini C. 2005). In particular, reference is made to jars of type B of the Jatungaga III phase, characterized by a reddish or redgreyish paste, with shashal inclusions. The absolute dating for this phase, yielded from the analysis of charcoal remains, dates to A.D. 1030 to 1300. Amongst the most common forms are jars with everted necks, characterized by red paint or by appliqués, which are sometimes incised. At La Pampa, a village to the south of Corongo, capital of the La Pampa district, in the department of Ancash, the ceramic from the so-called Rondan Circular Construction (RCC, Terada K. 1979), a circular construction situated on a small, semi-isolated hill to the north of the Yesopampa Mound and to the north of Mound 8, provides some other important comparisons. This area is situated to the extreme north and at the highest point of the site and is connected to the Manta River by means of a steep slope. The ceramics have been divided in two main types, of which the most common is the RCC-A type (Terada K. 1979: 151-161, plate 108 (11-15)), consisting of globular jars with a short, slightly everted neck with a rounded rim, medium diameters (16-20cm), brown or light grey paste with sandy and gravelly tempers and a brown slip. Its decoration, however, is unusual and its main motif consists of a spiral, impressed before drying. 'DWLQJFRQ¿UPVWKDWWKH5&&ZDVFRQVWUXFWHGDQGXWLOL]HG in the same period of the Tornapampa grey and Rough Grey phases.11 Analogies may be made also with the following phase GH¿QHG DV WKH &DVHURQHV 3HULRG ZKHUH KRZHYHU WKH

)LJXUH$&HUDPLFIUDJPHQWZLWKDÀRZHUVKDSHGGHFRUDWLRQ from Ñawpamarca. B: Ear-shaped braided vertical handle from a drinking vessel in the site of Awilupaccha.

Finally, various body fragments have been found characterized by small holes. It was hypothesized that these were jar fragments, due to the low curvature of the body walls. Following this assumption a specialized production was suggested that involved vessels used for transport, maybe in correlation with the problem regarding water supply. These same holes could have been used for hanging the vessels.7 5.1.5 Regional Comparisons Unfortunately no complete vessels were found on site, therefore in order to visualize how the jars of Ñawpamarca could have been like, it is necessary to compare them with jar forms recovered from nearby sites in the area of Sierra of Ancash and possibly contemporary to the ceramic production that developed at Ñawpamarca. 7KLVSDUDJUDSKZLOOIRFXV¿UVWO\RQWKHH[FDYDWLRQVFDUULHG out in the area of the Cordillera Negra and Chinchawas, published in detail by George Lau. Vessels from this site have been divided in different phases: Kayán, Chinchawasi 1 and 2, Warmi, Chakwas and Post Chakwas. The Chakwas8 phase is contemporary to occupation at Ñawpamarca, and its ceramics share a similar vessel SUR¿OH FRDUVHZDUH SDVWH DQG GHFRUDWLYH WHFKQLTXHV It is, in fact, the late phase of occupation of the site of Chinchawas, such that the name derives from a quechua word meaning “old lady”, emphasizing the emergence of more rustic stylistic elements compared to the previous “Warmi” phase (Lau G. 2001: note 85). There is no absolute chronology for this phase, its collocation is based on relative dating due particularly to stylistic evidence and its association with the aquilpo ceramics that places it in the Late Intermediate phase.9

SHULRG$' *ULHGHU7¿J 2UVLQL  excavated an entire burial with ceramic in aquilpo style that was datable to around A.D. 1000. Other dated examples go up to the Colonial period. )XUWKHUPRUHZHNQRZWKDWWKHUHDUHVLJQL¿FDQWUHJLRQDOGLIIHUHQFHVWKDW remain to be investigated. For a repertoire of ceramics belonging to this SKDVH VHH DOVR )XQJ 3LQHGD 5 ± /HyQ & :    ¿J  Daggett C. 1983: 209-225; Lau G. 2001: 269-274; Herrera A. 2005: 205¿J/DQH.¿J 10 /DX*2Q:DUPL:DUH%FHUDPLFVSS¿J – 8.13. According to the author the Warmi phase reaches its maximum development in the middle of the IX century A.D. and lasts just over a century. From a chronological point of view it corresponds to the initial SKDVH RI RFFXSDWLRQ RI WKH VLWH RI fDZSDPDUFD 7KH SUR¿OHV RI VRPH of the jars are similar, although it must be emphasized that the Warmi MDUV DUH FKDUDFWHULVHG E\ ¿QHU ZDUHV DQG QRWDEO\ ZLGHU GLDPHWHUV7KH development of Warmi forms is evident in the Chakwas phase that corresponds to the late occupation of Chinchawas. 11 C14 on charcoal samples dates the Tornapampa period to A.D. 1310, but the author, on the basis of the white on red ceramic type found in the site, rejects this chronology and dates this ceramic phase generically to an earlier period, between the Chavín phase and the Inka era.

See Terada K. 1979: plate 94, n.4 and 8. /DX*¿J 9 The best know ceramic style of the Late Intermediate Period, above all for the western side of the Sierra of Ancash, is the so-called aquilpo. Due to its incised decoration and the form of its vessels, it is often related to the coastal style known as casma incised. The temporal location of the aquilpo style is very approximate: there are few absolute dated contexts to which this ceramic has been associated with, and they have a very wide chronology. For example it is similar to the Pashash ceramic of the Usú 7 8

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Marta Porcedda, Luigi Mazzari, Carolina Orsini, 'HVFULSWLRQRI¿QGV similarity between the ceramic assemblage of the archaeological site with that of the modern settlement, ZKRVH SURGXFWLRQ FRQWLQXHV DOWKRXJK ZLWK GLI¿FXOW\ LQ the province of Huari in the neighbouring communities of Mallas, Yacya and Acopalca (Figure 107). Thanks to a project of development cooperation connected to the archaeological mission, it was possible to analyze ceramic production in the area closest to Ñawpamarca, that is Acopalca. Acopalca is a small community at a half hour walk away from the modern provincial capital of Huari. During the colonial period it was inhabited by a population of pottery manufacturers and is also rich in mines from which shashal is extracted, situated between a two and six hour walk. Different vessel forms and dimensions are produced in the community: aswanas, cántaros, cazuelas, ollas, cancheros; each of which had a different function: cooking, serving and storing liquids or foodstuffs. Vessel production continues to be handmade and decorations are carried out with natural colours, as must have been the case during the Late Intermediate Period when the wheel wasn’t used. The decorations used on the modern day vessels are strikingly similar to those of the ceramics found on site, such as the appliqués on the body of the vessel or the undulated or zig-zagged painted lines. These similarities suggest a continuity between the pottery of the Late Intermediate Period and the current day, passing through the phase of the colonial and modern period, when newly introduced forms were added, without substituting the old ones (Druc I. 2005: 30-31).

IRUPV ZHUH DOUHDG\ LQÀXHQFHG E\ WKH ,QND LQ SDUWLFXODU the Caserones Orange type.12 Other comparisons can be made with vessels found in the area of the Sierra of Ancash thanks to the study carried out by PIAP, Proyecto de Investigación Arqueológico Paurarku, that analysed the three valleys of Ancash: Loco, Santa, Yanamayo and Chaclancayo. In particular it is possible to carry out a comparison with the forms found during the excavations carried out at Yurakpecho [Cho 3], a site situated at the top of the eponymous mountain.13 Once again, this site had a clear strategic importance connected to the areas of lakes and basins situated immediately to the east along the Chorrillos Valley.14 5.1.6 Conclusions The pottery from this highland site is in keeping with the late phases of occupation of the Sierra of Ancash, where areas of the puna were inhabited with scarcer water resources, at least during the dry season, which obviously led to the creation and use of new tools and artefacts suitable for the new requirements. This may explain why the ceramic production at Ñawpamarca focuses mainly on jars, rather than on the production of bowls and plates which are found in a much lower quantity. It was, in fact, initially hypothesized that a connection existed between the presence of jar forms and the problem regarding water supply. These vessels could have been used as true and proper recipients, which could have possibly been partially buried, maybe in direct association with the roofs from ZKLFKLWZRXOGFROOHFWWKHÀRZLQJZDWHU15 7KLV W\SH RI DVVHPEODJH ZRXOG WKHUHIRUH ¿W LQ ZLWK WKH Andean tradition of specialized vessels used for the collection and transportation of water, which culminates with the aribalos of the Inka period. These vessels have been found also in the area under study, as seen in the local archaeological collections, for example in that of the Municipality of Huari and that of the Municipality of Chacas, situated only a few kilometers to the north of Huari (Figure 1). The ceramic assemblage from Ñawpamarca can be FODVVL¿HG DV XWLOLWDULDQ FRPSRVHG PDLQO\ RI FRDUVHZDUH YHVVHOVZLWKLQFLVHGGHFRUDWLRQVZKLFKIXOO\¿WVLQWRWKH styles of the Late Intermediate Period, such as that known by the name of aquilpo. Finally, it is impossible not to notice the incredible

5.2 Ceramic assemblage from Awilupaccha Few ceramic fragments were found at the site of Awilupaccha: a total of 25 fragments were found in Structure I (see appendix, Plate XIX). Ten of these have EHHQ FODVVL¿HG DV WKH QRQGLDJQRVWLF FHUDPLF 3 W\SH LGHQWL¿HGDWfDZSDPDUFDFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\D*UH\SDVWH with shashal inclusions and a Reddish Yellow slip. The other ten fragments are also non-diagnostic but of the PRUH UH¿QHG 3 W\SH FKDUDFWHUL]HG E\ D 9HU\ 3DOH Brown coloured paste (Munsell: 10 YR 7/4) with calcite inclusions. 7KH PRVW VLJQL¿FDQW IUDJPHQWV IRXQG DUH ¿YH WKUHH RI ZKLFK EHORQJ WR WKH 3 W\SH LGHQWL¿HG DW fDZSDPDUFD in a spindle whorl (PR03/CI/12-9, see appendix, Plate XIII), characterized by a Dark Grey paste (see Munsell: Grey 1.4) from which the Red (see Munsell: 2.5 YR 5/6) or Brownish Yellow (for example Munsell: 10 YR 6/6) slip is clearly distinguished. 2WKHUVLJQL¿FDQWIUDJPHQWVFRQVLVWRIDYHUWLFDOKDQGOHZLWK traces of red paint (Plate XIX: PR04/AI/1-1), an ear-shaped braided vertical handle, which is not upraised (Plate XIX: PR04/AI, 1-4, Figure110b) and a small jar neck fragment ZLWK D WRWDO GLDPHWHU RI FP FKDUDFWHUL]HG E\ D ÀDW ULP with traces of red paint (Plate XIX: PR04/AI/1-2). On the other hand, two fragments belong to the P4 type: one consists of a small, jar neck fragment with a diameter of 4cm (Plate XIX: PR04/AI/1-5) characterized by concentric circles painted in red at the height of the neck, whilst the second consists of a horizontal handle (Plate

Terada K. 1979: 117-118, 181, plate 96 (7-12), 97 (1). C14 dating for WKLVSHULRGLVUHODWLYHWR$'DQGLVFRQ¿UPHGE\WKHDXWKRUGXH WR WKH HYLGHQW LQÀXHQFHV RQ EHKDOI RI ,QND VRFLHW\ 7KH 2UDQJH W\SH however, represents the transitional phase, both chronologically and stratigraphically, between the Tornapampa phase and the following Inka LQÀXHQFHGSKDVH 13 Lane K. 2005: appendix C, LXVII. The dates include a period that goes IURP$'WRFRQ¿UPHGDOVRE\WKHPDWHULDOFXOWXUH 14 Lane K. 2005: 109-114. The author points out that the majority of the most important settlements excavated along the Ancash Axis are situated RQ WRS RI VWUDWHJLFDOO\ LPSRUWDQW SHDNV RU RQ KLOOWRSV DORQJ ÀXYLDO waterways or next to hydraulic facilities. 15 Buried vessels have been reported to conserve chicha (Hayashida F. 2009) or, in general, drinkable liquids. 12

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Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina XIX: PR04/AI/1-3). The ear-shaped handle recalls those of the cuencos of the Wanka II style in the Yanamarca Valley (see Costin C. ¿J WKDWKDYHEHHQGDWHGEHWZHHQDQG 1450 A.D. (D’Altroy T. – Hastorf C. 2001: 39), therefore belonging to a later period in time than Awilupaccha (see SDUDJUDSK ,WLVGLI¿FXOWWRSURYLGHFRPSDULVRQVIRU the other artefacts, although it is clear that there are very few ceramic fragments at this site, as at Llamacorral (dated to an earlier phase), which furthermore belong to cups or small bottles.

4/4) paste with traces of white paint on the exterior surface and small sized shashal inclusions. It has an indentation in its interior, possibly a hole. Fragment PR1/I/1-2 (Plate XXI) was found in the layers of abandonment excavated in Structure I; it is characterized by a Red (10 R 5/8) paste with shashal inclusions and thin ERG\ZDOOVDQGDYHU\¿QHZDUH,WLVDERZOZLWKDFP diameter and a rounded rim; the aperture of the bowl has a short vertical rim that widens in a slight convexity. It is a unique form at this site and recalls a bowl type from Clarinjirca in the area of Corongo (Terada K. 1975: plate 110-119), which, however, has not been dated. Nonetheless, the material published by Terada appears to date back to the Early Intermediate Period. Another comparison can be made with the Kuntur Wasi ceramics of the Copa phase %& .DXOLFNH3¿J  Finally, part of the diagnostic assemblage from the excavations of Structure I consists of a body fragment with a hole, perhaps a colador, characterized by a Gray paste with medium sized shashal inclusions, a Yellowish Red slip and thick walls, which was found on the ancient ÀRRUOD\HU35,±3ODWH;;,, DQGRIDcántaro neck fragment with a 14cm diameter, thick walls, a Yellowish Red coloured paste with calcite and shashal inclusions. The neck is long and everted with quite a straight rim; it has traces of red paint on the interior (PR1/I/3/19 – Plate XXI) and a pronounced angle between the neck and body.1615 The fragments found in structure II share some characteristics with those found in Cámara 1 and in Structure I in that they are characterized by coarseware pastes, with mostly shashal (some with mica and calcite) inclusions, and colours which tend to be yellow/brown or grey and in some rare cases the fragments have a slip. 0DQ\ KDYH DQ H[WHULRU ¿QLVK FKDUDFWHUL]HG E\ FRPELQJ and some have decorations painted in red. A total of 78 fragments were found, of which only three are diagnostic: amongst these is an olla sin cuello whose mouth has a 12-14cm diameter, with a reinforced lip, a Brown (7.5 YR 5/4) paste with shashal inclusions (PR1/ II/3 – Plate XXII).17 A jar was also found in the same structure, with a 14cm diameter and a Reddish Yellow paste with shashal inclusions (PR01/II/5/19) together with another jar with a 12cm diameter, thick body walls, a Dark Reddish Brown paste (5 YR 3/3) and coarse calcite, mica and pyrite inclusions (PR01/II/5/13 – Plate XXII). 47 fragments were found in Structure III characterized by a Reddish Yellow or Gray paste and a slip in different shades of red or brown. In some cases the paste is pinkish. They have large coarse shashal or mica inclusions. Seven fragments are diagnostic and some of these are decorated; in particular a jar neck fragment with a 14 cm diameter with an excised appliqué consisting of the lower halves of semicircles at the height of the rim (PR01/

5.3 Ceramic assemblage from Llamacorral Unfortunately, only 5 ceramic fragments were found at the site of Llamacorral, of which only two are diagnostic (see appendix, Plate XX). Fragment PR2/I/A1/14 belongs to a small jar with a diameter of 8cm; it has a long and oblique neck with a rounded rim. It is characterized by a Gray paste (see Munsell: 5YR 5/1) with shashal and quartz inclusions and E\ D PXFK ¿QHU ZDUH ZKHQ FRPSDUHG WR WKH SODLQZDUH pastes found at Ñawpamarca. The slip is of a Reddish Yellow colour (see Munsell: 7.5 YR 6/8). PR2/I/H/15 is a fragment of a slightly pointed base with a Gray paste (see Munsell: 5YR 5/1) with shashal, mica and quartz inclusions and a Pink slip (7.5 YR 8/4). 5.4 Ceramic assemblage from Ishla Ranra A total of 369 fragments were found at Ishla Ranra (see appendix, Plate XXI, XXII, XXIII), of which 166 come from the so-called tomb 8 excavated in 2010, whilst the remaining 203 were found during the excavations carried out in 2006 that investigated selected enclosures and one tomb (Camara 1) in which a textile belonging to the Colonial period was discovered. 5.4.1 Excavations of 2006 33 fragments were found in Cámara 1, none of which are diagnostic. The typology analysis carried out on the body fragments suggests the presence of a cántaro, a bowl and other vessels, which have obviously been destroyed. These fragments are characterized by a rather coarse paste with medium-sized shashal and/or calcite inclusions and in fewer cases also with mica or pyrite inclusions. The paste varies in colour from a Pinkish Gray (10 R 5/6) or Pink (5 YR 6/2) to Yellowish Red (5 YR 5/3) or Reddish Yellow (5 YR 6/6). They rarely have a slip, and when they do it tends to be Red (2.5 YR 5/6) or Light Red (2/5 YR 6/6). 15 fragments were found in Structure I (test pit A and B), of which only 4 are diagnostic. The non-diagnostic assemblage of this structure also has a Reddish Yellow or Light Red paste with medium-sized shashal and mica inclusions; other fragments are Gray (5 YR 5/1) with a Reddish Yellow slip similar to the coarseware pastes found at Ñawpamarca. One of the diagnostic fragments was found during surface collection (PR1/19): it consists of a plate with a 16cm GLDPHWHUWKLQZDOOVDQGDYHU\¿QH5HGGLVK%URZQ@ UHSRUWVWKDW in the province of Chinchaycocha in the Colonial period during the ceremony of Corpus Christi, a pair of llamas was offered to the lake, where it was believed they had originated; this rite must have been of pre-Hispanic origin. 5 With no infant procession, as in the famous cases described by Molina (2011[1575]: 77) and by Hernández Príncipe (1986 [1622]). According to Rostworoski (2003) this procedure was probably a prerogative of the cultures from the coast. 4

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which the valve of the Spondylus shell was found that it was not possible to determine with certainty whether the shell was a foundation offering: however, the association EHWZHHQWKHVHWZRW\SHVRIRIIHULQJVLVKLJKO\VLJQL¿FDQW The link between camelids and the mullu, that is the Spondylus shell, depends on the quality of these offerings that were particularly esteemed in ceremonies connected to the worship of water. In fact, as seen above, both were used to invoke rain and to ensure fertility, sometimes together, sometimes separately. Stahl (2008) emphasizes how the camelid remains, which appear in the northern area of the Andes with increasing frequency from the Early Horizon onwards, immediately begin to appear also in some areas of Ecuador connected to the trade of mullu, where they were practically absent up to that moment. They are always found in non-domestic contexts, suggesting a type of relationship based on exchange between the two types of offerings. The green-light blue stone beads recall the colour of the sea (Rostworowski M. 1981: 127 and 133; 1983: 71; 2006: 74) that fed the rivers and lakes by means of atmospheric SKHQRPHQDLQDVLQJOHÀRZ&RER%>@  in which, the offering of a marine mollusc, such as the Spondylus shell, sanctioned and emphasized this divine movement. In the Late Intermediate Period, as mentioned above, numerous residential sites developed on the hilltops according to a typical settlement pattern of this period. New ceremonial centres were built associated with these sites: Awilupaccha, a smaller version of Llamacorral, was connected to the site of Ñawpamarca of Huamantanga and Pukaranra, situated in the middle of a narrow valley that led to Ñawpamarca of Acopalca, was in all respects similar to Ishla Ranra. During this phase the lake probably maintained its importance, as indicated by the fact that the new ceremonial centres repeat previous structural patterns. The later dates from the excavations of Ñawpamarca of Huamantanga belong to a period in which the Incas still hadn’t reached Ancash: due to the scarcity of data at our GLVSRVDO LW LV RQO\ SRVVLEOH WR DI¿UP WKDW SHUKDSV WKH occupation – and certainly the construction of new sites – in the area of Puruhuay suffered a setback during the ,QND +RUL]RQ D GLI¿FXOW PRPHQW IRU WKH VRFLRSROLWLFDO dynamics of the area, as argued in a previous paper (Orsini C. et al. 2012), in which the centre of power may have shifted along the axis of Qapac Ñan, which passes to the south of the modern town of Huari. There are few data available regarding the Colonial period. We know that most of the modern day towns next to the lake are the result of reducciones carried out during this ¿UVWSKDVHRI6SDQLVKGRPLQDWLRQ7KHDUHDRI3XUXKXD\ was actively occupied: this is proved by the presence of an intrusive tomb at the site of Ishla Ranra and by a series of dates carried out on charred seed remains found on the VXSHU¿FLDO OD\HUV DW WKH VLWH RI /ODPDFRUUDO  A.D. cal. 95.4%), perhaps the result of a slash and burn activity in the immediate vicinity of the site. $V ¿QDO FRQVLGHUDWLRQV ZH UHVXPH WKH FRQFHSW RI pacarina. The pacarina, as already mentioned previously, is the “place of dawn” that is the place of origin, but also

Carolina Orsini, Eliza Benozzi, Conclusions a locus of eternal return. As such, it seems very interesting that the two main myths of the Puruhuay area not only associate this place as a place of fertility, but are, in fact, a myth of origin and a ending myth. The myth of origin is obviously that where the site of Llamacorral is referred as a “mouth” of the pacarina, from where men and animals emerged to populate the area. The ending myth, is that of María Jiray, who at the end of her process of “conquest” of the pacarina, achieved through the construction of the chapel dedicated to the Virgin (see the Introduction), ÀRZVKHUVHOILQWRWKHODNHWRUHPDLQWKHUHIRUHYHU7KHVH two myths seem to draw a parabola, which connects the concept of pacarina as a place of origin and ending with the population dynamics of the area. At the beginning, people occupy Puruhuay thanks to a magical act of creation; at the end of pre-Hispanic times, which coincides with the modern era, the founding ancestor, immersing herself in the lake, therefore handing this sacred area to the protection of the “new” ancestors imposed by the European colonization. 6.2. Life and death at Puruhuay If we exclude the intriguing hypothesis of the presence of a place of ancestor worship at Ishla Ranra together with the possible systematic emptying of the tombs, we have not, during the course of our studies, found other evidence of burials in the whole area surrounding the lake and the peaks that dominated it in the later periods; neither have we found necropolis which were contemporary to Ishla Ranra. The chullpas, that characterize the area of Conchucos and which were built since the Early Intermediate Period up to the Late Intermediate Period, were usually situated LQ SURPLQHQW SODFHV RU LQ SDUWLFXODUO\ VLJQL¿FDQW DUHDV of the territory or in association with settlements. These types of burials have not been recorded at Puruhuay, notwithstanding the presence of some residential sites. One exception are the “chullpas machay” in the area of Awilupaccha (see Chapter 4, paragraph 4). The chullpas machay are burials characterized by the way they are hidden in the landscape. It is thus highly probably that there are many more of these burials than those we have been able to map during our surveys. In addition to these we have had the opportunity to see the remains of some chullpas in the village of Huamantanga along the road that leads to Huamparán, in the locality known as Awilupunku (puerta del abuelo). The state of preservation of these funerary structures was extremely poor and it is possible that the expansion of the roadway, which was altered from path to road, may have destroyed other chullpas. The same could have happened along the slope of Acopalca, where a road runs beside the pathway that leads to the lake from the town. Perhaps the intense mining activity carried out in the area during the XIX century, that often involved immigrants who had no

117

connection with the territory, may have altered some of the funerary contexts situated along the rock walls that surround the lake; as it is also possible that some areas ZHUHH[FOXGHGIURPDUFKDHRORJLFDO¿HOGFDPSDLJQVGXHWR their inaccessibility after being subject to landslides. 6.3 From pacarina to tourist attraction The tourist who arrives to Huari, capital of the homonymous province, becomes immediately “distantly” familiar with Puruhuay: photos of this stretch of water are found in most restaurants and even in some murals in the old part of the town. The lake, situated at a very short distance from the provincial capital (about 30 minutes by car), is the main tourist attraction of the area. Its transparent waters and the scenery of majestic mountains that surround it have become part of an idyllic image that is the logical consequence of the transformation of this place from a dreaded pacarina to an ideal area for family outings. 7KHFRQVWUXFWLRQRID³FDUUHWHUDD¿UPDGD´KDVFRQWULEXWHG to this, undoubtedly together with the installation in the past years of a permanent garrison on behalf of the authorities of the National Park of Huascarán. In recent years, the lake has become the ideal scenery for community feasts and rowing races. These initiatives have been promoted by the provincial government of Huari that has attempted to enrich tourism by exploiting the presence of the nearby stretch of water. This process has without doubt accelerated a more “normal” occupation of the lake that changed from a chucaro (savage and dangerous) to manso (quiet and secure) place (see Venturoli S. 2006: chap. 5, paragraph 3). The populations of the community, who have conserved their traditions and who are connected to them and other local jircas – or sacred places – (ibid.) have progressively adapted to this new vision of the area, even if the echoes of past myths remain related to the lake. Its calm water still rouse a certain reverence, especially amongst the HOGHU SHRSOH 7KHVH HFKRHV DFFRPSDQLHG DOVR RXU ¿HOG work, during which we were “warned” of the ancient and dangerous nature of the place; only its changing status permitted us to carry out our research, in that it did not interfere with a place of pilgrimage: Puruhuay, as a manso place is no longer subject to worship. Having lost its wild FKDUDFWHU LW KDV QR ³LQÀXHQFH´ RQ WKH OLIH RI PDQNLQG (Venturoli S. 2006: chap. 5, paragraph 3). People must have been well aware of the wild nature of the place during the pre-Hispanic period and beyond. They may have simply observed the result of a powerful natural phenomenon that was so violent as it was indispensable, because it created an enormous water reserve. Despite the fact that the voices of the ancestors have weakened, the pacarina certainly continues to exert its magnetic power over people: whether they be archaeologists searching for her mysteries, or tourists with their picnic baskets.

Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina

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Appendix A: Ceramics APPENDIX A: CERAMICS

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Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina APPENDIX B: SYNOPSIS OF THE FAUNAL REMAINS


 

 


 

   
  

       

 







  





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Appendix C: Radiocarbon Dates APPENDIX C: RADIOCARBON DATES

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Acknowledgments ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many people have contributed to this volume, some directly, others indirectly. In Italy, research has been supported by the Italian Ministry IRU )RUHLJQ $IIDLUV 8I¿FLR 9 $UFKHRORJLD DQG E\ WKH Museum of Castello Sforzesco (Director Claudio Salsi and senior curator Francesca Tasso). Luciana Gerolami together with Piera Briani of the administration of the Museum have solved all the practical problems related to the Mission. Anna Antonini, Sara Chiesa, Rossella Di Marco, Sara Franco worked on drafts of the book making fundamental improvements. We wish to thank Marina Baralle for the excellent English translation, her patience and her precision, as well as Andrea Perin for the work of layout. In Peru, we are grateful to our co-director of Bebel Ibarra Asencios and his family. To the Director of the Italian Institute of Culture in Lima, Renato Poma, and all his staff. In addition, to the authorities and inhabitants of Huari, as well as the residents of the community of Acopalca and Huamantanga who have always supported our work, and to all the staff of the National Huascarán Park. Many colleagues of the old and the new world have encouraged and helped us over the years, including (in alphabetical order) Francisco Bazán, Alex Herrera, Kevin /DQH*HRUJH/DX0LOWRQ/XMiQ6R¿D9HQWXUROL0DULQD Zuloaga. A special thanks goes to the reviewers of this book, Kevin Lane and Davide Domenici. Finally, a huge thank you to all students and professionals who have participated with great enthusiasm to the various campaigns in the Puruhuay Lake.

Marta Battilana Florencia Debandi Ruy Linneo Escobar Gamboa Luigi Mazzari Marta Porcedda Raul Zambrano Anaya

2006 Director: Bebel Ibarra Asencios Co-director: Carolina Orsini 'LUHFWRURIWKH¿HOGRSHUDWLRQV(OLVD%HQR]]L Field assistants and draftsmen: Hernan Francisco Chipana Sotelo Elizabeth Katherine Cruzado Carranza Florencia Debandi Ruy Linneo Escobar Gamboa Luigi Mazzari Marta Porcedda Walter Michiel Zegarra Zegarra

2010 Director: Bebel Ibarra Asencios Co-director: Carolina Orsini 'LUHFWRURIWKH¿HOGRSHUDWLRQV(OLVD%HQR]]L Responsible for the excavation areas: Fabio Sartori Physical anthropology and drawings: Rita Giacomello

2008 Director: Bebel Ibarra Asencios Co-director: Carolina Orsini 'LUHFWRURIWKH¿HOGRSHUDWLRQV(OLVD%HQR]]L Responsible for the excavation areas: Fabio Sartori Site surveying and drawings of Ñawpamarca structures: Esteban Sosa Chunga, Christian Ramos, Emiliano Manca Documentation: Florencia Debandi Field assistants and draftsmen: Giovanna Bravo Elizabeth Katherine Cruzado Carranza Raul Zambrano Anaya Walter Michiel Zegarra Zegarra 2009 Director: Bebel Ibarra Asencios Co-director: Carolina Orsini 'LUHFWRURIWKH¿HOGRSHUDWLRQV(OLVD%HQR]]L Responsible for the excavation areas: Fabio Sartori Site surveying and drawings of Ñawpamarca and Llamacorral structures: Cristina Castagnetti, Emanuele Boni Physical anthropology and drawings: Rita Giacomello Ceramic analysis and drawings: Marta Porcedda

2011 Director: Bebel Ibarra Asencios Co-director: Carolina Orsini 'LUHFWRURIWKH¿HOGRSHUDWLRQV(OLVD%HQR]]L Geophysical investigations: Nicola Masini, Enzo Rizzo, Luigi Capozzoli

2007 Director: Bebel Ibarra Asencios Co-director: Carolina Orsini 'LUHFWRURIWKH¿HOGRSHUDWLRQV(OLVD%HQR]]L Responsible for the excavation areas: Fabio Sartori Site surveying and drawings of Ñawpamarca structures: Esteban Sosa Chunga y Christian Ramos Field assistants and draftsmen:

2012 Director: Bebel Ibarra Asencios Co-director: Carolina Orsini 'LUHFWRURIWKH¿HOGRSHUDWLRQV(OLVD%HQR]]L Ceramic analysis and drawings: Marta Porcedda Field assistants and draftsmen: John Cruz, Danilo Depaz Romero, Martín Palma Usuriaga

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Index of names and places INDEX OF NAMES AND PLACES SDJHV RI ¿JXUHV DQG WDEOHV LQ LWDOLFV QRWHV QXPEHU DUH indicated with n. followed by the number, and the page) Acopalca: 5; 21; 45; n. 14, 58; 81; 91; n. 1, 91; 91; 95; 114; 115; 117 Acosta, José de: 108 Aguilar, Miguel: 52; 75 Aldenderfer, Mark: 52 Álvarez, Patricia: 49 Amaru, cerro: n. 21, 78; 79 Amaya, Alejandro: 52; 75 Amazon, region: 49 Amazon, river: 15 Ancash: 4; 5; 7; 10; 15; n. 1, 15; 16; n. 8, 32; 52; 75; 79; 81; 91; n. 2, 91; 94; n. 9, 94; 95; n. 14, 95; 99; 105; 111; 115; 116 Andes: 6; 7; 15; 16; 30; 105; 106; 108; 113; 116 Antaragá: 5; 6; 8; 45; 52; 75; 79; 85; 86; 113 Argentina: 7 Arkush, Elizabeth: 8; 49; 68 Arriaga, José de: n. 4, 116 Artioli, Gilberto: n. 12, 55 ArTS project: n. 14, 58 Astomarka: 105 Ayllón, lake: 7 Awilupaccha: 5; 6; 33; 49; 52; 69; 72; 75; n. 19, 75; 77; n. 20, 77; 78; n. 21, 78; 79; 80; 81; 82; 83; 84; 91; 94; 95; 96; 98; 107; 108; 113; 115; 116; 117; 143 Awilupunku: 117 Bartolomé, saint: 114 Bastien, Joseph: 7; n. 1, 7 Batán Grande: 31 Bauer, Brian: 7 Bawden, Garth: 52 Bazán, Francisco: 7; 68; 75; 79; 113; 115 Bennett, Wendell: n. 21, 98 Benozzi, Elisa: 21; n. 8, 32; 44; 57; n. 3, 115 Bernand, Carmen: 5 Bitelli, Gabriele: 9; 22; 33 Bolivia: 49 Bonavia, Duccio: 31; n. 21, 98 Boni, Emanuele: n. 9, 36 Bonnier, Elisabeth: 7 Borba Harumi, Lucía: 81; 87 Cajay: 5; 7 Calla, Sergio: 49 Cano, Asunción: 17 Capac hucha: 7 Capra, Alessandro: 9 Carrión Cachot, Rebeca: n. 1, 7; 113; 115 Cashapayán: 114 Casma, valley: 111 Castagnetti, Cristina: n. 9, 36 Ceruti, Costanza María: 7 Chacas: 94; 95; 114 Chapman, Henry: 9 Chavín, phase: n. 11, 94

153

Chavín de Huantar: 21; 30; 105; 111 Chianese, Domenico: 29 Chillón, valley: 116 Chimborazo: 7 Chinchawas: 94; n. 10, 94; 106 Chirinos Portocarrero, Ricardo: 81; 87 Chorrillos, valley: 95 Chukicara: 15 Clarinjirca: 96 Cobo, Bernabé: 108; 115; 116 Colcas: 48; 114 Conchucos, Callejón: 15; n. 1, 15; 16; 17; 30; 113: n. 1, 113; 114; 117 Contadera Jirca: 113 Cordillera: 7; 15 Cordillera Blanca: 5; 7; 15; n. 3, 15; 17 Cordillera Negra: 15; 94; 106 Corongo: 94; 96 Costin, Cathy: 96 Cottini, Michela: 17; n. 12, 55; 73 Cruzado Carranza, Elizabeth: 111 Curatola, Marco: 43 Cusco or Cuzco: 7; 15 D’Altroy, Terence: 7; 96 Daggett, Cheryl: n. 9, 94 Debandi, Florencia: 44; 49; 57 Diessl, Wilhelm: 99; 104; 105 Di Martino, Silvia: 17; 73 Druc, Isabelle: n. 1, 91; n. 2, 91; 95 Duviols, Pierre: n. 1, 7; 42; 43; n. 2, 113; 115 Earle, Timothy: 7 Ecuador: 7; 116 Erickson, Clark: 49 Fragua Jirca: 6 Fung Pineda, Rosa: n. 9, 94 Gelles, Paul: n. 1, 7 Gerdau-Radonic, Karina: 7 Gose, Peter: n. 1, 7; 115 Grieder, Terence: n. 9, 94; n. 17, 97; n. 20, 97 Guamán Poma de Ayala, Felipe: n. 4, 116 Gutiérrez Honores, Fernando: 89 Hastings, Charles: 7 Hastorf, Christine Ann: 96 Hayashida, Frances: n. 15, 95 Hernández Príncipe, Rodrigo: n. 2, 113; n. 5, 116 Herrera, Alexander: 7; 52; 75; n. 9, 94; 113 Huaca Cao: 21; 22 Huaca del Pueblo: 31 Huaca Fortaleza: 31 Huaca Julupé: 31 Huacas: 43 Huamantanga: 45; n. 18, 73; 79; 113; 117 Huamantanga Jirca: 6; 113 Huamparán: 117 Huanca: 22; 25; 42; 43; 44; 115 Huancavelica, Department: 104; 105; 106 Huandoy, nevado: 7

Carolina Orsini, Elisa Benozzi, Archaeology of an Andean Pacarina 90; 113; 116 Ñawpamarca (de Huamantanga): 5; 6; 8; 10; 11; 12; 12; 13; 13; 14; 17; 44; 45; 47; 48; 49; 49; 50; 52; 53; 53; 57; n. 14, 58; 66; 68; 69; 72; 73; n. 18, 73; 75; 78; 79; 83; 83; 84; 91; 91; 92; 92; 93; 94; 94; n. 10, 94; 95; 96; n. 19, 97; 98; 99; 101; 102; 103; 104; 105; 106; n. 30, 106; 107; 108; 113; 116; 125; 126; 127; 128; 129; 130; 131; 132; 133; 134; 135; 136; 137; 138; 139; 140; 141; 142 Nevado La Viuda: 116 2QHUQ  2¿FLQD 1DFLRQDO GH (YDOXDFLyQ 5HFXUVRV Naturales: 45 Orsini, Carolina: n. 3, 5; 7; n. 8, 32; 44; 51; 52; 57; 94; n. 9, 94; n. 15, 96; n. 20, 97; 113; 116 Orton, Clive: n. 14, 58 Pacarina: n. 3, 5; 43; 113; 115; 116; 117 3DFL¿F2FHDQn. 2, 15 Pampa Grande: 31 Parsons, Jeffrey: 7 Polia Meconi, Mario: n. 1, 7 Ponte Rosalino, Víctor: n. 15, 96 Porcedda, Marta: n. 8, 32 Pozorski, Shelia: 111 Pozorski, Thomas: 111 Puccha, rio: 15 Pueblo Viejo, cerro: 5; 6; 44; 45; 52 Pukaranra: 5; 6; 81; 87; 88; 113; 116 Pulgar, Vidal: 17 Puruhuay, lake or cocha or Laguna: 5; 6; 9; 10; 15; 16; 17; 21; 21; 33; 33; 34; 42; 75; 91; n. 32, 108; 108; 113 Puruhuay, river: 45; 45; 113 Qapac Ñan: 116 Qenqo: 115 Quelccaya: 15; 16; 16 Quilter, Jeffrey: 22 Raimondi, Antonio (archaeological project): 21; n. 1, 21 Ranrash: 114 Ravedoni, Cristina: 17; 73 Ravines, Roger: 7; n. 21, 98; 106 Rein, Bert: 16; 16 Reparin, cocha: 7 Rizzo, Enzo: 29 Rostworowski, Maria: n. 2, 113; 116; n. 5, 116 Rozenberg, Catherine: 7 Runtuy, cerro: 69; 75; 80 Rupay, María: 5 Sandmeier, software: 29 Sartori, Fabio: n. 8, 32; 44; 45; 48; 50 Shashal, river: 5; n. 4, 5; 45; 81 Sherbondy, Jeanette: n. 1, 7; 113 Shimada, Izumi: 31 Sirocko, Frank: 16 Soldi, Ana María: n. 1, 7 Solís Benites, Justino Franco: 15 Spondylus sp. shell; 27; 28; 30; 78; 107; 108; 116; n. 4, 116 Stanish, Charles: 7; 52; Tambiah, Stanley: 81 Tambo Machay: 115 Tantamayo, river: 7 Terada, Kazuo: n. 4, 93; n. 6, 93; n. 7, 94; 94; n. 12, 95; 96;

Huánuco: 7; n. 21, 98 Huaraz: 18; n. 19, 75 Huari: 4; 5; 6; 7; 15; n. 1, 15; 16; 22; n. 18, 73; 95; 113; 114; 116; 117 Huarín, Juan: 5 Huaritambo, river: 7; 15; 45; 49; 63 Huaritambo, valley: 45; 47; 49 Huascarán: 7; 15; 16; 16; 20; 21; 33; 45; 117 Huaylas, Callejón: 7; 15; 111 Ibarra Asencios, Bebel: 5; 7; 44; 75; 81; 89; 113; 114; 115 Inka: 7; 93; n. 11, 94; 95; n. 12, 95; 105; 116 Isbell, Billie Jean: n. 1, 7; 113 Ishla Ranra:5; 6; 7; 14; 20¸ 24; 32; 33; 33; 34; 34; 38; 41; 42; 42; 43; 44; 81; 87; 91; n. 5, 93; 96; 97; 97; 98; 98; 109; 110; 111; 113; 114; 115; 116; 117; 145; 146; 147 Jagay, María: 5 Jatungaga: 94; n. 15, 96; n. 20, 97 Jatun Jirca: 113 Jiray, María: 5; n. 4, 5; 88; 114; 117 Jeoffrey, Gabriel Ramon; n. 6, 28 Julien, Michèle: 7; n. 15, 58 Junin, lake: 15 Kaulicke, Peter: 96 Keushu: 7 Keushucocha: 7 Laguna Brava: 7 Lane, Kevin: 7; n. 6, 93; n. 9, 94; n. 13, 95; n. 14, 95; n. 20, 98; 113 Lau, George: 52 ; 94; n. 8, 94; n. 9, 94; n. 10, 94; n. 18, 97; n. 20, 97; 106 Lavallée, Danièle: 7; n. 15, 58; 104; 105; 106; 111 La Lagunita: 5 La Leche: 31 La Pampa: 94; n. 16, 96; 105; 106 LeBlanc, Catherine: 7 Leick, Alfred: 11 León, Williams Carlos: n. 9, 94 Leyva Velazco, Maria Isela: n. 2, 25 Lima: 16; n. 2, 25 Llamacorral: 5; 6; 12; 13; 13; 14; 14; 21; 21; 22; 23; 24; 26; 27; 28; 29; 30; 31; 32; 32; 34; 75; 77; n. 20, 77; 78; 85; 91; 96; 98; 107; 108; 108; 113; 115; 116; 117; 144 Lückge, Andreas: 16 Lumbreras, Guillermo Luis: 31 Lynch, Thomas: 111 Mallas: 91; 95 Manta, river: 94 Mantaro, river: 7 Mantha, Alexis: 7; 113 Marañon, river: 15; 17 Matos Mendieta, Ramiro: 7 Mazzari, Luigi: 50; 100; 102; 107; 109; n. 3, 115 Molina, Cristóbal de: 7; n. 5, 116 Morado and Pilar Mountains: 7 Moreno Yáñez, Segundo: 7 Mosna, river: 15; 17 Muchay, cerro: 83 Mujica Barreda, Elías: 21; 22 Murra, John: 6; 108 Ñawpamarca (de Acopalca): 5; 6; 8; 52; 73; 75; 83; 89;

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Index of names and places n. 15, 96; n. 16, 96; n. 20, 97; n. 21, 98; 105; 106 Thompson, Lonnie: 15; 16; 16 Titicaca, lake: 7 ; 8 Tyers, Paul: n. 14, 58 Uhle, Max: 79; Ventanilla, cerro: 5 Yacya: 5; 91; 95 Yamllipitec/Jatunjirca: 6 Yanamayo, river: 15; 95 Yépez, Alden: n. 3, 7 Yesopampa, mound: 94

Yurakpecho: 95 Wacheqsa, river: 17 Walter, Doris: 7 Van de Noort, Robert: 9 9HQWXUROL6R¿Dn. 1, 5; 114; 115; 117 Vince, Alan: n. 14, 58 Vittuari, Luca: 9 Zambrano Anaya, Raul: 47 Zegarra Zegarra, Walter Michel: 111 Zuidema, Tom: n. 2, 113 Zuloaga Rada, Marina: 52; 75

155